voLUME | No. 1

1965

RECORDS

OF THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Adelaide, Sth. Australia.

Printed in Australia by W. L. Hawes, Government Printer.

Registered in Australia for Transmission by Post as a Periodical.

OBITUARY AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HERBERT MATHEW HALE

BY FJ. MITCHELL

Summary

Born in North Adelaide on the 3 June, 1895, into a family essentially interested in

business, Herbert Hale followed his secondary schooling at Holdfast Bay and Prince

Alfred College with training in acountancy. Although he never completed this course of

tertiary study nor did he use it as his chosen profession, it had a guiding influence upon

his subsequent career.

OBITUARY AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HERBERT MATHEW HALE

Herbert Mathew Hale, O.B.E., 1895-1963

South Australian Museum Director 1931-1960

Born in North Adelaide on the 3rd June, 1895, into a family

essentially interested in business, Herbert Male followed his secondary

schooling at Holdfast Bay and Prince Alfred Colleges with training

in accountancy. Although he never completed this course of tertiary

study nor did he use it as his chosen profession, it had a guiding

influence npon his subsequent career,

Hale had a life-long interest in biology and in April, 114, he

sought the support of Professor Walter Howchin, who had been tutor-

ing him in science, and thereby gained appointment as a science cadet

under the then Museum Director, Edgar R. Waite. During thirteen

years of close association with Waite he was influenced to specialize

in Southern Australian crustaceans in parallel with his Director's

interests in the fish fauna of the same region. Part of his early

training included participation as junior author with Waite in a

“Review of the Lophobranchiate Fishes (Pipe-Fishes and Sea Horses)

of South Australia’? and his teenage hobby interests in the biology

of freshwater fishes and subsequently in the various aquatic inverte-

brates providing food for aquarium fishes is reflected in his early

publications, among which were several ontstanding studies of aquatic

and semi-aquatic Hemiptera.

ineonraged by Waite and the then Chairman of the Museum

Board, Professor T. Harvey-Johnston, Hale was ealled upon to use

his business knowledge and natural organizing ability fo an increasing

extent, and upon the death of Hdgar Waite in 1928 he was promoted

io Museum Curator under the direction of the Chairman of the

Museum Board. He was elevated to Director in 1981.

His crisp, analytical approach, combined with bnstling energy

suited him to executive work and by virtue of both his status as

Museum Director and his inherent interest in everything relating to

the well-being of natural science he played a prominent part in the

management of many learned societies and special advisory

committees.

A

2 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

In 1962 he was awarded Tonorary Lile Membership of the Royal

Society of South Australia in recognition of 31 years of continous

and prominent serviee on its Council, The offices whieh he held

inehided President (1986-87), Viee-President (1984-35, 1987-88) and

Treasurer (1988-50), 1953-56), He was also a permanent Vice

President of the Royal Zoological Society of South Australia,

In addition to many eursory appointments, he held two long term

Government advisory ¢ommissions. In 1925 he wus nominated a

member of the Flora and Fauna Advisory Committee and in 1937 he

was ¢leeted Chairman, an offiee which he held until the Committee

Was reconstituted in 1962. In 1936 he became a Commissioner of the

National Park (subsequently expanded to include control of Wild Life

Reserves) and was elected Deputy Chairman in 1955.

A Royal Commission mder the chairmanship of Ry J. Rudall MP.,

Was appointed in 1934 to inquire into the fishing indnstry in South

Australia, Ifale was inelnded on the three man Commission as

selentifie adviser, During the lollowing two years he travelled

extensively with the Commission entherine data which were prese nted

in three Government reports. Some of the recommendations in these

reports have heen implemented only recently,

Bocatse of the laree museum ethnolowical collections and wide-

spread local interest in anthropology, he developed an early interest

in the life and enulture of the aborigines and accompanied many

anthropological expeditions, THe wrote a number of papers in

collaboration with the present Cirator of Anthropology, Norman B.

Tindale, on the resnits of these excursions, Tle was a foundation

member of the Anthropological Society of Sonth Australia and was

awarded its first Tlonovary Life) Membership in 1957, Tle was

Seeretary to the Board for Anthropologie: tl Research at the University

of Adelaide from 1928-1956 and continued as a member until his death.

In 1928 he was elected to the Handbooks Committee of the British

Science Grid (South Australian Branch) and immediately took office

as Mditor, During his 85 years on the Committee he edited 15

handbooks on South Australian fauna and flora and produced a two-

volume text of his own on the “Crustaceans of South Australia’’

(1927, 1929) whieh remains a relinble and widely used reference.

The South Australian Museum was founded as the South

Australian Institute in 1856, and in record ol its first eontenary of

service fo seienee and education Tale wrote a 225 page illustrated

MITCHELL—OBITUARY OF H, M. HALF 3

historical account of the development of the institution, its staff,

collections and public displays. This was published as volume 12 of

the Reeurds of the Musenm. The review in Nature, Mebruary 1957,

concludes with the following paragraph which, not only concisely

records its scope, but also clearly shows that it achieved its objectives.

“This is a moving story of a great Museum related in

simple langnage, Lf is an important contribution to Museam

literature net only on account of the elaborate details il relates

but also as a record of a large museum and the trials and

difficulties which arose and were overcome. It is a reeord of

the acquisition and conservation, despite set-backs, of the

present important collections of ethnological, zoological and

inineralogical objects and ig in many ways an epitome of the

history of the museum movement in all parts of the world’?

Assisted by a travel grant from the Carnegie Corporation, Hale

left Australia on 28th April, 19389 on a study tour of the United States

and Bngland in which he planned to study public display methods, and

educational techniques, particularly those employing museum material

in child edueation, The onset ol the Second World War foreed him to

curtail bis tonr and return hurriedly to Australia, Tere, financial

stringenciés prevented him from carrying into effect his plans for an

enlarged and modernized museum based on experience gained oyer-

seas, and under the frustrations of greatly reduced staff and funds he

retired into his laboratory to undertake his most intensive period of

laxonomic researeh,

Using submarine light-trap aud other collecting techniques, Hale

and several of his colleagues, built wp very large collections of small

ernustaceans from various localities alone the southern Australian

coust, By systematically describing the Cumacean fauna of Australia

on the basis of material selected from this collection, Hale provided a

new foundation for the taxonomy of this little known order of

crustaceans, His work included the description of a great number of

new genera dnd speeies as well as considerable reorganization of

existing taxa,

Although his outstanding contributions to this and other fields of

research were widely recognized and he was awarded the Verco Medal

of the Royal Society of South Austraha for outstanding ‘vesearch in

scienee’’ in June, 147, L know from personal association with him

diving lis latter years that he valued one commendation above all

4 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

others. He looked to the noted British Museum Carcinologist, Dr.

W. 'T. Calman, us the basis of his inspiration, and searching through

his papers I found ‘the letter’? of which he had frequently spoken—

“oo. . bam mueh interested in your remarkable discoveries in this

group (Cumacea), and, if I may he allowed to say so, I think your

deseriptions and illustrations are models of what such thines

should be. . 27’,

Following his retirement on the 30th September, 1960 he main-

tained an active interest in his investigation of the whale fauna of the

Southern Ocean as an Honorary Associate in Zoology and added three

papers to an already valuable contribution to research in this field.

The manuseript of a further paper was completed just prior to his

death on the 8rd September, 1963, aud has now been published.

Herbert Hale enjoyed an active life and obtained a great deal of

satisfaction trom bis work. Tn addition to research, he aligned himself

closely with the causes of conservation and the sane management of

natural resources, and was instrumental in promoting many successful

inoves to inerease public knowledge and appreciation of our native

fauna and flora.

His long and conscientious service to the community was

recognized by his inelusion in the New Year Honors List for 1954,

Bibliography

Aquatic Life, Philadelphia. Sept. 1918, 14-14 and fig.

44

1918. ‘* An Aquariuin Heater,

1920. '* Notes on Mosquito Larvae’? Aquatie Life, Philadelphia, Jan, 1920, 9-11, fig. 1-5.

‘'The Masquite.*’ Acquatie Life, Philadelphia. eh. 1920, 18-20, plate.

“The Australian Congolly.?* Aquatie Lite, Philadelphia. Mar. 1920, 25-2

‘Me Leafy Ser Dragon.) Aquatic Life, Pliladelplix, Aug. 1920, 87-88, plate,

‘An Australian Cattish.”’ Aqnatie Life, Philadelphia, Dee, 1920, 128-129, fig.

,

12). +f An Enemy of the Breeder?’ Aquatie Life, Philadelphia, Aug. 1921, 11-18) fig. 18.

“Notes on the Morms and Iabits of Aquatic Tuseets. Pt. 7.1? S. Aust. Naturalist,

ii(3), d0-5A, plate.

1922. ** Notes on the Forms and Ilvhbits of Aquatie Tnsects. Pf. 17.7" 8. Aust. Naturalist

Hi(2), 5-8, plate.

“Studies in Australiin Aquatie Tauiptera, No. I, (Corixidae)"’. Tee, S. Aust. Mus.

ii(2), 209-830, fip, B&S-250,

1923. **The Brewing Mabits of the ‘Back-swimmer’, aAnisops hyupeviont? 8. Aust.

Naturalist, iv(3), 124-128, fig, I.

‘Studies in Australian Aquatic Hemiptera, No. 11, (Notonectidae).?*? Ree. 8. Aust,

Mus. ii(3), 897-424, pl. xxi and text fig. AGL ATA,

124,

1925,

1924,

1928,

MITCHELL—BIBLIOGRAPHY OF H. M. HALE 5

“Notes on Australian Orustacen, No. i (Squillidae).’’ Wee. 8, Aust. Mus. ii(4),

491-502, pl. xxxiiaxxxiii and texo fig, 381-484,

‘Studies in Australian Aquatic Hemiptera, No, iii (Nepidae).*’ Ree, 8. Aust. Mus,

vi(4), 508-520, pl. xxxivexxxvi and text fig. 38-38.

‘*Aquatie Hemiptera from Groote Eylandt.7? Rec. S. Aust. Mus. ii(4), 521-522.

“Notes on Australian Crustacea, No. ii (Gnathiidae).°° Trans. Roy, Soe. 5. Aust.,

xlviii, 1-6, pl. bit

‘*Studies m Australian Aquatic Hemiptera, No. iv, (genus Diapreporaris).'’ Trans,

Roy, Sow, 8S. Aust., Xlviii, 7-, pl iii,

“The Plora and Fauna of Nuyts Archipelago and the Investigator Group, No. 16,

The Crustacea.’’ Trans, Rov. Soe. 8. Aust., xlvlii, 67-74, pl iv-y.

‘“*Nofes on Australian Crustacea, No. iii (Isopoda-Valvitura from South Australin).""

‘Trans. Roy, Soe, 8S. Aust,, xIviij, 208-226, text fig. 1-10,

“Two New Hemiptera from New South Wies.’* Proc. Linn. Sue. New South Wales,

41-468, pl. xbvii. (Stwilies iu Australian Aquatic Hemiptera, No. vi.)

“Notes on Eges, Mabits and Migration of some Ansiralian Aquatic Bugs (Corixidae

and Notonvetidae).?? South Aust. Naturalist v, (4), 188-135, pl. and test fig.

‘Migration of Water Beetles (Lretes australis) at Broken Oil, New Seuth Wales.’?

South Anst. Nidaralist vita), 4a.

‘Notes on an Australian Froshowater Crab (Geethelphusa).“? South Aust. Naturalist

vi( a), ded, pate,

“Notes on Australian Crustacea, No. iv (Astwillidae).'* Ree. 8. Aust. Mus, ili(1),

aa-dd, text fig, 16.

“Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Austradia 1910-1913. The Aquatic and Semi-

Aquitie [lemiptera.’’ Arkiv. Zool. K. Svenska Vet, Akad. 17A(20), 1-20,

text fig. J-8 (Studies in Aust, Aquatic Hemiptera, No. v).

‘Observation on the Yabbie (Parachaeraps bicarinatus).*" Aust. Mus, Mag. 1i(8),

371-274, text fig. 1-4.

‘Review of Australian Tsupods of the Cymothoid group. Part 1.7’ Trans, Roy, Soc.

S. Aust., 128-186, text fig. 1-28.

‘The Development of Dwo Aostralian Sponge-crabs.’* Proc. Linn. Soc. New South

Wales 1(4), 405-414, pl, xxxix-xl and text fig. 1-6,

“Review of Australian Isopods of the Cymothoid group. Parf ii?!’ Trans. Roy, Soe.

S. Aust, 1, 201-284, pl, xxxviexaxyii and toxt lig. 1-20,

‘Habits of the Smooth Pebble-erab (Philura laevis)? South Aust. Naturalist vili(3),

67-69, plate.

Studies in Australian Aquatic Wemiptera. No. vii (Gymnocerata).’? Ree. S. Aust.

Mus, iii(2), 15-218, text fig, 81-90.

“Some Aboriginal graves at Adelaide, South Australia.’’ South Aust, Naturalist

viii(1), 11, pl ivi,

‘Aboriginal Rock Carvings in South Australia.’’ South Aust. Naturalist viii(1), 72,

“The Faona of Kangaroo Island, South Australia. No. 1—The Crusfacea.?*? Trans.

Roy. Soe, South Aust. li, 407-421, text tig. 1-7.

‘(The Crustaceans of Suuth Australia Part 1.7" Handbooks of the Flores and Fauna

of South Australia. (Govt. Printer, Adelaide), 1-210, text fig, 1-202.

‘Obituary and Bibliograpiry of Mr. Bdgar RR. Waite./? Ree. S. Aust. Mus, ii(4),

345-360, with portrait, (see also Trans. Roy, Soe. South Aust. ii and South Aust.

Naturalist ix(2), 21-22.

‘“*The Mexienn Axolotl in South Australig.°’ Sotith Aust. Naturalist ix(3), 65-68,

pl. iii,

“Some Australian Deeapod Crustiaven.?? Ree. 8. Aust. Mus. iv(1), 91-104, text fig.

10-27,

“Australian Cumacen.’? Trans. Rey, Soe, 8. Aust, Tii, b1-48, tuxt figs 1-17.

1930,

1931.

1932.

1985,

19386.

1939.

1940,

1941.

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

‘Crustacea from Princess Charlotte Bay, North Queensland. The Tsopoda and

Stomatopoda.’’ Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust. liti, 38-26, fig, 1,

‘Notes on the Faana of Dirk Wartog Island, Western Austinlia, No. 4—

Crusticea.’' Trans. Roy. Soe. 8. Aust. lili, 67-70, pl v.

“The Crustaceans of South Australia, Part 2.7’ Landbooks of the Vlora and

Fauna. of South Australia, (Govt. Printer, Adelaide), 202-280, text fig, 203-364.

“A remarkable Wresh-water Crayfish (Parachacraps hiearinatus).'’ South Aust.

Naturalist xi(8), 42-48, text fig, 1.

‘*Beaked Whales—Hypernodon planifrons and Mesoploden layardii—trom South

Australia’? Ree, S. Aust, Mus. iv(), 391-311, text fig. 1-27.

“The Gouse-beaked Whale (Ziphius cavirostris) in New Trelind.’’ Ree. 8. Aust.

Mus. iv(8), 812-313, fig. 1-2.

“The Pigmy Right Whale (Neobalaena marginata) in South Australian Waters.'!

Ree. S. Aust. Mus. iv(3), 314-820, text fig, 14.

“The Post-embryonie Development of an Australian Nauthid Crab (Pilumnus vestitus

Iluswell),’? Ree, 8. Aust. Mus. iv(3), 821-382, text fig. 1-17.

“The Puture of Australian Pisheries.'’ Progress in Australia, July 7, 10-138, 3

text fig.

“Obituary and Bibliography of Arthur Mills Lea,’’ Ree. S, Aust, Mus, iv(4),

411-452, with portrait,

“The New Zenlund Seamperdown Whale (Wesoplodon gravi) in South Australian

Waters.’" Ree. 8. Aust. Mus. iv(4), 489-496, text fig, 1-11,

A Cumacean new to South Australia.?? Ree, S. Aust, Mus, iv(4), 549-950, text

fig. 1.

“Tanaiducoa and lsopoda eolleeted by the Great Barrier Reef Expedition, 1928-29."?

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. xi(10), 957-562, text fig,

“The Hep-ease of a Oat Shark, Seylivrhinus vincenti (Zietz).’’ Ree, S. Aust. Mus,

v(8), 367-368, fig. 1.

“Some Aquatic Hemiptera from Western Australia.’’ Trans. Roy. Soe. 8S. Aust,

lix, 249-251, text fig. 1.

‘Three New Cumacea from South Australia?’ Ree. S. Aust. Mus. v(4), 595-403,

text fig. 1-6.

'Oumacea from a South Australian Reef.’ Ree. S. Aust. Mus. v(4), 404-438, text

fie. 1-23,

‘Further Notes on the Cumac¢ea of South Australian Weefy.?’ Ree. SB. Aust, Mus.

vi(1), §1-74, text fig. 1-9.

‘““Cumacea and Nehaliacea.’’ TRLALN.Z Antare, Res. Exp, 1929-1931. Series B,

iy(2), 37-56, text fig. 1-14.

“‘Tsopoda and Tanadiacea.’’ Aust, Antare, Nxped. 1911-14. Sei. Rep. Series C—

Zool. and Bot. ii(2), 1-44, text fig. 1-19.

© Some Fishes hitherto unknown from South ‘Australian Waters.’’ South Aust.

Naturalist 19(4), 1-5, colour plate and 5 text fig.

‘Rare Whales in South Australia.'' South Aust. Naturalist 19(4), 5-8, 2 text fig.

‘*Report on the Cymothoid Isopoda obtained by the F.L.S, ‘Endeavour’ on the coasts

of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia’?

Trans. Roy. Soe. 8. Aust. 64(2), 288-304, pl. xvii and text fig. 1-8,

‘'Deeapod Crustueea.’’ B.ALN.Z. Antare. Ree. Exped., 1929-1931. Series B, iv(9),

257-286, pl. ili, and text fig, 1-16.

“The Smooth Pipe Bish (Lissecampus caudalis).’* South Aust. Naturalist 21(1),

5, fig.

“A new South Australian Pipe Fish.’' South Aust. Naturalist 21(2), 10, fig.

(Histinganphelus gallinaceus, )

1943.

1944.

1945,

1946,

TAs.

1949.

1951,

1952.

MITCHELL—BIBLIOGRAPHY OF H. M. HALE 7

“Notes on two sand-dwelling Cumaees (Gephyrocuma and Pierocuma).'’' Ree, &.

Aust. Mus. vii(+), 487-842, fig. 1-9.

‘* Australinn Cumacen. No, 7. The Genus Cyclaspis.’? Ree. S. Anst. Mus, viii(1),

63-142., fig. 1-60 (see also Hale, 1928, 1932, 1936, 1937, 1942 and 1943).

‘Anstralian Cumiuees, No. & The Family Bodotnidae.*’ Trans, Roy. Soc. Aust,

68(2), 225-286, text fig. 1-38,

'Ruecords of the Oblong Sunfish (Trmrus laevis Pennant) from South Australia,’’

South Aust. Naturalist 22(4), L2, text fig. and cover photograph.

“A strinded Selool of Whales (Pseudorca erassidens).?? South Aust. Naturalist

23(1), 15-17, 3 text fig. and plate on cover.

“The Green ‘Torthe (Chelone midis Linn.) in South <Australiv.’* South Anat

Naturalist 23(2), 9, photograph on cover.

‘Australian Cumaces. No. 9 ‘The Family Nannastacidae.’* Kee. So Aust. Mus,

viii(2), 145-218, text fig, 1-49.

“Australian Cumacea. No, 10. The Family Leuconidae.’?’ Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Anst,

69 (1), 85-96, text fig. 1-6,

‘Australian Cumacea, No. 11. The Family Diastylidac (part 1).’* Trans. Roy,

Soe, & Anst, 69(2), 173-212, lext fig, 1-26,

“Australian Cumacen, No. 12. The Family Diastylidae (part 2). Gynodiastylis

ani related genern.'’ Ree oS, Aust, Mus. viti(4), 857-444, text fig. 1-60.

‘fAnstralian Cimacen, No, 18. The Family Lamipropidae.’? Trans. Roy. S. Aust,

TO(2), 177-188, toxt fig. 1-4.

‘\Tsopodia-Valyifers.’’ BAN.Z. Antare. Res, Exped, I929-1981, Series B, ¥(3),

1G1-212, text fig, 1-30.

“The Tasmanian or Royal Trompeter in South Australin’’ (Lalris lineata Blowk

and Sehneider.) Sonth Aust, Naturalist 24(2), ii, text fig.

‘'Wvidence of the IUubit of Oru) Gestation in a South Australian Marine Fish

(Apegon conspersus WKiinginger).*? South Aust. Naturalist 24(8), 1-3, plates on

Cover,

The Tigmy Spernt Whale | Kogia treviceps Blainville) on Sonth Australian Coasts,

Part 1.’° Ree, S. Aust. Mus. viii(4), 531-546, pl. xiv-xviii und text fig. I-17,

‘ANnstralian Cumaeea. No, 14. Further Notes ou the Genus Cyeclaspis.*" Ree, 8,

Aust, Mus, ix(1), 1-42, text fig, 1-21.

‘Australian Cumacea. No. 15. The Family Bodotriidae (contd.).’* Ree. 8. Artist,

Mus. ix(2), 107-125, text fig. 1-9,

‘Australian Cumaces. No. 16. The Family Nannastaridae (contd)? Ree, &,

Aust. Mus, ix(2), 225-246, text fig, 1-12.

‘Australian Cumaces, No. 17. The Family Diastylidue (eontd.).?? Ree, 8. Aust.

Mus. ix(4), 348-870, text fig. 1-10.

Tsopoda: Families Cymothoidiae sand Serolidae.’’ B.A.N.Z, Antare. Res, Exped,

1929-19931, Series By vi(2), 21-46, lext fig, 14.

‘Two new Curiieca from South Africa.’’ Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust. 78, 45-50, text.

tig. 1-4.

‘'Austtalian Cumaeea, No, 18. Notes on Distribution and Night Collecting with

artifivial light,"’ Trans. Roy, Soe. 8. Aust. 76, 70-77, text fig. 1-4.

“The First Uundred Years of the South Australian Museum, 1856-1956."" Ree. S.

Aust. Mus. xii, i-xij and 1-266, 23 pl. ond 6 text fig.

“Der Fetzenfiseh, ein seltsames sudaustralisches Seepferdehen.’’ (Phycodurus eques

eqhes Gunther). Natur und Volk, Frankfurt s.M, 87(11), 82-385, with plate

giving lite eolouration,

The Pigmy Sperm Whale on South Australian Comsts, Part ii?’ Ree, 8. Aust.

Mus, xiii(8), 383-388, pl xl und text fig. 1-2.

8 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

1962. ‘' The Pigmy Sperm Whale (Aogia brevieeps) on South Australian Coasts, Part iii’!

Ree. 8, Aust. Mus, 14(2), 197-230, pl. 1-4, und text fig. 1-12.

‘Occurrence of the Whale Berardius arnwri in Southern Australia.’’ Rec, S. Aust.

Mus. 14(2), 281-244, pl. 5-6, and text fig, 1.

1965. ** Young female Pigmy Sperm Whales (Hogia breviceps) from Western and South

Australia.’? Roe. 8. Aust. Mus, 14(8), 561-577, pl. 86-41 and text fig. 1-11.

1964. *'The Pigmy Right Whale (Caporea marginata) in South Australian Waters. Part

2.77 Ree, 8, Aust, Mus, 14(4), 679-694, pl. 48, text fig. 1-4, 1 map and tables 1-2.

Collaborative Studies

Edgar R. Waite and Herbert M. Hale (1921): ‘‘Review of the Lophobranchiate Fishes

(Pipe-fishes and Sea-Horses) of South Australia’’, Ree, 8. Aust. Mus. i(4), 298-824 and

text fig. 39-56.

Herbert M. Uale and Norman B. Tindale (1925): ‘*Ohservations on Aborigines of the

Flinders Ranges, and Records of Rock Carvings and Printings’’, Ree. S. Aust. Mus.

iii(1), 44-60, pl. ii-y and text, fig, 18-22.

Herbert M. Hale and Paul 8S. Hossfeld (1927): ‘!Meteorologies] Notes’*. South Aust.

Naturalist ix(1), 14-16, 3 fig. (A lightning-struck tree and some unusual hailstones.)

Frank A. MeNoill and Herbert M. Hale (1927): **A. Lilliputinn Marine Battle’’, Aust.

Mus. Mag. jii(4), 129-131, 6 text tig.

Herbert M. Hrle and Norman B. Tindale (1929): *! Further Notes on Aboriginal Rock

Carvings in South Australia’’, South Aust. Naturalist x(2), 80-84, pl. 1 and text

tig. 1.

Terbert M, Hale and Norman bB. Tindale (1980): ‘‘ Notes on sume Human Remains in the

Jower Murray Valley, South Australia’. Ree. S. Aust. Mus, iv(2), 146-218, test fig.

1-249,

Herbert M, Hale and Clarence F, Blewett (1931): ‘fA Threatening Invader—

Ichthyophthirius’’. South Aust. Naturalist xiii(1), 1-4, fig, 1.

Herbert M. Hale and Norman B. Tindale (1933): ‘Aborigines of Princess Charlotte Bay,

North Queensland, Part i7’. Ree. S. Aust. Mus. v(1), 63-116, text fip, 1-159,

Herbert M, Male and Norman B. Tindale (1984): ‘* Aborigines of Princess Charlotte Bay,

North Queensland, Part ii**’. Ree. S. Aust. Mus, y(2), 117-172, text fig. 140-250,

R. J. Rudall, HW. M. Hale and E, A, Sheridan (1984); ‘First Progress Report of the

Royal Commission on the Fishing Industry (South Australia)’. Govt. Printer,

Adelaide, 1-7.

R. J. Rudall, H. M. Hale and E. A. Sheridan (1985); ‘*Seeond Progress Report of the

Royal Commission on the Fishing Industry (South Australia)’’. Govt. Printer,

Adelaide, 1-40 and map.

R. J. Rudall, H. M. Hale and EB. A. Sheridan (1985): ** Final Report of the Royal

Commission on the Fishing Industry (South Australia) ’*. Goyt. Printer, Adelaide, 1-15.

KF. J. Mirenenn,

ROCK ENGRAVINGS AND ABORIGINAL OCCUPATION AT

NACKARA SPRINGS IN THE NORTH-EAST OF SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

BY ROBERT EDWARDS

Summary

This paper records a group of rock engravings at Nackara Springs in the north-east of

Australia. The historical evidence of aboriginal occupation of the area is reviewed; the

relation of engravings to topography defined; a selection of the designs reproduced and

their antiquity discussed. Comparisons are made with engravings from other sites in the

same region and maps are provided to show the location of the various sites.

A collection of stone implements, a burial excavated from near the adjacent camp-site,

and a cairn of stone slabs on the bank of the Nackara Creek are described. The

significance of these is considered in relation to the other evidence of former aboriginal

occupation.

ROCK ENGRAVINGS AND ABORIGINAL OCCUPATION AT

NACKARA SPRINGS IN THE NORTH-EAST OF SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

By ROBERT EDWARDS

Plates 1-2, and text fig. 1-4

SUMMARY

This paper records a group of rock engravings at Nackara

Springs in the north-east of South Australia, The historical evidence

of aboriginal occupation of the area is reviewed; the relation of

engravings to topography defined; a selection of the designs repro-

duced and their antiquity discussed. Comparisons are made with

engravings from other sites in the same region and maps are provided

to show the location of the various sites.

A collection of stone implements, a burial excavated from near

the adjacent camp-site, and a eairn of stone slabs on the bank of

Nackara Creek are described. The significance of these is considered

in relation to the other evidence of former aboriginal occupation.

INTRODUCTION

This investigation of the Nackara Springs was prompted by the

knowledge of their permanence as a water supply on the edge of the

drainage area of the Manunda and Yunta Creeks, where rock

engraving sites had previously been recorded (Basedow, 1914;

Mountford, 1929; Mountford and Edwards, 1963 and Edwards, 1964),

The association of engravings and permanent water is now established

as a constant factor in the occurrence of archaeological sites in this

north-east area of South Australia. This led to the examination of

Nackara Springs and the finding nearby of the rock engravings and

associated camp-site described in this paper.

ABORIGINAL OCCUPATION

Tt is significant that the owners of sheep stations in the Manunda-

Yunta Creek drainage area do not reeall any mention of aboriginals

living in this particular region at the time their properties were first

10 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

seltled, The journals of the explorers were consulted for references

to this north-east distriet and it was found that encounters with

aboriginals were limiled to the fringe of country deseribed as

“dreary’’, ‘“waterless’’, ‘‘wretched’’, ‘“Shbarren’’ and ‘sterile’. The

first explorer to record these impressions of the north-east was

Colonel Gawler (1839), the second Governor of South Australia, Tn

the heat of December, 1839, three years alter first settlement, Governor

tawler, accompanied by Captain Charles Sturt and others, set out

from the main north-west bend of the River Murray to explore the

land to the north, The party soon reached a sueeession ol sandy,

waterless plains, broken only by seattered and stunted trees, Mount

Bryan was sighted and named and the Porcupine Range (on the

present Piteairn Station) seen in the distance but not examined.

These discoveries were made alter considerable hardship in the

simmer heat and at the cost of the life of one of the party, who

beeame lost and was assumed to have perished.

After the expedition lef{ the aboriginals located on the Murray,

the only indications of the presence of other natives in the area

examined were columns of smoke seen rising [rom Mount Bryan. On

close investigation these camps were found to have been just

abandoned, Governor Gawler (1840) expressed the opinion that the

few natives he saw along the Murray ‘©... very rarely venture upon

the Creat Plain of the fossil formation, and nabubly never traverse

them in their full extent’, Contact between the aboriginals of Mount

Bryan and those of the River Murray is evident trom the report of

the Protector of Aborigines (1844), who was sent to investionte a

conthet and reprisals at Mount Bryan Station in Oetober, 1844. This

report disclosed that the local aboriginals sometimes made contact

with those of the Murray area—probably along the route provided hy

the Burra Creek (map, fig. 1). Thus, although Gawler may have

heen correct in his opinion that the Murray natives seldom left their

assured food supplies, there was certainly communication with those

to the north through the more favourable areas to the north-west of

the River.

In 1842, when Colonel Frome (1848a), Surveyor-General of South

Anstratia, led an expedition northward as far as the Black Roek Hills

which he so named, he also examined the country discovered by

Clovernor Gawler around Mount Bryan, Shortage of time prevented

furthor progress to the north-east where it was hoped better pasture

land wonld he found,

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA MW

In the following winter Colonel Frome (1843b) set out for the

north again, This time he sueeeeded in reaching Mount Serle in the

Flinders Ranges. One evening, on the outward journey, a camp was

made in the Black Rock Hills and several members of the party

climbed (6 the highest point, Trom this they wonld have had a

commanding view of the Nackara Thlls, and Poreapine Range to the

south-east (map, fie. 1). Henderson (1843), one of the party, made the

following entry in lis journal: ‘f, . . a more dreary prospect than

we had before us | eonld vot have imagined. The country appears

wretched, at Jeast as far as we conld see and not a solitary wreath of

emoke could be diseerned in the blue distance to convince ms that at

was even inhabited by the wandermg savage’’, This desertption

iNnsteates the wuavonrable impression gained in spite of heavy rains

having fallen thronghout the journey.

As the party continned northwards into the Flinders Ranges

contaet was made with the aborigimals on a number of occasions and

the atmoke trom their fires was often visible in the distanee. On

returning to Mount Bryan on the homeward journey, Colonel frome

decided to explore fo the north-east, hoping to discover the good

country thought to exist under the Poreupine Range which had been

sivlied by Governor Gawler and Captain Sturt in 1839, and by Frome

himself, both in 1842 and daring his push to the north in the Following

vear. It was hoped that the heavy rains which had fallen during the

preeeding two months wonld enable the party to penetrate some

distanee into unexplored country, As they approached the Porcupine

Range, however, all trace of water vanished and they found it

impossible to proceed; they obviously had not diseovered the nearby

permanent spring im the Manunda Creek—recorded by the present

writer (1964), Colonel Frome and two companions climbed Mount

Poreupine (Waite Hill) from which they recorded ‘ta clear view of

the horizon in every direetion’’, adding jhat ‘fa more barren, sterile

country eamot be imagined’’ (Frome, 1843p), To the southward

was the Marray serub, as level as the oeean; to the east ditto, with

a lew sroall hills covered with serub; to the westward, the distant high

land of Mount Bryan with a vast extent of serub over whieh we came

the day before; and to the north wamerous barren ranges’? (THonderson,

1843), Ou deseending the hill the party returned, with some diffenlty,

to Mount Bryan and thenee hack to Adelaide,

Although the aecounts of these explorations contain many

references to aboriginals along the Liver Mnrray, in the vicinity of

Mount Bryan, and the lower Flinders Ranges, no mention is made of

12 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

PT. AUGUSTA

fx

NACKARA ~<l.@/ PANARAMITEE

SPRINGS 4)

PITCAIRN

|

|

|

|

|

MT. BRYAN @

é KETCHOWLA

Pig. 1. Map showing the location of the Mamunda-Yunta ereek drainage area and its relation

to the Naekara Springs site.

their presence in the Mannnda-Yunta Creek drainage area. The above

brief extracts from the available historical records suggest therefore

that permanent aboriginal occupation of this region was unlikely at

that time.

In spite of the unfavourable reports of this country given by the

first explorers, it attracted the attention of pastoralists who, eager to

find new land for expansion of their activities, pushed out into the low

rainfall area of the north-east to begin a series of costly experiments

in raising sheep in a semi-arid environment, In the winter of 1845,

Melrose (Cockburn 1925), examined the Nackara area. Local tradition

has it that squatters were the first to use the waters of the Nackara

Springs. It was not until 1851 that John Williams, notable for his

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 13

pastoral aetivities on the extensive Black Rock Run, extended his

holdings to incorporate the Nackara Hills. Tis pastoral lease (No.

220, of Ist July, 1851) centred around the permanent spring on a

tributary of Nackara Creck. Today it is part of a sheep station owned

hy Mr. N, C. 8. Sharkie.

Although the examination of explorers’ joarnals produced little

information about the extent of previous aboriginal occupation of

these areas, there is ample evidence to show that the country around

Nackara Springs had been inhabited or regularly visited by aboriginals,

Knvironment

Nackata Springs is located im the rugged, lilly conntry some 165

miles north-east of Adelaide and 30 miles east of Black Rock (map,

fie, 1). The Tandred of Naekara was proclaimed in 1880 and for a

short time beeame a Woods and Forests Department reserve for the

purpose of preserving the native flora ineluding mallee, sandalwood,

native pine, salt bush and blue bush.

The dominating topographical featuve near the springs is. a

eonieal shaped hill appropriately named The Cone’. Its height is

1,860 feet above sea level, This relatively high area is drained by a

complex system of many small creeks. These have cut their way

jhroneh ihe hills to the north-west of “The Cone’, and join to form

a single, large watercourse whieh, after passing through a small valley

and steep-sided gorge, enters the main Nackara Creek (imap, fig. 4).

When the infrequent thunderstorms bring rain to this semi-arid region,

they cause the normally parched creek-beds to become swift-flowing

streams and the adjacent countryside to be clothed with natural

grasses, Nackara Springs (map, fig. 4, Site A) is a permanent source

of witer, and, even in times of dronght, gives suflicient How to form

a line of rock pools in the watercourse. These haye provided

pastoralists with a water supply for their sheep for more than a

contury.

In such semi-arid country, the presence of a permanent spring,

together with watercourses and a nearby gorge—to provide soakages—

would make this Nackara site highly suitable for aboriginal occupation.

2 ROCK ENGRAVINGS

Sile ol

The adjacent sloping ground to the south-west ol Nackara Springs

rises abruptly to form a series of hills more or less parallel to the

main watercourse, A number of these hills are surmounted by rugged

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 15

otterops of slaty rock (plate 1A) on whieh engravings have been made,

Although many of these engraved rock surfaces are horizontal, as is

customary in the north-east of South Australia, there are a number

of instances where engravings have been peeked into inclined and even

nearly vertical rock faces (plate 2A),

The desiens are, in the main, similar to those recorded from other

sites in the surrounding area (Basedow, 1914; Mountford, 1929, 1935;

Monntford and Mdwards, 1962, 1963; Hdwards, 1964). Representa.

tions of animal and bird traeks are the most common (fig. 2K, M).

oe are many circles of various dimensions and combinations (fig.

2, 1, S, T, V), while barred circles (fig. 20), concentric eireles

(fig. ah engraved dots (ig. 2H, P) and Tuman footprints (fig. 2A)

occur less frequently among the designs. Creseents (fig. 2B) and

pecked Vitaglios of lizards (fig. 2D, U) are grouped together in one

place—a rave happening on the other sites examined in this north

eust urea. ‘Two distinetive peeked Jinear engravings have lines

hramehing from a hole pounded in a slopimg surface (fig. 20, Ry

plate 1B) while there are smaller examples with lines radiating from

Hn central point (fig, 2L, N). Other abstract designs are shown in

iv. 2G,

Site B

The second group of rock engravings in this locality are similar

(o those found at Site A. There are many animal teaeks of different

sivew (fig. 8B, C, J, M, V, L,Y), one set ol kangaroo tracks (fig. 3A)

sigeesting a hopping action of the animal, Other kangaroo tracks

(fig. 86 and ) may be deliberate attempts to show delormities of the

oot of this animal, They are similar to those recorded on a Hill

Grange Station site (Mdwards, 1964). ‘The cirele, in various arrange-

ments (often combined with tracks), forims the basis of many designs

(fig, 3B, CLI, M,N. VY. W, YY); there are a mumnber of pecked intaghios

of Hinman footprints (fig. 8C, M, N, Q, X); a well-exeented engraving

ol five concentric eireles (fig. 3K); 4 small spiral (fe. 3B) 5 an orderly

armangement of eight short bars (fig. SU); a simall smake-like design

(fig. 3H) and an elongated barred cirele (fig. 80). Some pecked

linen envraving’s are lar weometrical outlines (fig. 8D, 1, P, W, Y).

while others ave indefinite (fig. 8G, 8, N, 7), and impossible to identity,

There is noticeable variation in tock patination at this site, Many

ebneravings are indistinet and difficult to recognize because water and

vater-borne sand have eroded the patinated surfaces from some of the

rocks. Others on a higher level have retained their dark colour.

RECORD Sor

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 17

The pecking technique employed in making these enyravings, the

degree of weathering, patination, disintegration ol the rocks, absence

of engraved ttacks of the dingo and the depicting of all the engraved

figures in plan, are factors common to the Nackara sites us well as all

other groups forming the Manunda-Yunta Creek Series (Mdwards,

1964).

Straight-line’? Markings

Markings identical with those recorded at, other sites in the novth-

east of South Australia (Busedow, 1914; Tindale and Mountlorvd,

1926: Mountford, 1929, 1935); at Devon Downs (Hie and Tindale,

1930); Marree (Cooper, 1941); Central Australia (Mounttord, 1960)

and the Northern Territory (Davidson, 1986; Arndt, 1962), were found

to be concentrated on the rocks forming the highest ol the hills sonth-

west of the springs. This hill may have been a place of importance

in the ceremonial life of the aboriginal as it is the highest of the Tine

and gives a commanding view of the surrounding countryside

(plate LA), Kyidence that if was a place of some importance is

presented hy the rettarkable series, amounting to many hundreds,

ol! ‘straight-line’? markings made on the faces aud along the ridges

of the rocks, These markings, abraded into the rock surfaces, have a

striking V-shaped eross-section, deepest im the middle of the depression

aud tapering to a shallow thin cut at the ends (plate 2B). Tn Jength

they vary Irom small grooves of half an ineh up to a few large forms

at twelve or so inches, A close examination imider magnification

yeveals a number of longitudinal scratches adjacent to each groove,

These were apparently formed in the initial attempt to establish a

eroove of stifficient. depth to hold the entting implement im place.

Onee a purchase was obtained on the rock surface a repeated to and

fvo abrading action across the rock produced the groove.

An wnorewarding searel: was made in the vicinity of these

engravings for stone implements capable of being used in the predne-

tion of these grooves, Tindale and Mounttord (1926) figure a quarts

knife recovered from a camp-site adjacent to similay markings at

Mocowie. In their opinion this implement was capable of eutting these

erooves in the rock surface, The only likely material found at the

Nackara site consisted of pieces of the milky variety of qnartz which

eceurs in abundance throughout ihe north-east region. By experiments

with fortuitous pieces of this rock, having sharp edges, it was possible

to prodnce markings identical with those made by fhe aboriginals,

1k RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The action ol cutting the grooves caused little damage to the edges

of the stone fragments used. A close examination of plastic negative

impressions of the erooves shows that the margin of the eutting toal

Was uneven as minute seratelies on the walls of the V-shaped cavities

are evident, This gives support to the suggestion that untrimmed

quartz fragments were used for making these simple enyvavings.

The age of these markings is unknown, However, the rock

surfaces where they oeeur at Nackara Springs have been badly

fraetured throngh prolonged erosion and Weathering; so much so that

many pieces with markings occur among the debris on the talus,

As with the pecked intaglios and linear engravings the inner walls

of the abraded grooves have adopted the surface colouring ol the

rock—indicative of long exposure to weathering. Further support of

appreciable antiquity is given by Male and Tindale (1930) who found

similar markings on the baek wall of the Devon Downs tock shelter

at an excavated depth of hetween ten and thirteen feet. It was

suggested that these particular grooves had been formed by the action

of sharpening bone tools on the solt limestone (Tindale, 1957),

The origin and meaning of these sunple engravings are unkuown.

Arndt (1962) figures similar markings, known as ‘rain cuts’’, from

the “Rain Centre’? at Delemere, Northern Territory, and records a

former associated rain-making ceremony involving singing and dancing

after whieh those taking part each eut a evroove in an adjacent rock

to make the “Old man bleed and bring rain’. This statement is of

considerable interest, although as there is no known relationship

hetween these widely separated sites a common meaning eannot he

assumed, MeCarthy (1958) and MeBryde (1964) disenss another form

of abraded groove fvom northern New South Wales whieh Inay also

be related,

CAMP-SITES

Between the hills with engraved roek surfaces and the Nackara

Springs watercourse, the ground las been ent by vutters and generally

subjected to erosion by heavy thunderstorm rains, These conditions

have contributed to the exposure of groups of hearth-stones and

sparsely seattered stone implements of various types. This evidence

of aboriginal oceupation also extends along the main watereourse as

far as its junction with the Nackara Creek,

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 19

BS

NACKARA

SSERINGS®

Burial

0 CHAINS 80

139710"

Pig. t Dersiled inap tt Noekuwra Spengs ares iibinting The velative position of rock

ravings Hid am pbsibes be the Neciara Croek and olher witeremirses; shared

wrens cere alewitianea hove T4900) beet,

The following stone implements were recovered from this site:

One hundred and eighty-one large trimmed eore implements and

nineteen large trimmed llukes, Eilty-seven hammerstones; Twenty:

seven one-sided millstones amd Fourteen double-sided millstones,

Three Inuudred aad seventy-eizlt smaller implements were also

collected; ninete-Ave are reduced ‘dake’ flakes; sixty semmi-diseotdle 5

thirty-seven end “serapers’’, ninety-eight irregular shaped tlakes with

varying amounts of secondary trimming; oO small toimber of nose,

double-sided and conenve serapers’’s forme blade dakes and twenty-six

coves, Ont of 4 collection of forty-eight onterolfiths thirteen are

eoometries : Fen have cud trimming; sis are seriiecdisecidas one ciseata;

20 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

seyen trimmed cores and thirteen working cores, Over five hundred

discarded untrinmed flakes were also collected.

Among the material recovered were two complete australites and

a diseoidal microlith, made from one of these meteoric vluss objects,

One of the complete specimens of australite is ovate and the other a

(himb-bell form. Mountford (1949) and Baker (1957) deserihe the

use the aboriginals made of australites both for ceremonial and

magical purposes aud for the manulactnre of implements. Their

presenee ou this camp-site suggests similar uses.

No artifacts were found near rock engraving Site B,

ABORIGINAL BURIAL

On the north-east bank of Nackara Springs watercourse, erosion

had removed about twelve inches of the surface soil exposing a low

mond of small stones, Removal of this disclosed a human burial.

Excavation of the npper mound exposed a large flat stone which

appeared fo have pressed on, and broken in, the back of the skull.

After removal of the stone and trowelling away of the soil, the bones

were found to be in an advaneed stage of disintegration and broke into

powdery Tragments at the slightest touch. The soil was firmly

consolidated around the bones and quite damp, evidently heeause of

soukage from the nearby spring—no rain having fallen for the previous

eight months, No natural arrangement of the hones was evident: they

appeared to have heen separated by pressure of the overlying material.

An exeavation three feet square and one foot seven inches below the

eroded surface was made. [t is of interest 10 note that two veometric

microliths were found during the silting of the soil removed from

around the skeleton remains,

Dr. A. D, Packer, of the University of Adelaide, has examined the

bone fragments recovered and reports that they ‘*. . . are of a mature

adult aboriginal. There are not sufficient pelvie bone fragments to

determine the sex with certainty hut the slender eayieales and the

appearance of the bones generally suggest that they are rom a female.

There is nothing to indicate that the remains are other than recent’’.

Professor T. D. Cainphell assisted in the removal of the skeleton and

examined the remains of the jaw and a number of teeth. In his

opinion the shape of the mandible and sadvaneed wear of the teeth

showed they were probably of an aged female,

EBWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 21

Basedow (1925) describes the mode of burial by the aboriginals

of! the Flinders Ranges—the corpse was first covered with a layer of

foliage and bushes; over this a number of slabs of slate were placed ;

finally «a mound was erected on the site, Althongh there was no

evidence of any decaying vegetable matter in the Nackara Springs

grave, the pile of stones removed from the surface and the large stone

from over the bones suggest comparison with the burial customs of the

Flinders Ranges,

STONE CATRN

During an examination along the Nackara Creek, a solid eairn

about three feet in height was found neatly constructed of flat slabs

of loeal stone (map, fig. 4). This had been erected on the bank of the

creek opposite the entry of a large tributary. In its loeation it eould

not have been a survey trig and it was unlikely fo mark a property

houndary.

Arrangements ol stones im various forms have been found over

a wide area ol’ Anstralia (Towle, 1989) and many are known to have

heen made by the aboriginals. Mountford (1940) reeords stone

vurms in the north of South Australia and also at Waroonee and

Waukaringa in the north-east. These latter occurrences were of a

square hollow construction. Monntlord (1940) states that similar stone

structures observed in the Northern Flinders Ranges were ereeted by

adoleseent boys of the Adnvamatana tribe for ‘‘amnsement’’.

There is no evidence to indicate the origin or purpose ol this

particular example found new Nackara Springs.

DISCUSSION

he rock engravings at Nackara Spring's are another of the series

of engraving sites associated with the Maniunda-Yunta Creek drainage

area of the north-east of South Australia.

my

The engraved figures—their numbers, grouping and distribution—

al various sites present to some extent a general pattern ol similarity.

A comparative stndy is in progress by means of a quantitative analysis

of details ef the oeeurrences. This may reveal some significant

related and differing features between the respective sites,

The question of the antiquity of rock engravings in this part of

Australia is one which has generally been discussed on the basis of

the traditional assessments of the geologist. Conditions so far

22 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

presented Haye not provided associated material amenable to the

modern radiocarbon method of age computation. Further inyestiga-

tions may provide a solution for this problem by this means.

However, the suggestion of appreciable antiquity is supported by the

evidence of the slow processes of deeay, fracture and disintegration

of the outeropping rocks on which the engravings were made. Many

examples are to be seen where these processes haye taken place since

the engravings were executed; where consequent movement and wide

separation of engraved surfaces have oeeurred; and where detached

boulders with engraved designs have fallen down umong the talus

debris. Also the weathering and patination of the outcrop surfaces

und the engravings on them, are possibly processes of appreciable

slow development. All these features may indicate a long lapse of

time sinee the engravings were made.

