CONTENTS

Mountrorp, C. P.; Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, IV Relating to: Every-day Incidents

of the Neada Tribe of the Warburton Ranges of Western Australia .. "

GLastongury, J. O. G.: The Geology of the Cape Spencer Area, Yorke Peninsula

CAmpsBELL, T. D., and Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Arrangements of Stones in

Central Australia = e rah a - a ie

CiLeLanp, J. B., and Jounston, T. “Harvey: Aboriginal Names and Uses of Plants at

the Granites, Central Australia

CampsELL, T. D.: Notes on the Aborigines of the ‘South- “Fast of South Australia

Part al as

Trumsie, H. C.: Climatic Factors in Reteren iG he Agricultural Region of

Southern Australia : a —

Evans, J. W.: Some New Australian Leaf hoppers (Homoptera, Jassoidea)

Bernpt, R. Murray: The Human Figure in Papuan Spatula Decoration A

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Simpson, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from ‘Austiaves

Terrestrial and Freshwater Molluscs Part V

Mawson, D.: The First Stage of the Adelaide Series: As illustrated at Mount

Magnificent z

Fenner, C.: The Significance of the Topography of Anstey Hill, South ‘Agetralia

Fintayson, H. H.: On Mammals from the Lake Eyre Basin Part IV The

Monodelphia im

Mountrorp, C. P.: ‘Aporiaiaet Aneteseaient fe istosies at dotted Suh ticle

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Mawson, P. M.: eee Nematodes from Queensland

Marsupials a us cf ae a

Womers.ey, H.: Further yes on the jee Trombidiidae af

Bernot, R. M., and Vocrtsane, T.: Notes on the Dieri Tribe of South ‘Auxioatia

CieLann, J. B., and Jounston, T. THe: Aboriginal Names and Uses of Plants in the

Northern Flinders Ranges 5 a ' ie

Cotton, B. C., and WeeEpinc, B. J.: ilersian Pitas Re

Jounston, T. H., and AnceL, L. M.: Larval Trematodes from ‘Avtoniuittian roe eare

Molluscs, Part VI A

JOHNSTON, 7. H., and Mawson, P. M.: "Sundry Nematodes from Eastern Australian

Marsupials

Crocker, R. L., and EARDLEY, Cc M.:: A ‘South: Australian Sphagnum Bog

Woon, J. G.: Fieoléaieat Concepts and Nomenclature ..

Fenner, F. J.: Observations on the Mandibular Torus

Jounston, T. H., and SEMPSON, E. R.: The Diplostomlum Stage of Covina

murrayensts -* ae ve

Witson, J. O.: A new species soak ae fica i toeleebianie grapians

Buack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 38 .

Fenner, F. J.: The Australian Aboriginal Skull: its non- pee arvana

characters a my ae

Jouwnston, T. H., and “Mawson, P. M.: Some Nematodes from Victorian and Western

Australian Marsupials

Connon, H. T.: The Cranial Osteology of certain Tubinares.

Mawson, Sir D.: The Cambrian Sequence in the Wirrealpa Basin

Finiayson, H. H.: On Mammals from the Lake Eyre Basin, Pt. V ce

Fintayson, H. H.: Records and Descriptions of Muridae from Ooldea, South Avett

Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Decorative Art from Arnhem Land

Mercer, F. V.: Atmospheric Pollen in the City of Adelaide and Environs

TeicHErt, C.: The Nautiloid, Bathmoceras Barrande .. a :

OBITUARIES

BALANCE-SHEET

ADDITIONS TO LIBRARY ‘Exenancus

Str JosepH VERco MEDALLISTS

List or FELLows

INDEX

Page

119

121

149

167

172

180

200

204

210

AMS

224

230

238

240

248

307

311

331

348

354

365

372

384

392

394

396

400

ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS IV

RELATING TO EVERY-DAY INCIDENTS OF THE NGADA TRIBE OF THE

WARBURTON RANGES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By C. P. Mountford, Acting Ethnologist, South Australian Museum

Summary

While attached to the 1935 Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition to the Warburton

Ranges of Western Australia,” a number of sheets of crayon drawings were obtained, the work of

the aborigines of those parts. The method of collecting was explained in a previous paper

(Mountford, 1937), considerable care being taken not to influence the natives in the choice of either

the subject or of the colours employed. Most of the drawings obtained related to the exploits and

wanderings of the aborigines’ mythical ancestors. They were secret in character and not seen by

either the women or the uninitiated youths. Two such suites dealing with human totemic ancestors

have already been described (Mountford, 1937 and 1938). The drawings described in the present

series deal only with the incidents and objects of the daily life of the aborigines, and are not

associated with the ceremonial life.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED

ABORIGINAL CRAYON DRAWINGS IV

RELATING TO EVERY-DAY INCIDENTS OF THE NGADA TRIBE OF THE

WARBURTON RANGES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By C. P. Mountford, Acting Ethnologist, South Australian Museum

PLATE I

[Read 13 April 1939]

While attached to the 1935 Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition

to the Warburton Ranges of Western Australia,“ a number of sheets of crayon

drawings were obtained, the work of the aborigines of those parts. The method

of collecting was explained in a previous paper (Mountiord, 1937), considerable

care being taken not to influence the natives in the choice of either the subject or

of the colours employed. Most of the drawings obtained related to the exploits

and wanderings of the aborigines’ mythical ancestors. They were secret in

character and not seen by either the women or the uninitiated youths. Two such

suites dealing with human totemic ancestors have already been described (Mount-

ford, 1937 and 1938). The drawings described in the present series deal only

with the incidents and objects of the daily life of the aborigines, and are not

associated with the ceremonial life.

In order to ensure accuracy, the drawings were traced and reduced to publica-

tion size by the printer. The colours are represented diagrammatically on

each sheet.

DESCRIPTION

Fig. 1 was drawn by an elderly aborigine named Tolaru and represents the

camps of four men and their families. II and J are paths from the various

camps to a waterhole A, on which these people depend for their supplies. B is the

windbreak of one of the camps behind which the whole family sleep. C is a

man (watt), E and D two women (mima), and F a small child (tjitji). Fires

are shown either side of E, C, D and on the left-hand side of I. The parallel

lines to the left of K, at N, and to the right of M, represent the spare sticks of

firewood laid in readiness to replenish the fire during the night.

O is the windbreak and camp of another family. The crescent-shaped marks.

indicate the couple sleeping between fircs waru—shown as circles on either side.

P is the man.

@) This expedition was partly financed by funds from the Rockefeller Foundation

and administered by the National Research Council.

Trans. Roy. Sac. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

B RED MMM YELLOW &3

RED @@@ YELLOWE

BLACK SSS) WHITE Cg

A flashlight photograph of a similar scene from the same locality is shown

in pl. i, fig. 1; in this the windbreak, the placing of the fires and particularly the

sleeping position of the children are well shown, and it is easy to understand,

when the pose of the sleeping children is noted, how a crescent-shaped mark is

used to indicate a person sleeping at night.

The camp at © is similar to that at O; Y is the male. R is the camp of a

man, his wife and two children. S indicates the former, who, with his two

children T and U, are grouped around a fire, Z. The other fire, W, is to the

left of the woman. V is a spear-ihrower (langguru). Vhese and the spears

are usually stuck in the windbreak for safe keeping. K, L, M, X, I and similar

designs are indicative of ovens where rabbits (nani nant) had been cooked.

Fig. 3

In the Ngada tribe the families occupy separate camps, often no more than

a few vards apart, while the single men, separated by fires and protected by a

windbreak, sleep in a long row. Such a camp is depicted by old Tolaru in fig. 2.

Four men are shown, K, L, M, N, sleeping between the fires Y, R, T, U, and V.

Uninitiated and uncircumcised boys,“ J, P and Q, are shown beside their own

fires. © is the windbreak. The straight lincs across Y, R, T, and so on, are

the logs of wood of which the fire is composed. As the wind would blow in the

direction of the arrow, the log on the leeward of the fire would burn more quickly

@) At the first signs of puberty, the boys are ceremonially driven from their mothers’

camp and forced to sleep by themselves, often some distance away from the main camp.

During this time they have no association whatever with the women.

‘ O

i RED MEBWHITE C7)

L BLACKEZZZ/ YELLOWE=1.

than that on the other side. The aborigine has indicated this characteristic by

placing the longer line on the leeward side. S are spears, laid in the windbreak

for safe keeping.

F is the windbreak of a camp of a married man, his wife and his child. An

attempt has been made by the artist to sketch a wet-weather camp, which is roofed

over in a crude manner with the branches of trees. A is the woman, C the man,

and B a child. Spare wood to replenish the fire is indicated at D and E. W is

another married man’s camp, the meanings of the respective symbols being

similar to F.

WHITE (7 YELLOW

BLACK

Fig. 3, drawn by Mungalo, represents two wet-weather camps (wiltja), The

walls of the shelter are indicated at K and B, the fires at F and G, and the water-

holes at C and D. The circles are aborigines sitting around the central fires, and

the crescents those who are asleep beside their small fires (indicated as small

circles, i.e, N, P, and Q. Hand J are primary and secondary rainbows.

A considerable amount of symbolism is evident in this drawing. In the first

place, about ninety individuals are seated around the central fre F, and seventy

at G. Five or six would be the largest number that could be squeezed into a wet-

weather shelter, and even then conditions would be uncomfortable. It is likely

that the crowding together of people had so impressed the artist that he

endeavoured to represent this feeling by indicating a large number of people, far

more than could possibly have occupied such a shelter.

Again the aborigine had no means of differentiating between a wet and a

dry season camp. To draw one in side clevation was beyond him, and the plan

view of both types were similar. Tor that reason, it seems likely that he added

the rainbow IT to indicate rain or stormy weather. The addition of the secondary

bow, J, was a further example of his artistry.

On fig. 4 is again depicted a wet weather camp, R. Tere the crowding is

shown more realistically than in fig. 3. Six natives, S, T, ete., are sleeping around

the fires (shown as dots).

RED@EE YELLOWEZ3 BLACK @2 WHITE CL_J

Cc a ram

2S A = B | aS aK St

Fig. 7

On the right of R is an aboriginal story of a hunt. The paired tracks, kK,

are those of a kangaroo which the artist saw but did not chase. He was success-

ful, however, in spearing an emu, which ran some distance (tracks M), still

dragging the spear (see Q). The artist chased the emu (line of tracks, L), and

caught and cooked it at U and J, respectively. I is the spear-thrower, which was

left behind after the hunter had killed the emu.

On the right-hand side of the same drawing is a scene that depicts the cook-

ing of a kangaroo and the distribution of the flesh. The marks within the crescent

at G indicate three men who have buried a kangaroo in a cooking oven, H, and

are waiting for it to be cooked.) Tive men, B, seated behind a windbreak, A,

©) The method of cooking the kangaroo is as follows: A trench about four feet

long, eighteen inches wide, and a foot deep is dug and a fire lit on top. When this has

burned down the kangaroo is laid, feet upwards, in the trench and partly covered with the

hot sand and ashes for from thirty to forty minutes (pl. j, fig. 2), as can be seen in the

photograph, At the best, it is only partly cooked.

await the distribution of the meat. D is an unspecified individual, and C an

unknown symbol. E and F are trenches where kangaroos had been cooked

previously. © are the spears of the men waiting behind the windbreak at A.

A man and a young girl (kunka), P and N, are shown lying down behind a wind-

break. This drawing was produced by Pinkari, a particularly intelligent aborigine

about twenty-five years of age.

Another illustration of a hunt, fig. 5, was made by Njilpiri. Two men,

whose tracks are depicted at H and O, both speared an emu apiece. The dragging

spear and the footprints of the wounded emus are drawn at K, L, M, NX. The

emus were catight and cooked in the ovens at P and Q.

Bis the camp in which a young unmarried woman C, is aslecp between fires

D, E, and F. A isa hill (jadi).

TO A

4 1.

ore a

a a a

Z BLACK @@ WHITE Co) YELLOW Ea

Fig. 8

Fig. 6 was drawn by old Mungalo and relates to a time when he chased a

perentie“ into its hole, H, captured, cooked and ate it. Both A and B refer to

the same lizard. The line from the head of the lizard to the hole indicates the

track taken by the perentie which, when Mungalo saw it, had just come out of

its burrow to sun itself. ‘The large spots on the body of the reptile are indicated

by black dots. The artist indicated himself as standing up at K, having a rest

after having caten his meal.

C, D, E, F and G are five men seated on the ground. They do not appear

to have had any connection with the catching of the lizard.

@) This is a large lizard, often over seven feet in length, commonly known as the

Perentie (Varanus giganicus); the aboriginal name is ngintaka,

L is an excellent representation of a nesting emu. The black spots are the

eggs and the outer symbols the marks made by the feet and lower part of the leg.

Spencer and Gillen (1899, fig. 124) figure a similar design from the George Gill

Range of Central Australia.

Fig. 7 pictures a number oi tracks seen by Nalkeinga, a dwarf, whilst on a

journey. A, B, C are the tracks of Nurlu, one of the indigenous marsupials

(see Mountford, 1938, N, G, H, O, R, fig. 2). G, H, I, D, E, F are the tracks

of an unidentified hopping marsupial called kurluari. A story of a speared

kangaroo pursued by a dog is next depicted. N, O are the tracks of the dog,

a) fa

pn)

ATI)

5 eae

A\\

WHITE CQ

RED

Fig. 9

S, T, U the mark made on the ground by the dragging spear, and P, Q, R the

footprints of the wounded kangaroo. X is a track of a perentie, W the marks

made by a little snake, and V those of Nurlu (see A, B, etc.). Y and Z are

symbolized figures representing a poisonous snake (leir#) and a smaller snake

lying down in sandhill country.

Fig. 8, the work of a man about twenty-five named Pinkiri (see fig. 4), is,

in reality, a geographical map of the country adjacent to Kahnga soak.“ A 1s

a watercourse; the transformed track of the carpet snake (wanambi) who

travelled to and created Kapi Walguta (C), (kapi-water). A number of low

hills are also marked, some as circles, some as ovals, i.c., D, E, F, R, T, and G.

J, if, and S are native tracks leading to various watcrholes, L, M, N, O, P and Q.,

which are situated in a creek that flows from the adjacent ranges. K is a gun

adjacent to Mount Elsie. This locality was about 45 miles due cast of our base camp on

the junction of the Elder and Warburton Creeks.

tree (fuata), and I. Kahnga soak. When the artist was asked why he indicated

this waterhole with a square (an unusual aboriginal symbol), he explained that

some white men had made it that shape. On noticing, also, that the native track

led to waterhole M, instead of L, which, having been deepened, would possibly

be the more permanent water supply, the artist gave as his reason that the natives

had always drank at M, even before the white man came.

The lower part of fig. 8 relates to the time when the artist chased a carpet

snake (kurneia) until it entered its burrow at V. Pinkiri dug holes at W, X and

Y in his efforts to obtain his prey, and finally, in the last hole, Z captured the snake.

It will be noticed that the track of the snake is drawn in duplicate. This is not

uncommon in aboriginal crayon drawings (see A and B, fig. 6).

Fig. 9, drawn by Tolaru, illustrates the tracks and holes of a centipede,

(kanbulga) which were adjacent to a termite mound. C and D, the openings

RED

WHITE fd

Tig. 10

of two such burrows, are connected by a centipede track. B is a drawing

of the same animal, the many legs being well represented. E, I’, G are three more

holes, J, K, the tracks made by the insect as it travelled from one opening to

another. L is a small lizard, and the incomplete ellipse, A, a termite mound.

From the shape of A it would appear that the bulk of the mound had weathered

away.

Fig. 10, also the work of Tolaru, illustrates the footprints of a male emu

and the chicks as they walked across the sandy country. A, B, C are the tracks

of the male parent, and the upper and lower lines of footprints D, E, and F, G, H

those of the young chicks.

Fig. 11 was drawn by a middle aged native, Jandjibalana, and depicts incidents

in his journeys across parallel lines of sandhills which were situated to the north-

east of our camp. The lines, such as QO, R, S. T and U, indicate those sandhills

(tali), and L, M, N, O and P the spinifex covered flats (bila) between them.

While Jandjibalana was at A, an unspecified waterhole, a white man with a camel

arrived, stayed for a while and left for E, Kapi Purkana. He then travelled to

B, camped for a while, and returned by the same track as he came, v.c., the black

linc, G. C is a tree close to the white man’s camp. Jandjibalana, himself, came

into the sandhill country by track K, camped at V, which is adjacent to a water-

hole, Kapi Bunabulgun, and then travelled through G, an unspecified locality, to

his camp F in the sandhills, near Kapi Purkana, E.

RED HB YELLOW BLACK WHITE CJ

Fig. il

DISCUSSION

The drawings of this suite are of particular interest because they depict the

every-day things in an aboriginal community, their camps, their travels and the

incidents of the hunt. There was no secrecy attached to them, nor any mytholo-

vical story such as was associated with the majority of the other drawings obtained.

Several points are worthy of note :—

(1) The aborigines, almost without exception, drew all objects in plan view.

This is well illustrated in the depicting of aboriginal camping places (sce

figs. 1, 2 and 3), in the story of the hunt (figs. 4 and 5), various tracks

(figs. 7, 9 and 10), and natural features (fig. 8). The exceptions are on

fig. 6, where Mungalo drew, in side elevation, five men seated, and him-

self standing up. In the same sheet, however, he depicted the perentie, its

track and its burrow in plan, as well as the interesting illustration of a

nesting emu. Mungala, however, showed more skill and artistry in his

drawings than did the other men, and some of the most decorative examples

obtained on the whole expedition were his work (see Mountford, 1937,

fig. 1).

(2) It was also noticeable that all animals were indicated by their footmarks.

Kangaroo-like creatures are pictured as in K, fig. 4; snakes as a meandering

line, A, fig. 8; and in general human beings by the footprints only, L, fig. 4,

and H, fig. 5. The same characteristic is noticeable in the rock carvings

of South Australia (Mountford, 1928, p. 348).

(3) Another point worthy of note is the amount of detail in some of the draw-

ings, ie., the method of placing the longer piece of wood on the lee side

of the fire (figs. 1 and 2), the double rainbow (fg. 3), and the water-

hole depicted as a square because a white man had made it that way.

‘The obvious case with which the natives produced the primitive symbols on

the sheets of paper indicated that, at other times, similar drawings had been made

on a different medium. Careful enquiries among the natives of various tribes

failed to reveal any information on this point, but as rock paintings are rare, and

carvings, as far as is known, non-existent in this area, the most obvious “drawing

board” for the native artist would be the sandy surfaces of the ground. Recently

Mr. Maurice Radford, of Canegrass Station, told me that on a number of

oceasions, both in Central Australia and on the Birdsville track, he has seen

groups of natives sitting around a smoothed-out patch of sand, and one of them

making drawings on the surface with a stick, explaining meanwhile to his com-

panions the significance of the drawings. His place would then be taken by

another man, who, in turn, would illustrate some incident by the same means.

Mr. Radford mentioned that he has seen men sit for hours entertaining or instruct-

ing others in this manner.

It seems possible that here we have an explanation of the aborigines’ ease

in drawing with the crayons, for it was noticeable that the natives, after a few

tentative strokes with the crayons on the brown paper supplied (to him only

another medium), made the drawings with ease and confidence.

SUMMARY

This paper records eleven sheets of aboriginal crayon drawings produced by

men of the Ngada tribe of the Warburton Ranges of Western Australia. The

drawings, which deal with every-day objects and incidents are described and

discussed.

LITERATURE

Mountrorp, C. P. 1928 Aust. Ass. Adv. Sci., p. 22

Mountrorp, C. P. 1937 Records S. Aust. Museum, 6, (1)

Movuntrorp, C. P. 1938 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, (2)

Spencer and GrnrEN 1899 Native Tribes of Central Australia

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 193¥ Vol. 63, Plate I

Fig. J Camp scene of Ngada tribe, showing disposition of fires, windbreak

and sleeping position of children

THE GEOLOGY OF THE CAPE SPENCER AREA, YORKE PENINSULA

By J. O. G. GLASTONBURY, B.A., M.Sc., Dip.Ed.

Summary

Although the main outlines of the geology of this area have already been worked out by Greenway

and Phillips (1) and R. Lockhart Jack (2), there are several points of detail of considerable interest

not dealt with by these writers, and it is the purpose of this paper to record them. These earlier

writers have recorded formations of Recent, Pleistocene and Pre-Cambrian (Archeozoic) age in this

area; but as Howchin and David believe that similar consolidated sand dunes to those that

Greenway and Phillips refer to as Pleistocene age are Recent, those found in this area will be taken

in this paper as Recent.

THE GEOLOGY OF THE CAPE SPENCER AREA, YORKE PENINSULA

By J. O. G. Grastonzury, B.A., M.Sc., Dip.Ed.

[Read 13 April 1939]

INTRODUCTION

Although the main outlines of the geology of this area have already been

worked out by Greenway and Phillips (1) and R. Lockhart Jack (2), there are

several points of detail of considerable interest not dealt with by these writers,

and it is the purpose of this paper to record them. These earlier writers have

recorded formations of Recent, Pleistocene and Pre-Cambrian (Archeozoic) age

in this area; but as Howchin and David believe that similar consolidated sand-

dunes to those that Greenway and Phillips refer to as Pleistocene age are Recent,

those found in this area will be taken in this paper as Recent.

RECENT

Little need be said in addition to what Jack has stated about the gypsum

and salt deposits of this area. The mode of formation of these, the most recent

formations on Yorke Peninsula, is clearly desiccation of a marine area held back

by a bar of land of some kind. The periodical nature of the desiccation is revealed

by alternations of thin bands of calcium carbonate with those of the gypsum.

‘These alternations are found in the rock gypsum deposits, which are from three

to six feet in thickness and underlie overburden which is from two to three feet

thick and is composed of “seed” gypsum and fine calcium carbonate. Organic

matter, including plant remains and humus, underlies the main gypsum deposits.

These organic remains and the presence of certain marine fossils give no room

for doubting that this portion of Yorke Peninsula has suffered a recent uplift of

some feet. Corroboration of this is received by the presence of raised sea beaches

along parts of the western coast of the Peninsula, Pondalowie Bay being a

particularly good example. Of interest in this connection is the presence of

Recent marine fossiliferous limestone overlying a very small area of a meta-

morphic doleritic intrusion at Cape Spencer. ‘This particular deposit, although

now of very small superficial extent, 1s worthy of mention because its present

altitude (some ten to twelve feet above sea level) shows that here, too, there is

still preserved evidence of land elevation.

Greenway and Phillips refer to 300 fect high cliffs composed of calciferous

sandstone, but which are very likely consolidated sand-dunes. This is all the

more probable, because they are capped in places by sand-dunes which are

frequently separated by flat arcas up to 100 square yards in area and composed

of travertine limestone. More compact travertine limestone, which frequently

has a strongly developed nodular character, is found at various levels in the cliffs.

This feature is particularly noticeable a Jiltle to the east of Cape Spencer itself

and extends as far east as Rhino Head. It is quite possible that these layers of

Trans. Roy. Soc, S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

travertine represent a series of land levels when the general elevation of the

region was at a standstill. Greenway and Phillips mention bands of clay, one to

two feet thick, lenticular in shape, which are intercalated between the main beds

of calciferous sandstone. The width of these clay bands, which show marked

current bedding, however, often exceeds two feet, and, indeed, sometimes reaches

as much as five feet. Common to the upper layers of the sandstones is the

presence of remarkable sandy calciferous root-like structures. Occasionally

structures of this kind are seen in close contiguity with actual plant roots which

are still unaltered. These structures appear to be calciferous infillings of holes

which once were occupied by the roots of plants. Not only have small roots given

rise to such structures but more rarely tree trunks also have apparently fulfilled

this function, for, in places, similar casts up to ten inches in diameter, and some

three to four feet high, have been found.

MiocENE AND PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS

No occurrence of rocks of these ages was found in this area, although both

are largely developed elsewhere on the Peninsula.

Pre-CAMBRIAN (ACHEOZOIC)

In the smal! bay to the immediate east of Cape Spencer occur small wave-cut

terraces in the Pre-Cambrian rocks.

These Pre-Cambrian rocks are the most interesting feature of the Cape

Spencer area. The lower levels of the most southerly part of the Cape consist

of rounded masses of granitoid gneiss, jointed, foliated and in places contorted.

This gneiss continues in a westerly direction and, indeed, is the most abundant of

all the crystalline rocks of the area. A more detailed petrological examination

shows it to be a light-grey foliated rock on which bands rich in biotite (4 mm. ta

4mm. wide) alternate with bands of quartz and felspar. In places there is local

concentration of the biotite bands and the rock assumes a slightly darker hue.

Both the felspar and quartz are light coloured; the felspar is cloudy and slightly

‘pitted because of weathering effects, and the quartz for similar reasons tends to

be saccharoidal and to develop a reddish colour causing some grains to look not

unlike garnet. Under the microscope the leucocratic minerals are seen to be

microcline, microcline-microperthite, albite (about Ab,,An,,), anti-perthite and

quartz. The latter is in minor proportion to the felspars. It is not par-

ticularly clear, and is usually free from cracks, but exhibits undulose extinc-

tion. Myrmekitic imter-growths of quartz and felspar are not uncommon.

The other essential mineral is biotite. It is markedly pleochroic and

shows a strong absorption, The absorption formula is Z > Y > X, where Z is

deep bottle green, Y pale bottle green, X pale straw colour. The accessory

minerals are important in that they show the igneous origin of the rock, that is,

they enable one to be certain that the rock is an ortho-gneiss. ‘These accessory

minerals are apatite, zircon and epidote which tends towards allanite, the cerium-

bearing form of this mineral, In a few grains the typical zoning which charac-

terises allanite is seen—the central portion bright orange in colour, the outer

regions much more drab, A little haematite and a few grains of magnetite are also

present. These gneisses are cut by veins (4 in. to 6 in. thick) of aplitic and

pegmatitic material. The minerals of the pegmatite are quartz and felspar.

In this southernmost part of the Cape are found dykes of a fine red meta-

morphosed aplitic rock intruded into the gneiss. The aplite, like the gneiss, is

jointed and weathered, spheroidal weathering in part, at least, having occurred.

Of interest is the occurrence of two pot-holes in this rock, one being about ten

feet deep, the other about six feet, which were formed by the swirling action of

the waves.

In places a localized grey variety of the aplite is found. Macroscopically

it is seen to consist of small white felspar crystals (up to 2 mm. long), grains of

quartz of about the same size and small flecks of black mica. Microscopically,

the felspar is identified as microcline and microcline-microperthite. The quartz

is clear but shows undulose extinction. The biotite is much darker than in the

gneiss described above. It has suffered alteration to some extent, chlorite having

developed along fibres as well as peripherally. Some of the prisms of biotite have

completely altered to this pale green mineral of low birefringence. The biotite

holds as inclusions the following minerals; zircon which serves as nuclei of

pleochroic halos, apatite and magnetite. The last two minerals also occur through-

out the rock as discrete grains. ‘The more common form of the aplite is the red

one which is not very different from the other one in the hand-specimen, but is

slightly finer grained and with marked sccondary changes in the biotite.

About 40 yards west of the area just described are found two circular masses

of dark igneous rock which Greenway and Phillips referred to as dolerite, a very

convenient field term, but one which does not adequately describe the present rock

which is a hornblende-plagioclase-schist. These circular masses are about 50 feet

across and are separated by a neck of the gneiss, which is here crossed by a

l-foot wide pegmatitic vein. The basic rock definitely intrudes the gnciss and is,

in turn, crossed by stringers of quartz. It is cracked and jointed, and in places

rude columnar jointing is evident. Where the veneer of recent calcareous marine

material has but lately been removed honey-comb weathering of the surface has

proceeded. Macroscopically this is a lustrous melanocratic rock in which shining

crystals of black hornblende and dull white plagioclase are seen. Here and there

are light brown circular masses from 1 mm. to 6 mm. in diameter.

Microscopically the hornblende is seen to be pleochroic in greens and very

pale yellow. It shows marked absorption with Z > Y > X where Z is deep in

bottle green, Y lighter green, X straw colour. The felspar is albite-oligoclase.

The light brown zones are seen in the microscope scction to contain practically

no hornblende, but sphene and magnetite are very common; felspar also occurs.

REFERENCES

(1) Greenway and Piriirs 1902 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 26, 268-277

(2) Jack, R. Lockyart 1921 Geol. Surv. of S. Aust., Bull. 8, 87-88 and

105-106

ABORIGINAL ARRANGEMENTS OF STONES IN CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

By T. D. CAMPBELL and C. P, MOUNTFORD

Summary

The following notes and illustrations were recorded during the journey of the Leichhardt Search

Party in August, 1938. The opportunities for intensive ethnological studies were necessarily limited

owing to the main purpose and nature of the journey; but the subject matter of those cursory notes is

considered of sufficient interest to justify placing them on record.

ABORIGINAL ARRANGEMENTS OF STONES IN CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

By T. D. Camrsert and C. P. Mountrorp

[Read 13 April 1939]

Phiate II

The following notes and illustrations were recorded during the journey of

the Leichhardt Search Party in August, 1938. ‘The opportunities for intensive

ethnological studies were necessarily limited owing to the main purpose and

nature of the journey; but the subject matter of those cursory notes is considered

of sufficient interest to justify placing them on record.

Occurrences of aboriginal stone arrangements have been recorded by several

writers. Wood Jones (1925, p. 123) describes one on Gungra claypan about a

hundred miles north of Kingoonya; Dow (1938, p. 126) several from the West

Darling districts; Elkin (1938) illustrates one which relates to a yam ancestor,

and Love (1938) describes many from North-Western Australia.

A striking feature of interest concerning the present examples is that they

occur right in the midst of thickly-strewn gibber areas; so that, unless actually

sought out from previous description, or traversed by one on the look-out for

aboriginal relics, they might easily be passed tinnoticed owing to their close asso-

ciation with such an abundance of surrounding gibber material.

The occurrences recorded here are situated not far from the south-west

margin of the Simpson Desert, a few miles south of the South Australian-

Northern Territory border, and about eighty miles due east of Abminga on the

Alice Springs railway line. The sketch map in fig. 1 illustrates a few points con-

cerning the location and associated features of these aboriginal relics.

While some of the designs are still intact enough to present striking arrange-

ments of varying-sized boulders, others have become disintegrated and the original

alignments of the stones have been lost among the profusely strewn and scattered

gibbers which lie on these slightly elevated areas.

The following notes and diagrams will serve to describe a few of the more

striking occurrences which the authors were able to examine during a hurried

motor journey. The letters on the sketch (fig. 1) indicate the position of the

various examples and the sequence of the following descriptions.

Group A

A fairly well defined and somewhat curved line of stones about twenty

yards in length, formed of irregular-shaped boulders about nine to twelve inches

in diameter. Probably a remnant of a more extensive figure,

‘Trans. Rov. Soc, S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

Group B

Another line for which the description given for No. 1 also serves.

Group C

The observed portions of this group occupied an area of roughly about

four hundred yards by two hundred. The main features diagrammatically

sketched in fig. 2 represent only the more intact portions of a striking display; and

it is felt from our general observations of these finds, that in this instance time

had permitted us to discover only portions of an extensive group of designs. The

more intact arrangements were:—(a) A long U irregular-shaped figure of

@ Anacoora Hill A, Mt.Etingambra

& Me. Daer

Weelina Waterhole

oA %

= Mosrilperina Waterhole

M& Mt. Alinerta

Ritchies Ridge

& vit Ludgate

@ Mc. Bagot

Fig. 1

arranged boulders, varying in diameter from twelve to cighteen inches; at the

ends of this curve were two partly collapsed piles, each about three feet in diameter

(fig. 1, pl. ii). About twenty yards away were two well-defined parallel lines (b).

About a similar distance to the east of the U design was a striking irregular

group (c) of large, flattish, rectangular boulders which had been placed in the

ground endwise; standing up like an imposing collection of monoliths, cach about

two to three feet in height.“

() Love, 1938, figures a similar group in the Worora territory of North-West Aus-

tralia. In this case they are associated with a wrestling match between kangaroo ancestors,

Approximately a hundred yards to the west of these were further arrange-

ments (d), the most obvious of which was a fairly intact pile of large stones

forming a cairn about ten feet in diameter and three feet six inches in height

(fig. 2, pl. ii). Nearby this pile were also a number of small-sized oval and

circular arrangements, most of which had been disturbed by scattering of their

constituent stones.

Group D

About half-a-mile to the north of group C and near the edge of the same

gibber rise, we passed a number of small, somewhat disintegrated designs; most

of these appeared to be circular or oval in shape; the latter being about twelve

yards on their longer and five yards in the shorter axes.

f we

§ 5,

—GroueG— 3%

o, a

We % ;

6, rc 64

3 3 .

3 "Ao, oe ~0 0 § Upended

ae So g 0 Slat boulders

d 3 08

10’ dia. i q!

Large collapsed. piles and \

here abouts also smal! Y

circle and ovel shaped Godous005sVdoe

arrangements. <——— 50° —___» +

90° Qe e0egedos

Fig. 2

Grour E

About a mile cast of Moorilperina Waterholc, on the edge of a low

extensive gibber rise, we observed another group of designs (fg. 3), which again

seemed as if they might be only a portion of a widely distributed group. On the

whole, these particular figures were formed of definitely smaller stones than those

designs already mentioned; and on this account were less easily detected among

the myriads of gibbers which surrounded them. (a) consists of a long winding

line of varying-sized boulders, a few of which might be twelve inches in diameter.

One end of this line is lost among the adjacent stones, the other end sharply

curves at nearly a right angle. Figures b, ¢ and d are somewhat irregularly

oval in contour, all about the same dimensions; (c) was rather incomplete;

({d) had a small circle of about two feet diameter associated with it; while

(b) had an inner line, and three small heaps at its castern end.

Grour |}

About 40-50 yards away to the south of the above groups was a series of

more or less collapsed piles of varying sizes. There were vague indications that

these may have been connected up by a continuous line, Most of these piles

were of rough stones about nine to twelve inches in diameter.

8' dia

dia

—G rove F—

50 yds South of Group E

— Grove E—

6 100 BOD,

VHT ,

b 'Y' er

*roose BAO 9 1p Og, 0d DI _ gp AOMG A LOS

Se a

10000 aE

2, m4.

PAO song e Bde:

d °

7) ‘0

c 4 di

00, 90008 Spe 3dia.

*“Seano ‘8 3dia,

Fig. 3

In addition to the above designs of group E there were many other frag-

mentary, bul, nevertheless, definite indications of other designs which obviously

had helped to form another major and widespread group of figures.

One of the authors (C. P. M.) was able to obtain information from the

aborigines of these parts regarding the use and mythology of these arrangements.

‘Lhe groups at Weelina Waterhole, A, B, C and D, were associated with a carpet

snake ancestor. This mythical being travelled over the country and, during his

journeyings, made the Weelina Waterhole on the Finke River. At certain

seasons of the year members of the snake totem’ would assemble and perform

ceremonies for the increase of carpet snakes. Such rituals were carried out on

these sites.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1939 Vol, 63, Plate IL

sy Se _ eee e

2 .

& ee

: ss 4

—

Fig. 1 Arranged stones, Weelina

Fig. 2.) Stone Cairn, Weelina

The group at Moorilperina is also considered to be of mythical origin.

The natives believe that the stone arrangements were made by one of their

human “dream time” ancestors, when travelling with his family from the south

to the north.

The aborigines to whom this country belongs are members of the southern

Aranda group. ‘They are sadly diminished in numbers and, no doubt in a few

years, all opportunity for acquiring information regarding these people will have

vanished for ever.

SUMMARY

This paper briefly discusses some unrecorded groups of aboriginal arrange-

ments of stones. They occur near the Weelina and at Mooliperina Waterholes on

the Finke River, in the northernmost part of South Australia.

Their arrangements are bricfly described, and mythology discussed.

LITERATURE

Dow, E. B. 1938 Mankind, 2, No. 5, 126

Ergin, A. P. 1935 The Australian Aborigine

Jonrs, F. Woon 1925 Journ. Roy, Anthrop, Inst., 55, 123

Lovr, J. R. B. 1938 Record of 5. Aust. Museum, 6, No. 2, 137

ABORIGINAL NAMES AND USES OF PLANTS AT THE GRANITES,

CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

By J. B. CLELAND, M.D., and T. HARVEY JOHNSTON, M.A., D.Sc.

Summary

During the course of the expedition organised by the Board for Anthropological Research of the

University of Adelaide and the South Australian Museum in August, 1936, to the Granites (native

name, Boorkitji), nearly four hundred miles north-west of Alice Springs, the native names and uses

of as many plants as possible were obtained, and are here recorded. The tribe inhabiting the region

is termed Wilpirri. We are indebted to the Rockefeller Foundation, through the Australian National

Research Council, for substantial assistance towards the expenses incurred; also to Miss 0. Pink,

who was engaged in social anthropology in the locality and who facilitated our enquiries. Mr. J. M.

Black kindly identified many of the plants for us or confirmed our identifications, Mr. W. F.

Blakely assisting us in naming the eucalypts and acacias. We have searched the journals of

explorers who travelled through neighbouring regions but no information was found relating to our

subject.

ABORIGINAL NAMES AND USES OF PLANTS AT THE GRANITES,

CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

By J. B. Creranp, M.D., and T. Harvey Jomnston, M.A., D.Sc.

[Read 13 April 1939]

During the course of the expedition organised by the Board for Anthropo-

logical Research of the University of Adelaide and the South Australian

Museum in August, 1936, to the Granites (native name, Boorkitji), nearly four

hundred miles north-west of Alice Springs, the native names and uses of as many

plants as possible were obtained, and are here recorded. The tribe inhabiting the

region is termed Wilpirri. We are indebted to the Rockefeller Foundation,

through the Australian National Research Council, for substantial assistance

towards the expenses incurred; also to Miss O. Pink, who was engaged in social

anthropology in the locality and who facilitated our enquiries. Mr. J. M. Black

kindly identified many of the plants for us or confirmed our identifications, Mr.

W.F. Blakely assisting us in naming the eucalypts and acacias. We have searched

the journals of explorers who travelled through neighbouring regions but no

information was found relating to our subject.

The result of similar enquiries by us amongst the tribes in the vicinity of

Mount Licbig, about 200 miles to the southward, has been published in these

‘Transactions (57, 113-124, 1933).

GRAMINEAE

Themeda triandra Forst., Kangaroo grass. Ibiri; ibirri. At Mount Liebig

a similar name, Tjipiri, was obtained for another grass, Aristida arenaria. See

also Pappophorum.

Ichnanthus australiensis (Domin) Hughes (= Panicum pauciflorum Benth.

var. fastigiatum Benth.). There were abundant dead plants (used for lighting

fires) on the plains round the Granites near the camp, the seeding mostly finished.

Bunnaditju; also, apparently, U-kuridja. The seeds are collected by very small

ants and placed round the entrances to the nests; these grains and débris are swept

up by the women into a wooden or bark dish, winnowed and ground for food,

a stone (gundi, kundi) or a hand grindstone (nulli-giri) being used.

Setaria sp. Ungul; seed apparently not used.

Eriachne sp. Nga-land-ngong; sced eaten.

Pappophorum sp. Wallabidda; seed not used.

Pappophorum avenaceum Lindl. (?). Jbirri, The information noted was that

this seed was also collected by ants, gathered by ithe women, winnowed and

made into damper; but as both this and the Ichnanthus were in the dried state

with all the grain shed, this information as regards P. avenaceum may be mis-

applied. See also Themeda.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

Triodia spp. Monna, perhaps strictly applied only to a viscid species growing

on a rise. The name birowitja was also obtained for a Triodia, perhaps

applied to T. pungens R. Br., which was collected at the Granites.

PROTEACEAE

Ilakea spp. Two species of corkwoods, one of them Hakea lorea R. Br. or

H. Cunninghamii R. Br., with long terete leaves, and one (H. macroptera

A. Cunn.) with broad leaves, grow on the plains round the Granites. A cork-

wood supplies the charcoal used for certain ceremonies associated with the Native

Currant (Plectronia latifolia) Ground-Drawing Ceremony. The twigs of the

terete species, wakilbirri, are burnt to provide ash for mixing with the white

man’s tobacco and with the native Nicotiana Benthamiana before chewing the

narcotics; and boomerangs are made from the wood of the tree. The same name

was obtained by us for a Eucalyptus sp. Birrawa was also a name for a Hakea,

probably the same species, whose ash was similarly used. Apparently the same

name (pu-rua) is used at Mount Liebig for H. lorea. The name panguna, a

corroboree totem, was also applied to both species of corkwood.

Iakea macrocarpa. Birrawa (unjeamba of Aranda peoples )—truits termed

wanarri, the word meaning thigh, which the fruit resembles.

Grevillea Wickhami Meissn. Lukkulburra.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium rhadinostachyum TF. v. M. Pruntiga, pri(e)ntiga; the seed is

collected, ground and used as food.

AMARANTACEAE

Amarantus grandiflorus J, M. Black. Tjilka-la tjilka-la. Tjitka-la ngurlu

refers to the minute black seeds which are made into damper, ngurlu being a

general term for seeds used as human food. At Mount Licbig the same name

was used for Salsola Kali, Vjilka = prickly. See also Tribulus,

Trichinium sp. (Flowers about 14 inches long, light purple above, whitc

below); used for personal decoration, Windilo windula. Windula suggests

dindula. a common term for ornaments for the hair.

Trichinium leucoma Moy. The fiuff of the flowers is used as a decoration.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia diffusa L. Wait-ipi. Root and plant placed in the fire and root

eaten. Same name used at Mount Liebig.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca oleracea L., the “munyeroo.” Wakadi (wakati). Same name

used at Mount Liebig and in the Musgrave Ranges.

MENISPERMACEAE

Tinospora smilacina. Benth. or T. Walcottii F. v. M., a creeper with dark

green hastate leaves. The stem is wound round the leg and tied to keep other

plant material in position during certain corroborees.

LEGUMINOSAE

Acacia dictyophleba F. v. M. Baddutu (battutu). The seeds are pounded

and used as food, ngi-1. The flowers are used as a decoration.

Acacia stipuligera VY. v. M. Jilborimba; diborinda. Seeds pounded and

eaten.

Acacia aneura F. vy. M., Mulga. Munda. Used for making womerahs

(spear-throwers).

Cassia desolata FY. v. M. Warrae-ae.

Cassia glutinosa DC. (a species with large broad yellow pods). Pinambul.

Not used except that the flowers serve for decorating the person.

Crotalaria, probably C. Mitchellit Benth. var. tomentosa Ewart. Tju-tju

(= not used).

Indigofera viscosa |... ‘Vjolinba,

Indigofera Georget E. Pritzel (= J bovtperda Morrison). — Bilgarn.

Not used.

Psoralea pustulata F. v. M. Yagliwari.

Erythrina vespertilio Benth., Bean Tree. Enundi. Used for making shields,

The seeds are not eaten but are used as djindjula (ornaments). Same name

(innunda) given at Mount Liebig.

ZYGOPILYLLACEAE

Tribulus macrocarpus Fv. M. Djilkala; djilka == prickles. Same name at

Mount Licbig for an allied species, 7. occidentalis. See also Amarantus.

MELTACEAE

Owenta reticulata Fv. M., Native Walnut. Marrangi. The very hard,

rounded fruit is cracked and the kernel (which tastes like a walnut) is eaten

raw, or the nut is first roasted and then cracked. The gum, munda, which

resembles the gum of the golden wattle (Acacia pyenantha), is eaten.

MALVACEAE

Cienfuegosia australis Benth., Desert Rose. Tjubungarai (tjungarai).

Pucg J g jung ;

Flower placed in the hair as ornament. See also Pferacaiulon.

STERCULIACEAE

Commersonia crispa Turez. Apparently bidal bidalba. Tjutju= no good,

ie., not used.

MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca sp. Paper bark from tea-tree (Melaleuca leucadendron L. (?),

not seen by us) is used for dabbing blood on the pattern of the ground-drawing

made during the ceremony associated with the Native Currant (Plectronia

latifolia).

Eucalyptus polycarpa F. v. M., Small-flowered Bloodwood. Orgulli. The

coccid inhabiting the large galls occurring on this tree is termed yandur-i.

Eucalyptus odontocarpa F. vy. M., Sturt’s Creek Mallee (a green-leaved

mallee with galled fruits), Marra-ra.

Eucalyptus aspera F. v. M. Brittle Bloodwood, a picturesque white-stemmed

gum. Wabbanungu (wabanunga). Bark pitchis are obtained from these trees,

a piece of bark of a suitable shape being loosened with a stone and then lifted off.

Encalypt (possibly a form of E. apodophylla Blakely et Jacobs), resembling

a small Bloodwood, probably a kind growing like a mallee. Woggilbirri; used

for making spears. See also Hakea (Wakilbirri).

Eucalyptus sp.,a mallee. Warrilya, Same name (warralya) given in Irazer

Range and Hampton Plains, Western Australia (= Eucalyplus largiflorens, a

mallee.) (Elder Expedition.)

Calythrix longiflora F. v. M. Ngangamara, The flowering branches are

used for decorating the head.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomaca sp.. possessing a very large edible yam. Yala. This name is

applied to I. calobra in the region of Mount Liebig.

BoRRAGINACEAE

Trichodesma seylanicum (Burm.) R. Br, var. sericeum Benth, Wunya-

wunda. Yangir-yangiri.

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendron ovalifolinm (A. Juss.) Bakheuzen (= C. floribundum R. Br.).

Datti-pitji; dadibiji. Perhaps the root is eaten at a ccrtain stage.

Dicrastylis ochrotricha F. v. M. Willyari. The tomentose covering of the

base of the stem is used as a body decoration.

LABIATAE

Mentha? (not in flower). Tabangarai, not used. See also Cicnfuegosa and

Pierocaulon. Native name probably associated with odour or perfume.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum nemophilum F. v. M. = S. centrale J. M. Black. Yakkadiddi

(yakka-djerri), This species has a small waxy, yellowish, soft fruit when ripe

with a taste between that of a gooseberry and a tomato, but slightly bitter. The

{ruit is readily eaten. The name goralba was also obtained, apparently for this

species; and for the fruit, pilaitha (hilaitha).

