INECORIDS

Ole

pipieits!

SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN |

MUSEUM

VOLUMIE 32 PART 1

JULY 1999

CONTENTS

BARKER, S.

Designation of a lectotype and description of four new species of

Australian Buprestidae (Coleoptera).

CLARKE, P. A.

Waiyungari and his relationship to the Aboriginal mythology of the Lower

Murray, South Australia,

HENN, C. & CRAIG, B

The Pacific Cultures Gallery in the South Australian Museum.

HUTCHINSON, M. N. & DONNELLAN, S. C.

Genetic variation and taxonomy of the lizards assigned to Crenotus uber

orientalis Storr (Squamata: Scincidae) with description of a new species.

KEMPER, C. M. & SAMSON, C.R.

Southern right whale remains from 19th century whaling at Fowler Bay, South Australia.

LAWTON, R. S.

The chiefs of Kiriwina

OPRESKO, D. M.

New Species of Antipathes and Parantipathes (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Antipatharia)

from Coastal Waters of South Australia and Tasmania.

WATTS, C. H. S.

Revision of Australian Hydrochus (Coleoptera: Hydrochidae).

WATTS, C. H. S.

Rediscovery of Enochrus peregrinus in Australia (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae)

WATTS, C. H. S. & HUMPHREYS, W. F.

Three new genera and five new species of Dytiscidae (Coleoptera) from underground

waters in Australia.

Volume 32(1) was published on 25 August 1999.

Volume 32(2) was published on 20 December 1999,

ISSN 0376-2750

ERRATA for USHER paper: Vol 31(2)

p.221, column 2 and p.224, column 2: alter D6 to D17;

p.249, photo numbers: alter D6 to D17 and D17 to D6.

PAGES

45-49

51-67

69~89

173-189

155-172

91-118

143-154

119

121-142

REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS (COLEOPTERA :

HYDROCHIDAE)

C. H. S. WATTS

Summary

The Australian members of the hydrochid genus Hydrochus are revised and redescribed. Ten

species are described as new: H. abditus, H. aenigmatis, H. atratus, H. burdekinensis, H. decorus, H.

eurypleuron, H. cucullatus, H. macroaquilonius, H. numerosepunctatus and H. umbratilis. The

following synonymies are proposed: H. adelaidae Blackburn = H. victoriae Blackburn ; H. australis

Motschulksy = H. brunneonitens Lea = H. diversiceps Blackburn = H. parallelus MacLeay = H.

polaki Makhan = H. rambarani Makhan = H. regularis Blackburn = H. serricollis Lea; H.

aschnakiranae Makhan = H. schillihammeri Makhan; H. horni Blackburn = H. scabricollis Lea; H.

imamkhani Makhan = H. schoenmanni Makhan; H. multicolor Lea = H. matthewsi Makhan; H.

obscuroaeneus Fairmaire = H. insularis Lea = H. palmerstoni Blackburn = H. rodjani Makhan = H.

wewalkai Makhan; and H. simplicicollis Lea = H. verae Makhan. A key to the 25 Australian species

recognised in the genus is given.

REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS (COLEOPTERA: HYDROCHIDAE)

C.H.S. WATTS

WATTS, C. H. S. 1999. Revision of Australian Hydrochus (Coleoptera: Hydrochidae).

Records of the South Australian Museum 32(1): 1-43.

The Australian members of the hydrochid genus Hydrochus are revised and redescribed. Ten

species are described as new: H. abditus, H. aenigmatis, H. atratus, H. burdekinensis, H.

decorus, H. eurypleuron, H. cucullatus, H. macroaquilonius, H. numerosepunctatus and H.

umbratilis. The following synonymies are proposed: H. adelaidae Blackburn = H. victoriae

Blackburn; H. australis Motschulsky = H. brunneonitens Lea = H. diversiceps Blackburn = H.

parallelus MacLeay = H. polaki Makhan = H. rambarani Makhan = H. regularis Blackburn =

H. serricollis Lea; H. aschnakiranae Makhan = H. schillhammeri Makhan; H. horni Blackburn

=H. scabricollis Lea; H. imamkhani Makhan = H. schoenmanni Makhan; H. multicolor Lea =

A. matthewsi Makhan; H. obscuroaeneus Fairmaire = H. insularis Lea = H. palmerstoni

Blackburn = H. rodjani Makhan = H. wewalkai Makhan; and H simplicicollis Lea = H. verae

Makhan. A key to the 25 Australian species recognised in the genus is given.

C. H. S. Watts, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000,

Manuscript received 24 August 1998.

This is the first attempt to revise the

Australian Hydrochus Leach since Lea (1927)

tabulated the then known species and

described several new ones. The genus is the

only representative of the world-wide family

Hydrochidae in Australia. It is taxonomically

difficult. The species are numerous and

characters few and variable. They fly readily

to light which has resulted in large numbers

of specimens being available to me, in

contrast to earlier workers who had very

sparse and inadequate material, often

describing a species from a single individual.

Despite this advantage, or perhaps because of

it, I view this revision as very much a first

attempt at making some taxonomic sense of

the Hydrochus fauna of Australia, although I

do not claim that there is much phylogenetic

content to the work.

Individuals are often abundant in both still and

running water in all areas of Australia where some

surface water exists permanently, with the

apparent exception of the channel country of

south-west Queensland.

The collections from which specimens were

examined are listed under the following

abbreviations.

AM Australian Museum, Sydney

ANIC Australian National Insect Collection,

Canberra

BPBM _ Bishop Museum, Honolulu

BM(NH) Natural History Museum, London

CAL California Academy of Sciences, San

Francisco

FIELD Field Museum of Natural History,

Chicago

CLH Collection of Lars Heindrick, Berlin

DPIM Queensland Department of Primary

Industries, Mareeba

IRSNB _ Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles

de Belgique, Bruxelles

MCZ Museum of Comparative Zoology,

Harvard University, Cambridge

NHMW _ Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna

NMV Museum of Victoria, Melbourne

NTM Northern Territory Museum, Darwin

QM Queensland Museum, Brisbane

SAMA _ South Australian Museum, Adelaide

UQIC University of Queensland Insect

Collection, Brisbane

WAM Western Australian Museum, Perth

ZMM Zoological Museum, Moscow

The early taxonomy of Australian Hydrochus

(Blackburn 1898, Lea 1926) is based primarily

on the strength of grooves on the head, foveae

on the pronotum, and the relative strength of

punctures on the elytra. Having examined over

6 000 specimens it is clear that these characters

are very variable within species and of limited

taxonomic worth.

2 C.H.S. WATTS

Early authors were also hampered by the very

limited amount of material available, often

working with only one or two specimens at a time.

Makhan (1994, 1995) added characters of the

aedeagi but otherwise relied on this same range of

characters and a very limited number of

specimens.

Oliva (1995) working on South American

species also concentrated on dorsal surface

characters in conjunction with the male genitalia

but in addition used leg colour and spines on the

tibiae in a few cases. In Europe the strength of the

apical punctures on the elytra have proved useful

(Angus 1977).

CHARACTERS USED IN TuIs REVISION

Size

Australian Hydrochus vary in length from under

one millimetre to over four millimetres. Variation

in length within species is considerable: up to two

to three times in all those species where a good

number and geographic spread of specimens are

available.

Dorsal Surface

Head

I found no character of the head to be useful,

other than the strength of the setae (see later) and

of the Y- shaped epicranial suture to a very minor

degree. Blackburn (1898), and Lea (1926) used

the relative strength of three longitudinal grooves

on the back of the head as a key character. I found

the interspecific variation in this character, not to

mention its subjective nature, too great for it to be

used taxonomically.

Pronotum

Shape: Most Australian species have a similarly

shaped pronotum and hence this character has

been used sparingly.

Lateral edges: The degree of serration of the

pronotal edges can range from none to

considerable. This character is a direct reflection

of the degree of granulation of the pronotum and

has not been specifically used.

Epipleuron: In many Hydrochus species the

lateral edge of the pronotum is bent under by

almost ninety degrees. The width of this portion

and its distinctness from the top of the pronotum

varies considerably between species and species

groups, yet variation within species appears to be

only moderate.

Anterior edge: In one species (H. cucullatus)

the front edge of the pronotum for nearly three

quarters of its length is noticeably thickened and

hence raised. In all other species this thickening

does not occur.

Punctures and granulation: Many Australian

species have well developed peg-like granules on

the pronotum (and head and elytra). These are

positioned in the areas between the punctures and

are usually about half the diameter of a puncture.

The punctures themselves are relatively large and

usually close together. In many species the

granulations, particularly on the head, appear as if

they are worn down like teeth, and are very low

with a smooth flat surface. When the granules are

well developed they can completely mask the

underlying punctures. The relative mix and

strengths of punctures and granules can vary

enormously within species. There are species

which appear not to have granules and an

occasional species (e.g. H. umbratilis) that seem

always to be strongly granulate. In the bulk of

species however the relative mix of punctures and

granules is too variable to use as a taxonomic

character.

Foveae: A number of relatively large, shallow,

depressed areas are found in many species. The

boundaries of these foveae may be outlined by

raised areas which are sometimes further

accentuated by being devoid of punctures or

granules. Variation within species is considerable

and is usually too great to allow the foveae to be

used to separate species but they have a limited

use in delineating species groups.

Elytra

Striae and interstriae: All Hydrochus have

clearly defined linear striae which are punctate,

separated by interstriae which are impunctate. As

far as I can tell the number of striae and number

of punctures in each stria do not vary between

species. The strial punctures vary considerably

within species as to size, which limits the use of

this character taxonomically. In all species the

diameter of the punctures is less at each end of a

stria and in most cases is relatively uniform over

the rest of the stria (and also between adjacent

striae). In a few cases the punctures continue to

increase in diameter towards the disc and

occasionally vary between adjacent striae.

The interstrial areas can be smooth or granulate,

with granules placed at the four corners of a

puncture, which may have a somewhat squared

rather than rounded shape. As on the pronotum,

the strength and number of these granules can

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 3

vary from a few vestigial ones laterally to masking

the punctures over the whole elytron. Again the

large intraspecific variation limits the taxonomic

usefulness of this character. Some interstrial areas

are often raised, either partially or completely, and

despite the usual large degree of variation, have

proved of some taxonomic value.

Striae are numbered starting from the innermost

stria. The first interstria is between striae one and

two.

Plicae: In many Hydrochus there is a short

raised portion of interstria eight just behind the

middle. The degree to which the rest of interstria

eight is raised and hence incorporates this

structure is variable and is of some use in

delineating species groups.

Apical punctures: A series of three to four

punctures near the tip of each elytron are often

differentially enlarged, and sometimes bounded

behind by a raised area on the elytron. At the

extreme tip there may be another one or two

unusually large punctures. These punctures vary

considerably between species and, unfortunately,

also within most species.

Setae: Small, stout, pale setae are found on the

elytra of a number of species. In most species, if

present, they are restricted to the extreme apex of

each elytron but in a few species they are also

found on the interstriae over relatively large areas

of the elytra. Similar setae are present in some

species on the head and in one or two species on

the pronotum as well.

Colour: The dorsal colour, particularly the

presence/absence and pattern of elytral spots has

proved a useful character. There is also a

pronounced polymorphism in many species within

my species group 2 where all or most of the dorsal

surface can be either golden, silver, steely grey,

testaceous or black within one species and often

within one population.

Ventral Surface

Palpi and antennae

I have not made a detailed study of the

antennae but I could find no obviously useful

characters.

The form and colour of both the maxillary and

labial palpi vary subtly between species. However

I have been unable to usefully harness this

variation, nor have I described it.

Legs

I have found the shape of the femora, the

amount of pubescence at the base of the femora

and the colour of the legs to be most useful

characters to separate both species and species

groups.

The profemora of most species are relatively

similar in shape but vary in degree of basal

pubescence. With the leg pointing forward, the

pubescence is greatest on the upper surface next

to the body. This surface is usually invisible with

the leg in place and I have not used this character.

On the lower surface the pubescence narrows to a

thin band along the base of the femur adjacent to

the trochanter. The area of the femur covered in

this pubescence varies from none to quite a bit. In

describing this I have compared the minimal

length of the area covered (usually in the middle

of the femur) with the width of the femur at that

point. Within species variation is relatively

moderate.

The mesofemora of different species vary

considerably in both shape and amount of basal

pubescence. Three main shapes are present: a

relatively short, stout, parallel - sided form (Fig.

3); a little more elongate somewhat sinuate form

with some narrowing towards the base (Fig. 4);

and an elongate strongly spindle-shaped form

greatly narrowed towards the base (Fig. 5). The

amount of pubescence at the base also varies.

With the leg pointed backwards the pubescence

on the lower surface varies considerably between

species but is relatively consistent within

species. Usually the edge of the area of

pubescence forms a C shape with the narrowest

portion in the middle of the lower surface and

the longest along the rear edge with a shorter

portion along the front edge. The pubescence

continues around the top surface of the leg but,

as for the profemur, I have not described this

surface since the variation is correlated with the

variation on the more easily seen lower portion.

In describing this character I have usually

compared the distance the pubescence reaches

along the rear edge of the femur with the width

of the femur at that point.

The degree of pubescence and the shape of the

femur are closely correlated. Thus strongly

spindle-shaped mesofemora have little basal

pubescence, stout mesofemora have a moderate

amount, and the relatively robust sinuate

mesofemora have a lot of pubescence.

There is some variation in the shape of the

metafemora which tends to mirror that of the

mesofemora. The upper side, with leg pointing

backwards, has pubescence to a third to half of its

length. The lower side lacks pubescence except

4 C.H.S. WATTS

for a small amount coming round from the upper

side to a slight degree in some species.

The colour of the legs has also proved useful.

Most species have legs which are testaceous with

the knees, apex of the tibiae, parts of the tarsi and

often much of the femora darker. Other species

have yellowish legs with only the tarsi with darker

portions. Within most species the degree of dark

and light areas is surprisingly consistent.

Elytra

In most beetles the lower edge of the elytron

has a narrow shelf-like portion, the epipleuron,

which is clearly differentiated from the top of the

elytron and turns sharply under the beetle. In most

Australian Hydrochus the epipleuron is broadened

by a modification of the most lateral stria of the

elytron which is also turned under to the same

degree as the epipleuron (Figs 6-8). As a

consequence the most lateral interstria (number

10) effectively becomes the edge of the elytron.

Within Australian species the proportion of the

underturned shelf formed by the true elytral

epipleuron and what is termed the

pseudoepipleuron formed from the elytron proper

varies considerably between species but within

species the relative widths of each do not vary

greatly..When describing this character I have

used isolated elytra since in the normal closed

position the epipleuron is partially hidden in front.

Towards the front of the epipleuron all species

have a shallow groove along the inner edge which

is part of the locking mechanism of the elytra.

This varies little between species.

In about the middle of the elytron under

interstria eight is a short robust shelf which locks

with a raised structure on the thorax when the

elytron is closed. This varies a bit in length and

inclination but I have not been able to use this

variation taxonomically.

Mesosternum

Like the rest of the ventral surface the

mesosternum is strongly sculptured. At the front

in the centre most species have two well -

separated longitudinal carinae (Fig. 1). The area

between them can be shallow or relatively deep

and can have a weak ‘+’ or ‘T’-shaped structure

within it. There is certainly a tendency for

different species to have particular patterns of

infill of this central region but not consistently

enough to be taxonomically useful.

Three species have a distinctly different

sculpture in this area. In these there are three

even, well marked, longitudinal carinae (Fig. 2).

Metasternum

The pattern of punctures on the metasternal

plates is very uniform across the Australian

members of the genus. The basic pattern consists

of 12 to 15 large, well separated punctures

arranged in lose rows and arcs. There is a

tendency, more marked in some species than in

others, for some or most of the punctures to split

into two without destroying the underlying

standard pattern. In one. species, H.

numerosepunctatus, the metasternum (and

mesosternum) is evenly covered with small to

moderate punctures with no discernible trace of

the basic pattern.

Abdominal sternites

These are strongly sculptured with raised front

margins, a central longitudinal raised carina, and

four large punctures and a further carina on each

side. Although there is variation in the strength of

this sculpture I have been unable to use it

taxonomically.

Aedeagus

The variation in form of the aedeagus within

Australian Hydrochus is not as extensive as that

shown by Hydrochus in other areas (Makhan

1994, Oliva 1995) and differences between

species are often slight. Nevertheless I have

used it extensively in this revision. In many

cases it proved the only reliable character to

separate close species. The basal piece is

usually parallel sided when viewed vertically

but in a number of species it narrows toward

the base and in others has a distinct twist.

Viewed laterally the basal piece in most species

is strongly curved upwards towards the base.

The apical piece, consisting of lateral parameres

and a central (or medial) lobe, is in all but a

couple of species shorter than the basal piece.

The central lobe varies considerably between

species in width and in length compared to the

parameres.

The aedeagi of all but one species, which is

identical to another, are illustrated by drawings

made with the help of a camera lucida. Where my

concept of the species includes a range of

aedeagus shapes the extremes are illustrated.

Virtually all drawings were made with the apical

piece closed up as in nature. In this configuration

the central gap between the parameres is neatly

filled by the central lobe. Ventral views are given

in all cases, which I considered give a slightly

better view of any development of the central

lobe.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS &

TYPES

The primary types, and most of the secondary

types, were examined unless specifically stated

otherwise. Blackburn and, to a lesser degree, Lea

seldom clearly designated a holotype in their

publications. They: did however in most cases

clearly mark a specimen with a ‘T’ or ‘Ty’or with

a TYPE label. In those cases were it is clear from

the original description that there was more than

one specimen before the author I have designated

the specimen marked as a type by the author as

the lectotype. In those cases where only one

specimen appears to be involved and it is clearly

labelled I have, of course, treated it as a holotype.

Key To Species Groups OF AUSTRALIAN HyDROCHUS

1.

Front of mesosternum in centre with

three longitudinal carinae (Fig. 2.)..........

t etbine clsslebdsNgwavbn og emecardhgeso fezazad adegg Group 1

Front of mesosternum in centre with two

longitudinal carinae (Fig. 1) ......... 2

Elytra with dark spots (may be masked in

dark specimens ) (Figs 9-11).

Mesofemur strongly to moderately

spindle-shaped, at base < two thirds its

greatest width (Fig. 5)... Group 2

Elytra without spots. Mesofemur

cylindrical or weakly spindle-shaped, at

base equal to or greater than two thirds

its greatest width (Figs 3, 4) ....0.. 3

Mesofemur cylindrical or weakly

spindle-shaped (Fig. 3). Basal

pubescence on mesofemur seldom

reaches much beyond apex of trochanter

(Fig. 3); pubescence on ventral surface

of profemur interrupted or reduced to a

very narrow band (Fig.3) .......... Group 3

Mesofemur weakly spindle-shaped (Fig.

4). Basal pubescence on mesofemur

usually reaches > one third of the width

of femur at that spot along its posterior

edge; basal pubescence on profemur

complete, reaching > quarter width of

femur along ventral surface (Fig. 4). ......

egakisensneminnebobenashsotbenntesfdeakapeianeiaes Group 4

Key To Species IN Group 1

Pronotum and elytra without granules,

except weakly at apex and sides, often

dull bronze/golden, elytra often with dark

spots, a subscutellar one prominent;

elytral apex constricted, squared off.

Northern ............. H. imamkhani Makhan

Pronotum and elytra granulate, without

dark spots, elytral apex rounded ........... 2

Elytral epipleuron as wide as

pseudoepipleuron anteriorly, never with

the elytral granules masking punctures ...

daua'eaifesovyst Fuad cebcat H. adelaidae Blackburn

Elytral epipleuron narrower than

pseudoepipleuron, often hardly visible

when elytra closed, never with weakly

granulate, strongly punctate elytra ..........

anscanuspageasvabfusbani sas H. umbratilis sp. nov.

Key To Species IN Group 2

Elytral epipleuron wide,

pseudoepipleuron lacking, or virtually

lacking, at least in front half (Fig. 8) ....2

Elytral pseudoepipleuron well marked, a

quarter width of epipleuron or more

CEIUGS 6,7 avesdecsteenetsctessrnna dethersttetaetvaabinas 3

Dorsally dark brown to black, without

elytral dark spots except very vague ones

in some specimens. Base of parameres

not narrower than top of basal piece of

aedeagus (Fig.17) .......eceecceeseeeseeeeeeeeeeees

dedesRtphdesamerstnaniienien H. eurypleuron sp. nov.

Dorsally usually iridescent green/gold,

elytral spots usually present, often well

marked. Base of parameres may be

narrower than top of basal piece of

aedeagus oe H. decorus sp. nov.

Yellow legs, apart from darker areas on

tarsi. May have black head and much

lighter pronotum. Never have: strongly

granulate elytra, moderate to strong

apical punctures, strongly serrated

elytron edge, length >3.4mm ................ 7

Legs with darker areas, particularly

knees and parts of femora and tarsi. May

have strongly granulate elytra, strongly

serrated elytron edge, moderate to

strongly developed apical punctures,

length >3.4mm. Never have: head

(black) and pronotum a different colour

UTMESSASHELAl ray vs. Asecets seeeesecvteceye Beatees 4

East coast south of Mackay. Aedeagus

with short broad central lobe (Fig.18).

Base of mesofemur narrowing to about

C.H.S. WATTS

two thirds of its greatest width. Basal

pubescence reaching well beyond end of

trochanter. Length 2.5 —3.1mm...............

ehsanadsaaettathect@igeiet H. aenigmatis sp. nov.

Northern. Aedeagus with longer central

lobe (Figs 9-22). Base of mesofemur

harrowing to about half of its greatest

width. Basal pubescence not reaching

beyond end of trochanter in middle of

femur, except in H. macroaquilonius

which is > 3.1mm in length .......... 5

Length < 2.5mm. Pronotal surface

rugose to smooth but rather even with

relatively shallow punctures and flat

granules, apical piece of aedeagus

triangular, central lobe narrow (Fig. 19),

often with silver and black patches on

pronotum .... H. atratus sp. nov. (in part)

Length >2.0mm. Pronotal surface

uneven, apical piece of aedeagus bullet

shaped, central lobe wider (Figs 20-22),

never with silver and dark patches on

[2D C0) (0) LL 8 en oe Oe 6

Length >3.1mm. Without or with very

weak granules. Basal pubescence on

mesofemur reaching beyond apex of

trochanter in middle of femur. Legs with

weak development of dark areas.............

H. macroaquilonius sp. nov.

Length < 3.5mm. Usually granulate,

often quite strongly. Basal pubescence

on meso femur seldom reaching beyond

apex of trochanter in middle of femur.

Legs usually with well developed dark

TEGIONS .......e eee H. interioris Blackburn

Front margin of pronotum in central half

raised and thickened to about twice

normal width. Elytral interstriae two and

four often unevenly raised. Central lobe

of aedeagus short. H. cucullatus sp. nov.

NOt aS ADOVE eo. .is.leasecssadodesntevareecbcboueqas 8

Mesofemur proportionately narrower at

base than metafemur. Anterior spot on

elytron usually larger than others. Apical

piece of aedeagus relatively small, may

be narrower at base than top of basal

piece (Figs 19, 24-27). .....eeeeeeeeeeeeeee 9

Mesofemur and metafemur same general

shape, although metafemur bit larger.

Anterior sutural spot on elytron same

size as others. Apical piece of aedeagus

relatively longer, base of apical piece

10.

11.

approximately same width as basal piece

CF igs 2RDOV At snatiecrepsteAdeaboutas 11

Length 0.9-2.4mm. Elytral epipleuron

approximately half width’ of

pseudoepipleuron in front half. Dorsal

surface uniformly dark or with silver and

dark patches on both elytra and

pronotum. .... H. atratus sp.nov ( in part)

Length 1.6—3.3mm. Elytral epipleuron >

half width of pseudoepipleuron in front

half. Dorsal surface light to dark

testaceous or green/gold (other than head

which may be black), with darker spots

OMOLY tA scope, pena featagcatgedscubactanesdcapivagh'eh 10

Length 2.0-3.3mm. Ventral surface

testaceous to black. Elytron, when

spotted, with anterior sutural spot about

same size as others (Fig. 11). Width of

base of mesofemur equal to or greater

than half its greatest width. Base of

apical piece of aedeagus not narrower

than top of basal piece (Fig. 24) .............

se Sienchegdeepsastaues H. burdekinensis sp. nov.

Length 1.6-—2.5mm. Ventral surface

black; head and pronotum often

greenish, elytra often testaceous/golden/

greenish with anterior sutural spot on

each elytron usually much larger than

others (Figs 9,10). Mesofemur strongly

spindle-shaped with its basal width equal

to or less than its greatest width. Base of

apical piece of aedeagus narrower than

top of basal piece, tendency for the

central lobe to bulge out above

parameres (Figs 25-27). .....ceceeeeeeees

sineneanestrnesetene dy one H. lateviridis Blackburn

Apical piece of aedeagus relatively

longer ( basal piece 1.0—1.4 times length

of apical piece ) (Fig. 28). Northern .......

abpaesTtantb agit Uehompegesorh H. simplicicollis Lea

Apical piece of aedeagus relatively

shorter ( basal piece 1.5—2.0 times length

of apical piece) (Fig. 29). Southern ........

sgaganezaegagagesteasataspesssezaaes H. obsoletus Lea

Key To Species IN Group 3

Punctures in inner elytral striae continue

to enlarge towards middle of elytra after

about puncture four from the base.

Northern species ..........c::cesceesceeereeteeeeee 2

Punctures in inner elytral striae do not

N

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 7

increase much in size after about

puncture four from base. If northern, <

2. Omit lone cn ied udatich tet 3

Length > 3.2 mm. Mesosternum evenly

covered with deep, relatively small

PUNCTUTOS by iannccenetsethosbavsubesvaesevebtetavdesinsed

Sedirdteatese H. numerosepunctatus sp. nov

Length < 2.8mm. Mesosternum usually

normally sculptured (relatively few rather

large punctures unevenly distributed) .....

aries eed, H. obscuroaeneus Fairmaire

Pronotum rugose to smoothly sculptured,

seldom granulate on disc (mainly central

Australian specimens). Area of

pubescence at base of mesofemur

approximately the same area as that of

trochanter. Knees dark. Usually have:

pinched elytral apex, weak apical

punctures, pronotum with bare areas .... 4

Pronotum granulate, lacking smooth

areas. Area of pubescence at base of

mesosternum < area of trochanter. Knees

no darker than rest of legs. Apex of elytra

rounded with strong apical punctures.

NESE Witisasitissy Ani iets H. granicollis Lea

Length 1.8-2.3mm. Pronotal epipleura

weak to absent. Central lobe of aedeagus

with broad tip (Fig. 34. Northern (Cape

York and Arnhem Land)) .................000.

sheteatsajetatacetadsttesteney H. gitaraiae Makhan

Length 2.0-3.4mm. Pronotal epipleura

moderate, but often ill-defined. Central

lobe of aedeagus with narrow tip (Figs

35, 36). Southern, rarely in North

Queensland. ............. H. horni Blackburn

Key To Species IN Group 4

Elytral interstria two raised for short

distance near base, interstria four raised

in central portion of elytron ending

abruptly behind middle (occasional

specimens have only weakly raised

interstriae). Aedeagus with basal piece

1.7-1.9 times length of apical piece,

which is narrowly triangular and sharply

pointed (Fig. 40) ......... H. multicolor Lea

Elytral interstriae if raised then evenly

and relatively weakly. Aedeagus with

proportionately much longer apical piece

(Figs 38, 39, 41-44) oe eeeeeeneee 2

Aedeagus with apical piece elongate,

bases of parameres usually bulbous,

parameres rapidly narrowing in middle,

apical half thin, sometimes twisted;

central lobe thin; basal piece not twisted.

Elytral epipleuron equal to or greater

than width of pseudoepipleuron in front

half. Basal pubescence on ventral surface

of mesofemur reaches a distance equal to

or greater than half width of femur along

hind edge. Pronotal epipleuron weak or

absent. Often quite light to moderately

testaceous dorsally ....0...ececceseseeeeteeees

Sites teseatcsecest aes H. australis Motschulsky

Aedeagus not with above combination of

characters. Elytral epipleuron equal to or

less than pseudoepipleuron in width in

front half. Basal pubescence on

mesofemur reaches a distance equal to or

less than half width of femur along hind

edge. Pronotal epipleuron usually

moderately developed. Black dorsally .. 3

Aedeagus with base twisted, central lobe

narrow with tip twisted to left (viewed

ventrally), parameres weakly asymmetric

to accommodate off-centre central lobe

tip, parameres narrow towards tips (Fig.

BB )wscesestscesetess H.. aschnakinarae Makhan

Aedeagus with base with at most only a

hint of a twist, central lobe moderately

wide, parameres symmetric (Figs 39, 43,

AA) 2, Saas Ai sed abgoet tererneyener tars 4

Aedeagus with parameres narrowing

rapidly in middle, narrow and even in

width in apical half, central lobe wide

(Figud3) ia Ahauaeds H. abditus sp. nov.

Aedeagus with parameres relatively

wide, tips paddle-shaped, may be waisted

(FIgS:39,°44):;.t.ssosssacpevedestesarsvesaersorseanens 5

Aedeagus with apical piece squat,

parameres bulbous at base, apical piece

approximately twice as long as wide,

basal piece narrowing towards base (Fig.

6) ) Feet eres tee H. kunarajahi Makhan

Aedeagus with apical piece more

elongate, apical piece > twice as long as

wide (Fig. 44) ........... H. radjiei Makhan

DESCRIPTIONS

In the following sections the descriptions of

species are arranged alphabetically within each of

the four species groups.

8 C.H.S. WATTS

Species Group 1

A group of three relatively large species

characterised by having three rather than two

longitudinal carinae at the front of the

mesosternum and stout broad aedeagi. The two

southern species, H. adelaidae and H. umbratilis,

are very similar and seem distinct from the

northern H. imamkhani which is the only

Australian species with spotted elytra other than

group 2 species.

The two southern species are found at the sides

of poorly vegetated, often deeply shaded, pools

most frequently among dead leaves and other

detritus. Hydrochus imamkhani is found in more

open areas amongst emergent vegetation in still or

slow moving water.

Hydrochus roepnaraini Makhan from New

Caledonia belongs in this group.

Hydrochus adelaidae Blackburn

Hydrochus adelaidae Blackburn, 1888 p. 832

= Hydrochus victoriae Blackburn, 1888 p. 834;

syn. nov.

Types

Hydrochus adelaidae Blackburn. Holotype: “T

1618 2A’ ‘Australia Blackburn Coll. B.M. 1910—

236’ ‘Hydrochus Adelaidae’, BMNH. Blackburn

(1888) gives the type locality as ‘River Torrens

near Adelaide’.

Hydrochus victoriae Blackburn. Lectotype:

‘Type’ ‘T 1551 V’ ‘Australia Blackburn Coll.

BM. 1910-236’ ‘Hydrochus victoriae Blackb.’,

BMNH. Herein designated. Blackburn (1888)

gives the type locality as ‘Ararat Victoria’.

Paralectotype: 1, ‘1551V° ‘Victoria Blackburn’

‘Hydrochus victoriae Blackb. Co-type’ SAMA.

Herein designated.

Description (number of specimens examined, 42)

Size 2.5 to 3.7mm. Broadly elongate, elytra

wider than pronotum, widest just behind middle,

apex rounded. Head black; pronotum black,

often with vague testaceous front margin; elytra

testaceous to dark testaceous; ventral surface

dark testaceous to black; legs light testaceous

lacking darker knees. Head with large granules,

epicranial suture weakly to moderately marked.

Pronotum weakly waisted, densely covered with

granules, which mask punctures; foveae virtually

absent; epipleuron distinct, about one puncture

width wide. Elytra without granules to

moderately granulate, punctures relatively large

often increasing in size considerably towards

centre of elytra within a stria, interstria four

tends to be raised particularly just behind

middle, plica indistinct, apical punctures weak.

Setae on head and towards apex of elytra weakly

developed. Front of mesosternum in centre with

three longitudinal carinae, the distance between

them greater than their widths. Pseudoepipleuron

moderately developed, epipleuron weakly

developed in apical half, quite strongly

developed in anterior half where it is

approximately same width as pseudoepipleuron.

Profemur moderately stout, basal pubescence

moderate, about a quarter width of femur at base.

Mesofemur elongate, narrowing to about two

thirds greatest width towards base, basal

pubescence well developed reaching to about a

half width of base of femur beyond trochanter

on ventral rear margin. Metafemur elongate,

bowed on front margin.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus broad,

subparallel, 1.4 to 1.8 times length of apical piece.

Parameres wide in basal half, narrowing towards

tip. Central lobe relatively narrow, sharply

pointed, reaching to end of parameres. Similar to

that of H. umbratilis, Fig. 14.

Distribution

South Australia

Williamstown, SAMA.

Tasmania

Launceston, SAMA.

Victoria

Buangor, SAMA; 5 km NW Portland, SAMA.

Remarks

This species appears close to H. umbratilis but

the strongly punctate and usually granule-free

elytra readily tell them apart. For those specimens

with more strongly granulate elytra (usually with

weaker punctures also) the wider elytral epipleura

will separate them. The elytra are often lighter in

colour than the pronotum which seldom is the

case in H. umbratilis. The parameres appear to

narrow a little less abruptly in this species but the

aedeagi are otherwise very similar. The pronotal

epipleura are a little narrower than in H.

umbratilis. Hydrochus australis is superficially

similar, particularly strongly granulate specimens,

but the front of the mesosternum, and the very

different aedeagi readily separate them. Nor do H.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 9

australis have the large elytral punctures seen in

most H. adelaidae.

Biology

The species is most often found amongst dead

leaves at the edges of ponds, which are often

shaded and poorly vegetated.

Hydrochus imamkhani Makhan

Hydrochus imamkhani Makhan, 1994

Type

Holotype: ‘New Guinea; SE Weam, 9m

18.V1.1964’ ‘H. Clissold Light Trap BISHOP

MUSEUM’, BPBM.

Description (number of specimens examined,

94) Figs 2, 12, 13

Length 2.8 — 4.4mm. Elongate, elytra weakly to

moderately broadened behind middle, narrowing

quite abruptly near apex, obliquely truncate. Head

dark brown to black, with iridescent sheen;

pronotum dark brown, front margin sometimes

lighter, often shiny iridescent green/gold; elytra

dark brown to a shiny green/gold/silver surface,

frequently with dark spots/markings, one of the

more prominent around scutellum; ventral surface

dark brown to black, legs light testaceous with

parts of tarsi and knees darker. Head granulate/

punctate, epicranial suture weak. Pronotum

rugose/punctate, punctures relatively small, sides

may be weakly to moderately granulate, foveae

weak, not bounded by raised areas, tendency for

central third longitudinally to be raised,

epipleuron well marked, one to two punctures

deep, often fluted. Elytra usually rather smooth

with small to medium, even-sized punctures, not

granulate or with relatively weak granules at sides

and apex; without apical punctures, interstriae

variable from almost unraised to quite strongly

swollen, in the latter case alternate interstriae

unevenly raised with interstria four having a more

prominent portion at start of elytral declivity,

interstriae in dark areas not swollen and may even

be slightly sunken, in some specimens some other

striae weakly raised in places also; plica usually

recognisable but incorporated into interstria eight

if raised. Setae small but well developed on head

and towards rear of elytra. Pronotal epipleuron

distinct, two to three puncture widths deep, often

fluted. Pseudoepipleuron moderately to quite well

developed; epipleuron absent towards rear, weak

in front, ridge between pseudoepipleuron and

epipleuron strong. Profemur moderately elongate,

weakly sinuate, basal pubescence weak, reduced

to a very narrow band ventrally < quarter width of

femur. Mesofemur elongate narrowing in basal

third to about two-thirds its greatest width, basal

pubescence moderate, reaching between a fifth

and a third of width of femur at that point along

rear margin beyond end of trochanter. Metafemur

elongate, front edge weakly bowed. Front of

mesosternum in middle with three broad

longitudinal carinae, the lateral two usually

broader than central one, area between carinae

much narrower than carinae, behind these are a

row of four round punctures. Metasternal

punctures smaller and more numerous than in

most other Australian species.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus broad,

subparallel, 1.5-1.6 times length of apical piece.

Apical piece bullet-shaped, parameres broad in

basal half thin in apical quarter; central lobe

relatively broad, sharply pointed, tip bent

downwards, reaching to ends of parameres. Fig.

12.

Distribution

Northern Territory

Berry Springs, ANIC; Florence Falls, Litchfield

NP, NHMW, CLH; Holmes Jungle, ANIC;

Howard Springs, ANIC; Katherine, ANIC; Lake

Bennett, NTM; Jabiru, SAMA; 10 km SW Jabiru,

SAMA; 20 km SSW Jabiru, SAMA; Jim Jim

Highway, Kakadu NP, CLH, NHMW; Jim Jim

Falls, Kakadu NP, NHMW; 19 km E by S Mt

Borradaile, ANIC; Murganella, NTM.

Queensland

8 km N Bluewater, SAMA; Cape Flattery area,

DPIM; Dalby, SAMA; Dalhunty River, SAMA;

Eubenargee Swamp, SAMA; 70 km SW

Greenvale, SAMA; Iron Range, ANIC, UQIC;

Jardine River, UQIC; Lockerbie, UQIC; Mareeba,

NHMW; 21 km E Mareeba, DPIM; Mary Creek.,

ANIC; 8 km E Mt Cahill; 2 km S Mt Molloy,

SAMA; 2 km N Mt Molloy, SAMA; 6 km ENE

Mt Tozer, ANIC; 11 km ENE Mt Tozer, ANIC; 3

km NE Mt Tozer, ANIC; 2 km NNE Mt Tozer,

ANIC; 3 km NE Mt Webb, ANIC; ANIC; Peach

Creek, SAMA; 5 km W by W Rounded Hill,

ANIC; Tolga, DPIM.

Western Australia

Carson Escarpment, ANIC; Drysdale River,

ANIC; 12 km S Kalumburu Mission, ANIC;

Mitchell Plateau, SAMA, ANIC; Peron Peninsula,

WAM; Regans Ford, ANIC.

10 C.H.S. WATTS

Remarks

A large, distinctive, isolated species unlikely to

be confused with any other Australian species.

Hydrochus roepnaraini Makhan from New

Caledonia appears to be close. Based only on the

type specimen, H. roepnaraini has a similar

mesosternal front and similar dorsal colour and

sculpture to those H. imamkhani which have most

elytral interstriae raised to some degrees in some

places. The aedeagi are quite different with H.

roepnaraini having a much longer apical piece

(see fig. 26 in Makhan 1994).

Hydrochus imamkhani was described from

New Guinea but an examination of the type shows

that it is conspecific with Australian specimens.

Makhan (1994) thought it was similar to H.

rodjani but this species is a junior synonym of H.

obscuroaeneus, a very different species from H.

imamkhani.

I have seen two specimens of H. umbratilis

from near Cardwell in North Queensland. Their

dark colour, lack of elytral spots, strongly

granulate pronotum and stouter legs separate them

from H. imamkhani.

Biology

Most frequently found amongst emergent

vegetation in ponds, swamps or slowly moving

water. Taken at light.

Hydrochus umbratilis sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: Male, ‘VIC 10 km NE Mirranatwa

12/10/97 C. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 35, same data as holotype, SAMA.

