CONTENTS:

BAEHR, B. & BAEHR, M.

On Australian Hersiliidae (Arachnida: Araneae) from the South Australian

Museum. Supplement to the revision of the Australian Hersiliidae

BARKER, R.M.

Yanyuwa canoe making

CLARKE, P.A.

Aboriginal use of subterranean plant parts in southern South Australia

CLEVERLY, W.H.

Australites from the vicinity of Finke, Northern Territory, Australia

GOMMERS, FL.

Diamonds from the Echunga Goldfields, South Australia

GOWLETT-HOLMES, K.L. & McHENRY, B.J.

Fossil mollusc type specimens in the South Australian Museum.

I. Polyplacophora

HEMMING, S.J.

Ngurunderi: a Ngarrindjeri Dreaming

HIRST, D.

Amended type localities of five species of spiders (Arachnida: Araneae)

described by H. R. Hogg in 1905

HORTON, P.

Review of The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in Southern Australia’

LAMPERT, R.J. & HUGHES, P.J.

Early human occupation of the Flinders Ranges

PICKERING, M. & DEVITT, J.

Notes on a wooden implement type from north-eastern Arnhem Land

SCOTT, G.G. & RICHARDSON, KC.

Osteological differences of the axial skeleton between Lasiorhinus latifrons

(Owen, 1845) and Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialia: Vombatidae)

SCOTT, G.G. & RICHARDSON, K.C.

Appendicular osteological differences between Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owen,

1845) and Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialia: Vombatidae)

SOUTHCOTT, RV.

Two new larval mites (Acarina: Erythraeidae) ectoparasitic on north

Queensland cicadas

STROMMER, NG.

Genera Nabis Latreille and Stenonabis Reuter (Hemiptera: Nabidae) in

Australia

PAGES

13-20

173-188

63-76

41-48

131-138

I-11

191-193

189

139-168

169-171

29-39

95-102

103-116

79-93

WATTS, C.H.S.

Revision of Australian Halipilidae (Coleoptera)

WATTS, C.H.S.

Revision of Australasian Hydrophilus Muller, 1764 (Coleoptera:

Hydrophilidae)

WHITE, I.M.

The limits on fighting in an Aboriginal community

WILLIAMS, E.

The archaeology of the Cooper Basin: report on fieldwork

Erratum for Volume 22(1)

Volume 22(1)} was published on 4 July 1988.

Volume 22(2) was published on 19 December 1988,

ISSN 0081-2676

21-28

117-130

49-51

53-62

195

FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM 1. POLYPLACOPHORA

BY K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B. J. MCHENRY

Summary

The South Australian Museum collection of fossil chiton types is the largest in the southern

hemisphere. It contains primary type material, and some secondary types, of 63 species and

subspecies. A further species is represented only by secondary types. All species are from the

Tertiary strata of Victoria, South Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand. Species are listed

alphabetically according to the original name of the genus or species.

FOSSIL, MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

1. POLYPLACOPHORA

K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B. J, MCHENRY

GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L., & MCHENRY, B. J. 1988. Fossil mollusc type specimens in the South

Australian Museum, |. Polyplacophora. Rec, S, Aust, Muy 22-(0): 1-11,

The South Australian Museum collection of fossil chiton types 16 the lareest in the southern

hemisphere, [tcontains primary type marerial, and some secondary types, of G3 species ald subspecies.

A further species 5 represented only by secondary types. All species are from the Tertiary strata of

Victons, South Australia, Tasmuaniiand New Zealand. Species are listed alphabetically according ro the

onginal name of the genus or species:

K. L. Gowlett-Holmes & B,J. McAeénry, South Australian Museum, North Terrace. Adelaide. South

Australia 5000, Mannseript received 19 February 1987.

Most of the fossil chiton types in the South Austra-

lian Museum are due (o the work of E. Ashby, mainly

inconjunction with B.C. Cotton and W.G. Torr, Other

fossil chiton types are the result of the work of Cotton

& Godfrey Since Conan & Godlrey (1940) litlle has

been published on Australian fossil chitons, and no

further types have been added to the collection.

We believe that the South Australian Museum col-

lection of fossil chiton types is the largest in the

southem hemisphere and one of the more significant

collections in the world. It includes type material for

64 species or subspecies, all of which haye been

verified by us according to available material and

information. The specimens are all individual valves,

und are listed as ‘complete’ when the insertion plates

and sutural lamina are present, as ‘incomplete’ when

these ane missing or the valve slightly damaged, or as

‘fragment’ When less thin half of the valve is present in

one piece,

In the following list, species are arranged

alphabeucally in familiesunder the original name at

the time of description. Changes in familial status

have been cross-referenced. The present status ofeach

species ts, unless indicated otherwise, according to

van Belle (1981), except that the family

Afossochitonidae is not recognised following

Gowlett-Holmes (1987), The fallowing abbreviations

are used jn the text NMV = Museum of Victoria,

Melbourne; N.Z%. = New Zealand; S.A. = South

Australia; SAMA = South Australian Museum.

Adelaide; Tas, = Tasmania; Vic. = Victona.

Srrarickapuical Norks

All Fossil chiton types in the South Australian

Museum come Jrom the Tertiary strata of Victoria,

South Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, ranging

from carly Miocene to late Pliocene (Tables 1, 2),

During this study i! was noticed that there were-several

inaccuracies and ambiguities in the geological data of

the onyinal type descriptions. so it is necessary te

make some correctioas and clarifications at this stage,

According to Johnston( 1877), the fossiliferous beds at

Table Cape, Tasmania, occur at two Small bluffs near

the township of Wynyard, The Table Cape Group

exposed here includes two formations: the Freestone

Cove Sandstone (the ‘Crassatella Beds’ of Johnston)

which grades upwards into the overlying Fossil Blu(y

Sandstone (Banks 1962), Ashby (1929) proposed the

‘Lower Bed! at Table Cape to be the rype locality and

horizon for Laricella gigantea Ashby & Torr, 190|.

Quilty (1972) refers to 'chiton plates in the lawer six

inches’ of the Freestone Cove Sandstone and we be-

lieve this to be the level from which the Ashby speci-

mens were collected. Arthal time, the age of the fossil

deposits at Table Cape was tholght « be Eocene

(Johnston 1880, 1885; Pritchard 1896) and was until

quite recently believed lo be Janjukian (Banks L942).

Later studies (Quilty 1966; Ludhrook 1967a, 1973)

have shown these strata to be Longfordian, thus the

Janjukian age of the Table Cape chiton types needs

further consideration.

The original description of CLepidopleuris

clifdenensix Ashby, 1929 states that this species is

from Clifden at the southern end of the South Island of

New Zealand and is Hutchinsonian (basal early

Miocene) in age, but no stratigraphical data are sup-

plied, Both B.L. Wood in Suggate er al, (1978) and

Ludbroak (1967b) indicate that Hutchinsonian strata

at Clifden are most likely the Clifden Limestone, and

so we believe this to be the formation from which this

species. was collected,

The fossil locality at Gellibrand River, Victoria,

occurs in either the Longfordian-Batesfordian Gelli-

brand Marl or the underlying Janjukian Longfordian

Clifton Formation. Both of these unis crop out on the

FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES, 1. POLYPLACOPHORA

OTWAY BASIN

AUSTRALIAN

BASS STRAIT NEW ZEALAND

ST VINCENT BASIN

TYRENDARRA

EMBAYMENT

STAGES PORT PHILLIP

SERIES EMBAYMENT

PLEISTOCENE}

WERRIKOOIAN

YATALAN

PLIOCENE

KALIMNAN

GRANGE BURN FORMATION

CHEL TENHAMIAN

MITGHELLIAN

BAIRNSDALIAN

BALCOMBIAN

FYANSFORD FORMATION

(* BALCOMBE CLAY *}

MIOCENE

BATESFORDI AM

LUNGFORDIAN CLUPDEN LIMESTONE

TABLE CAPE

GROUP

TAR IU LAN,

TABLE 1. Generalised correlation chart for the relevant fossil chiton horizons of south-eastern Australia and New Zealand.

ADELAIDE PLAINS

DRY CREEK SANDS

UPPER PLIOCENE

Acanthochiton (Eoplax)

adelaidae

Chiton (Arthochiton)

tricostalis relata

Cryptoplax ludbrookae

TABLE 2. Geographic and stratigraphic distribution of SAMA

names, see text for changes and synonymies.

MAGDONDONALDS, FORSYTHS:

GRANGE BURN FORMATION

MIDDLE PLIOCENE

Acanthochiton drunus:

A, forsythensis

A, (Lirachiton) inexpectus

A. singleton!

A, tlanguloides

Affasochiton (Telochiton)

magnicostatus

A, stich

Anthochiton duadeni

A, macdonaldensis

A, octoeostatus

Cryptoplax numious

©, sicus

Gallistochiton greedi

C. reticulatus

Gallochiton macdonaldt

Isochnoetiton cossyrus

1 durius

neglectus

1 numantius

1 dsurus

| vatenae

|. vinazus

Belchiton pulchernimus

Lwpidopleurus babidus

L badioides:

L. sephus

L. sinervus

L, singus

L. uxellus

Molachiton naxus

Loricella concave

L. magnipustulesa

CUFTON BANK

MUDDY CREEK MARL

MIDDLE MIOCENE

Acanthochiton casus

A. pilsbryoides

AL siabratus

Atfesochiton cudmorel

A. (Telochiton) dandus

A, (Telochiton) iscus

Callistochiton reticulanis

Ischnochiton (Rasiella)

clittonensis

Lepidopleurus badioides

L diversigranasus

Ls magnograniler

L. nivarus

L pamphilius

L relatus

Aulacochiton erma

Lorica oculeia

L. varena

Ovehiton hall)

MORNINGTON

BALGOMBE CLAY

LOWER-MIDDLE MIOCENE

Acanthoctitas (Notoplax)

granulosis

A. rostratus

Acanthochiton balcombiensis

Galloctitor (Ocellochiton)

sulci

BASS STRAIT

TABLE CAPE GROUP

LOWER MIOCENE

Chiton fossicus

C. paucipustuiosa

Lonca aftinis

L. compressa

Loricella gigantea

NEW ZEALAND

CLIFDEN LIMESTONE

LOWER MIOCENE

Lepidopleurus clitdensis

fossil chiton types. Species are listed under their original

K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B.J. MCHENRY 3

coast of western Victoria approximately | km north of

the mouth of the Gellibrand River (Abele ef al. 1976).

Although the type specimens of Plaxiphora concen-

trica and P. gellibrandi were designated as coming

from this locality, subsequent examination of the

valves by the authors has led us to believe that the

specimens are in fact recent examples of the living

species Plaxiphora (P.) albida, and not fossil remains

at all,

Species described from Mornington, Balcombe

Bay and Schnapper Point, Victoria, all come from the

early (Batesfordian) to middle (Bairnsdalian)

Miocene Balcombe Clay, a unit within the Fyansford

Formation which crops out along the eastern coast of

Port Phillip Bay, Vic., in the region of Mornington.

The two main fossil localities for this formation are

Fossil Beach (the type section for the Balcombian

Stage) and south of Manyung Rocks. It should be

noted that at Schnapper Point the exposed sediments

belong to the non-fossiliferous fluviatile Baxter

Sandstone of Mitchellian to Cheltenhamian age

(Gostin 1966). so it appears that the fossils described

from this locality must represent material from either

Fossil Beach or south of Manyung Rocks.

The species described from the Hamilton area of

Victoriacome from the fossil localities at MacDonalds

(Bank), Clifton Bank and Forsyths (Bank). The local-

ity at Clifton Bank occurs in the Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian Muddy Creek Marl which crops out on

Muddy Creek. Disconformably overlying this form-

ation is the Kalimnan (early Pliocene) Grange Burn

Formation which occurs on Muddy Creek at

MacDonalds (Bank) and on Grange Burn at Forsyths

(Bank) (Spencer-Jones 1971). It should be noted that

Ashby’s locality for Clifton Bank is incorrect, as it is

situated on Muddy Creek not Grange Burn.

The species described from South Australia are

from Torrensville Bore and Holden’s Bore at

Woodville, both in western suburbs of Adelaide. All

three species come from the late Pliocene (Yatalan)

Dry Creek Sands.Where possible, the original type

localities have been updated.

Family ACANTHOCHITONIDAE

Genus Acanthochites Risso, 1826

Acanthochites (Notoplax) granulosus Ashby & Torr,

1901

Trans. R. Soc. 8, Aust. 25(2); 139, p14, fig. 9.

= Protochiton granulosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901)

(PROTOCHITONIDABE).

Syntypes: T844, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Schnapper Point, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay,

early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian —

Bairnsdalian), collector and date of collection

unknown.T845, 1 incomplete median valve, same

collection data as T844.

Note: See note on Schnapper Point in the Stratigraphi-

cal Notes.

Acanthochites rostratus Ashby & Torr, 1901

Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 25 (2): 140, pl. 4, fig. 5.

= Afossochiton rostratus (Ashby & Torr, 1901).

Holotype: T841, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Schnapper Point, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay,

early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian —

Bairnsdalian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant,

date of collection unknown.

Note: See note on Schnapper Point in Stratigraphical

Notes. Type unique.

Genus Acanthochiton Gray, 1821 em. Iredale, 1915.

Acanthochiton (Eoplax) adelaidae Ashby & Cotton,

1936.

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 5 (4): 510, fig. 2.

= Notoplax adelaidae (Ashby & Cotton, 1936).

Holotype: P10159 (ex D12882), 1 incomplete median

valve, from 151 m depth, Torrensville Bore, Adelaide,

S.A., Dry Creek Sands, late Pliocene (Yatalan), col-

lected by W.J. Kimber, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Acanthochiton balcombiensis Ashby, 1939

Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. 151(3): 188, pl. 3, fig. 4.

= Acanthochitona balcombiensis Ashby, 1939.

Holotype: P10160, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Balcombe Bay, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay,

early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by F.A, Cudmore, date of

collection unknown. Note: Type unique.

Acanthochiton casus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 214, pl. 20, fig. 30.

= Acanthochitona casa Ashby & Cotton, 1939.

Holotype: P4349, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec-

tion unknown.

Note: Cotton and Weeding (1941) suggest this species

may be a juvenile of Afossochiton cudmorei Ashby,

1925, which is followed by van Belle (1981). How-

ever, we believe the specimen is adult and represents

a distinct species of Acanthochitona. Type unique.

Acanthochiton drunus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 6(3): 214, pl.20, fig. 29.

= Acanthochitona druna Ashby & Cotton, 1939.

Holotype: P4348, 1 incomplete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

4 FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES.

Acanthochiton forsythensis Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S, Aust. Mus. 6(3): 213, pl. 20, fig. 27.

=Acanthochitona forsythensis Ashby & Cotton, 1939,

Holotype: P4345, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratype: P10156, | incomplete median valve, with

same collection data as holotype.

Note: The specimen from Clifton Bank recorded by

Ashby & Cotton (1939) is missing, presumed lost.

Acanthochiton (Lirachiton) inexpectus Ashby &

Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 6 (3): 215, pl. 20, fig. 31.

=Notoplax(Bassethullia) inexpecta (Ashby & Cotton,

1939),

Holotype: P4350, 1 complete posterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Generic placement follows Gowlett-Holmes

(1987). Type unique.

Acanthochiton pilsbryoides Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 216, pl .20, fig. 27.

= Acanthochitona pilsbryoides Ashby & Cotton,

1939.

Holotype: P4346, 1 complete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec-

tion unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Acanthochiton sabratus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus.6(3): 215, pl. 20, fig. 25.

= Acanthochitona sabrata Ashby & Cotton, 1939,

Holotype: P4344, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec-

tion unknown.

Note: Originally labelled and registered as Acan-

thochiton parus, later corrected to A. sabratus. A.

parus may have been the original manuscript name,

but was never published. Type unique.

Acanthochiton singletoni Cotton & Godfrey, 1940

‘The Molluscs of South Australia Part IT’ p. 570, fig.

588.

= Acanthochitona singletoni

1940,

Holotype: P4341, | complete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Cotton & Godfrey,

1, POLYPLACOPHORA

Note: This specimen was originally recorded as

Afossochiton cudmorei Ashby, 1925 by Ashby & Cot-

ton (1939), and incorrectly labelled ‘holotype’ on the

plate caption. Type unique.

Acanthochiton trianguloides Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 216, pl. 20, fig. 28.

= Acanthochitona trianguloides Ashby & Cotton,

1939.

Holotype: P4347, | incomplete median valve, from

Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown,

Note: Type unique.

Genus Afossochiton Ashby, 1925

Afossochiton cudmorei Ashby, 1925

Proc, R. Soc. Vic. (NS) 37(2): 179, pl. 18, figs 6, 7.

Paratypes: P10150, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairmsdalian), collector and date of collection un-

known. T846, | incomplete median valve, same col-

lection data as PIO150.

Note; P10150 is registered as from Balcombe Bay,

Vic. and labelled as from MacDonalds, Muddy Creek.

However, as it is definitely Ashby’s (1925) figured

specimen 'No, 2, paratype’ we regard both the register

and the label as incorrect. T846 corresponds to

Ashby’s (1925) specimen 'No. 3, paratype’. Holotype

in NMV (P13311).

Afossochiton (Telochiton) dendus Ashby & Cotton,

1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 211, pl. 20, fig, 24.

= Afossochiton dendus Ashby & Cotton, 1939.

Holotype: P4342, 1 incomplete anterior valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec-

tion unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Afossochiton (Telochiton) iscus Ashby & Cotton,

1939

Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 212, pl. 19, fig. 20.

= Afossochiton iscus Ashby & Cotton, 1939.

Holotype: P4339, 1 complete posterior valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of

collection unknown,

Note: Type unique.

Afossochiton (Telochiton) magnicostatus Ashby &

Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 212, pl. 20, fig. 23.

K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & B.J. MCHENRY 5

=Afossechitan magnicostaius Ashby & Cotton, 1939,

Holotype: P4343. | incomplete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown,

Note: Type unique,

Afossochiton sulei Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec, §. Aust, Mus. 6(3).. 210, pl, 20, fig..21.

Holotype: P4340, | complete anterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Bum Formation, carly Pliocene (Kalimnati),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique,

Genus Notoplax H Adams, 861

Molachiton naxus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

=Notoplax (Bassethullia)inexpecta (Ashby & Cotton,

1939).

see LEPTOCHITONIDAE

Family CHITONIDAE

Genus Anthochiton Thiele, 1893

Anthachiton duedent: Astby & Cotton, 1939

Rec, §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 235, pl. 20, fig. 38.

= Chiton (Rhyssoplax) duodeni (Ashby & Cotton,

1939),

Holotype: P4357, | incamplele median valve. from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Phocene (Kulimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note. Type unique.

Anthochiton macdonaldensix Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Ree, 8, Aust. Mus, 6(3); 234, pl. 21, fig. 39,

= Chitan (Rhyssoplax) macdanaldensis (Ashby &

Cotton, 1939)

Holotype: P4359, | complete posterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Maddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan).

collected by W_ Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Anthavhiton octocestatus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Ree, 8, Aust Mus. 6(3) 235, pl. 21, fig. 40,

=Chiton (Rhysseplax) octocostatus (Ashby & Cotton,

$939),

Hulotype: P4360, 1 half median valve. from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek. Hamilton, Vic,

Grange Burm Formation, carly Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W Greed, date of collection unknown,

Note: Type unique.

Genus Chiton Linnaeus. 1758

Chiton fossicus. Ashby & Torr. 1901

Trans. R, Soc. 8, Aust, 25(2); 140, pl. 4, fig. 4.

= Chiton (Rhyssaplax) fossicus Ashby & Tarr. 1901,

Holotype: T840, | incomplete median valve, from

Table Cape, Tas.. Table Cape Group, carly Miocene

(Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennani,

date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Chiton paucipustulosus Ashby & Torr, 1901

Trans. R. Soe. 8. Aust. 28(2): 141, pl. 4, fig. 2.

= Loricella pauetpustulosa (Ashby & Torr, 1901)

(SCHIZOCHITONIDAE).

Holotype: T839, | complete median valve, fram Table

Cape, Tas., Table Cape Group, early Miocene

(Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant,

date of collection unknown.

Note: A specimen of this species in the collection

(P4366) 1s labelled 'Pleisiotype’. This specimen is

Ashby and Cotton's (1939) ‘Hypotype' and has no type

Status. Type unique,

Chiton (Anthochiton) tricostalis relata Ashby & Cot-

ton, 1936

Rec. 8. Ausr. Mus. S(4): 509, fig. 1

= Chiten (Rhyssoplax) tricostalis relatus Ashby &

Cotton, 1936,

Holotype: P10157 (ex D12883), | incomplete median

valve, from 151m depth, Torrensville Bare, Adelaide,

8.A., Dry Creek Sands, late Pliocene (Yatalan). col-

lected hy W.J. Kimber, date of collection unknown,

Note: Type anique.

Family CRYPTOPLACIDAE

Genus Cryptoplax Blainyille, 1818

Cryptoplax ludbrookae Ashby, |940

Trans. R. Soc, 8, Aust. 64(2): 266.

Holotype: P4285; | complete anterior valve. from

103-117 m depth, bore at Holden’s Motor Body

Works, Woodville, Adelaide, 5_A., Dry Creck Sands,

late Plioeene (Yaqalan), collected by S.A. Department

of Mines, 1934.

Note: Type uniques

Cryptoplax numicus Ashby & Cotton. 1939

Reo §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 219, pl. 19, fig. 18

Holotype: P4337, 1 inconiplete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Bum Formation, early Pliocene (Kaliminan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown

Note: Type unique,

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratypes: P12829, | incomplete anterior valve and |

incomplete median valve, with same collection data as

holotype.

Note: The anterior valve in lot P12829 is Ashby &

Cotton’s (1939) 'Hypotype’.

Family ISCHNOCHITONIDAE

Genus Callistochiton Dall, 1882

Callistochiton greedi Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 232, pl. 21, fig. 41.

Holotype: P4369, 1 half median valve, from Forsyths

(Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic., Grange Burn

Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected by

W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratypes: P12823, 2 median valve fragments, with

same collection data as holotype.

Note: Ashby and Cotton (1939) list 4 paratype frag-

ments. The label of P12823 states 'l sent USA Dec

1938', so the 4th fragment is presumed lost before reg-

istration, as register only lists 2 specimens.

Callistochiton inexpectus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S, Aust. Mus. 6(3): 233, pl.21, figs 41, 42.

Holotype: P4372, 1 incomplete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratypes: P4373, | complete posterior valve, with

same collection data as holotype. P12818, | incom-

plete median valve and | incomplete posterior valve,

with same collection data as holotype.

Note: P4373 is Ashby and Cotton’s (1939) 'Hypotype',

labelled and registered as 'Pleisiotype’. All three lots

originally labelled and registered as Callistochiton

affinis, an unpublished name, and later corrected to

C. inexpectus.

Callistochiton reticulatus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S, Aust. Mus. 6(3): 233, pl. 21, figs 44, 45.

Holotype: P4370, 1 incomplete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratypes: P4371, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian —

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec-

tion unknown. P4381, 1 incomplete posterior valve,

from Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES. 1. POLYPLACOPHORA

P12820, 2 half median valves and 1 incomplete poste-

rior valve, with same collection data as P4381.

Note: Ashby & Cotton (1939) list a 'Hypotype'

(P4383) from the same locality as the holotype, which

could not be found in the collection, however, the

'Pleisiotype' (="'Hypotype’) but the locality on the label

(Forsyths) differs from the locality in the register

(MacDonalds). We believe the 2 specimens were con-

fused before registration, that the 'Hypotype' specimen

of Ashby & Cotton (1939) has been lost, and replaced

by P4381, which is part of the lot of 4 specimens from

Forsyths mentioned by Ashby & Cotton (1939), the

remainder of the lot being P12820.

Genus Callochiton Gray, 1847

Callochiton macdonaldi Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 227, pl. 21, fig. 46.

Holotype: P4368, 1 incomplete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Callochiton (Ocellochiton) sulci Ashby, 1939

Proc, Linn. Soc. Lond. 151(3): 187, pl. 3, figs 1-3.

=Ocellochiton sulci (Ashby, 1939).

Holotype: P10158; 1 incomplete median valve, from

Balcombe Bay, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay,

early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by F.A, Cudmore, date of

collection unknown.

Paratypes: P26776, | incomplete anterior valve and 1

incomplete posterior valve with same collection data

as holotype.

Genus Ischnochiton Gray, 1847

Ischnochiton (Radsiella) cliftonensis Ashby & Cot-

ton, 1939

Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 231, pl. 19, fig. 14.

= Lavenachiton cliftonensis (Ashby & Cotton, 1939)

(INCERTAE SEDIS),

Holotype: P4333, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec-

tion unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Ischnochiton cossyrus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 229, pl. 20, fig. 37.

Holotype: P4356, 1 incomplete posterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & BJ, MCHENRY 7

Ischnochiton dertus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Ree S. Aust Mus. 6(3): 230, pl. 20, fig. 33.

=Isehnochiton cossyrus Ashby & Cotton, 1939,

Holotype: P4352. | incomplete posterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank). Muddy Creek, Harnilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown,

Note; Type unique,

Ischnochiton neglectuy Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Ree. S, Aust, Mus. 6(3); 231, pl. 20, fig. 34.

Holotype: P4353, 1 half median valve, from Forsyths

(Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vie., Grange Burn

Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan), collected hy

W, Greed, date of collection unknown,

Paraly pes; P12819, 2 fragments of median valves with

same collection data as holotype.

Ischnochiton numantius Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rev, S, Aust, Mus, 6(3): 229, pl. 19, fig. 16,

Holotype: P4335, 1 incomplete posterior valve, from

Torsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, carly Plioeene (Kalimnan),

collected by W, Greed, date of collection unknown,

Note: Type unique.

Iyehnochiton isurus. Ashby & Catton, 1939

Ree S. Aust, Mus, 6(3); 228, pl, (9, fig. 15, pl. 20, fig.

35,

= lschnaehiron vinazus Ashby & Cotton, 1939.

Holotype: P4334, 1 half median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Bur Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimman),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratypes: P12838, 1 fragenent ofamediun valve, with

sume collection data ag holotype. P26767, | half me-

dian valve, trom Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn,

Hamilton, Vic,, Grange Burn Formation. early Plio-

cene (Kalimnan), collected by W. Greed, date of cal-

lection unknown,

Note: One paratype of this species, Ashby & Colfan’s

(1929) 'Hypotype’ P4354. is now the holotype of

isclhnwechiton varenae Couian & Godfrey, 1S),

Isclinochinon varende Cotten & Godfrey, 194)

“The Motluses of South Australia Part 1” p, 570, fig.

57%

Holotype; P4354, | incomplete postenor valve. from

Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton. Vie.,

Gringe Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalinin),

collected by W. Creed, dave of colleenon unknown.

Note: This specimen Was of einally.a paratype ol fc

michifon fsurus Ashby & Colton, 199% [Ashby &

Cotes (19359) 'bipritype’), Type vnique

Jychnahitant vineses Ashby & Coton, 1959

Reo. S Avvt, Mug 6(3), 228, pl, 20, fig. 36

Holotype: P4355, ( half median valve, from

Macdonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W, Greed, date of collection unknown

Paratypes: P12828, 2 fragments of median valves with

same collection data as holotype.

Genus Ocellochitun Ashby, 1939

Lericva eculea Ashby & Cotton, 1939

= Ocellochiton sulei (Ashby, 1939),

see SCHIZOCHITONIDAE

Lartca varena Ashby & Cotton, 1939

= O¢ellochiton sulet (Ashby, |939),

sce SCHIZOCHITONIDAE

Family LEPTOCHTTONIDAE

Genus Belchiton Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Belchuon pulcherrimus Ashby & Cotton, 19349

Ree, §, Aust, Mus, 6(3): 221, pl. 19 fig. 10,

= Leplochiton pulcherrimus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939),

Holotype; P4329, | incomplete median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pllocene (Kalinin),

collected by W, Greed, dale af collection unknown.

Paratype: P12799_ | incomplete median valve, with

same collection data as bolatype

Genus Lepidopleurns Risso, 1826

Lepidapleurus babidus Ashby & Catan, 1939

Rec. S. Aust, Mus, 6(3): 226, pl, 19, fig. 6.

= Leptochiton bahidus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939),

Holotype; P4325. | half median valve, from

MacDonalds (Baik), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vie.,

Grange Burn Formation, early: Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown,

Paratype: P1282). 2 median valve fragments, with

same collection data ax holotype.

Lepidopleurus badioides Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Ree, S, Aust. Ms, 6(3); 222, pl 1%, fi 4. pl 24, fig.

47,

= Leptachiton budivides (Ashby & Canon, 1939)

Holorype: P4323_ L incomplete peatenor valve. fen

Clifton Bank, Muddy Crack, Hamilion, Vie,, Murty

Crock Marl, early to middle Mioegne (Balcorablan -

Bajmsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec

hen unknown,

Puratypes; P4358, 2 frauments of amedian valve. fom

Porsyths (Bank). Grange Bunt, Harrilian, Vic,

Grange Burn Formanon, carly Pliocene (Kalininan),

collevied by W Greed! date of colleetion unknown,

PL2304, 2 fraements of a posteriay valve, wall care

collection Wate as 4358, PI2S05, | incomplete

median yalve, with same collection data as P4358.

Lepldopleurus clifdenensiy Ashby, 1979

Trans, N. Z. Inst. 60: 367, pl. 32, figs 8a, 8b.

= Leptochiton clitdenensis (Ashby, 1929).

Holotype: P10162.1 fragment of amedian valve, from

Clifden, South island, N.Z., Clifden Limestone, early

Miocene (Hutchinsonian), collector and date ot coll-

ection unknown.

Note: Type unique. Ashby (1929b) lists two Trag-

ments of the holotype, the second fragment is missing,

presumed lost,

Lepidopleurus diversizrunasus Ashby & Cotton,

L939

Ree S. Aust. Mus, 6(3); 227, pl. 19, figs 1, 9.

= Leptochiton diversigranosux (Ashby & Cotton,

1939).

Holotype: P4328, 1 incomplete posterivr valve, from

Cliflon Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vie., Mudely

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian-

Baimsdalian), collected by W. Greed. date of

collection unknown.

Paratype: P4320, | incomplete median valve, with

same collection data a§ holotype, Note; The paratype

P4320 is Ashby & Cotton's (1939) 'Hyparype’.

Lepidepleuras magnogranifer Ashby, 1925

Proce. R, Sac. Vic, (NS) 37(2); 171, pl. 18, fig. 1.

= Leptechiton magnogranifer (Ashby, 1925).

Holotype: 1847, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Muddy Creek, Hurilton, Vic., exact stratuyn nol re-

corded, collected by J, Dennant and R. Tale, dale of

¢ollection unknown,

Note: A label with the holotype lists the locality as

Clifton Bank, (Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic,, Muddy

Creck Marl, early to middle Miocene (Baleombian-

Buimnsdalian), which js the type locality defined by

Ashby and Corton (1939) with their 'Pleisiotype’

(P4322), which is not a valid type, Type unique,

Lepidepleurus nivarux Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Reco. §, Ausr. Mus. 6(3): 222, pl. 19, fig, 5.

= Leptochiton nivaras (Ashby & Cotton, 1939).

Holotype. P4324, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian —

Baimsdalian), collected by W, Greed, date of

collection unknown.

Paratypes: P26744, 2 fragments of median valves,

with same collection data as holotype.

Lepidoplenrus pamphilias Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. §. Aust, Mus, 6(4): 222, pl, 19, fig, 2,

= Protechiton srannlosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901)

(PROTOCHITONIDAE)

Holotype: P4321, 2 lrayments of amedian valve, from

Clifton Bank, Maddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES, 1. POLYPLACOPHORA

Creek Marl, early to iniddlé Miocene (Baleombian —

Baimsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of collec-

tion unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Lepidopleurus relaius Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. §- Aust. Mus. 6(3). 224, pl. 19, fig. 12.

= Leptochiton magnogranifer (Ashby, 1925),

Holutype: P4331, 2 fragments of amedian valve, fram

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vie., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Baimsdalian), collected by W. Greed. date ol

collection unknow#,

Paratypes: P12807, 1 median valve fragment. with

same collection data as holorype. P12808, 1 median

valve fragment, with same collection data as holotype.

Note: After examining both types, we agree wilh

Cotton & Weeding (1941) and van Belle (1984) in

synonymising this species with L, magnugranijer

(Ashby, 1925). However, the types of the latter are

much more worn than the types of L, re/atuy, not the

reverse, as Was slated by Cotton & Weeding (1944),

The holotype was broken into two pieces subsequent

to its deseription.

Lepidepleurts sephus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Ree. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 225, pl. 19, fig. 11.

= Leptachiton sephus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939),

Holotype: P4330, | incomplete median valve, from

Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burm, Hamilton. Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation. early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown,

Nate: Type umque.

Lepidopleurus sinervas Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 225, pl. 19, fig. 7.

= Leptovhiton sinervies (Ashby & Cotton, 1939).

Holotype: P4326, 1 fragment ef an anterior valve,

from Forsyth (Bank). Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, carly Pliocene (Kalirmanan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratype: P26743, 2 fragments of an anterior valve,

With same collection data as holotype,

Lepidopleurus singus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. §. Ausr. Mus, 6(3): 226, pl. 19, fig. 8.

= Leprocititon singus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939)

Holotype: P4327, | complete posterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamillun, Vic.

Grange Bum Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnau),

collecled by W.Greed_ date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

” Lepidopleuris jexcellus Ashby. & Cotton, 1939

Rec S. Aust, Mus, 6(3), 223, pi.19, fig.t3,

= Leptochiten uxellus (Ashby & Cotton, 1939).

Holotype; P4292, | incomplete posterior valve, from

K.L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & BJ. MCHENRY 9

Forsyths (Bank), Grange Burn, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Genus Molachiton Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Molachiton naxus Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 220, pl. 20, fig. 32.

= Notoplax (Bassethullia) inexpecta (Ashby & Cot-

ton, 1939) (ACANTHOCHITONIDAE)

Holotype: P4351, 1 half median valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Generic placement follows Gowlett-Holmes

(1987). Type unique.

Family MOPALIIDAE

Genus Plaxiphora Gray, 1847

Plaxiphora concentrica Ashby & Torr, 1901

Trans. R. Soc. §, Aust, 25(2): 138, pl. 4, fig. 8.

= Plaxiphora (P.) albida (Blainville, 1825) (Recent

species).

Holotype: T836, | complete posterior valve, from

Gellibrand River, Vic., early Miocene, collector and

date of collection unknown.

Note: We believe that this valve is from a recent

specimen, and that the age and stratum are incorrect.

We therefore regard it as a synonym of P. (P.) albida,

an extant species. Type unique.

Plaxiphora gellibrandi Ashby & Torr, 1901

Trans. R. Soc. S, Aust, 25(2): 139, pl. 4, fig. 1.

= Plaxiphora (P.) albida (Blainville, 1825) (Recent

species).

Holotype: T837, 1 complete posterior valve, from

Gellibrand, Vic., early Miocene, collector and date of

collection unknown.

Note: The age and stratum are apparently in error as the

valve is from a recent specimen. Type unique.

Family PROTOCHITONIDAE

Genus Protochiton Ashby, 1925

Acanthochites (Notoplax) granulosus Ashby & Torr,

1901

= Protochiton granulosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901),

see ACANTHOCHITONIDAE

Lepidopleurus pamphilius Ashby & Cotton, 1939

= Protochiton granulosus (Ashby & Torr, 1901).

see LEPTOCHITONIDAE

Family SCHIZOCHITONIDAE

Genus Aulacochiton Shuttleworth, 1853

Aulacochiton erma Cotton & Godfrey, 1940

‘The Molluscs of South Australia Part II’ p. 570, fig.

588.

= Lorica compressa Ashby & Torr, 1901.

Holotype: P4286, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collector and date of collection un-

known.

Note: Van Belle (1981) considers A. erma to be a

distinct species, but after comparing the holotypes of

this species and Lorica compressa, we believe they are

conspecific, and that the holotype of A. erma is a very

weathered example of L. compressa. Type unique.

Genus Lorica H. & A. Adams, 1852

Lorica affinis Ashby & Torr, 1901

Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust, 25(2): 137, pl. 4, fig. 7.

= Lorica compressa Ashby & Torr, 1901.

Holotype: T843, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Table Cape, Tas., Table Cape Group, early Miocene

(Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant,

date of collection unknown.

Note: The locality and age were not given by Ashby &

Torr (1901), but the type is clearly labelled 'Table

Cape', which is the locality given for this species by

Ashby (1925). Type unique.

Lorica compressa Ashby & Torr, 1901

Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust, 25(2): 136, pl. 4, fig. 6.

Holotype: T842, | incomplete median valve, from

Table Cape, Tas., Table Cape Group, early Miocene

(Longfordian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant,

date of collection unknown.

Note: The locality and age were not given by Ashby &

Torr (1901), but the type is clearly labelled 'Table

Cape’, which is the locality given for this species by

Ashby (1925). Type unique.

Lorica oculea Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 237, pl. 21, fig. 48.

= Ocellochiton sulci (Ashby, 1939) (ISCHNO-

CHITONIDAE).

Holotype: P4362, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic,, Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of coll-

ection unknown.

Paratype: P12817, | incomplete median valve with

same collection data as holotype.

Lorica varena Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 238, pl. 21, fig. 49.

10 FOSSIL MOLLUSC TYPES. 1. POLYPLACOPHORA

= Ocellochiton sulci (Ashby, 1939) USCHNO-

CHITONIDAE).

Holotype: P4361, 1 incomplete median valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of

collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Genus Loricella Pilsbry, 1893

Loricella concava Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec, S. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 236, pl. 21, fig. 51.

Holotype: P4367, 1 incomplete posterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Note: Type unique.

Loricella gigantea Ashby & Torr, 1901

Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 25(2): 137, pl. 4, fig. 3.

Holotype: T838, 1 incomplete anterior valve, from

Schnapper Point, Mornington, Vic., Balcombe Clay,

early to middle Miocene (Batesfordian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by R. Tate and J. Dennant,

date of collection unknown.

Note: Ashby (1925) states the above locality is in error

for the Freestone Cove Sandstone (‘Lower Beds’),

Table Cape, Tas., early Miocene (Longfordian). See

note on Schnapper Point in Stratigraphical Notes.

Type unique.

Loricella magnopustulosa Ashby & Cotton, 1939

Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 6(3): 235, pl. 21, figs 50, 53.

Holotype: P4365, | incomplete anterior valve, from

MacDonalds (Bank), Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic.,

Grange Burn Formation, early Pliocene (Kalimnan),

collected by W. Greed, date of collection unknown.

Paratype: P4364, 1 half median valve, same collection

data as holotype.

Note: P4364 is Ashby & Cotton’s (1939) 'Hypotype’.

The two paratypes listed by Ashby & Cotton (1939)

are missing, presumed lost.

Chiton paucipustulosa Ashby & Torr, 1901

= Loricella paucipustulosa (Ashby & Torr, 1901).

see CHITONIDAE

Genus Oochiton Ashby, 1929

Oochiton halli Ashby, 1929

Proc. R. Soc. Vic. (NS) 41(2): 222, pl. 24, figs La, b,

2, 3a-c, 8a, b.

Neotype: P4393, 1 complete anterior valve, from

Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, Hamilton, Vic., Muddy

Creek Marl, early to middle Miocene (Balcombian—

Bairnsdalian), collected by W. Greed, date of coll-

ection unknown.

Note: Neotype selected by Ashby & Cotton (1939) to

replace type destroyed by fire in Ashby’s house on

March 9, 1934. This specimen was selected to replace

‘holotype of the head valve of this species’ according to

Ashby & Cotton (1939), however the holotype was a

median valve according to Ashby (1929a). As none of

the types listed by Ashby (1929a) could be found, we

believe that they were all destroyed by fire, and that the

anterior valve listed above is a valid neotype.

INCERTAE SEDIS

Genus Lavenachiton Cotton & Godfrey, 1940

Ischnochiton (Radsiella) cliftonensis Ashby & Cot-

ton, 1939

= Lavenachiton cliftonensis (Ashby & Cotton, 1939),

see ISCHNOCHITONIDAE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Mr D.J. Holloway for supplying us with

information regarding types held in NMY. We would also

like to thank Mr W. Zeidler and Mr N. Pledge for their advice

and encouragement during this project, and Ms J. Thurmer

for advice and assistance in drafting the figures, Dr N.H.

Ludbrook and Dr J.M. Lindsay are thanked for critical com-

ments.

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ASHBY, E. 1929a. Notes on and additions to Australian

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JOHNSTON, R.M. 1880. Notes on the relations of the

Yellow Limestone (Travertin), of Geilston Bay, with other

fluviatile and lacustrine deposits in Tasmania and Austra-

lia, together with descriptions of two new fossil helices,

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas, for 1879: 81-90.

JOHNSTON, R.M. 1885. Additions to the list of Table Cape

fossils, together with further remarks upon certain fossil

shells supposed to be identical with living species. Pap.

Proe, R. Soc. Tas. for 1884: 220-224,

LUDBROOK, N.H. 1967a, Correlation of Tertiary rocks of

the Australasian region, /n 'Tertiary correlations and cli-

matic changes in the Pacific’, Symposium No. 25. The

Eleventh Pacific Science Congress, Tokyo 1966. Sasaki

Printing & Publishing Co, Ltd,, Sendai.

LUDBROOK, N.H. 1967b. Tertiary molluscan types from

Table Cape in the Tasmanian Museum, Hobart. Pup. Proc.

R. Sac. Tas. 101: 65-69.

LUDBROOK,N.H. 1973. Distribution and stratigraphic util-

ity of Cenozoic Molluscan faunas in southern Australia.

Sci. Rep. Tohoku Univ., (2) (Geol.) 6: 241-261 (Hatai

Mem. Vol.).

PRITCHARD, G.B. 1896. A revision of the fossil fauna of the

Table Cape beds, Tasmania, with descriptions of new

species. Proc, R. Sac. Vic. (NS) 8; 74-150.

QUILTY, P.G. 1966, The age of Tasmanian marine Tertiary

rocks, Aust. J, Sci. 29(S): 143-144.

QUILTY, P.G. 1972. The biostratigraphy of the Tasmanian

marine Tertiary. Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. 106: 25-44,

SPENCER-JONES, D. 1971. Marginal Tertiary deposits of

the Tyrendarra Embayment — Grassdale and Hamilton

district, Jn Wopfner, H. & Douglas, J.G. (Eds.). ‘The

Otway Basin of southeastern Australia’. Special Bulletin,

Geological Surveys of South Australia and Victoria pp.

241-249,

SUGGATE. R.P., STEVENS, G.R. & TEPUNGA, M.T,

(Eds,) 1978. 'The Geology of New Zealand. Vol. LI’.

Government Printer, Wellington.

VAN BELLE, R.A. 1981. 'Catalogue of Fossil Chitons

(Mollusca: Polyplacophora)’, W. Backhuys, Rotterdam,

ON AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE FROM THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM (ARACHNIDA : ARANEAE) SUPPLEMENT TO THE REVISION

OF THE AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE

BY B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR

Summary

A collection of hersiliid spiders from the South Australian Museum is examined. Tamopsis forresti

sp. nov. from north-western Queensland and T. ediacare sp. nov. from central south Australia are

newly described. New records are given for T. eucalypti (Rainbow), T. queenslandica Baehr &

Baehr, T. raveni Bachr & Baehr, and T, fickerti (L. Koch), mainly from South Australia and central

Australia, and the range of some species are considered extended.

ON AUSTRALIAN HERSILIIDAE FROM THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN 13

MUSEUM (ARACHNIDA: ARANEAE) SUPPLEMENT TO THE

REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE

B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR

BAEHR, B, & BAEHR, M. 1988. On Australian Hersiliidae from the South Australian Museum

(Arachnida: Araneae). Supplement to the revision of the Australian Hersiliidae. Rec. §. Aust. Mus. 22

(1): 13-20.

Acollection of hersiliid spiders from the South Australian Museum is examined. Tamopsis forresti sp.

nov. from north-western Queensland and T. ediacarae sp. nov. from central south Australia are newly

described. New records are given for 7. eucalypti (Rainbow), T. queenslandica Baehr & Baehr, T. raveni

Baehr & Baehr, and T. fickerti (L. Koch), mainly from South Australia and central Australia, and the

ranges of some species are considerably extended.

B. Baehr & M. Baehr, Zoologische Staatssammlung, Munchhausenstr. 21, 8000 Miinchen 60, Federal

Republic of Germany. Manuscript received 4 May 1987.

The collection of Hersiliidae from the South Austra-

lian Museum, Adelaide (SAMA), comprises about 25

specimens from Queensland, South Australia and

Western Australia. Because two new species and sev-

eral new records, mainly from central Australia, are

involved, it is worth noting in a separate paper, re-

garded as a supplement to our recent revision of the

Australian Hersiliidae (Baehr & Baehr 1987), This

supplement is evidence of the little known fauna of

more remote regions of Australia, especially in inland

areas. Measurements were taken as indicated previ-

ously (Baehr & Baehr 1987).

ABBREVIATIONS

ALE — anterior lateral eye

AME ~ anterior median eye

bS — basal segment of posterior lateral spinneret

LB — total length of body

LL — total length of Ist leg

PLE —posterior lateral eye

PLS — posterior lateral spinneret

PME — posterior median eye

tS — terminal segment of posterior lateral spinneret

I — Ist leg

II — 2nd leg

Ill — 3rd leg

IV —4th leg

CLASSIFICATION

In our revision of the Australian Hersiliidae all

known species were transferred from Chalinura or

Tama, respectively, to a new genus Tamopsis. All

newly described species, with exception of the

singular Hersilia australiensis Baehr & Baehr, also

belong to Tamopsis. As the collection from the SAMA

comprises only species of Tamopsis, apart from a

single juvenile Hersilia specimen (N11979100) which

we are unable to determine, no generic diagnosis needs

to be included.

Tamopsis eucalypti (Rainbow)

Tama eucalypti Rainbow, 1900: 487

This species is widely distributed in south-eastern

Australia from south-east Queensland through eastern

New South Wales, Victoria to Eyre Peninsula in South

Australia. Specimens from SAMA are identified by

the conspicuous shape of the female vulva.

New records

South Australia: 2 females (N 1987181), Belair NP,

Mt Lofty Ranges, i. 1936, Coll. H. Womersley; |

female (N1987182), Fullarton, Adelaide, x. 1935,

Coll. H. Womersley; 5 females (N 1987183), Ade-

laide, 1936, Coll. H. Womersley.

Tamopsis cf. queenslandica Baehr & Baehr

(Fig. 4)

Baehr & Baehr, 1987: 372

This species was newly described from a male and

female from southern Queensland and from New

South Wales, respectively. It belongs to a group of

several closely related species characterized by the

depressed eye area and rather similar male palpi and

female vulvae (see Baehr & Baehr 1987).

The single specimen from the SAMA is doubtfully

assigned to T. queenslandica by virtue of the shape of

its female vulva. This assignment, however, is some-

what hypothetical, because the specimen was appar-

ently dried out and, as a consequence, is rather dam-

aged. Hence the vulva is difficult to examine. If our

determination is right, this would mean a considerable

expansion of the range of this species right through

4 B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR

central Australm to the Northen Territory-Western

Australian border. lis worth noting mn this connexion

thatborhoriginal records of 7 gueenslandica are from

west of the Great Dividing Range. Perlaps this is an

inland species,

New record

Western Australias | female (N 1987184), Gill Pm-

nucle, Schwerin Mural Crescent, 24°54°S, 128°46'E.

xt, 1963. Coll, P. Aitken & N.B. 'Imdale.

Tamopsis raveni Baebr & Bachr

(Fig. 4)

Baehr & Baehr, 1987; 373

Another species of the yueensdandica group and

extremely closely related to 7 guevenslaniica. 7. rav-

eni was previously knowa only froma single locality

in south-east Queensland, The single female specimen

from the SAMA is assigned tothis species muinly by

the shape of its vulva,

New record

South Australia: 1 Fenmale (N [987ERS), Oaktrees,

Rrown Hill Creek Reserve, Adelaide foothills, i, 1965.

Coll, C, Luscombe, This record extenils considerably

the range of T) raveni to the south-west,

Tamopsis forresti sp. hoy

(Figs 1.2,4)

I'vpes

Holotype; male UN 1987186), N,W. Queensland,

LSkm W., by N- of Riversleigh Homestead, collected

by beating bushes on dry area abave Gregory River.

30. iv. 1986, Coll. J, A. Forrest Paratype: | feniile

(N 1987187), same dala.

Diagnosis

Medium sized species with high eye area, large

AME and moderately elongate legs, recognized by

mile palpus with a large, spoon-shaped, hoaked proc-

cas and a small lateral process on mednin apophysis

and with three elongate lateral processes al apex of

lateral upophysis, and by unique shape of female

vulval

Description of holarype (ndle)

Measurements; Body length: 3.48 mm. Cephalo-

thorax lengthy |.48-mm; width; 1,40 mm, Abdomen

length: 2 mm, width: 1.65 mm, Legs: 1: 10.04mm, Ue

9328 mm, Wh 3.72 mm, IV; 9.08 mm. Ratio:

1; 0,92; 0,37; 0.90. Ratio L.B/LL: 0.35. PLS length:

1.84 mm; bS: 0.48 mm; tS: 1.36 mm. Eye ratio:

1; 0.33:0.78; 0.67.

Colour, Cephalothorax light brown, eye area, bor-

der, several radial spots, and dorsal groove piceaus to

blackish. Clypeus dirty white, with nwo dark spots.

Chelicerae greyist to brown, Abdomen ototiled, with

distinet lancet-shaped median stripe and lateral or

ders dark, posteriorly with some transverse lightand

dark bands. Ventral surfiice light, Legs. light, cor

spicuously ainulate. femora anteriocly—veotnally

striped with black.

Cephalithorax: Circular, slightly narrower than

abdomen. Eye area considerably raised, clypeus

slightly higher than eye area, AMT, by fir largest. PLE

shightly smaller than PME. Distunee AME/AME.

Slightly less than diameter of AME, distance AME/

ALE about equal ty diameterot AME, Distance PME/

PME about half of diameter of PME. distance PME/

PLE about equal to diameter of PLE, Chelieeric about

1'/ sas longas wide, posteriorly with 3 minute teeth.

Stemum selose,

Ahdamen: Elongate oval. Dorsally with 5 pairs of

rather circular muscular pils. Ventral muscular pits 1

ay-shaped aringement. PLS slightly Shorter than al-

domen,

Legs: Measuremenis see ubove, Moderately eloti-

gate, HE Slightly longer than 1/3 of 7.

Palpus: Median apophysis strongly contarted, apex

wilh wide, membraheads area Within, leqminally with

a large. spoon-shaped process, und hiterally with a

shoner, curved process which is conspicumisly

Happed outside, Lateral apophysis alsa contorted.

apex deeply excised, laterally of excision bering three

elongate, slender, finger hke, hook-shaped structures,

Inner finger apically curved away from palpus.

Description of paratype (fenales

Measurements: Body length: 3.60 nun, Cephalo-

thoras length: 1.44 mm; width: 1.40 mm Abdomen

length: 2.16 mm, width; 2,28 mim, Les: { &. 66 mm,

Us. 7.72 mm, th 3.04 mm, V2 744 mm. Ratio:

10.95°0.37: 0.91, Rune LB/Lb: O44. PLS lemth:

1.92 mm) bS: O48 mm: tS: 1.36 mm. Bye ratio:

1: 0,5; O.88: O88,

Culour, Very similar to male holotype, Abdomen

still more mottled, legs more contrastingly coloured,

Cephalothorax Similar tomale, but much narrower

than abdomen, Clypeus slightly higher. Eyes smaller,

especially AME smaller in relation to ALF, ALE

nearly half as large as AME. PME and PLE of abour

equal size.

Abdomen: Slighuly wider than Jong, rather triangu-

lar Arrangement of dorsal und ventral muscular pits 05

in male. PLS stightly longer in relation to abdomen

Ubi a Tales

Leay; Measurements see above. Moderately clon-

pate. HW about as long as in male,

Epigyne' Laterally with a large opening covered by

a plate. Parts of vulva low, widely separated,

Vulva: With two receptacula seminis, though inner

recepraculim characteristically bent and prolonged

veulrally, apex shghtly recurved, Only outer recep-

AUSTRALIAN HERSILIIDAE Is

(iculim wlindular beneath capsule, Introductory duet

bent, V-shaped. posteriorly produced.

Distribution

Thus far known from north-western Queensland

close ta Northern Territory border.

Habits

Not exaeny known, Caieht by beating bushes nes

river. Collected in April,

Relationships

This species is certainly closely related to Eterna

Baehr& Buehr from southern Queensland, The male

palpi of both spevics are fairly simidurand they are ree

ognized by their long, finger-like processes at the apex

of the lateral apophysis. The palpis of 7. forrest,

however. dilfers tn thal the inner process of the lateral

upephysis is curved outside rather thao inwards. and

thatthe median upophysis possesses a strong lateral

process. As the female of 7) (foy\is.as yer unknown.

nothing can be said on dilterences of female epigyne

aod vulva. The epigyne of 7. forrest). however. is out-

standing within the apice group tothe form of the in-

ner receplaculum seminis.

fidlentification

For idenrificution the key to species in aur revision

(Bache & Baehr 1987) should be altered as following:

Couplet 1} — cancel Southern cevtral Qeenshad

rwreocate te teteledet doer /twl helste! «in (ronyy sp.noy.”

then add

‘16a, Lateral border ot MA not modified to uspoon-

like process, Inner finger of LA curved inwards.

Southern central Queensland, ... dren. Baehr &

Baehr

— Lateral border of MA modified to u spoan-like

process, napped Outside, Winer finger of LA curved

outwards, North-western Queenslatd ......6;.068 Loker

boone Jforresti sp. nov

‘= Smaller species with wider body, less than 4.5

mm long. Legs and PLS rather stout. Lateral RS-

directed horizontally or posteriorly. Bridge of Y nai a

NAETOW GVES PP ones ese eee erento nee pepe eect ees 37a.

then add

~47 4, Lateral RS very small. directed horizontally.

ID not strongly v-shaped, North-western Queensland

he tet erleichardiana Bachr & Buehr

~ Lateral RS large, elongate, directed posteriorly.

apex conspicuously incurved. ID strongly v-shaped.

North-western Queensland ....2.... forresté sp. noy.'

Tamopsis ediacarae sp, nov,

(Figs 3,4)

Holotype

Female (N 1987188), South Australia, Ediacara(W,

of Leigh Creek), 15. v. 196) -

Diaenosis (male unknown)

Medium-sized species with high eye area, large

AME. and rather elongate legs. characterized by vulva

with (wo equal receplacula seminis on each side,

strongly coiled basal parts of introductory duets, and

anteriorly a Wide bar.

Description

Measurements: Body length: 4.64 mm. Cephalo-

thorax length: 188 mire width: 1&8 mn, Abdomen

length: 2, 7670m: widilt: 2.62 mm. Legs: I: 14.08 mm,

HW: 13.40 mm, HL. 4.60 mm, 1V: 1248 mm. Ratio:

1: O.9S:0,33: 0.89. Ratio LB/LL: 033, PLS length:

244 mm, bS 0.08 m: tS: L80 mm, Eye ratio:

lL: OA; 0.8; 0.9,

Colours Light-coloured, Cephulothoras medially

whitish, hiterally dark yellow. Eye area, lateral bor-

ders, and some radial spots blackish. Clypeus and

cheliverae wholly yellow, Abdomen rather light,

slightly mottled, with laneer-shaped median stripe and

lateral borders fading brown. Legs and palpi very light,

inconspicuously annulate, PLS laterally near base and

apically in last hind with distinct dark spots.

Cephalothoray’ Cireular as long as wide. Eye area

Strongly raised. clypeus slightly higher than eye area.

Eyes rather small, AME largest, PME slightly sinaller

than PLE, Distance AME/AME slightly less than di-

umelerof AME. Disiange PME/PME more than hulfol

diameter of PME, distance PMEB/PLE about equal to

diameter of PLE. Chelicerae rather elongate, about

1*/,x a8 long as wide, Sternum heart-shaped, setose.

Abdomen: Rather wide. almost as wide as long,

slightly trapezoidal much wider than cephalotharax.

Dorsally with’ pairs of circularmuscular pits. Ventral

muscular pits ina slightly v-shaped arrangement, PLS:

rather short, considerably shorter than abdomen.

Les: Measurement see above. Elongute, Hc. 1/3

us long as 1.

Epivyne: Laterally with an opening covered by a

plate. Parts of vulva widely separated. anteriorly with

a Wide, sclerotized bridge.

Vulva. Wide. with Iwo receptacula seminis und a

basal bulbus on egch side. Receptacula glandular ii

basal half. Introductary duct basally strongly coiled

and produced outwards.

Distribution

Lake Eyre Basin, central eastern South Australia.

Habits

Unknown. type collected im May-

Relarionsitips

T. ediacarae belongs to the large Mypica group:

Judging from the shape of the female epigyne and

vulva and from relative length of legs and PLS, 7,

ediicarae is certainty most closely related to 7.

pseudocircunvidens Baehr & Buehr from south-west-

16 B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR

erm Australia which has a fairly similar vulva. How-

ever, the following differences are to be noted: lack of

conspicuous median black stripe on clypeus in 7.

ediacarae, slightly different ratio of eye size, greater

relative length of PLS, transverse bar of vulva located

far anteriorly instead of medially, and introductory

duct strongly coiled at base.

Since both species are known only from the female

holotypes, it is at present impossible to decide whether

they are actually species or just strongly varying speci-

mens of common species with very wide range. From

our experience, however, distribution of the same

hersiliid species across the Nullarbor Plain is rather

unlikely.

Identification

For identification the key to species in the revision

(Baehr & Baehr 1987) should be altered as following:

Couple 36 — cancel

“South-western Australia...............ccceeeeee eee es

then add

*36 a, Bridge located rather posteriorly between RS.

ID basally not coiled (Fig 34). South-western Austra-

lia“ eee pseudocircumvidens Baehr & Baehr

—Bridge located rather anteriorly at apex of RS. [ID

basally strongly coiled. Eastern central South Austra-

NE A Ry AAR eet nO ediacarade sp. nov.’

Tamopsis fickerti (L. Koch)

(Fig. 5)

Chalinura fickerti L. Koch, 1876: 830

This is a widely distributed species in eastern Aus-

tralia, though not yet reliably recorded either from

Victoria or South Australia. Females of this species are

at first glance recognized by their heart-shaped median

plate in the epigyne.

New records

South Australia: 1 female (N 1987189), Renmark,

27.iv.1981, Coll. R.V. Southcott; 1 male (N 1987190),

Mitcham, Adelaide, 14. xi. 1986, Coll. R. V. South-

cott; | male (N 1987191), Bellevue Heights, Adelaide,

5. xii.1979, Coll. A. Bowie; 5 females, | juv. (N

1987192), Belair N.P., Mt Lofty Ranges, i.1936, Coll.

H. Womersley; 2 females (N 1987193), Belair N.P.,

16.ii.1936, Coll. H. Womersley.

Habits

For habits of this species see Baehr & Baehr (1987).

Several label notes of the SAMA specimens give

evidence of a rather common occurrence of T, fickerti

on walls and houses. In the wild, however, this is a true

tree-inhabiting species, living on the bark of diverse

eucalypts.

T. fickerti seems to be rather common in the en-

virons of Adelaide and is perhaps distributed over the

whole of south-eastern Australia from south-eastern

Queensland to at least Adelaide in South Australia.

Discussion

As demonstrated by the present work, the Austra-

lian Hersiliidae fauna is not yet adequately known.

Certainly still more species are likely to be discovered

and the range of most species is far from being exactly

known, because several species are only known from

single specimens or from a single locality. This is

certainly due to the inadequate exploration of vast

areas, especially in central, western, and north-west-

ern Australia, and also to the difficulties of collecting

such extremely well-camouflaged spiders as Hersil-

lidae which commonly sit motionless in small hollows

on the bark of trees or attached on branches.

The following comments stress or slightly alter

those in our revision (Baehr & Baehr 1987):

1. Northern Queensland is one of the regions pos-

sessing the most diverse hersiliid fauna. Most species,

however, are rather unspecialized. Although the

newly described T. forresti of north Queensland be-

longs to a derivative species group, within this group

it is also rather unspecialized.

2. Some species are far more widely distributed than

hitherto realized. This applies mainly to species occur-

ring in well-wooded eastern, south-eastern, and south-

ern Australia, where tree-dwelling species are able to

spread more easily over wide ranges.

3. No species were previously known from central

Australia and very few from South Australia, but both

faunas are more diverse than supposed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are indebted to Dr David C. Lee(Adelaide) for the loan

of the specimens from the SAMA.

REFERENCES

BAEHR, B. & BAEHR, M. 1987. The Australian Hersiliidae

(Arachnida, Araneae): taxonomy, phylogeny,

zoogeography. /nvertebr. Taxon. 1: 351-437.

KOCH, L. 1876. ‘Die Arachniden Australiens’. Nurnberg

1871-1883.

RAINBOW, W.J. 1900. Descriptions of some new Ara-

neidae of New South Wales. No. 9. Proc, Linn. Soc.

N.S.W. 25: 438-494.

AUSTRALIAN HERSILIIDAE

FIGURE 1. Tamopsis forresti sp. nov., male holotype. a. Body shape; b. Lateral view of head; c.

Frontal view of head; d, Ventral view of palpus; e. Lateral view of palpus. Scales: a, b, c: 1 mm, d, e:

0.25 mm.

B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR

FIGURE 2. Tamopsis forresti sp. nov., female paratype. a. Body shape; d. Lateral view of head; c.

Frontal view of head, d. Epigyne; e. Vulva, Scales: a, b, c: 1 mm, d, e: 0.25 mm,

AUSTRALIAN HERSILITDAE 19

EE Ee Se ee eee ae ee es

FIGURE 3. Tamopsis ediacarae sp. nov., female holotype. a. Body shape; b. Lateral view of head;

c. Frontal view of head; d. Epigyne; e. Vulva. Scales as in Figure 2.

B. BAEHR & M. BAEHR

Be AN Pad en +

20S, OIL

FIGURE 4. Distribution of Tamopsis queenslandica Baehr & Baehr: WT. raveni Baehr & Baehr; A,

T. forresti sp. nov.: @, and T. ediacarae Sp. nov.: #.

FIGURE 5. Distribution of Tamopsis fickerti (L. Koch), revised map.

REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE (COLEOPTERA)

BY C. H. S. WATTS

Summary

The Australian halipilids are revised. All belong to the genus Haliplus. Eight species are recognised,

four of which are new : H. alastairi sp. nov, H. nicholasi sp. nov, H. stepheni sp. nov. and H. sindus

sp. nov. The synonymy of H. australis Clark with H. testudo Clark 1985 is confirmed. A key to

species is provided and relationships between species briefly discussed.

REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE. (COLEOPTERA) 21

C.H.S, WATTS

WATTS, C. H. 5. WATTS 1988. Revision of Australian Halipilidae (Coleaptera), Rec, §. Aust. Mus.

22 (1h 21-28,

The Australian halipilids are revised. All belong to the genus Halipluy, Eight species are recognised,

four of which are new: H, alastairi sp. nov, H, nicholasi sp. nov, Hi, stepheni. sp. nov. and H, sindus

sp. nov. The synonymy of H. australis Clark with. testudo Clark 1985 is confirmed. A key to species

is provided and relationships between species briefly discussed

C.H.S, Watts, South Australiun Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript

received 17 June 1987.

The Australian Halipilid fauna is small with only

eight known species. All belong to the worldwide

genus Aaliplus, Halipilids can be recagniged [rom all

other Australian aquatic Coleoptera by the large post-

coxal plates which cover the bases of the hind legs,

They are found among aquatic vegetalion in still water

around the coast from Adelaide eastward to Darwin. In

addition, two species occur in the south-west of

Wester! Australia and one in Tasmania. No specimens

are known from the north-west. Bath adult and larval

Stages are aquatic. Ne larvae of Australian species

have been described. They are rare in collections and

although [think this ts to some degree a reflection of

vollecting pressure itis clear that they are not abundant.

Structurally. Australian Hatiplus fall into two clear

groups. One, consisting of H, fuscatus, H. gibbus and

HA, bistriatus, is charactensed by relatively small size,

grooved pronotal process, well marked pronotal plicae

with a depressed area between them, interstrial

punctures absent or subobsolete, and a relatively

narrow head, The other group, H, testudo, H. alastairt,

HH. stepheni, H. nicholasi and H. sindus, have a flat

pronotal process, no pronotal plicae, no depressed area

at back of pronotum and have a moderate number of

punctures in most interstriae. The only major

taxonomic work on Australian halipilids is that of

Clark (1862) who described four species from south-

eastern Australia, Regimbart described two New

Guinean species in 1899 and Wehncke described H.

bistriatus from Adelaide in 1880. The collections from

which specimens were examined are listed under the

following abbreviations:

AM Australian Museum, Sydney

ANIC — Australian National Insect Collection

BMNH British Museum (Natural History). London

CW Private Collection of Author

MCZ = Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard

EUQ Entomology Department, University of

Queensland,

NMV _ National Musuem of Victoria

NTM _ Northern Territory Museum

SAMA South Australian Museum

QM Queensland Museum

QPI Queensland Department of Primary

Industry, Mareeba

Systematics

Key ‘ro AustRALIAN HALPLus

|. Pronotum with short to moderate plicue (Fig. 4), area

between plicae depressed; pronotal process

grooved; interstrial sia gl lacking or

subobsolete .. set Ri

Pronotum lacking plicae, hind. ‘portion not

depressed; prorotal process flat; interstrial

punctures sparse but well marked ............0c.0, 2

2. (1)<2.5 mm long; upper surface unifornily yellow-

brown..,, ss _STRdaS Sp. NOV.

>2,5 min tong ‘alytron usdally. with dark spots or

markings ,. WHITE Sra Rasenep de dneVosloopaedpetiditeyrag TS

3. (2)Punctures and striae over most of elytron-except

laterally black, first interstria yellow-brown for

most of its length (Figs.4 & 5). Elytral plicae weak.

often reduced to 2-3 deeply impressed

punctures... ..testudo Clark

First interstria ‘af ‘elytra. black ‘Tor most of its

length; restof elytra patternedas in Figs 1-3. Elytral

plicae absent or short but Well marked ....:.).5....4

4. (3) Elytral plicae short but well marked, , elyon

pattem as in Fig 3... 6 5

ish psi absent; eltron pattem a as in n Fig. 3

uotudarvertstditessccdaplacketaeesen’ . nicholas] sp, nov.

C.H.S. WATTS

@e cece

Shistee,

ett eee eee

FIGURES 1-6. 1, Colour pattern on elytron of H. alastairi; 2, ditto H. stepheni; 3, ditto H. nicholasi; 4 & 5, ditto, H. testudo

extreme examples; 6, dorsal view of H. bistriatus showing elytral and pronotal plica.

5. (4)1-5 punctures in first interstria of elytron, 0-1 in

third. Elytron without dark markings along anterior

Margin (Fig. 2) ..ccscsseeeeeees Stepheni sp. nov.

10-20 punctures in first interstria of elytron, 3—7 in

third. Elytron without dark markings along anterior

margin (Fig. 1) .....cceeeeeseeeees alastairi sp. nov.

6. (1) Elytral plicae moderately-well marked; pronotal

plicae curved (Fig. 6)............bistriatus Wehncke

Elytral plicae absent or virtually so; pronotal

Plicae straight ........ ccc cscecesscescssesseesecneseeseesenes 7

7. (6) Aedeagus broad (Figs 8 & 9)........... gibbus Clark

Aedeagus narrow (Figs 11 & 12)...fuscatus Clark.

FIGURES 7-13. 7, Lateral view of aedeagus of H. alastairi; Haliplus sindus sp. nov.

8, dorsal view of aedeagus of H. gibbus; 9, dorsal view of

aedeagus and paramere of H. gibbus; 10, ditto H.alastairi;11, Description (number examined 2)

lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. fuscatus; 12, Length 1.7—2.4mm. Yellow-brown. Oval, broadest

lateral view of aedeagus and paramere of H. fuscatus. at shoulders, narrowing rather abruptly at apex. Elytron

AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE 23

weakly and broadly triangularly flanged about one

quarter way from apex, lip sharply pointed, weakly

serrated at shoulder, Head with scattered punctures

about size of eye tacets, Pronotum wider behind than in

tront, sides weakly convex when viewed from above,

with scattered large punctures, hind margin produced

backwards in a small neayly equilateral triangle in

roldline. Elytcon smooth, shiny, with well marked strial

punclures, stronger laterally, sutural stria small but

distinct, a very few scattered interstnal punctures

except in interstriae three—four and fiye-six which lack

punctures, Elytral plicae short, crescent shaped, well

impressed. Pronotal process flat, wider slightly behind,

with large scattered punctures. Front portion of

mesosternum weakly concave, broader than pronotal

process With sides sharply undercut with scattered well

(arked punctures, sides of mesosternum with a few

very large punctures, much smaller in midline, Coxal

lohes more densely covered with punctures, large

towards sides to yery small in midline,

Types

Holotype, sex unknown. Qld “Bentinck Is.

“Ninvilki” 6th June, 1963. P. Aitken, N.B. ‘Tindale’.in

SAMA. Paratype F,1, ‘Homehill Qld. 7.4.63 'C.W.” in

CW,

Distribution (Fig. 14)

Known only from the type lacalities.

Remarks

The small size and lack of pronotal plicae readily.

separate this tare species fron’ other Australian

Hatiplus. \Ldoes not appear to be closely related to any

other Australian species.

Haliplus nicholasi sp. nov.

(Fig. 3)

Description (number examined 4) )

Length 3.3 — 4.1 mm, Oval, broadest at shoulders.

Elytron only weakly tapering until final one third;

apical one quarter weakly flanged and setrated;

humeral angles weakly serrate. Head relatively broad

between eyes; red-brown with scattered punctures

about the size of eye facet; punctures at rear larger.

Pronotum wider behind than in front, sides evenly

diverging or slightly concave; strongly punctured

particularly around margins, with an almost

impunctate transverse band acrosspronotum behind

middle; hind margin broadly triangularly produced in

midline; reddish-brown, Antenna short, reaching to

just behind middle of pronotum, five apical segments

larger than rest, apical segment twice lengih of

penultimate, Elytron reddish-brown with extensive

black markings. Strial punctures on elytron large

laterally, progressively weaker toward suture. Sutural

punctures well marked, a little larger and much more

numerous than those hetween stria one and two,

Interstrial punctures small, sparse, absent [rom

interstriae Whree to four, Elyiral plicae absent, position

marked by row of three or four punctures. Pronotil

process flat, widening slightly toward rear, with

scattered well marked punctures of varying size, Front

sechion of mesostermum flat, not bordered by raised

margin but margins sharply undercut; wider than

pronotal process; punctured as on pronotal process;

sides moderately covered with large punctures, much

smaller towards midline, Coxal lobes more densely

covered With punctures, those towards sides smaller

than on sides of mesosternum, those towards midline

about same size, Abdominal segments with one or two

transverse bands of small to moderate punctures, apical

segments with a few large punctures. Underside

reddish-brown, legs a little darker.

Male: Protarsi a litle exposed,

Types

Holotype, F “Townsville, Qld, Feb 1972 T. Ingeldew',

in NMV., Paratypes, |, M.“Hometill Ok, 7.4.63 CW".

2FF, ‘Cairns Qld. 16.4.63 CW" in CW.

Distritation

Fig, J4. Known only from the type localities near

Caims and Townsville in North Queensland.

Remarks

A tittle known species. resembling the widespread

A. tesrudo, Tt is slightly snialer, has fewer interstrial

punctures, and differently parterned elytra. The

aedeagus of the only known male specimen has been

lost. The pattern on the elytra resembles in some

respects that in /1, sighatiperiniy Regimbart from new

Guinea. H, nicholasi ditters from this species (and

from the other known new Guinea species, A.

ferruginipes Regimbamn) in lacking punctures between

stra three and four, and in lacking the transverse

depression at the base of the pronotum present in these

species.

Haliplas testudo Clark

(Figs 4 & 45)

Haliplus testuda Clark, (862, p. 400

Haliplas australis Clatk, 1862, p. 400, Syn. after

Watts, 1985 and se-examination of types.

Types

H., testudo, Lectotype, F, right hand specimen of two

mounted on card, No locality, previously with BMNH

Type and syritype labels, here designated. Companion

specimen designated paralectotype. H. dustralis,

Lectotype, F. no data excep! hand written BM label,

previously with BMNH type and syntype labels, here

designated,

24 C. H, 8, WATTS

Description (number examined 118)

Length 3,2 — 4.1 mm. Oval, widest at shoulders,

tapering towards apex of elytra, lateral margin of

elytron serrate in apical one quarter. Head relatively

broad between eyes, yellow to yellow-brown,

moderately covered with punctures about same size or

slightly larger than facets of eye. Antenna stout,

reaching over half way back on pronotum, apical five

segments noticeably larger than rest, apical a little

longer than penultimate. Pronotum relatively short,

wider behind than in front, lateral margins evenly

diverging or slightly bowed out when viewed from

above; unevenly covered with scattered moderate to

large punctures which are densest around margins,

with an almost impunctate band across pronotum

behind middle; hind margin with small but well marked

backward extension in midline; yellow to yellow-

brown, some punctures particularly towards rear

outlined in black. Elytron yellow to yellow-brown,

punctures and usually stria also black. Strial punctures

well marked, a little larger than those on pronotum,

those in striae one to three smaller than others. Sutural

punctures small but quite dense and well impressed,

about size of those in interstria one to two. Interstrial

punctures numerous, one third to half size of ones in

striae, absent or very sparse in area between suture and

first stria, alternate interstriae starting between striae

three and four have fewer punctures with the more

lateral ones virtually impunctate. Elytral plicae absent

or represented by two to three enlarged sometimes

contiguous punctures in stria five. Pronotal process

broad, flat, diverging slightly behind, with well marked

lateral ridges, sparsely punctured. Mesosternum

sparsely punctured, punctures large, laterally

subobsolete in midline; well-marked ridges running

backwards from pronotal process for about half length

of segment. Coxal lobes large, strongly punctured

laterally, weakly in midline. Abdominal segments with

one or two transverse rows of small punctures. Apical

segments with some moderate to large punctures in

apical half. Underside yellow-brown with darker

motlings particularly at bases of legs.

Male: Basal two joints of protarsi a little expanded.

Variation: Some specimens reddish all over.

Distribution: (Fig. 14)

Coastal regions from Darwin to Melbourne. Also

from Charleville, Qld.

Remarks

By far the commonest and most widespread

Australian halipilid. A variable species with yellowish

specimens predominating in the south and darker

reddish specimens in the north. In some southern

specimens the characteristic black pigment around

elytral punctures and striae is greatly reduced (Fig. 4).

In some there are vague darker patches on the elytron

suggestive of H. alastairi or H. nicholasi but in all

specimens that I have seen the dark elytral striae have

been separated by yellow-brown. In all but a few

examples the elytral plicae are virtually absent. The

aedeagus is variable in lateral view, with some

specimens, notably those from more southern

localities, being much wider in the middle.Separable

from the other species lacking pronotal plicae by

characters mentioned under H. alastairi and H,

nicholasi.

Haliplus alastairi sp. nov.

(Figs 1, 7, 10)

Description (number examined 16)

Length 3.0-3.6 mm. Oval, tapering quite rapidly

behind shoulders, Humeral angle of elytron serrate,

apical one quarter of elytron weakly flanged and

weakly serrate. Head relatively broad between eyes,

dark yellow-brown, moderately punctate; punctures

larger than eye facets. Pronotum wider behind than in

front; lateral margins evenly diverging when viewed

from above; strongly punctured particularly around

margins, with an almost impunctate band across

pronotum behind middle and a row of three to six

noticeably larger punctures above hind margin at each

comer; hind margin with small sharply triangular

extension in the midline; reddish brown. Antenna

reaching beyond middle of pronotum, last five

segments larger than rest, apical about 1.5x longer than

penultimate. Elytron reddish brown, with dark-brown

to black markings. Strial punctures will marked, about

size of pronotal punctures, those in striae one to three

smaller than others. Sutural punctures well marked, as

large as and more numerous than punctures between

striae one and two. Interstrial punctures rather sparse,

about one quarter to one third size of those in adjacent

striae, alternate interstrial starting from between striae

three and four have fewer punctures with the more

lateral ones impunctate. Elytral plicae short (three to

four punctures long) but usually deeply impressed;

punctures on humeral angle between plica and edge of

elytron large and crowded. Pronotal process relatively

narrow, flat, quite strongly punctured. Front portion of

mesosternum a little wider than pronotal process, flat

or even slightly convex, sides rounded, undercut but

not ridged. Mesosternum rather sparsely punctured,

punctures strong at sides, small but well-impressed in

midline. Coxal lobes more densely but still only

moderately covered with punctures, those at sides

moderate, about size of those in stria on elytron, those

towards midline small but well impressed. Abdominal

segments with one or two transverse bands of moderate

punctures, apical segment with a few larger punctures.

Underside reddish with darker areas, particularly legs

which are mainly dark red-brown.

Male: Two basal segments of protarsi a little

expanded.

AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE 28

Variation: One specimen from Tambourine

Mountain, Old that ! refer to this species has the elytral

plicae reduced to short series of slightly enlarged

punctures.

Types.

Holotype, M, ‘{2°36'S 132°52'E Magela Creek,

N.T, | Km NNW of Mudginbarry HS. 25.v.73,

Matthews & Upton’ in ANIC. Paratypes: 1. *Cardstone

Qld 4-16. -1966 K Hyde’. 1, ‘Cooktawn N.Q. 1/71

GB’, 2, ‘Katherine, N.T. at light. 9.1168 J.A.L.

Watson’, 1, ‘King. River, 2, [4°30'S:143°20!

E.22.vi.68. FP. Parker allin ANIC. 1, ‘Lake Buchanan

Qld. 21°30'S 145°S0'E B.Timms 25/9/83’, in CW; 1,

"Cairns CJ.W." in QM,

Distriburion (Fig. 13)

The east coast of Cape York and the top end of the

Norther Territory. If the specimen from Tambourine

Mountain near Brisbane does belong to this species it

may indicate a more extensive range down the

Queensland coast.