Solanum phlomoides (A. Cunn.) Benth,, with large purple flowers, very

prickly stem and calyx, large green fruit and long flower stalk, The name kula

was obtained for an edible Solanum, probably this species. Ripe fruit, polka,

ngaru (paru, varu); the terms polka, volka or volga are used for fruit. Readily

eaten while green, provided the seeds are black. The flower is used as djindjula

(ornament for ceremonies, etc.).

Nicotiana Benthamiana Domin. Muntju. This specics grows luxuriantly

amongst the rocks on granite knolls. The leaves are first moistened by being

chewed for a short time, and then the mass is rolled in ashes obtained by burning

twigs of Hakea (probably also of Acacia) and allowing the ashes to fall into

some flat receptacle. The quid is chewed for its narcotic qualities and eventually

passed to other natives. The roll is carried behind the ear when not in use. The

leaves are eaten by the young and old men and the old women, but not by young

girls. We observed one old woman fill her mouth with the fresh leaves and

swallow the bolus. he native name given to us by children was tukkamulla. We

also obtained the name tangungnu for the plant.

RUBIACEAE

Plectronia latifolia (F. v. M.) Benth. et Hook., Native Currant. This plant

which was used as the motif in a ceremonial ground-drawing at Miss Pink’s

camp, does not grow in the vicinity of the Granites but occurs some miles away.

The very dark-coloured juice of the fruit is squeezed out and drunk. Hakea sp.

(corkwood) is used to supply the charcoal for this ceremony and paper-bark

from a tea-tree (perhaps Melaleuca leucadendron 1.) for dabbing blood on

the pattern.

CAMPANULACEAE

lVahlenbergia Siebert DC. Korivaru.

GOODENIACEAE

Velleya connata Yo v. M. Kulbirl kulbirlka; not used.

Com POSTTAE

Pterocaulon glandulosum (F. v. M.) Benth. et Hook. Tjung-arai tjungarai.

The aromatic leaves are used for a cold in the head by being inserted into the

nose through the perforation of the septum. The name tjubajari was also

obtained for Pterocaulon, cither this species or P. sphacelatum (Labill.) Benth.

et Hook, Perhaps the native name has reference to the perfume. See also

Cienfucgosia,

GASTROMYCETE FUNGUS

Podaxon pistillaris (1..) Fr. No-wun; the purplish spore powder is used for

decorating, e.g., by children imitating the slashing of legs.

The following general terms are employed:—Flower or secd of any kind,

used as ornament, ete—djin-djula. Plant and leaf; borrla. Fruit; polka, volka,

volga. Negulu, or better ngurlu, is used in addition to the name of a grass or other

plant to indicate that the seed is referred to (and used) as a seed food. Food;

mung-ari.

NOTES ON THE ABORIGINES

OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA PARTII

By T.D. CAMPBELL.

Summary

Part I of this study has been published in these Transactions“” and its purpose was to place on

record some observations collected by the writer and to collate the sources of information which

have already been published in various volumes and scientific communications.

NOTES ON THE ABORIGINES

OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PART II

By T. D. CAMPBELL

[Read 13 April 1939]

Part I of this study has been published in these Transactions, and its

purpose was to place on record some observations collected by the writer and

to collate the sources of information which have already been published in various

volumes and scientific communications.

The present notes are an endeavour to bring together scattered items of

information derived from early newspaper reports (mainly “The Border Watch,”

Mount Gambier), Government Gazettes, Parliamentary Papers, and official

correspondence; the last-mentioned being in original manuscript form in the

Archives Department of the Public Library. Some concluding paragraphs will

deal with the decline of the aboriginal population.

‘The bulk of the material contained in these sources of information consists

of statements and reports by laymen and Government officials, who were con-

cerned with the contact of a newly settling group with the indigenous inhabitants

of the area concerned. Such information is interesting and instructive, but rather

outside the scope of the present study, which is mainly a search for ethnographic

detail. A careful search has been made in order to cull any pieces of information

which will add to our knowledge of what these particular natives were like and

how they lived in their natural state. In addition, the writer has endeavoured

to draw from a collection of rather vague and unpretentious statistics some sort

of estimation of the original population and rate of its decline. The present

extracts, together with those already published, will incidentally illustrate the

inevitable clash which took place between white settlers and the aboriginal

landowners.

Tue Narives AND Trrerr Hapirts

As mentioned above, detailed information regarding the natives and their

habits is scarce. But in the sources of the present enquiry, one official report in

particular stands out as quite a gallant little effort on the part of its writer to

enlighten his superiors concerning the natives of his district. The report seems

worth quoting almost in full. It was written from the Aborigines’ Department

at Guichen Bay by W. Warren, native officer, on 2 January, 1860; the following

paragraphs are contained therein:

©) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 22-32, 1934

Trans Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

“T Bounnparies DEFINED

“T will first define, as requested, what I consider to be the boundaries of this

district over which ] am required to supervise, commencing from Robe Town

to Woakwine (the situation of Mr. John Scott), from there to Lock’s Eating

House, Reedy Creek, thence pursuing a northerly direction to Blackford,

Mr. Gifford’s station, from thence to Matherson’s Station (near the coast), thus

including the country known as ‘Tilly’s Flat,’ “Baker’s Range,’ ‘Maria Creek,’

and ‘Mount Benson Range.’

“TT AporigiINEs or THE District or Rone

“Tf I may be allowed unreservedly to express my opinion upon the Aborigines

of this district, after some little experience in other parts of the Colony prior to

a five years’ residence in this particular locality, 1 must remark that I consider

them far inferior, both mentally and physically, particularily the latter, to any

Australian natives | have ever been acquainted with—bearing no comparison in

the above-named qualities with the tribes of ‘Mount Gambier,’ ‘Salt Creek,’

‘Murray River,’ ‘Lake Alexandrina’ its tributaries, and ‘Encounter Bay’; perhaps

! ought to premise that if as a body I consider them deficient in intellect com-

pared with the above-mentioned tribes, I believe them in other respects to be

vastly superior, and am justihed in making this assertion as reference to police

records will prove. For some years past these natives appear to have possessed

an intuitive sense between right and wrong, carefully avoiding the latter even

when seductive temptation has accidentally been thrown in their path. Of this

I could adduce several remarkably pleasing instances that have from time to time

come under my own observation; and conscious that the slightest violation of the

jaw is sure sooner or later to be visited upon them, the terrors of which they have

naturally the most wholesome dread, hence the paucity of police cases from this

district for capital offences. Indeed, the cases in which the Aboriginal population

of this quarter have been brought under notice have related morc particularly to

disturbances among themselves, such as feuds and jealousy, causing petty quarrels

snding in more words than blows, and should it so happen they resort to the

latter, the spear is but very seldom used. The population of the district of Robs.

as above defined, I consider on approximation to be 100 souls, men, women and

children,

“TIL Morrarity oF THE ABORIGINES

“T would beg to enter further and more minutely into this subject, which has

apparently without any assignable cause, particularly during the last few years.

exceeded belief. From information I gather, it would appear this district is not

alone in this respect and that native tribes all over the colonics are cqually

affected. T am informed by a gentleman who has been a resident in this part for

several years past and competent to form an unprejudiced opinion, who estimates

that upon a rough calculation at least two-thirds (if not more) of the original

number during the last twelve years have disappeared, and that the majority

of these deaths he believes to have proceeded from natural rather than violent

causes. I noticed during the year 1856 an unusual mortality among the able-

bodied young men within that year at intervals of time, and in various localities

I remarked no less than eight deaths, and, with one exception, I believe all

apparently free from syphilitic complaint. A few of them who died in or about

Robe Town had the advantage of medical treatment, the remainder dying at the

stations of distant settlers I believe had every necessity and comfort supplied

them as far as practicable, with that kindness and attention for which that class

of persons have long since become so remarkable, During the last quarter there

has been but one death, that of a middle-aged man who has been gradually sinking

for some time past.

“TV Micration

“The natives of this district interchange occasional visits with adjacent

tribes, but at no particular stated periods, an arrangement mutually agreed upon

some time previously when they muster in full force to celebrate the “Cooyonny,’

somewhat similar to the well-known ‘Corroboree’ of the Aborigines in the more

settled districts. For the last four years Robe Town has been regularly visited

during the winter by the natives of the ‘Coorong,’ of ‘Salt Creek’ and ‘Mount

Gambier,’ all of the adults of whom are intelligent, industrious workmen, making

their own bargains and completing extensive undertakings such as fencing, colt-

breaking, etc., but these visits never extend beyond two or three months and are

regarded as tokens of friendship by our natives, no disturbances ever having taken

place between them rendering interference of the police necessary.

“Vo SERVICES OF TUE ABORIGINES

“As already intimated, the natives of this district have not the activity of mind

or body possessed by their neighbours, and this is strikingly exemplified by the

fact that, if they can possibly exist without, they will not work. During the'

shearing or lambing seasons the settlers obtain their services, but from their well-

known restless habits no dependence can be placed in them; the females are

generally employed and are found to be expert washerwomen; the young men

sometimes continue for twelve months in one employ as bullock drivers, stock-

keepers, or colt-breakers, work more congenial to their disposition than any other ;

and I must here remark that as bullock drivers they are patient and persevering.

as stock-keepers or drovers acute and mindful, and as they are generally speaking

skilful horsemen, they use mild and kind treatment in breaking im colts.

“VI Customs ANpD Harits

“The natives of this district have somewhat similar superstitious observances

as those of other parts of the Colony. They believe in good and evil spirits, they

bury their dead, whom they mourn with much affection and never after death

mention the name of the deceased. In their long intercourse and continual contact

with the lower classes of Europeans they have imbibed their vicious propensities,

likewise an inordinate love for spirits and tobacco; in the too frequent indulgence

of the former I believe may be traced the secret but real cause of their present

gradual and certain ultimate extermination, but it gives me great pleasure in here

stating that there has been a check continually kept alive to prevent the

Aborigines of this district from getting excess of that slow but deadly poisonous

beverage, and the result, |] am happy to state, has proved satisfactory.

“W., WARREN.”

The following note concerning the region inland from Robe is taken frorn

a letter written on 1 November, 1853, by Thomas Chirnside to La Trobe,

sometime Governor of Victoria: “I formed a station on the Adelaide territory,

40 miles from Guichen Bay, about the end of 1845, I found the habits, etc.,

of the natives there the same as in Port Phillip, but was surprised to find they

could not swim; and believe, until lately, they never had the opportunity, as I

am informed ten years ago they could only get water by digging for it.”

The following show either the native’s dislike of exertion, or, possibly more

likely, his disinclination to move from his own particular territory unless he has

some special desire or motive for doing so.

A report of a visit to the South-East made by the Acting-Protector, dated

20 March, 1867, contains the following paragraph:

“8th inst. I drove to Mount Burr and visited the native encampment. There

were 17 natives here, two of whom were sick and under the medical care of

Dr. Peel. I offered to give them an order on Mr. Egan for rations for the sick

persons, if the able-bodied would undertake the little journey of 20 miles—my

offer was refused, but would have been accepted if I had hired a horse and cart,

which Ll refused to do. Game is very abundant at this place, and with a small

amount of exertion a large quantity can be obtained at any time. Mount Burr

is a favourite resort of the natives and would be a better place for a depot than

Tarpeena,”

The next incident was mentioned by the Protector in a report of 31 July,

1848, following a visit he made to the South-East.

“T endeavoured to assemble the various tribes (sic) about Mount Muirhead,

Biscuit Flat and Rivoli Bay, at Guichen Bay to distribute flour to them and

address them through an interpreter, but I did not succeed. A few days hefore,

three men and one woman who had been Liberated from Gaol, in Adelaide, had

rejoined their tribes, and a series of [estivities had commenced which they wouid

not suspend for the sake of a present of flour.”

The following notes deal with natives of the Tarpeena district which is

situated some miles due north of Mount Gambier. It was a settlement from the

early days of civilized occupancy of South Australia. Official records show that

it was for many years one of the main ration distributing depots for the natives.

There is little information which will help us to understand the relationship

between the Tarpeena natives and those which we believe definitely belonged to

the Buandik tribe. Ilowever, as this locality falls within the area defined as the

South-East, a few points concerning it might suitably be included here.

A previous note mentioned the reluctance of Mount Burr natives to journey

to Tarpeena for rations. Whether this was due solely to laziness or involved the

matter of group boundaries it is difficult to say. The following note seems to

suggest at least some friendliness between the various groups. But it must also

be observed that the occurrence is of a date when serious disorganisation of tribal

customs and boundaries had already taken place through white settlement.

Ranger Egan reported on 13 May (Govt. Gaz., 1867, 664): “All the

aborigines located at the depot at Tarpeena left for MacDonnell Bay; some ot

them had never seen the Bay and were very desirous to visit it. They sub-

sequently returned to the Mount, where they met many friends, some from the

Glenelg, and they held a corroboree.”

A departmental report of June, 1866, contains the following note concerning

the Tarpeena natives: “They had one ‘growl’ during the month about a lubra,

and were going to fight. Some painted their faces white, and thirty men and

women arranged themselves in battle array in a paddock opposite my house,

with their spears, waddies, etc. Fortunately, [ happened to be at home and so

prevented the fight, and they soon became very good friends.”

The following remarks, taken from a letter written by E. P. 5, Sturt on

20 October, 1853, also serve to record the contact of early settlers with the

original inhabitants:

“My residence since 1844 has been at Mount Gambier... . The natives were

very inimical when we first arrived, and, to add to my difficulties, all our men with

the exception of one deserted us... . Qur neighbour, Mr. Leake, suffered many

losses from the natives, some thousands I believe, but we escaped any attack,

which I attribute to the astonishment they evinced at seeing the effect of a good

rifle aimed by a correct eye... . I have always thought this gained us their respect.

They gave me the name of a chief who had fallen in battle, and affirmed that I

had again come among them as a white fellow. We gained their respect, but it

was through fear, and, subsequently, their confidence through kindness. Many

of thern have since become useful shepherds, and have been of the utmost service

to me, but it is difficult to have fat sheep where natives shepherded them, for

they are too indolent even for that service.”

lt is an interesting point to note the manner in which these natives evinced

their respect for Sturt by declaring him te be a re-incarnation of one of their

no doubt revered “chiefs.” Possibly a subtle way of avoiding an admission of

the superiority of the newcomer.

The Protector’s Report (dated 31 January, 1849) for the quarter ending

31 December, 1848, states: “At Guichen Bay Captain Butler, the Resident,

reports that the natives who formerly were too timid to approach the settlement,

are now beginning to possess more confidence, and are rendering service to the

[uropeans—and the same may be reported of Mount Gambier and Mount

Remarkable districts.”

MiscELLANEOUS NOTES

In the “South Australian Figaro” of 8 January, 1878, appears an account

of a native legend which describes how MacDonnell Bay was formed. The

paragraph was contributed by “a lady correspondent” and is, word for word, the

same as a legend given in Mrs. Smith’s book on the Buandik, published in 1880.

It seems quite probable that Mrs. Smith was the newspaper contributor.

From the Protector of Aborigines’ Report, 16 April, 1847: “A European

named Donnelly was tried for the wilful murder of a native near Rivoli Bay.

He was found guilty and sentenced to be executed on 29 March. The sentence

was carried into effect. This is the first instance of a European having been

found guilty for a capital offence against a native of this province.”

E, P. S. Sturt, in a letter of 20 October, 1853, described the occurrence of

caves in the Mount Gambier district ; he related the following interesting incident:

“I have never discovered any petrification in these caverns, but I thought once

to have discovered something that would have handed my name to posterity.

In one of these niches I observed the figure of a man, bent as in an attitude of

thought, his elbows resting on his knees. I approached and felt this object, when

I found it to be the body of a man I supposed petrified. Anxiously I examined

it, and took an arm and hand, which were loose, to the open air for closer inspec-

tion. I then found that it had more the appearance of a mummy, the skin having

become hard and dry and containing nothing but dust. It, however, merited

closer inspection, but I had some miles to ride and determined to defer such

examination to another time. Since then | have never been near the spot.” This

is probably an example of a desiccated body; very few of such specimens have

been recorded or collected.

The Protector’s Report for 21 March, 1848, relates to the appointment of

D. S. Stewart (son of Mrs. J. Smith) as official interpreter of native language

for the South-Eastern district, at a salary of £33 6s. 8d. per annum.

ABORIGINAL POPULATION AND ITS DECLINE

The following notes can hardly be described as vital slatistics, because the

sparseness and irregularity of early official reports and the data contained therein

make it difficult to arrive at an accurate assessment of the numbers af aborigines

in the early years of the South-East. ‘Lhe only sources for population estimates

are the statements of various observers who passed through the district and official

records which purport to give the numbers of natives attending ration depots.

In the latter half of last century some State Census Reports include figures on

the aboriginal population.

Regarding the estimates of unofficial observers traversing the country, the

danger of too much reliance on them is shown by statements ccncerning the

apparent absence of natives along the route; or the avoidance of white man by

deserting their camps on his approach, and so on.

The official figures also have to be considered in the light that consecutive

reports show marked fluctuation in numbers for the same district. This was

no doubt due to irregular and seasonal requirements by settlers of native labour,

weather conditions, the state of natural food supplies, all affecting the aborigines’

attendance on the distributing depots for their sustenance and supplies. Thus

official figures can only be taken as an approximation.

DEPOPULATION

From the earliest accounts of the South-East it may be saiely assumed that

up to 1840 the Buandik aborigines were, in the main, still living their natural life;

and that, until then, their numbers were probably unaffected by whatever civilized

contact had occurred. Official records show that by the late forties many

aborigines were employed as shepherds and shearers; and also the Government

system of providing food rations and blankets had become established, Govern-

ment assistance was, of course, an attempted recompense for the usurpation of

native hunting grounds by the considerable land settlement already effected.

Tribal boundaries and customs were seriously disintegrated. Previously recorded

reminiscences by Wallis (erroneously spelt “Wallace’) showed that by the late

fifties the Buandik had obviously diminished in numbers and segregated into a

few localized communities. Then reports in early numbers of the Mount

Gambier “Border Watch” show that by the early sixtics the natives of that

district had long since become completely detribalized and the remnants of local

groups formed a struggling camp of “hangers on” in the township, creating

disturbances whenever they managed to obtain strong drink. The sympathy of

Mrs. James Smith and the purpose of her “Aborigines’ Home” constituted a

noble effort on behalf of these unfortunate derelicts who had been dispossessed

of their native territory.

When once the tribal life of the aborigines had been broken up, the story of

their remaining days—both in official and newspaper reports—is a sad chronicle

of odd numbers of better known identitics passing out in disease and distress;

and nothing is told of the many who went to their native soil unknown and

unrecorded.

The following remarks on population figures are not put down as any sort

of accurate statistical survey. The data have been derived from many and varied

sources in the form of early reports, documents, letters, Government Gazettes,

and Parliamentary Papers; the details are of an exceedingly fragmentary nature,

vaguely scheduled, and not available in any regular yearly sequence. Therefore,

the attempt to arrive at any estimate of early aboriginal population and its decline

cannot produce more than the merest approximation. Nevertheless, it is felt

that a few points of interest are made available.

As mentioned above, 1840 may be taken as a time when the aboriginal

population of the South-East was as yet practically unaffected by settlement in

South Australia. Anything in the nature of a census at this carly period was

Red

unknown, and estimates of population at this early date must be looked on as

little more than guess work.

An official report for February, 1848, gives a total of 400 natives for the

areas associated with Maria Creek, Guichen Bay and Rivoli Bay down to Mount

Gambier, Several other estimates have suggested 2,000 as being a likely figure.

lf any safe inference can be drawn from some figures given below, it is possible

that the larger estimate is nearer the mark, especially as the South-East has always

been a well-watered region and described as abounding in native food supplies.

It surely could have supported a much larger population than the 400 estimate,

which probably took into consideration only those aborigines associated with the

coastal route from Adelaide to Mount Gambier.

‘he following figures appearing in a number of census reports throw a

significant light on our requirements.

1861 1866 1871 1876

Population —.... “Ath a, 324 151 82 55

From these figures it is seen that, at a rough approximation, the population

declined 50 per cent. over each five-year period.

From other sources of information, the census population stated for 1861

can be looked on as probably somewhere near the actual numbers. The pre-

viously recorded observations of one of the writer’s old informants (Wallis)

showed that by the late fifties the Buandik were reduced to about five localized

groups of about 60 natives in each. IEgan, a local police officer, reported in 1866

approximately 200 natives for his district, which was the Mount Burr-Tarpeena

region; it probably contained at least half of the total population, seeing that

districts like Mount Gambier and Robe were by that year markedly depleted in

aboriginal numbers.

So that if we concede the above suggested rate of depletion as likely, but

also allowing that the rate was probably accelerated with closer white settlement,

it will be seen that a population for the early forties of 2,000-2,500 individuals

would be a reasonable estimate.

From other figures this rapid rate of depopulation is further borne out. A

rough computation of fragmentary data on the Mount Burr region, for example,

gives the following:

Mid Forties Mid Fifties 1860 Late Sixties

20 15

Most detailed data available concern Robe during the earlier periods under

consideration; from them it can be estimated that at about 1848-1850 there must

have been 150-200 aboriginals in the district; Warren's official report states 100

for 1860; for 1862, it is officially recorded that “20-25 are usually in the neigh-

bourhood.” Then, in 1875, the average number reporting at the ration depot

Was 7.

For the Mount Gambier district, various contemporary local observers

mention the natives as being in “great numbers” at the middle of the century;

by 1874 the population is recorded as 19.

Quoting again from Warren’s Report (1860): “I am informed by a gentle-

man who has been a resident in this part for several years past and competent to

form an unprejudiced opinion who estimates that upon a rough calculation at

least two-thirds (if not more) of the original number during the last twelve years

have disappeared.”

As the century drew to its close, we see the same rapid disappearance hold-

ing sway as was shown above by the series of census returns. In 1876 the

population was about 55; twenty years later, by 1895, it is well known that probably

only two full-blooded aboriginals of the South-East remained; and before 1900

the Buandik were completely gone.

Attempting a general interpretation of the above evidence, and other avail-

able data, it seems fairly evident that in the early forties the aboriginal population

was at its natural level, possibly about 2,000 in number; in 1895 the death of the

last surviving full-bloods of the South-East was recorded. ‘This territory was

a well-watered, fertile region, and is stated to have carried an abundance of game.

Yet so surely does the encroachment of civilized settlement bring about decline

of the aborigines that, as the above figures roughly indicate, every five-year

period saw a reduction of about fifty per cent. of the indigenous population.

Half a century, and all were gone. This unfortunate dying out, which seems to

be almost the inevitable fate of primitive landowners when their territory is

usurped by people of a higher culture, may not be quite so rapid a process as that

effected by the implements of modern warfare, but the end result seems far more

fatal to the primitive group concerned.

The writer wishes to express his indebtedness to Mr. G. H. Pitt, B.A., of

the Archives Department, for his expert assistance in the search through ohscure

sources of information; and to the Board of Governors for the facilities [or this

type of research. Also to Mr. Roland Campbell, of Milhcent, for helpful

suggestions.

SUMMARY

This paper is a continuation of a previously published part of a study which

has endeavoured to collect various scattered pieces of information on the life

and habits of the aborigines of the South-East of South Australia.

The present notes consist of brief descriptions culled from early Parlia-

mentary Reports, newspapers, and official letters.

Some remarks are included which attempt to derive from sparse census and

population data an idea of the original aboriginal numbers and the rate of popula-

tion decrease with the advent of civilized settlement.

CLIMATIC FACTORS IN RELATION TO THE AGRICULTURAL

REGIONS OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

By H. C. TRUMBLE D.Sc., M.Agr.Sc. (Waite Agricultural Research Institute)

Summary

The length of the growing season for agricultural plants in South Australia has been shown, in a

previous publication (2), to depend on the annual period of moisture availability, which varies

considerably over the State. In this connection, use was made of the "period of influential rainfall,"

which was defined as the time interval over which the surface soil (0-4") tended to be maintained

above the wilting point for herbage plants. This was found to be equivalent to the period over which

rainfall exceeded approximately one-third of the monthly evaporation from a free water surface. In

the absence of sufficient evaporimeter records, values for the mean monthly saturation deficiency

were found satisfactory for the determination of evaporation.

CLIMATIC FACTORS IN RELATION TO THE AGRICULTURAL REGIONS

OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

sy I. C. Trumse, D.Sc., M.Agr.Sc. (Waite Agricultural Research Institute)

[Read 11 May 1939]

INTRODUCTION

The length of the growing season for agricultural plants in South Australia

has been shown, in a previous publication (2), to depend on the annual period

of moisture availability, which varies considerably over the State. In this

connection, use was made of the “period of influential rainfall,’ which was defined

as the time interval over which the surface soil (0-4’) tended to be maintained

above the wilting point for herbage plants. This was found to be equivalent to

the period over which rainfall exceeded approximately one-third of the monthly

evaporation from a free water surface. In the absence of sufficient evaporimeter

records, values for the mean monthly saturation deficiency were found satisfactory

for the determination of evaporation.

The mean period of influential rainfall and the mean quantity of influential

rainfall as single value climatic measures were correlated with climax vegctation,

soil type and the type of agricultural or pastoral activity practised. From the

combined evidence thus obtained, a series of edapho-climatic zones was finally

derived for South Australia.

More recently, Moreau (1) has reviewed the various climatic classifications

that have been proposed, with particular reference to their possible use in moun-

tainous country within a few degrees of the Equator. None of the formulae

available can be adopted in their entirety for East African conditions, and the

present author’s method, though accepted in principle by Moreau, cannot be

employed under his conditions, owing to the absence of records of evaporation.

Morcau affirms that three distinct criteria are necessary for bio-climatological

classification, namely, (a) temperature, (b) duration of the effective rainfall

period, and (c) the effective rainfall.

In the author’s analysis of South Australian conditions, the two latter

criteria were employed; differences in temperature were found to be so slight as

to be of comparatively restricted local importance.

‘TESTS OF CRITERIA EMPLOYED

The present paper is based on the method of climatic analysis described pre-

viously and extends the examination commenced therein to the agricultural areas

of southern Australia gencrally. Over this more extensive region, involving

material differences in both latitude and altitude, the temperature factor becomes

important.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

Before commencing an examination of the remaining southern States, tests

were made of the results obtained in South Australia. Further field experience,

as it became available, was considered in the light of the edapho-climatic zones

previously constructed. ‘There appears so far to be no indication of anomalies

or any reason for modification of the generalized types formerly provided,

although as time progresses, greater detail is certain to be required,

The establishment of an evaporimeter at Pallamana, near Murray Bridge,

in May, 1937, has given an opportunity for checking the calculated evaporation

wwene CALCULATED

ACTUAL

COMMENCEMENT OR

TERMINATION OF

RAINFALL SEASON

EVAPORATION FROM STANDARD TANK (INCHES )}

pe tL rr tr nt rin i — 4 etal 0 an Eaeennne oe

S ° N D Fi F M A MY JE JY A 5 °

{928

EVAPORATION (CALCULATED FROM SATURATION DEFICIENCY )

COMPARED WITH ACTUAL EVAPORATION FROM A STANDARO TANK

PALLAMANA (S.A) 1937-38

Fig. 1

values employed, based on saturation deficiency for 25 stations combined with

interpolation, by reference to actual evaporimeter records. Fig. 1 provides a

comparison of the calculated and observed values at this centre for the period

June, 1937, to October, 1938. The calculated values were determined from

standard monthly means, applying a seasonal correction based on the Waite

Institute values for the same period, related to the Waite Institute monthly means.

The calculated and observed values give a highly satisfactory agreement.

Further tests of soil evaporation carried out by Woodroffe (3) on different

soil types have shown rather more fluctuation in the type of evaporation curve,

according to the rate of free water evaporation and the moisture content of the soil,

than was found in the case of the Waite Institute soil, on which the original

determinations of soil evaporation were made; but these have not indicated any

alteration in the factor 0-3E, which appears to be the most suitable factor for use

in conjunction with rainfall, under South Australian conditions.

Further work by Woodroffe (loc. cit.) has confirmed the fact that evaporation

from a saturated soil surface is much the same as that from free water; and

higher values that have been quoted by other workers would appear to have been

obtained with irregular soil surfaces, or where the soil loss has included the

120 120.

100 100

60° ADDED TO ORY Sal “49 ADDED TO DAY SOIL

60 EARLY APRIL 1936 60 LATE APRIL 1936

SOIL FULLY SATURATED

MARCH-APRIL 1938

23 30 35 49

DAYS

EVAPORATION FROM A RED-BROWN EARTH

EXPRESSED IN TERMS-OF FREE WATER EVAPORATION (TAKEN AS 100)

Fig. 2

transpiration of growing plants. In the work mentioned above, a rate comparable

with that from free water was sustained from full saturation until approximately

50 per cent. of the saturation capacity had been reached, after which the rate of

evaporation fell rapidly.

PossrinLE VARIATION IN THE EVAPORATION FACTOR

In fig. 2 a comparison is made of the rate of evaporation from Waite Institute

loam following moderate falls of rain, but under differing rates of free water

evaporation, taking the latter in all cases as 100. In the ideal case, where the

rate of free water surface evaporation remained constant, a straight line from

100 to 0 would give a value of 0°5 from the initial wetting to the wilting point

value. As the curve is invariably bent downwards to a much greater extent than

upwards, the factor to be employed for soil evaporation tends to be lower than

0-5. It will be seen from fig. 2 that as the rate of evaporation rises, the curve

tends to become I.-shaped, giving a lower factor for soil evaporation; while under

conditions of decreased free water evaporation, the curve more nearly approaches

a straight line, indicating a factor closer to 0°5. It would be reasonable to

suppose, therefore, that if the factor of 0-3 is suitable for South Australian con-

ditions, as appears to be the case, a factor of the order of +20 or *25 might prove

more suitable for Queensland or northern New South Wales, whereas under the

conditions of low evaporation which occur in Tasmania, or south-eastern Victoria.

a factor approaching 0°5 might prove to be more satisfactory.

JFMAMIJTASONDO JFMAMSTASOND JFMAMISJASONO

aN Ms FO,

Waiiat

DENILIQUIN (N.S)

16-06

“haan

=m 2 ha o,

BEGA(N.5.W,)

33-33"

Fig. 3

Showing the mean length of the rainfall season for selected centres in southern

Australia, as determined from the relationship between mean monthly rainfall

(continuous line) and one-third the mean monthly evaporation (dotted line).

There can be no justification for the use of these altcrnative factors until

investigations of soil evaporation have been carried out in the particular localities

concerned, and in the present work the factor 0:3 has been retained for southern

Australia generally. The results obtained may be subject to some revision in the

eastern States, following local investigations of soil evaporation, particularly in

the northern and extreme southern portions. Fig. 3 shows the mean values for

a number of representative centres in various southern States, using the factor

0-3E.

TEMPERATURE Factors

The mean monthly air temperature has been taken as the most convenient

single measure of temperature. In general the three winter months, June, July

and August, are critical in southern Australia, so far as the limitation of growth

by Jow temperatures is concerned; and the mean air temperature for each of these

three months has been taken as a criterion of winter-growing conditions,

Reference to ficld experience in various parts of South Australia, Victoria and

Tasmania has indicated that the following values would serve as lower limits to

various categories, representing different types of growth: (1) absolute growth,

45°F.; (2) moderate growth, 50°F.; (3) active growth, 55°F.

A comparison of four selected centres, differing widely in their temperatures

and moisture relationships is given in fig. 4, in which the amount of monthly

aA M J J A S&S MA M FJ J A 5 ON D

BUNBURY (W.A.) GLEN OSMOND (3.A,)

A-80 £-40 A~35 B-3-7 £-4-8

on 0

m J J Aa 3 Mm oJ J a S

GEELONG (VIC.) COOMA (N.9.W,)

AcSS9 Beas Cor? E29 Ae3s2 BwlS Ctra ‘D=32 Ea2t

MEAN SEASONAL CONDITIONS AT SELECTED CENTRES

ACCORDING TO TEMPERATURE ANDO MOISTURE

A “ACTIVE GROWTH 8 HJ = MODERATE GROWTH ¢c Ml = RETARDED GROWTH

D Ez] - WINTER DORMANCY £ TJ = SUMMER DROUGHT

Tig. 4

rainfall is expressed as the amount above or below one-third of the mouth!y

evaporation, which is taken as 0. Excess or deficiency of available moisture is

then taken, with temperature, to delimit varying periods throughout the year.

Revarion BETWEEN RAINFALL AND LENGTH oF SEASON

Tn fig. 5 the mean length of the rainfall season has been plotted in relation

to the mean annual rainfall for a comprehensive range of stations in southern

Australia, and according to their position on the graph, the various centres have

been separated into 10 classes, depending on the critcria listed in the legend.

It is of interest to note the occurrence of various well-known centres in the

different sections of the graph.

Rainfall Annuat

Scason Rainfall

Class Type (Months) (Inches) Centres

1 Fastoral <5-0 6~14 Lawlers (W.A.), Koonamore (S.A.)

Wilcannia (N.S.W.)

2 Cereal 5-0-6-0 12-16 Salmon Gums (W.A.), Merredin (W..A.),

Minnipa (S.A.), Pallamana (S.A.),

Walpeup (Vict.), Hillston (N.S.W.),

Griffith (N.S.W.)

3 + 16-20 Chapman State Farm (W.A.)

4 i 6:0-7°5 16-20 Roseworthy (S.A.), Nhill (Vict,),

Longerenong (Vict.)

3 20-35 Waite Institute (S.A.)

”

6 Grassland 75-90 16-30 Kybybolite (S.A,). Rutherglen (Vict.),

Wagga (N.S.W.)

7 re + 20-50 Bunbury (W.A.), Mount Barker (5.A.),

Meadows (S.A.)

8 a 9-0-10°5 18-30 Hamilton (Vict.), Werribee (Vict.),

Canberra (F.C.T.), Young (N.S.W.),

Bathurst (N.S.W.)

g 15 9-0-10°5 30-50 Albany (W.A.), Mount Gambier (S.A.)

10 ” >10-5 18-50 Maffra (Vict.), Orbost (Vict.),

Richmond (N.S.W.), Sydney (N.S.W.,

Tasmanian centres

The above classification does not take into consideration temperature or soil

type, both of which may be expected to separate further the centres within cach

of the above classes.

CLIMATIC ZONATION OF AGRICULTURAL AREAS IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

The map shown as fig. 6 summarizes the results of applying two of the criteria

previously described, namely the period of influential rainfall and the mean

monthly temperature for the three winter months, to southern Australia. A

tentative outer limit to successful whcat culture, based on the 5:0 months’

isochrone for influential rainfall, is shown on the map, and this could be regarded

as an extension of the well-known “Goyder’s Line” of South Australia to southern

Australia generally. The probable outer limit to the culture of Mount Barker

subterranean clover is indicated by the 7°5 months’ isochrone, while the limit to

the development of European and New Zealand pasture mixtures and methods

of husbandry is indicated by the 9-0 months’ isochrone. The map further

provides an interesting comparison of the essential climatic features of the wheat

belt of Western Australia and South Australia on the one hand, with those of the

wheat belt of Victoria and New South Wales on the other. In the former case

the season tends to be rather shorter, and is materially warmer than in the eastern

10+

m,!

a or

Za. has

fa)

= ‘4

i ae

a : — CLASSES

46 RAINFALL SEASON ANNUAL AAMPALL

& nour (mourn Ginenesy

” © BRB Pastors stations <50 e-14

45 @® |] ceneay centaes. 30-60 sais

é ull OE a . 0 1B-20

z OR - ® 0-75 (8-20

« Z WA ® CO - . . 20-95

SA. i

view 3 © BX crasscano centres 73-40 16-30

2 BAA z @ « , “ 0-50

@®E4 6 “ @O-10-5 19-30

1 ® N sf ” ” » 30-50

| OLA “ " >10-8 18-50

ve ——3'5 a A .

° 3 13 25 30 35 40 45 30

ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES)

RELATION BETWEEN MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL (INCHES)

ANG MEAN FLAINFALL SEASON (MONTHS)

IN SOUTHERN AUSTAALIA

Fig. 5

- ne as

H 2,

S82? i

i ;

| t

i | !

i H

i i

t H

7 1

! t

H |

(— !

~ femme eee cee ete rteni ener:

~e i

% 2 |

a a

Ai.

80. 1

pa ee

Hy os f

j oe

ad oS

| ee ed

i fl

? AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES

| OF

SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA oo

Go MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE

| F (3 WINTER MonrHs)

z > 2 @ »

& case apesar so-sc pssk

S s0-75 Fa

: 75-90 He A =

é LE,

: oo EI HZ & |

— ——

States, where a longer but cooler growing season prevails. In view of these

differences, it is not surprising that wheat varieties of outstanding performance

in South Australia and Western Australia are not generally so well adapted to

Victoria or New South Wales, and vice versa.

The work of zonation, based on the criteria described above, has proved

straight-forward up to Griffith Taylor’s line indicating the approximate region

of transition from the winter rainfall to the summer rainiall type. Above this

line the present work has been carried to the northern border of New South

Wales, but in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland the criteria

so far employed become of doubtful value, owing to a less definite cross-over

between rainfall and evaporation together with an increased variability between

seasons. The variability factor is of particular importance to the agricultural

and pastoral industrics of Australia and requires detailed investigation. The

validity of the methods so far employed pre-supposes relative stability of the

mean values derived in the areas covered. This is considered to be sufficient,

within the agricultural areas of southern Australia, to provide a legitimate basis

for the construction of permanent climatic zones; and a further step is the

determination of variability as applied to the length of the season, the influential

rainfall and temperature at representative centres within cach of these zones.

In the case of the northern agricultural areas of Australia, however, a considera-

tion of individual seasons and their variability may have to be taken into account

in any system of classification or zonation based on climatic factors.

SUMMARY

The methods previously employed by the author as a basis for the climatic

classification of the agricultural areas of South Australia are reviewed in the

light of further experimental evidence and field experience, and the examination

of available climatic data is extended to embrace the agricultural areas of southern

Australia generally.

A map showing the agro-climatic zones of southern Australia, based on the

mean length of the rainfall season and mean winter temperatures is included.

The use of mean values appears to be satisfactory for climatic zonation in

southern Australia, but the variability factor requires yet to be investigated for

each zone. In the areas of northern Australia receiving summer rainfall, it is

probable that the individual seasons may require greater consideration in the

initial classification into generalized climatic zones.

REFERENCES

(1) Moreau, R. FE. 1938 Climate Classification from the Standpoint of East

African Biology, Jr. Ecol., 26, 467-496

(2) Trumepre, H. C. 1937 The Climatic Control of Agriculture in South

Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 41-62

(3) Wooprorre, K. 1938 Privately communicated

SOME NEW AUSTRALIAN LEAF-HOPPERS

(HOMOPTERA, JASSOIDEA)

By J. W. EVANS MA., D.Sc., F.R.E.S,

Summary

ULOPIDAE

Uloprora gen. noy.

The head is narrowly produced, the apex tilted dorsally; the produced portion, which consists solely

of the vertex, is laterally flattened and keeled both dorsally and ventrally. The ante-clypeus is sunk

below the level of the lora and the fronto-clypeus, the latter is somewhat depressed posteriorly

between the antennal pits. Coronal and epicranial sutures are distinct, but there is no trace of frontal

sutures, and the ocelli which are on the crown of the head lie well in front of the eyes. The tegmina

narrow apically and the veins raised in relief. Wings are absent. The hind tibiae are short with small

feebly-developed spines.

SOME NEW AUSTRALIAN LEAF-HOPPERS

(HOMOPTERA, JASSOIDEA)

By J. W. Evans, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.E.S.

[Read 11 May 1939]

ULOPIDAE

Uloprora gen. nov.

The head is narrowly produced, the apex tilted dorsally; the produced

portion, which consists solely of the vertex, is laterally flattened and keeled both

dorsally and ventrally. The ante-clypeus is sunk below the level of the lora and

the fronto-clypeus, the latter is somewhat depressed posteriorly between the

antennal pits. Coronal and epicranial sutures are distinct, but there is no trace

of frontal sutures, and the ocelli which are on the crown of the head lie well in

front of the eyes. The tegmina narrow apically and the veins raised in relief.

Wings are absent. The hind tibiae are short with small feebly-developed spines.

Uloprora risdonensis sp. nov. (Genotype)

(Figs. 1, 2)

Length, 5 mm, Head punctate, covered with sparse white hairs; ventral

surface chestnut-brown posteriorly, black anteriorly but for the fronto-clypeus

which is grey between the antennal pits. Vertex greyish-brown with a pair of

longitudinal dark brown stripes on cach side. Pronotum punctate, chestnut-

brown. Yegmen hyaline, veins light and dark brown. Thorax and abdomen,

ventral surface and legs, light and dark brown.

Type ¢, from Risdon, Tasmania (coll. V. V. Hickman), in the collection

of the Australian Muscum, Sydney.

Austrolopa victoriensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 3)

Length, 4 mm. Head, ventral surface pale brownish-yellow, but for the

eyes and an area below each antenna, which are black. Crown pale yellowish-

brown, Pronotus declivous, grey mottled with black. Seutellum grey, anterior

angles black. Vegmen transparent, veins brown; claval area coriaceous. Thorav

and abdomen, ventral surface pale yellowish-brown.

Type 2, from Warburton, Victoria (coll. F. E. Wilson), in the collection

of Mr. Fr. E. Wilson, Melbourne.

The shape of the heads of the two species described above is sufficient to

distinguish them from the two species of the Ulopidae previously described from

Australia. It would seem that the development of a produced head, such as

occurs with Uloprora risdonensis and in species in the genera Cephalelus Perch.

and Paradorydium Kirk. (Ledridae), has in all three genera, which comprise very

small narrow insects, followed the loss of wings and may therefore be correlated

with this factor. The effect of head production is to displace the legs from the

front part of the body to the centre, and thus possibly serves to adjust the balance

for walking purposes of insects that have lost both powers of flight and jumping.

LEDRIDAE

Platyledra monstrosa sp. nov.

(Fig. 4)

Length, 6 mm. General colouration, dark brown. Head, ventral surface,

ante-clypeus pear-shaped, not separated from the fronto-clypeus by a transverse

suture; maxillary plates visible only as a narrow border to the lora, lora apically

depressed; fronto-clypeus flattened, separated from the genae by a deep depres-

sion; ventral apex of head overhanging, spatulate. Crown, rugose, wide, with

three raised prominences close to the posterior border, and with a central longi-

tudinal ridge; ocelli on the crown closer to each other than to the eyes on each

side or to the margin of the crown; cyes prominent. Pronotum rugose, raised

into a hump, wide laterally; propleurae forming overhanging flaps. Scutellum

swollen apically, Tegmen rounded apically, venation reticulate. Hind tibia,

external surface flattened, bordered by a row of fine even spines.

Type 8, from King George’s Sound, Western Australia, in the collection of

the Macleay Museum, University of Sydney,

Ledraprora compressa sp. nov.

(Fig. 7)

Length, 7 mm. Head, ventrally pale brown, rugose ; fronto-clypeus narrowly

produced posteriorly, diamond-shaped in section, tilted dorsally. Pronetum

brown, mottled with grey posteriorly. Scufellum pale brown, Tegmen whitish-

hyaline, veins brown barred with white. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface

pale brown.

Type 9%, from King George’s Sound, Western Australia, in the collection

of the Macleay Museum.

Anacephaleus latus sp. nov.

(Fig. 5)

Length, 4 mm, Head, ventral surface pale yellowish-brown; crown pate

ycllowish-brown with a median longitudinal dark brown stripe. Prenotum

declivous, wider posteriorly than anteriorly, raised portion dark brown, remainder

pale brown. Scutellum dark brown. YTegmen hyaline, veins pale brown, claval

area coriaceous. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface pale brownish-yellow.

Type é, from King George’s Sound, in the collection of the Macleay

Museum.

Cephalelus punctatus sp. nov.

(Fig. 6)

Length, 15 mm. Head pale brownish-yellow; ventral surface flat from the

anterior apex as far as the antennal depressions, thence slightly concave medially.

Crown narrowly produced, ocelli closer to the sides of the head than to the eyes.

Pronotum smooth medially, punctate anteriorly and posteriorly, Tegmen punctate,

venation distinct, pale brownish-yellow with a wide dark brown band lying close

to, but not against, the costal margin; the band extends on to the pronotum and

the head. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface brown.

Type 2, from King George’s Sound, Western Australia, in the collection of

the Macleay Museum.

AUSTROAGALLOIDIDAE

Austroagalloides flavus sp. nov.

(Fig. 8)

Length, 7 mm. Head, ventral surface apricot yellow, but for the genae

and lora which are pale yellow. Crown narrow, with a broken black stripe along

the anterior border. Pronotum yellowish-grey flecked with black. Scutelluim

yellow with black markings. Tegmen transparent, veins pale pink with small

raised white dots; suffused with brown against the hind border between. the

second cubital and the first anal vein. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface.

pale yellow.

Type 9, from King George’s Sound, Western Australia, in the collection of

the Macleay Museum.

THY MBRIDAE

Mitelloides gen. nov.

The head ventrally is much wider than long, and is bounded posteriorly by

an overhanging transverse ridge that borders the fronto-clypeus medially and

extends to the eyes on each side. Anterior to this ridge the fronto-clypeus is

concave for one-third of its length. The crown is vertical and at right-angles to

the ventral surface, and the ocelli, which are on the crown, are closer to the centre

line than the eyes on cach side. The pronotum is steeply declivous antero-

medially, and the tegmina are rounded apically and have very small appendices.

The hind tibiae are triangular in section and have a row of six spines mounted

on protuberant flattened bases along one edge.