Description (number of specimens examined, 93)

Fig. 14

Length 2.1 — 4.7mm. Broadly elongate, elytra

widened somewhat behind middle, apex rounded.

Dorsal surface testaceous to black; ventral surface

dark brown, legs testaceous, parts of tarsi, knees

and femora often darker. Head granulate, epicranial

suture weak to moderate. Pronotum moderately to

densely granulate, foveae virtually absent. Elytra

moderately to very strongly granulate, punctures

when visible small to moderate, alternate elytral

interstriae weakly to strongly raised with interstria

four often strongest; plica absorbed into interstria

eight. Setae well developed on head and apical half

of elytra. Pronotal epipleuron distinct, about one

and a half puncture widths deep, often fluted. Front

of mesosternum in centre with three longitudinal

carinae, lateral ones about same width as central,

area between them about equal to their width,

tendency in some populations for this area to

become relatively smooth and the carinae

indistinct. Mesosternal punctures tending to be

smaller and more numerous than _ usual.

Pseudoepipleura moderately to quite strongly

developed, epipleura absent behind, weak in front.

Profemur moderately stout, basal pubescence

relatively weak, reduced to very narrow band

ventrally. Mesofemur elongate, narrowing a bit

toward base, basal pubescence weak to moderate,

at weakest reaching to end of trochanter at

strongest reaching to about a quarter the width of

base of femur beyond trochanter on ventral rear

margin. Metafemur elongate, bowed on front

margin.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus broad, subparallel,

1.4 — 1.8 times length of apical piece. Parameres

wide in basal half, rapidly narrowing, thin apically.

Central lobe relatively narrow, sharply pointed,

reaching to end of parameres (Fig. 14).

Distribution

Australian Capital Territory

25 km W Canberra, ANIC.

New South Wales

Armadale, ANIC; Berry, SAMA; Collector,

SAMA; 14 km W Delagate, SAMA; Nerriga,

SAMA; 6km N Uralla, ANIC.

Queensland

Caloundra, SAMA; Cardwell, ANIC; 10 km S

Cardwell, SAMA; Cunninghams Gap, SAMA

Tasmania

Launceston, SAMA; 5 km W Maydena,

NHMW

Victoria

Buangor, SAMA; Eustace Gap Creek, NMV;

Glenferrie, CAL; Grampians, SAMA; 18 km NW

Licola, NMV; 10 km NE Mirranatwa, SAMA; 4

ml NE Nelson, NMV; 12 km SW Orbost, SAMA;

5 km NW Portland, SAMA; 3 km SE Taggerty,

NMV.

Remarks

This species and H. adelaidae are the only

species in southern Australia with three

longitudinal carinae at the front of the

mesosternum. The narrower elytral epipleura in

this species is the only certain character to

separate the two. However, H. adelaidae never

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 1]

FIGURES 1-11. 1, Front of mesosternum of H. burdekinensis, with two longitudinal carinae; 2, Ditto of H.

imamkhani, with three longitudinal carinae; 3, Pro(top) and meso femora (below) of H. obscuroaeneus, a group 3

species; 4, Ditto, H. aschnakiranae, a group 4 species; 5, Ditto, H. interioris, a group 2 species; 6, Ventral view of

elytron edge in H. australis showing epipleuron (right) and pseudoepipleuron (left) of approximately equal widths;

7, Ditto, H. aschnakiranae showing weaker epipleuron; 8, Ditto, H. eurypleuron showing wide epipleuron and

virtual lack of pseudoepipleuron; 9-10, Dorsal views of elytra showing variants of the colour pattern in H.

lateviridis; 11, Ditto, H. burdekinensis.

12 C.H.S. WATTS

have strongly granulate elytra and H. umbratilis

never have elytra with large punctures which

often increase in size towards the middle of the

elytra within one stria (this character is best

viewed when the specimen is dry since when wet

the appearance of granules is enhanced). The

three longitudinal carinae, and the weak elytral

epipleura will separate it from strongly granulate

forms of H. australis. It is also a wider and darker

species than H. australis with stronger pronotal

epipleura. It shares with H. imamkhani the three

carinae on the front of the mesosternum and also

a tendency for the mesosternal punctation to be

composed of numerous rather small punctures.

The aedeagi are also very similar but the apical

piece is shorter and the central lobe narrower than

in H. imamkhani. It can be separated from this

species most readily by its strongly granulate

dorsal surface, dark colour and rounded elytral

apex.

Specimens from north coastal NSW to north

Queensland are often chunkier with stouter legs,

the alternate elytral interstriae more strongly

raised and the elytral granulations usually weaker.

Further specimens and study could well result in

them being considered a separate species.

Biology

Found in dead leaves at the sides of still or

slowly moving water, often in shaded situations.

Etymology

Latin. ‘of the shade’— in reference to its dark

colour and the fact that it is often found in deeply

shaded ponds.

Species Group 2

The largest of the groups in terms of species,

group 2 is characterised by having: two rather

than three longitudinal carinae at the front of the

mesosternum (Fig. 1); dark spots on the elytra

which are often coloured in some way (Figs 9—

11); thin spindle-shaped legs with weak basal

pubescence (Fig. 5). All species have the elytral

spotting to a greater or lesser degree but not all

individuals. The only other Australian Hydrochus

with similar markings is H. imamkhani in group

1. Other character states that tend to distinguish

the group are: lack of, or virtually lack of, setae

on the dorsal surface; pubescence on the

mesofemora usually not reaching much past the

end of the trochanter; pubescence on the

profemora complete but narrow ventrally (Fig. 5);

pronotum either lacks or has very weak foveae;

pronotal epipleura usually well marked; head with

only a weak development of the epicranial suture;

elytra usually smooth or with only weakly raised

interstriae (in one species, H cucullatus, they may

be strongly raised) and the plicae are usually

obvious.

All member species whose habitat is known

live in relatively clean sand/gravel at the sides of

rivers and streams. They are typically found in

large numbers at the edges of sandy pools in the

beds of drying rivers in tropical Australia where

they are often concentrated just below the surface

of the sand. All species in this group that I have

observed, when dislodged, put their heads down

and attempt, albeit weakly, to swim to the bottom,

in contrast to species of other groups which use

the surface film to crawl upside down until they

reach the side or emergent objects or vegetation.

They also appear more adept at clinging to sand

grains etc. on the bottom than species in other

groups. This is often seen in collecting trays

where group 2 species tend to be on the bottom of

the tray and species of other groups tend to float

on the surface .

The group is primarily tropical with only H.

obsoletus commonly found in southern Australia.

Hydrochus aenigmatis sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘Webers ck NSW 2/11/94’,

SAMA.

Paratypes: 4, same data as holotype, SAMA; 1,

‘Megalong Vy. Blue Mts N.S.W. Jan

20°32,1000ft? ‘Australia Harvard Esp.

Darlington’, MCZ; 1, ‘21 ml. S of Miriam Vale Q

24°38S 151°34E 14.xii.1968 E. Britton & S.

Misko’, ANIC.

Description (number of specimens examined, 10)

Fig. 18

Length 2.5 — 3.1mm. Elongate, elytra a little

wider in the middle, tip rounded or weakly

obliquely truncate. Head and pronotum dark

steely-grey often with silver reflections; elytra dull

brown to steely-grey, three to four rather small

dark spots near suture, usually indistinct, about

equal in size; ventral surface dark brown to black,

legs testaceous, parts of tarsi, knees and basal part

of femora darker. Head shallowly and rather

smoothly granulate/punctate, epicranial suture

weak. Pronotum with rather sparse, small shallow

punctures, occasionally weakly granulate laterally,

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 13

surface uneven, foveae indistinct. Elytra with

relatively small punctures, separated within striae

by about same width as interstriae or a bit less;

alternate interstriae not or only weakly raised;

plica present; apical punctures usually well

developed. Setae virtually absent from head and

elytra. Pronotal epipleuron poorly defined, about

two puncture widths wide, weakly fluted. Elytral

pseudoepipleuron moderate, epipleuron absent

apically, weak behind middle, widening to about

same width as pseudoepipleuron in front. Front of

mesosternum in centre with two narrow, raised,

longitudinal carinae, the area between them

shallow to moderately deep, particularly behind.

Profemur rather stout, basal pubescence weak,

reduced to a narrow band ventrally. Mesofemur

elongate, weakly spindle-shaped, narrowing

basally to about two thirds its greatest width, basal

pubescence moderate, reaching to between a

quarter and a half width of femur past trochanter

on ventral edge. Metafemur elongate, bowed on

front edge narrowing to about three quarters its

greatest width basally.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus straight sided,

1.5 to 1.7 times length of apical piece. Apical

piece bullet-shaped, parameres narrow and weakly

paddle-shaped in apical half. Central lobe very

wide, considerably shorter than parameres; in

lateral view ventral surface flat, width rapidly

reducing in middle (Fig.18).

Distribution

New South Wales

Megalong Valley, MCZ; Webers Creek,

SAMA.

Queensland

15 km W Gympie, NMV; 21 ml S Miriam Vale,

ANIC.

Remarks

A rare species from the east coast, separable

from other group 2 species with dark legs by its

relative lack of granules, stouter legs and more

extensive basal pubescence on the mesofemora. It

can be confused most readily with the much

commoner H. interioris, from which it differs in

having stouter mesofemora with a greater amount

of basal pubescence, and a broader central lobe to

the aedeagus. Based on the few specimens known,

H. aenigmatis also appears to be a more southern

species than H. interioris.

In size and general colour H. aenigmatis

approaches H. obsoletus, the only other group 2

species in the South-east. It differs from this

species in the stronger basal pubescence on the

mesofemur, which reaches more than a quarter

the width of the femur past the trochanter whereas

in H. obsoletus it usually is only a bit beyond the

end of the trochanter; in the dark areas on the

legs; in the rougher pronotal surface; narrow less

distinct pronotal epipleura and in having the

pronotum the same colour as the head whereas in

H. obsoletus the head is often darker. The male

genitalia approach those of H. obsoletus but have

a much broader central lobe and, in lateral view,

the apical piece is flat dorsally and narrows

abruptly in the middle ventrally, in contrast to the

more evenly narrowing shape in H. obsoletus.

Biology

Nothing known

Etymology

Latin. ‘Obscure’— a reference to its rarity.

Hydrochus atratus sp.nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘Qld. Burdekin r. E of Charters

Towers 4 May 1998 C.H.S. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 16 same data as holotype, SAMA.

Description (number of specimens examined,

221) Fig. 19

Length 0.9 — 2.4mm. Elongate, elytra wider

behind middle, rounded or somewhat pinched

near apex. Head shiny black; pronotum shiny

black, granules if present often silver; elytra dark

brown to black with vague darker spots in some,

occasionally quite silvery; ventral surface dark

brown to black, legs light to quite dark testaceous,

parts of tarsi, knees and femora usually darker.

Head granulate/punctate often with bare areas,

epicranial suture weak to moderate. Pronotum

variable, from strongly granulate/punctate to

dense, rugose, rather large punctures, foveae

absent. Elytra variably granulate/punctate,

punctures moderate sized, within striae separated

by about width of interstriae. Interstriae four and

eight may be weakly raised in parts, plicae visible.

Setae on head and elytra absent. Pronotal

epipleuron poorly to moderately defined but

relatively deep. Front of mesosternum in middle

with two narrow longitudinal carinae, area

between them quite deeply excavated in front, less

so behind. Elytral pseudoepipleuron moderate to

broad, epipleuron absent behind increasing to

equal to width of pseudoepipleuron or a little less

14 C.H. S. WATTS

in front third. Profemur elongate, basal

pubescence moderate, reaching to about a quarter

width of femur ventrally. Mesofemur spindle-

shaped, narrowing to more than half its greatest

width in basal quarter, basal pubescence weak,

reduced to a very narrow band ventrally.

Metafemur rather broad, bowed on front edge,

narrowing to nearly half its greatest width toward

base.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus with parallel

sides or weakly converging toward base, 1.8 — 2.1

times length of apical piece. Apical piece

moderately to strongly elongate triangular, in

more elongate forms with constriction in middle.

Central lobe narrow, nearly as long as parameres

(Fig. 19).

Distribution

Northern Territory

Adelaide River, ANIC; Cooper Creek near Mt

Borradaile, SAMA; 20 km SSW Jabiru, SAMA;

Kongarra, NTM; Korlonjorlok Stream, Kakadu

NP, NTM; 6 km E Mt Cahill, NTM; 8 km E Mt

Cahill, ANIC; 19 km E by S Mt Borradaile,

ANIC; 5 km SE Mt Borradaile Station, SAMA;

11 km S by W Nimbuwah Rock, NTM; 6 km SW

by S Oenpelli, ANIC; UDP Falls, Kakadu NP,

NTM; Woolwonga Fauna Reserve, ANIC.

Queensland

Archer River, SAMA; Borumba Dam, CLH,

NHMW;; Burdekin River, SAMA; Burdekin River

E of Charters Towers, SAMA; Dalrymple, 30 km

N Charters Towers, NHMW; 70 km SW

Greenvale, SAMA; 2 km S Mt Molloy, SAMA;

Starr River, SAMA.

Western Australia

Augustus Island, ANIC; Drysdale River, ANIC;

12 km S Kalumburu Mission, ANIC; 14 km S by

E Kalumburu Mission, ANIC; 4 km W King

Cascade, ANIC; Kunmunya Mission, ANIC; 4 km

S by W Mining Camp Mitchell Plateau (15.388

125.15E), ANIC; 10 km NW by N Mining Camp

Mitchell Plateau, ANIC; Point d‘Entrecasteaux,

WAM.

Remarks

Specimens of the species are the smallest

Australian Hydrochus, with Northern Territory

and Kimberley specimens often less than a

millimetre long. In certain parts of their range they

can reach 2.5mm which overlaps the size range of

the very similar H. interioris. Hydrochus

interioris is larger, the pronotal surface is very

uneven and the apical punctures on the elytra are

often well developed whereas in H. atratus the

pronotal surface (ignoring the punctures) is

relatively smooth and the apical punctures seldom

larger than adjacent punctures. Small individuals

of H. interioris are difficult to separate from H.

atratus other than by the aedeagus. In general H.

atratus are darker, without elytral spots, rounded

more than elongate and may have dark shadows

on the pronotum. The aedeagus in H. atratus has

a more triangular shaped apical piece and

narrower central lobe.

Hydrochus atratus is easily separated from well

coloured individuals of H. lateviridis but larger

specimens can be very similar to dark specimens

of H. lateviridis. From H. lateviridis it differs in

the narrower elytral epipleura, in often having

dark portions to its legs, in the stouter meso and

metafemora which narrow to between two thirds

and half their greatest widths basically, rather than

to more than half in H. lateviridis, and in the

pronotum and head of H. lateviridis often having

a greenish tinge absent in H. atratus. Hydrochus

atratus often has, uniquely in Australian

Hydrochus, dark and light areas on the pronotum.

The aedeagi of some H. atratus resemble those of

some H. lateviridis but in H. lateviridis the central

lobe is more exposed and bulbous, the base of the

apical piece is always narrower than the basal

piece and the aedeagus may be twisted (Figs 25 —

27).

Four specimens from Kunmunya Mission, WA,

in ANIC belong to this species or possibly a new

one. They differ in having broader

pseudoepipleura, a more uneven pronotal surface

and a narrower, waisted apical piece to the

aedeagus.

Biology

Found most commonly in bare coarse sand at

the edge of small pools beside seasonally drying

large rivers. In such places they can be extremely

abundant. Taken at light.

Etymology

Latin. ‘Dressed in black’ — a reference to its

black colouring.

Hydrochus burdekinensis sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘Qld. Burdekin r E of Charters

Towers. 4 May 1998 C.H.S. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 60, same data as holotype, SAMA.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 15

7 18

22

20 21

FIGURES 12-22. 12-13, Ventral views of two forms of aedeagus in H. imamkhani;, 14, H. umbratilis; 15, H.

macroaquilonius; 16, H. decorus; 17, H. eurypleuron

interioris.

Description (number of specimens examined,

380) Figs 1, 11, 24

Length 2.0 — 3.3mm. Broadly elongate, elytra

weakly wider behind middle, constricted slightly

towards apex. Head black, often with greenish

; 18, H. aenigmatis; 19, H. atratus; 20-22, forms of H.

iridescence; pronotum light testaceous,

sometimes darker testaceous on disc or, rarely,

over whole pronotum; elytra usually light

testaceous to testaceous, with darker elytral spots

varying from absent to moderate, spots sub equal

16 C.H.S. WATTS

in size (Fig. 11), occasional specimens mainly

from western Arnhem Land are silver/golden/

greenish on most of the dorsal surface; ventral

surface testaceous to black, legs yellow

testaceous except for darker tip to tarsi. Setae

lacking on dorsal surface. Head sparsely to

moderately covered with weak punctures,

epicranial suture weak. Pronotum varying from

smooth with moderate punctures to rugose/

punctate to densely covered with small granules.

Elytral punctures small to moderate, area between

them within striae usually less than width of

interstriae, occasionally with weak to moderate

granules; interstriae not or only weakly raised;

plicae present. Pronotal epipleuron distinct, shiny,

two to three punctures deep, occasionally fluted.

Pseudoepipleuron moderate, elytral epipleuron

absent behind, narrow in middle, widening only

slightly in front third. Front of mesosternum in

centre with two longitudinal carinae, area between

them moderately excavated. Profemur moderate,

basal pubescence weak, reduced to narrow band

ventrally. Mesofemur spindle shaped, narrowing

to half to a third greatest width, basal pubescence

very weak to moderate, reduced to a narrow band

ventrally. Metafemur stouter than mesofemur.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus with sides

parallel, 2.0 — 2.7 times length of apical piece.

Apical piece bullet-shaped, central lobe

moderately wide, pointed, nearly as long as

parameres (Fig. 24).

Distribution

Northern Territory

5 km SE Mt Borradaile Station, SAMA; 33

km SW Borroloola, ANIC; 14 km NW Cape

Crawford, ANIC; Cooper Creek near Mt

Borradaile, SAMA; Deaf Adder Gorge Kakadu

NP, NTM; Edith Falls near Katherine, CAL;

Jim Jim Creek, Kakadu NP, ANIC; Jim Jim

Falls, Kakadu NP, CLH, NHMW; 1 km W

Gubara, Kakadu NP, SAMA; Malapanbango

Creek Kakadu NP, NTM; 8 km E Mt Cahill,

ANIC; 9 km SSE Mudginbarry Homestead,

ANIC

Queensland

Boar Pocket Road, ANIC; Burdekin River,

SAMA; Burdekin River E of Charters Towers,

SAMA; Bushy Creek, Mossman — Mt Lewis

Road, ANIC; Cardstone, ANIC; Charters Towers,

SAMA; Hann River, NMV; Kuranda, ANIC; 73

km NW by W Laura, ANIC; 70 km N Laura,

DPIM; Lake Tinaroo, ANIC; Mary Creek, ANIC,

SAMA; 60 km NW Mt Isa, SAMA; 60 km W Mt

Garnet, DPIM; Musgrave, DPIM; | km W

Petford, SAMA; 1 km WSW Petford, DPIM;

Strathmore Station, DPIM.

Western Australia

17 km N by E Cane River Homestead, ANIC;

De Grey River, ANIC; Gascoyne River, ANIC; 12

km S Kalumburu Mission, ANIC; 4 km W King

Cascade, ANIC; Millstream, ANIC; Mitchell

Plateau, ANIC; Regans Ford, ANIC; Synnot

Creek, ANIC; West Peawah River, ANIC, SAMA;

Winjana Gorge, CAL.

Remarks

Widespread and relatively common in northern

Australia, H. burdekinensis can be most readily

recognised by its testaceous legs and, in the

majority of specimens, testaceous elytra and

pronotum. The darker spots on the elytra are

usually not well marked and often absent.

Hydrochus burdekinensis can most easily be

confused with H. simplicicollis which is a rarer

species known only from North Queensland.

Its black ventral surface and extensive area of

dark testaceous on the pronotum will separate

H. simplicicollis from most H. burdekinensis.

Hydrochus simplicicollis also has stouter

mesofemora, which, unlike H. burdekinensis,

are similar in shape to the metafemora

although a bit smaller overall. The apical

pieces of the male aedeagi differ considerably

in comparative length between the two species

(Figs 24 — 27). Hydrochus lateviridis is

generally a smaller species with greenish

tinges and much more strongly developed dark

markings on the elytra (Figs 9, 10). Some

specimens of H. obsoletus from New South

Wales are identical in colour to some H.

burdekinensis but differ in having stouter legs

and a more elongate apical piece of the

aedeagus. In the Northern Territory specimens

are often a rather uniform greenish/golden on

the dorsal surface and can be confused with

smaller specimens of H. macroaquilonius.

They can be separated from this species by

their yellow legs, stronger elytral epipleura and

better developed pronotal epipleura. The

aedeagus of H. macroaquilonius can not be

separated from the more elongate forms of the

aedeagus of H. burdekinensis which can be

found in the same region.

Biology

A common species in bare sand at the edge of

moderate to large rivers. Taken at light.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 17

Etymology

A reference to the river where the species is

particularly common.

Hydrochus cucullatus sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘2 km N Mt Molloy Qld.

5.2.97 C. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 3, same data as holotype, SAMA;

1, ‘Peach Ck. N. Qld. 24/7/82 C. Watts’, SAMA;

3, ‘(19°10S 145°47E) Running River, Q 24 km

W, of Paluma, 13.1.70, pools in sandy river bed

Britton & Misko’, ANIC; 3, ‘Kambah Pool ACT

26/11/98 C. Watts’ SAMA.

Description (number of specimens examined, 11)

Fig. 23

Length 2.3 — 3.5mm. Broadly elongate, widest

just behind middle of elytra. Head black with

greenish iridescence; pronotum dark testaceous

with lighter front edge; elytra steely grey to dark

testaceous with small darker spots, spots near

suture approximately same size, spot over plica

tending to be stronger; ventral surface testaceous

to black, legs testaceous, apex of tarsi darker.

Head sparsely granulate/punctate, epicranial

suture weak. Pronotum with quite dense, strong

deep punctures, smaller and more rugose at sides,

surface uneven, front edge thickened, raised,

forming a weak hood over neck of head. Elytra

with relatively strong punctures, separated within

striae by same width or less than interstriae,

interstriae two and four weakly to moderately

raised, more strongly near base and again near

middle, interstria eight moderately raised in front

of plica and incorporating plica. Pronotal

epipleuron moderately delineated, about two to

three punctures deep, often fluted. Front of

mesosternum in middle with two narrow

longitudinal carinae, area between them quite

deep, pseudoepipleuron weak to moderate, elytral

epipleuron absent behind, very narrow in middle

widening to about same size as pseudoepipleuron

in front third. Profemur elongate, basal

pubescence weak, reduced to narrow band

ventrally. Mesofemur spindle shaped, narrowing

toward base to between one third and one half its

greatest width; basal pubescence moderate,

reaching a littlke beyond end of trochanter.

Metafemur somewhat thicker and less spindle

shaped than mesofemur.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus broad,

narrowing a bit towards base, 1.6 — 1.7 times

length of apical piece. Parameres bulbous at

base, narrow and paddle-shaped in apical half.

Central lobe broad, much shorter than parameres,

leaving gap in front of it between the parameres

(Fig. 23).

Distribution

Australian Capital Territory

Kambah Pool, SAMA.

Queensland

2 km N Mt Molloy, SAMA; 24 km W Paluma,

ANIC; Peach Creek, SAMA.

Remarks

A seemingly rare species relatively close to

H. burdekinensis. It differs from this species

by the more uneven, almost foveate, pronotum

and the greater tendency for the elytral

interstriae to be raised. The raised, thickened

front edge of the pronotum in H. cucullatus is

distinctive, as is the male genitalia with wide

basal piece, short central lobe and paddle-

shaped tips to the parameres. The aedeagus

most closely resemble that of H. interioris but

in that species the parameres are shorter and

the central lobe comparatively longer.

Otherwise H. interioris is uniformly iridescent

on the dorsal surface, has dark legs, lacks

forms with testaceous ventral surface, often

has the pronotum with foveae and lacks the

raised front margin of the pronotum.

The testaceous ventral surface, raised

interstriae, raised front margin of pronotum and

aedeagus will separate it from the other species

with wholly testaceous legs.

Biology

The few known specimens have been taken at

the edge of sandy rivers or in sandy areas at the

edge of ponds.

Etymology

Latin. ‘Hooded’ — in reference to the raised

hood-like front edge of the prothorax.

Hydrochus decorus sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘Qld Greenvale 70 km SW at

light 14-24 Mar. 1995 A. J. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 28, same data as holotype, SAMA;

11, same data as holotype except 12-21 Apr.,

SAMA.

18 C. H. S. WATTS

Description (number of specimens examined, 72)

Fig. 16

Length 2.3 — 3.4mm. Relatively broad, elytra

widening behind middle, rapidly narrowing to

apex. Dorsal surface shiny, usually with strong

greenish golden reflections; elytra typically with

three to four darker spots near suture, one on

shoulder and one on plica, anterior sutural spot

usually largest. Ventral surface brown to dark

brown, legs light to moderately testaceous, parts

of tarsi, knees and parts of femora darker. Setae

absent from dorsal surface, or virtually so. Head

strongly granulate/punctate, epicranial suture

weakly to moderately developed. Pronotum

dorsally granulate/punctate, foveae weakly

developed. Elytra with moderate, rather evenly

sized punctures, interstriae granulate to varying

degrees, alternate interstriae weakly to moderately

developed, plica incorporated into interstria eight.

Pronotal epipleuron moderately well marked, one

to two puncture widths wide. Elytral epipleuron

broad to very broad, narrowing rapidly in apical

fifth, lacking pseudoepipleuron. Front of

mesosternum in middle with two weakly raised

longitudinal carinae, area between them with

vague raised portions in a rough cross shape.

Profemur stout, rapidly narrowing to base, basal

pubescence weak, virtually lacking ventrally.

Mesofemur extremely spindle-shaped with narrow

basal portion about one third of greatest width,

basal pubescence weak, in very narrow band

along junction with trochanter ventrally.

Metafemur elongate, narrowing basally to about

half greatest width.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus long, parallel

sided or narrowing at base, sometimes weakly

twisted, 1.5 — 1.7 times length of apical piece.

Apical piece narrow at base, widening to middle

then narrowing to sharp point. Central lobe

moderately broad, a little shorter than parameres

(Fig.16).

Distribution

Northern Territory

5 km SE Mt Borradaile Station, SAMA;

Morianty Creek, SAMA; Palm Creek, NTM;

Roderick Creek, Gregory N P, NTM.

Queensland

Burdekin River near Charters Towers, SAMA;

Bushland Beach, 20 km N Townsville, SAMA;

Dalrymple, 30 km N Charters Towers, NHMW;

Einasleigh River, DPIM; 70 km S Greenvale,

SAMA; Laura, SAMA; Mitchell River, DPIM; Mt

Mulligan, DPIM; 16°28S 144°46E, ANIC.

Western Australia

Fitzroy River, ANIC; 12 km S Kalumburu,

ANIC; 4 km W King Cascade, ANIC; 6.5 km N

Mt Bell, WAM; 3 ml E Pago Mission, FIELD;

Synnot Creek, ANIC.

Remarks

Hydrochus decorus is close to H. eurypleuron

but the majority of specimens of H. decorus can

be separated from H. eurypleuron by their broader

shape, bright green/golden colour and darker spots

on elytra. The aedeagus of H. decorus is unusual

in having the base of the parameres narrower than

the middle, otherwise there is little difference

between the two species. In occasional specimens

the colour is generally duller and the elytral spots

indistinct. These can be difficult to distinguish

from H. eurypleuron except by the aedeagi. The

occasional specimen of H. interioris can be

mistaken for H. decorus (or H. eurypleuron) but

these have a more extensive development of the

pseudoepipleura, are generally narrower and lack

or virtually lack granulation on the pronotum and

elytra.

Biology

I have collected this species from sandy areas at

the side of moderate to large rivers in similar

habitat to H. burdekinensis and H. lateviridis.

Taken at light.

Etymology

Latin. ‘splendid’ — in reference to the bright

green jewel-like qualities of some specimens.

Hydrochus eurypleuron sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘Qld. Greenvale 70 km SW at

light 12-21 Apr 1995 A. J. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 11, same data as holotype, SAMA;

12, same data as holotype except 14-24 Mar,

SAMA.

Description (number of specimens examined, 50)

Figs 8,17

Length 1.8 — 2.7mm. Moderately elongate,

elytra widened behind middle, rapidly narrowing

to apex, weakly to quite strongly serrate laterally.

Dorsal surface dark brown to black; ventral

surface dark brown to black; legs light to

moderately testaceous, parts of tarsi and femora

often darker. Head strongly granulate, pronotum

densely and strongly granulate/punctate, foveae

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 19

indistinct, shallow. Epicranial suture weakly to

moderately impressed. Elytral punctures moderate,

even sized over most of elytra, interstriae weakly

to strongly granulate, alternate interstriae

moderately raised, particularly towards apex and

interstria eight, plica incorporated into interstria

eight. Front of head and apex of elytra with weak-

moderate setae. Pronotal epipleuron moderate,

very poorly differentiated from top of pronotum.

Pseudoepipleuron absent or weakly developed at

apex only, elytral epipleuron wide, narrowing

rapidly towards extreme apex. Front of

mesosternum in the middle relatively smooth but

with two short longitudinal carinae just traceable.

Profemur stout but rapidly narrowing basally to

less than half its greatest width, basal pubescence

weak, reduced to a narrow band ventrally.

Mesofemur elongate, becoming very narrow

basally, basal pubescence weak stretching in a

narrow band along junction with trochanter

ventrally. Metafemur elongate, narrowing towards

base to about half greatest width.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus weakly

twisted, narrowing near base, 1.5 — 1.7 times

length of apical piece. Apical piece narrow,

bullet shaped or weakly constricted towards

apex. Central lobe narrow, nearly as long as

parameres (Fig. 17).

Distribution

Northern Territory

Barramundi Gorge, Kakadu NP, CLH, NHMW;

8 km ESE Cape Crawford, ANIC; Edith Falls near

Katherine, CAL; Katherine Gorge, DPIM;

Kongarra, ANIC; 8 km ENE Victoria River

Downs, ANIC.

Queensland

Boggy Creek near Cooktown, ANIC; Burdekin

River, SAMA; 20 km NW Charters Towers,

NHMW;; Einasleigh River, DPIM; 70 km S

Greenvale, SAMA; Iron Range, ANIC; Laura,

DPIM; 21 km E Mareeba, DPIM; 23 km N

Mareeba, DPIM; Palm Creek, DPIM; 5 km SE Mt

Borradaile Station, SAMA; Reid River near

Mingela, SAMA; 15 km NNW South Johnstone,

DPIM; Tolga, DPIM.

Western Australia

Carson Escarpment, ANIC; Fitzroy River,

ANIC; 14km S by W Kalumburu Mission, ANIC;

King Edward River, ANIC; Millstream, ANIC; 3

km NW Millstream, ANIC; 1 km NNE

Millstream, ANIC; Mining camp Mitchell Plateau,

ANIC; 4 km S by W Mining camp Mitchell

Plateau, ANIC; Synnot Creek, ANIC; Wittenoom

Gorge, CAL.

Remarks

Most readily separated from the closely related

H. decorus by its duller dorsal colour and lack of

elytral spots. In an occasional specimen, mostly

from the Kimberley, vague dark spots can be seen

in certain lights. In general it is a narrow species

and does not reach the broad form with strongly

serrated elytral edges quite frequent in H. decorus.

Some specimens of H. interioris could be

confused with this species due to their

comparatively well developed elytral epipleura

and weak pseudoepipleura. Apart from the

presence of the pseudoepipleura, these lack, or

virtually lack, granules on the pronotum and elytra

and usually have quite well marked spots on the

elytra.

Biology

The little habitat information available suggests

that this species lives at the edge of small to

moderate-sized sandy rivers. Taken at light.

Etymology

Greek. ‘wide ribbed’— in reference to the very

broad epipleura in this species.

Hydrochus interioris Blackburn

Hydrochus interioris Blackburn, 1896

Types

Lectotype: ‘Ellery Cr’ ‘Cent-Aust Coll Horn

Pres 7-97’ ‘Hydrochus interioris Blackb.’, with

more recent red labels “Type’ ‘Syntype T-13206

Hydrochus interioris Blackburn, 1896’, NMV.

Herein designated.

Paralectotypes: 1 ‘Paisley Bluff Cent. Aust.

Horn Exp.’ ‘Hydrochus interioris Blk del by BIkb’

‘F.E. Wilson Collection’ with more recent blue

labels ‘2296 Cotype’ ‘Paratype T-2296 Hydrochus

interioris Blackb’, NMV; 1, ‘5489 Paisly, BI’

‘Hydrochus Horni BI Co-t’ ‘Id by A.M. Lea

Griffith Collection’ ‘Really is interioris BI made a

mistake in labelling co-types’, SAMA; 1, ‘5489

Paisly Bl’ ‘Hydrochus Horni Blackb Co-type’,

SAMA; 1, ‘5489 Paisly BI’ ‘Horni, Blackb’ ‘this

is interioris, Bl’, SAMA. Herein designated. I

agree with Lea’s comments on the SAMA

specimens. See also Lea (1926). In NMV there

are additional specimens obviously collected and

labelled at the same time as the ones later labelled

20 C.H.S. WATTS

as cotypes. I am unaware why some have been

labelled as cotypes and others not. The SAMA

cotypes where labelled as such by Blackburn

albeit incorrectly.

Description (number of specimens examined,

261) Figs 5, 20-22

Length 2.1 — 3.3mm. Narrowly to moderately

elongate, elytra widened slightly to considerably

behind middle, narrowing quite rapidly to apex.

Head black/silvery/golden; pronotum black often

with bright silver reflections; elytra dark brown-

black, often with bright silver or occasionally

golden reflections, black spots visible to varying

degrees dependent on background colour; ventral

surface dark brown; legs testaceous, parts of tarsi

and femora darker. Head granulate/punctate,

epicranial suture weakly to moderately impressed.

Pronotum rugose/punctate to granulate. Elytra

with moderate punctures, distance between them

within striae same as distance between striae,

granules absent to strong, apical punctures often

well marked; elytral interstriae not or only slightly

raised. Setae on head and apex of elytra weakly to

moderately developed. Pronotal epipleuron

moderately developed, two to three punctures

deep, fluted. Pseudoepipleuron moderately to well

developed, elytral epipleuron absent behind,

increasing in front to about equal width of

pseudoepipleuron. Front of mesosternum in

middle with two longitudinal carinae, area

between them deeper in front than behind.

Profemur quite stout, narrowing to about half its

greatest width basally, basal pubescence weak

reduced to a narrow band ventrally. Mesofemur

elongate, spindle-shaped, reduced to about half its

greatest width in basal third, basal pubescence

weak, reduced to narrow band ventrally, usually

less than a quarter of its basal width. Metafemur

elongate, bowed on front edge, reduced to almost

half its greatest width near base.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus straight sided,

1.5 — 2.6 times apical piece. Apical piece varying

from elongate triangular to bullet-shaped.

Parameres narrowly to moderately broad

apically. Central lobe rather narrow to

moderately wide, shorter than parameres, tip

rounded, occasionally with a hint of a twist at tip

(Figs 20-22).

Distribution

Northern Territory

32 km W Alice Springs, ANIC; Barramundi

Creek, Kakadu NP, SAMA; Barramundi Gorge,

Kakadu NP, NHMW, CLH; 22 km WSW

Borroloola, ANIC; 80 km SW Borroloola, ANIC;

8 km ESE Cape Crawford, ANIC; 14 km NW

Cape Crawford, ANIC; Cooper Creek near Mt

Borradaile, SAMA; Ellery Gorge, ANIC, SAMA,

NMY; 11 km E Jabiru, SAMA; 20 km SSW

Jabiru, SAMA; Jim Jim Highway, Kakadu NP,

NHWM, CLH; Jim Jim Falls, Kakadu NP,

NHWM, 1 km W Gubara, Kakadu NP, SAMA;

Gungurul Lookout, Kakadu, NHWM; Howard

Springs, ANIC, SAMA; Kongarra, ANIC, NTM;

Litchfield NP, ANIC; 1 km NNW Mudginbarry

Homestead ANIC; 19 km E by S Mt Borradaile,

ANIC, NTM; 6 km SE Mt Borradaile, SAMA; 19

km WSW Mt Cahill, ANIC; 8 km E Mt Cahill,

ANIC; Nabarlek Dam, ANIC; 46 km WSW Mt

Cahill, ANIC; 15 km E Mt Cahill, NTM;

Nawurlandja, Kakadu NP, SAMA; 18 km E by N

Oenpelli, ANIC; Orminston Gorge, SAMA;

Paisley Bluff, NMV; Pine Creek, NTM; Roderick

Creek, NTM; Simpsons Gap, SAMA; UDP Falls,

Kakadu NP, NTM; Vaughan Springs, SAMA.

Queensland

20 km S Bloomfield, SAMA; Burdekin River,

SAMA; Burdekin River E of Charters Towers,

SAMA; 30 ml N Cooktown, UQIC; Coen,

SAMA; 24 ml SE Einasleigh, CAL; 70 km SW

Greenvale, SAMA; Iron Range, UQIC; McLeod

River near Cooktown, SAMA; Mcllwraith Ranges

Weather Station, SAMA

Western Australia

Drysdale River, ANIC; 12 km S Kalumburu

Mission, ANIC; 14 km S by E Kalumburu

Mission, ANIC; 4 km W King Cascade, ANIC;

King Edward Range, ANIC; Mining Camp

Mitchell Plateau, ANIC; 4 km WSW Mining

Camp Mitchell Plateau, ANIC.

Remarks

As I have interpreted it, H. interioris is a

common, widespread and variable species across

northern and central Australia. It does not appear

to be present east of the Dividing Range. In the

Kimberley and coastal Northern Territory most

specimens are narrow, weakly granulate, often

with a silvery or less frequently a golden sheen

and their aedeagi are relatively broad. At the

eastern edge of their range on Cape York,

Queensland, they are strongly granulate and often

broad, with narrower more elongate aedeagi, and

darker although when wet the typical dark spots

and silvery patches are usually clear. The type

population in central Australia tends to be

intermediate.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 2]

Hydrochus interioris can most easily be

separated from related species by its dark legs,

uneven surface to the pronotum, narrow

mesofemur but only moderately narrowed

metafemur, weak basal pubescence on

mesofemur, the frequent presence of moderate

apical punctures, often silvery elytra with simple

but often masked pattern of dark spots and,

particularly in Queensland specimens, very strong

dorsal granules. The aedeagus is unusual in

having the basal half of the parameres often

swollen ventrally rather than the more usual

dorsally.

It can be confused with H. macroaquilonius

(see under that species) and H. eurypleuron which

is superficially similar but has much broader

elytral epipleura, and H. aenigmatis, a more

southerly species, with broader mesofemora with

stronger basal pubescence, elytra and pronotum

not granulate and with a very broad short central

lobe to the aedeagus. Small specimens are

difficult to distinguish from H. atratus (see under

that species).

