CONTENTS

ANDERSON, C.

The Custodianship of Sacred Objects Project: an overview

AUSTIN, P.

The Karangura language

BRADLEY, J. J.

‘Li-Maramaranja’: Yanyuwa hunters of marine animals in the Sir Edward Pellew Group,

Northern Territory

GORDON, D. P. & PARKER, S. A.

A new genus of the bryozoan family Electridae, with a plectriform apparatus

GORDON, D. P. & PARKER, S. A.

Discovery and identity of 110-year-old Hutton Collection of South Australian Bryozoa

HERCUS, L. A.

Glimpses of the Karangura

HEWISH, D. R. & GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L.

Mollusc type specimens in the South Australian Museum. 4. Gastropoda: Marginellidae

HIRST, D. B.

Revision of the Australian genera Eodelena Hogg and Zachria L. Koch (Heteropodidae: Araneae)

LEE, D. C. & SUBIAS, L. S.

Brachioppiella species (Acari: Oribatida: Oppiidae) from South Australian soils

LING, J. K.

Obituary of W. Grant Inglis

PLEDGE, N. S.

Occurrences of Palorchestes species (Marsupialia: Palorchestidae) in South Australia

SHEA, G. M.

Revisionary notes on the genus Delma (Squamata: Pygopodidae) in South Australia and the

Northern Territory

SMITH, M. A., WILLIAMS, E. & WASSON, R. J.

The archaeology of the JSN site: some implications for the dynamics of human occupation in

the Strzelecki Desert during the late Pleistocene

SOUTHCOTT, R. V.

Redescription of the larva of Odontacarus (Leogonius) barrinensis (Womersley) (Acarina:

Trombiculidae: Leeuwenhoekiinae)

WILLIS, P. M. A. & MOLNAR, R. E.

A new middle Tertiary crocodile from Lake Palankarinna, South Australia

Volume 25(1) was published on 31 May 1991.

Volume 25(2) was published on 24 December 1991.

ISSN 0376-2750

PAGES

MW1-112

129-137

91-110

113-120

121-128

139-159

57-10

1-17

19-30

193-198

161-174

71-90

175-192

31-37

39-55

REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN GENERA EODELENA HOGG AND

ZACHRIA L. KOCH (HETEROPODIDAE: ARANEAE)

D. B. HIRST

Summary

The Australian genera Zachria L. Koch and Eodelena Hogg are revised. Zachria is here limited to

include only the type species, Z. flavicoma L. Koch and Z. oblonga L. Koch. Z. magnifica (Hogg) is

removed to Typostola Simon, in which genus it was originally described. Eodelena is revalidated

and removed from Zachria. E. spenceri Hogg, type species and E. melanochelis (Strnad) are

redescribed. Five new species, E. convexa, E. lapidicola, both from Western Australia, E.

kosciuskoensis from New South Wales, E. loftiensis from South Australia and E. tasmaniensis from

Tasmania are described. E. nigifrons is transferred to Delena Walckenaer.

REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN GENERA EODELENA HOGG AND ZACHRIA

L. KOCH (HETEROPODIDAE: ARANEAE)

D. B. HIRST

HIRST, D. B. 1991. Revision of the Australian genera Eodelena Hogg and Zachria L. Koch

(Heteropodidae: Araneae). Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 25(1): 1-17.

The Australian genera Zachria L. Koch and Eodelena Hogg are revised. Zachria is here limited

to include only the type species, Z. flavicoma L. Koch and Z. oblonga L. Koch. Z. magnifica

(Hogg) is removed to Typostola Simon, in which genus it was originally described. Eodelena

is revalidated and removed from Zachria. E. spenceri Hogg, type species, and E. melanochelis

(Strand) are redescribed. Five new species, E. convexa, E. lapidicola, both from Western Australia,

E. kosciuskoensis from New South Wales, E. loftiensis from South Australia and E. tasmaniensis

from Tasmania are described. E. nigrifrons Simon is transferred to Delena Walckenaer.

D. B. Hirst, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000. Manuscript

received 4 December 1989.

This paper is the fifth of a revision of the

Australian Heteropodidae, excluding Heteropoda

Latreille, 1804. As with other Australian genera of

the Heteropodidae, Zachria and Eodelena are

poorly defined, consequently confusion of the taxa

has arisen. Eodelena is further often confused with

the genus Delena.

L. Koch (1875) described a new genus, Zachria

for the species Z. flavicoma, Z. oblonga and Z.

haemorrhoidalis. Hogg (1902) synonymised the

latter with Z. oblonga. In the same work Hogg

described the new genus and species Eodelena

spenceri. Simon (1903) placed that genus in

synonymy with Zachria on the basis of similar male

palp structure. Later, Simon (1908) appeared to

reconsider its position when describing E.

nigrifrons. Bonnet (1959) remarked on this change

but left the genus in synonymy with Zachria. Strand

(1913) described Z. melanochelis while Hickman

(1967) commented on the description and habits of

E. spenceri under Zachria spenceri.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Larger body and leg measurements of types in

poor condition are given to the nearest 0.1 mm. Leg

ratios exclude coxa and trochanter. Redescriptions

of type material give the present colouration of the

specimen or, in the absence of any specimens, a

condensed translation of the author’s description

is given. Female vulva is occasionally inspected

without removal of the genitalia by dissecting and

lifting on one side and brushing away fatty tissue.

Other materials and methods are given in Hirst

(1989a, 1989b, 1990). Types of newly described

species are deposited in the Australian Museum,

Sydney (AM), the Museum of Victoria, Melbourne

(NMV), the South Australian Museum, Adelaide

(SAMA), the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery,

Hobart (TM) and the Western Australian Museum,

Perth (WAM). Other acronyms are BMNH, British

Museum (Natural History), London; QM,

Queensland Museum, Brisbane, and ZMH,

Zoologisches Museum, Hamburg.

Genus Zachria L. Koch

Zachria L. Koch, 1875: 649.

Diagnosis

Carapace longer than wide, low gently rounded

sides, flattish medially. Anterior eyes subequal,

AME closer to ALE than to each other. Sternum

longer than wide, widest mid-length. Anterior legs

three to three and a half times carapace length. All

metatarsi subequal in length to tibiae. Female

spermathecal sacs tubular, long, looped to anterior.

Male [known only from L. Koch (1876), see later]

with large palpal tibial apophysis and embolus

coiled one turn alongside similarly coiled broad

conductor in distal half of cymbium.

Description

Large spiders. Carapace longer than wide in the

ratio 17:14; raised at sides, flattish above; low, about

four and a half to five times longer than high,

highest in region of fovea. Fovea a discernible

shallow groove; surrounding area not depressed.

Setae short. AME equal or subequal to ALE;

distance between AME greater than between AME-

ALE; posterior row slightly recurved. Chelicerae

with two promarginal teeth; four retromarginal

teeth, subdistal tooth largest. Labium wider than

long in the ratio 7:6. Sternum longer than wide in

the ratio 3:2. Legs relatively short, anterior pairs

less than three to less than three and a half times

FIGURES 1-6. Zachria females. Figs 1-3, Z. flavicoma: 1, holotype epigynum; 2, epigynum and vulva of WAM

28/665, ventral; 3, vulva of WAM 28/665, dorsal. Figs 4-6, Z. oblonga: 4, holotype epigynum; 5, epigynum and

vulva of NMV K-0956, ventral; 6, vulva of NMV K-0956, dorsal. Scale line 0.5 mm.

FIGURE 7. Distribution of Zachria and Eodelena.

Z. flavicoma DQ) , Z. oblonga @ , E. spenceri @ , E. melanochelis W , E. tasmaniensis O , E kosciuskoensis Ves

E. loftiensis © , E. convexa @ , E. lapidicola & .

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 3

length of carapace [leg measurements of the male

Z. oblonga derived from L. Koch (1876) indicate

a length of less than four times carapace length

which is low for an Australian male heteropodid];

leg I, when outstretched alongside leg II, reaches

to or near tarsi Il. Abdomen much longer than

wide, rounded, without pattern, or with dark

median streak. Female epigynum with sclerotized

lateral rim; fossa deeply recessed anteriorly, whitish,

posteriorly with raised pigmented ridge.

Spermathecal sacs tubular, long, curved to anterior

and reaching to or beyond anterior of fossa.

Type species

Zachria flavicoma L. Koch, 1875 by original

designation.

Remarks

Zachria differs from other genera of the

Australasian subfamily Deleninae in having all

metatarsi subequal in length to the tibiae. In the

other genera it is more usual for either the anterior

metatarsi or the fourth metatarsi, or both, to be

longer than the relevant tibiae. Additionally, the

significantly longer than wide carapace separates

it from other genera except some Neosparassus.

Zachria further differs from Eodelena in having the

anterior eyes subequal with AME closer to ALE

than to each other and in the presence of

spermathecal sacs in the female vulva.

Zachria flavicoma L. Koch

(Figs 1, 2, 3; 7)

Zachria flavicoma L. Koch, 1875: 650, pl. 52, fig.

3. Holotype 9, King George Sound, Western

Australia, Bradley Collection. AM KSi8911, 9,

King George Sound, [35°03’S, 117°58’E, Western

Australia], agrees with the holotype in dimensions

and accompanying data and is considered to be that

specimen. It is believed to be part of the Bradley

collection which found its way to the Macleay

Museum of the University of Sydney, and is

presently in the Australian Museum collection.

Diagnosis

(Male unknown). Female anterior leg ratio less

than 3. Epigynum somewhat parallel-sided or

narrower anteriorly. Vulva with anteriorly curved

spermathecal sacs partly extending in front of fossa.

Female AM KS18911

CL 8.62, CW 6.95. AL 18.00, AW 9.90.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellowish-brown,

striae darker, fovea reddish, caput dark reddish in

ocular area. Setae brown. Chelicerae dark reddish.

Maxillae and labium dark orange-red. Sternum

orange-yellow. Legs dark yellow-brown, anterior

metatarsi and tarsi dark orange-brown, patches of

dark orange-brown on tibiae, metatarsi and tarsi.

Area around sockets of heavier setae on venter and

prolateral of femora dark coloured, giving spotted

appearance. Abdomen creamy-yellow without

pattern.

Carapace: Sides rounded, flattish medially, 5

times longer than high, lowest in ocular region,

relatively level from posterior of eyes to posterior

of fovea. Eyes: AME 0.52. AME: ALE: PME: PLE

= 1: 1.04: 0.54: 0.73. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.58,

AME-ALE 0.38, PME-PME 1.69, PME-PLE 1.65,

AME-PME 0.96, ALE-PLE 1.23. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.50: 2.77: 2.31. Width of clypeus to AME 0.29.

Labium: L 1.22, W 1.42. Sternum: L 4.38, W 2.90.

Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 2.7, II = 2.9.

Epigynum: (Fig. 1). Lateral rims of fossa

somewhat parallel; anterior of fossa recessed. Vulva

of WAM 28/665 (Figs 2, 3) with spermathecal sacs

moderately long and arced at anterior edge of fossa.

Variation

Carapace length of WAM 28/665 is 8.75.

Distribution and remarks

(Fig. 7). Z. flavicoma occurs in south-west

Western Australia. The male is unknown. The

female differs from Z. ob/onga in the relatively

shorter legs, the absence of markings on the

abdomen, shorter spermathecal sacs and the

insemination ducts with slightly reduced coiling.

Other material examined

Western Australia: Juv., Binnu, 28°02’S,

114°40’E, July 1965, M. deGraaf, WAM 88/1498;

Q, Mundaring, 31°54’S, 116°10’E, 3. vii. 1928, E.

Riley, WAM 28/665.

Zachria oblonga L. Koch

(Figs 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10)

Zachria oblonga L. Koch, 1875: 651, pl. 52, fig. 4.

Holotype 9, Sydney, New South Wales, ZMH

(Mus. Godeffroy Nr 11022), examined. A second

Q in NMV (K-0955), [where a small part of the

Godeffroy coll. is housed] not mentioned in Koch

(1875), also has the number 11022 but is without

further data.

Zachria haemorrhoidalis L. Koch, 1875: 653, pl. 52,

fig. 5. Hogg, 1902: 454. Syntypes, 2 juveniles,

Sydney, New South Wales, ZMH (Mus. Godeffroy

Nr 11021), not examined.

Diagnosis

Abdomen may have a dark narrow stripe dorsally.

Female anterior leg ratios between 3 and 3.5. Fossa

4 D. B. HIRST

FIGURES 8-17. Zachria and Eodelena; carapace, sternum, maxillae, labium and palp. Figs 8-10, Z. oblonga, NMV

K-0956: 8, carapace, dorsal; 9, carapace and chelicera, lateral; 10, sternum, labium and left maxilla. Figs 11-13, E

spenceri: 11, carapace, dorsal; 12, carapace, lateral; 13, sternum, labium and left maxilla. Fig. 14, E. convexa, carapace,

lateral. Figs 15-17, E. lapidicola: 15, carapace; 16, left palp of holotype male, prolateral; 17, sternum, labium and

left maxilla. Scale line Imm.

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 2)

broad, rounded anteriorly; spermathecal sacs long,

extending well to anterior of fossa; insemination

ducts coiled 1% times.

Holotype female

CL 9.75, CW 8.40. AL 15.50, AW 8.70.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellow-orange, caput

reddish. Chelicerae dark red-brown to blackish.

Maxillae and labium reddish. Sternum yellowish.

Legs yellow-brown, metatarsi and tarsi reddish.

Abdomen dark yellowish dorsally; venter yellow.

Carapace: gently rounded sides, somewhat

flattish medially, 42 times longer than high. Eyes:

AME 0.50. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1: 1.2: 0.7:

0.8. Interspaces AME-AME 0.8, AME-ALE 0.6,

PME-PME 1.8, PME-PLE 2.0, AME-PME 1, ALE-

PLE 1.4. MOQ, aw: pw: 1 = 2.8: 3.2: 2.8. Width

of clypeus to AME 0.6. Sternum: L 4.74, W 3.07.

Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 3.1, II = 3.5.

Epigynum: (Fig. 4). With broad thinly sclerotized

lateral sides. Fossa whitish allowing the long tubular

spermathecal sacs to be seen beneath. Vulva of

NMV K-0956 (Figs 5, 6) with insemination ducts

coiled 14 times.

Description of male modified from L. Koch (1876)

CL 8.0, CW 6.5. AL 9.0 AW ca 6.0 (not as broad

as carapace).

Colour in alcohol: Carapace brown-yellow, ocular

area with black-brown patches; adpressed setae

yellow, upright setae black. Chelicerae black-brown;

setae grey-yellow; black bristles. Maxillae and

labium pale reddish-brown. Sternum pale yellow;

setae concolourous. Abdomen dorsally with yellow

setae, deep blackish narrowing long. stripe,

anteriorly indistinct, posteriorly blackish and

reaching to spinnerets; venter pale yellow with white

setae forming stripes. Spinnerets brown-yellow;

black setae. Palps brown-yellow, cymbium black-

brown with grey-yellow setae. Leg femora brownish-

yellow, remaining segments (patellae to tarsi) light

reddish-brown; adpressed setae yellow, upright long

setae black; scopula blackish-grey.

Carapace: 0.15 mm longer than broad, low,

dorsally flat; fovea shallow, long but not reaching

posterior declivity. Eyes: both eye rows straight;

AME almost their diameter apart, AME-ALE also

almost width of AME apart, ALE as large as AME.

Legs: Anterior leg ratios (ca) | = 3.5, II = 3.7.

Palps: From the illustration given by L. Koch (pl.

73, fig. 3) the embolus appears to be narrow and

coiled once distally while the conductor is thick and

also coiled once distally. The palp resembles that

of Eodelena but the embolus and conductor extend

further proximally in the alveolus of the cymbium

and the tibial apophysis appears larger and more

robust.

Variation

Carapace length of females 8.12-9.15, mean 8.52

(n=4). While most specimens examined are without

pattern (partly due to age as the holotype is without

a median stripe, though this was clearly figured by

L. Koch, 1875) the abdomen of one specimen is with

a brown longitudinal median streak which is darker

in the posterior half.

Distribution and remarks

(Fig. 7). Known only from Sydney, New South

Wales. Females are separated from Z. flavicoma by

the relatively longer legs, the usual presence of a

dark dorsal stripe on the abdomen, fossa broader,

more rounded anteriorly, longer spermathecal sacs

and insemination ducts with slightly greater coiling.

L. Koch (1876, p. 850; pl. 73, fig. 3) described

and figured a male collected by Daemels from

Xanthorrhoea (grass-tree), Sydney. The institution

in which it was deposited was not given nor are its

whereabouts known. It is not a type. A redescription

modified from L. Koch is given above.

Other material examined

New South Wales: 9, Scouts Gully, Gordon,

Sydney, 19. xii. 1948, A. Musgrave, AM KS16609;

Q, Sydney, AM KS20788; 9, 1891, W. K., NMV

K-0956.

Species Transferred

Jarvi (1912) transferred Typostola magnifica

Hogg (1902) to Zachria on the similarity of the

female vulva. That combination is not supported

by the following characters: the carapace of 7.

magnifica is higher, ALE are larger than the AME

and legs are relatively longer with some metatarsi

longer than the relevant tibiae. Here Z. magnifica

is transferred back to Typostola Simon.

Genus Eodelena Hogg

Eodelena Hogg, 1902: 464. Simon, 1908: 435.

Zachria: Simon, 1903: 1024. Bonnet, 1959: 4907.

Diagnosis

Low flattish to slightly raised convex carapace,

usually wider than long, occasionally longer than

wide. AME largest, closer to each other than to

ALE. Anterior legs about four to five times

carapace length. Male embolus with tip barely

coiled once. Female epigynum small, weakly

sclerotized. Spermathecal sacs absent.

Description

Medium to large spiders; low flat carapace with

shallow, often indistinct fovea in circular depression

or with slightly convex carapace and fovea a long

6 D. B. HIRST

shallow groove. Anterior eye row straight, posterior

row straight to slightly procurved; AME largest,

PME smallest, laterals subequal. Clypeus half width

of AME or less. Chelicerae with two promarginal

teeth; three or four, rarely five, retromarginal teeth,

proximal tooth small, others subequal, subdistal

tooth usually larger. Labium 14 times wider than

long. Sternum truncate anteriorly, bluntly pointed

posteriorly; widest between coxae II at 4 its length

from anterior and barely longer than wide in the

ratio 5:4, except E. lapidicola in which it is longer

than wide and widest mid-length. Legs 2143. Leg

I, when outstretched alongside leg II, reaches mid-

way along metatarsus II. Dorsal tibial spines

usually lacking, patellae usually without spines

except retrolaterally on II. Tibiae ventrally with

three spine pairs except IV which often has two,

lacking the distal pair. Metatarsi IV without distal

lateral spines. Palp femur with two or three dorsal

and one prolateral spine, usually short, thin, except

E. lapidicola which lacks palpal femur spines. All

leg spines relatively short except metatarsi IV ventral

spines which are longer. Legs usually with long erect

setae but few adpressed setae. Scopula relatively

long, sparse, on all metatarsi and tarsi. Abdomen

may be flattened dorsoventrally, dorsal pattern

consists of dark spots, or blackish with pale spots.

Male cymbium may be with two or three prolateral

spines or stout long bristles. Male palpal tibia with

short retrolateral apophysis with small membranous

support. Embolus long; from its base arcing around

tegulum, running along prolateral side of cymbium

before looping near tip for almost one complete

turn. Conductor begins at prolateral side of tegulum

following route of embolus to support tip of

embolus. Embolic sclerite present with apex

attenuated or rounded. Female epigynum small;

well defined but weakly sclerotized lateral edges

overhanging whitish fossa; lacking setae medially

but with setae extending between sclerotized lateral

sides at anterior edge of fossa. Fossa recessed

anteriorly, whitish, posteriorly with pigmented

‘plateau’ formed by fusion of insemination duct

bases to fossa. Vulva with one to one and a half

insemination duct coils; spermathecal sacs absent.

Type species

Eodelena spenceri Hogg,

designation and monotypy.

1902 by original

Remarks

Eodelena is removed from Zachria as it differs

in the AME being larger than the ALE with the

AME closer to each other than to the ALE, the

carapace wider than long or at least not significantly

longer than wide, most metatarsi longer than the

tibiae and in the female by the absence of

spermathecal sacs. Eodelena is similar in

appearance to Delena from which it can be

separated by the latter having in the male a highly

coiled embolus and by the female having a larger

fossa containing numerous setae medially. E.

lapidicola is most similar to Delena in its large size,

in having the carapace longer than wide, the

sternum noticeably longer than wide and widest

mid-length (Fig. 17), and a lack of distal spines on

the palpal femur. It differs from De/ena in having

broader eye rows (Fig. 15), relatively shorter legs,

longer palpal femur, and more leg spines in addition

to the above genitalic differences.

Eodelena convexa is least likely to be confused

with Delena and other Eodelena species as it

possesses a convex carapace (Fig. 14) and more

spinose legs. As in E. lapidicola, E. convexa has the

carapace slightly longer than broad. The remaining

Eodelena species have the carapace wider than long

(Fig. 11) and with convexa, the sternum only slightly

longer than wide and widest about 4 from the

anterior edge (Fig. 13).

A key to the female Eodelena species is given but

with the exception of E. convexa and E. lapidicola,

care is required in their diagnosis as colour, size and

epigynum shape are very similar and variable. E.

kosciuskoensis and E. loftiensis differ from other

known females in the fertilization and insemination

duct coiling while E. loftiensis differs from E.

kosciuskoensis in the slightly higher carapace and

abdomen pattern. The female of E. tasmaniensis

is separated from those of E. melanochelis and E.

spenceri by the general darker colour and the

smaller epigynum with more compact insemination

duct coils and E. melanochelis differs from E.

spenceri in its smaller size and the narrower

epigynum.

KEY To THE SPECIES:OF EODELENA

Males

1” — Carapace widerthan long: 3... 0..c260. «0.0. Z

Carapace longer than wide........ Falun eters 5

2 — Embolic sclerite with attenuate or acute apex (Figs

DO S23) meee Cane Rete ere cn ame eee 3

— Embolic sclerite with rounded apex (Fig. 24)..

Suiits OU Bene ae eet ls a MME Ale an « 4

3 — Embolic sclerite narrow; apex attenuate (Fig. 20)

BOON pac at chs Sr eianesta +4 a eee Sag ee spenceri Hogg

— Embolic sclerite broad, short bluntly pointed apex

(ica 23 hee eer te melanochelis (Strand)

4 — Carapace convex but low, abdomen with scattered

blackish spots. Embolic base large, angular

retrolaterally (Fig. 26); embolic sclerite small. .

Specs 2th Gata uc eat IRE tea loftiensis sp. nov.

— Carapace flattish, abdomen with numerous

blackish spots. Embolic base rounded

retrolaterally; embolic sclerite relatively large (Fig.

PEWS Si ies eae ome tasmaniensis sp. nov.

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 7

FIGURES 18-25. Left palpal tibia and tarsus, and embolic sclerite of male Eodelena. Figs 18-20, E. spenceri, holotype:

18, ventral; 19, retrolateral; 20, embolic sclerite. Figs 21-23, E. melanochelis, SAMA N1989589: 21, ventral; 22, retrolateral;

23, embolic sclerite. Figs 24-25, E. tasmaniensis, holotype: 24, ventral; 25, retrolateral. Scale line 0.5 mm except 20

and 23, 0.25 mm.

8 D. B. HIRST

5 — Carapace convex, 4-6 mm long. Palpal femur with

distal spines; palpal tarsus 2x longer than tibia,

without prolateral spines... .. convexa sp. nov.

— Carapace flat, 8-12 mm long. Palpal femur without

distal spines; palpal tarsus subequal in length to

tibia, with prolateral spines (Fig. 16).........

Be ore erica eer era eee lapidicola sp. nov.

Females

1 — Carapace wider than long, usually less than 8 mm

OWS eer eNe etd echo acne 8 Noe Pel ees ee 2

— Carapace longer than wide, 8-12 mm long....

al ae ee A chutes ech cece lapidicola sp. nov.

2 — Fertilization ducts not enlarged to form coil,

insemination ducts thin, membranous (Fig. 41)

CRIES GR GEN en AE SUR g SRR. Sr aie 3

— Fertilization ducts enlarged to form robust coil,

insemination ducts partly or wholly sclerotized

CO Sn aa” 9) a Lac en eI aA Pe oi la hd 5

3 — Abdomen yellowish with patches of dark suffusion

Weel wiccanatarcth arabes: sre level se lemceabe feuaranore ac Bioeseteebare weeds 4

Bae an Ania rinen rd tasmaniensis sp. nov.

4 — Epigynum broad, sides parallel anteriorly (Fig. 40)

Pee Gc cr st losyve tee Paes spenceri Hogg

— Epigynum narrow, sides incurved anteriorly (Fig.

AD) ogc, sorts nat eteyen see melanochelis (Strand)

5 — Carapace flattish, abdomen with dark suffusion

Rega Corea Ss oe sf oaae kosciuskoensis sp. nov.

— Carapace slightly convex, abdomen spotted... .

che SPM P rr hatha i sy ee Te nr a loftiensis sp. nov.

Eodelena spenceri Hogg

(Figs 7, 11, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 33, 39, 40, 41)

Eodelena spenceri Hogg, 1902: 464, fig. 104.

Syntypes, o& and immature 9, King Island

[39°55’S, 144°00’E], Bass Strait, Australia, 1888,

Professor Baldwin Spencer, BMNH 1888.144,

examined.

Zachria spenceri: Simon, 1903: 1024.

Diagnosis

Male with relatively narrow embolic sclerite with

apex long, attenuated. Female epigynum relatively

parallel-sided anteriorly and as broad as long.

Syntype male

CL 5.90, CW 6.10. AL 6.70, AW 5.05.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellow-brown, striae

brown but may be an artefact of preservation, caput

yellowish with reddish lateral margins and ocular

area. Chelicerae reddish; sparse long yellow-brown

setae. Maxillae and labium orange-red. Sternum

yellow; setae yellow-white. Coxae yellowish. Legs

yellow-brown; femora yellowish ventrally, anterior

tibiae and metatarsi orange-brown. Palpal tarsi

orange-brown. Abdomen yellow-brown with brown-

black suffusion forming spots.

Carapace: 6 to 7 times longer than high, highest

posterior to fovea. Fovea indistinct in shallow

depression. Chelicerae: retromarginal teeth 4. Eyes:

AME 0.38. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1: 0.79: 0.63:

0.84. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.82, AME-ALE 1.26,

PME-PME 2.21, PME-PLE 1.95, AME-PME 0.79,

ALE-PLE 0.84. MOQ, aw: pw: 1 = 2.82: 3.47: 2.53.

Width of clypeus to AME 0.32. Labium: L 0.91,

W 1.31. Sternum: L 3.19, W 3.18. Legs: anterior leg

ratios I = 4.7, I] = 5.9. Upright setae sparse.

Palps: (Figs 18, 19). Embolic sclerite relatively

narrow with long attenuate apex (Fig. 20).

Female TM J145 (as male except as follows)

CL 6.89, CW 7.14. AL 10.25, AW 7.20.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellowish, striae

reddish, ocular area and lateral margins of caput

reddish. Chelicerae dark reddish-brown; setae

yellow-brown. Maxillae and labium orange-red.

Sternum yellow, margins reddish. Leg coxae and

femora yellowish, anterior metatarsi and _ tarsi

orange-red. Palps orange-red. Abdomen (Fig. 33)

yellow-brown with anterior yellow streak, blackish

suffusion forming spots; venter yellow, blackish

suffusion medially.

Eyes: AME 0.41. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.78: 0.63: 0.73. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.83,

AME-ALE 1.37, PME-PME 2.29, PME-PLE 2.07,

AME-PME 0.83, ALE-PLE 0.95. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.83: 3.56: 2.46. Width of clypeus to AME 0.27.

Labium: L 0.96, W 1.58. Sternum: L 3.67, W 3.47.

Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 4.1, II = 5.1.

Epigynum: (Fig. 41). Narrow anteriorly, broadest

medially.

Variation

Carapace length of males 5.02-9.37, mean 6.99

(n=8). The embolic sclerite may have much of the

attenuate apex broken off or rounded, but along

with the sclerite shape, remains distinct from E.

melanochelis. Carapace length of females 5.78-8.50,

mean 7.50 (n=5). The usual form of the epigynum

(Figs 39, 40) is broader anteriorly but is somewhat

variable and occasionally may be similar to E.

melanochelis in having the lateral sides curving

inwards anteriorly (Fig. 41) rather than being

parallel. The vulva has 12 insemination duct coils.

Distribution

(Fig. 7). King Island, Bass Strait and northern

and eastern Tasmania.

Other material examined

Tasmania: 9, Blackmans Bay, 42°52’S,

147°51’E, 1924, SAMA N1989573; penult. o”, same

data, SAMA N1989574; o, Hermit Camp,

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 9

FIGURES 26-32. Left palpal tibia and tarsus, and embolic sclerite of male Eodelena. Figs 26-27, E. loftiensis, holotype:

26, ventral; 27, retrolateral. Figs 28-30, E. convexa, holotype: 28, ventral; 29, retrolateral; 30, embolic sclerite. Figs

31-32, E. lapidicola, holotype: 31, ventral; 32, retrolateral. Scale line 0.5 mm except 30, 0.25 mm.

10 D. B. HIRST

(?Hermit Valley = 42°51’S, 146°09’E), 19. iii.

1972, H.D. B., A.P. A., TM J790; 4 oo, Islands,

Bass Strait, Dec. 1908, J. A. Kershaw, NMV; 3 9 9,

King Island, 39°55’S, 144°00’E, Dec. 1906, J. A.

Kershaw, NMV K-0957; o’, Lake St Clair, 42°04’S,

146°10’E, Oct. 1937, A. W. G. Powell, TM J278;

juv., Taroona, 42°57’S, 147°20’E, 15. ii. 1978, J.

Parrott, TM J1296; 0, 9, Trevallyn, Launceston,

41°27’S, 147°10’E, V. V. Hickman, TM J145.

Further material of 1 9, 2 oo, 1 juv., labelled

Adelaide, Jan. 1924, Cameron W, SAMA

N1989575-8, is also considered to be from

Tasmania. The locality ‘Adelaide’ is typed on a

separate label while the hand written label with date

and collector is similar to that of the Blackmans

Bay specimens (also dated 1924).

Eodelena melanochelis (Strand) comb. nov.

(Figs 7, 21, 22, 23, 34, 42, 43)

Zachria melanochelis Strand, 1913: 204. Holotype

9, Victoria. H. and A. Eberhard. Whereabouts

unknown.

Diagnosis

Male embolic sclerite broad with a short, bluntly

pointed apex. Female epigynum relatively long and

narrow.

Male SAMA N1989589

CL 7.42, CW 7.71. AL 7.65, AW 5.20.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace creamy-yellow, caput

reddish on lateral margins and around posterior eye

row; Clypeus and around anterior eye row dark red-

brown. Chelicerae black. Maxillae and labium

reddish. Sternum yellow. Coxae and basal half of

femora creamy-yellow, remainder of leg segments

orange-yellow, darker on metatarsi and tarsi.

Abdomen yellow-brown with blackish suffusion

forming spots. Venter with median pale yellow area

with blackish suffusion.

Carapace: Low; sides gently sloping, flattish

medially, 6 to 7 times longer than high, highest

posterior to fovea. Fovea in shallow depression.

Eyes: AME 0.46. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.78: 0.61: 0.78. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.70,

AME-ALE 1.26, PME-PME 2.22, PME-PLE 2.06,

AME-PME 0.67, ALE-PLE 0.85. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.70: 3.43: 2.13. Width of clypeus to AME 0.19.

Labium: L 1.02, W 1.45. Sternum: L 3.98, W 3.59.

Broadest % length from anterior. Legs: anterior leg

ratios I = 4.4, II = 5.4. Upright setae sparse.

Palps: (Figs 21, 22). Embolic sclerite broad with

short bluntly pointed apex (Fig. 23).

Female SAMA N1989592 (as male except as follows)

CL 6.70, CW 7.20. AL 10.45, AW 7.30.

Colour in alcohol: Caput with orange-red lateral

margins and around ocular area; orange-red

suffusion medially, dark red-brown between ALE-

PLE and between AME. All eyes with blackish

rims. Chelicerae glossy blue-black. Maxillae and

labium orange-red, maxillae with dark brown

prolateral patch. Sternum creamy-yellow. Abdomen

(Fig. 34).

Eyes: AME 0.40. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.88: 0.70: 0.90. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.93,

AME-ALE 1.38, PME-PME 2.18, PME-PLE 2.20,

AME-PME 0.85, ALE-PLE 0.90. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.93: 3.58: 2.40. Width of clypeus to AME 0.33.

Labium: L 1.00, W 1.58. Sternum: L 3.79, W 3.51.

Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 4.0, II = 4.8.

Epigynum: (Figs 42, 43). Broader in anterior half;

posterior ‘plateau’ long with procurved anterior

edge. Vulva with a little over one complete coil of

the insemination duct.

Variation

Carapace lengths of males 5.66-7.42, mean 6.45

(n=5). Carapace lengths of females 5.34-6.90, mean

6.16 (n=7). One female from Icy Creek with much

darker abdomen more similar in pattern to E.

tasmaniensis.

Distribution and remarks

(Fig. 7). Occurs in southern Victoria to the alpine

area of Mt Buffalo. E. melanochelis is very common

in the Dandenong Ranges where it is found in

lengths of tightly rolled bark hanging from

Eucalyptus or from the undergrowth beneath

Eucalyptus. The male differs from E. spenceri in

the relatively shorter,and broader embolic sclerite

with short pointed apex and the female by the

smaller size and narrower epigynum with lateral

sides curved inwards anteriorly.

The redescription is from recently collected

material which is considered to have come from

near the type locality. Although the collectors of

the type material were from Melbourne, a specimen

of Lampona obscoena L. Koch from Gippsland,

Victoria, was mentioned in the same paper. It may

be assumed that the types of melanochelis came

from within those areas.

Material examined

Victoria: 9, Belgrave, 37°55’S, 145°21’E, 12. vi.

1989, D. Hirst, SAMA N1989592; 9, same data,

SAMA N1989593; 9, Blackwood, 37°29’S,

144°19’E, 26. vi. 1980, H. Parnaby, AM KS19695;

Q, juv., same locality, 10. x. 1977, H. Parnaby, AM

KS19287; 9 and spiderling, Emerald, 37°56’S,

145°27’E, 12. vi. 1989, D. Hirst, SAMA

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 11

N1989594-5; 1 o, 2 99, 4 km NE Icy Creek,

37°51’S, 146°07’E, 11. vi. 1989, D. Hirst, SAMA

N1989589-91; juv. Macclesfield district, ca 37°54’S,

145°30’E, Aug. 1904, E. J., NMV; 2 oo", camping

area, Lake Catani, Mt Buffalo, 36°44’S, 146°49’E,

21. ii. 1979, H. Parnaby, AM KS19288; o”, Pirron

Yallock, 38°21’S, 143°24’E, 19. vi. 1989, D. Hirst,

SAMA N1989588; ©", no data, AM KS19289.

Eodelena tasmaniensis sp. nov.

(Figs 7, 24, 25, 35, 44, 45)

Types

Holotype: o, Olga Valley, 42°43’S, 145°46’E,

(HEC transect 2L.6445), south-west Tasmania, 20.

i. 1977, C. Howard and G. Johnston, TM J1486.

Allotype: 9, Wedge River, Gordon Road (ca

42°45'S, 146°12’E) south-west Tasmania, 21. iii.

1972, A.P. A. and H.D. B., TM J789.

Paratypes: 0’, Junction Creek, W. Arthur Plains,

43°07'S, 146°18’E, 8. ii. 1966, Neboiss, NMV

K-0915; 9, same data, NMV K-0916.

Diagnosis

Abdomen blackish with small yellowish spots.

Male embolic sclerite with broad rounded apex.

Female epigynum horse-shoe shaped in anterior

half.

Holotype male

CL 5.25, CW 5.26. AL 6.10, AW 4.40.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace orange-red with

brown suffusion on lateral edges, striae and ocular

area; numerous short dark brown setae around

fovea. Chelicerae dark red-brown to blackish.

Maxillae and labium orange-brown. Sternum

yellowish. Legs yellow proximally; orange-red on

femora distally and to tarsi. Abdomen dorsally with

pale areas largely obscured by dark pigment. Venter

dark with pale bordered median area containing

dark pigment. .

Carapace: Flattish, 6.5 to 7 times longer than

high, highest posterior to fovea. Fovea indistinct in

shallow depression. Eyes: AME 0.38. AME: ALE:

PME: PLE = 1: 0.79: 0.58: 0.68. Interspaces: AME-

AME 0.68, AME-ALE 0.97, PME-PME 1.79, PME-

PLE 1.63, AME-PME 0.66, ALE-PLE 0.74. MOQ,

aw: pw: 1 = 2.58: 3.00: 2.05. Width of clypeus to

AME 0.21. Labium: L 0.70, W 1.12. Sternum: L

2.80, W 2.62. Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 4.2, II

= 5.2.

Palps: (Figs 24, 25). Palpal tibial apophysis

relatively longer than in preceding species. Embolic

sclerite with broadly rounded apex. Embolus

relatively short, distally with less than a % turn.

Allotype female (as holotype except as follows)

CL 6.32, CW 6.29. AL 9.24, AW 6.30.

Colour in alcohol: Abdomen (Fig. 35).

Eyes: AME 0.40. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.80: 0.65: 0.75. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.85,

AME-ALE 1.40, PME-PME 2.35, PME-PLE 1.95,

AME-PME 0.75, ALE-PLE 1.00. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.85: 3.65: 2.35. Width of clypeus to AME 0.3.

Labium: L 0.86, W 1.38. Sternum: L 3.17, W 3.06.

Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 3.7, II = 4.6.

Epigynum: (Fig. 44). Small, somewhat rounded

in anterior half.

Variation

Carapace length of males 4.41-7.03, mean 5.72

(n=2). Carapace length of females 5.91-7.25, mean

6.52 (n=3). Vulva of paratype NMV K-0916 (Fig.

45) with small compact insemination ducts.

Distribution and remarks

Known only from south-western Tasmania (Fig.

7). While the much darker general colour separates

this species from the only other known Tasmanian

species, E. spenceri, specimens of E. kosciuskoensis

from the southern alpine area of NSW are also of

comparable dark colouring but differ from E.

tasmaniensis in the robust fertilization ducts. E.

tasmaniensis differs from E. spenceri in the broad,

rounded embolic sclerite in the male and the

relatively small, rounded fossa of the female.

Other material examined

Tasmania: ©’, penult. 0’, 3 juv., Franklin River

area, 42°27'25"S, 145°43'45”E, 14. i. 1983,

ANZSES Exped., QM S14146; 9, juv., same

locality, Jan., 1983, ANZSES Exped., QM S14147;

penult. o”, Maatsuyker Island, 43°39’S, 146°16’E,

10. xi. 1970, P. Rawlinson, TM J712; 9, Picton area

(ca 43°10’S, 146°40’B), 27. xi. 1962, C. McCubbin,

NMYV; juv., same data as allotype, TM J789.

Etymology

The name reflects its known distribution as being

endemic to Tasmania.

Eodelena kosciuskoensis sp. nov.

(Figs 7, 48, 49)

Type

Holotype: 9, inside curled shed ribbon bark of

eucalypt, on ground, 12 km S Thredbo (36°30’S,

148°19’E), Grid 147 476 on 1:100,000, New South

Wales, 31. xii. 1983, H. Parnaby, AM KS19286.

Diagnosis

(Male unknown). Carapace flattish. Abdomen

D. B. HIRST

I Q

1 Wf WA ‘

nie HT, «

‘ |

‘ ( 4

ry ® ; a . F

Ny se ‘

wea ie quer”

aN : C v ¥!

We |

FIGURES 33-38. Eodelena abdomens, dorsal pattern. 33, E. spenceri, TM J145, female; 34, E. melanochelis, SAMA

N1989593, female; 35, E. tasmaniensis, allotype female; 36, E. /oftiensis, allotype female; 37, E. convexa, holotype

male; 38, E. /apidicola, allotype female. Scale line 1 mm.

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 13

dark coloured. Female with robust fertilization

ducts and small sclerotized insemination duct coils.

Female

CL 5.18, CW 5.77. (Abdomen damaged) AL ca

7.0, AW ca 5.0.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellow-brown,

margins of caput orange-brown, ocular area and

clypeus with dark brown suffusion; setae brown.

Chelicerae brown-black. Maxillae and labium

orange-brown. Sternum yellow with orangish

margins; sparse greyish setae. Coxae yellow; grey

setae. Leg femora yellowish; patellae to tarsi orange-

brown. Abdomen with epidermis partly lifted,

yellow-brown with blackish suffusion.

Eyes: AME 0.35. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.71: 0.6: 0.74. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.74, AME-

ALE 1.14, PME-PME 2.11, PME-PLE 1.89, AME-

PME 0.86, ALE-PLE 0.91. MOQ, aw: pw: 1 = 2.74:

3.31: 2.46. Width of clypeus to AME 0.29. Labium:

L 0.79, W 1.25. Sternum: L 3.02, W 2.84. Legs:

anterior leg ratios I = 4.5, II = 5.6.

Epigynum: Rounded in anterior half, slightly

narrowing towards posterior (Fig. 48). Fertilization

ducts robust and heavily sclerotized (Fig. 49).

Distribution and remarks

(Fig. 7). Known only from within the Kosciusko

National Park, New South Wales, hence the specific

epithet. The holotype female is damaged and the

abdomen pattern partly destroyed by lifting of the

epidermis. Two juveniles from Tumut Reservoir have

even darker abdomens. E. kosciuskoensis differs

from E. loftiensis in the smaller, robust fertilization

ducts and insemination ducts, the flatter carapace

and darker abdomen pattern.

Other material examined

New South Wales: 2 juv., Tumut Reservoir,

35°58’S, 148°25’E, 22. v. 1988, D. Hirst, SAMA

N1989596-7.

Eodelena loftiensis sp. nov.

(Figs 7, 26, 27, 36, 46, 47)

Types

Holotype: o’, in rolled bark, Loftia Park,

35°02’S, 138°42’E, Mount Lofty Ranges, South

Australia, 14. ix. 1989, J. A. Forrest, SAMA

N1989579.

Allotype: 9, same data as holotype, but L. N.

Nicolson, SAMA N1989580.

Paratypes: 9, same data as holotype, but D.

Hirst, SAMA NI1989582; 9, under bark of

Eucalyptus, Loftia Park, South Australia, 25. iii.

1984, R. V. Southcott, SAMA N1989581; o, Loftia

Park, in rolled bark with immature female, 27. iii.

1990, D. Hirst, SAMA N1989616.

Diagnosis

Carapace low, slightly convex. Abdomen pale

with numerous small blackish spots. Male embolic

base large, angular retrolaterally; embolic sclerite

small, apex bluntly extended and rounded. Female

with small insemination ducts coiled one and a half

times and enlarged fertilization ducts coiled once.

Holotype male

CL 3.34, CW 3.59. AL 4.19, AW 2.68.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace creamy-yellow;

brown suffusion on lateral sides; caput with yellow

lateral margins, clypeus and ocular area orangish;

dark brown in median ocular quadrangle.

Chelicerae dark red-brown. Labium orange,

maxillae yellow with orange patch prolaterally.

Sternum yellowish. Coxae and femora proximally

creamy, remainder of legs orange-red but tarsi

yellow-brown. Abdomen pale yellow-brown with

spots formed by dark setae and pigment, yellowish

anterior streak; venter yellow-brown.

Carapace: Low convex, 5 times longer than high,

highest posterior to fovea. Fovea indistinct in

shallow depression. Setae relatively long. Eyes:

AME 0.25. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1: 0.8: 0.72:

0.83. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.76, AME-ALE

0.78, PME-PME 1.84, PME-PLE 1.64, AME-PME

0.79, ALE-PLE 0.92. MOQ, aw: pw: 1 = 2.76: 3.28:

2.44. Width of clypeus to AME 0.36. Chelicerae:

retromargin with 3 subequal teeth. Labium: L 0.45,

W 0.82. Sternum: L 1.82, W 1.92. Legs: anterior

leg ratios I = 4.8, II = 7.6.

Palps: (Figs 26, 27). Tibial apophysis long, thin,

slightly curved. Embolic base large retrolaterally,

embolic sclerite with rounded apex.

Allotype female (as holotype except as follows)

CL 5.02, CW 5.18. AL 10.50, AW 6.92.

Colour in alcohol: Chelicerae blackish, shiny.

Maxillae orangish; brown prolateral patch. Sternum

creamy-yellow. Metatarsi reddish. Abdomen (Fig.

36).

Eyes: AME 0.36. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = I:

0.75: 0.67: 0.72. Interspaces:s AME-AME 0.72,

AME-ALE 1.06, PME-PME 1.94, PME-PLE 2.03,

AME-PME 0.69, ALE-PLE 1.06. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.72: 3.28: 2.28. Width of clypeus to AME 0.17.

Chelicerae: left chelicera with 4 teeth, basal minute,

others subequal. Labium: L 0.71, W 1.19. Sternum:

L 2.61, W 2.52. Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 4.2,

II = 5.2. Upright setae more numerous than in the

male.

Epigynum: (Figs 46, 47). Relatively shorter and

broader than other species, somewhat parallel sided.

Vulva with small insemination ducts coiled 112

14 D. B. HIRST

FIGURES 39-51. Eodelena female epigyna and vulvae, cleared. Figs 39-41, E. spenceri: 39, epigynum and vulva

of NMV K-0957, ventral; 40, vulva of NMV K-0957, dorsal; 41, epigynum of TM J145. Figs 42-43, E. melanochelis,

SAMA N1989592: 42, epigynum and vulva, ventral; 43, vulva, dorsal. Figs 44-45, E. tasmaniensis, paratype NMVV

K-0916: 44, epigynum and vulva, ventral; 45, vulva, dorsal. Figs 46-47, E. loftiensis, paratype SAMA N1989581: 46,

epigynum and vulva, ventral; 47, vulva, dorsal. Figs 48-49, E. kosciuskoensis, holotype: 48, epigynum and vulva,

ventral; 49, vulva, dorsal. Figs 50-51, E. lapidicola, paratype WAM 88/1979: 50, epigynum and vulva, ventral; 51,

vulva, dorsal. Scale line 0.5 mm. id, insemination duct; fd, fertilization duct.

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 15

times and enlarged fertilization ducts with one coil,

together appearing as being continuously coiled 2%

times.

Variation

Carapace length of paratype male 3.56. Carapace

length of females 4.40-5.46, mean 4.78 (n=7).

Distribution and remarks

E. loftiensis is considered to be restricted to the

high rainfall areas of the Mount Lofty Ranges in

South Australia (Fig. 7). The specific epithet refers

to the type locality, Loftia Park. Two females were

collected with egg-sacs, one subsequently being

destroyed. Eggs are loosely held in place against the

substrate by a thin covering of silk from which they

are easily dislodged. Differs from other species in

the male having the embolic base enlarged

retrolaterally, angular in shape, and the female

having enlarged fertilization ducts.

Other material examined

South Australia: 5 9 9, Loftia Park, 21. ix. 1989,

D. Hirst, N. Nicolson, C. Bonnielle, SAMA

N1989583-7; penult. o, same data, SAMA

N1990714.

Eodelena convexa sp. nov.

(Figs 7, 14, 28, 29, 30, 37)

Types

Holotype: o', Wanneroo, 31°45’S, 115°48’E,

Western Australia, 23. iii. 1979, E. Bruen, WAM

86/681.

Paratypes: o', Dianella, 34°12’S, 115°04’E,

Western Australia, 25. iii. 1976, A. Harding, WAM

88/1644; o, Gomm Spring, 34°09’S, 115°24’E, 28

km E by N of Karridale, Western Australia, 24. iv.

1983, E. S. Nielsen, E. D. Edwards, ANIC; o,

Jandakot, Perth, Western Australia, Mar. 1977,

R. P. McMillan, WAM 88/2136.

Diagnosis

(Female unknown). Carapace low convex; width

subequal to length. Abdomen pale with faint

pattern, embolic base rounded, embolic sclerite

small.

Holotype male

CL 4.50, CW 4.45. AL 6.20, AW 4.10.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellow, caput darker,

clypeus and ocular area reddish, dark brown

pigment around eyes. Chelicerae dark reddish,

darker near fang base. Maxillae and labium yellow-

brown. Sternum yellow. Legs yellowish proximally;

metatarsi and tarsi yellow-orange. Palps yellow-

brown. Abdomen (Fig. 37) dorsally yellowish with

faint reddish-brown markings; venter pale yellow.

Spinnerets yellow-brown.

Carapace: Low convex, about 4 times longer than

high, highest medially. Fovea a long shallow groove.

Eyes: AME 0.34. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.76: 0.76: 0.76. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.65,

AME-ALE 0.70, PME-PME 1.53, PME-PLE 1.53,

AME-PME 1.00, ALE-PLE 0.76. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.59: 3.06: 2.35. Width of clypeus to AME 0.47.

Labium: L 0.59, W 0.94. Sternum: L 2.34, W 2.26.

Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 4.8, II = 5.5.

Palps: (Figs 28, 29). Palpal tibial apophysis

positioned more dorsally, broader at base with an

acutely pointed apex. Embolic base high, rounded.

Embolic sclerite small; apex rounded with crenulate

appearance (Fig. 30).

Variation

Carapace length of paratype males 4.69, 4.85 and

5.45. The apex of the embolic sclerite may have a

smooth rounded appearance rather than crenulate,

due to a more even distribution of pigment.

Distribution and remarks

(Fig. 7). Known only from the male, this species

is found in south-west Western Australia. Differs

from all other species by the pale abdomen with

faint pattern and from the other known Western

Australian species, E. /apidicola, by the convex

carapace, smaller size, and the relative lengths and

spination of palp segments. E. convexa is most

similar to the male of E. loftiensis but the latter has

the carapace wider than long and a retrolaterally

angular embolic base. From the similar carapace

shape and somewhat similar embolic base of E.

convexa.and E. loftiensis it is plausible to assume

the female of convexa will also have a robust

sclerotized vulva and the two species above, along

with E. kosciuskoensis, may be originally derived

from a single species which enjoyed a continuous

southern distribution before becoming separated as

a result of climatic changes.

Etymology

The specific epithet is in reference to the

obviously convex carapace.

Material examined

Only the types.

Eodelena lapidicola sp. nov.

(Figs 7, 15, 16, 17, 31,732; 38; 50, 51)

Types

Holotype: o, Yallingup, 33°39’S, 115°02’E,

Western Australia, 18. ii. 1974, L. E. Koch, WAM

88/1584.

16 D. B. HIRST

Allotype: 9, Bremer Bay, 34°26’S, 119°23’E,

Western Australia, June 1976, WAM 88/1499.

Paratypes: 9, Salisbury Island, 34°22’S,

123°33’E, Recherche Archipelago, Western

Australia, 17. iv. 1982, Burbidge and Fuller, WAM

88/1979; o, same data, WAM 88/1980.

Diagnosis

Distal spines on an unusually long palpal femur

absent. Maxillae narrower in anterior half and

sternum widest at mid-length. Male with palpal

tarsus subequal in length to tibia. Female epigynum

relatively broad and long with posterior ‘plateau’

short.

Holotype male

CL 11.67, CW 11.31. AL 13.50, AW 8.55.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellowish, caput

margins and ocular area reddish; reddish suffusion.

Chelicerae blackish; long yellowish setae. Maxillae

and labium orange-red. Sternum yellow, margins

reddish. Leg coxae and femora yellow; patellae to

tarsi yellow-orange. Palps orange-red. Abdomen

yellow-brown with blackish suffusion and brown

setae forming pattern; venter pale yellow with

orangish setae.

Carapace: Flattened, 11 times longer than high,

highest in ocular region. Fovea indistinct in large

depression. Eyes: AME 0.53. AME: ALE: PME:

PLE = 1: 0.87: 0.64: 0.83. Interspaces: AME-AME

1.02, AME-ALE 2.04, PME-PME 2.87, PME-PLE

3.04, AME-PME 0.79, ALE-PLE 1.21. MOQ, aw:

pw: 1 = 3.02: 4.15: 2.38. Width of clypeus to AME

0.38. Chelicerae: retromarginal teeth 4, distal well

spaced from subdistal tooth. Labium: L 2.08, W

2.28. Sternum: L 6.26, W 4.91. Legs: anterior leg

ratios I = 3.9, II = 4.7.

Palps: (Figs 31, 32). Palpal tarsus subequal in

length to tibia (Fig. 16) with 3 prolateral spines.

Embolic sclerite short; rounded apex not extending

to prolateral side.

Allotype female (as holotype except as follows)

CL 11.48, CW 11.22. AL 14.00, AW 8.70.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace yellow, caput with

reddish ocular area and lateral margins. Chelicerae

dark red-brown. Maxillae reddish but with yellowish

patch posteriorly. Abdomen (Fig. 38).

Eyes: AME 0.54. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.89: 0.54: 0.78. Interspaces: AME-AME 0.91,

AME-ALE 1.93, PME-PME 2.85, PME-PLE 2.91,

AME-PME 0.74, ALE-PLE 1.22. MOQ, aw: pw:

1 = 2.89: 4.00: 2.33. Width of clypeus to AME 0.28.

Labium: L 1.90, W 2.22. Sternum: L 6.31, W 4.68.

Legs: anterior leg ratios I = 3.7, II = 4.5.

Epigynum: Relatively broad with ‘plateau’ of

fossa short. Vulva of WAM 88/1979 (Figs 50, 51)

with 1% insemination duct coils.

Variation

Carapace length of males 8.37-11.67, mean =

10.52 (n=3). Carapace length of females 8.82-11.99,

mean = 10.07 (n=7).

Distribution and remarks

Confined to offshore islands and moist coastal

areas of south-west Western Australia (Fig. 7). It

has been collected in most cases from under rocks.

E. lapidicola differs from all other species in the

shape of the carapace, sternum, maxillae and in the

palp spination and short tarsus.

Etymology

The specific epithet refers to its habit of living

under rocks.

Other material examined

Western Australia: 9, Bald Island, 34°55’S,

118°27’E, 29. x. 1971, A. A. Burbidge, WAM

88/1496; juv., same data, WAM 88/1497; o”, under

loose granite, Barker Bay, Albany district (probably

Barker Inlet, 33°48’S, 121°20’E, Esperance

district), 28. i. 1965, R. Humphries, WAM 88/1495;

2 Boxer Island, 34°00’S, 121°41’E, Recherche

Archipelago, 1950, V. Serventy, WAM 55/4996; 9°,

Cape Leeuwin, 34°22’S, 115°08’E, July 1914,

W. B. Alexander, WAM 14/994; penult. o*, Eclipse

Island, 35°11’S, 117°53’E, 27. i. 1938, A Blythe,

WAM 38/141; 9, Figure of Eight Island, 34°02’S,

121°37’E, Recherche Archipelago, 1950, V.

Serventy, WAM 55/4990; juv., Lucky Bay, Cape le

Grand, 34°00’S, 122°14’E, 19. v. 1977, R. P.

McMillan, WAM 88/1545; juv., same data, WAM

88/1546; penult. o, Salisbury Island, 34°22’S,

123°33’E, 17. iv. 1972, N. McKenzie, WAM

88/1978; 9, Two People Bay, 34°57’S, 118°11’E,

21. iv. 1982, G. T. Smith, WAM 88/1581; juv., same

data as holotype, WAM 88/1585. [The Recherche

Archipelago material collected by V. Serventy was

listed by Main (1954: 47) as Delena cancerides and

field-notes on habits by V. Serventy were given.]

Species Transferred

Although the female syntype of Eodelena

nigrifrons Simon (1908) has not been located, a

juvenile syntype in ZMB has been examined and

is considered to belong to Delena. Further material

seen (unpubl. data) from SAMA and WAM shows

Delena nigrifrons (Simon) to be a valid new

combination.

AUSTRALIAN EODELENA AND ZACHRIA 17

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank the following people who gave assistance

by providing material for study: Ms A. Green (TM), Dr

M. Gray and Ms C. Horseman (AM), Mr P. Hillyard

(BMNH), Ms McPhee and Mr G. Milledge (NMV), Dr

G. Rack (ZMH), Dr R. Raven (QMB), Ms Waldock

(WAM). The National Parks and Wildlife Service of South

Australia kindly supplied a permit and Mr L. N. Nicolson,

Ms C. Bonnielle and Ms J. Forrest assisted in the collection

of valuable specimens. Funding was provided by an

Australian Biological Resources Study grant.

REFERENCES

BONNET, P. 1959. ‘Bibliographia Araneorum’. Vol. 2(5),

pp. 4231-5058 (T-Z). Toulouse.

HICKMAN, V. V. 1967. Some Common Tasmanian

Spiders’. Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart.

112pp.

HIRST, D. B. 1989a. A new genus of huntsman spider

from south-eastern Australia. Transactions of the Royal

Society of South Australia 113: 7-13.

HIRST, D. B. 1989b. A revision of the genus Pediana in

Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum

23(2): 113-126.

HIRST, D. B. 1990. A review of the genus /sopeda in

Australasia with descriptions of two new genera.

Records of the South Australian Museum 24(1): 11-26.

HOGG, H. R. 1902. On the Australasian spiders of the

subfamily Sparassinae. Proceedings of the Zoological

Society of London 2: 414-466.

JARVI, T. H. 1912. Das Vaginalsystem der Sparassiden.

I. Allgemeiner Teil. Annales Academiae Scientiarum

Fennicae (A) 4(1): 1-113.

KOCH, L. 1875. ‘Die Arachniden Australiensy nach der

Natur beschrieben und abgebildet’, pp. 577-740. Bauer

and Raspe: Nirnburg.

KOCH, L. 1876. ‘Die Arachniden Australiens, nach der

Natur beschrieben und abgebildet’, pp. 741-888. Bauer

and Raspe: Nurnberg.

MAIN, B. Y. 1954. Part 6. Spiders and Opiliones. Jn

Australian Geographical Society reports No. 1. The

Archipelago of the Recherche.

LATREILLE, P. A. 1804. Tableau méthodique des

Insectes. Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Histoire Naturelle 24:

129-200.

SIMON, E. 1903. ‘Histoire naturelle des Araignées’. Vol.

2 (4): 669-1080. Paris.

SIMON, E. 1908. Araneae. Premiére partie. In W.

Michaelsen and R. Hartmeyer (Eds). ‘Die Fauna

Siidwest-Australiens’. Vol. 1 (12). Fischer, Jena.

STRAND, E. 1913. Uber einige australische Spinnen des

senckenbergischen Museums. Zoologische Jahrbuche

(Systematik) 35: 599-624.

WALCKENAER, C. A. 1837. ‘Histoire Naturelle des

Insectes’. Aptéres, I. Paris.

BRACHIOPPIELLA SPECIES (ACARI : ORIBATIDA : OPPHIDAE) FROM

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SOILS

D. B. HIRST

Summary

As part of a study of oribate mites from South Australian soils, the genus Brachioppiella Hammer,

1962 is reviewed and the following four new species are described : Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella)

paranasalis, Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna, B. (G.) minima, B. (G.) pseudohigginsi.

Brachioppiella Subias, 1989 is commented on and a key to the adults of all Australian genera,

subgenera and species is provided.

BRACHIOPPIELLA SPECIES (ACARI: ORIBATIDA: OPPIIDAE) FROM

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SOILS

D. C. LEE & L. S. SUBIAS

LEE, D. C. & SUBIAS, L. S., 1991. Brachioppiella species (Acari: Oribatida: Oppiidae) from

South Australian soils. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(1): 19-30.

As part of a study of oribate mites from South Australian soils, the genus Brachioppiella

Hammer, 1962 is reviewed and the following four new species are described: Brachioppiella

(Brachioppiella) paranasalis, Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna, B. (G.) minima, B. (G.)

pseudohigginsi. Brachioppiinae Subias, 1989 is commented on and a key to the adults of all

Australian genera, subgenera and species is provided.

D. C. Lee, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, and L. S.

Subias, Facultad de Biologia, Universidad Complutense, Madrid 28040, Spain. Manuscript received

10 November 1989.

As a result of studies done in South Australia on

the advanced oribate mites (Planofissurae, see Lee

(1987)) of soils, numerous adults belonging to the

family Oppiidae Grandjean, 1951 were extracted.

Amongst them, the subfamily Brachioppiinae

Subias, 1989 in Subias & P. Balogh (1989) were only

represented by members of the genus Brachioppiella

Hammer, 1962. These are described here using the

notation and systematic framework (as implied by

the taxon definitions and keys) of Subias & Balogh

(1989). The Brachioppiinae are commented on and,

because some of the included genera are very similar

to Brachioppiella, keys are provided for all the

Australian taxa.

Information on all the nine florally diverse sites

which were sampled is given by Lee (1981),

Brachioppiella having been collected from only four

of these sites. Measurements are in micrometres

(um). All the material was collected by one of us

(DC.L.). The specimens are mostly deposited in the

South Australian Museum (SAMA), but also in the

Faculty of Biology of the Universidad Complutense

of Madrid (FBUCM), the Field Museum of Natural

History, Chicago (FMNH) or the New Zealand

Arthropod Collection, D.S.I.R., Auckland (NZAC).

SYSTEMATICS

Brachioppiinae Subias

Brachioppiinae Subias in Subias & P. Balogh, 1989:

p. 370.

Diagnosis (Adults)

Oppiidae. Genital and anal plates usually normal

length and well separated. Epimeres III and IV not

usually reaching behind genital plates, but if they

do, then apodemes IV present. Crista notogastra

absent. Seta c2 absent or less developed than other

notogastral setae. Interbothridial tubercles usually

absent. Anterior margin of notogaster lacks both

protruding humeral processes and interbothridial

costula. Lamellar and/or translamellar lines present.

Fissurae iad inverse apoanal. Sensillus either

pectinate, radiate or ciliate.

Distribution

The Brachioppiinae are restricted to the major

southern regions (Neotropical, Ethiopian, Oriental,

Australasian, Subantarctic and Antarctic). Few

records are from the Northern Hemisphere or the

tropics. Mostly the species are from moist southern

temperate locations, indicating a Gondwanan

distribution.

Within Australia all the records are from outside

the tropics, either from Queensland, New South

Wales or South Australia. The Queensland records

are from dry or wet sclerophyll forest, the New

South Wales records are from subtropical rainforest,

whilst the South Australian records are from dry

sclerophyll or cultivated pine forest, or from

woodland or closed scrubland with a substantial

litter layer. None of the records are from the

extensive drier Australian regions with open

vegetation and sparse litter.

Remarks

The Brachioppiinae include genera which were

placed in five separate subfamilies in the

classification of J. Balogh (1983). It is particularly

similar to three subfamilies (Arcoppiinae J. Balogh,

1983, Lanceoppiinae J. Balogh, 1983 and Oppiinae

Grandjean, 1951) amongst these five subfamilies,

which lack protruding humeral notogastral

processes. It is also very similar to the Multioppiinae

J. Balogh, 1983. In distinguishing Brachioppiellinae

20 D. C. LEE & L. S. SUBIAS

from these four subfamilies, four characters are

important: the shape of the sensillus, the presence

or absence of prodorsal lines, the number of genital

setae and the position of the paranal fissurae (iad).

This last diagnostic character excludes Gressittoppia

luxtoni Ayyildiz, 1989, a species superficially very

similar to members of the Brachioppiinae, to be

grouped in the Multioppiinae..

In the distinguishing of brachioppiine genera, the

number of genital setae is given considerable value.

Whilst this is considered reliable in classifying

species with six pairs as compared with fewer pairs

(as it also is in distinguishing the subfamily

Arcoppiinae from the Multioppiinae), the

differentiating of species with either four or five

pairs into separate genera is sometimes considered

unreliable. The unreliability is demonstrated by

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna in this paper,

since it usually has four pairs, but on only one

female there are five pairs of genital setae. Despite

this, four as opposed to five genital setae is still

used, as by Subias & P. Balogh (1989), in order to

recognise the subgenera of Brachioppiella, although

it is pointed out under the remarks on B.

(Gressittoppia) that this division into subgenera may

not be valid.

The following five genera or subgenera are known

from Australia: Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella)

Hammer, 1962; Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia)

Balogh, 1983 (here recorded from Australia for the

first time); Brassoppia (Brassoppia) Balogh, 1983;

Ctenoppia Balogh, 1983; Kokoppia Balogh, 1983.

KEY TO AUSTRALIAN BRACHIOPPIINAE (Adults)

1 — _ Sensillus large, length more than distance between

it and rostral setae. Prodorsum large, length more

than 0.66 x length of notogaster....Ctenoppia

Balog heaters ome arene yan ein. 2

— Sensillus medium length, less than 0.75 x distance

between it and rostral setae. Prodorsum size

normal, length less than 0.66 x length of

POCOR ASC rita metal See aya vie ener rarer nee eas sewer S

Notogastral setae long (e.g. length of seta /a more

than 1.5 x distance between /a-/m)..........

Bialig tetas ¢ Ctenoppia variopectinata Balogh &

Mahunka, 1975

— Notogastral setae short (e.g. length of seta /a less

than 0.66 x distance between /a-Ilm..........

Ctenoppia eupectinata Balogh & Mahunka, 1975

Six pairs of genital setae. Prodorsal quadrangular

field undelineated except for four small convex

protruberances along posterior margin. Notogastral

seta c2 present, small (length more than 2 x

Cia Mele mOlealVEOLUS) acme rtecne er cern: ha center

Felstladeatscge pty Kokoppia dudichi (Balogh, 1982)

— Four or five pairs of genital setae. Prodorsal

quadrangular field usually partially delineated by

translamellar line; if undelineated, then notogastral

seta c2 represented only by alveolus.......... 4

4 — Four pairs of genital setae. Prodorsal quadrangular

field delineated anteriorly (translamella) and

laterally (lamella) by low crest, and posteriorly by

faint, transverse line. Notogastral seta c2 present,

small (length more than 2 x diameter of alveolus).

Rance a Teste Brassoppia brassi (Balogh, 1982)

— Four or five pairs of genital setae. Prodorsal

quadrangular field delineated anteriorly

(translamella) and anterolaterally (lamella) by lines,

and posteriorly with alveolate protruberance

between setae /2-/2. Notogastral seta c2 present as

microseta (length less than 2 x diameter of

alveolus) or represented only by alveolus.....5

Five pairs of genital setae....... Brachioppiella

(BrachiOpplell ae anette un ne ne eae Mats 6

— Four pairs of genital setae normal for a species.

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia).............. 7

Notogastral seta /m posterior to /a, distance apart

subequal to distance between /m-/p. Sensillus caput

slim (about 2 x breadth of stalk) with three or four

cilia, ‘Somali length, 425-440). sc hoc cc e es paves

.B. (B.) biseriata (Balogh and Mahunka, 1975)

— Notogastral seta /m level with and adaxial to /a,

distance apart less than 0.5 x distance between

/m-lp. Sensillus caput medium breadth (about 3

x breadth of stalk), usually with five cilia, varies

from three to seven cilia. Somal length, 290-345.

ME Anas} Smeets 2) hee B. (B.) paranasalis sp. nov.

Apodeme apo4 reaching backward beyond level of

genital shield. Setae in epimeral file 5 ciliate.

Interlamellar seta more than 0.5 x length of

lamellar seta. Sensillus with five cilia. Tibia IV slim

(greatest breadth about 0.25 x length), seta av

ensiform, long (length more than 2 x breadth of

tibia). Somal length; 360-520... ..........---.

Beebe sits ott act ie Naas B. (G.) magna sp. nov.

— Apodeme apoé4 reaching back only to middle of

genital shield. Setae in epimeral file b smooth.

Interlamellar seta less than 0.5 x length of lamellar

seta. Sensillus with six or seven cilia. Tibia IV not

slim (greatest breadth about 0.33 x length), seta

av setose or ensiform, medium length (length

8 — Notogastral seta /m nearer /p than /a. No apodeme

between ep2, epimeral apo2 not continuous across

midline. Tibia IV with clearly delineated caput

bearing setose ventral setae. Somal length, 185-220.

Stade Mont a alte peal eaalole B. (G.) minima sp. nov.

— Notogastral seta /m nearer /a than Ip. Apodeme

between ep2, epimeral apo2 continuous across

midline. Tibia IV with indistinct caput/stalk

margin, bearing ensiform ventral setae. Somal

length, 275-295 (eee acetate ee si ool

Fe het teams B. (G.) pseudohigginsi sp. nov.

Genus Brachioppiella Hammer

Brachioppiella Hammer, 1962: p. 47.

Type-species (by original designation):

Brachioppiella periculosa Hammer, 1962.

BRACHIOPPIELLA, OPPIID MITES 21

Diagnosis (Adults)

Brachioppiinae. Sensillus pectinate with single file

of long cilia either on fusiform or setiform caput.

Rostral setae separated by distance more than 4 x

diameter of one of their alveoli. Interlamellar seta

present. Lamellar seta closer to interlamellar seta

than rostral seta. Rostrum not incised. Costula (but

lamellar line may be present) and crista absent. Ten

pairs notogastral setae, seta c2 vestigial (either

microseta, length less than twice alveolus diameter,

or just alveolus). Apodeme IV present. Four or five

pairs of genital setae. Ventral seta ad1 postanal, ad3

preanal. Pore iad inverse apoanal. Tarsus IV with

two ensiform anteroventral setae and two ciliate

cuneiform posteroventral setae.

Morphology of Australian species

The prodorsum has a plateau-like quadrangular

field around the lamellar and interlamellar setae.

It is usually delineated (exception — Brachioppiella

biseriata Balogh & Mahunka, 1975) anteriorly by

a translamellar line (in lateral view can be seen to

be a sulculus, which may be substantial but

inconspicuous when seen from above, with edges

that are recognisable as two parallel fine lines),

whilst laterally it is bordered by a granulate slope

which anteriorly forms a lamellar line (there are no

costulate ridges), and posteriorly there is a

protruberance between the interlamellar setae with

alveolate sculpturing. There is a lateral row of large

alveoli, and around the exobothridial seta the

integument is granulate. The sensillus is not longer

than the distance from its partner and the pectinate

caput can be slim (as Brachioppiella biseriata, with

width less than twice that of proximal stalk), broad

or swollen. The notogaster shows little variation,

except in setal length (large setae may have cilia and

seta c2 may or may not be detectable) and in the

position of seta /m relative to seta Ja. The venter

has strong epimeral apodemes with weak superficial

sculpturing forming shallow alveoli on the epimeres.

The longer lateral epimeral setae may be ciliate. The

most conspicuous varying characters are the

number of genital setae, the position of apodeme

IV and the presence or absence of an apodeme

between epimeres 2. The size of the genital shields

is sexually dimorphic, being larger on the female

(Fig. 2) and smaller on the male (Fig. 8). No eggs

were noted in any females collected in this study.

Trochanter III has a transverse proximodorsal ridge

with spurs at both ends. All the tibiae have a long

flagelliform solenidium (cf. Brachioppia cuscensis

Hammer, 1961, type-species, which has a short fat

solenidium on tibia IJ). In all but the small

Brachioppiella minima sp. nov., the tibiae and tarsi

have stout, ensiform ventral spine-like setae,

sometimes ciliate, whilst the two proximal shorter

posterior spine-like setae on leg IV are ciliate

cuneiform, the cilia being merged proximally and

spreading out distally into an inverted triangle.

Similar distal spreading out of ventral leg setae may

be widespread amongst oppiids, and can involve

more setae [eg. Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia)

orkneyensis (Kok, 1967) and Quadroppia

quadricarinata (Michael): Lions 1977]. Somal

chaetotaxy: prodorsum — 2, 2, 1; notogaster — 2,

6, 2; epimeres — 3, 1, 3, 3; genital shield — 4 or

5; anal shield — 2; ventral shield — 1, 3.

Distribution

All species of Brachioppiella are known only

from the major southern regions, mainly in the

temperate zone, with a few species from the tropics

(see the remarks on the subgenus Brachioppiella),

and the subantarctic or antarctic (see the remarks

on the subgenus Gressittoppia).

Amongst the nine florally diverse sites sampled

in South Australia, the greatest numbers of three

of the four species of Brachioppiella were found

at the dry sclerophyll forest site on Mt Lofty, which

has the highest rainfall (mainly in winter, being a

Mediterranean-type climate) of any site. One of

these species, B. (Gressittoppia) minima sp. nov.,

also occurs in small numbers at two nearby sites

in the Mt Lofty Ranges. The fourth species, B.

(Gressittoppia) pseudohigginsi sp. nov., is from

coastal closed-scrubland, which has a lower rainfall,

but is a very moist site, since it is much further south

and it is sometimes inundated from a permanent

underground stream. The only other known

Australian species, B. (Brachioppiella) biseriata

(Balogh & Mahunka, 1975), is from dry sclerophyll

forest in Queensland.

Remarks

Brachioppiella was placed by J. Balogh (1983) in

the subfamily Pulchroppiinae. Later, Subias & P.

Balogh (1989) considered that this subfamily should

be restricted to Pulchroppia Hammer, 1979 and

related genera, in which epimeres 3 and 4 are not

bordered posteriorly by an apodeme, whilst

Brachioppiella was the nominotype of a new

subfamily. J. Balogh (1983) also established a

heterogeneous subfamily, Cycloppiinae, giving

considerable weight in the diagnosis to the number

of pairs of genital setae. The genus Gressittoppia

was grouped in Cycloppiinae, because of its four

pairs of genital setae, whilst Subias and P. Balogh

(1989) considered it to be so closely allied to

Brachioppiella that it was given the new status of

subgenus within that genus. As pointed out here,

in the remarks on B. (Gressittoppia), the two genus

group names might be better considered to be

synonymous. The only distinguishing character that

has been established for the subgenera is the normal

number of genital setae. In the case of

22 D. C. LEE & L. S. SUBIAS

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna sp. nov.

(which on only one specimen has an increased

setation from four to five genital pairs), characters

are given in the remarks on the species, that

distinguish the abnormal specimen from Australian

members of the subgenus Brachioppiella.

Subgenus Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella) Hammer

Diagnosis (Adult)

Brachioppiella. Five pairs of genital setae.

Remarks

The subgenus Brachioppiella sens. str. is

maintained as by Subias & P. Balogh (1989),

delineated from B. (Gressittoppia) by having five

pairs of genital setae. The possiblity that species of

Brachioppiella should not be grouped into two

subgenera is commented on in the ‘Remarks’ under

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia).

Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella) includes 10

species (Subias & P. Balogh 1989), plus a new

species described here from South Australia. The

subgenus is widespread in southern temperate

regions with a few records from the tropics (New

Caledonia, Guinea in West Africa, East Africa).

The two Australian species are as follows:

Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella) biseriata (Balogh &

Mahunka, 1975) and B. (B.) paranasalis sp. nov..

Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella) paranasalis sp. nov.

(Figs 1, 2 and 9)

Morphology

General appearance and dimensions: Body

flattened and widened, brown colour. Idiosomal

length: female 320 (39, 308-344); male 309 (44,

290-328). Idiosomal breadth: female 133-143, male

122-135. Leg dimensions for holotype female

(length 321): leg lengths (femur-tarsus) I-191, 1-145,

III-136, [V-180; tibial maximum breadths I-21.5,

II-19, III-15.5, IV-15.5.

Prodorsum: Rostrum rounded, unstructured,

with rostral setae dorsally ciliate. Quadrangular field

with lamellar line restricted to anterior half of

distance between lamellar seta and sensillus, whilst

translamellar line may be inconspicuous, because

although sulculus deep, margins may be unclear in

dorsal aspect, and posterior protruberance narrow

with two pairs of alveolar, pale patches. Usually

three large alveolar, pale patches lateral to

quadrangular field. Lamellar, exobothridial and

interlamellar setae fine and smooth, decreasing in

size in this order, lamellar seta nearly 2 x length

of interlamellar seta. Granulated area around

exobothridial seta not reaching profile of

pedotectum I. Usually five long cilia on caput of

sensillus, but varies from three to seven cilia, in

single file.

