CONTENTS

ANDERSON, C.

Traditional material culture of the Kuku—Yalanji of Bloomfield River,

North Queensland

BEVERIDGE, I & CAMPBELL, R. A.

New records and descriptions of trypanorhynch cestodes from Australian fishes

BOCK, P. E. & COOK, P. L.

The Genus Selenariopsis Maplestone, 1913 (Bryozoa, Ascophorina)

CLARKE, P. A.

The Aboriginal Cosmic Landscape of Southern Australia.

EDMONDS, S. J. & ZEIDLER, W.

A note on two sipunculans (Sipuncula) and an echiuran (Echiura) from

Prydz Bay, Antarctica

HIRST, D. B.

New species of Pediana (Heteropodidae: Araneae) Simon from central

and northern Australia

KEMPER, C. M., PLEDGE, N. & LING, J. K.

Subfossil evidence of strandings of the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus in

Gulf St Vincent, South Australia

MATSUMOTO, G. I. & GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L.

Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov., a new benthic ctenophore (Ctenophora:

Platyctenida: Coeloplanidae) from South Australia

SOUTHCOTT, R. V.

Description of a new Australian mite (Acarina: Trombidoidea), with comments

on superfamily classification

SOUTHCOTT, R. V.

Revision of the larvae of Paratrombium of Australia and Papua New Guinea,

with notes on life histories.

WATTS, C. H. S.

A new genus and species of Australian Dytiscidae (Coleoptera).

WATTS, C.H.S.

Three new Berosus Leach (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae) from Australia.

ZEIDLER, W. & GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L.

A specimen of giant squid, Architeuthis sp., from South Australian waters

Volume 29(1) was published on 29 July 1996.

Volume 29(2) was published on 8 April 1997.

ISSN 0376-2750

PAGES

63-83

1-22

23-31

125-145

93-94

153-164

41-53

33-40

55-62

95-120

121-123

147-152

85-91

NEW RECORDS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF TRYPANORHYNCH

CESTODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FISHES

I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

Summary

Collections of trypanorhynch cestodes in the South Australian Museum, the Queensland Museum

and the Australian Museum were examined. New host or geographical records as well as new

morphological details are provided for the following species : Tentaculariidae : Tentacularia

coryphaenae Bosc, 1797, Nybelina thyrsites Korotaeva, 1971, Nybelina sphyrnae Yamaguti, 1952;

Hepatoxylidae: Hepatoxylon trichiuri (Holten, 1802), Hepatoxylon megacephalum (Rudolphi,

1819); Sphyriocephalidae: Sphyriocephalus tergestinus Pinter, 1913; Otobothriidae:

Poecilancistrium caryophyllum (Diesing, 1850); Lacistorhynchidae: Callitetrarhynchus gracilis

(Rudolphi, 1819). N. sphyrnae, H. megacephalum and S. tergestinus are reported from Australia for

the first time. The adult of N. thyrsites is described for the first time.

NEW RECORDS AND DESCRIPTONS OF TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES

FROM AUSTRALIAN FISHES

I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

BEVERIDGE, I. & CAMPBELL, R. A. 1996. New records and descriptions of trypanorhynch

cestodes from Australian fishes. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1): 1-22.

Collections of trypanorhynch cestodes in the South Australian Museum, the Queensland

Museum and the Australian Museum were examined. New host or geographical records as

well as new morphological details are provided for the following species: Tentaculariidae:

Tentacularia coryphaenae Bosc, 1797, Nybelinia thyrsites Korotaeva, 1971, Nybelina

sphyrnae Yamaguti, 1952; Hepatoxylidae: Hepatoxylon trichiuri (Holten, 1802),

Hepatoxylon megacephalum (Rudolphi, 1819); Sphyriocephalidae: Sphyriocephalus

tergestinus Pinter, 1913; Otobothriidae: Poecilancistrium caryophyllum (Diesing, 1850);

Lacistorhynchidae: Callitetrarhynchus gracilis (Rudolphi, 1819). N. sphyrnae, H.

megacephalum and S. tergestinus are reported from Australia for the first time. The adult of

N. thyrsites is described for the first time.

I. Beveridge, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria,

3052 and R. A. Campbell, Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts — Dartmouth,

North Dartmouth, MA 02747, U.S.A. Manuscript received 26 July 1995.

Between 1985 and 1987, a survey of the

cestode parasites in elasmobranch fishes in the

Australian region was undertaken. The resulting

collections, following the examination of 1 294

specimens belonging to some 98 species

(Beveridge 1987, 1991) are now housed in the

South Australian Museum. Prominent among the

collections made were trypanorhynch cestodes

including a number of new genera and species

and other genera new to the Australian region

(for summary, see Campbell & Beveridge 1994).

The purpose of this communication is to report

additional species encountered during the survey,

several reported for the first time from Australia,

or from collections already housed in the South

Australian Museum, the Australian Museum and

the Queensland Museum. A substantial collection

of larval trypanorhynchs from teleost fishes has

also been made available for study by various

colleagues, and the collation of data on the

occurrence of both adult and larval forms

provides ecological insight into the life-cycles of

the parasites concerned. In addition, new

observations are included on the morphology of

several of the cosmopolitan species encountered.

Illustrations are provided for the species

discussed. Particularly with trypanorhynch

cestodes, adequate illustrations provide clear

evidence of the accuracy of identifications made,

without reliance on textual description. Written

descriptions are provided only for species that

have been poorly described or which have not

been described as adults in the past.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adult cestodes collected by the writers were

washed in sea-water or tap-water and fixed in hot

70% ethanol or hot 10% formalin. In some

instances, spiral valves were opened, cestodes

were killed in situ by flooding the gut with near

boiling water and formalin was added

immediately to fix the cestodes. In the laboratory,

cestodes were removed from spiral valves,

cleaned in water and were stored in 70% ethanol.

Plerocerci were dissected free of any enclosing

membranes and placed in tap-water to induce

eversion of tentacles, then fixed in 70% ethanol.

Cestodes were examined either as temporary

mounts in glycerol or were stained in Celestine

blue, dehydrated in ethanol, cleared in clove oil

and mounted permanently in Canada balsam.

Tentacles were removed from some specimens

and mounted in glycerine jelly. The taxonomic

arrangement and terminology for anatomical

features and for hook patterns follows Campbell

and Beveridge (1994). Synonymies of well

established species are not provided, as they are

available in considerable detail in Dollfus (1942).

2 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

Synonymies are provided for species which are

not treated in Dollfus (1942) or which are not

obtainable from other readily available sources.

Measurements are presented in millimetres as the

range followed by the mean in parentheses.

Unless otherwise stated, mean values are based

upon ten individual measurements. Where fewer

than ten measurements were available, the

number made is indicated by n.

The following abbreviations are used for

institutions:

AHC Australian Helminthological Collection,

South Australian Museum, Adelaide

AM Australian Museum, Sydney

BMNH British Museum (National History),

London (now The Natural History

Museum)

MNHN Muséum national d’ Historie naturelle,

Paris

MPM Meguro Parasitological Museum,

Tokyo, Japan

QM Queensland Museum, Brisbane

TINRO Tikhookeanskogo Nauchno =

issledovatelskogo Institut Rybnogo

Khozyaistva i Okeanaografii (Pacific

Scientific Research Institute. Fisheries,

Economics and Oceanography),

Vladivostock, Russia.

The personal collection from which cestodes

were borrowed was that of Dr. R .J. G. Lester

(RJGL). Host nomenclature follows Last and

Stevens (1994) for elasmobranchs and Gomon et

al. (1994) and Paulin (1993) for teleosts in

southern Australian waters.

SYSTEMATICS

Order TRYPANORHYNCHA Diesing, 1863

Superfamily HOMEACANTHOIDEA Dollfus,

1942

Family TENTACULARIIDAE Poche, 1926

Genus Tentacularia Bosc, 1797

Tentacularia coryphaenae Bosc, 1797

(Figs 1-6, 54-55)

Synonymy — see Dollfus (1942)

Material examined

Adults. From Carcharhinus melanopterus

(Quoy & Gaimard, 1824): 3 scoleces, strobilar

fragments, ‘Port-Western, Australie’, collected

1829, (MNHN A,R — 1142); 3 specimens,

Bundaberg, Qld. (QM GL 10806-10821). From

Carcharhinus limbatus (Valenciennes, 1839): 1

specimen, Darwin, N.T. (AHC 24935).

Metacestodes. From Xiphias gladius

Linnaeus, 1758: 4 specimens, Cronulla, N.S.W.

(AHC S711, $2528). From Coryphaenae

hippurus Linnaeus, 1758: 8 specimens, Barwon

Banks, 20 miles NE of Mooloolaba, Qld. (AHC

18497-8). From Macruronus novaezelandiae

(Hector, 1871): 2 specimens, west coast of

Tasmania (QM G212139).

Remarks

This cosmopolitan species has been recorded

only three times from Australian waters. The first

record by Dollfus (1930, 1942), omitted in the

checklist of Beumer et al. (1982), was based on

specimens collected by Quoy and Gaimard in

1829 during the visit of the ‘Astrolabe’ to

Australia under the command of Dumont

D’Urville. The collection details associated with

the specimen indicate that it was collected at

‘Port-Western’. The ‘Astrolabe’ visited

Westernport, Victoria, but Carcharhinus

melanopterus is a tropical shark and does not

occur in Victorian waters (Last & Stevens 1994).

‘Port-Western’, the locality associated with the

labels, is unquestionably Westernport, Victoria as

it occurs under this name in earlier maps such as

Freycinet’s General Chart of New Holland

published in 1811 (Horner 1987 : 21). Hence, it

is possible that the recorded locality is incorrect.

As the voyage continued through the south-

eastern Pacific, it is also possible that Quoy and

Gaimard’s specimens were in fact not from

Australian waters, or that the host was not

correctly identified.

T. coryphaenae has also been reported in

Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus, 1775) from New

South Wales and Norfolk Island by Lester et al.

(1985) and Korotaeva (1971) reported it from

Ruvettus pretiosus Coco, 1829 (syn. R. tidemani

Weber, 1913) from the Great Australian Bight.

The new collections confirm C. melanopterus

as a host for the parasite in Australian waters and

add the intermediate hosts Xiphias gladius,

Coryphaenae hippurus and Macruronus

novaezelandiae, all of which are new records for

Australian waters.

A detailed summary of the anatomy of T.

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES 3

FIGURES 1-6. Tentacularia coryphaenae Bosc, 1797. 1. Scolex. 2. Tentacle, internal surface. 3. Basal armature

of tentacle, bothridial surface. 4. Tentacular bulb. 5. Mature proglottis. 6. Post larva. Figures 1-S based on

material from Carcharhinus melanopterus Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 (in MNHN A,R-1142). Scale bars: Figure 1,

1.0 mm; Figures 2-6, 0.1 mm.

4 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

coryphaenae was provided by Dollfus (1942),

however, several significant features of the

tentacular armature, illustrated in Figs 2 and 3,

warrant comment. Some members of the

Homeacanthoidea were considered by Campbell

and Beveridge (1994) to display bilateral

symmetry in the metabasal tentacular armature,

in contrast to previous authors (e.g. Dollfus 1942)

who considered the symmetry to be entirely

rotational. The basal armature of T. coryphaenae,

was illustrated by Dollfus (1942), Subhapradha

(1955) and Campbell and Beveridge (1994), but

none of these authors have commented on the fact

that 7. coryphaenae provide an example of

rotational symmetry in the metabasal armature

and bilateral symmetry in the basal armature. The

internal and external surfaces of the tentacle are

identical, unlike the situation in the

heteroacanthous trypanorhynchs (Campbell &

Beveridge 1994), in which the rows form a

pattern of V-s on the internal surface and A-s on

the external surface. The hooks on the base of the

tentacle are arranged in ascending rows similar

to the pattern found in heteroacanths, while in the

metabasal region, the hooks are arranged in a

quincunxial pattern, typical of homeoacanths.

Genus Nybelinia Poche, 1926

Some 42 species have been described in the

genus Nybelinia, many very poorly, rendering its

taxonomy difficult. Dollfus (1942) described or

redescribed 14 species, regarding an additional

three as inquirendae, and subsequently (1960)

added 16 new species, mainly from fish from

West Africa. Four new species were described by

Yamaguti (1952) from Japanese fish, three more

species from fish from the Indian Ocean were

added by Reimer (1980) and single species were

described by Heinz and Dailey (1974) from

California, by Carvajal et al. (1976) from Hawaii,

and by Shah and Bilgees (1979), Kurshid and

Bilqees (1988) and Chandra (1988) from India

and Pakistan.

Separation of species is based primarily on

hook size, shape and uniformity, and secondarily

on the proportions of the different regions of the

scolex. The genus has been divided into two

subgenera, Nybelinia and Syngenes, by Dollfus

(1942), based on whether the proglottides are

acraspedote or craspedote. However, as the adult

is not known for most of the described species,

few can be assigned to subgenus. Subgenera were

not considered by Campbell and Beveridge

(1994) for this reason.

Beumer et al. (1982) listed only one species,

N. thyrsites, from the Australian region.

Korotaeva (1971) named this species, previously

known simply as ‘Nybelinia sp.’ from larval

stages only. The adult is described here for the

first time.

Nybelinia thyrsites Korotaeva, 1971

(Figs 7-14)

Nybelinia thyrsites Korotaeva, 1971: 74-6, fig.

Nybelinia thyrsites (Leiper & Atkinson, 1915) in

Beumer et al., 1982: 18.

Tetrarhynchus sp. of Leiper & Atkinson, 1915:

56-6, fig. 35.

Nybelinia (Syngenes) sp. of Dollfus, 1942: 195—

7, figs 109-110.

Nybelinia (?Syngenes) sp. of Robinson, 1959:

146, figs 1-3.

Types

Metacestodes from abdominal cavity of

Thyrsites atun (Euphrasen, 1791), Southern

Australia in TINRO ANZ 4-35 (not examined).

Material examined

Adults. From Mustelus antarcticus Guenther,

1870: 19 specimens, Goolwa, S.A. (AHC

$17515-20). From Carcharhinus brachyurus

(Guenther, 1870): 4 specimens, Goolwa, S.A.

(AHC 17514). From Galeorhinus galeus

(Linnaeus, 1758): 1 specimen, Pt Willunga, S.A.

(AHC 312). From Aptychotrema vincentiana

(Haake, 1885): 2 specimens, Goolwa, S.A. (AHC

17521).

Metacestodes. From Arripis truttaceus

(Cuvier, 1829) (syn. A. esper Whitley, 1950): 2

specimens, Goolwa, S.A. (AHC 17522). From

Lepidopus caudatus (Euphrasen, 1788): 1

specimen, Bay of Islands, New Zealand (BMNH

1914. 6.1 493-496B); 3 specimens, North Cape,

New Zealand (BMNH 1914. 6.1 535-554). From

unknown host: 2 specimens, locality unknown,

coll. in 1829 by Quoy and Gaimard (MNHN ALR.

1140)

Description

Cestodes of moderate size, up to 173 long, 1.9

maximum width, with up to 312 proglottides in

gravid specimens. Scolex craspedote,

subspherical anteriorly, truncated posteriorly;

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES

RRO

opt S <7 nO @onven @@ 300 |

froere cee) eens)

ANE

we)

as a

FIGURES 7-14. Nybelinia thyrsites Korotaeva, 1971. 7. Scolex. 8. Bulbs and sheaths. 9. Profiles of hooks along

tentacle showing gradual increase in hook size. 10. Distal region of tentacle, bothridial view. 11. Basal region of

tentacle, bothridial view. 12

Mustelus antarcticus Guent'

0.01 mm.

. Mature proglottis. 13. Gravid proglottis. 14. Cirrus sac and vagina. Specimens from

her, 1870 (AHC S17515—20). Scale bars: Figures 7, 12-14, 0.1 mm; Figures 8-11,

6 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

maximum width 0.66—1.06 (0.83) in mid-region

of bothridia; 4 bothridia, approximately reniform,

external margin convex, internal margins

concave; internal margin thicker than external,

less variable in shape; area between dorsal and

ventral pairs of bothridia distinctly cordiform.

Surface of bothridium covered with elongate

microtriches; pars bothridialis 0.43-0.72 (0.61);

pars vaginalis 0.13-0.52 (0.32), always shorter

than pars bothridialis; sheaths irregularly coiled;

bulb ellipsoidal, approximately three times longer

than wide, 0.31—0.40 (0.37) long by 0.10—-0.16

(0.13) wide. Retractor muscle of tentacle

originates at base of bulb. Pars post-bulbosa

0.010-0.024 (0.017; n=4); bulbs end either

adjacent to pars proliferans of strobila or

separated from it by space; velum 0.30-0.80

(0.55) long, posterior border sometimes straight,

sometimes irregular in shape.

Tentacles 0.44—0.58 (0.52) long, tapering

distally; width at base (without hooks) 0.040—

0.096 (0.054), width at mid-region 0.028—0.064

(0.045); width occasionally variable with

narrower section in middle, which may be

processing artefact. Hooks arranged in 24-27 (26;

n=8) oblique rows, with 7-8 (7.8) hooks per half-

turn; hooks uncinate, relatively uniform in shape,

with point gently curved posteriorly; hook length

0.016-0.020 (0.019), base 0.009-0.012 (0.010);

hooks at base of tentacle slightly smaller, but of

same shape.

Strobila acraspedote, apolytic; mature

proglottides slightly wider than long 0.41-1.12

(0.76) by 0.77-1.70 (1.25). Genital pore

submarginal, opening on ventral surface, in

anterior third of proglottis 0.13—0.32 (0.23) from

anterior margin, alternate irregularly. Cirrus sac

small, ellipsodial to subspherical, muscular wall

weak, 0.18-0.35 (0.28) by 0.06—-0.16 (0.12);

cirrus unarmed; internal and external seminal

vesicles absent; vas deferens coils anteriorly

towards midline; vasa efferentia not seen. Testes

84-111 (98) in number, variable in size, 0.048—

0.104 (0.071) in diameter; smallest testes near

periphery of proglottis, distributed in single layer,

confluent posterior to female genitalia; frequently

not confluent anterior to female genitalia; rarely

overlying female genitalia. Vagina narrow,

straight tube, sometimes slightly dilated at distal

end; vagina passes antero-medially, then turns

posteriorly to descend towards ovary, terminating

in diminutive seminal receptacle approximately

0.16 by 0.06. Ovary just posterior to centre of

proglottis, bilobed in whole mounts, 0.30—0.60

(0.45) by 0.40—0.80 (0.56). Mehlis’ gland small,

spherical, situated posterior to centre of ovary,

approximately 0.24 in diameter. Vitelline follicles

encircling medulla, 0.016—-0.048 (0.032) in

diameter. Uterine duct ascends to join uterus

anterior to ovary. Uterus sacciform, in shape of

inverted U anterior to ovary; arms of gravid

uterus elongate, filling with eggs until dilated

arms meet posteriorly; posterior part of uterine

arms become filled with eggs while anterior part

contains relatively few eggs, finally occupying

entire medulla. Uterine pore absent. Eggs

spherical, 0.024—0.040 (0.032) in diameter;

unembryonated.

Remarks

The first description of this species was given

by Leiper and Atkinson (1915) based on

metacestodes collected from Lepidopus caudatus

(Euphrasen, 1788) from the Bay of Islands, New

Zealand, during the British Antarctic Expedition

of 1912-1913. Deposited with material in the

British Museum (National History) is a series of

specimens from the same host species, collected

at North Cape, New Zealand (BMNH 1914, 6.1,

535-54) on the same expedition but not

mentioned in their publication. They named their

material simply ‘Tetrarhynchus sp.’ Dollfus

(1942) described in some detail metacestodes

from an unknown teleost collected by Quoy and

Gaimard in 1829 during the voyage of the

‘Astrolabe’ to Australia and the Pacific region.

These specimens (MNHN A,R. 1140) he

identified as Nybelinia (? Syngenes) sp. and

considered them to be identical with Leiper and

Atkinson’s (1915) specimens. Robinson (1959)

subsequently described the same species from

metacestodes collected from Thyrsites atun

(Euphrasen, 1791), Zeus faber Linnaeus, 1758

and Trachurus novaezealandiae Richardson,

1843 from Cook Strait, New Zealand, employing

the same nomenclature as Dollfus (1942). He

noted that every specimen of Thyrsites atun

examined was heavily infected, while specimens

of Lepidopus caudatus were not infected. He

suggested that Leiper and Atkinson (1915) had

misidentified the host species.

Korotaeva (1971) proposed the name N.

thyrsites for apparently the same metacestode

collected from Australian waters from the

abdominal cavity of Thyrsites atun. The types are

held in TINRO and were not examined. However,

the material described by Leiper and Atkinson

(1915) as well as that described by Dollfus

(1942) was examined and compared with a

metacestode and numerous adult specimens from

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES 7

South Australian waters. All were judged to be

conspecific and the adult is described here for the

first time. Dollfus (1942) speculated on the basis

of hook morphology, that the species belonged to

the sub-genus Syngenes which is characterised

by craspedote proglottides. In fact, the

proglottides of the adult are acraspedote and the

species therefore belongs to the sub-genus

Nybelinia.

The adult of this species was found commonly

in the gravid state in the stomach of Mustelus

antarcticus. In other definitive hosts, the

specimens were small and immature. Two

immature speciments of N. thyrsites were found

in only one of 35 Aptychotrema vincentinana

examined.

Beumer et al. (1982) cited the species as N.

thyrsites (Leiper & Atkinson, 1915) and were

probably misled by Korotaeva’s (1971) use of

nom. nov. rather than sp. nov. at the head of her

description. She stated however that the type

specimen had been deposited in the collections

held in TINRO (p. 75, ‘typov’e exeplyap’

khranyatsya v laboratorii parazitologii morskikh

zhivotni’kh TINRO preparat’ no. ANZ 4-35),

clearly indicating that they are the types of a new

species.

N. thyrsites is characterised by

homoeomorphous hooks 18-20 pm long, of

comparable size on both sides of the tentacle.

Species with similar morphological features are

N. strongyla Dollfus, 1960, N. edwinlintoni

Dollfus, 1960, N. eureia Dollfus, 1960, N.

palliata (Linton, 1924), N. anantaramanorum

Reimer, 1980 and N. lingualis (Cuvier, 1817). N.

strongyla, N. anantaramanorum and N. lingualis

have sharply recurved hooks whose shape differs

significantly from those of N. thyrsites. N.

palliata belongs to the sub-genus Syngenes as

the strobila is craspedote, whereas N. thyrsites

has acraspedote proglottides and belongs to the

sub-genus Nybelinia. N. eureia differs from N.

thyrsites in having longer hooks (24—25 um), a

much longer pars postbulbosa of 0.54 mm

compared with a maximum of 0.024 mm in N.

thyrsites, in having a pars bothridialis which

extends to the posterior end of the bulbs and in

lacking an expansive bothridial fossa.

Nybelinia sphyrnae Yamaguti, 1952

(Figs. 15-17)

Nybelinia sphyrnae Yamaguti, 1952: 56-58, figs.

83-84,

Types

Adult cestodes from pars pylorica of Sphyrna

zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758), Nagasaki, Japan, in

MPM (not examined).

Material examined

Adults. From Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus,

1758): 3 specimens, Goolwa, S.A. (AHC 24958).

Remarks

This species is readily recognisable from

Yamaguti’s (1952) description, and, as indicated

by the illustrations, the Australian material is

clearly referrable to this species. Yamaguti

(1952) stated that an internal seminal vesicle was

absent, however it is present in Australian

specimens (Fig. 17), and Yamaguti’s figure 84

shows a coiled proximal region of the cirrus

which may form an internal seminal vesicle in

fully mature proglottides. In addition, a small

seminal receptacle was present in the Australian

specimens, though not noted or illustrated by

Yamaguti (1952).

The species has not been reported subsequent

to its original description (see Bates 1990), but

would appear from the two records of the species

to be restricted to Sphyrna zygaena in both

northern and southern hemispheres.

N. sphyrnae differs from other species reported

from hammer-head sharks, N. edwinlintoni

Dollfus, 1960, N. goreensis Dollfus, 1960 from

Sphyrna lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834) (syn. S.

diplana Springer, 1941) as well as N. palliata

(Linton, 1924) and N. syngenes (Pinter, 1929)

from Sphyrna zygaena in a number of features.

Based on Pinter’s (1929) description, it differs

from N. syngenes in which the pars vaginalis

exceeds the pars bothridialis and is differentiated

from Linton’s (1924) N. palliata in which the

bothridia extend beyond the bulbs.

N. sphyrnae differs from N. goreensis as

described by Dollfus (1960), in having smaller,

more sharply recurved hooks (14-21 pm in N.

sphyrnae, 27-30 um in N. goreensis) and a

shorter velum (0.08-0.13 mm in WN. sphyrnae,

0.18 —0.23 mm in N. goreensis) N. sphyrnae

resembles N. edwinlintoni in hook size but differs

in that N. sphyrnae has virtually no pars post-

bulbosa, whereas in N. edwinlintoni it measures

0.29 mm. In spite of these apparent differences,

the available descriptions of N. palliata are poor,

while that of N. edwinlintoni is based on a single

larval specimen. Therefore the identification is

contingent upon N. sphyrnae being a valid

species, recognizably distinct from those closely

8 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

FIGURES 15-17. Nybelinia sphyrnae Yamaguti, 1952. 15. Scolex. 16. Basal armature of scolex, bothridial view.

17. Mature proglottis. Specimens from Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus, 1758) (AHC 24958). Scale bars: Figures 15,

17, 0.1 mm; Figure 16, 0.01 mm.

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES 9

ss i yas Ae

a |

FIGURES 18-22. Hepatoxylon trichiuri (Holten, 1802). 18. Scolex. 19. Tentacle, basal region, internal surface,

showing V-shaped area at base, free of hooks. 20. Entire tentacle, bothridial surface. 21. Series of alternate hooks

of a single file in profile showing variation in size. 22. Sheath and bulb showing origin of retractor muscle at

junction of wide and narrow regions of sheath. Specimens from Carchardon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) (AHC

24933). Scale bars: Figures 18, 22, 1.0 mm; Figures 19-21, 0.1 mm.

10 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

related congeners on the basis of characteristics

with which it is currently compared.

Family HEPATOXYLIDAE Dollfus, 1940

Genus Hepatoxylon Bosc, 1811

This genus contains two species which are

cosmopolitan (Dollfus 1942), though Yamaguti

(1959) and Schmidt (1986) considered them

synonymous. Sin et al (1992) have recently

provided electrophoretic as well as morphological

evidence that the two species are valid.

Hepatoxylon trichiuri (Holten, 1802)

(Figs 18-21, 56-57)

Synonymy — see Dollfus (1942)

Material examined

Adults. From Carcharodon carcharias

(Linnaeus, 1758): 2 specimens, Dangerous Reef,

S.A. (AHC 24933); 4 specimens, Seal Rocks,

Phillip Is., Vic. (AHC 24934). From Jsurus

oxyrinchus Rafinesque, 1810: 2 specimens,

Southern Australia (coll. RJGL).

Metacestodes. From Xiphias gladius

Linnaeus, 1758: 1 specimen, Cronulla, N.S.W.

(AHC 71, 1407, 82561, $2531, 17593); 6

specimens, Port River, S.A. (AHC 6668). From

Cyttus traversi (Hutton, 1872): 1 specimen, west

coast, Tasmania (Coll. RJGL). From Coryphaena

hippurus Linnaeus, 1758: 1 specimen, Barwon

Banks, 20 miles NE of Mooloolaba, Qld. (AHC

18499). From Hoplostethus atlanticus Collet,

1889: 1 specimen, west coast of New Zealand

(QM G212141). From Rexea solandri Cuvier,

1831: 2 specimens, Great Australian Bight (QM

G211886), 1 specimen, south-eastern Tasmania

(QM G211887). From Macruronus

novaezelandiae (Hector, 1871): 2 specimens,

west coast of Tasmania (QM G212137).

Remarks

Records of this species from the Australian

region are few, being those of Korotaeva (1974)

from Oplegnathus woodwardi (Waite, 1900)

(Syn. Ostorhinchus conwaii (Richardson, 1840)),

Korotaeva (1971) from Lepidopus caudatus

(Euphrasen, 1788) (syn Lepidopus lex Phillips,

1932) and Lester et al. (1988) from Hoplostethus

atlanticus Collett, 1889 from southern Australia

as well as a record from a lamprey, Geotria

australis Gray, 1851 by Lethbridge et al. (1983).

The present data therefore greatly extend the

known host range of this species in Australian

waters.

The species occurs in a range of teleosts and

elasmobranchs in New Zealand waters (Robinson

1959; Waterman & Sin 1991), but the definitive

host in the Australasian region has not been

reported previously. The parasite is reported here

for the first time from Carcharodon carcharias

and Jsurus oxyrinchus. The adult has been

described by Lénnberg (1899), Joyeux and Baer

(1934, 1936) and Yamaguti (1934), the details of

which were summarised by Dollfus (1942). The

histological anatomy of the plerocercus has been

described in considerable detail by Rees (1941)

under the name Dibothriorhynchus grossum

(Rudolphi, 1819). The arrangement of hooks in

the metabasal region is quincunxial (see Figs 56,

57) and on the bothridial surface, this pattern

extends to the base (Fig. 57). On both the internal

and external tentacle surfaces (Fig. 56), the

ascending rows of hooks leave an inverted V-

shaped area at the base of the tentacle, analogous

to the arrangement seen in 7. coryphaenae. This

area is only clearly visible in tentacles dissected

free from the scolex, and when this is done, it is

extremely difficult to determine orientation of

surfaces. Orientation in this case has been

determined by analogy with T. coryphaenae and

from one flattened, stained whole mount in which

all the hooks are visible (AHC $2351). It has

been assumed that flattening has not altered the

arrangement of the hook rows.

Hepatoxylon megacephalum (Rudolphi, 1819)

(Figs 23-28, 58-59)

Synonymy — see Dollfus (1942)

Material examined

Adults. From Carcharodon carcharias

(Linnaeus, 1758): 3 specimens, Kangaroo Island,

S.A. (AHC 24932).

Metacestodes. From Galeorhinus galeus

(Linnaeus, 1758): 1 specimen, Kangaroo Island,

S.A. (AHC 17591); 1 specimen, Pt. Willunga,

S.A. (AHC 593, $2564); 1 specimen, coast of

N.S.W. (AM W 3452). From Carcharhinus

obscurus (LeSueur, 1818) (Syn. C. macrurus

(Ramsay & Ogilby, 1887): 2 specimens, Glenelg,

S.A. (AHC 585, $2565). From Squalus megalops

(Macleay, 1881): 2 specimens, south coast of

N.S.W. (AM W 3359, W 3453). From Squatina

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES

FIGURES 23-28. Hepatoxylon megacephalum (Rudolphi, 1819). 23. Scolex. 24. Entire tentacle, internal surface,

showing V-shaped area at base, free of hooks. 25. Junction of sheath and bulb, showing origin of retractor muscle.

26. Series of single file of hooks in profile showing size variation. 27. Rhyncheal system. 28. Base of tentacle,

bothridial view, internal surface to left, showing ascending rows of hooks around unarmed region at base.

Specimens from Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) (AHC 24932); Fig. 28 from Galeorhinus galeus

(Linnaeus, 1758) (AHC 17591). Scale bars: Figures 23, 27, 1.0 mm; Figure 24, 0.2 mm; Figures 25, 26, 28, 0.1

mm.

12 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

australis Regan, 1906: 2 specimens, N.S.W.

(AM W 3358)

Remarks

This species has not apparently been reported

previously from Australia (see Beumer et al

1982) though it is well represented in museum

collections. Plerocerci were found in several

species of elasmobranchs, while the only adults

seen were from Carcharodon carcharias.

The morphology of the plerocerus has been

summarised by Dollfus (1942), with scanning

electron microscopical observations by added Sin

et al (1992), while the adult has been described

from C. carcharias from New Zealand by

Robinson (1959).

The rhyncheal system of this species has

apparently not been described in detail. It appears

to differ from that of H. trichiuri in that the

sheaths are not divided into a distal region of

greater diameter than the proximal section and in

that the retractor muscle originates from the

sheath close to the bulbs, rather than at the

junctions of the two distinct regions of the sheath

noted in H. trichiuri (see Rees, 1941).

As with H. trichiuri, H. megacephalum has an

armature arranged in quincunxial fashion in the

metabasal region, but with ascending hook rows

leaving hook-free triangular areas at the base of

the tentacle on the internal and external surfaces.

The hook patterns in the metabasal region are not

totally regular and if hook files are traced; several

files from the base disappear in the metabasal

region. The disappearance of files has been noted

previously in the armature of Sphyriocephalus

dollfusi by Bussieras and Aldrin (1968), though

in that species, the arrangement of abbreviated

files is symmetrical about the plane drawn

through the mid-region of the external surface of

the tentacle. In H. megacephalum, no symmetry

in the reduction of hook files was noted.

Family SPHYRIOCEPHALIDAE Pintner, 1913

Genus Sphyriocephalus Pintner, 1913

Sphyriocephalus tergestinus Pintner, 1913

(Figs. 29 — 32, 60)

Synonymy — see Dollfus (1942)

Material examined

Metacestodes. From Macruronus

novaezelandiae (Hector, 1871): 2 specimens,

Tasmania (QM G212133-5).

Remarks

The family Sphyriocephalidae has not

previously been reported from Australian waters.

The specimens illustrated here are tentatively

referred to S. tergestinus, contingent upon

subsequent clarification of the validity of species

within the genus. Dollfus (1942) recognised two

valid species, S. viridis and S. tergestinus, and

listed (p. 116) a series of criteria by which the

two could be distinguished. His synonymies

assumed S. alberti to be a synonym of S. viridis,

a situation subsequently confirmed by Bussieras

(1970) who re-examined the types of S. alberti.

The detailed descriptions of the armature of S.

alberti given by Bussieras (1970) are the most

detailed and informative descriptions of armature

within the genus. Heinz and Dailey (1974) gave a

very brief description of S. pelorosoma from

Alopias superciliosus (Lowe, 1839) from

California, based on a single specimen. The

principal features they used for distinguishing

their new species were the greater widths of the

tentacles and relatively longer bulbs (Heinz &

Dailey 1974). The latter character must remain

questionable until measurements for S. viridis

and S. tergestinus are available. Dollfus (1942)

cited Pintner (1913) in reporting that the bulbs of

S. tergestinus were twice as long as wide, yet

illustrated them (Fig. 72) as being four times as

long as wide. The value of this character in

distinguishing species therefore remains

uncertain until the extent of variation is

established for S. viridis and S. tergestinus.

Bussieras and Aldrin (1968) described S.

dollfusi based on plerocerci from tuna, Thunnus

obesus (Lowe, 1839), distinguished from S.

tergestinus and S. viridis in lacking a unique

basal armature and having broad tentacles,

similar in width to those of S. pelorosoma.

The specimens described here differ from S.

viridis and S. dollfusi in that the sheaths are

confined within the pars bothridialis. The

specimens described conform with the

description given by Dollfus (1942) of S.

tergestinus and are therefore attributed to that

species.

Bussieras (1970) noted that the armature of the

metabasal region of the tentacle of S. viridis (=

alberti) was arranged in an heteroacanthous

pattern rather than an homeoacanthous pattern

and questioned whether or not this was a specific

characteristic. Although the current material of S.

tergestinus is limited, it appears that it also has

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES 13

——S

Sk SA TOAS

VE EAS

ier

SAPLA

MIR

sae ey, :

FIGURES 29-32. Sphyriocephalus tergestinus Pintner, 1913. 29. Plerocercus. 30. Oblique view of tentacle with

bothridial surface to lefthand side. 31. Scolex of plerocercus, showing bulbs in transverse position, overlapped by

the pars bothridialis. 32. Tentacular hooks showing variation in shape between those of metabasal region (left file)

and basal region (right file). Specimens from Macruronus novaezelandiae (Hector, 1871) (QM G212133-5).

14 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

glide reflection symmetry (Campbell & Beveridge

1994) in the arrangement of its armature in the

metabasal region.

Superfamily OTOBOTHRIOIDEA Dollfus, 1942

Family OTOBOTHRIIDAE Dollfus, 1942

Genus Poecilancistrium Dollfus, 1929

Poecilancistrium caryophyllum (Diesing, 1850)

(Figs 33 — 47)

Synonymy — see Dollfus (1942)

Material examined

Adults. From Carcharhinus brachyurus

(Guenther, 1870): 8 specimens, Tathra, N.S.W.

(AHC 24957);

Metacestodes. From Pomatomus saltatrix

(Linnaeus, 1766): 3 specimens, Pt Jackson,

N.S.W. (AHC 1410, S2563). From Sillago

robusta Stead, 1908: 3 specimens, Qld. (QM

G212164).

Description

Cestodes of moderate size, up to 170 long, with

up to 280 proglottides in gravid strobilae. Scolex

3.9-4.6 (3.3) (n=8) long, maximum width 1.1-

1.4 (1.3) (n=8) in region of pars vaginalis; 2

bothridia, 2.0 (n=1) in diameter; almost circular,

with indistinct, fleshy margins; pairs of sensory

fossettes present in margin of each bothridium.

Pars bothridialis 1.55—2.00 (1.77) (n=8). Pars

vaginalis 1.65—2.48 (2.22) (n=8), sheaths not

coiled, straight anteriorly, characteristically S-

shaped posteriorly; pre-bulbar organ absent, but

prominent muscle band encircling junction of

sheath with bulb. Bulbs stout, 1.35-1.76 (1.59)

(n=8) long by 0.32—0.42 (0.38) (n=8) wide;

origin of retractor muscle at anterior end of bulb.

Pars post-bulbosa approx. 0.22; velum absent.

Tentacles stout, 0.08—0.13 (0.11) (n=7) in

diameter in metabasal region, without basal

swelling or distinctive basal armature. Armature

heteroacanthous, atypical; principal hooks

arranged in ascending rows; 4 hooks per row

decreasing in size anteriorly; hooks 1(1') largest,

0.114—0.126 (0.120) long, strongly recurved, base

prominent, 0.084—0.100 (0.087) long; hooks 2(2')

smaller, 0.092—0.098 (0.095) long, base 0.048-

0.052 (0.050); hooks 3(3') 0.068-0.082 (0.075)

long, base 0.034—-0.040 (0.036); hooks 4(4')

smallest, 0.054—0.064 (0.061) long, base 0.022-

0.032 (0.029).

Single intercalary row of hooks present

between each major row; 2, sometimes 3,

intercalary hooks per row, situated proximal to

hooks 3(3') and 4(4') respectively; intercalary

hooks a(a’) 0.046-0.054 (0.049) long, hooks

b(b’) 0.036—0.046 (0.041) long; single hook, c(c’)

possibly representing second intercalary row,

present posterior to other hooks. Internal surface

of tentacle uniformly covered with numerous

ascending rows of small hooks, 0.030—0.036

(0.034) long. Rows ascending’ with

approximately 14 hooks per row; 4 rows per

principal hook row.

Mature proglottis 1.43-2.02 (1.78) (n=9) by

1.25-1.40 (1.30) (n=9); genital pore in posterior

third of proglottis, 1.07—1.50 (1.28) (n=9) from

anterior end of proglottis. Cirrus sac pyriform,

thin-walled, 0.21-0.28 (0.25) by 0.14—0.19

(0.16); cirrus unarmed, slightly coiled, entering

crescentic internal seminal vesicle; external

seminal vesicle spherical, adnate to cirrus sac.

Vas deferens coils posteriorly to region of ovary.

Testes numerous, 550 (n=1) per proglottis,

occupying entire medulla in single dorso—ventral

layer; testis diameter 0.045-0.065 (0.053).

Vagina opens to genital atrium posterior to cirrus

sac; narrow, turning posteriorly at midline and

descending towards ovary, dilating slightly at

posterior end, but not forming distinct seminal

receptacle. Ovary bilobed, each lobe 0.30—0.50

(0.45) by 0.20-0.28 (0.25); Mehlis’ gland 0.15-

0.19 (0.17) in diameter, posterior to ovarian

isthmus. Uterine duct, without glandular

investment, ascends to just anterior to cirrus sac;

uterus with glandular wall extends anteriorly, not

reaching anterior end of proglottis. Gravid

proglottis 3.0 to 3.2 by 1.0 to 1.5; uterus initially

linear, becoming sacciform with numerous small

lateral branches; eggs ellipsoidal approx. 0.036

by 0.026; uterine pore absent. Vitelline follicles

forming sleeve encircling reproductive organs.

Remarks

In spite of its cosmopolitan distribution, the

anatomy of this species is relatively poorly

known. The first report from Australia was that

of Robinson (1965), who described plerocerci

from Argyrosomus hololepidotus (Lacépéde,

1802) (syn. Sciaena antarctica Castlenau, 1872)

from New South Wales. The adult stage had been

described earlier by Goldstein (1962, 1963) from

American sharks. Robinson (1965) compared his

specimens with those of Goldstein (1963). The

armature of this species has recently been

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES 15

FIGURES 33-38. Poecilancistrium caryophyllum (Diesing, 1850). Tentacular armature. 33. Basal and metabasal

region, internal surface. 34. Metabasal region, bothridial surface. 35. Two principal hook rows showing

relationships between intercalary hooks and band of hooklets. 36. Schematic representation of hook arrangements.

Numerals indicate hooks of principal rows, letters are intercalary hooks; circles represent hooklets of external

surface. 37. Basal region, bothridial surface. 38. Basal and metabasal regions, external surface. Specimens from

Carcharhinus brachyurus (Guenther, 1870) (AHC 24957). Scale bars: 0.1 mm.

I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

FIGURES 39-45. Poecilancistrium caryophyllum (Diesing, 1850). 39. Scolex. 40. Bothridium. 41. Junction of

sheath and bulb showing origin of retractor muscle. 42. Cirrus sac. 43. Gravid proglottis. 44. Mature proglottis.

45. Eggs. Specimens from Carcharhinus brachyurus (Guenther, 1870) (AHC 24957). Scale bars: Figures 39, 40,

43, 1.0 mm; Figures 41, 42, 44, 45, 0.1 mm.

TRYPANORHY NCH CESTODES 17

FIGURES 46-47. Poecilancistrium caryophyllum (Diesing, 1850). Scanning electron micrographs of armature.

46. Bothridial surface, metabasal region. showing junction of principal rows of hooks with band of hooklets on

external surface. 47, External surface, metabasal region showing band of hooklets. Specimens from Carcharhinus

brachyurus (Guenther, 1870). Scale bars: 0.1 mm.

redescribed by Palm (1995) based on specimens

from Atlantic teleosts.

The present description of the adult provides

additional information, in demonstrating the

presence of a crescentic internal seminal vesicle,

a circular external seminal vesicle adnate to the

cirrus sac and in describing the morphology of

the gravid uterus.

The most significant aspect of the current

redescription is the oncotaxy. Although

adequately described by Robinson (1965), the

only attempt to interpret the pattern of hooks is

that of Campbell and Beveridge (1994) and Palm

(1995). The external surface of the tentacle of P.

caryophyllum is covered by a band of small

hooks. The features not noted in previous

descriptions are associated with the regularity of

arrangement of the small hooks comprising the

band. They are arranged in ascending rows, with

four between each principal row, and with the

ascending rows terminating in the midline of the

external surface. Some minor departures from the

regular pattern are detectable, with the presence

of an occasional hook which does not fit within a

row. However, these irregularities are rare, and at

the base of the tentacle the hook files form a

convergence as seen in typical heteroacanthous

armature patterns.

Superfamily POECILACANTHOIDEA Dollfus,

1942

Family LACISTORHYNCHIDAE Guiart, 1927

Genus Callitetrarhynchus Pinter, 1931

The genus was considered monotypic by

Dollfus (1942). However, Carvajal and Rego

(1985) have shown that Dollfus’ description is a

composite of C. gracilis and C. speciosus. Only

C. gracilis has been found in Australian fishes to

date.

Callitetrarhynchus gracilis (Rudolphi, 1819)

(Figs 48 — 53)

Synonymy — see Dollfus (1942)

Material examined

Adults. From Carcharhinus amblyrhynchoides

(Whitley, 1934): 1 specimen, Snapper Island,

Qld. (AHC 24941). From Carcharhinus

melanopterus (Quoy & Gaimard, 1824): 3

specimens, Flat Top Island, Qld. (AHC 24940);

1 specimen, Darwin, N.T. (AHC 24939). From

Carcharhinus amboinensis (Mueller & Henle,

1839): 1 specimen, Mary River, N.T. (AHC

I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

LEN

xo)

TEOe;

FIGURES 48-53. Callitetrarhynchus gracilis (Rudolphi, 1819). 48. Scolex. 49. Tentacular armature, metabasal

cirrus and vagina uniting within ‘cirrus sac’ to form a short hermaphroditic duct. 53. Mature proglottis. Specimens

from Carcharhinus fitzroyensis (Whitley, 1943) (AHC 24937). Scale bars: Figures 48, 52, 53, 0.1 mm; Figures

region, external surface. 50. Gravid proglottis. 51. Profiles of hooks 1-9. 52. Terminal genital ducts showing

49, 51, 0.01 mm; Figure 50, 1.0 mm.

TRYPANORHYNCH CESTODES 19

FIGURES 54-60. Schematic arrangements of hook patterns. 54. Tentacularia coryphaenae. Basal and metabasal

regions, internal surface, showing ascending hook rows and V-shaped unarmed area (u) at base of tentacle. Hooks

of metabasal region are arranged in quincunxes (q). Derived from Fig. 2. 55. Tentacularia coryphaenae. Basal

region bothridial surface (from Fig. 3), showing ascending rows of hooks. 56. Hepatoxylon trichiuri. Basal and

metabasal regions, internal surface (from Fig. 19), showing V-shaped unarmed area at base of tentacle (u) and

quincunxial arrangement of hooks (q) in metabasal region. 57. Hepatoxylon trichiuri. Basal and metabasal region,

bothridial surface, showing quincunxial hook arrangement (q) (from Fig. 20). 58. Hepatoxylon megacephalum.

Basal and metabasal region, internal surface (from Fig. 24) showing quincunxial hook arrangement (q). 59.

Hepatoxylon megacephalum. Basal region, bothridial surface, showing ascending hook rows which form V-

shaped unarmed areas (u) on internal (i) and external (e) surfaces and quincunxial hook arrangement (q). 60.

Sphyriocephalus tergestinus. Oblique view with bothridial surface to left (from Fig. 30) showing hooks arranged

in ascending spiral rows in typical heteroacanthous pattern.

20 I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

24938). From Carcharhinus fitzroyensis

(Whitley, 1943): 6 specimens, Darwin N.T.,

(AHC 24937); 5 specimens, Mary River, N.T

(AHC 24936). From Dasyatis fluviorum Ogilby,

1908: 1 specimen, Moreton Bay, Qld. (AHC

24942).

Metacestodes. From Sphyraena

novaehollandiae Giinther, 1860: Brighton, S.A.

(AHC S539); Outer Harbour, S.A. (BMNH 1986.

10.1.2). From Pristipomoides multidens (Day,

1870): 1 specimen, Bathurst Island. N.T. (AHC

24943). From Makaira indica (Cuvier, 1832): 1

specimen, Cape Bowling Green, Qld. (AHC

17410); 5S specimens, Pixie Reef, Cairns, Qld.

(AHC 17417). From Makaira mazara (Jordon &

Snyder, 1901): 1 specimen, Cape Moreton, Qld.

(QM G212785). From Istiophorus platypterus

(Shaw & Nodder, 1791): 3 specimens, Cape

Moreton, Qld. (AHC 18496); 2 specimens,

Beaver Cay, Qld. (AHC 18495). From Euthynnus

affinis (Cantor, 1849): 1 specimen, Cape

Moreton, Qld. (AHC 18493). From Saurida

tumbil (Bloch, 1795): 1 specimen, Moreton Bay,

Qld. (Coll. RJGL). From Scomberomorus

commerson (Lacépéde, 1800): 1 specimen, Pt

Lookout, Qld. (Coll. RJGL). From

Scomberomorus munroi Collette & Russo, 1980:

3 specimens, Amity Pt, Qld. (Coll. RJGL). From

Platycephalus fuscus Cuvier, 1829: 1 specimen,

Moreton Bay, Qld. (QM G212172). From Arripis

trutta (Bloch & Schneider, 1801): 3 specimens,

Phillip Island, Vic. (AHC 24944). From Arripis

truttaceus (Cuvier, 1829): 1 specimen, Phillip

Island, Vic. (AHC 24945).

Remarks

This cosmopolitan species has previously been

reported from Australia only by Prudhoe (1969)

from Platycephalus bassensis Cuvier, 1829 from

Tasmania and by Adjei et al (1986) from Saurida

tumbil (Bloch, 1795) and S. undosquamis

(Richardson, 1848) from Queensland. The

identification of the Queensland specimens was

confirmed, however, the Tasmanian specimens

(SAM V604) on re-examination proved to be

Floriceps minacanthus Campbell & Beveridge,

1986, and have not therefore been included in the

list of material examined. The scolex and

armature of C. gracilis were well described by

Dollfus (1942) but unfortunately, the description

was a composite of C. gracilis and C. speciosus.

The scolex and armature of both species were

illustrated and described by Carvajal and Rego

(1985). The adult was described very briefly

under the name Tentacularia pseudodera by

Shuler (1938). A more complete description was

provided by Subhapradha (1955). It is clear from

Subhapradha’s figures of the armature that the

specimens described are indeed C. gracilis rather

than C. speciosus, since hooks 7(7') are much

longer than hooks 8(8'). However, Subhapradha’s

(1955) description needs to be amended at three

points. Firstly, a muscular pad surrounds the

genital atrium (Fig. 53). This very prominent

feature was not mentioned or illustrated by

Subhapradha (1955). Secondly, an

hermaphroditic duct is present (Fig. 52). The

vagina enters the cirrus sac (actually an

hermaphroditic sac) on its medio—ventral aspect

then runs within the sac the join with the cirrus

leaving a short hermaphroditic duct to enter the

genital atrium. The presence of a hermaphroditic

duct was first reported by Beveridge and

Campbell (1989) and was illustrated by them

subsequently (Campbell & Beveridge 1994). All

known genera with chainettes and two bothridia

have hermaphroditic ducts (Beveridge &

Campbell 1989). Thirdly, a uterine pore is

present. This feature was not included in the

generic diagnosis given by Campbell and

Beveridge (1994).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to thank all those who have made

specimens available to us, either from their own

collections or from collections in their care, particularly

L. R. G. Cannon, M. Cappo, T. Cribb, F. Hoedt, R. J.

G. Lester, B. Robertson, K. Sewell, P. Speare, D. M.

Spratt, R. A. Bray & P. M. Thomas.

This project was supported financially by the

Australian Biological Resources Study.

REFERENCES

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THE GENUS SELENARIOPSIS MAPLESTONE, 1913 (BRYOZOA,

ASCOPHORINA)

P. E. BOCK & P. L. COOK

Summary

Lunulitiform colonies of Selenariopsis are a frequent component of the microfauna inhabiting the

surface and upper layers of the deeper shelf sediments off the southern and eastern coasts of

Australia. Colonies are anchored by rhizoids originating from special porous areas on the exposed

basal walls. Although colonies are fragile, fragmented specimens are present as fossils in the clay-

rich marine Tertiary sediments of Victoria and South Australia. Tertiary colonies include two taxa,

S. macgillivrayi sp. nov. and S. marginata sp. nov., both of which are distinct from the Recent form,

S. gabrieli Maplestone, 1913. Full descriptions and a key to all three species are given below.

THE GENUS SELENARIOPSIS MAPLESTONE, 1913 (BRYOZOA, ASCOPHORINA)

P. E. BOCK & P. L. COOK

BOCK, P. E. & COOK, P. L. 1996. The Genus Selenariopsis Maplestone, 1913 (Bryozoa,

Ascophorina) Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1): 23-31.

Lunulitiform colonies of Selenariopsis are a frequent component of the microfauna inhabiting

the surface and upper layers of the deeper shelf sediments off the southern and eastern coasts of

Australia. Colonies are anchored by rhizoids originating from special porous areas on the

exposed basal walls. Although colonies are fragile, fragmented specimens are present as fossils

in the clay-rich marine Tertiary sediments of Victoria and South Australia. Tertiary colonies

include two taxa, S. macgillivrayi sp. nov. and S. marginata sp. nov., both of which are distinct

from the Recent form, S. gabrieli Maplestone, 1913. Full descriptions and a key to all three

species are given below.

P. E. Bock, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, 124 La Trobe St., Melbourne 3001, and

P. L. Cook, Associate, Museum of Victoria, Swanston St., Melbourne 3000. Manuscript

received 20 December 1995.

The distinctive ‘sand fauna’ species

Selenariopsis gabrieli Maplestone, 1913 has been

reported several times from the coasts of New

South Wales, Western Australia and South

Australia, as well as from Bass Strait. Colonies

live in or upon the upper layers of sediment and

have been reported previously from 54-366 m

deep (see Cook & Chimonides 1981a, and Wass

& Yoo 1983). Colonies are lunulitiform and live

anchored by large basal rhizoids. Selenariopsis

has been reported from the Tertiary of Victoria, as

?Lunulites angulopora by MacGillivray (1895),

and this record has usually been included in the

synonymy of S. gabrieli, the Recent form (see

Powell 1966; Cook & Chimonides 1981a).

Examination of Recent specimens of S. gabrieli,

and analysis of numerous Tertiary samples from

Victoria and South Australia has revealed the

presence of two additional species neither of

which is S. gabrieli. One appears to be the

?Lunulites angulopora of MacGillivray (1895),

the other is described for the first time below.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Abbreviations of institutions referred to in this

paper are: MV, Museum of Victoria, Melbourne;

AM, Australian Museum, Sydney; SAM, South

Australian Museum, Adelaide. Specimens were

coated with gold for scanning electron

microscopy.

SYSTEMATICS

Order Cheilostomatida Busk, 1852

Suborder Ascophorina Levinsen, 1909

Super Family CATENICELLOIDEA Busk, 1852

Family EURYSTOMELLIDAE Levinsen, 1909

Cook and Chimonides (1981la) referred

Selenariopsis to an informal grouping of genera,

the Gymnocystidean Ascophora, based on the

nature of the calcified frontal shield. Relatively

few genera are known to have gymnocystidean

ontogeny, and these are not closely related

systematically to one another. Several

gymnocystidean genera have been discussed by

Gordon (1984, 1989), and referred to different

superfamilies.

The affinities of the Eurystomellidae are

somewhat problematical. Eurystomella bilabiata

(Hincks) and Selenariopsis gabrieli Maplestone

have completely non-porous, gymnocystidean

frontal shields, the only areas of cryptocyst

occurring as proximo-lateral embayments at the

edges of the orifice, which appear to be associated

with the hinging of the operculum (see Cook &

Chimonides 1981a). E. foraminigera (Hincks)

has, however, a shield with large, cuticle-covered,

cryptocyst-bordered foramina (see Cook &

Chimonides 198la and Gordon 1984). The

COOK

BOCK & P

Be,

THE GENUS SELENARIOPSIS 25

ovicells of all three species are endozooidal, the

brooding zooid having an enlarged, dimorphic

orifice, which in S. gabrieli is closed by the

operculum. The ovicell cavities are associated

with a distal autozooid or kenozooid. The frontal

ectooecium has one or more areas of cuticle—

covered entooecium and a median suture. There

are similarities in both frontal shield and ovicell

structure with some members of the family

Catenicellidae (see Banta & Wass 1979 and Wass

& Banta 1981). Gordon (1984, 1989) has included

the Eurystomellidae with the Catenicellidae in the

superfamily Catenicelloidea.

Genus Selenariopsis Maplestone, 1913

Selenariopsis Maplestone, 1913: 359; Cook &

Chimonides, 1981a: 114.

Australiana Powell, 1966: 19.

Diagnosis

Colonies lunulitiform, budded radially. Zooids

with imperforate, gymnocystidean frontal shields

and sinuate primary orifices. Basal walls with

uncalcified windows and porous areas which are

the origin of rhizoids in Recent colonies. Ovicells

with dimorphic orifice, closed by the operculum,

with paired entooecial areas frontally. Avicularia

absent.