Mitelloides moaensis sp. nov. (Genotype)

(Figs. 9, 10)

Lengih, 9 mm. Head, ventral surface pale yellowish-brown but for the

internal margins of the lora and the posterior third of the fronto-clypeus, which

are very dark brown. Crown yellowish-brown flecked with reddish-brown.

Pronotum, anterior two-thirds brownish-yellow with dark brown markings;

posterior third grey. Scutellum yellowish-brown, Tegmen, proximal costal and

claval area punctate, brown, the rest hyaline; veins brown. Thorax and abdomen,

ventral surface pale brown. Legs marked with a pattern of brown and yellow.

Male Genitalia as in fig. 10.

Type &, from Moa, Banks Island, Torres Strait (coll. W. McLennan), in

the collection of the Australian Museum.

Rhotidoides sidnica sp. nov.

(Fig. 11)

Length, 8 mm. Head black evenly mottled with apricot brown, ventrally

much wider than long. Transverse ridge at hind margin of fronto-clypcus dis-

tinct, extending to the eyes on each side, nearly parallel to the antennal ledges.

Pronotum and scutellum concolorous with the head. Tegmen pale khaki with

rounded pale yellowish-hyaline markings. Thorax, ventral surface and legs with

dark and pale brown markings. Abdomen, ventral surface pale brown. Afale

Genitalia as in fig. 11.

Type 8, {from North Harbour, Sydney (coll. T. G. Campbell), in the collec-

tion of the Australian Museum.

BYTHOSCOPIDAE

Trocnada alpina sp. nov.

Length, 7 mm. Head, ventral surface, maxillary plates and lora pale grey ;

fronto-clypeus pale yellow. Crown declivous, pale yellow ornamented with red

and black spots. Pronotum yellowish-grey with black and pink spots. Scutellam

yellow with black markings. Yegmen pinkish-hyaline; veins pale brown bordered

with black spots. Therax and abdomen, ventral surface pale greenish-yellow.

Hind tibia pale yellow, but for the external surface which is dark brown, and the

bases of the spines which are black. Male Genitalia with long narrow parameres

and sub-genital plates which are concealed by the overlapping tergite of the

eighth abdominal segment ; pygophores not developed.

Type &, from Alpine Creek, Mount Kosciusko (coll. A. L. Tonnoir), in the

collection of the C.S.LR. Division of Entomology at Canberra.

EURYMELIDAE

Eurymelella gen. nov.

‘This genus is closely related to Lurymeloides Kirk and Euryinelessa Ev.,

but the genotype which is described below differs from species in these genera

in the following characters: the hind tibiae have only a single spur in addition

to several spines, and the sub-genital plates lack any development of a style.

Eurymelella tonnoiri sp. nov.

(Fig. 14)

Length, 5 mm. Jfead black but for the lora, which are in part pale brown,

and the crown, which has four white spots. Prenotum black, but for the hind

border which is in part white. Scutellum black. Tegmen black with irregular

hyaline areas, veins brown; a narrow sinuate white fascia stretches diagonally

from close to the junction of the radius and media to the second anal vein.

Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface and legs marked with an irregular pattern

of black and brown.

Type @, from Alpine Creek, Mount Kosciusko (coll. A. L. Tonnoir), in the

collection of the C.S.I.R. Division of Entomology at Canberra.

Eurymeloides kalimensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 13)

Length, 7 mm. Head, pronotium and scutellum pale brown mottled with

dark brown. Tegmen hyaline brown with two transverse white fasciae.

Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface with light and dark brown markings. Hind

tibia pale brown, each spur dark brown at the apex white at the base.

7ype 6, from Isalima, in the collection of the Australian Museum.

Ipoides maculosa sp. nov.

(Figs. 15, 16)

Length, 7*5 mm. Head, width 3 mm. Head, pronotum and scutellum pale

yellowish-brown mottled with black, or largely black; eyes, dark red. Tegmen

marked with a variable pattern of black and whitish-hyaline; two transverse

hyaline fasciac may be developed. Thorar and abdomen, ventral surface pale

brown. Legs black, the edges white or pale brown.

Type 6, from Frome Downs Station, South Australia (coll. D. C. Swan.

4/38 on Heterodendron sp.), in the collection of the Australian Museum,

Ipoides loranthae sp. nov.

(Figs. 17, 18)

Length, 5 mm, Head, maxillary plates and lora whitish; ante-clypeus and

fronto-clypeus medially black mottled with pale yellowish-brown; vertex marked

with a pattern of black, light and dark brown. Crown of head and pronotuim

concolorous with the vertex. Scutelluwin, anterior angles black, the remainder

black mottled with brown. Tegmen hyaline, veins black with white bars; claval

area brown with two irregular white markings. Thorax and abdomen, ventral

surface, pale brown.

Type, é, from Curnamona Station, South Australia (coll. D, C. Swan on

Loranthus penudulus growing on LEremophila glabra), in the collection of the

Australian Museum.

Ipoella norrisi sp. nov.

(Fig. 12)

Length, 6 mm. Head pale biscuit-colour with or without black or brown

markings on the fronto-clypeus and vertex. Pronoliwm pale brown or black

mottled with grey. Scutellum marked with an irregular black and brown pattern.

Tegmen pale hyaline-white partially suffused with light or dark brown, and with

small anterior and posterior white fasciae that do not extend as far as the

anal border. Thorax and abdomen, ventral surface pale brown.

Type 8, irom Fremantle, Western Australia (coll. K. Norris), in the

collection of the Australian Museum.

DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

Figs. 1-18

1, Uloprora risdonensis, head, ventral aspect; 2, Uloprera risdonensis; 3, Austrolopa

victoriensis, head and pronotum, dorsal aspect; 4, Platyledra moustrosa; 5, Anacephaleus latus,

head and pronotum, dorsal aspect; 6, Cephalelus punctatus, head and pronotum, dorsal aspect;

7, Ledraprora compressa, head and pronotum, dorsal aspect; 8, Austroagalloides flavus, head,

ventral aspect; 9, Mitelloides moacnsis, head, ventral aspect; 10, Mitelloides moaensis, male

genitalia; 11, Rhotidoides sidnica, male genitalia; 12, Ipoella norrisi, acdeagus; 13, Eurynte-

loides Ralimensis, aedeagus; 14, Eurymelclla tonnoiri, male genitalia; 15, Ipoides maculosa,

sub-genital plates and parameres; 16, Ipoides maculosa, aedeagus; 17, Ipoides loranthae, sub-

genital plate and paramere; 18, Ipoides loranthac, aedcagus.

THE HUMAN FIGURE IN PAPUAN SPATULA DECORATION

By R. MURRAY BERNDT

Summary

The Melanesian, in using and decorating the Lime Spatula, has contributed much to the world of

art. These attractive small objects, the Papuan spatulas, are used in conveying lime to the mouth

from gourds.

THE HUMAN FIGURE IN PAPUAN SPATULA DECORATION

By R. Murray BERNDT

[Read 11 May 1939]

INTRODUCTION

The Melanesian, in using and decorating the Lime Spatula, has contributed

much to the world of art. ‘hese attractive small objects, the Papuan spatulas,

are used in conveying lime to the mouth from gourds.

As a rule the design is incised and filled in with lime, giving a contrast to the

black ebony wood from which the stick is usually made. Many of the designs are

peculiar to certain areas. Haddon (1894, p. 203) mentions that the older the

specimen, the better generally is the carving, ard nowadays there is a tendency

for them to be turned out quickly, as time means money, even to these people,

who sell their work to anxious buyers. Consequently, degeneration in artistic

excellence has set in under white man’s influence, the natives now being in many

cascs content with undecorated utensils. At the present time most of the old and

well-carved objects have gone, and the natives find that the trader does not insist

upon perfection.

In the carving of a spatula’s head, the native artist has let his fancy have full

play and consequently numerous variations occur in any one design copied,

while different stages of conventionalisation appear.

The artist has not attained the stage of the pure realism of the classical

civilizations, because his approach, both aesthetically and psychologically, is limited

by the traditional background he is bound to follow. Consequently, the motif and

treatment are altogether different from those of our own. The essential significance

of each object lies in the ritual and social life of the artist who gave it being.

Miss Reichard (Melanesian Design, 1933) states that as a result of her

studies she has observed that “one of the most obvious features of cultural

phenomena is the fact that each is cast in a particular mould. So characterising is

this mould in the case of art that most objects bear the stamp of the culture in

which they were made as surely as our own paintings carry the signature of their

makers, either directly or in the peculiarities of an individual style.”

DISTRIBUTION

The specimens illustrated in this paper are usually met with in the islands

of the archipelagoes off the south-east of New Guinea. In the description of each

individual piece (the drawings of which are from the originals in the South Aus-

tralian Museum collection) the locality from which each was collected is given,

and can be traced on the accompanying map (fig. 1), so that an area for this type

is established.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

Iiaddon (p. 184) states that the human-headed spatula came [rom Massiin,

a conventional name for the coastal area from Pouro (Mullen’s Harbour) to

Baunia (Bartle Bay) and to all the islands from D’Entrecasteaux to the Tro-

briands and the Louisiades.

The inhabitants of this archipelago, as is generally the case, are great traders

and travellers. The smaller articles of barter are widely distributed, and many

of these, stich as lime spatulas and gourds, which are usually ornamented, con-

sequently tend towards a uniformity in design within this area.

Haddon (p. 185) states that lime gourds and spatulas from the ‘lrobriand

Islands are traded to the mainland, and have been mistaken for indigenous pro-

ductions, and that (p. 211) while this human motif extends also to Woodlark

Island, it has probably originated in the Trobriand Group.

r [=7

FORRES STRAIT

Go M4ER

whe GL,

iss

e OUR oleae

br,

Fig. 1

Map showing the distribution of the human figure in Spatula decoration on the

south-east coast and archipelagoes of New Guinea

Examples (in the South Australian Museum) described in this paper are

from North Massim, Kiriwina (lrobriands), Lake Ikemu, Misima Island

‘Louisiades), and Collingwood Buy (south-east coast, New Guinea), while one

specimen was from Port Moresby.

The shading on accompanying map (fig. 1) gives the distribution of the

lime sticks as far as can be ascertained with any accuracy.

DECORATION AND Drsign

The artistic development of the anthropomorphs is considered here, in its

various forms of primitive inspiration and interpretation.

There is a great diversity in the character and features of these carvings.

The legs may be present or entirely absent; the arms may be prone or fixed; the

hands be placed on the abdomen, on the chest or held up or alongside, and some-

times underneath the chin.

In fact the different postures of the figure’s limbs vary, so that two objects

are seldom exactly alike. Yet each one is individual, reflecting the native artist’s

mood. Each is an object of primitive art, bound down by a traditional code, fram

which the carver docs not break away. Within it lie his beliefs, both ritual and

social,

McCarthy (p. 17) in his introduction to “Australian Aboriginal Art,” states,

“the origin of art lies in man’s innate sense of beauty, as is illustrated by the

existence of some type of art, be it ever so crude or elementary, in every com-

munity of human beings. In primitive society an important element of culture is

produced by uniting the desire for aesthetic expression with an inspiration which

is of social benefit, and art is thus brought into a social and ritual mechanism

from which it cannot be viewed in disassociation.”

In the following illustrations one is struck by the excellence of carving and indi-

viduality, while the trends of different ‘‘schools’’ of art-craftsmen can be traced,

As to the possible clue to the meaning of each representation, it is difheult to

conjecture. Only through questioning the native, and studying the ritual and

social life of the community, can its determination be made.

Many figures are possibly of ceremonial character and may act as totems;

others are perhaps mere caricatures of associates and fellow-tribesmen, while the

figure in haunched position has a very ancient origin, having its prototypes in many

parts of the world. Boyle (p. 186) says that this human haunched figure plays a

great part in the artistic development of most primitive races. Ile also notes that,

in the mythology of Melanesia and Polynesia, the natural posture of man before

his gods is this squat or haunched attitude, this conception probably having its

origin in earliest antiquity.

DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIONS

The following illustrations are arranged so as to show the progression from

the naturalistic to the conventional form.

Vig. 2, A. This specimen was collected on the south-cast coast of New Guinea,

‘The two human figures back to baclx, with conventionalization of the limbs are

noticed, the hands are held to chin, whilst the legs have been stylized as circles.

The barrel of this stick begins with a human face or mask seen at the end

of middle drawing, and terminates in (a), while the usual end (b) brings it to its

full leneth. ‘he attached decorations are of red trade glass beads, coral dises,

black hollow seeds, and cut pearl shell ends, threaded together on fibre.

The six following animated carvings are of the realistic or naturalistic school.

The distribution of these extends over the same area, and constitutes the work of

the few native artists who had somewhat broken away from the traditional code

laid down by their forefathers.

Fig. 2

Spatula head decoration in the human motif

B-J, Realistic K, Intermediate

A, Conventionalized

It is interesting to follow the development of this branch of their art. Some

examples bear passable comparison with the art of the Western world; in fact,

the carvings are of excellent workmanship.

Fig. 2, B, is of no definite locality, other than New Guinea. It is almost!

ancient Egyptian in aspect; its modern facial appearance, clasped hands beld on

the chest, and the ribs heightened by lime inlay on the blackwood, leaves a plain

body with the peculiar leg adjustment.

Fig. 2, C, is the profile of the last. The treatment of the shoulder to the

curve of the back is shown, with loop under chin.

Fig. 2, D, from Collingwood Bay, North Massim, is carved from light

palm wood. The head, well set upon the shoulders, gives a typical native appear-

ance. ‘The arms arc crossed upon the chest, and the figure sits in the haunched or

squat position.

Fig. 2, E, is the side view of the last. Notice that the figure in profile is

altogether different from when viewed from the front.

Fig. 2, F. This excellently carved haunched figure in blackwood, from

Misima Island, Louisiade, has its hands under a rather square and aggressive chin.

Fig. 2, G, from North Magssim, is an interesting figure in the haunched

position, the hands to chin, showing an attempt at carving the overlapping fingers

of the clasped hands, ‘The head is perfectly balanced, having a curious cye decora-

tion, a hole through the nose, and the forehead ornamented in scroll design.

Fig. 2, H, was collected at Lake Kemu, and is a squat human figure, with

animal-like head, which is probably a mask worn by the native. Ornamented

ears, pierced to take decoration in the form of beads, etc., circle eyes, and long

head with nostrils, give an extraordinary type of motif, which is purely naturalistic

except for the traditional posture of the legs. It is strangely reminiscent of the

animal-headed gods of ancient Egypt.

Fig. 2, J, of no definite locality, is a full-length carving. Conventionalization

has taken place with the arms and legs. The face has a humorous touch.

Vig. 2, K. (from Edge-Partington, p. 312) gives an intermediate stage with

a realistic head and conventionalized limbs.

Fig. 3, A, from the south-east coast, is the first really conventional type,

and at this stage one can still understand the full idea of body representation on

traditional lines. It has not lost any of its essential outlines, as is the case with

others illustrated, which do so gradually until the extreme is reached, that is,

the human aspect is always perceivable.

Fig. 3, B, collected at Port Moresby, is a front view, showing a meandering

design down the centre of the body.

Fig. 3, C, side elevation of last, an elongated type of 3, A. This traditional

type being ornamented, the scrolls follow the contour of the figure’s arms and legs.

Fig. 3, D. The evolution of conventionalization has been carried one step

further in this spatula from North Massim. The two figures (as in fig. 2, A),

back to back, are set on an extraordinary piece of carving which will be dealt

with later (compare fig. 5).

PR RIE

ALAA

Por

Fig. 3

Conventionalized Spatula heads (Traditional type)

~A-C, Single figure D, E, G, and J, Double, with H Extreme stylizing of limbs

In fig. 3, E, F, from Misima Island, Louisiade Group, a variation of the last

(3, D) is noticed. The main shaft (1°) of the lime stick is decorated with mask

and meandering pattern.

Vig. 3, G. In this small carving from Lake Kemu, the two heads, as well

as the leg formation, have become one, and so lost their separate individuality,

as scen in the previous two specimens (3, D and 3, E).

In fig. 3, H and J (from same locality as the last), an altogether beautiful

carving is produced. It is interesting that on the same stick, the curl-like design

dominates the crest, with a double head decoration, showing extreme conven-~

tionalization of the body; while directly underneath, (J), the more standardized

type (see 3, D and E) occurs, with a large quantity of incising further down,

terminating with a mask.

In the following single ones the evolution of the body is more noticeable.

Fig. 4, A, from Misima in haunched posture, has the front legs extended

a little down the shaft of the spatula. The head is topped with a carved crest.

Fig. 4, B, from the above locality, illustrates a further stage. The body

has developed into a fish-hook design (compare fig. 5, E).

While in fig. 4, C, collected at North Massim, the legs are almost spiral. ‘The

head has received curious treatment, in a cap form, the eyes peering out from

beneath this peak.

From Lake Kemu comes fig. 4, D. Two features are striking, the face

treatment and the disappearance of the lower limbs, leaving only the shoulders

and arms.

Fig. 4, E, of no definite locality, has a leaning effect, and is decorated with

scrolls. It is probably the figure’s body, welded into one and thus becoming a

solid, without featuring of limbs. A piece of straw binds the base of the carving.

Tig. 4, F, is carved in a light brown wood, and is from Kiriwina, Trobriands.

It is treated in somewhat the same manner as fig. 4, D, and wears a scroll-

like head-dress from its back to top of head,

Fig. 4, G, from North Massim, is a figttre carved in the traditional style,

beautifully scrolled all over the bedy, and wearing a crest,

Before passing this point it is advisable to review the previous illustrations,

and note that the main representation in both the conventional form, as well as

in the naturalistic, is the haunched posture; its use and meaning are believed to be

unknown. It is from this peculiar attitude that many designs, as suggested here,

have been inspired.

In fig. 4, G, is shown a specinien with a crest worn at top of head. In

arriving at a probable solution of this symbol or design, it is interesting to notice

that the same ornament (5, E) is found sometimes alone on the spatula, and can

be linked up with a series of turtle-shell ornaments (called sabagorar) illustrated

by Haddon (p. 33, fig. 12, H, D, FE, and C) and probably derived from fish-

hooks. ‘his author also states that they are worn in the Torres Straits, but

suggests, however, that the design is derived from a more ancient idea and that

Fig. 4

Single figures, illustrating degrees of conventionalization and body decoration

the ornament of varying form belonged to the girls and formed part of their

marriage outfit; this was certainly the case at the Island of Mer, and extended

through the Straits to along the Coast of New Guinea Archipelagoes.

COMPARISONS

Compare designs in fig. 5. F is a crest from North Massim, and is very near

D and C, which are the fish-hook charms. E is a morc highly ornamented example.

B is a double fish-hook which probably inspired the crest design of 4, A (which

is turned upside down). Also compare the fish-hook design with the conven-

tionalized limbs of the human figure, 4, B.

‘his spiral symbol perhaps has some definite connection with the male human

figure as illustrated (fig. 4, G) and may represent a motif of ceremonial intent, as

the two designs are used together on the figure.

Fig. 5

Fish-hook, crest, scroll and meander designs

Whilst making comparison of this spiral design, it has already been stated

that its representations have appeared in many parts of the world, and much has

been written of it; no attempt is made here to analyse it with any degree of

completeness, but mercly to note a few points which occur in this paper.

Elliot Smith (1924, p. 3) gives a chart showing the diffusion of culture from

Cambodia along whose routes, passing through Indonesia, Micronesia and Central

America, and the southern route through Melanesia to Polynesia, the spiral or

fish-hook ornament appears.

He states (Elliot Smith, p. 7) that this spiral has appeared on designs in

which the elephant has been connected as an irrelevant addition, but that actually

it is an arbitrary convention found in certain ancient representations of this

animal and the mythical elephant fish (makera) in India and Eastern Asia.

This makara (Elliot Smith, p. 57) manifests itself in an amazing variety of

forms, some of which arc interesting as links with the mythologies of countries

remotely distant.

The sea-elephant is described as “a creature formed of the fore-part of an

elephant with the body and tail of a fish.” In Eastern Asia (Elliot Smith, p. 67)

these mythical creatures assume a variety of forms, crocodile, shark, turtle or

tiger being, respectively, the obtrusive ingredient in the composite animal in

different specimens. The dragon is a derivation of this, as also may be the shark

or the crocodile conventionalized design, in which the spiral appears (Berndt,

1939) commonly in Melanesia, especially along the south coast of New Guinea.

This crocodile design is composite, ils spirally coiled tail nearly always

appearing in decoration, and, when highly conventionalized, has become almost

a separate identity.

In some representations of the crocodile in Melanesian art, notably the arrow

design (Edge-Partington, p. 267, fig. 7), a human head is noticed emerging from

the reptile’s jaws. Elliot Smith (pp. 76-79) gives examples of this myth of the

“Jonah incident” occurring in India, Eastern Asia, China, Japan and Central

America. Hence possibly its association with the human figure in the spatula

decoration, and the wearing of the spiral as a crest.

it is known that crocodile and shark cults existed, and still exist, along the

south coast of New Guinea and Torres Straits (Haddon, 1894, p. 201).

One may here note the coincidence of the occurrence in Australia of the

crocodile carving at Panaramittee recorded by Mountford (1929, p. 245), and

now in the Seuth Australian Museum.

There is a constant use of the spiral or the concentric circle in Australian

aborigine art, it often being interpreted as a symbol for waterholes (Mountiord,

1937, in his aborigine crayon drawings from Warburton Ranges, Western Aus-

tralia, pp. 22, 23). Hence two cxamples of the aquatic associations in force in

Australian art.

It is also interesting that the horn on the side of the fish-hook charms (Fig. 5,

D, C, and B) may possibly have association with the elephant-makara, many

examples existing with the horn in crocodile derivations.

It has already been stated, when describing the animal-like spatula head

(fig. 2, H), that it has some resemblance to the animal-headed gods of Ancient

Egypt, India and Eastern Asia, We know of the crocodile-headed god Sebek

of Egypt, who was a water-god, and Ammon wearing as a crest the spiral-horned

ram. But this spatula, half man, half animal, has the manifestation of a com-

posite being. he elongated head with an elephant-like trunk, large unusual-

shaped ears, and concentric circled eyes, is apparently worn as a head-dress, with

the human body in traditional posture.

Many comparisons could be made in the above-mentioned designs, but the

most outstanding have been put forward, and open up interesting paths of dis-

cussion as to the probable origin of the fish-hook spiral, with its connection to

the human figure, and association in crecodile designs.

There is an outstanding difficulty which appears in linking up the spiral

derived from the makara with that evolved from the conventionalized lower

limbs of the human figure of the spatula head, illustrated in fig. 4, B.

When one considers the evolution of this igure in haunched position, to its

eventua! spiral form in 4, C, there is a doubt as to this connection,

Whether it has originated quite separately and independently of any outside

influence in decorative schemes, and whether we are to consider the human figure

apart from this Ash-hook spiral, or that the crest is not derived from the contour

of the human form in this area (New Guinea) is yet to be proved.

An attempt is made in this paper to trace this design from the contour of the

squat human figure’s conventionalized limbs.

Tig. 4, H, is a figure from North Massim, and is inserted here for its scroll

work, inlayed with lime, on the squat body. This design is known as the scroll

or bird motif.

Haddon (p. 199) places it as the bird motif, which found its way along the

western and sottth-eastern limits of the coastline, while the central district is

practically devoid of this scroll. Ile has no direct evidence as to what the bird

is that is so constantly depicted, or actually that it is a bird‘at all.

Ile bases his argument on the frigate bird which is the emblematic bird of

the western Pacific, and is regarded as being very swift and a powerful aid at

sea, as well as its attribute of drawing the canoe quickly and surely to the land.

But it may quite likely be inspired by the contour of the limbs (fig. 5, J),

as it follows out the arm and back position as well as the leg and haunched effect

(fig. 5, G and H).

This may, however, be derived also from either source, as one locality will

so conventionalize an original motif that it becomes almost the same as the other.

From the scroll or bird design a series of looped scrolls develop, as in

fig. 5, K, probably evolving the meandering scroll as in fig. 3, B.

SUMMARY

The above descriptions are of Papuan and New Guinca Archipelago lime

spatulas, and illustrate the trend in both realistic and conventionalized examples

—namely, that of the traditional type, the haunched figure.

In choosing this special type from the varied carvings found on the heads of

these interesting utensils, it is suggested here that many of the fundamental designs

and decorative schemes used in Papuan ornamentations of their different objects

are derived from the human figure, especially in the squat position.

It has been with that object in view that an evolution of this type of spatula

head has been given.

99 66

Thus are shown the ultimate designs, such as the “fish-hook,” “crest,” “frigate

bird,” “scroll,” and “meander” types possibly derived.

Some early forms of this spiral are noted, with comparison in design, with

possible “makara” significance and connection with the spatula decoration.

The naturalistic and conventionalistic styles are compared.

TABLE OF SPATULA MEASUREMENTS

of those described and illustrated in this Paper

Text Letter Length of Head Length to End

Figure of Stick of Carving Total Length

A —_ 24cm. 48 cm.

B li-Sem, — 29

C 11:5 — 29

D 13:5 — 29

qe 13-5 — 29

F T2 — 36

G 14 — 34

H 15 — 27

J 13 _— 24

K none given — none given

3 A 9°5 — 27

B 18 con 43

Cc 18 —_— 43

D 13 nen 26

ae) 7 39 49

3 G 5-Scm. — 35-5 cm,

ee } Ss 41 em. 74

4 A 14 — 33

B 6 oo 28°5

Cc 7 — 21

D 10 — 52

E 7 —_ 23

F 15 —— 33

G 21 — 53

H a) pa 57

5 E 5 — —

F 5 —_ —

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bernpt, R. M. 1939 Comparisons in the Australian Spear and New Guinea

Arrow Designs, S. Attst. Naturalist, 19, (4)

Boytr, M. E. 1927 In Search of our Ancestors, 186. London

Exrrot Sairu, G. 1924 Elephants and Ethnologists, 3, 7, 57, 67, 76-79. T.ondon

Happon, A. C. 1894 Decorative Art of British New Guinea, 33, 184, 185, 199,

201, 203, and 211. Dublin

McCartiry, F. D. 1938 Austr. Aboriginal Decorative Art, 17. Sydney

Mountrorp, C. P. 1929 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 53, 245

Mountrorp, C. P. 1937 Aborigine Crayon Drawings, Records of 5.A. Museum,

6, (1), 22-23

Partincton, J. Epoce 1890 Album of the Natives of the Pacific Islands,

(1) 267, (2) 312

Reicuarp, G. 1933 Melanesian Design. New York

Tinparz, N. Aborigine Rock Carvings in South Australia, S.A. Naturalist,

10, (2), 3

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND

FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS PART V

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and E. R. SIMPSON, University of Adelaide

Summary

Cercaria parocellata n. sp.

Though large numbers of Limnaea lessoni from the lower Murray River swamps have been

examined, only one has been found to harbour Cercaria parocellata, the snail being collected at

Swan Reach on 7 December, 1938. It died on 6 January, 1939, during excessively hot weather, and

partial disintegration had taken place before it was preserved. This accounts for our failure to find

complete sporocysts, though there were recovered thin empty portions and shorter thick parts

containing germ balls and cercariae, some of the older more attenuated sporocysts showing the

presence of orange granules in the walls.

LARVAL TREMATODES

FROM AUSTRALIAN TERRESTRIAL AND FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

PART V

By T. Harvey Jounsron and E, R. Simpson, University of Adelaide

[Read 11 May, 1939]

Cercaria parocellata n. sp.

Figs. 1-7

Though large numbers of Limnaea lessoni from the lower Murray River

swamps have been examined, only one has been found to harbour Cercaria

parocellata, the snail being collected at Swan Reach on 7 December, 1938. It

died on 6 January, 1939, during excessively hot weather, and partial disintegra-

tion had taken place before it was preserved. ‘This accounts for our failure to

find complete sporocysts, though there were recovered thin empty portions and

shorter thick parts containing germ balls and cercariae, some of the older more

attenuated sporocysts showing the presence of orange granules in the walls.

The cercaria was positively phototropic, spending most of its time resting

attached to the lighted side of the glass receptacle, but sometimes rising to the

surface of the water. The resting position was characteristic (fig. 7a), the

ventral sucker being thrust well forward and serving for attachment while the

head region was bent backward to form an open U with the rest of the body, the

tail floating out with its furcae close together or slightly crossed. When swim-

ming a shimmering effect was produced, the cercaria moving rapidly with an

irregular spinning motion and occasionally resting with the head hanging almost

vertically downwards (fig. 7c), so that the organism resembled somewhat a long-

handled spoon.

The average measurements of fourtecn formalinised specimens were: Length

of body, 282 »; breadth of body, 54 4; length of tail stem, 362 4; length of furcac,

250 2; length of anterior organ, 89». The body was covered by numerous small,

uniformly arranged spines, but there were no special head spines. The anterior

organ was subdivided, the posterior portion being very muscular, while the

anterior contained a large granular head organ with a prominent nucleus. The

mouth lay ventrally on the anterior organ, and the gut was traceable as a thin line,

dividing behind the level of the eyes into two short caeca. The large eyes con-

sisted each of an aggregation of dark granules, a lens apparently being present on

the ventral side of it.

The small, completely retractile ventral sucker was not provided with special

hooks. ‘The organ was usually thrust out so that most specimens appeared in

side view on the slide. In formalinised matcrial, a characteristic bend was (fig. 1)

seen on a level with the eyes, the protruding sucker lying behind this region.

Large muscle bands extended from the sucker to the dorsal region of the body.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A,, 63 (1), 28 July 1939

The tail possessed well-developed muscles and numerous caudal bodies, the

latter not readily seen. The furcae were provided cach with a membranous distal

fold, interrupted at the tip by the end portion of the excretory tube.

‘The gland cells were arranged in two groups, an anterior of two pairs of

large, ccarsely granular cells, and a posterior of three pairs of finely granular

Vigs 1-7

Cercaria parocellata. Fig. 1, side view; 2, excretory pattern; 3, front view, specimen

slightiy extended; 4, whole mount, side view showing excretory system; 3, 6, portions ot

sporocysts; 7 A, resting position; 7B, swimming; 7c, suspended.

Figs. 1, 3-6 drawn with the aid of a camera lucida; figs. 2 and 3 drawn

to same scale, the remaining figures to the scales indicated beside them.

cells. Their ducts followed a characteristic course (figs. 1, 3), passing through

the front portion of the anterior organ to open cach on a slight projection.

The gonads were represented by a large group ot darkly staining cells, just

posterior to the ventral sucker. Connecting this group with a smaller, more

posterior group was a string of cells.

From the small excretory bladder, each main tubule passed forwards to

about the level of the ventral sucker, where it formed a loop with two ciliate

areas and then gave rise to an anterior and a posterior collecting tubule. There

were six pairs of flame cells in the body, three cells connected with each anterior

and three with each posterior tubule; and also one lying at the base of the tail

(figs. 2, (4) ). The main excretory tubwle passed down the centre of the tail,

bifurcating into the furcae to open at the tips of the latter through a small, almost

bladder-like extension of the tube in the membranous fold of the corresponding

furcae,

Our cercaria belongs to the schistosomes and falls into Miller’s (1926) group D

(elvae group) of apharyngeal brevifurcate distome cercariae, and into Wesenberg-

Lund’s (1934) ocellata group. It differs from the only adequately described Aus-

tralian schistosome larva, C. jaenschi Johnston and Cleland (1937), in possessing

one more flame cell attached to each posterior tubule, and in some other features.

ts nearest known ally is C. ocellata [a Val. Wesenberg-[Laind (1934) gave a list

of European cercariae belonging to this group, together with a description of

C. ocelluta and of the cercaria of Bilharziella polonica. From the latter our

species differs in the relative dimensions and in the structure of the tail;

C. macrosoma Brown (1926) possesses a different number of gland cells; while

C. echinomorpha Brown (1931) differs in the length of body (150) and furcae

(1202) and in the non-diflerentiation of gland cells.

The measurements of our formalinised specimens fall within the range of

those given for C. ocellata, except for the length of the anterior organ which

averages 89 in the Australian cercaria, but is stated by Wesenberg-Lund to be

between 37 and 36 «in the Danish form; in the latter, this author did not observe

body spines. C. elvae Miller (1923, 38; 1926), which is perhaps identical

with C, ocellata, appears to be a larger cercaria than the latter (though Miller

1926, 31] stated that the former was smaller) and the Australian species.

Measurements given by Miller for balsam mounts of the North American form

are: Body, 368 by 41 »; tail stem, 382 2; furcae, 2904; and anterior organ, 96 »

in length.

Although the differences between C. ocellata, C. elvae and our form are

slight, we consider it preferable, until the full life cycle is known, to regard the

last mentioned as distinct, and have accordingly named it C. parocellata. Attempts

to infect a young muscovy duck with it have been unsuccessful. C. ocellata is the

larva of Trichobilharsia ocellata, a blood parasite of ducks.

Cercaria plotiopsis n. sp.

Figs. 8-13

A species of heterophyid cercaria was given off from eighteen of 519

specimens of the Melaniid gastropod, Plotiopsis tatei (Brazier), collected in

December, 1937, and from eighteen of 370 taken in December, 1938, all of

them from Swan Reach, Murray River. Vhe infection rates were thus about

3-4 and 5%, respectively. The larvae were clearly seen suspended upside down

in the water as they sank slowly, or as they regained their position by abrupt jerky

upward movements. When resting, their position was characteristic (fig. 13),

somewhat resembling a spoon with a curved handle. The cercariae were positively

phototropic.

‘The measurements of ten formalinized specimens were as follows: Length

of body 110-144 », mean 126 »; breadth of body 51-76 », mean 68 4; mean length

of anterior organ, 26; mean breadth of anterior organ, 23. The body,

Figs. 8-13

Cercaria plotiopsis, Fig. 8, ventral view; 9, body, ventral view; 10, body, side view;

11, head region; 12, redia; 13, resting position of cercaria.

All figures drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. b, brain; c, cystogenous cells;

c, eyespots; eb, excretory bladder; gi, g@ii, genital rudiments; gc, gland cells.

especially the fore part, was capable of very marked contraction and expansion.

The main colour was pale brown, and superficial brown pigment granules were

distributed as a network near the surface and especially aggregated around the

bladder and eye spots. The latter were large and composed of a rectangular cup-

shaped group of dark brown granules in the vicinity of the H-shaped brain.

The small, slightly curved body spines were arranged in rows, giving a finely

wrinkled appearance to the cercaria. The spines were larger at the anterior end.

In front of the spiny region was a circumoral spineless area capable of great

retraction, so that the lip and the mouth could be withdrawn as though into a

hood. The anterior end of the animal was not retractile. The mouth opened

ventrally, had a chitinous rim, and along its upper surface were four narrow

chitinous bands. Two rows of spines, the anterior containing six and the posterior

five, were situated on the lip in front of these bands. The anterior organ was

large. No trace of a digestive system nor of a ventral sucker was recognised.

Numerous cystogenous cells were present in the body.

There were seven pairs of large lobed glands with well-defined nuclei, the

cells extending from behind the eyes to the posterior end of the body. The

anterior three pairs met in the centre, while the most posterior glands were

arranged two on cach side of the bladder. Coiled ducts passed forwards in the

vicinity of the median line, and then on either side of the anterior organ, to open

separately on the circumoral spineless area.

The conspicuous bladder lying at the posterior end was bounded by large

cells. From it a fine excretory canal passed forward on each side, reaching a

point between the second and third gland cells, where it subdivided into ascending

and descending ducts. The former was traced to the level of the eyes, and the

latter as far back as the level of the bladder. Flame cells were not recognised.

The tail was about 360 long, curved, and in side view slightly S-shaped.

It had well marked longitudinal and circular muscle fibres, as well as a group of

large nuclei near the tip. There were two series of membranous transparent fin-

folds: an anterior lateral pair arising from the base of the tail and extending

backwardly for nearly one-third of its length; and a posterior dorso-ventral fold

commencing on the dorsal side just above the end of the lateral folds and extend-

ing back to the tip of the tail to become continuous with a shorter ventral fold.

These fins were at times thrown into a series of folds, at first sight resembling

fin-rays. Sewell (1922, 26) pointed out that such appearances were due to the

contractility of the tail and vanished when the membrane was extended.

The short, usually curved, thin-walled redia at first sight suggested a sporo-

cyst. The pharynx was succecded by a very short gut, not readily seen. The

cavity of the redia was filled with germ balls, generative tissue and developing

cercariae. Mature rediae sometimes showed one or more constfictions in the

distal portion of the body.

In order to obtain the encysted stage of the trematode, attempts to infect the

following fish were made without success: golden carp (Carassius auratus), rice

fish, Pseudomugil signifer Kner and Melanotaenia nigrans Richardson.

Our cercaria belongs to the Ileterophyidae and very closely resembles that

of Monorchotrema taihokui and M. taickui Faust and Nishigori (1926). From

the latter our species does not appear to differ in any essential details. The number

and arrangement of the gland cells, as well as the form and spination of the.

anterior end are similar, while the body size of the Japanese form falls within

the range of that of the Australian cercaria. The separation of the fin folds into

lateral and dorso-ventral groups was not noted by Faust and Nishigori, but was

noted by Sewell as occurring in his Cercaria indica vii. We failed to find a ventral

sucker in our material. The bladder in our species resembled that described

by Sewell for his cercaria (1922, 23) and appears to represent in shape and posi-

tion the structure labelled ventral sucker in the figures (Faust and Nishigori,

fig. 14) of the Japanese species. In the illustrations of the adult Monorchotrema,

a ventral sucker is shown as lying anteriorly to the testis yet in the larva it is

indicated as being posterior to that organ. In view of these discrepancies it seems

likely that the organ labelled as sucker in the larva is really the excretory bladder,

similar to that indicated in their fig. 20. From Cercaria indica vil our species

differs in the number and arrangement of the gland cells.

In view of the lack of knowledge of Australian adult heterophyids, we prefer

to attach a distinctive name to it, Cercaria plotiopsis n. sp., after the name of its

host mollusc.

This series of investigations has been made possible by the Commonwealth

Government’s research grant to the Adelaide University.

REFERENCES

Brown, F. J. 1926 Some British Freshwater Larval Trematodes with Contribu-

tions to their Life Histories, Parasitol, 18, 21-34

Brown, F. J. 1931 Some Freshwater Larval ‘Trematodes from Cheshire.

Parasitol., 23, 88-98

Faust, C. E., and Nisuicorr, M. 1926 The Life Cycles of two new Species of

Heterophyidae Parasitic in Mammals and Birds. Jour. Parasit., 13,

91-128

Jouwnston, ‘I. H., and CLeranp, E.R. 1937 Larval Trematodes from Austra-

lian Terrestrial and Freshwater Molluscs. ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61,

(2), 202-206

Miuter, H. M. 1923 Notes on some Fureocercous Larval Trematodes. Jour.

Parasit., 10, (1), 35-45

Mitrer, H. M. 1926 Comparative Studies on Furcocercous Cercariac. Tlinois

Biol. Monogr., 10, (3), 112 pp.

SEWELL, R. B. 1922 Cercariae Indicae. Ind. Jour. Med. Res., 10, Suppl., 370 pp.

WEsSENBERG-LUND, C. 1934 Contributions to the Development of the Trematoda

Digenea, (2). D. Kgl. Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Skr. Naturw. Math. Afd. 9.

Raekke, 5, (3), 1-223

THE FIRST STAGE OF THE ADELAIDE SERIES:

AS ILLUSTRATED AT MOUNT MAGNIFICENT

By D.MAWSON

Summary

Of the rock formations fundamental in the building of the Mount Lofty Ranges, two main divisions

have long been recognised.

THE FIRST STAGE OF THE ADELAIDE SERIES:

AS ILLUSTRATED AT MOUNT MAGNIFICENT

By D. Mawson

[Read 11 May 1939]

Of the rock formations fundamental in the building of the Mount Lofty

Ranges, two main divisions have long been recognised.

ARCHAEAN Rocks or THE Mount Lorry RANGES

The older formation is a complex of highly altcred sediments and intrusive

magmas. It has every appearance of great antiquity and has been referred to as

Archaean. ‘he distinguishing name Barossa Complex has been applied to it.

A notable feature is the wide distribution through it of intrusions of dioritic and

monzonitic composition. ‘These are notably rich in titania. They apparently

represent plutonic magmas which owe certain of their peculiarities to contamina-

tion as a result of some degree of assimilation of the injected beds. These invasions

predated the deposition of the very thick series of overlying sediments which

constitute the second main division of rocks to which reference has been made.

Rocks of this division have been described (1) from the neighbourhood of

Williamstown, the Humbug Scrub area, near Tloughton and the Torrens River

Gorge, the neighbourhood of Aldgate, and in an elongated belt beginning about

Section 231 of the Hundred of Kuitpo (2) and extending south and west to the

Mount Compass Range, hence to the neighbourhood of Yankalilla, zia Mount

Cone. Rocks of this division re-appear beyond the Inman Valley in the netghbour-

hood of the Little Gorge south of Normanville.

The surface vegetation over a considerable area of this formation is remark-

able for its poverty. Merely stunted scrub, mainly Xanthorrhoea, Hakea and

Cosmophylla. ‘he areas most marked in this respect are underlain hy schists of

a rather highly siliceous nature. Where invasions of an igneous nature occur

the soil is rich and the best types of plant growth flourish. Thus, the margin of

the intrusive masses is sometimes very sharply defined by the natural vegetation.

‘The same applies to the delineation of the line of contact between the younger

overlying series and the Barossa Complex, for forest growths flourish on the

former,

PROTEROZOIC AND CAMBRIAN SEDIMENT

Above this Archacan Complex and separated from it by a violent uncon-

formity Hes the second, much younger group of rock formations, comprising thick

masses of sediments, Intrusions of various kinds have penetrated these rocks

also, but thus far there has been no satisfactory data available in the Mount Lofty

Ranges area for determining the period of these intrusions,

Trans. Roy. Sec. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

Of the various large granite masses distributed along the eastern margin of

the Mount Lofty Ranges and to the north of Mount Pleasant, some appear to

be older Pre-Cambrian but others have intruded the second, younger division of

rocks under review, resulting in the development from them of metamorphic

schists and gneisses. Our knowledge in this regard is yet limited, but undoubtedly

certain areas of metamorphic rocks on the eastern side of the Ranges are equiva-

lents of the little-altered sediments of other areas.

The late Professor Howchin has been mainly responsible for our knowledge

of the sediments of the Mount Lofty Ranges which overlie the Barossa Complex.

Thus he has recorded (1) what he regarded as a continuous succession of some

13,000 feet of sediments between the basal beds at Aldgate and the sea at Marino.

These are for all practical purposes of correlation devoid of fossils. Above them

at Marino, Hallett’s Cove and Sellick’s Hill are later beds which Flowchin again

assumed to be a continuous succession and, since Cambrian fossils appear in the

limestone of Sellick’s Hill, the age of this upper section is fixed as Cambrian.

The underlying sediments of Howchin’s succession between Aldgate and

Marino have for some eighteen years past been generally accepted as Proterozoic,

though Howchin (1) still indicated the possibility of a Lower-Cambrian age for

them. With the extension of field observation in wider areas it was apparent,

even as early as the year 1924, that in all probability this thick mass of sediments

would be found eventually to include diverse formations separated by time breaks.

Thus it was then suggested to Howchin by the late Sir Edgeworth David and

the writer that a local name should be applied, non-commnuttal as to age, and with

the understanding that as knowledge of the formations progressed it should be

dropped in favour of divisional names. ‘Thus the term “Adelaide Series” was

created as a temporary working tool.

Howchin’s investigations of these beds were of a general nature and com-

paratively little detailed work of mapping and measurement was attempted. The

faulted and broken nature of the beds in the neighbourhood of Adelaide renders

a more complete investigation difficult and unattractive.

More recently Madigan (3), Hossfeld (4) and Segnit (5) have undertaken

the mapping of areas in the Mount Lofty Ranges, and our knowledge of the

Adelaide Series and related beds is slowly devcloping.

Fietp EXAMINATION OF TITE Mount MAGNIFICENT AREA

It is the object of this present contribution to put on record details of the

lower 5,700 fect of these beds as exposed in the neighbourhood of Mount Mag-

nificent which lies about 24 miles by air line south:-by-east of Adelaide. There

the base of the Adelaide Series is well defined and the beds themselves are perhaps

better exposed and have suffered less dislocation and metamorphism than any-

where else in the Mount Lofty Ranges. The areca examined, shown in the accom-

panying map, has suffered faulting to a minimum degree. Consequently, the

measured and reduced thicknesses of the beds exposed are believed to be more

accurate than any previous estimates of their true thicknesses.

The Mount Magnificent Range quartzite is a striking formation which

great distance

ow it at no

field mapping. Be

tor

ccellent datum

an ex

itutes

const

{

PLEISTOCENE DRIFT

OVERLYING PERMIAN

Beos

MT MAGNIFIGENT

Fig, 1

BAROSSIAN

COMPLEX

GLACIGENE BEDS

This asso-

lics the basal conglomerate, and above it is a striking belt of marble.

chunga on the north, southward through

ent to Mount Jagged and Wood Cone and on to the Grey Spur

ciation we have now traced from near I]

Mount Magnific

near the Inman Valley. Throughout this length the general direction of dip is

towards the east-to-south quadrant.

In the accompanying account of the beds as occurring in the neighbourhood

of the intersection of the Finnis River with the Mount Magnificent Range, truc

thicknesses only are quoted and the directions of strike and dip are “true,” not

“magnetic.”

In the plan, fig. 1, only the broader geological features are shown. The

junction of the Barossa Complex and the base of the Mount Magnificent Beds

MTMAGNIFICENT RANGE E.

ye RIDGE ROAD

LSU AED

CROSS-SECTION AT THE WEIR, BLACKFELLOWS CREEK

W. MT MAGNIFICENT RIDGE E.

SLOPES OF

MT EFFIE

Finnts R.