The means by which these engravings were executed have heen

a matter ol conjeeture (Ndwards, 1964). The apparent absence of

auitable stone tools closely associated with the engravings adds te

the diffeulties, This problem is another undergoing special study by

means of ¢lose examination of the details of the intaghos under

magnification and negative and positive reproductions by means of

plaster and modern plastic materials. The evidenee so far considered

supports the idea that no specialized tool was employed as there is

a wide variation in the size of the small pits where particles were

removed in the rock surface during the process of making the

eNngravINeS,

The interpretation of the meanings of the vast array of these

engravings is a matter also lraueht with diffeullies. The observer is

confronted with a range of oceurrences from a few simple engravings

on vw rock face to the larger surfaces eoyered with s confusion of

designs, geometric ontlines, representations of animal, bird, reptile

and tuimnan tracks, peeked naturalistic intaglios of animals and

‘abstract’? or indecisive figures. All these vary in size and shape and

some designs are superimposed on others. The eroding effeets of dime

anil weathering have added to the intricaey of the problem and the

diffeulty of any attempt at interpretation,

To what extent these sites eam be looked upon as having some

sacred or ceremonial significance; an assoeiation with bunting magic;

or how many of the engravings are simply purposeless attempts at

expression before magical art developed—are questions diffienlt to

tuiswer. From what has been anthoritatively ascertained from other

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 23

examples of aboriginal art, such as the designs of rock paintings,

carved Ljirungé—and ceremonial decoration of slields and human

bodies, there is no doubt that all these designs, from the simplest to

the most complex pattorns, had a specific meaning at the time when

{hey were made.

A study of what is accessible and capable of interpretation in

present-day aboriginal art is nol entirely satisfactory for deciphering

these seemingly ancient, rock Cngravings, Tt would be dangerous to

make assumptions oy ta transpose the meanings given to the designs

and figures of eave paintings to oflen similar figures engraved on rock

surfnees. The latter on various viewpoints are usually looked upon

us being examples of aboriginal art Ina predating that expressed in

the form o! cave paintings, But here again this viewpoint rests on

the assmuption that rock paintings were not a form of aboriginal art

voutemporanvous with engravings. Tf is possible these two forms may

hive been eo-existent, but it seems doubtful whether rock painting in

the fort of a superficial application of pigments—even 1! these latter

were mimeral m eonstitiution—could withstand the effeets of time and

wenther compared with engravings, Some paintings may have heen

made on open roek surfaces but these, of course, world quiekly

deteriorate, leaving no trace,

The abraded grooves are an interesting type sometimes associated

with pecked intaglios and linear engravings. Occasioually they are

concentrated on their own. A number of writers have suggested

that these particular engravings were the results of sharpening

vertiin implements of stone or bone, This is an interpretation

assuiling a definite iwtilitarian purpose as opposed to amy ‘sacred’

sienifieanee or artistic expression, Lt is possible that both the

suggested utilitarian and the sacved could have sometimes over.

lapped—the tool being used gaining some increased magieal power

throueh the action of making a groove, The location of this type of

eneraving im great moanbers on the summit of a steep hill at Nackara

Springs gave a further opportunity for close examination, As many

were on awkward and almost inaccessible roek surfaces and across the

narrow angular margins of adjacent rock laces in a wide range of

sizes, it is hurd to reconcile them with a tool sharpening Tnnetion.

The aboriginal has abways been recognized as intensely *‘ practical?’

and il is diffieult to accept Uiat the past aboriginal occupants of this

area would climb a steep tor to sharpen lis tools when more easily

accessible arul similar snitable rock outerops were available at mueh

lower levels.

24 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The many indefinite factors, and probably many others totally

unknown, associated with the rock engravings of this area make a

complete assessment diffienlt, and the first stage ol the present

reseureh must be classification rather than an attempted interpreta-

tion, The more detailed and intensive studies now being undertaken

may produce evidence of when, why and by whom this interesting

series of rock en@ravings was made.

The stone implements recorded from the Nackara Springs site

are tangible evidence of ifs past ocenpation although no conclusions

are possible from surface finds of this kind. The number of smaller

implement types found at Nackara Springs was greater than that

recorded From fhe Piteairmn sites (Mdwards, 1964). For example,

reduced “tilas’’, known to have been used mounted on spearthrowers

wid other wooden handles by aboriginals until recent times, were

numerous enough at Nackara (95) to suggest a more regular oceupa-

tion there than in the semi-arid areas further to the east where only

four were found on the three Pitcairn sites.

The burial, the stone cairn, the likeness in implement types and

the historical evidence all point to a conneetion with the Flinders

Ranges tribes. It could be that they are the produet of excursions

and activities of these people into this adjoining easterly region.

Hdwards (1964) has deseribed the similarity between the large

Nartan stone implements found on Piteairn Station and those collected

hy Cooper (1948, 1950, 196L) from Hallett Cove, along the River

Wakelield, to a limited extent on Kangaroo Island, and on various

other sites in South Australia. The large trimmed implements found

scattered over the camp-site at Nackara Springs ean also be compared

with these implements and undoubtedly helong to the same industry.

Many of the large implements from Naekara Springs, as elsewhere,

have been reduced in size and weight by repeated sharpening—an

indication of intensive use. If these Kartay implements are old, as

has often been suggested, it may be that the aboriginals whe made the

large implements at Pitcairn Station and those found on the Nackara

Springs site, lived at some earlier time and made the rock engrayings.

It will he necessary however to fmd a sitnation where rock engravings

and stone implements are located in association with material to which

more positive methods of dating can be applied before the pre-history

of the area can be confidently reconstrueted,

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 25

RESUME

Art rupestre, probablement préhistorique, & Nackara Springs,

Australie du Suc.

Ktude illustrée des gravures, probablement préhistoriques, qui

décorent les parois des rochers 4 Nackara Springs, Australie du Sud.

Les sites sont de plein air. Description de lindustrie lithique.

Les gravures, semblables A celles a la conflnence Manunda-Yunta

Creek, représentent des anneaux et des pistes d’animanux.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Brian K.

Sawers of Piteairn Station whose enthusiasiu and help made possible

this investigation. Mr. N. ©. 8. Sharkie kindly gave permission to

work on his property. Mr, F. K. Archibald assisted in the tracing of

the engravings. The advice and practical assistance of Professor

G. H, Lawton, Drs. T. D. Campbell and ?. 8. Hossfeld and Messrs.

@. P. Mounttord, H. M. Cooper and G. li. Pretty were appreciated.

Mr. M. R. Marehant of the South Australian Department of Lands

kindly provided the information used in the preparation of the maps.

The Board for Anthropologieal Research of the University of

Adelaide granted funds towards the expenses of field work in this

research,

Acknowledgment is also made to the Board of the South

Australian Museum for publication of this paper and to Mr. Norman

B. Tindale, Curator of Anthropology, for his valuable advice,

REFERENCES

Arndt, W., 1962: The interpretation of the Delemere Lightning Paint-

ing and rock engravings. Oceania, Sydney, 32(3).

Baker, George, 1957: The role of Australites in Aboriginal customs.

Mem. nat. Mus., Melb., Melbourne, 22(8).

Basedow, H,, 1914: Aboriginal rock carvings of great antiquity in

South Australia. J. R. anthrop. Inst., London, +4.

1925; The Australian Aboriginal. Adelaide.

Cockburn, R., 1925: Pustoral Pioneers of South Australia, Vol 1,

Adelaide.

26 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Cooper, H. M., 1941: Rock carvings and other ahoriginal relies from

near Marree. S. Aust. Nat., Adelaide, 21,

1945: Large stone implements from South Australia. Ree.

S. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 7(4).

1959: Large archacological stone implements from Hallett

Cove, South Australia, Trans. roy. Soe. S. Aust.,

Adelaide, 82.

————— 1960: The archaeology of Kangaroo Island, South Australia.

htec. S. Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 13(4).

1961: Archaeological stone implements along the Lower

River Wakefield, South Australia. Trans. roy. Soe. S.

Aust., Adelaide, 84.

Davidson, D. $., 1986: Aboriginal Australian and Tasmanian rock

carvings and paintings. Mem. Amer, phil, Soe.

Philadelphia, 5,

Kdwards, R., 1964; Rock engravings and stone implements of Pitcairn

Station, uorth-eastern South Australia. Ree. 8S. Aust.

Mus., Adelaide, 14(4).

Frome, Hi. C., 1848a; Report on country to the north of the Light and

Gilbert. Despatches, No. 3, South Australian Archives.

1843b: Report of the country to the eastward of Flinders

Ranges. South Australian Government Gazette, Sept.,

1843, Adelaide.

Gawler, G., 1859: Despatches to the Colonization Commissioners,

1838-41, South Australian Archives,

———— 1840: Notes regarding the Aborigines of the Murray.

South Australian Gazette and Colonial Register,

18/1/1840, Adelaide.

Hale, H. M. and Tindale, N. B., 1980: Notes on some human remains

in the lower Murray Valley, Sonth Australia. Ree. S.

Aust. Mus., Adelaide, 4(2).

Henderson, J., 1848: Narrative of an expedition to Lake Frome in

1843. Manuscript Journal, South Australian Archives.

McCarthy, F. D., 1958: Australian Aboriginal Rock Art. Sydney.

McBryde, Isabel, 1964: The linear engravings of the Clarence Valley,

Northern New South Wales. Oceania, Sydney, 34(3).

EDWARDS—ROCK ENGRAVINGS AT NACKARA 27

Moorhouse, M., 1844: Letter books of the Protector of Aborigines.

South Australian Archives.

Mountford, C. P., 1929: Aboriginal rock carvings in South Australia.

Rep. Aust. Ass. Advane. Sei., Hobart, 19.

1935: A survey of the petroglyphs of South Australia.

Rep. Aust. Ass. Advane, Sei., Melbourne, 22.

1940: Aboriginal Stone Structures. Trans. roy, Soe. 8.

Aust., Adelaide, 64(2).

1948: Brown Men and Red Sand, Melbourne.

———— 1960: Simple Rock Engravings in Central Australia. Man,

London, 60.

Mountford, CG. P. and Edwards, R., 1962: Aboriginal rock engravings

of extinct creatures in South Australia. Man, London, 62.

1968: Roek engravings of Panaramitee Station, north-

eastern South Australia, Trans. roy. Soc, S. Aust.,

Adelaide, 86,

Tindale, N. B., 1957: Culture Succession in South-castern Anstraha

from Late Pleistocene to the Present. Ree. S. Aust.

Mus., Adelaide, 13(1).

Tindale, N. B. and Mountford, C. P., 1926: Native markings on rocks

at Morowie, South Australia. Trans. roy. Soc. 8. Aust.,

Adelaide, 50.

Towle, C. C., 1939: A Bibliography of Stone Arrangements found in

graphy

Australia. Mankind, Sydney, 2(7).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES 1 TO 2

PLATE 1.

Fig. A. General view of Nackara Springs area from summit of the hill where abraded

grooves are concentrated.

Fig. B. Unusual rock engraying with lines radiating from a small central eup-shaped hollow.

Site A, Nackara Springs. Seale in inches.

PLATE 2.

Fig. A, Sloping rock surface engrayed with many designs, Site A, Nackara Springs. Seale

in inehes.

Fig. B. §‘Straight-line’* markings or abraded grooves showing the breaking up of the rocks

since the marks were made. Seale in inches.

, Puate 1

5

1

Von.

UM

*

y

S.A. Muse

Ree,

Ree S.A, Museum Vou. 1, Pure 2

A REDISCRIPTION OF THE AUSTRALIAN SPIDER CRAB

“EURYNOME GRANULOSA” BAKER (CRUSTACEA,

BRACHYURA MAJIDAE)

BY D. J. G. GRIFFIN

Summary

The majid crab, Eurynome granulosa, known only from South Australia, is redescribed

and figured from four specimens, including the holotype, and its systematic position

discussed. Its numerous similarities to Chionognathus reini, a Japanese species, are

emphasized. Among the species at present placed within Eurynome, E. granuloa stands

closet to the South African E. elegana.

A REDESCRIPTION OF THE AUSTRALIAN SPIDER CRAB

“EURYNOME GRANULOSA”*’ BAKER (CRUSTACEA,

BRACHYURA MAJIDAE)

By D. J. G. GRIFFIN, Zoonogy Derarrwent, University oF

TASMANIA, AUSTRALIA

Text fig. 1-5

SUMMARY

The majid erab, Eurynome granulosa, known only from South

Australia, is redeseribed and figured from four specimens, including

the holotype, and its systematie position discussed. Its numerous

similarities to Chionognathus reini, a Japanese species, are emphasized.

Among the species at present placed within Hurynome, 2. granulosa

stands closest to the South Afriean FH. elegans,

INTRODUCTION

The genus Hurynome Leach, at present containing a total of nine

species of small majid spider crabs of the subfamily Pisinae, has

recently been reviewed and its limits discussed (Griffin, 1964), The

genus is distributed throughout the Indo-West Pacific, Mediterranean

and Kast Atlantic, at depths of around 100 fathoms. Characteristically,

the carapace in these crabs is pyriform and bears peculiar, flat-topped

tubereles, or large spinulated plates, the former arranged in distinct

groups and the chelipeds resemble those of a parthenopid erah.

However, other equally important characters, such as the number of

free segements of the abdomen, details of the orbit and form of the

basal antennal article, seem to have been overlooked in a few cases,

Australia is known to possess a single species of the genus,

BE, granulosa, deseribed by Baker in 1906 from a single female dredged

in 104 fathoms off the South Australian coast. It has since been

figured and briefly described by Hale (1927) but the species is

poorly known,

Baker’s (1906) original description of #, granulosa was detailed

but the fignres were hardly adequate enough to allow comparison of

this species with others at present placed in the genus. The exact

form of the third maxillipeds, basal antennal article, supraorbital and

30 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

infraorbital margins and ornamentation of the carapace were not made

clear, but have an important bearing on the systematic position of

(. retmi, In the present paper H. granulosa is redescribed from the

holotype and its relationships to the South African KH. elegans

Stebbing, 1921 and to the Japanese Chionognathus reint (Balss, 1924)

are also considered. The terminology used here follows that of

Rathbun (1925) and the system of measurements are those used by

Garth (1958).

This study has been made possible by the forwarding to me,

through Dr. John Yaldwyn of the Australian Museum, Sydney, of the

holotype, and three other specimens of Lyrynome granulosa, by

Mr. F, J. Mitehell of the South Australian Museum, Adelaide. [ wish

to sincerely thank Mr. Mitchell for allowing ine to examine these

specimens, Dr. Yaldwyn for helpful disenssion and Dr, EK. R. Guiler

of this Department for reading the manuscript.

SYSTEMATICS

Family MAJIDAK

Subfamily Pisinae Aleock, 1896

Genus Murynome Leach, 1815

Eurynome granulosa Baker, 1906

Fig. 1-5

Kuvynome granulosa Baker, 1906; 108, pl. i, figs. 8, 3a. TIale, 1927:

139, fie. 140.

Holotype: Female (S. Aust. Mus. reg. C1156), carapace length

&mm, This specimen is dried and in excellent condition with all the

appendages preseut except the second left ambulatory leg and the

earpus and following joints of the left third ambulatory leg.

Type locality: South Australian coast, dredged in 104 fathoms;

Dr. Vercoe, collector,

Localities subsequently reported: None.

Material examined: In addition to the holotype, the dried cara-

paces of three other small specimens (S. Aust. Mus. reg. €.1160),

6-8 mm in length, South Australia, L00 fm, no date, no collector.

Pig. 1-5. Kurynome granulosa Baker. Holotype female, curapace leugth & mm,

1, carapace, dorsal view; 2, left third maxilliped; 3, outer view of right ehela;

4, dorsal view of left orbit; 5, ventral view of left orbit.

32 RECORDS OF THE §8.A. MUSEUM

Diagnosis: Carapace subpyrttorm to subovate, hepatie margins

laterally extended; dorsal surface bearing simple tubercles ar rranged

in groups medially only; branchial margins with several conical

tubercles, Rostral spines widely separated, less than { carapace

longth. Ambulatory lees smooth. Basal anteunal article bilobate

anteriorly, Interealated supraorbital spine a broad, distally rounded

lobe.

Description: The following description is based on the holotype,

an adult female,

Carapace subpyriform to suboyate, convex, covered by short, stiff

hairs, hepatic margins greatly expanded laterally, posterolateral

margins smoothly rounded; dorsal surface covered by low tubercles

arranged in the midline in distinet groups, regions well demareated hy

prominent smooth grooves. Rostrum of two, short, slender, s subconical

spines, separated from close to base by a broad, U-shaped hiatus,

moderately divergent, distance between {ips barely exeeeding basal

width, somewhat evreater than margins of rostrum; lateral surface

close to tips armed with three short, sharp spinules,

Hepatic margins laterally extended as very prominent, rounded,

irregularly emarginate, flattened lobes hearing a few small tubercles

dorsally, Branchial margins bearing anteriorly three or four sub-

conleal tubercles situated subequidistantly, first and second tubereles

pointed, last tubercle blunt, at widest part of earapace, a small tubercle

situated midway between second and third tubercles, a group of three

or four subdorsal tubereles curying around from last marginal tubercle

{o posteromedial corner of branchial region,

Dorsal surface of carapace covered by large and small, oval to

circular tubercles arranged in groups on the meso-, meta-, and

urogastrie regions and on the cardiac and intestinal regions. Proto-

gastric regions almost smooth, bearing a few seattered tubercles,

branchial regions bearing numerous irregularly arranged, crowded

tubercles, Mesogastric region covered lor its entire length hy close

set, small tubercles, increasing slightly in size posteriorly; metagastrie

region with six tubercles, five arranged in a transverse oval around a

central one, posterior tubercles larger; urogustric region with three

tubercles, slightly smaller than metagastries, arranged in a semicircle,

two pnterior, submedial, one posterior, medial; cardiac region weakly

fumicd, bearing a group of 10 tubereles, a single medial one surrounded

by nine arranged in aun elongate oval; intestinal region almost smooth,

GRIPFFIN—AUSTRALIAN SPIDER CRAB 33

hearing close to posterior margin a group of three close-set tubercles,

one anterior, medial, (wo posterior, submedial, the group flanked by

two larger, blunt, subeonieal tubercles. Protogastric regions with ¢

triangular group of three small tubercles laterally, vlose to base of

postorbital lobe and a pair of large, submedial tubercles slightly behind

and close to, posterior margin of mesogastric region,

Orbit consisting above of supraorbital eave, intercalated spme and

postorbital lobe, closely approximated, separated by narrow fissures;

supraorbital eave moderately wide, sharply angled antero-laterally,

nowhere extended as lobes or spines, smooth; intercalated spme a

prominent, broad lobe, rounded distally; postorbital lobe hroad, weakly

depressed, (ip rounded, posterolateral margin irregularly crenniate,

anterior face weakly excavated. Hyestalk stout, smooth, bulbous

basally, only partly visible im either dorsal or ventral yiew when

retracted; cornea terminal, éirenlar, Orbit completed below by basal

antennal article and a broad, distally rounded infraorbital lohe or

plate separated from ventral edge of postorhital lohe only hy a very

narrow fissure.

Basal antennal article subrectangular, anterior edge deeply incised

ty become bilobate, medial lobe truncate, lateral lobe rounded, lateral

and medial edges weakly concave; flagellum short, hardly extending

heyond tip of rostrum, visible in both dorsal] and ventral view.

Antennular fossae subovate, anterior margin a prominent mdge;

interantennilar spine poorly developed, blunt, weakly grooved

medially; anterior process of epistome slender, sharply pointed,

Mpistome slightly wider than long, medial rim of opening of green

cland elevated. Mowthfield subquadrate, anterior margin weakly

conenve, anterolateral angle elevated and weakly extended laterally,

Pterygostomian regions subtriangular, densely tuberculate, separated

by a very deep groove from inflated, densely tuberenlate snbhepatie

regions.

Third maxillipeds widely gaping at midline. Ischium subrec-

tangular, medial balt of distal edge moderately extended anteriorly,

rounded, lateral hall! weakly concave to bear mers, medial edge

lacking teeth, overlain by a fringe of short hairs; outer surface deeply

excavated medially as a narrow, longitudinal groove, Merus sub-

quadrate, as wide ag ischium but slightly shorter, anterolateral corner

sharply angled and strongly expanded laterally as a triangular lobe,

medial edge rounded, distal edge with a shallow, U-shaped notch,

34 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

outer surface with a deep longitudinal groove medially. Palp arising

from noteh of, and slightly longer than, merns, subeylindrical, stout,

bearing a dense Iringe of hairs later: ally.

Chelipeds stout, hardly longer than carapace, subcylindrical except

for weakly subtrigonal merus and compressed propodus, smooth,

densely covered by a mat of fine, short hairs. Basis and isehium short,

ischinm extending along ventral surface ef merns for but a short

distance; merns and chela subequal, each about 4 total lenyth of

cheliped, carpus about | merus, daetyl as long as palm. Merns stout,

following segments slender; carpus weakly ridged dorsally, otherwise

smouth; palm of almost even height thronghout, fixed finger bent at

low angle from palm; fingers gaping Hnearly thronughont their length,

amooth along inner edges except distally, fixed finger with four small

bul nevertheless prominent conical teeth close to tip preceeded by

several irregular crenulations, daetyl with several irregular, low teeth,

likewise close to tip.

Ambulatory legs short, first leg not greatly execeding varapace

in length, following legs decreasing regularly to last whieh is #

carapace, approximately; surfaces smooth, densely covered by short,

fine hairs. Meri long, about } total length of leg, carpi and propodi

subequal, about J meri, daetyli about + propodi, terminating in a

= 2

sharp, weakly faleiform ‘dlaw.

Abdomen seven-segmerted, wide, covering all of sternum, exteud-

ing laterally to base of ambulatory lege, anteriorly to posterior horder

of moutlfield ; subovate, smooth except for a prominent medial ridge

whieh appears on the first segment in dorsal view as a transversely

oval tubercle,

Measurements; Female holotype: length 8 mm, width 5 mm,

rostral length 1 mm, rostral width 1.8 mm, chelar length 2.5 mm,

Remarks: The three additional specimens differ from the holo

type ouly in some minor features. In all, the posterolateral margin

of the carapace is armed with about eight very small tubercles, there

is a small tubercle on the posterolateral eorner of the supraocrbital

eave and the hepatic margin is quadrilobate. In one specimen the first

three lobes of the hepatic margin are produced into strong tubercles,

the he a i lobe is bilobate distally and the three spinules on the

lateral surface of the rostrum near the {ip are very blunt, Exeept for

the arrangement of some of the tubercles on the gastric regions, the

three specimens otherwise exactly resemble the holotype.

GRIFFIN—AUSTRALIAN SPIDER CRAB 35

GHNERAL DISCUSSION

In the original description of Hurynome granulosa, Baker (1906)

atates that the tubercles of the dorsal surface of the carapace are not

erowded and only the larger tubercles are mentioned; his figure 6 gives

an entirely erroneous impression, showing the tubercles to be evenly

distributed over the carapace, Examination of the holotype at onee

shows that in the midline at least, the tubercles are arranged in

distinet gronps, « feature characteristic of other species of the genms.

The basal antennal article is correctly deseribed as bilobate but

Baker’s figure 3a shows this structure divided for at least the anterior

half by a distinct groove, whereas it is merely incised anteriorly and

completely lacks a groove, Further, Baker’s figure 3a does not make

elear the precise form of the third maxillipeds, although his deserip-

tion is better, Other minov errovs in Baker's deseription are that his

figure 3 shows the antennae as extending well beyond the rostral

spines, whereas it reaches only to the tip, and the fissures between the

eave, intercalated spine and postorbital lobe appear larger than they

are actually.

Among the species at present plaved in Hurynume, Le. granulosa

appears to he most closely related to the South African /, eleguns

Stebbing, Mlsewhere (Griffin, 1964) these two species have been

considered to form a separate gxronp—the ‘elegans seetion’—

characterized by having the tubercles more or less evenly distributed

over the carapace, In view of the deseription presented here, the

section would better be characterized by the possession of simple,

conical tubercles as opposed to the single or fused fat-topped tubereles

of other species. The two species further agree in having the merus

of the third maxillipeds laterally extended but several other species

of the genus also exhibit this character, 2. elegans differs from

FE, granulosa in that there is no intercalated supraorbital spine

(according to Stebbing’s plate NILL), and the posterior part of the

carapace is densely covered by tubercles, while in EF. granulosa these

parts are almost smooth. No comparison is possible as vegards the

chelipeds since these are not deseribed lor E, elegans. The basal

antennal article of FE. elegans is apparently quite different from that

of EF, granulosa in being suhovate, the hepatic margin is extended

laterally only as a small, narrow lobe and the meri of the ambulatory

legs are carinate dorsally.

Comparison of the specimens before me of EF. graulosa and the

descriptions and fignres of the Japanese species, Chionognathus reimt

36 RECORDS OP THE S.A. MUSEUM

(Balss) given by Yokoya (1933: 158, text-fie. 57, as Hurynome reini)

and Sakaj (1938; 273, text-figs. Sda, b, plate xxvii, fy. 2) shows some

remarkable similarities between the two. Both species agree in the

small size, subpyriform to subovate carapace covered by groups of

tubercles along the midline, prominently laterally extended hepatic

margins, presence of short tubercles along the anterior part of the

branchial margins, slender widely divergent rostral spines, form of

the eave (Yokoya’s fig, 57 does not show an intercalated spine, but

Sakai deseribes the eave as possessing this structure) and infra-

orbital margin, form of the basal antennal article and interantennular

spine and of the isehium and mernus of the third masillipeds. Ln

addition, the abdomen is seven-segmented and the chelipeds and

ambulatory legs are short. C. reimi differs from HM. granulosa in that

the anterior part, of (he branchial margins widen distinctly posteriorly

and are not subparallel, the rostral spines bear only a single small

tubercle on the lateral surface near the tips, the carpus of the chelipeds

bears a single small tubercle Jaterally, the fingers are short and finally

the ischium and merus of the third maxillipeds are Insed. It is upon

this last character that Rathbun (1982) based the genus Chionognathus.

Therefore it is Important to note that in HE. granulosa, while these two

segments of the maxillipeds are distinet, the junction seems a very

narrow, shallow, groove and it is possible that the merns is not freely

moveable. In view of these similarities if seems probable that F.

granulosa is closely related to (. reiwi, possibly more so than to

E., elegans, or any other species at present placed in Lurynxome.

E, granulosa differs from the type species of the genus FE. aspera

(see Hartnoll, 1960) in that the tubereles of the carapace are simple

and conical, not fat-topped, the basal antennal artiele is not truncate

anteriorly, the interealated supraorbital spine is large, not minute,

and in several other minor characters, With the important reservation

that comparison of the pleopods is not possible, I do not think that any

of these differenees warrant the exelusion of FE. granulosa from the

venus Marynome.

LITERATURE CITHD

Baker, W. H., 1906: Notes on South Australian Crustaeea, Pt. 4.

Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust, 80; 104-117, pls. I-TIT.

Barnard, K. H., 1950: Deseriptive Catalogue ol the South African

Decapod Crustacea. (Crabs and Shrimps), Ann, 8. Afr.

Mus, 3&2 887 pps 154 figs.

GRIFFIN—AUSTRALIAN SPIDER CRAB 37

(arth, J. S., 1958: Brachyura of the Paeifie Coast of America;

Oxyrhyneha, Allan Haneock Pacif. Exped, 21: xii +

854 pp., 106 tables, 9 text-figs., 85 pls.

Griffin, D. J. G., 1964: A Review of the genus Eurynome Leach

(Decapoda, Majidae) and a new species from New

Zealand. Crustaceana 6(3) + 195-206, figs. 1-11.

Hale, H. M,, 1927: The Crustaceans of South Australia. Pt. 1.

Adelaide: Govt. Printer. 201 pp., 202 figs,

Hartnoll, R. G., 1960: A eritical re-examination of the spider crab

Eurynome Leach from British waters. Crustaceana 2(3):

171-182, figs. 1-7.

Rathbun, M. J., 1925: The Spider Crabs of America. Bull. U.S. Nat.

Mus. 129: xx + 613 pp., 158 text-figs., 283 pls.

1932: Preliminary deseriptions of new species of Japanese

crabs. Proce. biol. Soc, Washington 45: 29-38.

Sakai, T'., 1938: Stndies on the Crabs of Japan. LT. Brachygnatha,

Oxyrhyncha, Tokyo: Yokendo Co, Pp. 198-864, 55 figs.,

41 pls.

1961; New Species of Japanese Crabs from the Collections

of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Crustaceana

3(2): 131-150, text-figs. 1-4, pls. HIT, TV.

Stebbing, T. R. R., 1921: South African Crustacea, (Part XI of South

Afriean Crustacea for Marine Investigations of South

Afriea.) Ann. 8. Afr. Mus. 18 (4) : 453-468, pls. XITI-XX.

Yokova, Y., 1933: On the Distribution of Decapod Crustaceans

inhabiting the Continental Shelf around Japan, chiefly

based upon the Materials collected by S. S. Séy6-Marn,

during the Year 19238-1980. J. Coll. Agric. Tokyo Imper,

Univ. 12(1): 1-226, text-figs. 1-71.

RESUME

On rédéerit et figure de quatre examplaires, comprenant |’holotype,

le erabe majid, Eurynome granulosa, ne connu que l’Austrahe du Sud,

et on traite de sa position systematiqnue. On donne emphase des

similarités nombveuses avec Chionognathus reina, un espeéce du Japon.

Entre les espéces comprises aux confins d’Hurynome, FE. granulosa se

rapproche le plus de VE. elegans de l’Afrique du Sud.

A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA

DRYMINI (HETEROPTERA-LYGAEDIDAE)

BY GORDON F.. GROSS

Summary

Two species of Australia and one of New Guinea Drymini were previously known. As a

result of this study, using all available Australian collections, two species are shown to

occur in New Guinea, one a common Australian species, and seventeen species, fifteen of

them new, are recorded from Australia. All eighteen species are keyed, figured and

described, and have been placed in twelve genera, twelve of which are new. Where

available male genital capsule dorsal morphology was used along with external details to

provide a clue to the arrangement and relationships of these twelve genera.

A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA

DRYMINI (HETEROPTERA-LYGAEIDAE)

By GORDON F. GROSS, Sexion Curator of ]NVERTEBRATES,

Soutm Austranian Museum

Plates 8-7, text fig. 1

SUMMARY

Two species of Australia and one of New Guinea Drymini were

previously known, As a result of this study, using all available

Australian collections, two species are shown to occur in New Guinea,

one a common Australian species, and seventeen species, fifteen of

them new, are recorded from Australia. All eighteen species are

keyed, figured, and deseribed, and have been placed in twelve genera,

eight of which are new. Where available male genital capsule dorsal

morphology was used along with external details to provide a elue to

the arrangement and relationships of these twelve genera.

INTRODUCTION

The Drymini are a tribe of the complex subfamily Rhyparo-

chrominae of the family Lygaeidae. Rhyparochrominae may be easily

distinguished from other subfamilies of Lygaeidae by having the

fourth abdominal intersegmental suture (usually the second visible,

T and IL are usually hidden by the metathorax) not reaching the outer

(or upper) edge of the abdomen ventrally, but instead it curves away

forward and becomes evanescent before reaching the apical end of the

second suture (text fig. A). The Drymini have the spiracle on segment

IV of the abdomen ventral in position and have two dull spots each

bearing a long hair (trichobothrium) on sternum V above the curved

portion of the fourth abdominal suture, the hindmost of these is placed

in front of spiracle V (text fig. A),

Three species were known from Australia and New Guinea;

Mizaldus woodwardi from New Guinea, and Paradrynus exilirostris

and Taphropeltus australis from Southern Australia.

a) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Through the good offices of the Directors of the Australian

Museum, Sydney, the National Museum, Melbourne, the Chief

U.S.1.R.0., Division of Entomology, Canberra, Dr. 'T. W. Woodward,

Department of Mntomology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, and

Mr, Cremer, Tasmanian Forestry Commission, Maydena, Tasmania,

T was able to assemble almost, if not all, available specimens of

Australian and New Guinea Drymini in Australian collections. Sinee

this paper was submitted and during proof reading T have received

notification of an impending Joan of a collection of New Giunea

Drymini from the Bishop Museum, Honolulu. This material will be

treated in a subsequent paper.

Taphropellus australis can no longer be placed in the Northern

Tlemisphere genus T'aphropeltus and for this species a new genus had

to be created. L was able to recognize 18 species of this tribe from

Australia and New Guinea, two from New Guinea and seventeen from

Australia (one species is shared). Fifteen of these species are new,

The species have been arranged in twelve genera, seven of these are

new, and apparently restricted to Australin (6) or Australia and

New Guinea (1), Of the five previously deseribed genera Paradrymus

is exclusively Australian, Breatiscerus occurs outside Australia only

in New Zealand, Appolonings oceurg also in India, Sarawak and the

New Llebrides (Seudder im lt.) and Afriea, Mizaldus in Afriea and

India, and Seolopostethus is rather widely distributed.

In arranging the genera satisfactorily a number of difficulties

were encountered using such features as presence or absence of lateral

explanate keels to the pronotum, whether the pronotum was trans-

versely constricted, and whether the scutelluam had a prominent

triradiate keel or not. To help resolve these problems male genitalia

where available were extraeted and studied after potashing the tip

of the abdomen, A discussion on these points follows the systematic

deseriptions.

In the lists of disposition of specimens the following abbreviations

have been used,

A.M... .. .. Australian Museum, Sydney.

A.N.LG. ., .. Australian Insect Collection, Canberra,

N.M. .. .. .. National Museum, Melbourne.

QM... .. -. Queensland Museum, Brisbane,

S.A.M.... ,. South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

U.Q.. 0... .. Department. of Entomology, University of

Queensland, Brishane,

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 41

I wish to express my appreciation to the Directors of these

museums, the chief of the C.S.LR.O. Division of Entomology, Dr.

T. E. Woodward, University of Queensland, and Mr. Cremer,

Maydena, Tasmania for the opportunity to see their material,

KEY TO AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA GENERA

OF DRYMINI

1. 5 mm long or longer... .. .. .. -. se 2

Under 4.5 mm long .. .. .. .. -. ee 8h

2. First antennal segment just surpassing

apex of head; head apically very

acuminate; pronotum markedly sin-

uate in region of transverse con-

striction. Apex of fore tibiae of

male with a strong spine .. .. .. Paradrymus Bergroth

First antennal segment markedly sur-

passing apex of head which is not

markedly acuminate; pronotum only

vaguely sinuate laterally in the

region of the transverse constriction Megadrymus gen. nov.

3. Lateral margins of pronotum carinate

or marginate but not explanate, we.,

not forming a narrow flange along

the lateral margins ............ Mizaldus Distant

Lateral margins of pronotum haere

and explanate along most of their

1 ta eS SO, 8 eu Be

4, Lateral margins of pronotum straight

and/or convex but not or only very

slightly coneave in region of trans-

verse impression .. .. 6... 6... 8

Lateral margins of pronotum bbedneclye

concaye in region of transverse

constriction .. 2... 4... .. 2 2. 10.

5. Transverse constriction of pronotum

virtually absent .. 2... Brachydrymus gen. nov,

Transverse constriction present .. .. 6.

42 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

6. Transverse constriction placed well

behind middle .. .. .. .. -. 2... 7,

Transverse constriction placed sshioitt

middle 8.

7. Sides of pronotum in basal # virtually

parallel .. 2... 0. 2. 22. 2. 2.) ©=Retrodrymus gen. nov.

Sides of pronotum convex from

humeral angles to region of collar Austrodrymus gen, nov.

8. Sides of pronotum convex or if

straight strongly converging ante-

riad, pronotum much wider at base

than apex (2:1) . de ats"o3 u: 9

Sides of pronotum Asteatiicttt almost

parallel from base to apex, pro-

notum very little wider at base than

apex (9:7) .. 2. 0... 2. 2... .. Apollonius Distant

9. Hemelytra conspicuously wide — in

region of apical 3 of corium . .... Gastrodomorpha gen. nov.

Hemelytra with corial margin more

parallel, conspicuously convex at

about 4 of exterior corial margin .. /sopeltus gen. nov.

10. Transverse constriction placed well

behind middle .. .. 2. 2... .. 2. Pseudodrymus gen. nov.

Transverse constriction pladed about

THEE cin dete ne le eee pie be

11. Seutellum with a prominent triradiate

keel o.oo. ee ee ee ae we we a.) ©Brenticerus Seudder

Seutellum without a pr yh Went: tilted:

jate keel -2 2. 2. 2. 22 we. 2. 2.) =Seolopostethus Fieber

Mizaldus Distant 1901

Mizaldus Distant, 1901, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (7)8: 483. 1903, Fauna

Brit. Ind. Rhyneh., 2: 68. Bergroth, 1918, Philipp. J. Sei,

13(2 & 3): 87.

Head triangular, pointed in front of eyes. Eyes not quite touching

anterior margin of pronotum. Ocelli close to eyes and remote from

anterior margin of pronotum, widely separated. First segment of

antennae somewhat inerassate and extending well in front of head,

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 43

second segment the longest. Pronotum with anterior margin narrower

than head with eyes, fore lobe semiglobose, a strong medial transverse

constriction separating fore and hind lobe, the latter flatter than

fore lobe; outer margins of fore lobe strongly convex to region of

transverse constriction, margins of hind lobe likewise very convex,

hind margin feebly sinuate, humeral angles slightly raised. Only a

feeble keel along lateral margins of pronotum.

Seutellum acute apieally, medially elevated into a triangular

tumescence, not into a triradiate keel as many other Australian

Drymines, in front of tumescence depressed.

Corium somewhat longer than abdomen, outer margin of cori

shallowly coneave and pilose in basal half.

Fore femora moderately inerassate, mmarmed, or with wpwards

of nine spines on the distal half of the ventral surface, the first

spine Jarge.

Type: Rhyparochromus dimidiatus Walker, 1872 — Mizaldus

woodwardi Slater & Carayon 1963, seleeted by Distant 1908, foe. eft: GS.

Mizaldus woodwardi Slater & Carayon, 1952

Plate 4, fig. A

Rhyparovhromus dimidiatus Walker, (872, Cat, Teter, 5: 107

(preoce.),

Mizaldus dimidiatus Distant, 1901, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., (7)8: 484

Mizaldus woodward? Slater aud Carayon, 1968, Proce. R. ent. Soe.

Lond, (A)8&: 4.

Head, anterior lobe of pronotum, depressed parts of seutellum,

and thorax beneath piceous black. Amteclypeus, hind lohe of pronotum,

mnedian raised portion of scutellum, most of distal portion of corium

and patches on membrane, first segment of antennae, hind margin of

metathorax, femora, and whole abdomen brown, the latter with fine

golden pilosity. Terminal three segments of antennae, tibiae and tarsi,

basal third of cortum and a marginal spot near apex, and patches on

membrane luteons, veins white,

Eyes large and prominent but not pedunculate, head with a few

scattered punetations, quite difficult to see, otherwise smooth with a

scattered pilosity. Antennae pilose, hairs about as long as diameter

of second segment, ratio of segments 02:96: 37: 37.

44 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

suyment &

epiracle Yo apiracia pV spiracle [

concealed under

trichabothrio yo metoptourar.

A

S\ao “eG hind adge of

She qd mevapleuran

20

spitacle Ti

spitocle VW

spirocte OY

c}

FS,

£

curved IRlersegmantal

suture [Y

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI

Fig. 1

A. Side view of abdomen of Drymine (Retrodrymus abundans n.sp.) show-

ing arrangement of trichobothria on Segment IV and the typical

Rhyparochromine curved fourth intesegmental suture.

B. Male genital capsule from above of Megadrymus terracreginae n.sp.

C. Male genital capsule from above of Isopellus australis (Bergroth).

D. Male genital capsule from above of Paradrymus ewilirostris Bergroth.

E. Male genital capsule from above of Brentisecrus pallidus n.sp.

F. Male genital capsule from above of Brentiscerus major n.sp.

G. Male genital capsule from above of Brentiscerus triocellatus n.sp.

H. Male genital capsule from above of Retrodrymus abundans n.sp.

I, Male genital capsule from above of Appolonius territorialis n.sp.

J. Male genital capsule from above of Scolopostethus forticornis n.sp.

K. Male genital capsule from above of Pseudodrymus florestalis n.sp.

L. Male genital capsule from above of Austrodrymus flindersi n.sp.

M. Male genital capsule from above of Brachydrymus lateabwndans usp.

45

46 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Pronotum wider than long (100-62), fore lobe almost elahrous,

smooth exeept for a few scattered small punetations; hind lohe pilose

near lateral margins with denser and large punetations.

Scutelluin sparsely punctate, almost elabrous. Hemelytra almost

glabrous but sparse hairs on ¢lavus and basal hall of corial inargin,

Clavus with three parallel rows of punetations. Corium with two

rows parallel to and immediately adjacent to claval suture and a halt

row paralleling outer basal margin of corinm, basal third of remaining

corinm almost free of punetations, apical 7 With scattered heavy

punctations,

Beneath with sparse seattered punctations on thoracic pleura,

abdomen inpunetate. Fore femora thickest, with on distal hall beneath

about ) spines in irregular row on inner edge, fourth very large, and

several spines on outer edge.

Length: 4.25 mm.

Type: New Guinea, in British Museum (Nat. Hist.). Our

specimen, a female from Mount Lamington, N.E. Papua, 1,800-1,500

feet, C. T. McNamara (S.A.M,).

Mizaldus lacks the prominent explanate margin of other Aus-

tralian Drymines and cannot be easily linked with any other genus,

Megadrymus gen. nov.

Large for the tribe, subelongate, hemelytra tapering somewhat

posteriad. Head relative small, relatively elongate, width: length

about 20:15, but not, exceptionally produced in front of eyes, tylus

normally formed, Kyes nearly touching anterior margin of pronotum,

ocelli remote from each other and in a line formed by hind margins

of eyes. First segment of antennae slender, surpassing apex of head

by about 3 of its length. Remaining segments longer, second the

longest.

Anterior margin of pronotum obviously concave, lateral margins

strongly convex in anterior third thence almost straight and diverging

to humeral angles, perhaps very slightly indented in region of trans-

verse constriction. lore lobe of pronotum moderately convex,

declivous towards collum giving pronotum an arehed appearance in

side view, transverse constriction between fore and hind lobes placed

slightly behind middle, hind lobe hardly convex.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 47

Seutellum large with a prominent triradiate keel, the basal arms

of this keel enlarged and swollen, apical arm reaching apex of

seulellum. Lateral margins of corium feebly excavate at region of

apical half of seutellum, Two rows of punetations on corimm

paralleling claval suture separated from each other by a raised

callous area, a line of punctures more or less paralleling outer edge

in basal outer hall of eorium, breaking up into seattered prnetations

in distal half. The veins apparent on corium, the callous area near

claval suture, the space between the outer line of punctations border-

ing this vein and the median vein impunetate, space between median

and outer vein with seattered punctations. Clavus with three rows

of punctations, the median converging steadily towards the outer

posteriad and coalescing with it before apex.

Whole thorax beneath strongly punctate except evaporative areas

and two shagreened areas on lateral margins of meso- and metapleura.

Underside of head parallel to vertex to level of anterior margins of

eyes, thence suddenly convex to apical margin of prothorax. Abdomen

finely pilose and impiuetate, More femora incrassate and heavily

armed with denticles on both ventral margins in apical half, one a

large spine.

Male genital capsule with upper opening partially divided into two

hy inwardly directed processes of the lateral margins, claspers shaped

rather like scorpion venom glands, proctiger covering whole of anterior

eavity.

Type: Megadrymus ferraereginae sp. uov., the only species in

the genus,

Megadrymus terraereginae sp, nov.

Plate 3, fig. D. Text fig, 1B

Fuscous black; antennae, lateral explanate margin of pronotum,

and in one specimen hind lobe of pronotim, scutelhim, and hemelytra

testaceons above, Beneath in all examples (except rostrum and legs

whieh are testaceous and in one example the hind margins of the pro

and metapleura) fuscous, Apieal 4 of last antennal segment and some

api¢al spots on the corium pale testaceous or Iuteous, membrane a

very pale smoky, veins and immediate areas on either side whitish.

Ratio of segments of antennae 12; 20:19:18. lead very much

shorter than pronotum, 10:82, Kore femora with apical halves

Hattened, beneath with smaller spines and a large spime on the

anterior margin,

48 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSFUM

Length: 5.8-6.0 mm.

Localities: Queensland holotype (female) [Reg. no, T6212],

Brisbane, 15 November 1962, coll. . B. Tel (().M.); allotype (male),

Kagle Heights Mount Tambourine, from leaf mould in rain forest,

18 July L954, coll. T. KE. Woodward; paratype (female), Toowoomba,

2 February 1951, coll, J. Letchford (U.Q.).

Paradrymus Bergroth 1916

Paradrymus Bergroth, 1916, Proe. roy, Soc. Viet. 29+ 11.

Body oyate, head elongate, anteclypeus ({yvlus) strongly produced.

Miyes prominent, remote from auterior margin of pronotum, ocelli in

a line formed by rear margins of eyes, widely separated, Amter-

nophores prominent, first segment of anteniae not incrassated, about

as thick as the terminal segments, second segment the longest.

Anterior margin of pronotum almost straight, perhaps a little

convave, with a prominent collar, Lateral margins of pronotum

inarginate and explanate, humeral angles somewhat produced, other-

wise hind margin straight or feebly concave. Fore lobe of pronotum

convex, separated from hind lobe by a transverse constriction; hind

lohe flatter, foveate anteriorly in the middle and feebly laterally just

inside the raised humeral angles. Lateral margins of fore lohe convex

to transverse impression, of hind almost straight.

Sentellum acuminate with a prominent central triradiate carina,

the tip of the central arm almost reaching apex. Lateral margins of

seutellum feebly sinuate when elayvus lifted, lateral margins of eorinm

sinuate, noticeably concave in region of about hall length of seutellum.

Clavus with three not very parallel rows of punctures, corium with

three rows adjacent to elaval suture and otherwise fairly densely

punetate, with two or three prominent longitudinal raised veins.

Whole thorax beneath strongly punctate with the exeeption of the

evaporative area, Fore femora incrassated and armed with a series

of small tnbereles and one large one distally. Abdomen inmpuuectate

and covered with dense fine pilosity.

First segment of tarsi longer than the other two together, first

segmeuf of hind tarsi very long. Apex of fore tibia of male with a

strong prouiinent outwardly directed spine. Male genital capsule with

dorsally directed opening divided into two by the outer margin giving

off two acute and inwardly directed lobes (whieh however hardly rate

as parandria). Most of Iront aperture covered by proetiger which is

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 49

prominently grooved longitudinally in the middle and cylindrically

convex on either side of this. Hind aperture with two needle shaped

claspers (parameres).

Type: Paradrymus ewilirostris Bergroth 1916, monobasic.

Only one species in the genus, the type.

Paradrymus exilirostris Bergroth 1916

Plate 3, figs. A, B, C. Text fig. 1D

Paradrymus eailirostris Bergroth, 1916, Proe. roy. Soe. Vict., 29: 12.

Black, finely and subgranulately punctate, posterior lobe of

pronotum and corium usually testaceous, punctate with fuscous, some

lateral and discal spots on corium paler. Laminate margin of

pronotum pale testaceous, also apical 3 to 4 of last segment of

antennae. Membrane luteous, variegate with fuscous.

Beneath with femora black, tibiae and tarsi castaneous. Fore

femora moderately incrassate, armed distally with six small and one

large spine on ventral anterior margin, underside of fore femora

flattened in apical half.

Length: 4.5-5.6 mm.

Loealities: Bergroth records the species from Queensland and

Victoria. I have seen specimens from South Australia: Croydon

(S.A.M.); New South Wales: Mt. Kosciusko, 24 Novy. 1921, coll.

R. J. Tillyard (A.N.1.C.); Hacking River National Park, August 1952,

by sweeping bushes in forest, coll. J. Armstrong (U.Q.); Mt.

Kosciusko, 5,000 feet, March 1889, coll. Helms; Mt. Kosciusko, Jan.