Key To SPECIES

1 -— Orifices elongated, raised marginally.

Ovicell fairly prominent, followed by an

autozooid, with extensive, but faintly

marked, paired entooecial areas. Basal

porous areas usually very small ..................

sasefoseesitansecttasse dag tyitugss S. marginata sp. nov.

— Orifices not raised marginally; basal porous

ateAaS Larger, hlssaaiiweeeoxeeceeredsedativlestenied 2

Autozooid frontals oblong. Orifice with a

subtriangular sinus. Ovicell depressed

distally, followed by an autozooid. Small

paired entooecial areas close to median

suture. Basal windows very narrow ............

stgdedatehyns teeapbeMtresiere S. macgillivrayi sp. nov.

— Autozooid frontals almost square. Orifice

with a wide rounded sinus. Ovicell wide,

immersed in a distal kenozooid with paired

distal fenestrae. Basal windows oval ..........

hice hbo) ust Aba akadied os vet S. gabrieli Maplestone

Selenariopsis gabrieli Maplestone, 1913

(Figs 1, 7)

Selenariopsis gabrieli Maplestone, 1913: 359, pl.

28, figs 6-10; Cook & Chimonides 1981a: 114,

Figs 2D, 3, 4E, SA-C, 9C; Wass & Yoo 1983:

337, Figs 44-46.

Australiana bifenestrata Powell, 1966: 20, pl. 1,

figs 1-7, Fig. la—i; Cook 1979: pl. 1, figs 12d, e,

Fig. 1F.

Material Examined

AM Gabo Island, Victoria, 366 m. MV Kimbla

Stn 65D, Bass Strait, 207 m. Kimbla Stn 99, Bass

Strait, 139 m. SLOPE Stn 19, off Eden, New

South Wales, 520 m. Slope Stn 45, off Freycinet

Peninsula, Tasmania, 800 m. Great Australian

Bight Stn 030, 33°13'S, 128°29'E, 137 m.

Description

Autozooid with short, almost square frontal

shield, orifice nearly central with a short, rounded

sinus marked by minute lateral embayments of

cryptocyst. Brooding orifice wide, almost semi-

circular. Ovicell wide, not prominent, immersed

in a distal kenozooid with large, paired,

subtriangular entooecial fenestrae on its frontal

surface. Basal autozooid windows oval or slightly

narrower; those of brooding zooids are very large

and subtriangular. The rhizoid windows are a

narrow crescent, with a large proximal porous area

surrounded by a raised rim. Pores are placed round

the edge of the large, rounded to subrectangular

area; the rhizoids are large.

Distribution

A. bifenestrata was described by Powell (1966)

from Bulgo and from several other New South

FIGURES 1-4. 1, Selenariopsis gabrieli Maplestone, Kimbla Stn 99. Autozooids and one brooding zooid

with paired distal kenozooidal frontal fenestrae; note ‘growth lines’, X118; 2, S. macgillivrayi sp.nov.,

Princetown. Autozooids and one brooding zooid with inconspicuous distal ovicell with paired frontal areas

(arrowed), X110; 3,4, S. marginata sp.nov., Princetown; 3, Brooding zooid with ovicell, frontal areas

arrowed; and two autozooids, one showing proximo-lateral embayments (arrowed), and subtriangular sinus,

X80; 4, Brooding zooid with ovicell, X80.

26 P. E. BOCK & P. L. COOK

FIGURES 5-6. 5, Selenarivpsis macgillivrayi sp.nov_, Princetown. Autozooid orifices and one brooding

zooid; note “growth line’, X110; 6, S. marginata sp.nov,, Princetown, Two autozooids showing raised orifices

and lateral septular pores, X80.

Wales localities. The records given by Wass and

Yoo (1983) extend from Western Australia, near

Albany through the Bight to the western end of

Bass Strait. The other records given above include

one from the Great Australian Bight, and also

extend from Bass Strait east to New South Wales,

and south to Tasmania. Recorded depths now

range from 54 to 800 m.

Remarks

Colonics may reach a diameter of more than 5

mm, and 3.50 mm in height, although the vertical

dimension is variable. some colonies being fairly

flattened, while others are strongly domed. as

illustrated by Powell (1966). Rhizoids are 0.25

mm wide, and may reach more than 3 mm in

length; even small colonies usually have several

present. The ancestrula has an uncalcified frontal

wall and a large, prominent basal pore plate

giving rise to a rhizoid. Brooding zooids are

scattered and do not appear before the fourth

astogenetic generation. Frontally , the surface of

colonies is smooth, even the ovicells hardly

protruding. The morphology has been described in

great detail by Powell (1966), and the mode of life

and the associated fauna in one sample was

discussed by Cook (1979). The early astogeny and

relationships were described by Cook and

Chimonides (1981a). S. gabrieli differs from its

two fossil congeners in the shape of the orifice,

and the structure and relationships of the ovicell.

Selenariopsis macgillivrayi sp. noy.

(Figs 2, 5, 8)

?Lunulites angulopora MacGillivray, 1895: 46,

pl. 8, fig. 1 (not ZL, angulopora Tenison Woods,

1880 = Conescharellina angulopora).

Material Examined

Holotype: MV P27625, Muddy Creek, Victoria,

THE GENUS SELENARIOPSIS 27

Miocene (see Powell 1966); also material from

Cooriemungle, Balcombe Bay, Grices Creek,

Princetown, Gellibrand Clay, Mount Martha,

Victoria and Mount Schanck, South Australia

(SAM P35472).

Description

Autozooids with almost oblong frontal shield,

orifice placed in the distal half, slightly elongated,

with a subtriangular sinus. The lateral

embayments are very small, reduced to paired

notches on the edge of the orifice. The brooding

zooid orifice is wide and rounded. The ovicell is

almost flat, and the next distal zooid is often

crossed by a depressed groove in the calcification.

The paired entooecial areas are small and not

obvious; they are usually placed close to the

median suture. The basal autozooid windows are

very narrow, those of brooding zooids are more

oval. The rhizoid windows are crescentic, with a

large rounded proximal porous area within a

raised rim. Pores are placed round the edge of the

area.

Etymology

Named for P. H. MacGillivray, who first

described the fossil specimens.

Distribution

S. macgillivrayi occurs in Miocene deposits

from Mount Schanck in South Australia in the

west to the east coast of Port Phillip Bay in

Victoria.

Remarks

MacGillivray (1895) was doubtful that his

specimen was the same species as that described

as Lunulites angulopora by Tenison Woods

(1880), but did not discuss his reasons. Two of

Tenison Woods’s species of ‘Selenariadae’, L.

crassa and L. angulopora, are not lunulitiform

and free-living, but belong to the genus

Conescharellina. The name ‘angulopora’ is not

available for Selenariopsis and MacGillivray’s

species is therefore renamed here. MacGillivray

gave no locality for his specimen, which consisted

of two fragments only. As mentioned by Powell

(1966) the specimens are labelled ‘Muddy Creek’.

MacGillivray considered that the basal rhizoid

window and porous area was the zooid orifice,

and that the orifices on the other side of the

fragments were ‘probably avicularian’. Without

the advantage of having complete colonies for

examination, the basal and frontal surfaces do

look remarkably alike. Both have smooth

calcification marked into rectangles by vertical

zooid walls. The more oval basal windows and

slightly worn orifices appear to be extremely

similar, to superficial inspection, and it is easy to

understand how MacGillivray made the wrong

interpretation.

The specimens examined here are also all

fragmentary, and are generally rare, although

present at a large number of localities. More than

70 fragments, the largest of more than 50 zooids,

are present in the sample from Princetown, and

are accompanied by S. marginata sp. nov.

S. macgillivrayi differs from S. gabrieli in the

more elongated shape of the orifice, and the

slightly smaller and rounder basal porous areas.

The principal difference is that the zooid distal to

the ovicell is an autozooid, not a kenozooid, and

the entooecial areas are placed close to the median

suture, on the frontal surface of the ovicell. S.

macgillivrayi differs from S. marginata sp. nov.

in the size of zooids, and the shape and size of

zooid orifices. The basal porous areas are larger

and the basal windows narrower.

Selenariopsis marginata sp. nov.

(Figs 3, 4, 6, 9, 10)

Material Examined

Holotype: MV P140966, Princetown, Miocene.

Paratype material: Princetown and Balcombe

Bay, Victoria, Miocene (SAM P35471).

Description

Autozooid frontal shields large, short and wide,

often almost square. Orifices nearly central, large,

marginally raised, elongated, with a subtriangular

sinus and minute lateral embayments only visible

in well preserved specimens. The brooding zooid

orifice is wide and rounded with a subtriangular

sinus. The ovicell is more prominent than that of

S. macgillivrayi, and distinctly narrower than both

the brooding zooid and distal autozooid. The

frontal areas are often not obvious, but when

present, are placed well away from the median

suture on the ovicell frontal wall. The basal

windows of autozooids and brooding zooids are

oval or nearly circular. The basal rhizoid windows

are usually small, and are sometimes more

subtriangular than crescentic; the porous area is

also very small, sometimes minute, and is circular,

with a raised rim and scattered pores.

Etymology

Marginatus. L., enclosed with a border,

referring to the raised rims of the zooidal orifices.

28 P.E. BOCK & P.L. COOK

eeu

—o .

THE GENUS SELENARIOPSIS 29

Distribution

Miocene of Victoria.

Remarks

S. marginata is represented by fewer than 60

fragments, the largest of only 8 zooids, but its

characters are distinct and consistent. The

dimensions of zooids appear to be generally much

larger than those of the other two species, at the

inferred equivalent astogenetic stage.

S. marginata is distinguished from both S.

gabrieli and S. macgillivrayi, with which last it

often occurs, by the raised margins of the

elongated orifices. These may be so prominent that

they make the colony surface appear to be rugose.

The other obvious difference is the small size of

the basal porous areas. The ovicell is less

depressed than that of S. macgillivrayi, which it

resembles in having a distal autozooid, unlike the

kenozooid of S. gabrieli.

DISCUSSION

Although no complete colony of Selenariopsis

has been preserved as a fossil, it is remarkable

that such delicate species have been found in

fragments large enough to be recognizable, and

distinguishable from each other. The slight

curvature and the budding pattern of the fragments

allow the inference that they had a lunulitiform

shape when complete. The occurrence of the

distinctive windows and porous areas on the basal

side of the fossils allows the inference that they,

too, developed rhizoids in life, and lived in a

similar manner to S. gabrieli. The larger

fragments of S. macgillivrayi show ridges

frontally between zooid generations and ‘growth

lines’ in the calcification of the frontal shields

(Fig. 5). These also occur in colonies of S.

gabrieli, where they appear to be related to

episodes of repair, and of ‘seasonal growth’, and

to rapid calcification of the frontal membranous

wall of zooid buds (Fig. 1).

The differences among the three species of

Selenariopsis are small, but in several characters,

the states are distinct and consistently correlated

(Table 1). S. gabrieli resembles S. macgillivrayi

in many ways and may be a direct descendant. S.

marginata differs from both species in zooid size

and the raised margins of the elongated autozooid

orifices, as well as in the very small basal porous

areas.

It is interesting that the Recent species, S.

gabrieli, exhibits two features which indicate a

closer relationship with the genus Eurystomella

than with its fossil congeners. The cryptocyst

embayments at the edge of the orifice, although

small in S. gabrieli, are distinct; in the fossil

species they are much smaller, and can often

hardly be distinguished. Further, in S. gabrieli and

all species of Eurystomella, the kenozooid which

completely envelops the distal end of the ovicell

capsule also bears the entooecial window or

fenestrae on its frontal wall.

In S. macgillivrayi and S. marginata the

entooecial areas are part of the frontal wall of the

ovicell capsule, not the distal autozooid, which

surrounds the capsule on the basal side only. A

TABLE 1. Measurements in mm of species of

Selenariopsis. Lz, \z, length and width of autozooid;

Lo, lo, length and width of orifice; L bro, | bro, length

and width of brooding zooid orifice; Lov, lov, length and

width of ovicell; Lbw, lbw, length and width of basal

window; Lrw, Irw, length and width of rhizoid window;

Lpa, Ipa, length and width of porous area.

Character S. gabrieli S. macgillivrayi S. marginata

Lz 0.30-0.44 0.30-0.45 0.37—-0.66

Iz 0.25-0.40 0.25-0.40 0.36-0.48

Lo 0.11-0.16 0.13-0.18 0.18-0.25

lo 0.10—0.12 0.10—0.13 0.12-0.16

L bro 0.11-0.13 0.16-0.18 0.15-0.17

I bro 0.16—-0.18 0.16-0.19 0.14-0.16

Lov 0.08-0.10 0.18-0.23 0.25—0.30

lov 0.21-0.24 0.22-0.32 0.30-0.40

Lbw 0.16—0.22 0.20-0.21 0.17-0.24

Ibw 0.12-0.15 0.02—0.06 0.12-0.14

Lrw 0.10-0.12 0.08—0.09 0.08-0.10

Irw 0.20-0.23 0.14-0.18 0.10—-0.16

Lpa 0.18—0.25 0.20-0.25 0.08-0.16

Ipa 0.16-0.25 0.17-0.25 0.08-0.18

FIGURES 7-10. 7, Selenariopsis gabrieli Maplestone, Kimbla Stn 99. Basal walls, showing uncalcified

windows of brooding zooids and ovicells (b), autozooids (a), and one rhizoid window (r). Large,

subrectangular porous area with marginal pores (p), X100; 8, S. macgillivrayi sp.nov., Princetown. Narrow

basal windows of autozooids and one rhizoid window with proximal porous area (p), X80; 9-10, S.

marginata sp.nov., Princetown. Distal autozooid, and proximal rhizoid basal windows; note small, circular

porous areas (p). Fig. 9, X80; Fig. 10, X100.

30 P. E. BOCK & P. L. COOK

parallel series of differing relationships in time,

among the brooding zooids, ovicells and distal

zooids occurs in species of the Australian

Tertiary—to—Recent genus Quadriscutella (see

Bock & Cook 1993),

The cuticle-covered basal window of each

zooid of Selenariopsis has a parallel in the

ascophoran genera Chiastosella and Didymosella.

Both these genera have a wide Tertiary-to—Recent

geographic range, and are particularly well

represented in Australasia. Although many

species have a semi-repent, unilaminar colony

form, none is lunulitiform. Powell (1967:285)

noted that colonies of Chiastosella splendida were

attached by basal rhizoids, but the only description

of the basal windows was given by Waters

(1881:340) in fossil specimens of C. conservata

from Victoria. The basal windows of Didymosella

larvalis were described by Cook and Chimonides

(1981b); they do not give rise to any rhizoids, but

in D. pluma, a South American species, they may

be produced into long, hollow, extrazooidal

calcified processes.

Many of the reports of S. gabrieli have been

from fairly deep shelf, and upper slope depths, the

two deepest among the samples listed above being

from 520 and 800 m. The associated bryozoans

from these samples include many with

cellulariiform, erect colonies, all anchored by

rhizoids (see Bock & Cook in press). Species

found in association with S. gabrieli at the

shallower end of the depth range have been

discussed by Cook (1979), and included forms of

Melicerita, Sphaeropora and Conescharellina.

These too, are anchored by rhizoids. Specimens of

these three genera are robust, and are often

preserved entire as fossils as well as occurring in

Recent sediments. Some _ colonies’ of

Conescharellina, and of the free-living

lunulitiform genera Lunulites, Lunularia and

Selenaria all occur in the Princetown samples.

There is, however, no correlation of numerous

sand fauna taxa in association with the two fossil

species of Selenariopsis, and certainly no

suggestion that the assemblage was from very

deep water.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We should like to thank the Museum of Victoria and

Australian Museum for access to collections, and D.

McDonald for help in preparation of this paper.

APPENDIX

Details of Tertiary Localities in Victoria and South

Australia.

Balcombe Bay: Also known as Fossil Beach,

Mornington, Mount Martha and possibly

‘Schnapper Point’ (MacGillivray); on coast of Port

Phillip Bay, about 3 km south of Mornington,

Victoria. Lat. 38°14.5'S, Long. 145°01.7'E.

Fyansford Clay. Age: Balcombian; Middle Miocene,

(Langhian).

Cooriemungle area: Road cuttings about 18 km

north of Princetown. Lat. 38°32.4'S, Long.

143°08.1'E. Gellibrand Marl. Age: Balcombian.

Gellibrand. This locality was mentioned by

MacGillivray (1895), and is in the same area as

Princetown (see below).

Grices Creek: Also known as Gunyong Creek; on

coast of Port Phillip Bay, about 8 km north of

Mornington, Victoria. Lat. 38°11.9'S, Long.

145°03.9'E. Fyansford Clay. Age: Balcombian (some

material may be Bairnsdalian); Middle Miocene,

(Langhian).

Mount Schanck: Limestone quarry about 1 km west

of Mount Schanck, about 15 km south of Mount

Gambier, South Australia. Lat. 37°57'S, Long.

140°43.2'E. Gambier Limestone. Age: Longfordian;

Early Miocene.

Muddy Creek: Clifton Bank, Muddy Creek, 8 km

west of Hamilton, Victoria. Lat. 37°44.6'S, Long.

141°56.4'E, Muddy Creek Marl (= Gellibrand

Marl). Age: Balcombian.

Princetown (Gigantocypraea locality): Coastal

section, about 2 km west of Princetown, Victoria.

Lat. 38°41.9'S, Long. 143°08.3'E, Gellibrand Marl.

Age: Balcombian.

REFERENCES

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cheilostome Bryozoa. 1. Frontal walls. Australian

Journal of Zoology, Supplementary Series 68: 1-70.

BOCK, P. E. & COOK, P. L. 1993. Quadriscutella

gen. nov., (Bryozoa: Cheilostomata), from the

Tertiary and Recent of Victoria and South Australia.

Alcheringa 17: 159-171.

BOCK, P. E. & COOK, P. L. In press. New genera and

species of uniserial Cheilostomatida (Bryozoa) from

the continental shelf and slope of southeastern

Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Victoria.

THE GENUS SELENARIOPSIS 31

BUSK, G. 1852. Catalogue of the Marine Polyzoa in

the Collection of the British Museum. Part |.

Cheilostomata (part). Trustees of the British

Museum (Natural History): London pp. i—viii, 1-54,

i-Vii.

COOK, P. L.1979. Mode of life of small, rooted “sand

fauna” colonies of Bryozoa. Pp. 269-281 in

‘Advances in Bryozoology’, Systematic Association

special volume 13. Ed. G. P. Larwood & M. B.

Abbott. Academic Press, London.

COOK, P. L. & CHIMONIDES, P. J. 198la.

Morphology and systematics of some rooted

cheilostome Bryozoa. Journal of Natural History 15:

97-134.

COOK, P. L. & CHIMONIDES, P. J. 1981b.

Morphology and systematics of some interior—walled

cheilostome Bryozoa. Bulletin of the British Museum

(Natural History), Zoology 41(2): 53-89.

GORDON, D. P. 1984. The marine fauna of New

Zealand: Bryozoa: Gymnolaemata from the

Kermadec Ridge. New Zealand Oceanographic

Institute Memoir 91: 1-198.

GORDON, D. P. 1989. The marine fauna of New

Zealand: Bryozoa: Gymnolaemata (Cheilostomida

Ascophorina) from the western South Island

Continental Shelf and Slope. New Zealand

Oceanographic Institute Memoir 95: 9-158.

LEVINSEN, G. M. R. 1909. ‘Morphological and

systematic studies on the cheilostomatous Bryozoa’.

Nationale Forfatteres Forlag: Copenhagen.

MACGILLIVRAY, P. H. 1895. A monograph of the

Tertiary Polyzoa of Victoria. Transactions of the

Royal Society of Victoria 4: 1-166.

MAPLESTONE, C. M. 1913. New or little-known

Polyzoa. Proceedings of the Royal Society of

Victoria n.s. 25: 357-362.

POWELL, N. A. 1966. Studies on Polyzoa (Bryozoa)

from the Endeavour Expedition 1909-1914. 1. A

new lunulitiform polyzoan (Ascophora) from south-

east Australia. Records of the Australian Museum

27: 17-26.

POWELL, N. A. 1967. Polyzoa (Bryozoa) — Ascophora

— from North New Zealand. Discovery Reports 34:

199-394.

TENISON WOODS, J. E. 1880. On some Recent fossil

species of Australian Selenariadae (Polyzoa).

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

3: 1-12.

WASS, R. E. & BANTA, W. C. 1981. Catenicellid

cheilostome Bryozoa II. Introduction to ovicell

complexes. Australian Journal of Zoology 29: 365—

400.

WASS, R. E. & YOO, J. J. 1983. Cheilostome Bryozoa

from the southern Australian continental shelf.

Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater

Research. 34: 303-354.

WATERS, A. W. 1881. On Fossil Chilostomatous

Bryozoa from South-west Victoria, Australia.

Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 37:

309-347.

COELOPLANA SCABERIAE SP. NOV., A NEW BENTHIC CTENOPHORE

(CTENOPHORA: PLATYCTENIDA: COELOPLANIDAE) FROM SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

G.I. MATSUMOTO & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

Summary

A new species of benthic ctenophore, Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov., is described from South

Australia, and some preliminary observations on the behaviour and abundance of this new species

are presented. The new species can be distinguished from other species in the genus by its bright red

or orange colour and its specific host plant, the brown alga Scaberia agardhii Greville. This is the

fourth record of benthic ctenophores from Australia.

COELOPLANA SCABERIAE SP. NOV., A NEW BENTHIC CTENOPHORE

(CTENOPHORA: PLATYCTENIDA: COELOPLANIDAE) FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA

G. I. MATSUMOTO & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

MATSUMOTO, G. I. & GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L. 1996. Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov., a

new benthic ctenophore (Ctenophora: Platyctenida: Coeloplanidae) from South Australia.

Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1): 33-40.

A new species of benthic ctenophore, Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov., is described from South

Australia, and some preliminary observations on the behaviour and abundance of this new

species are presented. The new species can be distinguished from other species in the genus by

its bright red or orange colour and its specific host plant, the brown alga Scaberia agardhii

Greville. This is the fourth record of benthic ctenophores from Australia.

G. I. Matsumoto, Flinders University of South Australia, Dept. of Biological Sciences, GPO Box

2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, (George.Matsumoto @flinders.edu.au), and K. L. Gowlett-Holmes,

South Australian Museum, Marine Invertebrates Section, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA 5000.

Manuscript recieved 30 August 1995.

Members of the Phylum Ctenophora have the

potential to impact ecosystems to a considerable

extent (Carlton & Geller 1993), yet research on

this group has been relatively sparse because of

the difficulties in collecting specimens. Within

this phylum there are currently seven orders, one

of which (Platyctenida) are benthic in habit. There

are four families within this order and

approximately 40 species. The platyctenes are

unusual in that they are benthic, they have lost

(secondarily) the characteristic ctene rows, and are

capable of both sexual and asexual reproduction

(Harbison & Madin 1982). Their ability to

reproduce both sexually and asexually is unique

among the ctenophore phylum and can often result

in extremely high densities. A species of

platyctene in Hawai’i reaches densities of over

3000 individuals/square meter (C. P. Galt, pers.

comm.). Platyctenes range in distribution from

tropical (Arnold 1993) to polar (Dayton &

Robilliard 1972) waters, and can be found living

on various hosts, including ascidians, hydroids,

asteroids, echinoids, and algae. Many species of

platyctenes look similar to platyhelminths when

preserved and may be found in collections labelled

as such.

There are only three previous records of

platyctenes from Australian waters (Stephenson et

al. 1931, Smith & Plant 1976, Arnold 1993).

Stephenson et al. (1931) describe the presence of

Coeloplana sp. on the Great Barrier Reef but give

no specific identification. Smith and Plant (1976)

describe specimens (Museum of Victoria, G2649)

tentatively identified as Coeloplana willeyi

collected from 15.5 m depth with green algae

(Caulerpa sp) and unidentified red algae at the

southern end of Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. Arnold

(1993) collected specimens (Queensland Museum,

G35888) of Coeloplana meteoris from Pioneer

Bay, Orpheus Island from soft substrate at 12-13

m depth. W. M. Hamner collected specimens of

planktonic transparent Ctenoplana off of

Townsville but has not published these

observations (pers. comm.).

Recently, some strikingly coloured animals

living in association with the brown alga Scaberia

agardhii Greville, 1830, previously thought to be

platyhelminths, have been identified as an

undescribed species of platyctene. This paper

presents a description and some preliminary

observations on the behaviour and abundance of

this new species. This new species is confined to

small populations on Scaberia agardhii in the

shallow subtidal. As Scaberia agardhii is

endemic to southern Australia we postulate that

the new species of platyctene is also likely to be

endemic to this region. Further work on this

species and related species is in progress.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The material reported here is deposited in the

South Australian Museum, Adelaide (SAM), the

34 G.I. MATSUMOTO & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

Australian Museum, Sydney (AM), the Museum

of Victoria, Melbourne (MV), the Queensland

Museum, Brisbane (QM), the Western Australian

Museum, Perth (WAM), and the California

Academy of Sciences, San Francisco (CAS). All

material was fixed and preserved in 2%

formaldehyde/propylene glycol solution in sea

water, with the exception of one lot (SAM

XHO0010), which was fixed and preserved in 70%

alcohol for later DNA extraction.

The ctenophores were first observed in the field

using SCUBA equipment. Photographs were

taken in the field with Nikonos III cameras with

UW Nikkor 28 mm and UW Nikkor 35 mm

lenses, Sea & Sea extension tubes, and Ikelite

strobes, and in the laboratory with a Nikon F2

with a Nikkor 55 mm macro lens and strobes.

Living specimens were collected by hand and

transported back to the laboratory in aerated

containers. Fragments of the host alga, Scaberia

agardhii, were also collected and transported with

the ectocommensal ctenophores intact. Colour

transparencies (Photo index PH0141-4, PH0184)

of the in situ specimens are held in the Photoindex

collection of the Marine Invertebrates Section of

SAM. Colour description of the new species

follows Kornerup and Wanscher (1978).

Specimens used for examination under the

scanning electron microscope (SEM) were

dehydrated (in a sequential ethanol series) to

100% ethanol, critical point dried, and coated with

gold. They were photographed using a Cambridge

Mark I] SEM.

SYSTEMATICS

Order Platyctenida Mortensen, 1912

Diagnosis

Body with a pair of conspicuous tentacles; body

solid, greatly compressed in the oral/aboral axis,

oral portion everted to form a creeping sole. Ctene

rows usually greatly reduced or absent in adults.

Many species are ectocommensals.

Family COELOPLANIDAE Willey, 1896

Diagnosis

Creeping or sessile ctenophores, ctene rows

absent in adults. Tentacles, with tentilla,

retractable into sheaths. Meridional canals

branched and anastomosed. Pharynx permanently

everted; statocyst present and aboral; body length

<6cm.

Genus Coeloplana Kowalevsky, 1880

Diagnosis

With the features of the family.

Remarks

In addition to the new species described below,

there are 22 other species of Coeloplana described

between 1880 and 1970, some of which have been

well documented (e.g. C. willeyi) and others of

which are known only from fragments (e.g. C.

bannwarthi). The majority of the described species

are host-specific and have distinctive colours and

patterns.

Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov.

(Figs 1-3)

Material Examined

Holotype. SAM H843 (PH0143), found on the

brown alga Scaberia agardhii, in 3-4 m depth,

Edithburgh, Yorke Peninsula, Gulf St. Vincent,

South Australia (35°5'S, 137°41'E), collected by

K. L. Gowlett-Holmes 7 January 1994.

Paratypes. SAM H844 (PH0143) (19), AM

G15606(2), MV F75050 (2), QM G305828 (2),

CASIZ 104015(2), all same collection data as

holotype; SAM H845 (PHO0184) (2), same

collection data as holotype except for date, 12 June

1994; SAM H846 (PH0141 (18), same collection

data as holotype except for water depth, 4-5 m,

and date, 3 January 1992; SAM H847 (PH0142)

(15), WAM 3-95 (2), same collection data as

holotype except for date, 18 May 1992; SAM

H848 (PH0144) (85 + fragments), from on the

brown alga Scaberia agardhii, in 3-4 m depth,

Point Turton Jetty, Yorke Peninsula, Spencer Gulf,

South Australia, collected by K. L. Gowlett-

Holmes 2 April 1994.

Other material. SAM XHO0010, same collection

data as holotype, alcohol-fixed specimens.

Description

The following description is based on field and

laboratory observations of both living and

preserved specimens.

Platyctenes to at least 25 mm in length; solid

dark orange or vivid red in colour without spots of

any kind. Individuals have four rows of papillae

extending from the aboral organ in a figure eight

pattern, also papillae along the margin (Fig. 1A);

papillae appear glandular (Fig. 2) and are capable

of extending or retracting so that they are

indistinguishable from the aboral surface,

COELOPLANA SCABERIAE SP. NOV., A NEW BENTHIC CTENOPHORE 35

particularly with preserved specimens. With two

tentacles, both with tentilla (Fig. 1A); oral groove

present (Fig. 1B). Temporary chimneys may be

formed by a bending upwards of the oral groove,

with the tentacle emerging from the center of the

chimney. Embryos present along the margins of

some specimens, both preserved and live.

Meridional canal structure has not yet been

FIGURE 1. Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov. Paratype

SAM H844. Camera lucida sketches of aboral (A) and

oral (B) surfaces. Note the presence of papillae (P) on

the aboral side and the oral groove (og) on the oral side.

The tentacles (T) have tentilla (t) that originate along

one side of the tentacle. The tentacle sheath is large and

has a cross bar (c) that can vary in shape and size. Scale

bars = 1 mm.

determined due to the opaque nature of the

ctenophore body. Tentacular sheath morphology is

highly variable ranging from anchor shaped (Fig.

1A) to + shaped. This extra cross piece in the

tentacle sheath is similar to that found in Vallicula

Rankin, 1956, but the tentacles have not been

observed coiled within the cross piece (as in

Vallicula).

Habitat

Found only on the brown alga Scaberia

agardhii Greville, 1830, in colonies containing a

single colour morph (red or orange) (Figs. 3, 4),

usually on the tips of the plant. Very few S.

agardhii are colonised, but when the ctenophores

are present, they are abundant (from one to 50 per

alga) and can be found on one or more branches,

but rarely the whole plant. C. scaberiae is the first

species of Coeloplana known to have an obligate

association with a brown algal host.

Distribution

Central South Australia. Currently known only

from the type localities, but has also been reported

FIGURE 2. Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov. SEM of the

aboral surface showing the aboral papillae (P) and

rugose structure of the aboral surface. This is

characteristic of preserved specimens; live specimens

often have a smooth surface when fully extended. Scale

bar = 400 pm.

36 G.I. MATSUMOTO & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

from Victor Harbour, Encounter Bay, Fleurieu

Peninsula, SA. Given the abundance of Scaberia

agardhii in other areas of South Australia, further

investigations should reveal the presence of

Coeloplana scaberiae in these areas. Scaberia

agardhii is endemic to southern Australia and it

is likely that C. scaberiae is also endemic to this

region.

FIGURE 3. Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov. Paratypes

SAM _ H846 (PHO141). In situ photograph showing

ctenophores on the host alga Scaberia agardhii. There

is a white sponge (s) that is always present and whose

role in this commensal relationship is unknown. Scale

bar = 0.5 cm.

Etymology

The species name scaberiae is derived from the

generic name of its host alga Scaberia, in

recognition of the specific association between the

two species. Both names are based on the Latin

scaber which is defined as rough, scabby, or

mangy (Brown 1956), which describes both the

ctenophore and its host alga.

FIGURE 4. Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov. In situ

photograph showing ctenophore (ct) with tentacles

extended in a typical fishing posture, on the host alga

Scaberia agardhii. Scale bar = 0.5 cm.

COELOPLANA SCABERIAE SP. NOYV., A NEW BENTHIC CTENOPHORE 37

Behaviour

The ctenophores feed at night and can be

induced to feed in the laboratory in darkness. This

suggests that there is not a circadian type of

rhythm influencing the feeding bouts. White light

in the form of a flashlight, strobe, or room light

quickly causes these animals to withdraw their

feeding tentacles and cease feeding despite a high

food abundance. The animals will feed and can be

observed under red light, and have been kept in

the laboratory for three weeks without any

noticeable deterioration. The host alga Scaberia

agardhii however tends to die after three weeks

and the ctenophores have been difficult to

transplant to another substrate. The ctenophores

require a high flow rate and are very susceptible

to infection from ciliates. Specimens in the

laboratory were fed enriched Artemia salina

nauplii and did well until the host plant died. This

high specificity suggests that the association is a

very restricted one. An unidentified white sponge

has always been observed under the ctenophore

and it is possible that the sponge is providing a

food source or is the host rather than Scaberia.

The mode of reproduction in this species is not

clear yet, but embryos have been found under the

margin on 18 of 22 preserved specimens. Other

species in this genus are thought to have brood

pouches in the aboral papillae (Harbison & Madin

1982). Dissections of aboral papillae showed no

signs of embryos or use of papillae as brood

chambers. The papillae are hollow within and

open directly into the gastrovascular cavity.

Embryos are found under the ventral margin of

preserved ctenophores, particularly within the

folds of the margin. It is possible that the embryos

are brooded within the papillae and are released

through the oral opening when the ctenophores

are stressed (i.e. placed into preservative). In

addition to the brooded embryos, the ctenophores

were observed to reproduce by fragmentation in

the laboratory. This mode of asexual reproduction

is unique to this order.

DISCUSSION

The host specificity of most of the Coeloplana

species and the bright and distinctive colouration

are useful taxonomic characteristics. Some of the

earlier descriptions are lacking in detail or in

specimens (C. metschnikowii or C. bannwarthi),

and the classification of the group may require

revision when further material of these is

discovered. A key is provided below for all of the

known species in the genus. Descriptions are

taken from the original literature except for C.

meteoris (information from Arnold 1993).

Key To THE KNown Species OF COELOPLANA.

Host is an animal or plant «00.00... 2

— Host unknown; or ctenophores found on

sediment or in plankton oo... eee 22

Host is algae Or Seagrass ...... cece 3

— Host is an animal ....0...0..ccc ee eeeeeeeeeee 8

Epiphytic On Seagrass ........cececeeeeseeeeetees 4

— Epiphytic on algae occ eeeeeeeeeeeseeeees 6

Epiphytic On ZOSterd ..c.cccecceccecceeseesseteeseeees 5

— Epiphytic on Posidonia, ctenophore colour

deep olive green with sepia spots, tentacles

yellow brown with a narrow yellow orange

IMAL RIN pepuveesveyovhesveqenedeteaytecisiledveetoteny he dodedents

Ctenophore colour grey (dorsal) and white

(ventral) (colour possibly a fixation artefact)

ee Coeloplana metschnikowti Kowalevsky,

1880

— Host association not specific (originally

described from “red Zostera’ — possibly host

plant was misidentified). Ctenophore colour

deep purple, red or orange fading to pink

with white spots along the margin and

yellow blotches at the base of papillae .........

Pe. A Coeloplana willeyi Abbott, 1907

Obligate epiphyte on the brown alga

SCabErIA AGAANLL .eeecceecseeseeetetetetteeeteesees

dpasilos salsa Neate Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov.

— Epiphytic on algae other than Scaberia

AB OATAAUL cresssstush sorupre neti outy fantss cbebeoehavhendents 7

Epiphytic on red algae (e.g. Melobesia sp.)

or brown algae (e.g. Sargassum), ctenophore

colour brown to brownish yellow or

chocolate brown with yellow white cells

around the margin and two bands of yellow

around the statocyst; 10-20 aboral papillae

each with 2—5 digitate processes .................

SHG abe Coeloplana mitsukurii Abbott, 1902

— Host association not specific. Epiphytic on

Caulerpa, red algae, coralline algae,

Sargassum. Ctenophore colour deep purple,

red or orange fading to pink with white spots

along the margin and yellow blotches at the

Ke)

11 -

12 -

13. —

14 -

15 -

G.I. MATSUMOTO & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

base-of papitllae::is:t:iscssetecsecighesseseste-seszizestesoe-

akas cctane satin ds Coeloplana willeyi Abbott, 1907

Epizooic on echinoderm ..........::eceeeeeeeee: 9

Epizooic on cnidarian ...........cccceceeeeeeeee 14

Epizooic on echinoid ...........:cceceseeeeeeee 10

Epizooic on asteroid ...........:ececeeeeeeeeeeeeees 13

Epizooic on Diadema, ctenophore colour

solid dark purple matching host, known

only from a fragmented specimen ...............

.. Coeloplana bannwarthi Krumbach, 1933

Epizooic on echinoid other than Diadema,

ctenophore colour does not match host ... 11

Epizooic on Toxopneustes, ctenophore

colour yellow brown with a wide pale green

TAT PET, Macs svpentcectentselsoceannasgdenpvavstesarasivivteet

Epizooic on echinoid other than

Toxopneustes, ctenophore colour not as

ABOVE :..5010yssoclensyates tata tut at aa aau may dandy 12

Epizooic on Heterocentrotus mammillatus,

ctenophore colour brownish red, distinctive

in lacking papillae... ee eeeeeeeeeeteeeees

mh crtyseasc Coeloplana weilli Dawydoff, 1938a

Host association not specific. Epizooic on

Heterocentrotus mammillatus, Echinothrix

diadema. Ctenophore colour deep purple,

red or orange fading to pink with white

spots along the margin and yellow blotches

at the base of papillae... cceeeeeeeeeeees

eeveliaseehseed Coeloplana willeyi Abbott, 1907

Epizooic on Echinaster luzonicus

(Asteriidae), ctenophore colour mottled

brownish red to brownish violet and white .

.... Coeloplana astericola Mortenson, 1927

Epizooic on Pentaceros hedemanii

(Oreasteriidae), ctenophore colour

unknown; 6-20 papillae... eee

Coeloplana krusadiensis Devanesan &

Varadarajan, 1942

Epizooic on gorgonian or alcyonacean.... 15

Epizooic on pennatulid Pteroeides,

ctenophore colour intense orange or

vermilion to orange; distinctive in lacking

papillae: sp. Uiteae. en hdd BALL ariqienereshtnng

st Coeloplana duboscqui Dawydoff, 1930

Epizooic on gorgonian Solenocaulon,

ctenophore colour brick red with white

spots; Oral groOVe PIeSENt...... eee eeeeeeeeeee

aie Coeloplana sophiae Dawydoff, 1938b

Epizooic on alcyonacean ...........::eesee 16

Epizooic on Dendronephthys, ctenophore

colour dark vermilion, dark red, brick red,

pink, orange, or grey stripes branching and

ANASLOMOSING 4 icc see Mai pecctvessceruesb Manders

a eden sestacensystt Coeloplana bocki Komai, 1920

Not epizooic on Dendronephthys............ 17

Epizooic on Cladiella or Alcyonium ....... 18

Epizooic on Sarcophyta .....ccceccececeseees 20

Epizooic on Cladiella or Alcyonium,

ctenophore colour pink (in situ) or milky

white (after preservation in formalin) with

yellow tentacle bases and 4—5 pairs of

papillae......Coeloplana komai Utinomi, 1963

Epizooic on Alcyonium, ctenophore colour

and form not aS above .......:ccceceeeeeeeees 19

Ctenophore colour is milky white with

brown spots; 14 papillae in two distinct

WO WS: hited sgleettadttesteaetitssharsptectrddyderdhndebenceecen sty

Ctenophore colour clear, milky white, or

violet brown; 6-16 papillae «0.00...

pecvaadiies Coeloplana agniae Dawydoff, 1930

Ctenophore colour unknown; 40 papillae ...

Sai Coeloplana wuennenbergi Fricke, 1970

Ctenophore colour unknown; more than 40

Papilae ns, wedi danadsdbusawdeahils 21

Ctenophore colour unknown; 70-100

papillae...Coeloplana punctata Fricke, 1970

Ctenophore colour unknown; 60-70

01:01 | EC evant eS EEO SEL Ree TT 7

UNKTNOW I eli Sits eae cetiitnecinet acetic,

Feblacsgresgcge ta Coeloplana indica Devansan &

Varadarajan, 1942

Ctenophore planktonic .............:::eeeee 24

Ctenophore benthic in soft sediments;

ctenophore colour clear with yellow white

reticulations covering body and red

pigmentation around canals, tentacle

sheaths and papillae 00.0.0... eeeeeeereteeees

spilesleyehenbeua Coeloplana meteoris Thiel, 1968

Ctenophore colour is perfectly transparent

pale green, with 7-8 aboral papillae, 32

orange papillae arranged in 8 rows .............

eee Coeloplana mesnili Dawydoff, 1938b

COELOPLANA SCABERIAE SP. NOV., A NEW BENTHIC CTENOPHORE 39

— Ctenophore colour transparent green; 8

Papilae Ps. 5 fet Makes fee Med FePiooelseteaagaarsrevad

drbavdge th Coeloplana tatersalli Devansan &

Varadarajan, 1942

From the above key and our observations, it is

clear that the ctenophores discovered in South

Australia are a distinct species. C. scaberiae is

one of three Coeloplana species found on brown

algae and it is the only obligate commensal

species (C willeyi and C. mitsukurii can be found

on Sargassum, but are also found on other

substrates). C. scaberiae possesses an oral groove

as does C. sophiae but lacks the white spots found

on C. sophiae and C. willeyi. The presence of an

oral groove and an extra cross piece in the tentacle

sheath are diagnostic characters for the genus

Vallicula. The presence of a permanent chimney

formed from the oral groove is characteristic of

the genus Lyrocteis Komai, 1941. C. scaberiae

has an oral groove, can form temporary chimneys,

and may exhibit the cross pieces in the tentacular

sheath. These observations suggest that the

designation of Vallicula and Lyrocteis in a

separate family (Lyrocteidae) may need to be

reconsidered. C. scaberiae is found with either

red or orange colouration which is similar to the

colouration of C. willeyi, but C. willeyi also has

white spots along the margin and yellow spots at

the base of the papillae that C. scaberiae lacks.

Body colouration and host specificity clearly

separate this new species from all of the described

species. A molecular analysis of this group and

the Phylum Ctenophora generally is in progress

by one of the authors (GIM).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to Andrew Hogg, Keith Rowland, Helen

Lulofs and Wolfgang Zeidler for their assistance with

field collections. Katerina Kantalis transformed rough

sketches into quality illustrations and Charles Galt and

Susan Harris provided some essential references which

were difficult to find in Australia.

REFERENCES

ABBOTT, J. F. 1902. Preliminary notes on Coeloplana.

Annotationes Zoologicae Japonenses (Tokyo

Zoological Society) 4: 103-108.

ABBOTT, J. F. 1907. The morphology of Coeloplana.

Zoologische Jahrbucher, Abteilung fur Anatomie und

Ontogenie der Tiere 24: 41-70.

ARNOLD, P. 1993. First record of the ctenophore

Coeloplana (Benthoplana) meteoris (Thiel, 1968)

from Australia. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum

33: 16.

BROWN, R. W. 1956. ‘Composition of scientific

words.’ Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington,

D.C.

CARLTON, J. T. & GELLER, J. B. 1993. Ecological

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DAWYDOFF, C. 1930a. Sur une nouvelle coeloplanide

(Coeloplana perrieri nov. sp.) provenant du Golfe de

Siam. Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et

Genererale. Notes et Revue 70; 52-54.

DAWYDOFF, C. 1930b. Une nouvelle coeloplanide de

la cote sud d’Annam (Coeloplana agniae nov. sp.).

Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et Genererale.

Notes et Revue 70: 83-86.

DAWYDOFF, C. 1930c. Coeloplana duboscqui nov.

sp., Coeloplanide provenant du Golfe de Siam,

commensale des Pennatules. Archives de Zoologie

Experimentale et Genererale. Notes et Revue 70: 87—

90.

DAWYDOFF, C. 1938a. Les coeloplanides

Indochinoises. Archives de Zoologie Experiemntale

et Generale. 80: 125-162.

DAWYDOFF, C. 1938b. Deux Coeloplanides

remarquables des eaux indochinoises. Comptes

Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de |’Academie

des Sciences (Paris) 206: 1143-1145.

DEVANESAN, D. W. & VARADARAJAN, S. 1942. On

three new species of Coeloplana found at Krusadai

island marine biological station, Gulf of Manaar.

Journal of Madras University. 14: 181-188.

EMSON, R. H. & WHITFIELD, P. J. 1991. Behavioural

and ultrastructural studies on the sedentary

platyctenean ctenophore Vallicula multiformis.

Hydrobiologia 216/217: 27-33.

FREEMAN, G. 1967. Studies on regeneration in the

creeping ctenophore, Vallicula multiformis. Journal

of Morphology 123: 71-84.

FRICKE, H. W. 1970. Neue kriechended Ctenophoren

der Gattung Coeloplana aus Madagascar. Marine

Biology (Berlin). 5: 225-238.

GORDON, D. P. 1969. A platyctenean ctenophore from

New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Marine and

Freshwater Research 3: 466-471.

GREVILLE, R. K. 1830. ‘Algae Britannicae.’

Edinburgh.

HARBISON, G. R. & MADIN, L. P. 1982. Ctenophora.

Pp. 707-715 in ‘Synopsis and classification of living

organisms.’ Vol. 1. Ed. S. B. Parker.

KOMAI, T. 1920. Notes on Coeloplana bocki n. sp. and

40 G. 1. MATSUMOTO & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

its development. Annotationes Zoologicae

Japonenses (Tokyo Zoological Society) 9: 575-584.

KOMAI, T. 1922. Studies on two aberrant ctenophores,

Coeloplana and Gastrodes. Author, Kyoto, Japan.

KOMAI, T. 1941. A new remarkable sessile ctenophore.

Proceedings of the Imperial Academy Tokyo 17:

216-220.

KORNERUP, A. & WANSCHER, J. H. 1978. ‘Methuen

Handbook of Colour.’ 3" Edition. Eyre Methuen,

London.

KOWALEVSKY, A. 1880. Coeloplana metschnikowii

(Sonderdruck ohne Titel) (Coeloplana). Zoologischer

Anzeiger 3: 140-141.

KREMPF, A. 1920a. Sur un Ctenophore planariforme

nouveau Coeloplana gonoctena (nov. sp.). Comptes

Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de |’Academie

des Sciences (Paris) 171: 438-440.

KREMPF, A. 1920b. L’appareil tentaculaire et l’appareil

gonadien de Coeloplana gonoctena (Krempf).

Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Seances de

l’Academie des Sciences (Paris) 171: 586-588.

KREMPF, A. 1920c. Developpement larvaire de

Coeloplana gonoctena (Krempf). Stade cydippe.

Transformations. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires

des Seances de |’Academie des Sciences (Paris) 171:

824-827.

KREMPF, A. 1921. Coeloplana gonoctena. Biologie,

organization, developpement. Bulletin Biologique de

la France et de la Belgique 54: 252-312.

KRUMBACH, T. 1933. Uber eine kriechende

Ctenophore aus dem Golfe von Suez und ein paar

Thesen uber die Architektonik der Rippenquallen.

Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in

Berlin 19: 475-479.

MARCUS, E. B.-R. 1957. Vallicula multiformis Rankin,

1956 from Brazil. Boletim do Instituto

Oceanografico, Universidade de Sao Paulo 7: 87-

90.

MORTENSEN, T. 1912. Ctenophora. The Danish Ingolf

Expedition 5(2): 1-92.

MORTENSEN, T. 1927. Two new ctenophores (Papers

from Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition 1914-1916).

Sertryk af Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Dansk

naturhistorisk Forening I Kjgbenhavn 83: 277-288.

RANKIN, J. J. 1956. The structure and biology of

Vallicula multiformis, gen et sp. nov., a platyctenid

ctenophore. Journal of the Linnean Society (Zoology)

43: 55-71.

ROBILLIARD, G. A. & DAYTON, P. K. 1972. A new

species of platyctenean ctenophore, Lyrocteis

flavopallidus, sp. nov., from McMurdo Sound,

Antarctica. Canadian Journal of Zoology 50: 47-S2.

SMITH, B. J. & PLANT, R. J. 1976. A creeping

ctenophoran (Platyctenea: Ctenophora) from Victoria,

Australia. Memoirs of the National Museum of

Victoria 37: 43-46.

STEPHENSON, T. A., STEPHENSON, A., TANDY, G.

& SPENDER, M. 1931. The structure and ecology of

Low Isles and other reefs. Scientific Reports of the

Great Barrier Reef Expedition 3: 17-112.

TANAKA, H. 1932. Coeloplana echincola nov. sp.

Memoirs of the College of Science, Kyoto Imperial

University, Series B 7: 247-250.

THIEL, H. 1968. Coeloplana meteoris nov. spec.

(Ctenophora, Platyctena). ‘Meteor’

Forschungsergebnisse Reihe D 3: 1-13.

UTINOMI, H. 1963. Coeloplana komaii, a new creeping

ctenophore from Sagami Bay. Japanese Journal of

Zoology 14: 15-19.

WILLEY, A. 1896. On Ctenoplana. Quarterly Journal

of Microscopial Science 39: 323-343.

SUBFOSSIL EVIDENCE OF STRANDINGS OF THE SPERM WHALE

PHYSTER MACROCEPHALUS IN GULF ST VINCENT, SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

C. M. KEMPER, N. KEMPER & J. K. LING

Summary

Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus bones and teeth found in Holocene sands along the eastern

side of Gulf St Vincent have been studied and dated by comparative stratigraphy or carbon-dating

of sediments in which they lay. Three skulls, two from just north of Parham and one from Port

Gawler, were found 0.7 and 1.0 km inland from the modern coastline. They were in coastal

sediments about 2000 years old. Other bones of P. macrocephalus found in various situations along

Adelaide beaches could not be accurately dated because they were found in or on unstable sands. At

least six animals were represented in the available material. Five (three males, two unsexed) were 8-

12 m long and the other (a male) was about 14 m long. The specimens are the only records of sperm

whales in Gulf St Vincent and may represent a two thousand year old mass stranding of bachelor

males.

SUBFOSSIL EVIDENCE OF STRANDINGS OF THE SPERM WHALE PHYSETER

MACROCEPHALUS IN GULF ST VINCENT, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE and J. K. LING. 1996. Subfossil evidence of strandings of the

sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus in Gulf St Vincent, South Australia. Records of the

South Australian Museum 29(1): 41-53.

Sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus bones and teeth found in Holocene sands along the

eastern side of Gulf St Vincent have been studied and dated by comparative stratigraphy or

carbon-dating of sediments in which they lay. Three skulls, two from just north of Parham

and one from Port Gawler, were found 0.7 and 1.0 km inland from the modern coastline.

They were in coastal sediments about 2000 years old. Other bones of P. macrocephalus

found in various situations along Adelaide beaches could not be accurately dated because

they were found in or on unstable sands. At least six animals were represented in the available

material. Five (three males, two unsexed) were 8-12 m long and the other (a male) was about

14 m long. The specimens are the only records of sperm whales in Gulf St Vincent and may

represent a two thousand year old mass stranding of bachelor males.

C. M. Kemper, N. Pledge and J. K. Ling', South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide

SA 5000. Manuscript received 9 April 1996.

Whale bones are occasionally uncovered from

coastal sediments around Australia. Dixon (1990)

reported on the skeletal remains of a southern

right whale Eubalaena australis from Port Phillip

Bay, Victoria. She suggested that the bones came

from whales caught during nineteenth century

whaling operations in the region. In South

Australia many whale bones are found in the

vicinity of nineteenth century whaling stations

(Kostoglou & McCarthy 1991). The bones are

usually identified as E. australis (C. Kemper,

unpublished data), the principal species hunted

from shore stations. The skeleton of a humpback

whale Megaptera novaeangliae, probably

deposited in the last few hundred years by a

storm, was found buried on Moreton Island,

Queensland (Bushing 1991).

The South Australian Museum holds several

cetacean specimens of unknown age from Gulf St

Vincent and Spencer Gulf. These include a blue

whale Balaenoptera musculus part skull and

skeleton recovered from sediments in mangroves

near Whyalla and a part skull from shifting sand

dunes near Cowell. Two bullae from a M.

novaeangliae were donated by the Silicate Brick

Company, Largs Bay and were presumably found

in Holocene or Pleistocene deposits there. A

partial rib of E. australis was found in shell grit

at about 2 m depth while excavating for the

' present address: PO Box 271, Clare, SA 5453

foundations of the power station on Torrens

Island, near Adelaide. Torrens Island sediments

are believed to be less than 4000 years old (A.

Belperio, pers. comm.). A lumbar vertebra,

possibly of E. australis, was found in 2 m of

sediments in the early Holocene Lipson

Formation (Firman 1966), 1 km inland at West

Lakes in suburban Adelaide.

Obtaining accurate carbon-dates for subfossil

cetacean bones is difficult because all marine

organisms are affected by the depletion of 'C

(relative to terrestrial wood, the standard for

carbon-dating) in the marine environment. This is

known as the ‘reservoir effect’ and it is greatest

in the Antarctic and subAntarctic seas (Omoto

1983). Gordon & Harkness (1992) reviewed data

for vertebrates and invertebrates in the Antarctic

region and concluded that for whale bones a

minimum correction factor of 1000 years may

apply. For that reason, Bushing (1991) concluded

that the geological age of the M. novaeangliae

skeleton found on Morton Island, Queensland,

dated at 1410 + 70 years, was not subfossil.

Radio-carbon dates for subfossil north Atlantic

gray whales Eschrichtius robustus have been

more informative (Bryant 1995) because the

reservoir effect there is not as great, ranging from

365 to 750 years (Gordon & Harkness 1992), and

because the subfossils that Bryant was studying

were up to 8330 years old.

This study reports on three subfossil sperm

whale Physeter macrocephalus skulls found in

42 C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

34°¢0' +

45'+.

GULF

ST VINCENT

Ne, DELAIDE

fo) '

3500+

10) 10

| Seana Sea |

S.A.

150-fe te

138° 15' 30

: j¥Sellicks Beach

FIGURE 1. Location of sites where sperm whale skeletal material has been found along eastern side of Gulf St

Vincent. gg towns, - - - major roads, mangroves, [=] Holocene sands, ?Z] beach ridges, "~~ water depth

contours.

SUBFOSSIL WHALES 43

TABLE |. Sperm whale skeletal material collected along the eastern coast of Gulf St Vincent, SA. Rel. =

reliability of identification (see results). Reg. No. = P, Palaeontology, M, Mammalogy collections at the

South Australian Museum. Date = date collected. GPO = general post office.

Spec. Rel. Material Reg. No. Date Locality Site

A 1 cranium, mandible, P31428 1989 4 km N Parham buried 1-2 m in shell grit,

teeth, vertebra 700 m inland

B l part-cranium - 1989 4kmN Parham buried 1-2 m in shell grit,

700 m inland

Cc 1 cranium - 199] 2km NE Port Gawler buried | m in shell grit,

1 km inland

D 2 caudal vertebra M18064 <1960 Tennyson/North unknown

Grange

E 1 part-cranium, R M14434 1987 — Tennyson, 10 km in sand, under 1.5 m

mandible, caudal WNW Adelaide water, well below

vertebra (GPO) low tide mark

F 3 part-cranium M14435 1986 Tennyson, 12 km NW _ on sandbar, after storm

Adelaide (GPO)

G 1 part R mandible M18059 1992 Largs Bay foredunes?

H 1 L humerus - 1993 Largs Bay in seaweed, at high tide mark

I 3 2 parts cranium MI18061 1994 Sellicks Beach found while dredging

ate

FIGURE 2. Posterior end of the almost-complete skull of specimen A at Parham shown at the beginning of

excavations. Note the coarse layer of shell grit, a storm deposit, in which the skull was lying. Photo: J. K.

Ling.

C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

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SUBFOSSIL WHALES 45

FIGURE 3. Lateral view of specimen B at Parham after excavations were complete. Photo: N. Pledge.

Holocene sediments north of Adelaide and

compares them with other P. macrocephalus

bones found on the eastern shores of Gulf St

Vincent.

MarTEerIALS AND METHODS

In 1989 Australian Consolidated Industries

(ACI) discovered two large skulls in their shell

grit mines near Parham, 70 km north of Adelaide.

In 1990 another skull was reported in a smaller

pit at Port Gawler, 40 km southeast of Parham.