Remarks

Morphologically close to A. testude, H: nichalasi

and 1. stepheni but averaging smaller than the first two

of these Species (3.0 mm compared with 4.0 mm and

3.3mm respectively) with a more spindle shaped and

less parallel sided. form. The elytral plicae are well

mirked in all the specimens [ have seen wherews they

are virtually absent in all but.a few specimens of H.

wsinda and H. nicholas. The larger number of

intestinal punctures separate it from HM, stepheni, The

colour pattern on the elyrron differs from these species,

‘The aedeagus is very similar to that of H- stephen. Wis

a little thinner in dorsal view to 1. testido,

Haliplus stephkeni sp. nov.

(Fig, 2)

Description (number examined 13)

Length: 2.8-3.0 mm. Oval, tapering quite rapidly

from about halfway back on elytrae. Humeral angle of

ely(ron serrate, apical quarter of elytran weakly

flanged and weakly serrate. Head relatively broad

between eyes, dark yellow-brown, shiny. moderately

punctate, punctures larger than eye facet. Pronotum

wider behind than in from; lateral margins evenly

diverging when viewed from above except forextreme

tron! portions; sparsely covered with large punctures,

impunctateareas ondise, row of larger punctures along,

tind edge at each side, laterally depressed in middle

near hind edge, hind margin with small triangular

extention if the midline, coloured as on head. Antenna

teaching hearly to elytron, last five segments. larger

than rest, apical about same length as penultimate

Elytron dark yellowish-brown, with Well defined dark

pattern (Pig. 2). Strial punctures well marked, abou

size of those on pronotum, those on disc smaller than

others, sutural punctures numerous, well marked,

about half the size of those in adjacent striae. Interstrial

punctures small and sparce, those in alternate interstria

starting from interstriae |—2 very sparse, lateral areas

impunctate. Elytron plica short, 3-6 punctures. long,

deeply impressed, punctures between plica and edge of

elytron only a litte longer than others and nut

particularly crowded, Pronotal process relatively

narrow, fal, quite strongly punctured. Front portion of

mesosternum a tittle wider than pronotal process, flat

excep! for trontedge which is sharply depressed, sides

slightly undercut, sparsely punctured with a row of

punctures on Vertical surface along sides, center

virtually impunctale. Coxal lobes more densely but

stillonly moderately covered with punctures, those at

sides about size of thasé in lateral elytral striae, those

towards midline small but well impressed, Abdominal

segmenis with one or two bands of small punctures-

apical segment with a few larger punctures, underside

reddish with darker areas, particularly legs which are

mainly dark red-brown.

Male; Last five joints of antenna a little smaller.

Types

Holotype, M. "AUSTRALIA, N.T. Hampty Boo, 6

km EL, Gaii-4, 1.1987. R.L Storey’ in SAMA,

Paralypes same dala, 8 in QPL, 2in CW.

Distribution

Known only from the type locality near Darwin,

N.T,

Remarks

A strikingly marked species separated from H,

alastairi and H. nicholasi by the extension of black

markings along front margin of clytron, Some

individuals also have a dark patch on the front edge of

the pronotum in the midline. The presence of well

marked olytral plicae distinguish it from H. nicholasi

and the greatly reduced number of interstrial punctures

from H. alastairi. The pronotum is more strongly

folded than in the other species and there 1s a hint of a

basal depression in some specimens. The aedeagus is

very similar to that of #7, alastair, It is 4 little thinner

in dorsal view to M, /estude,

Halipius bistriatus Wehncke

(Fig. 6)

Haliplus bistriatus Webneke. 1880, p. 72,

Types

None located. (Thev are not in BMNH nor Paris

National Museuin.)

26 C.H.S. WATTS

Description (number examined 39)

Length 2.5—3.4 mm. Oval, sides of elytra subparallel

in central half. Elytron weakly flanged in apical one

quarter. Head relatively narrow; yellow-brown;

sparsely covered with scattered small punctures about

the size of eye facets. Antenna short, reaching to about

middle of prothorax, apical five segments noticeably

larger than rest, apical segment largest. Pronotum

wider behind, sides weakly bowed outwards when

viewed from above; hind margin widely triangularly

produced backwards in middle; with well marked plica

teaching one third way across pronotum, curving

inwards; area between plicae depressed; strongly

punctured, particularly at sides and at front; yellow-

brown with front margin and area between plica darker.

Elytron dark yellow-brown with striae, other than at

sides, outlined in dark-brown to black. Striae

composed of rather large well impressed punctures,

those in inner two striae about half size of others.

Interstrial area impunctate, sutural row of punctures

sparse and very small. Elytral plica moderately

marked, a little longer than pronotal plica. Pronotal

process broad, with row of strong punctures along

edges, concave in cross-section. Mesosternum raised

in forward midsection, without lateral ridge but sharply

undercut; front portion same width as pronotal process

and slightly depressed in midline; midline with

scattered small punctures, larger towards rear, lateral

sections covered in many strong punctures. Punctures

on coxal plate vary from very strong laterally to

subobsolete in midline, largest slightly smaller than

those at sides of mesosternum. Abdominal segments

with small to moderate sized but well marked

punctures; apical segment strongly punctured.

Undersides dark yellow-brown with extensive dark

mottlings.

Male: Protarsi a little expanded.

Distribution (Fig. 13)

Coastal Queensland from Brisbane to Cooktown.

Remarks

H. bistriatus appears to be relatively common in

coastal Queensland where it is the only Haliplus with

pronotal plicae and depressed basal area of pronotum.

It is readily separated from the more southerly H.

gibbus and H. fuscatus with which it shares these

characters, by the larger and distinctly curved pronotal

plicae and the presence of well marked, though short,

elytral plicae. The aedeagus is distinctive. The type

locality is given as Adelaide. In the absence of the type

this must throw doubt on my identification of this

Queensland species. However, the description fits this

species particularly in the unique (in Australia)

character of having both pronotal and elytral plicae.

This species has also been recorded from New

Caledonia by Fauvel (1883) whose specimens were

identified by Wehncke.

Haliplus gibbus Clark

(Figs 8 & 9)

Haliplus gibbus Clarke, 1862, p. 400.

Type

H. gibbus, lectotype, M. with genitalia extracted, ‘S.

Aust, Bakewell 59/24’, previously with BM(NH) type

and syntype labels, in BMNH, here designated.

Description (number examined 32)

Length 2.4-3.2 mm. Widely oval. Lateral edges of

elytra parallel in central half. Elytron weakly flanged in

apical quarter. Head relatively narrow, yellow-brown,

sparsely punctured with small punctures about size of

eye facet. Antenna short, reaching to about middle of

prothorax, ten segmented, apical segment largest, next

four subequal and noticeably larger than rest.

Pronotum wider behind, sides smoothly diverging or

slightly bowed except for hind corners where

subparallel for short distance, hind margin widely

triangularly produced backwards in middle, well

marked sharp plicae to one quarter to one third width of

pronotum, subparallel or weakly converging,

positioned in line with front corners of pronotum, area

between plicae depressed, moderately punctate,

punctures uneven in size and distribution small on disc

large at sides, yellow-brown, with front margin and

area between plica often darker. Elytron yellow-brown

with striae on disc outlined in dark-brown or black,

some specimens with vague darker patches on elytron,

nine elytral striae composed of moderately impressed

punctures, those on inner two or three striae weaker,

interstriae impunctate, sutural punctures sparse, very

small, elytral plicae absent but punctures at front of

stria five close together and often with their lateral

margins accentuated. Pronotal process broad, margins

ridged, concave in cross section. Mesosternum raised,

weakly longitudinally depressed on forward

midsection, fornt corners wider than adjacent pronotal

process with distinct tendency to be bulbous and

delineated from rest of mesoternum by fine line

running backwards for about half length of segment.

Lateral lobes of mesoternum with a few very large

punctures, midline with subsolete to moderate

punctures, larger behind. Coxal lobes. strongly

punctured laterally, weakly so towards midline.

Undersde yellow-brown often with considerable

brown-black areas, paerticularly pronotal process,

lateral areas of mesosternum, first three abdominal

segments ane parts of legs. Abdominal segments

weadly punctured except apical one which has a few

stronger ones.

Male: Protarsi weakly expanded,

Distribution (Fig. 13)

The wetter areas of southern W.A., S.A., Victoria and

Tasmania. A southern species. Populations of either

AUSTRALIAN HALIPILIDAE 7

this species orH, fuscatus or some very similar species

are also known from Lake Gailee in Central

Queensland and near Katherine in the N.T.

Unfortunately these are only represented in collections

(CW & SAMA) by females so their taxonomic status

is uncertain,

Haliplus fuscatus Clark

(Figs 11 & 12)

Haliplus fuscatus Clark 1862, p. 400.

Type

H. fuscatus, Holotype, F, no data, in BMNH, locality

given as Adelaide by Clark.

Description (number examined 13)

As for H. gibbus except for the aedeagus which is

much narrower.

Distribution (Fig. 13)

Victoria, S.A. (type) and Rottnest Island, W.A.

Remarks

Does not appear to be as common as H. gibbus, nor

as widespread. I have been unable to separate this

species from H. gibbus. Although only known for

certain from Rottnest Island, W.A. and Victoria,

further collecting will undoubtedly extend its known

distribution (See also note under H. gibbus). The type of

H., fuscatus is a female and as such [ cannot assign it to

either of the two species of southern Australian

Haliplus with weak or absent elytral plicae and straight

pronotal plicae. Future studies may well show that H.

fuscatus is a synonym (senior) for H. gibbus and that

the species described above as H. fuscatus is new. In a

previous publication (Watts 1985) I listed H. fuscatus

and H. gibbus as synonyms since I was unable to

separate the types.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank the curators of the collections listed earlier for

allowing me to examine specimens in their care. In particular,

I thank M.E. Bacchus [BMNH] for sending type material and

searching for the type of H. histriatus. Mrs P. Kidd and Mrs

D, Brunker typed the MS. Special thanks are due to Ms J.

Thurmer for several of the illustrations and to Dr E. Matthews

for comments on the manuscript.

REFERENCES

FAUVEL, A. 1883. Les Coleopteres de la Nouvelle-

Caledonie et Depenances. Revue d'Ent, 2: 335-372.

REGIMBART, M. 1899. Revision des Dytiscidae de la

region Indo-Sino-Malaise. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 68:

186-367,

CLARK, H, 1862 Catalogue of the Dytiscidae and Gyrinidae

of Australasia, with description of new species. J. Entom.

1: 399-421.

WATTS, C.H.S. 1985, A faunal assessment of Australian

Hydradephaga, Proc. Acad. nat. Sci, Philad, 137: 22—

28.

WEHNCKE, E. 1880. Neue Haliplus Sretr. Ent. Zeitung

75: 72-75.

28 C. H. S. WATTS

a H. fuscatus

° H. bistriatus

* H. alastairi

O H. gibbus

FIGURE 13. Distribution map of H. fuscatus, H. bistriatus, 4. alastairi and H. gibbus.

a H. sindus

a H. testudo

FIGURE 14. Distribution map of H. sindus, H. testdo, H. nicholasi and H. stepheni.

OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES OF THE AXIAL SKELETON BETWEEN

LASIORHINUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS

(SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPIALIA : VOMBATIDAE)

BY G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON

Summary

Many of the bones from the axial skeleton of the extant hairy-nosed wombat, Lasiorhinus latifrons

(Owen, 1845) and common wombat Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) are statistically significantly

different. The gross morpohological features are summarised to facilitate rapid specimen

identification at the generic level.

OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES OF THE AXIALSKELETON BETWEEN

LASIORHINUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS

(SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPTALIA: VOMBATIDAE)

G, G. SCOTT & K. C, RICHARDSON

SCOTT, C.G., & RICHARDSON, K.C, 1987, Osteologieal differences of fhe axial skeleton of

Lastorhinus latiftrois (Owen, 1845) and Vonbarus pesinuy (Shaw, (800) (Marsupuitia: Vombatidae),

Ree S. Aust Mus. 22 (1) 29-39

Many of the bones from the axial skeleton of the extant hairy-nosed wombat. Lasionhimns latifrons

(Owen, TRAD) and common wombat, Venbares aesinus (Shaw, (800) ure stutistically: significantly

different, The gross morphological features are summarised to facilitate rapid specimen jWentification

at the generic level.

A number of newly recognised diagnostic lifferences are recorded: (i) athis, (a) nansverse processes.

short and eylindreal ia 4. farifrons, but long and fat in). wasiius, (by crantal articular surface, dorsal

horder begins above root of transverse process in L lati/rons, bur below in WV. ursiiis. CC) intervertebral

foramen, small ind. darfions, borane in Vestine, (d) neural areh, tubercle present at the apex in L.

fan[rons, bata saleus in V. desiuds. (c) transverse foramen, almostenclosed by bone in V ursiuis. but

open in 6 lafifreny, (1) lamina, cranial border flatin L, farifrons, but arched in} ia'y/eese(it) axis, (av)

Iransverse processes, extend laterocuudally beyond caudal surface of vertebral body in V_esniis, but

termmat’ level with, or before, caudal surface of vertebral bady in 4. larfrens. (hy dens. directed

craniodorsally, apes Les above dorsal surfice of vertebral body iL. dations, but projects cranially, and

apex hes helow dorsal surface of vertebral body in Vo deyis: (iD manubriuny of srermum, (a) arteu lr

process torchavicle, conical nL. latifreny, bul laterally flucened in VW wrsines: tb) clavieular notch,

shallow int, dati/rons, but deep ii) weseus. Significant differences in size were found for (i) axis;

lamina thickness, himina diameter, dens length: (ii) thoricic vertebrae, dorsoventral diameter of body of

all but the 3rd vertebra; craniociudal diameter ot vertebral body of byt, 2nd. 7th. 9th. 1Orh, (bth, 12th and

Nath vertebrae; (iii) lumbar vertebrae, Maximum transverse process diameter of 1st. 2nd and. 3rd

vertebri: (iv) sacral vertebrae. maximund transverse process diamelerof 2nd, 3rd and 4th-yertebraes ane

(vb shall diameter for ribs | 1. (2and 13.

C.G_ Stott & KC. Richirdson, School of Veterinary Studies, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western

Australian 6150, Maiuseript reeeived (5 June 1O87,

The common wombat Vonbatas ursinuy (Shaw,

T8000) was first discovered by Bass on Clarke Island in

Bass Suvitin 1797. Although the skull aroused consid-

erable taxonomicdiscussion fram | 800, it was only in

1538 thut Owen first deseribed its axial skeleton.

Owen added to this deseription in 1839, Subsequent

work on the axial skeleton by EByerewu (1453) and

Home (1853) provided no new information.

Even though (he hairy-nosed wombat Laslorhimnis

latifrens (Owen, 1845) was first discovered in 1845, it

was in 1867 that Murie described its axial skeleton and

compared it with Vo w/yitiiy. Other workers such as

Lydekker (1894), Murie (1892) and Marlow (1965)

confirmed, in part, many of Murie’s (1867) findings,

but added Hite lo (he existing information.

To date the descriptions of the axial skeletin of the

two wombat genera have lacked udequate detail. In

muny instances, they were nor accompanied by ligures

Or definitions to allow ready specimen identification

especially of isolated small bones.

This paper presents a number of newly recognised

diagnostic features and ineorporates, where valid,

previously deseribed diagnostic features

Maternats Asi MiP riinbs

Specimens

Bones of the axial skeleton of L. kutifrany and 4

ursinus were examined inthe collections of the Aug-

tralian Museum, Sydney: Museum of Victoria, Mel-

bourne; Queensland Museum, Brisbane; South Aus-

tralian Museum, Adelaide; and Western Australian

Museum, Perth. Porthis study additional specimens af

L. latifrany were collected at Bhinehetown, Roonks

and Swan Reach in South Australia; and of }, wesines

over the Great Dividing Range and adjacent regions,

Measurcments

The morphology of the axial skeleton bones was ex

amined and any diagnoytic features not previously

recorded in the literature noled, Bait adult and juve-

nile specimens were examined, but only bones fram

adults were compared for diagnostic purposes. Linear

measurements were made with vernier callipers on

adult specimens.

30 G_G. SCOTT & K, C. RICHARDSON

Axial Skeleton Measurements

|. Aas

(1) lamina, craniocaudal diameter at summit;

(ii) maximum dorsoventral height from apex of

arch to ventral surface of body.

2. Axis

(i) maximum dorsoventral height from apex of

spinous process to ventral surface of body:

(ii) lamina, thickness at pomt of maximum

constriction dorsal to the caudal articular

surface;

(ii) lamina, craniocuudal diameter at point of

maximum constriction dorsal to the caudal

articular surface:

(iv) dens, length from ventral surface to apex;

(y) dens, maximum lateral diameter;

(vi) vertebral body, dorsoventral diameter at

midline;

(vii) vertebral body, craniocaudal diameter.

including dens, at midline;

(viii) spinous process, length from apex of

vertebral foramen Lo summit of spine.

3. Cervical Vertebrae

(i) maximum combined diameter of the

transverse processes.

4. Thoracic Vertebrae

(i) vertebral body, dorsoventral diameter at

midline;

(ii) lamina, craniocaudal diameter at point of

maximum constriction dorsal to caudal

articular surface;

(iii) spinous process, length from apex of

vertebral foramen to summil of spine;

(iv) | maximum combined diameter of the

Iransverse processes,

(v) maximum dorsoventral height fram apex of

spinous process lo ventral surface of body;

vertebral body, craniocaudal diameter at

midline.

(vi)

5. Lumbar Vertebrae

(i) maximum combined diameter of the trans-

verse processes.

6. Sacral Vertebrae

(i) maximum combined diameter of the trans-

verse processes.

7, Coccygeal Vertebrae

(i) maximum combined diameter of the

transverse processes.

(ii) - vertebral body, craniocaudal chameter at

midline.

8. Stemum

(i) manubriuin. craniocaudual length al midline:

(11) = maximum diameter opposite articular

surfaces for Ist ribs.

9, Ribs

(i) shall, maximum diameter immediately

distal to tubercle.

Osteological terminology used is as in the Nemina

Anatomiva Veterinaria (Habel ef al. 1983).

Analysis

Methodology Includes Student's Hest, 2-‘tatled’,

and bivariate analysis (Simpson ef al. 1960). Bivariate

regression analysis of specimens of known sex shows

no significant sexual dimorphism for any of the char-

acters examined, so measurements of both sexes were

combined,

Resuvts

General

Size range overlap exists between V..westauy and L-

lalifrons for most measurements, However, V. ursinus

is significantly larger for:

1. Axis, () lamina. dorsoventral thickness (P< 0.001),

(ii) lamina, craniocaudal diameter (P< 0.001);Giti)

dens, length (P <0.001),

2, Lumbar vertebrae. maximum combined diameter of

the transverse processes of the Ist, 2nd und 3rd verte

brae (P< 0.001).

3. Sacral vertebrac, maximum combined diameter of

the Lransverse processes of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th verte-

brae (P< 0,001).

L, latifrons is significantly larger than V. ursinus

for:

1. Thoracic vertebrae, (i) vertebral body, dorsoven-

tral diameter, T2 and 11 (P< 0.001):TI. 4,6, 7 and 12

(P< 0,01); and T5,8, 9, LO and 13 (P < 0.05): (iD

Vertebral body, cramiocaudal diameter,’ (P<0.001);

and T2, 7,9, 10, 11, 12 and 13 (P < 0.05),

2, Lumbar vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of

the transverse processes of the lst, 2nd and 3rd verte-

brace (P< 0).001).

3. Sacral vertebrae. maximuni combined diameter of

the transverse processes of the 2nd, 3rd and 4th verte-

brace (P< 0.001).

4. Ribs. shaftdiameterofthe |2thand 13th(P<0,001)

and 11th (P< (0.05).

Axial skeleton meastrements for both taxa are

given in Tubles 2-16,

Specific

Vertebral Calumn

As Owen (1839), Wood Jones (1923), Lydekker

(1894), Murie (1867) and Marlow (1965) correctly

pointed oul. V wravnuy and L. latifrons possess differ-

ent numbers of vertebrae in several paris of their

vertebral column (Table 1).

Cervival Vertehrae

‘Vitese are the smallest vertebrae. excluding the coc-

cygeal veriebrae. Only the allas and axis show any

consistent gross morphological differences,

Linear measurements show no significant differ-

ences between the two wombat genera (Table 2.)

Atlas:

Transverse

process.

Cranial articular

surface,

Intervertebral

foramen.

‘Tubercle.

‘Transverse

lorumen.

Laimina.

Ventral areh

incomplete.

ANTS!

Dens.

Spinous process,

Transverse

process,

L. lanfrons

short and

eyvelindnical.

begins above

level of

transverse

process.

small.

present ul

apex of neural

arch,

apen,

cranial border

flat.

V-shaped,

L.. latifrans

directed

cramodorsally,

apex lies above

dorsal surface

of vertebral

body.

short and thick,

terminates level

with, or before,

caudal surface of

vertebral body.

AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE ty}

Vooursuias

long and

dorsoventrally

flattened,

begins below

level of

transverse

process.

lurge.

ubsent, a

sulcus.

almost

enclosed

arehed.

shallow,

Vi. u/sinius

directed

rostrally.

apex lies below

dorsal surface

of verltebriul

body-

long and

Harrow ,

terminates

beyond caudal

surface of

vertebral body.

Significant size differences in the aais were found

lor; G) dorsoventral lamina thickness, (ii) craniocau-

dal lamina diameter, and (iii) dens length (Table 3).

No gross morphological or significant size differ-

ences Were found between the two Laxd for the five

caudal cervical vertebrac (Table 4).

Thoracic Vertehrae

These are morphologically similar in the two wom-

bal taxa, L, Jatifrony is significally larger than V,

wsinus in dorsoventral diameter of the vertebal body

forthe following vertebrae: T2 and 11 (P<0.001);T1,

4,6, 7and 12(P<0,01); 75, 8,9, [and 13 (P< 0.05)

(Table 5). There were no significant size differences

between the two wombats for craniecaudal diameter

of the lamina (Table 6), and length of the spinous

provess (Table 7). Maximal combined diameter ofthe

transverse processes decreases frora T] to a minimum

althe l2th vertebra in V. ursinus, bul at the 13thin £

latifrans. There is no significant size difference be-

(ween the measurements appearing tn Table 8. Maxi-

mum dorsoventral heaght of the vertebrae alsa de-

creases caudally toa point of minimum size atthe 13th

vertebra in V.wrsinis, but }2th ind. larifrony. There is

no significant size difference between the measure-

ments in Table 9, Contrary to this, craniocaudal

diameter of the vertebral body increases caudally in

both genera, L. Jatifrous is significantly larger than V

wsinus for vertebrae: TL (P <0,001) and T2, 7,9, 10.

Tl. 12, 14 4P < 0.05) (Table 10). Mammillary proc

esses usually presentatthe | 2th thoracie yertebrain V’,

Henny, progressively increase in size to the second

lumbar vertebra, then decrease in size to the end of the

sacrunr, iL, falifrony they were generally present it

(he 13th thoracic veriebrae then progressively in-

creased in size to the fourth lumbar vertebra, and

decreased in size to the end.of the sacrum, This is only

oF diagnosne value when measurements for dorsoven-

(ral vertebra! body diameter (Table 5) and cranincau -

dal vertebral body diameter (Table 10) are also avail-

able.

Lumbar Veriebrae

These are morphologically similar in the wo wom-

bat taxa, However, V_ ursinits possesses four, but L,

latifrons has six lumbar vertebrae (Table 11). Maxi-

mum combined diameter of the transverse processes

of the first three vertebrae is significantly greater in V,

ursinus, there is no size overlap between the two

genera.

Sacral Vertebrae

In defining the number of sacral vertebrae in \

ursinus, Owen (1867) saids'if we regard those yerte-

bra¢ only as sacral which join the ossa innominata then

there are but three. If’ on the other hand, anchylosis is

the test, then the sacral vertebrae may vary from 3 ly

4-5, innumber indifferent specimens”, On the anchy-

losis criterion none of the V) wrsinus specimens that

we examined had only three vertebrae. but the major-

ity (46.19%, n = 22) possessed four. On the other hand

three out of four of the L, larifrons specimens that we

examined had four vertebrae, In addition, the L. lati-

Jroas saccum is rostrally broader bul narrows more

sharply caudally j,¢. the 5th vertebra is approximately

32. G,G, SCOTT & K.C. RICHARDSON

44% narrower thun the {st in L. lati/rons, but 21%

narrower in V. xrsinus. There are no gross morpho-

logical differences in the individual vertebrae to dis~

linguish them between the wo wombat taxa. Lincar

measurements shaw significant differences for the

following vertebrae: $2, 3 and4(P<(),00T) (Table 12).

Caveygeal Vertebrae

There are no consistent gross morphological or siz-

nificunt size difference in the individual bones to dis-

tinguish them between the two wombat fuxa (Tables

13 and 14).

Manubrinm ef the Sternun

Gross morphological differences in the manubrium

ol the wo wombat genera were found in the following

features:

L.. latifrans Vi. ursins.

Articular conicgal, laterally.

process for flattened,

the clavicle.

Clavicular shallow, deep.

noteh.

There were no significant size differences lor ieas-

urements appearing in Tuble 15. Other stemebrac [rom

the Wombats were similar in form for each species:

Ribs

These are similar in the two wombul zenera, The

cranial Hibs are more curved than those sueceeding

them, and maximum shaft diameter generally de-

creases caudally through the rib series, The rit shatt

diameters for, wrsiauy are significantly srowller than

those for L. larifrons for ribs: 1) (P< 0,05). 12 (P<

0.001) and 13 (P-< 0.001) (Table 16).

Discussion

Verlebral differences in the axial skeheron niipror

yanlations in burrowing behaviour of L. Jun/rans and

Vo wevinus, For exumple, differences in. the marpbol-

oy ofthe atlas nd adits are retleeted in Angas’ (L861)

observation that V, ursinus does not hold its head as

erec| as does &, lutifrens when standing. Indeed this is

suggested by the Jarsoerunial oricowaon of the dens

ofthe axis inh. /adfrony as well ashy the presence on

the skull of a Well developed nuchal erest at the

junction of the parietal and occipital bones for the

altachiment of jum, ceettes Capills. Wi coyreast the dens

oF WV wesiimes isdirecied cranially and the parietal borne

is flat. However, the transverse processes of the atlas

OL. uesetieeare very large indeed when conipared 10

thosein £, darifeans, This allows @ greater surfiece aren

for muscle attachment, particularly mint, abliqnits vap-

iy and van Hderiransversant longi, and probably

facilites a preater degree of head rotation, as well as

more powerful lateral and dorsal head movements in

Vo ursinuy.

As for the difference in the number of thoracic ver-

tebrac and thus thoracic ribs, Owen (1838) believed

that W. zesrnus had the greater number i.e. 15 pairs of

ribs because “The pressure to which the trunk of the

Wombat must occasionally be subjected, imits subter-

rancan burrowings, is probably the condition of the

development of the additional pairs of ribs’. Unfortu-

natcly . /atifrans is also*a thorough adept in the art’

of burrowing (Angas 1X61).

The reason probably lies with Vo ursinus being

greater in body size, However, the point of minimum

combined vertebral transverse process diameter, and

minimum overall dorsoventral size of the vertebrac,

which together indicate the centre of greatest spinal

mobility, avcurs atabout the same point, the anticlinal

vertebra, in the axial skeleton of both genera. This

supports Slijper’s (1946) conclusion. that the inelima-

tion of the neural spine does not depend on the con-

struction of the trunk in itsentirety, bul instead must be

affected only by the demands of the tnuscles and

ligaments attached to them. In other words, the reason

for ursinty having 15 pairs oftibs, while L, harifrons

only has 13 pairs. is astructura reflection of the need

to Transmit a greater visceral weight via the ribs, and

the oblique and transverse abdominal muscles, di

rectly to the body's axis than does L. larifrons.

Slipper (1946) also found that spinous process

length is propartional ro the mechanical demands of

the hody. They are on average, with the exception of

thoracic vertebrae 6,7 and'8, the longestin ©. latifrans.

This provides the added mechanical adyantage of a

longer lever lo move the diaphragniatic vertebrae

which. logether with two fewer ribs, would undaubt-

edly inereuse the ability of L-latifrons to bend its body

laterally inlay curving tunnels,

Unfortunately na mobility studies of the wombal

vertebral column bave yer been undertaken. But the

generl grossmorphology of the cervical, thoracic and

Nitnbar Vertebrac sugeesta shift in vertebral colurin

mobility. The cervicals are very mobile in bath dod

soventral aad jateral directions, especially in the era

nial part oF (he culuma, in both genera, because of the

“free” and ‘uncrobracing” uature of the wiion between

the pre-and pnsizygapophyses af successive vervicil

vertebrae. Thoracic vertebral mobility 1s: particularly

preat ml bot genera,

However, the [4ihand 'Sih thoracic vertebrae in |

ursinus ave decidedly lumbar-like in appearance, but

passess ths! Indeed lumbar venebrae numbers 3—6 in

L. lanjruas are more vunmparcuble in size ro |) in

wesine (Table (1) Tf both genera, lumbar vertebrae

Of the postliplirmumatic region of the spine are much

less mobile in the dorsal direction and ates!

absolutely inmmobile in the ventral direction. Lateral

mobility is negligible, che vertebrae bemp ‘locked’

AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE

together by their pre- and postzygapophyses. How-

ever, the mobility of the lumbosacral joint appears to

be comparatively great in both directions in both

genera, though the union between the two is more

‘free’ in L. latifrons.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Dr T. Flannery, Australian Mu-

seum; Dr C.P. Groves, Australian National University; Dr D.

Horton, Institute of Aboriginal Studies; Joan Dixon, National

Museum of Victoria; Dr R. Molnar, Queensland Museum; Dr

FIGURE 1. Atlas of (A) L. datifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where

a, transverse process; b, cranial articular surface; c, arrowed,

dorsal tubercle; d, arrowed, intervertebral foramen; e, ar-

rowed, dorsal sulcus; f, arrowed, incomplete ventral arch.

Scale line is | centimetre.

FIGURE 3, Sacral and coccygeal vertebrae of (A) L. /atifrons

and (B) V, ursinus. Where a, sacral vertebrae; b,coccygeal

vertebrae. Scale line is | centimetre.

FIGURE 2. Axis of (A) L. latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where

a, spinous process; b, arrowed, transverse process; c, cranial

articular surface; d, arrowed, dens; e, vertebral foramen.

Scale line is | centimetre,

34 G. G, SCOTT & K.C.

C. Kemper, South Australian Museum, for making material

available to us; and to Dr D, Kitchener, Western Australian

Museum forthe specimens used in the photographs. Drs C.P.

Groves and D, Horton both gave valuable advice and support

over the duration of the project. We wish to thank Mr G,

Gniffiths for photography and Ms D, Passmore for so care-

fully typing the paper and its earlier drafts, The project was

primarily supported by an Australian National University

Research Grant.

FIGURE 4.Manubrium of sternum of (A) L. /atifrens and (B)

V. ursinus, Where a, arrowed, articular process for clavicle;

b, arrowed, articular process for Ist rib. Scale line is | cen-

timetre.

TABLE 1. Vertebral formula in V, arsinus and L. larifrans

RICHARDSON

REFERENCES

ANGAS, G.F. 1861. Notes on the broad-fronted wombat of

South Australia (Phascolomys larifrans Owen). Proc.

Zoal. Soe. Lond. 1861: 268-271,

EVERETT, H. 1853. Descriptive catalogue of the ostealogi-

cal series, Royal College of Surgeons of England (Lon-

don), p. 331,

HABEL, R.E., FREWEIN, J,, SACK, W.O, (Eds). 1983.

“Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria’ 3rd ed. International

Committee on Veterinary Anatomical Nomenclature.

Ithaca, New York.

HOME, E. [453,. Descriptive catalogue of the osteological

series. Royal Calleve of Surgeons of England (London),

p. 331.

LYDEKKER, R. 1894. "The Wombats’. /n Marsupials. John

F. Shaw and Co, Ltd, London.

MARLOW, B,J. 1965. Wombats. Aust, Nat. (Hist. 15(3),65

69,

MURIE, J. 1867. On the identity of the hatry-nosed wombat

(Phascolomys lasierhinus Gould) with the browd-nosed

wombat (7; latifroas Owen). Proc. Zool Soc. Lond. for

1867, 838-854.

MURIE, J. 1892. Remarks on Post-Tertiary Phascolomidae.

Proc, Linn, Sac. of New South Wales, 2nd series. for

1892, VI, 235-246,

OWEN, R. 1838. On the Osteology of the Marsupiatia.

Trans, Zoal. Sac. Land. 26: 379-412.

OWEN, R. 1839. Outlines of a classification of the

Marsupialia. Trans. Zeal. Soc. Lond. 22: 315-333.

SHAW, G. 1800. ‘General Zoology”. Kearsley, London,

SIMPSON, G.G,, ROE, A., & LEWONTIN, R.C. 1960,

“Quantitative Zoology’, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.,

New York.

SLUPER, E.J. 1946. Comparative biologic-anatomical in-

vestigations on the vertebral column and spinal muscula-

ture of mammals, Kon. Ned, Akad, Wet., Verh. (Tweede

Sectie), DILXLI1, No. 5: 1-128.

‘ - . |

Vertebrae Vo ursinus | L_ latifrons

cervical 7 7

thoracic 15 13

lumbar 4 6

sacral 4 4

caudal 10-12 15-16

TABLE 2. Atlas dimensions (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons. Measurements: (1), craniocaudal diameter of the

lamina; (2), maximum dorsoventral height of the vertebra.

Measurements (mmm) V. ursinus L, latifrons

a mean sd a mean sd

| (1) 14 13.6 1.82 | 6 13.0 1.90

14 30,3 30.7 2.68

| (2)

AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE

TABLE 3. Axis dimensions (mm) in V, ursinus and L. latifrons. Measurements: (1), maximum dorvosentral height of the

vertebra; (2), dorsoventral thickness of the lamina; (3), craniocaudal diameter of the lamina; (4), dens length; (5), maximum

lateral diameter of the dens; (6), dorsoventral diameter of the body; (7), craniocaudal diameter of the vertebral body; (8),

spinous process length.

V. ursinus L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

(1) 20 45.7 2.23 8 42,3 3.60

(2) 19 3.1 0.56 7 2.6 0.40 ***

(3) 21 12 0.72 8 9.1 1.60 ***

(4) 19 9.7 1.01 6 79 0,78 ***

(5) 20 8.0 0.72 9 8.0 1.15

(6) 20 10.9 O.88 8 10.0 L.88

(7) 19 26.5 1.20 8 26.0 2.02

(8) 17 28.6 2.07 7 25.4 4,20

** P< 0,001

TABLE 4, Cervical vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of the transverse process (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons.

V_ursinus L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

C I(atlas) 14 63.3 4.09 5 55.6 4.11

2 (axis) 17 37.3 1.69 4 35.8 (0.67

3 18 417 2.67 7 42.4 2.31

4 18 50.0 2.93 5 47.3 2.69

5 21 55.3 3.44 6 49.7 2.64

6 19 58.1 2.79 4 53.2 3.18

7 19 59.2 2.94 5 52.5 1.52

TABLE 5. Thoracic vertebrae, dorsoventral diameter of the vertebral body (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons.

V. ursinus L, latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

Tl 9 10.2 0.62 4 11.5 0.99 **

2 i 10.8 0.46 4 12.7 0.99 #%

3 I 11.1 0.72 4 13.2 2.38

4 12 11.2 0.62 3 13.7 2.16 **

5 12 Ih. 0.74 4 12.7 1,99 *

6 12 11.1 0.68 4 12.8 1.69 **

7 12 11.1 0.80 3 12.8 1.40 **

8 11 1.1 0.82 4 12.4 1.41 *

9 10 11.2 0.78 4 12.4 1,18 *

10 9 11.2 0.81 4 12.5 1,19 *

11 il 1d 0.86 4 13.0 0.80 ***

12 Il 11.7 0.92 4 13.5 115 **

13 11 12,1 0.96 4 13.7 1.08 *

14 1 12,9 1.17

15 8 13.5 1.37

* P< 0.05; ** P< 0.01; #** P< 0,001.

ai G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON

TABLE 6. Thoracic vertebrae, craniocaudal diameter of the lamina (mm) in V. wrsinus and L. latifrons,

V. ursinus L, latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

TI 8 91 0.70 5 O.7 0.89

2 11 11.6 0.89 5 11.6 1.60

3 ia] 14.9 0,99 5 14,1 2,21

4 12 15.7 0.99 4 14.9 2.01

5 12 16,2 2,24 4 15.1 2.53

6 12 17.9 2,22 5 16.1 1.10

7 12 18,0 2.00 4 16.5 2,27

8 1 17.7 1.90 4 1.71 2.05

9 10 17.0 2,21 4 18.2 2.04

10 9 15.8 1.56 4 17.8 1.45

11 11 16,1 1.63 4 19.4 2.08

12 1 16.1 1.66 4 19.0 2,53

13 1] 16.7 1.70 4 18.9 2.32

14 11 17,1 1.57

15 8 175 2.47

TABLE 7. Thoracic vertebrae, length of the spinous process (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons.

V, ursinus L. latifrans

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

Tl 8 43.8 1.74 4 48.7 3.49

2 10 43.5 1.72 3 48.9 2.54

3 10 42.0 1.26 4 46.4 4.25

4 Il 45.2 1.63 4 47.6 4.02

5 10 47.5 2.41 3 50.8 2.62

6 12 48.2 3.69 5 47.2 3.53

7 11 46.1 5.21 4 45.0 5.35

8 10 427 2.82 4 41.0 7.39

9 10 39.6 4.45 43 40.7 2.83

10 9 34.6 2.90 4 34.9 3.63

11 10 31.3 5.32 3 32.0 6.67

12 11 26.9 2.48 3 29.5 5.66

13 10 25.0 2.12 3 26.9 5.12

14 11 23.5 1.70

15 8 22.9 2.25

V. ursinus L, lutifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

TI 10 56.2 2.80 5 50.8 4.9]

2 12 48.9 2.00 5 43.1 3.78

3 13 45.7 2.53 5 39.0 2.46

4 12 43.0 2.36 4 39.3 3.76

5 12 41.0 2,90 4 37.7 1.65

6 12 38,2 1.73 5 35.8 2.01

7 12 36.5 1.47 4 34.5 1.96

8 il 35.0 1.22 4 35.2 2.01

9 10 35.2 1.28 4 34.1 2.77

10 10 34.3 1.23 4 32.6 2.58

Il 12 33.0 1.60 4 32.7 3.83

12 12 32.7 1.50 4 32.6 3.34

13 12 33.9 2.01 4 31.6 1.40

14 12 36.5 2.48

15 ] 39.) 2.58

AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE

TABLE 9, Thoracic vertebra, maximum dorsoventral height (mm) in V, wrsinus and L. latifrons.

V. ursinus

L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

Tl 9 52.3 5.16 4 59.0 6.79

2 11 49.6 4.59 3 51.4 7.30

3 10 45.6 3.67 3 50.0 6.54

4 11 44.5 2.86 3 50,5 5.17

SS 9 43.7 1.21 3 50.5 7.09

6 12 43.1 1.84 4 51.9 5.40

7 12 42.7 1.87 3 52.8 5.71

8 10 42.7 2.27 4 49.8 4.88

9 10 42.4 2.13 3 47.9 3.12

10 9 41.6 2.08 4 45.4 1.68

11 11 41.6 2.74 3 44.5 3.68

12 I 40.9 2.40 3 43.9 4.37

13 11 40.7 2.13 3 44.0 5.14

14 II 41.3 1.60

15 8 43.7 1.94

TABLE 10. Thoracic vertebrae, craniocaudal diameter of the vertebral body (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons.

V. ursinus L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

Pal 11 10.8 0.94 4 12,8 0,69 ***

2 13 13.3 0.77 4 14.9 1.68 *

3 14 14.5 105 4 15.5 1,77

4 13 14.5 1.04 3 15,9 1.46

5 13 14.7 1.29. 4 15.8 2,29

6 13 15.1 1.14 4 1.67 1.38

7 13 15.5 1,18 3 17.4 0.35 *

8 12 16.2 1,08 4 17,1 2.17

9 ll 16.4 0.97 4 18.3 1.59 *

10 11 16,6 1,23 4 19.5 2AT#

Il 1] 17.0 1.30 4 20.6 2.38 * |

12 13 17.4 1.11 4 20.9 3.00 *

13 13 17.6 0.98 4 21.7 3.32 *

14 13 18.5 1.43

15 10 19.7 1.25

*P<0.05; *** P< 0.001

TABLE | 1. Lumbar vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes (mm) in V. ur'sinus and L. latifrons.

V. ursinus L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

LI 17 69.6 5.00 4 48.0 2.90 *#*

2 16 88.9 6.39 4 61.3 Ak aaaiaal

3 16 98.5 6.77 4 73.3 5.83 ee

4 14 90,3 6.45 4 88.4 9.26

5 3 OLS 9.45

6 3 92.8 2.38

***® P< (0.001

G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON

TABLE 12. Sacral vertebrae, maximum combined diameter of the transverse processes (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons.

V. ursinus L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd = n mean sd

Sl 13 78.7 ity! 4 82.4 3,30

2 13 69.0 3.93 4 59.8 2.08 Ste

3 13 66,7 4,39 4 50.8 357 *#*

4 13 64.1 3.62 4 51.4 4,20 ***

5 7 62.6 3.34 l 46.2 0.00

6 2 58.8 0.00

weet P< ().001

TABLE 13. Coccygeal vertebrae: maximum combined diameter of the tranverse processes (mm) in V. ursinuy and L. latifrons.

Vo ursinus

4 —_—- SS

L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

Col 12 58.5 4.92 3 48.8 2.77

2 13 56.5 5.13 3 $2.2 2.74

3 11 47.6 5.14 3 474 1.72

4 12 39.1 3.14 wd 44.5 0.00

5 9 30.8 2.45 2 38.6 0.00

6 5 19.7 4.68 3 31.1 1.53

ss 2 11.6 0.00 I 18.0 0.00

8 | 10.6 0,00

9 I 7.0 0.00

TABLE 14, Coccygeal vertebrae, craniocaudal diameter of the vertebral body (mm) in V, ursinus and L. latifrons.

V. ursinus L, latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

Col 11 17.9 0.64 3 17.2 1.07

2 13 17.1 0.80 3 16.5 1.40

3 12 16.2 0.56 3 16.4 0.67

4 13 15.0 0.88 2 15.0 0,00

5 I 13.8 1.06 2 14.3 0.00

6 6 11.2 1.42 3 13.9 1.46

7 2 8.2 0.00 1 11,2 0.00

8 1 7.0 0.00 I 8.8 0.00

9 ! 6.1 0.00

TABLE 15. Sternum, manubrium dimensions (mm) in V. ursinus and L, latifrons, Measurements: (1), maximum

craniocaudal lengths; (2), maximum diameter opposite the articular surfaces for the Ist ribs.

V. ursinus L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

(1) lI 44.3 3,10 3 46.0 7,80

(2) 32.9 2,72 3 28.9 5.08

AXIAL SKELETONS OF VOMBATIDAE 39

TABLE 16. Rib diameter (mm) in V. ursinus and L. latifrons.

V. ursinus L. latifrons

Measurements (mm) n mean sd n mean sd

1 iz 10.1 1.12 6 8.8 0.33

2 12 8.4 0.61 4 79 1.16

3 13 8.4 0.67 11 8.5 0.68

4 13 8.4 0.78 9 7.9 0.80

3) 11 8.2 0.84 5 8.1 1.27

6 9 8.3 0.77 6 8.5 1.11

7 11 7.9 0.48 7 7.9 Lite

8 11 7.8 0.53 6 8.1 0.60

9 11 i 0.51 6 74 0.29

10 8 PA 0.77 5 7S 0.65

11 11 5.3 1.15 5 6.7 0.81 *

12 11 4.5 1.01 6 6.3 BOs

13 9 4.3 0.46 6 Die! 0.60 ***

14 9 4.5 0.98

15 5 $1 0.63

* P<0.05, *** P< 0,001

AUSTRALITES FROM THE VICINITY OF FINKE, NORTHERN

TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA

BY W. H. CLEVERLY

Summary

Australites from the vicinity of Finke, Northern Territory, are generally larger and less weathered

than those of inland localities in Western Australia. Specific gravity studies show the presence of

two populations, one of which contains the larger australites. Amongst notable specimens is one

derived from a button which had an exceptionally large spherical primary body nearly 36 mm in

diameter.

AUSTRALITES FROM THE VICINITY OF FINKE, 4)

NORTHERN TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA

W.H. CLEVERLY

CLEVERLY, Wu. 1988. Ausiealites from the vieinty af Finke, Northern Territory, Austealia. Rey -¥.

Ause. Muy, 2211 44-48.

Auntralites from the vicintly of Finke, Nodhern Tenstory, are generally Jarger and Jess weathered

Than those of inbind Incalities in Western Australia. Specific gravity studies show the presence of two

populations, one afwhichcontams the larger australites. Arongsl norblespecimens.is onederived from

n button which had an exceptionally large sphetical primary body nearly 36 mim in diameter,

W. IL Cleverly, Western Australian School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia 6430. Manuscript

received 15 June 1987.

The australites considered in this paper form the

major part of the Finke Collection which ts registered

under TI308-TI1341, TI343-T1364, T1375-T1389

and 71393-11407 in thetektile collection of the South

Australian Museum, Adelaide. The australites were

acquired by purchase in 1972 from the former Apatula

Mission located at Finke, N’T) (13434, 259358),

Ms J.M. Serymyour of the South Australian

Muscum look at representative grab sample and chose

Other australiies. from the parcel available for sale,

which she estimated to number between 10.000 and

12000. When choosing specimens, the most

weathered and “shapeless” were excluded which

inereased slightly the classifiable percentage in this

material,

Some ol the largest und most interesting specimens

had been sold before the residue was offered to the

Museum. It was inescapable, therefore, that even the

grab sample should be representative only of the

residue and that the chosen material should have been

both degraded by prior sales.and further affected by

selecuon,

MrG. MeTayish of the Apatula Mission stated that

nearly ull he ausiralites were found *wilhin 30 miles”

(48 km) of Finke (Pig. 1), but the distance is certainly

vague, bemg hearsay (rom Aboriginal collectors, and

the intensity of occurrence and/or collection muy have

viried greatly with direction from the Mission. An

exception are the 1% specimens trom the more south-

erly localities named in Fig. | outside the 48 km radius,

The 1838 specimens of ihe Finke collection may be

reduced by these 18 and the 9 spurious ones detected

to leave 1811 from the vicinity of Finke. The 1811

comprise the representative sample of 304 (T1389)

and [507 chosen specimens. Differences between

these Lwo groups and from the original parcel are io be

expected. Thus there are 40.2% of essentially com-

plete australites of mean weight 4.4 ¢ in the grab

sample and 45.7% of mean weight 4.2 9 in the chosen

material. The effects of prior sales cannot be esti-

mated, In view of these uncertainties, the 1811 speei-

meris are henceforth treated as a single unit, but the

inherent bias needs to be considered when making

comparison with samples front elsewhere.

Finke 1s near the northern boundary of the australite

strewnfield, Whichever of several suggested

boundaries is preferred. Il ts the most northerly cenire

in its longitude around whieh australites have been

foand in quanuty. There is partial overlap of the

provenance with that of the Kennett Collection which

is also held by the South Australiin Museum. All

localities of the small excluded southern group of the

Finke Collection le within the provenance of the

Kennett Collection (Fig. |) and some of them were

visited by Mr Kennet imhis collecting (Fenner 1940).

The Jarge number of australites known from the

Finke and Charlotte Waters regions (—18.000)- 20000)

may appear remarkable but a huge area is also in-

volved, The average density represented ts only about

one ausiralite per square kilometre. A larger number

hus been collected fron a very much smaller urea in

Western Australia (Cleverly 1986),

Mor pranoy

A morphological classification of the 1811 austral-

ites is presented in Table | using the system ol Clev-

erly (1986). Representatives of 30 of the 48 recognised

shape types are present, a large number considering

the severity of the climate in central Australia. How-

ever, only 7 shape types. a more realistic number, are

present in the grab sample.

Extracts have been made from Table 1 for

comparison im Table 2 with a saniple from Edjudina

Station (centred 122"21°E, 2949'S), a typical inland

area of Western Australia from which a sample of

comparable size is available. The percentage of

classifiable. specimens (Table 2) is distinctly higher ut

42 W.H. CLEVERLY

Finke. This percentage varies with the degree of

exactitude written into the system of classification, but

when the same system is used by the same person, the

principal residual cause of difference between

representative samples is the intensity of weathering

and erosion. There is some evidence that the lesser

degree of weathering of the Finke australites is real

rather than the result of bias inthe sample. There are 49

specimens in the Finke collection showing radial

secondary schlieren on the anterior surface. Such

schlieren are particularly sensitive indicators of the

degree of weathering because they were within the last

film of migrating secondary melt, a layer only a few

tenths of a millimetre thick. The schlieren are made

more evident by light differential etching but are

readily removed by abrasion. There do not appear to be

any published abundance figures but personal

experience is that it would be unusual to find more than

a fraction of that number in a collection of comparable

size from inland Western Australia. One only such

specimen was found in 1883 australites from Edjudina

Station. Nor is it likely that all such specimens could

have been selected for the Finke Collection unless the

large parcel were scrutinized exceptionally carefully.

Even if this were so, the abundance would be about 8

per 1883 of the original parcel, i.e. 8 times that at

Edjudina.

The percentages of the plan view shapes (round,

oval and so on) are much the same at Finke as at

Edjudina Station (Table 2), but this similarity may

perhaps extend to any locality for which a sufficiently

large and representative sample is available. How-

ever, the elevational shape abundances differ mark-

edly, Flanged and allied fragile forms and indicators

still in progress towards more stable lens and core

forms total 13.9% at Finke against only 2.8% at Edju-

dina Station (Table 2), Even in the degraded grab

sample the total is 5.7%, confirming the lesser degree

of weathering at Finke.

The mean weight of 4,24 g for complete specimens

is rather high but there is evidence in the core/lens

abundance ratio of 0,74 (and 1.26 in the grab sample)

compared with only 0,49 at Edjudina that a high mean

weight was to be expected.

Insummary, the less weathered condition and larger

mean weight of the Finke specimens compared with

those from Edjudina Station are at least partly real

rather than the result of bias in the sample.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

The specific gravity (S.G.) is of special interest

because Chapman ef al. (1964) found that the

frequency diagram of S.G. for the Kennett Collection

from an adjoining and partially overlapping

provenance is bimodal, suggesting the presence of two

australite populations. They further noted that the

difference between component populations was one of

size only. The 28 large cores investigated by them

belonged to the component of lower density, whilst

medium-sized lenses and small cores included both

components. Subsequently Chalmers e7 al. (1976: 32)

noted the presence of two components further south in

the Lake Torrens — Lake Eyre region and drew

attention to the explanation offered initially by

Summers (1913) that a band of australites of low S.G.

is present between Victoria and the Lake Eyre region

and a more widely distributed population of higher

S.G. A frequency diagram for a sample of 202

specimens from Finke (Fig. 2) is also bimodal but

differs in detail from both the preceding.

If only one of the populations contains large indi-

viduals of low density, its existence should be evident

ona mass-S.G. scatter diagram, but attention is first

drawn to a relationship between mass and 8.G. which

is compounded with variation resulting from the

chemistry. Australites contain bubble cavities of a

range of size and irregular distribution, It is therefore

expected that the largest individuals of a population as

the largest samples of a heterogeneous material will

have the best chance of representing average material

for that population and will show a relatively small

variation in S.G, from one specimen to another, When

successively smaller sizes are considered, the ratio of

surface to volume increases, and with it the probability

that cavities will be breached; hence the upper limit of

S.G, rises. But simultaneously, if cavities of signifi-

cant size are present but are not exposed, their effect

upon the S.G, is greater than for large australites and

the lower limit falls. Thus the entire range of S.G. is

extended, For example, 29 unusually large australites

from south-western Australia (Cleverly 1974, 1981;

Cleverly & Scrymgour 1978; Scrymgour 1978) of

average mass exceeding 170 g have specific gravities

extending over a range of only 0.3 units whilst a

sample of 46 specimens from Kulin West, which is

about central to the region, and of mass ranging down

to | g have S.G. values extending over 0.6 units. Thus,

fora large sample, if mass is plotted as ordinate against

S.G. as abscissa, the points representing individuals

are likely to fall within a triangular area with its base

on the x-axis, the largest individuals with small vari-

ability of S.G. occupying the apical region and the

smallest ones occupying the broader base of the tri-

angle.

There may also be an effect related to sample size.

A numerically small sample usually shows a small

variation in S.G. but a larger sample may contain the

more extreme and rarer variations in size and chemis-

try and hence show a larger range of S.G. This effect

is unlikely to be a major cause of difference when the

sample numbers (29 and 46 in the above example) are

of the same order.

Consider now the scatter diagram for the Finke

sample (Fig. 3). The log-linear plot accommodates the

large range of mass in which the number of individuals

AUSTRALITES FROM SEAR FINKE, N,T 43

decreases sapidly with inerease in muss, but bas the

effect of bending the sides of the two triangles which

may be visualized as cnelosing all cacept lwo points,

One of the exceptional points could be accounted for

by a bubble cavity inthe orderof 4 ram diameter; the

olier exceptional specimen ts perhaps an import te the

area, To assist in defining the apices of the triangles.

the S.G’s of 27 additional large specimens were

determined. The apices are approximately oo the

modal S.G, values previously established. Most of the

larger specimens meluding all those weighing more

than 28 gare in the triangle corresponding lo the lawer

mode and it is also clear from the frequency polygon

lor larger specimens. in Fig, 2 that (ber contribution is

especially to the lower mode. There are thus (wo

austratite populations, The one of lower modal 8.4,

has a linger runge of size than the one of high medal

SG.

Noirs on Psowtitiar Symciniews

bolded Bowl Tlado

Dimensions HLA x 4.6% 7.1 mim Weight 0441 g.

Small howls sometimes failed during a lite stage of

ablation Night by folding on a hinge. the opposing

sides folding back wariduway from the pressure on the

convex gnterior surface (Cleverly 1979), The least

tolded specimens simply show andulaling of the rear

muirgin. More intensely folded specimens shaw the

sides inereasingly high relauve to vie ends of the hinge

until contacts made at the mid-pointofthe lips®. This

last is the degree of folding shown by the Finke speci-

men (Pig. 5 Al-A4), which has an elliptical area of

fused coatuel ¢. 4% | mim representing about 10% -

15% of the area of the sides. The calculated original di-

mensions of the bow) Cleverly 1977) are very up-

proximate because of somewhat asymmetrical tolding

and distociion. twas a round or slightly oval bowl, «.

1x 9x Samm (Pig. 4A and B).

Battany Tidtl and T1314

The button T1311 (Fig, 5 BI-B3) is one of several

which are surpnsingly well preserved, The stale of

preservation has prompred the naking of some meas-

urements dnd caleulitions relating to the primary body

and its secondary development for comparisen with

huttons fram Victoria, The less well-preserved button

T1314 (Pig, 5C) was also measured and calculated.

he results lor this second button are placed in bruck-

ets immediately after those of TIAl).

The radias of the primary sphere (Fig. 4Cy was

(letermined trom two traverses of the posterior surface

of flight in planes normal to the surface and at right

angles to cach other using 2 travelling vernier

microscope. This tedious method has the advantage

over projection of an enlarged profile that

observations are made on parts which would otherwise

be obscured by flange, thus reducing the risk that an

oblately spberoidil primary body will be mistaken for

asphere. The radii ure §.6 (10.5) im and 8A ETL OD

min, Using the mean radius, the primary sphere had

volume 2,76 (5,20) env und the mass wits 6,66(12,77)

g. provided thar the primary sphere had the same $.G,

JATS (2.449) as the button formed trom it.

The radius of corvature of the anterfor surface,

which 1s complicated by the presence of Mow ridges,

was determined from profiles projected with a lantern.

These profiles inthe same planes as the traverses of the

posterior surface have radii 11,2 (13,7) mmi and 11.0

(12.7) mmrespectively. The volume of the budy of the

button (7.2. the button less the flange) was then calcu

lated as 1.18 (2.57) em by reparding the body as

comprising segments of lWo spheres of knowa pada,

buse (o base,

The volume of the burton was calculated as 1.72

(3.20) em! from loss of weuht in pare toluene qt

known temperature and thus of kngwn $.G. Hence by

difference, the volume of the Mange se. 0.54 (0.63)

cov.

The volume of the secondary body at the time when

the frontal surface first encroached upon the ‘equator’

of the primary sphere wats calculated as {-§2(3.65)cm *

by the same method as tor the body. It wus assumed

(hat curvature of the anteriorsurface wasthe same then

as now (dotted line of Fig. 40). anassumption likely ww

only approsimetely correct. From (hat dime onward

the flanks of the secondary body. previously divergent

rearward, became increasingly convergent. Melt

stripped from the anterior surface could be caught in

the eddy currents beltind |he leading edge and curled

into the protective “shadow” of the cooler posterior

surface 1c, Dange-building could commence.

Since the volume of the body is 1.18 (2.57) cm‘ the

yolume of material stripped from the anterior surface

during the porentially flange-forming stage was 0.64

(1.08) cm’. The flange volume is 0,54 (0.63) cm’ and

therefore 85% (59%) of the stripped material was

retained tipon the button as Mange.

The above may also be expressed m terms of per-

centages of the volume ofthe primary sphere. Thus the

total loss from the frontal surface was 57.1 (S0.6)%,

but 19.7 (12.2)% Was retained as Mange, so that thre

volume of the button and ner loss from the primary

body are; —

100 -—57.1+19.7=62,.6% = Loss 37.44%

(LO00—S50.64+ 12.2 =61.6% Liss 38.4%)

These figures are within the wide limits found by

Baker (1962) Sor buttons from Victoria.

Buttars T1309

One specitnen (Pig, 5D) has a distinet roll in the

posterior surface of the flange and w gap beneath i

suggesting that whilst still hor the flange was partially

detached and pushed backward. A similar specimen

has been noted and illustrated by Fenner (1940 174

and Pl. TV, Ala 7 and 10), bur Whether an entrapped

44 W.H. CLEVERLY

bubble was the cause of weakness and detachment or

whether the air-filled gap is the result of the detach-

ment is not clear.

The other specimen (Fig. 5 E1 and E2) has a distinct

gap in the flange. Two possibilities are suggested :

(i) This is a stage beyond that of the previous speci-

men and a short length of flange was completely

detached. If so, it is puzzling that orientation should

have been maintained and the scar smoothed by further

ablation. Flow ridges are continuous around the dip in

the edge (Fig 5 E2).

(ii) The specimen is one half of a symmetrical

flanged dumbbell which was ablated to the stage of

separation. Again, the maintenance of orientation

presents a problem though it would need to persist only

briefly after separation to smooth the break.

Round indicator 1 T1375

This specimen (Fig. 5 Fl to F3) derived from a

button is uniquely large for its type amongst the

estimated 60 000 australites which the writer has

examined. It has dimensions 35,7 x 29.3 x 20.5 mm

including the surviving remnants of stress shell and

flange. Mass 21.326 g,S.G. 2.438. The primary sphere

had diameter 35,9 mm, volume c, 24 cm* and mass c.

59g on the assumption that it had the same S.G. as the

indicator,

The manner of development of secondary bodies is

size-dependent. The largest primary bodies were not

ablated to an extent sufficient for flanges to form but

they usually shed the stress shell spontaneously to

become cores, Primary bodies of medium to small size

were ablated to the stage when a flange could develop

but the total expansion and contraction were less than

for large bodies and the stress shell was usually

retained, perhaps to be lost later together with flange

during terrestrial residence. The upper limit of size for

the medium group is usually placed at about 30 mm

diameter for spheres or 30 mm thickness for other

bodies measured parallel to the line of flight. Thus, for

example, the largest primary sphere of 23 buttons

studied by Baker (1962; 277) was 27.1 mm diameter.

The large round indicator | draws attention to a

shadowy and ill-defined category of behaviour be-

tween the medium-sized ‘flange-forming’ primary

bodies and the larger ‘core-forming’ primary bodies.

The 30 mm dimension is not necessarily the upper

limit of size for bodies which developed flanges but

only the usual limit for those with incontrovertible

evidence of having done so. The larger the body, the

more readily would it discard the stress shell with the

flange. Baker (1962: 302) has listed a round indicator

I derived from a primary sphere 34.7 mm diameter.

That specimen and the one under discussion with

primary sphere 35,9 mm diameter represent the known

upper limit of 35 — 36 mm for the category in which

flange was formed and almost immediately lost again

when the stress shell was detached. In rare instances

such as these two specimens a remnant of the flange

survives to indicate beyond doubt that flange develop-

ment occurred. The Finke specimen is also excep-

tional in its degree of preservation, having a shallow

obtuse ridge upon the anterior surface marking a line

of parting of the stress shell (Cleverly 1987),

Complementary to the preceding specimen is a

teardrop-indicator IT having only a short length of the

butt of the flange (Fig. 5 G1—G3), The styles of the two

specimens are very similar. Itis likely that the teardrop

was in the same size category, but reconstruction of the

parent body is not possible with confidence. Obtuse

ridges are present on the anterior surface of this

specimen also.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Ms J. M. Scrymgour for information on the

acquisition and provenance of the Finke Collection

and Dr Brian Mason for specific gravity data on the

Lake Torrens—Lake Eyre australites, Ms J. M. Wearne

drafted Figures 1-4. Mr M. K. Quartermaine proc-

essed my photographs used in Figure 5.

REFERENCES

BAKER, G. 1962, Volumenbeziehungen von wohlerhal-

tenen Australit-Knopfen, —Linsen und —Kernen zu ihren

primaren Formen. Chem. der Erde 21: 269-320.

CHALMERS, R.O., HENDERSON, E. P. & MASON, B.

1976. Occurrence, distribution and age of Australian

tektites. Smithson. Contrib, Earth Sci. 17: 46 pp.

CHAPMAN, D.R., LARSON, H.K. & SCHEIBER, L.C.

1964. Population polygons of tektite specific gravity for

various localities in Australasia. Geochim. Cosmochim.

Acta 28: 821-839

CLEVERLY, W. H. 1974, Australites of mass greater than

100 grams from Western Australia. /.R. Soc. W. Aust. 57:

68-80.

CLEVERLY, W. H. 1977. Folded australite bowl from Port

Campbell district, Victoria, Australia. Mem. Nat. Mus.

Vic, 38: 255-259,

CLEVERLY, W.H. 1979. Morphology of small australites

from the Eastern Goldfields, Western Australia. /. R. Sec.

W. Aust. 61: 119-130,

CLEVERLY, W.H. 1981, Further large australites from

Western Australia, Rec. W. Aust. Mus. 9: 101-109,

CLEVERLY, W. H. 1986. Australites from Hampton Hill

Station, Western Australia. /.R. Soc. W. Aust. 68: 81-93.

CLEVERLY, W.H. 1987. Morphology of a remarkably well

preserved australite found near Ravensthorpe, Western

Australia. Rec, W. Aust. Mus. 13; 327-335,

CLEVERLY, W.H. & SCRYMGOUR, J. M. 1978. Austral-

ites of mass greater than 100 grams from South Australia

and adjoining states. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 17: 321-330.

FENNER, C. 1940. Australites, part 1'V — The John Kennett

collection with notes on Darwin glass, bediasites, etc.

Trans R. Soc, 5. Aust. 64: 305-324.

SCRYMGOUR, J. M. 1978. Three large australites from

South and Western Australia. Ree. §. Aust. Mus. 17:331-

335.

SUMMERS, H. S. 1913. On the composition and origin of

australites. Report of the Australasian Association for the

Advancement of Science 14: 189-199,

AUSTRALITES FROM NEAR FINKE, N.T.

wer

N.T.

Iotistetie Waters

(ruins)

@Mt.Dare H.S. }

Blood’s Creek

@ (abandoned)

~ 5 2 f

=~ eGidyea

Abminga 9 Bore

12 Mile Dam

\erinc’ H.S.

® Federal

(abandoned)

SCALE

FIGURE |. Map of country adjoining the Northern

Territory/South Australian border showing provenances of

the Finke and Kennett australite collections. Finke and

Abminga (open circles) were stations on the now abandoned

Central Australian Railway.

100 : . . r . . —y . . —y

60> l 4

50- zi

40+ g / |

-. \

30 9 4 4

. ° os

fe) |

fe} Jo

0° oO dy A

ee 2)

= SOURS

Bo foe

w OL “

o 9} d 4

8} eh 4

= At .

g 6 7

° °

as : . 4

: ¢ :

4p he noe 1

3 : * 4

hy?) *

2 4

ae ‘

. . te bef

r x if . h - ” ee |

09 4

ie . al fos fe ; ]

0-7 =i 1 nl A n 1 n — 1 n

238 2:40 2-42 244 246 248 2:50

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

FIGURE 3. Semi-logarithmic plot of mass against specific

gravity for a sample of 202 australites from the vicinity of

Finke less five points in the lower mass range closely coinci-

dent with others. The open circles represent 27 additional

specimens weighing more than 11 g each which are not part

of the random sample. The broken lines are an interpretation

of the distribution.

PERCENT

fy bay

236 238

240 242

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

FIGURE 2. Frequency polygons of specific gravity for

australites. Filled circles — sample of 202 from vicinity of

Finke. Open circles—420 from Charlotte Waters region (from

Chapman er al. 1964 Fig. 7) Dots—761 from Lake Torrens

— Lake Eyre region (adapted from Chalmers et a/. 1976 Fig.

15).Open squares — 46 specimens each weighing more than

11 g from vicinity of Finke.

FIGURE 4. A. Side view of folded bowl T1346 with

restored cross-sectional shape of bowl (broken line) within it.

B. End view of folded bowl T1346 and restored pre-folding

shape (broken line). C. Cross-section of button T1311 with

restoration of spherical primary body (broken line) and

profile of anterior surface when flange-building commenced

(dotted line). Figures are volumes of various parts in cubic

centimetres.

46 W.H. CLEVERLY

FIGURE 3, Ausialites from the wreinity of Finke, NT. In side views, Uireutin nf flight is lawards potlon ul page

‘A. Folded round of slightly oval bowl. T7346, 11.4 mm long AL Posterior view, Me narrow pale streak wlcing te: marddie ip the hisedt union between the pidew AZ Side vaew (ower site al AL),

Aa, Bod View (naht-hand end of Al). Ad. Same side view as A2 but in trunsmitwd Light Nurrow etliptiutl acca near “lips” by ihe abst ‘Of fised contact,

B. Bitton. 71311, 20,5 num. diameter, BY. Posterior View, B2, View shahtly oblique to unteriar yurlaye showing keft-himdeal helical Mow vidge. B3. View vory oblique 1 anterior surtier vbeswinys

some tif the rasital secondary schlieren,

CC Botion, 11314, 25.6 — 24,7 mm diunwier, pursterwe view.

D Button, TL309, 21,8 mai diameter. side: view showiny toll in lange biwards upper Fight ant torn hole below it.

E. Burton, 11309, 20.2 mnt wate. 61, Pontenor view showing lich af Mange uz ne sue. E 2 Site vyew bvking bite the Mange sap and showing commnully of Flow ridyes around thie gap.

F. Round indicator 1, 11375, 95.6 mm across. Pt, Posterior view showing smal] Mange rerneant aright P2. Side view wilh renmintot Mange and stress shell mt right) FA, Meant viewstiywong compilers

flow ridges on remnant of stress shell

G_ Teardrap-indicator 11,771375,39-4 rim lang G).Postermr view showing remninté of atrens shell around narrow end und belww, Lallet veth short length if burt of flange, G2. Side view showing.

Now ridges on stress shell. Cid. Front view with flow ridges an stress shell ahove ind at ight

Mo "Tailed? or tbeaked” core, T1389, 155 mm across. HI Side vew HEL View somewhat ible to front surface to emphnsize the ‘txeak”

J. Round Indieator f, T1395, 23.7 mm wide, 11, Rear view showin large remnant of flange. 12, Side view

K, Fragment of hollow pore, T1402, 34.5 mm thigh.

L. Browd oval core, T1384, 24,6 mun long. ear view showing Bow owitl,

M_ Narrow oval core, T1389, 35.5 mim long, rear view

AN 'Small” round core, T1989, 17.5 mim diameter, side views

AUSTRALITES FROM NEAR FINKE, N.T. 47

TABLE |. Morphological classification and masses of australites from vicinity of Finke, N.T.

Number of specimens Masses of complete specimens, g

Shape type

Button

Round Bowl

Round indicator |

Lens

Round indicator II

Round Core

Broad oval canoe

Broad ocal indicator |

Broad oval lens

Broad oval indicator II

Broad oval core

Narrow oval plate

Narrow oval canoe

Narrow oval indicator |

Narrow oval lens

Narrow oval indicator II

Narrow oval core

Boat-canoe

Boat-indicator |

Boat-lens

Boat-core

Dumbbell-indicator |

Dumbbell-lens

Dumbbell-indicator I

Dumbbell-core

Teardrop-lens

Teardrop-indicator I

Teardrop-core

Conical core

Aberrant

ii ee a Bed]

me ln

aA=--—o

Mean

Fragments

Flakes and flaked cores*

* 'Core' as used by the anthropologist.

y 2

48 W.H. CLEVERLY

TABLE 2. Comparison between australites from the vicinity of Finke, N.T., and Edjudina Station, W.A.

Finke Edjudina

N.T. Station, W.A,

Complete or essentially so %

Incomplete but classifiable %

Total classifiable %

Fragments %

Flakes and flaked cores %

Round forms %

Broad oval forms %

Narrow oval forms %

Boat forms %

Dumbbell forms %

Teardrop forms %

Flanged, disc, plate, bowl and canoe forms %

Indicators I %

Lens forms %

Indicators II %

Cores %

Cores/lens forms

Number of complete australites

Mean mass of above (g)

Total number of specimens

Mean mass of all specimens (g)

THE LIMITS ON FIGHTING IN AN ABORIGINAL COMMUNITY

BY ISOBEL WHITE

Summary

This brief paper describes fighting at Yalata, an aboriginal community in the far south-west of

South Australia and compares this favourably with the uncontrolled aggression and violence in

western society.

THELIMITS ON FIGHTING IN AN ABORIGINAL COMMUNITY 49

ISOBEL WHITE

WHITE, L M. 1988. Fighting in an Aboriginal Community. Rec. $. Aust. Mus. 22 (1):

49-51 .

This brief paper describes fighting at Yalata, an aboriginal community in the far south-west of South

Australia and compares this favourably with the uncontrolled aggression and violence in western society.

I. M. White, Department of Anthropology, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National Uni-

versity, GPO Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2601. Manuscript received 7 April 1986. Revised manuscript

received 15 October 1987,

Every newspaper today carries reports of deaths and

grave injuries caused by terrorism, violence and ag-

gression, covering a whole range of brutality, from the

bashing of harmless old women, to bombing of build-

ings, to full-scale war, These reports come from the so-

called civilised world of Europe, the Middle East and

the Americas. Moreover a rash of violence has broken

out on the sports field, even in Australia, All this has

made me reconsider the instances of aggression and

violence I witnessed in a remote Aboriginal comm-

unity nearly twenty years ago. This shocked me at the

time but more recently I have come to the conclusion

that the Aboriginal anger and antagonism I witnessed

were mild compared with what is in the news today,

that the amount of bodily injury was strictly controlled

and that after an episode of violence, aggression was

quiescent for some time. Consciously or uncon-

sciously Aborigines had so ordered their outbreaks of

aggression and violence that death and injury were

controlled and minimised. This is unlike what happens

in the western world where perpetrators of violence,

even in time of so-called peace, take little account of

the amount of death and injury they cause, or whether

their victims are those responsible for the original con-

flict.

Yalata is an Aboriginal community situated in mal-

lee, western myall and melaleuca scrub on the coastal

strip between the head of the Great Australian Bight

and the Nullarbor Plain in the far west of South

Australia.

The inhabitants are Western Desert people who first

came south to the newly constructed railway line in the

1920s and 1930s. Most congregated during the 1930s

and 1940s around the United Aboriginal Mission

(U.A.M.) at Ooldea and were induced to move even

further south in the early 1950s to Yalata Lutheran

Mission after the U.A.M. withdrew quite suddenly

from Ooldea (White 1985: 222-223). They were pre-

vented from returning to their own territory during the

period of nuclear weapons experiments at Maralinga

and Woomera (Brady 1987). The new Yalata Abor-

iginal Reserve was outside their own territory and

when I visited them they still felt displaced and land-

less (White 1985: 226); but they had become economi-

cally dependent on European—Australians (White

1985: 217-219).

At the same time they maintained their language

(Pitjantjatjara and other Western Desert dialects) and

much of their traditional culture, including some of

their ceremonial life. Boys were initiated, though I was

told that the rituals were abbreviated; for example, the

period of seclusion only lasted a few weeks. While the

initiation ceremonies still included the bestowal of a

daughter by the circumciser, the promise was not

always fulfilled, leading to some of the fighting des-

cribed below. A rain ceremony was performed each

year (White 1979). For my benefit the women per-

formed a number of their secret ceremonies with great

enthusiasm (White 1975: 132-133) but they were not

teaching these to the girls in the old manner and they

admitted they did not perform them in my absence.

When I last paid a visit to Yalata in 1981 my friends

told me that their last performance was the one I saw

in 1973.

The descriptions of fighting in this paper are based

on my experience during fieldwork at intervals be-

tween 1969 and 1973, each visit lasting between three

weeks and two months.

I am not considering here the killings that occurred

in this community following breaches of the laws

against sacrilege. I know little of the events behind

such deaths, which fall into quite a different category

from the open brawling whose origin normally lay in

disputes over marriages, betrothals and adultery, en-

tirely secular matters. T.G.H. Strehlow (1970: 112—

122) while describing punishment inyolving many

deaths in Central Australia for sacrilege of various

kinds, emphasises that these were quite different from

personal quarrels arising from such matters as marital

disputes. These personal quarrels would be settled by

the persons involved with the help of their kin, Though

some bodily injuries were tolerated killing should not

occur, except that the Aranda punishment was death

for incest between aman and his mother-in-law and for

the seduction of the wife of an important ritual leader.

Before | first pitched my tent in the ‘big camp’,

50 1M WHITE

ahout 15 km Irom the mission headquarters, the white

mission staff at Yalata wamed me that ‘the Aborigines

were always brawling’ and that | would lind these

briwls noisy and alarming. | admit J was at first

tnghtened when loud quarreling broke outa week or

twa later, Bot | soon found that | was not in the least

tireatened and that Danighr us well observe what was

happening. At this and later incidents f noted particu-

larly that these contlicts followed a luirly regular pat-

tern and that noise far outran action. Injuries were

limited and seldom serious and when ene ur other of

the protagonists was hurt the fighting normally ceased

alonce, though (bere might be some incidental quar

rels and injuries in other parts of the vamp. Similarly

in Diese peripheral quarrels action stopped as soe as

any injury occurred, Unfortunately some of the rules

wenrby the board ifthe contestants were drank, 4 hat

serious, sometimes fatal, injury resulted, though C did

nol witness such an event. Moreover when there were

dninken peaple about there might be danger jnrvalved

to hon-parlcipants. Care was always taken Ww keep aut

of the way of such irresponsible individuals. On one

sucleoceasion the adult women of ‘my Camily’, nel

ding myself, picked yp toddlers und babies in order to

be ready to evacuale the family campsite.

These events seemed to me equivalent tog weekly

Visit ty the movies or lo a sporting fixture ia our

socicty, and certainly leas dangerous than some sport-

ing events have become. Just as the amount of alcobol

available increases the danger at football und cricket

matches, so the danger increased with che amount of

alcoho) available in the camp, where there were no

police present to attempt control and pethaps to be-

come the target of all spectators, To an outsider, life in

the camp atan Aboriginal settlement may seem rather

dull for the inhabitants and these fights certainly li-

vened up the daily round and were a mater for excited

discussion for many days afterwards

The standard order of events was as follows: loud

shouting would be heard from one part of the camp and

most of the inhabitants Would rush to the scene as sup-

porters oF the contestants or asx observers, Usually

those supporters who fell themselves involved in the

dispute would take off their clothes, the main combat-

ants having already done so. Forexample, wheitan old

couple near me heanl the rused voices of their

daughter and son-in-law they immediately hurried

towards Lie Contest aking off their Clothes ancl Cie

me them aside as they ran, Each adult man would pick

up his spears and Spearthrower on his bef hand and his

fighting boomerang in his right, mote as a gesture of

streneth and alertness than with any mtent to use them

immediately.

[tséems there Were rules about the choice of weap-

ans. Sometimes the protagonists would have spears

and spearthrowers or perhaps knives but when 7 wit-

nessed a quartes between two brothers (same father,

different mothers) they bad nie weapons at all but

merely wrestled, Where spears,.or knives, were used,

skill was needed so that the wound was in the fleshy

part of the- thigh and did not cause too inmuch bleeding.

For such an injury men didnot always go to (he mission

nurse, They were proud of their scars, which would

have been less obwious if skilfully stitched. The only

wound of this kind T actually saw at close quarters (1

droye the injured wontae to the mission for treatment}

was in the thigh of the daughter mentioned above.

inflicted with a knife by her disappointed dover when

he realised she was retuming to her much older hus-

band. Her wound was deep and painful bat notdanger

ous, This partienlor dispute broke out into violence ar

near violence at intervals over several days. Some

hours after this knifing, fhere was another hour of

shouting and abuse between the lover and members of

the Woman's kin and affines, Then the “big men’ of the

camp moved in on him with their weapons al the teady

(as Ldeseribe later) but instead of obeying them arel

ceasing to threaten violence he produced a rifle and

lhreatened them, By now it was very late ut night and

all retired to their own camps, but in the morming the

tibles were rummeéd on the young man when two police-

men arrived from Ceduna and arrested him. | was told

that the camp Teaders Had taken the unusual step of

asking ihe mission superintendent 10 send for the

polive, because the young man had behaved in away

they could not counter, in prodacuy a rifle. Moreover

this was not the first time he had seduced w woman of

their community; a year before he had eloped with a

much ydunger unmarried girl and had maniged to

travelonatrain to Kalgoorlie with her, before her mate

Kin caught up with them and managed to bring her

ack.

The above account represents an unusual series of

events and [now return to the more normal processes

ot a camp light, When fighting first broke out if was

interesting to observe the behaviour of the children.

Clearly they knew they must nol join in the ring of ob

servers, cither because of instruction from their par-

ents, Or because hey were tou tightened by the noise

of quarreling, fam not sure at what age they could join

in. only knew that when | observed these scenes all

children between the ages of about five and fifteen

immediately gathered in small groups and retired to

the outer periphery of the camp where they Jit their

own small fires and stayed until the noise and shouling.

died dawn. In the meantime, as | have already de-

scribed, the adult women stayed clase by babies and

toddlers, ready to pick them up if they felt there might

be danger.

