CONTENTS

ARMSTRONG, G. REID, J. R. & HUTCHINSON, M.

Discovery of a population of the rare scincid lizard, Tiligua adelaidensis (Peters)

DAVIDOVA-VILIMOVA, J.

Jeffocoris gen. n. — a new podopine genus from Australia (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

EMIG, C. C. & ROLDAN, C.

The occurrence in Australia of three species of Phoronida (Lophophorata) and their distribution

in the Pacific area

GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L. & ZEIDLER, W.

Mollusc type specimens in the South Australian Museum. 5. Gastropoda: Cypraeoidea

JOHNSTON, G. R.

Ctenophorus tjantjalka, a new dragon lizard (Lacertilia: Agamidae) from northern South Australia

JONES, P. G.

The life of a ‘Museum Man’ — Edgar Waite diaries as an historical source

LEE, D. C.

New species of Oribatulidae (Acarida: Cryptostigmata: Planofissurae) from South Australian soils,

with a review of subfamilies and Australian records

MCHENRY, B. & YATES, A.

First report of the enigmatic metazoan Anomalocaris from the southern hemisphere and a trilobite

with preserved appendages from the Early Cambrian of Kangaroo Island, South Australia

MCNAMARA, K. J. & BARRIE, D. J.

A new genus of marsupiate spatangoid echinoid from the Miocene of South Australia

MULVANEY, K. J.

Hunting with hides: Ethno-historical reflections on Victoria River stone structures

NOBBS, C. W.

‘The Inhabitants of Cooper Creek’: A part translation of Carl Emil Jung’s ‘Am Cooper Creek’

NORMAN, F. I. & HORTON, P.

Notes on freckled duck Stictonetta naevosa shot at Bool Lagoon, South Australia, 1980

PARKER, S. A. & GORDON, D. P.

A new genus of the bryozoan superfamily Schizoporelloidea, with remarks on the validity of

the family Lacernidae Jullien, 1888

PICKERING, M.

Garawa methods of game hunting, preparation and cooking

REISWIG, H. M.

First Hexactinellida (Porifera) (glass sponges) from the Great Australian Bight

SMITH, M. A. & CLARK, P. M.

Radiocarbon dates for prehistoric occupation of the Simpson Desert

WALLACE, M. E.

The Crockers Well meteorite: An unusual LL7 breccia from South Australia

Volume 26(1) was published on 12 October 1992.

Volume 26(2) was published on 17 August 1993.

ISSN 0376-2750

PAGES

153-155

105-109

51-59

73-75

37-49

71-86

139-147

111-120

129-138

149-152

67-71

9-23

25~36

121-127

61-65

THE OCCURRENCE IN AUSTRALIA OF THREE SPECIES OF

PHORONDIDA (LOPHOPHORATA) AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN THE

PACIFIC AREA

CHRISTIAN C. EMIG & CARMEN ROLDAN

Summary

The phoronids Phoronis psammophilia Cori and Phoronopsis albomaculata Gilchrist are recorded

for the first time from both South Australia (Spencer Gulf) and New Caledonia (Nouméa lagoon),

and the latter for the first time from New Zealand. A diagnosis is given for each species, as well as

for Phoronis australis Haswell. The distribution of all three species in the Pacific Ocean, Southern

and Western Australian waters is detailed.

THE OCCURRENCE IN AUSTRALIA OF THREE SPECIES OF PHORONIDA (LOPHOPHORATA)

AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN THE PACIFIC AREA

CHRISTIAN C. EMIG & CARMEN ROLDAN

EMIG, C. C. & ROLDAN, C. 1992. The occurrence in Australia of three species of Phoronida

(Lophophorata) and their distribution in the Pacific area. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(1): 1-8.

The phoronids Phoronis psammophila Cori and Phoronopsis albomaculata Gilchrist are recorded

for the first time from both South Australia (Spencer Gulf) and New Caledonia (Noumea lagoon),

and the latter for the first time from New Zealand. A diagnosis is given for each species, as well

as for Phoronis australis Haswell. The distribution of all three species in the Pacific Ocean, Southern

and Western Australian waters is detailed.

C. C. Emig * and C. Roldan, Departamento de Biologia Animal I, Facultad de Biolgia, Universidad

Complutense, 28040 Madrid, Spain. * Present address: Station Marine d’Endoume, Rue de la Batterie-

des-Lions, 13007 Marseille, France. Manuscript received 19 December 1990.

Of the ten known species of Phoronida, all have

representative populations in the Pacific Ocean and

seven have been recorded in Australian waters (Emig

et al. 1977; Emig 1982a, b). Recent benthic surveys

of Spencer Gulf and Nouméa lagoon have resulted in

the first records of Phoronis psammophila and

Phoronopsis albomaculata from South Australia and

New Caledonia; the new material is listed below,

together with details of the collecting stations.

Previously unidentified material from New Zealand

in the collection of Portobello Marine Laboratory

proves upon reexamination to be the first New Zealand

record of Phoronopsis albomaculata. In addition,

examination of material of Phoronis australis in the

South Australian Museum led to additional locality

records of this species in Western Australia and

Queensland. The Pacific occurrence of all three species

is discussed below, and a brief diagnosis given of each.

Phoronis australis Haswell

Phoronis australis Haswell, 1883: 606.

Phoronis buskii McIntosh, 1888: 1.

Distribution in the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1).

Japan : 3. Misaki (Ikeda 1902, 1903); 4. Kyushyu

(Ishihawa 1977), Kii Peninsula (Uchida 1979). China :

6. Amoy, Qingdao (Wu & Ruiping 1980; Emig 1982a

b). Philippines : 7. (McIntosh 1888; Cori 1939).

Vietnam : 8. Nhatrang Bay (Kasyanov & Radashevsky

1987). Australia : 17. Waterman Bay, W. Aust., (coll.

South Australian Museum; Fig. 1); 10. Southport,

Queensland (coll. South Australian Museum; Fig. 1),

Moreton Bay, Queensland (Emig 1977); 18. Houtman

Abrolhos Is., W. Aust. (Emig 1982b); 12. Sydney,

N.S.W. (Haswell 1883; Ponder 1971; Emig et al. 1977).

Diagnosis

Burrowing in tube-wall of cerianthids, generally of

the genus Cerianthus. From the intertidal zone to

36 m depth.

Length in extension up to 200 mm, 2-5 mm in

diameter. Colour in life: body pink; anterior body part

and lophophore transparent or purple to black.

Lophophore spiral with 2.5 to 3.5 coils on each side,

5-16 mm in length, 600-1 000 tentacles. Nephridia with

two funnels (anal large, oral small), an ascendant

branch only, nephridiopore opening on nephridial ridge

at level of anus. Two giant nerve fibres (left one 5-13

pm in diameter; right one 3-13 ~m in diameter).

Longitudinal muscle bundles of bushy type;

arrangement of longitudinal muscle bundles relative

to four sub-divisions of metacoelom formed by

mesenteries (i.e. clockwise left oral, right oral, right

anal, left anal sub-divisions) represented by

conventional formula of Selys-Longchamps (1907); the

general formula is:

14-29 | 13-2

[43-87] w= and the mean formula is

4-17 | 5-17

22 | 22

64 = Poe

11 19

Sexual reproduction hermaphroditic; embryos brooded

in lophophoral cavity on mucous cord secreted by

nidamental glands of type B (i.e. restricted to floor of

lophophoral concavity with an extension along coils

of lophophore on inner surface of tentacles and

associated with two embryo masses); lophophoral

organs small. Asexual reproduction by transverse

fission.

Larva: unknown.

Remarks

The burrowing habits of P. australis are character-

istic. The species lives in the tube-wall of cerianthid

species, mainly of Cerianthus. No ecological data were

available on the individuals. The specimens collected

in Australian waters appear to have a higher number

of longitudinal muscle bundles than those examined

in Atlantic and Indian waters (Table 1).

2 C. C. EMIG & C. ROLDAN

FIGURE 1. Occurrences of Phoronis australis, P. psammophila and Phoronopsis albomaculata in the Pacific Ocean (see

explanation in text for location numbers and Tables 1, 4 and 5).

TABLE 1. Longitudinal muscle formulae of Phoronis australis recorded in Australian locations (see Fig. | for locations).

N = number of specimens examined.

Locality N Mean General Formula

27 | 26 23 —30 | 22-27

10. Southport 5 7 = [68 —84]

14} 11 12-15 | 10-14

23 | 22

10. Moreton Bay 1 65 =

13] 7

25 | 24 20-28 | 19-27

12. Sydney 21 B = [60 —87]

13} 11 8-17| 7-17

21 | 19

17. Waterman Bay 1 59 =

11] 8

23 | 22 17-35 | 14-27

Total for species 94 - 66 = [43 -87]

12] 9 4-17| 5-19

SPECIES OF PHORONIDA 3

Phoronis psammophila Cori

Phoronis psammophila Cori, 1889: 1.

Phoronis sabatieri Roule, 1889: 195.

Phoronis architecta Andrews, 1890: 445.

Distribution in the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1).

Russia Far East: \. Sakhalin (Emig 1984; Emig &

Golikov 1990); 2. Poss’yet Bay, Mordinov Gulf (Emig

1984; Emig & Golikov 1990). China: 5. Changshan

Is., Dalni, Potonoman (Emig 1984). Solomon Is.: 9.

(Emig 1977). Australia: 12. Cabbage Tree Basin,

N.S.W. (Rainer & Fitzhardinge 1981); 15. Port Phillip

Bay, Western Port, Victoria (Emig et al. 1977); 16.

Spencer Gulf, S. Aust. (coll. South Australian

Museum; Fig. 2). New Caledonia: 11. Nouméa lagoon

(coll. Emig; Fig. 3). New Zealand: 13. Ranganna Bay,

Doubtless Bay (coll. D. P. Gordon); 13. Howick,

Whangateau Harbor, Waitemata, Jellicoe (Jillett 1971;

Gordon & McKnight 1983; coll. D. Gordon). USA-

Hawaii: 19. Oahu (Emig 1977; Emig & Bailey-Brock

1987); 19. Midway (Sorden 1983). Panama: 20. (Emig

1982a).

AUSTRALIA

SPENCER

GULF

29 e31

FIGURE 2. Map of the stations at which phoronid species

have been recorded in Spencer Gulf (numbers correspond to

station numbers of Table 2).

Diagnosis

Embedded vertically in soft sediments, generally

sandy to muddy, or covered by seagrass beds. From

the intertidal zone down to 52 m depth.

Length in extension up to 190 mm, diameter 0.5-2

mm. Colour in life: body pink; lophophore transparent

with white (occasionally yellow, green or red) pigment

spots. Lophophore horseshoe-shaped with ends turned

medially. Tentacles up to 190, length 1.5-2.5 mm.

Nephridia with single funnel, descending and

ascending branch, nephridiopore on anal papilla

opening below anus. Single giant nerve fibre, on left

side, 7-27 ym in diameter, very thin nerve fibre rarely

present on right side. Longitudinal muscle bundles of

feathery type; general formula is:

7-19 | 7- 12 | ll

[24-53] eee mean formula is 35 -|*

4-11 | 4-11 616

Sexual reproduction dioecious; females brooding

embryos in single mass in lophophoral cavity through

nidamental glands of type C (i.e. formed by fusion of

inner row of lophophore tentacles); males with large,

glandular lophophoral organs. Asexual reproduction

by transverse fission.

Larva: Actinotrocha sabatieri Roule, 1896.

Remarks

In South Australia during the benthic survey “of

Spencer Gulf, PR. psammophila was recorded at seven

stations, occurring with Phoronopsis albomaculata

only at St. 33 (Fig. 2; Table 2), at which site its density

reached about 40 individuals.m~*. In Cabbage Tree

Basin, NSW (Rainer & Fitzhardinge 1981) (Fig. 1), P.

psammophila was found in three locations where the

salinity varies between 27.8 and 36.2 % and the annual

temperature range between 10.7 and 26.4°C: in stable

sand flat at 0.3 m (but presence appears rather

uncommon in shallower sites in this basin); in a silty

sand with patches of Posidonia australis at 2 m depth;

and in silty sand with surface detritus at 5 m depth.

This last location has a much lower concentration of

dissolved oxygen, which confirms the ability of this

species to live in waters containing small amounts of

oxygen (Emig 1982b). The associated fauna is common

in many estuaries along the south-east Australian coast.

In New Zealand, Phoronis psammophila has been

collected in the northern part of North Island, in

Howick (Auckland Harbour) in a Zostera patch in

sandy mud and sporadically in Whangateau Harbor

(D. P. Gordon, personal communication); in Ranganna

Bay in fine sand at 21 m (34°50’38"S, 173°14’60”E);

in Doubtless Bay in fine sand at 17 m (34°56'21’S,

173 °24’ 43 “E) and in sandy mud at 52 m (34°56’21’S,

173°24’ 43 "E). The last location is the deepest record

for P. psammophila. In the last two locations the

specimens, collected with a Smith-MclIntyre grab, are

sparsely distributed (2-3 individuals per haul).

In the Nouméa lagoon, New Caledonia (Fig. 3; Table

3), P. psammophila occurs at low density in fine to

coarse sands, generally covered with a rich epibiosis,

and in seagrass beds of Halodule minervis with

Halimeda (St.65, 119A, 119B); its density varied from

3 to 100 individuals.m~*. This species occurred

4 C. C. EMIG & C. ROLDAN

22°20°S

166°40°E

22°40’S

FIGURE 3. Map of the stations at which phoronid species have been recorded in the Noumea lagoon (numbers correspond

to station numbers of Table 3).

generally with one or two other phoronid species, e. g.

Phoronis muelleri Selys-Longchamps, Phoronopsis

albomaculata and/or Phoronopsis harmeri Pixell

(Table 3). In the Anse Vata (0-2 m; St. 302) and in

the Baie des Citrons (2-5m; St.303, 65), Phoronis

psammophila occurs with Phoronopsis harmeri at very

shallow depth.

The various populations of Phoronis psammophila

cannot be characterized by the formulae of their

longitudinal muscles (Table 4), for large variations

occur within the populations, and within and between

geographical areas. No relationship could be

established with environmental factors.

Phoronopsis albomaculata Gilchrist

Phoronopsis albomaculata Gilchrist, 1907: 152.

Distribution in the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1).

Russia: 2. Peter-the-Great Bay, Poss’yet Bay (Emig

& Golikov 1990). Australia: 10. Moreton Bay,

Queensland (Emig 1977; Emig et al. 1977); 15. Port

Phillip Bay, Western Port, Victoria (Emig et al. 1977);

16. Spencer Gulf, S. Aust. (coll. South Australian

Museum; Fig. 2). New Caledonia: 11. Nouméa lagoon

(coll. C. C. Emig, B. A. Thomassin; Fig. 3). New

Zealand: 14. Otago, Portobello (Rainer 1981; coll.

Portobello Marine Laboratory). Panama: 20. (Emig

1982a).

SPECIES OF PHORONIDA

TABLE 2. Records of Phoronis psammophila and Phoronopsis albomaculata in Spencer Gulf (see map in Fig. 2) and of

Phoronis australis in Australian waters. Surface per grab haul is 0.1 m?. SAM = South Australian Museum.

St. Depth Sand Number of individuals per grab haul Reg. No.

(in m) Nov. 85 Feb. 86 Aug. 86 Feb. 87 Sept. 87 SAM.L...

Phoronis psammophila

18 10 fine 3 513

22 10 fine 1 503

23 12 fine 2 2 1 504, 514, 515

28 12 medium 1 516

29 13 fine 1 505

31 8 coarse 1 517

Phoronopsis albomaculata

20 22 coarse I 526

27 7 fine 6: 7-6 1h -2'ni] 244 11 521-525

527-530

Phoronis psammophila and [Phoronopsis albomaculata]

33 5 very fine 2 20 Fl 14 1 1 1 3+[2] 506-512

518-520

[531]

Phoronis australis:

— Waterman Bay (W Australia, 31°51’S, 115°45’E), Coll. Noel Morrissy, Reg. No. SAM.TL 7294

— Southport (Queensland), Reg. No. SAM.TL 6605

TABLE 3. Records of Phoronida in the Noumea lagoon (collected by B. A. Thomassin and C. C. Emig) (see map in Fig.

3); the data in italics represent individuals.m~?.

0.3-0.35 FF = fine fraction of the sediment (<63 um). SAM = South Australian Museum.

In St.11I9A, 119B, and 138, the percentage of organic carbon is

St. Depth Phoronis Phoronopis Reg. No.

(in m) muelleri — psammophila albomaculata harmeri Sand %FF SAM.L. ..

29A 24 5 5

30A 12 2

30B 6 1 643

31 16 2

40B 17 1 fine muddy

41B 6 3 9 3 652 649 641

43 21 8 1 coarse 11

45B 13 1

49A 10 2 3 coarse 3 650 644

50 26 1 3 5 coarse 4 653° 645 642

56A 15 20 fine muddy

58 10 2 sandy mud

63 11 3 3 fine 4

65 5 2 6 coarse 5 651 646

67A 14 5 coarse fine

119A 6 40 50 coarse 654 647

119B 6 40 40 coarse 6 655 648

138 24 10 fine muddy

302 0:5.—2 50 300 coarse

303 2-5 100 100 fine

6 C. C. EMIG & C. ROLDAN

TABLE 4. Longitudinal muscle formulae of Phoronis psammophila recorded in the Pacific Ocean and southern Australian

waters (see Fig. 1 for locations). N = number of specimens examined.

Locality N Mean General Formula

9| 9 9-10| 8-9

13. New Zealand 6 26 = [25-28]

4| 4 4—5| 4-5

11] 10 10-14] 9-12

16. Spencer Gulf 8 33 = [29-39]

6} 6 S5-— 6| S- 8

13 | 12 9-16| 9-14

20. Panama 33 37 = [28 —48]

6| 6 S— 9| 5-9

11 | 12 10—12 | 11-12

9. Solomon 4 3p [35 —38]

7T\ 7 7- 8| 6-

11 | 12 9-14] 10-14

5. China 10 38 = (33 —46]

8] 7 7-— 9| 6-

12 | 12 10—14]| 10-15

2. Russia 11 39 = ST A SPALL [32 —46]

8| 7 6-10| 6-9

13 | 12 9-17| 8-18

11. New Caledonia 22 40 = [29-53]

8| 7 5-11] 5-10

15| 15 11-19] 11-17

15. Melbourne 36 47 = [34-53]

9| 8 6-11} 6-11

10| 10 11 | 10

19. Hawaii 2 = 34 and =533

T| St 6] 6

12] 11 7-19| 7-18

Total for species 3 137 35 = [24-53]

6} 6 4-11} 4-11

Diagnosis

Embedded vertically in soft sediments, generally

coarse sands. From 0 to 55 m depth.

Length in extension up to 150 mm, diameter 0.5-2

mm. Colour in life: body pink; lophophore transparent

with pigment spots. Lophophore horseshoe-shaped

with ends turned medially, up to one coil. Tentacles

up to 160, length 2-3 mm. Nephridia with single funnel,

descending and ascending branch, nephridiopore on

anal papilla opening below anus on collar fold within

invagination. Giant nerve fibre paired, left fibre only

present below nephridial level on left side (15-35 wm

in diameter). Longitudinal muscle bundles of feathery

type; general formula is:

14- 13-34

[44-102] 222 , mean formula is

7-20 | 6-20

68 = 22 21

13 | 12

Sexual reproduction dioecious; females probably

having brooding pattern; males with large glandular

lophophoral organs. Asexual reproduction by transverse

fission.

Larva: unknown.

Remarks

In South Australia, during the benthic survey of

Spencer Gulf, Phoronopsis albomaculata was recorded

at three stations, occurring with Phoronis psammophila

at St.33 (Fig. 2; Table 2). Its density reached about

70 individuals.m~? at St.27; a similar density (up to

75 individuals.m~*) has been cited near Tuléar,

Madagascar, by Thomassin & Emig (1983).

During a survey of the Nouméa lagoon (New

Caledonia) (Fig. 3; Table 3), Phoronopsis

SPECIES OF PHORONIDA 7

TABLE 5. Longitudinal muscle formulae of Phoronis albomaculata recorded in the Pacific Ocean and southern Australian

waters (see Fig. 1 for locations). N = number of specimens examined.

Locality N Mean General Formula

18 | 18 16—21 | 15—23

20. Panama 22 54 = [47— 67]

9| 9 8-12] 8-12

18 | 19 18—19| 18-19

14. Portobello 4 i] s a RE [54— 59]

10| 9 8-13] 8-10

19| 18 15—22 | 13-21

16. Spencer Gulf 34 56 = — ———_ ,—— [44- 63]

10| 9 8-12} 7-11

19 | 20 14—23 | 15—24

15. Melbourne 14 59 = [46-— 68]

10 | 10 7-13| 7-13

21] 19 17-27 | 17-21

11. New Caledonia 10 65 = Ts Se ee a [S3— 76]

13 | 12 10-15| 9-13

21| 21 14—27 | 16-28

2. Russia 31 67 = er sae ore [48— 80]

13 | 12 9-17| 6-17

26 | 24 19—33 | 19-33

10. Moreton Bay 20 80 = [62—102]

16| 14 12—20| 12-16

22 | 21 14—33 | 13-34

Total for species 240 68 = [44-102]

13 | 12 7-20| 6-20

albomaculata was collected by B. A. Thomassin at CONCLUSIONS

several stations characterized by coarse sand and fine -

sand at a low density of 3-9 individuals.m~?.

In Otago (New Zealand) (Fig. 1), the species cited

as Phoronopsis sp.1 by Rainer (1981: St.B10) has been

identified by us as Phoronopsis albomaculata (material

deposited in the Portobello Marine Laboratory): this

species occurs at 4 m depth with a mean abundance

of 9.7, in a sandy bottom (fraction 2-3 g = 65.5%)

with a large amount of coarse material and 14% organic

detritus, under the influence of tidal currents. This

record is from one of the coldest coastal locations in

New Zealand, with water temperatures of 5-7°C in

winter.

In the Russian Far East (Fig. 1) where the locations

are under the influence of subtropical waters,

Phoronopsis albomaculata has been recorded between

8 and 45 m depth with a density 8-20

individuals.m~?, but up to 312 individuals.m~? at

25 m in Poss’yet Bay (Emig & Golikov 1990).

As in Phoronis psammophila, no relationship could

be established between geographical populations of

Phoronopsis albomaculata on the basis of their muscle

formulae (Table 5).

Phoronis psammophila is a cosmopolitan species and

Phoronopsis albomaculata, previously considered as

a tropical species, appears now as a tropical-temperate

species according to its life conditions in New Zealand.

The latter occurs in similar types of sandy bottoms to

Phoronis psammophila, but in general in those with

a higher amount of the coarse fraction under the

influence of stronger near-bottom currents;

P. psammophila has a higher density in well-sorted fine

sands (Thomassin & Emig 1983). Such factors should

explain the distribution of both species in Spencer Gulf

and in the Nouméa lagoon and their co-occurrence in

some locations.

The present data provide confirmation that, in

Phoronida, low densities occur in tropical and

subtropical waters (Emig 1982b; Thomassin & Emig

1983) in contrast to the higher densities which are cited

at higher latitudes. For example, P psammophila:

18000 individuals.m~? in Marseille (South of France;

Emig 1982b) and Phoronopsis albomaculata: 325

individuals per m~? in the Poss’yet Bay (Russia Far

East).

8 C. C. EMIG & C. ROLDAN

The taxonomic characters of Phoronis australis, P.

psammophila and Phoronopsis albomaculata show

strong similarities over the whole Pacific area, except

for the muscle formulae, which vary widely within and

between geographical locations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Ms Ene-mai Oks, leader of the South

Australian Department of Fisheries benthic survey of

Upper Spencer Gulf (1985-1987) for depositing the

survey’s collections in the South Australian Museum,

Dr J. B. Jillett, Portobello Marine Laboratory and

Dennis P. Gordon, DSIR, Marine and Freshwater

Science, Wellington, for loans of the New Zealand

material of Phoronis psammophila and Phoronopsis

albomaculata, and Sebastian Rainer and S. J. Edmonds

for comments as referees.

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ISHIKAWA, H. 1977. Comparative studies on the thermal

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GARAWA METHODS OF GAME HUNTING, PREPARATION AND

COOKING

MICHAEL PICKERING

Summary

This paper describes the traditional methods of hunting, fishing, preparation, and cooking of major

food animals as practised by the western Garawa people of the inland Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern

Australia. The data supports an hypothesis that similar strategies for game exploitation existed

across differing Australian environments and may also be reflected within the archaeological

record.

GARAWA METHODS OF GAME HUNTING, PREPARATION AND COOKING

MICHAEL PICKERING

PICKERING, M. 1992. Garawa methods of game hunting, preparation and cooking. Rec. S. Aust.

Mus. 26(1): 9-23.

This paper describes the traditional methods of hunting, fishing, preparation, and cooking of major

food animals as practised by the western Garawa people of the inland Gulf of Carpentaria, Northern

Australia. The data supports an hypothesis that similar strategies for game exploitation existed across

differing Australian environments and may also be reflected within the archaeological record.

M. Pickering, Department of Archaeology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3083. Manuscript

received 17 June 1991.

This paper is part of an exercise in salvage

ethnography, the collection of data from a society

which no longer practises the activities described. It

is derived from information collected as part of an

investigation into western Garawa traditional land use

and site location patterns for the purpose of developing

land use models applicable to archaeology.

The western Garawa represent a hunter-gatherer

population adapted to the exploitation of a transitional

sub-humid to semi-arid environment (Fig.l). Little

information relevant to land use, site patterning, and

related economic activities is available for such

environments.

The aim has been to avoid the analytical

manipulation of the data as far as possible, in favour

of providing a usable ethnography. Garawa hunting

strategies and preparation methods fall into three broad

classes, depending primarily on animal size and general

habitat. These are defined here as ‘large game’, ‘small

game’ and ‘aquatic game’ strategies. Within each

strategy there are both general and specialised methods.

Part of the author’s research into Garawa land use

and site patterning has involved the comparative

analysis of changes in land use patterns between

environmental zones. The Garawa information, as an

example of economic use of a transitional environment,

provides a link between the arid and tropical

environments. Preliminary analysis of Garawa land use

patterns and comparison with patterns from arid and

humid environments suggests that highly predictable

relationships exist between land use patterns and the

environments in which they operate. Further, the

progressive and gradual shift between environments

appears to be accompanied by similar, and predictable,

shifts in regional land use patterning. Results to date

suggest that it may be possible to reconstruct regional

patterns of prehistoric land use on the basis of

environmental reconstruction and ethnographically

derived models.

Garawa hunting and gathering practices reflect

elements of both tropical humid to sub-humid and

semi-arid to arid land use patterns. Without the

mediating influence of the Garawa information the

emphasis will always tend to be on the differences

between these two environmental extremes. The

Garawa land use data will allow for better comparative

studies, Similarly the game hunting and preparation

methods presented here demonstrate some degree of

continuity between methods applied in both northern

and southern environments (see Isaacs 1987).

The value of the Garawa data, therefore, lies in its

application in comparative studies, where it not only

demonstrates differences, but also similarities, between

different environments. This allows for the better

development of models of game processing relevant

to the interpretation of the archaeological record.

METHODOLOGY

Information was collected through interviews with

senior Garawa, supplemented by observation where

possible. The reliance on interviews determines the

‘salvage’ nature of this ethnography. The practices

described are rarely undertaken today.

The two major methodological problems associated

with reconstruction of past practices through oral

history rather than observation are those of informant

reliability and information quality. The problem of

informant reliability, where it is difficult to confirm

whether an account accurately reflects common

practice, is largely overcome through comparing

consistencies in different accounts of the same practice.

The methods presented here are those most consistently

provided and agreed upon by informants.

The problem of information quality is that it is

difficult to obtain more than a very generalised

description of past practices. Where observation by

researchers is possible, consistencies, anomalies and

peculiarities are more easily defined and allow for a

more detailed account (e.g. Meehan 1982, Baker 1988,

Bradley 1991). Opportunities for such detailed

10 M. PICKERING

LEGEND

100 km

mew

wee?

GULF OF

CARPENTARIA

Study area

Garawa lands

=> Major rivers

FIGURE 1. Location of Garawa country and study area.

observation are, however, decreasing. Where

observation is not possible and where the account is

considerably removed in time and space from the

action, there is an inherent tendency towards

generalisation. Generality in these ethnographic

accounts should not be dismissed, when the only

alternative may be no information at all. Moreover,

a tendency towards generality can have its benefits, as

Thomas has observed (1976: 73):

Much of the so-called popular anthropology (the

far-away-places-with-strange—sounding-names

school) emphasizes the range of the human

condition, often with a profound neglect of

central tendencies.

The accounts provided here, although generalised, go

some way towards contributing to the definition of

some of these ‘central tendencies’.

Animals are referred to in the text by their common

names. This reflects the nature of the information,

where exact identification of animals was usually not

possible. Table 2 provides a summary listing of

common and species names of major game animals.

Common names are preferred to species names in

the text of this paper. Species names are often used

indiscriminately by ethnographers, with the result that

undue emphasis is placed on distinguishing specific

animals rather than on the methods used to exploit

them. The resulting inference is that a technique

represents a specific response to a particular species,

and may not also be found in different environments

where that species may be absent. This paper suggests

that in many cases the same methods can be applied

to a variety of species of a particular genus from

different environments.

The question of generating reliable analogies

applicable over space and time is central to the ‘land

use’ study from which this paper is derived. It is

relatively rare for the considerable data on the

economic, technological, and social practices of

Australian hunter-gatherers to be used by researchers

outside Australia, using ethno-archaeological models.

This may be a result of the belief that distance lessens

the reliability of an analogy, though researchers have

often seen little difficulty in comparing ethnographic

GARAWA HUNTING it]

and archaeological societies between the Old and the

New Worlds (e.g. Binford 1983; Villa et al. 1986;

Pickering 1989). The reluctance to include Australian

material in comparative hunter-gatherer studies has also

been aggravated by an over-emphasis on the unusual

aspects of Australian flora and fauna. It may, for

example, be argued that methods for hunting emu and

kangaroo have little application to the interpretation

of the archaeology of deer hunters of Europe or

America. But if emus and kangaroos are approached

in the context of ‘large game grazing animals’, rather

than as ‘flightless bird and leaping marsupial’, the range

of possible strategies for the hunting of ‘large game

grazing animals’ is expanded. Similar concerns have

been expressed by Clarke (1978: 109-110).

THE GARAWA AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

The Garawa

The Garawa occupy the transitional zone between

the northern sub-humid to humid tropics and the

southern central semi-arid to arid inland (Fig. 2). There

is little information on hunter-gatherer land use or

economics within this environmental zone, most

studies focusing on arid desert and humid tropical

environments.

Garawa social and religious phenomena are not

discussed here. More specific information on these

issues is provided by Avery & Mclaughlin (1977), the

Aboriginal Land Commissioner (1985, 1990), and

Trigger (1982, 1989). In summary, the Garawa largely

conform to general principles of social and religious

organization and land tenure common to northern

Australian Aboriginal groups (see Maddock 1972).

h=humid, s-h= sub-humid,

650 = median annual rainfall (mm),

FIGURE 2. Climatic zones (after Gentilli 1986: 30).

S-a = semi arid,

Environment

Garawa homelands lie in the southern Gulf of

Carpentaria between latitudes 20 degrees and 14

degrees south. The study area contains three major

physiographic divisions: the northern Coastal Plains

(30% of study area), characterised by lowland plains

rising to undulating country; the central Gulf Fall (50%

of study area), characterised by low hills and

undulating country and the southern Bukalara/Barkly

Plateau (20% of study area), characterised by

escarpments, plateaux, and upland plains (after Aldrick

& Wilson 1990).

Garawa occupation of the region centred on the

major north-south running river and stream systems

of the Gulf Fall, with seasonal excursions into the hills

of the Bukalara/Barkly Plateau, and onto the plains

of the Gulf Fall.

The heart of Garawa country lies on the notional

division between the sub-humid and semi-arid climatic

zones. Climate is characterised by dry warm winters

(the dry) and hot wet summers (the wet). The wet

summers are shorter than for the more northern humid

and sub-humid climatic zones with a progressive

decrease in rainfall from north to south.

The vegetative pattern of the region shows a decrease

in the eucalypt-dominant tree canopy from woodland

in the north to low open woodland in the south. The

northern Coastal Plain consists of low to medium

eucalypt woodland with intermittent low to medium

melaleuca woodlands and tussock grass understorey.

Foliage cover in the tree stratum is 10 to 30%. The

Gulf Fall consists of low open eucalypt woodland with

tussock grass and hummock grass understorey. Foliage

cover in the tree stratum is usually less than 10%. The

a = arid

@ = Study area

12 M. PICKERING

Bukalara/Barkly Plateau consists of low eucalypt

woodland with sparse tussock and herbaceous grasses.

Foliage cover in the tree stratum is less than 10%. All

three physiographic divisions are transected by major

fluvial corridors which support localised corridors of

diverse woodland and open woodland communities

(after Nix & Kalma 1972; Australian Surveying and

Land Information Group 1989; Gentilli 1986; Aldrick

& Wilson 1990).

Land Use

Garawa land use followed the seasonal pattern. This

saw an annual cycle of four major seasons: the storm

time and rain time of the wet summer months and the

cool time and hot time of the drier winter months. The

late wet season saw a dispersal of the population from

the major core areas along the river systems of the Gulf

Fall into the adjacent plains and hills, now made

accessible by temporary waters and _ seasonal

efflorescence of resources. After the summer rains

ceased, the progressive loss of peripheral temporary

waters and resources saw a corresponding contraction

of the population, through the semi-permanent waters

of the major streams and lagoons, to the permanent

waters of the rivers. By the late hot season the

population was concentrated along the rivers where

it remained through the hot, storm and early wet

seasons.

This pattern of seasonal movement occurred over a

relatively small area. The average range radius of the

Garawa land-using group was 15 kilometres, usually

centred on a major permanent water source. Late wet

season camps, usually in the caves of the hills and

plains, and cool season camps, usually on the semi-

permanent waters of the river pools and lagoons, often

fell within this 15 kilometre radius. People were rarely

more than one day’s walk from the richer ‘core’ territory

of the major river channels.

This cycle of medium range movement reflected the

seasonal distribution, abundance, and quality of food

and water resources.

THE GROUND OVEN

The ground oven was the most common method of

cooking quantities of meat and vegetables. The author

observed a number of ground ovens in use and given

its role in Garawa food preparation, it is appropriate

to describe its Construction and operation.

The explorer Ludwig Leichhardt passed through the

Gulf region in 1847 and noted:

The fire places of the natives were here arranged

in a straight line, and sheltered from the cold

wind by dry branches: they were circular, the

circumference was slightly raised, and the centre

depressed and filled with pebbles, which the

natives heat to cook their victuals.

(Leichhardt 1847; 382)

The manufacture of a ground oven consisted of

digging a pit large enough to accommodate the quantity

of food to be cooked. The smallest ovens were little

more than a shallow scrape in the sand — slightly less

than a metre across and fifteen centimetres deep —

and were used to cook several fish, fruit bat, or a lizard.

The pits of larger ovens measured two metres across

by 80 cms deep and could accommodate two or three

kangaroos.

A large fire was lit in or adjacent to the pit. The

animal was briefly thrown on it to singe off its fur,

feathers or quills. The animal was quickly removed

and the skin scraped and brushed clean. Larger animals

were usually then gutted. When the fire had died down

to hot coals, about two-thirds of these were placed in

the pit. The carcass was laid in the coals and the

remaining coals arranged on and around it. If stones

were available these were heated in the fire and stuffed

into the body cavity (in the case of larger game) or

were placed around the animal.

The animal and its blanket of coals were then covered

with sheets of paperbark or other vegetation to hand.

This provided both a heat and steam seal and kept the

meat clean. Soil was then packed over the paperbark.

The oven was considered to be well sealed if no steam

or smoke was seen to escape. The oven was then left

alone for varying periods, from one hour for limited

amounts of small game and fish, to overnight (eight

hours) for larger game or greater bulk, though the latter

time period often depended upon people’s enthusiasm

for opening the oven in the middle of the night. Three

to four hours appears to have been the maximum

cooking period for large game.

The oven and stones would be re-used if a site was

continually occupied or re-occupied. Once game was

cooked little artefactual assistance was necessary to

butcher any animal. Cooked animals were easily

dismembered and apportioned by hand, severing at

joints and along muscle faces. Suitable long bones were

occasionally cracked to extract the marrow. This

produced long and irregular splinters. The consumption

of marrow was not a regular occurrence and depended

upon individual preference at the time.

Bone Burning

Bone and shell remains were commonly thrown into

the fireplace and ‘burnt. The western Garawa

informants describe this as mandatory and necessary

to ensure a continued plentiful supply of fat animals.

Robins & Trigger (1990: 45-48) describe slightly

differing patterns of bone burning practice amongst the

eastern Garawa and their Waanyi and Ganggalida

neighbours.

The Garawa definition of ‘burning bone’ does not

necessarily guarantee its destruction. Bones are ‘burnt’

by throwing them into the fireplace which was rarely

hot enough to completely destroy or reduce the bone.

Bones were often only slightly charred or calcined.

Calcined bones easily broke into small fragments

similar to those often associated, by archaeologists,

GARAWA HUNTING

with breaking of bones for marrow extraction.

TABLE I. Seasonal frequency of major food animals.

ANIMAL

Mammals

Macropods

Possum

Bandicoot

Echidna

Dingo

Fruit bat

Reptiles

Goanna

Blue-tongued

lizard

Frilled lizard

Black-headed

python

Tortoise

(longneck)

Tortoise

(shortneck)

Water snake

Crocodile

Birds

Emu

Plains bustard

Bird eggs

Birds (spp.)*

Fish

Fish (all spp.)

Freshwater

crayfish

Freshwater

mussel

Insects

Sugarbag

WET

000

000 :

000 Os:

000 OOo

O00

000

Ooo

000

000 OOO

Low frequency

Medium frequency

High frequency

north of study area

COOL

M A M

000 OOO OOO

000 000 000

0..

.00 000 000

Ooo 000 000

000 000 000

M A M

COOL

ANIMALS AND STRATEGIES

Game hunting and preparation methods are

considered here to fall into three major strategy classes,

defined primarily according to animal size and general

habitat. ‘Large game’ strategies targeted the highly

mobile animals found in the fluvial corridors and

plains: kangaroos, wallabies, emus, and bush turkeys.

000

OOO

000

oo.

OOO

000

HOT

A S

000 OOO

000 000

000 OOO

000 =O000

000 000

000 OOO

000 000

OOO OOO

A S

HOT

STORM

oO N

OOO OOO

.00

000 000

OOO Ooo

OOO OOo

000 000

OOO Ooo

00.

0..

000 O00

O N

STORM

WET

OOO

000

WET

14 M. PICKERING

‘Small game’ strategies targeted the localised animals

of the lagoons, plains and hills: snake-necked tortoises,

lizards, possum, echidna, fruit bats, crocodile, etc.

‘Aquatic game’ strategies targeted animals of the semi-

permanent to permanent waters: fish, short-necked

tortoises, crayfish, crocodiles, and mussels. Table 1

provides a summary of the seasonal distribution and

relative abundance of animal resources referred to in

this paper.

Classification on the basis of size does not reflect

the overall contribution which each class of game made

to Garawa diet. A large game hunt could proceed in

the full knowledge that an alternative, more productive,

and more accessible small game meat source was

available. A successful large game hunt might also

produce less meat than a moderately successful small

game hunt or fishing trip.

While most native animals are edible not all were

consumed. This was a result of numerous factors,

including flavour, ease and economy of capture and

general palatability, the latter being more a subjective,

rather than a nutritional, determinant. The decision

as to target was based not only upon the availability

of the resources and the economic efficiency of

pursuing it, but also upon the hunter’s sex, personal

preference, enjoyment and ego. The result is that a

simple listing of potential food species, as is common

in reconstructions based largely on reference to basic

floral and faunal data, would not accurately reflect the

list of actual food species which dominated the diet.

Table 2 provides a summary listing of the major

species utilised. This table is compiled on the basis

of informants’ descriptions of animals rather than on

carcass identification. It is considered a minimum

listing of actual food species and no doubt a number

of other species were also utilised. A large number

of potential food species is available in Arnol et al.

(1983) which lists animal species for the western

neighbouring McArthur River Catchment.

Large Game Strategies

The general strategy

There was a general strategy applied to all large game

animals. This was the simple stalking of game sighted

while hunting opportunistically. Prior to a stalking hunt

the hunter would smear himself with white ochre. This

concealed the smell of the hunter and provided a degree

of camouflage through breaking up the hunter's outline.

Occasionally the camouflage would be supplemented

by holding two small leafy branches (70—100 cms) butt

to butt, effectively forming an ‘hourglass’ of leaves”

which assisted in concealing the hunter. The hunter

would then carefully stalk to within effective spear

range of the target, usually within 10 metres. This

method was most commonly used with large game

animals encountered unpredictably in the open

woodland country of the plains and low hills.

The aim in large game hunting was to disable the

animal to the point where capture was assured.

Immediate death or disabling injury were equally

acceptable. The largest, and preferred, target zone of

most large game was the hips, pelvis, and lower

abdomen. The result was that in a successful hunt

animals were often wounded to the point of being

unable to escape. In this incapacitated state the animal

might be left alive until required. This was rarely

longer than a few hours but might extend overnight.

In a warm to hot climate this considerably prolonged

the freshness of the meat.

The hunting of large game animals was usually the

preserve of males although the capture of a wounded

animal could involve women and children. Until rifles

became commonly used, the hunting tool kit comprised

spears with wood, stone, or metal heads, spear

throwers, and a stone or steel knife.

Hunters would go out singly or in company. They

rarely stayed out from the base camp longer than one

day, although occasionally one to three night hunting

camps would be made. The hunter's family might

accompany him on overnight trips, remaining at a small

hunting camp while he ranged further afield during

the day.

Dingoes, and later domestic dogs, which had proven

useful hunters, would be used occasionally, particularly

in pursuing wounded game. The dogs would quietly

remain with the hunters’ extra spears and equipment,

which was put down when a target was sighted. When

the prey was hit the hunter would call up the dogs

which would scent the blood and pursue and harass

the animal until the hunter could catch up.

Upon the capture of a large animal a fire would be

lit to signal other hunters in the vicinity and residents

of the home camp. If the hunter was some distance

from the home camp the animal might be partially

prepared by gutting, singeing of fur or feathers, and

occasionally by complete cooking on site. If the

members of the home camp were particularly hungry

they would go out to meet the hunter.

Macropods

There is a variety of macropod species in all the

environmental zones of the study area. These range

in size from the large heavy common and antilopine

wallaroos and the occasional red kangaroo through to

the smaller agile wallabies (see Table 2).

By all accounts macropods were caught regularly,

with reports of at least one per hunter per week being

a minimum and with one to two per day being the

regular capture rate for a good hunter.

The best time to hunt macropods was in the early

morning or late evening when they were feeding and

watering in the open, close to main water sources.

During the hotter midday period they would disperse

to shelter under trees and in rock shelters which

effectively concealed them from hunters and allowed

GARAWA HUNTING 15

them to be warned of a hunter's approach. The cool

season, between March and August, was the optimum

time for hunting macropods, though they were available

and were hunted all year long. The wet season

abundance of food and water encouraged game to

disperse widely onto the plains and into the hills. By

August, as the hot season commenced, the animals

were forced, by dwindling food and water, to retreat

to the more permanent waters where the Garawa were

TABLE 2. Major game animals.

also focused. This concentration of numbers meant that

their availability and behaviour became more

predictable at this time. Apart from this general

strategy of careful stalking of opportunistically sighted

game, there were several other specialised techniques.

One technique, used when a resting hill kangaroo

(wallaroo/euro) was sighted lying in a low rock shelter,

was to quietly move to a point immediately above the

shelter. The hunter would then wipe a stone under his

Common Name

Species

—————

Mammals

Northern nailtail wallaby

Agile wallaby

Common wallaroo/euro

Antilopine wallaroo

Red kangaroo

Rock ring-tail possum

Northern brush-tail possum

Northern quoll

Black-footed tree rat

Northern brown bandicoot

Echidna

Dingo

Black flying flox

Little red flying fox

Reptiles

Freshwater crocodile

Snake-necked tortoise

Northern snapping tortoise

Short-necked tortoise

Gould’s goanna

Mertens’ water monitor

Spotted tree monitor

Blue-tongued lizard

Frilled lizard

Black-headed python

Arafura file snake

Little file snake

Birds

Emu

Plains bustard

Fish

Black bream

Salmon catfish

Eel-tailed catfish

Sleepy cod

Barramundi

Perch

Archer fish

Freshwater crayfish

Freshwater mussel

Insects

Sugarbag/Native bee

Onychogalea unguifera

Macropus agilus

Macropus robustus

Macropus antilopinus

Macropus rufus

Pseudocheirus dahlii

Trichosurus arnhemensis

Dasyurus hallucatus

Mesembromys gouldii

Isoodon macrous

Tachyglossus aculeatus

Canis familiaris

Pteropus alecto

Pteropus scapulatus

Crocodylus johnstonii

Chelodina rugosa

Elseya dentata

Elseya australis

Varanus gouldii

Varanus mertensi

Varanus timorensis

Tiliqua scincoides

Chlamydosaurus kingii

Aspidites melanocephalus

Acrochordus arafurae

Acrochordus granulatus

Dromaius novaehollandiae

Ardeotis australis

Hephaestus fuliginosus

Hexanematichthys sp.

Neosilurus sp.

Oxyeleotris lineolatus

Lates calcarifer

Abassis spp.

Toxotes charareus

Cherax quadricarinatus

Velesunio angasi

Trigona plebia

Trigona tetragona

(0.0 cm) = average size based on observations.

Weight/Size Reference

4.5-9.0 kg Gordon 1983a: 204

9.0-27.0 kg Merchant 1983: 242

6.25-46.5 kg Poole 1983: 251

16.0-49.0 kg Calaby 1983a: 253

17.0-85.0 kg Sharman 1983: 255

1.28-2.0 kg Nelson & Kerle 1983: 132

1.1-2.0 kg Kerle 1983: 149

300-900 gm Begg 1983: 23

430-870 gm Calaby 1983b: 383

0.5-3.1 kg Gordon 1983b: 96

2.0-7.0 kg Augee 1983: 8

9.6-19.4 kg Newsome 1983: 483

500-700 gm Hall 1983: 280

300-600 gm Richards 1983: 277

2.0m Cogger 1980: 2

30 cm Frith 1983: 22

30 cm Frith 1983: 23

30 cm Cogger 1980: 6

71.0 kg Frith 1983: 34

10m Frith 1983: 45

60 cm Frith 1983: 37

30 cm Frith 1983: 45

85 cm Frith 1983: 31

3.0 m Frith 1983: 47

2.5m Frith 1983: 50

10m Frith 1983: 50

1.5-1.8 m Pizzey 1982: 21

15.0 kg Pizzey 1982: 107

30 cm Arnol et al. 1983: 302

30 cm Arnot et al. 1983: 302

20 cm Arnol et al. 1983: 302

50 cm Arnol et al. 1983: 302

20 cm Arnol et al. 1983: 302

15 cm Arnol et al. 1983: 302

Arnol et al. 1983: 303

8 cm Arnol et al. 1983: 303

Akerman 1979: 169 &

Michener 1965: 230-1

16 M. PICKERING

armpit, wetting it with sweat and then throw the stone

upwind of the animal. The noise and scent would alert

the animal which would try to escape downwind. Once

out of concealment the animals often pause briefly to

check the source of alarm. This usually occurred within

effective spear range (within 10 metres).

Another technique, used in the wet season around

the replenished swamps and lagoons of the plains, was

for hunters and dogs to drive the macropods into boggy

or swampy ground where they could be clubbed. They

could also be driven towards hunters. This appears to

have been an opportunistic rather than a premeditated

strategy. A group on a hunting or foraging round might

sight macropods but be in a poor position for pursuit

(e.g. upwind, no spears, etc). The group might attempt

to drive the animals in the direction of known hunting

parties. Occasionally fires would be lit to assist the

drive.

Once killed the macropod was prepared for cooking.

The fur was singed, scraped off, and the animal gutted,

with the exception of the heart and lungs which did

not contaminate or flavour the meat. The stomach and

part of the intestine were cleaned and then stuffed with

the intestinal fat. This package was placed inside the

body cavity. The front legs would be tied together with

bark. The hind legs would be snapped forward at the

joint of the femur and tibia. This allowed the legs to

be laid flat along the body. The tail would be partially

severed at the base to allow it to be bent along the body.

The tail and hind legs would then be secured by passing

them through the tied forelegs. The animal was then

cooked in a ground oven.

Emu

As well as the stalking strategy described there were

several specialised strategies for hunting emu. These

relied for their success on the predictability of the birds’

behaviour. The best time for emu, the period when

their presence and behaviour was most predictable and

when they would be in the best condition, was in the

late wet season (February — March) and early cool

season (March — April). This was the time when the

trees fruited along the temporary seasonal

watercourses, providing the emus’ favourite food.

An extension of the general strategy involved waiting

in concealed hides at water sources where fresh tracks

had been observed, spearing the emu upon its return

to water.

During the wet season the most common method,

in the course of general foraging, was to look for fresh

tracks at the base of fruit trees. The hunters would

return to these trees the next morning and would make

a simple platform, or ‘nest’, in the branches, ensuring

that there was sufficient room to use the spear and

spear-thrower. When the emu returned to eat the

freshly fallen fruits the hunter would spear it.

The curiosity of the emu was also exploited. Having

sighted an emu the hunter would conceal himself and

wave a cloth or object, occasionally making an unusual

sound. The emu would approach the lure to within

spear range. Often two men would co-operate, one

providing the lure and the other standing ready with

the spear. A further modification of this technique had

the hunter lying down in the grass and waving a foot

in the air. Again the emu would be attracted to within

effective spear range.

Upon capture the emu would be plucked and the

remaining feathers singed off. It was then gutted. The

intestinal fat would be stuffed into the cleaned crop

which would then be placed in the body cavity prior

to cooking. The animal would then be cooked in a

ground oven.

Emu eggs were eaten when found. Due to their

strong, heavy shells they could be simply roasted in

an earth oven without breaking.

Certain restrictions on the consumption of emu fat

applied to women and children.

Australian plains bustard/bush turkey

The Australian bustards, or bush turkeys, were

encountered opportunistically on hunting trips in the

open woodlands. They were available throughout the

year, though encounters were more likely in the wet

season when they fed on the fruiting trees along the

temporary watercourses. Bustards were a favoured food

but rarely caught, largely due to the haphazard nature

in which they were encountered combined with their

alertness in avoiding hunters.

Once a bustard was sighted the general strategy of

careful stalking was most commonly used. The

bustards also returned to the same waters each day.

A hunter, having observed fresh tracks near a water

source, would lie in wait for the bustard’s return, or

would try there again in the early morning or late

afternoon.

A captured bustard would be plucked, singed,

gutted, and cooked in a ground oven.

Summary

Large game, relatively common throughout the year,

was most frequently captured using a general stalking

strategy. This was employed as the exact location of

large game was unpredictable, with occasional

exceptions. Under certain environmentally determined

circumstances, where the likelihood of game encounter

was increased, alternative and more specialised

techniques could be applied. Animals were prepared

and cooked in a standard way. Major carcass

dismemberment usually occurred after cooking and

was easily accomplished with little technological

assistance.

Small Game Strategies

Small game strategies targeted a range of mainly

terrestrial fauna. These animals provided the bulk of

the Garawa daily meat diet. Small game animals were

GARAWA HUNTING 17

usually highly predictable in terms of their location,

seasonal availability, meat quality, and likely minimum

capture numbers.

Although many of the small game species described

here could be specifically targeted, most were captured

opportunistically, in the course of general foraging. A

simple example would see a hunter returning with a

mixed bag of lizards, tortoises and ‘sugarbag’ honey.

Small game could be collected or hunted by males

and females working singly or in company. A hunter

after large game would nonetheless usually pursue any

suitable small game he happened across.

Lizards and snakes

Lizards were a major food source with three main

genera exploited, the monitor goannas, the blue-

tongued lizards, and the frilled (or blanket) lizard.

The usual preliminary to lizard hunting was the

burning-off of grass and leaf litter. The reason

consistently given for burning grass was that it cleared

the ground to facilitate the hunting of lizards. Fires were

lit at any time of the year when the grass and litter

looked flammable. Patches of less than a hectare were

quite acceptable for this purpose. Hunters or foraging

parties would regularly light such fires on their travels.

A day or two later they would return to the burnt area

to hunt for lizards. The burning-off produces a layer

of black ash in which the tracks and burrows of lizards

are easily seen.

When hunting lizards, Garawa would intensively

work a localised area. In one observed episode three

people took one hour to cover a 300 by 200 metre area

for a return of two goanna and one blue-tongued lizard.

The area was known to have been heavily exploited

by another group not long before this hunt.

Goanna

Goanna were hunted throughout the year though they

were more common, and in better condition, in the

wet season and early cool season. During the heat of

the day they occupy shallow burrows, easily located

on a cleared ground surface through the freshness and

bright colour of the soil from the burrow overlying the

black ash and by the direction of the clear tracks. Once

located the burrow was checked for an exit hole. If

only one hole was present it was likely that the goanna

was still inside. If there was an exit hole the burrow

was considered unlikely to contain a goanna but was

checked for other lizards and snakes. Checking

consisted of probing the soil around the burrow with

a digging stick or suitable implement. When a goanna

was felt the hunter would dig along the length of the

burrow to the lizard’s tail, which was then seized and

the lizard dragged out of the hole.