Over the last 50 years whale bones have also

been found along Adelaide beaches and donated

to the South Australian Museum (SAM).

The specimens studied were collected from

various situations and locations (Table 1, Fig.1).

Specimens A, B and C were found in pits being

excavated for shell grit; A and B from the ACI

pit north of Parham where, according to ACI

personnel, other bone fragments have appeared

during digging operations, and C was from a pit

used by the owners of the property “Buckland

Park”. Some donated specimens (F, I) were

picked up along Adelaide beaches after becoming

exposed by storms. One set of bones (E) was

found while the collector was snorkelling.

Specimen I was found while dredging sand.

Most of the skeletal material is registered in

the Palaeontology and Mammalogy collections of

SAM but because the skulls found near Port

Gawler (specimen C) and Parham (A, B) were

too fragile to move, they were studied and

photographed in situ. The more robust mandible

and teeth which lay beneath the skull of specimen

A were collected and treated with bedacryl, a

consolidant and hardener. The vertebra associated

with specimen A was collected from near the

skull by ACI personnel. Specimen I was studied

and photographed by the SAM but is held

privately.

Skulls of specimens A, B and C were measured

from scaled photographs taken with a 35 mm

camera.

Sex was determined from tooth, mandibular,

alveolar and vertebral size and/or development

when compared with skeletons of recently

stranded P. macrocephalus held at SAM or

described in the literature.

46 C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

FIGURE 4. Posterior view of specimen C at Port

Gawler after excavations were complete. Photo: L.

Queale.

RESULTS

Identity

The bones and teeth were identified as P.

macrocephalus after comparison with reference

specimens held at SAM and descriptions in

Flower (1869). Their identification reliabilities

(ID) were rated as follows: | = certain, 2 =

probable, 3 = uncertain (Table 1). Table 2 lists

the measurements obtained from the specimens.

In all three almost-complete skulls (A,B,C; all

ID = 3) the tall supraoccipital and maxillary crest

was missing (Fig. 2, 3, 4). The shape of the

dorsal surface of the rostrum was consistent with

P. macrocephalus. The condition of specimen B

had deteriorated badly by the time its study began

and its features were not as clear as in the other

skulls. However, the distinctive shape of the

rostrum and exoccipitals (Fig. 3) made the

identification as P. macrocephalus certain.

Associated with specimen A were 23 well-

preserved teeth, a distinctively-shaped mandible

(alveoli eroded away), bullae and periotics. All

compared well with recent P. macrocephalus

(Fig. 5, 6).

Cetacean caudal vertebrae are difficult to

identify because many of the features used for

distinguishing species are much reduced in this

part of the vertebral column. Specimen D (Fig.7),

a caudal vertebra (ID = 2), was oval when viewed

anteriorly and it had a simple, reduced neural

spine. It was very similar to the 11th caudal

vertebra of a large P. macrocephalus (SAM

M5585) and the description of the same vertebra

in Flower (1869). In contrast, the caudal vertebra

of a B. musculus at SAM was almost round and

the neural spine was bipartite anteriorly. No

comparative material of E. australis was

available so we could not be certain that it was

not this species.

Specimen E (Fig.8) consisted of an almost

complete mandible with 19 large alveoli, one

caudal vertebra and two parts of the cranium

(possibly portions of the maxilla and occipital).

All were clearly P. macrocephalus (ID = 1).

Specimen F (Fig. 9) was possibly part of the

exoccipital or squamosal region of a medium to

large whale. It did not seem to be part of

Balaenoptera spp., M. novaeangliae or E.

australis. However, its identification here as P.

macrocephalus is uncertain (ID = 3).

The part right mandible (G) had six large

alveoli (Fig. 10) and was probably from the mid

section of the lower jaw. It was clearly P.

macrocephalus (ID = 1).

Specimen H (Fig. 11) was a humerus which

compared well (ID = 1) with the sperm whale

features described by Flower (1869), including

the long tubercle on the radial border connecting

with the tuberosity.

Specimen I (Fig. 12) consisted of two parts of

the skull, possibly incomplete frontals, of a large

cetacean. The identification assigned to P.

macrocephalus is uncertain (ID = 3).

Size, sex and number of animals

Adult male and female P. macrocephalus are

very dimorphic in size, males growing to 18.3 m

and females to only 12.5 m (Rice 1989). There is

also a distinct difference in the size of the teeth

(Rice 1989), making it possible to distinguish the

sexes at all ages. Sufficient reference material of

different sexes and relative ages is held at SAM,

supplemented by published measurements

SUBFOSSIL WHALES 47

FIGURE 5. Teeth of Parham specimen A (top two rows) compared with recently stranded specimens in the

Museum’s collection. Four large teeth on bottom left are from the mid-mandible of a 13.5 m male (SAM

M14442). Four smaller teeth on lower right are from the mid-mandible of a 10.2 m female (SAM M16613).

Scale bar is in cm.

(Omura et al. 1962), to compare with the

specimens from the present study and make some

conclusions regarding their size and sex (Table

2).

The teeth of specimen A were open-rooted

(Fig. 5), as would be the case in a young animal,

yet they were only slightly smaller than the teeth

of adult females (SAM M16612, SAM M16613)

with almost occluded dental cavities. The length

of the mandible was about the same as that of a

12.2 m female (SAM M16612). Specimen A was

therefore from a subadult male, about 12 m long.

Specimen B was a very damaged skull, about 2.1

m long. By its size it could have been from a

female or a young male. Specimen C was a skull

of about the same length as that of an 8.0 m male

P. macrocephalus (SAM M15007). Without

teeth or a mandible it was not possible to say

whether it was from a female or male.

The remaining specimens were more

incomplete but it was still possible to estimate

their sex and/or length in most cases. The large

caudal vertebra (specimen D) was the same size

as the 11th caudal vertebra of the 14 m male

described by Omura et al. (1962). It appeared to

lack fused epiphyses although this was difficult

to determine because the surfaces were very

worn. For specimen E, the length of the almost-

complete mandible, size of the mandibular alveoli

and depth of the mandibular symphysis were all

greater than for a 12.2 m female (SAM M16612).

These comparisons suggest that it was from a

male, about 12-13 m body length. Specimen G, a

part right mandible, could not have been the same

animal as E, also a right mandible. The depth of

the symphysis and the size of the alveoli, at least

48 C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

FIGURE 6. Bulla (top left) and periotic (bottom left) of Parham specimen A compared with the same (right)

of a recently stranded P. macrocephalus (SAM M14441) of unknown length and sex. Left periotic is 62 mm

maximum length.

as represented in this piece, were both less than

ina 13.5 m male (SAM M14442) which suggests

that it was from an animal about 12 m long. The

humerus (specimen H) was slightly longer than

that of an adult female (SAM M16612) and its

proximal epiphysis was not fully fused. It was

probably from a 12-13 m male. No size or sex

was assigned to specimens F and I.

At least six individual P. macrocephalus were

represented in the material available (Table 2).

The skulls of A, B and C were three individuals.

Specimens E and H could have been from the

same animal, which was different from G.

Specimen D was from an animal larger than those

described above. The total number of each sex/

size category therefore represents three subadult

males (about 12-13 m long), one adult male

(about 14 m) and two unsexed animals about 8

and 11 m.

Geological Age

It was not possible to assign a geological age

to all specimens. The three skulls (A,B,C) found

in shell grit pits at Parham and Port Gawler all

lay at approximately the same depth (1-2 m)

below the surface of the ground and were

deposited in a deep layer of coarse shell grit, a

storm deposit, overlaid with finer material (Fig.

2). The coarse shell grit in which specimen C

was found has been radio-carbon dated at 2020+

90 years BP, taking into account the reservoir

effect (A. Belperio, pers. comm.). The age of the

storm deposit layer in the ACI bed has been

estimated at approximately 2000 years BP (A.

Belperio, pers. comm.). Specimens A and B were

located 700 m from the present-day shore of Gulf

St Vincent and about 200 m from each other.

Specimen C was 1 km inland (i.e. from the

SUBFOSSIL WHALES 49

FIGURE 7. Caudal vertebra (specimen D) from

Tennyson/North Grange showing weathered anterior

surface of centrum with epiphysis missing. Scale bar

is in cm.

landward edge of the mangroves).

The remaining bones were found in various

situations at, or very near, the present shoreline.

Most were found on the beach but one (E) was

found well below low water mark and partially

buried in the sand under 1.5 m of water and

another was uncovered while dredging sand. It

was not possible to estimate the accurate

geological age of any of these specimens because

the sands in or on which they were found were

not stable and therefore not conducive to

comparative stratigraphy. The sediments were,

however, Holocene in origin and therefore less

than 10 000 years BP.

Discussion

The skulls found in Holocene sediments near

Parham and Port Gawler were dated at about

2000 years BP, judging by the age of the shell

grit in which they lay. Radio-carbon dating of the

bones themselves seemed inappropriate because

of the 1000 year correction factor suggested by

Gordon and Harkness (1993) to adjust for the

‘reservoir effect’. The reservoir effect increases

from lower to higher latitudes in the Southern

Hemisphere but P. macrocephalus ranges over a

wide latitudinal area. Adult males venture further

south, as far as 70°S (Leatherwood and Reeves

1983), than females and juvenile males which

rarely go further than 45° S. Since the animals

described in this study were not adult males and

therefore would not have travelled very far south,

the reservoir effect correction factor would

probably be less than 1000 years had their bones

been carbon-dated. Radio-carbon dates for

recently stranded P. macrocephalus along the

Australian coast are needed to confirm this

hypothesis.

The skulls were well inland (700 and 1000 m)

from the present-day coast and record a time

when the coast was inland of its present position.

The fact that one of the Parham skulls was found

with its mandible and teeth still adjacent to it

suggests that it was an intact specimen, not a

beached washed skull, when it was deposited.

South of Parham, shells within the beach ridges

of the St Kilda Formation have been radio-carbon

dated. At 1 km inland, their estimated age is

3010 + 80 years BP and just behind the seaward

ridge (ca 300 m inland) the estimated date is

1820 + 50 years BP (A. Belperio, pers. comm.).

It is possible that the animals stranded at the

same time, although this would be impossible to

prove even with accurate dating of the specimens.

The two Parham skulls lay at the same depth and

within 200 m of each other. The Port Gawler

skull was in the same sediment layer about 40

km south of the Parham skulls. Since writing this

paper, another P. macrocephalus mandible has

been found at the Parham site but the mining

machinery accidentally smashed it before it could

be studied. There are no records of mass

strandings of P. macrocephalus in South

Australia (Kemper & Ling 1991) but several have

been recorded in Tasmania (Nicol & Croome

1988). The eastern shores of Gulf St Vincent have

been the site of two mass strandings of other

species: five short-finned pilot whales,

Globicephala macrorhychus, at St Kilda in 1903;

and about 250 false killer whales, Pseudorca

crassidens, along the coast between Parham and

Port Gawler in 1944 (Hale 1945). In Gulf St

Vincent most of the cetacean strandings occur

along the eastern side, possibly as a result of the

prevailing southwesterly winds (Kemper & Ling

1991).

The estimated body lengths of the animals

50 C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

FIGURE 8. Upper photograph: Specimen G (being held) and mandible of specimen E. Lower photograph:

two cranial pieces (possibly parts of the occipital and maxilla) and caudal vertebra of specimen E,

studied here were 8-14 m. Three of the six

animals were clearly subadult males, about 12—

13 m long. Two were a little smaller (8 and11 m)

and may have been either male or female. If a

mass stranding of P. macrocephalus did occur, it

may have been a school of bachelor males. Such

associations are well known and include males

generally less than 12 m body length (Rice 1989).

SUBFOSSIL WHALES

FIGURE 9. Specimen F, a part-cranium (possibly

part of the exoccipital or squamosal region), from

Tennyson. Scale bar is in cm.

Schools of both bachelor males and breeding

females are known to mass strand, and at about

the same frequency (Rice 1989).

Holocene coastal marine sediments are

extensive in South Australia (Belperio et al.

1983) and may be the source of many cetacean

bones, some of which could be subfossil. These

sediments have been deposited during the last

10000 years. They are especially abundant on

the eastern side of Gulf St Vincent where there is

a series of inland beach ridges representing old

FIGURE 10. Specimen G, a partial right mandible,

from Largs Bay, showing distinct alveoli typical of

P, macrocephalus. Scale bar is in cm.

shorelines (Belperio ef al. 1983). The

unconsolidated shell beds, and samphire and tidal

flat deposits are called the St Kilda Formation

(Firman 1966). It is 2-3 m thick and lies above

the Pleistocene Glanville Formation, a cemented,

shelly limestone. Layers of coarse shells,

probably storm deposits, occur in the St Kilda

Formation.

The P. macrocephalus specimens found along

Adelaide beaches were highly unlikely to have

been from whaling because this species inhabits

the deep ocean. The waters of Gulf St Vincent are

very shallow (less than 50 m). and the continental

slope is 250 km south of Port Gawler. The two

whaling stations recorded in Gulf St Vincent, one

at Port Noarlunga, just south of Adelaide, and

one at Cape Jervis, about 100 km south of

Adelaide (Kostoglou & McCarthy 1991), would

not have taken sperm whales.

Without radio-carbon dating the specimens

which were found along beaches the possibility

exists that they were from strandings in the last

few hundred years and not subfossil. However, a

thorough search of whale stranding records held

at SAM and a public appeal in 1987 to find out if

any sperm whales had ever been recorded as

stranding along the Adelaide coast failed to find

any evidence of such an event in the last 110 or

so years (Kemper & Ling 1991). A dead animal

the size of P. macrocephalus would certainly

have been noticed in a populated area such as

Adelaide. P. macrocephalus strandings have

been recorded on the north coast of Kangaroo

Island, near the entrance to Gulf St Vincent and

over 100 km southwest of Adelaide (Kemper and

Ling 1991). There have been no reported

sightings of live sperm whales in Gulf St Vincent

(SAM records).

FIGURE 11. Specimen H, a left humerus, from Largs

Bay. Scale bar is in cm.

52 C. M.

KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

FIGURE 12. Specimen I, two part-crania (possibly part of the frontal region), from Sellicks Beach. The label

is 10 cm long.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Australian Consolidated

Industries and their staff, Trevor Gilbert, Trent Baker

and David Flew, for alerting us to the whale skulls at

their shell grit pit near Parham. They also generously

gave us logistic support during the excavation. We are

also grateful to the owners of Buckland Park for

allowing us access to the shell grit pit and to Lyn Pedler

for making us aware that the skull was there. The help

of all those who assisted with the excavations,

especially Ben McHenry, Jim McNamara, Lynette

Queale, Tim Verscoyle, Jenni Thurmer, Lyn and Janet

Pedler, and members of the Mammal Club of the Field

Naturalists Society of SA, is appreciated. We thank Jim

McNamara for consolidating the teeth and mandible of

specimen A. Tony Belperio made available the ages of

the Holocene deposits and commented on the results of

our study. Graham Carpenter made many useful

suggestions on the manuscript. Thanks go to the people

who donated the specimens discussed in this paper.

Gillian Taylor provided references on the reservoir

effect and Trevor Peters took the photographs.

REFERENCES

BELPERIO, A. P., HAILS, J. R. & GOSTIN, V. A.,

1983. A review of Holocene sea levels in South

Australia. Pp.37—-47 in: ‘Australian sea levels in the

last 15 000 years, a review’ Ed. D. Hopley.

Department of Geography, James Cook University of

North Queensland, Monograph Series, Occasional

Paper 3.

BUSHING V. C., 1991. A humpback whale,

Megaptera novaeangliae, skeleton discovered at an

unusual location on Moreton Island, Queensland.

Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 30: 271-275.

BRYANT, P. J., 1995. Dating remains of gray whales

from the eastern north Atlantic. Journal of

Mammalogy 76: 857-861.

DIXON, J. M., 1990. Record of a southern right whale

(Eubalaena australis) skeleton from Altona Bay,

Victoria, Australia. Victorian Naturalist 107: 159-

162.

FIRMAN J. B., 1966. Stratigraphic units of late

Cainozoic age in the Adelaide Plains Basin, South

Australia. Quaternary Geological Notes, Geological

Survey of South Australia 17: 6-8.

FLOWER, W. H., 1869. On the osteology of the

Cachalot or sperm-whale (Physeter macrocephalus).

Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 6:

309-372.

GORDON, J. E. & HARKNESS, D. D., 1993.

Magnitude and geographic variation of the

radiocarbon content in Antarctic marine life:

implications for reservoir corrections in radiocarbon

dating. Quaternary Science Reviews 11: 697-708.

HALE, H. M., 1945. A stranded school of whales.

South Australian Naturalist 23: 15-16.

KEMPER, C. M. & LING, J. K., 1991. Whale

Strandings in South Australia (1881-1989).

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

115: 37-52.

SUBFOSSIL WHALES 53

KOSTOGLOU, P. & McCARTHY, J., 1991. Whaling

and sealing sites in South Australia. Australian

Institute for Maritime Archaeology Special

Publication No. 6. Pp. 1-77.

LEATHERWOOD, S. & REEVES, R., 1983. The

Sierra Club handbood of whale and dolphins. Sierra

Club Books, San Francisco.

NICOL, D. J. & CROOME, R. L., 1988. Trends in the

Tasmanian cetacean stranding record. Pp. 59-70 in

‘Marine mammals of Australasia field biology and

captive management’. Ed. M. L. Augee. Royal

Zoological Society of New South Wales, Sydney.

OMOTO, K., 1983. The problem and significance of

radiocarbon geochronology in Antarctica. in

‘Antarctic earth science’. Eds R. L. Oliver, P. R.

James and J. B. Jago. Australian Academy of

Science, Canberra.

OMURA, H., NISHIWAKI, M., ICHIHARA, T. &

KASUYA, T., 1962. Osteological note of a sperm

whale. Scientific Reports of the Whales Research

Institute 16: 35-45.

RICE, D. W., 1989. Sperm whale Physeter

macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758. Pp. 177-233 in

‘Handbook of Marine Mammals Vol 4’. Ed. S. H.

Ridgway and R. J. Harrison. Academic Press,

London.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW AUSTRALIAN MITE (ACARINA :

TROMBIDIOIDEA), WITH COMMENTS ON SUPERFAMILY

CLASSIFICATION

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Summary

A new larval mite, Yurebilla gracilis gen. et. sp. nov., is described from the Mount Lofty Ranges,

South Australia, from among soil and leaf litter, free-living. A new family, Yurebillidae fam. nov. is

proposed for it. The classification of the superfamily Trombidioidea and related groups is discussed.

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW AUSTRALIAN MITE (ACARINA: TROMBIDIOIDEA), WITH

COMMENTS ON SUPERFAMILY CLASSIFICATION

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1996. Description of a new Australian mite (Acarina: Trombidioidea),

with comments on superfamily classification. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1):

55-62.

A new larval mite, Yurebilla gracilis gen. et. sp. nov., is described from the Mount Lofty

Ranges, South Australia, from among soil and leaf litter, free-living. A new family, Yurebillidae

fam. nov. is proposed for it. The classification of the superfamily Trombidioidea and related

groups is discussed.

R. V. Southcott, Honorary Research Associate, South Australian Museum, North Terrace,

Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 19 October, 1995.

The superfamily Trombidioidea is a large,

cosmopolitan, diverse group of Acarina. Various

attempts to classify its members into family, and

higher and lower, groupings have been made over

many years, since the pioneer studies of Berlese

(1910, 1912). All students of the Trombidioidea

(and other Parasitengona) have had to face the

fact that extreme heteromorphy exists between the

larval and postlarval instars, so that in many

cases, following the small numbers of correlations

that have been achieved between the larvae and

the postlarvals, a dual generic and specific

nomenclature has evolved (see e.g. Southcott

1994). Subsequently, revision of the classification

of the Trombidioidea were made by Oudemans

(1923), Thor (1935a, b), Thor & Willmann

(1947), Feider (1959, 1979), Vercammen-

Grandjean (1973), Robaux (1974), Southcott

(1982, 1987a,b) and Welbourn (1984, 1991).

Welbourn (1984) estimated that the

Trombidioidea contained ‘some 225 genera, and

more than 3000 species’, and contained ‘an

unsettled number of families’.

He divided the superfamily into eight tribes,

using a total of 41 larval characters, largely based

on chaetotaxy; characters of the adults were not

used. In his second cladistic revision (1991) he

followed Feider in elevating the previous group

Trombidioidea to a ‘subcohort Trombidiina’

(Feider had used the term ‘phalanx’), which he

divided into four superfamilies, using a total of 19

larval characters and six adult characters.

In the present paper is described a new

trombidioid larva, obtained by systematic Berlese

funnel extractions of samples of soil and litter

from the Mount Lofty Ranges, South Australia.

As the characters of this larva do not fit into any

of the existing classifications of the Trombidioidea

including the most recent ones of Welbourn

(1984, 1991), a new family, genus and species is

proposed. The classification of the Trombidioidea

will be discussed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mites were collected as larvae by systemic

Berlese funnel extractions from soil and litter

samples taken in the Mount Lofty Ranges, South

Australia. All were collected free-living; none was

attached to an arthropod host. Initial extracts were

made into 70% ethanol, later specimens were

collected live in the hope of making significant

biological observations.

Students of the higher classification of the

Trombidioidea have used the suprageneric terms

with various expanded or restricted definitions,

with varying status. Thus one finds the term

referring to the trombiculid mites used as

Trombiculini, Trombiculinae, Trombiculidae and

Trombiculoidea, with varying content, similarly

with Chyzeriini, Chyzeriinae, Chyzeriidae and

Chyzerioidea, and the same applies with other

trombidioids. In order to save redefining each term

as it is discussed, as far as possible family terms

will be used, with -idae endings, without a formal

commitment to the ultimate status of the taxon.

All drawings were made using an Ortholux/

Laborlux microscope, with a drawing apparatus.

All measurements are in micrometres (um) unless

otherwise stated.

Setal and other coding follows Southcott (1992,

56 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

1993, 1994). The holotype and paratypes are

deposited in the South Australian Museum

(SAM).

SYSTEMATICS

YUREBILLIDAE new family

Diagnosis of larva

Trombidioidea. Eyes two on each side, sessile.

Prodorsal scutum with anterior nasus, six non-

sensillary setae and two sensillary setae.

Scutellum absent. Palpal and pedal supracoxalae

absent. Gnathosoma without chitinous mouth-

ring. Coxalae I & II contiguous, with urstigma on

posterior part of coxa I. Coxal setal formula 2, 1,

1: medial coxala I and coxalae II & III nude. Leg

segmental formula 6, 6, 6. Leg tarsi with 3, 3, 2

claws (i.e. posterior claw of tarsus III absent). Leg

tarsi without ventral sensalae (eupathidalae).

Palpal femur and genu without setae.

Postlarval stages not known.

Type genus Yurebilla gen. nov.

Remarks

Yurebillidae resembles the family

Allothrombiidae, but differs by having a nude

medial coxala I and in lacking a scutellum, and in

having a coxal setal pattern of 2, 1, 1 instead of 2,

2,1.

The family at present contains only the genus

with its type species Y. gracilis sp. nov.

Yurebilla gen. nov.

Diagnosis of larva

With the characters of Yurebillidae, and :

odontus (palpal tibial claw) bifid. Trochanteralae

1, 1, 1. Femoralae 5, 4, 4. Genualae 6 (4Sc +1So0

+1Vs), 5 (3Sc + 1S0 + 1Vs), 4 (3Sc + 1So).

Type species Yurebilla gracilis sp. nov.

Etymology

The term Yurebilla is derived from the

aboriginal (Kaurna) name for Mount Lofty, South

Australia (Ellis 1976).

Yurebilla gracilis sp. nov.

(Figs 1A—C, 2A-C)

Material examined

Holotype: South Australia, Mount Lofty

(summit), in soil and leaf litter in Eucalyptus

obliqua forest, (sample TX272), 4.i.1988, R. V.

Southcott, extracted by Berlese funnel 9.i.1988,

larva (SAM ACA9835).

Paratypes: South Australia. Mount Lofty

summit, site as for holotype, sample TX280,

5.iv.1988, larva ACB1019, RVS, extracted by

Berlese funnel 12.iv.1988. Same site, sample

TX297, 18.1.1990, five larvae ACB1121, 1122A-—

D, RVS, extracted 20.1.1990; one larva ACA1123,

extracted 21.1.1990, RVS. Waitpinga Beach,

southern Mount Lofty Ranges, 17.xi.1953, RVS,

sample TX60, one larva ACB606, extracted into

ethanol. All in SAM.

Description of larva

The following description is based on the slide-

mounted holotype, supplemented by paratypes.

Metric data for the holotype and paratypes are

given in Table 1.

Colour in life orange. Idiosoma 625 long, 295

wide; total length to tip of chelicerae 655 (the

same idiosomal and total measurements before

mounting were 584, 249, 627 respectively).

Dorsal scutum oblong, with undulate borders;

anterior end produced into a blunt-pointed nasus;

scutum weakly chitinized, without special

markings. Scutalae pointed, nude; AM setae near

root of nasus; AL setae small, arising slightly

anterolateral to sensillary setae bases; PL setae

arise near posterolateral angles of scutum.

Sensillary setae slender, tapering, with fine setules

in distal half. Dorsal scutum with a central

longitudinal rod (crista), 30 long, from behind

level of AM setae to about 6 posterior to level of

sensillary setae bases. Eyes: each lateral eye pair

lateral to posterior half of scutum; eyes circular,

anterior 9 across, posterior 6 across.

Dorsum of idiosoma with 20 setae, arranged 2,

4 ,6 2, 4, 2; first pair about one-quarter back from

anterior end of dorsum (hence no ‘ocular’ setae

are present). Setae slender, mostly almost

spiniform (a few faint setules present); the most

posterior pair with a few adnate, slight setules as

is the case with the most posterior ventral pair.

All idiosomal setae arise from a small basal plate.

Ventral surface of idiosoma with a pair of

almost spiniform setae, 18 long, arising well

behind coxae II. Behind coxae III are three pairs

of similar setae, 18-24 long, followed by the

posterior pair, 40 long. Lateral coxala I at the

anterolateral angle of the coxa, with three or four

setules; medial coxala I and coxalae II and III

slender, spiniform. Anus apparently imperforate.

Legs: lengths I 240, II 185, If 210 (including

NEW AUSTRALIAN TROMBIDIOID MITE LARVA 57

i FON

YY REE

YEN

FIGURE |. Yurebilla gracilis, gen. et sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, Dorsal view, entire. B, Propodosoma and adjacent

structures, dorsal view. C, Leg III, dorsal view. (Figures to standard symbols; each to nearer scale.)

58 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

100

FIGURE 2. Yurebilla gracilis, gen. et sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, Ventral view, entire. B, Propodosoma and

adjacent structures, ventral view; symbols standard. C, Leg III, ventral view. (Each to nearer scale.)

NEW AUSTRALIAN TROMBIDIOID MITE LARVA

TABLE 1. Metric data for Yurebilla gracilis gen. et. sp. nov., larva

Character Holotype n range mean s.d. C.V.

LN c. 15 9 10-23 17.7 3.97 PN rae)

MA 32 9 27-32 30.4 1.51 5.0

AW 29 9 29-37 33.7 2.45 7.3

PW 32 9 32-38 34.9 2.26 6.5

SB 22 9 22-30 26.3 2.24 8.5

MSA 29 9 25-31 28.7 1.73 6.0

ASB 54 9 43-58 52.6 4.30 8.2

PSB 32 9 29-36 32.8 2.39 7.3

L 86 9 71-92 85.2 5.02 5.9

W 40 9 40-57 49.7 5.20 10.5

AP 23 9 20-27 23.7 2.45 10.3

SA 7 9 7-9 7.44 0.726 9.8

SP 18 9 16-21 18.7 1.50 8.0

AM 19 9 13-20 17.9 2.32 12.9

AL 13 9 10-15 12.6 1.33 10.6

PL 18 9 18-23 21.6 1.42 6.6

AMB 19 9 18-23 19.6 1.59 8.1

SE 53 9 49-59 54.2 2.68 4.9

DS 24-33 9 33-40* 36.2* 2.05* S27

MDS 22 9 22-25* 22,9* 0.928* 4.1*

PDS 33 9 33-40* 36.2* 2.05* 5.7*

Fel 37 9 33-46 41.2 4.52 11.0

Gel 28 9 22-29 25.6 2.35 9.2

Til 38 i) 35-43 37.3 2.65 71

Tal(L) 41 9 38-45 42.3 2.00 4.7

Tal(H) 22 9 17-23 19.6 2.01 10.3

Til/Gel 1.36 9 1.28-1.64 1.46 0.104 71

Fell 27 8 27-34 31.1 2.23 7.2

Gell 19 9 18-22 20.8 1.48 iA

Till 23 9 23-33 28.4 3.32 11.7

Tall(L) 42 9 29-42 36.6 3.97 10.9

Tall(I) 16 9 16-19 16.4 1.01 6.2

Till/Gell 1.21 9 1.19-1.61 1.36 0.140 10.3

Felll 38 9 33-40 36.3 2.65 7.3

Gelll 22 9 19-24 21.8 1.79 8.2

Till 39 9 28-40 35.1 3.66 10.4

TallI(L) 33 9 33-40 36.2 2.49 6.9

TallI(H) 18 9 14-18 16.1 1.36 8.5,

Til/Gelll 1.77 9 1.40-1.80 1.62 0.137 8.5

SA/SP 0.39 9 0.35-0.45 0.400 0.0350 8.8

AW/AMB 1.53 9 1.53-1.89 1.72 0.144 8.4

* For maximum values

coxae and claws). Leg scobalae slender,

spiniform.

Leg specialised setae: SoGelI.76d(17),

VsGel.76ad(5), SoTil.39d(19), SoTil.88d(16),

VsTil.87pd(4), SoGelI.62d(14), VsGell.90d(3),

SoTill.36d(11), SoTill.92d(10), SoGelII.53d(12).

Tarsus I with FaTalI.53ad(minute),

SoTal.55d(13), SoTal.85d(13) (arising from a

distinct boss). Tarsus II with SoTalI.38ad(15),

FaTall.40pd(2).

Tarsal claws: on tarsus I & II the laterals (a &

p) falciform, smooth, equal, empodium (m)

slender, curved, over-reaching laterals. On tarsus

III anterior claw similar to laterals of I & II, but

larger; empodium as for I & II, but longer, over-

reaching anterior claw; posterior claw absent.

Gnathosoma: chelicerae bases slender, 42 long

by 26 across (combined); digits curved, pointed,

simple, about 7 long. Galeala (protorostral seta)

slender, spiniform, c. 5 long. No deutorostral or

tritorostral setae identified, nor basis capituli

setae. Palpi slender, femur and genu without setae,

palpal tibia with three slender, spiniform setae.

Palpal tarsus a blunt cone, 6 long, by 4 wide at

60 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

base; on it three simple slender setae can be

identified under oil immersion, longest seta 20

long. Palpal tibial claw (odontus) bifid, the tines

curved, lightly separated, blunted, the medial tine

the larger.

Etymology

The word gracilis is from Latin, for slender.

REMARKS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF YUREBILLIDAE

AND YUREBILLA

The presence of an urstigma (Claparéde’s

organ) in larval Yurebilla, and its general facies,

clearly defines Yurebilla as a member of the

Trombidioidea, using this term in a customary

sense. The only other larva of the Trombidiformes

with an urstigma is Calyptestoma

(Calyptostomatidae). A variety of other characters

has been responsible of the separation of

Calyptostomatidae from the Trombidioidea;

among those of the larva the presence of

multisetose coxae is one of the most notable (see

e.g. Shiba 1976). Welbourn (1991) in fact, on the

basis of cladistic analysis, groups the

Erythraeoidea and the Calyptostomatoidea in a

subcohort Erythraeina of the Parasitengona.

None of the characters used above in defining

Yurebillidae is unique among the families of the

Trombidioidea, all of which are terrestrial. (We

may exclude from further discussion the

Hydracarina (Hydrachnoidia of Krantz (1978)), on

grounds of general morphology, although they

clearly derive from a common ancestry with the

Trombidioidea. )

Considering the defining characters given above

systematically, the first character yiven is of two

eyes on each side. This character is virtually

present throughout the Trombidioidea. Two genera

in which eyes are absent are Beronium Southcott,

1986b, erected for larva parasitic on a

cavernicolous beetle, and Audyana Womersley,

1954a, a larva which was conected ectoparasitic

on a Malayan scorpion, Heterometrus longimanus

(Herbst), probably largely nocturnal (see e.g.

Harrison 1954), The deutonymph of Audyana

thompsoni Womersley also lacks eyes

(Womersley 1954b). This genus was placed in a

family Audyanidae by Southcott (1987a).

A prodorsal scutum is present throughout the

Trombidiodea, but only a few genera possess a

nasus, in disparate groupings, e.g. Neotrombidium

(family Neotrombidiidae) (Southcott 1954;

Lindquist & Vercammen-Grandjean 1971),

Leeuwenhoekiinae, family Trombiculidae (many

authors). Most trombidioid prodorsal scuta have

two sensillary and six non-sensillary setae;

exceptions are in the Trombiculidae (e.g. 4 + 2 in

Trombiculinae, 5 + 2 in Leeuwenhoekiinae).

A scutellum (second dorsal scutum) is present

in various families of the Trombidioidea, e.g.

Trombidiidae and Allothrombiidae, and

Microtrombidiidae (including Microtrombidiinae

and Eutrombidiinae); Hexathrombium in the

Eutrombidiinae is unusual in having several

dorsal scuta. A scutellum is absent in the

Trombiculidae, Chyzeriidae (Southcott 1982) and

Trombellidae (Southcott 1986a).

Palpal and pedal supracoxalae appear to be

unique to the Chyzeriidae among the larvae of the

Trombidioidea, but are present in some larval

Erythraeoidea, e.g. Leptus (see e.g. Southcott

1992).

A mouth-ring, among the Microtrombidiidae, is

found in most, but not all, larvae (see e.g.

Southcott 1994). The presence of an equivalent

structure, i.e. an expanded lip to the mouth, with a

number of find adhesive units or pads, is seen in

the larval Erythraeoidea.

The coxa I & II of each side are contiguous in

almost all Trombidioidea, with the urstigma

closely associated with coxa I. In the Chyzeriidae

coxa I & II of each side are separated (Southcott

1982).

The coxal setal formula of 2, 1, 1 is found in a

number of families of the Trombidioidea, e.g.

Podothrombiidae, Trombellidae, Chyzeriidae,

Neotrombidiidae, and most Microtrombidiidae

(Keramotrombium, with 2, 2, 1, is an exception),

including the Eutrombidiinae. The coxal setal

pattern of 2, 2, 1 occurs in the Trombidiidae and

the Allothrombiidae. A nude medial coxala I

occurs in Trombidium (Trombidiidae),

Eutrombidiinae of the Microtrombidiidae, and

Neotrombidiidae; a setulose medial coxala

I is present in larval Allothrombiidae,

Podothrombiidae, subfamily Microtrombidiinae of

the Microtrombidiidae, Trombellidae and

Wondecliinae. (However, Southcott 1994 recorded

the larva of Microtrombidium nitidum Southcott

as having a nude medial coxala I.)

A leg segmental pattern of 6, 6, 6 is generally

present in the trombidioid larvae; Chyzeriidae and

Trombiculinae have the exceptional pattern of 7,

7, 7 (i.e. divided femora); in Neotrombidiidae, as

well as in the Audyanidae, the pattern is 7, 6, 6

(Womersley 1954a). A reduction of the tarsal

claws is common in the Trombidioidea, e.g. with

many Microtrombidiidae, and ranging through to

NEW AUSTRALIAN TROMBIDIOID MITE LARVA 61

a single pedotarsal claw in larval Neotrombidiidae

and Audyanidae. Among the larval Trombidioidea

only the family Podothrombiidae has ventral

sensory setae (eupathidia, eupathidalae) to the

tarsi (Robaux 1977; Zhang & Jensen 1995).

A seta is lacking to the palpal femur and genu

in the Allothrombiidae (Welbourn 1991; Zhang &

Jensen 1995), as is the case in a number of the

Microtrombidiinae (Southcott 1994)); other

differences are listed above. The larval

Trombidiinae lack only a palpal femorala.

If we accept in broad terms, the cladistic

analysis of Welbourn (1991) for the larvae (the

adult of Yurebilla being unknown), we may

exclude it from the Tanaupodoidea on the ground

of its lacking a lassenia organ (the only larval

criterion given) and from the Chyzerioidea on the

ground of its lacking elongate tarsi (again, the

only larval criterion given). We must then decide

whether to allot Yurebilla to the Trombiculoidea

or the Trombidioidea, each in the sense of

Welbourn (1991). According to Welbourn (1991:

164, 165) the only criterion separating these

groups is the presence of “Apomorphy number 8”

in the Trombiculoidea, i.e. the presence of seta

‘theta on femur legs I, If &/or HI’. This

presumably refers to a solenoidal seta, on the

analogy of setae omega, phi and sigma as used by

the Grandjean school of setal terminology. This

criterion is not understood, as I cannot find any

evidence of such a seta in e.g. Eutrombicula or

Odontacarus, Solenoidalae (=spinalae) are

present on the femora of larval Nothrotrombidium,

family Trombellidae (Southcott 1987a), a family

which Welbourn (1991) includes in his

Trombiculoidea. We may therefore also exclude

Yurebilla from the Trombiculoidea.

There appears little point in going through

Welbourn’s (1984) list of 41 characters in detail,

as in 1991 he modified it by reducing the list to

19 characters of larvae and six of adults. In this

all Trombidioidea were placed in four

superfamilies. Accepting this revised

classification, Yurebilla may be excluded from the

Tanaupodoidea and Chyzerioidea (these

separations could be supplemented with other

characters), as well as from the Trombiculoidea.

Yurebilla clearly belongs to the Trombidioidea,

even as used in the restricted sense of Welbourn

(1991), where it is divided into four families. In

his earlier cladistic analysis Welbourn (1984) had

given as major distinguishing characters

‘Apomorphies 45 & 55’ for the Trombidiinae and

‘Apomorphy 24’ for the Microtrombidiinae.

Apomorphy 45 is the absence of a ‘Distal

eupathid (paraxial) on the tarsus of leg I’, while

the plesiomorphic state is its presence. In

Yurebilla no such seta is present so that it comes

within the ‘Microtrombidiinae’ of Welbourn

(1984). Against this is the other criterion for

Welbourn’s (1984) ‘Trombidiinae’, of

‘plesiomorphy number 24’, i.e. four setae on genu

II & II (the apomorphic state being of two setae).

In 1991 Welbourn defined his “Plesiomorphy 10°

as being of more than four setae on genu II & III,

and ‘Apomorphy 10b’ as of less than four setae

for the Trombidioidea, neither of which applies in

Yurebilla. Another criterion for Microtrombidiinae

is ‘Plesiomorphy 55’, i.e. of one seta on coxa II,

which applies in Yurebilla (also listed as

‘Apomorphy 54’ for the ‘Podothrombiini’). In

1991, however, Welbourn included eight

subfamilies in the Trombidioidea, including

Trombidiinae, Allothrombiinae, Podothrombiinae,

Microtrombidiinae and Eutrombidiinae.

One could go through the list of apomorphies

and plesiomorphies given by Welbourn in his

Figure 1 and Table 1 of 1984, finding characters

possessed by Yurebilla in various subgroups of

the ‘Trombidiinae’ and the ‘Microtrombidiinae’,

but no set of characters which defines its position

uniquely. Apart from the confusion in characters

54 & 55, it may be pointed out that Welbourn’s

Table | contains other errors, e.g. in characters 77

& 78, which disagree with each other, and

characters 97-99, which repeat those of characters

49-51.

Despite Yurebilla (and Yurebillidae) not

matching any of the criteria for family grouping in

either of Welbourn’s cladistic essays, I believe

that it has most resemblances to the

Allothrombiidae (Allothrombiinae), and regard it

as nearest to that group.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank the Australian Biological Resources Survey for

support.

REFERENCES

BERLESE, A. 1910. Brevi diagnosi de generi e specie

nuovi di Acari, Redia 6(2): 346-388.

BERLESE, A. 1912. Trombidiidae: prospetto dei generi

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ELLIS, R. W. 1976. The aboriginal inhabitants and their

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B. P. Webb. Royal Society of South Australia:

62 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Adelaide.

FEIDER, Z. 1959. New proposals on the classification

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FEIDER, Z. 1979. Principes et méthodes dans la

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HARRISON, J. L. 1954. A family of the great black

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KRANTZ, G. W. 1978. ‘A manual of acarology’. Second

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LINDQUIST, E. E. & VERCAMMEN-GRANDJEAN,

P. H. 1971. Revision of the chigger-like larvae of the

genera Neotrombidium Leonardi and Monunguis

Wharton, with a redefinition of the subfamily

Neotrombidiinae Feider in the Trombidiidae (Acarina:

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1590.

OUDEMANS, A. C. 1923. Studie over de sedert 1877

ontworpen systemen der Acari; nieuwe classificatie;

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Entomologie 66: 49-85.

ROBAUX, P. 1974. Recherches sur le développement et

la biologie des acariens ‘Thrombidiidae’. Mémoires

du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. Nouvelle

Série. Série A, Zoologie 85: 1-186.

ROBAUX, P. 1977. Observations sur quelques

Actinedida (=Prostigmates) du sol d’Amérique du

Nord. VIII — Sur deux formes larvaires nouvelles de

Trombidioidea (Acari). Acarologia 18(4): 651-667.

SHIBA, M. 1976. Taxonomic investigation on free living

Prostigmata from the Malay Peninsula. Nature and

Life in Southeast Asia 7: 83-229.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1954. The genus Neotrombidium

(Acarina: Leeuwenhoekiidae). I. Description of the

ovum and larva of Neotrombidium barringunense

Hirst 1928, with an account of the biology of the

genus. Transactions of the Royal Society of South

Australia 77: 89-97.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1982. Observations on Chyzeria

Canestrini and some related genera (Acarina:

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the superfamily and description of a pygmephorid

mite phoretic on Chyzeria. Records of the South

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SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1986a. Australian larvae of the

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SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1986b. Studies on the taxonomy

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SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1987a. The classification of the

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SOUTHCOTT, R . V. 1987b. A new larval mite

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WOMERSLEY, H. 1954a. New genera and species,

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International Journal of Acarology 21(1): 3-9

TRADITIONAL MATERIAL CULTURE OF THE KUKU-YALANJI OF

BLOOMFIELD RIVER, NORTH QUEENSLAND

CHRISTOPHER ANDERSON

Summary

This paper describes the material culture of Kuku-Yalanji speaking Aboriginal people in the

rainforest regions around the Bloomfield River in south-east Cape York Peninsula, Queensland. The

primary emphasis is on ‘traditional’ material culture, as it was around 1880 before significant

European activity began in the area. However, at the end of the paper I deal briefly with some of the

changes which have occurred since then and describe Kuku-Yalanji material culture as it was

during a period of my fieldwork in the late 1970s.

TRADITIONAL MATERIAL CULTURE OF THE KUKU-YALANJI

OF BLOOMFIELD RIVER, NORTH QUEENSLAND

CHRISTOPHER ANDERSON

ANDERSON, C. 1996. Traditional material culture of the Kuku—Yalanji of Bloomfield River,

North Queensland. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1): 63-83.

This paper describes the material culture of Kuku-Yalanji speaking Aboriginal people in the

rainforest regions around the Bloomfield River in south-east Cape York Peninsula, Queensland.

The primary emphasis is on ‘traditional’ material culture, as it was around 1880 before

significant European activity began in the area. However, at the end of the paper I deal briefly

with some of the changes which have occurred since then and describe Kuku-Yalanji material

culture as it was during a period of my fieldwork in the late 1970s.

C. Anderson, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000.

Manuscript received 14 October, 1995.

The Bloomfield River area is at the northern tip

of the band of tropical rain forest that stretches

along the coast of north-eastern Queensland from

Cardwell to Cooktown. Coastal south-east Cape

York Peninsula is a region of high ecological

diversity and one with a host of impressive

physiographic features. The landscape is

dominated by steep-sided valleys, fast-flowing

creeks, high thundering waterfalls, huge granite

formations and dense rainforest-clothed

mountains. The coastline contains some of the

largest relatively undisturbed tropical lowland

rainforest left in Australia. Near the mouth of the

Bloomfield, a narrow coastal woodland plain and

a large swamp area separate the mountains from

the fine, sandy beach and Weary Bay. The

Bloomfield valley is bounded to the north by a

series of mountain ranges extending from Mt

Boolbun east to Mt Romeo and Mt Hartley. These

ranges separate the Bloomfield River from the

Normanby and Annan basins, while in the south-

west the McDowall Range separates the

Bloomfield from the Daintree River. The densely

clad coastal range from Thornton Peak to Mt

Neville extends up to 1 400 metres in places and

forms the south-eastern boundary of the

Bloomfield valley. The mountains in the range are

also the sources of the Bloomfield River itself.

Above the Bloomfield Falls near the Wujalwujal

Aboriginal Community, the river is known as

Roaring Meg Creek. Roaring Meg begins in the

high rocky peaks of Mt Peter Botte and flows

north-west, then east in a large arc, past China

Camp towards Bloomfield. The creek is

characterised by huge granite boulder banks, a

series of deep pools and waterfalls beginning west

of Mt Peter Botte and culminating in the

spectacular Meg Falls. There are five major creek

systems that make up the Bloomfield drainage

area. The Bloomfield River is tidal for the seven

kilometres up to the first waterfall.

In the Bloomfield basin there is a basic division

between closed forest and open sclerophyll forest

and woodland. The closed vine forest is found

primarily at the higher altitudes on both sides of

the Bloomfield valley, except for some extensive

gallery forests in the major creeks emptying into

the Bloomfield River. A channel of open

woodland forest some eight to ten kilometres wide

follows the course of the Bloomfield River/

Roaring Meg Creek from the coast up to China

Camp and over to the Great Dividing Range. The

Bloomfield coastline includes several prominent

ecozones: vine forests on steep slopes down to the

ocean’s edge, the beach ridges at Plantation,

Kangkiji and Cowie Beaches, areas of saline

littoral zone in from Plantation Beach and the

mangrove areas at the mouth and on the several

islands in the Bloomfield River.

Environmental changes since 1880 in the

Bloomfield region due to European activities have

been localised and relatively minimal. Selective

logging has occurred and the riverine flatlands and

the coastal plain in from Weary Bay have been

partially cleared for small-scale agriculture. Most

of the European enterprises here have been

unsuccessful due to labour problems and

difficulties in getting products to market.

European population levels were always, as a

consequence, quite low. The one relatively

64 C. ANDERSON

ee Le RATTLESNAKE

a. POINT

Hy, Meg ay

= 7 Zine PLANTATION BEACH

Ine, & WYALLA WEARY

. 3 PLAIN @ AYTON BAY

MT. BOOLBUN N. = ¥

A 2 4

es f KANGKIJI BEACH

MT. BOOLBUN S. S EE WUJAL

. = ie ee COWIE BEACH

UN CREEK Lo ainda

Boo? a Ss z P

“Aye x 2 COWIE POINT

! eS ?

! &

! SS

£ -

| Ne % =

e/s) ~%

i] =

NG MEG C

e z

CHINA =

7 CAMP. # ,

Ned =

MT. McDOWALLN. 1’ gy $

cae Ve -~ E

Ny \ ~~ aw auc

“tie eo: TRIBULATION

“106 "Vey 7

“4 7 a Zz

Gy , fg =

Gy, ane w

THORNTON, iii 7 =

PEAK Sge Ss

ane) > ~

mas ro) ZN WN

we, “ny

N cA

0 5 10 ed

[is 8 rege ys _ tf } Km

FIGURE |. Kuku—Yalanji territory, Bloomfield River, North Queensland.

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 65

successful industry was tin-mining. Between

about 1890 and 1920 there were several large

scale tin operations at China Camp and in the

high country near Mt Peter Botte. The major

environmental effects of this activity were in its

local clearing and shifting of tonnes of earth, the

destruction and alteration of stream courses, and

the use of local timber and firewood (see

Anderson 1983).

A total of 224 Aboriginal people were reported

for the Bloomfield area in 1886 (Hodgkinson

1886); in 1957 this number had reduced to 133

(Hartwig 1958). In the period of my major

fieldwork in the late 1970s and early 1980s, most

Kuku-—Yalanji lived at the Wujalwujal settlement,

then a Lutheran Church-run mission on the

Bloomfield River (260 people in 1980—Anderson

1982). A few Kuku—Yalanji people also lived in

Daintree, Mossman and Cooktown. Figure |

shows the area occupied and used by the Kuku—

Yalanji until their centralisation at the mission in

the late 1960s. It also shows the permanent camps

which existed on the Bloomfield until the mission

began and which were used on an regular basis in

the late 1970s.

I use the term ‘Kuku—Yalanji’ to refer to the

people who lived on the coast between

Rattlesnake Point and Cowie Point, and along the

Bloomfield River and its tributaries west to the

Great Dividing Range (see Figure 1). My term is

thus equivalent to Roth’s (1910) ‘Koko-balja’,

McConnel’s (1939-1940) ‘Koko—yanyu’ and

‘Koko-yalunyu’ and Tindale’s (1974)

‘Jungkurara’. Roth’s term is actually the name for

the Kuku—Nyungkul-speaking people of the

Annan River to the north of Bloomfield.

McConnel’s terms are ones which literally mean

‘language in which the demonstrative pronoun is

“‘yanyu/yalunyu’ in the coastal and inland dialects

respectively. Tindale’s term is a clan name for a

group associated with the Butcher’s Hill-

Lakeland Downs area 100km to the north west of

Bloomfield. Roth (1910) describes the Butcher’s

Hill tribe as being called ‘Koko—yerlan-tchi’;

whereas Tindale (1974) says ‘Koko—jelandji’ was

the tribe associated with the upper Palmer River

area.

These and other sources describing the tribes of

south-east Cape York Peninsula often confuse

language names with clan and larger group

names. Aboriginal people in the Bloomfield area

had no formal, overall (‘tribal’) name for

themselves, only names as members of this or that

clan. Further, their language had no name as such

either, other than descriptive labels such as those

applied by McConnel. At least by the time of

Roth’s first visits in 1898, they had become

known by the English label, the ‘Bloomfield River

Aborigines’. Although there is no equivalent term

in the Bloomfield language for such a term, it does

seem to have been an isolable cultural unit and

can be opposed to other similar ones in the area,

eg. ‘Annan River group’, ‘Daintree River people’,

etc.

Confusion with respect to names in this area

stems from two other sources. Firstly, the names

given above by Roth and Tindale for groups to the

west and north-west of Bloomfield, were actual

tribal and language names, at least according to

Aborigines from that region in the late 1970s

(Brady et al 1980; Anderson & Mitchell 1981).

Secondly, the Bloomfield Aborigines were part of

a large, linguistically homogeneous bloc,

extending from just south of Cooktown, west over

to the Middle Palmer River, south to Chillagoe

and east to Mossman on the coast. Languages

spoken in this area, including the Bloomfield

ones, Muluriji, Wagaman, Jangun and Kuku—

Nyungkul, are all dialects of the same language.

There were also cultural similarities between

groups in this area. However, I reserve the term

‘Kuku—Yalanji’ exclusively for the nineteen or so

clans that occupied the immediate Bloomfield

River valley. I use the term because it is one used

in the 1990s by this group sometimes to refer to

themselves. It is one that has also gained some

usage in the literature (Patz 1982; Hershberger &

Hershberger 1982).

Kuku-—Yalanji material culture is of interest for

a number of reasons. Firstly, the area’s topography

brings rainforest, riverine and_ coastal

environments into close proximity. This meant

that Kuku—Yalanji were able to exploit a range of

resources over short distances for subsistence and

for manufacture of material culture items. This in

turn led to substantial camps of a semi-permanent

nature. Under such circumstances certain aspects

of material culture, shelter for example, were

elaborated. Secondly, Bloomfield as the northern

boundary of the coastal rainforest zone in north

Queensland, may also have been the limit of

material culture associated with that environment

elsewhere. A full description of Kuku—Yalanji

material culture would provide a basis for

comparison with other rainforest cultures along

these lines.

Thirdly, reconstruction of pre-1880 Kuku—

Yalanji seasonal rounds and movement overall,

demonstrate that travel occurred over a very

limited area, especially for coastal and riverine

66 C, ANDERSON

peoples. This isolation is reflected in several

unique material culture items and subsistence

techniques, including curvilinear lath spear

throwers and the use of boiling in cooking.

Fourthly, the notion of personal property with

respect to material culture items and resources

seems to have been particularly well developed at

Bloomfield. Finally, while the overall repertoire of

‘traditional’ material culture was considerably

reduced by the late 1970s, this did not reflect a

drastic transformation of the Kuku—Yalanji

economy. All major traditional economic activities

continued to be undertaken, using many

traditional and slightly modified tools and

implements. These activities were also carried out

using many items of wholly European origin.

Overall, there was significant maintenance by

Kuku-Yalanji of knowledge about traditional

material culture and, as well, continuities in the

usage of items themselves into the late 1970s.!

Kuku-Yalanji settlement patterns and general

resource use

An important distinction made in Kuku—Yalanji

culture was that between the environments,

resources and people associated with the sea and

those associated with inland areas. The range of

potentially exploitable environments in the

Bloomfield coastal region was very great.

Significant ones for coastal Kuku—Yalanji were

the marine reefs and shallow water areas, islands

and coral bays, beaches, freshwater and tidal

creeks, mangroves and swamps, littoral thickets,

lowland rainforest and open woodland forest.

Each of these environments provided different sets

of resources which were exploited on a permanent

or seasonal basis. About every four to five

kilometres along the coast near Bloomfield,

nestled between the areas of rocky, steep and

uninhabitable shoreline, are small bays and coves

with white sandy beaches with one or two

freshwater creeks emptying into them. These

beaches were the focal points of residence and

economic life for coastal Kuku—Yalanji. During

both the wet and dry seasons, camps containing

permanently maintained shelters were located on

these beaches.* Aboriginal movement was

primarily north and south between these

permanent camps with seasonal forays inland up

onto the coastal ranges for wallaby, yams and

tubers, and wild honey, and to freshwater streams

for eelfish and freshwater tortoise. The beach and

tidal zones also provided abundant fish and

shellfish.

In the inland areas around Bloomfield, three

types of environment were habitually exploited:

upper montane and riverine rainforest, open

eucalypt and woodland forests and the freshwater

creek systems. The latter were undoubtedly the

focal points of economic life for inlanders, where

good sandy campsites, shade and proximity to

freshwater year-round could be found. Dry season

camps were in the sandy beds of the smaller dry

creeks or on the sandy terraces above the running

creeks. The wet season camps were generally on

the ridges between creek gullies, well above flood

level, but not too far from water supplies. The

pattern of movement in the inland areas was one

of short distance shifts within a series of major

camps along the creeks. In the dry, the smaller

nuclear family-based groups would move out

away from the main camping areas and set up

temporary ‘branch’ camps in order to exploit non-

seasonal opportunistic resources such as eelfish,

tortoises, wallabies and goannas. In the wet, the

tendency was to contract into larger more

permanent camps. Large camps with up to 100

people also existed in the dry during the

harvesting and preparation of seasonal, bulk-

supply resources such as cycad nuts.

Kuku-Yalanji subsistence activities and

material culture

In this section I describe Kuku—Yalanji material

culture within the context of three major categories

of subsistence activity. The first of these is

hunting. Kuku—Yalanji hunting on land was

essentially a solitary affair, with at most two men

going out for one to two days. The exception was

the large-scale wallaby drives undertaken in the

dry season. These involved both young and old

men, and occasionally women. Fires were

carefully lit to create a ‘wall’ of fire going in one

direction with only a few openings. Young people,

starting within a forested area, walked in a long

line beating the bush and shouting. This drove

kangaroos, wallabies and other smaller animals

towards the gaps in the fire, where the older men

waited with spears (see Le Souef 1894: 13;

Hodgkinson 1886: 11; and Roth 1901: 29). Apart

from kangaroos and wallabies, the major meat-

resource animals which were hunted included

small mammals, reptiles, birds and cassowaries.