Notogaster: Nine pairs of short to medium length

smooth setae, 42 and h3 longest, seta c2 represented

only by alveolus with root, but no seta, just behind

pore ia. Seta /m close to and slightly anterior to seta

la.

Somal venter: Epimeres with weak alveolar

sculpturing. In setal file b, setae 3b and 4b like file

c, but 1b similar to file @ in being smooth and

slimmer. Apodeme apo4 reaching backward to level

of mid genital shield. Pedotectum 1 profile smooth,

no pedotectum 2, pedotectum 3 large and blunt.

Genital setae short and subequal in length.

Aggenital seta shorter (0.6 x) than adanal seta ad3.

Legs: Long (mean femur-tarsus length: 50% of

somal length). Legs I and IV longer than other legs,

whilst legs I and II are stouter than other legs.

Relative breaths of tibiae (maximum height: length):

I = 56%, II = 57%, III = 43%, IV = 33%.

Ventral setae on tibiae and tarsi often ensiform and

ciliate. On tibia and tarsus IV, posteroventral setae

shorter than anteroventral setae. Tarsus IV setae pvl

and pv2 with single file of cilia longer proximally

so that terminating at same level giving seta a

cuneiform appearance in posteroventral aspect.

Material examined

Holotype: female (N1989277), plant litter, sparse

moss and sandy soil, under sclerophyllous shrubs

amongst messmate stringybark (Eucalyptus

obliqua), dry sclerophyll forest, near summit of Mt

Lofty (34°9’S, 138°5’E), Cleland Conservation

Park, 9.v.1974.

Paratypes: 26 females (N1989278-N1989303) and

30 males (N1989304-N1989333); 2 females and 3

males (FBUCM); 2 females and 2 males (FMNH);

2 females and 2 males (NZAC); 6 females and 7

males lost; same data as holotype.

Remarks

Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella) paranasalis is

easily distinguished from known Australian species

of Brachioppiella by having notogastral seta /m

transposed anteriorly to near /a. This includes the

other member of the subgenus and the larger

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna sp. nov.,

which in only one of its females examined also has

five pairs of genital setae rather than the normal

four pairs for Gressittoppia. The shape of the

sensillus and the nature of the lamella and

translamella, in combination with the relative

position of notogastral seta /m to /a, distinguishes

B. (B.) paranasalis from all known species of

Brachioppiella, and the position of seta /m is only

known elsewhere in Australian brachioppielline

genera on Brassoppia brassi (Balogh, 1982). The

BRACHIOPPIELLA, OPPIID MITES 23

100um

FIGURES 1 AND 2. Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella) paranasalis sp. nov., female soma. 1, notum; 2, idiosternum.

species which is most similar, and from which the

species name is derived with the Greek prefix para

meaning ‘beside or new’, is Brachioppiella (B.)

nasalis (Evans, 1953), which has notogastral setae

of similar length and placement. But that species

has a sensillus with a slim, nearly setiform caput,

with six lateral cilia, and also there are ‘Anterior

to the genital plate two forwardly directed

projections on either side.’ (Evans 1953: 260), as well

as conspicuous granulation on the prodorsal

quadrangular field.

Subgenus Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) Balogh

Gressittoppia Balogh, 1983: p. 55.

Type-species (by original designation): Brachioppia

moresonensis Kok, 1967.

Diagnosis (Adults)

Brachioppiella. Four pairs of genital setae.

Remarks

The subgenus Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) was

given this status by Subias & P. Balogh (1989), prior

24 D.C. LEE &L. S.SUBIAS

to which Gressittoppia was regarded by J. Balogh

(1983) as a distinct genus in another subfamily

(Cycloppiinae) compared to Brachioppiella, then

included in the Pulchroppiinae. The distinction

between the subgenera relies on the number of

genital setae and this character exhibits intraspecific

variation in B. (G.) magna sp. nov. (only one female

has five pairs of genital setae, rather than the usual

four pairs). Because of this, and because no other

character state can be found to diagnose the

subgenus, Gressittoppia and Brachioppiella may

need to be regarded as synonymous as subgenera

as well as genera. The position of the fissure iad

being given importance here in defining families,

means that similar species to Gressittoppia, like

Gressittoppia luxtoni Ayyildiz, 1989, are excluded

to another subfamily (Multioppiinae).

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) includes seven

species (Subias & P. Balogh 1989) plus a further

three new species described here from South

Australia, the first records of the subgenus from

Australia. The subgenus is widespread in southern

temperate regions, with a few records from the far

south (Tierra del Fuego and Antarctica). The three

Australian species are as follows: Brachioppiella

(Gressittoppia) magna sp. nov., B.(G.) minima sp.

nov. and B.(G.) pseudohigginsi sp. nov.

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna sp. nov.

(Figs 3, 4, and 10)

Morphology

General appearance and dimensions: Body

flattened and widened, dark red brown colour.

Idiosomal length: female 498 (5, 480-520); male 412

(3, 362-463). Idiosomal breadth: female 212-229,

male 174-206. Leg dimensions for holotype female

(length 501): leg lengths (femur-tarsus) I-292,

II-238, I1I]-247, IV-307; tibial maximum breadth

I-31, II-25, III-19, IV-22.

Prodorsum: Rostrum rounded, pale above ventral

recess, with rostral setae dorsally ciliate.

Quadrangular field with lamellar line nearly

complete, whilst translamellar line with clear

anterior margin to deep sulculus but posterior

margin may be unclear in dorsal aspect, and

posterior protruberance narrow and conspicuous

with three pairs of alveolar, pale patches. Usually

four large alveolar, pale patches lateral to

quadrangular field. Only exobothridial seta is

smooth, lamellar seta about 1.5 x length of

interlamellar seta. Granulate area round

exobothridial seta reaching profile to pedotectum

I. Usually five, exceptionally four or six long cilia

on caput of sensillus.

Notogaster: Nine pairs of medium length setae,

sometimes inconspicuous dorsal cilia present, c2

represented by microseta. Seta /m nearly directly

behind /a and slightly nearer to it than to seta Ip.

Somal venter: Epimere with strong alveolar

sculpturing. In setal file b, all setae similar to those

in file c. Apodeme apo4 reaching backward beyond

level of posterior margin of genital shield.

Pedotectum 1 profile granulate, small pedotectum

2 present, pedotectum 3 large and acute. Usually

four pairs of genital setae, but one female with five

pairs of genital setae. Anterior three pairs of genital

setae short, seta ge4 longer. Aggenital seta longer

than or subequal in length to adanal seta ad3.

Legs: Long (mean femur-tarsus length = 54%

of soma length). Legs III and IV slim and relatively

long so that leg IV longest and leg III third longest

rather than shortest. Relative breadths of tibiae

(maximum height: length): I = 57%, II = 43%,

III = 31%, 1V = 28%. Ventral setae on tibiae and

tarsi (except av4 and pv4 on tarsus IV) ensiform and

ciliate. On tarsus IV posteroventral setae pvil and

pv2 with cilia enlarged and fused at base so that

fan-like.

Material examined

Holotype: female (N1989334), plant litter, sparse

moss and sandy soil, under sclerophyllous shrubs

amongst messmate stringybark (Eucalyptus

obliqua), dry sclerophyll forest, near summit of Mt

Lofty (34°9’S, 138°5’E), Cleland Conservation

Park, 9.v.1974.

Paratypes: 5 females (N1989335-N1989339) and

3 males (N1989340-N1989342); 1 female (FBUCM);

same data as holotype.

Remarks

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna is variable

in size, males being substantially smaller than

females. The larger females are the largest within

the genus, which is the basis of the species name

derived from the Latin word magnus meaning Jarge

or great’. Possibly correlated with greater size are

the dark colour, more extensive cuticular

sculpturing and granulation, with more setae that

are ciliate. B. (G.) magna is easily distinguished from

other known Australian members of Gressittoppia

by the backward extension of epimere 4 and the

long leg IV, possibly functionally correlated

character states. B. (Brachioppiella) biseriata

(Balogh & Mahunka, 1975) from Queensland is

large with a similarly extensive epimere 4 and

disposition of the notogastral setae, so it may in the

future be regarded as allied to this species, although

they are currently in different subgenera. This

possibility is more likely in the light of one female

of B. (G.) magna having five pairs of genital setae,

the extra pair making the disposition very similar

to that of B. (B.) biseriata. But B. (B.) biseriata is

further distinguishable as a separate species by

BRACHIOPPIELLA, OPPIID MITES 25

100um

FIGURES 3 AND 4. Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) magna sp. nov., female soma. 3, notum; 4, idiosternum.

having a number of shorter setae, in particular the Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) minima sp. nov.

interlamellar and aggenital setae and a slim caput (Figs 5, 6 and 11)

to the sensillus. B. (G.) magna is also similar to B.

(G.) hartensteini (Hammer, 1968), but the latter has © Morphology

a small seta c2 present, the caput of the sensillus General appearance and dimensions: Body

is slimmer and notogastral seta 43 is anterior to pore flattened and widened, straw colour. Idiosomal

im. length: female 208 (28, sclerophyll forest, 200-217),

26 D. C. LEE & L. S. SUBIAS

50um

FIGURES 5 AND 6. Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) minima sp. nov., female soma. 5, notum; 6, idiosternum.

200.5 (1, pine forest); male 198 (74, sclerophyll

forest, 185-206), 192 (2, pine forest, 185-200.5), 190

(1, savannah woodland). Idiosomal breadth: female

78-87, male 85-95. Leg dimensions for holotype

female (length 205.5): leg lengths (femur-tarsus)

1-119, II-89, III-89, IV-98; tibial maximum

breadths [-14.5, I]-12, III-11, [V-12.

Prodorsum: Rostrum rounded, unstructured,

with rostral setae dorsally ciliate. Quadrangular field

with lamellar line restricted to anterior half of

distance between lamellar seta and _ sensillus,

translamellar line inconspicuous, sulculus shallow,

margins may be unclear in dorsal aspect, posterior

protruberance broad, flattened with two pairs of

alveolar, pale patches. Usually two large alveolar

pale patches lateral to quadrangular field. Lamellar,

interlamellar and exobothridial setae fine and

smooth, decreasing in size in this order, lamellar

seta nearly 2 x length of interlamellar seta.

Granulate area around exobothridial seta not

BRACHIOPPIELLA, OPPIID MITES 27

reaching profile of pedotectum I. Usually six long

cilia on caput of sensillus, may be additional one

or two smaller proximal cilia.

Notogaster: Nine pairs of medium length smooth

setae, subequal in length, seta c2 only represented

by alveolus with root, but no seta. Seta /m nearly

directly behind /a and midway between it and seta

Ip.

Somal venter: Epimeres with weak alveolar

sculpturing. In setal file b, setae 1b and 3b like file

a, whilst 4b is as long as setae in file c, but smooth,

without cilia. Apodemes absent between epimeres

1 and 2, although linear surface sculpturing present.

Pedotectum 1 profile smooth, no pedotectum 2,

pedotectum 3 large with acute point. Genital setae

short and subequal in length. Aggenital seta

subequal in length to adanal seta ad3.

Legs: Medium length (mean femur-tarsus length

= 48% of somal length). Legs I and IV longer than

other legs, leg II being as short as leg III, but as

broad as leg IV. Relative breadths of tibiae

(maximum height: length): I = 57%, Il = 66%,

Ill = 45%, IV = 48%. Tibia IV shorter than tarsus

IV, caput broad, more than 2.5 x breadth of stalk.

Ventral setae on tarsi I-IV often ensiform and

ciliate, but not on tibiae. On tibia IV, seta av longer

and stouter than py, but still setose and similar to

d2 on tarsus IV.

Material examined

Holotype: female (N1989343) plant litter, sparse

moss and sandy soil, under sclerophyllous shrubs

amongst messmate stringybark (Eucalyptus

obliqua), dry sclerophyll forest, near summit of Mt

Lofty (34°9’S, 138°5’E), Cleland Conservation

Park, 9.v.1974.

Paratypes: 19 females (N1989344-N1989362) and

66 males (N1989363-N1989428); 2 females and 2

males (FBUCM); 2 females and 2 males (FMNH);

2 females and 2 males (NZAC); same data as

holotype. One female (N1989429) and two males

(N1989430, N1989431), pine litter and sandy soil,

under pine trees (Pinus pinea), cultivated forest,

Knott Hill (35°12’S, 138°41’E), Kuitpo Forest

Reserve, 22.v.1974. One male (N1989432), grass,

moss, leaf litter and loamy soil under manna gum

trees (Eucalyptus viminalis), savannah woodland,

Chambers Gully (34°59’S, 138°41’E), Cleland

Conservation Park, 12.vi.1974.

Remarks

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) minima is the

smallest known species in the genus, which is the

basis of the species name derived from the Latin

word minimus meaning ‘least’. It is similar to

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) pepitensis (Hammer,

1962), a slightly larger species (length 270) from

Tierra del Fuego. B. (G.) pepitensis differs in minor

ways in the disposition and shape of setae as

follows: sensillus with nine or ten cilia, hysteronotal

seta Ja closer to /m than c2, adanal seta ad2

posterior to pore iad. Although some cuticular

markings are stronger, the apodeme between

epimeres | is absent posterior to seta la, suggesting

a close relationship of B. (G.) pepitensis to B. (G.)

minima, even though the shape of its tibia and

tarsus IV is normal for the genus (similar to B. (G).

pseudohigginsi sp. nov., Fig. 12) and unlike that of

B. (G.) minima (Fig. 11). The correlation of the

reduction in mid-sternal apodemes and the shape

of the leg segments and their ventral setae

characterizes B. (G.) minima.

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) pseudohigginsi sp.

nov.

(Figs 7, 8 and 12)

Morphology

General appearance and dimensions: Body

flattened, broad for female, elongate for male,

brown colour. Idiosomal length: female 295, male

275. Idiosomal breadth: female 117, male 112. Leg

measurements for holotype male (length 275): leg

lengths (femur-tarsus) I-156, I1-118, III-109, I'V-139;

tibial maximum breadths I-18, II-14.5, III-12,

IV-12.

Prodorsum: Rostrum round, unstructured except

slight concavity between dorsally ciliate rostral setae.

Quadrangular field with lamellar line nearly

complete, translamellar line with moderately deep

sulculus, but margins may be unclear in dorsal

aspect, and posterior protruberance broad with two

pairs of alveolar pale patches. Four large alveolar,

pale patches lateral to quadrangular field. Lamellar,

interlamellar and exobothridial setae fine and

smooth, decreasing in size in this order, lamellar

setae more than 2 x length of other setae.

Granulate area around exobothridial seta reaching

profile of pedotectum I. Six or seven long cilia on

caput of sensillus.

Notogaster: Nine pairs of short to medium length

smooth setae, Ja and /m being short, seta c2

represented only by alveolus with root, but no seta,

just behind pore ia. Seta /m behind and closer to

seta /a than to Ip.

Somal venter: Epimeres with weak alveolar

sculpturing. In setal file b, seta 1b shorter than Ic,

whilst 3b and 4b similar in length to 3c and 4c, but

all smooth lacking cilia. Apodeme apo4 reaching

backward to level of mid-genital shield. Pedotectum

1 profile granulate, no pedotectum 2, pedotectum

3 large and blunt. Genital setae short and subequal

in length (N.B. male illustrated, Fig. 8, so plates

appear relatively small compared to other species

where females illustrated). Aggenital seta subequal

in length to adanal seta ad3.

28 D. C. LEE & L. S. SUBIAS

FIGURES 7 AND 8. Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) pseudohigginsi sp. nov., male soma. 7, notum; 8, idiosternum.

Legs: Medium length (mean femur-tarsus length

= 47% of somal length). Legs I and IV longer than

other legs, whilst legs I and II are stouter than other

legs. Relative breadths of tibiae (maximum height:

length): I = 54%, II = 55%, III = 45%, IV =

33%. Tibia IV shorter than tarsus IV, caput medium

breadth, slightly less than 2 x breadth of stalk.

Ventral setae on tibiae and tarsi often ensiform and

ciliate. On tibia IV, ventral seta av only slightly

longer than pv and shorter than avi on tarsus IV.

Material examined

Holotype: male (N1989433), plant litter, sparse

grass and calcareous sandy soil, under coastal wattle

(Acacia sophorae), coastal closed scrubland, just

south of main pond (38°03’S, 150°57’E),

Piccaninnie Ponds Conservation Park, 3.vii.1974.

Paratype: female (N1989434); same data as

holotype.

BRACHIOPPIELLA, OPPIID MITES 29

FIGURES 9-12. Brachioppiella, posterior aspects of genu, tibia, tarsus, pretarsus of right leg IV. 9, B. (B.) paranasalis

sp. nov.; 10, B. (G.) magna sp. nov.; 11, B. (G.) minima sp. nov.; 12, B. (G.) pseudohigginsi sp. nov. Key: a = anterior,

d = dorsal, p = posterior, v = ventral, so = solenidium.

30 D. C. LEE & L. S. SUBIAS

Remarks

Brachioppiella (Gressittoppia) pseudohigginsi is

very similar to Brachioppiella (Brachioppiella)

higginsi (Hammer, 1968) from New Zealand in the

disposition and shape of the notal setae, which is

the basis of the species name derived from the

Greek word pseudos, meaning ‘lie’, and higginsi.

B. (B.) higginsi has a slimmer caput to its sensillus

and has five pairs of genital setae, which places it

in the nominate subgenus. B. (G.) pseudohigginsi

is also similar to two larger species from South

Africa: B. (G.) moresonensis (Kok, 1967), length

300-344, and B. (G.) orkneyensis (Kok, 1967), length

330-380. B. (G.) moresonensis differs in that

notogastral seta h3 is positioned well forward,

anterior to fissure-like pore im rather than posterior

to it (Fig. 7). B. (G.) orkneyensis differs in that seta

av on tibia IV is twice as long as seta pv and acutely

tapered rather than shorter and stouter (Fig. 12).

RESUMEN

Como parte del estudio de los dcaros oribatidos

de suelos del sur de Australia, se discute el género

Brachioppiella Hammer, 1962, y se describen las

cuatro nuevas especies siguientes: Brachioppiella (s.

str.) paranasalis sp. nov., Brachioppiella

(Gressittoppia) magna sp. nov., B. (G.) minima sp.

nov. y B. (G.) pseudohigginsi sp. nov.. También se

discute la subfamilia Brachioppiinae Subias, 1989

y se dan unas claves de géneros, subgéneros y

especies australianos.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank Miss Keren Shepherd for the

modifying, inking in and presentation of the figures, and

the Australian Biological Resources Study for funding her

salary. Also the translation from Spanish to English of

parts of the manuscript and correspondence by Mrs

Bobbie Matthews, and the typing of the manuscript by

Mrs Debbie Lowery, are much appreciated.

REFERENCES

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BALOGH, J. 1983. A partial revision of the Oppiidae

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Hungarica 29: 1-79.

BALOGH, J. & MAHUNKA, S. 1975. New Oppioid mites

(Acari: Oribatei) from Queensland. Acta Zoologica

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GRANDIJEAN, F. 1951. Observations sur les Oribates

(22° série). Bulletin du Museum National d’Histoire

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HAMMER, M. 1961. Investigations on the Oribatid fauna

of the Andes Mountains. II. Peru. Biologiske Skrifter

11: 1-157.

HAMMER, M. 1962. Investigations on the Oribatid fauna

of the Andes Mountains. II]. Chile. Biologiske Skrifter

12: 1-96.

HAMMER, M. 1968. Investigations on the Oribatid fauna

of New Zealand, with a comparison between the

Oribatid fauna of New Zealand and that of the Andes

Mountains, South America. Part III. Biologiske

Skrifter 16: 1-96.

HAMMER, M. 1979. Investigations on the Oribatid fauna

of Java. Biologiske Skrifter 22: 1-79.

KOK, D. J. 1967. Studies on some South African Oppiidae

Grandjean, 1953 (Acarina: Oribatei). Journal of the

Entomological Society of South Africa 30: 40-74.

LEE, D. C. 1981. Sarcoptiformes (Acari) of South

Australian soils. 1. Notation 2. Bifemorata and Ptyctima

(Cryptostigmata). Records of the South Australian

Museum 18: 199-122.

LEE, D. C. 1987. Introductory study of advanced oribate

mites (Acarida: Cryptostigmata: Planofissurae) and a

redescription of the only valid species of

Constrictobates (Oripodoidea). Records of the South

Australian Museum 21: 35-42.

LIONS, J. C. 1977. Au sujet de la chaetotaxie des pattes

et de la présence des poils proraux chez des oribates

proches du Quadroppia quadricarinata (Michael, 1885).

Acarologia 19: 540-551.

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to the genera of Oppiidae Grandjean, 1951 (Acari:

Oribatei). Acta Zoologica Hungarica 35: 355-412.

REDESCRIPTION OF THE LARVA OF ODONTACARUS (LEOGONIUS)

BARRINENSIS (WOMERSLEY) (ACARINA : TROMBICULIDAE :

LEEUWENHOEKIINAE)

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Summary

The larva of Odontacarus (Leogonius) barrinensis (Womersley, 1945) is redescribed, the lectotype

and paralectotypes are designated, and the new data are compared with those of the original

description. Womersley’s measurements were too large (mean error = 3.53%). Analysis of the

metric data confirms the separation of O. (L.) barrinensis from its taxonomically nearest species, O.

(L.) athertonensis (Wormesley, 1945).

REDESCRIPTION OF THE LARVA OF ODONTACARUS (LEOGONIUS) BARRINENSIS

(WOMERSLEY) (ACARINA: TROMBICULIDAE: LEEUWENHOEKIINAE)

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1991. Redescription of the larva of Odontacarus (Leogonius) barrinesis

(Womersley) (Acarina: Trombiculidae: Leeuwenhoekiinae). Rec. S. Aust, Mus. 25(1): 31-37.

The larva of Odontacarus (Leogonius) barrinensis (Womersley, 1945) is redescribed, the lectotype

and paralectotypes are designated, and the new data are compared with those of the original

description. Womersley’s measurements were too large (mean error = 3.53%). Analysis of the

metric data confirms the separation of O. (L.) barrinensis from its taxonomically nearest species,

O. (L.) athertonensis (Womersley, 1945).

R. V. Southcott, Honorary Research Associate, South Australian Museum, North Terrace,

Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 5 February 1990.

The genus Odontacarus Ewing, 1929 (Acarina:

Trombiculidae: Leeuwenhoekiinae) is known mainly

as larvae in the Australia-New Guinea region; all

of these are placed in the subgenus Leogonius

Vercammen-Grandjean, 1968 (see Southcott 1986a).

The first Australian species recognized was O.

australiensis (Hirst, 1925), a widespread species

occurring from eastern Australia to New Guinea

(Hirst 1925; Womersley 1944, 1945; Domrow 1956;

Goff 1979a). Womersley (1944) described five more

species as larvae (as Leeuwenhoekia Oudemans,

1911): O. adelaideae, O. hirsti, O. mccullochi, O.

novaguinea and O. southcotti, and (1945) four more

as larvae: O. athertonensis, O. barrinensis, O.

echidnus and O. longipes (as Acomatacarus Ewing,

1942).

Further species (as larvae) have been added by

Southcott (1957, 1986a, b) and Goff (1979a, b). The

most recent general treatments of the taxonomy of

these larvae have been by Southcott (1986a, b, 1989).

Of the species known as larvae, deutonymphs have

been described by Womersley (1945) of O. longipes

and O. novaguinea, by Domrow (1956) of O.

australiensis, and by Southcott (1989) of O.

adelaideae. Based on larval characters, Domrow

(1956) synonymized O. hirsti with O. australiensis,

and Goff (1979a) synonymized O. longipes with O.

novaguinea.

Womersley (1944, 1945) relied heavily on

statistical characters for his species differentiations.

Difficulties in separating some of these species led

Veitch and Southcott (1984) to make a study of

some species referred to O. athertonensis, or from

the Atherton Tableland, Queensland. This showed

good statistical differentiating characters for O.

athertonensis (Womersley, 1945), O. mccullochi

(Womersley, 1944), O. ‘species S’ (now O. swani

Southcott, 1986a), and an unnamed species (now

O. veitchi Southcott, 1986b) from Mt Jukes,

Queensland.

One species requiring redescription was O. (L.)

barrinensis (Womersley, 1945), which Womersley

placed close to O. athertonensis.

In the present paper the larva of O. (L.)

barrinensis is redescribed from the type series, and

its taxonomic status evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Slide-mounted mites in the South Australian

Museum, Adelaide (SAM) referred to O.

Barrinensis were examined. The five syntypes

(ACB188A-E) were all in gum chloral media, on

individual slides, mounted by me on 17.xi.1943 and

again on 7.v.1944, but apparently not remounted

subsequently. Specimen ACB210A (N19896) showed

evidence of remounting, and the mount was largely

opaque and unusable. All these slides also bore a

SAM number of ARA7524. No further

remountings have been done.

Microscopy and drawing techniques, also

terminology and abbreviations, are as in Southcott

(1989). All measurements are in micrometres (um)

unless otherwise specified.

Odontacarus Ewing

Odontacarus Ewing, 1929, p. 188.

(For other synonymy see Southcott, 1986a, p. 171,

and contained references).

Definition of larva as in Southcott, 1989, p. 37.

Type species: Trombicula dentata Ewing, 1925, p.

257.

Subgenus Leogonius Vercammen-Grandjean, 1968.

Definition of larva as in Goff, 1979a, p. 143.

Type species: Leeuwenhoekia australiensis Hirst,

1925, p. 150.

32 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Odontacarus barrinensis (Womersley)

Figs 1A-D, 2

Acomatacarus barrinensis Womersley, 1945, p. 106.

For other synonymy see Southcott, 1986a, p. 188.

Description of larva: Lectotype

Colour in life red. Length of idiosoma (mounted

on slide) 245, width 200; total length from tip of

cheliceral fangs to posterior pole of idiosoma 335.

Dorsal scutum wider than long (nasus included);

nasus well developed, blunt pointed, slightly

waisted, meeting body of scutum at approximately

right angles; anterior border (omitting nasus)

slightly concave, anterolateral borders convex,

posterolateral borders almost straight, anterolateral

and posterolateral angles rounded, posterior pole

rounded, forming an obtuse angle. Scutalae narrow,

FIGURE 1. Odontacarus barrinensis (Womersley), larva, lectotype. A — Dorsal view, legs on left omitted beyond

trochanters. B — Right palp, dorsal. C — Palpal tarsus, dorsal. D — Palpal tarsus, ventral. To standard symbols.

(Each figure to nearer scale).

ODONTACARUS BARRINENSIS 33

tapering, slightly blunted at tip, with moderately

outstanding acute setules. Sensilla level with PL

scutala bases; sensillary setae missing in all

specimens. Scutum finely porose, with two larger

pores (lacunae) near each PL scutala base.

Metric data as in Table 1.

Eyes oval, posterolateral to dorsal scutum,

anterior with maximum diameter 16, posterior with

maximum diameter 13.

Dorsal idiosomalae similar to scutalae, arranged:

humerals 2, then approximately 18, 6, 10, 11, 9, 3,

2; total ca 61.

Ventral surface of idiosoma with a pair of

setulose, pointed setae, bases 36 apart, between

coxae III, 31 long. Behind coxae III opisthosoma

with ca 46 setae, 28 pre-anal, 18 post-anal, pointed,

setulose, 22-45 long, increasing in size posteriorad,

and there resembling PDS. Anus oval, 21 long by

6 wide (valves apposed). Urstigma well chitinized,

oval, 20 by 18, set in concavity in coxa I. Coxalae

2, 1, 1, well setulose, tapering, pointed; lateral coxala

1 60 long, medial coxala I missing, all specimens,

coxala II 44-46 long (paratypes), coxala III ca 42

long (paratypes).

TABLE 1. Metric data for Odontacarus (Leogonius) barrinensis (Womersley) larvae, type series.

i EES ESSE

N19891

(ACBI88A) Observed Coefficient of

Character Lectotype n range mean s.d variation (%)

EEE —E—EEEE————————E—————

AW 73 5 68-73 69.6 2.07 2.98

PW 86 5 80-86 83.6 2.61 3.12

SB 31 5 26-31 28.0 2.00 7.14

ASB 55 5 52-55 54.0 1.41 2.62

PSB 27 5 26-28 27.0 1.00 3.70

Ey 82 5 78-83 81.0 1.87 2.31

LA 21 5 16-21 18.2 1.92 10.57

LB 61 5 61-64 62.8 1.30 2.08

LN 32 5 29-32 30.8 1.64 5.33

WwW 101 5 95-101 98.2 2.28 2,32

AP 31 5 27-32 30.0 1.87 6.24

AM 39 5 35-39 37.6 1.67 4.45

AL 46 5 40-46 43.2 2.68 6.21

PL 57 4 57-59 58.3 0.957 1.64

PL/AL 1.24 4 1.23-1.40 1.28 0.0818 6.40

AMB 11 5 11-12 11.4 0.548 4.80

Sens - 0 - ~ - -

PW/LB 1.41 5 1.28-1.41 1.33 0.0515 3.87

DS 33-60 5 57-64* 60.4* 2.70* 4.47*

Hum** 60 5 57-64 60.4 2.70 4.47

MDS 33-36 5 33-36* 35.0* 1.41* 4.04*

PDS 41-46 5 43-46* 45,2* 1.30* 2.88*

Gel 48 5 46-48 46.8 1.10 2.34

Til 56 4 55-56 55.8 0.500 0.897

Tal(L) 80 5 79-89 84.4 4.62 5.47

Tal(H) 26 5 24-26 25.4 0.894 3.52

Gell 39 5 39-43 41.2 1.64 3.99

Till 45 5 45-49 47.0 1.87 3.98

Tall(L) 66 5 66-72 70.2 2.68 3.82

Tall(H) 24 5 22-24 22.8 0.837 3.67

Gelll 47 5 46-48 47.0 0.707 1.50

Till 66 § 60-66 62.0 2.35 3.78

Talll(L) 90 5 88-91 89.8 1.30 1.45

TallI(H) 22 5 20-22 21.0 1.00 4.76

AW/AP 235: 5 2.13-2.56 2.33 0.156 6.69

AW/Tilll 1.11 5 1.10-1.15 1.12 0.0241 2.14

PW/TIilll 1.30 2) 1.30-1.41 1.35 0.0455 3.38

PSB/SB 0.87 5 0.87-1.08 0.968 0.0746 7.71

PW/AP ZIT 5 2.63-2.96 2.79 0.127 4.56

a ——————————————

*For maximum values

**Humeral seta length

34 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

FIGURE 2. Odontacarus barrinensis (Womersley), larva, lectotype, ventral view, legs on left omitted beyond trochanters.

Pt — pretarsala. (Some setae completed from paratypes).

Dorsal tracheal opening normal, between lateral Leg specialized setae as follows (lengths in

border of palpal coxa and anterior border of coxal. parentheses): SoGel.30d(14), SoGel.64p(21),

Legs: lengths (including coxae and claws) 1370, | VsGel.65d(2), SoTil.49d(16), VsTil.77pd(3),

II 330, HI 390. Scobalar formula: trochanters 1,1, — SoTil.89d(17) (ie. distal to VsTil). SoGelI.20d(18),

1, femora 6, 5, 4, genua 5, 4, 4, tibiae 7, 6, 6 | VsGell.60d(cal), SoTill.40d(12), SoTilI.86d(14).

(including 2 mastalae on III), tarsi 24, 17, 14 © SoGelII.23d(26), SoTilI1.37d(24).

(including one mastala on III).

ODONTACARUS BARRINENSIS 35

Tarsus I with Solal.49d(19), FaTal.42pd(ca2).

Tarsus II with Solall.54d(14), FaTall.47d(ca2).

Pretarsal formula 1, 1, 0. Tarsal claws normal;

neomedian the longest, thinnest; anterior and

posterior claws with double fringes of small

onychotrichs.

Gnathosoma normal; combined chelicera bases

68 across; length 89 from tip of cheliceral fangs to

posterior margin chelicera bases. Fangs stout,

curved, with 3-4 stout dorsal teeth and 4-5 smaller

ventral teeth. Galeala simple, pointed, 22 long.

Gnathobasal setae (palpal coxal setae) (from

paratype ACB188C) slender, well setulose, 18 long,

with four or five setules.

Material examined

Queensland: Lake Barrine, 16.xi.1943, R. V.

Southcott, five larvae, N19891-19895 (ACBI188A-B).

O. barrinensis was based on ‘five syn-types collected

free, from Lake Barrine, Queensland, 16 Nov. 1943

(RV.S.), and a single specimen from man, Atherton

Tableland, Queensland, 8 March 1944 (RV.S.)’.

Southcott (loc. cit.) clarified collection details of

these specimens. Specimen N19891 (ACBI188A) is

hereby specified as lectotype, specimens

N19892-19895 (ACBI88B-E _ respectively)

paralectotypes.

The lectotype is labelled: R. H. label (in writing

of RN.S.): LECTOTYPE; (in writing of H.

Womersley) Acomatacarus barrinensis n. sp./ Co-

type/ Lake Barrine/ Q. 16.11.43/R4.S./. L. H. Label

(in writing of RV.S.) ACBI88A/ Running over log./

Shores of Lake Barrine/ Q. 16-11-1943/ R. V.

Southcott. On reverse of slide, in unidentified

writing: ARA7524/ Trombiculidae/ Odontacarus/

barrinensis/ syntype.

Specimen N19896 (ACB210A) was unidentifiable

(see above), and is excluded.

Remarks

The measurements given in Table | differ from

those of Womersley (1945) for the same series of

five mites. A comparison of Womersley’s figures

(means) for the same characters as used here shows

that his measurements are higher than those given

here. These eight percentage increases have a range

of 0.67-6.38%, with a mean of 3.53 and a standard

deviation of 1.86.

Successive efforts have been made to find

differentiating characters for the larval Odontacarus

of northern Queensland and Papua-New Guinea

(Womersley 1944, 1945; Southcott 1957, 1986a, b,

1989; Goff 1979a, b, 1981; Veitch and Southcott

1984). Womersley’s material has been only partly

restudied, so that his differentiating characters as

published had perforce to be utilized in my keys

(1986a: 179; 1989: 42). Prominent among

Womersley’s criteria were the number of dorsal and

ventral idiosomal setae, the ratio PW/LB (as

PW/SD’), and the absolute sizes of the shield

characters, as well as the length of DS. Clarification

of the taxonomy of several species — O.

australiensis, O. novaguinea and O. hirsti — was

by Domrow and Goff. Veitch and Southcott (1984)

and Southcott (1986a) provided adequate

differentiating characters for O. athertonensis, O.

mecullochi, O. swani and O. veitchi. The

inconsistent errors in Womersley’s measurements

made the use of his key hazardous. Two species still

needing differentiation were O. athertonensis and

O. barrinensis, which had been collected from two

sites on the Atherton Tableland, separated by about

22 km.

Womersley (1945: 106) stated of O. barrinensis:

‘This species is very close to athertonensis in the

number of dorsal setae, ca 64 in each. It differs,

however, in the Standard Data, the values for AW,

PW and SB being very significantly different.’

TABLE 2. Differentiating characters of the type series of Odontacarus barrinensis and O. athertonensis larvae.

O. barrinensis

O. athertonensis*

Observed Observed

Character Lectotype n mean s.d. range Lectotype n mean s.d. range

AW 73 5 69.6 2.07 68-73 dd 21 65.9 2.70 61-71

PW 86 5 83.6 2.61 80-86 80 21 77.62 2.66 75-87

SB 31 5 28.0 2.00 26-31 25 21 25.10 1.41 22-30

PL/AL 1.24 4 1.28 0.0818 1.23-1.40 1.34 20 1.36 0.0805 1.20-1.57

PW/LB** 1.41 5 1.33 0.0515 1.28-1.41 1.21 21 1.25 0.0756 1.17-1.45

AW/AP 2.35 5 2.33 0.156 2.13-2.56 2.84 21 2.34 0.201 2.06-2.84

AW/Tilll 1.11 5 1.12 0.0241 1.10-1.15 1.09 21 1.10 0.0491 1,00-1.23

PW/TillI 1.30 5 1.35 0.0455 1.30-1.41 1.23 21 1.30 0.0691 1.17-1.53

PSB/SB 0.87 5 0.968 0.0746 0.87-1.08 1.40 21 1.16 0.124 0.93-1.40

PW/AP QI7 § 2.79 0.127 2.63-2.96 3.20 21 2.16 0.222 2.38-3.22

*From Southcott (1986a), plus new data

**PW/SD of Womersley (1945)

36 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

In Table 2 a comparison is given of metric

characters of the type series of O. barrinensis and

O. athertonensis. These are the principal characters

used in keys to larvae. Table 2 shows that there is

a considerable overlap of all the listed characters

of the two species, and in fact the ranges of values

for O. barrinensis lie entirely within those of O.

athertonensis, for all characters except AW, SB and

PSB/SB.

Table 3 shows a comparison of the means of the

characters listed in Table 2, by t-test, on the usual

assumption that the variances do not differ. Table

3 shows that there are significant differences

between the ‘size factors’ AW, PW and SB. It shows

also that there are significant differences in the

‘shape factors’, the proportions PW/LB and

PSB/SB, and borderline significance for PL/AL.

Comparison of the two type series has not revealed

other morphological differences.

Even though exclusive separating characters

between O. athertonensis and O. barrinensis larvae

have not been found, the metric differences for

scutal size and shape indicate that the separation

is justified.

The life history of this species will be described

in a succeeding paper.

TABLE 3. Comparison of means of key characters

separating O. barrinensis and O. athertonensis, by t-test.

Character t d.f. P and significance

AW 2.197 24 0.05 > P >0.02*

PW 4.536 24 <0:001* =*

SB 32637 24 0.01 >P >0.001**

PL/AL 1.856 22 0.1>P>0.05, n.s.

PW/LB 2.281 24 0.05 > P >0.02*

AW/AP 0.1633 24 09> P> 0:8. nis:

AW/Tilll 0.9471 24 0.4>P>0.3, n.s.

PW/Tilll 1.495 24 0.2>P>0i1, n:s.

PSB/SB 3.205 24 0.01 >P >0.001**

PW/AP 0.288 24 O.8>P> 0.7; nis,

*Significant at the 0.05 level of probability

**Significant at the 0.01 level of probability

***Significant at the 0.001 level of probability

n.s. not significant.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank the South Australian Museum for access to their

collections.

The work was supported by a grant from the National

Health and Medical Research Council, Commonwealth

of Australia.

REFERENCES

DOMROW, R. 1956. Three new Australian chigger

nymphs (Acarina, Trombiculidae). Proceedings of the

Linnean Society of New South Wales 81(2): 144-152.

EWING, H. E. 1925. A contribution to our knowledge

of the taxonomy of chiggers including the descriptions

of a new genus, six new species and a new variety.

American Journal of tropical Medicine 5(3): 251-265.

EWING, H. E. 1929. ‘A manual of external parasites’.

Charles C. Thomas: Springfield, Illinois, and Baltimore,

Maryland.

EWING, H. E. 1942. Remarks on the taxonomy of some

American chiggers (Trombiculinae), including the

descriptions of new genera and species. Journal of

Parasitology 28(6): 485-493.

GOFF, M. L. 1979a. The genus Odontacarus (Acari:

Trombiculidae) in New Guinea, with descriptions of

four new species. Journal of medical Entomology 15(2):

143-154.

GOFF, M. L. 1979b. A new species of Odontacarus (Acari:

Trombiculidae) infesting murid rodents in Papua New

Guinea. Journal of medical Entomology 16(2): 140-141.

GOFF, M. L. 1981. Five new species of chiggers (Acari:

Trombiculidae) from Papua New Guinea. Journal of

medical Entomology 18(1): 33-40.

HIRST, S. 1925. On a harvest bug (Leewwenhoekia

australiensis, sp. n.) attacking human beings at Sydney,

New South Wales. Transactions of the Royal Society

of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 19(3): 150-152.

OUDEMANS, A. C. 1911. Acarologische aanteekeningen

XXXVI. Entomologische Berichten, Amsterdam 3(58):

137-139.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1957. The genus Acomatacarus

(Acarina: Trombiculidae). I. Description of three new

species from Trinity Bay, north Queensland.

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

80: 146-155.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1986a. The genus Odontacarus

(Acarina: Trombiculidae). I]. Observations on the life

history and morphology of Odontacarus swani n. sp.,

and related forms. Records of the South Australian

Museum 19(12): 169-200.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1986b. Description of Odontacarus

veitchi sp. nov. (Acarina: Trombiculidae). Records of

the South Australian Museum 19(14): 213-217.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1989. The larva and nymph instars

of Odontacarus (Leogonius) adelaideae (Womersley)

(Acarina: Trombiculidae: Leeuwenhoekiinae).

A NEW MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE FROM LAKE

PALANKARINNA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

Summary

Australosuchus clarkae is a new generalised Oligo-Miocene crocodilian from Lake Palankarinna,

South Australia. It appears to be part of a recently recognised endemic Tertiary radiation of

crocodiles in Australia.

A NEW MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE FROM LAKE PALANKARINNA,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

P. M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

WILLIS, P. M. A. & MOLNAR, R. E. 1991. A new middle Tertiary crocodile from Lake

Palankarinna, South Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(1): 39-55.

Australosuchus clarkae is a new generalised Oligo-Miocene crocodilian from Lake Palankarinna,

South Australia. It appears to be part of a recently recognised endemic Tertiary radiation of

crocodiles in Australia.

Paul M. A. Willis, School of Biological Science, University of New South Wales, P.O. Box 1,

Kensington, New South Wales 2033, and Ralph E. Molnar, Queensland Museum, P.O. Box 300,

South Brisbane, Queensland 4101. Manuscript received 14 February 1990.

In another paper (Willis, Murray & Megirian

1990), the existence of an endemic Tertiary radiation

of Gondwanan freshwater crocodilians in Australia

was discussed. This speculation was based on

zoogeographic considerations and apparently

synapomorphic features possessed by

Pallimnarchus pollens, Quinkana fortirostrum and

Baru darrowi.

A new genus and species of crocodile from Oligo-

Miocene sediments of South Australia appears to

support this hypothesis. It is both the oldest

described member of the group and, apparently, the

most plesiomorphic. This species was noted by

Molnar (1982) and probably by Stirton ef a/. (1968)

and Estes (1984).

The following abbreviations for collections are

used in this paper: AMNH, American Museum of

Natural History, New York; NHMV P, Museum of

Victoria, Melbourne; QM F, Queensland Museum,

Brisbane; UCMP, University of California,

Museum of Paleontology, Berkeley; SAM P, South

Australian Museum, Adelaide.

SYSTEMATICS

Order: Crocodilia

Suborder: Eusuchia

Family: Crocodylidae

Australosuchus Willis & Molnar, gen. nov.

Type species

Australosuchus clarkae Willis & Molnar, sp. nov.

(Figs la, b)

Generic diagnosis

Crocodiles of this genus differ from all other

crocodylids in the following combination of features

(apomorphies designated ‘a’): moderately broad

snouted; pseudoheterodont dentition; alveolar

process present on premaxilla, maxilla and dentary;

external nares raised, circular or ovate, with sharply

defined margins; postorbital-squamosal contact on

skull roof V-shaped, apex directed posteriorly (a);

five alveoli occur in premaxilla; fourteen alveoli

occur in maxilla; sixteen to seventeen alveoli occur

in dentary; dentary tooth reception pits are excluded

from margins of premaxilla and maxilla; fourth

dentary tooth reception pit is semi-enclosed (a);

symphysis extends posteriorly to level of fourth or

fifth dentary alveolus.

Differential diagnosis and discussion

Australosuchus clarkae differs from other

Australian crocodiles in the following features: A.

clarkae lacks interlocking dentition, an anterior

process of the palatines and has the fourth dentary

tooth accommodated in a pit rather than a notch

as in species of Crocodylus. The first of these

features is apparently plesiomorphic for crocodiles,

the second is probably apomorphic for certain

Australian crocodiles (Willis et a/. 1990), and the

third is also found in alligatorines. As discussed

below, Australosuchus seems to have no other

alligatorine affinities, and so this feature is probably

convergent and an apomorphy for Australosuchus.

Australosuchus does not have ziphodont features

as seen in Quinkana fortirostrum and it is smaller

than both Baru darrowi and Pallimnarchus pollens.

Australosuchus clarkae is also distinguished from

these three fossil crocodilians by the fourth dentary

tooth reception pit, the extent of the dentary

symphysis and the more posterior position of the

palatal fenestrae (a plesiomorphic feature). In these

features, A. clarkae is sufficiently different to justify

the erection of a new genus.

Etymology

The generic name is derived from the Latin

australis meaning southern and suchus meaning

crocodile. The gender is masculine.

40 P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

Australosuchus clarkae Willis & Molnar, sp. nov.

Holotype

QM F16788 (Fig. 1a, b), an almost complete skull

and mandible, incomplete cervical and dorsal

vertebrae, scapula, humerus and dermal armour,

collected by Michael Archer in 1975.

Type locality

An unnamed site from the base of the eastern

end of the bluff that yielded the Tedford Local

Fauna and Tedford East Local Fauna, Lake

Palankarinna, South Australia.

Paratypes

NHMV P188441, right premaxilla and maxilla;

SAM P27932, premaxillary fragment; SAM P27847,

maxillary fragment; SAM P27933, maxillary

fragment; NHMV_ P188437, right maxillary

fragments; QM F18102, jugal; SAM P29580, jugal;

NHMV P188439, right jugal; NHMV P188440,

right jugal fragment; SAM P27841, frontals; SAM

P10892, frontals; AMNH 23047, left postorbital and

half of frontal; QM F17985, frontal, parietal and

postorbital; AMNH 23048, right postorbital;

AMNH 23049, parietal; AMNH 23052, right

quadrate; AMNH 23051, left quadrate and

squamosal fragment; QM F17433, right quadrate;

QM F17986, squamosal (possibly from the same

individual as QM F17985); QM F17984, squamosal;

AMNH 23050, basioccipital; NHMV P166441, right

exoccipital; QM F17983, exoccipital with quadrate

fragment; SAM P27934, dentary, angular and

squamosal; SAM P27827, dentary; SAM P29083,

dentary; SAM P23985, dentary; NHMV P166439,

right dentary,y NHMV P160360 and NHMV

P160357, right dentary fragment (two fragments of

the same specimen that have been catalogued

separately); NHMV P166442, left dentary; SAM

P30162, right dentary; UCMP 57071, right dentary;

UCMP 70941, left dentary; QM F18152, right

dentary; QM F18151, left dentary; UCMP 100028,

surangular; SAM P23985, surangular; NHMV

P188436a, right surangular; NHMV P188438, right

surangular; QM F17988, incomplete angular; SAM

P23985, angular; SAM P29578, angular; SAM

P29579, angular; NHMV P188436b, left angular

fragment; AMNH 23055, cervical vertebral

FIGURE 1. The type specimen (QM F16788), in its plaster cradle, of Australosuchus clarkae, gen. et sp. nov., in

dorsal view. A, Skull. B, Entire specimen. Scale bars 5 cm.

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE 41

centrum; SAM P27829, cervical vertebral centrum;

AMNH 23056, neural arch; AMNH 23057, caudal

vertebral centrum and neural arch; QM F17987,

dorsal vertebra; AMNH 23054, cervical rib; SAM

P24656, a right hind limb consisting of femur, tibia,

fibula, a partial third tarsal, all metatarsals, one

phalange and claw from the first digit, three

phalanges and claw from the third digit and two

phalanges from the fourth digit; SAM P30161, right

femur; SAM P27830, right coracoid; SAM P27828,

right third metatarsal; SAM P30160, right humerus;

all from the Etadunna Formation, Lake

Palankarinna, South Australia.

Paratype material from other localities includes:

AMNH 12177, premaxilla and two teeth and

AMNH 12200, a skull, both from the Namba

formation, Lake Pinpa; NHMV P188442, right

angular fragment from the Namba formation, Lake

Tarkarooloo; UCMP 88192, jugal and

quadratojugal and UCMP 71396, left premaxilla

and maxilla both from the Wipijiri formation, Lake

Ngapakaldi; UCMP 100027, frontals, UCMP

57069, dentary and UCMP 57071, dentary all from

the Mampuwordu Sands, Lake Palankarinna.

AMNH 12200 is a large skull that is badly

shattered (Fig 2). It can be referred to this species

but is too poorly preserved to be of much

descriptive value.

There are numerous other crocodilian fragments

from Lake Palankarinna in the collections of the

South Australian Museum and the Queensland

Museum. These specimens are too small or broken

to be of use. However, a search through these

fragments revealed no specimens that clearly

differed from those described here.

Various unnumbered specimens from the

collections of the Queensland Museum and the

South Australian Museum are also of use and are

included here as paratypes.

Stratigraphy, fauna and age

The holotype derives from the Etadunna

Formation. It belongs to an undetermined local

fauna that is some two metres below the Tedford

East Local Fauna and at a level that is

stratigraphically comparable to the occurrence of

Muramura williamsi (Pledge 1987; Archer, pers.

comm.). This local fauna is most likely to be late

Oligocene to early Miocene in age (Callen er al.

1987; Archer et al. 1990).

Paratype specimens from the Etadunna

Formation belong to the Ditjimanka Fauna.

AMNH 12200 and AMNH 12177 pertain to the

Pinpa Local Fauna. NHMV P188442 belongs within

the Lake Tarkarooloo Local Fauna. UCMP 88192

and UCMP 71396 belong to the the Kutjamarpu

Fauna. Current understanding of the

biostratigraphy places these faunas within the late

Oligocene or early Miocene (Callen ef al. 1987,

Woodburne et al. 1985).

UCMP 100027, UCMP 57069 and UCMP 57071

are from the Mampuwordu Sands, Lake

Palankarinna. The Mampuwordu Sands are

thought to be late Pliocene or possibly early

Pleistocene in age (Callen e¢ al. 1987, Woodburne

et al. 1985). Either this species of crocodile was

conservative in its morphology over this period of

time or the site information for these three

specimens is incorrect. Considering that the

Mampuwordu Sands are a channel cut into the

Etadunna Formation, it is possible that these

Mampuwordu crocodile specimens were reworked

from the older Etadunna Formation or that their

stratigraphic province was incorrectly interpreted at

the time of collection. At present, we assume the

site information for the supposed Mampuwordu

Sands specimens is incorrect. Thus we suggest this

species is most likely restricted to the late Oligocene

or early Miocene.

Etymology

The specific name is in honor of Mrs Elaine

Clark in recognition of her continuing support for

the Riversleigh Research Project.

Specific diagnosis

As for the genus until new species are recognised.

Descriptions

The following descriptions are primarily based

on the holotype, the most complete specimen. The

paratypes were used to supplement this information

because many elements on QM _ FI16788 are

incomplete, badly fractured or covered by matrix.

Paratypes are noted where used. Fig 3 shows

reconstructions of the skull, based on specimens

shown in Pig. 4.

QM F16788 was chosen as the holotype for two

reasons: it retains most of the skull elements and,

although crushed and fractured, its skull could be

reasonably well reconstructed; second, it is the only

specimen that unambiguously associates cranial and

postcranial elements.

Premaxillae: The premaxillae on QM F16788 are

broken and incomplete so this description is based

mainly on SAM P27932, AMNH 12177, NHMV

P188441 and UCMP 71396 (Fig 5).

The external nares are raised. They are circular

and slightly flared on SAM P27932, but on UCMP

71396 the nares are ovate, being wider than long.

On both specimens the nares have sharply defined

margins.

AMNH 12177 has two unattached teeth

associated with it. They are ovate in cross section,

with non-serrate anterior and posterior carinae. The

larger has vertical ribs on the lingual surface. These

42 P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

FIGURE 2. Large crocodilian skull (AMNH 12200) from the Namba Fm. of Lake Pinpa, South Australia. A, Dorsal

view. B, Ventral view. This somewhat crushed specimen is probably referable to A. clarkae. Scale in inches and cm.

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE 43

are the only teeth associated with any of the

premaxillae.

There are five alveoli. The first and second are

subequal in size, the third is larger and the fourth

is very large. The fifth is intermediate in size

between the second and third.

Dentary tooth reception niches occur between,

and lingual to, the upper series and are excluded

from the margins. The first niche is very deep and

separates the first and second premaxillary alveoli.

It does not erupt through the dorsal surface on

SAM P27932 but does on UCMP 71396. The other

niches are more shallow. The fourth dentary tooth

reception pit is semi-enclosed, mostly hiding the

fourth dentary tooth when the mouth is closed and

thus resembling the alligatorine, rather than the

crocodyline, condition. This is an unusual and

distinctive feature. The premaxilla is built up around

the tooth bases to form a distinct alveolar process.

The sculpture consists of distinct oval pits around

the margins and indistinct pits on the dorsal surface.

The foramen incisivum is relatively large and ovate.

AMNH 12200 shows that the premaxillae are

separated by the nasals on the dorsal surface,

posterior to the nares, a feature not clear in any

other specimen.

Maxillae: The maxillae of QM F16788 are almost

complete but crushed and broken. The ventral

surfaces are obscured by matrix and mandibular

elements. The maxilla of UCMP 71396 is complete

and uncrushed. NHMV P18841, NHMV P188437,

SAM P27933 and SAM P27847 are less complete

maxillary fragments. This description is based on

these specimens.

The shape of the maxilla indicates a moderately

broad and flat snout with fourteen alveoli. A

moderately developed alveolar process is present,

accommodating the anterior six alveoli.

No crowns are associated with any maxilla, except

that of the type, where the left fourth and fifth are

present. These are oval in section with marked

anterior and posterior carinae. The alveoli are

round, becoming ovate posteriorly. The sequence

of tooth size is typically crocodyline (as judged by

the size of the alveoli) with the fifth tooth being

the largest. The alveoli increase in size from the first

to the fifth then decrease in size to the seventh. They

then increase in size again until the tenth and then

decrease in size posteriorly. The third and tenth

alveoli are about the same size but larger than the

second, sixth, eighth and fourteenth alveoli which

are also about the same size. The alveolar spacing

is interrupted by dentary tooth reception pits

between and lingual to the sixth and seventh alveoli,

and between and lingual to the seventh and eighth

alveoli.

Tooth reception pits are excluded from the

margins and indicate that the teeth did not fully

interlock. Well defined tooth reception pits are

located between and lingual to the sixth and seventh

alveoli, the seventh and eighth alveoli, the eighth

and ninth alveoli and between the ninth and tenth

alveoli. Less well defined pits occur between the first

and second alveoli and posterior to the tenth.

The palatal suture with the premaxilla is a

shallow W-shape and there is no clear sign of a

contact with the palatine. However, the mid-line

maxillary suture can be seen to extend posteriorly

to the level of the anterior margins on the palatal

fenestrae. This indicates that this species lacked an

anterior palatal process. The ectopterygoid suture

reaches anteriorly to the posterior edge of the

twelfth alveolus. The palatal fenestrae reach

anteriorly to the level of the ninth alveolus. The

dorsal sutural contact with the nasal is nearly

straight and almost parallel to the midline, but

slightly constricted anteriorly.

Sculpture is shallow on the maxilla, consisting

of low surface markings, pits anteriorly and grooves

posteriorly.

Nasals: Both nasals on QM F16788 are crushed

and broken. While no other specimens preserve the

nasals, some inferences about these bones can be

drawn from UCMP 71296 (premaxilla and maxilla),

AMNH 12200 (a skull) and from UCMP 100027,

(frontals and prefrontals).

The nasals entered the external nares, flared

slightly toward the posterior until their contact with

the lacrymals, then tapered posterior from that

point. An anterior process of the frontals separated

the posterior extremities of the nasals.

Jugals: The jugals of the type specimen are

crushed and broken and the right has fallen away

from the remainder of the skull so that the medial

face is exposed. This description is also based on

UCMP 88192, NHMV P188440, NHMV P188439

and SAM P29580 (Fig. 6a-d).

The jugals are slender and gracile. The postorbital

bar is inset but there is no trough between it and

the lateral face of the jugal. The postorbital bar has

a weakly developed buttress on the medial surface

that ventrally is deflected sharply forward. A very

large nutrient foramen lies on the medial surface,

anterior to the base of the postorbital bar. On

UCMP 88192 and the type, there are two foramina

here. The sculptured surface of the jugal extends

ventrally under the region of the postorbital bar.

Quadratojugals: The quadratojugals on QM

F16788 are broken and partially displaced. An

almost complete quadratojugal is present in UCMP

88192. It is broad and ventrally thickened. The

presence or absence of an anterior spike cannot be

determined. Only subdued sculpture is present, and

the ventral portion of the lateral face, behind the

jugal contact, is flexed to be directed ventrolaterally.

Quadrates: The right quadrate of QM F16788 is

44 P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

FIGURE 3. Reconstruction of the skull of A. clarkae in dorsal (A) and ventral (B) views. The posterior part of the

palatal surface is unknown.

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE

UCMP 71396

QMF 17433

UCMP 100027

P. M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

Al UCMP 71396

QMF 17433

FIGURE 4. Specimens upon which the cranial reconstruction is based. A, Dorsal view. B, Ventral view.

missing and the left quadrate is broken and

somewhat obscured by other elements. AMNH

23052 a right quadrate, AMNH 23051 a left

quadrate and squamosal, and three unnumbered

specimens (two right, one left, all missing the

anterior portions) in the collections of the

Queensland Museum form the basis of the

description (Fig. 7)

The dorsal contact with the squamosal has a

prominent plinth. A well developed crest on the

ventral surface (equivalent to the B crest of

Iordansky (1973)) is orientated parallel to the

quadratojugal suture. Posteriorly this crest curves

laterally, toward the quadratojugal suture which it

meets just anterior to the condyle (Iordansky’s B’

crest). The sutured margin with the quadratojugal

is quite deep posterior to the level of the paroccipital

process, becoming more shallow anteriorly. The

dorsal platform between the condyle and the

paroccipital process is quite wide. A distinct, almost

pit-like, excavation on the ventral face lies just

anterolateral to the medial condyle.

Lacrymals: Both lacrymals on QM F16788 are

crushed and broken but complete. The only

lacrymal material known from the paratype

collection is a small fragment attached to UCMP

71396.

The lacrymals are relatively long and narrow.

They form the antero-lateral margin of the orbits

which are large and constricted anteriorly. They

have an extensive medial contact with the nasals.

The lacrymal duct and ventral surfaces cannot be

traced in these specimens.

Prefrontals: The right prefrontal of QM F16788

is severely broken, but the left has suffered only one

break near its centre and is apparently complete.

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE 47

FIGURE 5. The left premaxilla and attached maxilla of A. clarkae (UCMP 71396) in dorsal (A), lateral (B) and

ventral (C) views. Scale bar 5 cm.

UCMP_ 100027 preserves both left and right

prefrontals; the right is incomplete anteriorly and

both lack the delicate descending process.

The prefrontals are basically isosceles triangles

with the apex directed laterally. The anterior process

is relatively long and the posterior extremity of the

nasals separates the anterior tip of the frontals from

the prefrontals. Although the orbit margins are not

raised, they are sharply defined and steeply angled

to the external surfaces. There is a slight

continuation of the cristae cranii frontales onto the

posterior part of the ventral surface of the

prefrontals. Sculpture consists of deep elongate pits.

Frontals: The frontals of QM F16788 are broken

in one place. SAM P27841 and SAM P10892 are

complete frontals, UCMP 100027 are complete

frontals with prefrontals and part of the nasals (Fig.

6e, f) and AMNH 23047 is half a left frontal and

a postorbital. All are similar but AMNH 23047 is

smaller than the others.

The frontals of this species are slightly concave

posteriorly due to raised orbital rims. They are

heavily built (particularly posteriorly), narrow

between orbits and lightly sculptured with pits. The

anterior process is relatively long and anteriorly

separates the posterior extremities of the nasals.

Ventral ridges around orbits (crista cranii frontales)

are not as well developed as in C. porosus of similar

size, but in AMNH 23047 they are more

pronounced than in the other specimens. The

frontals do not participate in the margins of the

supratemporal fenestrae. The dorsal suture with the

48 P. M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

FIGURE 6. The right jugal with attached quadratojugal of A. clarkae (UCMP 88192) in medial (A) and lateral (B)

views. The right jugal (QM F18102) in medial (C) and lateral (D) views. The frontals (UCMP 100027) in ventral (E)

and dorsal (F) views. Scale bars 5 cm.

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE 49

FIGURE 7. The right quadrate of A. clarkae (QM F17433)

in ventral (A), medial (B) and dorsal (C) views. Scale bar

5 cm.

postorbital is directed medially then posteriorly in

some specimens (UCMP 100027 and some

unnumbered specimens in the Queensland

Museum) but not in others (e.g. QM F16788).

Parietals: The parietals are preserved on QM

F16788 but are broken between the supratemporal

fenestrae. AMNH 23049 is a complete parietal, QM

F17985 is a frontal, parietal and postorbital, and

there are unnumbered parietals in the collection of

the South Australian Museum.

The dorsal surface of this element is shallowly

concave, posteriorly rising to the dorsal margins of

the supratemporal fenestrae. The supratemporal

fenestrae are large and round and the parietals are

constricted between them. Anteriorly, the parietals

send a thin lateral process to the postorbital,

separating the frontals from the supratemporal

fenestrae. There is a well-developed transverse bar

on the ventral surface in the region of the

diencephalon.

Postorbitals: QM F16788 has both postorbitals

preserved, but both have the postorbital bar broken

and the left is posteriorly incomplete. AMNH 23047

is a left postorbital and half frontal, QM F17985

is a frontal, parietal and postorbital, and AMNH

23048 is a right postorbital.

The postorbital is flat on the dorsal surface and

relatively thick. There is a deep nutrient foramen

on the anterolateral edge, at the top of the

postorbital bar. QM F17985 shows a posterior

process on the dorsal surface that overlaps the

squamosal, separating the lateral and medial sides

of its anterior extremity.

Squamosals: Both squamosals are preserved in

QM F16788. AMNH 23051 is a left squamosal

fragment attached to a quadrate. QM F17986 is a

squamosal (possibly from the same individual as

QM F17985) and QM FI17984 is also a squamosal.

This relatively thick element is flat on the dorsal

surface, forms the posterolateral margins of the

supratemporal fenestrae and has a well-defined

lateral edge forming the dorsal margin of the

temporal arcade. This edge has a ventral lip. The

anterior process extends under the postorbital. The

squamosal extends further ventrally on the posterior

wall of the skull than in C. porosus and the

posterolateral crest of the squamosal is better

developed than on C. porosus and continuous. The

posterior face of the squamosal is concave.

Basioccipital: On QM F16788 the basioccipital

is obscured. AMNH 23050 is a basioccipital. There

is one unnumbered basioccipital in the UCMP

collection, assumed to represent this species because

of its locality and similarity to QM F16788 and

AMNH 23050.

This element is narrower and extends further

ventrally than in C. porosus. There is a deep

eustachian foramen ventrally and a well-developed

medial ridge on the ventral part of the posterior

wall. Unlike C. porosus, the eustachian foramen is

not enclosed by the basioccipital; the posterior half

of the eustachian foramen is bounded by the

basioccipital. The occipital condyle is set on a

prominent neck, that projects further than in C

porosus.

Exoccipitals: Only the posterior wall of the

exoccipitals of QM F16788 are visible. These are

broken and partially obscured. NHMV P166441 is

a right exoccipital. The ventral portion of QM

F17983 is an exoccipital including the base of the

paraoccipital process to the foramen magnum.

The positions of the foramina for cranial nerves

X, XI and XII are as in C. porosus. The broken

ventral face reveals the passage for the posterior

carotid, and the broken dorsal surface exposes the

internal chambers of the exoccipital that occupy the

bulk of this element. The posterior face is more

strongly convex than in C. porosus and the posterior

opening of the cranio-quadrate passage is very close

to the ventral margin.

50 P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

Other skull elements: Palatines, vomers,

basisphenoids, laterosphenoids, pterygoids and

ectopterygoids have not been identified. They are

all presumably present on QM F16788 but may be

obscured by matrix and other bones.

Dentaries: The anterodorsal portion of the left

dentary is present in QM F16788 but it is badly

broken. The right dentary is possibly present but

covered by matrix. Paratypes SAM P27934, SAM

P27827, SAM P29083, SAM P23985, SAM P30162,

NHMV P166439, NHMV P160360 (and NHMV

P160357), NHMV P16644, UCMP 57071, UCMP

70941, QM F18151, QM F18152 and unnumbered

specimens in the collection of the Queensland

Museum are all dentaries (Figs 8 and 9).

The dentary is moderately broad and

pseudoheterodont with an alveolar process that

varies in development according to tooth size and

extends back to at least the fourteenth alveolus.

Pseudoheterodonty and the development of the

alveolar process may be related to ontogeny because

these features are not as strongly developed in small

(presumably younger) specimens. The dentary body

deepens posteriorly from the level of the fifteenth

alveolus.

SAM P29083 and SAM P23985 display sixteen

alveoli but QM F18152 displays seventeen in the

right dentary. The teeth are arranged in a typically

crocodyline sequence of enlargement. The first and

fourth alveoli are the largest. The second, third and

FIGURE 8. The dentaries of A. clarkae. A, Left dentary (QM F18151) in lateral, and B, medial view. C, Right dentary

(QM F18152) in lateral, and D, medial view. E, Both dentaries articulated in dorsal view. Scale bar 5 cm.

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE 51

FIGURE 9. Left dentary with articulated angular and surangular (SAM P23985) of A. clarkae. A, Lateral view. B,

Dorsal view. C, Medial view. D, Ventral view. Scale bar 5 cm.

the fifth through to the tenth teeth are all similar

and smaller in size. The teeth posterior to and

including the eleventh are similar in size and

intermediate between the size of the smaller and

larger teeth in the anterior of the dentary. The

anterior alveoli are round but posterior alveoli are

ovate. SAM P30162 is a more robust dentary and

the fourth dentary alveolus is greatly enlarged. This

has forced the third and fifth alveoli more toward

the medial than in the other dentaries.

There is a deep indentation between, and buccal

to, the second and third alveoli to receive the fourth

premaxillary tooth. Other such indentations are

located between and buccal to the first and second,

fifth and sixth, sixth and seventh, seventh and

eighth, and eight and ninth alveoli.

The symphysis extends posteriorly to the fourth

alveolus in some (UCMP) specimens and the fifth

alveolus in others. The splenial extends to the level

of the seventh alveolus in some specimens and the

eighth alveolus in others but this feature cannot be

seen in all specimens. The symphyseal region is

broad and upswept anteriorly. It is markedly

broader than in C. porosus of comparable size.

Sculpture is of small point-like pits anteriorly and

posteriorly, with sulci extending posteriorly from

52 P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

these pits. A distinct row of dorsally opening buccal

foramina occurs parallel to the margin of the

dentary from the medial side of the first alveolus

to the seventh alveolus.

The first, second, third, fifth, eleventh and

thirteenth crowns are present in QM F18151 and the

fifteenth is present but broken. The first crown is

slender, recurved and almost D-shaped in section,

with mesial and distal carinae. The posterior face

is longitudinally striate. In section the first crown

is wider that it is long, being about two-thirds as

long (anteroposteriorly) as broad (mesiodistally).

Of the second, third and fifth crowns, only the

tips are visible but they appear to be laterally

compressed with mesial and distal carinae.

The eleventh crown is blunt, but laterally

compressed with mesial and distal carinae.

Surangulars: Neither of the surangulars of QM

F16788 are clearly visible. Paratypes SAM P23985,

NHMV P188438 and NHMV P188436a are

surangulars. The surangular of this species does not

appear to differ greatly from those of other

crocodilians although it is slightly more gracile than

normal.

Angulars: The angulars of QM F16788, if

present, are obscured by matrix. Paratypes SAM

P23985, SAM P29578, SAM P29579, NHMV

P188442, QM F17988 and NHMV P188436b are all

angulars.

The angulars, although basically similar to each

other in general form, show a surprising amount

of variation in detail. The longitudinal ridge on the

floor of the internal, ventral canal may be well

developed and prominent (as in SAM P23985 and

SAM P23578) or low and poorly developed (as in

SAM P29579). SAM P29578 has only one large

foramen in the ventral canal whereas SAM P23985

and SAM P29579 have two small foramina. SAM

P29578 has a flared rim extending from the

posterior side of the internal ascending (coronoid)

process flaring medially and extending posteriorly

to the posterior ascending margin. This flared rim

is not seen in the other specimens. However, these

are minor differences and, considering the variation

seen in comparing specimens of other crocodilians,

there is no reason to suspect that these angulars do

not represent the same species.

Other mandibular elements: The articulars,

coronoids and splenials may be present on QM

F16788 but if so are obscured by matrix. These

elements were not identified among the paratypes.

Mandibular fenestrae: Both the external

mandibular fenestrae and the inferior internal

fenestrae are best preserved in SAM P23985.

The external mandibular fenestra is quite large

for a crocodyline. It is subtriangular. The

‘hypotenuse’ forms the superior border, which is

inclined to the ventral margin of the mandible.

The inferior internal foramen is only known from

its ventral and posterior margins. These give the

impression of a relatively large size for this foramen.

Postcranials: Although there are many

postcranial elements associated with the holotype

and paratypes, these are not described in detail here.

Most are poorly preserved or do not differ

significantly from comparative specimens of C

porosus and C. johnstoni. However, the following

observations may be made with confidence: 1, all

vertebrae apparently are procoelous; 2, cervical

vertebrae (AMNH 23055) are strongly keeled; 3,

dorsal arches (centra eroded prior to collection) are

best preserved, lacking only the dorsal spine, and

the prezygopophyseal facets are not laterally

extended as in C. porosus (Fig. 10); 4, cervical arches

are broken but resemble those of C. porosus (Fig.

11); 5, the humerus is broken and the articular ends

are missing, but it agrees in proportions with that

of C. porosus; 6, the coracoid and the preserved

portion of the scapula visible are no different from

those of C. porosus; 7, The numerous scutes have

no keel and a sculpture of pits that are not as deep

as those on the skull (Fig. 12); 8, long elements of

the limbs (humerus, femur, tibia, fibula and

metatarsals) are straighter than in either C. porosus

or C. johnstoni but otherwise similar; 9, the vestigial

fifth metatarsal is much more robust and thick than

the corresponding element in other crocodilians.

PHYLOGENETIC AFFINITIES

At present, a phylogenetic systematic analysis of

the affinities of A. clarkae is considered premature.

Such an analysis will be more meaningfully

conducted within the context of a broader

examination of all Australian and non-Australian

crocodilians, many of which are presently under

study. Consequently the affinities of A. clarkae are

here outlined in only a cursory manner.

The position of the choanae cannot be seen on

any of the specimens. However, the basioccipital

AMNH 23050 is notched on the ventral side of the

anterior process to accommodate the narial passage.

This indicates that the internal nares must have been

situated posteriorly in the palate. This feature,

together with the presence of procoelous vertebrae

and the subdermal postorbital bar indicate that this

is an advanced eusuchian crocodylid (Steel 1973).

Although the semi-enclosed fourth mandibular

tooth could suggest alligatorine affinities, the

contact of the nasal and the lacrymal (seen in

Alligator and some fossil alligatorines), the

sequence of maxillary tooth enlargement (the fifth

being the largest rather than the fourth, an

alligatorine apomorphic character-state) and the

general form of the skull indicate crocodyline

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE 53

i i

“100m

arene! ne i RS —

ae ee wy ey {IIH i LTTE! MU iH |

WoL jjornm 30 | 40 o 7/0 a go | 100 | to | wo | 130 __

: 6 y a 200 | 400 ~ * 500 600 T

FIGURE II. The cervical vertebrae and scapula, as preserved, in the type specimen (QM F16788) of A. clarkae, in

lateral view. c, Centrum (viewed obliquely from above). p, Prezygapophyses. pa, Parapophysis. s, Scapula. Scale in mm.

54 P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

, "

hog! |

eee

| MMT Tl

910 40

| TY 5 r

120

600

FIGURE 12. Dorsal osteoderms, in situ, of the type specimen (QM F16788) of A. clarkae, in dorsal view. Two complete

osteoderms are indicated by arrows just at left of centre and at bottom-centre. Scale in mm.

affinities. Thus the semi-enclosed fourth

mandibular tooth is probably a convergent feature.

Australosuchus clarkae shows some features that

have been tentatively proposed as synapomorphies

of an Australian Tertiary crocodile radiation (Willis

et al. 1990). These include the lack of an anterior

process of the palatine, the degree and sequence of

tooth enlargement in the dentary and the presence

of an overbite. The lesser development of an

alveolar process on the premaxilla and maxilla and

the palatal fenestrae being more posteriorly located

than in other Australian crocodilians suggest that

A. clarkae is a more plesiomorphic member of this

group.

There is a striking resemblance between the

anterior portion of the dentaries of A. clarkae and

B. darrowi which suggests a close affinity between

the two. However, they differ in the posterior extent

of the mandibular symphysis. In Baru the

symphysis extends to the level of the sixth or seventh

alveolus while in Australosuchus it extends only to

the level of the fourth or fifth alveolus.

DISCUSSION

Australosuchus clarkae is a freshwater crocodilian

of moderate size from the late Oligocene and early

Miocene of central Australia. To date, it is the oldest

described member of the Australian Tertiary

radiation of crocodiles (Willis ef a/. 1990). It shows

some features that suggest it may be the most

plesiomorphic member of this group.

Australosuchus clarkae is considered to be a

generalised crocodilian, that is, it lacks features

commonly associated with more specialised

crocodilians such as longirostrine, ziphodont or

brevirostrine characters.

As discussed briefly above, the Mampuwordu

specimens obstensibly represent this species in late

Pliocene or early Pleistocene time in the Lake

Palankarinna area. However, cataloguing or

collecting errors may be involved. While the

possibility that this species remained largely

unchanged from the late Oligocene to the

Pleistocene could not be ruled out, such extreme

morphological conservatism seems unlikely even in

situations where environments persisted for long

times. Unfortunately, without considerably more

research, details of preservation cannot be reliably

used to distinguish between specimens of the

Mampuwordu deposit and those from the older

Etadunna deposits (Archer, pers. comm.)

Material belonging to A. clarkae has been

mentioned by other authors. Estes (1984)

MIDDLE TERTIARY CROCODILE 55

commented that the only crocodilian material in a

sample of fossils from Lake Palankarinna were

small, unidentifiable teeth. Stirton et al. (1968)

mentioned unidentifiable crocodilian remains from

Lake Palankarinna. Molnar (1982) briefly

mentioned the ‘Etadunna’ crocodilian suggesting

that it may be related to a crocodilian from Murgon

in south-east Queensland. Because there is no

evidence of more than one crocodilian from Lake

Palankarinna in the extensive collections of material

examined in this study, it seems reasonable that

crocodilian material mentioned by these authors can

be attributed, at least tentatively, to A. clarkae.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Tom Rich, Neville Pledge and

Gene Gaffney for the loan of material used in this study.

Mike Archer collected the type specimen, critically read

early drafts and finished manuscripts and offered advice

about the biostratigraphy. Dick Tedford and Neville Pledge

provided photographs of some specimens and L. Bierne

produced all artwork. The Queensland Museum and an

N. S. F. Grant to M. O. Woodburne provided support for

the 1975 expeditions to Lake Palankarinna. A scholarship

from the Dean of the Faculty of Biological and

Behavioural Sciences, University of New South Wales,

provided support for one of the authors (P. W.) during

this study.

REFERENCES

ARCHER, M., EVERY, R. G., GODTHELP, H., HAND,

S. J. & SCALLY, K. 1990. Yingabalanaridae, a new

family of enigmatic mammals from Tertiary deposits

of Riversleigh, north-western Queensland. Memoirs of

the Queensland Museum 28: 193-202.

CALLEN, R. A., DULHUNTY, J. D., LANGE, R. T.,

PLANE, M., TEDFORD, R. H., WELLS, R. T. &

WILLIAMS, D. L. G. 1987. The Lake Eyre Basin —

Cainozoic sediments, fossil vertebrates and plants,

landforms, silcretes and climatic implications.

Australasian Sedimentologists Group Field Guide

Series No. 4.

ESTES, R. 1984. Fish, amphibians and reptiles from the

Etadunna Formation, Miocene of South Australia.

Australian Zoologist 21: 335-348.

IORDANSKY, N. N. 1973. The skull of the Crocodilia.