Margaret Bain, who has lived for many years with

Pitjantjatjara speaking communities, told me that by

carrying a child, arnan ora woman signalled thal he or

she was notinvalved in the quarrel. [have never heard

of a child being injured in these brawls, certainly nat

by micntion, and not by accident because of nveasiires

taken by hoth adults and children,

ABORIGINAL FIGHTING 51

While the original contestants were shouting at each

other and preparing for action, subsidiary quarrels

would be disinterred so that it soon sounded as though

everyone was shouting loudly. This made the dogs

bark and howl frantically and the noise was quite

deafening. (I made a tape-recording of one such epi-

sode.) The original dispute was likely to concern, im-

mediately or marginally, a proportion of the inhabi-

tants. Here is an example: the two brothers who

wrestled together were fighting over a woman. Mean-

while their old blind father was begging them to desist,

claiming it was not proper for brother to fight brother.

The older of the two brothers had been deprived of his

promised wife some years before because the girl was

supported by her mother in her preference for another

man. (For this the mother had been speared by the

disappointed young man.) Now the mother of the

younger brother resurrected the dispute and loudly ac-

cused the mother of the girl of causing the present

fight, because her son would not now have been

fighting his brother about a woman if that girl had been

given to her proper husband in the first place. I] knew

both these two older women well; they had cooperated

in the performance of women's ceremonies and I had

not suspected that the old dispute was still an issue be-

tween them.

The main fight was the pretext for many other old

conflicts to be revived and for old disagreements to be

aired very loudly. There was even a resurgence of ri-

valry between the two dominant groups in the camp,

the Pitjantjatjara and the Yankuntjatjara, normally

almost indistinguishable after two or three generations

of living together and intermarrying; now each ac-

cused the other of horrible customs. Another reason

for further quarrels to break out in various parts of the

camp was that some of the shouting consisted of sexual

boasting by one of the men, whom [ had recognised as

a local Don Juan. Since these boastings were likely to

involve married women within hearing, several new

quarrels would break out between these and their

husbands, or between the husbands and the boaster, In

the end it seemed that half the people were shouting

abuse at the other half, at the tops of their voices.

This would go on for an hour or two, by which time

there would be a small number of minor injuries. One

or other of the original protagonists might have been

hurt so that that particular fight would have ceased. But

by now everyone would be tired and mothers would

complain that their children should be allowed to

sleep. Eventually the senior men, the ‘big men’ of the

community, would intervene. Each in turn would put

brushwood on his fire so that it would send flames

several feet into the air and he would stand in front of

it for all to see. He would first proclaim on the rights

and wrongs of the main quarrel. He would then say

something to the effect that the young men must stop

fighting now, they had had their chance to settle their

disturbances, they had caused a lot of noise and distur-

bance but now everyone had had enough and it was

time to stop. In turn several of these older men would

repeat this performance. With their weapons in their

hands they would then move in a circle against those

still fighting, thus showing the power of the leaders

against the younger men, Quickly the noise would

cease, pcople returned to their own camps and soon all

would be asleep.

In the morning there might be a few with headaches

or in pain from injury, but there would be peace in the

camp and the contestants from the previous night

would seem to have resolved their quarrels, Certainly

all the furore had had a cathartic effect. It had been

salutary to have had all the dissension out in the open

and for once to tell one's neighbours exactly what one

thought of them. All the evil remarks and accusations

seemed to have been forgotten, though they might be

a pretext fora later conflict. Aggression was limited to

a few hours at intervals of some weeks, Occasionally,

in the middle of the night, the silence would be broken

by aman voicing his grievances and shouting abuse at

some other person. The rest of the time in my observa-

tion these Western Desert people behaved in a quiet.

restrained and dignified manner. Conversations were

carried on in low voices and shouting was seldom

heard, Even against misbehaving children voices were

not raised. The chief noise in the camp was of dogs

barking rather than of human voices.

REFERENCES

BRADY, M.1987. Leaving the spinifex: the impact of

rations, missions and the atomic tests on the Southern

Pijantjatjara. Rec. S, Aust. Mus, 20: 35-45.

STREHLOW, T.G.H. 1970, Geography and the totemic land

scape in Central Australia, Jn R,M. Berndt (Ed.). ‘Austra-

lian Aboriginal Anthropology’, Pp. 92-140. University of

Western Australia Press, Perth.

WHITE, I.M. 1975. Sexual conquest and submission in the

myths of Central Australia. /n L.R. Hiatt (Ed.), ‘Australian

Aboriginal Mythology’, Pp, 123-142. Australian Institute

of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra.

WHITE, I.M. 1979. Rain ceremony at Yalata. Canberra

Anthropology 2, No.2: 94-103.

WHITE, I.M. 1985, Mangkatina: woman of the desert. I.

White, D. Barwick & B. Meehan (Eds.). ‘Fighters and

Singers’, Pp. 215-226. Allen & Unwin, Sydney.

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE COOPER BASIN : REPORT ON

FIELDWORK

BY E. WILLIAMS

Summary

This paper presents the results of the first season of fieldwork of an archaeological study of the

Cooper Basin near Innamincka, South Australia.

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE COOPER BASIN: REPORT ON FIELDWORK 53

E. WILLIAMS

WILLIAMS, E. 1988. The archaeology of the Cooper Basin: report on fieldwork. Rec. S. Aust. Mus.

22(1): 53-62,

This paper presents the results of the first season of fieldwork of an archaeological study of the

Cooper Basin near Innamincka, South Australia.

E, Williams, Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National Uni-

versity, GPO Box 4, Canberra, ACT 2601. Manuscript received 29 July 1987.

Australia is a dry continent — 60% of its land surface

is covered in arid vegetation while a further 22% is

covered in semi-arid species (Williams 1979, V.I. Fig.

1). In the past at the height of the last glaciation, an even

greater proportion of the continent lay within the arid

zone (Bowler 1982). Yet until recently, little archaeo-

logical research was carried out in arid Australia,

despite the importance of the region to questions about

the colonisation of the continent. The work which has

been carried out suggests that a number of areas within

what is now the arid zone, were occupied during the

Pleistocene. Dates of 20 000 years BP and older come

from sites in the Hamersley Plateau, north-western

W.A. (Maynard 1980, Brown 1987); the Cleland Hills,

central western N.T. (Smith 1987); Koonalda Cave,

southern S.A. (Wright 1971); and Lake Yantara, north-

western N.S.W. (Dury & Langford-Smith 1970).

Whilst these sites show that much of the drier part of

the continent was utilized during the Pleistocene, it ap-

pears that the most intensive occupation took place

during the mid to late Holocene (Gould 1977; Hughes

& Lampert 1980; Lampert 1985; Smith 1983, 1987).

Although much archaeological work has been un-

dertaken recently in many parts of the arid zone, little

was known about the archaeology of one area, the

dunefields of north-eastern South Australia. This pro-

ject was initiated to expand our knowledge of the

region. The area chosen for study is that section of the

Cooper Basin near Innamincka, South Australia (Fig.

1). It comprises a number of features — the main

Cooper channel, an ancillary channel — the North-

west Branch, and an extensive series of clay-pan lakes

in the Cooper flood-out zone lying within the

Strzelecki dunefield. These lakes are the only ones

which regularly fill with water for thousands of square

kilometres, My particular focus is the lakes, since little

is known about either the prehistoric occupation or the

environmental history of these features.

There are a number of reasons why this project can

tell us more about the occupation of arid Australia. The

first is that while the region is an extremely arid one —

il receives one of the lowest rainfall readings of any in

Australia (125 mm per annum) and is mostly covered

by a large dunefield, the Strzelecki, there are reliable

water resources there. This made the area an important

one for Aboriginal settlement, at least in the recent past

(Sturt 1849). The Cooper drains the Channel Country

of central Queensland and every year the wet season

rains come down the river, filling a succession of deep

waterholes on the Cooper at Innamincka and then the

Coongie lakes, 100 km to the north-west. The large

waterholes on the Cooper and its overflow channel, the

North-west Branch are permanent, while the lakes hold

water from between five months to most of the year,

depending on their location relative to the channel.

While the abundant (albeit seasonal) water resources

make this area atypical when compared to many parts

of the arid zone, this region can tell us much about how

people in the past dealt with fluctuations in water

availability. This is because although there are large,

reliable waterholes near Innamincka, there are few

permanent water resources in the surrounding region.

Early explorers such as Sturt (1849) and Burke & Wills

(1861) always retreated back to this stretch of the

Cooper because of a lack of reliable water anywhere

else — upstream or downstream.

Even the upper reaches of the river contain very little

standing water, much less than around Innamincka and

the channel does not always flow (Gregory & Gregory

1884: 205-206, Jones 1979). In order to reach the lakes

and permanent waterholes, the initial colonisers would

have had to push through extremely arid areas and

would have thus needed to develop a flexible economic

system which could deal with these variations in water

availability. Such hydrological fluctuations have char-

acterised the Cooper drainage basin for at least the last

20 000 years. It was probably only prior to 30 000 yBP

that there were abundant water resources throughout

the region.

The second reason why this area was chosen for

study concerns the probability of finding Pleistocene

archaeological material there. Wasson’s work on the

sedimentary and climatic history of the dunefields,

which is described later, has shown that exposures of

E, WILLIAMS

\ LN \

kudriemitehie

Waterhole

Typingiaie

fWorerhote

}—27°30'

= === Major tracks

7°00" ull ais P oo

| Dunes wil

L allie lil rs

Kilometres

||! |

[3 i Marr edlobadlibbs i { \ i : 7 ) ae a \ |

\ 140° 00") ps8 \\4a073077 | / 2 147" 00"

‘Lake ie { \ ny ot

oe Yih eee & Les _

L— . diate \ON \ Lek Pear . T\ ey 27°00'—

< 1 [Apanburra, Sf \ \; as Soy os, lI5 hits Z- se ay

a OW x \ yy 5 a be it rt Fe ‘

\ N \. ~ take Sic Richard i ( 7 eR ES H

/ \ \ it = ‘ fa

\ ~

\ ;

) ) ae

= | i i rt Wee

V 1 mk 2) Mirkacalratiie P\ ace ee ; “ 3 B {

if eS tea ee ‘ Fo Kane

‘ asst ace ee

I | age nt Sm et No

s || A = 2] 7

( pettias Elz J

Ay ahs bh a .

, ae or as (

\ coun

} ERS

\. 1 say -

x a8

, \ ~~

/ ‘ CF TO RY , 27°30!

| eas ee

Wy he APS J ‘c x ye

\ Nh N

\ : Nappa

oN ‘mere

Pim NS, A ge

i . ee

” hole

‘Burke Waterhole 4

Innaminekaf

poucerbidie

{Marerhole

Nappaonine

Waterhole

Marpoo

Waterhole

FIGURE 1. Locality map.

Pleistocene sediments are common in these landforms

and the region is thus a promising one in which to look

for early sites. As well, his work provides a valuable

framework in which to place work on the history of

Aboriginal occupation.

The major aim of the project is to obtain baseline

archaeological data for the region and if possible,

determine whether it was first settled during the Pleis-

tocene. The question of the Pleistocene occupation of

the arid zone is a contentious one. Bowdler (1977)

believes that aridity was a major problem in the

colonisation of Australia. She claims that the first

settlement of the arid zone occurred quite late —

around 12 000 yBP, after people had first colonised the

coastline and then the major river systems. She be-

lieves that once the coastline was settled, people then

moved up the major river systems taking with them a

specialised ‘coastal’ economy, expressed as a depend-

ence on fish, shellfish and small mammals. She sug-

gests that the move away from the major river systems

and the development of a non-aquatic adaptation or

‘desert’ economy only appears quite late, after about

12 000 yBP and involves a shift from aquatic foods to

the wide-scale and specialized exploitation of grass-

seed and a dependence on larger mammals, especially

macropods. It appears, however, that recent work in the

Northern Territory refutes this model. An excavation

of Puritjarra rockshelter in the Cleland Hills, has re-

vealed an archaeological sequence extending back 22

000 years (Smith 1987). This site is located in an

extremely arid area, well away from major drainage

systems, in a region which would have also been very

dry throughout the late Pleistocene. Smith’s work

shows, therefore, that people were living in the core

arid zone well before that predicted by Bowdler’s

model. Other research by Smith refutes further aspects

of the model. His work on grindstone morphology

shows, for example, that the intensive exploitation of

seed plants did not take place until the late Holocence,

which is much later than Bowdler predicted. This

COOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY x

adaptation could therefore not have triggered the initial

colonisation of arid areas (Smith 1984).

Smith’s data suggest that people had pushed into the

arid core of the continent by at Icast 22 000 yBP_ It

appears these carly colonists had a fairly generalised

economy, lacking four example a specialised seed-

grinding technology. While the development of the

more detatled model awaits further publication of

Smith's work, one aim of my project will be to look at

the issue of Pleistocene occupation as regards north-

eastern South Australia. ts there evidence for Pleisto-

cene occupation here and if so, what rype of economy

did the early colonists possess?

As well as this interest in Pleistocene occupation 1

have a number of other aims, The first is ta determine

when the mosi intensive period of occupanon took

place — was itdunng the mid to late Holocene period,

as other work to the south, and in other regions has

shown (Hughes & Lampert 1980; Lampert 1985:

Lampert & Hughes 1987; South 1983, 1987)? See-

ondly, the information on prehistoric sites Will be ulti-

mately used to forma number of management propos-

ils to protect the archaeological material from a num-

ber of threals including oiLand gas exploration, paster-

alism and tourism. Here 1 will be working closely with

the Aboriginal Heritage Branch of the South Australian

Department Australian-of Environment and Planning.

The project is funded tor three years and this paper

reports an the results of this, the first field season,

Given the preliminary nature of the work, my data and

conclusions will be fairly general, Before describing

the resultg of the fieldwork, T will first provide an

environmental context for the research hy presenting

below information on the geography of the region and

then on climatic change.

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

The region has a hot, dry, desert climate with short,

coal locold winters. Raintallisextremely low (125mm

peranoutt) and unreliable, while mean annual evapeor

vation is very high (3800 nim per annum), There is no

distinct seasonal pattem to ihe rainfall distribution,

Within the region there ure two distiner land-systens

(Lawl etal, 1977. Hughes & Lampert L980). These are

briefly desoribed here, because as) will sutline Tater,

the nature of the archacnlogieal muteriq? varies wallt

hand system.

i. Merninie Environmental Assaciation

This tand-systeni Les i Gheeastern pant of the scudy

arch fo Ue cust ite Alindsville track (Fig. 1) de

consists of we gently undulating stony plain woul low

stloreie-capped aises. Here de Cenper is confined

within wtarraw fowiplain unt comonses a serics of

Pcie WaterbUles cach Lp to-several kilometres

long, Eust-west trending dunes have formed along the

margins of both banks of theriver and Hughes (Hughes

& Lampert 1980) notes that they broadly resemble

those of the Cooper flood-out zone to the west (see

below). The vegetation in this land-system. consists of

oceasional stands of mulga (Acacia arewra) and a

sparse low shrubland of nave fuchsia (Eremaphila

spp.) and dead finish (Acacia lerragonaphyila) over

tufted grasses such as saltbush (Atriplex spp.) and

Mitchell grass (Astrebla pectinafa). The Cooper chan-

nel and floodplain is fringed by woodlands of river red

gum (E. cuma/dulensix), coolibah (E, nitvrotheca) and

coolihah box (£. interrexta).

Stony land-systems which have similar landforms

and vegetation ure also found in this general region and

lie to. the north-west, north and north-east of the study

area, They ure virtually identical to the Merninic

landsysrem and are therefore not described here. More

information on them ¢an be obtained from Laut e7 ai,

(1977).

ii. Cooper Creck Environmental Association

This land-sysiem covers most of the study area,

lying ta the west and north-west of Innamineka. It

comprises the Cooper Nood-out zone and consists of a

field of parallel dunes and interconnected claypans pe-

riodically Hooded by Coopers Creek. A numberof the

largerclaypans form lakes. Some of these, for example

the Coongie Lukes system (Pig, 1 | are filled annually

hy freshes of Water Which came down the Cooper front

the Channel Country of northern and western Queen-

sland. These lakes fill from an overflaw channel of the

Cooper, the North West Branch, but only one or Lwe

lakes hold walter for more than six months of the yeur.

Other Jakes und claypans are filled either witty the

Cooper food-out, or by prolonged local previpitation,

The dunefield consists mostly of longitudinal dhines

which trend north-south, Transverse dunes ane found

on fhe northern (downwind) sides ol laedhyts

(Twiddle 1972. Wasson 1983), Both (ypes of dunes are

Neh in chay wath che clay eceurring in sand-sige agyre

prates or “pellets”, The vegelation on the dunes and

arolind the tikes is yvarable, ranging fron samphive

(Arthrocrenium spp.) and chenopod shrubland: of ate

man sallhush to lignan (MueAlentevkia cunring-

Aen?) andl ganegrass (Eragrostis australagied), The

flondplains and channels af the major river syetens ace

fringed by the same uve species (iM noted for the

PreviOns find-system ie, ver red gum, comiatr enc

cool|bahy buy.

The reeion tag not alawys been eavinorimencally

Stable and over time there have beet sigiatieanr

changes in the climate aml hirallsems, Given the scale

of these chantes. dey weld have vndeubleally al

fouled Nioriin metupation, and are Uhereline outlined

here

56 E, WILLIAMS

ENVIRONMENTAL HIsTORY

The clay-rich linear and transverse dunes have been

studied by Wasson and preserve a sediment record of

climatic change in the region (Bowler & Wasson 1984;

Gardner et al, 1987; Wasson 1984, 1986). The pres-

ence of clay pellets suggests that the dunes were

formed when muds and fine sands deposited by the

Cooper were deflated from salinized swales, The

floodplain sediment was derived from alluvium depos-

ited directly by the Cooper or, where areas were cut off

from a direct supply of flood sediment, from saline

groundwater-controlled deflation. The pelletization of

the clays requires the salinisation of sediments and this

occurs in a regime of fluctuating saline groundwater.

As well as this mode of formation there is now recent

evidence which suggests that clay pellet formation can

occur without salts as long as there is a supply of fresh

alluvium (Gardener et al. 1987).

The dunes contain four main stratigraphic units, The

uppermost is a modern mobile aeolian sand, mostly

quartzose with rounded clay pellets. Below this is a unit

which also comprises quartzose sand and clay pellets

and is late Holocene in age. The next unit has a similar

composition of quartzose sand and clay pellets and as

well has some carbonate formation and was deposited

between 13 000 and 23 000 yBP. The lowermost unit

also contains quartzose sand and clay pellets but is also

slightly reddened and has pronounced carbonate for-

mation. Thermoluminescence dating of this unit sug-

gests it may have been deposited as long ago as 240 000

yBP (Gardner et al. 1987). Analysis of these sediments

and of other features in the regions and in other areas

gives the following environmental sequence beginning

with the late Pleistocene (Bowler & Wasson 1983;

Wasson 1994, 1986).

About 50 000 years ago lakes in the southern half of

Australia were noticeably expanded. At this time also

the Cooper was depositing predominantly sandy allu-

vium in contrast to the muds and silts it deposits today.

This suggests the river was discharging water at an

increased velocity relative to the present and could

indicate a greater discharge overall, If this was the case

then it is probable that the lakes in the study area, like

those in southern Australia, were also noticeably

larger.

The lakes in southern Australia remained full for

some time although after about 30 000 yBP there was

some oscillation in lake levels. This lasted until around

22 000 yBP when the lakes began to dry up. About this

time too, the Cooper ceased depositing predominantly

sandy alluvium and began depositing a mixture of

sand, silt and clay, indicating a decrease in stream

yelocity. The presence of the clays in the floodplain

sediment initiated the period of clay pellet formation in

the swales between the dunes. During this time a major

phase of dune building began and continued until the

terminal Pleistocene. The most intensive periods of

sediment mobilistion took place between 16 000 and

20 000 yBP at the height of the last glaciation. Dune

building was triggered by a combination of factors: an

increase in wind speed, radiant summer energy and

pressure gradients, and a decrease in humidity. These

also induced a lowering of the water table, increasing

the salinization of the clay-rich floodplain sediments.

Ataround 12 500 yBP there was another significant

climatic shift in the region when frequent flooding of

the outer areas of the Cooper floodplain ceased. This

removed most of the sediment available for dune build-

ing and the dunes ceased accumulating sediment. Dune

building began again in the late Holocene, although on

a smaller scale than in the late Pleistocene. This event

mostly involved a reworking of older dune units and

there does not seem to have been areturn to the climatic

conditions of the last glaciation. Wasson believes that

this mobilisation of sediment is linked to shifts in

climate, reflected by falling lake levels in eastern

Australia, He also outlines the possibility that it may be

related to a more intensive occupation of the region by

Aboriginal groups through the firing of vegetation for

example, but notes that there is insufficient evidence to

look at this hypothesis at present (Wasson 1986).

The data presented above show that the region has

undergone significant climatic change in the last

50 000 years. This has undoubtedly affected Aborigi-

nal occupation of the area and I will be focusing on this

issue by looking at the occupation history of the lake

systems. As I will show below (by citing historical

accounts of Aborigines), the lakes were an important

focus for settlement. An analysis of the archaeology of

these areas can not only provide information on prehis-

toric occupation but, as well, data on climatic change,

through the study of the sedimentary history of dunes

associated with the lakes. As well, information derived

from the latter work can be compared with Wasson’s

chronology derived from his work on the dunefield.

Before presenting the results of the survey work, I

will first put the data within an ethnographic context,

by briefly summarizing the historical accounts of Abo-

riginal subsistence and settlement patterns for the re-

gion.

HisTorICAL ACCOUNTS OF ABORIGINAL

SUBSISTENCE AND SETTLEMENT

Historical records show that the Cooper and its asso-

ciated lakes were the main focus of settlement in the

region (Sturt 1849, Burke & Wills 1861, McKinlay

1862). These areas were densely populated. Sturt saw

a camp of between 300 to 400 people about 50 km east

of Nappa Merrie station in Queensland (1849: II,

75-79). North of Innamincka, around the Coongie

lakes, McKinlay saw over 300 people at Hamilton

Creek, 200-300 people along the North West Branch

of the Cooper just south of Coongie and at least 150

CDOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY 57

peuple around the Lake Lady Blanehe (1862: 37, 38.

46). Most groups, however, were smaller than these

Jarge aggregations. Camps of between 20 and 40. people

were Common and some settlements seemed to have

been occupied ona Semi-permunent basis (Sturt 1849,

Burke & Wills 1861, McKinlay 1862). Huts at these

camps were substantial domed structures (Horne &

Aiston 1924),

The main food cousumed in the vicinity of the lakes

and river country was fish and mussels, water birds and

dardoo (Mar siled spp.),a small clover-type plant that

grows on floodtlats, The sandhill country was also

utilized. and as Janes (1979) bas shown, was more

productive than the lakes and rivers as regards foud

plants and small mammals. Staples obtained from the

dine Helds comprised a witle variety of seed plants,

especially native miller (Panteun decompisium) and

“Munyerso' (Partudaca spp.), and roots sud cubes.

espegially ‘yams’ (probably Prapomaeu spo (Sones

1979, Kerwin & Breen 1981), Snakes. other reptiles.

and many species of small mammats were used as food

TCSOUFCES.

Jones (1979) has studied the histoney! matertal and

his developed a madel of subsistemee and settlement

patterns which is supperted by the avajlable storical

evidence. He shows that while people mostly lived

close to the major water sources, affer rain, groaps

pushed oul inte the dunefielkts to explou the plant foods

whiglt had germinated and to obidin the grubs, reptiles

and stall inamunis whieh were abundant here, As the

surluce water in claypans between the dunes began la

dry Up, people moved back.on to the creeks, rivers and

Jukes to harvest the plants.such as Panieun: and nardoa

How ripening on (he Flondplau. As well as this pattern

of seasonal movement, [ones ohserves that some

groups remamed on the lakes and nver dirgughout the

year. [n these ancas there were sufficient resources fo

Support semi-permanent setdement(e.g. King in Burke

& Wills 1861), Jones alse found that the stony country

conlained significantly (ewer food resources than other

lund-systems and was not « favoured area for settle-

micnt (e.g. Sturt PR4Vs 1, 43).

From this brief overview of the historical material

We can hypothesize that the largest sites will be found

in areas which have permanent or semi-permanent

water sources, Surface campsite malerial will beTound

in the dunefields but sites will he smaller thu those on

the margins of lakes and permanent waterholes,

These ideas, along with those converning Pleisto-

cone occupation, wre discussed in the light of field data

in the following scerion, The results of previous work

in the regian are discussed firsi.

PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH

IN THF AREA

The previous work m ie feglon has comprised

short-term studies of small areas as part of environ-

mental consultancy projects (Hiscock 1984. Hughes

1983, Lance & Hughes 1983) and “recorinaissance’

trips Lo ippraise the archaeological potential ofa region

(Hughes & Lampert 1980, Lampert 1985), Almost all

surveys were restricted to the region south of my study

area, to the dunes and the main Cooper channel and

little work was carried out on the lake Although none

of this work has involved long-term studies ancl it did

not Jook at the Jake systems, sufficient surveys have

been done to isolate some trends i site type and

distribution, These are ourlined below.

The survey found (hat sites are common in the region

and that site type varies with land-system and environ

inental context. Quarries, stone arrangements and en-

graving sites are restricted to the stony country ic. the

Merninie land-system. General artefact scatters, shell

middens and buryal sites are found in botl the stony

country and the Cooper flood-out zone, but shell mid-

dens dre restricted. to the margins of lakes and perma

nent Waterholes of the main stream and river channels,

General arnefact sealiers were found to be the most

comma site type in the region.

As regards jhe age of sites, at was found that most

Sites datcd (On typological grounds) to Ihe mid to late

Holocene Pletstocene siles are extremely rare, al least

i the dunefeld and areund the main Cooperchannel,

The only Pleistovene site found isan Ahorigimal hearth,

site JSN' dated by Wasson (1983), The hearth lies in

the middle of the dunefield, about 270 km south-west

of Janamineka and 90 km west of Strzelecki creek. Two

dates have been obtained — 13 850 + 190 yBP (ANU

2278) and 13 1504831) yBP (ANU 2279). Beesuse of

the rarity of Pleistogene sites in the region, Lampert

(1985) has hypothesized thatthe region was not settled

onany permanent basis until the late Holocene ard Chat

any. Pleistocene materia! found resulted from ocea-

sional trips made by the prehistoric inhabitants to ihe

region from better watered areas to the south-west,

such as the Flinders Ranges (see also Lanypert &

Hughes 1987),

Does (his patterning of archaemlogical material also

apply to the Jake systems? tn the following section |

present my dar for the lakes and conclude with a

discussion On this issue mn the light of my Tindinigs.

Preco Wok

Preliminary Work

The study area is very remote and there are logistic

problems in ruuning field work there. For tis, my tirse

field season, | concentrated therefore on ua relatively

accessible area — the lakes around and including

Coongic. | begay planning imy field work by first

examining colour aerial photogriphs of the reson

(Fig, 2). Using these | isolated features relevant lo (he

archaeology of the drea and these are discussed belaw.

38 E, WILLIAMS

The photos showed that some lakes (Coongie, Mar-

roocoolcannie, Marroocutchanie and ‘Toontoawaran-

nie) fill ona regular basis while others (Apachirie and

Mitkacaldrauillic) do not. Although the last wo lakes

do not consistently hold water now, they do however

have lake-shore features and thus regularly filled some

time in the past. As well as this difference in water

levels today, there is a distinction between these two

groups of lakes in regard to a particular type of dune

feature. On the lakes in the first group there is a pale

coloured dune or series of dunes, trending north-west

to south-east, which lies on the north-east margin of the

flood-out zone of each lake, These features are abserit

on the last two lakes noted above, The dunes range in

Orientation from 15" to 30" west of north, They appear

to be transverse dunes or Twidale's ‘leeside mounds’

(1972: 85-86) and are similar to the lunettes or clay

dunes of semi-arid regions. Such features are formed

when longshore drift transports debris to beaches or the

lee shore of lakes. This sediment is then locally redis-

tributed by the wind before being trapped by vegetation

close tothe lake margin. The reasons for their presence

on lakes in the first but not the second group is unclear,

but is possibly linked to higher water levels some time

in the past. As well, there are a series of these dunes

within the food-out zone between Toontoowarannic

Toontoowaranie

— Flood -out zone

Kilometros

= te ome a "

Taam Pole ‘leeside’ dunes = S, Longitudinal dunes

FIGURE 2. Part of the Cuangie Lukes showing the pale-coloured ‘leeside’ dunes.

COOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY hd

and Coongie. The mode of formation of these features

is unclear because they are not directly associated with

ihe lake sbore as are the other dunes. A priority of the

light work was to examine both types of dunes lo

determine how and when they were formed and

whether they contain in sila Pleistocenearchacological

matenalas do che lunettes of the Willandra and Darling

lakes,

As well as looking at these pale dunes | examined

exposures oF Pleistocene sediments in the longitudinal

dunvfield, for Or sitw archaeological material, 1 also

looked al sites generally wnound the lakes und creeks, to

obtiin information on site type and location.

The (ffeld surveys

InJuneand July 1986 Tiniade two tips.to the Cooper

froma base in Broken Hill. The lime spent in the field

totalled five weeks, On both trips, work was curtailed

because of heavy, unseasondl rainfall bur despite this |

managed to obtain data relevant to the issues outlined

above.

During this field work | concentrated on getting an

overview of the archaeology of the lakes. L surveyed

sections of fiye lakes (Coongie. Marroacoolcannie,

Marrouculchanie, Toonloowarainte and Goyder! and

While | mainly concentrated on checking the paledunes

described eurlier, Lulso looked at lake margins where

there were no pale dunes and also al seme parts of the

main longitudinal dune field. General comments about

site type and distribution are noted first, followed by a

discussion of sites on the pale dunes.

Inallareas Surveyed | found chat artefact density and

site size inereased as one approached permanent waler

sources. Site density was extremely low away fram ihe

lakes and major river channels. Because of the large

number of aplefact scalter sites scen, | did not reeard

every sile and instead only noted either very large sites

of siles where | collected material for dalmy purposes.

Record eards for these sites are held hy the Aboriginal

Heritage Branch, South Australia, Artefuet scatters

were the most common site type found and these

Gomiprised d scatter of artefaers exposed as & lag on

dune blow-outs, where the more compacted Pleisto-

cene sediment wis exposed.

On many siles, Freshwater wudse! shell Was assnet

ited wilh the wrefacl scatters, but this material was

resinicied to those areas where porahent or senj-

permanent witer was present i.e, he larger lakes slid

pemanent waterholes on the channels, There wits

some Variation tn ite Quaiimy and uiauitution of shell

relative co other archacologigal material | tound, for

example, Mat large midden sites, Where shell is the

dominant Wrelweoycel material, were pestacicd to

areas where watural mussel beds were particulurly

ubutidanici.c the margins of lukes close to inbel chun

nels and fhe edges of lurpe, permanent waterholes,

Samal) scatters of shell, similar to Meehan’s (1982)

‘dinnerlime camps’ were Scattend jntermittently

around the margins of the larger lakes and channels.

Future work will look at these differences in distribn-

tion in more detail.

In-virtually all cases the archaeological material was

not ja sity and had apparently deflated down from

Holocene units. Typologically. most. if not all ar

(efacts, dated to the mid to late Holocene, The main

urtefaet types were tula itdzes and adze slugs, small

scrapers, cores, flakes and fragments of large, flar

sandstone grindstones of the type described by Smith

(1986). As well, largish, cube-shaped silcrete cabbles

which were often pround on one or more surfaces were

common. Cores and Nukes were small in size and

noticeably reduced and this is prabably due lo the Fact

that raw material sources le some distance away (more

than 50 km), in the stony country, Occasionally larger

flakes ard horse hoof cores were present. Favoured raw

materials were silerere. quartzite, chert and chalced-

ony. Hearth material, usually fragments of burnt ter

mile mound, was often scattered across sites and oved:

sionally fragmented human bone Was also found. [so-

lated hearths were also present. Within the longitudinal

dunefield proper, T saw only one site where material

Was not lying in the upper section of the late Holocene

unit. This is Blur Creek 1, which comprised a fermite

mound hearth (sir. lying near the base of the late

Holocene unit. The hearth dates to 3080 + 170 yBP

(ANU 5428).

Asnoted eurlier, sites Increase insize and the density

of material increased as siles became Clouser Lo penta-

nent water. At Typingime waterhole, for example, a

pentianent waterkole of an intermittent drainage line

within the longitudinal dunetield, there was a higher

density of muterial. especndly termite mound heat

retainers, tharyon sites inthe dunefiekl generally, The

largest siles (nthe study area were found onthe margins

of the lakes close lo either inlet or outlet creeks and on

the edge of large, permaneni walerholes on the main

watercourses. Espectally large sites were found on the

lakes nearoutlet crecks, towurds the southern end of the

lakes. Sites of this type inchide Luke Toontoowaranme

sies | and 2, which comprise 7000 square melres-and

11) 000 square metres of shell midden respectively. The

ar¢hacological material en these Iwo siies is similar co

that outlined earlier and consisted of [rierented yas

sel shell, artefacts. scattered heal retainers and fray-

mented bariats. As well, there were the remains of 4

collapsed ‘gumyalt’ on the former site, Shetls and ar-

tefaers oo these sites lie either within tale Holocene

sodimentuwy watts or are deflated down from Holocens

Units to lie us float on exnosed Pleistocene secon,

A sample of shell (rom this site was submited for

daring and a expected, is late Flytocene — 3304 80)

yBPLANU 5425). Such large andl compley sites ire rol

Honmally characteristic of and areas and thus reflect the

Tmiportunee of the kes tu ie rogton. The presence ts

consistent With the bizh population densiries observed

hy the surly explorers.

60 E. WILLIAMS

Apart from these large sites, smaller scatters of

artefacts, shells, hearth material and bone were found

on the flanks of the longitudinal dunes along the mar-

gins of the lakes. These are larger than the sites found

in the dunes away from the lakes. Examples of this type

include Marroocoolcannie Sites 1 and 2. At the latter

site there was also an area of burnt bone and shell. This

material appears to be in situ and the bone, although not

identified formally as yet, appears to be that of fish and

small mammal species. This is consistent with the

enthno-historical data outlined earlier which identifies

fish and small mammals as important food sources. At

both sites most of the material was again deflating from

Holocene units onto Pleistocene deposits. At Site 1,

mussel shell which is in situ dates to 1020 + 80 yBP

(ANU 5427) while at Site 2 a termite mound hearth

dates to 1130 + 110 yBP (ANU 5429),

As regards the pale-coloured dunes noted earlier,

Isurveyed exposures along the length of these dunes on

Coongie, Marroolcoolcannie, Marroocutchanie, Mar-

radibbadibba and in the floodplain between Toontoow-

arannie and Coongie. With the exception of a site at

Marradibbadibba — Lake Goyder 1, I found that all

archaeological material was deflating down from the

upper, recent units. The sites were all similar and

resembled the smaller lake-margin sites such as the

Marroocoolcannie Sites 1 and 2 described above i.e.

scatters containing artefacts, burnt termite mound and

fragmented human bone. Shell midden material and

large artefact scatters were scarce except for one large

shell midden (Marrootcoochanie 1), on the north-west

end of the Marroolcoolcannie dune, which in turn lies

close to the inlet of Lake Marrootcoochanie. This is the

only section of one of these white dunes which lies near

the inlet channel of a lake. As well as general artefact

scatters, a mounded burial (Browne Creek Burial Site)

of the type described by Elkin (1937) was found in an

area of pale dunes between Toontoowarannie and

Coongie, The relative lack of material on these dunes,

except for where they are close to inlet channels,

reinforces the trends in site patterning noted earlier for

the lakes generally. It suggests that source-bordering

dunes in this area were not especially favoured for

occupation as such. Future work will explore this

proposition further.

The one site found within the lower part of one of the

white dunes was Lake Goyder | and it lies within a

white dune on the north-western margin of Lake Mar-

radibbadibba. It is similar to the sites described earlier,

with some exceptions. Heat retainer material is calcrete

rather than termite mound and there is a burial and a

small scoop hearth of burnt soil about 1 m across, lying

within more consolidated sediments which are below

what appears to be a recent unit. A sample of charcoal

from the hearth is quite young, 810 + 130 yBP (ANU

5424).

It is difficult to determine the significance of this

date, given that it is much younger than expected. It is

possible the sample was contaminated, possibly by

recent floodwaters. Air photos reveal that this locality

was submerged for some time during the 1974 floods.

While I am unable to resolve this problem, there are

other clues to the age and origin of the white dunes. Soil

samples taken from the pale dunes associated with the

present lake shores of Marootcootchanie and Marra-

dibbadibba (features between Coongie and Toontoow-

arannie were not examined because of a lack of time),

comprise sand rather than clay pellets, suggesting that

the dunes originated from beaches. Since a number of

the dunes are now some distance from present lake

margins (Fig. 2) it seems that they were formed in the

past ata time of higher lake levels. The morphology and

colour of the dunes associated with the lakes in the

whole of the Coongie system generally, suggest that

they are late Holocene rather than Pleistocene features,

(B. Wasson pers. comm.), indicating that the most

recent rise in lake levels occurred some time during this

period. Further work will be carried out on this hy-

pothesis, before I relate my work back into Wasson's

chronology.

As well as the site described above, work around

Goyder and Marradibbadibba revealed other items of

interest. While sites in this area were generally similar

to those on the lakes further south, there was a greater

variety of artefact types and raw materials here. An

edge-ground hatchet manufactured from green stone

was found on one of the sites (Lake Goyder 2) and

flaked greenstones and rock-crystal was found on other

sites. These differences seem to result from a relative

lack of amateur collecting in these more remote lakes

rather than for example, differences in site function or

availability of raw materials. Goyder is not closer than

Coongie to sources of these rock types and there

appears to be no difference in food resources between

the lakes. Many artefacts have been removed from

around Coongie and from Coongie south to

Innamincka by specialist collectors (see for example

the collections in the South Australian Museum) and

also by stockmen and tourists. The more remote areas

in the lake system to the north of the old Coongie

station, are not visited as much and fewer artefacts

seem to have been collected from there. Collecting is an

ongoing problem and will get worse as tourism

increases. I will therefore take this into account when

quantifying data on artefacts for the region in the

future.

CONCLUSIONS

I found that there are specific constraints on the lo-

cation and distribution of sites in the Coongie system.

The availability of permanent or semi-permanent wa-

COOPER BASIN ARCHAEOLOGY 61

ter, for example, 1s probably the most important. Al-

lowing for this, the presence of large, complex sites in

the region, reinforces the historical data that population

densities here (at least for the recent past) were high.

Regarding the chronology of settlement, I have

found it difficult to look at the issue of Pleistocene

settlement. I have confirmed that Pleistocene archaeo-

logical material is rare, but this could be partly due to

the fact that most dunes associated with the lakes are

quite recent. The dunes are recent, because the Coongie

system is still operating. Future fieldwork will explore

the issue of Pleistocene occupation further, with a

study of Pleistocene-aged dunes associated with a

series of now-dry lakes, located north of the Coongie.

Allowing for these problems with Pleistocene con-

texts, I would argue that the relatively late appearance

of a more intensive occupation is a real phenomenon.

I have surveyed many exposures of Pleistocene sedi-

ments in longitudinal dunes near the lakes and have

found only more recent sites. Other researchers work-

ing closer to the main Cooper Channel have found the

same pattern. It seems, therefore, that although the

region was first occupied during the late Pleistocene,

the area was only exploited on an intermittent basis

until the mid to late Holocene. This pattern is also seen

in other parts of the arid zone. How can we account for

this phenomenon —can it be explained by factors such

as climatic change for example? For the Coongie, it is

possible there were higher lake levels in the late Holo-

cene, and this could be haying some impact on occupa-

tion, Itis unlikely, however, that environmental shifts

alone can explain this phenomenon, Higher ground

water levels were present in the region in the late

Pleistocene and in neighbouring areas such as Lake

Frome during the early and mid-Holocene (Singh

1981), yet there is no evidence for corresponding

increases in population at these times. Could the pat-

terning be explained by another model, such as a con-

tinental-wide process of economic intensification dur-

ing the mid to late Holocene, as outlined by Lourandos

(1985)? Whilst it is tempting to see the Coongie data as

supporting such a proposition, I have argued elsewhere

(Williams 1987) that the detection of intensification in

the archaeological record is complex. Given the pre-

liminary nature of my work in the Coongie, I will

therefore leave a more detailed discussion of this issue

until | have completed further fieldwork.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The project reported upon in this paper is funded jointly by

the National Research Fellowship Scheme, Department of

Science and the Department of Prehistory, Research School of

Pacific Studies, Australian National University. I thank these

bodies for their support. Ideas in the text benetited from

discussions with Roger Luebbers, Mike Smith, Bob Wasson

and Steve Webb, Pam Maljkovic typed the text while Betsy-

Jane Osborne drew the illustrations.

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ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS IN SOUTHERN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY P. A. CLARKE

Summary

This paper discusses the importance of underground plant parts as sources of food, medicine, string

fibre, narcotics, pigments and drinking water in southern South Australia. Information was obtained

from contemporary Aboriginal accounts and historical sources. In spite of an earlier view of the

flora of the region as providing meagre food resources, it appears that some root species were very

important. The paper also suggests that Aborigines in this area more actively managed their

resources than has previously been thought.

ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 63

IN SOUTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

P.A. CLARKE

CLARKE, P. A. 1988. Aboriginal use of subterranean plant parts in southern South Australia. Rec. S.

Aust. Mus, 22 (1): 73-86.

This paper discusses the importance of underground plant parts as sources of food, medicine, string

fibre, narcotics, pigments and drinking water in southern South Australia. Information was obtained

from contemporary Aboriginal accounts and historical sources. In spite of an earlier view of the flora of

this region as providing meagre food resources, it appears that some root species were very important.

The paper also suggests that Aborigines in this area more actively managed their resources than has

previously been thought.

P. A. Clarke, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript

received 13 August 1987.

Although some early southern South Australian

ethnographers reported plant roots as significant

sources of food, Cleland (1957, 1966) considered that

the flora was unable to provide significant Aboriginal

food sources. The failure of Cleland to take into

account the early reports of plant use in historical

records and early ethnographies of the region has been

documented for Victoria by Gott (1982, 1983) and by

myself for southern South Australia (Clarke 1985a,

1985b, 1986a, 1986b). This article argues that

Cleland’s view can be seen as a reflection of an earlier

opinion that Aborigines were wholly passive

occupants of their landscape. In pursuing this aim, the

study of Aboriginal plant use from southern South

Australia is placed into a broader perspective of

southern Australian Aborigines as being active

managers of their environment and resources. In some

cases, plant use records from outside southern South

Australia are used as a guide to the species of root that

could have been used in this region.

Sources AND METHODS

For the purposes of this article, southern South

Australia is defined as the area receiving rainfall of at

least 35 cm annually (Fig. 1). This region contains the

lower portion of Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, the

Mt Lofty Ranges, the Fleurieu Peninsula, the Lower

Murray River and Lakes, Kangaroo Island and the

South East. Information obtained from early historical

sources has been supplemented by consultations with

Aboriginal people from the south-eastern region. This

has been part of an ongoing, long-term research project

involving the South Australian Museum and the

Ngarrindjeri community. The project, begun in 1981,

aims to record aspects of Aboriginal culture in this

region. Major contributors, to the project and to this

paper, include Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney

from Kingston in the South East of South Australia.

Ron Bonney is a descendant of West Coast Aboriginal

people but was brought up among the Moandik (his

term for people of the Kingston area) in the South East

of South Australia. He also has detailed knowledge of

the Lower Murray cultural region. Lola Caieron-

Bonney is a descendant of the Milmandjeri/

Temperamindjeri groups from the northern end of the

Coorong. Her family has had a deep interest in

Aboriginal medicine and healing practices going back

to pre-contact times. Another Milmandjeri/

Temperamindjeri descendant who has provided

important information is Fran Kernot from Kingston.

The most significant sources from the Ngarrindjeri

community of the Lower Murray have been Dick

Koolmatrie and George Trevorrow from the Coorong

and Meningie area, and Henry and Jean Rankine from

Raukkan (Point McLeay) on the southern shore of Lake

Alexandrina.

An ethnobotanical collection gathered during

fieldwork in the Lower Murray and the South East by

Steve Hemming and myself is being permanently

lodged in the South Australian Museum. This

collection at present numbers over sixty specimens

with plant use records for over forty species; much of

this is new information. Although the Museum has an

existing ethnobotanical collection of about fourteen

hundred specimens from most parts of Australia, the

southern region was poorly represented before

commencement of this project.

An analysis of the historical sources of

ethnobotanical information from this region appears in

Clarke (1986b), In the present paper, scientific plant

names given are those used in ‘The Flora of South

Australia’ (Jessop & Toelken 1986). South Australian

Museum specimens referred to are referenced in the

Endnotes by Anthropology Register number and by

collector or source. The plant use information put forth

64 P.A, CLARKE

in this paper should not be considered as a complete

listing of all plant roots that would have been used

traditionally by Aboriginal people in southern South

Australia, This is because ethnobotanic data

historically have been recorded in a fragmented

fashion and it is unlikely that I have located records for

all the species that were used. However, it is likely that

most of the major root species that were significant as

foods were recorded by the sources cited in this paper.

This paper also takes into account the possiblity that the

Aboriginal use for some species, as recorded from

contemporary oral sources, has significantly changed

since European settlement. There are, in addition, plant

species found in southern South Australia for which no

record exists of Aboriginal usage. The underground

parts of some of these, however, have been recorded as

being utilized by Aborigines elsewhere in Australia.

These are listed in Table 1. The distribution within

South Australia of the main species discussed in this

paper is summarized in Table 2.

European naming of plants used by Aborigines

requires discussion before we can move on to the data

in the paper. Nearly all the plants that the colonists

encountered in Australia were totally unknown to

200 KM

ANNUAL RAINFALL

South East

FIGURE 1. Locality map of South Australia showing district abbreviations used in Tables | and 2.

ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS

TABLE 1. A list of other possible sources of edible tubers.

Species

Arthropodium milleflorum

(DC.) Macbr

(=A, paniculatum)

Arthropodium strictum

R, Br,

Bulbine bulbosa

(R, Br.) Haw,

Burchardla umbellata

R. Br,

Caladenia species

Caesia viuata

R, Br.

Chamuescilla corymbasa

(R, Br.) FyM ex Benth,

Clematis microphylla

be.

Convolvilus species

Crinum flaveidum

Herbert

Cyrtaxiviis species

Dicksoniaantaretica

Labill,

Dipodinm species

Diuris species

Gastrodia xesamvidex

R. Br.

Geranium species

Glossodia species

Lyperanthus species

Mivrotis spectes

Nymphoides crenata

(P.yv. Mo Kuntze

(= Liminanthemum crenatiem)

Nymphoidey geminata

(RUBr_)Kuntze

Common Name

Pale

vanilla-lily

Lily

Bulbine lily

Milkmaid

Spider orchid

Pale grass lily

Blue squil!

Old man’s beard

Bindweed

Murray lily

Gnat orchid

Tree fern

Hyacinth orchid

Donkey orchid

Native potatoes:

Geranium

Wax-lip

orchid

Fire orchid

Onion orchid

Wavy

marshwort

Entire

marshwort

(= Linmanthemum geminatum)

Portulaca aléracea L.,

Prasophyllum species

Plerastylis species

Santalum murrayanum

(T.L, Mitchell) C, Gardener

(= Fuyanuy persicarius)

Senchuy species

Thelymilra species

Thysanotus patersonii

R. Br

Thysanorus tuberosus

R. Br.

Wurmbea species

(= Anyuilluria species)

Common

pigweed

Midge orchid

Green-hood

orchid

Bitter quondong, Ming

Sow thistle

Sun orchid

Fringe lily

Early Nancy,

Blackman’s potatoes

Family

Liliaceae

Orchidaceae

Liliaceae

Ranunculaceae

Convolvulaceae

Amuryllidaceae

Orchidaceae

Dicksoniaceac

Orchidaceae

Geraniaceae

Orchidaceae

Menyanthaceae

Portulacaceae

Orchidaceae

Santalaceae

Compositae

Orchidaceae

Liliaceae

Locality For

Recorded Use

Vie.

Vie,

Vic.

Vie.

W. Vic.

E. States’

Vie.

E, States?

Vic.

W. Vic.

Tas.

Vie.

Vic.

Vie.

Vic.

N. Qd

L. Byre Basin

Vie.

Vic.

E. States?

E, States’

Vic.

Musprave Ra,,S.A.;

Vic.

Vic., NW. Aust.

Vic. Mallee &

Wimmera

Source

von Mueller (878; 213

yor Mueller 1878; 213

yon Mueller 1878; 212

von Mueller 1878; 212

von Mueller 1878: 212

von Mueller (878; 213

Hope & Coutts 1971: [07

Dawson 1881: 20

Maiden L884; 20)

yon Mueller 1878; 212

Gunn cited Maiden 1889: 22

von Mueller (878; 212

Dawson 1881: 20

Irvine 1957, 118

von Mueller 1878; 212

yon Mueller (878; 212

von Mueller (878; 212

von Mueller 1878; 212

Palmer 1883; 100

Roth 190]; 13

Cleland et al. 1925:

yon Mueller 1878; 212

von Mueller 1878: 212

Maiden 1889: 32

Hooker cited Maiden 1889: 59

von Mueller 1878: 212

Cleland & Johnston 1937; 213,

yon Mueller 1878: 212

Crawford 1982: 42

von Mueller 1878: 213

Occurrence in S.A,

NW FR EP NL MU YP SL KI

PREP NL MU YP SL SE

EP SL KI SE

Statewide

FR EA EP NL MU YP SL KI? SE

Southern 5.A.

FREA EP NL MU YP SL KI SE

Southern 8.4,

LE GT FR EA EP MU

FR EP NL MU YP SL KIS

SL? SE?

SL SE

Southern §.A.

SLKISE

Southern S.A.

NL SL SE

Throughout southern districts

LE MU

NW LE GI FR EA YP SL SE

Throughout southern districts

‘Throughout southern districts

FR EP MU YP SL SE

Statewide

Throughout southern districts

All areas except LE

von Mueller 1878: 212

Statewide

66 P_A, CLARKE

TABLE 2. South Australian localities of main species with useful subterrdnean paris.

Species Family Locality within S.A. (See Fig. 1 for area codes)

Boerhavia dominii NYCTAGINACEAE NW LE GT FR BA EP NL MU YP SL

Bulboschoenus valdwellit CYPERACEAE LE FR EP NL MU SL SE

Balbaschoenus mediamas CYPERACEAE MU SL SE

Cyperus species CYPERACEAE Statewide.

Dianella longifolia LILIACEAE. ‘Southem districts

Droxera whittakeri DROSERACBAE NL MU SLKISE

Eucalyprus dumoxa MYRTACEAE FPR EA? EP NL MU SE

Eucalyptus fascicilosa MYRTACEAE MU SL KI SE

Eucalyptus gracilis MYRTACEAE NW NU GT FR EA EP NIL MU YP SL SE

Eucalyptus incrassata MYRTACEAE NU EP NL MU YP SL KI SE

Euvalupres olepsa MYRTACEAE Statewide

Layalera plebeta MALVACEAE Sitewide

Microserls seapigera COMPOSITAE GT FR BA EP NL MU YP SL.KISE

Oxalis species OXALIDACEAE Statewide

Polyporus mylittae POLYPORACEAE Southern districts

Preridium esculennim DENNSTAEDTIACEAE EP SL KISE

Sanralam murrayanuer SANTALACEAE FR, EP MU YP SL SE

Triglvehin procerwen JUNCAGINACEAE LE, MU St. KI SE

Typha species TYPHACEAE NW LE FR MU YP SL. KI SE

Xanthorrhiea species LILIACEAE NW PREP YPNL MU SL KISE

science, The folk terms that were used for plants inthe

setler’s country of origin were often imposed upon

plants to which they generally showed only superficial

resemblance. For example, the early ethnographies of

southern South Australia contain descriptions of

Aboriginal edible roots which are cited as native

potato, native parsnip, native radish, native carrot,

native dandelion, onion grass and native truffles. There

is evidence to suggest that some of these descriptions

have been used independently in several accounts of

diflerent species. Some also appear to have had the

statusof commonly used names whereas others-seein to

have beer used only by ethnographers when

attempting to describe a species with no other name.

Determining the reasons for a plam being given s

particular name is sometimes difficult. In some cases,

the names reter to the use and properties of the species.

In other cases, the plants were named solely on

appearance. For example, most records of roats

described as being like a radish are considered by Gott

(1983) to be Microseris seapigera due to the similarity

between (he toot of the latter and the cultivated radish.

However Microseris scapigera is also commonly

referred to as the yam daisy because of the similarity of

the above ground parts of the plant with those of

common daisies. To make the task of identifying some

of these European terms today even more difficult,

some of the folk terms associated with Aboriginal

words for edible roots may have only been used for a

short period in fairly restricted, local areas,

The transfer of plant names between Aborigines and

Europeans also occurred, There are many records of

the use by Aborigines of Aboriginal terms for

European foods and plants. For example, there are the

Adelaide words ‘parangota’ for potato and ‘parre’ for

rice (Wyatt 1879) 174, Williams [839: 295,

Teichelmann & Schuermann 1840; 37). The term

parangota was also used for an unidentified species of

Aboriginal root food. On lhe other hand, Aboriginal

terms for Australian plants were sometimes adopted by

Europeans and, in some cases, their use has continued

to the present, Exaniples of this are ‘Pitjuri ' (widely

used term for Duboisia hopwoodii), ‘Mantari > (South

Australian and Victorian term for the fruit, Kunzea

pomiferd), and ‘Murnong” (Victorian term for

Microseris scapigera).

Enuxpararac Devas oF Roor Use

Boerhavia duminii Meikle & Hewson

NYCTAGINACEAE

This species is commonly called tar-vine and has

been suggested by Cleland (1966: 135 — his name B.

diffusa L.) as the possible identity of one of the roots

listed by Schuermann (1879: 216) as having been eaten

by the Port Lincoln Aborigines. Black, in his ‘Flora of

South Australia’ (1943; 333), mentions that the root

was eaten by Aborigines but does not give a source or

locality for this statement. It is highly likely that B.

dominii is often the plant described m the ethnographic

record under the category ‘edible roots’, Apart from in

the South East region, this species is found throughout

southern South Aastralia.

Bolboschoenus sp. CYPERACEAE

This species is most likely the’ poolilla* described by

Angas (1847ar 101) as a “inangular species of grass or

reed’ and eaten by the Aboriginal people of the Murray

River, Eyre (1845, 2: 254, 269) refers tu reed roots

called ‘beliilah’ that were an important source of Fool

ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 67

and found in abundance onthe flats of the Murray. Eyre

described them as walnut-sized and prepared by being

roasted and pounded between stones into a thin cake.

Gott (1982: 59-62) considers the 'belillah’ to be

Scirpus medianus V, Cook which is a synonym for

Bolboschoenus medianus (V. Cook) Sojak. In this

article I follow Jessop & Toelken (1986: 2007) and

refer to this plant by the latter name. Cleland collected

roots of a species of Scirpus (or Bolboschoenus?) from

the mouth of the Inman River, south of Adelaide, in

January 1940 and wrote that they were probably eaten’.

However, he did not state the reasons for this

suggestion. Von Mueller (1878: 213) lists Scirpus

maritimus (called Bolboschoenus caldwellii (V.

Cook) Sojak by Jessop & Toelken 1986: 2007) as a

source of edible roots used as food by Victorian

Aboriginal people. It was apparently an edible root

species that was available in autumn and was roasted.

This species is widespread in southern South

Australia,

Cyperus sp. CYPERACEAE

Tindale (1974: 60) states that the Peramangk people

of the Mt Lofty Ranges were able to exist all year round

without venturing onto the plains because of the

availability of Cyperus corms. Cyperus species have

been recorded as major food source from other regions

such as Central Australia (Cleland & Johnston 1933:

115, 118; 1937: 213) and north-western Australia

(Crawford 1982: 40). It is possible that some of the

records of ‘Native Onions’ refer to species of Cyperus.

For example, Tindale (1981: 1880) records that the

southern South Australian Aborigines ate the onion

grass corms throughout the year except during the

growing season. However, Tindale's records of

Cyperus and onion grass corms mentioned above may

also refer to a species of Bolbschoenus, as this genus is

also in the Cyperaceae family.

Dianella longifolia R.Br. LILIACEAE

The reddish brown roots of this plant, commonly

referred to as the pale flax-lily, were boiled and the

solution taken internally for colds according to Lola

Cameron-Bonney. It was termed peeintook by the

Milmandjeri/Temperamindjeri, but was called pintook

by the Moandik’.

Drosera whittakeri Planchon DROSERACEAE

D. whittakeri, or the scented sundew, is the most

likely species referred to by Worsnop as an Aboriginal

source of pigment:

The native tribes around Adelaide obtained a brighter red

pigment from the bulbous roots of the small sundew plant,

which contains a small red pustule between the brown

outer skin and the white inner bulb. This red pustule they

used to scrape off and mix with fat for coloring the fillet of

opossum hair-twine which they bound round their heads

(Worsnop 1897: 15).

The blister-like growth or pustule of this bulb may

have been used for decorating the large bark shields

made by the Adelaide people for deflecting reed-

spears. Stephens records that during their manufacture

they ‘received a coating of pipeclay or lime, and were

then ... oramented with red bands made from the juice

of a small tuber which grew in abundance on the virgin

soil’ (1890: 487).

It is interesting to note that it is European oral

tradition in South Australia that early settlers in the

Adelaide area also used this species of sundew as a

source of pigment for ink (R. Matthews pers, comm.).

It is highly likely that the use of this plant by Europeans

was copied from Aboriginal people in the area,

Eucalyptus sp. MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus roots were sometimes used as a source

of drinking water and as food, The need to obtain water

for drinking from plant roots in the southern South

Australian region was probably confined to the mallee

areas of Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, Murray

region (away from the river) and parts of the South

East. This is because surface supplies of freshwater are

scarce in these areas, despite relatively high annual

rainfalls. Elsewhere in the southern regions, water

from springs and soaks appears to have been available

all the year round. For instance, Hemming (1985: 25)

records the ease with which Aborigines of the Fleurieu

Peninsula obtained drinking water from coastal springs

during the summer months even when local creeks and

soaks had dried up. Gara (1985: 6-11) discusses

methods of obtaining water in arid regions of South

Australia. Smyth (1878: 220-221) also records similar

uses of the Eucalyptus roots from the mallee areas of

Victoria.

Magarey (1895) provides the most detailed account

of water extraction from roots. Some of Magarey’s data

on Toot water comes from coastal areas of the Great

Australian Bight and depends on the data of Eyre

(1845, 1: 349-351, 359, 2: 248-249), Margarey

describes in detail the trees that were used by the

Aborigines as a supply of root water and the methods

for the extraction of it. In his list of ‘water-trees’,

Magarey (1895: 4) includes species of Eucalyptus such

as E. dumosa Cunn. ex Schauer, £. gracilis FvM, E.

incrassata Labill., E. oleosa FVM ex Migq., and E.

fasciculosa FyM (Magarey’s E. paniculata). All of

these trees exist in the mallee areas of southern South

Australia, It was through the availability of root water

that the Aborigines were able to enter arid regions, The

Ngarkat people of the Murray Mallee relied heavily on

68 P. A, CLARKE

root water and only needed to travel to the Murray

River at times when severe drought had decreased their

otherwise reliable sources of water (Tindale 1974: 62).

The use of Eucalyptus roots as food is recorded by

Maiden (1889: 27) who says that the South Australian

Aborigines powdered the bark of the root of E. dumosa

and perhaps other species and ate it by itself or with

other plants. Maiden claims that it was called ‘Congoo’

but does not mention the area in which this name was

used. This mallee is found over much of southern South

Australia and the areas to the east of the Flinders

Ranges. Eyre (1845, 2: 250) states that the smaller

roots, less than an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, were used

as food by the Aborigines (presumably from southern

Australia). He records that:

The roots being dug up, the bark is peeled off and roasted

crisp in hot ashes; it is then pounded between two stones,

and has a pleasant farinaceous taste, strongly resembling

that of malt, I have often seen the natives eating this .., but

it is, probably, only resorted to when other food is scarce

(Eyre 1845, 2: 250, see also p. 224, 251, 273),

There is also a record of the use of Eucalyptus roots

as medicine. Moriarty (1879: 52) states that rushes and

the roots of the Mallee tree were boiled (presumably

together) and drunk for internal afflictions by the

Narrinyeri (Ngarrindjeri). Lower Murray Aboriginal

person, Laura Kartinyeri, says that the roots of a

species of Eucalyptus were boiled and the solution

drunk for colds. Dawson (1881: 57) recorded the use of

the roots of a narrow-leaved species of gum tree as a

cure for indigestion, In this case, the roots were infused

in hot water and the resulting solution drunk as a tonic.

Lavatera plebeia Sims MALVACEAE

The roots of a white flowering variety of mallow

were recorded as commonly used as food by the

Aborigines of South Australia (Bailey, cited in Maiden

1889: 37). They were described as having the

consistency of parsnips. Maiden considers that this

plantis L. plebeia, tha Australian hollyhock or mallow.

Wyatt (1879: 170) lists in his Adelaide and Encounter

Bay vocabulary the terms ‘kannoonta’ for mallow

plant and ‘peecharra’ for mallow shrub. The latter

appears to have been used as a source of fibre for string

making: Wyatt (1879: 176) records the term ‘teeyappe

peecharra’ as ‘chewed fibre of mallow’. Eyre (1845, 2:

311) states that the fibres of the root of the mallow were

used in net making, though he does not state in what

area. L. plebeia has been recorded as used for this

purpose elsewhere, such as the northern Flinders

Ranges (Cleland & Johnston 1939; 176) and the Lake

Eyre Basin (Clarke n.d.).

Microseris scapigera (Sol. ex A. Cunn.)Schultz-Bip.

COMPOSITAE

This species, commonly known as the yam-daisy, is

possibly another of the many plants recorded simply as

‘edible root’ from southern South Australia. The tuber

is recognized as one of the major food sources for

Victorian Aborigines (Gott 1983: 2) and the fact that it

occurs widely in southern South Australia suggests that

it was probably a major source in this region also.

Bellchambers (1931: 132) states that of all the tubers

eaten by the Murray River Aborigines, he thought the

yam was the most prized. Unfortunately it is not clear

whether Bellchambers’ ‘yam’ is M. scapigera, and it is

possible that he is referring to another root species.

In the Adelaide and Encounter Bay area, the edible

root terms ‘umba’ and ‘yungumba’ were said to be

Microseris by Wyatt (1879: 176). One of the Port

Lincoln terms for ‘edible root’, ‘ngamba’,

(Schuermann 1879: 216) probably referes to M.

scapigera, as it is similar to terms for Micraseris

recorded in cognate languages, such as that recorded

from the Adelaide and Encounter Bay area. The yam-

daisy was used on the west coast of South Australia.

The South Australian Museum has specimens of

Microseris roots that were registered in 1913 as an

Aboriginal food from Elliston’, Also, Namba is the

recorded word for this species used by the

Adnyamathanha of the Northern Flinders Ranges

(McEntee 1986: 11 — his Adnamatana). Berndt &

Vogelsang (1941; 10) list the term Ngumpa for “Yam”

from the Ngadjuri people of the Mid-North. In view of

the fact that Berndt and Vogelsang recorded different

words for wild potato and wild carrot, it is likely that

their yam refers to a single species, such as Microserts,

rather than being a collective term for all edible roots.

Gott (1983: 14-15) suggests that the lower Murray

term Ngamko, meaning ‘native radish’ (Moorhouse

1935: 30), is likely to be M. scapigera. Another

possible record of the yam-daisy is provided by

Sanders (1907, 9: 69) who states that the local

Aboriginal families in the Echunga area, dug up the

roots of a ‘dandylion’, called ‘waldies’. Gott (1983:14—

15) also considers that the Booandik terms ‘Moorna’ or

‘Mar-o-ngire,’ described as ‘edible roots’ by Smith

(1880; 129), refer to this species in the South East. Gott

(1983: 8) quotes a note by Bailey on a specimen of

Microseris from South Australia in the Queensland

Herbarium, which states that the colonists of South

Australia used to eat the roots of this plant following the

practice of the Aborigines who relied on it as food.

Oxalis sp. OXALIDACEAE

Angas (1847a: 84) records that in the South East,

Aboriginal women dug up the edible roots of a species

of Oxalis. For the Adelaide people, Stephens claims

that:

The root most sought after is a highly nutritious oxalis

resembling a small carrot and tasting like cocoanut. It is

dug up chiefly by the women, with a heavy pointed stick

five feet long which they force, by throwing, into the earth

to the depth of about eight inches, thereby bringing up the

object of their search, It is very abundant and discovered

ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS au

by leaf. Three persons have been lost since the foundation

of this colony, who would probably have been saved had

they known where to look for the root (Stephens 1923, 7),

There are other records of edible ‘Native Carrots’

that may refer to Oxalis.

Polyporus mylittae Bertr. POLY PORACEAE

The common names for this species of fungus —

native truffle and Blackfellows bread (Daley 1931;28)

—Sugeestits edible quahties. The species is possibly the

edible fungus mentioned also by Byre (1845, 2: 264) us

found. below the ground, Maiden (1889: 46) records

that the Tasmanian Aborigines looked for truffles in

the ground about the vicinity of a dead tree, The South

Australian Museum has specimens of Polyporus

mylittae listed as Aboriginal foods from Myponga

(South Australia)", Lake Albert (South Australia)’,

Gippstand (Victoria) ard north Tasmania’, Most of the

above specimens measure above 5 em in length

breadth and heiphr. ‘Che biggest is fram Tasmania and

measures 26.5 by 16 by 10 em. The ethnographic

record indicates that this apecies Was used as food

slespite Cleland’s (1966; 135) doubt that it could be

eaten due to Us loughnegs.

Duwsen (/RRI: 20) reconds 4 species of large

underground fungus trom Western Victoria called

native bread, about the size of an ordinary \mip. that

was caten uncooked and which tasted, in his words,

“vory good". Sinych (1878: 209) claims that the mative

Iruffle ‘Was much soughtafter by the natives’ and thar

he had seen specimens weighing several pounds;

funher, that in same ilistriors, a fungus weighing Sifpy

pours (abour 24 ke) is occasionally Found, Bonwick

(1870) 15) states that in Tasmania, this fungus wae

peeled nd ihen roasted beton= heing ealen, Hawever.

Daley( 193 1228) claims that was generally eaten raw

by the Australian Aborigines, the dirt simply being

shaken off. In View of evidence, I is difficult seyypart

Clelund’s doutis about (his fungi, Other species of

subterranean fungus were probably alsa caver

Fteridium esculentum (Forst,f,) Cockayne

DENNSTAEDTPLACEAE

‘This species fy commonly called bracken fem and it

is livket Tere us a probable source of food for the

southern South Australian region. [is use in Tasmania

has beet dueunented by Robinson (cited in Gort 1982:

6). In iis record, the rhivemes and young fronds

were chewed, DaWson CIS81° 20) claims that the

Wester Viclonan Aborigines Made a kind of bread

frou the road of the cornmon fem thatwas roasted in hot

dishes dnd helen inte a pasie with a stone, lt ty possible

that Dawson was refering o bracken (Gon J985: 8).

Muidert (1889: 54) states that the starchy rhizomes af

this plant were eaten hoth raw and roasted hut he does

not give any locality, Mathews (1903: 73) recorded the

Bungundity name *Me-e° for bracken fern in the South

East and Smith (1880; 129) recorded the term ' Maa-aa™

for tern root for the same group of people (Smith's

Booandik), In Tasmania, according to Robinson (cited

in Hiatt 1967: 130), bracken roots were cut into short

pieces and roasted in ashes.

In spite of the records of the use of Ihis fern outside

South Australia, tt does novappear to have beena major

food source in the southern South Australian region, It

was not mentioned by early ethnographers and it was

nol known as a food source by Ron Bonney and Lola

Cameron-Bonney who were sble fo descrihe several

ather types of edible roots for the South East region,

However, Bonney did maintain thal they were edible

because pigs will eal the routs, IE was possibly a food

only resorted to by humans in difficult dimes.

Triglochin procerum R.Br. JUNCAGINACEAE

This species, commanty called water ribbons, has

numeruus and very fleshy roots. I is possibly the

*“Maracrow’ recorded by Bellchambers (193 1: 192) as

a food with ‘succulent roots’, Cleland (146; 132)

suggests thal the tubers of 7. procerue were used by

the Aborigines of the coastal areas of Adelaide and

couliguous regions, He lodged at the Museum a food

specimen of this plant fron) the Onkaparioya River a

Noarlunga, south of Adelaide, tl did not give the

source of his information concerning is Aboriginal

use’. Use of this rant species as food has heen recorded

from Vietoria (yon Mueller 1878: 274) and Arnhen

Land (Spechl 1958; +83), In the Tatler wecount. if was

enten raw of cooked tn the-fire forabout ten minutes une

apparently had a nutty ste On Groote Eylandy the

mots Were eaten raw or roasted in the-Not Sarid ander the

fife wad were ary important part of fle diet (Levill 1981-

39). This isa palatable easily obtained fred whtel was

probably highly prized,

Typha sp. TYPHACEAE

The rcearded Aboriginal names for mist ebble

roots deseribed as growing on river banks and |n water

for tie Southern South Australian region prohably refer

Typha, commonly knowns the flag or bulrush, This

18 especially so Tor such reacs also fisted as a source of

fibre for siring making, Angas (1847: 55) states what

in southerm South Australia the bulrush root was

chewed and then che (bres scraped, usin freshwater

miusse! shells, forthe purpose of making eord for their

nats and baskets, Angas (18470: 90) records that this

fibre |s also converted |nto tope out of whiel: the

soutien Aborigines make ther fishing lines and nets

for hunting anc fishing. 'Teichelmann & Schuemrann

(1840; 53) desertbe the Adelaide word “warnpa’ as a

farinaceous rool growing on the mver banks, the

Nulritiguy part is ¢aten and the tough parts made into

strings, nets, etc.’, Gell (1904: 94) also peeorded this

70 P, A. CLARKE

word from this area but he simply described it as an

‘aquatic plant’, However, based on the fact that

‘warnpa’ was an aquatic plant whose root was used as

both a food and for fibre, it is most likely to be Typha.

In the Lower Murray River area, Typha appears to

have had the name ‘Moomoorookee’ applied to the

whole plant and ‘Menungkerre’ to the root (Taplin

1859-79: 47). Ngarrindjeri people, Henry and Jean

Rankine, use the term, ‘Manungkari’, for the bulrush

in general. Cleland (1966: 138) records ‘Manungkari’

as the Murray River name for ‘Typha’, but he gives no

separate name for the root. Fran Kernot states that she

and her family used to eat the bulrush root when they

lived along the Coorong in the 1940s and into the

1960s. The name she gave for the plant was

‘milmuruki’ and she described it as being two feet long

(about 60 cm). It was cooked in ashes or boiled. Ron

Bonney said that the Moandik name for the Bulrush

was ‘manakari’ and that the root was about eighteen

inches long (approximately 45 cm) and was easy to

pull out. He stressed that this food source was available

throughout the year.

The importance of Typha to the overall diet of the

South East Aborigines is summed up by Angas (1847a:

89) who states that the ‘staff of their existence is the

bulrush root which the women gather among the

reeds...’ Once on his trip through southern South

Australia, Angas (1847a: 59) met an Aboriginal

woman carrying an infant on her back chewing ihe

‘favourite bulrush root’. Another child was standing

alongside also chewing a long piece of bulrush. Angas

(1847a: 92) recorded the name of a Lower Murray

Aboriginal person ‘Chembillin’, meaning chewing the

bulrush root’.

Eyre also stressed the usefulness of Typha or the

broad flag-reed, as he called it. He states, for example,

that: ‘In all parts of Australia, even where other food

abounds, the root of this reed is a favourite and staple

article of diet among the aborigines’ (Eyre 1845, 2: 62).

Further, he records that the bulrush was the staple food

source through out the year on the Lower Murray but

that it tasted best after the floods had receded and the

tops had decayed and been burnt off (1845, 2: 269).

Krefft says, concerning the bulrushes, that on the New

South Wales section of the Murray River:

at a certain period, I believe January and February to be the

months, the women enter these swamps, take up the roots

of these reeds, and carry them in large bundles to their

camp; the roots thus collected are about a foot to eighteen

inches in length, and they contain besides a small quantity

of saccharine matter, a considerable quantity of fibre. The

roots are roasted in a hollow made into the ground, and

either consumed hot or taken as a sort of provision upon

hunting excursions... (Krefft 1862, 5: 361).

Angas (1847a: 58) says that bulrush roots were

steamed between heated stones beneath ovens or

cooking fires resembling kilns. Angas (1847b: plate

47) illustrates such a kiln. Beveridge (1889: 71) states

that on the Murray, the outer cortex of the bulrush root

was removed and the inner part chewed. Angas (1847a:

90) claimed that he saw large numbers of heaps of the

fibrous parts of the bulrush roots in the shape of pellets

around the campsites. Dawson (1881: 20) notes for the

western districts of Victoria, that the root of the bulrush

was eaten uncooked as a salad and had a taste

resembling celery. Thomas (1906: 116) records that in

South Australia the bulrush root was usually eaten with

mussels. The roots were sometimes taken as provisions

during hunting and gathering activities as noted in the

accounts of Krefft and Angas cited above.

Taplin (1859-79: 151) indicates that the Aborigines

of the Lower Murray River area were often paid by

settlers to collect large amounts of bulrush root.

Mason, Aboriginal Protector on the Lower Murray in

the 1850s, lent a boat to some Aboriginal people from

the Point McLeay Mission so that they could collect

‘Moomoorooke’ for a storekeeper at Wellington on the

Murray. Taplin on one occasion went with the

Aboriginal women to collect the roots in the Point

McLeay Mission whale boat; he notes that he gave

them a good price for the plants (1859-79: 57). This is

not the only record of Europeans using this root: Mr

G.W. Batty, a long time European resident of the Victor

Harbor area, remembers the bulrush also being eaten

by local settlers up until the 1920s’.

Xanthorrhoea sp. LILIACEAE

The ethnographic record of southern South

Australia suggests that the roots, at least of some

species of Xanthorrhoea —commonly called grasstree

or yacca, were eaten. Schuermann, describing the plant

foods of the Port Lincoln Aborigines, claimed that:

the only root known to me as eaten in the raw state is that

of the grasstree which grows in great abundance on the

barren hills and plains of Port Lincoln, and is consumed by

the natives in prodigious quantities at different seasons of

the year (Schuermann 1879: 216).

Angas (1847a: 84) records that the roots of the

smaller species of Xanthorrhoea (probably X. minor

R.Br.) of the South East were eaten. Of the smaller

species of grasstree, Angas reports that:

They eat only the lower portion of the leaves at their

junction with the root, drawing them out of the ground, and

biting off that part which was underneath the soil: the

flavour resembles that of a nut (Angas 1847a: 203).

According to Pate & Dixon (1982: 141), probably

only the young roots would have been utilised.

Ron Bonney stated that witchetty grubs (larvae of

wood-boring and root-feeding beetles and moths)

could be obtained from the roots of the Xanthorrhoea.

ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 7

Unknown species—medicine LEGUMINOSAE

Dick Koolmatie, an Aboriginal man {ram Meningie,

said that the root of a yellow flowered plant called

‘Soorunthunta’ was used as a cure for coughs and

colds. The long root was boiled and then chewed to “get

the oil out’, Laura Kartinyeri says that this. plant is a

bush which has red and yellow flowers like that of a

pea, She said that the root tasted like liquorice powder

and thar it was used asa medicine. Ron Bonney and

Lola Cameron-Bonney say that the roots of this plant

were boiled and the solution used for stomach trouble

and tharit is * good iron medicine for problems wiilr the

blood". They said that the flowers were like a yellow

pea With a red-brown centre, The leaveswere said to be

long. Ron Bonney claims that it was called

Koorunthunta. However, Lola Cameron-Bonney said.

that her grandfather. Alfred Cameron, had called it

‘Koolunthunta’. This probably reflects a difference in

dialect. 1 previously considered this plantto be the yam

daisy (Mitroseris scapigera (Sol, ex A. Cunn.)

Schult Bip. based ona brief description given by Dick

Koolmatrie (Clarke 1985a: 5), More recent fieldwork

with Ron Bonney, Lola Cameron-Bonney and Laura

Kartinyer] Suggests that the classification of this plant

is not amongst the Compositae (as is Mirraseris) but

rather in the Leguminosae. The identity of this species

will only be known [or certain. when d specimen can be

Obtained, Despite several attempts to find this plant

with Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney, we have

tiot been able to do so. The lack of remaining large

stunds of mallee scrub in the upper Coorong area has

made finding this root species (and others) difficult.

Unktiown species — narcotic Family unknown

Angas (1847: 73) refers to a plant root that was

obtained from the scrub and which was frequently used

To cause intoxication. Cleland (1966:120) considers it

to be Anthocercis myosotidea FYM [now known as

Cyphanthera myosotidea (FvM)_. Haegi|, and may

liaye based this ona stiggestion by von Meuller (1878:

222-223) thal species of this genus be vested for the

‘suroulating power’ of pitjuni [Dubaisia hopwoodii

(FVM)FyM|_ a well known narcotic used in central

Australia and closely related to Anthoeervis. I

previously Considered that this narcouc was possibly

the roots of Dubersia or Niconana (Clarke 1987- 12-

13), Late (pers, comm.), however, states that it is

unlikely thar the roots of these plants would have been

used in preference to the leaves. Gon (pers. comm.)

suggests that if may be the roots of the ming [Scaitelim

murrayanum (T.L. Mitchell) C.Gardner], Stone (19! 1:

445) records that the root and bark of this plarit were

used by the Lake Boga people of Vicloria fo make a

stupefying drink.

Unknown species — fuod LEGUMINOSAE?

Sanders (1907-9: 69) records that the roots of a

species of vetch, called “Tidlars’, were eaten by the

Echunga people.

Unknown species— food Family. unknown

Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney state that

wild onions were eaten by the Aboriginal people in the

South Bast region. The brief description given of the

appearance of this plant indicates that 1s nat a species

of Cyperas. Field tips to the remnant pockets of

scrub in this aréa have nol yet produced a specimen,

Thus its identity remains unknown lor the present.