The Bennett’s tree-climbing kangaroo,

Dendrolagus bennettianus (only found in this

area), was tracked by sight or with the use of dogs

TABLE |.Kuku-Yalanji spears

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE

Point

Handle

Kuku-Yalanji Term Purpose No. of Prongs

Jindal hunting 3

wurrbuy hunting 1

murrangkal hunting 1

yingkan hunting 1

bukul-bukul hunting 1

duwar hunting 1

yinba fishing 3-4

yirrmba fishing 4-7

dikarra fighting 3-5

kuyan fighting 1

dajal fighting/ 1

hunting

bandi fighting 1

wood (Acacia sp)

wood (Acacia sp)/

bone

wood (Acacia sp)/

stringray barb

quartz pieces

wood w/stingray

barb

wood N. normanbyi

wood (Acacia sp)

wood (Acacia sp)/

bone

stingray (pointed

forwards)

quartz pieces

stingray (pointed

backwards)

wood (N. normanbyi)

Normanbya normanbyi

Xanthorrhoea arborea proximal

and Acacia holocarpa distal

N. normanbyi

Reed or bamboo proximal and

N. normanbyi distal

Reed proximal and

N. normanbyi distal

N. normanbyi

Xanthorrhoea arborea or

bamboo

Xanthorrhoea arborea proximal

and N. normanbyi or Acacia distal

N. normanbyi

Xanthorrhoea arborea proximal

and N. normanbyi or Acacia distal

N. normanbyi

(see Le Souef 1894: 13). Other kangaroos and

wallabies were stalked from down wind at times

and places where they were known to graze, rest

or come for water.

Twelve varieties of spears, including hunting

ones, were used on the Bloomfield. These were

classified by Kuku—Yalanji according to the

number of prongs, the nature of the prongs,

whether or not a barb or stone tip was present and

what the spear handle was made of. Kuku—Yalanji

spears are shown in Table 1.

These were nominal categories in most cases.

Most spears could be used for any purpose if

necessary. Examples of the single and multiple-

pronged, barbed and unbarbed spears are in the

collections of the Queensland Museum and the

Australian Museum (except that the multiple-

pronged, non-barbed spears sometimes have wire

prongs). These vary in length from 2 300 mm to 2

915 mm. Le Souef (1894: 27) noted that the

Bloomfield spears were up to 9’6” (2 900 mm) in

length. A specimen of the quartz-tipped spear

from Bloomfield is in the Roth collection of the

Australian Museum (Kahn 1993: 151-2). Roth

(1909: 193) describes how the quartz flakes were

attached to the spear’s end. For the wooden-

pointed spears, Cooktown — ironwood

(Erythrophloeum chlorostayches) was sometimes

used as the point and distal end instead of the

black palm (Normanbya normanbyi). In either

case they were fire hardened after sharpening. The

stingray barbs and the multiple-prongs were held

in place by wallaby sinew and resins made from

Canarium australiasicum, E. chlorostayches or

grasstree Xanthorrhoea johnsonii) (see Kahn

1993: 149: Idriess 1934: 145; Le Souef 1894: 27,

and Roth 1904: 11, 1909: 192-193).

For hunting, a linear or ovate lath spear thrower

of E. chlorostayches was used. These spear

throwers (termed, in Kuku—Yalanji, milbayarr)

were very plain, usually with no shell attachment

or handle. They varied in length from 0.9 m—1 m,

and were from 60 mm—90 mm wide, according to

the specimens in the Queensland and Australian

Museums and the ones made at Bloomfield today.

There are numerous scarred trees in the

Bloomfield area where wood for these spear

throwers has been cut out.

The other major type of hunting, at least on the

coast, was for marine turtle (primarily Chelonia

mydas). Turtle hunting was a wholly male domain

and it took at least two and generally three men to

conduct a hunt. One or two were needed to paddle

the canoe and watch for turtles, while the other

man stood on the prow of the boat with harpoon

in hand and guided the boat with hand signals

68 C. ANDERSON

depending on turtle movements. When a good-

sized turtle was sighted, the prow man let fly with

the harpoon, one hand pushing the end of his

whole body weight behind it. This was followed,

usually, by the man diving into the water, guided

by the path of the rope, then diving underwater to

turn over the turtle—with the harpoon point in his

neck or tail. Man and turtle would then float to

the top and the turtle would be hauled into the

canoe.

The harpoon apparatus was made up of a

handle up to three metres long made from the

mangrove Rhizophora apiculata; a harpoon point

which was a sharpened and fire-hardened point

some 10 cm—15 cm long made from Acacia

crassicarpa or sometimes Erythrophloeum

chlorostayches; and a connecting rope made

either from the smashed and twisted bark of

Sterculia quadrifida or of Hibiscus tiliaceus, The

point was not barbed and thus great skill was

needed in throwing the harpoon so that it went

into the softer portions of the turtle. The point was

stuffed into the hollowed-out end of the handle

and kept there by a ring-plug of gum (usually

Canarium australiasicum). This ring also acted to

keep the rope attached to the point as the harpoon

handle came out on impact and floated to the

surface. Apart from being attached to the point,

the rope was run through a hole in the flattened

and bored out end of the handle and from there it

was coiled up in the bottom of the boat’s prow.

The boats used were outrigger canoes with a

single outrigger on the starboard side (see Figure

2). A variety of timbers were used in the

construction of the dug-out portion, but Aleurites

molucanna, Toona australia and a ‘cotton tree’

(probably Bombax malabaricum) seem to have

been most favoured on the Bloomfield coast. The

trees were cut down with stone axes, and the

inside burned out and scraped clean with adzes.

The outrigger was attached with lawyer-vine. The

canoes were poled in shallow water and paddled

in deeper water. Paddles were made from

Xylocarpus granatum. Bailer shells were used to

keep excess water out. The canoes were up to

seven metres in length and could carry six to

seven people or two men and two large turtles. P.

P. King, during his navigation of the east coast of

Queensland in 1819 and in 1821, found several of

these canoes at Bloomfield. Full descriptions are

in his journal (King 1827, Vol. 1: 208-209; Vol.

2: 14). Hershberger & Hershberger (1982: 106)

and Oates and Oates (1964: 110) state that the

Kuku-Yalanji term mararr, which in the 1970s

was used to refer to cloth, had originally meant a

sail made of plaited palm leaves. I have no other

evidence of the use of sails on the canoes.

The next category of subsistence activity I want

FIGURE 2. Kuku-Yalanji people in outrigger canoes on the Bloomfield River near the mouth of Thompson Creek,

1904. Photograph: A. A. White. John Oxley Library Collection.

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 69

to examine is fishing. Fish was one of the most

important components of the Kuku—Yalanji diet,

especially on the coast. This resource was

available at any time, to be exploited

opportunistically by the Kuku—Yalanji whose

knowledge of fish behaviour and habits enabled

them to do so easily. There were three main ways

of obtaining fish. The first was by spearing. This

was normally men’s work and it was done out on

the reef at low tide, from the edges of a creek

bank, in the water or while standing on an

overhanging branch. In freshwater creeks and

waterholes, eelfish were sometimes speared from

underwater. ‘Night-fishing’ also occurred. This

was done on the tidal estuaries from a canoe at

night. One person sat at the front of the boat

holding aloft a burning paperbark torch. As the

fish were attracted to the light, another person

would spear them. One of the most important

species of fish and one which could obtained only

be spearing was mullet. In the late dry, shoals of

mullet, particularly Mugil cephalus and Valamugil

seheli, came into the creeks and up the river. At

other times rock cod, coral cod, red emperor,

black-tip shark and stingrays were commonly

speared. The latter species was important not only

as a meat source, but for the supply of spear barbs.

It is significant, too, that the spearing of stingray

was surrounded by restrictions. Only adult men

could obtain it, and even then never in the

presence of, or with the knowledge of their wives’

brothers (actual or classificatory).

Multi-pronged spears were normally used, the

most common being the yirrmba (see Table 1),

with a grasstree or bamboo handle and a

hardwood or bone point. A special spear thrower

was used for fishing, and as it is unique to

Bloomfield it is worthy of a full description. The

Kuku-Yalanji fishing spear thrower, known as a

balur, was a curvilinear lath 650 mm-—800 mm in

length and 50 mm—70 mm wide. There are 14

specimens in the Queensland Museum collection

and a similar number in the Australian Museum.

Descriptions of the spear throwers are given by

Kahn (1993: 152-3), Le Souef (1894: 27) and

Roth (1909: 199). Roth states:

The ballur is employed for spearing fish or birds

with, especially anything at very close quarters. It is

comparatively short, made of a light timber, is

haftless, and generally decorated with red and white

pigment at its distal extremity. It is thrown in a

manner different from all other woomeras, in that

the blade rests in the fork between the first finger

and the thumb, instead of, as in the ordinary style,

between the first and second fingers.

The timber generally used for these spear throwers

was Argyrodendron sp (Robins 1984), From my

observations of Kuku—Yalanji use of the spear

throwers at Bloomfield in the late 1970s, the peg

at the end for holding the spear was varied in

length and angle according to distance and the

personal requirements of the thrower (see Figure

3),

The second method of fishing was with a hook

and line. Spear fishing could only be done in

relatively clear water. Fishing with hook and line

on the other hand, could be done in the river and

estuarine creeks year-round even when the water

FIGURE 3. John Walker holding a balur (spear thrower) on the Bloomfield River, 1978. Photograph: C. Anderson.

70 C. ANDERSON

was muddy. The line was made from the smashed,

twisted and twined bark of Hibiscus tiliaceus. The

hooks used in salt water were shell-hooks made

probably from pearl shell (Perna Cumingii).

Kuku—Yalanji in the late 1970s had no knowledge

of how the hooks were made and none existed at

Bloomfield then. Rowan (1912: 110) found one

on the banks of the Bloomfield River in 1892;

Roth (1904: 33) describes them generally for

south east Cape York Peninsula. Just south of

Bloomfield in 1821 in a deserted coastal camp,

King found ‘a fishing rod, and a line five or six

fathoms long [nine to eleven metres], furnished

with a hook made from a shell’ (King 1827,

Vol.2: 14).

Lines were held by hand or tied to a stick set

into the sand or the bank. Bait could consist of

pieces of less preferred fish (eg. a small grunter or

shark), small crab, frogs or small shellfish. The

most common fish species taken by hook and line

were the various species of bream, trevally,

mangrove jack, sea perch and barramundi.

In freshwater creeks and waterholes, lines were

used for turtle, eelfish, catfish and perch. Here the

lines were made from the bark of Sterculia

quadrifolia and the hooks from the thorn of the

lawyer cane Calamus australia (see Idriess 1934:

185). Bait was generally grubs, small freshwater

prawns or small frogs. Both on the coast and

inland, line-fishing was seen as primarily a

woman’s task, but men did it occasionally.

The third method of obtaining fish was by use

of plant stupefacients. This was a common

technique in the inland areas in the late dry season

as some of the smaller creeks dried and became a

series of isolated waterholes. Several trees were

used as sources for these fish ‘poisons’. With

Erythrophleum chlorostachys, the bark and leaves

were smashed together under water; with

Barringtonia asiatica, the seeds were mashed up

together with a grass sponge which was then

shaken and swirled under water; while with B.

racemosa, the stems were used in this manner.

These poisons stunned or blinded the fish and they

then floated to the surface where they could be

collected. The divers had to close their eyes very

tightly as they worked and be careful not to swim

through any of the substance in the water. The

waterhole was then unusable until after a storm

and flood renewed the water.

The third and final subsistence category to

examine is gathering. One important gathered

seasonal resource was fruit. At least fifty major

species were considered desirable by Kuku—

Yalanji. Most of these ripen in the period May to

August, and most are found either in rainforest,

on its margins or within gallery forests along the

major creeks.

Important species included quandong, Burdekin

plum, wild almond and several species of Eugenia

and Ficus. Collection of the fruit was often as an

adjunct to some other production task, for example

men while hunting, or women while fishing. Long

sticks were often used to knock down fruit from

the taller trees. Bark troughs .or dilly bags were

used for carrying of the fruit. Some fruit such as

certain Ficus species and the quandong could be

kept for several weeks after being dried in the sun,

while others such as the Burdekin plums could be

force-ripened by burying them in the ground in a

dilly bag and left for up to a week.

Nuts were another gathered resource and around

ten important species were utilised on the

Bloomfield. I will describe later the material

culture items used for preparation of these nuts.

Tubers, bulbs and wild yams were the cornerstone

of the Kuku—Yalanji diet, especially in the inland

area. Most of these were available from the mid-

dry season until November or so, but others were

available in the wet season. Important species

were Tacca pinnatifida, Typhonium brownii and

four varieties of Dioscorea sativa. One of the

latter, Dioscorea sativa, var. rotunda or ‘hairy

yam’, was probably the most important vegetable

food item in the Kuku—Yalanji diet and was the

mainstay of meals for up to five months. Both

men and women could dig the yam, but if dug by

men then women could not eat them. In practice it

was women who supplied the bulk of this resource

(see Hodgkinson 1886: 10). These yams grew in

the sandy-soiled, open forest country, on the edges

of swamps and on the river and creek banks. They

were dug out with one of the most important

subsistence tools at Bloomfield, the so-called

digging stick. The author Ion Idriess, who lived at

Bloomfield for several years before the First World

War, described this item:

Like all their simple tools, [the stick] has a

surprising number of purposes... as a digging stick

for uprooting vegetable foods, as a prodder and

level for forcing small animals (snakes, lizards,

birds) from log or burrow or tunnel in river bank, as

a ‘border’ for water. Primarily, though, it is a digger

of yams... About five feet long [1.5 m], a heavy,

well-seasoned staff of hardwood, it tapers at one

end to a point, and this makes a very efficient tool...

(Idriess 1980 [1959]: 251; see also Roth 1904: 24).

Once dug, the hairy yam, as with many of the

vegetable foods in the Kuku—Yalanji diet, needed

extensive processing. This is described below.

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 71

Apart from fruit and vegetables, a host of other

resources were gathered in this area: shellfish,

terrestrial snails, insects such as green ants and

their eggs, scrub fowl and bush turkey eggs,

mangrove worms and so on. None of these

activities required any special material culture

items nor any special process. Two significant

resources requiring special tools were tree grubs

and wild honey or ‘sugarbag’. In both cases trees

had to be either cut down or chopped up. The

grubs were the larvae or pupae stages of moths

which live in rotten or fallen trees. The large ones,

particularly those found in the candlenut tree, were

relished food items; the smaller ones, and ones

from certain ‘poison’ trees, were used as fishing

bait.

Throughout the dry season sugarbag was an

important and highly desired resource. Nine

species of indigenous bee found in south-east

Cape York Peninsula were recognised by Kuku—

Yalanji as producing honey. Sugarbag was located

either by chance sighting of bees going into and

out of a hole in a tree or by following bees back to

the nest. Idriess (1980 [1959]: 246-247) describes

how Aborigines at China Camp attached a

‘streamer’ of bush cotton to a bee’s body. This

streamer made a loud hum as the bee flew and it

was easy to then track it to the hive. During the

late dry, the bases of trees known to be favoured

by the bees were examined for bee dung, and also

tapped for hollowness. If located and if the nests

were low enough, the hole was simply made

bigger and the comb extracted, sometimes with

the use of a hooked swab made of lawyer cane.

The honey was then placed in a bark container.

When the nests were high in the tree, grass ropes

were made for climbing.

Alternatively, in some trees steps were cut on

each side for easier climbing. I noted such steps

on many trees in the Bloomfield area in the late

1970s. Sometimes the entire tree was chopped

down. Le Souef (1894: 27) notes: ‘It is surprising

to see how hard the [Bloomfield] blacks work in

cutting down a big tree to get a hive, otherwise

out of reach, as they are very fond of honey’.

Hafted stone axes were used to obtain both the

grubs and the bee hives. The celts were tied onto a

handle made of a portion of large lawyer cane and

secured there by bark fibre or wallaby sinew and a

gum mixture of beeswax mixed with resin from

Canarium australasicum. The resulting axe was

reported to me by Kuku—Yalanji in the late 1970s

to be able to cut down softwood trees up to a

metre in diameter and hardwood trees up to about

40 cm. With hardwood trees, a downward stroke

chop was used (as opposed to a horizontal chop)

which progressively split the tree layers. Examples

are in the Australian Museum collection (Kahn

1993: 135-136).

Camps and domestic life

As I noted earlier the focal points of Kuku-

Yalanji residence were the sand beaches on the

coast and near the main freshwater creek systems

inland. At both types of site, shelters were of two

basic types: temporary shades and windbreaks;

and permanent dome-like huts. For much of the

dry season Kuku—Yalanji people used no form of

shelter at all, preferring instead to sleep close to

fires out in the open campsite.

Windbreaks, made from large branches of any

available trees, were set up sometimes for privacy

between sections of camps, or to protect the site

from strong winds, particularly on the coast. The

dome huts were built at the inland camps mainly

during the wet season, whereas on the coast they

appear to have been maintained year-round, and

only refurbished when necessary. The basic form

was the same for coastal and inland huts (see

Figure 4). Le Souef provides a first-hand

description:

The natives made our humpy of fan palm leaves—

first a framework was formed of light saplings bent

over and fastened together, and then the large leaves

of the palm laid on; these made a rain proof

dwelling, and all those of the natives in this district

were made in the same way, but covered with

whatever they could get nearest at hand, either the

leaves of the Fan Palm, Lawyer Palms, grass or

bark. The size depended on the number of inmates;

but the natives here make their dwellings

considerably larger than [elsewhere in north

Queensland]. Le Souef (1896: 154)4

Roth (1910b: 59-60) also gives a similar

description for south-east Cape York Peninsula

structures in general. He notes that at Bloomfield

the leaf thatching was put on from the top down,

with logs and bark sometimes placed on top to act

as weights. Also he states that a fire was normally

built inside the huts and that they sometimes had

one or more entrances,

Thus on the Bloomfield River, a man with one wife

and a small family will occupy a hut with a single

entrance; if he has one old wife, and other wives

and children, a larger habitation will be used, the

old woman having a separate entrance and separate

fire to herself. (Roth ibid).

72 C. ANDERSON

Kuku-Yalanji people during the late 1970s

informed me that young saplings of the Burdekin

plum tree (Pleiogynium timorense) were

particularly favoured for hut construction, but that

any flexible saplings would suffice. For the inland

huts, if palm leaves were unavailable, bark from

the ‘Messmate’ tree, Eucalyptus tetrodonta, was

used, Sheets were cut and peeled off the trees

when the sap had arisen after the first storms in

December. These sheets were pounded with

stones and smoked with the fire until flat.

McConnel (1931: 9-10) notes that on the

Bloomfield, house building was normally the job

of the woman.

Fire was a central part of domestic camp life. It

was made by means of a fire-stick by men

(although sometimes by women at Bloomfield; see

Roth 1904: 10). This fire-stick had two

components: a thin wand of about 30 cm and a

flat, wider piece of wood about half this length.

The wand was twirled vertically with the palms of

the hands while the base of the wand was set in a

small notch in the flat piece, which lay flat on the

ground. The friction created smouldering ash

which caught alight with the addition of dry grass

and wood particles. Dry grasstree sticks could also

be used.

Collecting firewood was usually women’s work

and different woods were used for different

purposes. If conditions were rainy and damp,

wood from the ‘kerosene tree’ (Halfordia

scleroxyla) made an excellent fire starter. Inner

portions of bark from the forest paper bark tree

(Melaleuca leucadendron) could also be used for

this purpose. Dead branches from the grey

boxwood (Eucalyptus tessellaris) made the best

cooking wood: it is very hard, but splits easily and

burns slowly and intensely. Some wood was very

dangerous to use as firewood. For instance, a

mangrove species, Excoecaria agallocha,

produces a smoke which is said by Kuku—Yalanji

to produce blindness. This is also true of the

‘brown cedar’, Canarium australasicum.

The camps were the usual sites for food

preparation and consumption. Below I discuss

several major Kuku—Yalanji food items, their

preparation processes and necessary implements.

Preparation of cycad nuts

During the mid to late dry season, a staple food

FIGURE 4. Dolly Yougie (right) and Eileen Walker (inside), making a wet-season shelter at Plantation Beach, 1982.

Photograph: C. Anderson.

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 73

item was Cycas media. This plant grows

prolifically at several locations in the Bloomfield

area. When the ripened nuts fell off they were

gathered and brought back to a central processing

site, ideally beside a shallow, but fast-flowing

section of creek. More important were the large

flat rocks with small indentations in them, found

adjacent to the creek. These were necessary for

grinding purposes and were known in Kuku-—

Yalanji as jinali. Their locations were widely

known and the sites associated with them used

each year. The main grinding surface was usually

on the top of a large boulder in the creek itself.

Thus during the harvesting and processing time

large central camps were set up at these sites.

The women did the processing, while the young

men kept the camp supplied with food items such

as meat and sugarbag. The first stage of the

processing was the roasting of the nuts on the fire,

which cracked open the soft outer shell. This was

peeled off and the remaining kernel then left for

several days prior to grinding. The delay was said

to make for easier grinding. The kernels were then

ground in the small indentations on the jinali

using a round, fist-shaped stone. The coarse

particles remaining after the initial grinding were

then separated from the flour with a small grass

‘brush’ for further crushing (see Figure 5). This

process of grinding and separation continued until

only a fine flour was left. Sometimes a closely

woven dilly bag was used as a sifter. Roth

provides an excellent description of the remaining

processes:°

The flour is... put into a grass dilly-bag, which has

been previously folded sideways upon itself so as to

form a basin-like receptacle and placed near a

stream. With the help of leaves [pandanus or wild

ginger] acting as a trough, water is allowed to

continue flowing into the receptacle, matters being

so regulated that the water never overflows the

edges. Fresh water is thus continually percolating

through the Zamia flour in its dilly-bag colander,

right through the night, and in the morning it is

ready to be eaten. It may, however, be kept for some

three or four days, up till which time it is believed

to improve... (Roth 1901: 11).

Hodgkinson (1886: 8) provides a similar

description. Some Kuku—Yalanji people in the late

1970s still had detailed knowledge of this process.

Also, the stone implements are still in situ at

several of the sites despite their lack of use for

some thirty to forty years.

FIGURE 5, Dinah Stumpy grinding cycad nuts into flour, Ayton, ca 1962. Photograph: H. Hershberger.

74 C. ANDERSON

FIGURE 6. Louisa Smith making a balji (dilly-bag) with

black palm fibre strands. Wujal Wujal, 1982.

Photograph: H. Hershberger.

The two dilly-bags used in the above process

represent two of the three main types of bags at

Bloomfield. The first bag was made from fibre

strands obtained from the perfoliate bases of the

leaf-petrioles of the black palm, Normanbya

normanbyi (see Figure 6). The second type of

dilly-bag was made from the grasses Xerotes

multiflora or X. loniflora. The palm bag was

made with two continuous strands chained

together and several straight basal strands, while

the grass one was made with one continuous

strand, in the ‘hour-glass’ pattern. These two bags

were important items and apart from their role in

various preparation processes, women used them

for carrying anything (including infants). The third

type of bag was a men’s bag, termed a ngunyin,

and was made from Ficus fibre-twine. It was said

by Kuku—Yalanji to have been able to stretch big

enough to carry a small wallaby. Otherwise men

carried in these bags personal items such as a

small stick with ironbark or other gum attached to

the end, firesticks wrapped in paperbark, spare

spear barbs, and medicinal or sorcery-related

items’ (See Roth 1901b: 8,10; 1904: 28; Kahn

1993: 105-111; Idriess 1980 [1959]: 242).

Preparation of other nut species

Most of the nut species used as subsistence

items required some form of preparation. The

major species are shown in Table 2. The most

highly desired species was the candlenut,

Aleurites moluccana, which, in addition to being

TABLE 2. Major nut species eaten at Bloomfield and preparation requirements.

Kuku- Common Botanical Roasted Baked Sifted in Pounded Leached

Yalanji English Name Name on fire in ashes dilly-bag with stones

Name

Jajikal Screw palm Pandanus No Yes No Shell broken No

spiralis first

babur Matchbox Entada No Yes No Yes Yes

bean scandens, Benth.

bilar Candlenut Aleurites Yes No No No No

moluccana

(Linn.) Willd.

baway Moreton Bay Castanospermum No Yes Yes Yes Yes

chestnut australe, A, Cunn

junda Wild almond Prunua turnerana No Yes Yes Yes No

(F.M. Bail) Kalkm

bujabay Queensland Endiandra Yes No Yes Yes Yes

walnut palmerstonit

(F.M. Bail)

C.T. White

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 75

eaten on their own, were added to wallaby

carcasses to add flavour during cooking. On the

other hand, some species such as the matchbox

bean, Entada scandens, were not particularly

relished and only eaten if nothing else was

available (see Hodgkinson 1886: 4; Roth 1898b:

2). Although most species were arduous to

prepare for minimal return, the advantage of nuts

was that they could gathered and kept for up to

two months. In the wet season—a time of great

dependence on nuts—this meant fewer trips out

and away from camp during a time of heavy,

continuous rain and reduced mobility due to

swollen creeks and rivers.

Yam preparation

Preparation of the otherwise toxic Dioscorea

sativa, var. rotunda or hairy yam also involved

the use of a dilly-bag for leaching. Once dug the

yams were taken to a processing site—once again,

near a small, rapid creek—and clinging roots and

dirt were removed from them. They were then

baked in a stone oven for several hours until soft

and cool. The yams were then mashed by hand in

a palm-fibre dilly-bag. After the mashing process,

the bag was held over a bark trough and water

poured into it to allow the substance to be

strained. More mashing, pouring and straining

was done until only the rough fibres and skin

strands were left in the bag. This residue was then

thrown away. More water was added to the bark

containers and they were allowed to sit for some

time as the yam substance sank to the bottom.

Within a short time, an oily substance appeared

on top of the water. This was said to be the

‘poison’, and it and the water were then poured

off. Fresh water was then added and the process

repeated again a number of times over several

hours until the water was completely free of the

oil and any bitter taste gone from the yam

substance. A crater-like hole about a metre across

was then dug in the ground, and clean white sand

placed in it. A rolled, large round leaf was put

into the bottom of the hole to channel the water

away. The porridge-like food was then eaten on

leaf plates.* Several other yam species were eaten

on the Bloomfield without any need for processing

other than roasting on the fire. Wild arrowroot,

Tacca pinnatifida, and another tuber, Typhonium

brownii, on the other hand, both needed alternate

roasting and pounding between two stones in

order to be edible. Several of the yams and tubers

could be dug and kept without processing for two

to three months into the west season.

Cooking processes and associated implements

Many meat items, including reptiles, birds,

wallabies and other marsupials were cooked

straight on the fire after their bodies had been

bashed with an axe to break the bones (see Le

Souef 1896: 157). Larger animals such as marine

turtles, cassowaries and eelfish were butchered

and the meat cooked in a stone oven. Certain

round rocks which were known not to crack were

placed in a hot fire. Meanwhile a hole was dug

near the fire. When the stones were hot, they were

picked up with lawyer cane tongs and placed in

the hole (see Kahn 1993: 120). The meat, along

with Eucalyptus, Acacia or wild ginger leaves for

flavouring, was then put into a bark trough which

was placed on the rocks in the hole. Other hot

rocks were put around the trough and onto the

meat itself. Ti-tree bark was placed over the

trough and onto the meat itself. Ti-tree bark was

placed over the trough and rocks, than all was

covered with sand or earth and left to cook for

several hours.”

The bark troughs used in the above form of

cooking were another important and widely used

item of Kuku—Yalanji material culture. Examples

are in the Australian Museum collection (see

Kahn 1993: 101-102). They were made from the

bark of various Eucalyptus species, Curcuma

australasica or Tristania suaveolens. If these

were not available, dry bark sheets from the palms

Archontophoenix Alexandrae or Normanbya

normanbyi could be used to make a temporary

trough. With the normal troughs, the bark was

soaked in water then bunched up at each end into

a kind of ‘spike’. Apart from use as a cooking

utensil, the troughs were used for carrying water,

honey or vegetables, for preparing various species

of fruit in (mashing and mixing with water), for

carrying infants in and for ferrying things across

swollen creeks.

Two other cooking processes are worth

mentioning. The eggs of the scrub fowl

(Megapodius freycinet) were a major dry season

protein source. They were wrapped into a ‘bag’ of

big round leaves which had been extensively

soaked in water. This bag was then buried in the

ashes of a hot fire and left to roast. Boiling was

also practised on the Bloomfield, in a number of

ways. It was sometimes done in water-soaked

bark troughs which sat directly on the fire. Kuku—

Yalanji people in the 1970s informed me that an

alternate method was to place red-hot rocks into

water in the troughs to achieve the same result.

The most widespread method of boiling, though,

was in the large Melo umbilicatus shell (See Roth

76 C. ANDERSON

1901a: 8; and Kahn 1993: 103-104).

Other domestic implements, games, musical

instruments and raw materials

Apart from those already mentioned, a range of

other domestic implements were used in the

Kuku—Yalanji camp. Spoons were made from a

variety of materials. The most valued ones were

those made with the scoop of nautilus or melo

shells. Unmodified mussel shells were used as

more temporary spoons or scoops. These shells,

especially Geloina coaxans, were also used as

scrapers (to remove ashes from cooked meat, for

instance), or as a cutter. Only live shells were used

to make these implements as dead ones cracked

unevenly when worked. Small personal knives

were made from short pieces of wood with a

quartz end. Leaves, especially those from palm

leaves, were used as scoops, plates and water

carriers. Fan palm leaves were used as

‘tablecloths’ and as seats and bunches of long

bush grass served as mattresses on hard ground.

Sheets of Melaleuca also sometimes served these

same purposes, and additionally were used as

blankets in cold weather. Dry bottlebrush stems

were sometimes used as torches around camp and

were said to burn for some time. Cassowary

feathers were used as fly and mosquito swatters.

String games, using fibre and human hair

twines, were played by adults and children. Young

boys and girls played a game called birray, or

‘March fly’, in which they chased each other

while buzzing like the fly. Young men held diving

competitions from tree branches into the water and

also held wrestling matches. Toy canoes were

made from bark and palm leaves and small toy

‘boomerangs’ were made from pandanus leaves.

Another well-documented Kuku-Yalanji game

was one in which a small wheel (made of a log of

softwood or the top of a zamia tree) was covered

on the sides by red clay and beeswax and then

decorated with parrot, pigeon or cockatoo feathers.

This wheel was then rolled down a hill and spears

were thrown at it. Men used normal spears and

boys used toy spears made from dry grasstree

stems (see Roth 1902: 18; Idriess 1980 [1959];

199-200).!°

Apart from spear throwers used as clapping

sticks, the only other major musical instrument at

Bloomfield was a wind instrument called a yiki-

yiki. Le Souef obtained one at Bloomfield in 1893

and noted that it was:

a kind of rude musical instrument, a straight hollow

trunk of a sapling, 96” long by 2 34” in diameter at

one end and 2” at the other. It is naturally hollow,

and not done artificially; it is very seldom that trees

for the purpose are found. They blow through it as

one would through a fog horn, the noise being made

by the blower. It is heard a good way off, and has a

musical sound which at distance is very like a flute

(Le Souef 1894: 27).

Roth (1902:23-24) also describes the instrument,

noting that while not decorated, it often attained a

very polished look from heavy use. Instruction in

how to play the pipe was given to young men

during initiation, but the instrument could be

openly played in public.!!

I have already mentioned some of the materials

used in manufacturing the implements for food-

processing and other subsistence tasks. Gums and

resins were an important resource (samples are in

the Australian Museum collection, Kahn 1993:

130-131). I have noted the use of Canarium

australasicum gum for fixing spear points and axe

hafts. C. muelleri resin, and the gum from a forest

Causarina species (probably C. littoralis),

Xanthorrhoea johnsonii and Grevillea striata

were also widely used. The first two were valuable

for trading purposes and thus were not used freely

(see below), and the latter two were said not to

have very good bonding qualities. On the other

hand, the gum extracted from the root of

Erythrophloeum chlorostachys, the Cooktown

ironwood, was readily available and of good

quality. The outer sticky covering of the roots was

scraped away” and gathered together on the end

of a stick and then lightly heated on a fire. The

substance was then pounded between two stones

(which were greased with cassowary fat to avoid

sticking), then roasted and pounded again until

soft. It was applied to a spear or other implement

with a small wooden smoothing board (also

greased).

Other manufacturing items included the use of

Ficus opposita leaves as sandpaper for smoothing

spear throwers or any other wooden implement,

and candlenut seed oil as a fixer for ochre.

Personal property, decoration,

ceremony and conflict

magic,

The notion of personal property with respect to

material culture items and resources generally was

a feature of Kuku—Yalanji culture at Bloomfield.

The palm fibre dilly-bags and yam sticks for

women and the net-bags, spear throwers and

spears for men, were all considered personal items

and would not normally be lent to others. The

nautilus shell spoons were also very personal

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 77

items. A hole was sometimes drilled in them and

they were worn around the neck (Roth 1904: 29).

Animals were also apparently kept in camp as

personal pets. Le Souef (1894: 16) mentions

people raising baby scrub fowl; Roth (1902: 9)

reports that young boys at Bloomfield had dingo

pups as pets while they were being trained for

hunting (see also Hodgkinson 1886). Roth states

that women sometimes suckled the pups. Idriess

(1934: 67); 1980 [1959]: 193) notes that

cassowaries, wallabies, turtles and birds were kept

as the pets of individuals at Bloomfield."

Dick (MS n.d.) describes a sign system which

labelled personal ownership of particular resource

items. He states:

Most simple of... signs are those that denote

ownership. A piece of bark knocked from a tree

containing a bees’ hive; a stick pushed into the mud

beside a crab hole; the leaves trimmed from a stick

that will eventually become a spear shaft; all will

establish such a thing as personal property and will

be respected as such even though the one who made

the sign may be unknown.

With respect to resources in general, Roth reports

an interesting item concerning personal

ownership: ‘The only instance known to me of

women holding what might almost be called real

estate is on the Bloomfield, where the patches of

zamia plants (edible) are apportioned amongst the

females, each woman bequesting her lot to her

daughters or other female relatives’ (Roth 1906:

9). Unfortunately Kuku—Yalanji informants in the

late 1970s could only tentatively confirm this and

I have no other evidence of the existence of such a

practice.

Decoration of the body was either through the

wearing of a physical ornament or through

painting or dyeing parts of the body itself. In the

first case, there were numerous items worn on the

head, the neck, the arms and waist. As I noted

above, whole nautilus shells were worn on strings

around the neck (men between their shoulders on

the back and women between the breasts);

Nautilus shell or pearl shell pieces were strung

together to make a headband (see Kahn 1993:

116-117)'* ; necklaces of grass-bugles, ‘pencils’

of hardened beeswax, shell pieces or seeds of

Abrus precatorius were worn. The latter seeds

were also mixed with beeswax and put onto the

hair, as were small clay balls mixed with

bloodwood seed pods. During ceremonies and on

some hunting trips, prominent Kuku—Yalanji men

wore a head ornament consisting of a tuft of

cockatoo top-knot feathers stuck into beeswax.

The hair itself was modified: it could be cut using

the quartz knife; it could be dyed red using the

fruit of Barringtonia racemosa or rubbed black

with charcoal.

On the body, pandanus leaf armlets were worn

as well as waist belts or apron-belts (examples are

in the Australian Museum collection, Kahn

1993:112-113). Roth (1910c: 39) states: ‘The

Bloomfield River women wear a circlet of human

hair or fibre rope around the waist; it is commonly

met with on the older females, and those who

have suffered any trouble over a recent

accouchement, though in all cases it is looked

upon in the light of an ornament, especially when

some red colour is woven into it’.

Idriess (1980 [1959]: 243) describes wallaby

sinew or plaited hair belts which were worn by

men and in which they carried their stone axes.

Body painting was done for some hunting trips,

and on mourning, fighting, initiation and dancing

occasions, Red and yellow ochres, Grevillea

charcoal and white kaolin clay were the major

sources of paint. While men were painted

anywhere on their bodies, women were only

painted on the faces. More permanent body

decorations were obtained through scarification of

the chest or arms, or by having the nasal septum

pierced. Both of these were done strictly for

beautification purposes. In the case of the nose,

while the wound was healing, a plug of soft

unfertilised banksia stalk was put into the hole

and regularly twirled to keep it open. Avulsion of

one of the central incisors was also practised at

Bloomfield and while this (like nose-piercing) was

influenced by prevailing fashion, it was more

properly associated with marriage custom (see

Anderson 1984).

Decoration of material culture items was

minimal. Small zig-zags and other designs were

carved into spear throwers to personalise them.

The handles of spears were usually painted with

red and white stripes, and sections of the dilly

bags were sometimes dyed red with the

‘bloodroot’ tree, Hoemodorum coccineum.

At Bloomfield, there were few magic and

ceremonial material culture items. Any portion of

a human body (deceased or living) could be used

for sorcery purposes. Especially common items

included tufts of hair, teeth, fingernails, certain

bones or ‘fat’ and these were often carried around

in secret wrappings in dilly bags. Other sorcery-

and magic-related implements included small

quartz-crystal stones (see Kahn 1993:98) and

small effigies of people made from softwood

which would be burned or placed in a tree. There

was also the ‘roarer’, a piece of wood about

78 C. ANDERSON

150mm long which was hung from a tree with

string to make the area underneath taboo. It was

usually painted red with white stripes and often

had a small indentation at the bottom. During

initiation ceremonies a special hollow log called a

murla was placed near the site of the ceremony to

render the ground taboo. After death some bodies

were placed in large bark troughs, very similar to

those used domestically, except with a covering

over the top. Later in the mourning process, the

bones of the deceased were also sometimes carried

around by relatives in smaller, pillow-like bark

containers.

Kuku—Yalanji fighting spears and the materials

used in their manufacture have been listed above.

Several other significant material culture items

were associated with conflict. Physical conflict at

Bloomfield took a number of forms including: (i)

generalised fights of one group against another,

often in the form of an ambush; (ii) two groups

‘squaring off’ against each other in a formal fight;

(iii) two disputing individuals taking turns to hit

each other on the head with sticks; (iv) a formal

‘trial by spear’ of one individual against a group

with a grievance against him. With the first two

forms, fighting spears and the curved woomeras

were used. In the third case, men used fighting

sticks and women used their yam sticks. A

fighting stick from Bloomfield River is in the

Australian Museum collection (Kahn 1993: 140).

There are several eyewitness accounts of women

fighting using yam sticks (Le Souef 1897: 26-27;

Idriess 1934: 120; 1980 [1959]: 251).'° In the

‘trial’ the defendant was given the longer, straight

spear thrower and he was allowed to block or

deflect the spears thrown at him.

Two other items in this domain were noted by

early observers of Kuku—Yalanji culture: the so-

called shields and swords. Roth describes the

shield:

The Bloomfield weapon was somewhat more oblong

and rectangular as compared with that of the Tully,

and usually larger, such dimensions as 3 4%’ [106

cm] by | % [50 cm] being not uncommon, it is

however, fast falling into disuse, and even so late as

1898 was only being occasionally manufactured by

some of the very old men. The Bloomfield natives

called it kun-juri and used to paint it with varying

designs (Roth 1909: 205).

A shield collected by Roth is in the Australian

Museum (Kahn 1993: 141-142). Le Souef also

describes a shield 3’8” (110 cm) long by 1°4” (40

cm) wide (Le Souef 1894: 27). Neither source

gives any information on methods of manufacture

or the woods used at Bloomfield. Both Le Souef

and Roth also mention the single-handed sword

being found at Bloomfield. This was from 3’3” to

5° (108 cm — 150 cm) long and about 6” (16 cm)

wide. Roth (ibid) notes that in 1898 only a few

old men made this implement. Although older

Kuku-—Yalanji in the late 1970s knew of these two

items and knew that they had been used at

Bloomfield, no one had ever made one or seen one

for at least 60 years. The swords were sometimes

used as fighting sticks during the ritual head-

hitting; the shields were given to individuals for

blocking spears during the formal trial. There are

two swords from Bloomfield in the Australian

Museum collection (Kahn 1993: 158-159).

Communications, trade and introduced items

There were two primary ways of sending

messages between individuals and groups. The

first was the message stick. Only the oldest

Kuku-Yalanji in the late 1970s had any

recollection of these, and no one was able to say

what types of signs and symbols were used on

them. They did say that there were two types: one,

a special stick for carrying bad news, especially

about the death of a relative (jarrjal); and the

other, an all-purpose stick for general messages

(kaban).'© There are several message sticks from

Bloomfield in the Australian Museum’s Roth

collection (Kahn 1993: 126). They were ones

given to Roth or to the hospital doctor at

Cooktown to inform relatives that a patient was

recovering or ones given to Roth to take to

Aboriginal people elsewhere to introduce him and

ask that they give him this or that item of material

culture.

The second method of communication was

through signs left on the path or at a site. These

were termed duburan in Kuku—Yalanji. I have

already noted the signs left to denote ownership.

Other signs were made of bundles of grass or

sticks and placed at about eye-level along the

path. These showed who went where, how many

people, whether they were armed or not; others

showed a turn-off on the path or indicated water

or some food resource. As Dick notes, the form

these messages took ranged ‘from a knotted

tussock of grass with the tips pointing in the

desired direction, a single stem of grass woven

into the branches of a shrub, a number of straws

or a palm leaf tied to a tree (all with their butts as

pointers), to rather complicated little devices tied

to sticks pushed into the ground’ (Dick ms.).

McCarthy’s (1939) summary of trade in

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 79

Aboriginal Australia shows south-east Cape York

Peninsula to be an important trade centre, as the

source of many trading items such as pearl shell,

but also in terms of the amount of trading which

occurred within the area (see McCarthy ibid: 417—

421). As no other data exist on this topic for the

Bloomfield area, I shall rely, as McCarthy did, on

Roth. Roth stated that in the Bloomfield River

district:

The articles of home production for trade and barter

were dilly-bags, spears, woomeras, edible pipe-clay

(within recent years), best kind of fighting sticks,

shields and swords (in the old days), several

varieties of gum-cements, and red ochre. These

would be bartered for stingaree-spears, shell

ornaments, yellow ochre, edible pipe-clay (in the

old days), shields and swords (in recent times)...

There were not particular individuals to effect the

exchange, each one acting on his own behalf, nor

were there any restrictions as to which of their

neighbours they might barter with. The principal

time of barter was during the laying-season at

King’s Lake country [King’s Plains near the Laura—

Cooktown road, C.A], ie. whenever there happened

to be a sufficient supply of food to attract them.

There was apparently no conception of relative

values, and though not a regular practice, members

of the same tribe would interchange. (Roth 1910d:

17-18).

Roth also notes that apart from the King’s Lake

gatherings, Bloomfield district people went up as

far as the Laura River district and supplied the

Koko—Warra there with red ochre, white clay, and

grasstree spears, and received in return, melo

shells, reed spear sticks, shell necklaces, stingray

spears and fishing nets (string dilly-bags).

The issue of trade raises the matter of the

relationship of Kuku—Yalanji material culture with

that of other groups in eastern Cape York

Peninsula. A detailed consideration is beyond the

scope of this paper. However, several points can

be made. In many ways, Kuku—Yalanji people had

a similar economy to that of other groups living in

rainforest environments. This is especially so with

respect to the range and type of primary resources.

As a consequence, there is commonality of

subsistence techniques and of some material

culture items (stone-grinding of nuts, leaching

techniques, hunting items, etc). On the other hand,

it may be misleading to speak of ‘rainforest

culture’, in the sense of a wholly common material

culture among the Aboriginal groups who lived in

the north Queensland rainforest. In many major

domains of material culture Kuku—Yalanji shared

more with non-rainforest, coastal and inland

peoples to the north and west (at least as far north

as Princess Charlotte Bay and to the west over to

the middle Palmer River area), than with the

‘rainforest people’ to the south. This was true of

watercraft, of shelter styles and of spears and

spear technology. Bloomfield people did not use

cane to make baskets, although the closely related

groups just to the south near Daintree did. It

appears as if the drone-pipe used at Bloomfield

came from the Gulf of Carpentaria region via the

Laura district Aborigines (Roth 1902: 23). On the

other hand, there were certain items at Bloomfield

which had no relationship to the material culture

of groups either to the north or south.

The most obvious example is the curvilinear

lath spear thrower. Roth recounts how one of these

washed up on the shore at Cape Bedford north of

Cooktown. It was brought to the local missionary,

‘who, never having seen one before and being

anxious to know something about it, asked the

local [Gugu—Yimidhirr] blacks what it was; they

could not give it a name, but they told him that

the person who made it must have been mad!’

(Roth 1901: 199-200).

Further work comparing the material culture of

the rainforest groups with those of the groups

beyond the boundaries of the rainforest areas (to

the north, south and west) is necessary in order to

test this hypothesis.

Post-contact material culture change

I will now examine some of the changes which

occurred in Kuku—Yalanji material culture in the

first few decades after first contact, and then move

to a brief description of it during the late 1970s.

The earliest contact items of interest for Kuku—

Yalanji were primarily metal, glass and cloth. Iron

was found at Bloomfield six years before any

European settlers arrived. In 1873, William Hann,

the first land explorer in south-east Cape York

Peninsula, met a group of Aborigines at

Bloomfield carrying ‘iron tomahawks’ (Hann

1873: 16). Later Hann found in a camp at

Bloomfield ‘pieces of iron, and amongst them a

rod of the same metal, about three feet in length,

evidently used as a yam stick’ (Hann ibid: 20). On

one occasion, during the night Aborigines on the

upper Daintree stole a digging pick, a washpan

and ‘items for mending clothes’ from Hann’s

supplies. The first Lutheran missionaries at

Bloomfield in 1886 had constant difficulties with

the Aborigines taking metal tools (Meyer 1891).

Roth reports finding iron as part of many domestic

implements at Bloomfield: iron wedged into a

80 C. ANDERSON

wooden handle to make an adze for scraping out

canoes (Roth 1904: 22; one of these from

Bloomfield is in the Australian Museum, Kahn

1993: 133); a piece of iron or a table knife

cemented into the end of a digging stick (ibid.:

24); the use of glass instead of quartz in fighting

spears (Roth 1909: 193); the use of iron (for

example, three-cornered files) for barbed turtle

harpoons (Roth 1909: 76; 1904: 32).'’ Several

knives from Bloomfield made from shovel heads

are held by the Queensland Museum. Metal

fishhooks rapidly replaced the shell ones, and wire

(particularly fencing wire) quickly took the place

of wooden points for spear ends. Eleven out of

sixteen spears donated in 1903 by Roth to the

Queensland Museum from Bloomfield had iron

heads or barbs. Steel axes were valued items at

Bloomfield and a number of observers note the

willingness of Kuku—Yalanji men to undertake

any amount of work for a European settler in

return for these tools (see, for example Idriess

1980 [1959]: 243). Roth (1898a) notes that

blankets being given out by the police for

Aborigines at Bloomfield were being used as sails

for the canoes. Hershberger and Hershberger

(1982 pers. comm.) saw a traditional canoe at

Bloomfield in the early 1960s; generally though,

wooden dinghies had replaced the outrigger canoe

by the Second World War.

Kuku-Yalanji material culture in the late 1970s

A comprehensive description of Kuku—Yalanji

material culture in the 1970s is not within the

scope of this paper. Here I will merely give a few

examples to demonstrate some of the continuities

in knowledge and usage of items as well as some

of the changes. The use of the bush by Kuku—

Yalanji during the period 1977-1980 was an

integral part of the mission economy (see

Anderson 1982), and the following observations

are restricted to material culture items relating to

this ‘bush component’.

Bush-food resources important during this time

were fish, shellfish, pig, turtle and cassowary

meat, wild fruits, hairy yam and the introduced

‘New Guinea yam’. Spears were used for many

species of fish, especially mullet. These spears

were multi-pronged with fencing or other wire.

Commercial string was used to bind the prongs,

and this was covered with some combination of

ironwood resin, car battery ‘tar’, ‘Araldite’ (store-

bought glue), or asphalt tar. The handles were the

same as in earlier days, as were the spear

throwers. Some substitutions in manufacturing

technology for spears were apparent—for

example, use of steel knives and use of margarine

or butter instead of cassowary fat for greasing.

Turtle hunting was done from boats with outboard

motors, and while the harpoon handle was the

same as in pre-contact times, European rope and

steel harpoon points were used. Diving for

freshwater eelfish and turtles in inland areas was

done using diving goggles and a flexible steel rod.

For land hunting .22 rifles were almost exclusively

used.'® The stone ovens were often used for

cooking meat in the bush camps I stayed in during

my fieldwork. Traditional bark troughs and fire

tongs of lawyer cane were also relied upon.

Fishing (without spears) was done with plastic

hand reels and lines, metal fish hooks with no

sinkers or floats. Bush vegetables were dug using

mainly steel digging sticks, often a shortened and

sharpened crowbar. Processing of Dioscorea

sativa occurred on a number of occasions. Empty

metal flour drums were used for boiling the yams;

plastic buckets were used for separation of the

yam mixture from the toxin; but the palm-fibre

dilly bags were still used for the initial mashing.

Only three or four women were able still to make

the dilly bags in 1982 at Bloomfield. Metal billy

cans made from old powdered milk tins were very

common; machetes, metal files, shovels and steel

axes were also in the bush camps. Plastic

tarpaulins were normally laid on a bush frame,

although knowledge of the old hut-type bush

shelter was general amongst adults. Transport

from the mission to bush camps was primarily by

boat, but also by horse and truck.

Personal clothing styles for males at Bloomfield

were heavily influenced by ‘cowboy’ or stockman

style. Men wore riding boots for special occasions;

western shirts and hats were common at all times.

Elastic bandages were sometimes worn by young

men on the arms and wrists in an exact parallel

with the use of pandanus leaf bands. Both were

thought to bring good luck and to demonstrate

strength in fighting. Items used for sorcery

purposes were mostly along traditional lines. New

things which were used by men for ‘love magic’

included hair oil, scent and women’s hankies.

These were often mixed with traditional bush

substances.

Older-style ceremonies were normally only held

for fun or in association with funerals. At these,

traditional south-eastern Cape York Peninsula

dances and songs were performed with spear

throwers used as clapping sticks. No body

decoration was done for the dances but men

KUKU-Y ALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 81

normally stripped to only shorts or trousers for

dancing. Some ‘Island style’ (Melanesian) singing

was occasionally done with empty flour tins used

as drums with guitar accompaniment. In the

mission generally, country and western music was

the most popular form, with several people having

guitars and an accordion for concerts of this

music.

SOURCES

Sources of data for this paper have been both

anthropological and historical. I conducted

fieldwork of approximately fourteen months at

Bloomfield River between 1977 and 1980, and a

further month in 1982. Numerous other trips have

occurred since then. Part of this work has involved

reconstructing a picture of Kuku—Yalanji life prior

to significant European activity in the Bloomfield

region. Publications arising from this work with

data relevant to the present paper include

Anderson (1980; 1982; 1983; 1984). Very little

earlier anthropological work exists. I have cited

above the relevant works of W. E. Roth, Northern

Protector of Aboriginals in Cooktown from 1897

to 1905. McConnel (1931; 1939-1940) describes

aspects of Kuku-Yalanji mythology and social

organisation. Fortunately, several careful

European observers lived in and visited the

Bloomfield area in the late nineteenth century and

early twentieth century. They accurately recorded

a great deal of data on Kuku—Yalanji culture. D.

Le Souef was a naturalist who visited Bloomfield

several times in the 1890s and as I noted above,

the author Ion Idriess lived at Bloomfield for some

time before the First World War. I have almost

always been able to confirm the accuracy of their

data from other sources. Roth and W.O.

Hodgkinson, the Police Magistrate at Cooktown

in 1886, both had access to European settlers at

Bloomfield—Robert Hislop and Louis Bauer—

both of whom were fluent in Kuku—Yalanji and

had a deep understanding of Kuku—Yalanji

culture.

Collections which contain Bloomfield River

material culture items include the Roth

Collections of the Queensland Museum in

Brisbane and the Australian Museum in Sydney

(see Kahn 1993). H. and R. Hershberger, linguists

with the Summer Institute of Linguistics, lived

and worked at Bloomfield from the early 1960s

until the 1980s and have a good representative

collection of Kuku—Yalanji items.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My fieldwork was supported by the Australian

Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies

and the Department of Anthropology and Sociology,

University of Queensland. For help in gaining the

information on which this paper is based I wish

particularly to thank at Bloomfield: the late John Walker,

Bob Yerrie, Mabel Webb, the late John Mossman, Hank

and Ruth Hershberger and Harry Dick. In Brisbane and

on a field trip to Bloomfield in 1982, Richard Robins, of

the Queensland Museum, aided with aspects of this

study. I am also grateful to Philip Jones and Peter Sutton

for their useful comments.

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, C. 1980 Multiple enterprise: Contemp-

orary Aboriginal subsistence strategy in south-east

Cape York Peninsula. Pp. 77-81 in ‘Contemporary

Cape York Peninsula’. Eds. N. S. Stevens and A.

Bailey. Royal Society of Queensland: Brisbane.

ANDERSON, C. & N. MITCHELL. 1981. Kubara: A

Kuku-Yalanji view of the Chinese in North

Queensland. Aboriginal History 5: 21-37.

ANDERSON, C. 1982 The Bloomfield community,

North Queensland, Pp 89-156 in ‘Small rural

communities’. Vol. 3 of ‘The Aboriginal Component

in the Australian Economy’. Eds. E. A. Young & E.

K. Fisk. Development Studies Centre, Australian

National University: Canberra.

ANDERSON, C. 1983 Aborigines and tin-mining in

North Queensland: A case study in the anthropology

of contact history. Mankind. 13 (6): 473-498.

ANDERSON, C. 1984. The economic and political basis

of Kuku-Yalanji social history. Ph.D. thesis.

Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University

of Queensland: Brisbane.

BRADY, D, ANDERSON, C. and RIGSBY, B. 1980.

‘Some of us are still alive’: The Palmer River

Revisited. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies

Newsletter, n.s. 13: 30-36.

DICK, H. n.d. Ms. Forerunner of writing. Unpublished

Manuscript in possession of author (used by

permission).

HANN, W. 1873. Report from Mr. W. Hann, Leader of

the Northern Expedition party. Queensland Legislative

Council Journal XX1: 724-762.

HERSHBERGER, H & HERSHBERGER, R. 1982.

Kuku-Yalanji Dictionary. Work Papers of Summer

82 C. ANDERSON

Institute of Linguistics - AAB Series B. 7: Summer

Institute of Linguistics: Darwin.

HODGKINSON, W. O. 1886. Report re visit of

inspection to Bloomfield River Mission Station, also

information re habits of the Aborigines. Report from

the Acting Police Magistrate, Cooktown to Under

Colonial Secretary, Brisbane. Document #8580 Col/A

481. Queensland State Archives, Brisbane.

IDRIESS, I. L. 1980 (1959). ‘The Tin-scratchers: The

Story of Tin-mining in the Far North’. Angus &

Robertson: Sydney.

IDRIESS, I. L. 1934. ‘Men of the Jungle’.

Robertson: Sydney.

KAHN, K. 1993. Catalogue of the Roth Collection of

Aboriginal Artefacts from North Queensland. Volume

1. Technical Reports of the Australian Museum.

Number 10.

LE SOUEF, D. 1894. A trip to North Queensland.

Victorian Naturalist 11(1): 3 — 31.

LE SOUEF, D. 1896. Ascent of Mt Peter Botte, North

Queensland. Victorian Naturalist 13(12): 151-167.

LE SOUEF, D. 1897. A trip to the Bloomfield River

District, North Queensland. Victorian Naturalist

14(2): 19-34.

McCARTHY, F. 1939. ‘Trade’ in Aboriginal Australia.

Oceania 9: 405-438; 10:80-104; 171-195.

McCONNEL, U. H. 1931. A moon legend from the

Bloomfield River, North Queensland. Oceania, 2: 9—

25.

McCONNEL, U. H. 1939-1940. Social organisation of

the tribes of Cape York Peninsula, North Queensland.

Oceania, 10: 54-72; 434-455.

MEEK. A. S. 1913. ‘A Naturalist in Cannibal Land’.

Fisher Unwin: London.

MEYER, C. 1891. Letter to Pastor G. Rechner,

Immanuel Synod of Luthern Church, South Australia.