Pp. 201-262 in ‘Biology of the Reptilia’. Vol. 4.

Morphology D. Ed. C. Gans & T. S. Parsons. Academic

Press: London.

MOLNAR, R. E. 1982. Pallimnarchus and other Cenozoic

crocodiles of Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland

Museum 20: 657-673.

PLEDGE, N. S. 1987. Muramura williamsi, a new genus

and species of ?wynyardiid (Marsupialia: Vombatoidea)

from the Middle Miocene Etadunna Formation of

South Australia. Pp. 393-400 in ‘Possums and

Opossums, Studies in Evolution’, Ed. M. Archer. Surrey

Beatty and Sons: Sydney.

STEEL, R. 1973. Crocodylia. In ‘Handbuch der

Palaoherpetologie, Encyclopedia of Palaeoherpetology’.

Vol. 16. Ed. O. Kuhn. Gustav Fischer Verlag: Stuttgart.

STIRTON, R. A., TEDFORD, R. H. & WOODBURNE,

M. O. 1968. Australian Tertiary deposits containing

Tertiary mammals. University of California

Publications in Geological Sciences 77: 1-30.

WILLIS, P. M. A., MURRAY, P. F. & MEGIRIAN, D.

1990. Baru darrowi gen. et sp. nov., a large, broad-

snouted crocodyline (Eusuchia: Crocodylidae) from

mid-Tertiary freshwater limestones in Northern

Australia. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 29:

521-540.

WOODBURNE, M. O., CAMPBELL, C. R., RICH,

T. H. V. & PLEDGE, N. S. 1985. Geology, stratigraphy,

paleoecology. Pp. 75-84 in ‘Revision of the

Ektopodontidae (Mammalia; Marsupialia;

Phalangeroidea) of the Australian Neogene’. Ed. M.

O. Woodburne & W. A. Clemens. University of

California Publications in Geological Sciences 131.

MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM.

4. GASTROPODA : MARGINELLIDAE

D.R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

Summary

The South Australian Museum collection of marginellid types is one of the most important

collections of reference material for the Australian members of the family. The species represented

originate mainly from Tasmania and southern and eastern Australia, plus two species from New

Zealand, one species each from Antarctica, Sri Lanka and Madeira. The collection contains primary

type material, and some secondary types, of 27 species; a further 28 species are represented by

secondary types.

MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM.

4. GASTROPODA: MARGINELLIDAE

D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

HEWISH, D. R. & GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L. 1991. Mollusc type specimens in the South

Australian Museum. 4. Gastropoda: Marginellidae. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(1): 57-70

The South Australian Museum collection of marginellid types is one of the most important

collections of reference material for the Australian members of the family. The species represented

originate mainly from Tasmania and southern and eastern Australia, plus two species from New

Zealand, and one species each from Antarctica, Sri Lanka and Madeira. The collection contains

primary type material, and some secondary types, of 27 species; a further 28 species are represented

by secondary types.

D. R. Hewish, c/- Department of Invertebrates, The Museum of Victoria, Russell Street,

Melbourne, Victoria 3000, and K. L. Gowlett-Holmes, South Australian Museum, North Terrace,

Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 6 June 1990.

The Marginellidae is a family of mainly marine

gastropods that is particularly well represented in

Australia, and its members are especially abundant

in southern Australian waters. Because of this, the

Australian fauna occupies an important place in the

taxonomy of the family as a whole. The majority

of Australian species have been named during this

century, and the primary types of most of these are

held in collections of Australian museums.

The earliest marginellid type material in the

South Australian Museum collection is from the

work of Prof. R. Tate between 1878 and 1901. Tate

described species collected by himself and by

W. L. May from South Australia and Tasmania

(Tate 1878; Tate & May 1900, 1901). As most of

Tate’s species descriptions were not accompanied

by figures, these species are illustrated here, with

the exception of those which were illustrated by Tate

& May (1901).

A large number of secondary types and some

primary types of Marginellidae in the South

Australian Museum are from the collection of

W. L. May, acquired by Sir Joseph Verco and

presented to the museum in 1929. The May

Collection contained secondary types of all of the

species that May had described from Tasmania, plus

the types of some species described by May’s

contemporaries from within Australia and from

overseas.

A later series of marginellid types resulted from

the work of Cotton (1944, 1949), who described

several new species from southern and western

Australia, mostly from material previously collected

by May and Verco early this century. Cotton’s types

have never been adequately illustrated, as the figures

accompanying the original descriptions were of

poor quality and, in some cases, misleading. Figures

of types of all of Cotton’s species have therefore

been included here. Also in the collection are

specimens of several species of Marginella described

by C. Laseron from New South Wales, which come

from the type localities, and were donated to the

South Australian Museum by Laseron. These

specimens are believed to be from the type series,

and are regarded here as syntypes.

Since Laseron (1957) little of consequence has

been published on Australian Marginellidae, and the

type material of only one species, Marginella ealesae

Powell, 1958 (holotype), has been added to the

collection.

As a result of the above research, the type

collection in the South Australian Museum is very

representative of the marginellid fauna of southern

Australia and contains a very extensive range of

secondary types.

All species listed in this paper were originally

described under the genus Marginella Lamarck,

1799, but have subsequently been placed in other

genera. The generic classification of the Australian

Marginellidae has been neglected since Laseron

(1957), and is in need of revision. The most recently

published revision of genera for this family is by

Coan (1965), and this scheme, although outdated,

has been followed here, with modifications as

indicated in the text. Other modifications are the

use of Mesoginella Laseron, 1957 for species placed

previously in Sinuginella Laseron, 1957, following

Coovert (1988), and the use of Austroginella

Laseron, 1957, Alaginella Laseron, 1957 and

Protoginella Laseron, 1957 as valid genera, not

subgenera of Marginella. This is considered

necessary because species of Marginella lack

radulae, while those of the above Australian genera

have well developed radulae (D.R.H., unpublished

58 D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

results and see Coovert (1989) for review). It should

be noted that a considerable amount of further

work is necessary before the status of many generic

and subgeneric groups can be established, and it

is probable that extensive changes will be made in

the future. No comprehensive revision of the

Australian Marginellidae at the species level has ever

been undertaken, and the species level taxonomy

obviously requires considerable updating. In the

following list, species are listed alphabetically

according to their names at the time of description,

followed by the original citation, the current generic

placement (Coan 1965) and current species

allocation as determined by the authors.

The following abbreviations are used in the text.

AIM = Auckland Institute and Museum, New

Zealand; AM = Australian Museum, Sydney;

BANZARE = British, Australian and New Zealand

Antarctic Research Expedition, 1929-1931; BMNH

= British Museum (Natural History), London;

NMV = Museum of Victoria, Melbourne; N.S.W.

= New South Wales; N.Z. = New Zealand; NZGS

= New Zealand Geological Survey, Lower Hutt;

S.A. = South Australia; SAM = South Australian

Museum, Adelaide; Tas. = Tasmania; TM =

Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart; Vic.

= Victoria; W.A. = Western Australia.

Family MARGINELLIDAE

Subfamily Marginellinae

Genus Marginella Lamarck, 1799

Marginella albida Tate, 1878

Trans. Proc. Rep. Phil. Soc. Adel. 1: 87.

= Volvarina (Haloginella) vincentiana (Cotton,

1944) (q.v.) new name for M. albida Tate, 1878.

Lectotype: D13519, adult specimen, in shell sand,

Marino, near Adelaide, S.A., collected by R. Tate,

date of collection unknown. (Lectotype selected

here.) (Figs 1A-B).

Paralectotypes: D18633, 7 specimens (2 immature),

with same collection data as lectotype.

Note: We have selected the lectotype (D13519) from

the lot labelled M. albida Tate, Tate’s type & co-

types’ from Marino, S.A., the first locality listed in

the original description by Tate (1878), and have

designated the remainder of this lot (D18633) as

paralectotypes. The specimen selected as lectotype

was first separated and registered by B. C. Cotton

in 1938 as the holotype of this species, as this

specimen corresponded most closely to the

measurements given by Tate (1878). However, as Tate

(1878) did not designate a holotype, we have selected

this specimen as the lectotype (ICZN

Recommendation 73F). The ‘two examples’

mentioned by Tate (1878) most probably refer to the

number of specimens from Aldinga, S.A., the last

locality listed in the description.

Marginella albomaculata May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 382, pl. 13, fig. 2.

= Persicula concamerata (May, 1918) (q.v.) new

name for M. albomaculata May, 1911.

Paratype: D15790, adult specimen, in kelp root,

Frederick Henry Bay, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

date of collection unknown.

Note: Neither this specimen nor the holotype (TM

E627/7968) were alive when collected. The shell

surface of the paratype is slightly eroded and there

is no trace of the pattern of white spots present on

the holotype. This species was placed in the genus

Epiginella by Laseron (1957), which is now

considered to be a subgenus of Crithe Gould, 1860

(Coan 1965). However, the shell possesses a colour

pattern which precludes its inclusion in that genus

and suggests that it is more correctly placed in

Persicula.

Marginella altilabra May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 383, pl. 13, fig. 3.

= Mesoginella altilabra (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15789, 15 adult specimens (1 damaged),

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

18.xii.1907. D16086, 2 adult specimens, with same

collection data as D15789.

Note: Holotype in TM (E616/7915).

Marginella auriculata May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 85, pl. 1, fig. 6.

= Cystiscus tomlinianus (May, 1918) (q.v.) new

name for M. auriculata May, 1916.

Paratypes: D15811, 23 adult specimens (3 damaged),

dredged in 73 m (40 fm), off Thouin Bay, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

D16084, 2 adult specimens, with same collection

data as D15811.

Note: Holotype in TM (E677/8018), badly broken.

Marginella baca Cotton, 1949

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 9(2): 200, pl. 20.

= Kogomea eucla (Cotton, 1944) new synonymy.

Holotype: D14227, adult specimen, dredged dead

in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape Pillar, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, 18.xii.1907. (Figs 1C-D).

Note: It can be seen from the figures that this shell

and the type of Kogomea eucla (Figs 1K-L) are

virtually identical and there are no distinctive

features that can be used to separate the two forms.

We therefore consider M. baca to be a junior

synonym of K. eucla. This species is extremely

similar to K. diplostrepta (May, 1916), but is

approximately half the size of the latter, so a more

MOLLUSC TYPES 4: MARGINELLIDAE 59

FIGURE 1. A-B: Marginella albida Tate, 1878 (= M. vincentiana Cotton, 1944), lectotype, SAM D13519, x 9.9.

C-D: M. baca Cotton, 1949, holotype, SAM D14227, x 11.8. E-F: M. borda Cotton, 1944, holotype, SAM D14988,

x 10.8. G-H: M. cymbalum Tate, 1878, adult syntype, SAM D13521, x 9.3. I-J: M. denticulata Tate, 1878 (= M.

elliottae Cotton, 1944), syntype, SAM D14501, x 22.3. K-L: M. eucla Cotton, 1944, holotype, SAM D14985, x 11.2.

60 D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

extensive investigation is required to establish their

relationship. Type unique.

Marginella binivitta Laseron, 1948

Rec. Aust. Mus. 22(1): 39, pl. 5, fig. 11.

= Mesoginella binivitta (Laseron, 1948).

Syntypes: D14235, 3 adult specimens, dredged dead

in sandy mud in 55-64 m (30-35 fm), Crookhaven,

N.SW., collected by C. F. Laseron, date of collection

unknown.

Note: These specimens were obtained from Laseron,

and are believed to be from the type series. This

species may be synonymous with Mesoginella

olivella (Reeve, 1865), but a more extensive

investigation is required. Other syntypes in AM

(C103363).

Marginella biplicata Tate & May, 1900.

Trans. Proc. R. Soc. S. Aust. 24: 92.

= Kogomea diplostrepta (May, 1916) (q.v.) new

name for M. biplicata Tate & May, 1900.

Syntype: D18635, immature specimen, dredged in

44 m (24 fm), Port Esperance, Tas., collected by

W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

Note: This species was figured by Tate & May (1901).

The other syntype is in TM (E634/7975), badly

damaged.

Marginella borda Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat: 22: 16; fig. 33.

= Alaginella borda (Cotton, 1944).

Holotype: D14988, adult specimen with dried

animal, dredged in 100 m (55 fm), off Cape Borda,

S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, January 1905. (Figs

1E-F).

Paratypes: D18645, 2 adult specimens, dredged dead

in 90 m (49 fm), off Beachport, S.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown. D18646,

2 adult specimens (1 damaged), dredged dead in 238

m (130 fm), off Cape Jaffa, S.A., collected by J.

C. Verco, date of collection unknown. D18747, 4

adult specimens (1 damaged), dredged dead in 82 m

(45 fm), east of North Neptune Island, S.A.,

collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown.

D18648, 1 damaged adult specimen, dredged dead

in 64 m (35 fm), King George Sound, W.A.,

collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown.

D18649, 2 adult specimens, dead collected, in beach

sand, Hopetoun, W.A., collected by J. C. Verco,

date of collection unknown.

Marginella caducocincta May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 88, pl. 2, fig. 11.

= Mesoginella caducocincta (May, 1916).

Paratypes: D15794, 16 adult specimens, dredged

dead in 73 m (40 fm), off Thouin Bay, Tas., collected

by W. L. May, date of collection unknown. D16083,

7 adult specimens, with same collection data as

D15794.

Note: Holotype in TM (E623/7964).

Marginella cairoma Brookes, 1924

Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst. 55: 154, pl. 7, figs 4-5.

= Dentimargo cairoma (Brookes, 1924).

Paratypes: D9447, 6 specimens (1 immature), Taipa,

Doubtless Bay, N.Z., collected by A. E. Brookes,

date of collection unknown.

Note: Holotype in AIM (TM1277).

Marginella cartwrighti Sowerby, 1915

Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 11(4): 214, text fig.

= Granulina cartwrighti (Sowerby, 1915).

Syntypes: D9460, 2 adult specimens, Trincomalee,

Ceylon (Sri Lanka), collector and date of collection

unknown.

Note: Two. other

(1919.12.31.45-46).

syntypes in BMNH

Marginella columnaria Hedley & May, 1908

Rec. Aust. Mus. 7: 120, pl. 23, fig. 19.

= Pillarginella columnaria (Hedley & May, 1908).

Paratypes: D15798, 6 adult specimens (1 damaged),

dredged in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape

Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May, 18.xii.1907.

Note: Although Coan (1965) synonymised

Pillarginella Gabriel, 1962 with Haloginella

Laseron, 1957 (as a subgenus of Volvarina Hinds,

1844), examination of the radula of this species,

which is the type species of the former, by one of

us (DRH), suggests that Pillarginella is distinct from

Volvarina. Holotype in AM (C28936), other

paratypes in AM (C163392), TM (E625/7966),

NMV (F30598) and BMNH.

Marginella concamerata May, 1918

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1917: 104.

= Persicula concamerata (May, 1918).

Paratype: D15790, adult specimen, in kelp root,

Frederick Henry Bay, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

date of collection unknown.

Note: New name for Marginella albomaculata May,

1911 (non Schliter, 1838), and therefore based on

the same type series. Holotype in TM (E627/7968).

Marginella connectans May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 387, pl. 14, fig. 11.

= Cystiscus connectans (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15795, 9 adult specimens (3 damaged),

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

18.xii.1907. D16082, 1 adult specimen, with same

collection data as D15795.

Note: Holotype in TM (E628/7969).

MOLLUSC TYPES 4:

Marginella (Volvaria) consanguinea Smith, 1890

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 60: 266, pl. 23, fig. 11.

= Cystiscus consanguineus (Smith, 1890).

Syntypes: D17540, 2 damaged adult specimens,

from St Helena, collector and date of collection

unknown.

Note: From the May Collection. Other syntypes in

BMNH.

Marginella consobrina May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 387, pl. 14, fig. 10.

= Mesoginella consobrina (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15792, 2 adult specimens, dredged dead

in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape Pillar, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, 18.x1i.1907.

Note: Holotype in TM (E630/7971).

Marginella cratericula Tate & May, 1900

Trans. Proc. R. Soc. S. Aust. 24: 91.

= Cystiscus cratericulus (Tate & May, 1900).

Syntype: D18634, adult specimen with dried animal,

dredged in 18 m (10 fm), D’Entrecasteaux Channel,

Tas., collected by W. L. May, date of collection

unknown.

Note: This species was figured by Tate & May (1901).

One other syntype in TM (E631/7972).

Marginella cylichnella May, 1918

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1917: 104.

= Balanetta (Ovaginella) cylichnella (May, 1918).

Paratypes: D15793, 8 adult specimens (2 damaged),

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

18.xii.1907. D18636, 1 adult specimen, with same

collection data as D15793.

Note: New name for Marginella microscopica May,

1911 (non Tapparone Canefri, 1875), and therefore

based on the same type series. Holotype in TM

(E632/7973), broken.

Marginella cymbalum Tate, 1878

Trans. Proc. Rep. Phil. Soc. Adel. 1: 86.

= Cystiscus cymbalum (Tate, 1878).

Syntypes: D13521, 2 specimens (1 immature), in

beach sand, Aldinga Bay, near Adelaide, S.A.,

collected by R. Tate, date of collection unknown.

(Figs 1G-H).

Note: Other syntypes in BMNH (1879.10.28.7).

Marginella denticulata Tate, 1878.

Trans. Proc. Rep. Phil. Soc. Adel. 1: 87.

= Granulina elliottae (Cotton, 1944) (q.v.) new

name for M. denticulata Tate, 1878.

Syntypes: D14501, 7 adult specimens (2 damaged),

in beach sand, Wauraltie (Port Victoria), Yorke

Peninsula, S.A., collected by R. Tate, date of

collection unknown. (Figs II-J).

MARGINELLIDAE 61

Note: The type description only mentions three

specimens, and as all the specimens in D14501 are

of approximately equal size and form, it is

impossible to isolate the actual syntypes. Therefore

the status of the entire lot is questionable.

Marginella dentiens May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 384, pl. 13, fig. 6.

= Volvarinella dentiens (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15791, 7 adult specimens (2 damaged),

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., 18.xii.1907, and dredged dead in

146 m (80 fm), 10 miles east of Schouten Island,

Tas., date of collection unknown, all collected by

W. L. May.

Note: Holotype in TM (E633/7974).

Marginella diplostreptus May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 76.

= Kogomea diplostrepta (May, 1916).

Syntype: D18635, immature specimen, dredged in

44 m (24 fm), Port Esperance, Tas., collected by

W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

Note: New name for Marginella biplicata Tate &

May, 1900 (non Krauss, 1852), and therefore based

on the same type series. This species was figured

by Tate & May (1901) as M. biplicata. One other

syntype in TM (E634/7975), badly damaged.

Marginella ealesae Powell, 1958

BANZARE Rep. Ser. B, 6(9): 200, text fig. BI.

=Marginella? ealesae Powell, 1958.

Holotype: D15505, possibly immature specimen

with dried animal, dredged in 300 m, BANZARE

Stn 39, off Enderby Land, Antarctica, (66°30’S,

49°45’E), collected by BANZARE, 17.1.1930.

Note: As this species comes from a population

which has received very little study and which may

not be contiguous with other faunas, its generic

status cannot be accurately assigned on the basis

of shell characters alone. Only examination of the

radula will allow the genus to be assigned accurately.

Marginella elliottae Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 13.

= Granulina elliottae (Cotton, 1944).

Syntypes: D14501, 7 adult specimens (2 damaged),

in beach sand, Wauraltie (Port Victoria), Yorke

Peninsula, S.A., collected by R. Tate, date of

collection unknown. (Figs II-J).

Note: New name for Marginella denticulata Tate,

1878, (non Link, 1807, nec Conrad, 1830), and

therefore based on the same type series. See note

under that species concerning the status of these

specimens.

62 D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

FIGURE 2. A-B: Marginella erma Cotton, 1944, holotype, SAM D14986, x 18.5. C-D: M. Jaffa Cotton, 1944, holotype,

SAM D14982 x 8.7. E-F: M. leia Cotton, 1944, holotype, SAM D14984, x 6.4. G-H: M. newmanae Cotton, 1949,

holotype, SAM D14229, x 5.6. I-J: M. occidua Cotton, 1944, holotype, SAM D14987, x 4.4. K-L: M. patria Cotton,

1949, holotype, SAM D14228, x 13.4.

MOLLUSC TYPES 4: MARGINELLIDAE 63

Marginella erma Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 15.

= Cystiscus angasi (Crosse, 1870) new synonymy.

Holotype: D14986, damaged adult specimen,

dredged in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape

Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May, 18.xii.1907. (Figs

2A-B).

Note: This species was inadequately described and

figured by Cotton (1944). It is apparently a minor

variant of Cystiscus angasi, which is a species that

exhibits considerable variability of shell shape and

has a number of synonyms (Laseron 1957). Type

unique.

Marginella eucla Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 12, fig. 24.

= Kogomea eucla (Cotton, 1944).

Holotype: D14985, adult specimen, dredged dead

in 146 m (80 fm), off Eucla, W.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, March 1912. (Figs 1K-L).

Paratypes: D15915, 4 adult specimens, with same

collection data as holotype. D18667, 58 specimens

(21 damaged, 4 immature), dredged dead in 148 m

(81 fm), 80 miles west of Eucla, W.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, March 1912. D18668, 19 specimens (3

damaged, 4 immature), dredged dead in 146-220

m (80-120 fm), west of Eucla, W.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, March 1912. D18669, 9 adult specimens

(2 damaged), in beach sand, Hopetoun, W.A.,

collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown.

D18670, 24 specimens (5 damaged, 4 immature),

dredged dead in 73 m (40 fm), off Beachport, S.A.,

collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown.

D18671, 2 adult specimens, dredged dead in 90 m

(49 fm), other collection data same as D18670.

D18672, 25 specimens (4 damaged, 7 immature),

dredged dead in 201 m (110 fm), other collection

data same as D18670. D18673, 24 specimens (4

damaged, | immature), dredged dead in 274 m (150

fm), other collection data same as D18670. D18674,

15 specimens (1 damaged, 6 immature), dredged

dead in 366 m (200 fm), other collection data same

as D18670. D18675, 33 specimens (5 damaged, 9

immature), dredged dead in 164 m (90 fm), off Cape

Jaffa, collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection

unknown. D18676, 16 specimens (4 damaged, 1

immature), dredged dead in 238 m (130 fm), other

collection details same as D18675. D18677, 41

specimens (11 damaged, 3 immature), dredged dead

in 100 m (55 fm), off Cape Borda, Kangaroo Island,

S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection

unknown. D18678, 30 specimens (2 damaged, 12

immature), dredged dead in 113 m (62 fm), north-

west of Cape Borda, Kangaroo Island, S.A.,

collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown.

D18679, 1 adult specimen, dredged dead in 36 m

(20 fm), off Newland Head, S.A., collected by

J.C. Verco, date of collection unknown. D18680,

6 adult specimens (3 damaged), dredged dead in

27-36 m (15-20 fm), off St Francis Island, Nuyts

Archipelago, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown.

Note: Marginella baca Cotton, 1949 is a junior

synonym.

Marginella freycineti May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 86, pl. 2, fig. 9.

= Cystiscus freycineti (May, 1916).

Paratypes: D16174, 22 adult specimens, dredged

dead in 73 m (40 fm), Thouin Bay, Tas., collected

by W. L. May, date of collection unknown. D16088,

3 adult specimens, from Tas., collected by W. L.

May, date of collection unknown.

Note: This species may be a form of Cystiscus

angasi (Crosse, 1870). Holotype in TM

(E636/7977).

Marginella gabrieli May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 386, pl. 13, fig. 9.

= Volvarinella? gabrieli (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15805, 8 adult specimens (1 with dried

animal), dredged in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east

of Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

18.xii.1907. D16077, 2 adult specimens, from Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

Note: The generic placement of this species is

problematical and cannot be resolved on the basis

of shell characters alone. Holotype in TM

(E642/7983).

Marginella gatliffi May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 385, pl. 13, fig. 8.

= Protoginella gatliffi (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15987, 47 adult specimens (9

damaged), dredged dead off Schouten Island, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

D16805, 2 adult specimens, dredged dead in 73 m

(40 fm), off Schouten Island, Tas., collected by

W. L. May, 27.iii1.1910.

Note: Holotype in TM (E643/7984).

Marginella georgeana May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 88, pl. 3, fig. 13.

= Austroginella georgeana (May, 1916).

Paratypes: D15803, 3 specimens (1 immature),

dredged dead in 27 m (15 fm), near George III Reef,

below Southport, Tas., collected by W. L. May, date

of collection unknown.

Note: Laseron (1957) placed this species in his genus

Plicaginella, which has been synonymised with

Austroginella by Coovert (1988) on the basis of

radular morphology. Holotype in TM (E645/79835).

64 D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

Marginella gracilis May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 383, pl. 13, fig. 4.

= Volvarinella maugeana (Hedley, 1915) (q.v.) new

name for M. gracilis May, 1911.

Paratypes: D15815, 9 adult specimens, dredged dead

in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape Pillar, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, 18.xii.1907. D16087, 2 adult

specimens, with same collection data as D15815.

Note: Holotype in TM (E657/7998).

Marginella hedleyi May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 381, pl. 13, fig. 1.

= Volvarina (Haloginella) hedleyi (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15799, 11 specimens (5 immature, 3

adult and | immature with dried animals), dredged

in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape Pillar, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, 18.xii.1907. D16076, 2 adult

specimens, dead collected, with same collection data

as D15799.

Note: Holotype in TM (E646/7987).

Marginella inaequidens May, 1913

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1912: 44, pl. 2, fig. 1.

= Cystiscus inaequidens (May, 1913).

Paratypes: D15804, 16 adult specimens (1 damaged),

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., 18.xii.1907, and dredged dead in

73 m (40 fm), off Schouten Island, Tas., 27.iii.1910,

all collected by W. L. May. D16078, 3 specimens

(1 immature, 1 damaged), dredged dead in 183 m

(100 fm), off Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L.

May, 18.xii.1907.

Note: Holotype in TM (E647/7988), badly broken.

Marginella incerta May, 1920

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1919: 59, pl. 16, fig. 8.

= Cystiscus incertus (May, 1920).

Paratypes: D15806, 14 adult specimens (2 damaged),

dredged dead in 73 m (40 fm), Thouin Bay, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

Note: This species is closely related to Cystiscus

angasi (Crosse, 1870). Holotype in TM

(E649/7990).

Marginella indiscreta May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 388, pl. 14, fig. 12.

= Cystiscus indiscretus (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15813, 5 adult specimens (1 damaged),

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

18.xi1.1907. D16080, 1 adult specimen, with same

collection data as D15813.

Note: Holotype in TM (E651/7992).

Marginella jaffa Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 11, fig. 13.

= Volvarinella jaffa (Cotton, 1944).

Holotype: D14982, adult specimen, dredged dead

in 238 m (130 fm), off Cape Jaffa, S.A. collected

by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown. (Figs

2C-D).

Paratypes: D15914, 4 adult specimens, with same

collection data as holotype. D18655, 11 specimens

(1 damaged, | immature), dredged dead in 201 m

(110 fm), off Beachport, S.A., collected by J. C.

Verco, date of collection unknown. D18656, 11

specimens (1 damaged, 4 immature), dredged dead

in 274 m (150 fm), other collection data same as

D18655. D18657, 14 specimens (2 damaged, 3

immature), dredged dead in 366 m (200 fm), other

collection data same as D18655. D18658, 1 damaged

adult specimen, dredged dead in 100 m (55 fm), off

Cape Borda, Kangaroo Island, S.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown. D18659,

20 specimens (5 damaged, 5 immature), dredged

dead in 190 m (104 fm), 35 miles south-west of

Neptune Islands, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date

of collection unknown. D18660, 18 specimens (8

damaged, 7 immature), dredged dead in 148 m (81

fm), 80 miles west of Eucla, W.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, March 1912. D18661, 1 adult specimen,

dead collected, in beach sand, Hopetoun, W.A.,

collected by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown.

Note: This species is very similar to Vol/varinella

cuneata (Laseron, 1948).

Marginella leia Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 10, fig. 11.

= Mesoginella turbinata (Sowerby, 1846) new

synonymy.

Holotype: D14984, adult specimen, dredged dead

in 274 m (150 fm), off Beachport, S.A., collected

by J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown. (Figs

2E-F).

Paratypes: D18653, 7 adult specimens, with same

collection data as holotype. D18651, 5 adult

specimens, dredged dead in 73 m (40 fm), other

collection data same as holotype. D18652, 17

specimens (6 damaged, | immature), dredged dead

in 201 m (110 fm), other collection data same as

holotype. D18654, 6 adult specimens (1 damaged),

dredged dead in 366 m (200 fm), other collection

data same as holotype. D18650, 3 specimens (2

immature), dredged dead in 113 m (62 fm), off Cape

Borda, Kangaroo Island, S.A., collected by J. C.

Verco, date of collection unknown.

Note: The original illustration of this species was

misleading as it did not show an anterior canal

which is very well developed in the holotype. The

types are heterogeneous in form and appear to be

minor variants of Mesoginella turbinata, so we

regard M. /eia as a junior synonym of the latter.

This change renders invalid the genus Spiroginella

Laseron, 1957.

MOLLUSC TYPES 4: MARGINELLIDAE 65

Marginella lodderae May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 384, pl. 13, fig. 5.

= Volvarinella lodderae (May, 1911).

Paratype: D15814, damaged adult specimen,

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

18.xii.1907.

Note: This specimen was labelled by Verco ‘Co-Iype

but somewhat uncertain’. As this specimen is from

the May Collection, and was collected at the same

time and locality as the type, we believe it is a valid

paratype. Holotype in TM (E656/7997).

Marginella (Glabella) lurida Suter, 1909

Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 8(3): 183, pl. 7, fig. 14.

= Volvarina lurida (Suter, 1909).

Paralectotypes: D9474, 2 adult specimens (1

broken), dredged dead in 27 m (15 fm), Foveaux

Strait, N.Z., collector and date of collection

unknown.

Note: Lectotype in NZGS (TM1086), selected by

Boreham (1959).

Marginella malina Hedley, 1915

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 39(4): 725, pl. 82, fig. 65.

= Triginella malina (Hedley, 1915).

Paratypes: D16109, 6 specimens (1 immature, 2

broken), dredged dead in 146 m (80 fm), 22 miles

east of Narrabeen, N.SW., collected by W. A.

Haswell, H.M.C.S. ‘Miner’, 7.vi.1906.

Note: Holotype in AM (C25936), other paratypes

in AM (C18242, C163384) and BMNH

(1915.12.31.114-117).

Marginella maugeana Hedley, 1915

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 39(4): 727.

= Volvarinella maugeana (Hedley, 1915).

Paratypes: D15815, 9 adult specimens, dredged dead

in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape Pillar, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, 18.xii.1907. D16087, 2 adult

specimens, with same collection data as D15815.

Note: New name for Marginella gracilis May, 1911

(non C. B. Adams, 1852), and therefore based on

the same type series. Holotype in TM (E657/7998).

Marginella mayii Tate in Tate & May, 1900

Trans. Proc. R. Soc. S. Aust. 24: 93.

= Volvarinella mayii (Tate, 1900).

Syntypes: D13523, 1 adult specimen, dead collected,

Frederick Henry Bay, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

date of collection unknown. D16131, 1 broken

specimen, dead collected, from Tas., collected by

W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

Note: This species was figured by Tate & May (1901).

Other syntypes in TM (E659/8000) and BMNH

(1912.6.23.1-2).

Marginella microscopica May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 389, pl. 14, fig. 13.

= Balanetta (Ovaginella) cylichnella (May, 1918)

(q.v.) new name for M. microscopica May, 1911.

Paratypes: D15793, 8 adult specimens (2 broken),

dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of

Cape Pillar, Tas., collected by W. L. May,

18.xii.1907. D18636, 1 adult specimen, with same

collection data as D15793.

Note: The generic affinities of this species are

problematical and examination of the animal is

necessary before accurate assignment can be made.

Holotype in TM (E632/7973), broken.

Marginella multidentata May, 1920

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1919: 59, pl. 16, fig. 7.

= Cystiscus multidentatus (May, 1920).

Paratype: D15802, adult specimen, dredged in 18 m

(10 fm), off Gordon, D’Entrecasteaux Channel,

Tas., collected by W. L. May, December 1918.

Note: Holotype in TM (E662/8003).

Marginella newmanae Cotton, 1949

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 9(2): 199, pl. 20.

= Persicula pulchella (Kiener, 1834) new synonymy.

Holotype: D14229, adult specimen, Esperance,

W.A., collector and date of collection unknown.

(Figs 2G-H).

Note: Close examination shows the presence of a

faint pattern of orange zig-zag lines not mentioned

in the type description. The holotype and the

specimens listed and labelled M. newmanae by

Cotton (1949) (SAM D18727-33) encompass all the

forms of Persicula pulchella found in southern

Australia, and we therefore regard M. newmanae

as a junior synonym of P pulchella. This species

was placed in the genus Epiginella by Laseron

(1957).

Marginella obesula May, 1920

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1919: 58, pl. 14, fig. 5.

= Cystiscus obesulus (May, 1920).

Paratypes: D15809, 7 adult specimens, in kelp

rhizophores, Frederick Henry Bay, Tas., collected

by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

Note: This species is very closely related to Cystiscus

angasi (Crosse, 1870) and can only be distinguished

from that species by the distinctive orange and

brown colours of the living animal as described by

May (1920). Of the SAM types, four were dead

when collected and their assignment must be

considered doubtful. Of the remainder, definite

traces of the characteristic colours of the animal

can be seen through the shell of one specimen and

it is certainly this species. The animal remains in

the other two have deteriorated to the stage where

it is impossible to conclusively identify the species,

D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

FIGURE 3. A-B: Marginella pattisoni Cotton, 1944, holotype, SAM D14983, x 5.3. C-D: M. sica Cotton, 1949,

holotype, SAM D14230, x 10.0. E-F: M. subbulbosa Tate, 1878, syntype, SAM D13520, x 13.3. G-H: M. vercoi

May, 1911, paratype, SAM DI5816, x 7.8. I-J: M. weedingi Cotton, 1944, holotype, SAM D14989, x 7.8.

MOLLUSC TYPES 4: MARGINELLIDAE 67

but it must be assumed that May’s original

identification was correct. More detailed taxonomic

work is necessary to establish the validity of this

species. Holotype in TM (E667/8008).

Marginella occidua Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 15, fig. 24,

= Volvarina (Haloginella) occidua (Cotton, 1944).

Holotype: D14987, adult specimen, Albany, W.A.,

collector and date of collection unknown. (Figs

2I-J).

Paratypes: D18681, 2 adult specimens, dead

collected, Rottnest Island, W.A., collector and date

of collection unknown. D18682, 1 immature

specimen, dredged dead in 40 m (22 fm), off

Bunbury, W.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown. D18683, 8 specimens (3

immature), dredged dead in 64 m (35 fm), off

Hopetoun, W.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown. D18684, 18 adult specimens (2

damaged), dead collected, Albany, collected by W.

G. Torr, date of collection unknown.

Note: The paratype lots contain specimens of two

distinct spire and columellar plication

morphologies. As shell sizes and colour patterns are

the same throughout, examination of the animals

is necessary to establish the status of the forms.

Marginella patria Cotton, 1949

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 9(2): 201, pl. 20.

= Mesoginella patria (Cotton, 1949).

Holotype: D14228, adult specimen, dredged dead

in 64 m (35 fm), off Hopetoun, W.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown. (Figs

2K-L).

Note: Laseron (1957) placed this species in the genus

Kogomea Habe, 1951. However, some important

shell features, notably the form of the columellar

plications and labial dentition, do not correspond

with those of that genus.

Marginella pattisoni Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 11, fig. 10.

= Mesoginella turbinata (Sowerby, 1846) new

synonymy.

Holotype: D14983, adult specimen, dead collected,

Encounter Bay, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date

of collection unknown. (Figs 3A-B).

Paratypes: D18862, 4 adult specimens, dredged live

in 48 m (26 fm), 38 miles south-east of Newland

Head, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown. D18663, 1 adult specimen,

dead collected, Guichen Bay, S.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown. D18664,

43 specimens (19 damaged, 6 immature), in beach

sand, Aldinga, near Adelaide, S.A., collector and

date of collection unknown. D18665, 6 adult

specimens, dead collected, Royston Head, Yorke

Peninsula, S.A., collected by E. H. Matthews, date

of collection unknown. D18666, 1 adult specimen,

live collected, MacDonnell Bay, S.A., collected by

W. G. Torr, date of collection unknown.

Note: The shell characters of this species are within

the normal range of variability observed in

populations of Mesoginella turbinata, and we

consider it to be merely a broad variant of that

species.

Marginella praetermissa May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 87, pl. 2, fig. 12.

= Austroginella praetermissa (May, 1916).

Paratypes: D15808, 3 adult specimens, from Tas.,

collector and date of collection unknown.

Note: Laseron (1957) placed this species in his genus

Plicaginella, which has been synonymised with

Austroginella by Coovert (1988) on the basis of

radular morphology. Holotype in TM (E670/8011).

Marginella procella May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 87, pl. 2, fig. 10.

= Mesoginella olivella (Reeve, 1865).

Paratypes: D15810, 4 specimens (1 immature),

dredged dead in 73 m (40 fm), off Schouten Island,

Tas., collected by W. L. May, 27.iii.1910.

Note: May synonymised this species with M. infelix

Jousseaume, and subsequently, M. olivella (see

Laseron 1948). These two species have been

considered to be synonymous, but the shells of M.

procella and M. infelix are shorter and

proportionately wider than those of M. olivella, and

more work is necessary to determine the status of

both forms. Type in TM (E652/7993).

Marginella punicea Laseron, 1948

Rec. Aust. Mus. 22(1): 38, pl. 5, fig. 7.

= Kogomea agapeta (Watson, 1886) new synonymy.

Syntype: D14237, adult specimen, dredged alive in

11-16 m (6-9 fm), Sow and Pigs Reef, Port Jackson,

N.SW., collected by C. F. Laseron, date of collection

unknown.

Note: This specimen was obtained from Laseron,

and is believed to be part of the type series. The

types of this species conform exactly to the

description of Kogomea agapeta (Watson, 1886)

and have been compared with a photograph of the

holotype (BMNH 1887.2.9.911). The type localities

for M. punicea are very close to that of K. agapeta

and it is therefore considered to be a synonym.

Other syntypes in AM (C103367).

Marginella ringens May, 1920

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1919: 58, pl. 14, fig. 6.

= Cystiscus angasi (Crosse, 1870) new synonymy.

Paratypes: D15807, 8 adult specimens (1 damaged,

1 with dried animal), Kelso Bay, Tamar Heads, Tas.,

68 D. R. HEWISH & K. L.

collected by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

Note: The shell morphology of this species is within

the range of variability of Cystiscus angasi, which

exhibits an extraordinarily large degree of variation

in shell shape (Laseron 1957). We consider it a

synonym of that species in the absence of any

distinctive features. Holotype in TM (E671/8012).

Marginella (Volvarina) roberti Bavay, 1917

J. Conch. Paris 63: 104, pl. 2, fig. 8.

Volvarina roberti (Bavay, 1917).

Syntype: D17541, adult specimen, from Madeira,

collector and date of collection unknown.

Note: From the May Collection, not the figured

syntype. One syntype is reputed to be in the

Desjardins Collection, Paris, but the collection

cannot be presently located. Other syntypes are held

in the Coen Collection, in the Hebrew University,

Jerusalem, but they do not include the figured

specimen (S. Gofas, pers. comm.).

Marginella schoutanica May, 1913

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1912: 45, pl. 2, fig. 2.

= Mesoginella schoutanica (May, 1913).

Paratypes: D15811, 19 adult specimens (3 damaged,

1 with dried animal), dredged in 73 m (40 fm), 3

miles east of Schouten Island, Tas., collected by W.

L. May, 27.iii.1910. D16081, 3 adult specimens, with

same collection data as D15811.

Note: Holotype in TM (E672/8013).

Marginella shorehami Pritchard & Gatliff, 1899

Proc. R. Soc. Vic. 11(2): 179, pl. 20, fig. 2.

= Cystiscus angasi (Crosse, 1870).

Syntypes: D16098, 3 adult specimens, Shoreham

Beach, Westernport Bay, Vic., collector and date of

collection unknown.

Note: This species was synonymised with Cystiscus

angasi (Crosse, 1870) by Laseron (1957). Another

syntype in NMV (F548).

Marginella sica Cotton, 1949

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 9(2): 200, pl. 19.

= Austroginella vercoi (May, 1911) new synonymy.

Holotype: D14230, adult specimen, dredged dead

in 366 m (200 fm), off Eucla, W.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, March 1912. (Figs 3C-D).

Note: As can be seen from the figures, the shell

closely resembles that of A. vercoi (May, 1911) (Figs

3G-H). The minor differences from that species, in

size, the form of the sutures, and lip dentition

(Cotton 1949) are all features that exhibit variability

in A. vercoi populations and are insufficient to

justify separation on the basis of a single specimen.

The dimensions of the type are similar to those of

the holotype of A. vercoi (TM E681/8022). Type

unique.

GOWLETT-HOLMES

Marginella sinapi Laseron, 1948

Rec. Aust. Mus. 22(1): 40, pl. 5, fig. 15.

= Mesoginella sinapi (Laseron, 1948).

Syntypes: D14232, 4 adult specimens (1 damaged),

in shell sand, Manly Ocean Beach, N.SW., collector

and date of collection unknown.

Note: These specimens were obtained from Laseron,

and are believed to be from the type series. Other

syntypes in AM (C103360).

Marginella stilla Hedley, 1903

Mem. Aust. Mus. 4: 367, text fig. 90.

= Mesoginella stilla (Hedley, 1903).

Paratypes: D19099, 2 adult specimens, trawled in

mud and pebbles, 137-115 m, 8-12.7 km off Port

Kembla, N.SW., 34°28’S, 151°06-03’E, H.M.C.S.

Thetis’ Stn 49, collected by E. R. Waite, 18.iii.1898.

Note: Laseron (1957) placed this species in the genus

Kogomea Habe, 1951. However, some important

shell features, including the form of the columellar

plications and labial dentition, do not correspond

with those of that genus. Holotype (C16356) and

other paratypes (C163382, C163383) in AM.

Marginella subauriculata May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 86, pl. 2, fig. 7.

Cystiscus subauriculatus (May, 1916).

Paratypes: D16090, 1 damaged adult specimen,

dredged dead in 73 m (40 fm), Thouin Bay, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

D16091, 4 adult specimens (1 damaged, | with dried

animal), with same collection data as D16090.

Note: The species is very closely related to Cystiscus

angasi (Crosse, 1870) and may be a form of that

species. Holotype in TM (E674/8015), badly

broken.

Marginella subbulbosa Tate, 1878

Trans. Proc. Rep. Phil. Soc. Adel. 1: 86.

= Kogomea subbulbosa (Tate, 1878).

Syntypes: D13520, 4 adult specimens (1 damaged),

in beach sand, Wauraltie (Port Victoria), Yorke

Peninsula, S.A., collected by R. Tate, date of

collection unknown. (Figs 3E-F).

Note: The type description only mentions two

specimens, and as all the specimens in D13520 are

of approximately equal size and form, it is

impossible to isolate the actual syntypes. Therefore

the status of the whole lot is questionable.

Marginella thouinensis May, 1916

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1915: 86, pl. 2, fig. 8.

Cystiscus thouinensis (May, 1916)

Paratypes: D16089, 2 adult specimens, dredged dead

in 73 m (40 fm), Thouin Bay, Tas., collected by

W. L. May, date of collection unknown. D16189,

26 adult specimens, with same collection data as

D16089.

Note: Holotype in TM (E676/8017).

MOLLUSC TYPES 4: MARGINELLIDAE 69

Marginella tomliniana May, 1918

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1917: 104.

= Cystiscus tomlinianus (May, 1918).

Paratypes: D15811, 23 adult specimens (3 damaged),

dredged in 73 m (40 fm), off Thouin Bay, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, date of collection unknown.

D16084, 2 adult specimens, with. same collection

data as D15811.

Note: New name for Marginella auriculata May,

1916 (non Menard de la Groye, 1811), and therefore

based on the same type series. Holotype in TM

(E677/8018), badly broken.

Marginella vercoi May, 1911

Pap. Proc. R. Soc. Tas. for 1910: 385, pl. 13, fig. 7.

= Austroginella vercoi (May, 1911).

Paratypes: D15816, 9 adult specimens, dredged in

183 m (100 fm), 7 miles east of Cape Pillar, Tas.,

collected by W. L. May, 18.xii.1907. D16079, 2 adult

specimens, with same collection data as D15816.

(Figs 3G-H).

Note: Holotype in TM (E681/8022).

Marginella vincentiana Cotton, 1944.

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 15, fig. 30.

= Volvarina (Haloginella) vincentiana (Cotton,

1944).

Lectotype: D13519, adult specimen, in shell sand,

Marino, near Adelaide, S.A., collected by R. Tate,

date of collection unknown. (Lectotype selected

here.) (Figs 1A-B).

Paralectotypes: D18633, 7 specimens (2 immature),

with same collection data as lectotype.

Note: New name for Marginella albida Tate, 1878,

(non Lamarck, 1822), and therefore based on the

same type series. See note for M. albida for further

information on types.

Marginella weedingi Cotton, 1944

S. Aust. Nat. 22: 16, fig. 31.

= Protoginella geminata (Hedley, 1912) new

synonymy.

Holotype: D14989, adult specimen with dried

animal, dredged in 36 m (20 fm), Backstairs

Passage, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown. (Figs 3I-J).

Paratypes: D18637, 14 specimens (11 damaged, 1

immature), dredged dead in 164 m (90 fm), off Cape

Jaffa, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown. D18638, 25 adult specimens,

dredged dead in 100 m (55 fm), off Cape Borda,

Kangaroo Island, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date

of collection unknown. D18639, 2 adult specimens

(1 damaged), dredged dead in 110 m (60 fm), other

collection data same as D18638. D18640, 42

specimens (13 damaged, | immature), dredged dead

in 73 m (40 fm), off Beachport, S.A., collected by

J. C. Verco, date of collection unknown. D18641,

1 adult specimen, dredged dead in 183 m (100 fm),

other collection data same as D18640. D18642, 19

adult specimens (8 damaged), dredged dead in 201

m (110 fm), other collection data same as D18640.

D18643, 13 specimens (1 damaged, 1 immature),

dredged dead in 274 m (150 fm), other collection

data same as D18640. D18644, 6 adult specimens

(3 damaged), dredged dead in 366 m (200 fm), other

collection data same as D18640.

Note: Cotton (1944) originally described the species

as being larger and narrower than P. geminata, as

well as having differently shaped columellar

plications. However, the characteristics of this

species are well within the normal range observed

for P geminata and examination of the types and

other specimens from Gulf St Vincent, S.A., (SAM

D6851) supports the conclusion that M. weedingi

is a junior synonym of P. geminata.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Catherine and Marilyn Hewish

for help with the collection of specimen data. The

invaluable help of Mr G. Coovert of the Dayton Museum

of Natural History in providing bibliographic information,

specimen locations and helpful discussion, is gratefully

acknowledged. Help with specimen locations and

registration numbers was kindly provided by Dr S. Gofas,

Service Biostratographie, France. The assistance and

cooperation of Ms S. Boyd (NMV), Mr I. Loch (AM),

Ms E. Turner (TM), Ms S. Morris (BMNH) and Mr B.

Stephenson (AIM), and the advice of Mr W. Zeidler

(SAM), is also gratefully acknowledged. Mr G. Coovert,

Mr I. Loch and Mr W. Zeidler are also thanked for critical

comments on the manuscript. The photographs were taken

by Mrs J. Forrest. This work was supported in part by

a grant to D. R. Hewish from the Keith Sutherland Award,

administered by AM.

70 D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

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REVISIONARY NOTES ON THE GENUS DELMA (SQUAMATA :

PYGOPODIDAE) IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND THE NORTHERN

TERRITORY

G. M. SHEA

Summary

Nine species of Delma are recorded from South Australia and the Northern Territory: D. australis,

D. borea, D. butleri, D. fraseri, D. impar, D. inornata, D. molleri, D. nasuta and D. tincta. D.

australis is formally recorded from New South Wales for the first time. D. haroldi is synonymised

with D. butleri. A neotype is designated for D. fraseri, and an eastern race, D. f. petersoni described,

having a greater number of scale rows at midbody and a bolder throat pattern. D. borea, D. pax and

D. tincta are placed in a D. tincta species group, while D. impar, D. plebeia and D. torquata are

pleced in a D. impar species group.

REVISIONARY NOTES ON THE GENUS DELMA (SQUAMATA: PYGOPODIDAE)

IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY.

G. M. SHEA

SHEA, G. M. 1991. Revisionary notes on the genus Delma (Squamata: Pygopodidae) in South

Australia and the Northern Territory. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(1): 71-90.

Nine species of Delma are recorded from South Australia and the Northern Territory: D.

australis, D. borea, D. butleri, D. fraseri, D. impar, D. inornata, D. molleri, D. nasuta and D.

tincta. D. australis is formally recorded from New South Wales for the first time. D. haroldi

is synonymised with D. butleri. A neotype is designated for D. fraseri, and an eastern race, D.

f, petersoni described, having a greater number of scale rows at midbody and a bolder throat

pattern. D. borea, D. pax and D. tincta are placed in a D. tincta species group, while D. impar,

D. plebeia and D. torquata are placed in a D. impar species group.

Glenn M. Shea, Department of Veterinary Anatomy, University of Sydney, New South Wales

2006. Manuscript received 10 August 1990.

The genus Delma is the most speciose genus in

the family Pygopodidae. In the most recent revision,

Kluge (1974) recognised 13 species, of a total of 30

species in the family. Since that time, museum

herpetological collections in Australia have tripled

in size, while extensive collections have been made

in remote and formerly poorly-studied areas. Within

the last four years, the genus has been the subject

of attention in the eastern and western thirds of

Australia. In eastern Australia, Shea (1987a, b)

described two new species D. labialis and D. mitella

from Queensland, recorded the presence of D.

nasuta in New South Wales, and provided updated

spot distribution maps for most taxa occurring in

the region. In Western Australia, Storr (1987) and

Storr et al. (1990) divided D. nasuta into two species

(one new), described a second new species D.

haroldi, briefly redescribed the remaining taxa, and

provided distribution maps for the state.

This paper links these studies by revising the

genus in the intervening area (South Australia and

the Northern Territory) for the first time since

Kluge’s (1974) revision, and discusses the identity

of D. fraseri, type species of the genus.

Although the monophyly of the genus is an

unresolved issue (Shea 1987a), there is little doubt

that the species placed in Delma by recent workers

are at least a close-knit grade, readily differentiated

from both more derived and relatively primitive

members of the family (Kluge 1976), and for this

paper I accept the phenetic diagnosis of the genus

provided by Kluge (1974).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study is based on the examination of

material in the Australian Museum (AM), British

Museum (Natural History) (BMNH), Museum of

Victoria (MV), Northern Territory Museum (NTM),

Queensland Museum (QM), South Australian

Museum (SAM), Western Australian Museum

(WAM) and Central Australian Wildlife Collection

(CAWC), the latter collection now lodged in the

Northern Territory Museum.

Scalation nomenclature follows Shea (1987a) with

one exception. The second supralabial scale caudal

to the elongate subocular supralabial has previously

been generally considered to be the caudalmost

(Kluge 1974; Shea 1987a; Storr 1987). However, in

specimens preserved with open mouth, the third

supralabial scale caudal to the subocular supralabial

is at the caudalmost extent of the circumoral

scalation. Hence, the supralabial and infralabial

scale counts used here are one greater than counts

in previous works.

I have used only derived characters to hypothesise

relationships between taxa, and have used Pygopus

lepidopodus and P. nigriceps, the two most

generally primitive species in the family (Kluge 1974,

1976) as outgroups to determine polarity of

characters.

SYSTEMATICS

Delma australis Kluge, 1974: 77.

Diagnosis

A small species of Delma (maximum SVL 88

mm), with ventral body scales not markedly dilated

relative to more lateral scales, a single pair of

supranasal scales, modally 18 midbody scales and

fourth supralabial in subocular position, loreal scale

row usually interrupted by a ventral extension of

12 G. M. SHEA

prefrontal scale contacting supralabials, and body

venter grey (often tinged with pink in life).

Description

See Kluge (1974) and Storr et al. (1990).

Distribution

In South Australia, occurs in the south-west, from

the Western Australian border east to the Flinders

Ranges, and including the southern fringe of the

Great Victoria Desert, Gawler Ranges and Eyre

Peninsula. Apparent isolates in the western part of

the Lake Eyre drainage, the Tomkinson and

Musgrave Ranges, Danggali Conservation Park,

and to the south of the Murray River, between

Tailem Bend and Scorpion Well Conservation Park

(Fig. 1).

FIGURE 1. Distribution of Delma australis in South Australia. Triangles represent weakly patterned north-eastern

population.

DELMA IN S.A. AND NTT. 73

Also occurs in southern W.A., south-west N.S.W.

and north-west Victoria (Kluge 1974; Storr ef al.

1990; this paper).

Remarks

There is noticeable geographic variation in the

intensity of the head pattern in this species in South

Australia. Most specimens from the southern half

of the state and the Tomkinson and Musgrave

Ranges in the north-west have strong dark

variegations on the head, although the pattern is

reduced, particularly laterally, in a few specimens.

Material from the western part of the Lake Eyre

drainage (east of 134°E, north of 30°S) consistently

either lack dark markings on the head or have such

markings very reduced.

The single old record from the Northern Territory

(SAM R2240; Alice Springs, no collector or date

recorded) was considered to be suspect by Kluge

(1974). Extensive collections of reptiles from the

Alice Springs area since the early 1970s have

included numerous Delma tincta, and several D.

borea, D. butleri and D. nasuta, but no additional

material of D. australis. Consequently, I consider

the locality for SAM R2240 erroneous.

Delma australis has not previously been formally

recorded from New South Wales, although Cogger

(1975) maps the species in the south-west corner of

the state. Five specimens (AM R39495, R55010,

R93142, R118635, R118637) confirm the presence

of the species in New South Wales.

Habitat

The majority of specimens of the southern and

western populations in South Australia are from

Triodia or mallee habitats, or combinations of both

(45 specimens from 24 localities), generally taken

from in or under Triodia clumps or mallee leaf litter.

The former habitat is shared with D. butleri. My

impression, having collected both species in W.A.,

S.A. and N.SW., including the Coombah area where

the two taxa are sympatric, is that D. australis occurs

in slightly moister situations than D. butleri. There

is some support for this view from the association

of several records with watercourses (SAM R14351

‘under dead log near water pond’, R16205 ‘in burrow

under Triodia, creek flank’, R21015 ‘on bank of

watercourse lined with Coolibah (Eucalyptus

microtheca)’, R22193 ‘under rock near water’,

R25071-72 ‘in storm drain along creek’).

One specimen, SAM R15009, was ‘pit-trapped

overnight’, suggesting nocturnal activity.

There are almost no habitat data associated with

specimens of the north-eastern unpatterned form.

SAM R30401 was taken in a pitfall on a gibber plain

with Atriplex.

Specimens examined

New South Wales: AM R39495, ‘Glenea’, 70 mi. N Roto;

R55010, 12 km S Matakana; R93142, Round Hill Fauna

Reserve; R118635, 14.2 km N Coombah Roadhouse on

Silver City Hwy; R118637, 13.5 km N Coombah

Roadhouse on Silver City Hwy.

South Australia (patterned form): AM R17306-08, Mt

Davies, Tomkinson Ranges; R17460, Musgrave Ranges;

R62391, nr Sleaford, Port Lincoln; R79914-15, 2-3 km

SE Mt Hope; R79916, N side Pillie Lake; R79917, R79919,

R79943, SE side Port Lincoln; R79920-21, 8.4 km W

Ungarra P.O. by Yeelanina rd; R107950, 15.6 km E

Nundroo via Eyre Hwy; NTM R9252, SAM R17752a-b,

Marble Range; SAM R380, Mitchell; R3123, Ernabella

Mission; R3852, R10374, 15 mi. N Poochera; R3872,

Kokatha’; R4301, Port Germein Gorge; R5375, R10376,

Gawler Ranges; R5613, 5 mi. W Arkaroola; R9189, R9213,

Blesing Reserve; R9224, 4 mi. S Baird Bay; R10375, nr

Kokatha’; R10800, Watson; R12454-55, ‘Corunna’;

R12481, R12669, Miccollo Hill, ‘Siam’; R12670, 3 mi. NW

Tailem Bend; R12746-47, Mambray Creek National Park;

R12751, R14695, Corunna Hills; R13227, 7 mi. WNW

Kenmore Park; R13908, Lake Gilles Conservation Park;

R14086, Whaler’s Way, Port Lincoln; R14093, Scorpion

Well Conservation Park; R14190, R16678, Billiat

Conservation Park; R14351, 3 mi. past Moonabie Pass,

30 mi. S Whyalla; R14914, ‘Baratta’; R14963, R24514, Mt

Finke; R15009, 23 km N Koonibba Mission; R15195a-b,

R15619, S of Scorpion Springs Conservation Park; R15954,

Parachilna; R15958, Mt Serle; R16060, R17106, Danggali

Conservation Park; R16176, abandoned piggery, W

Bordertown-Pinaroo rd; R16205, Mt Hack, 38 km E

Beltana; R16212, Depot Creek Gorge; R16227, Ninety Mile

Desert; R16521, Gum Creek, Corunna Hills; R16522a-b,

nr Millalee Creek, N Port Lincoln; R16650, ‘Bibliando’;

R16765, R16844, R17845, R17860a-c, R23233, R24184-86,

Uro Bluff; R17144, Pinkawillinie Reserve; R19898-99,

oondoolka’} R22784, R23091-93, Mt Remarkable

National Park, 2.1 km E Sugargum Lookout; R24298, 0.7

km SSW Old Siam H.S.; R24445, E end Brachina Gorge;

R24865, nr ‘Oraparinna’ H.S.; R25071-73, Stoney Creek;

R25349, Hambidge Conservation Park; R26333, 22 km

NW Yalata Roadhouse; R26339, 20 km W Yalata

Roadhouse; R26349, 50 km W Yalata Roadhouse; R28540,

77.5 km N Minnipa; R32127, 11 km SSW Maralinga;

R32168, 8.5 km SW Maralinga; R32278, 50 km SW

Hanilar Lake; R32498, Bascombe Well Conservation Park;

R32894, Wanna; R32912, 3 km along Talia Caves rd from

turnoff on Flinders Hwy; WAM R24528, 37 km ENE

Wirrulla.

South Australia (unpatterned north-eastern form): AM

R17622, Coober Pedy; SAM R12756a-b, ‘Muloorina’;

R14342, Margaret River, S of Lake Eyre; R17048, Coward

Springs; R21015, Balta Baltana Hill; R22193, Hermit Hill;

R25826, William Creek; R25857-58, Mt Dare; R28130,

‘Stuart Creek’; R28138, W of Maree; R28172, Beresford

Rail Siding; R28215, ‘Dalhousie’ ruins; R28248-51,

R28258-60, Abminga Rail Station; R29000, SW of

Warrina; R30401, Breakaways Reserve, 25 km NNW

Coober Pedy.

Victoria: AM R42724, Lowan Sanctuary, 20 mi. W Piangil;

R54889, 15 mi. W. Annuello; R84294, R84297-98, Hattah.

Western Australia: AM R8778, Mt Barker; R11114,

Woodlands, Tambellup; R101995, R102004, Hamelin Pool,

74 G. M. SHEA

‘Hamelin’; R102005, ca 21.4 km N ‘Nerren Nerren’ turnoff

via North-West Coastal Hwy; R105720, 34.7 km N Tamala

turnoff on Denham rd; R105740, 3.2 km S Nanga turnoff

on Denham rd; R105813-15, 45.1 km W Newman Rocks

turnoff on Eyre Hwy; R105879, 39.8 km E Cocklebiddy

Roadhouse on Eyre Hwy; R117736, west side Boulder;

BMNH 1904.10.7.18, Coolgardie district.

Delma borea Kluge, 1974: 81.

Diagnosis

A small to moderate-sized species of Delma

(maximum SVL 98 mm; Storr ef a/. 1990) with two

pairs of supranasals, fourth supralabial usually

subocular, modally 16 midbody scales and, in

juveniles and subadults at least, a dark head

dorsally and laterally, with narrow pale bands (one

preocular, one postocular, one auricular, usually

forked laterally, one branch running along each

edge of ear, and one nuchal), but mid-throat region

immaculate, pale.

Description

See Kluge (1974) and Storr ef al. (1990).

Distribution

In the Northern Territory, most common in the

Top End, north of ‘Wave Hill’, ‘Helen Springs’ and

50 km S MacArthur River camp, and including

Groote Eylandt, Bathurst I., Cape Wessel I.,

Melville I. and Vanderlin I. (Fig. 2). The few records

from further south (Alice Springs, Arltunga ruins,

Ayers Rock, Barrow Creek, George Gill Range,

Heavitree Gap, Kintore Range, Mt Doreen) are

generally from rocky areas.

Also occurs in Western Australia (Kimberley and

its southern fringe, eastern Pilbara, Barrow I.,

Hermite I., Rosemary I. and Warburton Range) and

western Queensland (Storr ef a/. 1990; Shea 1987a).

Habitat

Kluge (1974) stated that D. borea was most

frequently encountered in regions of stony, hard soil

and Triodia, but that it did not appear to occupy

Triodia on sandplains. However, most specimens

collected from the Northern Territory are from

savanna woodland lacking Triodia. Around

Darwin, in particular, the species seems to be

abundant, sheltering under debris and leaf litter.

The 40 specimens from the Top End for which

microhabitat data are available were found in or

under leaf litter, grass, exfoliated bark, logs and

rubbish (tin, cement slabs, compost and boards).

However, the two Heavitree Gap specimens from

further south were found under rocks beneath

Triodia tussocks on a steep hillslope.

FIGURE 2. Distribution of De/ma borea (dots) and D.

tincta (closed triangles) in the Northern Territory and

South Australia. Open triangles represent localities of

sympatry or near sympatry.

Remarks

Delma borea, D. tincta and D. pax have very

similar colour patterns, and largely replace each

other geographically. They appear to comprise a

species group, the D. tincta group, diagnosable by

the usual presence of only a single elongate upper

DELMA IN S.A. AND N7T. 75

temporal scale bordering the parietals, a character

otherwise common in Delma only in D. plebeia

(frequency: D. borea, 93.8%, n = 65; D. pax, 96.5%,

n = 57; D. tincta, 97.4%, n = 115; D. plebeia,

76.9%, n = 13). Within the D. tincta group, three

scalation characters separate the species. D. borea

typically has two pairs of supranasals, fourth

supralabial below eye, and 16 midbody scales; D.

tincta typically has one pair of supranasals, third

supralabial below eye, and 14 midbody scales, while

D. pax is intermediate in having two pairs of

supranasals, third supralabial below eye, and 16

midbody scales. However, occasional specimens

show different combinations of these three

characters, and proved difficult to assign to species.

The problem seemed most acute in the case of D.

borea/D. pax, which differed only in the number

of the subocular supralabial, and as initially

described were widely separated geographically

(Kluge 1974), but had both recently been recorded

from the Pilbara (Storr et a/. 1990). Examination

of all material of D. pax in the WAM collection

revealed that the two taxa may additionally be

differentiated by several subtle coloration

differences. In D. pax, the pale postocular band

broadens ventrally (even width or only slightly

broader ventrally in D. borea), the auricular band

is often broader laterally, and there is no ventro-

lateral series of parallel pale streaks along neck and

forebody (usually present in D. borea). On the basis

of these additional characters, D. pax appears to

replace D. borea in the western Pilbara and along

the north-west coast north to ‘Anna Plains’, while

D. borea is largely confined to the Kimberley, south

to East Palm Spring in the Denison Range, with

populations on several islands (Barrow, Rosemary,

Hermite) off the Pilbara coast, and one record

(WAM R25201, 32 km E Jiggalong) from the

eastern Pilbara.

The identity of the single Ayers Rock specimen

(CAWC R1319) is problematic. The colour pattern

is similar to typical D. borea, but although the

specimen is of adult size (SVL 86.5 mm), the head

is black with narrow white bands. Such intensity

of pattern is rare in adult D. borea and D. tincta,

and has not been seen in D. pax. The specimen has

two pairs of supranasal scales and 16 midbody

scales, typical of D. borea, but the third supralabial

is subocular, typical of D. tincta and D. pax. Until

further material becomes available, I refer this

specimen to D. borea, on the basis of the number

of supranasal and midbody scales.

Specimens examined

Northern Territory: AM R3662, R4162, R62673, QM

J1781, Port Darwin; AM R8249, R12877, R14161, R19121,

R38021, R127980, R128741, CAWC R9, R1680, R4582,

R3080, NTM R9930-31, WAM R21980, R40296, R40835,

Darwin; AM R12794, R12841, R13004, Darwin area;

R12901, Westhead, Darwin; R13471, R13609, CAWC

R4950, NTM R7456, Groote Eylandt; AM R13569-70,

R13648, R62670-72, Cape Arnhem; R13713, R13777,

WAM R23480, Nightcliff, Darwin; AM R14336, NT;

R30014-15, R107502, Black Point, Port Essington;

R52135-36, Heavitree Gap, Alice Springs; R52137,

Adelaide River township; R53149, Mt Doreen; R54745,

ca 50 km S McArthur River camp; R54746, 30 km N

McArthur River camp; R55904, Vanderlin I.; R61573,

Maningrida; R73069, R76043, Bullo River Stn rd, 31 km

NW Victoria Hwy; R75511, midreaches McKinlay River;

R80369, 25 km S Larrimah on Stuart Hwy; R88876,

Jabiluka project area; R98442, vicinity of 009 Gauge Stn,

Magela Creek drainage; R112829, Mindil Beach Casino

site; BMNH 1932.3.7.25, ‘central Australia’; 1973.3285,

Kintore Range (23°21’S 129°23’E) (formerly JSE 269);

CAWC R1318, R1320, Arltunga ruins; R1319, Ayers Rock;

R5511, Beatrice Hill; MV D174, Alice Springs; NTM R159,

Riverview Caravan Park; R173-174, Pine Creek; R1040,

Maclear Creek, S side Melville I.; R1317, R5371, Barrow

Creek; R1779, SAM R8409, Katherine; NTM R1947-51,

Millner School grounds; R2045, Mt Carr; R2082, Winellie;

R2108-09, R3051, Rapid Creek; R2429, R2507-08, R3053,

Millner; R2954, R3052, R8705, Stuart Park; R3144, R3146,

R3194-97, R3218-21, R7593-98, Ban Ban Spring; R3299,

Berry Springs; R3411, Allawa; R3791, Katherine district;

R3870, Jabiru tip; R5825, R6516-17, R6609-10, Wave Hill;

R6594, 70 km N Top Springs; R7744, Cape Wessel I.;

R7883, R7946, Cape Fourcroy, Bathurst I.; R8120, the 17

mile, S of Darwin; R8306, 2 km W Victoria River bridge

on Victoria Hwy; R8340, Ludmilla; R9133, Keep River

National Park; R9457, 20 km N Mataranka; R9467, 110

km W Katherine; R9494, Bees Creek, nr Darwin; R9496,

Fannie Bay; R11696, R12956, Katherine Gorge National

Park; R12727, George Gill Range; R13221, Humpty Doo;

R13237, Gregory National Park; QM J39334, Cahills

Crossing, East Alligator River; WAM R13496, R34331-32,

Yirrkala; R24198, Helen Springs; R24001, 11 km N

Adelaide River; R26224, Parap.

Queensland: AM R26138-39, R28445, R107000, Mt Isa;

R31627, R31629-30, Mt Isa district; R60248, 3 km W

Cloncurry on Flinders Hwy; R63589, Bang Bang jumpup

on Hwy 83; R90212, Inca Creek; R110534, Scotts Tank,

Diamantina Lakes’; R110601, 6 km E Scotts Tank,

‘Diamantina Lakes’.

Western Australia: AM R14160, Forrest River Mission;

R40518-19, junction Ord and Behn Rivers; R49970, Balgo

Mission; R56822, Halls Creek; R117604, vicinity of Cape

Lefeque; R126188, Mitchell Plateau airstrip; BMNH

1966.415, Wooroloo [in error]; NTM R7286-87, 167 km

E Fitzroy Crossing; R13047, 3 mi. S main Ord River Dam

sites SAM R5058, Warburton Range; WAM RI11240,

Wotjulum; R25201, 32 km E Jiggalong; R28656, Barrow

I.; R37371, Rosemary I.; R37406, Hermite I.; R37703,

Hidden Valley; R43075, Crystal Creek near Crystal Head;

R44566, mouth of Behn River, Lake Argyle; R44575, 2-3

mi. upstream Ord River from Behn River junction;

R48559, nr Shark Point, Barrow Island; R60352, 3 km

E Nicholson; R70564, 5.2 km 202° Mt Percy; R75533, 11

km WNW New Lissadell H.S.; R94881, Lake Argyle;

R96944, north-west hump of the Dromedaries; R99776,

10 km SW Silent Grove.

No data: AM R55613-14, BMNH 1946.8.26.99, NTM

R3558, RS8I1.

76 G. M. SHEA

Delma butleri Storr, 1987: 346.

Diagnosis

A moderate-sized relatively inornate species of

Delma (maximum SVL 96 mm) with two pairs of

supranasal scales, the caudal pair contacting or only

narrowly separated from the nostril, modally 16

midbody scales and fourth supralabial subocular,

usually four loreals, snout short (Fig. 3), and venter

without dark markings.

Description

See Storr (1987) (as both D. butleri and D.

haroldi) and Shea (1987b) (as D. nasuta).

Distribution

Extreme south of Northern Territory (Alice

Springs and vicinity of Uluru National Park) and

the adjacent far north-west corner of South

Australia, and arid southern South Australia, south

of 43 km NE Maralinga, Mt Finke, 118 km NE

Minnipa, Uro Bluff, Parachilna, Paralana Hot

Springs and Danggali Conservation Park, with a

possible north-eastern isolate near the South

Australian/Queensland border (Figure 4). Also

occurs in the arid parts of W.A. (Storr 1987, as D.

butleri and D. haroldi) and south-western N.SW.

and north-western Victoria (Shea 1987b, as D.

nasuta). An early record from St Francis I. (BMNH

1922.11.8.8-10) has not been confirmed by recent

collections from that island and must be treated as

suspect.

Remarks

Storr (1987) separated this species from D. nasuta,

but referred to it only material from Western

Australia and western South Australia. This

distribution was followed by Wilson & Knowles

FIGURE 3. Dorsal view of heads of A. Delma butleri (AM R44362) and B. D. nasuta (AM R17376).

DELMA IN S.A. AND NT. 77

\5° 120° 125° 130°

20°

2s°

30°

35°

40°

0° 15° 120° 125° 130°

FIGURE 4. Distribution of Delma butleri.

(1988). However, comparison with the type series

of D. butleri indicates that all southern populations

referred to D. nasuta by Kluge (1974) and Shea

(1987a) are D. butleri. To the recorded instances of

sympatry between D. butleri and D. nasuta can be

added SAM R12674 (D. butleri) and R12675 (D.

nasuta) both from Warburton Range.

In describing D. haroldi, Storr (1987) only

compared it with D. borea, to which species the type

series had previously been identified. However, D.

haroldi consistently has two or more upper temporal

scales and cannot be placed in the D. tincta species

group with D. borea. When the descriptions of D.

haroldi and D. butleri are compared, it becomes

evident that there are very few, if any, differences

between these two taxa. The populations of D.

butleri geographically closest to D. haroldi, in the

(35° 140° 145° 150°

135° 140° 145° 150° (55°

Pilbara, are also the most similar in coloration, with

well developed pale bars laterally on the face and

neck. Significantly, these populations have two

additional pale bars between the pale postocular

and auricular bars, a character otherwise seen only

in D. haroldi. Specimens identified as D. butleri

(WAM R94585) and D. haroldi (WAM R64715; fig.

3 in Storr 1987) both from the vicinity of

Marandoo, W.A. are almost identical, and clearly

conspecific, as is another specimen (WAM R53760)

from the same locality, and the specimen of D.

haroldi (WAM R63632) from 19.5 km SE of Mt

Meharry. Of the remaining types of D. haroldi, the

seven specimens from the Kimberley, adjacent parts

of the Eastern Division, and the Pilbara coastal

lowlands (WAM R46043, R64703, R63427, R45243,

R45811, R51722, R85094) have only a single pale

78 G. M. SHEA

temporal band between postocular and auricular

bands. However, the paratype (WAM R73630) from

Ophthalmia Range, geographically intermediate

between the Marandoo and Eastern Division

material, has an intermediate condition, with one

pale temporal band on one side forking into two

bars on the other. Seven specimens from central

Australia (AM R14362, R96116, CAWC R132],

R1323, R1636; SAM R29900, R29935) are variable

in this character, some having one band, others

showing division of this band ventrally. Because of

this wide zone of apparent intermediates,

apparently an extension of the south-east to north-

west gradation in the development and intensity of

facial markings previously noted within D. butleri

(Storr 1987), I synonymise D. haroldi and D. butleri.

As both were described in the same publication, I

nominate D. butleri (which has page priority) to

have priority over D. haroldi. Whether the typical

haroldi’ from the extreme north and north-west of

the distribution can be recognised at a subspecies

level awaits the collection of further material from

the intervening areas.

Variation in D, butleri throughout the southern

part of its range is minimal. Live material I have

examined from 23 km ENE of Yuna, W.A. in the

west of the distribution was similar to material from

23 km ENE of Kimba, S.A., and the N.SW. material

illustrated by Shea (1987b). Most of this material

had only very slight development of pale facial

markings, reduced to 1-2 lip bars preocularly and

2 lip bars postocularly.

The five specimens from Dirk Hartog Island

differ from mainland populations in being

noticeably more bulky and having 17 nuchal scales

(vs 15-17, usually 15 for other North West Division

material), more broken pale markings of reduced

contrast, but with dark edges, a dark apical spot

on each dorsal body scale, and a lighter brown

dorsal ground.

Habitat

Like populations in W.A. (Storr 1987) and N.SW.

and Victoria (Shea 1987b), S.A. and N/T.

populations are Triodia inhabitants. All 48

specimens for which field data are available were

either taken from live or dead Triodia clumps or

from habitats noted to contain Triodia. The

substrate, where noted, ranged from sand dunes to

rocky hillslopes, and the overstory at various

localities included mallee eucalypts, Casuarina,

Melaleuca and Heterodendron.

Specimens examined

New South Wales: see Shea (1987b).

Northern Territory: AM R14362, road, ‘Curtin Springs’

to Ayers Rock; CAWC R1321, R1323, Ayers Rock; R1636,

Uluru National Park, 15 km S on Britten Jones track;

R4808, Alice Springs; SAM R29900, R29935, 24 km along

“Mulga Park’ road, SSE ‘Curtin Springs’.