Unknown species — food Family unknown

A species: known by contemporary Aboriginal

people as Wild parsnip is another root that Was used as

food in the South Bast A specimen of it is yel lo be

found.

Unknown species — food Family onknown

According to Lola Cameron-Bonney. the Coorong

Aboriginal people ste a wild potatoes that they cullet

‘Murunguooal”. Ron Bonney claimed that the same

plant was called ‘Punmanthi’ by the Moundik, Withou!

u specimen, the identity of this plant is uncertain.

Unknown species — food Family woknown

Ron Bonney and Lola Cameron-Bonney deseribed a

type of wild carrot that not only had an edible et like

a carrot but had.asimilar top as well, This plant grew in

the sandhill areas of the South Bast and the Hunimndcks

of the Coorong. Recent attempts to locate this plant for

identification have Vailed as it now appears co be

locally very rare. [i ts possible that the ‘Wild Carrots”

mentioned by Sanders (L9U7—9: 69) as being eaten hy

the Echunge people, may refer to aspecies of Bulliine.

Oxalis or similixr plant.

THe SIGMIREANCE OF Roors

OF the food souroes listed and discussed above, 17

different plants with subtermadean parts were detimtely

usea inthe southern South Austrahan region. A further

30 were possibly used. This is same indication of the

diversity of root food availuble m the temperate regions

across southem Australia. Inthe south-west of Westem

Australia, Grey (1841263, 241) recorded the use of 29

types of roal and there were probably others. In

Victoria. Gott (1982: 6D) stares that 218 species were

possibly used, 166 of these being orchids Plamley

(eited in Giott 1892: Gt) lists 1) cifferent root species

72 P. A, CLARKE

for Tasmania although there would undoubtedly be

many more. It appeur from ethnographic and

contemporary sources that af least some species of

roots (Microseris, Typha, Triglochin aid Oxalis for

example) held a significant place in the diet of southem

South Australian Aborigines because ihey were

available for-all or most of the year. Some raots, such

as those of the Eucalyptus, were probably more

important as-drought or “hard time’ foods.

In spite of the difficulty in obtaining from the

historical record quantitative dataon the proportions of

plantand animal foods intheAboriginal diet, the early

ethnographies provide an indication of the range of

foods available. Tt is assumed that those foods

upproaching the status. of staples are present in the

ethnographic record. It is alsa clear (hat some of the

early travellors through southem South Australia were

stnick by the rehanceof Aborigines on certain species

of roots. As noted, Angas (/847a: 89) considered the

bulrush root to be ‘staff of their existence’, This was

bused. on his many sightings of Aboriginal people

gathering and eating bulrush rours during his trip

through southern South Australia, Another record of

Aborigines. collecting tubers 1s trom Eyre, As he

approached the Flinders Ranges fram |he south on 1

May 1839, he “found 2 good many natives digging

yarns’ (T98d= 198). Qn 27 June VA, ay le was

wavelling just south of Crystal Brook, in the northem

Mount Lofty Ranges, be ‘came suddelenty spon a seal

party of natives cnaged in digeing yams. of which Ure

plains were full -., (PR4S, 1: 42),

fiyre sured that the rooe called ‘Belillah’ (probably

Bolbaschosans medians) was an imporiant lod

source and. whlch, as Wehave noted, was abundane on

the flats of fhe Murray (Eyre 1845 2; 269), Five's

imterest in Aboriginal use of roots uppers to he hased,

in part ofthis use of diem tosupplemens hhr oy fend

and water provisions when travellmg across Ausrulia

on hus expeditions (1845, 1) 370-3712) pe ST, Getet,

72, 248-189)

However, not all early accounts of Aboriginal food

and food-getting in southern Auseralla tlustrate the

importance of plants. Some sources have a bray

towards foods resulting from mule weuvinies This was

possibly because most of Ihe Murly eecounts are from.

men, This Histuncal record certainly documenty the

division of labour by gender for food prodiction, For

example, Veiehelmann stares thal when the Adelaide

people yre travelling: “The mon star first, carrying

nothing buta small net hag and huntig implements

the women, burdened hike camels, follow, gather &

prepare on the road vepetable food for the night, whilst

Ihe men are looking ont Jor neal! .,. (Teichelmann

Vedi: 7)

This division was enshrined in mythology, too.

Teichelmann describes, how, in the Adelaide

Aboriginal beliefs, "The Pletades are girls gathering

roots and other vewerables; the Orion are boys, and are

hunting” (1841: 9). Men hunted Jarger gamte that,

generally, would have contributed less in quantity to

the overall requirements, but which was probably

more highly valued by the group.

Another factor contributing to possible bias in the

ethnographic record was that events such as the

spearing of emu and kangaroo may haye left a more

enduring impression on the memories of the recorder

than those of the daily gathering of. for example.

bulrush roots by the women and children.Thus the

recording of hunting and gathenng techniques, often

written up many years utter the events were observed,

has tended to over-emphasize the hunting aspect and fo

devalue the gathering component. For example,

Wursnop (1897) and Taplin (}874) have published

detailed accounts of fishing and snaring for southern

Sooth Australia, which barely mention plant foods,

Similarly, Bulmer states that the food of the Aborigines

of the Lower Murray (New South Wales/Victorian

section), Wimmera, Gippsland and Maneroo districts

“consisted eliefly of animal substances, lo whieh were

added a few vegetables and some roots, which must

have been very hard of digestion’ (Bulmer 1887: 15).

Barly sources, such as Bulmer. did not appreciate

the scasemal fuctWation of meat and vegetable foods,

Some arial foods, such as fish, emu and kangatuo,

may have been highly favoured fuods when available

Yot vexetable foods such as roots were probably the

main stay when meat was not casily obwinable A

report froin the Statistical Society in 1442 gives Sonu

idea of He seasonality of Aboriginal food in the

Adelaide area". in spring, vegelables and grubs were

muinly eaten. With the commencement of summer, the

ebes and young of binds wereeaten as were kangaroas,

emus, fish und lizards. Durie the hottest part of the

year, passums and Acara gum were obtained, while

in autumn, berries and nectar were available, fn the

Winter 2 vaniery of roots were consumed, iu. were

possume aiid other animals. The report lusirates chat

roots Were used as food ata Lime of the year when other

fuod sources, perhaps more highly favoured, were not

procuratile,

Asother factor distaning the views of early wiilers

on (he southern Aboriginal diet was the rapidity wilh

which mdigenous rout and many other vegetable foods

were replaced by European foodstulfs, Information

given by Aboriginal people today on bush foods

obtained inthe Lower Murray area mi the last 50 to 60)

yours, indicates far less use of roots than of other

indigenous fuuds such as fish, water fowl, kangaroo,

emy and hermes. The European food obtained from

(aris and towns probably led to a significant decrease

ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 73

in consumption of less favoured vegetable foods. As

stated above, the bulrush root, for example, contains a

great deal of fibre. All indigenous roots used as food

sources with unfavourable properties (in taste or

texture or difficulty of procurement or preparation)

would have been replaced by foods such as European

potatoes, turnips, flour and rice. This fact must be taken

into consideration when reconstructing Aboriginal

plant food lists from contemporary sources.

The above reasons, as well as the lack of quantitative

data on the importance of vegetable food, led scholars

such as Cleland to understate the role of this component

in the overall diet of Aborigines. Cleland considered

plant foods in southern South Australia to be ‘hardly

procurable’ and believed that the Aborigines were

essentially meat-eaters (1966: 188-119). Gott (1982,

1983) and myself (Clarke 1985a, 1986b) have

undertaken detailed historical analyses of Aboriginal

plant use records combined with field work with

Aboriginal people in an attempt to refute this position

as itapplies to southern Australia. Cleland’s treatment

of Aboriginal plant use in southern Australia does not

reflect the diversity of plant use and relies on

inadequate documentation of use. He also did not fully

appreciate the amount of information on plant use that

could have been gleaned from the ethnographic record

and from Aboriginal informants of the period in which

he conducted his research.

PAssIVE. WANDERS OR

Active Resource MANAGERS?

Assuming Cleland was mistaken in his view, the

question, then, is how he came to his conclusion about

the poor food value of the southern Australian

vegetation. Cleland had a medical background and

made significant scientific contributions in the areas of

medicine, human biology, ethnology and botany. He

published widely from the 1900s through to the 1960s

in these fields, Cleland (1966) claims that the

Aborigines remained hunters and gatherers primarily

because the Australian continent did not have plants

and animals suitable for agriculture and pastoralism.

He maintains that:

The animal and vegetable surroundings of the first comers

to Australia were singularly unfavourable for the

development of a pastoral or an agricultural people, In fact

such knowledge as they might have possessed in regard to

these matters before their arrival could have been of little

or no use and must have been quickly forgotten from want

of application (Cleland 1966: 113).

This statement illustrates how Cleland linked the

Australian biota closely with the development (or

perhaps even degeneration) of the Aboriginal mode of

subsistence. It is probable that the (mistakenly) low

estimates ofAustralia’s Aboriginal population levels

prior to colonization had a significant influence on

Cleland’s views concerning the carrying capacity of

the southern Australian environment. For example, he

argued that ‘To what extent these areas [south and

central Australia] were occupied depended primarily

on the availability of food and water’ (Cleland 1966:

126). Cleland’s approach reflects the influence that the

biological sciences had on his ethnographic work.

Working largely with medical and biological models,

Cleland treated the population levels and distribution

of Aboriginal hunters and gatherers as with any other

non-human organisms, and as the product of a set of

environmental determinants, largely independent of

the cultural dimension. However, it is now widely

accepted by researchers studying hunters and

gatherers, that in general, the lack of intense pressure

exerted by the hunting and gathering mode of

subsistence is such that food alone would not limit long

term population growth (see Williams & Hunn 1982),

Cleland relies on and reinforces an old view of the

stereotypic hunter and gatherer as a passive food

collector with little or no control over the environment.

These stereotypes have been attacked by Hallam

(1975, 1986) whose description of Aboriginal land use

patterns in the south-west of Western Australia, an area

similar in some respects to south-eastern Australia,

illustrates how the Aboriginal people living here

actively managed their resources. This region had a

comparatively large, semi-sedentary population living

in areas close to their main food resources — for

example, the swamps where bulrush roots were

obtained and the ‘warran’ grounds where yams

(Dioscorea hastifolia Endl.) were procured. So

intensive, extensive and successful were the efforts of

the hunters and gatherers in the exploitation of their

resources in this area (including firing the vegetation),

that it is difficult to refer to the Aborigines as passive

food collectors. Similarly, in Tasmania, Hiatt (1968:

212, 219) suggests that the burning of the vegetation

was used by the Aboriginal people there to convert rain

forest vegetation into sclerophyll forest. Sclerophyll

forest was a better food-producing environment and its

encouragement by use of fire is suggested by Hiatt to be

a deliberate action.

Throughout the southern South Australian region,

burning of the vegetation appears to have been a

common Aboriginal practice. One report from 1851 in

a South Australian newspaper describes the problems

the Port Lincoln land owners of the lower Eyre

Peninsula had with the Aboriginal people “burning the

runs. which is [the] ...customary mode of hunting game

...'''. Another newspaper report from the same area in

1841 states: “Independently of the danger which

follows in the wake of a tribe of natives carrying fire-

sticks through ripe grass, two or three feet high, they

always set fire to scrubby places whenever a small

patch is found, in order to hunt’."

4 ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANFAN PLANT PARTS

From the Adelaide area, another newspaper records

thatin 1839, an Aboriginal man named Williamy wus

charged with firing the grassy in. the purk-lands.

However, he was released due to lack of proof of

malicious mient as it was considered by the Aboriginal

people “a necessary and laudable practice annually to

burn off withered grass on their bunting-grounds to

facilitate and hasten the growth of the young grass of

Which the nave animals are so fond’."’ Finlayson

states that in the Adeluide Hills, during early February

1837. ‘the natives had set fire to the Jong dry yrass lo

enable them more easily to obtain the animals and

Vermin on which a great part of vheir living depends”

(1902-3; 40-1). The regulae burning off of the Lakes

arca of the Lower Murray region was apparently a

sufficient threat to the local farmers for it te be reported

in the Aboriginal Protector's Report of 1850. Here it

wis noted some land owners were offering incentives.

inthe form of goods. to Aboriwinal people if they cauld

get through the dry season without cavsing 4 serious

bushfire’, These accounts and others imdicate Unal he

burning off of the vegetation in southern South

Australia frequeotly resulted trom Aborignal acuvity.

Although most accounts of firing ure linked by:

Observers 16 hunting practices, at 4s possible that

Aboriginal people also used fire lo open up the country

by removing the understory to allow easier travelling

und to promote the growth of prass for gant species,

Eyre remarked at length on the wide, open plains tothe

north of Adelaide, He appears to have been puxzled by

them, particularly when there were remnants uf large

growths of timber nearby. In other places, the dense

mallee type vegetation had pockets ar grassy openings

ihat to Eyre were like ‘oases of the desert”. Eyre

Suggests that ‘the plains found interspersed among the

dense scrobs may probably have been oveasmned by

fires, purposely or secidéentally lighted by the notives in

thelr wanderings”... (1845, |; 3f). 111s interesting to

note that Eyre considered these grass plams to be an

inpravement on the dense Hucalypni dunwse scrub

as they provided feed forhis horses und were casier to

traverse. Many of the food-plant species discussed in

this paper would benefit from the opening of the

understory aud the build-up of ash produced from

regular burnings, Ellis discusses the pole of fire in

producing the open grasslands in the Adelaide area,

staling that “Certainly the area surrounding the presen

site of metropolitan Adelatde was the seene of

deliberate Aborginal environmental manipulation,

almost entirely dependent tipon the use of fire’ (1976:

113), Aboriginal people would nol only five realised

thatthey had.an effect on the ability of the enviranment

10 produce fond, hut also appear ty have ucuvely used

firing as a resource managemeny tool

Another important part of resource management

was the replanting of tubers. This has been vecorded

from several parts of Australia, Gregory (1887; 131)

States thatthe Aborigines of the west coast of Australia,

‘variably re-insert the head of the yams so a8 1 be

sure of a futlre crop’. Irvine (1970; 27%) describes the

practice in the above record as cultivation. Vindale

(1977: 349) records a similar practice by the women of

Flinders Island, Queensland. Batey (cited in Frankel

1982: 44) records that in Sunbury, Victoria, there

existed numerous mounds which were caused by the

“accidental gardening’ that occurred while gathering

“myrong’ (Microseris srapigera as identified by

Frankel), Batey suggested thal Aboriginal people must

have realised the effect they were having on the

numbers of edible roars in the ground. Digging would

haye helped disperse and replant the undersized tubers

for collecting in the future.

The evidence, both direct and by extension from

similar environments, seems to puint lo Aborivinal

people in southern Austraha, taking much more active

role in the use-of their land and resources [han earlier

observers such as Cleland suggested.

Cone usION

Subterranean plitnt pans appear to have provided a

varied and reliable source uf food lor the Aborigines of

southern Australia. Certain species Were also

important for other hunting and gathering: activities ws

they provided libre for net bays and fishing nets. Other

species were used as medicines, narcoucs, suurces of

witer and as pigment. Work with contemporary:

Aboriginal people from the Lower Murtuy and South

Evst regions of South Australia is significantly

increasing our knowledge of plant root usaye.

Although this type of imlormauion does not provide

uccurate quantitative wise data, it cam provide an

indication of the value Certuin species could have had

in the pre-European subsistence panern. The view pul

forth by Cleland sugpestiig the insignificance of

southern! vegetation types in providing food is not

supported by the evidence provided here. Cleland may

have been restricted to his collection of data by the brief

that only ‘tracigenal’ Aborigines could supply data an

the ses of plams and plant-use. Data from

cantemperary Aboriging) sources cited in this puper

suggest thatthis isincormect A fullerand more accurate

View of Aboriginal use of the Australian environment

may be gained by focusing on Aborigines as resource

managers lastead ol as merely passive inhabinamnts of

their landscupe,

ACKNOWLEDUMENTS

I wish to thank the members of the Aberipinal

cammunities in seuthen South Australia who pave

iilormation concemuy Aboriginal plant se and whe helped

to Jocale und pdentify the species Invalved. In particular

Henry und Jean Rankine ot Ravkkan, George Trevorrow of

Meninie, and Roa Boniey and Lola Cameron-Bonney of

Kingston showed much interest in recording aspects of their

cullure und wert very generotis in the hospitality shown

ABORIGINAL USE OF SUBTERRANEAN PLANT PARTS 75

Steve Hemming and myself on our field-trips. | an grateful

to Robert. Foster who assisted me in locating particular

historical accounts. In preparing the data and ideas in this

piper, Lowe much to Steve Hemming, Comments on dratts

of this paper Were also received trom Peter Sutton, Beth Gort

and Peter Latz. Jenni Thurmer prepared the figure.

Enpnorks

1, S.A, Museum specnnen A6&31 |. Cleland collection,

2, All references in this paper to contemporary Aboripinal

deseriphons and information comes from notes and tapes

made onfieldtrips to the South Hast and the Lower Mueray by

Steve Henining and myself at various Limes during 1986 and

1O87, These are lodged in the S.A. Museum Archives.

3, SA. Museum specimen A2084, Symes & Lewis

4+. S.A. Museum specimen A776. Advertiser Co,

collecnon.

5 S.A. Maseum specimen A} 781, Source unknown,

6.5.4. Museuny specunens Al778 & A27233. Thorup &

Wail callection; S.A. Museum specimen AI779, Tape

collection.

7. S.A, Museum specimen 41777, Phillipson collecnon.

8. 5.A, Museum specimen Abs304. Cleland caliecnon.

9 Toterview with Mr,G,W, Batly concerning early Victor

Harbor history (6/11/86) S.J Heniriing & P_A_ Clarke.

10, Transactions of the Sranstival Society, Sau

Australian || Jaa. 1842, pp LT 12,

| L. Ohyerver 31 May 1431, page 5

12. Adelaide Chronicle and S Aust Ciperian ys Recon? 22

Devo 184), page 4

1a. Sow Australiut Guzetié und Colunial Record 4

Miareh 1839, pape 7.

14. Aboriginal Protectors Report Souwih Australian

Gazette and Colonial Recara 2) Apnl 1850, page 4.

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Arnhem Land. /n R. L. Specht & C. P. Mountford (Eds).

‘The American-Australian Scientific Expedition to

Amhem Land’, Vol 3. Melbourne University Press,

Melbourne,

STEPHENS, E. 1890. The Aborigines of Australia. J. Vroc.

R. Soc, N.S.W. 23 : 476-503.

STEPHENS, J. 1923. Adelaide tribes, Jn T.A. Parkhouse

(Ed.) “Autochthones of Australia’. The author, Adelaide.

STONE, A.C. 1911. The Aborigines of Lake Boga, Victoria.

Proc. R. Soc. Vict. 23: 433-468.

TAPLIN, G. 1859-79. Journals. South Australian Archives,

Adelaide.

TAPLIN, G. 1874. The Narrinyeri. /n J.D. Woods (Ed.). “The

Native Tribes of South Australia.” E.S. Wiggs, Adelaide.

TAPLIN, G. 1879. ‘Folklore, Manners, Customs and

Languages of the South Australian Aborigines’, Govt

Printer, Adelaide.

TEICHELMANN, C.G, & SCHUERMANN, C.W. 1840.

“Outlines of a Grammar ... of the Aboriginal language of

South Australia’. Part 2. Thomas & Co., Adelaide.

TEICHELMANN, C.G. 1841. ‘Aborigines of South

Australia’, Committee of the South Australian Wesleyan

Methodist Auxillary Society, Adelaide,

THOMAS, N.W. 1906. ‘The Natives of Australia’.

Archibald Constable & Co., London.

TINDALE, N.B. 1974. “The Aboriginal Tribes of Australia’,

Australian National University Press, Canberra,

TINDALE, N.B. 1977. Adaptive significance of the Panara

or grass seed culture of Australia. Jn R.V.S, Wright (Ed.)

‘Stone Tools as Cultural Markers’, Australian Institute of

Aboriginal Studies, Canberra.

TINDALE, N.B, 1981. Desert Aborigines and the Southern

Coastal peoples: some comparisons. Jn A, Keast (Ed).

‘Ecological Biogeography of Australia’, Junk, the

Hague.

WILLIAMS, N.M. & HUNN, E.S, (Eds). 1982. Resource

Managers: North American and Australian Hunter-

gatherers’. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies,

Canberra.

WILLIAMS, W. 1839. ‘A Vocabulary of the language of the

Aborigines of the Adelaide District... MacDougall,

Adelaide.

WORSNOP, T. 1897. ‘The Prehistoric Arts, Manufactures,

Works, Weapons, etc., of the Aborigines of Australia’.

Govt Printer, Adelaide.

WYATT, W. 1879, Some account of .., the Adelaide and

Encounter Bay tribes. Jn J. D. Woods (Ed.) ‘The Native

Tribes of South Australia.” pp. 151-181. E. S. Wiggs,

Adelaide.

AMENDED TYPE LOCALITIES OF FIVE SPECIES OF SPIDERS

(ARACHNIDA : ARANEAE) DESCRIBED BY H. R. HOGG IN 1905

BY D. HIRST

Summary

Lycosa gilberta, L. molyneuxi, L. phyllis, L. stirlingae and Dolomedes habilis were described by

H.R. Hogg in 1905 from specimens sent to England from the South Australian Museum. Type

specimens are lodged in the South Australian Museum, with the exception of Lycosa stirlingae, the

whereabouts of which is unknown (McKay 1985). In the same work, McKay also stated the

whereabouts of three female Lycosa habilis types as unknown, the generic change having been

made by Rainbow (1911). Recently two of these types were located in the South Australian

Museum collection and have been found to be Dolomedes.

AMENDED TYPE LOCALITIES OF FIVE SPECLES OF SPIDERS

(ARACHNIDA: ARANEAE)

DESCRIBED BY H. R. HOGG IN 1905

Lycosa gilherta, L. molyneuxi. L. phyllis, L. stivlin-

gaeé and Dolomedes habilis were described by H. R.

Hogg in 1905 from specimens sent to England from

the South Australian Museum. Type specimens are

lodged in the South Australian Museum, with the

exception of Lyeosa stirlingae, the whereabouts of

Which is unknown (MeKay 1985). In the same work,

McKay also stated the whereabouts of three female

Lycosa hahiliy types as unknown, the generic change

having heen made by Rainbow (1911), Recently two

of these types were located in the South Australian

Muscum collection and have been found to be

Dalomedes.

The vials conttin labels giving the locality as

‘Gilbert River’, or ‘Gilbert River. Riverina’, the state

being omilled, Hogg, in his introduction, stated that

they were ‘chiefly from the north sidé of the River

Murray in New South Wales’, This localily has not

heen questioned by subsequent revisers (Rainbow

1911; McKay 1975, 1985), although both authors had

appeared to be in doubt over the type locality of

Lycosa gilberta, Rainbow's being ‘Australia’, while

McKay (1985) recorded the locality as ‘Gilbert River,

Riverina, S.A." all other type localities of the species

ubove being given as from New South Wales,

During. a routine check of localities | found there

was a Gilbert River near Riverton in South Australia.

Knowing also that A, Molyneux, the collector of the

above material, had sent specimens to the South Aus-

tralian Muscum from nearby Tanunda, my suspicions

were aroused, From further enquiries | learnt that A,

Molyneux had lived and worked in that area of South

Australia, Subsequent searches of the relevant maps,

the Gazetteer and enquiries to both the South Austra-

lian Geographical Names Board and the Geographical

Names Board of New South Wales failed to show the

existence of a Gilbert River in the Riverina of New

South Wales,

It is postulated that ‘Riverina’ on the labels is a

misspelling of Riverton, This small town is situated on

the Gilbert River, a tributary of the Light River in

South Australia, All type specimens referred to above

are here considered to have been collected from Gil-

bert River, Riverton, South Australia. (34°10°S,

138°45°E).

As McKay (1975) considered the ‘Gilbert River

area is of special significance in the clarification of

species within the “leuckartii” group’, this new light

on the type locality should provide for more fruitful re-

search in the future on that group of wolf spiders,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

[wish toexpress my thanks to Hans Mincham for informa.

tion regarding A. Molyneux.

REFERENCES

HOGG, H.R. 1905, On some South Australian spiders of the

family Lycosidae. Prov. Zool, Soc. Lond. 1905: 569-590),

McKAY, R, J. (1975). The wolf spiders of Australia (Ara-

neae: Lycosidae): 6. The /evckartii group. Mem. Qd Mus.

17 (2): 319-328.

McKAY. R. J. (1985). Lycosidae, In Zod. Cat, Aust. 3:.73-

88. Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra.

RAINBOW, W.J, (1911). A census of Australian Aruneidae,

Ree, Aust. Mus, 9 107-319,

D. HIRST, South Australian Museum, Norih Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000, Ree S Auye. Muy. 22 (1): 77

RECORDS

THE

SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOLUME 22 PART I

MAY 1988

ISSN 0081-2676

CONTENTS:

ARTICLES

| K.L.GOWLETT-HOLMES & B. J. MCHENRY

Fossil molluse type specimens in the South Australian Museum. I. Polyplacophora

13. B.BAEHR & M. BAEHR

On Australian Hersiliidae (Arachnida: Araneae) from the South Australian Museum.

Supplement to the revision of the Australian Hersiliidae

21 C.H.S. WATTS

Revision of Australian Halipilidae (Coleoptera)

29° G.G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON

Osteological differences of the axial skeleton between Lasiorhinus latifrons (Owen,

1845) and Vombatus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialia: Vombatidae)

4) “WoC GEEVERIEY

Australites from the vicinity of Finke, Northern Territory, Australia

49 1. M. WHITE

The limits on fighting in an Aboriginal community

53. E. WILLIAMS

The archaeology of the Cooper Basin: report on fieldwork

63 “Pi AvCEARKE

Aboriginal use of subterranean plant parts in southern South Australia

NOTES

77D. HIRST

Amended type localities of five species of spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) described by

H.R. Hogg in 1905

Published by the South Australian Museum, North

Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000

RECORDS

THE

SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOLUME 22 PART 2

NOVEMBER 1988

GENERA NABIS LATREILLE AND STENONABIS REUTER (HEMIPTERA:

NABIDAE) IN AUSTRALIA

BY N. G. STROMMER

Summary

Descriptions of three species of Nabis Latreille and and seven species of Stenonabis Reuter are

presented. Two new species, Stenonabis henriettae sp. nov. and Stenonabis morningtoni sp. nov.,

are described and illustrated. A key to Nabis and Stenonabis is provided.

GENERA NABIS LATREILLE AND STENONARBIS REUTER (HEMIPTERA:

NABIDAE) IN AUSTRALIA

N.G. STROMMER

STROMMER, NG. 1988. Cienera Nafis Latredle and Stenonahis Reuter (Hemiptera: Nabidae)

in Australia, Ree So Aust Mus, 22(2), 79-93,

Descriptions of three species af Nabis Latreille and seven species of Srenonabis Reuter are

presented, Two new species, S/enonabin henrie(iae sp. noy. and Stenonabis marningiuni sp. nov,

are deseribed and illustrated, A key to Nabis and Srenariahis species is provided.

NG. Strommner, 190 Canterbury Road, Heathmonr, Melbourne, Victoria 3135, Manuscript received

12 May 1988.

First investigations and preliminary deseriptions

of the Australian species of Nabis Latreille and

Stenonahis Reuter were done by Dr |.M. Kerzhner

(1969). His work was mainly based on the material

oF jhe South Australian Museum, Adelaide

(SAMA).

Additional material for the present paper was

supplied by the Queensland Museum, Brisbane

(QM); Entomology Department, Queensland Uni-

versity, St Lucia (EUQ) Australian National Insect

Collection, Canberra (ANIC): Western Australian

Museum, Perth (WAM); Australian Museum, Syd-

ney (AM); Museum and Art Galleries of the North-

ern Territory. Darwin (NTM); Zoological Museum

der Humbold-Universitat, Berlin, DDR (7BM).

Other abbreviations of the Museums; AMNH —

American Museum of Natural History, New York,

USA; BMNH — British Museum Natural History;

ZIN — Zoolovical Institute, Leningrad, USSR.

The common species Nubis biformis Bergroth,

previously known only from New Zealand (Ker-

abner 1969), is here recorded from Australia, The

macropterous form of Nahis fraternus Kerzhner js

recorded and described. The female genitalia in

Nabis biformis Bergroth and Nabis frarernus Kerzh-

ner are illustrated lor the first time, Both macro-

and brachypterous fornis of these two species are

redescribed with the use of the additional material

from other Museums in Australia, Nebis kinbereti

Reuter, previously misidentified in Australia as

Nabis capsiformis Germar (Kerzhner 198), Wood-

ward 1982, Woodward & Strammer 1982) is re-

described.

Out of 11 species of Sfenonghis. knowh in

Australia so far, 2 species are newly described, 1

species (8. genicu/atus Erichson) is described fully

in the first time, 4 other species (8. jvritator

Kerzhner, 5. roseus Kerzhner, S. nitdicallis Kerzh-

ner, & derwind Kerzhner) are redescribed with the

use of additional material; the remaining 3 species

(S. communis Kerzner, S. robusrus Kerzhner, and

S. australicus Kerzhner) are presented in Kerzhney

(1969). New illustrations are given for the female

genitalia in Sfenonabis geniculatus Brichson, and

male genitalia in Srenonabis roseus Kerehner, Sten-

onabis darwini Kerzhner and Sfenanabis nitidicallis

Kerzhner. A previously unrecorded, brachypterous

form of Stenonahis nitidicollis Kerzhner is

described,

Genus Nabis Latreille, 1802

Type-species: Cimex vagans Fabricius, 1787 =

Cimex ferus Linnaeus, 1758, designated by West-

wood, 1840,

Body rather narrow, with sides parallel or slightly

widening in middle of abdomen, especially ip

females, Head margins behind eyes nearly parallel:

ovelli set rather wide apart. Antennae without dark

rings; legs often with dark patches or short lines

on femora, bul without dark or black rings. Pro-

notum without punctation and with brown paltern

on fore lobes, comprised of series of irregular

ly-shaped and sized brown patches. Connexivum

yellowish, very rarely with dark patches, separated

underneath from abdominal sternites by a groove

and elevated in middle part of abdomen ina cylin-

drical form.

Paramere variously shaped, bur most often with

body of blade semicircular; aedeagus with a variable

number of selerites; vagina symmetrical or asym-

metrical, with 1-2 parietal glands.

Macropterous and brachypterous forms, but he-

melytra nearly always reaching end of abdomen,

The genus includes subgenera Nabis, Tropiconabrs

and Reduviolus, differentiated from one another by

the form of che genitalia, subgenus Redisviolus is

not represented in tropical areas (Kerzhner 1981),

At the suggestion of Dr 1.M. Kerzhner, the two

Australian species of the genus Nabis have been

placed in (he new sub-penus Australonabis, Besides:

these two closely related species (VN. biforinis and

80 NO, STROMMER

N, Jraternus) discussed below, the subgermus includes

N. larvatus Kerzhner from New Caledonia.

REY 10 AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF Naas

1 — Always macropterous. Length of fore femora

less than 2.3 mm. Aedeagus. with 3 scterites.

Vagina with 4 dorsal sack covering base of cam-

mon overduct {Subg. Thopiconabis) -. 0...

‘sh 2 it tail Nabis kinhergii Reuter

_ ~ Mostly brachypterous, Length of fore femora

2,5-3.1 mm, Aedeagus with numerous similar

selerites in basal part and with 4 ar 5 dissimilar

selerites in apical part. Vagina without dorsal

sack (Sube. Austrdlonabis) .............. 2

— Acdeagus with 3 sclerites in apical part; vagina

symmetrical, with rounded or flat hase, walls of

vagina Withour sclerotized bands . .

_.. Nabis biformis Bergroth

— Aedeagus with 4 sclerites in apical pari, Vagina

slightly asymmetrical, with cone shaped base and

sclerotized bands in right wail .

. Nabis fravernus Rerzhner

sper pe er tae

Ausinilonabis subgen, nov,

Nabis bifortlis Berer-Gruppe* Kerzhner, 1969: 346.

Type-spevies: Reduwiolus biformis Bersroth, 1927

Species with pronounced wing reduction: in most

specimens of N. biforrtis and in all known speci-

mens of No fraternus, hemelyira about twice the

length of scutellum, without membrane, while A.

larvatus is apterous, Dise of paramere nearly semi-

circular, With pointed apex; aedeagus with a row of

fumerous similar sclerotized plates in basal half and

some additional selerites in apical half (4-5); vagina

without sack covering its opening, with or-wifhoul

sclerotized bunds in rhe wall

Disuinguished fram the other subgenera by [he

unique sclerotized strueryres in the basal part of

the aedeagus,

Nabis. biformis (Becgrath)

(Figs la, b, ¢, d)

Reduvialus bijormis Bergrorh, (927: 681.

?Nabis lineatus Hutton, 1904, 372 pp. (nen Dabl-

bom. 1851).

Nabis biformis Kerzner, 1969 346-347, Fig. 43.

Macrapterous form

Head; pale yellow with dark areas behind eyes

alid ocelli, pale brown longitudinal stripe between

ocelli and eyes and broad dark brown median stripe

beneath; clypeus brownish. Antennifers brown, an-

teonal segments brownish yellow, segment [1 with

brown.apex; rostral seements | and If pale yellow

beneath, brown dorsally, segments U1 and IV

brownish, Eyes and oeelli reddish brown. Short

shiny yellow haits, becoming denser behind eyes and

ovelli and & few longer ones dorsally; medium-sized

and rather dense hairs beneath, Sides behind eyes

parallel,

Thorex: pronotum yellowish with dark brown

markings: broad median longitudinal stripe becom-

ing narrower on collar and Hind lobe; brown pattern

on fore lohe and addilional pale brown. parallel

stripes on each side of median one on hind lobe,

Small dark dots on collar and hind lobe. Pronotum

as long as head, lalerally distinctly sinuate, with

base about 2.5 or more times broader than apex;

fore lobe slightly eonvex, 1,2.times longer than hind

lobe, latter strongly declivous, forming an angle

with fore lobe, Scutellum large, wider than long,

with pointed apex, dark brown, with 2 yellow

rounded patches on sides, Hemelytra reaching end

of abdonien; corium and clayus coyered with short

pale hairs, corium with prominent yellow veins and

dark clavus; membrane hyaline, transparent, with

distingtive dark Veins. Coxae yellowish with dark

brown patches bayally, bath anteriorly and post-

eriorly; femora pale yellow with touch of pinkish

toes and brown markings: 2 rows of short trans-

verse parallel stripes (15-16) larerally and irregular

row of dots dersally tibiae yellow with brawn apives

and bases. Legs covered with pale, medium-sized

hairs, becaming dense ventrally and with sparse

long ones laterally and dorsally; tibiae with 2 rows

of dark, very Small teeth ventrally,

A bidlomen,; brownish beneath, covered with shart

decumbent hairs.

Brachypleraus Jorn

Head: as in macronplerous form,

Thorax: hind lobe of pronotum pale yellow with

indistinct additional stripes on sides of median one;

punctuation on collar and hind lobe of pronotum

indistiner; pronotum a little shorter than head, at

sides slightly sinuate behind middle, at base 2 or

less times as broad ay al apex; hind lobe not forming

angle with fore lobe, 2.5 times shorter than fore

lobe. Scutellum smaller than in macropterous form,

a little wider than long. Hemelytra short, mare than

twice as long as scutellum, without membrane;

outer margin of cortum jncurved posteriorly, apical

angle somewhat distant from lateral margin of

abdomen, apical margin obliquely straight, forming

righ! angle with apical margin of outer corium.

Addamen; brawn with yellow patehes on

connexivum beneath or yellow with brown median

stripe dorsally.

Male genitalia: parameres Jarge, with body of

blade broad and apex curved (Fig. la, b); aedeagus

PLANT BUGS, NABIDAE a

with furmerous similar sclerites (plates) in basal part

and with 5 dissimilar sclerites in apical part, with

2 of them dentate (Pig. in Kerzhner 1969),

Female genitalia: vagina symmetrical, with roun-

ded or I'lat base; base of vagina without sclerotized

bands; parietal glands asymmetrical in Shape and

unequal in size, with their posterior parts (loops)

lying on dorsal side and anterior loops on ventral

side of vaginas fight gland larger, with dorsal and

ventral loops of equal size, left gland much smaller,

with ventral loop much larger than dorsal one (Fig,

je, d).

Tepe material

Syntynic series rom New Zealand, examined by

Kerzhner (1969) — | 9, macropterous, Henderson,

Auckland, 14 Mar. 1922, ad Lizzia (Albizzia’?),

Myers; | 9, brachypterous, Herne Bay, Auckland,

24 Feb. 1919, G. Howers; | 9, brachypterous,

Whangarei, 18 Feb, 1923, JuG, Myers; | Q, brachy-

pterous, N, Auckland, Peu.(?), T.R. Harris (all

BMNH).

Other material examined

Tasmania: 1 of, brachypterous, 7 mls W.

Rosebury, 18 Feb. 1963, 1.2.3. Common & M.5.

Upton (ANIC); 1 o, brachypterous, Lake Dobson

Rd, & Feb. 1955, TAR. Woodward, bracken Tern

(OM); | @, macropterous, Devonport, 16 Feb. 1967,

G. Monteith (OM); 1 9, brachyprerous,, Waratah,

A.M. Lea, former paratype of Nabis fraternus

Kerzhner; New South Wales: | o, brachypterous,

Bartington Tops, via Salisbury, 28-30 Dee. 1965,

T. Weir (QM); | 9, macrapterous, | 9,

brachypterous, Mt. Dromedary, ar Narooma, 2100

ft. 4 Feb, 1969, M.S. Upton, Taylor, Cardale

(ANIC): 3 ©, brachypterous, Pilot Hill, Bago,

Forest below (7), 12 Mar. 1957 (ANIC); Australian

Capital Territory: | co, brachypterous, Blundells,

31 Jan. 1970, ELF. Riek (ANIC); Victoria: 1 or,

brachypterous, Frankston, Melb,, 17 Jan. 1955, T.E.

Woodward (QM); 2. 9, brachypterous, Beech

Forest. 42 1937, RV. Fyfe (ANIC),

Measurements

In Kerzhner (1969),

Remarks

N. biformis was described fram New Zealand by

Bergroth (1927) from 3 females. bul he did not

examine the genitalia. Kerzhner (1969) re-examined

supposedly the same syntypes together with addit-

ional material from New Zealand and provided

measurements both macro- and brachypterous

forms and drawings of the male genitalia. The above

description of the macro- and brachypterous forms

together with the description of the female genitalia

are prepared from material examined from various

locations in Australia.

Examination of the material from Australia

shows that NV, biformis is a rather common species

widely distributed in New South Wales, Australian

Capital Territory, Victoria and Tasmania. The

species is very similar in appearance and in most

measurements to N, fralernus Kerzhner, and dis-

tinguished from the latter by its longer legs,

antennae and rostrum, but it is very difficult ta

separate the two species without comparing their

genitalia. The male genitalia of N, biformis dilfer

from those of N. frafernus by the presence of 2

additional dentate sclerites in the distal part of the

aedeagus, by the noticeably broader body of the

blade of the paramere and its curved apex. The

difference in rhe female genitalia is not as marked

as in the male, but the vagina of N, bifarmis lacks

the sclerotized bands in the ngeht wall and has a

rounded base (ovally protruding in N. fralernus).

FIGURE 1. Nabis hi/armis Bergrs a — paramere, lateral

view; b — lhe same, [rom below; e — vagina, View from

above; d — the same, from below..

He NoaG. STROMMER

Nabis traternus Kerzhner

(Figs 2a, b,c, d)

Nabis fralernus Kerzhner, 1969: 347-349, Fig, 44,

Macroplerous form

ffead: pale yellow with brownish areas in Front

of and behind eyes; longitudinal median stripe pale

brown between ocelli and eyes, fadirie toward base

ul clypeus; broad median stripe beneath; clypeus

and antennifers dirty yellow. Antennac brownish

yellow, segment Ul with brown apex; rostral seg-

ments | and I] pale yellow ventrally, brown dorsally;

segmems IIT and TV brownish. Eyes shuny, silvery;

ocelli yellow with red rim.

Thorax: pronotum dirty yellow with pale brown

median longitudinal stripe becoming narrower an

find lobe and with indistinet brown pattern on fore

lobe: small dark dots on collar and hind lobe. Pro-

notum a little longer than head, al sides distinctly

sinuate behind middle, at base aboul 2,3 times

broader than apex. Fore lobe nearly Mal, 1,3 times

longer than hind lobe, latcer stranyly declivous,

forming an angle with fore lobe, Scutellum yellow

with wide dark hrown median stnpe becoming

narrow toward apex and with irregular brown areas

basally and laterally: Coxae yellow with brown.

bases; femora piukish yellow with brawn markings:

2 rows of shart transverse parallel stripes (12-13)

and an irregular row of dark brown dots dorsally;

tibiae yellow wilh brawn apices, fore tibiae with 2

dark rings on basal 1/2, all tibiae with 2 longi-

Iudinal rows of small teeth ventrally. Hemelytra

dirty yellow, reaching end of abdomen or little

shorter, corium with prominent yellow veins and

small dark dots basally and on clayus; membrane

hyaline, transparent, with indistinet veins: carium

and clavus covered with short decumbent hairs.

Abdomen: yellowish beneath, with brown median

stripe, connexivum brownish, with pinkish tones.

Brachvpterous form

Head: as in macropterous form, bul with dark

brown eves and oceili; brownish median stripe bet

ween eyes and ocelli widening toward base ot’

clypens.

Thorax. pronotum with dark brown median

sicipe gor narrowing on hind lobe and less prom-

inent punctation on collar and hind lobe; fore lobe

convex, raised atiove collar, hind Jobe not forining

angle with fore Jobe. Sculelluny smaller chao in naac-

replerous forin, a bite lonwer than wide. Leys

without pinkish tones, fore tibiae without vistble

tings an basal 1/2 Hemelytra very short, dirty

yellow, without visible dots on base of corium and

clavus, more than twice as long as.seulellurm:; mem-

brane absent

Abdomen: dark brawn beneath, with yellow med-

jan stripe, yellowish brown dorsally, with brown

median longitudinal stripe and yellow connexivum.

Mole genitalia: paramere large, with relatively

narrow body of blade and slightly curved apex (Figs

2a, b); aedeagus with 4 dissimilar sclerites in apical

part and numerons similar plates in basal part (Fig.

in Kerzhner $969).

Female genitalia: vagina slightly asymmetrical,

with cone shaped base and sclerotized bands on

right wall; parietal glands asymmetrical and of un-

equal size; left gland much smaller, with its. ventral

loops larger than dorsal ones (Fig, 2c, d).

Dpe material

Holotype — | o, brachypterous, Tasmania,

Waddamana, R. Ouse, below outlet, 20 Feb, 1936,

Parker (BMNH), paratypes — 3 9, brachyplerons,

the game location (BMNH, #1N, not examined), but

the fourth paratype, 9, brachypierous, Tasntanin,

Waratah, A.M. Lea (SAMA), has been examined and

found to be a specimen of Nabis biforniis,

Other marertal examined

New South Wales. 1 9, macrapterous, Byron

Bay, 25 Noy, 197J, N, Monroe (EUQ); Tasmania:

1}, brachypterous, Miena, Great L,., 17 Feb. 1955

(EUO); 1 o, brachypterous, Duck Cr, nr Dee, 12

Feb, 1955, T.E. Woodward (EUQ),

Measuremens

Macropterous form: head length 1.40, preocular

part 0.70, postocular 0.25, length of eyes 0,45, width

across eyes 0.90, interocular distance 0.40, width in

frant of eyes 0.45, behind eyes 0.60. Length antennal

segments 1 1.10, 111.75, UT 1,75, PV 1.45; length

rostral segments FT ¢.10, PM 1.0, tV 0.45. Median

length of pronotum 1.50, collar 0.25, fore lobe 0,70,

hind. Jobe 0.55; anterior width 0,70, posterior width

L.60; width of scutellum 0.90, length 0.80. Lengtty

fore femora 2.60), tibiae 2,00, mid femora 2.25, tibiae

(85, hind femora 3.35, libiae 3.60. Length of body

3.7 moi, Width across hemelytra 1.7 mm (9 from

malerial examined),

Brachypterous Jorm: in Kerzhner (1969),

Remarks

Nobis fraternus Kerzh. is a rather rare spevirs

known se far from New South Wales and Tasmania

and is tepresenited both by macro- and brachyp-

terous forms. It is very similar to. N. Ajferniis and

is separated jose convincingly by Lhe construction

of the genitalia,

Subgenus Trepiconabis Kerzhner, 1968

Type-species (original designation): Wabls

cupsiformis Germar, 1938.

PLANT BUGS, NABIDAE 83

FIGURE 2, Nebis frulernus Kerzh a — paramere, lateral

view; b — the same, fram below; ¢ — vagina, view from

above; d — the same, from below,

Macropterous species, with wings extending well

beyond end of abdomen. Paramere simall, with

semicircular blade; aedeagus with two. larger

sclerites pointing in opposite directions, and third,

smaller one; Vagina with oval sack covering hase

of common oviduct dorsally, with (NV. capsifermis)

or without (NV. Ainbergii) division on left and right

parts. The subgenus is represented in tropics and

subtropics and includes, hesides N, capsiformis and

N. kinbergit, N. maericus Walker (New Zealand)

and N. consinullis Reuter (Ecuador, Peru, Galap-

agos [s). In Australia there is only one species, N.

kKinbernit.

Nahis kinhergii Reuter

(Figs 3a, b, ¢)

Nabis kinbergii Reuter, 1872; 90 (part)

Sastrapuda nigrolineuta Distant, 1920: 159 (syn,

wiilt NX. kinbergti by Kerzhner, 1981),

Nabis nigrolineata: Cheesman, 1927: 158

Nabis tustnanicus Remane, 1964: 257 (syn. with N.

nigrolineatus by Kerzhner 1969).

Nabis nigrolineatus: Kerzhner, 1969: 354-355

Tropicanahis nigrolineatus: Kerzhneér, 968: 852;

Woodward, 1982: 143-146,

Nabis (Tropiconabis) kinbereii: Kerzhner, |981>

294-296,

Nabis capsiformis: auct, non Germar: non

Woodward & Strommer, 1982: 306,

Descriplion

Head: dull, with shiny clypeus and antennifers,

yellow with dark brown areas in front of and behinel

eyes and with median longitudinal stripe between

ocelli and eyes, broadening (oward clypeus; anten-

nifers and base of clypeus brownish. Head beneath

brown greyish or greyish white, or head entirely pale

yellow with darkish areas in front of and behind

eyes and antennifers: pale beneath, Byes and ocelli

shiny, reddish brown, yellowish brown or silvery

brown. Antennae brownish yellow or yellowish

brown with segment | yellow ventrally. Rostral

segment | yellow with brown base, segment MH and

IL yellowish brown, yellow ventrally, segment 1V

with brown apex, Head covered with short pale

hairs dorsally and on antennae and rostrum, be

coming longer and denser ventrally on clypeus and

rostral segment I.

Thorax’ pronetum dull, yellow, dirty yellaw oar

pale greyish yellow, with dark brown markings:

brown median longitudinal stripe, becoming much

narrower on collar and hind labe, brown pattern

on fore lobe and very indistinet additional pale

brown stripes, two on each side of median one;

where pronotum very pale, only pattern on fore lobe

visible. Scutellum yellow, orange yellow or pale

yellow with broad brown or darkish median stripe

reaching or not reaching its apex. Pronorum longer

than head, at sides slightly sinuate behind middle,

at base or 1.8-2.1, 9 2.2-2.3 times broader than

at apex. Fore lobe slightly convex; hind lobe slightly

raised above fore lobe. Coxge yellow or pale yellow;

legs entirely yellow or brownish yellow; sometimes

fore femora with row of short horizontal parallel

brown stripes externo-laterally; fore and mid tibiae

with 2 rows of very small brown teeth ventrally;

Hemelytra translucent, sometimes transparent, dirty

yellow or pale yellow to whitish, exceeding end of

abdomen by up to 1/2 their length; corium with

prominent yellow or pale yellow veins, these some-

times with irregular brown markings; clavus brown-

ish, dirty yellow or pale yellow with brown apex,

with short decumbent hairs; membrane with brown:

ish veins. Ventrally thorax yellow with dark brown

meso- and meta-sternum and with dark brown

longitudinal stripe on mesopleura becoming much

Narrower on metapleura; sometimes entirely pale

yellow, without brown markings or with very pale

ones.

Rd NG, STROMMER

Abdomen: yellowish brown with yellow

confexivum and median stripe, or sometimes.

entirely pale vellow with or without median stripe,

covered with small decumbent hairs.

Male geniialiay paramere with inner margin

angularly incised at junction of shank and blade,

apex of blade curved (Fig. 3a); aedeagus with 3

sclerites, one of them large, next to-very small one,

pointing in same direction, third sclerite of medium

size, pointing in opposile direction to other two (Fig,

3b),

Fenialeé eerijtalia: yauinia entirely membranous,

thin-walled, without division into right and lett

fobes (in contrast 10 No capsiformtis, Fig. 3c).

Type niaterual

Lectotype of Ainbergii (desiznated by Kerzbner,

1981) 1 O, ‘Sydney’, Kinberg, Naturhistoriska

Riksmusect, Stockhaolin; Holotype of nizeolineata,

9, Central New Caledonia, 17.41.1914, PD.

Montague (BMNE); Holotype of /usmanicus, 2,

Tasmania, King Lb. Lea, Zool Mus., Helsinki

University, paratypes (rom Bismarck Is, Australia

and Fiji (the same Museum) and in Dr R. Remane’s

collection (Mahrburg/ Lahn, BRD),

Orhet mutterial examined

Northern Territory: 1 oo, Magela Cr;

Queensland: | @, Lake Idamea, Glenormiston St,

| ©, Normanton, | co, Mornington, | 2,

Cunnamulla; New South Wales: | 9, Upper

Williams R.; South Australias | o, 1 Q, L. Eyre,

| of, 1 9, Wirreanda Cr, 1 o. ar Victory Well,

Everard Pk, | o, Athelstone, | o, 1 9, MI. Lofty,

1 9, Coward Spring, | o, Jirry’s Well; Fijiz 1 9;

New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), 1 ot, | 9 (specimens

from vanous collections in Australia).

Measurements

Head length o 1.00-1.08, 2 1.05-1.10, preocular

part o, 9 0.50-0,55, postocular part of 0.15-0.20,

across eyes. o 0.70-0.80, Q@ (L75-0.80, interocular

distance o' 0.35-0.37, 9 U.35-0.40, width in front

of eves & 0.40, © 0,40-0.45, behind eyes oo

0,50-0.55, 9 0.55, width of eyes ce 0,17-0.20, 9

0.22. Length antennal segments | o [.05-1.20, 3

0.90-L.05, 1k o 160-L80, ) 145-180, Ll o

1,.65-1,70, 9 LS0-1L60, [V co 0.90-1.00, 9 0.90.

Length rostral seaments Ho 0.85, 9 1.00, ILL &

0.85, 9 1.00, IV o U.40, 9 0.40-0.45, Median

length of pronotim cf 1.10-1.35, 'P 1,30-1,40, collar

a, 2 0.20, fore lobe co 0.50, 9 0.50-0.55, hind

lobe o 045-0.60,. 9 0.60-0,45; anleriar width o,

& 0.70, posterior width o 1.30-1.5U, 9 1.55-1.60.

Length of scutellum @& 0.55, 9 0.60, width o

0,65-0,70, 9 0.75. Length fore femora o 2 LU-2,15,

2 2,00-2.05, tibiae o 1,60-1.75, 9 1,70-1.75; mid

femora O 1.85, 9 1,75-2,10, tiblae or 1.74, 9 1.80:

hind femora ce 275, 2 280-3.10, tibiae o

3.40-3.50, 9 3.25-3.55. Length of body o&

7,0-8.7 mm, 9 8.5-9.7 mim; width across hemelyira

o 14-1.75, 9 1.6 oun lexamined material).

Remarks

In Australia, New Zealand and some |stands in

the Weslern Pacilic, N. Ainbersii replaces another

widespread and very similar species N. cupsiformis

Germar (Kerzhner 1968, 1969, 1981), with which i

had been confused in Australia for years. (Wood-

ward 1982, Woodward & Strommer L982), Detailed

examination of the male and female genitalia of

large numbers of spevimens (all previously referred

lo MN. capsiformis) trom different regions of

Ausiralia, undertaken by Dr Kerzhner, Dr TE,

Woodward and by the present author, convince us

thal NV, kinhergit is one af the niost common and

widespread species of Nafidae in all parts of

Australia, including Tasmania.

The species was lirst recognized as distinet from

N. capsiforinis by Remane (1964), who described

it as N. tasmanicus, Later it was found that

Sastrapada titgrelineatus Distant Trem New

Caledonia is not a junior synonym of WN,

cupsifarmis, bur a senior synonym of WN.

fasmanicus, However, an earlier name N, kinbergii

Reuter, based on a female from Sydney and two

females From Buenos-Aires, had been synonymized

with WV. capsiformis until Rerzhner (1981) designated

the specimen from Sydney as lectotype, thus making

N. nigrolineata asynonym of N, Kinbergii; however,

the females tram Buenos-Aires belong to WN.

vapsifarmis.

N_ kinbergiiis very similar in appearance and in

mos! Measurements ta M. capsiformis. Comparison.

of N. kinhergii wilh the description given by Kere-

hnec (1981) of NL capsiformis shows no signilicant

differences, However, there are obvious differenees

in the male and fernale genitalia, best seen in a com-

parisan of the aedeagi which have quantitative dif-

ferences: (he absence of the smail hook (sclerite)

in N. capsifornis; the parameres tn N. capsifurmis

are concavely and more shallowly excavated than

in N. kinbereii, The vagina in N. capsiformis is

distincily divided into smaller, thick-walled night

lobe and much larger membranous left lobe, while

in \. kitbered( the vagina consists only of the thin-

walled lobe (Remane 1964, Woodward 1982),

Genus Stenowabis Reuter, 980

Type-species (original designation): Cnriseres

annulicornis Reuter, 1882.

Body more or less elongated, Head behind eyes

with approxintately parallel sides. Ocelli set wide

PLANT BUGS, NABIDAE a5

FIGURE 3. Nabis kinbersit Reut:

aedeagus; ¢ — vagina,

a — paramere; b —

Antennae and legs long, often with dark rings,

Collar and hind lobe of pronotum with prominent

punctuation; fore lobe with characteristic pattern

of brown patches. Connexivum seen from below not

separated from abdominal segments by impression

or groove, often with dark patches.

Parameres of diverse shape, often with complex

outlines; aedeagus with various set of selerites in

shape of hooks, plane or dentate plates, etc. Vagina

of various shape, more often asymmetrical, with

two parietal glands.

Majority of species macropterous, some repre-

sented both by macro- and brachypterous forms;

hemelytra sometimes considerably reduced.

The genus is widely distributed in Australia,

except for the western regions,

KEY fo THE AUSTRALIAN SPECIES

OF STENONABIS

] — Dark median longitudinal stripe on hind lobe

of pronolum more or less widening toward base;

hind temora dark apically ..........0 005 2

— Dark median longitudinal stripe on hind tobe

of pronotum usually not widening toward base;

if So widening (S. roseus), all femora not dark

FY) (0: | hr rn Baa

— Outer vein of corjum(R+M) and cubital vein

(Cu), at least distally, pink or pinkish or heme-

lyira short; total length of body 6,0-7,6 mm ,

PS RON mani na = nitidicollis, Kerzhner

— Veins of corium without pink tones, macrop-

terous; total length of body 7.-75-9.60 mm . .

tae pete le dted wetted vied darwint Kerzhner

3 — All femora yellowish, without dark tones 4

-— Hind or mid femora dark or black ..... 5

4 — Narrow and long, with yellow or yellowish

pink body and outer vein of corium bright pink

or pink, al least distally; macroprerous; total

length of body 95-10.) mm, width across

hemelytra 1,95-2.15 mm .... roseus Kerzhier

— Broader, with derty yellow body and veins of

corium without pink [ones; macropterous or

brachypterous; total length of body 8,0-9.4 mm,

width across hemelytra 2,0-2.9 MM .......4.

jae oalnist ese fp vse freee tenner eer i, wee tt robustus Kerzhner

— Dark median longitudinal stripe on pronotum

uniformly wide tor its whole length ....... 6

— Dark median longiludinal stripe wider on

collar and lore Jobe and noticeably narrower on

hind lobe of pronotum ,

6 — Pronotum with addilional stripes on cach side

of median stripe, very indistinet on hind lobe of

pronotum; brachypterous; total length of body

TST MM ocr ccc geniculatus Erichson

— Pronotum with additional stripes on each side

of median stripe, distinct on hind lobe of

pronotum; maeropterous; total length of body

(a) 8.0mm . _ moarningtoni sp. nov.

7 — Whole body, including head and ai a dulk

total length 7.4-7.9 mm ._..-..-

8 — Hind lobe of pronatum more shiny than tore

lobe; extreme lateral stripe on hind lobe broad,

unbroken; one of two others, closest to median

stripe, reduced to small patch al base of pro-

notum; total length of body 6.7-7.3 mm -- .

ee ae ee communs Kerzhner

— Hind and fore lobes of pronotum equally

shiny, the rest of body dull, all three additional

stripes on each side of hind lobe noticeable, but

nearly always broken ...... 00.00 ecrjcow a

9 — At least radio-medial vein (R+M) of corium

distally pink or pinkish; eyes reddish brown;

blade of paramere relatively narrow, with a large

hook; vagina asymmetrical; total length of budy

708.6 MM vo. repre i imitator Kerzhner

— Radio-medial vein of corium without pink or

pinkish tones; eves pinkish brown; blade of para-

mere broad, with relatively small hook; vagina

symmetrical; total length of body 7,75-8.25 mm

Peer Le re es ee henrieitue sp. nov.

86 N.G. STROMMER

Stenonabis henriettae sp. nov.

(Figs 4a, b, c, d, e, f)

Description

Head: slightly shiny except very shiny vertex,

clypeus and median stripe on collar; pale yellow,

with pale brown stripe between eyes dorsally, widen-

ing toward base of clypeus, eyes and ocelli reddish

brown, clypeus and antennifers brownish; head

beneath dirty yellow. Antennal segments I and II,

except brown apex, dirty yellow, segments III and

IV yellowish brown. Rostral segments yellowish

brown dorsally and yellow ventrally. A few hairs

dorsally, shorter sparse hairs ventrally and very

short dense ones behind eyes dorsally.

Thorax; pronotum yellow, with pale brown

median stripe, becoming narrower on hind lobe; two

additional parallel brownish stripes on collar

laterally and brownish pattern on fore lobe; three

brownish broken parallel stripes on both sides of

median one on hind lobe.

Collar and hind lobe of pronotum with distinct

punctation; collar with shallow transverse impress-

ion in middle; demarcation between fore and hind

lobes distinct; anterior margin of pronotum slightly

concave, posterior margin nearly straight, lateral

margins shallowly concave between lobes, fore lobe

slightly raised above collar; hind lobe slightly raised

above fore lobe; fore lobe 1.2-1.5 times shorter than

hind lobe. Scutellum dull, dirty yellow with dark

brown median stripe not reaching apex and with

shallow impression in middle. Legs brownish yellow.

Coxae and trochanters stramineous; fore and mid

femora pale yellow dorsally, brownish with irregular

yellow patches ventrally; hind femora stramineous

except brown distal one-fifth; all tibiae brownish

yellow, brown distally. Hemelytra brownish with

yellow veins and yellow areas between them, with

brown apex; clavus with two rows of indistinct

punctures along basal half of claval suture; mem-

brane yellow, translucent, with brown veins and

without closed cells (rarely with | or 2); hemelytra

surpassing apex of abdomen. Ventrally thorax

brownish, meso- and metapleura with dark brown

stripe laterally, meron and metepisternum yellow,

Abdomen: yellow beneath with brown median

and lateral longitudinal stripes on each side of med-

ian one; genital segment brown, with long light

hairs. Abdomen in females dull, in males very shiny,

covered with short yellow hairs.

Male genitalia: paramere of medium size, with

wide blade, prominent hook laterally and small

tooth on top of blade (Figs 4a, b, c); aedeagus large,

with number of differently shaped sclerites (Fig.

4d).

Female genitalia: Vagina small, symmetrical, thin-

walled, with light transverse wrinkles and large

parietal glands (Figs 4e, f).

Type material

Holotype — 1 o, North Queensland, Henrietta

Cr., Palmerston Nat. Park, 23 Jan. 1970, G.B. Mon-

teith (QM); Paratypes — 3 9, same data as for

holotype (QM).

Other material examined

North Queensland: 1 o, 1 9, Iron Range, Cape

York Pen., 26 May-2 June 1971, B.K. Cantrell; 1

o, Iron Range, Middle Claudie R., 19-20 Oct. 1974,

M.S. Moulds; | o’, lron Range, 16-23 Nov. 1965,

G. Monteith; 1 o, Dividing Range, Cape York Pen.,

15 km W. of Captain Billy Cr., 142°45’ E., 11°40’

S., 4-9 July 1975, G. Monteith (all specimens QM).

Measurements

Head length o 1,05-1.10, 9 1,05-1.25, preocular

part o& 0.55-0.60, 9 0.55-0.70, postocular part o

0.15, 9 0.10-0.15, length of eyes o 0.35, 9

0.35-0.40; width across eyes & 0.85, 9 0.80-0.85,

interocular distance o 0.35, 9 0.30-0,35, width in

front of eyes o, 9 0.40-0.45, width of eyes o, 9

0.25, width behind eyes o, 9 0.60-0.65; length

antennal segments! o 1.10, 9 1.05-1.35, II o 1.50,

9 1,35-1.50, II] 9 1.60-1.85 (Oo missing), 1V 9

1.55-1.60. Length rostral segments II] o 1.05, 9

1.10-1.20, I] o, 9 0.95-1.05, IV co, 9 0.50.

Median length of pronotum o 1.50-1.70, @

1.60-1.70, fore lobe o 0.55, 9 0.55-0.65, hind lobe

o 0,65-0.85, 9 0.75-0.85, collar o 0.25-0.30, 9

0.30; anterior width o 0.70, 9 0.75-0.85, posterior

width o 1.55, 9 1.70-1.90. Scutellum length o

0.55-0.70, 9 0.65-0.70, basal width o 0.75, 9

0.80-0.85, commissure o 0.95-1.00, 9 0.95-1.15.

Length fore femora o 2.50-2.55, 9 2.30-2.65,

tibiae o 2.25-2.55, 9 1,.75-2.35, mid femora &

2.30-2.45, 9 2.15-2.50, tibiae o 2.05-2.30, 9

2.00-2.95, hind femora o 3.00-3.30, 9 3.00-3.50,

tibiae o 3.50-3.75, 9 3.25-4.00. Length of body

o 7.75-8.10 mm, 9 8.00-8.75 mm; width across

hemelytra o 1.60 mm, 9 1.75-2.05 mm (type

material).

Remarks

S. henriettae is found so far only in Queensland.

It is very close in appearance and body measure-

ments to S. communis and S. imitator; from the

former it differs by the less shiny hind lobe of pro-

notum, from the latter by the absence of the pink

tones of the veins of the corium, The difference bet-

ween the male and female genitalia of S. henriettae

and these two species is very obvious: the presence

of the hook on the top of the blade of the paramere

(lacking in S. communis and S. imitator) and the

asymmetrical vagina and parietal glands (symmet-

rical in these two species).

PLANT BUCS, NABIDAF a7

FIGURE 4 Srenonabiy henrietiae sp. nov.) a,b, © —

paramere, various positions, d — aedeagus; e — vagina,

view from above; [ — the same, from below.

Stenonabis imitator Kerzhner

(Figs 5a, b, ¢, d, e)

Stenonahis initaror Kerzhner, 1969: 310-312, Fig,

17.

Descriplion

Head, collar and pronatum slightly shiny, heme-

lytra and scutellum dull, sometimes whole body

except clypeus dull.

Head: dirty yellow with darkish elypeus; same-

limes areas in front of and behind eyes and long-

itudinal stripe between eyes brownish yellow with

brown clypeus; head beneath yellow to brownish

yellow, sometimes whitish. Eyes and ocelli reddish

brown or brown; antennifers brown, antennae and

rosirum yellow or dirly yellow, antennal segment

I brown apically.

Thorax: pronotum yellow or dirty yellow with

median longittidinal stripe becoming very narrow

and sometimes indistinct on hind lobe; collar yellow

with median and two additional lateral siripes,

sometimes indistinet; fore lobe with pale brown or

brown, sometimes very indistinet, pattern; hind lobe

with additional stripes on each side of median one:

broad curved lateral and two narrower, broken, in-

distinet stripes between lateral and median, Collar

wilh shallow punctures, those on hind lobe of pro-

notum deeper ard denser; fore lobe raised above

collar, hind lobe raised above front lobes basally;

auterior and posterior marging of pronotum nearly

straight; lateral margins slightly concave; fore lobe

separated from hind by shallow impression. Scut-

ellum yellow to dirty yellow with dark brown dif-

fused median longitudinal stripe. Coxae yellow Lo

dirly yellow, trochanters yellow; femora yellow 10

dirty yellow, hind (sometimes also mid) temora

brown apically; ubiae yellow to clirty yellow, brown

apically, Hemelytra yellow to dirty yellows veins of

corium and clayal suture yellow with brownish lat-

eral margins; R+M vein of corium pink or pinkish

distally; apex of corium brown; membrane opaque,

yellow or brawnish yellow, with straight brown

veins, Ventrally thorax yellow or brownish yellow;

sometimes meso- and metasternum brownish:

pleura yellow with broad median stripe, sometimes

meso- and metapleura brownish yellow or dark

brown.

Abdomen. yellow or brownish yellow ventrally

with brown farrow median longitudinal stripe and

broader lateral stripes on each side of median;

sometimes all stripes fused together, diffused or

indistinct, in this case whole abdomen becoming

brawnish yellow; sometimes median stripe and two

lateral very indistinet, in this case whole abdomen

appears brownish; conmexivum dirty yellow or

brownish,

Male and female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969).

Type material

Holotype — | co. Queensland, Cairns District,

AM. Lea (SAMA); Paratypes — 4 07, 2 9 same dala

as for holotype (SAMA, ZIN, examined except for

malerial rom Z1N).

Other material examined

North Queensland; | o, Mossman, 25 March

1967, M.S. Upton (ANIC); Lo, | @, The Boulders,

via Babinda, 15 Dec. 1966, B. Cantrell (EUQ); 1 or,

Innisfail, a1 light, 16 May 1954, P, Kennedy (EUQ);

Northern Territory: | o, 1 km SE of Batchelor, wi

ligt, 12 Apr. 1966, N, McFarland (SAMA).

Measurements

In Kerzhner (1969).

Remarks

S. imitator is very similar in appearance and body

measurements lo 8. communis and §. henriet(ee.

but differs very clearly in the male and female geni-

jalia; il also differs (rom these species in the pink

tones of R +M vein of the corium (8. henriertae),

int the less shiny hind lobe of the pronotum (4.

compinnis).

Stenonabis geniculgtus (Erichson)

(Pigs 6a, b)

Nahis geniculaius Erichson, 1842: 282.

Reduviolus (Stenonabis) geniculatus; Reuler, 908:

Log.

Srenonabis geniculatus: Kerzhner, (969: 300.

88 WG. STROMMER

PIGURE 5, Srenonahis intitatur Kerazh.: a — paramere,

lateral view; b — (he same, from below; © — acdeayus,

d — Vagina, view trorn above; e — the same, fram below

(Kerzhuer 1969),

Desvription

Head, pronotum and abdomen shiny, hemelytra

and seutellum duil.

ead: brown, whitish beneath; clypeus and juga

smooth and more shiny than rest of head; head dor

sally wich fwo dark brown parallel lines between

eyes, diverging toward clypeus; eyes and ocelli large,

feddish brown, Antennal segments f and II yellow,

{1 brown apically (segments I}l and TY missing).

Rostral segment | yellowish brown, segment I!

brownish yellow, HI and IV pale brown.

Thorax; pronotum yellowish brown with wide

median longitudinal stripe; additional stripes on

hind lobe of pronotum rudimentary, represented by

two dark brown patches at base on each side of

median stripe. Collar and hind Jobe of pronotum

with coarse punctures; demarcation between ore

and hind lobe indistinct; anterior and posterior

margins of pronotum slightly concave: lateral

margins shallowly concave between lobes; fore lobe

arched and raised above collar, hind lobe Iat, short.

Scutellum with wide black median slripe reaching

apex and dirty yellow sides and wirh transverse

impression basally. Coxae dark brown, hind ones

yellow basally; trochanters brownish yellow; fore

femora dark dorsally and yellowish brown ventrally,

with clongated yellow, irregularly shaped pateh on

lateral surface distally and with yellow areas on

ventral surface distally; mid femora yellowish

brown, dark brown apically, with two small yellow

patches on ifner surface, third basal patch indis-

tinet; hind temora brownish yellow with abour distal

1/4 dark brown; fore tibiae dirty yellow, mid and

hind tibiae yellow, dark brown apically, Fore femora

stout, slightly swollen in basal hall, mid (emora with

distal half thicker than basal one, hind femora thin.

Coxae covered with short decumbent hairs, becom-

ing longer and denser on fernora, especially on yen-

tral surface, Hemelytra very short, cover first visible

tergite laterally, their apical margins straight,

oblique, direcced toward apex of scutellum, with a

few very short hairs; membrane extremely short,

hardly noticeable.

Abdomen: yellowish brawn, with dark brown

median longitudinal stripe dorsally; lateral margins

and end of abdomen ventrally brownish yellow,

Shorl decumbent yellow hairs ventrally, smooth and

hairless dorsally, exeepr for hairy lateral margins,

Male gentialia: unknown,

Female genitalia’ vagina asymmetrical, very

wrinkled above and beneath, with pointed rounded

apex; parietal glands large, nearly symmetrical, vis-

ible from above (Fig, 6a, b).

Type inaterial

Holotype ~— 1 9, brachypterous, Tasmania,

Schayer (Z4BM, examined),

Other material examined

Tasmania: | 9, brachypterous, Cynthia Bay,

Luke St Clair, 7-8 Feb, 1967, G, Monteith (QM).

Males unknown.

Measurements

Head length 1.10-1,15, preoeular part 0.55-0,60,

postocular 0,10, length of eyes 0.45: width aeross

eyes 1.00-1,05, inlerocular distance 0.45, width in

front of eyes 0.50-0.55, width of eyes 0,25, widtl

behind eyes 0,75, Length antennal segments |

0,70-0.75, [1 1.00-1.15, TH 1,20, (1V sezment miss

ing); length rostral segments IL 1.00, JI 1,00, 1'V

0,50, Median length of pronotum 1,55, fore lobe

0.75-0,80. collar 0.20-0.30; anterior width 0,95,

nasterior width 1.70-1.75; length of scutellurn 0.55,

width 0.60. Length fore femora 1.80-1.85, width

0,50, ibiae 1.75; mid femora 2.00, width 0.40-0.45,

tibiae 1,70-1.75; hind femora 2,50, tibiae 2.75.

Lengih of body 7,0-7.1 mm, width across abdomen

2.7-2.8mm (holotype and another 9 from

Tasmania).

Remarks

S. geniculalus is a rare species; the specinien

examined differs from the type by the general dark

brown colour of the body and appendages (brown-

ish yellow in the type), by the presence of two paras

lel dark brown lines between the eyes dorsally (lack-

ing in the type) and by the evenly brawn colour al

the abdomen (yellow With a brawn median longi-

PLANT BUGS, NAKIDAE 89

tudinal siripe in the type); the size and proportions

of the body in Lhe two specimens are very close. The

species differs from the other Australian species by

the markings of the pronotum and the structure of

ihe female genitalia.

FIGURE 6, Stenonabls geniculatus Erich.; a — vagina,

view from above; b — ihe same, from below.

Slenonabis roseus Kerzhner

(Figs 7a, 6, ¢)

Stenonabis roseus Kerzhner, 1969: 306-307, Pie. 14.

Description

Light-coloured species: head and hind lobe of

pronotum very shiny, collar and fore lobes less

shiny, hemelytra and scutellum dull. Main colour

pinkish yellow to dirty pink. Head, antennae, ros-

trum, legs and hemelytra pale, without any dark

markings,

Head: Pinkish yellow with pinkish clypens and

brownish ted eyes} antenmilers darkishy antennal

segment I pinkish yellow, other segments, as well

as rostral ones, dirly yellow.

Thorax: Collar and fore lobe of pronotum pink-

ish yellow, hind lobe yellow; collar, pronotum and

seurellum with light brown, rather narrow median

stripe, sometimes widening at base of pronotum;

fore lobe with light brown pattern; hind lobe with

2 or 3 additional broken pale brown stripes on each

side of median one, sometimes without any visible

additional stripes. Collar with dense punctures;

pronotum with fore and hind lobes separated by

shallow impression; anterior and posterior margins

of pronotum slighUy curved, lateral margins shal-

lowly concave between lobes; hind lobe gradually

raiged toward hind margin; punctures on hind lobe

coarser and deeper anteriorly, becoming finer and

shallower posteriorly. Scutellum with yellow sides,

Coxae and trochanters stramineous; fore femora

pinkish yellow with aboul proximal 1/5. stram-

ineous; mid and hind femora dirty yellow with

about proximal 1/2 stramineous; all tibiae dirty

yellow. Hemelytra pinkish yellow; well surpassing

apex of abdomen, clavus and membrane basally

dirty yellow, clavus with two cows of indistinct

punctures alongside basal 1/2 of claval suture; all

veins of corium or at least Cu vein pinkish or pink,

membrane with brown veins. Ventrally thorax

yellow with brown lateral stripe on cach side,

Abdomen: shiny, brownish yellow beneath, except

segments 1-1V which are stramineous, with broken

brown longitudinal stripes laterally, covered with

extremely short decumbent hairs; connexivum

brownish with yellow oval pateh on each segment;

genital segment pale brown.

Male genitalia: parameres large, with pointed api-

cal process of blade and double hook ventro-later-

ally (Pig, 7a, b); aedeagus with few plane selerites

(Fig. 7e).

Female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969).

Type nraterial

Holotype — | @, Queensland, Cairns District,

AM, Lea (SAMA); Parattypes — 2 9, the same data

(SAMA, ZEN; examined except for material from

ZIN),

Other material examined

Queensland; | o (head and pronotum missing),

West Normandy R., 40 ml? of Cooktown, 5 May

1970, G, Monteith (QM); 1 9, Kuranda, 28 Dec.

1963, G. Monteith (QM).

Measuremen(s

In Kerzhner (1969), Length of body 9.50-

10.0 mm, width across hemelytra 2,10-2.15 mm

(type material).

Remarks

§. rosevs is known so far only from North

Queensland and is distinguished from other species

by its large and light pinkish body and appendages,

by the markings of the pronotum and the structure

of the male and female genitalia,

FIGURE 7. Srenanabis roseuy Kerzh,; a, b — paramere,

various positions, ¢ — aedeagus.

Stenonabis nitidicollis Kerzhner

(Figs 8a, b, ¢, a)

Stenonabis nitidicollis Kerzhner, 1969: 307-308, Fig,

15.

90 NG. STROMMER

Macrapierous form

Heed: brownish yellow, shiny, appearing whitish

beneath, areas around eves pale yellaw; rwo dark

brown parallel lofgitudinal lines restricring brown-

ish areas between eves; eyes and ocelli reddish

brawn, Antennae and rostrum yellow to dirty yel-

low, antennal segment J] with dark brown ning at

about distal |/5. Short yellow hairs distally, white

pubescence and longer sparse hairs ventrally; sides

behind eyes nearly straight.

Thorax: pronotum shiny yellow with narrow

brown median stripe, more or Jess widening ar post-

erjor margin of very shiny hind lobe; additional

brown stripe on collar on each sides lore labe with

brown pattern; hind lobe with curved brown strupe

an each side of niedian one, sametimes widening

al posterior margin. Collar and hind Jobe of

pronotum with sparse, fine punetures; anterior and

posletior margins of pronotum nearly straight,

lateral imipression between lobes shallow,

demarcation between lobes indistinct medially; fore

lobe slightly raised above collar, hind lobe raised

toward posterior margin. Scuteilum slightly shiny

with wide black median stripe reaching apex, Legs

brownish yellow to pale yellow, coxae pale yellow

10 dirly yellow with lore caxae brownish anteriorly;

fore and mid femora brownish yellow, pale on inner

surface and with short brown Iransverse stripes on

outer surface; hind femora brownish yellow with

brown ring near distal 1/5 all tibiae pale yellow

with brownish sing apically, Hemelytra slightly

shiny brownish yellow; commissure and veins of

corium yellow With brownish rim along both sides,

R+M and Cu veins of corium red for about

posterior 1/2 and on border With membrane

between veins thus forming triangular ell; space

between veins yellow lo dirty yellow: menibrane

hyaline, yellow, with brownish straight veins. Heme-

lytra reaching end of abdomen; vovered with short

yellow hairs basally and for 3/4 length taterally.

Ventrally thorax yellow, metasternum with dark

brown patch medjaliy, pleura yellow with dark

brown, nearly black longitudinal stripe en each side.

Abdomen; yellow beneath, with brown median

longitudinal stripe and another one on each side

of median; connexivum yellow with pinkish narrow

external edge and small pinkish spots on each

segment.

Brachyprerous forni

Head: dorsally dark brown, appearing whilish

beneath; rostral segments 1 and If dirty yellow

(segments IL and IV and antennae missin).

Thorax: pronatum shiny, with coarse punctures

on collar and hind lobe: anterior margin of pro-

hotum slightly concave, posterior marzin curved;

demarcation between lobes indistinet; hind lobe nor

(aised aboye fore lobe; pronotum shorter than in

macropterous forms. Black médian stripe on scul-

ellum noc reaching apex; scutellum with truncate

apex, wider than long. Hemelytra dirty yellow, with

indisuinet veins, very short, vovering first visible

fergile laterally, apical margin straight, oblique,

directed toward apex of scutelluim, with few shart

hairs; membrane absent.

Abdamen; shiny, covered with short deewmbent

silvery hairs,

Male genitalia: paramere of medium size and

distinct shape, with oblique tooth on top of blade

and hook laterally (Fiz. 8a, b, c);.aedeagus small,

with numbers of sclerites (Fiz. &d).

Female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969).

Type matertul

Holotype — | 2, New South Wales, Engadine

(?) (difficult to read label), 6 Dec. 1958 (AMNH,

not examined).