Biology

This common and widespread species is found

in bare sandy areas beside creeks and rivers or the

pools left in drying river beds. Taken at light.

Hydrochus lateviridis Blackburn

Hydrochus lateviridis Blackburn, 1896

Type

Holotype: male ‘Ellery ck’ ‘Cent. Aust. Coll.

Horn Exp. Pres. 8.98’ ‘Hydrochus lateviridis

Blackb’ with more recent red labels ‘Type’

‘Holotype T-13211 Hydrochus lateviridis

Blackburn, 1896’, NMV.

Description (number of specimens examined,

290) Figs 9, 10, 25-27

Length 1.6 —- 2.5mm. Broadly elongate,

pronotum narrowed quite strongly behind, elytra

quite strongly widened behind middle, rapidly

narrowing to tip. Head black to golden, iridescent;

pronotum dark brown to golden iridescent, front

and rear margins occasionally narrowly

testaceous; elytra dark brown, or steely grey, or

silvery/golden, elytral dark spots often well

marked, often extensive (Figs 9,10); ventral

surface dark brown to black, legs yellow or light

testaceous, usually lacking darker areas on knees

or femora. Head granulate/punctate, epicranial

suture weakly impressed. Pronotum rather evenly

and smoothly covered in small to moderately

sized punctures, moderately rugose. Elytra with

small to medium sized punctures, distance

between punctures often less than the width of

interstriae, interstriae not or only very weakly

raised; plica distinct; apical punctures small, may

be weakly granulate. Setae on head and elytra

virtually absent. Pronotal epipleuron well marked,

two to three puncture widths deep, smooth with

some large punctures. Elytral pseudoepipleura

weak to moderate, epipleura absent behind,

widening to about same width or a bit more than

pseudoepipleura in front third. Front of

mesosternum in centre with two longitudinal

carinae, area between them shallow behind.

Profemur elongate, narrowing toward base;

basally pubescence weak, reduced to narrow band

ventrally. Mesofemur strongly spindle-shaped,

reducing to half or less its maximum width

basally, basal pubescence very weak, reduced to

narrow band ventrally. Metafemur spindle-shaped,

narrowing to about half its greatest width basally.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus straight sided

to moderately twisted, 1.5 — 2.6 times length of

apical piece. Apical piece bullet-shaped to

elongate, occasionally twisted, base narrower

than basal piece. Central lobe varying from

relatively thin and parallel sided to quite strongly

expanded apically, in both cases with a very thin

apical piece which almost reaches tip, often

bulging above parameres apically. The thin

apical piece of the central lobe may be displaced

laterally in strongly twisted or elongate forms

(Figs 25-27).

Distribution

Northern Territory

Adelaide River, ANIC; Barramundi Creek,

Kakadu NP, SAMA; Deaf Adder Gorge,

Kakadu NP, NTM; 14 km NW Cape Crawford,

ANIC; Cooper Creek near Mt Borradaile,

SAMA; Edith Falls near Katherine, CAL; Ellery

Gorge, ANIC; Gubara, Kakadu NP, NHMW,

CLH; 20 km SSW Jabiru, SAMA; Kongarra,

NTM; 19 km E by S Mt Borradaile, NTM,

ANIC; 6 km SE Mt Borradaile, SAMA; 6 km E

Mt Cahill, ANIC; 8 km E Mt Cahill, ANIC; 19

km WSW Mt Cahill, ANIC; 5 km SE Mt

Borradaile Station, SAMA; 2 km N

Mudginbarry Homestead, ANIC; 9 km SSE

Mudginbarry Homestead, ANIC; 11 km S by W

Nimbuwah Rock, ANIC, NTM; Nawurlandja,

Kakadu NP, SAMA; 6 km SW by S Oenpelli,

22 C.H.S. WATTS

ANIC; Roderick Creek, NTM; Simpsons Gap,

SAMA; South Johnstone River, Kakadu NP,

SAMA; UDP Falls, Kakadu NP, NTM;

Woolwonga Fauna Reserve, ANIC; 16.07S

130.25E, NTM.

Queensland

Borumba Dam, NHMW; Burdekin River,

SAMA; Burdekin River E of Charters Towers,

SAMA; 35 ml SE Burketown, UQIC; Cape

Tribulation, DPIM; Dalrymple, NHMW; Funnel

Creek, ANIC; 70 km SW Greenvale, SAMA;

Hann River, NMV; Laura, DPIM; 73 km NW

Laura, ANIC; 66 km NW Mt Isa, ANIC; 3 km

ENE Mt Tozer, ANIC; Normanton, ANIC; 11 km

NSW Petford, DPIM; 15 km WNW South

Johnstone, DPIM; Windsor Table Land, DPIM.

Western Australia

Abydos, FIELD; Cadjeput Rockhole, WAM; 17

km N by E Cane River Homestead, ANIC;

Drysdale River, ANIC; 12 km S Kalumburu

Mission, ANIC; 3 km NW by W Millstream,

ANIC; 4 km S by W Mining Camp Mitchell

Plateau, (14°52S 125°S50E), ANIC; 5.5 km NW

Mt Bell, WAM; West Peawah River, ANIC;

Winjana Gorge, CAL.; 13 km ESE Wittenoom,

ANIC; Synnot Creek, ANIC.

Remarks

Typical H. lateviridis have a large triangular

dark patch just before the middle of the elytra

which separates them from all other Australian

Hydrochus (Figs 9,10). However this patch can be

obscured in dark specimens and, particularly in

Armbhem Land, can be reduced to a small area no

larger than other patches on the elytra which then

resembles the pattern in other species such as H.

burdekinensis. Dark specimens of H. lateviridis

can be confused with H. atratus, particularly the

occasional specimen of H. atratus with yellow

legs, but can be separated by their wider elytral

epipleura, more spindle-shaped mesofemora, and

better defined pronotal epipleura. All these

characters are subjective and can only really be

appreciated when directly comparing specimens.

The genitalia can be very similar but in H. atratus

(Fig.19) the apical piece is more triangular and

with a narrower central lobe than in H. lateviridis.

In some H. atratus (if the specimens from

Kunmunya are included in that species) (Figs 25—

27) the apical piece is very like the short narrow

form of H. lateviridis (Fig. 26) but is more

waisted and the central lobe not bulbous as in

typical H. lateviridis.

Darker specimens of H. burdekinensis, and H.

lateviridis with poorly developed colour patterns,

resemble each other. In most cases the more

spindle-shaped mesofemora of H. lateviridis will

separate them. Their aedeagi are relatively

similar and the large degree of variation makes it

difficult to reliably separate them on this

character alone.

There are four rather distinctive forms of the

aedeagus within the species as I interpret it.

The first form has a squat, bullet-shaped apical

piece with a broad, bulbous central lobe with a

weak, hard to see, apical spine (Fig. 25). It

appears to be a more inland form and is the only

one present in the type locality in Central

Australia.

The second form has a short, thin apical piece

with a narrow almost parallel sided central lobe

(Fig. 26). It is more coastal in distribution.

The third form is similar to the second but has

the apical piece strongly skewed, and the thin

portion at the tip of the central lobe can appear

twisted out of position. The few specimens known

are from the Hann River/Iron Range area of Cape

York.

The fourth form has a longer more elongate

apical piece with a correspondingly long thin

central lobe, the terminal piece of which is bent at

tight angles in the four known specimens,

presumably a post-mortem effect (Fig. 27). The

specimens are from Cooktown, Hann River,

Wenlock River and Archer River all on Cape

York.

The first two forms are relatively common and

widespread, occurring together in the same

population at several locations (e.g. Greenvale and

Kakadu). Although most specimens are clearly

one or the other form enough intermediates exist

for me to hesitate to consider them separate

species.

Forms three and four are known from only a

few specimens from a relatively restricted area

of Cape York and are the only representatives

of the species in the region so far collected. A

few specimens from further south show a

tendency to have a skewed apical piece to their

aedeagi. Many more examples of H. lateviridis

from Cape York will need to be examined

before a better interpretation of these forms can

be made.

Biology

Found in sand and gravel at the edges of rivers

or in sandy pools in the beds of drying rivers.

Taken at light.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 23

:

:

28 30

FIGURES 23-33. 23, H. cucullatus; 24, H. burdekinensis; 25-27, forms of H. lateviridis; 28, H. simplicicollis;

29, H. obsoletus; 30, H. numerosepunctatus; 31-33, forms of H. obscuroaeneus.

24 C.H.S. WATTS

Hydrochus macroaquilonius sp.nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘NT Magela ck Kakadu NP

19.3.98 C.H.S. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 5, same data as holotype, SAMA;

2, ‘12°57S 132°33E Jim Jim Creek, N.T. 19 km

WSW of Mt Cahill 24.x.72, E.B. Britton’, ANIC;

2, ‘12°40S 132°54E Magela Creek, N.T. 9 km

SSE of Mudginbarry HS, 6.xi, 72, at light, E.

Britton’, ANIC.

Description (number of specimens examined, 47)

Fig. 15

Length 3.2 — 4.1mm. Elongate, elytra widest

slightly behind middle, narrowing quite rapidly

to apex which is moderately truncate. Head dark

brown-black with metallic sheen; pronotum dark

brown/steely grey; elytra dark brown/steely grey/

golden with dark spots which are masked in

darker forms; ventral surface dark brown-black,

legs testaceous, knees and base of femora often

darker. Head quite densely but smoothly

granulate/punctate, epicranial suture weak.

Pronotum rugose/punctate, punctures relatively

small and dense, foveae weak. Elytral punctures

moderate, separated within striae by about width

of interstriae, interstriae four and eight often

weakly raised, plica present. Head and elytra

virtually without setae. Pronotal epipleuron ill

defined, one to two puncture widths wide, may

be weakly fluted. Elytral pseudoepipleuron

moderate, epipleuron absent apically, increasing

towards middle and front where it reaches about

same width as pseudoepipleuron. Front of

mesosternum in middle with two longitudinal

carinae, area between them often shallow.

Profemur elongate, basal pubescence weak,

reduced to narrow band ventrally. Mesofemur

elongate, spindle shaped, towards base less than

half its greatest width, basal pubescence

moderate, reaching to about quarter width of

femur beyond trochanter on rear edge.

Metafemur elongate, weakly bowed on front

edge.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus parallel sided,

2.0 — 2.1 times length of apical portion. Apical

piece elongate, narrow. Central lobe narrow,

almost as long as parameres (Fig. 15).

Distribution

Northern Territory

Barramundi Creek, Kakadu NP, CLH, NHMW;

Gungural Lookout, Kakadu NP, NHMW; 20 km

SSW Jabiru, SAMA; Jim Jim Creek, Kakadu NP,

ANIC; Magela Creek, Kakadu NP, SAMA; 30 km

WSW Mt Cahill, ANIC; 8 km E Mt Cahill, ANIC;

9 km SSE Mudginbarry Homestead, Kakadu NP,

ANIC; South Johnstone River, Old Jim Jim Road

Crossing, Kakadu NP, SAMA.

Queensland

3 km W by S Black Mountain, ANIC; 20 km S

Bloomfield, SAMA; Captain Billy Creek, SAMA;

Coen, UQIC; Helenvale, SAMA; 7 km N of Hope

Vale Mission, ANIC; Iron Range, DPIM; 73 km

NW by W Laura, ANIC; Palm Creek, DPIM;

Peach Creek, SAMA; Mcllwraith Ranges Weather

Station, SAMA; 9 km ENE Mt Tozer, ANIC; 11

km ENE Mt Tozer, ANIC; 3 km ENE Mt Tozer,

ANIC; 1 km N Rounded Hill, ANIC; 5 km W by

N Rounded Hill, ANIC.

Western Australia

8 km SW by W Cane River Homestead, ANIC;

Gascoyne River, SAMA; 23 ml N Mundiwindi,

WAM.

Remarks

One of the largest Australian Hydrochus, H.

macroaquilonius is close to H. interioris. It differs

in its larger size, lack of granules, somewhat more

extensive basal pubescence on the mesofemur

with the pubescence reaching beyond the hind

edge of the trochanter even in the middle of the

femur. In H. interioris it is seldom as well

developed. The aedeagus resembles that seen in

some of the highly granulate eastern specimens of

H. interioris but has the central lobe a bit broader

and longer than most of these. The epipleura also

tend to be broader than in the majority of Z.

interioris. Most specimens have the legs with a

much lesser extent of dark colour than in H.

interioris and in a few specimens the legs are

uniformly testaceous. The bright golden dorsal

surface seems a rarity in this species, most

specimens being a rather dull grey with the spots

only vaguely visible. In general appearance it

resembles H. imamkhani another large species

with elytral spots, and sympatric with it. The

structure of the front of the mesosternum will

readily separate these two species.

Biology

Found among sand and gravel at the edges of

rivers and small creeks. Taken at light.

Etymology

Latin. ‘Large’, ‘northern’ — a reference to its

size and locality.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 25

Hydrochus obsoletus Lea

Hydrochus obsoletus Lea, 1926

Type

Holotype: female ‘obsoletus Lea TYPE

Albury’, SAMA

Description (number of specimens examined,

170) Fig. 29

Length 2.0 — 3.4mm. Broadly elongate,

widest just behind middle of elytra. Head black

or golden, weakly iridescent; pronotum

testaceous to dark testaceous with green tinges,

front and/or rear margins sometimes narrowly

testaceous, or golden, or all black; elytra light

testaceous with vague similar sized darker

spots, or shiny silver grey with darker spots, or

shiny golden with dark spots, or shiny black;

ventral surface black, legs light testaceous with

tips of tarsi, and occasionally base of femora

diffusely darker. Head smooth, sparsely covered

with small moderate punctures, frons area often

granulate, epicranial suture weak. Pronotum

smooth, rather sparsely covered with moderate

punctures to rugose and closely punctured.

Elytra with small to moderate punctures,

separated within striae by the width or less of

the adjacent interstriae, sometimes weakly

granulated at sides and rear; interstriae not or

only weakly raised — if so then interstria four is

most prominent; plica weak to moderate. Dorsal

setae absent. Pronotal epipleuron well marked,

shiny, two to three puncture widths deep. Front

of mesosternum in middle with two longitudinal

carinae, area between them shallower behind.

Pseudoepipleuron relatively broad, epipleuron

absent behind, narrow in middle, widening to

a bit less than width of pseudoepipleuron in

front third. Profemur quite stout; basal

pubescence weak, reduced to a narrow band

ventrally. Mesofemur relatively stout for group

2 species, narrowing to about two thirds its

greatest width basally, basal pubescence weak

to moderate, reduced to narrow band about a

quarter width of base of femur or less,

ventrally. Metafemur a bit larger but similar in

shape to mesofemur.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus narrowing

weakly toward base, 1.5 — 2.0 times length of

apical piece. Apical piece narrowly bullet-shaped

to triangular with suggestion of subapical

constriction. Central lobe relatively narrow,

weakly bulbous in its central portion, a bit shorter

than parameres (Fig. 29).

Distribution

Australian Capital Territory

Black Mountain, ANIC; Canberra, SAMA; 30

km SW Canberra, SAMA; Kambah Pool, ANIC,

SAMA.

New South Wales

Armadale, SAMA; Bombala, SAMA; Boonoo

Boonoo River, UQIC; Cabbage Tree Creek near

Nelligen, SAMA; Clarence River, NMVV; Cooma,

SAMA; Gilgandra, SAMA; Jenolan Caves,

SAMA; 6 km N Uralla, ANIC; Valery, ANIC;

Quaama, SAMA.

Queensland

Bowen, SAMA; 15 km W Gympie, NMV;

Kenilworth State Forest, UQIC; 10 km W Imbil,

NMV.

South Australia

Cudlee Creek, SAMA; Torrens Gorge, SAMA.

Victoria

11.5 km NNW Ballan, ANIC; Benong, CAL;

3.8 km WNW Blackwood, ANIC; Deddick River,

NMV; 4.5 km SW Healesville FIELD; 4 km SW

Healesville, NMV; Omeo, SAMA; 30 km N

Orbost, SAMA; Stratford, SAMA.; Tambo

Crossing, Jordan River, NMV.

Remarks

A southern species readily recognised from

other southern species by its yellow spindly legs

and coloured and spotted elytra. It resembles H.

burdekinensis in general shape and colour but can

be separated from this species by its similarly

shaped meso and meta femora unlike H.

burdekinensis which has the mesofemora more

spindle-shaped. Although some H. obsoletus and

some H. burdekinensis have identical dorsal

colouring, apart from one specimen of H.

obsoletus from Gilgandra, in SAMA, with a

testaceous ventral surface, H. obsoletus always

has a black, or very dark, ventral surface, whereas

in most H. burdekinensis it is a much lighter

testaceous colour. The aedeagi of both species are

quite similar but in H. obsoletus the apical piece

is comparatively longer (1.5 — 2.0 times the length

of the basal piece) and the paramere tips a bit

wider.

Hydrochus obsoletus closely resembles H.

simplicicollis and can only be reliably separated

by its aedeagus which has a relatively shorter

apical piece compared to H. simplicicollis (Figs

28, 29). Future study, particularly of specimens

26 C.H.S. WATTS

from coastal Queensland, may well show these

two species to be conspecific.

Biology

All specimens of this species that I have

collected have been taken from among gravel at

the edge of relatively large streams/rivers.

Hydrochus simplicicollis Lea

Hydrochus simplicicollis Lea, 1926

= Hydrochus verae Makhan, 1995; syn. nov.

Types

Hydrochus simplicicollis Lea. Lectotype:

‘simplicicollis Lea TYPE Cairns’ left hand

specimen of two on same card with ‘TY’ below,

SAMA. Herein designated.

Paralectotypes: 1, same data as holotype,

SAMA; 1, ‘Vicinity of Jenolan Caves (J.C.

Wiburd)’ ‘Co-type’ ‘Griffith Collection Id. by

A.M. Lea’, SAMA. Herein designated. This

specimen is labelled as a co-type but not by Lea.

In the original description it is mentioned by Lea

as ‘probably belongs to the species’. Its

paralectatype status is doubtful. This specimen

belongs to H. obsoletus.

Hydrochus verae Makhan. Holotype:

‘Australien QL (10,11) Dalrymple 300 m, 30 km

N. Charters Towers 18.1.1993 leg Wewalka’

‘Hydrochus verae det. D. Makhan 1994’ with red

Holotype label, NHMW.

Paratypes: 7, same data as holotype with

yellow paratype labels, NHMW. (The paratype

series includes three species; four are conspecific

with the holotype, two are H. lateviridis and one

is H. atratus).

Description (number of dissected males

examined, 14) Fig. 28

Length 2.0 — 2.4mm. Broadly oval, widest

just behind middle of elytra. Head black, often

with greenish tinges; pronotum shiny dark

brown, front and rear edges often narrowly

testaceous; elytra light to dark testaceous,

sometimes with vague darker spots

approximately equal in size, or grey/black, or

black; ventral surface dark brown to black, legs

light testaceous, apical portion of tarsi maybe

darker. Head smooth with sparse moderate

punctures, occasionally with squat granules,

epicranial suture weak. Pronotum smooth to

rugose, punctures moderate sized, usually rather

sparse. Elytra with small, moderate sized

punctures, punctures separated by less than the

width of interstriae in all but a few cases;

interstriae not, or only very weakly raised; plica

weakly distinct. Dorsal surface without setae.

Pronotal epipleuron well differentiated, shiny,

about three puncture widths deep.

Pseudoepipleuron of elytra moderate,

epipleuron absent behind, narrow in middle,

increasing to about same width as

pseudoepipleuron in anterior third. Front of

mesosternum in middle with two longitudinal

carinae, area between them shallower behind.

Profemur relatively stout; basal pubescence

moderate, reduced to a band about a quarter the

width of the femur at that point or less

ventrally. Mesofemur moderately spindle-

shaped, narrowing basally to between a third to

a half its greatest width; basal pubescence weak

to moderate, reduced to a narrow band about a

quarter of the width of the femur or less

ventrally. Metafemur a little larger but

approximately the same shape as mesofemur.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus wide, narrowing

a bit towards base, 1.0 — 1.4 times length of apical

piece. Apical piece elongate, narrow. Central lobe

rather narrow, weakly bulbous in its central

portion, as long as parameres (Fig. 28).

Distribution

Queensland

Cairns, SAMA; Dalrymple, 30 km N Charters

Towers, NHMW; 70 km SW Greenvale, SAMA;

15 km WNW South Johnstone, DPIM; Windsor

Tableland, DPIM.

Western Australia

3 ml E Pago Mission, FIELD.

Remarks

Like the related species, H. obsoletus, H.

lateviridis and H. burdekinensis, H. simplicicollis

has a range of dorsal colours but in all known

specimens the pronotum is dark, apart from front

and rear margins in some, and the ventral surface

black or almost so and, when present, the elytral

spots are roughly equal in size. Although most

specimens have small elytral punctures and wide

interstriae, in some specimens the punctures are

larger with the interstriae narrow and equal in width

to the area separating punctures within a stria.

Compared to H. burdekinensis and H. lateviridis,

the mesofemora are relatively stout and roughly

similar in shape to the metafemora. On average the

elytral epipleura seem a bit wider than in related

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 27

species but this difference is difficult to quantify.

Males have longer and narrower apical pieces to

their aedeagi than those of H. burdekinensis (Fig.

24) or H. lateviridis (Figs 25-27).

The species can only be separated from the

southern H. obsoletus by the aedeagus which, in

H. obsoletus (Fig. 29), has the apical piece

comparatively shorter and broader and the central

lobe is shorter and does not reach to the ends of

the parameres. It is possible that the collection of

specimens from the intermediate geographic areas

could show them to be conspecific.

Hydrochus verae Makhan belongs to this

species, although three of the seven paratypes do

not. The specimens mentioned by Lea (1926)

from Jenolan NSW and Bowen Qld are H.

obsoletus.

Biology

No habitat notes are available although the

general localities suggest that it lives at the edge

of sandy/gravelly rivers as do related species.

Species Group 3

Group 3 species are characterised by having:

two rather than three longitudinal carinae at the

front of the mesosternum; stout, almost

cylindrical legs, with the basal pubescence on

the profemora interrupted ventrally or reduced to

a very narrow band (Fig.3). Other character

states that tend to define the group are: elytral

interstriae, particularly the alternative ones,

usually raised and the plica absorbed into

interstria eight; pronotal foveae weakly to

moderately developed and their edges often

glabrous; pronotal epipleura moderately wide but

ill-defined; head with a deep epicranial suture;

dorsal setae often strong; basal pubescence on

the mesofemora seldom reaches beyond the apex

of the trochanter (Fig. 3).

Group 3 species are generally relatively small

and chunky, although H. numerosepunctatus is

among the largest of Australian Hydrochus. One

species, H. obscuroaeneus, is extremely common

across Northern Australia. The species are

primarily inhabitants of smaller, often

intermittent, streams where they live among

stones and detritus at the edges. Two species

appear to be at least partially terrestrial, having

been collected from wet forest litter.

Hydrochus chitraae Makhan, 1994 and H.

chitaniei Makhan, 1994, described from New

Guinea, belong in this group.

Hydrochus gitaraiae Makhan

Hydrochus gitaraiae Makhan, 1994

Types

Holotype: male, ‘New Guinea Neth Mol

Maffen, 22 km E of Sarmi July 18, 1959’ ‘m.v.

light trap Maa’ ‘Hydrochus gitaraiae det D.

Makhan 1994’, BPBM.

Paratype: same data as holotype. In Hungarian

National Museum, Budapest. Not seen.

Description (number of dissected males

examined, 5) Fig. 34

Length 1.8 — 2.3mm. Elongate-oval. Head shiny

black; pronotum shiny dark brown to black; elytra

shiny black; ventral surface dark-brown to black,

legs dark testaceous, parts of tarsi, knees and

much of femora darker. Head with scattered large

punctures, frons weakly granulate, epicranial

suture well marked. Pronotum with rather sparse

large punctures, with bare areas in between,

foveae obsolete. Elytra with rather even sized well

marked punctures not or only slightly increasing

in size towards middle within striae. Alternate

interstriae weakly raised towards apex, interstriae

eight weakly raised, incorporating plica. Pronotal

epipleuron weakly delineated, narrow, about a

puncture width wide, almost completely or

partially absent in some. Pseudoepipleuron narrow

posteriorly moderate anteriorly, elytral epipleuron

absent behind, narrow in front. Profemur stout,

basal pubescence weak, absent ventrally.

Mesofemur relatively stout, weakly narrowing

towards base, basal pubescence reaching to about

end of trochanter on posterior margin. Metafemur

moderately stout. Setae on head and basal half of

elytra moderate to strong, weak to moderate on

pronotum. Front of mesosternum in middle with

two subparallel raised carinae, area between them

moderately deep.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus broad, weakly

narrowing toward base, 1.2 — 1.5 times length of

apical piece. Parameres broad at base, weakly

constricted a bit before tip, tip relatively broad,

diagonally truncated. Central lobe moderate,

nearly as long as parameres (Fig. 34).

Distribution

Northern Territory

Muirella Park, Kakadu NP, DPIM.

Queensland

29 km S Bamaga, ANIC, SAMA; 9 km ENE

Mt Tozer, ANIC.

28 C. H.S. WATTS

Remarks

This seemingly rare northern species is the

smallest group 3 species yet known (<2.5mm).

Apart from its small size it differs from other

group 3 species by its weak or, in some cases,

virtually absent, pronotal epipleura, and the wide

obliquely truncated tip to the parameres (Fig. 34).

Among group 3 species, it shares with H. horni

the relatively uniformly- sized elytral punctures,

strongly developed setae on the head and elytra

and bare shiny areas on the pronotum. Also occurs

in New Guinea.

Biology

Nothing known.

Hydrochus granicollis Lea

Hydrochus granicollis Lea, 1926.

Types

Lectotype: female ‘granicollis Lea TYPE

Wahroonga’, SAMA. Herein designated.

Paralectotypes: 2, ‘Wahroonga H.J.C.1.24

‘Co-type’ ‘Griffith Collection id. by A.M. Lea’,

SAMA. Herein designated.

Description (number of specimens examined, 22)

Fig. 37

Length 2.0 — 2.6mm. Relatively broad, elytra

widest behind middle. Head shiny black;

pronotum and elytra shiny dark brown to black;

ventral surface dark brown, legs testaceous. Head

rather smoothly granulate/punctate, epicranial

suture well marked. Pronotum strongly granulate/

punctate, foveae weak not bounded by raised

carinae. Elytra with moderate sized well

impressed punctures, those in any one stria of

similar size apart from extreme base and apex,

adjacent punctures in different striae same size;

alternate interstriae moderate to quite strongly

raised, some lateral interstriae may be granulate;

plica absorbed into interstria eight; apical

punctures usually strong, apex rounded. Pronotal

epipleuron moderate, about two puncture widths

wide. Pseudoepipleuron wide, elytral epipleuron

absent behind, narrow in front. Setae weakly

developed on head and at base of elytra. Front of

mesosternum in middle with two subparallel

raised carinae, area between them moderately

deep. Profemur stout, basal pubescence weak,

absent or very narrow ventrally. Mesofemur

relatively stout weakly narrowed towards base,

basal pubescence moderately developed, reaching

a little past end of trochanter on hind margin.

Profemur moderately bowed on front edge.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus parallel sided,

1.3 — 1.4 times length of apical piece. Parameres

weakly bulbous in basal half, twisted open in

front half to cradle central lobe, narrowing

towards tip. Central lobe moderately wide,

narrowing in front (Fig. 37).

Distribution

Australian Capital Territory

Black Mountain, ANIC; Cotter River, ANIC;

Kambah Pool, ANIC.

New South Wales

Cabbage Tree Creek, ANIC; Hawksbury River,

SAMA; Kiola Forest Park, 15 ml N Batemans

Bay, ANIC.

Remarks

A southern species known only from a limited

area of the South-east, H. granicollis resembles

H. horni in general appearance and in its relatively

even-sized elytral punctures. In general it is a

chunkier species with more strongly developed

dorsal sculpture but much more poorly developed

setae. The apex of the elytra is rounded rather

than pinched as is often the case in H. horni and

the apical punctures are usually very large in

contrast to the small to moderately sized ones in

H. horni.

Biology

Found among stones and leaves at the edges of

running water. The specimens from Kiola are

labelled as coming from wet sclerophyll litter.

Hydrochus horni Blackburn

Hydrochus horni Blackburn, 1896

=H. scabricollis Lea, 1926; syn. nov.

Types

Hydrochus horni Blackburn. Lectotype: “Type’

‘T 5488 Pais]. Bl.’ ‘Australia Blackburn Coll BM.

1910-236’ * Hydrochus interioris Blackb.’

“‘Hydrochus horni Blackb. Type fide Lea TRSSA

1926— 147 Balfour Browne det’, BMNH. Herein

designated.

Paralectotypes: 1, ‘Cent-Aust Coll Horn Exp

Pres 7.97’ ‘Hydrochus Horni, Blackb.’ with more

recent red labels’ ‘Type’ ‘Syntype T-13197

Hydrochus horni Blackburn 1896’, NMV. This

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 29

specimen cannot be considered the holotype since

the BMNH specimen was clearly marked “T’ by

Blackburn; 1, ‘Paisley Bluff Cent Aust Horn.

Exp’ ‘Hydrochus horni Blk. del. by BIkb.’

‘F.E.Wilson Collection’ with more recent blue

labels ‘2295 Cotype’ ‘Paratype T2295 Hydrochus

horni Black.’, NMV; 1, ‘5488 Paisley B.’

‘Hydrochus interioris, Blackb. Co-type’, SAMA;

2, ‘5488 Paisl Bluff’ ‘interioris Blackb.’ ‘this is

horni BI’, SAMA. Herein designated. I agree with

Lea (1926) that the BMNH and SAMA specimens

are H. horni and were mislabelled by Blackburn.

Hydrochus scabricollis Lea. Lectotype:

‘Scabricollis Lea TYPE Parachilna’, SAMA. The

left hand specimen above “TY~ of four specimens

on one card herein designated.

Paralectotypes: 3, same data as holotype,

SAMA; 1, ‘S. Australia’ ‘A.H. Elston Collection’

‘2625 Hydrochus scabricollis Lea Co-type S.

Australia’ ‘Paratype’, AM; 5, ‘Co-Type’

‘Parachilna Hale Flinders Range’ ‘Griffith

Collection id by A.M. Lea’, SAMA; 1, ‘Co-Type’

‘Lucindale S. Australia’, SAMA.; 2, “Lucindale S

Australia’ ‘Hydrochus scabricollis’ ‘Co-type

2795’ ‘Lea, Co-type’, QM. Herein designated.

In NMV there are additional specimens

obviously collected and labelled at the same time

as the specimens later labelled as co-types. I am

unaware of why some have been labelled as co-

types and others not. The SAMA paralectotypes

were labelled co-types by Blackburn, albeit

incorrectly.

Description (number of specimens examined,

193) Figs 35, 36

Length 2.0 — 3.4mm. Elongate, elytra a little

wider behind middle. Head shiny black;

pronotum and elytra shiny dark brown to black;

ventral surface dark brown, legs dark

testaceous, parts of tarsi, knees and much of

femora darker. Head granulate/punctate.

Pronotum granulate/punctate varying from quite

strongly and evenly rugose to relatively smooth

with large areas bare of sculpture, foveae weak,

often bounded by flat broad smooth areas.

Elytral punctures well marked, not or only

slightly increasing in size beyond the first few

basal punctures. Punctures in adjacent striae

similar sized, lateral interstriae occasionally

granulate, interstriae not or only weakly raised

particularly alternate interstriae toward apex,

plica absorbed into interstria eight. Setae on

head moderate to strong often present on

pronotum as well, much of elytra setose.

Pronotal epipleuron weak to moderate, 0.5 to

1.5 puncture widths wide, often poorly

delineated. Pseudoepipleuron weak to

moderate, elytral epipleuron absent behind,

narrow in front. Front of mesosternum in

middle with two weakly diverging longitudinal

carinae, area between them moderately deep in

front becoming very shallow behind. Profemur

stout, basal pubescence weak to absent or

virtually so ventrally. Mesofemur relatively

stout to moderately elongate, narrowing towards

base, basal pubescence moderate reaching end

of trochanter or a bit past it on hind edge.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus parallel sided or

weakly constricted in middle, 1.6 — 2.0 times

length of apical piece. Apical piece ranging from

strongly dolphin-headed to almost smoothly

triangular. Central lobe narrow reaching almost to

tip of parameres (Figs 35, 36).

Distribution

Australian Capital Territory

25 km W Canberra, ANIC.

New South Wales

8 km N Bombala, SAMA; Kittys Crossing,

ANIC; Monga, ANIC; Nerrigan, SAMA; Webers

Creek, SAMA.

Northern Territory

33 km WNW Alice Springs, ANIC; Ellery

Creek, NMV, SAMA; Ormiston Gorge, SAMA;

Paisley Bluff, NMV; Simpsons Gap, SAMA;

Standley Chasm, ANIC, SAMA: Vaughan

Springs, SAMA.

Queensland

8 km N Bluewater, SAMA; Mary Creek 16°33S

145°12.5E, ANIC; Pentland, ANIC.

South Australia

Alligator Gorge, SAMA; Flinders Ranges,

SAMA; Lucindale, QM; Mt Gambier, SAMA; 13

km W Meadows, SAMA; 1 km S Nangwarry,

SAMA; Robe, SAMA; Williamstown, ANIC,

SAMA.

Tasmania

8 km S Lake Leake, ANIC

Victoria

East Pomborneit, ANIC; Nathatia, SAMA; 4

km NNE Nelson, NMV; 5 km NW Portland,

SAMA; Strathbogie, NMV; Tarra Valley, NMV;

6 km ENE Terang ANIC; 12 km SW Orbost,

SAMA.

30 C.H.S. WATTS

Western Australia

11 km E Ashburton Downs Homestead, WAM;

Gill Pinnacle, WAM; 50 ml S Giles, WAM;

Millstream, ANIC; 13 km ESE Mooka Station,

WAM; 20 km NE Mt Sandiman, WAM;

Murchison River, ANIC.

Remarks

Hydrochus horni is the southern counterpart of

H. obscuroaeneus, occurring relatively commonly

across southern Australia including semi-arid

regions such as the Pilbara, Central Australia and

the Flinders Ranges as well as more coastal regions

of the South-east. It is also found, rarely, in

Queensland as far north as the Atherton Tableland.

It can be separated from H. obscuroaeneus by the

more usually sized elytral punctures which, beyond

the basal four to five, are subequal in size until

nearing the elytron apex. Its clearest distinguishing

character is the bare shiny areas on the pronotum

of most specimens. (These are often absent on

central Australian specimens.) Among group 3

species it tends to have the most elongate

mesofemora with the greatest development of the

basal pubescence. Both these characters

occasionally approach the condition seen in some

group 4 species. The weak basal pubescence on the

profemur, the generally less elongate body, and

strong development of dorsal setae separate it from

any species in group 4.

Hydrochus granicollis resembles H. horni in

many respects and is also sympatric with it in

south-eastern Australia. Hydrochus granicollis

tends to be a chunkier species, with a granulate

pronotum without bare areas, has the apical

punctures on the elytra often much larger than in

H. horni and a more rounded apex to the elytra

which often appears pinched in H. horni. The

aedeagus of H. horni resembles that of H.

obscuroaeneus with which it is sympatric in north

Queensland. The two can be separated by the

relatively smaller apical piece in H. horni (basal

piece 1.6 — 2.0 times apical piece in length, in H.

horni; 1.0 — 1.3 times in H. obscuroaeneus).

Within H. horni there is a considerable degree of

variation in the shape of the apical piece, although

its comparatively short nature remains. In typical

H. horni from central Australia the apical piece is

particularly short and squat generally resembling

the head of a dolphin. In other locations this shape

is still present but other specimens tend to have

the apical piece more elongated which has the

effect of obliterating the dolphin-head shape and

replacing it with the more usual triangular one in

extreme cases. All intermediate shapes occur.

Hydrochus gitaraiae from Cape York and

Arnhem Land closely resembles H. horni,

particularly in the typical bare shiny areas on

the pronotum, but is smaller and has a broader,

differently shaped apical piece to the

aedeagus.

Biology

Found at the edges of small rivers, creeks and

ponds among stones and detritus.

Hydrochus numerosepunctatus sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘NT 1 km W Gubara Kakadu

NP 17.3.98 C.H.S. Watts’, SAMA.

Paratypes: 18, same data as holotype, SAMA;

10, ‘AUSTRALIA: N.T. Kakadu NP Gubara 50

m. 25.10.1996 leg. L. Hendrich (1)’, NHMW.

Description (number of specimens examined, 62)

Fig. 30

Length 2.7 — 4.2mm. Elongate, elytra widest

behind middle, quite rapidly narrowing to apex.

Head shiny black, pronotum and elytra shiny dark

brown to black; ventral surface dark red to black,

legs testaceous, parts of tarsi, knees and much of

femora darker. Head granulate/punctate, epicranial

suture moderately impressed. Pronotum rugose,

densely granulate/punctate, foveae weak to

virtually absent. Elytra very deeply punctate,

interstriae granulate to varying degrees, punctures

in each stria increase in size toward middle from

base and apex, punctures in adjacent stria same

size or slightly larger from stria one to four.

Alternate interstriae not or only weakly raised

particularly toward apex and interstria eight. Plica

absorbed into interstria eight. Pronotal epipleuron

well marked about two punctures deep, fluted.

Pseudoepipleuron moderate, elytral epipleuron

absent behind, narrow in front, virtually invisible

when elytra closed. Setae weak to very weak on

elytron apex. Profemur moderately stout, basal

pubescence weak, absent or virtually absent

ventrally. Mesofemur relatively stout, narrowing

somewhat toward base, basal pubescence weak,

reaching approximately the end of trochanter on

rear edge. Metafemur relatively stout, bowed on

front edge. Front of mesosternum in middle with

two longitudinal carinae, area between them

deep in front becoming shallow behind.

Metasternum evenly covered with relatively

small (for Hydrochus) punctures not arranged in

any pattern.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 31

a1 42 43 ca

FIGURES 34-44 34, H. gitaraiae; 35-36, forms of H. horni; 37, H. granicollis; 38, H. aschnakiranae; 39, H.

kunarajahi; 40, H. multicolor, 41-42, forms of H. australis; 43, H. abditus; 44, H. radjiei.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus parallel sided Distribution

1.2 — 1.6 times length of apical piece. Apical :

piece bullet shaped, parameres rather regularly Northern Territory

narrowing toward pointed tip. Central lobe Bamboo Creek near Wangi, NTM; Cooper

moderately broad reaching to tips of parameres Creek 19 km E by S Mt Borradaile, ANIC; 6 km

(Fig. 30). SE Mt Borradaile, SAMA; 5 km SE Mt

32 C.H.S. WATTS

Borradaile Station, SAMA; Gubara, Kakadu NP,

NHMW, CLH, SAMA; | km S Gubara, Kakadu

NP, SAMA; Holmes Jungle, NTM; 1 km S Jim

Jim Falls, Kakadu NP, NHMW; Katherine Gorge,

NTM; Koongarra, ANIC; Murganella, NTM; 6

km SW by S Oenpelli, ANIC.