1937, coll. H. J. Garter; Island Bend, Mt. Kosciusko, 4,100 feet, 27

November 1952, coll. J. Armstrong (A.M.); Victoria: Halls Gap, 20

October 1945, coll. A. Burns (N.M.). Queensland: Brisbane, 6 Feb.

1946, coll. Brimblecombe; Lamington National Park, 29 Oct. 1957,

from leaf mould, coll. I. C. Yeo; Bulburin State Forest, 27-29 May

1960, coll. EK. A. Bernays (U.Q.); Emerald District, Aug. 1904, coll.

KH. J. (N.M.).

Isopeltus gen. nov.

Moderate in size within the tribe Drymini. Head large in relation

to the size of the pronotum, strongly rugulose, anteclypeus (tylus)

prominent but not unduly produced. MKyes prominent, ocelli remote

from each other and in a line with the hind margins of the eyes.

50 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Antennae long, longer than the head and pronotum together, first

segment considerably surpassing apex ol’ head, second and third

segments almost equal in the type species, second segment. considerably

the longest in the other two, antennae robust in two of the three

species. Rostrum normal, the second segment the longest.

Pronotum with distinct collar, anterior and posterior margins

almost straight, lateral <eptanleeve margin of pronotum straight and

converging ante rian in basal 3 to 2 thende convex to become obsolete

at base of collar, these lateral explanate margins relatively wide.

Pronotum with a strong transverse impression in the middle, fore

lohe strongly convex, lind lobe much less so, collar and hind lohe

strongly punctate, fore lobe finely punetate.

Seutellum pinetate, moderate in size with a prominent triradiate

keel, the apical arm of which reaches the apex of the sentellam.

Lateral margins of corium moderately sinuate, two rows of puneta-

fions paralleling claval suture and a basal outer half row more or

less parallel to outer margin, remainder of corimn with seattered

punctations. Clavius with three rows of rather fine punctations, the

median one converging towards the outer row posteriad and coalescing

with it before apex,

Underside of head rugulose like upper side, thorax beneath pune-

tate, prothorax heavily punctate, meso- and metathorax more finely so.

Abdomen covered with a fine pilosity. Fore femora inerassate and

armed on anterior margin of flattened apieal ventral surface only.

One spine large. Only the male genital capsule of the type species is

available for study. The upper opening is partially divided into two

by acute inward projections of the outer rim, two blant parameres

are present in the rear cavity while the proetiger does not cover the

whole of the anterior cavity.

Type: Taphropeltus australis RBergroth 1916,

The aftimties of this genus sre undoubtedly with Brentiscerus

Seudder from which it differs in lacking a coneave hind or lateral

margin to the pronotum and the external margin of the eorium is

only feebly concave basally, There are three species in the genus, two

of them new; they may be separated by the following key :—

1, Antennae robust... 2 22. 0. we. 8

Antennae slender ,, ). .. 22 2. 2... fsopellus tenuicornis

sp, nov.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI $1

2. Hemelytra mainly black, in apical half

with about 4 pale patches .. 2... .. Tsopeltus obscurus sp. Nov.

Hemelytra mainty pale with apex and

median transverse bar across corium

fuscous .. -- -) vv ve ee ee ee es ee 6 Tpopeltus australis

(Bergroth).

Isopeltus australis (Bergroth 1916) nov. comb,

Plate 4, fig, B. Text fig. 1C

Taphropeltus australis Bergroth, 1916, Proe, roy, Soc. Vict., (N.S.)

29(1): 18.

Head black and finely and very thickly punctate, as long or longer

than anterior pronotal lobe; antennae rather robust in comparison to

the other species in the genus, piceous or testaceous, apical segment

sometimes lighter, Rostrum testaceous, reaching middle of meso-

sternum, Pronotum distinetly impressed just behind middle, anterior

lobe black, finely and very thiekly punctate, longer than the stramineous

hind lobe, the latter finely punctate and with five fuscous vittae of

varying disposition, sometimes almost parallel. Sides of pronotum

laminate, vof sinuate in region of pronotal constriction, pale,

Seutellum black, finely punetate, with a median triradiate keel,

apex and lateral vittae between the median and lateral arms of the

keel paler, Corium and clavus stramineous, the former with a median

transverse bar and apex intuscated, also the three longitudinal veins.

Clavus with three rows of punetations, corium with two rows parallel

to the elaval suture and other fine seattered punetations. Membrane

pale and fuscons variegate, veins pale.

Underside mostly black, episterna, epimera, hind margin of meta-

pleuron and legs brown to stramineous.

Fore femora ineragsate and armed with one large central spine

beneath and a series of smaller spines both interior and exterior to this.

Length: 2.5-4.5 mm.

Originally described from Victoria but quite widely distributed.

South Australia: Whyalla, 10 August 1947, coll, D. 8. (N.M.); Under-

dale, 30 December 1960, coll. G. F. Gross; 2, Mt. Lotty Ranges, 1 in

tussocks, coll, N. B. Tindale; Seeond Creek, Mt. Lofty Ranges, 7

November 1884, coll. J. G. O, Tepper; 2, Adelaide, 1 in flood debris,

coll, A. M. Lea; Lucindale, coll, Feuerheerdt; Mern Merna, at hght,

$2 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

2 Neremney 1959, coll. P. Aitken (S.A.M.), Tasmania; Hobart, coll.

A. M. Lea (N.M,) 1 ditto; Hobart, 11 August 1915, coll, GC. Cole;

Cradle eens coll, Carter and Lea; 2 , Launceston; St, Marys; 3

Strahan, 1 in moss and lichens, coll, Tikes and Carter (S.A,M.); 2

Maydena, in presence of fruits of Mucalyplus regnans, 20 November

1962, coll. K. Cremer (Tas. Forestry Commission); Mt, Wellington,

Hobart, 26-29 January 1955, coll. T. i, Woodward (U.Q.). New

South Wales: Kecleston, in flood debris, coll. J. Topson; 2, Dorrigo,

coll. W. Herson (S.A.M.); Mt, wilson, Blue aes S$ June 1962,

coll, D. KX, MeAlpine (A.M.); 2, Minna Murra, Februar y 1962, coll

T. Kb. Woodward (U.Q.). Queensland: 3, Mt, ‘Tambourine, coll, A, M.

Lea; Blackall Ranges, coll, A. M, Lea; Roekhampton, attracted in ont

(S.A.M.)3 3, Brishane, at nant 16 November 1955, 7 December 1956,

25 January 1956, coll, 'T. Woodward; Mogill, Brishane, 30 June

1956, coll, T. KE. Ws idsiAl Sunnybank, Brisbane, in light shade,

January-Deecember 1956, coll. FP. S. Colliver; 2, Binna Burra, Lamington

National Park, §.B. Queensland, in leaf debris amongst grass and

Hucalypltus spp. 28 August 1953, coll, T. KE. Woodward; 3, Noosa

distriet, in sand dunes under herbs and fallen leaves and seeds of

Casuarina, 17 April 1960, coll, T. KE. Woodward: 2, Mt. Glorious, 1 on

evunjeroi lilu, 1 From leal mould, 28 September 19638, coll. G. Monteith;

1, Imbil State Forest from Helichrysum diasmifalinm Less., 3

November 1957, coll, T, E. Woodward (U.Q.). Western Australia:

Fremantle, 4 November 1934, eoll. IK. R. Norris (A.N.LC.); King

Georges Sound (A.M.). Norlolk Tsland: &, coll, A, M. Tea (S.A.M.).

7apua; Mt. Lamington, 1,300-1,500 feet, coll. CG. TT. MeNamara

(S.A.M,).

Remarks: Circumstances indicate that this little Lygaecid may be

an Unportant consumer of seed in the forest und is under investigation

by the Tasmanian Forestry Commission as a possible cause of poor

germination of broadeast Bucalyplus regnans seed.

Isopeltus obscurus sp. nov.

Plate 4, fig. D

Head black and finely and very thickly punetate, as long or longer

than anterior pronotal lobe; antennae robust but more elongate than

T, australis, second segment much the longest, densely pilose, this

pilosity quite short; first three segments and base of lourth brown,

apical three quarters of fourth Inteous, First segment of rostrum

brown, remainder vellowish, first segment subequal to second, (hind

shorter, fourth shortest of all, black at apex.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 53

Pvonotum distinctly impressed just belind middle, anterior labe

black, finely and sparsely punetate, with a feeble longitudinal

impression posteriorly. Hind lobe testaeeous brown but with 2 semi-

lunate lestaceons patches on either side of the middle, anteriorly

touching the transverse suture, posteriorly the open ends often not

reaching the hind margin; lateral expanded margins pale, almost

straight and converging in basal 3, thence convex fo region of hind

marein of eollar where they disappear. [lind margin almost straight,

perhaps a fraction convex, auterior marein straight, perhaps a

fraction concave, a cistinet collar present.

Seutellum black, coarsely and sparsely punctate, with a median

triradiate keel, median ann of the keel reaching the apex. Apex and

two small marginal semilunate spots whieh touch neither the end of

the median arm or the ends of the lateral arms of the triradiate keel

paler, fending liteous, Sometimes two pale spots on and near the

extremities of the lateral arms ol the triradiate keel.

Corium and clayns substantially fuseons, sometimes the clavus

almost wholly stramineous, only the median and outer rows of puneta

tions fuscous, Corium basally stramineous, apically dark exeept for

a Inteous spot near the inner apical angle and two or three longi-

tndinal bars exterior to this, the outer tonching the exterior margin.

Scattered punctations over the corium, Membrane smoky, ves white.

Underside mostly very black, brown in the Cairns specimen,

episterna, epimera, bind margins of pro- and metaplenra, and legs

(except trochanters) brown, Underside of thorax sparsely and

strongly punetate, underside of abdomen pilose.

Fore femora incrassate aad armed with one large central spine

beneath and # series of smaller ones exterior to it, and perhaps one

interior to this. Male not available for genitalia study,

Length; 3.5-4.5 mm.

Localities: Queensland: TTolotype female [Reg. no, T6215 |,

Mogvwill, from leaf litter, 1 September 1963, coll. (. Monteith ().M.);

2 paratype females, Noosa, on sea shore, 2 September 1959, coll.

I. (. Yeo: 1 paratype female, Upper Cedar Creck via Samford, 8

January 1963, coll, T. Brooks (U.Q.); 1 paratype female [Reg. no,

120,154], Cairns district, attracted to light, eoll, A, M, lea (S,A.M.).

Lord Tlowe Island: a series of 6 nymphs mounted on a ecard in the

S.A.M. very likely helong to this species,

54 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Isopeltus tenuicornis sp. noy.

Plate 4, fie. B

Head black and finely punetate, about the same length as anterior

. ’ tas] rae

pronotal lobe; first segment of antennae thicker than remaining

seginents, surpassing apex of head by about twice its length; second

and fourth segments subequal, third somewhat shorter (45:55). First

and second antetmal segments and a median band on the fourth

yellowish, third segment brownish-yellow, Rostrum stramineous, just

reaching mid-coxae, Ratio of segments 37:45: 12:15.

Pronotum strongly impressed just about the middle, anterior lobe

piceous, coarsely and densely punctate, hind lobe testaceous, coarsely

punctate with brown. Anterior margin of pronotum somewhat

concave, hind margin straight, strongly impressed inwardly of each

humeral angle, Lateral explanate margins narrow in comparison to

7. australis and 7, obscurus, converging anteriad, very feebly sinuate

in the region of the transverse impression and convex in the anterior

third, pale.

Sentellum with the usual triradiate keel, the lateral arms of whieh

are expanded and bulbous; coarsely punetate in the apical 3, fuscous,

but the keels and the apex lighter.

Corium and clavus testaceous, with a fnseous mark near the apical

third of the elaval suture and another on the apical exterior margin,

Strongly and coarsely punctate, the clavus with three rows of coarse

punctations. Membrane pale brown hyaline,

Underside brown, femora tibiae and tarsi yellowish. Fore femora

inerassate, armed with one large spine beneath, five minute spines

interior to this and another five exterior to it, No males available

for study of genital capsule.

Length: 3.6 mm.

Location: Holotype female [Reg, no, T6216], Brisbane, 8

December 1951, coll. G. Saunders ((Q.M.).

This species differs from the other two in its genus by its much

thinner antennae and narrower lateral explanate margin of the

pronotum.

Brentiscerus Scudder 1962

Brentiscerus Seudder, 1962, Canad. ent., 94(9) 3 989.

Head distinctly punctate, first segment of antennae surpassing

apex of head.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 55

Pronotum with anterior collar; lateral margins with pale explanate

marein, somewhat concave in region of transverse constriction which

is placed almost in the middle of the pronotum. Hind margin sinuate,

straight or slightly coneave, anterior lobe more finely punctate than

posterior.

Seutellum deeply punctate with a prominent Y shaped keel.

Hemelytra somewhat concave in basal third, clavus with three

rows of puuctations, corium with two rows close to and parallel to

claval suture.

Fore femora incrassate with a large spine and apically to it a

series of smaller spines.

Male genital capsule with upper opening partially divided into

{wo by inwardly direeted processes of outer rim, claspers robust,

pointed, proctiger covering most of anterior opening,

Type: Scolopostethus putout White 1878, from New Zealand, by

original designation.

This genus, [sopeltus, Retrodrymus and Gastrodes seem to form

a group within the Drymini, Brentiscerus differs from the other

three in having the lateral explanate margins of the pronotum

distinctly concave in the region of the transverse impression of the

pronotum.

Brentiscerus putoni appears to have markings rather like Jsopeltus

australis and quite different from the four Australian species (all

new) of the genus. These may be separated by the following key.

1. Small, under 2 mm long, pale yellow

and brown in colour .. .. .. .. .. Brentiseerus pallidus

Larger, over 2 mm longer, darker, Sp. nov.

testaceous and dark brown .. .. .. 2

2. Large, 3.6 mm or over, fore femora

anteriorly armed with a prominent

spine just exterior to half way and

prominent, though much smaller

denticles exterior to this, posteriorly

with 12-13 smaller denticles . .. .. Brentiscerus major

sp. nov.

56 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Smaller (2-3.2 mm), fore femora not so

conspienously armed, but with one

minute tooth at about # the distance

from base beneath .. .. .. 0... 3.

3. Apical half of corinm dark, with three

prominent parallel elongate oval

pale streaks included in this dark

ATCA... 6 ce ee ee ee ee ee ee ae) =©Brentiscerus triocellatus

Corium and clavus dark brown, with a Sp, nov.

distinct pale spot at half the length

of the outer margin of the corium,

and two spots near the apical

margin .. 2... 0... 2. 2... ..) Brentiscerus diffusus

sp. Nov.

Brentiscerus major sp. nov.

Plate 4, fig. ©. Text fig. 1F

Head triangular, coarsely and densely punctate, with a Jong hair

just interior of each eye, dark brown, eyes separated from anterior

angles of pronotum, tylus promiment, paler brown. First and second

segments of antennae lighter brown, third and base of fourth often

dark brown, apical 3 to 3 of fourth very pale brown. Rostrum

reaching mid-coxae, first segment just surpassing base of head, second

segment reaching to middle of fore coxae, yellowish, first segment a

fraction darker.

Fore lobe of pronotum brown or blackish brown, distinetly and

sparsely punctate, and with just the faintest trace of a longitudinal

groove, Hind lobe luteous with seattered brown punctations, and a

faint longitudinal impression anteriorly joining the faint one on the

fore lobe; sometimes a faint tinge ol brown on the dise on either side

of the midline touching the hind margin. Pronotum with a prominent

transverse constriction about the middle, anterior margin somewhat

concave, hind margin markedly sinuate, lateral margin concave in

region of transverse constriction, and just anterior to this evenly

convex to the collar. Humeral angles slightly raised interiorly and

hind margins impressed on either side just behind these.

Scutellum triangular with usual triradiate raised keel. Brown,

parts of the keel sometimes lighter in colour,

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI s7

Clavus and corium brownish-yellow, the latter with some areas

ag indicated on fienve slightly darker, Clavus with the usual three

rows of punctations, corinm with two vows close to and parallel to

elaval suture, and exterior to these one complete sinuate row, and

several incomplete rows, 18 well as seattered punctations. Membrane

brownish and clear hyaline, mottled.

Beneath brown, tip of genital segment, hind margins of pro- and

meta-pleura, femora (except base of fore femora), tibiae and tarsi

yellowish, Underside of thorax coarsely punctate, underside of

abdomen with golden pilosity. Underside of fore femora with 1 large

and exterior to it 6-7 small dentieles on the anterior margin and about

12 small denticles along the hind margin.

Male genital capsule with upper opening partially divided into

two hy inwardly directed processes of the outer surface. Claspers

fairly long and cylindrical, pygophore large, covering most of hind

opening, grooved longitudinally in the centre and convex on either side

of this groove, Length: 3.4-4.5 mm,

Localities: Queensland; Tlolotype male [Reg no. T6213],

Lamington National Park, 28 January-3 February 1963, coll G,

Monteith (Q.M.); paratype male, Lamington National Park, ea leaf

mould, 1 June 1955, eoll, T, E. Woodward; 2 paratype males,

1 paratype female, Lamington National Park, 11-17 February

19683, coll, G, Monteith; 1 paratype female, National Park,

2-6 June 1958, coll, FP. A, Perkins; 1 paratype female, Brishane,

1944, coll. T. BE. Woodward; 1 paratype female, Springbrook,

11 April 1955, coll, R. EB. Harrison; 1 paratype female, Gordonbrook,

3 June 1959, coll, I, Exley: 1 paratype, abdomen and witigs missing,

Killarney, 11 November 1958, eoll, 1. C. Yeo; 2 paratype females, 1

paratype male, Atherton, 1 2 ex Rondalesia sp. 2 22 at light, 2, 4

and 19 October 1959, coll. G. Ettershank (U.Q.); 1 paratype female

[Reg no, 120,156], Mount Tambourine, coll. A, M, Lea (S.A.M.),

New South Wales; Allotype female [Reg. no. 120,155], Dorrign:

1 paratype female [Reg. no, 120,157], Upper Wilhams River,

October 1926, coll. Lea and Wilson (S.A.M.); 1 paratype female,

Dorrigo National Park, 30 May 1963, coll. G. Monteith (W.Q.); 1

paratype male, Wilson’s Creek, near Mulhimbimby, 29 Jannary 1961,

coll. D. K. MeAlpine (A.M.), Vietoria: 1 paratype female, Ferntree

Gully, 26 July 1924, coll, Tl, E. Wilson (N.M.),

SR RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Brentiscerus pallidus sp. nov.

Plate 5, fig. C. Text fig. 114

Head coarsely punctate, triangular, pale brown or yellowish

brown, tylus protnberant and paler, HKyes blackish brown, tuward of

eyes on head on vach side a prominent hair, First two antennal

segments and apex of fourth yellowish, third and base of fourth

brown. Rostrum reaching mid coxae, yellow, extreme apex somewhat

infuseated, First segment of rostrum about reaching base of head,

second fore coxae,

Pronotum with the usual transverse constrietion about midway

between base and apex, fore lobe mainly light brown exeept collar

which is paler, extremely coarsely punctate; Lind lobe almost luteous

with dense coarse brown punetations, fore lobe posteriorly and hind

lobe anteriorly impressed at the transverse impression to form a

short longitudinal depression crossing the {ransverse suture,

Anterior margin of pronotum straight or perhaps slightly coneave,

hind margin mainly straight bat produced slightly and convexly

behind the humeral angles, humeral aneles somewhat elevated.

Lateral margins convex at humeral angles, concave at region of

transverse constriction and convex where bordering fore lobe,

Seutellum luteons, coarsely punctate with pale brown with the

usual triradiate elevated keel.

Corium and clavus in the main Iuteous with coarse pale brown

punctations, elavus with three rows, corium with two rows close to and

parallel to claval suture, vest rather more seattered, Clavus between

the median and onter rows of punetations, and corium in apical

half (except three elongate included pale patches) infuseated with

brown in the holotype, only vaguely so in the allotype. Membrane

almost translucent,

Beneath light brown, anterior and posterior margins of propleura,

hind margin of metapleura, lateral margins of abdomen and genital

segments, all epimera and episterna, trochanters, and all the legs

yellowish. Thorax coarsely punctate beneath, abdomen with a very

sparse very short pilosity. Pore femora apparently unarmed.

Male genital capsule rather flattened above, upper opening

partially divided into two cavities by two inwardly directed processes

on the outer wall of the opening, claspers short, proctiger flattish on

top and covering most of rear opening. Length: 2.20-2.25 mm.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 59

Localities: Queeusland: Holotype female and allotype male (Reg.

nos. 120,158-9], Mount Tambourine, in rotting leaves, coll. A. M, Lea

(S.A.M.),

Brentiscerus triocellatus sp, nov,

Plate 5, fig. D. Text fig. 1G

Tlead triangular, brown or black, coarsely punctate, anteclypeus

(tylus) prominent, paler, Kirst two segments of antennae and apical

2 of fourth yellowish brown, third and base of fourth brown, Rostrum

reaching mid coxae, basal segment not reaching base of head, first

segment und extreme apex olf fourth brown, remainder yellow or

luteous,

Pronotum with the usual transverse constriction about midway

between base and apex, with a strongly punetate anterior collar,

Fore lobe (except eollar) brown and coarsely punctate. Tlind lobe

stramineous or luteons with coarse brown punctations, a prominent

brown semicircular pateh on the hind margin on either side of the

middle, Anterior lobe with a definite longitudinal depression which

erosses the transverse suture aid continues on to the anterior portion

of the hind lobe, Hind margin feebly sinuate, humeral angles very

slightly convex posteriad. Lateral margins strongly concave in the

revion of the transverse suleus, anterior to this feebly convex, anterior

margin straight or very feebly coneave, Lateral keel stramineous

or Inteous.

Seutellam brown and coarsely punctate all over, with the usual

triradiate keel, this sometimes lighter on terminus ol each arm, or

only lighter on the terminus of the central arm at apex,

Clavus stramineous or lnteous with the sual three longitudinal

rows of coarse punetations, Corium usually pale stramineous or

luteous in the basal hall, sometimes infuseated basally as in the

figured specimen, but always infuseated with brown in the apieal half,

within this latter brown area three paler oval spots in a line tear

the hind margin. Membrane brownish hyaline, veins white,

Underside dark brown, collar, hind margins of pro- and meta-

pleura and genital segment a shade paler. Trochanters and femora

yellowish brown, apices of fore femora, tibiae, and tarsi yellowish,

fore femora apparently unarmed, Underside of thorax strongly pune-

tate, abdomen polished with a very sparse short pilosity. Male genital

capsule with upper opening partially divided into two by inwardly

60 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

directed processes of the onter wall, eclaspers relatively short and

robust. Proetiger grooved longitudinally in middle, covering most of

hind cavity. Leneth: 2.25-3.0 mm.

Localities: Queensland: Holotype male, allotype female, 2 para-

type males [Reg. nos. 120,160-3], Mount Tambonrine, in rotting leaves,

coll, A. M. Lea; 2 paratypes, one a male, other abdomen missing [ Reg.

nos, 120,164-5], Cairns District, attracted to light, A, M. Lea (S.A.M.);

2 paratype males, Lamington National Park, from leaf mould in rain

forest, 2-6 June, 1958, coll. F. A. Perkins (U.Q.).

Brentiscerus diffusus sp. nov.

Plate 6, fig. A

Somewhat larger than Brentiscerus triocellatus but very similar

in general appearance,

Head triangular, coarsely and densely punctate, tylus prominent,

paler. Tirst three segments of antennae brown, apical segment

entirely lnteous. Rostrum reaches mideoxae, first segment brown,

remainder luteous.

Pronotum very similar in shape, punctation, and colouration to

B. triocellatus, but collar entirely brown or black, like fore lobe; and

hind lobe darker, the fuscous patches on the hind margin much larger,

confluent in the centre.

Seutellum likewise formed and coloured as B. triocellatus.

Corinm and clavus deep brown in colonr, the former with a eou-

spicuous pale patch on the outer margin midway between base and

apex, and perhaps two vaguely lighter areas near hind margin, ¢lavus

with three rows of punetations, the region between the inner and

median rows slightly raised, corium coarsely punctate, membrane

brownish, veins paler.

Beneath deep brown to black (head, pro-, and meso-thorax), hind

lobe of propleuron only paler. Femora in basal half brown, apically

yellow, tibiae and tarsi yellow, fore femora armed with one small

denticle beneath apieally and a row of extremely small denticles on

the anterior margin. Male not available for study of genitalia.

Length: 3.25-3.5 mm.

Localities: Queensland: Tolotype female and paratype female

| Reg. nos. 120,166-7], Cairns District, attracted to light, A. M. Lea

(S.A.M.).

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 61

Gastrodomorpha gen. nov.

A genus in the /sopeltus, Brenfiscerns section of the tribe sharing

with these genera the sentellum with a prominent triradiate keel and

the sides of the pronotum with a prominent explanate keel; the

pronotem is divided into two lobes by a prominent transverse

impression about the middle. Like Apollonius the explanate lateral

mareins of the pronotum are straight but unlike Apollonius these

margins are strongly convergent towards the front. Like the next,

and last genus in this section (Retrodrymus) the lateral margins of

the corium are convex, giving tle iusect the same pyriform appearance

as a Gastrodes, The continuous lateral explanate margin of the

pronotin should serve to distinguish it from the latter which docs

not. vecur in this area.

Head elongate, rather pentagonal, punctate, tylns strongly

prominent. Antennae relatively thick, first segment surpassing apex

of head. Rostrum attaining mideoxac, first segment not reaching base

of head, second not quite reaching fore coxae,

Pronotum trapeziform, with a prominent collar, anterior margin

somewhat coneave, posterior very feebly so, with a prominent trans-

verse constriction just behind the middle dividing it mto two lobes.

Lateral margins explanate from just behind collar to just before

linmeral angles, very feebly concave in the region of the transverse

constrietion and feebly convex in front of this, more noliceably so just

behind the collar. Collar and hind lobe coarsely punctate and fairly

densely so, fore lobe more finely and sparsely punctate.

Scutellum triangular with a prominent triradiate keel, coarsely

and densely punetate all over,

Corium and elavus coarsely punctate, clavus with the usual three

rows, ¢orinum with the panctations arranged in more distinet rows than

in the other genera, longitudinal veins also more distinct. Lateral

margin of coritm straight in basal third, thence convex to apex,

hemelytra widest al about level of apex of elaval snture. Membrane

just reaching apex of abdomen.

Pore femora inerassate, armed on ventral surface with an anterior

and posterior row of spines in the apical third, the innermost spine

of the anterior row large. Male capsule unknown,

Type: Gastrodomorpha enigmatica sp. nov. the only species.

62 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Gastrodomorpha enigmatica sp. nov.

Plate 6, fig. D

Head coarsely punctate, blackish brown, apex of anteelypeus

(tylus) lighter. HKyes remote from anterior margin of pronotum,

Antennae with first three segments brown, fourth missing. Rostrum

yellowish.

Fore lobe of pronotum including collar brown, explanate margins

and hind lobe yellowish, punctations on latter light brown,

Seutellum yellowish, punectations and extreme base light brown.

Corium and clavus yellow, punctations light brown, some vague

indications of fuscous in the apical portions of the former, Membrane

brown, veins lighter.

Beneath brown, posterior margins of pro- and meta-pleura lighter,

legs yellow. Thoracic pleura with few punctations in centre of dise,

abdomen shiny with short adpressed golden pilosity. Length: 3,2 mm,

Loeality: Vietoria: TLolotype female [Ree no. 120,168|, Ring-

wood, in tussocks, coll, F. KH. Wilsou (S.A.M.).

Retrodrymus gen. nov.

Retrodrymus is the last of the genera with an explanate margin

to the pronotum and a prominent triradiate keel to the seutellum.

It differs from the other genera in this group by having the transverse

constriction of the pronotum placed well posteriad, and by a larger

and more convex fore lobe of the pronotum.

Head elongate, pentagonal, rugose, anteclypeus (tylus) strongly

prominent, eyes remote from anterior margin of pronotum, Antennae

relatively robust, first segment snrpassine apex of head, second

segment the longest, third a little shorter than second, fourth a little

shorter than third and only slightly longer than first. Rostrum

reaches hind coxae, first segment not reaching base of head, second

segment just attaining fore coxae.

Pronotum rather elongate with a prominent coarsely punctate

collar, feebly impressed well behind midline, the division of pronotum

into fore and hind lobes is achieved not so much by a strong trans-

verse impression us in most Drymine genera but rather by the termina-

tion posteriorly of the strongly convex fore lobe onto the general

plane of the hind lobe. Fore lobe finely but fairly densely etipgtader

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 63

hind lobe densely and coarsely punetate. Anterior margin of

pronotum truncate or faintly convex, lind margin almost straight.

Lateral margins explanate from behind collar to just in front of

humeral angles, this lamina narrow and convex im outline around

raised tore lobe, very slightly coneave at the division of the fore and

hind lobes, and faintly divergent to humeral angles,

Seutellum triangular, coarsely punctate and with a very prominent

trivadiate keel,

Corium and elavus strongly punctate; clavas with the usual three

rows of punetations, corium narrowly impunetate exteriorly in the

hasal hall’, this region rather reflexed, punctate area with punetations

tending to be arranged im rows. Outer margin of corium gently

convex [rom base to apex, animal widest at a point about midway

between apex of seutellum and apex of claval suture, Membrane

somewhat surpassing apex of abdomen,

Beneath with proplenra and metapleura strongly punetate, meta-

pleura punetate only im eentre of dise, Fore femora relatively

incrassate, beneath anteriorly with a row of about seven spines in

the apical third, first of these very large, posteriorly with a row of

small spines in apienl half.

Male wenital capsule with upper opening partially divided into

two by two inwardly directed processes on onter margin, claspers

relatively long, sides of opening behind claspers with long hairs.

Type: Retrodrymus abundans sp. nov., the only species in the

PETLULS,

Retrodrymus abundans sp. nov.

Plate 5, fig. A. ‘Text fig. 1A, H

Head brown to black, apex of tylus luteous when head brown, and

brown when head black. First two segments of antennae yellowish in

brown headed specimens and apieal two segments brown; in black

leaded specimens basal two segments brown and apical pair dark

brown. Rostrum yellowish in brown headed specimens, yellowish

brown in black headed specimens, basal segment somewhat darker,

especially basally.

Swollen fore lobe of prouotum ineluding collar brown when head

brown, black when head black; hind lobe testaceous, lighter laterally,

humeral angles and lateral keel luteous.

o

64 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

Scutellum yellowish or brownish depending on the colour of the

head and fore lobe of the pronotum, when brownish the apices of the

three arms of the triradiate keel luteous. Punctations brown,

Corium and clavus yellowish or brownish according to the dark-

ness Of the general eolouration, with a transverse infuseated bar

veross corium, somewhat oblique at a level midway between the apex

OF the setitellim and the apex of the claval suture. Membrane a deep

hrown, veins somewhat lighter.

Underside of head and thorax blackish brown, abdomen deeq)

brown, ftrochanters, femora, tibiae and tarsi yellowish. Length:

4.25-A mim.

Localities; Tasmania: Holotype male mounted on eard with

lymph, one paratype male, three paratype females [Reg. nos.

120,169-75] Devonport, coll, Lea; 2 paratype males, 2 paratype females

[Reg. nos. 120,174-7], Waratah, eo!l, Lea & Carter; 1 paratype male

[Reg no. 120,178], Ulverstone, coll. Lea (S.A.M.). Victoria:

Allotype female, Macedon, coll. Deane; one paratype male 3 paratype

females, Htham, coll. J. H. Dixon; 1 paratype female, Evelyn, 17 May

W925, coll. F. E. Wilson; 1 paratype female, Emerald District, coll.

Ki. J.; 2 paratype females, 1 paratype male, Ferntree Gully, 20

November 1920, 26 July 1924, 26 May 1925, eoll. F. E. Wilson: 1 para-

type female, Ferntree Gully, coll. J. K, Dixon; 2 paratype females,

Western Districts (N.M.).

Appolonius Distant 190]

Appolonius Distant 1901, Ann, Mag. nat. Hist., (7)8: 484, 1904,

Panna Brit. India Rhynch, 2: 62. Seudder 1956, Mnt. mo, Mag.

(4)17: 859. 1957, loe. eit.: 154.

Agqunaga Distant, 1906, Anu. Soc. ent, Bele, 50; 418, 1910, Fauna

Brit. India Rhyneh,, 5: 58.

Appolonius is the first of # series of genera in which the pronotum

has a prominent transverse impression and the lateral marging are

explanate but in which the sentellum is devoid of a prominent raised

triradiate keel, in <lppolontus the seutellum is somewhat raised

inedially, Tt differs from the other genera in this section by its nearly

rectangular pronotum with almost straight lateral margins.

Head broad, short, triangular, without eyes as broad as anterior

margin of pronotum, lMyes large, prominent, tonehing anterior margin

of provotnm, Antennae inserted well away {rom eyes, robust, first

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 65

segment not or only just surpassing apex of head, all segments

relatively short, rostrum just reaching fore coxae (crassus (Distant)

from India), or reaching mid coxae (other species).

Pronotum strongly quadrate, with a strong transverse impression

about the middle. Anterior margin straight (quadratus Scudder

crassus (Distant) and picturatus Distant), or strongly convex (cinti-

cornis Distant, territorialis n.sp. and robustus n.sp.), hind margin

almost straight. Lateral margins explanate, almost straight and

converging in the two Australian species, somewhat concave in the

region of the transverse impression in the extra-Australian species,

anterior lobe swollen and finely punctate, hind lobe flattish or arched

and more coarsely punctate.

Seutellum transversely impressed across base, medially somewhat

raised, finely punctate like fore lobe of pronotum.

Corium and elavus coarsely punctate, clavus with the usual three

longitudinal rows of punctations, punctations on corium more or less

arranged in rows, including 13-2 rows paralleling claval suture.

Lateral margins of corium almost straight, very feebly sinuate. Fore

femora very incrassate, apically beneath with one large tooth followed

by five or six spines.

Male capsule of ¢erritorialis only investigated. There is the

usual partial division of the upper opening into two by acute inwardly

directed projections of the lateral margins, the claspers are flat on

top and pointed, the proctiger covers most of the anterior cavity, but

in addition there are two larger rugose or punctate flaps lying over

this and originating from the lateral margin, strongly reminiscent of

Drymus species.

Type: Ophthalmicus cincticornis Walker 1872, monobasic.

There are two Australian species which can easily be distinguished

from the extra-Australian species by the almost straight lateral

margins of the pronotum.

Appolonius territorialis has the second and third femora pale

yellow and the dark markings in the apical region of the corium are

relatively fine, 4. robustus has brown femora except at apex, is wider

in relation to its length, and the dark markings in the hind partion

of the corium are broader, the hind lobe of the pronotum is also

more fuscous.

66 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

Appolonius territorialis sp. nov.

Plate 6, fig. B. Text fie. 11

Head dark brown, finely punctate, eyes brown. [First two antennal

segments yellow, apical pair brown. Rostrum yellowish, basal segment

and basal third of second browner.

Anterior lobe of pronotum dark brown, finely punctate, hind lobe

and lateral explanate margin luteous, the former with four faint brow

longitudinal lines, one either side of the midline, sometimes fusing

into one broad median band and another close to each lateral margin.

Sentellum deep brown, almost black, finely punctate, medially

raised, transversely impressed near base.

Corium and clayus luteous with brown punetations, the former

with two fuscous spots on the lateral margin, one in the middle, one

in the apical angle and between these a prominent luteous spot. Apical

margin of corium infnseated giving off three thin fuscous lines running

more or less anteriorly, these are joined to one another where they

terminate, the outer the longest and running into the medial marginal

spot. Clavus with a brown streak in the distal half between the

median and onter line of punctations. Membrane grevish hyaline,

veins brown.

Thorax beneath deep brown, prothorax and mesothorax strongly

punctate, metathorax with only a longitudinal band of punctations

near exterior margin, lateral keel of prothorax luteous; beneath hind

margin of propleura and metapleura and episterna and epimera a

lighter shade than the rest of the thorax. Abdomen shining brown

with a fine golden pilosity. Fore femora and all coxae brown, rest of

legs yellowish, Length: 3.0-3.5 mm.

Locality: Northern Territory: Holotype male and 1 paratype

male | Reg, nos, [20,179-80], Batchelor, on fruit of Roselle (d7tbiseus

sabdiriffa), 20 October 1913, coll. presumed G. F, Hill (S.A.M.,).

Appolonius robustus sp. nov,

Plate 6, fig. C!

Head almost black finely punctate, eyes brown. First two

seginents yellowish, though apical third of second darker, terminal

two segments deep brown, apex of last a shade paler, Rostrum brown.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 67

Pronotwn tear black, lateral explanate margin Inteous only at,

and anterior to, level of transverse impression. Hind lobe with raised

humeri and two oblique lines somewhat inward of these, not reaching

transverse impression, paler. Anterior lobe finely punctate, posterior

lobe more coarsely so,

Seutellum formed and coloured substantially as in the previous

species,

Corium and ¢lavus basically luteous, elavus marked as in

lerritorialis. Corium with two prominent fuseous marks on the

exterior miurgin, one in the middle and the other apical, this latter

large and extending along the whole of the posterior margin of the

corium, these two lateral marks jomed by a fuseons line, Corimm with

three other fuscons lines, one given off in the middle of the widely

black hind margin runs forward to end freely, of the other two one

is given off about 4 out from the apex of the elavus and the other right

at the clavus to meet at about the level of the fip of the seutellum,

the inner one running along the elaval suture in its apieal third, the

other curving inward to meet it, within these lines a prominent silvery

patch. Membrane hyaline grey, veins brown.

Thorax and abdomen beneath almost black, the former punctate

as in vl. ferriforialis, the latter with a whitish pilosity, All femora

brown except at extreme base and apex, tibiae and tarsi yellow.

Length; 3.25-3.5 mim.

Localities: Queensland: Holotype male |[Reg, no. 720,181],

Magnetie Island, coll, A, M, Lea (S.A.M.)4 allotype female, Brisbane,

15 May 1954, coll, K. L, S. Harley; paratype female, Brishane, on

bark of Fiens (Indian fig), 16 May 1951, eoll. T. EK. Woodward (U.Q.).

Scolopostethus Fieber 1861

Scolopostethus Fieber, 1861, Europ. Hem, :49, 188. Stal, 1872, Ofv,

svenska Vetensk Akad. Férh. 29(7): 60. Saunders, 1892, Hem.

Het, Brit. Is. :108. Horvath, 1902, Rev. d’Ent,, 11: 253, Lethierry

& Severin, 1894, Cat. gén. Hém., 2: 228. Distant, 1903, Fauna

Brit, Ind., Rhyneh., 2: 92, Guerin & Penau 1906, Rennes Bul, Soe,

Sei, méd,, 14: 67. Horvath, 1911, Ann. Mus. nat. Hunge., 9: 337.

Van Duzee, 1917, Univ. Cal. Publ. Mnt. 2: 199. Southwood &

Leston, 1959, Land and Water Bugs Brit, Is., :49. Slater & China,

1961, Bull. Zool. Nomenel., 18(5) : 351.

68 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Tritomacera Costa 1841, Ann. Soe. ent. France (1)10; 296-297. Fieber,

1861, Europ, Hem. 44: 163.

Tritomocera Agassiz, 1846, Nomen. zool. Index. Univ. :376,

Tritamacera 1848 ibid. 1092.

Manatanus Distant, 1909, Ann. Mag. nat, Hist., (8)3: 494. 1910, Fauna

Brit, Ind. Rhyneh., 5: 86,

Head triangular, anteclypeus (tylus) prominent, eyes not quite

touching anterior margin of pronotum, first segment of antennae just

(new species described here), or considerably passing apex of head;

rostrum reaching middle coxae.

Pronotum quadrate or trapezoidal, lateral margins straight or

sinuate in region of the strong transverse constriction which is placed

about balf way back, lateral margins explanate. Anterior and

posterior margins. straight or concave,

Seutellum triangular, somewhat tumid, without any trace of a

triradiate keel.

Clavus with the usual three rows of punctations, corium with two

rows parallel to the claval suture and the rest for the most part

scattered in the apical area, lateral margins of coria feebly sinuate.

Thorax beneath strongly punctate, abdomen shiny, finely pilose.

Anterior femora incrassate with a large spine ventrally just outward

of the halfway point and a series of smaller spines between it and

the apex. Fore femora somewhat curved, in the male enlarged apically

and bearing several teeth. First segment of hind tarsi longer than

segment two and three together,

Type: Seolopostethus cagnatus Fieber 1860, selected by Distant

1904 (loc. cit,).

This appears to he a complex and rather ill characterized genus,

some of the species appear to be among the most contrasting coloured

in the Drymini. It is with some hesitation that I place the following

species in the genus, considering its short and robust antennae,

Scolopostethus forticornis sp. nov.

Plate 7, fig, A. Text fig. 1J

Head piceous, upper surface finely punetate, apex of tylus and

eyes lighter. Antennae brown, apical half of first segment and some-

times apices of seeond and fourth yellowish. Antennae short, first

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 69

seement just surpassing apex of head. Rostrum yellowish, thin, first

seoment just surpassing apex of head,

Pronotum piceous to rather velvety brown, finely and. fairly

densely punctate, punetations tending to be diffieunlt to see, mm some

specimens hind lobe a shade paler than fore lobe, Mxplanate lateral

Wargins concolorous with rest ol pronotum, somewhat sinuate 1

region Of transverse pronotal constriction and broadly convex in

front of this to region of collum, Wind margins almost straight,

anterior margin coneave,

Sentellum somewhat convex, velvety piceous or brown, finely

punctate,

Apieal 2 of corinum and apical hal! of elavus piceons or brown,

basal area of clavus and corium and a lateral spot on the latter abont

2 the way alone the onter margin luteous, apical margins of the clavas

and along the elaval suture also yellowish in some specimens. Pune-

tations only distinct in luteous areas and brown. Membrane apically

venerully piceous with a large luteous semilunate spot at the base

oeeupying the whole of the basal margin and extending about 4-3 way

along the immer margin, this spot interrmpted by a hook shaped piceous

mark near its immer basal area,

Beneath piceons to deep brown, fore femora brown, apex lighter,

rest of lees rather yellowish brown, tibiae somewhat darker,

Male genital capsule with upper opening partially divided ito

two by inwardly divected processes on the onter margin, claspers flat,

somewhat upturned apically, anterior cavity almost wholly covered

by longitudinally impressed pygophore, Length; 3.25-4.25 mm,

—r

Localities: South Australia; TLolotype male, allotype female, 1

paratype male | Ree. nos. 120,182-4], Lock 4, River Murray, under red

gum (Auealyptus camaldalensis) bark, 1&8 May 1964, coll. G. F. Gross;

1 paratype male, 1 paratype lemale | Reg, nos. 120,185-6], Wilpena

Pound, Coll, H. M. Hale; 1) paratype male |Ree. noe. 120,187],

Pt. Lineoln, coll. A. M. Lea (S.A.M.). Vieloria: 4 paratype males,

6 paratype females, Lake Hattah, coll, J. WW. Dixon (N.M.).

Queensland: 1 paratype (genitaha missing), Gayndah, coll. Masters

(A.M.).

Pseudodrymus gen. nov.

Body oblong or oval, rugosely punctate, generally blackish, ead

with eves fonching or a little separated lrom anterior margin of

pronotum, head triangular, tylus very prominent, Pronotum relatively

70 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

short, generally narrower anteriorly than posteriorly with a shallow

transverse constriction rather behind the middle, anterior margin

straight or concave, posterior margin likewise variable, lateral margins

generally rather concave in region of transverse impression, convex

in front of this, lateral margins aeute, only very narrowly explanate.

Scutellum triangular, econvexly raised near base but without a

trace of a triradiate keel.

Hemelytra (except membrane) strongly and coarsely and very

densely punctate, slightly convex above.

Nore femora swollen and armed near apex with a short spine,

exterior to that several smaller ones.

Male genital capsule with upper opening strongly constructed

into two lobes by acute inwardly directed processes of the outer wall,

claspers large and flat, proctiger covering most of anterior cavity.

Type: Pseudodrymus florestalis u.sp., the only species in the

renus.

Pseudodrymus florestalis sp. nov.

Plate 7, fig. B. Text fig. 1K

Black or piceous, very coarsely aud very densely punetate above.

Apieal half of terminal antennal segment, explanate lateral margin

of pronotuin basally, and hind lobe of pronotum vaguely, and some-

times corium laterally rather paler. Several specimens in the series

are all castaneous.

Head triangular, tylus acute, antennae with a rather long pilosity,

some of it longer than the width of the segments. Rostrum thin,

reaching mid coxae.

Transverse impression of pronotum shallow, fore lobe quite low,

anterior and posterior margins almost straight, lateral margins only

feebly sinnate in the region of the transverse impression.

Seutellum rather strongly excavate at extreme base, behind this

usually transversely swollen.

Corium and clayns extremely densely and coarsely punctate,

former somewhat convex and veins distinet. Membrane dark grey

brown, veins hehter.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 71

Beneath with thorax strongly punctate, abdomen shining with a

dense golden pilosity, especially apically. Fore femora swollen and

armed with one short spine near the apex, with one or two extremely

minute teeth on both ventral margins near it.

Parandria of male genital capsule rather triangular in shape and

fairly smooth. Length: 2.75-3.2 mm.

Localities: Queensland: Holotype female [Reg. no, T6214, in

().M.|, 4 paratype females, Whiteside Crossing, N. Pine River 8.K.

Queensland, in flood debris, 12 July 1963, coll. G. Monteith; allotype

male, 8.H. Queensland, 1963, coll. G. Monteith; 1 paratype female,

Noosa District, on sand dunes under herbs and fallen leaves of

Casuarina, 17 April 1960, coll. T. EK. Woodward. Western Australia:

2 paratype males, 5 paratype females, Morley Park, Perth, ex dead

Banksia leaves, 27 August 1959, coll. T. EK. Woodward (U.Q.); 1 para-

type male, King George’s Sound (A.M.).

Austrodrymus gen. nov.

Obovate, very strongly punctate. Head broad, triangular, rather

conical in side view, strongly punetate, clypeus not very obvious.

Antennae relatively robust, first segment barely or not surpassing

apex of head. Rostrum about reaching mid coxae, first segment

conspicuously thicker than rest, reaching base of head.

Pronotum very strongly punctate, with a shallow transverse con-

striction placed well behind the middle, anterior and posterior margins

somewhat convex, lateral margins more broadly laminate than in

Drymus, straight from base to about middle of fore lobe, thence convex

anteriorad. Anterior lobe rather low, both lobes strongly and closely

punctate.

Scutellum triangular, strongly and closely punctate, fairly flat,

raised slightly basally and medially, these two raised areas separated

by a feebly marked transverse groove.

Corium and clavus punctate, the latter with the usual three

longitudinal rows, those on the corium tending to be arranged in rows,

the innermost two close together and paralleling the claval suture,

the outermost row parallel to the narrow and impunctate exterior

margin.

Underside of thorax very strongly and closely punctate, abdomen

shiny with a rather long adpressed pilosity, particularly apically.

72 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fore femora rather incrassate and armed near apex with a small

tooth and apically to this some five much smaller spines.

Male genital capsule with wpper opening partially divided in two

by inwardly directed lobes of the outer wall, claspers pointed, proctiger

covering all of hind cavity and longitudinally grooved in the middle.

Type: dustrodrymus flindersi sp. noy., the only species.

Austrodrymus flindersi sp. nov.

Plate 7, fig. (. Text fie. 11

Head, anterior lobe of pronotum, and seutellim pieeous to dark

brown. Basal two thirds of first segment of antennae, hind lobe of

pronotum, and tip of scutellam brown, so also hind margin of corium,

a rectangular mark enclosing a pale smaller rectangular mark in the

inner apical angle of the ecorium, and a short longitudinal line given

off from about nuidway along the hind margin and directed anteriorly,

Remainder of corium, clavus, laminate lateral margin of pronotum,

apex of first antennal segment, and remainine segments yellowish

brown. Membrane pale whitish vellow.