When a goanna was caught it could either be killed

immediately by clubbing or alternatively, and more

frequently, some or all of the legs were broken to

disable the animal while keeping it alive. This

‘breaking’ consisted of bending the joint of the legs at

the junction of the femur and tibia. This is variously

described as breaking the leg, breaking the ‘string, and

‘hobbling’. With the legs immobilized the goanna could

be kept alive and fresh until required. This could be

for up to a month, when collecting prior to hosting

ceremonies, although several days appeared to be the

maximum. In this state the goanna could be given or

traded to other people or kept in reserve for gatherings.

Once killed the goanna was gutted, usually through

a cut at the junction of the neck and chest. Several

goanna would be cooked in a suitably-sized ground

oven, but a single goanna would be cooked in the open

coals of the hearth. The legs were tied to prevent their

spreading in the fire, and the animal was usually

cooked belly down.

Water goanna were also hunted, though not with the

frequency or success of the land goannas. These were

usually caught using a single pointed spear while

fishing.

Blue-tongued lizards

Blue-tongued lizards occupy the vacated burrows of

goannas and were caught in the same way. One

informant described them as “.. . bludger along

goanna camp...” They were available all year.

When captured the blue-tongue could either be killed

immediately or kept alive until required. Their legs

were rarely broken to restrain them as they were

considered fairly harmless. Once killed they were

prepared and cooked in the same way as goanna.

Frilled lizard

The frilled (or blanket) lizard was mainly found

around trees and logs. It was relatively scarce during

the cool and hot seasons, becoming increasingly

common during the storm and wet seasons. They were

often seen in considerable numbers in front of grass

fires where they were driven by flames and smoke.

They were caught by clubbing or with dogs. The frilled

lizard was considered a ‘cheeky’ lizard, likely to bite

and scratch, and when caught they were immediately

killed. They were prepared and cooked in the same

way as goanna and blue-tongued lizards.

Snakes

Snakes were available throughout the year although

the best season for hunting was the cool time when

they were fat and slow. The most popular food species

were the non-venomous varieties, particularly the

black-headed python. Snakes were often captured while

people hunted goanna, as they occupied disused

burrows. Water snakes were occasionally caught while

fishing or collecting lily roots. Once killed the snake

would be coiled into a bundle and tied with bark. It

was then cooked in a ground oven. The guts were

removed after cooking.

18 M. PICKERING

Echidna and possum

Garawa use of the name possum appears to refer not

only to the rock ring-tail possum and the northern

brush-tail possum but also to other marsupials of

similar size occupying similar environmental niches,

such as the northern quoll and black-footed tree rat.

This discussion refers to the possum but these other

species were captured by the same methods.

Although unrelated species, the echidna and possum

were caught using the same strategies and at the same

time. The echidna, or spiny-anteater, and the possum

are found throughout the region but are most abundant

in the rocky low hills of the southern half of the study

area, This habitat was usually not intensively occupied

by the Garawa until the middle and late wet season

and early coo] season. In the early cool season the

Garawa would move down to the flatter fluvial

corridors and adjacent plains where echidna and

possum were present but more dispersed and in fewer

numbers and, by the advent of the hot season, in poorer

condition. Hunters on the plains also targeted a

different and relatively more locally abundant range

of animals such as tortoise and lizards. Thus possum

and echidna, although available all year, were only

major food animals in the wet and early cool seasons

when specialised methods were applied to their

capture. In the cool and hot seasons these animals

became a less frequent, more opportunistically

exploited, part of the diet.

Echidna were hunted by both day and night. During

the hot daylight hours they tend to rest in crevices and

ant beds, becoming more active at night. In the daytime

hunters would be alert for tracks, following these to

the resting animal. Once located the animal was killed,

either by clubbing the head or, when well dug in, by

stabbing a small hardwood stick of about 40 cms in

length, between the spines, under the ribs and into the

heart.

Night hunting was used for both echidna and possum

and largely relied on the use of suitably trained dogs.

Hunters would go to the rocky hills on moonlit nights

with proven hunting dogs. These would be allowed to

run free. When the dogs located prey they would make

a noise. The hunter knew this indicated they had caught

or bailed up some animal and would go to check and

kill the capture. The echidna was clubbed or stabbed,

as described. Possum were usually forced into a tree

or rock crevice by the pursuing dogs. The hunter would

knock them down onto the ground with a club or spear

where they could be clubbed, speared, or mauled by

the dogs.

Echidna were prepared by first singeing the spines

in an open fire. This loosened the quills and removed

the sharp tips. The quills were then ‘plucked’, usually

by laying the animal on a hard surface and ‘pinching’

out clumps of spines with a stone or back of an axe.

Once plucked it was gutted. The tongue was tied into

a knot. The common reasons given for this practice

were that: ‘it stopped the good fat dripping out’, ‘kept

the devil from getting the fat’, and“. . . because it’s

the law. . . ”. The prepared echidna was cooked in

a ground oven.

Possum would be prepared by first plucking the fur,

which was kept for making fur belts, and then by

gutting and cooking in a ground oven.

Fruit bats

Fruit bats were only available for the short period

of the storm time and early wet season. They arrive

in great numbers in late October and occupy the

flowering fruit trees along the permanent river pools,

departing quickly when flowering is finished and the

heavy rains begin in late December. For this short

period they made up a large proportion of the daily

meat diet.

The method for hunting fruit bats was simple and

effective. Hunters would have a special hardwood club

of about a metre in length. Keeping the wind in their

faces, so as not to alert the bat colony resting in the

branches of the trees, they would rush in vigorously

swinging the clubs, knocking the bats to the ground.

Once hit the bat was usually disabled by a broken or

damaged limb, It was then unable to escape and was

left where it fell while the hunters continued striking.

A hunter would sometimes carry two or three

smaller hardwood clubs, up to 50 cms long, which

were thrown into the bats on the higher branches.

’ The disabled fruit bats would be collected and killed,

being threaded onto the clubs by the wings for transport

back to the camp. The fur was singed off in the open

fire and the wings broken off at the ‘elbow’. If a large

number of bats had been caught they would be cooked

in a ground oven. If only a few had been caught they

would be cooked in the coals of an open fire. The bats

would be gutted after cooking. The reasons for not

gutting them prior to cooking were that they would

lose too much good fat and that they were too small

to worry about.

Cooked fruit bats would sometimes be wrapped in

a paperbark bundle for transporting. In some special

locations certain restrictions on consumption of fruit

bats were applied to women and children.

Snake-necked tortoises

The snake-necked tortoise is found in the billabongs,

lagoons, and swamps of the plains in the northern half

of the region. These waters are characteristically

temporary, relying on wet season replenishment by

river flooding. Through the wet season to middle cool

season these sources were full and the tortoises active

and difficult to catch, although they were occasionally

caught while netting for fish, by feeling for submerged

holes in banks, or by jumping on them as they swam

past. As the waters dried up in the late cool and hot

seasons the snake-necked tortoise aestivated in the

drying muddy pool beds. The exposed dry beds would

GARAWA HUNTING 19

be examined for tell-tale lumps and cracks which

indicated a buried tortoise. The tortoise was then dug

out with digging sticks or a convenient unmodified

stick. Tortoises considered too small for eating were

returned to the hole and covered.

Captured tortoises would occasionally be kept alive

until required. This could be for several hours to a few

weeks. They were kept in steep sided pits. Today they

are often kept in water-filled drums.

The tortoise was killed by clubbing, breaking the

neck by bending or, more commonly in recent times,

by cutting its throat. It was then thrown onto an open

fire for a preliminary ‘cooking, removed and the lower

plate broken off, either by hand or with an axe. The

guts were removed. The tortoise was then replaced on

the coals belly-up, with the belly plate restored and

held in place by a heated rock, if available. The belly-

up position ensured the retention of fluids which made

a popular ‘gravy. The prepared tortoises would be

cooked on the open coals or, if a large number was

caught, in a ground oven.

Tortoise eggs are available in the middle to late cool

season between July and August. They were cooked

in a ground oven by being sandwiched between two

thick layers of grass.

Freshwater crocodile

Freshwater crocodile were available all year in the

permanent pools of the rivers and billabongs. They

formed an occasional supplement to the meat diet.

Crocodiles were caught mainly by spearing, and

occasionally while netting for fish, or by hand.

Crocodiles were also sometimes affected by fishing

poisons.

When caught by hand, as when feeling in submerged

holes in the banks for fish and tortoise or when feeling

pool bottoms for waterlily roots, the hunter, feeling

a crocodile, would slowly run their hand up the body

to the jaws. The jaws would be held shut, the tail

grabbed and the crocodile dragged onto the bank where

its jaws would be tied. The legs would also be tied

if it was intended to keep the crocodile alive, otherwise

it would be killed immediately by an axe or club blow

to the back of the head.

Small crocodiles would be cooked whole after

gutting. Larger crocodiles — more than 100 cms in

length — would be butchered and cooked. Cuts would

be made along the spine and the crocodile spread out.

The tail was cut off and the body quartered. The flesh

was then cooked in a ground oven.

Crocodile eggs became available around August. The

eggs would be found in sandy banks along the

watercourses, the hunter often following the recent

track of the mother. Eggs were cooked in a ground oven

in the same manner as tortoise eggs.

Sugarbag

‘Sugarbag’ is the colloquial name given to the hive

of stingless insect species collectively known as ‘native

bee’. The name ‘sugarbag’ includes the honey, pollen,

wax and residues of the hive. Sugarbag is included in

the category of small game as it was both a regular

and important animal-derived food and was one of the

targets in the small game hunting and foraging strategy.

Sugarbag was exploited throughout the year, and was

usually a part of the daily diet. In terms of quality and

quantity it is at its best when the major trees flower

around the end of the hot season, through to the early

wet season.

Sugarbag is found in trees, termite mounds, and in

crevices in rock formations. The best quality sugarbag

was found in the trunks and branches of trees in well-

watered country where flowering trees were more

abundant. It was located by watching out for the small

fly-like bees and the tubular entrance to the hive. When

the hive was in trees the hunter would knock the trunk

or branch in order to locate the position of the hive.

They would then cut a small hole below the hive. If

possible this hole would be large enough to insert a

hand and extract the hive largely intact. Alternatively,

when a hand could not be inserted, a stick, usually

around 50 cms long and with one end frayed by

pounding, would be inserted into the hole and up into

the hive. The honey would flow down the stick into

a bark container. The solid remainder of the hive would

then be removed by prodding with the stick. If possible,

wood chips and some wax would be used to patch the

hole to give the hive some chance of re-establishing.

The main reason given for the cutting of a small hole

was that it was too hard to make a larger hole with

a stone axe. With the advent of steel axes it is now

easier to cut directly to the hive.

Sugarbag in termite mounds and rock formations was

called ‘ground sugarbag’’ Wherever possible it was

excavated and extracted in a complete package so as

to prevent soil contamination. In all cases a hive could

produce up to a litre of honey, wax, and pollen. This

was eaten with no further preparation. The wax would

be chewed and kept for later use in_hafting.

Occasionally, and especially with badly mixed hive

contents, the residues would be mixed with water to

dissolve the honey and the mixture was drunk by

straining through a bundle of dry grass. There are some

reports that the wax was used as a depilatory by

ancestors, an act which Garawa men recount with awe.

Sugarbag is classed by the Garawa into two forms:

‘boy’ sugarbag and ‘girl’ sugarbag. ‘Boy’ sugarbag is

usually found in tree branches and is identified by its

long waxy hive entrance and its greater honey yield.

The ‘girl’ sugarbag, found in tree trunks and ground

sources, has a shorter, wider hive entrance and contains

more pollen than honey.

Miscellaneous Species

Numerous other species of small mammals, reptiles,

and birds were exploited opportunistically. These

served to supplement the major meat sources and did

20 M. PICKERING

not form a regular or reliable part of the diet. Animals

in this group include dingoes, bird species, smaller

wallabies and bandicoots. While a variety of animals

could be hunted, only a small proportion were

regularly exploited in quantities and frequencies

sufficient for them to be considered animal staples.

Summary

Small game species could be either specifically

targeted or exploited opportunistically, in both cases

with some guarantee of a return. At certain times of

the year particular species were more abundant and

special effort, in the form of targeting and specialised

techniques, was applied to exploit this abundance.

While capture of large game provided a greater

quantity of meat in a single event, small game

contributed more to satisfying the daily meat demand

and provided diversity in diet.

Aquatic Game

This section describes the methods for the collection

of several major fish species, including barramundi,

black bream, catfish, rifle fish and ‘cod’, the two species

of short-necked tortoises, freshwater crayfish, and

mussels. These species are defined as ‘aquatic’ due to

their reliance upon permanent waters. Methods used

were often indiscriminate in terms of a precise target

and could be used to capture a variety of species.

To some extent the exploitation of aquatic game

continued throughout the year. In the months between

December and August, when the water levels are

reasonably high, aquatic animals provided a minor

supplement to a meat diet targeting terrestrial fauna.

It was only during the hot dry.months of August to

late November that aquatic game became a major part

of the diet. This marked seasonality was due to two

main environmentally determined factors. Firstly, the

majority of the Garawa population would shift from

permanent waters during the wet and cool seasons to

exploit the seasonally abundant terrestrial game.

Secondly, the techniques and technology used in the

exploitation of aquatic game were inefficient when

there was abundant or flowing water.

The most common techniques were general foraging,

netting, log traps and weirs, and ‘poisons. General

foraging was practised all year while the other

specialised techniques were restricted to the drier hot

season when water levels dropped rapidly to form

small, still pools.

General foraging :

This involved the opportunistic capture of aquatic

animals and the collection of shellfish. Hunters would

occasionally spear animals which swam within range.

Tortoise would be captured by jumping on them as they

swam past. People looking for waterlily roots or feeling

submerged holes in banks would catch fish, tortoises,

water snakes, and small crocodiles.

Mussels were easily collected throughout the year

by simply feeling in the mud and sands in the shallow

pool edges. Small numbers of mussels would be cooked

in the coals of an open fire while large quantities would

be cooked in a suitably sized ground oven. After

cooking the meat would be removed from the shells

and put in a paperbark container for transport back

to the main camp. The shells would be piled back into

the fireplace for ‘burning’, as described above.

Netting

The explorer Augustus Gregory passed through the

region in 1856 and reported‘. . . a fishing-net made

neatly of twisted bark, the mesh one and a half inch,

the length perhaps thirty feet . . . (Gregory 1884: 13).

All aquatic game could be caught using nets. These

were manufactured from bark and suitable grasses and

were up to 10 metres long. Smaller nets of up to a metre

in length were occasionally used as scoop nets. The

larger nets had poles at each end with one in the middle

to serve as a ‘spreader’. The hunters would drag the

net through the water, usually up to chest deep, and

drive, manoeuvre, and surround the catch in the

shallows where it could be caught by hand, clubbed,

or speared. The nets were relatively fragile and could

not contain a weight of game out of the water. Netting

was used as pools became smaller and shallower in

the hotter weather. The operation usually involved a

minimum of three people.

Trigger (1987: 78-79) has reported similar accounts

of net use from the eastern Garawa and Ganggalida

people.

Log traps and weirs

In the middle and southern parts of the study region,

above the range of tidal influences on the rivers, hollow

logs were used as simple fish traps. These were used

to catch catfish, cod, black bream, and freshwater

crayfish. A suitably sized hollow log would have one

end blocked with a wad of grass. It would then be

placed in the water overnight, close to the bank. The

next day the mouth of the log would be blocked and

the log removed onto the bank. The end was then

unblocked and the contents emptied out. A number

of these traps could be in operation at any one time,

spread around one or more waterholes.

In the northern part of the study area, on the flatter

coastal plains, the inland river levels were somewhat

affected by tidal movement. Here small weirs of

branches would be placed across shallow channels to

hold fish when the water level dropped. Leichhardt

reported similar weirs in his 1845 expedition

(Leichhardt 1847: 396, 402).

‘Poisons’

Poisoning was the most frequently used fishing

technique, though its application was restricted to the

GARAWA HUNTING 21

hot season and to the smaller pools (less than 15 metres

across). The branches and bark of several local tree

species (e.g. Barringtonia spp., Acacia spp.,

Eucalyptus spp.) were suitable for poisoning the water.

These would be broken up and dropped into the pools.

The sap would make the water ‘soapy’ and the fish

would rise stupefied to the surface where they could

be speared, clubbed, scoop netted, or collected by

hand.

Some poisons would also affect small crocodiles and

tortoises by irritating eye, nose and mouth membranes

and forcing the animals to the surface where they were

captured.

Poisons took some time to degrade and disperse.

Once a pool had been poisoned it was considered

unsuitable for drinking water until flushed by the

coming rains. The Garawa would therefore take care

to maintain an unpoisoned body of water.

Trigger (1987: 78) has also briefly reported on the

similar use of poisons by groups to the east of the study

area.

Another technique which can be considered

‘poisoning’, as it affects the water quality, was the

dragging of branches through the water to stir up the

mud. This also forced fish and other animals to the

surface where they could be caught.

Summary

Methods of capture were applicable to a variety of

aquatic fauna. Specific aquatic game species were

rarely individually targeted. Although it was always

available, aquatic game became a major part of the

meat diet in the hot months prior to the summer rains.

Increased availabilty of aquatic game, due to its

concentration caused by falling water levels, coincided

with a drop in the number and condition of terrestrial

fauna and a hot season congregation of the Garawa

population around the permanent waterholes.

DISCUSSION

The principal aim of this paper has been to provide

basic ethnographic accounts of Garawa game hunting

and preparation methods. The three summary classes

described incorporate several methods, both general

and specialised. These strategies more accurately

match broad categories of animal size and habitat than

specific species.

It is likely that the methods described here were

those most commonly used in the day-to-day quest for

game by the Garawa. The descriptions of the correct

ways of catching and preparing game are consistent

within and between informants’ accounts. Indeed,

where direct observation was possible, this showed a

strong adherence to the verbal descriptions. Where

exceptions did occur it was made clear that this

deviation was anomalous and the result of certain,

usually ‘non-traditional’ influences (for example, a

decision to break camp prematurely to be in time to

meet a mail plane).

The strategies provided here represent Garawa

models of correct subsistence behaviour as much as

they reflect real behaviour. Though special

circumstances would produce deviations from these

models these were usually short term. Through these

generalised accounts the Garawa tacitly acknowledge

that adherence to models of proven basic subsistence

methods was as crucial to the physical well-being of

the Garawa community as adherence to social laws was

crucial to their psychological and spiritual well-being.

It may be argued that the data presented here adds

little to the data on Aboriginal hunting methods known

from studies elsewhere in northern Australia. The

significance of the Garawa data, though, lies not only

in its differences but also in its similarities to these

other regional studies.

The existence of similar strategies of hunting and

food preparation in conjunction with different land use

patterns in different environments supports the

hypothesis that optimum yet simple strategies existed

for the exploitation of Australian game animals.

Further, these strategies were adapted more to animal

size than to specific species. This allowed them to be

applied equally effectively in different environments.

As noted earlier this paper stems from a broader

study into regional land use and site patterning for the

purpose of developing models applicable to

archaeology. Data on game hunting and preparation

is most likely to appeal primarily to archaeologists.

While often willing to apply ethnographic analogies

in their interpretations of archaeological debris,

archaeologists are rightly cautious about assuming

directly analogous associations between behaviour and

debris when the two are separated by space, time, and

environments. There is an undertandable preference

for deriving analogies from a similar environmental

context to the original environmental context of the

archaeological materials.

The Garawa material provided here, although

general, contributes to the very limited data base

available for transitional sub-humid to semi-arid

environments. In so doing it also supports the

hypothesis that, within Australia, basically similar

strategies for game exploitation often existed across

differing environments. If such similarities can be

identified over space it may be feasible to suggest that

common strategies also existed over time. This

hypothesis requires further testing through more

detailed comparative studies. It cannot be denied

though, that the generation of models of behaviour —

social, economic or technological — on the basis of

the identification of regularities in behaviour within

and between regions, can be of considerable value in

the interpretation of archaeological models. Binford

(1983), for example, has applied the results of his own

22 M. PICKERING

ethnographic work amongst the Nunamiut of northern

America to the interpretation of the archaeology of the

French Palaeolithic. The Australian record has the

potential to contribute to the development of

behavioural models applicable to both Australian and

overseas studies. To do so, though, it must first modify

its tendency to over-emphasise specifics. As Clarke has

stated (1978: 100):

This specification problem is the single greatest

barrier in detecting significant correlations

between regularities in archaeological and

anthropological analyses . . .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Information forming the basis of this paper was provided

by Don and Eileen Rory and their family, Old Davey, Laura,

Clara, Godfrey Noble, Roy Dixon, Jacky Green, Blue Bob,

Dinny McDinny, and the other members of the Garawa

community resident in Borroloola and Robinson River Station,

Assistance with funding of fieldwork has been provided by

the L. S. B. Leakey Foundation, La Trobe University

Humanities Research Grants, and Ann Robb.

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GARAWA HUNTING 23

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FIRST HEXACTINELLIDA (PORIFERA) (GLASS SPONGES) FROM THE

GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT

HENRY M. REISWING

Summary

The four species of Hexactinellida described are the first members of the class reported from

southern Australian shelf and slope waters. The large vasiform Pheronema amphorae n. sp. is the

first known member of the genus outside the Atlantic region bearing a well-developed annulus.

Euplectella regalis, previously known only from the holotype, is represented by two new

individuals. A very large specimen of Regadrella okinoseana, exhibiting the extremely rare feature

of sieve plate fusion, offers new data which permits synonymisation of all stauractin-bearing

regadrellids.

FIRST HEXACTINELLIDA (PORIFERA) (GLASS SPONGES) FROM THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN

BIGHT

HENRY M. REISWIG

REISWIG, H. M. 1992. First Hexactinellida (Porifera) (glass sponges) from the Great Australian Bight.

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(1): 25-36.

The four species of Hexactinellida described are the first members of the class reported from southern

Australian shelf and slope waters. The large vasiform Pheronema amphorae n. sp. is the first known

member of the genus outside the Atlantic region bearing a well-developed annulus. Euplectella regalis,

previously known only from the holotype, is represented by two new individuals. A very large specimen

of Regadrella okinoseana, exhibiting the extremely rare feature of sieve plate fusion, offers new data

which permits synonymisation of all stauractin-bearing regadrellids.

H. M. Reiswig, Redpath Museum and Biology Department, McGill University, 859 Sherbrooke St

West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2K6. Manuscript received 21 August 1991.

Knowledge of the hexactinellid sponge fauna is

rudimentary in all but a very few marine communities.

Few are more inadequately documented than that of

the continental shelves and slopes of the south and west

coasts of Australia. Only two major oceanographic

expeditions have sampled in or near these waters. In

1874 H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ collected four new species

(Schulze 1887), all from oceanic stations well south

of the continent (Fig. 1) — Sta. 157: Holascus polejaevi

Schulze and Caulophacus pipetta (Schulze) (as

Balanella); Sta. 158: Hyalonema conus Schulze; Sta.

160: Holascus fibulata Schulze. During the British,

Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research

Expedition (BANZARE), the R.R.S. ‘Discovery’

passed over the shelf in 1930 and offshore in 1931.

While results of work on the BANZARE Antarctic

sponges have been published, those on the Australian

and subantarctic sponges, planned for a separate

account (Koltun 1976), remain unreported.

This report thus represents the first published record

of identified Hexactinellida from the continental shelf

and slope waters of southern Australia. The four

species were collected at separate stations in the Great

Australian Bight (Fig. 1) by EV. ‘Adelaide Pearl’ and

FV. ‘Saxon Progress’ during July and August 1988. The

specimens, which were kindly made available for study

by Shane Parker, Curator of Lower Marine

Invertebrates, South Australian Museum (SAM), are

now in the permanent collections of that institution.

SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS

Class Hexactinellida Schmidt, 1870

Subclass Amphidiscophora Schulze, 1899

Order Amphidiscosida Schrammen, 1924

Family Pheronematidae Gray, 1870

Genus Pheronema Leidy, 1868

Diagnosis

Schulze (1904) (emended): body form usually cup-

or bowl-like with a distinct gastral cavity, but extremes

include plate and spherical shapes; gastral margin

usually defined by a complete or incomplete fringe of

marginal prostalia; lateral body surfaces bear long

pleural prostalia singly or in tufts; basal prostalia

project from the inferior body surface in numerous

distinct bundles but occasionally as single spicules or

in a single bundle; large prostalia are exclusively

monactins, either sceptres or bidentate anchors with

strongly or gently recurved flukes; smaller

macruncinates are components of all prostalia bundles;

basal rays of pinules are straight and oriented

perpendicular or slightly oblique (downward) to the

pinular ray.

Pheronema amphorae n.sp.

(Figs 2-4)

Material Examined

Holotype: SAM S696, continental shelf, 183 km

south of Cape Adieu, South Australia, 33° 42’S, 132°

25’E, 130 m depth, 12 August 1988, coll. B. Jubb, FV.

‘Saxon Progress’, Sta. C4, trawl, in ethanol.

Diagnosis

Pheronematid with deep cup-shaped, nearly tubular

body. Large terminal osculum bordered by fringe of

sceptres as marginalia and encircled a short distance

below by an annulus of long sceptres as pleuralia.

Thorned, gothic-arched basalia, 126-264 ym across the

anchor, project from the lower half of body in distinct

bundles. Uncinates in four distinct size classes ranging

from 168 to 1816 um, in mean length. Microscleres

include two size classes of amphidiscs, spiny

oxyhexactins and oxypentactins, and siliceous ‘pearls.

26 H. M. REISWIG

<x x

FIGURE 1. Map of southern Australian waters with collection stations reported here (+) and tracks of ‘Challenger’ (with

station numbers), and ‘Discovery’ (equal longitude/latitude computer projection).

Description

Morphology: The only specimen, moderately

damaged during collection with loss of much of the

oscular margin (Figs 3 and 4), is reconstructed in Fig.

2a. The body is vasiform or almost tubular, with

dimensions: 22 cm length, 13 cm diameter, 7 cm

oscular diameter, and 1.8-3.2 cm wall thickness. The

texture is soft and fragile, with internal structure visibly

cavernous. The oscular marginal fringe, projecting

1.3-2.5 cm, consists mainly of large sceptres in bundles

of 5 to 20 spicules. Most are 70-100 ym in diameter

and broken distally, so they remain as smooth shafts

with acute internal ends. Their monactin nature is

established by associated younger developmental

stages. Macruncinates comprise approximately 10% of

the fringe spicules.

The external surface is generally smooth in overall

contour and consists of four recognizable zones (Fig.

2a): a felt zone approximately 2.5 cm wide bordering

the marginal fringe, an annular zone of long sceptres

ca 0.5 cm wide, a ‘smooth’ zone extending over the

remainder of the upper one-half of the body, and a basal

zone extending over the lower body half.

The felt zone is covered by a dense nap of vertically

oriented spicule bundles, extending 0.2 cm above the

body surface. The bundles consist of short, thin

sceptres (85%, 10-25 wm diameter) and macruncinates

(15 %). Few dermal pinules cover the surface between

bundles. The annular zone, like the marginal fringe,

consists of very large, often broken sceptres, up to 160

pm diameter, projecting up to 5 cm, with spicules of

the felt level continuing as a lower stratum. A few very

long, thin ‘silk’ spicules, 7 wm diameter by 10+ cm

in length with broken distal tips, project with the longer

sceptres. The smooth zone is bounded by a porous

surface covered by dermal pinules with a sparse

population of the small sceptres and macruncinates of

the felt zone persisting. Long thin basalia occur

occasionally in this zone, projecting 5-15 cm singly or

in small groups of up to five. The basal zone includes

components of the smooth zone with addition of basal

anchor bundles spaced 0.5-1 cm apart. The bundles

are 0.2-0.4 cm in diameter and consist of 10 to 50 basal

anchors of all sizes, with single spicules reaching over

300 ym diameter. The basal terminus of the body is

bare of root bundles. A few sceptres up to 3 cm long

also occur in the root bundles. Bundles, up to 32 cm

in length, intertwine to form a massive anchor mass.

In natural position these probably radiate evenly

through a hemisphere of bottom sediment.

The gastral surface is smooth and even, covered only

by a layer of gastral pinules. There are no openings

of large exhalant canals nor indication of a special

gastral sieve.

Megascleres (Table 1): No proper diactine

megascleres (uncinates excluded) occur in this species,

as characteristic of the genus. Large pentactins (not

figured) serve as parenchymal principalia as well as

hypodermalia and hypogastralia. They are smooth-

HEXACTINELLIDA FROM THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT 27

ie it n

FIGURE 2. Pheronema amphorae n. sp. holotype SAM $696. a, reconstruction of body form with external zonation (see

text for explanation); b, sceptre tips; c, basal anchor; d, dermal pinule; e, gastral pinule; f-i, uncinates 1-4; j, monactine

club; k, siticeous ‘pearl’; 1, micramphidisc; m, mesamphidisc; n, spiny mesohexactin; 0, spiny mesopentactin.

HEXACTINELLIDA FROM THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT 29

surfaced and either regular when associated with body

surfaces or irregular when parenchymal. Monactine

sceptres, or ‘cuspidates, (Fig. 2b) occur as a major

component of dermal spiculation, including the

marginal fringe and annulus. Younger (shorter) sceptres

have distal spines directed outwards toward the spicular

centrum with only the proximal quarter of the shaft

smooth. As spicules increase in size the relative

proportions of shaft texture are gradually reversed until,

in the largest intact examples, spination is restricted

to a small distal section. Uncinates were divided into

size classes by preliminary size-frequency analysis of

600 random length measurements. The two larger sizes

(Figs 2f and g) have straight shafts and distinct barbs.

The smaller classes (Figs 2h and i) both lack barbs

at the light microscope level; the larger of the two is

straight-shafted and bears sharp spines while the

smallest is distinctly curved and carries only bracket

facets. Basalia (Fig. 2c) have typical bidentate anchors

and coarsely thorned distal shafts. The anchor is of

the gothic arch form. No smooth-shaft basalia are

present, thorns being especially pronounced at the

earliest formative stages. Thin filiform spicules or

‘silks, ca 7pm in diameter, are present in low abundance

in the annulus. They bear sharp proximal tips but are

universally broken distally. Slight swellings at regular

intervals along the shaft of some examples are

interpreted as incipient thorns. These are probably

monactins, as are all other prostalia, but of uncertain

taxonomic significance.

Mesocleres (Table 1): Recognition of this major

category of spicule is forced by similarity of form and

size between pinules, usually categorized as

megascleres, and parenchymal hexactins, usually

categorized as microscleres (e.g. microhexactins).

Spicule dimensions alone are inadequate to define

major spicule categories within Hexactinellida as

evident in the range of uncinate size classes above.

Dermal and gastral pinules (Figs 2d and e) have typical

fir-tree pinulus and perfectly perpendicular and

completely spined tangential rays. A few exhibit

curvature and reduced spination of the pinular ray, but

these variations are rare. Mesoxyhexactins and

mesoxypentactins occur as typical parenchymal

intermedial spicules (Figs 2n and 0). They are

completely covered in short spines, and thus intergrade

with pinule variants exhibiting reduction of pinulus

spination. The distinction between these classes

remains nonetheless obvious. Spined monactine clubs

(Fig. 2j), or acanthotylostyles in demosponge

terminology, occur sparsely as parenchymal

intermedials. While uncommon, they are sufficiently

abundant and consistent in form to warrant recognition

as a distinct spicule type in this species. They may be

of rare occurrence in the wider group, Hexactinellida.

Microscleres (Table 1): Amphidisc classes were

TABLE 1. Spicule dimensions of Pheronema amphorae n. sp. in ym unless otherwise noted.

Spicule type Length + SD (range) N Width + SD (range) N

Macropentactin

tangential ray 3685 +2000 (547-8533) 50 46.7+13.7 (21.6-75.1) 50

unpaired ray 2747 +1493 (543-6537) 50 — = -

Sceptre to 6+ cm - - to 160 nm oa ==>

Uncinate | 1816+337 (1217-2749) 50 13.642,3 (8.5-19.0) 50

Uncinate 2 796+ 174 (533-1293) 50 5.84+1.4 (3.5-11.0) 50

Uncinate 3 342+95 (178-621) 50 2.4+0.6 (1.3-4.5) 50

Uncinate 4 168 +52 (73-281) 50 1.5+0.3 (1.0-2.5) 50

Basal anchor to 32+ cm _ _ 216+27* (126-264) 50

Silk to 10+ cm = ~ - (7.0-8.3) -

Dermal pinule, pinulus 144+32 (83-242) 50 8.5+1.4 (5.7-11.6) 50.

tangential ray 130+20 (87-186) 6l 7141.1 (5.0-9.7) 50

Gastral pinule, pinulus 124+30 (61-251) 67 6.94+1.1 (4.2-10.8) 50

tangential ray 129+18 (72-172) 61 6.3+1.1 (3.7-10.5) 50

Mesoxyhexactin ray 95+19 (64-154) 66 3.3+0.5 (2.7-4.4) 25

Mesoxypentactin ray 99 +20 (58-166) 66 3.5+0.8 (2.1-4.7) 25

Monactine club 169+32 (119-314) 45 - - -

Mesamphidisc 102+11 (88-138) 50 24.84+3.9 (19.2-37.7) 50

Micramphidise 60+7 (45-77) 50 15.74+2.7 (11.3-23.1) 50

Pearl (diameter) 31.2412.4 (15.8-82) 50 _ = -

* widest distance between anchor teeth tips.

FIGURES 3-5. Pheronema amphora n. sp. and Euplectella regalis. 3 and 4, internal (left) and external (right) views of

Pheronema amphorae holotype, SAM 8696; 5, Euplectella regalis, SAM S693 (upper) and S694 (gross external transverse

ridges are artefacts of the packaging process for specimen transport).

30 H. M. REISWIG

identified by length-frequency analysis of 754 randomly

selected spicules; a clear bimodal distribution was

obtained. Mesamphidiscs (Fig. 2m) have elongate

8-toothed umbels and a mean width/length ratio of

0.260. Micramphidiscs (Fig. 21) have proportionately

shorter and narrower umbels bearing 9-/0.5-13 teeth

and a mean width/length ratio of 0.243. Both

amphidiscs are distributed throughout the parenchyme

and dermal tissues, but are not common in near-gastral

tissues. Extensive search for intrinsic macramphidiscs

yielded negative results. Spherical ‘pearls’ (Fig. 2k) of

obvious intrinsic production were sufficiently common

to accept these as a recognizable skeletal element in

this specimen.

Etymology

The name refers to the body form, which resembles

the basal portion of an amphora.

Remarks

Schulze’s (1904: 151) definition of Pheronema

excludes the species assigned to Poliopogon at that time

and is here considered valid. Ijima’s (1927: 9) suggestion

to move Poliopogon gigas Schulze to Pheronema is

rejected because supporting arguments were not

presented. Tabachnick (1988) supported Ijima’s

suggestion, without assignment of P gigas, and

attempted to redefine Poliopogon. His redefinition must

be ignored since it neglects consideration of principalia,

pleuralia, marginalia, and uncinates altogether and, as

proposed, would exclude the type species Poliopogon

amadou Thomson. More recently (Tabachnick 1990)

he reassigned P gigas as the type of a new genus,

Schulzeviella, which differs from Poliopogon by body

form and presence of microxydiacts. In view of the

great variability of body form and microsclere

complement accepted for Pheronema, these characters

seem inadequate for distinction of genera. A revision

of the relationship between the three genera must

include a thorough and informed review of all species

involved.

The genus Pheronema, understood to exclude

Poliopogon gigas, contains 19 species and one

subspecies which presently hold nomenclatural validity,

although the genus has not been revised and some are

probably synonyms. Most are easily compared to P.

amphorae but a few are inadequately known due to

the poor state of the material available to the describer,

or to the lack of diligence by the original author. The

single character, body form, distinguishes P_ amphorae

from all other species, but alone is insufficient for

taxonomic action. The abbreviated inventory of

additional character differences presented here is

adequate to demonstrate the distinction of the new

species. Principalia include hexactins in PR. conicum

Levi & Levi (1982), P. pepo Tjima & Okada (1938),

and P. placodium Yima & Okada (1938), but are

exclusively pentactins in P amphorae. The basal

anchor is crescentic in P. conicum, P. echinatum Ijima

(1927), P. giganteum Schulze (of Schulze 1886, not

Ijima 1927), P. hemisphaericum (Gray 1873), P. ijimae

Okada (1932) (of Lévi & Levi 1989, not Okada 1932)

but gothic-arched in P. amphorae, Anchor form was

not given in descriptions of P barbulosclera Lévi

(1964), P. pilosum Lévi (1964), P. semiglobosum Levi

& Levi (1982), and P. surugensis Okada (1932). Forms

lacking marginalia are P annae Leidy (1868), P.

gigantea (of ima 1927, not Schulze 1886), and P.

ijimae. Spiny mesoxyhexactins are abundant in P

amphorae but are absent in P. carpenteri (Thomson

1869), P. globosum globosum Schulze (1886), P. grayi

Kent (1870) and P. megaglobosum Tabachnick (1988).

A sieve plate, lacking in P. amphorae, is present in

P. globosum kagoshimensis Okada (1932), P. raphanus

Schulze (1894), P semiglobosum, and P. nasckaniensis

Tabachnick (1990). Micramphidiscs are much smaller

than those of P. amphorae (entirely outside the range)

in PR barbulosclera, P. giganteum, P. globosum

globosum, P. raphanus, P. surugensis and P. weberi

Ijima (1927). All of these species differ from P.

amphorae in several other characters. Pheronema

pilosum remains the most difficult member to compare

with the new species due to brevity of its original

description (Lévi 1964). Differences in body form,

dimensions and spination of dermal pinules, and

amphidisc sizes indicate the two forms are quite

distinct, but form and size of basal anchors and

presence or absence of mesoxyhexactins remain

unknown for P pilosum. The new species is most

closely related in body form and overall spiculation

to P. carpenteri and P. grayi of the North Atlantic.

The nominal taxa, P. parfaiti Filhol (1885) and P

saccus Schmidt (1870), must be considered

unrecognizable, as concluded by Schulze (1904), until

the original specimens are found and their characters

assessed. Schulze’s (1893) argument that P. pourtalesii

Schmidt (1870) must be referred to Rossella is accepted

here. Pheronema circumpalatum Schulze (1894), as

affirmed by Schulze (1902), is a junior synonym of P

raphanus. Pheronema velatum is a nomen nudum. It

was used without description or indication by

Carpenter & Jeffreys (1870) as a provisional name for

a Gibraltar specimen later figured as Rossella velata

by Thomson (1873), now the only recognized species

of Mellonympha.

Distribution

Great Australian Bight, 130 m depth.

Subclass Hexasterophora Schulze, 1899

Order Hexactinosida Schrammen, 1910-12

Suborder Clavularia Schulze, 1886

Family Farreidae Schulze, 1886

Genus Farrea Bowerbank, 1862

HEXACTINELLIDA FROM THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT 31

Diagnosis

See Tjima (1927: 130).

Farrea occa occa Bowerbank, 1862, Carter, 1885

Abbreviated synonymy:

unnamed — Owen, 1857: 121 pl. XXI figs 9, 9a.

Farrea occa Bowerbank 1862: 1118; 1864: 204, pl. XX,

fig. 311 (not pl. XV, fig. 277); 1869: 339 pl. XXIV,

fig. 7 (not figs 1-6); Carter 1885: 388 pl. XII, pl. XIII,

figs I-l1; Schulze 1887: 277 pl. LXXI-LXXII, LXXVI.

Farrea occa occa Yjima 1927: 131; Burton 1959: 153;

Reiswig 1990: 735.

Material examined

One specimen (fragments): SAM S813, continental

slope, 232 km east of Cape Arid, Western Australia,

34°03'S, 125°31’E, | OLl-1 020 m depth, 31 July 1988,

coll, K. L. Gowlett-Holmes, K. J. Olsson and M.

Cameron, F. V. ‘Adelaide Pearl’, Sta. 15, trawl, in

ethanol.

Description

The specimen consists of three main fragments, two

of which retain soft tissues, plus numerous small

fragments, all presumably from a single original

specimen. The largest fragment, 2.8 cm in height by

1.8 cm width, is composed of thin-walled tubules 0.7

to 1.0 cm in diameter, similar to the Japanese specimen

of Carter’s (1885) redescription. The frame is primarily

single layered and square meshed, with conspicuous

asymmetry in length of spurs on the two faces.

Spiculation includes dermal and _ gastral spined

pentactins, oxyhexasters (99-119 wm diameter) which

are often hemihexastrous and merge with oxyhexactins,

and pileate clavules projecting in radial bundles in the

dermal layer. Terminal rays of the oxyhexasters are

longer than primary rays in the ratio 1.3. No

tylohexasters or other forms of clavulae are present.

Remarks

On the basis of body form and spiculation, the

specimen is assigned to the typical subspecies Farrea

occa occa in spite of slight differences in proportions

of the oxyhexasters and absence of anchorate clavules.

Distribution

Cosmopolitan

Order Lyssacinosida Ijima, 1927

Family Euplectellidae Gray, 1867

Subfamily Euplectellinae Ijima, 1903

Genus Euplectella Owen, 1841

Diagnosis

See Ijima (1927: 327).

Euplectella regalis Schulze, 1900

(Figs 5-8)

Euplectella regalis Schulze 1900: 24. pl. VI, figs 1-9;

1902: 61, pl. XXII, figs 1-9, 1904: 132 (key); Ijima 1901:

58 (key); 1927: 327, 334; Burton 1959: 154; Reiswig

1990: 738.

Material examined

Two specimens: SAM S693, SAM S694, continental

slope, 194 km south of Eucla. South Australia,

33°26.8'S, 128°41 ’E, 956-973 m depth, 28 July 1988,

coll. K. L. Gowlett-Holmes, K. J. Olsson and M.

Cameron, FV. ‘Adelaide Pearl’, trawl, in ethanol.

Diagnosis

Euplectellidae with straight, cylindrical body; with

nearly flat sieve plate bordered by a narrow marginal

collar; local patches of parietal oscula in oblique or

longitudinal and transverse rows: soft parietal ridges

run obliquely; parietal principalia are stauractins with

diactins and triactins as comitalia; oscularia are mainly

stout pentactins; microscleres include oxyhexasters

with short primary rays, floricomes~ with

3-to-10-toothed, palmate tips, sigmatocomes, and

graphiocomes.

Description

Morphology: The two flattened specimens (Fig. 5)

are the soft, flexible upper portions of cylindrical

individuals of unknown total length. Their respective

dimensions (693, 694) are: length 41, 29.5 cm;

diameter 8.0, 8.3 cm. Both have narrow marginal

collars, 0.65-0.8 cm and 0.63-0.75 cm in width and well

developed but soft and thin, oblique parietal ridges to

1.3 cm and 1.15 cm height respectively. Wall thickness

varies from 0.30-0.45 cm in both specimens. Parietal

oscula are irregularly distributed — in some areas in

oblique series and in others in longitudinal and

transverse rows. The sieve plates are nearly flat and

typical in form. Synapticular fusion is evident only in

the lower portions of both specimens.

Spiculation: Parietal principalia are tetractins

(stauractins), with associated diactins, triactins, and

few hexactins as comitalia. The sieve plate contains

stout bent macrodiactins and a few macrotriactins and

macrotetractins as principalia, long diactins and

triactins as commitalia and short, stout pentactins and

hexactins as superficial spicules. Sword hexactins and

diactins form the major support elements in the general

dermis, marginal collar, and parietal ridges. Parietal

oscularia consist mainly of small stout pentactins

(62%), but hexactins (26%), tetractins (6.5 %), triactins

(2.2%) and compass diactins (3.3 %) occur (N=346).

Four classes of microscleres are common —

dimensions are based upon 25 spicules of each (693,

694; min-mean-max). Oxyhexasters (Fig. 6) have very

short principal rays, 0.125 of radius, and 2-3-4

32 H. M. REISWIG

FIGURES 6-12. Microscleres of Euplectella regalis SAM S693 and Regadrella okinoseana SAM S695. 6-8, oxyhexaster,

two floricomes (incomplete), and sigmatocome (phase contrast) of Euplectella regalis; 9-12, Regadrella okinoseana: 9, external

view: 10, broken sieve plate; Ll, SEM of sieve plate beam showing synapticular fusion; 12, SEM of floricome terminal ray tips.

HEXACTINELLIDA FROM THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT 33

terminals: 82-95-10, 86-///-128 mm _ diameter.

Floricomes (Fig. 7) have 3-7-10 terminals: 90-/08-124,

89-/20-133 um diameter. Sigmatocomes (Fig. 8) have

10-/2-14 terminals: 49-56-76, 48-60-67 ym diameter.

Graphiocomes are broken in all preparations: centra

21-26-30, 15-2/-24 wm diameter; raphide terminals

110-129-147, 69-1/3-154 pm length. Anchors are

unavailable.

Remarks

These specimens are excluded from the fourteen

other valid species of Euplectella by nature of parietal

and sieve plate principalia, parietal ridges, marginal

collar, oscularia and presence of oxyhexasters. They

agree with all major characters of Schulze’s (1900)

Euplectella regalis but differ in two details, the

presence of graphiocomes (as predicted by Ijima 1901:

53), and the distribution pattern of parietal oscula

(described as generally in longitudinal and transverse

rows in the type specimen, Schulze 1900: 24). Only

a small portion of the type of E. regalis is figured by

Schulze (1900), so verification of his description of

oscula distribution would require re-examination of the

original specimen. Unfortunately that specimen may

be too severely subdivided to resolve the pattern of

oscula (2 jars with 3 pieces in the Natural History

Museum, London; 3 jars in the Zoologisches Museum

der Humboldt Universitat, Berlin; main specimen

probably in the Indian Museum, Calcutta). In spite of

this slight difference, the two specimens are here

accepted as the second and third known examples of

the species. Both Australian sponges were probably

larger than the type specimen which was complete with

root tuft and measured 40 cm in length and 7-8 cm

in diameter. The tendency for local areas of body wall

to develop distribution of parietal oscula in longitudinal

and transverse rows is accepted here as a variable

character, along with slight differences that are

expected to occur in proportions and dimensions of

spicules. An emended diagnosis reflects these

variations.

Distribution

Andaman Is., 741 m; Great Australian Bight,

956-973 m.

Subfamily CORBITELLINAE Ijima, 1902b

Genus Regadrella Schmidt, 1880

Diagnosis

See Tjima (1927: 335).

Regadrella okinoseana ljima, 1896

(Figs 9-12)

Regadrella okinoseana Ijima 1896: 250; 1901: 223, pls

VII, VIII; 1902a: 122; 1902b: 8; 1902c: 691; 1903: 18,

1927: 335; Schulze 1899: 115; 1900: 30; 1902: 67; 1904:

133; Topsent 1904: 375; 1928: 297; Wilson 1904: 35;

Schrammen 1912: 182; Kirkpatrick 1913: 64; Reid 1964:

exxvii; Levi & Levi 1982: 292, pl. VI; Salomon 1990:

344; Reiswig 1990: 738.

Regadrella decora Schulze 1900: 30, pl. VI, figs 10-18;

1902: 67, pl. XXII, figs 10-18; 1904; 133; ljima 1901:

223; 1927: 335; Burton 1959: 154; Lévi & Levi 1982:

293; Reiswig 1990: 738.

Regadrella cylindrica Yjima 1927: 335, pl. VIII, figs

9-21; Reid 1964: xcii; Lévi & Levi 1982: 293; Salomon

1990: 344; Reiswig 1990: 738.

Material examined

One specimen: SAM S695, continental slope, 232

km south of Eucla, South Australia, 33°45’S,

129°17’E, 999-1 110 m depth, 1 August 1988, coll. K.

L. Gowlett-Holmes, K. J. Olsson and M. Cameron,

FE. V. ‘Adelaide Pearl’, trawl, in ethanol.

Diagnosis

Regadrellid with barrel-shaped body, slightly inflated

sieve plate, wide marginal collar (cuff) and rigid, fused

basal cup attached to solid substrate; lateral body wall

bearing a connected network of smooth-edged ridges

which circumscribe depressions containing small

parietal oscula; principalia are large gently bent

diactins; microscleres include distinctive

oxystauractins, floricomes, and graphiocomes.

Description

Morphology: The specimen (Fig. 9) consists of the

upper portion of a large individual of unknown total

length. It is 48 cm in length and, although now

flattened, was presumably oval in cross section, with

major and minor diameters measured at the upper end

of 22.9 by 14.5 cm. The marginal collar is well

developed, up to 2.5 cm wide, and the ridges between

the parietal depressions are ca one cm in height.

Synapticular fusion of lateral wall spicules is absent

from the upper 33 cm, and gradually increases from

that point towards the torn basal end. The sieve plate,

originally nearly flat in shape, is extensively broken

due to synapticular fusion of the central half (Figs 10

and 11). Synapticular deposition gradually decreases

marginally. The area bounding the junction with the

body wall remains free of all but trivial traces of

secondary silicification and is flexible.

Megascleres and mesoscleres (dimensions as min-

mean-max, n=25): The principalia are large curved

diactins to 6.2 cm long by 214 wm width. They are

accompanied by diactin comitalia and intermedial

oxyhexactins. Three classes of dermalia are present.

Large sword hexactins in the parietal ridges and

marginal collar have tangential rays 130-185-244 ym,

distal rays 171-512-788 pm, and proximal rays

301-852-1765 ym in length. Smaller dermals have

tangential rays 131-26/-391 um, distal rays 64-/25-233

pm but proximal rays either short 47-/44-346 wm, or

34 H. M. REISWIG

long 352-492-683 um. Gastralia are the usual

pentactins (not measured), Mesoscleres consist of

thick-rayed hexactins and pentactins covering sieve

plate beams and spiny intermedial oxyhexactins with

rays 104-/58-192 um in length, the latter uncommon.

Microscleres: Oxystaurasters with three (rarely five)

terminals are the most abundant microsclere, 73-94-lI7

ym in diameter. Variants occur as pentasters (6%),

triasters (<1%), hexasters (<1%), and octasters

(<1%). Floricomes bearing eight terminals per

primary are common in dermal structures, 115-/3/-147

pam in diameter. Terminal expansions carry 3-6-7-8

recurved claws (Fig. 12). The presence of

graphiocomes verified by their characteristic centra,

30-35-43 wm in diameter, and abundant raphide

terminals, 167-/96-242 ym in length.

Remarks

The specimen generally agrees with the descriptions

of Regadrella okinoseana from Sagami Bay, Japan, by

Ijima (1896, 1901) and from New Caledonia by Levi

& Levi (1982), but differs in a few features. The

principalia of the present specimen attain much larger

dimensions than those of either of the other two known

localities, but this is explained by the larger size and

presumably greater age of the South Australian

specimen — the largest from Sagami Bay was 42 cm

and from New Caledonia 29 cm in total length for

intact individuals. The floricomes of the present

specimen are larger (mean 131 vs 98-107 um at Sagami

Bay and 90 wm at New Caledonia) and carry more

terminal spines (usually 6-7 vs 2-3 at Sagami Bay and

undescribed at New Caledonia). The spiny

mesohexasters are larger than the Japan specimens

(104-192 vs 55-150 um ray length), but of the same mean

size as those from New Caledonia. These differences

are accepted as within the range of geographic variation

of a species and are not considered adequate for

recognition of even varietal status.

Only three species of Regadrella contain

oxystaurasters as characteristic microscleres, R.

okinoseana, R. decora Schulze, 1900, from near Cape

Comorin, Indian Ocean, and R. cylindrica Ijima, 1927,

from north of Celebes. Review of Schulze’s description

of R. decora suggests that his recognition of this as

distinct from R. okinoseana was based upon Ijima’s

poor original description and Schulze’s misinterpreta-

tion of same. The only differences between these

appear to be the lack of oxyhexasters and more angular

nature of principalia in R, decora, both of which appear

to be of dubious value since the oxyhexasters are rare

and the principalia are clearly curved in R. okinoseana.

The distinction between R. okinoseana and R.

cylindrica is equally tenuous, based again on the

absence of oxyhexasters, the lack of spiny

microxyhexasters, and the greater size of oxystaurasters

in the latter. The first two differences are trivial since

‘absence’ of these uncommon spicule classes depends

upon search effort, and the third distinction is slight,

based on nonquantitative data, and is not deserving of

even varietal importance, particularly with the greater

overlap provided by the South Australian specimen.

Both original authors were insecure in their assessment

of the validity of the two later species, and recent

authors (Lévi & Lévi 1982; Salomon 1990) have

supported amalgamation of the stauractine-bearing

Regadrella species. Synonymy of R. decora and R.

cylindrica with R. okinoseana is supported by the data

from the new specimen, and is here formally proposed.

Sieve plate fusion, present in this specimen, is

extremely rare in lyssacine hexactinellids, and is

apparently restricted to individuals of extreme age. It

has never been documented by illustration. Chimmo

(1878: 10) aluded to fusion of the sieve plate in

Euplectella aspergillum Owen, without convincing

microscopic evidence. Ijima (1902b: 4), an authority

with extensive observational experience, provided a

more convincing statement for Corbitella speciosa

(Quoy & Gaimard). Tabachnick (1990: 169) reported

synapticular fusion in the sieve plate of the 230 mm

long holotype of Regadrella peru Tabachnick, but

provided no photographic record. No other observation

of sieve plate fusion is known in recent lyssacinosans.