Remarks

One of the largest of Australian Hydrochus,

H. numerosepunctatus appears to be relatively

common in coastal Northern Territory. It shows,

with H. obscuroaeneus, the character of

increasing size of elytral punctures from the

elytral base to the middle. The species can be

separated from most H. obscuroaeneus by its

generally larger size (2.7 — 4.2mm against 1.8 —

3.0mm ), deep but not particularly large elytral

punctures, lack of pronotal fovea and granulate

elytra. The male genitalia resemble those of

some H. obscuroaeneus but the apical piece is

relatively smaller. The numerous, evenly

distributed, metasternal punctures are unique

within Australian Hydrochus, although

occasional specimens of other species may

approach the condition seen in UH.

numerosepunctatus.

Biology

Little known, but appears to be associated with

small creeks.

Etymology

Latin. ‘many punctured’ — in reference to the

numerous punctures on the mesothorax.

Hydrochus obscuroaeneus Fairmaire

Hydrochus obscuroaeneus Fairmaire, 1879

= Hydrochus palmerstoni Blackburn, 1895; syn.

nov.

= Hydrochus insularis Lea, 1926; syn. nov.

= Hydrochus rodjani Makhan, 1994; syn. nov.

= Hydrochus wewalkai Makhan, 1994; syn. nov.

Types

Hydrochus obscuro-aeneus Fairmaire.

Holotype: not located, type locality given as Pt.

Makay (?= Mackay), Queensland.

Hydrochus palmerstoni Blackburn. Holotype:

female: ‘T 3921 NT’ ‘Australia Blackburn Coll.

B.M.1910-236’

Blackb.’, BMNH.

Hydrochus insularis Lea. Lectotype: male,

‘insularis Lea TYPE Groote Eyl.’ ‘Groote Eylandt

N.B.Tindale’, SAMA. Herein designated.

Paralectotypes: 3, ‘Groote Eylandt N.B.

Tindale’ ‘Co-type’ ‘Griffith Collection Id by

A.M.Lea’, SAMA. Herein designated.

Hydrochus rodjani Makhan. Holotype: “New

Guinea Papua Brown River May 21,1956’ ‘E.J.

Ford jr. Light trap’, BPBM.

Hydrochus wewalkai Makhan. Holotype: male

‘Australien 17.1.1993 Queensland Townsville

10m leg Wewalka (8)’ ‘Hydrochus wewalkai det

D. Makhan 1994’ with red Holotype label,

NHMW.

‘Hydrochus Palmerstoni,

Description (number of specimens examined, 162

dissected males) Figs 3, 31, 32, 33

Length 1.8 — 3.0mm. Moderately elongate, a

little wider behind middle of elytra, elytral apex

not greatly ‘pinched’. Head black; pronotum dark

brown-black with metallic tinges, extreme front

margin often lighter; elytra dark testaceous to

black; ventral surface dark brown to black,

antennae and palpi testaceous, palpi usually with

darker tips; legs light testaceous, parts of tarsi and

knees darker. Head moderately to strongly

punctate/granulate, epicranial suture moderate.

Pronotum strongly punctate/granulate, foveae

weak-quite strong, occasionally delineated by

narrow raised areas. Elytra strongly sculptured,

punctures well marked, very variable in size,

relatively small to very large, those in each stria

increasing in size towards disc from both base

and apex of elytra, adjacent punctures in different

striae approximately same size, weakly to

moderately granulate, alternate interstriae,

particularly numbers 4, 6 and 8 weakly to

moderately raised for most of their lengths, plica

absorbed into interstria 8. Weak to moderate setae

on head and apical half of elytra. Pronotal

epipleuron distinct, about two puncture widths

wide, fluted. Elytron with relatively narrow

pseudoepipleuron, epipleuron absent behind, very

narrow in front half. Front of mesosternum in

centre with two narrow carinae, area between

them moderately deep. Profemur stout, basal

pubescence weak, lacking or virtually so ventrally

(Fig. 3). Mesofemur moderately elongated, weakly

sinuate, narrowing slightly towards base, basal

pubescence moderately developed not, or only

slightly, extending beyond trochanter on posterior

edge (Fig. 3). Metafemur moderately sized,

weakly bowed on front edge.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 33

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus parallel sided or

narrowing towards base 0.8 — 1.3 times length of

apical piece; parameres variable from narrowly

triangular to quite broad, waisted and with

rounded tip, central lobe variable from narrow to

broad, only slightly shorter than parameres. There

is considerable variation in the degree of

elongation of the apical piece resulting in a

corresponding variation in degree of constriction

of parameres, expansion of the central lobe,

narrowness of the parameres and the comparative

length of the basal and apical pieces (Figs 31, 32,

33).

Distribution

Northern Territory

1 km SE Batchelor, SAMA; Barramundi

Creek, Kakadu NP, SAMA, CLH, NHMW;

Berry Springs, ANIC; Bessie Springs, ANIC; 11

km SW by S Borroloola, ANIC; 46 km SSW

Borroloola, ANIC; 22 km WSW Borroloola,

ANIC; 54 km S by W Borroloola, ANIC; 80 km

SW Borroloola, ANIC; 5 km NNW Cahills

Crossing, ANIC; 1 km N Cahills Crossing,

ANIC; 8 km ESE Cape Crawford, ANIC;

Coomalie Creek, CAL; Darwin, SAMA; Edith

Falls near Katherine, CAL, ANIC; Gubara,

Kakadu NP, NHMW, CLH, SAMA; 1 km W

Gubara, Kakadu NP, SAMA; Gungurul Lookout,

Kakadu NP, NHMW; Holmes Jungle, ANIC,

SAMA; Howard Springs, NMV, ANIC, SAMA;

Humpty Doo, DPIM; 10 km SW Jabiru, SAMA;

12 km E Jabiru, SAMA; Jim Jim Falls, NHMW,

CLH; Katherine, ANIC; Koongarra, ANIC;

Litchfield NP, NHMW; Magela Creek, ANIC;

Manton Dam, ANIC; 19 km E by S Mt

Borradaile, ANIC; 6 km SE Mt Borradaile,

SAMA; 5 km SE Mt Borradaile Station, SAMA;

19 km E by N Mt Cahill, ANIC; 10 km E by N

Mt Cahill, ANIC; 1 km NNW Mudginberry

Homestead, ANIC; Naberlek Dam, ANIC;

Nawurlandja, Kakadu NP, SAMA; Nourlangie

Creek, ANIC; 18 km E by N Oenpelli, ANIC; 31

km SE by S Pine Creek, ANIC; South Alligator

River, ANIC; South Alligator Inn, ANIC; South

Johnston River, Old Jim Jim Road Crossing,

SAMA; Tindal, NMV; Wildman River Lagoon,

ANIC.

Queensland

Archer River, SAMA; Bloomfield, ANIC;

Boggy Creek near Cooktown, ANIC; Burdekin

River near Charters Towers, SAMA; Captain Billy

Creek, SAMA; Cairns, CAL; Cape Tribulation,

ANIC; 30 ml N Cape Tribulation, ANIC; Coen,

MCZ; 60 km S Coen, SAMA; 40 km N Coen,

SAMA; 21 km W by N Cooktown, ANIC; 29 km

NW by N Cooktown, ANIC; Dalhunty River,

SAMA; Dalrymple, 30 km N Charters Towers,

NHMW; Giru, ANIC; 10 km SW by W

Gordonvale, ANIC; Greenvale, NHMW; 70 km

SW Greenvale, SAMA; Hann River, NMV; 7 ml

N Hope Vale Mission, ANIC; Iron Range, ANIC;

7.5 km NNW Kuranda, DPIM, ANIC; Laura,

DPIM; 73 km NW by W Laura, ANIC; 30 km N

Laura, DPIM; 12 km N Laura, SAMA; 31 km

NW by N Longreach, ANIC; 9.5 km SW

Mareeba, DPIM; Mclllwraith Ranges., SAMA; |

km W Mingela, SAMA; 3.5 km SW by S Mt

Baird, ANIC; Mt Garnet, SAMA; 40 ml SW Mt

Garnet, CAL; 21 ml up Mt Lewis Road, DPIM;

Mt Spec, ANIC; 11 km ENE Mt Tozer, ANIC; 2

km N Mt Tozer, ANIC; 9 km ENE Mt Tozer,

ANIC; 3 km NE Mt Webb, ANIC; Peach Creek,

SAMA; 11 km WSW Petford, DPIM; 1 km W

Petford, SAMA; Reid River E of Mingela,

SAMA; Rockhampton, CLH; Shiptons Flat,

ANIC; Silver Plains, MCZ; Tolga, DPIM;

Townsville, CAL, MCZ, NHMW; 10 km NW

Townsville, SAMA; Thornton Range, ANIC;

Walkamin, DPIM; Weipa, DPIM;

Western Australia

Carson Escarpment, ANIC; Drysdale River,

ANIC; Gallery Hill, WAM; 14 km S by E

Kalumburu Mission, ANIC; 4 km W King

Cascade, ANIC; Millstream, ANIC; Mitchell

Plateau, FIELD, ANIC; 3 ml SE Pago Mission,

FIELD; Prince Frederic Harbour, ANIC; 2 km SW

Rolly Hill, ANIC; Mitchell Plateau, ANIC;

Synnot Creek, ANIC.

Remarks

A very common and widespread species in

northern Australia. It shares, with dH.

numerosepunctatus, the character of the elytral

punctures in at least the inner rows increasing in

size until about the middle of the elytra. In other

group 3 species (and most other Australian

Hydrochus) the size of the elytral punctures

increases rapidly from small to moderate within

the basal one to four or five punctures and

remaining approximately the same size until close

to the apex. In H. obscuroaeneus the increase

continues, albeit at a reduced rate well onto the

elytral disc. The actual size of the elytral

punctures is very variable from comparatively

modest to extremely large.

Hydrochus obscuroaeneus can be separated

from H. numerosepunctatus by the latter’s

34 C.H.S. WATTS

unusual punctation of the mesosternum. Most

specimens of H. numerosepunctatus are also

larger (2.7 — 4.2mm) than H. obscuroaeneus (1.8

— 3.0mm).

Hydrochus obscuroaeneus is unusually variable

in both size of elytral punctures and in the shape

of the aedeagus. However, study of over a

thousand specimens, 162 of which were males

with their aedeagi extracted, has convinced me

that only one species is involved. I could detect

no strong pattern in either character, with

extremes of both occurring throughout its

geographic range, except possibly a

preponderance of specimens with strong

punctures and wide, waisted aedeagi ( Fig. 33) on

Cape York. Nor is there any apparent linkage

between puncture size and aedeagus shape. All

intermediate shapes exist but the relatively weakly

punctured elytra and thin elongate triangular-

shaped aedeagi are by far the most common

forms.

I have been a unable to trace the holotype of H.

obscuroaeneus and base my identification on the

brief description; primarily its small size,

nondescript colour, large elytral punctures and

locality.

The holotype of H. palmerstoni is a female and

has moderately large elytral punctures; the

lectotype of H. insularis has moderately sized

elytral punctures and an aedeagus with a broad

central lobe but the apical piece is not waisted

(similar to Fig. 32); the holotype of H. wewalkai

has slightly larger elytral punctures and a broad,

weakly waisted, apical piece to the aedeagus. The

holotype of H. rodjani is similar to that of H.

insularis in elytral punctation and aedeagus. All

of these fall within my concept of H.

obscuroaeneus.

Biology

Most specimens have been taken among stones

and vegetation at the edges of small rivers, creeks

and ponds. Some specimens from Cape

Tribulation in ANIC were collected from

‘rainforest leaf & log litter’.

Species Group 4

Group 4 species are characterised by having:

two rather than three longitudinal carinae at the

front of the mesosternum; the mesofemur weakly

spindle-shaped (Fig. 4); the pubescence at the

base of the mesofemora usually reaching > a third

the width of the femur at that spot along the rear

edge; the basal pubescence on the profemora

complete and reaching > a quarter the width of

the femur at that spot along the femur. Other

character states that help to define the group are:

elongate; plain darkish in colour—although often

with a slight metallic sheen; some interstriae may

be weakly raised (in H. multicolor interstriae two

and four are often strongly raised for part of their

length); dorsal setae weak to moderate; pronotum

with moderate to strong fovea; pronotal epipleura

weak to moderate; head with weak epicranial

suture.

Perhaps the most phylogenetically coherent

group with most species only identifiable by the

form of the aedeagus. Hydrochus multicolor

stands a bit apart from the others.

They are the predominant group in southern

Australia where they are often abundant but are

also widespread and common in the north. They

are still-water species most frequently found

amongst emergent vegetation in relatively shallow

water.

Hydrochus abditus sp. nov.

Types

Holotype: male, ‘S. Aust Meadows 13 km W

35°11S 138°36E 28 Sept 96 C.H.S. Watts’,

SAMA.

Paratypes: 18, same data as holotype, SAMA;

14, 13 km W Meadows S.A. 26.9.98 C.HS.

Watts’, SAMA.

Description (number of specimens examined, 50)

Fig. 43

Length 2.4 — 3.5mm. Relatively broad,

particularly elytra, widening slightly behind

middle of elytra, narrowing apically. Dorsal

surface black, ventral surface black, antennae and

palpi testaceous, legs testaceous, parts of tarsi,

knees and much of femora darker. Head with

rather sparse large punctures, occasionally

granulate; epicranial suture strongly impressed.

Pronotum moderately punctate, granules absent or

confined to sides; foveae weak, shallow, usually

without raised margins. Elytral punctures

relatively large; alternate interstriae not or only

slightly raised; plicae weak. Setae on head

moderate, often quite extensive over posterior half

of elytra. Pronotal epipleuron well marked,

relatively broad with strong vertically elongate

punctures/grooves. Pseudoepipleuron moderately

broad; elytral epipleuron absent posteriorly,

enlarging anteriorly to about one quarter to one

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 35

third width of pseudoepipleuron in same position.

Front of mesosternum in centre with two

longitudinal carinae, the area between them rather

shallow. Profemur with basal pubescence

moderate, about one quarter width of femur

ventrally. Mesofemur weakly narrowing towards

base, basal pubescence well developed, about one

third width of femur along posterior margin.

Metafemur weakly bowed.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus straight sided

1.1 — 1.3 times length of apical piece. Parameres

thick in basal half, rapidly narrowing to a slim,

weakly sinuate apical third. Central lobe wide,

only a little shorter than parameres ( Fig. 43).

Distribution

New South Wales

Armadale, ANIC; Congo, ANIC; 2 km N

Batemans Bay, SAMA; 8 km N Failford, SAMA;

MacLean, SAMA; 2 km S Nowra, SAMA; Royal

National Park, CAL; Tamworth, CAL.

Queensland

North Pine River, MCZ; Yungaburra, MCZ.

South Australia

Adelaide, SAMA; 13 km W Meadows, SAMA;

Myponga, SAMA; Williamstown, SAMA.

Tasmania

35 km E Hobart, NHMW; Launceston, QM; 40

km E Launceston, NHMW; 60 km E Launceston,

NHMW;; St. Helens, SAMA.

Victoria

11 km E Bruthen, SAMA; Cann River, ANIC;

Dartmoor, SAMA; Ferntree Gully, SAMA; 4.5 km

SW Healesville, FIELD; 4 ml NNE Nelson,

NMV; 12 km SW Orbost, SAMA; Wyperfield

NP, ANIC.

Western Australia

Millstream, ANIC; 1 km N Millstream, ANIC.

Remarks

A relatively common species in coastal

southern Australia. Two other group 4 species are

sympatric with it in southern Australia: H.

australis and H. multicolor. Hydrochus abditus

can be readily separated from H. australis by its

broader shape, dark colour, weak elytral epipleura

and by the greater development of the pronotal

epipleura. Hydrochus multicolor differs from H.

abditus by its usually strongly raised elytral striae,

raised central panel on the pronotum and its

usually iridescent dorsal sheen, in contrast to the

shiny black of H. abditus. In northern Queensland

I have been unable to reliably separate H. abditus

from H. kunarajahi, H. radjiei and H.

aschnakiranae other than by the male genitalia. In

general it is larger, darker and with the elytra

proportionally wider than the pronotum than in

most H. aschnakiranae. From H. radjiei it has

more weakly developed pronotal fovea and in

general a smoother elytra. Specimens from the

seemingly isolated population at Millstream in

Western Australia are rather more strongly

sculptured than others. I have found no characters

that will help separate H. abditus from H.

kunarajahi other than in the male genitalia.

Biology

A still water species found among vegetation in

ponds or slow moving water.

Etymology

Latin. ‘Hidden’-in reference to the species

being ‘hidden’ within H. adelaidae.

Hydrochus aschnakiranae Makhan

Hydrochus aschnakiranae Makhan, 1994

= Hydrochus schillhammeri Makhan, 1995; syn.

nov.

Types

Hydrochus aschnakiranae Makhan. Holotype:

male, ‘Solomon is. Guadalcanal: Roroni 35 km E

of Honiara 10 m, 6.V1964’ ‘R. Straatman Light

Trap’, BPBM.

Hydrochus schillhammeri Makhan. Holotype:

male, ‘Australien QL (26) 10 km S Tully S

Innisfail, 30 m 25.1.1993 leg Wewalka’

“Hydrochus schillhammeri det D. Makhan 1994’

with red holotype label, NHMW.

Description (number of specimens examined,

117; dissected males, 38) Figs 4, 7, 38

Length 2.7 — 3.3mm. Elongate, subparallel,

with elytra weakly expanded. Dorsal surface black

shiny, elytra and pronotum a little lighter in some,

ventral surface black, antennae and palpi dark

testaceous, legs light testaceous with knees and

parts of femora and tarsi darker. Head moderately

punctate with weak flat granules, epicranial

groove usually well marked. Pronotum with weak

to moderate punctures, lacking granules; foveae

shallow to moderate, usually delineated with weak

36 C.H.S. WATTS

to moderately raised areas. Elytra with moderately

large punctures, alternate interstriae tend to be

raised, particularly four and eight, plica

moderately strong. Head with weak to moderate

setae, elytra with weak to moderate setae apically

and on interstriae toward apex. Pronotal

epipleuron moderate, about a puncture width

wide. Elytron with moderately developed

pseudoepipleuron (Fig. 7), epipleuron very narrow

posteriorly, weak anteriorly where it is about one

third the width of pseudoepipleuron. Front of

mesosternum in centre with two longitudinal

carinae, area between them relatively deep,

shallower behind. Profemur stout, a little sinuate,

basal area of pubescence relatively large,

narrowest portion ventrally about a quarter width

of femur at that point. Mesofemur elongate,

weakly narrowing towards base; basal pubescence

well developed, at narrowest ventrally about one

third to one half width of femur at that point (Fig.

4). Metafemur relatively stout, anterior edge

bowed.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus 1.2 — 1.4 times

length of apical piece, slightly to moderately

twisted. Parameres rounded at base rather evenly

narrowing to blunt tip, left hand paramere (ventral

view) indented to accept tip of central lobe to

greater degree than right hand one. Central lobe

relatively narrow, shorter than parameres, with tip

weakly expanded and weakly to moderately

skewed to left (Fig. 38).

Distribution

Northern Territory

11 km SW by S Borroloola, ANIC; Canon Hill,

Kakadu NP, SAMA; Cahills Crossing, ANIC;

Coastal Plains Research. Station, ANIC;

Coomalie Creek, CAL; Darwin, SAMA; 6 km E

Humpty Doo, DPIM; 12 km E Humpty Doo,

DPIM; Gungurul Lookout, Kakadu, NHMW,

CLH; Kongarra, ANIC; Jabiluka Billabong,

Kakadu, ANIC; Ja Ja Billabong near

Mudginberry, ANIC; Jabiru, SAMA; 5 km NNW

Cahills Crossing, ANIC; Mt Borradaile, SAMA; 6

km SE Mt Borradaile, SAMA; 5 km SE Mt

Borradaile Station, SAMA; 8 km N Mt Cahill,

ANIC; 19 km NE by E Mt Cahill, ANIC; South

Alligator Inn, Kakadu, ANIC; Ubirr, Kakadu,

NHMW.

Queensland

Archer Bend, SAMA; Annan River ANIC; 20

ml NW Ayr, CAL; 14 ml NW Ayr, CAL;

Bundaberg, SAMA; Bushland Beach, 20 km N

Townsville, SAMA; Caloundra, SAMA; Coen,

DPIM, SAMA; 40 km N Coen, SAMA; 110 ml S

Coen, NMV; 25 ml N Cooktown, ANIC; 8 km N

Bluewater, SAMA; Home Hill, SAMA; Laura,

SAMA; 12 km N Laura, SAMA; 50 ml W

Mackay, ANIC; McIvor River 40 ml N

Cooktown, UQIC; 1 km W Mingela, SAMA; 2 ml

SW Mt Inkerman, ANIC; 2 km N Mt Molloy,

SAMA; 10 km S Mt Molloy, SAMA; 3 km ENE

Mt Tozer, ANIC; Musgrave, ANIC; 14 ml SE

Normanton, ANIC, CAL; Reid River E of

Mingela, SAMA; Rockhampton, ANIC, SAMA;

Townsville, CAL, SAMA; 40 km S Townsville,

SAMA; 20 km S Townsville, SAMA; 12 km NW

Townsville, SAMA; 25 km S Townsville, SAMA;

40 km S Weipa, DPIM.

Western Australia

Mitchell Plateau, FIELD.

Remarks

A moderate-sized, dark species, separable from

most H. australis by its weaker elytral epipleura,

moderate pronotal epipleura and apparent lack of

granules other than on front of head. Most H.

australis have the pronotum and elytra lighter in

colour than the head and often quite strongly so,

whereas, apart from teneral individuals, H.

aschnakiranae is uniformly black dorsally. The

degree of pubescence on the femora is generally

weaker than in H. australis but not enough to

reliably separate the two. Separation of this

species from H. radjiei and H. kunarajahi can

only be done reliably from the aedeagus shape as

outlined in the key.

Hydrochus aschnakiranae was described from

Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands but apart

from the elytra and pronotum of the holotype

being lighter in colour than in most Australian

specimens IJ can’t distinguish it from Australian

material. (Makhan was mistaken in describing the

colour of the head, pronotum and elytra of the

holotype as black.)

I consider H. schillhammeri Makhan, described

from a specimen from North Queensland, to be

synonymous with this species. (Makhan’s

description of the type of H. schillhammeri is

misleading: its colour is a shiny black, not green;

the pronotum is uneven but to say it has ten large,

deep depressions is far fetched; alternate elytral

interstriae (2, 4, 6, 8 not 3, 5 & 8) are weakly

raised but hardly carinate.)

Biology

Found amongst emergent vegetation in still or

slowly flowing water. Taken at light.

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 37

Hydrochus australis Motschulsky

Hydrochus australis Motschulsky, 1860

= Hydrochus parallelus Macleay, 1873; syn. nov.

=Hydrochus regularis Blackburn, 1898; syn. nov.

= Hydrochus diversiceps Blackburn, 1898; syn.

nov.

= Hydrochus brunneonitens Lea, 1926; syn. nov.

= Hydrochus serricollis Lea, 1926; syn. nov.

= Hydrochus polaki Makhan, 1994; syn. nov.

= Hydrochus rambarani Makhan, 1994; syn. nov.

Types

Hydrochus australis Motschulsky. Lectotype:

‘Type’ ‘Pt Philip’ ‘Hydrochus australis Motsch

Nov. Holl.’ with yellow type label, ZMM. Two

specimens now mounted on two cards on one pin,

the upper specimen, a dissected male, herein

designated.

Paralectotype: 1, same details as lectotype,

lower specimen, herein designated, ZMM.

Hydrochus parallelus MacLeay. Lectotype:

“Hydrochus parallelus M.L.W. Gayndah’ ‘K

19664’. Left hand specimen of two mounted on

one card, AM, herein designated,

Paralectotype: 1, same details as lectotype,

right hand specimen, AM, herein designated.

Hydrochus regularis Blackburn. Lectotype:

female, ‘T 1532 V’ ‘Australia Blackburn Coll

B.M. 1910-236’ ‘Hydrochus regularis, Blackb’,

BMNH. Herein designated. Blackburn mentioned

a specimen from Murray Bridge (SA) and one

from Western Victoria in the original description.

Hydrochus brunneonitens Lea. Holotype:

female, ‘brunneonitens Lea, TYPE Queensland’,

SAMA.

Hydrochus serricollis Lea. Lectotype:

‘serricollis Lea TYPE Launceston’, with ‘TY’ on

card, SAMA. Herein designated.

Paralectotypes: 6, same data as lectotype,

SAMA (H. australis);1, ‘Lucindale S. Australia’

‘Co-type’ ‘serricollis S. Australia Cotype’, SAMA

(H. australis), 2, ‘Launceston’ ‘Co-type’ ‘Griffith

Collection Id. by AM Lea’, SAMA (H. abditus),;

3, ‘Davenport Tas: Lea’ ‘Tasmanian Towers’

‘Griffith Collection Id by AM Lea’ ‘14009

Hydrochus serricollis Lea Tasmania Cotype’,

SAMA (A. australis); 1, ‘Strahan Tas: Lea &

Carter’ ‘Hydrochus serricollis Lea Co-type’ ‘K

48448’ ‘Paratype’, AM (H. australis); 2, ‘George

Town’ ‘K50043’ ‘Hydrochus serricollis Lea Co-

type’ ‘Paratype’, AM (?H. abditus); 1, ‘George

Town’ ‘Hydrochus serricollis Lea Co-type’ a

more recent Cotype blue label ‘Paratype T-13212

Hydrochus serricollis Lea 1926’, NMV (?H.

abditus); 1, ‘George Town’ ‘Paratype T-13213

Hydrochus serricollis Lea 1926’, NMV (?H.

abditus); 2, ‘Launceston’ ‘Co-type’ ‘Hydrochus

serricollis Lea, Co-type’, QM (H. abditus); 2, ‘Co-

type’ ‘Launceston’ ‘Australia Brit Mus 1924-156’

‘Hydrochus serricollis Lea, Co-type’, BMNH (H.

australis); 1, ‘Co-type’ ‘Australia Brit.

Mus.1924-156’ ‘East Tammar’, BMNH (? H.

abditus). Herein designated.

Hydrochus diversiceps Blackburn. Holotype:

female, ‘6371 T’ ‘Albion Brisbane C. Wild.

17.7.92’ ‘Blackburn coll. 1910-236" ‘Hydrochus

diversiceps, Blackb.’, BMNH.

Hydrochus polaki Makhan. Holotype: ‘Coll.

R.I.Sc.N.B. Australien Ex Coll. Weyers’

‘Hydrochus polaki det. D. Makhan 1994’ with red

holotype label, IRSNB.

Hydrochus rambarani Makhan. Holotype:

‘Coll. R.I.Sc.N.B. Australien N.S. Wales Coll

Knisch Coll dOrchymont’ ‘det Knisch parallelus’

‘Hydrochus rambarani det. D. Makhan’ with red

holotype label, IRSNB.

Paratypes 3, same data as holotype, IRSNB.

Description (number of specimens examined,

>1000) Figs. 6, 41, 42

Length 2.0 — 3.6mm. Elongate, relatively

narrow and parallel sided or elytra weakly

expanded. Head black; pronotum dark brown to

black, sometimes with anterior margin lighter;

elytra light testaceous to dark reddish brown;

ventral surface black; antennae and palpi

variably testaceous; legs light testaceous with

knees, parts of tarsi, and sometimes parts of

femora darker. Head and pronotum variably

sculptured from smooth and weakly punctured to

strongly granulate, pronotal foveae moderately

developed, weakly delineated by raised areas.

Elytral punctures moderate; interstria four may

be weakly raised, plicae weak, granulation

lacking to quite strongly developed. Pronotal

epipleuron very narrow, virtually lacking in

many specimens. Pseudoepipleuron moderate

posteriorly, narrowing anteriorly; elytral

epipleuron narrow, absent posteriorly, relatively

broad anteriorly where it is equal in width or

greater (usually) than pseudoepipleuron in same

place (Fig. 6). Profemur stout, weakly

38 C.H.S. WATTS

constricted at base, basal pubescence well

developed, on ventral surface about half width

of femur. Mesofemur moderately elongate,

weakly narrowing towards base; basal

pubescence well developed, reaching

approximately the equivalent of the width of the

femur along posterior/ventral margin. Metafemur

moderately elongate, posterior edge straight,

anterior edge evenly bowed, incomplete

ventrally. Front of mesosternum in centre with

two longitudinal carinae, area between them

deep anteriorly but with weakly raised T shaped

structure posteriorly. Head with weak to

moderate setae; elytra with weak setae at apex

and on some interstriae towards apex.

Male: Aedeagus with basal piece approximately

five times as long as apical piece, parallel sided.

Apical piece often twisted to left (viewed

ventrally) to varying degrees; parameres bulbous

in basal half, narrow and sinuate apically; central

lobe narrow, slightly shorter than parameres (Figs

41, 42).

Distribution

Australian Capital Territory

Black Mt, ANIC; Canberra, SAMA; 30 km SW

Canberra, SAMA; 25 km W Canberra, ANIC;

Deakin, ANIC; Gungahlin, ANIC.

New South Wales

Armadale, ANIC; 8 km N Bombala, SAMA;

Bulla Bulla Tank, SAMA; Clarence River,

SAMA; Congo, ANIC; Cooma, SAMA;

Coonabarabran, ANIC; 9 km NNE

Coonabarabran, ANIC; 28 km N Dubbo, ANIC;

Forbs, SAMA; Gilgandra, SAMA; Gindera, CAL;

Hay, ANIC; 8 km W Hay, ANIC; 10 km W by S

Jindabyne, ANIC; Lake Cowal, ANIC; MacLean,

SAMA; Menindee Lake, ANIC, UQIC; Megalong

Valley, MCZ; Mittagong, SAMA; 6 ml ESE

Nelson Bay, ANIC; 20 ml W Nerringa, SAMA;

Nyngan, CAL; Tumut River, CAL; 10 ml N

Wagga Wagga, UQIC; Whitton, SAMA.

Northern Territory

Adelaide River, ANIC; Canon Hill, Kakadu

NP, SAMA; Coastal Plains Research. Station

near Darwin, ANIC; Darwin, SAMA; 15 km SW

Elliot, SAMA; 2 km E Ja Ja Billabong, ANIC; 6

km N by E of Mudginberry, ANIC; Jim Jim

Creek, ANIC; 8 km E Mt Cahill, ANIC; 18 km

WSW Borroloola, ANIC.

Queensland

Alligator River, 20 km S Townsville, SAMA;

Barcaldine, QM; 23 km NE Bauhina Downs,

ANIC; Bushland Beach 20 km N Townsville,

SAMA; Davison River, SAMA; Dalby, SAMA;

Gayndah, SAMA; Gladstone, SAMA; Borumba

Dam, NHMW, CLH; Brisbane, SAMA, NMV;

Cardstone, ANIC; Cairns, QM; Condomine

River, QM; Dawson River, QM; Emerald, QM;

Goomeri, UQIC; Goondiwindi, SAMA;

Greenbank, UQIC; 70 km SW Greenvale,

SAMA; 15 km W Gympie, NMV; Hann River,

DPIM; 10 km W Imbil, NMV; Inglewood,

UQIC; Jarding Crossing, ANIC; Laura, SAMA;

Kenilworth State Forest, UQIC; 13 km NW

Lowood, UQIC; Mary Creek, ANIC; 14 km N

Mt Molloy, ANIC; 50 km SW Mackay, ANIC;

8 km SW Mapleton, NMV; Moggill, QM; 21

ml S Miriam Vale, ANIC; Mt Borradaile,

SAMA; 5.5 km SW by S Mt Biggenden, ANIC;

Mt Garnet, SAMA, DPIM; 2 ml SW Mt

Inkerman, ANIC; Oxley, QM; 10 km W Petri,

SAMA; N Pine River, QM; S Pine River, QM;

Rockhampton, SAMA, UQIC; 50 ml SW

Rockhampton, ANIC; 29 ml SSW

Rockhampton, ANIC; Taroom, QM;

Townsville, SAMA, UQIC; 40 km S&S

Townsville, SAMA; 25 km S Townsville,

SAMA; 30 km SE Townsville, SAMA;

Yeppoon, QM.

South Australia

10 km N Coonawarra, SAMA; Fairview Park

Conservation Park, SAMA; Mannum, SAMA; Mt

Gambier, SAMA; Mt Lofty, SAMA; Murray

River, SAMA, UQIC; Murray Bridge, SAMA; 1

km S Nangwarry, SAMA; Naracoorte, SAMA;

Penola, SAMA; Warradale, SAMA.

Tasmania

Deloraine, SAMA; Launceston, SAMA; Tooms

River, ANIC.

Victoria

Ballan, NMV; 2 km W Brimpaen, SAMA;

Buangor, SAMA; Cann River, ANIC; 12 km W

Casterton, SAMA; Clines, NMV; Corryong,

NMV; Dartmoor, SAMA; Dondangadale, NMV;

Dromana, NMV; East Pomorneit, ANIC; Echuca,

UQIC; 21 ml E Echuca, ANIC; Grampians,

SAMA; Fyans Creek, SAMA; 7 km N Glenisla,

SAMA; 5 km NW Halls Gap, SAMA; 3 km NE

Hamilton, SAMA; Healesville, SAMA; 4.5 km

SW Healesville, FIELD; 4 km SW Healesville,

NMV; Inglewood, NMV; Jordon River, NMV;

Lake Hattah, ANIC, NMV; Macallaster River,

NMV; Melbourne, NMV; Merrijig, NMV;

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 39

Moyston, NMV; 10 km NE Mirranawa, SAMA;

Mitchell Gorge, NMV; Nathalia, SAMA; Natya,

NMV; 4 ml NNE Nelson, NMV; Nhill, NMV; 5

km NW Portland, SAMA; Ringwood, NMV;

Stawell, SAMA; Swan Hill, NMV; 3 km SE

Taggerty, NMV; 6 km E Terang, ANIC;

Warrandyte, NMV; Wellington River, Werribee,

NMV; Yarra River, NMV.

Western Australia

Armadale, SAMA; Belmont, FIELD; Boyup

Brook, ANIC; Bridgetown, MCZ; Bunburry,

ANIC; Darling Ranges, SAMA; 14 ml E

Denmark, ANIC; Harvey River, NMV; Kerridale,

ANIC; 4 km W King Cascade, ANIC; Maidavail,

SAMA; Mandaring Weir, MCZ; Margaret River,

NMYV; Picton Junction, ANIC; Pinjarra, SAMA; 8

m E Pinjarra, ANIC; 6 km S Pinjarra, SAMA;

Thomas River 101ml E Esperance, ANIC; Wilga,

ANIC.

Remarks

Perhaps the commonest, most widespread and

sculpturally variable of Australian Hydrochus

which is reflected in the fact that it has been

named seven times. If the variation in

punctation/granulation of the dorsal surface is

ignored the degree of variation is actually

surprisingly little as I interpret the species.

Most specimens are relatively distinctive, but

some specimens, particularly from northern

areas, may be inseparable from other species

without dissection. Within group 4 it has the

strongest pubescence on its legs and the widest

elytral epipleura in contrast to the

pseudoepipleura. No other group 4 species has

the elytra lighter in colour than the head and

pronotum, unless teneral. The weak to absent

pronotal epipleura in H. australis also separates

most specimens from related species, although

some H. abditus also have weakly developed

pronotal epipleura. In many specimens,

particularly from more southern populations,

the apical piece of the aedeagus is skewed

sideways. Within Australian Hydrochus this

character is shared only with H. aschnakiranae

but in this species all specimens that I have seen

have the aedeagus skewed to some degree

whereas in H. australis there is considerable

variation from straight to strongly skewed. In

H. australis the parameres and the central lobe

are equally skewed in contrast to H.

aschnakiranae in which only the central lobe is

skewed. (The type of H. brunneonitens is a

teneral individual with a relatively light

coloured dorsum and the darker colour on the

legs apparently not yet developed.)

Biology

A very common species amongst emergent

vegetation in still or slowly flowing water. Taken

at light.

Hydrochus kunarajahi Makhan

Hydrochus kunarajahi Makhan, 1994,

Type

Holotype: male, ‘AUSTRALIA: NQ Tulley Falls

111—10-1956’ ‘Light Trap J.L. Gressitt’ ‘Hydrochus

kunarajahi det D. Makhan 1994’, BPBM.

Description (number of dissected males

examined, 21) Fig. 39

Length 2.7 — 3.5mm. Elongate, widening

slightly behind middle of elytra. Head shiny

black, pronotum and elytra shiny dark brown to

black; ventral surface black; antenna and palpi

testaceous, palpi tips darker; legs testaceous,

parts of tarsi, knees and much of femora darker.

Head moderately punctate/granulate, granules

flat, epicranial suture distinct. Pronotum

moderately punctate, foveae moderate, usually

delineated by thin raised margins. Elytra with

moderate sized but deep punctures, alternate

interstriae not or only weakly raised, plicae

moderate. Head and apical portion of elytra

weakly to moderately setose. Pronotal

epipleuron well marked, about a puncture width

wide. Elytron with weak to moderate

pseudoepipleuron, epipleuron absent to weak

posteriorly, enlarging to one third to one half

width of pseudoepipleuron anteriorly. Front of

mesosternum in centre with two longitudinal

carinae, area between then deep anteriorly,

becoming shallower behind. Profemur weakly

sinuate, basal pubescence well developed,

ventrally about one quarter width of femur at

same place. Mesofemur weakly sinuate, slightly

narrower towards base, ventral pubescence well

developed about one half to equal width of

femur along posterior margin. Metafemur

slightly bowed anteriorly.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus narrowing

towards base, about 1.5 — 1.7 times apical piece.

Parameres bulbous, at base wider than basal piece,

weakly narrowing in middle, slightly widening

toward tip. Central lobe wide, about two thirds to

three quarters length of parameres (Fig. 39).

40 C.H.S. WATTS

Distribution

Northern Territory

14 km SW Cape Crawford, ANIC; 8 km ESE

Cape Crawford, ANIC; Darwin, NMV; 19 km

SSE Mataranka, ANIC.

Queensland

8 km N Bluewater, SAMA; Burdekin River E

of Charters Towers, SAMA; 25 km N Laura,

DPIM; Mary Creek 14 km N Mt Molloy, ANIC;

Mackay, NMV; Reid River E of Mingela, SAMA;

Rockhampton, NHMW, CLH; Townsville, CAL,

FIELD.

Western Australia

12 km S Kalumburu Mission, ANIC.

Remarks

A relatively large, dark species very similar to

H. abditus, H. radjiei and H. aschnakiranae but

seemingly much rarer. From H. aschnakiranae it

can be separated by the male genitalia (see key

and Figs 38, 39). From H. radjiei it differs in

having a weaker pronotal and elytral sculpture,

and seemingly lacks the pronotal granules quite

frequently found in H. radjiei. The male genitalia

resemble those of H. radjiei and for a while I

considered H. kunarajahi to lie within that

species. They differ however in the narrowing

towards the base of the aedeagus, the squatter

apical piece and the strongly bulbous paramere

bases (Fig. 39).

Biology

Found amongst stones, detritus and emergent

vegetation at the edge of slow moving water.

Taken at light.

Hydrochus multicolor Lea

Hydrochus multicolor Lea, 1926

= Hydrochus matthewsi Makhan, 1995; syn. nov.