Underside deep brown to brown, rostrum and legs a somewhat

lighter brown. Length: 2.5-2.75 mm,

Localities: South Australia: Holotype male [Reg no. 120,188],

Flinders Island, coll. T, D. Campbell (S.A.M.). Western Australia:

1 paratype male, Morley Park, Perth, from dead Banksia leaves, 27

August 1959, eoll. T. K. Woodward.

Brachydrymus gen. noy.

Obovate, head pronotum and hemelytra strongly rugulose,

seutellum pmictate. Head triangular, eves almost touching anterior

pronotal margins, clypeus not prominent. Antennae fairly slender,

first segment just surpassing apex of head. Rostrum reaches mid

coxae, iirst segment not attaining base of head.

Pronotum rather quadrate, broad, with very little trace of a trans-

verse pronotal constriction and that placed well behind the middle.

Anterior and posterior marging rather coneave, lateral margins acute

but hardly laminate, straight in basal 3, convex anteriorly, Pronotum

densely rugulose and shortly pilose all over.

Sentellam flat, triangular, rather more punctate than rugulose,

with a seattered short pilosity.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 73

Hemelytra micropterous, extending only to two thirds the length

of the abdomen, membrane absent, claval suture diffienlt to see, whole

surface of hemelytra rugulose with a short pilosity. Exposed dorsal

surface of abdomen similarly rather rugulose and with the same short,

pilogity.

Underside of thorax strongly rugose except for blackish hoary

evaporative area, Abdomen rugulose beneath with a scattered short

pilosity.

Fore femora mederately inerassate, very finely rugulose,

apparently without spies. Male genital capsule rngulose posteriorly,

with upper opening feebly constricted into two and with membraneous

proctiger concealing the vesiea, Claspers shortish, rather robust.

Type: Brachydrymus lateabundans sp. noy. the only species.

Brachydrymus lateabundans sp. nov.

Plate 7, fig. D, Text fig. 1M

Dorsal surlace piceous, pilosity silverish. Antennae, rostrum,

eyes and legs dark brown, in one specimen the hemelytra are also

somewhat paler than the rest of the body.

Remaining features as for generie diagnosis. Length: 2.50-

3,50 mm.

Localities: Victoria: Holotype male, allotype female, 1 paratype

female, Ferntree Gully, 26 April 1924, coll. F. EB. Wilson; 1 paratype

male, 1 paratype female, Ferntree Gully, 28 September 1914, coll,

J, K. Dixon; 2 paratype males, 1 paratype female, Croydon, coll.

J. 1, Dixon (N.M.). Qneensland: 1 paratype female [Reg. no.

120,189], Gladstone, eoll, A, M. Lea. Northern Territory: 1 paratype

female [Reg. no. 120,190], Darwin in soil and leaf litter near sports

oval, 8 December 1960, coll, R. V. Southeott (S.A.M.),

DISCUSSION

This tribe of Rhyparochrominae is undoubtedly a very difficult

one in which to characterize generic differences and relationships.

On the basis of external characters there would appear to be

three groups in this fauna. The first group represented by the one

geuus Mizaldus lacks entirely lateral explanate carinae to the rather

convex pronotim. A second group has lateral explanate carinne or

laminae to the pronotum and a prominent trivadiate keel to the

74 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

seutellum, and would include Paradrymus, Megadrymus, Tsopeltus,

Brenticerus and Gastrodomorpha. <A. third group has prominent

lateral explanate laminae to the pronotum but lacks entirely any sign

of a triradiate keel on the scutellum, although the centre of the

scutellum may be raised. In this group fall 4pollonius, Scolopostethus,

Pseudodrymus and Austrodrymus. Brachydrymus seems to be a

modified member of the last group where flattening of the pronotum

has resulted in an almost complete elimination of the lateral laminae.

An examination of the dorsal morphology of the male genital

capsule complicates this picture somewhat. The typical arrangement

is for the upper opening to be constricted into somewhat of an 8 shape

by inwardly directed protuberances, one on each of the opening. The

anterior cavity is always larger than the posterior one so formed,

In Australian species a prominent and moderately chitinized proctiger

always covers most of the anterior cavity and is located a little below

the level of the outer walls, in many species this is depressed along

the median longitudinal line and the structure rises rather convexly

on either side of this depression to meet the outer margin of the

cavity. Two claspers or parameres are present in the posterior “avity,

becoming apparent just behind the inwardly directed processes of the

outer wall. In most Australian species they are fairly short and

pointed but in Pseudodrymus rather flattened.

Two genera differ somewhat from this general type. The male

capsule of Megadrymus is rather differently shaped and has short

very acuminate claspers swollen basally and the capsule has prominent

pilose ridges apically on either side of the middle. The male capsule

of Appolonius has two prominent rugose flaps or parandria given off

from the side wall of the hind cavity (this eavity is much larger than

the anterior one in this genus) which partially overlap and which

cover part of the proctiger. These flaps are also present in British

species of Drymus Fieber and in the subgenus Sylavadrymus Le

Quesne, their bases do not cover their point of attachment as in

Appolonius (Le Quesne 1956, Ent. mon. Mag., 4(202): 337-341, or

92(4): 17. The capsule of Appolonius was the only one cleared and

permanently mounted in this study; the others were examined under

the highest powers of the binocular microscope after hydroxide treat-

ment of the tip of abdomen and extrusion of the capsule by light

pressure, In the cleared mount of Appollonins more of the basal

structure of the male claspers can be seen and in general the structure

resembles Le Quesne’s figures 19, 21 and 23. Males of Mizaldus and

Gastrodomorpha were not available for examination.

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 75

REFERENCES

Agassiz, L., 1846; Nomenclatoris Zoologici Index Universalis.

——— 1848: Nomenclatoris Zoologici Index Universalis I-N:

41-1133.

Bergroth, 1, 1916: New Genera and species of Australian Hemiptera.

Proc. roy, Soc, Viet., (N.S.) 29(1)+ 1-18.

1918: Studies in Philippine Heteroptera, 1. Philipp. J.

Sci. (d) 13(2 & 8): 43-126.

Distant, W. L.. 1901: Rhynchotal Notes—X1. Heteroptera: Family

Lygacidae. Ann, Mag. nat. Hist. (7)8&: 464-486 &

497-510.

1903 & 1904: The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Rhynchota. 2, i-xvii & 1-242 (1908) and 245-

503 (1904). 319 text fig's.

———— 1906-7: Oriental Heteroptera. Ann. Soc. ent. Belg, 50:

405-417,

———— 1909: Oriental Rhynchota Heteroptera. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Tlist. (8)3: 491-507.

~ 1910: The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma, Rhyehota, 5: i-xvil and 1-362. 214 text figs.

Fieher, F. X.. 1861: Die europaisehen Hemiptera. Halbflugler.

(Rhvynehota Lleteroptera.) Nach der analytischen

Methode bearbeitet. Wien I-VI, 1-444. 2 tables.

Guerin, J. & Peneau, J., 1906: Fanne entomologique armoricaine.

Lyywaeides. Bull, Soc. sei. méd, Ouest, 14: 1-84. 166

text fig's.

Horvath, G., 1902: Rev. d’ Hut. 11: 255.

——— 1911: Miscellanea Hemipterologica, Ann. hist-nat. Mus.

hune, 9: 1-84, $27-338, 423-485, table TX.

Le Quesne, W. J., 1956: An Examination of the British Species of

Dirpmnd Fieber (Hem., Lygacidae) with a New Subgenus

and an Addition and a Generic Reassignment in the

British List. Mnt. mon, Mag. 92(4)17: 337-341. 28

text fies.

Lethierry, lL. & Severin, G., 1894: Catalogue général des Weémipteres.

Bruxelles. Tome 2: 1-277.

76 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Sannders, li., 1892: The Hemiptera of the British Islands. A deserip-

tive account of the families, genera and species indigenous

to Great Britain and Ireland, with notes as to localities,

habitats, ete.: i-v, 1-350. 1 plate.

Seudder, G. G. H., 1956: A revision of the genus Appolonius Distant

(Hemiptera, Lygaeidae) with a New Species from South

Sudan, [Hnt. mon, Mag., 92: 359-360,

19597: The higher classification of the Rhyparochrominae

(Hem, Lygaeidae), Ent. mon. Mag., 93: 152-156.

1962: The World Rhyparochrominae (Temiptera-Lygaeidae)

Il, New Genera for Previously Deseribed species.

Canad, Ent., 94(9) : 981-989, 10 text figs.

Slater, J. A. & Carayvon, J., 1963: KMthiopian Lygaeidae TV. A New

Predatory Lygaeid from Africa with a Diseussion of its

Biology aud Morphology. (Iemiptera: Heteroptera).

Proe. RK. nt. Soe. Lond. (a)38(1-3: 1-11. 10 text figs.

Slater, J. A, & China, W. E., 1961: Scolopostethus Fieher (1860)

(Insecta, Hemiptera): Proposed Validation under the

Plenary Powers. Z.N.(S) 1475. Bull. zool. Nomenel.

18(5) : 351-352.

Stal, C., 1872: Genera Lygaeidarum Furopae disposuit. Ofvers.

Vetensk Akad. Forh., Stockh. 29(7): 37-62.

Southwood, T. BR. E. & Leston, D., 1959: Land and Water Bugs of the

British Isles. London, I-XI, 1-436, 153 text figs.

63 plates,

Van Duzee, KM. P., 1917: Catalogue of the Hemiptera of the America

North of Mexico, excepting the Aphididae, Coceidae and

Aleurodidae, Univ, Calif, Publ. Ent., 2: i-xiv, 1-902,

Walker, F., 1872: Catalogue of the Specimens of Hemiptera Heterop-

tera in the Collection of the British Museum. Brit. Mus.

Pub., Pt. Vi: 1-202.

RESUME

On connaissait autérienrement deux espéces de Drymini de

l’Australie et une de la Nouvelle-Guinée, Comme resultat de cet étude,

ol on a employé toutes les collections disponibles australiennes, on a

demonstré Voecurrence de deux especes dans la Nouvelle-Guinée, une

Welles est espece commune dans | Australie, et de dix-sept espéces, dont

GROSS—AUSTRALIAN AND NEW GUINEA DRYMINI 77

quinze sont nouvelles, de |’Australie. On donne des clefs, des illustra-

tions, et des descriptions des dix-huit espéces et les met dans douze

genres, dont huit sont nouveaux. Ou disponible on a employé la

morphologie de la capsule male genitale en conjunction de details

exterieurs pour donner une indication a arrangement et a les rélations

entre ces douze genres.

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

EXPLANATION OF PLATES 3 TO 7

Fig. A. Paradrymus exilirostris Bergroth, whole insect,

Fig. B. Fore leg of Paradrymus exilirostris Bergroth, female.

Fig. C. Fore tibia of Paradrymus ewilirostris Bergroth, male.

Fig. D. Megadrymus terraereginae n.sp.

PLATE 4

Fig. A. Mizaldus woodwardi Slater & Carayon.

Fig. B, Isopeltus australis (Bergroth).

Fig. C., Brentiscerus major n.sp.

Fig. D. Isopeltus obsewrus n.sp.

PLATE 5

Fig. A. Retrodrymus abundans n.sp.

Fig. B. Isopeltus tenwicornis n.sp.

Fig. C. Brentiscerus pallidus nsp.

Fig. D. Brentiscerus triocellatus n.sp.

PLATE 6

Fig. A. Brentiscerus diffusus n.sp.

Fig. B. Appolonius territorialis n.sp.

Hig. C. Appolonius robustus nsp.

Fig. D. Gastrodomorpha enigmatica n.sp.

PLATE 7

Fig. A. Scolopostethus forticornis n.sp.

Fig. B. Pseudodrymus florestalis n.sp.

Fig. C. Austrodrymus flindersi n.sp.

Fig. D. Brachydrymus lateabundans n.sp.

PLATE 3

rs]

Rec. S.A. Museum Vou. 15, Pare 5

1 mer

Rime. S.A. Museum Vou. 15, Puare 4

+————? mm.——_—__,

Rec. §.A. Musrum Von. 15, Pharr 5

-— 27 mm—— 4+

-/— 2 mm ——4

Rec. S.A. Museim Von. 15, Puare 6

—. 2mm, —____,

a |

Rec. §8.A, Museum Vou. 15, PLatE

CHROMOSOMES OF SNAILS INTRODUCED INTO SOUTH

AUSTRALIA AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY

BY HELENE M., LAWS

Summary

The chromosome complement is described for seven members of the family Helicidae

(Pulmonata, Helicacea) which have been introduced into South Australia and for one

member of the Subulinidae (Pulmonata, Achatinacea) introduced into the Northern

Territory. Haploid chromosome numbers from counts made in primary spermatocytes are

as follows: Helix aspera, n = 26; H. neglecta, n = 24; Cochlicella acuta, n = 23; C.

ventrosa, n = 23 and Subulina octona, n = 31.

CHROMOSOMES OF SNAILS INTRODUCED INTO SOUTH

AUSTRALIA AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY

By HELENE M. LAWS, Sours AusrractAn Museum

Plate 8

SUMMARY

The chromosome complement is described for seven members of

the family Helicidae (Pulmonata, Helicacea ) which have been intro-

duced into South Australia and for one member of the Subulinidae

(Pulmonata, Achatinacea) introduced into the Northern Territory.

Haploid chromosome numbers from counts made in primary sperma-

tocytes are as follows: Helix aspersa,n = 27; Theba pisana, n= 30;

Helicella virgata, 1 26: HH, stolismena, n —= 26; H. neglecta,

n — 24; Cochlicella acuta, n = 23; C. ventrosa, n = 23 and Subulina

octona, Nn == al.

INTRODUCTION

All the land snails which have been introduced into South

Australia occur naturally in countries bordering the Mediterranean,

some extending to Northern Kurope and the British Isles. It is likely

(Quick, 1953) that even those of wider distribution were introduced

from the Mediterranean parts of their ranges: all flourish in the

Mediterranean climate of the southern parts of Sonth Australia.

Hight species of Helicidae and one of the Ferussaciidae are known to

occur in the State, The introduced Helicids are capable of prolonged

aestivation which has no doubt aided in their distribution by man.

In his 1954 Catalogue of Introduced Snails and Slugs, Cotton

records no species for the Northern Territory, At least two, Subulina

octona (Brugiére) and Lamellacis gracilis (Hutton), belonging to the

Subulinidae, do now occur there. 8. octona certainly oceurs naturally

in tropical America and L, gracilis probably originated there also

(Pilsbry, 1946).

80 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Among the South Australian Helicidae only Helicella caperata

(Montagu) which oceurs naturally from Bagdad to the British Tsles,

was not available for cytological study. The only non-helieid snail

iutrodneed into South Australia is a species of Ferussacia. It was

originally recorded as F. folliculus (Gronovius) (Cotton, 1954) but

Venmans (1957) suggests that it is not yet possible to make a definite

specifie identification, The population described by Cotton still

flourishes at Linden Park, an Adelaide suburb, Efforts were made to

obtain gonadal material from this Ferussacia but no satisfactory

preparations could he obtained in spite of the faet that the snails

were breeding freely, OF the two subulinid snails introduced into the

Northern Territory, Subulina ‘ectona was available for cytological

study,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Might species of introduced land snail were used in this study,

seven belonging to the Family Helicidae and one to the Subulinidae.

The upper few whorls of each shell were removed and a small

piece of ovotestis was taken with fine forceps. This was mounted in

a drop of aceto-orcein, tapped gently to spread the tissue and then

inverted on absorbent paper and sqnashed firmly with the thumb.

Gentle warming on a hot plate intensified the staining, and while the

slide was still warm the coverslip was ringed with vaseline for

immediate observation. Chosen slides were later made permanent.

Vaseline was removed by wiping with xylene and the slide was inverted

in absolute alcohol until the coverslip dropped off. The coverslip was

then replaced with a drop of Enparal.

Duplicate voucher specimens from each collection are in’ the

South Australian Mnseum,

Tn all species, chromosomes were observed at diakinesis and

prometaphase of meiosis in primary spermatocytes; for a few speci

mens, spermatogonial mitotic division were also studied,

RESULTS

Subulina octona (Bruguicre)

Distribution: Tropical America.

Introduced: A¥riea, Ceylon, Mast Indies, Australia.

Collections Studied: S.A.M. D.14856 Katherine, N.T., Mareh, 1964.

LAWS—CHROMOSOMES OF SNAILS 81

The sole collection of this species came from a shade hiouse in a

varden in Katherine. Despite its tropical origins, this species shows

the ability for prolonged aestivation. Specimens from Katherine were

maintained dry, in the laboratory, from Mareh 1964 until October of

the same year. his ability to aestivate has no doubt aided in the

distribution of the species by man. The haploid chromosome number

is 31 (plate 8, fig. F).

Helix aspersa (Miiller)

Distribution: Kurope, Mediterranean.

Introduced: North and South America, Sonth Africa, New

Zealand, Australia,

Collections Studied: S.A.M. D14859 West of Finniss, $.A.,

August, 1963. S.A.M. D.14832 Adelaide University Gronnds, §.A.,

May, 1963,

The chromosome number observed (n = 27, plate 4, fig. B)

confirms previous counts made on European and British material

(Perrot and Perrot, 19387; Perrot, 1938; Mvans, 1960). A single speci-

men of abnormality aewninala in which the whorls are less tightly

coiled (S.A.M. D.14858, Wallaroo, 8.A., November, 1963) showed no

abnormality of the ehromosome coinplement.

Theba pisana (Miiller)

Distribution: Kurope, Mediterranean, North Africa, Britain (may

be an introduction).

Introduced: North America, South Africa, Australia.

Collections Studied: S.A.M. D.14860 4 mile west of Corny Point

Post Office, S.A., November, 1963. S.A.M. D.14815 Onter Harbour,

S.A., December, 1962, S.A.M. D.14838 Port Willunga, §$.A., August,

1963.

Specimens Destroyed in Dissection: Corny Poiut, S.A., August,

1963.

Almost all previous records of Theba pisana in South Australia

were based on misidentification of Helicella virgata. LWXxeceptions are

Taylor (1928) and 8.A.M. collection D.14866. Theba pisana is however,

now known from localities as widely separated as Venus Bay, Port

Lincoln, Edithburgh and the South-Kast of Seuth Australia. Present

82 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

identification has heen based on anatomical as well as conchologiecal

characters. Anatomically, Theba is very different trom /elicella.

Theba pisana itself has only two long mucous glands and in the

Helicinae, to which Theba belongs, the right ocular retractor muscle

passes between the vagina and penis and the spermathecal duct has

a diverticulum, In the Helicellinae the ocular retractor passes to the

left of both vagina and penis, there is no spermatheeal diverticulum,

and the mucous glands are shorter and more numerous and are onee

or twice divided.

In all collections n = 30 (plate 8, fig, A) and spermatogonial

mitoses showed Zn = 60, This species shows considerable variation in

banding pattern. Shells may be densely banded with entire or inter-

rupted brown markings, or they may have no banding at all. A range of

intermediates oceurs. Individnals with different banding patterns are

identical cytologically and the two extremes may oceur in a single

population. The banding pattern is no doubt genetically determined

but it is of no taxonomic signifieance,

Cochlicella acuta (Miiller)

Thistribution: South-west Europe, Mediterranean, British Isles.

Introduced: Australia,

Collections Studied: The single collection was made at Pine Point,

Yorke Peninsula, 8.A., in August, 1963, All specimens were destroyed

in dissection; they had the caleareons penial sheath and broader penis

which are characteristic of C. acuta and distinguish it anatomically

from C. ventrosa,

Perrot (1938) showed Cochlicella acuta to have 23 pairs of

chromosomes. This count was confirmed by observations on the

specimens of the Pine Point collection (plate 8, fiz. G),

Cochlicella yentrosa (Ferussac)

Distribution: Mediterranean.

Introduced: South Africa, Bermuda, U.S.A., Australia,

Collections Studied: S.A.M. D.14819 Rosetta Head, 8.A., May,

1963, S.A.M. D.14861 Hampstead Gardens, Adelaide, S.A., May, 1963.

Destroyed wm Dissection: Outer Harbour, 8.A., July, 1963.

LAWS—CHROMOSOMES OF SNAILS 83

Ag in the related C. acuta, C. ventrosa has n = 23 (plate 8, fig. H).

Two varieties have been noted in South Australia (Cotton, 1954),

C. ventrosa bizona Moquin-Tandon with banded shells and C. ventrosa

inflata Moquin-Tandon which is unbanded. Both have identical

chromosome complements and since both occur together in the Rosetta

Head population it is unlikely that the banding pattern has any

taxonomic significance.

Helicella neglecta (Draparnaud)

Distribution: Mediterranean, South France.

Introduced: British Isles, Australia.

Collections Studied: S.A.M. D.14857 4 mile north of Brentwood,

Yorke Peninsula, 8.A., August, 1963.

Specimens Destroyed in Dissection: 10 miles south-west of

Yorketown, S.A., August, 1963. Half mile east of Port Turton, 8.A.,

August, 1963.

In all collections n = 24 (plate 8, fig. C) in primary spermatocyte

division figures and in spermatogonial mitoses 2n = 48. Helicella

neglecta shows varying degrees of banding but as in Theba, H, virgata

and Cochlicella ventrosa the chromosome number was uniform through-

out the collections studied.

Helicella virgata (da Costa)

Distribution: Kurope, Mediterranean, British Isles.

Introduced: Australia.

Collections Studied: S.A.M. D. 14854 4 mile west of Corny Point

Post Office, S.A., November, 1963. S.A.M. D.14855 Souttar Point,

Yorke Peninsula, S.A., November, 1963. S.A.M. D.14816 Hallett’s

Cove, S.A., June, 1963. S.A.M. D.14821 Rosetta Head, S.A., June,

1963. S.A.M. D.14817 Glossop, S.A., June, 1963.

In all collections n = 26 (plate 8, fig. D). Helicella virgata shows

a bewildering array of variation in shell size and banding pattern.

Shells may range from 10.5 to 17.5 mm in diameter; they may be

marked with entire brown bands which vary in number and position,

the bands may be interrupted, or banding may be absent. There may

be banded and unbanded individuals and also considerable variation

84 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

in the size of mature snails in a single population; this is shown very

well in the Hallett's Cove collection, Chromosome number and form

is constant throughout.

Helicella stolismena (Bourguignat)

Distributions Spain, Franee.

Inlroduced: Australia.

Collections Studied; S.A.M. D.148638° Murray Bridge, S.A.

September, 1964.

In 1914 Gude described shells from Millicent as Helicella mayeri

but they have since been found (Quick, 1953) to agree closely with

Helicela stoismena (Bourguignat), although anatomical observations

were necessary to verify the identification. The shove collection of

snails, conchologically identical to specimens from Millicent, has given

anatomical evidence for identity with H, slolismena, The Murray

Bridge snails have, on one side of the vagina, an outer larger dart

sac with a dart and an inner smaller empty sac. In this they agree

with Id. stolismena so there is now little doubt that MH. mayeri is in

Fact. H. stolismena and is not close to H. conspurcala (Draparnand)

as Gude sugeested.

Individuals from Murray Bridge have n = 26 (plate &, fig. El).

Table T summarizes the chromosome mumbers of the introduced

species deseribed above.

CONCLUSION

lt thes heen stated (Burch and Heard, 1962) that chromosome

numbers tend to remain constant within systematic groups of

elithy dei ran snails. This may however apply to taxa at very different

systematic levels. Chromosome number may be essentially stable in

genera, families, or even in higher units. A great majority of snails

which have so far been ses saa in the order Basommatophora (the

Aneylidae excepted) have 1 = 18 (Burch, 1960; Burch et al., 1964) ;

the few exceptions have n — 7 17 or 19 and some groups show

polypoidy on the base number 18 (Burch, 1964), Similarly, all 15

species of the family Polygyridae examined by Husted and Bureh

(1946), representing three genera from two subfamilies, have n — 29,

Satsuma myomphala, a member of the Camaenidae, has n = 29

(Inaba, 1959) as do nine Australian members of the same family

including species of the genera Meracomelon, Sinumelon, Huadra,

Xanthomelon, Plenroxia, and Chloritobadistes (Laws, unpublished).

LAWS—CHROMOSOMES OF SNAILS 4&5

Some euthyneuran groups do however show little stability of

chromosome number. In the Suceineidae n = 17, 18, 20, 21 and 22

are known for six species (Perrot, 1988; Inaba, 1959; Koyama, 1955;

Laws, unpublished). Similarly, the Helicidae show a range of chromo-

some number (Perrot, 1938). In the seven helicids deseribed above

n— 23, 24, 26, 27 and 30 oceur. The total range now known for the

family is n = 21 to 30 with the exception so far of n = 28 Kven

within helicid genera, chromosome number may vary. It is constant

for those species of Helix which have heen studied cytologieally,

n= 27, but in Cepea n = 22 and n= 25 are known (Perrot, 1938)

and in //elicella the present study has shown variation in number;

Perrot (1938) found H. ebvia to have n = 26; H. virgata and FH,

stolismena also have this number but in 7/7, neglecta n == 24.

As yet, Subulinu octona, is the only member of the super-tamily

Achatinacea to be studied eytologically. Its ehremosome number,

n — 31, is amony the higher ones recorded for the suborder

Sigmurethra to which all snails of the present study belong; only the

slug families Testacellidae and Limacidae have members with numbers

exceeding n == 31. The Sigmurethra, considered to be the most

advanced basommatophoran suborder, show higher chromosome

numbers than the three more primitive suborders (Burch and Heard,

1962), n — 31 for S. octona adds another high chromosome number

to those recorded for the Sigmurethra, further supporting the view of

Bureh and Heard that, in snails, inerease in chromosome number tends

to accompany phylogenetic development.

TABLE I

Chromosome Nwnhers of Introduced Lands Snails.

Speeies n 2n

Superfamily Achatinacea

Family Subulinidae Subulna octona oo. ce ve ee 8

Superfamily Helieacea

Family Helicidae

Subfamily Helicinae HehaQapersa oi ck ws we ow DT

Theba pisana .. .. .. .. .. .. 30 60

Subfamily Helicellinae Helicella virgata .. .. 6. 6. 1 26

Helicella stolismena .. .. .. 1. 2

Helicella neglecla ... 0. 2. 2. «DA 48

Cochlicella acuta o.oo. oe oe 88

Cochlicella ventrosa soo... 2

46 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

HXPLANATION OF PLATE 8

PLATE 8

Meiotic chromosomes of introduced land snails: chromosomes at diskinesis of

spermatogenesis.

Fig. A. Thebu pisana. Fig, BE, /lelicella stolismena.

Fig. B. Helix aspersa. Fig. F. Subulina octona.

Fig. C. IHeliectla wegleeta. Fig, G, Coehlicella acuta.

Fig. D. Ilelieella virgata. Fig. H. Cochlicella. ventrosa,

All drawings were made with the aid of a eamera huicida,

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author gratefully acknowledges the help of a number of

people; Mr. D. Pomeroy of the University of Adelaide, Mis, M. Kenny

and Mr. P. Aitken of the South Australian Museum, Mr. W. G. Buick

of Adelaide and Mr. A, J. Turner of Katherine, N.T., have assisted

in the study by collecting living snails.

REFHRENCES

Burch, J. B., 1960: Chromosome studies of aquatic pulmonate snails.

Nucleus 3: 177-208,

1964: (Cytological Studies of Planorbidae (Gastropoda:

Basommatophora). J. The African subgenus Bulinus

ss. Malacologia 1: 387-400.

Bureh, J, B. and Heard, W. H., 1962: Chromosome numbers of two

species of Vallonia (Mollusca, Stylommatophora, Orthu-

rethra). Acta biol. Acad, Sei. Hung. 12: 305-3812.

Burch, J, B., Williams, J. F., Hishinuma, Y. and Natarajan, R., 1964:

Chromosomes of some Japanese freshwater snails

(Basommatophora: Branechiopulmonata). Malacologia

1: 403-415.

Cotton, B. C., 1954: J eatalogue of introduced snails and slugs in

Australia. Ree, S. Aust. Mus, 11: 177-187.

Hivans, H. J., 1960: Supernumerary chromosomes in wild populations

of the Snail Helia: pomatia L. Heredity 15: 129-138.

Gude, G. K., 1914: Deseription of a new THelicoid from South Aus-

traha. Proce. malac. Soe. Lond. 11: 166-167.

Husted, L. and Burch, P. R., 1946: The chromosomes of polygyrid

snails. Amer, Nat. 80: 410-429.

S.A. Museum

Rec.

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LAWS—CHROMOSOMES OF SNAILS 87

Inaba, A., 1959: Cytological studies in Molluscs. IT. A chromosome

survey in the stylommatophoric Pulmonata. J. Sci.

Hiroshima Univ., Ser. B, Div. 1. 18: 71-93.

Koyama, T., 1955: Studies on the chromosome numbers of two species

of Succinea in Japan. Venus, Kyoto 18: 259-264.

Perrot, M., 1938: Etude de Cytologie comparée chez les Gastéropodes

Pulmones. Rev. suisse Zool. 45: 487-566.

Perrot, J. L. and Perrot M., 1937: La formule chromosomique de

lV’ Helix pomatia. Rev. suisse Zool, 44: 208-209.

Pilsbry, H. A., 1946: Land Mollusca of North America (North of

Mexico). Vol. I, Part I. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. Mono-

graph No. 3.

Quick, H. K., 1953: Helicellids introduced into Australia. Proc. malac.

Soe. Lond. 30: 74-79.

Taylor, J. W., 1928: Helix pisana (Mill.) in South Australia. Journ.

Conch. 18: 208.

Venmans, L. A. W. C., 1957: A species of Ferussacia in South Aus-

tralia. J. malac. Soc. Aust. 1: 36-44.

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Die Chromosomenzahlen, in primaren Spermatocyten, fiir sieben

in Siid Australien eingefiihrten Arten von Schnecken (Helicacea,

Helicidae), sind: [Helix aspersa, n = 27; Theba pisana, n = 30;

Helicella virgata und H. stolismena, n == 26; Helicella neglecta,

n = 24; Cochlicella acuta und C. ventrosa, n = 23. Subulina octona

(Achatinacea, Subulinidae), eine Art die in das Nord-Territor

eingefiihrt worden ist, hat n = 31.

D

ABORIGINAL ROCK POUNDINGS ON GALLERY HILL, NORTH-

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

BY CHARLES P, MOUNTFORD

Summary

This paper records an extensive group of rock poundings at Gallery Hill about 200 miles

in a south-easterly direction from Port Hedland, and 20 miles from the Abydos research

station (map, fig. 1).

This hill, first named and investigated by the Reverend Father Worms (1954, pp. 1067-

88), is a huge pile of granite boulders, which. according to their discoverer, is 930 feet

long, 300 feet wide and 200 feet high. The base is somewhat oval in form with the major

axis lying in a north-south direction.

Gallery Hill, which rises directly out of a level plain, is only one of a number of similar

geological features in the surrounding country. There are a few rock poundings on

adjacent hills examined by the author, but none of these have such a profusion of designs

on their surfaces as Gallery Hill.

Previous research on the rock art in other parts of Australia has shown that the widely

distributed pecked engravings are, almost without exception, situated near some form of

water supply: a watercourse, rockhole or spring (Mountford 1928, p. 342).

Although at the present time, there is no evidence of a water attachment in or near

Gallery Hill, it is possible that one existed, probably on the northern end, before the

aborigines left this area to work for the white man. If this catchment had not been cleaned

out continuously it would soon fill with sand and debris and all memory of it be lost. This

has already happened to a large number of aboriginal rockholes, soaks and springs

throughout Australia.

The second possible reason for the concentration of rock poundings at Gallery Hill is that

it may once have been an important centre where, at certain times of the year, the

aborigines assembled to perform the associated totemic rituals and, perhaps, at the same

time, pound designs on the rocks relating to their beliefs.

These suggestions however are hypothetical; at present there is no direct evidence to

show why there are so many rock poundings on Gallery Hill and so few on the hills

examined in the adjacent county.

ABORIGINAL ROCK POUNDINGS ON GALLERY HILL,

NORTH-WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD, Honorary Assoctare IN

KNroanonoay, Sourm Avusrranian Museum

Plate 9 and text fig. 1-8

CONTENTS

Introduction.

(1) Techniques used in producing rock poundings.

(2) Methods of recording.

(3) Distribution of petroglyphs.

(4) Deseription of rock poundings,

(5) Sequence of rock poundings.

(6) Origins and meanings.

(7) Summary.

Acknowledgments.

Bibhography.

INTRODUCTION

This paper records an extensive group of rock poundings at

Gallery Hill about 200 miles in a south south-easterly direction from

Port Hedland, and 20 miles from the Abydos research station (map,

fig. 1).

This hill, first named and investigated by the Reverend Father

Worms (1954, pp. 1067-88), is a huge pile of granite boulders, which,

according to their discoverer, is 930 feet long, 300 feet wide and 200

feet high. The base is somewhat oval in form with the major axis

lying in a north-south direction.

Gallery Hill, which rises directly out of a level plain, is only one

of a number of similar geological features in the surrounding country.

There are a few rock poundings on adjacent hills examined by the

author, but none of these have such a profusion of designs on their

surfaces as Gallery Hill.

a0) RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSKUM

Previous research on the rock art in other parts of Australia

has shown that the widely distributed peeked engravings are, almost

withont exception, situated near some form of water supply; a water

course, rockhole or spring (Mountford 1928, p. 342),

Althongh, at the present time, there is no evidence of a water

catchment in or near Gallery Ifill, it is possible that one existed.

probably on the northern end, before the aborigines left (his area to

work for the white man. Lf this catchment had not been eleaned out

continuously it would soon fill with sand and debris and all memory

of it be lost, ‘This has already happened to a large number of

aboriginal rockholes, soaks and springs throughout Australia.

The second possible reason for the concentration of roek pound-

ings at Gallery Hill is that if may onee have been an important centre

where, at certain times of the year, the aborigines assembled to

perform the associated totemic rituals and, perhaps, at the same time,

pound designs on the rocks relating to their beliefs.

These suggestions however are hypothetical; at present there is

no direct evidence (o show why there are so many rock poundings on

Gallery Hill and so few on the hills examined in the adjacent country,

1) Techniques used in producing rock poundings.

i } o A

The rock markings at Gallery Hill and Wamarana (Worms, 1954,

pp. 1067-88); Sherlock Hill (Mountford, 1964, in press); Depuch

Island (MeCarthy, 1961, pp, 121-48); Petri and Schultz, 1951, pp. 70-

93), and those recorded by Davidson (1952, pp. 76-117), are produced

by a different technique from that of the pecked engravings so wide.

spread throughout Australia. EKngrayings of the latter type, many of

which are of great age consist of a series of indentations or gashes

in the rock surface, probably made by a sharp-edged boulder held in

the hand. Plate 9D is an example of rock engravings from Rock

Cod Island in the Port Hedland area,

(1) Mountford (1929, pp, 243-248), revords a rock engraving from Panaramitee North in

South Australia that beurs a strong resemblance to that of a sea-going erocodile, "The

preseut habitat of this creature is now over 1,000 miles north, Later, Mountford and

Edwards (1962, p. 172), published a deseription of a marine turtle and a fish fron the

same wren, The present coastline ia over 100 miles from these engravings.

(2) ‘Mroughout this paper 1 have used the general term petroglyphs for all types of rock

markings; reserving the term engravings for those exainples where the designs consist

of & series of ponetures or indentations (pl, 9D)5 wud poundings where the dasigna,

a8 On Gallery Hill and Depuch Island, have been made by battering the rovk surfnee

(pl 9A, B, ©),

MOUNTFORD—GALLERY HILL ROCK POUNDINGS 9)

1S)

INDIAN OCEAN glfedecrey

x

Port Hedland

A .

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See Inset

Gallery Hill @

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Western Show Mine @ GALLERYHILL @

Fig. 1. Geographical map of area of research in north-western Australia.

9? RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Ou the other hand, the rock poundings on Gallery Till are the

result of battering the surface of the rock with a rounded stone until

the dark-ecoloured patina is destroyed, leaving a white mark the shape

of the design (plate 9A),

Withnell (1901, p, 29), deserihes a technique of rock pounding

employed by the aborigines in the Rochourne area whieh is, almost

certainly, the same as that used at Gallery Will, We writes:

‘They (the aborigines), have many rock carvings; every hill

that lias suitably hard stone will have some kind of figure

tattooed thereon. They do not choose the softer rocks, and

mainly prefer basalt and granite. The method adopted is to

draw the outline with chalk or ochre and with a hard stone

hammer within the outline until the rock is fretted away about

an eighth of an inch deep f

Clements (1908, p. 9), also made a short reference to the same

subject,

The rock ponndings on Depuch Island deserihed us rock

engravings by Wickham (1842, pp. 79-83), and later by MeCarthy

(1961, pp. 121-48) and others, have recently been examined and

photographed in detail by the author,

A elose examination of these designs showed that they, like the

rock poundings on Gallery Hill, had been made by battering the

basaltic rocks of Depueh Island with a sharp-edged stone until the

surface was eroded to the shape of the required design.

The faet that the aborigines at Depuech Island used sharp-

edged stones and those at Gallery Hill, Roehbourne and in Central

Australia (mentioned later) only rounded boulders was, no doubt,

determined by the type of material available. Whichever type of

abrading tool was employed however, the final results were com-

paratively shallow markings of similar appearance, A comparison of

the photographs of rock poundings at Gallery Hill and Depueh Island

(plate 9 A, B, C), with a rock engraving at Rock Cod Tsland in the

Port Hedland area (plate 9 D), illustrates the wide difference between

the two types of petroglyphs,

Rock pounding, the same technique as that probably used by the

aporiginal artists at Gallery Till, is still a living art over a wide area

in central Australia (fig. 2) where the author has photographed and

later recorded the aborigines producing their rock pictures by batter-

ing or pounding the rock surfaces (Mountford, 1955, pp. 845-52).

MOUNTFORD—GALLERY HILL ROCK POUNDINGS 93

By using the same method of rock pounding I have been able to

produce desigus on the boulders of Gallery Hill which were, to all

intents and purposes, indistinguishable from those made by the

aborigines. It was necessary however, to use larger boulders and

strike heavier blows to break through the patina on the gramite

boulders at Gallery Hill than if was on the rocks of central Australia

where, apparently, the surface is much less resistant to erosion. On

Depuch Island, too, comparatively light blows with small sharp-edged

stones, broke through the patina on the basaltic rock.“

(2) Methods of Recording.

To record the rock poundings on Gallery Hill an eye-level camera

and colour film was used, care being taken that, as near as possible,

all exposures were made at right angles to the rock face on which the

design had been pounded. An Australian florin was included as a

seale, on most, but not all of the photographs. This is the reason why

the seales on figs. 4-6, 8, are shown as approximate,

INDIAN

OCEAN

“8 Port Hedland

NSS Rock Pounding-non-living art

G7 Rock Pounding -living art

Fig. 2.) Map of distribution of rock poundings.

To prepare the illustrations for pubheation a blaek and white

photograph was first made from cach colour fransparency, and the

florin, when it was included, enlarged to the same size in all prints.

GH) Mince going to press, Mre Tan Crawford (1964), tas pablished an excellent and accurate

description of the rock engravings of Dopuch Island. ‘The rack markings illustrated

hy Grawford would fall in with my deseription of rock poundings.

94 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The image of the rock pounding was then inked in, with continuous

reference to the colour transpareney, and the photograph bleached.

The resultant drawing was then mounted with the others to make up

the text figures.

By using these techniques if was possible to obtain a lar more

accurate representation of the rock poundings on Gallery Hill than

by any other method.

(3) Distribution of petroglyphs,

An examination of Davidson's map (1952, p, 77), shows that there

is not only fully identified petroglyphie site south of an east-west line

drawn from Carnarvon, on the west const of Western Australia, Nor

is if certain, with any degree of accuracy, that petroglyphs have been

found north of the southern edge of the Great Sandy Desert.

Although Davidson’s evidence on petroglyphs (mueh of whieh was

obtained by personal interviews with local residents), is often

indefinife, it has been possible to identify from his illustrations five

localities of rock poundings, i.e, Mount Mdgar and Parri Mucean,

more or less on the southern edge of the Great Sandy Desert;

Cooupoovey, in the Roebourne area and Williamsbury and Gifford Creek,

in the country north-east of Carnarvon. Witlmell (1901, p. 29) and

Clements (1903, p. 9), record what were probably rock poandings from

the Roebourne area and, Wickham (1842, pp. 79-83) and MeCarthy

(1961, pp. 121-48), from Depueh Island. Mountford (1964, pp. )

has reeorded rock poundings from Sherlock Hill, and Worms (1954,

pp. 1067-82), from Gallery Hull.

The distribution map, fig. 2, based on the research of the above

authors, from information gathered from local residents, and my

additional investigations suggests that all the petroglyphie sites in

Western Australia, north of Carnarvon and south of the Great Sandy

Desert | with the exception of the rock engravings in the Port Hedland

area recorded by McCarthy (1962, pp, 1-74), and others] can be

elassified as rock poundings,

Included on the same map are localities of the living art of rock

ponnding found in central Australia (Mountford, 1955, pp. 845-52).

Examples of this living art extend from the Granites gold field, in

north-western central Australia, to the end of the Mann Range on the

border of central and Western Australia, There is no doubt that

future research will reveal many additional sites in this area,

MOUNTFORD—GALLERY HILL ROCK POUNDINGS oS

ai |

| Not to scale

Mig. 3. Rock poundings at Gallery Hill.

96 RECCRDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

As, according to Davidson (1952, p. 112), what is probably the

sume type of rock pounding extends eastwards to Opthalmia Range

Gap on the upper reaches of the Fortescue River in Western Australia,

and only 600 miles of almost unknown country separates it from the

living art of central Australia, it is more than likely that future

researeh will link the eastern and western areas. Such a link, coupled

with Withnell’s and Clement’s evidence that rock pounding was 4

living art at Roebourne within this century, would suggest that the

rock poundings at Gallery Mill have been made during comparatively

recent times,

(4) Description of Rock Poundings.

As the rock poundings on Gallery Hill are numerous, only a

limited number are illustrated on figs. 3-8. This selection however

may be taken as representative of the whole series.

(a2) Complex designs of men and women with exaggerated

genitalia.

(b) Simpler representations of men and women.

(c) Simple designs, in which figures of human beings are

reduecd to a series of lines.

(¢) Curvilinear abstract patterns without any obvious meaning,

(e) Creatures,

(a) These decorative rock poundings of men and women are more

numerous at Gallery Will than any other desien. In general the men

have exagverated penes, such as figs. 8D, K and O; 4A, B, H, J, and

M; 5B, G, J, L, N, O and Q; 6D, K; and 7B. The women, too, are

shown with much enlarged vulvae having, in a nuniher of examples,

lines leading from them. Fixamples are figs. 3h, J, M, and P; 4P;

and 6C). Some of my informants considered that these lines

represented rine, and others, menstrnal fluid.

Almost without exception, the rock poundings in group (@) showed

men and women in strong action, often in the most decorative positions,

They usually have long thin limbs and, in most examples, only two

fingers on each hand, although some have three or more. A number

of these figures are also wearing attractive head-dresses.“!

CG) Withnell (1001, p. 89) and Clements (1908, p. 9), vefer to the rovk markings at Roebourne

as depicting men and women in vulgar gttitades. This appenrs to be a chavacteristie

of the rock poundings of north-western Australia,

() Worms (1954, p. 1075, figs. A, BR) Ulustrates a number of these bead-dresses, Ho links

some of these with the gurmangara—l do not feel this is proven.

° © ppmak SCALE IN_INCHE:

Fig. 4, Rock poundings at Gallery Hill.

98 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

(b) ‘Throughout the rock poundings on Gallery Hill are a number

of more or less static figures of men and women, usually without

highly exaggerated genitalia and head-dresses, Some are illustrated

on figs. SL; 41K; OK; and 6A, U. Worms (1954, p. 1078) who also

refers to some of these markings, considers that they are older than

group (a).

(c) This group consists of a number of much simplilied repre-

sentations of human beings skilfully reduced to a series of lines. Fig,

3G represents a man wearing what is probably the ceremonial engraved

head ornament, fi, and holding a stiek or a shield in vither hand.

His penis has been extended to form a meandering pattern, Fie. 3H,

probably depicts a man with a large penis. Fig. 5K is a particularly

simple rock pounding. Nevertheless it is possible to recoguize a man

with a long penis wearing a head-dress and carrying a boomerang in

one hand. Figs. 6G and Tare two more simple figures, The first,

with two fingers on each hand, is made up entirely of a cirele for a

head and narrow single lines for the limbs and body; the second

(fig. GE), with a head-dress of radiating lines, is carrying a weapon

in one hand. Fig. 7A depicts an armless individual, with the legs

turned sharply upwards, wearing a long head-dress. Fig, SL, a much

simplified design, almost certainly illustrates a long-legged human

bemg. The upper eurvying lines represents a head-dress, and the two

lower lines, the arms.

There ave a few examples of over-carving among the roek pound-

ings on the northern side of Gallery Hill, Wherever this has happened,

the older figures are indicated in the illustrations by a series of dots,

Most of the more ancient human figures (figs. 31, P and 41) are

weary a form of head-dress that is not present on any of the figures

in full line. It is possible that these rock poundings are examples of

an earlier phase of the art of Gallery Hall. On the other land, the

design of a parthy defaced man earrying a boomerang in either

hand (fig, 6(°) is almost identical with another in full line (fig. 41),

(¢d) The simplest and, without doubt, the most ancient forms of

rock pietures on Gallery Hill (fig. 8) were found sparsely seattered

around fhe base and on the eastern end.

In general these poundings consist of abstract civeular and

curvilinear patterns. There are, however, two linear designs (fig. 8A

and N), the former of which may be either an elaborated hnman

figure or a lizard, and the latter, perhaps, a series of emu tracks.

MOUNTFORD—GALLERY HILL ROCK POUNDINGS 99

Fig, 5. Rock poundiugs at Gallery Hill.

100 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

(e) The rock poundings depicting creatures form a small propor-

tion of the engravings. There is a cnrious bird-like figure, wearing a

long head-drvess at 6P;'" two kangaroos at GR, T; a bandicoot-ike

creature at 6Q; a probable freshwater crab at GS and a curious

unidentified creature at 6M. There is a snake at 3b, a non-homan

figure nnder the three women at SB, and what may be a grub-like

creature at 5M, The three dotted figures at 7B are of some interest,

Qn the one hand they resemble a fresh-water turtle, whieh is present,

in the rivers and, on the other, some sting-ray like ereature whieh

belongs to the sea,

(5) Sequence of rock poundings

As inentioned earlier, Gallery Hill is a large oval pile of boulders

with the major axis lying in a north-south direction, The most

complex rock pounding’s (figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7), are grouped exelnsively

on the north-easterly, northerly and north-westerly sides, and the

siinple abstract patterus (lig. 8) scattered sparsely all around the hase

of the hill. On the northern side many of these simple designs (shown

as a series of dots) are partly obsenred by move complex figures,

ie., figs. SA, B, FY J, O, P and 50). These simple poundings are the

only ones present on the southern end,

The more complex ponndings, being lighter in colour, stand out

élearly against the dark-coloured rock (plate 1A) but the simpler

forms, being patinated to a greater or lesser degree, are much darker

in colour,

At present, three sequences of these simple figures can be reeog-

nized; the abstract patterns shown on fig. &, and those partly covered

by fig. 3A, B, Fo and O, and 5Q); a more advanced type under the more

complex figures at figs, 3, P; 4K; 6C; and fig. 7B. Worms (1954,

p. 1078), considers that my fig, 6A belongs to an earlier phase.

A detailed analysis of the markings on a number of sites within the

same area will probably establish a number of definite sequences,

(6) Origin and meanings.

There is a tendency on the part of some investigators to accept

the statements of aborigines as absolute fact, whereas they may have

no specific knowledge, but merely be expressing au opinion, This has

happened to me both at Gallery Hill and, many years earlier, at Red

Gorge in South Australia (Mountford and Fdwards, 1965, in press).

(©) Wonnms (1954, p. VOTI) considers that this design represents woman. This may be so,

Pig. 6 Rock poundings at Gallery If}.

102 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Not to scale

Fig. 7. Rock poundings at Gallery Hill.