Other muterial examined

Queensland: | of, macroprerous, Bald MI. area,

3000’ =4000' via Emu Vale, 26-30 (month omitted)

1975, G, Monteith (QM); | o, macropterous.

Crater Nat, Park, Atherlon Tbid,. 25 Apr. 1970

(QM); 1 9, macropterous, Brisbane, 5 Oct, 1942,

E.A. Bernays (QM); 1 o&, brachypterous, Upper

Brookfield, 14 Apr. 1962, T.E. Woodward (QM),

Measurenients

Macrapteraus form: head length @ 1,00, 9 1.05,

preocular part O 0,50, 9 0.55, posracular oF 0.10,

2 G15, length af eyes o, > 0.35: width seross eyes

co 0.80-0.85, 9 O85, interovular distance co

0.35-0.40, 9 0.35, width in front of eves o

0.35-0,40, 9 0.45, behind eyes o 0.55-U.60, 9

0,60. Length antennal segments | cf 0,85-0.95, 9

0.90, Jo, O 1.25, lo 140, § 150 Ivo @

150. Length rostral segments 11 o 0,95-1.00, ©

1.00, WE o& 0.80-0.95, 9 0.95. TV co, @ U.50-

Median length of pronotum o& 140-150, Q 1.60,

collar c, 9 0.25, fore lobe om 1.0, 9 Lt times

shorter than fiind lober cr 0.55-0.60, @ 0.55 ana

@ 0,60-0.65, 9 (80 respectively; anterior width

cr 0,65-0,70, 9 0,70, posterior width er 7.60-1,70,

9 1.75. Seurellum Jength o 0.60-0.65, 9 (1.90,

widilh o 75, 2 1.00. Lensth fore femora o

1.95-2.10, 9 2.00, tibiae o& [-60=1.85, © 1.80, 1nid

femora o, 9 2,00, tibiae oF 1.60-1.85, © 1.75, hind

femora co 2.50-2.75, 9 SO. tibiae o 2.75-3.25,

Y 3.00. Toral lengit of bady: & 6.0-7.5 mm, ©

7.6 mm; width across hemelytrra o 1.5-7,7, @

1.7 mm {material examined).

Brachypterous form: head lengih (or) 1.00, pre-

ocular part 0.51, pastecular part 0.15, length af eyes

U.37, width behind eves 0.15; antennae missing.

Length rosiral sepment 1 1.00 (WL and 1 missing).

Median length of pronotum 1,25, collar 0.20; hind

Jobe very short, 1,3 times shorier than fore lobe

PLANT BUGS, NARIDAE “I

(0.45 and 0.60 respectively), anterior width of

pronotum 0,75, posterior 1,50; seutellum length

0.60, width 0.75, Length tore femora 2.10, tibiae

1.85, mid femora 2.00, tibiae 1.75, hind temara 2.75,

tibiae 3.25, Length of body (co) 6.75, width acrass

hemelyira 1,45 mm (examined material),

Remarks

S. nitidicollis differs trom other species by its

small size, by the kind of markings.of the pronotum

and by the structure of the male and female geni-

talia,

FIGURE 8. Sterunabis nilidivallis Kereh. a, by © —

paramere, various positions, d — aedeagus.

Stenonabis darwini Kerzhner

(Figs 9a, b, ¢)

Stenanabis darwini Kerzhner, 1969; 304-306, Fig.

13.

Description

Upper side of body slightly shiny, scutellum dull,

Head: brown; areas near eyes dirty yellow dor-

sally, with 2 dark brown lines, parallel berween eyes

and diverging before base of clypeus, Eyes and ovelli

reddish brown; antennifers and antennal segments

brownish yellow, segment IH dark distally; rostral

segments dirty yellow, segment IV dark distally.

Thorax: collar and pronotum dirty yellow, with

dark brown markings; median longitudinal stripe,

narrower on hind lobe distally and widening again

basally, and | or 2 addilional stripes on each side

of median one so that all 5 stripes parallel and more

prominent posteriorly; fore lobe with brown pat-

tern. Collar and hind lobe of pronotuin with fine

Punetures; anterior and posterior margins of pro-

notum straight, lateral margins. shallawly concave

between lobes. Scutellum dark brown, nearly black,

with 2 small yellow patches laterally. Coxae and

irochanters brownish yellow; fore lemara yellow on

inner and brownish on outer surface, mid femora

brownish yellow ou about proximal half and dark

brown distally, hind femora with about proximal

2/3 yellow and about distal 1/3 brown; all ubiae

yellow with dark brown apices, Hemelytra almost

reaching apex of abdomen; clavus, corium and

membrane yellow; conum with yellow, membrane

with brown veins; membrane hyaline, with or with-

out closed cells and with ¥ or LO veins at posterior

margin. Ventrally |horax dark brown,

Abdomen: brownish yellow, with small yellow

spot on each segment of connexivum, covered with

short silver hairs, genital segment with long pale

ones,

Male genitalia: parameres small, with tooth on

top of blade medially and large hook laterally (Fig.

9a, b); aedeagus small, with @ sclerites (2 dentate

and 4 plane) in basal half (Fig, 9c).

Female genitalia: in Kerzhner (1969).

Type material

Holotype — | 9, Darwin, GF Hill (SAMA)

(examined),

Other matertal examined

Northern Territory: | or, 1 9, S km NW of

Cuhills Crossing, East Alligator River, 28 May 1973,

M.S. Upton (ANIC); Queensland! | oa, Lockerbie

Area, Cape York, 13-27 Apr. 1973, G. Montenh

(QM).

Measurements

Head length o 1.05-1,35, 9 [.20-1.35, preocular

part o 0.55-0.75, 9 0.64-0.75, postocular parl &

0.15-0,20, 2 0,14-0,20, length of eyes o 0.35-0.40,

2 0.40-0.43; width across eyes co 0,80-0,95,

().83-0.95, interocular distance co, 9 0.30-0.40,

width in front of eyes ov 045-050, 9 0,44-0,50,

behind eyes cr 0,60-0.65, @ 0.60-0.70. Length

anlennal sepyments | co 1,30-1.50, 9 1,36-1,75,

or 2.00-2.10, § 2.10-2.35, IH o 2.45, @ 2.10-2.35,

LV missing. Length rostral segments Ho! 0.85-1,10,

0.50-0.55, ¢ 0.36-0.55. Median length of

pronotum o 1,45-1,70, @ 1.50-L8U, fore lobe o

0.65, 9 0.60-0.70, collar co 0,25-0.40, © 0,30-0.35,

anterior width o 0,60-0.75, 2 0.70-0.80, posterior

width o 145-165, 9 1,50-1.75. Median length of

scutellum ct 0.75, 9 0.70-0.75, basal width o

0,70-0,80, 9 0.70-0.75, Length tore femora cr

2,45-2,50, 9 2.65-3.30, tibiae & 2,25-2.50, 9

2.35-2,75, mid femora o 2.25=2.75, 9 2,35-2.75,

tbiav o 2.25-2,50, 9 2.25-2.65, hind lemora &

3.40-4.00, 9 3.65-4.50, tibiae o 4.70-4.25, Oo

4.60-4,65, Length of body o 7.75-9.00 mm, 9

8.80-9.60 mm, width across hemelytra @&

1.30-1.75 mm, 9 |,50-1,80 mm (material

examined).

Remarks

S. darwini is known so far from the Northern

Territory and Queensland and is distinguished from

other Australian species by the narrow body, dark

92 NG, STROMMER

coloration, proportions and markings of the pro-

notum and the structure of the male and female

genitalia.

FIGURE 9. Srenonabis darwin) Kerzh.. a — paramere,

lateral view; b — the same, from helow; ¢ — acdeagus.

Stenonabis morningtoni sp. nav.

(Figs 10a, b, c, d)

Description

Head dorsally, pronofum and abdomen shiny,

scutellum, hemelytra and thorax dull,

Head: dark brown dorsally except for dirty yellow

areas around eyes; appears whitish beneath. Anten-

nal segments [| and If brown (f11 and 1V missing);

rostral segments yellow except for brown | one;

antennal segment [1 with brownish distal fifth.

Short silver hairs ventrally and on areas around eyes

dorsally and a few long fine hairs on each side later-

ally, Ocelli large, shiny, nearly touching posterior

margin of head, with anterior margins in front of

level of posterior margins of eyes.

Thorax: pronotuin yellow with wide brown med-

ian longitudinal stripe; collar brownish ventrally,

with narrow brown additional stripe on each side

of median one laterally, tore lobe with brawn pat-

tern; hind lobe with 2 parallel brownish stripes

laterally on each side of median one, one of them,

nearest to median, broken and indistinct. Collar

with very fine and hind lobe of pronotum with

coarse punctures; fore lobe raised above collar

rather steeply, hind lobe raised aboye fore lobe

gradually toward base of pronotum; demarcation

between lobes indistinct; anterior margin of fore

lobe slightly convex, posterior margin of hind lobe

nearly straight; lateral margins of pronotum

shallowly concave, nearly straight between fore and

hind lobes; fore lobe 1.15 times longer than hind

lobe, Scutellum yellow with broad black median

longitudinal stripe reaching its apex and with basal

impression and pointed apex, Thorax beneath

yellowish brown with yellow metasternum and dark

brown meso- and mmetapleura. Leys brownish yellow,

coxae and trochanters yellow, fore coxae brown

anteriorly; fore femora dirty yellow on inner lateral

surface and much darker outside dorsally and

ventrally; mid and hind femora dirty yellow, pale

yellow basally, brown apically, with indistinct pale

brown ring medially; all tibiae brownish yellow.

Hemelytra brownish yellow with indistinet veins,

corjum covered with two rows of punetures

alongside basal 1/2 of claval suture; membrane

greyish yellow, translucent, with 3 closed cells;

hemelytra surpassing apex of ab-

domen,

Abdamen: brown beneath, with yellowish brown

basal area and dirty yellow connexivum; abdomen

covered with shart dense silver hairs; small shiny

areas free of hairs on 1] basal segment of con-

nexivum,

Male genitalia; parameres large, with wide blade

and 3 hooks on it, big hook ventro-laterally with

pointed apex and 2 smaller ones dorsally, one of

these al base of blade and another on top of blade

medially (Fig. 10a, b, c); aedeagus of medium size,

with 6 rather big selerites (3 plane and 3 with forked

end, Fig. 10d),

Tipe material

Holotype — | o, macropterous, Qld,

Mornington Cr: (? not clear writing), J, Mission,

15 May 1963, N,B. Tindale and P. Aitken (SAMA),

Females unknown,

Measurements

Head length 1.15, preocular part 0.60, postocular

part 0.15, length of eyes 0.40; width across eyes 0.85,

interocular distance 0.30, width in front of eyes 0.45,

behind eyes 0.55. Length antennal segments L 0.85,

1] 1.25; length rostral segments 11 0.80, [11 0.95, ['V

0.30, Median length of pronotum 1.70, collar 0.30,

fore lobe 0.75, hind lobe 0.65; anterior width 0.85,

posterior width 1.80, Scutellum length 0.85, width

1.00, Length fore fernora 2.00, tibiae 1.55, mid

PLANT BUGS, NAB/DAE 93

FIGURE 10. Srenonabis marningtoni sp. nov. a; b, e—

paramere, yarious positions; d — aedeagus.

femora 1.90, tibiae 1.75, hind femora 2.60, tibiae

2.80, Length of body 8.0 mm, width across

hemelytra 2.2 mm (holotype).

Remarks

The species is known only from type locality in

Queensland. It is close in appearance to other

Stenonabis species, but is clearly distinguished by

the kind of markings of the pronotum and by the

distinet shape of the male genitalia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

‘This study was supported and the facilities provided by

the Museum of Victoria, for which special thanks are due

to Dr A. Neboiss and Mr K. Walker, For the loan of the

material, (he author is grateful to the Museums listed in

the Introduction. Particularly appreciated was the help

of the late Dr TE. Woodward and Dr 1,M, Kerzhner, of

the Zoological Institute, Academy of Science, USSR, in

the preparation of this paper. (Dr Kerzhner helped es-

pecially with the drawings of the female genitalia in Nabis

fraternus and Nabis bifarmis, as well as the ‘Remarks’ to

Nabis kinbersii).

REFERENCES

BERGROTH, E.E, 1927. Hemiptera Heteroptera from

New Zealand. Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst. 57: 681,

CHEESMAN, L.E. 1927. A contribution toward the insect

fauna of French Oceania. Part I. Trans. R. Ent. Soc.

Lond., 75: 147-161.

DISTANT, W.L. 1920. Rhynchota from New Caledonia.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) 6: 143-164,

ERICHSON, W.F, 1842. Beitrag zur Fauna von Vandie-

mensland mit besonderer Riicksicht auf die geograph-

ische Verbreitung der Insecten. Arch, £ Naturgesch, 8(1):

83-287.

HUTTON, FW. 1904. ‘Index Faunae Novae Zealandie’.

Dulau & Co., London, VIII, 373 pp.

KERZHNER, [.M. 1968. New and little known Palearctic

bugs of the family Nabidae (Heteroptera), Ent. Rev.

Wash. 47; §17-525.

KERZHNER, I|.M, 1969. Neue and weing bekannte Nab-

idae (Heteroptera) aus den tropischen Gebieten der

Allen Welt, Acta entom. Mus, nat. Pragae 3%; 279-399,

KERZHNER, [.M. 1981. Hemiptera family Nabidae. Jn

OA. Searlato, (Chief Ed.) and G.S. Medvedey (Ed.).

Fauna SSSR Insecta Rhynchota (Nauka: Leningrad) \3

(2): 1-326 (in Russian).

REMANE, R. 1964. Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis der

Gattung Nabis Latr. (Hemiptera, Nabidae), Zool. Beitr.

(N.E) 10 (2): 253-314.

REUTER, O.M., 1872, Nabidae noyae et minus cognilac.

Bidrag till Nabidernas Kannedom, Of. Kgl. Vet. Akad.

Férhandl. 29 (6); 79-96.

REUTER, O.M. 1908. Bemerkungen uber Nabiden nebst

Beschreibung neuer Arten, Mem. Soc. entom, Belg. 15:

87-130.

WOODWARD, T.E. 1982. The identity of the species com-

monly known in Australia as Nabis capsiformis Germar

(Hemiptera: Nabidae). J) Aust. eni. Soc, 21: 143-146,

WOODWARD, T.E, & STROMMER, N.G. 1982. Nabis

kinbergit Reuter, the current name far Tropiconabis

nigrolineatus (Distant), and its Australian distribution

(Hemiptera: Nabidae). 2 Aust. ent. Soc. 21: 306.

APPENDICULAR OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

LASIORHINUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS

(SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPILIA : VOMBATIDAE)

BY G. G. SCOTT & K. C. RICHARDSON

Summary

Brachial, antebrachial and carpal bones from the hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiorhinus latifrons) and

common wombat (Vombatus ursinus) are, with the exception of the first and second carpal bones,

all distinguishable. Likewise the pelvis, femur, tibia, fibula and epipubic bones from the hairy-

nosed wombat (L. latifrons) and common wombat (V. ursinus) all have specific characteristic

differences. To facilitate rapid specimen identification at the generic level, the different gross

morphological features are summarised.

APPENDICULAR OSTEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN

LASIORINNUS LATIFRONS (OWEN, 1845) AND VOMBATUS URSINUS

(SHAW, 1800) (MARSUPIALTA: VOMBATIDAE)

GG. SCOTT & KC. RICHARDSON

SCOTT, GG & RICHARDSON, KC, 1988. Appendicular ostealogical differences between

Lasiarhinus latifrans (Qwet\, 1845) and Farmbarus ursinus (Shaw, 1800) (Marsupialla’ Vornbatidae),

Ree, 5, Aust. Mus. 22(2): 94-102.

Brachial, antebrachial and carpal bones from the hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiarhinus lalifrons)

and common wombat (Fombaris ves/Aus) are, With the exception of the first and second earpal

bones, all distinguishable. Likewise the pelvis, femur, tibia, fibula and epipuble bunes from the

hairy-nosed wombat (2. larifrens/ and common wombat (kK uesinus) all have specific characterisric

differences. To facililale rapid specimen identification at the generic level, (he differen( gross

Morphological fearuves are summarised,

A number of consistently different features berween specimens of the two genera have been

recognised during this study, In the forelimb the scapula has a large process present on ils caudal

anuvle in L, Avifrons, but only a tubercle is present in KE lersinus, The scapula spine is narrow

in L. datifrons, and broad in VF. wrsiaws. The coracoid pracess groove which accommodates the

bicipiial tendon is wide in dL. darifrons, bur narrow In K arsinas, The scapula articular tuberosity

is vestigial in L, /atifrons, bul well developed in yrsinus, A deep triangular fossa 1s adjacent

(o rhe scapula Infra-articular wiberosity in L. datifrons, but absent in kt wrsinus, The clavicular

shafl has a ¢anvex tedial surlace in L£. /eri/rons, but this is sharp and sickle-shaped in / wesinus,

A large ridge on the laterodorsal surface of the shaft in L. Jarifrons is vestigial in Mo wrsinus.

The sternoclavicular surface is roughened wilh a deep lossa in L. durifrons, but roughened having

a fossa confluent with a deep groove in Ke wrsinus, The acromioelavicular articular surface has

a large tubercle in L. dutd//rors. which is vesogial inh uesinus, The clavicular breadth, diamerer

of the humeral head, amd ihe width of (he humeral shaft are all significantly different.

Many previously unrecorded, consistent differences were found in the hind|inib. The pelvic

iliae crest is directed laterally and forms a right angle with body of ilium in _L.. farifrons, bur

is Nickle-shaped' in ursinus, Its lateral extremiry is expanded in L, lati/rons, but pointed in

b ursinus, The iliopectineal eminence is a large process in L. lalifrons, bul a small tubercle in

Vo ursinus, The pelvic ischiahe tuberosity is narrow, approximately 20 mm, in L. larifrons, but

wide, approximately 40 mm, in M ursinws, Epipubie bones are quite distinct, with the articular

surface broad and elongate in CL. larifrons, bur narrow i E wesinus, Its proximal ventral surface

is deeply concave in L. fati/rons, but flatin Ko wrsinus, The femur has few distinguishing features,

the greater trochanter is deeply grooved in L. darifrons, but is only a tuberosity in Eo wrsints.

On the tibia the medial intercondylar eminence fs long craniocaudally in L. /arifrans, but pointed

in F wesinus. The articular surface for the laleral condyte of the femur is circular in L. /afifrens,

but elongate in K ursinius, Other than a number of trivial differences in the fibula the only reliable,

readily recognisable difference is that the medial and caudal borders of its plantar surlace are

rounded in L. Javifrons, but square in wrsinus, The pelvic lengrh and breadrh, femur length

and fibular length are all significantly different.

G.G. Seo & KC. Richardson, School of Veterinary Studies, Murdoch University, Murdoch,

Wesrern Australia 6150, Manuscript received 3 May 1988,

Inchividual bones, particularly small ones suc as

the carpals, tarsals and phalanges, are commonly

found once decomposition, disarticularion and wea-

thering all play their part on the body of a dead

animal. These bones, commonly scattered over the

(errain, may be found individually, sometimes a Few

(upether, and occasionally large numbers in a pro-

(ected site or archaeological digging, Whatever the

cane, the identification of (hese bones is offen diffi-

cull. In some instances species identification may

be biased by modern perceptions of zoogeographic

boundaries.

This study collates the scanty information pre-

viously published on asteology of the wombat fore-

limb (Qwen 1838, Murie 1867, De Vis 1892, Scott

1915) as well ag that of the hindlimb (Owen 1838,

Murie 1867, De Vis 1892), [t describes the diag-

nostic features of bones of the forchmb and hind-

limb of the hairy-nosed wombat (Las/orhinus tatt-

Jrons) and of the common wombat (Pomparts

ursinus) Which separate the extant genera,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Specimens

Bones of the forelimt: and hindlimb of L. /ati-

Jrans and . ursinius were examined in the collect-

ions of the Australian Museum, Sydney; Brilish

Museum (Natural Histary), London; Museum of

Vicroria, Melbourne; Queensland Museum, Bris-

bane, South Australian Museum, Adelaide: and

6 GG, SCOTT & K.C. RICHARDSON

Western Australian Museum, Perth. For this study

additional specimens of L. letifrons were collected

al Blanchetown, Roonka and Swan Reach in South

Australia; and of k ursinus over the Great Dividing

Range and adjacent regions,

Measurements

The morphology of individual bones of the

forelimb was examined and any distinguishing fea-

tures noted. Adult and juvenile specimens were

examined, but only bones from adults were com-

pared for diagnostic purposes. Linear measure-

ments were made with vernier calipers on adult

specimens,

Forelimh Measurements

1. Seapula

(i) breadth, measured from the cranial angle to

the caudal angle,

(ii) length, measured from the supraglenoid tub-

ercle to the cranial angle.

. Clayicle

(i) length, measured from the elavicle-acromion

articular surface to the claviele-sternum articular

surface.

(ii) breadth, measured al the point of maximum

constriction of the shaft proximal to the clav-

ivle-sternum articular surface,

3, Homerus

(i) length, measured from the proximal surface

of the head to the distal surface of the capitulum.

(ii) head diameter, measured lateromedially,

(ii) deltoid tuberosity, maximum height above the

shaft,

(iv) articulating condyles, width measured from

the lateral surface of the lateral epicondyle to the

medial surface of the medial epicondyle,

(v) shaft width, minimum measurement proximal

to the deltoid tuberosity, but distal to the greater

tubercle.

4, Ulna

(i) length, measured from the proximal olecranon

to the distal surface of the styloid process.

5. Radivs

Gi) length, measured from the proximal surface

of the head to the distal surface of the styloid

process.

Hindlimh Measurements

|. Pelvis

(i) length, from the proximal surface of the hac

crest to the distal surface of the ischial tuberosily.

(i) breadth, from the medial surface of the iliac

tuberosity to the lateral surface of the iliae

process.

2. Femur

(i) length, from the proximal surface of the head

to the distal surface of the medial condyle.

(ii) shaft diameter, midway along (he shalt.

3. Tibia

(i) length, from the proximal surface of the inter-

condylar eminence to the distal surface of the

medial malleolus.

(ii) shaft diameter, midway along the shalt.

4, Fibula

(i) length, from the proximal surface of the lateral

condyle to the distal surface of the lateral

malleolus.

(ii) shaft diameter, midway along the shaft.

The bones of the distal forelimb and hindlimb

were examined only for morphological differences.

Osteological terminology used is as in the ‘Nomina

Anatomica Veterinaria’ (Habel ef ai. 1983).

Analvsis

Where appropriate Student's t-test, 2-'sided’, and

bivariate analysis (Simpson er a/. 1960) was used,

Bivariate regression analysis of specimens of known

sex shows no significant sexual dimorphism lor any

of ihe characters examined, 40 measurements of

both sexes were combined,

RESULTS

Measurements

For most features measiired there was an overlap

in the range of measurements between F ursinus

andl, latifrons, However, clavicle breadth, humerus

shalt width, the laleromedial diameter of the hum-

eral head, pelvis breadth and femur length were all

significantly larger (? < 0,001) in FB wrsinus. Pelvis

length (P < 0.01) and fibula length U2 < 0,05) were

also larger in Ff ursinus, Forelimb measurements

for both genera are given in Table 1. Hindlimb mea-

surements for both venera are given in Table 2.

—_— bl =

FIGURE. |, Dorsal view of the left scapula in (A)

latifrans and (B) V. ursinus, Where a, eranial border; b,

cranial angle; c, vertebral border; d, caudal angle; @ caudal

border, f, arrowed, intra-articular tuberosity; g, spine.

Scale line is 2 cm,

Morphology

The following morphological features were found

lu be diagnostically different for the two genera:

Scapula

Caudal angle

Dorsal spine

Coracoid

process

Clavicle

Shaft

(i) Medial

surface

(ii) Latero-

dorsal surface

APPENDICULAR SKELETAL DIFFERENCES OF WOMBATS 97

L. latifrons

large process

about 3 mm

wide

deep and wide-

ly grooved,

no fossa

L, latifrons

convex

large ridge

Ke oursinus

small tubercle

about 6 mm

wide

Narrow grooye,

large fossa

present

Ve ursinus

sharp and

sickle-shaped

vestigial

cet em

Infra-articular

tuberosity

Sternal articu-

lar surface

Scapula artic-

ular surface

L. latifrons

(i) vestigial

Vs ursinus

well-developed

(ii) deep no fossa, only

triangular fossa roughened

present surface

L. latifrons Ko ursinus

deep fossa fossa confluent

present with a deep

groove

large tubercle — vestigial

present

FIGURE 2. Right clavicle in (A) L. latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. (i) is a dorsolateral view, (ii) is a medial view. a,

arrowed, large ridge; b, fossa; c, groove. Scale line is 2 cm.

TABLE 1. Forelimb measurements (mm) for L. latifrons and V. ursinus.

Scapula breadth

Scapula length

Clavicle length

Clavicle breadth

Humerus length

Humerus diameter

Humerus deltoid tuberosity height

Humerus articular condyle width

Humerus shalt width

Ulna length

Radius length

* P< 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001

L. latifrons

n mean

6 49.0

6 119.6

4 81.5

5 6.3

7 108.1

7 26.9

13 27.2

9 50.6

19 13.1

4 141.9

4 109.8

TABLE 2. Hindlimb measurements (mm) for L. /atifrons and V. ursinus.

Pelvis length

Pelyis breadth

Femur length

Femur shaft diameter

Tibia length

Tibia shaft diameter

Fibula length

Fibula breadth

* P< 0,05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001

L. latifrons

mean

184.5

DRUwWwWwinwS

Vo ursinus

sd n mean sd

7.58 21 53.6 3.13

7.41 19 122.5 4.09

3.03 14 83.9 4.74

0.70 14 7.3 0.S9"**

7.89 29 121.7 3.82

2.23 28 29.8 1,35**

2.00 29 27.2 1.43

3.55 25 54.5 1,97

1.19 29 14.6 O0.85***

10.90 13 154.2 6.957

6.41 10 115.7 4,97

Vo oursinus

sd n mean sd

20,54 17 206.9 8.16**

3.65 14 71.6 4,28***

1,33 25 156.3 5.767**

0,63 27 15.1 O81

7.13 14 122.8 5.20

0.65 15 9.0 0.76

0.38 10 116.8 4.73%

0.44 9 6.9 0.60

O8 GG. SCOTT & K.C. RICHARDSON

A Ac

B B

iy ; , FIGURE 5, Craniomedial view of the left radius in (A)

b Vv ursinus and (B) L. latifrons. Where a, neck; b, radial

oe, tuberosity; ¢, arrowed, styloid process, Scale line is 2 em,

FIGURE 3, Cranial view of the deft humerus in (A) L,

latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, teres tuberosity;

b, deltoid tuberosity; c, medial epicondyle; d, lateral epi-

condyloid crest. Scale line is 2 em.

bi p

— Cc i D

FIGURE 4, Lateral view of the left ulna in (A) M ursinus - ; d

and (B) L, /atifrons, Where a, olecranon; b, arrowed, ‘a e \ e

coronoid process; c, arrowed, pit for the radial tuberosity; =. a

d, styloid process, Seale line is 2 em.

Humerus

L. latifrons oursinus co ‘ i , ;

Deltoid acutely angled shallow angled FIGURE 6. Proximal view of left radial carpal bone in

tliberasit rine Fidee (A) L. latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, radial surface;

y . 8 g b, palmar tuberosity; c, medial tubercle. Proximal view

Teres tuberosity small elongate of right ulnar carpal bone in (C) L. latifrons and (D) ¥.

Lateral epi- straight caudal shallowly eve Where d, palmar tuberosity; e, ulnar surface, Scale

condyloid crest border convex proxi- ine is 5 mm.

mally, concave :

distally Radius

Ulna L. latifrons Koursinus

L, latifrons Vsoursinus Neck shallow con- — deeply concave

Anconeal cavity proximal

process ; to radial

; . > ey tuberosity

(i) cranioproxi- ridge large process

mal surface

Shaft

ii) viewed cranial surface sickle-shaped .

laterally parallel to Lateral surface flat deep oblique

caudal surface ; depression

Coronoid elongated circular Distal forelimb

process Radial carpal bone:

Shatt L. latifrons Vo oursinus

Gj) Depression : Palmar

for radial shallow larger circular tuberosity small large

tuberosity pit

il roximally, concave . ;

a) Lateral fap * Medial tubercle small and massive and

surface and concave

tapered blunt

distally

APPENDICULAR SKELETAL DIFFERENCES OF WOMBATS

Ulnar carpal bone:

L. latifrons Vo ursinus

Ulnar articular small and oval large, concave

facet and semi-

circular

circular with

pronounced

lateral tubercle

Accessory car- small

pal articular

facet

Palmar facet circular

elongate for 3rd

and 4th carpal

bones

Accessory carpal bone:

L. latifrons

lateral border

M. ursinus

Ulnar carpal lateral border

articular facet short and elongate

square

Medial prox- small pronounced

imal tubercle

Shaft broad and flat constricted in

middle

A B

Cc — D

Va d

1G ~

E a, F

pee

(* 7)

“SN

FIGURE 7. Proximal view of the right accessory carpal

bone in (A) L. /atifrons and (B) V ursinus. Where a,

proximal facet for the ulnar carpal bone; b, constricted

shaft. Medioproximal view of the right 3rd carpal bone

in (C)_L, latifrons and (D) Vo ursinus. Where c, medial

process; d, sulcus; e, articular surface for 3rd metacarpal.

Proximal view of the right 4th carpal bone in (E) L,

latifrons and (F) V. ursinus. Where f, hamulus; g, articular

facet for ulnar carpal bone; h, fossa. Scale line is 4 mm.

Third carpal bone:

Mediodistal

process

Proximal sulcus

Fourth carpal

Palmar artic-

ular facet for

4th and 5th

metacarpals

Hamulus

Body of ulnar

carpal separated

from hamulus

by —

L. latifrons

large and

pointed

shallow

bone:

L, latifrons

small and

shallow

narrow

shallow fossa

Vo oursinus

broad and

squat

deep

Vo oursinus

large and deep

broad at its

base

deep fossa

No consistent gross morphological differences were

found for the first carpal bone, second carpal bone,

metacarpals or phalanges.

Pelvis

Iliac erest

Iliac fossa

Iliopectineal

eminence

Ramus of

pubic bone

Rectus femoris

m, origin

Surface area of

Ischiatic table

Ischiatic

tuberosity

L, latifrons

(i) points

laterally and

forms sharp

angle with body

of ilium

(ii) lateral

extremity broad

present

large

VK. ursinus

points caudally

‘sickle-shaped’

pointed

absent

small

same width as_ half width of

pubic bone bet- pubic bone bet-

ween the obtur- ween the obtur-

ator foramina ator foramina

deep fossa on indistinct

body of ilium

approximately much smaller

same as obtur-

ator foramen

narrow, well-developed,

approximately approximately

20 mm wide at 40 mm wide

point of maxi-

mum width

100 GG. SCOTT & K.C, RICHARDSON

A B

FIGURE 8. Ventral view of the pelvis in (A) L. /atifrons and (B) ¥. ursinus. Where a, iliac crest; b, arrowed, iliopectineal

eminence; c, arrowed, pecten; d, obturator foramen; e, acetabulum; f, ischiatic table; g, ischiatic tuberosity. Scale

line is 2 em.

FIGURE 9. Dorsal view of right epipubic bone in (A) L. FIGURE 10, Cranial view of left femur in (A) L. latifrons

latifrons and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, articular surface and (B) V. ursinus. Where a, head; b, vreater trochanter;

for pecten of pubis; b, arrowed, proximal tubercle; c, shaft. c, 3rd trochanter; d, lesser trochanter; e, medial condyle,

Scale line is 2 cm, Seale line is 2 cm,

Epipubic bone Femur

L. latifrons Vo oursinus L. latifrons Vo oursinus

Articular sur- elongate with narrow elongate — Greater deeply grooved indistinct

face for pectin medial surface with parallel trochanter groove

of pubic bone much broader sides

than lateral Lesser present pronounced

surface trochanter

Proximal ven- concave flat

tral surface Third pronounced present

Lateral tubercle indistinct pronounced trochanter

APPENDICULAR SKELETAL DIFFERENCES OF WOMBAT nt

FIGURE 1]. Lateral view of left tibia in (A) L. Jatifrons

and (8) b wesinis. Where a, arrowed, medial intereondylar

eminence; b, arrowed, articular surface for Fibula. Seale

line is 2 em.

Tibia

1, latifrons Fo oursinus

Medial inter- same size as larger than

condylar lateral lateral

crimence

Lateral condyle

(i) lateral almost (lat angled

surface

(i) articular circular clongate

surface for

lateral condyle

of femur

Mibula

L. latifrans Mo ursinus

Malleolus rounded, square

(plantar view) medial surfaces

Distal hindlimb

Tarsal bone morphology varied considerably within

each genus. No diagnostic differences were found

belween the two wombat genera for the tibiotarsal,

fibular tarsal, central tarsal bones, or for Ist, 2nd,

ard and 4th tarsal bones. No morphological differ-

enees were observed for the metatarsals and

phalanges.

DISCUSSION

This study found that a dumber of the morpho-

logical features claimed by Murie (1847) as being

diagnostically significant for separating the forelimb

bones of L. lutifrons from those of ursinus are

not reliable. For instanee Murie’s claim that a

marked dilference exists between the proportion of

length to breadth of the scapula of the two wombat

taxa (56% in L. lalifrons and 72% in Vo iersinus)

was found to be marginal. Other diflerences such

as scapula shape and curvature of the scapular

spine, as well as Che yarralions in depth of the sulous

lor the bivipital tendon as desoribed by Muri (1867)

were found fo be inconsistent and of no diagnostic

value.

Likewise Murie (J867) claimed that the anterior

border of the iium points downwards in &.

fatifrons, but outwards In FC ursinws, and that the

femoral shaft breadth is greatest in ZL. /atifrons. He

also reported that the fibula length was equal in

both wombat genera, and that the fibula shaft was

straighter in L, datifrons, None of (hese findings are

supported in this study.

The current study tabulates a number of diag-

fostic morphological differences allowing many

individual wombat bones of the appendicular skele-

ton to be identified to generic level. Jn addition to

this it was noted that the scapula of wrsinuys bears

a larger surface area for the insertion of M,

lrapezius and M, deltoidius than does the scapula

of L, latifrons, However, the L. /atifrons scapula

possesses a larger and more developed surface lor

the insertion of M, rhomboideus and M, serratus

ventralis. The significance of this difference in

muscle insertion sites is reflected nat only in

differences in the overall structural meehanics of

the thoracic limb of the two Wombat taxa, but alse

in differences in their burrowing and locomotor

behaviour.

For example, F, wrsinus more readily accommo-

dates the actions of the trapezius muscle to elevate

and protract the limb and the deltoideus muscle to

flex the shoulder joint as well as to lift (he humerus,

By contrast £. /udifrans is more adapted to accom-

modate the action of rhomboideus musele which

elevates and retracts the limb and shoulder, The

ventral serrate muscle supports. (he trunk, and

carries the trunk forward or backward, These

features are probably linked to L. /atifrans being

a plains dweller which digs burrows. into a flat,

usually limestone-underlaid, topography; while

ursinus is an inhabitant of the mountainous

eucalyptus forests, and commonly resorts to digging

its burrows into decomposed granite.

The bones of the forearm in both genera are well

adapted for pronation and supination, both impor-

lant prerequisites for (heir burrowing, Lt is also

evident, that except for relative size, the general

overall morphological structure of the forelimb

skeleton in Lhe wombat is quite similar to those of

the kangaroo and the koala.

Ulumately, differences in forelimb asteology of

L.. fatifrons and KF oursinuy can he explained by

reference to differences in their myology and

structural mechanics. Sonntag (1923), and more

recently Hildebrand (1974) have set (he lead in this

respect, However, Sonntag only looked at the mya-

lozy of Kk ursinus, while Hildebrand only eonsid-

ered the structural mechanies of the forelimb of L.

larifrens. In both cases their work was generalised

12 GG. SCOTT & KC, RICHARDSON

and did not attempt to explain the functional

anatomy of the two wombat genera,

Of all the hindlimb bones studied, the pelvis

shows more pertinent morphological differences

between the two extant wombat species, However,

relating these differences to the functional anatomy

of the pelvis, and the hindlimb in general, awaits

comprehensive information on the musculature of

the hindlimb in the two wombat species. No detailed

work has been done on wombat hindlimb myology.

Waterhouse (1846), Macalister (1850), Sonntag

(1923), and Elftman (1929) provided only general

information on wombat (FV. ursinus) musculature,

Their studies described the origins and insertions

of a small number of muscle groups, but lacked

detail, definitions and figures. In most instances

they are of little value for interpreting the functional

musculoskeletal anatomy of the pelvic region of the

two wombats.

Although this paper has compared the ost-

eological differences of the hindlimb of L. /atifrons

arid M ursinus, the interpretation of these differ-

ences in terms of their respective functional ana-

tomy awaits-a detailed investigation of the myology

of the pelvic limb,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Dr C.P. Groves, Australian

Nationa! University; Dr T, Flannery, Australian Museuin;

Dr D. Horton, Institute of Aboriginal Studies; Joan Dixon,

National Museum of Victoria; Dr R, Molnar, Queensland

Museum; Dr C, Kemper, South Australian Museum, for

making material available to us; and Dr D. Kitchener,

Western Australian Museum for the specimens used in the

photographs. Drs C.P, Groves and D, Horton both gave

valuable advice and support over the duration of the

project. We wish to thank Mr G. Griffiths for photography

and Ms D, Passmore for so carefully typing the paper and

earlier drafts, The project was primarily supported by an

Australian National University Research Grant,

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pelvis in marsupials. Bull, American Mus, Nat. Hist.

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Diemen’s Land, on Bass Strait and its islands, and on

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London,

HILDEBRAND, M. 1974. ‘Analysis of Vertebrate

Structure’. Wiley, New York.

HABEL, R.E,, FREWEIN, J, SACK, W.O. (Eds,) 1983.

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and Tasmanian devil, Ann. May. Nat. Hist. 4 (5):

153-173,

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Soc, Lond. 1867: 838-854.

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TWO NEW LARVAL MITES (ACARINA: ERYTHRAEIDAE)

ECTOPARASITIC ON NORTH QUEENSLAND CICADAS

BY R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Summary

Two new larval mites are described, ectoparasitic on cicadas from Cape York Peninsula,

Queensland : Leptus torresianus sp. nov. on Venustria superba Goding & Froggatt and Tamasa

doddi Goding & Froggatt; Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov. on the same two species of cicadas and

also on Mardalana suffusa Distant and Psaltoda fumipennis Ashton. Leptus torresianus larvae were

attached to the denser chitin of the cicadas (first leg tibiae). Most Caeculisoma mouldsi larvae were

attached to the wing veins, on both surfaces of both pairs of wings.

TWO NEW LARVAL MITES (ACARINA? ERYTHRAEIDAE)

ECTOPARASITIC ON NORTH QUEENSLAND CICADAS

RV. SOUTHCOTT

SOUTHCOTT, KY, 1988, “Fwo new larval mites (Acarina: Erythraeidae) ectoparasitic on north

Queensland cueadas, Rec. S. Awsl, Afus, 22(2): 103-116.

Iwo new larval injles are described, ectoparasitie on cicadas from Cape York Peninsula,

Queensland: Leplus forresiunuy sp. nov. on Feaustria superba Goding & Proggatt and Tamasa

doddi Goding & Froggatt, Caeculisoriu niduldst sp, nov, on (he same two species of cicadas

and also on Mardaluna suffusa Distant and Psaltoda fumipennis Ashton, Leptus torresianus

lurvae were attached to the denser chitin of rhe cicadas (first leg Hibiae), Most Cueculisania mouldsi

larvae were allached lo [he wing veins, an both surfaces of both pairs of wings.

RY. Southcott, Honorary Research Associate, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide,

South Australia 5000, Manuseripr received 24 August 1987,

Erythracid larval mites attach as ectoparasites to

a wide variety of terrestrial arthropods (insects,

collenibolans, arachnids) (Oudemans 1912; South-

cott 1946, 1961b; Greenslade & Southcott 1980; Wel-

bourr 1983). Various host usages ol cicadas have

been recorded. Ishii (1953) recorded that Leprus

kyushuerisis Ishii (Leptinae) parasitized three spe-

cies in Japan: Graptosaliria colorata (Stal), Mei-

muna opalifera (Walker) and Platypleura kaempyeri

Matsumara; from New Zealand Mamorangia jack-

soni Southeott (Callidosomatinae) was recorded

trom Melampsalla oromelaena Meyers, and Momo-

rungia vallara Southcart was recorded from Mel-

ampsalia oramelaena and Melumpsalta sp. (South-

cott 1972); Welbourn (1983: 138) recorded Lepius

sp, on Mugicicada seplendecim (L.) in the United

States.

Various erythracid mite larvac have been found

on other Homoptera eg. in the families Aleyro-

didae, Aphididae, Cercopidae, Cicadellidae, Delph-

acidae, Pulgoridae, Membracidae, Psyllidae (e.g.

Qudemans 1910, 1912) Pussard & André 1929;

Southcott 1946, 1961b, 1966, 1972; André 1951;

Kawashima 1958, 1961a, b; Smiley 1968; Somermaa

1973; Tseng e/ a/, 1976; Yano & Ehara 1982; Wel-

bourn 1983; Young & Welbourn 1987).

Mr M.S. Moulds, Sydney, N.SW,, observed (pers.

comm. 1987) small red miles parasitizing cicadas

in north Queensland, and forwarded six pinned

cicadas. Five of them had dried mites attached to

the legs, wings and thorax, which represent two un-

described species of Erythraecidae larvae. These are

described below as Leplus /orresianus sp, nov. and

Caeculisoma mouldsi sp, nov, (Fiz. | A-D shows

a cicada and mites i” situ).

Seta and other terminology follows Southcott

(196la, b, c; 1963, 1972). All measurements are in

micrometres (zm) unless otherwise stated, Two new

shield measurements AAS and LX are introduced

here. AAS is the distance between centres ol bases

of AL scutala and ASens of the same side. LX is

the distance of the levels of the AL scutalae behind

the anteromost point of the scutum. (see Figs

2A-E). These measurements introduce a slight

redundaney, since

AAS? y, ( AW oe

y: (ASBa-LX

assuming perfect symmetry, Nevertheless, they

appear useful in specific diagnoses of erythraeid

mites,

The types of both species are deposited ui the

South Australian Museum.

Genus Leptus Latreille, 1796

For synonymy see Southeott (1961b: 514).

Diagnosis (for larva)

See Southcott (1961b: $14),

Remarks

This is a cosmopolitan genus, with many species

having been described as adults, and others as

jarvae. Although in some cases correlation between

larvae to deutonymphs had been recorded (South-

cott 196lb: 517-521), a Cull correlation of a larva

to the deutonymph and adult in Lepfus (an un-

identified North American species) was achieved

anly in 1973, by Treat (1975),

Larvae parasitise a wide variety of terrestrial

arthropods (Oudemans 1912; Southcolt 1961b, 1984:

Treat 1975; Welbourn 1983).

104 RY. SOUTHCOTT

FIGURE I. North Queensland cicada and its ectoparasitic mites. A, cicada, Venustria superba G. & ¥,, A2824, pre-

served dry, with ectoparasitic larval erythracid mites in situ, serials ACA2308, 2309. Mite Y, attached to right tibia

lis Lepius torresianus sp. noy., holotype, ACA2308. Other mites are Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov., ACA2309 series;

mite J, attached to inferior surface of lef hind wing is holotype of C, mouldsi. B, holotype of L. forresianus, attached

to lateral end distally of right tibia I, C, mites, C. mouldsi, specimens ACA2309B, C, D attached to vein of dorsal

surtace of left anterior wing. D, mite ACA2309Z, C. mouldsi, seen in transparency, attached to wing vein on inferior

surface of left posterior wing. All drawings to nearest scale.

Leptus torresianus sp. nov. fed) 897, width 498, overall length from tip of

(Figs 3A, B, 4A, B, 5) mouthparts to posterior pole of idiosoma 1118.

Dorsal scutum moderately sclerotized, and forms

Description of Larva (principally holotype, supple- approximately an equilateral triangle. Central part

mented by paratypes) of its anterior border produced to a low protuber-

Colour in dried state red. Idiosoma (mounted) ance, containing the anterior sensilla. Lateral bor-

of normal ovoid shape for genus, length (partially — ders short, sloping anterolaterally. Posterolateral

LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 105

Latcx!|

MedCx\|\

LatCxil|

edCxi lI

~~ ——Pps

FIGURE 2. Explanatory diagrams for conventions of abbreviations and measurements used for the larval erythraeid

mites. A, dorsal scutum of a larval erythraeid mite with two pairs of scutalae (Leptus). B, dorsal scutum of a larval

erythraeid mite with three pairs of scutalae (Caeculisoma). C, dorsal view of Caeculisoma sp., with legs omitted beyond

trochanters. Oc. ‘ocular seta} MDS mid-dorsal setae; PDS posterior dorsal setae.

106

borders concave. Posterior pole of scutum rounded,

enclosed in two narrow bars of chitin not meeting

in the middle. Scutal scobalae curved, blunted, a

little clavate, with dense covering of short, pointed,

pigmented setules. Sensillary setae filiform, with

fine setules distally.

Standard and other data of scutum and legs as

in Table 1,

Eyes circular, 1+1, posterolateral to scutum, 24

across,

RY. SOUTHCOTT

Dorsum of idiosoma with 50 setae, slightly cla-

vale, with pigmented but only slightly outstanding

setules; setae arranged approximately 4, 6, 8, 8, 8,

8, 4, 4.

Ventral surface of idiosoma: sternalae I bushy,

blunted, more or less parallel-sided, sternalae II

similar, 40 long; between levels of coxae II and III

are four setae, anterior pair (sternalae III) bushy,

expanding, 26 long, and posterior pair (sternalae

IV) more medial, bushy but more slender, 42 long.

TABLE |. Standard data for Lepfus torresianus sp. nov, larvae.

Holotype Paratype Paratype

Character ACA2308 ACA2311A ACA2311B Mean

AW 102 92 94 96

PW 114 102 108 108

SBa 15 12 13 13.3

SBp 16 15 13 14.7

LX 13 24 14 17

ASBa 9 36 16 20.3

[ISD 48 39 58 48.3

L 76 73 84 77

Ww 12] 111 11S 115.7

AAS 42 38 40 40

A-P 16 16 19 17

AL 62 58 64 61.3

PL 65 67 67 66.3

ASE ¢.30 31 33 31.3

PSE c.60 c.55 46 53.7

DS 45-58 38-58 51-56 57.3*

‘Oc.’ 45 42 47 44.7

MDS 53 49 35 52.3

PDS 58 58 56 57,3

Gel 160 155 158 157.7

Til 230 228 226 228

Tal(L) 162 165 ~ 163.5

Tal(H) 21 20 — 20.5

Til/Gel 1.44 1.47 1.43 1.45

Gell 130 122 140 130.7

Till 199 195 _ 197

Tall(L) 140 138 ~ 139

‘Ta(H) 20 20 =< 20

Gelll 155 139 155 149.7

Till 288 267 288 281

Tall) 160 1S6 157 157.7

Talli(H) 20 21 22 21

Tilll/Gelll 1.86 1.92 1.86 1,88

AW/ISD 2.13 2.36 1.62 2.04

ISD/A-P 3.00 2.44 3.05 2.83

AW/A-P 6.38 5.75 4,95 5.69

Stu 42 38 44 41.3

Cxi 83 73 _ 78

Cxil ¢.22 25 _ 23.5

Cxlll 40 c.40 48 42.7

TiL/AW 2.25 2.48 2.40 2.38

Till /AW 2.82 2.90 3.06 2.93

THUIN/Til 1.25 1.17 1.27 1.23

AW/AL 1.65 1.59 1.47 1,57

AL/AAS 1.48 1.53 1.60 1,54

*For the maxima of DS

LARVAL MITES GN CICADAS or

Between and behind coxae IIE 16 setae, 38-50 long,

arranged 4, 4, 6, 2; setae well setulose, blunted,

shghily expanding, posieriars tending to be more

clavate and resembling posterior dorsal idiosomalae.

Coxalae |, |, |, arising.as figured, Coxala 1 parallel-

sided, terminally tapering to a blunted point, and

carrying many fine, pointed setules; coxalae If, IL

blunted, well setulase, somewhat clavate.

Legs normal; lengths (including voxae and claws)

1935, IL 860, ib) 1015.

Leg specialized sensory setae Uengths in

parentheses); SoGel.42d(29), SoGel,59d(29), Vs-

Gel, Y2d(6). Sotil.66d(35), SoTit.75d(42),

Solil.87d(25), VsTILB9pd(5). VsGell.9ipd(9),

Sofill.04d(29), SaTill-88d(23). SoTitLl.03d(36).

Tarsus 1 with Sotal,62d(38); tarsus. 11 with

Solall,42d(18), Tarsal claws: antertor almost straight

with terminal ventral book; middle lJongesr,

faleiform, smooth; posterior recurved, with ventral

seluiles (see Fig. 3).

Gnathosoma: chelicerae with rounded posterior

element to bases, smooth, tapering 10 long anterior

projections; length 205, maximum width of bases

(22) ventral surface with faint transverse striations,

With two pairs of hypostomalae, pointed, nude,

anterior dorsal, 20 lang, posterior ventral (also near

tip of hypestome) ¢. 60 long. Palpal setal formula

0,0, 1, 1, 3, 7, Palpal femorala and genuala well

setulose, tapering, pointed, not clavate, tibialae

setulose, Palpal supracoxala not identified. Palpal

tibial claw smooth, wilh a single Lerminal hook,

Material examined

Holatype: Queensland; C.R,E.B, [a Queensland

Regional Electricity Board| Road, ar Mt Hemmant,

N. of Daintree, 2.7,1984, M.S, & BJ. Moulds, in

rainforest; latva attached to lateral aspect of distal

end of R. tibja | of cicada Venustria superba

Goding & Froggatt (A2824) (see Fig. LA, B),

N1987194 (ACA2308),

Paratvpes: Mt Hartley, nr Roseville, S. of

Conktown, 111984, M.S. & BJ. Moulds; on distal

end of R. tibia lof cicada fariasa daddi (Gading

& Froggatt) (A2826), two larvae N1987195 and

NIY87IIG C(ACA23ILA, B).

Remarks on laxonomy

Leptus terresianus sp.nov. is placed in the group

of Leptus laryae with one femoral seta and one

genual seta on (he palp, which includes the majanly

of described members of the genus, However it dil-

fers from all deseribed larvae with the preceding

character sel int having two specilized sensary setae

(xpinalae or salenaidalac) on leg genu I. All others

of this group have only one spinogentiala, except

L, stiégimayri (Qudemans, (905) from Brazil, whieh

has five (OQudemans 1912; 165), Some other Lep/us

larvae have two or more such setae on venu I, but

(hey also have two palpal femoral setae (scobalae)

— these being L. ecvhinepus Beron, 1975, from

Bulgaria, with five spivalae on genu lL, and L, south.

corti Beron, 1975, ftom Bulgaria, with two spinalae

on genu lI,

Remarks on biology

Lepius larvae appear generally to prefer hard,

heavily chitinized parts of their hosts on which to

attach by their mouthparts c.g. tibia in the case of

L, torresianus, Treat (1975: 224) has also com-

mented on this preference of an unnamed North

American larval Leprus for an externally exposed

sclerouzed area: “There is no seeking of soft mem-

branes or crevices’. They are presumably able to util-

ize a small apparently mabile tooth on the tip of

the cheliceral digits (see Fig. 4B) as a gouging or

boring piece.

Etymology

The specific name is from the Torresian region

of northern Australia,

Genus Caeculisoma Berlese, 1888

For synonymy see Southcort (L96)b! 524, 1972: 25).

Diagnosis (far larva)

See Southcort (1972: 25).

Cavculisoma mouldsi sp. nov-

(Figs 6A4-C, 7A, B, 8)

Description of larva (principally Jram holotype.

supplemented by paratypes)

Colour in dried state red, [diosoma (mounted)

of normal ovoid shape, length (partially fed) 600;

width 385; overall length from tip of mouthparis

to posterior pole af idiosoma 710.

Dorsal scutum approximately oval, with slightly

coneave anterior margin and rounded anterolateral

angles. Anterolaleral borders almost straight; post-

erojateral borders evenly rounded, Posterior sen-

Sillary bosses protrude a little at posterior pole of

scutum, Scufalae curved, tapering, blunted, lightly

setulose with adnate setules. Sensillary setae li-

form, with a few distal setules.

Standard data as in Table 2.

Eyes 1+], circular, 22 across,

Dorsal idiosama setae curved, tapering, pointed,

with a few adnate setules; arranged 2, 7, 6, 6, 4,

4, total 29.

Ventral surface of idiosoma: sternalae curved,

tapering, pointed, with a few setules; 1140 long, [Il

36, Behind coxac [1 about 12 similar setae, 33-38

long, arranged 4, 4, 2, 2. Conala [ slender, tapering,

108 RY. SOUTHCOTT

F - { Pasctit [

P Peg

| | f PascGe

‘a

= }

' f Pasctis \\

a PaScFe Ns

FIGURE 3, Leptus torresianus sp. noy., larva, holotype. A, dorsal view, legs omitted beyond trochanters, B, palpal

tibia and tarsus, dorsal view. (Each to nearby scale.)

LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 109

FIGURE 4. Leptus torresianus sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, ventral view, legs omitted beyond trochanters. B, tip of

gnathosoma, ventral view. (Each to nearby scale.)

110 RV. SOUTHCOTT

TABLE 2. Data on larvae of Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov.

Character Holotype n range mean s.d. CV.

AW 68 43 58-75 68.33 3.3432 4.8931

MW 77 43 72-82 77.16 2.7683 3.5876

PW 76 45 69-80 76.11 2.4423 3.2088

SBa 9 46 7-11 9.13 0.9800 10.7333

SBp 14 48 11-15 13.81 0.9600 6.9500

LX 7 38 5-9 6.24 1.1954 19.1660

ASBa 29 38 24-33 28.50 2.3452 8.2288

ISD 61 41 48-66 57.24 3.4408 6.0108

L 95 38 84-100 92.21 3.9808 4.3170

WwW 96 44 87-101 93.25 3.1852 3.4157

AAS 35 41 34-41 36.00 1.3038 3.6218

A-M 17 46 14-22 17.50 1.9061 10.8922

A-P 45 46 37-50 43.63 2.9010 6.6491

AL 54 33 35-56 48.18 5.2408 10.8771

ML 58 41 44-64 53.90 5.1176 9.4943

PL 56 45 38-56 47.18 4.1522 8.8011

ASE 44 44 35-49 41.59 3.1425 7.5557

PSE 67 41 55-68 63.37 3.0146 4.7574

DS 40-63 50 47-64* 56.43 4.0466 7.1712

Oc. 63 49 47-64 56.61 4.0353 7.1280

MDS 55 50 38-57 46.04 3.6809 7.9951

PDS 55 50 42-55 47.36 3.2561 6.8753

Gel 147 51 131-153 142.75 4.9673 3.4798

Til 201 50 175-206 186.70 7.0138 3.7567

Tal(L) 154 50 129-155 144.16 5.8322 4.0457

Tal(H) 18 50 16-22 18.60 1.3401 7.2049

Til/Gel 1.37 49 1.17-1.39 1.3018 0.0491 3.7719

Gell 140 51 122-142 131.06 5.0296 3.8376

Till 174 51 156-182 169.14 5.5462 3.2791

Tall(L) 147 51 131-151 140.43 4.1533 2.9576

Tall(H) 18 51 16-21 18.59 1.0035 5.3987

Till/Gell 1.24 51 1.19-1.35 1.2906 0.0418 3.2374

Gelll 157 50 140-165 151.10 5.8910 3.8988

Tilll 259 51 240-279 255.96 9.7118 3.7942

TallI(L) 156 51 137-164 152.84 5.5834 3.6531

TallI(H) 16 51 14-18 16.35 0.9343 5.7134

Tilll/GelllI 1.65 50 1.58-1.86 1.6942 0.0615 3.6309

AW/ISD 1.19 39 1.03-1.44 1.1941 0.0857 7.1750

ISD/A-P 1.36 41 1.16-1.53 1.3159 0.0814 6.1857

AW/A-P 1.51 38 1,30-1.86 1.5621 0.1211 7.7539

Stl 29 28 27-38 31.43 3.7061 11.7923

CxI 49 40 37-58 49.75 4.1618 8.3654

LatCxlII 38 48 26-40 34.94 3.1244 9.1560

MedCxII 45 42 36-53 45.19 3.1487 6.9675

LatCxIII 33 42 25-38 32.07 3.6519 11.3867

MedCxIlII 49 41 36-49 43.78 3.4894 7.9701

Til/AW 2.96 42 2.46-3.05 2.7305 0.1491 5.4640

Till1/AW 3.81 43 3.35-4.26 3.7614 0.2244 5.9670

AW/AL 1.26 28 1.20-1.97 1.4218 0.1881 13.2264

AL/AAS 1.54 29 0.97-1.62 1.3500 0.1498 11.0988

*For maxima of these setae

pointed, with a few setules. Lateral coxala II curved,

blunted, lightly setulose, lateral III similar; medial

coxalae II, III as described for coxala I.

Legs normal; lengths (including coxae and claws):

I 790, II 750, III 915.

Leg specialized sensory setae (lengths in

parentheses): SoGel.85d(36), WsGel.90pd(5).

SoTil.65d(60), CpTil.73d(7), SoTil.74d(55),

VsTil.87pd(5).

SoTill.79d(27). SoTill1.06d(50).

VsGell.92pd(5).

SoTill.07d(51),

Tarsus I with SolaI.33d(48); long, tapering,

pointed. Tarsus II with Sofall.43d(31), terminally

expanding a little, blunted. Tarsal claws as for genus,

all falciform. The posterior tarsal claw is somewhat

obtusely-angled about halfway along, with a few

ventral setules.

LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS WM

100

200

FIGURE 5, Leptus torresianus sp. nov., larva, holotype. Legs I, Il, IIL, to standard symbols. Inset: tip of tarsus T,

dorsal view. The symbol A indicates that the scta is shown in both drawings of the leg or other structure. a, m, p

indicate anterior, middle and posterior tarsal claws, respectively, Vs vestigiala. So is used for tarsal solenoidala, Sp

for other leg solenoidala (spinala), as in author's terminology.

112 RY. SOUTHCOTT

0 0

100 9

100

404

FIGURE 6. Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, dorsal view, legs omitted beyond trochanters. B, dorsal

scutum. C, dorsal idiosomal seta. (Each to nearest scale.)

LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 113

FIGURE 7. Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, ventral view, legs omitted beyond trochanters. B, palpal

tibia and tarsus, ventral view, from paratype ACA2310D (not to scale).

RV, SOUTHCOTT

gs I, IT, Ill, to standard symbols, as in Fig. 5; Cp

FIGURE 8. Caeculisoma mouldsi sp. noy., larva, holotype. Le

companala; Fa famala.

LARVAL MITES ON CICADAS 5

Grathosoma: cheliceral bases pyriform, smooth,

120 long by 93 wide (combined). Galeala smaoth,

simple, pointed, 27 Jong. Hypastomala arises anter-

ior to palpal trachanters, 40 long, with several long.

setiiles, Palpal setal formula 0, 0, 1, 1, 3, 7. Palpal

femorala tapering, pointed, well setulose, c. 42 long,

Palpal genuala lapering, painted, 27 long, with a

few setules. Palpal ribialae pointed, with a few set-

iiles. Palpal tibial claw bifid, the dorsal tine weak.

Palpaliarsus as figured. Gnathiosomal supracoxala

a blunted peg, 4 long.

Material examined

Holotype: Queensland: C.R.E.B, Road, ur Mt

Hemmant, N, of Daintree, 23,1984, M.S. & BT.

Monlds, in rainforest, on wing of cicada Venusiria

superba G. & F (A2824), larva NL987197 (ACA-

2309),

Paratypes: Same data as holotype, nine larvae

NI1I987198-N1987206 (ACA2309A-D, H, K-N). Mt

Hartley, nr Roseville, $. of Cooktown, 11,1984, M.5.

& Bl. Moulds, on Fenusiria superba G. & PF,

(A2825), 27 larvae N1987207-N1987233. (ACA-

2310A-Z, ZA). Same locality, date and collectors,

on cicada A2826 Tamase daddi(G. & F.), two larvae

N1987234, NI987235 (ACAZ312A, B). Same

locality, date and collectors, on cicada A2827

Mardalana suffusa Distant, nine larvae

N1987236-N1987244 (ACA23139A-1). Same localiry,

date abd collectors, on cicada A2829 Psaltoda

fumipennis Ashton, three larvae NI987245—

NJ987247 (ACA2314A-C),

Remarks on distribution and laxanamy:

Caeculisoma was founded by Berlese (1888; 186)

on (wo adult mites. referred to C tberculaium

Berlese, 1888, one collected under decomposing

fungi at Buenos Aires, Argentina, and the other

trom under tree bark at Asuncion, Paraguay. Cor

relation with the larva was estabhished by Southcott

(196la, b) for the Australian C darwiniense South:

cott, 1961, The species are known only from South-

ern Hemisphere locations, and larvae have beet!

described only from Australia arid New Zealand,

©. darwiniense is known fram Northern Territory,

Queensland, New Sourh Wales, South Australia and

Western Australia, recorded hasts being Acrididae

(Orthaplera); GC cooremarti Southeott, 1972, is

known from Western Australia (Acrididae); ©

Auxleyi Southcatt, 1972, is reeorded from New

Zealand, patasitizing Xanthorhoe sp. (Lepidoptera:

Geometridae), GC mouldsi sp. nov. is Known only

as Jarvae froma Limited area of rropical Australia

(Cape York Peninsula), parasitic on cicadas.

Fora discussion of the generic classification of

the tribe Callidosomatini, see Treat (1985) and

‘Southeatt (L988).

In the key to the larvae of Cuecwlisorma

(Southeott 1972; 25-26), © nrouldsi comes down

to caption (3), whicl may be replaced by:

3 (2) PD setae in range 20-30um long ........-

_& sparnoni Southeott

PD setae in range “40- 90um long ...... 4

4 a PD serae in range 40-60um long -

Ate eg Fe ent deta Cc. mouldsi sp. nov,

PD setae in range 70-90pm long —..-..-.

Bigeye: C. huxleyi Southcatt (New Zealand)

Etvnrelogy

The Species is named for the collectors.

ACKNOW! — DOMENT

T thank the Australian Biological Resources Study fer

support,

REFERENCES.

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REVISION OF AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS MULLER, 1764

(COLEOPTERA : HYDROPHILIDAE)

BY C. H. S. WATTS

Summary

The genus Hydrophilus Muller in Australia, New Guinea and New Caledonia is revised and

descriptions given for each of the 11 species recognised, three of which are new (H. novaeguineae,

H. viridis and H, infrequens). The following new synonyms are proposed : 1) Hydrophilus

picicornis (Chevrolat, 1863) = Hydrophilus gayndahensis Macleay, 1871 = Hydrophilus

sabelliferus Fairmaire, 1879 = Stethoxus sabellifer Bedel, 1891: 2) Hydrophilus brevispina

Fairmaire, 1879 = H. scissipalpus Blackburn, 1901: 3) Hydrophilus loriai (Regimbart, 1902) =

Hydrous gebieni Knisch, 1922a. A key to species is provided.

REVISION OF AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS MULLER, 1704

(COLEOPTERA: HYDROPHILIDAE)

CHS. WATTS

WATTS, C.H.S. 1988, Revision of Australi Hyedrophitus Muller, (764 (Coleoptera

Nydraphilidacy, Kec, S dusé Mts. 22(2)2 17-10,

The genus /vdrophilus Muller in Australia, New Guinea and New Caledon: is

revised and deseriprions given for each of the Lb species recogmised, three of which

are new U/L. novacenineac, Al. viridis anc HM. infrequens). The followin oew synonomys

are proposed? 1) Avdrophilus picicornis (Cheyrolit, 1863) = Aydraphilus gayndahensis

Macleay, IN71 0 A ydrophilus sabelliferus Falrmaire, 1879 - Stethonus shelliter Bede,

180122) Mydrophilus brevispina Pairmaire, W879 = HH. scissipudpus Blackburn, 1901:

3) Mydraphilus loria’ (Regimbart, 1902) = Hydrous eehiend Kaisch, 1922a, A key

Lo species is provided,

C.HLS. Watts, South Austavian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia

S000, Manuscript received 8 March 1988.

Among the most prominent of Australian water

beetles are the large black species of Hydrophilidac

which belong to the world-wide genus Ayvdrophilus

Muller 1764 (see Balfour-Browne 1941, and Pope

1985, for discussion of the use of this name for the

genus). They are conimon in collections although

they are seldom abundant in any one waler body,

An exeeption occasionally oceurs in drying inland

pools when both adults and larvae of same species

can be found in large numbers.

The Aus(ralasian species have been revised and

keys which invlude the Australasian species have

been produced by Bedel (1891), and Regimbart

(1902), But these studies were based on the exam-

ination of the relatively few specimens avatlable i

Europe at the time with the result thal variation

within species is underestimated. Conversely the

lack of type material in Australia has led to mis-

identifications being perpetuated, As a resull mal-

erial in Australian collections is usually poorly

identified,

My studies have shown that there are seven en-

demic species in Australia, one in New Caledonia

and iwo in New Guinea. In addition the common

Indonesian species, A. picicornis, oecurs widely in

New Guinea and eastern Australia,

Hydrophilus \s a world wide venus. Because of

this 1 have made no allempt to think cladishcally

uboul the Australasian species. Suffige to say that

phenotypically they fall into (three groups, The

largest group, characterised by a short stout sternal

spine and little abdominal pubeseence, comprises

H. latipalpus, H. pedipalpus, A, macronyvx, H.

australis, H. novaegnineae, H. albipes, and H,

hrevispina, A second group, comprising /.

picicarnis and H, loriaand characterised by a very

long sternal spine and conmipletely pubescent sternal

segments, is part of a large group of Asian species.

Phe final group comprises lwo new species, H-

viridis and H, infrequens, which have a short sternal

spine and the sides of the abdominal sternac

broadly pubescent: they are also smaller and srouter

than most Hydrophilus, resembling

Mfydrobiomorpha Blackburn in general shape.

Both adult and larval Aydrophilus are aquatic.

The larvae are large, fleshy and carnivorous, livirie

and hunting among the weeds at the edges and

bottom of shallow ponds. Although frequently

collected, no larvae of Australian species have yet

been described,

Diagnostic characters of the penus Mydrophilius

are; large (21-46 mm), prominent keel on underside

produced hackwards into & spine of varying length,

apical margin of clypeus complete, prosiernun

deeply sulcate (hood-like) posteriorly ta receive apes

of sternal keel.

Specimens were examined from the following

collections:

AM Australian Museum, Sydney

ANIC Australian National Inseet Collection,

CSIRO, Canberra

BMNH Brilish Museum (Natural History),

London

CW Private collection of author

MNHP Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle,

Paris

NMY Museum of Victoria, Melbourne

NTM Northern Terruory Museum and Art

Gallery, Darwin

bUQ Snromology Department, Liniversity

of Queensland

QDPI Queensland Department of Primary

Industties, Mareeba

QM Queensland Museum, Brisbare

SAMA South Australian Museum, Adelaide

WAM Western Australian Museum, Perth

SYSTEMATICS

KEY TO AUSTRALASIAN /7YDROPLIILNS

1 —‘Tipolsternal carina reaching beyond 2nd

ubdoounal segment, abdominal segment

Ms UALS, WATTS

entirely pubescent...) 2.2... .2.2., 2

— Tip of sternal carina not reaching beyond

2nd abdominal segment, abdominal

segments with at least central portions

non-pubes-

d-1)] ee Se eo ee ee, ear ne bee 3

2(1) — Front portion of sternal carina wide,

broadly suleate (Fig. 4) /oriai (Regimbart)

— Front portion of sternal carina narrow,

narrowly sulcate (Fig. 5) ......,..,.,

oki {Aad feta ., pleicornis (Chevrolat)

3(1) — Abdominal segments with all but ventral

portions pubescent, small (18-25 mm),

often olive-greenish ..... pecreer ee IO

— Abdominal segments only pubescent in

front angles, usually larger (20-46 mm) 4

43) — Tip of elytron distinctly spined, tip of

Slernal carina reaching to second

abdominal segment, groove on front cdge

of pronotum reaching past level of inner

edge of adjacent eve ....,-,... ee. 005

re itemtars § australis Montrouzier

= Tif of elytron rounded or weakly spined.

Tip of sternal carina usually not reaching

second abdominal segment, groove on

front edge of pronotum yariable ,.. 5

5(4) — Rugose area on front edge of Ist abdo-

minal segment <4 length of segment,

Metalemur robust ...-....-.....2.. 6

— Rugose area on front edge of Ist abdo-

minal segment !2-*4 length of segment 8

6(5) — Spine on underside of claw on protarsi of

female in middle of claw, labial palpi

thickened particularly in male, claws on

protarsi of male enlarged, somewhat

flatrenedl,, outer twice size of inner (Fig,

1.) a re! novaezuinege 6p. Noy.

— Spine on underside of claw of protarsi of

female towards base of claw, labial palpi

normal, outer claw on protarsi of male

either grossly enlarged or thin and not

fattened (Figs 10 & Ih) ..,,

7(6) — Large (34-40 mm), groove along front

edge of pronotum usually short, confined

to extreme sides, protarsal claws of male

Hreatly enlarged, spade-like, punctures on

ouler face of protibia sharply impressed

afehe wapea's aoe. . nucronyz (Regimbart)

— Small (27-35 mm), groove along front

edge of pronotum usually reaching to level

ol inner border of eye, protarsal claws of

male subequal but only slightly enlarged,

punctures on outer face of protibia Weak

a ehe aletsmech = brevispina Fairmaire

&(4) — Smaller (21-30 mmm), row of stout setae on

outer face of pratibia to about !4 length

ol tibia, male maxillary palpi of male

simple oy. cy. cee ». albipes Castelnau

— Larger (30-46 mm), row of stout setae on

outer face of protibia more than 24 length

of tibia, male maxillary palpi of male

PMlae ad ep es es 9

9(8) — Elytral striae relatively weak, sternal car-

ina in male deeply grooved in front, flat

in female, male antenna with Jirst and

second joint greatly expanded, maxillary

palpi in male expanded .,..,.,....,

apt aA at p pedipalpus (Bedel)

— Elytral stride Well marked, particularly to-

wards apex, sternal carina of male flat,

in female with rounded downward

extention at anterior apex, apex of elytron

rounded or squared off, male antenna

with moderately expanded second

segment, maxillary palpiin male normal

ARES As Prneeen oan latipalpus Castelnau

1Q(3) — Small (18-21 mn), light olive green when

dry, inner edges of rugose areas on

abdominal segments 2 and 3 not adjacent,

giving saw-toothed pattern... ... 20.02.

Aas See ne oe» ee viridis Sp. Nov,

— Large (23-25 mm), dark olive-green or

reddish black when dry, inner edges of

Tigose areas on abdominal segments 2

and 3 approximately adjacent ..-....-

4 omin Seca eh snee seen eet sents infrequens sp. nov.

Hydrophilas macronyy (Regimbart)

Stethoxus macronyx Regimbart, 1902, p. 194,

Hydrous macronyx (Regimbart), Knisch, 1924, p.

249,

Description (Mumber examined 11)

Length 34-39 mm, Oval. Dark olive-green to

black, appendages lighter, reddish with well marked

yellowish spots at side of each abdominal segment,

Most of emarginate area on clypeus and mem-

branous area of hind edge of abdominal segments

3-4 yellowish. Head with clypeus widely emar-

ginate, 60-80 large punctures on frons area, densely

covered with small punctures of two sizes, the smal-

ler greatly predominating.

AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS 119

FIGURES 1-5. 1, maxillary palpus of male H. /atipalpus; 2, H. brevispina; 3, ditto H. pedipalpus; 4, sternal keel

of holotype of H. loriae; 5, ditto of H. picicornis (holotype of H. sabelliferus).

420 CHS WATIS

fronotal punctures as an head, with a distinel

groove around lateral edge, exeept near exterior

lind angle, extending lor only a short distance

dlong front margin, some large punctures cowards

side, Elytron punctured as on head wilt four langi-

tudinal rows of scattered large punctures in weak

brooves, Manked an each side by row of very small

punctures, traceable over whole elytron, a little

more developed towards apes where they remain

muvh smaller rhan punctures in maio rows. Apes

of elytron smoochly rounded. Stermal carina (lat,

with narrow grove on hind section, well marked

Short carina on surface between mexocoxae, spine

Short. bhint reaching to little more than “ way

uvross lirst abdaminal segment. Prosternal pillar

wide, scoop-like with quite deep groove for

feveplian ob stemal carina, Lateral plate of

mesosivrnum short, broad, Metatibia very broad,

much larger than width of 2nd abdominal segment,

Metacoxal plates pot particularly jarrow, about

sume width as 3rd abdominal seement Pilose

portion of Ist abdommal sezment reaches about

la AWAY across seprient. Pilose portions of sides of

other abdominal segments abour o width of

segment, Mind edge of Ist abdominal seement with

some Well marked punctures. Abdominal segment

weakly roofed in midline. Grouve around edge of

apical abdominal segineht complete except for

small portion al tip.

Female: protarsi not

§>(253 -4- 1) in lenzth},

Male: protarsi as in Fig. 16. Segment 5 massively

expanded especially on bottom front edge, behind

this Hap is.a row of stout setae; segment 4 und to

ao lesser degree segment 3 with elongate triangular

expansion jy same plane as seement §

[38> >(1=2=3 =4)in length], Outer claw massive,

Natly expanded, almost as large as segment S, inner

claw greatly expanded, parallel-sided and flattened,

{sr scement of lapial palpi a little stouter ian if

female, Purameres narrow, bent, hooked al tip,

Aedeagus shorl narrow, spermathecal opening very

witle, beyond middle,

expanded [segment

Type

Stethaxus macrony; Revimbart. Rockhampton,

in MNHP, One of two Specimens ised by

Regimbart burt fot specifically. destznated as the

Type. Herein designated lectolype.

Distribution (Fig. 17)

Koown only from coastal regions of Noriherr

Territory and Cape York.

Remarks

A large speeies readily recouiised tron the other

large Australian species, ff, pedipalpis and H, fali-

polpus, by (he robust metafemurs and the greatly

emarged spade-like claws on the male protarsi.

Separated from F/, nevaeguinewe by characters

given under that species,

Additional localines

N.T. — Darwin AM, Qenpelli NMV, SAMA,

NTM, OLD — Pt Denison AM, Tolya QDPI,

Yirrkala AM,

Hydrophilus pteicornis Chevrolat

Aydrophilus riuficornis Boisduval, 1835, name

preoceupied by Mydrophilis ruficornis Klug, 1833),

Hydroperns pivicortus Cheyrolat, |863, p. 204;

Srethoxus piciwarais (Chevrolaly. Bedel, 189b, p.

316; Kuwert. 1899, p.9L; Regiimburt, 1902, p. 203;

Knisch, 1922b, p, 2; Kniseh, 1924, p, 256,

Fydrophilus guvndahensis Macleay, 1871, p. 124,

syn. nov.; Blackburn, 1901, p. 129. Hedrous gavn-

dahensis (Macleay), Kuwert, 1893, p. 92; Kniseh,

1924, p. 248. Hydraphilus sabelliferus Fairmaire,

1879, p. 80. syn. tov, Avdrous sabelliferus (Fair-

maire), Knisch, 1924, p. 248. Srerhoxus sabellifer

Bedel, L891, p. 316. syn. nov. (unjustified emen-

dation of subelliferus Mairmaire); Regimbart, 1902,

p, 204, Hydrous sabellifer (Bedel), Knisch, 1924,

p. 248,

Deseriplion (umber examined 233)

Length 21-32 em. Blongate oval. Dark olive

green (o black, appendages of head and a diffuse

spot laterally on each abdominal seamen) reddish-

brown, Heacl with clypeus relatively weakly

eMarkinale; 40-60 large punctures in (rons area,

densely punctured with small punetures of two

sizes, the smaller morc numerous and minute,

Pronotum punctured as on head, with a distinet

groove around lateral edge, excepe for hind anvle,

and along [ront lo about “ width of provotum on

either side; a few very large punetures towards

sides, Elytron with very line reticulatian but

virtually lacking puuctures other than the following,

excep! lor some very small ones towards apex. Pour

distinet rows of even punetures, the 1st, 2nd and

4th, to a lesser degree, with puhetufes close

{ogether, the 3rd with only a few sparse punctures,

Each row flanked on each side by a row of very

small punctures only visible in certain lights. Apex

of elyiron trunvated with or without a small blunt

spiue ot suturalangle. Sternal carina thin, weakly

and widely grooved in (ront portion, hind portion

with slight thin groove, spine ereatly clongared,

sharp, reaching to hind “2 of 3rd segment with

tendency fa bend downwards towards tip.

Prosternal pillar squat, deeply and narrowly

grooved for reception of sternal carina. Metacexal

plate a little narrower than metatibia, Metatibia

AUSTRAL ASIAN FY DROPTILUS it

about width of Ind abdominal segment. Pilose area

on underside completely covering abdominal sez-

melts, Oecasjonally some thicker goldeh fairs i

midline.

Female; prolars: not expanded [seement

Rm =2> —(1 —3>4) in length],

Male: provarsi as in Fig. 9. Fut seument weakly

expanded almost equal mm length to 2nd. Claws

narrow, curved, outer considerably larger than

inner [segment S< <(2> >3>4= 1) in lengih],

Parameres elongate, thin, aedeagus thick at base,

rapidly. tapering at tip. Spermathecal duct opening

near lip.

Types

Hydrophilus govaduheasis Macleay, There are

two Specimens int the ANLC (on permanent loan

from the Macleay Museum) fram Gayndah labelled

as syotypes. One is a male in good condihon, the

other has Jost most of its tarsi, In addition there

wre (Wo specimens in AM cach labelled ‘Holotype’.

Presumably these are the specimens designated hy

MeKeows 1948. One, without locality and labelled

only K19395'is a specimen of A. a/bipes, the other

with the same number is labelled “Wydraphilus

gayndahensis Gayndal’ and is a specimen of H,

varndahensis, | leel reasonably certain that the true

holotype is among these specimens anc herein

designate the specimen labelled “A‘ydrophilus gayn-

dahensis Gayndah’ in AM as the lectotype and the

Macleay Museum specimens as paraleclotypes.