South Australia: AM R7649, Immarna; R105536-37, 23.0

km ENE Kimba; R115906-08, Pandappa Hill; BMNH

1922.11.8.8-10, St Francis I.; MV D2659, W of Kychering

Soak, No. 3, Overland Railway to WA on line of march;

D15453-54, Renmark; NTM R9212, SAM R13919, R17716,

Immarna; NTM R9295-96, SAM R16283, ‘Canopus’;

SAM _ R54, Waikerie; R3066a-b, Birthday Well,

‘Cariewerloo’; R3067, ‘Coralbignie’; R385la-d, 15 mi. N

Poochera; R3878a-c, Wilson; R5022a-c, West Coast;

R5376a-c, Gawler Range; R10727-28, Mamblin; R10932,

Paralana Hot Springs; R12450-51, R14687, R14696,

Corunna Hills; R13041, ‘Hiltaba’ H.S.; R14020, Baroota

Reserve; R14225, Childara Rockholes; R14463, Mambray

Creek National Park; R14568, Lincoln Way, 48 km SW

Whyalla; R17338, 21 km E Blanchetown; R19900-01, nr

Chinaman Dam, ‘Yardea’; R14913, ‘Baratta’; R14964, Mt

Finke; R14982, 22 km E Barton Rail Station; R15353, Uno

Range; R15955, Parachilna; R16211, Depot Creek Gorge,

34 km NNE Port Augusta; R16523, nr Millalee Creek, N

Port Lincoln; R16524, Gum Creek, Corunna Hills;

R16649, ‘Bibliando’; R16755, Wilgena Hill; R16843a-b,

R17844a-b, R17871, R23767, R24134, R24158-59, R24163,

Uro Bluff; R17120, R17659a-b, Danggali Conservation

Park; R17681, ‘Balah’; R17984, R18002, Lake Gilles

Conservation Park; R1812la-c, S of ‘Hypurna’;

R18763-64, 1 km NNE Iron Duke; R18768, 1 km W Iron

Duke; R17458, Wilpena Motel; R22301, 2 km E Ooldea;

R24297, S of ‘Kolendo’ H.S.; R24863, nr ‘Oraparinna’

H.S.; R25515-17, R25535, R25731, Danggali Conservation

Park nr ‘Canopus’; R28495, 118 km NE Minnipa; R28568,

73 km N Minnipa; R29090, Bowman Park Reserve;

R31361-62, Iron Duke; R31949, S Inila Rock Waters;

R32137, 9.7 km SSW Maralinga; R33795, 12 km SSE

Dulingari Oil and Gas Satellite; R33803, Toolachie Gas

Satellite; WAM R36649, 43 km NE Maralinga; R44362,

34 mi. NW Mt Lindsay, Birksgate Range.

Victoria: see Shea (1987b).

Western Australia: AM R86501-02, 2.5 km SW Condun

Well; R96116, 150 km SW Giles Meteorological Station

on road to Warburton; R105791, 36.1 km N

Widgiemooltha Roadhouse on Coolgardie Hwy; SAM

R12674, Warburton Range; WAM R18551, Queen Victoria

Spring; R21073, 33 km W Carnegie; R26503, 35 km NE

Yuna; R28359, 16 km N Ethel Creek; R45243, 28 mi. N

Windy Corner; R45811, Wallal; R45850, 8 mi. S of H.S.,

Dirk Hartog I.; R46043, 91 mi. E McLarty Hills: R47709,

Northampton; R48184-88, R48261, R48270, East Yuna

Nature Reserve, 30 km SE Yuna; R51722, 2 km SW

Barradale; R53255-56, Ivor Rocks; R53277, 75 km N

Kalgoorlie; R53291, 27 km NE ‘White Cliffs’ H.S.;

R53459-60, Newman Rock; R53760, R94585, Mt Bruce,

Marandoo; R54556, 25 km S Denham; R57087-88,

R57093, 3 km N Cape Ransonnet, Dirk Hartog I.; R57094,

5 km N Cape Ransonnet, Dirk Hartog I.; R57522, 40 km

NE Yuna; R57541, 44 km NE Yuna; R57959, R58072, 4

km E Boingaring Rocks; R59854-55, 17 km N Charlina

Rock; R62822, 22 km SE Mt Keith; R63427, Twin Heads;

R63632, 19.5 km SE Mt Meharry; R64703, Balgo Mission;

R64715, Marandoo; R64754-55, Mt Manning Range;

R64794, R64813-14, Blue Hill, Lake Barlee; R65367,

R65463, R65484, 30 km NW Heartbreak Ridge; R65531,

R65569-70, R65654, R72503, R74557, R74597, 3.5 km SW

Buningonia Spring; R65539, R65590, R74591, 1.5 km SE

DELMA IN S.A. AND NT. 79

Buningonia Spring; R67188, 15 km NE Bungalbin Hill;

R67974, Ramona Well, 35 km 164° Dandaraga; R69080,

R69104, R74658, 8.7 km ENE ‘Yuinmery’ H.S.; R69108,

8.0 km ENE ‘Yuinmery’ H.S.; R69288, 12.5 km SSE

‘Banjiwarn’ H.S.; R70876-77, 2 km N Mt Windarra;

R70893, 1 km 45° Yowie Rockhole; R71775, 32.5 km 182°

Woolgangie rail siding; R72248, R72255-56, R72285-86,

R72291, nr Boorabbin; R72537, 3.0 km SW Buningonia

Spring; R72669, 2.5 km NE Comet Vale; R72728, 3.5 km

NE Comet Vale; R73212, R73228-29, 6 km 78° Yowie

Rockhole; R73630, Ophthalmia Range area; R74677,

R74679, 24 km ENE ‘Yuinmery’; R74784, 9.5 km SSE

Banjiwarn; R75559, East Yuna Nature Reserve; R76121,

16 km SSW Mt Jackson Hill; R76645, 3 km SE ‘Gnaraloo’

H.S.; R76742, 5 km SE ‘Gnaraloo’ H.S.; R78548, 30 km

SSE Mt Keith; R78553, 29 km SE Mt Keith; R78680, 5

km W Mt Manning Range (S.E. Peak); R78688, 4 km W

Mt Manning Range (S.E. Peak); R78689, 12 km W Mt

Manning Range (S.E. Peak); R85094, 11 km NNW ‘Uaroo’

H.S.; R85305, 4 km ESE Big Shot Bore; R85600-01,

R85603-04, 39 km E Laverton; R85605-06, 8 km WNW

Pt Salvation; R86658, 37 km S Agnew; R90291, 9 km ENE

‘Yuinmery’ H.S.; R91510, 4 km E Zanthus; R94077, 53 km

NNE Queen Victoria Spring; R97262, Queen Victoria

Spring National Park; R97303, 23 km ENE Yuna; R99603,

R99759, Mt Lawrence Wells; R99654, 9 km NNE Mt

Lawrence Wells.

No data: BMNH 1966.5.

Delma fraseri Gray, 183la: 14.

i. The identity of Delma fraseri

Delma fraseri was described by Gray in two works

published in the same year (Gray 183la,b). Kluge

(1974) discussed the priority of these two works, and

considered Gray (1831a) to be the earlier description.

This conclusion was later followed by Cogger et al.

(1983). Gray (183la) did not state the number of

specimens on which he based his description,

although the single set of measurements and lack

of any variation suggest that only a single specimen

was before him at the time. At least one specimen

was in the British Museum collection (Gray 1831b).

Ten years later, Gray (1841) provided an illustration

of D. fraseri. Still later, in his catalogue of the

lizards in the British Museum, Gray (1845) lists two

specimens, one adult from Western Australia

presented by James Hunter (presumably the type)

and a half-grown specimen from Western Australia

from Gilbert’s collection (presumably the naturalist

John Gilbert). Boulenger (1885) in the second

catalogue of British Museum lizards, lists two

halfgrown syntypes, both from ‘W. Australia’,

presented by J. Hunter, but no Gilbert specimen.

In restricting the name D. fraseri to a south-

western species, Kluge (1974) used three characters

from Gray’s (183la) description (two pairs of

supranasals [presumably based on Gray’s

description of ‘head . . . covered with four pair and

three odd central plates], three preanals, and

banded head and neck) and two characters from

Gray’s (1841) illustration (dark throat markings, and

fourth supralabial in subocular position), but did

not examine the purported syntypes.

I have examined both specimens (now BMNH

1946.8.26.98-99). The former specimen is clearly

that illustrated by Gray (1841), although the

illustration is reversed. This juvenile specimen is

conspecific with Delma fraseri (sensu Kluge).

However, it is not the specimen measured by Gray

(1831a), having SVL 52 mm and tail length 135 mm

(vs 2 inches, 8 lines’ [= 68 mm] and 33 inches 8

lines’ [= 93 mm]). The second specimen, almost

broken at midbody, has more similar but slightly

greater measurements (SVL 71 mm; tail length 97

mm) to those given by Gray (1831a). This specimen,

however, is conspecific with D. borea Kluge, 1974.

No other De/ma specimen currently in the British

Museum (Natural History) is of suitable age to be

a potential type.

The morphological characters provided by Gray

(183la) apply equally to D. borea and D. fraseri

(sensu Kluge), as well as to several other Delma

species. The description of the head and neck

markings is ambiguous, and_ different

interpretations could fit either species.

Gray’s (1831a) description reads (in part): ‘head

and lips black, with four narrow cross lines, one

between the nostril and the eyes, two just behind

the eyes, the third broader over the eyes, and the

last edging the occiput’. Presumably the ‘four

narrow cross lines’ are pale bands on the black

ground (Gray 1831b). Both D. borea and D. fraseri

(sensu Kluge) have a preocular band (‘between the

nostril and the eyes’ and presumably the first of the

four cross-lines). If ‘two just behind the eyes’ is

interpreted as a dorsally broken postocular band,

the description fits D. fraseri (sensu Kluge), not D.

borea, which has a complete postocular band.

However, the position of the third band is then

difficult to interpret. If ‘two just behind the eyes’

is interpreted as the successive second and third

bands, these must be complete postocular and

auricular bands, and the last band must be the pale

edging to the dark nape patch, agreeing with D.

borea and not D. fraseri (sensu Kluge), although

the third band is again problematic, over the ears,

not the eyes.

The ‘discoverer’ of D. fraseri, James Hunter, may

be the James Hunter who was one of the naturalists

on P. P. King’s 1818-1822 survey of the Australian

coast. This voyage visited both the south-west and

north coasts of the continent, and could equally

have collected either species. John Gilbert, the other

collector later listed by Gray (1845), also visited both

areas.

As the original description does not allow definite

identification of the species, and as the type status

80 G. M. SHEA

of neither purported ‘syntype’ is clear (neither

accurately fits the single set of measurements, and

their registration history has varied), I act to

conserve the usage of Kluge (1974) and all

subsequent authors by designating BMNH

1946.8.26.98, the specimen illustrated by Gray

(1841), as neotype of Delma fraseri Gray, 183la. This

specimen has the following combination of

characters: two pairs of supranasals, seven

supralabials (fourth subocular), 7/6 infralabials, 5/4

loreals, 4/5 suboculars, two upper temporals, 15

nuchal scales, 14 gular scales, 16 midbody scales,

three preanal scales and 73 ventral scales (caudal

56 transversely enlarged).

ii. A new subspecies of Delma fraseri

Kluge (1974) identified three South Australian

specimens as D. fraseri, otherwise only known from

south-western Western Australia, but did not note

any significant differences between two of the

eastern specimens and the western population.

However, additional material of the eastern

population now in hand has shown consistent

differences between the two populations in number

of midbody scales and strength of the throat

markings, and extended the known range of the

eastern form into Western Australia. Consequently,

the eastern form is here given subspecific status.

Delma fraseri petersoni subsp. nov.

Figs 5-7

Holotype: SAM R20804, N end stock route

(32°51’S 135°57’E), S.A., Nature Conservation

Society, 13.x.81

Paratypes (11): SAM R3853, 15 mi. N Poochera,

S.A., F. J. Mitchell, 15.vi.56; R10586, same locality,

F. J. Mitchell, vi.56; R14985, 7 km W Immarna rail

siding, S.A., C. and T. Houston, A. Edwards, J.

Herridge, 7-9.xi.75; R20790, 2.5 km down stock

route §(32°53"8 135°577E), “S:A., “Nature

Conservation Society, 8.x.81; R20816, N end stock

route (32°51’S I[35°577E)! :‘S:Ay, Nature

Conservation Society, 11.x.81; R32259, Scrubby

Peak area, S.A., G. Armstrong, 22.1.88; R32463,

Middleback Ranges, S.A., South Australian

Herpetology Group, 26.vi.87; R33681, Iron Duke,

Middleback Ranges, S.A., G. Johnston, xi.81; WAM

R100636, 20 km NNE Queen Victoria Spring, W.A.,

D. Pearson, 18.vi.87; R100930, 25 km NNE Queen

Victoria Spring, W.A., D. Pearson, 21.i.89; R100964,

Jumpbuck Rd, Plumridge Lakes, W.A., D. J.

Pearson, 17.x.86.

Diagnosis

A large Delma (SVL up to 128.5 mm) differing

from all other De/ma in the combination of two

pairs of supranasal scales, a dark head dorsally and

laterally followed by a broad, dark nape patch (both

reduced in intensity in adults), broad dark throat

bands, a mode of 18 midbody scales, and 67-78

ventral scales.

Description

Rostral broadly projecting between rostral supra-

nasals, apex gabled; rostral supranasal in broad

contact with first supralabial; caudal supranasals

present, in point to moderate contact with nostril;

postnasal distinct, single; loreals 3-5 (X = 4.1,SD

= 0.45, n = 24), usually 4 (79%), in single,

unbroken series; preoculars 6-13 (¥ = 8.3,SD =

1.82, n = 23); suboculars 3-5 (X = 3.7,SD = 0.58,

n = 21), usually subequal; supraciliaries 5-7 (x =

5.3, SD = 0.55, n = 24), usually 5 (75%),

caudalmost large, medial to others; supraoculars

two, first longer; supralabials usually 7 bilaterally

with fourth below centre of eve (n = 11), rarely 8

unilaterally with fifth below centre of eye (n = 1);

infralabials 6-9 (¥ = 7.0, SD = 0.62, n = 24),

usually 7 (75%), first pair in contact on ventral

midline, second pair separated; upper temporals

two; occipital present, single; nuchal scales 15-17

(X = 15.8,SD = 0.72, n = 12); gular scales 15-18

(X = 16.7, SD = 0.98, n = 12).

Midbody scales usually 18 (n = 11), rarely 17 (n

= 1); ventral scales 67-78 (¥ = 72.0,SD = 3.30,

n = 12), cranial 14-18 (¥ = 15.9,SD = 1.24, n

= 12) small, caudal 52-61 (x = 56.1,SD = 2.68,

n = 12) transversely enlarged; preanal scales three;

hindlimb scales 2-4 (x = 3.3,SD = 0.61,n = 24).

Snout-vent length 78-128.5 mm; tail length

264-317% of SVL (n = 4); hindlimb length

2.5-4.0% of SVL (X = 3.1,n = 12); head length

(HL) 10.1-13.2% of SVL (n = 12), proportionally

shorter in adults; head width 57.0-70.7% of HL

(X = 64.6%, n = 12); head depth 42.0-55.3% of

HL @& = 49.5%, n = 12); mouth length

81.4-89.1% of HL (¥ = 85.6%, n = 12); snout

length 38.4-44.6% of HL (¥ = 40.1%, n = 12);

eye diameter 11.5-14.3% of HL (X = 13.1%, n =

11); postorbital length 38.0-43.4% of HL (x =

41.1%, n = 11); rostrai depth 11.4-14.3% of HL (x

= 12.8%, n = 12); rostral width 20.2-24.4% of HL

(X = 21.9%, n = 12); dorsal rostral length

6.9-9.6% of HL (¥ = 8.1%, n = 12); ventral rostral

length 8.9-14.0% of HL (¥ = 10.4%, n = 12).

The holotype has the following combination of

character states: caudal supranasal narrowly

contacting nostril; four loreals; 8/7 preoculars, four

suboculars, seven infralabials, 17 nuchals, 16 gulars,

67 ventrals (caudal 52 dilated), SVL 85 mm, TL 269

mm, HLL 2.7 mm, HL 11.2 mm, HW 7.2 mm, HD

5.1 mm.

DELMA IN S.A. AND NTT. 81

Coloration (in preservative)

Body dorsally and laterally light grey-brown,

often with slightly darker centres and lighter

margins to scales, producing a series of narrow

alternating light and dark stripes. Tail dorsum

concolorous with body basally, yellow-brown

distally. Head dorsally darker grey-brown from tip

of snout to just caudal to parietals, and laterally

touching rostroventral angle of ear, the caudal

margin generally marked by small, irregular black

patches. Dark hood followed by a light cream-

brown or yellow-brown band, 3-4 scales wide,

laterally crossing ear, in turn followed by a light to

mid-grey nuchal band about 7-8 scales wide,

touching caudodorsal angle of ear, with caudal edge

convex, and cranial edge marked by small, irregular

black patches. Body immediately caudal to dark

nuchal band pale yellow-brown.

Dark cephalic hood invaded laterally by

extensions of throat ground colour: an obscure

Sc SSeesanGe

ONE ES

eee

ine

FIGURE 5. Dorsal and lateral views of head of holotype of Delma fraseri petersoni.

82 G. M. SHEA

cream preocular bar and a broad triangular cream

postocular bar. Laterally, dark nuchal band passes

rostroventrally, narrowing ventrally, and is followed

caudally by a broad triangular cream to orange-

brown patch. Lateral ground on body and tail

grades evenly into ventral ground.

Throat and chin cream, with dark grey bands,

2-3 scales wide, continuations of dark dorsal hood

at level of orbit, rostral to level of ear, and caudal

to level of ear, followed by one or two irregular

bands not connected to dark dorsal markings. Dark

bands often with irregular darker grey or black

margins. First few infralabials usually with dark

margins.

Body venter cream with grey margins to scales.

Over caudal part of body and proximal part of tail,

this grey perfusion almost completely covers the

scales. Distal part of tail cream, generally

immaculate.

Juveniles with similar pattern, but dark head

markings solid black.

Distribution

Southern fringe of the Great Victoria Desert, and

its extension eastwards to northern Eyre Peninsula

and Middleback Range.

Comparison with other taxa

Delma f. petersoni differs from the nominate race

in possessing a mode of 18 midbody scales (vs 16),

and in having a strongly banded throat pattern. The

throat pattern in adults of the nominate race

consists of fine irregular dark variegations

extending onto the throat from laterally (Fig. 6),

unlike the broad complete bands of D. f. petersoni.

Juvenile D. f. fraseri have stronger throat markings,

often approaching those of adult D. f. petersoni,

but the throat pattern of juvenile D. f petersoni is

even stronger, broad and evenly dark.

For comparative purposes, all material of the

nominate race in the Australian Museum, British

Museum (Natural History) and South Australian

Museum was examined, together with Western

Australian Museum material from the eastern

extremity of the range. Comparative scale counts

for this material in markedly variable characters

were: loreals 3-6 (X = 4.1,SD = 0.50, n = 140),

usually 4 (78%); preoculars 3-9 (X¥ = 5.8,SD =

1.16, n = 136); suboculars 1-6(X = 3.4,SD = 0.68,

n = 136); supralabials usually 7, with fourth

subocular bilaterally (n = 68), rarely 6 with third

unilaterally (n = 1) or 8 with fifth unilaterally (n

= 1); infralabials 6-8 (¥ = 7.0,SD = 0.44,n =

140); nuchals 12-17, (¥ = 14.1, SD = 0.93,n =

70); gulars 14-18 (¥ = 16.0,SD = 0.91, n = 70);

ventrals 67-75 (¥ =71.1, SD = 2.09, n = 67);

transversely enlarged ventrals 50-58 (x = 54.5,SD

= 1.91, n = 50); midbody scales 15 (n = 1), 16

(n = 66), 17 (n = 1) or 20 (n = 1).

The distance between the easternmost records of

D. f. fraseri and westernmost records of D. f

petersoni is approximately 235 km. The two races

appear to differ in habitat preference, D. f petersoni

inhabiting mallee-Triodia habitats (see below), while

D. f. fraseri inhabits a variety of less arid habitats,

including woodland, heath and coastal dune

complexes (Bush 1981; Chapman & Dell 1977, 1978,

1980a,b, 1985; Dell & Chapman 1977, 1978; Dell

& Harold 1977; Storr et al. 1981).

Only three other Delma have a mode of 18

midbody scales: D. australis, D. elegans and D.

molleri. D, f. petersoni is very much larger than D.

australis (maximum SVL 128.5 mm vs 88 mm), and

has two pairs of supranasals (vs one), loreal scale

row uninterrupted (vs usually interrupted by

prefrontal), ventral body scales transversely enlarged

(vs equal in size to more lateral scales) and a broadly

banded head pattern (vs finely variegated).

D. f. petersoni differs from D. elegans in having

67-78 ventral scales (vs 77-82), a broader snout,

and the pale auricular band passing transversely

across the entire width of the ear (vs angled

obliquely along rostrodorsal margin of ear, and

entirely separated from a second, postauricular pale

bar extending dorsally from the throat to the

caudoventral margin of the ear).

D. f. petersoni differs from D. molleri in attaining

a larger size (maximum SVL 128.5 mm vs 111 mm),

and in having two pairs of supranasals (vs one) and

a strongly banded throat (vs immaculate pale

throat).

The known distribution of D. f. petersoni

overlaps those of only two other species of Delma:

D. australis and D. butleri, all three having been

taken at 15 mi. N. Poochera, S.A. Comparison with

D. australis is made above. D. f. petersoni differs

from D. butleri in having 18 midbody scales (vs

usually 16), and a dark head (vs head concolorous

with body) with strongly banded throat (vs

immaculate pale throat).

Habitat

The limited habitat data associated with

specimens suggests that D. fraseri petersoni is

associated with Triodia habitats (Schwaner et al.

1985). The holotype was collected in a pitfall trap

on a sand dune with spinifex and some Callitris;

SAM R20816 in a pitfall in a dune system with

Triodia and mallee; SAM R20790 in a pitfall in

sandy soil with Triodia on the lower part of a dune

slope, while SAM R14985 was taken from Triodia

in an interdune flat with mallee. In Western

Australia, WAM R100636 was taken from

Eucalyptus concinna mallee over Triodia basedowii,

and R100930 from marble gum woodland over

Triodia basedowii on a yellow sandplain.

DELMA IN S.A. AND NT.

AD)

Yee a

~ \ or

a. Ae

UPS EMS)

Mmegeeeesy,

FIGURE 6. Comparison of throat patterns of Delma f. fraseri (A. AM R11115; B. AM R11651; C. AM R81700) and

D. f. petersoni (D. SAM R14985; E. SAM R20790; F. SAM R33681).

84 G. M. SHEA

GREAT VICTORIA| DESERT

Mien AN

NULLARBOR | PLAIN

124° 126°

FIGURE 7. Distribution of Delma fraseri petersoni (dots) and nearest populations of D. f. fraseri (triangles). Dashed

line represents approximate limit of sandridge systems of the Great Victoria Desert.

Etymology

Named for Magnus Peterson, of Perth, W.A.,

who initally prompted my interest in pygopodids,

and who has continued to offer much discussion

on their systematics and natural history.

Remarks

Although Kluge (1974) identified MV D2659 as

D. fraseri, it agrees in all diagnostic characters with

D. butleri, and lacks any trace of the dark head

markings of D. fraseri. Consequently, I correct

Kluge’s identification of this specimen to D. butleri.

Comparative material of D. f. fraseri examined (all

from Western Australia)

AM R2443-44, R2446, Perth, efc.’; R3436, Canning

River, Darling Range; R9890, R9956, R10005, R11649-51,

R11665, R131829-32, Tambellup; RI1J111-2, RI11115,

R12129-32, R131833, Woodlands, Tambellup; R81698,

Esperance tip; R81699-700, 1.2 km E Ravensthorpe;

R114824, Hopetoun; R131834, no locality; R133847,

Esperance Chalet Village, end of Goldfields rd, NE

Esperance; R133914, R133989-90, R134036, R134064,

R134080, R134369, old rubbish tip just E Salmon Gums;

R134273, SW side Grass Patch; R134372, vicinity of

Scadden; BMNH 67.2.19.28,30, Champion Bay; 97.3.23.3,

1931.7.1.104-107, W.A.; 69.5.25.24-25, 69.5.25.29, Perth;

1966.411-412, Victoria Park; 1966.413, Bunbury; 1966.414,

Wandering; 1966.416, Williams; 1966.417, Bengor;

1966.419, Nungarin; SAM R22828, WAM R75860-61, Lort

River, Coomalbidgup; SAM R22911, Coomalbidgup tip;

R22935, Burns Beach; R23258, 1 km N Wagin; R29406,

21 km N Geraldton; R29511-12, WAM R14786, Esperance;

WAM R7463, Bodallin; R21993, 8 km E Gibson; R29660,

Parker Range area; R29661-62, 43 km S Southern Cross;

R31089, R31113, R66885, R67208, R67213, R93330-31,

Israelite Bay; R36235-36, Munglinup; R37832, Split

Rocks; R71179, North Ironcap; R72354, near Heartbreak

Ridge; R86622, R86679, Lort River Station; R93557,

Widgiemooltha; R95553, Condingup.

Delma impar (Fischer, 1882: 287).

Diagnosis

A moderate-sized species of Delma (SVL up to

101 mm) with single pair of supranasals, fused

rostrally with first supralabial and caudally with

postnasal, two preanal scales, and usually with a

series of distinct narrow pale stripes laterally and

dorsolaterally on body and tail, with series of dark

spots between these stripes.

Description

See Kluge (1974).

Distribution

In South Australia, known only from the south-

eastern border area (Fig. 8). The South Australian

localities are at the western extreme of the

distribution in Victoria and south-eastern N.S.W.

(Kluge 1974).

Remarks

Kluge (1974) differentiated this species from other

Delma primarily on the fusion of the supranasal

to the first supralabial, a character not noted for

DELMA IN S.A. AND NT. 85

any other Delma. However, two specimens of D.

plebeia | have examined (AM R12485, Qld; R98656,

5 km N Bulga, N.S.W.) show the same complex

fusion of supranasal to both first supralabial and

postnasal. These two species, together with D.

torquata, share the derived character state of only

two preanal scales, and may constitute a species

group, the D. impar group, occurring in south-

eastern Australia, especially in basaltic soils.

Specimens examined

Australian Capital Territory: AM R14349, Barton; R31621,

Gungahlin.

New South Wales: AM R9639, nr Tumut; R11245, Gilmore;

R64276, 14.5 km N Batlow at Wondalga (off old

Tumbarumba rd).

South Australia: SAM R8387, R9977, R10060-61,

R10715-22, R11143, R12666-68, Bool Lagoon; R8782, 3

mi. E Naracoorte.

Victoria: AM R8777, Mt Hope; BMNH 98.10.19.7, nr

Melbourne.

Delma inornata Kluge, 1974: 101. ;

Diagnosis

A large species of Delma (SVL up to 135 mm)

with modally 16 midbody scales, 1-2 pairs of

supranasals, caudal pair (when present) moderately

to broadly separated from nostril, and no dark head

or throat markings.

Description

See Kluge (1974) and Shea (1987b).

Distribution

In South Australia, apparently restricted to the

vicinity of Lake Alexandrina and the lower reaches

of the Murray River (Fig. 8). Widespread in

Victoria, N.SW., and south-eastern Queensland

(Shea 1987b).

Remarks

As noted by Shea (1987b), Kluge misidentified

a number of specimens of D. butleri as D. inornata.

To those misidentifications can also be added MV

D15453-54, from Renmark (J. Coventry, pers.

comm.). It seems likely that the South Australian

population is isolated from the main part of the

range of this species in N.SW. and Victoria. The

South Australian population has a high frequency

of individuals with only a single pair of supranasals

(78%, n = 9).

Habitat

Three specimens (R21001, R23870, R26138) were

found under rocks. It is probable that the South

Australian population inhabits open grasslands, like

eastern populations (Shea 1987b).

FIGURE 8. Distribution of Delma impar (squares), D.

inornata (triangles) and D. molleri (dots) in South

Australia. Dashed line represents 200 m contour.

Specimens examined

New South Wales: SAM R11095, 20 mi. N Walla Walla.

See Shea (1987b) for other records from New South Wales

and Victoria.

South Australia: SAM R12745, Tooperang; R17440,

between Mannum and Purnong; R18648, 5 km N Walkers

Flat; R18971, ca 16 km W Milang; R21001, River Marne;

R23530, R23870, R26138, Lake Alexandrina; R32798,

Strathalbyn.

86 G. M. SHEA

Delma molleri Liitken, 1863: 296.

Diagnosis

A moderate-sized species of Delma (SVL up to

111 mm) with modally 18 midbody scales, a single

pair of supranasals, dark dorsal head markings (of

reduced intensity in large adults) and an immaculate

pale throat.

Description

See Kluge (1974).

Distribution

Restricted to South Australia, to the Adelaide

Plains and Yorke Peninsula and adjacent ranges,

from the vicinity of Oraparinna H.S. in the north,

east to ‘between Mannum and Purnong’ and south

to Reynella (Fig. 8). The record from Hattah, in

Victoria (AM R84295-96) is from a captive

collection, along with other De/ma specimens, and

in the absence of any corroborating evidence is

considered erroneous.

Habitat

Most specimens of this species for which data are

available were found under rocks (n = 17), tin or

other rubbish (n = 11) or timber (n = 2). A variety

of vegetation types and topographies is inhabited,

including ‘sclerophyll scrub’, ‘tall grass in

agricultural country’, ‘largely bare hills with

occasional chenopods and mallees’, ‘Acacia-scrub

covered hilltop’, ‘eucalypt woodland on red soil with

stones and sedges, scattered Casuarina and Acacia

in understory’, ‘grass and rocky land adjacent

creek’, ‘grassed sediment island in creek’ and ‘river

flats’. Three of the Flinders Ranges specimens were

taken in pitfalls in Triodia habitats.

Specimens examined (all localities except the first

are in South Australia)

AM R84295-96, Hattah, Victoria [in error]; R89125,

Peterborough; R115770, 3.3 mi. W Kulpara on Paskeville

rd; R115813, 34°11’S 137°41’E, Yorke Peninsula; R115928,

2.5 mi. W ‘Tracy’-‘Caroona’ rd on Mt Bryan rd;

R115939-40, 4.2 km NW Mintaro on Hilltown rd;

R115943-44, 33°40’S 138°30’E; BMNH 92.5.18.1, S.A.;

1923.11.11.47, SAM R1470, R12672-73, Mt Lofty; BMNH

1962.810, Morialta; 1962.811, Clare; SAM R1584, R16056,

Black Hill; R2233, Mt Lofty Range; R3021, Dunstone

Quarry, Burnside; R6362-70, few miles N Burra; R8140,

Hummock Mt; R11186-87, 1 mi. NE Tea Tree Gully;

R12514-15, N of Wilmington, on towards Mt Brown;

R12550, 4 mi. E 1 mi. N Truro; R12591, 2.5 mi. S 2.5 mi.

W Stansbury; R12624, R12671, Point Turton; R12918,

Mambray Creek; R13150, Seacombe Gardens; R14028,

Mambray Creek National Park; R14462, Mt Brown;

R14656a-b, 26.5 km N 5 km E Burra; R15625a-b, 3 km

E Truro; R16006, nr Port Augusta, on old Port Augusta-

Wilmington rd; R16952, ca 5 km S Wilmington; R16954,

Mt Remarkable National Park; R17464, Hallet Cove

Conservation Park; R17642, between Mannum and

Purnong; R17943, R25360, Wilpena Pound; R18856, 6 km

SE Keyneton, nr Sedan Hill; R19018, 5 km N Clare;

R20581, Burra Creek Picnic Reserve; R20825, 8 km N

Auburn; R22539-40, Telowie Beach; R22787, R23088,

R23106, Mt Remarkable National Park, 2.1 km E

Sugargum Lookout; R23136-37, R23139, R23144, Mt

Remarkable National Park, 2.6 km from Scarfe’s Hut;

R23143, Mt Remarkable National Park, Alligator Gorge;

R23894, St Kilda; R24200, 14 km S Burra; R24208-10,

11.2 km N Dutton; R24211-14, 1 km S Burra; R24862, nr

Oraparinna HS; R25786-87, Reynella, R26121-22, Pt

Pirie; R28362, R28628, Bowman Park Recreation Reserve;

R30310-14, Rochester Historic Site; R31718, Aldinga;

R32858, Para Hills; R32889, Anstey Hill.

Delma nasuta Kluge, 1974: 109.

Diagnosis

A moderate-sized species of Delma (SVL up to 112

mm) with usually 16 or more midbody scales, fourth

supralabial below centre of eye, long narrow snout

(Fig. 3), usually five or more loreals, dorsal scales

pale brown with a dark apical spot, and ventral

scales usually basally edged with dark brown.

Description

See Storr (1987) and Storr ef al. (1990).

Distribution

Arid Triodia habitats of Northern Territory, south

of Spring Creek, Barrow Creek and Fish River’,

and far north-west corner of South Australia (Fig.

9). Also occurs in western Queensland (Shea 1987a)

and northern and central Western Australia (Storr

1987).

Habitat

Like other populations (Kluge 1974; Storr 1987),

Northern Territory populations of D. nasuta are

apparently Triodia inhabitants. The six specimens

for which microhabitat data are available were

found in Triodia. One specimen (AM R80364) was

found active on a road at 2020 hrs.

Specimens examined

Northern Territory: AM R12013, Mt Gillen; R80364, 33

km S Barrow Creek; R84566, 50 km S Alice Springs on

Stuart Hwy; R120116, Dead Bullock Plains, ‘Tempe

Downs’; R130666, 5 mi. W ‘Narwietooma’> BMNH

1973.3286, Kintore Range (23°22’S 129°26’E) (formerly

JSE 305); CAWC R10, Hermannsburg; R20, ‘Fish River’;

CAWC R301, NTM R1590, R1601, R1869, R1871-72,

R1891, Maryvale; CAWC R764, Yuendemu Settlement;

R919, 20°02’S 130°16’E, Tanami Desert; R1062, Bonney

Creek, ‘McLaren Creek’; R1322, Ayers Rock; R1463,

23°52’S 135°42’E, Simpson Desert; R1494, ‘Todd River’;

R1647, Trephina Gorge; R2003-05, R2013, ‘Tempe Downs’.

R2008-09, George Gill Range; R2010, Ooraminna;

R2011-12, Mt Peachy; NTM R1593, 20 km N Maryvale;

DELMA IN S.A. AND NT. 87

FIGURE 9. Distribution of De/ma nasuta in the Northern

Territory and South Australia.

R1621, 28.5 mi. S Alice Springs; R5568, SAM R18721,

Alice Springs; NTM R5829, ‘Wave Hill’; R6556, Barrow

Creek; R12733-34, ‘Tempe Downs’, 25 km N Kings

Canyon rd; SAM R29889, 7 km along ‘Mulga Park’ rd,

SSE ‘Curtin Springs’ H.S.; R29940, 22 km along “Mulga

Park’ rd, SSE ‘Curtin Springs’ H.S.; WAM R20816, ‘Angas

Downs’; R24354, 6 mi. SW Barrow Creek; R55348,

R55398, ‘Maryvale’ H.S.; R60234-36, Spring Creek, 58

km N ‘Wave Hill’ H.S.

Queensland: AM R26010, Mt Isa; R49667, 193.7 km N

Windorah; R110542, R110609, 14 km NE Scott’s Tank,

‘Diamantina Lakes’; R125040, between Mt Isa and 100 km

to NW.

South Australia: AM R17310-15, R17376, R17646, R17939,

Mt Davies, Tomkinson Range; R17535, Mann Range.

Western Australia: AM R105732-34, 28.3 km N ‘Nanga’

turnoff on Denham rd; R111132, SAM R13444, Wittenoom

Gorge; CAWC R452, Balgo Mission; R1429, Giles

Meteorological Station; NTM R6664, Nicholson River

Gorge, ‘Nicholson’; R6762, 16.3 km N Halls Creek;

R7035-37, between Fitzroy Crossing and Halls Creek;

R7282-85, 167 km E Fitzroy Crossing; SAM R12675,

Warburton Range; R29375, 34 km S Denham; R29379,

24 km S Denham.

Delma tincta de Vis, 1888: 824.

Diagnosis

A small to moderate-sized species of Delma

(maximum SVL 92 mm), with usually one pair of

supranasals, third supralabial in subocular position,

14 midbody scales and, in juveniles and subadults

at least, a dark head dorsally and laterally, with

narrow pale bands (one preocular, one postocular,

one auricular, one nuchal), but mid-throat region

immaculate, pale.

Description

See Kluge (1974) and Storr ef al. (1990).

Distribution

Southern two-thirds of Northern Territory, south

of ‘Wave Hill’, Tennant Creek, ‘Anthony Lagoon’,

Borroloola and ‘Bing Bong’, with possible isolates

further north in the Katherine district (one

specimen) and far northern coast (Yirrkala to

Oenpelli, and possibly as far west as Humpty Doo).

In South Australia, apparently restricted to the

north-eastern quarter, extending south-west to

rudinna’ (Fig. 2).

Also widespread in Queensland and northern

N.SW. (Shea 1987a) and central-west Western

Australia and the Kimberley (Storr ef al. 1990).

Remarks

Kluge (1974) reports widespread sympatry of

D. borea and D. tincta. This does not appear to be

the case in the Northern Territory or Queensland.

Rather, they seem to have largely complementary

distributions. In the Northern Territory, the two

species have been collected in close proximity only

at ‘Wave Hill’ (five D. borea) and old ‘Wave Hill’

(one D. tincta), in the Katherine district (three D.

borea from Katherine and district, one D. tincta

from Katherine Farms rd and another from

‘Katherine district’), at Humpty Doo (one D. borea

and one D. tincta, the latter from ‘Humpty Doo

district’), and in the Alice Springs area (two D. borea

88 G. M. SHEA

from Heavitree Gap, one from Alice Springs, 35 D.

tincta from Alice Springs). At Yirrkala, three

specimens are typical D. borea in all three scalation

characters, while one specimen has the single pair

of supranasals and third supralabial subocular of

D. tincta, but the 16 midbody scale rows of D.

borea, the latter character only otherwise seen once

in 111 Australian Museum D. fincta. Further

collections are needed to determine whether this

specimen is really D. tincta, or an aberrant D. borea.

Only in the case of two specimens (NTM R3791-92)

from ‘Katherine district’ have the two species been

possibly collected synchrosympatrically.

The single record for Renmark (NTM R1166) is

considered to be erroneous. The Renmark area is

otherwise well-known herpetologically, and over 325

km south of the next nearest record.

Habitat

In the NT. and S.A., specimens have been

recorded under rubbish (n = 7), in leaf litter (n =

5), under dead Triodia (n = 2), under rock (n =

1) and in a disused ant nest under a rock (n = 1).

Habitats included grassland (n = 3), mulga plain

(n = 1), red soil plain (n = 1) and black soil plain

(n = 1). Four specimens were found active on roads

between 1915 and 2100 hrs, while one was active in

long grass at 1300 hrs.

Specimens examined

New South Wales: AM R4123, Clarence River; R16683,

R60469-72, Bingara; R18582, Croppa Creek; R32595,

Harriearra’, via Tibooburra; R44737, junction of Teatree

Creek and Horton River, 30 km WSW Bingara; R51703,

13 mi. E Manilla on Retreat rd; R51704-05, 0.7 mi. S

Woolomin; R63985, 2 mi. S Barraba; R64330, Yalleroi;

R86219, The Brothers’, North Star; R87537-45, Moonbi

Lookout; R104309, Tamworth; R105969, Chunky Creek,

Mt King’; R107713, Moree; R110672, nr Menindee;

R118978, R129322, Manilla Tip.

Northern Territory; AM R11529, Plenty River; R12364,

Yirrkala; R26398, nr Peterman Ranges, 61 mi. from W.A.

border; R26477-78, R26499, vicinity of Finke; R31624,

Smoke Hills, Tanami Desert; R50963, CAWC RII-17,

R1070, R1350, R1561, R1805-06, R2232, R2341, R3021,

R3124, R4806, R5448, R5889, R5909-10, NTM R531,

R5558, R5563, R5567, R8621, Alice Springs; AM

R52131-32, R52134, Greenleaves Caravan Park, Alice

Springs; R52133, Alice Springs Airport; R54923, 65 km

upstream from sea, Liverpool River; R54924, 20 km

upstream from sea, Liverpool River; R55355, Bing Bong’,

via Borroloola; R80363, 20 km W QId/N.T. border on

Barkly Hwy; R80368, 29 km E Three Ways on Barkly

Hwy; R84549, 25 km N Alice Springs on Stuart Hwy;

R84565, Henbury Meteorite Reserve, 146 km N Kulgera

on Stuart Hwy; CAWC R291, 10 km N Deep Well; R495,

Borroloola; R502, NTM R6484-86, R8416-18, R8513,

R8811, Frewena Roadhouse and vicinity; CAWC R622,

‘Alexandria’ H.S.; R1205, R1212, Maryvale; R1262, R1330,

Simpsons Gap; R5909, St Phillips College, Alice Springs;

NTM R101, Katherine Farms rd; R700, Railway Yards,

Alice Springs; R910, Oenpelli; R1573-74, Tanami Bore;

R1861, Mt Gillen; R2467, Bradshaw Drive, Alice Springs;

R3679-80, ‘Brunette Downs’ H.S.; R3792, Katherine

district; R5278, Telecom Building, Alice Springs; R5391,

Mt Watt, ca 25 mi. NW ‘Horse Shoe Bend’; R5392-93,

Mt Sunday Range, 190 km S Alice Springs; R5742,

Whycliffe Well; R6557, 10 km N Alice Springs; R6622,

old ‘Wave Hill’ H.S.; R8544-51, R9557-64, Alroy Downs;

R8557, 64 km N ‘Alroy Downs’; R8604, 7 km N Three

Ways; QM J21786, Humpty Doo district; J26982, MIM

mine, MacArthur River; SAM R8062, Tennant Creek;

WAM _ R55406-07, R55440, 71 km W Barry Caves;

R78239, 70 km W Barry Caves.

Queensland: AM R2283, Bloomfield River, Cooktown;

R5853, Oakey; R7003, R10237, R84394, Cooktown;

R9361, 118 mi. N Rockhampton; R9453, Winton; R11653,

Cunnamulla district; R12321, Proserpine; R13010,

Hughenden; R13801, Townsville; R17028, Laura; R17080,

Gregory Springs via Hughenden; R31628, R31631, Mt Isa

district; R37484, 15 mi. from Proserpine on Shute Harbour

td; R12201-02, Brooklyn, Winton; R13714, Mungai

Junction; R16347, R16684, R16686, Silver Plains’; R16671,

Lappa Junction; R21131, Cunnamulla; R50209,

Tullochard’, 78 mi. SW Mitchell; R51524, Grassy Hill,

Cooktown; R55612, R58482, ‘Gilruth Plains’; R56816, 10

mi. S Gayndah; R60249, 1.6 km E Camooweal; R61577,

Lizard Island; R62301, 80.1 km N Muttaburra on

Hughenden rd; R62459-62, R62706, 62.4 km N

Muttaburra on Hughenden rd; R62490-95, ca 23.7 km

NW Aramac turnoff via Muttaburra rd; R63056,

Clermont; R63110, WAM R21420-22, Charters Towers;

AM R63333, Croydon Tip; R63431, just NE Karumba;

R63574, 0.7 km S airport entrance via old Croydon rd;

R63615-17, 8.1 km W Croydon rd; R63692, 23.9 km E

Croydon P.O. via Gulf Hwy; R63714, Crooked Creek at

Gulf Hwy, 34.5 km W Georgetown; R81701-02, 6.6 km

SE Greenvale by rd; R81703, Charters Towers Tip; R81704,

25.2 km N Yeppoon via Byfield rd; R84404, 22.0 km S

Townsville on hwy; R90213, 63 km W Winton on Boulia

td; R90214, 55 km SE Winton on Landsborough Hwy;

R105152, Weipa regeneration area; R113228-29, Mayne

Junction Bore, ‘Diamantina Lakes’; R128219, R128857,

Mandalee, Innot Hot Springs; BMNH 1924.3.3.22-26,

‘Alice Downs’, Blackall.

South Australia: NTM R1166, Renmark [in error]; SAM

R14498, Flinders Ranges; R15189a-c, Erudinna’; R18254,

R18262-63, R32453, Coongie Lake; R30970-71, ‘Coongie’;

R30976, 8 km SSE ‘Coongie’; R31173, 27°12’S 140°08’E,

Cooper Creek area.

Western Australia: AM R4939; R40529-30, NTM R13084,

3 mi. S main Ord River Dam; AM R100565, 26.9 km N

Wittenoom-Newman rd via Port Hedland rd; NTM

R9940-41, Wyndham.

No data: NTM R331, R2973, R9855-57.

A KEY To THE DELMA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY

1 — Ventral scales not transversely enlarged; loreal scale

row usually interrupted by prefrontal scale....

Cae WAS euclidean SA Spatial any 6 Mee, australis

— Ventral scales transversely enlarged; loreal scale row

complete, prefrontal separated from supralabials

DELMA IN S.A. AND NT. 89

2 — Single pair of supranasals, fused with first

supralabial rostral to nostril and with postnasal

caudal to nostril; two preanal scales..... impar

— First supralabial and postnasal distinct from

supranasals; three preanal scales............ 3

3 — Usually 14 midbody scales; third supralabial scale

subocular; one pair of supranasals...... tincta

— Usually 16 or more midbody scales; fourth

supralabial scale subocular; one or two pairs of

SUPPANASAlS nclevswre ne +o a eeeeeaw a eles oles. washer 4

4 — Upper temporal single; size small (SVL <98 mm);

head dark (paler in large adults) with narrow light

bands; throat pale, immaculate.......... borea

— Upper temporals two or more; size small or large;

head pale or dark; throat with or without dark

VATICCATIONS! 4, stein einicis coin.cck ss aa staan aie aa 5

5 — Usually 18 midbody scales; head darker than body

(contrast reduced in large adults)............ 6

— Usually 16 midbody scales; head concolorous with

DOUY ate sviccs Wh, eeemils Bue wea erelet ins yeas 7

6 — One pair of supranasals; throat immaculate...

a hac ieee aeons Gren kris aeirren ar molleri

— Two pairs of supranasals; throat with dark bands

PRR tea Wk War ee ea eae fraseri petersoni

— Two pairs of supranasals, caudal pair narrowly

separated: from: nostril... ...scccce vs ee as ces 8

8 — Snout long, narrow; colour pattern (when present)

of dark spots dorsally and ventrally... .nasuta

— Snout short; colour pattern (when present) of

irregular complete or incomplete narrow pale bands

OVED MEAG! sop vele oo ane sree lerebccorransmespate butleri

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank E. N. Arnold (BMNH), J.

Covacevich (QM), J. Coventry (MV), A. Edwards (SAM),

A. Greer and R. Sadlier (AM), M. King (NTM) and L.

Smith and G. Storr (WAM) for allowing me access to

material in their care, for the loan of specimens, and for

answering my numerous enquiries. A. Stimson (BMNH)

kindly checked the measurements of the second BMNH

‘syntype’ of D. fraseri. B. Jantulik prepared the artwork

for Figs 3, 5 and 6, and assisted in the preparation of the

other figures. A. Greer, M. Hutchinson, G. Ingram, A.

Kluge and M. Peterson offered useful criticism of the

7 — One or two pairs of supranasals; if two, caudal pair © ™anuscript, while E. Damas and K. Jopson offered

broadly separated from nostril....... inornata encouragement and assistance.

REFERENCES

BOULENGER, G. A. 1885. ‘Catalogue of the Lizards in

the British Museum (Natural History). Second Edition.

Vol. I. Geckonidae, Eublepharidae, Uroplatidae,

Pygopodidae, Agamidae’. Trustees of the British

Museum (Natural History): London.

BUSH, B. 1981. ‘Reptiles of the Kalgoorlie-Esperance

Region’. The author: Esperance.

CHAPMAN, A. & DELL, J. 1977. Reptiles and frogs of

Bendering and West Bendering Nature Reserves.

Records of the Western Australian Museum

Supplement (5): 47-55.

CHAPMAN, A. & DELL, J. 1978. Reptiles and frogs of

Dongolocking Nature Reserve. Records of the Western

Australian Museum Supplement (6): 71-77.

CHAPMAN, A. & DELL, J. 1980a. Reptiles and frogs

of Yorkrakine Rock, East Yorkrakine and North

Bungulla Nature Reserves. Records of the Western

Australian Museum Supplement (12): 69-73.

CHAPMAN, A. & DELL, J. 1980b. Reptiles and frogs

of Badjaling Nature Reserve, South Badjaling Nature

Reserve, Yoting Town Reserve and Yoting Water Reserve.

Records of the Western Australian Museum

Supplement (12): 59-64.

CHAPMAN, A. & DELL, J. 1985. Biology and

Zoogeography of the Amphibians and Reptiles of the

Western Australian Wheatbelt. Records of the Western

Australian Museum 12: 1-46.

COGGER, H. G. 1975. ‘Reptiles and Amphibians of

Australia’. A. H. and A. W. Reed: Sydney.

COGGER, H. G., CAMERON, E. E. & COGGER, H. M.

1983. ‘Zoological Catalogue of Australia. Vol. 1

Amphibia and Reptilia’, Australian Government

Publishing Service: Canberra.

DELL, J. & CHAPMAN, A. 1977. Reptiles and frogs of

Cockleshell Gully Reserve. Records of the Western

Australian Museum Supplement (4): 75-86.

DELL, J. & CHAPMAN, A. 1978. Reptiles and frogs of

Durokoppin and Kodj Kodjin Nature Reserves. Records

of the Western Australian Museum Supplement (7):

69-74.

DELL, J. & HAROLD, G. 1977. Amphibians and reptiles.

In ‘The Natural History of the Wongan Hills’. Ed. K. F.

Kenneally. Western Australian Naturalists’ Club: Perth.

DE VIS, C. W. 1888. A contribution to the herpetology

of Queensland. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of

New South Wales (2)2: 811-826.

FISCHER, J. G. 1882. Herpetologische Bemerkungen.

Archiv fur Naturgeschichte 48: 281-302.

[GRAY, J. E.] 183la. Description of a new genus of

Ophisaurean Animal, discovered by the late James

Hunter, Esq., in New Holland. Jn The Zoological

Miscellany’. Ed. J. E. Gray. Treuttel, Wurtz and Co.,

G. H. Sowerby, and W. Wood: London.

GRAY, J. E. 1831b. A synopsis of the species of the Class

Reptilia. Jn The Animal Kingdom arranged in

conformity with its organization, by the Baron Cuvier,

member of the Institute of France, &c. &c. &c. with

additional descriptions of all of the species hitherto

named, and of many not before noticed’. Vol. 9. Ed.

E. Griffith & E. Pidgeon. Whittaker, Treacher, and Co.:

London.

GRAY, J. E. 1841. A Catalogue of the species of Reptiles

and Amphibia hitherto described as inhabiting

Australia, with a description of some new species from

Western Australia, and some remarks on_ their

geographical distribution. Jn ‘Journals of two

90 G. M. SHEA

expeditions of discovery in North-west and Western

Australia, during the years 1837, 38, and 39, Under the

Authority of Her Majesty’s Government’. Vol. 2. G.

Grey. T. and W. Boone: London.

GRAY, J. E. 1845. ‘Catalogue of the Specimens of Lizards

in the Collection of the British Museum’. Trustees of

the British Museum: London.

KLUGE, A. G. 1974. A taxonomic revision of the lizard

family Pygopodidae. Miscellaneous Publications of the

Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan (147):

1-221.

KLUGE, A. G. 1976. Phylogenetic relationships in the

lizard family Pygopodidae: an evaluation of theory,

methods and data. Miscellaneous Publications of the

Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan (152):

1-72.

LUTKEN, C. 1863. Nogle nye krybdyr og padder.

Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske

Forening i Kjobenhaun 1862: 292-331.

SCHWANER, T. D., MILLER, B. & TYLER, M. J. 1985.

Reptiles and amphibians. Pp. 159-168 in ‘Natural

History of Eyre Peninsula’. Ed. C. R. Twidale, M. J.

Tyler, & M. Davies. Royal Society of South Australia

(Inc.): Adelaide.

SHEA, G. M. 1987a. Two new species of Delma

(Lacertilia: Pygopodidae) from northeastern

Queensland and a note on the status of the genus Ac/ys.

Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South

Wales 109: 203-212.

SHEA, G. M. 1987b. Delma nasuta (Lacertilia:

Pygopodidae), an addition to the herpetofauna of New

South Wales and Victoria, with a note on rapid color

change in this species. Victorian Naturalist 104: 5-8.

STORR, G. M. 1987. Three new legless lizards

(Pygopodidae) from Western Australia. Records of the

Western Australian Museum 13: 345-355.

STORR, G. M., HANLON, T. M. S. & HAROLD, G. 1981.

Herpetofauna of the shores and hinterland of the Great

Australian Bight, Western Australia. Records of the

Western Australian Museum 9: 23-39.

STORR, G. M., SMITH, L. A. & JOHNSTONE, R. E.

1990. ‘Lizards of Western Australia. II]. Geckos and

Pygopodids’. Western Australian Museum: Perth.

WILSON, S. K. & KNOWLES, D. G. 1988. ‘Australia’s

Reptiles. A Photographic Reference to the Terrestrial

Reptiles of Australia’. William Collins: Sydney.

*‘LI-MARAMARANJA’ : YANYUWA HUNTERS OF MARINE ANIMALS IN

THE SIR EDWARD PELLEW GROUP, NORTHERN TERRITORY

JOHN J. BRADLEY

Summary

For many generations the Yanyuwa people in the Gulf of Carpentaria have hunted dugong and sea-

turtle. Despite external pressures the skills and traditions associated with hunting these marine

creatures have survived. These traditions continue to provide a sense of pride within Yanyuwa

society.

‘LI-MARAMARANJA’: YANYUWA HUNTERS OF MARINE ANIMALS IN THE SIR EDWARD

PELLEW GROUP, NORTHERN TERRITORY

JOHN J. BRADLEY

BRADLEY, J. J. 1991. ‘Li-Maramaranja’: Yanyuwa hunters of marine animals in the Sir Edward

Pellew Group, Northern Territory. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(1): 91-110.

For many generations the Yanyuwa people in the Gulf of Carpentaria have hunted dugong

and sea-turtle. Despite external pressures the skills and traditions associated with hunting these

marine creatures have survived. These traditions continue to provide a sense of pride within

Yanyuwa society.

J. J. Bradley, 150 Rowan Street, Bendigo, Victoria 3550. Manuscript received 15 October 1990.

The Yanyuwa group of Aboriginal people who

live in and around Borroloola, Northern Territory

in the south-western Gulf of Carpentaria pride

themselves on being hunters of dugong (Dugong

dugon) and sea-turtle (usually the green turtle

Chelonia mydas). This pride is based both on

historical association and the continuing spiritual

identification with these marine animals. In

Yanyuwa society certain people are regarded as

being maramaranja, a term which can be translated

as ‘a dugong and sea-turtle hunter of excellence’.

As the following song verse suggests, it is a title of

which individuals and their associated families are

proud:

Wirndalbirndal

ngamabala-wada

ndi-ngambala li-wurralngu

li-Maramaranja.

Long and strong

is our hair,

for we are inhabitants

of the sea country:

we are dugong hunters

of excellence.

(composer: Jack Baju ‘Akarrunda’)

The Yanyuwa hunt the dugong and sea-turtle in

the shallow waters about the Sir Edward Pellew

Group, the mouth of the Carrington Channel and

the mouths of the McArthur, Crooked and Wearyan

Rivers in the Northern Territory (see Fig. 1). It is

in these shallow waters that various species of sea-

grass are found. Both dugong and sea-turtle feed

on sea-grass. The Yanyuwa classify the sea-grass into

that which is eaten by the dugong and that which

is eaten by the sea-turtle. In fact both animals eat

sea-grass of the same Halophila species (Dr I.

Poiner pers. comm.). The names given to sea-grass

by the Yanyuwa are as follows: maraman and ma-

lhanngu, which is said to be eaten by dugong, and

na-wirrilbirril and na-julangal which is said to be

eaten by sea-turtles. A general term for all sea-grass

is ki-maramanda.

YANYUWA TERMS FOR DUGONG AND SEA-TURTLE

Yanyuwa hunters possess a rich and complex

knowledge of the dugong and sea-turtle. This

knowledge concerns both the factual details

concerning the sea-turtle and dugong, and the deep

spiritual significance which governs how the

Yanyuwa act towards these animals. The Yanyuwa

classify the dugong and sea-turtle into the following

categories:

Dugong

General terms

walya - general term for both dugong and

sea-turtle.

waliki - general term for dugong.

nhabal - avoidance term for all dugong.

yiwaji - archaic term for all dugong.

wundunyuka - general term for all sea-turtle.

li-waliki/a-waliki - a herd of dugong.

Female terms

a-banthamu - old cow with small tusks visible.

a-bayawiji - mature cow, capable of breeding (no

tusks).

a-ngayiwunyarra

a-kulhakulhawiji -pregnant cow.

a-lhumurrawiji -pregnant cow with a calf still

following.

a-miramba - non-lactating cow, but with a large calf

still foliowing.

a-ngarninybala - cow with her calf riding on her

back.

a-wurduwu - young female dugong.

li-milkamilarra - small group of cows with calves.

nyanki-ardu - dugong foetus.

J. J. BRADLEY

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YANYUWA HUNTERS 93

Male terms

bungkurl - very fat, small male dugong.

Jiyamirama/jiwarnarrila - male dugong which

travels away from cow during times of threat.

mayili - bull dugong with small tusks.

rangkarraku/rangkarrangu - bull dugong travelling

by itself.

wiriji - large old bull with a mottled hide,

considered to be the offspring of the Rainbow

Serpent.

wirumantharra - bull dugong whistling, often said

to be the leader of the herd.

ngumba - very young dugong.

Sea-turtle

There are three species of turtle in the area of

the Pellew Islands. The most commonly hunted is

the green turtle (Chelonia mydas).

Green turtle

malurrba - green turtle.

warrikuliyangu - male green turtle.

ngululurru - male green turtle.

rra-tharra - female green turtle.

a-wandangumara - very large female green turtle.

bankiba - very large male green turtle.

ngajilingajili - green turtle with a light coloured

shell and a lot of yellow colouring to the underside.

lijalijangulyanda - young green turtle not

considered big enough to eat.

a-wathawayawiji - female green turtle containing

unlaid eggs.

yabalarla - green turtle hatchling.

ngarrangarra - green turtle which lacks a lot of

body fat.

wunakathangu - green turtle found with ulcerations

in the stomach (not eaten).

Flat-backed turtle

wirndiwirndi - flat-backed turtle. This species of

sea-turtle is occasionally captured by Yanyuwa

hunters.

jadiwangarni - male flat-backed turtle.

a-karninja - female flat-backed turtle.

Hawksbill turtle

karrubu - hawksbill turtle. This species is not

captured by the Yanyuwa as it is considered

poisonous.

yibarriwuna - male hawksbill turtle.

a-ngurrin - female hawksbill turtle.

Loggerhead turtle

limarrwurrirri - loggerhead turtle.

General terms relating to turtles

rri-bankuja - mating turtles.

rujurru - turtle hatchling.

ngangkurrurru - female on the beach laying eggs.

DUGONG AND SEA-TURTLE HABITATS

The hunters of dugong and sea-turtle know that

it is the tides which primarily affect the movement

of dugong and sea-turtle. Both animals feed on the

coastal sea-grass beds at high tide (ngakan) and

move out onto the off-shore beds at low tide

(mangkuru). A turning tide (jalababa), is often

considered a good time to hunt dugong especially

if the tide is coming in as the dugong will be

travelling in towards the sea-grass beds. If the sea

is calm both dugong and sea-turtle can occasionally

be seen feeding on the sea-grass beds along the more

exposed coastal and reef areas.

The Yanyuwa men who are versed in the ‘Law’

of the dugong say that the dugong is a migratory

animal. This migratory path would seem to range

from just south of the Limmen River mouth,

through the Pellew Islands and eastward to the

region of the mouth of the Robinson River. Dugong

are classified into two groupings; there are those

that are continually moving and those which are

more territorial. In the Yanyuwa language the

migration of the dugong is known as muyu, and

those dugong who remain in one area are called

jibiya baji or ‘countrymen belonging to that place’.

In the area of the Sir Edward Pellew Group the

dugong migration path would seem to run south

of West Island to the north of South West Island

and into the small strait between South West Island

and Centre Island, then eastward past the mouths

of the McArthur and Wearyan Rivers.

Both the dugong and sea-turtle frequent the same

areas, due to the presence of the sea-grass beds. The

Yanyuwa do not regard the sea-turtle as a migratory

animal, though research has shown that the green

turtle does migrate long distances to nest (Limpus

1985 pers. comm.).

The localities which dugong and sea-turtle are

known to frequent are the south-west and central

west coast of West Island (Mamadathamburu), the

area in the vicinity of the central west coast of South

West Island (Mangurrungurru), the McArthur River

mouth and Dugong Creek (Wuthanda), an area

around the mouth of the Crooked River

(Liwujujuluwa), an area to the north-east of

Sharkers Point (Lidambuwa), and an area to the

north of the Wearyan River (Bulubuluwiji). At most

times of the year dugong and sea-turtle can be

found at any of these localities in varying numbers

(see Fig. 1).

The largest numbers of dugong are found in the

vicinity of the Sir Edward Pellew Group in the mid

dry season (ngardara), usually around June, July

and August. It is during this time that the Yanyuwa

do the greater part of their dugong and sea-turtle

hunting, though people will hunt at other times of

the year. During the mid dry season however, the

94 J. J. BRADLEY

sea is usually calm and the strong south-easterly

winds (rra-mardu) have ceased to blow.

HARPOONING EQUIPMENT

Yanyuwa hunters prepare or repair most of the

equipment detailed below while still at camp or

while travelling on the river on the way to the sea

(see Fig. 2).

The Yanyuwa hunt dugong and sea-turtle with

a harpoon with a detachable head to which is

attached a long rope and float. Most senior

Yanyuwa men possess at least one harpoon, which

is called either na-ridiridi, yirlakungka or ratharr.

These are usually carved from the wood of young

messmate trees (Eucalyptus tetrodonta) and are

from three to five metres in length. The harpoons

are usually well cared for, being rubbed with the

sap of certain trees, red ochre and sugar bag wax

to help preserve them.

The base of the harpoon point rests in a socket

carved into the thicker end of the harpoon shaft.

This socket is called the na-wuthula or na-balalarra,

or more commonly na-mulu (‘its mouth’). The

harpoon points are usually called na-malbi or na-

wulukayangu and today are made of metal - usually

a piece of steel rod (tappet rods from Toyota engines

are a common source), approximately 15 cm in

length and 1 cm in diameter. In past times these

points were made out of hardwood, usually

Pemphis acidula, which in Yanyuwa is called na-

wubulu. These wooden points were warmed slowly

in the hot white ashes of a fire to temper them. In

past times the wooden points used for hunting sea-

turtle were barbed because the hunters had to spear

the turtle in the neck or flippers, as the wooden

points could not penetrate the shell. These barbed

wooden points were cailed na-ngalhinbiji which

literally means ‘ft has a hook/barb’.

The top of the harpoon point is wrapped in cloth

or paperbark and then tightly bound with string

to ensure that the harpoon point rests firmly in the

harpoon. The harpoon point is attached to the

harpoon ropes called ma-ngarduku or ma-

yinymathu. In the past the rope was made out of

the inner bark of the kurrajong or banyan tree.

Today commercial nylon or hemp rope is used.

Kurrajong ropes are still occasionally made for sale

to Aboriginal art and craft organisations.

Two ropes of about twenty metres in length are

required. The harpoon point is attached to the rope

by way of the nungawu, which is a small loop made

in the end of the rope through which the harpoon

point is passed. The bound end of the harpoon

point is pushed firmly against the loop and then

both are tied together with string. The other end

of the ropes are attached to a wooden float called

mawarl. This is made from a light piece of wood

and is usually about 60-70 cm in length and about

20 cm in diameter. The float is thrown out when

a dugong or sea-turtle is harpooned, to mark the

course the harpooned animal takes and to tire it out.

This float was of more importance in the days of

bark and dugout canoes when men had to paddle

to catch their prey. With the advent of motor boats

the hunters can usually keep up with the sea-turtle

or dugong and the float is rarely required but it is

always carried and kept attached to the ropes. The

float is still useful if the engine fails, the rope

becomes tangled, if the hunter falls overboard when

he spears the dugong, or loses the harpoon.

It is Yanyuwa tradition that the dugong and sea-

turtle be harpooned twice. The first harpoon strike

into the dugong is called na-walangkarramba or na-

walangkarrangu, and the second is called na-

nyirriwa or na-nyirriwangu.

HUNTING RULES

Yanyuwa dugong hunters must follow strict rules

before leaving the land to go hunting. Hunters try

to keep their noise level to a minimum, they will

not break sticks, burn string or sugar bag wax or

handle greasy food. The reasons behind these

restrictions are not known but the restriction on

making noise is said to be because the dugong has

extremely keen hearing. In Yanyuwa the dugong is

said to be /ingi, a term usually reserved for a person

of high intelligence or keen hearing. It is believed

that if too much noise is made the dugongs will hear

and dive into deep water where they cannot be

hunted. Men will not handle greasy food before

hunting as they believe if it contacts the harpoon

points it will make them smooth and they will slip

out of the harpooned dugong or sea-turtle. All of

these restrictions are grouped together under the

generic term, wardimalyurr.

While there are no such specific rules associated

with the hunting of sea-turtle, this animal’s keen

eyesight is treated with as much respect as the

dugong’s acute hearing. Otherwise, the same rules

are observed as the hunters do not know which of

the two animals they may find when setting out on

an expedition. Any person who disregards these

restrictions and others concerning the Law of the

dugong have the following phrase directed at them

— wardiwiji angkawangu (‘you are filled with

badness, you are a mainland dweller’). This is an

insulting remark to people who class themselves as

sea people and the hunters of marine animals.

THE HUNT

When hunters reach the area in which they wish

to hunt, they scan the water for dugong and sea-

YANYUWA HUNTERS

na-wuthulu, na-mulu - hole where the harpoon point rests

mawarl - float, 60-70 cm

nungawu

AUP IPPIB

ALOPTIIP

¥ na-nyirriwa

na-nyirriwanngu

na-walangkarramba

na-walangkarrangu

oie na-niiridi, yirlakungka or ratharr - harpoon, 4-5 m

na-ngalhinbiji

FIGURE 2. Harpooning equipment.

96 J. J. BRADLEY

turtle surfacing to breathe, for muddy water which

has been caused by these animals feeding, or for

broken pieces of floating sea-grass and excreta. It

is these signs which make visible and meaningful

tracks to the hunter.

When an animal is located, the skill of the boat’s

‘driver’ (wuliyi/wungkayi) is crucial. He has to

follow hand signals given by the harpooner and

manoeuvre him within range to spear the animal.

This is often difficult as he must keep pace with

the dugong which can swim at speeds of 10-12

knots for short periods. Sea-turtles are also capable

of short bursts of speed and have the added

advantage of keen eyesight, referred to in at least

one Yanyuwa song cycle (see below). In shallow

water the dugong can be tracked by the wake which

is caused by the upward and downward movement

of the tail, producing a series of flat circles on the

surface of the water (Marsh ef a/. 1981). Sea-turtles

are always tracked through the water by sight.

When a dugong has been speared once it usually

tires quickly; it is then brought into range once more

and speared again. The hunter usually tries to place

one harpoon in the region of the neck and another

in the lower back or tail region. After the animal

has been speared twice the dugong is pulled

alongside the boat. In Yanyuwa this action is called

lhungkayarra. The dugong is then grabbed by the

tail and a noose is placed around it, just below the

flukes. The animal is turned around so its stomach

is facing outwards. Its tail is braced against the

gunwhale, forcing the head under water and

drowning it.

In past times when the Yanyuwa hunted dugong

from bark canoes the dugong was not drowned

alongside the canoe for fear that the struggling

animal would damage the frail craft. Instead the

dugong was brought within a short distance of the

canoe and then the hunter swam out to the dugong

and plugged the dugong’s nostrils with paperbark

or even his own fingers, and he stayed with the

dugong until it drowned.

From the moment a dugong is speared until it

is drowned no talking takes place. It is believed that

talking while the dugong is dying is a sign of great

disrespect, and if someone does talk while the

dugong is being pulled alongside the boat, the

spirits who guard the dugong will come and remove

the harpoon points.

The hunters usually try to spear young male

dugongs and occasionally a cow as long as it has

not got a calf or does not appear to be pregnant.

The Yanyuwa dugong hunters say that they can tell

the difference between a male dugong and a

pregnant cow by the way in which it dives after

surfacing; a pregnant cow is said to dive quicker

and at a sharper angle. Large old bull dugongs are

avoided because they are said to be the offspring

of the Rainbow Serpent and are therefore to be

feared. They can be killed but only with the

assistance of special ‘power songs’ (nyiri) which are

said to weaken the animal and break its back. One

power song which is used in an attempt to weaken

such animals is as follows:

Miriyayurr, miriyayurr.

Kunjurr, kunjurr.

You with the spirit of the

Rainbow Serpent,

Your back is broken,

truly it is cracked.

(Isaac Walayungkuma 1985 pers. comm.).

It is said that such a dugong, if not controlled, will

tow the boat to the mouth of its father, the Rainbow

Serpent (Bujimala) and dive into the mouth, taking

boat and crew with it. Quite often though, if one

of these dugongs is harpooned the rope is just cut.

These large dugongs are powerful, and trying to kill

one by drowning would be much more hazardous.

When the dugong is drowned it is tied alongside

the boat. A rope is tied around the tail which is then

fixed to the back of the boat, and a harpoon point

is passed through the dugong’s nostrils and to this

a rope is attached. This rope is tied to the front of

the boat. The dugong is then taken back to land

for butchering.

During times when groups of Yanyuwa people are

camped on the islands they will often hunt the

dugong at night. The dugong is located by listening

for the sounds of dugong surfacing to breath. The

dugong are followed through the water by their

phosphorescent wake, called balirrka. As this

method of hunting is considerably more dangerous

there is very careful preparation of the hunting

equipment before setting out.

Sea-turtle are hunted in a similar fashion to

dugong. Sea-turtle can at times prove more difficult

though, due to the animals’ keen eyesight and the

length of time which they can stay submerged. The

harpooned sea-turtle will often swim under the

boat, making it harder for the driver of the boat

to place the harpooner in an ideal position to

harpoon it for the second time. When the sea-turtle

has been harpooned twice it is pulled up alongside

the boat and taken hold of by its front flippers. If

the sea-turtle is relatively small it is pulled directly

into the boat; if it is very large and heavy it is tied

to the side of the boat by the front flippers so that

it hangs vertically in the water with its head above

the water line. This is to ensure that the sea-turtle

does not drown. The Yanyuwa believe that if they

let a sea-turtle drown they will have great difficulty

in finding and catching them when they go hunting

again. With the sea-turtle secured either in or

alongside the boat it is taken back to land for

killing, cooking and butchering.

YANYUWA HUNTERS 97

BUTCHERING AND COOKING DUGONG AND

SEA-TURTLE

Figures 3 and 4 illustrate the method by which

a sea-turtle is killed and gutted. The sea-turtle is

cooked whole, in its shell, before it is butchered.

Firstly it is laid in a shallow pit which contains hot

coals; the sea-turtle is then covered with wood which

is set alight. It is then left for two to three hours.

As the sea-turtle cooks it is watched to make sure

that the fire does not burn through the shell, causing

the mathulmathul to be lost. Mathulmathul is a rich

‘soup’ composed of meat and fat particles, juices,

and blood. This is much sought after by older

people who believe that it has medicinal value

(younger people used to European food find it too

rich and complain that it gives them diarrhoea).

After the turtle has cooled it is butchered. Figures

5, 6, and 7 show the order in which this is done.

After the first cooking much of the sea-turtle meat

is still somewhat raw, so after butchering the meat

is placed into a ground oven on a bed of Acacia

leaves to complete the cooking process.

When a dugong is brought back to the land for

butchering its head must be faced back in the

direction of the sea. This is to enable the spirit of

FIGURE 3. The turtle is killed by hitting it hard on the

head with a stone or an axe to break the hard protective

covering plates. A long sharp stick is then thrust into this

hole to ‘mangle the brains’. This act must be performed

by a person who stands in the position of a ritual guardian

of the sea-turtle.

Cut made into the na-ngunduwa

FIGURE 4. Butchering the turtle. When dead the turtle

must be laid on its back, then the first cut is made. The

act of making this cut is ngunduwamantharra. The person

butchering the turtle then reaches in through this cut and

removes a number of organs, listed in their order of

removal: 1. ngundurrngundurr - section of the bronchial

tube; 2. na-widiri - liver (eaten); 3. rra-ngawu - bladder;

4. ma-mulka - stomach (eaten; occasionally severe

ulcerations are found in the stomach of old turtles, and

they are called wunakathangu); 5. wunakaka - large

intestines (eaten); 6. ma-karriyalu - small intestine (eaten).

After the turtle has been gutted, paperbark is folded into

small rolls and pushed into the bronchi remaining inside

the turtle. The reason given for this practice is so that the

turtle in the sea will not become ngarrangarra or without

fat. The heart of the turtle is removed with the bronchial

tubes and is also called ngundurrngundurr. The liver is

also called na-manyi, and the stomach is also called

yalajala.

the dugong to return to the sea. This is an act of

great importance to the Yanyuwa people and is

called ki-maramanngku, which can be literally

translated as ‘returning the one belonging to the

sea-grass’.

There are two methods which can be used to

butcher a dugong (see Figs 8, 9, 10). One method,

called yingkurra, involves removing the meat in

slabs with the hide still attached. This method is

used when large groups of people are present and

the meat can be distributed quickly. The most

favoured method however is called munbul and

involves removing the hide of the dugong in its

entirety, excepting the head and tail portions.

Munbul is considered to be the most archaic form

of butchering and is therefore associated with the

activities of the old people, /i-wankala, who in

contemporary times are spoken of with much

emotion:

Today that dugong was butchered in the way of my

forefathers, we cut it munbul it really made me

remember the old people, when a dugong is cut up

like that and cooked, the meat is sweet. That other

way, that yingkurra that is only new way I don’t like

it, it make a dugong like a bullock and that is badness.

(Ida Ninganga 1986 pers. comm., translated by

author).

98 J. J. BRADLEY

na-manda- tippers

na-wirlibirli

frontal shell

na-milimili

FIGURE 5. Butchering the turtle, continued. Broken lines

indicate knife cuts. A. Flippers are cut off at the joint,

na-wi. B. Na-ngabala — skin, meat and fat.

The only organ of the dugong which is eaten is

the small intestine (murajuju). It is cut into short

lengths of about 20 cm. The murajuju is then

washed in salt water and boiled or cooked in a

ground oven (rabarr), in similar fashion to the rest

of the meat.

The oven (approximately 1 m deep, 1-2 m in

width and 2 m in length) is filled with wood which

is set alight. While the wood is still burning, stones

are thrown into the fire to get hot. When the wood

has burnt down to hot coals the heated stones are

removed and green mangrove branches are laid onto

the bed of coals. The meat is then placed in the

oven. The head is placed at one end of the oven

and the tail at the other. The smaller portions of

meat are then placed between them. Onto this meat

are placed hot stones, and over these cuts of meat

and hot stones are placed the two halves of the rib

cage which is also covered by stones. The oven is

then covered with paperbark and sealed with earth.

The meat is left to cook for several hours.

na-yalarri - shoulder and chest

muscles

na-lakalaka - piece of meat

sacred to the sea

turtle

na-wuthula - meat and fat.

na- Ihundu - fat

na-narrngu - fat and main tail

piece

wulaya - head

na-muingu - neck

na-yinji - lungs and bronchii

na-rurru - green fat lining the

shell

!huwayngu! - yellow fat

FIGURE 6. Butchering the turtle, continued. Broken lines

indicate knife cuts. C. Wurrunthulburrunthul — tail piece,

fat and meat. D. Wundumutha - green fat and meat.

na-buyurru - shell

mathulmathul - ‘soup’

made from meat juices,

blood and particles of

meat and fat

rabarr - hot stones used

during cooking process

ma-yajbarla - main portion

of hips

ma-rawurr- central hip

portion

FIGURE 7. Cooking the turtle.

YANYUWA HUNTERS

na-lurrmundurr

na-milwangu

15 B

’

‘

na-lhirnbiji

na-wurlaburla

b-----fee goad

na-yalari

na-maru

FIGURE 8. Method of butchering dugong known as yin

Oue-

na-wirlibirli

-oreprcccce

! soc

gkurra. Numbers refer to the order in which the cuts are

made. a. Wulaya - head. b. Na-rawulurr - jaw. c. Na-jamuka - chin. d. Na-yabirli - shoulder blade. e. Na-yirrimbi

- tail. f. Na-manda - flipper. g. Na-waji - armpit. h. Na-

called wungal. The hide of the dugong is called yanjurr.

called na-yalari.

wurdu — belly section. The slabs of meat A, B, and C are

The belly section is cut in half and the two sections are

100 J. J. BRADLEY

MUNBUL

FIGURE 9. Method of butchering dugong known as

munbul. The hide is removed in one piece and is then

roasted flesh-side down on a bed of hot coals.