> 2 PERMIAN >

eRERMIA

GLACIGENE BEDS

CROSS-SECTION AT THE FINNIS RIVER GORGE

ig. 2

is to be chserved following down the course of Blackfellow’s Creek until it dis-

appears beneath a nearly horizontally disposed cover of Permian glacigene beds

which are in turn for the most part veneered with Pleistocene pebble drift. Along

the lower slopes of Mount Effie the basal conglomerate again appears for a short

distance. No attempt is made to show the outcrop of the various components

of the Mount Magnificent beds, except in the case of the belt of quartzite on which

is the actual peak of the Mount.

In fig. 2 the section at the Finnis River gorge crosses an old valley-filling of

Permian glacigene beds, veneered by Pleistocene drift. We have no information

as to the thickness of these beds at this point, and it is possible that the indication

appearing on the plan is excessive in this regard. Actually there may be very

little indeed of the glacigene deposits at this spot though a considerable thickness

is exposed near the junction of Blackfellow’s Creek with the Finnis River. There

is there a sandy tillite and a limited area of varved lacustrine beds.

DETAILS OF CRoss-SECTION OF THE Mount Macniricent BEps

1. An ancient Pre-Cambrian complex underlying with marked uncon-

formity the thick series of overlying sediments which make up the Mount Mag-

nificent Range.

Some reference to this formation appears in a previous publication (2). In

the area now under review it comprises rather highly siliceous schists and gneisses

intruded by contaminated syenitic and dioritic magmas and occasional smaller-

scale gabbroic and basaltic invasions, all of which are notably ilmenitic. A

feature relating to this terrain is the abundance of ilmenite shed from it in the

process of weathering and erosion.

2. Psephitic beds resting with marked unconformity upon Barossian

gneisses and schists which are strikingly developed at the base of the Mount Mag-

nificent succession. This division consists of coarse conglomerates of fluvial

origin in which, under stress of dynamic pressure post-dating deposition, elonga-

tion of the boulders is apparent in the more stressed areas.

Where measured, near the Weir on Blackfellow’s Creek, the total thickness

of this section, which includes interbedded pebbly and sandy sediments, was found

to be about 300 feet. A detailed statement of the true thickness of contributing

strata measured from below upwards is as follows:

3 ft. of an arkosic arenaceous nature composed of quartz and felspar grit

with some very small pebbles. Particles of ilmenite are abundant. In

the weathered zone this is a comparatively soft rock, consequently the

outcrop tends to be marked as a negative feature of the landscape.

10 ft. of a resistant coarse conglomerate, rich in boulders. Where measured

the dip was 54°, strike N.21°E. (true). his strike represents the more

general trend, but there are wavy local variations; the extreme extent

of variation in the neighbourhood of the Weir was observed in the upper

portion of division (par. 1) where there was recorded a dip of 57° and

strike N.30°E. (true).

12 ft. of arkosic sandstone with abundant boulders distributed through it.

50 ft. of arkosic sandstone with only oceasional boulders. Some bands are

notably rich in ilmenite. One large embedded boulder measured 1 ft.

by 9 in. by 9 in.

34 ft, of sandstone with occasional pebbles.

ft. of a richly boulder-bearing conglomerate. +

34 ft. of a richly ilmenitic sandstone: included therein are occasional bands

of quite small pebbles.

12 ft. of sandstone with abundant laminae of very small pebbles which are

mainly of milky vein-quartz.

3 it. of a hard resistant pebble conglomerate constituted of small pebbles,

none of which were observed to exceed 3 in. in length.

132 ft. of quartzite through which are scattered small pebbles and grit bands.

Iimenite grains are again a feature in some of the Jaminae.

300 it. total thickness.

The aggregates represented in the above beds are normal water-worn and

water-sorted materials. The pebbles are of all sizes up to an observed maximum

of 15 inches in greatest dimension; they represent a varicty of rock types, mainly

quartzites and more or less metamorphosed phases of highly siliceous sediments;

igneous types are present only to a minor degree. One of the quartzite pebbles

collected is richly ilmenitic, another is a fragment of an ilmenite-bearing, pegma-

titic quartz vein, Detrital ilmenite is present in notable amount both as chunks

in the coarser beds and as sand in the finer-grained bands. Also, at several

locations along the outcrop, the sandy phase of these beds has been observed

to include laminae composed almost entirely of ilmenite grains,

On microscopic examination the matrix of the conglomerate is observed to

be constituted of angular and subangular grains of quartz, a little acid plagioclase

and microcline felspar, and a notable amount of mica, both original detrital material

and subsequently formed sericitic mica. The quartz grains exhibit strain shadows.

Accessory minerals are ilmenite in great abundance, a little grey tourmaline, some

minute zircons, and occasional fragments of sphene.

3. 100 feet of passage beds consisting at the base of 68 feet of fine-grained

arenaceous beds, followed by 32 fect of arenaceous slates above.

4, 110 ft. of dark-grey slates, slightly phyllitic and faintly banded; where

near the Weir the strike is to N.35° E. In this latter locality the beds

are intersected by a narrow, tourmaline-bearing, quartz reef. Further

north, in the Memorial Park at the Kuitpo Industrial Colony, a small

stlphidic lode has been exposed by prospectors. A mine shaft has been

sunk on another slightly auriferous quartz stringer located near the

Weir. There is some evidence that a strike-fault traverses this belt,

but no indication was observed of any great displacement.

770 it. of dark-grey slates. Towards the base there are intercalated in the

slates several arenaccous bands, none of which exceed a foot in thick-

ness. In some places near the upper limit, the slates become locally

phyliitic.

23 ft. of a hard light-coloured quartzite. This is well seen in the section

from the Weir, but also has a counterpart in a dark siliceous band where

cut by the Finnis River.

335 ft. of dark-grey slates which are for the most part flaggy. Where

examined on the hill slopes above the Weir they were dipping 65°.

These slates are well exposed on the Finnis River.

1,217 ft. is the aggregate true thickness of this division.

5. 16 feet of light-coloured, flinty quartzite, quite similar in petrological

character to that of item No. 7 of the accompanying section, the quartzite which

actually forms the ridge at Mount Magnificent itself.

6. 355 feet of dark-grey slates; where cut by the Finnis River the upper

150 feet of this division is harder and more siliceous, evidently re-crystallized

after deposition,

7. 56 feet of a hard, flinty, white quartzite which, on account of its resistance

to weathering, constitutes a notable topographical feature throughout the Range.

Along 4 considerable portion of the outcrop the original sandy character of the

rock has been obliterated and it has assumed a flinty nature which gives it a

“fused” appearance. The rock of the outcrop at the very summit of Mount

Magnificent is of this form; so also is the exposure in the bed of the Finnis River.

Where cut by the section at the Weir the dip is 60° to E.21°S. At the inter-

section with the Finnis the dip is steeper, about 70°.

A typical example of the “fused” type was found, when examined in micro-

scope section, to be constituted of very fine, even-sized grains of quartz; also a

minute quantity of very tiny flecks of white mica and still more rarely the minutest

fragments of sphene or zircon are to be seen. The average diameter af the quartz

grains in the slide is about °06 mm. The grains are allotriomorphic to inter-

digitating in their relation to each other and undulose extinction is discernible in

many of them. A noticeable degree of alignment of the grains indicates incipient

schistosity. ‘[here are some patches and tracts of coarser particles. This is

evidently a quartzite that has undergone a considerable degree of crushing and

recrystallization under dynamic pressure,

8. 300 feet of argillaceous beds, soft and slightly calcareous in part. At

a point about half-a-mile south of the line of the Weir section, the calcarcous

slates of this division are notably phosphatic. There some of the stone has been

quarried for rock phosphate but was found to be too low-grade to be of economic

value, However, the phosphatic character of this horizon is so marked that

surface soil along the outcrop is unusually rich, supporting superior vegetation.

In regard to the latter, not the least feature is the large size and abundance of

mushrooms appearing on this belt following autumn rains. Doubtless the

explanation lies in the fact that the richness of the herbage on this belt has

attracted sheep for very many years past; this concentration of sheep being the

more direct cause of the rank mushroom growth, This calcareous phosphatic

horizon has been traced from Black Swamp through Section 218 Nangkita north-

ward to the Industrial Colony on Section 295 Kuitpo.

A more detailed examination of this division can be made where it is well

exposed in the high cliffs along the Finnis River. There the true thickness is

257 feet, composed as follows: from below up, 54 feet of dark-coloured slate,

56 feet of highly siliceous slate, 55 feet of laminated, calcareous slates, and 92 feet

ol highly siliceous slaty rock. Recrystallization has gone so far that along most

of the outcrop these slates have become incipient hornstones.

9, 26 feet of a hard blue-grey quartzite, where cut by the section from the

Weir; at the intersection with the Finnis River it has very similar characters but

has developed a thickness of 44 feet. In microscope slide the grain structure of

this bed is very similar to that of item No. 7 except for some black opaque mineral

substance sufficient to give the rock a dark appearance when viewed in bulk.

10. 220 feet of what are principally argillaceous beds. The lower division

is slightly calcareous in part, while the upper portion is of harder and more

resistant rock. The equivalent of this division where cut by the Iinnis River

amounts to 153 feet, near the middle of which is a 20-ft. belt of a more siliceous

nature. The rocks of this division have suffered a considerable degree of re-

crystallization towards hornstone types. Further to the east (upwards in the

series) metamorphic features are progressively more marked.

11. 40 feet of quartzite of a grey colour. Along much of the outcrop this

horizon has suffered change to a highly siliceous granulitic hornstone.

Up to this stage the beds of this succession are, in the main, best exposed

along the line of section at the Weir. Above item 11 there are better exposures

in the section at the Finnis River gorge; accordingly, the measurements of the

upper beds relate to the latter locality.

12. 1,160 feet of micaccous hornstone. This belt weathers more readily

than the underlying quartzite. ‘here are variations in composition throughout

its great thickness. For instance, in the vicinity of the Finnis River intersection.

the base of these beds is more highly siliceous for a thickness of about 100 feet.

Also, the uppermost 275 feet is a denser form, of darker colour and slightly

calcareous.

13. 100 feet of rather coarsely crystallized marble, in part white, clsewhcre

pink and mottled. This is well exposed in the Finnis River, which has cut its

channel along it for 40 chains in that section of its course which turns north at

40 chains cast of its crossing the Mount Magnificent quartzite.

‘This belt of marble is a notable and characteristic feature of the Mount

Magnificent beds. it has been traced south into Section 1,769 of the Hundred

of Nangkita. Northward it continues nearly to the top of Section 1,961 Kondo-

paringa, where it is then cut off by an E.-W. cross fault. It doubtless continues

further north in Section 1,959 and beyond, but its further outcrop in that vicinity

has not been observed.

This marble horizon varies in thickness at different points along the outcrop,

the maximum observed thickness being 130 feet. At the Finnis River exposure

it is inclined at 72°, dipping to E.19°S. (true).

The follawing are partial analyses by W. B. Dallwitz of two samples

collected from these beds on the Finnis River (Section 1965, Hundred of Kondo-

paringa).

White Marble Pink Marble

CaCO. - - - - 98°67 87°51

MgCO,, - - - - 0-47 0-80

Fe,O, Al,O, - - - O-11 0:60

Insoluble - - - 0°36 10°69

99-61 99-60

14. 540 feet of finely granular micaceous hornstone, becoming more siliccous

in its upper portions.

15. A hard, resistant, highly siliceous, granulitic hornstone. For the most

part this rock is of a flaggy nature. It has been quarried to provide stone for the

construction of a concrete ford across the Finnis River at its intersection there-

with ; at that point it dips 72° to E.20°S. (true). .

Microscopically the rock is of a fine, granular nature, consisting predomin-

antly of quartz; a considerable amount of felspar (both orthoclase and acid

plagioclase) and a little mica (chiefly light brown biotite) are present. This rock,

and a considerable thickness of the beds to the east lying above it, appear originally

to have been quartzite, but subsequently modified by metamorphosing agencies,

the effects of which are more marked to the cast, where within about 20 miles

outcrops of granite occur.

GENERAL REMARKS

The country for several miles to the east of that dealt with in the present

communication has been traversed along three lines of section, and a gencral

knowledge obtained of the rocks there represented. As the presence of some

important fault lines has been revealed and as the rocks become increasingly

more metamorphosed in that direction, the interpretation of the rock succession

above that dealt with in this paper is withheld until a more detailed study can be

made of it.

However, sufficient is already known to state that the rock formations lying

to the eastward are not merely faulted and folded repetitions of the beds already

outlined herewith, but represent in addition a very considerable upward extcnsion

of the Mount Magnificent beds. Such rocks cover a large area, extending from

the Mcadows district eastward to Strathalbyn. Also, they are apparently rocks

of this formation that extend south from the Mount Jagged - Grey Spur line to

the south coast at Encounter Bay.

‘Though Howchin does not in his publications refer to the locality of Mount

Magnificent, the beds here described are undoubtedly the equivalents of the basal

members of his “Adelaide Series” succession, The Torrens River Gorge is the

area upon which he mainly worked when investigating the lowest division of the

Adelaide Serics. Therc, however, the presence of cross-faulting, developed to a

considerable degree, renders the interpretation of the succession difficult and less

reliable than in the less disturbed region of Mount Magnificent. The want of

strict correspondence between the succession in the two areas is perhaps partly

explained by the fact that deposition in shallow waters at points about 30 miles.

apart cannot be expected to be identical. It is specially to be remarked that whereas

the marble horizons of the ‘Torrens Gorge sections are highly magnesic, those met

with in the Mount Magnificent section are notably deficient in magnesia.

Seenit, in his recent publication (5) upon an area lying about 20 miles to

the north-north-cast of Mount Magnificent, has shown that in that area the country

is excessively dislocated by faults. This renders difficult the interpretation of the

rock succession. Nevertheless, he distinguishes four distinct divisions of Pre-

Cambrian sediments within the 25 square miles investigated. Thus [lowchin’s

simple interpretations of these old sediments in the Mount Lofty Ranges is in

process of abandonment in favour of greater complexity of the system.

The application of the term “Adelaide Series” to distinguish only the top-

most division of what we have previously included under that comprehensive

title is not at all helpful. Segnit might well have coined a new term or accepted

that adopted by Hossfeld for the same division of sediments.

With regard to the beds which, in his area, Segnit refers to as the “Middle

Pre-Cambrian,” by their field relations it is indicated that these are the northward

extension of the Mount Magnificent beds, and therefore represent the basal

members of Ilowchin’s Adelaide Series.

REFERENCES

1 Howcin, W. 1929 The Geology of South Australia, Adelaide

2 Mawson, D. 1923 Notes on the Geological Features of the Meadows

Valley, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 47, 371

3. Mapican, C. T. 1925 The Geology of the Fleuricu Peninsula, Part I,

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 198

4 Hossrerp, P. S. 1935 The Geology of Part of the North Mount Lolty

Ranges, Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 59, 18

5 Ssenit, R. W. 1937 Geology of the Northern Part, Hundred of Maccles-

field, Bull. 16, Geol. Surv. of S. Aust., Adelaide

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ANSTEY HILL,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By CHARLES FENNER

Summary

Anstey Hill, a hill of incomplete circumdenudation, is composed of ancient altered sediments (pre-

Cambrian quartzites, slates, etc.), and is 1,250 feet in height. It is one of the many hills that form the

scarp front of the block-faulted Mount Lofty Ranges, and is thus to some extent tectonic in origin.

The hill lies north-east of Adelaide, separated from the Torrens Gorge by Duncan Hill, and it

commands an excellent view of the city, from which it is about nine miles distant.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ANSTEY HILL,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By CHARLES FENNER

[Read 11 May 1939]

Pirate III

I GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Anstey Hill, a hill of incomplete circumdenudalion, is composed of ancient

altered sediments (pre-Cambrian quartzites, slates, etc.), and is 1,250 feet in

height. It is one of the many hills that form the scarp front of the block-faulted

Mount Lofty Ranges, and is thus to some extent tectonic in origin. The hill lies

north-east of Adelaide, separated from the Torrens Gorge by Duncan Hill, and

it commands an excellent view of the city, from which it is about nine miles distant.

When one views the profile of Anstey Hill from a distance, as for instance

looking northwards from the Gorge Road at Athelstone, two miles away, a pecu-

liarity in its outline is apparent. The normal down-curving western front of the

hill is broken by a projecting platform, almost level-topped, but with a slight slope

seaward (westward.) (Sce pl. ii.)

When seen at closer range, this peculiar and arresting feature is revealed as

a platform of ferruginous sands, fairly well consolidated for the top 12 to 20 feet

(more in places), and merging into unconsolidated red and yellow sands beneath.

‘he area of the flat top is, by rough calculation, about one and a half acres. Its

height above sea level is 650 fect, but it rises towards the hill, and similar con-

solidated level-bedded sands extend, close against the face of the hill, some distance

to the east, up to 700 feet above sea level, and also in a precipitous formation a

few chains to the south.

In a series of “Topographic Maps of South Australia,” published in 1926

by Maior W. H. Edmunds, this peculiar relic of ferruginous sands is clearly

marked in the north-east part of grid 7-2 of his Millbrook map. Major Edmunds

was evidently impressed by this flat-topped area, and referred to it as the “Gun

Emplacement.” It appears probable that, from the military point of view, this

high flat area is a very attractive one, commanding in a remarkable way both the

inner and outer harbours and the city of Adelaide. As this physiographic feature

has no local name, we may for descriptive purposes adopt Major Edmunds’ fanci-

ful term, the “Gun Emplacement.”

‘The early settlers found it necessary to have roads and tracks for transport

and inter-communication between the settlements in the ranges and those on the

lower plains and the Para Block. The Gorge of the Torrens River being too

steep and rugged to permit of transport, the two chief points of attack for roads

hereabouts were at Tea Tree Gully, a valley road, and at Anstey Hill, a ridge

road (partly contour). The Tea ‘Tree Gully roads are not shown in fig. 1, but

the multitude of efforts to achieve an adequate surveyed road up Anstey Hill is

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

testified to by the complexity of the roads shown in fig, 1, a plan for which the

writer is indebted to Mr. J. M. Maughan, of the Lands Department.

I] Howceirn’s “Dead River” Systems

Professor Walter Howchin noted this interesting topographical feature, and

incorporated it into his conception of the “dead rivers” of South Australia. In

two articles the Professor developed his ideas of these hypothetical ancient

features: ‘The Dead Rivers of South Australia. Part I. The Western Group,”

Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 55, 1931, 113-135, and “The Dead Rivers of South

Australia. Part I]. The Eastern Group,” Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 57, 1933, 1-41.

The maps accompanying these papers show the supposed “dead rivers” as

a series of long sub-parallel lines, extending as far north as Lake ‘Torrens and

Lake Frome, and as far south as Adelaide. The east-west limits of the dead rivers

are restricted to an areca extending from the centre of Spencer Gulf to the present

valley of the Onkaparinga River. Within this limited width, less than 150 milcs,

no less than seven rivers are shown, and these are for the greater part of their

courses somewhat parallel.

‘The writer has a very high regard for the work of Professor Howchin.

Even in the two papers here mentioned the amount of detail and specification

concerning the description and location of consolidated water-worn conglomerates

bears witness to the careful records and extensive field work of the Professor,

and constitutes a valuable fund of knowledge for future workers.

It is in the interpretation of the significance of these alluvial relics that

difficulties arise. he writer believes these deposits to be of two distinct types

of origin: (a) relics from the streams that meandered over the old pre-Miocene

peneplain, and (6) re-distributed and re-consolidated (sometimes unconsolidated )

remnants of the old pre-Miocene peneplain gravels, plus later alluvial detritus,

deposited as “fault-apron” material, subsequent to the widespread faulting and

differential uplift that dominates this area, and which is believed to have com-

menced in early post-Miocene times.

Thus it comes about that there is a rough association between the depasits

of higher-level alluvials and the major fault lines of the Mount Lofty, Flinders

Range, Yorke Peninsula, and Eyre Peninsula areas. These faults have been set

out in some detail by the writer in his papers: “Adelaide, South Australia: A

Study in Human Geography,” Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 51, 1927, and “The

Major Structural and Physiographic I'eatures of South Australia,” Proc. Roy.

Soc. S. Aust., 54, 1930.

In these volumes the major faults of the area concerned are indicated.

Subsequent enquiries by the writer, and publication by others, have extended

and confirmed the series of roughly parallel, curving, north-south fault lines that

so definitely determine the present-day topography of central southern South

Australia.

‘The courses of the alleged dead rivers, as set out by Howchin, do not represent

the normal courses of streams. The characteristic river pattern is dendritic in

form, however variously modified it may be by geological structures. Flowchin’s

dead rivers, formed by linking up various deposits of siliceous, ferruginous, and

unconsolidated alluvial materials, are a series of sub-parallel lines. If one linked

up the separate deposits of re-sorted fault-apron alluvial materials that are found

from place to place along the major fault lines, one would have a system of lines

comparable with Howchin’s dead rivers. The deposits themselves have, in this

writer’s opinion, been formed by streams, which cut back into the scarp faces, and

flowed at right angles to the supposed directions of the hypothetical ancient streams.

‘The writer believes that Howchin’s theory of the courses of the dead rivers,

as set out in the papers quoted, is in the main an untenable interpretation of the

facts. This aspect is dealt with in some detail because of its bearing upon the

Anstey Hill deposits.

Tig. 1

Plan of the Anstey Hill area, showing roads, geology, etc.

Il] Derairs ofr THE GUN EMPLACEMENT, AND ITS SURROUNDINGS

Fig. 1 shows the plan of the Anstey Hill and Hope Valley area. The numbers

of the blocks are given so that reference may be made to borings and other geolo-

gical detail clsewhere available. The right-hand half of the plan represents the

Mount Lofty Highlands, a well-dissected uplifted block of Pre-Cambrian

quartzites, slates, etc. The western half (dotted in plan) consists of the lower

Para Block which is here covered by sands and gravels, with clays and lignites

at deeper levels. The north-south boundary between these two areas is approxi-

mately the position of the major western fault of the Mount Lofty Ranges in this

area. In the centre of the plan, at A, is shown the platform of sediments that is

the special subject of enquiry in this paper.

Fig. 2 represents the same area as fig. 1 on a similar scale, showing Anstey

Hill, Hope Valley, and the alluvial platform at A. The contours are given with

vertical intervals af 50 feet. These clearly indicate the dissected western scarp of

the Mount Loity Ranges, which corresponds in this area with the boundary

between the Pleistocene gravels and sands to the west, and the uplifted Pre-

Cambrian sediments, etc., to the east. The maximum height of the range within

this area is 1,350 feet, and it is likely that three separate differentially uplifted fault

blocks are represented.

Fig. 2

Plan of the same areas as fig. 1, showing contours, V.1.50 feet.

The broken lines represent present-day roads, <A indicates the Gun Emplacement.

Fig. 3 is a section drawn from west to east through the middle part of

figs. 1 and 2. This shows both relief and geology. The eastern highland block

consists of Pre-Cambrian quartzites and slates, hard and resistant to ¢crosion.

The western lower block (the Para Block) is of more decomposed slates together

0b" ae 7 77 E

Hie

1000" 37, 7 Vi My

g00' p 7h

ae ee TITS cs BEDROCK OF THE

Spanning ! MOUNT LOFTY RANGES

i? PARA BLOCK BEDROCK J y

Fig. 3

Fast-west Section through the middle part of the area mapped in figs. 1 and 2,

showing relief and structure. The Gun Emplacement beds are in black, the

sands, ete., dotted.

with some quartzite, and within this arca the block is covered, up to a depth of

200 feet in places, with sands, gravels, clays, lignites, and lignitic clays. The

platform shown at A in figs. 1 and 2 is indicated in the middle of the section.

The eastern and western blocks are divided here by a fault or faults.

TV Tur AttuviaL Drposits, THEIR ORIGIN AND AGE

Professor Howchin has traced with great care the sands and gravels here-

abouts, and has shown them in fig. 2, p. 23, of his second paper on the Dead Rivers

of South Australia (loc. cit.). Northward at Sampson Flat, where similar gravels

also occur, there is definite evidence, both geological and physiographic, of the chief

western fault of the Mount Lofty Ranges, running almost north-south, and

separating the main range (here represented by Bald Hill) from the higher part

of the Para Block.

Professor Howchin saw in the Hope Valley-Anstey Hill arca three distinct

terraces of his dead Barossa River, and there are indced three distinct flat-topped

areas of level ground within these alluvials. The first is at Highbury, 450 feet;

the sccond a little farther towards Anstey Ifill at 500 feet; and the third is the

Gun Emplacement itself at 650 fect. Howchin, who counts these as three terraces

on the left bank of a south-flowing river, makes no attempt to explain the where-

abouts of the corresponding western terraces or the western slope of that river

valley. When one considers the topographic section, east to west through the

area, it is found impossible to imagine a set of conditions under which these

three “terraces” could have been formed as river terraces of a stream flowing

down from the north. The western side of the valley of the “dead Barossa River”

not only does not exist today, but all the available evidence 1s against the possibility

of it ever having existed.

‘There is little doubt that the whole of the gravels, sands, and clays in this

area were laid down by heavily-burdered streams coming from the uplifted

Mount Lofty Ranges and depositing their burden under fluviatile, lacustrine, and

fluvio-lacustrine conditions. The Gun Emplacement probably represents the

highest part of one of these alluvial deltas. Thc material of this deposit becomes

coarser towards the hill, indicating that direction as the source.

Several bores have been put down in this area, mostly in search of brown

coal. The first of these, in Section 827, near the Hope Valley Reservoir, struck

bedrock at a depth of 17 feet. The bore in Section 845 (see fig. 1) showed 60 feet

of sand, gravel, and clay. Nine bores were put down by the Mines Department

in Section 824 {see fig. 1) and passed through sands, pebbles, lignitic clays,

lignites, and clays. The average depth of the alluvial deposits in Section 824 was

about 200 fect. lerruginous grits occur here and there on the surface at lower

levels. ‘These facts, with others gathered by the writer from field observations,

are embodied in the Geological Section, fig. 3.

Age of the Beds—Apart from unidentiliable lignitic material, together with

fragments of silicified wood and leaf fragments, there are no known fossils in

these beds of sands and clays. Where the orange-coloured, even-textured,

incoherent sands are revealed to their greatest thickness, reaching from the

‘Torrens Valley near Springhead Farm, up to the foot of the scarp of the Gun

Emplacement at Anstey Lill, there are numerous extensive openings where the

sand is being exploited for building and other purposes. In these places its

character is shown to be quite unconsolidated—the sort of material which, in the

phrase of Professor Douglas Johnson, would readily be washed away by erosion

“like dirt off a board.”

That 1s to say, the continued existence of these beds today is evidence that

they have not been exposed to erosive action for any considerable time. The

harder iron-cemented beds of the Gun Emplacement itself readily weather to

sands, and it would appear that the only difference between these upper beds

and the underlying sands is a little greater coarseness and the presence of some

ferruginous cement.

All these factors suggest that the beds must be relatively recent. Professor

Howchin, who was inclined to be strongly influenced by the presence of lignitic

material, classified the Hope Valley alluvials as “post Miocene.” The type of

mottling in the iron-stained beds is reminiscent of the “mottled clays” that, in

Victoria, are generally accepted as Pleistocene deposits.

Vhe fauli-front deposits of the Gun Emplacement are not to be confused

with the much older iron-stained grits and sandstones that rest upon the old

peneplain surface. The writer has investigated the “plateau ironstone grits” at

One Tree Hill, at Blackwood, at Baker’s Gully, near Clarendon, and also on the

residual uplifted peneplain above Tenafeate Creck.

At Baker’s Gully numerous specimens of woody stems and some beautifully

preserved leaves were obtained, which were determined by Frederick Chapman

as Magnelia Brown (vide Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust., 4, 171 and 179, also 61, 8;

also “Lhe Book of Fossils,” I. Chapman, 119).

There is little fossil evidence available in the Teatree Gully area. The bores

in the western part of Section 824 (see fig. 1) revealed: (a) 20-30 feet of sand-

stone and surface materials, 30-40 fect of argillaceous sandstone, 70-80 fect af

drift sand, and finally 50-70 fect of clays, lignites, and lignitic clays. “Some leaf

fragments were obtained in the clay between the lignite beds at a depth of between

160 and 170 feet in No. 5 borehole. These were submitted to the National

Museum in Melbourne, but were not sufficiently well-preserved for the age of

the beds to be deduced. One leaf appeared to have been derived from a eucalypt.”

(Mining Review, South Australia, No. 33, 1921, 27).

There is a clear distinction between the beds at and beneath the Gun Emplace-

ment compared with the plateau grits of One Tree I/ill, Baker’s Gully, and

Tenafeate Creek localities. This may be demonstrated best from the physiographic

point of view, but the lithological and palaeontological evidence, such as is avail-

able, also provides support [or the distinction.

The plateau grits are uplifted, broken, and tilted by the faulting that affected

the Miocene limestones. The major iaulting was probably early Pliocene. The

plateau grits, with their magnolia flora, were pre-fault deposits.

The materials of the Gun Emplacement beds, on the other hand, as well as

the sands of Springhead Farm, Golden Grove, and Hope Valley are clearly post-

fault in origin, loosely compacted or poorly cemented, with lignites and possibly

with eucalyptus leaves. The physiographic evidence in each case is incontro-

vertible. The Gun Emplacement beds are post-fault, therefore possibly Pliocene

in the lowest beds, ranging up to late Pleistocene in the upper iron-stained cappings.

The preservation of this platform against the erosive attacks of the Torrens and

Dry Creek tributaries constitutes further evidence of a late Pleistocene to

Recent Age.

V INTERPRETATION OF THE Facts

‘The writer is impressed by the significance of the high level alluvials of

Anstey Hill. At the same time it is admittedly difficult to determine the correct

interpretation of the facts. ‘Two possibilities are suggested, and each will be dealt

with separately :

(a) The first hypothesis demands an acknowledgment of the existence, in

recent geological times, of a vast and deep deposit of alluvial material over the

Para Block and the Adelaide Plains, such as has never been considered as part of

the geological history of this area.

(b) The second hypothesis requires the acceptance of a geologically Recent

uplift of the western blocks of the Mount Lofty Ranges, together with the Para

Block, carrying these alluvial beds to a height greater than that at which they

were originally deposited.

Taking the first hypothesis (a), it is obvious that these alluvial beds, clearly

fluvial or lacustrine, or both, cannot be accepted as a single and isolated occurrence.

If they were formed at a height of 650 fect to 700 feet above sea level, about

500 feet higher than the site of Adelaide, then there must also have been deposited,

at the same time, at or about the same height along the adjoining scarp face,

similar alluvial deposits,

There is no possible barrier or rock-bank which could have caused the

deposits to accumulate in this one place only, nor is there any special character

in the streams here that would have given them greater powers of deposition. It

stich vast alluvial deposits existed up to 650-700 feet above sea level, along the face

of the ranges in the Adelaide area, then their destruction (except for the Anstcy

Hill relic) has been complete and almost dramatic in character.

The second hypothesis (b) is that of recent uplift along the fault lines of

ihe major blocks in the Adelaide area. The writer has already stressed the fact,

loc. cit., that the most westerly of the high blocks of the Mount Lofty and

Flinders Ranges have undergone extensive uplift subsequent to the last move-

ment of the more easterly blocks.

Evidence of this is found is almost every stream that crosses the blocks

flowing towards the west. In the upper reaches of these streams, as in the Rivers

Torrens and Onkaparinga, there are wide, mature valleys. As the streams

cross the western blocks of the mountain range, the broad valleys are constricted

to deep and narrow gorges. The geological evidence shows that this is not due

to differential hardness of rocks. There is no geological reason for the change.

The reason is structural, and is due to the more recent uplift of the western

blocks (not always the most westerly) of the ranges. This observation is equally

true throughout some hundreds of miles along the western scarp of the South

Australian cusp-shaped block-faulted highlands, and is evidenced in the following

valleys known to the writer: Onkaparinga, Torrens, South Para, Light,

Broughton, Willochra, Hookina, Brachina, and Parachilna.

The facts in the preceding paragraph are not adduced in favour of a Recent

uplift, but of a Pleistocene movement. The probability of a late tendency to

upward movement in the western blocks of our ranges is, however, of interest

when we come to consider the possibility of Recent movements.

The scarp of the Para Block immediately west of the city of Adelaide, from

the Newmarket Hotel to the Keswick Bridge, is a marked though low physio-

graphic feature. It was one of the two ultimate factors that determined the site

of the city itself.

This feature is an undoubted fault scarp. It is also a “dirt scarp.” For

over 20 years the writer has lost no opportunity of inspecting excavations in this

area, such as wells, foundations for city buildings, and so on; one of these excava-

tions was on West Terrace, on the very edge of the scarp. All these excavationis

showed the upper beds of the higher block to be muds, clays, sands, and gravels.

It was in these. materials that the scarp, west of Adelaide, was formed, and it is

still sufficiently well preserved to be observable. It is an undoubted dirt scarp,

the continued existence of which is clear evidence of faulting and uplift during

Recent times,

Dr. R. Lockhart Jack has shown that fault scarps of Pleistocene to Recent

age are to be found im the Counties of Jervois and York on north-eastern Eyre

Peninsula. He informs me that there are undoubted fault scarps in “dirt” in that

area. In the same region, and on the same faults, which are the western boun-

daries of the Spencer-Vincent Sunkland (just as those dealt with in this paper

are the eastern boundaries of the same Sunkland), there are faults which truncate

the Miocene and other Tertiary beds. Probably the dirt scarps mentioned by

Dr. Jack are, in that area, later continuations of Middle Tertiary and Pleistocene

movements, just as the Recent Adelaide uplifts must have been.

Dr. Jack’s published account of this interesting series of western (lyre

Peninsula) faults is contained in Bulletin No, 3 of the Geological Survey of South

Australia, entitled “The Geology of the County of Jervois and portions of the

Counties of Buxton and York, etc.” On page 9 of his paper Dr. Jack refers to

the irregular fault, shown in his maps, which runs for nearly 50 miles from near

Cowell to near Whyalla, and mentions the steepness of the scarp, ranging from

40 fect to 110 feet above the coastal plain, and refers to it as a “post Upper

Tertiary” fault.

CONCLUSION

Good evidence exists for the occurrence of Recent movements of uplift on

both the western and the eastern sides of the Spencer-Vincent Sunkland—the

so-called Rift Valley of South Australia.

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate ITI

1 Looking north from Athelstone to Anstey Hill. In the central portion of

the skyline is seen the flat surface of the Gun Emplacement.

2 Looking south from Anstey Hill road, at 650 feet, showing the beds of

consolidated ferruginous sands that cap the Gun Emplacement.

3. Looking west from Anstey Hill, from above 700 feet, showing in the right foreground

the level surface of the Gun Emplacement. The Para Block lies below and beyond.

Supporting evidence concerning the existence of dirt scarps, testifying to

recent earth movements, involving the differential displacement of alluvial

materials in this part of Australia is to be found in a paper by Dr. W. J. Harris

(Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 51, 1939, 45). Dr. Harris writes to me (16/5/39): “The

scarp from north of Echuca to Deniliquin is a dirt scarp, a grassy bank dropping

decidedly from the higher level to the swampy, low-lying country to the east.

In parts it is modified by crosion. At Mathoura the Gulpa has eroded it, and

there is a clay and loam cliff.”

Tt may be that the Gun Emplacement beds of Anstey Hill were originally

deposited at their present height of 650-700 feet above sea level, 300 fcet above

the site of Adelaide, and in part covering that area; in which case they must have

been part of a vast series of alluvial deltas for which we should seek further

evidence along the scarp face of the Mount Lofty Ranges.

On the other hand, it may be that the Gun Emplacement beds were raised

from a lower level to their present height by a differential uplift movement of a

more Recent character than has hitherto been considered for the Adelaide Region.

For this hypothesis also further evidence must be sought. In either case, it is

desirable that we recognise the significance of the Anstey Hill alluvial deposits.

In the opinion of the writer both factors operated. There was probably a

deeper and more widespread fan-delta alluviation of the Adelaide area, up to

the scarp front, than has usually been considered. Also, there appear to have been

late Pleistocene to Recent uplifts that affected these deposits,

The vast accumulations of alluvial material that covered portion of the Adelaide

Plains have since been removed by erosion and have gone towards building up the

great deposits of alluvial on the floor of the rift west of Adelaide (2,000 feet in the

Croydon bore), and towards extending the Adelaide plains to the westward.

The Gun Emplacement itself is a unique relic. The writer 1s familiar with

the whole of the fault-scarp front of the Mount Lofty Ranges, from Seacliff in

the south to the lower part of the Tenafeate Creek Valley, thirty miles to the

north. Apart from some minor occurrences between Anstey Hill and Teatrce

Gully (continuations of the Gun Emplacement beds), there are no remains of

the same type at comparable heights. Should such beds be found, they would

provide valuable additional evidence concerning the theories put forward in

this paper.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer is indebted to the Lands Department, to Major Edmunds, and

to Mr. J. A. Tillett for assistance with plans; to Dr. F. J. Fenner for valuable

help in the field work; and to Mr. Allan F. Holland, who first directed his attention

(1931) to the fossil beds of Baker’s Gully.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES

The three selected views, from photographs by the author, show the Gun Emplace-

ment, Anstey Hill, from various critical aspects: (1) looking north, (2) locking south,

(3) looking west.

ON MAMMALS FROM THE LAKE EYRE BASIN

PARTIV THE MONODELPHIA

By H.H. FINLAYSON

Summary

RATTUS VILLOSISSIMUS VILLOSISSIMUS Waite

This is the miaroo of the present-day Wonkonguroo, but it is said that in an earlier usage the word

had a more general application to many, if not all kinds of rats.

ON MAMMALS FROM THE LAKE EYRE BASIN

PART IV THE MONODELPHIA

By A. H. FIntayson

[Read 11 May 1939]

Pirates IV anp V

RATTUS VILLOSISSIMUS VILLOSISSIMUS Waite

This is the miaroo of the present-day Wonkonguroo, but it is said that in

an eatlier usage the word had a more general application to many, if not all kinds

of rats.

First described by Gould, in 1854, as Mus longipilis, from a single specimen

taken on Kennedy’s expedition of 1847 to the Victoria River (the modern Bareao),

the type remained unique till 1894 when two more specimens were obtained by

the Horn Expedition, which enabled Waite (2) to describe the skull. In 1905

Stalker took a series of it at Alexandra Station and Alroy Downs in the Northern

‘erritory, which were briefly mentioned by Thomas (3). These and some

references to its swarming (4) contain all that is known about it, and they leave

villosisstmus a very imperfectly known species.

Habits

Tt appears to be the only species of Hattus in the district and is

here nearing the southern extremity of its range, which extends north and north-

east over a large area of sub-arid Quecnsland and into the sub-tropical Gulf

country of that State and the Northern Territory. It is of considerable general

biological interest as constituting, pay excellence, the migratory horde rat of arid

Australia and the majority of the carlicr references to swarms of R. norvegicus

and R. rattus (and its synonyms) and of other large unidentified murids within

the above area may be attributed with some confidence to it.

Ordinarily in the area (5) here dealt with it occurs very sparsely. In

December, 1931, during my time in the district, its numbers were rapidly increas-

ing, and towards the end of the month it was sufficiently numerous at night to be

a nuisarice in camps owing to its pilfering. This increase continued well into the

winter of 1932 and died away again to normal sparseness by September of that

year; since then there have been other increases, but on a much smaller scale.

Some theoretical points arising out of these fluctuations will be discussed

later.

Normally it is strictly fossorial and nocturnal and exceedingly obscure in

its way of life. Even in times of increase, when the accommodation in burrows

is quite inadequate and a proportion necessarily live upon the surface, it is very

seldom seen in daylight, in summer at least. The burrows of the “resident”

Trans Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (1), 28 July 1939

population are almost always situated on the slope near the base of a sandhill ana

not upon claypans or gibber plains. The mouth of the hole is left open, and in

several burrows which yielded rats on excavation the main drive extended 10 feet

or more, obliqucly towards the centre of the mound, reaching at the end a depth

of 3 to 4 feet, below the sloping sand surface; at this level the sand was deliciously

cool on days when the shade temperature reached 118° F. after several weeks of

very hot weather. The actual length of the burrow is much greater than the

surface measurement owing to the numerous undulations in a vertical plane,

which are present. In some cases side passages leave the main drive, but they

are blind and of no great extent. No nesting chambers nor young were found,

and three sub-adults was the maximum taken from one hole.

When taken from the burrows and observed in a box cage their behaviour

was fierce and pugnacious to a degree. ‘The long coat was bristled erect, they

squealed incessantly, the small dark cyes glared, and they rushed at material

intruded into the cage and bit savagely and repeatedly. A behaviour pattern

very different, or much more extreme, than what is to be observed under similar

conditions with greyi, lutreola and assimilis in the south, and strikingly different

from that of ils associate Pseudomys minnie. In the twilight Mr. Reese has

repeatedly seen miaroos in pursuit of Aus musculus and Ps. minnie, and the

accounts of the blacks leave no doubt that while generally herbivorous, it becomes,

when opportunity offers, an active and effective predator upon other murines,

and possibly upon ground birds, too. Of seven stomachs which I examined on

the Diamantina only one showed definite traces of animal matter, the others being

packed with rather coarsely comminuted vegetable products, some ol it apparently

derived from the dark red seed capsules of a local [fakea. However, T. Wall,

of Kennedy’s Expedition of 1847, in notes transmitted to J. Gould, mentions that

being intrigued as to how this species was subsisting in a district apparently

destitute of vegetation and other animal life, he examined the stomachs of several

and found them all to contain a fleshly mass. The assumed absence of other

animal life may not have been so in fact, but Wall’s emergent theory on the

“cannibalism” of the rats is not improbable and certainly contributes towards the

explanation of the rapid dispersal of swarms.

In spite of its strength and vigour, it is very intolerant of the summer stn.

Two large males, taken uninjured from burrows, were placed in a cage and,

through inadvertance, were left fully exposed to the sun at 11 a.m. on a very hot

morning. When discovered, 20 minutes later, they were both dead; a curious

instance of the lethal powers of stnlight and high temperatures upon a

vertebrate)

On its reproduction there is little satisfactory information. All the males

taken both in December, 1931, and the following winter had well-developed testes

Gregory, The Dead Heart of Australia, 133; and Spencer, Narrative of the Horn Expedi-

tion, 28

in prominent scrota, In six females examined, however, no embryos were found,

nor were any nestlings taken nor independent young seen of less than about half

growth. In the combined series of 26 specimens, on which the following account

of characters is based, and which represents three gatherings, viz., December,

1931, June, 1932, and April, 1934, there is a preponderance of males to females

in the ratio of 2:2 to 1.

The rat has a powerful, persistent smell, which is still very evident in dried

skins after seven years. When obtainable, it is eaten in large numbers by the

local blacks. Its parasites have not been examined, though a Laclaps was noticed

to occur.

Fexternal Characters

The following description is based upon living or freshly chloroformed

animals in the field and is supplemented by reference to a series of 26 examples:

18 skins and skulls and 8 alcohol-preserved.

The rat is quite differently shaped from the familiar species greyt, lutreola

and assimilis of the south, in that the body is long and tapering, and lacks the

hunching of the hind quarters characteristic of these. The build is strong and

active in young adults, but becomes excessively burly in old males corresponding

to skull type “B” of the table of measurements. Although the contrary might

be inferred from the skull, the head appears straighter in profile and less arched

than in the above species; partly owing to the slecker pcelage of the crown and

face. The eye is very small. The ear is also small; relatively thick in substance,

without a fold line in the pinna, and is bluntly rounded without notching of the

outline. The conch is pinkish within, but the upper parts of the pinna are pig-

mented moderately dark and are very sparsely haired. The mysticial vibrissae

are only moderately developed; the lower anterior members white, the upper

posterior black.

‘The manus is comparatively long but weak and slender in build. In a typical

adult male of medium growth its length from the base of the carpal pads to the

summit of the apical pads, 16 mm.; breadth across base of digits 2-5, 6 mm.,

and length of third digit, 8mm. The palm bluish pink or white; interdigital pads

small and unequal; the third larger than the other two and with a small satellite ;

carpals subequal.

Pes relatively large in proportion to the size of the rat, the ratio length of

pes to length of head and body about 1:5-3; but decidedly narrow, the ratio

breadth to length, about 1:5-0. he sole dark bluish, of the parallcl-sided type,

not tapering evenly to heel, but the heel suddenly constricted. Pads relatively

low and narrow; second and third interdigitals subequal, pyriform, with their

distal moicties mttch raised above the proximal, decidedly larger than first and

fourth which are also subequal. Fourth usually with a small round satellite

laterad to the main pad. The outer metatarsal very low, small and oval, about as

in lutreola, Inner metatarsal surprisingly long, 7 mm., narrow; almost as in

alexandrinus. All pads smooth.

The tail is short, always less than the head and body; thick at the base and

tapering rapidly. Mammae as given by Waite (2).

Gould’s plate, the only illustration of the species extant, is good, but in general

shape the hgures are too Pseudomys-like and insufficiently rakish and the head

too chubby and too small. The pelage is represented more erect than it normally

is, and the tail is much too light in colour.

Pelage

As the existing descriptions are scanty and are based upon material apparently

alcohoi-preserved in both cases, the following brief re-description is supplied

irom freshly-kiiled animals and from skins made in the field without contact with

a liquid preservative of any kind.

The outer coat is everywhere harsh on the dorsum and somewhat adpressed,

except on the curve of the rump where the long guard hairs are somewhat upstand-

ing. The villose character of the rat, however, is not much more marked than in

some southern species, such as lutreola and assimilis where the hairs, if not as

long, are more erect. The dorsal coat has a triple composition: (a) guard hairs

upwards of 60 mm. in length, subeircular in section and jet black throughout their

length or with a short white inconspicuous tip; (6) an intermediate series of

about 20 mm. and more strongly flattened in section; these are slate at the base,

a clear pale yellowish buff in the middle and with a short black tip; (c) an under-

fur 8-10 mm. long, of a medium slate grey, entirely obscured in a dorsal view.