Types

Hydrochus multicolor Lea. Lectotype:

‘multicolor Lea TYPE Mt Macedon’. Right hand

specimen of two mounted on one card and

identified by ‘TY’ below it, SAMA, herein

designated.

Paralectotypes: 1, same details as lectotype,

SAMA; 1, ‘Forest Reefs N.S.W. Lea’ ‘Co-type’,

SAMA; 1, ‘Adelaide Blackburn’ ‘Co-type’

‘C125’, SAMA; 2, ‘Mt Macedon Victoria H.W.

Davey’ ‘Co-type’, SAMA; 2, ‘Mt Macedon

Victoria H.W. Davey’ ‘F.E. Wilson Collection’

‘Hydrochus multicolor Lea Cotype’ with more

recent blue label ‘2287-98 Cotype’, NMV. Herein

designated.

Hydrochus matthewsi Makhan. Holotype: male,

‘Australien (19) Queensland Mareeba, 700m 22.1.

1993 leg Wewalka’ ‘Hydrochus jii det. D.

Makhan 1994’ with red Holotype label, NHMW.

See note below.

Description (number of specimens examined, 78)

Fig. 40

Length 2.7 — 4.4mm. Elongate, elytra weakly

widened in middle, rapidly narrowing at apex.

Head black, usually with iridescent sheen;

pronotum dark brown to black usually with

iridescence sheen; elytra dark-brown to nearly

black shiny; ventral surface dark-brown, legs

testaceous with parts of tarsi, knees and parts of

femora darker. Head strongly granulate/punctate,

granules often only at sides; epicranial suture

weak to moderate. Pronotum rather smoothly

granulate/punctate, foveae weak, the central third

(longitudinally) of pronotum somewhat raised

with sides falling away, almost flanged. Elytron

with relatively small, even punctures, moderately

to strongly granulate, interstriae two and six

usually strongly raised in basal fifth, interstria

four usually strongly raised from about level of

end of raised portion of interstria two to the apical

quarter, where the raised portion ends abruptly;

interstria eight raised in basal three quarters

incorporating plica. Head and elytra with none to

a few setae. Pronotal epipleuron well developed,

two to three puncture widths wide, sometimes

fluted. Pseudoepipleuron moderately wide,

epipleuron absent behind narrow in front. Front

of mesosternum in centre with two narrow sharply

raised longitudinal carinae, the area between them

quite deep. Profemur moderately stout, basal

pubescence moderately developed, about a quarter

width of femur on ventral surface. Mesofemur

elongate narrowing a bit toward base, basal

pubescence moderately developed reaching about

a quarter width of femur at base along hind

ventral margin. Metafemur moderately elongate,

weakly bowed on front edge.

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus narrow,

straight sided, 1.7 — 1.9 times length of apical

piece. Apical piece very narrowly triangular,

pointed. Central lobe narrow, expanded a bit

towards apex, a little shorter than parameres

(Fig. 40).

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 41

Distribution

New South Wales

2 km N Batemans Bay, SAMA; 8 km N

Bombala, SAMA; Collector, SAMA; Hartley

Vale, MCZ; Megalong Valley, MCZ; Nyngan,

SAMA.

Queensland

Mareeba, NHMW

South Australia

7 km N Forreston, SAMA; Inglewood, SAMA;

5 km NE Inglewood, SAMA; 13 km W Meadows,

SAMA; Myponga, SAMA; Williamstown,

SAMA.

Victoria

Ballan, NMV; 4.8 km WNW Blackwood,

ANIC; Grampians, SAMA; Melbourne, NMV; 12

km SW Orbost, SAMA; Warrandyte, NMV.

Remarks

A large species from south-eastern Australia

and the Atherton region of north Queensland.

Well sculptured specimens are easily recognisable

by the strongly raised elytral interstriae and the

unusual raised central region of the pronotum,

although this latter character is hard to describe

adequately. In a few specimens the elytral

interstriae are only weakly raised but even in these

the abrupt ending to the raised portions is usually

diagnostic. The aedeagus is distinctive and can

only be mistaken for some group 2 species which

are otherwise very different.

In NHMW there is a specimen collected by

Wewalka from Mareeba, Queensland that has

been labelled as the holotype of Hydrochus jii

Makhan. This appears to be a nomen nudum. The

locality data are identical to those given for the

type of H. matthewsi Makhan. The male genitalia

also match the illustration of H. matthewsi given

by Makhan. Makhan’s brief description would

also match the specimen. Since I can find no trace

of a labelled holotype of H. matthewsi I suspect

this specimen is the holotype and I am treating it

as such. It agrees with H. multicolor Lea in most

aspects including aedeagus and pronotum. The

elytral interstriae are much less strongly raised

than in typical H. multicolor although within the

variations found in this species. I consider it a

junior synonym of H. multicolor Lea.

Biology

Found amongst emergent vegetation in still and

slow moving water.

Hydrochus radjiei Makhan

Hydrochus radjiei Makhan, 1994

Type

Holotype: male, ‘AUSTRALIA: NQ Tulley

Falls 111-10-1956’ ‘Light Trap J.L. Gressitt’,

BPBM.

Description (number of specimens examined,

123: dissected males, 48) Fig. 44

Length 2.6 — 3.8mm. Elongate, widening

slightly behind middle of elytra. Dorsal surface

shiny, black, ventral black; antennae and palpi

testaceous, palpi usually with dark tip, legs

testaceous, parts of tarsi, knees and parts of

femora darker. Head granulate/punctate.

Pronotum with deep strong punctures, often

granulate, foveae moderate to strong, bounded by

narrow raised areas. Elytra with strong deep and

regular punctures, alternate interstriae vary from

weakly to quite strongly raised, plicae although

strong tend to be absorbed into raised interstria

eight. Head and apex of elytra weakly to moderate

setose. Pronotal epipleuron well marked, about

one puncture wide or a little wider.

Pseudoepipleuron relatively narrow, elytral

epipleuron absent to very narrow posteriorly,

expanding anteriorly to one third to one half times

the width of pseudoepipleuron in same place.

Front of mesosternum in centre with two

longitudinal carinae, area between them deep in

front, becoming shallow in posterior half.

Profemur stout, relatively parallel sided, basal

pubescence about a quarter width of femur.

Mesofemur rather narrow, weakly narrowing

basally, basal pubescence strong, reaching one

third to one half width of femur along posterior

margin. Metafemur relatively elongate, weakly

bowed on anterior edge

Male: Basal piece of aedeagus straight 1.4 —

1.7 times length of apical piece. Parameres thick,

narrowing in middle, expanding towards tip,

central lobe relatively thick, two thirds to three

quarters length of parameres (Fig. 44).

Distribution

New South Wales

Maclean, SAMA; Yuragin NP, ANIC

Northern Territory

Adelaide River, ANIC; Berry Springs, ANIC;

46 km SSW Borroloola, ANIC; Coastal Plains

Research Station, ANIC; Coomalie Creek, CAL;

Cooper Creek near Mt Borradaile, SAMA; 52 km

42 C.H.S. WATTS

S Darwin, ANIC; Groote Eylandt, ANIC; 12 km

NE Howard Springs, ANIC; Humpty Doo, DPIM;

10 km SW Jabiru, SAMA; 20 km SSW Jabiru,

SAMA; Katherine, ANIC; Koongarra, ANIC;

Lake Bennet, NTM; Manton Dam, ANIC; 11 km

SW by S Borroloola, ANIC; 6 km SE Mt

Borradaile, SAMA; 19 km E by S Mt Borradaile,

ANIC; 5 km SE Mt Borradaile Station, SAMA; 8

km E Mt Cahill, ANIC; 19 km NE by E Mt Cahill,

ANIC; 8 km E Mt Cahill, ANIC; Muirella Park

Kakadu, DPIM; Murganella, NTM; Pine Creek,

SAMA.

Queensland

Archer Bend, SAMA; Archers Creek, ANIC;

Ayr, CAL; Bamaga, SAMA, UQIC; Bowling

Green Bay NP, SAMA; Bundaberg, SAMA; 8 km

N Bluewater, SAMA; Caloundra, SAMA; Cape

Flattery, ANIC; Cardstone, ANIC; 40 km N Coen,

SAMA; Cooktown, ANIC; 25 km N Cooktown,

ANIC; 14 ml NW; Dalhunty River, SAMA;

Eubenargee Swamp, SAMA; Green Hills, ANIC;

Hann River, DPIM; 10 km N Howard, NHMW,

CLH; 7 km N Hope Vale Mission, ANIC; Iron

Range, ANIC, UQIC; Mackay, NMV; 40 ml N

Cooktown, UQIC; Mt Molloy, SAMA; 9 km ENE

Mt Tozer, ANIC; 73 km NW by W Laura, ANIC;

25 km N by W Mareeba, ANIC; Mary Creek,

ANIC; 20 ml N Maroochydore, ANIC; Mission

Beach, ANIC; Mt Webb NP, ANIC; 3 km NE Mt

Webb, ANIC; 5 km ESE Mt Finnigan, ANIC; 17

km N Mt Molloy, ANIC; 52 km SW by S Mt

Garnet, ANIC; Rockhampton, NHMW, SAMA;

15 km WNW South Johnstone, DPIM; Strathmore

Station, DPIM; 3 km ENE Mt Tozer, ANIC; 2 km

NNE Mt Tozer, ANIC

Western Australia

Mitchell Plateau 14°49S 125°50E, ANIC; 3 ml

E Pago Mission, FIELD.

Remarks

A relatively large, dark species which is

common in coastal northern Australia.

Although most specimens can be separated

from H. australis by colour and weaker elytral

epipleura not all can, in which case dissection

is required. It is even more similar to H.

aschnakiranae, but tends to be larger and more

robustly sculptured, often with granules on the

pronotum which are lacking in UH.

aschnakiranae. Again reliable separation

should be based on the male genitalia. These

vary a bit in the degree of elongation of the

apical piece, and extremely elongated examples

can be confused with H. aschnakiranae, but H.

radjiei lacks the twisted basal piece, the

asymmetric parameres and narrower skewed

central lobe of H. aschnakiranae. (The male

genitalia of the holotype appear to have the

central lobe distorted and not to be naturally

skewed: see figure in Makham, 1994). At the

other extreme H. aschnakiranae aedeagi can

approach those of H. kunarajahi (see discussion

under that species).

Biology

Found amongst emergent vegetation in still and

slow moving water. Taken at light.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank the curators of the collections listed earlier

for allowing me ready access to specimens in their care,

and in particular, Dr M. A. Jach of NHMW for

arranging the loan of the type of H. australis. 1 would

also like to thank Ms C. Horne and Ms D. Churches for

helping with the typing of the manuscript, Mr R.

Gutteridge for preparing the figures, and Mrs M.

Anthony and Mrs J. Evans for help with the library

references.

CHECKLIST OF AUSTRALIAN HyDROCHUS LEACH

abditus sp. nov.

adelaidae Blackburn

aenigmatis sp.nov.

aschnakiranae Makhan

atratus sp. nov.

australis Motschulsky

brunneonitens Lea = H. australis Motschulsky

burdekinensis sp. nov.

cucullatus sp.nov.

decorus sp.nov.

. diversiceps Blackburn = H. australis Motschulsky

eurypleuron sp.nov.

. gitaraiae Makhan

TRE TTETTTTITT

. granicollis Lea

. horni Blackburn

imamkhani Makhan

. insularis Lea = H. obscuroaeneus Fairmaire

. interioris Blackburn

kunarajahi Makhan

. lateviridis Blackburn

macroaquilonius sp.nov.

matthewsi Makhan = H. multicolor Lea

. multicolor Lea

nadesui Makhan = H. obscuroaeneus Fairmaire

numerosepunctatus sp.nov.

. obscuroaeneus Fairmaire

=z

TETTTTTTTTS

AUSTRALIAN HYDROCHUS 43

H. obsoletus Lea

H. palmerstoni Blackburn = H. obscuroaeneus

Fairmaire

H. parallelus MacLeay =H. australis Motschulsky

H. polaki Makhan = H. australis Motschulsky

H. radjiei Makhan

H. rambarani Makhan = H. australis Motschulsky

H. regularis Blackburn = H. australis Motschulsky

H. rodjani Makhan = H. obscuroaeneus Fairmaire

. scabricollis Lea = H. horni Blackburn

schoenmanni Makhan = H. imamkhani Mahkan

schillhammeri Makhan = H. aschnakiranae Makhan

. serricollis Lea = H. australis Motschulsky

simplicicollis Lea

umbratilis sp.nov.

. verae Makhan = H. simplicicollis Lea

. victoriae Blackburn = H. adelaidae Blackburn

wewalkai Makhan = H. obscuroaeneus Fairmaire

ZETTTTTTT

REFERENCES

ANGUS, R. B. 1977. A re-evaluation of the taxonomy

and distribution of some European species of

Hydrochus Leach (Col., Hydrophilidae).

Entomologists Monthly Magazine 112: 176-201.

BLACKBURN, T. 1888. Notes on Australian

Coleoptera with descriptions of new Species.

Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South

Wales 3: 805-875.

BLACKBURN, T. 1895. Further notes on Australian

Coleoptera, with descriptions of new Genera and

Species. Transactions of the Royal Society of South

Australia 19: 27-60.

BLACKBURN, T. 1896. Coleoptera (exclusive of the

Carabidae) in ‘Report of the Horn Scientific

Expedition to Central Australia‘, Part II—Zoology:

254-263. Melville, Mullen and Slade: Melbourne.

BLACKBURN, T. 1898. Further notes on Australian

Coleoptera, with descriptions of new species.

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

22: 221-233.

FAIRMAIRE, L. 1879. Descriptions de Coléoptéres

nouveaux ou peu connus du Musée Godeffroy.

Hydrophilidae. Journal du Museum Godeffroy X1V:

80-83.

LEA, A. M. 1926. Notes on some miscellaneous

Coleoptera with descriptions of new species Part VI.

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

50: 45-84.

MACLEAY, W. 1873. Notes on a collection of insects

from Gayndah. Transactions of the Entomological

Society of New South Wales 2: 29-205.

MAKHAN, D. 1994. Thirty-five new Hydrochus

species from the Old and the New World

(Coleoptera; Hydrophilidae). Annales Historico-

Naturales Musei Nationalis Hungarici 86: 29-42.

MAKHAN, D. 1995. Descriptions of ten new

species of Hydrochus from different parts of the

world (Coleoptera: Hydrophilidae). Phegea 23:

187-193.

MOTSCHULSKY, V. 1860. Reise und Forschungen im

Amur-Lande in den Jahren 1854-1856 von Dr.

Leopold v. Schenck, 2 (2), Coleopteren, Imperial

Academy of Science: St. Petersburg.

OLIVA, A. 1995. The genus Hydrochus Leach

(Coleoptera; Hydrophiloidea; Hydrochidae) in South

America, with special reference to Argentina.

Bulletin et Annales de la Société Royale Belge

d’Entomologie 132: 301-341.

SMETANA, A. 1988. Review of the family

Hydrophilidae of Canada and Alaska (Coleoptera).

Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Canada

142: 316pp.

DESIGNATION OF A LECTOTYPE AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW SPECIES OF

AUSTRALIAN BUPRESTIDAE (COLEOPTERA).

SHELLEY BARKER

BARKER, S. 1999. Designation of a lectotype and descriptions of four new species of

Australian Buprestidae (Coleoptera). Records of the South Australian Museum 32(1): 45-49.

A lectotype is designated for Cisseis nubeculosa Germar. The following four new species of

Buprestidae are described: Cisseis ernestadamsi sp. nov., Cisseis robertfisheri sp. nov.,

Astraeus acaciae sp. nov., Neocuris carnabyae sp. nov.

S. Barker, Department of Entomology, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide,

South Australia 5000. Manuscript received 1 September 1998.

MATERIAL

Specimens examined came from the following

institutions and collections:

ANIC — Australian National Insect

Collection, CSIRO, Canberra.

BMNH — The Natural History Museum,

London.

HUMB — Humboldt University Museum,

Berlin.

MHSA — Mr T. M. S. Hanlon, Hunters Hill,

Sydney.

MPWA — Mr M. Powell, Melville, Western

Australia.

SAMA — _ South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

INTRODUCTION

Cisseis and Ethon, closely related genera in the

tribe Agrilini (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), were

proposed by Gory and Laporte (1839).

Subsequently Blackburn (1887) separated

Neospades from Cisseis on the basis of the

structure of the tarsi and their claws described as

double in Neospades and single in Cisseis (s.s.).

Examination of available material has shown that

there is a gradation in the tarsal claws from one

condition to the other and Neospades should be

delimited by other characters or abandoned. Carter

(1923) was the last reviser of Cisseis which now

needs to be re-examined. Cisseis species are

difficult to identify and all of the types need to be

examined before a revision can be completed. It is

now known that the genus occurs in Australia,

New Guinea and nearby islands and in the

Philippine Islands. In Australia the genus is

largely, but not exclusively, associated with

Acacia species.

The location of the Germar types of Cisseis in

the Humboldt University Museum, Berlin has

been established and I have examined the types of

Cisseis nubeculosa Germar, Cisseis chalcoptera

Germar and Cisseis notulata Germar, all collected

in Adelaide. The first two are female and male

specimens respectively of the same species,

common in South Australia. The third is an

uncommon species confined to South Australia as

far as I know. Two new species of Cisseis were

discovered by veteran collectors: the first in

Queensland by Mr E. E. Adams, beetle collector

extraordinaire; the second in South Australia by

Mr R. H. Fisher, well known butterfly expert.

Herein I name both species to honour their

collectors.

Astraeus is a well known genus in which more

than half the species are associated with

Allocasuarina species (Barker 1975; 1977; 1989).

Thus it is unusual that a new species has been

found in Western Australia associated with

Acacia, the first record of an association between

the two genera. On the other hand Neocuris is

poorly known and difficult to identify. The group

has not been revised for over seventy years (Carter

1928) and there is no reliable key for their

identification. A very distinctive species has come

to hand from a remote locality in Western

Australia and is described herein.

DESIGNATION OF LECTOTYPE

I have examined two female syntypes of Cisseis

nubeculosa Germar (HUMB no. 42752) and two

male syntypes of Cisseis chalcoptera Germar

46 S. BARKER

(HUMB no. 42752) all collected in South

Australia (Germar 1848) and held in the

Humboldt University Museum, Berlin. These

specimens all belong to the same common species

which is confined to South Australia. Thus C.

chalcoptera Germar is a synonym of C.

nubeculosa Germar. I have placed a fluorescent

red label with the following handwritten words:

LECTOTYPE, Cisseis nubeculosa (Germar),

selected S. BARKER 1998, on the pin of one of

the two female syntypes. I hereby designate this

specimen as the lectotype of C. nubeculosa

Germar.

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEw SPECIES

Cisseis ernestadamsi sp. nov.

(Fig. 1A)

Types

Holotype: 6, ii.1946, Edungalba, Qld, on

brigalow, E. E. Adams, ANIC. Allotype: &,

summer 1975/76, Separation, Qld, leg. A. Smith,

E. E. Adams, SAMA I21 406. Paratypes: Qld. 3

QQ, xii.1945, Mourangee, Edungalba, E. E.

Adams, ANIC; 1 ¢, same data as holotype,

ANIC; 1 2, 1969, Edungalba, 80 km SW (sic) of

Rockhampton, E. E. Adams, ANIC; 1.xii.1973,

Mr Emlen, Milmerran, J. McQueen, ANIC.

Colour

Head and antennae coppery. Pronotum coppery

with green reflections. Scutellum green or coppery

with green reflections. Elytra dull green with

coppery reflections; irregularly spotted with

clumps of white pubescent setae. Ventral surface

dull green, much of the sternum covered with

dense white pubescent setae, abdomen with thick

white pubescent setae laterally. Legs dull green.

Shape and sculpture

Head flat, deeply punctured, moderately

setose; interocular width 0.6 of maximum head

FIGURE 1. Habitus illustrations of the following Cisseis species. A, C. ernestadamsi sp. nov. B, C. robertfisheri

sp. nov. Scale bar = 5mm.

NEW SPECIES OF BUPRESTIDAE 47

width, dense pubescence around ventral margins

of eye and lateral to the mouth. Antennomeres:

1-3 obconic; 4-11 triangular. Pronotum

shallowly punctured medially, striolate and with

irregular foveae laterally; anterior margin

straight, basal margin sinuate; dorsal carina

diverging from ventral carina at base for short

distance, then more or less parallel until again

diverging towards anterior margin which it

reaches, space between deeply punctured and

with some pubescence in well preserved

specimens. Scutellum scutiform, anterior margin

rounded, flat with punctures. Elytra heavily

scutellate with small, stiff clumps of setae

scattered more or less evenly over the whole

surface. Ventral surface shallowly punctured,

setae sparse medially, clumped and pubescent

laterally. Legs: tarsal claws with inner tooth;

hind tibial comb from middle to apex with three

rounded projections.

Size

Male, 13.0 x 4.5 mm (1). Females, 14.7 x 5.0

mm (7).

Remarks

This species is closest to C. niveosparsa Carter

and has been misidentified as that species. It can

be distinguished by its green colour, C.

niveosparsa is brown; it is a larger species; male

genitalia are reasonably similar but not identical.

It was collected on Acacia harpophylla F. Muell,

ex Benth., brigalow, at all localities.

Etymology

This species is named after its collector Mr E.

E. Adams, Edungalba, Queensland.

Cisseis robertfisheri sp. nov.

(Fig. 1B)

Types

Holotype: 3, Melrose, S. Aust., 1.iii.1986, R.

H. Fisher, SAMA I21 407. Allotype: 2, Melrose,

S. Aust., 23.i.1978, R. H. Fisher, SAMA I21 408.

Paratype: S. Aust.: d, same data as holotype,

SAMA.

Colour

Head, antennae, pronotum, scutellum dark

green. Elytra black with spots formed from

clumps of white pubescent setae. Ventral surface

dark green with lateral white spots formed by

pubescent setae. Legs dark green.

Shape and sculpture

Head deeply punctured, deep anterior median

fovea, interocular width 0.6 maximum head

width. Antennomeres: 1-3 obconic; 4-11

triangular. Pronotum shallowly punctured

medially, deeply punctured laterally; anterior

margin projecting slightly medially, basal margin

sinuate; dorsal carina not meeting ventral carina

posteriorly, diverging for short distance then more

or less parallel, not reaching anterior margin,

space between punctured and covered with

squamiform setae. Scutellum scutiform, the sides

extended laterally, flat, without punctures. Elytra

with numerous white spots formed by clumps of

pubescent setae, the eight largest arranged in a

circular pattern, with a number of smaller inner

and outer spots including one on each side at the

basal margin. Ventral surface shallowly punctured

medially, scutiform laterally; with dense lateral

clumps of pubescent setae. Legs: tarsal claws with

small inner tooth; hind tibia with setal comb from

just before middle to apex in three distinct

clumps.

Size

Males, 12.0 x 4.1 mm (2). Female, 13.5 x 5.0

mm (1).

Remarks

All specimens were collected on Acacia

victoriae Benth. The species most resembles C.

leucosticta Kirby (holotype BMNH) but can be

separated from that species by the dark green

colour of the head and pronotum which are

bronze-green or coppery in C. leucosticta; the

elytra which are black in C. robertfisheri and

brown or bronze in C. leucosticta; and the male

genitalia which are narrower and parallel-sided in

C. robertfisheri and wider and rounded in C.

leucosticta.

Etymology

This species is named after its collector Mr R.

H. Fisher, Adelaide.

Astraeus acaciae sp. nov.

(Fig. 2)

Types

Holotype: 35, Wooramel R., W.A., on Acacia

sp., 23.1x.1980, S. Barker & D. J. Williams,

SAMA I21 409. Allotype: 2, 11 km S Billabong

roadhouse, W.A. on Acacia sclerosperma,

7.1x.1996, M. Golding & M. Powell, WAMA.

48 S. BARKER

FIGURE 2. Habitus illustration of Astraeus acaciae sp.

nov. Scale bar = 5mm.

Paratypes: 1 3, same data as allotype, MPWA;

3 6d & 1 &, 11 km S Billabong roadhouse,

W.A., 9.ix.1996, M. Golding & M. Powell,

MPWA; 3 22, 1 ¢d 11 km S Billabong

roadhouse, W.A., 11.1x.1998, T. M. S.Hanlon

MHSA; 6, 11 km S Billabong roadhouse,

11.ix.1998, M. Golding & M. Powell, MPWA.

Colour

Head black with purple reflections. Antennae

black with blue-green reflections. Pronotum black

with purple reflections. Elytra black with blue and

purple reflections and the following pale yellow

markings: elongate basal spot almost reaching

basal margin; pre-medial fascia, concave forwards

touching margin but not reaching suture; post-

medial fascia, concave backwards touching

margin reaching little more than half way to

suture; elongate pre-apical spot. In one of the

specimens in the type series there is an elongate,

narrow spot between the two fasciae close to but

not touching the suture. Ventral surface black

with blue and purple reflections. Legs black with

blue-green reflections. Setae silver.

Shape and sculpture

Head closely punctured; with small apical

median keel; setose. Antennae: males with

antennomeres more or less equal in length;

females with antennomeres progressively

decreasing in length towards apex. Pronotum

closely punctured; laterally rounded and narrowed

from base to apex; small basal crypt at apex of

medial lobe, setose. Elytra costate, intervals flat

and smooth, each interval with row of punctures;

parallel-sided from base, rounded posteromedially

and tapered to sharp marginal spine; sutural spine

sharp, rounded inner margin; humeral fold

moderately developed, angled (vide Barker 1975

Fig. 1C). Ventral surface shallowly punctured,

moderately setose, setae short.

Size

Males, 8.7 x 3.5 mm (7). Females, 9.1 x 4.1

mm (5).

Remarks

In my revised key to Astraeus (s.s.) (Barker

1989 p. 191) this species keys out at 18. Add:

‘Short, compressed species.... A. acaciae Barker.’

Etymology

This species is named for its association with

Acacia sclerosperma F. Muell.

Neocuris carnabyae sp. nov.

(Fig. 3)

Types

Holotype: &, Coral Bay, W.A., 9.ix.1974, K. &

E. Carnaby, ANIC. Allotype: @, same data as

holotype, ANIC. Paratypes: W.A.: 6 36, Coral

Bay, 8.ix.1974, K. & E. Carnaby, ANIC; 5 dd &

2 22, same data as holotype, ANIC & SAMA; 1

6,112 km S Onslow, 28.viii.1971, T. F. Houston,

SAMA.

Colour

Male. Head and antennae green with yellow

reflections. Pronotum blue-green medially, green

laterally with yellow reflections. Scutellum green.

FIGURE 3. Habitus illustration of Neocuris carnabyae

sp. nov. Scale bar = Smm.

NEW SPECIES OF BUPRESTIDAE 49

Elytra green surrounding scutellum and along

suture for short interval; green at margin at the

level of the interval between second and third

coxae; elsewhere dark blue except for yellow

marking in the form of a central X, the arms

completely connected in some specimens and not

in others. Ventral ‘surface and legs green. Setae

silver.

Female. Head and antennae blue. Pronotum and

scutellum dark blue. Elytra same markings as in

male but blue replaces green. Ventral surface blue,

legs royal blue. Setae silver.

Shape and sculpture

Ovoid. Head shallowly but closely punctured

with medial sulcus. Antennomeres: 1—2 obconic;

3-11 triangular. Pronotum shallowly but closely

punctured; projecting medially from apical

margin, basal margin bisinuate; laterally rounded

and narrowed from base to apex, a few

punctations each with central sensillum.

Scutellum scutiform, without punctures. Elytra

shallowly punctured, humeral callus prominent,

Size

Males, 5.8 + 0.08 x 2.5 + 0.04 mm (12).

Females, 6.5 + 0.32 x 2.8 + 0.15 mm (3).

Remarks

The elytral markings most closely resemble

those of Neocuris ornata Carter, a Queensland

species in which the pale markings take the form

of a W. The head and pronotum of that species

are bright metallic green.

Etymology

The name honours the collector Mrs Edith

Carnaby of Wilga.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to the following for assistance:

Mr E. E. Adams for long-time assistance with

specimens; Mr R. H. Fisher for specimens; Mr

T. M. S. Hanlon, Sydney for specimens; Mr M.

Powell, Melville for specimens; Mr T. A. Weir,

ANIC; Mr Martin Brendell, BMNH; Dr Manfred

apically rounded and subserrate. Ventral surface Uhlig, HUMB; Mr A. McArthur for

with shallow punctures. photography.

REFERENCES

BARKER, S. 1975. A revision of the genus Astraeus

Laporte & Gory (Coleoptera: Buprestidae).

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

99: 105-142.

BARKER, S. 1977. Astraeus (Coleoptera: Buprestidae);

A description of three new species and new locality

records. Transactions of the Royal Society of South

Australia 101: 11-14.

BARKER, S. 1989. Contributions to the taxonomy of

Australian Buprestidae (Coleoptera): New species of

Astraeus and Stigmodera (Castiarina) and a key to

Astraeus (s.s.). Transactions of the Royal Society of

South Australia 113: 185-194.

BARKER, S. 1998. Selection of lectotypes and

redescriptions of three Cisseis (Coleoptera:

Buprestidae) species. Records of the South

Australian Museum 31: 21-23.

BLACKBURN, T. 1887. Further notes on Australian

coleoptera with descriptions of new species.

Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia

10: 177-287.

CARTER, H. J. 1923. Revision of the genera Ethon,

Cisseis and their allies (Buprestidae). Proceedings of

the Linnean Society of New South Wales 48: 159-

176.

CARTER, H. J. 1928. Revision of the Australian

species of the genus Curis, Neocuris and Trachys,

together with notes and descriptions of new species

of other Coleoptera. Proceedings of the Linnean

Society of New South Wales 53: 270-290.

GERMAR, E. F. 1848. Beitrige zur Insektenfauna von

Adelaide. Linnaea entomologica 3: 153-247.

GORY, H. & LAPORTE, F. L. 1839. ‘Histoire naturelle

et iconographie des insectes coléoptéres, publiée par

monographies séparées.’ Volume 2, livraisons 25—

35. P. Duménil: Paris.

WAIYUNGARI AND HIS RELATIONSHIP TO THE ABORIGINAL MYTHOLOGY

OF THE LOWER MURRAY, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PHILIP A. CLARKE

CLARKE, P. A. 1999. Waiyungari and his relationship to the Aboriginal mythology of the

Lower Murray, South Australia. Records of the South Australian Museum 32(1): 51-67.

The ethnographic record of Aboriginal mythology in the Lower Murray cultural region of

South Australia is dominated by accounts of male ancestral heroes, particularly Ngurunderi,

Waiyungari and Nepeli. The analysis of the ethnographic accounts of the Waiyungari

mythology in this paper gives greater understanding of the cultural landscape and provides

further insights into local Aboriginal perceptions of the seasons and of their cosmos. A critique

of writers who have drawn upon the Waiyungari mythology for popular work is included. Here

is a study of cultural geography, focusing upon the interaction between culture and the physical

landscape.

P. A. Clarke, Department of Anthropology, South Australian Museum, North Terrace,

Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Manuscript received 22 January 1998

INTRODUCTION

The available literature on Aboriginal

mythology in the Lower Murray contains many

apparently conflicting accounts of major

ancestors, such as Waiyungari.' The mythological

corpus of south-eastern Australia derives its broad

defining character from a number of congruent

local variations, as previously noted in the case of

the eaglehawk and crow (Blows 1975) and

Ngurunderi myths (Clarke 1995). Although the

literature for the Lower Murray acknowledges the

importance of Ngurunderi in establishing

particular traditions and creating many

topographical features, the significance of events

attributed to Waiyungari has been treated as

secondary. This paper follows previous work that

discusses how Aboriginal mythology provides an

image of the dynamic aspects of cultural

relationships to landscape (see Berndt & Berndt

1989: 408-427; Bos 1988; Charlesworth 1984:

383-387; Clarke 1991a: 66-69, 1995, 1999; Rose

1988). The investigation of the Waiyungari myth

is an important vehicle for the study of Aboriginal

cosmological beliefs in the Lower Murray region.

In this myth are explanations of the seasonal

changes that Aboriginal people observed in their

landscape. Similarly, their social lives were

considered by them to be subject to some of the

forces that generated the seasons. In the early

years when Europeans commenced mainland

settlement, the Lower Murray cultural region

could be defined as the area bounded by Rapid

Bay in the west, across to the southern side of

Murray Bridge, and south to Kingston (Fig.1).

This takes in the southern part of the Fleurieu

Peninsula, all of Encounter Bay, Lake

Alexandrina and Lake Albert, and the Coorong.’

The region includes territories occupied by dialect

groups, such as the Ramindjeri, Tangani and

Yaraldi-speaking people, who are each in turn

represented by a number of smaller descent

groups. The Lower Murray region was essentially

a single cultural bloc, with strong connections to

the north east. The cultural geography of the

Aboriginal people associated with this region is

discussed in detail by Clarke (1994, 1995, 1997).

There are many versions of this name in the literature, such as Waijungngari (Meyer 1846); Wyungare (Taplin 1874 [1879]; Smith

1930; Mountford 1971); Waiungare (Taplin 1879); Waiongari (Mathew 1928: 530); Waiangari (Tindale 1934-37); Waijungari

(Tindale 1935), Waijunggari (Harvey 1939 MS); Wyungarre (Roheim 1971: 292); and Wyungara (Reed 1980). This paper uses the

spelling Waiyungari, as used by Meyer (1843) and Berndt & Berndt (1993). Similarly, the spellings of the names of other spirit

ancestors, Ngurunderi and Nepeli, follow the standards used by Berndt & Berndt (1993) and Clarke (1995).

The placement of the northern boundary of the Lower Murray cultural region at Rapid Bay reflects Aboriginal movements after

European settlement, as described by Tindale (1934-37: 41), the Berndts (1993, map 10, p.330) and Clarke (1991: 66-69). Prior

to the 1830s, this boundary was east of Cape Jervis (see Amery 1998: 66).

52 P. A. CLARKE

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KANGAROO ISLAND

—

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Murray Bridge

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COORONG

FIGURE 1. The Lower Murray cultural region (after Clarke 1994).

THE SOURCES

The Dresden missionary, Heinrich A. E. Meyer

(1843), first recorded the Waiyungari mythology

from the Raminyerar (Ramindjeri people) of

southern Fleurieu Peninsula in the early

nineteenth century. Later, versions were recorded

predominantly from Yaraldi people of the area

around the eastern side of Lake Alexandrina and

surrounding Lake Albert. During the late

nineteenth century, accounts of Waiyungari

appeared in scholarly papers and newspaper

articles by the Aborigines’ Friends Association

missionaries George Taplin (1874, 1879) and his

son Frederick Taplin, who were based at Point

McLeay on the Narrung Peninsula on the shore of

Lake Alexandrina.* The Christian influences on

their records is significant and has been

commented upon elsewhere (Clarke 1994: 64, 65,

247-252, 418, 419; 1995: 146, 150-153; 1997:

125-127). Laurie (1917) published another

account of Waiyungari in the form of a

reminiscence from an early pastoralist C. J.

Hacket of the Narrung Peninsula area. The

Aboriginal sources for the versions mentioned so

far are not recorded, nor are the transcripts of

exactly what the recorders were told. As

ethnographic sources, there is no way to ascertain

how literal the translation was and whether the

recorders, unwittingly or deliberately, introduced

their own new elements into the mythology.

In the twentieth century, with the advantage of

the development in fieldwork techniques within

the discipline of anthropology, a number of

There is a suggestion that G. Taplin’s records are a blending of Ramindjeri and Yaraldi data. Initially he engaged English-speaking

Ramindjeri people to help to elicit information from Yaraldi people at Point McLeay (see Taplin Journals 5 May 1861). Taplin also

used the Meyer (1843) Raminyerar dictionary as a basis for his own work (Taplin Journals 10 April 1859; Clarke 1994: 247, 418,

419). G. Taplin (1879: 50,51) obtained the account of the Tanganarin group at Goolwa from police trooper T. Moriarty. Other

references include G. Taplin (Register, 30 January 1862) and F. Taplin (Register, 24 April 1889). The F. Taplin data appears to be

based on that of his father, G. Taplin.

WAIYUNGARI

researchers investigated aspects of pre-European

Aboriginal cultures in southern South Australia.

This period of ethnographic recording produced a

number of accounts of the Waiyungari mythology.

In the 1930s, Museum curator Norman B. Tindale

(1934-37; 1935) recorded two major versions of

the mythology while working with a Tangani-

speaking man Clarence Long (Milmendjeri

descent group, northern Coorong area) and a

Yaraldi-speaking man Frank Blackmoor

(Peltindjeri descent, near Point Sturt).* The social

anthropologists Ronald M. and Catherine H.

Berndt (1993) worked in the late 1930s and early

1940s, recording aspects of Yaraldi culture. They

obtained information from Aboriginal people such

as Mark Wilson (Liwurindjeri descent group,

eastern Narrung Peninsula), Albert Karloan

(Manangka descent group, eastern Narrung

Peninsula) and Pinky Mack (Piltindjeri descent

group, Poltalloch Station, Lake Alexandrina).

Some of the accounts provided by Tindale and the

Berndts are accompanied by transcripts and sound

recordings of what was said by their Aboriginal

sources. For this reason, and because of a more

rigorous scientific approach, their material is more

useful than the nineteenth century data for

ethnographic reanalysis, with less likelihood of

the recorders making errors in formulating their

written versions. Another field worker, Alison

Harvey (1939 MS), recorded supplementary data

from various Lower Murray people in 1939. A

more detailed evaluation of the biases of each of

these sources is given elsewhere (Clarke 1994,

1995, 1997). Popular writers have used these base

texts in their own compilations. An analysis of

these is provided in a later section of this paper.

THE ETHNOGRAPHIC ACCOUNTS

The account recorded from the Raminyerar by

Meyer (1846: 201, 202) is not tied to a particular

part of the landscape, although appears to refer to

a coastal region. A brief overview is as follows.

The mother of Waiyungari was Ningarope, and

A

Les)

his older brother was Pungngane. Ningarope gave

birth to Waiyungari in the form of ‘excrement’

that was red due to menstruation. This colouring

gave Waiyungari the status of kainjani (kaindjani,

initiate) from birth. Pungngane, who had a normal

birth, lived with his two wives near the sea.

Pungngane’s wives found Waiyungari asleep in

his hut one day. They attracted his attention by

imitating the noise of an emu and seduced him.°

Ningarope was angry at the behaviour of the

women and informed Pungngane what had

happened. Pungngane searched for his wives and

brother, but found the hut deserted. He placed a

fire upon the hut and told it to burn later when

Waiyungari and the wives were asleep. During

the evening the fire increased and started to fall

on the skins of the occupants, forcing them to run

to the sea. From a position of safety, Waiyungari

wondered how he could escape his brother’s

wrath. Waiyungari threw a spear into the sky,

which made contact but fell to earth again. He

then used a barbed spear that he sent skyward

with all his force. It remained stuck and was used

by Waiyungari and the wives to climb into the

sky. Pungngane and Ningarope saw them there

and followed. Waiyungari was recorded in the

Ramindjeri dialect as meaning the ‘name of a star’

(Meyer 1843 (2): 105). The Raminyerar attributed

the abundance of kangaroo and pondi (Murray

cod, Maccullochella peeli) to the actions of

Pungngane and Waiyungari. Pungngane caught a

pondi and divided it into small pieces, each of

which, when thrown into the sea, became another

pondi.° Apparently Waiyungari increased the

number of kangaroos in a similar way.