During certain ritual occasions parts of the

dugong and sea-turtle are kept exclusively for the

senior men. It is the rib-cage sections, head, and

flippers which are considered sacred, and the hip

and back flipper section of the sea-turtle. These are

the sections which are placed into the ground oven

within the confines of a restricted sacred area called

na-manda. This area is enclosed by a semi-circular

earth mound which is built to surround the ground

oven. After meat cooked in the na-manda has been

eaten all the scraps and bones are thrown back into

the ground oven and burnt. The belief is that failure

to dispose of the bones correctly will result in a

cessation of successful hunting.

When the head of a dugong is removed from the

ground oven the flesh is removed, and the jaw is

separated from the skull. The jaw, skull and flesh

is cooked once more. The skull of a dugong is

usually thrown back into the sea or river. This is

why few dugong skulls are ever found at camp sites;

the head of a human or animal is deemed sacred

by the Yanyuwa.

If a female dugong is killed and found to be

pregnant the foetus is taken with the rest of the meat

and cooked. It can only be eaten by senior men who

have the dugong as their Dreaming, or by those who

by Dreaming relationship call the dugong ‘mother’.

The act of distributing the meat from the dugong

and sea-turtle is called wangkamantharra and is

governed by Yanyuwa law. The portion received by

each person is usually based on the relationship of

the people to the hunters and at times by people’s

Dreaming relationship to these creatures. It is not

viewed favourably if the hunter does not distribute

the meat. In the past such an action was enough

to incite heated argument and even physical violence

and this can still be the case today.

In the division of dugong meat the hunter

receives some of the belly meat, the head, and if

the dugong has no ritual use (in terms of na-manda

cooking) he takes a small portion of the rib-bones

and some of the intestines. The driver of the boat

receives the tail, some shoulder meat and rib-bones.

If a woman’s brother or sons participated in the

hunt, she may not eat from the back-bone or ribs,

so she is given a large portion of the intestines. The

hunters’ sisters, sons and daughters are not allowed

to eat any of the tail portions. The hunter also

makes a presentation of meat to his mother-in-law.

This is done through a second person because of

the strong avoidance taboo which exists between

son-in-law and mother-in-law. This presentation is

seen as an on-going payment in return for the man

being given his wife.

The driver of a boat in a sea-turtle hunt receives

some meat and associated green and yellow fat from

the hip section of the turtle. He also receives some

of the chest meat, intestines and green fat which

lines the shell. The head and neck of the sea-turtle

goes to the senior ritual guardian for the animal.

The hunters’ mothers and sisters are not allowed

to eat the intestines of the turtle so the stomach is

saved exclusively for them. As with the dugong the

best meat is given to the mother-in-law of the

hunter. The oil (na-ngilili) which the Yanyuwa

obtain from the hide and meat of the dugong during

the cooking process is said to have medicinal

qualities and is rubbed onto the body and hair. The

Yanyuwa say that it makes their hair grow strong

and when rubbed on their bodies it keeps their

bodies warm and free from pain.

With the advent of refrigerated storage some

Yanyuwa families have the facility to store large

amounts of dugong meat over a longer period. This

has led to some apparent abuse of the complex rules

regarding distribution of the meat, a development

which is particularly resented by some older people:

Freezer, freezer, they freeze him [dugong meat] all lot.

That’s narnu-wadi [badness], not like old people,

everybody got something, selfish bugger people this

day, no idea, karawathawathamu [swear-word]. I don’t

like it, that walya [dugong and sea-turtle] got law for

everybody. (Ida Ninganga pers. comm. 1987).

Many of these problems stem from the fact that

some younger Yanyuwa people have not learned the

full scope of the law associated with dugong, and

can thus easily offend older people:

You know what, he brought up head [dugong head]

for me, that’s not the way, no idea, true, old people,

my father never bin like that, I can’t take head, never

even been cooked, yakayaka [insane] true, I bin chuck

that head to the dog, I never touch it, no Law, not

allow ... (Annie Karrakayn pers. comm. 1986).

YANYUWA HUNTERS 101

ngundurrngundurr - heart 4

Cac,

Sa el

na-yinji - lungs

rimi/rirrkukilwalkarru - large intestine

na-widiri - liver wilawila - stomach

murajuju - small intestine

ES GA AAD eg © —

Ne Ts. ma-minji - skin and meat; also

HT} J; Ys = contains genital organs

[Ce

AKL

S pf Seu

na-walkirrirri - uterus

rra-wumumu - kidneys

lubala - part of backbone

without ribs

kurruru - backbone hm oe Bs pp Lia Lie Let at

a-mardanbangu - short ribs

a-larlurr - ribs

FIGURE 10. Gutting the dugong. Before the internal organs can be seen a layer of white fat called rra-mayngul

is removed. Broken lines indicate knife cuts.

102 J. J. BRADLEY

EUROPEAN ACCOUNTS

Within their oral tradition the Yanyuwa have

detailed accounts dealing with the activities of

dugong and sea-turtle hunting, which are both

mythologically and historically based. Other sources

also exist which mention Yanyuwa associations with

such activities. In 1814 Matthew Flinders made the

following comment:

Turtle tracks were observed on most of the beaches,

but more especially on the smaller islands, where

remains of turtle feasts were generally found. (Flinders

1814: 171).

W. G. Stretton, Special Magistrate at Borroloola,

commented in 1893 that

. .. they [the Yanyuwa] are also very clever at making

rope, which they use for dugong fishing. The rope is

made from the bark of the Currajong tree, a species

of Brachychiton, which these natives call ‘Myaddo’

[ma-yatha]. (Stretton 1893: 249).

One of the most detailed accounts by Europeans

of a Yanyuwa dugong hunt and subsequent

procedures comes from a description by W. E.

Harney who spent some time with the Yanyuwa in

the Sir Edward Pellew Group during the 1920s. In

this book ‘North of 23 Degrees’ he gives this

description of a dugong hunt:

This place is the home of the dugong, which is a large

sea mammal that feeds on the grass growing upon the

floor of the shallow banks in this locality . . . Often

I went out with them to hunt the dugong. Night was

the best time, for then their path could easily be

followed by the phosphorescent wake they left behind.

A native would stand up in the stem of the craft, a

wooden canoe, and direct the paddling native with the

point of his harpoon. The canoe would glide

noiselessly over the water, the men at the paddles

feathering their paddles to eliminate the splash. Up

would come the huge sea cow to fill its lungs with air;

then bang! in would go the six-inch nail with a long

rope attached to the head. The native who struck with

the spear would fall overboard with it to give leverage;

then quickly he would leap aboard the craft as the

already wet rope went whizzing out as the dugong

gathered away. The paddlers would now frantically

paddle the canoe to reach a good speed when the line’s

end was reached; this would stop any jar which might

pull out the nail. After a time the animal would tire

and come to the surface for air, when another nail

would be driven in to its neck or head; then down the

line the hunter would go to plug up the valve with a

piece of paper-bark or grass.

The creature would soon die from want of air and

rise slowly to the surface, to be lashed to the side, or

maybe the canoe would be sunk and the animal floated

in. Treading water the natives would hold the side of

the canoe a little way out of the water to enable others

to bail out the water. This done, they would all

scramble in again and hoist sail for home. A signal

would be given - a wave of the paddle or a loud blast

on the conch shell, and quickly the camp would astir,

as the women and children went to the bush to gather

wood for the fire to roast the beef. Many were the

orders given as the carcase was rolled up the sandy

beach to the large fire blazing merrily away. Glass

flakes, flints, and knives of the white man were all used

for the cutting up. The great slabs of beef were sliced

off and placed on bushes, or failing these on the sandy

ground. Women would scold the eager children trying

to scrape out coals to cook a little bit of meat given

to them by an elder . . . The oven being now ready to

take the meat, on layers of dampened bushes over hot

stones are laid the first slices, then more stones and

beef . . . till the whole dugong is in the oven. The latter

is covered over first with paper-bark, then with sand

or soil to make it airtight.

Now for the waiting period. For about four hours

the meat would be left there to ‘stew’ in its own juices;

then came the sacred moment as old Friday uncovered

the feast. Four to five hundredweight of ... meat...

As the native law of distribution now comes into force,

Friday the uncle or mother’s brother of the chap who

caught the dugong will hand the portions out. A lovely

hindquarter to the hunter’s mother’s mother, or Ku Ku

[sic]; a forequarter to his mother’s brother; a belly piece

to this person; the head to the hunter, as well as the

tail. Each receives his share, according to a just law,

so that no rows may arise over the giving out of food.

One group of people receives nothing; these are the

women with their menses. To them it is forbidden, or

taboo; they call the word ‘gooda gooda’ [sic]. Should

they eat of this meat, then the dugongs would be

offended and leave that locality, which, when one

comes to think of it, provides a clever excuse should

the hunter return without a kill. (Harney 1946:

161-163).

MYTHOLOGY AND RITUAL ASSOCIATED WITH

DUGONG AND SEA-TURTLE

Both the dugong and sea-turtle are important

mythological beings for the Yanyuwa and

neighbouring groups to the north. The Mara people

whose country lies to the north-west of the Yanyuwa

have a very important Dugong Dreaming centre.

This site, known as Wunubarryi (Mt Young), lies

some seven kilometres south-east from the mouth

of the Limmen River. The Yanyuwa people also

recognise the importance of this site and they share

in the control and use of the Dugong Dreaming

power which is centred there.

Just to the east of Wunubarryi are a number of

quartzite outcrops. These are believed by the Mara

and Yanyuwa to be metamorphosed dugong and a

single dolphin which were stranded on dry land by

a receding king tide (bambiliwa) during the

Dreaming. It is interesting to note that a similar

occurrence happened in 1984 during Cyclone Kathy;

a number of dugong and sea-turtle were stranded

after a storm surge carried them up to eight

kilometres inland in the vicinity of the McArthur

River delta area.

YANYUWA HUNTERS 103

The Dugong Dreaming represents a herd of

dugong (see Fig. 11). Two of the rocks are males,

while the others are females. It is at one of these

female dugong that the Yanyuwa and Mara

custodians for this site carry out dugong increase

rituals. When men wish to perform these rituals

they approach the Dugong Dreaming herd and

brush down the ‘female dugong’ they have selected

for use in the ritual. Surrounding the ‘female

dugong’ are a number of hammerstones. One of

these hammerstones is taken and the ‘female

dugong’ is struck while the names of dugong

hunting localities along the coast and in the area

of the Pellew Islands are called out. A translated

example of this recitation is as follows (see Fig. 1

for localities):

You dugong, listen to me, you will come out from here

and you will travel to Wuthanda (McArthur River

mouth), Liwujujuluwa (Crooked River mouth),

Lidambuwa (Sharkers Point) and Bulubuluwiji

(Wearyan River mouth). Listen to these words that I

am telling you! (Tommy Rilley (Nawurrungu) 1983

pers. comm.)

9 Young bull

Old bull

» |

Dolphin

of Hammer stones used

in Increase rituals

Cow Q

Cow 7

Desecrated cow dugongs

| approx. 50m

o——

WUNUBARRY!

(Mt Young)

YOBdI aaup jaaym ino4

FIGURE 11. Map showing the Dugong Dreaming at

Wunubarryi (Mt Young) in the Limmen Bight, Northern

Territory.

Some of the ‘female dugong’ have deep grooves

and depressions in them indicating that the rites of

increase are of some antiquity.

In 1976 this Dugong Dreaming site at

Wunubarryi was desecrated. The owners of the

Nathan River Station, where Wunubarryi is located,

dug out two of the ‘female dugongs’ while

constructing a four wheel drive track through the

area. The Yanyuwa and Mara people were extremely

upset over this incident and consider that the

dugong population in the area of the Sir Edward

Pellew Group has suffered because of this

desecration.

The Yanyuwa people have a Dreaming site for the

Lone Male Dugong (jiyamirama) at Wungunda on

the southern bank of the mouth of the Crooked

River, and at Wirdiwirdila, a small island in the

Wearyan River is a Dreaming site associated with

the rib-bones of the Lone Male Dugong. During

the singing of their ceremonial song cycles the

Yanyuwa also sing of the dugong, and some of these

verses are given below. These particular verses,

belonging to the Yanyuwa Rrumburriya semi-

moiety, are associated with the dugong hunting

locality of Bulubuluwiji at the mouth of the

Wearyan River:

Wabarrkuramba

jirrimbi ramba

The tail of the dugong

strikes the water

Yarakiyara

Ihungkarrmi

Ihungka

The cows are gathering,

they travel with their calves

Narnawirijarra

yumbarrimajarra

The bull dugong thrashes,

it tires (It has been harpooned).

(Old Tim Rakawurlma 1982 pers. comm.).

The song of the Lone Male Dugong is sung in

the song cycle of the Yanyuwa Wuyaliya

semi-moiety:

Jiyamirama

wukuwarrima

The back of the Lone Male Dugong,

is clearly showing.

(Old Tim Rakawurlma 1982 pers. comm.).

The sea-turtle is associated mythologically with

a number of areas over the Sir Edward Pellew

Group. The west coast of West Island and the

coastal margins of Bing Bong Station are associated

with the Dreaming path of the Green Turtle. This

sea-turtle completed its travels on a reef called

Liwintha, which lies just to the south of West

Island. Watson Island and the northern section of

104 J. J. BRADLEY

North Island are also associated with the path of

the Green Turtle Dreaming. Various rock

formations along the Dreaming path of this turtle

represent the shell, internal organs and segments

of meat which the hunters of sea-turtle find

important. One song cycle verse associated with the

green turtle is as follows:

Biyalawuna

Yurrunjurr na-mi.

The Green Turtle with round wide eyes

like the uppermost grindstone,

It sees a great distance.

(Old Tim Rakawurlma 1982 pers. comm.).

YANYUWA VIEWS OF DUGONG AND SEA-TURTLE

EXPLOITATION SITES

Evidence of the Yanyuwa’s utilisation of dugong

and sea-turtle as a food source can be found on

many sites in the Sir Edward Pellew Group. Some

of these sites are apparently quite old, while others

were used within the last thirty years. No matter

what the age of the site they share in common such

things as charcoal, stones which show evidence of

having been affected by heat, and scatterings of

bone and skeletal remains which may give evidence

of the numbers of people at these sites and from

where the meat source was obtained. Minnegal

(1984b) identifies four types of dugong butchering

sites in Queensland’s Princess Charlotte Bay region.

Three of these sites have direct relevance to the

Yanyuwa:

1. Initial butchering sites - where dugong were

removed from the water and cut into a number

of large segments to facilitate transport back to

camp.

2. Primary, and _ primarily, dugong

consumption sites - where large parcels of

dugong meat were taken to be further butchered,

cooked and consumed.

3. Base camps - where individuals took any

remnants of dugong meat left over from the

initial feasts.

(Minnegal 1984b: 15)

Figures 12, 13, 14 and 15 illustrate the factors

which Minnegal (1984a and b) discusses. All of

these sites, with the exception of that in Fig. 13, are

still used by the Yanyuwa as base camps for the

exploitation of dugong and sea-turtle and for the

cooking and distribution of the meat. Each diagram

is accompanied by a description of the site elements

and a description of the site given by Yanyuwa

people.

The Yungkurra site (Fig. 12) is still a favoured

butchering site due to its close proximity to major

sea-grass beds in the region of the McArthur River

delta region. A unique feature of the site is a cleared

‘causeway’ some six metres in length. This feature

seems to be of great age and was possibly

constructed by clearing a pathway through the

mangroves of the intertidal zone and then clearing

this area down to the bedrock by removing the loose

stones and rocks. The end result is an obvious

cleared pathway which makes the task of rolling

dead dugong, and pulling sea-turtles, ashore to a

butchering point much easier. The cleared area

would also have made the beaching of canoes an

easier task where the rocky nature of the area makes

safe mooring difficult. It also provides ease of

access to the sea for people when washing the offal

removed from the creatures prior to cooking. The

foredune area at the end of the causeway is littered

with bone fragments of turtle and dugong as well

as the stones and charcoal from the ground ovens

used during the cooking process. This site is still

used for beaching and butchering dugong and sea-

turtle. No cooking has taken place at the site in

recent times though, as dugong meat or live sea-

turtles are loaded directly into the boats and taken

to base camps on other parts of the islands or

further up the McArthur River. A senior custodian

for the Yungkurra site, Tim Rakawurlma made the

following comments:

The old people long before me they threw stones to

the north and south, and in doing so they made a road.

The road is for dugong and turtle and maybe canoes

when there was wind and waves. I cut dugong up at

that place as did my father and my sons, they still use

that place. Perhaps they were really clever those old

people, would you think that?

(Tim Rakawurlma 1985 pers. comm., translated by the

author).

The site of Rumannguwa (Fig. 13) is located on

a hill on North Island, about one kilometre from

the coast. It is some distance from any of the major

areas where dugong and sea-turtle are found. The

site consists of a permanent fresh-water lagoon, the

north-western corner of which has a large and

relatively bare sand-ridge upon which evidence of

past occupation can be found. On the north-eastern

end of the ridge, the remains of a dugong were

found after heavy rain washed the area in 1984,

during Cyclone Kathy. The remains are of the head,

a shoulder, and some ribs. Also in evidence are

charcoal and stones used in a ground oven. Johnson

Timothy, a senior custodian for the island, has

reconstructed what he felt the site represented:

This might be where my old grandfather Lithi camped,

he was boss for this country. I reckon just him and

his family were here; you see there is only a little bit

of dugong bone here. This dugong was killed

somewhere else and the meat was given to the family.

Old Lithi must have got the head, shoulder and a few

rib-bones. It was a long way to carry the meat but the

old people used big string bags, a-birndawarra to carry

meat in, hanging on poles or on their heads. This was

YANYUWA HUNTERS 105

YUNGKURRA

#e- MANGROVES = INTERTIDAL ZONE

oon EJ - Rocks

= FOREDUNE

BEDROCK ~\ \ »

metres

FIGURE 12. The Yungkurra site. a. Area of foredune littered with charcoal, stones used in ground ovens, and bone

fragments. b. ‘Causeway’ - area cleared of stone to facilitate the landing and butchering of dugong and sea-turtle.

106 J. J. BRADLEY

RUMANNGUWA ?

SANDSTONE OUTCROPS

SAND RIDGE

012 3 4

ee LAGOON

oe f'%6

FIGURE 13. The Rumannguwa site. a: Grindstone. b!: Dugong skull, shoulder blade, ri 2: Ri i

| t sb i le, ribs. b*: Rib: d

b>: Ribs. c!: Ground oven, cooking stones and charcoal. c2: Charcoal. sian

YANYUWA HUNTERS 107

a wet season (Ihabayi) place because water would run

away. This place makes me think hard for the old

people. That grindstone, they must have ground up

lily seed, that ma-rnayi, or smashed up dugong meat

to make it soft for the old people or young children.

See those rib bones [b3] over in that little cave maybe

a dog or kid went away by himself to eat. Old people

they make me think. (Johnson Timothy 1984 pers.

comm., translated by author).

Much of Johnson’s speculation can be supported.

The site is some 33 kilometres away from the nearest

areas where dugong may be found in large numbers,

and it is possible that the people responsible for

leaving the remains shared in a dugong capture

elsewhere and then took what meat they could carry

back with them. The use of large string bags for

the carrying of meat is quite often mentioned by

the Yanyuwa. Today the Yanyuwa use commercially

made bags and plastic boxes for the same purpose.

The use of a grindstone or pounding stone for

pounding meat is also still practised by the

Yanyuwa. This is especially true for old people with

severe dental damage or young children just

beginning to take solids. The pounded meat is often

mixed with water to make a form of thick broth.

The site of Nganthaa (Fig. 14) is still considered

to be a favoured base camp from which to hunt

dugong and sea-turtle. The site is in very close

proximity to the major sea-grass beds around the

McArthur River delta. The site described here was

recorded in 1980 but archaeological evidence of the

site was destroyed during high tides caused by

Cyclone Kathy. The site is still used, but it is very

rare for any cooking to take place there as the meat

is usually loaded in the boats and taken back to

Borroloola, or other centres. The site was described

by one of the senior custodians in the following way:

This camp here, these dugong bones belong to the

camp of my father, really my father’s brother, old

Babawurda. We camped here in the cold season time.

My father he harpooned the dugong and cut it up on

the reef at low tide, he didn’t worry about sharks.

We cooked the dugong and we stayed there for a

while. Later we killed a turtle and another dugong but

we took them back home to Borroloola. We used to

cook that dugong meat really well. That ground oven

we used the same one all the time when we camped

here. Those rabarr [stones used in ground oven] are

probably from the old people. That first tree (b2), that

where old Babawurdi camped with his wife, that why

he had the head and shoulder, that other tree (b3) only

ribs and some /ubala [part of backbone without ribs]

that was Billy and Graham’s camp [his sons], they were

only young then. That other camp (b4), that was where

my aunty was camping, sister for that old man, that’s

why no rib-bone is there and I camped at that end tree

(bS5) with my wife and Douglas and Thelma. I was

paddler for that canoe so I got tail and ribs.

Those other ribs in the ground oven they were eaten

at that place again and thrown back in the oven. (Don

Miller 1980 pers. comm., translated by the author).

Another site, Walangkurra (Fig. 15), is the nearest

mainland site to the sea, and more importantly it

is very close to major sea-grass beds lying to the

south of West Island. This site was documented one

day after the people who had been camped there

for a week had left to return to Borroloola. The

scattered dugong bones indicate residence patterns

and kinship ties and reflect the continued

importance placed on the proper distribution of

meat according to kinship rules.

The camp c6 at Walangkurra is of special interest,

in that the person who camped there was one of

the senior Jungkayi (Guardian) for the dugong and

was therefore given the head of the animal by the

hunter. The head is considered the most sacred part

of the animal. Normally the head of the animal

would be returned to the sea. The hunter’s sister’s

camp, cl, reflects the law under which the sisters

of the hunter are not permitted to eat the meat from

the rib-bones or back-bone of the dugong.

CONTINUING SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DUGONG AND

SEA-TURTLE TO THE YANYUWA

The Yanyuwa still regard the dugong and sea-

turtle as vital elements in their economy, and cannot

conceive of a time when they would not be able to

have them as part of their diet. Within the Sir

Edward Pellew Group sea-turtle remains present in

large numbers, but the Yanyuwa have in recent times

begun to fear for the safety of the dugong. With

the increased use of the islands as a fishing and

tourist destination, signs are becoming more and

more evident that the dugong, and perhaps the sea-

turtle population, will become more threatened as

development increases. In November of 1983 while

travelling to the islands via the Carrington Channel

the author found two dead dugong on the mud flats

at the mouth of the Carrington River. Both had

been shot with high powered rifles. Another four

dead dugong with gunshot wounds were found

during the following days. This number of dugong

represents approximately half the number the

Yanyuwa men kill per year using traditional

methods.

Yanyuwa men and women are continually finding

more dugong which have suffered at the hands of

visitors to the islands. Dead dugong have been

found with their heads cut off or showing signs of

being slashed with sharp objects. Other dugong are

found showing severe abrasions and cuts caused by

fishing nets. In April of 1984 a group of Yanyuwa

men travelled to South West Island, and while there

they found the dismembered carcass of a dugong.

Attempts had been made to cover the butchered

remains with stones. The method employed to

butcher the dugong and the amount of waste meat

108 J. J. BRADLEY

(| SOUTH WEST ISLAND -

NGANTHAA 1960s

BEACH AND FOREDUNE SYSTEM

4/4} \NTERTIDAL ZONE

CASUARINA TREE

20 30 40 50

metres

FIGURE 14. The Ngathaa site. a: Ground oven, cooking stones and charcoal. b!: Numerous rib fragments. b?: Skull

and shoulder blade. b?: Rib-bones, lumbar vertebrae. b‘: Jaw, shoulder blade, humerus. b*: Rib-bones, some fragments

of vertebrae.

WALANGKURRA 1985

NOY MANGROVES

SANDRIDGE

Bove TREE

20 30 40 50

metres

Mule Creek

FIGURE 15. The Walangkurra site, on the Mule Creek - Bing Bong Pastoral Lease. a: Butchering area for dugong

and sea-turtle. b!: Ground oven for sea-turtle containing burnt up shell and flippers. b?: Ground oven for dugong

containing rib-bones and ground oven stones. b?: Secondary ground oven for sea-turtle meat; also contains pelvic

bones of the sea-turtle. c!: Hunter’s sister’s camp; shoulder blades and humerus. c?: Hunter’s mother’s camp; jaw

bone and lumbar vertebrae. c+: Boat driver’s camp; rib-bones and small vertebrae from tail. c>: Hunter’s camp; rib-

bones and lumbar vertebrae. c°: Hunter’s cousin’s camp; jungkayi for dugong; head and rib-bones.

110 J. J. BRADLEY

found did not correlate with the traditional methods

employed by the Yanyuwa. It is reasonable to infer

therefore that this dugong too was a victim of non-

Aboriginal hunters.

The continuing episodes of damage to the

dugong and sea-turtle population greatly concern

the Yanyuwa. The dugong and sea-turtle represent

Dreamings for certain individuals and groups of

people. The continuing episodes of dugong

slaughter, damage to important areas for sea-turtle

and the desecration of important ritual centres

causes unrest in terms of the functioning of a

traditionally-based society. There is also concern

that those people who stand in a ‘mother’ guardian

relationship to the dugong and sea-turtle are not

fulfilling their duties and obligations towards the

species, an offence which is punishable under the

dictates of traditional Law.

It becomes clear then, that to the Yanyuwa and

Mara people the problem is not just conservation

of the dugong and sea-turtle, but also the

maintenance of ritual activities which reinforce the

spiritual principles underlying Yanyuwa/Mara

society. The Yanyuwa people are justifiably proud

of their dugong and sea-turtle hunting heritage. In

their oral history accounts certain men are

mentioned over and over again as being ‘dugong

and sea-turtle hunters of excellence’, maramaranja.

Younger men will say with pride that they were

‘trained’ by these skillful men. Certain old men

among the Yanyuwa who were skilled hunters in

their youth are spoken of with high regard and their

advice is still sought in terms of Law and practical

knowledge concerning the dugong and sea-turtle.

In a world where values are changing quickly the

continuation of the hunting of these two marine

animals remains one way in which the Yanyuwa

people can continue to identify themselves with

pride as ‘salt-water people’.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges the help and

assistance given by the following Yanyuwa men:— Don

Miller, Johnson Timothy, Graham Friday, Musso Harvey,

Tim Rakawurlma and Tom Friday. Assistance was also

given by the following Yanyuwa women:- Jemima Miller,

Dinah Norman, Ida Ninganga, Annie Karrakayn and

Eileen McDinny. The author is grateful for the support

given by Jean Kirton, Dr Helene Marsh, Dr Ian Poiner,

Bob Ellis and the staff of the Aboriginal Sacred Sites

Protection Authority who provided valuable technical

assistance for the final draft of this paper.

REFERENCES

FLINDERS, M. 1814. ‘Voyage to Terra Australis’. Nicol:

London.

HARNEY, W. E. 1946. ‘North of 23 Degrees’. Holland

and Stephenson: Sydney.

MARSH, H., GARDNER, B. R. & HEINSOHN, G. E.

1981. ‘Present day hunting and distribution of Dugongs

in the Wellesley Islands’. Applied Science Publishers:

London.

MINNEGAL, M. 1984a. Dugong bones from Princess

Charlotte Bay. Australian Archaeology 18: 63-71.

MINNEGAL, M. 1984b. A note on butchering Dugong

at Princess Charlotte Bay. Australian Archaeology 19:

15-20.

STRETTON, W. G. 1893. Customs, rites and superstitions

of the Aboriginal tribes of the Gulf of Carpentaria.

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

17: 227-253.

THE CUSTODIANSHIP OF SACRED OBJECTS PROJECT : AN

OVERVIEW

CHRISTOPHER ANDERSON

Summary

For the last five years the South Australian Museum’s Custodianship of Sacred Objects Project has

operated in Central Australia in an attempt to inform Aboriginal people about the Museum’s

Restricted Collection and to discuss with them ways to deal with it.

THE CUSTODIANSHIP OF SACRED OBJECTS PROJECT: AN OVERVIEW

For the last five years the South Australian

Museum’s Custodianship of Sacred Objects Project

has operated in Central Australia in an attempt to

inform Aboriginal people about the Museum’s

Restricted Collection and to discuss with them ways

to deal with it.

The project, run by Christopher Anderson with

the assistance of other Division of Anthropology

staff especially Philip Clarke, has concentrated on

the ¢jurunga and sacred boards from Central

Australia. This is because these constitute almost

80% of the South Australian Museum’s collection

of restricted material.

There are four aspects to the project:

a) physical organisation of the collection and of its

documentation; computerization of all data for

immediate access;

b) planning and implementing a programme to let

Aboriginal people in the relevant communities know

about the collection’s content and secure storage;

providing details of the project for discussion

regarding custodianship of the collection;

c) Narrowing the focus of discussions to particular

communities and beginning the necessary

background research; consulting with senior men

in these communities;

d) Return of objects (if this is the outcome and if

all conditions set by all parties are met); fulfilling

the responsibilities and commitments that come out

of the relationships created by the project

(assistance with establishment of local ‘keeping

places’, assistance with cultural activities such as

joint exhibitions, and so on).

A further related aspect has been the visits to the

Museum by senior Aboriginal men from Central

Australia. Since 1985 we have had eleven major

visits by men to view the storage arrangements for

restricted objects and to discuss matters relating to

them. In most cases these visits were funded from

outside the project; generally, the men were already

in Adelaide for other purposes. They have always

been very happy with the storage and curation

arrangements at the Museum.

Discussions in Adelaide and in Aboriginal

communities have also been held about

secret/sacred material from north-east Arnhem

Land, Borroloola (Northern Territory), and

Aurukun (Queensland). We have also offered advice

to other communities, including Docker River, and

to Eastern Aranda people in Central Australia about

the location of certain secret/sacred objects which

have been noted as missing from those

communities.

Fieldwork

As the Curator responsible for this project, I have

conducted ten field trips totalling over 160 days to

the following communities:

Yuendumu and outstations (N-T.)

Yuelamu (Mt Allan) (N-T.)

Mt Liebig (N-T.)

Walungurru (Kintore) and outstations (N.T.)

Papunya (N-T.)

Fregon (S.A.)

Ernabella (S.A.)

Marree (S.A.)

Oodnadatta (S.A.)

Because of the detailed knowledge required of

local community politics, I have had to rely on

anthropologists who already know a given

community well for background information and

assistance. This has on occasion involved travel for

the purposes of working with them prior to a field

trip. In some cases we have funded them to come

to Adelaide and also engaged them as consultants

in the field. Because of the inability of one person

to handle all consultations that arise from the

project we are using external funding to supplement

Museum resources to engage consultants to assist

with at least four communities (Maryvale,

Hermannsburg, Haast Bluff and Mt Liebig). Geoff

Bagshaw has undertaken considerable work on the

project at Haast Bluff, Kintore and elsewhere. I have

also had assistance from John Kean and from staff

of the Central Land Council.

Results

The South Australian Museum has returned

around 130 restricted objects to Aboriginal

custodians in Central Australia. Aboriginal men

have thus far only been willing to discuss objects

for which there is reasonably full documentation.

At the very least, the ‘Dreaming’ or totemic

affiliation and the site name are required. On this

criterion only about 20% of the South Australian

Museum’s collection is subject to the project’s

consultation programme and possible transfer of

custodianship. The Museum considers itself to have

an important obligation to continue preserving the

other material. The communities involved have

supported us in this.

The future of the project

The salary of a full-time curator at a Scientific

Officer Grade 3 level and office overheads have been

met by the South Australian government. The

redevelopment of the Restricted Collection store,

112 J. C. ANDERSON

including the installation of purpose-built cabinets,

was completed at a cost of $100,000 as part of the

overall Anthropology store and office re-

organization during 1985-86. The Anthropology

Division contributes annually towards the project’s

running costs and towards care of the collection.

Field consultation trips averaging three weeks in

duration cost about $5000 each, including vehicle

costs and field expenses. The Department of

Aboriginal Affairs has contributed $43,507 toward

the cost of the project. This has been primarily to

cover consultation expenses.

Existing grant funds were exhausted at the end

of 1990 and with the restructuring of Aboriginal

funding through the newly established Aboriginal

and Torres Strait Islander Commission (ATSIC), the

project will have to be funded differently. Personnel

changes within the Division of Anthropology may

also affect the project.

The Custodianship Project has benefited the

Museum in many ways in its dealings with

Aboriginal communities. The issues go far beyond

those involving secret/sacred material. The project

has also attracted considerable attention from the

museum and anthropology professions, and has

raised the national and international profile of the

South Australian Museum.

Major project publications

ANDERSON, C. 1987. Research and the return of objects

as a social process. Conference of Museum

Anthropologists Bulletin 18: 2-8.

ANDERSON, C. 1990. Repatriation of cultural property:

a social process. Museum 152(1): 54-55.

ANDERSON, C. 1990. Australian Aborigines and

museums - a new relationship. Curator 33(3): 165-79.

ANDERSON, C. in press. The economics of sacred art:

The uses of a secret collection in the South Australian

Museum. /n Papers presented to the Pacific Arts

Association’s 4th International Symposium - Arts of

the Pacific’. 6-12 August 1988. Ed. P. Dark. University

of Hawaii Press: Honolulu.

ANDERSON, C. in press. Repatriation, custodianship and

the policies of the South Australian Museum. Paper

presented to the Conference of Museum

Anthropologists, 28 November - 1 December 1989,

Canberra.

Christopher ANDERSON, Head, Division of Anthropology, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide,

South Australia 5000. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(1): 111-112, 1991.

IRECORIDS

4 IQ IDS

SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOLUME 25 PART 1

MAY 1991

ISSN 0376-2750

CONTENTS:

ARTICLES

DB AIRS)

Revision of the Australian genera Eodelena Hogg and Zachria L. Koch

(Heteropodidae: Araneae)

DAG TEBE Sass, SUBIAS

Brachioppiella species (Acari: Oribatida: Oppiidae) from South Australian soils

ROY, SOUTHCORT

Redescription of the larva of Odontacarus (Leogonius) barrinensis (Womersl\ey)

(Acarina: Trombiculidae: Leeuwenhoekiinae)

P.M. A. WILLIS & R. E. MOLNAR

A new middle Tertiary crocodile from Lake Palankarinna, South Australia

D. R. HEWISH & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

Molluse type specimens in the South Australian Museum. 4. Gastropoda:

Marginellidae

G. M. SHEA

Revisionary notes on the genus Delma (Squamata: Pygopodidae) in South

Australia and the Northern Territory

J BRADEEY

‘Li-Maramaranja’: Yanyuwa hunters of marine animals in the Sir Edward Pellew

Group, Northern Territory

NOTE

C. ANDERSON

The Custodianship of Sacred Objects Project: an overview

Published by the South Australian Museum,

North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000.

IE CORIDS

Ole

SOU TH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOILOMIE 25 IPAIRTT 2

INOVIEMIBIEIR 1991

A NEW GENUS OF THE BRYOZOAN FAMILY ELECTRIDAE,

WITH A PLECTRIFORM APPARATUS

D. FP. GORDON & 3. A. PARKER

GORDON, D. P & PARKER, 5. A. M991. A new genus of the bryozoan family Electridae, with a

plectrifonn apparatus. Rec. §. Ast. Mus, 25(2): 113-120.

A new bryozoan genus, Mychoplecira (type species Lepralia pocula Hutton), is established for two

southern Australian species of Blectridae with a spurred, scoop-like plectriform apparatus, These species

were formerly placed in Pyrpora, which lacks such an apparatus. It is shown that M. poewla is not

conspecific with Cellepera alata Lamouroux, which is a species of Diplaporella (Thalamoporellidae).

Mychoplectra pecula is a protogynous hermaphrodite.

D. PB Gordon, New Zealand Oceanographic Institute, Division of Water Sciences, DSIR, Private Bag,

Kilbirnie, Wellington 3, New Zealand, and §. A, Parker, South Australian Museum, North Terrace,

Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Manuscript received 20 August 1990,

The electrid bryozoan genus Pyripora d'Orbigny,

1849 is best known by the north-eastern Atlantic Recent

species P catenularia (Fleming). This species, like a

number of related fossils including the type species F

pyriformis (Michelin), forms encrusting branching

chains of simple pyriform zooids, each of which has

a proximal gymmocyst and a coextensive membranous

frontal wall with a narrow granular cryptocyst bor-

dering the opesia. As is typical of electrids, there are

no avicularia or ovicells. As Taylor (1986) has re-

marked, the absence of ovicells in these species

suggests that the larva is of the planktotrophic cypho-

nautes type, though none has yet been recognized.

Three species of Pyripera have been reported from

the southem coast of Australia: P polita (Hincks,

1880), P crassa (MacGillivray, 1869) and P catenu-

laria (Fleming, 1828). Pyripera polita (=Lepralia

pocula Hutton, 1878, see below) is a common encruster

of sea-grass stems and has been illustrated by scanning

electron microscopy [Bock 1982, fig. 9.7(c)]. PF crassa

and Australian FP catenularia have to date been

little-known.

During an examination and subsequent taxonomic

revision of FW. Hutton’s collection of South Australian

bryozoans in the Otago Museum, New Zealand

(Gordon & Parker 1991b), skeletal structures were

discovered in‘ pecula that clearly affected its generic

placement. This finding led to an investigation of all

three putative Australian species of Pyripora. The

skeletal structures constitute the plectriform apparatus

(Gordon & Parker [99la), an internal elaboration of

the gymnocyst, which occurs in several species of

malacostegine bryozoans. [t does not occur in the type

species of Pyripora (P. pyriformis), however, and a new

genus is required for the Australian species.

SYSTEMATICS

Mychoplectra gen. nov.

Diagnosis

Colony encrusting, uniserial to multiserial. Zooids

generally pyriform, with extensive proximal gymmocyst

and narrow granular cryptocyst. Kenozooids present.

Plectriform apparatus present. Articulated spines,

avicularia and ovicells absent. Embryos numerous,

non-breoded. Simple umiporous septula present.

Etymalogy

Mychoplectra, f., formed from Gk mychos, inmost

part, recess, and plektron, spur, Although plektron is

a neuter noun, Mychoplectra is bere introduced as

feminine in gender [see the International Code of

Zoological Nomenclature, Article 30(a) (iv) (Ride er

al, 1985: 58-59)].

Type species

Lepralia pocula Hutton, 1878.

Mychoplectra pocula (Hutton)

{Figs 1-4)

Lepralia pocula Hutton, 1878: 24; Jelly 1889: 132.

Membranipora polita Hineks, 1880; 377, MacGillivray

1882: 18: Jelly 1889: 161.

Pyripora polita: MacGillivray in McCoy IBB5: 24;

1887: 205; 1890: 2; Vigeland 1964: 169; Bock 1982:

343.

Marerial examined (localities all in South Australia)

South Australian Museum. Vials: SAM L475, 476,

off Seacliff, Adelaide district, Gulf St Vincent, li m,

coll. §. A. Shepherd, 28 Sept. 1968; L477, Port Elliot,

Encounter Bay, undated: L490), na data, Slides: L189a,

NEW GENUS OF BRYOZOAN

D, P GORDON & 5. A. PARKER m5

off Adelaide, 20-35 fms (37-64 mj, coll. J. C. Verco,

undated; L479-481, Glenelg, Adelaide, undated; L482,

‘5S. Aust., undated. Spirit specimens: L483, West I.,

Encounter Bay, 3-5 m, coll. NW. Holmes, 8 July 1988;

L484, just E of The Bluff, Encounter Bay, upper

subtidal, coll. K. L. Gowlett-Holmes and 5S. A. Parker,

18 July 1988; L488, Edithburgh, Yorke Peninsula,

upper subtidal, coll. P. Hudson, 24-28 April 1989;

L491, Port Victoria jetty, Yorke Peninsula, |-2 m, coll.

K, L. Gowlett-Holmes, 25 July 1989; L499, 5 Nm NW

of Outer Harbor, Adelaide district, coll, WN. Holmes,

T Nov. 1989.

Otago Museum. Vials: OM 4.88. 160A, B, shores of

Gulf St Vincent, coll, R. Tate (lectotype and

paralectotype of Lepralia pocula Hutton),

N.Z. Oceanographic Institute. Wial; Stn 26722, just

E of the Bluff, Encounter Bay, upper subtidal, coll.

5. A. Parker and T. Sim, 10 Feb. 1989.

Substrates

SAM L477 and L482 were on algae, L490 on a

turritellid gastropod, and the remainder on stems of

the sea-grasses Amphibolis antarctica and A. griffithii.

Description

Colony encrusting, pluriserial, with short uniserial

tunners distally that also become pluriserial as the

colony expands. Colour in life pearly white, often with

a pinkish tinge from thinly encrusting and/or endozoic

red algae. Zooids 032-064 * 0.17-0.32 mm, elongate-

pyriform, often occurring in oblique rows depending

on the substratum. Frontal surface a smooth,

porcellaneous gymnocyst, sometimes wilh transverse

growth-check lines proximally, that surrounds the

variably subpyriform/suboval sunken opesia; frontal

membrane set at angle of ca 20-45° to the plane of

the substratum; gymnocyst with 3 large rounded

eminences bordering the opesia, 2 lateral, with a larger

swelling al the highest part of the frontal wall that

overhangs the proximal part of the opesiz and frontal

membrane; the underside of the gymnocystal overhang

with a prickled surface. Cryptocyst narrow, vertical,

rarely shelf-like, not or scarcely developed proximally,

with no or sparse granulations. Avicularia absent.

Kenozooids present interzooidally (depending on

crowding of zooids), with a variably shaped

membranous area. Plectriform apparatus comprising

a median scoop proximally recurved with distal teeth,

and a pair of lateral spurs which may project into the

opesia. Additional tiny spurs may protrude into the

body cavity beneath the lateral cryptocyst. Calcareous

spinous processes also arise from the inner side of the

frontal gymnocyst proximally, projecting into the

coelom. Generally |-2 openings of narrow intramural

basal pore-chambers present frontally. Polypide with

12 tentacles. No ovicells; zooids protogynous

hermaphrodites, producing numerous non-brooded

embryos, Ancestrula unknown.

Remarks

Mychoplectra is established for this species and for

‘Pyripera’ crassa, both of which are characterized by

a plectriform apparatus, Like Pyripora, Mychaplectra

has a well-developed gymnocyst, a partial cryptocyst,

extensive area of membranous frontal wall, and

kenozooids. Both genera lack oral or mural spines,

avicularia, and ovicells, Whereas Recent Pyripora have

discrete basal pore-chambers with a septular wall (these

details unknown for the fossil type species),

Mychoplectra has small tubular intramural chambers,

comparable to those in Hippathoa divaricata (see

Gordon & Hastings 1979, fig. 2, Cj, with a tiny

uniporous septulum.

The earliest available name for the type species is

Lepralia pecula Hutton, 1878, described without

illustration, and subsequently overlooked. Recently,

Hutton’s collection from South Australia was

discovered in the Otago Museum, Dunedin (Gordon

& Parker 1991b). His specimens of Lepralia pocula

were formally registered and a lectotype (A.88. 160A)

designated from the syntypes. It is not inconceivable

that instead of poecula Hutton had meant to write the

substantival form peculwmn, Even if this had been so,

however, the spelling cannot now be corrected to

poculum; for, there is in Hutton’s original description

no clear internal evidence of an inadvertent error, and

no indication that pocwlim is the correct substantival

form [see the International Code of Zoological

Nomenclature, Article 32(c} (ii) (Ride er al, 1985:

68-69)]. We therefore suggest that pocula be retained,

and treated as adjectival in form.

FIGURE 4, Mychoplectra pacula (Hutton): single zooid, with

testes (left-hand side) and oocytes visible under the frontal

membrane (NZOT Stn #6722, near Victor Harbor, South

Australia, from colony on stem of Amphibolis antarctica),

* 105,

I NEW GENUS OF BRYOAOAN

FIGURES 5-7, Dipfaperella alata (Lamouroux): 5, zooids

from stem of Amphibelis antarctica (OM A 88.161, Gulf St

Vincent, South Australia, Hutton Collection); 6 and 7,

Lamouroux’s (1821) illustrations of Cellepora alata on type

material of Amphibalis antarctica from Esperance Bay,

Western Australia.

In his account of Hincks’ (1880) species

Membranipora polita, MacGillivray (1882) commented

that it probably ought to form the type species of a

new genus, to include also Hippothoa crassa

MacGillivray, 1869. While prescient, this was in

contradistinetion to Membranipara, not Pyripera, in

which genus MacGillivray (in McCoy 1885) later

included M. polite, and H. crassa. Concerning M.

polita MacGillivray (1882) also stated, “] have little

doubt that it is identical with Lamouroux’s Cellepora

alata? He repeated this assertion in McCoy (1885), in

which he transferred the species to Pyripora. Jelly

(1889), following MacGillivray, tentatively listed

Lamouroux’s (1821) species with M. polita,

MacGillivray was in error, however. As suggested by

Harmer (1926: 289), Cellepora alata is a senior

synonym of the species currently known as

Diploporella cineta (Hutton), formerly Thatrapora

cincta (Fig. 5) (see Soule ef al. 1991). Both

Mychoplectra pocula and D. cincta encrust stems of

the cymodoceacean seagrasses Amphibolis antarctica

and A. griffithii along the southern Australian coast.

Lamouroux (1821, pl. 64, figs 10, IL) illustrated part

ofa leafy stem of A. antaretica, reproduced here (Fig.

4), showing zooids and a colony of an encrusting

bryozoan (Figs 6, 7). Mychoplectra pocula and

Diploporelia cincta are two of only three bryozoan

species [the other being Electra flagellum

(MacGillivray)] to form regularly whorled zooidal rows

D, P GORDON & §. A. PARKER ly

on Amphiboalis, but Lamouroux’s illustration cannot be

of Afvchoplectra, for the latter produces only oblique

whorls, not regularly transverse ones (verticillate) as

depicted by Lamouroux. Lamouroux’s illustration of

the zooids confusingly fails to show the cryptocyst of

2. cincta but his description (1821: 2) makes it clear.

He describes the zooids as ‘gibbeuses infériewrement,

avec deux appendices ptéraides sur leur parties

moyenne et latérale; ouverture ronde avec un tubercule

tres-gros et mamilliforme de chaque coié) This is a

description of zooids with the membranous frontal wall

intact. The wing-like appendages correspond to the pair

of smooth gymnocystal flaps, which encroach onto the

convex cryplocyst; the mamilliform tubercles occur on

either side of the subcircular orifice (Fig. 5). As

Harmer (1926: 289) suspected, therefore, Diploporella

alata (Lamouroux, 1821) is the correct name for this

species. The type locality is Esperance Bay, Western

Australia (Womersley 1984: 104). The type specimen

would be on type material of Amphibolis antarctica,

evidently housed at the Herbarium Universitatis

Florentinae, Florence, Italy, but upon enquiry, the latter

has been unable to be located.

Mychoplectra crassa (MacGillivray)

(Figs 8-10)

Hippothoa crassa’ MacGillivray, 1869; 130,

Pyripora crassa: MacGillivray in MeCoy 1885: 23;

887: 205; Vigeland 1964: 169,

Pyripora catenularia: MacGillivray (non Fleming) in

MeCoy 1885: 24, pl. 106, fig. 5; I887: 205; Vigeland

1964: 169.

Material examined

South Australian Museum. Vials: LI89b, off

Adelaide, Gulf St Vincent, 20-35 fms [37-64 m], coll,

J.C. Verco (undated); L485, Chiton Rocks near Victor

Harbor, Encounter Bay, coll. L. Stach, 20 Nov. 1936;

L486, Kangaroo I., no other data; L487, §. Aust., no

other data; L489, between Backstairs Passage and The

Pages, coll. J. C. Verco (undated); L500, Shell Rock,

West I., Encounter Bay, coll. 5. A. Shepherd, 18-19

Aug. 1967; L502, Price I., southern Eyre Peninsula,

J7 m, coll. L. Hobbs, 28 Sept. 1989. Spirit: The Pages

(islets), Kangaroo 1., 15 fms [27.5 ml], coll. K. Sheard,

12 April 1941.

Museum of Victoria. Slides (both labelled Pyripora

catenularia); NMW F58646, Port Phillip Heads,

Victoria, coll. J. B. Wilson; NM¥V F58647, Hobsons

Bay, Victoria (no other details).

Substrates

L189b, L485-487 on red algae (including Preracladia

fucida); L489 on adeonid bryozoan (with

Turbicellepora redoute’); L498 on stalk of brachiopod

Magellania flavescens, L500 on hydroid; L502 on flat

rounded pebble: F58646 on stem of Thydroid; F58647

on angular pebble.

Description

Colony encrusting, uniserial, branching more or less

cruciform, to pluriserial. Zooids 023-64 » 0140.42

mim, ¢longate-pyriform, the proximal caudal portion

short, truncated in laterally budded zooids, longer and

tapering in distally budded zooids. Frontal gymnoacyst

smooth, sometimes with a thick porcellaneous

protuberance immediately proximal to the membranous

frontal wall; cryptocyst shelf-like, moderately

developed, widest proximally, pustulose; frontal

membrane set at shallower angles to substratum than

in M. pecula (0-25°). Avicularia absent. Kenozovids

may be present interzooidally, replacing autozooids at

distolateral budding sites when crowding occurs, the

opesia irregularly circular to oval. Plectriform

apparatus similar to that in .M. pocula but the distal

spurs of the apparatus tend to be more often visible,

with at least one protruding somewhat into the opesial

space; tiny spur-like spines may occur sparsely on the

lateral walls. Internal nail-like spines oecur proximally

under the gymnocyst. Small intramural basal pore-

chambers present, up to 2 per side but the proximal

pair may be suppressed. No ovicells. Ancestrula

unknown.

Remarks

Two types of zooids were evident in the colonies

of M. crassa examined:

a) (Fig. 9) zooids possessing a protuberance on the

gymnocyst proximal to the frontal membrane

[corresponding to the ‘thick lip-like projection’ of

MacGillivray (1869), MacGillivray in McCoy

(1885)], the protuberance sometimes bearing a pit-

like depression apparently covered with a

membrane, some zooids showing additional

gymnocystal thickening on the proximolateral

margins of the opesia, though this thickening not

encroaching over the frontal membrane as in M.

pocula.

b) (Figs 8, 10) zooids lacking gymmnocystal

protuberances and thickenings, and outwardly

resembling Pyripora catenularia (Fleming).

Type ‘a occurred in the colonies on the relatively

flexible substrates (fronds and stems of red algae,

hydroids and brachiopod stalk). Type ‘b’ occurred on

the harder substrates (L489, adeonid bryozoan, and

L502 and FS8647, pebbles). In addition, colony L502

has many Type ‘a zooids and zooids intermediate

between the two types, which leads us to regard them

as expressions of the one species, M. crassa, rather

than as representing different species.

Through the courtesy of Mr T. Stranks of the

Museum of Victoria, we have been able to examine

on loan two of the slides identified by MacGillivray as

FIGURES 8-1). Mychoplectra crassa (MacGillivray): 8 and WO, colony on adeanid bryozoan (SAM L489, between Backstairs

Passage and The Pages, South Austral BO, = 115; 9, colony on red alga ()Prerocladia lucida) (S46 L485, Chiton

Rocks, Encounter Bay, South Australia), « 170.

D. PF GORDON & &. A. PARKER 1g

Pyripera catenularia (F38646, 38647, listed above).

These colonies are both referable to M. crassa, the first

having zooids of Type ‘a, the second zooids of Type

‘b. MacGillivray’s figure (in McCoy 1885) is also of

type ‘b, which differs from true Pyripera catenularia

(Fleming 1828) of the north-eastern Atlantic Ocean by

the possession of the plectriform apparatus, the

proportionately larger cryptocyst and the beading of

the mural rim less distinct to absent. Scanning electron

micrographs of PF. caternwlaria have been published in

Taylor (1986).

Recent species of Pyripera appear to be restricted

to the Northern Hemisphere (Ryland & Hayward 1977;

Canu & Bassler 1929). Mychoplectra, on the other

hand, is so far known only from the Southern

Hemisphere. Pyripora audens Marcus, 1949 of Brazil

is certainly a Mychaplectra, and from its external

morphology Membranipora eburnea Hincks, 1891

(type locality “? Queensland’) may also be congeneric.

Apart from the type species P pyriformis, several

other fossil species have been ascribed to Pywipora (e.g.

by Canu & Bassler 1920; Thomas & Larwood 1956,

1960; Larwood 1973; Voigt 1982) and it would be

instructive to examine the interior walls of these for

a plectriform apparatus, which in Mychoplectra pocula

appears to be a guide for the movements of the polypide

(Gordon & Parker 19a).

Reproduction

Details of reproduction in Pyripera are not known,

though it is suspected of having a cyphonautes-type

larva. In Mychoplectra, the only breeding information

pertains to M. pocula, In South Australian waters,

gonads are evident in colonies collected in February,

and colonies have been found spawning in February,

July and November. Testes and apparently mature

oocytes occur in the same zooids. Oocytes are

spherical, approximately 0.01 mm in diameter, and in

living material are brownish-red and set in a clear

gelatinous matrix; ca 30 or more are evenly distributed

under the membranous part of the frontal wall.

The timing of maturation of gametes varies in

electrids. Electra pilosa and E. posidoniae tend to be

protandrous whereas in &. crustulenta male and female

gametes mature simultaneously (Silén 966). Up to 20

ova are produced by E. poasidoniae (Silén 1966) and

a much larger number by the membraniporid

Membranipora membranacea (39 are illustrated) (Silen

1945). The cyphonautes larvae of these species have

been illustrated by Ranzoli (1963) and Ryland (1964,

1965). A cyphonautes larva is presumed for

Mychoplectra. Plankton-sweeps aver Amphibolis beds

around times of egg-release might reveal the larval form

of ML poacule.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We should like to thank K. L. Gowlett-Holmes, NW. Holmes,

L. Hobbs, T, Sim and P. Hudson for assistance in collecting

material, T. Stranks for the loan of specimens in the Museum

of Victoria, and P. L. Cook, P. J. Hayward and J. §. Ryland

for helpful comments on the manuscript.

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DISCOVERY AND IDENTITY OF 10-YEAR-OLD HUTTON COLLECTION

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIAN BRYOZOA

D. FP GORDON & 8. A. PARKER

GORDON, D. BP. & PARKER, 8. A. 1991. Discovery and identity of 10-year-old Hutton Collection

of South Australian Bryozoa, Rec. 5. Aust, Mus. 25(2): 121-128.

A long-overlooked collection of bryozoans from South Australia described by Hutton in 1878 has

been discovered and examined, Identifications are given for the species in the collection, with annotations.

Although most of Hutton’s names are junior synonyms of earlier-named species, two are senior and

necessitate nomenclatural changes: Adeonellopsis zierzii (MacGillivray, 1889) becomes A. baccata

(Hutton, 1878) and Pyripora polita (Hincks, 1880) becomes Mychoplectra pocula (Hutton, 187%),

D. P Gordon, New Zealand Oceanographic Institute, Division of Water Sciences, DSIR, Private Bag,

Kilbirnie, Wellington 3, New Zealand, and §, A. Parker, South Australian Museum, North Terrace,

Adelaide, South Australia 3000. Manuscript received 20 August 1990).

Examination of a collection of South Australian

Bryozna in the Otago Museum, Dunedin, New Zealand

has yielded information on the identity of several

nominal taxa that affects modern nomenclature. The

collection, overlooked for 110 years, was discovered

in 1988 following an enquiry from one of us (5.A.P.)

as to its probable whereabouts.

Frederick Woollaston Hutton, an English-born and

-educated geologist, was an important contributor to

nineteenth-century New Zealand science. During his

various appointments he had found it necessary to

become a botanist and zoologist as well and described

a wide range of organisms, including birds, fishes,

molluscs, insects, worms, hydroids and Bryozna,

When, in 1876, he was appointed Professor of Natural

Science at Otago University, he also had charge of the

Otago Museum, which as Director and Curator he

practically founded. While in this capacity, he received

from Professor Ralph Tate, an Honorary Member of

the Royal Society of Tasmania, a collection of

bryozoans from the shores of Gulf St Vincent, South

Australia. Hutton (1878) briefly described most of

these, naming six as new. Unfortunately, none was

illustrated and, probably for this reason, the identity

of all but one of the new species has been unrealised.

Further, the specimens remained unexamined in the

Otago Museum for 10 years. :

The collection comprises 20 species. Two are not

mentioned in Hutton’s (1878) paper whereas some other

species mentioned in the paper are not in the collection.

One to several specimens of each species was contained

in a folded piece of paper with only a number to

identify it, On a separate piece of paper in the same

box as the specimens and in Hutton’s faded inked

handwriting was a key to the number with names

alongside, the new species’ names in pencil only (one

few species-name was subsequently changed in

Hutton's paper but identifiable nonetheless). All of the

specimens have now been labelled and registered

(numbered A.88.148 to A.88.172 in the Otago Museum

represented. Hincks (1881) recognised that one was a

senior synonym of a species described by himself in

1880, Now that the identities of the remaining five are

known for the first time, it is apparent that two

currently used names will have to drop into synonymy.

REVISION OF HUTTONS List

In Hutton’s (1878) three-page paper, 23 species are

listed, nine of them (including the two resuscitated)

accompanied by descriptive annotations, All are listed

below, in the same order. For the 20 species still

present in the Otago Museum collection, revised

identifications are given where necessary. Registration

numbers are given at the end of each entry.

1. Caberea rudis: Caberea grandis Hincks, 1881) [non

Amastigia rudis (Busk, 1852)]. A.88.166,

2, Membranipera lacroixi [sic], No specimen in

collection. M, lacreixii Audouin, 1826 is currently

regarded as a synonym of the extra-Australian

Conopeum reticulum (Linnaeus, 1767).

3. Membranipora (7) cincta: Diploporella alata

(Lamouroux, 1821), formerly Thairepora cincta

(Hutton, 1878) (Fig. 1). Use of the generic name

Diploperella MacGillivray, 1885a follows Soule er al.

(1991), who reseparated this genus from Thairopora.

Use of the trivial name alata follows Gordon & Parker

(1991). D. alata is also a senior synonym of

Membranipora transversa Hincks, 1880. A.88. 161,

halatype of Membranipora (7) cincta Hutton,

ae) SS,

7 fh ie, a |

3 4 a ‘re ‘= : ae ley My

te ¥ 7 = 5 / ne he re si =

ne > . 2 . ‘

7 : ’ * rr ‘Ay ot

YW : b_ “a ‘ — 2

a | Zt d

7 “a ot . " :

a = e's =.

Pi 7 — “ s

} mt . ~

D. P. GORDON & §. A. PARKER (23

4, Lepralia candida: Arachnopusia unicornis

(Hutton, 1873) [non Fenestrulina candida

(MacGillivray, 1860a)]. A.88.163.

5, Lepralia elegans: Adeonellopsis sulcata (Milne

Edwards, 1836) [nen Hippeperina elegans

(MacGillivray, 1860b)]. A.88.168.

6. Lepralia tatei: Didymosella larvalis (MacGillivray,

1869). A.88.158, holotype of Leprafia tatei Hutton.

7. Lepralia spicea: Mucropetraliella ellerii

(MacGillivray, 1869) (Fig. 2). A.88.162, holotype of

Lepralia spicea Hutton.

& Lepralia baccata: Adeonellopsis baccata (Hutton,

1878) (Figs 4-7). Senior synonym of Adeonellapsis

gietzit (MacGillivray, 1889). This little-known species,

purplish in life, encrusts small alpae and stems of the

eymodoceacean seagrass Amphibolis, It is strictly

encrusting, unlike the similarly coloured A. suleaea,

which can begin as an encrusting form but later gives

rise to bilamellar lobes. Adeonellopsis baccata is also

readily distinguished from other Adeonellopsis species

by its zooidal morphology — the autozooidal spiramen

is single, sometimes slightly stellate, whereas that of

the female zooid is compound, generally with three

pores. Avicularia are rare, and the zooidal surface is

knobbly, with cauliflower-like excrescences. A.88.159,

holotype of Lepralia baccata Hutton.

9. Lepralia pocula: Mychoplectra pocula (Hutton,

1878) (Fig. 3). Senior synonym of Membnanipans polite

Hincks, 1880 and type species of the genus

Mychoplectra Gordon & Parker, 1991, A.88.160A,

lectotype and A.88.160B, paralectotype of Lepralia

pocula Hutton (see Gordon & Parker, 1991).

10, Cellepora ageglutinans: Celleporaria cristata

(Lamarck, 1816). Celleporaria agglutinans (Hutton,

1873), widely distributed in New Zealand, is not known

from Australia. In zooidal features the two species are

very similar, but C. cristata typically forms bilamellar

lobes with a crest. One of the most consistent

differences between C. avglutinans and C. cristata is

the insignificant or scarcely evident condyles of the

autozooidal orifice in the former compared with the

stout condyles in the latter (ef Gordon 1989, plate 16D).

Both species have a ligula on the crossbar of the

columnar avicularium, like that in C. fiesca (Busk,

1854), but C. fiasea has a toothed rostrum (cf. Bock

1982, fig. 9.170). A.88.167.

li. Cellepora edax: Calyptetheca lata (MacGillivray,

1883) [non Hippoporidra edax (Busk, 1859); non

Hippoporidra fusitania (Taylor & Cook, 1981].

ABB. IS.

—<$<$<—

12. ?Cellepora tuibigera; Celleporaria cristata

(Lamarck, 1816) [non Turbicellepora tubigera (Busk,

1859)]. A.88.152, 153, 154, 170.

13. Eschara conterta: Parasmittina unispinosa

(Waters, 1889a) [non Escharoides contorta (Busk,

1854)]. A.BS.172.

MW. Eschara (7) Auttoni: Calyptotheca variolosa

(MacGillivray, 1869) (Fig. 8). Senior synonym of

Schizoporella biturrita Hincks, 1884 and Schizoporella

baccata Maplestone, 1913 (P. E. Bock, in litt. 1988);

replacement name for Hutton’s original Exchara satei,

preoccupied (vide Tate's footnote to Hutton 1878: 24).

Illustrated by SEM as Gigantopora biturrita in Bock

(1982; see also Bock’s 1987 Corrigenda), A.B8.157,

holotype of Eschara () huttoni Tate in Hutton.

15. Retihornera foliacea: Hornera foliacea

MacGillivray, 1869. A.88.175.

16. Retepora cellulosa: Triphyllozoon munitum

(Hincks, 1878) (non Retepora cellulosa Smitt, 1368,

non Linnaeus, 1758). A.88.165, 173.

17. Retepora phoenica [sic]: Petralia undata

MacGillivray, 1869 [non Jodicruwn phoeniceum (Busk,

1854)]. A.BB.171.

18 Vincufari [sic] maorica: Cellaria australis

MacGillivray, in McCoy, 1880; 48 (non Vincularia

maorica Stoliczka, 1865, = Chaperia sp., fide Brown

1958: 39). A.B8.169.

19. Jdmonea radians: Mesonea radians (Lamarck,

1816) (Fig. 9), Mesonea radians (sce Hastings 1932;

Bock 1982) is the correct name for this species, which

has often been referred to as Crisina radians. The type

species of Crisina is Crisina narmaniana d'Orbigay

1851, Cretaceous, Europe, which is clearly

distinguished from Mesonea radians, a Recent species,

by the distribution and arrangement of pores and by

the construction of the ovicell (Voigt 1984). Mesonea

(Canu & Bassler, 1920) has pores on frontolateral faces

of branches as well as dorsally, and the ovicell has

smooth, membrane-covered porous areas. Crisina has

only dorsal pores in longitudinal furrows and the

ovicell lacks the porous areas (Voigt in litt. 1988).

There appear to be several species from the Indian and

Pacific Oceans, with a Crisina-like colony form, that

have been attributed to Crisina radians, Waters (IB87),

Harmer (1915), and Bock (1982) have illustrated

Lamarck’s (1816) species, but those of Brood (1976)

from East Africa, of Ryland (1984) from Fiji, and of

Soule et af. (1987) from Hawaii are neither conspecific

nor even congeneric with it. Clearly there is an amount

of work to be done in sorting out the Indo-Pacific

‘crisiniform’ bryozoans. A.B8.164.

FIGURES 1-4. 1. Part of holotype, A.88.161, of Membranipora (7) cincta Hutton, = Diploporella alata (Lamouroux), *

105. 2. Part of holotype, A.88.162, of Lepralia spicea Hutton, = Mucropetraliella ellerii (MacGillivray), * BO. 2. Part

of paralectotype, A.88.160B, of Lepralia pocula Hunton, = Mychoplectra pocula, 80. 4, Part of holotype, A.88.159, of

Lepralia baccata Hutton, = Adeonellopsis baceata, showing one gononooid (gz) surrounded by several autozooids, * 72.

(All specimens from, Otago Museum).

DP GORDON & &. A. PARKER Fe)

FIGURES 8 AND & & Part of holotype of Eschara (1) Auntoni Tate in Hutton, A.BR157, = Calyptotheca variolosa

(MacGillivray), * 55. 9. Mesonee radians (Lamarck), part of specimen A.B8. b4, showing brood chamber and peristome,

* 33. (Both specimens from Otago Museum)

FIGURES 5-7. 5. Part of syntype, SAM L460 of Adeonellopsis cietzii MacGillivmy, = A. baccata (Hutton), showing a

gonozooid (at left), with characteristic compound spiramen and several autozooids with simple spiramen; 6 is of the same

specimen as in 5, but tilted to show an autozooidal avicularium (av), both » 105 (specimen from South Australian Museum).

7. Part of holotype, A.88.159 of Adeonellopsis baccata (Hutton) showing the interior of the frontal shields of an autozooid

(left) and a ponezooid (right), * 205,

HUTTON BRYOZOA

FIGURES 10 AND IL. Lichenap ne brood

chamber (part magnified in Il),

20. Pustulipora percellanica, No specimen in 21. Tibulipera flabellaris, No specimen in collection.

TS Tubulipora flabellaris (Fabricius, 1780) is an arctic-

boreal species, unlikely to occur in Australia (Ha

& Ryland, 1985). There are several samples of

Tubulipora from South Australi: the South

Australian Museum, none identified to species. Six

th Australia Museum) species of the genus have been reported from Victoria,

D. P GORDON & 5. A. PARKER 127

22. Discaporella novae-zealandiae [sic] :

Lichenopora victoriensis Waters, |[889b [nen

Lichenapora novaezelandiae (Busk, J875)) (Figs 10,

Wy. A.B8.148, 150.

23, Discoporella fimbriatae [sic]: Lichenopora

echinata (MacGillivray, 1884) [Tnan Disporella

Jimbriata (Busk, 1875)). (Cf Waters 1889b; 282 — “A

‘Challenger’ specimen from Tristan da Cunha was

submitted to me named L. fimbriata, This is L.

echinata with an ovicell, $0 that the name fimbriata

must be dropped”). A.88.149, 151.

Two additional species, not mentioned in Hutton's

(1878) paper, are represented in the collection. These

are Steginoporella chartacea (Lamarck, 1816), syn. §.

fruncata (Harmer, 1900) (A.88.174) and Raynchozoan

sp., possibly A. delicatulum (MacGillivray, in McCoy

1890: 356) (A.88.155). For the priority of

Steginoporella chartacea aver §. truncata see d'Hondt

1979; 18, 20.

Two of Hutton’s (1878) names are senior synonyms

of later-described species. Thus, Adeonellapsis zietzii

MacGillivray, 1889 becomes A. baccata (Hutton,

1878), and Pyripera polita (Hincks, 1880) becomes

Mychoplectra pocula (Hutton, 1878).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We sincerely wish to thank John Darby and Tony Harris

of the Otago Museum for locating the Hutton Collection and

making it available for study, P. Bock of the Royal Melbourne

Institwie of Technology for comments on Calypiotheca

variolosa and Sehizoporella baccara, and J. §. Ryland and

P. J. Hayward for their critical reading of a draft.

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THE KARANGURA LANGUAGE

PETER AUSTIN

Summary

This paper examines the linguistic position of Karangura, an Aboriginal language once spoken to

the north-east of Lake Eyre in South Australia. The language occupied a crucial geographic position

between three major linguistic groups in the region. The paper analyses the few existing sources on

Karangura to determine its relation to these other languages. The fullest known vocabulary of

Karangura is presented.

THE KARANGURA LANGUAGE

PETER AUSTIN

AUSTIN, P. 1991. The Karangura language. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(2): 129-137.

This paper examines the linguistic position of Karangura, an Aboriginal language once spoken to

the north-east of Lake Eyre in South Australia. The language occupied a crucial geographic position

between three major linguistic groups in the region. The paper analyses the few existing sources on

Karangura to determine its relation to these other languages. The fullest known vocabulary of Karangura

is presented.

P. Austin, Department of Linguistics, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083. Manuscript received

30 August 1990.

The area to the east and north of Lake Eyre was

traditionally one of some linguistic diversity. In the

region along the Warburton Creek and Diamantina

River from Lake Eyre to the current Queensland border

we find three groups of languages represented:

1. Wangkangurru — this language is closely related to

Arabana, spoken to the west of Lake Eyre (Hercus 1990);

2. Ngamini and Yarluyandi — these two languages were

closely related to one another and were also genetically

close to Diyari and Thirrari spoken further south along

Cooper Creek and the eastern shore of Lake Eyre (see

Austin 1981, 1990a,b; Breen 1971: 184);

3. Wangkamadla (or Wangkamanha) — this was the most

southerly dialect of the western division of the Pitta-Pitta

group of languages (Blake 1979: 184).

The question is: where does Karangura, occupying

as it does a position bordering on all three language

groups, fit into the linguistic picture of northern South

Australia? In this paper I examine all the available

linguistic evidence on Karangura in an attempt to

answer this question. My study thus complements the

historical and ethnographic research on Karangura that

Hercus has undertaken.

THE KARANGURA LANGUAGE

There are just three sources of data on the Karangura

language, all of them old historical documents:

1. a vocabulary published in Wells (1894);

2. five words collected by Pastor Carl Schoknecht

sometime between 1871 and 1873 (see Schoknecht 1947);

3. a few words in Reuther’s monumental dictionary of

Diyari (see Reuther 1981).

In the following sections each of these sources is

examined in detail.

Wells’ Data

Appended to Wells’ (1894) paper on Aborigines of

the Diamantina, Herbert and Eleanor Rivers is a

section entitled ‘Dialect’ which gives a listing of 217

English words and their correspondences in the ‘Native

dialect’. The transcription of the Karangura words is

quite good, essentially being a naive adaptation of

English spelling. There are three notable features of

Wells’ transcriptions:

1. The use of the symbol a, primarily at the end of words.

This seems to indicate that Wells felt the final Karangura

low vowel was longer and clearer than the English final

vowel typically signified by a in English spelling, namely

schwa.

2. The use of the symbol 4, primarily in unstressed

syllables to signify the low vowel.

3. The transcription of initial velar nasal ng which

appears in Wells’ list as ‘m’, as in items 12, 13, 28, 58,

65, 74, 101, 119, 123, 170, 189; as ‘n’ in items 88, 207;

or is simply omitted, as in items 32, 95, 135, and 147.

There are a number of forms which suggest that

Wells did not have a good grasp of the language, and

that he must have elicited the vocabulary by pointing

to various objects. There are also simple mistakes

which suggest that the Karangura speaker(s) being

interviewed did not understand Wells’ English prompt

(see for example ‘heart’, ‘moths’, and ‘no, below). We

can see this by comparing some of the forms and

glosses he gives with corresponding words in

Ngamini.' Simple errors such as the following are

indicative of the danger of taking Wells’ list at face value

without examining comparative data:

130 THE KARANGURA LANGUAGE

Wells Ngamini Gloss

vocabulary

‘bark of yet-an-na_ —_yatha-rna ‘to speak, say,

tree’ bark (of dog)’

‘dig’ tap-poo-lee thapili ‘to drink”

‘frown’ boo-choo = puju ‘blind’

‘heart’ wal-derra waldrra ‘hot’

‘moths’ mi-atta mayatha ‘boss’

‘no’ wo-ba wapa ‘go-imperative’

‘spider’ mutta-na_— matha-rna ‘to bite’

‘thighs’ wil-yi-ri —wilyirri ‘buttocks’

‘thunder = mik-arrie—mikiri ‘desert well’

‘thirsty’ won-koola_ wangku-lha ‘nothing-now’

‘wet’ kung-oo —kangu ‘sweat’

* This is the purpose-different subject form of thapa- ‘to drink’.

It would occur in the Ngamini translation of sentences such

as ‘Dig the ground for water (for me) to drink!’ (see below).

Classification of Karangura

There is sufficient information that can be extracted

from the Wells vocabulary to show that Karangura was

very closely related to Ngamini, though not identical

to it. There is both lexical and grammatical evidence

to support this classification of Karangura. Firstly, there

are a number of lexical terms found in Wells’ list that

resemble words peculiar to Ngamini that are not shared

with its close genetic neighbours Diyari, Thirrari and

Yarluyandi. Also, there is evidence of certain

grammatical forms that are only found in Ngamini.

This evidence follows, as well as indicators of

Karangura’s distinctiveness from the Ngamini language.

1. Peculiar lexical items

There are five words in Wells’ list that are cognate

with words otherwise peculiar to Ngamini:

Wells Ngamini Diyari Gloss

‘dam-poo’ dampu karlu ‘testicles’

‘kul-ta’ karla darla ‘skin’

‘par-koo-oona’ ~—s parrkuna mandrru ‘two’

‘parkoo- parrkuna parrkulu ‘three’ (lit.

oona-oona’ ngunha ‘two one’

in Ngamini)

‘tip-pa’ thipa thuju ‘snake’

2. Grammatical forms corresponding to Ngamini

forms

Here we have four pieces of evidence: the ergative

case affix, the participial verb inflection, the

purpose-different subject verb inflection and the verb

nominalising derivation:

(a) The ergative case affix:

All the eastern Lake Eyre languages have a case

inflection, which we term the ergative, that is suffixed

to nouns marking the transitive subject and instrument

functions. This case marker has the following forms:

Diyari -ndrru_ added to female personal

names

-(ya)li added to all other nouns

Yarluyandi -li added to dual and plural

nouns

-ndu added to all other nouns

Ngamini ss -li added to dual and plural nouns

-nu added to all other nouns

There are some examples in Wells’ list of ergative

case-marked nouns showing -nu, as in Ngamini’:

Wells Ngamini Diyari Gloss

‘muntha-unoo’ = muntha-nu—— muntha-li_—_‘shame-erg’

‘moo-an-00° muwa-nu mawa-li ‘hunger-erg’

(b) The participial inflection:

In Diyari the participial affix added to verbs is

invariant and has the shape -rna, and in Yarluyandi it

is invariably -rnda. Ngamini has a number of different

forms, depending on the phonological shape of the stem

to which it is attached (see Austin 1990a for details).

Thus, most vowel-final stems take -rna, while verb

stems ending in Ci, (where C is a nasal consonant)

delete the Ci and add -nda. Thus the participial form

of mani- ‘to get’ is manda, and of pirnani- ‘to become

big’ is pirnanda. The participial form of pali- ‘to die’

is palda. With reflexive verbs there are two possibilities

which occur in free variation: V-jarrhirna or V-janda,

for example ‘to see oneself is either nhirrkajarrhirna

or nhirrkajanda. Examples from Wells’ vocabulary

show that Karangura had the Ngamini patterns:

Wells Ngamini Diyari Gloss

‘mirra- mirrhajanda_ mirrhatharrhi- ‘scratch oneself-

chunta’ rna ptcple’

‘muckoo- manda mani-rna ‘get-ptcple’

munda’

‘pul-ta. —_ palda pali-rna ‘die-ptcple’

Interestingly, part of this typical pattern of variation

in verb forms in Ngamini and Karangura is shared with

Wangkangurru where the present tense inflection is

normally -(rn)da but verbs ending in a nasal plus i

delete the final syllable and add -nda, as in mani- ‘to

get’, present tense form manda (see Hercus 1990).