The rarity of extensive sieve plate fusion is appreciated

since it presents a barrier to alteration of the central

meshes. Potential for growth is retained by the lack

of fusion at the marginal junction with the body wall.

Synapticular fusion does enhance fossilization in these

members of the lyssacine hexactinosans (Salomon

1990), a group otherwise poorly represented in the

fossil record.

Distribution

Sagami Bay, Japan, 358-832 m depth; New

Caledonia 390-505 m depth; SW of Cape Comorin,

Indian Ocean, 787 m depth; N of Celebes, 1 165-1 264

m depth; Great Australian Bight, 999-1 110 m depth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Shane Parker of the South Australian Museum for

instigating this study, and providing access to the SAM

specimens. The manuscript was greatly improved by

comments supplied by Prof. P. A. Bergquist, Dr John N. A.

Hooper and Shane Parker. This work was supported by an

operating grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering

Research Council of Canada.

HEXACTINELLIDA FROM THE GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT 35

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NEW SPECIES OF ORIBATULIDAE (ACARIDA : CRYPTOSTIGMATA :

PLANOFISSURAE) FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SOILS, WITH A

REVIEW OF SUBFAMILIES AND AUSTRALIAN RECORDS

D.C. LEE

Summary

Oribatulid mites from Australian soils are considered with comments on the subfamilies. Three new

species, a new genus and a new species record are established for two subfamilies in South

Australia as follows : Oribatulinae — Oribatula runcinata sp. nov., Zygoribatula cycloporosa sp.

nov., Z. magna Ramsay; Pseudoppiinae — Aurosibula quagesetosa gen. nov. sp. nov. Of the nine

florally diverse South Australian sites sampled, the new species and records are from only three

sites with either a semi-arid, mallee-heath or pasture habitat. A key is provided for all six oribatulid

species known from Australia. Oribatula caudata Berlese, 1910 is newly regarded as a synonym of

Sellnickia caudata (Michael, 1908).

NEW SPECIES OF ORIBATULIDAE (ACARIDA: CRYPTOSTIGMATA: PLANOFISSURAE) FROM

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SOILS, WITH A REVIEW OF SUBFAMILIES AND AUSTRALIAN RECORDS

D.'€; LEE

LEE, D. C., 1992. New species of Oribatulidae (Acarida: Cryptostigmata: Planofissurae) from South

Australian soils, with a review of subfamilies and Australian records. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(1): 37-49.

Oribatulid mites from Australian soils are considered with comments on the subfamilies. Three new

species, a new genus and a new species record are established for two subfamilies in South Australia

as follows: Oribatulinae — Oribatula runcinata sp. nov., Zygoribatula cycloporosa sp. nov., Z. magna ‘

Ramsay; Pseudoppiinae — Ausoribula quagesetosa gen. nov., Sp. NOv. Of the nine florally diverse

South Australian sites sampled, the new species and records are from only three sites with either a

semi-arid, mallee-heath or pasture habitat. A key is provided for all six oribatulid species known from

Australia. Oribatula caudata Berlese, 1910 is newly regarded as a synonym of Sellnickia caudata

(Michael, 1908).

D. C. Lee, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript

received 13th September 1991.

This is a further part of an ongoing study of

sarcoptiform mites in South Australian soils, sampled

from nine florally diverse sites, and for which an

introduction to the relevant work on the advanced

oribate mites (Planofissurae) has been published (Lee

1987). The classification of the Oribatulidae followed

was initially that of Balogh & Balogh (1984). This was

changed after the description of species of a number

of oripodoid genera from or relevant to the Australian

fauna (Lee 1987; Lee & Birchby 1989, 199la, 1991b)

led to the higher classification of the Oripodoidea, and

so the included Oribatulidae, being modified (Lee

1991). The present paper outlines and adds to these

changes to the oribatulid classification and also deals

with three genera, from two subfamilies, from which

three new species are described. A key is provided to

distinguish all six oribatulid species known from

Australia, completing the consideration of the

Oribatulidae within this study.

The mites studied have either been deposited in the

South Australian Museum (SAMA), the Field

Museum, Chicago (FMNH), the Natural History

Museum, London (BMNH), or the New Zealand

Arthropod Collection, D.S.I.R. Auckland (NZAC),

whilst the holotype of Zygoribatula longiporosa

Hammer, 1953 has been returned to the Queensland

Museum (QM). The morphological notational system

follows Lee (1987), the somal chaetotaxy of which is

summarised in Figs | and 2, with the total setae present

in each file (e.g. 6Z) indicated by number coming first,

whilst a particular seta (e.g. Z6) would have the number

last. The abbreviations for zoogeographical regions

follow Lee (1970, fig. 427). The descriptions of eggs

refer to them whilst still within the female soma. All

material was examined using a Normarski interference

contrast deyice. Measurements are in micrometres

(um) and were made using an eyepiece micrometer at

250 magnification.

SYSTEMATICS

Family ORIBATULIDAE Thor

Oribatulidae Thor, 1929: 184

Oribatulidae: Grandjean, 1954: 440

Oribatulidae: Coetzer, 1968: 15

Oribatulidae: Balogh & Balogh, 1984: 270

Nominotype: Oribatula Berlese, 1896

Diagnosis

Oripodoidea. Hysteronotal foramina multiporose.

Dorsosejugal furrow present or absent. Lamella

(between setae zl-z2) and translamella (between setae

zl-zl), if present, either lamellate, costate or lineate.

Other proteronotal ridges (sublamella, prelamella,

tutorium or subtutorium) costate or lineate.

Hysteronotum without pteromorph, although may have

humeral process, and limbus usually inconspicuous.

Ventrosejugal apodeme either complete or partial with

mid-sternal gap. Preanal sclerite with breadth of lever

half or less that of refractile cup-shaped caput. Femur

I, and usually II, with medium-size stalk (length about

2x pedestal diameter), so that caput well separated

from pedestal. Femur I and II each with 5 setae, seta

v2 present. Tarsi I and II broad proximally (greater

than 0.75 x broadest part). Pretarsus with three claws.

Larva with seta on anal shield, and solenidion on palp

tarsus does not form ‘corne double’ with dorsal plasmic

seta.

Remarks

The Oribatulidae were restricted when some genera

were removed to establish Scheloribatidae (Grandjean,

1933), but this was not generally accepted until a

revision of the Oripodoidea (as Oribatuloidea) by

Balogh & Balogh (1984), where Scheloribatidae was

mistakenly referred to as a new family. In Balogh &

Balogh’s revision, the Oribatulidae were subdivided

into four subfamilies, mainly on the basis of the number

of genital setae. A subfamily that they ignored,

Pseudoppiinae Mahunka, 1975, has since been

redefined by Lee (1987) and, with a new subfamily,

Fovoribatulinae Lee & Birchby, 199la, extended the

Oribatulidae to six subfamilies. Four of these

subfamilies (Capilloppiinae, Crassoribatulinae,

Fovoribatulinae and Sellnickiinae) have since been

excluded from the Oribatulidae and they are considered

briefly here.

The Fovoribatulinae Lee & Birchby, 1991a, when

established, included new genera, Brassiella Balogh,

1970 (ex Fenicheliidae), Reticuloppia Balogh &

Mahunka, 1966b (ex Oribatulinae) and Romanobates

Feider, Vasiliu & Calugar, 1970 (ex Capilloppiinae).

The subfamily was recognised by the absence of a seta

(av2) on femur II. Later, this character state. was

considered as diagnostic of the primitive

Crassoribatulid-complex (Lee 1991), many members

of which are similar to the oribatulid species. Both

Fovoribatulinae and Crassoribatulinae Balogh &

Balogh, 1984 (ex Oribatulidae) were grouped in this

Crassoribatulid-complex.

Both Sellnickiinae Grandjean, 1960 (mistakenly

referred to as a new subfamily by Balogh & Balogh,

1984) and Capilloppiinae Balogh & Balogh, 1984 were

excluded from the Oribatulidae to be included in either

the Sellnickiid-complex or the Capilloppiidae

(Mochlozetid-complex) by Lee (1991). This was mainly

based on the shape of their preanal sclerites, but it has

since been established (see following remarks) that the

Capilloppiidae have a leg chaetotaxy and preanal

sclerite as for members of the Crassoribatulid-complex

and they are placed as a subfamily within the

Crassoribatulidae.

The examination of the types of further oribatulid-

like taxa, since the above changes were made (Lee

1991), has established that some of them lack seta v2

on femur II and they are, therefore, also here grouped

in the Crassoribatulidae-complex. For these taxa, the

setation of femur I and II is as follows: Nesozetes

rostropterus Hammer, 1971 — femur I 1,2/1,0, femur

II 1,2/1,0; Capilloppia capillata Balogh & Mahunka,

1966a — femur I 1,2/1,0, femur II, 1,2/1,0; Lunoribatula

polygonata Mahunka, 1982 — femur I 0,2/1,0, femur

II 0,2/1,0. Also the preanal sclerites of the types of

Capilloppia capillata have a narrow lever and a

refractile cup-shaped caput. Therefore, the new

placings of these taxa, which have been grouped within

or near to the Oribatulidae, are now within the

Crassoribatulid-complex adding two subfamilies to that

complex as follows: the Nesozetinae Balogh & Balogh,

1984 are grouped in the Lamellareidae Balogh, 1972

and the Capilloppiinae Balogh & Balogh, 1984,

including Lunoribatula, are in the Crassoribatulidae

Balogh & Balogh, 1984.

D.C.

LEE

KEY TO AUSTRALIAN ORIBATULID SPECIES (ADULTS)

| — _ Ventrosejugal apodemes continuous across midsternal

LT ee oe ak adele leet! ay a fea Be Bo 5 Oribatulinae 2

— Ventrosejugal apodemes do not merge across

midsternal line,............... Pseudoppiinae 5

Translamella absent. .Oribatula runcinata sp. nov.

— Translamella present....,....... Zygoribatula 3

Lamella and translamella broad, cuspis large (length

about 5X diameter of setal base to zl). Behind

interlamella seta (j2), ridge runs back to dorsosejugal

furrow. First hysteronotal foramina (F3) oval (length

2x breadth), shorter than seta Z2..............

es Wetle lats ee aetad | Zygoribatula magna Ramsay

— Lamella and translamella narrow, cuspis small (length

about 2X diameter of setal base to zl)......... 4

Behind interlamella seta (j2), ridge runs laterally to

sensory seta (22). First hysteronotal foramina (F3)

spherical (length subequal to breadth). Head of

sensory seta (z2) globular....................

hE SRE Pury pl baie Zygoribatula cycloporosa sp. nov.

— Interlamellar seta (/2) without associated ridges. First

hysteronotal foramina (F3) elongate (length about 10x

breadth). Head of sensory seta (z2) pyriform....

HSe pas nba eda Zygoribatula longiporosa Hammer

Hysteronotum with 15 pairs of setae (6/J, 6Z, 35S).

Genital shield with two pairs of setae (2JZg)....

...Constrictobates lineolatus Balogh & Mahunka

— Hysteronotum with 10 pairs of setae (2, 6Z, 25).

Genital shield with four pairs of setae (4/Zg)....

NN ae ES ee AER Ausoribula quagesetosa sp, nov.

Subfamily ORIBATULINAE Thor

Diagnosis

Oribatulidae. Ventrosejugal apodemes continuous

across midsternal line. Hysteronotum oval, sometimes

with humeral process, usually with 14 pairs of setae

(exceptions: 10 pairs on Paraphauloppia and Jornadia,

12 or 13 pairs on some Eporibatula, Oribatula and

Zygoribatula species), sejugal furrow not extending

anterior to bothridium (around seta z2), always present

across mid-line. Four pairs of multiporose hysteronotal

foramina usually present (exception: three pairs on

Paraphauloppia triforamina). Genital shield usually

with four pairs of setae (exception: five pairs on

Jornadia). Legs long and slim,

Remarks

The Oribatulinae included 14 genera in the

classification of Balogh & Balogh (1984). One of these

genera, Reticuloppia Balogh & Mahunka, 1966b, has

been transferred (Lee & Birchby 199la) to

Fovoribatulinae (Crassoribatulidae), whilst a number

of genera are here grouped in Pseudoppiinae (see

following text). This leaves only the following eight

genera, of which the majority are cosmopolitan, in the

Oribatulinae: Eporibatula Sellnick, 1928; Jornadia

Wallwork & Weems, 1984; Lucoppia Berlese, 1908;

Oribatula Berlese, 1896; Paraphauloppia Hammer,

ORIBATULID MITES 39

1967; Phauloppia Berlese, 1908; Spinoppia Higgins

& Woolley, 1966; Zygoribatula Berlese, 1916.

Other than the South Australian material collected

in this study only the cosmopolitan Zygoribatula has

been recorded from Australia (Hammer 1953).

Paraphauloppia, previously known only from New

Zealand and South America, has been collected in this

study (Lee & Birchby 199lb). The current paper

includes the first record of the cosmopolitan Oribatula

from Australia.

Genus Oribatula Berlese

Oribatula Berlese, 1896: LXXIX,12. Type-species

(original designation): ‘Oribatula tibialis’ (=Notaspis

tibialis Nicolet, 1855; Berlese, 1895: LXXVII,5).

Oribatula; Hammen, 1952: 80.

Oribatula: Travé, 1961: 313.

Oribatula; Coetzer, 1968: 55.

Type-species: Oribatula tibialis (Nicolet, 1855)

Diagnosis

Oribatulinae. Twelve, thirteen or fourteen pairs of

short, smooth or weakly ciliate hysteronotal setae.

Humeral setae (Z1, 51) similar in shape and size to other

hysteronotal setae (rarely Zl stouter, but still subequal

in length), Proteronotum without translamella, lamella

at least lamellate anteriorly (never just costate or

lineate), in subparallel pair, medium size or long,

distance between lamellar seta zl and dorsosejugal

furrow greater than 1.5X distance between

interlamellar seta j2 and bothridium of sensory seta

z2. Genital shield with four pairs of setae.

Distribution

Regarded as possibly cosmopolitan, but all records

before this paper appear to be from only the Holarctic

or Ethiopian region. Both saxicolous and arboreal on

epiphytes (Travé 1961), in Europe found on moss on

northern slopes of mountains, and not very sensitive

to drought (Hammen 1952), also found in marshes and

pasture sod (Krantz 1978). This single record from

Australia is from the semi-arid region.

Remarks

Oribatula is very similar to some other oribatulid

genera. It only differs from Zygoribatula in that it lacks

a translamella as commented on later in the ‘Remarks’

on that genus. It is also very like Phauloppia, which

differs in having a lineate lamella, seta zl closer to j2

than jl and seta ZI closer to SI than J2.

Oribatula caudata Berlese, 1910 from Citrus

deliciosa, New South Wales, is here combined with

Sellnickia and is also newly regarded as a synonym

of its senior homonym, Sellnickia caudata (Michael,

1908). S. caudata was originally described from New

Zealand, but was redescribed in detail by Grandjean

(1958) from the leaves of lemon trees in Queensland.

The similarity in appearance, including the presence

of a rather long conical posterior process on the

hysteronotum of an Oribatula-like mite, is considered

sufficient to group Oribatula caudata in Sellnickia.

Oribatula includes the following 15 species and one

subspecies (note — many species with 10 pairs of

hysteronotal setae were transferred to Paraphauloppia

by Coetzer, 1968): O. acuminata Wallwork, 1964, O.

exsudans Travé, 1961; O. florens Berlese, 1908; O.

incompleta Mahunka, 1987; O. interrupta (Willmann,

1939); O. interrupta major (Mihelcic, 1963); O. pallida

Banks, 1906; O. pannonica Willmann, 1949 (see Travé,

1961); O. parisi Travé, 1961; O. sakamorii Aoki, 1970;

O. saxicola (Kunst, 1959); O. tibialis Nicolet, 1855;

O. torrijosi Subias, Ruiz & Kahwash, 1990; O.

variabilis Berlese, 1908; O. venusta Berlese, 1908; O.

vera (Bulanova-Zachvatkina, 1967).

Oribatula runcinata sp. nov.

(Figs 1-3)

Female

Dorsal profile of hysteronotum ovoid, mid-brown,

surface glabrous, without reliculations. Coxite area

with faint reticulations. Idiosomal length 397 (n = 15,

357-437). Leg lengths (femur-tarsus for idiosomal

length 400): 1-222, II-182, III-172, IV-220. Tibial

maximum heights (for 400): I-20.5, II-15.5, III-13,

IV-14.

Proteronotum with slim lamella, mainly costate,

lamellate anteriorly, but not bearing seta zl (lies on

flat proteronotal surface), and costate sublamella. Setae

jl, j2 and zl stout, and noticeably ciliate, j1 longest.

Sensory seta (z2) clavate, exposed stalk subequal in

length to head covered with fine cilia.

Hysteronotal setae short, fine, setose and subequal

in length. Multiporose foramina small, F3 length less

than 0.33 x distance between setae Z1-Z2, anterior two

pairs (F3, F4) larger than posterior pairs (F5, F6), all

four pairs round or weakly oval. Slit shaped pore hf3

sloping outwards towards posterior.

Podosternum with circumpedal ridge merged with

rest of subpedal ridge, distinct from and ventral to

discidium and pedotectum II, absent below pedotectum

I. Discidium forms costate ridge. Setae vary in length,

lateral setae (3, 7/3, [V3) similar to hysteronotal setae,

other coxite setae smaller, smallest setae on genital

shields.

Opisthosternum with outer file (Sa) of setae longer

than coxite setae and setae on anal shield (JZa)

subequal in length to smallest coxite setae. Slit-like pore

Saf nearly transverse, more than 45° from longitudinal

axis. Eggs subcylindrical with convex ends, 181 « 90

(mean of 7 horizontally aligned eggs, 46% of mean

female length), smooth exochorion. Number of eggs

D. C. LEE

wool

female soma. 1, notum; 2, idiosternum

FIGURES 1 AND 2. Oribatula runcinata

ORIBATULID MITES 41

FIGURES 3 AND 4. Right legs I and II, femur-pretarsi, posterior aspect. 3, Oribatula runcinata; 4, Zygoribatula cycloporosa.

All setae on femurs I and II illustrated, d = dorsal, p = posterior, v = ventral.

in female (number of females) as follows: none (2),

one (1), two (4), three (5), four (2), six (1).

Legs long (mean femur-tarsus: 50% soma), slim

(mean maximum tibial height: 26% of mean length).

All femora and trochanters III and IV with dorsal

adaxial porose areas and vertical adaxial ridges.

Male

As female except soma smaller, idiosomal length 359

(n = 23, 332-380).

Material examined

Holotype: 9 (N19901033), soil, litter, moss and

other low growth plants under bladder saltbush

(Atriplex vesicaria) amongst sparse false sandalwood

(Myoporum platycarpum), Koonamore Vegetation

Reserve (32°07’S, 139°21’E), 27.vi.1974.

Paratypes: ll 9 9 (N1I9901034-N19901044); 17 oo”

(N19901045-N19901061); 1 9, 2 oo BMNH; 1 9,

2 oo FMNH; 1 9, 2 oo NZAC; same data as

holotype.

Distribution

Australia (Aa), South Australia. Semi-arid low

shrubland (Koonamore Vegetation Reserve), Lake Eyre

Basin, 15 9 9, 2300/5 of 8 X 25 cm’.

Remarks

The specific name runcinata is derived from the

Latin ‘runcinare’ to ‘smooth’ and refers to the

unsculptured notal surface. The slim lamellae

distinguish O. runcinata from other species of

Oribatula, and although O. pannonica Willmann, 1949

also has slim lamellae they are extensive enough to

carry seta zl. The large sensory seta (z2) also

distinguishes it, O. vera (Bulanova-Zachvatkina, 1967)

having the next largest seta z2.

Genus Zygoribatula Berlese

Zygoribatula Berlese, 1916: 317. Type-species (original

designation): ‘Oribates connexus Berl’.

Neoribatula Ewing, 1917: 128.

Zygoribatula: Travé, 1961: 328.

Zygoribatula: Coetzer, 1968: 92.

Type-species: Zygoribatula connexa (Berlese, 1904)

Diagnosis

Oribatulinae. Thirteen or fourteen pairs of short to

medium, smooth or weakly ciliate hysteronotal setae.

Humeral setae (Z1, SI) similar in shape and size to other

hysteronotal setae (rarely Z1 stouter and more ciliate,

but still subequal in length or smaller). Proteronotum

with lamellate translamella and lamella, subparallel

pair of lamellae, medium size to long, distance between

D.C.

LEE

lamellar seta (zl) and dorsosejugal furrow greater than

1.5 distance between interlamellar seta j2 and

bothridium of sensory seta z2. Genital shield with four

pairs of setae.

Distribution

Cosmopolitan. Both saxicolous and arboreal, in

moss, or on sap or bark, also hemiedaphic in many

different types of soil from sand to clay, with or without

humus and even in the intertidal zone. Three species

are now known from Australia. Zygoribatula

longiporosa Hammer, 1953 was recorded from pasture

in southern Queensland, Z. magna Ramsay, 1966,

originally described from pasture near Wellington,

New Zealand, is now recorded from pasture near

Adelaide, South Australia, and Z. cycloporosa sp. nov.

was collected at the Mallee-heath site under Banksia

shrubs.

Remarks

Zygoribatula is very similar to Oribatula, as

discussed by Travé (1961), who decided to retain the

genus ‘pour des raisons de commodité’, implying that

it may not be valid. The only character distinguishing

Zygoribatula from Oribatula is the presence of a

complete lamellate translamella between setae zl-zl and

this may be discontinuous in some specimens of a

species (Luxton, 1987). Zygoribatula is much more

species-rich than Oribatula. Fritz (1982) lists 85

species, but two of these (Z. interrupta and Z. saxicola)

are here grouped in Oribatula as by Travé (1961).

Zygoribatula lenticulata Minguez & Subias, 1986,

because of its similarity to Romanobates in the

Crassoribatulidae, had the chaetotaxy of two of its male

paratypes examined and for femur I it was 1,2/2,1 and

for femur II it was 1,2/2,1, as for all oribatulids, and

not fewer setae as for Crassoribatulidae. Zygoribatula

dactilaris Subias, Ruiz & Kahwash, 1990 is newly

combined with Phauloppiella, as commented on in the

following remarks on Pseudoppiinae. A further three

species are included in Zygoribatula as follows: Z.

baloghi Mahunka, 1986, Z. endroedyi Mahunka, 1986

and Z. knighti Luxton, 1987.

Zygoribatula cycloporosa sp. nov.

(Figs 4-6)

Female

Dorsal profile of hysteronotum ovoid, light-brown,

surface sparsely punctate. Coxite area with

reticulations. Idiosomal length 401 (n = 3, 388-409).

Leg lengths (femur-tarsus for idiosomal length 388):

1-244, II-208, III-203, IV-249. Tibial maximum heights

(for 388): I-23, II-18, III- 18, IV-18.

Proteronotum with lamellate lamella and

translamella, and costate sublamella and costate ridge

between setae j2-z2. Setae jl, j2 and zl long, stout, and

ORIBATULID MITES

100um

Ww)

FIGURES 5 AND 6. Zygoribatula cycloporosa, female soma. 5, notum; 6, idiosternum. For setal notation see Figs 1 and 2.

4a D. C. LEE

noticeably ciliate, j2 longest. Sensory seta (z2) medium

size (length 0.33 Xx distance between setae zl-z2),

capitate, exposed stalk subequal in length to head

covered with fine cilia.

Hysteronotal setae short, stout, setose (weakly

ciliate) and subequal in length. Multiporose foramina

small, diameter of F3 less than 0.33 xX distance

between setae Z1-Z2, anterior pair (F3) conspicuously

larger than posterior pairs (F4, F5, F6), all four pairs

round. On right side of one female, foramina F5 and

F6 replaced by single pair in intermediate position. Slit

shaped pore Af3 nearly transverse, sloping acutely

inwards towards posterior.

Podosternum with circumpedal ridge merged with

rest of subpedal ridge, distinct from and ventral to

discidium and pedotectum, present (may be faint)

below pedotectum I. Discidium forms semicircular

costate ridge around posterior margin of acetabulum

for leg HI. Setae slim, setose, longer if positioned

closer to lateral margin. Smallest setae on genital

shields. On right side of one female, five genital setae.

Opisthosternum with setae in outer (Sa) and inner

(JZa) files subequal in length. Slit-like pore Saf nearly

transverse, more than 45° from longitudinal axis. Eggs

subcylindrical with convex ends, 168 x 74 (mean of

4 horizontally aligned eggs, 42% of mean somal

length), smooth exochorion. Number of eggs in female

(number of females) as follows: one (1), two (1), four

(1).

Legs long (mean femur-tarsus: 57% soma), slim

(mean maximum tibial height: 30% of mean length).

All femora and trochanters III and IV with dorsal

adaxial porose areas and, on femora III and IV, strong

vertical ridges on adaxial surface, ventral to porose

areas.

Male

Unknown.

Material examined

Holotype: 92 (N19901280), sand, litter, under

banksia shrubs (Banksia ornata) amongst other

sclerophyllous shrubs and sparse brown stringybark

mallee (Eucalyptus baxteri), Tamboore Homestead

(35°57’S, 140°29’E), 4.vili.1974.

Paratypes: 2 9 9 (N19901281, N19901282) same

data as holotype.

Distribution

Australia (Aa), South Australia. Mallee-heath, tall

open shrubland (Tamboore Homestead, near Mt

Rescue Conservation Park), Murray-Darling basin, 3

9 9/1 of 8 X 25 cm’.

Remarks

The prefix of the specific name cycloporosa is

derived from the Greek ‘kyklos’ for ‘circle’ and refers

to the hysteronotal multiporose foramina, which are

circular in outline. The only other species which have

small, circular hysteronotal foramina and mainly

costate lamellae and translamella (with limited

lamellate parts and no distinct cuspis at apex of lamella)

are Z. frisiae (Oudemans, 1900) from Netherlands, Z.

knighti Luxton, 1987 from England and Z.

tenuelamellata Miheleie, 1956 from Spain. O.

cycloporosa is regarded as the most similar to Z. knighti

because of the presence of a costate ridge between setae

j2 and z2. It differs from all three species in having

long interlamellar setae (2) and an almost globular

caput on setae z2.

Zygoribatula longiporosa Hammer

(No figures)

Zygoribatula longiporosa Hammer, 1953: 236.

Female

Legs: Chaetotaxy of femur I 0,2/2,1; femur II 0,2/2,1.

Material examined

Syntypes, two females (W1854, W3569), pastures,

lot 52-56 29, Yeerongpilly, Queensland, 14th May,

1952, F. H. S. Roberts.

Remarks

Zygoribatula longiporosa is the only species of

Oribatulidae (as delineated here) recorded from

Australia previous to this study. It was collected in large

numbers from calf pastures in Queensland and

examined for cysticercoids of the tapeworm Moniezia

benedeni, between 1.8% and 5.7% being infested

depending on the pasture sampled (Roberts, 1953). The

types have been examined to establish the leg

chaetotaxy, which has proved to be as found in the

Oribatulidae and not reduced by at least the absence

of a ventral seta on femur II as for the Fovoribatulinae.

Proposals have been made that Z. longiporosa and Z.

tadrosi Popp, 1960 from Egypt are synonymous with

Z. undulata Berlese, 1916 from Italy (Pérez-Inigo, 1974)

and that Z. longiporosa is synonymous with Z.

heteroporosa Wallwork, 1972 from California

(Bhattacharya & Banerjee, 1980). These proposed

synonymies are not accepted. The similarities between

these species are the elongate first hysteronotal

foramina (F3) and the narrow lamella without a cuspis.

On the other hand, even on the basis of the published

descriptions, there are enough differences between the

species (e.g. the size and shape of other hysteronotal

foramina and the relative sizes of proteronotal setae)

to suggest that they are valid taxa.

Zygoribatula magna Ramsay, 1966

(No figures)

Female

Dorsal profile of hysteronotum ovoid, dark-brown

ORIBATULID MITES 45

colour, surface covered with fine striations. Lateral

punctations and areolae with strong reticulations in

coxite area. Idiosomal length 507 (n = 25, 468-535).

Leg lengths (femur-tarsus for idiosomal length 516):

1-266, 1-245, 1-242, IV-307. Tibial maximum heights

(for 516): I-26, II-19, III-17, IV-19. Legs long (mean

femur-tarsus: 51% soma), slim (mean maximum tibial

height: 28% of mean length). Chaetotaxy of femur I

0,2/2,1; femur II 0,2/2,1. Dorsal adaxial porose areas

and reticulate abaxial sculpturing on all femora and

trochanters III and IV, strong vertical ridges on adaxial

surface, ventral to porose areas on femora III and IV.

Eggs subcylindrical with convex ends, 177 x 93 (mean

of 4 horizontal aligned eggs, 35% of mean somal

length), smooth exochorion. Number of eggs in female

(number of females, total 25) as follows: none (23),

two (1), three (1).

Male

As for female except soma smaller, idiosomal length

490 (n X 25, 463-516).

Material examined

Undesignated: 116 9 9 (N19901062-N19901177); 102

oo (NI9901I78-N19901279); 5 9 9,5 ao BMNH;

5 99,500 FMNH;5 9 9,5 oo NZAC; soil,

bases of cultivated grass and plantain (Plantago

lanceolata) in pasture of sheep, Glenthorne Research

Station, O’Halloran Hill (35°02’S, 138°32’E),

12.vi.1974.

Distribution

Australia (Aa), South Australia. Cultivated pasture

(Glenthorne Research Station), Southern Gulfs, 131 9

Q, 7 oo 6 of 8 x 25 cm.

Remarks

Zygoribatula magna was first described from

pastures near Wellington, New Zealand, where they

were collected in samples with Setobates

scheloribatoides (Ramsay, 1966) and 2-6% of the

combined population of the two species were infested

with tapeworm cysticercoids. No cysticercoids were

found in the South Australian specimens.

Subfamily PSEUDOPPIINAE Mahunka

Pseudoppiinae Mahunka, 1975: 293

Constrictobatinae Balogh & Balogh, 1984: 280

Nominotype: Pseudoppia Mahunka, 1975

Diagnosis

Oribatulidae. Ventrosejugal apodemes do not meet

across midsternal line. Hysteronotum pear-shaped with

no humeral process, and between 10-15 pairs of setae,

sejugal furrow extending anterior to bothridium

(around seta z2), usually evanescent or absent across

mid-line. Two, three or four pairs of multiporose

hysteronotal foramina present. Genital shield usually

with two or three pairs of setae (exceptions with 4/Zg:

Phauloppiella and Ausoribula). Legs medium length

and stout.

Remarks

The Pseudoppiinae Mahunka, 1975 was established

with three genera. Balogh & Balogh (1984), in their

comprehensive classification of the Oripodoidea (as

Oribatuloidea), ignored Pseudoppiinae, leaving two of

the included genera in Oribatulinae, and mistakenly

omitting altogether the third original genus,

Symphauloppia Balogh, 1972. Lee (1987) once again

recognised the Pseudoppiinae and included a further

two genera, Constrictobates from Fenicheliidae and

Phauloppiella from Oribatulinae. Later, Lee (1991)

transferred a further five genera from either

Capilloppiinae or Oribatulinae to Pseudoppiinae so that

all the oribatulid genera with a gap between the

ventrosejugal apodemes are included. One of these five

genera, Lunoribatula Mahunka, 1982, has a reduced

chaetotaxy on femora I and II as pointed out in previous

remarks on Oribatulidae, and is now grouped in the

Crassoribatulinae.

Attention is drawn here to the Liebstadiinae Balogh

& Balogh, 1984, which are similar to the

Pseudoppiinae, but are not regarded as allied to them,

although this may change in future classifications of

the Oripodoidea. The subfamily was established within

the Protoribatidae, a family with multiporose foramina,

a single pretarsal claw and usually with pteromorphs

which are sometimes represented by only small

humeral processes (as in Liebstadiinae), which is

considered as representing a secondary loss of

pteromorphs (Lee 1991). On the other hand, Liebstadia

Oudemans 1906 was included in Scheloribatidae by

Grandjean (1954) and still is by some acarologists

(Wunderle, Beck & Woas 1990), supporting a

phylogenetic model that it is primitive within the

Scheloribatidae, most genera of which have sacculate

hysteronotal foramina. Although the relationship of the

Liebstadiinae to the Pseudoppiinae is uncertain, the

adults of known taxa can easily be distinguished by

the number of pretarsal claws.

The following nine genera are regarded as belonging

to the cosmopolitan Pseudoppiinae: Ausoribula gen.

nov., Constrictobates Balogh & Mahunka, 1966;

Diphauloppia Balogh & Balogh, 1984; Gerloubia

Coetzer, 1968; Phauloppiella Subias, 1977; Pseudoppia

Pérez-Inigo, 1966; Senoribula Mahunka, 1975;

Subphauloppia Hammer, 1967; Symphauloppia

Balogh, 1972. The only previous Australian records

of the Pseudoppiinae have been of Constrictobates,

originally from Western Australia and more recently

from South Australia (Lee 1987). Ausoribula,

established here, is also from South Australia.

Genus Ausoribula gen. nov.

Type-species: Ausoribula quagesetosa sp. nov.

Diagnosis

Pseudoppiinae. Hysteronotum with 11 pairs of setae

(J5, J6, Z1-Z6, S1, S5, S6) and three pairs of foramina

(F3, F4, F5). Dorsosejugal furrow not continuous

across mid-dorsal line. Lamella present, mainly

costate, only lineate in region of seta zl. Three

prosternal apodeme bases (J/, // and sejugal) present.

Four pairs of setae on genital shields (4/Zg) and two

pairs of setae on anal shields (2/Za). Legs medium

length or short (order of decreasing length: I, IV, II,

IID), tarsi I-III about twice genu length, tarsus IV about

3x genu length.

Distribution

Single species known only from South Australia.

50um

: LEE

Remarks

The prefix of Ausoribula refers to the genus being

only known from Australia, while the rest of the name

is a derivation from Oribatei (= Cryptostigmata),

which Michael (1884) suggested may be derived either

from the Greek words ‘oros’ (a mountain) and ‘baino’

(I go or walk) or from the proper noun ‘Oribasus’,

Acteon’s dog.

The relationships of Ausoribula within the

Pseudoppiinae are uncertain. The recognition of

pseudoppiine genera depends heavily on somal

chaetotaxy, and Ausoribula has 14 pairs of hysteronotal

setae like Senoribula and 4 pairs of genital setae like

Phauloppiella. On the other hand, the presence of

lamellae and only three pairs of hysteronotal foramina

FIGURES 7 AND 8. Ausoribula quagesetosa, temale soma. 7, notum; 8, idiosternum. For setal notation see Figs | and 2.

ORIBATULID MITES 47

FIGURE 9. Ausoribula quagesetosa, female right legs I-IV, femur-pretarsi, posterior aspect. All setae on femurs I and II

illustrated, d = dorsal, p = posterior, v = ventral.

are character states shared with the other Australian

genus, Constrictobates, and may indicate that these two

genera are closely allied.

Ausoribula quagesetosa sp. nov.

(Figs 7-9)

Female

Dorsal profile of hysteronotum nearly parallel sided,

straw-colour, surface smooth. Coxite area with fine

striations. Idiosomal length 183 (n = 8, 177-191). Leg

lengths (femur-tarsus for idiosomal length 182): I-95,

II-77, I-68, IV-85. Tibial maximum heights (for 182):

I-13, II-11.5, II-10, IV-10.

Proteronotum indented posteriorly by forward

protrusion of hysteronotum. Weakly lamellate lamella;

sublamella, prelamella and translamella absent. Setae

j2 and zl shorter than all other notal setae except

hysteronotal seta Zl. Sensory seta (z2) clavate, exposed

stalk shorter than head, covered with fine cilia.

Hysteronotal seta mainly medium size, fine, setose

and subequal in length, except for short seta Zl. Only

three pairs of small, faint hysteronotal foramina.

Unnamed pair of sacculate pores between setae Z5 and

midline. Long slit shaped pore Af3 sloping outwards

towards posterior.

Podosternum with circumpedal and sub-pedal ridge

running close to base of legs, divided into two separate

parts at pedotectum II. Discidium forms slim tubercle.

Setae vary in length, with /2, /3, 1/3 longest and JVI

and /V2 shortest, similar to genital setae.

Opisthosternum with medium length setae compared

to range in size of coxite setae. Slit-like pore Saf not

located, although indistinct groove near genital orifice

margin level with seta Sa may represent remnant. No

eggs observed.

48 D.C, LEE

Legs medium length (mean femur-tarsus: 45%

soma), stout (mean maximum tibial height: 51% of

mean length). No dorsal porose areas, reticulate abaxial

or ridged adaxial sculpturing on femora and

trochanters, except that femur IV has strong vertical

ridges on adaxial surface. Tarsus IV long (3 length

of genu) with a vertical ridge halfway along its abaxial

surface.

Male

As for female except soma smaller, idiosomal length

173 (n = 12, 167-177).

Material examined

Holotype: 9 (N19901283), sand, litter, under

banksia shrubs (Banksia ornata) amongst other

sclerophyllous shrubs and sparse brown stringybark

mallee (Eucalyptus baxteri), Tamboore Homestead

(35°57’'S, 140°29’E), 4.viii.1974.

Paratypes: 7 9 9 (N19901284-N19901290), 12 oo

(N19901291-N19901302) same data as holotype.

Distribution

Australia (Aa), South Australia. Mallee-heath, tall

open shrubland (Tamboore Homestead, near Mt

Rescue Conservation Park), Murray-Darling basin, 7

99, 12 oc/ 3 of 8 x 25 cm’.

Remarks

The prefix of the specific name quagesetosa is

derived from abbreviations of the Latin ‘quattuor’ for

‘four’ and ‘genitus’ for ‘be born’ and refers to the four

pairs of genital setae. It is the only species in the genus.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1 am indebted to Miss Carolyn M. Birchby for the drawings

and to Miss Kirstie Jamieson for making up the plates with

their notation, as well as to the Australian Biological Resources

Study for funding their salaries. Thanks are also due to Dr

Robert Raven (Queensland Museum) for arranging the loan

of type material and Mrs Debbie Lowery for typing the

manuscript.

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CTENOPHURUS TJANTJALKA, A NEW DRAGON LIZARD

(LACERTILIA: AGAMIDAE) FROM NORTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

G. R. JOHNSTON

Summary

A new species of agamid lizard, Ctenophorus tjantjalka, is described and illustrated. It is saxicolous

in habit, appears to be confined to northern South Australia and is a member of the C. decresii

species group. It may be distinguished from all other members of this group by its deep head and

short snout, wrinkled snout scales, the presence of a vertebral keel, dorsal colouration of males and

females and the lack of banding on the tail.

CTENOPHORUS TJANTJALKA, A NEW DRAGON LIZARD (LACERTILIA: AGAMIDAE) FROM

NORTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

G. R. JOHNSTON

JOHNSTON, G. R. 1992. Ctenophorus tjantjalka, a new dragon lizard (Lacertilia: Agamidae) from

northern South Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(1): 51-59.

A new species of agamid lizard, Ctenophorus tjantjalka, is described and illustrated. It is saxicolous

in habit, appears to be confined to northern South Australia and is a member of the C. decresii species

group. It may be distinguished from all other members of this group by its deep head and short snout,

wrinkled snout scales, the presence of a vertebral keel, dorsal colouration of males and females and

the lack of banding on the tail.

Greg Johnston, Department of Anatomy and Histology, University of Adelaide, GPO Box 498, Adelaide,

South Australia 5001. Present Address: School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University of South

Australia, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042. Manuscript received 28 October 1991.

Members of the Ctenophorus decresii species group

represent a distinct saxicolous ecomorph within the

extensive Australian radiation of agamid lizards. This

group has been diagnosed by Houston (1974) and

extended by Storr (1981). The species described herein

as new, is a member of the C. decresii species group

and inhabits the barren, rocky ranges of far northern

South Australia.

Specimens of this taxon have been received at the

South Australian Museum since 1960 but were

variously misidentified, most of them as either C.

rufescens or C. vadnappa. Warburg’s (1966) reference

to C. fionni at Wintinna in northern South Australia

was probably based on this species. White’s (1979)

records of C. vadnappa from the Mabel Range near

Oodnadatta are also based on this species. Houston

(1978) regarded several specimens of this new species

as C. rufescens, thereby incorrectly extending that

species’ distribution east of the Stuart Highway.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Eighteen morphometric measurements and eight

meristic counts were made of all available specimens

of the new taxon (N = 17) and C. rufescens (N = 89),

and a selection of C. vadnappa (N = 42) in the South

Australian Museum (SAM) and Western Australian

Museum (WAM). Morphometric measurements were

snout-vent length (SVL), the distance between the tip

of the snout and the anterior margin of the eye (SL),

eye diameter (EYE), the horizontal distance from the

posterior margin of the eye to the angle of the jaw

(POCL), head depth immediately behind the eye (HD),

width between the nostrils (SWD), width between the

tympani (HWD), length of the upper arm (HUML),

length of lower arm (FAL), length of the hand (ML),

length of the thigh (FEML), length of tibia (TIBL),

length of foot (PL), distance from axilla to groin (AG),

tail lengtu’ (TL), head length (HL =

SL+EYE+POCL), forelimb length (FLL =

HUML+FAL+ML) and hindlimb length (HLL =

FEML+TIBL+PL). Meristic counts were the number

of scales between the rostral and the nasal (PRENAS),

number of scales between the nasal and the supralabials

(SUBNAS), number of scales between the nasals

across the top of the snout INTERNAS), number of

supralabials (SUPLAB), number of infralabials

(INLAB), number of subdigital lamellae on the fourth

finger (SD4F), number of subdigital lamellae on fourth

toe (SD4T) and the number of femoral and preanal

pores (FEMPREPO).

Descriptive statistics were calculated for a number

of meristic characteristics (Table 1) from samples of

C. rufescens, C. vadnappa and the new taxon. Multiple

comparisons of these variables were made using single

classification ANOVA (Sokal & Rohlf 1981). Multiple

discriminant function analyses (Reyment et al. 1984)

of raw measurements and meristic characteristics were

done using SPSS PC+ (Norusis 1986) on a Pantek

PC-16 personal computer. Sexes were pooled for all

analyses.

Ontogenetic variation was examined by fitting HL,

HD, HWD, FLL, FEML, ML, HLL, TL and SVL

for C. rufescens, C. vadnappa and the new taxon to

the logarithmic form of the allometric equation Y =

bSVL* (Huxley 1932; Gould 1966), where Y is the

variable being examined, SVL is used as a measure

of overall size, a is the allometric coefficient (slope)

and b is the y-intercept. Allometric coefficients were

tested against unity using standard normal deviates (Zar

1974).

Ctenophorus tjantjalka sp. nov.

Figs 1-3, 5B

Types

Holotype: SAM R17934a just N Mabel Range, S.

52 G. R. JOHNSTON

Aust., 26°45’S, 113°48’E, South Australian Herpe-

tology Group, 18-20./v.1979, male.

Paratypes: SAM R4328 Mt Chandler, S. Aust.

(27°00'S, 113°19'E), H. Wopfner, 20.x.1960; SAM

R6227 80 miles W Oodnadatta, Copper Hill Station

(27°57'S, 134°19’E), H. Frahn, 19.vii.1965; SAM

R12495 20 miles S Hawks Nest Well, S. Aust.

(27°45'S, 134°07’E), J. Bredl, 1971; SAM RI5608

Rocky Gully, SW old Peake HS, S. Aust. (28°05’S,

135°54’E), Rostrevor College, ix.1976; SAM R15936a-

d near Peake Ruins, S. Aust. (28°05’S, 135°54’E),

T. E Houston, 18-19.iv.1977 (SAM R15936a is a dried

skeleton); SAM RI7701 Hawks Nest Well, S. Aust.

(27°30'S, 134°13’E), B. Miller and M. Galliford,

26.11.1979; SAM R17934b, SAM RI7935 just N Mabel

Range, S. Aust. (26°45'S, 135°48’E), South Australian

Herpetology Group, 18-20.iv.1979; SAM R20579-80

Copper Hill Station, 19km E Mt Willoughby, S. Aust.

(27°57’S, 134°19’E), D. J. Morafka, 12.iv.1979; SAM

R36731-33 Davenport Range, S. Aust. (28°27’S,

136°02’E), M. Adams and T. Reardon; SAM R37115

83km N Coober Pedy, S. Aust. (28°27’S, 134°12’E),

J. Cornish, 15.x.1990.

Diagnosis

A member of the Ctenophorus decresii group (sensu

Houston 1974 and 1978, cf: Storr, Smith & Johnstone

1983). Distinguishable from all other members of this

group in the following combination of characters: snout

scales wrinkled; vertebral keel line present, at least

anteriorly; flanks with pale cream to pale salmon pink

patches on a grey-brown background in adult males;

large pale grey to white spots present on dorsum in

females and juveniles; tail without broad alternate dark

and pale bands.

Description

A robust, moderate-sized dragon lizard reaching a

SVL of 73 mm and a total length of 208 mm; head

relatively short and deep; snout moderately obtuse,

rising fairly steeply in profile; nostril below a sharp

canthus rostralis; body moderately depressed;

forelimbs relatively large, reaching or almost reaching

groin when adpressed; hindlimbs quite long, 94-122

percent of SVL; tail long and evenly tapering. In

juveniles the head and appendages are relatively longer

than in adults (Table 2).

Scales on top of snout coarsely wrinkled in adults,

tending to simple keeled in juveniles; a row of enlarged,

longitudinally-ridged or carinate scales from nostril

below eye to above ear; outer margins of eyelids fringed

with a row of acute scales; 5-7 scale rows separating

FIGURE |. Adult male Crenophorus tjantjalka (SAM R36731) from the Davenport Range, South Australia. SVL = 65mm.

NEW DRAGON LIZARD 53

FIGURE 2. Adult female Ctenophorus tjantjalka (SAM R37115) from 83km N Coober Pedy, South Australia, SVL = 47mm.

nasals from supralabials; 13-17 supralabial scales on

each side; temporal, occipital, nuchal and axillary

scales generally very small and convex; folds of skin

above and behind ear opening on sides of neck with

clusters of small spines, feebly developed in juveniles;

low nuchal crest present; a row of perfectly aligned,

keeled scales extends dorsally from the nuchal crest

to the base of tail along the midline in males, may be

feebly developed in females and juveniles; this keel

line frequently accentuated by being raised on a fold

of skin; scales on flanks small, subtubercular and

homogeneous, grading into slightly larger, flatter dorsal

body scales which are feebly keeled in adults to smooth

in some juveniles; flanks without scattered individual

tubercles; ventral scales homogeneous, smooth,

substantially larger than dorsal scales and much larger

than lateral scales; scales on tail and dorsal surfaces

of limbs large and strongly keeled; 33-46 femoral and

preanal pores regularly spaced, with 1-4 scales between

pores, along a more or less straight line extending the

full length of thighs, but interrupted medially; each

pore surrounded by several scales, those anterior to

it being slightly enlarged.

Adult males (Fig. 1) vary from dark, chocolate

brown to grey dorsally, with dark grey to black

reticulations which tend to form an_ irregular

dorsolateral stripe. Paler reticulations tend to form

transverse bars on flanks which interrupt dark

dorsolateral stripes; these pale bars are pale cream

dorsally, grading to pale salmon pink laterally.

Vertebral region brown to grey, peppered with black

and cream, as are the tail and limbs; tail may have

irregular darker and lighter bands distally. Chest and

ventral surface of forelimbs dark grey to black, tapering

toward the midline caudally. Gular fold and clusters

of spines on nape pale cream. Bars of grey to brown

and cream radiate from the eye to the brow, and from

the eye over the upper lip, and along the lower lip.

Throat cream with fine, dark grey reticulations, tending

to form 2-3 irregular stripes on jowls. Scapular fold

black with cream edge.

Adult females (Fig. 2) brick-red to brown dorsally;

cream ventrally. Irregular black transverse bars on

flanks, interspersed with thinner irregular pale grey

white bars. Vertebral region with irregular black and

pale grey spots which may align and be continuous with

lateral bars. Dorsal surfaces of limbs peppered with

pale grey scales and irregular, small, black markings.

Throat and chest lightly peppered with dark grey to

black, becoming heavier on jowls where it tends to

form 2-3 irregular stripes. Clusters of spines on nuchal

region pale grey to white.

54 G. R. JOHNSTON

Juveniles are very similar to the females in colour

and pattern; the pattern may be finer than in adults.

Specimens which have been in alcohol for some time

fade considerably so that the dorsum becomes pale

brown and any pattern barely visible.

Measurements of Holotype (in mm)

Snout-vent length, 73.0; head length, 15.5; head

width, 15.2; fore limb length, 33.3; hind limb length,

78.1; tail length, 135.

Etymology

The specific epithet is the name used by the

Aboriginal people of north-western South Australia for

saxicolous agamid lizards. It is used as a noun and is

not subject to termination changes.

Distribution and Habitat

Widespread in the interior of South Australia,

between the Indulkana Range and Oodnadatta in the

north and Coober Pedy and the Davenport Range in

the south (Fig. 3).

All specimens of C. tjantjalka, for which information

is available on habitat, were collected in or among

rocky outcrops. SAM R12495 was collected ‘on granite

outcrops. SAM RI15936a-d was collected ‘in small

granite outcrops in gullies’ and SAM RI7701 was ‘active

on outcrops. White (1979) collected specimens (SAM

R17934a-b, SAM RI17935) ‘ . on mid to lower slopes

of gibber strewn hills..? John Cornish (pers. comm.

1990) collected SAM R37115 under gibber rocks in a

slight gully.

Comparison with Similar Species

Morphology

C. tjantjalka is clearly a member of the C. decresii

species group (Houston 1974, 1978) in being of

moderate size with head and body moderately to

strongly depressed, showing sexual dimorphism and

being of saxicoline habit. It differs from C. ornatus

and C. yinnietharra in lacking extreme depression of

the head and body, and having no clear broad bands

of colour around the tail in males. Similarly, the head

and body of C. tjantjalka are less depressed than those

of C. decresii, C. fionni, C. rufescens and C.

vadnappa. The presence of pale spots (in females) or

reticulations (in males) on the dorsum distinguishes

C. tjantjalka from C. rufescens, as does the lower

number of femoral and preanal pores (Table 1). The

snout scales of C. tjantjalka are consistently wrinkled,

as in C. vadnappa (Houston 1974), which serves to

distinguish it from C. decresii and most C. fionni. Male

C. Gantjalka have pale cream to pale salmon pink areas

on the flanks, as opposed to the red or orange areas

" ® Coober -”

FIGURE 3. Map of northern South Australia showing localities (Ml) from which Ctenophorus tjantjalka has been collected.

NEW DRAGON LIZARD 55

on the flanks of male C. vadnappa. Male C. vadnappa

are further distinguished from male C. tjantjalka in

having a blue background dorsal colour when active.

The background colour on the dorsum of C. tjantjalka

is grey to brown. C. tjantjalka and C. vadnappa both

have a vertebral line of keeled scales present, at least

anteriorly, unlike C. decresii and C. fionni in which

any keeled vertebral scales are associated with the

nuchal crest only and do not extend behind the

shoulders. C. tjantjalka lacks the tiny white spiny

tubercles found on the flanks of C. decresii. Female

C. tjantjalka may be distinguished from all other

members of the C. decresii group in having large pale

grey spots on the dorsum. The relatively deep head

and short snout distinguish both sexes of C. tjantjalka

from all other members of the C. decresii group.

Although all meristic characters counted showed

statistically significant differences (P < 0.01) between

C. tiantjalka, C. rufescens and C. vadnappa, the actual

counts for all except FEMPREPO overlapped

extensively (Table 1).

Several populations of C. caudicinctus are similar

in general morphology to members of the C. decresii

group. This may be due to their being of similar

saxicolous habit. Houston (1974) has suggested that the

C. decresii group may share a common ancestry with

some populations currently subsumed under the epithet

C. caudicinctus. The deeper head and less depressed

body of C. tjantjalka, relative to other members of the

C. decresii group, are reminiscent of some populations

of C. caudicinctus. These taxa may be distinguished

by the presence of clusters of small spines on folds of

skin on the nape and neck of C. tjantjalka which are

absent or poorly developed in C. caudicinctus. The

forelimbs of all members of the C. decresii group show

negative allometric growth (Table 2; Witten 1985)

whereas in C. caudicinctus the forelimbs grow

isometrically (Witten 1985).

Distribution

C. tjantjalka is allopatric to all other members of

the C. decresii group and C. caudicinctus. The only

species which are likely to be confused with C.

tjantjalka on grounds of distribution are C. rufescens

and C. vadnappa. Both of these species occur on rocky

ranges abutting the known distribution of C. tjantjalka.

Discriminant Function Analysis

Discriminant function analysis of 15 measurements,

using C. rufescens, C. tjantjalka and C. vadnappa as

a priori groupings (Fig. 4), resulted in correct

identification of 92.5% of specimens overall. All C.

tjantjalka, 93.1% of C. rufescens and 89.8% of C.

vadnappa were correctly grouped. FLL, HLL and HL

were not included in the analysis because they failed

to contribute significantly to a decrease in Wilk’s

lambda. A separate discriminant function analysis of

eight meristic characteristics, also using C. rufescens,

C. tjantjalka and C. vadnappa as a priori groupings,

resulted in correct identification of 89.0% of specimens

overall. All C. rufescens, 82.1% of C. vadnappa and

83.3% of C. tjanjalka were correctly grouped.