The main accounts of Waiyungari recorded by

Taplin (1874 [1879: 55-58]; 1879: 38, 39) are

geographically located around the Point McLeay

Mission Station on the Narrung Peninsula.

According to Taplin, Waiyungari had a mother

(not named), a brother called Nepeli, but no

father.’ Waiyungari and Nepeli, along with

Ngurunderi, were great hunters. Waiyungari was

particularly renowned for hunting kangaroos.

Both Waiyungari and Nepeli pegged out the skins

* Tindale (1931: 189,211-219; 1938-56: 79-107) also recorded a version of Waiyungari in Yaraldi language from Albert Karloan.

He never translated this.

Roheim (1971: 292) interpreted this incident in Meyer’s account as meaning that the women were ‘emu wives of the All-Father’,

a possible link to the native companion and emu story of south-eastern Australia (see Tindale 1931-34: 207-209; 1938-56: 33-

61).

° The fish creation episode is similar to that recorded for Ngurunderi (Clarke 1995: 148). Meyer recorded pondi as ponde.

In the 1874 version by Taplin, there is no stated relationship between Waiyungari and Nepeli. In the 1879 account, Taplin states

they are brothers. In most other ways the accounts are similar.

54 P. A. CLARKE

of kangaroos, which formed the many salt lagoons

in the area (see Fig.2). Waiyungari once tore a

large kangaroo into many pieces, thus creating

smaller kangaroos.* It was Ngurunderi and Nepeli

who performed the division of fish. A mound of

limestone, called Pulluwewal (Pullawewal), on

the Narrung Peninsula was perceived by local

Aboriginal people to be the hut of Waiyungari.

Waiyungari lived at Rauwoke (hill at Point

McLeay) with his mother. He had been a ‘red

man’ from his infancy. Once, whilst drinking

water through a reed at Oulawar on the lake,

Nepeli’s two wives saw him and fell in love with

Waiyungari.” Together they waited until he was

asleep and made a noise like two emus running

past. Waiyungari yielded to their demands and

took them as wives. When Nepeli learned of this

he was angered and went looking for his brother

and his wives, but found Waiyungari’s hut vacant.

Nepeli placed a fire in the hut and told it to wait

until Waiyungari and the wives were asleep inside

and then burn them. The flames from the burning

hut chased the occupants along the lakeshore until

they reached Lowanyeri at Lake Albert Passage,

where they escaped into the mud. Waiyungari

decided to live in Wyirrewarre (Skyworld), away

from Nepeli’s hatred. He threw a spear with a line

attached into the sky. Although it stuck, it would

not hold Waiyungari’s weight. He had more

success with a barbed spear, pulling himself up

and then hauling up the women. In Taplin’s time

three stars, which he did not identify, were still

pointed out by local Aboriginal people as

Waiyungari and the wives. From the hill of

Rauwoke, Nepeli placed his canoe in the heavens,

forming the dense part of the Milky Way. Then he

went skyward in the same manner as Waiyungari.

Taplin (1879: 50, 51) published a small account

of Waiyungari obtained from the ‘Goolwa clan’.

The police trooper T. Moriarty had recorded it on

a survey return. In this version, Ngurunderi had

two wives (not named) who caught two fish: a

large fish, which they baked for themselves, and a

small one that was given to their husband. This

attempt at concealment made Ngurunderi angry.

He punished all people of the local group, called

Tanganarin, by giving them death and taking away

their knowledge. As a result, the Tanganarin

became ‘like beasts in the field’. Ngurunderi left

them and went up to the sky. Taplin (1879: 51)

records that ‘After a long time there was born of a

virgin a good and wise man, who was named

Wyungare [Waiyungari].” This man was a ‘great

teacher’ who gave back much of what the

Tanganarin had lost, and also taught them sorcery.

Ngurunderi eventually took Waiyungari up to the

sky where he became ‘the second king of that

place’. When a Tanganarin person died,

Waiyungari took their spirits up into the sky and

found them a country to live in.

Under a section titled ‘The Translation of

Heroes’, Mathew (1928: 530) provides a brief

overview of Lower Murray mythology based upon

an interview with a Ngarrindjeri man, David

Unaipon." He says:

Nurunderi [Ngurunderi], the reputed ancestor of the

Narrinyeri [Ngarrindjeri], came down the Darling,

and then down the Murray, where he and his

followers displaced a tribe that were dwelling there,

whose leaders were Neppele [Nepeli] and Waiongari

[Waiyungari], the latter being a nephew of Neppele.

These two were ultimately translated to the sky and

became with their wives, the stars in the tail of

Scorpio (Mathew 1928: 530).

And Ngurunderi ‘drove away Neppele and

Waiongari who had possessed the country before

him’ (Mathew 1928: 536). This account clearly

establishes an antagonistic relationship between

Ngurunderi and Nepeli and Waiyungari.

In 1934 Tindale (1934-37: 32-36, 64) recorded

a version of the Waiyungari mythology from

Clarence Long, a Tangani man with connections

to the Coorong and the Upper South East.

Although obtained from a Tangani informant, the

sites involved are clearly within the descent group

territories of the Yaraldi dialect region. In Long’s

In the 1879 version, Taplin assumes that the tearing apart of fish and kangaroos was designed to make them smaller. A more likely

explanation was that the ancestors were increasing the abundance of the food. Roheim (1971: 292) gives other examples of ancestors

increasing the numbers of animals and people by tearing apart larger spirit beings.

The act of drinking through a reed is a clear indication that Waiyungari was an initiate. Taplin (1874 [1879: 17]) claims that this

was the practice for youths made kaingani (kaindjani, sacred initiate status), and adds that they were not allowed to use drinking

vessels for several months. Harvey (1939 MS) was told by Pinky Mack that Lower Murray ‘men during initiation have to drink water

from a reed: not allowed to touch water with their feet.’ Howitt (1904: 674), Tindale (1935: 267), Berndt (1974: 26) and Berndt

& Berndt (1993: 177-178) noted this practice amongst Lower Murray people.

this was the case,

The source of Mathew’s Lower Murray data is not stated as David Unaipon in his paper (1928). P. G. Jones (pers. com.) claims that

WAIYUNGARI 55

account, Waiyungari and his elder brother, Nepeli,

lived with their elderly mother at an unspecified

place on Narrung Peninsula. Nepeli was an ‘old

man’ (fully initiated?) about to marry two women

from another group, when his mother took

Waiyungari to Pullawewal to avoid trouble.

Nepeli’s wives were not told that he had a

younger brother. On one occasion, all the men

went down to Waintjang where Yoldi (ancestral

shag man) was camped with other bird men. Here

Waiyungari was being covered with ochre and

made a young man. Yoldi had red rubbed on to

his chin and on his mainly grey chest through

holding Waiyungari while ochre was put on him.

Jungundjeri (pronounced Yungunderi?) was a

reddish bird that lived in the reeds, and it was he

who actually applied the ochre. Nepeli’s wives

were curious about what was happening.

Waiyungari was in the habit of going to

Ngawulwara (Ngulawar, Woodrow Point near

Narrung) to drink and swim in Lake Alexandrina.

Nepeli forbade his wives to go in this direction,

restricting them to Wangaroka (Wangarawar,

Taplin’s Landing). One day, when Nepeli was

asleep, the wives wanted a change of food,

desiring to eat fresh-water mussels. They had

strayed past Wangaroka when they saw red ochre

floating in the water, which was due to

Waiyungari swimming nearby. The women

followed the ochre trail back through the reeds

and eventually found his camp at Pullawewal

where he lived with his mother. The two women

tricked Waiyungari to come out by imitating an

emu. Waiyungari wanted to get some emu meat to

send down to the little reed bird (presumably the

one involved in his initiation). The two women

lured him away and seduced him. The mother,

who had earlier heard Waiyungari leave the camp,

told him that he should have kept away from the

women. She left Waiyungari and went to tell

Nepeli. The ‘old man’, Nepeli, sneaked upon

Waiyungari’s camp to kill him and the women

with fire.'’ Waiyungari and the wives escaped to

Tembatung (an inland hill on Narrung Peninsula),

where they watched the camp burn. They knew of

Nepeli’s anger as they could see his spear shining.

Because of their shame, the Rekkaldi people at

Ngararang (the town site Narrung) would not look

at them. Waiyungari and the wives made a reed

raft and crossed the Lake Albert Passage and

walked into the mallee scrub. At Komantuk (the

town site Coomandook), Waiyungari tried to spear

the sky but he was not high enough. They

travelled further to Mulgarap-ngawan (the place

Cold and Wet near Mount Boothby). Waiyungari

‘sang’ the spears: the first went nearly out of sight

into the sky, and then the second struck the first.

The third spear had a ‘hair line’ attached, and

when thrown it struck the others. Waiyungari

tightened the line by attaching the free end to a

‘waddy’ (club). Waiyungari and the women

climbed up into the sky where they can be seen as

stars. When Nepeli had lost his wives, he made

another one from the flowering stem of a ngalaji

(grasstree flower stem, Xanthorrhoea species) at

Retjeri (bluff at Point McLeay).!? He went down

to the edge of the lake to secure his canoe and he

saw the flowering stem of pantaruki (ribbon

weed, Triglochin procerum). This was a pretty

plant that took his fancy, so he made a second

wife out of that. Nepeli now had two wives again.

In Tindale’s published Yaraldi version of this

myth (1935), which Frank Blackmoor gave him in

1934, Waiyungari was the brother of Nepeli, who

in turn was the brother in-law to Ngurunderi. His

mother created him from her own ‘red

excrement’.'? The red colour meant that he was

instantly narambi (sacred). Nepeli and his two

wives lived at Ngulawar", while Waiyungari lived

at Pulaweiwalth (Pullawewal). One day Nepeli’s

two wives went to Wangarawar (Wangaroka,

Taplin’s Landing) which was near the camp of

Waiyungari at Pullawewal. Waiyungari was at

Wangarawar also, drinking water through a reed

stem. This was the ‘watering place’ of the youth

whilst undergoing initiation and young women

Although Nepeli controlled the use of fire, its introduction in the creative period was attributed to events surrounding Kondoli the

whale (Meyer 1847:203-204; Berndt & Berndt 1993:235-236,450-451).

Information on plants provided in the ‘Tanganekald Vocabulary Cards’ (no date) compiled by N.B. Tindale, Anthropology Archives,

S.A. Museum. The grass tree flower stems were used by Aboriginal people in the Lower Murray region as a source of edible nectar

when in season, and were used as firesticks when dry (Clarke 1986:11; 1994: 175). Both the grass tree and the ribbon weed have

edible tubers (Clarke 1988: 69-70; 1994: 175).

Tt is not clear whether this is menstrual blood or faeces.

In Taplin’s version, Ngulawar appears as Oulawar. A note by Tindale (on a copy of his 1935 paper in the reprint file, Anthropology

Archives, S.A. Museum) says ‘Note by Milerum [Clarence Long] 13.5.36. Ngulawar is name for any lookout hill; this one is really

Retjerawar ie. the Bluff at Pt McLeay.’

56 P. A. CLARKE

were forbidden to go near there. He was a

kaindjani (initiate) and therefore covered with red

ochre and emu oil and was not to be seen by

women, Ochre fell from Waiyungari’s body and

that made the water red. The two women watched

Waiyungari in secret and followed him back to

his camp. They forced Waiyungari out of his hut

by mimicking emus, and then grabbed him by the

penis and seduced him. Nepeli, upon discovering

the involvement of his wives with Waiyungari,

seized a fire-stick and some grass, and hid this

above the hut. He told the fire to burst into flame

when Waiyungari and the two wives snored.

When this happened, they fled through the scrub

towards the Lake Albert Passage, with the fire

following them. The kangaroo skins, dropped as

they fled, were transformed into a line of salt

pans, which remain today as a marker of their

flight. At Malbindjerang, on the western side of

Narrung Passage, they were forced into the mud

and for a time were safe there. After the fire,

Waiyungari looked about for a means of escape.

He threw a spear towards the sky, but this fell

back. Then he threw another, which lodged

there. As a result, the sky fell downwards

towards the terrestrial landscape. Reaching up to

his spear, Waiyungari climbed into the sky. He

found it to be ‘good ground’ and so asked the

two women to follow him. They remained in the

sky as three stars, the central one being

Waiyungari.

The records of Harvey (1939 MS) briefly

mention an event surrounding Nepeli, Waiyungari

and the wives. She writes that her informants,

Creighton Unaipon (Potawalin people, Wellington

area) and Jacob Harris (Mungkarrulp people,

Tatiara district), told her that ‘Pulawaiwal

[Pulluwewal]’ is a ‘hill back of Mission where

Nepelle saw his two wives follow Waijunggari’.

Harvey also provides another account of how

Nepeli gained two more wives after the others

went into the Skyworld with Waiyungari. She

records that ‘Nepelle turned a grass-tree into a

woman on Thornley’s place [at the south-eastern

side of the Narrung township] by touching it.

Touched Jew lizard (manuartiki [Amphibolurus

barbatus]) and it turned into a woman.’ Both

pieces of information from Harvey vary from

other accounts in detail, although they are

structurally similar to Tindale’s version from

Clarence Long.

The account provided by the Ronald and

Catherine Berndt (1993: 191,228-231, 317, 341,

366-367, 400, 442-444) from Yaraldi people is

similar to that of Tindale. A detail the Berndts

make explicit is that Waiyungari was living in

total seclusion as an initiate. He was the younger

brother of Nepeli and their two sisters were the

wives that Ngurunderi chased. The two wives of

Nepeli were returning to their camp after having

been out diving for mussels at Yawaiperung (site

on the shore of Lake Alexandrina), when they

noticed that the ground at Puleweiwald (hill of

Pullawewal) was red from the red-ochred

Waiyungari, The women were attracted to him.

Waiyungari was also willing to break the rules

and sleep with the wives. Nepeli found them and

set the fire trap. After escaping the fire,

Waiyungari and the wives of Nepeli crossed the

lake, regaining the land at Yaltung (site on the

south-western side of Lake Albert Passage) and

fled to the Sky to avoid punishment. This was

achieved by climbing on a string composed of

spears, which Waiyungari used to drag the sky

down. Waiyungari, because of his red covering of

ochre, became identified as the planet Mars. He

and Nepeli’s wives sit in Ngurunderi’s Canoe

(Milky Way), with Waiyungari’s spears alongside.

The emu constellation is nearby in the west.

THE CULTURAL IMPORTANCE OF WAIYUNGARI

The data for all of south-eastern Australia

suggests that there was a definable ‘set’ of

dominant ancestors, often described as ‘Supreme

Beings’, who are male, and whose personae or

identities overlap from region to region.'® These

dominating figures originated from outside the

local cultural area and their point of origin was

always obscure. Their travels through the region

provided the main founding drama of the society,

defining cultural and geographical boundaries,

and setting limits to social action. In the process

the dominant ancestors encountered people and

other spirit beings already living in the area, even

if, like Nepeli, they may also have been traceable

in their origins beyond the cultural region.

Waiyungari is one such local being — he is born in

the country and most of his actions, before

leaving for the Skyworld, take place there. He is

therefore not classed as a ‘Supreme Being’.

'S In the recorded mythology of south-eastern Australia such male ‘supreme beings’ include Baiame, Bunjil, Waku, Korna, Nepeli,

Nurelli and Ngurunderi. For an overview of these ancestors see Berndt (1974) and Clarke (1995).

WAIYUNGARI 57

The name of Waiyungari refers to his

relationship to the Skyworld, which was called

Waiyuruwar.'° There were also other spirit beings,

other than the major creators, that the Lower

Murray people closely associated with the

Skyworld. For example, there is the myth of the

‘dream man’ Kulda, who came out of the

Southern Cross to prepare people for death and to

take their spirits to the Land to the West (see

Clarke 1997:137). The ethnographic sources of

south-eastern Australia contain many examples of

ancestors, of greater and lesser importance, who

finished up in the sky (Howitt 1904: 488-508;

Mathew 1928: 528-531; Eliade 1958: 41-43;

Berndt 1974: 24-30). In Lower Murray culture

the male ancestors, such as Waiyungari and

Ngurunderi, were more prominent in their beliefs

than the totem-protectors (ngatji) tied to specific

descent groups (Berndt 1974: 26; Berndt &

Berndt 1993: 243). Although described as

‘ancestors’, these male beings stand apart from

the kinship system.

The predominance of ‘Supreme Beings’ in the

Aboriginal mythologies of south-eastern Australia

appears to have been reinforced by interaction

with Europeans. There are some clearly Christian

influences in the recorded Lower Murray

mythology (see Clarke 1995: 150, 152). For

instance, Taplin’s account of Waiyungari from the

“Goolwa clan’, which is blended with the

Ngurunderi mythology, appears to have

appropriated elements from the Old and New

Testament. The acts of a Supreme Being

punishing people by giving them death, his

forgiveness, together with the birth of a great

teacher from a virgin indicate direct Christian

influence. Swain (1993, chapter 3) suggests that

in south-eastern Australia it was the European

colonisation process that generated Aboriginal

world views dominated by ‘high gods’. Full

treatment of the ‘high god’ debate is beyond the

scope of this paper (see Morton 1994: 904-95;

Hiatt 1996: 100-119). Nevertheless, it has been

previously suggested that the smallpox epidemic

that struck southern South Australia just prior to

official settlement in 1836 would have devastated

local Aboriginal populations and possibly led to

some adjustment to cultural practices (Clarke

1995: 145).

The sealers also would have had an impact

upon the world views of the coastal Aboriginal

people with whom they interacted (Clarke 1995:

145; 1996: 56-59,65—70; 1998: 24-28), The

earliest official accounts concerning the

Aboriginal inhabitants often occurred some

twenty years after the arrival of the first

Europeans. These records are therefore of a

culture that was coming to terms with European

contact. Furthermore, realignment of Aboriginal

mythology may well have occurred in the 1880s

during the last initiatory sequence in southern

South Australia, which was attended by

Aboriginal groups from widespread areas.'? To

what extent ‘high gods’ existed in south-eastern

Australian cultures prior to Aboriginal experience

with non-Aboriginal people will never be known

for certain. Nevertheless, there is a possibility that

the rapid demise of Aboriginal population on the

frontier significantly enhanced the importance of

their beliefs in certain ancestors, particularly those

associated with death, living in the Skyworld. The

intensive contact between Aboriginal people and

European colonists in the Lower Murray region

favoured the development of syncretic traditions.

The events of the Waiyungari myth were said to

have occurred during early spring, a season

recognised by Yaraldi speakers as riwuri, running

from August to October (Berndt & Berndt 1993:

76, 229-231). This was a time of growth and

mating. The illicit involvement of Waiyungari

with women was perceived as causing poor

fishing initially, but improving upon the arrival of

the Young Men (Orion) and Women (Pleiades)

constellations in September (Berndt & Berndt

1993: 164). Waiyungari was said to disappear in

October-November at the onset of /uwadang, the

time of warmth. According to the Berndts,

Waiyungari was symbolic of spring: ‘witness his

hot-bloodedness, his personification as the red

planet, his role of a contravener of the law ... he

was responsible for all natural growth’ (Berndt &

Berndt 1993: 230). There were no rituals for the

renewal of seasons or species, apart from the

pervasive influence of Waiyungari (Berndt &

Berndt 1993: 75). Waiyungari’s ‘original mythic

act of coitus with Nepeli’s wives symbolised the

propagation of all species — he made possible their

recurrent renewal through copulation’ (Berndt &

'© See Clarke (1991, 1997) for a discussion of the Skyworld concept.

'7 Berndt & Berndt (1993: 163-185,) describe the last initiation sequence in the 1880s at which Lower Murray people were present.

Clarke (1995: 151) comments on the impact of widespread participation of Aboriginal groups from south-eastern South Australia,

the Mid North of South Australia and adjacent parts of Victoria and New South Wales.

58 P. A. CLARKE

Berndt 1993: 75). This was strongly supported by

text translated from Yaraldi that was recorded

from Karloan (Berndt & Berndt 1993: 341).

Waiyungari’s appearance in the sky was a marker

for Lower Murray people of the arrival of the

breeding seasons of animals and the beginning of

the growth period for many economically

important plants. In contrast, Ngurunderi was

described by the Berndts (1993: 76, 230) as

symbolic of winter (yutang — cold season from

May to July): his actions had set the scene for the

later events involving Waiyungari. In the case of

autumn (marangalkadi —from February to April),

this was the time of Marangani the crow.

The starting of a bush fire was a major element

in the Waiyungari mythology and another possible

reference to seasonal changes. In southern South

Australia, fire was important to Aboriginal people

as a tool in ‘fire-stick farming’, which took care

of their country and produced new plant growth

for the animals they hunted (Clarke 1988: 73,

74).'8 The Berndts (1993: 230) state that

Waiyungari:

was responsible for all natural growth. This theme

was latent in all Kukabrak living and thinking at the

level of the group as a whole.

The combined activities of Waiyungari and the

two wives of Nepeli refer to seasonal changes,

which also caused increased sexual activity

between men and women. For instance, narambi

initiates were said to be dangerously attractive to

young women (Berndt & Berndt 1993: 178).

During spring, sorcery activity was suspended as

it was considered too dangerous then and perhaps,

as the Berndts (1993: 261, 262) suggest, there was

a prohibition ‘to honour the season sponsored by

the mythic Waiyungari’.

Waiyungari was considered a great hunter, with

kangaroo skins often mentioned in the myth

versions, and he was also associated with fishing.

Wallaby carcases were sometimes thrown into a

fire as a ritual offering to Watyungari before a

large hunting expedition (Taplin Journals, 23

September 1859; Berndt & Berndt 1993: 76).

Taplin (1874 [1879: 57]) states that although

Waiyungari was perceived as being in heaven, he

‘is said to sit up there and fish for men with a

fishing-spear, and when people start in their sleep

it is thought to be because he touches them with

the point of his weapon.’ His prowess with the

spear is also a feature of the mythology.

Nevertheless, the act of throwing a spear into the

Skyworld and the use of this as a form of ladder

to climb up from the terrestrial landscape is not

unique in Australian mythology. For example,

there is a recorded belief from the Adelaide Plains

people of how the Monana (ancestral beings)'®

climbed into the sky. Wyatt (1879: 16) states that

his Adelaide Aboriginal source, Konoocha,

claimed that ‘Monana’:

was one day throwing large spears in various

directions, east, west, north, south; when, having

thrown one upwards, it did not return to earth. He

then threw another, and another, and so continued

throwing; each spear sticking fast to the former one

until they reached the ground, and he climbed up by

them to the sky, where he has ever since remained.”

Tindale (1935: 266) uses the similarity of

Wyatt’s account with that of Waiyungari to state

that the ‘Kaurna or Adelaide tribe’ knew

Waiyungari as ‘Monana’. Nonetheless, without

further connections between Waiyungari and the

Monana, this conclusion appears tenuous in light

of the wider distribution of some mythological

themes.

The bridging of the gap between the Skyworld

and the terrestrial landscape was variously

recorded as achieved by the length of one or

several spears, or on other occasions with the aid

of a line attached. In two accounts the spear

caused the Skyworld to fall down. In the case of

the line attached to the end of the spear, this may

relate to the use of ‘magic rope’ or ‘hair cord’

reported as used by Aboriginal doctors and

sorcerers across Australia (Elkin 1977: 53, 54;

Berndt & Berndt 1993: 262). It was believed that

certain people could make this rope travel to the

Skyworld, up trees, or through space itself. From

the above accounts of the mythology, both Nepeli

and Waiyungari had special powers. Regardless

of the stated method employed by Waiyungari to

escape the lower landscape, all these accounts

'® In the Lower Murray region during the 1850s, some colonists offered Aboriginal people incentives in the form of goods, if they could

get through the dry season without starting a serious bushfire (Aboriginal Protectors Report of 1850, South Australian Gazette &

Colonial Record, 20 April 1850, p.4.)

'9 Teichelmann & Schurmann (1840(2): 25) list ‘Munana’ as ‘former; late; ancient’ and ‘Munaintyerlo’ as ‘of a very remote time;

ancient’.

20 The throwing of spears in various directions into the Skyworld is structurally similar to a myth from the Mid North of South Australia

concerning the throwing of boomerangs in different directions to return the Sun from the Skyworld (Tindale 1937).

WAIYUNGARI

N

59

4 LAKE ALEXANDRINA

Scale 1 cm = 2.6 km

Yawaiperung

c Woodrow Point

Wangarawar | Pullawewal

" Poltaloch

Retjeri SN, Station

a.

6 Ba Rawoke o

, Ngararang

= 2 rN

x Sef

Tt SF Malbindjerang

reringi eS LAKE

Lowanyeri ALBERT

) D PASSAGE

Ma Tembatung

NARRUNG

o>

fas PENINSULA =

ee <)

° a 7

Ss Ove:

eS a wa

SA tes of

FIGURE 2. Places relating to the Waiyungari mythology in the Narrung Peninsula area (after Tindale 1935).

emphasise the great power of the ancestors in

bridging the gap between land and sky. To

ancestors, such as Waiyungari and Nepeli, the

crossing of this boundary was achievable at high

places like Rauwoke and Mulgarap-ngawan.

Tindale’s Yaraldi informant, Frank Blackmoor,

used the account of Waiyungari to explain the

Aboriginal perception of the origin of fires on the

Narrung Peninsula. In this manner, landscape-

transforming events, such as bushfires, were given

a human dimension. Tindale considered that the

geographical context in his recorded Yaraldi

version is a determinant of the cultural relevance

of the Waiyungari story. For instance, due to the

configuration of the Narrung Peninsula, bushfires

in this region formerly had a tendency to sweep

down the path along which Waiyungari fled,

particularly in the face of summer north-westerly

winds. The sites in the chase sequence of

mythological events progressed to the south-east:

from Wangaroka, to Malbindjerang and on to

Mulgarap-ngawan (Fig.2). This track is entirely

contained within the Lower Murray region, unlike

that of Ngurunderi that passes right through. The

Raminyerar version of the Waiyungari myth may

also have had this directional theme, although

terminating in the sea rather than the lakes. It is

significant that the account of the myth obtained

by Tindale from Clarence Long _ was

predominantly located in the Narrung Peninsula

landscape, even though this area was not directly

relevant to Tangani-speaking people. The

Waiyungari myth does not appear to relate directly

to areas of the Coorong. The landscape is a crucial

aspect of the mythology. As Tindale (1935: 273-

274) stated:

Lifted from this setting they [the myths] lose a great

deal of their significance ... the legends, when

associated with their geographical context, enable

us to understand the people in a manner denied to

those who know only the anglicised, generalised

stories.

Through myths such as that of Waiyungari, not

only the origins of the landscape are ‘explained’

but so too are such associated physical

phenomena as bushfires. Nevertheless, apart from

the bushfires, the seasonal and fertility aspects of

the Waiyungari mythology are not stressed in

Tindale’s recording.

Many of the ethnographic accounts discussed

in this paper involve Waiyungari’s sacred status

as an initiate, visibly indicated by his red

60 P. A. CLARKE

colouring. His association with young women was

discouraged, although he had contact with older

women, such as his mother. Young men during

initiations were narambi, both taboo and sacred

(see Berndt & Berndt 1993, chapter 10).

Nevertheless, the main restriction in Lower

Murray people divulging their acquired

knowledge appears to have been by age. The

Berndts state that for the young men, ‘what they

were told at this time, although sacred, was not

secret; nor was it information that should be kept

from women, because they already knew about

these things’ (Berndt & Berndt 1993: 163). The

four myth cycles focussed upon during the

initiations were of Ngurunderi, Marangani (Crow

[= Raven]), the Young Men and Girls stars, and

of Waiyungari and the two wives of Nepeli with

whom he fled. The last cycle was apparently of

particular importance to male initiations, the men

being symbolic of Waiyungari and the women,

whom they were to avoid, of Nepeli’s wives. The

events associated with Waiyungari are therefore

of particular relevance to the prohibitions relating

to young men. The initiations were usually

commenced in September, when Waiyungari (as

Mars?), was still present in the sky (Berndt &

Berndt 1993: 169, 178). The themes of ancestors

chasing wives and the temptation of initiates by

young women are also to be found outside the

Lower Murray region.*! Nevertheless, local

interpretations of particular myths were

formulated according to specific landscapes.

Myths concerning Waiyungari are heavily

interwoven with those of both Nepeli and

Ngurunderi. There is a bias towards Ngurunderi

in much of the literature. For example, Taplin

(1879: 38) states:

The great god of the Narrinyeri is Nurunderi

[Ngurunderi]. They also believe in several demi-

gods called Waiungare, Nepelle, and demons Pepi

[Prupi?], Melapi [Mu:ldapi?], Nalkaru,

Mulgewanke, and Karungpe.

This may, in part, be a reflection of the

recorder’s greater interest in landscape-creating

ancestors, than those associated with seasonal

behaviour. The mythological accounts of

Waiyungari, Ngurunderi and Nepeli are linked to

the extent that it is not possible to entirely

separate them. For example, in the Waiyungari

mythology there is some variation in the identity

of the angry man who made the fires. It is

sometimes a man named Pungngane or Nepeli and

in one case it is Ngurunderi. In the latter case, it is

likely that this is the result of a mistake by the

publisher.” Waiyungari and Nepeli were generally

considered to be brothers, although one source

had the former as the nephew of the latter. In the

case of Ngurunderi, he was often said to be

Nepeli’s brother in-law, although it is not stated

whether he has the same relationship with

Waiyungari. The kinship links also fan out to the

north east of the Lower Murray towards the

Darling River (see Berndt 1974: 25-27; Clarke

1995: 150). For instance, Ngurunderi’s wives are

also said to be the Bakindyji sisters originally

married to Tulu, who was the Kingfisher spirit

killed in the Eaglehawk and Crow myth. Nepeli

was also said to be the same being as the Nureli

‘All-Father’ spirit ancestor from further upriver.

Rather than a high level of consistency in the

mythology across the Lower Murray region, the

roles of the ancestors were often interchangeable.

Their actions were sometimes complementary,

and at other times apparently antagonistic. For

these reasons, they are best treated together as a

myth complex, rather than as individual accounts

of the landscape. The Berndts propose that whilst

Ngurunderi’s influence upon the Lower Murray

people was perceived by them as mainly spiritual,

that of Waiyungari was chiefly physical, with his

sexual activity increasing the fertility of all natural

species.?3

WaArYUNGARI Mytus As European ‘STORIES’

Aboriginal myths have often been used as a

For instance, the Pulyallana mythology of Eyre Peninsula involves the ancestor chasing two wives across the landscape whilst

creating landforms (see Clarke 1997: 128). There is also a version of the Ngurunderi myth, of dubious origin, that has his two wives

attempting to elope with another unnamed ancestor (Bonwick 1870: 204). The chasing of two women occurs in the eagle and crow

myths of the Maraura people, Lower Darling River, New South Wales (Tindale 1939). White (1975: 131,132) lists similar examples

to Waiyungari of temptation in myths from across Australia.

n

8

From a comparison between Hacket’s own account (Narrung Alpha, August 1915 — personal collection of L. Padman) with that

cited from him by Laurie (1917) there is clearly a discrepancy. In the first account (written by Hacket), the maker of the fire is

nameless, being referred to as ‘mighty man’. In the second (written by Laurie who cites Hacket), ‘Nurundie’ fills this apparent gap.

Clarke (1995: 157, end note 14) noted this apparent error.

we

In particular see Berndt & Berndt (1993, pp.75,287). The sexual influence of the Marangani constellation was also perceived as

important, but relates more to the autumn season (see Clarke 1997: 137).

WAIYUNGARI 61

source of plots for stories written for a non-

Aboriginal audience. One scholarly reader noted

that Waiyungari appeared to be an Australian

‘natives’ version of ‘Jack and the Beanstalk’,

presumably referring to the climbing into the

Skyworld episode.** Some versions of Waiyungari

written for wide readership, such as those by C. P.

Mountford (1971: 36-37) and J. Isaacs (1980:

154-155), closely follow the outline of the

detailed ethnographic account provided by

Tindale (1935). Nevertheless, the geographical

and seasonal aspects have been reduced. Stories

written by other authors, who are discussed

further in this section, appear to contain new

elements that significantly alter the structure of

the mythology.

In the Lower Murray mythology described by

W. Ramsay Smith (1930: 183, 331), there is the

‘Great Spirit’ and lesser beings such as

Ngurunderi, Nepeli and Waiyungari.?> Smith

(1930: 249-251) gives an account of Waiyungari

in a section titled ‘The Love-story of the Two

Sisters’. As a child, Waiyungari was a gift from

Ngurunderi to a childless widow who was

mourning the death of her husband. Waiyungari

was to become a ‘deity’, so great care was taken

in his training and he could therefore not be given

women in marriage. During one spring, the Mar-

Rallang’® sisters ‘caught the spirit of the season’

and became known to Waiyungari through them

imitating the cry of the emu and then the ‘love-

note’ of the swan. When he married the sisters,

his ‘uncle’, who is not named, was angered and

asked Nepeli to punish Waiyungari. A fire was

made to separate Waiyungari and his two wives,

and they fled into the lake. Waiyungari appealed

to Nepeli for help, and then threw a spear with a

bulrush fibre cord attached to it into Heaven.

Nepeli caught the spear, thus allowing Waiyungari

and the Mar-Rallang sisters to escape into the sky

and become three stars.

The collection of Australian myths told as

2

=

S.A. Museum),

children’s stories by E. Wilson contains ‘The

Story of Wyungare’ (1950: 77-84). This version

has Waiyungari as the son of Ngeringa, a woman

of the ‘Tilmuri’ or musk duck ‘totem’.

Waiyungari was a gift from Ngurunderi to

Ngeringa, who found the baby in the branches of

a Casuarina tree.”’ It was said that Waiyungari

would become a great warrior, but would one day

return to the ‘Sky-Land’. His name was said to

mean “One-Who-Returns-To-Sky-Land’.

Ngeringa and her son lived with other ‘Narrinyeri’

(Ngarrindjeri) people on the shore of a ‘big,

shallow sea-lake’, which was presumably Lake

Alexandrina. Waiyungari became a renowned

hunter and was permitted to visit the men’s only

‘bora-ground’, where the voice of ‘Kunapipi, the

Roaring Devil-Devil’ was heard. Due to his

importance, he was given a hut and tract of

hunting land to himself alone. Waiyungari was

not allowed to marry. There were two young

sisters, called “Mar-Rallang’ which reportedly

meant ‘Two-In-One’, who lived on a

neighbouring piece of land. They went to

Waiyungari and became his wives. Wewat-

Thelari, who was the ‘chief? of Waiyungari’s

group, changed into a hawk and flew to the Sky-

Land to consult Ngurunderi over the indiscretion.

It was decided that the women must be driven

away. This was attempted by starting a large

bushfire, which drove Waiyungari and his two

wives out onto a point in the lake. Due to the

heat, they were forced into the water. Waiyungari

appealed to Ngurunderi for help. He threw a spear

with a ‘magic rope’ attached a long way into the

sky. Ngurunderi caught the spear in his hands,

and pulled up the wives and then Waiyungari.

They were all allowed to live in the Sky-Land and

‘shine forever’.

In A. W. Reed’s (1980: 60-63) account, titled

‘The Husband and Wives Who Became Stars’,

Waiyungari was a gift to a grieving childless

widow from the ‘ruler of the heavens’. In this

Letter from Charles Chewings to N.B. Tindale, dated 2 November 1935 (Chewings collection, AA59/1/1, Anthropology Archives,

There is some evidence to suggest that the bulk of the mythology appearing in Ramsay Smith’s volume was collected by a

Ngarrindjeri man, David Unaipon (see Jones 1990; 303-305; Clarke 1997: 142, endnote 4). P. Jones (pers. com.) suggests that

Ramsay Smith tampered with the cultural information in Unaipon’s account, when producing the published version, thereby

reducing its reliability as an ethnographic source.

The name Mar-Rallang appears to be derived from marrari — ‘sister’, and -engk- ‘they two’ (Meyer 1843(2): 59,78). Related forms,

Meralang and Maralangk, were names used for the Pages Islands as sites in the Ngurunderi mythology, which were reported to mean

the ‘Two Sisters’ (Berndt 1940: 181; Berndt & Berndt 1993: 226).

The choice of a Casuarina or sheoak tree may not have been accidental. The Casuarina tree has significance elsewhere in Lower

Murray mythology, being the tree that Ngurunderi sat under before going into the Skyworld (Berndt 1940; 182). The large size of

some trees allowed them to be perceived as a link between the Skyworld and terrestrial landscape (see Clarke 1997: 127,128).

62 P. A. CLARKE

version, the ‘ruler’ was Nepeli and his servant

was Ngurunderi. As a young man, Waiyungari

was initiated. He met the Mar-rallang (Mar-

Rallang) sisters who called to him separately: one

of whom was imitating the cry of an emu, the

other the mating call of a swan. Waiyungari

married them both. Nepeli considered this to be a

illicit union between ‘spirits of heaven’ with

‘daughters of the earth’. Ngurunderi was

commanded to separate Waiyungari and the

sisters, which was done by fire that pursued them

into a shallow swamp. When the surrounding

rushes began to burn, Waiyungari had the women

climb onto his spear which he threw into the sky

‘like a star that had mistaken its direction and was

fleeing from earth’, leaving himself behind. Due

to his heroic act, Nepeli took pity on him and his

spirit was lifted to join the two wives in living in

the heavens, as three stars.

The popular accounts mentioned above are of

mixed value as ethnographic sources of

Aboriginal mythology. Some elements in Ramsay

Smith’s version relate closely to accounts of the

mythology produced by anthropologists, although

there are points where it differs significantly. For

instance, the seasonal aspect of the story is

important. Ramsay Smith (1930: 250) stated:

The spring-time of the year is a great time in the

training of the young people of the tribe. They are

taught to become quick and observant in detecting

the different love-notes of the wooing birds, and the

mating impulses of the animals.

The impact of this time of the year on all people

and creatures is a strong feature of this account.

Nevertheless, there is no mention here of the

narambi status of young men in providing a

reason why the relationship between Waiyungari

and the sisters was prohibited. The absence of

ochre leads to the final destination of Waiyungari

in the heavens as simply as a star, and not Mars (a

red planet).

In the case of the Wilson account, the elements

introduced have been appropriated from

Aboriginal cultures elsewhere in Australia. The

use of ‘bora-ground’ and Kunapipi are obvious

inclusions from New South Wales and Arnhem

Land respectively.“ The use of Tilmuri (‘Musk

78 See Berndt (1970, 1974).

2° Taplin (1879: 40,130) lists all these terms.