In File B833, United Evangelical Lutheran Church of

Australia Archives: Adelaide.

PATZ, E. 1982. A Grammar of the Kuku—Yalanji

Language of North Queensland. Ph.D. thesis.

Department of Linguistics, Australian National

University: Canberra.

ROBINS, R. 1980. Wood identification of spear

throwers in the Queensland Museum ethnographic

collection: an Evaluation. Occasional Papers in

Anthropology. Anthropology Museum, University of

Queensland. Number 10: 50-62.

ROTH, W. E. 1898a. Report to Commissioner of Police,

Brisbane, on a trip of inspection to Bloomfield River.

Document #03421 Col/142 Queensland State

Archives: Brisbane.

ROTH, W. E. 1898b. Some of the native foods of the

Bloomfield River Aboriginals. Report to

Commissioner of Police, Brisbane, Document #97714

Col/142 Queensland State Archives: Brisbane.

Angus &

ROTH, W. E. 1901. String, and other forms of strand:

Basketry-woven-bag and _ net-work. North

Queensland Ethnography Bulletin No. 1. Queensland

Government Printer: Brisbane.

ROTH, W. E. 190la. Food: Its search, capture and

preparation. North Queensland Ethnography Bulletin

No. 3. Queensland Government Printer: Brisbane.

ROTH, W. E. 1902. Games, sports and amusements.

North Queensland Ethnography Bulletin No. 4.

Queensland Government Printer: Brisbane.

ROTH, W. E. 1904. Domestic implements, arts and

manufactures. North Queensland Ethnography

Bulletin No. 7. Queensland Government Printer:

Brisbane.

ROTH, W. E. 1906. Notes on government, morals and

crime. North Queensland Ethnography Bulletin No.

8. Queensland Government Printer: Brisbane.

ROTH, W. E. 1909. Fighting weapons. North

Queensland Ethnography Bulletin No. 13. Also

published in Records of the Australian Museum 8:

189-211.

ROTH, W. E. 1910a. Social and individual

nomenclature. North Queensland Ethnography

Bulletin No. 18. Also published in Records of the

Australian Museum 8: 79-106.

ROTH, W. E. 1910b. Huts and shelters. North

Queensland Ethnography Bulletin No. 16. Also

published in Records of the Australian Museum 8:

55-66.

ROTH, W. E. 1910c. Decoration, deformation, and

clothing. North Queensland Ethnography Bulletin

No. 15. Also published in Records of the Australian

Museum 8: 20-54.

ROTH, W. E. 1910d. Transport and trade. North

Queensland Ethnography Bulletin No. 14. Also

published in Records of the Australian Museum, 8:

1-19.

ROWAN, E. 1912. ‘A Flower-hunter in Australia and

New Zealand’. Angus & Robertson: Sydney.

TINDALE, N. B. 1974. ‘Aboriginal Tribes of Australia’.

A.N.U. Press: Canberra.

ENDNOTES

' Because this paper is a reconstruction, I generally use the

past tense. This is not to imply that some of the practices or

material culture items are not still part of contemporary

Kuku-Yalanji life. In general, I try to specify the date for a

particular observation. As noted in the section, ‘Sources’, I

have relied on a mixture of archival and oral sources for this

paper. In addition, active learning and participation in bush

activities has also been an important source of information.

Although, some might think of such papers as old-fashioned,

1 am happy that this work can be a medium for transmission

of knowledge from past generations to the young Kuku-

Yalanji people of today.

KUKU-YALANJI MATERIAL CULTURE 83

The earliest historical sources describe Kuku—Yalanji camps

in just these locations (see King 1827; Le Souef 1896; Roth

1898a; Meek 1913, Rowan 1912).

Very few examples of these stone axes have been found in

south-east Cape York Peninsula. Roth (190 1a: 8) offered the

explanation that in this area, ‘the old discarded stone heads

of the original axes have been utilised in large measure for

lining the ground-ovens, a fact which will account in large

measure for the paucity in this district of remains of these

implements at the present day’.

King also commented on this. On both of his visits to

Bloomfield, he and his men found what he termed ‘huts’ on

the river bank and on the beaches. On his second trip in 1821

he noted that on the beach they ‘found some natives’ huts;

some of which were of more substantial construction than

usual’ (King 1827, Vol.2: 14).

A set of these fire-sticks is in the Roth Collection at the

Australian Museum (Kahn 1993: 118-119).

Roth was given this description by Mr. Robert Hislop, a

European settler at Bloomfield whose property at Wyalla

Plains contained one of the cycad-processing sites.

A Kuku—Nyungkul speaking man from the Annan River told

me in 1977 that these dilly bags were also occasionally used

as nets and were dragged through small lagoons, at least at

Kings Plains just to the north of the Annan River area. Other

than this, Bloomfield Kuku—Yalanji had no knowledge of

nets being used (see Kahn 1993: 137-139).

This description was mostly obtained by watching Kuku—

Yalanji women prepare this yam in 1978. I have also

discussed with people the changes which have occurred in

the process (e.g. the yams were boiled instead of roasted

when I observed the process). Roth (1901a: 11-12) includes

a description very similar to mine.

These stone ovens, termed kurrma, were still extensively

used at Bloomfield in the 1980s, primarily for pig, eelfish

and marine turtle. See Idriess (1980 [1959]: 255); and Roth

(190 1a: 8) for similar descriptions.

Roth (1902) includes a photograph of some young Aboriginal

men at Cape Bedford Mission north of Cooktown playing

this game.

It is reported that one of the reasons for the relatively short

lifespan of the yiki-yiki was that older men smashed them

after growing weary of young men playing them for hours on

end. Both Roth (1902: 24) and Idriess (1934: 67); 1980

[1959]: 199) mention this. An example of these ‘trumpets’ is

in the Australian Museum collection (Kahn 1993: 127).

Roth (1904: 12) states that at Bloomfield, before the

underground piece was cut away, it would be tested by

rubbing a firestick onto it, getting portions of the sticky

covering to melt off, and trying them between the closed

teeth—if sticky there, the gum would be suitable for use and

further pieces removed.

Tindale (1974: 109) also reports that young cassowaries were

tethered and reared by north Queensland rainforest

Aborigines until fat enough to eat. For Bloomfield, though,

the observers I have mentioned all noted that the pets were

never fed enough to live for long in camp.

Roth (1910c: passim) notes that shell ornaments went through

distinct fads and fashions in coastal Cape York Peninsula.

As a punishment for certain minor transgressions, people were

also struck on the head with a spear thrower by an older man.

In the late 1970s this was the word used in Kuku—Yalanji for

letters or for any written messages.

The ability to make strong barbed harpoons must have had a

dramatic effect on the success of turtle expeditions. Roth

(1909: 76) notes: ‘[t]he dependency of the turtle [hunting]

upon iron (which is capable of piercing the carapace) was

explained to me by the young men [of the Pennefather River]

by reason of the fact that while wooden harpoons were in

vogue these creatures could only be caught by striking them

in the soft parts; ie., the neck and posteriorly, and their

capture was consequently no easy matter’.

Although the word marrkin was used in 1980 for ‘rifle’ (a

word used throughout much of Cape York), the older word is

mirrba. This is another name for the spear thrower used at

Bloomfield during the formal ‘trial by spear’.

A SPECIMEN OF GIANT SQUID, ARCHITEUTHIS SP., FROM SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN WATERS

W. ZEIDLER & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

Summary

This is the first record of Architeuthis from South Australian waters. The specimen was found

floating off Cape Banks near Mount Gambier. The condition of the specimen indicated that it was

only recently dead. Tissue samples were taken and are available for biochemical analysis.

Illustrations of the specimen are provided together with details of meristic characters. The

specimen, a female, had a dorsal mantle the length of 1.53 m, a head length of 0.32 m; the tentacle

which had become detached, measured 7.39 m, and altogether it weighed 86 kg.

A SPECIMEN OF GIANT SQUID, ARCHITEUTHIS SP., FROM

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN WATERS

W. ZEIDLER & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

ZEIDLER, W. & GOWLETT-HOLMES, K. L. 1996. A specimen of giant squid, Architeuthis

sp., from South Australian waters. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(1): 85-91.

This is the first record of Architeuthis from South Australian waters. The specimen was

found floating off Cape Banks near Mount Gambier. The condition of the specimen indicated

that it was only recently dead. Tissue samples were taken and are available for biochemical

analysis. Illustrations of the specimen are provided together with details of meristic characters.

The specimen, a female, had a dorsal mantle the length of 1.53 m, a head length of 0.32 m;

the tentacle which had become detached, measured 7.39 m, and altogether it weighed 86 kg.

W. Zeidler and K. L. Gowlett-Holmes, Department of Marine Invertebrates, South Australian

Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 30 August

1995.

Specimens of Architeuthis have been recorded

from most of the world’s oceans, most frequently

from Newfoundland, Northern Europe, Japan,

South Africa and New Zealand (Aldrich 1991;

Clarke 1966, 1980; Clarke & MacLeod 1982;

Roper & Boss 1982). Most of these recent records

are those of strandings or from the stomachs of

sperm whales. More recently, specimens have

been caught by deep-sea trawls (e.g. Jackson et.

al. 1991) and only in January this year a

specimen slightly larger than the South

Australian one was caught off King Island, Bass

Strait and an even larger one was caught 500 km

off the South Island of New Zealand.

In Australia there have been occasional, but

usually unconfirmed, reports of large squid

floating off the southern Australian coast. Some

of these are probably of Taningia danae (Zeidler

1981) while others most likely represent

Architeuthis, as confirmed by this report.

The first record of Architeuthis from Australian

waters is by Allan (1948) who recorded a

specimen which was washed ashore at Wingan

Inlet, Victoria in mid-September, 1948. It had a

mantle length of 2.3 m. The specimen was

considerably mutilated with the tentacles missing

and the internal organs and gladius had been

removed. Only ‘the head with arms, and tail with

fins, were preserved for future reference’.

Another two specimens were obtained from the

stomachs of sperm whales caught by the Cheynes

Beach Whaling Company, Albany, Western

Australia, in late 1978 (Anon. 1980). The largest

specimen weighed 280 kg and was used in

promotional displays; its current whereabouts is

unknown. The second, much smaller, specimen

is preserved at the Wallaroo Heritage and

Nautical Museum, South Australia. Clarke

(1980) also recorded the beaks and flesh of

Architeuthis from the stomachs of sperm whales

caught near Albany.

The only other, previous, records of

Architeuthis from Australian waters (apart from

the one caught in January this year) are that of a

larval specimen (mantle length 10.3 mm) caught

in the Tasman Sea, 33°19.4'S 155°00.3'E, at a

depth of 20 m (Lu 1986) and a female (mantle

length 42.2 cm) from the same area, 33°44'S,

153°00'E, taken in a oblique trawl from the

surface to a depth of 600 m (Jackson et. al.

1991).

The specimen which is the subject of this

report (Fig. 1) was found floating on the surface,

recently dead, about 3.2 nautical miles SSE of

Cape Banks (37°56.32'S 140°20.79'E) over a

bottom depth of about 25 m. It was found by Mr.

M. Von Stanke on FV ‘Ocean Lady’ on 9 March,

1995 and is now preserved in the South

Australian Museum (SAM D18936).

The relatively good condition of the present

specimen is significant because live specimens

are rarely captured and most stranded specimens

are partly decomposed and incomplete as are

specimens from whale stomachs. It was

immediately stored on ice and transported to the

Museum the next day without being frozen.

Tissue samples were taken from the digestive

gland and from one of the arms and frozen in

liquid nitrogen before being stored in a deep

freeze at —80° C. Samples of muscle were also

86 W. ZEIDLER & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

CO aE

FIGURES 1,2. Architeuthis sp. 1, whole female, dorsal mantle length 1.53 m; 2, internal organs — note white

bilobed midamental glands between gills.

ARCHITEUTHIS SP., FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 87

TABLE 1. Architeuthis sp. (SAM D18936) meristic

characters

Character Measurement (mm)

Body

Mantle length (dorsal) 1 530

Mantle length (ventral) 1 400

Mantle width (flattened) 440

Mantle thickness (max.) 40

Fin length including ‘tail’ (damaged) 430

Fin width (right) to edge of mantle (ventral view) 175

Funnel length 250

Funnel width across opening 110

Locking cartilage, length 190

Locking cartilage, width (max.) 50

Gladius length 1 440

Gladius width (max.) 190

Rachis length 340

Rachis width (max.) 130

Head (detached)

Length 320

Width 270

Eye orbit diameter (eyes missing) 170

Distance between eye orbits (dorsally) 90

Radula length (curled) 70

Radula width (between teeth, max.) 10

Arms (all damaged with most tips missing)

Left I 810

Left II 1 450

Left III 1 330

Left IV 1 140

Right I 610

Right II 1 120

Right III 1 290

Right IV 1 750

Sucker diam., largest from left I 14

Sucker diam., smallest from left I 7

Tentacles

Left (club etc. missing) 4 260

Right (club detached) 2 970

Right total 7 390

Club and part of tentacle 4 420

Dactylus 195

Manus 410

Carpus 130

Width of club (max.) 50

Club sucker — largest diameter 25

taken from the mantle and tentacle and preserved

in 100% alcohol. Both the frozen (SAM B80)

and alcohol-fixed (SAM XD0040) samples are

available for biochemical analysis.

We have not provided details of the internal

anatomy (Fig. 2) as this is beyond our expertise

but in Table 1 we provide details of meristic

characters following Roper and Voss (1983). All

measurements were made prior to preservation.

The body weighed 48 kg and the head with arms

and tentacles weighed 38 kg.

The tips of all the arms were missing, or

severely damaged, so it was not possible to

determine the sex externally. On dissection the

specimen proved to be a female with the gonad

full of small white eggs.

The gladius was removed and preserved

separately. It was relatively fragmented and the

illustration (Fig. 3) was produced by tracing the

outline of pieces as they were removed.

Dimensions are given in Table 1.

The beaks (Fig. 4) and radula (Fig. 5) were

also removed and preserved separately. The

dimensions of the beaks (Table 2) are according

to Wolff (1984). The radula is like that illustrated

by Roper and Boss (1982), each row consists of 7

teeth with marginal plates, cental tooth tricuspid,

central cusp twice as long as outer cusp; first

lateral teeth bicuspid, inner cusp twice as long as

outer cusp; second and third lateral teeth with

large, single cusps, horn-like; marginal plate

reduced to small knob. The first 17 rows show

little wear and breakage, but the next 26 rows

show moderate to severe wear, with the cusps on

the central teeth, and to a lesser extent on the first

TABLE 2. Architeuthis sp. (SAM D18936)

dimensions

beak

Character Measurement (mm)

Upper beak

Hood length 75

Rostral length 18

Wing width 22

Rostral tip to inner margin of wing 3]:

Wing to crest length 94

Crest length 107

Crest depth (central) 45

Jaw angle width 15

Lower beak

Rostral tip to inner posterior corner

of lateral wall 74

Rostral length 18

Rostral tip to inner margin of wing 63

Wing length 52

Jaw angle width 15

Crest depth (central) 32

88 W. ZEIDLER & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

FIGURE 3. Architeuthis sp. Illustration of the gladius,

1.44 m length. Scale = 50cm.

lateral teeth, being completely worn away in

many rows. The remaining rows are teeth still

forming or not yet in use.

Only one of the tentacles with the club end

(Figs 6 & 7) was present when the specimen was

collected and that became detached when the

specimen was retrieved from the ocean. It is the

right tentacle which combined with the remnant

section on the head measured 7.39 m.

The stomach contained nine squid suckers and

the remains of others, but was otherwise empty.

The suckers are without the sucker rings so it is

impossible to determine the taxon from which

they came with certainty other than that they

came from a relatively large species; the suckers

ranging in size from 13 mm to 16 mm in

diameter. According to Roper and Boss (1982)

most specimens collected have empty stomachs

as active, well-fed, animals are unlikely to

become stranded and even if something was to be

found in the stomach it would be difficult to

identify because the radula and beak shred prey

into small pieces and the digestive enzymes work

rapidly. Nevertheless Architeuthis seems to feed

on small fish and large invertebrates such as

other cephalopods which is supported, in part, by

the present findings.

Virtually nothing is known about Architeuthis

in Australian waters. The present specimen had

two large gashes (approx. 20 cm) through the left

side of the mantle, suggesting that it may have

been attacked by a predator such as a sperm

whale although no whales were reported in the

region at the time. The specimen was in

extremely good condition indicating that it was

only recently dead and although it was found

floating relatively close to the shore in water of

only 25 m depth the Continental Shelf drops off

rapidy along that part of the coast to a depth of

1100 m within 20 nautical miles. More

information on the biology of these animals is

given by Clarke (1966, 1980) and Aldrich (1991)

and information on juvenile stages is provided by

Roper and Young (1972), Roper and Boss (1992)

and Roper (1992).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are most grateful to Mr Martin Von Stanke,

Carpenter Rocks, South Australia for collecting the

specimen of Architeuthis and for donating it to the South

Australian Museum. Mr Thierry Laperousaz, South

Australian Museum, is thanked for helping to transport

the specimen to the Museum. Ms Jan Forrest, South

ARCHITEUTHIS SP., FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA

FIGURES 4,5. Architeuthis sp. 4a, upper beak; 4b,c, lower beak; 5, part of radula from sac,

not worn.

W. ZEIDLER & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

FIGURES 6,7. Architeuthis sp. Right tentacular club and enlargement of manus illustrating suckers.

ARCHITEUTHIS SP., FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA 9]

Australian Museum, is gratefully acknowledged for all

of the photographs (except Fig. 1). An anonymous

referee and Dr C. F. E. Roper, Smithsonian Institution,

Washington D.C., provided many useful comments

which much improved the manuscript. Mrs Vicki Wade

and Robyn Cherrington typed the manuscript.

REFERENCES

ALDRICH, F. A. 1991. Some aspects of the systematics

and biology of squid of the genus Architeuthis based

on a study of specimens from Newfoundland waters.

Bulletin of Marine Science 49(1-2): 457-481.

ALLAN, J. K. 1948. A rare giant squid. The Australian

Museum Magazine 9: 306-308.

ANONYMOUS, 1980. Giant squid. Australian

Fisheries, April, 1980: 27.

CLARKE, M. R. 1966. A review of the systematics and

ecology of oceanic squids. Pp. 91-300 in ‘Advances

in Marine Biology’, Volume 4. Ed. F. S. Russell.

Academic Press, London and New York.

CLARKE, M. R. 1980. Cephalopoda in the diet of

sperm whales of the southern hemisphere and their

bearing on sperm whale biology. Discovery Reports

37: 1-324.

CLARKE, M. R. & MACLEOD, N. 1982. Cephalopod

remains from the stomachs of sperm whales caught

in the Tasman Sea. Memoirs of the National

Museum of Victoria 43(1—2): 25-42.

JACKSON, G. D., LU, C. C. & DUNNING, M. 1991.

Growth rings within the statolith microstructure of

the giant squid Architeuthis. The Veliger 34(4):

331-334.

LU, C. C. 1986. Smallest of the largest — first record of

giant squid larval specimen. Australian Shell News

53:79:

ROPER, C. F. E. 1992. Family Architeuthidae Pfeffer,

1900. Pp. 99 in ‘Larval’ and juvenile cephalopods: a

manual for their identification’. Eds. M. J. Sweeney,

C. F. E. Roper, K. M. Mangold, M. R. Clarke and S.

V. Boletzky. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology,

No. 513: 1-282.

ROPER, C. F. E. & BOSS, K. J. 1982. The giant squid.

Scientific American 246(4): 82-89.

ROPER, C. F. E. & VOSS, G. L. 1983. Guidelines for

taxonomic descriptions of cephalopod species.

Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 44:

49-63.

ROPER, C. F. E. & YOUNG, R. E. 1972. First records

of juvenile giant squid, Architeuthis (Cephalopoda:

Oegopsida). Proceedings of the Biological Society

of Washington 85(16): 205-222.

WOLFF, G. A. 1984. Identification of size from the

beaks of 18 species of cephalopods from the Pacific

Ocean. National Oceanic and Administration

Technical Report, National Marine Fisheries Service

17: 1-50.

ZEIDLER, W. 1981. A giant deep-sea squid, Taningia

sp., from South Australian waters. Transactions of

the Royal Society of South Australia 105(4): 218.

A NOTE ON TWO SIPUNCULANS (SIPUNCULA) AND AN ECHIURAN

(ECHIURA) FROM PRYDZ BAY, ANTARCTICA

STANLEY J. EDMONDS & WOLFGANG ZEIDLER

Summary

Several sipunculans and an echiuran were collected in the region of Prydz Bay (between the

Australian bases of Davis and Mawson) during the summer of 1991 by one of us (WZ) and K.

Gowlett-Holmes of the South Australian Museum while on board Australia’s ice breaker “Aurora

Australis’ during a Marine Science voyage organised by ANARE (Australian National Antarctic

Research Expeditions). Although the species have been previously reported from the Falkland

Islands, Graham Land, Ross Sea and Commonwealth Bay the present findings on the opposite side

of the continent confirm that their distribution is circum-polar.

A NOTE ON TWO SIPUNCULANS (SIPUNCULA) AND AN ECHIURAN (ECHIURA)

FROM PRYDZ BAY, ANTARCTICA

Several sipunculans and an echiuran were

collected in the region of Prydz Bay (between the

Australian bases of Davis and Mawson) during

the summer of 1991 by one of us (WZ) and K.

Gowlett-Holmes of the South Australian Museum

while on board Australia’s ice breaker ‘Aurora

Australis’ during a Marine Science voyage

organised by ANARE (Australian National

Antarctic Research Expeditions). Although the

species have been reported previously from the

Falkland Islands, Graham Land, Ross Sea and

Commonwealth Bay the present findings on the

opposite side of the continent confirm that their

distribution is circum-polar.

Specimens were obtained from the by-catch of

exploratory fishing trawls using an International

Young Gadoid Pelagic Trawl (TYGPT) net and

preserved in 2% formaldehyde/propylene glycol

solution; later transferred to 75% alcohol. The

specimens are deposited in the South Australian

Museum (SAM).

Material was collected from the following

stations as designated by ANARE:

Stn. 24B; 67°30.87'S, 73°33.68'E to 67°29.20'S,

73°31.04'E; 576-581 m; 25 Jan. 1991.

Stn. 77; 67°57.95'S, 76°20.58'E to 67°56.36'S,

76°23.51'E; 441-436 m; 19 Feb. 1991.

Stn. 78; 68°27.91'S, 75°26.60'E to 68°26.11'S,

75°24.33'E; 622-616 m; 19 Feb. 1991.

Stn. 79; 68°58.33'S, 74°23.84'E to 68°56.48'S,

74°24.33'E; 787 m; 19 Feb. 1991.

Stn. 84; 68°03.77'S, 73°09.33'E to 68°02.66'S,

73°12.60'E; 683-680 m; 21 Feb. 1991.

Stn. 90; 67°00.25'S, 72°40.21'E to 66°58.53'S,

72°36.9'E; 536-532 m; 24 Feb. 1991.

SIPUNCULA

Golfingia margaritacea margaritacea (Sars,

1851)

Sipunculus margaritaceus Sars, 1851: 196-197

Synonymy — see Cutler (1994: 71-72)

Material examined (no. of specimens in brackets)

Stn. 77, SAM E1164 (2); Stn 78, SAM E1174

(1); Stn. 84, SAM E1173 (10); Stn. 90, SAM

E1175 (1).

Description

Specimens large, stout, cylindrical or sausage-

shaped. Trunk of two largest 95-105 mm,

maximum width 25-30 mm. Posterior extremity

rounded. Body wall thick, covered with very small

white papillae. Longitudinal musculature

continuous. Introvert much more slender than

trunk, not fully everted in any specimen, estimated

length in largest specimen 40 mm; no spines or

hooks. Two pairs of retractor muscles arising at

different levels from anterior half of trunk. Two

fastening muscles; spindle muscle not fixed

posteriorly. Numerous (up to 22) tightly wound,

double, intestinal coils. Wing muscle present.

Caecum in one dissected specimen but not in a

second. Contractile vessel simple. Two free

nephridia.

Remarks

On comparing specimens there is no doubt that

those from Prydz Bay are conspecific with those

from the Ross Sea, described by Edmonds (1965)

as G. margaritacea capsiformis. The synonymies

given by Stephen and Edmonds (1972: 94) and

Cutler and Cutler (1987: 743), however, show that

G. margaritacea and its subspecies are amongst

the most commonly reported sipunculans and that

the differences between the subspecies are often of

doubtful significance and taxonomic importance.

On morphological grounds Cutler and Cutler

(1987) consider that the best name for most of the

reported subspecies to be G. margaritacea

margaritacea. Their conclusions have been

accepted in the present paper.

Distribution

Golfingia margaritacea margaritacea is

circum-polar at the Antarctic. A number of

previous workers (listed in Edmonds 1965)

consider it to be bi-polar also. Cutler & Cutler

(1987) state that ‘G. margaritacea margaritacea

is a widely distributed taxon, living in all sections

of the Atlantic, Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, the

North-, South-east and South-west Pacific...’

Golfingia anderssoni (Théel, 1911)

Phascolosoma anderssoni Théel, 1911: 28-29

Golfingia anderssoni — Edmonds 1965: 30-31

94 S.J. EDMONDS & W. ZEIDLER

Material Examined

Stn. 24B, SAM E1629 (1); Stn. 84, SAM

E1628 (6)

Description

Specimens long, cylindrical but most twisted

and damaged. Best specimen possesses a thin,

tapering caudal appendage 12 mm long covered

with small papillae but posterior 20 mm of trunk

bears prominent, swollen, bladder-like papillae.

Maximum length of trunk from tip of caudal

appendage to base of introvert 175 mm, maximum

width (posteriorly) 9 mm. Introvert slender, about

140 mm long, anterior tip missing. Longitudinal

musculature continuous. Four retractor muscles, a

stout ventral pair and a more slender dorsal pair,

the latter arising more anteriorly than former. No

introvert hooks or spines. Contractile vessel

simple. Two tubular, free nephridia.

Remarks

Although the specimens were damaged, the

presence of four retractor muscles, a caudal

appendage and prominent, swollen papillae on the

posterior region of the trunk enables them to be

identified as G. anderssoni.

Distribution

Most common in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic

waters, including Graham Land, South Georgia,

Ross Sea and now Prydz Bay. Circum-polar.

ECHIURA

Echiurus sp.

Material examined (no. of specimens in brackets)

Stn. 79, SAM E1630 (2); Stn. 84, SAM E1631

(2).

Description

Specimens badly damaged, lacking a proboscis

and internal organs. The identification as Echiurus

is based on the presence of two ventral setae

anteriorly, two imperfect circles of large setae

surrounding the posteriorly placed anus and some

circles of large papillae ringing the anterior of the

trunk. No other details can be given with certainty.

Remarks

Echiurus antarcticus Spengel, 1912 has been

reported from Chile (Wesenberg-Lund 1955) and

South Georgia (Spengel 1912; Stephen 1941).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are indebted to the captain Roger Russling,

and the crew of the RSV ‘Aurora Australis’ for

making the collection of material possible. Dick

Williams, the voyage leader, is thanked for

providing ready access to the bycatch and for his

leadership. All costs while on board ship and in

Antarctica were met by ANARE, other funds for

this work were provided by the South Australian

Museum.

REFERENCES

CUTLER, E. B. 1994. ‘The Sipuncula: their systematics,

biology and evolution’. Cornell University Press: New

York.

CUTLER, E. B. & CUTLER, N. J. 1987. A revision of

the genus Golfingia (Sipuncula: Golfingiidae).

Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington

100(4): 735-761.

EDMONDS, S. J. 1965. Sipunculoidea of the Ross Sea.

‘Fauna of the Ross Sea, part 4.’ New Zealand

Department of Science and Industrial Research

Bulletin 167: 27-34.

SARS, M. 1851. Beretning om en i Sommeren 1849

foretagen zoologisk Reise I Lofoten og Finmarken.

Nytt Magasin for Naturvidenskapene 6: 121-211.

SPENGEL, J. W. 1912. Einige Organisationsverhiltnisse

von Sipunculusarten und ihre Beteutung fiir die

Systematik dieser Teire. Deutsche Zoologische

Gesellschaft 22: 261-272.

STEPHEN, A. C. 1941. The Echiuridae, Sipunculidae,

and Priapulidae collected by the ships of the

Discovery Committee during the years 1926-1937.

Discovery Reports 21: 235-260.

STEPHEN, A. C. & EDMONDS, S. J. 1972. ‘The phyla

Sipuncula and Echiura’. Trustees of the British

Museum (Natural History): London.

THEEL, H. 1911. Priapulids and sipunculids dredged by

the Swedish Antarctic expedition 1901-1903 and the

phenomenon of bipolarity. Kungliga Svenska

Vetenskaps —Akademiens Hardlingar 47(1): 3-36.

WESENBERG-LUND, E. 1955. Reports of Lund Uni-

versity Chile Expedition, 1948-49. 19. Gephyrea from

Chile. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift 51(10): 1-23.

Stanley J. EDMONDS (Deceased 15 July 1995); Wolfgang ZEIDLER, South Australian Museum, North Terrace,

Adelaide, 5000. Records of the South Australian Museum 291): 93-94, 1996.

RECORDS

‘TWIG0E

SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

VOLUME 29 PART 1

JULY 1996

ISSN 0376-2750

CONTENTS:

33)

ARTICLES

I. BEVERIDGE & R. A. CAMPBELL

New records and descriptions of trypanorhynch cestodes from Australian fishes

P. E. BOCK & P. L. COOK

The Genus Selenariopsis Maplestone, 1913 (Bryozoa, Ascophorina)

G. 1. MATSUMOTO & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

Coeloplana scaberiae sp. nov., a new benthic ctenophore (Ctenophora:

Platyctenida: Coeloplanidae) from South Australia

C. M. KEMPER, N. PLEDGE & J. K. LING

Subfossil evidence of strandings of the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus in

Gulf St Vincent, South Australia

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Description of a new Australian mite (Acarina: Trombidoidea), with comments

on superfamily classification

C. ANDERSON

Traditional material culture of the Kuku—Yalanji of Bloomfield River,

North Queensland

W. ZEIDLER & K. L. GOWLETT-HOLMES

A specimen of giant squid, Architeuthis sp., from South Australian waters

NOTE

S.J. EDMONDS & W. ZEIDLER

A note on two sipunculans (Sipuncula) and an echiuran (Echiura) from

Prydz Bay, Antarctica

— VOILOMIE 29 IPAIRTT 2

ECO RIDS

Ole

Tiebe,

SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN

MUSEUM

MAIRCIAl 1997

REVISION OF THE LARVAE OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA :

TROMBIDHUDAE) OF AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA, WITH

NOTES ON LIFE HISTORIES

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Summary

The larvae of Paratrombium Bruyant, 1910 (Acarina: Trombidiidae) of Australia and Papua New

Guinea are described, from four new species: P. australe, sp. nov. and P. lindsayi, sp. nov. from

southern Australia, P. curculionis sp. nov. from northern Queensland, and P. anemone, sp. nov.

from Papua New Guinea. The larvae of P. australe and P. lindsayi are correlated with adults by

experimental rearing, with description of the ovum and prelarva, and attempts to find suitable larval

hosts; these larvae experimentally parasitized small Diptera and Hymenoptera, and a species of

Mantisipidae (Neuroptera). The adults of P. australe and P. lindsayi are compared with previously

described Australian adults of Paratrombium. Nomenclatural changes for previously described

Australian adults of Paratrombium are proposed.

REVISION OF THE LARVAE OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDITDAE) OF

AUSTRALIA AND PAPUA NEW GUINEA, WITH NOTES ON LIFE HISTORIES

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1997. Revision of the larvae of Paratrombium of Australia and Papua

New Guinea, with notes on life histories. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(2): 95—

120.

The larvae of Paratrombium Bruyant, 1910 (Acarina: Trombidiidae) of Australia and Papua

New Guinea are described, from four new species: P. australe, sp. nov. and P. lindsayi, sp.

nov. from southern Australia, P. curculionis, sp. nov. from northern Queensland, and P.

anemone, sp. nov. from Papua New Guinea. The larvae of P. australe and P. lindsayi are

correlated with adults by experimental rearing, with description of the ovum and prelarva, and

attempts to find suitable larval hosts; these larvae experimentally parasitized small Diptera and

Hymenoptera, and a species of Mantispidae (Neuroptera). The adults of P. australe and P.

lindsayi are compared with previously described Australian adults of Paratrombium.

Nomenclatural changes for previously described Australian adults of Paratrombium are

proposed.

Honorary Research Associate, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South

Australia 5000. 2 Taylors Road, Mitcham, South Australia 5062. Manuscript received, 13

March 1996.

Paratrombium Bruyant, 1910 was founded for

a larval European mite, P. egregium Bruyant,

1910. Although its original author recognized its

trombidioid affinities, and (1912) recorded it as a

parasite of Pompilus pectinipes Lind.

(Hymenoptera), the genus was not correlated with

its post-larval instar until Feider (1952), in

Europe, reared larvae from ova laid by the adult P.

divisipili (Feider, 1950). Newell (1958) described

as new two North American species, P. bidactylus

Newell, 1958 and P. quadriseta Newell, 1958,

which he had successfully reared from adults.

Robaux (1969), in Europe, successfully reared and

described larvae from an adult he identified as P.

megalochirum (Berlese, 1910). Earlier, an

uncorrelated species, P. meruense (Tragardh,

1908), had been described from eastern Africa; it

was redescribed by Oudemans (1912).

While the larval Paratrombium is well

characterized and easily recognized (e. g. by being

the only known trombidioid larva with a pectinate

medial coxala I), the same does not apply with the

adults. Hirst (1928a,b 1929) placed some

Australian adults of Paratrombium in

Microtrombidium Haller, 1882 and

Dinothrombium Oudemans, 1910, and

Womersley (1934) also placed some adults in

Caenothrombium Oudemans, 1927. Among adult

forms was Caenothrombium miniatum

Womersley, 1934, for which Southcott (1986)

erected Pollicotrombium Southcott, 1986.

In this paper four new species of Paratrombium

are described from larvae, three from Australia

and one from Papua New Guinea. The two

southern Australian species, P. australe sp. nov.

and P. lindsayi sp. nov., have been successfully

reared from adults, and their adult and other

instars are also described.

MaTERIALS AND METHODS

Adults and larvae of trombidioid mites have

been collected by the author over many years,

either free-living, or by extraction of samples of

soil and litter with the Berlese funnel. Initial

Berlese funnel extractions were into 70% ethanol;

later ones were extracted free-living, for biological

observation. Most collecting was done in eucalypt

forests in the Mt Lofty Ranges, South Australia.

A few specimens were forwarded from other

collectors.

Adults used in possible rearing experiments

were placed in small glass tubes, with a small

amount of damp soil or bark from the collection

locality; tubes were closed with well-fitting corks,

with a face free from cracks, after being trimmed

with a razor.

Some batches of eggs collected in the field were

confined similarly, and some of these hatched into

larvae. Adults died soon after oviposition and

decomposed, with some mould development and

96 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

some degree of limb disarticulation; they were

mounted through standard water-soluble media

(initially Berlese’s gum chloral medium, then

polyvinyl] alcohol media, and finally Hoyer’s gum

chloral medium). Most disarticulation of adults

was mild; where severe, leg segments were

recognized by shape and measurements.

Larvae swarming in the tubes were found to be

positively phototropic, allowing small numbers to

transfer into other tubes for experiments to find

possible insect hosts for them to parasitize.

Microscopy was by Leitz Ortholux/Laborlux

microscope with phase-contrast and polarizing

facilities. All drawings were made with the aid of

a drawing apparatus.

Seta and other anatomical terminology follows

Southcott (1992, 1993, 1994).

All measurements are in micrometres (tim)

unless otherwise specified.

Abbreviations are as follows: SAM = South

Australian Museum, Adelaide; RVS = R. V.

Southcott

SYSTEMATICS

Family TROMBIDIIDAE Leach

Subfamily TROMBIDIINAE Leach

Trombidiidae Leach, 1815: 395 (as Trombidides)

Trombidiinae Southcott, 1986: 8

For additional synonymy see Southcott 1986: 8

Type genus 7rombidium Fabricius, 1775.

Genus Paratrombium Bruyant

Paratrombium Bruyant, 1910: 347; Southcott

1986: 43.

For additional synonymy see Southcott 1986:

43.

Type species: Paratrombium egregium Bruyant,

1910.

Definition of larva: as in Southcott 1986: 43,

and additionally: supracoxala present on

gnathosoma and on leg I.

Definition of adult: as in Southcott 1986: 43.

Key To THE LARVAE OF ParéTROMBIUM OF THE

WORLD

L; Posterior dorsal scutum with four setae .....

— Posterior dorsal scutum with two setae.... 2

2 (1). Posterior claw of tarsus III not reduced ... 3

— Posterior claw of tarsus III reduced ......... 7

3 (2). AM setae stout, tusk-like .......cccccccceeeees 4

— AM setae not stout, tusk-like

4 (3). MA/AP 1.43-1.82. Medial coxala I with

15—20 digitations ........ P. australe sp. nov.

— MA/AP 1.84—2.29. Medial coxala I with c.

27 digitations ............0.. P. lindsayi sp. nov.

5 (3). Medial coxala I with about 17 digitations.

Tritorostral setae expanded, with several

blunted digitations ..... P. anemone sp. nov.

— Medial coxala I with less than 17

digitations. Tritorostral setae not or little

expanded, with numerous fine, pointed

Seles. Beihai Mh salar Aantal roma trey 6

6 (5). L> 200um. SB > 150um. Medial coxala I

with 9 digitations ..0......ccccccceeeeeeeeeeees

se aBgsyhi Ato belt P. meruense (Tragardh, 1908)

— L< 200um. SB < 150m. Medial coxala I

with 12-13 digitations 0.0.0...

wedeudes saltucsdcayestdians godine P. curculionis sp. nov.

7 (2). Tritorostral setae of gnathosoma slender,

tapering throughout ...........cccceceeceseeeeeesees

Latgadivenelealest laces P. bidactylus Newell, 1958

— Tritorostral setae of gnathosoma not

slender and tapering ...........:ccecceeeeeees 8

8 (7). Medial coxala I with 14-16 digitations .....

sigstceat fis P. megalochirum (Berlese, 1910)

— Medial coxala I with less than 13

Gis itationss st... Laatste eRe 9

. Tritorostral setae moderately thickened in

their central part, with a heavy coating of

short setules; setae of posterior dorsal

scutum placed before middle of scutum;

SB <PW......... P. egregium Bruyant, 1910

— Tritorostral setae apparently considerably

thickened with long setules, so that they

appear markedly enlarged in their distal

half; setae of posterior dorsal scutum

placed behind middle of scutum. SB not <

PW xysastec erences: P. divisipili (Feider, 1950)

* This criterion is assumed to be the case with P. meruense: according

to Oudemans (1912: 97) the holotype larva (the sole specimen) lacked

the gnathosoma.

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE) 97

Paratrombium australe sp. nov.

(Figs 1A, B, 2A—D, 3, 4A—-G)

Material examined

Holotype. South Australia. Myponga, reared

larva ACB294L3, reared 29.xi.1947, from ova laid

by adult ACB294A, R.V. Southcott. SAM.

Paratypes. South Australia. Myponga,

12.x.1947, adult female ACB294A, also reared

larvae ACB294L1—2, 5-8 (see details under

Biology). Workanda Creek, National Park, Belair,

27.x.1951, many ova, from which larvae emerged,

R.V.S., ACB546 (see under Biology). Adult

ACB585A, with idiosoma length 2130, width

1260, 30.viii.1953, RVS, which laid ova which

produced many larvae, including ACB585L1—12

(see Biology). SAM.

Diagnosis of larva

Posterior dorsal scutum with two setae.

Posterior claw of tarsus III not reduced. AM setae

thickened, pointed, tusk-like. Medial coxala I with

15-20 digitations. Odontus strongly curved,

diverging into two well-separated tines.

Tritorostral setae curved, pointed, with a brush of

fine setules in distal 2/3. MA/AP 1.43-1.82.

Diagnosis of adult

PDS to c. 100m long.

Description of holotype larva (Figs 1A,B, 2A—

D), supplemented by paratypes

Colour in life red. Idiosoma 420 long by 215

wide; total length to tip of cheliceral blades 450.

Anterior dorsal scutum porose, smooth; anterior

border rounded (a slight anterior central

depression appears to be an artefact of mounting),

lateral and posterior borders almost straight,

smooth; posterolateral angles rounded. AM

scutalae stout, smooth, pointed, tusk-like; other

scutalae of anterior scutum tapering, pointed,

thinner, AL setae smooth, PL setae with a few

fine setules. Sensillary setae filamentous.

Posterior dorsal scutum (scutellum) porose,

semicircular, with smooth borders; anterior border

straight, anterolateral angles rounded, posterior

border convex; with two scutalae similar to PLs of

anterior dorsal scutum.

Metric data as in Table 1.

Each eye pair posterolateral to anterior dorsal

scutum; eyes rounded, anterior 11 across, posterior

Dorsum of idiosoma behind scutellum with c.

20 setae, strong, tapering, pointed, with slender,

outstanding setules; each seta arising from a

conical papule; setae arranged 2, 2, 6, 2, 4, 2, 2

(pygosomals).

Ventral surface of idiosoma (Fig. 2A): between

coxae III two slender, pointed setae, 70 long, with

slender setules. Behind coxae III are eight setae,

similar to dorsals, arising from papillae, 70—75

long, arranged 2, 4, 2 (pygosomals).

Legs of usual trombidioid stature. Leg lengths

(including coxae and claws): | 475, Il 450, 1

490. Medial coxala I 65 long, bearing 15—16 long,

thin, pointed digitations, arising somewhat

obliquely to main axis (Fig. 2C). Lateral coxala I

arises at anterolateral angle of coxa, slender,

pointed, c. 90 long, with a few long, slender

setules; above posterior cornu of coxal joint a thin,

pointed supracoxala, 13 long. Urstigma at

posterolateral angle of coxa I, narrow, curved, 36

long by c. 15 wide. Coxa II with two slender,

pointed setae with a few slender setules; anterior

seta 73 long, posterior seta 75 long. Coxala III

similar, 80 long. Leg scobalae curved, tapering,

pointed, with slender setules. Scobalar formula

(legs I, I, If): Fe 5, 4, 4, Ge 4, 3, 3, Ti 5, 5, 5.

Leg specialized setae: SoGel.26d(40),

SoGel.57ad(33), VsGel.73d(9), SoTil.49d(33),

SoTil.79d(27), VsTil.88pd(c.5). SoGell.45d(36),

VsGell.83d(10), SoTill.33d(c. 33),

SoTill.63d(c.23); Vs absent. SoGelll.44d(27).

Tarsus I with SoTal.56d(34), FaTal.59ad(c.2),

SeTal.74d(43) (‘tectal eupathidala’), Pt 20 long.

Tarsus II with SoTall.46d(c.27), FaTall.46pd(2).

Tarsal claws smooth, falciform, equal; empodium

of each tarsus over-reaching claws.

Gnathosoma: combined cheliceral bases

spindle-shaped, 78 long by 58 across. Cheliceral

digits curved, 46 long, with apical ‘chisel end’.

Protorostral setae simple, curved, pointed, c. 13

long. Deutorostral setae absent. Tritorostral setae

(Fig. 2B) curved, 25 long, with a brush of setules

in distal 2/3. Behind posterior margin of palpal

trochanter a simple, pointed seta (blunted in

holotype) (palpal supracoxala) 4—5 long.

Palpi compact; femur with dorsal, simple,

pointed seta 13 long. No genual setae. Tibia with

three simple setae. Odontus strongly curved, with

two divergent tines (Fig. 2D). Palpal tarsus with

six pointed setae, three with a scythe-like

appearance, also one or two minute blunted

projections (?solenoidalae).

Description of adult female ACB294A, slide-

mounted, supplemented by ACBS85A (Figs 3,

4A-F)

Colour in life red. Idiosoma 3400 long by 2000

wide; total length to tip of cheliceral blades 3750.

98 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

ee eT

O 10 30 um

FIGURE 1. Paratrombium australe sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, Dorsal view, to standard symbols: on right, legs omitted

beyond trochanters. B, Palpal tibia and tarsus, dorsomedial aspect, further enlarged.

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDHDAE) 99

30 um

FIGURE 2. Paratrombium australe sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, Ventral view, to standard symbols; on right, legs omitted

beyond trochanters. B, Tritorostral setae. C. Medial coxalaI. D, Palpal tibia and tarsus, ventrolateral aspect. (PaSx palpal

supracoxala; PeSx pedal supracoxala). (Each to nearest scale.)

Crista well developed, with strong, broad,

crescentic, transverse anterior extension (‘vomer’)

carrying pointed setulose setae 28—42 long in its

anterolateral parts; more posteriorly the vomer is

poorly defined, and carries similar setae to 150

long (Fig. 4A). Sensillary setae filiform, arising

from a well-defined expansion of the crista;

posterior end of crista well-defined, blunt-ended,

Each eye pair on a large peduncle, with a lens, at

about the middle, 64 across and a distal eye 60

100

TABLE I. Metric data of Paratrombium australe sp. nov., larvae (* for maximum values).

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Population from topotype area, Myponga, S.A.

Population from Workanda Creek, S.A.

Holotype n range mean — s.d. CV. n range mean s.d. Cv.

Character

LN 27 7 22-27 24.4 2.15 8.5 12. 19-24 22.0 1.13 5.1

MA 98 7 97-104 100.6 2.94 2.9 12. 93-105 99.8 3.47 3.5

AW 136 7 133-143 1374 341 2.5 12) 126-135 «130.8 = 2.93 2.2

PW 136 7 127-143 134.6 5.03 3.7 12) 125-139 §=132.2 = 4.30 3.3

SB 114 7 114-125 117.6 3.60 3.1 12. 107-118 =113.3 3.68 3.2

MSA 91 7 85-92 89.3 2.63 2.9 12 82-95 89.8 3.74 4.2

ASB 149 7 144-153 148.1 3.58 2.4 12 139-151 $145.8 3.19 2.2

PSB 46 7 40-46 42.0 2.08 5.0 12 38-45 40.6 2.39 5.9

L 195 7 184-195 190.1 4.56 2.4 12. 182-192 186.3 2.87 1.5

W 176 il 172-178 PISO e233 3 12. 162-170 =165.5 3.26 2.0

AP 61 7 59-62 60.6 3.21 5.3 12 59-67 63.9 2.71 4.2

SA 31 7 31-34 33.3 2.36 7.1 12. 31-40 34.5 2.81 8.2

SP 34 7 27-34 29.9 2.61 8.7 12 25-34 31.5 2.39 7.6

AM 45 7 44-48 45.6 127 2.8 6 38-45 43.3 2.73 6.3

AL 53 7 47-57 52.3 3.20 1.9 12 44-56 48.2 3.90 8.1

PL 82 7 80-93 84.0 5.57 6.7 12. 77-93 84.2 5.01 5.9

AMB 47 7 43-48 45.9 177 3.9 11 38-46 42.7 2715 5.0

SE 75 7 60-73 66.4 5.80 8.7 10. 62-77 70.0 4.67 6.7

PLN 42 7 40-46 43.4 2.30 5.3 11 38-47 42.9 2.43 5.7

PSL 74 7 71-78 74.0 2.16 2.9 11 = 69-74 72.2 1.89 2.6

PSW 164 7 159-166 162.9 291 1.8 12 152-164 =157.1 = 3.20 2.0

QW 53 7 50-58 53.4 2.51 4.7 12 43-55 50.1 4.36 8.7

QL 91 7 81-91 84.6 3.87 4.6 12. 69-85 79.8 4.69 59

DS 77-160 7 144-160* = 151.7* + 6.78* 4.5* 12. 141-158* 150.9* 6.13* 4.1*

MDS 80 7 75-82 81.0 2.89 3.6 12. 68-90 77.8 7.28 9.4

PDS 160 7 144-160 151.7 6.78 4.5 12) 141-158 §=150.9 6.13 41

AW/QW — 2.57 7 2.33-2.72 2.58 0.131 5.1 12. 2.31-3.07 2.66 0.222 84

PSL/PLN _ 1.76 7 1.58-1.88 1.71 0.103 6.0 11 -1.59-1.83 1.69 0.0890 5.3

Fel 91 7 96-93 90.6 2.37 2.6 12 86-98 90.7 3.87 43

Gel 51 7 51-60 353] 2.61 4.7 12. 51-57 53.3 1.97 3.7

Til 82 7 78-82 81.6 447 5.5 12 82-90 84.4 2.61 3.1

Tal(L) 110 7 107-113 110.3. 2.14 1.9 12) 109-118 §=115.1 = 3.34 2.9

Tal(H) 54 7 29-34 32.0 1.73 5.4 12 26-30 27.6 0.996 3.6

Til/Gel 1.61 ef 1.42-1.61 1.48 0.0678 4.6 12. 1.49-1.64 1.59 0.0478 3.0

Fell 77 q 75-77 76.1 0.900 1.2 12. 70-83 Jk 3.75 4.9

Gell 43 7 43-47 44.3 160 3.6 12 42-48 44.3 1.83 4]

Till 77 sf 71-77 74.4 2.30 3.1 12 73-82 77.2 2.95 3.8

Tall(L) 96 7 95-99 96.7 138 1.4 11) = 95-104 100.5 2.94 2.9

Tall(H) 26 7 25-27 25.9 0.690 2.7 12. 22-25 23.1 0.996 43

TilV/Gell 1.79 7 1.57-1.79 1.68 0.0819 4.9 12. 1.52-1.85 1.74 0.0844 4.8

Felll 83 7 82-85 83.1 1.21 1.5 12 82-92 85.8 2.89 3.4

Gelll 46 7 46-51 47.6 190 4.0 12 48-53 48.8 2.82 5.8

Till 93 if 88-95 90.7 281) 3A 12 87-96 92.3 2.83 3.1

Talll(L) 102 7 93-107 101.3 450 4.4 12 93-111 103.4 5.25 5.1

Talll(H) = 24 7 22-24 23.0 0.577 2.5 12 18-23 20.8 1.54 7.4

Till/Gelll 2.02 7 1.78-2.02 1.91 0.0963 5.0 12 1.75-2.13 1.89 0.105 5.5

SA/SP 0.91 7 0.91-0.23 1.12 0.116 10.3 12. 0.91-1.33 1.10 0.173 15.7

AW/AMB_ 2.89 7 2.83-3.16 3.00 0.139 4.6 11) -2.89-3.52 3.11 0.191 6.1

QL/QW 1.72 7 1.41-1.72 1.59 0.108 6.8 12. 1.45-1.93 1.60 0.164 10.2

PSW/QW_ 3.09 7 2.74-3.18 3.05 0.146 4.8 12. 2.82-3.63 3.16 0.270 8.6

MA/AP 1.61 T. 1.48-1.62 1.66 0.128 7.7 12. 1.43-1.71 1.51 0.910 5.8

FIGURE 3. Paratrombium austra

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE)

»)

(

le sp. nov., adult female, paratype, in transparency, setae omitted.

101

102

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

100

FIGURE 4. Paratrombium australe sp. nov., adult female, paratype. A, Crista and adjacent structures. B, Posterior

dorsal idiosomal setae. C, External genitalia. D, Tibia IV and tarsus IV. E, Palp, dorsomedial aspect. F, Palp,

ventrolateral aspect. (Each to nearest scale.)

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE) 103

across, terminal.

Dorsum of idiosoma thickly invested with

pointed, tapering, well setulose setae (Fig. 4B).

Metric data as in Table 2.

Venter of idiosoma with setation similar to

dorsal. External genitalia (Fig. 4C) oblong in

outline, with rounded angles, 375 long by 220

wide; valves carry numerous setulose setae;

genitalia with three pairs of subequal acetabula;

anterior acetabulum oval, 82 x 55, middle oval

TABLE 2. Metric data of Paratrombium australe sp. n.,

adults (CL = crista length; VW = vomer width).

Described

specimen Specimen

Character ACB294A ACBS585A

CL 468 -

VW 256 331

ASB 222 229

PSB 246 -

SB 62 66

SE c. 230 275

EPL 155 195

EPW 83 85

MDS 70-100 c. 80

PDS 70-100 c 100

Gel 440 540

Til 485 540

Tal(L) 684 735

Tal(H) 275 324

Til/Gel 1.08 1.00

Tal(L)/Til 1.43 1.36

Tal(L)/Tal(H) 2.48 DT:

Gell 310 360

Till 410 480

Tall(L) 410 490

Tall(H) 175 180

Till/Gell 1.32 1.33

Tall(L)/Till 1.02 1.02

Tall(L)/Tall(H) 2.52 2.42

Gelll 297 333

TH 441 490

TallI(L) 345 440

Tall I(H) 180 180

Tilll/Gelll 1.48 1.47

Talll(L)/Tilll 0.78 0.90

Tall l(L)/Tall(H) 1.92 2.44

GelV 425 490

TUV 454 684

Tal V(L) 367 440

Tal V(H) 184 209

TilV/GelV 1.07 1.40

Tal V(L)/TilV 0.81 0.64

TalV(L)/TalV(H) ‘1.99 2.11

73-80 x 60-65, posterior near-circular, 65 x 45

and 60 x 58. Anus about 160 long by 60 wide.

Legs shorter than idiosoma; lengths (trochanter

to claw tips: | 2665, I] 1850, HI 1865, IV 2270.

Legs thickly invested with pointed, setulose setae.

Tarsal claws smooth, falciform, about equal in

size over legs I-IV.

Gnathosoma: chelicerae (Fig. 4E) robust, bases

230 long by about 110 wide (combined).

Cheliceral digits falciform, 86 long, with fine

dorsal denticles. Palpi (Fig. 4F,G) robust, all

segments heavily invested with pointed, setulose

setae. Palpal tibia with blunted odontus, but

without paradonts or spinisetae. Palpal tarsus

elongate—ellipsoid, 170 long by 75 wide, over-

reaching odontus.

Description of ovum

Colour red or pink; smooth, polished,

spheroidal, about 300-350 long by 250 wide

(estimated from egg-skins of ACB294 and

ACBS85).

Description of prelarva

Colour red; appearance normal (size not

measured).

Etymology

The specific name australe is an adjective,

signifying that all specimens described originated

in southern Australia (in fact, a limited area in

South Australia).

Remarks

Table 2 gives the metric data of two adult

females of P. australe, both of which produced

ova which hatched to larvae, and used in the

metric data of Table 1. See below on the

discussion of the taxonomy of the adults of

Paratrombium..

Biology

Two adult females of P. australe have been

captured in the field, ACB294A and ACBS585A,

from which larvae were reared experimentally. In

addition, batches of ova have been collected in the

field, from which larvae of P. australe emerged.

Details of these successful rearing experiments are

as follows.

Experiment ACB294: Two adult mites were

captured in close proximity on 12.x.1947. The

larger one was the female ACB294A, and the

smaller one ACB295 (assumed to be a male),

from among damp bark in eucalypt forest (now

the Nixon-Skinner Reserve). They were placed

104 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

together in a small tube with some damp soil from

the site of capture.

On 17.x.1947 I recorded ‘The female mite is

resting on the cork, its abdomen somewhat

shrunken. The male mite is resting on the glass,

alongside the female, its front legs touching the

front legs of the female. Not in coitus. On the

damp bark is a large mass of light orange-red

eggs, some hundreds. [They are] smooth,

spheroidal, polished. The volume of the eggs is

about twice the volume of the female! Yet they are

so obvious as a body that they have obviously

been laid by the large mite. Eggs are of uniform

colour throughout the mass. Even if the smaller

mite is not a male, none the less the eggs belong

to the larger mite.’

On 26.x.1947 it was recorded that no further

ova had been laid, and the ova remained

undifferentiated. The smaller mite had been seen

over the previous few days mounted on the back

of the female.

On 2.xi.1947 the adults appeared healthy. A

few ova were showing the ‘earliest signs of colour

differentiation’, i.e. one side darker, the other

lighter. There were a few mould filaments on the

ova.

On 9.xi.1947 the ova were not further

differentiated, and no further ova had been laid.

The smaller mite was immobile, probably dead.