Hydroporus picicornis Cheyrotat. Not located,

Type locality given as Cuba by Chevrolat but this

locality has been discounted by most authors (cf,

Bedel 1891; Kniseh 1924),

Hydrophilus ruficornis Boisduyal, Not loeared.

Type locality, ‘Nouvelle Hollande’ It is possible

that this is the same insect as A. picicornis, It is

however an occupied name having been used in

1833 by Klug for a Madagascan species.

Alydrophilus sabelliferus Pairmaive, mate,

labelled ‘Aydrophil sabelliterus Fairm L, Viti-leon’

(rom collection Leon Pairmaire 1904, in MNHP,

| herein designate it leetolype since it is ulclear

Whether this isa holotype or a syntype. Synonymy

based on examination of types and deseription of

tl picicornis

Renuirks

Readily recognisable from all other Ausiralasian

Hydrophilus, except HA. feriai, by long sternal

carina, Which reaches 2 length of abdomen. and

by the abdominal scuments completely covered by

pilosity; separated from H. furia: by characters

given under that species.

Distribution

Coastal Australia from the Kimberly to northern

New South Wales (Fig, 17), Sew Guinea and other

islands ta north of Australia.

A widespread species through Indonesia, New

Guinea, Pacine Islands and yorthert Australia, 1

have nat seriously studied the northern ar western

geographic boundaries of this species but consider

specimens seen from Vietnam and the Philippines

should be included, There is a north-south trend

in size with Specimens trom Sulawesi and the

Philippines uveraging considerably larger than

those from Australia.

Addinanal Localities

W.A, — Drysdale R, ANIC, Mitchell Plateau

ANIC, QLD -~ Ayr ANIC, Bigvenden ANIC,

Brisbane ANIC, BMNH, Bundabere ANIC, Cairns

ANIC, Cooktown QDPI, Kdungalba ANIC,

Ingham ANIC, Innisfail QDPI, Iron Range ANIC,

Lamington Nat, Pk ANIC, Marreeba ODPI, MI

Spee ANIC, Nambour ANIC, Ravenshoe ANIC.

Rockhampton ANIC, AM, Samford ANIC, Tolva

QDPI, Tully ANIC. N.T, — Adelaide R. NIM,

Cobourg Pen, ANIC, Daly River Crossing ANIC,

Daly R. SAMA, Darwin ANIC, Gave NMY.

Humpty Doo QUPI, Jabiru NTM, Roangarra

ANIC, Mt Cahill ANIC, Nabarlek Dam ANIC,

Nourlangie ANIC, NMY, 120° 34°S8 [31> THR

NTM. N.S.W. — Bonville ANLC. Iuka AM.

Kempsey ANIC, SAMA, Lismore AM, Mucleay

R. ANIC, Pc Macquarie AM, Repten AM, ALC, 1.

— Black Mt ANIC, Other — Fiji BMNH.

Finesterre Mes (P.N.G.) BMNH, Java SAMA,

90 kay W Lae (P.N.G.) BMNH, Minnka R-

(P.N AG.) BMNH, PL Moresby (P.N.Gi,) BMNH,

Pr Yiperres (P.N.G.) BMNH, Sulawesi HMNH.

Hydrophilus torjai (Reeiibar)

Stefhoxus luria’ Regimbart, L902, yy. 194_

Hydraus gehieni Rnisch, 1922, po VOR, win nis

Descriplion (number examined 9)

Length 31-33 mm. As for #7 picicarnds except

as follows. Generally larger. Apex of elytnt

backcut towards sutural edge which usually has a

small but well-narked spine. Sréechal carina broad

in front, narrowing behind, mesastermal portion

broadly and deeply sulcate (Fig. 4) whereas in A.

picicornis the carima is narrower and has a mugh

weaker groove (Fig. 5). Apical portion of sternal

carina tending to bend upwards so a4 to renin

equidistant from abdamen Whereas in piecurntis

il is almost invariably straight ar bent downwards

away fram the abdomen, The tips of the parameres

dre more swollen in this species,

Types

Sterhoxus loriai Rezimbart, Holotype male

labelled ‘T.,Loria/Miuse Civ Genova’ with hand-

written label 4oriai Reg’ in MNP. therein desip-

122 C.H.S. WATTS

FIGURES 6-16. Protarsus of male: 6, H. viridis; 7, H. infrequens; 8, H. albipes; 9, H. picicornis; \0, H. brevispina;

ll, H. australis; 12, H. loriae; 13, H. pedipalpus; 14, H. novaeguinea; 15, ditto H. latipalpus; 16, H. macronyz.

nate it lectotype since it is unclear whether this is Distribution

a holotype or a syntype. New Guinea; L. Loria, Amboin (ANIC), Lae

Hydrous gebieni Knisch. Not located (not in and Humboldt Bay District, Irian Jaya (in BMNH),

BMNH, MNHBP, or Brussels). Synonymy based on Kaiserin Augusta River (type locality of H.

examination of type and description of H. gebieni. gebieni). The four specimens from Amboin, New

AUSTRALASIAN HY DROPITILUS 12

Guinea, (Col. H, Ohlmus 16/10/74) agree well with

the type except that they are notiveably broader.

Remarks

The differences between 4. loriai and A. pici-

cornis are slight and at irst J eansidered the former

only a subspecies of H. picicormjs, However the

three Amboin specimens were collected together

with typical A. pielcornis which virtually rules out

subspecies, This and the lack of specimens with

intermediate characters, particularly the broadly

suleale slernal carina, have persuaded me to treal-

H. loriai as a good" species.

Hydrophilus australis Montrouzier

Hydrophilus australis Montrouzier, 1860, p, 248;

Fauyel, 1883, p, 351. S/ethoxus australis (Mantrau-

zier), Fauvel, 1903, p. 354: Bedel, 1891, p. 317;

Kuwert, 1893, p. 87; Regimbart. 1902, p. 207.

Hydrous australis (Moptrouzier), Raisch, 1924, p,

247.

Description (number examined 26)

Length 32-36 mm. Qvyal, dark olive-green 16

black. Appendages of head, a well marked spot at

sides of cach abdominal segment, the membrancous

hind edge of abdominal segments 2-4 and hind

portion of emarginate area on clypeus reddish-

yellow. Head with clypeus deeply and widely emar-

ginate, 40-60 large punctures on frons area, densely

covered with extremely small punctures. with

scallered larger ones, Pronotum punctured as on

head, with a distinct groove around lateral edge.

exeept for hitid angle, and along front margin to

about vs way to centre, some large punctures

towards sides, Elytron punctured a§ on head with

au minute reticulation, four longitudinal raws of

rather sparse seattered large punctures, each row

Nanked on either side by a row of small punctures,

towards apex these become more noticeable than

main rows of punctures, towards front virtually

Untraceable. Apex of elytron rounded, with well-

marked small spine, Sternal carina quile broad

particularly towards front where it is deeply and

widely grooved, weakly but sharply grooved

towards rear, spine sharp, reaching fo or just

beyond base of 2nd abdaminal segment. Posternal

pillar pointed, deeply grooved for receiving end of

sternal carina. Lateral plate of mesosternum

relatively lone and narrow. Metalibta relatively

narrow, equal to or a litle less chan width of second

abdominal scwment.. Metacoxal plate narraw,

lie narrower than metatibia. Pilose partion of Ist

abdominal segment reduced to narrow band along

front margin, that on other abdoniinal seements

tia

about ! width of seermerits, both virtually lacking

in selae, Abdominal segments 2-5 with broad,

rather ill-defined roofing, groove around edge of

apical abdominal segment lacking in apical a.

Female> protarsi not expanded [segnicst

§<(2>3> -4<1) in length].

Mule; protarsi asin Fig, 11. Claws thin, curved,

subequal [segment $<(2>3=4<1) in length],

Parameres Ilat, aedeagus relatively shart, opening

of spermathecal duct beyand middle.

Type

A specimen of unknown sex, labelled 'Hydro-

philus Australis Montr, N. Caledonie’ in MNHP

fram Coll. L, Bedel, 1922. The specimen lacks

palps and protarsi, Since itis unclear whether this

is a holotype or syntype | herein designate il as

lectotype.

Distribution

New Caledonia.

Remarks

Separated [rom the other large Hyvdrophilus af

the region by having the tips of the elytra distinetly

spined and the spine of the sternal carina reaching

al leas! to the second abdominal segment.

Hydrophilus brevispina Fairmaire

Hydrophilus brevispina Fairmaire, 179, p. RO:

Fauvel, (883, p. 351. Sre(hoxus hrevispina (Pair

naire), Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Reglmbart, 1902, pp.

208, Alvdraus brevissimus Kuwert, 1893, p, 87,

either a mistake or unjustified emendation of

Hydrous brevispina Fairmaire, 1879; Blackburn,

1896, p. 225. AYydrous brevispina (Fairtiaire),

Knisch, 1924, p. 247, Aydrophilus scissipulpis

Blackburn, 1901, p. 128, syn. nov. Aydrons

scissipalnis (Blackburn), Knisch, 1924, p. 257.

Descripfion (number exaniined 219)

Length 27-35 mm. Elongate oval. Dark olive-

green, appendages reddish, an orange-yellow patel)

in middle of cach ventral abdominal segment a!

sides. Head with clypeus deeply and widely elon-

gare, exposed poriion yellowish, 60-80 large pune-

tures in frons area, densely covered with much

smaller punctures af two sizes, smallest very small

bul well-marked. Pronotun purictured on head,

with distinct gropye around lateral edge and lor

about 4 way along lront margin, some large punc-

tures inwards of this groove in front angles. Elytron

punctured as on head with four longitudinal rows

of seattered punctures in weak depressions, Nanked

on either side by a row of extremely small punctures

}24 C.H.5, WATTS

only noticeable in some lights; .peX of elyturon

hionily rounded, nat traneated, Sternal carina

owrow, flacin trent, weakly but sharply grooved

in hind quarter, a short sharp ridge in midline at

rear of Mesesternal portion in some, spine short,

blunt reaching lo about ve way aerogs first

ubdoniinal sternite. Prosternal pillar thin, poitried,

open with little or no hood over groave for stecual

carina, Lateral plate of mesosternum relatively

shortand broad, Metalibia relatively broad, 4 little

larger than width of 2nd abdominal segment

Pilose portion of Ist.abdominal seginent to about

‘ys Width, Rugose portions of Other abdominal

seemenls reduced to small patches ia trontangles

at sides about 44 width of segment. Abdominal seg-

ments Weakly rooled in midline. Groove around

edue of apical abdominal segment complete or only

broken for short distance at apex. Metacoxal lobe

narrow. narrower than width of melatibja,

Feniale: protatsi not expanded [segment

§ (253 >4>1) m length], claws subequal with

large subbasal tooth.

Male; protarsi as in Fig. 10, Seement 5 expanded

with menmbrave like fap on bottom front nrargio

[segment > >] «2-3 ~ 4) in length] Claws clon-

gale, Ouler larver and thinver than inner, Second

joml of maxillary palpi expanded slightly bri-

aneularnly inwards near apex. Acdeagus win,

weakly exparided aj tip, Parameres weakly hooked

on outside of ip. Opening of spermathecal duct

midway along aedeauus,

Tiipes

Hiydrophilus brevispina Baiymat'e. Not located.

Type locality, Brisbane,

Hedrophilus scissipa/pis Blackburn, Holotype,

4697) Central Australia’, BMNH Synonym based

on deseriplion afd ¢xamination of Type.

Pisteibution (Vig- 17)

Widespread throughout Australia except for the

south-cast ind Tasmania and possibly also the

SOUTI-West,

WY. brevispina \s ollen confused with AL ulbipes

but is readily separated from that species by its

much more robust oreralemora as well as charaeters

givent in the key. Both species are celatively

common and are widely sympatric, However /f,

brevispind occurs much further porth than A,

albipes. Fi. albipes is common in south-casterh

Australia, Tasmania and (he south-west where A.

hrevispina is absent,

Kemarks

iL brevispina is moderate-sized, stoul, dark

olive-green species readily recognized by the

complete gropve on the apical abdaminal segment,

small amount of pilasity on abdominal segments,

SIOUL Melalemur, narraw posternal pillar and

relavely large marginal groove along front edge

of pronotum,

Additianal Lacalities

Vic. — Ouyen ANIC, Wyperteld ANIC, 73 km

WN.S.W, — Armidale ANIC, 32 km SSW Bourke

SAMA, Byroek ANIC, Deniliquin NMV, Dubbo

NMVY, Glen Innes AM, Grafton ANIC, Milparinka

SAMA, Mitchell AM, Moolwingee ANIC NMV,

Moree AM, ML Hope ANIC, Paroa R, BMNH,

Parkes AM, Singleton ANIC, ‘Tamworth ANIC,

Tibooburra ANIC, Tooraweendh ANIC, Trangic

ANIC, Wanaarine ANIC, Willandra Bridye ANIC,

Wyvern Bringagee AM, QLD, — Alexandria Sin

AM, 49 km SW Arrilalah ANIC, Ayr QDPI.

Bedourtec ANIC, 138 km NW = Bedourie AM,

Biggenden ANIC, Bowen SAMA, Burnett R.

ANIC, Calliope R. ANIC, Camooweal ANIC,

Chillagoe ANIC, Coopers Creek BMNH,

Cunnamulla ANIC AM SAMA, Durham Downs

ANIC, Fidsvald AM, Emerald ANIC, Funnel Ck

ANIC, Glenormiston ANIC, Goondiwindi ANIC,

48 km ESR Hungerford ANIC, 35 km SE

Iifravombe ANIC, Lake Dynevor ANIC, Lawn

Hill ANIC, Longreach ANIC, Mackay AM,

Mareeba QDPI, Mitchell SAMA, MI Spec ANIC,

Noccundra ANIC, Nockatunga ANIC, Normanton

SAMA, Rockhampton ANIC SAMA, 40 mile

Scrub ANIC, Silver Plains ANIC, Somerset Dam

ANIC, Tanbar ANIC, Taroom ANIC, Thylungra

ANIC, 10 km E Tjabulka AM, Townsville ANIC

BMNH QDPI, 90 m S Urandangic ANIC,

Warwick AM, Wilson R, ANIC, Yeppoon ANIC

(BMNH). S.A. — Anna Ck Stn SAMA, 26 km

NW Alberga RS SAMA, Blinman SAMA, Cadelga

OS. SAMA, Callabonnag SAMA, Camerou Corner

SAMA, Coward Spr. 40 koi E Frome Downs

SAMA. Hay B_ Simpsoan Desert SAMA, Iron Duke

SAMA, Kalamurina Sin SAMA, Lake George

ANIC, Mabel Ck Stn SAMA, 28 km SSW Mabel

Ck Stn SAMA, Marree SAMA, Mt Serle SAMA,

Oodnadatta NMV SAMA, Strathearn HS SAMA,

Stuart Ck Stn SAMA, N.T. — Alexandria BMNH,

Alice Springs SAMA NTM, L km N Barrow Ck

NIM, Borroloola ANIC, Glenorntiston Stn

SAMA, Hermannsbureg BMNH, Kings Canyon

NTM, MeArthur R, ANIC, 19 Ko SW Mtr Cahill

ANIC, Simpson Gap NTM SAMA, 41" 8 133"

25° NTM, 24° 05'S 134° 00° NTM, Yuendurmu

ANIC W.A, — Ashburton R. WAM, Barradale

ANIC, Cane River HS ANIC, Cape Bertholer

ANIC, Carnarvon-Exmouth Rd BMNH,

Kununurra ANIC, Minilya R. ANIC, Prairie Down

Stn SAMA, Wuranga ANIC,

AUSTRALASIAN HYDROPHILUS |

Hydrophilus albipes Castelnau

Hydrophilus albipes Castelnau, 1840, p. 51. Steth-

oxus albipes (Castelnau), Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Reg-

imbart, 1902, p. 207. Hydrophilus albipes Castel-

nau, Blackburn, 1896, p. 255. Hydrous albipes

(Castelnau), Kuwert, 1893, p. 87; Knisch, 1924, p.

245.

Description (number examined 487)

Length 20-31 mm. Narrowly oval. Black,

appendages reddish, diffuse reddish patches at sides

of abdominal segments. Head with clypeus quite

deeply and widely emarginate, exposed portion

yellow only in hind half, 60-80 large punctures on

frons, densely covered with small but well-marked

punctures .of two main sizes, the large less

numerous than the smaller. Pronotum punctured

as on head, with distinct groove around lateral sides

and a short distance along front margin; some large

punctures inward of this groove in front angles.

Elytral punctures as on head, witu four longitudinal

rows of scattered punctures, flanked on either side

by a row of extremely small punctures only visible

anteriorly in certain lights but well-marked at apex.

Apex of elytron rounded, with very small spine in

extreme apex. Sternal carina thin, a little broader

in area of mesosternum, flat except for weak sharp

groove towards rear, spine short blunt reaching to

about '4 width of first abdominal segment. Pros-

ternal pillar broad, bluntly pointed, groove for

sternal carina reaching only about '2 depth of

pillar. Lateral plate of mesosternum relatively

narrow. Metatibia relatively narrow, a_ little

narrower than 2nd abdominal segment. Rugose

portion of first abdominal segment covering all but

narrow area along hind edge, hind angles and

midline of segment, lateral portions on other

abdominal segments about “% width of segment.

Anterior abdominal segment quite strongly roofed

in midline. Groove around edge of apical

abdominal segment lacking in apical 14. Coxal lobe

narrow, narrower than metatibia.

Female: protarsi not expanded [segment 5<

(2>3>4>1) in length], claws with a large basal

tooth.

Male: protarsi as in Fig. 8 [segment 5 expanded,

particularly on bottom front margin [segment

§<(2=3>4>1) in length]. Claws stout, inner a bit

stouter and a little shorter than outer. Palpi normal.

Aedeagus and paramere long and thin. Opening of

spermathecal duct “4 way along aedeagus.

Type

Hydrophilus albipes Castelnau, Not located. Type

locality given as New Holland.

Distribution (Fig. 17)

A widespread southern species.

Remarks

H., albipes is a small, narrow, black species sep-

arated from other Hydrophilus by its small size,

short sternal carina, incomplete groove around edge

of apical abdominal segment, slim metafemur, and

with row of setae on outer face of protibia only

about 4 length of tibia.

Additional Localities

N.SW. — Balranald ANIC, Bathurst AM, Bin-

naway AM, Broken Hill SAMA, Canberra ANIC,

Corowa ANIC, Deniliquin ANIC, Girilambone

ANIC, Gundaroo ANIC, Hay ANIC, Louth AM,

Marrabui BMNH, 24 km ENE Broken Hill AM,

5 mS Mendooran AM, Mitchell AM, Moree MM,

Mt Moodie ANIC, Mudgee ANIC, Rylstone

SAMA, Silverton ANIC, Singleton ANIC, Trangie

ANIC, Uralla ANIC, Wagga Wagga ANIC, Will-

andra Bend ANIC, Yagobie ANIC, Yanco AM.

VIC. — Benambra AM, Bendigo ANIC, Bundoo

Rng. AM, Euroa NMV, Gelibrand NMV, Gram-

pians ANIC AM, Halls Gap SAMA, Hattah lakes

ANIC SAMA, Kerang AM, Kulkyne Forest ANIC,

Lady Julia Percy |. AM, Little Desert ANIC,

Melbourne BMNH, Frankston AM, Melbourne

NMV BMNH SAMA, Moe ANIC, Moyston

ANIC, Otways SAMA, Sealake ANIC, Terang

ANIC, Warragul ANIC, Warranabool NMYV,

Wyperfield Nat. Pk ANIC, Yanac ANIC. S.A, —

Adelaide BMNH SAMA, Beachport SAMA, 23 m

NE Billa Kalina HS SAMA, Bool Lagoon SAMA,

Coward Sp. SAMA, Etadunna WAM, Fairview Park

Con. Res. SAMA, 40 km E Frome Downs SAMA,

Frome R. Crossing SAMA, Kangaroo I. AM,

Koonamore Stn SAMA, Lake Callabonna AM

SAMA, Lake Eyre SAMA, Monarto SAMA,

Mungerannie Stn SAMA, Mylor SAMA, Nang-

warry SAMA, Naracoorte SAMA, Parachilna

SAMA, Penola SAMA, Taratap Stn SAMA,

Waitpinga SAMA, Whyalla NMV, Yunta SAMA.

TAS. — Carlton ANIC, Hobart SAMA, Laun-

ceston NMV SAMA, Longford ANIC. W.A. —

Albany WAM, Armadale WAM, Boxwood Hill

ANIC, Bullsbrook WAM, Cape Arid ANIC, Cer-

vantes ANIC, Claremont ANIC, Culcurdool WAM,

Darling Rng. AM, Esperance ANIC, 63 km E

Esperance ANIC, Forrestdale WAM, Geraldton

ANIC, Guilderton ANIC, Helena R. WAM, Hope-

town ANIC, Kalbarri Nat. Pk ANIC, Mt Arid

ANIC, Point Peron WAM, Preston R. ANIC,

Thomas R. ANIC, 10 m SW Three Springs SAMA,

Wanneroo WAM, Wilga ANIC.

126 C.H.S. WATTS

eH. infrequens 4

aH. viridus 3 H. brevispinna

o H. macronyx vy

H. picicornis vi H. latipalpus \4

o ‘

H. pedipalpus U H. albipes 4

FIGURE 17. Distribution maps of Australian Hydrophilus species.

AUSTRALASIAN J/¥OROPHILUS 27

Hydrophilus infreqaens sp, nov.

Description (number examined 4)

Length 24-25 mm. Oval. Upper surface, when

dry, varying from dark with olive-green tinges to

dark with reddish tinges, elytra with vague dark

strips in. serial puncture lines, at higher magnih-

cation elytra covered with thin black interdigitating

lines more noticeable in greenish individuals.

Ventral surlace black, appendages of head and

lateral patehes on abdominal segments reddish.

Head shallowly emarginare for about hail width of

(rons, basal half of exposed portion yellowish, front

portion black, About 60 large punctures lying i

two V-shaped weak grooves on frons, which is

densely covered with small bul well-marked

punetures predominantly of two sizes with the

smaller more numerous, A well-separated pair of

pits bearing long selae in middle of frons, Pronotum

punctured as.on head, with a distinct groove along

lareral edges and along front edge for@ very short

distance, a few groups af 2 large punecures towards

sides. Elytron with lightly impressed line

reiculation and scatlered very small puncturgs of

variable sizes, also four loose rows of large

punctures flanked on cach side by a row of

punctures which are subobsolete towards front but

ug large as serial punctures al apex. Band of closely

placed bur scattered punctures along lateral edge

of clytron. Apex of elytron rounded. Sternal carina,

lal, broad, particularly mesostermal portion,

constricted belween mesocoxae and narrowing at

both front and rear end, spine blunt reaching,a little

over width of first abdominal segment,

Prosternal pillar pointed, groove to receive sternal

carina narrow about 2 width of pillar in depth.

Lateral plate of mesosternum narrow, relatively

long, metacoxal plate narrow, both narrower than

width of metafemur which is about same width as

second abdominal segment. Pilose area on

underside covers all abdominal segments except for

approximately the central half of segments 2-5,

Female: protarsi not expanded, pratarsal claw

with small spige on underside about middle |seg-

menl 5< =(2>3>4=1) in length]-

Male: projarsi as \n Fig. 7. Segments a little

thicker Ihan in female and Slightly expanded on

front bottom edge Claws simple, evenly curved

along outer edge. Segment 5-(2>3=41) in length.

Parameres short, broad, Acdeagus with sperm-

athecal duct openiig near tip.

Types

Holotype: om '28''52'S 153° 03' E Casing, N.SW,

12.M11.971, Key and Balderson’, ‘al hght'in ANIC.

Paratypes: |, o “Brisbane 1/30" LG. Brooks. Be-

quest 1976; 1, o, ‘tL ml N of Brunswick Heads

N.SM. I Jan (973 RAL Kohout’, in ANIC,

Distribution (Fiz, 17)

Known only from the type localities on che east

eoast near the New South Wales/Queensland

border.

Remarks

This and H. viridus are closely related and sep-

arated from other Australasian Hydropiilus by the

extensive lateral pilosity on the abdominal segments

and (he presence of a pair of setae bearing pits or

a light group of large punclures.on the front of the

frons, H. infrequensis separated from H. viridis by

its generally larger, dacker and more rounded shape,

stronger punctation on upper surfaces, slight differ

étice in pilose area on underside, broader tip tothe

parameres, spermathecal duct opening al end of

adeagus rather than further down, and slightly more

robust male protarsi.

Hydraphilus viridis sp, nov.

Description (number examined 4)

Length 18-21 mm. Elongate oval, Glive-green,

extreme edges of elytron, pronotum and seutellum

black, No small black spots at rear of pronolurn,

Underside black, legs reddish, appendages on head

yellow-brown, Head deeply but rather narrowly

emarginated, basal half af exposed portion yellaw-

brown, front pornioan black, 70-90 large punctures

lying itt two V-shaped weak grooves on frons, a well-

separated pair of small pits in middle of Trans with

large setae emerging from therm, densely covered

with small but well-marked punctures of varying

sizes, Pronorum punctured as on bead, with distinct

groove around lateral edge and along front edge for

a short distance, a few groups of large punctures

towards sides. Elytron with fine reticulanoyi and

scattered minute punctures, also four loose rows 41

large punctures flanked on ¢ach side by a row of

very small punctures more distinct towards apex.

Apex of elytron rounded. Sternal carina wide, con-

stricted between mesocaxae and narrowing al both

front and rear, Spine blunt, reaching to beginning

of second abdonvinal segment. Prosternal pillar

pointed, narrowly but not deeply grooved for re-

ceplion of sternal carina, Lateral plate of meso-

sternum narrow, relatively long, metacoxal place

narrow, both narrower than metafemur which is

about width of 2nd abdominal segment. Pilose area

of underside covers all abdaminal segments excep!

for central 2 of segments 2-5.

Male: protarsi as in Fig. 6. Segments not

expanded, claws simple, sharply bent near base

[segment 5> -(2>3=4=1) in length]. Porameres

short, broad. Aedeagus with spermathecal duet

Opening, around middle.

128 CALS, WATTS

Distribution (Fig, 17)

Known only from the type localities in enastal

northern Queensland.

Types

Holotype: cr ‘idm, 8, Coen.N.Q 780° 18.5.72.

JG. Brooks’ ‘At light’? ‘B73 of &2' in ANIC,

Paratypes: |, cy ‘Ingham Qld 24,2,J960 KL, Harley*

in ANIC; 1, & ‘Townsville Qld, 19.4,43 CW in

CW; 1, 9 ‘Atherton 14.X01.58, G, Evrersiauk® in

OM.

Rernarks

A rare species with a pronounced olive-green

colour when dry, Separated fram the closely related

H. infrequens by characters given under that species.

Afydrophilus nevaeguineae sp. nay,

Description (number examined &)

Length 32-43 mm, Elongate oval. Black, appen-

dages of head and small round patches at sides of

abdominal segments dark-reddish. Head with

elypeus deeply emarginate for about half width of

clypeus, exposed portion dark reddish iq front halt,

60-80 large punctures on frons in addilion to a

dense patch inwards from each eye, moderately

densely covered by small but variably-sized

punctures. Pronotum punctured as on head, wilh

a distinct groove around lateral edge and a short

distance along fronl edge, scattered large pusictures

towards sides. Elytron punctured as on head with

four longitudinal rows of scattered well-linpressed

selae-hearing punctures cach flanked by a row af

very small punctures, virtually untraceable towards

lroni, and a single line of close punctures adjacent

to lateral edge. Apex of elytron rounded without

spine. Sterna! carina slightly swollen, sharply but

weakly wrooved in final section, widely bul very

shallowly grooved in front seetion, hind portion of

front section with distiiet midline carina, hind end

of from section slightly above from end of rear

section; spine blunt and short, reaching a little more

than halfway across first abdominal seament,

Frosternal pillar sharply pointed only shallowly

grooved to take sternal carina, Laleral plate of

mesosternum short, relatively broad, Metatibia

stout, noticeably wider than 2nd abdominal sep-

mienl, melacoxal plate narrower than metafernur

Pilose portion of Ist abdomipal seyment covering

abour '4 of width of segment, that on sides of other

segments about 4 of width of seaments, Abdo-

minal segments | weakly roofed in midline.

Groove around edge of apical abdominal segment

abserit |f apical portion.

female: protarsi, segment $> >(2+3=4>1) in

length, claw with strongly developed spine under-

neath in about middle. Front seetion of sternal

carina lat. Groove on prosternal pillar deeper than

in male. Labial palpi stout,

Mule: protarsi as i Pig. 14, segments 1-4 same

length, shor, progressively more expanded, segment

5 twice length of other segments combined and with

thin projection along front edge about hall width

oF rest of segment [segmenl 5 >(1-2=3-~4) in

length}, Claws considerably enlarged, outer about

‘4 again length ofinner, Maxillary. palpi with apex

ol second segment weakly expanded and fal, labial

palpi expanded, nruch stouler than in temale, Geni-

talia broad, tip of paramere curved, terminating in

small sharp spines, acdeagus relatively thiek and

shorr, sperniathecal dict openie a lille below tip.

]\pes

Flolorype @ ‘Papua 9 ml. NE. by N. of Port

Moresby. 9722'S 147°13'F, 23 viii. 1970, Key and

Balderson, (Key's field notes; Trip (67, stop

21050.8). At hehe, in ANIC. Pararypes: 2, @ ‘New

G\linea, Port Moresby (Mt, Lawes, 1300. fi),

5.3-12.5.1963. WW. Brandt,’ in ANIC,

Distribution

New Guinea; known only from the eype localities

and Amboin (in ANIC and CW),

Remarks

The large sive, relalively short, broad male geni-

lalia with hooked tips ta parameres, robust meta-

femur, and small amount of pilosivy on first abdo-

minal segment, ally A. novaegnineae to Ho mac

ronyx, IL 1s separated from Urat species by the much

less elaborate male protarsi, thickened labial palpi

and the spine on the tinderside of the protarsal claws

in the female being towards the middle of the vlaw

rather than al the base.

Hydrophilus pedipalpus (Bedel 1891) comb. nov,

Stethoxns pedipalpus Bedel, 1891, p. 317; Kuwert.

1893, p, 87, Regimbart, 1902, p. 210. Hydrous peri

palpus (Bedel), Knisch, 1924, yx. 250,

Description (wumber examined 72)

Length 35-46 mm. Elongate oval. Black, appen-

daves of head, and round patches at sides of

ubdominal segments dark-reddish, Mead with

clypeus deeply emarginale bul for a relatively short

distance (deepest point '2 width of elypeus). Ex-

posed portion dark reddish ia hind half, 60-80 lange

punelures on Trons, detisely covered with very. small

bul variably sized punctures, Pronotum punetiired

as an head, with a distinet groove around lateral

AUSTRALASIAN JTYDROPIHLUS 129

edee, except hind 'sth, viltually absent from tront

margin, with scattered large punctures cowards

sides. Elyrron punctured as on head with four

longitudinal tows of seattered weakly-iinpressed

large punctures, these are Manked on each side by

a row of very small punctures, distiner towards

extreme apex but aver much of elytron virtually

Jacking and anly visible in certain lights, aot lying

in grooves CXcept extremely weak ones at extreme

apex. Apex of elytron weakly truncated with small

blunt spite. Sternal carina swollen, constricted

between mesacoxac, weakly grooved in hind

partion, broadly and quite deeply grooved in trant

partion, Spine stort, blunt, reaching to about

halfway across Ist abdominal segment, Posternal

pillar sharply pointed. vraoye for recepuion of

sternal curina relatively shallow, reaching less thad

halfway into pillar on top cde. Lateral plate of

mesosternum short, relarvely broad, Metafemur

quite broad, a little wider than 2nd abdominal

seginent, Metocoxal plate narrow, marrower that

metafemur. Pilose partion of Isc abdominal

svument covering wellover ‘2 Width thal segment,

that on sides of other abdominal segments about

i) width of segment. Abdonioal segments 1-4

roofed in midline, Groove around cde of apical

abdominal segment Iueking in apical Y—le,

Fernale: protarsi nol expanded [segment $< <

(2>324>1) in lenth]. Front portion of stermal

groove flat, groove on prosternal pillar deeper than

in male

Male, provarsi as in Fig, 13, Segments 5 and 4

and portion ol 3 enlarged, particularly on outer

bottom edge [seament §< <(2-3-4>1 in length],

claws elongale, strongly curved at base, subequal

inJongth, inner stouler thab outer, Maxillary palpi

with first segment expanded particularly in apical

Vi where it is deeply excavated below, apical sex-

ment short and stour, Labial palpi with first seg-

mentexpanded. Genialia with paramere tips broad

and (lat, aedeawus relatlvely thick, spermatheeal

duct opening beluw muddle.

Type

A male labelled ‘Australia E. Deipolle/Pedipalpus

Bed', in MNFIP. Stace it is unclear whether this is

a holorype or syritype, thereby designate i lecta-

(ype.

Distribution (Fig. 21)

Coastal eastern Australia from Vietora

northwards. A more northern species than the quite

sinvilar 74, lalipalpus, These species occur sympat-

Healy on the south coast of New South Wales. 7.

pedipalpus ditlers trom A. (atipalpus by the weaker

development of elytral striae, by the Mat anterior

portion of the sternal keel in both sexes and the

strongly expanded maxillary and labial palps tn the

male.

Additional Localities

QLD, — Atherton, Biggenden ANIC, Brisbane

AM, Edungalba ANIC, Julatten AM, Proserpine

ANIC WAM, Rockhampton BMNHFI, Surters Para-

dise ANIC QDFI, Yeppoon ANIC. NuS.W, — Als-

tonville AM, Armidale ANIC, Casino ANIC, Ces-

nock AM, Clarence R. BMNH, Evans Head ANIC,

Fairfield BMNH, Kempsey SAMA, Macleay R.

ANIC, Maitland ANIC, Pt Macquarie AM, Rose»

ville AM, Tamarong AM, Terrigal ANIC, Tyndock

AM, Wang Wauk AM, Wauctiope AM,

Hydrophilus latipalpus Castelnau

Hydrophilus latipalpus Castelnau, 1840, p. St.

Stethoxus latipalpus (Castelnau), Bedel, 1891, p.

317; Regimbart, 1902, p. 209, Mydraus lalipalpus

(Castelnau), Kuwert, 1893, p. 87; Knisch, 1924, p,

249,

Deseripron (umber examined 121)

Lenerh 30.41 mm. Gval. Black, patehes at sides

af abdominal seements Und appendages of head

lighter. Head wilh clypeus deeply emarginate, 100.

120 large punctures in frons urea, densely covered

With Small punctures of Wo sizes, the smaller sizes

predominating. Pronatunt pinetured as on head,

with a distinet graove around lateral edge except

hind /s, and for a shore distance along front

inargin, with numerous large puretires Tnwurds of

proove in front angles, Elytron punerured as on head!

with four longitudinal fows af suattered large puoe-

tures, these are flanked on each side by well marked

rows of scattered small punctures which, except ov

disc, and particularly tawards apes, lie in shallow

grooves. Apes of elytrom bluntly sounded Stertval

eurma thin, flat exept for well-marked groove ip

midline toward rear, spine shore, sharply pointed.

reaching tO. about base of 2nd abdoinual segmenr,

Prosternal pillar sharply pointed, groove for sternal

carina deep. Lateral plale of mesostey num short,

reluuively broad. Metatibia quite broad, about as

Wide as 2nd abdominal segment. Metucoxal plate

narrow, narrower than menttibis. Pilase portion of

Is} abdlonjinal segment covering & bir mere than

fall of seement, that on sides of other abdaninal

seumients reaching a little under hall way across

seement. Abdominal segments |-4 quite strongly

fidged in midline. Groove wround edge of apical

abdominal segment lacking fram apreul by.

Females provarsi now expanded [sexment S<-

(2>3> <4d> Nan length], claws elongate each with

a basal jooth. Vront edyve of sternal carina

projecting downwards to a variable degree

Male: protarsi as iy Fig. 13, moderately expan

ded, claws subequal, bent, Mattened with small ex

panded lobe al base [segmen| S< (2 >3-4-1) in

lenguh|. Maxillary palpiwilh apical ball of second

130 CHS, WATTS

segment greatly expanded, hollow beneath, apical

segment a little expanded below apex.

Tipe

Not localed, Type Joeality given as New-Holland,

Distribution (Fig. 17)

South-eastern and south-western Australia and

Tasmania,

Remarks

The commonest of the large Aydrophilus in

Australia, readily separated from Al. pedipalpus

(and H. australis from New Caledoma) by the

downward lump at the front of the sternal carina

in the female, and the moderately expanded male

maxillary palpi and by the stronger development

of the elytral striae,

Additional Localities

N.SW. — Araluen ANIC, Leeton AM, Paroo R,

HMNH, Nowra BMNH, Strathtield AM, Sydney

AM. VIC, — ANIC, Dimboola SAMA, Grampians

SAMA, Hattah Lakes ANIC, Hazelwood ANIC,

Latrobe Valley NMV, Little Desert ANIC, Mel-

bourne BMNH, Morwell NMYV, O1way Ra. SAMA,

QOuyen ANIC, Strathfield NMYV, Stawell NMV,

Swan Hill ANIC, Wyperfield Nat, Pk ANIC. S.A.

— Adelaide SAMA, Bool Lagoon SAMA, Cape

Jaffa SAMA, Coorong SAMA, Furner SAMA,

Glencoe SAMA, Kingscote (K.1.) AM, Kingston

SAMA, Mi Scott SAMA, Naracoorte AM, Penola

SAMA, Turatap Stn SAMA. W.A. — Midland

WAM, Morgers Lake WAM, ML Arid ANIC, Perth

WAM, Swan R. SAMA, Wilga ANIC. TAS, —

Freycinet Nat. Pk ANIC, Launceston SAMA,

Longford ANIC, Swansea ANIC, Tasmania

SAMA.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The curators of the collections listed earlier are thanked

for free and rapid access to their collections. Dr E,

Mat(hews kindly read and improved the manuscript, Mrs

D. Brunker typed successive versions af the paper and Miss

J Thurmer expertly drew the illustrations. Mra M.

Anthony, Librarian of the South Australian Museum,

helped by rapidly obtaining references without which

progress would have been much slower. Mr R. Ruehle

kindly translated the German description of Af, vehieni,

REFURENCES

BALFOUR-BROWNE, F 194). The aquatic Coleoptera

of East ancl West Sussex. Entomol. Mon. Mug. 77:

257-272.

BEDEL, L. 1X91, Synupsis des Grands Hydraphiles

(genere Ste(hoxus Solier). Rev, Entarial (; 306-323,

BLACKBURN, T. 1896. Coleoptera (exclusive of the

Carabidae), pp, 254-308, /n B. Spencer (Ed.) ‘Report

on the Work of the Horn Scientific Expeduion ca

Central Australia’, Part 2 ~ Zoology. Melville, Mullen

& Slade, Melbourne,

BLACKBURN, ‘T. [90]. Further qotes on Australian

Coleoptera with descriptions of pew genera and species,

part XXIX, Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust, IS: 99-13),

CASTBLNAU, FL. LAPORTE de. 1840, ‘Histoire

Naturelle des insects, avee une introduction renfermant

I"anatomie et 1a physiologie des animaux articules par

M. Brulle’. Dumenil, Paris, Vol, 2. 563 pp.

CHEVROLAT, M. 1863. Coleopteres de Iie de Ciha,

Ann, Soc. Entomol, (4) 3: 183-210,

PAIRMAIRE, L. 1879. Descriptions de Coleapteres nou-

veaukx Ou peu connus du Musee Godeffroy, £ Mis.

Godeffroy xiv: 80-114.

KNISCH, A. 1922a. Hydrophiliden-Studien. (Op.10).

Arch, Nalurgesch, 88: 87-126.

RNISCH, A. 1922b, Results of Dr B. Mjoberg's Swedish

Scientific Expeditions to Australia 1910-1913, Vol, 29,

Hydrophilidae, ark. Zool 14: 1-4.

KNISCH, A, 1924. Tydrophilidae. Pp. 1-306 in S.

Svhenkling (Ed,) ‘Coleopterorum Caialogus’, Vol. xiv.

Drophilidae-Dermestidae. W. Junk, Berlin.

KUWERT, A. 1893, Die urossen Hydrophiliden des Erde

balls des genus Hydrowy Leach, Drseh. Ent. Zeit. 1893:

R)-93,

McKEOWN, KiC. 1948, A reference list of types of

Coleoptera in the Australian Museum. Rec. Aust. Mus.

22: 95-139.

MACLEAY, WS. 1825. ‘Number 1 of Annulosa Javanioa,

or an allempl to illustrate the natural affinities and

analogies of the insects collected in Java by ‘Thomas

Horshield, M.D.E.L. & G.S. and deposited by him in the

Museum of (he Honourable Bast India Company’

Kingsbury, Parbury and Allen, London. Pp. 1-50. |

plate,

MACLEAY, W.J., 1871, Noes an a collection of insects

from Gayndah. Vrans. Entomol, Sac NAW Oh:

79-205.

MONTROUZIER, P1860. Essay sur la Faune Ento-

mologique de la Nowvelle-Caledonie (Balade) et des Iles

des Pins, Art, Lifuc, ele: Ana. Sve, Entomol. France

(3) & 229-308,

REGIMBART, M, 1902. Revision des grinds Hydrophiles.

Ann. Sov. Entomol, Fr WW: (88-232. Pls 7 and 8.

POPE, R.D. 1985. Flvdrophilus, Myvdrous and Hydro

chare (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae). Eniamal. Mon.

Mag. 121: 181-184.

DIAMONDS FROM THE ECHUNGA GOLDFIELD, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY F. L. GOMMERS

Summary

Small gem quality diamond crystals have been found by miners working the alluvial gold deposits

on the Old Echunga Diggings west of Chapmans Gully near Echunga, 30 km south-east of

Adelaide. The first diamonds were recovered in 1859, and in the next fifty years at least 20 and

perhaps as many as 50 more were found. The largest stone weighed 5 5/16 ct. Only five of the

diamonds found at Echunga last century can be traced; three are in the collection of the South

Australian Museum, and two in the collection of the South Australian Department of Mines and

Energy. This paper traces the history of the diamond occurrence and establishes the authenticity of

stones in the Museum collection.

DIAMONDS FROM THE ECHUNGA GOLDFIELD, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

FL. GOMMERS

GOMMERS, F.L. (988, Diamonds from the Echunga Goldlield, South Australia, Rec. S, dust

Mus. 22(2): 191-138.

Small gem quality diamond crystals have been found by miners working the alluvial gold deposits

on the Old Echunga Diggings west of Chapmans Gully near Echunga, ¥) km south-east of

Adelaide. The first diamonds were recovered in 1859, and in the next (fly years al least 20. and

perhaps as many as 50 more were found, The largest stone weighed § 3/16 cc, Only five of the

diamonds found ai Echunga last century can be traced; three are in the collection of the South

Australian) Museum, and two ip the colleetion of the South Australian Department of Mines

and Energy. This paper traces the history of the diamond occurrence and establishes the auth

enticity of stones in the Museum collection.

EL, Goriners, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia S000,

Manuseript received 9 November 1987.

The South Ausiralian Museum collection cor-

tains three diamonds which are purported to have

come from the Echunga Goldfield, 30 km south-

east of Adelaide (Fig, 1), These specimens are

amongst the most frequeritly examined and studied

specimens in the Museum's mineral collection,

However, there has long been uncertainty and

scepticism over authenticity of the locality data for

these stones, The diamonds were reputed (o occur

With alluvial gold, bul no kifberlitic source or

indicator minerals were found by early investigators,

Geological units in the Goldfield comprise Holo-

cene and ‘Tertiary sediments, predominantly ferru-

ginous alluvial gravel and sand, unconformally

overlying kaolinised slate and schist of Torrensian

age, The alluvial gold is thought to have been de-

rived from quartz reefs in the older rocks (Ludbrook

1980).

BACKGROUND

The discovery of gold in Victoria in 1851 and ihe

ensuing rush to the Ields from all parts of Australia

prompted the government in South Australia to

offer a reward of £1 000 for the discovery of payable

gold in the colony.

W, Chapman Sor, R. Hardiman and H, Hampton

were first to claim the reward lor the diseovery of

gold, near Kehunga in the Mount Lofty Ranges.

They were eventually paid £500 by the Government.

In 1852 Chapman's son William, who had recently

returned from the Victorian goldfields, found allu-

vial gold near Warland’s Wheatsheaf Inn, now

known as *Warrakilla’, on the Onkaparinga River.

William Chapman and his father traced the gold

back (uo ité Source in a gully, later to become known

as Chapman's Gully (Whimpress 1975), The initial

rush here lasted only a few months but, at its height,

600 people were living on the diggings and about

5 000 oz. of gold were found. From 1853 1a 1868,

further discoveries were made in an area west of

Chapman's Gully, notably at Long Gully, Christmas

Rush and Poor Man’s Hill, and further afield at

Donkey Gully and Hahndorf Gully.

In 1868, Thomas Plane and Henry Saunders

found a rich field ar Tupuer Creek, 3 km south of

Chapman’s Gully; they received £300 and £200,

respectively, from the South Australian Government

in reward for their discavery, Jupiter Creek was

worked in several phases berween 1868 and 1907,

Up to 1 500 diggers were working the field at the

height of the rush between 1868 and 1871.

The Echunga Goldfield now covered three areas,

the Old Echunga diggings (including Chapmans

Gully), Jupiter Creek, and the Hahndorf to Mylor

area which included Donkey Gully and Biggs Flat

(Fig, 1), By 1900, about 400 000 oz, of gold had

been recovered and ihe area had become the state’s

most productive ficld. Drew (1984) gives a more

complete outline af the geology and history of the

workings.

Miners Working the Echunga alluvials occas

jonally found small. gem quality diamonds in their

pans and cradles, Over the fifty-year period in whieh

the goldfield was active, approximately 50 diamonds

were reported to have been recovered (Brown 1908),

These uppear to have come mainly from the older

part of the Echunga diggings west of Chapmamns

Gully, the principal localities being “Long Gully’,

‘International Dam‘, ‘Poor Man's Hill’, ‘Christmas

Rush'and ‘New Rush Hill’.

Doubts have been expressed about the occurrence

and even the authenticity of these slones.

132 F.L. GOMMERS

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Mylor

@wADELAIDE

s 7: an fe

ECHUNGA a’ -

GOLDFIELD “5 sabe GULLY

cs Wheatsheaf Inn

BIGGS FLAT.

DIGGINGS ..-

Alluvial workings

JUPITER CREEK /~".’

DIGGINGS-/'

Mt. Bold Reservoir

FIGURE I. Map showing main areas of the Echunga goldfields. Diamonds were found on the Old Echunga Diggings

west of Chapmans Gully.

QIAMONDS FROM ECHUNGA a)

Sugpesuions were mace that digeers returning trom

the South African fields had been ‘salting’ the area

with diamonds, or that the stones were Brazilian

or Indian (Duffield 1909). 1 is highly unlikely that

the stones are Sourh African, however, as the

Kimberley field was nor discovered until 1866, seven

years aller the first diamonds were recovered at

Echuoga

History oF THE DIAMOND Fisps

Fiest discoveries

Uncertainty exists as lo when and by whom the

fest diamoud was found, The Adelaule Observer

a newspaper of the day, reported that Robert Fore-

staw found a diamond near Echunga in March 1859

(Fiz, 2) The yellow coloured stone was said to be

abour the size of a small pea, and was found ata

depth of 2m text to a sniall gold nugget. This

seems to be the earliest recorded find.

Tom Hall anc ms brother Rabert also claimed

to have found the first diamond, at New Rush Hill.

This stone was sold ta Me &.R. Simpson of the

Sourh Australian Contpany (Hales 1909). No date

for this find was given, however.

Diimonns—On Monday alternoon, 30

Echuogs digger named Robert Poresbaw exhibited In

Adelaide a small diamond which he found at a depth of

six fvet,close ta a hugget of gold welahing 3 penaywelzhs

anda half, There is no doubt of tha genuinoness of the

diamond, which is about the sizvafa small pea, Its

shape is good, bat in oolour ft is rather yellow. He

mentlonad that he bad found two, but we oply saw ong

of them, We would reammend the digwers to look more

closely for diamonds, a3 we Delleye that Bchunga ts

extensively a diamond formation.

MIGURE 2 Report of Fest ditimand Cind at Eehunge from

The Observer, 26 Maret) 1859,

The ddelaide Observer of 2) January 1860

reported,

A digeer named Walhan Hall who had been at work

wethe dew divwings at Behn, bas broughe dower

(ree supposed diamonds, which he mcently discovered

there While searching for gold. One is of large

dimensions and weighs about an ounce; and the other

two an abou the size of peas. (Adelaide Observer,

21 Jan. 1860),

It seems highly unlikely that tie one ounce stone

was & diamond, as diantonds of this size (over 140

cl) wre extremely rare and valuable. Had a 140 et

diamond been recovered then more extensive

reporting of such a lind would have been expected;

ihe sloue Was mare probably clear quartz.

By Beeember of 1860, Mr Simpson fad pur-

chased 11 diamonds from miners at Echunga, wo

or three of these were said to be very pure in colour

and the size of large peas (Adelaide Observer, 15

December 1860). In 1864, Mr Simpson offered two

diamonds to the South Australian Institute for £12,

which he said were’... if not the first found, which

| believe, they are by far the most perfeet of any

yet discovered’, These niay have heen purchased by

the South Australian Government and could be the

slones mentioned jn Brown (1908) as having been

purchased by the Museum authorities. These are

uot, however, ibe two uncut stones currently held

i the Museum collecnon.

Lurgest stane

The largest authenticated diamond found onthe

Hield appears to be the 5 5/16 (5 1/2) et stone

discovered by a dipper, John Glover, in August 1877

at Long Gully (Warden of Goldfields, 10 August

1877), Hales (1909) wives the weight as aboul 14

erains (4.5 ct) and places the find at Poor Man's

Hill, bul this accoulit was compiled from remine

scenees in 1909 and the weight conflicts with

catalowue entries. Brown (1908) reparts a 9 1/4 ef

stone but no other mention of this gem was made

in early records; the weight is probably a misprint

of carats for grains, with the true Weight being about

3 el.

‘Rennells Vision’ diamond, found at Poor Man's

Hill, was valued at £90 in the rough. Rennells, a

prospector, known as the miner's prophet ~..

dreamt thar he saw an angel pointing to the spot

at the foat of Poor Man's Hill and heard a voice

telling him to dig’ (The A4dverriser, 16 June 1909),

His male, not believing him, threatened to throw

Rennells into the dam if he did nol continue with

their usual gold prospecting. A struggle look place

newrthe edge of the water, but the ground gave way

and his mate fell in, putting an end to his objections.

Rermells continued seatching and soon found his

diamond. Unfortunately, the weight of this stone

was not recorded

A diamond weighing 3 1/2 ct was found in Long

Gully by John Brown while gold washing in

Devember 1867 (Warden of Goldfields, 8 December

1867),

The Dodd and Bean Reports

In the late 1870s, the diamond oOecurrence al

Echunga was of considerable interest, wath

newspapers urging miners to be on the lookout tor

these gems and giving regular accounts of new

Ninds, In J878 atid 1879, the Government eon-

missioned two reports! on che diamond oc-

currence,

134 FL. GOMMERS

At the Paris Universal International Exhibition

in-1878, wo rough diarnonds found by gold diggers

John Brown and John Glover were exhibited in the

South Australian Court (Fig. 3). Me Boothby,

Special Executive Commissioner for the South

Australian Court, (hinking the occurrence of dia-

monds in South Australia might be of great im-

portance, submitied the gems to an expert, Mr

Arthur Dodd of P.G, Dodd & Sons, diamond mer-

chaars, Loridon, for af appraisal. The gems, of 5

5/16 ct and 3 1/2 cl, were cut on Dadd's recom-

mendation. His report expressed the opinion that:

A diamond field must exist near where chese diamonds

were fonnd, for two reasons — First thar the elevation

of Echunga is abour me highest point in {he range of

mountains forming a backbone of the country,

therefore these stones could nor have been wasted

down lo thal place; and secondly, by the evidence of

the stones themselves showing no signs Of travelling

by worn surfaces or broken points. | am therefore of

(he opinion (hai the diggers for gold, who for years

past have worked and washed the grovind in [his place,

lave passed unheaded hundreds of diamiends, not

knowing them for worthless crystals or other stones

of no value.

His report concluded:

We do nat suppose that Echuinga is another South

Alrica, bur at all events there 15 every reason to believe

that the district is rch in diamonds, and i) will pay

a few enterprising men Lo give ira trial. (f anything

like success iS attained there will of course bea rush.

In that case the Government will have to make sore

arrangements tor the proper rewulation of claims, and

companies no doubt will he orgunived to carry on a

systematic search for the beaurilul crystals (Suuchers

Arius, 24 July 1879).

Follawing, recommendations of the Dodd repart,

the Commissioner of Crown Lands in 1879 ap-

pointed Mr GT, Bean, an experienced gem digger,

to examine the potential of the Echunga Goldfield

for diamonds and to recommend a course of action

for their recovery, Bean reported that the field was

similar lo those in South Africa and recommended

that a systematic search be made. He suggesred thar

four or five men led by an experienced cdiumond

digger should search the area. Bean also recom-

mended that claims be 50 feet by 30 feet, with every

digeer entitled to two claims. The discoverer of a

new tind would be entilled to select five claims. and

a company able to hold a black af upto lO claims.

He voneluded that the best method was to wash all

soil and gravel in 4 cradle and sereen, and sorc the

screenings on a table, Bean nominated Mr A. von

Doussa of Hahndorf, a diamond digger from Kim-

berley in South Afvica, as leader of the search party

(Adelaide Observer, 23 August 1879).

When the report was published orhers offered

their services, One such offer was ‘a gentleman. , .

who was willing lo organise a party and make.

search for two or three months fora payment of

£5 per week, which would nor be claimed jf their

elforls were successful! (ddelaide Observer, 23

August 1879),

Ln IR80, to Turther help gold diggers on the jelds

to recognise diamonds, a collection of 1) rough

Brazilian diamonds was displayed at the South

Australian Unstitare, the forerunner of the South

Australian Museum. These were obtained through

Mr J. Boothby in London at a cost of £20, Linfor-

tunately, they were stolen from the Museum in

December 1883,"

Few additional diamonds appear to have to have

been found after 1880; the only known report was

of a diamond obtained by Mr Bertram of Echunga

in 1886 (The South Australian Register, 22 May

1884),

The recommendations of the Bean Repart were

raised in South Australian Parliament in August

1879 by Mr Bray (Member for East Adelaide), At

this time the Commissioner of Crown Lands

reported the matter under consideration (South

Australia, Parliament, (879) but no further action

appears to have been faken by the Government and

the matter was drapped.

li has not been possible to accurately establish

the number of diamonds found on the field between

1859 and 1900. Brown (1908) estimated that 50

stones had been found but an extensive search of

newspaper reports and reports by the Warden of

Goldfields a1 Echunga gave definite reference (o

only about 20 stones (Table 1), Hales (1909) lists

uw number of miners as having found gems on the

field buc no details of the stones are given.

CLASS 39.—JEWELLERY AND PRECIOUS STONES,

Bteiner, Henry ; Jewollars Rundle Strevt, Adalaide,

Collection of Gold and Silver Jewellary, ecfanhsaearet evo

HKarrings, Crosses, Neohlaces, Lookots, a

Brown, John; Gold Digger; perch Sowa datrabia,

Diamond, rough os found on the Echungs Gold Field.

Glover, John; Gold Digger; Zebwayo, South Australis.

Dietmond, rough oa fonnd on the Rohwnge Gold Fiold.

FIGURE 3. Catalosde entry for Eehuinga diamonds

exhibited at the Paris Intcesational Exhibicion, 1878,

Reeent exploration

Little interes! was expressed this century in the

Echunga diamond occurrence until the mining

boom of the 19705 entived several companies to

explore the ared. The most extensive studies were

made by Kimberely Diamond Quest NL and Nickel

& Mineral Search NL who contracted Pacific Ex-

ploration Consultants to process over 75 (onnes of

jailings from the Old Echunga Diggings, but these

revealed only one microdiamand. CRA Exploration

Piy Lid also undertook extensive geophysical ¢x-

ploration in the area and located several magnetic

TABLE |. Records of diamond finds at Echunga.

NAME OF FINDER LOCATION DATE

Robert Foreshaw

William Hail

E.R. Simpson, South

Australian Company,

Adelaide

John Brown

H. Heuzenroeder,

Chemist, Rundle St,

Adelaide

James Warland

A digger (prob. John

Glover)

Davis

Col. Biggs

”

John Glover

Allred Rennells

Tom and Robert Hall

John Whillis

fom Hall

Loveland, Goomlitte,

DIAMONDS FROM ECHUNGA

New Rush Hill

Echunga

Long Gully

Echunga

Echunga diggings

Long Gully

Echunga diggings|

Echunga

Poor Man’s Hill

Poor Man's Hill

New Rush Hill

Poor Man's Hill

Poor Man’s Hill

New Rush Hill

DETAILS

REFERENCE

2 — first found

3 — al ounce stone (prob.

quartz), 2 the size of peas

11 diamonds purchased from

miners in the last twelve

months

{ weighing 342 cts (exhibited

in Paris)

Acquired 2 diamonds, |!

and 1 cts (exhibited in

Melbourne and Sydney). In

South Australian Museum

collection.

2 diamonds

2 diamonds — | weighing

5 cls

1 small diamond

| weighing 34% ets

Yla ois (prob. a misprint —

Ol) prs = 3 cts)

2 diamonds. One about (4

grs plus smaller one. 544 cts

exhibited in Paris. Now in

§.A.M, collection.

1 ‘Rennells Vision®

diamond

Claim to have found the

first stone

| small diamond

1 between 2 and 3 prs

Diamonds were found by

Adelaide Observer. 76 March

1859

Adelaide Observer, 21

January 1860

Adeluide Observer, \5

December 1860

Mem. of Proc. by Warden of

Goldfields, 8 December (867

Adelaide Observer, \7 hily

1869

The Lantern, 7 April 1877

Mem. of Proc. by Warden af

Goldlelds, 10 August 1877

Mem, of Proc. by Warden of

Goldlichts, 24 February 1877

The Lantern, 21 April 1877

Brown 1908

Hales [909

Advertiser, 16 Tyne [909

Hales 1909

Hales [909

Longman, Jimmy

Gibbs, Sam Ewen,

Harry Pilcher

these diggers

anomalies of possible kimberliti¢ nature on (he Old

Echunga Diggings, Jupiter Creek Diggings and

Bigas Flat arca. Samples from these anomalous

vones contained zireon, chromite and corundum

Which may be of kimberlitic origin, but no kim-

berlites. were located (Gerdes 1987).

Western Queen (South Australia) Ply Ltd ex-

plored for diamonds in the Lobethal area of the

Mount Lofty Ranges, 20 km north of Echunga, and

found fresh picroilmenite indicator minerals sug-

vesting possible kimberlites (Gerdes 1987).

In January 1987, John Popeskul, a fossicker,

found a 0.91 et diamond while panning for gold

near National Dam on the Old Echunga Diggings.

DIAMONN SPECIMENS FROM ECHUNGA

Only five of the diamonds found at Echunga last

century can be traced. The collection of the South

Australia Department of Mines and Energy con-

tains wo small diamond crystals, and three stones

(two uncut and one cut) are in the South Australian

Museum collection

The largest of these is a fine brilliant-cut yellow

diamond of 2.84 ct (Fig. 4). The gem was said to

have originally been pale red in colour (Cloud 1883;

Brown 1908), but to have changed colour in the

1950s as a result of being stored with radioactive

ninerals. This stone was probably (he one cut from

the § 5/16 ct crystal found by John Glover in 1877

and displayed, together with another uncut stone,

at the Paris Universal International Exhibition of

1878, Both were cut in London in 1879, The cut

diamonds were returned to Australia and displayed

at the International Exhibitions held in Sydney in

1879 and Melbourne in [880 (Sydney International

Exhibition 187%, Melbourne International

Exhibition 1880) (Fig. 5). The South Australian

Museum Curator’s Monthly report of December

136 FE.L. GOMMERS

’

FIGURE 4, Brilliant cul diamond (2.84 ct and 9 mm

across) from the collection of the South Australian

Museum (G6500); this was cut in London in 1879 from

a rough weighing 5 5/16 ct (photo: JA. Forrest).

286 Commissioners for South Australia.

Collection of South Avstralian Miverals, prepared for the Commla~

aion hy T. OG. Cloud, ARS.ML, F.0\8,, PLC.

DIAMOND,

1 Bellligus fut ‘val diamond, trom Fehungs Go ela Kelde~ unit in the rough,

7 present weight, - Govern

2 wat aut bana ete) wn urige Gani Fields ~ evelghe in the rough,

Spresayy| it

2 Diantond, iitural urs werlbutine the [aney of the drinks ootabedron—

welght, ¢) carnta > Echinga. Gold Fieldn. BE. Thewkeunroudor.

‘ Diamond, Arakuneal Wexakly oekahed

sult Kletly, ron —weluht, 14 varala; Echunga

eubkenevedur,

FIGURE 5, Catalogue of the Melbourne International

Exhibition, 1880, giving details of four diamonds from

Echunga. Three of these stones are now in the collection

of the South Australian Museum.

1881 notes the purchase of a diamond, presumably

the large cut stone in the Museum collection; the

fate of the smaller cut stone could not be traced.

The two small uncut diamonds displayed at the

Sydney and Melbourne Exhibitions are also in the

South Australian Museum collection; these were

acquired in 1949, The stones, a sharp trisoctahedron

of 1.5 ct (Fig. 6a) and a distorted octahedron of |

ct (Fig. 6b), were the property of Mr HLY.

Heuzenroeder, a Rundle Street chemist and coin

collector, When exhibited, They were purchased by

the Museum from Mr TW. Hastings, Heu-

zenroeder’s grandson jn 1949 for £45, Ina letter to

Herbert M, Hale, the Museum Director at the time

of the purchase, Hastings claimed that the two

stones were exhibited in Paris in 1878, but these

gems were cut in London after the exhibition. The

Adelaide Observer of 17 July 1869 states that ‘Mr

Heuzenroeder of Rundle Street brought to our

office on ‘Tuesday two fine rough diamonds,

weighing 1 1/2 carats and | carat, both of which

were found at Echunga some time ago' (Adelaide

Observer, 17 July 1869), Mr Heuzenroeder may have

bought the stones from Mr Simpson of North

Adelaide, who earlier offered two diamonds to the

Museum in 1864 , The two diamonds are certainly

some of the earliest found on the Echunga

goldfields.

FIGURE 6. Uncut diamonds in South Australian Museum

collection (G6505). These stones, exhibited by the South

Australian Government at the Sydney and Melbourne

International Exhibitions of 1879 and 1880, were pur+

chased from Mr Hastings in 1945. (a) 1.5 ct sharp

trisoctahedron, 6 mm across (photo; JA, Forrest); (b) 1

ct distorted octahedron, 4 mm across (photo: JA. Forrest).

The two diamonds held by the South Australian

Department of Mines and Energy weigh 0.836 and

0.462 cl. Unfortunately, their history cannot been

traced, but they may be the two stones offered to

the Museum by Mr Simpson in 1864.3 The gems

are of good crystal shape and strongly yellow in

colour (Fig. 7). The larger stone is a combination

octahedral-dodecahedral crystal, and the smaller

is a flattened dodecahedron (Hall & Smith 1983).

FIGURE 7. Two diamonds [rom the collection of the

South Australian Department of Mines and Energy, The

larger stone weighs 0.836 ct and is 5mm across. The

smaller stone, a flattened dodecahedron, weighs 0.462 ct

and is 3 mm across (photo: JA. Forrest).

DIAMONDS FROM ECHUNGA 437

The 0.91 ct diamond found on the Gld Echunga

Diggings in January 1987 is still in the possession

of the Jinder. The stone has a slightly clongate,

almost oval shape showing what appears to be a

combination of octahedral and dodecahedral forms;

it is pale straw yellow in colour (Fig. 8).

FIGURE 8, Diamond, weighing 0.91 ct(4 « & » 3 mmm),

found near National Dam on the Old Echunga diggings

by J, Popeskul jn lahuary 1987 (photo: JA, Forrest),

OTHER DIAMOND LOCALITIES IN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Numerous kimberlité pipes. and dykes have been

found in county Kimberley, 250 km north of Adel-

aide. Microdiamonds were recovered trom several

of these, including the pipes at Pine Creek, Ketch-

owal, and Franklyn (Colchester, 1972},

A total of 140 microdiamonds were recovered

during exploration of kinmberlites near Eurelia,

20 km north of Orroroo, by Stockdale Prospecting

in the early 1980s (Scatt Smith ef wh 1984), No

larger diamonds have been found in either county

Kimberley or the Orroroo kimberlites, and neither

appear have of econamic significance.

Brown (1908) reports recovery of .a i ct diamond

from auriferous gravel at Algebuckina, 900 km

north-north-west of Adelaide, but no further details,

including current location of this stone, could be

traced, Liltle exploration appears to have taken

place near this occurrence,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to thank Allan Pring and John

Drexel for assistance and encourgement with the project

and particularly for help in finalising (he manuseripyt

Thanks are also due to John Popeskul, Jan Forrest, Jenni

Thurmer and June Serympour for their help in various

ways, The assistance of the staff of the Mortlock and State

Libraries and the South Australian Department of Mines

and Energy is gratefully acknowledwed.

ENDNOTES

1, Aitempts to locate copies of the Dodd and Bean

Reports were unsuccess!ul ald information on their con

tent is drawn trom newspaper reports.

2. Reports hy the Muscum Curator an the progress of

the Museum, November 1863 to 1882. See reports dated

March 1880 and December 1881. Public Records office

ORGI9/168, Adelaide.

3, Letters and Memoranda received by the General

Secretary concerning evaluarions, donarions and purchases

ol Museum specimens and apparatus, § December 1857-10

March 1865. See letters dated 26 February 1864 and 11

March 1864, Public Records Office GRGI9/167.

REFERENCES

Adelaide Observer, 26 March (859, 21 Jan. 1860, 15 Dec,

1K60, 17 July 1869, 23 Aug. 1879. (Newspaper

published from | July 1843 to 26 February 1931 ane

incorporated imo The Chronicle.)

Advertiser, 16 June 1909,

BOOTHBY, J. 1878. ‘Paris Universal International

Lxhibition, 1878: Calalogue of the South Australian

Court. Waterlow & Sons, London. 36 pp.

BROWN, HLY.1.. 1908. ‘Record of the Mines of South

Australia’, 40h Bd. Government Printer, Adelaide. 382

pp.

CLOUD, PC. 1883. A catalogue of South Australian

Minerals. Travis. Ro Soe, 5. Alust. € 72-93.

COLCHESTER, DM. 1972. 4 preliminary nore on

Kimberlile occurrences in South Australia. A. Geol,

Soe. Aust. 9: 383-386.

DREW, G, 1984, The Echunga Goldfield, S. Aust, Dept!

Mines add Enerey report 83/042 (unpuh-

lished).

DUEPIELD, T1909. Bulletin No, 9, Department of

(nteligenee. South Australia, Government Printer,

Adelaide. Pp, 4-11.

GERDES, R.A, 1987. Geophysical appraisal of the

Echunga district with reference to mineralisaion within

the middle-late Proterozoic rocks, S. Aust. Dept Mines

and Enerny repor| 87/98) 18 pp. (ubpublshed).

HALE, H.M, 1956. The first hundred years of the

Museum, (856-1956. Ree. 8. dust Mus. 12; 1-225,

HALES, F.C. 1909. History of the Quest, In: The South

Australian Register, V7 June 1909

HALL, A.E, & SMITH, C_B. 1983, Morphological study

of two diamonds from Eehunga, South Australia, for

CRA Exploration Piy Lid. 8. Aust, Dep| Mines and

Energy open tile Env. 4994 (unpublished).

LUDBROOK, N.H. 1980, A guide to the geology and

mineral resources Of SOuth Australia, Handbook &.

Aust. Dept Mines and Enerey No. 5, 230 pp.

MELBOURNE INTERNATIONAL, EXFLUIBITION 1880.

‘South Australian Court, Official Catalogue of

Exhibits’) Sands & MeDougall, Melbourne. 54 pp.

SCOTT SMITH, B.H., BANCHIN, RV, HARRIS, UW.

& STRACKE, KJ. 1984. Rimberlites near Orrorao,

South Australia. /a J, Kornprobst (Rd.). ‘Kimberliles”.

138 F.L. GOMMERS

Vol. 1, Proceedings of the Third International

Kimberlite Conference. Developments in petrology

series, 11A, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 121-142.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA, PARLIAMENT, 1879. Debates

in the Houses of Legislature during the second session

of the Ninth Parliament of South Australia from 29

May 1879 to 25 October 1879. W.K. Thomas & Co.,

Adelaide. Register, Observer and Journal Offices,

Grenfell Street. See House of Assembly, 5 August, 13

August, 27 August.

The Lantern, 7 April 1877, 21 April 1877,

The Southern Argus, 24 July 1879. (Published in

Strathalbyn, South Australia, 17 March 1866 until

present.)

The South Australian Register, 22 May 1886. (Formerly

South Australian Gazette & Colonial Register

published in London. Published in Adelaide 18 June

1836 to 20 Feb. 1931 and later incorporated into the

Advertiser.)

SYDNEY INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION 1879.

‘South Australian Court. Official Catalogue of

Exhibits’, Gibbs, Shallard & Co., Sydney. 46 pp.

WARDEN OF GOLDFIELDS, 1867, 1877. Memorandum

of Proceedings 8 Dec. 1867, 10 Aug. 1877. (Held by

S. Aust. Dept Mines and Energy, Adelaide.)

WHIMPRESS, J.A. 1975. ‘Echunga 1839-1939’, Lutheran

Press, Adelaide. 159 pp.

EARLY HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES

BY R. J. LAMPERT & P. J. HUGHES

Summary

The climatic amelioration that followed the last glacial maximum (17-15 000 yBP) prompted more

widespread human occupation of the Australian arid zone. Whereas the better watered Flinders

Ranges were a focus of human activity as early as 15 000 yBP, the shores of Lake Frome became

popular during generally moister conditions of 9.5-4 000 y BP, and the widespread occupation of

the Strzelecki Desert, with its highly epheremal surface water, took place mainly within the last five

thousand years. Technological change accompanied these movements. The Kartan industry, dating

to 15 000 yBP, is present at early sites in the Ranges, while small tools characterise the widespread

recent sites. Lying temporarily between these is an industry of core tools, shaped differently from

those of the Kartan, found on the early Holocene Lake Frome sites, On the evidence of this and

earlier investigations, the Kartan has an upland distribution, ranging from hills of Kangaroo Island

to the desert highlands of the north.

EARLY HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES

R.J. LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES

LAMPERT, RJ. & HUGHES, PJ. 1988. Barly biiman occupation at the Flinders Ranges, Mee

§ Aust. Mus, 22: 139-168,

The climatic ameliorarion thar followed the list glacial maximum (17-15 QOD BP) prompted

more widespread human occupation of the Australian arid zone. Whereas the better watered

Flinders Ranges Were a focus of human activity ay early as 15 (XM) yBR, ihe shores af Lake Frome

hecame popular during generally moister conditions of 9.5-4 O00 yBR, and (he wodlesprene

oveupation of (he Sirzelecki Desert, witlr ils highly ephemeral surtace water, took place mainly

within the last five thousand years, Technologival change accompanicd (hese movements, Phe

Kartan industry, dating to 15 000 yBP, is present al early sites im the Ranges, while smal! lools

characterise the widespread recent sites, Lying remporally belween [hese is ay industly of core

rools, shaped differently from (hose of the Kartan, found on the early Holocene Lake Frome

sites, Ore the evidence of rhis and earlier investigations, the Kartan has an upland distribution,

ranging from the hills of Kangaroo Island to the desert highlands of {ve porth,

R.J, Lampert, Australian Maseum, 6-8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000 and VI

Hughes, University of Pupua New Guinea, PO Box 320, Port Moresty, Papua New Cruined,

Manuseript received 23 December 1987,

Our research on carly Aboriginal occupation of

the Flinders Ranges, and adjoining areas of the arid

zone of south-eastern Australia, began on temperate

Kangaroo Island, several hundred kilometres to the

south (Lampert 1981). There, allempts to date (he

Kartan industry, present oly on surface sites, had

met with limited success, The presefice of this

industry also on parts of the mainland close to

Kangaroo Island, together with evidence lor the

separation ol the island from the mainland by post

glacial sea tise some 9 500 yBP (years Before

Present), suggested a late Pleistocene age for the

industry, This view received support from Lhe

absence of large core tools, whieh are the hallmark

of the Kartan, from a number of sites on the island

with ages ranging between 11 000 and 4 300 yBP,

These sites have securely stratified oecupauon

horizons containing aeeeprably large samples of an

industry characterised by small adzes and scrapers

made on stone fakes,

Lampert concluded trom his Kangaroo Island

research (hat the Kartan Was a regional variant of

the core lool and seraper tradition, (he earliest

Australian stone-working tradition yet recognised;

that ip dated back to the late Pleistocene; that it

preceded an industry of smaller tools, made on

flakes rather than cores, this succession being part

of a trend towards smaller tool types throughout

Australia; and that the later industry was essentially

part of (he mainland small (ool tradition despite

the absence from Kangaroo Island ol tater and more

characteristic tool forms (Lampert 1981). Other

more tentative hypotheses were raised, notably one

concerning the differences. between the Kartan and

more widespread examples of the core tool und

Seraper tradition, Whereas large cote tools pre-

dominate in the Kartan, such toals are smatier and

fewer in other todustries of tbe tradition, the much

more common tool being U flake scraper, However,

large core tools predominate in some early sites i

South East Asia, lands from whieh Australia muse

have received its early human population. The

similarity of these tools to those of the Kartan had

been noted earlier (Tindale 1937; McCarthy 1940,

1941, 1949), although later research (Marchews L96f)

showed that this relationship was tot particularly

close. This evidence raised the possibility that the

Kartan was different from other midusiries of the

‘Australian core tool and seraper tradition beeause

it had retained tool forms earlier in origin Ul this

is the case, some Kartan sites should have ages in

excess Of 30 O00 years.

To address such questians, there was clearly a

need to locale the Karlan in stratified contuats tal

would allow ifs age and cultural asouations to be

determined more accurately, The discovery of suit

able sites on Kangaroo Island and nearby peninsulas

of the mainland seemed untikely piven the number

of lengthy reconnaissanves that hud already failed

in this attempt. Attention was turned to the Flinders

Ranges where Cooper (1943) hac reparted the dis

covery of Kartan tools.

The northern sector of the Ranges scenied the

more promising because, lying within the arid vane,

it was subject to a cycle of deposition and erosion

that could cover archaeological materials ad ex-

pose them again to allow discovery,

140 RJ. LAMPERT & PUL AUGHES

In the event, investigations there illuminated not

only the problem of the Kartan. but also yeneral

questions about the antiquity and nature of human

occupation in the arid zone of south-eastern

Australia (cf Gould 1971, Bowdler 1976, Horton

I9B1, Ross 1981).

THE SENTING

Present environment

Landforms

Structurally, by far the larger part of the Flinders.

Ranges (see Fig. 1) has developed fram sedimentary

rocks laid dowu between S00 and 1000 million

years ago, These rocks were compressed, buckled

and lractuired: they Were uplifted slowly and eroded,

In the arid northern Ranges, where vegetation is

sparse, the intricate folding and faulting. and the

effects af erosion, can be best appreciated. The

landforms here are spectacular, the Ranges as a

whole rising abruptly from the surrounding plaing,

and containing deep gorges, jagged ridges and

enclosed synelinal basins or ‘pounds’, the best

known of which is Wilpena Pound. Predominant

among rock lypes is quartalte which grades out into

sandstone and silistone. Limestone is. fairly ex-

tensive, some igneous rocks ate present in the Mt

Painter region, and there are a few smal! outcrops

of silcrete. To the north, the Ranges become more

subdued and eventually terminate in the dunefields

and stany plains of the Strzelecki Desert

Sandy plains some 30 km in width separate the

northern Ranges fron Lake Frome to the east and

Lake Torrens to the west. These lakes are huge saline

playas that rarely eontain water. Streams flowing

from the Ranges soan peter out, reaching the lakes

only rarely, Under this regime, the streams drop

their bedload of sediments within a short distance,

causing alluvial fans to form an the piedmont.

Climate and vegetarian

The northern Ranges receive an annual raintall

slightly less than 300 mm which decreases from

south to north, the riorthern limits falling below the

250 mm isohyet, These average fivures are deceptive

because of considerable varialion in rainfall fram

year to year, Rainfall is 50% grealer in the Ranges

than on the surrounding plains which receive only

200 mm, a figure that diminishes to a mere 125 mm

in the heart of rhe Stezelecki Desert and at Lake

Frome. As weil as having a higher rainfall, the

Ranges have deep shady chasms with a rocky

substrate that allows the retention of surface water

in pools.

The plains, by contrast, have only highly ephe-

eral streams and salt pans, plus a few widely

spaced artesian springs with water that is not always

drinkable, The northern Ranges are thus a reason-

ably well-watered strip within an arid region.

Vegetation communities in the Ranges vary main-

ly if accordance wilh soi types which mm turn reflect

the kinds of parent rock and weathering processes

to which they have been subjected. Sails range from

skeletal soils, found mainly at higher latitudes,

through red brown soils and podsols, to the deep

alluvial soils found in valley bottoms (Kuchel (980:

69).

Shrubland dominated by various species. of

Acacia, Cassia and Erentuphila is common, partic

ularly on the stony soils of vpper hill slopes. Native

pine (Calhtris calumellaris) and sheoak (Causwariru

stricta) ate found on lower slopes and flats.

Calcareous podsols develaped on a sandy base are

colonised mainly by mallee {Evcalyptus spp.) with

spinifex (Trjodia irritans) occurring on more mobile

sands, Plants af the family Chenopodiaceae,

including salt bush (4rripley spp.) and blue bush

(Maireany spp.) are found on stony flats and hill

Slopes, oorably at the northern end of the Ranges

and on the Lake Frome plain. Valley bottoms and

stream courses support the lofty river red gum

(Sucalyplus camaldulensis), specimens of which in

the better watered gorges reach an enormous size.