The first discriminant function based on

measurements accounted for 78.1% of the variance.

Unstandardised discriminant function coefficients and

their correlations to the discriminant functions are

presented in Table 3. Most characters showing the

highest correlation with the first discriminant function,

TABLE 1. Comparison of meristic characters for three species of Ctenophorus. Values represent mean (standard deviation)

over minimum-maximum.

C. rufescens

Sn ee

N 55

FEMPREPO 54.9(2.33)

43-67

PRENAS 5.8(0.84)

5-7

SUBNAS 6.5(0.85)

5-9

INTRANAS 13.1(1.12)

11-17

SUPLAB 17.4(1.20)

13-20

INLAB 15.6(1.16)

12-19

SD4F 19.2(1.15)

16-22

SD4T 31.8(1.42)

26-36

C. tjantjalka C. vadnappa

17 42

38.8(1.96) 39.7(1.98)

33-46 33-47

4.9(0.85) 5.1(0.81)

3-6 3-6

6.2(0.86) 5.7(0.83)

5-7 5-6

10.2(1.22) 10.3(0.97)

8-15 8-13

18.4(1.06) 15.0(0.96)

13-17 13-16

16.4(1.09) 15.4(0.90)

13-18 14-17

16.6(1.23) 17.0(1.04)

14-19 15-19

28.7(1.63) 27.6(1.41)

24-34 23-33

oe ——————————

56 G. R. JOHNSTON

TABLE 2. Relative growth of body parts in three species of Crenophorus. Regression lines of the form y = bx“ were

fitted to the data. R? = coefficient of determination; N =sample size; C,, = predicted size of body part at a SVL of 30mm;

C,) = predicted size of body part at a SVL of 80mm. Allometric coefficients were compared to isometry using standard

normal deviates: * = P<0.05, ** = P<0.01.

Ctenophorus rufescens

HLvSVL 0.87 0.8150** —0.8571 55 6.8 15.1

TLVSVL 0.76 0.9616 0.9794 49 70.1 180.0

FLLVSVL 0.79 0.8254** —0.0261 55 16.1 36.2

HLLvSVL 0.91 0.8527** 0.6379 55 34.4 79.4

FEMLvSVL 0.82 0.9006 —0.8689 55 9.0 21.7

PLVSVL 0.86 0.7793** 0.0407 55 14.7 31.7

HWDvHL 0.89 0.8997* 0.2417 55 7A 14.6

HDvHL 0.42 0.7984 0.0140 55 4.7 8.9

SLVHL 0.93 0.9858 —0.6017 55 3.6 8.0

Ctenophorus tjantjalka

HLvSVL 0.97 0.9013* — 1.0828 19 TS 17.6

TLVSVL 0.78 0.8951 1.1501 15 66.3 159.6

FLLVSVL 0.94 0.8379** —0.0789 19 16.0 36.3

HLLvSVL 0.91 0.8264** 0.7705 19 35.9 80.7

FEMLvSVL 0.91 0.9615 —1.1160 19 8.6 22.1

PLvSVL 0.70 0.6874** 0.4450 19 16.1 31.7

HWDvHL 0.95 0.8813* 0.2544 19 7.4 14.5

HDvHL 0.88 1.0687 —0.5733 19 4.7 10.6

SLVHL 0.94 1.0794 —0.8771 19 3.5 8.1

Ctenophorus vadnappa

HLvSVL 0.92 1.0213 —1.5968 40 6.5 17.8

TLVSVL 0.95 1.0676 0.4676 30 60.3 171.7

FLLVSVL 0.92 0.8535** —0.1758 41 15.3 35.3

HLLvSVL 0.90 0.9424 0.1933 41 29.9 75.4

FEMLvSVL 0.98 1.0563 — 1.5685 41 7.6 21.3

PLVSVL 0.76 0.8194* —0.2254 41 13.0 28.9

HWDvHL 0.61 0.9413 0.0585 40 6.2 15.9

HDvHL 0.94 0.9671 —0.4281 40 4.0 10.6

SLVHL 0.94 0.9412 —0.5052 40 345 9.1

which most clearly separates C. rufescens from C.

tantjalka and C. vadnappa, are measurements of the

limbs. Most characters showing the highest correlation

with the second discriminant function, which most

clearly separates C. tjantjalka from C. rufescens and

C. vadnappa, are measurements of the head. This

reflects the differences in the relative proportions of

the limbs and heads of the three species (Fig. 5).

Allometry

Relative growth among ten body parts in C.

rufescens, C. tjantjalka and C. vadnappa is

summarised in Table 2. C. rufescens and C. tjantjalka

share the same pattern of relative growth. The head

and limbs show negative allometry with respect to

SVL. While the head decreases in size relative to SVL,

the head width also decreases in size relative to the

head length. Much of the relative shortening of the

hindlimb with increasing size is accounted for by

negative allometry of the foot.

In C. vadnappa only the forelimbs shorten with

increasing SVL, while all other body parts grow

isometrically. Although overall the hindlimb length

grows isometrically with respect to SVL, the

proportions of the hindlimb change so that the foot

becomes relatively shorter with respect to the rest of

the limb.

Witten (1985) has studied relative growth in the

majority of species of Australian agamids, but did not

have data for C. rufescens or C. vadnappa. In both

of these species and C. tjantjalka the tail grows

isometrically, whereas Witten (1985) implies that in

other species of the C. decresii group the tail shows

positive allometry. In fact Witten (1982 and pers.

comm. 1991) found significant positive allometry in

the tail of C. fionni, but in other members of the

NEW DRAGON LIZARD 57

TABLE 3. Unstandardised discriminant function coefficients (and pooled-within-groups correlations with discriminant functions)

of 15 measurements of three species of saxicolous Ctenophorus.

Discriminant Function

Variable I II

ee ee ee

SVL —0.046(—0.277) 0.193(0.378)

SL 1.232(—0.083) 0.426(0.316)

EYE 0.530(—0.170) —1.501(0.179)

POCL 1.191(0.175) 0.316(0.327)

SWD 0.032(—0.174) 0.511(0.337)

HWD —0.101(—0.140) —0.113(0.194)

HD 0.302(0.003) —0.271(0.053)

HUML —0.701(—0.377) —0.073(0.223)

FAL 0.042(—0.226) —0.051(0.257)

ML 0.239(—0.229) 0.226(0.344)

FEML —0.243(—0.305) —0.130(0.260)

TIBL —0.039(—0.281) —0.154(0.185)

PL —0.060(—0.349) —0.366(0.097)

AG —0.009(—0.332) —0.034(0.358)

TL —0.023(—0.368) 0.035(0.394)

constant 1.835 0.687

% of variance 78.06 21.94

C. decresii group he studied, the allometric coefficient

for tail length was above one but not significantly so.

In C. rufescens and C. tjantjalka the hindlimb shows

negative allometry, in concordance with most other

Australian agamids, whereas in C. vadnappa the

hindlimb grows isometrically. Similarly head length

in C. rufescens and C. tjantjalka shows negative

allometry, in common with other Australian agamids,

whereas the head of C. vadnappa grows isometrically.

In most species of Australian agamids the forelimb

shows negative allometry. The negative allometry or

isometry of head width and head depth relative to head

length in all three species is unusual among Australian

agamids, in which these measurements generally show

positive allometry.

DISCUSSION

Ctenophorus tjantjalka is described as a new species

primarily on the basis of the remarkable consistency

of its morphology across a large geographic range. In

general, members of the C. decresii complex are

characterised by a large amount of population

structuring (Gibbons & Lillywhite 1981) and

consequent morphological (Houston 1974) and genetic

variation (Johnston & Donnellan, unpublished data)

among populations within species.

One feature of C. tjantjalka is its robust appearance

when compared with other members of the C. decresii

species group, which are moderately to extremely

dorsoventrally compressed. In this respect adult C.

tjantjalka resemble juveniles of other members of the

C. decresii group. Cogger (1961) has demonstrated that

heterochronic processes are an important source of

morphological variation among Australian dragon

lizards. In the absence of any knowledge of the

phylogenetic relationships among the various species

groups within the genus Ctenophorus it is not possible

to determine whether C. tjantjalka has arisen through

some form of paedomorphosis, or whether it represents

a more ‘plesiomorphic’ form and all other members

of the C. decresii group have undergone a type of

peramorphosis (Alberch et al. 1979). This: dilemma

emphasises the need for a formal phylogenetic analysis

of the Australian agamid lizards.

The geographic distribution of C. tjantjalka lies

directly between those of C. rufescens and C.

vadnappa. It therefore provides evidence to support

Houston’s (1974) hypothesis that the ancestors of C.

decresii, C. fionni and C. vadnappa were once

distributed along the western side of Lake Eyre and

may have been derived via that route from a common

ancestor with C. rufescens, among other saxicolous

dragon lizards. Gibbons & Lillywhite (1981) have

suggested that the C. decresii species group may have

been derived from a hypothetical ancestor in western

Queensland via the corridor of rocky country provided

by the Grey Range, Barrier Range and Olary Spur, but

there seems to be little to support this alternative

hypothesis.

58 G. R. JOHNSTON

DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION Il

DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION |

FIGURE 4. Plot of individual Crenophorus tjantjalka (&), Ctenophorus rufescens (WA) and C. vadnappa (@) on the first

two discriminant function axes based on fifteen morphometric characters. (QO) = group centroids.

Comparative Material Examined

C. rufescens

WAM $R28990-91 Pottoyu Hills (25°19’S, 129°49’B),

10.v.1967; SAM R586a-b Everard Range (27°06’S, 132°26’E),

no date; SAM RS586c Wantapella Swamp (27°02’S,

133°28’E), no date; SAM R1423-25 Mt Sir Thomas, Birksgate

Range (27°09’S, 129°44’E), no date; SAM R3125a-c

Ernabella Mission (26°18’S, 132°08’E), 10.x.1950; SAM

R5632 Mann Range (26°01’S, 129°45’E), vi.1964; SAM

RII754-56 Everard Range (27°06’S, 132° 26’S), 1-7.xi.1970;

SAM RI3219 1.5 miles S Mt Illbillee, Everard Range

(27°04’S, 132°29’E), 24.x.1972; SAM R13220 nr Mt Davies

Bore, Tomkinson Range (26°10’S, 129°08’E), 18.x.1972;

SAM _ RI322la-f 3 miles SW Mt Edwin, Mann Range

(26°07'E, 129°56’E), 22.x.1972; SAM R28274-80, SAM

R28289 nr Victory Well, Everard Range (27°03’S, 132°31’E),

25-26.viii.1987; SAM R28283-84 between Victory Well and

Betty Well, Everard Range (27°03’S, 132°31’E), 26.viii.1987;

SAM _ R31772 2.4 km E Mimili (27°01’S, 132°44’B),

10.xii.1987; SAM R31773-4 19.2 km W Mimili (26°57’S,

132 °32’E), 10.xii.1987; SAM R31791, SAM R35828 45.5 km

SE Fregon (26°54’S, 132°24’E), 19.xii.1987,; SAM R33940-2,

SAM R33947-48, SAM R35829 Mimili (27°01 ’S, 132°43’E),

IL.iv.1989; WAM R31768-80 Mt Lindsay, Birksgate Range

(27°02’S, 129°53’E), viii.1968; WAM R44341-69 Mt Lindsay,

Birksgate Range (27°02’S, 129°53’E), 1.ix.1972; WAM

R44370-71 Mt Wooltarlinna, Birksgate Range (27°04’S,

129°51’E), 1.ix.1972; WAM R44385-87 Mt Kintore (26°34’S,

130°29’B), ix.1972; WAM R4434] Blackstone Mining Camp,

Blackstone Range (26°01 ’S, 128°22’S), 29.viii.1972.

C. vadnappa

SAM R457 Farina (30°04’S, 138°17’E), 8.iv.1915; SAM

R3764a-d Marree Picnic Ground (29°39’S, 138°04’B),

1.xi.1955; SAM RI0959 East Painter Gorge (30°14’S,

139°22’E), 31.x.1969; SAM RI2505 Yudnamutana (30°10’S,

139°17’E), 10.ix.1970; SAM RI3547 Terrapinna Spring

NEW DRAGON LIZARD 59

(29°58'S, 139°40’E), 17.vi.1960; SAM R13943a-b Finniss

Creek W Marree (29°38’S, 137°31’E), 10-15.7.1974; SAM

R14481 Aroona Reservoir (30°35’S, 138°22’E), 15.7.1974;

SAM R15098a-b Aroona Dam (30°35’S, 138°22’E), no date;

SAM R15956a-d Mt Serle (30°32’S, 138°53’E), 10.iv.1977;

SAM RI6159 Mt Serle (30°31 ’S, 138°55’E), 4.ix.1977; SAM

R16189a-b Termination Hill, 26km W Lyndhurst (30°15’S,

138°03’E), 8.x.1977; SAM R19284 10 miles W Arkaroola

village (30°47’'S, 138°30’E), 16.i/.1981; SAM R19884-5 I5km

W Copley (30°30’S, 138°25’E), 25.iv.1981; SAM R24430-31

W end Brachina Gorge, Flinders Ranges (31°21 ’S, 138°33’E),

20.viii.1983; SAM R24906-7 Grindells Hut, Gammon Ranges

(30°28'S, 139°12’E), 25.xi-1.xii.1983; SAM R28098 5km N

Copley (30°30’S, 138°25’E), 16.viii.1985; SAM R28625-6

Arkaroola (30°20’S, 139°22’E); SAM R29575 Marree Picnic

Ground (29°39’S, 138°04’E), 23.viii.1985; SAM R30051-3

30.6km S Lyndhurst (30°32’S, 138°25’E), 21.ix.1985; SAM

R30054 3.5km S Arkaroola (30°22’S, 139°27’E), 31.ix.1985;

SAM. _R30999 32km S Lyndhurst (30°32’S, 138°25’E),

FIGURE 5. Lateral views of the heads of adult male (A)

Ctenophorus rufescens (SAM RI1322Ic), (B) Ctenophorus

tjantjalka (SAM_ RI7934a) and (C) C. vadnappa (SAM

R16189a). Scale bar = 10mm.

8.xi.1986; SAM R31002 Aroona Dam (30°35’S, 138°22’E),

23.viii.1986; SAM R31216 5.4km NW Copley (30°32°S,

138°25’E), 8.xi.1986; SAM R31219-22 Italowie Gap, Gammon

Ranges (30°33’S, 139°10’E), 4-8.iv.1985.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A. Edwards and M. Hutchinson (SAM) and L.

Smith (WAM) allowed access to specimens held in

their care. S. Donnellan and J. Cornish provided

Figures | and 2, respectively. Field work for this paper

was funded in part by the Peter Rankin Trust Fund for

Herpetology. C. M. Bull, M. Hutchinson and G.

Witten made helpful comments on the manuscript.

REFERENCES

ALBERCH, P., GOULD, S. J., OSTER, G. F. & WAKE,

D. B. 1979. Size and shape in ontogeny and phylogeny.

Paleobiology 5: 296-317.

COGGER, H. G. 1961. ‘An investigation of the Australian

members of the family Agamidae (Lacertilia) and their

phylogenetic relationships. Unpublished M.Sc. thesis,

Sydney University.

GIBBONS, J. R. H. & LILLYWHITE, H. B. 1981.

Ecological segregation, colour matching, and speciation

in lizards of the Amphibolurus decresii species complex

(Lacertilia: Agamidae). Ecology 62: 1 573-1 584.

GOULD, S. J. 1966. Allometry and size in ontogeny and

phylogeny. Biological Reviews 41: 587-640.

HOUSTON, T. F. 1974. Revision of the Amphibolurus decresii

complex (Lacertilia: Agamidae) of South Australia.

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia 98:

49-60.

HOUSTON, T. F. 1978. ‘Dragon Lizards and Goannas of

South Australia. South Australian Museum: Adelaide.

HUXLEY, J. S. 1932. ‘Problems of Relative Growth’ Dial:

New York.

NORUSIS, M. J. 1986. ‘SPSS/PC+ Advanced Statistics’.

SPSS: Chicago.

REYMENT, R. A., BLACKITH, R. E. & CAMPBELL, N.

A. 1984. ‘Multivariate Morphometrics. 2nd Edn. Academic

Press: London. ;

SOKOL, R. R. & ROHLE, F. J. 1981. ‘Biometry’. 2nd Edn.

W. H. Freeman: San Francisco.

STORR, G. M. 1981. Three new agamid lizards from

Western Australia. Records of the Western Australian

Museum 8: 599-607.

STORR, G. M., SMITH, L. A. & JOHNSTONE, R. E. 1983.

‘Lizards of Western Australia. II. Dragons and Monitors’.

Western Australian Museum: Perth.

WARBURG, M. R. 1966. Water economy of several Australian

geckos, agamids and skinks. Copeia 1966: 230-235.

WHITE, J. 1979. The road to Mokari. Herpetofauna 11: 13-16.

WITTEN, G. J. 1982. ‘Comparative morphology and

karyology of the Australian members of the family

Agamidae and their phylogenetic implications. Unpublished

Ph.D. thesis, Sydney University.

WITTEN, G. 1985. Relative growth in Australian Agamid

lizards: adaptation and evolution. Australian Journal of

Zoology 33: 349-362.

ZAR, J. H. 1974. ‘Biostatistical Analysis. Prentice-Hall Inc.:

New Jersey.

THE CROCKERS WELL METEORITE : AN UNUSUAL LL7 BRECCIA

FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA

MARGARET E. WALLACE

Summary

The Crockers Well, South Australia, meteorite is a rare type LL7 chondrite. The 3.8 gram stone was

found in 1956 by J.E. Johnson. Crockers Well has a brecciated texture and a mineral chemistry

which indicates that it is an LL-type chondrite. It has equilibrated at unusually high temperatures

(950 to 1 100°C) and appears to be a shock breccia which has recrystallized at depth. Crockers Well

is the first LL7-type meteorite to be found in Australia and is similar to the Antarctic meteorites

Yamato 74160 and Yamato 791067.

THE CROCKERS WELL METEORITE: AN UNUSUAL LL7 BRECCIA FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA

MARGARET E. WALLACE

WALLACE, M. E. 1992. The Crockers Well meteorite: An unusual LL7 breccia from South Australia.

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(1): 61-65.

The Crockers Well, South Australia, meteorite is a rare type LL7 chondrite. The 3.8 gram stone

was found in 1956 by J. E. Johnson. Crockers Well has a brecciated texture and a mineral chemistry

which indicates that it is an LL-type chondrite. It has equilibrated at unusually high temperatures (950

to 1 100°C) and appears to be a shock breccia which has recrystallized at depth. Crockers Well is

the first LL7-type meteorite to be found in Australia and is similar to the Antarctic meteorites Yamato

74160 and Yamato 791067.

Margaret E. Wallace, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000.

Manuscript received 29 November 1991.

The Crockers Well meteorite weighing 3.8 grams was

found in 1956 by James Eric Johnson, of the South

Australian Department of Mines and Energy. Mr

Johnson was surveying for uranium when he found the

small meteorite on a granite hill 0.4 kilometres north

of the East Crocker uranium prospect, near Crocker

Well camp, north-west of Plumbago Homestead,

County Lytton, South Australia (32°01 ’S, 139°47’E,

see Fig. 1). Only one specimen was found.

The meteorite was presented to the South Australian

Museum by Mr Johnson in 1956 and the discovery

recorded by Corbett (1968). The name Crockers Well

used in this report is synonymous with Crocker Well

and Crocker’s Well (Clarke 1976; Fitzgerald 1979;

Graham er al. 1985) and has been approved by the

nomenclature committee of the Meteoritical Society.

The meteorite is a small button-shaped stone (18 X

15 xX 12 mm) with a fusion crust coating one side. It

is moderately iron-stained. Due to its small size, the

stone remained uncut in the museum’s collection for

34 years and thus was only described as an unclassified

chondrite. Fitzgerald (1979) suggested that it may be

related to Ethiudna, a large 74.32 kilogram chondrite

found 6.5 kilometres away.

In 1990 a thin-section was made in order to gain

textural and mineralogic information and to classify

the meteorite properly. In making the thin-section,

special care was taken not to damage the fusion crust

as this is important for establishing the meteorite’s

extraterrestrial origin. The remaining 2.38 gram piece

resides in the meteorite collection of the South

Australian Museum (catalogue number G5909). A

brief description and classification of the meteorite was

presented by Wallace & Pring (1991). The stone is not

related to Ethiudna but is a rare type LL7 chondrite

of which only three examples have been found to date.

This paper presents a detailed petrographic and

mineralogic description of the Crockers Well meteorite

in order to provide constraints on the origin and

physical history of this rare type of chondritic

meteorite.

Texture

In thin-section, Crockers Well has a brecciated

texture with no visible chondrules. It is composed of

large clasts and rounded olivine grains set in a finer

grained matrix of broken olivine, pyroxene and feldspar

fragments (Fig. 2). The clasts are sub-angular, up to

7 mm across, coarsely crystalline and composed of

olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, plagioclase and

chromite with minor amounts of chlorapatite and metal.

Within the clasts, the silicate minerals generally have

a granoblastic texture with good triple point

boundaries, typical of recrystallization. Some remnant

but now recrystallized poikilitic textures are also

preserved. Mineral grains are coarse for a chondrite,

up to 200um in size. In addition to clasts there are some

large fragments of olivine, up to 3 mm in size, which

have rounded boundaries and show some fracturing.

Olivine grains have straight extinction, so appear to

be relatively unstrained. They contain many small

inclusions of orthopyroxene, plagioclase and troilite.

The matrix is an assemblage of poorly sorted broken

fragments of silicate minerals. Finer matrix material

appears to be recrystallized and no glass was detected.

Iron-nickel metal and troilite are present only in the

clasts and do not occur as part of the matrix

assemblage. A thin glassy fusion crust is present along

one side of the thin-section.

Mineral Chemistry

Crockers Well is an olivine, two pyroxene,

plagioclase and chromite assemblage with minor

amounts of chlorapatite, iron-nickel and _troilite.

Compositions of the silicate phases were analyzed with

a JEOL electron microprobe using an EDS system at

the University of Adelaide. Analyses were made using

an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, a sample current of

5 nA, and a beam width of Sum. In order to analyse

equilibrium assemblages sample points were selected

62 M. E. WALLACE

in seven distinct clasts within the thin-section. These

areas are indicated in Fig. 2. Three matrix areas were

also analysed to determine if matrix mineralogy was

different from clast mineralogy and random analyses

were performed throughout the section in order to

detect any heterogeneity. Representative crystal

analyses are presented in Table 1. All silicate analyses

obtained have been plotted in Fig. 3.

Meteorites in

South Australia

Crockés Well

@ o°g

5mm

FIGURE 2. Thin-section microphotograph of Crockers Well.

Numbers show areas of detailed microprobe analyses.

Olivine

Olivine is equilibrated showing a narrow range in

composition with a mean fayalite content of

Faso + 05 (32 analyses). Calcium content was below

the detection limit of the microprobe. There was no

FIGURE 1. Map of South Australia showing location of | chemical difference detected between matrix, clast or

Crockers Well and sites of other meteorite finds in the state. large olivine crystals.

40 n

900°C

~ 1000°C

LINOPYROXENE

15 analyses

ORTHOPYROXENE

a OLIVINE

--- 1200C ~~ - B_!-- 32. analyses

PLAGIOCLASE

22 analyses

Ab 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 9 An

FIGURE 3. Silicate mineral chemistry of Crockers Well plotted as mol. % Ca, Mg, and Fe for olivine and pyroxenes, and

Ab (albite), An (anorthite) and Or (orthoclase) endmembers for feldspars. Isotherms show temperature calculations based

on the calcium content of orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene from Lindsley (1983).

CROCKERS WELL METEORITE 63

Orthopyroxene

Orthopyroxene has a very narrow range of

compositions with no detectable zoning within grains

nor a chemical variation between grains within the

matrix or clasts. Orthopyroxene iron content

represented by the ferrosilite component is Fs,,, 4 yg

(34 analyses). This is particularly iron rich, but within

the range of LL group chondrites as shown in Fig. 4

(Keil & Fredriksson, 1964). The high iron content of

both the olivine and orthopyroxene suggests that the

meteorite is highly oxidized. The orthopyroxenes have

a distinctly high calcium content with the wollastonite

component varying from Wo,, to Wo,, (mean of

Wo,,). This is very calcium rich for ordinary

chondrites but within the range of the high temperature

type 7 grouping (>1.0% CaO, Dodd 1981).

Clinopyroxene

Clinopyroxene compositions range in ferrosilite

content from Fs,, to Fs,,,, and wollastonite content

of Wo,,, to Wo,,, (16 analyses). They are augites

which are particularly high in sodium (0.6 to 1.01 wt %

Na,O) and chromium (1.04 to 157 wt% Cr,O,).

Typically LL6 chondrites contain 0.5 wt% Na,O and

0.6 wt %Cr,O,. The clinopyroxenes i in Crockers Well

are similar to ‘those found in the Yamato 74160 (LL7)

meteorite. Yamato 74160 contains augites with 0.53-0.66

wt % Na and 0,86-1.52 wt% Cr (Takeda et al. 1984).

Takeda er al. (1984) suggest that this results from a

high ureyite (NaCrSi,O,) component indicating either

a high temperature or coexistence with a melt.

Geothermomic calculations using the two pyroxene

geothermometer of Wells (1977) based on the

distribution of calcium in coexisting ortho- and

clinopyroxenes show that Crockers Well reached

temperatures between 950 and | 100°C.

Plagioclase

Plagioclase crystals are very large up to 150 »m and

show the widest range in composition, Ab,, , 9,5

LL Group

-j

L ee Crockers Well

20 + ‘f

25 | South Australian

Stony Meteorites

Fe mol% in Orthopyroxene (Fs content)

lH Group

r 3

+ °

St ee ye i

15 20 25 30

Fe mol% in Olivine (Fa content)

FIGURE 4, Iron contents expressed as mol, % Fe in olivine

(Fa) and orthopyroxene (Fs) of South Australian stony

meteorites, Classification groups are from Keil & Fredriksson

(1964).

Any 524, OF, 543 (30 analyses). The chemical

distribution is shown in Fig. 3. A thin lamellar structure

can be seen in thin-section but was not chemically

distinct enough to find by microprobe imaging.

Opaque minerals

Opaque minerals are chromite, troilite and iron-

nickel metal. They occur as equigranular grains within

clasts. Chromite in Crockers Well is richer in Cr and

Fe and poorer in Al than normally found in chondrites

(as described by Bunch ef al. 1967). High iron may

be due to a higher than normal oxygen fugacity while

high chromium reflects abnormally high temperatures.

The sulphide is troilite with no detectable nickel. Iron-

nickel metal is predominantly taenite. No martensite

was found.

DISCUSSION

Although Crockers Well has a brecciated rather than

chondritic texture, mineral chemistry indicates that the

meteorite was formed from LL-type chondritic

material. The compositions of the minerals are similar

to those found in ordinary chondrites, except that

element partitioning (particularly Ca, Na and Cr)

between silicate phases indicates that the meteorite

equilibrated at unusually high temperatures (950 to

1 100°C) and under relatively oxidizing conditions. The

silicate minerals in the type LL7 chondrites Yamato

74160, Yamato 791067 and Uden have a similar

compositional range (Takeda et al. 1979, 1984; Yanai

& Kojima 1987; Heyse 1978). The presence of metal

in clasts, but rarely within matrix material, suggests

that the meteorite may have partially melted near the

FeS-Fe eutectic at | 000°C.

Brecciated textures in LL-type meteorites are

normally attributed to shock processes. Strongly

shocked meteorites are characterised by severe melting,

vesiculation, presence of a brown glassy matrix,

maskelynite instead of plagioclase and martensite rather

than kamacite and taenite (Stoffler er al. 1988; Okano

et al. 1990). These shock features are not present in

Crockers Well. Evidence of shock is restricted to

extreme brecciation and possibly to the mobility of

metals. Crockers Well may, however, be a shock

breccia which has recrystallized and equilibrated at

depth. Slow cooling after brecciation would result in

recrystallization of glass and fine matrix material while

preserving a record of high temperature in the silicate

compositions. A thermal history study of Crockers

Well involving compositions of the coexisting metals

kamacite and taenite (Wood 1967) may provide further

constraints.

In summary, Crockers Well is an LL7-type meteorite.

Its brecciated texture and high temperature mineral

chemistry record a period of intense shock. Slow

cooling at depth in its parent body has resulted in the

M. E. WALLACE

TABLE |. Representative electron microprobe analyses (EDS), Crockers Well meteorite.

Olivine

SiO, wt%

FeO

MnO

MgO

Total

Mg#

Orthopyroxene

SiO,

Al,O,

Cr,0,

FeO

MnO

MgO

CaO

Total

Mg#

Fe#

Ca#

Clinopyroxene

SiO,

TiO,

Al1,0,

Cr,0,

FeO

MgO

CaO

Na,O

Total

Mg#

Fe#

Ca#

Plagioclase

Chromite

TiO,

A1,0,

Cr,0,

FeO

MnO

MgO

Total

Mg#=Mg/(Mg+Fe) cations, Fe#=Fe/(Fe+Mg+Ca) cations, Ca#=Ca/(Fe+Mg+Ca) cations

Clast #1

102.39

75.3

22.9

1.9

1.99

4.14

57.58

32.95

0.44

1.54

98.64

#1b

37.40

27.01

0.26

36.04

100.71

70.4

55.40

0.19

0.15

15.99

0.35

27.08

1.34

100.50

73.2

24.2

2.6

54.48

0.28

0.54

1.37

6.86

16.23

20.44

0.85

101.05

46.7

11.1

42.3

64.37

23.17

0.27

4.51

0.36

9.02

101.70

76.8

21.2

2.0

2.34

5.46

59.43

32.32

0.48

1.60

101.63

37.50

28.06

0.38

36.22

102.16

69.7

55.41

0.10

0.28

16.12

0.25

27.49

1.64

101.29

72.9

24.0

3.1

53.98

0.27

0.85

1.57

7.65

16.29

19.15

0.81

100.57

47.4

12.5

40.1

67.24

20.98

0.76

2.08

0.74

9.53

101.33

85.4

10.3

4.3

3.27

4.50

59.24

33.12

0.34

1.60

102.07

Ab=albite, An=anorthite, Or=orthoclase end member compositions

37.77

27.55

0.40

36.44

102.16

70.2

55.77

0.10

0.37

15.89

0.44

27.12

1.74

101.43

72.7

23.9

3.4

53.62

0.30

0.48

1.27

7.67

16.31

18.89

0.75

99.29

47.7

12.6

39.7

66.73

21.62

0.36

2.69

0.65

9.27

101.32

82.9

13.3.

3.8

1.97

5.46

60.21

31.83

1.90

101.37

Matrix

37.40

27.72

0.28

35.71

101.11

69.7

55.53

0.47

0.53

15.94

0.34

26.89

2.06

101.76

72.1

24.0

4.0

54.80

0.32

0.93

1.47

7.98

16.89

19.19

0.82

102.40

48.0

12.7

39.2

64.97

22.31

0.80

3.95

0.28

9.50

101.81

80.1

18.4

1.5

Apatite

Matrix b

37.78

26.70

35.73

100.51

55.32

27.69

1.34

101.92

CROCKERS WELL METEORITE 65

recrystallization of fine grained matrix material,

equilibrium of mineral phases and the preservation of

high temperature mineral chemistry.

The meteorite record has provided many examples

of brecciated LL-type chondrites most of which are

interpreted as surface regolith material from the LL-

parent body. These chondrites show various degrees

of shock melting, recrystallization and brecciation due

to intense impacts. Crockers Well appears to be one

of the more unusual meteorites which preserves a

record of shock-melting but also shows subsequent

recrystallization at depth.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Gerr Horr is thanked for making thin-sections. The

University of Adelaide is acknowledged for providing access

to their electron microprobe facilities. The project was funded

by the Mark Mitchell Foundation.

REFERENCES

BUNCH, T. E., KEIL, K. & SNETSINGER, K. G. 1967.

Chromite composition in relation to chemistry and texture

of ordinary chondrites. Geochimica Cosmochimica Acta

31: 1 569-1 582.

CLARKE, R. S. 1976. Meteoritical Bulletin no. 54.

Meteoritics UW: 72-73.

CORBETT, D. W. P. 1968. Catalogue of meteorites in the

South Australian Museum (excluding tektites). Records of

the South Australian Museum 15: 767-790.

DODD, R. T. 1981. ‘Meteorites: A Petrologic-chemical

Synthesis’. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

FITZGERALD, M. J. 1979. The chemistry and mineralogy

of the meteorites of South Australia and adjacent regions.

Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Adelaide.

GRAHAM, A. L., BEVAN, A. W. R. & HUTCHISON, R.

1985. ‘Catalogue of Meteorites. University of Arizona Press:

Tucson.

HEYSE, J. V. 1978. The metamorphic history of LL-group

ordinary chondrites. Earth and Planetary Science Letters

40: 365-381. ;

KEIL, K. & FREDRIKSSON, K. 1964. The iron, magnesium

and calcium distributions in coexisting olivines and rhombic

pyroxenes of chondrites. Journal of Geophysical Research

Letters 69: 3 487-3 S15.

LINDSLEY, D. H. 1983. Pyroxene thermometry. American

Mineralogist 68: 477-493.

OKANO, O., NAKAMURA, N. & NAGAO, K. 1990.

Thermal history of the shock-melted Antarctic LL-

chondrites from the Yamato-79 collection. Geochimica

Cosmochimica Acta 54: 3 509-3 523.

STOFFLER, D., BISCHOFF, A., BUCHWALD, V. &

RUBIN, A. E. 1988. Shock effects in meteorites. Pp.

165-202 in ‘Meteorites and the Early Solar System’. Eds

J. F. Kerridge & M. S. Matthews. University of Arizona

Press: Tucson.

TAKEDA, H., DUKE, M. B., ISHII, T., HARAMURA, H.

& YANAI, K. 1979. Some unique meteorites found in

Antarctica and their relation to asteroids. Pp. 54-76 in

‘Proceedings of the fourth symposium on Antarctic

meteorites. Ed. T. Nagata. National Institute of Polar

Research: Tokyo.

TAKEDA, H., HUSTON, T. J. & LIPSCHUTZ, M. E. 1984.

On the chondrite-achondrite transition: mineralogy and

chemistry of Yamato 74160 (LL7). Earth and Planetary

Science Letters 71: 329-339.

WALLACE, M. E. & PRING, A. 1991. Classification of

Streaky Bay, Mangalo, Ethiudna and Crockers Well, stony

meteorites from South Australia. Meteoritics 26: 250.

WELLS, P. R. A. 1977. Pyroxene thermometry in simple and

complex systems. Contributions to Mineralogy and

Petrology 62: 129-139.

WOOD, J. A. 1967. Chondrites: their metallic minerals,

thermal histories, and parent planets. Jcarus 3: 429-459.

YANAI, K. & KOJIMA, H. 1987. ‘Photographic Catalog of

the Antarctic Meteorites. National Institute of Polar

Research: Tokyo.

A NEW GENUS OF THE BRYOZOAN SUPERFAMILY

SCHIZOPORELLOIDEA, WITH REMARKS ON THE VALIDITY OF THE

FAMILY LACERNIDAE JULLIEN, 1888

S. A. PARKER & D. P. GORDON

Summary

Vitrius gen. nov. is proposed for the cheilostome bryozoan Schizoporella insignis Hincks (Recent,

Africa, Australia and New Zealand). It appears to be related to Lacerna Jullien, Phonicosia Jullien

and Cribellopora Gautier, sharing with them a calcareous cryptocystidean shield with conspicuous

areolae, bordered by a narrow gymnocyst, and a membranous ovicellular ectooecium (i.e., the

endooecium being the exposed skeletal surface). The little-known family Lacernidae Jullien,

essentialy unused for more than a century, is here considered available for genera with the above

suite of characters as well as the presence of complex pore-occlusions in some of the genera.

A NEW GENUS OF THE BRYOZOAN SUPERFAMILY SCHIZOPORELLOIDEA, WITH REMARKS

ON THE VALIDITY OF THE FAMILY LACERNIDAE JULLIEN, 1888

S. A. PARKER & D. P. GORDON

PARKER, S. A. & GORDON, D. P. 1992. A new genus of the bryozoan superfamily Schizoporelloidea,

with remarks on the validity of the family Lacernidae Jullien, 1888. Rec. S Aust. Mus. 26(1): 67-71.

Vitrius gen. nov. is proposed for the cheilostome bryozoan Schizoporella insignis Hincks (Recent,

Africa, Australia and New Zealand). It appears to be related to Lacerna Jullien, Phonicosia Jullien,

and Cribellopora Gautier, sharing with them a calcareous cryptocystidean shield with conspicuous

areolae, bordered by a narrow gymnocyst, and a membranous ovicellular ectooecium (i.e., the

endooecium being the exposed skeletal surface). The little-known family Lacernidae Jullien, essentially

unused for more than a century, is here considered available for genera with the above suite of characters

as well as the presence of complex pore-occlusions in some of the genera.

S. A. Parker, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, and D. P.

Gordon, New Zealand Oceanographic Institute, DSIR Marine and Freshwater, PO Box 14901 Kilbirnie,

Wellington, New Zealand. Manuscript received 19 February 1992.

In the course of routine examination of the bryozoan

collections in the South Australian Museum (SAM),

the Western Australian Museum (WAM) and the New

Zealand Oceanographic Institute (NZOI), three Recent

samples from South Australia, Western Australia and

Stewart Island, New Zealand were identified as

Schizoporella insignis Hincks, 1881. Previously known

from Africa (Hincks 1881) and South Australia

(MacGillivray 1891), the species differs markedly from

Schizoporella Hincks, 1877 sensu stricto, and a new

genus is here proposed for it. The new genus shares

some important features with Lacerna Jullien, 1888

and related genera. The group appears to merit

recognition as a discrete family within the

Schizoporelloidea for which the little-used name

Lacernidae Jullien, 1888 is available.

SYSTEMATICS

Order Cheilostomida Busk, 1852

Suborder Ascophorina Levinsen, 1909

Infraorder Lepraliomorpha Gordon, 1989

Superfamily Schizoporelloidea Jullien, 1883

Family Lacernidae Jullien, 1888

Vitrius Parker & Gordon, gen. nov.

Generic diagnosis

Colony encrusting. Zooids glassy, the frontal shield

cryptocystidean, with a ring of lateral pores that also

encircles the orifice, the porous margin rimmed by

gymnocystal calcification. Proximal rim of orifice more

or less straight with a distinct sinus. Oral spines and

avicularia absent. Ovicell prominent, the endooecium

smooth, minutely pitted, the ectooecium entirely

membranous; closed by the zooidal operculum. Basal

pore-chambers present.

Type species

Schizoporella insignis Hincks, 1881.

Etymology

The generic name Vitrius is derived from the Latin

adjective vitreus, meaning glassy or transparent.

Remarks

Vitrius differs from Schizoporella Hincks, 1877 in

having glassy zooids, a centrally imperforate frontal

shield with conspicuous marginal pores only, a well-

developed gymnocystal rim, uncalcified ectooecium,

and closure of the ovicell by the zooidal operculum.

It is similar to three other schizoporelloidean genera,

.Lacerna Jullien, 1888, Phonicosia Jullien, 1888, and

Cribellopora Gautier, 1957, in important features of

the frontal shield and ovicell, though differing in details

— Lacerna has oral spines, short radii in the frontal-

shield pores, scarcely any gymnocyst, and a low rim

of ectooecial calcification bordering the ovicell;

Phonicosia has oral spines, avicularia, reduced

gymnocyst, minutely pitted complex pore-closures, and

an ovicell not closed by the zooidal operculum;

Cribellopora, which has one or no oral spines, is

characterized by complex pores with complete radii.

Vitrius is at present monotypic.

Vitrius insignis (Hincks, 1881)

(Figs 1, A-D)

Schizoporella insignis Hincks, 1881: 134, pl. 5, fig. 10;

MacGillivray 1891: 82, pl. 9, fig. 8.

Type locality

Africa — no further details given by Hincks.

68 S. A, PARKER & D. P. GORDON

Material examined

New Zealand: off South Cape, Stewart Island, 55 m,

no other data NZOI 26892; South Australia: Boston

Bay, southern Eyre Peninsula, no other data (probably

collected by O'Halloran ca 1890), small ancestrulate

colony on seagrass, Posidonia sp., SAM L667; Western

Australia: north side of Beacon Island, Houtman

Abrolhos, 25,.vi.1985, coll. S. M. Slack-Smith, three

small ancestrulate colonies on seaweed, Sargassum sp.,

WAM 632-91.

The sample from Port Wakefield, South Australia

listed and figured as Schizoporella insignis by

MacGillivray (1891) cannot be found in the Museum

of Victoria (T. Stranks in litt. 12.ix.1991).

Distribution

Stewart Island, New Zealand; South Australia;

Houtman Abrolhos, Western Australia; (?southern)

Africa,

Description

Colony encrusting, small. Zooids hyaline, 0.38-0.51

x 0.23-0.38 mm the frontal shield with a ring of

relatively large simple pores that also encircles the

orifice, the porous area bounded by, and set within,

a rim marking the edge of the surrounding gymnocyst,

with many of the pores occurring partly under the rim;

the central area of shield smooth, with a short umbo.

Orifice proportionately large in relation to the zooid

transversely D-shaped, with a straight proximal rim,

and a subcircular sinus that is constricted distally.

Opercular tab articulated, and set off from the rest of

the operculum by a sclerite. No oral spines or

avicularia. Ovicell prominent, closed by the zooidal

operculum, the endooecium wholly exposed, more or

less smooth, with a minutely pitted area, the

ectooecium membranous. Interzooidal communications

comprising widely open basal pore-chambers, sealed

externally by a membrane, with string of simple pores

along each septulum. Ancestrula with a membranous

frontal wall, no spines.

Remarks

Thanks to the courtesy of Mr P. J. Chimonides of

the Natural History Museum, London, we have been

able to examine scanning electron micrographs of the

holotype of Schizoporella insignis. It is in extremely

poor condition, being scarcely recognizable as

bryozoan, comprising three separated zooids, one of

which is broken and all three covered with debris. Only

part of the proximolateral gymnocyst and a lateral

septulum of one zooid give a clue as to identity, and

these features accord with what we have seen in the

Australasian specimens.

The illustrations of Hincks (1881) and MacGillivray

(1891) both show a feature of the frontal shield not

appreciated by SEM but rather seen in transparency,

i.e., a line bisecting the marginal pores. This line is

the inner edge of the narrow gymnocyst, which may

cover half the area of many or most of the pores. These

pores are the simplest among the genera here

recognized as lacernid, lacking calcareous radii or

other occlusions though a narrow flange-like rim may

occur within the pore.

The articulation of the operculum is not uncommon

among schizoporelloideans. One genus, Arthropoma

Levinsen, 1909, is named after this feature, but it is

possibly to be expected wherever the zooidal

operculum is used also to seal the ovicellular orifice

and the broad anterior flap (porta) moves through an

arc of some 30°-40° relative to the plane of the tab

(vanna) sealing the orificial sinus. The articular sclerite

in Vitrius can easily be seen in the intact operculum

even by reflected light.

As Hincks (1884) pointed out, Schizoporella insignis

MacGillivray 1883 is a junior primary homonym of

S. insignis Hincks, 1881 and cannot be retained. It is

superseded by its later name Schizoporella daedala

MacGillivray, 1887 (=Chiastosella daedala: Stach

1937).

DISCUSSION

The characters of Vitrius appear to ally the genus

(at present monospecific) with Lacerna Jullien, 1888,

Phonicosia Jullien, 1888, and Cribellopora Gautier,

1957, traditionally included in the family

Schizoporellidae Jullien, 1883. Lacerna is the type

genus of the family Lacernidae Jullien, 1888, which

was introduced for it and Phonicosia. Jullien’s familial

diagnosis is brief and rather general — our paraphrase

of his French is ‘Orifice with the distal rim arched;

the posterior rim straight, with a median sinus; the

lateral row of pores can occur in two series distally’.

With only one hesitant exception, the family name

Lacernidae has not, to our knowledge, been used since.

Even Calvet (1904), who worked with Jullien (e.g. ,

Jullien & Calvet 1903), included the type species of

Lacerna in Schizoporella. The one exception is Harmer

(1957), who posthumously cited the family as

comprising only Lacerna (which he wrongly

considered to include Buffonellodes) and possibly

Aimulosia, but a footnote by A. B. Hastings states that,

in unpublished notes, Harmer indicated that he

considered merging the Lacernidae in the

Schizoporellidae.

Jullien’s (1888) diagnosis of the family was trivial,

noting features sometimes scarcely useful at the

species-level. Furthermore, the type genus and species

(Lacerna hosteensis) were incompletely described and

illustrated, remaining so until very recently. Waters’s

(1904) apparent redescription was of another species,

recently named as Lacerna watersi (Hayward &

Thorpe 1989). Lopez Gappa (1977) gave a good

illustration of fertile L. hosteensis and Hayward (1991)

NEW GENUS OF BRYOZOAN 69

FIGURE 1. Vitrius insignis (Hincks), from off South Cape, Stewart Island, New Zealand. A, Group of zooids. B, Close-up

of lateral pores at the edge of the gymnocyst adjacent to the orifice. C, Ovicell. D, Widely open pore-chambers distal to the orifice.

70 S. A. PARKER & D. P.- GORDON

examined the type specimen and illustrated the species

by SEM. Thus it is now possible to evaluate the

distinctiveness of the Lacernidae for the first time.

Hayward (1991) did not assign Lacerna to a family but,

inter res, discussed the status of L. eatoni (Busk, 1876),

noting its general appearance to Phonicosia and

pointing out that Lopez Gappa (1978) had assigned it

to Cribellopora. These associations accord with our

conclusion that these three genera, with Vitrius, are

closely related and may be grouped together.

Whatever the eventual constitution or reconstitution

of the Schizoporellidae, the lacernid genera Lacerna,

Vitrius, Phonicosia and Cribellopora cannot be

regarded as confamilial with Schizoporella sensu

stricto, and the family Lacernidae Jullien, 1888 is here

used to accommodate them. The Lacernidae may be

distinguished from the Schizoporellidae sensu stricto

primarily on the basis of the ovicell, which in the

former has only a single calcified layer, the endooecium

(the ectooecium being entirely membranous), and

which develops in the manner described by Nielsen

(1981) for Fenestrulina Jullien, 1888. For the

Schizoporellidae s. s., the development of the ovicell

has, remarkably, not yet been described, but from our

preliminary SEM examination of Schizoporella errata

(Waters, 1878) we conclude that in this family both

ovicellular layers are calcified and fused, with the

intervening space obliterated. Even if it should be

shown that the ectooecium of Schizoporella s. s. is

membranous, however, significant differences between

the Schizoporellidae and the Lacernidae remain, e.g.

the lacernid ovicell is not overlaid by thick secondary

calcification and the hypostegal coelom of the distal

zooid, Additional features of the Lacernidae include

a mostly centrally imperforate frontal shield that tends

not to become thickly calcified but often remains

hyaline, a vestigial to proximolaterally well-developed

gymnocyst, and marginal pores that can have quite

complex occlusions. In Lacerna the pores are simple

openings early in zooidal ontogeny, but soon develop

short simple radii that do not meet in the centre of the

pore. In Cribellopora the pores develop as in Lacerna,

but the radii meet and fuse in the centre of each pore,

and in some species a fine calcareous mesh may further

develop between the radii. In Phonicosia a fine mesh

without distinct radii occurs, partly or totally occluding

the pore-opening when fully developed. Vitrius lacks

radii or a mesh, having only a narrow circular flange

within each pore. Some or all of these pores in these

genera are areolar, containing a rosette of transporting

cells by which the main body cavity of the zooid

(perigastric coelom) communicates with the thin cavity

above the cryptocystidean shield (hypostegal coelom)

(see Banta 1970, 1971, 1973). The presence of signifi-

cant pore-occlusions, especially in Phonicosia, would

seem to prevent or severely restrict effective nutrient

transport to the hypostegal coelom and perhaps it is

significant that frontal budding (which requires such

transport) has not been reported in these genera. The

apparent lack of secondary calcification may be another

possible sign of restricted nutrient transfer.

Insofar as they have basal pore-chambers, Lacerna,

Phonicosia and Vitrius share the same method of

budding new zooids — intrazooidal in the terminology

of Lidgard (1985). Cribellopora lacks basal pore-

chambers and budding is zooidal (Lidgard 1985).

Diagnosis of Lacernidae Jullien, 1888

Colony encrusting. Zooids with a relatively thin

crypocystidean shield, partly or mostly imperforate

centrally, the lateral pores often with complex closures,

the frontal area bordered by a vestigial to well-

developed proximolateral gymnocyst. Orifice with a

distinct sinus, the operculum sometimes articulated.

Oral spines and avicularia present or absent. Ovicell

with frontally imperforate calcified endooecium and

entirely membranous ectooecium. Basal pore-

chambers or mural septula present; budding thus

intrazooidal or zooidal. Constituent genera: Lacerna,

Phonicosia, Vitrius, Cribellopora.

Stratigraphic range of Lacernidae

Eocene to Recent. An undescribed species of

Cribellopora occurs in an Eocene outcrop at Alma,

near Oamaru, South Island, New Zealand (DPG, pers.

obs.). The earliest records from the published literature

are of Cribellopora latigastra (David, 1949) from the

Miocene of Austria and the Rhépne Valley (David &

Pouyet 1974; Cook 1985) and Phonicosia circinata

(MacGillivray 1869) from the Pliocene near

Waipukurau, North Island, New Zealand (Brown 1952,

as Arthropoma circinatum).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We should like to express our thanks to the following: Dr

P. J. Chimonides, Natural History Museum, London, for

scanning the holotype specimen of Schizoporella insignis and

sending the photographs for examination; Dr P. J. Hayward,

University College of Swansea, for commenting on a draft;

Ms Diana Jones, Western Australian Museum, for courtesies

extended to S.A.P. during his visit to that institution in

November 1991 and for subsequently permitting the loan of

the WAM Vitrius to D.P.G.; Dr H. B. Womersley, State

Herbarium of South Australia, for identifying the substrates

of the Australian specimens; and Mr T. Stranks, Museum

of Victoria, for information on collections in his care.

NEW GENUS OF BRYOZOAN 71

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THE LIFE OF A ‘MUSEUM MAN’ - EDGAR WAITE’S DIARIES AS AN

HISTORICAL SOURCE

PHILIP JONES

Summary

The history of science in Australian museums is a relatively new field. While each of the major

metropolitan museums in this country has had its own history published, these accounts have tended

to be structured around institutions and personalities, rather than the development of Australian

science itself. The gap has been filled to some extent by honours theses and articles published

during the 1980s and by the survey works of Home (1988) and Moyal (1976). The history of

institutional natural science in South Australia has been summarised by Twidale et al (1986). The

most detailed analysis of the history of science in Australian museums has been undertaken by the

American historian, S. Kohlstedt. She has surveyed the rich historical materials available in

Australian natural history museums and has noted the wealth of primary sources available, ranging

from committee reports and scientific manuscripts to correspondence files and memoranda

(Kohlstedt 1983, 1984).

THE LIFE OF A ‘MUSEUM MAN’ — EDGAR WAITE’S DIARIES AS AN HISTORICAL SOURCE

The history of science in Australian museums is a

relatively new field. While each of the major

metropolitan museums in this country has had its own

history published, these accounts have tended to be

structured around institutions and personalities, rather

than the development of Australian science itself. The

gap has been filled to some extent by honours theses

and articles published during the 1980s and by the

survey works of Home (1988) and Moyal (1976). The

history of institutional natural science in South

Australia has been summarised by Twidale er al.

(1986). The most detailed analysis of the history of

science in Australian museums has been undertaken

by the American historian, S. Kohlstedt. She has

surveyed the rich historical materials available in

Australian natural history museums and has noted the

wealth of primary sources available, ranging from

committee reports and scientific manuscripts to

correspondence files and memoranda (Kohlstedt 1983,

1984).

Sources for the South Australian Museum's history

are as well preserved as those for other Australian

museums, contained in the Museum’s own archives as

well as the State Records repository. Incoming and

outgoing correspondence has been retained,

particularly from the 1890s onwards, and monthly

curators’ reports supply vital detail for the earlier period

from the opening of the Museum in 1862 until late in

the century. These reports, and the Museum

Committee’s minute books, give an indication of the

level of expertise and activity expected of the early

Museum Directors. Frederick Waterhouse, for

example, combined his skill as a practising naturalist

with that of an administrator and an informed advocate

on museum practice during the 1860s and 1870s as the

Museum struggled to cement its place as an

indispensable scientific institution in Adelaide. Edward

Stirling (Director from 1888-1913) maintained a

prodigious level of activity, publishing on zoological

and anthropological subjects, reorganising the

Museum's galleries and storage, chairing the Museum

Committee meetings, as well as lecturing in physiology

at the University of Adelaide. This was not uncommon:

the careers of other Australian museum directors such

as Gerard Krefft, Frederick McCoy, and Robert

Etheridge reflect a similar range of commitment and

achievement. It is not surprising to find that these

individuals’ documentary records consist mainly of

their working correspondence and manuscripts, rather

than separately maintained journals or notebooks.