When I asked the local aborigines about the origin of the rock

pictures at Gallery Hill, I was told that they had been made by the

Minjiburu, a group of mythical women whom the aborigines believe

had created most of the topographical features in the surrounding

country.

Later, one of the old men, in conversation, said to me:

‘Them fellows say Minjiburu women made those marks but

they’re only guessing. We blackfellows don’t know who made

them; we only think it was the Minjiburuw.’

To find out whether there was any reference to rock pounding'’s in

the Minjiburu myths I recorded a long series of chants describing the

travels of these women. The results were entirely negative.

Worms (1954, p. 1082) considers that the most recent layer of

poundings on Gallery Hill are connected with the gurangara cult

which, according to him, moved into the area from the east during

historical times. He bases his assumption that according to him, as

the gurangara ceremonies terminate in ritual coitus, and that as a

number of the rock poundings at Gallery Hill show men and women in

that act, those rituals and the rock poundings are associated.

An examination of Worm’s illustrations (plate Ile, d; 2d; and

3a, b), shows that he has based his hypothesis on faulty information.

He quotes his illustrations as—

*. . . engraved men and women in circumstances connected

with the sexual act . . . J am of the opinion that these coitus

MOUNTFORD—GALLERY HILL ROCK POUNDINGS 103

engravings are early reflections of the gurangara. That is the

reason I have called them the gurangara petroplyphs.’

Yet plate le, d is, according to his caption, a ‘Frieze of men’, (see my

fig. 3D) and his plate 2d, a woman and a dim figure of a man some

distance apart. In his plate 8a, the figures are not copulating, although

they may be preparing to do so (see my fig. 4H), and his plate 3b

is a male figure and what may be a female, but they are certainly not

copulating. This examination of Worm’s illustrations shows the

hypothesis that the gurangara cult and the rock poundings at Gallery

Hill are associated is based on a single uncertain design (7.e., my

fig. 4H) depicting coitus.

Nevertheless, I did find a clear-cut illustration of coitus at Gallery

Hill (fig. 7D), and McCarthy (1961, p. 27) has illustrated a number of

men and women at Depuch Island in the act of coitus.

Because of the conflicting and somewhat indefinite evidence it

would not be safe at present to assume that the rock poundings at

Gallery Hill, Sherlock Hill or Depuch Island are linked with either the

myth of the Minjiburu. women or the gurangara cult. But, on the

other hand, it would be equally unwise to deny categorically that it

was not so until much more information is available.

The vitality, beauty and wide range of designs at Gallery Aull,

Sherlock Hill and Depuch Island, and at other localities in the rock

pounding area of north-western Australia, suggests that some new and

powerful cultural influence must have stimulated the aborigines to

develop a petroglyphic art form that is more varied and decorative

than elsewhere in Australia.

The fact that the present-day aborigines have lost all memory of

the origin of these rock markings does not indicate great age. Both

Stanner (1956, p. 52) and Mountford (1965, p. 24) show that the

aborigines, having no history in our sense of the word, quickly discard

all knowledge of past events.

(7) Summary

The petroglyphic art of Australia consists of two forms, the rock

engravings and the rock poundings.

Rock engravings, widespread throughout Australia, are made up

of a number of closely-spaced indentations or punctures in the rock

surface, that have been cut with a sharp-edge stone tool. It has been

shown that many of these engravings are of great age.

MOUNTFORD—GALLERY HILL. ROCK POUNDINGS 105

Rock poundings, on the other hand, are produced by battering the

surface of the rock with a boulder until the dark-brown patina is

destroyed, leaving the design as a white mark, This technique is a

living art in central Australia.

There is a wide range of pounded designs on the rocks of Gallery

Hill. The most numerous of them are the decorative and vital rock

pictures of men and women often with exaggerated genitalia and head-

dresses of many designs. There are also static figures of human

beings, simple pictures of men and women made up of remarkably

few lines; abstract curvilinear rock poundings and a few representa-

tions of the creatures.

Our present knowledge of the petroglyphic art of north-western

Australia suggests that the rock engravings are confined to the coastal

regions adjacent to Port Hedland, and that the art of rock pounding

extends to the south and east of that locality.

It is possible that future research will link the living art of rock

pounding in central Australia with that of north-western Australia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My thanks are due to the Wenner-Gren Foundation of New York,

to the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies and the Social

Science Research Council for the funds that made it possible for me

to carry out the research in this and other units of aboriginal art in

north-west Australia. I am also grateful to Mr. Reginald Sherlock,

both for his hospitality and his kindness in transporting my party to

the rock pounding site at Gallery Hill; to Mr. KE. Roberts, District

Officer of Native Welfare for his kindness and assistance; to the

Director of the South Australian Museum for the use of his facilities;

to the Principal Librarian of the Public Library of South Australia

for photographie supplies and the assistance of his staff; to Miss

Brenda Hubbard for many of the tracings and to Miss Margaret King

for her help both in the field and her assistance in the preparation of

this paper.

REFERENCES

Clements, K., 1903: Ethnographic Notes of the Western Australian

Aborigines. Int. Arch. Ethnogr, Leiden, 16.

106 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Crawford, L, 1964; Report on the Aboriginal Rock Engraving

"GE Depuch Island, Western Australia. Spee. Publ. No. 2,

W. Aust. Mus.

Davidson, D. S8., 1952: Notes on the Pictographs and Petroglyphs of

Western Australia and a discussion of their affinities with

the appearances elsewhere on the Continent, Proc. Amer.

phil. Soe. Philadelphia, 96, 1.

MeCarthy, F. D., 1961: The Rock Engravings of Depueh Island. Ree.

Ave Mus. Sydney, 25, 8.

1962: Rock Hngravings at Port Hedland, North-Western

Australia, Kroeber Anthrop. Soe. San Francisco, 26.

Mountford, C. P., 1928: Aboriginal Roek Carvings in South Australia.

Rep. Aust. Ass. Advane. Sei., Hobart, 19,

1929: Unique Kxample of Aboriginal Rock Carving at

Panaramitee North. Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust. 53.

1995: An unrecorded Method of Aboriginal Roek Markings.

Ree, 8. Aust. Mus. 11(4),

1965; Ayers Rock, its People, their Beliefs and their Art,

Sydney.

1965: Rock Poundings on Sherloek Hill, Abydos Station,

N.W. Aust. Antiquity Cambridge (in pres).

Mountford, C. P. and Hdwards, R., 1962: Aboriginal Rock lngraving's

a Hixtinet Creatures in South Australia, Man, London,

62, Article 174.

1965: Rock Kngravings in the Red Gorge, Deception Creek,

Northern South Australia, Anthropos, St. Augustin 1965

(in press).

Petri, H. lH. and Sehultz, A. S., 1951: Pelsgraviernugen aus Nord-west

Australien. Zeitserift fur Ethnologie, Berlin, 76(1).

HXPLANATION OF PLATE 9

PLATE 9, ABORIGINAL PETROGLYPITIS,

A. Rock poundings, Gallery Hill,

B, Close-up of rock poundings, Gallery Hill,

©. Roek poundings, Depuch Island.

D. Rock engravings, Rock Cod Island, Port Hedland,

, Puatre 9

5)

Vou. 1

UM

S.A. Muse

AC.

Re

MOUNTFORD—GALLERY HILL ROCK POUNDINGS 107

Stanner, W. H. K., 1956: The Dreaming. The Australian Signpost,

Sydney.

Wickham, Capt., 1842: Notes on Depuch Island. Journal of Royal

Geographic Society, London, 12.

Withnell, John G., 1901: The Customs and Traditions of the Aboriginal

Natives of North Western Australia, Roebourne.

Worms, E. A., 1954: Prehistoric Petroglyphs of the Upper Yule River,

North-western Australia. Anthropos, St. Augustin (49).

RESUME

L’art pétroglyphique de |’Australie se compose de deux formes—

les gravures en pierre, et les fondus en pierre.

Les gravures de pierre, agées de bien des années, consistent en

quelques impressions serrées dans la surface, faites par un outil affile

en pierre.

On produit les fondus de pierre en battant la surface jusqu’a la

destruction de patina, ce qui laisse le dessin comme une marque

blanche.

Ce journal discute les techniques de production, la distribution, les

origines, les significations et la succession des fondus de pierre que

Von trouve A Gallery Hill, du nord-ouest de l’Australie Ouest. Ceci

deeristet en détail les dessins que l’on y trouve.

FISHING RITES AT BE-MALAI, PORTUGESE TIMOR

By MARGARET J. E. KING

Summary

This paper describes and illustrates the sacrificial rites and ceremonial fishing activities

witnessed by the writer in August 1960 at the estuary in Be-Malai in central Timor. The

region in which Be-Malai is situated is bounded on the north-west coast by the Ombai

Strait and, landward to the south-east by: the confluence of the rivers Lois and Be-Bai.

These rivers form the main hydrographic basin of Portugese Timor. (Map. Fig. 1.)

A mountain chain runs parallel to the coast, the principal peaks of which are, Kotabot

(518 m.), Saniran (759 m.) and Samoono (729 m.) which lie to the south-west of the

estuary. Ingerhitoe (464 m.) is situated on t he coast to the north-east of Be-Malai, and

the peak Atabai (991 m.) dominates. the inland area to the west of the river Lois,

The area of Atabai is the home of one of the two groups of people taking part in the

rituals to be described, their name being derived from the peak, The other clan —known

as the men of Balibé, live in the flat inland region behind Kotabot and Saniran.

Along the coastal area of Be-Malai, bounded by Cape Fatue Sue on the north-east and,

for 160 kms. In a south-westerly direction to the outlet of the river Be-Bai, the off-shore

shows markedly more shallow than in the adjacent coastal areas. For some 32 kms.

Inland the country is equally flat. The abovementioned mountain chain rises abrubtly

from this level plain.

The area in which the festival of Be-Malai takes place is dominated by the mountain

Samono. The salt-water tidal flats of the Be-Malai estuary teem with fish of excellent size

and quality and exceptionally large prawns. The sea-going crocodile, also present in

reasonably large numbers, is regarded by the peoples of Atabai and Balib6é as a mythical

ancestor,

The rites described in this paper, practised by the Timorese clans of Balibé and Atabai at

Be-Malai, apparently of great antiquity, commemorate the myth of the creation of Be-

Malai. (Be—water; Malai—foreign.) These rites take place every four years, usually on

the August 29" and 30", but this date is governed by the appearance of dead or dying fish

and prawns floating on the water. This the Timorese take as a sign that the power of the

Lulic (supernatural influence) in the water is waning and requires rejuyenation. When I

observed these ceremonies they had been advanced to August 19" and 20" for this

reason. If the rains have been exceptionaly heavy the festival is occasionally held within

the four year period. However, according to my informants, this occurs but rarely and

then only at the exrpess command of the Rai-lulic of Balibé after due discussion with the

chieftains of Atabai and Balibd. These chieftains are responsible for the assembly of their

people along the banks of the estuary, to recreate the myth and participate in the two days

of continuous fishing which follows the successful conclusion of the sacrificial rites.

FISHING RITES AT BE-MALAI, PORTUGUESE TIMOR

By MARGARET J, KE. KING

Plates 10-11 and text fig, 1

CONTENTS

Introduction and geographic detail.

(a) The myth.

(b) The rites.

(c) Deseription of ceremony.

(d) Keonomic aspects of the fishing ceremony.

(e) Funetion of the ceremony.

Summary,

Acknowledgments.

SY THAILAND \ ip 2

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LAOS VIETNAM Mn (PHILIPPINES

|

Uy CAMBODIA L y

SQUTH CHINA SEA

a

EX

PACIFIC OCEAN

f/ HY ~ }

(CELEBESY

INDIAN OCEAN . — ‘ FLORES SEA

WEST PACIFIC AREA

SCALE — 15000000

Fig. 1. Area map and inset of region in Timor connected with the fishing rites

of Be-Malai,

110 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

INTRODUCTION

This paper deserihes aud illustrates the sacrificial rites and

ceremonial fishing activities witnessed by the writer in Angust 1960

at the estuary of Be-Malai in central Timor, The region in which

Be-Malai is situated is bounded on the north-west coast by the Ombai

Strait and, landward to the south-east, by the confluence of the rivers

Lois and Be-Bai, These rivers form the main hydrographic basin of

Portuguese Timor. (Map. Fig. 1.)

A mountain chain runs parallel to the coast, the principal peaks

of which are, Kotabot (518 m,), Saniran (759 m.) and Samono (729 1.)

which le to the south-west of the estuary, Ingerhitoe (464 m.) is

situated on the eoast to the north-east of Be-Malai, and the peak

Adahai (991 m.) dominates the inland area to the west of the river Lois.

The area of Atabai is the home of one of the two groups of people

taking part in the ritnals to be deseribed, their name being derived

from the peak, The other clan—known as the men of Balibé, live in

the (lat inland region behind Kotabot and Saniran.

Aloug the coastal area of Be-Malai, hounded by Cape Faine Sue

on the north-east and, for 160 kms. in a south-westerly direction to

the outlet of the river Be-Bai, the off-shore shows markedly more

shallow than im the adjaeent coastal areas. For some 32 kms. inland

the country is equally flat, The abovementioned mountain chain rises

abruptly from this level plain.

The area in whieh the festival of Be-Malai takes place is

dominated by the mountain Samone, The salt-water tidal flats of the

Be-Malai estuary teem with fish of excellent size and quality and

exceptionally large prawns, The sea-going croeodile, also present in

reasonably large numbers, is regarded by the peoples of Atabai and

Balibé as a mythical ancestor.

The rites described in this paper, practised by the Timorese elans

of Balibé and Atabai at Be-Malai, apparently of great antiquity,

commemorate the myth of the ereation of Be-Malai. (Be—water;

Malai—loreign.) These rites take place every four years, usually on

August 29th and S0th, but this date is governed by the appearance of

dead or dying fish and prawts floating on the water, This the

Timorese take as a sign that the power of the Lute (supernatural

influence) in the water is waning and requires rejuvenution. When

! observed these ceremonies they bad been advanced to August 19th

and 20th for this reason, Lf the rains have been exceptionally heavy

the festival is oceasionally held within the four year period. Tlow-

KING—FISHING RITES IN TIMOR TI

ever, according to my mformants, this oeeurs but rarely and then only

at the express command of the Razlulic™ of Balibé after due

discussion with the chieftains of Atabai and Balibé. These chieftains

are responsible for the assembly of their people along the banks of

ihe estuary, to recreate the myth and participate in the two days of

continuous fishing which follows the sueccess!ul conclusion of the

sacrifieial rites,

(a) The Myth.

There were once two great chieftains, one of Atabai and one af

Balibé. (Map. Fig. 1.) Beeanse there lad been much dissension

concerning the boundary lines between the two groups of peoples,

(hey met to discuss the just division of areas within the region. The

two men, inahle to reach agreement, fell to lighting with their staves,

While the fight was in progress a very aged woman appeared,

earrying on her head a large cooking-pot full of water, The chief

from Balibé struck her on the head with hig stave which broke in two

as it smashed the pot which she was carrying. The old woman

disappeared but the water from the broken pot flowed away to form

the estuary of Be-Malai,

(b) The Rites.

In former times a man lrom Balibé, renowned for his physical

strength, was killed as a part of the fertility sacrifice. T was told by

a Portuguese official that this enlt of human sacrifice was suppressed

by the Portuguese, following the 1769 consolidation of their colonisa-

tion of Timor, which commenced im 1522,°?

Before this time it was necessary for the man selected for sacrifice

to belong to the family of the chief of Balibé, But, it would seem

from the imformation gathered, that only rarely would an actual

member of the Rato (highest social caste) he sacrificed for, unless it

was obvious that a ato was an outstanding physical specimen, a

member of the Patcha (mobility ranking immediately below the Rato)

would be chosen, and formally adopted as the son of the chief of

daily lite of the clan,

(2) Bearing in mind muonerous reports of other substitution suerificial rites throughout the

world, wand the facet that To was unable to obtain any precise information from

alternative sourees (0 confirm or deny this stiutement, suggests ib may be a rationalization

davelopad over a condderable period of time. It is doubtful that the ediet against

human suerifice could have been suceessfaully imposed on the Timorese prior to the

complete pucifiention of the islind by the Portugaese in L913,

112 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Balibo. While this conferred little advantage on the vietim, it was of

considerable benefit to his mother and her childven who were older

than the sacrificial vietim (younger children did not receive a rise in

status). The mother was presumed to have been a wife of the Chief

and therefore, theoretically, her sons were in line to inherit the estates,

and her daughters free to marry into neighbouring Ratlo families.

In practice this rarely oeeurred, for the ‘sons’ would be called upon

to defend the honour of their ‘father’ upon mmerous oeeasions (and

often he killed in the process) and the daughters would be married

off to their ‘brothers’—the natural sons of the chief—thus ensuring

that the ‘saered blood’ was not mixed with any other ruling family

or caste,

At the present time a black boar and a young female buffalo are

saerificed and the human vietim offered symbolically. Tf the chief of

Balibé has no son, the substitute is also only adopted symbolically

info the Rato tamily and any elder children of his mother continue

their Patcha status. The female buffalo comes from the herds of the

chief of Balibé and he and members of his family are the first to

partake of the flesh following the death of the sacrificial animal, The

symbolical ‘victim’, although technically part of the family, does not

receive any of this flesh. Tt is possible that the black boar also comes

from the herds belonging to the chief of Balibé, but of this T have no

direct information,

(¢) Description of ceremony,

On the day preceding the commencement of the rites and asso-

ciated festivities, members of both elans and all castes gather along

the hanks of the Be-Malai estuary; the people of Atabai on the

northern, and the people of Balibé on the southern, side,

A large communal rotunda is built on the Atabai side of the

estuary, and a bridge is constructed to span the water and facilitate

social intereourse between the Rato and Patcha eastes of Atabai and

Balibé, On the night before the sacrificial rites take place they mingle

freely in the rotunda, dancing and singing far into the night.

The bridge and rotunda are constructed from bamboo and

decorated with thin sheathes of young bamboo curled and fastened

with Hana vine,

(2) Until recent economic and soci! influences contributed to a break in age-old customs, it

was. virtually impossible for marriages to be contracted between members of differing

social stratum,

KING—PFISHING RITES IN TIMOR Ws

The footpath of the bridge is formed of split bamboo and the

handrails have archways of the same material fixed at frequent

intervals, These are decorated with spirals of bamboo. Krom the

apex of the areh is suspended a coconut shell filed with oil and having

a bamboo ‘wick’. These lamps are lit immedintely the sun has set,

and are constantly replenished throughout the night.

The banks of the estuary are also illuminated by placing large

bamboo poles decorated in a similar manner at one metre intervals

vn both sides of the water, A coconut shell to hold the of] is firmly

fixed in the hollow apex of the poles,

At the setting of the sun the ‘vietim’ (plate 10C') retires to a

specially prepared Palapa™) tut, which is built well away from the

two celebrating groups of people (plate 10B), From the time he

crosses the threshold of the hut he may not hold conversation with

anyone, nor partake of food or drink until the rites of sacrifice are

completed.

On the following morning the human ‘victim’ is led to the edge

of the water and struck o1 the head from behind with a long wooden

stuye, Falling, he feigns death and is immediately bound, covered

With a tarafa (a native fishing net), and a new and beautifully woven

tai (a long skirt-like garment worn by Timorese men), is folded and

placed beneath his head (plate 11A). This method of placing the tai

is identical with normal burial practice among these people, A small

black boar (Sus scrofa vittatus) is then brought close to him and

killed by having a long thin-bladed knife plunged into its heart, The

body of the animal is then pressed by the executioner cansing the

blood to well through the opening into the enrrent of the water in the

estuary, for approximately twenty minutes. This process is termed

by the Timorese ‘giving to the water’, During the time that the

blood of the pig is entering the water, there is complete silence among

the groups congregated on both of the estuary banks and the people

surrounding the ‘vietim' and the dead body of the boar (plate

1OA, plate 11AB).

When the blood has ceased to flow from the boar, a slow

procession of decorated boats (plate 10A, plate 11B) leaves the shallow

tree-lined channel in the south-east corner of the estuary, near the

point where the man has been ‘sacrificed’.

(4) Palapo is the terin used by the Timorese for poorer Ipss durihle types of bamboa

construction,

14 RECORDS OF THE 8.A. MUSEUM

The lending boat (a, plate LOA) is decorated with arches of

spitalled bamboo, and a large bleached cotton fabric square of

Timorese weave is fastened, like a banner, across the prow of the

boat. On this are inscribed various signs and figures,

The Rate meu of Balibé are seated in the hoat, and the profuse

decorations almost obseure them from the gaze of the people on the

banks of the estuary,

Instead of wearing their nsual colourful costumes they are dressed

in while garments, and are without the usual wold, coral and goat-hair

ornaments indicative of the ruling caste of Timor.

Towed by the leading boat in the procession, is a second boat

(b, plate 104) carrying a fisherman standing in the prow, with his

taraja ready to fling into the water, Behind him is a portion of tree

stump (which, | was told, is very lulic)™ > also covered by a bleached

cotton cloth inseribed in a similar manner to the banner of the leading

boat (g, plate 10A). Kneeling in front of this stump is a Rato of

Balibé, The steersman sits in the stern guiding the boat gently with

amooth strokes from a large single paddle which enters the water

withont a splash. If is essential that the water is not disturbed in

any way.

The remaining boats in the procession (e, ¢, ¢, e, plate 11B) which

contain the Patcha of Balibé, all carry lulre sticks. These are branches

forked in a particularly significant manner!" and bear smaller pieces

of inscribed cloth (d, d, d, d, plate 11B), Unfortunately [ was unable

to obtain a elose enough view to observe the markings on these

‘banners’.

The boats containing members of the rulmg caste and nobility of

Alahai (f, plate 11B) are moored along the processional route, while

the sleano (lowest easte) of both clans line the estuary banks

(¢, plate LOA).

When the fisherman standing in the prow of the boat immediately

behind the decorated leader (a, b, plate 10A) casts his net mto the

water, every other fisherman in the following boats (e, ¢, ¢, ¢, plate

104, 11B) then follows his example. This is the signal for the ending

(4) Lulie—having sacred supernatural power. The term is used freely as an adjective and

noun, Sometimes, though less frequently, as a verb.

(6) Talio sticks, Ut is often diffienlt for the Timorese Lo acquire lulte sticks as they may

not be cut, or shaped artificially, and the stick must ‘‘speak’’ to the owner before he

can gequire if,

KING—FISHING RITES IN TIMOR 115

of the complete silenee which has marked the proceedings until this

moment. At the same time all the Atabai boats put out from the

shore to start fishing (1, plate 11B) and there is intense rivalry to

gain the honour of being first to reach the central channel of the

estuary,

The Alcano easte of both ¢lans rush from the banks into. the

shallows, dancing, shouting and singing; J was inlormed that this was

necessary ‘in order to stir up the nud and make the fish drunk’.

Once the leading fisherman of the processional boats (bh, plate 10.4)

has cast his net and made his first eateh, the fishing net (tarafa) is

removed from the ‘vietim’ and his bonds are ent; he rises to a

squatting position on the estnary bank and, holding lis nose in his

hand, keeps his back to the water,

Preceded by the Ratlulic, who carries an unsheathed ceremonial

sword on the open palms of his hands with his arms fully extended,

the ‘vietim’ walks along the ceremonial path to a sechided banyan

tree, still maintaining the stance shown at plate 10C, leaving the tat

on which his head has been lying, and a stave broken in two nuder

the larafa (net) on the bank of the estuary,

The female bulfalo tethered to the tree has been, before the

commencement of the ceremonies, a foeal point of interest to all

members of both elans but, from the commencement ol the rites

involving the shedding of blood, only selected adult males of Atabai

and Balibé (the two clans involved in the ritual) are permitted to the

stertficial area, and only the Rai-lulie may touch fhe buffalo.

Without looking at the buffalo tethered to the banyan tree, the

‘vietim’ goes to the opposite side and squats down with his back

against the same tree, still maintaining the ‘arms folded’ position

(plate 10C), with his head sunk upon his chest.

The Rai-lulic approaches and offers betel mut on the tip of the

ceremonin| sword first to the buffalo, and then to the male ‘victim?

who nceepts the offering directly into his mouth. The ‘vielim’ chews

for a few seeonds while the Rai-lwlic retreats still facing the man

then, turuing his head from vight to left, the ‘vietim’ expectorates

five times in a semi-circle, finally returning his head to a Srontal

position and letting his ehin fall npon his chest. He then continues

chewing,

(7) The uVantonigt path to the tree of sierifien is # show noon gy plate 10 (C). The stakes whieh

border the edges of the path are decorated in on similar fashion to the stakes whieh

line the banks of the oxtuary, but do wot earry lights.

116 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Returning to the buffalo, the Rai-litice inserts the ceremonial

sword into the vaginal passage and slowly increases the strength and

penetration of the sword thrusts until, advancing beyond the

duodenum, the point of the sword encounters and eventually pierces

the major organs of the body,

With cach bellow of the wounded buffalo, the ‘victim’ expeetor-

ates five times in a semi-circle, When the animal has finally died,

and heen disembowelled by the Mai-lulie, the ‘victim’ rises from his

squatting position and, picking up the entrails, walks to the water's

edge to ‘offer them to the water’, This offering is made in a similar

manner 10 that of the pig’s blood, 7.e., 11 is allowed 10 float into the

current of the estuary before heing released,

Following this ritnal the Rav-lulic dissects the careass of the

buffalo and, after reserving certain portions for himself, hands the

rest in equal portions to the representatives of his own people, the

Balib6é. The ‘victim’, althongh a Balibé man, does not reeeive any

of the sacrifice.

The representatives of Atabai who have observed this part of the

ceremony are not handed any portion of the buffalo,

The ‘victim’, although now free to walk along the estuary banks,

observing the fishing and partaking of the eatch, may neither partiei-

pate, nor handle the live fish.

(d) Meonomie aspects of the fishing ceremony.

The entire populations of Balib6é and Atabai fish continuously for

two or three days following the conclusion of the sacrificial rites,

Quantities of fish and prawns are caught in all stages of growth, but

only the biggest of the catch is immediately utilized, and no attempt

is made to preserve the surplus for tuture use. The smaller speeimens

eanght are thrown upon the estuary bank to ret in the sun.

In view of this wanton wastage and the apparent lack of

appreciation of the dangers of overfishing in the area, it is fortunate

that fishing only takes place at widely spaced intervals.

(e) Function of the ceremony.

The fishing rites of Be-Malai have a two-fold significance, To

commemorate the myth of the creation of the estuary and to perform

the ceremony which, it is beleyed, will ensure a continuation of an

abundant supply of fish at Be-Malai.

KING—FISHING RITES IN TIMOR 117

The ceremony also propitiates the salt-water crocodiles who

inhabit the estuary and the Ombai Strait so that, during the days of

festival, fishing may be safely undertaken,

It is significant that fishing does not take place at Be-Malai except

at the times of festival,

The Timorese of this aren display a reverence and fear toward

these crocodiles and, should a woman be taken by one of them, her

male relatives consider this to be a sign that the ancestor is so well

pleased with her that he wishes to take her for a wife. If a male is

seizedL he is usually considered to have offended his crocodile ancestor

by displaying too much arrogance in his manhood,

SUMMARY

This paper deseribes and illustrates the fertility sacrifice of

Be-Malai, Portuguese Timor, It records the area where the rituals

are carried out, the associated myth and rites and comments on

the functions of the ceremony and its economic and religious

implications.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T should like to reeord my indebtedness to Governor Themudo

Barata and the members of his Administration for the great assistance

given to me during field work in Timor. My thanks are also due to

Hedley C. Brideson, Principal Librarian and the Libraries Board of

South Australia for their generous help and interest in my work;

and to Charles P. Mountford whose advice and encouragement has

proved invaluable to me.

RESUME

Ce journal décrive et illustre la cérémonie de péche et la sacrifice

de fécondité de Be-Malai, en Timor portugais. Ceci enregistre l’endroit

oi arrivent les rites, le mythe et les rites associés de la fonetion de

la cérémonie et des ses implications économiques et religieuses.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES 10 TO 11

PLATE 10

(A) Front section of procession of decorated boats belonging to Halo and Patcha castes

of Balibé.

(B) Hut ocenpied by Balibé man prioy to rommenecement of ceremony,

(C) Balibé man nsed as ‘sacrifice’.

PLATE 11

(A) Covering the ‘vietim’ with a fishing net (farafa).

(B) Rear section of procession of decorated boats belonging to Mato and Pateha castes

of Raliha.

+

Rec. S.A. Mussum Vow. 15, Puare 10

Ty = ests

Rec. S.A. Mussum Von. 15, Phare 11

_—

TWO STONE PESTLES FROM WESTERN PAPUA AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP TO PREHISTORIC PESTLES AND MORTARS

FROM NEW GUINEA

BY GRAEME I. PRETTY

Summary

Record is made of a stone pestle collected near the Oriomo River, south-west Papua, in

1928. The owners’ story that it came to their fathers from the north-west is supported by

study of the distribution of stone implement trade routes in Western Papua and by a

report of another pestle recently discovered at a locality on the headwaters of the Fly

River. The second pestle is also described. The significance of both is discussed in

relation to other pestles and mortars from New Guinea.

TWO STONE PESTLES FROM WESTERN PAPUA AND THEIR

RELATIONSHIP TO PREHISTORIC PESTLES AND MORTARS

FROM NEW GUINEA

By GRAEME L. PRETTY, Curator or ArcHanoLocy,

Soura Avusrratian Museum

Plates 12-13 and text fig. 1-2

SUMMARY

Record is made of a stone pestle collected near the Oriomo River,

south-west Papua, in 1928. The owners’ story that it came to their

fathers from the north-west is supported by study of the distribution

of stone implement trade routes in Western Papua and by a report

of another pestle recently discovered at a locality on the headwaters

of the Fly River. This second pestle is also described. The signifi-

cance of both is discussed in relation to other pestles and mortars from

New Guinea.

INTRODUCTION

Many stone pestles, mortars and other objects labelled as

‘‘prehistoric’’ have been found in New Guinea over the last fifty years.

The present-day people frequently put them to various uses, though

betraying no certain knowledge of their original function. Of late,

these objects have been the subject of revived interest (Bulmer 1964,

Bulmer and Bulmer 1964, Chappell 1964, Galis 1964, Pretty 1964 a, b).

The following account describes two pestles, one of them surmounted

by the figure of a bird. Whereas the majority of these objects have

been recovered from the Central Highlands, the bird pestle was

collected in the far South of the Western Division, and therefore

presents a new facet to the problem of their distribution. The possible

route by which this specimen could have arrived at such a locality

will be discussed.

STONE PESTLE FROM WONITA, UPPER ORIOMO RIVER

This specimen (plate 12) is in the collection of Mr. C. W. Marshall

of Sydney, who has kindly permitted the writer to examine and

describe it. In 1928 Mr. Marshall was camped by Wonia near the

120 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

headwaters of the Oriomo River in south-west Papua (see fig. 2).

Pinoegali or Pininchelly, the site of an oil exploration bore, was just

by Wonia. His diary entry for Saturday 14th July, 1928, notes:

“Bought a most peculiar stone today of basalt—very

weathered. Unga [of] Wonia [village] gave it to me. It was

found [i.e. ‘tcame from’’; findim in Pidgin] near Pininchelly

(that [is] Wonia Bore). Tle calls it a totem signify[ing] a

(white) stone club. The Borum is the elub with » handle. He

showed me how this was grasped round the middle and used in

{he hand. Am very struck with the design’.

Marshall was then engaged on a cross-country traverse, while

surveying for Oriomo Oil Lid. He had been working in this area lor

about three months and had made it widely known that he was anxious

to acquire stone objects. This day (14th July, 1928), while sitting

in camp, the boss-boy informed him that some old men wanted to

speak with him. He consented, and a deputation of elders led by

Unga, one of his Wonia carriers, presented the specimen to him,

Marshall, in return, gave suitable presents of his own,

So far as he could ascertain they had used it as an exeention or

sacrificial club, Before this it had come to their fathers from the

north-west and belonged to something they had little conception of or

were reluctant to talk about. Sensing, from their clicking tongues,

that to press further would cause ill feeling, Marshall let the

matter rest.

These people had a story that in past times a woman also had

eome from the north-west, bringing bows, arrows, and knowledge of

fire to their lathers.

The Wonia pestle (plate 12, 183A) consists of a bird-like figure,

joined by a long stem to a bulbous base. The head and beak are well

formed and eye sockets are clearly discernible, The neek is long and

elongated and is continuous with the stem, ‘The outstretched wings

have sharply formed margins and eurve around the stem to form a

short, blunt, rounded tail. There is a faint flange separating the stem

from the bulbar base. Though almost perfectly symmetrical, closer

examination shows that a line running across the upper margins of

the wings does not meet a line through the neck and stem at right

angles. The bulbar base is slightly flattened behind.

PRETTY—STONE PESTLES FROM PAPUA 121

It measures 30 cm high and 10 em across the wings. The base

is $-10 em in diameter. The broken tip and underside of the heak

was the result of an accident shortly alter it was brought back to

headqnarters,

Marshall had been anxious to learn something of the nature of

the stone and, at the time, passed it on to Oil Company geologists for

identification. They snevested andesite as being the most likely rock

type. ‘This general identification is confirmed by Dr. D. W. P. Corbett,

Curator of Minerals and Fossils, who suggests that, in the absence of

a thin section, the composition would seem to be largely of felspars,

very heavily weathered to clay, together with dark minerals, A

xenolith, probably of epidote, can be seen projecting from the external

surface of one of the wings (plate 13A). Unfortunately the state of

weathering gives no real indication of its age.

Casts of it are in the South Australian Musenm collections and

are registered as No. A55227,

STONE PESTLE FROM OLSIVIP, FLY RIVER

MKWADWATERS

Of close velevance lo study of the Wonia pestle is the reeent

diseovery of another pestle (plate T8B) near Olsivip (Olsobip), Upper

Fly River, Western Papua. Lt was obtained by Patrol Officer R. Hoad

of the Territory Administration and brought to my attention by Mr,

B, Craig of Telefoinin (personal communication, 22nd October, 1964).

It was reported to have heen dng up somewhere in the vicinity before

being placed in the men’s louse. [{ measures 18 cm in length, and

Sem diameter at the bulb, which has been criss-crossed with bands of

red paint. It was deseribed as made from a white coloured macro-

erystalline material—perhaps a granite (B. Craig, ibid.). The

specimen was said to be intended for the Port Moresby Museum,

The unexpected discovery of an arehaeologieal stone pestle at.

Olsivip gives some substance to the report that, before the last War,

stone pestles were found at nearby Bolivip by Mr. Ward Williams

of the Oroville Gold Dredging Company (personal communication,

Mr. J. A. Davidson).

DISCUSSION

The two specimens just described are paralleled by many pestles

from other parts of the territory. They do not seem to be a culture

trait of the present-day people and are usually found in the bush or

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

‘pepnyaur jou ere AYIPBVOL Ureyedun go sueuadg ‘(snamiads v0.17}

JO SUOTPBAPUI9UOD APBoTpUL SpoqmmAs LoF1e] BI) Savptour puv sapjsad vuoJs FO UoTNGrysip Suraoys vaums) May fo dey

TL BLT

PRETTY—STONE PESTLES FROM PAPUA 123

dug up in native gardens, often to the mystifieation of their discoverers.

A considerable variety of these prehistoric atoue objects have heen

deseribed; eluh heads, perforated blades, rings, and carvings in human

and anima) forms. The most characteristic types of this assemblage

are the pestles and the mortars, which have been fully discussed by

Bulmer and Bulmer (1964, pp, 67-72). The Wonia pestle is almost

exactly paralleled by a magnificent specimen described by Captain

F. R, Barton (1908).

A tentative distribution map of the pestles and mortars has been

prepared and includes all published specimens presently known to me

(fig. 1). Lt also includes three unpublished records, two of which haye

just been deseribed, while the third, a figure of a bird with broken

sfem from Liiiagam, was examined only briefly helore its owner look

it back to the Territory im 1962. These objects scem to be densely

distributed in the Central Highlands of Australian New Guinea, being

at present concentrated in the Wahgi Valley, and extending south-

castWard alone the Central Ranges to Kokoda (8° 52/.8., 147° 45’ E.),

They ave also frequently found along the north- eat coast where the

high land comes close 10 the sea, and sare seattered throughout the

Hastern Archipelayo and in the Solomons, where they may prove to

be related to the por pounders of Polynesia, They do not appear to

ocenr in the Trobriands or the Admiralty Islands, They are almost

unknown from sauth of the Central Monntam Range, though

Williamson (1912, pp. 75- a°) has reported specimens from the ridges

beyond Matuln (8° 30° 147° 01 K). Both the ‘pestles’* from

Papua reported by De wi (1905), Livens (1911, p. 80), MeCarthy

(1949, p. 158, plate LX, fig, 9), and the stone howl reported by Biihler

from Yule Island (1946-49, fig, la, ef also Strong, 1924, p. 98, fig. 2)

seem to fall into a different category. These new records, together

with the specimens from the Wissel Lakes (3° 55’ S., 186" 15’ K.),

West New Guinea, reported by Galis (1964, p. 255), suggest that these

objects may oceur over a far wider area than has been supposed. Atry

couclasions about (he signifiesance of this distribution should be left

in abeyance until the iitervening arvas are more closely explored.

As can be seen from the tap, the position of the Wonia pestle is quite

apart from the rest of the distribution of these objects, even in its

wider sense. Tt will be the aim of the following diseussion to say

something of how the Woma pestle could have arrived at such a

locality,

Although the funetion of these objects is asually lost, the present-

day people will put those they find to use, wsually as magie stones, but

124 RECORDS QF THE 8.4, MUSEUM

sometimes in other ways, e.g., fillme morlars wilh water for mirrors

(Chinnery, 1919, p. 272; Murray 1982, p. 18; Williams 1930, p, 37;

Williamson 1912, p, 76), The Wonia pestle, although typologically

quite clearly a pestle and known by the natives to be of exotie origin,

was said to have been used as an exeeution or sacrificial club. How-

ever, there is no instance of ritual killing recorded for the Oriomo area.

In their mode of manufacture, the pestles and mortars appear to

he made by the same pecking and polishing technique as that most

recently employed in New Guinea stonework. Stone implements in

New Gninea are derived from two principal sources, quarrics and

river pebbles. Blades from quarries are made either from faked stone

blanks, shaped and ground to an edge on the spot, or traded ont in

their Haked lormi and brouglit to a finish in surrounding areas (Vial,

1940). Otherwise, blades are made from water-rounded river pebbles,

either polished into shape directly, or split and chipped into the desired

shape before polishing (le Roux 1948, pp. 42410), Clubs also appear

to have been made from rounded pebbles only, and not from (uarried

blanks. Haddon (1900) reported several instances of hardly altered

pebbles, bored and fitted to handles, serving as clubs. Williams (1930,

p. 83) describes how Orokaiva men manufactured pineapple chib-heads

from river pebbles,

Although if is possible that some may have been lnshioned from

qaarry blanks, vet from their form and variation in size, one would

expect pestles and mortars also be be made from rounded river

pebbles. In Chappell's (1964) aeconnt of a modern instance of mortar

mannglacture, the specimens were described as having been made from

sandstone river bonlders, Hence, in seeking the most likely source of

the Wonia pestle, one should look within the whole context of stone-

work in that part of Southern New Cuinea,

Western Papua, from the edge of the mountain plateau sonth to

the const, an area which for administrative purposes is known as the

Weatern Division, is alike in the almost total ahsence of Lard stone

suitable for making stone implements (Murray, 1914, p, 28; Tladdon,

1917, p. 194; Wirz, 1922, p. 114; Landtman, 1927, p. 835 Williams,

1929, p. 392; Williams, 1926, p, 108). Consisting, for the most part

of flat swatopy areas and lakes, it is intersected by two large winding

rivers, the Fly and the Strickland, with their tributaries, In the far

Sonth, alone the coast of the Western Division, a low synelinal ridge

brings the limestones well above sea level and diverts the Fly River

eastward sud into the Papuan Gulf, Kven here, save for the small

PRETTY—STONE PESTLES FROM PAPUA 125

granite outcrop at Mabaduan, there is no hard stone. The peoples of

the area are for the most part headhunters and nomads, moving

from hunting shelter to longhouse in lengthy dugout canoes. They

extend westwards well into Indonesian territory, at least as far as the

Bilanden River (Thomson 1953), and may all have the common origin

postulated by Wirz (1933, pp. 114-115). Living as they do in an area

devoid of hard stone, they are entirely dependent on trade and

conquest for their stone implements. Therefore, by study of the

literature, it should be possible to determine both the routes along

which stone implements were distributed throughout the area, and the

sources of their manufacture. Further, these trade routes, being

physiographically influenced, are likely to hold as much for prehistory

as for the immediate ethnographical past. It may then be possible

to say something of how the Wonia pestle came to its final destination.

When the distribution of stone implements and the respective

trade routes are plotted on a map (fig. 2),“ it will be seen that there

were two main sources of manufacture; one in the area of the Fly

River headwaters and the other in the Torres Straits islands.

Although there are new records of blade quarries in the former region,

they will be described elsewhere, and only that evidence which relates

to stone pebble sources will be discussed here.

The headwaters of the Fly River have pebbles in abundance.

Austen (1923, p. 344) reports that on the Ok Tedi tributary (6° 10’ S.,

141° 08’ E.), clubs were made locally. Davidson (personal communi-

cation, 10th December, 1964) was in the same area and saw clubs made

from river pebbles and perforated with a long stone. At a point on

the Upper Fly where this progress was impeded by shingle bars,

D’Alberfis (1880, Vol. 2, p. 86) made his largest collection of stone

implements. Less direct evidence is Murray’s (1914, p. 25), who

writes that, as he travelled downstream, the stone blades tended to

become smaller in size and more highly valued by their owners.

Although there are great quantities of river pebbles (Wilkinson, 1888,

p. 203; Hides, 1936, p. 40), there is no evidence of stonework along

the thinly populated Strickland River. In Torres Straits, according

to Landtman (1927, p. 34) implements were made from volcanic

pebbles taken from the seabed, This is supported by Haddon (1935,

pp. 76-77), who described what must have been an extensive stone

implement manufacturing station on Long Island.

(1) Such a distribution map of the Western Division is all the more pertinent since insufficient

material foreed Haddon to omit it from his 1900 paper.

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

\TELEFOMIN

aN ©

™ / souvie

6) / Cou sivipy

4

N\=-=

SCALE IN MILES

We:

L<CKLAND

oe

s

GULF OF

PAPUA

ZA BLADE

© disc cLusB

% STAR CLUB

OPINEAPPLE CLUB |, 10°

© BALL CLUB

O Quarry

TORRES STRAITS

140°

143°

Fig. 2. Map of Fly River area in southern New Guinea showing the distribution of stone

implements and their trade routes,

PRETTY—STONE PESTLES FROM PAPUA 127

On the other hand, there are a few reports of local manufacture

in this region. Landtman (1927, p. 287) reports granite stones with

sharpening marks from Mabaduan, where the granite outcrops as

Mabaduan Hill. Marshall (personal communication, 5th September,

1962) found a grinding stone in an abandoned village seven miles east

of Wonia. Williams (1929, p. 384) and Wirz (1946, p. 80) mention

grinding stones for blades which, though of unknown origin and

revered as cult objects, could still be evidence of local manufacture.

From the manufacturing stations in the Fly headwaters the trade

routes took a south-east direction following the trend of the river.

Wirz (1922, p. 114), in noting the presence of stone blades on the

coast between the Bian and Merauke Rivers, distinguished two types,

one of which came from the Fly River to the north-east. Williams

(1936, pp. 416, 428) reports that stone implements came to the south-

coast hinterland from the mid-Fly, though a few come from the coast

itself. According to Marshall (personal communication, 19th October,

1962) stone implements entered the Oriomo district through the Fly

River people, who traded them from up-river. Chalmers (1903, p. 122)

describes the Kiwai people of the Fly Estuary as obtaining their stone

clubs from up-river to the west. Trade routes also branched out from

the Torres Straits islands to the south coast, but their relative

distance from the distribution of pestles and mortars precludes the

possibility of the Wonia pestle having originated there. Therefore

the major direction of entry of stone implements into the Wonia area

would seem to be from the north-west along the length of the Fly

River. Even if a specimen such as the Wonia pestle were not manu-

factured in the region of the Fly headwaters, it is likely that it was

distributed from the same source. This, together with the discovery

of a similar specimen at Olsivip, would tend to confirm the old men’s

story that the Wonia pestle came to their fathers from the north-west.

CONCLUSION

In an area devoid of stone and whose natural routes were the

waterways of the great rivers, stone implement trade routes of

former times should bear close relationship to contemporary routes

of distribution. Therefore the Wonia pestle would probably have

travelled down to the Oriomo area from the Fly headwaters, as

is hinted by local tradition. The recent discovery of a parallel

specimen at the source of the Fly adds to this supposition and relates

the Wonia pestle more closely to the ‘‘prehistoric’’? pestles and

mortars of the Central New Guinea Highlands.

128 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Dieses Papier beschreibt cine Pistille die nahe dem Fluss Oriomo,

in Siid West Papua, in 1928 erhalten wurde, Der Bericht der einstigen

Besitzer, dass dicselbe von ihren Vorviitern vom Nordwesten kam, ist

bekraftigt bei Studien der Verteilung von Steinimplementwegen in

West Papua, ebenso durch einen Report einer weiteren Pistille, welche

jiingst in der Umgebung der Quellwasser des Flusses Fly entdeckt

wurde. Diese zweite Pistille ist ebenfalls beschrieben. Die Bedeutung

beider, verglichen mit anderen Moérsern und Pistillen yon Neu Guinea,

ist ebenso behandelt.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T am indebted to Mr. C. W. Marshall for permission to publish

an account of his pestle, and for the notes, maps, and extracts from

his journals. Mr. B. Craig of Telefomin, T.P.N.G., supplied field

data and has kindly provided the photograph of the Olsivip specimen

(plate 18B). Mr, J. A, Davidson of Melbourne also provided data.

Mr. N. B. Tindale, Curator of Anthropology, was of much assistance

in the preparation of the manuseript.

REFERENCES

Austen, L. A., 1928: Tedi River district of Papua. Geogr. J., London,

62(5): 335-349.

Barton, F. R., 1908: Note on stone pestles from British New Guinea,

Man, London, 8, no, 1: 1-2, and pl.

Bihler, A., 1946-1949: Steingerite, Steinskulpturen und Felszeich-

nungen aus Melanesien und Polynesien. Anthropos,

Freiburg, 41-44: 225-274, 577-606 and 4 pls.

Bulmer, R., 1964: Edible seeds and prehistoric stone mortars in the

highlands of New Guinea. Man, London, 64, no. 183:

147-150,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES 12 TO 18

PLATE 12

Stone pestle from Woiuia, south-west Papua, three-quarters viow.

PLATE 1%

A. Stone pestle from Wouia, south-west Papua, back view,

B, Stone pestle from Olsivip, western Papua (phote.; B. Craig),

Rec. S.A. Museum Vou. 15, PLrate 12

Ree. S.A. Museum

Von, 15, Puarr 13

CM

Ce ae

a

ae m

:

“3

Sy,

PRETTY—STONE PESTLES FROM PAPUA 129

Bulmer, S. and R., 1964: Prehistory of the Australian New Guinea

Highlands. Amer. Anthrop., Menasha, 66(4): 39-76,

Chalmers, J. (late), 1903: Notes on the natives of Kiwai Island, Fly

River, British New Guinea, J. R. anthrop. Inst., London,

33: 117-124.

Chappell, J. M. A., 1964: Stone mortars in the New Guinea highlands:

a note on their manufacture and use. Man, London, 64,

no. 182: 146-147.

Chinnery, FB. W. P., 1919: Stone work and goldfields in British New

Guinea. J. R. A, anthrop. Inst., London, 49: 271-291,

and pl.

D’Albertis, L. M., 1880: New Guinea, what I did and what I saw.

London, 2 vols.

De Vis, C, W., 1905: Papuan Charms. Ann, (Jd. Mus., Brisbane, 6:

32-35, and 2 pls.