Past events

Before 45 000 yBP

Evidence from this early period is sparse, but

thermo-luminescence (TL) dates for the onset of

dune building in the northern Strzelecki Desert at

least 250 000 yBP (Gardner ef af 1987), indicate

(hal deserl condiljons were in place well before

human occupation of the continent. In the

Willandra Lakes, just outside the present arid zone,

well-developed soils below lake bed depasits give

evidence for dry conditions from

120 000-45 000 yBP (Bowler & Wasson 1984),

40) 000-25 000 yBP

Signifivantly wetter eonditions throuyhout sou-

ibern Australia are Shown by a variety of evidence.

Lakes filed in the Willandra system and in south-

eastern South Australia (Bowler 1971), Rivers of the

Murray-Darling system were up to four times their

present width (Pels 1964, Bowler ef a/, 1976), Lake

Eyre covered three times its present area and was

up to 17 m deep (Fwidale 1980: 30),

Lake Frome experienced a high water phase

mininially dared by C-14 ro 36 800 4 J 700 yBP

from Cowiella shells in a beach ridge, while a dune

thought to be associated with risirig lake levels has

a TL date of 48 UOO 4 & 900 YBP (Gardner e/ al,

}Y8T1.

uring this moist phase, high rates of runatf and

erosion in ibe Ranges produced the immetise

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 141

Dalhousie

®e

Simpson Desen

Cooper Basin

«.

e - %e

ee® «6

°° *, e

° 8”

ee “ JSN

Strzelecki e @L.Murteree

Desert

°% L. Blanche

Moung ee

Prings ee

L.Callabonna

Puntarra

Ff \ mEudli Wagloona

EF Balcoracana Ck

Moorowile Well

Chambers Gorge

Murray-Darling R.

—=

Olary mae

Eyre Pen.

Fleurieu Pen.

Kangaroo Island

i) 100 km

—

FIGURE 1. Places mentioned in text.

142 Rul DAMPERT & PLL MUGHES

wluyial fans thal form the pediments of hill slopes

and exiesd outward across valley bottoms. Col-

lectively, these sediments are known_as the Pooraka

Formation (Williams 1973). They are up ta 10m

thick where cur through by Hookina Creek, just

north of Hawker township. Radiocarbon dates

indicate that this formation had begun to build uj

before 38 000 yBP and was completed by 30 000

yBP, alter which the abseuce of sedimentation

Wlowed a soil profile, known as the Wilkatana

Palaeosol, (@ develop on its surface. Bones of

Pleistocene fauna, meluding Diproiodan, have been

recovered fram deep sediments of this formation

along Hookina Creek.

25 000-20 000 VBP

Condilions became cooler and drier (hroughout

southern Australia. The Willandra lake levels were

low and fluctuating; at Lake Frome there was a

change from lake deposits to dune building; in the

Strzelecki Desert extensive sandy clay dunes began

to form (Bowler & Wasson 1984).

2) 000-15 U0 ¥BP

This was the coldest and most arid phase, with

Jakes drying up and aeolian activiry gt its most

intense, The Willandra system became almost eom-

pletely drys dunes were formed around Lakes

Torrens and Frame, and continued to be built in

the Strzelecki Desen.. Near Edeowie Creek in the

northern Ranges, dunes were formed on top of

sediments of the Pooraka Formation, Dissection,

by itregular stream action, of fan and valley fill

sediments of the Pooraka Formation began at this

Time, wid continues today (Williams 1973),

15 00U-10. 000 yBP

This period was one of transition berween earlier

intense aridity and Jater, moister and warmer

vonditions. Dune building ceased in the Strzelecki

Desert.

These conditions allowed the formation of such

soils as the Motpena Palaeosol, dated la c,

12 000 y.8P, and present in (he northern Ranges on

fEdeowie and other dunes (Williams $973)

10. 000-35 000 VBP

More frequent high water levels at Hawker

Lagoon in the Flinders Ranges (this report) and at

Lake Frome, associated With greater vegetation

cover (Singh 1981), indicate moister and warmer

conditions, at least in the south-easrern secior of

the arid zone, for any time during the past 30 000

years. Lakes near the south-eastern coas! of Seurh

Australia and on Kangaroo Island provide evidence

for similar wetcer conditions ac much the same rime

(Dowson 1974, I974b, 1975; Dadson & Wilson

1975, Lampert 1981).

Afler 5 000 vBP

Drier conditions began to return reaching a max

imum around 2.000 yBP when the climate was

slightly more arid than il is today (Bowler e/ wi,

1976),

Revonnaissance of the region

A major aim ol field research in the Ranges was

to locate subsurface Kartan sites which could be ex-

cavated ro provide the sort af information unavail-

able from the surface sites encountered previously.

This information included ihe age of (he Karlan;

the nature of the ‘vemplere' industry eg. whether

it was a6 dominated by large core tools as surface

sites had suggested; and the strativraphic

relationship oF the Kartan with small tools. Another

interest developed during research lay in the

gcogruphical spread of Kartan vis-a-vis small tool

sites over a broader region than the Ranges alone

since differences mught reflect the pace of human

colonisation of the arid zone.

North af the Ranges

In 1979, We raconnoitred transects through the

Coaper Basin and Strzclecki Desert as well as the

northern Flinders Ranges (Hughes & Lampert 1980;

Lanipert & Hughes 1980). In the desert regions

north of the Ranges we examined approximately 100

sites, all of which are of late Holocene age judging

from the ubiquitous presence of toals typical af the

small rool tradition, the almost total absence of core

tools and jarge serapers, and the stratigraphic

position of these in the unconsolidated surface

sands of dunes. No artefact was seen in the

consolidated sediments that form the dune cores,

and date back 15 000 to 18 000 years, despite

numerous deep eXposures (hrough them, Al Lake

Murteree, stone tools protruding from the eroded

slope ofa dune vore appeared (0 be iisitu, but later

excavalion showed the tools lic in a slope washed

skin, consisiing of more recent. sands, covering the

eroded face of the dune. In deeper excavation at this

site, 00 artefact predating the dunetield was found.

This had seemed a particularly promising site for

carly ocelipation, being adjacent ta a waterhole and

feat an outcrop of high quality silerere from whielr

twols al the site had been flaked. The absence of

evidence alt such a favourable location suggested

that human presence before the late Halovene was.

Sparse enough to be generally below the threshold

of archaeological visibility. However, people were

not totally absent, as the ISN Sile shows (Wasson

1983), This site, some Si) km west of Lake Murteree

consists Oba lens of charred wood together with

mussel shell, dated toe. 13 500 yAP and presumed

io be an Aboriginal fireplace

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 13

Mound springs

These strerch in 4 broad are that follaws the

south-western edge of the Great Artesian Basin

lrom Lake Frome, across the northern margin oF

the Tlinders Ranges, along the south-western shore

of Lake Eyre, to Dalhousie on the western edge of

the Simpson Desert, The springs are natural outlets

for artesian water containing a number of soluble

salts which solidify to form mounds as the water

evaporates,

The water from these varies considerably in

quality. A few springs have excellent drinking water,

most are brackish but still potable, while some are

pjologically inert because of massive quantities of

salts in solution, Except for the last, the springs

support small areas of lush vegetation, as well as

malluses, araphipods and small fish. They attract

such mammals as the ced kangaroo, and birds that

include ducks, the brolga and stills. Altlough their

outpul of water is low, Ihe springs appear as Oases

in a region Where the annual rainfall averages only

125 mm,

Every major spring complex has at least one large

Aboriginal surface site adjacent to i| (Hughes &

Lampert |985, Lamper) 1985). Variations between

sites in types oF tools, kinds of raw materials, and

core reduction techniques, are currently under

investigation by S. Florek (Umiversity of Sydney).

Like those in the Cooper Basin, these siles appear

io have been occupied mainly in the late Holecene,

judging from the presence of such small tools as

pircis, tulas and microliuhs. Only occasionally are

there a few artefacts in carbonate-sohdified lower

sand horizons to give a hint of sparse earlier

occupation.

Sues in the Ranges

We examined a number of sites in the Ranges

during our (979 survey. Chambers Gorge and

nearby Moorowié Well we assume to be Karta

judging from the presence of heavy core tools. and

the rarity of smaller flaked artefacts lying on the

surface. Hawever, the sparseness of artefacts gen-

erally, and the unlikelihood of findiug stratified

material in the skeletal soils of the rocky slopes on

which the sites are situated, did not prompt any

closer research. Only Hawker Lagoon, where stane

tools of niany types, including large core lools,

seemed to be eroding from stratified dune horizons,

offered the chance of finding dated sequences.

In the 30 000 16 38 YOO years old sediments of

the Pooraka Formation along Hookina Creek a

quartzite core Was found well embedded in the

eroded slope of a gully, We aecepted this as being

in sti at the ime (Lampert & Hughes 1980), but

onareturn visit alter heavy rain Lampert noted how

Huid the deposit became when wet. Whole blacks

of sediment slumping downward and becoming

embedded in bollaws within lower levels, carrying

with therm material from the present surface, force

ug to revise our opinion of the stratigraphic pro-

verianve of this artefact. Despite the examination

of many kilometres of exposures through the Poor-

aka Formation along the water courses, no sign was

seen of human activity in these sediments.

LAKE FROME

Lying aboul 30 km east of the northern Ranges,

Lake Frome is a saline playa same 100 km long and

45 km wide With an annual rainfall ranging bet-

ween 100 and 125 mm, and an evaporation raie

exceeding 2 200 mm, it is One of Australia’s driest

places. Because Lake Frome lies at the end of a long

chaih of ephemeral lakes and watercourses.

substantial amounts of water reach it only rarely.

Cooper Creck, which drains fram south-western

Queensland, must have sufficient discharge to fload

Strzelecki Creek, then Lakes Blanche and Calla-

bonna before walter can reach Lake Frome,

On the western side of the lake a gravel beach

20 m higher than the present lake bed denotes a

high stand of fresh water more than 31) O00 years

aga, Since then, apart from moist phases 9 500-

8 000 and 7 VO0-4 G00 years ago (Singh 1981), the

lake bed has been almost continuausly dry.

A survey of the westera and southern shores

revealed that artefacts are very rare around Lake

Frome. A few sparse seatters of faked stone,

varying in densily belween one flake per 5 m* and

one per 50m? being found along the banks al

Passmore River (Wilpena Creck), Balcoracana

Creek and the channe} joining Lake Frome with

Lake Callabonna to the north. These sites are all

within one kilometre of the Jake shore. Except lor

one tula slug and a few care iools, Ihe artefacts are

all undiagnostic small flaked pieces.

Actual sites, that is, places;where artefacts are

concentrated within a definable area, are similarly

rare: they are also small and have a low densiry of

artefacts compared with sites in the Ranges. A

report follows on detailed research at one of these,

Balcoracana Creek, and comments on a second, Big

John Creek,

BALCORACANA CREEK

The site is on the southern bank of Baleoracana

Creek, aboul one kilometre apstream from the aut-

let of the creek inio Lake Frome, Only on very rate

occasions does the creek bed contain water The

nearby dunefield is interpreted by Dr R. Wasson

(pers, comm., Gardner ef af, 1987) as being source

bordering rather than continental in origin,

144 R.J. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES

iY?

ip:

FIGURE 2. Artefacts from Balcoracana Creek: b, f and g are core tools from the carbonate palaeosol; a, c, ¢ and

h from the overlying sand; i and j are adzes from the overlying sand.

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES

HAWKER LAGOON

MAY 1983

O76)

LEGEND

SANDY hae

TOPSOIL

%) RELATIVE HEIGHTS IN METRES WASH 059”

COVERING

@ = ARTEFACT IN UNIT TB AREA

JUNCTION OF UNIT ITB AND

145

UNIT TA

OVERLYING SANDY WASH \A\ SANDY WASH

ULL JUNCTION OF UNIT TB AND IR

a 43

Hesy oH _

27 UNIT TB .

of ‘

‘

\ ’

/ es

UNIT TA } o

, OcHancoat

fe es

/ i

} _-

F =

_ lu

146

SANDY WASH

a SANDY WASH

i /

e \ \

UNIT ee \ IY

é UNIT IB

~ e

5) \

NJ 1

y \

v e

PROFILE y e PROFILE

— > y E ———

md e

\ e

; e

UNIT TA

UNIT 1B

FIGURE 3. Hawker Lagoon locality map.

1809

MICROLITH COLLECTING AREA

4 6 8B 10m

146 Rul, LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES

The site is in a dune blow-out, deflation having

exposed the horizontally bedded carbonate horizon

of a palacosol. Al the time of our investigation,

artefacts lay scattered both on the surface of the

carbonate and on the lower slopes of dunes

surrounding the blow-oul, During our initial

appraisal (Lampert & Hughes 1980) we noted that

artefacts lying on the sand appeared to be different

from those on the carbonate, both in type and in

Whether or not the artefact was coated with

carbonate, This suggested (o us the possibility of

identifying two industrial phases at the site through

more careful scrutiny. [n 1981, we revisited the site

and collected, for closer examination, all stone

artefacts, noting whether each lay on sand or on

carbonate. We were accompanied by Drs R. Wasson

and J, Ash who investigated the age and origin of

the dune sands from which the artefacts had ernded,

The stone industry

The stone industry consists of 1451 pieces of

worked stone found within the blow-out. Two sorts

of stone were used; silcrete that is variable both in

texture and in colour, and a reef quartz that js

somewhat granular in texture. A high frequency of

rounded cortical surfaces On the artefacts shows

that the raw materials were pebbles, possibly from

pebble beds in the Burinalla formation, exposures

through which are located within (wo kilometres

of the site,

A list of the various types of artefact is given

below and in Table | but for some types (Fig. 2)

a more detailed deseription follows in another

section of (his report.

Core foals

All of these are made on silcrete pebbles that vary

widely in both texture and colour. Because some

of the pebbles are water-rounded, sub-angular

blocks rather than smoothly curved pebbles we have

chosen to call the group core tools rather than

pebble tools,

Flake scrapers

‘These are made on both quartz and silerete, and

include typical steep-edged forms at the heavier end

of the range, while lighter specimens merge with

adzes.

Noan-tila adzes

All of these are made on silerete. They are recog

nized by the characteristics listed by Lampert (1981:

134-142), and include one typical burren adze, but

not all could readily be distinguished from some

of the lighter scrapers.

Tula adze

Made on silcrete, (fis is a typical tula slug as des-

cribed by McCarthy (1976: 31).

Hamimers

Made on silcrete, they display the pitting that

characterises percussion stones generally (McCarthy

1976; 55-9),

TABLE |. Baleoracana Creek: artefact Lypes and their

CONLEXLS.

Core tool

Flake seraper

silcrete

quarle

Non-tula adze

Tula acze (slug)

Hammer

Trimming tlake

Silerete core

Silcrete fluke

Quart? pieve

Tota! number

Total weight

Trimming flakes

All are of silcrete. The small flake scars along

the platform suggests thal these (lakes result from

the resharpening of core tools. They are similar to

those found at Kartan core tool sites on Kangaroo

Island (Lampert 1981; 44),

Silerete vores

Unlike core tools, these are recognised by the

multi-ditectional removal of primary flakes, and the

absence of a working edge along which smaller

flakes have been removed.

Silcrete flakes

Quuriz pieces

Because of the coarseness of the raw material not

many pieces could be recognised either as coves or

as flakes, and hence are simply termed quartz

pieces. Unlike the quartz component of the indus-

tries from most of the early to mid-Holocene sites

on Kangaroo (sland, no bipolar cores were found

al Bulcoracuna Creek, but whether this is due to

areal absence of bipolar flaking or to our inability

fo recognise it among the course material is

unknown,

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE PLINDERS RANGES 14)

Time differences within the stone industry

Scattered over the surface of the palaeosol and

on loose sand remaining from overlying dunes, the

stone industry presented the usual problems of age

and association that make surfave sites difficult to

assess, To louk for (einporal divisions within the

riaterial we examined twa lines ol evidence.

One was the presence or absence of a carbonate

coating on cach stone artelacl, Our assumption

being thal tools coated with carbonate had lain

formerly in sifu, near tbe carbonale rich palaeosol,

and. are therefore relatively old; while tools from

which carbonate js absent had been provenanced

im Ingher dune levels, which contain much less

ground carbonate, und are therefore younger (cf,

Bowler e/ al. $970: 48). Such & strategy had oeeurred

to Us during our first visit 10 the site in 1979, when

initial Couns of tool types showed carbonate to be

present on all excep! one of the 14 care tools bul

absent trom the three adzes then lovated (Lampert

& Hughes. 1980). Following a complete collection

of artefacts 1n the blow oul during oir 1980 field

season, these relationships were examined more

rigorously.

Table 2 shows frequencies for the occurrence of

carbonale on various types of artelact, while Table

4 lists the statisrivally signifivant relalionships

using X?. The results confirm our inital

observation thal more core tools (han adzes are

encrusted with carbonate. The same difference

oecurs between core tools and flake scrapers, while

another interesting result is che much greater rarity

of carbonate on quartz pieces than on silerete Makes.

Belore deducing trom these differences an his-

torical progression of arlefact types, it is warth

looking at another possible cause. Observations of

sections naturally croded through several alluvial

fans in the region show, beyond doubt, that carbon-

ate coating is remavect from pebbles following their

exposure, presumably by wind and rain. From this

evidence it is possible that more core tools are ear

bonate-coated because they were exposed only

recently, whjle adzes have lain for longer on the

surface. However, this would again suggest a greater

depul below the surface for the provenance of the

core tools

OF the two mechanisms considered so tar for dif-

lerenives in earbonate coaling, bolh suggest [hat core

tools generally lay buried deeper than adzes and are

therctore older, We see tio other likely cause for the

pattern of carbonate encrustation- The silerctes used

for boil Lol lypes are broadly identical. Although

care tools huve more cortical surfaces than flake

wals, carbonate coals the flaked Surlaces of enre

iools as wnuch as it does the cortex, There is no

obvious lateral variadion in the distribution of the

two fool types. We therefore tentatively accept this

evidence a§ support for the greater antiquity af core

foals at the site,

TABLE 2. Balcorucana Creek: carbonale coating on

ariefacls.

Wot

carbanale

coated

Carbonate

coated

Care lool

Flake scraper

Non-tula adze

Tula adze (slue)

Silcrere core

Silcrete Take

Quartz piece

A second method for seeking temporal divisions

wilhin the assemblage was to record during

collection whether each artefact lay on the palaeosol

or on the overlying sand, We reasoned that, by

fatural means at Jeast, artefacts would have moved

downward, bul could nat have maved upward, is

the blowout developed. Artefacts found on the

palaeoso! would thus include a larger number

originally from lower levels, while a greater number

of those from the dune flanks would be from upper

levels. Initially we divided the dune flanks into twa

stratigraphic levels, consolidated lower and Inose

upper sand, but because the samples were too small

fo allaw us to make use of this separilion, we

combined them aod simply compared palacosol

with sand,

Table 4 shows the distribution of artefact types

on palaeosol and sand (Table 3 listed the differerices

that can be supported statistically). Adzes are more

likely to be found on the sand than are core tools,

but (his difference |§ al the ‘probably significant!

level, as is [he increase in quariz pieces over silcrete

flakes on the sand.

Like carbonate coating, this is not firm evidence

for historical changes in the stone industry, How-

ever, the 1wo lines of evidence do support each

other, Compared wilh core tools, fewer adzes are

carbonate-coated and fewer are from the palaeosol,

Similarly, fewer quarts pieces than silerere flakes are

either carbonate-coated or from the palaeosal,

Further, there is a strong positive correlation bet-

ween carbonate coating, aod palaeosol as a contest,

for allartefacts (Tables 3 and 4). We conclude ten-

tatively that, within an industry vontaining core

tools and Make scrapers, adzes became popular later,

and the use of quartz increased,

Dating

Several radjocarbon (C14) and TL dates (Gard-

ner ef a/, 1987) provide a time framework lor

the build-up of the dune series from which the

artefacts have eroded (Table 5 ). Dates for the palae-

148 Ru. LAMPERT & Pal. HUGHES

osol, both trom carbonates formed within it, and

from land snails (Sinumelon sp.) embedded in its

exposed surface, show that the antiquity of the

earliest tools must be less than 13 000 yBP.. It is

presumed that the carbonate-coated artefacts were

eroded out of carbonate rich sands, dated by TL

to ¢, 10 000 yBP, lying immediately above the pal-

aeosol, Other artefacts, without carbonate on their

surfaces, came from miore recent satids, which

continued to accumulate until after 5 000 yBP.

As demonstrated later (Tables 5-7), the indusiry

as a whole is typologically akin ro that from. the

Kangaroo Island site of Pigs Water Hole, for which

an early Holocene date is favoured (Lampert |981:

88), while the scrapers. and non-tula adzes are like

those from several Kangaroo Island sites dated

between c. 1! 000 yBP and c, 4 300 yBP (Lampert

1981), Dated tulas from elsewhere in south-castern

Australia indicate that (he tula found at this site

dates to within the past 5 000 years, while evidence

already discussed suggests that this specimen was

deposited during the latter part of the <ile’s

oecupation. Assemblages of late Holocene age

found in the lower Murray Valley (Hale & Tindale

1930, Mulvaney 1960) and the Flinders Ranges (this

report) contain a much higher proportion of typical

small tools (pirris, tulas and backed blades) than

does Balcoracana Creck with its single specimen,

again suggesting that the site was occupied for some

time before such tools beeame popular.

To accommodate all of the above evidence, much

of the occupation of Balcoracana Creek must have

oecurred during the first half of the Holocene, the

site being occupied less intensively afier 5 000 yBP.

Looking beyond the site itself, such a sequence of

events would explain also the pattern ol other,

smaller, surface sites along the creek bank towards

the shore of Lake Frome. These are visible only in

deep blow-outs; no artefacts can be seen in higher

sands that form the general land surface, Core touls

and flake scrapers, but no Lypical small roals, were

seen during Our reconnaissance of these sites.

Specific typological relatianships

To compare core tools with thase found ar South

Australian sites further south, we measured the

same attributes. used by Lampert (1981). Tables 5,

6 and 7 set oul the mean and standard deviation

values for attributes measured on the interval svate,

and compares these values with those derived from

pebble too! samples from sites on Kangaroo (sland,

As significance levels for the fests show, the

Baleoracana Creek tools. are similar to those from

Pigs Water Hole, but unlike pebble tools trom

Kartan sites on Kangaroo Island (Lampert 1981),

Using a discriminant function classificalian pro-

cedure on the same data, 40% of the sample was

grouped with Pigs Water Hole and 31% with

Kartan.

TABLE 3. Baleoracana Creek; resulls of hypothesis

tests.

Significance level

Hypothesis tested

I, Carbonate coating

On more vore tools than adzes

On more core tools than scrapers

On more core tools than cores

On more silerere Makes [han

quartz pieces

2. Context

More adzes (han core igols on

sand

More adges than other flaked

tools (core (ools anc scrapers)

on sand

More quartz pieces than silcrere

flakes on sand

3. Carbonale vosting related to

content

Fewer carbonate-coated artefacts

on sand

TABLE 4. Balcoracana Creck: distribution of

artefacts With varhonate coating.

Not

carbonate

coated

Carhanate

coated

On palacaso|

On sand

Turning 10 attributes measured on the nominal

and ordinal s¢ales, there are no significant

difterences between the same three samples in the

characteristics of edge damage and edge shape

specified by Lampert (L981). Butin the orientation

of the worked edge, most of the Balcoracana Creek

tools are end-worked, while most of those from

Kangaroo Island are side-worked, these dil ferences

(using X*) being significant for Kartan and

probably significant for Pixs Water Hole. Because

end-worked tools should, almost by definition, have

a sliorter Working cde than those (hat are side-

worked, these results are consistent wilh ihe

dilferences in percentage of retouch’ (Tables 5, 4

and 7?) between Balcoracana Creek and the

Kangaroo Island sites.

To compare [he Balcoracana Creek scrapers and

non-tula adves with ‘seraper/adzes’ from Kangaroo

Island, we combined the two categories, and meas-

ured the same attributes recorded by Lanipert

(1981). Table 7 sets our the mean and standard dev-

jalion values and compares these with the values

for Pigs Water Hole scraper/adzes. The Baleoraeana

Creek too]s are somewhat larger and are less steeply

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES

149

TABLE 5. Core tools from Balcoracana Creek (BC) compared with Kartan pebble tools (Lampert 1981) by

univariate /-tests. S.D, =

standard deviation, N = sample size.

Attribute

Length

Breadth

Height

Breadth/length

Height/breadth

Retouch length

Retouch percent

Angle edge

Weight

Significance Level

001

OS Ol

TABLE 6. Core tools from Balcoracana Creek (BC) and Pigs Water Hole (PWH) compared by univariate f-

tests. S.D. = standard deviation, N = sample size.

Length

Breadth

Height

Breadth/length

Height/breadth

Retouch length

Retouch percent

Angle edge

Weight

Attribute

Significance Level

05 01

Mean

(S.D.)

001 PWH

= (N = 12)

74.6 71.7

(14.0) (12.3)

64.5 55.6

(13.3) (8.0)

53.3 46.7

(14.7) (12.3)

115.6 113.4

(11.7) (29.9)

129.5 131.4

(43.5) (46.5)

80.5 103.2

(36.5) (32.8)

+ 36.1 82.7

(13.6) (5,2)

87.6 82.8

(2.4) (5.2)

344.4 236.7

(221.2) | (137.6)

150 Rw. LAMPERT & Pd, HUGIIES

TABLE 7- Scrapers/adzes from Balcoracana Creek (BC) and Pigs Waler Hole (PWH) (Lampert 1981) compared

by univariate /-tesis. 8.D. = standard deviation, N = sample size.

Auribute

Length

Breadth

Height

Breadth/length

Height/breadth

Retouch length

Retouch percent

Angle edge

Weight

retouched, bur have the same general shape of the

Pigs Water Hole tools. Also, the proportion of tools

that are side-worked does not differ significantly

between the sites. Scanning the data for other

Kangaroo Island sites, the same relationships ap-

pear to be true also between these sites and Bal-

coracana Creek, even though there is noticeable var-

jation between Kangaroo Island sites in scraper/adze

typology (Lampert 1981: 136-137).

Further, the proportion of core to flake tools does

nol differ significantly between Balcoracana Creek

and Pigs Water Hole. The two sites exhibit a fairly

close relationship in their stone industries, perhaps

partly a reflection of their broad similarity in

geographical region and antiquity. However, before

these industri¢s can be looked upon as useful

regional or chronological markers, a wider sample

of dated sites must be examined. Such research is

currently under way.

Big John Creek

This site was investigated by Lampert on the

advice of geomorphologist, Dr J. Bowler (Museum

of Victoria), who had reported the presence of large,

carbonate encrusted artefacts lying on the surface

of the 20 m beach fringing the western shore of

Lake Frome. The artefacts lay on a sector of the

beach that had been cut through by Big John Creek,

an intermittent channel carrying runoff from the

Ranges towards, but rarely reaching the lake, Their

presence there invited speculation that they may be

Significance Level

NS .05 01 001

associated with high lake levels over 30 000 years

ago.

In the event, the artefacts were found to lic, as

a lag deposit, not only on the ancient shoreline but

also on the stratigraphically more recent Coonar-

bine Formation, a broad series of sediments ranging

in age between 26 000 yBP and present (Callen

1975, Callen & Tedford. 1976, Wasson 1983). The

distribution of the artefacts followed the creek

banks, not the beach,

Within an area of some 400 m?, on the part of

the beach that is also the south bank of the creek,

the industry was examined in more detail, but nor

collected. The only formal tool type recognised was

a core tool, most of which are end- rather than side-

worked (8 end, 4 side, 6 side-end), and similar there-

fore to [hose from Balcoracana Creek, only some

30 km to the south..On this evidence, as well as thal

of stratigraphy, the industry is likely to be early

Holocene in age,

Summing up al Lake Frome

The main phase of human occupation of the

Lake Frome shoreline occurred during early Holo-

cene times, the principal evidence being provided

by sites on the lower courses of creeks a kilometre

or (Wo upstream from the Jake shore itself. The

rarity of Lypical small tools, given the fact that these

are usually abundant on late Holocene sites, indi-

cates only sporadic visits by people within the last

5 000 years. This pattern of occupation fits well

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 5}

with the palynological evidence which shows a

moister phase with more luxuriant local vegeratian

7 (0-4 000 yBP, alter which conditions became as

arid as chey are today (Singh J981), The popularity

of creeks flowing from the Ranges as camping

places sugvests that (hese watercourses had a more

reliable discharge, and the Ranges, a higher rainfall,

than that of today.

HAWKER LAGOON

The setting

Hawker Lagoon (Fig. 3) hes towards the nortbern

end of a syriclinal valley, known as Wilson Pound,

just 8 km west of Hawker toWnship. The valley is

between steep quartzite ridges, Yourambulla Range

to the east and Yapnala Range to the west, which

converge lo a narrow gorge at the northern end. At

Hawker Lagoon the valley floor is about 2 km in

width,

The Lagoon itself is 4 canegrass swamp slightly

less than | km wide Which a local resident, Mr F

Teague, has seen full of water only three cirnes in

the last 40 years. It contains small amounts of water

more frequently than this, bur most of the time is

a completely dry dépressian that supports a thicket

of cane grass.

On the soullrern shore of the swamp is.a lunette

rising to some 10. m above the lowest point in the

swamp bed. The position of a lunette on the south-

ern rather than the, more usual, eastern shore (e.g.

Bowler 1971) is explained by the north-sourh align-

ment of the valley which protects the swamp [ram

prevailing westerly winds but exposes ic to parching

winds trom the north.

Being near the head of the valley, the catchment

of the swamp is small, consisting only of the slopes

of the eastern and western ridges, and the short

stretch of valley to the north as far as the watershed

less than 2 km distant. The swamp has two outlets,

one on each side of the lunetle, from which water

Nows southward, eventually forming a well-defined

warer course (Wilson Creek).

Dunefields extend along the lower hill slopes and,

in places, encroach, upon the valley Moor The

source of sand, both for yhese dunes and the lunette,

is ultimately the quartzite ridges. Sand, washed

downslope into the depressiori, Was transported by

northerly winds to form the innette. Because the

largesr dunefields are immediately south of the

lunette, deflation of rhe luvette has probably

contributed sand to dune formation down wind.

Sites

In many places sand has been stripped away, by

deflation or gullying, lo expose stone artefacts, the

densest concentralions being beside the two outlet

channels, Artefacts along the eastern. channel are

emerging from the lunette itself and extend south-

ward only as far as the outer rim of the lunette,

while those beside the western channel are eroding

from a dunefield and extend from the south-western

shore of the swamp 16 4 point some 300 m south

of the lunette. Sites on the western side ol the valley

are ever more extensive than this, reasonably dense

concentrations of artefacts being found in exposures

through the dunefield some 800 m south of the

swamp, Smaller sites are present for a greater dis-

lance, and occur sporadically along the banks of

the creck until at least the southern end of the valley,

some 3 km lrom the swamp.

The concentration of artefacts around the west-

erm outlet channel is nor only large but also very

dense, reaching 400 pieces of flaked stone per square

meire in places, and having an average density

between 100 per m* and 150 per m>. There is great

variety too, both in artefact types and in raw

materials: large cores, core (ools and flakes made

of jocal quartzite, erindstones of sandstone, and

such small tools as ptrris, microliths and tulas, made

of a wide variety of imported, fine-grained sileretes

and cherts,

During our initial inspection of Hawker Lagoon,

we discovered a large core tool apparently Jr siter

in a compact lower horizon of the dunelield along.

the western side of the valley about 300 m soute

of the swamp. We also noticed that microlithic mat-

erial was eroding from the uppermost sands, sug

gesting the presence of a two phase industrial

sequence. To test this hypothesis, Lampert returned

to the site for several seasons af excavations while

Hughes visited less frequently to investigate the

sedimentary history,

Site stratigraphy

The north-western sector

The main excavation wench called HL! (an

abbreviation of HLI-5 shown on Fig. 4) was opened

ip in the richest part of the concentration of

artéfacts in the dunefield, just beyond the western

end of the lunetie. Examination of stratigraphy

exposed in the side of a gully (Fig. 4) al this point

had revealed four superimposed layers of sand:

1, Unit LA, the top unit, of loose orange sand

(Fig. 5: 1), from which microlithic material was

emerging;

2. Unit 1B, the middle unit, of grey brown

compact sand (Fig. 5: 3), in which no artefact was

seen;

3. Unit 1A, not present in this part of the site,

152 R.. LAMPERT & PJ, HLIGHES

4, Unit 1LB, the bettom unit, af tightly bonded,

almost rock hard, red sand (Fig. S: 5), from which

core tools, cores and large Makes appeared to be

eroding.

5. Unit 11, mottled yellow and grey clayey sand

without artefacts.

Jn this gully and along the edge of the dunefield

faving (he swamp units |A and 1B, and the top few

centimetres of Uni UB had been stripped by

¢rosion, The exposed surface Was of the hard unit

116 material, on which some artefacts lay and others

seemed to be still i situ. After ourexperiences al

Lake Murteree and at Hookina Creek (chis repor.,

there were obvious dangers in accepting artefacts

us being wi silte without thorough investigation,

Therefore, ina residual in the gully, where all three

stfata were superimposed, a trench 4 « 2 mm was

opened up, Artefacts were found in all three units

but not in sufficient quantity in Unit 1B to allow

the bottom industry lo be characterized, nor was

charred wood suilable for dating found, Also, the

hardness of this unit made excavation difficult and

very slow, Three more seasons were needed, and the

trench was extended to a total of 4 » 6m, before

a reasonable sumple of artefacts, and a carbon

sample of acceptable quality for dating were

obtained,

Having established through excavation that

artefacis are unquestionably embedded in Unil (1B,

we increased the sample by removing those

emerging [rom 11B sediments exposed in the gully

fleor, Before removal, the matrix around each

artefact was half sectioned to a depth af 20 cm Lo

make sure it was in undisturbed unit 11B sand and

not a slope washed skin. Ln all cases the matrix

remained consistent, through depth, with the

stratified unit IIB sands jn the fain excavation,

Therelore, artefacts were judged to be fv situ.

Duting of HLI

Radiocarbon dates from Trench WLI are shown

in Jable &. The single sail carbonate date (Unit 111)

provides only a minimum age for the sediments

themselves, Judging from its wide divergence from

the consistent series Of charcoal dates above, the

carbonale formed much later than Unit I sedi-

ments. Also warthy of comment is the modern date

for Unit JA, a horizon that must have suffered past

oecupational wind disturbanee, lying discon-

formably on Unit 1B.

HL 30 and HL 32; the lazoon bed and luneite

Trenches HL. 30 and HL. 32 were excavated by

Professor RWS. Wright (Dept of Authropology,

University of Sydney), who visited Hawker Lagoon

during our 1982 fieldwork season if search of

faunal remains and ather environmental evidence

in the swamp sediments, Trench HL 30 is al m2

fest pit in approximately the centre of the lagoon

bed, excavated loa depth of 1.6 m and from there

auvered to a total depth af 3.9 m below the surtace

of the swamp bed. Throughout this depth the

sediments were found to be hard clayey sand, grey

in colour and devoid of stratigraphic differences.

Other than an occasional fleck af charcoal, no

organic substance was seen, nar was pollen found

in samples submitted to Dr J, Dodson (Liniversity

of NSW).

Aline of auger holes extending from the swamp

bed southward across the eastern end of the lunette

helped to locate where lacustrine and terrestrial

sediments intersected at (he shoreline, Al (his point,

Trench HL 32, alm? test pit, was opened up to

investigate possible stratigraphic relationships bet-

weet! artefacts and the lunette:

The trench was excavated to a depth of 1,0 m

then a $mall sondage was dug for a further 40 ci

The straia encountered were:

A 0-45 en loose orange sand becominu

compact with depth — backed

blade at 45 cm

B 45-45 cm light grey sand containing a

small flake at 65 em

carbonate Alecks in top 4 en

— no artefact recovered

D 130+ cm mottled yellow and grey clayey

sand, intersecting with the grey

clayey sand found in the

swamp

From the outset, several of the strata seemed Inky

those of HLI; stratuin A correspanding to Unil 1,

C ro LIB, D to LI, but B having no counterpan in

HLI, Stratum B is interpreted as beach sand, partly

because of its loose, coarse texture, but mainly

because it i§ present only at the swamp margin,

Where sediments found while augering the swanip

bed meet with Unit U1. It diminishes in thickness

TABLE ¥, HEL radiovarban dates,

Unic Unit Sample a

no. depth dent Description Agr

tem) tem)

JA 0-20 15-20 Scattered Hy S50

chareaal it (SUA! 2254)

loose sand

(RB W4r 18-32 Scarrered 3100 « 100

charewal (SUA: 2253)

WB 32-012 W412 Firepfaee i 14 770 + 270

jut (SUA: 2130)

ITl 12. 2-120 Caleium 2950 + 70

Carhonare UANLI 3353)

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 153

VA ea LASS ESL

LM ey VY, yy,

SOUL AST }

LINAS LASS LE re

3 ° CLEAR \

~< eo ? < ¢

Bo6%p20y 08 SECTION TT M4, es

area Begs

~ t

° > -7-4 7? pA

ry] H ~ fa a 7

oe. | PD at KO

DATUM TT of | 4 e 4?

* 3% \/_ ALIGHTLY VP f

) l f 4

°o

OP 6he o

ooo oO

r9% \4

LEGEND 9 ——— 8 FAT

KARTAN

voy] SMALL TOOLS

—-—-— LIMIT OF THE FOREST

FIGURE 4, Plan of main excavation area of Hawker Lagoon.

and peters out, southward from the swamp, as auger — deflation had not only unearthed a large number

holes revealed. of artefacts but also revealed stratigraphy like that

seen in HLI. Three strata were revealed:

HL 40 and the north-western sector

Further to examine these putative relationships,

HL 40, another 1 m2? test pit was opened up on the 0-12 cm grey-brown compact sand

lunette some 100 m SW of HL, 32. At this point, containing flakes

154 R.J, LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES

rant 2

FIGURE 5. Stratigraphy of Trench HL1

-5, Hawker Lagoon: |, Loose orange sand (1A),

HL3-2 NLT

2, Disturbance (animal burrow),

3, Compact, grey-brown sand (IB), 4. Grey-brown clay band, 5. Hard red clayey sand (11B), 6, Scattered charcoal,

7. Hearth in pit, dated by SUA: 2131.

HL 32

|—- 99 » ——_-

LUNETTE

Be ee ee

Legoow

suome

COMPACT Clarey

Seno

HL 40

MELT

|-——— +00 mn —_—_- |

—_>

FIGURE 6. Composite section showing stratigraphic relauionship between the three excavation trenches at Hawker

Lagoon,

12-62 em hard red clayey sand with tiny

carbonate flecks in top 4 cm

and containing core tools

carbonate zone in mottled

yellow and grey clayey sand

62+ cm

These are unmistakably the same strata as Units

IB, IIB and Hin trench HLI some 700 m westward

(Fig. 6). At HL40, Unit IA has been stripped away

by deflation but is present just a few metres away

on the surface of the lunette.

Having established this relationship, a line of

closely spaced holes was augered between HL40 and

HL32. These show that the top stratum (A) in HL32

is continuous with both Unit [A and Unit 1B, even

though no clear division can be seen in the HL32

section, while stratum C is continuous with Unit

IIB in HL4O (Fig. 5).

HL TT and the south-western sector

HL. TT is a section, exposed in a creek bank,

500 m south of HL1, showing the dune stratigraphy

at this part of the site.

Unit Unit Description Age

No. depth

(cm)

1A ()-22 Loose orange sand Modern

lying disconformably

on IA

IIA 22-57 Fairly compact red >8 380 4

sand with large 110 yBP

carbonate nodules in (on carbon-

top 15 cm, lying ate)

discontorm-

ably on LIB

[JB 57-76 Hard red clayey sand

JIL 764 Mottled yellow and >13 930 4

grey clay with 140 yBP

carbonate horizon (SUA-I 751)

(on carbon-

ate)

Because the eroded sediments above Unit 11 were

discontinuous between HLTT and HL1, a complete

stratigraphic section between the sites could not be

examined, However, Units IA, IIB and III are com-

STRATIGRAPHIC umild

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 15

mon to both sites, and are clearly identical in terms

of appearance, hardness, stratigraphic position and

age. Unit IB is absent from HLTT, its stratigraphic

position between IA and IIB being taken by IIA,

a compact red sand with massive carbonate blocks

in the top third of its thickness.

Regional stratigraphy and palaeoenvironments

From the morphology of the valley, it is apparent

that all wind blown deposits overlie the tails of

alluvial fans which mantle the middle and lower hill

slopes. According to Williams (1973) such fans are

part of the Pooraka Formation deposited between

40 000 and 30 000 years ago. However, there is no

evidence for human occupation in the region at this

time.

The earliest aeolian sedimentary unit encount-

ered, Unit III, is also devoid of evidence for human

presence. Lying between Unit IIB and the Pooraka

Formation, Unit III must have been laid down some

time between 30 000 and 15 000 years ago. Lying

conformably below Unit IB it appears to have still

been accumulating at the end of this period, Thus,

the upper sediments of Unit III may be part of

widespread dune building of the arid phase which

lasted altogether from 22000 to 13 000 yBP

(Bowler & Wasson 1983),

Unit IIB sands which contain the earliest evidence

for human occupation, accumulated around 15 000

yBP, towards the end of the arid phase. Red in

colour, I[B sands resemble those of the Edeowie

dunes, some 45 km to the north, which also built

up during the arid phase (Williams 1973). This was

overlain by ITA, also a red sand but not cemented

as tightly together as IIB. Towards the top of IIB

a layer of massive tabular blocks of soil carbonate

developed (Section HLTT) dated to older than ec,

8 400 yBP, but possibly a local expression of the

Motpena Palaeosol dated to c. 12 000 yBP (Wil-

liams 1973).

A phase of erosion followed, Unit IIA being

stripped away completely in some areas (e.g. at HL1)

and stripped down Lo the top the blocky carbonate

palaeosol in others (e.g. at HLTT). In places where

IIA had been stripped away the surface of 11B was

weathered, then disconformably overlain by IB. We

see no obvious reasons for this in the climatic

models available. According to Williams (1973),

from 16 000 to 12 000 yBP in the Flinders Range

the climate was temperate with sufficient moisture

to allow soil formation, while from 12 000 to

5 000 yBP conditions were generally more arid but

rainfall was of great intensity causing high stream

discharge rates. However, the broader climatic

model of Bowler & Wasson (1983) shows the arid

phase diminishing after 15 000 yBP but persisting

until at least 13 000 yBP, after which conditions

continued to improve as the moist phase of the

Early Holocene was reached. Neither of these

models offers an explanation for the weathering of

Units IIA and IIB, which might result from peculiar

local conditions caused perhaps by the site location

in a narrow valley through which wind is channelled

either from the north or the south.

The stratigraphy revealed in HLTT can be traced

over most of the south-western sector of the Hawker

swamp site complex. Because this sector had been

cleared of its original woodland cover (mallee and

native pine) much of it has been eroded deeply,

usually to a level within the Unit IIB clayey sand.

However enough remnants of overlying deposits are

present to show the consistency of the stratigraphy

across the sector.

Core tools, cores and largish flakes were found

on and eroding from the exposed horizontal surface

of Unit IIB but typical small tools are extremely

rare in the south-western sector. Two core tools were

found in situ within IA while a number were

found, as a lag deposit, on remnants of the exposed

horizontal surface of IIA. Wind erosion seems to

have ceased on reaching the horizon of massive

carbonate nodules, which are harder than the sandy

matrix of ILA, Later, the deposits were dissected

deeply by numerous small streams carrying runoff

to the valley floor, leaving flat topped columns of

sediment capped by carbonate. While the nature of

the sediments that have blown away cannot be

ascertained beyond doubt, sections at the edge of

the cleared land where upper deposits are still

protected by mallee woodland, show that the IIA

red sands continue for some 20 cm above the car-

bonate horizon. Because carbonate horizons form

within, rather than on, a sedimentary unit, it seems

likely that ILA red sand once lay above the car-

bonate horizon throughout this sector of the site.

Summing up the stratigraphic evidence

Table 9 brings together stratigraphic evidence

from the various excavations and natural exposures

discussed above. While not all strata are present in

any one section, three (IA, IIB and III) are present

throughout, and two others (JB and IIA) are closely

dated enough to allow them to be placed in

sequence,

The stone industries (Figs 7-10)

Surface evidence

The seemingly patchy distribution of artefacts

shown on the site map (Fig. 3) results partly from

lack of visibility where erosion has not occurred,

This map shows also that while the Kartan industry

is widespread, the small tool industry is confined

almost entirely to areas where the two outflow

channels emerge from the lagoon, where its dis-

tribution overlaps that of the Kartan.

Two controlled surface collections, designated

HLA2 and HLSWI, were made in the cleared rec-

tangular areas where the industry appeared to be

156 RJ, LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES

purely Kartan ic. large core tools dominant but

small lools entirely absent, while a third (HL7) was

made at the western end of the lunette in a purely

small tool area on recent sand (Unit [A) on the top

of a dune.

Surface collection HL A2

This was collected near HL. TT, in the SW sector

of the site, Here the landscape is deeply etched with

erosion channels, leaving less deeply eroded

pedestals of sediment. Large core tools, cores and

flakes were found both lying on the surface of these

pedestals and partly embedded in the IIA red sand,

some exposed in vertical sections being unques-

tionably /n situ. All the exposed material was col-

lected, and the following artefact types were

identified:— N+ 9

Flake scraper 4 39

Core tool 20 19.6

Trimming flake 8 7.8

Core 19 18,

Flake 31 50.0

Surface collection HL SWI

This was made in the extreme south-western

corner of the site, where the eroded area finishes

abruptly at an old fence line, beyond which the

dunefield is well stabilised by its original thick cover

of mallee. Along the eastern side of the fence line,

where the site lies, the sediments have been eroded

down uniformly to Unit HI material, on which the

artefacts now lie, This surfce is devoid both of

vegetation and of naturally occurring stone. From

the outset this area looked like a typical Kartan site

on Kangaroo Island, with its predominance of large

core (ools among artefacts, However, it Was seen

to have an important advantage in that the industry

is fully exposed on a clay base, unlike the Kangaroo

Island sites where both vegetation and naturally

shattered stone aroused suspicion of a bias in

sampling (Lampert 1981).

A strip, 150 » 30m, parallel to the fence was

marked out and all stone collected. The following

artefact types were identified:

TABLE 9, Correlation of dune stratigraphy at Hawker Lagoon.

Depositional

Unit

Geological

activity

Both units lie above

beach of former high

water level; water level

now low

1A: loose,

orange wind

blown sand

Depositional

18: compact, Depositional

urey-brown

sand; present

only in and

near Junelte

Beach sand at

swamp margin

None recognised] Erosional;:

weathering

of IIB and

Depositional

Depositianal

WA: red wind

blown sand

present onl

in SW see-

tor of site

IIB: hard, red

wind-blown

clayey sand

Both units continue

below beach of high

water level

III: mottled

yellow and

prey clayey

sand with

carbonate

horizon

Relalionship with swamp

Depositional| Water level fizh Early-mid-Holocene

Age Archaeological evidence

Late Holocene: present

day land surface.

Modern carbon date

fram bottom of unit

shows post-depositional

wind disturbance

Small tools including

geometric microliths

concentrated in small

areas

One small thumbnail

scraper of microlithic

character

Mid-to late Holocene;

date of ¢, 5 100 yBP

from. bottom of unit

Microlith lying on, but

nor in, beach

Terminal Pleistocene? None recognised; no lag

of artefacts on T1B

surface

Greater than ec. Kartan tools

8 400 yBP on carbonate

horizon which could be

Motpena Palaeosol (¢,

12 000 yRBP)

Pleistocene; date of c¢. Kartan tools

14 800 yBP from pit in

unit

Greater than c.

13 900 yYBP on carbonate

date, hut must be older

than LB

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 157

FIGURE 7. Core tools from Hawker Lagoon surface collections: a and b from HL2; c and d from SWI.

158 R.J, LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES

FIGURE 8. Core tools from Hawker Lagoon Unit IIB: a-f excavated from exposed surface (HLZ).

N % small artefacts over a larger area, of which HL7 was

Flake scraper 6 4.5 seen as typical. The following artefacts were col-

Core tool 31 23.5 lected:

Trimming flake 10 7.6

Core 19 14.4 N Ts

Flake 66 50.0 Geometric microlith 6 0.2

Tumbnail scraper 3) 0.1

Surface collection HL 7 Miscellaneous retouch 9 0.3

This was made in a small (3 x 4m) patch of IA Bipolar core 1 0.1

sand some 40 m N. of the main excavation trench Core 5 0.2

HLI. Wind had exposed a heavy concentration of Flake 2570 99.1

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 159

FIGURE 9. Core tools from Hawker Lagoon Unit IIB: a and b from HLZ; ¢ and d from Trench HLI.

The preponderance of flakes over other artefacts

is noteworthy, as is the small size of the material,

most of which is 1-2 cm? and the largest piece, a

flake, has a length of 5 cm. The 2 594 artefacts have

a total weight of only | 860 g.

Also of interest is the high density of artefacts:

more than 200 m@ at this one stage in the process

of deflation. A year later, further erosion of IA sand

had exposed a similar density of artefacts in this

same small patch. This is typical of eroded patches

in the north-west sector of the site suggesting that

an immense amount of flaked stone lies buried

within the nearby dunes.

Excayated samples from HLI and HLZ

Table 10 shows the distribution of artefact types

through the three sedimentary units in HLI1, the

main excavation trench. Unit IB has been divided

into three levels of equal depth to demonstrate that

artefacts are embedded deeply enough in it to have

been deposited during the unit’s sedimentation.

Also shown are the artefact types excavated from

HLZ, the eroded surface of IIB sediments adjacent

to HLI. The HLZ artefacts provide a larger sample

from IIB than that given by HLI alone.

The excavation of trench HLI confirms that the

two industrial traditions, recognised from surface

160 RJ. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES

+ a aa

Pee | y

| k lay

FIGURE 10. Artefacts from Hawker Lagoon Trench HLI: a toi, flake scrapers from Linit ITB; j, piece of reniform

slate scraper from IA; k and l, microliths from 1A; m, thumbnail scraper from IB,

evidence, were popular at different times. The

earlier, dated to around 15 000 yBP, is characterised

by core tools, trimming flakes and a high core to

flake ratio (1:23). The later, dated from about

5 000 yBP, onward, is characterised by such typical

small tools as geometric microliths, a_ pirri,

thumbnail scrapers, a fragment of a reniform slate

scraper and a low core ta flake ratio (1:616).

Other changes occurred during the history of

occupation. Sixteen of the core tools from (1B (HL1

and HLZ) are made on quartzite and one is on

silcrete, Whereas the microliths, pirri and thumbnail

in 1A and B are all made on silcrete. Flake scrapers,

however, are made on silcrete and quartzite in

roughly equal proportions throughout. This in-

creasing popularity in the use of silerete can be seen

best in ‘waste’ flakes (Table 11), a change that is

statistically significant. The size of artefacts

changed, seen not only in the obvious change from

core tools to small tools, but also in the decrease

in size both of ‘waste’ flakes (Table 12) and of flake

scrapers (Table 13) both changes being statistically

highly significant.

Excavated samples from HL40

In this eroded area at the eastern end of the

lunette only part of Unit 1B and all of ITB were

available for excavation, IA having been stripped

away entirely. The following artefacts were recovered

from Unit IIB;

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES lat

TABLE 10. Hawker Lagoon: excavated artefacts from HLI and HLZ.

Slate scraper

Misc, retouch

re e|2

g | é

_ = =

2 & | a

Core tool

IIB iii

N Ty

Flakes 81 92.0

Cores i hl

Core tools 3 3.4

Serapers ee meee

Trimming (lakes i] 11

This | m? test pit confirms that artefacts are in

sit; that the strata are (1B overlain by IB, as found

also at HL1I; and that the IIB artefacts, in which

core tools and flake scrapers predominate, conform

with (hose trom HL.

Excavated samples from HL, 32

A 1 m2 test pit made to examine the stratigraphy

at the lagoon shoreline, HL 32 revealed three strata

described earlier, The following artefacts were re-

covered:

Units IA and IB

combined (no strati-

graphic division

visible)

Flakes 434

Geometric microlith |

Flakes 63

Thumbnail seraper |

Grey beach sand

Unit 1B No artefact found

Che microlith was in the bottom 10 em of ynits

TA-1B and the thumbnail scraper was in the (op

10 em of the grey beach sand. It is possible that

more recent material was trodden into the soft sand

of the beach, indicating that the beach could have

been formed belore the advent of small tools.

However this could not have been much earlier

because the exposed loose sands of the beach would

almost certainly have been either stripped away by

deflation or a protective soil would have formed in

its upper horizon. Given also the fact thal the beach

lies disconformably over Unit 11B, which shows (he

Trimming Flake

Trimming flake

Core tool

same upper zone of weathering here as it does below

1B, it seems likely that the beach formed not long

before IB ie, at the mid-Holocene. This interpre

tation accords With the type of stone artefacts found

inthe beach. Not only is there a thumbnail scraper

made on a section of a silerete blade bul (here are

many small flakes of silerete, reminiscent more of

the stone from upper levels (IB and LA) in HL! than

the lower level (1B).

Typological relationships among core iools

To compare Hawker Lagoon core tools with those

from Kangaroo Island, the same metrical obser-

vations were made (Lampert 1981), Samples pro»

vided by surface collections HLA2 and HLSWI,

and by excavation of HLI/HLZ, were each com-

pared with a sample of 76 block tools from Kang-

aroo Island (Fig. 11), As Tables 14 to 16 show,

umong 27 comparisons there are only two differ-

ences significant at the 0.05 level.

There are other similarities between (he industries

of the two regions;

1. With few exceptions, local stone of jndifferent

quality was used for core tools.

2. With the exception of HLI, where the sample

is small, core tools predominate among formal tool

types.

3. Given the number of finished tools, [lakes and

multidirectional cores are fewer than on non-Kartan

sites.

4, Site areas are large with artefacts scattered

fairly thinly.

Given this close correspondence with Kangaroo

Island, the early industry at Hawker Lagoon must

also be Kartan.

Summing up at Hawker Lagoon

Hawker Lagoon is a large open site with stone

industries eroding from several strata in a lunette

162 R.J. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES

TABLE 11, HL1 — distribution of unmodified flakes

of silcrete and quartzite between upper and lower

units.

Total

1A, IB 50 50 100%

IIB 43 57 100%

TABLE 12. HL! — distribution of unmodified fakes

according to size between upper and lower units.

Lev [5m

1A, IB 66 31 3

(IB 23 4] 36

and contiguous dunefield. Artefacts of the Kartan

industry are present over a wide area, but small tools

are confined to two localised patches where the

lunette terminates near the sides of the valley and

two channels carry overflow from the swamp

downstream. The Kartan tools are provenanced to

two lower horizons, IIB and IIA, dated to 14 770

+ 270 yBP and older than 8 380 + 110 yBP,

respectively; the small tools to two upper horizons,

IB and IA, dating back to 5 100 + 100 yBP, and

possibly to beach sands stratigraphically between

tA and IIB. Further excavation is planned to

elucidate the late Holocene stratigraphy, not only at

the swamp shore, but also near the location of

Trench HL1 where the upper horizons (IA and 1R)

suffered post-occupational wind disturbance.

Over much of the site, Unit ILA is not present,

presumably stripped away by the same climatic

event that weathered the surface of IIB. However,

no particular reason for this event, between c.

15 000 and 5 000 yBP, can be identified in the

broad palaeoclimatic history of the region,

suggesting it may have local rather than regional

causes.

The presence of a beach, stratigraphically bet-

ween I!A and IB, shows that a stand of high water

also occurred in the 15 000-5 000 yBP period.

Because the weathered surface of IIB continues be-

low the beach, the phase of erosion preceded that

of high water. The wetter local conditions that must

have caused the stand of high water are thought to

be part of the early Holocene wet period evidenced

for southern Australia generally, suggesting a

terminal Pleistocene date for the phase of erosion,

THE REGION IN THE CONTEXT OF

AUSTRALIAN PREHISTORY

The Kartan industry

Description of the Kartan industry

Because some of the main conclusions reached

in this report depend upon proper recognition of

TABLE 13, HL1, HLZ flake scrapers comparison between upper (IA, 1B) and lower (11B) depositional units.

8.D, = standard deviation, N = sample size.

Attribute

Length

Breadth

Height

Breadth/length

Height/breadth

Retouch Jength

Retouch percent

Rerouch angle

Weight

Significance Level

05 O01 O01

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES

163

PWHO

Balcoracana Creek gy -

\'Sai Yok

QSeelands

KISB

Maitland gy

Kiseg KIC Kisc

Eyre Peninsulalll

Hawker Lagoon A2 gy Hawker Lagoon SWI

@hisc

OKIC

“Moonee

Schnapper Point Oo

FIGURE 11. Discriminant function analysis comparing Hawker Lagoon and Balcoracana Creek core tools with those

from elsewhere (data from all sites outside the Flinders Ranges are mentioned in Lampert 1981: Fig. 36). Note that

Hawker Lagoon clusters with other South Australian Kartan sites while Balcoracana Creek is closer to Pigs Water

Hole (PWH). KI = Kangaroo Island.

the Kartan we put forward the following criteria,

taken from Lampert (1981, 1983):

i. The Kartan is found on Kangaroo Island and

in nearby parts of mainland South Australia, mainly

on open sites near fresh water.

2. The dominant artefact in Kartan assemblages

is a large core tool made on either a pebble or block

of quarried stone in accordance with the availability

of local stone.

3. Kartan core tools have metrical-statistical

characteristics, described by both Matthews (1966)

and Lampert (1981), which distinguish them from

core tools in all other known industries from the

Australian-South East Asian region.

4, Another characteristic that appears unique to

Kartan assemblages is the rarity of flakes, flake tools

and cores, compared with core tools.

5. Kartan core tools are unifacially flaked from

a flattish base, producing a working edge that

extends, on average, around half the base perimeter.

6. With use and sharpening, the edge becomes

steeper and extends further around the perimeter,

leading eventually to the classic horsehoof core on

which the edge is too steeply overhung for the

artefact to be functional as a tool.

Since this description was published, other

information has emerged. From his excavation of

a 7 000 year old occupation level at the Cape du

Couedic rockshelter on Kangaroo Island, Draper

(1987) claims to have recovered Kartan tools, and

believes that the Kartan owes much of its character

to the use of a particular reduction sequence, suited

to the kind of stone. For different raw material,

another technology was favoured. At the very least,

this view provides an alternative hypothesis to those

explored by Lampert (1981) in seeking to explain

the spatial separation of Kartan from most other

sites on Kangaroo Island. Characterised by ‘two

large pebble choppers, a couple of small ones

(comparable to. . . examples from Pigs Water Hole

164

R.J. LAMPERT & P.J. HUGHES

TABLE 14. Core tools from surface site HLA2 compared with KI block tools. S.D. =

sample size.

Attribute

Length

Breadth

Height

Breadth/length

Height/breadth

Retouch length

Retouch percent

Retouch angle

Weight

Significance Level

05 Ol

standard deviation, N =

-001

Mean

(S.D.)

(N = 20)

107.5

(16.7)

90.8

(14.7)

73.0

(20.5)

118.6

(13.4)

132.4

(30.8)

184.2

(64.3)

57.2

(16.5)

84.9

(4.6)

927.4

(331.7)

HLA2

TABLE 15. Core tools from surface site HLSWI compared with KI block tools. S.D.

Length

Breadth

Height

Breadth/length

Height/breadth

Retouch length

Retouch percent

Retouch angle

Weight

Attribute

standard deviation, N

= sample size,

——

Mean Mean

Significance Level (S.D.) (S.D.)

NS — .05 Ol .001 HL KI

(N = 31)/(N = 76)

+ 109.6 106.4

(13.5) (20.2)

+ 90.3 85.4

(15.0) (16.6)

+ 65.8 65.0

(16.0) (17.8)

+ 122.8 126.9

(16.2) (22.4)

+ 145.3 144.1

(45.6) (56.0)

+ 130.0 156.7

(49.1) (71.4)

+ 40.1 51.0

(12.2) (21.8)

+ 82.8 84.0

(6.3) (8.7)

+ 846.9 881.7

(350.8) | (451.4)

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE FLINDERS RANGES 165

TABLE 16. HI. excavated sample compared with KI block tools, $.D, = standard deviation, N = sample size.

Attiibute

Length

Breadth

Height

Breadth “length

Height/breadth

Retouch lengit

Retouch percent

Retouch angle

Weight

...)' and ‘hundreds of quartzite flakes’ (Draper

1987; 5), the Cape du Couedic assemblage appears

to have greater similarity with the Pigs Water Hole

site (Lampert 1981; 81-96), for which, like Cape du

Couedic¢, an early Holocene age is indicated, than

with (he more usual range of Kartan sites. However,

the presence of large pebble choppers within the

assemblage does suppor! Draper's sugvestion (1987;

6) that Cape du Couedit is the ‘missing link’ in site

variation, indicating a closer relationship between

Pigs Water Hole and Karlan siles (han Lampert’s

rescarel) SUgpBeESLS.

Research at the Lime Springs site, in inland

northern New South Wales, has revealed an indus-

try featuring horsehoof cores and large fake

scrapers, termed Kartan by the authors (Gorecki er

al, 1984), in the upper levels of a deposit dating back

some 19 000 years. Because this industry has not

been fully described by the authors its relationship

with the Kartan from South Australia cannot be

determined, However, 4 metrical-statistical compar-

ison between core (ools from South Australia and

coastal rorthern New South Wales (Lampert 1981)

shows no close relauionship; instead it reinforces a

view of the Kartan ws a regional industry confined

to South Australia. Other writers question the status

of the horsehoof! core as a tool, Both Kamminga

(1982) from the absence ol use wear, and Flenniken

& White (1985) from the steepness of edge angle,

conclude that most horsehoofs are simply cores

rather than core tools, a view mor greatly differen!

from that of Lampert (L981: 65) who sees the horse-

Significance Level

NS 05 01 OOL

hool core as the worked out remnant of a tool’

rather (han a functional tool per se.

The geographical range of the Kartan

Previous typological studies (Matthews 1965,

1966; Lampert 1981) establish the Kartan as a

regional industry within the Australian core tool and

scraper tradition, confined to Kangaroo Island and

the three nearby mainland peninsulas, Fleurieu,

York and Eyre, with the Wakelield River as the most

northerly site recognised. That view is changed by

the presen! study which confirms reports by Cooper

(1968) of Kartan sites in the northern Flinders

Ranges, However, oo Kurtan site was found while

reconnoitring surrounding desert areas, ranging as

far north as Innamineka, Birdsville and Oodnadatta

(Hughes & Lampert 1980, 1985; Lampert 1985); nor

have Kartan sites been reported from coast and

hinterland to the west and east of the three

peninsulas. On present evidence then, the Kartan

extends froma clearly defined sector of the South

Australian coast, through the Mount Lofty Range,

and the southern and northern Flinders Ranges, but

is absent from surrounding regions. As Lampert

(1981) shows, Kartan sites are invariably in hilly

county, near cither a stream or lagoon, and usually

placed on the lower slope of a hill, often: with a

northerly aspect. Sites in the Flinders Ranges con-

form tO this locational pattern, both Mount Cham-

bers and Mooroowie Well being on slopes near

streams, while most Hawker Lagoon Kartan tools

lig on the lower slopes of the Yappalla Range.

106 R.J. LAMPERT & PJ. HUGHES

The Kartan industry has an upland distribution,

ranging from humid coastline in the south to desert

ranges in the north. Such a distribution indicates

cullural Unity through the long chain of ranges,

despite climatic diversity. Recent patterns of

Aboriginal culture show unity within drainage

basins, but division along watersheds, such as

ranges (Peterson 1976). However, the ranges in

question are wide enough to have been a culcural

province themselves. Indeed, present day Aboriginal

inhabitants. of the northern ranges, who were

inierviewed by Lampert, distinguish between ‘rack”

(or hill) peaple, such as the Adnyamathanha, and

‘sult’ Water? (inland salt lake} people like the

Arabana.

Age of the Kartan

From jts presence on Kangaroo Island, an anti-

quity greater than the flooding of the land bridge

that had jomed the island to the mainland (ec,

9 500 yBP) is inferred (Tindale 1957, Cooper 1960,

Lampert 1981). While the Hawker Lagoon date of

¢ 15 000 yBP confirms that the Kartan has Pleis-

locene origins, recent excavations at Cape du Coue-

dic, Kangaroo Island, suggest that Kartan tools were

suillin.use al some sites as recent as ¢. 7 000 yBP

(Draper 1987), This modifies the view of Lampert

(1981), deduced from the absence of the industry

at several dated sites, thal Karfan tools had gone

outof use at leas! before 1! 000 yBP, and possibly

before 16 000 yBP.

Later core taol assemblages

The Lake Frome sites at Balcoracana Creek and

Big John Creek, the Kangatoo Island site at Pigs

Water Hole, and possibly Cape du Cauedic, have

several features in common, including an early

Holocene age, Like Kartan sites, core tools pre-

dominate iti the assemblages, bul the tools are

smaller and have working edges of different onen-

tation. These differences, though statistivally sig-

nificant, are nor as great as those between either

group and loval assemblages of the small tool

tradition; nor is there a great ume difference

between the tWo groups judging fram the dates of

Hawker Lagoon and Balcoracana Creek. Possibly

we are looking at a ‘sub-Kartan’ industry, which has

developed oul of the Karian and retained same of

its fearures.

Movement af people

At Hawker Lagoon the bulk of the archaeological

evidence is concentrated within twa broad phases:

{i) an early phase around 15 000 yBP with Kartan

artefacts, (ii) a late phase beginning about 5 000

years ago and continuing possibly until rhe late 19th

century. Stratigraphically these phases are repre-

sented by units [}A-U Band JA-DB, respectively, but

in the thre’ excavated areas ILA is nol presented,

The disconformity between [1B and [A represents

2 10 000 year gap in the site's despositional and

human history. Jf the site had been popular during

that time artefacts should appear as a lag on the

Weathered [1B surface, but this is motthe case. The

possibility of artefacts having shifted by natural

means at the site js currently being investigated by

taphonomie studies. Conducted by Dr J.PL White

(University of Sydney) and the authors, these srucies

involve annual observation over IQ years

Preliminary results from fieldwork in 1987 indicate

that small, flattish flakes arc moved easily by strong

gusts of wind, some being blown as much as 4 m

uphill on an eroded dune face, suggesting that the

‘industry'in Unit JA, Trench ALI, which consists

almost entirely of flakes of this kind, is in fact a

wind sorted component of an industry.

Meanwhile we assume that a whole industry, in-

cluding its larger elements, could not have been

swept away ennurely by runalf, wind or other natural

force, and this part of the site was not occupied to

an archaeologically visible degree during those

years. Why this should have occurred during the

early Holocene when conditions were mois} and (he

lagoon brimming with fresh water seems

paradoxical,

In answer we propose thal moister conditions

allowed people to spread themselves more widely,

occupying regions that had been inhospitably arid.

Under this explanation jt comes as rio surprise Lo

learn that the main phase of occupation of the

shores of Lake Frome was the early Molocene. With

moist conditions general, the more reliable water

sources such as Hawker Lagoon Were no longer a

focus.

The early accupalion of the arid sone

Recent Aborigines in arid and semi-arid regions

have a pattern of movement that takes maximum

advantage af the availability of water and other

resources, Buring dry times they fall back on te-

liable sources Of water such as streams (Allen 1974)

or desert uplands (Peterson & Long 1986), bul alter

rain move out across the landscape exploiting

ephemeral water sources such as pans, soaks und

streams, and with them a wider range and greater

abundance of foods. Far the Flinders Ranges, a

senior Adnyamathanha man told Lampert that his

people Were based in the Ranges bu! somelimes Sn

a goud season’ they made brief forays as far as the

shores Of Lake Frome. One of the places visited was

Eudli Wagloona, on the south-eastecn shore of Lake

Frome, where Lampert noted an extremely sparse

scatter of stone flakes (1 per 50m) around an

ephemeral waterhale.

On a much longer timescale, this pattern of

movement is the same as that envisaged in the mare

distant past, people based in the better watered

HUMAN OCCUPATION OF THE PLINBERS KANGES \67

Ranges within a dry phase nioving out to the stores

of Lake Frome as conditions became wetter during

the early Holocene.

Hawker Lagoon shares nuniber of similarities

with Puritjarra, a rock shelterin the Cleland Hills

of central Australia in which oceupation dates back

to ¢ 22.000 yBP and appears to be continuous

through the fast glacial maximum until at least

12 000 yBP (Smith 1987), Both sites not only con-

firm a Pleistocene age for human sertiement of the

arid interior bur are in desert uplands, At both sites

the deposits are sandy and devaid oF such direct

evidence for past environments as pallen or plant

and animal remains. However, the desert uplands

ii Which the sites lie fringe the Lake Eyre Basin

where siratified sediments spanning much of the

Pleistocene and Holocene contain a wide variely

of environmental evidence. This enormous. basin,

draining about one million square kilometres, is {he

focus of future arid zone prehistoric studies, both

by the authors and by other researchers (Lampert

in press, Lampert et a/ i prep.)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This project would nor have been possible without the

help given by local landholders. and other residents,

notably Mrs E, Jarvis and Mr V. Jarvis, of ‘Pine Flar’,

Mr F. Teague and. family ol Hawker, Mrand Mrs B. Powell

of Quorn, Me J. MeForee of ‘Erudina’, MrT, Rieck of

‘Merty Merty’, Mr A. Wilson of ‘Frome Downs’ and Mr

REPERE

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cereal gallierers in an uncertain environment: Wearld

Arch & 309-422.

BOW DLER, 8. 1977. The coastal colonization of Aust-

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and Sahul: Prehistoric Studies in South-east Asia,

Melanesia and Australia’. Pp. 205-246. Avademie Press,

London

BOWLER, J.M, 197|. Pleistocene salinilics and climatic

change: evidence Irom lakey and luneites in south-

castern Australia. Jn DJ. Mulvaney and J. Golson

(Eds.j, ‘Aboriginal Man and Environment in Australia’,

Pp. 47-65. ANU, Press, Canberra.

BOWLER, J.M.. JCINES, R., ALLEN, H. & THORNE,

AG, 1970, Pleistocene human remains trom Australia:

a living sile and humin cremation from Lake Muryeo,

westorn New South Wales. World rch. 2. 39-60).

BOWLER, 1.M., HOPE, G.S., JENNINGS, JN., SINGH,

G. & WALKER, D. 1976, Late Quaternary climates of

Austeaha and New Guinea. Quurernart Res, &: 350-394,

BOWLER IM, & WASSON, RJ. 1984, Gihacial age ens

vironments of inland Anstealia, Jr J.C. Voxel (Ed.) “Late

Caiwozoic Palaeoclimates of the Southern Hemsphere’.

Pp, 183-208. Balkema, Rotterdam.

B, Reynolds of ‘Yankanina’, We were encouraged and

guided throughoul by Aboriginal peaple of ihe local

Adnyamathanha community, particularly by the late Mi

J. Mekenzic, and by Mr C. Coulthard, Mrs P. Mekenszie,

Miss C. Wilton, Mr R. Wilton and Mr. Coulthare.

The project was funded jointly by the Australian

Research Grants Scheme, the Australian Museum and the

Australian National University,

A number of scientists contributed specialist knowledge:

Dr R. Wasson (C.S1-R.0.) and Dr J, Ash (Australian

National University) examined dune stratigraphy;

Professor R.V.S. Wright (University of Sydney) and Dr M-

Sullivan (University of Papwa New Guinea) worked on

stratigraphic problems at Hawker Lagoa, an whiel, Dr

R. Sprigy (‘Arkarcola’y alio gave advice; Dr J. Dodsan

(University of New South Wales) sought pollen in sail

samples; Dr J. Bowler (Museunt of Victoria) gave

information on landforms and sites at Lake Frere; My

M. Smith (Museum of the Northern Territory), Professor

Jim Allen (La Trabe Universicy) and Dr Hurry Lourandos

commented on a draft of this paper Mr S. Florek and

Ms A, Richards (both Australian Museum) dratted mast

of the final drawings,

During excavations al Hawker Lagoon, we were wasisted

by members of the Aboriginal Heritage Unil, Department

of the Environment and Plaruting, Adelaide (R. Buchiin,

§. Martin, R. Leubhers, V. Porezny and T Power); by

museum staff and volunteers, and by stall and studemts

from several universities (S. Robinson, C.A. Metirath, 5.

Wright, B. Wright, C, Mackenzie, M. Kelly. T. Phithips,

J, McDonald, G, Alkin, S. Holmes, S. Claydon, R, Sim,

D. Donton, NM. Franklin, A, Ross, A, Cluck, V. Attenbrow,

F. Papps, S. Homer, RB. White, S. Moss, G. Houghton,

B Pyenore, PL Thorley, M. Goinmersal, A. Corrie, M-

Thiedman, C. Conrade, A, Blandford and B, English).

Last Gut not least we thank My R. Teusner (Taqunda)

Whose information Jed us to the Hawker Lagoon site.

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NOTES ON A WOODEN IMPLEMENT TYPE FROM NORTH-EASTERN

ARNHEM LAND

BY M. PICKERING & J. DEVITT

Summary

This paper presents data on a wooden implement found at a site in north-eastern Arnhem Land and

discusses briefly its significance for archaeological research elsewhere.

NOTES ON A WOODEN IMPLEMENT TYPE FROM NORTH-EASTERN

ARNHEM LAND

M. PICKERING & J, DEVITT

Pickering, M. & Devitt, J. 1988. Notes on a wooden implement type from north-eastern Arnhem

Land. Ree. 8S. Aust. Mus, 22(2): 169-171.

This paper presents data on a wooden implement found at a site in north-eastern Arnhem

Land and discusses briefly its significance for archaeological research elsewhere,

M, Pickering & J, Devitt, Northern Land Council, PO Box 39843, Winnellic, Northern Territory

5789, Manuscript received 4 February 1988,

‘This paper illustrates, describes, and discusses a

particular type of artefact from north-eastern Arn-

hem Land, northern Australia. Consideration of

these artefacts helps illustrate the importance of

functional, as Opposed to morphological, obser-

vauions in the typological classification of artefacts.

The implements were collected during fieldwork

in the Nhulunbuy area of north-eastern Arnhem

Land in late 1986, They were recovered from sites

on a small island which is connected to the main-

land by a 300 m permanent exposed sandbar, This

island 1s basically a granitic rocky outcrop consoli-

dated by sandy soils and coastal scrub vegetation,

lt is edged by a rocky boulder shore, often steep

in places, The island is a popular visiting spot for

Yuingu and white residents. of Nhulunbuy.

During a casual walk around the island, easily

accomplished in two hours, the authors’ attention

was drawn to the numeraus scatters of rock oyster

shells (Saccostrea cuecullata). These scatters were,

characteristically, usually within 20 m of the water

and on bare flat rock surfaces. The shells were often

burnt and/or associated with charcoal and burnt

sticks,

No sites were observed which had any strati-

graphic depth or, indeed, potential for formation

of deposit. The seatters were usually within the zone

subject to wind, wave and rai action, particularly

in the summer wet season. Even before we discussed

these shell scatters with local informants it was

obvious that they were the product of shellfish

collecting for food. They reflect single transient oc-

cupation, such asa ‘dinner camp’. A small perma-

nent Yulngu community resides approximately

2 km away. The island falls within the traditional

country of the Rirratjingu clan group,

THE IMPLEMENTS

‘Two of the shell scatters were subjected to closer

examination. These contained eight wooden imple-

ments in definite association with the shells and

charcoal. Figure | provides a field map of the site

from which these artefacts were collected, This site

is typical of the location and condition of these

sites. A tyre lever was seen in a crevice. This may

have been used for removing the oysters from the

rocks.

LEGEND

QO Bush

Rock

----= Water(ine

ie Concentrations of shelis

and artefacts

FIGURE |. Field nap of site from Which artefacts were

obtained. Scale approximately | cm 2m. Compiled

from field sketch.

A Yulngu informant (Warramirri clan) identified

these artefacts as Birngal and described their func-

tions as being for picking shellfish out of their shells

or for the removal and/or cleaning of small skin

170 WOODEN IMPLEMENTS FROM ARNHEM LAND

eruptions (caused by parasitic infection or biological

actions e.g. pimples). They could be produced at

any time.

Meehan (1982: 101, 102, 110) reports the similar

use of wire and bone points to break open the shells

and remove the flesh of oysters, (Crassostrea amas)

amongst the Anbarra of north-central Arnhem

Land.

Also on the site were several tops of soft drink

cans, though no cans were found, The informant

explained that the cans were sometimes used to

carry oysters back to camps, the tops being removed

and discarded to make the container.

The implements are illustrated in Fig. 2 and are

best described according to their level of modifi-

cation.

Implement 4 is simply a twig from which the bark

has been peeled to make a point which has subse-

quently been rounded through use, Implement | is

a split twig, triangular in cross-section, retaining

some bark on the outer surface. The lip is modified,

possibly through grinding, Implements 5, 6 and 8

are similar to | and 4 except the tips have been

shaped through cutting. They retain some remnant

cut facets.

Artefact 2 is a single-pointed implement with a

modified butt, The point is smoothly shaped with

some remnant cul marks almost obscured through

rounding, probably by use, The shaft appears to

have been worked smooth. The butt is abrupt with

clear cut marks and facets, Implement 7 is bi-

pointed, The shaft shows clear faceting through

cutting, though use has rounded the edges. Both

points are rounded. The implement has a low sheen,

presumably through being held. Implement 3 is a

highly modified bi-point. It has remnant facets

along its length showing its manufacture by cutting.

Use has, however, tended to round and obscure the

edges of these facets, which do not show up in the

illustration except in cross section.

DISCUSSION

With the exception of implement 4, all imple-

ments were made with a steel knife. In some exam-

ples the direct evidence of this, the cut marks and

faceting, have been obscured through use. Such use-

wear is probably quick in forming given the hard

abrasive nature of the oysters’ homes.

Sites such as the one we have described and their

associated artefacts are unlikely to last long in the

archaeological record, The action of wind, waves

and other activity would quickly disperse all site

contents. Even where conditions were more stable,

and formation of deposit likely to occur, the wood-

dem

FIGURE 2, Wooden implements found at site near Nhuluinbuy, north-eastern Arnhem Land,

M. PICKERING & J, DEVITT 17]

en artefacts would rapidly decay, or their tech-

nological attributes erode to a degree where status

as implements is concealed.

The implements also illustrate a question of

typology. Put simply, the artefacts vary greatly in

their form but not in their functions. Conventional

typologies, based on observation of technological

attributes and unsupplemented by ethnographic

data, would obscure this functional unity.