Until quite recently, the same was thought to be true

of the Yorkshire-born Edgar Ravenswood Waite, who

succeeded Edward Stirling as Director of the South

Australian Museum in 1913. To the good fortune of

museum historians though, Waite’s private record of

his entire working life in museums has been preserved

by his family and has recently become available to

historians and scientists. This remarkable source

material came to light during research undertaken for

Waite’s entry in the ‘Australian Dictionary of Biography’,

by John Glover, prior to his retirement as Curator of

Fishes at the South Australian Museum. The South

Australian Museum already holds a large quantity of

Waite’s professional correspondence, ledgers containing

a record of his voluminous scientific and journalistic

publications, and several hundred of his photographs.

Waite’s diaries cover not only his South Australian

Museum directorship (1913-1928), but also document

his career from 1888-1893 as Assistant Curator and

Curator of the Leeds Philosophical and Literary

Society (later Leeds City Museum), as Assistant

Curator in charge of vertebrates at the Australian

Museum in Sydney (1893-1905), and as Curator of the

Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, New Zealand

(1905-1913). Six volumes of the complete set of 77

diaries are missing at the time of writing, but may well

be located among family members. The diaries have

been lodged by the Waite family with the South

Australian Museum for copying, pending their

permanent transferral there at a future date. The

immediate intention is to have the diaries copied on

microfiche, with copies available either in that, or in

printed form,

The diaries comprise small black notebooks of about

100 pages. The daily entries, about two pages of Waite's

neat ink handwriting, are interspersed with occasional

newspaper clippings or an ephemeral document,

photograph or sketch. With few exceptions, each day

of Waite’s working life is recorded in at least cursory

detail. Although obviously intended as a personal

record, the diaries give little more than an outline of

Waite’s home life with his wife Rose and their only

child, Claude. He devotes more time, in contrast, to

recording the vagaries of his succession of Douglas

motorbikes, which served him well for many years

despite scrapes and mishaps. Waite’s hobbies as a

flautist, photographer and aquarium keeper lend

further colour.

While the diaries are generally written with the

detachment of an Edwardian scientist, Waite gives

occasional vent to the frustrations and rewards of his

special position in Adelaide’s scientific and cultural life.

As with other museum directors, his relationship with

members of his controlling committee was not always

smooth. Despite this, he had little difficulty in adjusting

to his successive working environments. As_ his

biographer, John Glover (1990), has written:

74 P. G. JONES

Imposing but gentle, with a dry sense of humour,

he was held in affection and esteem by all who knew

him well. [Australian Dictionary of Biography’,

vol. 12: 349]

The diaries record some important successes in Waite’s

negotiations with the Museum Committee, such as

their approval (in September 1917) of his suggestion

to launch the Records of the South Australian Museum.

Waite published a greater range and number of

scientific papers than any of his Australian

counterparts: a total of 175 papers on Australian and

New Zealand subjects during the 35 years from his

arrival in Sydney until his death. This number of

publications reflects Waite’s broad interest in the

taxonomy of zoological species. Some of the

publications, such as ‘The Fishes of South Australia’

(Adelaide, 1923) or ‘The Reptiles and Amphibians of

South Australia’ (Adelaide, 1929), remained standard

texts for many years.

It might be expected that Waite’s diaries would add

little to the record of his scientific achievements, and

that their primary value to historians might lie only

in their ancecdotal interest. Certainly this may apply

to aspects of Waite’s natural science research and

collecting activities, such as the fundamental details

of the place, date and circumstances of collection.

Nevertheless, Waite’s succinct first-hand accounts

supply an historical depth, otherwise unobtainable, to

each of his scientific excursions — ranging from his

role on Sir Douglas Mawson’s first sub-Antarctic cruise

in 1912, his retrieval of whale skeletons and dredging

excursions in South Australian waters, to his leadership

of the South Australian Museum's collecting

expeditions to the north-east of the state in 1916 and

to New Guinea, New Britain and New Ireland in 1918.

The ethnographic detail contained in these diaries

provides an exciting new insight into the South

Australian Museum’s anthropological history. Waite’s

leadership of the 1916 Strzelecki Creek expedition and

the 1918 North-West Pacific Islands expedition gave him

an opportunity to extend his expertise even further than

his broad base in natural science. The 1916 expedition

allowed only passing contact with Aboriginal people

and Waite’s published comment, that ‘there is little of

interest to write about the aboriginals’,, might suggest

that he had exhausted his potential as an ethnographer.

In contrast though, Waite’s 1918 expedition to the Pacific

yielded almost six tons of natural science and

ethnographic specimens. Hale's published history of

the South Australian Museum (1956) is vague as to the

exact reasons for this expedition, referring only to the

fact that Australia’s occupation of captured German

territory in the Pacific made such an expedition

possible. Waite’s diary entry for | May, 1918, makes

Sir Edward Stirling’s contribution more apparent:

Stirling has been very keen on getting Ethnological

material from (late) German Territory & he

proposed an expedition to New Guinea, New

Britain & Solomons. This was agreed to: the

director & A.C Davis, late administrator of the

natives in New Ireland, to form the party. If the

Board approves, I am likely to realise one of my

most fervent dreams; to visit the land of the Bird

of Paradise & other groups I had not dared to dream

Of oa

Waite and Davis made extensive collections of

natural history on this expedition, which travelled

through Papua New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland

and nearby islands from 31 May to 1 September, 1918.

While he paid only brief attention to the structures of

social life and ritual, Waite nevertheless distinguished

himself as a careful recorder of ethnographic detail.

His brief account of the use of a spiders’ web net for

fishing, on the small island of Mapua, provides an

example:

. . . the web is carried wound across the limbs of

a forked stick & when used is unwound & attached

to a line like a bait: the teeth of the fish are

entangled in the web. As far as I could make out

it is garfish that are taken this way (16 July 1918).

Waite and Davis carefully labelled each of their

purchases and specimens as they were obtained, and

most of these details were subsequently transferred to

the South Australian Museum’s Anthropology and

Natural Science Registers. Additional information may

be gleaned from the diaries, nevertheless. This may

range from specific detail, such as prices paid for a

shark float (two pounds) and a pig net (one pound)

in a remote New Ireland village on 8 July 1918, to the

anecdotal: on the island of Tabar, Waite became known

as ‘master belong firewood’, for his acquisition of

funerary malanggan masks which would ordinarily

have been burnt (9 August 1918). The background to

these ethnographic transactions is crucial to an

adequate understanding of the artefacts, many of which

have been on display in the Museum's Pacific Gallery

or in storage for the past seven decades.

Like his predecessor at the South Australian

Museum, Edward Stirling, Waite possessed the facility

of making useful contacts wherever he travelled.

Although he and Davis each made sizeable

ethnographic collections on this expedition, these were

outnumbered by others which Waite was able to

purchase from other individuals such as Whiteman,

Hunter, Cummins, Eugelke, Goedecke-Meyer,

Petterson and Gotham, who had established themselves

as traders and officials throughout the region. These

transactions, as well as individual purchases and

exchanges with native people, are all recorded in the

diaries.

The discovery of a previously unknown or unused

primary historical source is always an exciting event,

not least for the light which it may cast, in turn, on

other documentation. In Waite’s case, it will enable a

thorough attempt to be made at cataloguing his

extensive collection of photographs, already held in the

EDGAR WAITE DIARIES 75

South Australian Museum. These depict many aspects

of his museum career, particularly field expeditions.

More generally though, the Waite diaries provide an

opportunity for the re-evaluation of the place of

Australian and New Zealand museums within their

local scientific and cultural milieu, at a time when

colonial science was strongly asserting itself in relation

to its British and European origins.

REFERENCES

GLOVER, C. J. M. 1990. Edgar Ravenswood Waite

(1866-1928). ‘Australian Dictionary of Biography’.

Melbourne University Press: Melbourne. Vol 12: 348-349.

HALE, H. M. 1956. ‘The First Hundred Years of the South

Australian Museum, 1856-1956. South Australian Museum:

Adelaide.

HOME, R. W. (Ed.) 1988. ‘Australian Science in the Making’.

Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

KOHLSTEDT, S. G. 1983. Australian museums of natural

history: Public priorities and scientific initiatives in the 19th

century. Historical Records of Australian Science 5(4):

1-29.

KOHLSTEDT, S. G. 1984. Historical records in Australian

museums of natural history. Australian Historical

Bibliography Bulletin 10: 61-82.

MOYAL, A. M. 1976. ‘Scientists in Nineteenth Century

Australia. A Documentary History’. Cassell: Stanmore.

TWIDALE, C. R., TYLER, M. J. & DAVIES, M. (Eds)

1986. ‘Ideas and Endeavours — The Natural Sciences in

South Australia. Royal Society of South Australia: Adelaide.

WAITE, E. R. 1923. ‘The Fishes of South Australia’.

Handbooks of the Flora and Fauna of South Australia.

Government Printer: Adelaide.

WAITE, E. R. 1929. ‘The Reptiles and Amphibians of South

Australia. Handbooks of the Flora and Fauna of South

Australia. Government Printer: Adelaide.

Philip JONES, Curator, Social History, Division of Anthropology, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide,

South Australia 5000. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(1): 73-75, 1992.

plyl:

SOUT

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOLUME 26 PART 1

MAY 1992

ISSN 0376-2750

CONTENTS:

ARTICLES

1 C.C. EMIG & C. ROLDAN

®)

Published by the South Australian Museum,

North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000.

The occurrence in Australia of three species of Phoronida (Lophophorata) and their

distribution in the Pacific area

M. PICKERING

Garawa methods of game hunting, preparation and cooking

H. M. REISWIG

First Hexactinellida (Porifera) (glass sponges) from the Great Australian Bight

DC eEEE.

New species of Oribatulidae (Acarida: Cryptostigmata: Planofissurae) from South

Australian soils, with a review of subfamilies and Australian records

G. R. JOHNSTON

Ctenophorus tjantjalka, a new dragon lizard (Lacertilia: Agamidae) from northern

South Australia

M. E. WALLACE

The Crockers Well meteorite: an unusual LL7 breccia from South Australia

S. A. PARKER & D. P. GORDON

A new genus of the bryozoan superfamily Schizoporelloidea, with remarks on the

validity of the family Lacernidae Jullien, 1888

NOTE

PG ONES

The life of a “Museum Man’ — Edgar Waite diaries as an historical source

IE COIS

Ole

SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOILUMIE 26 IPAIRIT 2

NOVIEMIBIEIR 1992

FIRST REPORT OF THE ENIGMATIC METAZOAN ANOMALOCARIS

FROM THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE AND A TRILOBITE WITH

PRESERVED APPENDAGES FROM THE EARLY CAMBRIAN OF

KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

B. MCHENRY & A. YATES

Summary

Recently discovered fossils from the Early Cambrian, Emu Bay Shale of Kangaroo Island include a

new and undescribed species of the enigmatic metazoan Anomalocaris Whiteaves, 1892, and a

cephalon with preserved antennae of the trilobite Redlichia takooensis Lu, 1950. The site is

recognised as the first occurrence of Anomalocaris in the southern hemisphere and the discovery of

this animal supplies a possible predator capable of inflicting injuries to the large trilobites reported

from the locality. The trilobite specimen is not only the first from Australia with preserved

appendages but is the only redlichiid known to exhibit this feature.

FIRST REPORT OF THE ENIGMATIC METAZOAN ANOMALOCARIS FROM THE SOUTHERN

HEMISPHERE AND A TRILOBITE WITH PRESERVED APPENDAGES FROM THE EARLY

CAMBRIAN OF KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

B. MCHENRY & A. YATES

MCHENRY, B. & YATES, A. 1993. First report of the enigmatic metazoan Anomalocaris from the

southern hemisphere and a trilobite with preserved appendages from the Early Cambrian of Kangaroo

Island, South Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(2): 77-86.

Recently discovered fossils from the Early Cambrian, Emu Bay Shale of Kangaroo Island include a

new and undescribed species of the enigmatic metazoan Anomalocaris Whiteaves, 1892, anda cephalon

with preserved antennae of the trilobite Redlichia takooensis Lu, 1950. The site is recognised as the first

occurrence of Anomalocaris in the southern hemisphere and the discovery of this animal supplies a

possible predator capable of inflicting injuries to the large trilobites reported from the locality. The

trilobite specimen is not only the first from Australia with preserved appendages but is the only redlichiid

known to exhibit this feature.

B. McHenry, Department of Palaeontology, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide 5000,

Australia. A. Yates, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Adelaide, GPO Box 498,

Adelaide 5001, Australia. Manuscript received 9 April 1992.

Enigmatic ‘soft-bodied’ faunas have been reported

from many Cambrian localities (Conway Morris 1989).

Exceptionally well preserved fossils occur in the

lower part of the Early Cambrian Emu Bay Shale,

exposed East of the mouth of Big Gully, 3km West of

White Point on the northern coast of Kangaroo Island,

South Australia (see Fig. 1). At this site lightly

skeletonised and soft parts are presumed to be pre-

served as sheets of fibrous calcite (Glaessner 1979)

although they have never been analysed. The fauna

described so far from this locality consists of the

annelid worms Paleoscolex antiquus Glaessner 1979,

Myoscolex ateles Glaessner 1979 and Vestustivermis

planus Glaessner 1979, the trilobites Hsuaspis bilobata

(Pocock 1964) and Redlichia takooensis Lu 1950 and

the possible phyllocarid crustaceans Jsoxys communis

Glaessner 1979 and Tuzoia australis Glaessner 1979.

The Emu Bay Shale and its fauna have been suggested

to be an approximate equivalent to the Pararaia

janeae trilobite zone of the South Australian Cam-

brian sequence. Although correlations between the

Cambrian sequences of Australia and the rest of the

world are not easy, it has been tentatively assigned on

the basjs of trilobites, archaeocyatha, molluscs and

“small shelly’ fossils to the Late Botomian Stage of

the Siberian Scale for the Early Cambrian (520-530

Myr BP) (Bengston et al. 1990).

Reports of indiscriminate and destructive excava-

tion at this site by commercial collectors in early 1991

prompted an examination by one of us (A.Y.), to

assess the amount of material removed and to make a

representative collection for the South Australian

Museum. Among the important discoveries made

during this field trip were that of remains of what

South Australia

Kangaroo Island

FIGURE 1. Locality maps.

78 B. MCHENRY & A. YATES

FIGURE 2. Cephalic appendages of Anomalocaris sp. from the Early Cambrian Emu Bay Shale, Big Gully, Kangaroo Island,

South Australia (SAM P31953 A and B). Visible are two partial appendages (specimens A and B) with ventral spines extending

downwards. A partial cephalon of the trilobite Hsuaspis bilobata (Pocock, 1964) is located between the two appendages. Scale

bar 20 mm.

VS(A)—_

FIGURE 3. Line drawing of cephalic appendages of Anomalocaris sp. from Kangaroo Island, same specimens as Figure 2.

Segment numbers] - X of specimen A are preserved but the base of the appendage is missing. Only a small fragment of specimen

Bis visible. The dorsal spine (DS) on specimen A is present as are ventral spines for both specimens, VS(A) and VS(B). Joints

between the segments (J) are identifiable as are the ‘oblique grooves’(OG) attributed to the crushing of specimen A onto B.

Scale bar 20 mm.

ANOMALOCARIS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 719

FIGURE 4. Cephalic appendages of Anomalocaris sp. from the Early Cambrian Emu Bay Shale, Big Gully, Kangaroo Island,

South Australia (SAM P31954 A and B). Counterpart slab of SAM P31953. Visible are two partial appendages (specimens

A and B) with ventral spines extending downwards. A partial cephalon of the trilobite Hsuaspis bilobata (Pocock, 1964) is

located between the two appendages. Scale bar 20 mm.

FIGURE 5. Line drawing of cephalic appendages of Anomalocaris sp. from Kangaroo Island, same specimens as Figure 4.

Segment numbers I'V - X of specimen A are preserved but the ventral spines are missing. Specimen B is more completely

represented than on SAM P31953 and both the ventral spines, VS(B), and auxiliary spines, AS, are visible. Joints between the

segments (J) are also identifiable. Scale bar 20 mm.

80 B. MCHENRY & A. YATES

FIGURE 6. Partial cephalic appendage of Anomalocaris sp. from the Early Cambrian Emu Bay Shale, Big Gully, Kangaroo

Island, South Australia (SAM P51955). The small clusters of auxiliary spines which occur at the base of the ventral spines of

the appendage and are unique to the Kangaroo Island specimens are clearly visible. Scale bar 20 mm.

FIGURE 7. Line drawing of partial cephalic appendage of Anomalocaris sp. from Kangaroo Island, same specimen as Figure

6. The group of auxilliary spines (AS) at the base of the ventral spines (VS) are indicated, as well as areas of possible arthrodial

membrane (AM) at the joints (J) between the segments. Scale bar 20 mm.

ANOMALOCARIS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 81

appears to be anew species of the enigmatic metazoan

Anomalocaris Whiteaves, 1892, and a specimen of

the trilobite Redlichia takooensis Lu, 1950, with

preserved appendages.

All specimens were found in loose blocks that had

been left by the collectors, so precise stratigraphic

information is not yet available. There are two main

areas of exposure at the site, one in the sea-cliff and

the other on the wave cut platform (Glaessner 1979).

The specimens of Anomalocaris originated from the

wave cut platform while the trilobite specimen cannot

be placed as it was part of the previous collectors’

discard pile. These specimens are now housed in the

palaeontological collections of the South Australian

Museum (SAM P31953—P31957). Here wereport and

briefly describe these new specimens. Detailed de-

scriptions of the species are the subject of current

research and will be published in the future.

DescripTION OF MaTerIAL

Anomalocaris sp.

The first specimens to be reported in Australia of

Anomalocaris are three large curving, segmented

cephalic appendages. These appear to belong to an as

yetunnamed species. They occur on three slabs (SAM

P31953, P31954, P31955 (Figs 2-7), the first two

slabs being a part and counterpart set. The more

complete specimens are two appendages lying paral-

lel and partly overlapping each other and occur on the

part/counterpart slabs (P31953A and B, P31954A and

B (Figs 2, 4). The other specimen (P31955) is a single

fragment of a lone appendage (Fig. 6). The most

complete specimen measures 107 mm in length and

19 mm in width at the proximal end, tapering to a

point distally (Figs 2, 3). This appendage has the

remains of 10 preserved segments including the ter-

minus, but is incomplete and almost certainly pos-

sessed more segments as in other anomalocarids. In

this description, because preservation is incomplete,

segments on the appendages have been numbered

from the terminus for expediency. Thus the terminat-

ing segment has been numbered I, the penultimate I,

and so on. Each segment bears ventrally at its distal

end a long proximally curving spine with the most

complete one preserved (on segment VI of P31953A)

being 3 mm wide and 26 mm long, which is longer

than the appendage is deep (Figs 2, 3). There is no

evidence that these ventral spines were paired. The

smaller spines seen lying along the ventral spines of

segments VI~VIII of P31953A are the tips of the

ventral spines of P31953B (Figs 2, 3).

The ventral spines bear many (between 1 and 9)

small auxiliary spines of approximately 1-2 mm in

length, particularly along their distal borders al-

though the actual numbers of these auxiliaries present

is probably a product of preservation. On the proximal

side of the base of the main spines, there is a group of

approximately 4 closely spaced auxiliary spines 3-4

mm long. These are present on all specimens but are

particularly well preserved on the first two ventral

spines of P31955 (Figs 6, 7).

Single dorsal spines, 8 mm in length, are presenton

segments I and II of P31953A (Figs 2, 3). The dorsal

area of segments III and IV is missing whereas the

dorsum of all other segments is smooth and lacking

any spines. The fibrous calcite sheet is noticeably

thinner around the ventral segment boundaries. This

is reflected by areddish colouration in P31955 and is

thought to possibly represent areas of arthrodialmem-

brane previously described in specimens of A.

canadensis (Briggs 1979) (Figs 6, 7). Oblique grooves

can be seen to run through the segments of both

appendages on P31953. Since there are none of these

grooves present on P31955, they are thought to repre-

sent post mortem features created by compaction: at

least some of the grooves on P31953<A are attributable

to the appendage being crushed into the underlying

spines of P31953B (Figs 2, 3).

Mention should be made of a problematic radially

lobate fossil collected with the Anomalocaris mate-

rial (SAM P31956 (Fig. 8). This specimen does bear

some resemblance (though perhaps superficially) to

the mouth of Anomalocaris (Fig. 9). In the Burgess

Shale the mouth occasionally occurs separately from

the anomalocarid body (Whittington & Briggs 1985)

and was originally described by Walcott in 1911 asa

medusoid, Peytoia. As with an Anomalocaris mouth,

it consists of a series of groups of narrow lobes

separated by single wider lobes. Unlike Anomalocaris,

however, the narrow lobes appear to be transversely

ribbed and this form has no central opening. We

believe this may be due to the specimen being pre-

served in a closed state. Whittington & Briggs (1985)

have reported the anomalocarid mouth as being rec-

ognized in a variety of orientations and states of

closure but as this specimen is badly eroded a confi-

dent interpretation cannot be made without further

material.

Trilobite Appendages

The single specimen of Redlichia takooensis Lu,

1950, with preserved appendages (SAM P31957)

consists of an obliquely distorted, two thirds of a

cephalon that measures 117 mm in width (Figs 10,

11). Protruding from the anterior border of the cephalon

are what appear to be two short antennae which are 24

mm and 30 mm in length respectively, tapering from

a maximum measured width of 3.5 mm to a point.

Segment borders can be seen on the right antenna

where the calcite replacement has flaked away leav-

ing a mould (Fig. 12). There appear to be 11-13

82 B. MCHENRY & A. YATES

FIGURE 8. Possible mouth of Anomalocaris sp. from the Early Cambrian Emu Bay Shale, Big Gully, Kangaroo Island, South

Australia (SAM P51956). Scale bar 10 mm.

FIGURE9. Composite drawing of the mouth of holotype of Anomalocaris nathorsti (Walcott, 1911) from the Middle Cambrian

Burgess Shale ‘Phyllopod Bed’, Stephen Formation, 4.8 km North of Field, British Columbia (United States National Museum

no. 57538), (From Whittington and Briggs 1985, Figure 60).

ANOMALOCARIS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 83

FIGURE 10. Partial cephalon of Redlichia takooensis Lu, 1950, from the Early Cambrian Emu Bay Shale, Big Gully, Kangaroo

Island, South Australia (SAM P51957). The two segmented antennae can clearly be seen protruding from under the anterior

border of the cephalon. Scale bar 20 mm.

FIGURE 11. Line drawing of partial cephalon of Redlichia takooensis Lu, 1950, from Kangaroo Island, same specimen as

Figure 10. The anterior border (AB), facial suture (FS) and glabella (G) can be readily delineated as well as the two protruding

segmented antennae (ANT). Scale bar 20 mm.

84 B. MCHENRY & A. YATES

FIGURE 12. Enlargement of anterior border of cephalon of Redlichia takooensis Lu, 1950, same specimen as Figure 9, showing

right antenna. Scale bar, 10 mm.

segments visible on the section of the antenna which

protrudes from under the cephalon (Fig. 11). This is

the first known Australian trilobite to have append-

ages preserved and these are also the first known

redlichiid appendages to have been discovered.

Discussion

Our specimens of Anomalocaris share some char-

acteristics with A. canadensis Whiteaves 1892 and

some with A. nathorsti (Walcott 1911) but also pos-

sess features not found in the described species of this

genus. As in A. canadensis there are no lateral spines,

the dorsal spines are restricted to the terminal seg-

ments and the cephalic appendage is not strongly

recurved. Anomalocaris nathorsti has unpaired ven-

tral spines which are longer than the segments are

deep and possesses numerous small auxiliary spines

which do not alternate in length. The group of auxil-

lary spines occurring at the base of the main ventral

spines is unique to the South Australian species.

Anomalocaris has been interpreted as a large Cam-

brian predator (Whittington & Briggs 1985, Briggs &

Whittington 1985) although the theory has beenraised

that some anomalocarids may have been filter feed-

ers. Forms such as A. nathorsti and Cassubia

infercambriensis (Lendzion 1975) possess broad,

blade-like spines which contact each other and form

a graticule, suggestive of an arrangement analogous

to the filtratory feeding appendages of some living

crustaceans (Dzik & Lendzion 1988). To our knowl-

edge the species from Kangaroo Island is similar to A.

canadensis and A. pennsylvanicus Resser, 1929, and

does not have this arrangement of spines. It therefore

should not be included amongst the possible detrital

feeders.

Except for the articulated material in the Burgess

Shale (Whittington & Briggs 1985) and a single other

specimen (Briggs & Robison 1984), remains of

Anomalocaris occur only as isolated appendages.

Anomalocarids have been reported from the Early

Cambrian of British Columbia (Resser 1929, Briggs

1979), Pennsylvania (Resser & Howell 1938, Briggs

1978), California (Mount 1974, Briggs & Mount

1982), NE Poland (Dzik & Lendzion 1988), southern

China (Chen et al. 1991, Hou & Bergstrom 1991), and

from the Middle Cambrian of Utah (Briggs & Robison

1984, Conway Morris & Robison 1982, 1986, 1988)

and several localities in British Columbia (Fritz 1971,

Collins et al, 1983, Whittington & Briggs 1985). The

discovery of the Kangaroo Island specimens extends

the range of this group of animals to the current

southern hemisphere, showing that they had a world-

wide distribution in the Early Cambrian (Fig. 13).

Reported specimens of redlichiid trilobites from

the Emu Bay Shale possess what appear to be healed

injunes which had been inflicted by an unknown

ANOMALOCARIS FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 85

FIGURE 13. Reconstruction of continental positions during Early Cambrian (520-530 Myr BP; after McKerrow et. al. 1992)

showing known occurrences of Anomalocaris. 1, British Columbia; 2, Pennsylvania; 3, California; 4, NE Poland; 5, Southem

China; 6, South Australia (see text).

predator (Conway Morris & Jenkins 1985). It was

concluded that the predator might have been an

undiscovered metazoan or that the trilobites might

have been cannibalistic. We consider it to be very

probable that at least some of these injuries might

have been inflicted by Anomalocaris sp., an occur-

rence that has been suggested by similar marks found

on trilobites from the Middle Cambrian Burgess

Shale locality at Mount Stephen in Canada (Rudkin

1979, Whittington & Briggs 1985, Briggs &

Whittington 1985), middle Cambrian strata in Utah

(Vorwald 1982) and the lower Cambrian of California

(Alpert & Moore 1975). The healed injuries on the

Kangaroo Island specimens include missing pleural

tips as well as excisions into the distal portions of the

pleura. Whittington & Briggs (1985) suggested that

Anomalocaris most probably fed by capturing prey

with the cephalic appendages and then used these to

draw the food to the ventrally placed mouth. It is

possible that the observed injuries in the Kangaroo

Island redlichiids represent the results of an unsuc-

cessful attack by an anomalocarid attempting to bite

a struggling trilobite, which was rewarded for its

efforts by eventual escape from the grasp of the

predator’s cephalic appendages.

These newly reported fossil specimens sug gest that

the South Australian locality bears a closer resem-

blance to the famous Burgess Shale of British Colum-

bia than was previously recognised. Further studies at

this site will contribute to an understanding of how

these exceptional preservations have occurred and

help shed some light on the current problems associ-

ated with interpreting this world-wide fauna (Gee,

1992).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to thank Jim Gehling, University of South

Australia, for helpful suggestions with the manuscript. We are

indebted to Jenni Thurmer for invaluable assistance with the

preparation of the figures and Gino Smidero, University of

South Australia, for photographing the specimens. We thank

the two anonymous referees whose comments greatly im-

proved the final paper and Derek Briggs, Harry Whittington

and the Royal Society, London, for permission to reproduce

the line drawing (Fig. 10) of the Anomalocaris mouth from the

1985 description of the genus.

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Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 57: 17-40.

WHITEAVES, J. F. 1892. Description of a new genus and

species of phyllocarid crustacean from the Middle Cam-

brian of Mount Stephen, British Columbia. Canadian

Records of Science 5: 205—208.

WHITTINGTON, H. B. 1985. ‘The Burgess Shale’. Yale

University Press: New Haven.

WHITTINGTON, H. B. & BRIGGS, D. E. G. 1985. The

largest Cambrian animal, Anomalocaris, Burgess Shale,

- British Columbia. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

Society, London B 309: 569-609.

MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM.

5. GASTROPODA : CYPRAEOIDEA

K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

Summary

The South Australian Museum collection of Cypraeoidea types contains 66 species, subspecies or

varieties of the families Cypraeidae (55 taxa), Ovulidae (3 taxa) and Triviidae (8 taxa). Most of

these are foreign, with 34 from Fiji alone, three from New Caledonia, two from the Hawaiian

Islands and one taxon each from Borneo, Madagascar, Paua New Guinea and Timor. The 17

Australian taxa are from Western Australia and South Australia. Six taxa are without any locality

data.

MOLLUSC TYPE SPECIMENS IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM.

5. GASTROPODA: CYPRAEOIDEA

K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L. & ZEIDLER, W. 1993. Mollusc type specimens in the South Australian

Museum. 5. Gastropoda: Cypraeoidea. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(2): 87-103

The South Australian Museum collection of Cypraeoidea types contains 66 species, subspecies or

varieties of the families Cypraeidae (55 taxa), Ovulidae (3 taxa) and Triviidae (8 taxa). Most of these are

foreign, with 34 from Fijialone, three from New Caledonia, two from the Hawaiian Islands and one taxon

each from Bomeo, Madagascar, Papua New Guinea and Timor. The 17 Australian taxa are from Western

Australia and South Australia. Six taxa are without any locality data.

K. L. Gowlett-Holmes & W. Zeidler, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South

Australia 5000. Manuscript received 10 July 1992.

The following catalogue of type specimens of the

superfamily Cypraeoidea held in the South Australian

Museum (SAM) is part of an ongoing program to

provide such information as an aid to future taxo-

nomic studies.

The South Australian Museum’s collection of

Cypraeoidea has been acquired by a variety of means.

The bulk of the historical material was collected, or

otherwise obtained, by Sir Joseph Verco around the

tur of the century. As cowries and their allies have

always been very collectable items, many additions

have been made to the collections by donation or by

purchasing other peoples’ collections. One of the

most significant of these was the A. F. Kenyon

Collection, which the Museum purchased early this

century. Mrs Kenyon accumulated a relatively large

collection and acquired many types, particularly of

cowries and cones. Cowries were her special interest,

and she described a number of new species and

varieties, the types of which are represented in the

collections, although none of these species are now

considered valid. Apart from Kenyon (1897, 1898,

1900 & 1902), the other major addition to the type

collection was by Steadman and Cotton (1943, 1946),

who described a number of varieties and subspecies,

mainly from Fiji, only one of which may now be valid.

The Cypraeoidea type collection represents 66

species, subspecies or varieties of the families

Cypraeidae (55 taxa), Ovulidae (3 taxa) and Triviidae

(8 taxa). Most of these are foreign, with 34 from Fiji

alone. Other foreign specimens are from Bomeo (1),

Hawaiian Islands (2), Madagascar (1), New Caledonia

(3), Papua New Guinea (1) and Timor (1). Australian

specimens are from Westem Australia (W.A.) (11)

and South Australia (S.A.) (6). Six taxa are without

any locality data. All of the types except for some

paratypes of Crenavolva cruenta Gowlett-Holmes &

Holmes, 1989, are dry and in most cases are only

represented by the shell.

In the following list, species are listed alphabeti-

cally according to their names at the time of descrip-

tion. Current synonymies are according to Burgess

(1985) for the Cypraeidae, Cate (1973) for the

Ovulidae, and Cate (1979) for the Triviidae, unless

otherwise noted. Higher classification is according to

Vaught (1989).

Some of the early mollusc taxonomists did not

indicate type specimens and often their descriptions

were based on more than one specimen. In those cases

where no holotype was designated and the description

was clearly based on more than one specimen, the

type series held in SAM is considered syntypic (Ar-

ticle 73(b), ICZN). Where the description was clearly

based on a single specimen, this specimen is consid-

ered to be a holotype, even if it was not clearly

designated as such (Article 73(a), ICZN).

We have illustrated selected taxa, mainly those

which have not been illustrated adequately previ-

ously, or were not listed by Burgess (1985), or those

whose present taxonomic status is doubtful

Superfamily CYPRAEOIDEA

Family CYPRAEIDAE

Genus Arabica Jousseaume, 1884

ees eglantina momokiti Steadman & Cotton,

194

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 327.

= Cypraea eglantina Duclos, 1833.

Holotype: D14162, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

88 K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

Arabica scurra vono Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 328.

= Cypraea scurra Gmelin, 1791.

Holotype: D14163, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention a further

eleven specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Basilitrona Iredale, 1930

Basilitrona isabella cavia Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 326.

= Cypraea isabella Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14161, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Basilitrona isabella lemuriana Steadman &

Cotton, 1946

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 8(3): 507.

= Cypraea isabella Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14516, adult specimen, from Madagas-

car, collector and date of collection unknown.

Genus Bistolida Cossman, 1920

Bistolida fluctuans nandronga Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 318-9.

= Cypraea stolida Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14148, adult specimen, from Nadroga,

Fiji, collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Bistolida stolida thakau Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 318.

= Cypraea stolida Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14147, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Genus Blasicrura Iredale, 1930

Blasicrura rhinoceros vivia Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 323.

= Cypraea pallidula Gaskoin, 1849.

Holotype: D14157, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Callistocypraea Schilder, 1927

Callistocypraea aurantium turanga Steadman &

Cotton, 1943.

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 329-30.

= Cypraea aurantium Gmelin, 1791.

Holotype: D14165, adult specimen, from Nadroga

Fiji, collector and date of collection unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention a further

twelve specimens obtained from Fijian natives at

Nadroga, but did not designate any paratypes.

Genus Cribraria Jousseaume, 1884

Cribraria cribraria northi Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 318.

= Cypraea cribraria Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14146, adult specimen, from Nadroga,

Fiji, collected by W. O. North, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention a further

nineteen specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did

not designate any paratypes.

Cribraria haddnightae Trenberth, 1973

Malac. Soc. S. Aust. Occ. Publ. 17: no pagination,

pls 1,2.

= Cypraea haddnightae (Trenberth, 1973).

Holotype: D15132, adult specimen, dead collected,

on beach, from Parrys Beach, west of Denmark, near

Albany, W. A., collected by F. Haddrill and M.

Knight, date of collection unknown.

Note: According to Trenberth (1973), paratypes of

this species are in the private collections of Miss F.

Haddrill, Miss M. Knight, W. P. Trenberth and R.

Summers. The current whereabouts of these speci-

mens are unknown.

Genus Cypraea Linnaeus, 1758

Cypraea bregeriana var. barbara Kenyon, 1902

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 183.

= nomen inguirendum.

Holotype: D4210, adult specimen, dead collected,

from New Caledonia, collector and date of collection

unknown. (Fig. 1A-C).

MOLLUSC TYPES 5: CYPRAEOIDEA

FIGURE 1. A-C: Cypraea bregeriana var. barbara Kenyon, 1902, holotype, SAM D4210, x 1.8. D-G: Cypraea carneola var.

rubiola Kenyon, 1902, syntypes, SAM D3970, x 0.9.

K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

FIGURE 2. Cypraea helvola var. borneensis Kenyon, 1902, syntypes, SAM D3578, x 2.5.

MOLLUSC TYPES 5: CYPRAEOIDEA

FIGURE 3. Cypraea helvola var. timorensis Kenyon, 1902, syntypes, SAM D3705, x 1.7

92 K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

Note: The oldest label with the specimen, in Sir

Joseph Verco’s handwriting, queries the name of this

species, but as the specimen matches Kenyon’s (1902)

detailed description very closely, we believe it is the

holotype. This name was not listed by Burgess (1985),

and the holotype is clearly not a specimen of Cypraea

bregeriana Crosse, 1868, as described by Burgess

(1985). The specimen was not live collected, and

cannot be identified with certainty as any currently

recognised species. We believe, therefore, the most

appropriate course is to regard this name as a nomen

inquirendum.

Cypraea caputserpentis var. caputcolubri Kenyon,

1898

Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 3(2): 79, fig. 3.

= Cypraea caputserpentis Linnaeus, 1758.

Syntype: D11561, one adult specimen, dead col-

lected, no collection data.

Note: Kenyon (1898) mentions two specimens, one

from the Hawaiian Islands and a ‘fine live specimen

from Lord Howe Island’. We assume that Kenyon’s

(1898) description and measurements refer to the live

collected specimen, as this was the specimen that

prompted her to describe the new variety. Unfortu-

nately, this specimen cannot be located in our collec-

tions, and as we have most of the Kenyon Collection,

we presume that it is lost. The SAM specimen listed

here is smaller than the measurements given by

Kenyon (1898), and as it is not live collected, we

assume that it came from the Hawaiian Islands.

Cypraea carneola var. rubiola Kenyon, 1902

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 184.

= Cypraea carneola Linnaeus, 1758

Syntypes: D3970, two specimens, one adult and one

subadult, from the Hawaiian Islands, collector and

date of collection unknown. (Fig. 1D-G).

Note: This name was not listed by Burgess (1985), but

these specimens are conspecific with C. carneola.

Cypraea helvola var. borneensis Kenyon, 1902.

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 183-4.

= Cypraea helvola Linnaeus, 1758.

Syntypes: D3578, five adult specimens, from Bomeo,

collector and date of collection unknown. (Fig. 2).

Note: This name was not listed by Burgess (1985), but

the types are typical, but small, specimens of C.

helvola.

Cypraea helvola var. timorensis Kenyon, 1902

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 184.

= Cypraea helvola Linnaeus, 1758.

Syntypes: D3705, seven adult specimens, from Timor,

collector and date of collection unknown. (Fig. 3).

Note: This name is not listed by Burgess (1985), but

the types are typical specimens of C. helvola.

Cypraea irvineanae Cox, 1889

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 4: 659, pl. 19, figs 7-9.

= Cypraea stolida Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D3772, adult specimen, from Cape

Naturaliste, W.A., collector and date of collection

unknown.

Note: This specimen lacks the dorsal brown blotch

which is usually so typical of C. stolida.

Cypraea kaiseri Kenyon, 1897

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 22(1): 145.

= Cypraea pyriformis Gray, 1824.

Holotype: D3782, adult specimen, from Lagrange

Bay, W.A., collector and date of collection unknown.

Cypraea kauilani Kenyon, 1900

Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 4(2): 68, fig. 1.

= Cypraea erosa Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D3781, adult specimen, from the Hawaiian

Islands, collector and date of collection unknown.

(Fig. 4A-C).

Note: This name was not listed by Burgess (1985), but

we believe it is a specimen of the rare Hawaiian

variety of C. erosa.

Cypraea mappa vat. viridis Kenyon, 1902

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 183.

= Cypraea mappa Linnaeus, 1758.

Syntypes: D3996, three adult specimens, from New

Caledonia, collector and date of collection unknown.

Cypraea miliaris var. diversa Kenyon, 1902

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 184.

= Cypraea miliaris Gmelin, 1791.

Syntypes: D3903, two adult specimens, from Shark

Bay, W.A., collector and date of collection unknown.

Cypraea poraria var. vibex Kenyon, 1902

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 184.

= Cypraea poraria Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D18771, adult specimen, from New

Caledonia, collector and date of collection unknown.

(Fig. 4D-F).

Note: Kenyon (1902) mentions another specimen

from the New Hebrides but it does not seem to have

been used in her description, nor is it clear if it was

before her at the time of description. We therefore

assume that the SAM specimen is a holotype. This

name was not listed by Burgess (1985), however, we

believe it is simply an aberrant specimenof C. poraria.

Cypraea tigris amboolee Steadman & Cotton,

1943.

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 332.

=Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, 1758.

MOLLUSC TYPES 5: CYPRAEOIDEA

FIGURE 4. A-C: Cypraea kauilani Kenyon, 1900, holotype, SAM D3781, x 1.2. D-F: Cypraea poraria var. vibex Kenyon,

1902, holotype, SAM D18771, x 1.9. G-I: Cypraea wilhelmina Kenyon, 1897, holotype, SAM D14447, x 2.5.

94 K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

Holotype: D14169, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva, Nadroga and Nairai, but

did not designate any paratypes.

Cypraea tigris var. lineata Kenyon, 1902

J. Conch. Lond. 10(6): 183.

= Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, 1758.

Syntype: D7107, one adult specimen, from Fiji, col-

lector and date of collection unknown.

Note: Kenyon (1902) mentions several other speci-

mens but these cannot be located in our collections

with any confidence.

Cypraea tigris volai Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 332

= Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14168, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Cypraea (Notocypraea) trenberthae Trenberth,

1961

R. Soc. S. Aust. Malac. Sect. Occ. Publ. 15: no

pagination, fig.

= Cypraea comptonii Gray, 1847.

Holotype: D14616, live collected adult specimen,

from Tumby Bay, Eyre Peninsula, S.A., collector and

date of collection unknown.

Note: According to Trenberth (1961) there are four

paratypes, two in his own collection, one in the

collection of R. Summers, and one with the Malaco-

logical Society of Australia, Melbourne. The latter is

in the Museum of Victoria (F31257), but the where-

abouts of the other specimens is unknown.

Cypraea wilhelmina Kenyon, 1897

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 22(1): 145.

= nomen inquirendum.

Holotype: D14447, worn adult specimen, dead col-

lected, from W.A., collector and date of collection

unknown. (Fig. 4G-I).

Note: Kenyon (1897) also mentions one young speci-

men and three others from the same locality ‘similar

in shape and dentition to C. poraria’ which she

considers may be varieties of C. wilhelmina. We have

been unable to locate these specimens in our collec-

tions. This name was not listed by Burgess (1985).

This specimen may be an example of C. poraria

Linnaeus, 1758, but differs on some points.

Genus Erosaria Troschel, 1863

Erosaria (Erosaria) helenae nasese Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 315.

= Cypraea labrolineata Gaskoin, 1849.

Holotype: D14142, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

two specimens from Suva, but did not designate any

paratypes.

Genus Erronea Troschel, 1863

Erronea errones bartletti Steadman & Cotton,

1946

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 8(3): 508.

= Cypraea ovum Gmelin, 1791.

Holotype: D15944, adult specimen, from Rossell

Island, Papua New Guinea, collected by H. K. Bartlett,

date of collection unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1946) mention two other

specimens but did not designate paratypes. This name

was not listed by Burgess (1985), but the holotype is

obviously a specimen of C. ovum, not C. errones

Linnaeus, 1758.

Erronea nimisserans kalavo Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 324.

= Cypraea errones Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14159, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Erronea nimisserans vivili Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 324.

= Cypraea errones Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14160, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

coHected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Genus Evenaria Iredale, 1930

Evanaria(sic) asellus kawakawa Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 320.

= Cypraea asellus Linnaeus, 1758.

MOLLUSC TYPES 5: CYPRAEOIDEA 95

Holotype: D14151, adult specimen, dead collected,

from Suva, Fiji, collected by W. R. Steadman, date of

collection unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention a further

eleven specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Evanaria(sic) hirundo korolevu Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 320-1.

= Cypraea hirundo Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14152, adult specimen, from Korolevu,

Viti Levu, Fiji, collected by W. R. Steadman, date of

collection unknown. (Fig. 5A—-C).

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

thirty specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes. Although Burgess (1985)

synonymises this name with C. hirundo, the holotype

appears to show more resemblance to C. ursellus

Gmelin, 1791.

Evanaria(sic) ursellus vitiensis Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. '7(4): 321.

= Cypraea kieneri Hidalgo, 1906.

Holotype: D14153, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

nineteen specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did

not designate any paratypes.

Genus Guttacypraea Iredale, 1935

Guttacypraea euclia Steadman & Cotton, 1946

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 8(3): 506.

= Cypraea pulicaria Reeve, 1846,

Holotype: D11634, adult specimen with dried re-

mains of animal, dredged live in 183m (100fm), Great

Australian Bight, 90 miles west of Eucla, W.A.,

F.R.V. ‘Endeavour’, collected by J. C. Verco, Mar

1912.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1946) mention other

specimens but did not designate any paratypes.

Genus Leporicypraea Iredale, 1930

Leporicypraea mappa rewa Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 329.

= Cypraea mappa Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14164, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

thirty nine specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did

not designate any paratypes.

Genus Lyncina Troschel, 1863

Lyncina lynx pacifica Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 330.

= Cypraea lynx Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14166, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Melicerona Iredale, 1930

Melicerona melvilli vatu Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 322-3.

= Cypraea felina Gmelin, 1791.

Holotype: D14156, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention a further

twenty nine specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but

did not designate any paratypes. This name was not

listed by Burgess (1985), but the holotype is a speci-

men of C. felina.

Genus Monetaria Troschel, 1863

Monetaria (Monetaria) moneta endua Steadman

& Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 317.

= Cypraea moneta Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14143, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Monetaria (Monetaria) moneta erua Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 317.

= Cypraea moneta Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14144, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

FIGURES. A-C: Evanaria hirundo korolevu Steadman & Cotton, 1943, holotype, SAM D14152, x 2.8. D-F: Palmadusta lutea

yaloka Steadman & Cotton, 1943, holotype, SAM D14154, x 2.1. G-: Pustularia (Pustularia) cicerula jennisoni Steadman

& Cotton, 1943, holotype, SAM D14138, x 2.4.

MOLLUSC TYPES 5: CYPRAEOIDEA 97

Monetaria (Monetaria) moneta etolu Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 317.

= Cypraea moneta Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14145, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention numer-

ous specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Notocypraea Schilder, 1927

Notocypraea verconis Cotton & Godfrey, 1932

S. Aust. Nat. 13:41, pl. 1, fig. 8.

= Cypraea angustata Gmelin, 1791.

Holotype: D13475, worn, damaged adult specimen,

dead collected, from Gulf St Vincent, S.A., collector

and date of collection unknown.

Note: Cotton and Godfrey (1932) list the registration

number of the holotype as D10173. They alsomention

a number of other specimens but did not designate

paratypes.

Genus Palangerosa Iredale, 1931

Palangerosa cylindrica wangga Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 323-4.

= Cypraea cylindrica Born, 1778.

Holotype: D14158, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention a further

two specimens from Suva, but did not designate any

paratypes.

Genus Palmadusta Iredale, 1930

Palmadusta lutea yaloka Steadrnan & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 322.

= Cypraea yaloka (Steadman & Cotton, 1943).

Holotype: D14154, adult specimen, from Nadroga,

Fiji, collected by W. O. North, date of collection

unknown. (Fig. 5D-F).

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

specimen collected from the type locality by Steadman,

but did not designate it as a paratype. Burgess

(1985:141) regards this as a valid species, but con-

fuses the issue by stating ‘I examined Gray’s type of

C. humphreysii in the British Museum in 1968. It was

identical with C. yaloka Steadman & Cotton’, and

further stating ‘Since the original descriptions and

illustrations of C. humphreysii and C. nivea clearly

refer to C. lutea these names must be regarded as

synonyms’. According to Burgess (1985) the specific

conchological character separating C. yaloka from C.

lutea Gmelin, 1791, is the number of white transverse

bands on the dorsum, with C. Jutea having two bands

and C. yaloka three bands. Whether or not both

species can be maintained cannot be resolved here,

and would require the examination of a large series of

specimens including the animal. However, if the

three-banded form is a valid species and also matches

the type of C. humphreysii Gray, 1825, then the

correct name for this species is C. humphreysii not C.

yaloka (Article 23, ICZN).

Genus Paulonaria Iredale, 1930

Paulonaria minoridens suvaensis Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 319-20.

= Cypraea minoridens Melvill, 1901.

Holotype: D14150, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

seven specimens from the type locality, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Ponda Jousseaume, 1884

Ponda ventriculus topee Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 331.

= Cypraea ventriculus Lamarck, 1810a.

Holotype: D14167, adult specimen, from Kaduva,

Fiji, collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

two specimens from the type locality, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Pustularia Swainson, 1840

Pustularia (Pustularia) cicercula jennisoni

Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 310-1.

= Cypraea bistrinotata Schilder & Schilder, 1937.

Holotype: D14138, adult specimen, from Taveuni,

Fiji, collected by R. C. Jennison, date of collection

unknown. (Fig. 5G-I.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

eleven specimens from Suva, Taveuni and Naseli, but

did not designate any paratypes. This name was not

listed by Burgess (1985), but we believe itis probably

a specimen of C. bistrinotata, not C. cicercula

Linnaeus, 1758.

98 K. L.GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

Pustularia (Annepona) margarita theeva

Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 310.

= Cypraea dillwyni Schilder, 1922.

Holotype: D14137, adult specimen, from Nadroga,

Fiji, collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

five specimens from Nadroga, but did not designate

any paratypes.

Pustularia (Pustularia) tricornis vulavula

Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 311.

= Cypraea cicercula Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14139, adult specimen, from Nadroga,

Fiji, collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

nine specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Solvadusta Iredale, 1935

Solvadusta subviridis kesata Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 322.

= Cypraea subviridis Reeve, 1835.

Holotype: D14155, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Genus Staphylea Jousseaume, 1884

Staphylea (Staphylea) nukulau Steadman &

Cotton, 1943

Rec. S, Aust. Mus. 7(4): 312.

= Cypraea staphylaea Linnaeus, 1758.

Holotype: D14140, adult specimen, from Nukulau,

Fiji, collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

twenty specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Staphylea (Purperosa)(sic) purperosa ruvaya

Steadman & Cotton, 1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 312-3.

= Cypraea limacina Lamarck, 1810b.

Holotype: D14141, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

three specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes.

Genus Talostolida Iredale, 1930

Talostolida subteres vava Steadman & Cotton,

1943

Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 7(4): 319.

= Cypraea teres Gmelin, 1791.

Holotype: D14149, adult specimen, from Suva, Fiji,

collected by W. R. Steadman, date of collection

unknown. (Fig. 6A-C).

Note: Steadman and Cotton (1943) mention another

nine specimens from Suva and Nadroga, but did not

designate any paratypes. This name was not listed by

Burgess (1985), but we believe it is a specimen of C.

teres rather than C. subteres Weinkauff, 1881.

Genus Zoila Jousseaume, 1884

Zoila episema Iredale, 1939

Aust. Zool. 9(3): 300-1, pl. 27, figs 3, 4.

= Cypraea venusta Sowerby, 1846.

Holotype: D3980, adult specimen, from Cape

Naturaliste, W.A., collector and date of collection

unknown. (Fig. 6D-F).

Note: This specimen was originally purchased by Mrs

A. Kenyon for £20 from Mrs Irving as the ‘type’ of

Cypraea thatcheri Cox, 1869, and later acquired by

Sir Joseph Verco and donated to SAM. Verco, how-

ever, recognised it was not the type of Cox’s species,

which was sent by Cox to the Natural History Mu-

seum, London. Type unique.

Zoila friendii vercoi Schilder, 1930

Zool. Anz. 92(1/2): 74-5.

= Cypraea friendii Gray, 1831.

Holotype: D14124(ex D969), adult specimen, from

Esperance, W.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown. (Fig. 6G—I).

Zoila rosselli Cotton, 1948

Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 72(1): 30-31, pl. 1, figs 1-6.

= Cypraea rosselli (Cotton, 1948).

Holotype: D14220, adult specimen, dorsum eroded

with acid, from a beach near North Wharf, Fremantle,

W.A., collected by H. Rossell, date of collection

unknown.

Note: Cotton (1948) mentions another five speci-

mens, but did not designate any paratypes.

Family OVULIDAE

Genus Crenavolva Cate, 1973

Crenavolva cruenta Gowlett-Holmes & Holmes,

1989

Trans. R. Soc. S. Aust. 113(4): 208-13, figs 2,

3(fig. only), 7(caption only).

MOLLUSC TYPES 5: CYPRAEOIDEA

FIGURE 6. A-C: Talostolida subteres vava Steadman & Cotton, 1943, holotype, SAM D14149, x 1.7. D-F: Zoila episema

Iredale, 1939, holotype, SAM D3980, x 0.6. G-I: Zoila friendii vercoi Schilder, 1930, holotype, SAM D14124, x 0.5.

100

Holotype: D18431, adultspecimen with dried animal,

from on gorgonian coral (Echinogorgia sp.),in 15 m,

from 1.6 km east of Point Douglas, northern Spencer

Gulf, S.A., collected by N. J.C. Holmes, 5 May 1988.

Paratypes: D18432, 31 specimens (6 immature), all

with dried animals, with same collection data as

holotype. D18433, 38 specimens (14 immature) with

animals, in spirit, with same collection data as holo-

type. D18437, 11 adult specimens, all with dried

animals, with same collection data as holotype.

Note: Two paratypes from D18432 are now in the

collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences,

Philadelphia. In the original description of this spe-

cies (Gowlett-Holmes & Holmes, 1989), figs 3 and 7

were transposed, although the captions are correct.

Genus Primovula Thiele, 1925

Primovula (Primovula) heleneae Cate, 1973

Veliger Suppl. 15: 43, fig. 89.

Holotype: D15943, 1 wom, damaged, adult speci-

men, dredged dead in Gulf St Vincent or Spencer

Gulf, S.A., collected by J.C. Verco, date of collection

unknown.

Note: This specimen is also a paratype of Prosimnia

verconis Cotton & Godfrey, 1932, also listed here, but

Cate (1973) recognised it as a different species.

Genus Prosimnia Schilder, 1927

Prosimnia verconis Cotton & Godfrey, 1932

S. Aust. Nat. 13: 46, pl. 1, fig. 15.

= Crenavolva verconis (Cotton & Godfrey, 1932).

Holotype: D13476, worn, adult specimen, dredged

dead in 65 m (35 fm), off St Francis Island, Nuyts

Archipelago, S.A., collected by J. C. Verco, date of

collection unknown.