‘The resulting external colour is a pale grizzle of black and buff, cold and yellowish

in tone, and this extends uniformly over the whole dorsum from muzzle to root

of tail and with slight loss of the yellow element, on to the sides as well. Ina

few individuals small arcas on the nape and rump immediately above the tail base

are darker. The general appearance of the dorsum is similar to that of a pale

Isoodon obesiulus, and at a distance of 3-4 feet the colour corresponds roughly to

Ridgway’s “Isabella.”

The ventral underfur is much paler slate with the flattened series white or

ivory; the underfur shows through somewhat and the external colour of the

ventrum is a greyish white tending to cream at the junction with the sides. The

external aspect of the fore limb is coloured like the dorsum as far as the carpus,

where it gives place at an angular termination to the pure white of the manus.

In some examples the grizzling extends on to the metacarpus, but the digits and

inner aspect of the limb are always white. On the hind limb the distribution of

colour is analogous, except that the grizzling ends squarely at the tarsus and never

invades the metatarsus. The tail is rather well clad on all surfaces with jet black

hairs about 3 mm, long rather closely applied, but not obscuring the scutation

which is as given by Waite. The jet black tail is conspicuously contrasted with the

body colour.

Variation amongst skins which have had comparable treatment is very slight,

both as regards age, sex and season. ‘lhe coarseness of the grizzle and genera!

tone of colour shows slight individual differences and the immature pelage is

softer in texture than the adult, but the differences are of a minor kind, When

comparison is made between the fresh field skins and those which have been made

up at a later date from alcohol-preserved material, however, very decided

differences are apparent. ‘The latter have a decided warm brown suffusion,

amounting in some cases to a rich ferruginous wash, especially marked on the

flanks, and the ventrum varies from cream, through pale buff, to lemon yellow.

That the differences between the two scts are really due to alcohol immersion is

apparent from the fact that the effect is almost proportional to the duration of

pickling; skins made up after a few weeks only in alcohol approximate to the

fresh series, while those filled six years later show the most decided reddish tone

and white labels with them are also stained. The colouring matter is possibly

derived from the dark red ligneous stomach contents previously menticned, but

in addition to the changes from this cause there is a familiar fading of blacks

to reddish browns. It is interesting to note also that the immersion in alcohol

has two other effects: the grizzling appears to become coarser and more irregular,

resulting in a mottled effect quite absent irom fresh material, and the coat becomes

fluffier and more ercct.

Flesh dimensions are variable for adults within wide limits (see below)

but part of the variation at least is due to the difficulty of applying strict tests

for maturity, as explained in the treatment of the skull. The weights quoted are

for rats taken in December, 1931, at Appamunna, but a serics from Mulka in the

following winter furnished several males of greatly superior bulk though not

commensurate differences in other dimensions. The female is but slightly smaller

than the male.

Skull and Dentition—Eighteen examined. The very great apparent variability

of the skull of this species has already been commented on by Thomas (3), and

his remarks are partly borne out by the present series. Much of the inconstancy,

however, is really due to a difficulty in applying satisfactory criteria of

maturity. The closing of the parietal sutures, the development of the temporal

and supraorbital ridges, the rugosity of the walls of the brain case and molar

crown wear, are all initiated at an early stage in cillosissimus. Of the 18 crania

only one presents obvious evidence of immaturity in these particulars, and this is

derived from a rat of less than one-half the bulk of the largest of the series;

even so, its molars show appreciable wear. In the remainder of the series the

13 males shows a gradation through moderately ridged skulls having much the

same dorsal appearance as adults of FP. rattus, to excessively powerful, strongly

ridged, rugose skulls somewhat recalling norvegicus. These latter (five in number )

are also the largest in dimensions, and being fairly uniform in structure I would

regard them as exemplifying the true cranial characters of willosisstmus more

accurately than the pseudo adult, R. rattws-like phase of intermediate size. The

largest skull is figured at pl. v, figs. D, E, I’. The differences noted are fairly satis-

factorily correlated with differences in flesh dimensions; the largest and most

strongly ridged skulls belonging to the largest and most bulky rats, all taken in the

winter of 1932. ‘The outstanding features of the skull are its very powerful mus-

cular sculpture, the very small lacrymals and large bullae in association with long

narrow anterior palatal foramina, which may either reach the lingual cusp of the

first lamina of M!, or fall short of it, but never, so far as this series shows, reach

the middle of the tooth. The female skull is decidedly smaller and weaker than

that of the male, even when comparison is made between individuals of approxi-

mately the same dimensions.

| find the similarity to norvegicus much less marked than stated by Waite (2).

In addition to the distinctions given by him, it may be pointed out that in the

largest skulls of villostssimus the muscular impressions are much more prominent

than in the largest examples of norvegicus, and in all stages of the former the

temporal ridges are strongly convergent posteriorly and never parallel nor

divergent as in the brown rat.

Although, as shown in the table of dimensions, the limits of variation of the

species can be contracted somewhat by segregating the individuals into what are,

I believe, virtually age groups, there remains in each group a considerable varia-

tion both in dimensions and structure. It seems very probable that this is due to

diverse origin. At a time of mass movements of rat populations such as were

taking place when the series was gathered, a mixture of local strains, each

possibly homogeneous in its own district, would inevitably result.

The series reviewed is apparently in satisfactory agreement with Gould’s

type, but the material taken by the Horn Expedition, which unfortunately is not

accurately localized, but which certainly came from considerably west of the

Lake Eyre Basin, exhibits some minor anomalies. The head and body length of

the male measured by Waite is lower than the lowest value in my series (153 as

against 164), though the molars would indicate an old animal, and in the skull

the interorbital constriction is less developed and the molar rows are longer; the

last may be due to differences in measurement.

It is to be noted that the type locality of villosissimus villosissimus has not

been accurately laid down, There is nothing in Kennedy’s journal upon Wall’s

activities as a collector, and if Wall’s notes transmitted to Gould conveyed the

information as to locality, Gould omitted to transcribe it. Thomas seems to have

assumed that the type was collected at the Expedition’s “furthest out,’ “.¢., on

the Barcoo just below the 26° parallel and about 100 miles east of the location

of the present series and in exactly similar country, Tt is quite possible, how-

ever, that it was collected in the second belt of subdesert country traversed by the

party on its return, between the lower Warrego and Culgoa in north-west New

Scuth Wales, 400 miles south-west of the first locality.

Flesh Dimensions—The following figures give the range of dimensions in:

(1) 12 males, all showing decided wear on M! and free from obvious immaturity in

other features; (2) 6 females in similar condition; (3) 4 males, showing the

“intermediate” type of skull; (4) 5 males with strongly ridged skulls.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

164-203 157-195 173-188 179-203

Head and body -

Tail - 2 = - 133-168 138-155 145-156 150-168

Pes - - 7 5 32-37 31-36 32-35 33-36

Ear length - - - 19-23 19-21 19-22 21-23

Ear breadth - - 13-14 9 11°5-12 = =

Rhinarium to eye - 19-22 19-21 19-21 20-22

Eye to ear - - - 15-18 14-18 15-16 17-18

Weight (grammes) - 155-185) = 110-175 © — —

Skull Dimensions—The following figures give the range of values in:

(1) 6 males (subadults?) of intermediate skull characters but decidedly worn

molars; (2) 5 fully adult males with strongly ridged skulls and completely flat-

tened molar crowns; (3) 4 females at a stage similar to (1).

(1) (2) (3)

Greatest length - - - 39°340°7 41-243°9 3776-396

Basal length - - - 35:°6-37°8 38°640°3 34°0-35°2

Zygomatic breadth = - - 19-4-20°7 20-8-22°1 18-6-19°0

Braincase breadth - - 15-0-15°8 15-7-16°5 14-9-15:2

Nasals, greatest length - 14°5-15-4 15:5-16°5 13-1-15-6

Nasals, greatest breadth ~— - 4:0-4'8 4:2-4°7 3:-44°5

Interorbital breadth - - 48253 4-6-5'1 4°8-5°0

Palatal length = - - - 21:3-23-0 22°6-23°5 20°5-22-0

Ant. palatal foramina - 8-0-8 '6 * 8:4-9-2 7°6-8°0

Bulla: max. length - - 7:2-8°7 7'8-8:°7 7°5-8:0

Upper molar row (crowns) 6°8-7"1 7°0-7°3 7:0-7°1

Pseupomys (PsrEuDoMys) MINNIE Troughton

The pallyoora of the Wonkonguroo, and “river rat” of the older settlers.

Although there are references to it in the literature (4) under the latter

name, the animal remained unrecognised as a species until 1930, when specimens

collected by Mr. Reese were examined by myself. A portion of the same series

was examined independently by Troughton, who published the above name

for it (6). It was regarded by the latter as intermediate between Ps, auritus

Thomas and Ps. australis Gray, but although it is perhaps originally derivative

from such forms, it is now decidedly specialized to arid conditions, and in some

respects may be regarded as a typical eremian product. While mindful of the

specific identity of several Lake Eyre Basin mammals with coastal forms, the

@)> Three only.

@) No weights are available for the largest males; a conservative estimate would be

250 grammes

impossibility of instituting adequate comparison with the rats named justifies,

temporarily at any rate, the adoption of a full specific name. Similarly its relation

to “Mus fieldi” Waite, though evidently close can be elucidated satisfactorily only

by examination of further cxamples of the latter.

Its range is still to be worked ont. In addition to its occurrence in the present

area, Troughton has recorded a representative of it in the Longreach district of

Queensland (7) and I have obtained it at several points west of the Lake Eyre

Basin and as far south as Ooldea. It is excessively variable even within narrow

territorial limits, and its migratory tendencies, even if less marked than those of

villosissimus, raake it probable that it will prove to be a plastic protean species

over wide areas of the east and east central arid tracts.

Habits—In December, 1931, I found it very plentiful at Appamunna, Coon-

cherie and other points in the Goyder’s Lagoon area. Unlike willosissimus, how-

ever, it had attained plague proportions almost a year before this and its popula-

tion had already undergone several fluctuations. These culminated in the peak

of May, 1932, following which there was a rapid decline to normal numbers again.

Its burrows are smaller and less elaborate than those of villosissimus and

were always found upon clay flats or river banks and never in sandhills, They

were shallow when on flats, not more than 6-8 inches deep, and frequently were

in the vicinity of ignum bushes (Muchlenbeckia cunningham) and ran up from

the mouth towards the roots of the same, but no second entrance or exit was

noticed. All those excavated proved to be simple, without side passages and no

nests nor nest chambers were found. A large proportion of the pallyooras, how-

ever were living under surface shelters of the flimsiest kind, one of the most

frequently used being a shallow excavation under a disk of cattle dung. When

riding about the country the blacks frequently noticed the conspicuous white tail

imperfectly concealed in such a squat, and more than once dismounted and made

an easy capture. In the main it is nocturnal, but was seen abroad more often than

the other murids, chiefly, no doubt, through its being more easily disturbed in its

trifling shelter. When driven from its holes in the day time, it proved to have

little speed and was easily overtaken and caught by the blacks on foot, In disposi-

tion it is comparatively mild and gentle, and though it squeals and offers to bite

when freshly taken from its burrows, it does so much less viciously than the

miaroo and, with care, may be handled with impunity. When freshly taken [rom

its holes in the day time and presumably newly wakened, the unusually large ear

was seen to be folded or crumpled in an irregular way close against the head;

when chloroformed in this condition, the ears slowly unfold and erect themselves

compictely and then show no trace of a crease line.

‘The diet, as deduced from the stomach contents and the accounts of the

blacks, is purely vegetable. In all stomachs examined the mass of material is

finely comminuted, pale and granular and evidently represents seeds and tender

herbage; in a considerable number the granular constituent was mixed with a

proportion of fine fluff, suggesting a vegetable pith.

The data available on reproduction indicate large fluctuations in activity,

which, however, cannot be significantly correlated with any local ecological factors

of which [ have information. So far as females are concerned it relates to four

distinct periods at three different localities, and may be summarized thus:

(1) June, 1931, Cordilla: Of six females examined five were lactating and had

uteri recently evacuated ; one was pregnant with four full-term embryos (30 mm.) ;

(2) October, 1931, Appamunna: Uterine condition not satisfactorily determined

but reproduction evidently active, five growth stages being represented in the

collected material, the smallest being helpless nestlings. (3) December, 1931,

Appamunna: No embryos in two adult females examined, no nestlings found

and the series of 18 taken includes none under half growth. (4) June, 1932,

Mulka: Reproduction at a low ebb, but probably on the eve of a renewal; of 14

females examined, seven were not lactating and possessed non-pregnant quiescent

uteri; the remainder were pregnant with carly embryos, of which there were four

in five individuals, five in one, and three in one.

The testes of adult males are variable in each of these batches; prominent

and scrotal in some, retracted in others. The actual size of the testis, however,

does not fluctuate as much as in some southern species.

The rat is free from the strong smell of villosissimus. It was heavily infested

with a Laelaps, identified by IH. Womersley (8) with a species occurring on

Pseudoinys (Gyvomys) apedemoides 700 miles south.

External Characters—The original description is based upon a few indi-

viduals only, from one locality. As the animal is extremely variable, the follow-

ing summary of external characters has been drawn up, based primarily upon

living or fresh killed examples in the field, supplemented by a series of 78

specimens, of which 40 are alcohol-preserved, and 38 skins and skulls. The serics

is drawn from six distinct localities within the Basin, representing all the main

types of habitat zones, in mid-summer and mid-winter, and in a wide range of

developmental stages.

In life it is a beautiful little animal of variable but always delicate colouration,

and notable among its allies for its very long ears and almost white, conspicuous

tail, and a series of specializations somewhat reminiscent of Notomvs. It is

relatively long-limbed but, owing to the hunching of the hind quarters charac-

teristic of the group, its general appearance is compact rather than slender. The

head is of medium proportions, the ratio, length of skull: head and body averag-

ing 1: 3-8 in both sexes, and the muzzle rather long and heavy. ‘The eye is con-

spicuousiy large and prominent, round and staring as in Notenys, and the

diameter from canthus to canthus about 7 mm. Lyelashes, both above and below,

are poorly developed; dark and contrasted with the somewhat lighter areas of the

face. Mysticial vibrissae moderate, up to 35 mm. long; antero-inferior white,

postero-supetior black or black with white tips. Supraorbitals 27 mm., dark.

Genals weak. 15 mm. The car reaches 25 mm. in length (relatively much the

longest recorded for the group), with a maximum width across the trough of the

pinna in its natural unfolded state, of 14 mm. Conch and lower parts of the

pinna pale and naked; at the tips and towards the margins pigmented dark, but

not strongly.

Manus very variable as to absolute size and the relative proportion of palmar

pads. Its size is not correlated strictly with bodily size, and some of its stoutest

manifestations are to be seen in small adult examples of the series. It is generally

stouter in males than females. In the largest example its length from the base

of the outer carpal pad to the third apical pad is 11 mm.; its greatest breadth

5 mm., and its longest digit 4 mm. All five pads are commonly crudely pyriform,

and in the majority the carpals, which are subequal, are much larger than the

three interdigitals, which are also subequal. Occasionally all five pads are stib-

equal, and in a few the interdigitals are larger than the carpals. The outer inter-

digital and inner carpal are rarely duplicated or heeled,

The pes is equally variable. It is always long in comparison with the size

of the rat; the ratio, length of pes: head and body about 1:4°5. The sole ts

narrow; its maximum breadth going into its length 5°8 times, and it 1s parallel-

sided for a large part of its length and does not taper evenly to the heel, which

is suddenly constricted.

In what might be regarded as an average condition, the second and third

interdigital pads are pyriform and subequal, che fourth is much larger than the

first and is broadened at the base and has a more or less distinct lowered heel

“separated from the main part of the pad. The first is similarly shaped but with-

out the heel. The metatarsals are very reduced and rounded in shape, and the

posterior of the two when present is about equidistant between toe tips and

calcanum. The degree of divergence from this condition may be thus summarized :

(1) the first and fourth interdigitals may be subequal (46%); (2) the fourth

may be simple and without a heel (41%), or it may rarely be distinctly duplicate

with an entirely separate satellite postcro-external to its base; (3) the first may

be obscurely heeled (21%) and round, pyriform or variously elongate; (4) if the

metatarsals are not subequal the posterior is larger and usually clongate instead

of round. The anterior metatarsal is absent in about 2% ; the posterior in about

13% ; and both in 2%. ‘These variations in foot character are strictly individual

and aceur in both sexes in all localities, and they are of practical moment as demon-

strating the difficulty which may atlend the definition of species by reference to

such features.

The tail is short and weak; its length variable but on an average going inte

that of the head and body 1-1 times. In one immature example only is it slightly

longer than the head and body. The scutation is everywhere obscured by its

pelage, and the tip ends in a small naked, polished knob.

The mammae are limited to four abdomino-inguinals; no trace of pectorals

being present in 21 females examined for this feature. When not functioning,

the mammae, especially the anterior pair, arc very completely retracted. The

posterior pair are about 12 mm. in advance of the clitoris and are about 15 mm.

apart; the anterior pair about 11 mm. in advance of the posterior and about

22 mm. apart. In immature females until about half growth, the vulva is

frequently occluded. In males the scrotal sacs are pigmented only upon the free

nude posterior lobes.

The flesh dimensions are given below, where the measurements of five

developmental stages from five separate litters are summarized in addition to the

range for adults. In adults they show a wide range of variation, amounting in

some items to 20%. The female, judged on the mean values for the whole series,

is as large as the male.

Pelage—Colouration is exceedingly variable, but the variations may be

reduced to four main groups. The following description is drawn up from a

series of field-made skins from Appamunna and Cooncherice in December, 1931,

which have had no contact with liquid preservatives and which represent the first

of these groups. This type is here used as a standard from which to define the

others.

Group I—Coat relatively short, fine, soft, but not fluffy. Mid-dorsally the

fur averages 13 mm. but has a sparse admixture of hairs reaching 18 mm. The

shorter hairs are bicolor, the basal two-thirds approximating Ridgway’s “Dark

Plumbeous,” the terminal third a bright clear buff varying from Ridgway’s “Warm

Buff” to “Cinnamon Buff.” The longer hairs (scarcely coarse cnough to be

called guard hairs) have a thin plumbeous shaft and a jet black tip which is

carried above the terminal buff zone and does not mix with it on the same levels.

The general external colour from muzzle to tail base is thus a bright buff lightly

pencilled with black. The belly fur is about 10 mm. long; its basal half a lead

colour a little lighter than on the back, and the distal half snow white. ‘The

ventral and dorsal surfaces are separated by a lateral band of rich buff free from

pencilling and handsomely contrasted both with the darker dorsum and white

ventrum. The sides of the muzzle, for a distance of 6 mm. from the rhinarium,

pale greyish without buff, the area sharply demarcated even in nestlings; the rest

of the upper surface of the head like the back, and the throat like the belly. In

the ear the inner aspects of the pinna are lightly haired with greyish-white,

externally with greyish-brown, the external hairing concentrated on the margins,

the anterior of which is the darker. TP orelimb nearly pure buff externally in the

proximal segment; lower segment, carpus and manus sharply defined pure white.

Hindlimb externally much as the dorsum, buff on the femoral margin, internally

white. Pes pure white above and with a conspicuous black grizzled pateh invest-

ing the caleaneum and extending up the tendon 3-5 mm. ‘Tail heavily furred with

rather erect hairs, sparser towards the naked tip. Dorsally it is pencilled with a

pale grizzle of black, white and buff, the density and extent of which are very

variable ; sometimes continued to the tip, sometimes confined to the basal one-fifth

or less. All surfaces not grizzled are white, and the tail as a whole is conspicuously

contrasted with the body. While the exact shade of colour varies, this colour

phase is well marked and is probably a reaction to the claypan-flood plain type of

habitat, and though it is best represented in material from the two localities cited,

it was obtained also at Ooroowillanie and Innamincka.

Group 2—This differs from Group 1 by the replacement of the yellow buff by

pink hues ranging from Ridgway’s “Salmon Buff” to “Vinaceous Cinnamon” and

by the less prominent pencilling of the dorsum. It is best represented by a large

series from Mutka in April, 1932, but occurs also in collections from Appamunna.

The general type of colouration is parallcled by some strains of Sminthopsis crassi-

caudata centralis, and is possibly an adaptive reaction to the gibber plain-sandhill

areas.

Group 3—Similar to Group 2 but with the pink tone replaced by browner

colours, approximating Ridgway’s “Tawny” or “Ochraceous Tawny.” It is most

plentifully represented in material from Cordillo but occurs also at Appamunna and

(outside the Basin) at Arckaringa, 60 miles south-west of Oodnadaita.

Group 4—A pallid ashy phase. Two examples only from Cordillo.

In addition to this main colour variation, which, in the first three groups at

any rate, is partly correlated with local conditions in the habitat, there is consider-~

able individual variation in the batches from each locality. Though the three

main types are quite distinct in their best examples, they intergrade perfectly

through several variants in each group, and similar individuals are to he found in

widely sundered places. The dark pencilling on the tail is remarkably variable

in all localities, and so also is the caleaneal patch, though it is never absent.

Comparison of fresh skins of the three main types with material preserved in

alcohol for varying periods has furnished some interesting data on the changes in

colouration which must be looked for fram this cause. The total effect, after

seven to eight years, varies with conditions of storage, strength of alcohol,

original fatness of the rat and stomach contents, but frequent effects appear to be:

(1) a change of blacks to red-browns; (2) staining of white to varying intensities

of yellow; (3) a change of pink and cinnamon tones to browns and ycllow-browns.

Sexual differences in pelage are negligible, and so also are seasonal; age

characters, however, are well marked. In furred nestlings of head and body

length of 65 mm. the dorsum is much darker than in adults owing to the pro-

fusion and adpression of guard hairs, but below this the underfur is more richly

coloured than in adults. At the 100 mm. stage the coat is erect and flutiy and

nearly concolourous over the dorsum, the infantile guard -hairs being entirely

shed; the colour of the subterminal band is now as in adults. Later again with

the progressive re-appearance of black “guard” hairs, trom the rump to the head,

the adult coat is attained. In fully adult examples the head is commonly pencilled

like the back.

Skull Characters—The general characters of the skull are shown in pl. v, figs.

G, 11, I, of an aged male from Appamiunna, belonging to the first pelage group. It

is notable for the marked though variable concavity in the outline of the zygomata,

which generally reach their maximum width of arch near the posterior root. The

subgeneric characters of the anterior margin of the zygomatic plate, the pterygoid

100

region and the dentition are shown without important variation by the whole

_series, but in many other respects, both metrical and non-metrical, the variation

is wide, amounting in the former to 15% in some items. In the latter should be

mentioned especially the differences in the zygomatic outline, in the shape of the

interparietal in which the posterior margin may be either straight or strongly

angular, and the palatal foramina which usually reach to the level of the mesial

cusp of the first lamina of M!, but may fall short or exceed this. Sexual differ-

ences are slight, the female skull giving measurements as large or slightly larger

than the male. The age changes are illustrated in the data for five growth stages

taken fron: live litters, the flesh dimensions of which are also recorded.

The study of this rat affords a significant example of the uncertainties which

may attend the taxonomic treatment of such forms when ample data is not avail-

able and is not used statistically. The variations, both in flesh dimensions and

skull, can be partially localized and made te correspond in some particulars with

cach af the three main pelage types. Thus, for example, the bright buff phase

from \ppamunna in December, 1931, has on an average, a decidedly lighter

skull with more concave zygomata than the pink type from Mulka in the winter

of the following year, and the stunted adults of 1930 from Cordillo, have on an

average larger manus and pes than either, in addition to a distinctive brown

colouration. Comparison of the individuals from each group which exhibit

maximum differences, would certainly, in the absence of additional knowledge,

convey a strong nupression of their subspecific or even specific difference. But

in fact, all attempts to construe such differences in this way are frustrated by

the presence of a large proportion of intermediate individuals in each locality,

and by the frequent simultaneous occurrence of identical rat types at widely

sundered places, though it may be on similar types of country. While average

dimensions may vary from place to place, there is never a sharp break in any

one dimension and the range of values overlaps in all localities tested, and forms a

continuous series over the whole area. In addition to the variation in absclute

dimensions as between individuals in the same area, there is the further complica-

tion of a lack of correlation of proportion in parts in the same individuals, such

as can usually be readily traced and predicted in rats of the more stable coastal

conmnunities. Thus maxima and minima for skull dimensions, molar wear and

foot, ear, and bedy length may be found indifferently in the same individual,

thus complicating, incidentally, the application of maturity tests, In tabulating

dimensions | have been guided chiefly, but not exclusively, by the extent of

molar wear after a first rejection of all individuals showing the more obvious

juvenile characters.

The hetercgeneous nature of this species in the Lake Eyre Basin is, no doubt,

to be assigned to similar causes to those which operate upon R, cillosissimuts,

though in this case the results are much more marked. hat is, in the first place,

to a high inherent plasticity which enables the rats to colonize areas of river

flats, flood plains, gibber plains, sandhills and claypans. Here life cycles are run

101

under different conditions of severity and detailed adaptation, which result in

the moulding of definite strains or incipient races ; and in the second place, to the

uprooting and irregular commingling of these strains during times of mass

migration.

Dimensions--The following figures give, in columns 1-4 the dimensions of

four individuals representing four growth stages, aud in columns 5 and 6 the

range in 25 “adult” females and 22 “adult” males of Ps. minnic, respectively.

Flesh (14) (28) Ge) 42) (G)® (6)

Head and body - - 53 66 73 98 106-138 103-140

Tail - - - - 27 43 57 85 87-116 88-113

Pes - - - - 15 18 23 26 26-29 26-30

Ear length - - 65 14 17. 20:5 21-25 21-25

Rhinarium to eye - 8 — —- 15-17 14-17

Eye to ear - - - 7 — —_— = 9-12 9-12

Weight (grammes) - —— — —_— — 58-75) 56-80

Skull () (9)

Greatest length - - — 231 — — 30°3-33:2 30°7-33°1

Basal length = - - = (5 = = 274e290- 26'3-28-8

Zygomatic breadth = - - - 16°3-17°3)-15:0-17°4

Brainease breadth - — 137%cea.— — 13°9-146 = 13-9-15-1

Interorbital breadth = - os 4-50 -—- 3-844 3-844

Nasals, length - - — 75 05-127 110-130

Nasals, breadth - - — 30 — — 3°2-3'4 3°0-3°8

Palatal leneth = - - — 138 — — 16°3-18:0 — 16:0-18-0

Ant. palatal foramina - —- 49 0 — = 7°2-8:'2 7'2-8'1

Bulla - - - — 48 — — 5:0-3°5 4-8-5:°7

Upper molar series - Not erupted 5*5-6'1 5°3-6'0

PSEUDOMYS RAWLINNAE (Troughton)

In the registers of the South Australian Museum, two specimens of this

small duli-coloured rat are attributed to a collection from Appamunna, There

is some doubt, however, as to whether they are properly localized. It is not

represented in any series collected by my self in the Lake Eyre Basin, and, though

its presence there is quite possible, its definite recording from this areca mutst

depend on future work.

Psrupomys (LEGGADINA) cf. FoRRESTI Thos. var.

A single example of a native mouse of the Leggadina group was included in

a series of Mus musculus taken at Mulka in June, 1932, Material for a proper

comparison with its allies is lacking, but though considerably smaller it agrees with

Thomas’s animal from Alexandra Station, in the large size, and laminate

() 25 females () 22 males () 4 females ©) 10 males (©) 6 females

() 17 males

102

character of the antero-internal cusp of the upper M}, in the crisp pelage and

monocoler tail. From messorius Thomas, of which there are records from Jake

Frome (geographically much nearer than Alexandra), it differs by its larger size,

larger cusp and entirely white belly fur and tail. Its relation to berneyi and

wattci, both evidently very close in essentials to forresti, can only be satisfactorily

determined by examination of large series of all four. Pending this, the present

animal is regarded as a race of forresti characterised by a pallid avellaneous

colouration, shown by so many of the Lake Eyre Basin mammals, including

Snuinthopsis larapinta, which also occurs at Alexandra,

External Characters—Head broad with a comparatively blunt muzzle and

thick upper lip. Mysticial vibrissae well developed and profuse; the longest

28 mm.; lower white; upper black; the longest of the set not white tipped.

Manus stout with well raised pads. Length, 8 mm.; breadth across base

of digits, 2-5, 3 mm.; third digit, 3mm. Inner carpal pad >, outer carpal >,

second interdigital — first interdigital = third interdigital. Interdigitals rounded,

simple, but much raised upon broad basal cushions; claws unusually slender and

sharp-pointed. Pes: with the metatarsus parallel-sided, not tapering evenly to

heel. |Length, 17 mm. breadth at base of first digit, 3-5 mm; calcaneum to inner

metatarsal pad, 7-0 mm.; third digit, 4 mm.; pads well raised; second and third

interdigitals pyriform, first rounded, fourth rounded and with a slight heel postero

laterad, but neither the first nor fourth duplicated; metatarsals equal, small and

round. Tail conspicuously shorter than head and body. ‘Testes moderately

developed, scrotal; scrotal epidermis not pigmented.

Pelage—Mid-dorsally, 7 mm. Texture crisp, with a considerable proportion

of stout black guard hairs interspersed with the fur, but of the same length and

not overtopping the latter to any extent. Basal two-thirds mid-dorsally medium

plumbeous; terminal one-third a pale pinkish buff and the external colour a

lightly grizzled avellaneous. Head greyer but grizzled like the back; sides less

grizzled and decidedly pinker, especially at the junction with the white ventrum,

which is sharp, Ventral fur pure white to base—rather coarse. Limbs lightly

pencilled pink buff externally, white inside; manus and pes snow white. Ear

inwardly, haired on posterior margin only, silvery white; outwardly well covered;

silvery white except for a narrow band on anterior margin, where it is buff

brown. Tail incomplete as to integument; proximal half well furred, scales

obscured, greyish white on all surfaces, not bicolour.

‘The specimen is alcohol-preserved but is not stained and apparently not much

faded.

Skull—Badly crushed, but the features intact agree with Thomus’s descrip-

tion of forresti (9) and with Waite’s figure of Mus gouldii (= Ps. waiter) in the

Horn Expedition Reports, which is the only relevant illustration available, except

that the antcrior palatal foramina are longer than in the latter, and reach to the

anterior quarter of Mt. Mt? a very large tooth, its disproportion to M2 and M3

almost as in Mus muculus; its antero-internal cusp strongly developed, shaped

as in waiter, incisors conspicuously orthodont,

103

Dimensions (in alcohol)—é Head, and body, 84; tail, 62; pes, 17; ear, 15.

Skull—Nasals, 7°6; interorbital width, 3-6; anterior palatal foraminna, 5°5;

M?3, 4-3,

Noromys arsTonr Brazenor

This is the oorarrie of the Wonkorguroo; it was first brought to my notice

by Mr. Reese, who forwarded buff-coloured examples of it in 1929. On my

visiting the area in 1931 it was obtained in numbers, and the first examples were

then scen to represent merely a phase of a variation almost kaleidoscopic in range.

Its satisfactory identification proved difficult owing to the inadequate description

of N. cervinus of Gould; a difficulty which still persists. Meanwhile, the above

name was published for another phase of the same animal, and pending further

information on Gould’s type, this is adopted here.

Habits—In December, 1931, it was plentiful at Appamunna and in the

Goyder’s Lagoon area generally, and had been so for a year or more. _ Its increase,

however, had been gradual, and its presence was much less obvious at night than

either villosissimus or minnie and it was never trapped in a camp. It is not

included in the records of murid populations made by Mr. Reese, so that it is not

possible to say how its numbers compared with those of other species, nor whether

it participated in migratory movements within this area, Of migrations of allied

species of Notonsys elsewhere there arc numerous accounts.

It colonizes all types of country, but its burrows were most frequently found

on claypans and usually in the vicinity of lignum bushes, amongst the roots of

which the exit hole of the burrow is frequently found. The burrows were very

simple, seldom more than six feet long and comparatively shallow—9-12 inches

below the clay surface. No side galleries were found, and though the entrance

was somctimes marked by rows of pebbles, radiating warrens such as have been

recorded for its congeners, were not observed. Some of the simplest burrows,

possibly temporary, had only one opening, the numerous inmates then crowding

into the blind end; five and seven were frequently taken by the blacks from these

rather trap-like shelters. QOorarrie digging is a favourite sport with the black

children who find and obtain them very easily, and large numbers are taken and

eaten by them, as recorded by Sturt. Several were kept in captivity for a few

days at Appamunna for observation, and Wood Jones’ excellent description of

the habits and mannerisms of the N. cervinus of Waite was found applicable in

essentials to the oorarrie. Its gentleness was decidedly contrasted with the

behaviour of several other species studied later in the western centre.

The dict consists largely of seeds, and the stomach contents of those examined

in the Goyder’s Lagoon area in December, 1931, consisted largely of pale finely

granular material, not fibrous but copiously interspersed with dark fragments of

seed case, probably derived from a Calandrinia sp. The material examined

belongs to six collections taken in both summer and winter months during the

years 1929-1934, at several points in the Goyder’s Iagoon area of the Diamantina

and at Mulka on the Barcoo, In all batches a large proportion of adults are

104

sexually inactive. Two pregnant females, taken in October, 1931, contain four

early embryos in utero. Nestlings and one-third grown young were present in

August. 1929, April, 1931, October, 1931, but were conspicuously absent in the

collections made personally in December of the latter year. In the combined

collections the sex ratio is 344: 30¢.

External Characters—The following account of external characters is based

upon large numbers of living or recently dead examples, supplemented by examina-

tion of the above-mentioned series of 64 individuals, of which 23 have been skins

with skulls and the rest aleohol-preserved. For convenience in description, com-

parison is frequently made with the comparatively well-known and associated

species Notomys cervinus of Waite (nee. Gould?), as it is represented at Mulka.

In the head there are a series of good characters which (in undistoried

material) distinguish it from cervinus Waite. The head is broader and shorter,

and conspicuously wider on the crown when seen from above. ‘lhe upper lip is

more heavily developed, deeper from above downwards and its free margin

sloping back less acutely; the muzzle is shorter and wider and the rhinal appear-

ance, generally, blunter and coarser. ‘The mysticial vibrissae are enormously

developed; the same length as in cervinus Waite (up to 65 mm.) but the bristles

stouter, The antero-inferior bristles are white, the postero-superior black with

white tips; the length of the white tip generally decreasing with age. The ear

scarcely definably different, but its substance (before drying) a relatively pale slate

colour in a large proportion of individuals and with the basal portion flesh pink

and well contrasted with the upper pinna. The ear sometimes mottled pink

and slate,

The presternal gland is present in all males and in a proportion of females

as well (4 in 13). In males it undergoes marked changes in development, which

are evidently related to the sexual cycle and may be summarized as follows:

(1) In adult or subadult males in which the testes are undeveloped or retracted,

the gland is also quiescent and is then represented by a presternal areca of naked,

punctate, yellow pigmented skin. In this condition its margins are indefinite and

obscured by fur, and its size and shape vary widely; but it is always elongate

longitudinaliy, is broader posteriorly, and in the largest example measures

4x8mm. (2) The first sign of change is a general swelling of the chest area

with a pufhness of the skin and increased punctation. (3) Next, the basal portion

ot the glandular area is elevated into a circular tablet 5-6 mm. in diameter and

standing 1 mm. or so above the general epidermal level. (4) The central portion

of the raised area is next depressed forming a shallow pit completely surrounded

by labial margins, which are sometimes heavier at the posterior border than else-

where. The margins are haircd sparsely but the basin remains nude in all

examples cxamined, and is not covered by specialized hairs.

That the changes in the gland are periodic and reversible and are not due

to age change alone, seems to follow from the presence of the gland in its maximum

development in several young but sexually active males, and conversely in the

105

quiescent condition being found in several large sexually inactive males. In

females the gland apparently never attains to the condition of a raised structure,

but in four pregnant females it exists in the flat punctate state. quite as obviously

as in any males.

‘The manus is variable in size, but the palmar structures are relatively

constant, ‘The interdigital pads are very much smaller than the carpals, and are

subequal or the median rather larger; accessory folds or satellite pads are rare

or absent; carpals subequal, or the inner larger. The pes is also relatively

constant; stouter in the metatarsal portion than in cervinus of Waite, but the

maximum width at the base of the digits about the same, All sole pads decidedly

larger than in that species as represented in the same area; the third interdigital

much larger than the second, and the fourth larger than the first. The hallucal

pad is invariably present and with its fellow the fourth is rounded, while the

second or third are pyriform or oval. No trace of metatarsal pads in any

specimen. The sole is quite hairless hut the undersides of the toes are lightly

covered, but not sufficiently to obscure the apical pads, as in ccrvinus Waite.

Tail as in cervinus of Waite; its hairing and pigmentation variable (below):

Mammae in a moderately prominent but not lactating sct, with the posterior pair

11 mm. from clitoris; anterior 9 mm. from posterior; posterior 9 mm., and

anterior 16 mm., apart. Scrotum pale, posterior lobes not pigmented. Dimensions

as in cervinus of Waite for the head and body; the pes and ear averaging slightly

longer, but the differences not significant. in all the external characters treated

above the sexes are substantially identical.

‘Pclage and Colouration—The following characters are common to the whole

series or represent variations which occur indifferently in the three main colour

types. In texture the fur is fine, soft and erect, guard hairs absent. Coat generally

dense but its length very variable; mid-dorsally from 10 to 14 mm. in exaniples

collected at the same time and place. In unfaded material the basal colour muid-

dorsally is ‘‘dark plumbeous” for rather more than half its length; this is sticceeded

bv a rather shorter subterminal band of variable cinnamon or buff tone, and the

extreme lip is black. The dorsal colour is fairly uniform antero-posteriorla, the

head not differentiated markedly from the body in any of the many phases. ‘the

ears sparsely haired inside and out; inside the pinna with greyish white, outside

variably in the different types-—greyish white to decided brown. ‘Tail always

entirely white ventrally to within a few mm. of the tip, where the brush hairs arc

sometimes white sometimes black, but dorsally, varying for the proximal two-

thirds like the ears. The terminal one-third is occupied by a brush of progressively

lengthening hairs, blackish brown to jet black and to 12 mm. long. The external

colour of the ventrum is always pure white, but basally is variable. In the

majority of examples the lower belly is “pale plumbeous” basally and white on

the chest and throat and inner forelimbs, but it is frequently dark over the whole

ventrum and occasionally white over the whole ventrum—the latter condition

more frequent in, but not confined to, subadults. On the sides, the external

106

colour is that of the subterminal band of the dorsum, variably pencilled as

indicated below; the line of demarcation of lateral and ventral surfaces is sharp.

‘The lips and lower part of face white. The limbs usually white internally and

like the sides externally, but the forelimb sometimes white on all surfaces; hands

and feet white.

The cffects of alcohol preservation vary but in general are as outlined under

Ps. minnie; a small proportion of individuals, however, have withstood eight

years’ immersion, with little change. Seasonal and sexual variation inappreciable ;

age variation much as with Pseudomys minnie, Individual variation in colouration

extraordinarily great but following a definite plan, the main changes being brought

about by the progressive operation of three factors, viz., dilution of the colour

of the subterminal band, increase in the length and profusion of the black pen-

cilling and increased pigmentation of exposed epidermis. The range of colouration

will best be presented by defining three main but overlapping groups.

Group I-~-A handsome richly-coloured phase; the subterminal dorsal colour

is about Ridgway’s “Pinkish Cinnamon” @ to “Vinaceous Cinnamon”; the black

pencilling of dorsum and sides is so slight that it is only perceptible on close

examination and leaves the rich subterminal colour unchanged externally, The

ears and proximal half of tail are pale haired—frequently white—and the epi-

dermis of ears and tail are also pale.

Group 2—Subterminal colour progressively weakening through “Cinnamon

Bulf,” “Pinkish Buff” to “Tilleue Buff,” and the black pencilling increasing so as

to further dull the external colour. The ears and tail base are variably darker,

both as to hairing and substance. Intermediates of the northern flood plain series

approximate to Ridgway’s “Light Brownish Olive” in general dorsal colour; their

analogues of the red country to “avellaneous,” and the name “aistoni” is based

upon the latter.

Group 3—The changes which convert type 1 into type 2 lead first in the

direction of pallor, but later towards increasingly dark pelages, culminating in a

strongly marked nigrescent phase, in which black is the chief element in the

external colour. ‘The ears and dorsum of tail are dusky as to epidermis and are

haired dark blackish-brown.

Skull—Twenty-two examined: 10 males and 12 females, four or five only

being obviously immature. As compared with cervinus Waite the skull is short

and broad. The anterior zygomatic width is almost equal to the posterior and the

anterior root juts out boldly from the orbital wall, The general zygomatic outline

is almost parallel-sided (concave in the middle in some examples), and does not

slope backwards markedly as in the frst species. The muzzle and nasals are short

but the width of both variable, and the latter usually making an abrupt transverse

(*) I use Ridgway's term for this colour for the sake of uniformity, but it does not

seem well chosen and tends rather to vitiate the distinction I have sought to indicate

between the claypan and gibber plain types of colouration, The colour is a rich orange

buff with httle suggestion of pink as ordinarily understood.

107

line contact with the frontals of 2 mm. or more. The preorbilal fossa as scen

from above, shallow and with its exterior wall sloping inwards. Lacrymals

moderate: transverse width up to 1:9 mm. Interorbital space very wide even in

the oldest examples and expanding suddenly into a wide globular brain case. The

anterior margin of the zygomatic plate is evenly and moderately concave; less

deeply than in cervinus and the spur at the top is less developed. The anterior

palatal foramina rather variable, but comparatively long, usually reaching to the

lingual cusp of the first lamina of M', and very broad at their posterior ends

(maximum, 2°3 mm.). Mesopterygoid fossa also very wide (up to 2-4 mm.),

generally parallel-sided but its exact shape variable. Both features much wider

than in cervinus Waite; bullae smaller. Incisor index as determined by Thomas’s

method (10), ranging from 68°-75° with a true mean of 70°.

The skulls of erythristic and atrate forms are quite indistinguishable. Sexual

differences slight or nil. Age changes chiefly shown in the growth of the muzzle

region; scarcely at all by muscular impressions.

Flesh Dimensions—The following figures give the range of dimensions of

Notomys aistoni to the nearest O°5 mm, at three growth stages, vis.: (1) Mean

of two male nestlings; (2) mean of five subadult males; (3) range and truc mean

(in brackets) of 23 adult males; (4) range and true mean (in brackets) of 17

adult females.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Head on body - ~ - 64 84 94-118 (104) 103-106 (105)

‘Tail - - - - - 72 119 = 125-155 (140) 125-157 (143)

Pes: length - - - 25 33 33-36°5 (35) 32:5-36 (34:5)

Pes: max. breadth = - - 40 — 4:0-4:5 (4:0) 4:0-+4:5 (4:0)

Manus: length“) - - 6°5 7 7-9 (7°5) 7-8 (7°5)

Manus: breadth®%*) - - 3-0 3°5 3-5-4:5 (4:0) 3*5-4'0 (3°53)

Ear - - - - = 14-5 22:5 2428(25) 23-29 (26)

Weight (grammes) = - - — — 32-39 (36) 8) 35-52 (44) 0

Skull Dimensions—The following figures give the range in dimensions and

true mean (in brackets) of: (1) 7 males, and (2) 10 females of Notomys aistont.

All free from obvious immaturity, but of varying molar wear:

Greatest length, 27°7-28-7 (28:1); 27°5-29-3 (28-2). Basal length, 22-4-

24:6 (23°3); 22°5-25-1 (23-8). Posterior zygomatic breadth, 14-9-15-7 (15°3);

14°6-15°7 (15-2), Braincase breadth, 13°9-15°7 (15-1); 14-1-14-°9 (14-5).

Interorbital breadth, 5-8-6°2 (5:9); 5:4-6°0 (5:7). Nasals, length, 9:0-10-0

(9:4); 9°0-11-1 (9-7). Nasals, breadth, 2°7-3-1 (2°9); 2°8-3:1 (2-9). Palatal

length, 13-6-14°5 (14-0); 13°6-15-4 (14-4). Anterior palatal foramina, 4°2-6'0

(5-4): 5°3-6°3 (5°8). Bulla, 4:8-5-6 (5-4); 5°2-5°8 (5-5). Upper molar series,

4:2-4:8 (4:5); 4°3-5-0 (4:7). Incisive angle, 68°-75° (70°) ; 68°-75° (70°).

) From base of outer carpal pad @) At base of digits 2-5

(8) 4 males () 7 females

108

The extremes of colour variation in this species are in remarkable contrast,

but the wealth of data which has been reviewed leaves no doubt whatever of their

specific identity. Not only are all essential structural characters both external

and cranial, constant throughout the series, but the extremes are united by a long

chain of intermediates which leaves no stage of the transition unrepresented. Nor

is there any question of racial distinction between the phases, since the amplitude

of the individual variation is the same in all of several localities tested, and repre-

sentatives of the three main colour types were constantly taken together in one

and the same burrow; they have little more claim to subspecific treatment than

the polychromatic litters of Dasyurus viewerinus,

Nevertheless, though local variation is largely obscured by individual, there

is the same tendency already noted in several other species in the area, for the

development of adaptive colouration; orange and yellow buffs predominating on

the great areas of claypan and flood plain on the Diamantina and pink and

vinaceous buffs on the red sandhills and gibber plains elsewhere.

NOTOMYS CERVINUS of Waite et auct. (mec. Gould?)

Wiik-ntie (?) of Wonkonguroo. The Appamunna blacks constantly upheld

to Reese that in addition to the numerous colour varieties of the oorarrie, there

was a second kind of kangaroo mouse. to which they gave the above name. They

indicated further that whereas the oorarrie was ubiquitous, the wilkintie was

always found in sandhills. In the upper part of the Lake Eyre Basin it must be

a comparatively rare animal (or was so at any rate from 1929-1932), vastly out-

numbered by the other, and no specimen of it could be obtained while I was in

the district in 1931, though parties of blacks were frequently searching for it.