The description of these implements also has

implications for interpretation of archaeological

remains from elsewhere in Australia. One author

(Pickering 1979) has suggested that bone artefacts,

frequently recovered from south-eastern Australian

coastal sites, may have been complemented by a

similar range of wooden points which had decayed

and so were not represented archaeologically. Fresh

wood and fresh bone share similar structural char-

acteristics in the form of high tensile and compres-

sive strength, which makes them sometimes inter-

changeable. The morphological range of the

wooden artefacts described here is analogous to

examples of bone points found throughout coastal

Australia. It is, therefore, not unreasonable to

suggest that similar artefacts would have been

utilised by other groups which exploited shellfish.

REFERENCES

MEEHAN, B. 1982 ‘Shell Bed to Shell Midden’. Aust-

ralian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra.

PICKERING, M., 1979. ‘Aboriginal Bone Tools from Vic-

toria’. Unpublished B.A. Hons. thesis.

YANYUWA CANOE MAKING

BY R. M. BAKER

Summary

This paper describes the construction of a dugout canoe near Borroloola in the Northern Territory in

1987. The history of canoe making and use in the area is also documented using written and oral

records. The taping of information about objects collected by Museums has often been neglected.

This paper illustrates the value of collecting such oral accounts both in documenting the process of

manufacture and in revealing the wider cultural context of that object. When such information is

ignored, there is the danger of viewing the collected object out of its social and historical context.

YANYUWA CANOE MAKING

R.M. BAKER

BAKER, R.M. 1988. Yanyuwa canoe making. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 22(2): 173-188.

This paper describes the construction of a dugout canoe near Borroloola in the Northern

Territory in 1987. The history of canoe making and use in the area is also documented using

written and oral records. The taping of information about objects collected by Museums has

often been neglected. This paper illustrates the value of collecting such oral accounts both in

documenting the process of manufacture and in revealing the wider cultural context of that object.

When such information is ignored, there is the danger of viewing the collected object out of

its social and historical context.

R.M. Baker, Department of Geography, University of Adelaide, GPO Box 498, Adelaide, South

Australia 5001. Manuscript received 1 July 1988.

CANOE CONSTRUCTION construction of a dugout canoe which had been

In 1987, as part of research on the contact history commissioned by the Australian National Maritime

of the Yanyuwa who live in the Borroloola area of | Museum in Sydney. This article presents a descrip-

the Northern Territory (Fig. 1), | documented the _ tion of this construction along with background

ee Ms Vi

DARWIN ate \ NN (f 10 km ta

: . Pig. Gulf of

ge > Carpentaria

\ ;

7 ff NS Cad

ae,

Rorroloola A

. he ao

e@ Raratharra

NORTHERN /

TERRITORY QLD /

Jey /

Wulukulirni fe Wulalamba e

} - 4,

Borrologla i aos

—~_l a “a to Burketown

= \ _—-- ~~

DARWIN lant —Tidal limit af ee

980 RY Ry cg \ McArthur River ™~

ve Ngangkungani 7

—

asfemnal

)

Kalwanyi ey

a oO km § if

a [a eae CU

FIGURE |. Borroloola area and surrounding region.

74 KM. BARKER

information on the history of Yanyuwa. canoe

making ard use.!

The canoe was constructed by Annie Rarrakayn,

her husband Isaac Walayungkuma and Ida Nin-

anga, Karrakayn is approximately $5 years in age,

Walayungkuma 65 and Ninanga 70 (see Fip- 2),

Ninanga had previously made a dugout canoe

which was purchased by the Museum of Australia

in 1986, Isaac Walayungkuma is an experienced

canoe maker who worked on canoes when they were

still constructed for use in the area, He has also

made a number of canoes to sell as artefaers. A

sinall canoe Which he nade ts part of the collection

of the Museum and Art Galleries af the Northern

Territory, Annie Karrakayn had not worked on a

canoe before, but like the orhers she bas an intimate

knowledge of dugout canoes gained [rom years of

experience using them. She recalls, for instance,

literally growing up in one; ‘When Tim? had that

big boat, that canoe, we used to stick in (hal canoe

.,. big meb of kid, right up’

Walayungkuma aod Kartakayn usually live on

their outstation Wardawardala, which is about

30 kin from Borroloola, Ninganga once lived in this

area, bul since being widowed usually lives in

Borroloola, Ninganga and Karrakayn are Yanyuwa

speakers and Walayungkuma is a Garawa speaker.

All three spent much of their younger days living

On ar near the Sir Edward Pellew Eslands which are

lovated at the mouth of the McArthur River. All

ree used dugout canoes regularly to move from

island to tsland or to Visit the mainland,

Canoes in the area were usually made by a group

of people bul it is new for wonien to help in this

process, a5 Annie Karrakayn notes! ‘Someone was

helping one another, two of three or four... but

man used to work before, not women, woman used

to go hunting for oad". A goad descripnioan of how

canoe making was a communal affair comes from

Tim Rakuwurlma: ‘We doublebank, two fella first

time cut hin, owe fella man, nght two tella sit down,

another two fella now, lone (ime you know’, On

another occasion aller a particulary tiring day’s

work Anmie Karrakayn also exclaimed: ‘just men

{used to make canoes], that’s lirst time lady, me and

her, that's the lirst time for us, and I'm sivk of this

tao, .. yeah! Beeause | know women didn’t work,

only man’.

The selection of a suitable tree took four exhaust-

ug, clays of searching along the McArthur River.

The main selection criteria were size, straightness

and 4 Jack of branches and holes in the bark. Great

arieuton was also paid to checking Whether there

were any. holes beneath the bark eXtending into the

trunk, The canoe was made from a large paper-bark

lree MJelalewca argenteu, Known in Yanyuwa as

Binjirri, which was felled on the banks of the

MeArthur River about 10 km upstream of Borro-

loola, There are no tree Species in the area which

are suitable for canoe construction, this Melaleuca

and the ‘Leichhardt pine’, Nauelea orientalis; both

are common along freshwater streams in (he area.

Loca! Aboriginal people have differing opinions

on the relative virtues of making canoes front these

two trees. These conflicting views are based on the

fact thar while the Leichhardt pine js definitely

easier to work, the miuch harder Melu/euca makes

a canoe which is considerably longer lasting. The

advantages of Leichhardt pines are discussed by

Tom Wantbarirri: ‘Leichhardt tree, , . easier ro gue

hint’ and by Tim Rakuwurlma: ‘Leichhardt tree

more soft, good ane, you finish quick”. Because of

the number of canoes that have been made in the

area in the past from Leichhardt pines, there are

not any large trees of this species left, Therefore

wher the canoe makers were asked to make a

‘proper big sea going canoe’ a Melalewca was the

only choice possible, The smaller Leichhardts are

only sujtable for ‘kid canoes', The Yanyuwa used

to construct small canoes known as a-dubarl for

children to use. A umber af people have told me

how as children they were given canoes ‘for training’,

The spot where the tree was felled and the canoe

Was constructed is close to a lagoon called Kalwanyi

(Fig. 1) which also has the European came of Goose

Lagoon. At this spot in the late dry season, the

McArthur River is reduced to a trickle and the tidal

reaches of the river are some 10 km downstream,

In the dry season the river from Kalwanyi to the

tidal reaches-consists of a series of tresh water billa-

bongs separated by a combination of stony bars and

sandy banks. At this time of year a canoe cannot

be patdied downstream,

In earlier times canoes were usually made up-

siream on the McArthur River in the late dry season

and then moved downstream when the riyer levels

rose after the first wet season rains. This samelimes

inyolyed using ropes to pull canoes across shallow

bars. .As Eileen Manankurramara recalls: ‘They

been put him cross stick and pull him . . - push thar

canoe right vp long big river’. Usually however, the

focal cainmaker is said to have provided rain at the

appropriate time to enable the canoe to be floated

all the way down the river. Tim describes how one

year fie had to go downstream (o Borroloola fo (ell

the rainmaker to delay the rain as the canoe makers

had not quite finished the canoe. He recalls the

following exchange between the rainmaker and

himself?

Tim Rakuwurlma: ‘Don't otake rain yer".

Billy Hooker; 'Righi you finish hint up, all right come

back. . when you finistied thal canoe, allright. ,

MWesend tim food fer vou, Moodwater.’

In keeping with Yanyuwa tradition the canoe is

called ‘Rra-Kalwanyimara’, which can be translated

YANYUWA CANOE MAKING 178

- ,

" ad

i +

“th =

‘

FIGURE 2. The catioe makers, left lo right; Ninanga, Karrakayn and Walayungkuma. Also Kylie Marikbalinya, grand-

daughter of Karrakayn and Walayungkuma.

literally as ‘the female one from Kalwanyi’, As

Annie Karrakayn puts it: ‘All the canoe got name

... [from the] country where they come from’. Tim

Rakuwurlma called one of his canoes made in the

Kalwanyi area, ‘Rra-Kudanjimara’, because the

country around this area belongs to Kudanji people.

There are two general Yanyuwa terms for dugout

canoes: rra-muwarda and rra-libaliba. The latter is

of Macassan* origin and the former is by far the

most commonly used term.

The canoe construction camp was only about 30

minutes drive from Borroloola. This proximity

enabled me to bring out a number of the elderly

former canoe makers who were keen to see how the

construction was going. I was told to bring out cer-

tain people whose opinions were valued. The com-

ments these former canoe makers made on these

visits made it very clear that there was a community

standard of what a ‘proper olden time canoe’ looked

like and that the canoe makers had to meet this

standard,

AS well as the canoe, the following items were

made lo go with it (see Fig. 3):

1.. Paddles were made by Isaac Walayungkuma

from a ‘Pine tree’, walkuwalku (Callitris intra-

trapica).

2. A sail and mast were made by Annie Karrakayn

and Isaac Walayungkuma respectively. The mast

was made from a small messmate tree, budanja

(Eucalyptus tetradonta), and the sail was made from

calico.

3. Jerry Rrawyajinda made a dugong rope which

is used when harpooning dugongs (and salt water

turtles) from boats. To make the rope the bark of

young ma-kawurrka (Acacia fortulosa), saplings is

pulled off in long strips. These strips of bark are

called na-wamara and are pulled apart into thin

threads which in turn are rolled into twine and then

made into a two-ply rope. A number of separate

trips Were made to get the bark necessary for the

rope. Most of the bark came from Wulukulirni and

Ngangkungani (Fig. 1).

4. Don Manarra made dugong hunting points,

na-malbi, and a dugong harpoon, ridiridi, with

‘sugar bag’ wax? binding. The points were made

from the wood of the mangrove, arndiny,

Lumnitzera racemosa and the harpoon was made

from the straight trunk of a young messmate tree,

budanja (Eucalyptus tetradonta).

Construction time

The tree was felled on July 16th. The first work

on hollowing out the canoe started on July 19th and

176 R.M. BAKER

BAWA - sail

BALIYARRA mast —+f

WATHA

J pole

(lit

immature )

NANDA-WUKU (lit

MA- NGADUKU iit

place for

her

NANDA-=RAMA

(lit. her

buttocks }

RRA-RIMI

paddle

back }

NANDA =- WUNHAN

her breasts )

Dugong rope

NANDA- MABALUMA

(lit her navel) (lit

FIGURE 3. Yanyuwa terms for parts of a dugout canoe.

it was exactly a month later that it was moved into

Borroloola. Whilst the canoe was in situ, work usu-

ally proceeded six days a week, with the three canoe

makers each averaging eight hours work a day. The

canoe was moved into Borroloola before it was

completely finished as one canoe maker in par-

ticular was keen to return to town. Work on the

canoe was much less consistent once it was moved

NANDA-WURDU—

her stomach })

DALADALA seat

to town. Pressures of town living and the fact that

the canoe was locked up inside the Adult Education

Workshop and work could only proceed when this

building was unlocked, limited the times the canoe

makers could work, If we had remained in the bush,

I think the canoe would have been finished in about

another six working days. A rough estimate for

person hours for construction is 720 person hours

TANYUWA CANOE MARKING 7

based on three people working eight hours a day

for 30) days.

This figure corresponds approximarely 10. the

only ptece of historical information | have been able

to obtain ow the time ic took ta make a canoe in

jhe old days. This comes from Don McLean,” He

told me of seeing a canoe made; “It had taken six

of them seven days ta hollaw this... The lump

of timber was 15 feet [4.5 m] Jong but it (ook them

seven days... , They worked day and night, there'd

always be someone [working]. If one estimates thal

cach man averaged 10 hours a day, this would repre-

sent 420 man hours. There are two likely reasons

why this figure would be less than that for ‘Rra-

Kulwanyimara’ Pirst, the canoe McLean saw was

about 50 cm smaller if his recollegtion of 35 feet

is correct. Seeond, it is quite likely [hat the canoe

he observed had been worked on belore it was

moved to the spot where he saw it. The construction

work that he saw occurred near the mouth of tbe

MeAtthur River. It is likely that at least some work

had been done on the log to lighten it and make

it easier to move, prior to ii being floated to the

construction site

Construction methods

After felling, the tree had its bark stripped and

ihe hollowing oul of the log was begun. This in-

volved making a series of cuts’ with tomahawks

and axes! al right angles across the log at abour

20 cm intervals, This formed a series af blocks

whieh could chen be removed when they were hit

by a larae adze swung parallel ta the Jong axis of

the log (see Fig, 4), Most of the hollowing out was.

done in this way. A smaller adze was used to do

some chipping oul of the lnsides and then the toma-

hawks were used to do Finer work, Finally, files were

used inside to smooth the surface, On the outside

of the canve the Same combination of tomahawks

and files was used, The hardest work was the con-

struction of the twa ends, This was done by Isaac

Walayuingkunra using a large axe. ‘This was the only

example of one af the canoe makers doing all of

a specific job, All the rest af the work was shared

hy the canoe makers, When the series of cross cuts

were being pul in, it was possible for all three to

work ai The same tare, However, when the blecks

were being removed il was safe for only the person

doing, this ro be in the canoe. Walayungkunia did

nrosr-af this block removing but Karrakayn and

Ningana also did some.

Towards the end of the four weeks® work at the

canoe camp the canoe was burnt inside and out.

Some of the chips of wood that had been chopped

off, plus dead leaves and twigs from the felled tree

were gathered and placed inside and under the

canoe and burnt. The burning material inside the

cunoe was stoked by lang poles. The flames burnt

for about five minutes and then {he fire smouldered

for about another ten minutes. The fire was of low

intensity ard was carefully monitored to make sure

it did not get too hat. This burning was done for

two reasons, to aid the smaothing up of the canoe

and to allow it to be ‘spread’. The spreading was

achieved by ramming some cross sticks inside the

canoe flush against both sides and then burning the

inside of the canoe. As Annie Karrakayn notes, the

burning and ramming of cross sticks is Lo ‘make it

wide and [tel clean him really, make him smoath

... that canoe gol tO burn first, then when it

finished Mame fire, you can hit him |the stick] then,

knoek himin, kilock, knock, .. that stick fall, that

mean he wider’, When ‘Rra-Kalwanyimara’ was

burnt it spread sufficiently for the cross sticks,

previously flush against both sides, to be easily

knocked down to the canoe floor, Then, as soon

as the fire was coal enough, rasping inside the canoe

commenced.

Another good description of burning comes front

Steve lolinsan:

They used Lo fill [the cunoe) up wilh water and tet

it-soak fora while and (hen put the fire in it, put

grass and all che shavings. Nor stuff thar’ burn a

hole in it, but enough to heat it up, then they'd pal

the sticks in and bash the sticks in (o spread it, They'd

spread them a bit af a time, spread them abour an

inch today and then they'd push them back, sink

them in Lhe water —, . anid in ubour a-weeks time

they'd pet into them again and do (he sante thing.

They used (a derthat for months afer. Some of them

used jo go loo lar alid fhey'd start cracking on the

bollom . .- trant tae much spreading.”

Steve goes On to pote that the expert canoe

makers knew from expenence exactly how far a tree

could be spread without cracking ul. Steve on

another occasion gave the following reasons why

Mac and George Riley made the best canoes:

‘Everything they cul was good because they knew

how co line them up and straighien them, they cut

them with the timber and they were really good

boats they made If the tree wasn't good enough

they wouldn't start on it’.

Initially the canoe construction of ‘Rra-Kalwanyi-

mara’ occurred on the spot where the tree had

fallen, Later, when the canoe was light enough, It

was moved furlher down the bank, This was done

by using a number of poles, cut [rom the trunks

of small trees, as levers and also by placing (he

canoe on rollers made from shor. sections of tree

irunks. It was first placed on a sandy bank and,

later, on a rocky bar, The latter site had the advan-

tage that the canoe could be paised on Large stones

and the fire could, therefore, burn immediately

underneath it. As Annie Karrakayn put it, the canoe

was moved ‘because [the new spol] good place, so

178 R.M. BAKER

FIGURE 4. ‘Rra-Kalwanyimara’ in the first stages of construction, July 1987.

VANYUWA CANOE MARKING 179

we can pur bushes underneath, chips’, The ‘bushes*

and ‘chips’ Annie relers }o were pul under the canoe

and set alight as part of the burning provess de-

scribed above, Another advantage of moving |he

canoe onto the stones was thal the canoe could now

be lean! from one side to another.so thal Lhe under

surfaces could be warked an,

When the canoe makers had a day off ta go hunt-

ing or shopping in town they very carefully covered

With strips af paperbark all surfaces that would be

exposed to the sun Annie Karrakayn explained why

they did this: ‘We go back home now, town, so we

covered {hat canae, just keep him away sun, he

might get crack... if ir’s dry he'll erack bul we have

gol to pul paperbark and caver it, -, everyday when

we fo out’,

On the 14th of August [he canoe was Taunched'

by moving ic the 10m to the MeArchur River. Ir

was taken for a test paddle and the balance of the

canoe was. carefully assessed to determine where the

Tos! weight fad to be taken off in the final tinish-

ing wp work. This balancing work was subsequently

done al Borraloola.

On the 19th of August the canoe was towed into

Borroloola aller winching it up the bank and onto

a boat trailer, Wark on finishing the canoe then

proceeded inside the Adult Education Workshop

in Borroloola, The canoe was ‘made lighter’ with

tomahawks and files. Some further shaping of the

two ends of the canoe also occurred. At the end

of each day’s work, the cance was filled up with

water and covered with wet blankets to keep it from

drying out too fast,

Finishing the canoe in town fits in with what

Usually occurred in the past. The canoes were taken

down the river 10 Borroloola before the canoe

makers had completely tinished (hem. They (hen

worked on thenr at their leisure on the banks af the

river. In the past, as Gceurved with ‘Rra-Kalwanyi-

mara’, the canoes were paddled to see how well they

floated. Il aucessary, the Canoe makers would

highten particular areas to improve the balance.

During this ‘finishing off period the canoes were

often filled up with water and left in the river so

that the wood did nol dry out too quickly, A

number af peaple remarked thai the purpose of

bringing the cane (0 town and Pinishing it slowly

was to allow the timber ta dry out slowly and thus

to avoid cracking.

The mast for the sail was fitted tnto the canoe

when it was in Borroloola. This was done by drilling

a hole only fractionally larger than the mast in a

board that resis firmly between the aanda-wunhaa

(Fig. 3), The mast was then lowered through this

hole and lodged firmly in another hole in a mound,

tanda-mabalumes, lettin the base of the canoe for

this purpose, The rear seat or daladala and the front

‘seat’, ma-ngadukw for (le dugoneg rope iu resi on

were also made in Borroloola, These were made out

of timber from the ‘Leichhardt Pine’ (Nauclea wrien-

talis), The wood from ald packing cases is said Lo

be ideal for these seats and was. much used jin the

past,

HIStokY O) ANOKIGINAL WAPERO RAPT IN THE

BORROLOULA ARLA

Logs and rafts

The sumplese type of warercraft used by Abor-

iginal people in the Borroloola area was a swimming

log. Tim Rakuwurlma told me how he and twa

other Yanyuwa men had to ‘get a log’ to help them

swim from island to island in the Sir Edward Pellews

alter they jumped off a European lugeger on which

they had been employed. As well as providing extra

buoyancy far the swimmer, such logs were felt ta

provide some safely [rom crocodiles and sharks.

Herbert (n.d.s 155) observed people swimming the

Roper River (200 km north-west of Borroloola)

using such logs. He notes that: “It was not clear

whether the alligators regarded this apparition a»

a triendly object, or a deadly enemy charged with

possibilities of destruction to themselves, but in

either case the log was recognized by the native as

a greal safeguard’.

Ratts of various types were also constructed in

the area, These were lypically constructed on stte,

when groups who were walking needed to cross one

of the large salt water rivers in the region. They were

constructed in both triangular and. rectangular

shapes. The triangular rafts were similar to the

Mornington Island one illustrated in Macintyre

(1921: 60) and the Bardi ones front Western Aust-

tralia (Ackerman [97S: Fig. 1),

The Yanyuwa made rafts by lashing together

number of thick logs, using twine made from the

bark of the following trees: karrski ( Wrightia sal-

fend), ma-lhalhaki or masmurndurtarra (Brachy-

chiton diversifolius), ma-rdardski or ma-yatha

(Brachychiten paredoxus) and ma-kawurrka

(Acaciu (orulosa), Twine was also Sometimes. made

fromm lily stems. Paperbark was piled on top of the

lashed logs to raise the craft above the water.

Thomson (1957) and Davidson (1935) note that such

tafts were used across the whole of northern

Australia.

Bark canoes

Bark canoes, known in Yanyulwa a9 na-wulka,

were made by sewing together the bark of the mess-

mate tree (Eucalyplus tetradonta). They were trade

in |he area before dugout canoes were constructed.

As Isaac Walavungkuma notes, they were ‘olden

180 RM. BAKER

lime, first time canoe. - that first time they been

make then”. The Yanyuwa bark canoes were quite

distinct from Crarawa Ones made to the east, which

were smaller and mace froria single piece of bark,

The Garawa ones were only used in calm waters

while the Yanyuwa canoes were suited to the rough

conditions that could be encountered in voyages.

from the mainland to their Islands. The Yanyuwa

canoes had rounded sterns and had extra height in

the bow to stop waves washing in.

The first writtenaccount of Yanyuwa bark canoes

is contained in Flinders’ description of his voyage

around the Sir Edward Pellew. Group in December

1802. He found on North Island two canoes ‘formed

of slips of bark, like planks, sewed logether, the edge

of one slip overlaying another, as lo our clincher

built boats’ (Flinders 1814, 2: 171), He also nates

that ‘their construction was much superior co that

on any other part of Terra Australis hitherto

discewered* ibid ; 172), On the grounds of this sup-

erior construction, he questions whether they were

made by Aboriginal people

Bark canoes of varying lypes Were made across

a wide area of northern Australia (see Bell 1956,

Davidson 1935, Holland 1976, Hornell 194) and

Thomsen 1934a, 1934b, 1939, 19494, 1949b_ 1952

and 1957), Bell (1956) describes and illustrares with

a series of photographs the steps involved in niaking

a small bark canoe in the Archer River region of

Cape York Peninsula. Thomson (}934a) describes

the construction and use of bark and dugout canoes

in the Batavia River area o! Cape York. He con-

cludes. that the bark canoe is ‘employed chiefly as

a river craft, While the wooden oultigger canoe is

4 sea-going vessel and is used especially in dugony

and turtle hurting’ (Thomson [934a: 229). In his

1934b article Thomson gives.a detailed des¢eription

of the dugout canoes and the dugong and turtle

hunting carried oul from them in the Stewart River

area of eastern Cape York. tn his 1934 article he

documents a localised variation of bark canoes

made for hunting geese and collecting eggs in the

Arafura Swamp of north central Arnhem Land.

Thomswn’s. 1952 article is a review of (he distri-

bution of Various Wateroraft across northern Aust-

ralia, However, on his distributional map he incor

rectly excludes the Sir Edward Pellew area from

having both dugours atid bark canoes. Davidson

(1935, 73), likewise, excludes che Pellew group, citing

the eastern limits of dugout canoes as the Roper

River.

Hornell (1940) presents a world-wide survey of

calloe types and gives an unconvincing argument

for an evalutionary transition from bark canges to

dugouts to plank boats, He does, however, give

good detailed descriptions of three bark canoes

made in the Borroloola area thal he saw in the

South Australian, Victarian and New South Wales

stare museums,

One of the best descriptions of a bark canae

being constructed is that of Banfield. He describes

how a Cape York mau got the bark ‘Yaw from the

tree [and how] he would soak the single yheet in

water and while sodden, steam it overa smoky fire,

and, as it softened, mould it with hand and knee”

(1918: 127).

Despite their frailty these bark canoes were used

by the Yanyuwa to make lengthy sea trips, Spencer

& Gillen, Who were in Borroloola in 190), describe

(1972: 484) 4 bark canoe carrying six men from Van-

derlin Istand ta Borroloola. This is a voyage of

about 50 km across the Gulf of Carpentaria then

30 kim up the McArthur River. Spencer & Gillen

alsoinclude a detailed sketch of a bark canoe (/hid.;

483) and give a description of their manufacture

(¢bid,: 482-484), Tim Rakuwurlma has told me of

a Yanylwa revenge party that sailed all the way to

and from Massacre Injet in Queensland in bark

canoes, a return trip of about 400 kin_ This trip was

made at the turn of the century and as Tim notes,

it was made in paperbark canoes: ‘iiuewitlka . .,

paddie him all the way’ Dinny Nyliba McDinny

also recalled in [986 how, when he was young, his

family travelled back and forth in bark canoes along

the Gulf of Carpentaria coast between Manangoora

and Robinson River, a distance of about 100 km

each way;

Spencer in his natebook gives 3 detailed deserip-

lion of haw these bark canoes Were constructed!

The salt water men build very decent vanoes, Thev

strip... long pieces of bark olf the big wattle trees

and sew them together at each end and then they

have a lone thin bough which forms the gunwal on

each sue... fund which] are held lightly stretched

by means of sticks Which run seross foi side to side

Some a} these caioes are twelve and filteen feet Jone

Bo yall hold three or four men (Spencer 1901;

98).

Bark canoes remained jn use in the area alter che

Macassuns introduced dugout canoes, presumably

becatise of the ease ot bark canoe construction,

Paradice gives an example of Ihe continuing use of

bark canoes, recording a ‘very fine canoe — cwenly

feet long — [thal] was made of a large-sheet of bark’

(Paradive 1924: 7) and includes a photograph of it,

Similarly Pyro Dirdiyalma who was born around

1930 and who grew up in Garawa country on the

coast Lo the east of Barroloola, recalls such canoes

being used but also noves that bark catioes were

becoming rare (‘fust about finished"), when he was

young. Tim Rakuwurlma deserihes how a bark

canoe could be made in only two days: ‘No-wolka

] heen make that kind . . not hard work like

canoe, him two days thatisall... mend [sew] him

all the way... le him quick, we been mend fin

with thar string now’,

YANYUWA CANOE MAKING tat

Because of the ease of their construction, the

bark canves could be treated ina Fairly ‘disposable"

manner. Brown, the Northern Territory Government

Geologist, Far example, visited the Borroloola area

in 1907 and described how a bark canoe was pad-

ded out to meet the steamer ‘and as the cance was

stave in against the side of the vessel they ler it float

away and remained on board’ (Brown 3908: 6),

Brown goes on to also describe (/bid: 7) how (hey

‘passed canoes with blacks crossing the river on Ewo

or three occasions’,

Whilst bark canoes had the advantage of quick

construction they were not nearly as durable or as

safe as dugout canoes. Many Yanyuwa peaple can

recount storics of relatives drowning as a result of

bark canoe mishaps. Tim Rakuwurlma, for exam-

ple, describes his older brother drowning in one

such incident that Tim managed to suryive by

holding onto his mather: ‘My mother, | been hold

[her] shoulder all the way long Wulibirra country

ithe nearest landfall to the spot where the canoe

sank] ... bark canoe, no good one... he been

leak, when no canoe yer... behind {after}, him

been make [dugout canoes)’. On another aceasion

Tim told me, ‘no good bugger, plenty men heen

drown .. . more eood one Leichhardt tree, leave

that messmare canoe now, leave him altogether’.

Isaac Walayungkuma and Annic Karrakayn in the

following exchange also stress the dangers of bark

canoes and the comparative advantages of dugauts:

isaac Walayungkuma — Walganyi!! he drowned for

ood now, he can't float, no further, be sink right

town finish.

Annie Karrakayn — [dugont canoes when full of

Water} turn him around... ar someiime just bail

Hint out quickly [indigates doing this by shaking the

canoes back and forth],

Another important advantage which dugouts

have over bark canoes was that they are sturdy

enough to allow the erection of a mast and sail. As

well as making the canoes faster and saving inmuch

effort in paddling, the sails add to the handling of

canoes. The anthropologist Donald Thomson, whe

made preat vse of both canoe types in his travels

in northern Australia, notes (19457: 19) that sails,

‘helped steady the crafi in a following sea’, [tshould

he noted, however, that sails of a Sort Were used in

paperbark canoes. A number of people have des-

cribed to me branches being pur up in paperbark

camoes as sails. Tim Rakuwurlmia should be given

the final say on the disadvantages of paperbark

canoes with tus dramatic comment:

When something bite him, shark, well he been

drawn, everybody been drown long middle water . . ,

sometime blind shark... bite him make a hole...

when you wo carly fella morning, yo along sea naw,

shark come along you, bite him that canoe, kock

him down, early fella morning he'll bile anything,

Inireduciion of dugout canoes

Spencer & Gillen fecord both dugout and

messmate canoes in use in the Borroloola area itt

190\. Aboriginal and historical records tight across

the Top End’ of the Northern Territory suggest that

production of dugouts did nat commence until afer

the Macassans siopped coming and supplying them

Warner (1969: 459) and Thomsan (1937) both quote

informants who say dugout canoes were nat made

umil the Macagsans stopped bringing them. Thom-

son (1952: 3) makes [he same point but in more

general terms and does not mention the informant,

Warner goes on 10 suggest that in the area where

he was Working (north-eastern Arnhem Land),

people reverted to using paperbark eanoes for a

while until they learned haw tv construct dugauts

from Aboriginal people from the English Company

Islatids. Worsley (1954: 61-62) from his work on

Groole Eylandr, also concludes that. dugout canoes

were obtained from the Macassans and not made

until afler they stopped their yisils to northern

Australia Heath (1980; 532) presents a Nurig-

pubuyu text (from the Roper River area) thai de

scribes how bark canoes were used first and that

the duyours were introduced later as a result of

Macassan contact.

Timi Rakuwurlma’s account given to me in 1983

supports this suggestion:

My. father, messmate [canoe], lim been tive [irst

time, By and by, he been think about how, Him been

tind biy, tree there, Leichharde tree, along island alone

him catatry.

Tohink UM cut hin!

1 been hip boy, { never had corrohorree along ne

yel [he had not been through cireumeision initiation

veremony), That big | been (indicated about 10 years

old) and old Banja |his older brother] was there.

4 think Pwanl lo aut hi canoe alan you cwo fella,

we got to make hin cance fihalita’. Hint been talk

We've Bot ta niake him tibaliba’,

Ge on’,

‘Yeah | been look thar mob fram Groote Bylanat,

Inguea mob beod jearm me’.

Old fella been learn him my father lone Groote

Eylandr peaple, blackfvlla, When them been come

along that bi: boal Malay! men, coloured mew.

That rob been learn him, him cur [the dugout

canoe) hunsetf ... lone (omahiawk.-

The first Yanyuwa-made dugout canoe was

constructed well infand aud as Tim deseribes, we

all been pull him down ... all the way [to the

coast]® If 1987 Tim told me this story again and

alter noting that the early canoes were made Irom

a Leichhardl Ping, says ‘tea-tree (Melaleuca sp,) that

182 RM. BAKER

one behind [after], we been cut that kind when my

father been finished . .. when no more Leichhardt

tree there long island, my father been finish them

up. We been go along McArthur River higher up’,

Using Tim’s mention of his age in the above

quote, this first Yahyuwa-made dugout can be dated

to about 1910. This corresponds with the

information presented by Warner and Thomson

that canoes Were not constructed until after the

Macassans stopped coming, The last voyage made

by the Macassans to Australia was in [906-1907

(Macknight 1976: 126). Further support for this

posi-Macassan commencement of canoe

construction comes from Stretton’s (1893)

comments on how Aboriginal people on Vanderlin

Island obtained their canoes. Writing in the decade

before the Macassan visits stopped he notes that

‘the Vanderlin iribe are expert canoeists, and are

possessed of some very fine canoes, made out af

solid trees, which have been left behind by the

Malays’ (Stretton (893; 228), He makes no mention

of the Yanyuwa building their own dugout canoes.

The rise and decline of Vanyuwa canoe making

Yanyuwa canoe making probably reached a peak

in the 1930s and 1940s when, with ready access to

European metal tools, a large mimber were made.

Several of the European residents in Borraloola

cammissioned canoes and these were somerimes

used to transport stores up the McArthur River, The

canoes carried the supplies upstream from the

landing some 30 km downstream where the coastal

supply boat unloaded the carga. The vital part these

Europeans ptovided in the construction of jhe

canoes was the supply, as payment, of preservable

Food such as flour. As Tim Rakuwurlma observes,

canoes took a long time to make and the canoe

tnakers were dependent on others to provide chem

with food during the period they were working full

time; Might be three weeks . , , long time no tucker

.. , but this time big mob of tucker flour’, Tim goes

on to note how he made canoes with food being

provided by a European called Hayey and cornpares

this food source with that his father lived on when

lie made vanoes. ‘Charlie Havey alla [always] send

tucker for me. - . get a bag of flour all the way.. -

my father been cut a canoe and he been had

munjal ., . cooked by my mother’,

{t was not only Europeans who commissioned

canoes, Aboriginal people also commissioned

canoes from a number of expert canoe makers. The

terms of this trade included supplying the maker

with food during the construction phase and then

giving a proportion of food caught from the vanoe

far sometime afterwards. Steve Johnson describes

Mac Riley making canoes ‘for trade’ and says he

got half the catch for the first six months of the

canoe's life as part payment, Tim Rakuwurima also

describes how Mac made him a canoe and sent it

down Fram Mara country (to the north-west) to him

and how he kepr the Mara name given to this canoe;

‘t been buy nm long blanket ., - him been make

him long his country .., ‘Bayilmalkulma’, .. that

mob Mara [named it]... | been keep name they

been call him that way’ Mac is also mentioned in

the Welfare Department files (Australian Archives

1952) as having made (with others) five canoes in

1982,

Tim Rakuwurlma who supplied me with much

of my information. on Yanyuwa canoes, was a par-

ticularly renowned canoe maker. As Ted Egan re-

counts:

Old Tim was always workihy ofa canoe... Moat

ii down... half make itand either carry itor Moat

jt 10.8 beach and finish i there... . he was referred

lo ay Much by the term fhe ‘canve man’ as Cild

Tim"!

Egan also recalls how a European boat would

sometimes tow dugout canoes: ‘They had about ten

canoes When | Was there. Jack Bailey had a

wonderful old chug chug boat and Jack would often

pull a string of canoes up the river’.

The South Australian film maker, Roy Vyse,

visited Borroloola in July 1954 and describes!* how

‘hunting is done fram dugout canoes of which there

are a large number”. A nvissionary based in Borro-

loala describes. how jn 1958 ‘a party of sixteen fad

lef Borroloola to pick up ‘about eleven canoes’ (hal

had been made at one location that year (Main

1958: 15). Kettle (1967: 95) reports seeing Id dugout

canoes at Borroloola in 1955. An interesting burse

of canoe making occurred in 196) when the Yan-

yuwa were meyed by the Welfare Branch to Dan-

gana on the Robinson River! Musso Harvey

recalls how six canoes were made in the seven or

eight months people lived there atid how ‘we all

{came}! sailing back’ to Borroloola,

Yanyuwa people aisey made canoes when they

were away from Borroloola working on cattle sta-

tions, Some stations provided ready access to snit-

able large trees. The residential quarters on many

stations in the region are located on springs that

are lined with tall trees. Herice there was the

opportunity to work on canoes during slack periods

aft the cattle work. As Jean Kirton!’ recalls, the

Yanyuwa would often come back from the cattle

stations on trucks with new canoes:

When they came back there, maybe (wo or three

canoes Would tome buck on the backs of the rrucks

. there were all kind of 2eod things associated with

the coming of the wet season, all (he relatives comin

back anc new canoes coming hack with ther.

YANYLWA CANOE MAKING 183

Canoe construction began to decrease in the eatly

19605 as the Yanyuwa began (6 have the cash to buy

European aluminium dinghies, The last canoe built

by the Yanyuwa for their own use was made by ‘Old

Dhulu’ jn 1977 at Ryan’s Bend. This particular

cunae was camnnssioned by Tim Rakuwurlma and

stayed in use volil 198t. Af the end of ane day’s

work on ‘Rra-Kalwanyinara’ Agnie Karrakayn

remarked how all (he old canoe makers ‘been die

now? and thal no younger canoe makers had

replaced them ‘hecause they had the dinghy now,

white fella dinghy’.

Use of dugout canoes

[tis possible la document long voyages made by

the Yanyuwa in dugout canoes. Pyro Dirdiyalma

deseribed how a relative used to travel all the way

(0 Burketown in a dugaut canoe (a distance of over

400 km each way) Tooking for tobacco’. Don

MeLean told me of a round trip of over 500 km

he made in a dugout canoe with three Yanyuwa men

in 1943 to and from Grooie Eylandt. Peaple also

travelled from Borroloala to Numbubwar (250 km

to fhe north-west), in dugout canoes lo attend cere-

monies. As Steve Johnson pecalls, whenever possible

such trips Would haye involved Salling and not

paddling:

They sailed them wher the wind Was favourable they

never paddled beeause they wanted to, Most of them

waited forthe wind to come the night way before they

evel) Start, Probably sit (here for a week wailing for

favourable weather .. . unless they were in a hurry

there is no Way they'd paddle against it. Bue if they

were out there and got vaughi, some of them ald

fellas could paddle tor days without getting off thar

paddle,

As well as being a means of transport, dugoul

canoes played an important role in the Yanynwa

economy. This was particularly the case with turtle

and dugong hunting. It should be noted, however,

that older Yanvuwa individuals are adamant that

people did hunt dugong and turtle from bark

canoes in the ‘old days, As Tim Rakuwurlma notes:

‘They heen make him messmate tree, bark [cance]

_~ hig mob dugong killer, black fella, right up long

Wanubarryt [100 km north-west. of Berrotoolal". h

is conceded however thatthe dugout is far superior

for hurting due to its greater size and stability.

Indeed the dugout is in many ways superior ta the

aluminium dinghies powered by outboard engines

used foday. As Mick Pollard recalls, Tyson

Walayungkuma told him how dugout canoes were

supenor for dugong hunting asm them alaminium

boat, you vo aut and your toenail touch thar Moor,

them dugong go for one mile’, Dugong are

renowned lor their acuie hearing. In a canoe 4

hunter could silently glide over herds of turtles and

dugongs and literally (ake his pick. Today, however,

hunting in aluminium boats involyes a hair raising

high speed chase as the hunters altempt to oulrun

the turtle and dugong. The canoes also obviously

have the advantage of not requiring fuel. Today it

js quite a logistic effort co carry enotigh (uel to rake

the lang trip down the McArthur River, ga hunting

and still have enough fuel ro rerurn ta Borroloola.

Another disadvantage of outboard powered

dinghies is the tact thar the occupants usually get

covered with spray when travelling in them.

The following Yanyuwa terms are given for the

crew of a dugout canoe. The person behind, sitting

on the daladsla (Fig. 3) was called ramangks

figulakari, the person in the front ot the canoe was

called ngurrungu and the person in the middle was

called a-kuyita wumbiji- However, when hunung

dugong and turtle in the past in dugout canoes or

today in aluminium dinghies, different names are

used for the person al the front and at |he back of

the canoe. The dugong hunter in the front armed

with the harpoon.and looking for dugong is known

as maranja. This person indicates with hand signals

which way the wungkayi (who is silting behind)

should paddle.

Dugong hunters took great care of their hunting

equipment, When on hunling trips, ropes were cane-

fully coiled so they would not get tangled and the

harpoon was mounted on the side of the canoe with

nails holding it in place. The harpoon was placed

on the right-hand side of the canoe for rizht-handed

hunters and on the left side for left-handed hunters.

Dugongs and. turtles were often hunted at night,

with the hunter following the phosphorescent trailé

left in the wake-of (he animals, Such nighi time

hunting trips could be quite long and young child-

ren were often taken out and hedded down for a

night’s sleep in the canoe, On cold dry season nights

another advantage of dugout canoes was that a fire

could be lil in the canoe. As Steve Johnson told me

They used to have a fine going [here fon) a biz Pal

rock oF sheer of iron and a bil of mud on it clay.

have a fire going thére all day. They be paddling

down the river and you'd see smoke in the boat, , -

(hey used 4o even cook a feed, cook a fish ar some-

thing like that —, - if they went our for a Jong trip

they'd Lake a bit of extra wood with them, they’é

anchor all day ond (hore wailing for the dugong ro

come back in from the deeper water, if they had some

fish they’d cook thar up, they lived like kings ow

there _ _ boil the billy . . . rhey"d cook a few erabs.

IL was the job of the person in the middle uf the

canoe, the a-kuyila wumbiji, to keep the fire burn-

ing, These fires served the dual functions of cooking

and keeping people warm. Isaac Walayvungkuma

184 R.M. BAKER

gives another description of these fires: ‘Big canoe,

you can put dugong and swag, put flat stone, make

a fire there too’, Another good description of these

fires is given by Ricket Murnudu in which he makes

the point that when paddling the canoe the person

behind was kept warm by the smoke drifting back:

Fella in front he cold, but this one behind [is warm|

because he keep smoking long him behind when he

paddling’.

However, as Tim Rakuwurlma recalls, the results

of not putting a fire out properly were serious. He

describes how once, when he lent his canoe to his

brother:

Him been go out night time hunting and he been

come back and been leave that boat rhere, he been

wet that fire long sult water, wet him... but that

fire been alight, canoe been burn him ,., [next

morning] Banjo been come out. ‘Ah that boat been

drown here . : . oh | been burn [it] long fire’.

Tim goes on to describe how a European resident

of the area ‘been fix that boat now, got copper tack,

copper nail and iron’.

As well as being used for hunting and carrying

dugong and turtle, dugout canoes were also very

useful for carrying loads of people, possessions and

food, Annie Karrakayn notes for example how

people used to ‘fill him up libaliba . . . right up’ with

shell fish gathered from mudflats. Canoes were also

filled up with sea bird chicks, gathered by shaking

mangrove trees during the wet season. Sometimes

these birds were also cooked on fires in the canoe.

Large quantities of cycad fruit were also carried in

canoes from where they grew to places where there

was plenty of water to leach the toxic substances

out of the cycad. Annie Karrakayn, for example,

describes how people used to go to Manangoora

where there are dense stands of cycads (Cycas

angulata) and ‘fill up canoe ., , and take him to

... spring country, .. . soak it there now for eat’,

Canoes were also used to carry dogs. The last

couple lo travel regularly around in canoes, for a

long time had one canoe each so that all their dogs

could fit in. In the 1950s and 1960s when a large

number of Yanyuwa people had moved in to Borro-

loola, dugoul canoes were often used to carry fire-

FIGURE 5. Forty-four gallon drums being carried by canoes, Photograph Steve Johnson, circa 1955,

wood back to their camp. They were also used to

carry strips of paperbark that were collected [rom

trees along the river to roof the shelters people built

for themselves in Borroloola,

It is nol surprising considering the time people

spent in canoes that at least. one Yanyuwa person

was actually born in one. Also a umber of other

births: were apparently brought on when heavily

pregnant wamen were paddling canoes and just

managed to make landfall before giving birth.

Early government alficials such as Patrol Olticers

also made use of dugour canoes to travel around

the Borroloola area, as they were the only possible

form of transport for much of the wet season. The

long time regional head of the Welfare Bratich, Les

Penhall, described how “We bought two dugouts off

one of the Aborigines out there so we could have

transport available’. As well as being used for carry-

ing supplies (Fix. 5) up the river from the deep water

jetty downstream, canoes were used by the Welfare

Depariment to get good timber to Borroloola.

Annie Karrakayn, for instance, recalls how people

used 6 get pine trees (Callitris intratropica)

downstream along. the McArthur River and braught

them back to Borraloola with ‘that canoe, pulling

beliind like a trailer’.

A number of European crocodile shooters in the

area also used dugouts, for, as when hunung

dugomz, the crocodile hunter could silently glide of

lop of the prey. Considerable use of dugout canoes

was alsa made by the arnry unit that was based on

ihe Sir Edward Pellew Group during World War LI.

Don MeLean describes how canoes Were used (0

carry supplies and persounel, to patrol for mines,

to Carry Inessages and to locate an American airman

who once crash landed in the area.

Canne size

Spencers diary contains a good indication oF how

large were the canoes which the Yanyuwa obtained

trom the Macassans. He notes that:

A biv canoe has come up the river from the coast

with about 20 datives iit tis quite Untike the bark

canoe and is simply a great log hollowed our and

shaped intow bot. Lis quile 30 feet long, . , This

particular boat was made by the Malays who come

all down the eoasi every year in their Prahus in quest

of lojlorse [sic] shell (and) beche de mer which [hey

barter for with (he blacks (Spencer (901: 110),

The larkest canoe made in livitig memory was

measured by Steve Johnson to be 27 feet (8.23 m)

long and was called the ‘Butterfly. The Yanyuwa

classify canoe size in terms of how many large salt-

water Lurtles they Would hold: the ‘Bucterfly’ being

a ‘four turtle Ganoe® Tim Rakuwurlma also com-

Tents on a ‘four turtle canoe! and goes on to say

that it could alsa carry four 44 gallon drums,

‘Sonny’ Raggart, che former manager of a station

for which supplies were brought up the river in

canoes, recalls Gne canoe that carried five 44 gallon

drums or forty 50 lb bags of flour.

Annic Karrakayn in the conversalion quoted

above on how all the kids used to ‘stick in that

canoe’, noles that the canoe also carried ‘big mob

of load’ which included swags, billy cans and 44

gallon drums, Another mention of the capacity of

dugout canoes is in Giriffin’s (L941; 32) description

ofa visit to Borroloola. She records a canoe pacl-

dled by Tim Rakuwurlima’s brother Banjo carrying

his lubra, and her sister, two piccaninnies, two dags,

one puppy, two gulahs, and coolamons of lily seeds,

roots and wild raspberries, not ta mention billies

and pannikins’.

Canoe life-span

Most dugoul canoes appear to have lasied Icss

than three years. Thomson (1934; 244) discusses the

short life-span of canaes al Stewarl River, Cape

York, and comments on one lasting only seven to

eight months. The fact that one canoe lasted five

years before jt sank is. noted as being unusual by

Johnson Babaramila Timothy: ‘Him sunk down. . ,

might have been too old, One boat from Roper, we

had it for long time, for about, might have beer

more than five years’. The oldest canoe deserthed

ro me was the lager ofe oWned by Tyson

Walayungkuma, This. canoe, accarding fa Steve

Johnson, was a ‘good ten years old’ when it was

finally wo rotten to patch up apy more.

The spreading of canoes, described above, makes

canoes particularly susceptible to cracking. Aswell,

boring water worms tended to eat through the

canoes. Canoes were constantly patched, using the

reddish bark of ma-wunjurrwunjurr (Terminalia

carpentaride), a ree thal grows on (he Sir Edward

Pellew [slands. As Steve Johnson notes: "They used

to use thal, scrape the bark off... and they'd

pound it up nto wa putty and then use that to shut

the cracks’. When available, however, tron and tacks

were considered preferable, As ‘Steve goes on to note,

ms-wunjlirewonjurr bark was only used $f they

were out bush and didn't have that gear [fnetal) . . -

they even used taud, that hard clay tor repairs’.

Canoes were often removed fram the water and

rolled over to dry in the sun in attempts to kill the

borers. Also, canoes Were painted with a red ovhre

to protect them fron worms, When available, tar,

pitch and various boating oils were used as they were

mare effective.

Jean Kirlon gives a good summary of the prob-

lems people had maintaining their canoes end illus-

186 R.M, BAKER

trates Why aluminium dinghies were so readily

adopted in preference to dugouts:

There were two kinds of borer that got into them,

a freshwater one and a sallwater one and most of

them only lasted two years, They would patch them

and they would leak a lot. It got to the stage where

they would leak so much they would be under water,

[it] wets a bit discouraging bailing something when

the entire thing is under water every time you want

to use it. So [at] that point it got relegated to being

drowned, When you could get an aluminium dinghy

that borer did nothing to it.

CONCLUSION

The Yanyuwa history of canoe making is a good

example of Aboriginal culture’s quick response to

change. Canoes were readily adopted by the Yan-

yuwa as they were a better version of something they

already had. As such they represent cultural change

very much on Yanyuwa terms, Use of dugout canoes

allowed the Yanyuwa to exploit their environment

in new ways. Resources such as bird and turtle eggs

on isolated islands could be obtained and previous

activities such as turtle and dugong hunting would

have been both safer and more productive.

Methods of construction and repair of dugout

canoes changed according to supply of natural

resources, and to the provision of European tools

and food sources, The move to use aluminium boats

instead of dugouts occurred for the same reasons

thal dugouts were originally adopted. The new item

had great advantages,

In the case of adoption of aluminium boats how-

ever, as has been the case for many aspects of

European culture adopted by Aboriginal people,

there have been unforeseen ramifications. The

decline in canoe making has been but one part of

an overall pattern of greater dependency on Euro-

pean resources and services that has led to a great

reduction in Yanyuwa independence overall, The

decision to adopt European dinghies occurred in

the late 1960s when, with the granting of equal

wages on cattle stations, there was plenty of cash

about to buy dinghies. However, the prosperity of

this time was short-lived. Massive lay-offs of Abor-

iginal people in the cattle industry in the 1970s have

resulted in very few Yanyuwa people currently being

employed, Today, there is little money to buy ding-

hies or outboard motors and offen not enough

mechanical ‘know how’ to keep those motors going.

Hence Tim Rakuwurlma (Fig. 6) who spent much

of the first two-thirds of his 90 years travelling in

dugout canoes around his island country, can now

lament ‘| want to go island, sit down long island,

but no boat too much... | got no boat too much,

| want to sit down long my country’.

FIGURE 6. Tim Rakuwurlma and his canoe, July 1954, From the Les Penhall Collection, Northern Territory State

Reference Library. Reproduced with Penhall’s permission.

YANYUWA CANOE MAKING IST

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T wish to thank all the Yanyuwa people who shared with

ie their Knowledge of canoes, | am also most graceful

to all the non-Aboriginal people with experience in the

Rorroloola area who helped me with their memaries of

Yanyuwa canoe use. I thank the Australian National

Maritime Museum for giving permission to publish here

sections of a repor| | prepared for (hem. Research in the

Borroloola area has also been supported by the Australian

Instituie of Aboriginal Studies, the University of Adel-

aide, the Northern Avstralian Research Unit of the

Australian National University and (he Royal Geographic

Society of Australasia (South Australian Braneh). In

addition, | wish to thank Chris Anderson, Michael

Bardsley, Fay Gale, Philip Jones, and Beth Slatyer for

useful comments on earber drafts of this paper. | am also

particularly indebted to John Bradley for all bis logistic

And Haguistie wasishuice,

ENDNOTES

|, All the conversations quoted are [rom recorded inter-

views, now lodged with the Australian Institute of Abor-

iginal Srucics in Canberra. A copy of this paper footnoted

with details of tape number for each quote and the place

on (he ape where the conversation aceurs is lodged with

the A.LAS. Most quotes are trom Aboriginal people from

the Boroloola area. Where the quotes are nol ram Abor-

iginal people, | give in an endnote, background

information on how the individual concerned came to be

in the area. A detailed set of photographs documenting

the construction is also lodged at the A.LALS., as area

number of historic collections of photographs which | have

located relating 10 the area and which inclide photographs

of canoes.

2. She is eclerpty here to Tim Rakuwurlma, an old Yan-

yoWa man who las supplied me with much of my infor-

imahoron Yanyuwa watercraft, Tim was born some dime

late Just century.

3. This ik an Aboriginal English term for helping

someone.

4. Macassans are fishermen who came to northern Aust-

ralia from the porrof Macassar in the Celebes (naw known

as UjUng Pandang and Sulawesi respectively) prior to

European settlement of Australia, Uheir visits stapped in

WOT as a result Of South Australian Cavernment lenis~

lanioan. They came to collect, amongst other things, tre-

pang, (See Macknight 1969, 1972 and 1976 for further

details.)

5. ‘Sugar bay’ is an Aboriginal Boglish term for the

native bee nests that contain wax und honey.

6. \ buropean soldier based of tle Sir Edward Pellew

Group during part of World War Tf,

7. [he photographie recording of the canbe construction

illustrates cach stage of pracuction it went through. The

copy of this article lodged with the ALAS. ieludes a

daily record that details each pholograph Laken.

8. All tools used were purehased metal ones. In the

recent past most work was done with similar tools, Don

MeLean, however recalls seeing ‘wedges made oul of stone

and they were on a long handle... like an adze’ and

describes them being used in the same way | observed larie

steel wdzes bein used.

9, Steve Johnson has lived all his fife on Vanderlin

Island, Mis father was & European trepanger who lived

most of his life there with Steve's mother, a Yanyuwa

woman. Steve has a detailed knowledge of catioes trom

the ase Aboriginal people rude of them around his home,

Vanderlin Island.

10. Spencer & Gillen collected one such canoe which

is vow held by the National Museum of Victoria, The

South Australian Museum also holds a canoe collecred

fram Borrolonla aroufd the Ginn of (he century and [for

nell (1940) also gives a detailed description of another bark

canoe made in the Borroloola rexion, held by rhe Aust-

ralian Museum in Sydney,

1}. As Holed above, Isaue Walayuliekura is a Garawa

speaker and hence uses this Giarawa term and nor the

Yanyowa tern Na-wulka, Trigger (1987: 80) mentions

Carawa watercraft und notes the Garawa use of (his tern

for hark canoes.

[2. Malay’ was the incorrect term Europeans applied

for a long time ty the Macassan trepangers. Tim would

have learned this from Europeans and oot from the

Macassany themselves. The Groote Eylande Aboriginal

people Tim mentions came down on the Mavassun boats,

13. A term forthe eyead phat grows iW abundance in

(he area, Wis processed (o leach oul toxic substances and

is then prepared into preservable danipers.

14, Egan was the relieving Welfare Officer at Borroloola

for a number of brief periods in the 1950s,

15, This quote comes [rom 5.A. Museum Archives Acc.

No. 1676, which is a notebook of his trip. Vyse fade

film of his trip (also held by Sourh Australian Museum)

Which includes a shot of Tim Rakuwurlma paddling 4

canoe aeross the MoArthut River. The photograph in bie

6 Was alse raken ar this tie

i6. The Northern ‘lerritory Wellare Braneh Annual

Report 1960/61 76 documents the move of 133 Aborivinal

people previously resident at Borroloola,

17_Jean Kirtan has worked as a linguist at Borroloola

since 1963,

188 R.M, BAKER

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AUSTRALIAN ARCHIVES, DARWIN 1952. Fl Tiem

52/770.

BANFIELD, E.d. 1918, ‘Tropic Days! T. Fisher Unwin,

London.

BELL, F, 1956. Building a bark canoe, Walkabout, May:

22-23.

BROWN, HY.L, (908. ‘Report on Geological Reconais-

sance of the Eastern Coast from Van Dieman Gulf to

the McArthur River ete. made by the Government Geo-

logist in 1907”. South Australian Parliamentary Papers,

Adelaide, 1908,

DAVIDSON, D.S, 1935, The chronology of Australian

watercralt, J. Polynesian Sac. 44: (1): 1-16, (2): 69-84,

(3): 197-152, (4): 193-207.

FLINDERS, M. 1814. ‘A Voyage to Terra Australis." G.

& W. Nicol, London. Republished 1966, as Australiana

Facsimile Editions No, 37, Libraries Board of South

Australia, Adelaide.

GRIFFIN, E.M, (941, Camping with the Yanular blacks.

Mulkabout, Sty: 29-32,

HEATH, J. 1980. ‘Nungubuyu Myrhs and Ethnographic

Texts’) A.LA.S., Canberra.

HERBERT, SM, nd, ‘Reminiscences by Sidney Welling-

ton Herbert of Life in the Northern Territory during

the Construction of the Overland Telegraph, August

{870 to November 1872’. South Australian Public

Record Office Accession No. 996, Adelaide.

HOLLAND, R.C. 1976. Distribution and methods of

construction of Aboriginal bark canoes. University of

Queensland Occasional Papers on Anthropology &:

69-87.

HORNELL, J. 1940, The genetic relation of the bark

canoe (o dugouts and plank-built boats. Man 40:

W4-119.

KETTLE, E. 1967. ‘Gone Bush FP. Leonard, Sydney.

McINTYRE, J.N. 1921. * “Where Ignorance is Bliss — T's

Folly to be Wise” Capabilities of the Gulf Country”

Unpublished typescript O 984.6M, Mitchell Library,

Sydney.

MACKNIGHT, C.C. 1969, "The Macassans: a Study of

the Early Trepang Industry along the Northern Terri-

tory Coast’: Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. Australian

National University, Canberra.

MACKNIGHT, C.C. 1972. Macassans and Aborigines

Oceania 42: 283-321.

MACKNIGHT, C.C, 1976. ‘The Voyage lo Marege: Mac-

assan Trepangers in Northern Australia’. Melbourne

University Press, Melbourne,

MAIN, C.A, 1958. Borroloola, NT. Our Aim, May: 05.

PARADICE, W.E.J, 1924, The Sir Edward Pellew Group

of Islands, Commonwealth Parliamentary Puper, No.

143,

SPENCER, W.B. 1901. Diary 1901. Titled S and G 2 1901

No. 4, held by National Museum of Victoria, Mel-

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SPENCER, W.B. & GILLEN, Fil. 1912. ‘Across Australia’

MacMillan, London.

STRETTON, WG, 1893. Customs, rites and superstitions

of the Aboriginal tribes of the Ciulf of Carpentaria.

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THOMSON, D.F, 19344, Notes on a hero cult from the

Gulf of Carpentaria, North Queensland, J R. Anthrop.

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THOMSON, D,P. 1934b, The dugong hunters of Cape

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National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, entry for

14.1,1937,

THOMSON, DF, 1939, The tree dwellers of (he Arafura

swamps; a New type of hark canoe [rom central Arnhem

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THOMSON, D.b, 1949a. Arnhem Land: exploration

among an unknown people. Geog. J. 114 (3): 53-67.

THOMSON, D.F. 1949b. ‘Economic Structure and the

Ceremonial Exchange Cycle in Arnhem Land’.

MacMillan, Melbourne.

THOMSON, D.F, 1952. Notes on some primitive waler-

craft in Northern Australia. Moan 52: 1-5.

THOMSON, D.F. 1957. Some watereraft of the Australian

Aborigines. Holkaboul, June: 19-20.

TRIGGER, DS. 1987. Inland, coast and island: traditional

Aboriginal society and material culture in a region of

the southern Gulf of Carpentaria. Rec. S. Ausi. Mus.

21 (2): 69-84.

WARNER, W.L. 1969. ‘A Black Civilization: a Social

Study of an Australian Tribe’, Harper and Brothers,

New York. [Reprint of 1937 edition.)

WORSLEY, F.M, 1954, ‘The Changing Social Structure

of the Wanindiljaugwa’. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis.

Australian National University, Canberra.

REVIEW

BY P. HORTON

Summary

The dynamic partnership : birds and plants in southern Australia edited by Hugh Ford & David

Paton. The Flora and Fauna of South Australia Handbooks Committee, Adelaide, 1986. 199 pp., 8

colour plates, 23 figures, 38 tables. Paperbound, $A19.50.

REVIEW

The Dynamic Partnership: Birds and Plants in

Southern Australia edited by Hugh Ford & David

Paton. The Flora and Fauna of South Australia

Handbooks Commirtee, Adelaide, 1986. 199 pp., 8

volour plates, 23 figures, 38 tables. Paperbound,

$A19.50,

The editors, Hugh Ford (University of New Eng-

land) and David Paton (University of Adelaide),

themselves contributors to the book, are fa be com-

mended for bringing together much of (he current

understanding.of bird-plant relationships in south-

ern Australia — ag yet a relatively litthe studied field.

The resulting publication is the first broadly-based

irealise On this subject for Australia, The title

sugpests that ihe book pertains ta southern regions

of Australia only, but in fact many of the hypotheses

arid conclusions put forward may be applicable ra

most of the continent.

The book is divided into sixleen chapters, and

each discusses a parneular aspect of bird-plant in-

teractions, Some are specific, such as the pollination

and seed dispersal of mistletoes (by N. Reid), and

others are more generalised. such as lifestyles and

food resources ol birds in inland enviranments (by

K.S, Shurcliff), Some authors largely restrict their

discussions (o an analysis of the available data, for

example PA, Patan in her chapter on the use of

aqualic plants by birds in the Coorong, South

Australia, Others are more speculative, for example

D.C. Paton ln his chapter on the evolution of bird

pollination in Australia, Inevitably with Such a di-

versiry of topics, the book is essentially a collection

of papers, However, the editors have grouped those

with similar theres, except for some that fall inte

no pariicular category, and there is Somme crass-

referencing berween chapters. This, together with

the provision of introductory and concluding

chapters, gives a degree of continuity throughout.

Despile the diversily OF material discussed, there are

still several aspects of bird-planr interactions lett

unexplored, such as the use of plants for nest sites:

anc nesting materials. But as is suggested in the

introductory chapter, some subjects are beyond the

scape ol the book; these may well serve as the basis

for (ture publications.

Most of the book deals with endemic plant and

bird Communifies, bul Wwo chapters examine rhe

adaptations ta and ulilisation of exotic habitats by

birds, in comparison with adjacent areas of native

habitat. These are studies in suburban gardens (by

R.J, Green) and pine forests (by BC. Gepp). 1 found

AN. Milewski’s chapter, also comparing bird

communities in different habitats, particularly

interesting, In this case they are both endemic

habilats — southern Australla and southern Africa.

Despite the presence of many plan! and bird

families thatare the same in bork regions, Milewski

points out some distinct differences, which he

attributes to chirnatle and soil differences between

the continents, Thus in southern Africa there is a

diversity of birds that consume fleshy fruits and of

plants that produce them, while in southern

Australia there is a diversity of honeyeaters. and

necrarproducing plants.

Much of the book examines bird-plant inter

actions from the point of view of the use of or

dependerice on plant species by particular birds, or

olf che mutualistic relationship between the two

groups, Chapter 15 (by H.A. Ford) on birds and

eucalypt dieback, however, is taken from the point

ol view of plants’ dependence on birds not just for

enhanced dispersal of pollen and seed but more

directly for (heir health and survival. This and

several other chapters also address the question of

the future for bird and plant communities in

Australia, and suggest management strategies for

their conservation,

Perhaps the overriding impression gained from

the book is that in attempting fo answer many

questions abour bird-plant relationships, ir raises

many more, as would be expected in such a youthtul

field of research. The reader js provided with a kal-

eidascape af bird-plant interactions yel 10 be inves-

ligated, and is given many suggestions as to the

directions that future research may take.

The literary style adopted by most of the thirteen

authors is somewhat more expansive and descriptive

tban would appear in a seientifie journal, and the

book is liberally illustrated with tables, figures and

colour plates, so it should he an informative text

for amateur ornithologists, botanists and ecologists

as well as for the scientific community, The book

lias beer well-produced, the layout is good, and the

printing excellent; a minor criticism is that many

of the chapter sub-headings are larger and bolder

than is aesthetically necessary. tt is priced reason-

ably, and is a ercditable addition to the series of

Handbooks of the Flora and Fauna of South Aust:

alia. | recommend it 10 anyone interested ip evology

and conservation.

PB HORTON, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Ree. S. lust Mus.

22(2): 189, LORS

NGURUNDERI : A NGARRININDJERI DREAMING

BY S. J. HEMMING

Summary

The South Australian Museum has for several years been developing an exhibition depicting

aspects of the Aboriginal culture of the Lower Murray region of South Australia. Central to the

religious beliefs of the people in this region was the Dreaming ancestor Ngurunderi and the story of

the creation of the Murray River and many other geographical features in the Lower Murray and

Coorong areas. The exhibition incorporates as a central theme the Dreaming of Ngurunderi. As an

introduction to the exhibition, the South Australian Museum, in association with the South

Australian Film Corporation, Pepper Studios and the Ngarrindjeri Community have produced a

short film entitled ‘Ngurunderi: A Ngarrindjeri Dreaming’. After several years of planning it was

finally completed in 1987 and was launched early in 1988. The film won a silver award in the

education/social studies category at the New York World Film and Television Festival. It also won

a gold award for camera work from the Australian Society of Cinematographers. Since the launch it

has been screened continuously in the introductory area to the planned exhibition. This was the

Museum’s intended function for the film, with the possibility of its use by the South Australian

Education Department. The South Australian Film Corporation, which holds the copyright of the

film, are trying to market it as widely as possible and copies are presently available from the Film

Corporation or through the South Australian Museum shop.

NGURUNDERL A NGARRINDIERI DREAMING!

‘Yhe South Australian Museum has for several

yeurs been developing an exhibition depicing

aspects of the Aboriginal culture of the Lower

Murray region of Sourh Australia. Central ta the

religiaus beliefs of the people in this region was the

Dreaming ancestor Ngurunderi and the story of the

creation of the Murray River and many other geo-

graphical features in the Lower Murray and Coor-

ony areas, The exhibition incorporates as 4 central

theme the Dreaming of Ngurunderi. As an intro-

duction to the exhibition, the South Australian

Museum, in association with the South Australian

Film Corporation, Pepper Studias and the Nearr-

indjeri Community have produced a short film

entitled ‘Ngurunderi: A Nyarrindjeri Dreaming’.

After several years of planning it was finally cam-

pleted in 1987 and wats launched carly in 1988. The

film wan a silver award in the education/social

studies category at the New York World Film and

Television Festival. fr also won a gold award tor

camera work from the Australian Sociely of

Cinematographers. Singe the launch it has been

screened cominuously in the introductory area Lo

the planned exhibition. This was ithe Museum's

intended function for the film, with perhaps ihe

possibility of its use by the South Australian

Education Departrnent. The South Australian Film

Corparation, which holds the copyright of the film,

are trying 10 market it as widely as possible and

copies are presently available from the Film Corpor-

alion or through the South Australian Musturn

shop.

A number of accounts of the Ngurunderl Dream-

ing were recorded by anthropologists, missionaries

and other non-Aboriginal commentators including

Cawiharne, Tapha, Meyer, Smith, Berndt, and Tin-

dale. Most relate only to a small segment of the

Dreaming, usually focusing upon Neurunderi’s ex-

ploits in one particular area. Professor Ronald

Rerndt’s version (1940) js the most detailed pub-

lished accounl andl is upori this that the Museum's

film is mainly based. Dr Norman Tindale, the other

anthropologist to have worked extensively in the

urea, also collected lengthy accounts, but these are

yel to be tully published, His one brie! published

vecount (Tindale & Prerty 1978) differs in certain

details from that of Bernds. Both these anthro-

pologis(s worked with Aboriginal people from dif-

ferent groups in the region: Berndt's main souree

of information was Albert Karloan, an initiated

man of the Yaralde people; Tindale’s primary source

was Clarence Long. an initiated roan from the

Tangane people. This may be the reasan for the

variation in the two accounts. The peaple in each

Nearcindjeci group would have known in most

detail the section of the Newrunderi Dreaming thal

related to their awn region. This phenamenon still

exists today and those in the Ngarrindjeri com:

munity who have heard about Ngurunderi [rom the

old people usually know something of the section

which. relates to the areas associated with their

families,

In several of the published accounts, Ngurun:

deri’s epic journey appears to have staried in the

Darling Junction area of the River Murray and con-

tinued down the Murray to che Lakes. Some Neary

rindjeri people (oday see this as providing evidence

that Ngarrindjeri terntory, before the arrival at the

Europeans, stretched as far as the Darling region.

In Berndt's version, Ngurunderi chases the giafit

cod, punde, into Lake Alexandrina and with the

help of his brother-in-law Nepele, the cad is speared

and cul into many pieces. He changes each picee

into one of the present-day species of (reshwatet

fish inhabiting the area, George Trevorrow, a Ngar-

riodjeri man with a Coorong bavkground, knows

another version of this part of the Dreaming He

describes a different location for the culling up of

the cod and includes the creaian of saltwater lish

such as the mulloway, A combination of this and

Berndt’s version is used for this incident in the film.

Henry Rankine, another Nygarrindjeti man who

provided details not available in the Berndt version

al the Dreaming, has a connection through his

father with {he Lower Murray area and the northern

shores of Lake Alexandrina. He supplicd some

detail about Ngurunderi's use af smoke signals and

(his was also included in the filin.

According to Berndr’s account, Ngurunderi’s

journey continued from the Lakes area, down the

Coorony to Kingstoo. During this part of the

Dreaming, his runaway wives become a central

feature of the events, At Kingston, Nguranderi

fought with an evil sorcerer called Parampari. He

killed Parampari and burnt his body, which

changed into the Granites near Kingston, Ngurun-

deri then pursued his wives back towards (the

Murray mouth, crossed it and travelled around

Encounter Bay, Along this coust he created many

of the islands, including Granite Island. | have not

spoken with any Negarrindjeri people who know

details of the Encounter Bay section of the

Neurunder Dreaming. This is to be expected, given

the rapid occupation of this area by the British and

the itypact that this had on the culture of rhe local

Nearrindjeri group, the Ramindjeri. Ngurimnderi

caught up wilh his wives, wha had broken several

Nearrindjeri laws and drowned them by flooding

the land berween the mainland and Kangaroo Island

— their bodies became ‘The Pages’. He crossed

192 S.J. HEMMING

Backstairs Passage to Kangaroo Island where he

entered the spirit world. According to Ngarrindjeri

belief, Ngurunderi established many laws and when

someone dies the spirit follows Ngurunderi to

Kangaroo Island and from there into the spirit

world, Today Ngarrindjeri people still bury their

dead with the head facing towards Kangaroo Island

in the west, The association of this practice with

Negurunderi’s laws is now only becoming widely

known through the greater availability of the pub-

lished versions of the Ngurunderi Dreaming. It is

also due, though, to the activities of the South Aust-

ralian Museum, its exhibition and the inclusion of

this Dreaming story in new courses being developed

by the South Australian Education Department.

As previously mentioned, most of the available

accounts of the Ngurunderi story are fragmentary.

One of the earliest examples is provided by the

missionary H,A.E. Meyer (1846). Here ‘Nurrunduri’

is described as controlling the life of the moon, who

was a woman, When she becomes too thin he orders

her to be driven away to eat roots and so recuperate.

Meyer’s version of the cutting up of the cod and

the creation of the fish from the pieces varies con-

siderably from Berndt’s account. He says Pungn-

gane caught a ponde and divided it into pieces, each

becoming a cod. Strangely enough he threw them

into the sea, The association with saltwater is to

be expected here as Meyer’s informants were Ram-

indjeri people and therefore predominantly coastal

dwellers. Tindale (1935) says that Pungngane is the

equivalent of Nepele, Another early version of the

Dreaming story was recorded by W.A, Cawthorne

in the early days of British settlement and published

in 1926, Here ‘Ooroondovil’ (Cawthorne’s spelling)

is described as the ‘first great spirit’, who made the

land, when all that existed was water. This is very

different from Berndt’s account of the Dreaming

story in which Ngurunderi appears in the later

phase of the Dreaming, after the land, sea and other

basic forms have already been created. However,

there are some similarities and interestingly, Caw-

thorne says that after leaving Kangaroo Island,

Ooroondovil *. . . went on westward, where he still

lives, though by this time a very old man, and has

taught the Europeans the use of firearms, how to

make clothes, etc.’ (Cawthorne 1926: 26).

During research for the main exhibition and for

the film, I worked with a number of Ngarrindjeti

people who were at least partly familiar with the

Dreaming of Ngurunderi, All knew only fragments

of the detailed Dreaming story that must have once

existed. One interview | had with a non-Aboriginal,

former riverboat captain, Don Ledo, also provided

some interesting information. As a child he grew

up on the Murray and he spent much of his time

with Aboriginal friends. He remembers listening to

an old Aboriginal man telling, or rather acting out,

the Dreaming story of Ngurunderi. George Taplin,

the missionary who established Point McLeay settle-

ment, records in his diary a corroboree he witnessed

which incorporated song and dance and, as he dis-

covered, concerned Ngurunderi (Taplin 1873, 1879).

There would have been many such corroborees con-

cerning Ngurunderi. When I first asked Don Ledo

whether he knew anything about Ngurunderi, it

took him a few minutes to recognise my initial crude

attempt at pronunciation. However, he soon worked

out that I meant, ‘Ngoorroonderree’ (primary stress

on the first syllable, ‘oo’ as in ‘book’, and the ‘rr’

trilled), as he pronounced it. Of the several Ngar-

rindjeri people whom I have heard use the word

Negurunderi, most employ the same pronunciation

as Ledo. The Ngarrindjeri spoke several different

dialects and this probably accounts for some of the

variations. For instance, some Coorong people pro-

nounce the word with a ‘u’ sound as in ‘but’,

Initially, missionary George Taplin used the word

‘Ngurunderi’ as a convenient translation for God.

He wanted to use the local language and a modified

version of the Dreaming as a tool in the conversion

of the Ngarrindjeri to Christianity. However, he

soon discovered that Ngurunderi was responsible

for many customs with which he was loath to assoc-

iate his God. He subsequently set about dissuading

the use of Ngurunderi as the equivalent for his

concept of the Christian God. There are a number

of historical examples of his lack of success in this

endeavour and a few Ngarrindjeri people have con-

tinued to equate Ngurunderi with God. For

example, this is the philosophy of the Ngarrindjeri

church at Meningie, on Lake Albert. When consul-

tations regarding the making of the film were

started, | was told by various people including the

Chairman of Point McLeay, Henry Rankine, that

I would have to speak to Mrs Lola Sumner, as she

was one of the most important and knowledgeable

old people in the Ngarrindjeri community. She

approved of the idea of the Museum making a film

of the Ngurunderi Dreaming. She also pointed out

that Ngurunderi was the Ngarrindjeri way of saying

‘God’. Her pronunciation of the word was the same

as Ledo’s and it was on her authority that we used

it in the film. Mrs Sumner, who is now deceased,

was recognised in the Ngarrindjeri community for

her excellent knowledge of the language.

The main Ngarrindjeri contributors to the devel-

opment of the film’s script were Henry Rankine,

George Trevorrow, and Harvey Karpany. However,

most of the detail used was from Berndt’s version

which was recorded in the late 1920s and early 1930s

from information supplied by Ngarrindjeri people

such as Albert Karloan. It was decided early during

the film’s planning that, ideally, a Ngarrindjeri nar-

rator and Ngarrindjeri actors were required. Henry

Rankine was selected by the South Australian Film

NGURUNDERI 193

Corporation to be the narrator and the actors for

the film were chosen from the Point MeLeay and

Meningic Aboriginal communities, The selected

locations were as close as possible to the actual

places mentioned in the Dreaming. The actors were:

Henry Rankine jnr. (Ngurunderi), Maxwell Rankine

(Nepele), Fred Sumner (Paramipari), Susan Rankine

(Wife) and Margaret Rankine (Wife). IL was felt

necessary and ayreed upon by Ngarrindjeri people

that the actors be of a dark skin colouring for the

authenticity of the film. From the beginning i! was

also decided that identifiable facial shots should not

be used in the film, in an attempt to retain a mys-

tique about the identity of Ngurunderi.

For the film, we paid particular attention to detail

in the items of material culture used. We high-

lighted, as much possible, the differences between

the southern Australian Aboriginal cultures and

peoples and those of the desert and the north. The

baskets and mats used in the film were made by

Yvonne Kooimatrie, Ellen Trevorrow and Glenda

Rigney. These women have continued the Nearrind-

jeri basketry tradition in that ihe technique and

materials they use have not changed since at least

1836.

Prior to the final version of the film being

released a seminar was organised for the Ngarrind-

jeri community during which they could view the

film and comment on its development, The progress

of the exhibition itself was alsa discussed. About

two hundred Negarrindjeri people attended this

seminar and the response to the film was very

encouraging. The film has certainly been successful

in its role as an introduction to the Ngarrindjeri

exhibition and it will also have applications outside

the Museum in areas such as education and

tourism. Its production, however. required a

complicated series of consultations with members

of (he Ngarrindjeri community, particularly given

the Museurm’s inexperience in the area of film-

making. However, the finished product was worth

the effort, due in no small way to the sensitive

handling of the subject by Pepper Studios, Many

opportunities exist for similar films to be made in

the future and perhaps the education system should

be seeking funding for their production. In the final

analysis, however, the film ‘Ngurunderi’ illustrates

the value for museums, of a close, co-operative,

working relationship with the Aboriginal

community and the value of film as a medium for

effectively educating the wider Australian public

about Aboriginal culture.

ENDNOTE

1. When the British first arrived in South Australia, the

peoples of the Lower Murray were identified by a large

number of local clan and language-group designations,

Today most of the local peaple from this area identify

themselves as Ngarvindjeri people. The Ngarfindjeri com-

munity numbers several thousand people.and is spread

(throughout (he Murray River and south-east region of the

state.

REFERENCES

BERNDT, R.M. 1940. Some aspects of Jaralde Culture,

South Australia. Oveania 11: 164-168.

CAWTHORNE, W.A, 1926. Rough notes on the manners

and Customs of the Natives. R. Geog. Soc. Aussi. S.

Aust. Branch Proe, 27: \-3\.

MEYER, H.A, (846, ‘Manners and Customs of the

Aborigines of che Encounter Bay Tribe’. Allen,

Adelaide.

TAPLIN, G,

Adelaide.

1874. ‘The Narrinyeri, Govt Printer,

TAPLIN, G. 1879, ‘folklore, Manners, Customs and

Languages of the South Australian Aborigines’, Govt

Printer, Adelaide.

TINDALE, N.B. 1935. The Legend of Waijungari, Jaralde

Tribe, Lake Alexandrina, South Australia, and the

phonetic system employed jn its transcription. Rec. 8.

Aust. Mus, 5(3): 261-274.

TINDALE, NB. & PRETTY, GL. 1978. ‘Excursion

Guide. The Aboriginal Cultural Landscape of the Lower

Murray Valley. South Australian Museum, Adelaide

§), WEMMING, South Australian Museum, North ‘Verrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000,

Ree S$. Aust, Mus, 222): 19)-193, 1988.