Duck’), Tinneware (‘Bream’), and Ponde (‘the

Big Cod’) are consistent with a Lower Murray

origin of this account.” Other words, such as

Milla-Milla (‘child’), Bulwarra (‘Pelican’), Dondu

(‘Black Swan’), Towrie (land), gunyah (shelter,

hut), Ngurrung-Ngura (‘the Red Sunset’), Gur-

Gur (‘Hawk’), and the phrase ‘Hala-hala mai,

oknira bata’ (‘Come here, great Teacher; here you

and your wives shall live and shine forever!’), are

not.” The gift of a baby to a childless woman by

Ngurunderi, who appears to be a high god, has

some resemblance to Christian beliefs concerning

the birth of Jesus. In this respect, there appears to

be some similarity with the Moriarty account

published by Taplin. The uncertainty over the

sources of Aboriginal ethnographic data and the

lack of place names in such accounts militates

against their use in describing local Aboriginal

cultural landscapes.

There is a similarity in story structure and word

usage between the accounts of Reed and Ramsay

Smith (1930). Nonetheless, the roles of the three

main characters in Reed’s version is somewhat

distorted from the main ethnographic accounts

and popular accounts given above, with Nepeli

given primacy over a subordinate Ngurunderi. The

method of the women gaining access to the

Skyworld is also different, involving one spear

rather than many or, as with Ramsay Smith, with

one spear and a cord. In Reed’s account, the

stated principal that prevented the marriage

between Waiyungari and the sisters was the

prohibition between the union between beings of

different landscapes. The apparent replacement of

the reason being initiate prohibitions with that of

a type of taboo prohibiting unions between gods

and mortals suggests that the author introduced

this element, perhaps borrowed from classical

Greek and Roman mythology. The impetus for

changing the basic story may have come from the

author’s desire to create some original work.

The Waiyungari myth has had an impact upon

the local place-names around Point McLeay.

Pulawelwal Hill is a large mound situated

between the Narrung township (near Point

McLeay) and the Mann Cemetery on the road to

Mark Point. The hill was sign-posted in the late

30 These are either words derived by the writer or terms obtained from Aboriginal languages in eastern and northern Australia.

WAIYUNGARI 63

FIGURE 3. A Point McLeay resident, Susan Rankine,

at ‘Pulluwewal’, ‘Wyungare’s Hill’ (Photo: P.A.

Clarke, 1990).

1980s by Narrung farmers as ‘Pulluwewal’,

“Wyungare’s hill’ (Fig.3).*! Apparently, earlier

this century a local farmer whose paddock

covered most of the hill was in the habit of calling

all his cows with names starting with

‘Pulluwewal’, for example ‘Pulluwewal Daisy’,

‘Pulluwewal Mary’ etc (L. Padman, pers. com.).

The reinstating of the Aboriginal name for the hill

therefore commemorates both Aboriginal and

non-Aboriginal traditions. Wangarawar, the place

in the myth where the wives first saw Waiyungari,

is a point jutting into Lake Alexandrina on the

~

north side of the Point McLeay township. This

name is still used by Aboriginal residents and it

appears on published local maps. Raukkan (a

version of Rauwoke) is the local name for the

area of the Point McLeay settlement, which is on

the side of the hill where in mythology Nepeli

lived. This has been used consistently by

Aboriginal people since European settlement.”

Several years ago this Aboriginal place-name

officially replaced Point McLeay as the town

name.

For eleven years, between 1988 and 1999, the

major Aboriginal cultural exhibition at the South

Australian Museum was ‘Ngurunderi: a

Ngarrindjeri Dreaming’. This took the theme of

the Ngurunderi mythology and used it as a display

device to describe the Ngarrindjeri culture of the

Lower Murray region. The exhibition and the

associated film have been a significant influence

on public attitudes towards Aboriginal cultures in

south-eastern Australia. The impact of these upon

primary and secondary school curricula and

university Aboriginal studies has also been

significant.*? This exhibition has been a successful

exercise, judged in terms of giving the broader

population an appreciation of the cultural

complexity of a particular Aboriginal group.

Nevertheless, although the ethnographic literature

clearly gives Ngurunderi primacy, the result of

this bias in the perceptions of people in more

recent times is to underplay or ignore altogether

the important roles of other beings, such as

Waiyungari, in Lower Murray mythology.

CONCLUSION

In Lower Murray cosmology the spirit ancestor,

Waiyungari, was important at the onset of spring

to help bring about the change of seasons.

Aboriginal people perceived that the fertility of

their region relied upon this ancestor and the

This placename has been listed by a number of recorders: Pulluwewal — ‘at the house’; a spot near Point McLeay and said to be

“Waiungare’s house’ (Taplin 1874 [1879: 55,56,130]); Pulluwewal — isthmus between Lake Alexandrina and Lake Albert (Ramsay

Smith 1930: 249); Pul:uwewal — camp of the spirit ancestor Waijungari (Tindale site recording map, Anthropology Archives, S.A

Museum); Puleweiwald — Waiyungari’s camp (Berndt & Berndt 1993: 191,228,317,400,442,443).

6

There are number of variations of the placename, Raukkan, These include Rauukki, Rauwoke — ‘the ancient way’; Point McLeay

(Taplin 1874 [1879: 56,57,130,139,140]); Rewuk — Point McLeay (Yallop & Grimwade 1975, map and p.100); Rawukung — Point

McLeay, site of the mission and primary living area of the Retjerindjeri clans people before mission established (Tindale site

recording map, Anthropology Archives, S.A Museum); Rawukung — Raukkan (Berndt & Berndt 1993).

For the exhibition booklet see Hemming & Jones (1989). Hemming (1988) describes the making of the film. Clarke (1995) discusses

aspects the changing role of the Ngurunderi mythology. Examples of school use are seen in Education Department of South Australia

(1990, 1991).

64 P. A. CLARKE

forces associated with him. His appearance in the

sky was a marker of the arrival of the breeding

seasons of animals and the beginning of the

growth period for many plants. Firing the

landscape was an important part of this

regeneration. Waiyungari’s influence was not

restricted to animals and plants, but was important

to people as well. Initiates were symbolically

linked to the Waiyungari mythology. The

ethnographic accounts of Waiyungari demonstrate

the same range of variation in detail as previously

discussed for other south-eastern Australian

myths. The Waiyungari mythology appears to be

chiefly relevant to the area bounded by Narrung

Peninsula and Lake Albert Passage in terms of

sites, and is therefore not of the same order in

landscape modifications as, for instance, with

Ngurunderi. Nevertheless, there are linkages with

Waiyungari to the mythologies of Ngurunderi and

other major spirit ancestors to the north east. The

use of Waiyungari in popular writings has largely

stripped out the important mythological elements

that explained local Aboriginal perceptions of

their land. This component of the literature is

unreliable as an ethnographic source, and is best

treated as fiction written for a non-Aboriginal

readership with a partial relationship to

Aboriginal cultural landscapes. Nevertheless,

Aboriginal mythology is important to a much

wider audience, forming a basis to investigate the

Indigenous background of Australian culture. As

the present cultural contexts for this mythology

change, Waiyungari may yet re-emerge as an

important vehicle for discovering the Aboriginal

cultural landscape.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper is based on material appearing in the

author’s Ph.D. thesis, which was supervised by Chris

Anderson, Peter Smailes and Kingsley Garbett. Philip

Jones commented on drafts of this article in detail.

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THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY* IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

CARSTEN HENN AND BARRY CRAIG

HENN, C. & CRAIG, B. 1999. The Pacific Cultures Gallery in the South Australian Museum.

Records of the South Australian Museum 32(1): 69-89.

This paper recounts the history of the Pacific exhibits in the South Australian Museum,

focussing after 1895 on those exhibits located on the top floor of the North Wing. This space

has become known as the Pacific Cultures Gallery even though natural science exhibits have

shared the space. Over the decades there has been a consistent evolution of the display until

now, just over a century after the opening of the North Wing, the opportunity exists for the

Gallery to be devoted solely to the display of Pacific cultural material.

Carsten Henn, MatthiasstraBe 65, 50354 Hiirth, Germany. Barry Craig, Department of

Anthropology, South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide SA 5000. Manuscript

received 2 November 1998.

PaciFiIC FOUNDATIONS

From its foundation in 1856, the South

Australian Museum has had a strong and

continuing interest in the Pacific.

It was in 1860 that the Museum secured as a

donation from William Owen, M.P. a large series of

articles from Fiji, including tapa cloth, clubs, spears

and clothing, and also some Malayan models of

pirate praus; thus, as far as can be ascertained, the

Museum secured the first of its now extensive

Pacific Island and Indonesian collections (Hale

1956: 12).

One of the first exhibits of this museum was a

display of Fijian material.

[William] Owen’s collection of Fijian “curiosities”,

installed in a special “Fijeean room”, was the

centrepiece of the museum’s ethnographic exhibits

when it opened to the public for the first time [on 2

January 1862]. By the 1860s Australian Aborigines

and their objects no longer retained their capacity to

evoke the exotic from the inhabitants of Adelaide —

this role was filled by Pacific artifacts, particularly

those from Fiji. Owen’s Fijian collection was

complemented by New Caledonian objects .. .

contributed by Robert Gouger! (Jones 1993: 21).

* Note: The Pacific Gallery is closed for renovations

and will reopen in March/April 2000.

Elsewhere Jones (1996b: 28) informs us that

‘Among the ethnographic objects it was the Fijian

rather than the Aboriginal artefacts which evoked

most critical and public interest’ and Hale (1956:

13) noted that, ‘the Fijian collections had been

exhibited from time to time’ even before the

Museum opened in the South Australian Institute

building in 1862.

The Institute building soon became

overcrowded for its three functions as Museum,

Library and Art Gallery and in 1878 a complex to

the east of the existing building was planned. This

was to consist of four multi-storied structures set

around a courtyard (ibid., Plate oppos. p.35), only

two of which have been built. The westernmost

wing was commenced in November 1879 and was

occupied progressively until its official opening

in December 1884 as the Jervois (or West) Wing.”

Each of the cultural institutions occupied about a

third of the space in the new building. Dr Wilhelm

Haacke was appointed as the first Director of “The

South Australian Museum’ in February 1883 and

began a vigorous program of expansion of the

functions and collections of the Museum (ibid.:

39ff.).

Amandus Heinrich Christian Zietz (Fig. 1) was

engaged as a preparator in 1884 and by 1888 had

progressed to Assistant Director under Stirling

who, as Chairman of the Museum Committee,

was acting unofficially as the Director following

Gouger’s collection is not identifiable in the present collections; labels were lost from many objects before registration was formally

commenced in 1911 and where objects could not be matched with various lists they were labelled ‘Old Collection’.

In 1884 the South Australian Institute became the Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia. This arrangement

was not changed until separation of each institution by Acts of State Parliament in 1939.

70 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

FIGURE 1. Amandus Heinrich Christian Zictz (from

Hale 1956, oppos. p.41).

the departure of Haacke in 1884.3 Zietz, born in

Denmark, had previously been a preparator and

then a curator at the Zoological Institute Museum

at Kiel, interested mainly in birds and fishes, and

became ‘right hand man to Stirling for 25 years’

(Hale 1956: 41). Edward Charles Stirling (Fig. 2)

was appointed Honorary Director in 1889,

confirming the role he had been playing

unofficially.

As a result of Haacke’s short but energetic

Directorship, the Museum had quickly outgrown

its accommodation. By 1883 the Museum’s

ethnological collection had been boosted by other

Pacific material from New Guinea (ibid.: 42).

Although in 1884 ‘ethnological material from Fiji

and the southeast of New Guinea was in hand, but

very little other Pacific Islands material’ (ibid.:

46), by 1887 this ratio had changed in such a way

that Zietz was able to state that ‘the New Guinea

collection now forms the most noteworthy part of

the ethnological collection’ (Annual Report of

1886-87: 19).

A detailed inventory by Zietz can be found in

the Annual Report 1887-88: 18:

Fiji represented by about 100 specimens; .. .

Solomon Islands represented by about 23

specimens; New Britain Islands represented by

about 80 specimens; . . . New Guinea Islands

represented by about 300 specimens; Australia

(including all the colonies) about 400 specimens,

exclusive spears. . . . Nearly the whole of the Fijian

collection was presented by W. Owen, Esq., and

FIGURE 2. Edward Charles Stirling (from Hale 1956,

oppos. p.51).

3

One of the reasons for Haacke’s untimely departure was some dissatisfaction with his readiness to send specimens to other

institutions abroad. Hale notes (1956: 47) that among these were ‘Fijian collections said to have been sent to Germany (apparently

most of the William Owen collection, donated in 1860)’. It is also of interest that after he left the Museum, Haacke joined the ‘Bonito’

expedition to Papua sponsored by the Royal Geographical Society of Australia, which spent June to December 1885 exploring the

Strickland River, a tributary of the Fly. The ethnographic collections from this expedition were lodged in the Colonial (now State)

museums in Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne.

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 71

contains many valuable specimens. New Guinea,

represented by about 300 specimens, forms

undoubtedly the most attractive and valuable part of

the whole collection . . . Some sketches, showing

native houses, villages, and scenery, are included in

the collection, but photographs of the Papuans are

still wanted.

Jones (1996b: 55-63) attributes the marked

increase in South Australian interest in

ethnographic material during the 1880s to the

popularity of the International Exhibitions

(especially South Australia’s constribution to the

Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London in

1886) and their counterparts in Sydney,

Melbourne and Adelaide. Hale (1956: 64)

especially remarks on the Jubilee Exhibition in

Adelaide in 1887, for which a special building

was erected on North Terrace and which featured

‘a splendid collection of Malayan products,

including a complete series of ethnological

objects’ provided by the Sultan of Johore, and

‘good New Guinea ethnological material — the

Theodore Bevan collections from “the Douglas

and Jubilee Rivers’”’; both collections were

obtained for the Museum after the Exhibition

closed.

The Exhibitions elevated the notion of civilisation’s

progress by means of sophistication in technology.

It was natural that the tools and weapons of ‘savage’

societies would be regarded in juxtaposition to this

sophistication, providing a measure of progress for

the throngs of visitors (Jones 1996b: 57).

THE Museum’s Nortu WING — ‘A BUILDING

PROVIDED SOLELY FOR ITS PURPOSE’

Stirling kept abreast of museum developments

abroad and embraced the taxonomic classification

system which treated ethnographic material in

much the same way as natural history specimens.

Thus he ‘became aware of the potential for filling

those gaps in collections which taxonomic

systems made evident’ (ibid.: 64). Ethnographic

material was classified primarily on the basis of

object type and presented by geographic regions

to facilitate comparison. This motivated Stirling

to seek out specimens from geographic areas not

hitherto represented in the Museum’s collections.

To supplement the Australian Aboriginal

ethnographic collections he issued a circular to

police and telegraph officers during the mid-

1890s appealing for material (ibid.: 196) and

several Lutheran missionaries provided well-

documented Aboriginal material around the turn

of the century. Stirling also obtained several

Pacific collections from Anglican, Presbyterean

and Methodist missionaries based in Adelaide but

these were usually poorly documented.

All this activity rapidly increased the size of the

Museum’s ethnographic collection and Stirling

worked energetically to gain new space for the

Museum. This was accomplished by the

construction of a building where the north wing

of the cultural institutions complex was meant to

be located but there were insufficient funds to

build in the style of the first structure (the Jervois

Wing).* Meanwhile, in 1889, the Art Gallery was

moved out of the Jervois Wing into the Jubilee

Exhibition Building® further to the east on North

Terrace.

In January 1895, the North Wing® was officially

opened (Hale 1956: 69). This was a modest red-

brick structure with a ground floor and an upper

floor gained by an impressive staircase. Two large

light wells in the upper floor allowed light from a

glass roof to illuminate the ground floor (Fig. 3).

This same year Stirling was appointed salaried

Director, a position he retained until 1913.

Regarding the move of the collections when the

building work had finished, Jones writes (1993:

27):

[Stirling’s] organization of the transfer of museum

collections from the Jervois Wing to the new North

Wing of the Museum in 1893 enabled him to further

gauge the strengths and weaknesses of the Pacific

collections.

Although Stirling undoubtedly provided overall

direction of the operation, Hale (1956: 72-3)

attributes much of the detailed work to Zietz:

So rapid was the progress in occupying the two

* Presently occupied by the Mortlock Library, a part of the State Library.

* Although arguments were put to government in 1882 to complete the building of the four wings of the cultural institutions as

proposed in 1878, to house the Jubilee exhibitions of 1887 and then use these buildings for the Library, Museum and Art Gallery,

this was not done (Hale 1956: 69). Instead the Jubilee Building was constructed and after the 1887 Exhibition was used for a number

of purposes, finally being demolished in the 1960s to make way for a University of Adelaide underground car park,

The North Wing is sometimes referred to as the West Wing in Reports and correspondence. Although it was the North Wing in the

original 1878 plan it was thought of as the West Wing when the Museum’s second (East) wing was built.

72 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

FIGURE 3. Photograph of top floor, West (ie. North) Wing, 31 November 1899 by Mr A. Treichel; view from

eastern end of Gallery looking west; eastern lightwell in mid-ground and ‘Bridge Case’ in centre of Gallery. Note

Fijian exhibit in south-western corner where it has remained to this day.

floors of this building, 230 feet in length, and so

pleasing was the arrangement to Stirling, that he

enthusiastically reported to his committee that Zietz,

‘on whom fell the chief labour of the removal and

rearrangement of the collections has dealt with this

tedious and arduous undertaking with an intelligent

energy that deserves commendation’.

The Pacific Islands displays at that time were

only a small part of the total exhibitions but they

have expanded and evolved in that space ever

since. Hale records (ibid.: 81):

The Pacific Island ethnological material had so

increased by 1898 that it occupied the whole of the

wall cases on the southern side of the Museum. This

was soon augmented by Fijian weapons and tools,

133 in all, presented by James Angas Johnson.’

However, the collection was far from being

arranged in a pedagogically sensible way. Most

exhibits lacked labels. As a result, visitors neither

knew where exactly the specimens hailed from

nor what they were in the first place: “The

ethnological cases are so congested that a

systematic or scientific arrangement, or any

descriptive labelling, is quite impossible’ (Stirling

in Annual Report 1902-03: 9).

Missing labels, though, were a shortcoming

which could be set right with comparatively small

financial means. Zietz, responsible for the

ethnological department as Assistant Director

from 1888-1909, wrote: ‘The Fijian Collection

has been temporarily re-arranged and printed

labels attached to the specimens’ (ibid.).

Thus it appears that the installation of the

Pacific Cultures Gallery on the upper floor of the

North Wing was largely the work of Zietz,

presumably with some general direction from

Johnson obtained the collection on behalf of the Museum from Mr D. Garner Jones of Levuka, Fiji, in 1900. The most valuable of

these items is a headrest (kali), A.7313, which ‘Belonged to Tanoa, King of Fiji’

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 73

FIGURE 4. Edgar Ravenswood Waite (from Hale 1956,

oppos. p.95).

Stirling. Amandus Zietz retired in December 1909

and his son, Robert, took up his father’s duties in

ornithology.*

At the end of 1912, after 32 years of working at

various posts at the South Australian Museum,

Stirling resigned from his position as Director but

continued for a short time as Honorary Director.

In 1914, Edgar Ravenswood Waite (Fig. 4) took

over as Director (Hale 1956: 95-6); Stirling

concentrated on the displays of Australian and

Pacific ethnography ‘and continued to exert

strong influence within the institution as Honorary

Curator of Ethnology until his death in 1919’

(Jones 1993: 27). It was during this period that

Stirling put his mark on the Pacific Gallery

exhibits.

The famous anthropologist, Bronislaw

Malinowski, who had extensive knowledge of the

Melanesian region and especially of its trade

relations, had a brief association with the

Museum, Jones reports (1993: 27):

Stirling was . . . [indirectly] responsible for the

acquisition of at least one item attributable to the

anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski . . . This

object, a ‘woman’s dress’ (A.7703), was deposited

in the Museum collection by Edward Stirling’s

daughter, Nina, to whom Malinowski had become

briefly engaged during his stay in Adelaide at the

Stirlings’ Mt. Lofty home in 1914.

It is most likely that Malinowski visited the

Pacific displays and made comments on them.

However, it remains uncertain to what extent

Stirling would have been influenced by these

comments in the re-arrangement which was

conducted only a few years later.

THE Museum’s EAst WING — ‘THE AUSTRALIAN

Court’

The possibility of a re-structuring arose in 1915

with the opening of the East Wing? (Fig. 5) of the

museum, which became known as ‘the Australian

Court’.

Exhibition space on the galleries was now almost

trebled and for the first time in the history of the

Museum it was possible, for a while, to segregate

the Australian material from the extra-Australian or

so-called ‘general collections’ (Hale 1956: 103).

It was this re-organisation of museum exhibits

which made space for the expansion of the Pacific

exhibits and their occupation, eventually, of all

the wall cases on the upper level of the North

Wing (ibid: 107).

Over-crowding of the cases was a problem

alluded to repeatedly in Annual Reports. Because

there was inadequate provision for storage of

reserve collections, the safest course was to put as

much as possible on display, where the condition

of the objects could be monitored. The only other

solution would have been to create more space in

the galleries and it was not possible to consider

increasing floor space by filling in the light-wells

until illumination of cases by cheap electric

lighting became feasible with the general

availability of fluorescent tubes. Still, Stirling

tried to make the most of the situation, to improve

the displays and to make them ethnologically

more sensible.

Several years later, Robert Zietz was also given the task of registering all the ethnological specimens on display, which took three

years to accomplish (Hale 1956: 107) but there is no indication that he was involved in reorganising the Pacific displays.

The East Wing was designed to match the style of the Jervois Wing which by then was completely occupied by the State Library.

Thus half of the original 1878 plan was executed (Hale 1956: 97).

74 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

a

ey

FIGURE 5. The East Wing of the South Australian Museum; North Wing to left.

In 1917, he re-arranged the material from Fiji

yet again:

Fiji — This series, containing some very valuable

specimens collected in the old days, and now not

procurable, which was before very overcrowded, has

been rearranged to better advantage, but the cases

are even now still rather congested (Stirling in

Annual Report 1916-17: 13).

However, it was still impossible to structure the

gallery systematically. All Stirling could really do

was fill ‘gaps’ with newly acquired material

which was kept safest in the display cases. It is

hardly surprising that it was not always possible

under these circumstances to integrate the

specimens in a regionally or thematically correct

way.

On the days of writing I am engaged on the work of

their arrangement [i.e. of some newly acquired

specimens from New Guinea] and, though an

interesting exhibit may be possible, it is evident that

all the specimens cannot be placed on view. This is

unfortunate, as they are interesting, attractive, and

intrinsically good. In any case, owing the want of

sufficient and suitable cases, a systematic

arrangement cannot be strictly followed (ibid.).

It was another ten years after the East Wing

was opened to the public in 1915 before all the

Australian ethnological material was removed

from the North Wing allowing more Pacific

exhibits the use of the space.!? In the Annual

Report 1917-18: 10, Waite wrote:

The gallery of this court [ie. the upper level of the

North Wing] is devoted mainly to Ethnology; about

half the space is occupied with the overflow from

the Australian court, the remainder accommodating

the Pacific Islands material, of which we possess a

very unequal display. Advantage was taken of about

30 small hanging wall cases to house some of the

more remarkable or beautiful objects of native

manufacture.

The small hanging wall cases Waite

mentioned,'’ as well as another re-arrangement,

‘© Upon completion of the East Wing, the available space had to be shared with some of the collections of the Art Gallery, curtailing

the building’s use for Museum purposes until the completion of the Art Gallery’s Melrose Wing in 1937 (Stirling 1956: 147).

"| These small ‘hanging wall cases’ may have been those located above the main wall cases along the north wall of the Gallery. These

were criticised several years later by a visiting overseas museum professional as being too high for people to see their contents

clearly.

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 75

were the last things Stirling was occupied with

before his death in 1919:

The time at my disposal during the past year has

been almost exclusively devoted to the re-

arrangement of the Papuan, Melanesian, and

Polynesian collections in the gallery of the General

Court. With the specimens from these localities

formerly displayed there have now been

incorporated the valuable and extensive series of

stone clubs, ceremonial, and other articles from

Papua presented by Major Balfour Ogilvy, which

form a notable addition. Various other similar

collections acquired by donation from other sources

and by purchase have also been similarly

incorporated. The result of these additions is that

the collections from the regions mentioned have

been very considerably augmented, both in number

and value. About 2 200 specimens in this category

have been catalogued and placed on exhibition. By

the re-arrangement these objects, many of them of a

striking character, are now shown more effectively

and somewhat more methodically than was

previously the case. It is, however, admitted that the

cases are still undesirably overcrowded, and, owing

to the stringent limitations of space, it has been

found impossible to adhere strictly to a geographical

classification, which would have been highly

desirable. However, under existing conditions,

nothing better could be done. The main advantage

gained is, that the specimens in question, many of

them of a fragile or perishable nature, can now be

constantly kept under observation, so that we shall

be free from the anxieties as to the fate of articles

that are packed up and stored (ibid.).

No doubt a major impetus for the expansion of

the Pacific exhibits in the post-World War One

period was the collecting expedition by Edgar

Waite to the Bismarck Archipelago of New

Guinea for four months in 1918 (Craig 1995; Hale

1956: 115-116; Jones 1992), following Australia’s

military occupation of German New Guinea in

1914, ‘Waite brought back with him collections

which occupied six tons of shipping space’ (Hale

1956: 115). These collections consisted of both

natural history and ethnographic specimens.

The ethnographic material collected by Waite is

today prominently represented in the Pacific

Gallery, particularly in the New Ireland displays.

Other collections from New Guinea were obtained

from officers (e.g. Major H. L. S. Balfour Ogilvy)

serving there with the Australian Military

Expeditionary Force, some of whom (e.g. Captain

A. J. Hunter) stayed on as District Officers when

civil administration resumed after the conclusion

of the War.

On 20 March 1919, Sir Edward Stirling died.

He left a legacy of an amazing 10 000 Australian

Aboriginal and Pacific ethnological specimens on

exhibition (ibid.: 107). Temporarily, Director

Waite took over the Department of Ethnology and

had soon to admit:

Your Director is . . . responsible for the care and

conduct of the Ethnological collections formerly

controlled by the late Sir Edward Stirling; it cannot

be surprising, therefore, if he is unable to produce

much evidence of scientific research (Annual Report

1920-1921: 9).

Despite his increased responsibilities, Waite

launched a project in 1920 which indirectly led to

the upper level of the North Wing being stocked

exclusively with ethnological exhibits from the

Pacific, although the mineral exhibits remained.

In the Annual Report 1919-20: 10, Waite set out

his plan:

Of these needs the following are the principal . . .

The complete fitting with cases of the annexe to the

Stirling Gallery of Australian Ethnology. The space

thus obtained would relieve the General Court

[North Wing] of the Australian weapons there

exhibited, and permit of much valuable material

from the Pacific Islands being shown.

It is hard to date precisely, from the archival

sources available, when the Pacific Gallery had

expanded to the point where it ‘occupied the wall

cases on all sides of the upper floor’ (Hale 1956:

107), but Hale comments upon it immediately

after noting that ‘the Australian ethnologia from

the north wing was removed in 1924’ (ibid.).

Probably it took place progressively over the next

year or so. Waite, in the Annual Report 1924-25:

11, stated:

The space set free rendered it possible to re-arrange

considerably the general collection, and to add many

fine exhibits, including specimens obtained by the

Director, in 1918, in New Guinea, New Britain, and

especially New Ireland.

In 1928, Waite died on his way to a Science

Congress in Hobart, Tasmania. Herbert Hale was

appointed ‘Museum Curator’ after applying for

the position of Director and three years later, in

1931, was appointed Director. Also in 1928,

Norman Barnett Tindale (Fig. 6), the next person

to have a significant impact on the Pacific

Gallery, became the museum’s ethnologist (Hale

1956: 138; Jones 1996a). He had started at the

museum in 1918 in the entomological section

(under a kind of apprenticeship rather than as an

academic student) but within a few years had

developed an interest in ethnology as well.

Tindale’s first experience in collecting

ethnographic material was in 1921—2 on Groote

76 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

FIGURE 6. Norman Barnett Tindale

Eylandt. In preparation for this work, he consulted

with Baldwin Spencer in Melbourne, who gave

him his own copy of the 1912 edition of Notes

and Queries on Anthropology (Jones 1996b: 336).

Jones describes Tindale’s theoretical position as:

. a salvage ethnographer from a natural science

background . . . in the same company as Alfred Cort

Haddon, Baldwin Spencer, or more appositely,

Franz Boas. But despite sharing his [Boas’s]

relativist perspective, placing ethnographic objects

within their specific cultural contexts, Tindale never

repudiated evolutionist theory as Boas had done. In

fact, Tindale’s application of natural science

taxonomic principles to ethnographic collections

and exhibitions . . . more clearly echoed the career

and achievements of the Smithsonian Institution’s

Otis B. Mason (ibid.: 337).

With regard to his responsibilities for the

Pacific exhibits, Tindale had to deal with a lot of

difficulties. Apart from the lack of space, the

South Australian Museum had further problems.

In the 1933 Report on the Museums & Art

Galleries of Australia, sponsored by the Carnegie

Corporation of New York, the lighting in the

museum was criticized (Markham & Richards

1933: 43f.):

In the Australian Museum a particularly notable

exhibit is the New Guinea Ravi. In the Tasmanian

Museum the aboriginal habitat case is delightful and

attractive in every way. Somewhat similar cases are

to be found in the Brisbane, Adelaide and

Melbourne Museums, but the last two are spoilt by

unfortunate lighting, resulting in excessive

reflections.

After Waite expanded Stirling and Zietz’s

arrangement of specimens in the Pacific Cultures

Gallery, little seems to have been changed until

after World War II. Paul Lawson came to the

Museum’s team in 1936 as lunch attendant but

after the War he was employed in the Exhibitions

section. In an interview, 19 June 1997, he related:

There was very little movement . . . in the layout of

the specimens prior to the War. Except when Frank

Tose from the Californian Academy of Sciences

came out here, and he made quite a few suggestions

about better visibility in the East Wing. He made

some suggestions and we followed those, and in

what we call the West Wing, now the North Wing

. . . He made his suggestions on the grounds that

eye-level material was valuable and [the] other was

lost... The cases on the north wall that were above

the main [wall] cases he considered were

superfluous [because] he couldn’t see the

specimens. And we know that those specimens

originally were put in those cases for visible storage

because there was no other space around the area

where you could store the stuff. When those cases

were disbanded we used [them] in various ways, but

the material had to be stored .. . I don’t recall any

dramatic changes until post-War days.

THE WAR — REMOVAL To SLEEPS HILL TUNNEL

Alarmed by the Japanese attack on Pearl

Harbour on 7 December 1941, the South

Australian Museum took steps to protect its

collections in case of air raids. After some time

looking for an adequate storage place for the

collections’ most valuable pieces, an abandoned

railway tunnel was identified at Sleeps Hill, south

of the City. However, to this day it remains

unclear which parts of the collections were chosen

for safe-keeping. In a letter to Hale dated 31

December 1941, Tindale wrote:

In preparing the above list of material, it has been

estimated that the only practicable method of

dividing the general collections is to take each

alternate specimen, or each alternate container,

leaving the other in position. By this means,

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 77

sufficient material will remain on display, and the

division will ensure that the risk is halved.

Paul Lawson, who went to the War before the

specimens were removed to the Sleeps Hill tunnel,

and came back after they had been returned,

understood that the division had been carried out

on other grounds (Interview, 19 June 1997):

They took any material off display that was

considered extremely valuable. It couldn’t all go,

but the reference collections’? . . . went up there

because they are really the key.

This seems to be confirmed by the following

excerpt from Tindale’s letter to Hale, quoted

above, which also gives an idea of the quantity of

material that had to be transported:

1 have made an inventory of the material in this

Museum which it seems desirable should be placed

in safe keeping in a war emergency. I have divided

the list into two, namely (a) Essential Documentary

Records, (b) List of the Total Weights and Cubic

Measurements (net), of the irreplaceable or unique

specimens in the collection.

In this survey I have taken into special account the

Ethnological collections, most of which belong to

peoples now extinct . . . Ethnology 700 Cub. ft. 6

tons; Ethnology Gallery Annexe 300 Cub. ft. 3 tons;

Australian Ethnology Store 900 Cub. ft. 8 tons;

Australian Crania 150 Cub. ft. 1/2 tons;

Ethnological General Court 1200 Cub. ft. 10 tons."

It is surprising that although this transport must

have called for so much work, time and planning,

few records of it can be found. One reason for

this might be that the documents were lost during

the disruptions of wartime, another that they are

stored somewhere as confidential documents, or

perhaps they are yet to be found in the still-not-

completely-explored archives of the Museum.

In January 1942, Tindale left the South

Australian Museum ‘to act as an interpreter [in

the R.A.A.F.] in the Japanese language of which I

have rather extensive knowledge’ (Tindale to

Director Hale, 13 January 1942). In his absence,

Harold Cooper was appointed on a part-time basis

as Assistant Ethnologist (Hale 1956: 172).

Although nothing had been transported to the

Sleeps Hill tunnel at the time of Tindale’s

departure, he must have been at least partially

involved in the preparations for the transport,

since we read in a letter by Hale which was

written only about 10 days after Tindale’s

departure: ‘It now seems certain that we will

shortly be transferring a good deal of our material

to the country. It is probable that some of our

galleries will be at least temporarily closed’ (Hale

to Scott, Director of Queen Victoria Museum and

Art Gallery, Launceston, Tasmania, 30 January

1942). The last sentence supports the belief that

the exhibited collections were not moved entirely,

otherwise he would not have used the word

‘some’.

On 7 April 1942, Hale informed Tindale:

We have removed most of the entomological

collections and some of the ethnological to one of

the pavilions in the National Park. We were lucky to

get this as everything is being occupied by military

camps. Apparently work has been well started in the

Tunnel and we have all the rest of the ethnological

material ready to go at a moment's notice. Cooper

and Vogelsang have worked like Trojans on the

packing job and, in fact, have both knocked

themselves out.

On 18 May 1942, Hale reported in a letter to

Professor Hill of the Medical College in

Colombo, Ceylon that: ‘The major part of our

ethnological material is packed away for

safekeeping and will not be available until after

the war.’

Little is known about which galleries were

closed and which objects remained on display

during the time the specimens were stored in the

Sleeps Hill Tunnel. The Annual Report 1942-43:

3 notes: ‘Collections stored away from Adelaide

as an air raid precaution and those in reserve in

the Museum are regularly inspected and are in

good condition.”

The specimens remained in the tunnel for two

years. Then Cooper reported: “all the ethnological

material removed to Sleeps Hill some time ago

has now been returned to the museum with the

exception of six canoes’ (Cooper to Hale, 24 May

1944).

After the disruption caused by the removal and

subsequent return of the Museum’s collections, it

seemed like a good time to assess the Museum’s

situation:

During this year the Board has devoted considerable

time to discussion of possible post war extension of

‘Reference collections’ are the type specimens with which all subsequent specimens are compared for identification; this term is

normally used in relation to natural history collections not ethnographic collections. Lawson is unsure whether the ethnographic

material was considered in the same way as the natural history material for the purpose of the removal.

By comparison, the mammals were listed in this survey with merely 400 Cub. ft. 2 tons.

78 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

the Museum. Lack of adequate exhibition and

storage space became acute years ago, and the

position is now extremely unsatisfactory .. .

Exhibition space is so limited that justice cannot be

done to displays illustrative of our fauna and of our

aborigines . . . Particularly, one may mention our

Ethnological collections which could be made a

feature of a new Museum. Many of the 40,000

objects of this collection were secured years ago,

and today it can be said that literally some of them

are worth their weight in gold. Some of the material

from the Pacific Islands for example cannot be

duplicated. Portion of it is displayed in the old red

brick Museum, but necessarily the specimens are

placed close together in the cases with the idea of

affording safe housing for as much of this valuable

material as is possible. To the public such an

arrangement is meaningless and these stored

specimens alone could be spread out to fill a very

large hall so as to illustrate by means of labels, maps

and photographs, the life and interests of the Pacific

peoples. This and other projects cannot be

considered until vastly more floor space is available

(Annual Report 1944-45: 3).

The problem of relying upon natural light for

the viewing of exhibits is reviewed in the Annual

Report 1945-46: 2:

The need for adequate artificial lighting has been

stressed again and again. In our State, conditions in

the Museum buildings may be said to present a

violent contrast, in that on summer days it is

difficult to exclude the bright light, which causes

irreparable damage to furred and feathered aniiia!s

placed on exhibition, while on the other hand, in the

winter months, when during the weekends the

Museum is thronged, it is difficult to see some of

the exhibits, and recently at 3.30 p.m. on a dull

Sunday afternoon there was observed the ludicrous

spectacle of a visitor striking matches in order to

read some of the labels in the General Court [North

Wing].

The conclusion drawn from this difficulty was

that the light-wells in the East and North Wings

would have to be filled in and electric lighting

installed. This would have the bonus of greatly

increasing floor space for the exhibits. But the

money to fill in the East Wing light-wells would

not become available for another twenty years,

and to fill in the North Wing light-wells, almost

another ten years after that.

TINDALE’S ‘REARRANGEMENT’ OF THE PACIFIC

GALLERY

In July 1946, Tindale returned from war service

to the South Australian Museum and took over

from Harold Cooper who continued as an

Assistant. In addition, Harold Burrows was

employed as Museum Assistant to further support

Tindale.

During his time in the R.A.A.F., Tindale had

collected a small amount of material from the

Pacific region (the Markham Valley, and other

parts of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands —

see Annual Report 1946-47: 3). It is also probable

that Tindale deepened his knowledge of Pacific

cultures during his military service. In Tindale’s

Report on State of Ethnological Collections,

prepared for the Director (7 November 1946), he

attested that Cooper:

has done a most excellent job in protecting the

specimens, registering new material, and

supervising the laborious tasks of packing and

unpacking that half of the collection which was

consigned to Sleeps Hill tunnel for safe keeping

during the Emergency. Mr. Cooper also

rearranged a large part of the Ethnological

Gallery for temporary display . . . It will be noted

that during the shifting of the specimens, many of

the flimsily tied-on metal tags used in former

years became detached, and it became

unfortunately necessary to re-register some

specimens as being without data.

In the Annual Report 1945-46: 3 can be read

the following about Cooper’s work: ‘The interior

of a number of cases was painted, their contents

re-arranged, and additional labels and

photographs added to make the exhibits more

attractive.’ However, it seems that this remark was

made with reference to the Stirling Gallery

(Australian Aboriginal) cases, not the Pacific

cases (see Hale 1956: 172). Also it would be

inconsistent with Tindale’s stated reason for

starting on the Pacific Gallery first (see below).

After the War, there was much disorder despite

Cooper’s work and everything had to be re-

organized (Interview with Paul Lawson, 19 June

1997). Even before Tindale commenced on the

installation of an Indonesian Gallery or took care

of the Australian Aboriginal exhibits, he began

re-structuring the Pacific Cultures Gallery. The

reason for this can be found in the Annual Report

1946-47: 3):

Although the Australian ethnological galleries need

attention and should have had priority, the re-

organization of the old ethnology gallery had to be

hastened owing to the unfortunate use of low grade

war-time carbon bisulphide, containing free sulphur,

in the fumigation of the specimens. This caused the

paint in the cases to darken. Painting was overdue

since much of this portion of the gallery had not

been decorated since 1894.