All the languages in the Lake Eyre region have the

syntactic device of switch-reference, that is, an

indication in dependent verb inflections of the sameness

or difference of subjects across clauses. Thus, to

express purpose there are two inflections: one for same

subject and another for different subject. The forms

of these inflections characteristically differ in the

different languages:

P. AUSTIN

Diyari Thirrari Ngamini Yarluyandi

purpose

-same subject -lha -lhali

-different subject -rnanthu -yani

-lha

-ili

-lhangga

-li

There is one example in Wells’ list that we can

analyse as a purpose-different subject form, and it

shows an affix cognate with Ngamini. The example

is ‘dig’ — ‘tap-poo-lee’ - which clearly corresponds to

Ngamini thapili (thapa-ili) ‘drink-purpose-different

subject’. Probably the Karangura speaker responded to

Wells’ prompt ‘dig’ with a sentence like ‘(You dig for

water for me) to drink’, only the last element of which

(‘drink-purpose-different subject’) Wells was able to

catch and write down. In any case, the form is clearly

the same as in Ngamini.

(d) Nominalising derivation:

The languages to the east of Lake Eyre can form

instrument nouns out of verbs by adding a nominalising

derivational affix. In Diyari and Yarluyandi the form

of this affix is -ni (see Austin 1981: 162), as in the

Diyari example pawa daka-ni ‘seed grinder’ (where

pawa is ‘seed’ and daka- is ‘to grind’). In Ngamini the

corresponding affix is -ini where the initial i replaces

the final vowel of the verb stem (thus puwa dakini ‘seed

131

grinder’). There is one example in Wells’ list which

shows the Ngamini pattern, namely ‘handcuffs warika-

mun-drini’, which we can analyse as warrkamandrrini,

the nominalised form of warrkamandrra-, ‘to tie up’

(Diyari would have warrkamandrrani here).

3. Linguistic Distinctiveness from Ngamini

Karangura as recorded by Wells differs, however, in

two interesting respects from Ngamini as recorded both

in early sources such as Reuther and also in recent

materials collected by Breen and myself. One of the

differences is in the area of vocabulary, and the other

is phonological:

(a) Vocabulary differences:

Although there are clear Ngamini cognates for

almost all the words recorded by Wells (see below)

and items otherwise unique to that language (see

above), there are also sixteen items which differ from

Ngamini and have cognates in Wangkangurru. Of great

interest in this respect is the fact that most of these

also have cognates in Thirrari (or ‘Tirari’) as recorded

by Reuther’, suggesting the existence of a local pool

of lexical items shared between Thirrari,

Wankgangurru and Karangura. These items are as

follows:

Wells Tirari Wangkangurru Ngamini Gloss

‘bul-ya arms’ palya nguna ‘upper arm, wing’

‘euka-an-ri’ “‘wapanta’ yuka- wapa- ‘to go’

‘kulyi-erra womb’ kalyara ‘placenta’

‘moo-yoo-unta sunrise’ muyu winta diji winda ‘sunset’

‘mumpoo-kaddi’ ‘mampukati’ mampukardi thinthipirri ‘elbow’

‘mundoo-raina’ mantura-rda* ‘to snore’

‘oon-too’ unthu kini ‘penis’

‘pe-pe yes, I know’ piyi kawu ‘yes’

‘pim-ma’ ‘pima’ pima mimi ‘lip’

‘pre-tana I kill you" ‘tantata’ pirta-rnda dandrra-rna ‘to hit, kill’

‘queer’ kuya mankarrha ‘girl

‘tee-rankoo’ thirrangkurda ‘how many?”

‘tunya-anna licking’ ‘tanjana’ thanyana tharli ‘tongue’

‘ura yurrha ‘rump’

‘wee-1’ wiya kanku ‘boy

* This verb occurs in the eastern dialect of Wangkangurru only.

** Notice that the root of this word is apparently cognate with Wangkangurru but that it seems to contain the participial

affix cognate with Ngamini -rna (cf. Wangkangurru -rnda).

* Hercus points out that Wangkangurru kuya is also pronounced kuyayi and wiya is also pronounced wiyayi. These two

words were borrowed from Lower Southern Aranda and probably spread along with the Warrthampa ceremony [see Hercus

(1991), this volume].

(b) Phonological differences:

In Ngamini there occur intervocalic clusters of post-

alveolar continuant plus peripheral stop, i.e. rk and rp.

These do not occur in neighbouring languages and

correspond to /k/rlk and Ip/rip in cognates in Diyari

and Yarluyandi. That is, Ngamini has merged the apical

laterals as r before k and p (see Austin 1988: 242ff).

In Wells’ data the laterals have not changed to 1,

showing that Karangura was conservative like Diyari

and Yarluyandi. Some examples are:

132

Wells Ngamini

‘bil-pa’ pirpa

‘mil-ki’ mirki

‘pool-kanna’——parka-rna

‘pool-ko-anna’ purka-rna

‘thalpoo’ tharpa

‘wal-poo’ warpu

‘wil-prinna’ wirpa-rna

THE KARANGURA LANGUAGE

Diyari Gloss

pilpa ‘eyebrow’

milki ‘eye’

parlka-rna ‘to travel’

purlka-rna_ ‘to blow’

tharlpa ‘ear, leaf

(muku) ‘bone’ (cf.

On the basis of these similarities and differences we

can say that Karangura was closely related to Ngamini

but showed a number of interesting differences that

point to areal characteristics shared with Wangkangurru

and Thirrari.

Wangkangurru

warlpu)

wirlpa-rna ‘to whistle’

Wells’ Vocabulary of Karangura, With Corresponding Ngamini Forms

English

ants

arms

anus

bad

bag

. bark of tree

big

bite

bone

10. boy

ll. blood

12. beard

13. breasts

14. bread

15. brother

16. blowing

17. billycan

18. bottle

19. boot

20. calf

21. cane grass

22. calves of legs

23. cutting

24. cold

25. crying

26. cheeks

27. chest

28. chin

29. copi (gypsum)

30. come back

31. come along

32. cow

33. crayfish

34. crane

35. crow

36. clean

37. deaf

38. dark

39. dog

40. dead

41. dig

42. diver (bird)

43. devil

44. dress

45. dust

46. damper

47. dirty

48. eyes

WMA HAMWPwWN-

Native

merri-ka

bul-ya

milyerrie

moo-d4

yak-koota

yet-an-na

tip-pee

mut-tanna

wal-poo

wee-i

koo-marri

mun-ka

mum-ma

mulya-mi

noo-yoo

pool-ko-anna

warra chuna

koo-poola

tidna-boota

wirri-pa

bree-ta

pur-rita

dum-an-na

krip-pa

indra-na

nal-ya

pitta-witta

munka-chedda

wal-yoo

tik-anna

kowi

amma-milki

koon-ta

poo-ral-koo

koo-kunta

warroo-koo

ya-ree

meel-ya-roo

terri-ta

pul-ta

tap-poo-lee

woochoo-buk-anni

koo-choo

broo-ka

WO00-to0-roo

wai-mal-ya

warroo

mil-ki

Ngamini

mirrka

(Wangkangurru cognate)

milyirri

yakutha

yatha-rna ‘to speak, say, bark (of dog)’

thipi ‘alive’

matha-rna

warpu (cf Diyari muku, Wangkangurru warlpu)

(Wangkangurru cognate)

kumarrhi

ngarnka

ngama

malyumayi

nhuyu ‘elder brother’

purka-rna (cf. Diyari purlka-rna)

warrajanda (participial form of warra-jarrhi- ‘to hang’)

kupula

thina puta

pirta ‘tree’

dama-rna

kirpa

yindrra-rna

ngarnkajarra

walyu ‘ground, earth’

thika-rna

ngama milki

kintha

purrhalku ‘brolga’

kukunka ‘hawk species’ (cf, kawalka ‘crow’)

(cf. Wangkangurru yarri ‘ear’)

milyaru ‘dark, night

thirritha

palda (participle of pali- ‘to die’)

thapili (purpose-different subject of thapa- ‘to drink’)

wujupakarni

kuji

puruka (loan from English ‘frock’)

puthurrhu

wayimalya

warrhu ‘white’

mirki (cf. Diyari milki)

P. AUSTIN 133

English Native Ngamini

49. elbow mumpoo-kaddi (cf. Wangkangurru mampu-kardi)

50. eyebrows bil-pa pirpa (cf. Diyari pilpa)

51. eyelashes milkie-wirrie mirki wirri

52. emu warra-katchie warrkaji

53. excreta koona-oona kuna-kuna

54. eucalyptus bulka-kulla

55. earth purra-ka

56. fish warrie wari

57. flame yap-pinna yapi-rna ‘to burn, ignite’

58. forehead mool-loo ngulu

59. feet tid-na thina

60. fingers murra mara ‘hand, finger’

61. fat wom-ma wama

62. fur mul-ta

63. fire too-roo thurrhu

64. fly moon-choo munju

65. father mul-pi ngarpi (cf. Diyari ngapiri)

66. frown boo-choo puju ‘blind’

67. four wi-ta wita ‘many’

68. feathers kurl-ya

69. gammon wong-koo wangku ‘none, nothing’

70. grass win-thee winthi

71. grub mool-yi

72. girl queei (Wangkangurru cognate)

73. go on koppa-ri kaparrha ‘come here!’

74. give munki-ammi ngangki-yamayi ‘give-imperative’

75. go back tik-anna thika-rna (cf. 30)

76. gun mukitta makita (loan from English ‘musket’)

77. go away euka-an-ri (Wangkangurru cognate)

78. galah killan killi kilankila ‘galah’

79. hair moo-doo ngurdu ‘head’

80. hat 00-too-maner-rie witiminirri

81. hit tun-dera-na dandrra-rna

82. heavy muckoo-munda maku manda ‘to lift’ (participle of mani- ‘to get’)

83. hungry moo-an-00 muwa-nu ‘hunger-ergative’

84. hole koo-doo kurdu

85. hold on karra karrha ‘hold-imperative’

86. hand murra mara (cf. 60)

87. heel tidna thina ‘foot’ (cf. 59)

88. head noo-doo-tun-derra ngurdu thandrra (cf. 79)

89. heart wal-derra waldrra ‘hot

90. hole thro’ nose moodla-wilpa mulha wirpa

91. handcuffs warika-mun-drini warrkamandrrini (nominalised form of warrkamandrra- ‘to .tie

up’)

92. head dress multarra maltharra ‘bunch of feathers’

93. how many tee-rankoo (Wangkangurru cognate)

94. iguana wump-pikka wampirrka

95. I don’t know a-na-goo nganaku

96. I kill you pre-tana (Wangkangurru cognate)

97. intestines murrangarra

98. kangaroo choo-koo-roo jukurrhu

99. knees bun-cha panja

100. knife ni-pa nhayipa

101. kissing mun-chin-na nganja-rna ‘to love, like’

102. kicking tukka-manna daka-rna ‘to pierce, poke, kick’

103. kill tunderra-anna dandrra-rna (cf. 81)

104. licking tunya-anna (Wangkangurru cognate)

105. lazy mumma-anna ngama-rna ‘to sit’

106. lake wurra-li>

* Hercus points out that Warrha(nha) is the name of an important freshwater lake near Poeppel’s Corner. It is possible

that the speaker(s) consulted by Wells named the best-known lake of the general area.

134

** Hercus also notes that Yarluyandi and Eastern Wangkangurru have a word minyiminyi which is used to describe a very

old woman, the oldest person in any group.

English

. long time

. leaves

. lips

. lizard

. louse

. long nose

. lightning

. liver

. look out

. long way

. laugh

. man

. me

. mouth

. moon

. Mosquito

. mother

. mob

. moths

. mopoke

. mussel

. neck

. nails

. navel

. nose

. nostril

. no good

. one

. old man

. old woman

. parrot

. penis

. pigeon

. pelican

. pouch (pelican)

- quart pot

. run

. Tat

. red ochre

. Tump

. sister

. sneezing

. stone

. sand

. sandhills

. salt

. sleep

. stomach

. sore

. string

. scratching

. sun

. sundown

. spear

. smoke

. stick

. shadow

. sky

THE KARANGURA LANGUAGE

Native

minna-minna

thalpoo

pim-ma

kad-ni

pir-di

mood-la

mil-yar-roo

kull-yoo

nil-kan-na

warra-ta

kunka-anna

kalka-arroo

mun-yi

pima-ma

pera

koon-ti

mundri

wit-ta

mi-atta

munka-noo

koo-ri

oon-koo

nirri

pin-ta

mood-la

moodla-wirripa

wo-ba -

mun-na

oon-warra

kulka-aroo

widla-prinna

kundra-ungoo

oon-too

wapparoo

tum-pung-arra

war-roora

walpa-itta

pool-kanna

mi-aroo

kal-koo

u-ra

kar-koo

kootoo_kootoo-gudda

mud-da

dar-koo

that-too

pur-rinna

toon-droo

minkie

urip-a

mirra chunta

kul-ka

ditchi-wirrina

wadna-quin

tuppa-inna

prit-ta

mil-poo-ooroo

mily-ya-ooroo

Ngamini

minha ‘what, something””

tharpa (cf. Diyari tharlpa)

(Wangkangurru cognate)

kani ‘sleepy lizard’

mutha ‘nose’ (cf. 90)

milyaru ‘dark, night’ (cf. 38)

kalyu

nhirrka-rna ‘to look, see’ (cf. Yarluyandi nhika-rnda)

warrhatha

kingka-rna

karrkarrhu ‘old man’

nganyi ‘T

(Wangkangurru cognate, cf. 109)

pira

kunthi

ngandrri

wita ‘many’ (cf. 67)

mayatha ‘boss’

kurri

ngunku

(Yarluyandi nhirrhi, cf. Ngamini, Diyari pirrhi)

pirda

mulha (cf. 112, 90)

mulha wirpa (cf. 90)

wapa ‘go-imperative’

manha

ngunharra

karrkarrhu (cf. 118)

wilhapirna

(Wangkangurru cognate)

waparu ‘flock pigeon’

thampangarrha

parka-rna (cf. Diyari parlka-rna ‘to travel’)

mayarrhu

karrku

(Wangkangurru cognate)

kaku ‘elder sister’

marda

daku ‘sandhill’

daku (cf. 151)

thaltu ‘salt (loan from English)

purrhi-rna ‘to lie, sleep’

thundrru

yurupa ‘rope’ (loan from English)

mirrha-janda ‘scatch oneself (participial of mirrha-jarrhi-)

kalka ‘sunset’

diji wirrhi-rna (lit. ‘sun enters’)

wanakuyu

thapa-rna ‘to drink, suck’ possibly used for ‘smoke (a pipe)’

pirta (cf. 21)

milyaru ‘dark, night’ (cf. 113, 38)

P. AUSTIN 135,

English Native Ngamini

166. shoulders winka-arrie

167. snake tip-pa thipa

168. “venomous tundri-prilla thandipila (cf. Diyari, Yarluyandi thandrripila)

169. spitting kuntha-urna

170. sit down mamma-na ngama-rna (cf. 105)

171. stand up tulkalla-tunda tharrka-rna

172. sick wi-wi

173. snoring mundoo-raina (Wangkangurru cognate)

174. shield murra-numma

175. skin kul-ta karla

176. shame muntha-unnoo muntha-nu ‘shame-ergative’

177. sweat kung-oo kangu

178. spider mutta-na matha-rna ‘to bite’ (cf. 8)

179. small koo poo-ta kupa ‘child’

180. stink toon-ka thungka

181. suck tup-panna thapa-rna

182. swimming turra-gunna tharrhaka-rna

183. sunrise moo-yoo-unta (Wangkangurru cognate)

184. scalp wil-ka

185. two par-koo-oona parrkuna

186. three parkoo-oona-oona parrkuna ngunha (lit. ‘two one’)

187. teeth munna-deerie marnathirri

188. thighs wil-yi-ri wilyirri ‘buttocks’

189. teats mumma-brinna ngama pirna ‘big breast’

190. testicles damp-oo dampu

191. tickling kicherie poo-doo

poodoo

192. toes tidna-nulki thina ‘foot

193. tail kid-ni kini

194. thunder mik-arrie mikiri ‘desert well’

195. thirsty won-koola wangku-lha ‘nothing-now’ (cf. 69)

196. tattoo mark mundri

197. throw warrina warra-rna

198. tall warra li

199. tomahawk kommi-yakoo kamiyaku

200. you in-ni yini

201. you walk wop pinna wapa-rna ‘to go, walk’

202. yawn yuk-ki-yi yakayayi ‘goodness me!’

203. yes, I know pe-pe (Wangkangurru cognate)

204. uncle kuk-ka kaka ‘mother’s brother’

205. vagina milyi milyi

206. veins u-ree yuri

207. water nap-pa ngapa

208. wood thal-poo tharpa ‘leaf (cf. Wangkangurru jalpa ‘wood’)

209. wrist oon-na nguna

210. whistle wil-prinna wirpa-rna (cf. Diyari wirlpa-rna)

211. whirlwind wom-meria wamara

212. womb kulyi-erra (Wangkangurru cognate)

213. windpipe ulkoo-anna ngalka-rna ‘to swallow”?

214. wet kuna-00 kangu ‘sweat’ (cf. 177)

215. woman (married) willa-prinna wihapirna ‘old woman’ (cf. 137)

216. white wil-ye-u

217. whip takoo-ippa (cf. Wangkangurru thaku wipa ‘stock whip’, loan from English)

Schoknecht’s Data

Carl Schoknecht was a missionary to the Diyari at

Killalpaninna from 1871 to 1873. In the introduction

to his translation of Schoknecht’s dictionary, his

grandson J. C. Schoknecht (1947) provides the

following information, from a small note-book kept

by the missionary:

Karanura. Location: Same as No. 7

Examples of the language: wirta, spear; pinawila,

boomerang; mara, hand; kapa, water; wanda, vegetable

food.

The annotation ‘Same as No. 7 means that the

location was recorded as being the same as the

‘Wonkamala’ tribe, namely ‘A creek to the east of the

Salt Creek (kalakupa)’.

136 THE KARANGURA LANGUAGE

We can recognise some of these words recorded by

Schoknecht, and compare them with the forms given

by Wells and their Ngamini cognates:

Schoknecht Wells Ngamini Gloss

wirta - wita ‘spear’

pinawila - kirra ‘boomerang’

mara murra mara ‘hand’

kapa nap-pa ngapa ‘water’

wanda - yutha ‘vegetable food’

Reuther’s Data

There are a few words of Karangura scattered

throughout the early pages of Reuther’s massive Diyari

dictionary (Reuther 1981), mostly in the form of

comparative notes on neighbouring languages. The

forms which appear are listed below, together with

notes on them and comparison with Ngamini:

1. Under the Diyari entry dama- ‘to cut’, Reuther lists

the Karangura cognate as ‘dramatjanta. We can compare

this to the Ngamini verb damajanda, which is the

reflexive participial form of the verb damajarrhi- ‘to

cut oneself. Notice that Reuther’s Karangura form

shows the same reflexive participial inflection as in

Ngamini and also the same as we noticed in Wells’

vocabulary (see above). The initial ‘dr’ in the verb given

by Reuther is unexpected. Wells’ item 23 has ‘cutting’

— ‘dum-an-na’ (dama-rna as in Ngamini and Diyari).

Now, there is a regular correspondence whereby words

with initial d in Diyari-Ngamini have cognates with

drr in Yandrruwandha-Yawarrawarrka, as the following

forms illustrate (see also Austin 1988):

Dyari Ngamini Yandrruwandha Gloss

dama- __ dama- drrama- ‘to cut’

daka- daka- drraka- ‘to pierce’

danga- _—_danga- drranga- ‘to hunt away’

diji diji drriji ‘sun’

Immediately preceding the Karangura entry

‘dramatjanda’ in Reuther’s dictionary is the

Yawarrawarrka cognate ‘dramajandrari’ (drrama-

yindrra-ri): it is possible that he copied the initial ‘dr’

onto the Karangura word by mistake.

2. Under the Diyari entry for kurda- ‘to fall’ (of rain),

Reuther lists the Karangura word ‘burndatja’ (and also

the Ngamini word ‘burina’). We can recognise this as

the normal verb ‘to fall’ purrhi- in its participial form,

namely punda. As noted in relation to Wells’

vocabulary, Ngamini verbs have a number of participial

forms, and those verbs ending in rrhi- add nda to form

the participial (deleting the final syllable). Again, we

have strong evidence that Karangura was grammatically

identical to Ngamini in this respect.

3. Under the Diyari entry kaldrri ‘salty’, Reuther gives

as Karangura the word ‘kalikalitja’ (as distinct from

Ngamini ‘kaldrikaldri’). I have no comments on this

form.

4. Under the Diyari entry kalkawarrha ‘evening’,

Reuther has Karangura ‘kalkauratja’ (and Ngamini

‘kalkaura’). Again, we have a form identical to both

Ngamini and Diyari. The final ‘tja’ may be some kind

of emphatic suffix, as in the previous two examples.

These are the only instances of Karangura words in

Reuther’s work.

CONCLUSION

The vocabulary in Wells’ 1894 paper is an invaluable

source on the Karangura language. For most of the

entries in it we are able to recognise their cognate forms

in the neighbouring languages. Lexical and

grammatical hints in Wells’ list suggest that Karangura

was very closely related to Ngamini and that it was

therefore located in the eastern Lake Eyre group of

languages, along with Yarluyandi, Diyari and Thirrari.

Wells’ data is confirmed by other fragments to be found

in the writings of Schoknecht and Reuther.

We have good evidence from Hercus’ research that

the Karangura possessed ceremonial and mythological

links with the Wangkangurru people. While the

Karangura vocabulary shows a high degree of cognacy

with Ngamini, there are also quite a number of

cognates with Wangkangurru, reflecting an areal

vocabulary (also partly shared with Thirrari). There

is additionally some evidence of grammatical features

shared with Wangkangurru, primarily the short

participial forms of certain verbs ending in i. This

characteristic is an areal feature of Wangkangurru,

Ngamini and Karangura.

Finally, our research has demonstrated the

importance of considering historical linguistic

documents in their areal and comparative context,

making use of all that we know from both historical

and contemporary sources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Research on Karangura and other eastern Lake Eyre

languages has been carried out under a grant from the

Australian Research Council. I am grateful to Pia Herbert

for research assistance, especially with helping to make

available in machine-readable form the comparative

vocabularies of J. G. Reuther. I am also grateful to Gavan

Breen for making his Ngamini fieldnotes and tape recordings

available to me. My fieldwork on Diyari, Thirrari, Ngamini

and Yarluyandi was carried out in 1974-77 and supported by

P. AUSTIN 137

the Australian National University. Luise Hercus assisted with

obtaining a copy of Wells’ vocabulary list and Reuther’s

vocabularies, and provided comparative data on

Wangkangurru; she also gave valuable comments on an earlier

draft of this paper.

ENDNOTES

1. Ngamini data come from: my field notes and tape

recordings, my transcriptions of Gavan Breen's tape recordings,

and a ‘Ngaumeni’ comparative vocabulary collected by J. G.

Reuther. The orthography used for Ngamini and other eastern

Lake Eyre languages is the same as that employed in Austin

(1986) and all publications on Diyari thereafter. The spelling

generally follows Australianist practical orthography

conventions: th nh lh are lamino-dentals, j ny /y are lamino-

palatals, rd rt rn rl are apico-domals (retroflex), and ng is

the dorso-velar nasal. Note that all the languages have three

‘r-sounds’: r a retroflex continuant, rr an alveolar tap, and

rrh an alveolar trill. The vowels are a i u.

2. Inall the eastern Lake Eyre languages the ergative case

is used with abstract nouns and a copula verb to predicate

a psychological state of the subject (see Austin 1981: 121),

as in Ngamini nganyi muwa-nu ngana-yi (I hunger-erg be-

present) ‘I am hungry’.

3. Thirrari became extinct early this century, although I was

able to collect a little information on it from Ben Murray who

learned the language as a child from his maternal grandmother

[see Austin (1981: 4ff), Austin et al. (1988)]. Ben Murray’s

Thirrari is almost identical in vocabulary to Diyari (apart from

a couple of unique lexical items such as kurdingka- ‘to run’,

cf, Diayari mindrri-, and dandrra- ‘to hit’, cf. Diyari nandrra-)

though there are some differences in the form of affixes,

particularly the verb suffixes. The Thirrari recorded by

Reuther shows exactly these differences in affixes, but

additionally has a number of different vocabulary items which

are not the same as the Diyari words (but which are identical

to the corresponding Wangkangurru words). It may be that

the last generation of Thirrari speakers had adjusted their

speech towards that of their more numerous Diyari neighbours.

REFERENCES

AUSTIN, P. 1981. ‘A Grammar of Diyari, South Australia’.

Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

AUSTIN, P. 1986. Diyari language postcards and Diyari

literacy. Aboriginal History 10: 175-190.

AUSTIN, P. 1988. Trill-released stops and language change

in Central Australia. Australian Journal of Linguistics 8:

219-245.

AUSTIN, P. 1990a. A grammar of Ngamini. Manuscript, La

Trobe University.

AUSTIN, P. 1990b. To the east of Lake Eyre, Manuscript,

La Trobe University.

AUSTIN, P., HERCUS, L. A., & JONES, P. G. 1988. Ben

Murray (Parlku-Nguyu-Thangkayiwarna). Aboriginal

History 12(2): 15-188.

BLAKE, B. J. 1979. Pitta-Pitta. Pp. 183-242 /n ‘Handbook

of Australian Languages’. Vol. 1. Eds R. M. W. Dixon &

B. J. Blake. Australian National University Press:

Canberra.

BREEN, J. G. 1971. Aboriginal languages of Western

Queensland. Monash University Linguistic

Communications 5: 1-88.

HERCUS, L. A. 1990. A grammar of Wangkangurru.

Manuscript, Australian National University.

HERCUS, L. A. 1991. Glimpses of the Karangura. Records

of the South Australian Museum 25(2): 000-000.

REUTHER, J. G. 1981. ‘The Diari’ (microfiche). Australian

Institute of Aboriginal Studies: Canberra.

SCHOKNECHT, J. C. 1947. A dictionary Dieri-English and

English-Dieri, being a translation of the original German-

Dieri and Dieri-German collated and compiled by the late

Pastor Carl Schoknecht during his work as a Lutheran

Missionary among the Dieri Aborigines at Kopperamanna,

Killalpaninna, etc., near Lake Eyre, South Australia, in

the years 1871-1873. Translated and prepared by J. C.

Schoknecht. Manuscript, 37 p.

WELLS, F. H. 1894. The habits, customs, and ceremonies

of the Aboriginals of the Diamantina, Herbert and Eleanor

Rivers, in East Central Australia. Report of the Australian

Association for the Advancement of Science 5: 515-22.

GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

PETER AUSTIN

Summary

Karangura people occupied lower Eyre Creek in the far north-east of South Australia. They had

disappeared by early this century. This paper seeks out some of the causes of this tragedy, and

records what has been preserved of Karangura traditions by the neighbouring Wangkangurru and

Yarluyandi people.

GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

LUISE HERCUS

HERCUS, L. 1991. Glimpses of the Karangura. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(2): 139-159.

Karangura people occupied lower Eyre Creek in the far north-east of South Australia. They had

disappeared by early this century. This paper seeks out some of the causes of this tragedy, and records

what has been preserved of Karangura traditions by the neighbouring Wangkangurru and Yarluyandi

people.

L. A. Hercus, Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University, GPO Box 4, Canberra, Australian

Capital Territory 2601. Manuscript received 30 August 1990.

It is one of the many tragedies of Aboriginal people

that their traditions have not been treated with general

respect until relatively recently, when for vast tracts

of the country it was already too late. Even this belated

recognition lacks egality: it is often said that Aboriginal

traditions only have significance when the groups to

whom they belong still have knowledge and attachment

to them. This attitude is inevitably compounded by

land-rights legislation which by its nature has to deal

with the claims of living people. There are no such

restraints militating against European and Asian

traditions. It is unlikely that anyone would claim we

should forget all about the Sumerians because nobody

now has any direct links to them and because a lot of

what we know about them was written down by

Babylonians anyway. Traditions, whether they are

ancient Sumerian, recent European or Aboriginal all

have significance as being part of human thought.

It is a sad fact that many of the groups that once

inhabited south-eastern Australia are now known by

little more than names on a tribal map. The same

applies even to people who once lived in more desolate

parts of Central Australia: there are groups that became

extinct early this century. A typically tragic case is that

of the Karangura people of what is locally called the

lower Georgina — the Eyre Creek of modern maps

and the Herbert River of early maps.

Though they have no modern descendants,

Karangura people should not be regarded as irrelevant

and their traditions deserve recognition — provided

we can at least get a glimpse of them.

There are two possible sources of knowledge of

Karangura country and Karangura people: these are

meagre historical and ethnographic documents from

last century on the one hand, and what oral evidence

could be gathered over the last two decades from the

oldest of their surviving neighbours, people of

Wangkangurru and Yarluyandi descent. The actual text

of this oral evidence is given where relevant here: some

of it is in English, some in the Wangkangurru language.

KARANGURA COUNTRY

There is some measure of agreement as to the general

location of Karangura country (Figs | and 2). Howitt

in his papers (n.d., paper 5), when discussing whether

a Diyari person could eat whichever animal was his

matrilineal descent totem, mentions the location of the

Karangura in relation to the Diyari: ‘further to the north

among the Karangura, Marunga and Yudlayudlanga

etc. the mardu is not eaten’. In his map (1904: 44), based

mainly on evidence gathered by him decades before,

Howitt shows the Karangura as living along Eyre

Creek.

Tindale (1974: 212) has the following entry:

Loc.: | South of Alton Downs on Eyre Creek; east to

Pandi Pandi; on the Eleanor River south to the

northern margin of Goyder Lagoon. Wells listed

fourteen named hordes.

Coord.: 138°40’E x 26°25’S

Area: 3 200 sq. m (8 300 sq. km)

Alt.: Karangura, Karangura, Kurangooroo, Andrawilla

(native name of early police camp, now

Andrewilla).

More recent evidence obtained from neighbouring

people confirms this general location. The most senior

Wangkangurru man, Mick McLean, speaking to Luise

Hercus in January 1967 (Tape 66) about the Seven

Sisters Myth and Song Cycle, described how the Old

Man Unthuriya, sometimes also known as ‘the Larrikin

Man’ went with Seven Sisters:

Text I. Seven Sisters

M.: Take’m down Cooper’s Creek and to the Diamantina then.

Thita-purrunha ‘Full of Ants, that is Karangura country,

Karangura and Wangkamadla mixed, Adria Downs.

Then further is Ngurrawani, (Gnarrowie Well) straight down

from Adria Downs.

L.: Nallamundie Waterhole, is that Karangura?

M.: That is all Karangura. Thitirri, supposed to have been

straight down from Adria Downs.

They (the Seven Sisters) followed the creek right down, they

come up half way up in that creek and cross over where the

Kallakoopah starts. That’s where they start to dance. . .

This account mentions the northern part of the area

given by Tindale, and includes Adria Downs, slightly

further north still than Alton Downs. Other

140 GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

|Kalidawarry WH. hos oo

vmncnn

nea) Annandale \

’

SIMPSON DESERT

\ WYARLUYAN BI

My Birdsvilleg-”

Old Alton Downs’)

Reena

FIGURE 1. North-east South Australia and south-west Queensland, showing major Aboriginal groups at the time of European

contact. V. Potezny, 1991.

L. HERCUS 141

S /2

ee aaa:

Alton Downs’

\ (ruin)

Gnarrowie WH.‘

Dickeree W.H.y’

)

o Eight Mile ae

puenaine wih” ag kapirri

\ ‘Kanti -purrus\S

Tadna-pulu-tjintjini ‘Ten Mile WH\G

H bal

Narrabutiani W.H ¢ \ i

Giri Giri WH) ;

a ci t

\ wa

(

‘Andrewilla.

Tepaminkanie WHE, if

ji y' | [u

Goyder (lagoon’

ss (ruin),

-Damperanie

tren ani fe rrathunka WH.

® )

‘Andrewilla W.

al /}. re es

ey =

Cooningheera W.H, a

ae we

ee,

ARoseberth)

cap aN

x2 (hie ] \

Le ‘

PBirdsville

ie}

‘Miranda’

\(curn) N

etiea ~Gunuew

\, ;

ven

-Pandie Pandie’

«Wirripirie

peo o Clifton Hills OS:

/“ASonchera W.H.

kmO

Liu

FIGURE 2. Important sites in Karangura and neighbouring country. V. Potezny, 1991.

mythological accounts, discussed below, and also

identical statements made in 1974 by Maudie Naylon

of Birdsville (born ca 1886) further corroborate

Tindale's general positioning of Karangura country. One

important point to note is that there is general

agreement: only the western, the Eleanor channel of

the Diamantina traditionally belonged to Karangura.

The eastern channel belonged to Yarluyandi people and

to Ngamini people further south near Goyder’s Lagoon,

with Yawarawarrka people coming in from the east.

Northerly Neighbours

There is one major disagreement between Tindale

and the evidence gathered from people over recent

years — admittedly much younger than his informants.

This disagreement concerns the position of Yarluyandi

country: according to Tindale Yarluyandi people were

the only immediate northerly neighbours of the

Karangura. The recent evidence, supported by the

myths, indicates that Yarluyandi country was situated

along the Diamantina and not Eyre Creek. It was the

142

Wangkamadla, the south-westernmost of the Pitta-Pitta

group, who in traditional times lived around Annandale

and extended down towards Thita-purru (‘Full of Ants’),

Adria Downs. Adria Downs was repeatedly said to be

‘both Karangura and Wangkamadla mixed’.

There is an account of events in the Adria Downs

country late last century, in the nineties, when a small

group of Wangkangurru people arrived there, on their

Text 2. Adria Downs

1. M.: Adria Down is what they call Thita-purru, whitefellow call’m . .

they could be ngurku, plenty paya, paya papu.

GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

way out of the desert. It is evident from the account

that Karangura people were no longer there. Their

neighbours, the Wangkamadla people from Annandale

however were still in the area and took a poor view

of this visit, which unlike expeditions for pituri, was

unplanned. This was described by the Wangkangurru

speaker Mick McLean Irinjili who had heard about

it subsequently (tape 571, 1971):

. there is swamp, kutha nganthu. That is where

2. Pinja-ru paliji-rna-pirda-lhuku, uta kari-nha — kaparra.

War-party-ERG strike-SP-kill-HIST, now

they-ACC blood-feud.

3. Kari-nha

They-ACC all

partjarna pirda-lhuku.

all hit-HIST.

4. Kumpira-ma-lhuku kari-kunha watji-nangka-ngura

thangka-nha.

sit-NP.

ngata-ki

Dead-make-HIST they-POS follow-CONT S-CONT after-EMPH after-after-EMPH, not

partjarna anthunha mapu kumpira-ma-ru from Annandale, our mob Wangk’ aranda-kunha arluwa

mob dead-make-NAR

Speech-Aranda-POS child

ngata-ngata-ki, maljka nguyu

one

5. Johnnie Reese-kunha anja, he is one of them but he has gone. Pandi Pandi. He was pinja-nga join in. His brother got killed.

6. Uka-kunha nhuthi mudlu-nga

He-POS _ brother sandhill-LOC _ there

mudlu-mudlu? There uka-kunha nhuthi,

sandhill-sandhill he-POS _ brother,

7. That pinja is no good, I don’t like ’m.

L.: Kari-ri partjarna pirdayi-ka?

They-ERG all _ kill-PAST?

he-POS

Bank-see

kayirra uka-kunha nhuthi idni-ngura Birdsville, you know

brother lie-CONT

Parraka-nhanhi, old Njurrili ha!

8. M.: Ngata-ngata-ki clean’m up; partjarna, mankarra njurdu pirda-rnanha mankarra-kari-nha, kayirra thangka-ka

Later-later-EMPH all, girl too kill-IMM girl-PI-ACC, there sit-PAST

anthunha kaku, Finke Bob been have’m, she was the last, uka nguyu-ki —_ tharka-rna.

my sister, she one-EMPH stand-IMP.

Text 2. Translation

1. ‘Adria Downs’ is the name that whitefellows call Thita-purru ‘Full of Ants. A swamp is there with water laying about

in crab-holes. This was a place where they would be fine, there were lots of birds and eggs.

2. A war-party came to attack and kill them, and now they had a blood-feud.

3. Those Annandale men killed all those people there who were from my mob, they attacked our mob who had (some)

Aranda-speaking parents.

4. They killed them and persecuted them later on and then later on again, so that not one should stay alive.

5. Johnnie Reese's father was one of (the group who were being pursued) but he had gone, he was at Pandi. He joined

in (a reverse) war party. His brother got killed.

6. His brother is (buried) there on the sandhill, his brother was staying at Birdsville, you know that little sandhill, that

is where his brother is (buried), that was Parraka-nhanhi ‘Looking at a steep bank’, they also called him old Njurrili, oh!

7. Those war-parties are no good, I don't like them.

L. Did they kill everybody?

8. Later on (the Annandale men) killed the whole lot (of this small group), the girls too, but my (classificatory) sister stayed

alive, the one that Finke Bob married, she was the only one left.

Ultimately the feud was abandoned, the revenge

killings stopped, and early this century Wangkangurru

people actually went to join the Wangkamadla group

at Annandale. This was recalled by oral tradition and

is proved by a letter sent from Annandale to the Office

of the Chief Protector of Aboriginals in Brisbane in

1908 (a copy was made available to the author by Angus

Green). It gives a list of 43 people with the comment:

‘the above consist of Blacks mustered here on the 10th

Oct 1908’ Many of the names on the list are English

and nondescript, such as Judy’, ‘Biddy’ and Jubilee’;

some are clearly Wangkamadla like ‘Muncoonie Jack’

and ‘Mulligan Mick’, but at least a few are known to

have been Wangkangurru, such as ‘Yarotilli’ (i.e.

Yaratuli) and ‘Pigweed’, who was really Jessie Milja-

witjinangkarda, and one, Lucy Kingkardie (i.e.

Kingkardi ‘Laughing’) was Yarluyandi. The place-

names along the Eyre Creek north of Adria Downs

L. HERCUS 143

corroborate the evidence that before this influx the

Annandale area was not Wangkangurru nor Yarluyandi

but Wangkamadla country. The Annandale group of

Wangkamadla people was well known to the oldest

people of part-Yarluyandi descent at Birdsville who

regarded them as outsiders but had extensive

information about them. They could still point out a

site called Nganawardani where two small creeks come

out of the main channel on the western bank of the

Diamantina on the Queensland-South Australian

border: ‘we used to have the big (Warrthampa)

corrobories at Ngalpura-ngura, Jardine Crossing, just

up a bit. Different people came from everywhere, and

the Annandale mob camped here at Nganawardani:

They made it clear that the bulk of the Annadale people

were not of ‘our (Yarluyandi) mob’: they were

Wangkamadla, not Yarluyandi. In his large-scale study

in south-west Queensland, working mainly with Pitta-

pitta people, Breen came to an identical conclusion.

As his map shows (Breen 1971: 21), the Wangkamadla

were traditionally the immediate northerly neighbours

of the Karangura.

The fact that Wangkamadla people were their

immediate northerly neighbours had some importance

for the history of Karangura people. As Austin

demonstrates (1991), the Karangura belonged to the

Diyari language group like their southern and eastern

neighbours, the Ngamini and Yarluyandi. They were

in fact the most north-westerly outpost of this group

and had as less related neighbours the Wangkangurru

people in the desert on the west, and the Wangkamadla

people further up along Eyre Creek to the north. The

Karangura were thus on the cross-roads between a

number of traditions, which put them into a vulnerable

position once the old order broke down.

Karangura People: A Small Tribe

Apart from the waterholes on the Eleanor in the

Andrewilla area, the main country of the Karangura

was along the ‘Georgina’, the lower Eyre Creek. Unlike

the Diamantina, this creek floods only rarely: the water

of the upper Eyre Creek and the Mulligan has to fill

Lake Muncoonie to the north and then be high enough

to back out again before it can flow down the Georgina

channels. This is not, and was not, hospitable country:

when the waterholes in the Georgina channels dried

out the Karangura depended on soaks and some wells

in the adjacent sandhill country or had to congregate

by the longest-lasting Eleanor waters. They could

manage this because they were a small group. Birdsell

(1973: 344) made calculations intended to show that

theoretically even at the time of contact the ‘Karanjuru’

might have consisted of as few as 32 persons. They

were the very smallest of the small tribes living in an

area where there was an easterly expansion of the

subincision boundary. Birdsell concludes that this

expansion led to a fragmentation of tribes. There is

evidence, not only from Wells (1894: 515) of the

existence of a number of local groups of Karangura.

A population count as low as 32 is therefore highly

unlikely for the time of first contact. Nevertheless the

ecological evidence indicates that Birdsell was justified

in thinking that the Karangura must have been amongst

the smallest tribes, and may indeed have numbered

only around 100 when the Europeans arrived.

Karangura People: Earliest References

The information about Karangura country may be

clear in its outlines, but we know little about the people.

J. W. Lewis's exploration party crossed Karangura

country in February 1875 (Threadgill 1922: 165), but

his map does not contain a single Karangura place-

name. The surveyor Cornish worked in the area in

1880. His map was recently acquired by the Mortlock

Library and was found there by V. Potezny. It shows

a number of Karangura waterholes, ‘Kooringala,

‘Tooracky’, ‘Kalkaparidiginna’, and ‘Koonakoo’; but he

does not mention the people he must have met (Fig.

3). The earliest published mention of the Karangura

is by W. J. Paull in his introduction to the ‘Ominee’

(Ngamini) vocabulary (Paull 1886: 18). He states that:

The marches of the lands of the Ominee, Wongonooroo,

Kuranyooroo and Yarleeyandee tribes, all intimately

connected, meet on the Warburton River at Cowarie head-

station.

Cowarie was in Ngamini country, but there is plenty

of oral traditional evidence to show that under the

impact of white settlement people from adjoining

groups congregated here.

The most informative early reference to Karangura

people is by the police officer F. H. Wells in his article

on ‘The Habits, Customs and Ceremonies of the

Aboriginals on the Diamantina, Herbert and Eleanor

Rivers, in East Central Australia. He starts by saying:

The natives of the localities named belong to the

Andrawilla tribe, and occupy a block of country about

ninety by ninety miles. The chief tribe is subdivided into

smaller tribes or clans viz: Andrawilla, Kuntapunchinna,

Dickeri, Kyratonka, Kertie-terie, Yumalla, Kerra,

Dipracoolie, Tunbulla, Koringurra, Kalkaparichinna,

Mundowalla, Tippaminkinna and Dampaminnie; these

tribal names being taken from the names of various

waterholes in the locality inhabited by the tribe, such as

Andrawilla, Kyratonka etc. (Wells 1894: 515).

These names do indeed correspond to names of

waterholes, Most are known from three other sources

besides the list given by Wells: 1. from the unpublished

map produced by Hillier in 1904 according to the data

of Pastor Reuther at Killalpannina mission, 2. from

the more recent evidence of Aboriginal people of

Wangkangurru and Yarluyandi descent, 3. from modern

maps. The correspondences between Wells’s list and

the other sources is illustrated in Table 1. The recent

Aboriginal information is given in italics.

144 GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

‘Koringurra, which is mentioned in the Well’s list,

is probably the actual tribal name Karangura, but we

cannot rule out the possibility that it might be

Kooringala waterhole on Eyre Creek, called Kuringala

‘Whitewood tree’ by recent speakers of Yarluyandi and

Wangkangurru.

With the possible exception of this tribal name, the

items on this list are all names of major waterholes,

and there can be little doubt that they were centres of

small local groups. Most, but not all of them, were

no doubt originally Karangura centres. The Andrewilla

waterhole (Fig. 4) appears to have belonged originally

to Karangura people, as did the area towards the south

to Goyder’s Lagoon. Two of the waterholes listed by

Wells are however some considerable distance outside

the area: Damperanie and ‘Miranda are situated to the

south-east and east in what was probably Yawarawarrka

country, while ‘Kuntapunchinna’, Pandi Pandi, was to

the north and Yarluyandi people consider it part of their

original territory. It might have been a place shared

by Yarluyandi and Karangura people.

Wells obtained his information at Andrewilla in the

early 1890s. He writes of the ‘Andrawilla tribe’, but he

is obviously referring to whoever happened to be living

at Andrawilla at that time. He did not differentiate

between the various groups, though his vocabulary

must have come from Karangura people. Wells gives

us further important information in that he mentions

some names of persons of the ‘Andrawilla tribe’. Some

of these names refer to people who are known from

other sources; one survived till recently, while others

have relatives who recall them. They were people from

various groups from the north-east of South Australia,

who happened to be at Andrewilla. Only a few were

Karangura, even in 1892-3:

FIGURE 3. Individuals of the ‘Andrewilla Tribe’, photographed

at the Andrewilla Police Camp during the 1890s. State

Records, South Australia, GRG.52.

TABLE 1. Localities of the ‘Andrawilla Tribe’.

ee rr ee

Wells’s name Name on modern map Aboriginal name

Reuther recent

a eeeeeeeeeesSseeeeeeSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSeseee

Andrawilla Andrewilla Nganarawirli Y. Nganarawirli

Kuntapunchinna Pandie Pandie (Pandi Pandi) Kanti-pantjini

Dickeri Dickeree, also Dikiri x Dikirri

Alton Downs Waterhole Dikirri

Kyratonka Karathunka Kayiridunka D Kayarathungka

Kertie-terie Annandale Katijerra Y, Katitharri

Yumalla Old Clifton Hills Outstation? Jamarkirra? Y. Yabmalkira ?

Kerra Giri Giri Kiri-kiri W. Kiri-kiri

Dipracoolie Old Lagoon Tirpakurli N. Thirpa-kurli

Tunbulla Toondooloo, ‘Miranda’ Thunpulu

Kalkaparichinna Kalkaparidiginna Kalkapurutjini ¥. Kalkapuritjinha

Mundowalla Mandurali ¥. Mandawarli

Tippaminkinna Tepaminkanie Tipaminka YX; Thipamingkani

Dampaminnie Damperanie Danpara N. Danparani

(Y. indicates that Reuther lists this place as being Yarluyandi, N. as Ngamini, W. as Wangkangurru and D. as Diyari).

OO EES

L. HERCUS 145

FIGURE 4. Andrewilla waterhole, the largest in Karangura

country. Photograph: L. A. Hercus.

Personal names listed by Wells

Male names

Kooripipinna — Kuripipinha was a Karangura man from Alton

Downs. He was named after some special fossil bones

which had magical qualities.

Appakulta — Ngapa-kalta ‘Water-skin’ could be a Karangura,

Yarluyandi or Ngamini name.

Toondroo-wonko-inna — Probably represents a Wangkangurru

name, Thurndu wankayinha ‘Stomach Growing Big’.

Wadoo-woka — Wardu-waka ‘Little short fellow’ could be

either a Diyari or possibly a Karangura name.

Watti-wattina — Wati-watinha ‘Track’ was a Yarluyandi man.

He was the great-uncle of the Naylon family and brother

to the last full Yarluyandi woman, Judy Trew

Thandripilinha.

Tring-alli — Thiringili ‘Sandy’ was a Yarluyandi man who

died at an advanced age at the Yelpawarilinna waterhole

on the Diamantina in the early thirties.

Watti-kattana — Wati-katali was known to the oldest

Yarluyandi people from their youth. He was a Karangura

man-and came from and also died at Alton Downs.

Oooroo-charoo — Wangkangurru tjaru means light cloud.

This name probably is Nguru-tjaru, ‘another white cloud’.

Female names

Paroo-moogunna — ‘after a fish. Parru-mukunha ‘Bones of

Black Bream’ is remembered to this day. She was a relative

of the Crombie family and was Yarluyandi. She spent most

of her later life in the company of another Yarluyandi

woman of the Fish totem, Polly WaRi-WaRi ‘Yellow-belly’.

Nooyoo-nackaroo — ‘after a fire’ is probably the Wangkangurru

name Nguyu-Makaru ‘By one Fire’.

Akka-willi-likka — ‘after a fire’ is Maudie Naylon Akawiljika,

of mainly Wangkangurru descent, who was born in the

Simpson Desert about 1885 and died at Birdsville in 1980.

Her name is Aranda, given by her part-Aranda father Bille

Reese Ngaltja-kintarda. She was not only unique in her

traditional knowledge, but she also happened to be at

Andrewilla every time any known investigator went there.

She was listed not only by Wells (1894), but also by

Basedow (1919) and by Tindale (1934). In her later years

she stayed in Birdsville. Her knowledge was representative

of the mixed group of people who were at Andrewilla, and

she maintained her attachment to traditions. Though her

main language was Wangkangurru, she also had a

command of Yarluyandi which she recorded for the author,

and Ngamini and Yawarawarrka, which she recorded for

Gavan Breen. There was also a man of this name, ‘Akka-

willi-likka’ who was photographed at Andrewilla during

the 1890s as one of a group of Wangkangurru arrivals from

the Simpson Desert (Jones 1991: 172).

Naruwa — Njaruwa ‘Wren’ was known only as a man’s name;

there were two people of that name, ‘little (i.e. younger)

Nijaruwa’ and ‘Big Njaruwa’. The older Njaruwa would have

been a baby at the time of Well’s stay at Andrewilla, and

this may account for the mistake in gender. He was great-

uncle to the Lumpkin and McLean families.

Wilyerooroo-mun-nung-arrie — ‘after wind’ is almost certain

to stand for Wiljaruru-maningaru ‘taken away by the storm.

This is a Wangkangurru name.

Wumma — ‘after a snake’. This name is Wabma/Wama ‘Snake,

a word common to all languages in the area. The name

therefore does not give any indication of which group the

person belonged to.

Kal-li-irri — Nothing known

Wooti-inna — This could be the Yarluyandi name Wutjunha

‘the blind one’, but that remains uncertain.

Yarraguninna — Probably a Wangkangurru name Yarra-

kudninha ‘Putting something down on hollowed-out

ground?

It is clear from the evidence of these names that as

early as about 1892-3 a mixed group was living at

Andrewilla, and that the majority was not Karangura.

Karangura People: Negative Evidence

After Wells there are only few first-hand references

to the Karangura. Howitt & Siebert (1904: 106) and

Howitt (1904) published the same myth, originally

collected by Siebert, presumably during his time at

Killalpannina in 1900-1. It is about the Two Men who

introduce the circumcision knife, and it is entitled ‘The

Malku-malku-ulu, a legend of the Karanguru and

Ngameni’. Howitt and Siebert’s work does not have any

further specific mention of Karangura people, but it

represents the last reference to the Karangura on first-

hand evidence.

Gason (1874: 1895) had not mentioned the

Karangura, but this is not surprising as he was writing

mainly about Diyari people. It is after the evidence

of Wells, from 1894 onwards, that the Karangura are

conspicuous by their absence from written records.

Albert Helling wrote from Cowarie to Howitt in

March, and again in April, 1899, to give him

information on Aboriginal people in the area. His

letters, preserved in the Howitt papers, make no

mention of the Karangura. Speaking of the current

situation at Goyder’s Lagoon he says: ‘the Blacks there

146 GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

are Wonkaooras, Yowraworkas and Ahminys. The

former tribe predominate? (Howitt, n. d.).

The missionary Reuther in his vast work written at

the turn of the century made only rare references to

the Karangura. They are not named on the map that

Hiller’ drew, using Reuther’s materials. Of the 2468

place-names which Reuther lists for the north-east of

South Australia (Reuther 1981: Vol. VII), there is not

one attributed to the Karangura. Place-names in what

was traditionally Karangura country, as shown in the

list above, he ascribes mostly to Yarluyandi, and a few

to Ngamini and Wangkangurru. Not a single one of

the famous toas (Jones & Sutton 1986) is attributed by

Reuther to the Karangura. The Karangura do not figure

among the lists of personal names (Vol. VI). All other

groups, even those that had greatly declined in

numbers, such as the Pirlatapa, are named on the

Hillier map, and toas and personal names are listed

for them. Only the Karangura are absent.

Horne and Aiston (1924) make no mention of the

Karangura, neither do Tindale’s and Fry’s notebooks

from their 1934 Diamantina expedition. F. Fenner took

part in the same expedition and his article (Fenner

1936), which includes a map, also makes no reference

to the Karangura.

There was no conspiracy of silence; something was

clearly amiss with the Karangura, and strangely

enough, this was connected with Karangura traditions

and myths. The following sections will give some

details of what has come down to us of Karangura

traditions and how these are connected with the

destruction of Karangura people.

A Karangura Song

Only one brief text has come down to us verbatim

in Karangura. It came through a Diyari speaker, Mary

Dixon, who was born about 1884. Mary was the

daughter of a greatly respected and knowledgeable

Diyari man, Mawili, who gave much information to

Aiston (Horne & Aiston 1924: 44). She came to

Killalpaninna at the turn of the century as a young

married woman. Being married she was not allowed

to go to the school and spent much of her time with

Text 4. Two Dogs

the older women. An old Karangura woman taught her

how to sing a Karangura lullaby for her first baby. She

never forgot this and sang it to Luise Hercus and Dora

Parker in 1966:

Text 3._Karangura Lullaby

Tjalpapa-li tjalpa-li

Warra warra kali-ma

Dora Parker (Wangkangurru) then explained:

Ngatji-rna ngataru. Wakarra pirda-Ihuku,

Look-IMP behind. Neck _ hit-PURP.

‘He might sneak up and hit you in the back of the neck if

you are not looking’

Text 3. Translation

Mary’s song:

Box-tree by box-tree

(Around) the side (around) the side looking

Dora Parker: She is looking behind (the trees), in case

someone were to hit you in the back of the neck. Someone

might sneak up and hit you in the back of the neck while you

are not looking.

In this Karangura lullaby the mother assures her baby

that she has looked behind every tree by a waterhole

and that all is safe. Looking behind trees is the

Aboriginal equivalent of looking under beds. The

lullaby is tragic since all the caution of Karangura

people was obviously in vain.

FRAGMENTS OF KARANGURA MYTHOLOGY:

SOME MINOR MyTHS

A. The Two Dogs

The knowledge of a number of minor myths had

remained with people of Wangkangurru and Yarluyandi

descent: they could still explain some of what was once

Karangura country. A very localised and stereotyped

myth, interesting only on account of its location, was

that of the Two Dogs, told by Linda Crombie, January

1989:

1. Karna-katjarranha two dogs name that and there is the flat, big one too. You can go to the top of the Andrewilla

sandhill and you see it. Make me sorry when I have a look at the country.

2. Ularaka-nga_ madla-ru

History-LOC dog-ERG

puntha-li purda-lhuku

drink-HAB _ get-down-HIST.

chase-IMP

warrawa-rna_ warrukathi-pula-nha; puntha-li

emu-TWO-ACC;

purda-lhuku

drink-HAB __ get-down-HIST

3. Warrawa-rna right up to Karna-katjarra, no, Wipala-payirri, Walka-thipani

Chase-IMP

madla-pula-ru. pirda-rna warrukathi pula-ru

dog-two-ERG. kill-IMP emu two-ERG.

L. HERCUS 147

Text 4. Translation

1. Karna-katjarranha ‘Clever Man’ is named from the two dogs. It is a big flat area. You can go to the top of the Andrewilla

sandhill and you see it. It makes me sorry when I have a look at the country.

2. In the history time the Dogs chased two emus there. The emus used to come and crouch to have a drink (at the Andrewilla

waterhole).

3. The two dogs Karna Katjarra, ‘the Clever Man’, no (I mean) Wipala-payirri “Wide Flat’ and Walka-thipani killed the emus.

B. Kimili ‘Kanti-purru’ The Black Snake and

Kurkari the Green Snake

Kimili, also known as Kanti-purru ‘Carrying a

waddy’, is the main ancestor to whom Reuther

attributed the naming of places along the Eleanor

channel in what was traditionally Karangura country.

Reuther regarded this as Yarluyandi ground; there must

in any case have been close connections between the

Karangura and the Yarluyandi who immediately

adjoined this area. All the sites along the Eleanor are

associated by him with Kimili, this includes for instance

the main Andrewilla waterhole, the nearby Karna-

katjarra sandhill of the story above (Vol. VII: 1475),

Ngampangampayarra (Vol. VII: 1479) ‘Eight Mile

Waterhole’, and Tharnapulutjintji (Vol. VII: 2044), “Ten

Mile Waterhole. The only conspicuous exception is

Kajiridunka Karathunka (Vol. VII: 828).

The Snakes and the Grinding Stones

There are several myths that related how people

along the Eleanor and adjacent areas on the Diamantina

did not have grinding stones of any kind and were

trying to eat unground nardoo and grass-seeds. Then

the two Snake Ancestors came from the north via Alton

Downs. Kimili, the Black Snake, as well as carrying

his waddy, came with a seed-grinding dish, while his

companion Kurkari, the Green Snake, was carrying

a ngampa, a nardoo stone. They separated near Old

Alton Downs.

Kurkari with his nardoo stone came along the Kurari

sandhill near Bayard’s yard, to the east of Karathunka.

He put down his stone and rested. Kimili joined him

there ‘and they camped. While they were asleep

Tjilpuru the Bush-lark boy came sneaking up from the

Ngardu-mathani Biting (unground) nardoo’ sandhill by

the Diamantina, which was Yarluyandi country. He was

intending to steal the nardoo stone. The people at the

Eight Mile Waterhole however were much closer; they

Text 6. Kimili and the Two Women

called out ngampa ngampa yarra, ‘a nardoo stone is

over there, quite close!’ Hence Eight Mile Waterhole

has the slightly abbreviated name Ngampampa-yarra.

These people sneaked over to the sandhill, took the

nardoo stone and went back to grind nardoo. In the

morning the Man from the North caught up with them

and retrieved his stone. It was very heavy and he

managed to carry it to Kayirri-thungka, Karathunka.

He put it down and rested, still in company with Kimili.

Now it was Tjilpuru’s turn to steal the stone.

He crept up and took it away first to Ngardu-

pandiyarranha ‘Pounding Nardoo’ waterhole just north

of Manganuni waterhole, where the grandmother was

the first one to try it out. Then all the family went

further south along the Diamantina with the stolen

stone to their big camp at Ngantji-malkani. This is

where Tjilpuru’s grandmother made a song about it in

Yarluyandi:

Text 5. The Nardoo Stone Song

(The Grandmother’s song, recorded by Maudie Naylon, Sept.

1969)

Tjilptrung tjilpuri

ngandireéla ngapiréla

ngardula pirdarat

ngampa yarra

Tjilpurting tjilpuri

Tjilpuru

Your mother, your father

Are cracking nardoo seed

The stone is there

Tjilpuru

The grandmother sang to the boy 7jilpuru and he

answered her. The Yarluyandi song consisting of the

boy’s verse is as follows, according to Tom Naylon

(June 1981):

Ngandriteji nagpi

WaRila patjiyarra riimu

Ngatatali kanjinina waa

Mother, father

Fish they are catching. . .

Mother’s father, mother’s

mother oh!

Ngardulu pandri Nardoo they pound.

The Bush-lark people kept the nardoo stone for ever

after and Kurkari travelled on without it; he was

looking for a wife further south in Ngamini country.

Linda Crombie (of Wangkangurru and Yarluyandi descent) was able to relate several stories connected with

Kimili Kanti-purru, ‘Carrying a Waddy’:

1. Mathapurda-pula karna njara_ thidnangkara-nganha mathapurda Kanti-purru-nha.

old man

Old man-two man young north-from,

Kurkari yuka-rnda pula

Kanti-purru-PROP. Kurkari go-PRES two

Karlatjuwarri. Karlatjuwarri-nganha ngarritji-rna-yiwa-rna arnari.

Kalidawarry. Kalidawarry-from

2. Mayarla-thu nguru thu

Leave him-EMPH other-EMPH go-CONT old man

kaRu.

there.

go down-SP-TR-IMP. this way.

yuka-ngura mathapurda mankarra-pula-nha thiki-ra

Kurkari-thu

girl-two-ACC take-PUNC Kurkari-EMPH

148

. Mathapurda uka yuka-ka. Ah njipa-parlu

. Kanti-purru ngarritji-rna-yiwa-rna. kanhangarda karla-nga

. Athu nhanhi-ra

GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

Two of them come down, mathapurda nguru-ki Kanti-pureru-nha, stop there at the Kanti-purru, karna

old man other-EMPH Kanti-purreu-PROP man

nguru yuka-ngura mankarra wapa-wapa-rna, mankarra kapu-kapu mathapurda Kurkaria.

other go-CONT . girl svek-PRES, girl look for! old man Kurkari.

Kanti-purru katha-nangka-rda He was Snake too.

Kanti-purru wander round CONT S-PRES.

: Tharna-pulu-tjintjini, uljurla-pula thanga-rnda karla pangki-nga, muyu-nga. kanhangarda pula

“Vagina-two-warming’ woman-two stay-PRES creek side-LOC sun-LOC there two

thati-nangka-rda__thaRalju thaRi- thaRi-nha, thaRalju thaRi, they was killing’m, tjirka-purru thaRalju

eat-CONT S-PRES frog small small-ACC frog small tail-having frog

pula tharni-thangka-rda. warpi-nangka-rda pula thangka-rda.

two eat-stay-PRES lie-CONT S-PRES two sit-PRES.

awarda thanga-rnda! tharna-ku

stay-PRES!

nhanhi-lhiku warrritha-ru

Old man he go-PAST vagina-DAT see-HIST — afar-ABL

mathapurda-ru!

old man-ERG!

Tharna-pulu-tjintjini, they were rattling with sand.

Ah, clothes-bare there

thangka-ka uljurla-pula.

Kanti-purru descent-SP-TR-IMP there creek-LOC sit-PAST woman-two.

minha-minh’ anthunha! Thika-ngarra thika-ngarra arnari yuka-rnda arni nhanhi-lhiku!

I SEE-PUNC what-what mine! Return-IMM return-IMM this way go-PRES us see-PURP!

Uka-ru yaka-yaka rna___uljurla, uljurla-pula-nha_ yaka-yaka-rna thika-rna thangka-lhuku.

He-ERG chase-chase-IMP woman, woman-two-ACC chase-chase-IMP. go back-IMP sit-PURP.

He fell in love with those two women then, but they ran off to the Danta-parkulu sandhill.

Text 6. Translation

Two men, newly initiated, came from the north. These two men Kanti-purru ‘the one carrying a waddy’ and Kurkari,

the Green Snake, went to Kalidawarry waterhole (near Lake Muncoonie in Wangkamadla country). From Kalidawarry

they came down this way.

. Saying Tl leave him’ one of them went on, it was Kurkari who went over there (to Two Wells near Mt Gason) to take

away two girls from there.

. Two of them had come down: one was Kanti-purru ‘Carrying the Waddy’ (i.e. Kimili, the Black Snake) who stopped

there at the Kanti-purru sandhill, the other one went on in search of girls, he was old man Kurkari, the one who was

looking for girls among the Ngamini. Kanti-puru stayed just wandering around on the sandhill. He was a Snake too.

4. At the place called Tharna-pulu-tjintjini two women were resting in the sun by the bank of the creek (the Eleanor).

The two of them were eating frogs, they had been killing those little tadpoles, the ones that still had a tail. They stayed

there lounging about, eating.

5. The old man came — ah they were there with (of course) no clothes on! The old man saw their vaginas from afar at

Tharna-pulu-tjintjini (as they were warming themselves up with hot sand), rattling with sand.

6. Kanti-purru came down as the two women were there by the creek.

7. ‘Ah, I see something here that is for me!’

‘He’s coming down, he’s coming back this way to have a look at us!”

8. He chased them, he ran and ran after the two women, he wanted to come and stay with them.

9. He fell in love with those two women then, but they ran off to the Danta-parkulu sandhill.

Reuther was obviously told some of this story

because he has the following entry in his list of place

names (Vol. VII: 2044):

Tanabulutindi

Tanabulu ‘the female sexual organ’, tindi ‘to warm’.

Kimilina observed how they (certain women) strewed hot

sand on these parts for they had syphilis(!)

Reuther gives no further information.

Kimili continued along the Eleanor naming the

country and lending his grinding dish. There is a song,

partly in Yarluyandi, connected with him and with all

the people now grinding flour. This was sung by Tom

Naylon in 1982 shortly before his death but as there

is no adequate translation of the words it has not been

included here. Kimili then left, taking his grinding dish

with him, and he travelled all the way to near Coongie

Lake where he ultimately put it down. It had worn him

out, literally crushed him, because it was altogether

too big and heavy. Songs now lost described his

journey. The stone is said to be still there, near

Coongie, as a large rock.

The story of the two Snake Ancestors is significant

in a number of ways: it illustrates the fact that there

was a band of mythological lines that came from the

Mulligan up north and traversed Karangura country

going down the Georgina towards Yarluyandi and

Ngamini country. This was one of the main routes for

TT SSSSSSSSSSSSSSmmmsssFsFsesesessssSseees

'. This is a Ngamini expression meaning ‘look for’ and it is a direct quotation from the Ngamini story of Kurkari, see Hercus

& Potezny (1990).

L. HERCUS 149

the pituri trade (Watson 1983: 30), and probably also C. Mirithira, the Grub-Powder Man

for the importation of grinding stones. The Snake

Ancestors thus followed a well established course and

Karangura people occupied a central position in the

tradition. The Danta-parkulu sandhill where the two

women find refuge is halfway between the Eleanor and

the main Diamantina channel. It was an important

Grub Increase site and probably both Yarluyandi and

Reuther knew about the ancestor ‘Miritira’ (Vol. X:

90) and wrote of him as coming from “Turuwarapu on

Linda Crombie however knew of him mainly as the

Karangura people joined in rituals there. who created the trees at Two Wells.

Text 7 = Mirithira

ll.

14.

Mathapurda Mirithira-nha Wirluma-nganha karla-li ngarritji-rnda.

Old man Mirithira-PROP Wirluma-from creek-ADV_ descend-PRES.

Uljurla-kari-ri Neantarawirli-nga kari-ri_ — pardi mapa-lhuku. kudnakardi kilta-rna, thawi-lhiku,

. . . Woman-they-ERG Andrewilla-LOC they-ERG grub collect-HIST guts pull-out-IMP throw-PURP.

Mirithira-ru— mathapurda-ru uljurla kari-nha_ yabmi-rna _ kudna kilta-lhuku; kudna kilta-rna

Mirithira-ERG old man-ERG woman they-ACC growl-IMP guts pull out-PURP, guts pull out-IMP

thawi-lhiku, — wadnhi-lhiku pardi maka-ra___watji-rna

throw-PURP cook-HIST grub fire-CAUS roast-IMP

. Pardi pulpa_ pirda-nangka-lhuku ngampa-ru uljurla-kari-ri.

Grub powder beat-CONT S-HIST nardoo stone-INST woman-they-ERG.

Mathapurda Mirithira-ru— yabmi-rna__kari-nha; —_uljurla_ kari-ri ngampa kultji

Old man Mirithira-ERG growl-IMP they-ACC; woman they-ERG nardoo stone hammer stone

mani-ra pirda-lhuku _ pardi kari-nha, pardi pulpa _ tharni-lhiku waya-rnda.

take-PUNC smash-PURP grub they-ACC, grub powder eat-PURP wish-PRES.

Pulpa-purru.— yuka-ka_ kari-ri kutha ngunhi-rna uka-ru widni-wa-rna. Bank got washed away now,

Powder-having go-PAST they-ERG water give-IMP he-ERG take away-TR-IMP

ngarrimatha-nga. puthu parkulu there, each time he eat’m nguru uka-ru__ tharni-ra

flood-LOC. dish two other he-ERG eat-PUNC.

Nganara-wirli-nga uka-ru_yabmi-rnda uljurla-kari-nha. | Nganara-wirli-nga, wanka-yiwa-rna yuka-lhuku

Steep-Bank-LOC, he-ERG growl-IMP woman-they-ACC. Steep-Bank-LOC, walk up-TR-IMP go-PURP

kaRuku-thu Danta-parkulu-ruku

there-ALL Powder-two-ALL.

Kanhangarda uljurla-kari-nha_kaRi-lhiku-thu pardi pirda-nangka-rda-nha, __ pardi pulpa. widna-yiwa-rna

There woman-PL-ACC see-HIST-EMPH grub beat-CONT S-PRES-NP grub powder steal-TR-IMP

thunka-thunka-la-ru kari-kunha,

deprive-APP-NAR_ they-POS.

Mama-rna thunkuthunka-la- yabmi-la-mintja-nta kari partjarna, mathapurda thangka-nangka-rda

Grab-IMP deprive-APP- growl-APP-RECIP-REFL they all, old man sit-CONT S-PRES.

. Kari-ri nhanhi-ra_— ngamarla arluwa-kari thudni-rnda wadla-ra

They-ERG see-PUNC pitiful child-they cry-PRES hunger-CAUS

cruel, I don’t like to talk about it, cruel old man nguyu-ru — tharni-lhiku arluwa-kari ma ma ma ma ma!

alone-ERG eat-HIST child-they boohoo, boohoo, boohoo

thudni-nangka-rda_—_ ngamarla kari.

cry-CONT S-PRES pitiful they.

Kudnala witji-rna. Uljurla kari thampa-rda_ manii-lhiku puthu ‘kanha, manta puthu, pitjatja;

Asleep become-IMP. Woman __ they sneak-PRES take-PURP dish he-ACC, take away dish _ bark dish;

wadna-rda-nhara_ kudnala kurda-ngura uka,

run away-SP-OPT asleep lie-CONT he.

. Uljurla-pula thampa-rda, mathapurda kurda-yi-ngura yatu, kangi tharni-limaru. Uljurla-ru

Woman-two sneak-PRES, old man lie-ACT-CONT full, too much eat-PLUP. Woman-ERG

mama-rnda, mama-rna- thika-rna — wardukupa _ ngunhi-lhiku.

grab-PRESS grab-IMP_ return-IMP child give-PURP.

. Uta thurka-rnda_— mathapurda thanta wapa-lhuku, uta pula wana-wana-ya-ngura

Now get up-PRES old man things look for-HIST, now two run-run-TR-CONT

yabmi-la-mintja-nta pula mathapurda uljurla.

swear-APP-RECIP-REFL two old man woman.

Mathapurda mani-lhiku waya-ngura uka-nha_ pardi-pulpa;_ mani-rnda, yabmi-rnda uljurla-ru:

Old man take-PURP want-CONT he-ACC _ grub-powder; take-PRES, growl-PRES woman-ERG:

maljka maljka thiki-thiki-la-Ru!

not not take-take-APP-IMP!

the other side of Salt Creek’. He associated Mirithira

with grub powder [for details on the preparation of

which, see Hercus (1989)] and with Grub Increase rites.

ancestor who dwelt at the Andrewilla waterhole and

150 GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

15. Mayarla

Let it be

thika-lhuku

go back-HIST.

16. Partjarnda thika-rnda

All return-PRES

patharra witji-rna pardi pulpa pirrpayi-rna that is where that patharra green.

box tree become-IMP grub powder __ spill-IMP

17. Thika-rna mathapurda kudnangkari thika-rnda

Go back-IMP old man south go back-PRES

purku-witji-rna

finish-IMP.

18. Mathapurda-ru pardi watji-rna, pardi katharrayi-rna at the Two Well there. You know them trees we seen those

Old man-ERG grub roast-IMP grub burst-IMP

parranta-wili, but different ones again. pardi paltungka-rda__ katharrayi-rna that is how them trees come.

thika-rna. Two Wella-ruku

sullenly enraged go back-IMP Two Wells-ALL

uljurla-ru pirda-nha, mathapurda warlu

woman-ERG beat-NP old man

at two mile from Andrewilla. Pardi

Grub

Danta-parkulu sandhill... purku-witji-rna

finish-become-IMP

them patharra I showed you, at Two Well, thangka-rda

sit-PRES

grub explode-PRES burst-IMP

Text 7 Translation

Old man Mirithira came from Wirluma (a fire ritual centre far to the north in Wangkamadila country).

2. At Andrewilla some women were collecting grubs. They pulled out the guts and threw them away.

3. Mirithira swore at the women to gut the grubs. They pulled out the guts to throw them away, and then they cooked

the grubs; they roasted them on the fire.

4. The women were continually smashing the (roasted) grubs to powder on a nardoo stone.

5. Old Man Mirithira went on swearing at them. They got nardoo stones and hammer-stones and smashed up the grubs

because they wanted to eat grub powder.

6. They would walk along carrying their grub-powder, and when they went to get water he would come and steal it. (His

camp was by a) bank which got washed away by the big flood. He had two coolamons there (filled with grub powder).

He would eat one lot after another.

7. At Andrewilla ‘The Steep Bank’ he swore at the women. They walked up and left Andrewilla, they went over there,

to Danta-parkulu, the ‘Two lots of powder’ sandhill.

8. There he saw the women grinding up grubs. He stole the grub powder, he took away all they had.

9. He grabbed (the powder) taking it away from them. They all swore at him and the old man swore back at them and

then he just sat there (eating their grub-powder).

10. They looked on, the poor little children, and they cried and cried from hunger. It was a cruel thing and I don’t like

to talk about it. He was a cruel man. He ate it all on his own and the children were crying the whole time boohoo,

boohoo, the poor things.

ll. He fell asleep. The women sneaked up to grab his dish. They took the dish, a bark-dish, and they wanted to run off

with it as he lay there sleeping.

12. The two women sneaked up as the old man lay there, bloated, having had too much to eat. The women grabbed (the

dish of grub-powder) they grabbed it and came back to give it to the children.

13. Then the old man got up to look for his things, and the two women were already running away, and both (sides), the

man and the women screamed abuse at each other.

14. The old man wanted to take away their grub powder; he took it and the women yelled at him: ‘Don't, don’t take it away

from us!’

15. ‘Let the women go on pounding (the grub powder) then!’ With this the old man left in a sullen rage and went down

to Two Wells.

16. All (the women) went back to the Danta-parkulu sandhill and they finished there, two miles from Andrewilla. The

grubs turned into box trees, wherever the women spilt grub powder that is where you see those green box-trees.

17. The old man went away down south, those box-trees I showed you at Two Wells, that is where he stayed and where

he finished.

18. The old man had roasted some grubs there (without bothering to take the guts out). Those grubs burst. That happened

at Kurtjuru Two Wells. You know those trees we saw there, like a type of eucalypt, but different again? The grubs

exploded and burst, that is how those trees came to be there.

D. Other Minor Myths

Coe ultimately became spots as she turned into a Goanna

A small waterhole east of Kooringala is called

MiRandani ‘Feeling sore’. This Karangura place-name

is comprehensible in terms of Yarluyandi, where miRa

means ‘a sore. A female Ancestor was here. She rested

at the waterhole suffering from skin sores. These

and went off to join the other Goannas in their main

camp at the nearby Midla-kapirri, ‘Goanna Nose’

waterhole. It seems that this was a localised Karangura

tradition, though according to Reuther (Vol. VII:

2035), Turaki, the Terachi waterhole was also

associated with the Goanna story.

L. HERCUS 151

FIGURE 5. The Pirlitji sandhill, centre of the Willie Wagtails

myth. Photograph: L. A. Hercus.

The Willie Wagtails

The Pirlitji sandhill (Fig. 5), south-west of Koonakoo

waterhole (Fig. 6), was the centre of a Karangura myth

about Willie Wagtails. Linda Crombie had only heard

the outline of the story: a war-party of Willie Wagtails

came from Annandale to fight the local birds camped

at this sandhill. The intruders lit their camp-fire close

by and shouted challenges. The word Pirlitji which is

Karangura, apparently refers to this fire. After a big

fight the war-party had to retreat to Koonakoo

waterhole, where they split up. The main party

returned to the Annandale country while a small group

travelled south via Kalkapurritjinha. Koonakoo

waterhole was said to be at the centre of a Dog myth,

now lost.