Paratype: D15943, one worn, damaged, adult speci-

men, dredged dead in Gulf St Vincent or Spencer

Gulf, S.A., collected by J.C. Verco, date of collection

unknown.

Note: There were originally 3 specimens (see Gowlett-

Holmes & Holmes, 1989). The above paratype

(D15943) does not represent this species and was

selected by Cate (1973) as the holotype of Primovula

(Primovula) heleneae Cate, 1973, also listed here.

Family TRIVIDAE

Subfamily TRIVIINAE

Genus Cleotrivia Iredale, 1930

Cleotrivia bathypilula Iredale, 1935

Aust. Zool. 8(2): 100.

K. L.GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

= Niveria (Cleotrivia) pilula bathypilula (Iredale,

1935).

Syntypes: D876, three specimens, dredged in 22-25

m (12-14 fm), King George Sound, W.A., collected

by J.C. Verco, date of collection unknown. D909, one

adult specimen, dredged in 148 m (81 fm), Great

Australian Bight, 80 miles west of Eucla, W.A.,

F.R.V. ‘Endeavour’, collected by J. C. Verco, Mar

1912. D910, one specimen, dredged in 132 m (72 fm),

Great Australian Bight, 40 miles west of Eucla, W.A.,

F.R.V. ‘Endeavour’, collected by J. C. Verco, Mar.

1912.

Note: D909 and D910 are the holotype and paratype

respectively of Niveria (Cleofrivia) pilula euclaensis

Cate, 1979, also listed here, an unnecessary replace-

ment name,

Genus Niveria Jousseaume, 1884

Niveria (Cleotrivia) corallina Cate, 1979

San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem. 10: 56, fig. 70.

Holotype: D16221, adult specimen, ex Kenyon Col-

lection, locality and date of collection unknown.

Note: Cate (1979) states that the type locality of this

species is ‘unknown: thought to be from South Aus-

tralia’. As this specimen is from the Kenyon Collec-

tion, it is most unlikely to be from South Australia,

and the type locality should be regarded as unknown.

The registration number cited by Cate (1979) for this

species (D4095C) is an old number for D16221.

Niveria (Cleotrivia) dorsennus Cate, 1979

San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem. 10: 56, fig. 69.

Holotype: D16222, adult specimen, ex Kenyon Col-

lection, locality and date of collection unknown.

Note: Cate (1979) states that the type locality of this

species is ‘unknown: thought to be from South Aus-

tralia’. As this specimen is from the Kenyon Collec-

tion, it is most unlikely to be from South Australia,

and the type locality should be regarded as unknown.

The registration number cited by Cate (1979) for this

species (D4095B) is an old number for D16222.

Niveria (Cleotrivia) meridionalis Cate, 1979

San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem. 10: 54, fig. 68.

Holotype: D16223, adult specimen, ex Kenyon Col-

lection, locality and date of collection unknown.

Note: Cate (1979) states that the type locality of this

species is ‘not known: thought to be from the south

Australian coast’. As this specimen is from the Kenyon

Collection, it is most unlikely to be from South

Australia, and the type locality should be regarded as

unknown. The registration number cited by Cate

(1979) for this species (D4095 A) is an old number for

D16223.

MOLLUSC TYPES 5: CYPRAEOIDEA

FIGURE 7, Erato bimaculata Tate, 1878, syntypes, SAM D913, x 8.

102 K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

Niveria (Cleotrivia) pilula euclaensis Cate, 1979

San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem. 10: 59, fig. 73.

= Niveria (Cleotrivia) pilula bathypilula (Iredale,

1935).

Holotype: D909, adult specimen, dredged in 148 m

(81 fm), Great Australian Bight, 80 miles west of

Eucla, W.A., F.R.V. ‘Endeavour’, collected by J.C.

Verco, Mar 1912.

Paratype: D910, one specimen, dredged in 132 m (72

fm), Great Australian Bight, 40 miles west of Eucla,

W.A., F.R.V. ‘Endeavour’, collected by J.C. Verco,

Mar 1912.

Note: Cate (1979) erected this replacement name for

Cleotrivia bathypilula Iredale, 1935, believing the

latter to be invalid. However, Iredale’s (1935) name

was validly erected.

Genus Trivia Broderip, 1837

Trivia acutisulcata Kenyon, 1900

Proc. Malac. Soc. Lond. 4(2): 69, fig. 2.

= Niveria (Cleotrivia) globosa (Sowerby, 1832).

Holotype: D4085, adult specimen, ex Kenyon Collec-

tion, locality and date of collection unknown.

Genus Trivirostra Jousseaume, 1884

Trivirostra cydarum Cate, 1979

San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist. Mem. 10: 95, fig. 151.

Holotype: D16224, adult specimen, ex Kenyon Col-

lection, locality and date of collection unknown.

Note: Cate (1979) states that the type locality of this

species is ‘unknown....thought to have been from the

Gulf St Vincent area of South Australia (34°55’S,

138°10°E)’. As this specimen is from the Kenyon

Collection, it is most unlikely to be from South

Australia, and the type locality should be regarded as

unknown. The registration number cited by Cate

(1979) for this species (D4095) is an old number for

D16224.

Subfamily ERATOINAE

Genus Erato Risso, 1826

Erato bimaculata Tate, 1878

Trans. Proc. Rep. Phil. Soc. Adel. 1: 88.

Syntypes: D913, six specimens, dead collected, in

beach sand, from Aldinga and Marino, near Adelaide,

S.A., collected by R. Tate, date of collection un-

known. (Fig. 7).

Note: One of the above specimens is labelled ‘type

example’, but this was probably added later by B. C.

Cotton. Tate (1878) also mentions another four speci-

mens, but the current whereabouts of these is un-

known.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Mr I. Loch, Australian Museum,

and 'DrF. E. Wells, Western Australian Museum, for construc-

tive comments on the manuscript. The photographs were

taken by Mrs J. Forrest and Mr R. Hamilton-Bruce.

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JEFFOCORIS GEN. N. - A NEW PODOPINE GENUS FROM AUSTRALIA

(HETEROPTERA: PENTATOMIDAE)

J. DAVIDOVA-VILIMOVA

Summary

The new genus Jeffocoris and new species J. grossi of the subfamily Podopinae are described from

Australia, where nine podopine genera are now known. Jeffocoris is compared with the related

genus Deroploopsis.

JEFFOCORIS GEN. N.— A NEW PODOPINE GENUS FROM AUSTRALIA (HETEROPTERA:

PENTATOMIDAE)

J. DAVIDOVA-VILIMOVA

DAVIDOVA-VIL{MOVA, J. 1993. Jeffocoris gen. n. — a new podopine genus from Australia

(Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Rec. S. Aust. Mus, 26(2):105-109.

The new genus Jeffocoris and new species J. grossi of the subfamily Podopinae are described from

Australia, where nine podopine genera are now known. Jeffocoris is compared with the related genus

Deroploopsis.

J. Davidova-Vilimova, Department of Zoology, Charles University, Vinicna 7, 128 44 Praha 2, Czech

Republic. Manuscript received 16 October 1992.

Schouteden (1906), in the firstrevision of genera of

the subfamily Podopinae (as Graphosomatinae), listed

five genera from the tribe Graphosomatini (as

Graphosomataria) as occurring in Australia: Deroploa

Westwood, 1835; Testrica Walker, 1867, with the

new subgenus Protestrica; Testricoides Schouteden,

1905 (a junior synonym of Dandinus Distant, 1904);

Numilia Stal, 1867 and Deroploopsis. The last genus

was originally described by Schouteden (op. cit.),

with the type species Deroploa curvicornis Stal,

1876. Stal (1876), in one of the first papers on

Australian Pentatomoidea, mentioned only three

podopine genera: Testrica, Numilia and Deroploa.

Musgrave (1930) published the next revision of

Australian representatives of the subfamily Podopinae

(as Graphosomatinae). He listed eight genera from

the tribe Graphosomatini: Deroploopsis Schouteden,

1906; Deroploa; Eufroggattia Goding,1903; Numilia;

Dandinus; Testrica; Protestrica; and Propetestrica;

the last was described (op. cit.) as anew genus.

Gross (1975), in the last comprehensive study of

Australian Pentatomoidea, classified the representa-

tives of the Podopinae in two genus groups: genus

group Podops Laporte, 1832 (approximately the tribe

Podopini) and genus group Tarisa Amyotand Serville,

1843 (approximately the tribe Graphosomatini). Gross

mentioned five podopine genera from the genus group

Tarisa occurring in SouthAustralia: Deroploopsis,

Dandinus, Testrica, Protestrica and Propetestrica.

Anew podopine genus from Western Australia was

recognised during a complex revision of all genera of

the subfamily Podopinae. Nine podopine genera are

now known from Australia: Dandinus, Deroploa,

Deroploopsis, Eufroggattia, Numilia, Propetestrica,

Protestrica, Testrica, and the new genus, Jeffocoris.

METHODS

The terminology of male external genitalia follows

Davidova-Vilimova & McPherson (1992),

The pygophore in this paper is illustrated upside

down with the dorsal rim down, ventral rim up. This

allows comparison of these illustrations with some

recent ones of pentatomoid (Schaefer, 1977; Davidova-

Vilimova & McPherson, 1992) or podopine (Schaefer,

1981) pygophores.

Strongly sclerotised and pigmented parts are repre-

sented by stippling on the illustrations.

Jeffocoris gen. n.

Type species: Jeffocoris grossi sp.n. (by monotypy).

Etymology

The name of the genus is derived from the personal

name of Jeff Parris. The gender is masculine.

Diagnosis

Ground colour dark brown with pale brown to beige

spots on head and pronotum, and longitudinal keels

on pronotum and scutellum.

Head slightly slanted ventrally; with almostrectan-

gular outline, apex broadly rounded (Fig. 1). Ap-

proximately anterior 1/3 of length of head recurved

dorsally at right angle.

Pronotum with long, robust process with wide,

undivided apex at lateral angle. One medial longitu-

dinal keel and two sublateral oblique keels (Fig. 2).

Orifice of metapleural scent gland on top of protu-

berance bent in several places; protuberance placed

halfway along width of metapleura and at 1/4 of

length from posterior margin of metapleura. Auricle

at orifice absent, evaporative area represented by

fine-grained surface of protuberance and of small

plate around its base.

Scutellum conspicuously long, exceeding apex of

abdomen, narrow; about 1/2 of corium and large part

of clavus left uncovered by scutellum (Fig. 4).

Proepisternum with flattened anterior margin (Fig.

3).

106

Abdominal sterna 3—7 with two short trichobothria

laterally on each side, trichobothria in transverse

position to each other, lateral trichobothrium at spi-

racular line, shorter than medial one.

Male external genitalia: Paramere conspicuously

small, peduncle gradually widens tohypophysis, which

narrows to its apex (Figs 8-11). Large, flat infolding

of lateral rim of pygophore the most conspicuous

structure on pygophore (Figs 5,6), at right angle to

lateral wall. Phallus with long, cylindrical phallotheca;

conjunctiva with unpaired membranous process di-

vided into two long apices crossing one another (Figs

12-14). Endophallic duct forms short, wide, sclerotised

vesica; secondary gonopore slightly recurved ven-

trally (Figs 12-14).

Diagnosis

Jeffocoris is similar and probably closely related to

Deroploopsis. The latter genus has five species, three

of which were studied during revision of the Podopinae:

D. curvicornis (Stal, 1876), D. recticornis Musgrave,

1930 and D. trispinosus Musgrave, 1930.

These two genera share several apomorphic char-

acters within the Podopinae: lateral angle of pronotum

with long, robust process; anterior margin of

proepisternum flattened; medial longitudinal keel on

pronotum developed along the entire length of

pronotum; scutellum conspicuously long, exceeding

apex of abdomen; evaporative area small, only on

metapleura, auricle absent.

Jeffocoris differs from Deroploopsis by the fol-

lowing characters.

Head: Sexual dimorphism in shape of head exists in

Deroploopsis: Head of male is elongate, long man-

dibular plates do not touch one another before

anteclypeus, their apical parts are recurved dorsally at

obtuse angle, not at right angle; head of female is of

approximately rectangular outline. Only males of

Jeffocoris are known. Outline of head of male is

almost rectangular, mandibular plates touch one an-

other before anteclypeus, about apical 1/3 of length of

head is recurved dorsally at right angle (Fig. 1).

Pronotum: Larger, triangular process is developed

at anterior angle of pronotum in Deroploopsis. Con-

spicuously long, apically divided process present at

lateral angle of pronotum in Deroploopsis. Only

small process is developed at anterior angle, and

process at lateral angle is not divided in Jeffocoris

(Fig. 2). Pronotum of Deroploopsis bears medial

longitudinal keel, and laterally one anterior tubercle.

Pronotum of Jeffocoris bears medial longitudinal

keel, and short, sublateral oblique keels on anterior

part (Fig. 2).

Orifice of scent gland is at centre of protuberance

in Deroploopsis, posteromedial in Jeffocoris.

Entire scutellum of Deroploopsis is brown and

only slightly exceeds apex of abdomen. Scutellum of

J, DAVIDOVA-VILIMOVA

Jeffocoris is brown and bears a medial longitudinal

beige keel; it conspicuously exceeds apex of abdo-

men.

Shape of paramere of Deroploopsis is very similar

to that of Jeffocoris (see description) but bears asmall

membrane connected to peduncle. Paramere of

Jeffocoris lacks a membrane.

Wide infolding of ventral rim of pygophore is

developed in Deroploopsis; only narrow infolding is

developed in Jeffocoris.

Vesica is short, entirely recurved distally in

Deroploopsis; only slightly recurved posteroventrally

in Jeffocoris, Medial penial lobe is of more compli-

cated shape in Deroploopsis than in Jeffocoris.

Jeffocoris grossi sp. n.

Etymology

The name of the species is derived from that of the

hemipterist G. F. Gross.

Material examined

Only the type material is known. Holotype: male,

West Australia, Dedari, 40 mi W of Coolgardie, 11—

21 January 1963, R. E. Turner. Paratype: male, from

the same locality. Both type specimens are deposited

in the collection of the Natural History Museum,

London.

Distribution

Western Australia.

Description

Measurements (in mm, N = 2): Total body length:

4.5 — 4.7; head length: 0.7 — 0.8, width: 1.1 — 1.2;

pronotum length: 1.3 — 1.5, width: 4.1 — 4.7.

Head (Fig. 1): Eyes large, a little protuberant (Fig.

1). Mandibular plates about 1/3 longer than

anteclypeus, touching one another before anteclypeus.

Anterior 1/3 of length of head recurved dorsally at

right angle. Anteclypeus narrow, short (Fig. 1). Dor-

sal surface of head almost flat. Antennae five-seg-

mented, segment 5 longest, segment 1 shortest.

Bucculae short, conspicuously high, with straight

ventral margin; dark brown, with yellow stripe on

ventral margin. Apex of labium reaching to

mesocoxae, segment 1 shorter than bucculae.

Pronotum (Fig. 2): Anterior margin concave; ante-

rior angle with small triangular tooth-shaped process,

slanted to beginning of conspicuously concave

anterolateral margin. Lateral angle with long, robust

process. Posterolateral and posterior margins almost

straight, posterior angle rounded.

Median longitudinal, conspicuously elevated keel

on anterior 1/3 of pronotum, only slightly elevated on

posterior 2/3 of pronotum. Short, oblique keel

sublaterally on each side at anterior margin. Trans-

verse keel vaguely outlined on anterior part of

pronotum.

NEW PODOPINE GENUS 107

FIGURES 1-7. Jeffocoris grossi. 1, head, dorsal view, dotted line = apical part of head recurved dorsally; 2, pronotum,

dorsal view, transverse dashed line = transverse keel, longitudinal dashed line = posterior part of longitudinal keel; 3, left

proepisternum, ventral view; 4, scutellum, dorsal view, dashed line = posterior outline of basal plate; 5, pygophore, posterior

view; 6, pygophore, dorsal view, dashed line = contact of infoldings of lateral rim and of ventral rim; 7, dissected pygophore,

dorsal view. a, anteclypeus; ae, anterior margin of proepisternum; al, anterolateral margin of pronotum; am, anterior margin

of pronotum; bp, basal plate of scutellum; ¢, clavus; cr, corium; di, infolding of dorsal rim of pygophore; dr, dorsal rim

of pygophore; e, external opening of pygophore; 1, longitudinal keel on pronotum; la, lateral angle of pronotum; li, infolding

of lateral rim of pygophore; Ik, longitudinal keel on scutellum; Ir, lateral rim of pygophore; mp, mandibular plate; 0, oblique

keel on pronotum; p, posterior margin of pronotum; pa, posterior angle of pronotum; par, paramere; pl, posterolateral margin

of pronotum; pr, proctiger; r, ridge on ventral wall of pygophore; vi, infolding of ventral rim of pygophore; vr, ventral

rim of pygophore. Scale line: 0.9 mm: fig. 1; 1 mm: figs. 5-7; 1.1 mm: fig. 3; 1.8 mm: fig. 2; 2.4 mm: fig. 4.

108 J. DAVIDOVA-VILIMOVA

FIGURES 8-14. Jeffocoris grossi. 8-11, left paramere, 8, lateral view, 9, medial view, 10, posterior view, 11, anterior view;

12-14, phallus, 12, lateral view, 13, dorsal view, 14, ventral view. b, base of paramere; er, ejaculatory reservoir; h, hypophysis

of paramere; mpl, medial penial lobe; pe, process of conjunctiva; pe, peduncle of paramere; ph, phallotheca; sg, secondary

gonopore; V, vesica. Scale line: 0.3 mm: figs. 12-14; 0.6 mm: figs. 8-11.

NEW PODOPINE GENUS 109

Venter of thorax: Sternal sulcus conspicuously

concave, with fine, short pubescence. Anterior mar-

gin of proepistemum elongated and flattened (Fig. 3);

margins of meso- and metaepisternum rounded. Pro-

tuberance with orifice of scent gland narrow at base,

widened to apex.

Scutellum and uncovered parts of dorsum of abdo-

men (Fig. 4): Width of base of scutellum the same as

distance between posterior angles of pronotum.

Scutellum slightly convex; triangular basal plate

developed at its base; longitudinal, elevated keel

beginning from basal plate reaching to apex. Frena

developed as oblique, low sclerite on ventral surface

of scutellum, reaching to 1/3 of length.

Venter of abdomen: Venter conspicuously flat-

tened medially, base without distinct structures.

Spiraculae large, distinctly elevated.

Male external genitalia: Pygophore (Figs 5S—7) oval

in dorsal view; external opening dorsal. Ventral wall

slightly convex in posterodorsal view; dorsal 1/4

flattened, with sparse pubescence, delimited by low,

wide ridge (Fig. 5).

Ventral rim slightly convex in dorsal view (Fig. 6).

Infolding of rim wide (Figs 6,7), almost atright angle

to ventral wall, concave medially.

Dorsal rim convex in dorsal view (Fig. 6). Infold-

ing of rim wide, at obtuse angle to dorsal wall,

sublateral tufts of pubescence near external opening

of pygophore (Figs 6, 7). Infolding convex medially,

gradually concave laterally, where infolding merges

with infolding of lateral rim.

Lateral rim convex in dorsal view (Fig. 6). Infold-

ing of rim conspicuously wide, atright angle to lateral

wall, with sparse pubescence (Figs 6, 7). Infolding

concave medially, gradually convex ventrally, where

infolding merges with infolding of ventral rim.

External opening in dorsal view without excava-

tions for parameres (Fig. 7). Proctiger of simple shape

(Fig. 6).

Paramere (Figs 8-11) with four rigid setae on

beginning of hypophysis; apex of paramere directed

ventrally in natural position in pygophore.

Phallus (Figs 12-14) with phallotheca strongly

sclerotised on following parts: ventral side basally,

dorsal side apically, and entire apex. Ejaculatory

reservoir of complicated shape (not studied in detail)

in middle of phallotheca.

Conjunctiva represented by membranous process

(Figs 13, 14).

Vesica begins from middle of apex of ejaculatory

reservoir, ending in secondary gonopore directed

posteroventrally (Fig. 12). Strongly sclerotised, un-

paired medial penial lobe surrounds vesica, only

secondary gonopore left free. Medial penial lobe

cylindrical (Fig. 12), closed on both sides except base

of dorsum.

Phallus directed in natural position in pygophore

anteriorly (phallotheca) and dorsally (conjunctiva

and vesica).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Iam grateful to Dr W. A. Dolling (Natural History Museum,

London) for the loan of material. I thank Dr D. Osbom for

critical reading of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

DAVIDOVA-VILIMOVA, J. & MCPHERSON, J. E. 1992.

Pygophores of selected species of Pentatomoidea

(Heteroptera) from Illinois. Acta Universitatis Carolinae

Biologica 35 (1991): 143-183.

GROSS, G.F. 1975. ‘Plant-feeding and other bugs (Hemiptera)

of South Australia. Heteroptera.’ Part I. A. B. James,

Government Printer: South Australia.

MUSGRAVE, A. 1930. Contributions to the knowledge of

Australian Hemiptera. II. A revision of the subfamily

Graphosomatinae. Records of the Australian Museum 17:

317-341.

SCHAEFER, C.W. 1977. Genital capsule of the trichophoran

male (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Geocorisae). International

Journal of Insect Morphology & Embryology 6 (5/6):277—

301.

SCHAEFER, C. W. 1981. Genital capsules, trichobothria, and

host plants of the Podopinae (Pentatomidae). Annals of the

Entomological Society of America 74: 590-601.

SCHOUTEDEN, H. 1906. Heteroptera, fam. Pentatomidae,

subf. Graphosomatinae. Wytsman: Genera Insectorum,

fasc. 40. Bruxelles.

STAL, C. 1876. Enumeratio Hemipterorum. 5. Kongelige

Svenska Vetenskaps — Akademiens Handlingar 14 (4): 1-

162.

HUNTING WITH HIDES : ETHNO-HISTORICAL REFLECTIONS ON

VICTORIA RIVER STONE STRUCTURES

KEVIN J. MULVANEY

Summary

The remains of distinctive man-made stone structures exist throughout much of the Victoria River

District of the Northern Territory. These features were constructed as hunting hides, utilised in

trapping birds of prey. Aboriginal accounts reveal the hunting methodology to have been an

extremely efficient and reliable means of procuring food. The technique employed appears to have

been particular to the area, and was practised until relatively recent times. This paper presents oral

accounts and an analysis of the function and use of these structures. Comments on the physical

characteristics of such arrangements are made and related to a discussion of the formational

processes of similar but natural features. This paper supplements an earlier study on the subject by

Lewis.

HUNTING WITH HIDES: ETHNO-HISTORICAL REFLECTIONS ON VICTORIA RIVER

STONE STRUCTURES

KENNETH J. MULVANEY

MULVANEY, K.J. 1993. Hunting with hides: Ethno-historical reflections on Victoria River stone

structures. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(2): 111-120.

The remains of distinctive man-made stone structures exist throughout much of the Victoria River

District of the Northem Territory. These features were constructed as hunting hides, utilised in trapping

birds of prey. Aboriginal accounts reveal the hunting methodology to have been an extremely efficient

and reliable means of procuring food. The technique employed appears to have been particular to the

area, and was practised until relatively recent times. This paper presents oral accounts and an analysis

of the function and use of these structures. Comments on the physical characteristics of such arrange-

ments are made and related to a discussion of the formational processes of similar but natural features.

This paper supplements an earlier study on the subject by Lewis.

K. J. Mulvaney, Aboriginal Areas Protection Authority, Northem Territory 0801. Manuscript received

15 October 1992.

While undertaking field work during the late 1980s

in the area of the Northern Territory known as the

Victoria River District (VRD), the author was shown

a number of stone features by local Aboriginal men,

who held considerable knowledge of their use. These

particular observations were made near the town of

Timber Creek. At this time, a second researcher was

documenting similar features in other areas of this

region. In his article, Lewis (1988) describes these

characteristic stone arrangements which relate to a

specific resource exploitation strategy. Until recently

the distribution of these stone structures appeared to

be limited to areas associated with Ngarinman,

Ngaliwurru and Bilinara language group territories. It

is now evident that the construction and particular use

of these stone features was much wider than origi-

nally postulated, though as yet still within arelatively

small region of Australia (Fig. 1).

Ethnographic information obtained by the author

from a number of communities in the VRD confirms

the interpretation of these small, low circular features

as hawk hunting hides. These observations were made

while conducting research in relation to a claim by

Aboriginal people, under section 50 (1) (a) of the

Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act

(1976), for land near the Northern Territory town of

Timber Creek, and while documenting Aboriginal

sacred sites in areas to the west.

Historical accounts and ethnographical sources

indicate that trapping of birds and the use of hunting

hides were activities practised across a wide area of

Aboriginal Australia. The particular construction of

the stone hides and the accompanying lure technique

described in the accounts of VRD Aborigines was of

limited distribution though, confined to the general

VRD region. This paper in part attempts to explain

reasons why this hunting method fell into disuse, and

why hides have so far only been recorded in the

Victoria River district.

OrAL TRaApiTIONs ABout Hipes AND THEIR Use

Aboriginal oral histories indicate that the procure-

ment of birds of prey, in particular the black kite,

Milvus migrans (colloquially known as the chicken

hawk), by this method formed a major part of the meat

component of the diet of VRD people until relatively

recent times. As Lewis notes (1988: 74-78), Aborigi-

nal people throughout this district have extensive

knowledge of these stone features and the associated

hide hunting strategies. Some older Ngaliwurru and

Bilinara have themselves hunted the black kite and

others of the hawk family in this way, and a number

of younger peopleremember consuming catches made

by their elders. At what date the procurement of birds

by this method ceased is uncertain. People born in the

mid 1940s recall that such practices were still in use

during their childhood. To the west, in Mirriuwung

and Gadjerong country, it appears that this practice

did not continue far into this century. Major factors

leading to the decline of this hunting activity have

been access to a ready supply of food in the form of

station rations and, more recently, the acquisition of

firearms and the establishment of roadhouses. Ac-

cording to Jerry Jones Manjiari (pers. comm. 1987),

a Ngaliwurru man residing in a camp outside Timber

Creek:

we can get chicken from Fogarty’s Store, and anyway

they taste better.

European awareness of the existence of these fea-

tures dates back to the time of the first explorers in this

region. However, it was not until much later that

112 K. J. MULVANEY

HAWK HUNTING HIDE DISTRIBUTION

AND

ASSOCIATED LANGUAGE GROUPS

Kunu nurru

ae N /

\ *\Newry

“ 4

Amanbidji®

eWave Hill

< snind jt - YF

FIGURE 1. Map showing relationship of recorded hide locations and language group territories in the Victoria River District,

as identified by the author. Some locations for hides taken from Lewis 1988: 78 (Map 1).

HUNTING WITH HIDES 113

descriptions of these as hides and the associated

hunting strategy appeared, albeit to varying degrees

(Basedow 1925: 137; Browne 1895: 12; Buchanan

1933: 91; Linklater 1940: 8; Mathews 1901: 77).

Judging from the content of their text, it is likely that

some of these early accounts were second-hand, the

authors having never witnessed the activity, nor spo-

ken to the Aboriginal hunters. Nevertheless, the

author’s research concerning these features concurs

on general principles with these historical accounts,

and the consensus as to hunting methods within these

texts is reflected in current Aboriginal accounts.

Preparation of the hides entailed the construction

of a circular, or semi-circular, low, dry stone wall to

a height of approximately one metre. Brush, sticks

and loose vegetation (spinifex or other grasses) were

laid across the top of the stone structure, forming the

roof, One or possibly two men would secrete them-

selves within, and through asmall opening in the roof,

would thrust a stick, to which was bound or skewered

a small bird. This bird was used as a secondary lure,

and was caught with a throwing stick or stones (an

activity at which young children are still proficient).

Jerry Manjiari stated that a dead bird had the feathers

removed, though this aspect of lure preparation has

not been mentioned by other Aboriginal informants or

in the historical accounts. Itis worth noting Mathews’

comment that the bait was partially roasted (1901:

77), a variation which has not been confirmed in

current oral traditions. The use of small dead birds as

lures has been observed elsewhere in Australia, though

the employment of a twirling lure seems particular to

the VRD. The use of tethered live decoys appears to

have been a more common practice (Anell 1960). A

fire made adjacent to the hide was the principal lure,

the rising smoke attracting hawks and other birds to

the vicinity of the hide. It is possible that some of the

smoke signals recounted by Willshire in his travels

through the VRD bush were these smoky hunting fires

(1896: 51).

Accounts given by Jerry Manjiari and Bardi Jalokari

suggest that at times two individuals would remain in

the hide, one to twirl the lure, the other to catch and

kill the attracted birds. Linklater also states that two

people worked within the hide (1940: 8). Mirriuwung

people also recounted that at times two hunters oper-

ated within the one hide. Other informants indicate

that the hunting of hawks was a solitary activity,

though several hides in close proximity could have

been utilised in the one session. Most historical

references refer only to one person being within the

hide, an accomplice having lit the fire and removed

himself from the area (Basedow 1925: 137; Mathews

1901: 77).

The hunter in the hide twirled the rod with the

attached bird lure. Jerry Manjiari described the tech-

nique as follows (pers. comm. 1987):

.. [he] rub with the long stick — and make it roll around ...

so he’s flick flick all the time — they [the hunters] used to

keep this one flicking all the time — they can hear this big

noise coming up — Ah! — they reckon a hawk coming up

—they used to go steady and steady then—they used to pull

it right back and they can see him coming right down —

they used to pull it right down — he [hawk] try to grab —

they used to grab him and pull him down... break his

neck... they used to get him — they used fill it right up how

much they sit down — they used to go about that much

[chest high] they reckon —that’s the story they beentelling

me.

References to a small bird (prepared or otherwise),

suspended on a stick rotated by the hunter, are found

in the oral accounts of other VRD Aborigines. With

the increased, and extended, range of contact between

neighbouring and more distant groups inrecent times,

it is more than likely that some oral traditions con-

cerming this hunting practice have merged. People

from different communities state that their knowl-

edge was obtained either as direct witnesses, or from

information passed to them as children. There are

some obvious local variations; within Mirriuwung

country people state that the hunters lay down within

the hides, yet in all other areas, people indicate that

the hunters sat or squatted. In other aspects the

Mirriuwung accounts are strikingly similar, espe-

cially the twirling stick lure. Given the consistency in

recounting this particular combination of technology

by those who once used, or witnessed this method, it

appears that the strategy was in general use among a

large number of Aboriginal groups throughout the

VRD. Unfortunately historical accounts do not elabo-

rate on the matter of particular aspects, or detail.

Description are given in general terms, using such

phrases as ‘exposed to view’ (Browne 1895), or

‘holding the bait’ (Buchanan 1933, Basedow 1925,

Mathews 1901). There are further references to small

lizards or lumps of meat being placed either beside the

hide, or on its roof (Anell 1960: 30-35; Buchanan

1933: 91; Mathews 1901: 77), but Aboriginal tradi-

tion suggests that a small bird attached to a stick was

favoured as a lure.

The strategy was a successful and efficient hunting

method. All accounts attest to the large numbers of

birds caught in this way. In addition to hawks, other

birds including crows and eagles, attracted by the

smoke, were taken. The author was told that the

hunting of hawks was undertaken with the certainty of

obtaining meat. Obviously, after the initial construc-

tion of the stone walling, these structures could be

reused. Minimal effort was thus required to procure

the birds. This aspect of hide efficiency was stressed

by Jerry Manjiari (pers. comm. 1987):

that’s where they used to get their food from — quick one

—quick one to get him —you might find you go out hunting

for kangaroo — sometime bad wind -— wind blowing

every way — you got to have mud on you — well this one is

quick way — for hunting food — just like getting chicken in

the shop you know.

114 K. J. MULVANEY

FIGURE 2. Maggie John (second from right) and other Mirriuwung women standing beside the remains of a hawk hunting

hide, Newry station, N.T.

A similar sentiment was expressed by a Mirriuwung

woman (Maggie John pers. comm, 1992), while we

were inspecting one of these hides (Fig. 2):

when they bin getting kangaroo nothing — come here —

make him fire- get bird —‘notherone comes down gethim

— soon get big mob — walk back to camp, biggest mob

tucker.

It is apparent from the oral tradition among the

people of this part of the Northem Territory that they

regarded the hunting of fowl by these means as an

optimal strategy. Not only young hunters, but older,

less agile men participated in the capturing of birds,

bringing them back to camp by the armful. The

procuring of meat in this manner required fewer skills

than those for other hunting activities; all that was

needed was a bait and some dexterity in grabbing

birds. But while oral accounts suggest that hawk

hunting by this technology was an important contri-

bution to the subsistence economy, commentators on

hunting and gathering technologies have tended to

play down the success of this simple hunting method-

ology. In his thesis on hunting and trapping tech-

niques employed throughout Oceania, Anell (1960:

51) regards the capturing of fowl by hand as inferior

to other techniques generally employed in Melanesia:

... [Oceanic peoples] make use of other and more reliable

methods which are wholly or in part lacking in Australia,

eg. hunting with bow and arrow, snares, bird-lime and

pole-nets, .,. no time was wasted on the more uncertain

and more time-consuming methods in practice of which

the Australians have developed such mastery.

It is clear that knowledge of the technique, the

location of hides, and oral traditions relating to the

practice in the VRD, still exist. People retain many

stories associated with the use of these hides; one

humorous anecdote (Jerry Manjiari pers. comm. 1987)

belies the danger of hunting hawks from hides which

are often situated at the very edge of cliffs:

this story my old father told me — there was him and

Konkaman one time — they got into one of these [hides] —

and they didn’t kill this hawk properly — half dead — they

didn’t break the neck — they got up you know — he [hawk]

was just going every way —he stuck there inside and they

said now what we going to do —they just took off—this one

old man said oh look you mob buggered everything up for

us — because we can’t getno more hawks —he went up and

growled them —said you mob no good — we can’t take you

mob next time — that was finished.

Other stories describe dying hawks locking their

talons into various parts of the anatomy of the hunters.

These occurrences, and reference to other problems

HUNTING WITH HIDES

such as lice (Lewis 1988: 76), seem notto detract from

present Aboriginal notions of hawk hunting by the

hide and lure technique. It is still held in high regard

as a sure way of obtaining meat.

Aboriginal men, including Jerry Manjiari and Bardi

Jalokari, have discussed these hawk hunting hides

with the author. The Ngaliwurru word for the stone

structure is yarungindt; the technique of twirling the

stick was called patakap-patakap and watakum. Big

Mick Kankinang (brother to Bardi Jalokari) however,

gave the words karakurlan and kirikirjiti for the hide

structure (Lewis 1988: 75). Further, Lewis termed the

small bird lure itself as peri/kan, whereas Big Mick

used the term djuru to refer to the same object. It is

possible that Big Mick was referring specifically to

the small bird used, as the Ngaliwurru word jura

equates with ‘bird’.

One explanation of this variation in terms for the

hide and the bait stick may be related to the linguistic

properties of transferring naming concepts to English

usage. For example, the Garawa of the Northem

Territory’s southern Gulf country call a flaked stone

point madjadja. This name may also be given for a

quarry site for such artefacts, or for a stone-tipped

spear or a stone knife. Quarries may have their own

locational title, and spears may be named according to

the species of wood used for the shaft. Stone knives

may be called karnjirinya, this word relating to the

hair string and wax of the handle, rather than focusing

on the stone blade. Both the word majadja and

karnjirinya are correct names for the stone knife. It is

therefore possible that this feature of nomenclature

applies also the variation in terms relating to hawk

hunting.

This pattern of multiplicity of words, encompass-

ing morphology and/or methodology, is also found

among the Bilinara people, whose country com-

mences 80 kilometres south of that belonging to the

Ngaliwurru. The Bilinara use the word ngarunjuna

for the stone hide, and kungkala to describe the stick

lure. In both instances these are not specialised terms,

as ngarunjuna refers generally to any hut-like struc-

ture, regardless of the materials used in its construc-

tion. Loosely translated this word has the meaning of

windbreak. Similarly, the term kungkala describes

the rubbing, twirling motion employed when using

the lure, and is the same term used for making fire by

the drill method. This pattern of naming is the same

as identified with both Mirriuwung and Gadjerong

speakers (Kofod pers. comm.).

DisTRIBUTION

Given the widespread distribution of birds of prey

such as kites and eagles, and their behavioural traits

in relation to smoke and fires, it is likely that these

birds were exploited as a resource in other parts of

115

Australia, though not as successfully as in the Victoria

River area. Anell refers to a number of variations on

the practice of hunting and trapping birds (1960; S0—

51), but there is little in historical accounts, or Ab-

original traditions from other areas, to indicate hawk-

hunting on a similar scale to that practised in the VRD

area. Writing of the fortuitous shooting of a wedge-

tailed eagle in Central Australia by Punch Arrerika

(an Aranda tracker), Basedow stated that such birds

were highly prized due to the rare occasions that they

were obtained (1914: 93-94), A similar sentiment

was expressed by a Jingili man (residing in Elliott),

who stated the value in finding a fresh carcass of a

chicken hawk (Abby Thomas Munarnginji pers.

comm.).

As stated, the use of stone-walled hawk hunting

hides was widely practised throughout the VRD and

may have occurred further afield. The ethnographer

R.H. Mathews commented that this technology ex-

tended south, beyond the Tanami Desert to Lake

Amadeus (1901: 76). Itis also stated that the northern

desert tribes of Western Australia employed similar

strategies, utilising hides constructed of spinifex rather

than stone (Basedow 1925: 138). There is no tradition

of hawk hunting hides among eastern groups extend-

ing to the Barkly Tablelands. This is despite feathers

of such birds being highly prized, and forming part of

ritual paraphernalia in ceremonies. In parts of the

Kimberley, including those adjoining Mirriuwung

country, there is no record of the use of hides in

trapping hawks. As with other fowl, hawks were

obtained using a small pronged spear, boomerang, or

throwing stick (Kaberry 1939: 14). These hunting

techniques are among a wider range recorded by

Anell (1960: 28-74), varying in materials and the

forms of structures, the lures used, and methods

employed in capturing the targeted bird species.

Lewis has identified the distribution of the hides as

confined to an area chiefly within the Victoria River

Downs pastoral lease, with several outliers (Lewis

1988: 78). However, the evidence of Mirriuwung and

Gadjerong people, whose country lies some 150

kilometres to the north-west, is that these features and

the associated hunting technology extended over a

much larger area than was originally considered. The

block-like sandstone, and to a lesser extent the basalt

of this region, supplied a handy building material,

which facilitated the development of this hunting

technology. Knowledge and use of the general prin-

ciples of this hunting methodology probably ex-

tended even further afield. It is likely though, that the

combination of circular stone hides with the twirling

of the suspended bird lure was a particular, efficient

adaptation of the technique in the Victoria River

District.

Circular stone features can be found throughout

Australia, and many were probably used as hunting

hides, most commonly in obtaining macropods. These

116 K. J. MULVANEY

FIGURE 3. Carlton Gorge and Ned John (husband of Maggie) seated beside the remains of a hawk hunting hide, Newry

station.

.s oo ee

FIGURE 4. Jerry Manjiari demonstrating the twirling motion, standing beside a hide situated on an escarpment edge,

Stokes Range, N.T.

HUNTING WITH HIDES 117

features rarely show a distinctive form, and many

could derive from natural formations. As an archaeo-

logical feature though, hawk hunting hide structures

are distinctive to the Victoria River Downs region.

Most of the hides in the area are constructed from

tabular stone blocks (especially in the sandstone

country) built to aheight approximately level with the

head of a seated man (100 cm). The structure is

circular and may enclose an area sufficient to accom-

modate two individuals, plus space to store captured

birds. It is estimated that a minimum internal diam-

eter of 100 cm would be required, and more com-

monly they are in the vicinity of 150 cm diameter.

Small, lower, circular stone features in the region are

unlikely to have been utilised as bird hunting hides.

The hides were constructed at suitable vantage

points where the stone blocks were present. The

rugged dissected sandstone formation of the Stokes

Range offers these conditions, and is likely to prove

rich in hawk hides. Generally, the walls of these

structures are one block in thickness (20-30 cm), and

smaller stone may be utilised as fill or stabilising

wedges. All hides viewed by the author (both by field

observation and in pictorial records) do appear to

have an entrance, the stone wall not completely

enclosing (Figs 3, 4). This explains the ‘horseshoe’

term used in early descriptions of these features

(Browne 1895: 12; Gregory 1884: 115). Even when

the wall is partially destroyed or disturbed there

remains a relatively clear area devoid of blocks. This

entrance feature may therefore be one of the principal

diagnostic traits in determining stone structures as

hides.

The Stokes Range hides tend to occur near or on the

edge of steep inclines, and Ngaliwurru men regard

such locations as important in this hunting strategy

(Fig. 4). These high and clear vantage points probably

maximise the number of hawks attracted by the

smoke lures, Elsewhere hides are situated on low

stony rises, and in one instance, on Amanbidji Sta-

tion, the hide is constructed out on the open ground

away from the hills (Palmer & Brady 1991: 55). The

occurrence of suitable building blocks seems to have

been a primary consideration in positioning hides,

and if the location also affords high visibility, then

this clearly was a bonus. It could be expected that

density of hides would increase where a combination

of these factors is present,

As mentioned, naturally occurring features do exist

which may confuse archaeological patterning. In fact,

it is likely that some of the recorded hawk hunting

hides are in fact natural features. Such natural stone

formations can be found over much of the Stokes

Range. They exhibit anumber of characteristics which

distinguish them from the constructed hawk hide.

Akerman has observed (pers. comm.) that large trees

may be the predominant cause for these formations. A

tree growing in rocky country pushes up and forces

out stones from the strata surrounding the trunk. The

natural bedding of the strata then tends to slide back

on itself, suggesting that artificial stacking has oc-

curred. When the tree dies and decays, or is removed

by fire, a characteristic circular stone wall-like struc-

ture remains. The floor is usually lower than the

surrounding surface with a conical depression repre-

senting the area previously occupied by the tree roots.

This particular feature is absent in the construction of

hawk hides. Further, these naturally created features

have been observed in progressive stages of forma-

tion.

In addition, one group of stone features recorded as

hides, and shown to the author by a Ngaliwurru man,

though clearly of human construction are not hides.

Also confusing the pattern is the probability that

natural formations could be utilised as hides. That this

did occur was stated by Mundi, a Mirriuwung man

from the Dunham River country, west of Kununurra,

in general discussions concerning hunting practices.

This man, now deceased, spent much of his time on

Ivanhoe Station, and it was evident that he possessed

considerable knowledge about these features (Kofod

pers. comm.). It is likely therefore, that construction

and use of stone hawk hunting hides did extend

through westem Mirriuwung country, though the

only hides seen by the author are to the east, on Newry

Station.

Ear_y European Recorps Or Hines

Although identification of a stone hide is relatively

simple, these structures exist in isolation, with no

direct evidence that would indicate their function. In

fact, without the ethnographic data, their identifica-

tion as hawk hunting hides is problematic. The earli-

est records conceming these features were made

during Gregory’s North Australian Expedition of

1855-56. Gregory noted these stone structures on

1 December, 1855, and surmised from his knowledge

of burial customs that they were used as temporary

sepulchres (1884: 115). During anunsuccessful search

for stray horses the expedition’s artist and store-

keeper, Thomas Baines, came across one of these

hides and noted in his diary (Baines 1856: March 5):

... unable to find Gypsey, Polly and several more [,] saw a

kind of loose wall and roof built beside a mass of rock and

grass strewn in it but no sign of its having been inhabited

or to show what use it had been put to.

A few days after this entry he prepared a watercolour

sketch (Fig. 5), probably of this structure. His anno-

tation in the bottom right-hand comer indicates that

he adduced them to be associated with superstitious

practices relating to recovery of health. In his pub-

lished account Baines was less willing to speculate as

to their function, simply stating that they did not

118 K. J. MULVANEY

FIGURES. Copy of Bains’ watercolour sketch of ahide, taken from Braddon 1986: 63. Original held by the Royal Geographical

Society, London.

appear to have been put to any use whatever (Baines

1858: 7). Wilson, the geologist attached to the party,

suggested that the structures were look-out stations,

used when watching for kangaroos (Wilson 1858:

151). It is easy to surmise that the coming of these

Europeans into this region would have been an ex-

traordinary occasion, disrupting the regular pattern of

subsistence. It is not surprising that members of the

Gregory expedition did not witness the hides in use,

and were thus unable to correctly interpret their

function.

The hides recorded during the Gregory Expedition

(1884) conform to the distribution described by

Mathews (1901), Basedow (1925), and subsequently

mapped by Lewis (1988: 78). This area, within the

pastoral leases of Amanbidji, Victoria River Downs

and Newry, has been occupied historically by a num-

ber of Aboriginal linguistic groups (Fig. 1). Even

though the recorded distribution of these hides may be

distorted by natural features, it is clear that the

practice of hawk hunting with hides and lures oc-

curred over a large expanse of the north-western area

of the Northern Territory and part of north-eastern

Western Australia, some 18,000 square kilometres in

extent. This distribution is far wider than originally

postulated by Lewis (1988). It is possible that such

features may also occur in areas still remaining to be

investigated, such as the country between the Victoria

and Fitzmaurice Rivers.

In other regions, in particular that mentioned by

Mathews (1901: 76), brush and spinifex would appear

to be the only construction materials used, providing

a less substantial, temporary structure. Identifying

the existence of such features in these regions would

be extremely problematic. Inspection of these con-

structions does notreveal any other material evidence

associated with the stone structures. Roofing materi-

als, a few feathers, possibly some blood, and nearby,

asmall pile of ash or charcoal, are all that would have

been left after use. Given that some decades at least

have passed since their use, it is unlikely that such

material remains in evidence. In fact only one of the

hides so far recorded still retains roofing material

(Lewis 1988: 77). It is possible though, considering

recent developments in the analysis of blood samples

on ancient stone artefacts (Loy 1987), that traces of

hawk (or human) blood could be detected. Nonethe-

less, interpretation would still remain inconclusive

without the ethnographic data.

Tue Decuine OF HAWK HuntinG

It appears that the use of hawk hides ceased about

35 years ago, although in Mirriuwung and Gadjerong

country the technique is said not to have been prac-

tised by the current oldest generation. This would

place the decline in hawk hunting in this western area

HUNTING WITH HIDES

of hide distribution at about 1910. Although Kaberry’s

(1939) accounts indicate that hides were not in use at

the time of her research (1935), it is possible that the

Mirriuwung man, Mundi, used the technology (Kofod

pers. comm.). This would mean that in some areas of

Mirriuwung country the hide and lure technique con-

tinued until much later. The varied pattern of contin-

ued reliance upon this technique after European con-

tact in the region is possibly explained by local

differences in attitudes towards Aboriginal people on

stations throughout the region. While the establish-

ment of the pastoral industry in region from the 1880s

exerted a similar effect on local Aboriginal popula-

tions at a gross level (McGrath 1987, Rose 1991,

Shaw 1986), the individual attitudes of particular

station managers go some way towards explaining

local variations in Aboriginal response and adapta-

tion. Certainly Aboriginal reflections on past station

people reveal harsher, less charitable relations in the

eastern sector of where these hides occur, encourag-

ing continued reliance upon hawk hunting to supple-

ment the Aboriginal diet.

Other interrelated conditions affected particular

Aboriginal responses in communities throughout the

region. These factors include the advent of retail

outlets following the introduction of a cash economy,

the ready availability of food, coupled with the de-

cline of interest in acquiring other hawk products for

ceremonial purposes, and the introduction and wide-

spread use of firearms. It is worth noting though, that

although the use of rifles has made the hunting of most

game far easier, the hide and lure technique remains

more efficient for hunting hawks.

Nevertheless, while other traditional foods are

often collected or hunted by the various communities

in this regions, it is only hawk hunting that has

dropped out altogether. There appears to be an accul-

turated response, acquired from Europeans, which

has made hawk and crow flesh repugnant to younger

119

members of those communities. In discussing the

trapping of hawks and eagles, Buchanan (1933: 91)

remarked:

... such meagre and repellent flesh seems hardly worth the

trouble. But natives have infinite time and patience and,

what is more essential strong digestion.

Such statements reflect the attitude of white station

people of that era, and are likely to have influenced

Aboriginal people living and working on these sta-

tions. Furthermore, in recent times, the use of the

cotton or synthetic filling obtained from disposable

nappies has largely replaced the use of bird down as

body decoration during ceremonial activities. This

has removed the necessity for acquiring large num-

bers of these birds, further contributing to the decline

of hawk hunting.

Although hawk hunting has now ceased, knowl-

edge of the specialised hunting technology is still

retained by Aboriginal people in the VRD. This

landscape is dotted with the characteristic stone hides,

used in the development of the particular hunting

strategy that was employed from west of Kununurra

through much of the Victoria River drainage basin.

Indications from Aboriginal sources make it evident

that hawk hunting was undertaken to provide meat

quickly and without great effort. Now that the flesh

and other hawk bi-products, such as down, have

modem equivalents which are readily available, the

activity has lapsed. Knowledge of the hunting tech-

nique is retained, and the stone structures remain, but

the incentive to utilise them has declined. The country

store now fills their role.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Iam indebted to Mr Kim Akerman, who not only inspired

meto write this paper but gave many suggestions, and read the

draft text, My thanks also go to Mr Bemard Higgins for the

loan of published and unpublished material used in this paper.

REFERENCES

ANELL, B. 1960. Hunting and Trapping Methods in Austra-

lia and Oceania. Studia Ethnographica (18): Upsaliensia.

BAINES, T. 1856. Journal of the Detachment of the North

Australia Expedition Remaining at Depot Creek 30th Jan.

—28th March, 1856. Mitchell Library Ms. A1824: Sydney.

BAINES, T. 1858. Additional notes on the North Australian

Expedition under Mr A. C. Gregory. Proceedings of the

Royal Society 2: 3-16.

BASEDOW, H. 1914. Journal of the Government North-

West Expedition. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical

Society of Australasia, S. A. Branch 15: 57-242.

BASEDOW, H. 1925. ‘The Australian Aboriginal’. Preece

and Sons; Adelaide.

BRADDON, R. 1986. ‘Thomas Baines and the North Austra-

lian Expedition’, Collins: Sydney.

BROWNE, H. Y .L. 1895. Government Geologist’s Report

on Explorations in the Northem Territory. South Australia

Parliamentary Papers, No. 82: 9-13.

BUCHANAN, G. 1933. ‘Packhorse and Waterhole’. Angus

and Robertson: Sydney.

GREGORY, A. C. 1981 (1884). Journal of the North Austra-

lia Exploring Expedition. Pp. 100-94 in A. C. Gregory &

F. T. Gregory ‘Journals of Australian Explorations’. Fac-

simile Edition, Hesperian Press: Perth,

KABERRY, P. M. 1939. ‘Aboriginal Woman: Sacred and

Profane’. Routledge and Sons: London.

LEWIS, D. 1988. Hawk hunting hides in the Victoria River

District. Australian Aboriginal Studies 1988 (2): 74-78.

LINKLATER, W. 1940. ‘Habits of Northem Territory Ab-

origines’. Uncatalogued manuscript, set 274. Mitchell Li-

brary: Sydney.

120 K. J. MULVANEY

LOY, T. H. 1987. Recent advances in blood residue analysis.

Pp. 57-65, in W.H. Ambrose & J. M. J. Mummery (eds.)

‘Archaeometry: Further Australasian Studies’. ANU Press:

Canberra.

McGRATH, A. 1987. ‘Born in the cattle’. Allen & Unwin:

Sydney.

MATHEWS, R. H. 1901. Ethnological notes on Aboriginal

tribes of the Northem Territory. Journal of the Royal

Geographical Society of Australasia, Queensland Branch

16: 69-90.

PALMER, K. & M. BRADY. 1991. ‘Amanbidji land claim.

Anthropologists’ report on behalf of the claimants’. North-

em Land Council: Darwin.

ROSE, D. B. 1991. ‘Hidden Histories’. Aboriginal Studies

Press: Canberra.

SHAW, B. 1986. ‘Countrymen’. Australian Institute of Ab-

original Studies: Canberra.

WILLSHIRE, W. H. 1896. ‘The Land of the Dawning, Being

Facts Gleaned from Cannibals in the Australian Stone

Age’. W. K. Thomas & Co.: Adelaide.

WILSON, J. S. 1858. Notes on the physical geography of

North West Australia. Journal of the Royal Geographical

Society 27: 151-153.

RADIOCARBON DATES FOR PREHISTORIC OCCUPATION OF THE

SIMPSON DESERT

M. A. SMITH & P. M. CLARK

Summary

The radiocarbon dates reported in this paper are the first to become available for human occupation

of the Simpson dunefield. They show that Marapadi, one of the small wells (mikiri) crucial for

Wangkangurru occupation of the dunefield at the turn of the century, was in use about 2700 years

ago.

RADIOCARBON DATES FOR PREHISTORIC OCCUPATION OF THE SIMPSON DESERT

M. A. SMITH & P. M. CLARK

SMITH, M. A. & CLARK, P. M. 1993. Radiocarbon dates for prehistoric occupation of the Simpson

Desert. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(2): 121-127.

The radiocarbon dates reported in this paper are the first to become available for human occupation

of the Simpson dunefield. They show that Marapadi, one of the small wells (mikiri) crucial for

Wangkangurmu occupation of the dunefield at the tum of the century, was in use about 2700 years ago.

M. A. Smith, Department of Prehistory, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National

University, GPO Box 4, Canberra ACT 2601, and P. M. Clark, Western Lands Commission (NSW), PO

Box 363, Buronga, NSW 2648. Manuscript received 14 March 1992.