On 14.xi.1947 the ova had become irregular in

shape, and were recorded as containing

developing legs. The smaller mite became

mouldy, and was removed from the tube and

preserved. The female mite was recorded as

‘sluggish’.

Thereafter the deutova (‘eggs’) were observed

daily. The developing legs became more

prominent, and the eye spots developed. On

29.xi.1947 several larvae emerged; seven were

mounted. On 30.xi.1947 a further group of larvae

(about 20) had emerged. The adult female

remained alive, but was not parasitized by the

larvae; on 5.xii.1947 her movements were

uncoordinated, and by 9.xii.1947 she had died.

All larvae had emerged by 9.xii.1947, and were

recorded as active and healthy. Their strongly

positive phototropism (to both suffused natural

and artificial (tungsten) light) allowed batches to

be transferred to other tubes in efforts to find

suitable arthropod hosts. As possible hosts small

beetles, a mantispa, various Diptera, Jassidae

(Hemiptera) and an immature locust were offered.

Of these, the larvae attached only to the mantispa.

Experiment ACB585: A large adult was

captured running across the ground on

30.vill.1953, and placed in a tube with some local

soil. On 30.x.1953 (the next recorded observation)

the adult was dead, and the tube contained also ‘a

loose aggregate of red eggs’ in an advanced

prelarva stage. A number of these emerged to

larvae. The tube was allowed to dry out, and the

adult and larvae later mounted by standard

procedures.

Experiment ACB546: A batch of ova was

collected from soil on 27.x.1951, and placed in a

small tube with some local soil. A month later

(25.xi.1951) they were recorded as pink, smooth

and unshrunken. On 5.xii.1951 a few ova were

observed to be in the prelarva stage ‘but most are

not’; all were unhatched; a few were mouldy. On

10.xii.1951 all had transformed to prelarvae; they

were still in this stage on 21.xii.1951. On

23.x1i.1951 ‘five larvae have hatched; others

unhatched’.

On 25.xii.1951 ‘Tube is swarming with larval

trombidiids’; a few ova were still unhatched. |

added a green-eyed lacewing (Neuroptera,

Chrysopidae) to the tube. It promptly ate several

larvae, and was not attacked by them.

A series of attempts to find suitable host

arthropods was made. As before, this was made

possible by the larvae being ‘attracted to light’.

Larvae successfully parasitized adults of Musca

domestica L. (head, neck, thorax, abdomen,

wings, legs), also other smaller Diptera, including

a small hover fly (Syrphidae), as well as a small

golden-green wasp, but not a thysanuran

(Lepismatidae), a jassid (7yphlocyba sp.,

Hemiptera) or various other small Hemiptera.

Although some of the larvae fed on their hosts

and increased in size, none progressed to a later

instar.

Two other batches of ova (ACB545 and

ACBS547) were collected at the same site, but in

captivity became mouldy and did not transform to

prelarvae.

In summary, ova are laid in October-November

in the South Australian areas studied. They

develop into prelarvae in some weeks, and larvae

emerge in November—December. No larva has

been captured ectoparasitic on an arthropod in the

field, but experimentally they will parasitize

Diptera, small Hymenoptera and a species of

Mantispidae.

Paratrombium lindsayi sp. nov

(Figs. 5, 6A-F, 7, 8A—F)

Material examined

Holotype. South Australia: Glenunga,

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE) 105

FIGURE 5. Paratrombium lindsayi sp. nov., larva, holotype. Dorsal view, to standard symbols; on right, legs omitted

beyond trochanters.

November, 1951, reared larva ACB549L3, reared

from ova laid by ACBS49A, A. Lindsay

Southcott. SAM.

Paratypes. Same locality and collector, adult

female ACB549A, 28.x.1951; reared larvae (as for

holotype) ACB549L1, 2, 4-8. SAM.

Diagnosis of larva

Scutellum with two setae. Posterior claw of

tarsus II] not reduced. AM setae thickened,

pointed, tusk-like. Medial coxala I with 27-28

digitations. Odontus strong, curved, with two

diverging tines. Tritorostral setae curved, pointed,

106 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

FIGURE 6. Paratrombium lindsayisp. nov., larva, holotype, to standard symbols. A, Ventral view, on right legs omitted

beyond trochanters. B, Medial coxala I and adjacent structures. C, Tip of rostrum and protorostral setae. D, Tritorostral

setae. E, Palpal tibia and tarsus, dorsomedial aspect. F. Palpal tibia and tarsus, ventrolateral aspect. (PaFe palpal femur;

PaTr palpal trochanter; PaSx palpal supracoxala; PeSx pedal supracoxala). (A to scale on left; B—F to scale on right.)

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDHDAE) 107

BN a

( oO

FIGURE 7. Paratrombium lindsayi sp. nov., adult female, paratype. In transparency; figure assembled from largely

disarticulated pieces; inset: surplus fragments of another adult trombidioid present in the experimental tube (see text). (All

to scale shown.)

108 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

FIGURE 8. Paratrombium lindsayi sp. nov., adult female, paratype. A, Crista. B, Ocular peduncle. C, Two posterior

dorsal idiosomal setae. D, Palp, dorsomedial aspect. E, Palp, ventrolateral aspect. F, Chelicera. (Each to nearest scale.)

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE)

with a leash of setules in distal half. MA/AP

1.84-2.29.

Diagnosis of adult

PDS to 80 um long.

Description of larva, slide-mounted (from

holotype, supplemented by paratypes) (Figs 5,

6A-F)

Colour in life red. Idiosoma ovoid, length 367,

width 230; total length 417.

Dorsal scutum approximately square in outline,

with rounded angles. Margins smooth, anterior

margin convex, lateral margins weakly concave,

posterior margin convex. Scutum finely porose,

the only special markings being an oblique pleat

laterally, anterior to middle of scutum, and a few

curved striae anterior to it. AM setae smooth,

pointed, tusk-like; AL and PL setae tapering,

pointed, with a few slender, pointed setules.

Sensillary setae filiform, with a few slender, distal

setules.

Each eye pair near posterolateral border of

scutum; anterior eye 11 across, posterior 8.

Metric data as in Table 3.

Scutellum transverse, with smooth margins;

anterior border almost linear, posterior border

stongly convex, lateral angles rounded; scutum

porose, without special markings; scutalae similar

to AL and PL scutalae of anterior dorsal scutum.

Dorsum of idiosoma behind scutellum with 20

setae, tapering, pointed, with a few lightly

outstanding setules; setae arranged 2, 2, 6, 2, 4, 2,

2 (pygosomals).

Ventral surface of idiosoma (Fig. 6A): two setae

(intercoxalae) between medial ends of coxae III,

slender, tapering, setulose, 45 long, with long,

pointed setules. Behind coxae III are setae similar

to dorsals, 54-57 long, arranged 2, 4 (+ two

pygosomals).

Legs of usual stature for genus; lengths

(including coxae and claws) I 410, II 360, III 410.

Coxa I with medial coxala I arising towards

anterolateral angle, 71 long by 27 wide where

widest, with c. 27 digitations (Fig. 6B), the

proximal digitations arising almost at right angles

to axis, distal ones arising more obliquely, all

pointed; lateral coxala | arising close to

anterolateral angle of coxa, 73 long, curved,

pointed, well setulose with long setules;

originating above posterior cornu of coxa-

trochanteral joint a fine, pointed, simple seta

(supracoxala), 15 long. Urstigma oval, 36 x 13, at

posterolateral angle of coxa I. Coxa I] with two

pointed, setulose setae, each 55 long, anterior

109

arising near anterolateral angle of coxa, posterior

near posterolateral angle. Coxa III with a similar

seta, 58 long. Leg setae pointed, setulose. Scobalar

formula (legs I, I, Ill): Fe 5, 4, 4, Ge 4, 3, 3, Ti 5,

Su0:

Leg specialized setae: SoGel.24ad(42),

SoGel.50ad(33), VsGel.77pd(c.7), SoTil.54d(24),

SoTil.81d(24), VsTil.93pd(c.7). SoGell.45p(45),

VsGell.81pd(7) SoTill.21d(34), SoTilL. 50pd(25).

SoGell1.32d(40).

Tarsus I with SoTal.56d(25), FaTal.55ad(1),

SeTall.78d(43) (‘tectal eupathidala’), Pt 11 long.

Tarsus II with SoTall.48d(18), FaTall.48pd(1).

Tarsal claws and empodium as in P. australe.

Gnathosoma: chelicerae bases spindle-shaped,

73 long by 55 wide (combined); cheliceral digits

slender, 58 long, with ‘chisel end’ 13 long

Protorostral setae (Fig. 6C) simple, curved,

pointed, 8 long; deutorostrals absent; tritorostrals

(Fig. 6D) curved, 32 long, with a brush of setules

in distal 2/3. A minute, slender supracoxala, 7

long, behind posterolateral border of palpal

trochanter (Fig. 6B). Palpal femur with slender,

simple, pointed dorsal seta 13 long. Palpal tibia

with three simple, slender, pointed setae. Odontus

strongly curved, with two divergent tines. Palpal

tarsus (Fig. 6E,F) with seven pointed setae, of

which two are scythe-like; also a short peg-like

projection, ?solenoidala.

Description of adult female (from paratype

ACB549A, slide-mounted, largely disarticulated,

but reconstituted from morphology and sizes of

leg segments) (Fig. 7, 8A—F)

Colour in life red. Idiosoma more or less

cordate, 1420 long by 1075 wide; length to tip of

cheliceral blades 1480.

Crista (Fig. 8A) well-developed, with typical

vomer spreading from anterior part; in its

anterolateral part vomer carries well setulose setae

40-50 long; in its more posterior part setae are up

to c. 80 long. Sensillary setae filamentous,

originating from a well-developed boss.

Dorsum of idiosoma thickly invested with

tapering, well setulose setae (Fig. 6C) Eye

peduncles well developed, each with two eyes

(Fig. 6B), one at middle of peduncle 64 wide, the

other terminal, c. 64 wide.

Metric data as in Table 4.

Ventral surface of idiosoma with setation

similar to dorsal. External genitalia and anus

partly obscured in specimen.

Legs of normal trombidioid stature; leg lengths

(trochanters to claw-tips; estimated from

reconsituted specimen by fitting drawings): I

110 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

TABLE 3. Metric data of Paratrombium lindsayi sp. nov. larvae (* for maximum values).

Holotype n range mean s.d. CV.

Character

LN 22 8 18-24 21.5 2.07 9.6

MA 103 8 97-107 102.9 2.80 2.7

AW 157 8 151-162 156.6 3.46 2:2

PW 169 8 155-169 161.6 4.47 2.8

SB 141 8 132-142 137.4 3.46 2.5

MSA 93 8 91-95 92.5 L331 1.4

ASB 146 8 140-149 146.3 3.92 2.7

PSB 40 8 40-48 43.8 2.60 6.0

L 186 8 184-196 190.0 5.10 27.

W 212 8 205-217 211.6 4.2] 2.0

AP 45 8 45-56 52.3 3.37 6.4

SA 39 8 34-39 35.6 1.77 5.0

SP 22 8 21-25 22.6 1.19 Sr

AM 40 8 40-51 44.4 3.46 7.8

AL a) 8 48-57 53.0 3.55 6.7

PL 80 8 77-82 78.6 1.92 2.4

AMB 54 8 49-59 54.1 2.95 5.4

SE 60 8 80-92 88.6 4.00 4.5

PLN c. 35 8 27-38 351 4.02 11.4

PSL c. 55 8 46-69 59.3 6.50 11.0

PSW c. 189 8 176-192 182.3 6.18 3.4

QW 59 8 54-60 57.1 2.30 4.0

QL 82 8 77-83 80.0 2.39 3.0

DS 75-125 8 109-127* 117.8* TOI 5:9*

MDS 75 8 66-76 74.0 3.25 4.4

PDS 125 8 109-127 117.8 7.01 aye)

AW/QW 2.66 8 2.57-2.89 2.72 0.0997 3.7

PSL/PLN CMD. 8 1.57-1.78 1.69 0.0614 3.6

Fel 74 8 69-77 73.9 2.59 335

Gel 45 8 42-48 44.3 2.19 4.9

Til 70 8 66-73 70.0 2.83 4.0

Tal(L) 91 8 86-91 90.0 1.77 2.0

Tal(H) 29 8 26-31 28.9 1.46 5.0

Til/Gel 1.56 8 1.47-1.74 1.59 0.100 6.3

Fell 62 8 59-64 60.9 3.09 el

Gell 40 8 35-40 36.6 1.51 4.1

Till 62 8 58-63 60.4 2.07 3.4

Tall(L) 76 8 73-80 76.8 2.05 257.

Tall(H) 22 8 20-23 22.1 1.13 5.1

Till/Gell 1.55 8 1.55-1.75 1.65 0.060 3.7

Felll 69 8 64-70 67.3 2.38 3.5

Gelll 44 8 37-45 41.4 2.50 6.1

Till 73 8 69-75 71.8 2.05 29

Tall l(L) 84 8 78-86 82.4 2.72 3.3

TallI(H) 22 8 18-22 20.1 1.25 6.2

Tilll/Gelll 1.66 8 1.53-1.95 1.74 0.123 7.1

SA/SP 1.77 8 1.36-1.77 1.58 0.120 7.6

AW/AMB 2.91 8 2.68-3.16 2.90 0.169 5.8

QL/QW 1.39 8 1.28-1.50 1.40 0.0676 4.8

PSW/QW 3.20 8 3.00-3.40 3.19 0.119 Su;

MA/AP 1.87 8 1.84-2.29 1.95 0.150 7.6

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDHDAE) 111

TABLE 4. Metric data of Paratrombium lindsayi sp. nov.,

adult, compared with adult Paratrombium nynganense

(Hirst). (4 Data from Hirst (1928a).® Figures in parenthesis

are derived from the disarticulated segments, after

reconstitution and re-assessment of the largely disarticulated

specimen. © Womersley (1934). CL=crista length; VW =

vomer width).

Specimen Paratrombium Paratrombium

lindsayi nynganense

ACBS549A®

Character

CL 352

VW 195

ASB 165

PSB 187

SB 50

SE 210

EPL 128

EPW 75

MDS -

PDS 75-80 65°

Gel (373)

Til (432) 2604

Tal(L) (565) 3504

Tal(H) (203) 1204

Til/Gel (1.16)

Tal(L)/Til (1.31) 1.354

Tal(L)/Tal(H) (2.78) 2.924

Gell (245)

Till (360)

Tall(L) 320

Tall(H) 139

Till/Gell (1.47)

Tall(L)/Till (0.89)

Tall(L)/Tall(H) 2.30

Gelll (237)

Till (380)

Talll(L) (290)

Talll(H) (138)

Tilll/Gelll (1.60)

Talll(L)/Till (0.76)

Talll(L)/Talll(H) (2.10)

GelV (346)

TilV (530)

Tal V(L) 324

Tal V(H) 140

TilV/GelV (1.53)

Tal V(L)/TiLV (0.61)

Tal V(L)/Tal V(H) 2.31

2145, Il 1605, III 1405, IV 1900. Tarsal claws as

described for P. australe.

Gnathosoma: combined chelicerae bases

spindle-shaped, c. 200 long by 73 wide; cheliceral

digits robust, 80 long, with fine, dorsal retrorse

denticles (Fig. 8F). Palpi (Fig. 8D,E) robust, well

covered with pointed, setulose setae; palpal tibial

odontus as for P. australe, 130 long, without

paradonts or spinisetae. Palpal tarsus 155 long by

64 wide, with numerous fine, setulose setae.

Description of Ovum

Red, spheroidal, smooth, size (estimated from

cast ova skins) about 350 long by 250 wide.

Description of Deutovum

Colour red; dimensions not measured; no

unusual features noted.

Etymology

The species is named for the collector, then

aged 12 years.

Biology

Experiment ACB549: An adult female was

captured on 28.x.1951, and confined in a small

tube with some soil from the capture site. At the

next observation, on 25.xi.1951, the adult was

dead and the tube contained a ‘Batch of red,

smooth, spheroidal eggs’. On 5.xii.1951 all ova

had developed to the prelarva stage; a few were

mouldy. On 10.xii.1951 all had emerged to larvae.

On 11.xii.1951 it was recorded that the larvae

tended to aggregate in groups. An adult lacewing

(Chrysopidae) placed in the tube was not

parasitized by the larvae. By 16.xii.1951 all larvae

had died.

The adult had been left in the tube, and had

decomposed, the legs being largely disarticulated.

Adult and larvae were mounted by standard

procedures. The legs of the adult were mostly in

individual segments, which were mounted, later

to be identified by shape and measurement. In the

tube were five extra leg segments, two were of a

conjoined tibia IV and tarsus IV, discrepant from

the others, and three segments (trochanteral and

femoral) not used in the metric data in Table 4. It

is assumed that the original soil used was

contaminated by extra leg segments of another

trombidioid mite.

Comment on the taxonomy of Paratrombium

australe and P. lindsayi

Larvae: The two reared populations of larvae of

P. australe (ACB294 and ACBS585) show similar

112

morphological features, and in addition the metric

data show overlapping ranges in almost all of the

dimensions measured, so that their specific

identity need not be questioned.

In the case of the larvae of P. /indsayi there is

almost no overlap of the dimension ranges with

those of the two populations of P. australe. Thus

the shield dimensions AW, PW, SB, AMB and

PSL are significantly larger, while others, such as

AP, SP, PDS and most leg dimensions are

significantly smaller. Additionally, the medial

coxala I of P. lindsayi has c. 27 digitations, while

the medial coxala I of P. australe has 15-20

digitations.

Adults: As only two adults of P. australe and one

of P. lindsayi from which larvae have been reared

are available, conclusions based on general

morphology and metric dimensions need to be

more guarded, particularly as one female of P.

australe was significantly larger than the other.

Nevertheless in nearly all cases the dimensions of

the adult females of P. australe were significantly

larger than those for the female of P. /indsayi.

There are also several differences in the various

dimension ratios between the two species (see

Tables 2 and 4).

The relations between these adults and other

adults allotted to the genus are conjectural. Each

of them can be placed in the key to the adults

given by Womersley in 1934 (as

Caenothrombium ); the nearest fit being between

P. lindsayi and P. nynganense (Hirst). Even so,

the length of tibia I of P. nynganense (from Hirst

(1928a)) is only 60% of that of P. Jindsayi, and

only 54% or 58% of that of P. australe, while the

length given of the dorsal idiosomal setae by

Womersley (1934) as 65 is significantly shorter

than that of P. lindsayi (75-80). (See also the

Remarks on post-larval Paratrombium, below.)

Paratrombium curculionis sp. nov.

(Figs 9, 1OA—F)

Material examined

Holotype. Queensland. Wongabel, September

1944, R. N. McCulloch, larva ACB1303,

ectoparasitic on a weevil (Coleoptera,

Curculionoidea).

Diagnosis of larva

Scutellum with two setae. Posterior claw of

tarsus II] not reduced. AM setae slender. Medial

coxala I with 12—13 digitations. Odontus strongly

curved, almost circular. SB<150um. AW<150um.

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Description of larva (from holotype, slide-mounted)

Colour in life red. Idiosoma 300 long, 205

wide; total length to tip of cheliceral blades 335.

Anterior dorsal scutum with smooth borders;

anterior border with a slight central concavity (a

presumed artefact of mounting); other borders

convex except for a weak emargination near the

posterolateral angles to accommodate eyes;

posterolateral angles rounded. AM setae slender,

curved, simple, pointed; AL scutalae stout,

tapering, pointed, with a few distal setules;

sensillary setae filiform, with a few slender, distal

setules. PL scutalae (missing in specimen) arise at

PL angles of scutum.

Each eye pair placed near posterolateral border

of scutum; corneae circular, anterior 11 across,

posterior 9.

Scutellum porose; margins smooth; anterior

margin slightly convex; lateral and posterior

margins convex; scutalae stout, moderately

setulose.

Metric data as in Table 5.

Dorsal idiosomal setae behind scutellum about

20 in number; each seta arises from a small

conical papilla; setae stout, blunt-ended, with

slender setules in distal half; arranged 2, 2, 6, 4,

4, 2 (pygosomals).

Ventral surface of idiosoma: between coxae II

two slender setae, 40 long, pointed, with slender

distal setules. Behind coxae III about eight setae,

similar to dorsals, 54-60 long, arranged 2, 4 (+

two pygosomals).

Legs of normal stature, short, lengths (including

coxae to claws): I 330, Il 315, HI 335. Leg

scobalae pointed, simple, except for a few distal

setules. Coxa I stout, triangular, with rounded

medial end, carrying a medial pectinate seta 42

long with c. 13 slender digitations, arising

obliquely, the longest of these arising about 2/3

along coxala (Fig. 10B). Lateral coxala I arises

near anterolateral angle of coxa, stout, pointed,

curved, setulose, c. 55 long. Dorsally above the

posterior cornu of the coxal joint a slender,

pointed supracoxala, 16 long (Fig. 10D).

Urstigma narrow, oval, 31 long by 8 wide, on

posterolateral part of coxa I. Coxa II carries two

stout, pointed, lightly setulose setae, anterior 64

long, posterior 55. Coxa III with a similar seta 58

long. Scobalar formula (legs I, II, III): Fe 5, 4, 4,

Ge 4, 3, 3, Ti 5,5, 5.

Leg specialized setae: SoGel.32pd(40),

SoGel.45d(36), VsGel.76pd(6), SoTil.47d(25),

SoTil.78ad(24), VsTil.83pd(6). SoGell.25d(30),

VsGell.66d(9), SoTill.31d(30), SoTill.69d(18).

SoTilll.30p(40).

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE) 113

FIGURE 9. Paratrombium curculionis sp. nov., larva, holotype. Dorsal view, to standard symbols: on right, legs omitted

beyond trochanters.

114 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Pasx @—~ 30

FIGURE 10. Paratrombium curculionis sp. nov., larva, holotype. A, Ventral view; on right, legs omitted beyond

trochanters. B, Medial coxala I. C, Tritorostral setae. D, Ventral aspect of palpal femur and trochanter. E, Palpal tibia

and tarsus, dorsomedial aspect. F, Same, ventrolateral aspect. (To standard symbols; additionally: PaFe palpal femorala,

dorsal, shown in stipple in D; PaSx palpal supracoxala; PeSx pedal supracoxala, dorsal, shown in stipple in A.) (A to scale

on left; B—F to scale on right.)

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE) 115

TABLE 5. Metric data for holotypes of Paratrombium

curculionis sp. nov. and Paratrombium anemone sp.nov.

(larvae)

Paratrombium Paratrombium

curculionis anemone

Character

LN 15 23

MA 82 87

AW 129 144

PW 110 144

SB 122 123

MSA 68 68

ASB 109 110

PSB 33 45

6 142 155

WwW 160 167

AP 38 38

SA 23 23

SP 18 21

AM 18 27

AL 42 55

PL - 73

AMB 39 34

SE 64 -

PLN 28 18

PSL 53 36

PSW 149 160

QW 56 53

QL 62 82

DS 66-68 66-71

MDS 66 66

PDS 68 71

AW/QW 2.30 2.72

PSL/PLN 1.89 2.00

Fel 57 66

Gel 31 36

Til 57 59

Tal(L) 74 84

Tal(H) 28 25

Til/Gel 1.84 1.64

Fell 52 62

Gell 26 33

Till 46 5:

Tall(L) 66 69

Tall(H) 23 23

Till/Gell 1.77 1.73

Felll 57 66

Gelll 29 34

Till 54 68

Talll(L) 70 76

TallI(H) 21 19

Tilll/Gelll 1.86 2.00

SA/SP 1.28 1.10

AW/AMB 3.31 4.24

QL/QW 1.11 155

PSW/QW 2.66 3.02

MA/AP 2.16 2.29

Tarsus I with SoTal.47d(20), FaTal.48ad(3),

SeTal.69d(40), Pt 11 long.Tarsus II with

SoTall.43—.44d(20), FaTall.48—.40pd(2) Claws of

all tarsi smooth, falciform, equal; empodium over-

reaching claws.

Gnathosoma: chelicerae compact, bases about

55 long by 45 wide (combined); cheliceral digits

slender, curved, 39 long, with terminal blade 12

long. Protorostral setae simple, pointed, 7 long.

Deutorostrals absent. Tritorostral setae Fig. 10C)

curved, 16 long, with brush-like expansion of

setules in distal half. Behind posterolateral border

of palpal trochanter a slender, simple supracoxala,

8 long. Palpi stout. Palpal femoral seta simple,

pointed, 10 long. Palpal tibia (Fig. 10E,F) conical,

with three simple, pointed setae; odontus strongly

curved, almost forming a circle. Palpal tarsus with

seven pointed setae, two deflexed. Palpal

supracoxala posterolateral to palpal trochanter,

simple, pointed, 8 long.

Etymology

The specific name curculionis is a noun in the

genitive (Latin), signifying ‘of a weevil’ (host).

Paratrombium anemone sp. nov.

(Figs 11, 12A—E)

Material examined

Holotype. Papua New Guinea, Babiang,

19.xii.1944, R.V. Southcott, larva ACB267,

caught free-living in damp soil. SAM.

Diagnosis of larvae

Scutellum with two setae. Posterior claw of

tarsus III not reduced. AM setae slender, not tusk-

like. Odontus almost straight, axial to palpal tibia.

Tritorostral setae expanded, with several large

blunted digitations. Medial coxala I with c. 17

digitations.

Description of holotype larva, slide mounted.

Colour in life red

Idiosoma c. 300 long by c. 200 wide; total

length to tip of cheliceral blades c. 320.

Anterior dorsal scutum more or less oblong,

finely porose, without special markings. Margins

smooth; anterior margin with shallow median

indentation (possibly an artefact of mounting);

shape of lateral margins indeterminate from

probable distortion in mounting; posterior margin

weakly convex. AM setae slender, simple,

pointed. Other scutalae stronger, pointed, simple

except for slight terminal setules. Sensillary setae

missing in specimen.

116 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

FIGURE 11. Paratrombium anemone sp. nov., larva, holotype, to standard symbols; legs omitted on left. The specimen

is somewhat distorted, and the pattern drawn of post-scutellar doral setae is somewhat interpretative.

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE) 117

FIGURE 12. Paratrombium anemone sp. nov., larva, holotype, to standard symbols. A, Ventral view, legs omitted on

left. The specimen is somewhat distorted, and the pattern drawn of hysterosomal setae somewhat interpretative; PaSx

palpal supracoxala. B, Coxa |, ventral aspect, and adjacent structures; PeSx pedal supracoxala (dorsal), shown in stipple.

C, Tritorostral setae. D, Palpal tibia and tarsus, dorsomedial aspect. E, Palpal tibia and tarsus, ventrolateral aspect. (A

to scale on left; B—E to scale on right.)

118

Eyes near posterolateral border of scutum,

anterior 9 across, posterior 7.

Scutellum porose, narrow, transverse; anterior

border linear, anterolateral angles acute, at about

60°; posterior border convex; the two scutalae

tapering, pointed, simple except for slight setules

in distal half.

Metric data as in Table 5.

Dorsum of idiosoma behind scutellum with c.

19 setae, pointed or blunt-pointed, with slender,

pointed setules; setae arise from hemispherical

papules; precise arrangement uncertain from

distortion of specimen.

Ventral surface of idiosoma: between coxae III

two slender, pointed, lightly setulose setae, 45

long, arising from papules. Behind coxae III c.

eight setae, arranged 2, 4 (+ 2 pygosomals); setae

similar to dorsals, 70—75 long.

Legs of usual trombidioid larval stature; lengths

(including coxae and claws): I 365, II 350, II

375. Coxa I (Fig. 12A) forms a quarter-circle with

a projecting anterolateral articular piece. At about

the anteromedial position medial coxala I arises,

comma-shaped, 38 long by 21 wide, with a row of

16-17 blunt-ended digitations, coming off at

about a right angle to the main axis; the

digitations are longest at about the middle of the

array (Fig. 12B). At about the anterolateral

position a strong, pointed lateral coxala I, about

60 long, with fine, pointed setules. Above the

anterior cornu of coxa I is a fine, pointed, simple

supracoxala, 13 long. Urstigma 21 x 9 present, set

in the posterolateral angle of coxa I. Coxa II with

two setae, tapering, pointed, with slender setules;

anterior seta 60 long, posterior 50. Coxa III with a

similar seta, 62 long. Leg scobalae similar, with

slender setules; scobalar formula (legs I, II, III):

Fe 5, 4, 4, Ge 4, 3, 3, Ti 5, 5, 5.

Leg specialized setae: SoGel.15d(46),

SoGel.31ad(53), VsGel.85pd(5), SoTil.54d(30),

SoTil.70d(22), VsTil.84pd(7). SoGell.34d(70),

VsGell.76ad(5), SoTill.20d(38), SoTill.53d(53).

SoGelll.25d(75).

Tarsus I with SoTal.33d(31), FaTal.45ad(3)

SeTal.68d(47), Pt 14 long. Tarsus II with

SoTall.37d(18), FaTall.41pd(3). Tarsal claws

falciform, smooth, equal over legs I-III;

empodium of each tarsus slender, over-reaching

the lateral claws.

Gnathosoma: chelicerae compact, bases c. 70

long by 50 wide (combined). Protorostral setae

not identified. Deutorostrals absent.Tritorostrals

(Fig. 12C): each seta expanded to a set of seven

round-ended digitations; setae c. 27 long Palpal

femoral seta slender, pointed, simple, 16 long.

R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Palpal tibia with three simple, pointed setae (or

four, anomalously), proximal; also a strong,

pointed, undivided odontus, projecting axially.

Palpal tarsus with two large, sclerotized

ventromedial projections, evidently modified

setae; proximal one short and conical, the larger

one cucumber-shaped (see Fig. 12D,E), and

reaching as far anteriorly to almost the tip of the

odontus; also five fine, simple, pointed setae; no

solenoidala detected. Palpal supracoxala slender,

spiniform, 6 long.

Etytmology

The specific name anemone is a noun in

apposition, of classical Greek origin, which refers

to the zoophyte-like appearances of the tritorostral

setae.

Remarks

Paratrombium anemone differs from other

described larvae placed in the genus in having

spreading, digitate tritorostral setae, and in

detailed structure of the palpal tarsus. The latter

has two large sclerotized projections, which are

presumably modified setae. The more

characteristic scobalae of the palpal tarsus appear

normal in being slender, simple, pointed, but are

without modification into scythe-like forms.

REMARKS ON Post-LARVAL P4RATROMBIUM

Six species of Paratrombium have been

correlated between larvae and adults by

experimental rearing from ova laid by females;

two European, two North American and two

Australian. These rearings confirm the placing of

Paratrombium in the Trombidiinae, and allow the

corrections of generic placements of earlier

authors of Australian adult Trombidiidae. Of those

placed in Caenothrombium Oudemans, 1927 by

Womersley (1934), after the earlier placement of

Caenothrombium miniatum Womersley, (1934) in

Pollicotrombium Southcott, 1986 as P. miniatum

(Womersley) (see Southcott 1986), the following

new combinations may be assigned:

Paratrombium album (Womersley, 1934: 204),

comb. nov.,

P. augustae (Hirst, 1928b: 1032), comb. nov.,

P. crassum (Hirst, 1928a: 567), comb. nov.,

P. montivagum (Hirst, 1928b: 1027), comb. nov.,

P. nobile (Hirst, 1928b: 1932), comb. nov.,

P. nynganense (Hirst, 1928a: 566), comb. nov.,

P. rainbowi (Hirst, 1928b: 1031), comb. nov.,

P. sericatum (Rainbow, 1906: 158), comb. nov.,

REVISION OF PARATROMBIUM (ACARINA: TROMBIDIIDAE)

P. splendidum (Hirst, 1928a: 566), comb. nov.,

P. taylori (Hirst, 1928b: 1034), comb. nov.,

P. torridum (Hirst, 1928a: 567), comb. nov.,

P. ventricosum (Hirst, 1928b: 1032), comb. nov.

Some of these species were synonymized by

Womersley (1934), with little discussion;

however, a key was provided.

One point of interest in adult chaetotaxy is that

European P. megalochirum (Berlese, 1910) (see

Berlese 1912) and P. divisipili (Feider, 1950)

119

(q.v.) have thickened dorsal idiosomal setae, while

the North American adults described by Newell

(1958), and the recorded Australian adults have

slender, pointed dorsal idiosomal setae.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work has been supported by the Australian

Biological Resources Study.

REFERENCES

BERLESE, A. 1910. Brevi diagnosi di generi e specie

nuovi di Acari. Redia 6 (2): 346-388.

BERLESE, A. 1912. Trombidiidae: prospetto dei generi

e delle specie finora noti. Redia 8 (1): 1-291.

BRUYANT, L. 1910. Description d’une nouvelle larve

de trombidion (Paratrombium egregium, n. gen., n.

sp.) et remarques sur les leptes. Zoologischer

Anzeiger 35 (11): 347-352.

BRUYANT, L. 1912. Sur Vhéte de Paratrombium

egregium Bruyant. Zoologischer Anzeiger 39 (2): 96.

FABRICIUS, J. C. 1775. “Systema Entomologiae, sistens

insectorum classes, ordines, genera, species, adiectis

synonymis, locis, descriptionibus, observationibus.’

Flensburgi et Lipsiae.

FEIDER, Z. 1950. Cercetari asupra aparatului respirator

la Trombidiidae si Prostigmatele superioare si lista

speciilor de Trombidiidae din Republica Populara

Romana. Analele Academiei Republicii Populare

Romane, Seria: Geologie. geographie, biologie,

stiinte tehnice si agricole 3 (5): 95-279.

FEIDER, Z. 1952. Legdtura intre genurile

Dinothrombium Oud. 1910 si Parathrombium [sic]

Bruyant 1910 si descrierea lui Parathrombium

insulare (Berlese) 1910 var. divisipilli [sic] Feider

1948 [sic]. Buletin stiingific. Sectiunea de Stiinfe

biologice, agronomice, geologice si geografice 4 (4):

955-970.

HALLER, G. 1882. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der

Milbenfauna Wiirttembergs. Jahreshefte des Vereins

fiir vaterldndische Naturkunde in Wiirttemberg 38:

293-325.

HIRST, S. 1928a. On some new Australian mites of the

families Trombidtidae and Erythraeidae. Annals and

Magazine of natural History (10) 1 (4): 563-571.

HIRST, S. 1928b. On some Australian species of

Trombidiidae. Proceedings of the Zoological Society

[of London] 1928 (67): 1021-1034.

HIRST, S. 1929. Additional notes on Australian mites of

the family Trombidiidae, with descriptions of new

forms. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of

London 1929 (2): 165-176.

LEACH, W. E. 1815. A tabular view of the external

characters of four classes of animals, which Linné

arranged under Insecta; with the distribution of the

genera composing three of these classes into orders,

etc. and descriptions of several new genera and

species. Transactions of the Linnean Society 11 (2):

306-400.

NEWELL, I. M. 1958. Specific characters and character

variants in adults and larvae of the genus

Paratrombium Bruyant 1910 (Acari, Trombidiidae).

Pacific Science 12 (4): 350-370.

OUDEMANS, A. C. 1910. Acarologische

aanteeckeningen XXXI. Entomologische Berichten

uitgegeven door de Nederlandsche Entomologische

Vereeniging 3 (52): 47-51.

OUDEMANS, A. C. 1912. Die bis jetzt bekannten

Larven von Thrombidiidae und Erythraeidae mit

besonderer Beriicksichtigung der fiir den Menschen

schadlichen Arten. Zoologische Jahrbiicher,

Abteilung 1, Supplement 14, Erstes Heft, 1-230.

OUDEMANS, A. C. 1927. Acarologische

aanteekeningen LXXXVI. Entomologische Berichten

uitgegeven door de Nederlandsche Entomologische

Vereeniging 7 (156): 225-230.

RAINBOW, W. J. 1906. A synopsis of Australian

Acarina. Records of the Australian Museum 6 (3):

145-193.

ROBAUX, P. 1969. Etude des larves de Thrombidiidae.

Il. La larve de Parathrombium megalochirum

(Berlese) 1910. Acarologia 11 (3): 585-596.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1986. Studies on the taxonomy

and biology of the subfamily Trombidiinae (Acarina:

Trombidiidae) with a critical revision of the genera.

Australian Journal of Zoology, Supplementary Series

No. 123: 1-116.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1992. Adults and deutonymphs of

Eutrombidium (Acarina: Trombidiidae) in North

America. Acarologia 33 (4): 335-348.

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1993. Revision of the taxonomy of

the larvae of the subfamily Eutrombidiinae (Acarina:

Microtrombidiidae). /nvertebrate Taxonomy 7: 885—

959.

120 R. V. SOUTHCOTT

SOUTHCOTT, R. V. 1994. Revision of the larvae of the WOMERSLEY, H. 1934. A revision of the trombid and

Microtrombidiinae. (Acarina: Microtrombidiidae), erythraeid mites of Australia with descriptions of new

with notes on life histories. Zoologica (Stuttgart) 144: genera and species. Records of the South Australian

1-155. Museum 5 (2): 179-254.

TRAGARDH, I. 1908. Acari. Jn Sjéstedt’s

Kilimandjaro-Meru-Expedition 20 (3): 31—57.

A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN DYTISCIDAE

(COLEOPTERA)

C. H. S. WATTS

Summary

Sekaliporus kriegi is described from Northern Australia. The new genus and species resembles

Tiporus Watts and Antiporus Sharp (Hydroporinae), but differs from these genera by characters of

the humeral angles of the elytera, the postcoxal lines and male protarsi and genitalia.

A NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF AUSTRALIAN DYTISCIDAE (COLEOPTERA)

C.H.S. WATTS

Watts C. H. S. 1997. A new genus and species of Australian Dytiscidae (Coleoptera). Records

of the South Australian Museum 29(2): 121-123.

Sekaliporus kriegi is described from Northern Australia. The new genus and species

resembles Tiporus Watts and Antiporus Sharp (Hydroporinae), but differs from these genera by

characters of the humeral angles of the elytra, the postcoxal lines and male protarsi and

genitalia.

C. H. S. Watts, South Australian Museum North Terrace, Adelaide South Australia 5000.

Manuscript received 29 January 1996.

Among some Antiporus specimens sent to me

recently from the Australian National Insect

Collection, Canberra were a series of specimens

from the Northern Territory that did not fit any

known species of Antiporus Sharp nor the related

Tiporus Watts (Watts 1978; 1985; Brancucci

1984). These specimens had the fourth segment of

the male protarsi absent (or greatly reduced) and

the evenly punctate metatibia characteristic of the

Barrethydrus/Antiporus/Tiporus group of

Hydroporinae. They lacked the pronounced elytral

grooving of Barrethydrus. The males had the

strongly asymmetrical expansion of the protarsi

typical of Tiporus but they more closely resembled

Antiporus in the shape of the humeral angle of the

elytron and in having four-segmented protarsi.

Further study revealed other characters not found

in either Antiporus or Tiporus or in any other

Hydroporinae. These specimens are described here

as anew genus and species.

Sekaliporus gen. nov.

A member of the Hydroporinae. Small, oblong

oval, convex. Moderate to strong, even punctures

throughout. Femora and tibiae punctate. Elytron

with wide epipleura, narrowing progressively

posteriorly, lateral edge of elytron and lateral edge

of pronotum forming nearly continuous straight or

slightly sinuate line in combination. Prothoracic

process narrow, highly keeled, metacoxal lines

well marked or even raised, close together,

subparallel for most of their length. Midline of

sternites appear somewhat raised or bulbous.

Female with pro- and mesotarsi with very small

fourth segment, well hidden in lobes of third

segment. Male lacks sexual development of legs

except for protarsi. Male protarsi with basal three

segments markedly asymmetrical, posterior lobes

small, anterior lobes greatly expanded, seemingly

lacking small fourth segment present in females.

Single protarsal claw slender, elongate in only

known species. Parameres flat, ribbon like,

connect with basal piece of aedeagus only at

anterior portion of aedeagus base.

Sekaliporus kriegi sp. nov.

(See Figs 1-9)

Description (number examined, 19)

Length 3.1-3.8 mm. Oblong-oval, convex,

elytron extended posteriorly by subapical spine.

Nitid, dark red-brown to black, head lighter,

pronotum laterally and band across middle

diffusely lighter; in many specimens, elytron with

one or two subbasal, diffusely lighter patches and

one subapical one variable in size, tip usually

lighter, appendages a little lighter. Head finely and

sharply punctured, punctures less than diameter of

eye facets, most separated by more than their

diameters, finely reticulate. Pronotum with larger

punctures, but still smaller than eye facet,

separated by about their diameter on disc, closer

laterally, tendency to form longitudinal lines along

posterior edge, finely reticulate. Elytra punctured

as on pronotum, weak tendency for punctures to

form into longitudinal rows anteriorly, denser and

stronger apically, virtually lacking reticulation.

Elytron weakly margined, margin moderately

serrate towards apex, margin produced into well

marked broad triangular spine close to apex.

Ventral surface strongly and densely rugose -

punctate. Prothoracic process narrow, strongly

bent in lateral view, strongly keeled, constricted

slightly between procoxae, metathorax narrowly

raised (viewed ventrally) in middle behind

mesocoxae, raised portion grooved in mid-line.

Postcoxal lines raised, particularly in anterior

122 C.H.S. WATTS

Tah ethhag eres

FIGURES 1-9. 1, Lateral view of humeral angle region of Antiporus, a = lateral edge of elytron, b = lateral edge of

pronotum, c= epipleura; 2, Ditto Tiporus; 3, Ditto Sekaliporus; 4, Dorsal view of aedeagus of S. kriegi; 5, Lateral view

ofaedeagus of S. kriegi; 6, Lateral view ofmale proclaw ofS. kriegi;: 7, Ventral view of male right protarsus of Antiporus

Jemoralis; 8, Ventral view of male right protarsus of Tiporus undecimmaculatus (Clark); 9, Ventral view of male right

protarsus of Sekaliporus kriegi.

NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF DYTISCIDAE 123

third, close together, subparallel, converging

slightly in front, diverging slightly behind.

Midline of sternites somewhat bulbous.

Male

Protarsi four-segmented, basal three segments

strongly asymmetrical, with posterior lobes

reduced in size and anterior lobes greatly

expanded. First and second segments subequal,

third segment twice length of second, anterior lobe

nearly as long as narrow un-lobed apical segment.

Single claw long and thin, virtually straight except

for strong basal curve.

Female

Protarsi five-segmented, three basal segments

weakly expanded, segments one and two

moderately asymmetrical, third segment weakly

asymmetrical; two simple claws.

Distribution

Known only from the type localities in coastal

Northern Territory and the Kimberley.

Types

Holotype: Male ‘12°23’S, 132°56’E, 7km NW

by N of Mt Cahill Crossing, East Alligator River,

N.T. 9.vi.73, Upton and Feehan’, in ANIC.

Paratypes: 1, ‘12°46'S 132°39'E, 12km NNW

of Mt Cahill, N.T. 20.v.73, Matthews & Upton’,

in ANIC; 3, ‘12°23'S 132°56'E, 7 km NW by N

of Mt Cahill Crossing, East Alligator River, N.T.

9.vi.73 Upton and Feehan’, in ANIC; 1, *13°03'S

132°19'E, South Alligator River, N.T. 46km

WSW of Mt Cahill. 20.v.73, Matthews & Upton’,

in ANIC; 3, 12°22'S 133°01'E, 6 km SW by S of

Oenpelli, N.T. 30.v.73, E.G. Matthews’, in

SAMA; 4, same data but at light, 2 in SAMA, 2

in ANIC; 1, ‘McArthur River, N.T. 16°39'S

135°51'E 80 km SW of Borroloola, 13.v.73. M.S.

Upton’, in ANIC; 1, ‘16°31'S 125°16'E CALM

site 25/1 Synnot CK W.A. 17-20 June 1988 T.A.

Weir, at light open forest’, in ANIC; 2, *12°50'S

132°51'E 16km E by N of Mt Cahill N.T. 13.vi.73

Upton of Feehan’, in ANIC; 1, *12° 52'S 132°, S

by E Koongarra N.T. 15 km E of Mt Cahill.

12.vi.73 Upton & Feehan’, in ANIC; 1, °12°31'S

132°54'E 9km N by E of Mudginbarry HS, N.T.

26.v. 73 at light, Upton & McInnes’, in ANIC.

Relationships

Sekaliporus clearly belongs close to Antiporus

and Tiporus. In overall shape, colour and

punctation it quite closely resembles 7. josepheni.

It differs from both these genera by having the

postcoxal lines very close together and almost

parallel and in the shape of the humeral angle of

the elytron. In Sekaliporus the epipleuron is

sharply bent inwards to accommodate the

profemur to the same extent as in 7iporus but the

edge of the elytron is not also bent sharply as in

Tiporus and to a lesser extent in Antiporus, but

remains in the same line as the edge of the

pronotum. The characters of the male also set

Sekaliporus apart. Except for the protarsi, the legs

of the males are simple in the only known species

whereas in all known species of 7iporus and all

but one Antiporus, the legs of the male are

modified in some way. The male protarsi are

unique. All three basal segments are grossly

asymmetrically expanded, as in 7iporus but not

Antiporus. The protarsi are four segmented as in

Antiporus, in contrast to Tiporus which has only

three segments and lacks the slender apical

segment [the single claw arises from the third

segment]. The parameres in both Jiporus and

Antiporus are generally shortish and broad, often

almost bulbous. In Sekaliporus they are noticeably

more elongate and ribbon like and appear to be

differently attached to the basal piece although

this will need to be confirmed by careful

dissection when more specimens become

available.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Mr T. A. Weir of the Australian

National Insect Collection for sending me these

specimens, Mr Rob Gutheridge for drawing the

illustrations and Mrs Vicki Wade and Ms Robyn

Cherrington for typing the manuscript.

REFERENCES

WATTS, C. H. S. 1978. A revision of the Australian

Dytiscidae (Coleoptera). Australian Journal of

Zoology, Supplementary Series 57: 1-166

BRANCUCCI, M. 1984. Notes on some species of the

genus Antiporus (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) Aquatic

Insects 6: 149-152

WATTS, C. H. S. 1985. A faunal assessment of

Australian Hydradephaga. Proceedings of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 137:

22-28.

THE ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE OF SOUTHERN SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

PHILIP A. CLARKE

Summary

This paper provides an overview of recorded accounts of Aboriginal beliefs from southern South

Australia concerning the cosmos. This study is restricted to discussing a pre-European system of

beliefs. It further develops concepts about Aboriginal relationships to space as discussed by Clarke

(1191a). Star maps are provided for the Adelaide and Lower Murray areas.

THE ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE OF SOUTHERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PHILIP A. CLARKE

CLARKE, P. A. 1997. The Aboriginal Cosmic Landscape of Southern South Australia. Records

of the South Australian Museum 29(2): 125-145.

This paper provides an overview of recorded accounts of Aboriginal beliefs from southern

South Australia concerning the cosmos. This study is restricted to discussing a pre-European

system of beliefs. It further develops concepts about Aboriginal relationships to space as

discussed by Clarke (1991a). Star maps are provided for the Adelaide and Lower Murray areas.

P. A. Clarke, Division of Anthropology, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide,

South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 19 February, 1996.

INTRODUCTION

In the mythologies recorded by the ethnographic

sources for southern South Australia, there is

frequent mention of Aboriginal beliefs concerning

the origin of various cosmic bodies and their

relationships to ancestral beings, both in the

heavens and on earth. Many of the ancestral spirits

that were considered to have been involved in the

creation of the world, ended up in the sky. The

present paper assembles information on the

heavens and discusses how it was organised in

the pre-European systems of belief. Although

atmospheric properties, such as clouds, wind, rain,

etc., are also clearly related to Aboriginal beliefs

about the regions above them, this paper focuses

chiefly on astronomical traditions.

The data presented in this paper is historical,

recorded from Aboriginal people who had lived in

the southern districts prior to and during the early

phases of European colonisation in South

Australia. The sources provide a fragmentary

record from observers who were generally not

privy to insider views of the indigenous cultures.

Much of the material available consists of the

observations from Europeans chiefly concerned

with the setting up of colonial social structures,

such as the legal system and Aboriginal welfare.

Teichelmann, Schurmann, and Meyer were

German missionaries who actively recorded the

culture of their intended Aboriginal converts.

Their reliability as sources comes through

personal knowledge of the languages involved.

Nevertheless, some caution is necessary because

the missionaries were looking for religious ideas

to assist in translating Christian terms. Their

publications, which were published between 1840

and 1846, were essentially studies of Aboriginal

language and religion (Teichelmann &

Schurmann 1840; Teichelmann 1841; Meyer

1843; 1846; Schurmann 1844; 1846). The

ethnographic dominance of these recorders was

such that other sources for southern South

Australia, such as Gell (1842), Wilhelmi (1860),

and Taplin (Journals; 1874; 1879) acknowledged

them as major sources of primary data. The main

account provided by Wyatt (1879) stemmed in

part from material he gathered while preparing a

report in 1838 concerning whether Aboriginal

religion provided for beliefs in ‘God’ and an

afterlife, upon which an oath in a court of law

could be based.' The ethnography of Moorhouse

(1843; 1846) was compiled by him in his official

capacity of Aboriginal Protector. Although all

ethnographic accounts were written by men, in the

case of the missionary, Taplin, there is evidence

showing that he incorporated the observations and

views of his wife.? These observers had a practical

interest in Aboriginal religion and traditions, in

spite of the fact that their records were compiled

before the development of anthropological theory.

During the twentieth century, much

ethnographic data from southern South Australia

was collected and published by Tindale (1935;

1936; 1937; 1938; 1939; 1940; 1941; 1974; 1987;

Tindale & Mountford 1936; Tindale & Pretty

1980), the Curator of Anthropology at the South

Australian Museum.’ His data chiefly came from

elderly Aboriginal informants he interviewed from

the late 1920s onwards. His Aboriginal sources

included John Wilson (‘Sustie’), Reuben Walker,

Amelia Savage (‘Ivaritji’), Henry Mason

P. A. CLARKE

126

(‘Mengoan’), Robert (‘Joe’) Mason, Mary

(‘Grannie’) Unaipon (‘Ngunaiponi’), and Clarence

(‘Clarrie’) Long (‘Milerum’). The Aboriginal

people who worked with the social

anthropologists, Ronald and Catherine Berndt

(Berndt 1940; Berndt & Berndt 1993), included

Barney Warrior (‘Waria’), Albert Karloan

(‘Karlonie’), Mark Wilson (‘Thralrum’), and

Margaret (‘Pinkie’) Mack. The mythology upon

which the folklorist, Smith (1930), based his

Aboriginal stories was primarily gathered by his

Ngarrindjeri informant, David Unaipon.* As a

body of literature these twentieth century

ethnographic sources are essentially attempts to

record a pre-European culture as it would have

been experienced to the generations preceding that

of their informants. In contrast to studies that

described a living situation, these are studies of

‘memory culture’ (Berndt 1974: 22, 25;

Tonkinson in Berndt & Berndt 1993: xix). A more

WESTERN DESERT

CULTURAL BLOC

GAWLER RANGES

EYRE PENINSULA

PORT LINCOLN

ISLAND

fe) 100 200

ae eed

KMS

] SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PORT AUGUSTA

KANGAROO, ce UNTER BA

CENTRAL LAKE

(

{

CULTURAL BLOC |}

FLINDERS

RANGES / j

MID NORTH | |=

| 13

H a

| 12

YORKE | }

PENINSULA

ADELAIDE /

MURRAY

7 <

s POINT MCLEAY o

COORON'! j

SOUTH EAST;

SOUTH EAST

CULTURAL BLOC

MOUNT '

GAMBIER]

e '

FIGURE 1. Aboriginal cultural blocs in southern South Australia.

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE

detailed analysis of the chief historical sources

used in this paper is given elsewhere (Clarke

1994: 63-81,417-425; Clarke 1995: 145,146).

The present article is part of a larger study of

Aboriginal relationships with the landscape of

southern South Australia (Clarke 1990; 1991a;

1991b; 1994: 1995), which combine historical and

ethnographic sources with data gathered from

contemporary fieldwork. The language and

cultural groups identified in the literature are

mapped by Schmidt (1919) and Tindale (1940;

1974). The geographical and broad cultural

regions used in this paper are identified in

Figure 1.

European accounts of Aboriginal relationships

to space have tended to describe territoriality over

two-dimensional space, rendered as ‘tribes’ on

maps (for example Tindale 1940, 1974).

Nevertheless, from ethnographies across

Australia, it is clear that Aboriginal people

considered that there were other realms within the

perceived cultural landscape in addition to their

own terrestrial regions, to which they could travel

in spirit form.> Such regions are the Skyworld and

the Underworld. The latter is also sometimes

recorded as the ‘Land to the West’.° It appears

that with the fragmentation of the spirit after

death, both regions could be the abode of the spirit

to the same Aboriginal group.’ These landscape

perceptions are also common concepts throughout

the Oceanic region (Luquet 1968: 451,452). Such

places are defined as psychic landscapes in this

paper because they are not tangible according to a

contemporary Western definition of landscape,

which is concerned with topographical features.

They are nevertheless important inclusions to the

mapping of the total cultural landscape of the

Aboriginal people.

The perceived existence of the Heavens as an

analogue of the terrestrial landscape is common

across Australia. This Skyworld was considered

to be a region which, to some extent, obeyed the

same laws as those of terrestrial regions.*

Teichelmann stated that the Adelaide Aboriginal

people:

consider the firmament [Heavens] with its bodies as

a land similar to what they are living upon... It is

their opinion that all the celestial bodies were

formerly living upon earth, partly as animals, partly

as men, and that they left this lower region to

exchange for the higher one. Therefore all the names

which apply to the beings on earth they apply to the

celestial bodies, and believe themselves to be

obnoxious to their influence, and ascribe to them

mal-formation of the body, and other accidents

(Teichelmann 1841: 8).”

127

In the Adelaide area, the ‘sky’ was recorded as

‘Ngaiera’ (Teichelmann & Schurmann 1840, pt 2:

29).'° In the Parnkalla language of eastern Eyre

Peninsula, it was similarly termed ‘Naieri’

(Schurmann 1844, vol.2: 37)."'

Accounts that illustrate the connectedness

between the Skyworld and the terrestrial

landscape exist for other parts of southern South

Australia. In the Mid Murray area, Eyre noted:

One old native informed me, that all blacks, when

dead, go up to the clouds, where they have plenty to

eat and drink; fish, birds, and game of all kinds, with

weapons and implements to take them. He then told

me, that occasionally individuals had been up to the

clouds, and had come back, but that such instances

were very rare; his own mother, he said, had been

one of the favoured few. Some one from above had

let down a rope, and hauled her up by it; she

remained one night, and on her return, gave a

description of what she had seen in a chant, or song,

which she sung for me, but of the meaning of which

I could make out nothing (Eyre 1845, vol.2: 367).

It is possible that beliefs such as these reflect

some influence from Christianity, perhaps gained

from missionaries whom Murray River people met

when receiving rations at the Native Location in

Adelaide or through the education of their children

at the Native School.'? In the Lower Murray area,

Taplin recorded ‘Talkothere says that a little while

ago he dreamed that he was sick and a line came

down from heaven and fastened on his foot to pull

him up there and he took out his knife and cut it

and so escaped (Journals 22 April 1863)’. The

connection between the spirit and the Skyworld is

broad, involving both ends of an individual’s life

cycle. For instance, Pinkie Mack, a Yaraldi

woman of the Lower Murray, claimed that before

birth ‘children are said to be little, flying about in

the air, dropped out of a bag and they could be

caught’ (Harvey 1939). Presumably, the sky was

perceived as being spatially very close to people

living in the terrestrial region. The body of

knowledge about the cosmos was not divorced

from everyday living.

The Skyworld was perceived as a place where

greater knowledge could be attained (Elkin 1977:

53,75,76,81,87,90). For example, in the Adelaide

area, initiates were ritually taken to the celestial

region in order to gain sacred knowledge

(Teichelmann & Schurmann 1840, vol.2: 13,22).