In 1932, however, two specimens were obtained at Puttaburra, west of Appa-

munna, and later an excellent series from Mulka.

As these last are nearly tepotypical with the recently described material of

Wood Jones from Killalpaninna, it will suffice to record some statistics of the

series examined and emphasise the characters which separate it from the asso-

clated species.

Phe Mulka material belongs to two batches collected respectively in June, 1932,

and April, 1934, and acquired from Mr. G. Aiston of that place. In the 1932 collec-

tion rt was outnumbered by the oorarrie, 5 to 1, but in that of 1934 it outnumbered

that species 25 to 1, though whether this is a safe criterion of their relative abund-

ance in the field at the time is uncertain. Reproduction was quiescent in both

lots; the mammae were retracted in all females cxamined save onc, and no

embryos were found in utero, though four nestlings at the H. and B. 70 mm. stage

were included im the 1934 collection. ‘estes were all in the same condition;

moderately developed with the posterior lobes of scrotum obvious, but much

smaller than in oorarries taken at the same time and place, Males outnumbered

females 21 to 7. Stomach contents without the Calandrinia element so con-

spicuous in the collections from the Dianiantina.

109

External Characters—The head is differently shaped as indicated above,

and the vibrissae are longer than given by Wood Jones, reaching 65 mm., and

the larger members are as frequently white-tipped as dusky.

The gular gland is strongly developed in all specimens of both sexes except

the nestlings, and even in these its site is indicated by an area of flaccid integu-

ment, Its presence is evidently constant throughout adult life and docs not vary

radically in macroscopical characters with any physiological cycle. The figures

of Waite (2), Wood Jones (11) and Bourne (12), however, do not accurately

represent the condition as it is shown by the present material, in which it takes

the form of a nearly circular depressed area from 7-10 mm, in diameter, deepening

caudad to form a sloping recess as much as 3 mm. below the surrounding level

of the gular skin. The posterior and sometimes lateral margins arc bounded by

skin folds forming distinct but not fleshy labia, but there is no indication of the

moulding with a central process as figured by Waite; anteriorly the floor is con-

fluent with the interramal space. ‘lhe entire area is sharply marked off from the

rest of the gular surface by a dense covering of shining, somewhat adpressed

specialized hairs which may be directed cither centrad (as given by Bourne) or

towards a median longitudinal line, in which case the area is bisected by a well-

defined opposition ridge of hair. The feature only assumes the form of a shallow

pocket when the animal is erect and the cranial and vertebral axes are at right

angles; in the quadrepedal position, when the gular and ventral surfaces are in

the same plane (as in fig. O, pl. iv), the glandular area is entirely open to view,

There is sometimes a slight indication of a sternal gorget of adpressed hair,

postericr to the gland area proper.

In the pes, the metatarsal portion is narrower on an average and all pads

ecidedly smaller than in arstoni; the second and third interdigitals vary in ahape,

are usually evenly pyriform but sometimes slightly constricted in the middle

je third but slightly larger than the second and sometimes subequal; first and

ourth very small, and rounded; the fourth invariably present, but the first quite

absent in one-third of those examined. The undersurface of the toes is strongly

haired, the apical pads being partly obscured. The hallux is very reduced. The

imanimiae in an apparently undistorted female are so disposed: posterior 8 mm.

from clitoris; anterior 9 mm. from posterior; posterior 6 mim., anterior LL min.,

apart.

The average values and variation of flesh dimensions are much as in the

associated species.

Pelage—When examined in the hand the pelage is seen to be decidedly

different from that of the oorarrie; coarser, less erect, equally variable in length,

but less profuse. ‘The subterminal band 1s longer and the dark tps are sepia,

not black, and do not contrast with the subterminal colour so as to give a pencilled

etfect. Ventrally the iur is entirely white. The ears and tail base are haired a

very pale brown, never white nor black. Variation in the Mulka series (except

for one anomaly) is at a minimum. The dorsal colour is a rich “orange cinnamon,”

110

deeper and more vinaceous than in any phase of the oorarrie. The anomaly

represents the dark form of Waite; the dorsal colour ashy, about Ridgway’s

“Wood Brown” with scarcely a survival of rufous, but otherwise identical, even

the whole ventrum white basally. The two specimens from the Diamantina differ

trom these not only in their yellower colouration (hardly distinguishable from

some specimens of the oorarrie from the same locality) but have also a rather

stouter foot, in which the hairing of the undersurface of the toes is less marked

and a narrow line of hairs appears on the sole mesiad to the hallucal pad; in all

essential characters, however, they agree with the main series.

Skull—Five skulls have been examined and compared with three of those

described and figured by Waite in 1897, with which they are in close agreement.

t should be noted that Waite’s figure C3 of pl. vi is misleading in that it repre-

sents the bullae as far more globular and the anterior palatal foramina and

mesopterygoid fossa wider than in the skull upon which it is based, or in any of

those examined. in two of the Mulka examples, the upper M! shows a well-

developed anterior accessory cingular cusp mesially situated below the anterior

lamina.

Apart from the evidence provided by the skull, the subspecific relation of the

Lake Eyre Basin cervinis to the examples described by Waite from more westerly

districts (supposedly from Charlotte Waters or Alice Springs), is still uncertain.

Practically all the material of the old collection of the South Australian Museum

from these districts is labelled “Ascopharynx cervinus’ (by Waite ?), but on

examination proves to be referable to forms of N. alexis Thomas, and material

for a proper comparison of external characters is lacking.

Flesh Dimensions—The following figures give the range and true mean for

16 é and 6 @ of the Mulka series of N. cervinus, all apparently adult: Head

and body, 91-113 (101); 98-108 (102). Tail, 135-153 (141); 127-146 (137).

Pes, length, 33-35°5 ($4); 33-35 (34). Pes, breadth, 4-0-4-5 (4-0) 4. Manus

length, 7-8°5 (7:5); 7-7-5 (7:0). Manus, breadth, 3-5-4-5 (4-0) ; 3-5-4:0 (3:5).

Ear, length, 23°5-26°5 (25) ; 24°5-27 (25:5).

Skull Dimensions --Range of values and true mean in three males and one

female of the above series, Greatest length, 29:5-30-4 (30-0) ; 30-3. Basal length,

23'6-25°2 (24:4); 24-8. Posterior zygomatic breadth, 15°6-16-1 (15-8); 16-2.

Braincase breadth, 14-7-13-0 (14-9); 15-3. Interorbital breadth, 5-1-5-7 (5-4);

5'7. Nasals, length, 10°1-10-9 (10-5); 10-5. Nasals, breadth, 2-8-3°3 (3-0);

2°8. Palatal length, 13-1-15-4 (15-3); 15-2. Anterior palatal foramina, 4°6-5:1

(4:5); 5:0. Bullae, 6:0-6-3 (6:1); 6-2. Upper molar series, 4-6-4°8 (4:7) 5 5:0.

Incisive angle, 63°-68° (65°) ; 62°.0%)

Lhe Nomenclature of the Kangaroo Mice of the Area

The use of Ascopharynx Waite to distinguish pouched from pouchless forms

has little to recommend it, since a glandular area more or less recessed at some

@) Thomas’s method

M11

stage of its development is probably present in all species. Podanomalus to dis-

tinguish forms in which the gland is presternal rather than gular is open to a

similar objection, since the shift in position is at most a matter of a few milli-

metres and in some forms glandular manifestations appear to involve both areas

confluently, and may do so even in cervinus. The validity of the incisor

character which it has been sought (13) to associate with the latter name is very

doubtful, The clearance of Nolomys cervinus from “Podanomalus” is but 2°

(as quoted), and this is decidedly less than the average individual variation in

the index within a species and is less also than the experimental error involved in

its determination; there is now also the added confusion of a multiplicity of

methods of determining the angle. For the present, thercfore, pending more

detailed knowledge of the whole group, it seems wiser to revert to Thomas’s usage

of Notomys for all the truly saltatory forms.

The question of the correct specific names for the two species of the Lake

Eyre Basin is impossible of decision at present owing to the imperfect description

of the type of Notomys cervinus Gould. In identifying an animal with a strongly

marked gular pouch taken at Alice Springs or Charlotte Waters, with the animal

taken by Sturt in the Grey Range area of north-west New South Wales, 500-600

miles cast, Waite attributed a critical character to the type, for which there is no

warrant in the original description of Gould of 1851, nor in the re-examination of

Thomas in 1921. In all dried skins of cerzinus Waite available to me the site of

the throat gland is conspicuously marked by a shining disk of adpressed hairs

abruptly contrasted with the rest of the throat fur and at once inviting curious

attention. It is not likely to be disturbed by a knife in skinning, and that Thomas

failed to record it in the type strongly suggests that it was not there.

Further, Brazenor’s “aistoni” (devoid of a gular pouch) is founded upon a

pale dull-coloured phase of an animal, the brighter buff forms of which are quite

as much in harmony with those external characters of the type of cervinus Gould,

which may be accepted with confidence as recorded, as is Waite’s species with the

gular pouch.

The cranial characters of Gould’s animal are known only by some oblique

comments by Thomas, in which they are contrasted with N. mitchelli (= alexis).

These, particularly the enlarged brain case, the wide open palatal foramina, the

wide mesopterygoid fossa, and the incisive index, all suggest “aistoni’’ more

decidedly than cervinus of Waite. ‘The matter will only be settled by a re-

examination of the type, but should the doubt here expressed be confirmed and

Sturt’s animal prove to be an oorarrie, atstoni becomes a synonym of cervinus

Gould, and Waite’s animal will be innominate.

LEPORILLUS CONDITOR Gould var.?

Wopilkara of the Wonkongurve. No trace of this interesting rat was found

in the area personally worked over, and though it is well known to blacks and

settlers and easily identified in popular accounts by its great unconcealed stick

nests. no evidence was obtained of its recent presence in any part of the Lake

Eyre Basin. Thirty years ago, however, it was plentiful in certain restricted

localitics there, though always in the form of scattered and isolated colonies. Its

disappearance here, as elsewhere, is probably due to inherent defects in its adapta-

tions to the environment rather than to factors of pastoral settlement or persecu-

tion by the blacks.

In 1907 the South Australian Museum acquired four living examples from

a locality in the immediate vicinity of the western shore of Lake Eyre. These

were successfully maintained in captivity at the Muscum for three years or more,

breeding freely and rapidly producing a thriving colony of 16 individuals. They

becaine very tame and confiding and early evinced the nest-building trait,

approaching the taxidernust to take fram his hand sticks of “old man saltbush”

which were provided for the purpose. The building is a matter of the utmost

deliberation and care, each stick being inserted and removed and re-inserted several

times until a satisfactory position is secured, when it is dragged into its permanent

place from the inside of the mass. The latter operation frequently calls for great

exertion from the rat and the total amount of work done in completing the fabric

is enormous, and the fact goes far to explain the relative permanence in the bush

of the seemingly {flimsy structure. One such nest was preserved intact and now

forms the locus of a mounted group.

Fortunately, in addition to the mounted group (now very much faded), a

series of eight examples were alcohol-preserved. These, on examination, prove

to be so distinct from conditor, of Ooldea, and make so decided an approach to

the insular jonesi, as to merit detailed description.

The differential characters presented may be thus summarized: the general

linear dimensions and ear development are as in conditor, of Ooldea; the massive

build and structure of manus and pes are those of jonesi; the colour markings

are intermediate, and in the adult skull the nasal development exceeds both.

The series, comprising seven @ and one @, is uniform in all essentials and

presents erternal characters, which may be summarized as follows: Form

generally heavy. thick bodied, short limbed and powerful. Head: massive:

profile moderately bowed. The hairy rhinarium, when undistorted, projecting

well beyond and overhanging the nostrils. Mysticial vibrissae but moderately

developed; not steut and the longest 60 mm.; mostly black at the base but a few

of the longer white-tipped; supra orbitals 40 mm. Ears enormous; long, wide.

and open; their length generously exceeding the rhinarium eye distauce, in all

except oue in which it is equal to that value; their substance thick and leathery.

Manus strong and heavy; much stouter than in conditor, of Ooldea; length

from base of outer carpal to apical pad of third digit up to 20 mm. Breadth at

base of digits 2-5, 8 mm.; length of third digit to 9-5 mm. The palmar pads show

nv great disproportion in size. Outer carpal > third interdigital > second inter+

CY Tor these details IT am indebted to Mr. J. Rau, formerly taxidermist at the

Museum, to whose care the success of the experiment was largely due.

113

digital = first interdigital = inner carpal. The pads crudely pyriform or sub-

triangular ; the third interdigital decidedly more triangular than the rest, and with

its base proximad and a small satellite leterad; outer carpal with a heel laterad.

Pes very strong and stout; length to 46 mm.; breadth transversely across

the sole at the base of the first digit to 10 mm.; breadth opposite the distal end

of the inner metatarsal pad 10 8°5 mm. Calcaneum to base of inner metatarsal

17 mm.; third digit, to 10°35 mm. The heel is strongly constricted; more so upon

the inner margin, where there is an invasion of hair on to the sole; on the outer

margin 5 mm. from the heel, there is an elongate calloused pad, but without relief.

Basal interdigital pads reniform, with distinet hecls or accessory pads in the

concavity laterad. The inner metatarsal narrow and elongate, semisigmoid or

almost straight; to 6 mm. long, but the posterior extension sometimes obscure ;

fourth interdigital > second = third > first > outer metatarsal,

‘Vail very thick basally and strong; scutation obscured by dense hairing in ail

but two abraded specimens; its length Iess than the head and body in five

specimens, slightly greater in three. Manimmae: retracted and quiescent in all;

their site very posterior and set close together for so large a form; posterior

10 mm. from base of clitoris; anterior 12 mm. from posterior; posterior 12 mim.

apart, anterior 23 mm. apart.

Pelage: ‘Yoo faded for an accurate account but evidently originally quite

close to jonesi, though perhaps more grizzled. Mid-dorsally to 17 mm. but variable

in the series. Ear fairly well furred, medium light brown inside over upper pinna,

darker brown outside especially on upper posterior margin. Tail strongly haired

in most examples, with a slight lengthening distally but no brush; strongly bicolor,

‘dark black-brown above (originally near black ?) and honey-coloured beneath.

Markings of hands and feet intermediate between conditor, of Qoldea, and jones,

but nearer the latter. On the dorsum of manus a dark band extends from the

carpus to base of digits four and five, spreads over the whole of the digits and

then half-way down the inner margin; the interspaces. are almost white and a

longitudinal four-banded effect is produced the sequence from the inner margin

being dark white, dark white. The colouring of pes similar to jonesi; a much greater

infiltration of dark hair than in condifor; the dark areas originally were evidentiy

less intense than in the former however, and less strongly contrasted with the

white; the dark area on the external aspect of the hecl is less than im jones: and

does not connect with that of the digits.

Variation very slight; one subadult example has a much shorter ear than the

rest (31 mm.) and approaches jones: in the colour of the manus, but is evidently

a variant only.

A Laelaps occurs sparsely.

Skull—live examined, two only fully adult. In most characters both

metrical and non-metrical these two show a blend of conditor and jonesi as

recorded. The nasals, however, are longer than in either (19-1 as against 17°5)

and are also wider (6°2 as against 5°5), the maximum width being attained by a

114

sudden bulbous expansion within 5 mm. of their tips; a shape familiar in several

Rattus but not figured for Leporilus; in the younger skulls it is less developed.

‘The interparietal is not sharply angulated posteriorly in any of the five. The

zygomatic breadth is greatest anteriorly in onc, posteriorly in the other. The

anterior margin of zygomatic plate straight but nearly vertical, Anterior palatal

foramina large and open; in adults reaching to the first lamina of M*. A distinct

median subincisive foramin communicating freely with the nares, is present in

three examples and an os bregmaticum in two. Incisor enamel very pale.

Dimensions—The following is the range and true mean in seven females and

one male, all free from obvious immaturity: Head and body, 161-195 (185).

Tail, 160-200 (177). Ear, 36-41 (38). Pes, length, 43-46 (45). Pes,

breadth,“% 8-0-8°5 (85). Manus length, 17°5+20 (18°5). Manus, breadth,

75-9 (8),

Skull Dimensions—The following is the range in two fully adult females

with much worn molars: Greatest length, 47:3-47+3. Basal length, 42-5-43-4.

Zygomatic breadth (max.), 23-2-23-5. Nasals, length, 19-1-19-0. Nasals,

breadth, 5:5-6°2, Interorbital constriction, 5-0-5:5. Palatal length, 25-6-25-6.

Anterior palatal foramina, 9°9 x 3-8-10-0 x 3-5. Braincase breadth, 19°4-19-6,

Bullac, 8°3-9°5, Upper molar series, 9°3-10°3

While it is unfortunate that authentically wild caught specimens have not

been available, the history of the series in captivity is too short to vitiate the very

real distinctions which it presents. No record was kept of the fate of the four

progenitors of the colony, and it is quite possible that some of them are actually

included in the above examination; the very aged condition of two females

(see pl. v, figs. A, B, C) stggests that such was indeed the case,

Uncertainty as to the detailed characters of the type of conditor from western

New South Wales renders it inexpedient at present to apply another name to the

present form. Whatever its status may be, the animal is of systematic interest

as tending to bridge the gap between the mainland conditor and the insular jonest,

though its place of origin is actually more remote from Franklin Island than is

Ooldea, whence most examples of conditor have come. ‘hat all four are related

subspecifically seems very probable. Many of the distinctions which have been

drawn between conditor and jonesi are hardly of specific rank and would doubt-

fully stand the test of submission to long series; and in several points, as for

example the condition of the interparietal and inner metatarsal pad, there is a

conflict in the statements of the two latest reviewers (14) (15).

Hypromys curysocaster Geoffroy

Known to the Wonkonguroo as tinma appa, this species occurs sparsely not

only in the main channels of the Diamantina and Barcoo but after floods in many

outlying lagoons as well. When these dry out the tinna appa makes back to the

) Excepting the above anomaly in whieh: it is 31 mm.

C) Opposite the distal end of the inner metatarsal pad.

115

semipermanent pools of the two rivers, and in doing so performs some very

remarkable journeys. The travelling, of course, is done at night only and distances

are seldom more than a few miles, but to anyone knowing the creature only in

its typical habitat of shady pools in the green coastal lands, the bare claypans and

gibber flats which must be crossed would appear as an insuperable barrier to a

form with such modified limbs, and, indeed, in many cases must call for great

resource and enterprise.

A single example was obtained in the Barcoo near Innamincka; it is a very

large female and can be closely matched by some of the more conspicuously

grizzled examples of H. chrysogaster “falvolavatus” {rom the southern districts

of South Australia, though, as [ have pointed out (16), this form is so excecdingly

variable as to make its definition as a race very difficult.

Flesh Dimensions—Head and body, 355. ‘Tail, 285. White of tail, 120.

Pes, 68. Ear, 20 x 11°5. Rhinarium to eye, 32. Eye to ear, 27. Weight, 500

grammes.

Skull Dimensions—Greatest length, 61-8. Basal length, 58:0. Zygomatic

breadth, 32-0. Braincase breadth, 22-1. Nasals, 21-3 x 5°8. Intertemporal

width, 6°9. Palatal length, 35-7. Anterior palatal foramina, 6°7. Bullae, 7:2 ca.

Upper molar series, 9°5.

Oruer InpIGENOUS MONODELPHTA

The dingo (Canis familiaris dingo) is widespread in the area and local

increases of it were reported several times during plagues of murids. In Decem-

ber, 1931, it was not sighted and its tracks were infrequent. In spite of the

presence of stock its numbers seem to be much less here than in the unstocked

districts of the western centre. The Wonkonguroo call it mudla, and the Dieri,

kinturra.

Bats were not systematically sought, but occur very sparsely. A single

specimen, taken at Pandi Pandi on the Diamantina proved to be Nyctophilus

geoffroyi pallescens Thomas. The Wonkonguroo name for bats in general is

pinchi pinchi narra.

INTRODUCED MONODELPHIA

Mus musculus Linne (vars.)

The “house” mouse is thoroughly established in almost all parts of the area,

and, as far as can be ascertained, lives the life of the indigenous murids, burrow

ing in times of normal populations and sheltering precariously under surface litter

when swarming. It is subject to the same astonishing fluctuations in numbers

as the native rats. In 1930, in the Govder’s Lagoon area, aftcr a long period of

steady increase its populations suddenly broke away in swarms of magnitude

comparable with those of the historic 1916 plague in the wheat belts. In

December, 1931, { found it comparatively scarce, but it could still be trapped in

some numbers at the homestead at Appamunna and was occasionally taken in

the field.

116

The Wonkongtroo call it punta punta, and the fact that they have a dis-

linguishing name for it while the rabbit and fox go unnamed, suggests that

musculus has had a longer tenure of their country than these two introductions.

The variability of rural mice in Australia has been commented on by several

authors and Wood-Jones (17) bas referred to a red-brown “desert form” from

Miller’s Creek in South Australia, though a suspicion of immaturity attaches to

the figures and skull characters as quoted by him, A larger version of this form

is also the dominant variety in the Lake Eyre Basin, and though urban types also

occur there, the red-brown, white bellied form with strongly bicolour tail, is never

taken, as far as [ can ascertain, in the towns or settled areas of the south. Yhe

possibility that the central type may be a derivative from Asia long pre-dating

European settlement in Australia cannct be neglected, and is not to be discounted

by the negative evidence of an absence of collecting records.

As proper comparison with named races has not been feasable, I withhold

a subspecific name pending further work, but the following brief account, based

on a fairly uniform scrics of 29 individuals from Mulka in June, 1932, will serve

to define the Lake Eyre Basin race or strain.

The series comprises 14 females and 15 males. he testes were developed

and scrotal in all males, even in those of half growth, but none of the females

examined were lactating or pregnant. Laelaps quite absent.

Lvternal Characters—Mysticial vibrissae rather weak, up to 26 mm.; the

lower shorter bristles white, the rest dark brown, only occasionally white-tipped.

Supraorbitals to 15 mm. Har stall, very bluntly rounded at tip,

Manus: length, to 6°35; breadth at base of digits, 2-5, 2-8 mm. Pads

rounded or irregular. Carpal pads subequal or the outer larger; both slightly

bigger than the three interdigitals, which are subequal. ‘The basal interdigitals

sometimes duplicated.

Pes: length to 19 mm. Breadth at base of first digit, 3 mm. Calcaneum to

base of inner metatarsal pad, 7 mm. Lads small, rounded and little differentiated

in size; second interdigital > third = fourth = first = inner metatarsal = or >

outer metatarsal, The hasal interdigitals both completely duplicated; their

satellites quite separate, posterolaterad, and almost as large as the main pads.

Tail comparatively thinly haired and scales everywhere obvious. Scrotum

pigmented dark. Postero-abdominal mamimae 7 mm. from clitoris, anterior 9 mm.

from posterior. Posterior 7, anterior 14 mm. apart,

Pelage—Mid-dorsally 7 mm.; sleek, soft, and practically without guard hairs.

Basally very dark plumbeous for two-thirds its length, then reddish-brown,

slightly darker terminally, but with little pencilled effect. General external colour

of back from “Mars Brown” to “Mummy Brown,” lighter on sides and head.

Ventrum pure white to “Pinkish Cinnamon” externally; basally pale plumbeous

er white. Ears fairly well haired, medium brown inside, darker brown outside,

117

blackish on upper anterior margin. Tlands and feet pure white or greyish white.

Tail decidediy bicolour ; black-brown above, white on sides and below.

Dimensions—Range in six females and ten males all without obvious

immaturity: Head and body, 71-87; 70-86. Tail, 71-83; 75-87. Pes, 16-17-53;

16-19. Ear, 13-15; 12°5-15°5.

Shkull—Range of dimensions in six unsexed adults: Greatest length, 21°3-

23°5. Basal length, 18°1-20°5. Zygomatic breadth, 10°9-11-9. jraincase

breadth, 10°0-10°3. Nasals, length, 7-6-8°6. Nasals, breadth, 2-1-2°5. Inter-

orbital constriction, 3°7-3-9. Palatal length, 11-:1-12°2, Anterior palatal

foramina, 5°0-5°2, Bullae, 3-5-4-1. Upper molar series, 3°4-3°9.

‘Mhe molar wear is remarkably high; in several individuals of less than half

growth the crowns are already flat.

No reliable evidence of the presence of either FRallus raltus or Iattus

norvegicus was obtained.

Of other introduced mannnals the rabbit, fox and feral cat occur in all parts

of the area. It is noteworthy that since the immense mortality of 1905, the rabhit

does not appear to have undergone periodic increase and decline as it does in the

areas further west; during the whole period of murid increase from 1930-1935 its

numbers remained unaltered and comparatively low.

In 1935 large uumbers of feral cats were reported from several localities in

the area. At Appamunna their maximum ccecurred in June, at a time when

murids, and indeed all mammals, were at a low ebb.

REFERENCES

1 Govrp 1854 Mamials of Australia, 3, letterpress to pl. CNL

2 Warrr. E.R. 1897 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 10, (N.S.), 125

3 Tomas, ©., 1906 Proce. Zool. Soc, (Lond.), 537

4 Cretanp, J. B. 1918 Roy, Soc. N.S.W., 52, 123

5 ¥ixtayson, H. H. 1933 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 57, 195-197, and ibid.,

1932, 56, 148-150

6 Trovcurox, E.te G 1942 Rec. Aust. Museum, 18, (6), 287

7 Trovenrox, E.re G. 1936 Mens. Queensl. Museum, 11, (1), 19

& Wowerstey, H. 1937 Parasitology, 29, (4), 535

9 Thomas, O. 1906 P. Z. S., Lond., 538

10 THomas, QO. 1916 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, 18, 302

11 Jonzs, F, Woop 1925 Mamms. of S. Aust,, 343

12 Bourne, G. 1934 Mems. Nat. Museum, Mclb., 8, 91

13. Brazenor, C. W. 1934 Mems. Nat. Museum, Melb., 8, 76

14. TRoucutox, E. tre G. 1923 Reeds. Aust. Museum, 14, (1). 23

15 Jones, F, Woop 1925 Mamms. of 5S. Aust., 330

16 Frntayson, H. H. 1935 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 59, 226

17 Jones, FP. Woon 1925 Mamms, of S. Aust., 321

118

EXPLANATION OF PLATES IV AND V

illustrating adult Muridae from the Lake Eyre Basin

Piate IV

A Leporilius conditor var. Q © Right pes x 1-3 ca.

B Leporiilus conditor var. 9 Right manus x 2 ca.

C Rattus villosissimus villosissimus Waite g Right pes x 1-4 ca.

D Rattus villosisstmus ,villosissimus Waite @ Right manus x 2 ca.

KE Pseudomys (Pseudomys) minnie Troughton @ Right pes x 1-6 ca.

F Pseudomys (Pseudonys) minnie Troughton @ Right manus x 2 ca.

G Notomys aistoni Brazenor 9 Right pes x 1-4 ca.

H Notomys aistont Brazenor Q Right manus x 3 ca.

I Notomsys cervinus (of Waite) g Right pes x 1-4 ca.

J Notomys cervinus (of Waite) g Right manus x 3 ca.

K Mus musculus var. 9 Right pes x 2-3 ca.

L Mus musculus var. 9 Right manus x 2-7 ca.

M Pseudomys (Leggadina) cf. forresti Thomas var. @ Right pes x 2 ca.

N Pseudomys (Leggadina} cf. forresti Thomas var. g@ Right manus x 3 ca.

O Notomys cervinus (of Waite) g. The gular area, to show the external appcarance of

the gland site. The gular and ventral surfaces are in (he same plane, and the sur-

rounding fur has been artificially parted away from the gland

P Notomys aistoni Brazenor g@ As in O

PLaTte V

A, B, C, Aspects of the skull of Leporillus conditar @ xlea.

D, E, F Aspects of the skull of Rattus villosissimus cillosissimus Waite & xlea.

G, HT, I Aspects of the'skull of Pseudomys (Pseudomys) minnie Troughton g x1 ca.

J, K, L Aspects of the skull of Notomys cervinus (of Waite) @ x is3eca.

M, N, o er of the skull of Netomys aistoni Brazcnor @ MxideasNnN+O0 x

‘lca.

P,Q, Ro Aspects of the skull of Mus musculus var. & x« 1:2 ca.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate 1V

Photo by H. H. Finlayson

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate V

Photo by H. H. Finlayson

ABORIGINAL ARRANGEMENT OF STONES AT MOANA,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By C.P. MOUNTFORD, Acting Ethnologist, South Australian Museum

Summary

During recent years, stones arranged in a definite pattern on gibber pavements and claypans have

been recorded from various parts of Australia. Many of these are known to be the work of

aboriginal people, and their mythology and use have been described. (Elkin, 1938, p.128, and

Campbell and Mountford, 1939, p 17.)

119

ABORIGINAL ARRANGEMENT OF STONES AT MOANA,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By C. P, Mountrorp,

Acting Ethnologist, South Australian Museum

| Read 25 May 1939]

Pate VI

During recent years, stones arranged in a definite pattern on gibber pavements

and claypans have been recorded from various parts of Australia, Many of these

are known to be the work of aboriginal people, and their mythology and use have

been described. (Elkin, 1938, p. 128, and Campbell and Mountford, 1939, p. 17.)

This paper describes a similar example of arranged stones that existed for

many years at Moana, at a spot some fifty yards south of Peglar’s Creek and

about fifty feet above high water mark.

During 1926 Mr. P. Stapleton and I examined this arrangement in detail

and submitted our findings to the October meeting of the Royal Society in 1927.

Owing to lack of corroborative evidence, however, the paper was not published.

Since then a considerable amount of information regarding these curious examples

of aboriginal handiwork has been gathered. As the combined efforts of campers

and roaming cattle have almost completely destroyed this example, and the

description prepared by Mr. Stapleton and myself is the only record available,

it was decided to submit this short paper.

At the time of our investigation, the stone pattern was 108 yards in length and

35 yards across the greatest width. The arrangement occupied a low ridge,

which was about five feet above high water mark and an adjacent clay flat, both

of which were lightly covered with a thin layer of drilt sand.

The lines were almost entirely composed of waterworn pebbles, placed end

on end, which had been collected from the myriads that were distributed over the

surface. In some of the lines, however, pieces of travertine, and in two places

aboriginal core stones, had been used. Drifting sandhills (shown by dotted areas )

apparently covered a portion of the arrangement,

As Mr. Stapleton and | had no instruments or necessary knowledge to survey

the area, we adopted the laborious but nevertheless accurate method of setting

out the surface in 10-foot squares with string. The designs within each square

were plotted on graph paper, from which text fig. 1 was prepared.

The arrangement consisted of long meandering lines, circles, and loops. In

some parts the pebbles were badly scattered, while in others, particularly at

A, fig. 1, the lines were almost complete. (See also fig. 2, pl. vi). At C and D,

fig. 1, were piles of stones that suggested small collapsed cairns, such as have

been recorded by Wood Jones, 1925, and Campbell and Mountford, 1939.

Figure 1, pl. vi, was taken in a southerly direction from B, fig. 1, and shows a

general view of the area looking south.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., €3 (1), 28 Fuly 1939

120

The surrounding country still bears ample evidence of aboriginal occupation.

Many skeletons have been found in the sandhills in the background of fig. 1, pl. vi,

and the surfaces of many of the sanddrifts, as well as adjacent clay flats, are

strewn with large numbers of discarded stone flakes. Many implements, hammer

stones, cores, and a few engraved pebbles“ have also been collected from the

same locality.

DISCUSSION

There is no direct evidence regarding either the use or significance cf the

stone arrangements, The fact, however, the situation is adjacent to a locality that

bears ample evidence of aboriginal occupation and that the arrangement and

general pattern of the lines of stones are similar to other recorded examples, and

to those seen by me on Simpson’s Desert, would suggest that they are the work

of aborigines, in all probability, those of the extinct Adelaide tribe. In other

parts of Australia such arrangements are associated with totemic beings and

often with the increase ceremonics. It is possible that the Moana examples would

have a similar use.

LireRaATURE

CAMPBELL and Mountrorp 1939 ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, 17

Dow, E. B. 1938 Mankind, 2, (5), 126

Eveix, A. PL 1935) The Australian Aborigine

Joxrs, Woop F, 1925 Journ. Roy. Anthro. Inst., 55, 123

Love, J. R. B. 1938 Records of S. Aust. Museum, 6, (2), 137

McConwnet, Ursuta, 1932 Oceania, 2, 293

Mountrorp, C. P. 1938 Victorian Naturalist, 55, 146

Tower, ©. C. 1932 Oceania, 3, 41

©) See C, fig. 1, Engraved Pebbles from South Australia of Unknown Significance,

Mounttord, 1938, p. 146

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate VI

Photo, C. P. Mounttord

Fig. 1 General view of arranged stones, Moana, looking south

Ben

Photo, C. P. Mowuntford

Fig. 2. View of arranged stones, Moana, Group A

STRONGYLE NEMATODES FROM QUEENSLAND MARSUPIALS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and P. M. MAWSON, University of Adelaide

Summary

The present paper is the fourth of a series dealing with the nematode parasites of Australian

marsupials (1938, a, b, c). Most of the material has been collected from the stomach, from which

situation all the specimens were found to belong to genera of Strongylidae, Triclioneminae. The few

specimens taken from the intestine belong to Globocephaloides, and the finding of males,

previously unknown, has permitted the addition of male characteristics to the generic diagnosis and

the assignment of the genus to the Strongylinae. Three new genera, Papillostrongylus,

Coronostrongylus and Buccostrongylus have been proposed. Cobb's Zoniolaimus, based on some

minute figures and formulae but without any other description, has been rehabilitated,

Labiostrongylus being regarded as a synonym of it. The collection studied has been brought

together by the senior author over a period of thirty years.

‘Trans

121

STRONGYLE NEMATODES FROM QUEENSLAND MARSUPIALS

By T, Harvey Jounston and P. M. Mawson, University of Adelaide

[Read 25 May 1939]

‘he present paper is the fourth of a serics dealing with the nematode parasites

of Australian marsupials (1938, a, b,c). Most of the material has been colleczed

from the stomach, from which situation all the specimens were found to belong

to genera of Strongylidac, Trichoneminac. The few specimens taken [rom the

intestine belong to Globocephaloides, and the finding of males, previously unknown,

has permitted the addition of male characteristics to the generic diagnasis and the

assignment of the genus to the Strongylinae. Three new genera, Papillostrongy-

lus, Coronostrongylus and Buccostrongylus, have been proposed. Cobb’s Zonio-

laimus, based on some minute figures and formulae but without any other

description, has been rehabilitated, Labiostrongylus being regarded as a synonym

of it. The collection studied has been brought together by the senior author over

a period of thirty years.

Acknowledgment is made of the assistance rendered by Dr. F. H. 5. Roberts,

Parasitologist, Stock Department, Brisbane; and especially by the late Dr. 1, Le:

Bancroft, of Eidsvold, and by his daughter, Dr. M. J. Mackerras. The investiga-

tion has been made possible by the Commonwealth Research Grant to the Uni-

versily of Adelaide.

The types of all new species have been deposited in the South Austrahan

Museum, Adelaide.

List or NEMATODES REFERRED TO IN THIS PAPER, ARRANGED UNDER THEIR Hoss

Macropus major Shaw. Pharyngostrongylus macropodis Y. and M.; Zonio-

laiinus bipapillosus n. sp.

Macropus dorsalis Gray. Pharyngosirongylus gamma n.sp.; P. delta 0. sp.;

P. epsilon n.sp.; P. seta n.sp.; Zoniolaimus wncinalus u.sp.; Cloacina

bancroflorum n.sp.; C. burnettiana n.sp.; C. longispiculata 1. sp.; Cloacina

sp.; Buccostrongylus buccalis un. sp.; Papilostrongylus labiatus n.sp.; Globo-

cephaloides wallabiae n. sp.; G. affinis n. sp.

Macropus parryi Bennett. Pharyngestrongylus macropodis Y. & M.; P. ganime

n.sp.; P. brevis Canavan; Macropostrongylus yorke! Baylis; Zoniolainius

bancrofli n.sp.; Cloacina communis J. & M.; Buccostrongylus buccalis 1. sp.

Macropus agilis Gould. Cloacina robertsi n. sp.; C. longispiculata n, sp.; ©, macro-

podis ). & M.; Macropostrongylus macropostrongylus Y. & M.; Cloacina sp.

Macropus welsbyi Longman. Zoniolaimus insularis n.sp.; Macropostrongylus

macropostrongylus Y. & M.; M. yorkei Baylis; Cloacina macropodis J. & M.;

Cloacina sp.

Macropus thetidis Lesson. Pharyngostrongylus gcta n.sp.; Buccostronyylus

australis n. sp.; Coronostrongylus coronalus m1. sp.

Roy. Soe. S.A,, €3 (1), 28 July 1939

122

Macropus wilcoxi McCoy. Zoniolaimus communis n.sp.; Buccostrongylus bue-

calis n.sp.; B. australis n.sp.; Coronostrongylus coronatus n.sp.; Cloacina

macropodis J. & M.

Macropus ualabetus Lesson & Garnot. Zoniolaimus communis n. sp.

Macropus apicalis Gunther. Zontolaimus uncinatus n.sp.; Cloacina similis n. sp.;

Cloacina sp.

Afacropus sp. (from Millmerran, Darling Downs), Zoniolaimus communis n.sp.j

Pharyngostrongylus ela tn. sp.

Petrogale penicillata Gray. Pharyngostrongylus zeta n.sp.; P. alpha J. & M.;

Cleacina similis n. sp.; C. robertsi n. sp.

Onvehogale frenata Gould, Zontolaimus onychogale n. sp.

Lsoodon obesulus Shaw. Cloacina sp.

Macropus sp. from Millmerran is a wallaby. It is probably either Af. ruf-

collis or M. dorsalis, the former species being stated by T.e Souef and Burrell

(“The Wild Animals of Australia,” 1926) to occur “in drier forest country” and

the latter “in rough open country.” M. ruficollis seems to be the more likely

species. Wood Jones (Mammals of South Australia, pt. ti, 1924, p. 245) states

that the name M. ruficollis Desmarest should be restricted to the form from King

Island, Bass Strait, and that M. rufogriseus Desm. is the correct name for the

mainland specics. This same author (l.c. p. 247) points out that Macropius

(Wallabia) bicolor Desm. has priority over M. ualabatus (tvpicus) Less. & Garn.

We take the opportunity to make some corrections in regard to host names

contained in our earlier papers. When dealing with Dipetalonema rocmeri, we

mentioned (1938 a) Alacropus ualabatus (Hawkesbury River) amongst the hosts

on page 107 but omitted it from the list on page 111; M. ruficollis was given on

page 111 but omitted from page 107, the locality being the Blue Mountains,

New South Wales. We have been informed by Dr. Roberts that Macropus sp.

from Inverleigh, Carpentaria, the animal from which Dipetalonema annulipapti-

latum was recorded by us (1938c, 189) is M. agilis. In the same paper we

described Ausiroxyuris finlaysont, Passalurus parvus and Oxvyuris acuticaudata

from the flying opossum, Petauroides volans, the varicty being indicated on the

original label as minor. Mr. Ivinlayson, in his account of the mammals of the

Dawson and Fitzroy River valleys (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 1934, 219),

has identified the host specimen as var. incanus Thomas.

ZONIOLAIMUS Cobb, 1898

The author did not give a diagnosis of the genus nor any verbal account of

the two species which he named. The only information is contained in a very

small figure of one of them (Z. setifera) and of the genital system of the other

(Z, brevicaudalus), together with the “formula” of one sex for each. The host

of the former was given as the brush wallaby from Moss Vale, New South Wales.

This animal was Macropus ualabatus. ‘Yhe host of the other parasite was net

indicated, but the material was probably also obtained from the same species of

123

marsupial. Railliet thought that the genus might be synonymous with Cloacina.

Yorke and Maplestone (1926), as well as Baylis and Daubney (1926), gave brief

diagnoses based on Cobb’s figures.

We have examined a number of species which are congeneric with Zonto-

laimus and now place Labiostrongylus Yorke and Maplestone as a synonym of it.

The structure of the lips and of the bursa is similar in both. The setae, which

are such a striking feature of Z. setifera, are present on all the described species

of Labiostrongylus, though not so highly developed. ‘The lengths stated by Cobb

for one of his species (brevicaudatus) are incompatible with the figures.

‘The following diagnosis of the genus is based largely on that given for

Labiostrongylus by Yorke and Maplestone (1926).

Trichoneminae—Mouth directed straight forwards; surrounded by six to

eight processes; submedian largest and may or may not be bilobed; laterals simple ;

ventral and dorsal, if present, quite small and conical. Buccal capsule large,

cylindrical, heavily chitinised. Oesophagus long, slender, surrounded at its base

by one or more pairs of lateral pouches from intestine.

Male—Bursa large; lobes clearly defined; ventral lobes usually separate.

Ventral rays together, parallel; externo-laterals and externo-dorsals shorter than

laterals (with which they arise) and usually lifting lateral wall of the bursa.

Laterals long, parallel. Dorsal ray usually stout, ending in two branches lying i

lappets of dorsal lobe; one pair of lateral rays given off cither from main stem or

a ray from each of the two branches. Genital cone usually prominent ; accessory

cone present. Spicules thin, with striated alae and simple points. Gubernaculum

present or absent,

Female—Body posterior to vulva narrowing to a pointed tail, Uteri parallel ;

vagina varying in length, usually twisted; vulva not far in front of anus; the

distance between vulva and anus not greater than that from anus to tip of tail.

Eges relatively small. From stomach of marsupials. Type, 2. setifera Cobb,

1898, from a “brush wallaby” (Macropus walabatus). Other species: Z. brevi-

caudatis Cobb, 1898, host not stated but probably M. walabatus; also the follow-

ing species originally described under Labiostrongylus: Z. labiostrong lus

(Y. and M., 1926), Z. longispicularis (Wood, 1929), Z. macropodis (Johnston and

Mawson, 1938), Z. grandis (Johnston and Mawson, 1938), 2. petrogale (John-

ston and Mawson, 1938). Six new species are proposed in the present paper:

Z. bancrofti from Macropus parryi; Z, bipapillosus from M. major; Z. CONUIMUNTS

from M. ualabatus, M. wilcovi and M. sp. from Millmerran; 7. insularis from

AM. welsbyi; Z. uncinatus from M. dorsalis and M. apicalis; and Z. onychogale

from Onychogale frenata.

Zoniolaimus bancrofti n. sp.

Figs. 1-2

From Macropus parryi, near Eidsvold, Upper Burnett River, collected by

the late Dr. T. L.. Bancroit.

124

Stcut worms. Males, about 30-33 mm. long and 1 mm. wide; females,

31-45 mm. long by 1-5 mm. broad. Head surmounted by six lips; four sub-

median lobed, each bearing proximally a small rounded papilla with bristle; the

two laterals simple, distal part of each rather larger and bearing small papilla.

Anterior end of oesophagus 0-2 mm. from top of lips; chitinised wall of buccal

capsule 0712 mm. deep. Ocesophagus 7°35 mm. long (1:4°4 of body length) in

male; 10 mm. (1:4'4 of body length) in female; widening gradually towards

base; posterior end surrounded by a pair of lateral lobes from intestine.

‘es, 1-2, Zomolaimus bancrofit: 1, Anterior view of head; 2, Ventral view of bursa.

‘igs. 3-5, Zoniolaimus bipapillosus: 3, Right part of bursa; 4, Lateral view of head;

=, Posterior end of female. Figs 6-7, Zoniolatmus communis: 6, Dorsal ray of bursa:

7, Head. Figs 8-9, Zoniolatmus insularis; 8, Head; 9, Left part of bursa, Figs. 1 and

5 to same scale; 2, 3, 4, 7 and 9 to same scale.

REFERENCES TO LETTERING

a, anus; ac, accessory genital cone; br, buccal ring; cp, cervical papilla; dp, dorsal papilla:

dr, dorsal ray; edr, extterno-dorsal ray; cp, excretory pore; gc, genital cone; H, lateral lip;

Ip, lateral papilla; nr, nerve ring; p, prebursal papilla; s, spicule; sl, submedian lip:

sp, submedian papilla; t, tooth; v, vestibule; vl, ventral lip; vr, ventral ray; vu, vulva.

Mele—Spicules rather short, 3°66 mm. long, 1:9 of body length; with narrow

alae; small irregular gubernaculum. Bursa large, with long prominent dorsal

lobe; laterals wide; ventrals not joined to one another. Ventral rays cleft for

half length and reaching almost to edge of ventral lobe; externo-lateral exiending

to edge of junction between ventral and lateral lobes; laterals long, parallel, cleft

for nearly all length; externo-dorsal shorter, arising from same base as laterals.

Dorsal ray stout; giving off ncar mid-length two short club-shaped lateral

branches reaching edge of bursa near beginning of dorsal lobe; main dorsal ray

passing on, narrowing until near its base, then dividing into two short branches,

each of these extending into one of the two terminal lappets of the dorsal lobe.

125

Female—Body posteriorly to anus narrowing greatly to end in thin pointed

tail, Vagina very short, narrow, coiled; distance from junction of ovejectors to

vulva 0-8 mm.; vulva 1:15 mm. from anus; anus 1-12 mm. from tip of tail.

The species resembles Z. labiostrongylus in general proportions, but differs

in the form of the externo-lateral and externo-dorsal rays, the character of the

dorsal ray, and in the absence of dorsal and ventral lips.

Zoniolaimus bipapillosus n. sp.

Figs. 3-5

From stomach of Macropus major, Upper Dawson Valley (coll. Dr. Ban-

croft). Long, stout worms. Males, 28-37 mm. long; females, about 50 mm.

Six lips; two laterals each with pair of small rounded papillae; submedians simple,

cach with ridge on inner edge facing mouth cavity. Buccal capsule 0-12 mm. deep

by 0-1 mm. wide; with strongly chitinised walls and floor. Oesophagus 12-

12-5 mm. long, 1:3-4 of body length; beginning 0-28 mm. from top of lips.