E. Kujumokuna

This Karangura ancestor was no longer remembered

by Yarluyandi and Wangkangurru people but

information is obtainable in the work of Reuther. He

states (Vol. III: 1211):

Kujumokuna was one of the tribal ancestors of the

Karangura. From kuju = kidni in Diari ‘penis’ and ‘moku

bone’ meaning: ‘the bone [-like tissue] in a man’s penis’

He makes his appearance as a witchdoctor among the

Karanguras to the north. He was killed at Kudnangauana.

With him originated sorcery by boning. Since he possessed

magical powers as a witchdoctor, even [after his death]

his bones still had magical effect. They were therefore

gathered up and used for purposes of witchcraft. Today,

when a human bone is sharpened to a point: on a stone,

his invocatory songs are [still] sung, so that the bone

receives [the desired] magical power.

All these myths show that there were particularly

close mythological links between the Karangura and

Ngamini and Yarluyandi, and particularly with the

Wangkamadla people to the north. There were close

trading links, not only in pituri and probably grinding

dishes as discussed above, but also in other goods. Thus

speaking of some special fossil bones called ‘kuripikiri’,

Reuther writes (Vol. III: 126):

The kuripikiri, then, found in the district of the Marungarli

tribe, is passed on as an article of trade to the Karanguras,

then to the Ngamanis, coming down finally to the Diaris,

and is dearly paid for in kind. The animal, from which

it is derived, is unknown to the ‘native’ people.

Karangura people were not on their own; that is why

at least some of their traditions have survived among

their neighbours.

MAJOR KARANGURA MYTHS AND RITUALS:

THE WARRTHAMPA AND THE MINDIRI

The myths we know most about are the major

travelling myths which traverse the area and which are

associated with important rituals. We get some idea

of the Karangura part of these because neighbouring

groups knew how the whole ‘line’ of myth was

connected. A number of lines went through Karangura

country. These were: the Swan History, which is

however mainly Yarluyandi, the Seven Sisters (see text

1 above), the Initiation History of the Two Men, a short

sketch of which was published by Howitt & Siebert

(1904) and Howitt (1904), and the Two Boys History.

The story of the Two Men who introduced the

Circumcision knife is part of the tradition of all the

Lake Eyre people, but the Karangura had a special part

in the myth. This is evident not only from the work

of Howitt and Siebert, but also from that of Reuther.

The whole song cycle has been recorded from

Wangkangurru men by the author, but long sequences

of it are secret.

Two rituals attracted the largest groups of people

in the eastern Lake Eyre Basin. These were the

Mindiri, which was connected with the Emu History,

and the Warrthampa, which was connected with the

FIGURE 6. Koonakoo waterhole, adjacent to Pirlitji sandhill.

Photograph: L. A. Hercus.

152

Two Boys. There is a brief description of the Mindiri

in Berndt (1953) and Horne & Aiston (1924: 37-44).

The Mindiri belonged basically to the Cooper, but it

reached as far north as Koonchera and Lake

Etamunbanie, and therefore the Yawarawarrka and their

neighbours the Karangura were involved. It did not

traditionally belong to the Wangkangurru. Both of these

ceremonies were variously described by people who

had actually taken part in them as being ‘larrikin’, and

‘rude’; they involved sex and were ‘good fun’. There

is no doubt that large numbers of people took part.

Gason (1895: 174), writing about the ‘Mindarie’ says:

Dance or peace festival, all the tribe and the neighbouring

tribes are invited to attend. Promiscuous sexual intercourse

is carried on secretly: many quarrels occur at this dance.

I have seen as many as 1000 take part on a hard clay flat,

lit up by fires kept burning by the women.

The Warrthampa is mentioned only rarely in the

literature. Reuther in writing about it may have

misunderstood some of the comments of his informants

as he attributes to the followers of the Warrthampa

sentiments that seem more in keeping with German

romantic ideals than with the usually more practical

Aboriginal views. He writes about the Warrthampa as

follows (Vol. X: 21):

This muramura is venerated in the vicinity of Birdsville

and further northwards. He is regarded as the father of

all kana (men). Should any man be slain by a pinga

(vengeance party) but have previously sung the Wadumpa-

song, he can meet death fearlessly.

Text 8.__The Warrthampa

GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

Further information is given by Howitt and Siebert,

in their account of the legend of the “Wapiya girls’ (1904:

120):

After a time they came to a place where a number of men

had assembled for the Wodampa dance, who strangled

the girls, being enraged because they had seen what it

was not lawful for them to see.

The Wodampa dance is the most sacred dance the

Wonkamala and the Ngulubulu have. It recounts the origin

of mankind.

Even these scarce sources leave no doubt that the

Warrthampa was a most important ritual and it

belonged to the northerly groups, precisely those that

did not traditionally participate in the Mindiri. The one

exception were the Karangura: they had an important

part in both, and particularly the Warrthampa.

The Warrthampa is linked with the myth of the two

(Rainmaker) Boys who travelled from Witjira

(Dalhousie) across the Simpson desert to Karangura

country. They then headed north to Itabucca Springs

and Glenormiston and ultimately returned to

Dalhousie. Like the other ancestors discussed above,

the Two Boys followed the same pituri route, but this

time from south to north: they went up the Georgina

and then up the Mulligan. There was an immense song-

cycle connected with this myth, part of the Simpson

desert section and the Karangura portion were

remembered by Mick McLean. At various times he

and Maudie Naylon Akawiljika spoke about the

Warrthampa:

(From Tapes 112, 138-40 (1966); 157 January (1967), Mick McLean speaking at Marree, and Tapes 515 (1972),

675 (1975) Mick McLean speaking at Birdsville and Port Augusta)

1. Maudie was talking about kira

boomerang

nguru thanga-rnda _ngangka, partjarna wapayi-kanha,

other remain-PRES alive, all die-PERF.

2. I have been hear’m long time, kira

ngarra-la-lhuku

rattle-APP-HIST

ngarra-pa-rna

boomerang _rattle-INT-IMP

-in that Warrthampa - that’s kari-kunha, maljka

they-POS, not

Warrthampa-ku those days Warrthampa was

Warrthampa-DAT

thamunha arla, uljurla-ru ngawi-rna all right, ngawi-rna_— uljurla-ru!

secret true, woman-ERG _heat-IMP hear-IMP woman-ERG!

3. Athu unha nguntayi-ra arlali: uljurla got to pay’m that Warrthampa arla in that, Mindiri-wili.

I you ACC tell-PUNC finally: woman Warrthampa true Mindiri- like.

4. Warrthampa is my country, that is more dear! Mindiri is nothing, rubbish! Maljka ‘ntha waya-rnda!

5. Kayi Witjira-ru

This Dalhousie-ABL go-PERF. Boy-two there

Not I want-PRES!

yuka-kanha Thuthirla-pula kanhangarda nhingka-yiwa-rna, along Lagoon waterhole,

glance-TR-IMP

Kandritja, nhingka-yiwa-lhuku nhanhanga thuRu-thuRu kadnha-thidla thangka-ngura kanhangarda pula

glance-TR-HIST here island

nhingka-rna-yiw-anka-lhuku

hill-bit

kardapu-nga nhingka-rna-yiwa-lhuku.

sit-CONT there two

glance-SP-TR-INCH-HIST head-LOC _ glance-SP-TR-HIST.

6. Kandritja Ngamani-kunha wadlhu-nga.

“Waterhen’ Ngamini-POS

kanhangarda nhingka-yiwa-lhuku Warrthampa, kira

country-LOC. Stand-CONT there thus: I

Tharka-ngura kaRu irlangkurda: athu ‘nha ngunta-ka

you show-PAST

ngarra-la-lhuku.

there glance-TR-PURP boomerang _ rattle-APP-HIST.

7. Pula wanka-rda, wadlhu-ru. pula wanka-lhuku, kardapu-li_ — wanka-lhuku,

Two rise-PRES, ground-ABL two rise-HIST, head-ADV __rise-HIST

just the tops of their heads coming out.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

L. HERCUS 153

. Pula ngatji-rna karna ngura-nganha. Wintawi-rna thika-lhuku, — ThuRu-ki-thi — thika-lhuku

Two see-IMP man camp-from Dive down-IMP return-PURP, below-EMPH return-HIST

wadlhu-nga_ thuRu.

ground-LO-

Cc inside.

. Pula wadlhu-ru. wanka-rda_ kanhangardanga. Warrthampa-kunha-lki, they living here, Warrthampa,

Two ground-ABL rise-PRES _ there. Warrthampa-POS-EMPH

ngarra-l-ta kira kari-kunha ularaka.

rattle-APP-PRES boomerang they-POS History.

. Ngurlupurlu, Marrunga, you know Durie. They got that full History. My country ngalingali.

beginning (?).

. KaRu yuka-ngura_ kanhangarda karla-nga-li, kaRu tharka-thika-lhuku Kadrikudna-nha,

There go-CONT _ there creek-LOC-EMPH there stand-return-HIST Kadrikudna-PROP

tharka-rna kaRu_ irlangkurda, in the middle of that flat down from Kuntjirri, kaRu thika-rna.

stand-IMP there thus there return-IMP.

. Thutirla-pula all the feathers of that bird they pirda-ka pirda-rna__ munta-nga kalpa-lhuku yakuta-nga,

Boy-two kill-PAST kill-IMP = bag-LOC_ collect-HIST bag-LOC,

wantarda: paya nguru paya nguru pirda-ngura, wantarda kalpa-lhuku.

down: bird other bird other kill-CONT down collect-PURP.

. Kuyatiyarri paya call’m kuyatiyarri. wakarda pirda-rna ‘kanha pula-ru, kathangka-rda, paya

Orange chat bird orange chat that kill-IMP him two-ERG_ wander-IMP, _ bird

warrangka-rda.

chase-PRES.

. Wantarda iki-rna, pula-kunha thanta, pitji-lhiku, kari pitji-rna_ — kanhangarda ngura-nganha.

Down carry-IMP, two-POS _ things, paint-PURP, they paint-IMP there camp-from.

. Warrthampa kanhangarda nhanhi-wa-rna. pula-ru, — wantarda ngunhi-wa-rna: ‘nhalara urkari

there see-TR-IMP — two-ERG, down give-TR-IMP: ‘this-CAUS you

pithi-nha-ka, maljka yalkirri irlangkura, yalkirri, malja malja nhanha thawi! maljka malja-ra

paint-NP-for ever, not gypsum thus, gypsum kopi, kopi this ACC throw! not kopi-CAUS

pithi-nha! nhala-ra wantarda-ra pithi-nangka-rda!’

paint-IMP this CAUS down-CAUS paint-CONT S-PRES!’

. That is the Warrthampa there, kari thika-rnaya-rna_ Warrthampa pula-nha wanta-thika-ngura.

they return-TR-IMP two-PROP follow-return-CONT.

Maudie been tell you, kari thika-rna —_ nhanhangu-ru tharka-thika-lhuku Yabmalkira-nha yatjalka-nga

they return-IMP_ here-ABL stand-return-PURP Yabmalkira-PROP — lignum-LOC

thangka-ngura kaRu_ Kutiri-nga -that’s Kutiri, supposed to be mikiri there, belonging to Karangura country,

stay-CONT there Kutiri-LOC

Karangura ngura.

. Mingka-nga_ witji-rna-thika-lhuku thuRu _ thika-lhuku, pula Kutirinja-ruku, — ama-ki-ti

Hole-LOC become-SP-return-HIST below _ return-HIST two Kutirinja-ALL, mother-EMPH

manta-yiwa-lhuku.

take-TR-PURP.

Pula-ru paku-ru kira thawi-rna warra-rna, didn't know mathapurda over there, mathapurda

Two-ERG empty-ABL boomerang throw-IMP _ play-IMP, old man old man

ngura-nganha thangka-ngura, kira-ra uka-nha_palji-rna, kira uka-irnda kurda-yiwa-rna yadla

camp-from _ sit-CONT, boomerang he-ACC aim-IMP, boomerang he-ALL fall-TR-IMP close

uka-irnda.

he-ALL.

Mathapurda-ru nhanhi-lhiku wadlhu partjarna, ‘ah nhawula pula palji-ra anthirda kira

Old man-ERG see-HIST country all, ‘ah these two two strike-PUNC me ALL boomerang

antirda awarda thawi-ra!’

me ALL this throw-PUNC!’

Kanti = mant’ uka-ru— midla pula-nha__ puntji-lhiku;— kanti— mani-lhiku_ mitdla pula-nha_ uka-ru

Waddy take he-ERG nose two-ACC flatten-PURP; waddy take-HIST nose two-ACC he-ERG

kuntili kanti nguyu-ru— midla pirda-rna_ parkulu manhi pirda-rna.

crossways waddy one-INST nose hit-IMP two self — hit-IMP.

Kuti-rna_— pula-nha_ kanti-ri midla pirda-rna. Kutirinja that’s in the Georgina.

Drag-IMP two-ACC, waddy-INST nose hit-IMP.

Kubmarri mani-lhiku. uka-ru— kubmarri puntha-ru: — ah Witjira-nganha_thutirla-pula Witjira-nganha!

Blood take-HIST he-ERG blood drink-NAR: ah Dalhousie-from boy-two Dalhousie-from!

‘Ah, Witjira-nganha’ all them ground he tell’m then, all them water, mikiri. He tell’m Karangura way. Karangura and

Wangkamadla mixed. All that Parra-parra, MaRapardi, that’s the last Simpson water, that’s in my country.

Pula kaRuku —_yuka-ka_ Wangkamadla yani-rnda.

Two there-ALL go-PAST say-PRES.

154

25.

27.

29:

30.

Slt

32.

33.

34.

35,

36.

37.

38.

39.

GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

The karangura man sang: 26.1 don’t like singing that because I wouldn’t know

Witjirinja ngintja ngali karntayd, what he is saying there, I just know that karntaya

Parra-parranja ngintja ngali karntaya, aah means going along, going into another country.

Karuljarinja ngintja ngali karntaya They’re doubling up all those places where they’ve

Parra-parranja ngintja ngali karnta been:

MaRapardinja ngintja ngali karntaya, aah

Karuljarinja ngintja ngali karntaya

Pilawaninja ngintja ngali karntaya.

Walpurakaninja nginja ngali karntaya

(The Karangura man sang again): 28.That sound funny to me, I don’t like singing’m. Ha!

MaRapardi ngintja ngali karntaya That is where he names all the mikiri, my country,

Karuljarinja ngintja ngali karntaya follow all that, Karangura way, That’s all places, he

Warru-warru ngintja ngali karntaya mixes them up in that song. They change their voice

Pilawaninja ngintja ngali karntaydé over there.

Walpurakdninja ngintja ngali karntaya

Karuljarinja ngintja ngali karntayd.

Wangkamadla_ kanhangarda thimpa-rda__ularaka waRa-nganha waRa-nganha mikiri, intjali intjali

Wangkamadla_ there speak-PRES History what-from what-from well, + where where

yuka-kanha thimpa-rda

go-PERF speak-PRES.

Nganka-ma-lhuku. Karangura country where he tell’m that Witjira-nganha, then he went on to Kuringala

Alive-make-HIST. Dalhousie-from

waterhole, and to where Jack Gaffney got his station, Dikirri.

Wadlhu-nga_ — winta-kurda-lhuku thika-rna pula yuka-lhuku karla-li yuka-lhuku Kira-ngarrapani.

Ground-LOC hide-lie-HIST return-PRES two go-HIST creek-ADV go-HIST Herbert Hut.

Walta _yuka-lhuku pula ama __ pula-kunha ngataru yuka-rnda.

Together go-HIST two mother two-POS behind go-PRES.

Yuka-lhuku kaRu tharka-yiwa-rnda along Kira-ngarrapani-nha. Ah, that is where the netting crosses

Go-HIST there stand-TR-PRES Boomerang-rattling-PROP.

through the Queensland border!

Kira ngarra -l-ta. When they were singing, must have been. That is what you call

Boomerang _rattle-APP-PRES.

Kirangarrapani, ‘Making the boomerangs rattle’

Kanhangarda thangka-yiwa-rnda, kira ngarra-li-nda again, pula-kunha ngaRu Witjira-nganha

There sit-TR-PRES, boomerang _rattle-DIST-PRES two-POS style Dalhousie -from

they copied it - no, it is there.

And that Kudnarri ‘Overflow’ over there, what they call that? Then they go along Adria Downs, big swamp you see,

those two wiya been go, thutirla-pula warrukathi warrawa-rna ha ha! pula thika-rna

young boys boy-two emu chase-PRES ha ha! two return IMP

thangka-yiwa-lhuku, must have been kurdarna I suppose, Kirangarrapani.

sit-TR-HIST sleep Herbert Hut.

Wadnayi-nangka-rda___ paya muyu nguru muyu nguru wara-nangka-rda, killing all the birds for different

Chase-CONT S-PRES bird day other day other play-CONT S-PRES

wantarda Warrthampa-ku

feather Warrthampa -DAT.

Ukaliri yuka-rna -wanka-lhuku, karla-li karla-li yuka-nangka-rda_ ama __ pula-kunha yuka-rnda

Then go-IMP-go up-HIST, — creek-ADV creek-ADV go-CONT S-PRES mother two-POS go-PRES

ngataru, puthu wanpa-rda_— kutha-puthu kutha-purru puthu canteen wili.

behind, dish carry-PRES water-dish water-having dish like.

Yuka-lhuku kaRu Kati-tharri, got headache there, Kati-tharri, that is headache in Wangkamadla, Kati-tharri

Go-HIST there Old Annandale

is Wangkamadla, Wangkamadla and Karangura mixed anyway.

Yuwu padni — thadlhu wadlhu-lki

Man nothing empty country-INF.

Text 8. Translation

Maudie (Naylon Akawiljika) was talking about how they rattled the boomerangs in the Warrthampa?. That (part of the

ceremony) belonged to those other people (i.e. the Karangura), there is not a single one of them living now, they all died out.

I heard about it a long time ago, how they rattled the boomerangs for the Warrthampa, in those days it was well and

truly secret, but women could listen to it all right, oh yes, women could listen to it!

Pll at last tell you the truth about it: the women have to pay for this (i.e. by means of sex), the real Warrthampa, it’s

just like in the Mindiri.

2. Maudie Naylon had demonstrated a few days earlier how people used to make boomerangs rattle in the Warrthampa

ceremony. They held two boomerangs close together and made them touch each other with a rapid vibrating motion.

24.

27:

L. HERCUS 155

. The Warrthampa belongs to my country, that costs more!? The Mindiri is nothing, just rubbish! I have no time for it!

. The Two Boys had come from Dalhousie, they had a quick glance round, that was at Lagoon Waterhole, which is called

Kandritja (= Koondaritchinna waterhole on modern maps), they quickly glanced around. There’s an island in the waterhole,

a little bit of a stony rise, that is where they were, the two of them, just looking around quickly before departing. They

just glanced round as they came out (from under the ground) head first.

. The Kandritja ‘Waterhen’ waterhole is in Ngamini country. I showed you the place. That is where they were having

a quick look for the Warrthampa, because they could hear the boomerangs being rattled (from afar at Kira-ngarrapaninha,

Herbert Hut).

. The two of them came up, they came up from under the ground head first, with just the tops of their heads showing.

. The two of them saw a man belonging to that place, so they dived down under the ground again and went back, travelling

underground.

. The two of them came up from under the ground. They belonged to the Warrthampa, the people living there, and they

rattled boomerangs for the (ritual belonging to) their History.

. Ngurlupurlu and Marrunga people, you know those from Durie, they have got the full History. My country is the first part.

. They went there along the creek and they stopped at Kadrikidnanha, that is in the middle of that flat down from Kuntjiri,

that is where they went.

. The Two Boys had been killing a lot of birds for their feathers, they went on killing them to collect the down-feathers

in a bag, a large bag. They killed all kinds of different birds to collect down-feathers.

. The birds called orange chats, they were the ones that the Two Boys killed. The two travelled around chasing birds.

. They carried the down-feathers round with them, ready for painting up (for a corroboree) the Two Boys painted up

the people from the camp.

. The Two Boys had gone to have a look at the Warrthampa and they handed over their feathers. “You all paint up with

these from now on and for ever! Not like that with gypsum crystals, with kopi! Throw away this kopi! From now on

you will always paint up with these!’

. They had the Warrthampa there, and the Two Boys went round following the Warrthampa. Maudie was telling you,

they went back from this place to stay around Yabmalkira ‘Clifton Hills’ and then at Kutiri. There is supposed to be

a native well there, belonging to Karangura country, a Karangura camp.

. The two of them went down inside the hole to go back underground to Kutiri, to pick up their mother.

. The two threw boomerangs about for fun, playing. They didn’t know an old man was over there, an old man belonging

to that place was sitting there. They threw a boomerang in his direction: the boomerang landed right close to him.

. The old man looked round in all directions: ‘Ah, here are those two that threw a boomerang at me!’

. He picked up his waddy to flatten their noses, he took his waddy and hit them both over the nose with a crossways

blow, hitting both their noses with the one (blow) of his waddy.

. He dragged the two (unconscious bodies) along the ground, he had hit them over the nose with his waddy. Kutirinja

(which means ‘dragging’), that is in the Georgina.

. He got (a drop of their) blood and tasted it: ‘Ah’, he said ‘Those two boys come from Dalhousie!’

. ‘Ah, from Dalhousie!’ (he said) and he named all the places, all the wells, the mikiri. He sang about it in the Karangura

way. Karangura and Wangkamadla mixed. He named them all, Parra-parra, and MaRapardi, that’s the last (westernmost)

Simpson Desert well, that’s in my country.

He was talking in Wangkamadla about the places where the two of them had gone.

The Karangura man sang: 26. I don't like singing these verses because I don’t know what

(From) Dalhousie I, we two travelled, he is saying there. I just know that karntaya means going

Karulinja that is where I, we two travelled, along, going into another country. They’re ‘doubling up’

Burraburrinna, the long well-shaft that is where I, (mixing up the order of) all those places where they’ve

we two travelled, been.*

Murraburt that is where I, we two travelled,

Karulinja that is where I, we two travelled,

Pudlowinna that is where I, we two travelled,

Wolporican that is where I, we two travelled.

(The Karangura man sang again): 28. (Those verses) sound funny to me, I don’t like singing

Murraburt that is where I, we two travelled, them. These are all the places, he mixes them up in that

Karulinja that is where I, we two travelled, song. They sing a different way over there (on the

Warru-warru ‘the White One’ that is where I, Karangura side, different from us Wangkangurru people).

we two travelled,

Wolporican that is where I, we two travelled,

Karulinja that is where I, we two travelled.

a ee EE EE ETE EEIEISSSS SESS SSSI SSS

3. What the extra ‘payment’ was for the women was never made clear.

4. The geographic sequence of the Simpson desert wells was quite different from the order in which they are mentioned

in the song. By this it is made clear that the Karangura man did not know the Simpson desert — it was not his country.

Wangkangurru people relied on these wells except after rains and their location was well known to all the people in the

desert. They first became known to Europeans as a result of the expedition of Lindsay in 1886 (see Hercus & Clarke 1986).

The spelling of the names of wells given in the translation is that adopted by Lindsay. Murraburt was the westernmost of

the wells, the one closest to Dalhousie, this is why Mick refers to it as ‘the last Simpson desert water’. The location of Karulinja

is not known.

156

29.

30.

31.

325

33:

34.

35.

36.

38.

GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

He's speaking there in Wangkamadla about the History, naming whichever well they came from and wherever they went.

The old man resuscitated them. It was (at Kutirinja) in Karangura country that he said “You come from Dalhousie’.

Then the old man went on to Kuringala waterhole and from there to Dickerie, the (old) Alton Downs waterhole, where

Jack Gaffney has his station.

The Two Boys went underground, they went following the (Eyre) creek, travelling to Kira-ngarrapani ‘Making the

boomerangs rattle’ (‘Herbert Hut’; see Fig. 7). They went together side by side with their mother walking behind them.

They went there to stay for a while at Kira-ngarrapani-nha, ‘Making the boomerangs rattle’ ‘Herbert Hut’. Ha, that

is where the netting crosses through the Queensland border.

They must have been making the boomerangs rattle while they were singing. This is why the place is called Kira-ngarrapani,

“Making the boomerangs rattle’

They stayed there for a while, making their boomerangs rattle at that place, far away. They had their own style of doing

this, from Dalhousie, and they copied it in this place.

And that overflow there, what do you call that, the big swamp at Adria Downs? The Two Boys went there chasing

the emus, ha ha!® They turned back again to stay at Kira-ngarrapani, ‘Making the boomerangs rattle’, they must have

been sleeping there I suppose.

Day after day they ran round chasing birds: they were killing birds to get all kinds of different feathers for the Warrthampa.

Then the two of them went up along the creek, following the creek they went. Their mother came along behind them

carrying a coolamon full of water, carrying it like a canteen.

They went to Kati-tharri, ‘Old Annandale’. Kati-tharri means headache in Wangkamadla.’ Kati-tharri, Old Annandale

that is Wangkamalda country, or Wangkamadla and Karangura mixed.

39. But nobody lives there now, it is empty country.

WHAT HAPPENED TO KARANGURA PEOPLE

The turmoil of early white settlement of the

Birdsville area from the later 1870s onwards was an

unmitigated tragedy for the Aboriginal people of the

entire district. There were six major massacres, mostly

well organised, and intended to wipe out whole groups

of people. The immediate cause of these was cattle

spearing, as in the massacre on the ‘Georgina’ (1)

described by the solitary survivor, Ngatu-thakali

(Hercus 1977), the massacre on the point of the

Koonchera sandhill (2) (Hercus 1986) and the massacre

at the Giri Giri waterhole (3). The murder of a

lascivious station cook at Kooninghera near Durie on

the Diamantina led to a series of revenge massacres

throughout the region (Hercus & Jones, in prep.).

These took place at Kooninghera itself (4), to the north

at the Kalidawarry waterhole (5), and at Mingka-

ingkani near Ngapamanha (6). There were lingering

traditions even among white stockmen about these

terrible deeds. This is clear from the evidence of

Farwell (1950: 160) who estimated that at least 200

people were killed at Koonchera alone. There is

hearsay evidence that the relevant police records were

destroyed. Details of the Koonchera massacre were

related to the next generation of Aboriginal people by

the few survivors, by Charlie Karna-piti, who died

about 1920, and by Kuranta ‘Sticknest Rat’ or ‘Lagoon

Charlie’, Linda Crombie’s grandfather, who died in his

eighties in 1935. These survivors had been young men

who were particularly skilful and able-bodied and

therefore managed almost miraculous escapes. This fits

with the probable date for these massacres, namely the

late seventies and the early eighties of last century. In

all these massacres Karangura people were among the

main victims.

The events described by Ngatu-thakali (Hercus 1977)

were a series of killings in which white horsemen,

probably stockmen and not police, pursued Aboriginal

people who had killed a bullock. They chased them

from waterhole to waterhole on the lower Georgina,

killing one small group after another, and also wiping

out a larger group at the Narrabutiannie waterhole (Fig.

8). This must have been not long after 1878. In that

year speculators first took up the part of the country

which came to be called Alton Downs (Litchfield 1983:

> Reuther (Vol. VII: 845) gave the same explanation for this name:

Kirrangaripini, Jelj.

kirra = ‘boomerang’; ngaripini in D [Diyari] ngaribana ‘to beat time’. Meaning ‘to beat time with boomerangs’.

Wutjukana’s son here beat time for the ceremonial mura song with boomerangs. The muramura therefore named the

place accordingly.

Wutjukana is the name that Reuther gives for the Two Men from the Initiation ritual centre at Mararu in the Simpson Desert.

of emus at Adria Downs and continued their pursuit.

7 A reference to this myth is to be found in an article by W. Fraser who lived for a while on Kaliduwarry near Lake

Muncoonie. Fraser gives a summary of the story of the Two Boys and describes their chase of the Emus:

they again followed up the tracks, which took them to a waterhole. They called this waterhole “Cuttitery” which means

a sore head — for the boys had such sore heads there that they had to give up the chase. This waterhole is on the adjoining

station to this. (Fraser 1899: 45)

L. HERCUS 157

FIGURE 7. Kira-ngarrapani ‘Making the boomerangs rattle’

waterhole, scene of major events in the Two Boys History

of the Karangura. Photograph: L. A. Hercus.

145), even before it had been surveyed. This station

comprised practically the whole of Karangura country.

Ngatu-thakali, who survived to tell the tale, was

Wangkangurru, a member of a visiting group. The bulk

of the people killed were local Karangura people.

A major massacre, often mentioned by

Wangkangurru people, was at Kiri-Kiri, the Giri Giri

waterhole of the maps. (Mick McLean always referred

to ‘the Karangura place Mikiri-kiri’ as the site of this

massacre, but he was probably influenced by the

Wangkangurru word mikiri ‘well’..) Oral traditions say

that the killings were carried out by native police. One

of this group of police was in fact a Lower Southern

Aranda man, a classificatory uncle of Mick McLean

(Tape 673):

That was my uncle ‘King George. He was a policeman

you know, and he went off shooting blackfellows in the

Karlamuku country.®

According to oral tradition, the massacre at

Koonchera was organised by police from Andrewilla

and must have taken place around 1885 when police

were first stationed there. This massacre and the

vengeance parties that resulted from the murder of the

cook at Kooninghera waterhole were by all accounts

well organised: they appear intended to kill the

maximum number of people, men, women and

children. They seem timed to coincide with the major

ceremonies, the Mindiri emu ritual and the

Warrthampa. The massacre at Koonchera wiped out

a large group of followers of the Mindiri. All the older

Wangkangurru and part-Yarluyandi people who had

heard about it in their youth, including Mick McLean,

Maudie and Bob Naylon, Johnnie Reese, Dora Parker

and Linda and Frank Crombie (Fig. 9), mentioned in

their own accounts that many Karangura died there.

FIGURE 8. Narrubutiannie waterhole, scene of a Karangura

massacre in about 1880. Photograph: L. A. Hercus.

The massacres resulting from the events at

Kooninghera, apart from the immediate action at

Kooninghera waterhole, were organised to coincide

with the Warrthampa rituals at Kalidawarry waterhole.

This was the most important Warrthampa site

belonging to the Wangkamadla, the immediate northern

neighbours of the Karangura, and involved Karangura

people. Another massacre eliminated a Mindiri group

at the Mingka-ingkanji waterhole east of Pandie,

adjoining Karangura country. There were said to be

no survivors. This would again have involved

Karangura people. Because they belonged to both the

Warrthampa and the Mindiri traditions, Karangura

people became victims of all the killings. By the late

1880s therefore, very few would have been left.

Apart from the organised massacres there were also

private vendettas against Aboriginal people. A frontier

attitude prevailed in the far north-east of South

Australia and in the Birdsville area; this may well have

cost some of the few remaining Karangura lives. The

fragments of the Birdsville police records, made

available by Angus Green, contain a particularly telling

sequence of letters (Simpson Desert History Vol. 2).

These are connected with a petition to the Colonial

Secretary from the Diamantina Divisional Board on

behalf of the residents of Birdsville in February 1887,

during a drought, urging ‘that the Blacks (Aborigines)

and their dogs be removed from encampments on the

township waterhole’ This was a very special place for

Aboriginal people. Apart from being the deepest and

most lasting waterhole in the district, it was WirraRi,

an important Yarluyandi emu site, with rocks

representing the ancestral emus. The police sergeant,

the first ever to be stationed at Birdsville, an unsung

hero named Sergeant A. McDonald, obviously did

everything possible to avoid having to take the action

nnn.) $$

8. Karlamuku was used as a general term by desert Wangkangurru people to refer to the channel country to the east of their lands.

158 GLIMPSES OF THE KARANGURA

FIGURE 9. Linda and Frank Crombie, major sources of

information on the Karangura and their traditions. Photograph:

V. Potezny.

demanded of him by letters and telegrams from his

superiors. He went from various delaying strategems

to a straight refusal and managed to hold off the whole

matter until it rained, when the Aboriginal people were

prepared to leave in any case. This is clear from his

lengthy letter from Birdsville to the Commissioner of

Police, Brisbane, 27 September 1887. Some of his

comments have sinister implications (Simpson Desert

History, Vol. 2):

About twelve months ago Mr Ward, Customs Officer here,

observed a certain Squatter (a Justice of the Peace) on

a Sunday illtreating the Blacks in their Camp and sent

for a constable to give him in charge-this party is a

member of the Board and no doubt would like to see the

Blacks a long distance from the Town and the Police.

As a result of the killings the Karangura were reduced

to a few survivors, some of whom lived at Andrewilla

when Wells was there. From 1866 onwards many

displaced people from the eastern Lake Eyre basin had

sought refuge at the Killalpannina mission on the lower

Cooper. According to the evidence of Mary Dixon and

other elderly Diyari people who had been at

Killalpannina at the turn of the century only two old

Karangura people were at the mission at that time and

they died soon after.

CONCLUSION

We must conclude from this that the Karangura

ceased to be mentioned in the literature quite simply

because they had been wiped out. Nobody lives now

in what was their traditional heartland, along the

channels of the Georgina. The old Alton Downs

homestead is deserted; the new homestead, the only

habitation in the whole of Karangura country, is at the

Andrewilla waterhole. It is truly ‘dead men’s country’,

but it is also country that once had a rich tradition of

mythology, now vanished.

Note on Orthography

In this paper a practical orthography has been used for

Wangkangurru:

Plosive consonants other than the retroflex plosive have been

written as unvoiced (k, p, th, t), but pre-stopped consonants

have been written with voiced plosives as this corresponds

most closely with the pronunciation, hence bm, dn, dnh, dnj,

dl, dlh.

Retroflexes have been written as r + consonant, i.e.

rl is retroflex /

rn is retroflex n

rd is retroflex t

Interdentals have been written as consonant + h, hence nh,

th, lh.

Palatals have been written as consonant + j, hence #j, nj, /j.

ng has been used for velar n.

The three r-sounds have been transcribed as follows:

r = the alveolar flap

rr = the trilled r

R = the retroflex r.

Glosses

The following abbreviations used for linguistic terms are

used in glossing Wangkangurru texts:

ABL ablative case

ACC accusative case

ACT active stem-forming suffix

APP applicative stem-forming suffix

CAUS causative case

CONT continuous participle

EMPH ~ emphatic clitic

PURP purposive

ERG ergative

HIST historical past

IMP imperfective

IMPV _ imperative

LOC locative case

NAR narrative past

PAST past tense

POS possessive suffix

PUNC _ punctiliar present

SP speed form, indicating action undertaken before

departing

TR transitory aspect

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Wangkangurru people, particularly

Linda Crombie, for sharing their knowledge and making this

work possible. I am also deeply indebted to Vlad Potezny

of the Aboriginal Heritage Unit and to Peter Brown, manager

of Alton Downs Station.

L. HERCUS 159

REFERENCES

Manuscripts

BASEDOW, H. 1920. Report upon the First Medical Relief

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HILLIER, H. J. 1904. Map of Aboriginal sites in the eastern

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HOWITT, A. W. n. d. Howitt Papers, Manuscript, Box 5.

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60: 46-54.

FRASER, W. 1899. Tradition of the Blacks on the Mulligan

River. Science of Man 2(3): 45.

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1895. Of the Tribes Dieyerie, Auminie,

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& P. J. Sutton. AIAS: Canberra.

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Records of the South Australian Museum 23: 51-57.

HERCUS, L. A. & CLARK, P. 1986. Nine Simpson Desert

Wells. Archaeology in Oceania 21: 51-62.

HERCUS, L. A. & POTEZNY, V. 1990. Locating Aboriginal

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HOWITT, A. W. 1904. ‘Native Tribes of South-east Australia.

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JONES, P. & SUTTON, P. 1986. ‘Art and land: Aboriginal

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Melbourne.

REUTHER, J. G. 1981. ‘The Diari’ (trans. P. A. Scherer).

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OCCURRENCES OF PALORCHESTES SPECIES (MARSUPIALIA :

PALORCHESTIDAE) IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

NEVILLE S. PLEDGE

Summary

The first discovery of Palorchestes azael in South Australia was made in about 1870 in a clay pit

near Adelaide. Although reported briefly by Tate, it has not been described in detail until now.

Several discoveries in the past twenty years have enlarged our knowledge of the genus, expanding

its geographic and stratigraphic range in the State, and increasing its taxonomic diversity.

Palorchestes azael including previously undescribed anterior cheek teeth, is now reported from

Naracoorte in the South-East. A second, small Pleistocene species has been found near Mt Gambier

and is compared with P. parvus, and the late Miocene P. painei is reported from a cave deposit on

Yorke Peninsula.

OCCURRENCES OF PALORCHESTES SPECIES (MARSUPIALIA: PALORCHESTIDAE)

IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

NEVILLE S. PLEDGE

PLEDGE, N. S. 1991. Occurrences of Palorchestes species (Marsupialia: Palorchestidae) in South

Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(2): 161-174.

The first discovery of Palorchestes azael in South Australia was made in about 1870 in a clay pit

near Adelaide. Although reported briefly by Tate, it has not been described in detail until now. Several

discoveries in the past twenty years have enlarged our knowledge of the genus, expanding its geographic

and stratigraphic range in the State, and increasing its taxonomic diversity. Palorchestes azael including

previously undescribed anterior cheek teeth, is now reported from Naracoorte in the South-East. A

second, small Pleistocene species has been found near Mt Gambier and is compared with P. parvus,

and the late Miocene P. painei is reported from a cave deposit on Yorke Peninsula.

N. S. Pledge, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript

received 28 November 1990.

Palorchestes azael (Owen, 1874, 1875, 1880) is one

of the rarer elements of the Pleistocene marsupial

megafauna. Alone amongst the diprotodontoids

(Archer & Bartholomai 1978), the teeth of Palorchestes

are characterised by a mid-link between the two

loph(id)s, to such an extent (with other characters of

the palate) that Owen (1874) and others considered it

to be a giant kangaroo. Woods (1958) showed that

Palorchestes was not a kangaroo but more akin to the

diprotodontids. Other features of the skull have since

indicated Palorchestes’ distinction from the

Diprotodontidae (Archer & Bartholomai 1978).

The type specimen of Owen's Palorchestes azael

(1874) was obtained from an unspecified deposit in

Victoria in 1851. This was probably on the River Tambo

in Gippsland (Mahoney & Ride 1975: 88). Lydekker

(1887) listed it and three other specimens as being in

the British Museum (Natural History); one of the latter

came from the Wellington Caves, New South Wales,

and the other two from the Darling Downs of

Queensland. In his revision of the genus, Woods (1958)

listed only nine specimens of P. azael from the eastern

Darling Downs, then in the Queensland Museum.

Ramsay (1886) reported P. azael (as a new species P.

‘rephaim) from the Wellington Valley and Dun (1893)

reported further occurrences of the species in the caves

there. Scott (1916) recorded it in the Mowbray Swamp

deposits of Tasmania, Gill & Banks (1956) from the

Scotchtown Cave, in the same area, and Gill (1953)

from Terang, Victoria. Dennant & Kitson (1903) had

earlier listed two specimens from Werribee and

Sorrento in Victoria, while Flannery & Archer (1985)

mention it as occurring also at Strathdownie, Spring

Creek and Buchan Caves in Victoria. Glauert (1926)

reported it from the Margaret River caves of Western

Australia, but Merrilees (1968) discounted it. Finally,

Palorchestes sp. cf, P. azael is listed for the Tirari

Formation along the Warburton River near Lake Eyre

in northern South Australia (Wells & Callen 1986), and

has recently been found at Riversleigh, Queensland

(Davis 1990). The species appears to be widespread,

as indeed is Diprotodon, but Palorchestes azael is rare

by comparison. Its ancestors may not have been so rare.

P. parvus is a not uncommon member of the Chinchilla

local fauna (De Vis 1895, Woods 1958), and is reported

to occur with P. azael at Strathdownie, Buchan Caves,

Wellington Caves and Gore (Queensland) (Flannery

& Archer 1985), while the earlier P. painei is found

at Alcoota (Woodburne 1967), and also at Hamilton

(Turnbull & Lundelius 1970). Recently, postcranial

material with associated teeth has been found (Flannery

& Archer 1985) allowing determination of other bones

and tentative reconstructions.

Specimens of Palorchestes spp. are here described

’ from four South Australian localities of different ages.

Evidence is presented for a second (and possible third)

Pleistocene species, after P. azael, with deciduous teeth

being described for the last, while the presence of the

late Miocene species P. painei is indicated. The

localities for the specimens described are shown in Fig.

Material studied is housed in the South Australian

Museum (SAM), Queensland Museum (QM),

Australian Museum (AM) and the National Museum

of Victoria (NMV). Tooth designation follows Archer's

(1978) system which is based on embryological studies

of modern marsupials.

Thebarton Specimen (SAM P11546)

The first record of Palorchestes azael from South

Australia was a mention in passing by Tate (1890). In

about 1889-90 Mr W. Shearing presented to the South

162

Curramulka

CORRA LYNN CAVE .

Adelaide

THEBARTON

Naracoorte

HENSCHKE'S CAVE

VICTORIA CAVE

Mt. Gambier ,

SEP.

GOULDEN’S HOLE

FIGURE 1. Locality map showing finds of Palorchestes spp.

in South Australia.

N. S. PLEDGE

Australian Museum two jaw fragments that had been

found in about 1870 some 5 metres below the surface

in his clay pit at Thebarton, then an outer suburb about

2 kilometres west of the city of Adelaide. The exact

locality has been lost and the pit probably filled in and

reclaimed. Occasionally bones were found in the

numerous clay and sand pits west of Adelaide, usually

Diprotodon (Tate 1890: 182) in various stages of

disintegration, but the specimens described here are

somewhat better preserved.

Material

This comprises the fused symphyseal portion of the

mandibles, with evidence of the premolar and three

molars (M,_,) in the right ramus, and M, in the left

jaw (Fig. 2). The anterior extremity of the symphysis

is badly damaged, and much is missing. The teeth are

badly chipped and greatly worn. The premolar is

represented only by its roots, while of the molars, only

M, retains any trace of enamel. M, has been worn to

or below the base of the enamel. Nevertheless,

approximate measurements can be made of M, and

TABLE 1. Dimensions of upper molars of Palorchestes spp. (in mm).

Specimen M? M? mM‘ M> Comments

P. azael

BM (NH) 46316 24.1X19.6 25.4x21.2 25.7 X20.3 27 Ux 22-7 from Woods (1958)

AM F7272 (=B.5936, type of 29.5X21.2 27:0*23.5 212X231 28.0 X22.0 from unpublished

P. rephaim Ramsay) 25.0X21.0 26.8x23.2 27,2 6225 28.0X21.5 scaled photograph

QM F773 26.0X22.3 26.5X23.2 26.7 X22.6 28.5 X21.3 from Woods (1958)

@ 26.1X21.8 26.7X22.7 27.8 X22.6 27.6 X22.0

QM F3837 28.7 X25.3 pers. comm.,

M. Archer (1973)

SAM P11546 26.0X24.0e 27.0X24.0e e = estimated

P. parvus

QM F789 18.8xX14.7. 20.3x16.1 21.2 16.3 24.0X 16.7

” 17.8X14.2 20.616.2 21.3165 23.3x16.6 ‘fom Woods (1958)

P. painei

CPC6752 18.2 x 14.3 - 18.0 15.3 18.6 14.4

UCMP 70553 (left) 16.8X14.4 18.1x15.5 19.4x 16.3 20.1 15.6 from Woodburne (1967)

UCMP 70550 16.7X13.9 18.0 15.3 18.5x15.0 20.215.5e e = extrapolated

measurement

UCMP 66521 17.8X14.0 18.0x15.5e 18.0x15.5e 19.9x15.5e

PALORCHESTES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 163

M, (Table 2). The other fragment represents part of

the right maxilla, with M? and M‘*. Again, the teeth

are very worn and broken, but M‘* retains some

enamel labially, and approximate measurements are

possible. The size of these teeth agree with those of

Palorchestes azael (Table 1).

Description

Mandibles. Although somewhat crushed laterally,

and preserved in partly calcified clay which makes

preparation difficult, the mandibles have been partially

restored, particularly in order to eliminate the distortion

in the symphyseal region, and to complete as far as

FIGURE 2. Thebarton specimen of Palorchestes azael, SAM

P11546, dentaries and maxilla fragment. Scale in mm.

possible the anterior portion of the right ramus.

Unfortunately, the end is a mass of hardened calcific

clay and cancellous bone that does not lend itself to

cleaning. As a result, the full symphyseal length, and

the nature of the incisor alveolus are unknown; indeed,

there is no sign of the incisor. The left molar is slightly

displaced linguad but this was not considered important

enough to risk damage to the specimen by restoring

it to its proper position.

As Woods (1958) states, the diastema is long (at least

85 mm) and the diastemal crest descends forward from

the premolar position on the dorso-lingual side of the

ramus. The mandibles are firmly fused, with no trace

of a suture. The preserved part of the symphysis is 145

mm long, ending level with the anterior root of M,.

The lingual region of the symphysis is a deep, rounded

groove. At the level of the anterior mental foramen,

40 mm anterior to M,, the width of this lingual

channel is the same as the depth, approximately 22

mm. Below M,, a large (11 mm diam.) sub-circular

genial pit straddles the symphysis. The posterior end

of the symphysis is sharply rounded, forming a

transverse torus 18 mm thick. Ventrally, the mandible

appears narrow and attenuated. About 50 mm in front

of the posterior edge of the symphysis and about 30

mm apart, are two broad shallow depressions on either

side of the midline. The effect of these is to produce

a slight carination of the symphysis. The mental

foramina are 25 mm antero-dorsal of these depressions.

Indication of a very small posterior mental foramen

is seen 40 mm below the anterior root of M,. The

mandibular canal below M, is 14 mm high and 11 mm

wide.

Maxilla. Only the portion giving rise to the right

zygoma, with the remains of two molars, is preserved.

The zygoma arises opposite M?, as in Owen's

specimen (1874, pl. LXXXII). M? is represented only

by dentine and roots, but M* retains some enamel

labially. This is smooth and mostly lies in the protection

of the transverse valley.

Geological Age

The precise geological age of the specimen cannot

be determined as no carbon-dateable material was

obtained. The clay deposit at Thebarton has been

identified as probably the Pooraka Formation of Firman

(1969), which consists of up to 7 metres of late

Pleistocene sandy clay overlying the older Pleistocene

Hindmarsh Clay.

Victoria Fossil Cave Specimen

Early in 1972, during excavations conducted by R

T. Wells in the Victoria Fossil Cave, Naracoorte, the

large mandibles of a Palorchestes azael (SAM P16583)

were unearthed (Wells et al. 1984). Certain other large

bones (mainly limbs) have been found in the same area,

164

N. S. PLEDGE

TABLE 2. Dimensions of lower molars of Palorchestes azael (in mm).

ee errr

M M

4 5 Comments

rrr eer

Specimen M, M,

P. azael

BM (NH) M34

(type of P. crassus Ow. 1880) 26.5%15.0 27.0*16.0

BM (NH) 40034 22,1 516.1 ~ 27:1 K17.8

QM F774 23.4X14.7 28.5X17.7

22.4%13.3 28.2*17.7

QM F781 23.7 X15.6 27.2170

SAM PII546 24.1X14.0 25.7x16.0

SAM P16583 24.8X17.2 -

i 24.5X17.4 26.7X18.8

and may belong to this specimen. So far, no skull has

been found.

The Fossil Chamber of Victoria Cave is a large

tunnel about 60 m long, and up to 15 m wide, with

a maximum of about 2.5 m headroom above a silt floor

up to 3 m thick, with bone scattered throughout (Wells

1975, Wells et al. 1984, Smith 1971). The Palorchestes

specimen (SAM P16583) was collected by Wells in the

top 15 cm near the south-western wall about halfway

along the tunnel (excavation grid reference: 70-70.5

R8’-9’ D0-6").

Material

The specimen consists of the fused mandibles, with

more or less complete cheek-tooth rows (the left M,

and half of both LM, and RM, are missing), and with

enough of the ascending rami to indicate most of the

form (Fig. 3). The coronoid processes are both

missing, as are the spatulate incisors. The jaws are well

preserved; the teeth were fractured and expanded by

infiltrating silt, but the pieces have been cleaned and

rejoined with little distortion or alteration from their

original size and form. A few expanded cracks in the

jaws have been left unrepaired as they do not materially

affect any measurements. The specimen is considered

to be the best preserved of all those so far discovered.

The best preserved Palorchestes azael previously

reported is QM F774, from a well on the Darling

Downs in Queensland (De Vis 1884; Woods 1958). In

that specimen of a juvenile individual, the jaws are

from scaled photograph

30'0:K175 (33 X22) of original. (Left

ramus). Owen (1880)

figured the other

ramus.

29.4x20.0 - from Woods (1958)

27.6X 18.0 — from Woods (1958)

with estimate for M,

27.2 X 18.0 -

_ - from Woods (1958)

(28) X 17.0 _ estimated from

battered specimen

29.0eX21.0e 29.6x21.2

28.5 X20.4 30.9 x 20.2

pathologically deformed (parameral differentiation),

lack most of the ascending rami, and have the teeth

fractured, expanded and recemented so that accurate

measurements are not always possible. It does,

however, retain the scoop-like incisors and possess all

molars, although the M,s had not yet erupted.

Description

The jaws of the Naracoorte Palorchestes are basically

similar (so far as can be compared) to the Thebarton

mandible fragment and also to QM F774. The only

noticeable difference is the absence of the genial pit

in the lingual channel. Certain anatomical features can

now be described in full: most importantly, the length

of the diastema is 114 mm and the total length, from

anterior tip of the symphysis to the condyle is 425 mm.

The symphysis is 178 mm long. The anterior mental

foramen is 87 mm from the tip of the mandible and

47 mm from P,. At the posterior edges of the alveoli

of the incisors, the jaws are about 48 mm wide and

34 mm deep. At the anterior mental foramina, these

dimensions are 46 mm and 52 mm (minimum

transverse distance) respectively, and at P, 78 mm and

about 70 mm. The depth of the mandible at M, and

M, is 76 mm and 65 mm respectively, with a ramus

thickness of 46 mm at M,. Because of damage or loss

to one or other ramus (eg. only one condyle is

preserved), the maximum width of the jaws cannot be

measured, but an estimate is given by the maximum

separation of the pterygoid fossae: 205 mm. Separation

PALORCHESTES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 165

FIGURE 3. Victoria Cave specimen of Palorchestes azael, SAM P16583, A) dentaries in occlusal view (stereoscopic pair),

B) left dentary in profile.

166 N. S. PLEDGE

of the tooth rows is as follows: 43 mm at P,, 45 mm

at M,, and about 40 mm at M,.

In profile, the jaws are outstanding amongst the

diprotodontoids, and are reminiscent of the

macropodines. The predental portion is flexed

downwards rather like Macropus giganteus and the

incisor alveoli suggest the scoop-like teeth seen in QM

F774. The ascending rami tend to slope backwards as

in Bettongia, rather than rising vertically as in

Diprotodon, Zygomaturus or Macropus. With the jaws

resting on a flat surface, the height of the condyle is

195 mm. Both coronoid processes are missing, so the

total height is unknown. The masseteric fossa is

shallow, as is characteristic of diprotodontids, but

sharply bounded and ovate. The pterygoid fossa is deep,

bounded below by an upturned lip. The angular process

is prolonged acutely, and directed somewhat medially.

The post-alveolar shelf is separated from the ascending

ramus just posterolabial to the M, by a thin high wall

that forms a distinct rounded trough about 15 mm in

diameter.

The alveolus for the incisor is roughly crescentic or

reniform in section, concave dorsomedially, and tapers

rapidly with a depth of only a few centimetres. The

maximum diameter of the alveolus is 23.3 mm and the

minor diameter is about 13 mm. The alveoli are

oriented such that the incisors may be splayed a little.

The cheek teeth, being worn down to the dentine and

breaching the links in all molars, indicate a mature age

for the animal. By contrast, the Thebarton specimen,

SAM PI11546, was aged and QM F774 juvenile. The

enamel of the teeth is consistently smooth, though this

may be due to food abrasion. The form of the teeth

is the same as described by Woods (1958). Tooth-row

lengths are 134 mm (left) and 130 mm (right); LP, is

19.4 mm X 14.5 mm, RP, is 19.1 mm x 14.7 mm.

Other dimensions are given in Table. 2.

The similarity in form of the jaws to those of some

of the early ‘shovel-tusker’ proboscideans (e.g.

Phiomia, see Osborn 1936) suggests a similar habit,

though the analogy should not be carried too far. It

should, however, be noted here that the form of the

nasal region as seen in BM(NH) 46316 (the holotype

of P. azael, Owen 1874: 83), QM F789 (P. parvus)

and QM F91719 (P. painei) indicates a long, regressed

nasal opening (Bartholomai 1978), such as is found in

Phiomia and also in tapirs, and therefore the likelihood

of a short trunk. This has been accepted in recent

restorations (e.g. Flannery 1983, Flannery & Archer

1985). Such a feature has also been suggested for the

diprotodontids Zygomaturus (Scott 1915), and

Diprotodon (Rich 1983).

Geological Age

Uranium series and collagen racemisation dating of

bone from the upper levels, which yielded this

specimen, have given the results: 125 000 U/Th and

150 000 years U/Pa BP (H. Veeh in Wells et al. 1984)

and 50 000 and 70 000 years BP + 20% (J. Bada in

Wells et al. ibid) respectively. Carbon dating of

associated charcoal gave results of about 16 700 years

BP (+ 3000, — 2180) (ibid.), suggesting a lag deposit

with reworking (e.g. Archer 1974).

Henschke Fossil Cave Specimens

During the early-mid 1980s, excavations by J. Barrie

in the newly uncovered deeper sections of the Henschke

Fossil Cave (Barrie 1990, Pledge 1990), on the outskirts

of Naracoorte, produced a number of isolated teeth of

Palorchestes azael (Fig. 4).

The teeth are mostly from two areas in the cave, and

can be distinguished by their colour/preservation. Most

are from the area ‘HJD’ (Barrie 1990) in a reddish silt

(specimens SAM _ P31364, 31365, 31368, 31376,

31378-31380) and show generally a darker brownish

preservation, while a few were collected several metres

away at area ‘HSDW’ in a sandier sediment and have

a buff to cream colour (SAM P31377, 31381-31383).

Several others were found in the intervening area (SAM

P31355) or elsewhere in the cave (SAM P31367, 31384)

and also show pale coloration.

Material

This comprises a pair of I?, a second damaged LI?

and RI’, a pair of P? (one still in a fragment of

maxilla) a right M!, a pair of M?, a pair of M3(?),

two fragmentary left I,, a right I,, right M, and

fragment of left M,, left M,(?), non-identical left and

right M,(?), and the anterior half of a more

posterior(?) molar. All the teeth are only barely worn,

the enamel crests cracked rather than worn through,

and it is apparent that at least two individuals were

present. It is also apparent that there is some

considerable morphological variation, at least in the

lower molars and lower incisors. Because the teeth are

so near to pristine condition, as compared with

published material, they are described briefly below.

Description

P(?) (SAM P31364-31367). There is some

uncertainty about this designation which is based on

comparison with P. parvus (QM F789). The tooth is

relatively broad (13 mm), strongly curved, and very

thick (>10 mm) at the base where the cross section

is trapezoidal. The cutting edge, slightly uneven, is at

about 75° to the longitudinal axis, acute medially. The

teeth are very similar to the otherwise very worn AM

F2451.

P?. (SAM P31368, 31369). A pair of premolars is

given this designation. One of them is the only

specimen in this collection to have any associated bone,

and this preserves what is considered to be part of the

crypt for the unerupted left P*. In addition, the teeth

are much smaller, and of different detailed morphology,

than P? of P. azael (AM MEF 452) from Wellington

PALORCHESTES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

FIGURE 4. Henschke Fossil Cave specimens of Palorchestes azael. A) Right upper teeth, occlusal view in stereo; P? (SAM

P31368), M! (P31370), M2 (P31371). B) Lower cheek teeth, occlusal views in stereo; right M, (SAM P31381), left M,

(P31369), left M, (P31379), right M, (P31378, also in medial profile). Scale in mm.

168 N. S. PLEDGE

Caves. However, they closely match in size and

morphology the P? of Palorchestes parvus (QM

F789). They are marginally larger than that specimen

and almost unworn, thus preserving the crests in great

detail. (There is no other evidence of P. parvus, such

as molars, in the deposit, and with the evidence of the

P? crypt, the premolars are confidently referred to P

azael.)

The teeth are roundly triangular, the shortest side

anterolingual and bearing a well defined precingulum.

The longitudinal crest extends from the parastyle to

a point about 2 mm lingual of the posterior corner.

The metacone is about halfway along the crest and is

the highest cusp. The paracone is close in front of it,

and sends a deeply notched transverse crest lingually

to the protocone. A parallel crest from the metacone

towards the hypocone ends abruptly at a deep notch

and does not meet a weak crest from the poorly

expressed hypocone. A low postcrista from the

protocone includes the swelling of the hypocone and

continues, parallel to the longitudinal crest, to meet

the posterolingual cingulum at about the halfway mark.

The posterobuccal corner of the tooth is shallowly

basined by the longitudinal crest, the posterobuccal

cingulum and the swelling of the combined protocone-

hypocone.

A damaged tooth (P31384) from a different part of

the cave (HJDX) somewhat resembles in general form

the teeth mentioned above. It differs in being slightly

larger and in having a more complicated zig-zag

longitudinal crest. The posterior moiety is similar but

from the paracone(?), separated from the metacone by

a notch in the crest, the crest forks into an anterior

and a buccal branch, the latter not quite reaching the

buccal cingulum. It is concluded that this tooth is an

aberrant right P? rather than P® since it in no way

resembles the P? of AM F452.

M'. One tooth (SAM P31370) may represent this

position. It is from the same locality in the cave as

the pair of M’s described below, but is of more solid

appearance, shows slightly greater wear and some

morphological differences. It generally resembles (as

do the M’s described below) the M? of QM F772, but

differs in having converging rather than parallel

forelinks from the paracone and protocone, the

preparacrista being aligned longitudinally. Also there

is a sharp postparacrista which converges on a slightly

weaker premetacrista, and a _ stronger

premetaconulecrista that meets the postprotocrista. In

addition there is a weak postmetacrista which impinges

on the postcingulum.

In view of the decreasing development of links and

crests backwards in the upper molar tooth row, this

hyperdevelopment of crests suggests that SAM P31370

is indeed an example of M!. It should be noted that

QM F772 preserves the posterior margin of an alveolus

anterior to M?, as well as trace of a crypt below it.

Since AM F452 indicates that P? erupted when M?

was quite worn, the crypt in QM F772 apparently

housed P? which means that the alveoli above it

contained M! of similar size to the little worn M?

M?. This position is represented by a pair of teeth

(SAM P3137] [right] and P31372 [left]) from the same

area, exhibiting identical preservation and stage of wear

— virtually unworn. The teeth resemble QM F772

(Woods 1958: fig. 1 — his M!) except that the two

forelinks from the paracone and protocone are conver-

gent instead of roughly parallel, and the postparacrista

is somewhat sharper. They also resemble the putative

M! (SAM P31370) except in lacking the premetacrista

and the postmetacrista and having a weaker post-

protocrista-premetaconulecrista link.

M3. Except in being less worn and very slightly

larger, the teeth ascribed to this position, (SAM P31373

[right] and P31374 [left]), are identical to M? of QM

F772.

I,. Three specimens represent this tooth: a

fragment of left incisor (SAM P31377) and a pair

(P31375 — incomplete left, and P31376 — complete

right). They are virtually unworn and are interesting

in showing a distinct dorsal crest (‘dorsal flange’ of

Woods 1958) extending from the tip, posterobuccally

just inside the outer edge of the tooth, for almost half

the length of the enamel crown.

The tooth P31376 has the typical spoon-shape of

Palorchestes spp. with a thicker, straighter medial

margin and the anterior extremity on the mesial side.

However, it differs noticeably in proportions from that

of QM F2203 from Dalby, Queensland, being

absolutely shorter and broader than that somewhat

worn specimen. It has, in fact, the same breadth: length

proportions (0.61) as that of P_ parvus (QM F7072 from

Chinchilla, Queensland), whereas the ratio for QM

F2203 (P. azael) is less than 0.4. ;

M,. Comparison of the six lower molar specimens

suggests that two are in fact deciduous first molars.

SAM P3138], a complete right molar, and P31382, an

anterior fragment of the left, show similar preservation

and stage of wear and are from the same locality (area

HSDW) in the cave. They show the same unique

structure that differentiates them from _ typical

Palorchestes azael lower molars, a feature not

previously reported in Palorchestes, yet reminiscent

of first molars in some other diprotodontans, namely

the retention of the trigonid. Instead of a simple

protolophid, there is a triangular structure having the

protoconid and metaconid at the ends of a narrow

transverse protolophid, and these joined by lower

cristids to an equidistant lower point at the end of the

cristid obliqua. There is thus a deep enamel-lined basin

or pit forming the ‘stop’ of a question mark formed by

the cristid obliqua and concurrent hypolophid. Because

of the apparent lateral compression of protolophid,

there is a strong preprotocristid and premetacristid.

The precingulum is strong and high, but unaffected

by these cristids. The postlink of the hypolophid is

PALORCHESTES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 169

almost undetectable — just a slight swelling at the apex

of the broad postcingulum. This postcingulum is

slightly broader and definitely higher than in

succeeding molars, and is seen to decrease in height

to a low eminence in the M, of other specimens, e.g.

SAM PI16583.

Despite the triangular form of the protolophid, it

cannot be interpreted as a trigonid without radical

reinterpretation of the cuspid pattern of the lower

molars, since the triangle is apparently headed in the

opposite direction to a normal trigonid. Too few

diprotodontan Ms are preserved in a state of little or

no wear for detailed comparative studies to have been

made. In the primitive diprotodontid Raemeotherium

yatkolai, M, possesses a small but distinct trigonid

(Rich et al. 1978), but this cannot be reconciled with

the Palorchestes molar unless the posterior corner of

the triangle in the latter is considered to be the

protoconid, which makes the buccal corner the

paraconid. It would be tempting, if there were just one

such tooth, to dismiss it as dental anomaly — a possibly

pathological condition (Archer 1975). But with a

second specimen mirror-imaging the first, and

probably from the same animal, this is not so easy to

accept, although symmetrical abnormalities are

recorded (ibid.).

On balance, it is proposed that these two specimens

do represent M, of Palorchestes azael.

M,. Comparing the three remaining complete

molars, from two localities, it is apparent that only one

(SAM P31383) represents M,, and it is from the same

site as the putative M,s, having the same preservation.

It is slightly longer than M, and has a slightly lower

postcingular eminence. Otherwise it has the typical

form of a lower molar of Palorchestes azael.

M,. Two teeth, SAM P31378 (right) and P31379

(left) are allocated this designation. Although from the

same location (HJD) and having similar preservation,

size and stage of wear, they are not considered to be

a pair because of a distinctive postmetacristid on the

left molar, which is repeated on the anterior moiety

fragment of the proposed M,, SAM P31380. This

cristid forms a strong fork at the lingual end of the

protolophid. Again, this feature could be considered

an anomaly, possibly similar to the split cusp

phenomenon recorded by Archer (idem), but its

repetition in successive teeth in the jaw suggests a more

regular feature.

M,. SAM P31830 is the broken anterior moiety of

an unerupted molar — evinced by the open-prismatic

nature of the enamel, not yet fully calcified. As noted

above, it displays a distinct postmetacristid.

Discussion

At least two individuals referrable to Palorchestes

azael are represented here (Table 3). One of them is

represented by both upper and lower teeth, whilst the

other seems to have been just the lower jaws. Both were

immature animals. Features of the M?, I, and possibly

M, call to question the specific allocation of the taxon

because these teeth are noticeably different from those

reported in accepted Palorchestes azael specimens.

However, on present evidence, it is only possible to

indicate that there may have been great variation in the

TABLE 3. Cheek tooth dimensions (in mm), Palorchestes azael from Henschke Fossil Cave.

protoloph (id)

Tooth Specimen no. Length (1)

p? (@) P 31368 17.1

(R) 31369 16.8

(L) 31384 17.54

M! (R) 31370 2811

M? (R) 31371 28.7

(L) 31372 28.5

M? (R) 31373 29.9

(L) 31374 30.0

M, (R) P 31381 26.3

(L) 31382

M, (L) 31383 DIRS

M, (R) 31378 28.6

(L) 31379 28.9

M,? (L) 31380 =

width height (h) h/I

14.0 10.0 (pa-me) 0.58

14.0 10:65 0.63

14.5 10.8 ” 0.62

22:5 14.5 0.52

22:8 15.0 0.52

22.6 15.0 0.53

24.0 18.5 0.62

25.4 18.2 0.61

16.4 20.2 0.77

20.0

17+ 20.8 0.76

17.4 19.9 0.70

18.0 20:2 0.70

eee = -

170 N. S. PLEDGE

species. The features have not been reported before

because most described specimens are of older

individuals whose teeth are worn to the point of

destroying detailed cusp morphology.

It should be noted that an unworn specimen of P.

cf. painei from Hamilton (Turnbull & Lundelius 1970,

pl. xxx) seems to show an incipient postmetacristid,

as in SAM P31379.

Age of Deposit

Only two radiocarbon determinations have been

made on the Henschke Cave deposits, both from the

upper beds of the upper part of the cave (Pledge 1990).

They gave a result of about 37 800 years BP for the

depth interval 30-75 cm and greater than 35 000 years

BP for 105-120 cm.

The Palorchestes teeth come only from the lower

part of the cave (Barrie 1990) and are considered to

be much older.

Gouldens Hole Cave

Gouldens Hole is a cenote several kilometres south

of Mt Gambier in the far south-east of South Australia.

Uncovered by a farmer’s excavation of an access ramp

to the water, there is a small simple tunnel, which

gradually slopes up and away from the sinkhole. The

floor of this tunnel was covered to about 15 cm with

a silty deposit containing fossils. These consisted

primarily of isolated teeth, but with occasional bones

of modern vertebrates mixed with them as well as

invertebrates dissolved out of the Gambier Limestone.

The deposit thus contains a mixed vertebrate fauna

ranging from (?middle) Pleistocene to Modern (such

as sheep and rabbits, therefore post 1858). The end

of the tunnel cannot be reached because it narrows too

much, but it is apparent that the fossils are derived

from a distant (and filled-in) entrance by water-

winnowing of a debris pile. Virtually only small (teeth)

or light (modern bones) specimens reached the lower

extremity of the tunnel.

Material

Amongst the collection representing at least ten

marsupial taxa are five and one half molar teeth of

Palorchestes sp. (Fig. 5) — a pair of upper molars M?

(P24097), a left and right M, (not a pair — P31396,

P31397), a larger right lower molar (P31399) and half

of a similar (but more anterior) tooth (P31398).

Description

These teeth are about the size of P. parvus molars,

although possibly exhibiting greater size variation, but

appear to be higher crowned than comparative

topotypic material at hand (see Table 4). The upper

molars are smaller and relatively narrower than that

FIGURE 5S. Goulden’s Hole Cave teeth, Palorchestes sp. cf. P. parvus. Occlusal views in stereo. Left M* (SAM P24097),

right M, (P31396), left M, (P31397), right M, (P31399, also in medial profile). Scale in mm.

PALORCHESTES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 171

(M2) from Cement Mills, Gore, Queensland, reported

by Bartholomai (1977) as Palorchestes cf. P. parvus.

Although the Gouldens Hole specimens differ from

P. parvus, sensu stricto, there is not yet sufficient

evidence to warrant erecting new species for them.

Accordingly, they are referred, only tentatively, to

Palorchestes sp. cf. P. parvus.

Geological Age

As noted above, the teeth are from a reworked mixed

assemblage. The age can only be estimated at

Pleistocene on the basis of other species of known

Pleistocene age and similar preservation.

Curramulka Specimens

Corra-Lynn Cave (5Y1 in the National Cave register)

contains a relict deposit of cemented fossiliferous silt

(Pledge in prep.) which has yielded a large number

of vertebrate species suggestive of a Late Tertiary age.

Amongst them is a considerable number of isolated

teeth (and some recognisable bones) of Palorchestes

(Fig. 6). Measurements (Table 5) and morphological

features suggest these best fit Palorchestes painei

Woodburne, 1967 from the putative Late Miocene

Alcoota Fauna of the Waite Formation (Woodburne

1967).

Material

This comprises: posterior half LM* (SAM

P29860), LM? (P31331), RM*(P29938), LM°

(P26536, P29859), LI, (P29941), LM, (P29905),

LM, (P29940), LM, (P29999), RM, (P30000).

(Positional designation is based on relative size, shape

and some morphological features of the ‘links’..) There

are also three very large, very compressed ungual

phalanges of the form that has been ascribed to

Palorchestes (Flannery & Archer 1985). These differ

in detail from the damaged claw bones of phalange I

of Thylacoleo carnifex, that have lost the protective

‘hood’.

Description

Unworn molars show that these teeth are relatively

high-crowned, more so than indicated for P. painei by

Woodburne (1967, table 23) who suggests that P- parvus

has higher crowned molars, but less so than the

Gouldens Hole teeth. Turnbull & Lundelius (1970)

calculated relative crown heights (i.e. the ratio of

protolophid height to tooth length) for the Alcoota P.

painei and their Hamilton specimen, as well as for two

good P azael specimens (M, ,) from Wellington

Caves, obtaining about 0.52, 0.65, and 0.74 and 0.73

respectively. The values for specimens described herein

are given in Tables 3-S. It is apparent that theré are

TABLE 4. Cheek tooth dimensions (in mm), Palorchestes sp. cf. P. parvus from Gouldens Hole Cave, compared with

P. parvus from Woods (1958) and SAM specimens.

protoloph (id)

Tooth Specimen no. Length (1)

P. sp. cf. P. parvus, Gouldens Hole

M? (L) SAM P24097 18.9

(R) 7 18.7

M, (R) 31396 17

M, (L) 31397 18.0

M, (R) 31398 -

M, (R) 31399 21.2

P. parvus, Chinchilla

M, (L) QM F783 (type) 19.7

M; (L) i 20.6

M, (L) : 20.8

M, (L) 4 20.6

M, (L) SAM P18432 18.4

M, (L) i 19.2

M, (L) SAM P18400 20.0

width height (h) h/l

13.9 = =

14.0 7 7

10.0 10 ++ >0.56

9.5 1 +4 >0.61

12.2 (13+) i

12.6 15.0 0.71

12.3

12.6

12.8

13.1

12.5 10++ >>0.54

12.6 10+ + >>0.52

13.5 i+ >0.55

172 N. S. PLEDGE

specific differences for this ratio, at least in lower

molars, but there are also positional differences in teeth

of thé one species. It is suggested on this basis, at least,

that the Hamilton and Curramulka specimens are

conspecific, but that they differ from P painei, sensu

stricto.

Geological Age

Based on correlation of mammal and bird fossils,

and the apparent absence of any rodent material, Pledge

(in prep.) considers this deposit to be early Pliocene,

or even Late Miocene, in age.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to Dr A. Bartholomai, Director of the

Queensland Museum for allowing me to borrow certain

specimens for comparison and to Dr M. Archer for assisting

me while I was there; to Dr A. Ritchie for information on

specimens, and permission to peruse the Australian Museum

material; Dr T. A. Darragh for information on Victorian

specimens, Dr R. Wells for assistance at Naracoorte, and Dr

R. H. Tedford for valuable discussion.

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protoloph (id)

height (h) h/I

ant. post.

Tooth Specimen no. Length (1) width width

M2 (L) SAM P29860 _ = 14.0

M? (L) 31331 18.0 14.4 13.6

M¢ (R) 29938 19 + 14.9 13.0 >9.0

MP (L) 26536 19.2 13.4 11.6 >>8.5

MP (L) 29859 20.7 14.9 ie 11.6 0.56

I, () 29941 38.0 17.5

M, (L) 29905 17.9 10.1 10.6 12 + 0.67

M, (L) 29940 18.1 10.5 10.6 >>9 > >0.50

M, (L) 29999 19.6 12.5 12.4 12.5 0.64

M, (R) 30000 17.8 12.4 11.0 11.0 0.62

M,? (R) P 31408 18.1 12.0 11.2 =

(P. painei, Alcoota)

PALORCHESTES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA 173

FIGURE 6. Corra Lynn Cave, Curramulka teeth, Palorchestes sp. cf. P. painei. Left M3 (SAM P31331), right M* (P29938),

left M> (P29859), M, (P29905), M, (P29940), M, (P29999), right M, (P30000, also in medial profile). (M4 and M, not

in stereo). Scale in mm.

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pl. 16.

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174 N. S.. PLEDGE

MERRILEES, D. 1968. Man the destroyer: Late Quaternary

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THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE JSN SITE : SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR

THE DYNAMICS OF HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE STRZELECKI

DESERT DURING THE LATE PLEISTOCENE

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON

Summary

The earliest evidence of human occupation in the Strzelecki Desert is from the JSN site, discovered

in 1979 during a geomorphic study of the dunefield. Further radiocarbon results confirm a late

Plesitocene antiquity for occupation at JSN and indicate that the site was occupied on more than one

occasion between 10 000-15 000 years ago. The location of the site suggests that this pattern of

occupation reflects systematic use of the Strzelecki dunefield in the late Pleistocene. These findings

refute the idea that there was no significant human occupation in the Strzelecki Desert-Cooper’s

Creek region, prior to the mid-late Holocene.

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE JSN SITE: SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR THE DYNAMICS OF

HUMAN OCCUPATION IN THE STRZELECKI DESERT DURING THE LATE PLEISTOCENE

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON

SMITH, M. A., WILLIAMS, E. & WASSON, R. J. 1991. The archaeology of the JSN site: some

implications for the dynamics of human occupation in the Strzelecki Desert during the late Pleistocene.

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(2): 175-192.

The earliest evidence of human occupation in the Strzelecki Desert is from the JSN site, discovered

in 1979 during a geomorphic study of the dunefield. Further radiocarbon results confirm a late Pleistocene

antiquity for occupation at JSN and indicate that the site was occupied on more than one occasion

between 10 000-15 000 years ago. The location of the site suggests that this pattern of occupation reflects

systematic use of the Strzelecki dunefield in the late Pleistocene. These findings refute the idea that

there was no significant human occupation in the Strzelecki Desert-Cooper’s Creek region, prior to

the mid-late Holocene.

M. A. Smith, Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National

University, GPO Box 4, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, E. Williams, The Australian

Heritage Commission, GPO Box 1567, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, and R. J. Wasson,

Division of Water Resources, CSIRO, GPO Box 1666, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601.

Manuscript received 17 January 1991.

The earliest evidence of human occupation in the

Strzelecki Desert is from the JSN site (Fig. 1). The

site was discovered by Wasson in 1979 during a

geomorphic study of the dunefield (Wasson 1983) and

takes its prosaic name from a nearby seismic line

(79-JSN). A radiocarbon date of 13 850+190 yr BP

(ANU-2278) for a small hearth became available as

a result of this fieldwork. We can now report further

radiocarbon results that confirm a late Pleistocene

antiquity for occupation at JSN and which also

indicates use of the site during the late Holocene. A

full list of radiocarbon dates is given in Table 1.

The initial discovery raised a perennial but difficult

question of interpretation. Although it showed the

presence of humans in the core of the Strzelecki

dunefield soon after the pronounced aridity of the last

glacial maximum had passed, there was insufficient

evidence to determine whether this was part of a

regional pattern of occupation of the dunefield in the

late Pleistocene or simply a fleeting visit. Despite

considerable archaeological research in the decade

since the discovery of the JSN site, other evidence of

late Pleistocene occupation in the Strzelecki Desert-

Cooper’s Creek region has only recently come to light

with the discovery of two hearths dating to about

12 000 yr BP adjacent to Cooper’s Creek (Veth er al.

1990). Until these later finds were made the balance

of archaeological evidence appeared to indicate that

the region was not otherwise occupied until about

3-5 000 yr BP (Pretty 1968; Hughes & Lampert 1980;

Lampert & Hughes 1987, 1988; Williams 1988). This

lent support to the view that Wasson’s hearth

represented a single episode of occupation rather than

a wider regional trend (cf Lampert & Hughes 1987;

Veth 1989: 87-88).