In the above quotation from Eyre, an Aboriginal

woman reportedly learned a new song during a

visit to the Skyworld. Similarly, in the Lower

South East of South Australia, a healer reportedly

gained knowledge through crossing into the

128

Heavens by climbing a tree (Smith 1880: 30). In

south-western Victoria, Aboriginal ‘doctors’ and

‘sorcerers’ frequently claimed to have visited the

Skyworld (Dawson 1881: 57,58). The perceived

existence of this psychic landscape therefore had a

significant role in the cultural organisation of

people and space.

The Heavens were known to Lower Murray

people as Waiirri.'’ The Lower Murray people

believed that they would all go to Waiirri after

death (Taplin 1874 [1879: 18,19]). The

Ramindjeri people had a term,

‘Ngranggerakkauwull-urmi’, which reportedly

meant the ‘arch of the heavens’ (Meyer 1843: 88).

The Booandik people from the Lower South East

possessed the phrase ‘kan-murn-a-moorn-o-

noong’, which apparently translated as ‘up in the

clouds’ (Smith 1880: 134). They also called the

clouds, ‘moorn’, which was apparently the same

term for skin (Smith 1880: 129). In Gundidjmara

region of south-western Victoria, the ‘smaller

stars’ together formed ‘star earth’ (Dawson 1881:

99). In Central Australia, ‘tribal’ or linguistic

boundaries are reflected in the cosmic landscape

(Maegraith 1932: 20,26). The Aboriginal

ethnography of southern South Australia

demonstrates the widespread perception that the

sky was a landscape, similar to that of the

terrestrial plane.

It appears that the sky was considered to begin

at the height of a tree or at most a hill. One

ethnographer claimed that the ‘Lower Murray

tribe do not climb trees’.'* This may possibly have

been through a general fear of entering the

Skyworld. If so, then presumably this only applied

to upper sections of the tree, as Aboriginal people

in better wooded areas still climbed trees to catch

possums, collect honey, and cut bark for canoes.

In the Lower Murray region, particular large trees

and big sand dunes that were considered to reach

the clouds and which attracted lightning strikes,

were regarded as malevolent (J. C. Harwood, cited

Tindale 1930-52: 193,194)."° In the Waiyungari

myth of the Lower Murray, the Skyworld was

reached by the throw of a spear (Tindale 1935). In

the Adelaide area, a Monana spirit used a similar

method to attain access to the Skyworld.

[He] was one day throwing large spears in various

directions, east, west, north, south; when, having

thrown one upwards, it did not return to earth. He

threw another, and another, and so continued

throwing; each spear sticking fast to the former one

until they reached the ground, and he climbed up by

them to the sky, where he has ever since remained

(Wyatt 1879: 166).'°

P. A. CLARKE

Monana was considered to be a mortal who had

accomplished immortality. In the southern Eyre

Peninsula district, Aboriginal people believed that

thunder was caused by the spirit creator,

Pulyallana, having fits of rage and storming about

the clouds (Schurmann 1846 [1987: 243];

Wilhelmi 1860).'’ Lightning was reportedly

produced when he jerked open his legs. The

Skyworld was perceived by Aboriginal people of

southern South Australia as a part of the

landscape that was not beyond their physical

reach.

The amount of cosmological knowledge

possessed by the Aboriginal people of southern

South Australia must have been considerable.

Teichelmann recorded that with ‘the exaltation of

almost every constellation they give the history of

the attending circumstances, which the reasons of

their present movements explain’ (Teichelmann

1841: 9). The cosmos is important in the

mythology associated with the ancestral creative

period, called in Aboriginal English the

‘Dreamtime’.'* However, there appears to have

been many layers to this body of knowledge.

Teichelmann wrote:

The opinions which the Aborigines of South

Australia entertain about the visible world are

limitedly known, as they carefully conceal them from

Europeans, and even their own males are only at a

certain age initiated into the knowledge of them

(Teichelmann 1841: 8).

Indeed, the informants of Schurmann guarded

their secrets so much that he was only told about

the cosmology under the condition that he would

not tell another Aboriginal person.'? The cosmic

bodies were rich with meaning. This is illustrated

in an account by Giles, recorded from an

Aboriginal man named Billy Poole from the Lake

Albert area of the Lower Murray.

When around the camp fire at night he [Billy Poole]

told me the names of stars, and, moreover, of

constellations. He pointed out one group as an old

man kangaroo with his arm broken; another group

was a turkey sitting on her eggs, the eggs being our

constellation Pleiades, another a Toolicher, a small

and very prettily marked kangaroo peculiar to the

district; another an emu and so on,”

Another record for the Lower Murray lists

celestial bodies such as Nunganari (stingray),

Pindjali (emu), and Prolggi (brolga) (Berndt &

Berndt 1993: 164, Fig.25).*! The cosmic

landscape was therefore, to these Aboriginal

people, populated with animal species that also

occurred in their terrestrial landscape of the

Murray River.

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE

Aboriginal kinship patterns were also reflected

in the sky (Fig.2,3). For instance, Lower Murray

people formerly believed that some of the stars

were deceased ancestors, such as Ngurunderi,

Waiyungari, Nepeli, Manchingga, and their

families, who were now living in Waiirri.”? This is

consistent with the relatively short lineages

recalled by them, with their totemic ancestors

ending up as stars. Meyer (1846 [1879: 201])

recorded the Ramindjeri belief that “The stars

were formerly men, and leave their huts in the

evening, to go through the same employments

which they did while on earth’. In the Adelaide

region, Monaincherloo (= Munaintyerlo or

Monaincherloo) was described as the ‘highest

creature’.> He created all things in the visible

world. No one made or created him. According to

one account he had always been in the Heavens

above, although others state that he did live on the

lower landscape once.”* Another ancestral being

significant to Adelaide people was Teendo Yerle,

literally ‘Sun-father’ (= Tindoyerli &

Tindojerlimejo [lit. ‘Sun-father man’]).** The

name of Teendo Yerle suggests a father

relationship with the Sun. Teendo Yerle had

several wives, probably planets, who were

perceived as very good. However, he also had a

pair of sisters who were said to be ‘long’,

probably comets, and evil. He had power over life

and death. The Skyworld landscape was therefore

humanised, to a similar extent to the lower

landscape.

The influence of the stars was not always

considered benign. For example, Eyre (1845,

vol.2: 361) stated that Aboriginal people in the

Mid Murray area considered ‘Malformations of

the body are attributed to the influence of the stars

... in consequence of forbidden food being eaten.’

Teichelmann (1841: 9) recorded a similar belief

from the Adelaide people. Similarly, the Lower

Murray people believed that a being named

Karungpe, who lived in Waiirri, would come

down to the campfires at night, scattering the

embers and causing death (Taplin Journals 27

June 1861). Southern Aboriginal people generally

considered that the beings who had become stars

still had some influence over earthly events.

Knowledge of the cosmos appears to have

existed in the same varied manner of other bodies

of mythological-based beliefs (see Clarke 199 1a;

Clarke 1995). In south-western Victoria, Dawson

(1881: 98,99) stated:

Although the knowledge of the heavenly bodies

possessed by the natives may not entitle it to be

dignified by the name of astronomical science, it

129

greatly exceeds that of most white people. Of such

importance is a knowledge of the stars to the

aborigines in their night journeys, and of their

positions denoting the particular seasons of the year,

that astronomy is considered one of their principal

branches of education. Among the tribes between the

rivers Leigh and Glenelg, it is taught by men selected

for their intelligence and information.

With the identification of ‘Dreaming’ ancestors

in the Skyworld, it is clear that the cosmic bodies

were referable as markers of ‘Dreamtime’ events

in the same manner as terrestrial topographic

features of the landscape. It follows that like the

accounts of the ‘Dreaming’, we should expect the

associated mythology to vary in detail even within

a cultural area, although the basic structure

remained the same.

Across Australia, many Aboriginal groups

considered the Heavens or Skyworld to be where

their spirit, or a part of it, travelled to after death

(Elkin 1977; Berndt & Berndt 1993 [1981]). The

accounts from the Lower Murray of the Sun and

the Moon, mention that after setting they passed

through the ‘dwelling-places of the dead’. Taplin

(Journals 12 April 1862) records that Aboriginal

people in the Lower Murray had a belief that the

spirits of the dead descended into the ocean at a

place beyond Kangaroo Island. Nevertheless, the

Skyworld was also a destination for the souls of

dead people. It is therefore likely that the early

Lower Murray people believed in the

fragmentation of the soul in the afterlife, which

conforms to the beliefs of other southern

Aboriginal groups.*° The movements of the

Dreaming ancestors in the Lower Murray also

shows this division. For instance, Ngurunderi was

perceived as going to live in the west after

creating the Lower Murray (Clarke 1995). The

west here was equated with the Underworld,

where the Sun passed through after setting in the

western horizon. However, Ngurunderi was also

thought to be present in the Skyworld. From here

he directed the movement of souls, termed

‘pangari’ by Lower Murray people (Meyer 1843:

90; Taplin 1879: 138). Angas (1847: 97) records

that ‘after death the spirit wanders in the dark for

some time, until it finds a string when ...

Oorundoo [Ngurunderi] pulls it up from the earth.’

It is possible that the introduction of Christianity

influenced south-eastern Australian Aboriginal

beliefs about spirit ancestors who went up into the

Sky.?’ Other Dreaming ancestors became divided

in a different way. For instance, in the southern

Fleurieu Peninsula area, the body of the Tjirbruki

ancestral creator became a stone, and his spirit

P. A. CLARKE

130

UNDERWORLD

TERRESTRIAL

LANDSCAPE

SKYWORLD

(‘LAND TO

ST’)

THE WE

(NOOW) (NAS)

VUUNVy OCNIL

<_ <

Lsvd LSAM

~~ SS erro

SAONVA ALIOT LNOIOW SNIV'Td ACIVTHAV Vas SANV'ISI

Pe * KK KR Kk OK KK

(NAN ONO - NOLO)

(SYOULAW) SNVHdYO f 2 VUUYVANINNIL

Ay =

( UV.LS NAWALAV) (6 ASNAD TALIA

(NANOM ONNOA - SACVIATd)

VNVUVANVANVANVIN

$ RRR KK KK 4

A [TYAAOWNVNUVd INUVLTV LATAVIN

x *

(SLAaMIMOT (VALIVd 8 VUNA oe §

JO SAHSV - SGNOTO O AWOH - GNOd) « « NOOW

DINV TTADVW) AMOVAVANA HHL JO SOOd

> fs = oe et

(Nas) (NOOW)

OCNIL VUUINVY

a a “

OYW NY TIVAVON

CAMVHATOVE) OLTIM A (SLANVTd) (S.LAINOD)

+ * LY SAAIM + ITYaAOCNIL SUdISIS

* *

(AaMUALL IM) $ ao é

VLIOM A A RIVONAIN

ee * *

(sqaau HLM ++ * Fe)

* YAATY - AVM ANTI) + WNVNOW +

IANILLLVIN 4k raavariaom + + * rvWOWny

* * * * * *

FIGURE 2. The Aboriginal cosmic landscape of the Adelaide area.

131

TERRESTRIAL UNDERWORLD

(‘LAND TO

THE WEST’)

LANDSCAPE

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE

(SKYWORLD)

WYIRREWARRE

(NOON) (Nns)

Ravn ADONVN

J. Recs ~——

Lsva Lsam

STN OOS er s00vov

ye)

wav NIIoud (Nns) $

HLIM OOUVONVA ADONVN

NVW C10 &

** * e N

as (KOE | ¥ SUALSIS 9

- SACTW 14d)

$ Pe) SOOd ATUL (ANVUd - SaNOTO

(LTad S.NOTIO) * #6 SINVTTADVN)

ATadIN JO SAALM Z e+ $ IO9TOUd

FHL 8 TUVONNAM * aMOMONd .

* + MOVSTVOO JO ANOH

Pe) (awa)

(NUW ONNOA 9) ADIL (ssouo ITVfGNId

VUVMTIVON * NYaHLNOS) + + *

ae ee & ee IONT TILL (MOLLS-aa14

TINA * \ * - SANFA)

(AVUONLLS) ALUVM

RIVNVONNN Ravn *

ee & Pad $

Vd‘1nd JO ANOH if

(moud 2

- YW.LS NNALLAY) (isuwW)

INVONVaUWW AAIVONNAM AONVO S.aTAdAN

AGVTIVM

* * *

(AVA AXTIN AHOVIOOL

(TAT SD - JONVO S.PUAGNNUNON) *

DINA PAAGNNYANDN e+

FIGURE 3. The Aboriginal cosmic landscape of the Lower Murray.

132

was transformed into a blue crane (Smith 1930:

340,341).?8 With Aboriginal beliefs in the spirit, it

is clear that the total landscape defined both the

living and the dead.

Although the original traditions were rich, the

cultural information garnered from the historical

literature is fragmentary and sometimes

contradictory. At least some of the variations in

beliefs about the cosmos may have resulted from

the differences between insider and outsider

knowledge. In other cases, the differences may

reflect regional and socio—political influences. A

few of the records also indicate an error by the

recorder. In some cases, the combinations of stars

which form a constellation for Europeans, differ

from those that other cultural groups have chosen.

Therefore, the translator may not be accurately

recording the identity of some of the constellations

as perceived by Aboriginal people. Elsewhere in

Aboriginal Australia, colour was important in

determining the identity of various celestial bodies

(Maegraith 1932: 25). With these restraints in

mind, an outline will now be provided of the

Aboriginal cosmology of southern South

Australia.

STARS (GENERALLY)

In the Adelaide area, stars as a class were called

‘purli’.*? Similar terms for other areas include

‘purdli’ or ‘purli’ in the Parnkalla language of

eastern Eyre Peninsula (Schurmann 1844, vol.2:

61), ‘buli’? in Narangga from Yorke Peninsula

(Black 1920: 86), ‘purtli’? or ‘purlali’ in Nukunu

of the southern Flinders Ranges (Hercus 1992:

27), ‘budli’ in Ngadjuri of the Mid North of South

Australia, ‘buudli’ in Wailpi of the central

Flinders Ranges (Berndt & Vogelsang 1941: 9),

and ‘pedli’ in the Ngaiawang language of the Mid

Murray area (Moorhouse 1843 [1935: 34]).*° In

the Lower Murray area, stars were collectively

called ‘tulde’ by Ramindjeri people at Encounter

Bay (Meyer 1843: 101), ‘tuldar’ in the

Ngarrindjeri language of the Lower Lakes area

(Taplin 1879: 138), and ‘thildi’ in the southern

Coorong district (Wells 1852—1855: 112). In the

South East, the star terms are ‘troot’ in the Tatiara

language (Haynes & Curr, in Curr 1886, vol.3:

457,459), and ‘boongil’ in Booandik from Mount

Gambier (Stewart, in Curr 1886, vol.3: 465).

Moon

In Adelaide mythology, the first celestial body

P. A. CLARKE

to leave the lower landscape was the Moon. Here,

the Moon, known as Kakirra, was considered to

be male.*' He persuaded all the rest to follow so

that he might have companions. The Moon kept a

great number of dogs for hunting, who were seen

as stars. They had two heads but no tail. He was

generally benevolent and had no particular

influence on human life. Here, the Moon was

called Kakirramunto when in full phase. In

Nukunu mythology from the southern Flinders

Ranges, there was a related account of how the

Moon entered the Skyworld:

The Moon [Pira] was greedy with meat and would

not share it with others, crowd decided to get rid of

him, coaxed him to climb a tree and get grubs,

coaxed him up higher and higher until they could

hardly see him. They cut the tree down, and the

Moon hung up in the sky. Moon said ‘I'll give the

light for people who walk at night. I’ll die then come

to life again (Mountford, cited Hercus 1992: 16,17).

In the Mid Murray region, Aboriginal people

used the term, ‘Kakere’, or variations of it for the

Moon.” One group of people was known to

Murray River as the ‘Moon men’ (Tindale 1953:

17,31,32). Their territory, north of Morgan, was

the ‘country of the Moon’. A ‘tribe’ to the east of

the Adelaide region apparently called the Moon,

Piki, although this term also appeared in an

example of a sentence spoken by an Adelaide

person (Teichelmann & Schurmann 1840, vol.2:

38; Teichelmann, 1857). Near the confluence of

the Darling and Murray Rivers, the Maraura

called the Moon, ‘Patjira’ (Tindale 1930-52: 251).

In the Eyre Peninsula and West Coast districts the

Moon was considered to be the spirit being, Piira,

who was once a man who chased the Seven

Sisters (Pleiades) across the landscape (Tindale

1928: 21).

To the Lower Murray people, the Moon was

called Markeri, or variations of it.** In contrast to

the Adelaide area, here the Moon was female.

Meyer stated that the Ramindjeri people believed

that, like the Sun, the Moon spends its time away

from the sight of the terrestrial landscape with

men of the ‘dwelling-places of the dead’ (=

Underworld). He recorded:

The Moon is ... a woman, and not particularly chaste.

She stays a long time with the men. and from the

effects of her intercourse with them, she becomes

very thin, and wastes away to a mere skeleton. When

in this state, Nurrunduri [Ngurunderi] orders her to

be driven away. She flies, and is secreted for

sometime, but is employed all the time in seeking

roots which are so nourishing that in a short time she

appears again, and fills out and becomes fat rapidly

(Meyer 1846 [1879: 200,201]).

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE 133

This belief explains how the Moon’s

appearance is not timed to the Sun, and also

accounts for the phases of the lunar month.** The

Yaraldi people of Lake Alexandrina had similar

traditions to the Ramindjeri concerning the Moon

(Berndt & Berndt 1993: 131,232,233,445). They

also believed that the lunar cycle had an effect

upon female menstruation (Berndt & Berndt 1993:

156). Further up the Murray River, into northern

Victoria, the Moon was considered to be female,

as it was in the Lower Murray (Smyth 1878, vol.1:

431).

The Potaruwutj people of Keilira in the South

East called the Moon, Mitjan, and considered it to

be a male of the native cat (Dasyurus) totem.** It

was believed that he attempted to steal the wife of

another being before being driven away. He

wandered about, sometimes well fed, at other

times starving. This observation explains the

phases of the Moon. According to Tindale, the

name, Mitjan, or a variation of it, was used by

groups ranging to the north-east, as far away as

the Wati Wati people of Swan Hill in Victoria.*’

The term, Jern (pronounced Yern?) for Moon

occurred in groups to the east of the Potaruwutj.

Similarly, Tu:ngum was used in the Lower South

East of South Australia and in the adjacent parts

of Victoria.** Here, the Moon was also considered

to be masculine (Dawson 1881: 99).

In southern South Australia, the appearance of

the Moon was used as a measure of time. In the

southern Coorong district, the number of full

Moons was sometimes used to record the age of

children, if less than a year old (Wells 1852-1855:

102). Similarly, in the Hahndorf area of the

Adelaide Hills, the local Aboriginal people were

observed making notches in their digging-sticks

upon the appearance of each new Moon to mark

their own age (Hahn 1838-1839 [1964:

130,131]). However, it is doubtful that this served

as a long term counting device. Some activities

were governed by the phases of the Moon. For

instance, a colonist noted that ‘at every new Moon

they [Aboriginal people] also light fires in the

hills. From this fact, people conclude that they

adore and worship the Moon’ (Hahn 1838-1839

[1964: 133]). Moonlight was regarded as a

deterrent for harmful spirits, who were chiefly

active during the darkness of night.” The

Ramindjeri called a half Moon, *Marger-ald-

narte’, meaning ‘Moon of piece’, whereas a full

Moon was ‘Marger-ald rakkuni’, that is ‘Moon of

round’ (Meyer 1843: 78). In the southern Coorong

area, ‘Mercuri’ (= Markeri) reportedly meant both

the Moon and the night (Wells 1852-1855: 112).

In the Lower South East, the Booandik term for

the Moon, Toongoom, was reportedly also used to

indicate a period of a month (Smith 1880; 131).

SuN

In the Adelaide area, the Sun, known as Tindu,

was said to be female and, with her several sisters,

had a negative influence over humans." One of

the afflictions perceived as caused by the Sun was

a very painful and often fatal cough. The Moon

taught the Adelaide people that should a very ill

person offer a hand of coughed up phlegm to the

Sun as a form of appeasement, that person might

recover (Wyatt 1879: 166,167). However, if not

properly appeased, the Sun said ‘Noornte oornte,

wirtrilla pallone ningko’ which means ‘Go away,

quickly dead you’. The Sun also had a negative

effect on the Moon who was old and suffered from

a strong cough. She was able to easily beat him

every month so that he died. But in dying he

revived again. Of the Sun and the Moon it was

said ‘Tikkan teendo, wandeen olte, karkara

tatteen, boora pallon’.*' This reportedly meant that

the Sun rested or slept at night while the Moon

climbed and eventually died. By another account

the Sun sat in her house at night and ate fish.” It

is likely that the observable difference in the

relative strength of illumination between the Sun

and the Moon is a factor in this perceived

Aboriginal dichotomy of strength versus

weakness. The term, ‘Tindu’, or variations of it,

appears in several languages to the north and west

of the Adelaide area.’ In Ngadjuri mythology of

the Mid North of South Australia, the Sun went to

the Underworld (= Land of the West) for the first

time as the result of the killing of an old woman

and her two dogs (Tindale 1937). Tindale’s

explanation for this myth is that it is an Aboriginal

record of a complete lunar eclipse that occurred in

1793.

The Ramindjeri people of Encounter Bay

believed that the Sun was female. Meyer recorded:

The Sun they consider to be female. who, when she

sets, passes the dwelling-places of the dead. As she

approaches, the men assemble, and divide into two

bodies, leaving a road for her to pass between them:

they invite her to stay with them. which she can only

do for a short time. as she must be ready for her

journey for the next day. For favours granted to some

one among them she receives a present of a red

kangaroo skin: and, therefore, in the morning, when

she rises, appears in a red dress (Meyer 1846 [1879:

200]).

134

Their name for Sun was ‘Thulderni’.** For the

Yaraldi of the Lower Lakes, there was a similar

tradition recorded (Berndt & Berndt 1993:

232,233,444). The Sun’s heat, ‘watalti’, was the

nga:tji (spirit familiar) of the Wutaltinyeri descent

group north of Meningie on the shore of Lake

Albert in the Lower Murray, whereas the Sun’s

disc, ‘nangge’, was that of another unnamed

group (Berndt & Berndt 1993: 215). In the Lower

Murray area, Aboriginal people generally called

the Sun, ‘Nangge’ (Meyer 1843: 84; Taplin 1874

[1879: 131]; Taplin 1879: 139,142). In the Mid

Murray area, the term for sun was ‘Nanka’, or

variations of it.*° Here, a local landowning group

was known as the ‘Sun people’ (Tindale 1953:

7).7

There was a belief amongst the Tangani of the

Coorong that the Sun was in earlier times much

brighter. Tindale records:

Wange [sic.? = Nangge?] was a Sun woman, a being

who, in ancient times, climbed into the heavens

where she carried firesticks; but these firesticks did

little for people on earth in keeping them from being

cold. The light from her firesticks was too bright.

Another being still on earth, named Nure:le,

magically forced her to be less vigorous in waving

her firesticks, instead of affording much bright light

there was a greater amount of red glow. Thus people

could remain warm (Tindale 1983: 7).

This belief relates to the observation by

Aboriginal people that for maximum heat their

own campfires needed more red coals, and less

bright flame. In their society it was the older

women who had responsibility for maintaining the

fires. During the initiations in the South East of

South Australia, the female gender of the Sun

Being was reportedly an embarrassment to the

Aboriginal people (Tindale 1983: 9). Her role in

the ceremony was represented temporarily by ‘her

brother’, who carried paired firesticks which were

symbolic of those that lit up the earth from above.

However, it is unclear whether this was a pre-

European practice, or one resulting from more

contact between Aboriginal groups after European

colonisation.

The Tangani people of the Coorong called the

day, ‘nangi’, and the Sun itself was ‘Tulduruwi’

or ‘Taldarawei’.** In the southern Coorong region,

the recorded name for Sun was ‘Thildiroor’, with

a related term, ‘thildirooi’, which was said to

mean a ‘day’ (Wells 1852-1855: 112). A nearby

inland group, the Potaruwutj people, apparently

called a day, ‘kado’, and the Sun, ‘Kardu’, and

Sunrise, ‘Tarkinj’.*’ In the Lower South East, the

P. A. CLARKE

Booandik term for both the Sun and a day was

reportedly ‘Karo’, the rising Sun, *Yoong-in-karo’,

and the Sun having set was ‘Kap-an-a-karo’

(Smith 1880: 129,132,134).°° In the South East of

South Australia, and the adjacent area of south-

western Victoria, the Sun appears generally to

have been considered a female entity (Dawson

1881: 99).

MiLky Way

The Aboriginal cosmic landscape was

dominated by the Milky Way. It was considered

by the Adelaide people to be a large river, along

the banks of which reeds were growing

(Teichelmann & Schurmann 1840, vol.2:

11,35,38,57,62; Teichelmann 1841: 8). The Milky

Way was given the name ‘Wodliparri’, which

literally means ‘hut-river’. The Ngadjuri people of

the Mid North of South Australia had a similar

term for the Milky Way, ‘Walibari’ (Berndt &

Vogelsang 1941: 7), as did the Nukunu people in

the southern Flinders Ranges, who called it

“Waarli Pari’ (Hercus 1992: 29). Similarly, the

Gundidjmara in south-western Victoria reportedly

considered this large cosmic feature to be a ‘big

river’ (Dawson 1881: 99). The habitations of the

deceased as a group were an important element of

the Milky Way. A nineteenth century observer

claimed that:

In parts of Queensland and South Australia the

natives believed the “Milky Way” to be a sort of

celestial place for disembodied spirits. They said it

was the smoke proceeding from celestial grass which

had been set on fire by their departed women, the

signal being intended to guide the ghosts of the

deceased to the eternal camp fires of the tribe.*!

Similarly, to the Ngaiawang of the Mid Murray,

the Milky Way was symbolic of the Murray River,

with the stars being men hunting game in the

mallee on either side.*? For the Nukunu, another

important association with the Milky Way was

that it represented a huge tree, like a ceremonial

pole (Hercus 1992: 13—16). In this context, it was

part of the Urumbula song-line which runs from

the vicinity of Port Augusta all the way to the

Gulf of Carpentaria.’ The Milky Way was

therefore widely considered an important

topographical feature of the cosmic landscape.

The Adelaide people considered that the dark

spots in the Milky Way were water lagoons in

which a ‘magnificent animal’ or ‘monster’ called

Yura lived. One record actually describes Yura as

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE

a group of monsters, although other accounts

mention Yura as a single being (Schurmann

Diaries 5 June 1839; Teichelmann 1841: 8). These

dark spots were known as Yurakauwe, which

translates as ‘monster-water’. Adelaide people

claimed that the monster Yura was vicious and

would swallow people who did not hide from him.

When he appeared, an abundance of water was

created. Yura was the ‘author’ of circumcision and

first taught the practice to the ancestors of the

Adelaide people. He punished those who

neglected it. Yura lived in the sky with Paitya,

another dangerous monster. Schurmann recorded

that women and children were not allowed to

know of these things.

Yura is analogous to the Akurra, the huge

mythical water snake of the Flinders Ranges

(Tunbridge 1988: 5-11), and to Akaru, the

Ngadjuri equivalent (Berndt & Vogelsang 1941:

9). The Akurra was sometimes considered to be a

single being, although able to be in many places

at once. This characteristic may help to explain

how in the Adelaide area beings like the Yura and

the Monana can be conceived as existing both in

the singular and plural forms. Similarities of Yura

with the Australian-wide Rainbow Serpent

mythology are also significant (see Radcliffe

Brown 1930).

According to Meyer (1846 [1879: 202]), the

Milky Way was considered by the Ramindjeri

people of the extended Lower Murray area to be a

row of huts, among which were heaps of ashes

and ascending smoke. Another account of the

Milky Way, given by George Taplin, concerns the

Ngurunderi myth (1874 [1879: 57]). Taplin

related that when Ngurunderi caused the

drowning of his fleeing wives, a flood occurred at

Point McLeay (Rauwoke). Nepeli, who was living

there, was forced to pull up his canoe to the top of

the cliff (now called ‘Big Hill’). From here, the

canoe was transported to Waiirri, and thereafter

the dense part of the Milky Way was said to be

the canoe of Nepeli floating in the Heavens.

According to Berndt’s informant, Karloan,

Ngurunderi made the Milky Way while at Mount

Misery by placing his canoe in the sky (Berndt

1940: 173; Berndt & Berndt 1993: 224). He

explained that the Milky Way was called

‘Ngurunderi yuki’, said to mean ‘Ngurunderi’s

canoe’. Both Nepeli and Waiyungari were

considered to live in the Milky Way (Smith 1930:

183). A version recorded by Harvey (1939) from

Aboriginal informants, Jacob Harris and

Creighton Unaipon, suggests that Nepeli threw his

spear into the sky and this became the Milky Way.

MAGELLANIC CLOUDS

The Adelaide people called the Magellanic

clouds, ‘Ngakallamurro’, said to literally mean

“‘paroquet-ashes’ (Teichelmann & Schurmann

1840, vol.2: 25,30; Teichelmann 1841: 8). Being

white, they represent the ashes of a species of

‘paroquet” known as the Blue Mountain lorikeet

(Trichoglossus haematodus). These birds were

assembled there by one of the constellations and

were later treacherously roasted.

The Magellanic Clouds were known in the

Lower Murray as Prolggi, which was translated as

‘cranes’ (Taplin 1879: 133). In Australian English

we know them as brolgas or native companions.™

The Yaraldi considered that there were two

Prolggi in the sky, having got there after fighting

with the emu spirit, Pindjali, who also became a

heavenly body (Tindale 1931—34: 207-209; 1938-—

56: 33-61; Berndt & Berndt 1993:15,164,456—

458). Tindale recorded the following account

from Mark Wilson, a Yaraldi man:

The brolgas, knowing that the emus would hunt them

and kill them, flew up into the air, circling around,

higher and higher, until they reached the sky. They

found it to be a good country to live in, so they

stopped there. You can see them in the heavens at

night, “in the form of two patches of clouds, like

wisps of smoke, at the end of the Milky Way.” The

aborigines’ belief is that when any one of them is

knocked down and left bruised and unconscious on

the ground by a person from another tribe, the

brolgas come down, lift him up and guide him home

(Tindale 1931-34: 207-9).

To the Lower Murray people then, the brolgas

in the Skyworld exerted a benign influence. A

similar account was provided to Tindale (1934—

37: 60) from a Meintangk informant who claimed

that the emu concerned was to be seen in the sky

just under the Southern Cross. The fight in the

myth was apparently due to the jealousy of the

emu over the brolga’s children. This mythology

appears to be related to Gundidjmara beliefs,

which held that the larger cloud was the ‘male

native companion’ or ‘gigantic crane’, the smaller

cloud being the female equivalent (Dawson 1881:

99). A similar version has also been recorded in

the Kamilaroi language of northern central New

South Wales (Austin & Tindale 1985). As with

their terrestrial counterparts, these celestial spirit

beings migrated according to the season. In the

winter sky, the brolgas are seen lying to the south-

east and then south of the Milky Way (Tindale

1938-56: 57). In summer they shift towards the

western side.

136

PLEIADES

The Adelaide people considered the higher

landscape to be similarly organised to the lower,

to the extent that the celestial bodies were believed

to obey the same laws as men and animals upon

earth. For example, the Pleiades, which were

called ‘Mankamankarranna’ (also Mankankarrana

and Mangkamangkarranna), were considered to

be girls who gathered roots and other vegetables

around them in the sky.*° The Narangga people of

Yorke Peninsula had a similar mythology. They

called the Pleiades the ‘Mangga Manggaridi’,

who were said to be ‘maids’ (Black 1920: 87). In

the Parnkalla language of eastern Eyre Peninsula,

the Pleiades were recorded as women, called

‘Pallarri’? (Schurmann 1844, vol.2: 51). Similarly,

in Nukunu mythology, the seven sisters or

‘Purlara’, were reportedly chased into the sky by

three brothers (Hercus 1992: 7,16,27), One sister

became sick and stayed on the terrestrial

landscape. These are clearly related accounts to

the Seven Sisters Dreaming of the Western Desert,

where the young women, called Kungkarungkara,

are chased by Orion (Tindale 1959). Here they

appear in the dawn sky during April/May, being

the start of a ceremonial cycle.*’ The southern

myths also bear resemblance to the Mankarawora

(Pleiades) of the Diyari in the north-east of South

Australia (Berndt & Vogelsang 1941: 8). In the

cosmology of the Adnyamathanha people of the

Flinders Ranges, the Pleiades were known as the

Makara or Artunyi, meaning a group of women

(Mountford 1939: 103,104; 1976: 33-35;

Mountford & Roberts 1970: 56; Tunbridge 1988:

16). They believed that the Akurra serpent

ancestor ate the Artunyi women at Yandara in

New South Wales, and that these women were

later released into the sky when he drowned. Most

beliefs concerning the Pleiades simply record a

number of sisters, because Aboriginal counting

systems before European contact had little use for

figures greater than three.

In the account of cosmology recorded from Billy

Poole of the Lake Albert area, the Pleiades

represented the eggs that another constellation, a

Turkey, was sitting upon.** For the southern

Coorong district, ‘the Seven Stars are black men

sitting round a fire, of course they are smoking

(Wells 1852-1855: 99)’. In south-western

Victoria there are various accounts of the Pleiades,

representing a flock of female cockatoos, or six

women whose ‘Queen’ had been taken by the

crow, signified by Canopus (Dawson 1881: 100).

The Pleiades are probably the Yatuka

P. A. CLARKE

constellation that Yaraldi people believed

comprised six girls and one boy (Berndt & Berndt

1993: 163,164). This may relate to the Tangani

belief that the Pleiades, called by them

Mantjingga, were seven or eight girls and a single

boy.’ He went with them because his fire had

gone out. Munaijeri was one of the Mantjingga

who went away (Tindale 1930-52: 290). The

Pleiades are known in many cultures of the world

as the Seven Sisters.°°

ORION

In the Adelaide region, the stars of the Orion

constellation were called Tinniinyarra (also

Tinniinyaranna and Kurkukurkurra). They were

considered to be youths who hunted kangaroos,

emus and other game on the great celestial plain,

called the Womma.*! The mother of the

Tinniinyarra was a red star called Madletaltarni

(Teichelmann & Schurmann 1840, vol.2:

17,37,42). This is probably the star astronomers

call Betelguese. The father of the Tinniinyarra was

a star called Parnakkoyerli. To the Parnkalla

people of eastern Eyre Peninsula, the Orion

constellation could be termed either Minye or

Mirrarri, considered to be men or boys

(Schurmann 1884, vol.2: 33). In the Western

Desert mythology, Orion, called Njiru, chased the

Pleiades across the terrestrial landscape, as he still

does in the Skyworld (Tindale 1959).

A version of the Waiyungari story recorded in

the Lower Murray region from an early Narrung

resident has Waiyungari and the two escaping

wives of Nepeli, who are sisters, becoming the

three great stars of Orion’s belt. As reported

below, Tindale’s version has Waiyungari

becoming the planet Mars. In relation to Orion’s

belt, there is a close parallel in the beliefs of the

Gundidjmara people of south-western Victoria

where three stars were the sisters of Sirius who

always followed him (Dawson 1881: 100). There

also, a red star in the constellation of Orion was

called ‘fire’, and was masculine. The Ngalwara

constellation recorded in Yaraldi cosmology,

which was perceived as six young men (Berndt &

Berndt 1993: 164), is possibly Orion. The Tangani

called the seven boys the Ngawiri.”°

THE SOUTHERN Cross AND THE Coat SACK

In the Ngadjuri language of the Mid North of

South Australia, the Southern Cross was called

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE 137

‘Wildu’, the eagle (Berndt & Vogelsang 1941: 9).

To the Parnkalla people of eastern Eyre Peninsula,

the Southern Cross and adjacent stars were termed

‘Kadnakadna purdli’ (Schurmann 1844, vol.2: 9).

The Tangani people of the Coorong had a death

fear song concerning the arrival of a smallpox

epidemic (Tindale 1937: 111,112; Tindale 1941:

233,234). As part of the story of this song, a

‘dream man’, Kulda, came down to the lower

landscape from the Southern Cross, called Yu:ki.”

He foretold the coming of death, with his ‘pointing

bone’ taking the spirits of the dead with him to

Kangaroo Island. Tindale recorded that:

The natives saw a man (meteor) come out of Yuuki,

the Southern Cross; they heard a noise and looked

up (meinyanga nampi). They saw him move his

hands and said “Ha! peika bakki’ (“Ah! death

coming’; ‘peik’ = ‘die’). The natives could not stand

the murki [smallpox] and a great many died. The

meteor was a maldawuli man whose name was

Kuldalai, he travelled westward through the sky and

beckoned to indicate that all the people should follow

him. Then the smallpox came and many people

followed him (literally went west) across to Kangaroo

Island and beyond (Tindale 1931-34: 232).

Furthermore, Tindale (1931-34: 251,252)

recorded that Kulda appeared ‘like a bright flash,

too bright to look.” The method he used to attract

people was first by smoke signals, then by waving

hands. Tindale’s Aboriginal informants believed

that many of the bones in the sandhills of the

Lower Murray belonged to people whom Kulda

had beckoned to follow him. This account is

further illustration of the perceived connections

between the Skyworld, Land to the West, and the

terrestrial landscape.

A Meintangk informant told Tindale (1934-37:

60) that ‘The black patch (Coal Sack) in the

Southern Cross is the emu ... The Southern Cross

stars are men.” The emu in this instance was

probably the spirit who fought with the brolgas,

as already noted above. According to the

Europeanised mythology of Smith, the

‘Grandmother Spirit’, known as Puckowe, was

considered by Lower Murray people to inhabit the

dark spot in the Milky Way, known as the Coal

Sack (Smith 1930: 184,185,199). Aboriginal

healers in the Lower Murray could reportedly

appeal to her for help. The Gundidjmara people in

south-western Victoria apparently believed that a

‘bunyip’, a mythical water spirit, lived

simultaneously both in the Coal Sack and in parts

of the terrestrial landscape (Dawson 1881: 99).

Lyra

The ‘doctor men’ of the Tangani interpreted the

appearance of Vega, called by them Lawarikark,

in the constellation of Lyra as indicating the

nesting time of mallee fowls (Tindale 1983: 26).

These birds, called lawari or lowan, make a harsh

scolding noise when racking the leaves for their

nests. For this reason, Aboriginal people

considered this constellation to have quarrelsome

properties.

SEASONAL BopIEs

To the Adelaide people, the arrival of Parna in

early autumn indicated the change of season and

was a sign that large and waterproof huts needed

to be built in the Adelaide foothills (Gell 1842

[reprint 1988: 7,9]). The Aboriginal place name

for a hilltop campsite at Morphett Vale, south of

Adelaide, was Parnangga.*’ This reportedly meant

‘autumn rains’, and referred to the appearance of

Parna.™ Similarly the Ngarrindjeri called autumn,

Marangani, which is a time when stars of this

name appear (Taplin 1879: 126). The Yaraldi term

recorded for autumn, Marangalkadi, was said to

mean ‘pertaining to the crow’ (Berndt & Berndt

1993: 21,76,240). Marangani was a crow (more

properly called a raven) in the creative period of

the Yaraldi ‘Dreamtime’ (Meyer 1843: 78; Berndt

& Berndt 1993: 163,240—242). According to

Yaraldi tradition, the autumn stars are low in the

south-eastern sky because it was to the south-east

of the Lower Murray that the crow spirit entered

the Skyworld. When Marangani was at its zenith,

both animals and humans were thought to enter

the ‘rutting season’ (Tindale 1930-52: 266).

Women in particular were considered to be easily

affected by Marangani, making some individuals

promiscuous.

In the Adelaide area, spring was termed

Willutti or Wiltutti (Teichelmann & Schurmann

1840, vol.2: 55; Teichelmann 1857). It was under

the influence of the constellation of the eagle,

Wilto. It is likely that Wilto was the Southern

Cross, through the apparent relationship between

Wiltu in the Adelaide language and Wildu of the

Negadjuri mentioned above. Similarly, in the

Adelaide area summer was governed by the wild

turkey constellation, Wolta (Teichelmann &

Schurmann 1840, vol.2: 57,58; Teichelmann

1857). Summer was therefore called Woltatti. The

linking of seasons with the movements of celestial

bodies is common across Australia (Clarke 1990:

6: Clarke 1991a: 59).

138

UNIDENTIFIED STARS

In the ethnographies of southern South

Australia, there are several names for stars where

identification is difficult due to lack of description.

One example is Njengari, who reportedly was

once a mortal on earth (Tindale 1941: 235;

Tindale 1987: 12). He had a happy nature and

was often observed dancing. He created a smooth

dancing spot along the coast at a place called

Watbardok in the Normanville area south of

Adelaide. This later became an excellent fishing

spot as nets could be drawn here without

snagging. Njengari was a clansman of Tjirbruki,

who was also a landscape-creating ancestor.

Njengari was eventually transformed into a star.

There are also recorded names from the Adelaide

language for constellations such as ‘Mattinyi’ and

“Kumomari’, for which there is no European

equivalent given (Teichelmann & Schurmann

1840, vol.2: 13,22). Similarly, ‘Yurdlakka’ was

said to be ‘a star or constellation’ in the Parnkalla

language (Schurmann 1844, vol.2: 87). The

identity of these was not known to the recorder. In

the Gundidjmara region of south-western Victoria,

larger stars (and probably planets) were feminine

and considered to be ‘sisters of the Sun’ (Dawson

1881: 99).

In the Lower Murray region, there was a

celestial body that appeared every few years as a

good omen. Tindale reports:

Nalkari — a special star or planet which appears every

four or five years. It causes the fish to die in

thousands and to float along the river banks. The

people are glad when they see Nalkari for it means

that much food can be obtained (Tindale 1934-37:

147).

The identity of this cosmic body is unknown,

although it seems unlikely to be a comet, as these

were universally held in great fear.

PLANETS

In the Adelaide region, the Sun-father, Teendo

Yerle, had several wives which Schurmann

thought were probably planets. In contrast to the

sisters of Teendo Yerle who were bad, the wives

were considered to be very good. In the case of the

Lower Murray traditions, a version of the

Waiyungari myth provided a Yaraldi account of

the origin of the planet Mars (Tindale 1935).

Tindale had several Aboriginal sources who

confirmed that Waiyungari became Mars after he

and the two wives of Nepeli fled into the sky. The

P. A. CLARKE

Ramindjeri people considered that Waiyungari

became a ‘star’ (Meyer 1843: 105). Waiyungari

was said to actually mean ‘he who returns to the

stars’ (Smith 1930: 250). However, there is no

ethnographic record of the celestial identity of the

two women of who accompanied him. A past

Government Astronomer, G. F. Dodwell,

suggested that they might have been perceived as

Jupiter and Venus, as both of these planets move

over the Heavens, coming into conjunction with

Mars (cited in Tindale 1931-34: 189; Tindale

1935: 270-274). However, another record of the

Waiyungari myth stated that his home was in the

Milky Way (Smith 1930: 183,251). According to

this version, Aboriginal people pointed out three

stars in the eastern sky which represented

Waiyungari and his two wives. Other accounts of

Mars, perhaps associated with the Waiyungari

mythology, state that when the ‘red star’ is shining

at its ‘hottest’ and ‘brightest’, it is blamed for

increasing sexual desire (Berndt & Berndt 1951:

223; Berndt & Berndt 1993: 164). To the

Gundidjmara people of south-western Victoria,

Mars was a feminine entity (Dawson 1881: 99).

According to George Taplin (1879: 135,140),

Venus was termed Warte by the Ngarrindjeri. This

term has also been recorded to mean ‘firestick’

(Meyer 1843: 106). Presumably the relative strong

brightness of Venus adds to its association with

fire. The Gundidjmara apparently considered

Venus to be the ‘mother of the sun’ (Dawson

1881: 99). This tradition is possibly linked to the

notion that Venus sometimes accompanied the

Sun across the Skyworld, as it is visible during

the day. In the recorded Parnkalla language of

eastern Eyre Peninsula, the ‘evening star’ (Venus)

was ‘Kabminye’ (Schurmann 1844, vol.2: 9). At

the confluence of the Murray and Darling Rivers,

the ‘evening star’ (Venus) was reportedly called

“Pudli’ or ‘Pudali? (Tindale 1930-52: 255),

although this may have simply meant ‘a star’.

METEORS

Although many of the celestial bodies were

linked to each other through kinship, in the

Adelaide region meteoric lights (or shooting stars)

were said to be ‘orphans’.”” Their ephemeral and

unregulated nature may have contributed to this

classification. Generally, meteors were considered

to be bad omens, especially in times of great

social disruption. The account of Kulda, perceived

as a meteor who came out of the Southern Cross,

is a good illustration of this. Furthermore, when a

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE 139

falling star was seen, the Tangani people of the

Coorong reportedly said ‘peika bak:i’, that is

‘death coming’.’! Tindale (1938) linked the myth

of Prupi, a cannibalistic woman living along the

southern Coorong who was killed by fire, with a

meteorite fall in the area. Furthermore, to the

Gundidjmara people of south-western Victoria, a

meteor represented ‘deformity’ (Dawson 1881:

101). In north-western Victoria, a meteor

‘portends evil to those that have lost a front tooth,

to avert which they stir the fire and cast about

firebrands (Stanbridge 1857: 140)’.

COMETS

The Adelaide people believed that Teendo Yerle

or Sun-father, had a pair of evil sisters who were

‘long’ and probably comets.” Aboriginal people

here considered most of the unusual cosmic

phenomenon they observed to be a ‘sure harbinger

of death [which filled] them with awe and terror’

(Schurmann 1846 [1879: 242]). In March 1843, a

comet visible to Aboriginal people from along the

Murray River was taken as a:

harbinger of all kinds of calamities, and more

especially to the white people. It was considered that

the comet would overthrow Adelaide, destroying all

Europeans and their houses, and then to take a

course up the Murray and past the Rufus River

causing havoc in its path’ (Eyre 1845, vol.2:

358,359).

It was believed to have been created by northern

Aboriginal people who were powerful sorcerers.

On this occasion, the Resident Magistrate at

Moorunde, Eyre, was told by river Aboriginal

people to go to Adelaide and procure the release

of an Aboriginal man from the north gaoled for

assaulting a shepherd. If this was done, he was

told that disaster would be averted. The disquiet

caused by unusual cosmic phenomena appears to

have been widespread. In the Port Lincoln area,

the 1843 comet caused Aboriginal people to hide

in caves (Schurmann 1846 [1987: 242]).% The

Gundidjmara people of south-western Victoria

considered a comet to be a great spirit (Dawson

1881: 101).

OTHER CELESTIAL EVENTS

There were also other celestial events that were

perceived to be bad signs. In the Adelaide area,

the Southern Lights foretold disease.”

Furthermore, an eclipse was considered to cause

death and destruction. Aboriginal people at Point

McLeay in the Lower Murray area were very

fearful of the Aurora Australis and the eclipse of

the Moon (Taplin Journals 4—7 June 1859, 2

September 1859). Both events were said to have

been created by ‘wild blackfellows’, an early

Aboriginal English term for ‘uncivilised’ groups

living beyond the European colonial frontier. Such

people were often feared as sorcerers. In the case

of the Aurora Australis, it foretold the arrival of

these dangerous human/spirit beings.

Discussion

This paper illustrates that the connections

between Skyworld, terrestrial land and the

Underworld were crucial parts of Aboriginal

cosmology. Perceived events and influences from

the cosmic landscape had a significant role in the

ordering of human life. The observable seasonal

changes in the cosmos, due to the movement of

planets and constellations, mimicked the

terrestrial movements of people and animals.

These observances would have strengthened the

perception that the cosmos was a landscape. These

psychic regions were considered by Aboriginal

people to be part of the land that they ‘used’. With

a social kinship system linking many of the

celestial bodies, it can be seen that the cosmos

and earthly landscapes were in at least one sense

reflections of each other. The total cultural

landscape was humanised by the people living

within it.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper is based on material in the author’s Ph.D

thesis, which was supervised by Chris Anderson, Peter

Smailes and Kingsley Garbett. Drafts of this paper were

commented upon by Jane Simpson, Rob Amery, Adele

Pring, Richard Kimber and Philip Jones.

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142

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ENDNOTES

Quarterly Report (1 October to 31 December 1837) from

Wyatt to the Colonial Secretary, dated 1 January 1838

(Colonial Secretary Reports, 1838/3 & 1838/69, Public

Records Office, Adelaide).

Forevidence of Taplin’s incorporation ofhis wife’s thoughts

and observances see Taplin Journals, 12 September 1860.

Tindale’s journals, field notebooks, and the “Milerum’

manuscript are also important ethnographic sources. This

material is housed in the Anthropology Archives, South

Australian Museum.

Tindale records that Robert Mason remembered David

Unaipon turning up at Swan Reach many years ago, offering

5 shillings for each Aboriginal story he was told (Tindale

1953: 39). Apparently, Ramsay Smith in turn paid him 10

shillings perstory he collected. Unaipon collected mythology

from Aboriginal contacts he had with communities across

South Australia.

For southern South Australia, see Clarke (1990; 1991a:

63-66). Mountford (1958: 144-146,170-177), & Sims

(1978) describe the cultural landscape for the Tiwi of

Melville & Bathurst Islands in the Northern Territory.

Inthe Adelaide region, the Underworld or Land tothe West

was known by variations of ‘Pindi’ (Clarke 199 1a: 64,65).

In the southern Flinders Ranges it was termed ‘Kintyura’

(Hercus 1992: 17,20,30). Itis interesting to note that southem

groups believed thatthe Sun entered the Underworld through

diving into the sea, whereas groups near Lake Eyre in

Central Australia believed that it disappeared into the ground

ata place called ‘Dityi-minka’, reportedly meaning “Hole of

the Sun’ (Howitt 1904: 427,428).

This is consistent with the individual losing its corporeal

identity after death, as noted for the Walbiri in Central

Australia (Meggitt 1962: 317).

For instance, see the cosmologies described by Stanbridge

(1857), Smyth (1878, vol.1: 430-434), & MacPherson

(1882) for northern Victoria, Roth (1903: 7,8) for northern

Queensland, Howitt (1904: 426-434) for south eastern

Australia, & Maegraith (1932) for Central Australia.

This is quoted by Cawthorne (1844 [reprint 1926: 24.25])

without acknowledgmentto Teichelmann.

Another word in the Adelaide language that referred to sky,

heaven, & height is “karra’ (Teichelmann & Schurmann

1840, pt 2: 10).

Other Parnkallaterms associated with the Skyworld include

“Wangkurtu kurtu’— ‘heaven; ‘Pandarri’ — “sky. heaven’:

& ‘Walkurri’—“heaven’ (Schurmann 1844, vol.2: 52.67.68).

The ‘sky’ or ‘ether’ was “ilkari’ (Schurmann 1884, vol.2:

6).

Foster (1990) discusses the role of the Native Location &

Native School.

Other variations include Waieruwar (= Wyitrrewarre), Wyirti

(= Waiyirri) & Wairalt, depending on linguistic context,

respectively meaning ‘Heaven’. ‘to Heaven’. ‘in Heaven’.

These variations are illustrated by Taplin (1874 [1879:

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE

131]; 1879: 38,132,142). See also Tanganekald vocabulary

cards, Tindale collection. Anthropology Archives. South

Australian Museum.

Penney (as “Cuique’), South Australian Magazine,

September 1842, 1 (xii): 467-472.

Tindale, no date, ‘Milerum’, Stage A, #6. Anthropology

Archives, South Australian Museum.

Schurmann’s accountis similarto Wyatt’s but differs in that

Monana represents a group of beings, not one individual

spirit (Schurmann Diaries 5 June 1839: Wyatt

1879:166.181).

There are aspects of the Pulyallana mythology that appear

tobe closely related to the mythology of Ngurunderi in the

Lower Murray (Clarke 1995). Both ancestors were chasing

their wives across the landscape while creating many of the

landforms, eventually drowning the women.

The ‘Dreamtime’ represents an Aboriginal English gloss of

arange of meanings. The ‘Dreaming’ can loosely be defined

as the whole body of mythology in Aboriginal Australia that

provides some insight into significant cultural events.

Schurmann inanewspaper article titled ‘The Aborigines of

South Australia’ in The South Australian Colonist, 10

March 1840.

Adelaide Register, 5 October 1887.

According to Tindale (no date, ‘Milerum’, Stage A, #1,

Anthropology Archives, South Australian Museum) the

Tangani considered that there were seven stars shaped like

astingray.

For a destination of the spirit of these warriors see Taplin

(1874 [1879: 18], & Meyer (1846 [1879:201]). A variation

inthe spelling of Nepeli in the literature is Nepele. Variations

of Waiyungari include Wyungare, Wyangaure &

Waijungari. Meyer (1843, vol.2: 105) lists *Waiyungari’

simply as the ‘name of a star’. Elsewhere, such as south

western Victoria, major spirit ancestors were also perceived

as living in the Skyworld (Dawson 1881: 49).

Schurmann Diaries (5-6 June 1839), & Wyatt (1879:

166,181). Also see Schurmann in anewspaper article titled

‘The Aborigines of South Australia’ in The South Australian

Colonist. 10 March 1840. Monaincherloo also refers to “a

very remote time; ancient’ (Teichelmann & Schurmann

1840. vol.2: 25).

Schurmann Diaries (5 June 1839). Also see Schurmann in

anewspaper article titled “The Aborigines of South Australia’

in The South Australian Colonist, 10 March 1840.

Schurmann Diaries (5 June 1839). Also see Schurmann in

anewspaperarticle titled “The Aborigines of South Australia”

in The South Australian Colonist. 10 March 1840.

Clarke (1990: 1991a: 65.66) outlines early Adelaide

Aboriginal beliefs inthe afterlife.

For Christian influences upon Aboriginal culture in southern

South Australia, see Berndt & Berndt (1993: 215), &

Clarke (1995; 150-152).

There is much variation in the spelling of this ancestral spirit

in the literature (see Clarke 1991: 66-68). This paper

follows the standard spelling set by Tindale (1987).

143

Teichelmann & Schurmann (1840, vol.2: 41). Also see L.

Piesse in a newspaper article titled “The language of the

natives of South Australia’ in The South Australian Colonist,

14 July 1840. A variation inthe recording of *purli’ is ‘pou-

lee’.

Other recorded variations in the Ngaiawang language are

‘pidli’ (Moorhouse 1843 [1935: 34]). & ‘pille’ (Tindale

1964: 7).

Schurmann Diaries (22 July 1839), Teichelmann &

Schurmann (1840, vol.2:7,38.46). Teichelmann (1841:9),

Wyatt (1879: 166.167), & Stephens (1889: 500). Also see

The Transactions of the Statistical Society— Report on the

Aborigines of South Australia’, 7he Southern Australian,

11 January 1842. Variations recorded for Kakirra include

Karkara & Cackera. Teichelmann (1857) also uses the

term, Marrero. Tindale (1974: 48,49) notes that in many

parts of Australia, “Kakara’, as the word for Moon or Sun is

also used to mean ‘the east’. He speculates that this

relationship is based on the perception of the east being

where these celestial bodies enter the sky.

The Erawirung people in the Mid Murray region used the

term, ‘Kakere’, forthe Moon (Tindale 1930—52:251).).In

a coagnatic language, Ngaiawang, the Moon was called

“Kokarar’ (Tindale 1964: 5), ‘Kakur’ or ‘Kagurre’

(Moorhouse 1843 [1935: 18]). Another word for Moon that

Tindale (1953: 7) records for the Mid Murray region is

“Kagura’. It was recorded in the Moorundie area as ‘Kok-

erer (Scott 1840-1907).

Inthe Whyalla area of Eyre Peninsula, Bira was perceived

as an ‘old man from the moon’ who killed one of the seven

sisters, while chasing the other ones across the landscape

(Advertiser, 14 April 1990). Schurmann (1884: 3,57)

records the Moon inthe Parnkallalanguage ofeastern Eyre

Peninsulaas ‘Pirra’. Similar terms recorded elsewhere in the

Central Lakes cultural bloc, such as “Bira’ inthe Narangga

language of Yorke Peninsula (Black 1920: 86), *Pira’ in

Nukunu of the southern Flinders Ranges (Hercus 1992:

2,8,27), ‘Bera’ in Ngadjuri of the Mid North of South

Australia, *Vera’ in Wailpiofthe Flinders Ranges, & *Pira’

in Dieri of the North East of South Australia (Berndt &

Vogelsang 1941: 7).