Nerve cord and exeretory pore not recognised in the poorly cleared specimens

available.

AMale—Spicules about 4:3 mm. long, 1:7°4-9 of body length; thin, straight;

with striated alae. Bursa large, dorsal lobe long. Ventral rays cleft for most of

lengih, parallel, extending nearly to edge of bursa. Externo-lateral and externo-

dorsal rays of equal length and distinctly shorter than laterals with which they

arise; laterals cleft for most of length, and passing out almost to edge of bursa

which is wider just at this part. Dorsal ray stout, giving off near halt its length

two lateral branches, extending outwardly nearly to edge of bursa; main dorsal

ray passing into longest part of dorsal lobe, and scon dividing into two branches,

vach terminating in a lappet of the lobe.

female—Body narrowing near region of vulva to end in pointed, tapermeg

tail. Uteri parallel; ovejectors short; vagina very short, twisted; vulva 2°5 mm.

from posterior end and 1-2 mm. in front of anus.

The specific name is given on account of the presence of two papillae on

each lateral lip. his species shows resemblance to 4%. bancroflt in regard to the

length of spicules, but differs in the form of the dorsal ray, arrangement of the

hips, and length of the vagina.

Zoniclaimus communis n. sp.

Figs, 6-7

From stomach of Macropus ualabatus (type host) and MW. wilcort, Upper

Burnett River (coll. Dr. Bancroft).

Shorter than most Labiostrongyles ; male 15-5 mm.; female 16-34 mm. They

all tend to be more or less coiled, especially in the tail region. Head with six

lips; two laterals shortest, rounded, each with small rounded papilla on upper

end; four submedians large, simple, each with thin conical papilla near its base.

Buccal capsule about 0°13 mm, in diameter in female; with chitinous walls about

126

0-1 mm, deep, base 0-16 mm. from anterior end. Oesophagus narrow, relatively

long, 7 mm, long in female, one-third of body length; 4°5-5:5 mm. in male, one-

fifth body length; around posterior end a dark mass, probably paired intestinal

lobes. Nerve ring about 0°6 mm., and excretory pore 0°75 mm. from anterior end

in male. Cuticle finely striated transversely.

Male—Spicules 4°75 mm. long, 1:3-2 of body length; thin; with very

narrow alae and pointed tips. Bursa hard to observe satisfactorily, as it is short

and not easily spread out. Ventral lobes separate; dorsal lobe not so much

prolonged as in other species. Ventral rays parallel, cleft for most of length,

bent so as to penetrate into ventral corners of ventral lobes. Externo-lateral

ray very thin, short; externo-dorsal short; laterals long, extending to edge of

bursa. Dorsal ray very wide, short; after half its length giving off a long lateral

on each side, the main stem soon afterwards dividing into two branches, each

projecting into pocket at edge of bursa. Genital cone short.

Female—Body narrowing towards posterior end, more suddenly after anus,

to terminate in short pointed dorsally-directed tail. Uteri parallel; ovejectors

short, stout; vagina fairly long, twisted, full of very small eggs. Anus 1-1 min.

from tip of tail; vulva 0°65 mm. in front of anus. Eggs 0-11 by 0°08 mm.

This species differs from other six-lipped forms in the characters of the

dorsal ray and in the relatively short length of the worm. The nearest ally seems

to be Z. longispicularis, from which it differs in regard to the dorsal ray, body

length, shortness of vagina and the presence of posterior submedian papillae on

the lips.

Zoniolaimus insularis n. sp.

Figs, 8-9

From stomach, Macropus welsbyi, Stradbroke Island.

Male 43-44 mm. long, breadth 1:5 mm.; female about 50 mm. long,

3 mm. broad. Eight lips; submedians lobed, each with small conical papilla,

laterals simple with small rounded papilla; dorsal and ventral lips very short.

Buccal capstile O-1 mm. long by 0°14 mm. broad, base 0°25 mm. distant from

anterior end of lips. Ocsophagus 10-11 mim. long in male, 1:3:4-4°4 of body

length; 15 mm. in female, 1: 3-4 of body length; narrow. Intestinal lobes which

more or less surround the base of the oesophagus in species of Zoniolannus are

practically absent in this form. Nerve cord not more than 1:7 mm.; excretory pore

at about 1°7 mm.; and cervical papillae at 1-15 mm. from anterior end.

Male—-Bursa large; ventral lobes separate, dorsal fobe prolonged. Externo-

Jateral and externo-dorsal rays arising with laterals; externo-dorsal extending

almost to edge of lateral lobe; laterals long, dividing at half length and extending

nearly to bursal edge. Dorsal ray giving off at about half length a short branch

from cach side, main stem passing on to subdivide into two subequal, fairly long

rays projecting each into a distinct lappet of the bursa. Spicules 4°5-5-5 mm.;

1:8-8-9-4 of body length; with striated alae almost to tips; tips pointed and

separate,

127

Female—Uteri large, parallel; parts of ovejectors distinct, muscular; vagina

short, twisted; vulva 1°7 mm. in front of anus, and 3-6 mm. from posterior end;

anus about midway between vulva and tip of tail.

This species is close to Z. labiostrongylus, but shows slight differences in the

length of spicules and ocsophagus, branching of dorsal ray, longer externo-lateral

and externo-dorsal rays, position of papilla on cach submedian lip (as indicated

in Yorke and Maplestone’s figure), and in the presence of a papilla on each lateral

lip (not mentioned by these authors).

Zoniolaimus uncinatus n. sp.

Figs, 10-12

From Macropus dorsalis (type host), Upper Burnett River (coll, Dr. Ban-

croft), and Botanical Gardens, Brisbane; also from Macropus apicalis (Jemale

worms only) from the Upper Mary River, near Woolooga.

Tigs. 10-12, Zoniclaimus ancinatus: 10, Head; 11, Anterior end; 12, Posterior

view of bursa. Figs. 13-15, Zoniolaimus onychoyale: 13, Head; 14, Anterior

end; 15, Posterior view of bursa. Figs. 10 and 13 to same seale; figs. 12 and 15.

Worms short for this genus: male 19-22 mm.; female 27-35 mm. Head

rounded ; ix lips, each submedian with a prominence at half length provided with

a hook-like papilla (hence specific name) ; laterals cach with small rounded papilla

near apex; submedians large but net bilobed distally. Buccal capsule quite

shallow, 0°05 mm. deep, 0-1 mm. wide; base 0°13 mm. from top of lips.

Ocsophagus about 3 mm. long (1: 7-8 of body length); of distinctive shape, last

two-thirds about twice as wide as first third; thicker part quite distinct to naked

eye, being much darker than the rest of the alimentary canal, Around posterior

end of oesophagus is a band of tissue, probably the nerve ring. Just behind the

latter is the exerctory pore. Cervical papillae stiff, bristle-like; at 1°35 mm. from

anterior end in male.

128

ATale—Bursa large; ventral lobes separate; dorsal lobe long, squarish, with

free end forming three lappets. Ventral rays cleft for about half length; externo-

lateral short, thin; laterals cleft for half length; externo-dorsal arising with

laterals, stout, long. Dorsal ray stout; dividing before half its length into two

branches, cach soon giving off a short lateral ray before proceeding to the edge

of bursa; one branch occupying each lateral lappet of the dorsal lobe; the lateral

ray directed dorsally. Spicules straight; stout; 2-4-2°6 mm. long, 1: 8-9 of body

length; with very wide striated alae ending near tips which are joined. Genital

cone well developed; accessory cone ending in two short, relatively wide processes,

each indented at tip.

Female—ltert parallel; ovejectors muscular, spindle-shaped; vagina straight,

narrow, with small eggs, 0°06 mm. by 0°12 mm. Vulva about 2°4 mm., and

antis 1°35 mm. from posterior end, ‘Vail long, tapering.

This species differs from other Labiostrongyles in the form of the dorsal ray.

shape ot the oesophagus, and position of the nerve ring, excretory pore and cervical

papillae.

Zoniolaimus onychogale n. sp.

Figs. 13-15

From stomach of Onvehogale frenala, Upper Burnett River (coll. Dr.

Bancroft).

Shert stout worms closely resembling 4%. uncinatus, both externally and

internally, but differing chiefly in the length of spicules, though there are also

slight differences in the shape of the female tail, the dorsal lobe of the bursa, the

Meaney

depth of the buccal capsule, and the form and position of the lip papiliae. Males

about 11 mm.; females 24-26 mm. Six ps; submedtans with prominence near

base, representing broad low papilla; laterals with small median papilla near

anterior edge. Buccal capsule strongly chitinised, 0°06 mm. decp by 0°08 mm.

wide. O9sophaeus about 1:45 mm. long, posterior half wider. Nerve ring

surrounding base of ocsophagus; excretory pore posterior to end of oesophagus;

this region of body very closely resembling that of Z. uncinatus.

VWele—Bursa large; dorsal lobe not so long as in Z. wreinatus. Ventral rays

long. parallel; externo-laterals short; laterals Jong, cleft for most of lengih;

externo-dorsal arising with laterals, but shorter; dorsal ray bifurcated at about

end of first third, each branch giving off short lateral at about half way. Spicules

long, 4°2 mm., 1: 2-6 of body length; very thin, Gubernaculum present; genital

cone large; accessory cone not seen because of condition of specimen,

Female—-Body stout, narrowing suddenly after vulva; rather long tapering

tail curved dorsally. Anus 1-4 mm. from the tip; vulva 0-7 mm. in front of anus.

Uteri parallel; ovejectors long; vagina narrow, short. Eggs in vagina 0°16 mm.

by 0°09 mm.

129

Genus CLoacina Linstow, 1898

This genus does not appear to be nearly so well represented in Queensland

marsupials as in those of Central Australia. We have recently (1938 b) given

a diagnosis. Five new species are now described: Cloacina bancroftorum and

C. burnettiana from Macropus dorsalis; C. similis from M. a@picalis and Petrogale

penicillata; C. robertsi from M. agilis and Petrogale penicillala; C. longispiculata

from M. dorsalis and M. agilis.

Two recently described species, C. contminis and C. macropodis J. & M.,

were recognised amongst Queensland material.

Figs. 16-19, Cloacina rabertsi: 16, Head (male) ; 17, Posterior end of female;

18, Dorsolateral view of bursa; 19, Dorsal view of bursa. Figs. 20-22,

Cloacina burnetiiana: 20, Tlead of female; 21, Posterior end of female; 22,

Dorsolateral view of bursa. Figs. 23-24, Cloacina similis; 23, Head of female:

24, Dorsolateral view of bursa. Figs. 16. 20 and 23 to same scale; figs. 21

and 22; figs. 19, 22, and 24.

Cloacina robertsi n. sp

Figs, 16-19

From the rock wallaby, Pelrogale penicillata (type host), Upper Lurneit

River (coll, Dr. Bancroft); and Macropus agilis, Gregory River, North Queens-

land (coll. Dr. Roberts).

Fairly robust worms; male 5:5-11 mm.; female 6°0-9°8 mm. Six lips, each

submedian with a two-jointed papilla whose upper scgment is the smaller. Cuticle

constricted slightly at base of lips. Buccal capstile very shallow, about 0-01 mm.

deep and 0:034 mm. in diameter, well set back {rom anierior end of worm, so

that its base is 0°03 mm. from oral opening. Leaf crown of six elements arising

from base of capsule, tips pointed and surrounding small mouth aperture

0-008 mm. in diameter, Oesophagus short; 0°42-0-5 mm. in male (1: 13-20 of

130

body length) ; 0-4--48 mm. in female (1: 20°4-21-5 of body length) ; widened at

base but without definite bulb, Nerve ring at 0-2--3 mm. from anterior end,

surrounding oesophagus just behind mid-length; excretory pore near posterior

end of oesophagus. Cervical papillae at 0-08--11 mm. from anterior end; long;

threadlike.

Male—A pair of prebursal papillae. Bursa large; lobes not deeply separated ;

ventral lobes continuous. Ventral rays thin, parallel, reaching edge of bursa.

Fexterno-lateral and externo-dorsal arising from same root as, and a little shorter

than, laterals; latter thin, parallel, cleft for most of length, and almost reaching

bursal edge. Dorsal ray bifurcating at about one-third length, each branch pass-

ing outwards and downwards and giving off at about mid-length a shorter lateral

ray, no terminations reaching bursal edge. Genital cone large. Spicules very

Jong, 2°3-5°65 mm., 1:2-2°4 of body length, thin, with striated alae and long

pointed tips.

Female—Body narrowing suddenly just posteriorly from vulva; short back-

wardly-directed pointed tail. Uteri parallel; vagina very short; vulva

0-16-"3 mm., and anus 0:07--15 mm. from posterior end; eggs large, 0-11 by

‘06 mm.

This species resembles C. macropodis in gencral anatomy and length of

spicules, but differs in the shape and size of the papillac, buceal capsule and lips.

It also resembles C. curta |. & M., but differs from it in regard to the oesophagus,

dorsal ray and length of vagina.

Cloacina burnettiana n. sy.

Figs. 20-22

From stomach of Macropus dorsalis, Upper Burnett River (coll. Dr. Ban-

croft). Thin; very short; male 2°35-3 mm.; female 3-1 mm.; body narrowing

towards head; extreme anterior end rather enlarged to give rise to eight wide

shallow lips, the four submedians each with a two-jointed papilla, 0-01 mm. high.

Buccal capsule 0-017 mm. in diameter, with thick walls 9 high; leaf crown of

six elements arising from base of capsule and bent inwards, nearly closing mouth

opening. Ocsophagus short; 0°39--42 mm. long (1: 6-7 of body length) in male;

0-3 mm. (1:10 of body length) in female; wide, generally enlarging towards base,

latter not markediy bulbous; anterior end 0°015 mm. from top of lips. Intestine

pigmented, Nerve ring 0°2--29 mm. in male, 0°15 mm. in female from anterior

end and at about mid-length of oesophagus; excretory pore just behind nerve ring.

Male—Spicules straight, narrow, 0°69-'88 mm. long, 1:3°-4 of body length,

with wide striated alae ending a short distance from tips. Bursa large; lobes

distinet, ventrals almost separated from each other. Ventral rays long, parallel,

cleft for nearly whole length. Externo-lateral diverging from lateral almost at

its base and, like laterals, reaching almost to edge of bursa; externo-dorsal arising

with laterals. but diverging widely, long, thin, not reaching edge. Dorsal ray

dividing at about half length into two long thin branches nearly reaching edge of

131

bursa; each branch close to its origin giving off a lateral of about one-quarter its

own length. Genital cone insignificant.

Female—Body narrowing beyond vulya to end in long pointed backwardly-

directed tail. Uteri parallel; ovejectors stout; vagina quite short; vulva 0°38 mm.,

and anus 0-21 mm. from tip of tail. [.arge eggs in upper part of uterus but none

seen in vagina or ovejectors of the only female available for study.

The species differs from all known representatives of the genus in regard

to size and the characters of the dorsal ray.

Cloacina similis n. sp.

Figs. 23-24

From the stomach of Pelrogale penicillata, Upper Burnett River (coll.

Dr. Bancroft). This species closely resembles C. communis, C. magna, and

C. petrogele (hence specific name, similis) in the structure of the anterior end,

but the female differs [rom that of the first two in the shape of the body, while

the male has spicules with a relative length (spicule length: body length) nearer

to that in C. conemunis than in the other two. The vagina is shorter than in any

of these species, though the form of the tail and the relative positions of anus

and vulva are similar in all. Male 8-1-8-2 mm.; female 7-1 mm. long. Oecso-

phagus 0°84--9 mm.; 1:8-9°5 of body length. Nerve cord at 0°35 mm., exerctory

pore 0°8--83 mm, and cervical papillae at 0°07--08 mm. from anterior end.

Male—Bursa with well marked lobes, ventrals separate, dorsal bilobed.

Ventral rays parallel, reaching edge of bursa; externo-laterals short ; laterals cleft

for most of length, not reaching edge of bursa; externo-dorsals arising with

laterals and of similar length but divergent. Dorsal ray bifurcating after about

one-third length, cach branch bifureating after half its length, the two final

branches not reaching edge of bursa, Pair of prebursal papillae about 0-5 mm.

from upper edge of bursa. Spicules long, 1°85-2°15 mm. (1:4:4-3:7 of body

length), with striated alae and simple points.

Female—Posterior end narrowing suddenly to end in conical tail, 0°14 mm.

long; vulva 0-17 mm. in front of anus; latter 0-14 mn from tip of tail; vagina

about 0-5 mm, long; eggs 0°14 by 0°08 mm.

Cloacina longispiculata n. sp.

Figs, 25-28

From Macropus agilis, Gregory River district, Carpentaria (coll, Dr.

Roberts). Very stout worms, tapering rapidly at anterior end, but cxtremely

little posteriorly ; male 3-6-6 mm. long with maximum diameter 0-08 mm.; female

10-12 mm. long, 0-1 mm, broad, Cuticle inflated at anterior end, forming a

cervical collar beginning 0:05 mm. from head end, where it projects 0°03 mm.

from the body proper, and extending backwards for about 0-2 mm., gradually

narrowing. Cervical papillae stout, passing through the inflated part of cuticle,

0-18 mm. from head end, and projecting as narrow filaments about 0°025 mm.

132

Jong. In many specimens the anterior end is damaged but a few show six low

hips, with two-jointed papillae on the submedian and a small papilla on each

lateral lip. Leaf crown prominent, arising from a narrow buccal ring, 0-03 mm.

diameter and about 0-01 mm. in depth. Nerve ring at beginning of second half of

oesophagus ; the latter 0°52 mm. long, widening behind nerve ring, Ixcretory

pore not observed.

Figs. 25-28, Cloacina lonyispiculata: 25, Head; 26, Posterior end of

female; 27, Posterior view of bursa; 28, Anterior end. Figs. 29-33,

Cloaema bancroftorum: 29, Head; 30, Anterior end; 31, Dorsal vay;

32, Lateral view of bursa; 33, Posterior end of female. Figs. 28, 30 and

33, to same scale; figs. 29, 31 and 32.

Male—sSpicules exceedingly long; 3°5-3-7 mm. long, hence more than half

body length; with wide alae. Bursa large; genital cone short; accessory cone of

two small lobes. Ventral rays cleft to base; externo-lateral slightly shorter than

medio- and postero-laterals which are cleft half-way and reach almost to edge

of bursa; externo-dorsal arising with these latter and a little shorter; dorsal

bifurcating about mid-length, each branch almost reaching bursal edge and giving

off a short stout lateral ray near its end.

Female—Body tapering very suddenly beyond vulva to end in short pointed

tail. Vagina long, wide, coiled. Vulva 0°37 and anus 0-17 mm. from tip of tail.

Eggs (in vagina) 0°14 by -O08 mm.

This species is characterised by the presence of the cervical collar and the

very long spicules.

133

Cloacina bancroftorum n. sp.

Figs. 29-33

From stomach of Macropus dorsalis, Upper Burnett River (coll, Dr. Ban-

croft and Dr. J. M. Mackerras).

Short stout worms tapering markedly at head end. Males 4:3 mm.; females

4-2-5-8 mm. Six low lips; on top of each submedian a very small two-jointed

papilla. Lips forming very wide circle around anterior end; within circle is leaf

crown with each element wide and turned outwards at its distal end; mouth

aperture correspondingly large. Buccal capsule shallow, chitinous walls uneven,

with pronounced wavy outline. Oesophagus wide, straight, slightly wider at base,

length in male 0°75 mm. (one-sixth body length), length in female 0-7-0-73 mm.

(1: 6-8 of body length) ; intestine very wide. Nerve ring 0°35 mm. from anterior

end, lying at about mid-length of oesophagus. Excretory pore at 0°55--6 mm.;

cervical papilla 0°09 mm. from head end.

Male—Spicules straight, short, 0°65 mm, (1:7 of body length), with wide

striated alae. Genital cone short. Bursa lobes distinct, ventrals joined. Ventral

rays long, parallel, cleft for almost whole length, extending nearly to edge of

bursa; externo-laterals and laterals long, almost reaching edge; externo-dorsal

not so long; dorsal ray soon dividing, each branch subdividing into two subequal

branches, none reaching the edge of bursa.

Female—DLody tapering gradually to end in a pointed tail. Utert parallel;

vagina long, rather narrow; vulva 0°48 mm., anus 0°25 mm. from tip of tail;

eggs O11 by 0°04 mm.

The chief distinctive characters are the width of the buccal cavity, size of

the papilla, shape of the chitinous wall of the buccal capsule and the length of

the spicules. The specific name is given in recognition of the very valuable service

rendered for many years by the late Dr. Bancroft and by his daughter, Dr. J. AM.

Mackerras.

CLoAcina communis J. & M., 1938

Female specimens were obtained from Macropus parryi, Upper Dawson

Valley (River Dec), collector Dr. Bancroft.

CLOACINA MAcRoPopis J. & M., 1938

This species was represented amongst material taken by Dr. Roberts from

Macrapus agilis, Gregory River, North Queensland; and from M. welsbvi, Strad-

broke Island.

CLOACINA sp.

Specimens of one or more species belonging to Cloacina were found amongst

material taken from Macropus apicalis (Upper Mary River); ©. dorsalis (Eids-

vold) ; M@. welsbyi (Stradbroke Island); M. agilis (Gregory River) ; and /soodon

obesulus Shaw (Eidsvold}. Their state of preservation prevented further

identification.

134

Genus PHARYNGosTRONGYLUS Yorke and Maplestone, 1926

Syns. Spirostrongylus Monnig, 1926; Rugopharyns Monnig, 1926

The following diagnosis is based largely on that of Yorke and Maplestone:

Trichonemimae—Body tapering gradually anteriorly, head directed straight for-

wards, mouth collar with stx rounded papillae of which the two lateral may be

larger than the four submedian. Cuticle smooth, with (in some cases) a few

fine striations anteriorly. Buccal capsule short, cylindrical. Corona radiata, if

present, arising from near the anterior end of the buccal capsule; external leaf

crown may be present. Buccal capsule leading into a cylindrical vestibule of vary-

ing length, with heavily chitinised walls, which are striated in different directions

in the different species, some circularly, some spirally, some radially, Oesophagus

long, slender, usually divided into a wider anterior and a shorter narrower

posterior region ending in a bulb. Cervical papillae long, thin. Exeretory pore

behind nerve ring.

Aifale—Bursa short, lobes distinctly separated; ventrals may be joined (ivpe

species) or separate. Inside surface of bursa usually with numerous paypillae.

Ventral ray cleft distally; externo-lateral, lateral and externo-dorsal arising

together, laterals being longest; extcrno-lateral and externo-dorsal often lifting

lateral wall of bursa. Dorsal ray divided for at least half its length, each long

secondary stem giving off near its anterior end a short lateral branch. Spicules

short and stout or long and thin; wide striated alae. Usually a prominent genital

cone and an accessory cone. Gubernaculum may be present.

Femalc-—Posterior extremity narrowing suddenly behind vulva to end in a

long tapering tail. Uteri parallel; vulva a short distance in front of anus.

Parasites in the stomach of marsupials. ‘Type species: P. macrepodis

Y.& M. Other species: P. australis (Monnig, 1926}; P. brevis Canavan, 1931;

P. woodwardi Wood, 1930; P. alpha Johnston and Mawson, 1938b; P. beta

Johnston and Mawson, 1938 b.

Five new species are proposed in the present paper: P. gamme, from Ala-

cropus dorsalis and M. parryi; P. delta, from M. dersalis; P. epsilon, from

VW. dorsalis; P. seta, from M. dorsalis, M. ihetidis, and Petrogale penicillata;

P. cla, from Afacropus sp. We also record the identification of specimens of

P, macropodis Y. & M., from Macropus parryi and M. major, P. brevis Canavan,

irom Macropus parryi; and P. alpha J. and M. from Petrogale penicillaty.

Pharyngostrongylus gamma n, sp.

Figs, 34-39

From stomach of Macropus dorsalls (type host) and M. parryi, both from

the Upper Burnett River (coll. Dr, Bancroft).

Thin; male 5°8-6°6 mm. long, shorter and relatively stouter than female 7°6-

8-7 mm. long. Mouth collar with six papillae; the four submediang thinner, more

prominent, and each with two bristies; laterals stout and squat. Rounded anterior

end arising from within the collar and protected by an external leaf crown of

135

ten elements; the latter arranged so that two come up from the region of each

submedian papilla, and one from each lateral papilla, the interpapillary areas being

apparently unprotected. Around the base of each papilla is a non-chitinised area.

Upper ends of elements curved inwardly. On looking down into the circular

mouth, the anterior edge of the buccal capsule appears to consist of numerous

minute pieces closely fitted together in a circle, the inner edges giving a serrated

effect. This is probably the internal leaf crown.

3uccal capsule deep (0-013 mm.), with thin curved walls, probable internal

leaf crown arising from upper edge. Vestibule or pharynx long, 0-11-"13 mm.,

marked by prominent spiral striations arranged at 45° to long axis of organ.

Cervical papillae long, thread-like, situated about 0-08--17 mni. from anterior end

Figs. 34-39, Pharyngostrongylus gamma: 34, Posterior end of

female; 35, Anterior end; 36, Bursa, posterior view; 37,

oesophageal region; 38, Head, anterior view; 39, Head, sublateral

view. Figs. 34 and 37 to same scale; figs. 38 and 39 to same scale.

and just behind level of mid-length of vestibule. Nerve cord about 0-4 min., and

excretory pore at 0°45--47 mm. from head end. Ocsophagus thin, very long;

1:45 mm. in female (1:6 of body length) ; 1-42-1-49 mm. in male (1: 3°8-4°6 of

body length); posterior fiith widencd, with constriction in its mid-region.

Intestine wide, with short loop in its most anterior portion.

Male—Spicules narrow, 2°1 mm. long, 1: 27-3 of body length, with striated

alae. Bursa with well-marked lobes; dorsal with shallow median indentation;

lateral longest. Ventral rays long, thin, extending almost to edge of bursa, cleft

for about half their length; externo-lateral short, stout at base; laterals long,

cleft for half their length reaching nearly to edge of bursa; externo-dorsal arising

136

separately, short, thin, Dorsal ray bifurcating about half length, each stem soon

giving off a short club-shaped lateral branch before passing down to meet edge

of bursa, Genital cone short, rounded ; accessory genital processes rather long, with

a bifid distal end.

female—Body narrowing greatly just before vulva to end in long thin tail,

Uteri parallel; vagina long; vulva 0°7 mm; and anus 0-45 mm. from posterior

end, eggs small (0°04-'05 by 0:06--08 mim.).

This species closely resembles P. macropodis but differs in regard to length

striations on vestibule, shape of buccal capsule, and shape of dorsal ray.

Pharyngostrongylus delta n. sp.

Figs, 40-43

From stomach of Macropus dorsalis, Upper Burnett River (coll. Dr.

Bancroft).

These very small worms are recognisable at a glance by the shape of the

vestibule, which is about twice as long as broad; the lumen is long and narrow,

and the chitinous wall is constricted at the top and bottom as well as at one-third

and two-thirds of its length, so that there appear to be three parts to the vestibule.

Of these the first has, in optical section, the form of a trapezium with its base at

the posterior end, while the second and third sections are barrel-like. Male

4:47-6°5 mm. long; female about 5 mm. Six small papillae around anterior

end, but not adjacent to the small circular mouth. No distinct leaf crown, but

inner edge of buccal capsule divided into 12-16 semi-detached sections. Buccal

capsule about 5, deep. Vestibule 0-03--04 mm. long with circular striations.

Oesophagus *55-'64 mm. long in male (1:8-10 of body length), 0°6-°65- mm, in

female (1:8 of body length) ; wider anterior portion (0°4 mm. in male) followed

by narrower part ending in a bulbous enlargement. Nerve cord at 0-4-:43 mm.,

and excretory pore at 0°45 mm. from anterior end. Cervical papillae thread-like,

0-07 mm. from head end and just behind vestibule,

Male—Spicules quite short, 0°52-1 mm. long (1:6°5-8°6 of body length) ;

rather stout with very wide striated alae and rather thick blunt tips. Internal

surface of bursa covered with conical papillae, especially numerous and large on

lower edge and on lateral lobes. Lateral lobes long, wide; ventrals short, small,

not joined ventrally. Rays difficult to distinguish; externo-lateral lifting lateral

wall; externo-dorsal long, stout; dorsal very stout, at about mid-length giving

off two short stout lateral processes: and ending in a very short median piece and

two long stems reaching almost to bursal edge.

Female—Body narrowing at about level of vulva and more suddenly behind

anus to end in long thin pointed tail. Ovejectors short; vagina wide, short;

vulva 0°27--3 mm., and anus 0-22-:25 mm. from posterior end.

The species is differentiated from all other known members of the genus

by the form of the vestibule and dorsal ray, though the shape of the vestibule

is somewhat like that of P. zeta,

137

Pharyngostrongylus epsilon n. sp.

Figs. 44-46

From stomach of Macropus dorsalis (type host) and M. wilcoxi Eidsvold

(coll. Dr. Bancroft).

Small thin worms resembling P. delfa but possessing only two subdivisions

of the vestibule. Male 4°2-5-3 mm. long, 0°28 mm. broad; female not seen. Six

small papillae on mouth collar. Buccal capsule 4 deep, lined by thin cuticle.

Figs. 40-43, Pharyngostrongwius delta: 40, Head; 41, Oesophageal region,

lateral view; 42, Posterior end of female; 43, Outline of bursa showing

dorsal ray. Figs. 44-46 Pharyngostrongylus epsilon: 44, Head; 43, Oceso-

phageal region; 46, Bursa, dorso-lateral view. Figs. 47-50, Pharyvuge-

strongylus scta: 47, Head; 48, Lateral view of bursa; 49, Posterior end

of female: 50, Oesophageal region. Figs. 40, 44 aud 47 to same scale:

figs. 43, 46 and 48; figs. 45, 49 and 50.

Vestibule 0°035--045 mm. long, 0°01 mm. inside diameter; apparently radially

striated: walls about 0-01 mm. thick except in its mid-region, where there is a

constriction subdividing the vestibule; inner walls slightly convex in scction.

138

Oesophagus 0°54--6 mm. Jong, 1: 7-10 of body length, shorter than in most species

of genus, anterior widened portion about five-sevenths of length and narrowing

very suddenly to become surrounded by nerve ring; behind the latter is the bulb.

Excretory pore at 0-4 mm., and nerve ring at 0°45 mm. from anterior end.

Male—Bursa large, papillate; ventral lobes small, separate; lateral lobes

larger ; dorsal lobe very long with short median indentation. Ventral rays together,

parallel; externo-lateral short, but reaching edge of bursa; laterals long, parallel,

extending to edge of longest part of lateral lobe, cleft nearly all their length;

externo-dorsal arising with laterals and about same length as externo-lateral but

not reaching edge of bursa. Dorsal ray stout, bifurcating after half its length,

at which point two short lateral branches are given off. Spicules 0-85 mm. long,

1: 5-6-2 of body length.

The species resembles P. delta but differs in the length of spicules and in

the form of the ocsophagus and vestibule.

Pharyngostrongylus zeta n, sp.

Figs. 47-50

Irom Petrogale penicillata, type host, Upper Burnett River (coll, Dr. Ban-

croft) ; Macropus dorsalis, Brisbane Botanical Gardens; and M. thetidis, Eidsvold

(Dr. Bancroft).

Short, thin, tapering towards each end. Male 7-7-2 mm. long; female

7-8-2 mm. Anterior end with six small papillae, two lateral and four submedian,

the latter each with short forwardly-directed process. Vestibule about 0-04 mm.

long, 0-013 mm, inside diameter, commencing at 0-019 mm. from head end; with

walls 7» average thickness, circularly striated, constricted by two rings so as to

appear trilobed in optical section. Oesophagus thin, 0-72--75 mm. long in mile

(1:7-7-10 of body length) ; 0-8--82 mm. in female (1:8°7-10 of body length) ;

anterior tubular portion about three-fifths of total length and surrounded near

posterior end by nerve ring, then gradually narrowing to widen into the posterior

bulb. Nerve ring at 0°4-"5 mm, and exeretory pore at 0°5--6 mm. behind head

end. Cervical papillae thread-like, at 0-14--15 from anterior end.

Male—Spicules rather long, 1-6-1-62 mm., 1:4°2-4-4 of body length, slender,

with striated alac, points separate. Bursa large, lobes separated by deep clefts and

covered on internal surface by numerous papillae—especially the lateral lobes;

ventral lobes small, separate. Ventral rays parallel, reaching edge of bursa;

externo-lateral short, parallel to laterals; laterals longer than externo-lateral and

cleft for nearly whole length; externo-dorsal arising with laterals and a little

longer than externo-lateral and lifting lateral wall of bursa. Dorsal ray stout.

soon bifureating, each branch passing laterally and posteriorly, continuing nearly

to edge of deeply indented bursa, each branch giving off after about one-third

its length a short lateral ray. Genital cone rather long; accessory cone present.

female—Body tapering from region of vulva to end in long pointed tail.

Uteri parallel; ovejectors about 0-3 mm. long; vagina rather long (about

139

0-75 mm.) ; vulva 0°37-'4 mm. in front of anus; anus 0-25 mm. from tip of tail;

eggs 0-12 by -06 mm.

This species has a vestibule with characters intermediate between those of

P. delta and P. alpha, but differs from both in the position of the nerve ring and

excretury pore, length of spicules, and shape of vagina.

Pharyngostrongylus eta n. sp.

Figs. 51-55

From stomach of Macropus sp. from Millmerran, Darling Downs (Dr.

Roberts).

Stout worms; males 8-5-11 mm. long; females 10°7-11-1 mm.; body tapering,

especially towards anterior end; usually curved, especially at posterior end. Ilcad

very like that of P. gamma, differing mainly in having all six papillae of equal

Figs. 51-55, Pharyngostrongylus ela: 51, Bursa, lateral view; 52,

Bursa, dorsal view; 53, Anterior end; 54, Posterior end of female;

55, Head of female. Figs. 51 and 52 to same scale; figs. 53 and 54.

size, and all bearing two short bristles; internal leaf crown similar; buccal capsule

al about the same shape, its anterior edge with numerous small pieces, probably

elements of a short internal leaf crown. Buccal capsule “026 mm. in internal

diameter and 0-01 mm. long. Vestibule 0°06 mm. long, ‘027 mm. internal

diameter; walls stout, but narrowing suddenly at their base; walls with annular

wavy striations 8°3 » apart.

Ocsophagus long, thin, narrow, terminating after 1°35 mm. without any

bulbar swelling; posterior end surrounded by dorsal and ventral prolongations of

granular walls of intestine. Such lobes have been noted in many genera of

Trichoneminae but are not so long as in the present species. Nerve cord at

0°35 mm., excretory pore at °51 mm. from anterior end. Cervical papillae not

observed.

140

Afale—Spicules 1:3-1-4 mm. long, 1: 6-8-5 of body length; genital cone short;

inside of bursa (especially lateral lobes) covered with papillae. Ventral rays

short, parallel, cleft for half length; externo-lateral parallel to laterals and half

their length; laterals extending nearly to edge of bursa, parallel, cleft nearly all

their length; externo-dorsal long, arising separately. Dorsal ray longest of all;

aiter one-third length dividing into two branches arranged like calipers, each

branch reaching edge of dorsal lobe; latter divided by deep indentation; short

lateral ray arising from each branch at about one-third of its length.

Female—Body slightly swollen ventrally in front of vulva and narrowing

suddenly behind it to end in long tapering tail. Ovejectors long, narrow ; vagina

short, wide; vulva about 0-31 mm. in front of anus; anus 0°5 mm. from tip of tail;

in some specimens tail directed dorsally. Eggs in uterus about 0-04 mm. by -1 mm,

The species possesses features suggesting those of P. gamma and P. mecro-

podis. From the former it differs in its greater lengih, relatively shorter spicules,

absence of accessory genital cone, relatively shorter vestibule with horizontal

striations. It differs from P. macropadis in its shorter length, different head

papillae and shorter vestibule.

PUARYNGOSTRONGYLUS MACROPoDIS Y. and M.

We have identified this species from Afacropus major, Dee River, Upper

Dawson Valley (Dr. Bancroft); and from uW. parryi, Upper Burnett iRiver

(Dr. Bancroft).

PHARY NGOSTRONGYLUS BREVIS Canavan

Obtained from MWacropus parryi, Upper Burnett River (Dr. Bancroft).

PHARYNGOSTRONGYLUS ALPHA Johnston and Mawson

This species was obtained from a rock wallaby, Petrogale penicillata, Upper

Burnett River (Dr. Bancroft}.

Buccostrongylus new genus

Trichoneminae—Characterised by very long buccal capsule, whose anterior

edge may be prolonged into four or six tooth-like projections. No leaf crown:

six to eight lips, more or less developed, and behind these are six papillae, four

submedian and two lateral, each submedian bearing a thread-like appendage.

Buccal capsule twice to three times as long as wide. Oesophagus long, sicnder,

ending in a small but distinct bulb. Intestine pigmented. Bursa small, ventral

lobes very small. FExterno-dorsal ray arising separately from laterals which are

cose together, Dorsal ray after one-third of its Jength dividing into two long

branches forming an arch and reaching the bursal edge; at point of bifurcation,

two small lateral rays are given off. Female characterised by long thin back-

wardly directed tail; parallel uteri; short ovejectors; long, thin vagina; and large

thick-shelled eggs. Parasites in stomach of marsupials—Type species B. buccalis,

from Macropus dorsalis, Other species B. australis n. sp., from M,. wileoxi,

141

This new genus is near Pharyngostrongylus but differs from it in the absence

of a striated vestibule and in the presence of a very long buccal capsule, the latter

suggesting that of Cylindropharyny,

Buccostrongylus buccalis n. sp.

Figs. 56-59

From stomach of Macropus dorsalis (type host), M. wilcoxri and M. parryi

all from the Upper Burnett district (coll. Dr. Bancroft).

Small worms; male 3-72-5°3 mm. long; female 4-5 mm. At anterior end

four large ctiticular papillae in submedian positions, each with long hair-like

appendage, 0-026 mm. long; two smaller lateral papillae. Around oral aperture

Figs. 56-59, Buecostrongylns buecalis: 56, Anterior end; 37, Tlead;

58, Dorsal view of bursa; 59, Posterior cud of female. Figs. 60-62,

Buceostrongylus australis: 60, Head; 61, Posterior end of male,

dorsal view; 62, Anterior end. Figs. 36, 59, and 62 to same scale;

figs. 57 and 60; figs. 58 and 61.

about cight small lobes. Buccal capsule cylindrical, long, (0°02-"033 mm.}, thin

walled, without striations; posterior edge of wall thin, pointed; anterior border

apparently prolonged into four structures resembling clements of a leaf crown.

Ocsephagus thin, long, 1°36-1-4 mm. (1:2°7-3°7 of body length in male); in

female anterior cylindrical part 0°9 mm. long, widened posteriorly, surrounded

near mid-length by nerve ring, and followed by uarrower region (0°2 mm. long)

constricted at its lower end to be succeeded by bulb about 0-15 mm. long.

Intestine wide and thick-walled in anterior region. Nerve ring at 0-3 mm, from

head end. Excretory pore and cervical papillae not observed.

142

Male—Spicules 1:56-1:67 mm. long, 1:2°4-3-1 of body length, rather stout,

especially at tips which do not taper but end in a conical point; alae striated, wide,

ending just before tip. Bursa small, lateral lobes the most prominent. Ventral

rays parallel, reaching almost to bursal edge; externo-lateral rather shorter than

laterals; laterals cleft for half their length, reaching nearly to edge of bursa.

Externo-dorsal arising independently, reaching nearly to edge. Dorsal ray

bifurcating after one quarter of length, each branch soon giving off a very short

lateral ray and then passing backwards into a small projection of the dorsal lobe.

Genital cone very short.

Female—Tail long, narrow, pointed, bending backwards from the vulva;

vagina extended through the vulva to a greater or lesser extent in all females

examined, Wulva at 0-7, and anus at 0°35 nm, from tip of tail; eggs (in vagina)

0-07 mm. by ‘05 mm.

Buccostrongylus australis n. sp.

Figs. 60-62

From stomach of Macropus wilcoxi (type host) and M. thetidis, EKidsvold

(coll, Dr. Bancroft).

Very small; male 4°5-4°7 mm. long; female 5°5-6°8 mm.; thin, body tapering

towards head, latter surrounded by ring of inflated cuticle; body dark owing to

pigment in intestine. Anterior end not clear in any of the numerous specimens

examined ; buccal capsule long (0°22--25 mm. long, 16 « wide at top, 13 » at base )

with rather thick walls, anterior margin apparently simple, mouth with six lips

more prominent than those of B. buccalis; papillae all of same size, each with

stout bristle, Oesophagus long, 0°82-1 mm. in male (1:4°7-5°4 of body length).

1-1-17 mm. in female (1: 5-3°8 of body length), slightly constricted near posterior

end before widening into bulb, latter generally with slight constriction in its mid-

region. Nerve ring at 0°27-"29 mm., excretory pore at 0°36 mm. behind head end.

Cervical papillae very long, hair-like, situated at 0°37--4 mm. from anterior end.

Avale——Bursa very small; ventral lobes very small, separate. Ventral rays

parallel, cleft for about half length; externo-laterals and laterals arising together,

short, stout; laterals longest, cleft for most of length. LExterno-dorsal long, stout.

arising separately, curving towards dorsal ray, not reaching bursal edge. Dorsal!

ray subdividing at about one-third length; the two branches well separated, morc

or less parallel, long; each branch giving off very short lateral soon after origin

from main stem. Spicules long, 1-2-1°37 mm., 1: 3°4-3-7 of body length, slender.

with wide striated alae and tapering joined tips. Gubernaculum heart-shaped in

dorso-ventral view, but wider anteriorly and pointed posteriorly when seen in

lateral view. Genital cone insignificant.

Female—Posterior end drawn out into long tapering, but not sharply pointed,

tail. Ovejectors short; vagina long; vulva 0-8--9 mm., and anus 0°-45--55 mm.

from posterior end. Eges 0-09 by -04 mm.

This species is distinguished from 8. buccalis by its shorter buccal capsule ;

longer lips; shorter stouter bristles on the papillae; relatively shorter, differently

143

shaped, oesophagus; shorter spicules; longer tail region of the female; and in

having the anterior end of buccal capsule apparently without small projections.

MacropostroncyLus Yorke and Maplestone, 1926

MACROPOSTRONGYLUS YORKEI Baylis, 1927

We have recognised this species from Macropus agilis (Gregory River, North

Qucensland, coll. Dr. Roberts), M7. parryi (Upper Burnett region, coll. Dr, Ban-

croft), and M. welsbyi (Stradbroke Island, South Queensland). Baylis found it

in material from Macropius sp. (1927) from Townsville and from Macropus agilis

from Burketown (1934).

MACROPOSTRONGYLUS MACROPOSTRONGYLUS Y. and M., 1926

We record the occurrence of the type species of the genus in M. agilis from

Gregory River, North Queensland (coll, Dr. Roberts), and Macropus welsbyi

from Stradbroke Island.

Papillostrongylus new genus

Trichoneminae—Mouth directed straight forwards. Mouth collar with eight

papillae ; four submedian bearing bristles; dorsal and ventral papillae small, rather

chitinised and projecting (in lateral view) like a blunt hook; two laterals appear-

ing tridentate in ventral view. Buccal capsule large, bilaterally symmetrical; the

dorsal and ventral walls sloping down and inwards in a straight line, lateral walls

being concave inwardly and convex outwardly. Ocsophagus relatively long,

terminating in a slight bulb.

Male—Bursa small; ventral lobes short, separate; dorsal lobe large. Ventral

rays parallel and together; externo-lateral, lateral and externo-dorsal rays arising

together; laterals parallel and long; dorsal bifureating, each stem with a short

lateral branch. Spicules thin, long, simple.

Female—Uteri parallel; vagina fairly long; vulva a short distance in front

of anus; tail tapering, pointed.

Type P. labiatus n.sp. from stomach of Macropus dorsalis, The genus is

close to Macropostrongylus but is differentiated from it by the shape of the buccal

capsule, the absence of a leaf crown and the presence of eight distinctive papiilae

around the mouth. This genus is distinguished from Cloacina by the shape of the

vestibule ; the number and shape of the head papillae; and the absence of a corona

radiata.

Papillostrongylus labiatus n. sp.

Figs. 63-68

From the stomach of Macropus dorsalis Eidsvold (Dr. M. J. Mackerras).

Only a male and a female specimen, both juvenile, were found.

Short, thin; male 4-7 mm. long; female 7 mm.; maximum breadth of male

0-28 mm. Eight head papillae; the four submedian each projecting outwards and

bearing short antcriorly-directed bristle ; dorsal and ventral papillae more chitinised

144

than the others and in lateral view projecting outwards and downwards like a

thick blunt hook; lateral papillae large, simple, tridentate (fig. 65). Buccal

capsule 0:036 mm. long, chitinised; walls in lateral view nearly straight, thickest

anteriorly, closer together postcriorly, but in ventral view appearing to have

uniform thickness and each side with concavity inwardly. No leaf crown.

Oesophagus very long, 0°65 mm. in male (1:7 of body length), 0°83 in female

(1:8 of body length), with very slight posterior bulb. Nerve ring at 0-3 mm.

from head end of female and just behind level of first third of ocsophagus;

excretory pore at 0°33 mm., just behind nerve ring; cervical papillae at 0:09 nim.

from anterior end (female).

Figs. 63-68, Papillestrongylus labiatus: 63, Anterior end; 64, Lateral

view of head; 65, Dorsal view of head; 66, Posterior end of female:

67, Ventral view of bursa; 68, Dorsal view of bursa. Figs. 64 and

65 to same scale; figs. 67 and 68.