Galis, K, W., 1964: Recent Oudheidkundig Nieuws nit Westelijk

Nieuw-Guinea. Bijdr. Taal-, Land-, Volkenk., The Hague,

120(2): 245-274 and & pls.

Haddon, A. C,, 1900: Classification of the stone clubs of British New

Guinea. J. R. anthrop. Inst., London, 30: 221-250, and

5 pls.

1917: Note on the Gogodara (Kabiri or Girara), Man,

London, 17, no, 182: 198-194.

1935: Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Kapedition

to Torres Straits. General Hthnography. Cambridge, 1.

Hides, J. G., 1936: Papuan Wonderland. Wondon.

Landtman, G., 1927: Kiwai Papuans of British New Gianea, London.

Le Roux, (. C. F. M., 1948: De Bergpapoea’s van Nienw-Guinea en

hun Woongebied, Leiden.

Lyons, A. P., 1911; Magisterial Report for the Lakekamu Goldfield,

Papua Annual Report 1911, Melbourne: 75-80, and App.

D (1).

MeCarthy, F. D., 1949: Some prehistoric and recent stone implements

from New Guinea, Ree. Aust. Mus., Sydney, 22: 155-163,

and + pls.

130 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Murray, J. H. P., 1914: Visit to the Fly and Strickland Rivers. Papua

Annual Report 1913-14, Melbourne: 17-25.

1932: Stone mortar on the Kiapou. Papua Annual Report

1980-31, Canberra; 13.

Pretty, G. L., 1964a: Stone objects excavated in New Guinea. Man,

London, 64, no, 138: 117,

1964b: Stone figure of a crested cockatoo from Melanesia.

Man, London, 64, no. 220: 183-184,

Strong, W. M., 1924: Stone mortars and pestles in More roek paint-

ings from Papua, Man, London, 24, no, 74: 97-99, and pl,

Thomson, Donald F., 1953: War-time exploration in Duteh New

Guinea, Geogr. J., London, 119(1): 1-16 and 6 pls.

Vial, L. G., 1940: Stone axes of Mount Hagen, New Guinea, Oceania,

Sydney, 11(2): 158-163, and pl.

Wilkinson, C. S., 1888: Report on the geological specimens from New

Guinea, collected by the exploring expedition of the

Geographical Society of Australasia. Trans. R. geogr.

Soe. Anst, N.S.W. Br., Sydney, 3-4: 203-206.

Williams, F. K., 1929; Rain-making on the River Morehead. J. R.

anthrop. Inst., London, 59: 879-397, and 2 pls.

1980: Orokatra society. Oxtord,

1936: Papuans of the Trans-Fly. Oxford.

Williamson, R. W., 1912: Mafulu mountain people of British New

Guinea, London.

Wirz, P., 1922: Die Marind-Anim von MHolliindisch-Siid-Neu-Guinea,

Die materielle Kultur der Marind-anim. Hamburg, 1(1).

193835: Head hunting expeditions of the Tugeri into the

Western Division of British New Guinea. Tijdschr. ind.

Taal- Land- en Volkenk., 73: 105-122, and pl.

1946: Hiniges iiber die Steinverehrung und den Steinkult in

Neuguinea, Verh. naturf. Ges. Basel, 57: 75-117.

STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING AMONG THE NAKAKO,

NGADADJARA AND PITJANDJARA OF THE GREAT WESTERN

DESERT

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE

Summary

This paper describes observations at a native mining place in the Mount Davies area of

South Australia where Nakako and Pitjandjara men quarried stone for the making of

hafting of stone knives, which they call ['tjimari]. It also records the making of ['kandi

"tjuna], hafted stone adzes (or chisels) among the Ngadadjara near Gill Pinnacle, east of

the Rawlinson Ranges, Western Australia. A supposedly new technique of pressure

flaking is described and named as the rolling pressure technique.

The Nakako tribespeople first encountered white men in 1961. Four years previously

deserted camps had been seen by the writer during a visit to the Blyth Range. Their

territory lies south of the Blackstone Range, and west of Bell Rock Range, in Western

Australia.

There is general discussion on some Australian archaelogical implement types which

parallel those obtained from these people, and in particular an account is given of the

implement called [kandi] by living Western Desert folk.

STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING AMONG THE NAKAKO,

NGADADJARA AND PITJANDJARA OF THE GREAT

WESTERN DESERT

By NORMAN B. TINDALE, Sourn Ausrranian Museum

Fig. 1-28

SUMMARY

This paper describes observations at a native mining place in the

Mount Davies area of South Australia where Nakako and Pitjandjara

men quarried stone for the making and hafting of stone knives, which

they call [’tjimari]. It also records the making of ‘kandi ‘tjuna),

hatted stone adzes (or chisels) among the Ngadadjara near Gill

Pinnacle, east of the Rawlinson Ranges, Western Australia. A

supposedly new technique of pressure flaking is deseribed and named

as the rolling pressure technique.

The Nakako tribespeople first encountered white men in 1961.

Four years previously deserted camps had been seen by the writer

during a visit to the Blyth Range. Their territory lies south of the

Blackstone Range, and west of Bell Rock Range, in Western Australia.

There is a general discussion on some Australian archaeological

implement types which parallel those obtained trom these people, and

in particular an account is given of the implement called [’kandi] by

living Western Desert folk.

INTRODUCTION

In November 1963 opportunities occurred to see some stone-

implement inaking techniques aud visit a native nuning place for

implement stone. This occurred when we were visiting two groups

of aborigines, still nomadie in a large tract of Western Australian

eountry between the Rawlinson and Blackstone Ranges and ranging

eastward into the Tomkinson Ranges, at the far north-western corner

of South Australia. The oceasion was the combined excursion to Gill

Pinnacle and to Mount Davies by Drs. W. V. Macfarlane and J. R.

Sabine of the National University in Canberra with Messrs. P. Aitken,

132 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Assistant Mammalogist and the writer, of the South Australian

Museum, <A preliminary report of the work of Dr, Maefarlane.

dealing with water and salt metabolism of the aborigines, has been

given in Man in the Pacific, Honolulu (3 April, 1964) and the results

of our blood group studies have appeared in the Journal Oceania

under the joint authorship of Simmons, Graydon and Tindale (1964,

39(1) pp. 66-80),

In over a dozen previous visits to the Western Desert the present

writer has had opportunities of seeing implements made and in use.

Some observations have been recorded, Tindale (1941, 1957) and

Tindale and Noone (1941).

Qn earher occasions native mines near Maedonald Downs, Haast

Bluff, Mount Liebig and Yuendumn in Central Australia had been

visited with aborigines who have known how to make stoue implements,

but im general they were persons who had not practised their craft

for some years. In the present instance the quarry or mine was in

use by men still depending on its stone for their tools: hence its

partie ‘ular interest. The study of this mine has afforded much satis-

faction since the results suggest that what had been learned at other

mining places was equally sound and useful,

In this paper no attempt is made to trace the history of knowledge

of stone-implement making techniques, even of the few types discussed:

the principal side references are to earlier personal observations and

to a few notes directly relevant to observatious made during onr 1963

fieldwork,

The following are the principal stone implements of the Nakako,

Neadadjara and Pitjandjara peoples and the terms they apply to them.

It happens that their names are all held in common :-—

‘kandi ‘mern, a general purpose adze-knife, hafted, with T'riodia

resin, on to their spearthrower (‘meru, ‘mero).

‘kandi ‘tjuna, a halted adze or ehisel; either single or double-

ended, in the latter case one end is usually an engraving

tool.

‘tjimari, a resin-hatted knife.

‘kandi ‘minu, simple flakes used for the subineision operation.

‘kandi ‘piturn, sharp-pointed flakes, often with resin handle,

used in blood letting from the arm, [’‘minata]; the sonree

of this blood is secret and sacred to men; the flakes are also

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 133

used in cutting the subincised urethra to obtain blood; this

is regarded as a less secret practice.

‘jerabuta or ‘kandi ‘jerabuta, cirewncision knife; traded from

the North.

‘tjanari, nether stone of any pair used in milling or food pound-

ing; also any stone used as a working bench, hearth stone,

or ironing stone in the preparation of T'riodia resin,

‘mirl, hammer stone.

miri, licking stone, a special type of millstone used in the

crushing of oily seeds fvom the surface of which the bruised

food is then licked, From its mode of use it develops

special angular polished facets.

Four principal sources exist for the raw materials of these

implements :

(a) Stone mines or quarries.

(b) Detrital fakes resulting from insolation or frost shattering

of suitable siliceous rocks.

(c) Boulders and pebbles in ereek deposits.

(d) Obsidian of meteorie origin (native name [’mapunba] in

the Neadadjara tribe).

FIELD WORK AT KUDJUNTARI

Our first field station was on the plain south-east of Gill Pinnacle,

about a mile from the pool at the base of a waterfall, native name

Kudjuntari, at the eastern end of the Rawlinson Ranges (24° 04° 8.

Lat. x 128° 50’ E. Long.). We were with a party of about twenty-five

nomadic Ngadadjara people, including a family from the Victoria

Desert area west of Lake Christopher. Other folk arrived from the

eountry north of the Western Petermann Ranges the day after we

appeared, having been driven south by lack of water in that direction;

the early summer season had been without rain.

Older men showed us the making of and uses for hafted stone

adzes (or chisels), ones mounted with [’keiti] (Triodia) resin and

placed on the ends of handles they called [’tjuna]. These tools are

termed [’kandi ’tjuna], occasionally [‘tjunakand1).

134 RECORDS OF THE S.A- MUSFUM

Brew KK. Husaaag

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 135

Cutting blades for imust of these adzes were insolation flakes

found among the detrital rocks im creek beds running down from the

mountains. A few randomly struck flakes olf a dark grey rock,

seemingly igneous, were brought in by one man and nsed as cutting

blades on several chisels that were made while we were at Kudjuntari.

He told us he had obtained them at a mine. Unfortunately it was not

possible to visit the place but it was deseribed to us as west of

Kndjuntart waterhole, The rock there ts called [‘malurakandi |, und

is said to be ithe possession of the males of a species of bandicoot

I‘makira |, of which the females are known as [/walilja]. An elaborate

myth was recorded about the |’walilja],

Mie. 1 shows three views of a hafted adze or chisel, as made and

used by r jupurnla (his male elass name), a man of about 60 years

of ave of the country west of Lake Christopher on the western border

of Ngadadjara territory, He picked ap the stone for this [’tjana

‘kandi] as a random flake ol opaline silies at [’Patnpiri], Kathleen

Range, while engaged in a kangaroo hunt on the 7th November 1963.

The following day le made the |’tjuna] handle from |’kurara |

l’wakalbuka |, a kind of ironwood (Acacia). He had sent his wife the

same morning to the southern slopes of Gill Pinnacle to gather Triordia

erass resin for the haft. The [’tjuna] had on it lines ineised by

runing the edge of a stone fake |/kandi] around the ends of the

shalt. These lines are called [‘yamiri] and on tools, and partienlarly

on spears, they serve as identification marks.

When found as a natural flake, 10 he hafted on flis implement,

it was (liscoidal in shape. T saw it before it was halted into the

\’keiti], There was no delicate trimming on its cutting margin when

first inserted in the resin, but shortly afterwards during use in the

making of the landle for a further chisel, it was sharpened. Tn doing

this the eutting edze was tapped, using the rounded snrface of one

end of the second handle whieh Tjupurnla was shapiig with its atd.

This single act of resharpening resulted m the apperance on the

chisel edge of a regular series of tiny semi-circular stepped flake

aears, It should be noted that even before this sharpening, the edge

which met the wood, was slightly convex and took off a very neat

Pig. 1-2, Hafted adaes or chisels |‘kandi /tjann |.

Wig, 1. Ngadadjara tribe example made by Tjuparaln of Lake Christopher wren (spect

mew No, A.b4726 in 8, Aust. Museu).

Wig, 2. Nakuke tribe example made and ongrayed with [’kare] or * teroek’! designs, by

Tjibukudu of Marutjara (ASd7Nd), (Reales to he rear jn contimeters.)

136 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

smooth shaving. Some archaeologists may not appreciate that the

test for a good chisel edge is the sighting of if in the plane at whieh

the stone meets the work, and that the native craftsman holds his

chisel up to eve level in this plane to check on its suitability. This is

a better test for a good native chisel than any other.

During the sharpening process Tjupurula did not remove the stone

from its setting in the resin. Among the Walpiri, at Yuendumu,

skilled old men often remove the stone from the resin and reset it

at right angles to the cutting position, before they (ap off their

sharpening flakes. This is considered partieularly necessary when

drastic resharpening is desirable; less so when only minor retouch is

required. Among the Walpiri the sharpening is often done with taps

from the flat face of a hunting boomerang. Such weapons are unknown

in the Ngadadjara territory. The removal of trimming flakes in this

mariner tends to give the profile of the well sharpened stone, in section

normal to the cutting edge, an outline which is coneave: » similar

silliouette to that of a hollow-ground razor.

Several other Neadadjara [‘kandi ‘tjuna] were made during our

stay and are now in the South Australian Museum collection, The

technical processes involved in making them were filmed in 16 mm

Kodachrome,

At Mount Davies also both Pitjandjara und Nakako men were

found to possess and use [’kandi ‘tjuna|. Fig. 2 shows seven views of

a double-ended one (specimen A.54764) made by 'Djibukudu, a man

of about 55 years of age of the Nakako tribe. This man was born at

Mamutjara, a water sonth-west of Bell Rock Range in Western

Australia and he was over 50 years of age when he saw his first

white man,

The designs on the handle made by Tjibukudn represent |‘Iearo |

or creeks. They had been cut by him in two stages; first lie had

marked them with a stone flake, using the teehnique of rocking the

tool from side to side to lift off slivers of wood, The design had then

been more deeply ineised with an engraver of stone, similar to that

Hig. 4-0

Wig, 8. [andi tjumaj, Pitjandjara tribe, nme by Malutjukirrupa, (lree views

(A.HATAN),

Wig, 4. [/Miri] or **Heking stone’ used by Malutjukurupa em lariner at Pudang

puluuj nitive mine, two views (A444),

Vig o Piljandjarn tribe knife, called (“ft pimaei |, mene by Malutjukneupa ae MC, Davie

(Malupiti] ani sharpened by the ** rotting pressare’? feelniqne (Ad 784),

147

MAING

IMPLEMENT

NDALE—STONE

an

Tetrion Ki Hiagaan

138 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

at one end of the present tool. It should be noted that giant carpet

snakes, called |‘leirn|, or [‘leiro| are associated in native mind with

permanent waters and creeks and the |’karo| design therefore is one

also ealled [‘leirn ‘walka], i.e, snake mark,

The principal |’kandi] stone of the Tjubukudu implement was a.

random flake which had had some large secondary flukes removed

from it before if was halted. An adveititions flake scar can be seen

on oné margin. ‘he crigraving tool at the opposite end appears to

have been a thin |’kandi| flake which had already been used and had

been ‘Sworn’? by re-clipping ou two margins. However it might have

been made for the purpose; there was no opportmuity to enquire and

imfortunately the halting of it was not witnessed. Before being given

to the author this specimen was lreshly ruddled by the owner. The

use of red ochre in this manner is an almost invariable practice among

Desert aborigines, especially when they have ouly lately come into

contact with Muropeans. [t is a normal custom whenever weapons

and implements are given in trade or as gifts such as are passed from

one ta another during arrangemeuts for marriage, ete.

Fig. 3 gives three views of a Pitjandjara adze or chisel made by

Malutjnkurmpa at Mount Davies, This [kandi ‘tjumal, (now A.54758)

has a knob af one end. This swelling facilitates ifs being carried

tucked under a hairstring belt; in addition to its uses as a ehisel or

adze it may he thrown as a club, Again the |’kandi] was a random

flake, one of those struek off at the Pulanj-pulanj mine (deseribed in

later paragraphs) and it had been trimmed to a eutting edge, using

a small hammerstone no more than two inehes long, alter it had been

set in the resin of the handle. There is a casually developed striking

platform at one end of the eutting edge but this does not possess a

revular symmetry such as is characteristic of the [’tula], which is a

truly knapped implement of peoples living further east in Australia.

Beeause if possesses this platform, however irregular and adventitious,

some may eonsider it to be a borderline or ‘*transitional’? example.

Piljandjara men live nearest to the Lake Mvre Basm area and some-

times obtain [’tula] type implements from their eastern neighbours,

so they are aware of such implements.

Mr. P. Aitken recently pieked up 200 archaeological stone

implements on a lately occupied site near Tallaringa, east of the

present border of Pitjandjara territory. There was no local anplement

mine, all the utilized stone being imported material. Ninety per eent

of the adze stones were [’tula]; all but two very worn, and all were

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 139

of the milky white opaline silica of the Stuart Range country to the

east; the rest were [’kandi], all on random flakes of jasperoid

chaleedony typical of the country far to the west. There was in

addition one flake of the type of stone found at Eucla.

There are three hafted adzes of [’/kandi]-stone-bearing type from

Nannine, Western Australia, in the Leipzig Museum (their Nos. Au

240, 241, and 238). They were collected by a Mr. Streich. I saw

them and made the following notes in 1936. The last numbered one

has a small knob at one end of the shaft much as in the specimen

figured here from Mount Davies.

Each of the handles of the Nannine specimens is longitudinally

grooved with many rather continuous shallowly engraved lines 0.3 em

in diameter. Au 240 is grooved for the whole visible length of the

wood; this specimen is 84.5 em long, the length of resin haft being

8.0 em and there is 0.5 em of visible stone. The general diameter of

the handle is 2.4 em and the shaft is very slightly curved. The cutting

edge is transverse and straight with secondary trimming on the stone.

The other two specimens are shorter, 75.5 and 74.0 em in length with

about 10 em of the stone-bearing end not longitudinally grooved.

The cutting edges are convex and have been secondarily trimmed,

evidently while in the haft. At the best cutting angle all three of

these chisels present a smooth and slightly convex cutting edge to the

work surface.

There are several dozen other hafted specimens of this [’kandi

‘tjuna] type in the South Australian Museum collection and their

distribution ranges from near the Western Australian coast, as far

east as the Western MacDonnell Ranges and the Musgrave Ranges.

NATIVE MINE AT PULANJ-PULANJ

On 13 November 1963 we were able to see aborigines gathering

stone for implements at one of their mines. Several of them went

with us to the quarrying site, including three Nakako and one

Pitjandjara man. Malutjukurupa, the Pitjandjara, took along a

[‘miri], ‘‘licking stone’’, as a hammer, it weighed 3302. (fig. 4).

Tjibukudu the old Nakako individual relied chiefly on blocks of matrix

when rough-trimming the more desirable pieces he obtained.

140 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Ten miles south of our camp at Malupiti on the plain west of

Mount Davies there is a creek, not yet named on official maps, which

flows south-eastward out of the Tomkinson Ranges, The mine outerop

is situated in Pitjandjara territory close to their western border with

the Nakako, whose eountry begins uear Bell Rock Range. There is a

roughly horizontal bed of white ehalecdonic silica exposed on both

banks and in the bed of the creek, at the native place known as

’Pulany ‘palanj)]. The approximate position is 26° 19 S. Tat. x

129° 8 BK. Long, Tt is considered an important local source of stone

for implements. here are said to be similar outerops near Bell Roek

Range in Nakako territory.

On arrival at Pulanj-pulanj two ol the vounger men pried out

slabs and fractured boulders of the siliceous rock up to two feet in

(iameter from the red earth eovered walls of the dry creek. Boulders

lying in the open were considered to he not suitable for attention,

The largest bonlders they eould lift they raised high above their heads

and hurled down on to the rocky pavement, attempting to shatter them

into smaller pieces. They endeavoured to stand on move elevated

places, seemingly both to inerease the effeet ol their throws and to

escape flying splinters of silies.

Smaller pieces were then struck, virtually at random, either with

the abovementioned hammer stone, whieh was passed from hand to

hand as required, or with a piece of the mother rock. When a

suitable-sized flake was detached by the hit-and-miss process, if was

set to oe side. When a boulder of particularly good stone was

diseovered it was alternatively hurled down and struck at with the

hammer until no further flakes could be obtained from the core which

remained, A sample core, at a stage when rejected, was a subspherical

mass seven inches in diameter, weighing 248oz. (specimen .A.54731

in the South Anstralian Museum).

The aim of the knappers seemed to be to obtain flakes from which

they could fashion subrectangular pieces with one thick obtuse longi-

tudinal margin, destined to he the back, and a thinner opposite margin,

the potential cutting edge of the implement.

Useful-seeming flakes, however irregular in shape at first, were

set aside until quite a series had accumulated. Then, using the

hammer, rough trimming was done on the best of them. Well over

two-thirds of the flakes were discarded in this phase of trimming,

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 141

The ones set aside for further development tended to be semi-circular

in outline; they were short blades measuring three to four inches along

one axis and one-and-a-half to three on the other and from one-half

to three-quarters of an inch in thickness. A few had remains of a

striking platform along the straighter and thicker side but in general

there were few indications of intentionally developed or planned

striking platforms; indeed the flakes had been detached from the

matrix in a variety of random ways. Hach man carried back to the

camp between a dozen and twenty pieces; these were chosen from his

second pile of better-shaped flakes during a final selection.

Viewed as a potential archaeological find, the researcher of the

future, if he discovered this mining area, after it had been used for

the first time would see the remains of a series of about 20 large

boulders up to a foot in diameter which had been broken into several

pieces and then abandoned. Half a dozen further boulders would be

found broken down into many smaller irregular pieces. Lying nearby

there would be a subspherical core-like block or two. From such cores

it would be difficult, perhaps, to break off any further smaller pieces.

This kind of core would be lying among a variety of pieces of broken

stone. Nearby he would find a series of perhaps 50 or more sub-

rectangular flakes. He would note that most of those of the general

dimensions of about four by two inches (10 em x 5 em) were absent.

There would be an abundance of small chippings. Finally nearby he

would find a dozen or more flakes, roughly of the order of two by four

inches, with a tendency to possess one blunt, thick margin and a

sharper somewhat more arcuate one opposite. He would not find any

worked flakes. He would see bruise scars on nearby rock surfaces

and perhaps would find a hammer stone with which knapping work

had been done (in the present instance one core, the hammer and

some discarded flakes were retrieved by the observer, but only after

it was clear that they were going to be left behind).

Unfortunately for the future archaeologist, the site we visited

had been worked over many times in the past. Some parts of it had

been subject to flooding and other earlier workings either had been

disturbed or washed away. Where earlier men had chosen higher

parts of the bank as workshop area their successive efforts had led

to the strewing about of an entirely confusing mass of debris of

all kinds.

142 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Baenoa K. Hussaan

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 143

The white implement stone of Pulanj-pulanj and its vieimity is

called [kandi ‘teilka| and its origin is ascribed, in Pitjandjara tradi-

tion, to a partly initiated ancestral Being, called “Minn, who lived at

Mount Davies, This man detected ring-vecked parrot men |’Padilka

‘wati|, eating the food of his country and attacked them. He eaused

hailstones to rain down and when they were maimed by the iey

missiles he used his [’winda] or heavy wooden javelin to stab and

kill the injured ring-uecked parrot men. The home of Minu was on

the Mount Davies Range, at Windalka; this is a hill to the south of

the plant at Malapiti lately used as an airplane landing field, and

near where we were camped. The term [’minu] is applied to all men

who have been civcumeised, but have not vet been snbjected to the

later rite of subineision. In Neadadjara stories Padilka men were the

bringers of the rite of subincision and they arrived from the north.

WESTERN DESERT HARTHD KNIFE

The word |‘tjimari] was spoken by a Neadadjara man in a text

being recorded on tape at Gall Pinnaele. This was a first appreciated

clue that the same form of knife used among the Mangala and others

of the Desert south-east of Broome, and there known as [‘jimari],

might be known also among the Neadadjara,

Very soon therealter we transferred to our second field station

west of Mount Davies in South Australia (26° 10° S. lat. x 129° 8 Ki.

Long.) where we found Nakako and Pitjandjavai men who were

familiar with the mannfacture and nse of these knives. They offered

to take us to their mining place at Pulanj-pulanj, as deseribed im the

previous section of this paper.

It soon became evident that knowledge of this type of knife, known

to the Nakake by the same term |[’tjimari], was widespread in the

Western) Desert, and T discovered that during the 1985 Expedition to

the Warburton Ranges I had already heard and published a

Negadadjara term |’japu ‘tjimari|] with a meaning of ‘stone used for

eutting’’, but had not then realized its true significance, [‘Japul) or

4

|’jabu] means ‘stone’.

Pig G4, Kaiwes valled [tjimari],

rig. 6. Pitjmidjarn exuoiple made by Majutjukurupa at Malupiti ot stone from Pulaay

pulauj, three views (Ad4¢738)),

Wie, 7. Nakuka example made by Tyihokuda, of Mamiutjarn, three views (A54738),

fig. 8. Another exumple, Pitjandjara, made by Malutjukurupa, three views (A54739).

144 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

L had already deseribed and figured speeimens (Tindale, 1957,

p. 13, Ya-e), of the Mangala knife or [’jmmari], had referred to and

figured a somewhal similar specimen made by a Piniubi man of the

eountry west of the MaeDonnell Ranges, and had spoken of others

used by Njangamarda, Njamal, Bailgu, Wanman and Indjibandi tribes-

people. [had also proposed the term jimari for use by archaeologists

in referring to archacological examples of the type, sueh as are found

in the Tartangan horizons of Kastern Australia (Tindale, 1957, two

papers),

In my notebook | found recently also notes and sketches of a

specimen (D2690) in the Peabody Museum, Marvard, of typieal janari

form; it is a random Hake made Irom pale translucent siliceous rock,

f.6 cm in transverse diameter and 5,8 em high of which 3.8 em is

masked by Triodia resin, According to their reeords if had been

eollveted by EK. Clement in 1926, from a member of the '*Qualluana’’

(sic) Le. the Nealuma tribe; [ presume their rendering is a mis-

reading of the incorrect version Gnalluma which T have elsewhere

seen aseribed to Clement,

Many, if not all of the hoard of large flakes described by Tindale

und Noone (1941) from Enela now seem fo me, after eritical

re-oxamination, to have been intended for hafting in the manner of

Nakako and Pitjandjara [‘tjimari|. The existence of a possible trade

route running in that direetion is implied hy a Nakuko myth and song

eyele (recorded on tape) which deseribes how Kite-hawk Beings ealled

[’paninka| had saved fire for mankind by resening it as it was about

to be drowned in the great southern waters by [‘keibara|, the Turkey

Bustard Being, There is a memorial to this great event in an arrange-

ment of pated stones at Mamutjara, which T saw during a brief

Journey down into Nakako territory with Mr. W. B, MacDougall

during our stay at Mount Davies, and lengthy tapes recording «a

Ngalea version of a similar song cycle were made more recently at

Yalata in October 1964, The Keibara song series is associated with the

flint gathering place at the western end of Wilson Bluff, east of Huecla.

It was possible to observe and film the making of [‘tjimari] hy

both Pitjandjara and Nakako men, The Pitjandjara individual

Malutjukurupa prepared several examples. Fig. 5, 6 and 8 depict

ones he made on 14 November 19638 from his stock of flakes obtained

at Pulanj-pulanj.. His equipment inclnded a hearth stone, a small sub

spheri¢al stone hummer (A.54825) of gneissie roek weighing 1loz., and

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 145

several adventitiously present smaller angular stones which played

minor parts as temporary hammers in trimming. With the hammer

he struck the blunt back-edges of the flakes to trim them to shape.

These roughly trimmed ‘‘backs’’ were then covered over with T'riodia

resin so that only the future cutting edge remained exposed. The

first knife he made (fig. 5) required little secondary work because the

primary flake was already thin and sharp. Delicate edge trimming

by rolling the smooth face of the hammer against the margin was

sufficient to prepare the cutting edge

The second example, fig. 6, was a thicker flake. The back required

little treatment, but the planned convex cutting margin needed many

trimming blows, more than 25 successive strikes with the hammer

being necessary. These produced a rather evenly spaced series of

sears and gave a semicireular outline to the cutting edge. Once the

desired shape was achieved by this trimming Malutjukurupa struck

off a series of very carefully spaced smaller flakes working from the

ends towards the middle of the knife blade. His blows were stzuck

obliquely and directed slightly away from the central point of the

semicircular knife edge. After covering the roughly-shaped back with

Triodia resin he critically examined the planned cutting edge, then

pressed the smooth surface of the hammer stone against it with a

rocking motion and pressed off a few small tertiary flakes.

All completed knives were painted over with a dull-coloured red

ochre mixed with water,

We learned that [’tjimari] should be kept wrapped up in eagle

down or underfeathers; several knives may be kept together and made

up into a package bound around with human hair string.

The old Nakako man Tyjibukudu made the [’tjimari| knife shown

in fig. 7 as one of several fashioned from the random flakes he had

brought back from Pulanj-pulanj. He made preparations to haft and

trim two of these knives on the afternoon of our return from the mine

but was out of Triodia resin. By the following morning he had

acquired an additional supply of [’keiti] and finished the placing of

resin along the roughly-trimmed back of the figured specimen (now

A.54738). In the field I had made an assessment that this flake had

been detached from a natural cleavage face of the stone but closer

examination suggests that it is more likely to have been made from a

piece taken from an old flake sear surface. The resin handle was

placed on the stone before any real secondary trimming of the

*

146 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

proposed cutting edge was attempted and it seemed it might be ready

for use without further effort. However, after looking at it, he elected

to trim it by striking at it with his hammer along most of the exposed

cutting edge. Strong blows were directed first at the middle of the

length of the knife edge, thus bringing into better shape the semi-

circular profile of the knife edge. His trimming method was less

systematic than was that of Malutjukurupa and his rule seemed to be

to hit successively at the highest projecting points until he had

achieved the desired symmetrical profile. He avoided striking off

flakes from that part of the edge where there was previous flaking,

in the form of ‘‘natural’’ scars; as it happened these were on the

opposite side of the margin. The final pressure flaking was then

executed by rolling a stone against the edge.

This work was done on the 14th November. There was a shortage

of |’keiti] in the camp. At the request of several men we made a

visit to Wingelina, about 20 miles away, using a four-wheel drive

vehicle, over rough country, to the nearest point where good [’keiti]

Brenos K. Huaaaro

Fig. 9-10. Small knives.

Mig, 9. Example of Pitjandjara |’kandi] without secondary work, made and used during

circumcision rites witnessed af Konuapandi, Musgrave Ranges, on 23 June 1933 (A.21645),

Mg. 10. Pitjandjara example of [kandi] made and used by Malutjukurupa; handle of

Triodia resin (A.54740).

TINDALE,

NT MAKING 147

resin was obtainable. At this place the process of T'riodia resin-

gathering was witnessed and. filmed. Viles of Tyiodia grass were

nladed on an area of hard flat termite mound and beaten with sticks.

The resinous dust was gathered, melted with a cool fire of strips of

burning mallee bark held over the dust, gathered up on stick handles

and compressed into cakes using hol stones as irons.

Some men who went part way with us on the journey gathered

white opaline silica implement stone at W ingelina and from these

further implements were made on other davs Of our stay at

Mount Davies.

SMALL KNIVES

Neadadjara, Nakako and Pitjandjara men all wear their hair

tied up ina elugnon (althongh this fashion is fast falling into disuse),

Offen they carry, tucked into their hair bindings of kangaroo fur

string, one or more gum-hafted small flakes [’kandi], (fig. 9). The

resin hafts sometimes haye hair or {ur fibres clinging to or melted

info theiv surfaces. These ‘kandi they use as general purpose tools,

also as spares for placing on the handles of their [’mern] or

spearthrowers.

The Wingelina Hfakes were all rather small and suitable chiefly

for the making of saw-like knives and small knives of this kind,

When new they are merely selected primary flakes, with a handle of

‘keiti]. This resin is placed on the potentially less attractive margin

and covers from one-third to one-hall of the edge of the stone. By

the time it is discarded after much use and resharpening the stone has

assuined a familiar archaeological form loosely deseribed as a

“seraper’’ or ‘“adze stone’* but usually it is not used up to the point

where if assumes the ‘‘burren adze’’ form because such a form

requires it to have been used as a hafted chisel or anata

cutting tool and reversed in setting as illustrated in fig. 19. Fig, 10

shows such a |’kandi] made by Malutjukurupa from one of the Jarger

picces of Wingelina stone, used, and resharpened, Straight-margined

knives like it ave used in making |’yamiri] lines and similar marks on

spear shafts, When the edges are trimmed so that they are serrated,

they serve very efficiently as saws. Fig. 11-14 show various other

halted specimens from the South Australian Museum collection, They

were obtained in Western Australia,

14% RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

ANS

bay

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 149

When blunted by use the resharpening of these originally simple

flakes is done in one of several ways :—

(a) By striking with another stone.

(b) Striking with a piece of hardwood.

(c) Pressing with a hardwood edge either to make a continuous

cutting margin or at intervals along the edge to make a

saw-like one.

(d) Pressing on the edge with a smooth stone, using a slightly

rolling motion to fashion a very delicate series of tiny

pressed-off flakes.

(e) Pressure-flaking by nibbling the edge with the teeth and

spitting out the detached pieces.

The smaller and more delicate the tool the more likely that. it

will be pressed rather than struck. All the above methods of

resharpening are known to Nakako men.

The making of such small gum-hafted knives is widespread, In 1938

a Tjapukai man at Mona Mona, on the Atherton Tableland, (Queensland,

took a small core of milky quartz rock (fig. 15) and struck off

several flakes which he halted with beeswax. Fig. 16 illustrates one

example. Such quartz knives were then still being used in the entting

of body cicatrices, Their name is [’ba:bulai]. He demonstrated only

the one method of sharpening, that of striking the edge with a

hammerstone,

Archaeological examples have been found. Fig. 17 illustrates a

recently discarded example found lying in a camp a quarter of a mile

from Erliwanyawanya, Musgrave Ranges, in 1933,

Fig. 11-14. Small resin-hafted knives.

Fig. 11, Retrimmed example with decoration of eagle down set in Triedia resin,

Kalgoorlie area, Cook tolleetion (A.387212).

fig. 12. Cireumeision knife [‘kandamu] with human hair incorporated in resin handle,

Bailgu tribe, Upper Portesene River, W. Australia; stone is from native mine at [’Tambasa],

a spring on Tambrey Station: this stone has a reputation for allowing quick healing of

wounds (A.45159).

Pig. 18. Cireumeision knife of Indjihundi tribe, Lower Fartesene River, also of Tambatha

stone; used near Roebourne during the initiations of December 1952 (A.45160).

Fig. 14, Circumeision knife of Pandjima tribe, Hamersley Ranges, W. Australia; their

name [kandi]; held with the chipped fare upwards when in use (AA45111).

130 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

TINDALF—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 151

Mr. Paul Lawson of the South Australian Museum staff, placed

his hand in a small hole in the eliff wall above an aboriginal rock

shelter at Mypolonga on the River Murray, Sifting through the dust

with his fingers he recovered two ernde resin-hatted flakes, one of

flint of the type fonnd in the South-Kast of South Australia and the

other of Mount Lofty Range quartz rock. These archaeological

examples were made at an unknown date in the recent past. The

floor of this shelter contained only debris of the latest or Murundian

eultire phase. They indicate knowledge of the use of such simple

tool flakes as far south as the vieinity of the Murray River mouth,

Neither of the Mypolonga examples showed secondary working and

if they had heen without resin hafts wonld have been ignored, as

“owuste Hakes’’, by the archaeologist. Our knowledge of them in the

living cullure warrants us regarding them as prepared but as yet

unused small knife flakes. Fig. 18 illustrates the flint example; the

quartz one ts so similar to the present-day Queensland example

(fig. 16) as not to require & separate illustration,

Quartz flakes showing few signs of secondary working but with

the edges dulled as if by use are found frequently on late

archaeological sites in South Australia, Often they are ignored by

those who ave mterested in collecting stone implements, It is possible

that these were hafted in like manner with resin, although nntil after

this paragraph bad been dralted no specimen had been found with

such a handle other than the abovementioned Mypolonga one. A

further example is now known trom Mootwingee, New South Wales

(A.59221), found with adhering remains of the halting resin,

According to Angas (1847, 1, p. 111) the Pangkala of the eountry

north of Port Lincoln ‘scraped [their spears] to a sharp point with

pieces of quartz’, Their spears were similar to those of Western

Desert peoples such as the Pitjandjara. They had composite shafts

with a single curved barb of hardwood, lashed to the wooden spear

{ip with kangaroo sinews. An indication that the Pangkala scraper

Mig. 15-18,

Wig. Lo. Milky quart, vore from whieh knife flakes were siruek, Monnitons, Queensland,

Tjapukui tribe CASTAOFY,

Wigs 16, Quarta knife Tlike, walled [*basbulat], from above core; hiatted with native

beeswax; used in -eutthing cWutrives (ABT),

Pig, 17, Arelaeologien! [’kandif-lype Ueke fonud daa late eump, Srliwanyawanya,

Misgraye Nanges, 1988 (A212), :

Wig, Tk. One of two hatted flakes touted ta tole in the elif? wall at Mypooraga, River

Murray, South Australia (AA2480),

152 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

was not the adze knile implement found on the spearthrower of the

Western Desert tribes is given by the fact that the Pangkala spear-

thrower is entirely without the grass tree resin knob on the handle

such as is found on those used by tribes north and north-west of

Spencer Gulf.

According to Angas quartz flakes also were used by the Pangkala

for the eutting of deep cicatrices such as they, and the Wirangu to

the west (personal observation) incised on the backs of their men in

the final stage of initiation, called [’Wiljalkanje|. At a specific stage

in the proceedings the ‘‘sponsors’’ of those to be operated on (in the

Wirangu the potential wife’s father and persons called by the same

kinship term) ‘‘sharpened’’ their pieces of quartz. The principal

operator made a deep incision in the nape of the neck, then cut broad

gashes from the shoulder to the hip down each side, making each

groove about an inch beyond the next.

The Nan:a and Ngadadjara during their subincision rites, which

I witnessed in 1935, used simple flakes of a jasperoid rock for the

operation. The Nan:a tribespeople who took part then had just made

their first contact with Kuropeans, the members of our Expedition.

The edges of the simple flakes, used in subincision, if unsuitable as

they are, may be trimmed by biting or nibbling the margin, spitting

out the tiny waste flakes resulting from tooth pressure on the edge.

These [’kandi ’‘minu] and others may be seen in course of trimming

by biting, and in use in 16 mm cine film No. 39 of the Board for

Anthropological Research, University of Adelaide. At a specific stage

in the subineision ceremony an old man is seen to walk into the area

where preparations are under way for the initiation. He throws a

handful of simple flakes on the ground before a circle of men who pick

them up, examine them carefully, and trim them by biting with their

teeth (tooth-pressure flaking).

The same general type of flake is used whether it be for the

primary cutting of the penis along the midline to open up the whole

urethral pipe while the victim is held, or to extend the cut towards

the base. This takes place in a later operation when young men stand

up and offer themselves voluntarily for further cutting. Still older

men may trim pieces of flesh from their own urethral cuts as a form

of self mutilation using these same [’kandi ‘minu].

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 153

di

mS g/

A, .

Sidi

i)

Hig, 19. Observed life of the stone on a spearthrower over two week period.

a, Pitjandjara [’meru| with |*kandi| hafted in [‘keiti] or Triedia resin, Konapandi, Musgrave

Ranges, 8, Australia, collected by N, B. Tindale, June 1983, length &1 cm. (specimen No.

A21673). bes, Progressive stuges in life of a [‘kandi|] from this spearthrower when in use

in the Mann Ranges. b, Random flake wewly inserted in position of use; c-e, two views 4nd

eross-seetian of same; fi, seeond day, showing retouch; j-m, seventh day, with cutting edge

ineffective Lhrough continual resharpening; u, eighth day with stone reversed; o, twelfth day

wilh second margin slowing resharpening; p-s, three views and cross-section of a stone at

nonment of discarding; r, shows the even cutting edge as it meets the work surface, The

figures les are based on sketehes and are therefore slightly diagranimatic.

154 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The use of the [’kandi] flake as a general cutting tool on the

handle end of the Western Desert spearthrower [’meru] is well

known and all spearthrowers seen on our journey had a mounted stone,

Kach adult man possessed one aud several examples were colleeted,

The fact that the Western Desert implement flake is a random

one, and not a [’tulal is not clearly uniderstood by some, Therefore

I have chosen to figure m spearthrower, the use of whieh T made a

point of observing daily over some weeks during a wander tour in

the Western Musgraves and Mann Ranges in 1988 with nomadic

Pitjandjare aborigines and in company with Dr. C.J. Hacketl. In

afternoon sessions over a period of about two weeks the spearthrower

itself was ineised with a design by the owner using an opossum jaw

and tooth as engraving tool, During this time a simple flake was

inserted in the resin of the handle. Tt was used, and resharpened,

then reversed in position and subjected to further use and resharpen-

ing until it assumed the ‘*worn’’ form of the so-called barren adae of

the archaeologist. During this time it served all funetions required

by the owner, in cutting meat, sharpening spears and making new

spear shafts, This |[’meru] is now specimen A.21675 in the Sonth

Australian Museum. The series of drawings is based ou sketehes

made at the time, The birth of sueh a |’kandi] thos is entirely

different from that of a [’tula] of the Lake Kwre Basin.

A [‘tula] starts off as a systematically knapped discoidal

implement. Kor confirmation one should read cither the eyewitness

deseription by Roth (1904, p. 17) of the manulaeture of what he calls

a‘ potlid’’ flake, ne, the true (ula of the archaeologist, or examine

one of the trade parcels of such pot-lid flakes which have originated

at one of the mining places near the Lake Kvre Basin.

CIRCUMCISION KNIFE OF SPECIAL TYPE

Beside the locally made |’kandi] and [/tjimari) knives there is

arare item of trade of which several are possessed by the Neadadjara,

A single one was in the possession of the Nakuko man Tjibukudn at

Mount Davies. These are [/jerabuta] or [‘kandi ‘jerabuta], eireum-

gision knives. These are shaped like projectile points of biface type,

are pressure flaked, and have a small handle of resin at the butt end,

The example which Tjibukudu produced was made fron a material

very close to the white chaleedonic silica found near Hall Creek in

North Western Australia, and it had been fashioned in the exact

TINDALF—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 153

n

4

ig, 20-238, Bifaes knives,

Big, 20. Nakako eiteunielsion knife, [jerabutaj, Mt. Davies, 8. Australia, traded Prom,

the north (specimen A.54+730).

Fig, 21, Ngadadjara knife, sed i) cireaueision operations of 24 Aupoah 1935, witnessed

ab Warupaja, Warburton Beage, W, Australia (specimen A22821),

Wig, 2. Cireumeéision Knife with rosin hath and wooden handle decorated with pchres

and pipeciay, labelled onky as Pron Central Australi (specimen A.So11),

Fig. 28. Kuite with resin halt and leearuted wooden handle from west of Tennant

Creek, Notthern Territory (specimen A42555),

156 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

ey

manner of spearheads made for me in 1953 at Moolabulla, North

Western Australia, by Kitja and Djaru men. Sixteen mm cine films

of tle manutaeture of the Jatter are available and were shown to

anthropologists in March 1963 at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal

Studies Conference on Nomenclature of Implements and Cultures, but

await formal publication.

This [‘jerabnta], (fig. 20) was the only specimen in the possession

of the Nakako people; it had been received by [’Tjibukudu] from

l’Modonja|, the father of [’Warutju ‘tjukurupal, a recently initiated

young Nakako man who was vee in camp at Mount Davies. It had

been used at this young man’s initiation, several years previously,

before ever they had met white men. The knil'e had come by trade

from the direction of the Warburton Ranges. It was known only as

having come ultiinately from |‘kaieli|, ie, from north or north-west,

The speeimen is now A.54730 in the South Australian Museum, Jt

seems fo be the south-cast-most recorded example of this type of

traded implement and it must have been transported for at least 600

miles, even if if exme by the most direct possible route, Tlall Creek

is due north of the Nakako tribal territory and separated from it by

at least six tribal boundaries.

The mode of use of such [*jerabutal is clearly depicted in the

Board for Anthropological Research 16 mm film No. 38 where two

examples of [‘jerabuta] may be seen in use during the circumcision

operations observed by the writer and his party at Warnpuju in the

Warburton Ranges in August 1935, Biting of the edge to sharpen it,

may be noted as a happening during a eritical stage ol the operation.

Fig. 21 shows one of the two Warburton Range examples (specimen

A.22821 in the South Australian Museum),

Wood and resin halted examples traded from N.W. Australia

are known from Central Australia (fig. 22) and from west of Tennant

Creek in the Northern Territory (fig. 23) and are treasured specimens

in the South Australian Museum. In both these examples the handles

are decorated with white spots and black lines on a red ochre

background,

TRIMMING TECHNIQUES

The rolling technique of pressure flaking with a smooth pebble

which T deseribe in this paper is an entirely distmet method ol stone

working which has never been noticed, to my knowledge, hy any of

those who have sought theoretical ways of working stone.

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 157

The implement tu be worked by this method is cushioued in the

palin of one hand, bulbar face upward, and gripped with the finger tips

so that the edge to he worked is cushioned on the pad at the base of

the thumb. A rounded, generally smooth flat pebble or similar presser

is laid on the bulbar flake surtaee, rolled towards the margin and

pressure is exerted. Tiny flakes are removed by this pressure, These

tend to be thin, often markedly senii-cirenlar in shape, with only the

pressed edge itself approximately straight. Successions of such flakes

are removed, either hy working systematically along the edge or more

or leas at random. The relatively continuous sharpened edge whieh

results tends to be vather straight, much more so than if either a

knapping techique or pressure: flaking with a pointed or blunt-ended

presser or hone or wood is employed. As compared with the above

the pointed presser is applied to a series of points along the edge

tending to ereate a rather serrated margin, ¢ach flake scar possessing

an obvious negative bulb at the point of pressure.

Becanse pressure exerted by the rolling technique is likely to be

well controlled, fake sears left on the sharpened implement tend to be

subequal and to present a uniform line of rather shallow impressions.

Variations occur according to the texture of the implement stoue,

the thickness of the Hake and the individual habits of workers,

as exemplified by the differing approaches of 'Tjihukndu and

Malntjukurupa.

Sufficient clutracter seems to he registered by the rolling pressure

techniqne to enable one to detect its utilization whenever found,

| have experimented following the indieations of my native

teachers, Seemingly point pressure type sears cannot be made nsing

only the roanded surface of a flat pebble or similarly shaped wooden

tool, nor have T found it possible to make rollmg pressure types sears

on flakes nsing either a knapping hammer or a pointed presser,

The technique was first brodglt to wy notice in 1953 when men

were making cirenmeision knives in the Pilbara district of Western

Australia. J ee mentioned these implements in an earlier paper

(Tindale, 1957, p. 15), Tt was again seen in use at Kudjuntari and in

the Tominson TRaakes as a technique of Nakako, Ngadadjara and

Piljandjara men. The vesults achieved by this method possess a

charaeter so different from any other that it seems to me that it may

be detected whenever used. The combination of primary and

158 RECORDS OP THE S.A, MUSEUM

secondary knapping with delicate tertiary trimming by stone pressure

vives the worked knife edge, in section, a eonvex profile significantly

different from the concave profile achieved by some other methods of

sharpening, Archaeological Tartangan implements of the South-Kast

of South Australia appear likely to have been resharpened by a

similar method, 1 propose that it be known as the ‘rolling pressure

technique’’.

The only early report T have discovered, of flaking by the applica-

tion of pressure against the edge of an implemen with » rotary

motion, is the observation by Basedow (1907, p. 50). He reports that

among the tribespeople south-west of Darwin the ventral edge of a

strong bivalve shell (Cyreva essingtonensis) was used in the secondary

pressure chipping of the edges of stone spear heads. The spear head

was gripped in the lelf hand, and the shell, with the umbonal portion

in the palin of the hand, convex surface outwards, was held firmly

with all the fingers of the right hand, in sueh a way that the ventral

edge of the shell was away from the palm of the hand. This border

was pressed against the edge to be chipped and by careful wrenehing

of the wight hand in soeh a direction that the thumb moved down-

wards, the required chipping was done,

By test this process, which is a kind of pressure flaking, yields a

highly characteristic sear type and such work is apparent on pirrilike

small hlades of spears (in our Musenm) from the Katherine

River area,

A similar technique is used, with a piece of quartz as presser, in

the making of temporary saw edges on long blades in several different

parts of Australia T have seen it at Yuendumu and among the

Pitjandjara, Here the sharp edge is rolled against the margin to

produce serrated flake seats.