One might well expect to find some evidence of an

expansion of human settlement into the Strzelecki

Desert, coinciding with the progressive relaxation of

arid conditions after the last glacial maximum (Singh

& Luly 1991; Bowler & Wasson 1984). Initial reports

TABLE 1. Radiocarbon dates for the JSN site. All dated material was wood charcoal.

————————————————————

Conventional radiocarbon

age (years BP)

Sample code

Context

———————————————————

ANU-2278 13 850+ 190

ANU-2279 13 150+830

ANU-7196 14 400+200

ANU-7197 10 500 +230

ANU-7198 2 400+270

Wasson’s hearth

From aeolian unit below Wasson’s hearth

JSN/W3 earth oven

Dispersed remnants of earlier oven beneath WJSN/N2

WIJSN/N2 earth oven

176

ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

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FIGURE 1. The Strzelecki Desert-Cooper’s Creek region showing the location of the JSN site and places mentioned in the text.

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON 177

of the age of Wasson’s hearth put this at about 13 000

yr BP (Hughes & Lampert 1980), suggesting a close

correlation with the end of the glacial-age climate.

Moreover, the hearth was stratified above the last major

aeolian unit in this part of the dunefield. The JSN

evidence also seemed to fit in well with a small body

of data from other parts of the arid zone suggesting

that many parts of the interior, away from the

comparatively well-watered montane and piedmont

habitats, were reoccupied by about 10-13 000 years ago

(cf. Smith 1988: 310-315).

In this paper we review the regional significance of

the JSN site, drawing on unpublished details of the

original work by Wasson in 1979, together with the

results of further field investigations carried out in 1989

by Williams and Smith. Previous summary reports of

JSN can be found in Wasson (1983: 102-103, 1984: 7

and fig. 6) and Hughes & Lampert (1980). Evidence

now indicates that JSN was occupied on more than one

occasion between 10-15 000 yr BP. We argue that this

shows systematic human use of the Strzelecki dunefield

during the late Pleistocene, given that JSN is not

situated on obvious routes for travel within the region.

Further Investigations at JSN

Ten years ago Hughes & Lampert (1980) outlined

a program for archaeological research in the Strzelecki

Desert-Cooper’s Creek region in which they pointed

out the need for further work at JSN. In fact, the

radiocarbon date for Wasson’s hearth became available

shortly before they began their fieldwork in October

1979 and they made an attempt to reach the JSN site.

This was unsuccessful, apparently because of

impassable drift sand.

In October 1989 Williams and Smith were able to

relocate the JSN site using Wasson’s original fieldnotes,

sketch plans, and photographs together with directions

keyed to the grid of shotlines established by SANTOS

in the area. The objective was to clarify the nature of

late Pleistocene occupation at JSN by determining

whether there were other archaeological remains

present and whether the setting of the site could provide

any clues about its likely use. On this visit we could

find no trace of the small hearth sectioned by Wasson

ten years earlier. It could well have been either entirely

removed by further erosion or buried by recent drift

sand. However, the surrounding area was found to

contain a number of other hearths and ovens and an

extensive surface scatter of chipped stone artefacts,

grindstones and baked clay heat-retainers scattered

across several interdunal pans. Small excavations were

undertaken to examine the internal structure of eleven

features (Table 2), and surface collections of chipped

stone artefacts and baked clay were also made in five

sampling areas (Fig. 2).

TABLE 2. Features excavated in 1989.

Field code Identification

JSN/W1 tree root

JSN/W3 earth oven

JSN/W4 hearth

JSN/W5 remnant of fire associated with JSN/W3

JSN/NE1 tree root

JSN/NE2 hearth ?

JSN/NE3 tree root

WIJSN/NI earth oven

WIJSN/N2 rake out from WJSN/NI1

WIJSN/N3 tree roots (2)

In what follows we use the names JSN pan, WJSN

pan and Wasson’s hearth to refer to various components

of the JSN site.

The Regional Setting

With a mean annual rainfall of 125 mm or less, the

northern part of the Strzelecki Desert is within the most

arid part of the continent. The major part of this region

is an extensive dunefield made up of north-south

trending sandridges with a dominant vegetation of

Zygochloa paradoxa (sandhill canegrass). This is

circumscribed to the north, west and east by stony

plains and silcrete-capped hills (Fig. 1). Within the

dunefield there are numerous small claypans and playas

in the interdunal areas. There is also a major contrast

between pale dunes, rich in clay pellets, to the west

of Strzelecki Creek and red quartzose dunes to the east

of the creek (Wasson 1983). The pale dunes lie in a

structural depression in the underlying bedrock and

there is a complete absence of outcropping rock in the

portion of the dunefield lying between Strzelecki and

Cooper’s Creek. The JSN site is situated in this part

of the dunefield, 40 km west of Strzelecki Creek (Fig.

1).

The channels of Strzelecki and Cooper’s Creek

periodically feed floodwaters from the north-east into

the Strzelecki Desert. Immediately upstream of

Innamincka, where the channel of Cooper’s Creek is

confined by rocky hills, there are a number of deep

permanent waterholes. Downstream from Innamincka,

Cooper’s Creek floods out into the dunefield forming

a maze of floodplains, shallow lakes and ephemeral

swamps intersecting with the linear sandridges of the

dunefield. In contrast, Strzelecki Creek has a narrow

floodplain and presently fills from Cooper’s Creek only

rarely, when floodwaters at Innamincka top a rock bar.

178 ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

200 300 400 500 m

1 reas 1 1

Seen, eS sage

seerenne®

GSE tytn Rpt tiac ay eM

FIGURE 2. The JSN site showing the location of features excavated in 1989. Compiled from aerial photographs and 1989

survey plan. Star shows approximate position of Wasson’s hearth.

Under most conditions Strzelecki Creek is a chain of

semi-permanent waterholes, many of which are saline,

linked by a poorly defined channel. It occupies a clear

ecotone between the pale and red dune landscapes. On

the floodplains the dominant perennial vegetation

consists of Eucalyptus microtheca (coolibah) and

Atriplex nummularia (old man saltbush).

The area around. JSN is not presently reached by

floodwaters from either the Cooper or Strzelecki

Creeks. The configuration and stratigraphy of the dunes

suggests that this was also the case in the late

Pleistocene. The southern margin of the biologically

productive Cooper floodout zone is 60-70 km to the

north of JSN. The main channel of Strzelecki Creek,

40 km to the east, is the nearest watercourse but is

a comparatively poor riverine habitat.

Description of the Site

Archaeological material at JSN is scattered over

several interdunal pans (Fig. 2). There are many similar

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON 179

pans throughout the dunefield and the JSN area is

unexceptional.

The JSN pan is about 450 m long and 200 m wide,

with a surface of grey/brown sandy cracking clay. It

is closed off both to the north and south by low cross

dunes to form a small basin, and it clearly collects local

runoff. The dunes which surround it are of pale yellow

pelletal-clay and are strongly rilled and sculpted by

erosion. Within these dunes, Wasson (1984) identified

three aeolian units; the modern mobile crests, a

possible late Holocene unit and a Last Glacial unit (Fig.

3). Underlying the dunes and exposed on the flanks

of the pan is a tough yellow/grey alluvium, containing

authigenic groundwater gypsum, representing the

substrate on which both the pan and the dunes rest.

131504830 (ANU —2279)

138504190 (ANU-2278)

is] 20 40cm

———

3% Wasson’s hearth

__— Mobile sand

_— Late Holocene sand

Last Glacial sand

A c B

a Hearth

oO 3m

FIGURE 3. Cross-section and stratigraphic relationships of

Wasson’s hearth. (1) Large charcoal pieces. (2) Bleach

developed in 3. (3) Yellow-grey fine sand, sub-horizontal

laminae, fissile soft carbonate and clay pellets. (4) Very tough,

pale yellow-grey fine sand, small hard and soft carbonate

nodules and clay pellets. (5) Yellow-grey fine sand, low-angle

laminae, no visible carbonate, no charcoal.

In 1989 the vegetation in the immediate area was

sparse with some isolated stands of Acacia ligulata,

A. aneura and other tall shrubs, such as Hakea

leucoptera, Eremophila longifolia and several other

species of Acacia. There was little ground cover apart

from Zygochloa paradoxa on the dunes and a light

cover of ephemeral plant species such as Ptilotus sp.

on the surface of the pans.

To the west of the JSN pan there is another, larger,

interdunal pan referred to here as WJSN. It is about

700 m long and 200 m wide and more sparsely

vegetated than the JSN pan.

The visible archaeological remains consist of an

extensive but low density scatter of chipped stone

artefacts and baked clay on deflated areas at the

northern ends of the JSN and WJSN pans (Table 3).

In 1989 various features, either charcoal-stained

sediment or concentrations of baked-clay lumps, were

visible on the deflation surfaces. Eleven were excavated

to test their identity (Table 2 and Fig. 2). The greatest

concentration of baked clay lumps and stone artefacts

occurs on the WJSN pan. Several pieces of Velesunio

sp. shell were also recovered from this area and there

is evidence of at least five individual hearths, as marked

by discrete clusters of baked clay heat-retainers. On

the JSN pan the density of archaeological material is

lower but again there are indications of perhaps four

to five hearths, in this case marked by dark charcoal

staining with small pieces of burnt or baked clay.

Transects by Williams to the west and north of the

JSN site and by Smith to the south and east confirmed

that the site is a genuine concentration of archaeological

material and not simply part of a background scatter

of occupation debris. To the west and east of the site

there is no appreciable background scatter of artefacts

or baked clay. A light scatter of chipped stone artefacts

and some grindstone fragments is evident up to one

kilometre to the south of the site. Two other

concentrations of archaeological material were

observed. XKZ/E]1 is a small hearth together with three

stone artefacts and a piece of Velesunio sp. shell found

adjacent to a floodout area five to eight km north of

JSN. ESJN is a scatter of about 25 artefacts on a

TABLE 3. Distribution of archaeological material at JSN. Data

excludes baked clay within discrete hearth concentrations.

sampling area baked clay __ chipped stone artefacts

area m? no. g/l0m* no. —no./l0m*

JSN/W1 82 20 4 9 1

JSN/W3 277 115 8 21 1

JSN/NE 400 - - 56 2

WIJSN/N2 79 400+ 159 55 ah

WJSN/N3 630 76 11 266 4

180 ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

claypan one kilometre due east of JSN. To the east the

density of artefacts only rises again within a few

kilometres of Strzelecki Creek, as shown independently

by Wasson during a survey transect of the dunefield.

The paucity of archaeological material in this part of

the duhefield has also been noted by R. Callen (pers.

comm.). Hughes (1983) commented on the low

numbers of artefacts on sites in the dunefield west of

Strzelecki Creek.

Hearths, Earth Ovens and Other Features

As few detailed descriptions of late Pleistocene

hearths or ovens are available we present our

observations in full below.

Wasson’s hearth

The hearth excavated in 1979 (Fig. 3) was roughly

circular in plan, about 20 cm in diameter, and plano-

convex in cross-section. Its depth from the eroded

ground surface to the base of the shallow basin was

about 10 cm. Apart from charcoal and diffuse organic

matter it also contained pieces of burnt clay and tiny

lamellate fragments (1-2 mm) of shell, presumed to

be Velesunio sp. shell by comparison with similar

fragments of young shell from Strzelecki Creek. From

its structure and contents it appears to have been a small

cooking fire.

It was dug into a finely laminated yellow-grey sand

that forms the calcareous B horizon of a palaeosol at

the northern end of the JSN pan. Charcoal from the

hearth gave a radiocarbon age of 13 850+190 yr BP

(ANU-2278). Samples from the hearth were also

examined for pollen by J. Luly but proved to contain

only a few very eroded pollen grains.

In 1979 several other features were noted in this

sector of the site. Some of these were simply ill-defined

charcoal stains. At least two closely resembled

Wasson’s hearth before excavation, suggesting the

presence of more than one hearth here.

The stratigraphic unit beneath the Bca horizon

contained large pieces of charcoal and it is probable

in this environment that such charcoal is evidence of

human occupation. A radiocarbon date of 13 150+830

yr BP (ANU-2279) was obtained on large charcoal

lumps from this stratigraphic unit beneath Wasson’s

hearth. The two radiocarbon dates overlap at one

standard deviation and indicate a very rapid build-up

of sandy sediment in this part of the site.

JSN/W2

This appeared as a diffuse charcoal stain about 40

cm in diameter with some small pieces of reddened

baked clay embedded in the feature. As it was not

sectioned it is not known whether it is simply a thin

lens of hearth debris (see JSN/W5 below) or an intact

hearth. Because of its distance from the other hearths

described below it must represent a separate feature.

JSN/W3 and related features

This is a large earth oven, roughly sub-rectangular

to oval in plan, 144 cm long and 70 cm wide (Fig. 4).

It is well-defined, sub-rectangular in cross-section and

at least 40 cm deep. It was dug as a steep-sided pit

into the tough grey-brown clayey alluvium on the

western flank of the JSN pan. As it cuts through a

calcareous horizon, the fill of the oven contains small

pellets of carbonate.

It contains large lumps of charcoal (up to 5 cm

diameter) as well as large lumps of baked clay. The

latter were presumably used as heat-retainers and range

in colour from yellow (10 YR 8/3) or buff (7.5 YR 7/4),

sometimes with a black core, to orange or red (10 R

6/8 or 2.5 YR 6/8). The former result from underfiring

while a red or orange colour is characteristic of firing

in a strongly oxidising atmosphere (Goffer 1980:

119-121; Joukowsky 1980: 367-369). As the most

intense red colours are produced at temperatures of

700-900 °C, it seems likely that the original position

of this material would have been at the surface of the

fire where temperatures of greater than 600°C are

rapidly attained (cf: Clark & Barbetti 1982) and where

a good draught could be expected. The present

distribution of reddened baked clay lumps throughout

the oven suggests major disturbance to their positions

since the time of firing. Such disturbance would be

expected during the normal use of an oven, particularly

if the clay lumps were heated on an adjacent fire and

then transferred to an oven pit (cf Warner 1969: 131)

rather than heated on a fire in the pit itself.

More significant is the re-use of the oven on at least

one subsequent occasion. The evidence for this is a

basin-shaped structure within the oven, at its western

end, about 35-50 cm in diameter and defined by

differential charcoal staining within the oven. Baked

clay and large pieces of charcoal are concentrated in

this part of the oven. As the structure fits neatly within

the initial oven pit and does not cut across it, it can

hardly be a fortuitous superimposition. A radiocarbon

sample of charcoal from within this structure gave an

age of 14 400+200 yr BP (ANU-7196). This dates the

latest use of the oven, though one would not expect

much of a time lag between initial use of the oven pit

and its subsequent re-use.

The large size of the initial pit is unusual and

warrants some comment here. In the arid zone there

are no plant foods that require cooking in such a

structure and it is larger than would normally be

required to cook an emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae)

or large macropod. The fact that there are only

relatively small quantities of baked clay and charcoal

in this pit is also surprising unless the initial oven was

robbed of its contents to commission the later oven.

Another possibility is that it was used to steam plant

foods, perhaps leaves, stems or shoots, rather than to

cook meat.

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON

Cross-section

Eroded surface

Mottled clay matrix

181

CaCo3 nodules

Tough yellow-grey

clayey alluvium

B 7.5YR 7/4

14,400 + 200

(ANU-7196)

Oo Reddened baked clay lumps

Amorphous mass of yellow baked clay

Charcoal

50 cm

ach)

MN Plan

Interpretation

4 Secondary oven with

ae heat retainer:

Original oven etZinels

Unidentified pit

(tree root?)

jr cos

oo. a8 A

Seals ot te og . 3

_Conce tration of baked clay lumps.

i) a

“ot EO)

foo Ge td, = Oo 8

FIGURE 4. Plan and cross-section of JSN/W3 oven.

The dimensions of the secondary pit together with

its roughly circular shape, concentration of baked clay

lumps and large pieces of charcoal suggest subsequent

use as an oven to cook an emu (Dromaius

novaehollandiae).

JSN/WS is a separate feature that may be associated

with the JSN/W3 oven. This was visible on the surface

as a large diffuse charcoal stain with some large pieces

of charcoal (1-3 cm) and some small pieces of reddened

baked clay embedded within it. Excavation exposed

a series of large pieces of charcoal, dispersed in the

sediment matrix rather than contained in a pit. Given

that it is within two metres of JSN/W3 it may be a

related feature, such as a dump of material removed

from the oven. Another possibility is that it is the

remnant of a fire to prepare the heat-retainers before

they were placed in the oven pit. Clark & Barbetti

(1982: 149) have drawn attention to the fact that such

features are a likely archaeological correlate of the

method of preparing earth ovens described by Warner

(1969: 131) for north-eastern Arnhem Land.

JSN/W4

This appeared on the surface as a small circular

concentration of burnt clay, about 30 cm in diameter,

tightly clustered as a capping on a small residual. On

182

Cross-section

WJSN/N1

Eroded surface

ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

WJSN/N2

Ashy sand \:

with charcoal 3

7.5YR 4/2

2400 + 270

(ANU-7198)

i) 50 cm

L 4 1 i

<) Reddened baked clay

@e Charcoal

S Dark burnt clay mass

: | Large mud cracks infilled with yellow sand

Concentration of baked clay lumps

embedded in surface

FIGURE 5. Plan and cross-section of WJSN/N2 oven.

either side of the residual a diffuse scatter of clay lumps

extended outwards. None of the burnt clay was

reddened. On excavation the hearth was revealed as

a single layer of baked clay without any stratigraphic

depth. This rests directly upon tough brown clayey

alluvium. There was no visible charcoal or other

occupation debris either within the feature or in the

underlying sediment. This feature most resembles what

have been described as ‘hotplate’ hearths (P. Clark,

pers. comm.), in which a layer of heated flat rocks or

Cracking grey sandy clay

10YR 6/3 @ 10,500 + 230

(ANU-7197)

Boundary of low mound

burnt clay lumps is used to grill meat (cf Kerwin &

Breen 1981: 304).

JSN/NE2

This was a diffuse circular charcoal stain, about 45

cm in diameter, on a surface of laminated yellow-grey

sand with flecks of calcium carbonate. In cross-section

it is plano-convex, forming a very poorly defined

shallow basin 16 cm deep. Its structure is similar to

Wasson’s hearth. However, as JSN/NE2 did not contain

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON 183

any pieces of burnt or baked clay or fragments of shell

we cannot be certain that it is of human origin,

particularly given the prevalence of burnt tree roots

in this sector of the site (see below).

WISN/NI & N2

WIJSN/NI is a dense concentration of baked clay

capping a low rise. Excavation showed this to be a

surface veneer, 2-5 cm thick, of baked clay and sand

comprising rake-out from the WJSN/N2 oven (Fig. 5).

The latter is a well-defined oven pit dug into the

strongly pedal clayey alluvium that forms the substrate

of the WJSN pan. The oven pit is roughly circular in

plan, 55 cm in diameter, conical in cross-section and

40 cm deep. It is filled with a loose grey ashy sand,

reddened baked clay, black burnt clay and large (1-3

cm) pieces of charcoal. A radiocarbon sample on

charcoal provides an age for this feature of 2 400+270

yr BP (ANU-7198).

Several pieces of reddened baked clay and some very

large lumps of charcoal (5-10 cm long) were observed

within the underlying alluvium. Where this material

is stratified beneath the oven it cannot be modern

intrusive material. Nor was it associated with any of

the large mud cracks in this unit. We believe that it

most likely represents the dispersed remnants of earlier

ovens. Subsequent radiocarbon results support this

interpretation. Charcoal from beneath WJSN/N2 gave

a radiocarbon age of 10 500+220 yr BP (ANU-7197).

Burnt tree-roots

Several other features were revealed upon excavation

to be tree roots. In plan they were usually circular and

much smaller than the hearths, about 10-15 cm in

diameter. In cross-section they were diffuse charcoal

stains, roughly cylindrical in shape, and often set in

TABLE 4. Composition of the JSN assemblage.

JSN

the ground at an angle. The number of such features

in the JSN/NE area, including JSN/NEI1 and NE3,

suggests the presence of a stand of trees here at some

time in the past. A similar observation can be made

about the WJSN/N3 area where a series of diffuse,

roughly cylindrical charcoal stains with carbonate root

casts radiating laterally from them, testify to the former

presence of a stand of trees. The remaining feature,

JSN/W1, was unusual in that while it conforms to the

morphology described above, it was only burnt for a

few centimetres depth, where it was exposed at the

ground surface. The remainder of the feature was a

mould formed by decay of the root.

SEM identification of archaeological charcoals

A scanning electron microscope was used to examine

the ultra-structure of archaeological charcoals in order

to identify the species of wood used in the ovens. This

aspect of our study was limited to the examination of

charcoal retained from the three samples that were

submitted for radiocarbon assay.

In this sector of the arid zone the range of species

that is likely to be encountered in any assemblage of

archaeological charcoals is comparatively restricted.

Here, the archaeological charcoal was compared with

reference samples of Acacia ligulata and A. aneura

collected at JSN in 1989 and with reference material

from other species not present around JSN today, such

as Eucalyptus aff. terminalis, E. microtheca, E.

camaldulensis and Callitris glaucophylla.

1) ANU-7197 (10 500+230 yr BP) is from an Acacia,

possibly one of the clonal shrubs such as A. ligulata

that grow at JSN today. The presence of biseriate rays

serves to exclude A. aneura.

2) ANU-7198 (2 400+270 yr BP) proved to be too

WJSN EJSN OTHER TOTAL

W3/W4 NE

cores

redirecting flakes

backed blades - - 1

pirri points = 1 =

other retouched artefacts | 2 1

other chipped stone artefacts

hammerstones

seed-grinding implements - = 1

other grindstones = = =

184 ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

crumbly to withstand prolonged SEM examination but

is probably also an Acacia.

3) ANU-7196 (14 400+200 yr BP) was indurated and

so did not provide optimal conditions for identification.

However, it is also clearly an Acacia. A second,

independent sample of charcoal from the JSN/W3 oven

is from a bloodwood, probably Eucalyptus terminalis,

which occurs in parts of the dunefield today.

The results suggest that the late Pleistocene tree and

shrub vegetation around JSN may have been similar

to that of today, probably with some discrete stands

of various species of Acacia as tall shrubs and with

occasional sandplain Eucalyptus as isolated trees. The

archaeological evidence clearly points to an

environment where firewood was readily available

between 10 000-14 500 years ago. It is also significant

that none of the charcoal is from species such as

Eucalyptus microtheca or E. camaldulensis, which

occur along watercourses or on floodplains. The

possibility of further reconstruction of the late

Pleistocene vegetation using phytoliths is now being

explored.

Chipped stone artefacts

The presence of distinctive implements such as

backed blades, unifacial pirri points and seedgrinders

(Table 4) immediately suggests a late Holocene age for

much of the JSN assemblage. Tula adze slugs are

notable by their absence though they are present on

other sites in the Strzelecki Desert — Cooper’s Creek

region. All the artefacts were resting on deflated

surfaces as ‘float’ rather than in primary stratigraphic

context.

Given the range of radiocarbon dates for occupation

at this site one would expect there to be a palimpsest

of material of different ages on the deflation surfaces.

However an impression that the bulk of the assemblage

is late Holocene in age is reinforced by the absence

of artefacts with a markedly greater degree of patination

or with carbonate encrustation, despite the presence

of carbonate nodules and root casts in some of the

sample areas. The one artefact which does show a

greater degree of weathering than the bulk of the

assemblage, a large retouched flake (WJSN/N3-25]),

is made on a quartzite containing easily weathered

mica, chlorite and other clay minerals.

To test whether there were any other differences

across the site that might point to some temporal

patterning within it, we compared the size of flakes

from the various sample areas, the proportion of flakes,

cores and retouched artefacts in the various collections

and the types of raw materials used (Tables 5-7). The

results show only minor differences across the site in

flake size, assemblage composition, and in use of

various raw materials. Therefore, we are unable to

point to either any significant temporal patterning

TABLE 5. Size of unretouched flakes in various sampling

areas at JSN. Length is measured perpendicular to striking

platform on axis through bulb of percussion. Data exclude

broken flakes.

Sampling area length (mm) weight (g)

n x “SD n x SD

JSN/W1 3 14 6 37 LS, (0:7

JSN/W3 & W4 8 16 6 in eas 1.6

JSN/NE 23) “13 6 23) = lid, 22

WJSN/N2 LP ALS 6 157139 1.6

WJSN/N3 82" 19 10 73 3A

TABLE 6. Proportion of various categories of industrial debris

in each sampling area at JSN. Data expressed as percentage

of total number of artefacts in each area.

Sampling n %

area

flakes cores retouched pieces debitage

JSN/W1 Q 33:3 - 11.1 55.6

JSN/W3

& W4 ZA 38ul _ 19.0 42.9

JSN/NE 56 41.1 1.8 3.6 53.6

WIJSN/N2 55 30.9 - 3.6 65.5

WIJSN/N3 266 38.0 2.3 10.9 48.9

Total 407 37.3 2.7 9.6 50.4

across the site or to evidence for a mixture of material

of greatly differing ages within the assemblage. On

balance, there seem to be few artefacts of late

Pleistocene age in the assemblage.

The majority of the retouched artefacts consist of

irregular pieces with short lengths of retouch along one

or more margins. One specimen (WJSN/N3-116)

warrants special comment. This is a small, chunky

flake, 28 mm long with retouched margins converging

to form a broad point. At the apex the edge of the

implement exhibits crushing, pronounced rounding and

a well developed polish. Starch grains (3-5 microns

in diameter), cellulose and possibly some resinous

plant material are present on the edge suggesting that

the implement was used in scraping a soft, moderately

starchy but not fibrous material. A firm identification

is not available but a rootstock or tuber seems likely.

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON 185

The roots of Zypha or Boerhavia diffusa (tap vine) are

possible candidates, bearing in mind that the implement

may well have acquired its distinctive use-wear before

being brought to the JSN site.

Sources of raw materials

JSN lies in a stone-free part of the dunefield and is

some distance from potential sources of isotropic stone.

The nearest of these are outcrops of silcrete along

Strzelecki Creek at Chidlee Well, Merty Merty and

at Lake Murteree, the latter with evidence for

Aboriginal quarrying of the outcrop during the late

Holocene (Hughes & Lampert 1980: 63-64). These

outcrops are too small to have been included on existing

geological maps (see Preliminary Edition — Strzelecki

Sheet G54-2 1970). It is unlikely that there are any

outcrops west of Strzelecki Creek as the bedrock in

this sector of the dunefield has been subject to

downwarping and is over 100 m below the surface

(Wasson 1983: 91). The possibility that there is a local

source of stone from gravels in palaeochannels

underlying the dunefield can be ruled out.

The dominant raw materials present in the JSN

assemblage (Table 7) are grey-yellow cherty silcrete

and pink or grey fine-grained granular silcrete. Other

raw materials are present in small quantities. These

include cherts of various colours but similar lithology,

silicified dolomite (Namba formation dolomite beds),

black silicified wood (Eyre formation), quartz, and

quartzite derived from water-worn cobbles.

The likely source of the cherty silcrete, chert,

dolomite and pink silcrete has been identified by R.

Callen (SADMBE), on the basis of fine-scale geological

mapping in the Strzelecki region, as the Tertiary age

Namba formation between Della and Dullingari

Satellite Gas Fields. This is about 115 km north-east

of the JSN site amongst the red quartzose dunes east

of Strzelecki Creek, adjacent to its upper reaches. The

silicified wood is probably also available in the Della-

Dullingari area.

Grey fine-grained granular silcrete is the nearest

isotropic stone to the JSN site, as it outcrops 40-50

km to the east at Merty Merty and Lake Murteree.

However, the specific source of the material used at

JSN is uncertain as small outcrops are widely

distributed in the dunefield to the east of Strzelecki

Creek. It also outcrops in the Della-Dullingari area.

We consider that outcrops in the Della-Dullingari

area are the most likely source of the grey silcrete used

at JSN. If the grey silcrete had been drawn from the

closest outcrops to the site, one would expect it to be

the most common raw material in the JSN assemblage.

However, in this case it makes up only 31% of the

assemblage whereas cherty silcrete and chert, both

derived from sources in the Della-Dullingari area,

together make up 59% (Table 7). If it had been

obtained from sources significantly closer to the site

than the Della-Dullingari area, we would also expect

artefacts of grey silcrete to be less reduced than those

made on cherty silcrete. In fact, there is no significant

difference between the two raw materials in the size-

distribution of artefacts (Table 8).

The likely sources of the quartz and quartzite cobble

material are Flinders Ranges fan deposits near

Moolawatana, south of Lake Blanche. At JSN,

quartzite cobbles appear to have been broken during

use as hammerstones or anvils rather than used as

cores. Much of this material consists of irregular shatter

fragments. There are few flakes and no retouched

artefacts or cores of this raw material. This is also

generally true of other varieties of course granular

material (listed as ‘other’ in Table 7).

Selected aspects of reduction and curation at JSN

The composition of the assemblage (Tables 4 and

6) shows that not only finished flakes and retouched

implements were brought to JSN. The high proportion

of debitage and the presence of worked-out cores (Table

9) shows that knapping took place at the site. This is

supported by the variability in the size of flakes and

TABLE 7. Raw materials in the JSN assemblage. Data expressed as percentage of total number of artefacts in each sampling

area.

cherty

silcrete

JSN/W1 22.2 as 1b Rea

JSN/W3 & W4 47.6 4.8 =

JSN/NE 32.1 14.3 -

WJSN/N2 67.3 5.5 1.8

WISN/N3 42.1 18.4 23

Total 44.0 15.2 Bed

quartzite

cobble

silicified

dolomite

silcrete quartz

333 — = 22.2

38.1 = 4.8 4.8

39.3 = 14.3

21.8 1.8 = =

29.7 0.4 = Tl

30.5 0.5 0.3 7.4

' miscellaneous coarse granular materials

186 ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

TABLE 8. Weight (g) of artefacts on different types of to the site. The low level of curation of the cores is

silcrete. Data are (A) cores, (B) unretouched complete flakes, further emphasised by the observation that at least half

for removal of further flakes (Table 9). Nor is there

evidence to indicate that large flakes or large items in

Material ii x §D Range the debitage category have been either selectively

removed from the site or recycled as cores. For

example, there is no significant difference between the

A. size distributions of flakes and debitage (Table 10).

cherty silcrete 9 87.9 61.8 11.1-178.0 In Table 9 the cores collected from JSN are ranked

granular silcrete 1 64.0 a ~ roughly according to their state of reduction. They

range from well-established but still viable cores to

aaey silcrete ag a 32 0.3-16.3 those that are at the end of their use-life. The latter

granular silcrete 43 47 10.6 0.1-41.6 | are characterised by platform/core face angles of about

t 0.01 (1), 75 = 0.849 90°, the presence of major step-fractures that undercut

the platform, a shape approaching that of a cube or

(ee sphere, and the presence of multiple striking platforms

cherty silcrete eS OMENS: 0.1-98.7 indicating rotation of the core to extend its use-life.

granular silcrete 46 3:5 6.4 0.1-38.2

t 0.01 (1), U8 = 1.020

TABLE 10. Weight (g) of flakes and flaking debitage from

WJSN/N3 surface collection.

debitage at the site, with both categories containing

many items weighing less than a gram (Table 10). The

latter are presumably the fine debris produced by stone- _ Category n x SD_ Range

working.

With a core: flake ratio of 1: 22 there is no evidence

to suggest that cores have been selectively removed

from the assemblage. Although the proportion of flakes debitage 125 6.7 12.0 0.1-45.4

is a little lower than one would have expected, this

might simply indicate that much of the reduction of ¢ 0.01 (1), 202 = 0.989

particular cores took place before they were brought

unretouched complete flakes 79 5.1 9.6 0.1-48.9

TABLE 9. Extent of reduction of cores. Specimens are ranked from viable cores (top) to exhausted cores (bottom).

wt (g) shape! platform? no. scar? no.4 cortex?

index angle platforms ratio step present

fractures

64.0 6.8 55° I 1.00 1 _

100.8 WE 60° 1 1.00 1 +

52.7 8.1 65° 1 0:72 1 +

90.3 9.0 65° 2 0.89 0 =

30.8 10.9 15° 1 0.51 1 +

58.1 8.6 15° 1 0.55 1 +

178.0 9.0 70° 2 0.58 3 +

11.1 8.3 85° 1 0.92 2 -

17333 9.0 85° 1 0.78 1 a

157.4 6.7 90° 1 0.59 5 +

123.4 13 90° 2 0.72 3 ~

30.3 10.1 90° S HY 2 =

1. Shape index is calculated as core height/*/weight. Values between 7-9 indicate a shape approaching a sphere.

2. Platform angle is average value to nearest 5° measured on most viable platform.

3. Scar ratio is calculated as length of latest flake scar/core-face length. Values less than 0.5 indicate inefficient flake removal.

4. Number of major step-fracture scars.

5. + indicates more than 10% cortex.

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON 187

In this assemblage several of the exhausted cores weigh

more than 100 g yet there is no evidence of attempts

to further reduce them by splitting the old core to create

a fresh platform or by using bipolar percussion.

Inferences about site logistics in the mid-late Holocene

Studies by Byrne (1980) and Hiscock (1987) have

elegantly demonstrated a general correspondence

between the morphology of artefacts on a site and

distance from source of the stone. This is based on

the premise that with increasing distance from a source

it is increasingly unlikely that the supply of stone can

be replenished, while the existing stock-in-hand,

sometimes called the curate set or donor assemblage,

is continually being diminished. People using the

dunefields in the Strzelecki Desert would presumably

have carried a small stock of cores and implements

with them, probably no more than 2-3 kg per family.

As they moved along a chain of campsites this stock

would be progressively depleted as new flakes were

produced for various tasks and as existing implements

were resharpened. At each site in the chain various

items would be discarded, usually exhausted cores,

worn out implements and the debitage from knapping.

As the stock of stone diminished, one would expect

criteria governing the discard of items to be tightened

and attempts made to recycle, rejuvenate or ration

(Hiscock 1987) the material at hand. The lack of stone

in this part of the Strzelecki dunefield precludes

substitution by local raw materials.

Given that the JSN site is in a stone-free sector of

the dunefield and is at least 40 km from the nearest

potential sources of isotropic stone and over 100 km

from the sources apparently utilised, one could expect

that the stone artefacts discarded at the site would show

the hallmarks of extreme reduction. This is not the case

and allows us to make some inferences about the

scheduling and logistics of late Holocene occupation

at JSN.

Comparison with sites at Coongie Lakes

The unusual character of the JSN assemblage is

brought out by comparison with assemblages from

other sites in the region. Archaeological sites adjacent

to the Coongie Lakes, in the northern part of the

Cooper floodout zone, are a comparable distance from

potential sources of stone. Some of these sites are very

extensive and have a comparatively high density of

artefacts (Williams 1988), consistent with ethnographic

accounts of large groups of people living in semi-

sedentary conditions while the lakes held water. The

assemblages on these sites contain few intact cores and

most of these are very small (Tables I] and 12), close

to the theoretical limit at which Hiscock suggests

bipolar techniques become necessary for further

reduction (Hiscock 1982: 39-41). Exhausted cores

appear to have been recycled as implements. Artefacts

in these assemblages are also very small, with mean

weights of about 3-4 g.

In contrast, artefacts and cores at JSN are much

larger (Tabels 11 and 12) and cores are better

represented in the assemblage. There is no evidence

that cores have been recycled as implements. Many

have been discarded while still viable (Table 9). Some

are as large as cores at the quarry in Byrne’s study

(1980). Although there is no primary decortication

phase represented in the JSN assemblage, nearly 20%

of flakes and 75 % of the cores still retain some cortex.

Thus the JSN assemblage shows neither the direct

effects of distance from stone sources, nor, the

mediating responses that one would expect to have

operated to offset a diminishing stock of stone.

Interpretation

The studies by Byrne (1980) and Hiscock (1987)

quoted above both use linear distance from source as

an approximation of gross time since procurement.

However, in the case of JSN the condition of the

chipped stone material is not consistent with the

distance from source irrespective of whether the actual

source of much of the JSN raw material is 40 or 15

km away. This indicates that people must have travelled

fairly directly from the source to the site, without

spending a great deal of time foraging and camping

in transit. The dumping of useful items at JSN,

especially viable cores, also indicates that people must

have expected to be able to replenish their stock of stone

elsewhere within a day or two of leaving the site.

TABLE II. Comparison of JSN and various Coongie Lakes sites (Williams, unpubl. data).

ns ——<—<—$ ————

no. artefacts mean wt

per sq. m artefacts

JSN site 0.3 6.6

Marroocoolcanie 79 2:6

Toontoowaranie 7.0 2:6

Lake Lady Blanche 2.1 4.4

% retouched % cores

artefacts

% flakes

37.3 9.6 Qe).

39:9 8.3 0.8

63.9 7.3 =

59.1 24.1 1.0

a —————$

188 ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

TABLE 12. Weight (g) of cores at JSN and various Coongie

Lakes sites (Williams, unpubl. data).

Site n x SD

JSN 2 89.2 57.9

Marroocoolcanie 4 del 16

Lake Lady Blanche 2 137: 2.6

JSN/M: t 0.05 (1), 14 = 2.744

JSN/LLB: t 0.05 (1), 12 = 1.783

Therefore, it seems likely that people intended to travel

directly back to Strzelecki Creek after leaving the site.

In this regard the chipped stone artefacts identify the

JSN locality as a specific destination that people

travelled some distance to reach, not one occupied

during the course of itinerant use of the dunefield and

floodplains. These ideas could be tested by further

fieldwork as we would expect artefacts on other sites

in the surrounding dunefield to show a degree of

reduction more consistent with their distance from

sources of isotropic stone. Some indication that this

is indeed the case is given by Hughes (1983: 9-10).

The duration of visits to the JSN site must also have

been relatively short, so that the demand for stone was

easily met by the stock-in-hand without recourse to the

recycling and extreme reduction of stone evident at the

Coongie Lakes sites.

The fact that much of the isotropic stone at JSN is

from sources in the Della-Dullingari area supports a

suggestion by Hughes (1983: 11) that the predominant

pattern of movement of people into this sector of the

dunefield was west along the Cooper floodout zone

and then south along the interdunal corridors rather

than east-west across the grain of the dunefield from

Strzelecki Creek. If people had simply travelled down

Strzelecki Creek and then directly out to JSN it is

unlikely that so much cherty silcrete and chert from

the Della-Dullingari area would have been transported

to the site. Fresh supplies of stone could have been

acquired much closer to JSN at Lake Murteree, or at

other outcrops of silcrete along Strzelecki Creek.

Grindstones

Small numbers of seed-grinding implements and

other grindstones are present at the JSN site. There

are 13 grindstones in the surface collection, most of

which are probably fragments of larger seed-grinding

implements (Table 13). Six retain enough diagnostic

features to allow positive identification as fragments

of either millstones or mullers (cf Smith 1986). As

none of the grindstones is heavily patinated or

carbonate encrusted, there is nothing to suggest that

they pre-date mid-late Holocene occupation of the site.

A variety of lithologies is represented, including

pink, grey, brown and white varieties of sandstone.

These range in texture from very fine-grained through

to gritty sandstone. Some appear to be from tabular

sources, others from boulder or cobble sources. Three

specimens are on quartzite or metasediment cobbles.

This variability is characteristic of sites in stone-free

parts of the Strzelecki Desert-Cooper’s Creek region

where stone for grindstones was one of the

commodities in the regional exchange system

(McBryde 1987). One of the major conduits for the

movement of exotic materials was Strzelecki Creek and

it is likely that here grindstones from a variety of

sources would be in use at any one time. In this respect

one would expect the lithology of the grindstones at

the JSN site to be more informative about exchange

systems at the regional level than about local patterns

of land-use and resource procurement. However, to the

extent that we have been able to identify sources, the

grindstones suggest a broadly similar pattern of

movement of raw materials to that shown by the

chipped stone artefacts.

The JSN_ grindstones were examined by A.

Watchman. On hand examination none match material

from known grindstone quarries at Anna Creek or

Tooths Nob. Two specimens, including one which is

a rim fragment of a millstone, are of white, coarse-

grained, poorly sorted sandstone similar to that

reported from the Narcoonowie quarry (Hughes 1983)

67 km south-east of Moomba. Two other specimens,

on medium-grained brown sandstone, resemble

material available from quarries in the Innamincka

area. Both of the latter specimens are near-complete

mullers.

The size of the grindstone fragments at JSN is

variable (mean weight 148 g) but the largest example

weighs 482 g. One specimen has seen subsequent use

as an impromptu core. The majority, although broken,

do not show signs of obvious recycling, such as

TABLE 13. Typological classification of the JSN grindstones.

muller 3

millstone fragment 1

pestle 2

undiagnostic fragments 6

amorphous grindstone I

Total 13

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON 189

crushing, battering or flaking. This suggests that they

were brought to the JSN site as grindstones rather than

as convenient pieces of sandstone recycled as

hammerstones or cores. If so, the presence of seed-

grinding implements is intriguing, as JSN is well away

from the floodplains which are the most productive

habitat for panicum (Panicum decompositum) and

ngardu (Marsilea spp.). It is possible that other types

of seed, perhaps from various species of Acacia or

Portulaca, might have been locally available.

Mussel Shell

In the surface collection from WJSN/N3 there are

30 small pieces of freshwater mussel shell with a total

weight of 12.3 g. A single small piece (1.4 g) was found

elsewhere on the site and another, weighing 7.7 g, was

also found adjacent to the XKZ/E1 hearth, to the north

of the JSN site.

None of these fragments retain sufficient features

to allow positive identification to species, which in the

case of freshwater mussels requires nearly complete

shells. However, the most likely species is Velesunio

wilsonii as this is the only large bivalve present in the

Cooper basin today (McMichael & Hiscock 1958;

Cotton 1961). The thickness of the archaeological

material, 2-3.5 mm, rules out the smaller Corbiculina

sp. bivalve.

The shell collected in 1989 is assumed to be of mid-

late Holocene age because of its association with the

dense scatter of chipped stone artefacts at WJSN/N3.

However, Wasson’s hearth also contained tiny (-2 mm)

lamellate fragments of shell, probably also Velesunio

sp., which must be of late Pleistocene age. Freshwater

mussels are unlikely to have ever been available locally

at the JSN site and must have been brought in to the

site from one of the deep waterholes along either

Strzelecki Creek or Cooper’s Creek. The small amount

of shell involved indicates that the shellfish were

probably brought in as implements rather than as food.

Kerwin and Breen (1981: 308-9) record the use of

mussel shells as spoons for ngardu in the Innamincka

area. Although fragile the shell is obviously suitable

for a range of other uses. For instance, Cotton (1961:

175-176) notes the use of V. ambiguus shell along the

Lower Murray River for cutting up fish, skinning

animals and working wood. Hercus & Clark (1986)

also report the presence of freshwater mussel shell on

archaeological sites in the centre of the Simpson

Desert.

DISCUSSION

Nature of Prehistoric Occupation at JSN

The JSN site was occupied on more than one

occasion between about 15 000 and 10 000 yr BP.

There seems a good chance that further excavation of

features, as they are exposed by erosion, would add

detail to this chronology. Occupation during this period

left a series of ovens and hearths and some freshwater

mussel shell at the site. The lack of any appreciable

number of stone artefacts suggests that occupation at

this time may well have been more transitory than later

use of the site. But the rapid accumulation of sediment,

evident at the northern end of the JSN pan (Fig. 3),

together with the widespread occurrence of large pieces

of charcoal in this unit also suggests that people and

their fires may have had sufficient impact to locally

destabilise dunes.

JSN was also a focus for occupation in the mid-late

Holocene. The long history of use of this site is in

marked contrast to the paucity of archaeological

remains elsewhere in the western part of the Strzelecki

dunefield. This shows that the JSN locality must have

had qualities which repeatedly drew people to this point

in the dunefield. Analysis of the stone artefacts

reinforces this view. During the late Holocene, people

appear to have travelled more-or-less directly out to

JSN from the Cooper floodout zone some distance

away, stayed for a short period and then travelled back

towards the riverine corridor of Strzelecki Creek. This

phase of occupation left ovens, hearths and mussel shell

as well as chipped stone artefacts and seed-grinders.

It is not clear why the JSN locality was favoured for

occupation. One possibility, given that large animals

are otherwise known to have been quite rare in the

Strzelecki Desert-Cooper’s Creek region (Kemper

1990), is the availabilty of game. The presence of earth

ovens confirms that either large macrepods or emu

were exploited in the area. We also observed several

emus at the site in 1989. Another possibility is the

opportunity to salvage raw materials, especially stone,

from previous episodes of occupation of the site.

However, the lack of evidence for the recycling of stone

or the re-working of older artefacts seems to rule this

out, as does the absence of artefacts that can be

attributed to the first phase of occupation at the site.

Water must also have been a critical determinant in

allowing access to this part of the dunefield, but there

is nothing to suggest that JSN is better served than other

interdunal pans in the region. The JSN pan collects

run-off after local rain. Conchostraca shells were found

on the surface in 1979, confirming the presence of

standing freshwater at some time. However, this need

not have been very substantial as these small

crustaceans are only found in ephemeral pools and can

flourish in a few centimetres of fresh water. In 1979,

Wasson also noted that the eastern flanks of nearby

dunes had been trimmed by waves, presumably after

exceptionally heavy local rainfall in 1973-76, but this

was also the case elsewhere in the dunefield. JSN is

not strategically situated with respect to groundwater.

Drilling by Delhi Australia, about 20 km to the north,

showed hyper-saline water at approximately 80 m

190 ARCHAEOLOGY OF STRZELECKI DUNEFIELD

depth. Nor is the site located near any of the

palaeochannels that underlie the dunefield. At best,

any soakage at JSN would most likely be derived from

local infiltration into the dunes, similar to the mikiri

wells of the Simpson Desert (Hercus & Clark 1986).

Local ethnohistoric accounts shed no light on why

JSN was a focus of prehistoric occupation. For

instance, although the 1904 H. J. Hillier map provides

Diyari and Yandruwantha place names for several

places in adjacent parts of the dunefield (cf Reuther

1981), none is given for the JSN locality.

Whatever the attraction may have been, humans were

visiting the JSN area by at least 14 400 yr BP. Repeated

use of the site since that time is unlikely to have been

due simply to chance, as the site is not situated in any

obvious natural corridor for travel through the region.

In fact, JSN is in an otherwise undistinguished part

of the Strzelecki dunefield. The most likely

interpretation is that it reflects regular use of the

dunefield, probably with semi-permanent occupation

of the riverine corridors already in place by the late

Pleistocene. The presence of Velesunio shell at JSN,

in both late Pleistocene and mid-late Holocene

contexts, is tangible evidence of some link with these

riverine habitats. Although speculative, we favour the

idea that the JSN area was one where people could

depend on finding large game, otherwise rare in the

more intensively exploited riverine and floodplain

habitats. If so, it is plausible that people would have

taken advantage of local rainfall to travel specifically

out to the JSN area to hunt these animals, and that such

visits would have been short, given the ephemeral

nature of local waters.

The pattern of use of the JSN site changed sometime

during the mid-late Holocene. At this time visits appear

to have become more prolonged though not necessarily

more frequent, and to have involved the grinding of

seeds and the manufacture and maintenance of chipped

stone artefacts. In contrast, late Pleistocene use of the

site probably did not involve much on-site stone

working. At this time, people may have brought in

finished flakes and implements but did not discard them

in any appreciable number at JSN.

Regional Significance

Evidence for late Pleistocene occupation at JSN,

together with recently reported radiocarbon dates of

about 12 000 yr BP for two hearths on the lower

reaches of Cooper’s Creek (Veth et al. 1990), refutes

the idea that there was no significant human occupation

of the Strzelecki Desert — Cooper’s Creek region prior

to about 3-5 000 years ago. Riverine, dunefield and

montane habitats in this sector of the arid zone were

all occupied in some fashion between 10 000 and

15 000 BP.

With radiocarbon dates of 13 850+190 (ANU-2278)

and 14 400+200 yr BP (ANU-7196), first evidence of

occupation at JSN coincides with the end of the first

phase of climatic amelioration in this region. This

phase began about 16-17 000 yr BP, a time when the

pollen and sedimentary records at Lake Frome (Singh

& Luly 1991; Bowler et al. 1986) show that a major

period of lake floor deflation, coinciding with the last

glacial maximum, had ended. Lake sediments began

to accumulate again and trees, mainly Callitris and

Eucalyptus, recolonised the region. At this time, the

climate was cooler than modern, with a winter-

dominated rainfall. This phase ended abruptly at about

14 500 yr BP when the trend towards gradual climatic

amelioration was reversed, rainfall again declined and

Lake Frome became much shallower. These more

rigorous conditions persisted until about 13 000 yr BP.

The new radiocarbon dates for JSN also show clearly

that first use of the site took place before the re-

establishment of summer monsoon incursions into this

region at 13 000 yr BP (Singh & Luly 1991). The

climatic and environmental changes at this time mark

the end of the glacial-age climate and we might

otherwise have argued that this was the most likely time

for any expansion of settlement into regions such as

the Strzelecki Desert. At this time, the pollen record

at Lake Frome registers the onset of summer rainfall

and higher temperatures. The lake filled with water

sufficiently to build beaches several metres above the

floor of the modern salina. Around 12 000 yr BP,

Cooper’s Creek also responded to a major hydrologic

change as its catchment was revegetated and sandy

sediments were no longer carried in quantity.

In this context it is unlikely that the earliest dates

at JSN record the initial stages of re-colonisation of

the Strzelecki Desert. There is no reason now why this

should not have taken place closer to 16-17 000 yr BP.

If further work shows this to be the case, it would also

indicate that the major impact of glacial aridity, at least

upon population distribution (cf Lampert & Hughes

1987; Smith 1989; Veth 1989), was restricted to a

comparatively narrow time-interval, perhaps already

ended by 17 000 yr BP. It is also important-to note that

we cannot yet dismiss the alternative possibility that

people continued to occupy the Strzelecki Desert-

Cooper’s Creek region throughout the peak aridity of

the last glacial maximum. The deep permanent

waterholes along Cooper’s Creek, between Innamincka

and Nappamerrie, may well have supported such a

population.

Finally, although the riverine corridors were

probably a key focus of occupation in the Strzelecki

Desert — Cooper’s Creek region during the late

Pleistocene, the evidence from JSN also shows that

people were able to exploit the resources of the

dunefields at this time. Thus they would have been in

a position to gain a working knowledge of the ecology

of such habitats at an early date. This weakens an

argument, recently put forward by Veth (1989), that

major sandridge deserts, such as the Simpson Desert

M. A. SMITH, E. WILLIAMS & R. J. WASSON 19]

to the north, would have constituted biogeographic

barriers to human settlement until the mid Holocene.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Fieldwork by Williams and Smith was funded jointly by

the National Research Fellowship Scheme, Department of

Science and the Department of Prehistory, ANU. The

Australian Heritage Commission contributed towards the costs

of further documentation of the site. SANTOS allowed access

to the JSN area and to facilities at Moomba. The Aboriginal

Heritage Branch (South Australian Department of

Environment and Planning) gave approval for collection and

excavation. We thank C. Dodd (then Aboriginal Liaison

Officer, SA NPWS) for assistance in this regard. W. J.

Mumford and I. Faulkner drew the figures. P. Boot identified

the residues on WJSN/N3-116. J. Pask and L. Masterton

assisted with SEM identification of the charcoal. J. Luly

examined Wasson’s samples for pollen. A. Watchman

identified raw materials used for grindstones and for

WISN/N3-251. R. Callen (South Australian Department of

Mines and Energy) identified likely sources of raw material

for the chipped stone artefacts and gave advice on the location

of palaeochannels near JSN. L. Hercus gave advice on local

ethnohistory and assistance in using the J. G. Reuther

manuscript. We wish to thank our companions in the field

in 1989: D. Bowdery, G. Dunnett, B. Smith and C. Dodd.

Wasson thanks the Hyde farhily and Kevin Quayle. Useful

advice and discussion was given by D. Bowdery, B. J. Cundy,

P. DeDeckker, G. Dunnett, R. G. Kimber and G. van Tets.

The archaeological material from JSN will be lodged with

the South Australian Museum.

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OBITUARY : WILLIAM GRANT INGLIS 9 AUGUST 1928 - 26 MARCH 1991

J. K. LING

Summary

Grant Inglis was born in Cupar, Fife, Scotland, the eldest of three children, the other two being

sisters. At a very early age he moved with his family to Lockerbie where his father taught music at

Lockerbie Academy. The three Inglis children were educated at that establishment until their early

teens and their schooling was completed at Dumfries Academy. Grant did his National Service

training after leaving school and before going to Aberdeen University where he planned to take a

degree in forestry. However, he changed to zoology in his second year — a profession he followed

for the rest of his life.

OBITUARY

WILLIAM GRANT INGLIS

9 August 1928 - 26 March 1991

Grant Inglis was born in Cupar, Fife, Scotland, the

eldest of three children, the other two being sisters.

At a very early age he moved with his family to

Lockerbie where his father taught music at Lockerbie

Academy. The three Inglis children were educated at

that establishment until their early teens and their

schooling was completed at Dumfries Academy. Grant

did his National Service training after leaving school

and before going to Aberdeen University where he

planned to take a degree in forestry. However, he

changed to zoology in his second year — a profession

he followed for the rest of his life.

After graduation from university he joined the staff

of the British Museum (Natural History), now the

Natural History Museum, in 1953. There he headed

the Aschelminth Section until 1968. In 1958, Grant

Inglis was awarded his Ph.D. by the University of

London; and in 1965 he was awarded his D.Sc. from

his old university, Aberdeen. He rose to the rank of

Principal Scientific Officer at the Natural History

Museum and was Dean of Studies at the Working Men’s

College in London. Always a keen mountaineer, he

participated in and led a British Museum (Natural

History) expedition to Nepal in 1961-62.

In 1966-67, Grant Inglis came to Australia as an

exchange worker at the Western Australian Museum

and so began his long association with this country.

Soon after his return to England from Australia, the

position of Director of the South Australian Museum

became vacant and he was appointed to that institution

on 2 September 1968.

The Directorship of the Museum also carried with

it the office of Protector of Relics, as provided for in

the Aboriginal and Historic Relics Act, 1965.

Memorials to Grant, albeit now made obsolete by

recent legislation, may still be seen throughout the State

in the form of brightly painted, white-on-blue notices

proclaiming this or that object to be under his

protection. Through this role and that of Museum

Director, Grant Inglis travelled the length and breadth

of South Australia where his wit and bonhomie won

him many rural friends. In turn the harsh beauty of

the Australian landscape enthralled him.

Upon his arrival at the Museum, Inglis laid down

his policy of emphasis on South Australia in both

research and display, aided by comparative work from

other regions where necessary. He also perceived a

need for more resources to be expended on public

programs, particularly exhibitions, than curation and

research, because he felt the latter had had a good run

during the preceding few years. He also saw a need

for the salaries of exhibitions staff, or preparators as

they were known then, to be augmented significantly

in line with the importance of their role in the

Museum’s overall functions.

194 OBITUARY — W.

Grant Inglis, along with his predecessors and

successors, inherited immense problems of inadequate

and unsuitable space for work and collections in a

twentieth century museum. He tackled these with

vigour, and several options came and went during his

tenure: Finally, during 1971, approval was near for a

northward extension from the Museum's west wing to

accommodate collections and research areas. In time,

however, that also was superseded by yet another plan.

By this time Inglis was heavily involved with a

Committee of Inquiry on Environment in South

Australia (the Jordon Committee) which led to the

establishment of the Department of Environment and

Conservation, of which he was to become the first

Director on 28 February 1972. The South Australian

Museum went with its former Director to the new

Department of which it became a division.

In 1976, a new South Australian Museum Act was

proclaimed, which increased the size of the Board from

five to six, and Grant Inglis was appointed to the Board

from 18 May 1976 to 16 March 1980. However, he was

rather unceremoniously removed from the position of

Director (Permanent Head) of Environment and

Conservation in 1977 and transferred to the Education

Department as Deputy Director-General, Museums

and Botanic Garden Services; these organisations were

also removed to the Education Department. This

situation existed until September 1979 when a new

government established the State’s first Department for

the Arts, to which the South Australian Museum was

joined. Grant Inglis then was transferred to the

Department of Fisheries as Senior Scientific Adviser

and ceased to have any formal administrative links with

the Museum after March 1980; but he did become a

familiar figure about the Museum again as he directed

his remarkable mind once more to systematic zoology.

Grant Inglis remained with the Department of

Fisheries until April 1987 when he retired. Officially

appointed as adviser to the Department, in fact he

pursued his research in systematic zoology and

produced his last seminal papers. In addition, his

experience in writing, editing and refereeing was put

to good use as he assisted Dr Scoresby Shepherd, editor

of the Department's publications, with incisive criticism

and polishing of manuscripts. In 1986, Grant Inglis was

awarded the Verco Medal by the Royal Society of South

Australia (of which he was president in 1970-71) for

notable contributions to nematology.

During his life he produced more than a hundred

papers, most of them scientific, amounting to over 1300

published pages. His most productive years

scientifically, were before he took up administration

at a senior level; notably during his fifteen years at

the British Museum (Natural History) and first three

years in South Australia. However, very few

subsequent years went by without some significant

contribution to the field and increasing attention to

theoretical and philosophical aspects of the science of

GRANT INGLIS

systematics. He wrote his seminal paper on the purpose

and judgements of biological classification in 1970

whilst heavily embroiled in administrative duties at the

South Australian Museum.

The majority of publications were concerned with

the classification of nematodes or round worms, small

animals that may be free-living, but also include

important parasites of animals and plants. Inglis worked

mainly on parasites of vertebrate animals. He not only

described many new species, but also made substantial

changes in their higher classification. His special

ability lay in clarifying the structure of parts of these

small, somewhat enigmatic animals, and that in the

days before scanning electron microscopy was in

general usage was some achievement. Often, what had

been misinterpreted as similar and homologous

structures were proved to be very different in their

origins, requiring considerable changes in the

classification. Later he moved on to free-living marine

nematodes, and he once jokingly said that it was the

sheer diversity of these that drove him into

administration.

During his period of administrative responsibility,

Inglis developed his scientific interests in areas which

did not require so much time working with a

microscope, at first in the functional morphology of

muscles and body wall of round worms, and later, into

the procedures of biological classification. In the latter

he saw evolution as progressing in waves, leading to

his establishment of a classificatory process he called

stratigramy, rather than by branching from a single

event as is the basis of accepted cladistic methodology.

His new role in the Department of Environment and

Conservation also gave rise to writings of a different

scale and flavour as, for some, radical new concepts

of nature conservation had to be promulgated to a still-

learning public and new policies had to be argued with

officialdom.

One of his great achievements whilst Director of

Environment and Conservation was the pioneering

beverage container deposit legislation that was

eventually passed by the South Australian Parliament.

The remarkably clean roadsides to be seen as one

enters South Australia from other states will be a lasting

memorial to Inglis’ tenacity in getting this model

legislation to and through the State Parliament. And

the deposits on soft drink cans which he pioneered are

now the basis of a minor industry amongst the less

well-off members of today’s society. Their thrift and

resourcefulness would no doubt have appealed to Grant

Inglis’ native instincts.

Grant recognised that protection of the environment

resulted from foreseeing harmful effects and avoiding

them. He was an enthusiastic proponent both at the

state and national level of the introduction of

environmental impact statements. He hoped museums

would be a rich resource base for these studies, and

J. K. LING 195

always insisted on the statements having a

comprehensive biological basis.

With the incorporation of the Department of Fauna

Conservation in 1972 into the Department of

Environment and Conservation, Grant Inglis set about

developing a systematic classification of the various

properties that were formerly under the protection of

that Department. He clearly recognised the multiple

uses that parks had — conservation, recreation, and

teaching purposes — and set in train the development

of management plans for each of the parks.

Grant Inglis was an accomplished orator and

thoroughly enjoyed public speaking. Once embarked

on an administrative career, he took every opportunity

to speak at conferences and seminars about

environmental issues. He was in considerable demand

nationally and was not averse to publicly advocating

positions he was working towards.

He had an infectious — some would claim

rambunctious — sense of humour, and he gathered

about him a small circle of close friends. Despite heart

trouble which had manifested itself before he turned

40, he enjoyed the good life and was an active member

of Adelaide’s Beef and Burgundy Club and all that that

entailed. In 1980 and again in 1990, he underwent heart

by-pass surgery, the first of which gave a new lease

of life to his considerable energies.

A bachelor, Grant Inglis died of a massive heart

attack in his beloved Scotland on 26 March 1991.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1954

1. Allometric growth in the Nematoda. Nature, London

173: 957.

2. On some nematodes from Indian vertebrates. I. Birds.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History (12) 7: 821-826.

1955

3. On the family Parasubuluridae van den Berghe &

Vuylsteke, 1938 and the subfamily Numidicinae Lopez-

Neyra, 1945 (Nematoda). Parasitology 45: 431-440.

1957

4. The comparative anatomy and systematic significance

of the head in the nematode family Heterakidae.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 128:

133-143.

1958

5. A revision of the nematode genera Kathlania and

Tonaudia. Annals and Magazine of Natural History (12)

10: 785-800.

6. A revision of the nematode genus Meteterakis Karve,

1930. Parasitology 48: 9-31.

7. A review of the nematode superfamily Heterakoidea.

Annals and Magazine of Natural History (12) 10:

905-912.

8. The comparative anatomy of the subulurid head

(Nematoda); with a consideration of its systematic

importance. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of

London 130: 577-604.

9. A redescription of the nematode Paraspidodera sellsi

Morgan, 1927 and its removal to a new genus

Morgascaridia. Journal of Helminthology 32: 65-72.

10. A new species of the nematode genus Thoracostoma

from the Antarctic. Annals and Magazine of Natural

History (13)1: 45-48.

1959

ll. The systematic position of Nematoxys piscicola Linstow

(Nematoda). Zeitschrift fir Parasitenkunde 19: 100.

12. The systematic position of the nematode genus

Hoplodontophoru. Revue de Zoologie et de Botanique

Africaines 59: 316-325.

13. Some oxyurid parasites (Nematoda) from Ochotona

rufescens vizier (Mammalia: Lagomorpha) in Iran.

Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France 84: 178-187.

14. Nematodes de Venezuela. II]. Nematodes parasitos

vertebrados venezolanos, I. Una revision del genero

Trypanozyuris (Ascaridina: Oxyuridae). Memorias de

la Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales ‘La Salle’ 19:

176-212. (With C. Diaz-Ungria as junior author).

1960

15. Nematodes de la famille Dubioxyuridae. Annales de

Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée 35: 190-191.

16. Sur la position systématique des Schneidernematinae

(Nematoda). Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et

Comparée 35: 428-429. (With A. G. Chabaud as junior

author).

17. Nematodes de Venezuela, IV. Nematodes parasitos de

vertebrado Venezolanus, II. El genero Ozolaimus

(Oxyuridae: Pharyngodoninae). Acta Biologica

Venezuelica 3(1): 1-24.

18. Further observations on the comparative anatomy of the

head in the nematode family Subuluridae: with a

description of a new species. Proceedings of the

Zoological Society of London 135: 125-136.

19. Comment on the proposed use of the plenary powers

to suppress the generic name Southernia Filipjev, 1927.

Z.N. (S.) 940. Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 18:

20, Nematodes de Venezuela, V. Sobre una coleccion del

Distrito Mara (Zulia). Acta Biologica Venezuelica 3:

67-81.

21. The oxyurid parasites (Nematoda) of primates.

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 136:

103-122.

22. A note on Enterobius vermicularis microbulbus

Yamashita and Konno, 1957. Zeitschrift fur

Parasitenkunde 20: 177-178.

23. Free-living nematodes from South Africa. Bulletin of

the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology 7(6):

291-319.

196 OBITUARY — W. GRANT INGLIS

24. The species of Rhabditis (Nematoda) found in rotting

seaweed on British beaches. Bulletin of the British

Museum (Natural History) Zoology 7(6): 320-333. (With

John W. Coles as junior autnor).

25. Three species of Cyatholaimus Bastian, 1865

(Nematoda: free-living: marine). Bulletin de la

Société Zoologique de France 86: 73-86.

26. Two new species of free-living marine nematodes from

the west coast of Scotland. Hydrobiologia 18: 284-292.

1962

27. Marine nematodes from Banyuls-sur-Mer: with a review

of the genus Eurystomina. Bulletin of the British Museum

(Natural History) Zoology 8(5): 209-283.

28. Miscellanea nematodologica. I and II. I. The structure

of the head of Parathelandros mastiguris. Il. A note on

labiopapillae. Zeitschrift fiir Parasitenkunde 21: 215-217.

29. Ichthyouris ro gen. et sp. nov. (Nematoda): an oxyurid

from a freshwater fish. Journal of Helminthology 36:

45-50.

1963

30. ‘Campaniform-type’ organs in the Nematoda. Nature,

London 197: 618.

31. New marine nematodes from off the coast of South

Africa. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History)

Zoology 10(9): 529-562.

32. Miscellanea nematodologica. III. Capillaria kabatai nov.

sp. Zeitschrift fir Parasitenkunde 22: 518-520. (With

John W. Coles as junior author).

33. The occurrence of Lemuricola (Nematoda: Oxyuridae)

in Malaya: with the description of a new species.

Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde 23: 354-359. (With

Frederick L. Dunn as junior author).

34. Sobre el genero Labiduris (Ascaridata: Kathlaniidae)

con una discusion sobre el desarrollo de la cabeza.

Boletin de la Sociedad Venezolana de Ciencias Naturales

25(106): 126-154. (With D. Diaz-Ungria as junior

author).

1964

35. The marine Enoplida (Nematoda): a comparative study

of the head. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural

History) Zoology (4): 263-276.

36. Functional deformation in the head of the genus

Allodapa (Nematoda). Journal of Helminthology 38:

31-40.

37. Some oxyurid parasites (Nematoda) from Neotropical

primates. Zeitschrift fir Parasitenkunde 24: 83-87. (With

Frederick L. Dunn as junior author).

38. The structure of the nematode cuticle. Proceedings of

the Zoological Society of London 143: 465-502.

1965

39. The functional and developmental significance of the

cephalic septum in the Ascaridoidea (Nematoda).

Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of London Y16:

23-36.

40. The comparative anatomy of the ascaridoid cuticle

(Nematoda). Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France

89: 317-338.

41. Observations on the nematode genus Citellina: with the

description of a new species, Citellina himalensis.

Journal of Helminthology 39: 11-18.

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SI.

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1967

a7,

58.

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6l.

Nudora omercooperi sp. nov. (Nematoda: free-living)

from an unusual locality in South Africa. Hydrobiologia

25: 176-180.

Patterns of evolution in parasitic nematodes. Pp. 79-124

in Third Symposium, British Society of Parasitology.

The British Museum (Natural History) Expedition to

East Nepal: 1961-1962. Introduction and list of localities.

Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology

12(3): 97-114. (With J. G. Sheals).

Chabaudus chabaudi gen. et sp. nov. (Nematoda:

Seuratoidea) from a fresh-water fish in Sierra Leone.

Revue de Zoologie et de Botanique Africaines 71: 71-176.

(With C. G. Ogden as junior author).

Miscellanea nematodologica. IV. The male of Alinema

alii Rasheed, 1963. Annals and Magazine of Natural

History (13) 7: 523-525. (With C. G. Ogden as junior

author).

Miscellanea nematodologica. V. Rictularia dhanra sp.

nov. from a squirrel in Nepal. Zoolologische Anzeiger

174: 227-231. (With C. G. Ogden as junior author).

The nematodes parasitic in the gizzards of birds: a study

in morphological convergence. Journal of Helminthology

39: 207-224.

Descriptions of some strongyles (Nematoda) from

mammals in East Nepal: with records of other parasitic

nematodes. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural

History) Zoology 13(7): 229-245. (With C. G. Ogden

as junior author).

The pinworm parasites (Nematoda: Oxyuridae) of the

Hapalidae (Primates). Parasitology 55: 731-737. (With

G. E. Cosgrove as junior author).

Primate: pinworm co-phylogenies. (Proceedings of the

British Society for Parasitology) Parasitology 55: 22pp.

The origin and function of the cheilostomal complex

in the nematode Falcaustra stewarti. Proceedings of the

Linnaean Society of London 177: 57-64.

Comment on the proposed suppression of Aphelenchus

steueri Stefanski, 1916 (Nematoda). Bulletin of

Zoological Nomenclature 22: 273.

Marine nematodes from Durban, South Africa. Bulletin

of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology 14(4):

79-106.

Chairman’s summary: Section Cl. Proceedings of the

First International Congress on Parasitology 1;Cl: 472.

The observational basis of homology. Systematic

Zoology 15: 219-228.

The evolution, host relationships and classification of

the nematode Superfamily Heterakoidea. Bulletin of the

British Museum (Natural History) Zoology 15(1): 1-28.

The occurrence of Rhabditis marina on Western

Australian beaches. Nematologica 12: 643.

Miscellanea nematodologica. VI. Echinonema australis

sp. nov. from Sminthopsis crassicaudata in South

Australia. Journal of Natural History 1: 173-175. (With

P. M. Mawson as junior author).

The relationships of the nematode superfamily

Seuratoidea. Journal of Helminthology 41: 115-136.

Interstitial nematodes from St Vincent's Bay, New

Caledonia. Expédition Francaise sur les Recifs

Coralliens de la Nouvelle Caledonie 2: 29-74.

J. K. LING 197

1968

62. Nematodes parasitic in Western Australian frogs.

Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology

16(4): 161-183.

63. The geographical and evolutionary relationships of

Australian trichostrongyloid nematodes and their hosts.

Journal of the Linnaean Society of London 47, 327-347.

64. Allopatric speciation in the nematode parasites of frogs

in southern Western Australia. Journal of Zoology 156:

405-413.

65. Closing address: Adelaide Seminar, Museums

Association of Australia. Kalori 35 (special edition):

118-119.

1969

66. Convergence in the structure of the head and cuticle of

Euchromadora and apparently similar nematodes.

Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Zoology

17(5): 149-204.

67. The deceptive simplicity of nematodes. Australian

Natural History 16: 172-175.

68. Review of ‘The procession of life’, by Alfred S. Romer.

Journal of Natural History 3: 302-303.

69. The labours of the South Australian Museum. Issue 5:

15-17.

70. Similarity and homology. Systematic Zoology 19: 93.

71, The purpose and judgements of biological classification.

Systematic Zoology 19: 240-250.

72. Cyatholaimidae (Nematoda) from the coast of Western

Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum

16(5): 1-13.

1971

73. Speciation in parasitic nematodes. Advances in

Parasitology 9: 185-223.

74. Marine Enoplida (Nematoda) from Western Australia.

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 95:

65-78.

75. Freshwater fish of South Australia. S.A. Yearbook 1971:

27-34. (With C. J. M. Glover as senior author).

76. Nematode parasites of Oceania. XII. A review of

Heterakis species, particularly from birds of Taiwan and

Palawan. Records of the South Australian Museum 16(8):

1-14. (With G. D. Schmidt and R. E. Kuntz as junior

authors).

77. Conserving evidence of our past. Journal of the

Anthropological Society of South Australia 9: 4-6.

78. The on-display interactions of museums and their public.

Kalori 42: 57-60.

79. The environment. Pp. 55-60 in ‘Public Health in South

Australia’.

1972

80. New urban development and the natural environment.

Pp. 33-38 in ‘City of the Future: the Murray New Town

Proposal’. Department of Adult Education, University

of Adelaide. Publication No. 33.

81. ‘Report of the Committee on Environment in South

Australia. (With Chairman: D. O. Jordan; and C. W.

Bonython, B. Mason, F. D. Morgan, and P. S.

Woodruff). Government Printer: Adelaide.

82. Introduction. Jn ‘Aboriginal Bark Canoes of the Murray

River’ by Robert Edwards. Rigby Ltd.: Adelaide; for

the South Australian Museum.

1973

83. Foreword. P. 5 in ‘Southern Aspect: An Introductory

View of South Australian Geology’ by A. R. Alderman.

South Australian Museum: Adelaide.

1974

84. Aschelminthes. Jn ‘Encyclopedia Brittanica (15th Ed.)

Macropedia 2: 137-144.

1975

85. Rural landscape conservation in South Australia. Pp.

137-144 in ‘Landscape Conservation. Australian

Conservation Foundation: Melbourne.

1976

86. Social-organisational responsibilities for environmental

matters. Pp. 8-16 in ‘Roads and the Environment

Seminar. South Australian Highways Department:

Adelaide.

87. Environmental aims and objectives. Pp. 43-45 in ‘Report

of the 3rd Annual Conference of the Australian Institute

of Health Surveyors, South Australian Division’.

88. Summing Up. Eco-fire: Fire control in relation to the

management of natural ecosystems and natural reserves.

Pp. 43-46 in ‘Proceedings of the Symposium of the

National Parks Association, New South Wales’.

89. Environment — aims and objectives. Pp. 43-46 in ‘South

Australian Health Surveyors Conference’. Third Annual

Conference.

1977

90. The development and future of the National Parks ethos.

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society of

Australasia, South Australian Branch 78: 50-55.

1978

91. Assessment of impact of a new city on the environment.

Pp. 66-71 in ‘Opportunity for Choice: Where should

Australia Locate Her People?’. Ed. E. G. Hailsworth.

CSIRO: Melbourne.

1980

92. Zoo-zoogeography of parasitic nematodes. Abstracts of

the 24th Congress of the Australian Society of

Parasitology pp. unnumbered.

1983

93. An outline classification of the Phylum Nematoda.

Australian Journal of Zoology 31: 243-255.

94. The structure and operation of the obliquely striated

supercontractile somatic muscles in nematodes.

Australian Journal of Zoology 31: 677-693.

95. The design of the nematode body wall: the ontogeny

of the cuticle. Australian Journal of Zoology 31: 705-716.

1985

96. The origins of nematodes. Australian Nematologists’

Newsletter 4: 4-9.

97. Evolutionary waves: patterns in the origin of animal

Phyla. Australian Journal of Zoology 33: 153-178.

198

98.

1986

101.

1988

102.

1989

103.

OBITUARY — W. GRANT INGLIS

The observational basis of homology. /n ‘Cladistic

Theory and Methodology’. Van Nostard Reinhold: New

York. Reprint of 1966 (pub. no. 56) Systematic Zoology

15: 219-228.

. Comment on the proposed completion of the Official

List entry for Rhabditis Dujardin, 1855 (Nematoda).

Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 43: 5-6.

. Further comment on the proposed conservation of

Southernia Allgén, 1929 by the suppression of

Southernia Filipjev, 1927 (Nematoda). Z.N. (S.) 940.

Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 43: 13-14.

Stratigramy: biological classifications through

spontaneous self-assembly. Australian Journal of.

Zoology 34: 411-437.

Cladogenesis and anagenesis: a confusion of

synapomorphies. Zeitschrift fiir Zoologische Systematik

und Evolutionsforchung 26: 1-11.

Concepts in science, the universe, and everything.

Search 20: 71.

104.

1990

105.

106.

1991

107.

108.

109.

Centenary biographical note: Harold Arnold Baylis

1889-1972. International Journal of Parasitology 19:

701-703.

Kiwinematidae n. fam. (Nematoda) for Kiwinema n.g.

and Hatterianema Chabaud and Dollfus, 1966:

Heterakoidea of native New Zealand vertebrates.

Systematic Parasitology 15: 75-79. (With E. A. Harris

as junior author).

A new species of the nematode genus Aspiculuris

Schulz, 1924 from Aethomys namaquensis (Rodentia)

in the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Systematic

Parasitology V7: 231-236. (With E. A. Harris and J.

W. Lewis as junior authors).

Characters: the central mystery of taxonomy and

systematics. Biological Journal, Linnean Society of

London (in press).

A revision of the nematode genus Odontoterakis

Skrjabin and Schikhobalova, 1947 (Heterakoidea).

Systematic Parasitology (in press).

Mammalakis n.g.; Mammalakinae n. subfam.

(Nematoda: Heterakoidea: Kiwinematidae): with

Heterakis macrospiculum Orhepp, 1939 as type species.

Systematic Parasitology (in press).

J. K. LING, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 25(2): 193-198, 1991.