In this paper we report a series of radiocarbon dates

for human occupation of the Simpson Desert and

review existing archaeological evidence from the

region.

The Simpson Desert, one of the great deserts of the

world, consists of an immense dunefield, covering

159490 km?. This forms a broad triangle bounded by

Lake Eyre to the south, the flood plains of the Finke

and Macumba Rivers to the west, Goyders Lagoon

and the flood plains of the Diamantina River to the

east and the Central Australian ranges to the north

(Fig. 1). It is the most arid part of the Australian

landmass, with recorded rainfall at less than 100 mm

p.a. and both rainfall variability and evaporation at

extremely high levels (Anon. 1986). The region is

dominated by parallel south-east to north-west trend-

ing dunes, 10-20 metres high and often running more

or less unbroken for hundreds of kilometres. These

are sparsely covered with spinifex (Triodia basedowii)

or sandhill canegrass (Zygochloa paradoxa). Land

systems and physiographic features of the Simpson

Desert are described in more detail by Purdie (1984)

and others (Gibson & Cole 1988). Graetz, Tongway,

& Pech (1982) provide an ecological classification of

the southern part of the region. Within the Simpson

Desert there is a major contrast between pale dunes,

rich in clay pellets, in the south-eastem part of the

dunefield and the red quartzose dunes that form the

greater part of the dunefield (Wasson 1983). Respec-

tively these form the Karanguru and Wongkangurru

ecological associations recognised by Graetz et al

(1982). An important feature of the Karanguru asso-

ciation is the number of large playas within the

dunefield (see Fig. 1). Loffler & Sullivan (1979)

argue that these are remnants of a formerly much

larger Lake Eyre whose boundaries are now obscured

by dunes.

The southern part of the Simpson Desert was the

territory of the Wangkangurru people, whose only

permanent source of water was provided by a series of

deep wells, called mikiri, which tapped subterranean

water in shallow sand or gypcrete aquifers. With

Wangkangurru guides, David Lindsay entered the

heart of the dunefield in 1886 (Lindsay 1886, 1890)

but Europeans did not successfully traverse it until the

late 1930s (Madigan 1946; Colson 1940). The last of

the Wangkangurru left the desert in the summer of

1899-1900 (Hercus 1985) but have provided detailed

oral accounts of life in the mikiri country, its cultural

geography, and of how people came to leave the

desert. (Hercus 1985; 1989, 1990; Hercus & Clark

1986).

Fieldwork in 1990

The radiocarbon dates reported here (Table 1) are

the first to become available for human occupation of

the Simpson dunefield.

Following on from earlier archaeological recon-

naissance in the dunefield (Hercus & Clark 1986), we

were able to collect small samples for radiocarbon

dating from intact hearths eroding at several sites in

the Simpson Desert. Our aim was to begin the process

of building a chronology for human occupation in the

region. Previous work in the region (Hercus & Clark

1986; Davidson 1983) has relied on artefact typology

to give an indication of the order of antiquity of

occupation but work in adjacent regions (Smith,

Williams & Wasson 1991; Veth, Hamm & Lampert

1990) suggests that this approach can lead to gross

underestimates of age when compared to subsequent

radiometric dating.

Inisolation, radiocarbon dates for individual hearths

are of limited value. Because of this the fieldtrip in

July 1990 also aimed at determining whether key

mikiri sites had sufficient stratified deposits to pro-

vide the basis for a more detailed look at their

prehistory. This was found to be the case and it is

hoped that a detailed study of two mikiri sites,

Marapadi and Palkura, can be undertaken in the near

future.

122 M. A. SMITH & P. M. CLARK

GEOSURVEYS HILL =

StMPS QO.N

FIGURE 1. The Simpson Desert and places mentioned in the text. Playas and claypans within the dunefield are highlighted

in black. Triangles mark archaeological sites mentioned in the text.

PREHISTORY OF SIMPSON DESERT 123

—

FIGURE 2. The broad well depression at Marapadi. View looking east, July 1990, with (from L-R) Luise Hercus, Bingee Lowe

and Lockey Stewart. (M. A. Smith).

Mikiri wells

There were at least 18 mikiri wells in the Simpson

Desert. These were the only permanent source of

water in theregion and were crucial for Wangkangurru

occupation of the dunefield at the turn of the century.

The most important historical account of the Simpson

Desert wells and of the Wangkangurru mikiri-nganha

people camped near them comes from Lindsay (1886).

There is further informationin Home & Aiston (1924).

The way of life of the mikiri-nganha has been de-

scribed elsewhere by Hercus (1985, 1989, 1990;

Hercus & Clark 1986).

How long the Wangkangurru have inhabited the

Simpson Desert is unknown. Linguistic evidence

suggests that the time necessary for the separation of

Wangkangurru from Arabana, spoken to the south

and southwest of the Simpson Desert, is within a

thousand years (Hercus & Clark 1986:62). One thing

is certain, the mikiri are the key to reconstructing the

human prehistory of the Simpson Desert. The strate-

gic role of these wells in local subsistence means that

any evidence of changes in the pattern of occupation

at these sites will have important implications for the

prehistory of the southern part of the dunefield.

Marapadi

Marapadi or Murraburt is the westernmost of the

mikiri wells (Fig. 2). Archaeological evidence of

habitation is more extensive here than at the other

wells so far visited. The most clearly defined of a

series of hearths visible at this site was one (MPI/1)

exposed in a deflated area amid a scatter of chipped

stone artefacts and finely-fragmented bone on the

south end of a dune about 260 m north-west of the

well. On the surface MPI/1 (Fig. 3a) appeared as a

charcoal stain, roughly oval in plan, measuring 430 x

560 mm. On excavation it proved to be a well-defined

basin-shaped pit, 90 mm deep, dug into a finely

laminated yellow dune sand. In cross-section a thin

band of charcoal extended downslope representing

minorreworking of the exposed surface of the feature.

The pit was filled with finely comminuted charcoal.

It contained no artefacts, burnt clay or shell but its

morphology is clearly that of a hearth rather than a

root or burrow (cf. Smith, Williams & Wasson 1991:

180-183). A sample of charcoal from the feature gave

an age 2710+/—130 yrs BP (ANU-7683), showing that

the Marapadi well was in use at sometime between

2450-2970 years ago.

Palkura

At Palkura, unlike Marapadi, archaeological ma-

terial is concentrated within the broad depression of

the well itself. Occupation debris is only sparsely

scattered elsewhere. About 300 m southwest of the

well, we found a hearth (PKA/1) eroding from sedi-

ments at the foot of a dune. It consisted of a patchy

scatter of charcoal lumps over a roughly circular area

600-800 mm in diameter. Upon cleaning back the

surface with a trowel much of this proved to be

charcoal thrown out from a well defined fireplace

(Fig. 3b). The latter was about 450-500 mm in

diameter and consisted of a dense charcoal stain with

large lumps of wood charcoal, up to 10 mm in

diameter. This lay in a shallow basin, 70 mm deep,

dug into a fine weakly laminated yellow dune sand.

Although there was a thin scatter of chipped stone and

finely fragmented animal bone on adjacent surfaces,

124 M. A. SMITH & P. M. CLARK

2710 + 130 ( ANU - 7683 )

A: MPI/1

200 + 80 ( ANU - 7684 )

Bios fat 2a toot AB

B: PKA/1

1000 + 70 ( ANU - 7521 )

Cc: KCA/2

FIGURE 3. Plan and cross-section of excavated hearths.

there was no archaeological material apart from char-

coal within the feature. A radiocarbon date of 200+/

—80 yrs BP (ANU-7684) indicates that this hearth may

date to the last phase of use of Palkura by

Wangkangurru people.

A second feature, situated on the dune east of the

well, was cross-sectioned but its distinctive cylindri-

cal, slightly tapering, cross-section identified it as a

tree-root rather than a fireplace (cf. Smith, Williams

& Wasson 1991: 183).

Kadlalumpa

Kadlalumpa is one of the eastern group of mikiri

wells. Amongst other archaeological material at this

site there were four hearths eroding out in various

parts of the site (eg. Hercus 1990 Fig. 2). One of us

(PC) collected a sample from ahearth, labelled K4, on

a separate visit in 1987. This was not necessarily the

best preserved of the hearths but was sampled because

its position with respect to the internal stratigraphy of

the dune seemed to imply some antiquity. Asample of

burnt sand and finely comminuted charcoal from K4

(ANU-7199) was submitted to the ANU Radiocarbon

Laboratory but proved insufficient for dating. Al-

though undated, the K4 hearth is of interest for its

unusual morphology. In cross-section, there was no

discernible vertical shape rather it formed a thin

baked pavement or crust about 10 mm thick. The

vesicular structure of this crust and the presence of

baked clay and finely disseminated charcoal suggest

that K4 was a fire constructed directly onto the soil

surface at a time when this was slightly damp.

Other sites in the dunefield

Kuncherinna

One other site was sampled during the 1990 trip.

This was at Kuncherinna where a series of hearths

appeared to be eroding from a dune core, from buff

sediments underlying a reddish palaeosol.

The Kuncherinna site borders a large claypan (Fig.

4). On either side of the claypan there are high

longitudinal dunes. On the lower slopes of these there

is a thin scatter of chipped stone artefacts which

includes tula adzes. On the western side of the claypan,

we noted eight hearths eroding from dune sediments.

Two of these (labelled KCA/1 and KCA/2) were

sectioned.

KCA/1 was manifest as a roughly circular patch of

diffuse charcoal and baked earth, about 1.2 m in

diameter. In cross-section it was a thin lense of

charcoal-stained baked earth, 20 mm thick, with the

vesicular structure familiar from the Kadlalumpa

hearth. It contained some large pieces of charcoal, up

to 15 mm diameter, but otherwise had no internal

structure and contained no other occupation debris.

As for the Kadlalumpa hearth, KCA/] is probably the

PREHISTORY OF SIMPSON DESERT

ccm arent

125

“

FIGURE 4. Aerial view of the Simpson Desert at Kuncherinna showing the large claypan and longitudinal dunes. View looking

south-east, July 1990. KCA/1 and KCA/2 were situated on the western margin of the claypan, at the lower left of the photograph.

(M. A. Smith).

remains of a fire lit directly on the surface of damp

soil. Charcoal from this feature was radiocarbon

dated to 1250+/-160 yrs BP (ANU-7520).

KCA/2 (Fig. 3c) was a small sharply defined fire-

place in a basin shaped depression about 450 mm in

diameter and 90 cm deep. This was dug into the

surface of an indurated pale yellow clayey sand,

topographically below a reddish palaeosol, It con-

tained abundant large pieces of charcoal as well as

finely comminuted charcoal. Charcoal from this hearth

gave a radiocarbon age of 1000+/-70 yrs BP (ANU-

7521), a result which overlaps with ANU-7520 if

these dates are taken at two standard deviations.

These results indicate that the hearths at the

Kuncherinna site are dug into the eroding surfaces of

the dunes rather than contained within the Pleistocene

sediments. The closely comparable ages obtained

from two hearths situated at least 100 m apart raises

the possibility that the remains at Kuncherinnarecord

a single occupation, or closely spaced occupations,

rather than an accumulation spanning several millen-

nia. Further dating of hearths would be necessary to

establish whether this is indeed the case,

Dated sites on the margins of the Simpson Desert

Although some archaeological reconnaissance has

also been carried out in the northern part of the Desert,

near the Toko Ranges by Davidson (1983) and at

Geosurveys Hill by N. B. Tindale (Anon. 1962), the

only other radiocarbon dates presently available for

occupation of the Simpson Desert are from the west-

em and north-western margins of the dunefield.

Oolgawa waterhole

During a geomorphic study of the Simpson Desert,

R.J. Wasson identified several hearths exposed in the

northern end of a longitudinal dune (Stockyard Dune)

where it encroached upon the active floodplain of

Adnalgowara creek (Wasson 1986: 63; Wasson, pers

comm.). Charcoal from the hearths gave radiocarbon

dates ranging from 2000-3000 years BP (Table 1), By

chance the South Australian Department of Mines

sampled the same features and obtained closely com-

parable radiocarbon dates ranging from 2500-2700

years BP. These dates serve to demonstrate use of

productive flood plain habitats (Macumba ecological

association) on the western margin of the dunefield at

about the same time as we have evidence that Marapadi

was in use.

Therreyererte

Therreyererte is a large open site on an alluvial fan

on the northern edge of the Rodinga Range. The latter

is a bold sandstone range rising abruptly from the

dunefield in the north-western part of the Simpson

Desert, dividing asmall outer dunefield of about 1500

126 M. A. SMITH & P. M. CLARK

TABLE 1. Radiocarbon dates for sites in the Simpson Desert. Dated material was charcoal from hearths, except in the case of

Therreyererte where detrital wood charcoal from an archaeological deposit was dated.

Site Feature Sample Conventional Reference

Code Radiocarbon Age

(years BP)

Marapadi MPI/1 ANU-7683 2710+/-130 this paper

Palkura PKA/1 ANU-7684 200+/-80 J

Kadlalumpa K4 ANU-7199 small sample "

Kuncherinna KCA/1 ANU-7520 1250+/-160 "

Kuncherinna KCA/2 ANU-7521 1000+/-70 "

Oolgawa WH ANU-2838 1900+/-200 Wasson pers. comm.

- ANU-2836 2220+/-100 t

‘ ANU-2837 2840+/-80 y

Therreyererte Z90/6 SUA-2520 400+/-50 Smith 1988

: Z90/10 SUA-2519 1830+/110 Smith 1988

km? from the main body of longitudinal dunes. A

small excavation at this site in 1986 (Smith 1988:

292) revealed a stratified occupation deposit under-

lain by red aeolian sand. The occupation is dated at

two points by radiocarbon samples to 400+/—50 yrs

BP (SUA 2520) and 1830+/110yrs BP (SUA 2519).

By extrapolation, the basal age of the occupation

deposit is about 3000 yrs BP at this site. This again

suggests some parallel with the radiocarbon date for

Marapadi but it is worth noting that the major period

of use of Therreyerte did not begin until about 570 yrs

BP.

Discussion

The radiocarbon dates reported in this paper are the

first step towards establishing a chronology for hu-

man occupation of the Simpson Desert. They show

that at least one of the mikiri wells was in use about

2700 years ago. This has implications for the prehis-

tory of the region. Firstly it suggests that the locations

of some of the Simpson Desert wells were known at

this time. Secondly, it indicates that the shallow

groundwater tapped by the mikiri wells existed at this

time. Thirdly, if current views on the nature of these

shallow aquifers are correct, it points to the likely

availability of such groundwater earlier in the Holo-

cene. As the mikiri tap groundwater supplies directly

recharged by rainfall in this part of the dunefield they

are presumably sensitive to long-term changes in

regional rainfall. Given that the period around 3000

BP was the driest phase of the Holocene (Singh 1981;

Singh & Luly 1991), it is possible that shallow

groundwater would have also been locally available

as early as 6-7000 BP. Whether or not humans

occupied the dunefield at this time is unknown but in

this context it seems likely.

The date of 2700 yrs BP for Marapadi also seems

to coincide with evidence of use of the extensive

floodplains on the western margins of the dunefield

and the first phase of use of Therreyererte in the

north-western part of the dunefield. Whether the

apparent visibility of sites at this time is simply

fortuitous, whether this was a short-lived period of

greater human activity in the region or whether it

marks the beginning of more intensive use of the

major dunefields along the lines suggested by Veth

(1989) will require more evidence to determine.

While it might be tempting to see the evidence from

Marapadi as reflecting a broadly similar pattern of

occupation of the dunefield to that recorded for the

Wangkangurru at the turn of the century, the limited

nature of the evidence prompts caution. Isolated

radiocarbon dates on hearths and fireplaces cannot

tell us whether use of the wells at this time was more,

or less, itinerant than that recorded historically, nor

whether use of the wells continued without major

interruption from 2700 yrs BP until 1899-1900. For-

tunately the presence of apparently stratified occupa-

tion deposits at some mikiri sites, together with an

abundance of faunal remains and imported stone

provide an opportunity to investigate prehistoric use

of these key wells and the subsistence activities and

external contracts of the desert Wangkangurru.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors thank Linda Crombie (Birdsville) for her

support and the Aboriginal Heritage Branch (Department of

Environment and Planning, South Australia) for formal per-

mission to collect radiocarbon samples from archaeological

sites in the Simpson Desert. Further information on the mikiri

and Kuncherinna sites is held in the site register maintained by

the Aboriginal Heritage Branch. We also wish to thank our

companions in the field; Luise Hercus, Vlad Potezny, Bingee

Lowe (Finke) and Lockey Stewart (Hamilton). The assistance

of Vlad Potezny in relocating the mikiri sites was crucial to

success of the fieldwork reported here. R.J. Wasson gener-

ously supplied information on the radiocarbon dates from

Oolgawa waterhole. We thank Luise Hercus, Roger Luebbers,

Mike Morwood, Vlad Potezny, Peter Veth and Bob Wasson

for commenting on an earlier version of this paper.

PREHISTORY OF SIMPSON DESERT

127

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SMITH, M. A., WILLIAMS, E., & WASSON,R.J. 1991. The

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“THE INHABITANTS OF COOPER CREEK’ : A PART TRANSLATION OF

CARL EMIL JUNG’S ‘AM COOPER CREEK’

C. W. NOBBS

Summary

This paper provides an introduction to the writings of Dr. Carl Emil Jung who travelled widely in

Australia between 1865 and 1876. He then returned to Germany and published many works largely

on the European colonies in Australia and the Pacific region. Particular reference is made to his

writings on the Aborigines of South Australia. The paper includes a translation from Jung’s article

‘Am Cooper Creek’ (1878), an account of his contact with the Aborigines on the Cooper Creek in

1865.

‘THE INHABITANTS OF COOPER CREEK’: A PART TRANSLATION OF CARL EMIL JUNG’S

‘AM COOPER CREEK’.

C. W. NOBBS

NOBBS, C. W. 1993. ‘The Inhabitants of Cooper Creek’: A part translation of Carl Emil Jung’s ‘Am

Cooper Creek’. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(2):129-138.

This paper provides an introduction to the writings of Dr. Carl Emil Jung who travelled widely in

Australia between 1865 and 1876. He then retumed to Germany and published many works largely on

the European colonies in Australia and the Pacific region. Particular reference is made to his writings on

the Aborigines of South Australia. The paper includes a translation from Jung’s article ‘Am Cooper

Creek’ (1878), an account of his contact with the Aborigines on the Cooper Creek in 1865.

C. W. Nobbs, Anthropological Society of South Australia, c/o Conservation Centre, 120 Wakefield

Street, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 28 July 1992.

Cari Emit June’s Wririncs On Tue Aporicines OF

Soutu AUSTRALIA

By 1860 the colony of South Australia was well

established, and had a large German population

living in and around Adelaide. Reports from the

German communities about their successes, particu-

larly in the acquisition of land and new freedoms, and

about their isolation, were sent back to Germany to

urge friends and relatives to join them in South

Australia. By the end of the nineteenth century ap-

proximately 18 000 Germans had emigrated to the

colony. Mainly consisting of farmers, tradesmen and

their families, they also included a small number of

professional people (Harmstorf 1976: 35):

Most of the professionals were pastors and missioners of

the Lutheran Church, but around the year 1848, with its

abortive liberal revolutions in various parts of Europe,

including the German states, came a sprinkling of men

who for want of a better term may be called intellectuals,

men who had received some form of tertiary education in

Germany.

Dr. Carl Emil Jung, who had received a Doctor of

Laws degree from either Gottingen or Jena Univer-

sity and travelled to South Australia in the late 1850s,

was one of these ‘intellectuals’. The earliestrecord of

Jung’s activities is his account of the time he spent as

a manager of stock on the Dewalla Creek in south-

western Queensland in 1865. Very little is known of

his movements over the following seven years. In

1872 he was resident in Tanunda, South Australia,

and applied for a licence to work there as a teacher.!

He had the support of ‘well educated’ Germans like

Martin Basedow, who has been described as ‘an

outspoken advocate of what was called “progressive

education” at the time’ (Harmstorf 1975). Basedow

served briefly as the South Australian Minister for

Education and was also the proprietor of Australia’s

largest German newspaper, the Australischer Zeitung

(‘Australian Newspaper’).

In January 1873 Jung was appointed French Master

and Assistant in the Boarding House at the Church of

England Collegiate of Saint Peter in Adelaide, and in

December accepted a German Professorship there.?

He resigned in April 1874 upon appointment as In-

spector of Schools in South Australia. This gave him

the opportunity to travel to all parts of the state. He

resigned from this position in December 1876, and

soon after returned to Germany. The Neu Deutsch

Zeitung (“New German Newspaper’) of January 1876

reported that (p.4):

Our fellow countryman Dr. C. Jung has given up his

position as School Inspector because family matters com-

pel him to travel to Europe. Dr. Jung, as we hear it, intends

to familiarise himself with the new education system

during his stay in Germany and to utilise the results of his

research upon his return to South Australia.

Jung did not return to South Australia. During the

following years though, he wrote many articles and

several books on the European colonies in the Pacific

region. Jung published three works based specifically

on his contact with the Aboriginal people of South

Australia.

Soon after his return to Germany Jung published

“Zur Kenntnis siidaustralischer Dialekte’ (“Towards a

Knowledge of South Australian Dialects’) in the Jour-

nal of the Geographical Society of Leipzig (1876). The

title suggests an early analysis of the dialects of the

South Australian Aboriginal people, but the article is

not yet available in Australia. Two further accounts of

his contact with the Aboriginal people of South Aus-

tralia were published in the Journal of the Geographi-

! Records of the Central Board of Education, 1872: No. 50. Entry No. 2083, GRG 18, State Records Office.

? Minutes of the Council of Govemors, the Church of England Collegiate of Saint Peter, Adelaide, 8 December 1873.

130

cal Society of Halle. The first article, ‘Die

Miindungsgegend des Murray und ihre Bewohner’

(‘The Murray-mouth Region and its Inhabitants’)

appeared in 1877 (1877a), followed by ‘Am Cooper

Creek’ (‘On the Cooper Creek’) in 1878. These were

based on first-hand observations, supplemented by

information from the missionary George Taplin and,

possibly, the police-trooper Samuel Gason.

In 1877 Jung also delivered a short paper titled

‘Schamanismus der Australier’ (‘Shamanism of the

Australian Aborigine’) to the Anthropological Soci-

ety of Berlin in which he described the role of magic

in the beliefs of the Diyari people of the Cooper

Creek. This appeared in the Proceedings of the An-

thropological Society of Berlin, (1877b) and was also

published in Ethnological Journal in Berlin. Another

article ‘Aus dem Seelenleben der Australier’ (‘From

the Spiritual life of the Australian Aboriginal’) pub-

lished in the Journal of the Geographical Society,

Leipzig (1877c), is not yet available in Australia.

In the same year, Jung also published two articles

in Globus, an illustrated journal for ‘Lander and

Voélkerkunde’ (‘Lands and Ethnology’) which gave

particular consideration to articles by specialists in

anthropology and the ethnology of different coun-

tries. ‘West Australien. II. Die Ureinwohner’ (“West-

ern Australia. IT The Aboriginals’, 1877d) is an eth-

nography of the Western Australian Aboriginal people

in which Jung gave a detailed description of the

people who lived in the north and south of the state.

This included details of their housing, clothing, uten-

sils and weapons, foods, social organisation and

religious beliefs. He visited the prison on Rottnest

Island which held 67 Aboriginal prisoners, many of

whom had killed someone under tribal law and were

subsequently incarcerated,

At the time of Jung’s visit to the Catholic Mission

of New Norcia, which was under the administration of

Bishop Calvado, 34 Aboriginal adults and 26 children

were living there. They were taught to read and write

and given instruction in Christian beliefs with mixed

results. Jung noted for example, that the Aboriginal

residents believed that eating and drinking epitomised

the way to salvation, as signified by the images of full-

bodied angels, whom they said ‘always had a full

stomach’, They also heard parables from the bible and

understood them literally: sheep went to heaven for

example, but it was not clear why their animals (the

emu and the kangaroo) were not to enjoy the same

good fortune (Jung 1877d: 346-356; 365-367).

‘Die Zukunft der Australischen Eingeborenen’

(‘The Future of the Australian Aborigines’, 1877e)

described the plight of Aboriginal people in each state

and the various government policies and attitudes

towards them at the time. Jung began by noting the

lack of interest from official circles in getting to know

the languages, customs and habits of the Aboriginal

people. He acknowledged the importance of records

C. W, NOBBS

left by the missionaries, the accounts of travel by

explorers which reported their contact with the Ab-

origines in different regions, and also the detailed and

reliable reports about Aboriginal tribes in the east,

south and west of the country which came from the

settlers and visitors to this land. By comparison,

wrote Jung, the governments in each state had taken

no steps to use people knowledgeable in ethnology to

collect reports on the fast disappearing Aboriginal

tribes. He noted approvingly that at least two colonial

governments had taken the matter in hand. South

Australia’s Governor, Sir Anthony Musgrave (Jung

1877e: 219-222), had expressed the urgency of col-

lecting:

as quickly as possible, information about the languages,

traditions and customs of the existing tribes, before they

disappear from the earth as they have in other regions.

Jung also mentioned the establishment of a commis-

sion in Queensland with the purpose of investigating

the position of the Aboriginal people and the possibil-

ity of ‘civilising’ them. The commission included

the well-travelled explorers A. C. Gregory and

W. Landsborough, as well as Bishop Hale who had

already worked extensively among Aboriginal people

in South Australia (Jung 1877: 235-237).

In 1879 Jung published ‘ Australien und Neuseeland*

(‘Australia and New Zealand’), an historical, geo-

graphical, and statistical sketch with 10 illustrations.

In the introduction to the first edition of this book,

Jung stated that ‘the Australian colonies had in recent

times aroused a lively and justifiable interest’. During

the preceding ten years the large-scale migration to

countries about which the Germans had little, if not

out-dated knowledge, created a desire for more pre-

cise and current information. Their best geography

text books were inadequate and geographic maga-

zines did not provide the whole picture. Jung believed

he could correct this deficiency and explained his

purpose, using the third person (Jung 1879: iii—iv):

It is the intention of the author to publish a comprehensive

work on the Australian colonies. As a result of the partici-

pation of the German Reich in the Intemational Exhibi-

tions held in Sydney and Melbourne, a lively interest has

been generated amongst many Germans who express the

wish to obtain an up to date knowledge of the regions

where it is hoped German industry can win a respectful

place. In short, it appears advisable to draw up as quickly

as possible, in a comprehensive way, sketch plans of

existing conditions in those colonies.

The author’s main purpose has been: to describe the

economic conditions of the land at this time, as

completely and objectively as possible in the limited

space available. That is why he has allocated only

limited room to the chapters on geography and eth-

nography. Instead he hoped to give the statistical data

the desired comprehensiveness.

His stay in Australia extended over 19 years, and

many times he travelled in all the colonies, almost to

COOPER CREEK 131

the heart of the continent. For several years he was in

a responsible position as government officer. This

experience enabled him to obtain a detailed knowl-

edge of the land and its inhabitants.

In this fact-filled publication Jung described the

discovery and settlementof Australia and New Zealand,

their physical features, and included chapters on their

industries and populations.

Jung’s comprehensive work ‘Der Weltteil

Australien’ (‘The Australian Continent’) was pub-

lished during 1882-1883 in four parts, as volumes VI,

VII, XI and XII of a series titled ‘Das Wissen der

Gegenwart’ (‘The Knowledge of the Present’), pub-

lished by the German Universal Library for Educa-

tion. Jung’s volumes offered a broad perspective on

geographical features and the impact of settlement in

the region and included detailed information on the

native peoples of the Western Pacific and Australia.

Two of these illustrated volumes included ethno-

graphic detail on Australian Aborigines: Part 1 (Vol-

ume VI), ‘Der Australcontinent und seine Bewohner’

(‘The Australian Continent and its Inhabitants’), and

Part 2 (Volume VIII), ‘Die Kolonien des

Australkontinents und Tasmanien. Melanesia.’ (“The

Colonies of the Australian Continent and Tasmania.

Melanesia.’). Parts 3 and 4 (Volumes XI and XIII)

were devoted to Melanesia, Polynesia (including

New Zealand), and Micronesia. An abridged version

of the complete work also appeared in English, pub-

lished by W. Swan Sonnenschein in London in 1884.

Jung wrote two articles, both under the title of

“Deutsche Kolonien’ (German Colonies) published in

1884 and 1885. The first was described as ‘an article

to improve the knowledge of the life and work of our

fellow countrymen or “Landesleute” on the land in all

continents’ (Ferguson 1941-69: 190). The second

made ‘particular reference to the newest German

acquisitions in West Africa and Australia [sic]’

(Ferguson 1941-69: 190). Jung’s ‘Australie en Tas-

mania’ (“Australia and Tasmania’) was also repub-

lished in a Dutch edition in 1885. This would seem to

be a translation of Jung’s publication of the same title

from 1882-83,

Jung’s ethnographic writings reflect the dominant

influence of his geographic studies. He was prepared

to attribute the major differences which he observed

between Aboriginal groups to geographic factors. In

his introduction to “The Murray Mouth Region and its

Inhabitants’ (Jung 1877a), he wrote that ‘the charac-

teristics of Aboriginal people are essentially limited

by their geographical position and the productivity of

the land’ (Jung 1877: 24-47). He cited the examples

of the Aboriginal people of Eyre Peninsula who were

of a ‘crooked stature’, and the Aborigines of the

drought-stricken plains of Western Australia who

lived in a ‘wretched state’. To these he contrasted the

Aboriginal people of the Murray River who profited

from an abundant supply of fish.

Jung went on to describe the geography of the

Murray Mouth region, then provided an ethnography

of the Narrinyeri people who lived there. A map

showed the location of the Mission, the small towns

to the north and the 18 clans of the Narrinyeri. His

occupation as Inspector of Schools had enabled him to

visit the area several times and to meet the Reverend

George Taplin at the Point Macleay Mission. Jung's

description of Narrinyeri customs and religious be-

liefs was largely based on Taplin’s work. Whilst he

acknowledged the importance of Taplin’s records and

oral information, Jung claimed that his own observa-

tions led him to different conclusions. For example,

he included a Narrinyeri grammar in the article, but

argued that Taplin’s description of the language as

very highly developed had been unwarranted.

Jung’s ‘On the Cooper Creek’ was published in

four parts, dealing with the Geography, Plants, Ani-

mals, and Inhabitants. Jung gave a detailed descrip-

tion of the peculiarities of the geography, flora and

fauna in the region and changed to a narrative style in

the fourth part to describe his contact with the Ab-

original people of the area. This account, as translated

below, included descriptions of the Aborigines’ cloth-

ing and decorations, and a rain-making ceremony.

The similarity of these descriptions to the observa-

tions of Diyari Aboriginal people made by Samuel

Gason, a police trooper stationed at Lake Hope in

1864, are remarkable (Gason 1879), Jung’s descrip-

tion of the rain-making ceremony is identical both in

form and content to Gason’s and they both provide

very similar descriptions of the Aboriginal people’s

ornaments. It is difficult to decide whether Jung used

Gason as an unacknowledged source or whether his

contact with the Yawarrawarka and Yandruwantha

people near Innamincka, revealed distinct similari-

ties in dress and custom.

Jung’s description of the Aborigines of Cooper

Creek was one of the earliest to be recorded, coming

as it did just three years after the Burke and Wills

expedition had failed there. Alfred Howitt’s initial

account of the Aborigines of the region, recorded

during the Burke and Wills Relief Expedition, was not

published until 1878, the same year as Jung’s publi-

cation. It is likely that Jung’s account, published in

Germany, added further encouragement to German

missionary interest in Central Australian Aborigines,

as already expressed in the foundation of Lutheran

missions at Killalpaninna (1866) and Hermannsburg

(1877). His work would have been read widely in

academic circles and no doubt by Erhard Eylmann, a

German doctor with an _ interest’ in

‘Anthropogeographie’. Eylmann made several visits

‘to Australia between 1896 and 1902 and published the

results of his anthropological research in the classic

‘Die Eingeborenen der Kolonie Siidaustralien’ (“The

Aborigines in the Colonies of South Australia’, 1908).

Eylmann was certainly familiar with Jung's writings

132

on the Australian Aborigines and these may in fact

have provided a direct impetus for his work.

“Tue INHABITANTS OF Cooper CREEK’

Tt was an unusual occasion that brought me to this

region. Today the land is fully occupied, surveyed

(though in arough way) and leased to pastoralists who

appear to make good business there. In those times the

Cooper Creek was a goal reached only by explorers.

It was better known than many otherrivers nearby, for

the tragic fate of Burke and Wills had vested it with

lasting interest.

I was at the time stationed on the Devalla Creek,

south-east of the Wilson River. In those times, the

oldest colonists warned of long periods of drought in

which all water evaporated, all vegetation spoiled,

and both the indigenous and introduced animals per-

ished. I was of the opinion, as were many others, that

settlement had overcome this sad phase of existence

of the colony. That danger was not to be feared any

more, and the squatter pushed irresistibly further and

further forwards: at first with herds of cattle, then

sheep. The search after grazing places was an occupa-

tion, and the sale of such practical knowledge became

a source of income for more than one enterprising

Australian pioneer. Even though moderate rain fell

we still believed that the climate had changed for the

better.

The year 1865 destroyed this illusion with a rough

hand. The rainfall of the preceding years had been

lighter in the inner districts, and now the eternally

clear sky, scarcely covered by acloud, was barren. All

the waters dried up, and soon the last traces of

vegetation were consumed down to their roots. The

bodies of dying stock covered the plains, and the few

waterholes became poisoned through their decompo-

sition. In the caves and ravines of the distant moun-

tains the lives of the indigenous animals ended.

The only trading place for this region was Fort

Bourke. A German named Becker owned the store, in

which everything could be found. There were exten-

sive stores catering for the body’s necessities includ-

ing food and toiletries. The store, to use an expression

used commonly by sailors and adopted by the squat-

ters, held everything ‘from aneedle toa sheet anchor’.

Between Becker and I lay a wide wilderness in which

only isolated oases remained on the Paroo and the

Warrego. These were the location of police stations

which also served as post offices to which a small

supply of letters and a plentiful supply of newspapers

and monthly journals were brought out by dispatch

rider from Bourke every 14 days. Otherwise the

traffic was closed. Wool, which was sent to Bourke on

heavy carts with great danger to the bullockies’ lives

and with the forbearance of the draft oxen, rotted

outside under the sky because the store-owners re-

Cc. W. NOBBS

fused to take it into their warehouses. Then ‘cui bono’,

or ‘to what purpose’? The shallow Darling could be

crossed over on exposed reefs, and for a long time no

steamers had travelled on it. The worth of the wool

was less than the cost of overland transport to Sydney.

We were isolated, with only a few neighbours on

the Wilson. The waterholes on Devalla Creek began

to dry up. The dams built at great cost stood there

useless, their reservoirs empty. The question of where

to go to save the lives of the cattle and sheep came

closer to me every day. Toretreat was unthinkable, as

the route to the Darling was barren. The only hope lay

to the interior. For the 12 000 sheep there was soon a

solution. A long deep waterhole on the Wilson, a

‘billabong’, offered itself to them. But cattle will not

stay where sheep graze, and I had to go further. The

only place was on the Cooper. A broad waterless

stretch of tom black expanses and steep red sandhills

lay between the Cooper and our stock. Although the

numerous tribes of Aborigines living there would not

welcome our arrival with friendliness, the attempt

had to be made.

It was made and achieved despite countless diffi-

culties and real danger to life because of water short-

ages. The animals, frantic with thirst, had almost

forced their return to the abandoned waterholes over

our bodies. Never will I forget that feeling of escape

from extreme danger and the elation that accompa-

nies achievement of a rare and risky undertaking

when, on an arduous February night, I discerned in the

bright moonlight the dark, dim line which was the

Cooper. It was probably the first time a loud and

cordial ‘hurrah’ had resounded through this wilder-

ness. The pad which the camels of Burke and Wills’

calamitous expedition had pressed into the soft earth

was still clearly visible, and often served as a guide to

us. This pad made a melancholy impression on my

people and intensified the feeling of our predicament:

we could read the story in the signs left behind on the

Cooper. Burke and Wills returned to this place from

the Gulf of Carpentaria only to become bitterly disap-

pointed. Upon their arrival they found, to their horror,

that the camp was deserted. The sombre green leaves

and the brown raw bark of the trees, the black fur-

rowed earth, and the deathly stillness all around were

passing features and colours of a picture that appeared

before our souls. We moved further downstream, and

on amarvellous lake-like part of the river erected our

camp. Mighty eucalyptus trees hemmed the high

southern bank, while on the other side magnificent

quartz sandstone outcrops completed the view. The

bark of the trees carried the initials of all who had

visited the creek before us. Not many, butnames well

known to Australian history.

We had with us only a small tent and meagre

supplies on the pack saddles of our horses. The ground

was too rough, and the route too difficult, to have

risked taking a wagon. The tent served as our store-

COOPER CREEK 133

FIGURE 1. Example of a Thippa, a decoration made from the tails of the extinct rabbit bandicoot. Collected by R.T. Maurice,

Cooper's Creek. A2990, South Australian Museum.

FIGURE 2. Example of a Mandamanda, a woman's girdle. Collected by J.G. Reuther, Killalpaninna Mission. A2890, South

Australian Museum.

134

house. The stores were meagre: blankets, clothes, a

half sack of flour, a few sacks of sugar, preserved fruit

and fish, and some tobacco and matches. The flour

was abominable. We had secured it on credit from a

settler on the Barcoo. God knows how long it had been

stored by him since being purchased from some trader

who should have sold it only as pig food. Half of it

consisted of maggots. One of the indispensable food-

stuffs missing was salt. We crushed enough from an

abundant supply in anearby salt creek, but soon found

that it was unusable. The meat from our slaughtered

cattle spoiled, and no one liked to eat the salted or

‘jerked’ beef. But the plentiful supply of meat which

we could not handle was not wasted: we were not

alone.

Most certainly our arrival had been awaited for

some time. The Australian Aborigines were informed

of our movements in advance by their peculiar teleg-

raphy using smoke and fire. They were the lawful

owners of the hunting grounds whichI claimed for my

cattle. When we arrived, there was not a soul to see

and no tracks betrayed their presence, Yet they were

around us, and nightly watched our camp without us

seeing their tracks. The bushes which they bound on

their feet completely swept away their footprints in

the soft ground. My black companions did not want to

acknowledge their presence, although they probably

perceived much earlier and more easily the crushed

Salsolaceen (buckbush or ‘rolly-polly’) and broken

bushes which my assistant, Swanhill Jack, with his

reliable skills as a bushman, soon drew my attention

to. I gave orders that nobody should go away from the

camp at night without first informing me of it. Nev-

ertheless, one of my best men almost fell victim to a

bullet from my rifle because of his sin of omission.

The next morning showed how closely the Angel of

Death had passed over him.

Finally they came. We had meat to throw away, and

the blacks were hungry. They did not dare lay hands

on our cattle (as they probably would have liked to),

because they knew too well the sharp noise of fire-

arms and its significance. They had, without a doubt,

heard how the settlers in Queensland took revenge on

those who stole their property, and they therefore

preferred to come forward at last. Perhaps they were

encouraged by the presence of our blacks, who had

almost more to fear from them than we did as they had

no more right than us to these foreign lands and they

were not protected by the ‘Nimbus’ of superiority

with which the white man faces the black man. We

slaughtered a young cow and then they came, all eager

to get some. First came a few young women, then old

men, and, lastly, a whole group. We let everyone take

away a gift. It was not hard to satisfy them, as no part

of the animal was scorned. They sat around patiently

in a circle on the ground until the distribution began,

and at last they went away loaded. A tall black who

was ‘straight as acandle’ provoked great amusement,

C. W. NOBBS

and we christened him straight away ‘Soldier’. He

was the last to march off. On his head he carried the

cow’s skull, and down over his back hung the hide

with feet and tail. ‘Soldier’ now looked even more

warrior-like than ever, similar to one of those wild

Nordic fighters who decorated their heads in a like

manner when the horn decoration was an adornment

and an honour to a man.

In retum, our black table companions brought us a

variety of things: fish, rats, lizards and roots. Not

particularly dainty morsels according to European

standards, but quite acceptable as a change from the

eternal beef menu. Lacking tea, we sampled a type of

peppermint that grew along the creek and also tried

Narduseeds as coffee. Both attempts failed, as did the

attempt by the smoking members of the party to

substitute eucalyptus leaves for tobacco, The imagi-

nation of these ‘matter of fact” humans was not strong

enough to help them overcome the tasteless reality.

I had enough leisure and opportunity to closely

observe my new friends. With time they became quite

friendly, trusting and forward. As the shyness disap-

peared through daily contact it was necessary forus to

ward them off. Everything which we threw away was,

as a rule, taken away by one or the other. Glass and

broken glass pieces were much sought after articles.

Used to smooth and to point weapons, these were

better instruments than the rare quartz pieces that

previously served the purpose. Other things would be

happily taken away but soon discarded. Clothing had

no attraction for these ‘nature people’, all of whom

existed here, in summer and winter, as did our ances-

tors in paradise. The absence of clothing of every type

is explained by the inadequacy of the animal world,

which could only provide a few hides. Furthermore,

the days are so warm that even in winter, the rainless

time, they can get by without protection. The only real

clothing or body covering was an apron made from

tassels of animal fur worn by the more distinguished

men and small handsize aprons made from tightly

woven net which some of the women put on at times.

The aprons of the men certainly served only to deco-

rate, and were only worm at ceremonies and in fights.

They were very precious, requiring much work and

effort, and were an heirloom passed on from father to

son. Before they were finished, many animals had to

be hunted. An ‘Unpa’ made from tassels of ‘Wallaby’

fur (Halmaturus), was not as valuable by far, as a

“Thippa’ made from over 300 tails of the Belideus

(bandicoot), which, in a clean condition, (unfortu-

nately, rarely) looked very beautiful in its snow-white

colour. The man who could wear such decorations at

the great ceremonies for which the tribes came to-

gether or when the warriors went out to fight was

indeed a mighty hunter or warrior. Just as highly

regarded, perhaps more so, was the string spun from

human hair. This was up to 200m. long and rarely

seen, Many a human head provided its hair, and the

COOPER CREEK 135

FIGURE 3. Example of a Cultaculta, anecklace made of grass stems. Collector unknown, Cooper’s Creek. Unregistered, South

Australian Museum.

FIGURE 4. Headband made from plant fibres. Collected by J.G. Reuther, Kopperamanna. A3016, South Australian Museum.

136

hair of the dead is also spun into the ‘Yinka’ so that it

receives a special power. The abilities or skills of

those living and the dead who gave their ‘head hair’,

are bound into the girdle and pass into those who wear

it, giving them increased power. From the girdle hung

the ‘Wurtawurta’, a bundle made from black emu

feathers.

The Aborigines’ shaggy hair was held together by

the white coloured ‘Tschangu’, a headband made

from plant fibres. The arm was decorated with an

‘Unamunda’, a string made from the same materials

and wound many times around the arm. The old

people of importance and influence put on the

“Wurdawurda’, the wreath made from emu feathers

which they alone deserved. A shell also hung from a

band of human hair around the neck or decorated the

tips of a not very long yet highly valued beard.

The inhabitants of the Cooper differ from their

neighbours in the West, who keep the sides of their

faces free from hair by pulling or tearing it out. They

also differ from the Northern tribes who remove all

facial hair. They allow all that will grow to grow: the

full beard for them is a decoration. The head hair is

also not touched, however, like the beard, it does not

grow very long. Incertain ceremonies the hair is shorn

very short as a sign of mourning, but as a rule only the

women had to undergo the ‘tonsure’ (the hair clip-

ping). Women have their decorations but, as the role

of the women is lower than that of the man, it is

considered appropriate that the decoration is less

precious and less attractive. The ‘Mundamunda’, the

women’s girdle, is spun only out of plant fibres, and

the ‘Kultrakultra’ is made only from pieces of reed

which are strung on a string. The women played the

same sad role as a slave as everywhere in Australia.

They had to put up with every treatment from their

tyrant, who in every way had the women at his

disposal. They could be killed without any punish-

ment. However, cases also existed in which the rela-

tionship was reversed and the master became the

obedient servant, and it was the same everywhere in

Australia where nobody would help the husband

against his shrew.

During a stay of many months I was easily able to

study the manners, customs, character and the lan-

guage of these people. The study was much more

interesting than my earlier observations of tribes who

had already been, for a longer or shorter time, in

contact with the white man and so had lost some of

their true and original nature. However, at Coopers

Creek it was still a virgin soil on which I stepped well

prepared and from which I made a rich harvest.

Understanding them was not hard. The people

could understand fairly well the dialect of the Paroo

and the Warrego. We were often aided through draw-

ings which they made very skilfully in the sand and

soon learnt to make on paper. The flows and breadths

of the rivers and creeks, the relative heights of the

C. W. NOBBS

hills; the distances of fixed points, and the relation-

ship between those points they described with a

precision that never let me down during my extensive

excursions to the north and north-west. The route of

Burke and Wills, which I followed a long way in the

direction of the Gulf, [received partly from them, and

partly from the envoy of the Munamuckaru tribe of

the Daly River who was coincidently present. Their

descriptions of the different camping places of Burke

as well as McKinlay were exactly correct, and they

also characterised the persons by unmistakable mim-

icry. They were remarkably like children. They liked

to look at a thing that was new to them and wanted to

touch and possess it. Then, after the attraction of the

novelty had worn off, it was thrown away or ex-

changed for something else. They were easily di-

rected with friendliness and consistency. Alternately,

they were easily offended then easily reconciled, soon

won over by promises then badly hurt by their being

broken, pitying and generous, then quickly vengeful

and cruel. So long as they saw us as superior beings

whose power was real and to be feared we could meet

together with one another. We were never attacked by

them due to our vigilance and their fear of our guns

(fire weapons), despite them being a hundred fold

superior in number. It was probably also due to the

beneficial impression and satisfaction they had re-

ceived in earlier times from the contact with the

expeditions of the white man.

We soon found the opportunity to make a wider

acquaintance with the whole population of the exten-

sive Cooper district. One day, while still a great

drought prevailed, hundreds of visitors arrived from

the north and the north-west. They often used this

same ceremonial place to call the rain down from

heaven and were invited by our neighbours who were

the actual rulers of this hunting ground. Women in the

company of their ‘Pirraru’, their ‘cavalieri serventi’,

were sent out to gather the scattered people. We had

the opportunity to observe the whole event; the people

had no inhibitions about the presence of the strangers

or even the white people at this ceremony. The men

distanced themselves approximately 500-600 metres

from the camp to find an empty site, and dug a

depression four metres long, three metres wide and

approximately one metre deep. Others dragged heavy

wooden logs to build a cone-shaped hut covered by

small branches and grass with a low, narrow entrance.

Two large stones from the nearby creek were placed

in the middle of the hut. The old men took their places

inside, while the younger men sat down outside. One

of the youngest went to the camp to fetch the women.

They came and without speaking a word, looked at the

structure, looked inside the hut and then removed

themselves. As soon as the women had returned to the

camp, the elders called two young, strong people

outside and bound the veins of their upper arms. One

of the oldest, perhaps the most significant and influ-

COOPER CREEK 137

ential of them, took a sharp stone and opened the

veins. The blood spurted onto the densely gathered

group. Those who were bleeding threw handfuls of

down feathers from already prepared nets over the

others. The feathers stuck onto the wet bodies, The

women reappeared to look at the men who now were

covered with blood and feathers. The two youths who

had been operated on then took the two stones, carried

them miles away and hid them in the highest branches

of a tree. Those staying behind collected slices of the

so-called ‘women’s ice’ that lay in great quantities on

the distant mountain range, pounded it, then scattered

the powder into the waterholes. One thing remained to

be done: the destruction of the hut. The whole group

of men stood around in a circle and, with lowered

heads, ran towards the hut, smashed the dry branches

and appeared on the other side. They then returned to

the attack until nothing remained except the heavy

wooden logs. These they grasped at one end and

pulled them back until the hut collapsed in an unformed

heap. Then it was back to the camp to dance. On that

night of the full moon, the dancing lasted until the

early morning. For the whole night the ground re-

sounded from the heavy stamping of the dancers, and

the airreverberated from the monotonous noise of the

thythm which the women beat on their carrying

dishes.

A young, intelligent Aboriginal, who had already

gone through all stages of initiation, (including the

last, most painful and most peculiar rite that was

found only in this region), explained that the blood

sprayed around signified the rain, the feather down

signified the light clouds and the stones signified the

heavy pregnant rain clouds. The destruction of the hut

symbolised the breaking down and flow from the

clouds, and the fall of the hut represented the fall of

therain. That’s how I understood him. The good spirit

‘Muramura’ saw these ceremonies, collected the

clouds and the rain poured down. But also perhaps

not. The explanation is the same as with all other

ceremonies, entreaties or conjuring exercises that

failed to achieve an aim or produce aresult: anenemy

or hostile tribe had spoiled the magic through a

contrary incantation. It almost appeared as though the

latter was the case. Many weeks passed since that

ceremony. The blacks had long since scattered. Our

stocks were almost totally consumed, and our isola-

tion became complete when we lost our closest

neighbour on the Wilson. Only when Swanhill Jack,

my best and most fearless stockman, risked, at in-

creasingly distant intervals, the lonely and distant

journey to the next station on the Bulloo, did news of

the outside world reach us. Even there one was

already almost totally isolated. Old newspapers were

now devoured with eagemess, and a new book would

have been worth a good cow.

“The longest lane has a turning’, says an English

proverb meaning that nothing lasts forever. At some

time things must change, and so things did change

with us on the Cooper. At last the rain came and in the

torrents as is usual in Australia. We retired a reason-

able distance away to the sandhills or plateau behind

us. Soon everything around us was transformed into

a surging expanse of water. We were on one island

with our horses, cut off from our herd which was

scattered in groups here and there, grazing on similar

islands. The “blackfellows” had dispersed. The water

soon subsided again, but we remained stranded on our

island as the black, soggy flats were impassable and

the treacherous beds of many small creeks restricted

us on all sides. Now we were about to get to know our

wild brothers from a different perspective. From the

high elevation of our sandhills, we had a panoramic

view which included the river flats on both sides. One

day we could see that a large hunt was starting on our

cattle, who could only move with difficulty in the

muddy ground. The greedy hunters sought out the

largest animal, and an old well-fed steer fell under

their clubs and spears. Soon, however, they had better

sense and chose younger animals. Not only did they

kill the cattle, but they also cut out the knee joints and

sinews, and speared them. They were determined to

destroy them by all means. We had to watch this

hustle and bustle from a distance. They were no longer

scared of the crack of our guns which they saw could

not reach them, and answered every shot with scomn-

ful shouting. To our consolation they were sometimes

introduced to the character of these animals in a most

perceptible way when they came too close to the

tormented cattle. At last came the day when we could

rise up as revengers of the fallen. The earth was dry

enough to carry us and our horses.

We prepared ourselves withrifles and revolvers for

what would certainly be a hard fight. Although we

rode cautiously, our coming was betrayed in advance,

As we neared the camp of the blacks, it was a case of

“‘sauve qui peut’ or ‘everyone for themselves’. The

men, who were totally unconcerned about the women

and children, ran in great haste over the flat to the

creek, threw themselves into it, swam across and

disappeared behind the sandhills lying there. The

women, loaded up with children and all kinds of

Possessions, were soon rounded up. I believe the poor

creatures thought their last hour had come. I had as

little reason to vouch for the security of the men had

we caught them as I had to believe that one of my

people would raise a hand against a woman. We

indicated to them to turn back. Trembling and quietly

lamenting, they marched back to camp. There I or-

dered them to pull together a heap of brushwood and

to lay all their belongings (which were not many) on

top of it. A few weapons which, in the haste, were left

behind, I kept for myself. The remaining things —

carrying dishes; greasy nets; girdles; skin aprons and

coats; and, ‘last but not least’, the small knitted net

bags with magic bones and red ochre were all put on

138

the pyre. Without hesitation or resistance the people

obeyed my commands, then stood silently around.

The flames snaked upwards and reached their miser-

able possessions. Then, as if they thought that the

burning of these magic instruments must bring about

the death of relations, spouses, and children, there

Tose a wailing and moaning that certainly reached

their menfolk — their ‘protectors’ — who were secure

some distance away. They probably thought that their

wives and offspring whom they had so cowardly

abandoned were being killed by our guns and knives.

But the eyes of our blacks were fixed with concen-

trated attention on the glowing mass. Before we knew

what was happening, eager hands, careless of burns,

reached into the fire in order to save the amulets from

the fiery oven. What were these pains and wounding

compared to the certain death which was being pre-

pared for them and others? Nevertheless, justice had

to be done, and I stayed until those amulets were

tumed to ashes. Then we turned our horses and left the

place. I was curious and also worried about what

would follow that ‘auto da fe’ (punishment by burn-

ing) for the inhabitants. Although I made many enqui-

ries, I could never determine whether any person had

sometime later suffered a misfortune in connection

with that event. I can well say that I was relieved over

that. In retrospect, I could see that the behaviour of the

Aborigines was justified. What they had done was

based on their concept of what they must do as their

right and duty. They wanted to show the foreign

C. W. NOBBS

intruders who wished to use their hunting ground for

grazing ground that his cattle could not live where

their hunting animals must live and where they them-

selves should live. They used legitimate means. They

submitted themselves as long as they had to, then

made use of the favourable opportunities as they

came, What could be more right and understandable?