Tala | and |’kandi|, the edges of which have been tapped with

the flat face and the edge of a boomerang or any similar hardwood

piece, used aus a mallet, in the manner practised by Walpiri, Ngala

and Anmatjera meu when resharpening stone implements, also have

a characteristic sear form.

There are nimerous variations in the methods of sharpening by

flapping with wood. In November 1968 1 saw a Neadadjara man at

Gill Pinnacle use the flat base of the head of his eomposite, single

wooden-hook-harbed-spear to tap off a flake or two from the stone

blade fastened at the handle end of his spearthrower, The quick and

casual way in whieh he did this indicated a techniqne of long standing.

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 159

As he sat he held the spearthrower in his left hand, the hooked head

ruming obliquely behind him aid the handle end, w ith its stone, lying

cushioned by his hand, on his thigh, The spear lay in front of him,

its point near and the shaft directed away trom hin, shehtly to the

right, with the butt end resting on the eround. He had been seraping

the spear tip. Taking hold of the spear just behind the join of the

flat head piece he brought it smartly down with «a surprisingly well

controlled series of movements and knocked off a row of tiny flakes

from the |’kandi] in his spearthrower. In a matter of moments the

operation was complete and he resumed the seraping of the spear

point, the object of his attention when the stone had developed signs

of bluntness.

DISCUSSION

Looking at the present-day Australian cultures we see that all

the Jiving peoples have similar basic needs Lor stone tools or

substitutes.

Sedentary tribespeople may tend to have more possessions,

idnddic ones have had to adjust needs to the necessities of travel and

be more lightly burdened.

A people wearing skin cloaks have additional tool needs over

{hose who habitually are naked. Those who live near water and eat

fish need toggles, hooks or barbed spear heads, absent when their meat

foods exclusively are the larger mammals sueh as kangaroos, while

the very impoverished relict peoples ol the western part of the

Western Desert such as the Wanman, Mangala and Mandjildjara,

whose daily animal diet is virtually confined to lizards and [/witjuti]

erubs, use spears only in rare bonts of fighting and therefore tend

to preserve ar chaic forms of weapons and may carry nothing during

their hunting forays beyond a short throwing elub, This latter is an

all-purpose implement suitable for digging, hurling and, if armed

with a vesin-hafted [‘kandi] flake, is useful for all ordinary eutting

Purposes.

The present-day tala of the Lake Hyre Basin and country to the

north, shows vital teehnical differences in its processes of manufacture

which differentiates it strongly from the [kandi] made and used by

Nakako, Pitjandjara and other peoples of the Western Desert.

160 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The fa is a stone which has heen systematically prepared on

and knapped from a core by striking at a carefully chosen point on

a prepared platform in such a manner that a potentially diseoidal

flake is detached, The pot-lid flake of Roth (1904), the flake has a

sizeable platform piece on one side of the disk. The skill with which

it if made, the consisteney of form and the numbers of sinilar-sized

flakes which may come together in a single traded pareel suggest a

highly skilled, almost professional approaeh to implement making,

| have long known of this important differenee between fala and

kand: but the overall signifivance was at first masked by knowledge

that the tribes on the Western Desert fringe commonly use some of

the many detrital and insolation flakes whieh lie almost everywhere

in ther country, and it was assumed, with no real grounds, that when

they had to nse mined flakes they would make lwla types, Lt is now

clear that even when breaking out stone from their mines these people

do not use the sophisticated techniques of the twa maker Inuit employ

only the erudest modes of obtaining their requirements. Their flakes

originate from the breaking up of large boulders and their further

reduction is by a erude hit-or-miss procedure and leads to random

pieces of small size, 'rom which final selections of flakes can be made.

This brings up a point important for the archaeolowist. A Nakake

or Pitjandjara [’kandi| flake is placed in a chisel or on the end of a

spearthrower handle and resharpencd many times, then it may be

turned about so that two opposite margins become ‘worn’. Finally

it assumes a character which has led the archacologist to suggest it

is a tool type of its own, In Australia it hag heen termed the

hurren adze,

When a |‘tulal is resharpened to the limit in the most usual

manner it becomes the so-called ‘worn tila’? ov “tula slug’? of the

archeologist. In such a speeimen the upper margin of the platform

becomes the median keel of the ‘slug’. Allowing lor easual varia-

tions in the methods of nse and rehafting whieh ean determine the

final appearance, the differences between the barren slug and the

“work tula’’ bear witness to the existence of two entirely different,

procedures in manufacture which probably have lad entirely different

histories of origin, Some arehacologists confuse the two types,

There should be room, in the archaeologist's list of named lypes,

for recognition of an implement like the [’kandi], The ohjeetion

which some may make is that a new [’kandi| flake, being merely a

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 161

simple one, is not recognizable, It only becomes important if found

hafted with resin, or when retrieved after use at some stage of

resharpening, when gradnally it becomes another archaeological

‘Implement type’? the ‘“burren slag’’.

The following type of incident has occurred to me several times

when collecting archaeological [’kandi] implements in tribal territories

where |/kandi] are still actively in use and the vagaries of archaeolo-

gists completely misunderstood by aboriginal inhabitants, I quote

from a 1957 entry in my journal, made at Lightning Rocks, in

Tvadadjara territory, We had arrived there one afternoon to find a

small nomadic party in temporary residence while travelling west to

Warupnju, a jonrney of about 70 miles. 1 went collecting archaco-

logieal stone implements on red sandhills near the native well on the

north side of the granite outerop and was soon busily picking up

“worn? |‘kandi] which lay about in profusion on the wind-eroded

chine. Most of them were ones reduced to the burren condition,

“One of the old men came np and politely asked to see what 1

was pieking up. He looked at me a little sorrowfully, and said im his

Neadadjara tongue, ‘Those are useless!’? He drifted away and half

an hour later he returned with «a small handful of primary flakes of

the same stone and pressed them mto my hands. To pick up worn

[‘kandi|] stones my need must have been very great!’ ‘This points

up a difference between the living way of seeing things and that of

the archaeologist.

CONCLUSION

Tn 1964 it was still possible, in more than one area of Australia,

to see aborigines knapping flints, cherts, quartzites and other rocks,

employing a variety of techniques, and using and resharpening several

kinds of these tools, The (ools in many instances are similar fo

those which have been the stock-in-trade of varions peoples of the

Stone Age past, and certainly ones used for many centuries in

Australia,

Yet so little advanced is our appreciation of this faet, that the

owners of this kind of data have not been the subject of a single

specially ordered study, Therefore an observer like the present

author, has been able to see and learn about more than one technique

whieh must be age-old in its application vet has altogether escaped

modern notice. Some of his observations were first made as long ago

162 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

as 1921 and at intervals since then when casual opportunities have

occurred For field work. Only very few observers have ever put pen

fo paper specifically on the subjeet ol stone working among living

Australians.

For this seeming apathy | blame in part the archaeologists, but

doubtless such a statement will bring down a flood of wrath on my

head. How many of todays’ great archaeologists have spent time

working with native peoples on the subject of stone knapping?

Tt seems evident to me that no student of stone implements and

no archaeologist can afford not to test each of the methods ol stone

knapping outlined in this paper, to observe the types of flake sear

which results from each, and apply the knowledge he gains to the

clearer reading of the data provided by the implements he gathers

duving his exeavations. Indeed it is high time that at least a few

archacologists should take note of Australian and New Guinea stone

knappers and temporarily at least emerge from their eave holes ta

study at first hand the data provided by living peoples.

or several years yet it may be possible to see how Anstralians

do this work, but time is passing. The Ildawongga of JInpiter Well

are the last major remaining tribal group in Australia to be intro-

duced to us, Up till now they have happily avoided contaet with

Western men but this year (1964) have been brought in to Papunya

on the premise that they were ‘starving’. These people surely eould

vive stone-implement working data, entirely without ontside influence,

bias, or degeneration being imputed to them.

The Nakako, who have provided some data for this paper, met.

white men in 1961 for the first time. For: years earlier the present

author had followed their tracks and seen vacated eamps in the Blyth

range of Western Australia in company with Mr. W. B. MacDougall

but could then find no trace less than about two weeks old. In 1968

they were still using their stone implements equally with a few

precions pieces of metal which had newly come into their possession,

Bartlett (1964)? has shown that at least one of the peoples of the

New Guinea Highlands still can make and use stone implement flakes

lor several purposes, so that even in New Cuinea flint knapping

eould be studied,

(1) We have just heard of the death of Rev, AH. K, Rartlett, in May, 1905, Wik coleations

und notebooks are in the South Australian Museun.

TINDALE—STONE IMPLEMENT MAKING 163

Should archaeologists avoid interpretations of archaeological

material guided by knowledge gained from the living? Do they fcar

that ‘complexities’? may thereby be eliminated from the art of

archaeological deduction? Surely if we work from known bases better

results must follow than if we adopt what seems to be a very

prevalent myopic attitude. ‘*Hmus with their heads in the spinifex.’’

It should be noted that some of the facts given in this paper are

supported by motion picture films. So far the originals of most of

these have been viewed only with a hand viewer pending opportunities

to finance the cost of reprodnetion and titling, When this is done

some refinements in the deseriptions given herein can be expected,

Ineluding films of observations on Bentinck Island (1960, 1963), Ut

North Western Australia (1953) and field work in the Western Desert

(1957, 1968) there are m the South Australian Museum about 5,000

feet of 16 mm film, principally in colonr, recorded at 24 frames per

second, which ean yield information on stone working techniques.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The combined expedition from the National University and_ the

South Australian Museum received support for its work trom several

sources, including the United States Surgeon General, the Wenner

Gren Foundation lor Anthropological Research, the Australian

National University, Canberra, and the Board of the South Australinn

Museum,

The authorities of Weapons Research Mstablishment helped with

the use of two land rover vehicles for the 2,000-mile journey whieh

the visit entailed.

Mr. W. B. MacDougall, Chie! Native Patrol Officer at Woomera,

helped in finding our principal nomadic hosts, the Nakako and

Neadadjara aborigines of whom some had enconntered white folk lor

the first time only within the past three years. We also owe much to

our helpers, Malutjukurupa (Harry), and Tommy Dodd,

Lam indebted to my companions on the Expedition for their help

and interest in these studies, which formed only a modest part of the

aims of the Expedition.

Miss Brenda Hubbard drew most of the implements illustrated in

this paper and [ am indebted to Miss Faye Hiehett for her clever

deciphering of my manuscript.

164 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

REFERENCES CITED

Angas, G. E., 1847: Savage life and scenes in Australia and New

Zealand, London, 2 vol.

Bartlett, H. K., 1964: Note on flint implements found near Nipa,

ventral Papuan Highlands. Ree. 8. Aust. Mus., Adelaide,

14, 669-673.

Basedow, H., 1907: Anthropological notes on the Western coastal

tribes of the Northern Territory of South Australia.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., Adelaide, 31, 1-62.

Macfarlane, W. V., 1964: Water and salt metabolism of primitive

people. Man in the Pacific, Honolulu, 3 April 1964, 5-6.

Roth, W. E., 1904: North Queensland Ethnography: Bulletin No. 7,

Brisbane.

Tindale, N. B., 1941: Hand axe used in the Western Desert of South

Australia. Mankind, Sydney, 3(2), 37-41.

1957: Culture suecession in South Eastern Australia

from Late Pleistocene to the present. Rec. S. Aust.

Mus., Adelaide, 13(1), 1-49.

1957: Dated Tartangan implement site from Cape Martin,

South-Hast of South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soe. S.

Aust., Adelaide, 80, 109-123.

Tindale, N. B. and Noone, H. V. V., 1941: Analysis of an Australian

aboriginal’s hoard of knapped flint. Trans. Roy. Soe. 8.

Aust., Adelaide, 65, 116-122.

A NEW SPECIES OF HOLOCHILA (RHOPALOCERA, FAMILY

LYCAENIDAE) FROM VICTORIA AND SOUTHERN NEW SOUTH

WALES

BY NORMAN B. TINDALE

Summary

A new species of Lycaenid, Holochila goodingi Tindale is described from subalpine

valleys of South Eastern Australia. Some notes and distribution records are given for

kindred species.

A NEW SPECIES OF HOLOCHILA (RHOPALOCERA, FAMILY

LYCAENIDAE) FROM VICTORIA AND SOUTHERN NEW

SOUTH WALES

By NORMAN B. TINDALE, Sours Avsrratiin Museum

Plate 14 and text fig. 1-4

SUMMARY

A new species of Lycaenid, Holochila goodingt Tindale is described

from subalpine valleys of South Eastern Australia. Some notes and

distribution records are given for kindred species.

INTRODUCTION

An elusive form of /Tolochila has been taken on a few oceasions,

and seen flying on others, in southern Victoria during the past 40 or

more years.

In 1962 Mr. C. G. L. Gooding showed me two specimens which he

had received from Mr. V. Smith, who had taken a small series at the

junction of the McAlister and Barclay Rivers, Victoria, on the 11th

and 12th of November 1950, Previously on 20 November 1919 Gooding

had taken a female example at Moe, and in November 1962 had seen

but missed taking another specimen perched on a native clematis vine

in a grove of eucalyptus near a fern gully at Buln Buln, Victoria.

Mr. J. C. Le Souef earlier also had shown me two specimens he

had taken at Warragul in Mareh 1939; they were in fact the first two

butterflies he had ever collected. On 12 January 1963 I took a worn

example, which seemed to be the same species, near a creek above

Tom Groggin, New South Wales, at an elevation of about 3,500 feet

in a Pomaderris apetala thicket among Mountain Ash trees. Still

more recently Mr. D. F. Crosby has sent me a male specimen from

Cement Creek, Victoria, taken in December.

Study of these specimens has indicated the presence of a rarely

taken new species, and this paper is the result.

166 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Il am indebted to Messrs. C. <t. L. Gooding, J. C. Le Souef and

D. F. Crosby for the loan of material. Mr. Gooding kindly has

deposited the type specimens of the new species in the South

Australian Museum and Mr, Le Souef has given one paratype.

Opportunities were taken to check the G, A. Waterhouse Collee-

tion at the Australian Museum, Sydney, and the material in the

C.S.LR.O. collection at Canberra. L am indebted therefore ta My.

C. N, Smithers of the Australian Museum and to Dr. D, Waterhouse

and Mr, [. F, B. Common of the Entomological Branch, Canberra,

for courtesies received.

Holochila genus Felder 1862

Holochila Felder 1862: 490. Type species, olochila absimilis Felder

1862.

G. KE. Tite (1963) recently revised the species of the genera allied

to Candalides and has revived Felder’s generic name for about 20

species formerly placed chiefly in Candalides. That genus is now

restricted to its genotype, Candalides xanthospilos (Hiibner).

Tite placed six Australian species in Holochila but regarded one,

HH, persimilis (Waterhouse) as of uncertain status. One species is

Found only in the Schouten Islands, and others range from Misol to

the Ara Islands and through New Guinea to the Louisiade

Archipelago.

In the present paper | recognize IH. persimilis as a valid species

and add a seventh species to the Australian list.

Tite, in his review, indicated the relatively seant material he had

available for study of some of the Australian species. I take this

opportunity to list some of the more significant localities and speci-

mens represented in the collections to which [ haye had access.

Holochila goodingi sp. nov.

Plate 14, fig. 1-6a and text fig. 1

Male. Forewing purplish-blue with wide black margin along

costa; a narrower one on termen; the dark markinys of termen extend

inward midway befween the veins to form a series of obseure dark

triangles; a broad discal patch of sex seales extends towards termen

along M,, Cu, and ('n,,; it tends to form a broad trident-shaped

area, With special seales lying between the veins as well as along them.

TINDALE—NEW HOLOCHILA 167

Hindwing purplish-blne with dull black costal band and terminal

marks as on forewing. Wing below pale silky-blue, almost grayish-

white, with inconspicuous black spots and marks: these spots are

more conspicuous in basal half of hindwing.

Forewing length 15 mm, expanse 38 mm.

Female. Forewing broadly dull black with a eireular diseal white

puch; this extends towards base with a bright blue flash; hindwing

dull black with a diseal area flashed only with blue. Wing beneath

similar to male, but with evident traces of the diseal white spot of

forewing above.

Korewing length 17 mm, expatse 36 mm,

Loe, Vietoria: MeAlister River, V. Smith, 12 November 1950,

holotype male and allotype female, same locality, 18 November 1950,

in South Australian Museum Collection, presented by C. G. L. Gooding

(no. 1.19133); Moe, 20 November 1919, C. G. L. Gooding, paratype

fomale in lis collection; Warragul, in Bull Swamp four miles south of

the town, 20 March 19389, J. C. Le Sonef, two paratype males, one

specimen in his eollection, the other (1.19128) am S.A. Musenn;

Delburn, 18 December 1962, A. M. Lineas, paratype female in lis

collection; Cement Creek, 14 December 1958, D, lf. Crosby, paratype

male in his collection. New South Wales: Tom Grogein, at 8,500 feet,

12 January 1963, N. B. Tindale, presented to S.A. Muserm.,

The male wvenitaha have c¢laspers of the same type as

I, consimilis, terminating in two outwardly directed spines (fig. 1).

In TJ, consinilis there is an additional spine in all the specimens I

have examined, including the material originally figured by Waterhouse

(1942, p. 123).

IT, goodingi is clearly a distinet species related to I7. consimilis,

differing in the darker purplish-blne colour and the wide black margins

of the male and in the female by the smaller white diseal spot of

forewing, In the male of 7, consimilis there are also present termiial

black triangular markings bat these are far less conspicuous a Teatire

of the wing markings.

T have considered the possibility that //, geoding? is a southern

subspecies of 77. cousimilis but judge them to be separate species.

In the trident form of the male sex brand on forewing it is

closest to Hl. consimilis, but the special scales on the wing itself are

move extensive.

RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

168

i

’ €

,

i

F)

]

4

i

|

}

Fig. 1-4. Male elaspers of species of Holochila.

Hig. 1. Holochila goodingi Tindale, Warragul, Victoria (specimen 1.19123),

Fig. 2. Holochila consimilis (Waterhouse), Mt. Tambourine, Queensland (specimen

1.19132),

Fig. 3. Holochila absimilis Felder, Atherton, Queensland, 22 March 1906 (specimen

1.19127).

Fig. 4. Holochila persimilis (Waterhouse), Mackay, Queensland (specimen in Waterhouse

Collection, Australian Museum),

TINDALE—NEW HOLOCHILA 169

There is a single female from Eden taken 12 November 1914

(Marked Z4 and KL 16521) in the Waterhouse Collection, and there

placed with H. consimilis, but evidently it is this species. The white

patch on the forewing is similar in extent to that on the figured female

specimen from Delburn. Like other female examples of H. goodingt

it lacks traces of any white patch on the hindwing.

Mr. CG. G. L. Gooding has seen the species flying around a native

clematis near Buln Buln and believes this is the food plant. Flowering

specimens of this vine were kindly identified for me by Dr. H. Kichler,

as Clematis glycinoides D.C.

Holochila consimilis (Waterhouse) 1942

Fig. 2

The type is from Killara, near Sydney, and the species has been

recorded from Stanwell Park and Narabeen in the Sydney area, also

from Ballina, Lawson, the Blue Mountains and from Lismore and it

ranges northward to Southern Queensland.

The female has the white discal patch on forewing suffused with

blue along the inner marginal side and towards the base; the hind-

wing has a blue suffusion over the whole area of the discal patch;

occasionally a few white scales appear near the centre of the patch.

The male genitalia, described and figured by Waterhouse (1942,

pp. 123-124) were found in the Australian Museum Collection and

re-examined. The preparation is from a male labelled Sydney, 27

November 1941, K., G. A. Waterhouse. It may be presumed the K.

stands for Killara. One of the claspers is intact, the other seems to

have suffered postmortem damage. As normally viewed the full length

of the larger lateral spine is not appreciated; when viewed obliquely it

is seen to be longer than the width of the clasper itself; the third spine

is very evident from the same direction.

The original paper did not mention details about the type material.

There is a specimen KL. 16533 in the Australian Museum marked as

Holotype, labelled Sydney, N.S.W., 3 December 1941 K., G, A.

Waterhouse; here again the K. presumably stands for Killara. An

allotype female is marked (no. KL.16531) and labelled as from Killara,

29 December 1935. The other New South Wales specimens are from

Lawson, Blue Mountains, Clifton, Helensburgh and Stanwell Park.

170 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

In the C.S.1.R.0. collection there are others from Narara (males

in September, females in November), Ebor (January), Saddleback

(February). The last named were taken by TH. Thirkell.

Mr. C, G, L. Gooding has specimens from Manly Vale (December)

and Grafton (June and August).

(Jueensland localities are Toowoomba (Oetober and November)

and Monnt Tambourine. | have examined some 40 males and 28

females,

Holochila absimilis Felder 1862

Fig. 3

The type is trom Ash Island, New South Wales, and the reported

range of the species is from the Dandenone Range in Southern

Victoria to the Cairns district, Queensland,

In the female the white patch on the hindwing is present but does

not run to the costa. The blue flash on the white pateh of forewing

usually covers the inner half of the discal area and is present to a

lesser extent in the same position on the hindwing,

The male genitalia have been figured (fig. 3) for comparison with

H. persimilis from which it differs in the absence of the spine on the

shalt of the clasper.

Of this species 57 male and 453 female specimens have been

examined from the following localities :— Vietoria: Dandenong Range.

New South Wales: Kiama (November), Bundeeua (September),

Jamberoo (Febrnary), West Ryde (September); Sydney: Yamba

(September), Narara (December), Grafton (October), Bruuswieck

Heads (May, reared material), Port Maequarie (February), Lismore

(October), Ballina, Burleigh Heads. Queensland: Brishane, Bunya

Monntains.

JT have not seen specimens from northern Queensland. According

to Tite (1963, p. 211) specimens from North Queensland show racial

differences, examples from Mackay being intermediate, with males like

the northern form and females like those from Brisbane. Unfor-

tunately he has not differentiated between JT. persimilis and Hi,

absimilis—his records should be considered with this in mind.

The Dandenong Range pair in the Australian Museum, taken

many years azo by C. French, do not differ from typical specimens

from Ballina, New South Wales.

TINDALE—NEW HOLOCHILA {71

In this species the male sex seales are confined to the veins of

the forewing and do not extend on to the wing surface between. Bred

and captured specimens from Ballina clearly indicate that there ig no

difference in bred specimens in the development of this character.

The late Dr. G. A. Waterhouse reared a male specimen which

pupated 81 December 1940 and emerged on 27 September the.

following year.

Mr. Tom Guthrie, in May 1963, reared several specimens from

pupae on Cupania, associated with black ants. The species has also

been reported as feeding on a native Wisteria,

Holochila persimilis (Waterhouse) 1942

Wig. 4

The type series of thirteen males and seven lemales Trom Mackay,

is in the Waterhouse Collection at the Australian Museum. A male

dated February 1899 has been marked by Waterhouse as Holotype

with register numbers 1.9255 and KL.16496. The specimens were

taken by R. EH. Turner,

The male elasper of a Mackay example, January 1899, R. Ki,

Turner, is preserved on a celluloid strip pinned beneath the specimen,

It seems to be the one figured by Waterhonse (1942, p. 125). Tt was

not well shown in the original and therefore has been redrawn, as

fie. 4, Tt will he noticed that a spine, not shown in the earlier drawing,

is present about half way down the shaft of the clasper. This spine

is absent from the exaniples of M absinrilis T haye examined.

It seems clear that the species is a perfectly valid one, The

Maekay males have a relatively conspicuous diffuse pateh of sex

geales on the forewing as well as on the veins and the wing colour is

best deseribed as lilac; in southern males the sex scales perhaps fend

to be slightly less conspicuous. The females have white patches on

both fore- and hindwings; these are broadly margined towards the

base with blne scales, somewhat as in H. whsimilis, Females of the

latter species tend to be larger and to have the white pateh of hind-

wing smaller and narrower than in IT. persimilis,

In addition to the type series | have seen 29 males and 19 females

from localities between Narara, New South Wales and the Cairns

district in Queensland.

172 RECORDS OF THE S,A. MUSEUM

Localities and months of capture are:—New South Wales:

Narara (November), Port Maequarie (February), Grafton (August,

October), and Byron Bay (January), Queensland: Willarney (Meb-

ruary), Southport (January, February). The male figured by

Common (1964, p. 121) is from Brishane (14 Feb. 1907, ex A. J. Turner

Collection). Brisbane (January, Webruary), Bunya Mountains, 3,000

feet Dies ata February), Fairy Bower near Rockhampton (January),

Mackay, Cairns, Kuranda (January, February).

Holochila helenita Semper

The type is a male from Cape York in the British Museum. The

Australian range of the species is from Sydney to Cape York, and

a separate race, H. h, dimorpha (Rober) 1886 is recognized from

New Guinea.

Messrs. I. FP. B. Common aud M, 8, Upton took a series of five

males and eight females at Lockerbie on Cape York, Bamaga and

Iron Range, between Ist and 12th April 1964, also two females at

Crystal Caseades on 24th March 1964. The trident sex mark on

veins Mz, Cu,, and Cn,, is very evident.

In all the females taken on Cape York the white patch of hind-

wing is as large as that on the forewing and reaches to the eostal

margin, without traces of blue seales, except for a slight fringe on the

inner side of the forewing spot.

Holochila margarita Semper 1879

The type, from Bowen, Queensland is in the British Museum and

the reported range is from Sydney to North Queensland; a race

HT, m. maria (Bethune-Baker) 1908 extends the distribution to New

Guinea, the Arm Islands and Misol.

There are six specimens including a female in the Gooding

Colleetion from Gratton (June, September and December).

The Waterhouse Collection material (36 males, 33 females) is all

from Queensland, including Burleigh Heads, Stradbroke Island,

Mackay, Gayndah, Cairns, Kuranda, Herberton, Claudic River,

Thursday Island and Prince of Wales Island.

Messrs, Ll. F. B. Common and M.S. Upton took examples of both

sexes on Cape York, a male on 26 March 1964 at Bamaga, a single

female at Lockerbie, 2 April 1964, and another at KE] Arish on 7

Mareh 1964.

TINDALE—NEW HOLOCHILA 173

Other localities represented in the C.S.1.R.O. collections are five

males from south of Atherton (May), Innisfail (November), Lake

Barrine (May) and Montville (August).

The male of this species is well characterized by the trident sex

mark on the forewing.

The male example figured by Common (1964, p. 125) was reared

from a pupa taken at Yeppoon; it emerged on 14 January 1962; the

female he shows is from Brishane,

In the female of this species the bluish flash at the base of the

large white patch of the forewing covers much of the basal half of

the area and also extends along the inner margin; this contrasts with

the more limited aveas covered with blue in the case of the ecorres-

ponding spot in H. helenita. The size of H. margarita females tends

also to be greater than in that species. In all female specimens

examined the white of the hindwing patch runs to the costa,

Holochila gilberti (Waterhouse) 1903

The type is from Port Darwin and it has been taken also at

Adelaide River. Common (1964, p. 123) figures a female from

Melville Island. The Queensland localities reported for this species

are doubtful,

A specimen taken at Darwin by F. P. Dodd in April 1909 is in

the C.S.1.R.O. collection.

REFERENCES CITED

Common, |. F. B., 1964: Australian Butterflies. Brisbane. 131 pages.

Felder, C., 1862: Verzeichniss der von dem Naturforschern der k. k.

Fregatte Novara (Macrolep.) Verh. zool. -bot. Ges.

Wien, 12: 478-496,

Semper, G., 1879: Beitrag zur Rhopalocerenlauna yon Australien.

J. Mus. Godeffroy, 5: 188-194 (reprints were issued in

1878 fide Waterhouse),

Tite, G. K., 1963: Revision of the genus Candalides and allied genera.

’ , & s

(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. (nat. Hist.),

Entomology, London, 14(5): 197-259,

174 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

G. <A. 1903: Notes on Australian Rhopalocera:

Lycaenidae, pt. 8. Proe, Linn. Soe. N.S.W., Sydney.

28: 132-275.

1942; Notes on Australian butterflies in the Australian

Museum. No, 2, Rec. Aust. Mus., Sydney. 21: 122-125.

Waterhouse,

HXNPLANATION OF PLATE 14

Holochila goodingi Tindale

Fig. 1. Holotype male, MeAlister River, Victoria, 12 November 1950, V. Smith, ea

Gooding Collection, 1.19133 in S. Aust. Museum; upper side.

Fig. la. ditto underside.

Fig. 2. Paratype male, Warragul, Victoria, March 1939, J. CG. Le Souef, 1.19123 in

S. Aust. Museum; upper side.

Mig. 2a. ditto underside.

Fig. 3. Paratype male, same details as fig, 2, in J. C. Le Souef collection.

Fig. 3a, ditto underside.

Vig. 4. Allotype female, McAlister River, upper area, 18 November 1950, V. Smith, ex

Gooding Collection, 1.19138 in 8, Aust. Museum; upper side.

Fig. da. ditto underside,

Pig. 5. Paratype female, Delburn, Vietoria, 18 December 1962, A. M. Lueas, in his

collection; upper side,

Fig. 5a. ditto underside.

Fig. 6. Paratype female, Moe, Victoria, 20 November 1919, C. G. L. Gooding, in his

collection, upper side.

Fig. 6a. ditto underside.

Rea. S.A. Musruw Vou. 15, Prate 14

NOTES ON SOME WESTERN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA-

RHOPALOCERA WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SUB-SPECIES

OF ANISYNTA ALBOVENATA

BY FRANK E.. PARSONS

Summary

Rhopalocera have been collected in Western Australia during three car journeys

extending from Geraldton in the north to Albany in the south, and to Norseman and

Esperance in the eastern part of the state.

On the first visit, during October and November 1959, we found, between Norseman and

Esperance, a series of Hesperid, Anisynta albovenata, thus extending the range of the

species from Gunnedah in New South Wales through South Australia to about 450 miles

west of the Western Australian border. The Western Australian border clearly is a new

subspecies, and is described below.

The second visit was made between April 1961 and February 1962, and the third from

October to the end of December of that year. I was accompanied on my first visit by Mr

F. M. Angel, who added series to his collection.

NOTES ON SOME WESTERN AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA-

RHOPALOCERA WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SUB-

SPECIES OF ANISYNTA ALBOVENATA

By FRANK HE, PARSONS

Plate 15

Rhopalocera have been collected in Western Australia during

three car journeys extending from Geraldton in the north to Albany

in the south, and to Norseman and HKsperance in the eastern part of

the State.

On the first visit, during October and November 1999, we found,

between Norseman and Esperance, a series of a Hesperid, Anisynta

albovenata, thus extending the range of the species from Gunnedah

in New South Wales through South Anstralia to about 450 miles

west of the Western Australian border. The Western Australian

insect clearly is a new subspecies, and is described below.

The second visit was made between April 1961 and February

1962, and the third from Oetober to the end of December of that year.

1 was accompanied on my first visit by Mr. F. M, Angel, who added

series to his collection,

Jalmenus inous Hewitson 1865

This butterfly appears to be confined chiefly to the coastal belt

from Fremantle to Bunbury, and on the first two visits fair numbers

were eollected in the sandhills at Bunbury. On the third visit I found

them extremely numerous about five miles north of Mandurah and in

one day collected some 70 pupae in less than one hour. Approximately

one-half of them were parasitised,

The larvae and pupae, attended by many small black ants, were

found either on dead leaves or in the sand under leaning branches.

The fvod plant is a sprawling bush of a species of Acacia.

T could find none before the first week of November, and by mid-

December they had become scarce again,

a

176 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Hypochrysops halyaetus Hewitson 1874

A dozen of the adults were collected at Geraldton at the end of

October 1959; they were not at all plentiful and considerable effort

went into finding then.

On my second trip to Western Australia early in November |

found # spot in the Chittering district a lithe more than 40 miles

from Perth where they were present in considerable numbers. Four

trips were made to the area during the following three weeks and

over 160 specimens were colleeted, but I could find no indications as

to the likely food plant. By the end of Noyember their flights were

over and on the last occasion none could be found.

On my third trip to Western Australia I visited the same spot in

the Chittering district at the end of October 1963, but there was no

sign of this butterfly. I visited the spot again on 7th November,

when they were as plentiful as in the previous season and was able

to catch a representative series. By the last week in November they

had all disappeared. lvidently they have a very short fight season

and should be sought during the first three wecks of November. They

are very easy to net and appear only on the spike of small yellow

flowers of Verreanwia retmawvardta, a plant not very widely distributed ;

it occurs chiefly on the gravelly ironstone soils of the Darling Range.

Ogyris idmo idmo Hewitson 1862

During the first three weeks of November a few of the Western

race of this rare species were flying in the same place as Zypochrysaps

halyactus. TL saw them settled only on flowers of the white Pimelia

and collected two males and six females,

Hesperilla donnysa albina Waterhouse 1932

Several pupae of this subspecies were collected from their

shelters in sword grass at a swamp about three miles south of

Fremantle, during early September, and several males were caught

while settled on sword grass at Albany, during the first week in

December,

Anisynta albovenata fuscata subsp. nov.

Plate 15, fig, 5-8

Male above, dark grey-brown. Fore-wing with a spot at end of

cell, three subapieal spots, two below these, nearer the termen in areas

4 and 5, spots in 2 and 3, and a very small and faint spot just above

vein 1; the subapical spots and those in 4 and 4 ave very small.

Rec. S.A. Museum Vou. 15, PLatre 15

PARSONS—WESTERN AUSTRALIAN RHOPALOCERA 177

Underside of forewing dark grey-brown, the basal hall a shade

lighter than the outer half; the ends of the veins white, and the spots

reproduced as on the upper side, All spots whitish, not yellow as in

the subspecies A, albovenata weemala,

The male hindwing has no spots on upper or lower sides, but on

the lower side all the veins are white from their bases to the termen,

Female above, dark grey-brown, with all the spots as in the male,

but they appear more pronounced. Female underside, marked

similarly to the male, but the spots again are more pronounced,

Length of forewing, male 15.7 mm, female 18.0 mm.

This race is distinguished froin the Sonth Austrahan one by its

more prominent markings, larger size, and the much darker colouring.

The average length of forewing in my specimens is:—male

15.6 min, female 17.8 mm.

In a series of 25 examples of A. a. albovenata the average length

of forewing is:—male 12.7 mm, female 14.1 mm.

The holotype male and allotype female bear the following data :—

Male, Salmon Gums, W. Austr, 12 Oct. 1963. Female, Esperance,

W. Austr, 14 Oct. 1959, and are deposited in the South Australian

Museum Collection where they bear the number 1.19134. In addition

there is a paratype series of 20 specimens in my own collection

including the specimens figured to show their under sides. A series

(nine paratype males and three females) taken by Mr. Frank Angel

during our first visit, are in his collection,

I am indebted to Mr. J, O, Wilson for the accompanying plate and

to Mr. Norman B. Timdale for his interest and advice.

EXPLANATION OF PLAT 15

Wig, 1-4, Anisynta a, albovenata Waterhouse. 1, Male, Point Pearce, 8. Aust. 11 Oct.

1842, 2. Male, underside, Ardrossan, S. Aust. 2 Oct. 144. 3, Female, Point Pearee, 10 Oct.

1942. 4, Female, underside, Point Pearee, 11 Overt. 1942.

Bip, a-5, sluisyata a. fuseata Parsons. 35. Holotype male, Salmon Gums, W. Aust,

12 Oct. 1963. 6. Paratype imale, underside, same data as holotype. 7. Allotype female,

Esperunee, W. Aust, 14 Oet. 1959. 8 Paratype female, underside, same data as allotype.

‘i

THE AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA

MITCHELL (LACERTILIA-AGAMIDAE)

BY F. J. MITCHELL

Summary

Cleared and stained skeletal material is used to compare the osteology of 14 species of

the genera Amphibolurus and Tympanocryptis, and thereby reassess the generic status of

the dragon described as Tympanocryptis maculosa Mitchell (1948).

It is concluded that the closure of the tympanic membrane is a secondary feature and that

species referred to the genus Tympanocryptis should be primarily distinguished by the

reduction of one phalanx of the fifth digit of the pes. Despite its possession of a

concealed tympanic membrane and other features most strongly developed in

Tympanocryptis, maculosa agrees with the Amphibolurus in possessing primitive

phalangeal formulae and is now considered a specialized member of that genus.

THE AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA

MITCHELL (LACERTILIA-AGAMIDAE)

By F, J. MITCHELL

Figs. 1-2

SYNOPSIS

Cleared and stained skeletal material is used to compare the

osteology of 14 species of the genera Amphibolurus and Tympano-

cryptis, and thereby reassess the generic status of the dragon described

as Tympanocryptis maculosa Mitchell (1948).

It is concluded that the closure of the tympanic membrane is a

secondary feature and that species referred to the genus T'ympano-

cryptis should be primarily distinguished by the reduetion of one

phalanx of the fifth digit of the pes. Despite its possession of a

concealed tympanic membrane aud other featnres most strongly

developed in Tympanocryptis, maculosa agrees with A mphabolurus

in possessing primitive phalangeal formulae and is now considered a

specialized member of that genus.

INTRODUCTION

was accepted hecause of its obvious close relationship to the orthotype,

T. lineata Peters, However, the description of a species with a con-

cealed tympanic membrane, but possessing 5-8 femoral pores on each

side and an Amphibolurus-like general habit as T'ympanocryptis

maculosa Mitehell, the close superficial resemblance between several

spinous scaled species of Amphibolurus and recently deseribed species

of Tympanocryptis, and the discovery of an agamid (identity as yet

180 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

uncertain) possessing partial concealment of the tympanic membrane

have cast doubt on the yalue of the enclosed ear-opening as. the

indicator of a monophyletic assemblage.

The present study was undertaken in an effort to find alternate

means of defining these genera and, in particular, of reconsidering

the generic status of maculosa on the basis of comparative skeletal

morphology.

METHODS AND MATERIAL WXAMINED

Skeletons were prepared by standard clearmy and alizarin stain-

ing techniques permitting calcified parts of the anatomy to be clearly

distingnished, Cartilaginous parts were not differentially stained.

Five skeletons of 7. imaculosa were prepared from specimens

varying in snout-vent length from 28 mm to 65 mm and compared

with the following specimens in the South Australian Museum

reference collection,

Species with an exposed tympunnms

Amphibolurus adelaidensis (Gray )—Two adult specimens collected

at Hyres Sand Pateh, Western Australia.

cLmphiblolirus veticulatus inermis (De Vis)—One subadnlt speci-

men collected at Mnloorina, South Australia.

Amphibolurus maculatus gularis Sternteld—Two adult specimens

collected at Woll Creek, Western Australia.

Amphibolurus pictus Peters—Three specimens; one subadult

collected at Mount Myre; one adult trom Tailem Bend and one

adult from Western Gawler Ranges, South Australia,

Amphibolurus diemensis (Gray)—Two adult specimens collected

at an unknown locality in Tasmania.

Amphibolurus darlingtoni Loveridge—Oune adult specimen collected

at Ooldea, South Australia.

Amphibolurus eristatus (Gvay)—One snbadult specimen collected

at Koonibba, South Australia,

Amphibolurus decresit (Dum. and Bibr.)—Two specimens; one

subadalt and one adult collected at Mount Aroona, Flinders

Ranges, South Australia,

Amphibolurus fiowi Proctor—One adult specimen colleeted at

Mount Wedge, Hivre Peninsula, South Australia,

MITCHELL—AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA 181

Species with u concealed tympanum:

Tympanoeryptis tetraporophera Lucas and Frost—Two adult

specimens collected near Leigh Creek, Minders Ranges, South

Australia.

Tympanoeryptis intima Mitchell—Three adult specimens; two

collected at Finniss Springs and one at Mtadunna, South

Australia.

Tympanocryptis lineata lineata Peters—Two adult specimens; one

collected near Port Lincoln, and the other near Adelaide, South

Australia.

Tympanoeryptis cephalus gigas Mitchell—One adult specimen

collected in the Murchison District, Western Australia.

“i

SKELETAL MORPHOLOGY

The following is a summary of the variation observed in a number

of key features which were considered adequate to provide a guide

to affinities,

The general skeletal morphology is relatively uniform and the

range of variation appears to be in part correlated with body form

and related behaviour. While possessing the basic pattern of

Amphibolurus, the skeleton of T. maculasa shows several of the

specializations most strongly developed in Tympanocryptis. Its

skeletal detail is figured in fig. 1 and used as the main point of

reference.

The Skull: The cartilage bones roofing the skull are subject to

little variation other than relative proportions. The extent of penctra-

tion of the paired nasals between the prefrontals and the penetration

of the premaxilla between the nasals are subject to interspecific

variation, The relative proportions of the premaxilla appears to be

constant and diagnostic, varying at the extremes from long, slender

and aeute in A. maculatus qularis through long, parallel sided and

rounded in t. diemensis to short, wide and obtuse in 1. refieulatus

mermMIs.

Beddard (1905) accepted the osteology of A. barbatus as typical

of the genus and used it as part of the foundation for his comparison

with Chlamydosaurus. Apart from the facet that lizard osteology is

subject to greater interspecific variation than was suspected by

Beddard, the examination of several dried skulls supports Beddard’s

MITCHRLL—AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA 183

comparisons, but reveals barhatus to be atypical of the genus as a

whole in several respects, The palatines meet on the midline in adult

barbatus and Beddard contrasted this with — the condition in

Chlamydosaurus. In all species examined the present study the

palatines were clearly separated on the midline, Also, the pre-

maxillary bone usually fails to reach beyond the posterior margin of

the external nares and frequently if only extends approximately two-

thirds the way along the median border. Species with short, wile

premaxillas, such as 4, reticnlatus inermis, possess small external

nares to matelh,

The parietal are invariably fused posteriorly but display wide

‘ariation in the size and form of the parietal foramen, which is

ereatly enlarged and emarginate anteriorly in most species. In many

species there is also retardation or failure of ossification in median

parts of the posterior border of the frontal (see fig. 1). In fully adult

specimens of several species examined, 7’. lineala, A. pictus, A. decresu

and in one eael) of the two specimens of A, diemensis and A,

adelaidensis tie parietal foramen is a simple perforation at or

immediately behind the centre of the fronto-parietal suture,

In the large and probably senile specimen of A, pictus from

Tailem Bend, South Australia, the perforation is in a backward exten-

sion of the frontal whieh intrudes the transverse line of the normal

fronto-parietal suture to fill the parietal foramen, In all other species

examined this foramen is enlarged to varying extents, and a large

part of the cranial cavity remains unprotected through to adulthood.

The relative size and shape of the parietal opening appears constant

for adult specimens and could be of diagnostic value if required. The

ontogenetic sequence of 7, maculosa clearly shows the latter stages in

the ossification of the parietal and indicates that the enlarged foramen

indergoes little change in relative size or shape during development

in this species, This feature is most strongly developed in species

inhabiting open stony or sandy desert.

Fig, 1. Tumpanoeryplis macutosa (adnlt. male)

A. Dorsal view of the skull oriented so that the frowtal is at 90° to the angle of view.

B. Ventral view showing the relationship between the Juwer jaws and fhe hyo-branchial

apparatus,

(, Pelvie girdle,

D, Pectoral girdle,

E. Pes of Tympanocrypbis maculosa,

¥, Pes of Tympanoeryplis lineata shown for comparison,

G. Manua of Tympanooryptis macuoasa,

184 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

The hones comprising the superior temporal arch vary consider

ahly from one species to another, The Jugal anc post-orbital bones

are in part compensatory in size and shape. VT. lineata, 7. letraporo-

phora, T, intima, 1, cephalus gigas and A, diemensis possess enlarged

jugals extending well upward into the femporal arch; 1. adelaidensis

possesses an enlarged jugal which is wide but not high. In 7. cephalus

gigas and A, adeluidensis the post-orbital bridge is conspienously wide,

In A. maculatus gularis, A, eristatus, A, darlingtoni, A, retionlatus

and 7. maeculosa the jugal is comparatively slender and does not

extend as far np the arch, the post-orbital frequently exteuding down-

ward along the margin of the orbital vaenity. The post-trontals

are absent.

The form of the remnant of the supratemporal in relation to the

siperior artiewation of the quadrate is of interest. The supra-

temporal ts rather superficially attached to the parietal proeess in

micnlosa, but in the majority of species it is a flattened splinter

embedded in the lower lateral edge of the process. Its distal end

passes under the squamosal where it thickens to articulate against

the quadvate. In 4. fionii and A, deeresii the quadrate articulates

well forward on the squamosal and the enlargement of {he supra-

temporal under the squamosal is quite considerable.

The dentition is heterodont, the posterior 12 or 13 teeth in both

upper and lower jaws being acrodont and strongly compressed and

the anterior teeth subtheeodont and eonieal. In a. eristalus, A,

diemensis and to a lesser extent in 4. maculatus gudaris the posterior

acrodont teeth are enlarged and tend trieuspid. Bach central eusp 18

sharply pointed and the lateral cusps are flat or only slightly raised.

The upper jaw closely overlies the lower jaw, the central enusps of

the six enlarged posterior upper teeth interlocking into grooves in

the outer face of the dentary. In T. cephalus gigas and 7’. intima the

enlarged teeth in the upper jaw are inclined slightly so that the teeth

themselves interloek. In both of these species the size of these teeth

decreases rapidly towards the front and anteriotly are kept

permanently separated by the interlocking of the enlarged incisors,

The first and second maxillary, first and seeond mandibular and

the two or three premuaxillary teeth are conical in all species except

A. cristatus which appears to lack conical mandibular teeth. These

teeth are firmly attached to the bone at the base, but are separated

by porous bony septa, In all species referred to Tympanoeryptis,

including maculosa, they are considerably enlarged and _ slightly

MIPTCHELL—AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA 185

reeurved, An enlarged mandibular tooth fits into a noteh in the upper

jaw between the maxilla and the premaxilla on each side, and an

enlarged maxillary tooth fnetions as a canine and overlies the dentary

on cach side, The lower jaw is slightly longer than the upper jaw to

allow these teeth to interlock in this manner (see fig. 1),

TTyo-branchial Structures The hyoid displays litthe variation from

that figured for maculosa (fig, 1), The first branchial arch is strongly

developed in all species examined, the bony ceratobranchial articu

lating on the body of the hyoid.

Because non-caleified eartilaginous structures were not adequately

differentiated in the material studied it was not possible to trace the

epibrauchial T elements, but in several species, 7, maculosa (see fig. 1),

T, lineata, and VT. tetraporaphora the ceratobranchialepibranchial

connection is very strong and the epibranchial can be seen turning

abruptly away in a manner which suggests that it joins the erantal

wall near the auditory strnetures. The ceratobranchial is also strongly

developed in several species of Amphibolurns examined, but the epi-

branchial councetion is usually weaker and situated further hebind

the quaadrate,

Assuming the closure of the ear membrane refleets the need for

substantial modification of the anditory mechanism, a detailed study

of eartilaginois parts of the branchial arch and of the structure of

the anditery capsule may reveal some significant parallels,

Pectoral Girdles The detail of this girdle is composed of both

stable and nnstable characters. All species possess simple rod-like

elavicles with no median fenestrae, lave the scapula and eoracoid

lused in the adult, have a supra-coracoidal foramen, a lateral cora-

coidal fenestra formed by the extension of the calcified cartilage of

the epicovacoid to join the anterior corner of the coracoid and a very

distinet and heavily reinforced articulating glenoid for the forelimh,

The minmber of sternal ribs is three on each side in the majority

of species with one rib attached to each xiphisternal horn, but some

vartalion was noted, A, macilalis qularis possesses Four sternal and

no xiphisternal ribs; 7. fefraporophora and ul. darlingloni also possess

four sternal ribs, but the lower pair in each case are attached at the

base of the xiphisternum. This also applies to one of the two

specimens of A, dienmensis, Single specimens of al. pictus, a.

adelaidensis and T. intima possess three sternal but no xiphisternal

ribs. ‘The ribs are attached to the 9th, 10th, 11th and 12th vertebrae.