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 79

Paul Lawson recalled the Pacific Gallery cases

as follows (Interview, 19 June 1997):

The fronts of the cases, the woodwork, was black, .

. a French polish black. The insides of the cases

were painted a flat grey . .. They were all changed

when we started to work on the cases . . . Up until

after the war they were still black.

The painting of display cases was not confined

to the Pacific Gallery; there was a general change

of colour throughout the Museum, from ‘the old

“museum colour’— a funereal black’ (Hale 1956:

146, 189) to lighter colours.

In the Pacific Cultures Gallery, Tindale could

not work with new ways of presentation as he did

later for the ‘Indonesian Gallery’ because there

were too many specimens. In fact, he added even

more because the safest place for storage

remained the display cases.

Shortage of storage room space for these valuable

specimens under cover necessitates the continuation

of the highly undesirable practice of overcrowding

the exhibition cases. In some instances, where

perishable material has to be protected, even more

material than was formerly present in the cases is

being placed on exhibition. However, every

endeavour is being made, by massing the exhibits,

to preserve some semblance of spaciousness in the

displays (Annual Report 1947-48: 3).

It is not certain if the colours for the inside of

the cases were chosen to make the cases appear

spacious despite the over-crowding or if this was

just a fortunate side-effect. Paul Lawson said

about this: ‘It was done because the coloured

backgrounds, [those] pale pastels, . . . looked

more acceptable’ (Interview, 19 June 1997).

The question that needs to be asked at this point

is to what extent Tindale changed Stirling’s and

Zietz’s arrangements. Were whole cases repainted

but otherwise left unchanged?

Lawson rejected this supposition in the

interview even though the wall case exhibits in

the Pacific Cultures Gallery give the impression

of a uniform style of display. Further, Tindale

speaks repeatedly of ‘re-arrangement’ in his

correspondence; he also mentions the inclusion of

completely new pieces: ‘Opportunity is being

taken to incorporate some of the more important

accessions which have been lying in the

storerooms’ (Annual Report 1947-48: 3).

On the one hand, many of the wall case exhibits

(e.g. X1, X2 — Papuan Gulf-Fly River; X3 —

Central Papua; X4—X6 — Milne Bay; X7, X8 —

Vanuatu; X9 — New Caledonia; X10-X15 — Fiji;

etc) have only a few objects incorporated into

them that came into the Museum after the early

1930s, suggesting that they may not have been

much changed after the War. On the other hand,

the Sepik/Madang/Huon Gulf cases (X25-28)

incorporate large numbers of objects obtained just

before, during and immediately after the War.

This suggests that where the cases were more

radically re-arranged, the exhibits were set up

deliberately to conform to the older style of

display.

Apart from new specimens, photographs and

graphics also were introduced into the display

cases. As at 1998, the old displays in the Gallery"*

featured more than 50 photographs and a number

of graphics. As Hale (1956: 65) noted, the idea of

using photographs in displays had a long history,

dating back to about 1890:

{Zietz] proposed that ethnological objects, such as

those from Malaya, New Guinea and Fiji, could be

‘explained’ much better by the use of photographs

showing them in use. He found it impossible to

secure suitable pictures but the idea was reborn and

carried out half a century later.

In a memorandum to Hale dated 9 July 1947,

about the offer of an ethnological collection by a

certain Miss Woods, Tindale wrote:

Among the material from the Pacific Islands is

much which is of special interest to us in view of

the fact that we are re-arranging our collections

from that area. There is an outstanding bird-beaked

club from New Caledonia, which is better than one

we possess.

In another letter from that time (Tindale to Rev.

Barnes, 6 October 1947) he wrote: ‘It is hoped

that during the forthcoming re-arrangement of the

New Guinea collections it will be possible to find

a place for it [a model canoe from Barnes] on

exhibition.’

In the Annual Report 1946-47: 3) we read:

Activities of the department have been concentrated

on the re-arrangement of the Pacific Island

collections in the old gallery, together with their

catalogue registration. Approximately one-quarter of

the gallery has now been re-arranged after the cases

had been painted . . . There is sufficient ethnological

material displayed in this gallery alone to occupy

twice the present space in order that it may be

displayed more adequately. Removal of paint from

the glass on the south side of the lantern [ie. glass

roof] has improved the lighting conditions in the old

'* That is, excluding the 1993 and subsequent additions to the Gallery curated by Barry Craig.

80 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

gallery by more than 50 per cent. In dull weather the

cases are still inadequately lighted and to complete

the re-organization it seems essential that internal

lighting of fluorescent tube type be installed.

In 1948, when Tindale was working on the re-

arrangement for the third year running, he wrote

(Tindale to Deland, 5 August 1948):

we are at this moment re-arranging all our gallery

collections of New Guinea material . . . We are

trying to separate the ethnological specimens from

the various parts of New Guinea to bring out the

essential differences between such groups as the

Sepik area, the Huon Gulf area, the Massim districts

and the Gulf of Papua. In doing this we have

naturally struck quite a number of problems on

borderline material.

This quote makes it clear that Tindale not only

added more specimens to the cases but worked on

a new arrangement, at least in part of the Gallery,

but he kept to the basic rule of exhibiting a

representative series of object types arranged in a

geographical sequence. He was not alone in his

work:

During the re-organization of the Pacific Island

collections, the ethnologist received much advice

and help in the re-identification of material from

Rev. H. K. Bartlett, Rev. A. S. Webb, Mr. E. C.

Deland, and others who have first-hand knowledge

of the natives of these islands; as a result it is hoped

that most of the material is now better known and

more adequately labelled than formerly (Annual

Report 1946-47: 3).

By 1948 the difficult and expensive work was

not finished yet. Paul Lawson (Interview, 19 June

1997) described it as follows: ‘[the arrangement

of specimens for] each case had to be laid out on

the floor or on boards, then the actual putting in

of the specimens was a slow job because they’re

all fragile.” The Annual Report 1947-48: 3 notes

progress as follows:

The ethnologist (Mr. N. B. Tindale) reports that the

principal activity of the Ethnological Section during

the year has been the re-organization of the Pacific

Islands Ethnology collections exhibited in the old

gallery. Approximately one-half of the gallery has

been re-organized. This has involved the

dismantling, card cataloguing of specimens, re-

painting of cases and the re-installation of exhibits

from Fiji, Solomons, New Britain, New Ireland,

New Caledonia, New Hebrides and the Admiralty

Islands.

The procedure was described by Paul Lawson

(Interview, 19 June 1997):

Tindale and Harold Burrows worked on that [the re-

arrangement of the Pacific Cultures Gallery] and

Tindale would tell Burrows what he wanted to put

in there and then Burrows would try to arrange it

the way he thought and then Tindale would okay it.

So there were definitely changes. Admittedly some

of those cases would resemble the previous

arrangement very closely.

In 1949 the end came into sight at last:

The re-arrangement of the South-west Pacific

Ethnology Gallery by Mr. N. B. Tindale, assisted by

H. Burrows and L. Wills, is nearing completion. By

the addition of photographs, models and the use of

bright background colours, they have transformed

the presentation of the extensive collections (AGMA

— News Bulletin of the Art Galleries and Museums

Association of Australia and New Zealand No.3,

September 1949; Sydney: 6).

In the Annual Report 1948-49: 4), relief about

the imminent completion of the work can be felt:

The ethnologist reports satisfactory progress in a

major project of the section, namely the re-

organization of the Pacific Island ethnological

collections exhibited in the old red brick building.

FIGURE 7. Left half of wall case exhibit (X05 — Milne

Bay Province, PNG) showing aesthetic of display

arrangement.

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 81

FIGURE 8. One of the window cases (‘New Hebrides’) installed by Norman Tindale in 1949 and removed in 1976.

The greater part of the top floor of this gallery is now

devoted to the display of our collections from New

Guinea and the Melanesian portions of the Pacific

Islands. Despite delays due to shortage of material

and labour the interiors of almost all the cases are

refurnished and the specimens newly installed. The

Architect-in-Chief is installing fluorescent lighting in

cases at the eastern end of the gallery. In continuation

of this re-arrangement all plaster casts of fossil

animals, formerly displayed on the walls over the

main stairways, have been removed to other situations

and the walls are being repainted.

In all, Tindale worked for more than four years

on the re-arrangement of the Pacific Cultures

Gallery. It must have been somewhat

disappointing to him that he could not use new

display methods like dioramas and that better

contextualization was impossible due to lack of

space but he did get fluorescent lighting for the

wall cases.'* The main task was to store as many

specimens as possible in the cases, to renew the

regional classification of objects (since Stirling

had made many mistakes here) and to arrange

everything in the most aesthetically pleasing way,

which can be seen in the placement of specimens

into triangular, parallel and diagonal patterns (Fig.

7). Further, ‘In its basic arrangement, it still

reflects the geographic organization imposed upon

it by Edward Stirling during the 1890s’ (Jones

1993: 29).

Work in the Pacific Cultures Gallery was not

confined to the wall cases. In the table cases

around the light-wells, and in the flat cases which

were in front of the windows along the southern

wall between the wall cases, Tindale used a then

up-to-date display method. He arranged the

smaller specimens, such as tools and ornaments,

into geographically-defined series to supplement

the wall case exhibits, presented other material on

the basis of types of objects such as betel-chewing

equipment and neck-rests, and other cases

illustrated particular technologies, such as tapa-

making. These displays contained more pictures

with longer accompanying texts (Fig. 8). Above

all they were not over-crowded. Rather, they seem

spacious by comparison with the layout of

specimens in the wall cases.

'S It seems hardly credible that electric lighting was installed in the Museum only 50 years ago!

82 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

By the end of Tindale’s work on the Pacific

Gallery there were 4 200 specimens on display in

82 cases, ‘making this one of the outstanding

collections of its kind’ (Annual Report 1949-S0:

4). This compares with 3 000 on display today.

Tindale’s exhibits in the Indonesian Hall,'®

which was opened in 1954 and dismantled in

August 1982, were completely different to those

in the Pacific Gallery:

The Indonesian Gallery came after this [the Pacific

Gallery] was completed . . . Display methods were

different then. We did have a little bit of money, not

very much, but we had a little bit more than we had

when we were doing all this [Pacific Gallery] work

— [which could use] only virtually petty-cash left

over from something else (Interview with Paul

Lawson, 19 June 1997).

In the Indonesian Hall, miniature dioramas were

used; this constituted a different genre of display.

Objects in the evolutionary sequence for which

specimens were lacking were represented by

replicas, models, graphics and photographic

‘reproductions’ (Hale 1956: 191).

THE Post-TINDALE ERA

When Tindale retired from the Museum in

October 1965, he left a young Assistant, Graeme

Pretty, to continue his interest in the Pacific

collections. Pretty, a History graduate from the

University of Sydney, had joined the

Anthropology staff in 1962 as Assistant Curator

and was promoted to the new position of Curator

of Archaeology in 1964. His interests included

both Melanesian and Australian prehistory. Robert

Edwards was appointed Curator of Anthropology

when Tindale left and his interest was in

Australian Aboriginal ethnography. A year after

Edwards resigned in 1973, Pretty became Senior

Curator of Anthropology and Archaeology.

In the late 1960s, the Director reported that

because of increased overcrowding, extensions to

the existing buildings were being considered

(Annual Report 1969-70: 6 and Annual Report

1970-71: 6). The damage being caused to

specimens by the sunlight coming through the

glass roof was also of grave concern. Lawson

pointed out a detail on an 1899 photograph of the

table cases (Interview, 19 June 1997):

Those black covers were to stop the light getting in

because the light from up the windows [ie. from the

glass roof] was quite devastating. It was ordinary

glass which was painted with white wash on the

inside. The surrounds leaked, the white wash came

off, the water dripped down onto the cases,

especially these flat cases. If they happened to be

underneath where the drips were it would get in

there .. . get in the cases. But the light was a real

problem, until [the ordinary glass] was replaced

with anti-UV glass and that did quite well. It was a

greenish-blue tinge; that was an improvement.

To gain additional space in the West (North)

Wing and eliminate the problems caused by

sunlight through the glass roof of that Wing, the

filling in of the light-wells was commenced.

When the light-wells were filled in, floor space

was gained.

The closing in of the light wells in the West [ie.

North] Wing allowed us to reopen the top floor to

public exhibition late in the year [1972]. Some

material which was stored away, usually in

unsatisfactory areas, while this work was in

progress, was able to be returned but the lower floor

is still empty and the material originally housed

there is distributed in a series of temporary areas

(Annual Report 1971-72: 6).

As Paul Lawson reported (Interview, 19 June

1997), the reconstruction had originally been

planned differently:

It was decided to fill the light-wells in. And then it

was going to be only a light floor, just to separate

the two galleries [upstairs and downstairs] and to

put some light material on. I was able to talk with

the architecture and public buildings departments

{and explain], ‘We can’t afford that space not to be

walked on.’ So they increased the strength of it.

The Annual Report 1972-1973: 9 optimistically

stated:

Reconstruction of the ground floor of the West

[North] Wing is nearing completion, with the

installation of air conditioning, a sprinkler system

and glass for the display cases the largest

outstanding tasks. Plans are being prepared for a

general refurbishing of the upper floor [the Pacific

Gallery] in which it is hoped to disturb only a

'6 The Indonesian Hall, located at the southern end of the top floor of the East Wing, was a bit of a misnomer and was later called the

Human Cultures Gallery. Hale (1956: 191) states: ‘The [Indonesian] Hall was designed to illustrate the earlier cultures of man and

also more modern collections from South-eastern Asia. The last-named series have been arranged to show the origins of civilized

man and his development through the stages of neolithic agriculture and the early Iron Age in the lands of South-west Asia. . treating

in turn the Indus Valley cultures, India, Malaya, Eastern Asia, Indonesia and the Pacific Islands around Australia’.

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 83

minimal number of display cases around the walls

and to create new exhibits in the central space, now

occupied by mineral and fossil displays.

The intention not to re-arrange or add

something new in the wall cases is clearly stated.

Lawson’s recall is consistent with this (Interview

19 June 1997):

There was no dramatic re-arrangement of specimens

or cases because of the light-well filling . .. Where

we could, we used the [existing] cases... We didn’t

touch the contents . . . There was no re-arrangement

of the contents.

That the Pacific Cultures Gallery looks the way

it does today is due to the diplomatic skills of the

museum’s staff:

{The air-conditioning] was put in after the floor

came about . . . it wasn’t in the original

specifications but by a little bit of careful talking to

the right people we were able to get the

modifications. The whole project, as I admitted

afterwards, would never have been accepted because

of the cost. But because we had one little piece done

at a time and then, because that was done, they had

to do something else, it worked. But I was told never

to come with that trick again (Interview with Paul

Lawson, 19 June 1997).

These additional developments might have been

why the Annual Report 1973-74: 9) explained:

There have been unavoidable delays in the

completion of the West Wing and Stirling Galleries.

In the absence of a Curator (Senior) of

Anthropology and because of some necessary

building alterations, reconstruction of the Stirling

Gallery has not proceeded. Attempts have been

made to keep it open with limited displays, but these

are far from satisfactory and do not reflect the

wealth of our Aboriginal collections. A

postponement, therefore, of work on the Pacific

Cultures Gallery was necessary to keep it open, if

we were to avoid effectively closing about three-

quarters of the Museum.

These alterations which, apart from the air-

conditioning, involved also the installation of a

ceiling, spotlights and carpet, were delayed year

after year and it wasn’t until 3 October 1977 that

Premier Dunstan officially opened the remodelled

Pacific Cultures Gallery ‘to coincide with the

Annual Conference of the Museums Association

of Australia’ (Annual Report 1977-78: 22).

However, although the Fossil displays had been

relocated, the Minerals displays continued to

occupy the central area of the Gallery.

Most of the table cases which since the late

nineteenth century had been located around the

light-wells remained (and remain today) but the

window cases along the southern wall were

removed in 1976 towards the end of the long

period of reconstruction. Lawson has provided an

album of photographs which show that the three

air-conditioning units were installed along the

southern wall by removing the flat window-cases,

covering the windows and moving the wall cases

closer together to provide the necessary space.

When the filling in of the light wells began, the

vision was grander: ‘It is planned . . . to redesign

the entire Stirling (Aboriginal), Human Cultures,

and Pacific Islands Galleries commensurate with

the Museum’s extensive holdings in these fields’

(Annual Report 1972-73: 9). However, nothing

on that scale happened either then or in the

following quarter century, presumably because of

lack of funding. Also, in 1975 the Premier had

announced that a new Museum would be built,

commencing about 1978, on a site occupied by a

bus depot about a kilometre east of the present

site. Perhaps it was not considered worthwhile

allocating too many resources to a grand redesign

if everything was to be moved to an entirely new

Museum. But this never eventuated either.

One project that did add substantially to the

Pacific Gallery was the purchase by The Friends

of the South Australian Museum of ‘a complete

specimen of a traditional ocean going vessel from

the Trobriand Island group of South-East Papua .

. . [which] makes a splendid showing in the

Pacific Islands Gallery’ (Annual Report 1974-75:

19).

Although Pretty did go on two significant

collecting expeditions to the Pacific region (in

1968-69 to the Southern Highlands of PNG and

in 1972 to island Melanesia, accompanied by A.

L. Crawford), he later concentrated more on an

archaeology project at Roonka on the Murray

River of South Australia. It is appropriate that his

most obvious contribution to the Pacific Gallery

was the addition of a small Melanesian Pre-

history display in 1981. This display reflects the

didactic genre typical of that period, utilising

relatively few objects embedded in a large amount

of text and graphics (Fig. 9). There was no

attempt, however, to incorporate into the Pacific

Gallery the Southern Highlands or island

Melanesian material he collected.

Another, relatively minor change in the Pacific

Cultures Gallery took place in 1986. During the

1970s reconstructions in the North Wing, a lift

had been built at the northern end of the East

Wing but a stop at the Pacific Cultures Gallery

had not been included. In the mid-eighties this

was added at last, which resulted in a loss of

84 C.HENN & B. CRAIG

FIGURE 9. ‘Melanesian Pre-history’ display installed by Graeme Pretty in 1981.

space for the Huon Gulf exhibit in the north-east

corner of the Gallery. A new arrangement for the

smaller case was designed by Sandy Hanson

(Interview with David Kerr, 20 June 1997). The

display technique chosen for this case stands out

from that of other cases in the Pacific Cultures

Gallery by its use of glass shelving and a more

spacious arrangement of specimens but the use of

minimal labelling was consistent with the old

displays.

During the early 1990s, the greatly expanded

Museum shop was squeezed into the central space

on Level 3 adjacent to the main stairs, During that

time the Trobriand kula canoe and the

surrounding table cases were moved from the

western to the eastern end of the Gallery to join

the one-third-scale Rogea (Massim) hut and its

surrounding table cases; the Mineral exhibits were

moved to the western end.

THe Last FivE YEARS

By the time the Pacific Arts Association

conference was held in Adelaide in 1993, the shop

had moved to its present location in the space

vacated by the Director and Administration at the

south end of Level Two in the East Wing. The

Trobriand canoe and surrounding table cases were

returned to the west end of the Gallery and the

Mineral exhibits to the centre; the Director and

Administration relocated to the renovated

Armoury Building immediately north of the

Muscum’s North Wing. The wall cases also

received some attention—the geographic labels on

some of the cases were changed to reflect the

political status of recently independent nation-

states (e.g. Vanuatu) and the Vanuatu exhibit in

the Bridge Case"’ (which included a large number

of over-modelled and painted skulls) was removed

and a series of model Melanesian canoes placed

in it to complement the adjacent Trobriand kula

canoe but there was minimal, even incorrect,

information supplied about these canoes.

There have been other changes to the Gallery in

recent years. In late 1992, Barry Craig was

contracted to go to New Ireland and New Britain

for seven weeks. His objective was to identify

'T The ‘Bridge Case’ was so named as it was located on the section of flooring above the central foyer of the ground floor of the North

Wing, separating the two sections of the light-well. This case appears to have been in this location since the 1890s,

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 85

FIGURE 10. ‘La-Sisi’ malangan canoe display installed by Barry Craig in May 1997.

two men from each area to come to the Pacific

Arts Association’s 5th Symposium, to be held at

the South Australian Museum in April 1993. They

were to bring and dance masks from those two

areas—masks that would match masks obtained

by the Museum 75 years earlier (Craig 1993,

1994, 1995). The display, in a large eastern wall

case, of a rare, double-headed Sulka hemlaut

mask from Wide Bay, New Britain, had been

almost completely obscured by a wide range of

other material from Papua New Guinea. These

objects were cleared and smaller Sulka masks

collected by Craig in 1993 were displayed

alongside the hemlaut mask with photographs and

text. A hemlaut mask he purchased during the trip

was danced into the Gallery and mounted opposite

the old mask with two panels of photographs, a

map and information. An information sheet was

produced and is available free at the exhibit (and

also on the Museum’s Home Page)."*

Similarly, the New Ireland exhibits were

slightly modified by removing two malangan

from positions in the wall cases where they could

barely be seen and placing them in a table case in

the space opposite, along with a selection of

material collected by Craig, explained by two

panels of photographs, a map and information.

To avoid offending Pacific Islanders at the PAA

Symposium, the Director (Dr Chris Anderson)

decided to have black cloths suspended in front

of, or laid over, any skulls or other skeletal

material on display in the Gallery. These cloths

have recently been removed.

In December 1995, Barry Craig was appointed

Curator of Foreign Ethnology. He was a graduate

in Social Anthropology from the University of

Sydney strongly influenced by the work of Bryan

Cranstone of the British (later Pitt Rivers)

Museum (Craig & Hyndman 1990: iii-iv) had

extensive experience in Papua New Guinea since

1962 and had been Curator of Anthropology al

the PNG National Museum during 1980-83. This

was the first time a position had been created at

the South Australian Museum to care exclusively

for the non-Australian (i.e. ‘Foreign’)

ethnographic collections.

'* www.samuseum.sa.gov.au

86 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

FIGURE 11. Part of ‘Spirits of Vanuatu’ display

installed by Barry Craig in March 1998.

In 1996, Craig was responsible for a display of

42 photographs which were mounted on the large

panels which conceal the three air-conditioning

units along the southern wall of the Gallery.’

These photographs had been taken in the Papuan

Gulf area, New Guinea and the Solomons by an

Oil Exploration geologist/surveyor, Ernest Sterne

Usher, in 1914-16. An information sheet was

prepared for this exhibit as well. Three large

Papuan Gulf masks, removed from the Sulka

hemlaut case in 1993, were set up opposite the

Papuan Gulf wall cases.

In 1997, Craig arranged the borrowing and

installation of the privately-commissioned, 8-

metre-long La-Sisi Malangan Canoe (Fig. 10);

additional New Ireland material was displayed in

association with this exhibit. Again, an

information sheet was produced.

The most recent changes and additions to the

Gallery were associated with an event in March

1998 timed for the Adelaide biennial Festival of

Arts. This required Craig to go to Vanuatu to

identify two men to come to the Museum and

repaint a large Ambrym slit-drum (A.74765)

donated to the Museum in 1996. The drum was

installed in the main foyer of the Museum along

with a tree-fern grade figure (A.74757) collected

by Craig in 1997. This took place as a public

event and included pork and vegetables cooked in

a ground-oven and supplemented by kava, a

beverage considered essential for all ceremonial

events in Vanuatu. The model canoes were

removed from the Bridge Case and a display of

Vanuatu material took their place. This exhibit

(Fig. 11) was designed to demonstrate the

continuity of Vanuatu traditions by displaying

pots, mats, musical instruments and other material

collected by Craig corresponding to pieces

obtained by the Museum 100 years previously.

An information sheet was produced for this

display.

A plan to redevelop the Aboriginal exhibits in

the Museum, to be completed in the year 2000,

required that the Pacific Gallery be moved to

another space. However, in addition to certain

design considerations, estimates of the cost of

moving the Pacific exhibits and restoring the

interior of the Gallery to its Victorian style,

including the removal of the ceiling, proved too

great for the amount of money provided and this

part of the plan was dropped and the New

Aboriginal Cultures Gallery is now being

developed in the bottom two levels of the East

Wing.

It now remains to find modest resources over

the next several years to progressively upgrade the

Pacific Gallery (Fig. 12) and provide more

information through several levels of

interpretation of the material on display, while

maintaining most of the wall case displays as they

have been since the late 1940s (in some cases

possibly since the late 19" century). The floor case

displays will be changed considerably to provide

more information about various technologies and

types of objects on a comparative basis.

Concurrently, the exhibits in both wall and floor

cases will be utilised to explain the nature of the

relationship between South Australia and the

'* This exhibit was suggested by Scott Bradley, contract photographer for the Museum, and much of the research on this collection

was carried out by Grahame Pike (see Pike & Craig 1998).

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY

0 metres 10 enifige: N

SSS

la,1b Papuan Gulf

2 Western Papua and Torres Strait

3 Central Papua

4 South-east Papua

5-6 Milne Bay Province, Papua

7-8 Vanuatu

9 New Caledonia

10-15 Fiji

16-17 New Ireland

18-19 New Britain

20 —21 Solomon Islands

22 Spirits of Vanuatu

23 Santa Cruz

24 Admiralty Islands

25 —27 Sepik Region

28 — 29a North-east New Guinea

29b Sulka, New Britain

29c — 30 Papuan Gulf

31 Melanesian Pre-history

37-40 Betel-chewing equipment, PNG

41 Headrests, PNG

42 —43 Tapa cloth, PNG

44-46 Massim region, S-East Papua

47-50 Vanuatu

56-57 Mountain Papuans

58 —59 Papuan Gulf

60 — 63 Sepik-Ramu-Madang, PNG

64-65 Stone tools, PNG

66 —68 Fishing, PNG

69 —74 Shell ornaments and tools

75 —76 Fishing, PNG

77-78 Maori, New Zealand

79 — 80 New Ireland and La-Sisi Canoe

81 Sulka, New Britain

FIGURE 12. Plan of the Pacific Gallery as at March 1998.

87

88 C. HENN & B. CRAIG

Pacific through the agency of the many people—

missionaries, government officers, soldiers,

scientists, etc.—who were the collectors (Jones

1993).

With the removal of the Minerals exhibits from

the centre of this space, it is hoped that a display

of New Guinea highlands cultures can be added, a

project towards which Tindale was moving in the

1940s but was unable to bring to fruition

(Fitzpatrick 1999: 183, 202). There may be space

also for a more comprehensive exhibit dealing

with Pacific prehistory, especially that of the

Austronesian origins of Polynesia, with associated

exhibits of Polynesian and Micronesian material,

at present not on display. The model canoes and

maritime trade articles in the collections will

provide the basis for a display on the significance

of maritime trade in Melanesia and its origin in

the cultures of the Austronesians several thousand

years ago.

The South Australian Museum’s Pacific

Gallery is the largest and most comprehensive

display of its kind in Australia. Visitors to the

exhibits value the old style of display and the

large number of objects available for viewing.

With careful use of modern technologies, the

present lack of information in the Gallery can be

addressed, as has already commenced with the

Sulka, New Ireland and Vanuatu exhibits. The

linking of these refurbishments with

performances conducted by people of the areas

from which the objects came, will become

standard procedure. The opportunity also exists

to take back photographs of objects to the

descendants of those who made these objects, to

obtain more information and to provide the basis

for future co-operative use of these things,

including repatriation.

What was once an asymmetric relationship

between tribal peoples and foreign curio and

museum collectors can become more balanced,

and projects can be developed (such as the 1993

New Ireland/New Britain and 1997/8 Vanuatu

initiatives described above) which bring the

museum’s public into direct relationship with the

descendants of those peoples. The covert

messages conveyed by the old, essentially

‘Victorian’, style of exhibits in the wall cases can

be objectified and the Gallery can then function

also as a museum within a museum.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper evolved out of a research project by

Carsten Henn, a International Programs student from

the Institute of Cultural Anthropology, University of

Cologne, whilst he was studying at the University of

Adelaide. He was supervised by Dr Deane Fergie,

Department of Anthropology, and assisted her research

on the Pacific Gallery of the South Australian Museum.

Dr Fergie was preparing a submission (see References)

to the State Heritage Branch, Department of

Environment and Natural Resources, to establish the

heritage significance of the Gallery and recommend its

preservation under the Heritage Act of 1993. Because

of Henn’s involvement in that research, there is content

and wording that is common to both Fergie’s report and

this paper. Barry Craig filled some gaps in the historical

information and wrote the final section. Thanks are due

to Harry Bowshall and Paul Lawson, retired Museum

employees, for their reminiscences on the history of the

Pacific Gallery and to Jan Maidment who prepared the

floor-plan of the Pacific Gallery.

REFERENCES

CRAIG, B. 1993. Sulka Danced Sculpture. Artlink

13(2): 46-49.

CRAIG, B. 1994. Masta Bilong Faiawud. Paradise 103:

29-31.

CRAIG, B. 1995. Following the tracks of Edgar Waite

in New Guinea for the Pacific Arts Symposium in

Adelaide. Records of the South Australian Museum

28(1): 33-52.

CRAIG, B. and HYNDMAN, D. (eds) 1990. ‘Children

of Afek. Tradition and Change among the Mountain-

Ok of Central New Guinea.” Oceania Monograph

No.40. Sydney: University of Sydney.

FERGIE, D. 1997. ‘The Pacific Cultures Gallery, South

Australian Museum. An Analysis and Assessment of

Cultural Heritage Significance.’ Report submitted to

the State Heritage Branch, Department of

Environment and Natural Resources. Adelaide.

FITZPATRICK, P. 1999. The A.P.H. Freund Collection

of New Guinea artefacts held by the South Australian

Museum. Records of the South Australian Museum

31(2): 181-214.

HALE, H. M. 1956. The First Hundred Years of the

South Australian Museum, 1856-1956. Records of

the South Australian Museum XII: 1-225.

JONES, P. 1992. The life of a ‘Museum Man’ — Edgar

Waite’s diaries as an historical source. Records of

the South Australian Museum 26(1): 73-75.

JONES, P. 1993. A Brief Survey of the South

Australian Museum’s Pacific Collections. Pacific

Arts 7: 20-31.

THE PACIFIC CULTURES GALLERY 89

JONES, P. 1996a. Obituary. Norman B. Tindale.

PIKE, G. and CRAIG, B. 1978. The Usher Collection

Records of the South Australian Museum 28(2):

of Papuan Photographs in the South Australian

159-176. Museum. Records of the South Australian Museum

JONES, P. 1996b. ‘““A Box of Native Things”: 31(2): 215-253.

Ethnographic Collectors and the South Australian Reports of the Board of Governors of the Public

Museum, 1830s—1930s.’ PhD Thesis, University of Library, Museum and Art Gallery of South Australia

Adelaide.

(annually, 1884-85 to 1939-40). Adelaide.

Reports of the Museum Board (annually, 1940-41 to

present). Adelaide: South Australian Museum.

MARKHAM, S. F. and RICHARDS, H. C. 1933.

‘Report on the Museums and Art Galleries of

Australia.” London: The Museums Association.

THE CHIEFS OF KIRIWANA

RALPH S. LAWTON

Summary

This paper is a socio-linguistic study of chiefly status in the northern portion of Kiriwina, the largest

of the Trobiand Islands off the eastern end of New Guinea. It describes chiefly privilege, chiefly

authority and the chiefly hierarchy. Reference is made to relevant items of material culture held in

the collections of the South Australian Museum. An appendix describing the choice of certain

Kiriwinan terms for use in Bible translation reveals the subtlety of the terminology used by

Kiriwinans when referring to chiefly matters.

THE CHIEFS OF KIRIWINA

RALPH S. LAWTON

LAWTON, R. S. 1999. The Chiefs of Kiriwina. Records of the South Australian Museum

32(1): 91-118.

This paper is a socio-linguistic study of chiefly status in the northern portion of Kiriwina,

the largest of the Trobriand Islands off the eastern end of New Guinea. It describes chiefly

privilege, chiefly authority and the chiefly hierarchy. Reference is made to relevant items of

material culture held in the collections of the South Australian Museum. An appendix

describing the choice of certain Kiriwinan terms for use in Bible translation reveals the subtlety

of the terminology used by Kiriwinans when referring to chiefly matters.

R. S. Lawton, 10 Pope Street, Hughes ACT 2605. Manuscript received 2 November 1998.

INTRODUCTION

This study of Kiriwinan chiefly hierarchy was

originally prepared in 1968 for presentation at a

translation workshop conducted by the Bible

Society in Banz, Papua New Guinea, and has

never been published. The initial purpose was

lexical research.' However it developed into a

study of the distinguishing features of the

Kiriwinan chiefly hierarchy with special reference

to the lexicon of chiefly terms and the semantic

reference of authoritarian words, and as such was

presented at a meeting of the Anthropological

Society of South Australia in June 1996. At the

suggestion of Barry Craig, Curator of Foreign

Ethnology at the South Australian Museum, it has

been enhanced to include reference to relevant

artefacts in the collections of the South Australian

Museum.

This hereditary order of chiefs in Kiriwinan

society has been commented on by many

anthropologists, particularly those who have

carried out research in the Massim region of

eastern Papua. Seligman (1910: 663) commented

that ‘chieftainship appears to be more highly

developed in the Trobriand Islands than elsewhere

in British New Guinea’ and noted many of the

rights and privileges peculiar to chiefly status

(ibid.: 695ff.).

Bronislaw Malinowski, primary chronicler of

this culture, makes frequent reference to the

chiefly order (e.g., 1922: 10, 24f.; 1932: 52; 1935:

80) but his published works do not include any

specific study of the things which mark rank in

the chiefly hierarchy, or the level of authority

borne by different ranks. He comments that his

brief outline of chieftainship (1935: 38-40)

‘cannot do justice to the complexity of the

subject’.

A more recent scholar, Annette Weiner, has

made a clear reference to the chiefly order (1976:

45), citing its hereditary nature, its ‘effective

means of rank separation’ through ‘the

paraphernalia of decorations and social and

physical taboos’, and the political importance of

polygamy for the highest ranks. She lists on the

same page the names of those who have made

significant reference to the subject.

In this paper I have tried to delineate the order

of rank in the Kiriwinan chiefly hierarchy, with

special attention to two marks of chiefliness —

karaiwaga or authority (both ancient and modern)

and koni or privilege at its various levels for each

rank. I have not given special attention to the

taboos peculiar to chiefs. So far as I know, the

hierarchy has not been delineated in this way by

any other student of Kiriwinan society.

My main sources were two men of high rank

within the Tabalu sub-clan of the Malasi clan. The

first of these, and the one who encouraged me to

make this study, was Antonio Lubisa Bunaimata

(Fig. 1). Antonio had refused to yield to pressure

I

Its purpose was to show how chiefly concepts and the vocabulary attached to chiefly rank had influenced my work as a Bible

translator. I had intended to omit that part in this presentation. But as it is relevant to translation theory and could be of interest to

linguists, I have included it as Appendix V.

92 R. S. LAWTON

from those wishing him to become chief of the

Kavataria village community because he preferred

to retain his place as a pastor within the (then)

Methodist Church in Kiriwina. The second,

recommended by Antonio, was Tolosi, a blind

Kiriwinan who was an acknowledged repository

of reliable information and legend relating to

chiefly status in Kiriwinan society.

Together Antonio and Tolosi discussed the

various questions I posed about chiefly sub-clans

and the various degrees of authority and privilege

which traditionally belonged to each family. The

discussions occupied about twenty hours over

several meetings during 1967 and this paper seeks

to present their conclusions and pronouncements.

It is acknowledged that certain matters may have

evolved over the past three decades and I do not

want the reader to assume that this paper refers to

Kiriwinan chieftainship as it exists in the late

1990s, nor that it represents the view of chiefly

matters held by others than Antonio and Tolosi,

though there will of course be many consistencies.

KIRWINIAN SOCIETY

The Kiriwina people live in the Trobriand

Islands at the northern fringe of Milne Bay

Province, Papua New Guinea. The population on

Kiriwina when this paper was first researched in

1967 was about 13 500 but by 1996 had almost

doubled to 26 000. Also, there are at least 4 000

Kiriwinans living in various urban centres in

Papua New Guinea.

One language only (with dialect variations) is

spoken throughout the Trobriand Islands and in

the Lusancay and Marshall Bennett islands

nearby. This linguistic uniformity is not common

in polyglot Papua New Guinea society and is

especially unusual for island-dwelling

communities, as geographical divisions usually

provide conditions which ensure linguistic

diversity. As an example of this, in the much

larger D’Entrecasteaux Islands immediately south

of the Trobriand Islands, a linguistic survey

conducted in the 1960s recorded 19 separate

languages for a population of around 35 000.

The residents of the Trobriand Islands are more

correctly to be called the Kilivila people but due

to an early mis-naming of the main island of the

group as the island of Kiriwina, and also for what

could be called political expediency,’ the people

are generally known as Kiriwinans; indeed, many

mina Kilivila today prefer to use it of themselves

and I will so refer to them here.

In order to appreciate the social order in which

the class system of Kiriwina is set, it is necessary

to look at both the clan groupings into which the

whole society is divided and at the sub-clans

which form a chiefly hierarchy within each clan

group. These two divisions of the society may be

seen as a vertical (clan) and a horizontal (class)

division which uniquely defines the place of each

member of society.

The Clans of Kiriwina

The matrilineal clan grouping is the vertical

dimension which divides the whole of Kiriwinan

society into four separate groups. Each clan is

further divided into a number of matrilineal sub-

clans. I will look now at these two social groups.

A clan is called kumila and a sub-clan dala.

A kumila may be defined as a group of dala

held together by certain customs or obligations;

these customs or obligations separate them from

other kumila. One clan is related to another by an

exogamous marriage relationship. Each kumila

has a pair of totem animals. The kumila in

Kiriwina are four in number. Their names are

Malasi, Lukuba, Lukosisiga and Lukulobuta.

The Malasi has the dove (bubuna) and pig

(bunukwa) as its totem animals. Its chiefly dala

include most importantly the Tabalu, from which

the so-called ‘paramount chief’? of Kiriwina

comes. Its two other chiefly dala are Osusupa and

Bwaitaitu.

The Lukuba has the sea eagle (mluveka) and the

dog (kaukwa). Its chiefly dala are Mlobwaima,

Mwauli and Tudava.

The Lukosisiga has the coconut parrot (karaga)

and the snake (keiyuna). Its chiefly dala include

Kwainama, Sakapu (now probably extinct, their

place being taken by Wabali — see footnotes 19

* One of the locally-recognised political divisions is the Kilivila area and this is both numerically and politically the strongest part

of Kiriwinan society. I believe that other areas of Kiriwina feel threatened today if they are all collectively referred to as ‘mina

Kilivila’ (people of Kilivila). | once asked a man who lived in the Kuboma area, which abuts the southern border of the Kilivila area,

whether he preferred to be called ‘Tolela Kilivila’ or ‘Tolela Kiriwina’ (a man of Kilivila or a man of Kiriwina) and he replied

unhesitatingly ‘Kinwina!’ When I asked him why, he muttered to himself for a while, and then replied, ‘Because Kiriwina is the

name on the map!’

THE CHIEFS OF KIRIWINA

TABLE 1. Structure of Kiriwinan Society

Malasi Lukuba Lukosisiga Lukulobuta

clan clan clan clan

gweguya or Tabalu Mlobwaima Kwainama Kaitotu