A few weeks later I tumed my back on the Cooper,

the bush and the wildemess forever, and drove my

herd down the Strzelecki. The floods had not arrived

there. There was scarce water at only a few places.

The worst that happened was when we crossed salt

lakes on the downward run. These lakes were tempt-

ing for the thirsty animals but dangerous. I had solved

by that expedition an important problem for the

settlement of Australia, and proved that even in

drought years it is possible to transport cattle over

long distances of desert and pastureless tracks to the

capital city of South Australia. This changed the

squatters’ thinking on pasture and acquisition, en-

abling practices which have already for some years

become a profitable reality.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author thanks Quentin Lynn for his assistance in

editing this paper and Connie Fréhlich for her assis-

tance with the German translation.

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fiir Gebildete. Leipzig: G. Freytag. Prague: F. Tempsky.

JUNG, C. E. 1884. ‘Australia: the Country and its Inhabitants.

Abridged from the larger work by Dr. C. E. Jung, formerly

Inspector of Schools, South Australia.’ London: W. Swann

Sonnenschein & Co.

JUNG, C. E. 1884-1885. ‘Deutsche Kolonien’. Leipzig: G.

Freytag.

JUNG. C.E.1885.*Australieen Tasmania’ Leipzig: H. Jacobs.

A NEW GENUS OF MARSUPIATE SPATANGOID ECHINOID FROM THE

MIOCENE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

K. J. MCNAMARA & D. J. BARRIE

Summary

The southern Australian Tertiary fossil record contains a relatively rich fauna of marsupiate

echinoids. The 10 species currently known are placed in five genera, and are supplemented by this

description of a new genus and species of marsupiate spatangoid echinoid, Hysteraster

paragrapsimus gen. et sp. nov. Collected from the late Early Miocene to early Middle Miocene

Morgan Limestone on the banks of the Murray River, South Australia, this new form is

characterised by the possession in the female of deeply sunken apical system and petals on the

aboral surface. The male of this genus can be distinguished from the female by its much smaller

gonopores and lack of sunken petals. The genus is placed in the family Brissidae and, as such, is the

first record of a marsupiate genus in this family.

A NEW GENUS OF MARSUPIATE SPATANGOID ECHINOID FROM THE MIOCENE OF

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

K. J. MCNAMARA & D. J. BARRIE

MCNAMARA, K. J. & BARRIE, D. J., 1992. A new genus of marsupiate spatangoid echinoid from the

Miocene of South Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(2): 139-147.

The southem Australian Tertiary fossil record contains a relatively rich fauna of marsupiate echinoids.

The 10 species currently known are placed in five genera, and are supplemented by this description of

anew genus and species of marsupiate spatangoid echinoid, Hysteraster paragrapsimus gen. et sp. nov.

Collected from the late Early Miocene to early Middle Miocene Morgan Limestone on the banks of the

Murray River, South Australia, this new form is characterised by the possession in the female of deeply

sunken apical system and petals on the aboral surface. The male of this genus can be distinguished from

the female by its much smaller gonopores and lack of sunken petals. The genus is placed in the family

Brissidae and, as such, is the first record of a marsupiate genus in this family.

K. J. McNamara, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Westem Australian Museum, Francis

Street, Perth, Western Australia 6000, and D. J. Barrie, PO.Box 227, Coonalpyn, South Australia 5265.

Manuscript received 7 April 1992.

The Tertiary rocks of southem Australia contain

one of the richest echinoid faunas of this age in the

world, with some 60 genera having been described

(McNamara in prep.). A characteristic feature of this

fauna is the presence of marsupiate echinoids - those

echinoids that bear depressions in their test that were

used for brooding the young. To date some 10

marsupiate species have been described from the

Tertiary rocks of southern Australia, all by Philip &

Foster (1971). At the time of their publication only

one other Tertiary marsupiate echinoid was known

from elsewhere in the world: Abatus pseudoviviparus

(Lambert), from the Paleocene of Madagascar. How-

ever, since then Roman (1983) has described a further

four species from the Middle Miocene and Pliocene

of western Europe. Of this total of 15 Tertiary species,

only three are spatangoids: Abatus pseudoviviparus,

and the two species of Peraspatangus that Philip &

Foster (1971) described from Australia, P. brevis,

from the Early Miocene, and P. depressus from the

Middle Miocene.

The discovery of two specimens by one ofus (J. B.)

of a hitherto undescribed spatangoid genus from the

late Early to early Middle Miocene Morgan Lime-

stone downstream of Waikerie on the banks of the

Murray River, therefore brings to three the number of

marsupiate genera of spatangoid echinoids now known

from the Tertiary. A single specimen in the collec-

tions of the Museum of Victoria is also referred to this

genus, as is a specimen from Wigley Reach, near

Overland Comer on the Murray River in the collec-

tions of the South Australian Museum. Although

lacking the sunken petals and apical system charac-

teristic of the females, the other test characters appear

to be sufficiently similar to indicate that this lone

specimen is the male of the species.

Stratigraphy

The Morgan Limestone, from which the type speci-

mens were collected, outcrops along the bank of the

Murray River in the vicinity of Morgan. In its type

section, six kilometres south of Morgan, the unit

teaches a thickness of about 30 m (Ludbrook 1961).

In some parts of the Murray Basin it is up to 100 m

thick (Ludbrook 1969). The Morgan Limestone

straddles the Early to Middle Miocene boundary in

age (Australian stages Batesfordian to Balcombian,

Lindsay 1985). The dominant echinoid is a

clypeasteroid, Monostychia sp. Other echinoids col-

lected from this unit include Phyllacanthus clarkii

(Chapman & Cudmore) (Philip 1963); Goniocidaris

murrayensis Chapman & Cudmore (Philip 1964); G.?

pentaspinosa Chapman & Cudmore (Philip 1964);

Delocidaris prunispinosa (Chapman & Cudmore)

(Philip 1964); Menocidaris compta Philip 1964;

Murravechinus paucituberculatus (Gregory) (Philip

1965); Cryptechinus humilior (Bitmer) (Philip 1969);

Ortholophus morganensis Philip 1969; O. pulchellus

(Bittner) (Philip 1969); Schizaster (Schizaster)

abductus Tate (McNamara & Philip 1980); Pericosmus

compressus (Duncan) (McNamara & Philip 1984);

Protenaster antiaustralis (Tate) (McNamara 1985);

Cyclaster archeri (Tenison Woods) (McNamaraet al.

1986); Eupatagus rotundus Duncan (Kruse & Philip

1985); and E. ludbrookae Kruse & Philip 1985.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material described in this paper is deposited in

the collections of the South Australian Musuem (SAM)

and the Museum of Victoria (MV). Measurements

140

were carried out using electronic callipers to a preci-

sion of +0.1 mm. Relative sizes of features of the test

are expressed as percentages of maximum test length

(%TL).

SYSTEMATIC PALAEONTOLOGY

Order Spatangoida Claus, 1876

Family BRISSIDAE Gray, 1855

Genus Hysteraster gen. nov.

Etymology

From the Greek hystera, meaning ‘womb’, and

aster, meaning “star”, alluding to the formation of the

marsupium from the star-shaped petals.

Diagnosis

Test moderately large, relatively narrow and with

slight anterior notch. Apical system set well anterior

of centre; deeply depressed in females. Petals short,

broad and deeply depressed in females, only slightly

depressed in males; do not extend to peripetalous

fasciole; pore pairs very reduced in size in anterior

rows of anterior petals; in all petals pore pairs absent

in vicinity of apical system. Apical system ethmolytic

with four gonopores. Peripetalous and subanal fascioles

present. Aboral tubercles much larger within

peripetalous fasciole than outside of it; those in

interambulacra 2b and 3a are the largest and most

sparsely distributed. Peristome subcentral. Plastron

small, with prominent posterior keel. Periplastronal

area wide.

Remarks

There seems little doubt that the deeply sunken

petals in Hysteraster, combined with a deeply sunken

apical system, functioned as a marsupium. This is

supported by the presence of large gonopores in the

female (see below). Hysteraster can be distinguished

from all other marsupiate spatangoids by its posses-

sion in the female of both deeply sunken apical system

and deeply sunken petals. In the living spatangoids

Abatus and Tripylus, which also have deeply sunken

petals, the apical system is not depressed at all. The

only spatangoid to share the combination of sunken

aboral ambulacra and apical system is the Australian

Tertiary genus Peraspatangus. However, in this ge-

nus just a simple depression is formed, comprising the

apical system, the adapical ambulacra and

interambulacra, whereas in Hysteraster the adapical

interambulacra are notsunken. Unlike Peraspatangus,

with its non-petaloid adapical ambulacra, pore pairs

are present in the marsupium in Hysteraster, although

they do degenerate in the vicinity of the apical system

and in the anterior rows of the anterior petals.

K. J. MCNAMARA & D. J. BARRIE

One of the specimens, SAM P24260 (Fig. 2) shows

the presence of a well developed subanal fasciole.

Consequently it is possible to place Hysteraster within

the Brissidae with confidence as a peripetalous fasciole

is also present. Furthermore, the overall appearence

of the test, the presence of a prominent plastronal

keel, a feature usually present in those genera pos-

sessing a subanal fasciole, and the development of

larger tubercles within the peripetalous fasciole, sup-

port the emplacement of Hysteraster within the

Brissidae. This is the first record of a marsupiate

genus within this family. Although a few other brissid

genera, such as Rhynobrissus, Macropneustes, Meoma

and Schizobrissus have sunken petals, they are much

shallower than in Hysteraster, and there is no evi-

dence that such forms were marsupiate.

The male Hysteraster can be distinguished from

other brissids by the nature of its relatively short,

broad, slightly sunken petals; its very anteriorly situ-

ated apical system; degenerate pore pairs in the

anterior row of the anterior petals and distinctive

aboral tuberculation. The only other genera that pos-

sess some of these characters are Migliorina and

Plesiopatagus. However, Hysteraster differs from

the former in possessing larger tubercles inside the

peripetalous fasciole, and from the latter in its posses-

sion of four, rather than two, gonopores. Furthermore,

neither of these two genera is known to be marsupiate,

One of the characteristic features of Hysteraster is

the failure of the anterior paired petals to reach the

peripetalous fasciole (Fig. 4). There are few other

spatangoids which share this attribute, but one is the

living marsupiate Tripylus. However, in the other

living marsupiate spatangoid, Abatus, the anterior

petals do reach the fasciole. An unusual feature of

Hysteraster is the presence of the enlarged primary

tubercles, not only on the interambulacra within the

peripetalous fasciole, but also in ambulacra II andIV

between the ends of the petals and the fasciole.

Selective pressure for the presence of primary tu-

bercles must have been particularly strong.

Hysteraster paragrapsimus sp. nov.

(Figs 1-4)

Etymology

From the Greek ‘paragrapsimos’ ,meaning ‘excep-

tional’, in reference to the extent of development of

the marsupium.

Material

Holotype: SAM P32322, from the late Early to

early Middle Miocene Morgan Limestone, Murray

River cliffs, downstream from Waikerie at Broken

Cliffs, South Australia.

Paratypes: SAM P32323 from the same horizon

and locality as the holotype; SAM P24260, probably

MIOCENE MARSUPIATE ECHINOID 141

FIGURE 1. Hysteraster paragrapsimus gen. et sp. nov. SAM P32322, holotype, 9 , from near Waikerie at Broken Cliffs,

Murray River, South Australia; Morgan Limestone; A and B stereopair of aboral surface; C, adoral surface; D, lateral view; all

x1.3.

from the same horizon at Wigley Reach, near Overland

Corner, Murray River cliffs; and MV 18039, probably

from the Morgan Limestone near Morgan, South Aus-

tralia. Mr F. Holmes (pers. comm.) informs us that no

locality details are entered for this specimen in the

catalogues of the Museum of Victoria. However, it is

registered with a suite of specimens that was collected

by F. A. Cudmore form the Morgan Limestone in the

vicinity of Morgan.

Diagnosis

As for the genus.

Description

Test moderately large, reaching up to 54mm TLin

females; male has test length of 30.5 mm; ovate, with

avery faint, broad anterior notch in some specimens

and broadly rounded ambitus; highest posteriorly in

interambulacrum 5, midway between apical system

and posterior ambitus; height 50-55 %TL in females,

55%TL in male; test longer than wide, widthranging

between 84-88%TL in females and 83%TL in male;

widest posterior of centre. Aboral surface plunges

steeply anteriorly (Figs 1D, 2E). Apical system

anteriorly eccentric, 27-30%TL from anterior

142

K. J. MCNAMARA & D, J. BARRIE

FIGURE 2. Hysteraster paragrapsimus gen. et sp.nov. SAM P24260, paratype, & , from Wigley Reach, near Overland Comer,

Murray River, South Australia; Morgan Formation; A and B, stereopair of aboral surface; C, posterior view; D, adoral surface;

E, lateral view; all x1.3.

ambitus in females, 32%TL in male and extremely

deeply sunken in marsupium in females, up to56%TH

from apex of test in paratype female; only slightly

sunken in male; ethmolytic, with four gonopores;

very large in females (Fig. 1 A,B); very small in male,

one-seventh the female width; anterior pair in female

circular, in holotype 1.3%TL in diameter; posterior

pair pear-shaped, long axis 2%TL; madreporite ex-

tends slightly beyond posterior gonopores (Fig. 4).

Ambulacrum II narrow and not sunken close to

apical system, becomes a little wider and very slightly

sunken as crosses anterior ambitus; pore pairs ex-

tremely small; number not known. Petals relatively

short, broad, although narrowing distally, and open

distally; distal one-third not sunken; proximal two-

thirds deeply sunken in females, plunging to deeply

sunken apical system (Figs 1A,B; 2A,B; 3A,B; 5);

slightly sunken in male (Fig. 3G). Anterior petals

straight, broad, width 8-9%TL; diverge anteriorly at

about 150°; short, 18—19%TL; bear up to 12 pore

pairs within petals, those in ambulacra IIb and [Va

very reduced in size (Fig. 4), about one-third size of

those in IIa and IVb; pore pairs degenerate at about

one-quarter petal length from apical system in poste-

MIOCENE MARSUPIATE ECHINOID 143

FIGURE 3. Hysteraster paragrapsimus gen. et sp. nov. A-D, SAM P32323, paratype, 2 , from near Waikerie at Broken Cliffs,

Murray River, South Australia; Morgan Limestone; A and B, stereopair of aboral surface; C, adoral surface; D, lateral view.

E-H, MV P18039, paratype , 4, probably from the Morgan Limestone near Morgan, South Australia; E, posterior view;

F, lateral view; G, aboral surface; H, adoral surface; all x1.3.

144

rior row; pores slightly elongate proximally, becom-

ing circular distally, not conjugate. Posterior petals

longer than anterior, being 31-35%TL,; bear up to 17

pore pairs; pores in each poriferous tract of similar

size; reduced adapically; slightly broader than ante-

rior petals, being 10-11%TL; petals diverge posteri-

orly at about 50°.

Peripetalous fasciole quite narrow, about 1.5%TL

in width; not indented between anterior and posterior

petals; runs along the ambitus anteriorly, and close to

the ambitus opposite anterior petals; both anterior and

posterior petals fail to reach the fasciole (Fig. 4).

Subanal fasciole subtends a chevron shape outline

(Fig. 2C) thatis 35%TL in width; fasciole twice width

of peripetalous fasciole.

Aboral tubercles very variable in size; outside of

the peripetalous fasciole towards the ambitus very

densely distributed and small, up to a diameter of 0.3

mm; within the peripetalous fasciole in interambulacra

1, 4, 2a, 3b and 5 tubercles larger and more sparsely

distributed, up to a diameter of 0.9 mm; these are also

present in ambulacra II and IV between ends of petals

and peripetalous fasciole; in interambulacra 2b and 3a

they are larger still adapically (Fig. 1A,B) and even

more sparsely distributed, with up to eight crenulate

tubercles that reach 1.25 mm in diameter.

Adoral surface gently convex. Peristome slightly

sunken; width 15—18%TL; anteriorsituated 28-32%TL

from anterior ambitus (Fig. 2D). Phyllode comprises

6 small unipores in ambulacra I, I, IV and V; 3 in

ambulacrum II. Labrum short, 5%TL; not projecting

anteriorly across peristome. Plastron narrow, length

40%TL; width 25—28%TL; almost flat, but forming a

prominent keel posteriorly (Fig. 3E), Periplastronal

area wide (Figs 1C; 2D; 3C,H), upto 17%TL. Periproct

oval, long axis vertical (Fig. 3E), 15%TL. Adoral

tuberculation relatively sparse, but becoming more

dense adambitally; tubercles up to 0.8 mm in diam-

eter.

Discussion

Most of the slight differences that are observed

between the three female specimens and the solemale

probably relate to the size difference between the

females and the male, the latter being only slightly

more than half the size of the former. These differ-

ences include relative test height, test width and

position of the apical system. Whether or not the size

difference itself is a sexually dimorphic feature is not

clear. While a greater range of specimens would be

required before this could be ascertained, Kier (1969)

and Smith (1984) have noted that female echinoids

are often larger than males,

In addition to the obvious reflection of the sexual

dimorphism, namely the presence of the marsupium

of the female and its absence in the male, the differ-

ence in gonopore size between the females and the

male is another sexually dimorphic feature. Such

K. J. MCNAMARA & D. J. BARRIE

dimorphism has been documented in some echinoid

species by anumber of authors, e.g., in Pentedium by

Kier (1967), in Echinocyamus and Oligopygus by

Kier (1969), in Echinocardium by David et al. (1988)

and in Hemiaster by Jagt & Michels (1990); see also

Emlet (1989). However, whereas the difference in

gonopore diameter in these non-marsupiate forms

never differs by more than a factor of two, in

Hysteraster, and in the other Australian Tertiary

marsupiate spatangoid Peraspatangus, it is much

greater, presumably to accomodate the larger eggs

produced by these brooding species.

Wray & Raff (1991) have noted how echinoids that

produce the largest eggs are brooding species, egg

size ranging between 1 and 2 mm in diameter. Emlet

(1989) has observed that marsupiate echinoids in

general have particularly large gonopores, relative to

their body size, presumably to accommodate the large

eggs. The gonopores of female H. paragrapsimus

reach up to 1.2 mm in diameter. In Peraspatangus

brevis Philip & Foster, 1971 the female gonopores

are nearly four times the diameter of the male gonop-

ores (Philip & Foster 1971, pl.133, fig. 4). In

Hysteraster paragrapsimus it is even greater, the

gonopores in the larger female (Fig. 1A,B) being

about seven times the diameter of those of the male.

However, this is in part a function of the differences

in test size between the male and female forms. Emlet

(1989) has noted that there is a positive relationship

between increasing test size and increasing gonopore

size. For instance he has shown how in males of the

living marsupiate echinoid Amphineustes lorioli

there is an approximate doubling in size of the gono-

pores as the test length doubles. In females the

allometric coefficient is even greater (see Emlet

1989, figure 3). In Hysteraster paragrapsimus the

extent of increase in females is likely to be as great.

Although Hysteraster paragrapsimus and the two

species of Peraspatangus are the only spatangoids

that possess a marsupium that is constructed from a

combination of sunken petals and apical system,

there is one feature in which the two genera differ

from one another. In Peraspatangus the ambulacra in

the marsupium do not possess any pore pairs. While

they are present in the marsupium in Hysteraster they

are very much reduced in the vicinity of the apical

system and in the anterior rows of the anterior petals

(see Fig. 4).

There is some difference in the degree of develop-

ment of the marsupium in the female specimens of

Hysteraster paragrapsimus. In the paratype SAM

P32323 the marsupium attains a depth that is nearly

twice that of the marsupium of the holotype. How-

ever, as the two specimens are virtually identical in all

other respects, it is considered that this difference

merely reflects intraspecific variation. The smaller

female specimen (SAM P24260) has a marsupium

MIOCENE MARSUPIATE ECHINOID 145

FIGURE 4. Drawing of pore pairs in petals of Hysteraster paragrapsimus gen. et sp. nov., holotype, 9 , SAM P32322. Note

reduction in size of pore pairs adapically; large gonopores; and failure of pore pairs to reach the peripetalous fasciole.

that is similar in depth to that of the holotype, but the

adapical interambulacra surrounding the marsupium

are more swollen in this smaller specimen, so enhanc-

ing the effective depth of the marsupium.

Functional morphology of Hysteraster

Certain characteristics of the test indicate that

Hysteraster shares the distinction, along with the

living spatangoids Abatus and Tripylus , of being the

only echinoderms known to brood their young while

buried in the sediment. The existence of a well

developed peripetalous fasciole, combined with the

wedged shape profile of the test indicate that

Hysteraster lived completely buried in the sediment.

Peripetalous fascioles are a prerequisite for spatangoids

that completely burrow in the sediment, while

McKinney (1988) has observed that a wedged shape

test is often found in spatangoids that burrow in

telatively fine-grained sediments, such as those in

which Hysteraster are preserved. Other brissids that,

like Hysteraster, possess larger primary spines on the

aboral surface are interpreted as being shallow bur-

rowers, with their aboral surface just covered by

sediment (McNamara 1991). Further evidence that

these genera brooded their young while buried in the

sediment is afforded by the preservation of tiny

juveniles in the petals of two specimens of the Paleo-

cene species Abatus pseudoviviparus (see Lambert

1933, pl. 4, figs 5-7). Such preservation could only

occur if there was no disturbance to the specimen after

its death, such as would have been the situation with

a specimen completely buried by sediment — it was

‘preadapted’ to being fossilised.

In the case of these burrowing marsupiate

spatangoids, following their ‘birth’ the young echi-

noids would have nestled in the deep marsupium on

the aboral surface of the test (Fig. 5). This method of

brooding could have provided the young with excep-

tional protection from predators for a number of

reasons. In addition to the presence of the deep

marsupium, the tent of mucus that the peripetalous

fasciole would have throw over the marsupium would

also have protected the young echinoids. Further-

more, the larger spines that arched over the petals

from interambulacra 2 and 3 would have provided a

protective advantage. Orientation of the prominently

146

crenulate tubercles provides evidence that the spines

would not have extended perpendicular to the test, but

at a very low angle, almost tangential, to the surface

of the test across the petals. Finally, the young echi-

noids would also have been protected from predators

by the sediment that would have covered the entire

aboral surface of the test.

The absence of pore pairs in the vicinity of the

apical system in Hysteraster paragrapsimus and re-

duction in size of the pore pairs in the anterior row of

the anterior petals, combined with the absence of pore

pairs in the marsupium in the two species of

Peraspatangus, suggest that their reduction may be

related to the presence of brooded juveniles in the

marsupium. Brooding in ambulacral marsupia can

only be effective if tube feet are reduced in size to

allow sufficient space in the petals to accomodate the

juveniles. If this is the case then it is likely that the

brooded juveniles were concentrated in the area im-

mediately surrounding the apical system, along the

anterior part of the anterior petals, and perhaps in the

central part of the posterior petals, between the pore

pairs. It is worth considering whether the presence of

reduced pore pairs in the anterior row of the anterior

paired petals in other spatangoids, such as

Atelospatangus, Paramaretia, Nacospatangus and

K. J. MCNAMARA & D. J. BARRIE

FIGURE 5. Restored profile of Hysteraster paragrapsimus

gen. etsp.nov. @ , showing course of peripetalous fasciole,

distribution of primary tubercles and extent of maximum

known development of marsupium. Spine orientation based

on data from tubercles; spine length conjectural.

Agassizia, is indicative of these echinoids also being

brooders.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Neville Pledge of the South Austra-

lian Museum for the loan of specimens, Frank Holmes for his

help with information and Kris Brimmell for photography.

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PHILIP, G. M. 1963. The Tertiary echinoids of south-eastem

Australia. I. Introduction and Cidaridae (1). Proceedings

of the Royal Society of Victoria 76: 181-236.

MIOCENE MARSUPIATE ECHINOID 147

PHILIP, G. M. 1964. The Tertiary echinoids of south-eastem

Australia. II. Cidaridae (2). Proceedings of the Royal

Society of Victoria 77: 433-4717.

PHILIP, G. M. 1965. The Tertiary echinoids of south-eastem

Australia. III Stirodonta, Aulodonta, and Camarodonta (1).

Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 78: 181-196.

PHILIP, G. M. 1969. The Tertiary echinoids of south-eastem

Australia. IV. Camarodonta (2). Proceedings of the Royal

Society of Victoria 82: 233-275.

PHILIP, G. M. & FOSTER, R. J. 1971. Marsupiate Tertiary

echinoids from south-eastern Australia and their zoogeo-

graphic significance. Palaeontology 14: 666-695.

ROMAN, J. 1983. Echinides ‘marsupiaux’ (Fam.

Temnopleuridae) dans le Néogéne de |’Ouest Européen.

Annales de Paléontologie 69: 13-42.

SMITH, A. B. 1984. ‘Echinoid Palaeobiology’. George Allen

and Unwin: London.

WRAY, G. A. & RAFF, R. A. 1991. The evolution of devel-

opmental strategy in marine invertebrates. Trends in Ecol-

ogy and Evolution 6: 45-50.

NOTES ON FRECKLED DUCK STICTONETTA NAEVOSA SHOT AT

BOOL LAGOON, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 1980

F. I, NORMAN & P. HORTON

Summary

Freckled ducks Stictonetta naevosa (n = 164) were collected at Bool Lagoon, South Australia,

following the opening of the 1980 waterfowl season. Birds were generally sexed and aged, and

routine body measurements taken. Wherever possible, the identity of foods, and ectoparasites and

endoparasites, was established, and moult and reproductive details were obtained from subsamples.

Most ducks were adult; body masses were not low and many birds had extensive fat deposits. In this

sample, the birds showed no reproductive activity but maintained body weight and fat reserves,

apparently by eating a range of plant and animal foods. Counts and surveys of hunters’ activities

suggest that Bool Lagoon is a refuge for birds which disperse from normal breeding areas in times

of drought.

NOTES ON FRECKLED DUCK STICTONETTA NAEVOSA SHOT AT BOOL

LAGOON, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 1980

F.I. NORMAN & P. HORTON

NORMAN, F. I. & HORTON, P. 1993. Notes on freckled duck Stictonetta naevosa shot at Bool

Lagoon, South Australia, 1980. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 26(2): 149-152.

Freckled ducks Stictonetta naevosa (n = 164) were collected at Bool Lagoon, South Australia,

following the opening of the 1980 waterfowl season. Birds were generally sexed and aged, and routine

body measurements taken. Wherever possible, the identity of foods, and ectoparasites and endopara-

sites, was established, and moult and reproductive details were obtained from subsamples. Most ducks

were adult; body masses were not low and many birds had extensive fat deposits. In this sample, the birds

showed no reproductive activity but maintained body weight and fat reserves, apparently by eating a

range of plant and animal foods. Counts and surveys of hunters’ activities suggest that Bool Lagoon is

a refuge for birds which disperse from normal breeding areas in times of drought.

F. I. Norman, Department of Conservation and Environment, PO Box 137, Heidelberg, Victoria 3084,

and P. Horton, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript

received 20 May 1992.

The freckled duck Stictonetta naevosa is generally

distributed in southern Australia, particularly in the

south-east and south-west. In South Australia the

species is relatively rare, being found primarily in the

Murray Valley, Bulloo and Lake Eyre basins, but

showing occasional peaks of abundance in other areas

(Parker et al. 1985, Marchant & Higgins 1990).

Indeed, much of the population in eastern Australia

may originate from the Lake Eyre basin itself (Parker

et al. 1985). At times, numbers increase dramatically

on some more southern wetlands which are used as

refuges rather than breeding habitat. When such con-

centrations coincide with the annual open season on

waterfowl, in South Australia as elsewhere in south-

eastern Australia, freckled duck become an illegal

part of the harvest. Relatively large numbers of freck-

led duck have been killed during the earlier parts of

some open seasons (e.g. in Victoria, Corrick 1980,

Corrick 1982, Norman & Norris 1982; in South

Australia, Reid 1980), creating concern for the popu-

lation of this poorly understood species.

Bool Lagoon, South Australia, a state game reserve

of 2 690 ha, has ca 2 400 ha of open water when full

(the adjacent Hacks Lagoon Conservation Park holds

some 130 ha of additional wetland). On the opening

day of the 1980 waterfowl season (1 March), there

were up to 5 000 freckled duck present in the area

(Parker et al. 1985). This note provides a summary of

measurements and details of reproductive activity,

parasites and diet obtained from 164 freckled duck

carcasses collected at Bool Lagoon on the opening

day. When collections were made, Triglochinprocera

was growing through most of the open water and

freckled ducks were mainly in or around a large stand

of Melaleuca halmaturorum, itself inundated by

water.

METHODS

Carcasses of freckled duck (164) were collected in

and around Bool Lagoon on 1 March 1980, either

from hunters directly or from the water where they

had been left. The birds were dried and frozen until

later examination and or preparation as study skins

(132). Once thawed, sexes and ‘ages’ were deter-

mined for most birds using gonad examination and

the presence or absence of juvenile tail feathers.

Many birds (119) were weighed (to 1g), and total

body length and wing span (to 1mm, carcass relaxed

and extended), wing chord length (to 1mm, gently

flattened), length of central tail feathers and tarsus,

bill length (feathers to tip) and bill width (atnares) (all

to0.1mm) obtained. Some birds (56) were also exam-

ined for the presence of moult in primary and second-

ary tracts, as well as tail and body tracts generally

(here moult was considered as absent, 1; slight —

moderate, 2; heavy, 3); wear of primary feathers was

also scored (1 —4, following Braithwaite & Norman

1974). Gonads from a sample of the freckled ducks

(92) were drawn to scale; testes lengths were deter-

mined from the scale drawings (to 0.5mm), and

follicle size in ovaries classified as developed (>3

mm) or not (see Norman & Norris 1982). Oviducts

were classified as straight or convoluted. Fat deposits

(subcutaneous, peritoneal, anal or thoracic) were

considered collectively and assigned to a category (0

=none, 4= heavy), and the extent of skull ossification

was also determined in 58 birds. Body masses, total

lengths and wing spans of most birds were obtained

within six months of collection, but some freckled

ducks were not weighed and measured until 15 — 24

months later. This later sample was used to identify

mensural changes under storage conditions.

150

Ectoparasites were collected from some carcasses

by brushing. Food material was removed from 39

gizzards (few birds had complete food items in

oesophagi), separated into recognisable taxa and sub-

mitted, preserved, for identification. Obvious endo-

parasites were also collected and preserved, and later

identified.

In statistical comparisons below, p values of 0.05

have been accepted as significant unless otherwise

indicated and variances examined for equality.

RESULTS

General

Of the 140 freckled duck aged, 128 (91.4%) were

considered adult and 12 (8.6%) immature. Of the 146

birds sexed, 93 (63.7 %) were males, a significant

departure from unity (X= 10.959, df1,p<0.001) and

one more obvious in the adults examined, where 77

(68.7 %) of 112 were males (X? = 15.750, df 1, p<<

0.001). However, only two of the 10 birds considered

immature were males. Skull ossification was com-

plete in the 58 birds examined and fat deposits (as-

sessed in 89 birds) were usually extensive (54 birds,

60.7 %); there were no birds without fat present

(Table 1). There was no significant difference in the

extent of fat assessed between adult males or females

(Wilcoxon rank sum test).

TABLE 1. Fat deposits in freckled duck examined from Bool

Lagoon, South Australia, 1 March 1980. (1 =slight,4 =heavy;

a= includes unaged and or unsexed birds).

Category of deposit

1 2 3 4 Total

Sex/age

Male -—adult 15 2 9 23 49

— immature 0

Female — adult 9 2 3 8 22

— immature 2 3 5

All birds* 31 4 16 38 89

F, I. NORMAN & P. HORTON

Measurements and body mass details for adult

male and female freckled duck are summarised in

Table 2, as are data from all birds examined. Adult

male birds had significantly longer wings than adult

females (t= 6.601, df 94, p < 0.0001), were longer

(t = 8.9297, df 39.4, p < 0.0001) and had a greater

wingspan (t = 3.2377, df 100, p < 0.001). The males

were also heavier than females (t = 9.7091, df 93, p=

0.0001), had longer (t= 9.5095, df92, p < 0.0001) and

wider (¢ = 4.2004, df 94, p = 0.0001) bills, and longer

tarsi (t = 2.7128, df 93, p = 0.0080). Tail lengths,

however, were not significantly different. In neither

males nor females were bill widths well correlated

with bill lengths. Samples of immature males were

insufficient for comparison with adults; however,

immature females were shorter (t= 2.3253, df 22.4, p

= 0.0295) than adults. Of the 33 adult female oviducts

examined, 30 were convoluted and one slightly con-

voluted; seven of the eight females considered imma-

ture had straight oviducts. None of the 49 ovaries

included enlarged follicles. Right testes lengths aver-

aged 7.89 +s.d. 1.95 mm (n = 43) and the mean left

testis length was 10.18 + 2.22 mm (n = 42). In adult

males, respective lengths were 8.11 + 1.95 (n = 33)

and 10.61 + 2.00 (n = 32) mm.

For adult males, body masses of those weighed late

(mean 1 049.1 + 57.4, n= 15), were similar to those

of birds weighed nearer the time of collection (1 059.4

+81.7,51), and wing spans also showed no significant

difference (t-tests) between the two groups. However,

mean total body length was significantly higher (¢ =

3.0651, df 66, p = 0.0022) in those adult males

measured earlier (575.1 + 15.6, n = 54) rather than

later (561.2 + 15.6, n = 14). In adult females, there

were no such differences.

Wing wear for the 56 birds examined is summarised

in Table 3. Few birds of any age or sex group had

heavily worm primaries and, of the 49 adults exam-

ined, 34 (69.4 %) had wings showing slight to mod-

erate wear. None of the ducks (58) had primary or

secondary feathers in moult (absent or growing), only

TABLE 2. Measurements and body mass details (mean + s.d., range, sample size) for freckled duck collected at Bool Lagoon,

South Australia, 1 March 1980. (a = includes unaged and/or unsexed birds).

Adult female All birds*

Adult male

Body mass (g) 1057.0 (76.55; 900-1230; 66)

Wing length (mm) 228.3 (6.6; 209-242; 65)

Total length (mm) 572.2 (16.0; 530-610; 68)

Wingspan (mm) 803.9 (33.4; 715-866; 70)

Tarsus (mm)

Bill length (mm)

Bill width (mm)

Tail length (mm)

44.4 (2.5; 38.0-48.0; 65)

56.1 (2.2; 46.2-61.0; 64)

16.3 (1.1; 11.8-17.9; 65)

68.5 (2.5; 63.2-77.6; 50)

889.6 (79.4; 722-1064; 29)

219.2 (5.3; 206-232; 31)

524.3 (27.8; 420-600; 31)

781.8 (28.6; 730-840; 32)

43.0 (2.2; 37.2-46.7; 30)

51.6 (2.0; 48.0-56.9; 30)

15.4 (0.6; 13.9-17.2; 31)

67.6 (2.3; 64.2-73.2; 27)

989.9 (119.4; 570-1230; 119)

225.9 (7.8; 206-243; 138)

552.9 (32.1; 420-610; 131)

793.7 (35.8; 670-866; 133)

43.8 (2.5; 37.0-48.9; 142)

54.5 (3.1; 46.2-61.0; 141)

16.2 (1.1; 11.8-20.5; 143)

68.0 (2.4; 63.2-77.6; 103)

NOTES ON FRECKLED DUCK 151

eight (of 58) birds had any tail moult but 55 of 60

birds examined for body tract moult showed slight to

heavy amounts of replacement underway.

Foods

Food material was sorted into major taxa. Small

molluscs (Planorbidae: Glyptophysa (= Physastra),

Amerianna, Segmentina, Gyraulus and Isidorellaspp.;

Hydrobiidae: Fluvidona sp.; Viviparidae: Notopala

sp.; Lymnaeidae: Lymnaea sp.; the sphaeriid bivalve

Sphaerium tasmanicum), insects and larvae, ostra-

cods (including Candonocypris novazealandae), am-

phipods and cladocerans were present inmostsamples,

which also included Chara sporocarps, seeds of

Chenopodium spp., Sarcocornia quinqueflora and

seeds of composites, graminids and angiosperms.

Parasites

Feather lice, the amblycercan Trinoton

querquedulae (commonly found on waterfowl) and

the ischnoceran Acidoproctus moschatae (previously

recorded only from the red-crested pochard Netta

rufina,R. Palma, pers.comm., although Acidoproctus

sp. has been collected from Stictonetta examined in

Victoria, Van Mourik & Norman 1985), were found

on some birds, and the trematode Echinoparyphium

sp. in others.

Discussion

Freckled duck shot at Bool Lagoon in 1980 and

examined in this study were considered to be prima-

rily adult birds, which may have previously bred

(females), although at the time of collection they had

apparently regressed or undeveloped gonads (male

testes were of similar size to those from freckled duck

shot in Victoria, Norman & Norris 1982; in that

sample the testes showed minimal reproductive activ-

ity). Most birds also showed well-developed fat de-

posits, and had a body mass similar (and as high) as

those examined in Victoria in 1981, reflecting good

physiological condition. As in that study, few ducks

from Bool Lagoon had missing or growing tail feath-

ers, primary and secondary feathers were not heavily

abraded (and had, for the most part, apparently been

replaced some time before the opening day, 1 March),

and the incidence of body moult was extensive.

Norman & Norris (1982) concluded that the Victorian

sample represented birds congregating at a more

permanent wetland, one used as a refuge during

drought elsewhere. Freckled duck present at Bool

Lagoon in March 1980 were apparently behaving ina

similar fashion, concentrating outside the normal

breeding range, in a semi-permanent wetland which

provided drought refuge.

The freckled duck is largely sedentary but, in drier

seasons, as habitat is reduced they disperse to more

TABLE 3. Wing wear in freckled ducks collected at Bool

Lagoon, South Australia, 1 March 1980.

Wing wear category

1 2 3 4 Total

Age/sex group

Adult male 7 10 4 3 24

Immature male 1 1 2

Adult female 2 2 #4 1 9

Immature female 1 1 1 3

Unaged/unsexed 2 8 7 1 18

Adults 10 20 14 5 49

Immatures 3 1 1 1 6

All birds 13 21 16 6 56

coastal refuge areas like Bool Lagoon (e.g. Frith

1982, Marchant & Higgins 1990). In Victoria, the

reporting rate for this species was highest in early

summer, and there were no records from May to July

(Emison et al. 1987). In South Australia too, freckled

duck tend to increase in south-eastern wetlands dur-

ing summer-autumn periods (L. Best, pers. comm.).

However, such dispersal is irregular in southern Aus-

tralia. Bag surveys conducted between 1972 and 1979

(Braithwaite & Norman 1974, 1976, 1977, 1982;

Nonman et al. 1982) showed that few ( <1% ) of the

ducks examined were freckled duck. However, in

1980 the proportion increased to 4.5% in Victoria

(Norman & Norris 1982) and at Bool Lagoon too,

numbers of freckled duck, as reflected in counts and

hunter surveys, were greatest in 1980 (L. Best, pers.

comm.). These irruptions apparently follow exten-

sive inland flooding and subsequent drying periods.

Parker et al. (1985) considered that there was a 5-9

year cycle in irruptions, related to events within the

Lake Eyre basin (rather than the Lachlan—

Murrumbidgee basin, cf. Frith 1982); a major flood

occurred in the Eyre basin in 1976, and a minor one in

1977 (Marchant & Higgins 1990). From mid to late

1979, freckled duck numbers increased in south-

eastern Australia and many were shot in the 1981

season (Norman & Norris 1982). Numbers at Bool

Lagoon increased from September 1979 onwards, and

by March 1980 there were up to 5 000 freckled duck

present, of which at least 436 (and perhaps as many as

ca 1 000) were shot (L. Best, pers. comm.; L. C.

Jolley, in litt.). Despite this, some 200-300 were

present between April and June but few in subsequent

seasons (L. Best, pers. comm.).

In the Bool Lagoon area at least, the freckled duck,

a specialist feeder (Marchant & Higgins 1990), was

able to maintain body weight and fat reserves by

taking a range of foods from both plant and animal

sources. The species, whose status is unresolved,

should be protected at such refuge wetlands.

152

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Data presented here were derived from freckled duck

examined, in part at least, by others. We thank the late

S. A. Parker (then Curator of Birds, South Australian Mu-

seum) who initiated this study. He collected carcasses (with

the assistance of South Australian National Parks and Wildlife

Service staff), and organised the preparation of specimens

and collection of data. We also thank L. W. Braithwaite and I.

Mason, CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, for provid-

ing details of moult, wing wear and other measures for some

birds. Ectoparasites were determined by K. C. Emerson

(Smithsonian Institution, Washington), endoparasites by the

F, I. NORMAN & P. HORTON

late L. M. Angel (South Australian Museum), and food mate-

rial determined by H. Aston (National Herbarium, Victoria),

B. J. McHenry (South Australian Museum), B. Smith (Mu-

seum of Victoria), and J. Walker (Medical Parisitology Unit,

Westmead Hospital, NSW).

We are grateful to L. Best, National Parks and Wildlife

Service, Department of Environment and Planning, South

Australia, for the provision of data regarding numbers of

freckled ducks found in hunters’ bags, or discarded, at Bool

Lagoon in various years. The late Shane Parker, S. V. Briggs

and R. T. Kingsford provided useful comments on an earlier

draft of this note.

REFERENCES

BRAITHWAITE, L. W. & NORMAN, F. I. 1974. The 1972

open season on waterfowl in south-eastern Australia. CSIRO

Division of Wildlife Research Technical Paper no. 29.

BRAITHWAITE, L. W. & NORMAN, F. I. 1976. The 1973

and 1974 open seasons on waterfowl in south-eastem

Australia. CSIRO Division of Wildlife Research Technical

Memorandum no. 11.

BRAITHWAITE, L. W. & NORMAN, F. I. 1977. The 1975

and 1976 open seasons on waterfowl in south-eastem

Australia. CSIRO Division of Wildlife Research Technical

Memorandum no. 13.

BRAITHWAITE, L. W. & NORMAN, F. I. 1982. The 1977

and 1978 open seasons on waterfowl in south-eastem

Australia. CS/RO Division of Wildlife Research Technical

Memorandum no. 15.

CORRICK, A. H. 1980. Freckled duck on lakes in the

Westem District, Victoria. Australian Bird Watcher 8:

254-255.

CORRICK, A. H. 1982. Records of freckled duck in Victoria

from December 1980 to July 1981 and of the number shot

on opening day of the 1981 duck season. Australian Bird

Watcher 9: 260-268.

EMISON, W. B., BEARDSELL, C. M., NORMAN, F. L,

LOYN,R. H. & BENNETT, S. C. 1987. ‘Atlas of Victorian

Birds’. RAOU and Department of Conservation, Forests

and Lands: Melboume.

FRITH, H. J. 1982. ‘Waterfowl in Australia’. (Rev. edition).

Angus and Robertson: Sydney.

MARCHANT, S. & HIGGINS, P. J. 1990. ‘The Handbook of

Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds’. Vol. 1.

Oxford University Press: Melbourne.

NORMAN, F. I., BRIGGS, S. V. & BRAITHWAITE, L. W.

1982. Some results from the 1979, 1980, and 1981 opening

day surveys of waterfowl hunters in New South Wales and

Victoria. CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Rangelands Re-

search Technical Memorandum no. 20.

NORMAN, F. I. & NORRIS, K. C. 1982. Some notes on

freckled duck shot in Victoria, Australia, 1981. Wildfowl

33: 81-87.

PARKER, S. A., ECKERT, H. J. & RAGLESS, G. B. 1985.

‘An Annotated Checklist of the Birds of South Australia.

Part 2A: Waterfowl’. South Australian Omithological As-

sociation: Adelaide.

REID, N. 1980. Requiem for the freckled duck. The Bird

Observer no. 581: 44.

VAN MOURIK, S. C. & NORMAN, F. I. 1985. Ectoparasites

of some waterfowl (Anatidae) from Victoria. Occasional

Papers, Museum of Victoria 2: 1-3.

DISCOVERY OF A POPULATION OF THE RARE SCINCID LIZARD,

TILIQUA ADELAIDENSIS (PETERS).

The scincid lizard Tiliqua adelaidensis, known as

the Adelaide or pygmy bluetongue lizard, is probably

the most enigmatic Australian reptile. It has been

regarded as endangered if not extinct, with the last

specimens being seen 33 years ago. Wereport here on

the recent collection of specimens of Tiliqua

adelaidensis which show that a wild population still

exists. Discovery of this population will enable the

gathering of the first data on the habits and ecology of

this elusive lizard.

Tiliqua adelaidensis has been known from a total of

only 20 specimens (G. Shea, pers. comm.) accumu-

lated over 130 years. It was described as Cyclodus

adelaidensis (Peters, 1863) from two specimens sent

by Richard Schomburgk to the Berlin Museum, which

holds five additional specimens. Other specimens

found their way to the Natural History Museum,

London (one), and the Naturhistorisches Museum,

Vienna (three), while the South Australian Museum

held eight specimens and the Museum of Victoria one.

The species was seldom mentioned subsequent to

its description, and was apparently already very rare

by the 1920’s. Waite (1929) doubted that the species

occurred in South Australia or even whether it was a

distinct species and not a misidentified juvenile of one

of the larger species. The species has been reported

only twice this century. During the 1940s two speci-

mens were donated to the S.A. Museum by a Burra

resident, while the mostrecent sighting was at Marion,

where two individuals were collected in October 1959

(both finds extensively discussed by Ehmann, 1982).

The extant specimens provide morphological in-

formation and some dietary data (Ehmann, 1982) but

little else. In spite of Waite’s doubts, the species is a

valid but dwarfish member of the genus Tiliqua. Its

dentition is distinctive (Shea & Hutchinson, 1992),

the reduced dark patterning of scattered longitudinal

series of irregular small blotches is unlike that of any

other member of the genus and T. adelaidensis also

shows weaker development of the specialised occipi-

tal and nuchal scalation typical of other, larger species

in the genus. The diet assessed from preserved speci-

mens appears to include both invertebrates and plant

material (Ehmann, 1982).

A crucial deficiency has been the lack of any or

adequate locality and habitat data accompanying the

specimens. The few known localities extend from the

Adelaide Plains and Mt Lofty Ranges northwards as

far as Burra (Ehmann, 1982; Hutchinson, 1992; G.

Shea, pers.comm.). About half of the specimens have

no precise data, while some localities associated with

specimens may be no more than addresses of the

consigners of the specimens. All localities are from a

small area of South Australia lying between the

Adelaide Plains (Marion) and the North Mt Lofty

Ranges (Burra). The type specimens were reportedly

from ‘stony, sandy terrain’ but it is not clear whether

they were collected near Schomburgk’s property,

Buchsfelde, west of Gawler, or from further afield.

Meagre data accompanying specimens from Dry

Creek railway station and Marion, both in Adelaide’s

suburbs, suggest a semi-fossorial way of life; at both

localities the specimens were collected from cryptic

retreats, under stones in the case of Dry Creek and

from a burrow under a shed floor in the case of

Marion. Unfortunately these localities are highly

modified, revealing nothing of the species’ natural

habitat.

During the late 1960s to early 1980s vigorous

attempts were made torelocate T. adelaidensis (partly

documented by Ehmann, 1982). These attempts met

with no success, and recent assessments of the spe-

cies’ status have been pessimistic. Prior to the discov-

eries reported here, it was becoming regarded as the

the only one of over 700 Australian reptile species to

have become extinct since European settlement (Wil-

son & Knowles, 1988; Hutchinson, 1992; Ehmann,

1992; Cogger, 1992). Extensive vegetation clear-

ance, urbanisation, habitat modification generally

and even mouse plagues have been blamed for the

species’ decline (Ehmann, 1982; 1992; Kennedy,

1990; Hutchinson, 1992).

The new specimens

The discovery of the population was made under

unusual circumstances since the first specimens were

found dead after having been taken by predators.

The first was collected on 14 October, 1992, by GA

and JRWR while they were engaged in the joint

Department of Environment & Land Managenment

and South Australian Museum vertebrate survey of

the South Olary Plains region. They collected a

recently road-killed eastern brown snake (Pseudonaja

textilis, Elapidae; SAMA R40688) which upon dis-

section in the field was found to contain a nearly

perfect Tiliqua adelaidensis (R40687). The precise

locality is obtainable from the South Australian

Museum Herpetology Section, but is in the general

vicinity of Burra, the area from which two of the

previously collected specimens are known to have

come.

R40689 was collected six days later, found freshly

killed with still-bleeding neck and posterior head

wounds. A group of three Australian kestrels (Faico

cenchroides) inhabited the immediate vicinity of the

discovery site and had a nest about 50 metres from

where the body was found. The damage to the lizard

is consistent with its having been caught and killed by

154 G, ARMSTRONG, J. R. W. REID & N. HUTCHINSON

ied” . - Me, ; c

Pauls ee 5S vse | <

FIGURE 1. The first live specimen of Tiliqua adelaidensis from the newly discovered population. Snout-vent length of

specimen 67 mm.

akestrel (P. Horton, pers. comm.). This specimen was

found approximately 8 km (air-line) from the site of

the first. The third (R40728) and fourth (R40738)

specimens were collected near the first. R40728 was

found on 29 October, decapitated and partly eviscer-

ated. Again this is consistent with the lizard having

been taken by a bird of prey. R40738 was found on 4

November in the gut of another P. textilis which had

been collected adjacent to the collection sites of

R40687 and R40728.

The second, third and fourth finds were made in the

course of establishing a pilot trapping study to ascer-

tain if live specimens could be caught using conven-

tional herpetological survey methods. This rapidly

proved to be the case, with the first live male being

caught in a pit trap on the afternoon of 6 November.

The field study is continuing and further specimens

have been found. The results of this work will be

published shortly (Hutchinson & Milne, in prep.).

Discussion

A total of 18 additional reptile species have been

collected from the immediate vicinity of the T.

adelaidensis sites, with most species being recorded

near more than one site, indicating similar ecological

and faunal associations. Most notable are four species

which are confined to or strongly associated with the

Flinders Ranges-Mt Lofty Ranges area: Ctenophorus

decresii, Aprasia pseudopulchella, Delma molleri,

and an undescribed species of Gehyra (the 2n = 44

‘variegata’ of King, 1979). The long-term land use

practices in the region have evidently allowed a

significantnumber of reptile species to persist in spite

of the almost complete elimination of the natural

vegetation.

It is encouraging that T. adelaidensis has managed

to survive in a far from natural habitat for a consider-

able time, although population size and current dy-

namics (declining, stable or increasing) are unknown.

At this early stage, it is obviously not possible to

reassess the conservation status of the species, and it

should retain its ‘endangered’ classification. The

pilot field study is intended as a first step, and must

lead to more comprehensive surveys aimed at estab-

lishing the size and extent of the population, so that

this species can be understood and its survival made

secure.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank the owners of the Burra area properties

who allowed us access to their land. T. Milne, B.

Miller and D. Amnstrong assisted with field work and

many other aspects of the initial study, which was

funded by the following sources: Murray Valley

Commission; Endangered Species Unit, Australian

National Parks & Wildlife Service; South Australian

Department of Environment & Land Management;

South Australian Museum. G. M. Shea, University of

Sydney, kindly made available his unpublished thesis

description of the known T. adelaidensis specimens.

REDISCOVERY OF TILIQUA ADELAIDENSIS 155

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EHMANN, H. 1992. ‘Encyclopaedia of Australian Wildlife.

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life, Australian Museum: Sydney.

HUTCHINSON, M. N. 1992. Threatened reptiles in South

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WILSON, S. K. & KNOWLES, D. G. 1988. ‘Australia’s

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Graham ARMSTRONG, 19 Landy Ave, Salisbury East, S.A. 5109; Julian R. W. REID, CSIRO, PO Box 2111, Alice Springs

NT 0871; Mark N. HUTCHINSON, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, 5000. Direct reprint requests to MNH.

{

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SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOLUME 26 PART 2

NOVEMBER 1992

ISSN 0376-2750

CONTENTS:

ARTICLES

77 B.MCHENRY & A. YATES

105

111

121

129

139

149

153

First report of the enigmatic metazoan Anomalocaris from the southem hemisphere

and a trilobite with preserved appendages from the Early Cambrian of Kangaroo Island,

South Australia

K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES & W. ZEIDLER

Mollusc type specimens in the South Australian Museum. 5. Gastropoda: Cypraeoidea

J. DAVIDOVA-VILIMOVA

Jeffocoris gen. n. — a new podopine genus from Australia (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)

K. J. MULVANEY

Hunting with hides: Ethno-historical reflections on Victoria River stone structures

M. A. SMITH & P. M. CLARK

Radiocarbon dates for prehistoric occupation of the Simpson Desert

C. W. NOBBS

‘The Inhabitants of Cooper Creek’: A part translation of Carl Emil Jung’s ‘Am Cooper

Creek’

K. J. MCNAMARA & D. J. BARRIE

A new genus of marsupiate spatangoid echinoid from the Miocene of South Australia

NOTES

F. L. NORMAN & P. HORTON

Notes on freckled duck Stictonetta naevosa shot at Boo] Lagoon, South Australia, 1980

G. ARMSTRONG, J. R. REID & M. HUTCHINSON

Discovery of a population of the rare scincid lizard, Tiliqgua adelaidensis (Peters)

Published by the South Australian Museum,

North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000.