To the Ramindjeri, ‘Markeri’ was also the name ofa large

shell which resembled a full Moon (Meyer 1843: 78). By

another account, the Encounter Bay people calledthe Moon,

“Mukkeri’, & pronounced it very much like the English

rendering of ‘Mercury’ (Adelaide Observer. 10 May 1851).

Taplin also listed the Moonas*Markeri’ inhis Ngarrindjeri

vocabularies (1874 [1879: 131]: 1879: 134.142). The

Tangane called the Moon, *Marakari’ (Tanganekald

vocabulary cards, Tindale collection). In the southern

Coorong district, Wells (1852—1855: 112) recorded the

Moonas ‘Mercuri’.

A similar account exists in the mythology of northern

Victoria, where the main male creative ancestor, Nooralie

(=Nureli, Nure:le), commands the Moon to die and the Sun

to disappear (Smyth 1878: 431).

Tindale, no date, loose sheet in ‘Milerum’. “Jobs needing

further attention before typing.’ Anthropology Archives,

South Australian Museum,

144

Tindale, no date, loose sheet in *Milerum’, ‘Jobs needing

further attention before typing.’ Anthropology Archives,

South Australian Museum.

Smith (1880: 131) lists the Moon as ‘Toongoom’.

Quarterly Report (1 October to 31 December 1837) from

Wyatt to the Colonial Secretary, dated | January 1838

(Colonial Secretary Reports, 1838/3, Public Records Office,

Adelaide).

Schurmann Diaries (5 June & 22 July 1839), Wyatt (1879:

166), Stephens (1889: 501), Williams (1839 [1926: 59]).

Also see Schurmann in a newspaper article titled ‘The

Aborigines of South Australia.” in The South Australian

Colonist, 10 March 1840. Inthe Adelaide area, variations

in the recording of Tindu include Teendo, Tindo, & Tindoo.

Wyatt (1879: 166,167). Also see letter by Wyatt dated 1

April 1838, from him to the Colonial Secretary. 69/1838.

Public Records Office, Adelaide.

Schurmann Diaries, 5 June & 22 July 1839.

Similar names for the Sun existed across South Australia. It

is ‘Tjindu’ inthe Pitjandjaralanguage of Central Australia

(Goddard 1992: 151), & inthe Wirrangu language of the

West Coast (Black 1917: 7; Tindale 1928: 21). It was

recorded as ‘Tjindo’ in Kukatha from the West Coast

(Black 1920: 91). In Wongaidya from Baroota in the

southern Flinders Ranges it was recorded as ‘Dindo’ (Black

1917: 12). The Sun was ‘Yurno’ in the Parnkalla language

of eastern Eyre Peninsula (Schurmann 1844, vol.2: 88),

*Thirntu’ in Nukunu from the southern Flinders Ranges

(Hercus 1992: 28), & “Tindo’ in Narangga of Yorke

Peninsula (Black 1920: 89). Similarly, in a coagnatic

language, Ngadjuri, it was ‘Jandu’ or ‘Djendu’ (Berndt &

Vogelsang 1941: 9). Inthe Flinders Ranges, it was termed

“Yuundu’ (Berndt & Vogelsang 1941:9).

Adelaide Observer, 10 May 1851. However, ‘thulderni’

may be a version of the term, ‘tulde’, recorded by Meyer

(1843: 101) to mean a star.

A variation in the recording of Nangge is ‘Nungge’. At

Currency Creek, an early colonist records that a local

European woman, with the name ‘Mrs Sunman’, was

invariably called “Mrs Nange’ by the local Aboriginal

people (Adelaide Observer, 10 May 1851).

Inthe Mid Murray area, the Erawirung people used arelated

term, ‘Nanka’. for the Sun (Tindale 1930-52: 251).

Similarly, the Ngaiawang people used “Nunka’ (Tindale

1964: 7). At Moorundie. it was recorded as “Nunka’ (Scott

1840-1907). Further north at the confluence ofthe Murray

& Darling Rivers, the Maraura people called the Sun.

“Yukku’, & dawn ‘ngata yukui’ (Tindale 1930-52:

251,253).

For the Mid Murray area, Eyre (1845, vol.2: 365) suggests

that an Aboriginal practice of placing stones in trees was to

measure time. However. the most likely explanation was

that this was to indicate the proximity of water (J. Simpson,

pers.com.).

Tanganekald vocabulary cards, Tindale collection.

Anthropology Archives, South Australian Museum.

P. A. CLARKE

Potaruwutj vocabulary cards, Tindale collection.

Anthropology Archives, South Australian Museum.

It is possible that “kado’, *karo’ & *kardu’ are the same

linguistic form.

Charles White in the Adelaide Observer, 14 January 1905.

Tindale, no date, “Milerum’, Stage A, #3. Anthropology

Archives, South Australian Museum.

This trail may have been modified or extended as aresult of

the building ofthe Overland Telegraph Line (J. Simpson,

pers.com.)

The term ‘prolggi’, appears to be related to the Australian

English term, brolga. This is a borrowing by Europeans

from the Kamilaroi language in eastern New South Wales,

where it was ‘burralga’ (Dixon et a/ 1992: 31,87.88,218).

However, other Aboriginal languages from eastern Australia

to the Lake Eyre region have similar terms for this bird. The

Tangane people of the Coorong called this bird ‘porolgi’

(Tanganekald vocabulary cards, Tindale collection). The

“native companion’ is anearly European term forthe brolga.

By another account, the Granites near Kingston represented

the emus ofthis myth (Tindale 193 1-34: 192). Inthe South

East of South Australia, this myth was sometimes used to

identify Aboriginal groups (Tindale letter to Dixon, 6 March

1976, correspondence files, Anthropology Archives, South

Australian Museum). The coastal people called themselves

Porolgi, while inland groups were Pindjali (= Peindjali).

Schurmann Diaries (12 July 1839), Teichelmann &

Schurmann (1840: 19,47), & Teichelmann (1841:9). Also

see ‘The Transactions of the Statistical Society—Report on

the Aborigines of South Australia’, 7he Southern Australian,

11 January 1842.

Tindale, no date, loose sheet in *Milerum’, ‘Jobs needing

further attention before typing.’ Anthropology Archives,

South Australian Museum.

Adelaide Register, 5 October 1887.

Tindale, no date, *Milerum’, Stage A, #1. Anthropology

Archives, South Australian Museum. This term may relate

to the ‘Manchinnga’, the ‘warrior who became a star’

(Taplin 1874 [1879: 18]).

For generalised Australian accounts, see Smith (1930:

70,345—50), & Parker (1953: 105-109). Western Desert

accounts are given by Robinson (1966: 91-93), & Isaacs

(1980: 152,153). The ‘Seven Sisters inma’ is often performed

by Western Desert women visiting capital cities for public

ceremonies, such as those held at the Tandanya National

Aboriginal Cultural Institute in Adelaide.

Schurmann Diaries (12 July 1839). Teichelmann &

Schurmann (1840. vol.2: 15.17.47). Teichelmann (1841:

9). Also see “The Transactions of the Statistical Society —

Reporton the Aborigines of South Australia’, The Southern

Australian, || January 1842.

The original version appears to be C.C. Hackett in Narrung

Alpha, August 1915: 10-12. A later version is Hackett

(cited in Laurie 1917: 660-662). See Clarke (1995, endnote

14: 157).

Tindale, no date. ‘Milerum’, Stage A, #1. Anthropology

ABORIGINAL COSMIC LANDSCAPE

Archives, South Australian Museum. Ngawiri appears to be

related to ‘ngauwir’, meaning boy in the Ramindjeri dialect

of Encounter Bay (Meyer 1843: 86).

Alsosee Tanganekald vocabulary cards, Tindale collection.

As well as Tindale, no date, loose sheet in “Milerum’, “Jobs

needing further attention before typing’. Anthropology

Archives, South Australian Museum.

It is possible that there were several constellations termed

Yuki by the Lower Murray people, as this term is applied to

canoes (cf. Milky Way). In the Yaraldi dialect, the Southern

Cross constellation was termed Tjirilengi (McDonald 1977).

Tindale, no date, loose sheet in ‘Milerum’, ‘Jobs needing

further attention before typing’. Anthropology Archives,

South Australian Museum. Stanbridge (1857) provides a

similar myth concerning Lyra, which represents a lowan

flying.

Tindale, Aboriginal Place Name File, Anthropology

Archives, South Australian Museum.

Tindale, Aboriginal Place Name File, Anthropology

Archives, South Australian Museum. A creek near Yankalilla

in the southern Fleurieu Peninsula area is known as

Parananacooka. According to Tindale, this was arendition

of the Aboriginal forms, Paranankuka and Paranankuna. Its

translation was said to refer to the excreta and urine of the

Autumn Star, which explained why this creek becomes very

brackish at the end of summer. However, given his word

derivation, this appears to be unlikely on linguistic grounds

(J. Simpson, pers.com.).

145

Schurmann Diaries (5 June 1839). Also see Schurmann in

anewspaper article titled “The Aborigines of South Australia’

in The South Australian Colonist, 10 March 1840.

‘The Transactions ofthe Statistical Society — Report on the

Aborigines of South Australia’, The Southern Australian,

1] January 1842. Anotherreference is Moorhouse in ‘Report

on the Aborigines of South Australia’ 14 October 1843,

Document no. 1234, GRG 24/6, Public Record Office. In

the Narangga langauge of Yorke Peninsula, ashooting star

was ‘wajaga’ (Black 1920: 89).

Tanganekald vocabulary cards, Tindale collection,

Anthropology Archives, South Australian Museum.

Schurmann Diaries (5 June 1839). Also see Schurmann in

anewspaper article titled “The Aborigines of South Australia’

in The South Australian Colonist, 10 March 1840.

The inclusion of the Rufus River in this explanation was

possibly due to it being the site of amassacre of Aboriginal

people by overlanders in 1842 (see Moorhouse

correspondence to Colonial Secretary, reproduced by Taplin

1879: 115-123).

Schurmann (1844, vol.2:79) suggested that in the Parnkalla

language ofeastern Eyre Peninsula the term for comet was

“yandarri’.

“The Transactions of the Statistical Society— Reporton the

Aborigines of South Australia’, The Southern Australian,

11 January 1842. Another reference by Moorhouse is in

‘Reporton the Aborigines of South Australia’, 14 October

1843, Document no. 1234, GRG 24/6, Public Record

Office.

THREE NEW BEROSUS LEACH (COLEOPTERA: HYDROPHILIDAE)

FROM AUSTRALIA

C. H. S. WATTS

Summary

Three new species of Berosus Leach are described from Australia: B. sonjae, B. sarahae and B.

wadeae. Specimens of B. wadeae came from the Lake Eyre Basin region of South Australia and

those of B. sarahae and B. sonjae from the Cairns and Townsville regions of north-east Queensland.

THREE NEW BEROSUS LEACH (COLEOPTERA : HYDROPHILIDAE)

FROM AUSTRALIA

C.H.S. WATTS

WATTS, C. H. S. 1996. Three new Berosus Leach (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae) from Australia.

Records of the South Australian Museum 29(2): 147-152.

Three new species of Berosus Leach are described from Australia: B. sonjae, B. sarahae and

B. wadeae. Specimens of B. wadeae came from the Lake Eyre Basin region of South Australia

and those of B. sarahae and B. sonjae from the Cairns and Townsville regions of north-east

Queensland.

C. H. S. Watts, South Australian Museum, North Terrace Adelaide South Australia 5000.

Manuscript received 29 January 1996.

This paper describes two distinctive new

Berosus which | came across whilst sorting

specimens in the South Australian Museum

collection (SAMA) and one collected recently in

Queensland by my son. The tropical members of

this genus in Australia are still poorly known and

difficult to separate using the key given in Watts

(1987). The three new species described here are

however readily separated from any known

species, warranting their description without an

extensive revision of the genus.

SYSTEMATICS

Berosus wadeae sp. nov.

(Figs 3, 4)

Description (number examined, 26)

Length 5.0 — 6.5 mm. Elongate-oval, not hump-

backed, apex of elytron slightly elongate with one

short but well marked spine a little distance from

suture line (in position of outer spine in species

with a pair of apical spines on elytron). Elytron

yellow-brown, portions of striae darker, in a few

places tending to spread to adjoining striae

forming a darker patch on elytron; base of head

narrowly black; appendages reddish-brown;

ventral surface dark brown to black with apical

ventral segment lighter in some specimens.

Punctures on head, well marked, weaker and

sparser in front, strong and longitudinally elongate

behind. Pronotum densely covered with large

strong punctures, those on disc longitudinally

elongated to about twice as long as wide. Elytron

with deeply impressed striae, obliterating the

serial punctures except towards back; dorsal

surface covered with short stout setae (often

abraided off) arising from shallow, very rugose,

confluent punctures giving the interstrial regions

of the elytron an evenly rugose appearance which

all but obscures the punctation. Ventral surface

densely but finely punctured, each puncture with a

short setae. Mesosternum with a weak midline

keel projecting backward as a spine between

mesocoxae. Midline of first ventral abdominal

segment weakly keeled in extreme front.

Metacoxal process raised, sharply triangular

(diamond shaped area in midline shiny and devoid

of sculpture). Rugose portions of meso and

metafemora half to two thirds the length of

respective femora, that on profemur one third

length of profemur.

Male

Protarsi four-segmented, basal segment weakly

expanded, about twice as long as wide and as

long as second and third segment combined,

second segment weakly expanded, as long as

simple third segment. Male aedeagus as in figs 3

and 4.

Remarks

At first glance B. wadeae can be easily

confused with the widespread and common B.

nutans W. MacLeay which occurs in the same

region. It differs from this species in several

characteristics: the elytral striae are weakly

impressed in B. nutans, strongly impressed in B.

wadeae; the tips of the elytra are rounded in B.

nutans, spinose in B. wadeae; the pronotal

punctures in B. wadeae are strong and tend to be

elongated longitudinally, in B. nutans, they are

148 C.H.S. WATTS

small, transversely elongated and interconnected

by a network of transverse grooves.

B. wadeae is similar to B. dallasi Watts but is

larger and broader, the elytral stria are sharper and

a little larger and the dark colour on the head of B.

dallasi is more extensive and not restricted to the

basal margin as in most B. wadeae. The clearest

separation is in the form and strength of the

punctures on the head and pronotum. In B. dallasi

these are moderately strong, sometimes a little

longitudinally elongated but seldom confluent. In

B. wadeae the pronotal punctures on the disc and

those on the rear half of the head are strong,

virtually confluent, longitudinally elongated to the

extent that they form longitudinal grooves,

particularly deep on the disc of the pronotum. In

some B. wadeae there is also a longitudinal

groove in the midline of the pronotum. The

aedeagi of the two species are distinctive (Figs 3

& 4 and Watts 1987).

Distribution

Known from Marree, Big Perry Springs,

Clayton Crossing and Coward Springs, all

localities in the southern Lake Eyre basin in South

Australia.

FIGURES 1 & 2. Lateral and ventral views of apical portion

of aedeagus of B. sarahae.

we pe SUS VAE Boe

creer 7

FIGURES 3 & 4. Lateral and ventral views of aedeagus of

B. wadeae.

THREE NEW BEROSUS 149

Types

Holotype: Male. ‘S. Aust. at light. Levi Crk. 8

km NW, Big Perry Springs. 28°, 19.2’ 136°, 16.1,

7 Dec. 1974 J.A. Herridge’; in SAMA.

Paratypes: Eighteen, same data as Holotype, in

SAMA; 1, ‘S. Aust. at light. Marree Racecourse.

1 Dec. 1974. J.A. Herridge’; 5, ‘Clayton Crossing,

S.A. 13 November 1955. At light. E. T. Giles’; 1,

“S. Aust. Coward Springs. At light. 9 Nov. 1965,

G. F. Gross’, all in SAMA.

Berosus sarahae sp. nov.

(Figs 1, 2)

Description (number examined, 11)

Length 3.5 — 4.5 mm. Oval, widest in the

middle of the elytra. Elytra not, or only weakly,

humped. Apex of elytron bluntly pointed. Head

relatively broad, red-brown, lighter towards the

front. Pronotum red-brown, with two broad

longitudinally darker bands in the middle. Elytra

red-brown, sutural lines dark brown-black, more

marked on disk than on sides, several poorly

marked dark spots, the most prominent near

FIGURES 5 & 6. Lateral and ventral views of aedeagus of

B. josephenae.

sutural line behind middle. Ventral surface and

appendages light red-brown. Punctures on head

strong, moderately dense, those on front of head

denser but not much smaller than those on the rest

of the head. Pronotal punctures moderately and

rather evenly covered with moderate sized

punctures, stronger and denser laterally, a narrow

central longitudinal strip impunctate. Pronotum

covered with a fine reticulation. Elytral striae

grooved, strial punctures, moderately distinct,

longer and sparser towards the sides, the groove

sharply defined only on inner edge. Interstrial

punctures much smaller than those in adjacent

striae, relatively sparse and shallowly impressed.

Second elytral striae often lacking groove (as does

adjacent basal portion of first stria), consisting of

an unevenly spaced row of 5—10 serial punctures

some of which may be joined. Elytra covered with

a fine reticulation as on pronotum. Metacoxal

plates and abdominal sterna covered with strong,

dense, rugose punctures. Midline of mesosternum

with strongly raised keel, ventral edge flat and

slightly concave. Midline of first abdominal

sternite keeled. Front edge of metacoxal plates

quite strongly ridged. Metacoxal process produced

150 C.H.S. WATTS

backwards into small spine in midline, central

lobes raised, weakly diverging anteriorly, small

oval to diamond shaped impunctate depression in

midline. Rugose portion of metafemur half to two

thirds length of femur, that of mesofemur about

half the length and that of profemur a little less

than half the length of femur. Apical abdominal

sternite deeply and widely notched.

Male

Protarsi four segmented, first segment

moderately expanded.

Remarks

The species clearly belongs in the B.

approximans group of Australian Berosus by

sa = wl

8 ee, a

“a rf : .

se ‘ ae te

: ae ee

; XN pet

.] eee. . be

ae ;

ae “|

te ‘

Fa:

pe le

Me .

> Qe Q

Note a

: 2 ¢

. eS q

: toe s

. e 3. 4]

ee i

a a bs

ey “

Pal .

. De;

. 2

Wey.

FIGURES 7 & 8. Lateral and ventral views of aedeagus of

B. sonjae.

virtue of its general size and shape, strongly

keeled mesosternum and first abdominal sternite,

short second elytral striae and notched apical

sternite in both sexes. It however lacks the black

metallic head found in all other group members.

Its light red-brown ventral surface and strong

ventral punctures also separate it from other

members of the group (B. approximans F airmaire,

B. discolor Blackburn, B. juxtadiscolor Watts, B.

reardoni Watts and B. timmsi Watts) which all

have dark-brown to black ventral surfaces and

weaker ventral punctation.

Distribution

Kuranda and Cairns district, North Queensland.

THREE NEW BEROSUS

The Cairns district specimens were taken at light,

the Mt Molloy specimens in 100-300 cm deep

water in a seasonal swamp.

Types

Holotype: Male. ‘Cairns dist. A.M. Lea’, in

SAMA.

Paratypes: 9, same data as holotype, in SAMA;

1, ‘Kuranda Queensland, Griffith Collection, Id

by A.M. Lea’, in SAMA; 7, ‘2 km N Mt Molloy,

Qld, 30.3.96, C. Watts’, in SAMA.

Berosus sonjae sp. nov.

(Figs 7, 8)

Description (number examined, 13)

Length, 4.5—-5.5 mm. Elongate oval, not hump-

backed, apex of elytron with strong outer spine,

lacking inner spine. Elytron yellow-brown,

portions of stria and punctures darker, stronger in

a few places giving elytron two-three vague

darker broad bands. Ventral surface, other than

appendages darker, rugose portions of femora

same yellow-brown colour as rest of leg.

Punctures on head strong, those towards rear

tending to form longitudinal rows in some

specimens, weaker and sparser in front. Pronotum

evenly covered with large, round, even-sized

FIGURES 9 & 10. Lateral and ventral views of apical

portion of aedeagus of B. gibbae.

15]

punctures most 1/4 and 1/2 a puncture width

apart. Elytral striae well impressed, almost

masking punctures in many places, punctures

becoming much larger towards apex and sides,

interstrial punctures setose, rather shallow

particularly at sides where they become

subobsolete, about half the size of those on

pronotum, in most interstriae arranged in one

loose row. Ventral surface densely rugose-

punctate except for small diamond-shaped portion

in centre of metasternum. Mesosterum with weak

midline keel, metasternum with short, weak,

midline keel anteriorly. Hind margin of apical (Sth

visible) sternite broadly and shallowly concave.

Midline of first sternite weakly keeled in extreme

front. Metacoxal process raised, triangular.

Rugose portions of meso- and metafemur 2/3 to

3/4 length of femur, that on profemur somewhat

less.

Male

Protarsi four segmented, basal segment a little

swollen, about length of second and third

segments combined, second and third segments

same length in dorsal view, third longer in lateral

view, not enlarged, total length about equal to

length of tibia. Male genitalia with short aedeagus

(Figs 7 & 8).

Remarks

Berosus sonjae belongs to the section of

Australian Berosus characterised by the lack of a

strong mesosternal pillar, normal elytral

punctation, and uniform and relatively large

punctures on pronotum (B. amoenus Watts, B.

josephenae Watts and B. gibbae Watts). It can be

separated from all of these by the distinctive male

genitalia which has the aedeagus much shorter

than the parameres, the tips of which are truncated

(Figs 5-10) (When I first saw the aedeagus I

assumed | had damaged it in the extraction but

further dissections proved this wrong). In addition

to the difference in the male genitalia it can be

separated from B. amoenus by its yellow-brown

rather than black head; from B. josephenae by its

lighter coloured femora, and by the lateral

interstrial punctures which are hard to trace and

often marked only by setae, whereas in B.

josephenae they are large but shallow and almost

twice the diameter of those on disc; from B.

gibbae in being somewhat larger, with rather

closer and more regular punctation on pronotum,

lack of a well marked fine reticulation on elytra

and its elytral striae tending to be more deeply

impressed.

152 C.H.S. WATTS

Distribution ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Known only from the type locality in North

Queensland. All specimens were taken at light. I would like to thank Rob Gutteridge for the excellent

drawings, Vicki Wade and Robyn Cherrington for typing

the manuscript.

Types

Holotype: Male. ‘Qld. 70km SW Greenvale 16—

28 Jan 95 A. J. Watts’, in SAMA. REFERENCE

Paratypes: 4 same data as Holotype, in SAMA;

8 same data as Holotype except 15-24 Feb 95, in WATTS, C. H. S. 1987. Revision of Australian Berosus

SAMA; 2, same data as holotype except 29 Dec — Leach (Coleoptera : Hydrophilidae). Records of the

13 Jan 96, in SAMA. South Australian Museum 21(1): 1-28.

NEW SPECIES OF PEDIANA (HETEROPODIDAE : ARANEAE) SIMON

FROM CENTRAL AND NORTHERN AUSTRALIA

DAVID B. HIRST

Summary

Four new species of Pediana Simon, P. longbottomi, P. paradoxa, P. temmei and P. webberae, are

described from central and northern Australia. All exhibit characters which uniquely bond them as a

further group within the genus Pediana. A new locality record for P. regina (L. Koch) and revised

key to species are given.

NEW SPECIES OF PEDIANA (HETEROPODIDAE: ARANEAE) SIMON FROM CENTRAL

AND NORTHERN AUSTRALIA.

DAVID B. HIRST

HIRST, D. B. 1996. New species of Pediana (Heteropodidae: Araneae) Simon from central and

northern Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 29(2): 153-164.

Four new species of Pediana Simon, P. longbottomi, P. paradoxa, P. temmei and P.

webberae, are described from central and northern Australia. All exhibit characters which

uniquely bond them as a further group within the genus Pediana. A new locality record for P.

regina (L. Koch) and revised key to species are given.

D. B. Hirst, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia, 5000.

Manuscript received | March 1996.

The genus Pediana Simon, 1880 was revised by

Hirst (1989) with the redescription of the four

known Australian species and later Hirst (1995)

described a further species from one female from

south-western Northern Territory. Material

received since from the Northern Territory

Museum, the Western Australian Museum and

other material discovered in or collected recently

for the South Australian Museum collection,

contained four more species of Pediana

remarkably distinct from those previously known.

Pediana was considered (Hirst 1989) to have a

relatively high convex carapace, a pointed dorsal

ridge on the male tibial apophysis, and female

spermathecal sacs, when present, extended

posteriorly under the fossa. Unique characters

found in the new species, males sometimes

lacking a pointed dorsal ridge on the tibial

apophysis, a low posterior carapacial area

sometimes present in the female, anteriorly

directed spermathecal sacs of known females and

spinnerets positioned subapically on a more

elongate abdomen of all species have necessitated

amendments to the generic diagnosis (see below).

A new group, the webberae group, is erected for

the new species and contains two species-pairs.

MartTERIALS AND METHODS

Leg indices are leg length excluding coxa and

trochanter divided by length of carapace. The

penultimate stage and poor condition of the male

of P. webberae do not allow for adequate

comparative measurements and these are kept to a

minimum. Other materials and methods are given

in Hirst (1989, 1991). Abbreviations. /nstitutions:

NTM, Northern Territory Museum; SAMA,

South Australian Museum, Adelaide; SMF,

Natur-Museum Senckenberg, Frankfurt, Germany;

WAM, Western Australian Museum, Perth.

Morphology: AE, anterior eyes; PE, posterior

eyes; MOQ, median ocular quadrangle; L or 1,

length; W, width. Other abbreviations used in

description are standard for the Araneae.

SYSTEMATICS

Genus Pediana Simon

Pediana Simon, 1880: 258. For full synonymy list

see Hirst 1989: 113.

Diagnosis

Carapace relatively high; flat above and

declivity posterior to fovea or rarely with declivity

anterior of fovea. ALE largest, occasionally males

with AME largest; AE row recurved, PE row

procurved; lateral eyes raised on low common

mound; MOQ longer than wide or occasionally

wider than long. Legs 2143 or 1243, anterior pairs

being subequal. Abdomen oval with spinnerets

apical or elongate and reaching more than twice

as long as wide, obtusely pointed posteriorly with

spinnerets subapical at least in females. Male palp

with embolus coiled once or two and a half or five

times, coil stack wide and of low profile. Palpal

tibia with large retrolateral distal apophysis

having a raised dorsal basal ridge or ridge not

raised but extended dorsally on_ tibia.

Spermathecal sacs projecting to posterior or to

anterior, or absent.

154 D. B. HIRST

ReEvIseD Key To Species OF PEDIANA OF AUSTRALIA

Female

1 — Abdomen elongate, bluntly pointed posterior,

spinnerets subapical (Fig. 3).........ceeee 2

— Abdomen oval, rounded posterior, spinnerets

APICAL aevsketel Aha: dys eess isso: Becetesgeted feos he 4

2 — Carapace relatively flat; spermathecal sacs

originate from posterior of fertilization duct

— Carapace with steep declivity anterior of

fovea; spermathecal sacs originate anterior

of fertilization duct....... webberae, sp. nov.

3 — Dorsal carapacial and abdominal stripe

lacking (Fig. 15) «0.0.0... temmei, sp. nov.

— Dorsal carapacial and abdominal stripe

present (Fig. 20)........... paradoxa, sp. nov.

4 — Anterior tibiae usually with 1 dorsal spine

and 2 ventral spine pairs; insemination ducts

lightly sclerotised with 2-4% coils,

spermathecal sacs present ........... cesses 5

— Anterior tibiae usually with 2 dorsal spines

and 3 ventral spine pairs; insemination ducts

heavily sclerotised with 5 coils, spermathecal

SaCsiabsenlh foci leached We sysegrbereseseaseey 7

5 — Venter of abdomen with yellow setae, bases

of femora not black ventrally ................... 6

— Venter of abdomen with orange setae, bases

of femora black ventrally ..........00.eee

6 — Leg femora conspicuously spotted, legs and

body with variably coloured setae, epigynum

small, insemination ducts with 2% coils....

sghindle Hae Rs Baga ENE sous occidentalis Hogg

— Leg femora inconspicuously spotted, legs

and body with yellow-white setae, epigynum

relatively large, insemination ducts with 414

CONS ee eletetetteeeaysrvssaseodneeaaces mainae Hirst

7 — _ Anterior femora with white spots; epigynum

broad posteriorly 00.00... horni Hogg

— Anterior femora reddish ventrally; epigynum

narrows posteriorly ............0+ tenuis Hogg

Male

1 — Embolus with 1-1% coils ...... ee 2

— Embolus with 2% coils or more ............... 3

Carapace 3—4x longer than high with slight

declivity anterior of fovea (Fig. 7); tibial

apophysis with raised dorsal ridge (Fig. 9)

Fy ie chat tn etl Fe A, webberae, sp. nov.

Carapace 5x longer than high, flat (Fig. 10);

tibial apophysis lacking raised dorsal ridge

at base of apophysis (Fig. 13) wo...

adits sues ete oe longbottomi, sp. nov.

Embolus with 2%— 2% coils «0.0.0... 4

Embolus with 5 coils ........cccccccccceeeeeeeees 7

Abdomen elongate (L = 2x W); median

apophysis extends away from base of

embolus:(Fig: [8) 1.0.2. vcgatecdiadaasaleiive 5

Abdomen rounded or oval (L = 1%x W);

median apophysis adjacent base of embolus

(Hirst-19893 fig. 6): i seccdestiagelavsajeeetessee 6

Dorsal carapacial and abdominal stripe

lacking; dorsal ridge of tibial apophysis with

apex curved (Fig. 19) ....... temmei, Sp. nov.

Dorsal carapacial and abdominal stripe

present; dorsal ridge of tibial apophysis with

apex straight (Fig. 25) .......eceseeeeeeeseeeees

Embolic base with small median apophysis

Bis aeehdtts ini ited ths serach ys regina L. Koch

Embolic base with broad median apophysis

ahduaberyabhtdeeeu dna seater qaeetas occidentalis Hogg

Dorsal ridge of tibial apophysis with apex

CULVER So sss soyces ouvg Seottea verter ver horni Hogg

Dorsal ridge of tibial apophysis with apex

Straight as eat ea ites tenuis Hogg

Pediana webberae, sp. nov.

(Figs 1—9, 26; Table 1)

Types

Holotype @, Darwin, (12°27'S 130°50'E),

Northern Territory, Dec. 1992, J. Webber, NTM

A-81.

Non-type

3, no data, SAMA N1994649.

Diagnosis

Colour and pattern typical for Pediana species.

Carapace with declivity anterior of fovea; AME of

male may be largest; posterior eyes relatively

small, subequal; MOQ wider than long. Leg spine

bases raised on low mound at least on femora;

NEW SPECIES OF PEDIANA 155

FIGURES 1-9. Pediana webberae, sp. nov. 1-6, holotype female. 1, carapace, lateral; 2, sternum; 3, abdomen, venter;

4, leg LV, right dorsal; 5, epigynum, cleared; 6, vulva, dorsal. 7-9, male. 7, carapace, lateral; 8, left palp cymbium and

tibia, ventral; 9, tibial apophysis, retrolateral. Scale lines; Figs 1-4, 7, Imm, Figs 6, 8, 9, 0.5mm. c, conductor; dr, dorsal

ridge; e, embolus; fd, fertilization duct; id, insemination duct; ma, median apophysis: ss, spermathecal sac.

156

posterior legs with brushes of long setae

proventrally. Male embolus with just over |

complete coil. Female epigynum relatively large,

spermathecal sacs project anteriorly, insemination

ducts with 1% lightly sclerotised coils.

Description

Female. CL 7.48, CW 7.47. AL 9.15, AW 4.90.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace red-brown, striae

darker, numerous short black setae; caput dark in

ocular area, white and yellow setae; clypeus with

orange setae. Chelicerae red-brown, long yellow

setae, basal half with short white setae. Maxillae

and labium black but anterior margin pale.

Sternum; anterior orange with long orange setae,

medially with black ‘x’ pattern (Fig. 2), posterior

tip yellow. Legs yellow, femora I-III ventrally

with 2 rows of white spots formed of short

adpressed setae; posterior legs with numerous

long setae on tibia III, femur, tibia and metatarsi

IV. Abdomen dorsum and venter (Fig. 3) typical.

Eyes: AME 0.48. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

1.04: 0.67: 0.69. Interspaces; AME-AME 0.65,

AME-ALE 0.50, PME-PME 1.98, PME—PLE

1.69, AME-PME 1.35, ALE-PLE 1.21. MOQ,

aw: pw: | = 2.65: 3.31: 3.02. Width of clypeus to

AME 0.61.

Labium: L 1.02, W 1.47. Sternum: L 3.79, W

3.08.

Legs: (Table 1) Anterior leg indices; I = 3.6, I

=3.5.

Spination: As for the P. horni group but, tibiae

III and IV have 2 dorsal spines, tibia IV lacks the

distal ventral spine pair.

Epigynum: Lateral rim rounded anteriorly;

anterior of fossa recessed. Vulva with small

spermathecal sacs projecting from anterior of

fertilization duct (Fig. 5), insemination ducts with

1% lightly sclerotised coils (Fig. 6).

Male. CL 4.78, CW 4.41. AL 7.65, AW 3.00.

Outer skin lifted in readiness for the sloughing

process. Most setae lost from outer skin. Caput

lower with only a gradual declivity to fovea (Fig.

7); AME appear largest on adult skin but

TABLE 1. Leg measurements of Pediana webberae, sp.

nov. Values are for holotype female

Leg I Leg2 Leg3 Leg4 Palp

Femur 8.12 8.09 5.79 7.64 2.85

Patella 3.24 3.23 2.62 2.71 1.42

Tibia 6.45 6.29 4.78 5.69 1.51

Metatarsus 6.58 6.22 3.89 5.88 ~

Tarsus 2.21 2.14 1.73 1.96 2.20

Total 26.60 25.97 18.81 23.88 7.98

D. B. HIRST

asymmetrical due to softness; posterior of

abdomen less rounded than in the female,

extending in a point beyond spinnerets; leg femora

not as obviously tuberculate.

Colour in alcohol: As in female but faded.

Corresponding areas of black on female are brown

on the male.

Palps: Unhardened pre-moult condition,

although fully formed under epidermis final shape

and position of various sclerites within cymbium

may not be complete; conductor originates

prodistally as in the regina group but instead of

having two coils is short with a curled tip;

embolus with a little over 1 coil (Fig. 8); tibial

apophysis more than 2x length of tibia, broad with

straight pointed dorsal ridge on base (Fig. 9).

Distribution

Known only from Darwin, Northern Territory

(Fig. 26).

Remarks

The male is excluded from the type material. It

is assumed to have been collected at the beginning

of this century and is in poor condition. It is

penultimate but removal of the outer epidermis

reveals a soft, yet apparently fully formed adult

beneath. Although the carapace shape and

tuberculate leg femora closely associate the male

with the female of P. webberae it is not

unequivocally conspecific. The male of P.

webberae differs from P. /ongbottomi in the

carapace shape, the tuberculate leg femora, in

having a pointed dorsal ridge at the base of a

broader palpal tibial apophysis and smaller venter

badge markings. P. webberae further differs from

P. temmei and P. paradoxa in the male embolic

coils and female spermathecal sacs.

Etymology

The species is named after Ms J. Webber

(NTM), collector of the holotype.

Pediana longbottomi, sp. nov.

(Figs 10-13, 26; Table 2)

Type

Holotype ¢, Drysdale River Stn (15°42'S

126°22'E), Xavier River area, Western Australia,

8—12.1x.1993, A.F. Longbottom (S.1366), WAM

94/1673.

Non-types

Juvenile, same data as holotype but (S.1367),

NEW SPECIES OF PEDIANA 157

FIGURES 10-13. Pediana longbottomi, sp. nov. Male. 10, carapace, lateral; 11, abdomen, venter; 12-13, left palp

cymbium and tibia, 12, ventral; 13, retrolateral. Scale lines; Figs 10-11, Imm, Figs 12—13, 0.5mm. dr, dorsal ridge.

WAM 94/1675; juv., same data as holotype but

Diamond Waterhole, 1.viii.1993, amongst

vegetation, (S.1311), WAM 94/1674.

Diagnosis

Male: Colour and pattern typical for Pediana

species but venter with large black patches.

Carapace flat. AME largest, PME relatively small.

Leg femora not conspicuously tuberculate. Tibial

apophysis relatively narrow with long low ridge

extending to dorsal of tibia; embolus with 1% coil.

Female unknown.

Description

Male. CL 6.03, CW 4.91. AL 8.92, AW 3.74.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace and chelicerae red-

brown, short black, grey and orange setae,

adpressed on carapace, upright on chelicerae.

Maxillae and labium dark brown. Sternum dark

brown but posterior tip pale. Legs brown; brown-

black stout setae and adpressed fine white setae;

spines on femora short, weak. Abdomen dorsally

typical; venter with large black patches (Fig. 11).

Eyes: AME 0.42. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

0.95: 0.69: 0.79. Interspaces; AME—AME 0.36,

AME-ALE 0.07, PME-PME 0.98, PME-PLE

1.26, AME-PME 1.02, ALE-PLE 1. MOQ, aw:

pw: | = 2.36: 2.36: 2.71. Width of clypeus to

AME 0.60.

Labium: L 0.92, W 1.08. Sternum: L 3.01, W

2.43.

Legs: (Table 2) Anterior leg indices; | = 5.6, II

=5.5,

TABLE 2. Leg measurements of Pediana longbottomi, sp.

nov. Values are for holotype male

LegI Leg2 Leg3 Leg4 Palp

Femur 10.08 9.92 6.89 9.78 2.16

Patella 3.16 3.13 2.43 2.55) 1:03

Tibia 9.03 9.04 6.19 8.09 = 1.22

Metatarsus 8.81 8.45 5.06 882-0 =

Tarsus 2.60 2.75 1.82 2.27 2.34

Total 33.29 22.39 31.51 6.75

33.68

158 D. B. HIRST

Spination: As for the P. horni group, but tibia

IV lacking the distal ventral spine pair.

Palps: Embolus with 14 coil (Fig. 12), embolic

base with high distal ridge; tibial apophysis with

low ridge extending to dorsal of tibia (Fig. 13).

Distribution

Known only from Drysdale River Station in

Western Australia (Fig. 26).

Remarks

P. longbottomi differs from all known male

Pediana in lacking a sharply raised dorsal ridge to

the tibial apophysis base. It further differs from P.

webberae in the male tibial apophysis being

narrower, in having the embolic base extended

distally and larger ventral abdominal black

patches. In the male of P. /ongbottomi the

posterior of the abdomen (Fig. 11) is less extended

and the legs are not so markedly tuberculate as in

P. webberae. However, two juveniles from the

same locality possess those characters indicating

that they may also be present in the female P.

longbottomi. Those juveniles do not have a high

caput with steep declivity anteriorly to fovea, nor

do they possess brushes of setae on leg IV.

Etymology

The species is named after Mr A. F.

Longbottom who collected the material.

Pediana temmei, sp. nov.

(Figs 14-19, 26; Table 3)

Types

Holotype ¢, 9.5 km SSE Ampeinna Hills,

(27°09'S 131°09'E), South Australia, 22.i11.1995,

D. Hirst, SAMA N19951.

Allotype 2, 11.5 km SSW of Ampeinna Hills,

(27°11'S 131°05'E), South Australia, 24.11.1995,

D. Hirst, SAMA N19952.

Paratypes; 2, same data as allotype, SAMA

N19953; 2 6, 10 km E of Ampeinna Hills,

(27°05'S 131°13'E), South Australia, 23.ii1.1995,

D. Hirst, SAMA N19954—5.

Diagnosis

Colour grey or grey-black, venter of abdomen

lacks conspicuous black patch anterior to

spinnerets. Carapace highest posteriorly. ALE

largest. Leg femora spines short except distally.

Abdomen extended posteriorly beyond spinnerets

in female. Male embolus with 2% coils; dorsal

ridge of tibial apophysis with curved apex. Female

spermathecal sacs small, projecting anteriorly

from beneath anterior sector of fossa; insemination

ducts with 2% lightly sclerotised coils.

Description

Male. CL 4.34, CW 3.76. AL 4.31, AW 2.10.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace brown, ocular area

darker, numerous uniform short black, white and

orange setae. Chelicerae red-brown, long white

setae. Maxillae and labium brown-black. Sternum;

brown with black suffusion, grey setae. Coxae and

most part of legs yellow—brown with black

suffusion, legs III] darker; anterior femora

ventrally with white spots formed of short

adpressed setae; long setae on legs not numerous.

Abdomen somewhat shrunken; venter with black

patch posterior to epigastric furrow, few black

spots medially, suffusion anterior of spinnerets.

Eyes: AME 0.34. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

1.15: 0.82: 0.88. Interspaces; AME-AME 0.32,

AME-ALE 0.12, PME-PME 1.12, PME-PLE

1.41, AME-PME 1.24, ALE-PLE 1.12. MOQ,

aw: pw: | = 2.32: 2.76: 3.03. Width of clypeus to

AME 0.59.

Labium: L 0.65, W 0.74. Sternum: L 2.14, W

1.78.

Legs: (Table 3) Anterior leg indices; 6.

Spination: As in P. /ongbottomi but | spine on

anterior tibiae.

Palps: Embolus with 2% coils (Fig. 18); tibial

apophysis narrow, dorsal ridge with curved point

on apex (Fig. 19).

Female. CL 6.41, CW 5.38. AL 9.96, AW 4.89.

Colour in alcohol: As male but carapace with

dense setae; white setae anterior to and posterior

of AME. Chelicerae dark brown with short setae

present on basal half. Maxillae and labium darker.

Abdomen with dense short setae dorsally as on

carapace but arranged in opposing directions to

form a pattern (Fig. 15); venter with dull orange-

brown badge with larger black patch posterior to

epigastric furrow and more spots of black setae.

Eyes: AME 0.44. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

1.20: 0.91: 0.91. Interspaces; AME-AME 0.41,

AME-ALE 0.18, PME-PME 1.18, PME—-PLE

1.55, AME-PME 1.39, ALE-PLE 1.23. MOQ,

aw: pw: | = 2.41: 3.00: 3.23. Width of clypeus to

AME 0.73.

Labium: L 1.00, W 1.23. Sternum: L 2.94, W

2.38.

Legs: (Table 3) Anterior leg indices; 3.4.

Spination: As male but patellae III and IV lack

a prolateral spine.

NEW SPECIES OF PEDIANA 159

Dros R

‘Se S 2 ~Y Ss NI aa

Za Ate. y :

FIGURES 14-19. Pediana temmei, sp.nov. 14—15, female abdomen and carapace, 14, lateral, 15, dorsal; 16-17, female

epigynum, 16, cleared, ventral, 17, vulva, dorsal; 18-19, male, left palp cymbium and tibia, 18, ventral; 19, retrolateral.

Scale lines; Figs 14-15, Imm, Figs 16-19, 0.5mm. f, fossa.

Epigynum: Fertilization ducts sharply bent just under anterior margin of fossa and projecting

posteriorly (Fig. 17). Vulva with small anteriorly (Fig. 16), insemination ducts with 2%

spermathecal sacs rising from fertilization duct lightly sclerotised coils (Fig. 17).

160 D. B. HIRST

TABLE 3. Leg measurements of Pediana temmei, sp. nov. Values are for holotype male with allotype female in

parentheses

Leg! Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 4 Palp

Femur 7.96 ( 6.78) 7.91 ( 6.79) 5.48 ( 4.74) 7.95 ( 6.89) 1.62 (2.15)

Patella 2.29 ( 2.69) 2.29 ( 2.72) 1.78 ( 2.13) 1.93 ( 2.22) 0.76 (1.11)

Tibia 6.73 ( 5.12) 6.71 ( 5.16) 4.19 ( 3.40) 6.16 ( 4.81) 0.88 (1.27)

Metatarsus 6.99 ( 5.28) 6.80 ( 5.11) 4.04 ( 3.29) 7.14 ( 5.35) - -

Tarsus 2.01 ( 1.69) 2.02 ( 1.70) 1.43 ( 1.25) 1.82 ( 1.70) 1.83 (2.08)

Total 25.98 (21.56) 25.73 (21.48) 16.92 (14.81) 25.00 (20.97) 5.09 (6.61)

Variation apophysis with straight apex. Female

Carapace length of paratype males, 4.59 and

4.23; of paratype female 6.15.

Distribution

Known only from undulating sandplain country

of the Great Victoria Desert in north-western

South Australia (Fig. 26).

Remarks

Male P. temmei lack a posteriorly extended

abdomen, while that of the female is only slightly

extended (Fig. 14). P. temmei differs from all

other Pediana species in lacking a ‘typical’ dorsal

stripe. P. temmei is similar to P. horni in having a

curved apical point on the dorsal ridge at the base

of the male tibial apophysis but differs in embolic

coiling as well as abdomen pattern.

Etymology

The specific epithet is used in recognition of the

assistance and generosity given to the

Arachnology Section by Dr Paul Temme, a

member of the Waterhouse Club which supports

the South Australian Museum.

Pediana paradoxa, sp. nov.

(Figs 20-26; Table 4)

Types

Holotype 3, in Hakea nr rockhole, 18.5 km

WNW Ungarinna Rockhole, (26°56'S 131°29'E),

South Australia, 15.111.1995, D. Hirst, SAMA

N19956.

Allotype 2, same data as holotype, SAMA

N19957.

Diagnosis

Colour grey with black dorsal striping, venter

lacks black patch anterior of spinnerets. Carapace

highest posteriorly. ALE largest. Abdomen

extended posteriorly beyond spinnerets. Male

embolus with 2% coils; dorsal ridge of tibial

spermathecal sacs small, projecting anteriorly

from just outside anterior margin of fossa;

insemination ducts with 2% lightly sclerotised

coils.

Description

Male. CL 4.22, CW 3.78. AL 6.26, AW 2.70.

Colour in alcohol: Carapace brown, ocular area

darker, numerous short black setae form a stripe

medially, narrowly divided anteriorly by grey

setae; laterals with adpressed grey-white setae.

Chelicerae red-brown, long white setae. Maxillae

and labium brown with dark brown suffusion.

Sternum brown with darker suffusion, grey-white

setae. Coxae and most parts of legs yellow-brown

with blackish suffusion, legs II] darker with

numerous short black setae; anterior femora

ventrally with white spots formed of short

adpressed setae. Abdomen grey with numerous

grey-white and golden setae. Black setae form a

dorsal stripe broken medially and then wedge-

shaped interspersed with golden setae; venter

badge area yellow with black patch posterior to

epigastric furrow, few grey spots medially, black

suffusion anterior of spinnerets, patches of black

and pale red suffusion lateral to badge area.

Eyes: AME 0.33. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

1.12: 0.85: 0.85. Interspaces; AME-AME 0.33,

AME-ALE 0.09, PME-PME 1.27, PME-PLE

1.36, AME-PME 1.30, ALE-PLE 1.06. MOQ,

aw: pw: | = 2.33: 2.97: 3.09. Width of clypeus to

AME 0.67.

Labium: L 0.59, W 0.72. Sternum: L 2.14, W

1.78.

Legs: (Table 4) Anterior leg indices; 6.

Spination: As in P. longbottomi but patella 1V

lacks prolateral spine.

Palps: Embolus with 2% coils (Fig. 24); tibial

apophysis narrow, dorsal ridge with straight

pointed apex (Fig. 25).

Female. CL 5.99, CW 5.28. AL 8.30, AW 3.75.

Colour in alcohol: As male but carapace with

dense setae. Chelicerae with short orange setae on

NEW SPECIES OF PEDIANA 161

FIGURES 20-25. Pediana paradoxa, sp. nov. 20, female abdomen and carapace, dorsal; 21, female abdomen, venter;

22-23, female epigynum, 22, cleared, ventral, 23, vulva, dorsal; 24-25, male, left palp cymbium and tibia, 24, ventral:

25, retrolateral. Scale lines; Figs 20-21, Imm, Figs 22—25, 0.5mm.

basal half. Maxillae and labium brown with black

suffusion. Abdomen (Fig. 20) with more

numerous golden setae; venter with shiny black

setae posterior to epigastric furrow; mixed white

and red setae and spots of black setae (Fig. 21).

Eyes: AME 0.39. AME: ALE: PME: PLE = 1:

1.33: 0.92: 0.92. Interspaces; AME-AME 0.51,

AME-ALE 0.02, PME-PME 1.31, PME-PLE

1.85, AME-PME 0.51, ALE-PLE 0.52. MOQ,

aw: pw: | = 2.51: 3.15: 3.26. Width of clypeus to

AME 0.77.

Labium: L 0.92, W 1.13. Sternum: L 2.82, W

2.23.

Legs: (Table 4) Anterior leg indices; 3.5.

162 D. B. HIRST

TABLE 4. Leg measurements of Pediana paradoxa, sp. nov. Values are for holotype male with allotype female in

parentheses

Leg! Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 4 Palp

Femur 7.71 ( 6.83) 7.72 ( 6.82) 5.17 ( 4.72) 7.86 ( 6.94) 1.68 (2.03)

Patella 2.23 ( 2.64) 2.21 ( 2.61) 1.74 ( 2.09) 1.79 ( 2.10) 0.66 (1.05)

Tibia 6.76 ( 5.29) 6.65 ( 5.25) 4.01 ( 3.48) 6.04 ( 4.91) 0.89 (1.24)

Metatarsus 6.74 ( 4.87) 6.62 ( 4.88) 3.79 ( 3.03) 6.97 ( 5.31) - -

Tarsus 1.83 ( 1.53) 1.81 ( 1.55) 1.40 ( 1.38) 1.82 ( 1.52) 1.74 (1.95)

Total 25.27 (21.16) 25.01 (21.11) 16.11 (14.70) 24.48 (20.78) 4.97 (6.27)

FIGURE 26. Distribution of species of the Pediana webberae group: P. webberae @; P. longbottomi @; P. temmei @;

P. paradoxa .

NEW SPECIES OF PEDIANA 163

Spination: As male but tibia II] with | dorsal

spine and patella IV with prolateral spine.

Epigynum: Similar to P. temmei but narrower;

vulva with longer spermathecal sacs (Fig. 22),

insemination ducts with 2% lightly sclerotised

coils (Fig. 23).

Distribution

Known only from undulating sandplain country

of the Great Victoria Desert in north-western

South Australia (Fig. 26).

Remarks

P, paradoxa is most similar to P. temmei from

which it differs in colour, in the male tibial

apohysis having a straight-edged triangular

shaped apex to the dorsal ridge, in the embolic

base and female spermathecal sacs. Both P.

paradoxa and P. temmei could be confused with

P. occidentalis which has similar coiling of the

male embolus and female insemination ducts, but

P. occidentalis has an oval shaped abdomen,

apical spinnerets, differences in the male embolic

base and large posteriorly directed female

spermathecal sacs.

Etymology

The specific epithet is taken from the Latin

(paradox) and reflects both the puzzling similarity

between this species and P. temmei and their

‘side-by-side’ distribution.

Pediana regina L. Koch

New Record

2, W.A., King David River area, Drysdale

River Stn (15°42'S 126°22'E), 15.viii.1993, A.F.

Longbottom (S.1282), on tree, WAM 94/1695.

Apart from the longer spermathecal sacs of this

female it cannot be separated from P. regina. All

previous records are from eastern Australia,

however Strand (1913) described a male and a

penultimate female as a variety from Central

Australia. Hirst (1989) placed those specimens in

P. horni (Hogg) based on the description given by

Strand. The specimens (in SMF) have since been

seen and indeed belong to P. horni.

DISCUSSION

The female of P. webberae has a relatively high

caput, as is usual for previously known species of

the genus, but which differs markedly in having a

steep declivity to a low cephalic portion (Fig. 1),

a modification of the cephalothorax unknown in

an Australian heteropodid. However, the carapace

of the male P. webberae has but a gradual

declivity (Fig. 7) more comparable with that of its

sister-species, P. /Jongbottomi (Fig. 10). Forward

projection of the spermathecal sacs in the female

is not uncommon in the heteropodids as it occurs

in Zachria L. Koch (Hirst 1991) and 7ypostola

Simon (Hirst in prep.). However, in those species

the spermathecal sacs originate from the

fertilization ducts after the latter have curved into

the fossa cavity and rise from the posterior side of

the curve. The spermathecal sacs then arc to the

anterior. While the spermathecal sacs of P.

temmei and P. paradoxa rise from the fertilization

ducts as they curve under the fossa (Figs 16, 22)

nearer to the ‘normal’ position seen in most

Australian Deleninae genera which possess

spermathecal sacs, in P. webberae the

spermathecal sacs originate before the fertilization

ducts curve to enter the fossa cavity (Figs 5, 6). In

all new species the abdomen is more elongate and

extends posteriorly beyond the spinnerets (Fig. 3).

Subapical spinnerets are also known in one

species of Delena Walckenaer but which has an

oval abdomen (pers. obs.). Subapical spinnerets

have not previously been recorded in the

Heteropodidae to my knowledge.

Further differences in P. webberae and P.

longbottomi are not unique but noteworthy.

Firstly, the setose posterior legs of the female P.

webberae are distinctive (the poor condition of the

only known male of this species excludes

consideration here) having a_ brush-like

appearance proventrally on the femur and tibia of

leg IV and to some degree on the tibia of leg III.

Although species of the P. horni group also have

long setae on the ventral surface of leg IV (Hirst

1989) these setae are sparse. However long setae

are more numerous on anterior legs of P. tenuis

Hogg. Secondly, an elevation proximal to, and

including the base of each leg spine, gives a

tuberculate appearance (Fig. 4). This is most

noticeable on the femora of P. webberae and can

be seen in the male of P. /ongbottomi to a lesser

degree. Lastly, the posterior eyes are smaller than

in other species and, as the width of the posterior

row is relatively the same, posterior eye

interspaces are greater. Furthermore, the AME are

largest in the male of P. /ongbottomi. Resolution

of the AME size of the male P. webberae (see

earlier) must await the availability of further

material but certainly the AME of P. webberae

are relatively larger than those of other known

female Pediana.

164

Insemination ducts of the female and embolus

of the male P. webberae have little more than one

coil (Figs 6, 8) as in the embolus of the male P.

longbottomi. Both are also similar in having the

abdomen produced well beyond the level of the

posterior spinnerets, in the carapace being low

posteriorly (Fig. 10) and in the somewhat

tuberculate legs. Males have a small embolic base

and a relatively large subtegulum which, when

viewed ventrally, is more exposed than in P.

temmei and P. paradoxa and the regina group.

However, carapace shape (Fig. 14) and coiling in

the genitalia of the sister-species P. temmei and P.

D. B. HIRST

paradoxa are most similar to the regina group but

both are more easily grouped with P. webberae

and P. longbottomi in having anteriorly directed

spermathecal sacs, an elongate abdomen and

subapical spinnerets.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank Dr G. R. Brown and Ms J. Webber

(NTM), and Dr M. S. Harvey and Ms J. Waldock

(WAM) for providing material. Dr M. Grasshoff (SMF)

kindly loaned the material of P. regina var. Mr L. N.

Nicolson commented on an early draft of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

HIRST, D. B. 1989. A Revision of the genus Pediana

Simon (Heteropodidae: Araneae) in Australia.

Records of the South Australian Museum 23(2): 113—

126.

HIRST, D. B. 1991. Revision of the Australian genera

Eodelena Hogg and Zachria L. Koch (Heteropodidae:

Araneae). Records of the South Australian Museum

25(1): 1-17.

HIRST, D. B. 1995. Further studies on the Australian

Heteropodidae (Araneae): A new species of Pediana

Simon, and description of the male Zachria flavicoma

L. Koch. Records of the Western Australian Museum

Supplement No. 52: 145-149.

SIMON, E. 1880. Révision de la famille des Sparassidae

(Arachnides). Actes de la Société Linnéenne de

Bordeaux 34: 223-351.

STRAND, E. 1913. Uber einige australische Spinnen des

senckenbergischen Museums. Zoologische Jahrbuche

(Systematik) 35: 599-624.