186 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Fig. 2.

Pelvic Girdles of :— Interelavieles of :—

A. Amphibolurus maculatus gularis. F, G. Amphibolurus pictus.

B. Amphibolurus pictus. H. Amphibolurus adelaidensis.

C, Amphibolurus adelaidensis, I, Amphibolurus maculatus gularis.

D. Tympanocryptis lineata. J. Tympanocryptis tetraporophora,

1. Lympanoeryptis intima, K. Tympanocryptis lineata,

MITCHELL—AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA 187

he interclavicle is subjeet to wide variation, but the limited

matevial available for study did net permit its interspecific stability

to he adequately assessed. [t varies from broad, short, arrow-shaped

in T. lineata (fig. 20), 7, tetraporophora and 2, cephalus gigas to

broad, short, tending ernciform in A, adelaidensis (fig. 2H), A. fionit

and a. deeresit to long, arrow-shaped in 7. intima (fig. 2K), A.

maculatus gularis (fig. 21), A, reticulatus, A, darlingtoni and dA,

diemensis to dagger-shaped in J’, maculosa (fig. 1D) to simple blade-

shaped in one specimen of A. pictus (fig. 21) collected at Mount Myre,

Sonth Australia. The interclavicle of A. pictus appears to be snbjeet

to wide individnal variation. The interelaviele of the Western Gawler

Range specimen is figured (fig. 2G) and that of the Tailem Bend

specimen is long and broadly arrow-shaped (similar to fig. 2K). The

interclavicle of 7. maculose is constant for the five specimens examined.

A. cristatus Was an wiusual interclaviele, Tt is dagger-shaped with

two oblique elub-shaped lateral (rojections commencing two-thirds the

way down the ‘“handle’’,

Pelvic Girdle. Within the limitations of the material available for

study the pelvic girdles appear constant and vary sufficiently to be of

value as supporting data im speeies taxonomy,

The pubis and ischium are indistingnishably fused in adnits of

A, adelaidensis, T. lineata and T. cephalus gigas and retain a faint

suture in young adults but are probably indistinguishably fused in

senile specimens of 7, intima and T, maeulosa, Adnits of 7. tetra-

porophora, A, decresti and A, fionti possess firmly united bones but

retain distinct sutures, while 4, maculatus gularis (fig, 2A), A. pietus

(fiz, 2B), A. davlingtoni and in subadults of A. erisfatus and 4,

reticulatus inermis these bones are clearly separate. The girdles of

A. eristatus and A. darlingloni are ‘fopen’’ structures similar to that

figured for A, maculatus qularis (fig. 2A).

In the majority of species the ischio-pubic fenestra is divided

by a strong cartilaginous structure involving hoth the liypo-ischiam

and the epipubis. In 7. lineata, T', tetraporophora, 1. maculosa and

A, adelaidensis this median strueture is heavily ealeified throughont

(see fig. 2), but in A. maculatus gularis, A, rehieulutus inermis, A,

cristalus, A. fionii and A, decresti calcification only oecurs at the pubic

and ischial ends. In 7. cephalus gigas, T. imtioma, and «A. diemensis

the ischio-pubie fenestra is not completely divided,

188 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The pubis is piereed by an obturator foramen, but beeause of

the shape of the pubic bones this is partly or completely obscured in

some species. When the girdle is viewed ventrally, the anterior process

is transversely compressed and curves upward and outward in the

form of a prepubie lip, on the lateral end of whieh is attached a

ligament connected obliquely across to a point on the corresponding

ischium. Jn species in which the process is strongly compressed and

the lip well developed—T. intima, T. lineata, T. tetraporaphora, T-

maculosa and <A. adelaidensis the obturator foramen is directed

forward. In 7. intima the foramen is directly below and completely

concealed by the prepubie lip (see fig. 2). OF the species of

Tympanoeryptis, cephalus gigas is the only species examined which

does not possess this feature, [ft possesses a very narrow girdle with

the obturator foramen situated well below and across from. the

prepubic lip, being clearly visible when the girdle is viewed squarely

from below.

Limb Structure: The structure of the forelimb was found to be

constant, the primitive reptile formula of 2,3,4,5,3 being retained for

the manus of all species examined.

Hxamination of hindlimb structure revealed the only clearly

definable dichotomy evident from this study, All species of

Amphibohous examined possessed the primitive 2,3,4,5,4, lormula for

the pes while all speeies of Pympanoeryptis, except maculosa, show

a reduction of one phalanx in the fifth toe to a formula of 2,8,4,5,3.

T. maculosa retains the primitive formula for both manna and pes,

There does Not appear to he any significant variation in tarsal

or carpal structure, The astragalus and ealeaneum are fused in adults,

but the suture is frequently distinct. These two bones are separate

in juveniles of 7. meaeulosd,

Vertebral Colima: Vhe number of presacral vertebrae (including

the atlas) varies from 21 to 24 (see also Mitchell, 1948), The majority

ol species possess twenty-two, but the following exceptions were noted.

T. lineata (21 and 23), 7. letraporaphora (21 and 28), 4. adelaidensis

(21 and 25), A, cristatus (23) and cL. reticulatus inermis (24).

The atlas has paired neurapophyses which are widely separated

in most species. All presacral vertebrae exeept the atlas and three

cervieals have ribs attached. There is much variation in the relative

size and form of the neural spines, the spines being conspicuously

MITCHELL—AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA 189

,

larger in long-limbed species possessing ‘open’? type pelvic girdle

structure (see fig. 2A) such as A. maculatus gularis and A. eristibus,

This may be related to their ability to adopt a bipedal mode of

locomotion,

DISCUSSION

Ol the features examined, only the hindlimb structure shows a

definable dichotomy which can be clearly correlated with taxonomic

characters currently in use. The variation in all other features shows

varying degrees of overlap between speeies in the two genera.

To further assist in determining the stability of the phalangeal

structure, two unique specimens in the South Australian Museum

collection were radiographed. The holotype of 7, wiformis Mitchell,

which is superficially unlike any other member of the genus, was

photographed under X-rays and proved to be typical of the genus,

It has a reduction of one phalanx in the fifth digit of the pes. A

small dragon collected at the Silverband Falls, Grampians, Victoria

and registered No. R8294 in the South Australian Museum colleetion

shows close superficial similarity in size, sealation and colouration to

T. lineata Peters, but differs in possessing a tvinpanic membrane which

is only partially concealed and in having four or five femoral pores

on each side. The whole membrane appears to be eovered by a thin

veneer of epidermal tissue, the central and upper parts ol which are

thiekened, sealy and pigmented to match the surrounding epidermis.

The radiograph of this specimen revealed no reduction in the number

of phalanges of either manus or pes.

The support of 7. uniforms leaves no doubt that the reduction of

one phalanx in the pes in combination with the external features

currently used to delimit Tympamovryptis will serve to maintain Th as

a useful taxonomic unit. Whether or not it is safe to assume a

monophyletic origin for the species so grouped must remain a matter

of opinion until more is known about the iuterspecifie stability of

osteological characters in this tamily,

Hypophalangy has been recorded as a species character in other

families, Stephenson (1960) records variation m the formulae for

both manus and pes im two speeies of the genus Nephrurus

(Giekkonidae); Mitehell (in press) records the loss of one phalanx

in the manus of a species of Diplodactylus (Gekkonidae) ; Mitehell

(1955 and wipublished data)—pvogressive hypophalangy in both manus

and pes is an important aspeet of speciation in the Seincidae.

190 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

The discovery of a further species of Amplibolurus obviously

not closely related to the progenitors of maculosa, which is developing

a close resemblance to T'ympanocryptis including a scaly covering for

the ear membrane suggests that this feature is a recent and secondary

development.

Within the range of variation recorded, T'ympanocryptis species

lie near one extreme and are subject to less interspecifie variation,

Features usually combined, such as the strong development of the

bones in the superior temporal arch, the enlargement and interlocking

of the conical anterior teeth, the short, wide, arrow-shaped inter-

clavicle and the form of the pelvic girdle are characters developed

independently in Amphibolurus species.

The species maculosa agrees with Tympanocryptis in dentition,

pelvic girdle structure and concealment of the tympanum, but is typical

of short-limbed species of Amphibolurus in all other respects, Lf ts

therefore proposed that maculosa be regarded as a specialized member

of that genus. As such it would become Amphibolurus maculosus

(Mitehell). The closeness of the specifie names maculosus and

maculatus is regrettable, but both appear to be admissible ander the

International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Tam grateful to Dr. N. Ballai for his assistance in radiographing

the two specimens referred to in discussion and to my assistants,

Miss Lois Jaques for her assistance in the preparation of the illustra-

tions and much of the material examined, and to Miss Patricia

Muggridge for the typing of the manuscript.

RESUME

Dans ve travail on traite et illustre lanatomie de l’esquellette

de Vagamide Tympanocryptis maculosa Mitchell (1948). Comme

resultat des comparisons faites entre cetfe espéce et autres des

genres Tympanocryptis et Amphibolurus on transfére maculosa au

Amphibolurus.

REFERENCES CITED

Beddard, F. E., 1905: A contribution to the Anatomy of the Frilled

Lizard (Chlamydosaurus kingi) and some — other

Agamidae. Proc. Zool. Soc, Lond. 1: 9.

MITCHELL—AFFINITIES OF TYMPANOCRYPTIS MACULOSA 191

Mitchell, F. J., 1948: A Revision of the Lacertilian Genus Tympano-

cryptis, Ree. S, Austr. Mus. TX: 57-86

1955: A Preliminary account of the Reptilia and Amphibia

collected by the National Geographical Society-Common-

wealth Government-Smithsonian Institution Hxpedition

to Arnhem Land. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. XI: 373-408.

(in press): Australian Geckos assigned to the Genus Gehyra

Gray (Lacertilia: Gekkonidae).

Peters, W., 1863: Monatsb. Akad. Wiss. zu Berlin: 230.

Stephenson, N. G., 1960: The Comparative Osteology of Australian

Geckos and its bearing on their morphological status.

Journ, Linn. Soe. Lond. Zool. XLIV: 247-299.

CONTENTS

Obituary and Bibliography of Herbert Mathew

alent seme rade tere rae we rer

Rock engravings and aboriginal occupation at

Nackara Springs ai. ericrcieucaret cat w

Redescription of the Australian- spider crab

‘‘Eurynome granulosa’’ ...........d.c0eesce ees

Revision of the Australian and New Guinea

Drynguin yeti nrg ripe batters ree

Chromosomes of snails introduced into South

Australia and the Northern Territory ...

Aboriginal rock poundings on Gallery Hill,

North-Western Australia. -..............0

Fishing rites at Be-Malai Portuguese Timor......

Two stone pestles from Western Papua and

their relationship to prehistoric pestles

and mortars from New Guinea ............

Stone implement making among the Nakako,

Ngadadjara and Pitjandjara of the Great

Western Desert ....ccccccccecseesseaseee eens

New species of Holochila from Victoria and

Southern New South Wales «..........0:

Notes on some Western Australian

Lepidoptera-Rhopalocera. with descrip-

tions of a new subspecies of Anisynta

alboyvendta! 25 tcdeoy isaac capo Nees sre

Affinities of Tympanocryptis maculosa Mitchell

Page

F-jeMitchell oo rasiace, es! 1

R. Edwards ........ccccesseee <)

D. J. G. Griffin oc... 29

G-FeGress <2irttiet es 39

HaMakawst si cisae 0. 79

C. P. Mountford 3......02.. 89

Mel Ee KING eee toe 109

Gu Pretty san ate 119

N. B. Tindale ...0........... 131

N. B. Tindale ..,......0.... 165

EAE.-Parsons: 5 aeceeern 175

E:-yeMitchell?csa 179

VOLUME | No. 2

1966

RECORDS

OF THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Adelaide, Scuth Australia.

‘Printed in Australia by W. L. Hawes, Government Printer.

Registered in Australia for Transmission by Post as a Periodical.

AN OCCURRENCE OF SELENITE NEAR WHYALLA, SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

BY DAVID W. P. CORBETT

Summary

A recently discovered occurrence of crystallized gypsum in South Australia is described,

and a wide variety of crystal forms defined. Interim results of field and laboratory

investigations currently being undertaken are given, together with chemical analyses of

saline water samples. The general environment of the occurrence and the origin of the

gypsum are discussed.

AN OCCURRENCE OF SELENITE NEAR WHYALLA,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By DAVID W. P. CORBETT, Crraror or Fossrus axn Minerana,

Sourn Atstrawan Museum

Fig. 1-4

SUMMARY

A recently discovered occurrence of crystallized gypsum in South

Australia is deseribed, and a wide variety of erystal forms defined.

Interim results of field and laboratory investigations currently being

undertaken are given, together with chemical analyses of saline water

samples, The general environment of the occurrence and the origin

of the gypsum are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Two small saline waterholes in an otherwise dry creek bed some

20 miles north-east of Whyalla were discovered by Mr. Barry

Whittard of Whyalla, in February, 1962, The waterholes contained

humerous crystal groups of the mineral gypsum yar. selenite,

CaSO,2HeO, WMurther investigations of the ocenrrence were made hy

Mr. Whittard in the company of Mr, B, Flounders, also of Whyalla.

Several specimens were collected and some of these presented to the

South Australian Musenm by Flounders.

Since December 1963, a joint investivation has been earried on

by Flonnders and the South Australian Museum into the origin of

the gypsum at this wnnsual locality, ixeept for the removal of «a

representative collection for scientific purposes, the pools have been

leff in their original state and used as a natural laboratory, In this

paper the site will be referred to as the Lineoln Park locality. The

locality is shown on fig, 1,

DESCRIPTION OF THE OCCURRENCE.

The two waterholes under consideration appear to be permanent

features in a shallow creek channel which terminates in a saltpan.

The two waterholes, henceforth referred to as the upper and main

pools, are found immediately below a breakaway in the channel, and

are bounded by banks four to six feet high,

The dimensions of the pools are:—Upper pool—30 yards hy

3 yards, average depth 6 inches: Main pool—30 yards by 3 yards,

average depth 2 feet. A general view of the locality is shown in

fie, 3A,

A

194 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Q& SELENITE LOCALITY

40

miles

PORT AUGUSTA.

A

WHYALLA.

Fig. 1.

Crystallization is concentrated around the margins of the pools,

with a prominent shelf developed below water level (see fig. 3B).

Twigs and dead branches have frequently formed centres for

crystallization. In the centre of the main pool, islands of gypsum have

formed over the carcasses of two sheep. A test pit sunk between the

two pools to a depth of 6 feet revealed a mass of thick, bladed erystals

growing in mud. Infilling water prevented excavation to greater

depth.

The Classification of the Gypsum Crystal Forms

Gypsum crystals are found in three different environments at

Lincoln Park—in mud, in water and in air. The various forms

developed can be classified as follows :—

1. Crystals in mud.

a. Thick-bladed groups (fig. 3C).

b. Layered groups (fig. 3D).

ce. Desert rose form (fig. 4B).

d. Transitional groups.

2. Crystals m water.

a. Bladed clusters (fig. 4A).

b. Rosettes and pompoms (fig. 4C).

c. Individual crystals on vegetation (fig. 4C).

CORBETT—SELENITE NEAR WHYALLA 1uS

3. Crystals im air.

a. Coraline’? gypsum (fie, 4D).

Deseriptian of Crystal Forms

da. Bladed qrovps: These inchide the largest individual crystals

found (up to 16 mehes in leneth), All the well-developed crystals

have grown In an nupnight position. The development of secondary

and tertiary crystals results im a crude reticulate pattern, the largest,

and primary erystals forming the basic framework. In almost all

cases the large bladed crystals show strong evidence of resolution,

having ragged terminations and corroded edyes, The bladed erystal

groups are generally free from impurities, but have a milky appearance

due to entrapped air,

Ib. Layered erystal groups: The layered struetuve is clearly the

resull, of a eyehe growth whieh is probably seasonal. In the fignred

specimen, six erystal luyers have developed in a block 6 inches deep.

The average thickness of each layer is 1 neh. When the layering is

well developed, the vertically disposed erystals are capped by a thin

mat of finely erystallived gypsum which is in tur sueeeeded by a

further layer of vertical laths, This is well shown by the bottom

layer in the fignred specimen, The upper layers are coloured brown

by the inelusion of fmpurities. Colour zoning is shown by some of

the larger erystals,

le. Desert rose groups: These are well developed in the ereek bed

abont half a mile south of the Lincoln Park pools. Single lens-shaped

crystals have developed by the enlargement of the O11 lace and the

suppression Of tle O10 face. These faces are frequently eurved,

1d. Transitional groups: The largest single specimen taken from

the Lincoln Park pools measures 19 inches by LO inches and consists

of clusters of thick, vertically disposed, bladed erystals, the whole

having a rongh stratification, The bottom layer ts coniposed of clear

crystals developed in mud; the second layer is of impure hrown-

coloured erystals grown in water; anil the tap layer shows a develop-

ment of fhe corallime gypsum grown at about water level,

Ya, Bladed clusters: These may have their origin in oud or upon

Ya, Bladed cluster ; © |

twigs and dead vegetation blown into the pools; however the major

part of their growth has taken place freely in water. They are most

often stained a yellowish-brown due to the inelusion of impurities.

2h, Rosettes and pompoms: These forms are found growing on

pieces of vegetation and inelude the most beautiln) of the erystal

groups developed, In the rosettes, erystallization has proceeded

196 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

outwards from a point, producing a series of radially arranged lath-

shaped crystals. Pompoms are smaller groups, where there has been

a close packing of the erystals to prodnce a compact vrystal mass.

20, Single Crystals: These ocenr growing on dead twigs in the

inanmner of leaves upon a tree.

8a. “‘Coralline’ gypaum’’: This is the name given to milky-white

crystalline material developed close to the surface of the water and

readily exposed to the air with a slight fall in water level. Under

magnification this form is seen to eonsist of small, fine laths of

radiating crystals massed together,

INVESTIGATION OF THE OCCURRENCE

Tnvestigations have heen directed along the following lines :—

1, Setting np and maintenance of test pits at the sile for the

controlled growth of gypsum crystals,

9. Experimental studies of gypsum crystal growth in glass

tanks.

3, Analysis of saline waters for dissolved salts and pI

measurement ol pool and ground waters in the field and

in the Jaboratory,

4. A study of the natural environment of the gypsum site.

These points will be treated in turn.

1. Test pits; Three pits approximately 5 feet by 3 leet were dug

within the creek hed adjacent to the two pools. Their positions are

shown on fig. . Hach was seeded with pieces of vegetation and

gypsum crystals to act as centres for crystallization, The pits were

covered with wire netting to prevent the entry of extraneous matter.

Within three weeks of establishing the teat pools, fine, needle-like

crystals up to three-eighths of an inch long were noted forming on

veeotution in the lowermost pit, Further developments in the test

pits were retarded hy the unexpected rise of the water table. At its

height this rise caused flowage down the creek bed two-thirds of the

distance to the salt pan, and the newly formed crystals in the test pit

were re-dissolved. The water table remained high until October 1964,

when a drop in level and a cessation of flow has resulted in the

renewal of crystallization in the pools and test pits.

The summer of 1963-64 was one of the driest for 380 years, sa

(hat the marked rise of the water table ean be taken to be a lag

effect from the heavy rains of the previous winter, whieh caused a

flooding of the neighbouring creek.

197

CORBETT—SELENITE NEAR WHYALLA

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198 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

2, Experimental lank studies: These have been varried out by

B. FPlounders using both natural saline waters and also prepared

solutions of varying composition, Tests were condueted on the

solubility of gypsum in salt solutions of different densities, The results

of experimental work to date can be summarized as follows:—

(w) Greatest snecess bas been achieved in erowme gypsum

erystals from the natural water from the Lineoln Park

locality. Crystallization from prepared waters has

heen almost entirely ‘seed’? gypsum found settling on

the bottom of the tank.

(b) Crystallization rates were noted during the experimental

work, Inereases in excess of one grain per day have

heen reeorded, supporting the view that crystallization

of gypsum under natural conditions can proceed rapidly

in a suitable environment,

(c) In all cases where a small crystal of a certain type was

used as a seed, crystallization followed the same

pattern, For example a bladed erystal would continue

{0 develop the bladed form.

(d) Problems of duplicating the natural environment in a

elass tank were probably the cause of difficulty in

producing erystal groups similar to those formed im

nature, Factors to be considered include cireulation of

water, surface turbulence due to wind and currents,

and the effeet of mud and dust.

(ec) A more elaborate tank is at present being constructed in

which it will be possible to maintain a flow of water

and regulate the physico-chemical conditions to simu-

late a variety of environments.

(/) Tt has been noted that gypsum readily crystallizes on

organic substances in the tank experiments, for example

on the inside of a plastic bueket, on a nylon line, and

on vegetation as in the natural environment. Crys

tallization docs not take place on the sides of the glass

tank or on rock surfaces.

3. Analysis of saline waters: The analyses of four water samples

from Lincoln Park are given in table 3 and compared with an analysis

from a water bore in the same region. (This is the only bore water

analysis available for comparison.) Unexpectedly, the Lincom Park

waters are all highly acid, with a pli range of 2.95 to 4.15, Wield

tests earried out in the area on both pool and water table samples

confirmed these results. The field results are plotted on fig. 2 and

CORBETT—SFLENITE. NEAR WHYALLA 199

indieate a local concentration of the acid waters im the vicinity of the

(wo pools. Tlowever, a pH of 2.0 obtained from a ground water sample

taken from a salt pan in the Kimba Gap area, 25 miles S.W. of

Whyalla, sngeests that local concentration of highly acid waters may

be expected in the region. For comparative purposes pH readings

made ou ground water samples from similar environments in Sonth

Australia are given in table 1,

TABLE J

pl of Some South Austratian Natural Waters.

Loeality. pH,

Uypsom pools, Gineoln Park oy cc ue ce ce ee ee ee ee ee ee ee BAS

Lake Bombungi, Loehiel oo. probs jold allele w blo} cyteherecys bacy “tobe 6.0

Salb pan, south of ponds, lincoln Park, : tial 6.6

Wirter from gypsum stulvetite, Murray River eliti’s, Waikerie -. -. 8

Sali Hlat, tear rifle pane, Whyalla at PUN OT yt bd CeMate CF oe 09 7.0

Myull Creek, near Lincoln MWighway crossing... ce ee ee ee 7A

Sea water, Hallett Cove .. 6. 0.6 ee bo ee ta ee eb at ne ue ad cae |

THE, GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE LINCOLN PARK

GYPSUM OCCURRENCKH

The area is inehided in the Geological Survey of South Anstralia

1:866280 sheet, Cultana, and is underlain by siltstones and sandstones

of Proterozoic age, An area of igneous rocks occurs to the eastward.

Drainage in the area is devived from the watershed formed by the

flat-lying quartzites of the Tent Hill Formation which are elevated

to a height of 912 feet at Tregolana triangulation station, The oldest

sedimentary rocks in the area, the Mbouabte Formation, are notable

for the prevalence of heavy mineral banding and the inelusion of

nodular iron oxide,

It is of interest that in the Katunga Hills boreholes deserihed hy

Miles (1954), tron sulphides were encountered at depth. In borehole

No, 1 pyrite appears at 880 feet, and both pyrite and pyrrhotite are

more pleutiful below 1,000 feet. In borehole No. 2, pyrite ocenrs at

226 feet, pyrrhotite increasing below 600 feet. The snlphides are

described as imetasomatic replacement (deposits, particularly intense

mineralization oceurring along formation boundaries,

The structure of the northern part of Kvre Peninsula is econ-

trolled by a series of roughly north-south trending faults. Although

these were initiated at an earlier date, the latest movement along

these faults was probably of Pliocene or Pleistocene date, Within the

Cultuna shvet area, a distinet fault scarp marks the margin of the

outerop of the cca isnonie Formation. It is possible that other faults

are present in the area, but are obscured by recent deposits.

200 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SUB-SURFACK WATERS

Little information is available regarding the acidity and alkalinity

of sub-surface waters in South Australia. The chemical characteristics

of waters in the Great Artesian Basin have been deseribed by Jack

(1925) and diseussed by Ward (1946). Jack recognized an easterly

derived carbonate water and a westerly derived sulphate water moving

towards their natural ontlet along the line of mound springs, A pH

reading of $.95 is quoted by Baas Becking and Kaplan (1956) from a

bore in the Lake Frome area, This bore is situated in the region of

the carbonated waters. The sulphate waters of the western section

of the basin ean be expected to have a lower pH. The brines and muds

from Lake Byre are almost neutral, having a pH range of 6.6 to 7.2

(ihid 1956),

The Lineoln Park waters are closely comparable with sea water

in chemical composition, and the comparison is made in table 2.

Their high ealeium content is due to the solution of the surface kunkar

limestone.

TABLE 2

Pereentage at Major Dissolied. Constitvents,

Water-table, Brine,

Sea water*., Lincoln Park. Lake Eyre.

ID gf we Wet es wet tie eee te SOD SANT 57.00

80, se ew et oy peat’ cre bei 7.68 RST 4.00

NL rine a drtgtea ee 04 potas es BM 30.4 BHT

MED o wk chmes Jam of se whale wis 8.69 2.04 1,83

Cath ac Cabok io ap etd ay Let 451 ih]

o8.19 GO.) NS.3t

Dissolved Constituents—Parls Per Thousand,

Water-hible, Brined,

Sen wotert. Lincolu Park. Lake Eyre,

SY vs bebe fete deo pre lee perieret ewe ot 6 1S,EG 17,269 171,000

Oye ewe we le a ale 2.049 2.688 12,900

INA Sen le wee cgiee ce elt oe ene | SOLOS 9,700 107.000

Mec oe one, He et ae ev as 1.2728 0.940 ADD

Cie ee a ve a ae ay why 1h400 1.385 (),950

“Tom Mason, Th. 1h, Prineiples af Geochemistry, John Wiley and Sons, London,

+ From Rankwna and Bulan, Geochemistry, University of Chicago Press,

| Trom Baas Beeking and Kuplan (1056),

ORIGIN OF THE GYPSUM

he deposition of the remarkable crystal groups at Lincoln Park

must be attributed to local physical and chemical factors. In partienlar

there is a direct causal relationship between the high acidity of the

gypsum pools and the erystal growth. Highly acid waters (ph less

than 4) have a restricted occurrence, being confined to thermal springs

in regions of recent voleanicity; peat soils; and areas where H2SO,

is generated by the oxidation of sniphide deposits. The first two

possibilities can be ruled out for the region under review, which fulfills

yp

CORBETT—SELENITE NEAR WHYALLA 201

neither of the necessary conditions, The third possibility, however,

deserves consideration.

No evidence of sulphide inineralization is found at the surface in

the area, However, the presence of pyrite and pyrrhotite in the

Katunga Hills boreholes is of interest, and it is coneeivable that similar

metalhe sulphides could exist at depth below the Lincoln Park locality,

and that their oxilation has resulted in the formation of sulphurie

acid, The reactions involved are ag follows :—

FeS2 + 70 + THeO = FeSO. + HeSO,

2FeSOs; + HaSQy, + O = Fe2(SO.)s + HO

Fes(SOi)s -+ 6H20 — 2Fe(OH)s + 3HsSO,

Vpward migration of acid-charged waters could have taken place

alony a fault line, several of which are known to occur in the region.

The surface or near surface kunkar limestone could supply the calcium

necessary to produce gypsum according to the formula:

CaCOs + HeSO, = CaSOs + HO + COs

The present water table stands only a tew feet helow ground level,

so that oxidation must have taken place at a time when the water

lable was lower, or alternatively aerated waters gained access along

the Tault line and caused oxidation below the general Jevel of the

water table.

TABLE 3

Water Analyses from Lincoln Parl Typsuin Loealily, Water bore,

Wiarter Td. of Gillen

20)0yds. down- = table hetween 6m, NNW.

Main pool, Upper pool, stream from upper and of Lincoln

Hun pool. main pools. Gap Homestead,

ppm, p-p.m pep, p-p-m. p- Pm,

Chloride G)o.. .. 85,725 a7410 105,200 17,269 5.856

Sulphate SO, . .. 5,068 6,880 6,400 2,693 1,802

Carbonate COs .. Nil Nil Nil 8 284

Nitrate NOw sy. Nil Nil Nil Nil —

Sodium Na’... 2. 20,820 31,035 57,630 9,700 Ys ash

Potassium KK... — ra = ia ew

Calcium Ca... 4. 1,882 105 1,925 1,385 605

Magnesium My .. 2.075 4,890 6,055 O40 484.

Siliew SiO, .. .. — —_— —

Total saline matter 65,080 101,520 177,210 41,985 11,460

ehssun ed campast-

tion of salts:

Caled carbonate = — —_ la 474

Culeiim sulphate . 4.693 HA65 6,545 3420 1410

Magnesium sulphate 2,880 2,907 2,230 S06 384

Magruesium chloride 5,883 10,978 21,945 4,048 19%

Sodium chloride... 51,675 $1,170 146,490 24,708 7,699

pH 3.55 pH 2.95 pl 3.55 pH 4.15 pl 7,00

CONCLUSIONS

The water in the Lincoln Park gypsum pools is ¢ssentially sea

water modified by a slight increase in the sulphate ion and the addi-

tion of calcium locally derived from the surface and near surface

202 RECORDS OF THE S.A, MUSEUM

kunkar limestone. The cause of the high acidity of the Lincoln Park

‘aters has not been determined, although one possibility has been

snggested in this paper. It is considered that the livh acidity has

been the direet cause of the gypsum erystallization at Lincoln Park,

The apparently continuous formation of gypsun, jovether with the

velatively low concentration of the sulphate ion in the analyses quoted,

indicates that sulphate is being continually replenished.

evidence from the Kiba Gap area shows that gypsum formation

in a highly acid environment is not restricted to the Lincoln Park

locality. The physico-chemical enviroument at Lincoln Park is, how-

ever, very different from that in which gypsim is normally found in

South Australia, The conditions described are local and unusual, and

the extent of the area in which these local conditions can be found is

anknown, but their development may be related to the surface and

sub-surface geology of the region, It is hoped that further studies on

a regional scale may help to resolve this problem,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Mus author wishes to thank Mr, Ben Flounders of Whyalla, the instigator of the gypsum

project, for the imporiant part te las played in the work. On his shoulders has devolved

the navjor port of the field work, and Tis neverfie ding enthusinsin has in large measure

misured the continuity of observation whieh is go necessary in w Peojeet of this kind, Als

stimulating views on the gypaam problem lave heen a sontinued source of tnapitation.

Thanks are also tue to Mr, Batry Whittard and Mr. Peter Floanders for their help

in the field, and to Mr. Len ese for the transport of specimens From Whyalla to Adelaide

ou nimervns ovensions.

The chemical analyses of the Gineoln Park waters were earrivd out by fie Australian

Minoral Development, Iaboratorios, Varkaide, South Australia, and their assistance 78 love

acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Boas Beeking, I. G. M. and Kaplan, 1. R., 1956: ‘The Microbiologiew Origin of the Sulphur

Nodules of Lake Eyre, Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Anst., 79, pp. 92-64,

Jack, R, L., 1983: ‘The Conrposition of the Waters of the Great Artesian Basin in South

Australia nud its signifieanue. ‘Trans, Roy, Soe, S. Aust. 47, pp. 816-324,

Milos, K. R., 1954: The Geology und Tron Ore Resources of the Middleback Range Ares.

Geol, Sury, 8 Aust, Bull. No. 33,

Ward, ln K., 146: Thr Occurrence, Composition, Testing wid Utilisation of Underground

Water i South Australia, aod the Search for further Supplies. Geol, Burk &

Anwt. Bull. No. 28.

EXPLANATION OF FIG, 3-4

"ia, 3

A. General view of the Lincoln Park gypsum site looking south-east. Main pool ta the

foreground.

Bh. The edge of the main pool showing the development of the underwater shelf of bladed

erystul gvoups. Coralline gypsum above the water level.

O. Group of thick-bladed erystals. Maxima length of group 15 inches,

D, Layered group. Thicknexs of the bloek 6 inches,

FTG. 4

A. Bladed cluster. Mauch of the gypsum forming the underwater shelf is of thia type.

Neight of specimen TA inehwr,

i. Desert rose gypsum grown in mud. (Natural size.)

C, Urystal rosette growing on veootition, Titividual erystals of common form ovcur at

(We right of the photograph. Length of specimen 54 inches, Inset shows the pompom lype

of arystallization, (Natural size.)

hy. ‘*Quralline'? gypsum developed ou a mat of small pompoms. Length of specimen

6 inehes,

Pi

4

4

NEW SPECIES OF OLOGAMASUS BERLESE (ACAR:

RHODACARIDAE) FROM AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

BY DAVID C. LEE

Summary

Olagmasus, is re-defined and considered to be closely allied to Gamasellus Berlese. A

key is given for identification of the known adults of 12 new species of Ologamasus ( O.

cymosus, mansoni, leptosceles, dumosus, nucilus and validus from New Zealand, and O.

pyrenoides, discutatus, litophrothrix, tindalei, southcotti and virgosus from Australia)

which are described in three groups.

NEW SPECIES OF OLOGAMASUS BERLESE (ACAR: RHODA-

CARIDAE) FROM AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

By DAVID C. LEK, Cusaron or Aracanonocy, Sourm AvstnaLtan

Mvcsecm

Text fig. 1-54

SUMMARY

Ologamusus Berlese, is re-defined and considered to be closely

allied to Gamusellus Berlese. A key is given for identification of the

known adults of 12 new species of Ologamasus (QO. cymosus, mansoni,

lepltosceles, dumasus, nucilis and validus trom New Zealand, and

O. pyrenoides, disculalus, litoprothrix, tindalei, southeolti and virgosus

from Australia) whieh are described in three groups,

INTRODUCTION

The limits of the Rhodacaridae are uncertain, but Eyans (1963)

pointed out that, on the basis of leg chaetotaxy, it contained a natural

assemblage of genera which he termed the Rhodacarus-group. Genera

of the Rhodacarus-group oceur in both of the subfamilies that Ryke

(1962a) separates on the structure of the adult dorsal shield; which

is entire in the Ologamasinae and divided in the Rhodaecarinae, Since

L consider that the mites described in this paper belong to Ologamasis

and are closely allied to Gamasellus, whieh is placed in the Rhoda-

¢arinac, | have had to disregard these subfamilies. Instead, | have

separated off some of the genera of the Rhodacarus-group, that are

listed below, by the form of their dorsal setae. This character has

been used by Eyans (1957) to separate Cyrtolaclaps and Eurypara-

situs, To apply it, as a diagnostic character to divide the Rhodacarus-

group of genera into two groups, is unsatisfactory and it is used

here only as a temporary measure. It splits Gamasellus into two

groups and leaves only Ologamasus aberrans, of the previously

déeseribed species, in Ologamasus,

The following genera of the Rhodacarus-group contain species

with One or more pairs of obviously pilose or paddle-like setae on the

dorsal shield :—

C'yrfolaclaps Berlese, 1887. Ryke (1962b) lists as a subgenus of

Cyrtolaelaps sens. lat,

Gamasellus Berlese, 1892 (in part). Ryke (1962b) lists as a sub-

genus of Cyrtolaelaps sens. lat.

206 RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Gamaselliphis Ryke, 1961, Subgenus of Cyrtolaelaps seus, lat.

*Periseius Womersley, 1961.

"Heterogamasus Tragardh, 1907.

Bvanssellus Ryke, 1901,

Qlogamasus Berlese, 1888,

*Buepicrius Womersley, 1942.

*Siylogamasus Womersley, 1956,

* — gonus not listed as belonging to Rhodacaridae by Ryke (1962a)-

Of the genera listed above, Ologamasnus and those listed before il

may be elosely allied, while the position of Buepicrius and Stylo-

gamasus is uncertain.

There are four species from Argentina, previously in Ologamasus

(O. coleoptratus Berlese, 1888; OQ. simplicior Berlese, Lod: O. striolatis

Berlese, 1916 and QO. eave Sheals, 1962), that are exeluded by this paper,

| have examined O. cavei type material and its undeseribed male, as

well as specimens which may be QO. simplicior, and consider that

they have affinities with South American and Australian ‘‘//ydro-

gamasus’?, Since these “Hydrogamasus™ are not eongeneric with

Hydrogamasus salinus Laboulbene, 1851, but appear to be more allied

to Parasitiphis littoralis Womersley, 1956, T would temporarily place

the above species in Parasitiphis, These relationships are confused

but, if the Gamasiphis 1 have examined are congenerie with G.

pulohellus Berlese, 1887, it is certain that the above species do not

belong 10 Gamasiphis, which differs, among other characters, im

haying a reduction in the munber of setae on genu TIL and LV,

MATHRIAL AND METITODS

The mites belonging to Ologamasus are from New Zealand and

Australia, and were extracted from moss and litter by using

desieeating funnels, They have been mounted in either a gum chloral

medinm or in laetie acid, before being drawn with the aid of a camern

lucida, The use of two methods of mounting means that the specimens

were squashed in varying degrees. The distortion of squashed speei-

ens is mainly lateral and the effect can be seen by comparing fig, 36

and fig. 42, which are of mites of about the same shape.

The following type material has been deposited outside the Senth

Australian Museum, Adelaide. Female and male paratypes of

Ologamasus cymosus and pyrenoides, and male paratype of (.

diseutatus, at lhe British Museum (Natural History), London. emale

and male paratype of O. cymosus at the Dominion Museum, Wellington.

Female and male paratype of O, pyrenoides at the Natal Musewn,

Pietermaritzburg,

LEE—AUST. AND N.Z. OLOGAMASUS 207

The terminology generally is that of Evans (1957), except that

apotele is used instead of palptarsal seta and spermodactyl instead of

spermatophoral process, The position of post-lateral setae is shown

on fig. 1. The terminology for leg and pedipalp chaetotaxy is that of

Evans (1963 and 1964), see fig. 1 and 2. The terminology for dorsal

chaetotaxy merely approximates to that of Lindquest and Evans

2O-um4z>

pO-am4Hn0R

PROXIMAL

* = ventral setoe

* = Idtera! setae

® = dorsal setoe

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES

Vig. 1-2. Diagrammatic representation of the chaetotaxy of Ologamasus discutatus

sp. noy. female.

Fig. 1. Dorsum. post-lateral setae and basal segments of palp and leg.

Fig. 2. Tarsus of legs (1, IIL or IV,

(1965), since [ know of this paper only through correspondence with

Dr. Evans. One certain difference is that I have numbered the setae

of each dorsal row as if that species had a complete series; see fig. 1.

The single measurement given is the length of the idiosoma of the

mounted holotype, allotype or morphotype, to the nearest 10p,

208 RECORDS OF THE $.A. MUSEUM

Family RHODACARIDAE Oudemuns, | 902,

Genus Ologamasus Berlese, 1888, nec Berlese, 1906.

Syu: Ologamasellus Berlese, 1914,

Type: Qlagamasus aberrans Porlese, 1888.

The following characters of the genus place it in the Rhoducarns

sroup. The leg chaetotaxy is of the type in which the setal formula

of tibia T is (2-6/4.2), The apotele is three tined, with one tine

reduced amd without an associated hyaline fap, In the female the

metasternal setae are on the sternal shield, and the eenital shield is

Iriticated posteriorly and separate from a ventrianal shield. tn the

Inve the genital orifice is presternal, and there is a distally free

spermodactyl and an armed lee L.

Within the Rhoducarus-gzronp, Ologamasus is limited to (he fist

of genera given in the above introduction by the presenee of obviously

pilose setae on the dorsal shield, it is separated from all the yvenera

listed before it and from Hnepicrius by having an entire dorsal shield

in the female and usually iu the male also. It can be separated from

Stilogamasis, whielr has an entire dorsal shield in the adult, by

having the sternal shield separate trom endopodal shields TV in all

species that have the ventrianal shield separate from the dorsal shield,

and also by the ventral setav on the eenu and tibia of legs [1 and TV

ual being pilose,

There are a diimber of characters, uot mentioned ahove, whieli

occur in all, or most, of the adults of the genus. The denticles on the

dewlosternum are not always very clear, but they appear to he in six

or seven transverse rows and never nine rows as in Cyrtolvelaps and

Kurypavasitus, The idiosomm is strongly convex dorsally and well

covered with sclerotized shields. Most speeies seem to have produced

u sticky exudation, similur to that of some Crytostigmata, whieh may

cover a lot of the opisthosoma and have dirt and tnneul hyphae

adhering to it. The degree of fasion of the shields is very variable,

but the peritrematal shield always merges with the dorsal shield

anteriorly and exopodal shields TV posteriorly. The sternal shield is

always fused to endopodals IT, In the female there is a ereseont

shaped, endogymal slield fitting into the posterior coneavity of the

sternal shield and the anterior margin of the gvenital shield is thin

and almost luyaline, The chaetotaxy of gen DL and TV is (2-4/2-1)

and (2-5/2-1) which differs from Cyrtolaelaps, genu TID is (2-4,/2-2) ;

Kueperins, wenn VV is (2-5/1-1); Sessilnmens, venu TL (2-4/1-1) und

wenn TV is (2-5/1-1); Gamasiphoides, geny WT is (2-4/1 or 21) and

gent TV is (2-5/1-1); antl Gamasiphis, genw TIT is (2-4/1-1) and genn

TY is (2-5/1-0), On the pabp genu, af is short and spatilate with a

lateral tine, while a@/s is longer aud slightly spatulate near the (ip.

LEF—AUST. AND. N.Z. OLOGAMASUS 209

On the palp femur, «/ is short and pilose near the tip. The dorsal

sctue of leg TV have been drawn for all species and it cau be seen

that on the tarsus, md is long and filamentous, while pds is shorter,

or if subequal, it has a tip whieh is blunt, spatulate or pilose. This

is also true of a number of Gamasellus and Gamaselliphis with pilose

dorsal setae, The smallness of pl: and pds compared with adi and

adz on lemur TV, oceurs in all bat one Ologamasus species, and is

found in a number of Rhodacarid genera, The ambulacral apparatus

of leg T has smaller claws than those of the other lees and is without

a pulvillus,

In the deutonymphs of the three species deseribed there is a

divided dorsal shield and the setal form is similar to that of the adults.

The deutonymph of Ologamasus cymosus, unlike its own sdult but like

the adults of the other two groups of species, las twenty-two pairs of

setae on the anterioy dorsal shield. Only one protonymph has been

deseribedt,

The new species of Oloyamasus ave dealt with in three groups.

From Berlese’s description of Ologamasus aberrans, it could belong

fo the pyrenoides-zvonp or cymosus-group, but it should probably

he placed in a group of its own, Tt should he noted, that in

my re-definition of Ologamasus, 1 no longer exclude species in which

the female ventrianal shield is not {used to the dorsal shield, as was

done by Berlese (1888), This change may haye to be revoked later,

in which case the disculalus-ervoup will be excluded from Olagamasus,

fo form a new genus, or to be placed in Gamasellus, which would in

turn have to be re-defined to inelude species with an entire dorsal

shield in the adult.

KMY TO OLOGAMASUS SPECTRS FROM AUSTRALIA AND

NEW ZBRALAND

FremMaLre

1, Ventrianal shield fused to dorsal shield and

sternal shield fused to endopodal shields

IV. cymosus-group .. .. 0. 0. 0. we se

Ventrianal shield fused to dorsal shield and

sternal shield not fused to endopodal

shields IV. purenoides-gvoup .. 2... .. pyrenoides sp, nov,

Ventrianal shield not fused 10 dorsal shield

and sternal shield not fused to endopodal

shields TV, discutatus-group......- .. &

2. Vertieal setae simple .. .. .. .. oo... 8

Vertical setae pilose... 0. 0.

210

[=r

_

RECORDS OF THE S.A. MUSEUM

Femur IV with 2 conical spurs .

Femur IV without conical spurs .. .. --

Dorsal setae in row R of normal length (sub-

equal with $1) and on femur IV, pd: about

4 the length of ads bes yas

Dorsal setae in Tow R very ~ shill (subequal

with 21) and on femur IV, pd2 is longer

haath: ide fo pe ne age ghee ale Ha ets

Femur III without conical spurs and dorsal

setae in row R are pilose... .. .

Femur LT with 1 conical spur and dorsal

setae in row R are simple

. Vertical setae are simple .. .. -.

Vertical setae are pilose

No dorsal setae on leg LV are pilose

Pilose dorsal setae on leg TV .. -.

Femur |V without a sickle-like spur... ..

Femur IV with sickle-like spur .. .. .. ..

One pair of ventral setae are pilose and seta

vy on femur LV is maul Ls, ra

Three pairs of ventral setae are pilose and

seta v on femur LV is a short spur

Mates

Sternogenital shield not fused with ventri-

anal shield and peritrematal shield fused

with ventrianal shield. cymosus-group ..

Sternogenital shield fused with ventrianal

shield and peritrematal shield fused with

ventrianal shield. pyrenoides-group

Sternogenital shield not fused to ventrianal

shield and peritrematal shield not fused

with ventrianal shield or, if partially fused,

the ventrianal shield is not fused to the

dorsal shield. disentatus-group

Vertical setae are pilose and tibia I is

MPM... 2. ae ee adh ye 8 ee tee

Vertical setae are simple and tibia II is

vnarmed 2. 4... ne ee A Sa ba bE Ba

cyMasus SP. NOV.

4

mansoni sp. Tov,

leptosceles sp. nov.

dumosus Sp. NOV.

nucilis sp. nov.

litoprothrix sp. nov.

nd

(

pio a

discutatus Sp. NOV.

tindalei sp. nov.

southcotti sp. nov.

VviTrgosUs Sp. Noy.

bo

pyrenoides sp. Nov.

validus sp. Nov.

3

LEE—AUST. AND N.Z, OLOGAMASUS 2

3. Dorsal setae in row #? are simple and there

is a nodule on the posteriolateral surface

of femur ID 2. 6. ue ce ee ee ee ee ee ee NN BONT BP, NOV.

Dorsal setae in row & are pilose and there

is no nodale on the posteriolateral surfaee

of femur Wow. ek wy ee ee ee ve ee ee ve) CYMRASUS SP. NOV.

4. Dorsal shield divided into two parts .. .. disentatus sp. nov,

Dorsal shield entire .. 0. 0. 00 0. 0... .. 8

». Ventrianal shield is fused {to the dorsal

Shield 2. cc se ly we oe ee ee os ew fee ap, TOV.

Ventrianal shield is not fused to dorsal

Shield oe. ey ee ee ee ee ee ge SOUthCOFD SP. Nov.

CY MOSUS—GROUP

The six species belonging to this group ave from North Island,

New Zealand, The adults range in length of idiogoma from 3850p

lu 890m,

Female, Ghathosoma. The anterior edge of the tectum eitves

forwards from the sides to a central, pointed process. The margin

is denticulate, some of the teeth may be large, sometimes forming a

pointed process each side of the central process, The chelicerae have

(liree teeth on the movable digit and three or Jour teeth, sometimes

with a series of small teeth distally, on the fixed digit. The rostral

and internal posterior rostral setae are longer than the external

posterior rostral and capitular setae. On the palp trochanter, av is

pilose near the tip, while pr is simple,

Idiosoma. Obvious reticulation on the sclerotized shields ocenrs

in the three species with pilose vertical setae. The dorsal shield is

fused posteriorly with the ventrianal shield, a short lateral fissure

separating it from the anterior of the ventrianal shield and the

posterior of the peritrematal shield. ‘Che peritrematal shield is some-

times fused with the ventrianal shield, but when it is separate, it

proceeds posteriorly well on io the opisthosoma, coming gradually to

a point. There is a single pair of prae-endopodal shields, The sternal

shield is fused with all the endopodal shields. There are fewer setae

on the idiosoma in this group compared with the other two groups

of species and the post-lateral setae and dorsal row of setae,

UR, are not considered to exist. There are usually twenty-one pairs

of setae on the podonotum, the anterior seta of row rin the two other

groups being missing, he chaetotaxy of the opisthonotum is