Afale—Bursa small; ventral lobes small, separate; laterals long; dorsal lobe

longer. Ventral rays parallel, cleft for nearly all length, reaching bursal edge:

externo-laterals short; laterals long; externo-dorsal arising from same roet aud

as long as externo-lateral. Dorsal! ray stout, bifurcating at mid-length, each branch

almost reaching edge, and giving off short lateral just beyond region of

bifurcation. Genital cone short; accessory cone with two bilobed projections.

Spicules relatively very long, 2mm, (1: 2°35 of body length), thin, curved within

body, ending in separate points.

Female—Body tapering beyond vaginal region to end in bluntly pointed tail;

uteri parallel; vagina about 0-4 mm. long; vulva at 0°38, and anus at 0-34 mm.

from posterior end.

Coronostrongylus n. gen.

Trichoneminae—Short worms; buecal cavity lined by thick continuation of

cuticle, and reinforced around its lower part by stout buccal ring. Leaf crown of

20-25 elements; six papillae around mouth. Oe¢esophagus with longer anterior

145

portion and shorter posterior part ending in bulb. Characters of male insufficiently

known. From marsupials. Type, C. coronatus n.sp. It differs from other

genera in the character of the buccal capsule and in the presence of numerous

clements in the leaf crown,

Coronostrongylus coronatus n. sp.

Fig. 69

Only two specimens of this species have been found, a male in the stomach

of Macropus wilcoxi (type host) and a female in the stomach of M. thetidis,

both from Eidsvold (Dr. Bancroft). Both worms were greatly wrinkled, as if the

Fig. 69, Coronostrongylus coronatus: Lateral view of head. Figs. 70-73, Globo-

cephaloides wallabiae: 70, Lateral view of head; 71, Lateral view of bursa;

72, Dorsal ray; 73, Posterior end of female. Figs. 74-75, Globecephaloides

affinis: 74, Lateral view of head; 75, Anterior end, lateral view. Figs. 70, 71,

72 and 74 ta same scale; figs. 73 and 75.

cuticle had been thrown into many circular folds by the contraction of the tissues

beneath it. They appear (in this condition) as short stout nematodes, the male

2°85 mm. leng, and the female 3-6 mm. long. A very stout chitinous ring,

0-014 mm. deep and °022 mm. in internal diameter surrounding base of buccal

cavity, and from the base of this the inner lining of the buccal cavity rises up to

become continuous with the cuticle around mouth. Jeaf crown of numerous

146

(20-25) long thin elements rising from posterior circumference of buccal cavity

but apparently distinct from, although parallel to, the chitin lining the cavity.

Mouth circular, simple; surrounded by six rounded papillae, each with small

younded projection distally. Oesophagus bent, in the two specimens examined, but

not the same way in each case, lending support to the view that the worms have

shrunk; in male 0-47 min. long, in female -48 mm.; 1: 6-7 of body length, respee-

tively; widening gradually for the first two-thirds of length, then suddenly

narrowing and then widening to end in large bulb. In the female the Jong, hair-

like cervical papillac are 0-15 mm., and the nerve ring 0-21 mm. from the

anterior end.

Maic—The bursa covered on inside with papillae. Arrangement of rays not

traced satisfactorily, but dorsal ray appears to end in two long branches. Roundish

gubernaculum present, Spicules 1-1 mm. long, 1:2°6 of body length. Specimen,

unfortunately, lost before completion of its examination,

Female—The condition of the specimen prevented its adequate study, Body

narrowing suddenly to form long thin tail, greatly wrinkled, probably because

of shrinkage.

Genus GLOBOCEPIITALOIDES Y. and M., 1926

The discovery of two new species of this genus, one of them represented by

males and females, has made it possible to amplity Yorke and Maplestone’s generic

diagnosis, and to indicate its systematic relationships. The characters of the

copulatory bursa, the presence of a well-defined sub-globular buccal capsule, the

absence of a leaf crown or mouth collar, and the absence of cutting organs

guarding the oral aperture, indicate a close relationship with Globocephalus, as

was suggested by Yorke and Maplestone. It differs from this genus chiefiy in

the structure of the bursa; each of the ventral and lateral rays being separate

from one another, the dorsal ray relatively shorter and its two branches not

tridigitate. The position of the vagina is quite different in the two genera.

Small

worms, anterior extremity inclined dorsally, mouth opening circular, without

An amended definition of the genus is now offered: Strongylinae

corona radiata, Buecal capsule large, subglobular; duct of dorsal cesophageal

gland not projecting into mouth cavity; a prominent triangular subventral tooth

in base of capsule. Oesophagus slightly club-shaped posteriorly,

Male—Bursa prominent with two large laicral lobes and a much smaller

dorsal lobe. All rays separate, nearly reaching edge of bursa; ventrals thinnest,

medio-lateral stoutest and tapering suddenly; externo-dorsal arising at base of

dorsal; dorsal ray bifid at tip. Spicules equal, alate, tapering to a fine point.

Female—Posterior end tapering regularly, ending in conical tail; vulva in

posterior quarter of length; vagina short; uteri divergent; oviparous.

Parasites of alimentary tract of marsupials, Type species: G. macropodis

Y. and M., 1926 (male unknown), from Macrepus sp.

147

Freitas and Lent (1906) described Globocephalus marsupialis trom a Bra-

zilian polyprotodont, Melachirus opossum L., and placed Globocephaloides as a

synonym of Globocephalus, an emended diagnosis of the latter being published.

As already stated by us, we regard the two genera as quite distinct. The Brazilian

species does not belong to the Australian genus.

Globocephaloides wallabiae n. sp.

Figs. 70-73

From intestine of Macropus dorsalis, Eidsvold (Dr. Bancroft).

Very small worms; male 4-2 mm. long; female 4-4 mm. Anterior end

rounded. Buccal capsule large, subglobular, 0°05 mm. wide, ‘055 mm. long,

strongly chitinised, lower part of walls thicker than roofing portions, base with

out-turned rim. Arising from subcuticular region just behind level of floor of

buccal cavity are four strongly chitinised supports lying against walls of capsule

for about half the length of the lattcr, these supports probably submedian in

position. “Pulp” extending to front of head region as six (perhaps eight) long

masses, but not piercing the cuticle to produce definite papillae; papillac not

detected. Cuticular lining of buccal cavity continued inte oesophagus and form-

ing pointed subventral tooth projecting 0-025 mm, into buccal cavity. Oesophagus

Q°52--55 mm. long (1:8 of body length) ; widening gradually posteriorly.

Male—Bursa large, consisting chiefly of two large lobes lying laterally and

not subdivided into lateral and ventral lobes; dorsal lobe very short, narrow.

Ventral rays long, thin, separate, curving ventrally; externo-lateral thin, long,

curving laterally ; two laterals separate, stout, with distal ends compressed ; externo-

dorsal thin, projecting on edge of bursa. Dorsal ray very short, narrow, bifurcate

distally, its two branches extending each into a short lappet of the dorsal ray.

Spicules short, 0-4 mm. long, 1:10 of body length, rather wide, distal two-thirds

with curved outer edges; tips spoon-like.

liemale—Body tapering beyond anus; sharp pointed tail curved ventrally ;

vulva at 0-95 mm. from tail end fi.c., 1:4°6 of body length); uteri divergent;

ovejectors short; anus at 0-2 mm. from end of body; eggs 0-095 by -055 mm.

The species differs [rom C. macropodis in its length, the size cf the buccal

capsule, length of oesophagus. position of vulva, and size of dorsal tooth. Yorke

and Maplestone gave 400, as the depth of the buccal capsule and 900» as the

length of the oesophagus, the former being apparently an error for 40 g.

Globocephaloides affinis n. sp.

Figs. 74-75

Three females were found amongst material from the intestine of Afacropus

dorsalis from Lidsvold (Dr. Bancroft). The specics resembled closely G. wallabiae

in general features. Length, 6°7 mm. Cuticle of head markedly inflated.

Chitinous supports to buccal capsule avising more posteriorly than in the former

148

species. Capsule 0°13 mm. deep, 0°12 mm. wide. Ocsophagus 0°85 mm. long,

1:8 of body length. Nerve cord probably at 0°25 mm. from head end. Vagina

at 0:19 from tip of tail, i.e, about 1:3°5 of body length. Eggs 0-1 by °045 nim.

LiTERATURE

3aviis, H. A. 1927 Some New Parasitic Nematodes from Australia. A.M.NIL.,

(9), 20, 214-225

Bayiis, H, A. 1934 Some Parasitic Worms from Australia. Parasitology, 26,

129-132

Canavan, W. P. 1931 Nematode Parasites of Vertebrates in the Philadelphia

Zoological Garden and Vicinity, i. Parasitology, 23, 196-228

Corp, N. A. 1898 Extract from M.S. Report on Parasites of Stock. Agric.

Gaz., N.S.W., 9, 296-321, and 419-454

Freitas, J. F., and Lent, H. 1936 Estudo sobre o genero Globocephalus

(Molin, 1861). Mem. Inst., Osw. Cruz, 31, 69-79

Jounston, T. H. and Mawson, P.M. 19384 An account of some Filarial Para-

sites of Australian Marsupials. ‘Tr. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 62, (1), 107-121

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P.M. 19383 Strongyle Nematodes from Central

Australian Kangaroos and Wallabies. Tr. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, (2),

263-286

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1938¢c Some Nematodes from Austra-

han Marsupials. Rec. South Aust. Mus., 6, (2), 187-198

Yornr, W., and Mapresrone, P. A. 1926 Vhe Nematode Parasites of Verte-

brates

VOL. 63 PART 2 22 DECEMBER, 1939

TRANSACTIONS OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS

KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

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Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,

for transmission by post as a periodical

FURTHER NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TROMBIDITDAE

WITH DESCRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES

By HERBERT WOMERSLEY, Entomologist, South Australian Museum

Summary

In the present paper a number of new species are described. In addition, however, the larvae of the

genera Chyseria and Caenothrombium are for the first time recorded and described.

149

FURTHER NOTES ON THE AUSTRALIAN TROMBIDIIDAE

WITH DESCRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES

$y Lizrrpert WoOMERSLEY

Entomologist, South Australian Museum

[Read 13 July 1939]

In the present paper a number of new species are described. In addition,

however, the larvae of the genera Chyseria and Caenothrombium are for the first

time recorded and described.

The “itch mite” of the Coorong, South Australia, which has hitherto been

regarded as the same species as that of Queensland, is now shown to be distinct

and is described under the name of Trombicula samboni n. sp.

‘The considerable number of larval species described by Gunther (P. Linn.

Soc. N.S.W., 64, 73-96, 1939) from New Guinea as Neoschéngastia is split up,

the genus Guutheria being proposed for a unique form which also occurs in

Queensland, and Paraschéngastia for four other species, the remainder being

retained in Neoschdngastia s. str.

Four species and one variety of Neoschdéngastia are described as new from

Queensiand. Keys to the Australian and New Guinea larval species of Trom-

bicula, Neoschdngastia and Schéngastia are given.

My sincere thanks are tendered to Dr, E. H. Derrick and Mr. D. J. W. Smith,

of the Laboratory of Microbiology, Brisbane, for the opportunity of examin-

ing their material; to Dr. C. KE. Gunther, of New Guinea, and to other collectors

mentioned, especially Mr. R. V. Southcott, who has been so successful in hatching

the hitherto unknown larval forms of certain genera,

TROMBELLA Berlese, 1887

Trombella adelaideae n. sp.

(Text fig. 1, A-D)

Descriplion—General shape as in T. warregense Hirst. Length, 1:2 mm.

Colour in life, white. Legs rather short, tarsus I rather parallel-sided 260 » by

90»; metatarsus 180. Crista absent. Pscudostigmal hairs fine and on small

well-separated tubercles. Lyes 2+ 2, small, lateral and in line with the pseudo-

stigmal hairs. Dorsum with six pits in each lateral row, and four in the centre

row; all the pits are round except the anterior median. Dorsal setae as in

T. warregense, but hardly or only indistinctly ciliated; these setae extend all over

the surface of the pits, and do not form a double ring only around the margin as

In warregense.

Localtty—A single specimen from under a stone at Burnside, South Aus-

tralia, 17th August, 1938. (J. S. W.)

Remarks—Closely related to 1. warregense Hirst but differs in the dimen-

sions ot the front tarsi, the shape of the median dorsal pits and the clothing.

Trans. Roy. Soc. $.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

150

Genus Microrrompiprum JIaller, 1882

Subgenus DromroruroMprum Berlese, 1912

DROMEOTHROMBIUM MACROPODUS (Berl. 1903)

= Trombidium macropodum Berl., 1903. Redia 2, 155,

Microtrombidium (Dromeothrombium) macropodum Berl., 1905, Redia 8,

132; Vitzthum, 1926, Treubia 8, 136.

Tig. 1 A-D—Trombella adelaideae n.sp.: A, dorsal view showing pits; B, arrange-

ment of seta of a dorsal pit; C, front tarsus and metatarsus; D, palp. E-G—Dremeo-

thrombium dromus n. sp.: E, crista; I’, front tarsus and metatarsus; G, dorsal setae.

II-K—Johnstoniana vitzthumi n.sp.: H, crista, nasus and left pair of eves: I, front

tarsus and metatarsus; J, palp; K, two dorsal setae; L-O—Crossothrombium park-

housei u.g., u.sp.: LL, dorsal sensillary area; M, front tarsus and metatarsus: N, two

of dorsal setae; O, palp.

151

Two specimens of this species, the type of the subgenus, have recently been

collected by Dr. W. G. Heaslip in Queensland; one from Cairns, March, 1939, and

one from Innisfail, December, 1939. Both specimens agree with the descriptions

and figures given by Berlese and Vitzthum. The type specimen in the Hamburg

Museum was from Buitenzorg, Java.

Dromeothrombium dromus n. sp.

(Text fig. 1, E-G)

Description—Colour creamy-white. Length to 2-4 mm., width to 1-3 mm.

Legs I and IV much longer than body, I 3°32 mm., 11 1-0 mm., III 1°8 mm.,

IV 2:7 mm.; tarsus I 600 p long by 120% wide, parallel-sided, metatarsus 650 »

long; claws small. Crista as figured, 280» long with posterior sensillary area

78 » wide furnished with a pair of fine sensillary hairs. Eyes absent. Palpi long,

460 », and slender, tibia with apical claw and accessory claw but no particularly

strong outer dorsal spines; tarsus elongate and over-reaching tip of claw.

Dorsal setae as figured, mostly 40 u long but with a sprinkling of longer ones

of 804. Body with fairly prominent shoulders.

Locality—Some half dozen specimens from under stones, associated with ants

at Long Gully, South Australia, 18th August, 1938 (IL. W.); another specimen

from under stone, Murray Bridge, South Australia, 25th May, 1938 (R. V.5.).

Remarks—Close to M (D.) attolus (Banks, 1916), but differs in size, dimen-

sions of tarsus I and in the uniform shorter hairs (in atéolus 1°2 mm., 310» by

69 » and 21 p, respectively).

Jounstontana George, 1909

= Diplothrombium Berl., 1910.

Johnstoniana vitzthumi n. sp.

(Text fig. 1, H-K)

Description—Length 2:0 mm. Colour reddish. Leg I and IV rather longer

than body, 1 2:0 mm., 11 1-4 mm., IIL 1°5 mm, TV 2-7 mm.; tarsus [ 400 » by

150 », metatarsus 330. Crista 250» long with two sensillary areas, one at

anterior end, and one at one-third from posterior end; each furnished with two

sensillary hairs, the posterior area consisting of two large circular areas one on

cach side of the mid-line, and besides the sensillary hairs carrying two strong

setae. Eyes 2+ 2, on shields. In front of the crista is a strongly chitinised

flask-shaped nasus; palpi slender, tibia with a strong claw with a smaller basal

accessory claw, dorsally without any specially strong spines, iarsus slightly clavate,

almost reaching tip of claw. Dorsal setae numerous, of long 30», curved sharp

sctac arising from small tubercles.

Locality—A single specimen collected by Mr. Parkhouse at Second Valley,

South Australia, during a visit by the Tate Society of the Adelaide University,

December, 1938.

152

Remarks—This interesting species differs from the only other South Aus-

tralian species of the genus, J. australiense (Llirst, 1928), in that the two sensillary

areas of the crista are widely separated, the anterior being at the front end of

the crista.

Genus Crossothrombium n. g.

Allied to fohastoniana and probably more so to Centrotrombium Kramer in

having only a single seusillary area and a single pair of sensillary sctac. Crista

practically absent. Eyes absent. Dorsal sctae of the type of Johnsioniana, but

arising from large pits or circles. Legs and palpi strongly chitinised and pitted.

‘Varsus of palp without terminal spines.

Genotype—Crossothrombium parkhousei n. sp.

Crossothrombium parkhousei n. sp.

(Text fig. 1, L-M)

Description—Length to 1:5 mm., width 1:0 mm. Colour in life reddish.

Mouth parts and legs heavily chitinised. Legs rather short and stout, I 1-5 mm.,

ILi-2mm., WI 1-3 mm., IV 1-7 mm. Eyes absent. Palpi stoutish; tibia with

strong apical claw and small basal accessory claw, and 2-3 strong dorsal spines,

tarsus barely clavate and reaching tip of claw. Crista as figured with a single

large transverse sensillary area and two sensillary hairs (lost in specimen), the

whole on a cordate area with four pairs of setae, the anterior of which are long

and strong. Tarsus I 380» by 180» as figured, metatarsus 300 p. Cuticle strong

and closely covered with large roundish pits, from cach of which arises a fine

curved seta as long as the diameter of pits. Legs, palpi and capitulum strongly

and closely covered with small depressions, and very finely punctate.

Locality—A single specimen collected by Mr. Parkhouse, after whom it is

named, at Second Valley, South Australia, during a visit by the ‘late Society of

the Adelaide University, December, 1938.

Remarks—The affinities of this interesting form have been discussed under

the genus.

TroMBICULA Berlese, 1905

TROMBICULA MINOR Berlese, 1904

Lronbicula minor Berl., 1904, Acari nuovi, manip. TV, 155.

hurstt Sambon, 1927, Ann. Mag, Nat. Hisi., 20 (9), 157; nec.

Ilirst, 1929, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, 3 (10), 564; nec.

Womersley, 1934, Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 5 (2), 212.

. hirsti v. buloloensis Gunther, 1939, Proc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W.,

64, 78.

Gunther, by breeding the nymphal form from the larvae, has recently estab-

lished ™ the identity of his Airsti v. buloloensis with T. minor described from Java

”

©) Dr. Gunther has kindly allowed the nymphs to be deposited in the South Australian

Muscum. His paper on the nymphal stage appeared in the Trans. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., pub-

lished 15th Dec., 1939,

153

by Berlese. 1 have now reccived from Dr. W. G. Heaslip an adult female found

at Innisfail in Queensland (December, 1939), which also corresponds to Berlese’s

species. As the only larval Trombicula known from Queensland is T. hirsti

Sambon (the common itch-mite of that State), the above correlation is further

confirmed.

The differences between typical T. hirsti and T. hirsti v. buloloensis, which

are only those of hair lengths and size of scutum, would seem therefore to be

of no value.

Trombicula samboni n. sp.

— T. hirsti Uirst, 1929, nec Sambon, 1927; Womersley, 1934, nec Sambon,

1927, (Text fg. 2, A-EH)

Although it has for long been suspected that the “itch-mite” of South Aus-

tralia might not be identical with the form described by Sambon from Queensland,

it has only recently been possible to compare our local form with the type of

T. hirsti from Queensland. Through the generosity of Mr. F. IL. Taylor, of the

School of Tropical Health, Sydney, I have been afforded the opportunity of

examining a type slide of Sambon’s species, and can now definitely state that the

South Australian form is distinct, and take this opportunity of describing it as new.

Description—Length 260 » by 1536p. Dorsal scutum 91» at widest between

postero-lateral hairs, length 65, posterior margin evenly rounded, anterior

margin slightly concave; anterior median and lateral hairs 39 p, posterior lateral

hairs 47 », sensory hairs placed slightly in advance of postero-lateral hairs, 65

long, sparsely ciliated on distal two-thirds; scutal surface finely pitted. Eyes

2+2, small and distinctly separated from scutum. Palpi and mandibles as

figured. Leg I with outer stout simple spine at one-third from base. Dorsal

setae long and ciliated as figured, 39 », arranged 2, 6, 6, 6, 4, 2.

Remarks~-Differs from T. hirsti Sambon in the form of the dorsal scutum

and the arrangement of setae on dorsum.

Locality—Common in the ti-tree scrub along the Coorong, South Australia.

Key To THE AUSTRALIAN AND NEw GUINEA SPECIES OF TROMBICULA

1. Dorsal setae more than 50, 2

Dorsal setae 42 or fewer. 3

2. Dorsal setae arranged 2, 14, 12, 4, 6, 8, 10, 8, 4, the posterior rows close set and their

individual sctae thicker and more strongly ciliated than the others. Dorsal scutum

with the posterior margin convex laterally and concave medially; AW 118 y,

PW 120 p, L 69 p. T. rioi Gunther, 1939.

Dorsal setae 2, 6, 8, and then about 5 rows of 8 closely placed setae ciliated similarly

to the others. Dorsal scutum with posterior margin evenly convex, AW 80 y,

PW 86 y L St py, T. macropus Wom., 1936.

3. Dorsal setae 42, arranged 2, 6, 6, G, 6, 6, 6, 4, 60-73, long. Dorsal scutum with

posterior margin evenly convex, AW 70, PW 70y, L 101 pg.

T. novac-hollandiae Hirst, 1929.

Dorsal setae less than 42. 4

154

. Posterior margin of scutum convex laterally, strongly concave medially. Dorsal

setae arranged 2, 6, 6, 6 (2), 2 (6), 2. T. wichmanni Oudemans, 1905.

Posterior margin of scutum evenly convex.

. Dorsal setae 2, 6, 6, 6, 4. 2, 2; 44, long. Dorsal scutum trapezoidal, AW 86 ,:

PW 944, L 66; ratio PW/L 1-42. T. samboni n. sp.

Dorsal setae 2, 6, 6, 2, 2, 2; 40, long. Dorsal scutum AW 76 p, PW 944, L 56 yy,

PW/L. 1-66. T. minor Berlese, 1904.

=T. hirsti Sambon, 1927.

Dorsal setae 2, 6, 6, 4, 2; 56, long. Dorsal scutum AW 90 vy PW 110, L 66 p,

PW/L 1-68. T. minor Berlese, 1904.

= T. hirsti v. buloloensis Gunther, 1939.

Fig, 2 Trombicula samboni n.sp.: A, dorsum; B, venter; C, palp from above;

D, palp irom below; E, tarsus of palp; F, mandible; G, tarsus 1; H, tarsal seta.

155

Cuvyzeria Canestrini, 1897

CHYZERIA AUSTRALIENSE Hirst, 1928

(Text fig. 3, A-F)

Description of Larva—Oval, length 234 », width 143 p, as figured. Dorsum

with one large anterior scutum and then five rows of round or oval scuta,

arranged 6, 6, 6, 4, 2, each of which carries a single ciliated seta 44 long; the

Tig. 3. Chyseria australiense Hirst (larva): A, ventral view: B, dorsal

view; C, palp; D, tip of tarsus and claws; E, ventral seta; I’, tip of mandible.

anterior scutum is somewhat trapezoidal, AW 79 », PW 125 », L. 52 p, and carries

two pairs of setae besides the pseudostigmal setae; the anterior pair are short

and stout and serrate as figured, 26» long, the posterior pair are thinner and

more pointed and 34» long; the sensillary setae are fine and thread-like with fine

ciliations and 44» long. Eyes large and two on each side close to lateral margins

of anterior scutum. Palpi and mouth parts as figured; mandibles as figured, inner

edge of chelae serrated.

136

Legs—long and stout, I 273 4 long, II 286p, II 3124; tarsus 1 78p by

28 ». Claws three, the lateral ones clavate as figured and shorter than the finer

medial one; coxae I with 2, Il and ITI with 1 bifurcate short stout scta.

Ventrally between coxae III is a pair of short stout setac, 13% long, with

short lateral and longer apical ciliations as figured; beyond coxae III are four

rows of similar sctae arranged 8, 5, 4, 4, and then 2, 6, 2, longer ciliated normal

setae 20 2 long. Anus is placed near apex.

Locality and Remarks—I am indebted to Mr. R. V. Southcott for this larval

material. He collected two adults of the species at Glen Osmond, South Aus-

tralia, on 23rd May, 1938. These he placed in a tube with a little sterile soil and

although at no time was he able to observe any eges, a number of the larvae

described above appeared on 9th September, 1938. There seems to be Little

doubt that they can be the larvae of anything but the species to which they are

here correlated.

CAENOTHROMBIUM Oudemans, 1928

CAENOTIIROMBIUM MINIATUM Wom., 1934

(Text fig. 4, A-F)

Description of Larva—Length to 250», width 117 p; body constricted about

on level with coxae III as figured. Dorsum with two seuta, the anterior one large,

Fig. 4 ~Cacnothrombium minialim Womersley (larva): A, dorsal view;

B, ventral view; C, dorsal scuta; D, palp; E, front tarsus; TF, tarsal scta.

157

ionger than wide, 78 » by 52, furnished with a pair of long fine ciliated pseudo-

stigmal hairs 40» long, the sensillary pits being slightly behind the middle of

scutum; just in front of the sensillary hairs is a pair of short fine normal setae

15, long. The median scutum is 35, wide and 15 long, with the anterior

margin almost straight, the posterior bow-shaped; it carries a single pair of fine

setae about 26-30, long. Just outside the anterior dorsal scutum, posterior to

the sensillary hairs, and between the scutal margin and the eyes is another pair

of setae, of the same length, Eyes 2+ 2, on distinct shields. The dorsum is

furnished with 18 long strong fine sctae, arranged 2, 2, 6, 4, 2, 2, the posterior

pair are 65 » long, the others 45 » long.

Legs—I 208 », tarsus 40» by 21 », apparently without any simple stout spine

or seta; I} 182, II} 1824; claws strong and simple, empodium strong, claw-like.

Coxae J and II adjacent, III separated, I and II with two setac, IIT with one.

Between coxae III a single pair of setae; posteriorly, in front of anus, is a pair

of setae, and on cach side two setae, all these are 26 long; posterior of anus

and terminal is a pair of long setae of 65 »; the body setae are all simple or only

indistinctly serrated. The mandibles are simple. The palpi are as figured, the

tibia apically having a long strong claw, the tarsus with apparently only three

simple setae.

Locality and Remarks—An adult of this species was collected by Mr. R. V.

Southcott on 11th September, 1938, and placed in a tube of sterile soil, as described

for Chyzeria australiense. Eggs were observed on Ist October, 1938, and the

first larva hatched on 5th November, the remainder continuing to do so until

the 20th of the same month.

Guntheria n. gen.

Body form elongate oval with a distinct medial constriction. Posteriorly

with an area divided longitudinally into two small oval plates each carrying three

fine anterior hairs. Coxae each with a single seta. Dorsal scutum without a

definite crest, uniformly pitted. Pscudostigmal hairs clavate.

Genotype—Neoschéngaslia kallipygos Gunther, 1939.

GUNTHERIA KALLTPYGOS Gunther, 1939

(Text fig. 5, A-E)

This interesting species has been very fully described by Gunther from New

Guinea, and I have received specimens from Queensland collected by Mr. J. D.

Smith as follows:

Slide B from Bandicoot. Slide 6 from Ratius youngi, No. 6, Cowan Cowan, 4th Sept.,

1938. Slide 8 from Rattus youngi, No. 8, Cowan Cowan, 8th Sept., 1938. Slide 20 from

Bandicoot, No. 70, Cowan Cowan, 6th Sept., 1938.

158

Gunther’s material was from the following hosts: Ratius ringens, R. browni,

Melomys moncktoni, M. stalkeri, M. rubex, M. sp., Echymipera cockerelli, and

Peroryctes raffrayana,

Fig. 3 Guntheria kallipygos Gunther: A, dorsal view; B, ventral

view; C, dorsal scutum; D, gnathosoma from below; E, front tarsus.

Genus NeosciONcAsTIA Ewing, 1929

In this paper it is proposed to include here only those forms in which the

dorsal scutum is evenly pitted, without a prominent ridge and striations, and in

which the body is not constricted medially, in addition to the characters by which

Ewing sepatates this genus from Schéngustia, vis., chelicerae with not more than

a single dorsal hook and trifurcate (not bifurcatc) palpal claw.

159

Fig. 6 Neoschéngastia westraliense vy. trichosuri v.n.: A, dorsal view; B, ventral

view; C, dorsal scutum; D, gnathosoma from below; E, front tarsus.

160

NEOSCHONGASTIA WESTRALIENSE IJirst

var. trichosuri var. nov,

(Text fig. 6, A-E)

Description—Differs from the typical form as given in the key, in the smaller

dimensions of the dorsal scutum and in the shorter dorsal setae.

Locality—Nambour, Queensland, 5th July, 1938, on Trichosurus vulpecula.

Neoschongastia perameles) sp. nov.

(Text fig. 7, A-IE)

Description—Length 550 p, width 345 » as figured. Dorsal scutum as figured

with the greatest width, 73», at half the length and in the line of the posterior

Fig. 7 Neoschongastia perameles n.sp.: A, dorsal view; B, ventral

view; C, dorsal scutum; D, gnathosoma from helow; E, front tarsus.

©) Owing to the prior publications of the name isoodon (mihi, in litt.) by Derrick in

the M.J.A. for 28th Jan., 1939, contrary to Art. 25 of the International Rules of Nomencla-

ture, this name becomes a “nomen nudum” and is, therefore, herewith changed ta fparameles.

161

lateral hairs; anterior width 52 »; length 47 «; posterior margin from the posterior

lateral hairs deeply and evenly convex; AM seta 26 p, AL 20», PL 42 p; pseudo-

stigmal hairs clavate as figured, 39, long with ciliations; scutal surface evenly

pitted. Eyes two on each side on distinct plates. Palpi normal with trifurcate

Fig. 8 Neoschongastia queenslandica n.sp.: A, dorsal view, B. ventral

view; C, dorsal scutum; D, gnathosoma from below; E, front tarsus.

162

tibial claw. Mandibles normal. Legs—I 2604 long, II 225 w, III 225 »; tarsus 1

65 ». by 20 », with the usual stout simple spine. Claws normal.

Dorsal setae 32 long, arranged 2, 12, 12, 12 (14), 10, 10, 8, 6, 2, Ventral

setae 26 w long, arranged as figured; all coxae with only one seta.

Locality and Hosts: From Bandicoots—No. 48 (slide 16) 9th June, 1938,

No. 99 (17) 23rd June 1938, No. 56 (18) 21st June 1938, No. 63 (19)

10th August 1938, from Kiamba, Queensland; No, 42 (15) 27th May 1938,

No. 71 (21) 10th September 1938, from Nambour, Queensland; Slide A from

Brisbane, 1938, all collected by Mr. D. J. W. Smith.

Remarks—The relationships of this species are best given in the follow-

ing key.

Neoschongastia queenslandica n. sp.

(Text fig. 8, A-E)

Description—Length 400», width 260, as figured. Dorsal scutum as in

figure 8 A and C, with greatest width 7Oy, in line of posterior lateral hairs;

anterior width 49 p, length 26 4; anterior margin doubly sinuate, posterior margin

doubly sinuate as figured; pscudostigmal hairs broadly clavate, 26 long, with

ciliations; AM seta 26, long, AL 26p, PL 39. Palpi as figured. Mandibles

normal. Eyes two on each side, on distinct plates.

Legs—I 172 » long, II 160», III 180; tarsus I 39» by 21 p, as figured; all

coxae with only one seta. Dorsal setae 39 long, arranged 2, 6, 6, 6, 6, 4, 2;

ventral setae 21 » long, arranged as shown.

Localities and Hosts—On Rattus assimilis from Imbil, Queensland, 2nd July,

6th and 12th August, 1938; on Rattus youngi from Cowan Cowan, 4th Septem-

ber, 1938; on Melomys cervenipes from Imbil, 19th August, 1938; on Rattus

lutrveolus from Imbil, Ist July and 4th August, 1938 (D. J. W. S.).

Neoschongastia derricki n. sp.

(Text fig. 9, A-E)

Description—t ength 430, width 360, as figured. Dorsal scutum as in

figure 9 A and C with greatest width 91» in line with postero-lateral hairs and

slightly in front of midway of length of scutum; anterior width 65 4; anterior

margin slightly sinuate, posterior margin deeply concave and evenly curved from

postero-lateral hairs; length of scutum 39 »; pseudostigmal hairs elongate clavate,

39 » long. Antero-median hair 39 », antero-lateral 26 », postero-lateral hairs 78 p.

Palpi as figured, tibial claw bi- or possibly trifurcate. Mandibles normal.

Legs—I 224, TT 250, IIL 260; tarsus | as figured with strong stout

simple spine.

Dorsal sctae 78 long, arranged 6, 4, 6, 4, 2, with usual short ciliations.

Ventral setae: all coxac with only 1, these and the pair between coxae I and

those towards apex 39 » long, remainder 26 », arranged as shown.

163

Locality and Hosts—On Rattus lutreolus 7, Imbil, Queensland, 4th August,

1938; on #. assimulis 7, Imbil, 12th August, 1938 (D. J. W. 35.).

Remarks—In the characteristic dorsal setae and their arrangement this

species is easily distinguished by the key.

Fig. 9 Neoschongastia derricki n.sp.: A, dorsal view; B, ventral

view; C, dorsal scutum; D, gnathosoma from below; E, front tarsus.

164

Neoschongastia smithi n. sp.

(Text fig. 10, A-E)

Description~--Length 4004, width 260, as figured. Dorsal scutum as

figured. with greatest width in line of postero-lateral hairs, 78 2; anterior width

70 #2; anterior margin practically straight, posterior margin evenly curved laterally,

and convex in median third; antero-median hair 52 p, antero-lateral 26 », postero-

lateral 65»; pseudostigmal hairs 60, long, elongate clavate. Eyes 8+ 2, on

distinct shield and only slightly distant from the scutum. Palpi as figured,

mandibles normal.

Legs—-I 260 » long, I] 224», II 260; tarsus I 574 by 18, as figured.

Claws normal.

Fig. 10 Neonschongastia smithi n.sp.: A, dorsal view; B, ventral

view; C, dorsal scutum; D, gnathosoma from below; E, front iarsus.

Dorsal setae 52 » long, arranged 2, 8, 8 (10), 8 (10), 6 (8), 4, 4, 2; ventral

20 » as figured. All coxae with only one seta.

Locality—On Rattus assimilis (7) Crom Timbil, Queensland, 12th August,

1938 (D. J. W. S.).

KEY TO TITE AUSTRALIAN AND NEw GUINEA SPECIES OF NEOSCHONGASTIA

1. Pseucostigmal hairs more or less globular. 2

Pseudostigmal hairs clavate. 6

2. Posterior margin of scutum convex or produced backwards, so that the postero-

lateral hairs are much in advance of the mid-point of the margin. 3

Posterior margin of scute almost straight or somewhat sinuate medially; postero-

lateral hairs hardly if at all in advance of mid-point of margin.

10.

11.

12.

165

Dorsal scutum roughly hexagonal, the posterior margin forming strong angles with

lateral margins, the outer thirds at about 45° with middle third which is straight and

slightly sinuated. Pseudostigmal hairs in a transverse Tine with postero-lateral hairs.

Dorsal setae 64, arranged 2, 14, 14, 10, 12, 8, 4; 26 » long.

N. edwardsi Gunther, 1939

Dorsal scutum more trapezoidal, not forming acute lateral angles.

Posterior margin of dorsal scutum laterally rounded and medially concave, Dorsal

body hairs 32, arranged 2, 6, 6, 6, 6, 4, 2; 50 y long. N. coorongense Hirst, 1929

Posterior margin straighter, slightly sinuate medially, posterior corners broadly

rounded. Dorsal body hairs about 100, 35 4 long and much more ciliated, arranged

in about 10 rows of 10-12 hairs. N. petrogale Wom., 1934

Anterior margin of dorsal scutum not more than two-thirds length of posterior margin.

Dorsal body hairs 39 y, arranged 2, 6, 6, 6, 6, 4 (2), 2. Posterior margin of dorsal

scutum 70 y, long. N. queenslandica n. sp.

Anterior margin of dorsal scutum four-fifths length of posterior margin. Dorsal body

hairs 50, 364, long, arranged 6, 8, 8, 8, 8, 6, 4, 2. Posterior margin of dorsal

scutum 70, long. N. antipodianuim Wirst, 1929

Dorsal scutum three-fourths as long as wide.

Dorsal scutum three-fifths or less as long as wide.

Posterior margin of dorsal scutum evenly convex. Bases of pscudostigmal hairs in

line with postero-lateral hairs. Dorsal body hairs 40 p long, arranged 2, &, 6, 6, 6, 2, 2.

N. dasycerci Hirst, 1929

Posterior margin of dorsal scutum rather flattened or feebly sinuate in middle third.

Bases of pseudostig-nal hairs much in advance of postero-lateral hairs, Dorsal body

hairs 26 y long, arranged 2, 6, 6 (2), 6, 4, 2 (2). N. impar Gunther, 1939

Dorsal scutum three-fifths as long as wide, posterior margin slightly convex on

lateral thirds, strongly concave on middle third. Bases of pseudostigmal hairs much

in advance of postero-lateral hairs and nearer the antero-lateral hairs than to the

postero-laterals, Dorsal body setae 30 long, arranged 2, 6, 6, 4, 2 (4), 2.

N, lorius Gunther, 1939

Dorsal scutum not more than half as long as wide.

Posterior margin of dorsal seutum concave medially, anterior margin concave. Dorsal

body setae 51-79 » long, arranged 2, 8, 6, 6, 6 (4), 4(6), 2.

Posterior margin of dorsal scutum not noticeably concave medially.

Width between postero-lateral hairs of dorsal scutum 106, Dorsal body hairs

79 y long. N. westraliense Wom., 1934

Width between postero-lateral hairs of dorsal scutum 794. Dorsal body hairs

51 y long. N. westralicnse y. trichosuri n. v.

Dorsal scute angular laterally on a level of the postero-lateral hairs. Pseudostigmal

hairs in line with the postero-lateral hairs, distance between latter 89 ,. Dorsal body

hairs 70 long, arranged 6, 6, 6, 4, 2. N, derricki n. sp.

Sides of dorsal seutum straight or nearly so, not angled.

Dorsal body hairs about 50, arranged 2, 8, 8, 8, 8, ?, 52 long. N. smithi n. sp.

Dorsal body hairs about 80 in all, 34, long, arranged 2, 12, 12, 12, 12, ?.

N. perameles n. sp.

Genus Paraschongastia gen nov.

This new genus is erected for the four New Guinea species described by

Gunther as belonging to Neoschéngastia, but then recognised as forming at least

a well-defined group.

166

The anterior dorsal scutum differs from that of species of Neoschéngastia

in that there is a distinct raised crest in front of the pseudostigmata. This crest

forms a very distinct wall in which the bases of the sensillary hairs are situated.

The posterior

anterior half is pitted. Coxae III with

margin.

‘The four species so far known can be separated by the following key:

half of the scutum on each half has circular striations but the

1, 2 or 3 ciliated hairs along anterior

Key To THE AUSTRALIAN AND New GUINEA SPECIES OF Paraschongastia gen, nov.

Coxas III with three ciliated hairs along anterior margin, No pitted area posteriorly

on dorsum. Dorsal setac 2, 14, 10, 12, 6, 14, 14, 12, 8, 4. Scutal crest indefinite

medially. P. dubia Gunther, 1939

Coxae IIT with only one or two ciliated sctae on anterior margin,

Coxne III with two ciliated setae on anterior margin. Posterior pitted area of dorsum

relatively small with a number of slightly oval discs cach bearing a single fine hair;

along anterior margin of this area a row of tubercles devoid of hairs.

P, retrecincta Gunther, 1939

Not as above, coxac III with only one ciliated seta.

No distinct pitted non-striated area posteriorly on dorsum. Dorsal setae 2, 14, 14,

10, 8, 8, 6, 6, 2, 2. P, megapodius Gunther, 1939

Dorsum posteriorly with a distinct pitted but non-striated area, on which the hairs

arise from tubercles. Dorsal setae 2, 16, 8 (10), 12 (10), 10 (8), 8 (10), 12, 6, 6, 6, 4.

P. yeamansi Gunther, 1939

Genus ScnOncGastia Oud. 1910, Ewing 1929

No species of this genus in the restricted sense of Ewing have as yet been

recorded from Australia, but the following three species are known from New

Guinea.

Kry To Tur New GUINEA SPECIES OF ScHONGASTIA

Dorsal body setae more than 50.

Dorsal body setae 40, arranged 2, 12 (8), (4) (6), 4, 2, 2; 50» long.

S. jamesi Gunther, 1939

Dorsal body setae 52, arranged 2, 10, 10, 10, 10, 8 (10), 2 (10). Palpal claw bifurcate.

S. van der sandei Qudemans, 1903

Dorsal body setae 64, arranged 2, 10, 8, 10, 8 (10), 10 (8), 8, 8; 40% long. (Accord-

ing to Gunther the eighth row is frequently ventral.) Palpal claw bifurcate.

S, blestowei Gunther, 1935

ise)

NOTES ON THE DIERI TRIBE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. M. BERNDT and T. VOGELSANG, South Australian Museum

Summary

Howitt (1904), Gason (1879), Reuther, Strehlow and Basedow (1925) have notably contributed to

our knowledge of the Dieri Tribe. The present notes are an addition to the work of these men.

167

NOTES ON THE DIERI TRIBE OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. M. Bernpt and T, VoGELSANG

South Australian Museum

[Read 13 July 1939]

INTRODUCTION

Howitt (1904), Gason (1879), Reuther, Strehlow and Basedow (1925) have

notably contributed to our knowledge of the Dicri Tribe. The present notes are

an addition to the work of these men.

The Dieri Tribe inhabits the eastern shores and neighbouring country of

Lake Eyre. It is divided into two groups, the Cooper’s Creek Dieri or [Ku’na: ri],

and the lake Hope Dieri or [Pandu], these being bordered by the Ngameni,

Jauraworka and Jantruwanta tribes.

Basedow (1925, p. 14) records that, around the Lake Evre region which

embraces the above tribes, the population forty years ago numbered many

thousands. More recently, however, during a survey of this country (just prior

to 1925), he states that only a bare three hundred could be mustered. Today a

considerably smaller number remain.

Much of the information recorded in this paper is the direct observation of

T. Vogelsang, who was born in the Dieri Tribe country and lived there for many

years, making friends with the aborigines. He thus had an excellent opportunity

of observing the manners and customs of these people.

PRELUDE TO A FIGHT

Tf a quarrel started between two natives and one referred to the sexual parts

of a male or female relative of the other, a fight would ensue. Such words were

considered to be particularly bad form and were rarely used, but once uttered,

aroused the whole camp. Another offence that would most certainly cause a

fight would be the mention of the name of a dead relative of the opponent.

A QUARREL

If, during the course of a fight, the stronger was getting the better of his

weaker opponent, the latter, awaiting his opportunity, would place his hands upon

the other’s hips, thumb and first index finger outstretched, and give a slight

pressure, speaking at the same time the word [’matja] (enough). This action

would immediately stop the fight.

A fight which had been stopped in this manner would not be resumed, the

fighters departing on friendly terms.

Woman’s Parr in A QUARREL

Another method of stopping a quarrel was by besecching pleas from a

woman, or women, as the case may be. ‘They possessed great power over the

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

168

men fighting, particularly in the case of a quarrel between the tribal groups, and

were the only ones who could bring such to an end.

In warfare between the groups of the Lake Eyre region, women would not

be touched. If they desired to stop the advancing enemy, they would dance in

front of them, cutting themselves as they did so. The men would then feel sorry

for the women and would cease their attack. After this, women were often loaned

to the warriors.

Women were also loaned to visiting groups, whose advent would be heralded

with much noise and beating of ground. Although only visitors, such groups

had the appearance of hostile men.

In earlier times, before the influence of the missionary, almost every man had

access to other women, besides his wife, this relationship being governed by

tribal law.

This corresponds to that mentioned by Spencer and Gillen (1889, p. 109)

in describing the piraungaru system of the Arabana tribe on the western shores

of Lake Eyre, which is similar to the pirauru of the Dieri (Howitt, 1889, p. 96).

Such a system designates a limited number of men and women who may lawfully

have extra-marital relationship.

Although not relevant with the above, it can be stated here that a dance,

which as far as is known, was not ceremonial, was performed at night aroun'd

the camp, during which free intercourse between the two sexes occurred, On

these occasions, the normal sexual restrictions were somewhat relaxed.

Howitt (1904, p. 185) mentions that the marriage between a Dieri man

and a woman of the Mardula (i.e., Wailpi) tribe being arranged, a place near

the boundary between the two tribes was fixed upon, where a ceremony was held.

The festivities were kept up for several days, during which free intercourse was

allowed between the sexes, without regard to existing marriage rclations.

DrinkinG BLoop

‘The younger men, who had not before been in any battle, were instructed

by the tribal elders to drink the blood of an enemy Isilled in battle. The congealed

blood, ground down to a powder and mixed with water, was believed to give

them additional strength and a taste for future fights. Jt was also considered a

standard of manhood. Those who had previously drunk blood would not be

obliged to do so again, This custom was not associated with the initiation

ceremonies.

Spencer and Gillen (1899, p. 461) record that in the Aranda and [Upirra

tribes, when starting on an avenging expedition, every man of the party drinks

some blood taken from a selected man.

Howitt (1904, p. 751) states that the Bunurong (of Victoria) not only cut

flesh off the legs and arms of killed enemies, but, according to their neighbours,

the Wurun-jerri, they also drank the blood of their slain enemies.

169

The drinking of blood, when practised, appears gencrally to have been with

the view of strengthening the drinker.

DeatTr

Upon the death of a native, his camp would be deserted but not burnt. If a

man knows he is about to die, he gives his possessions away. If not, neither his

relatives nor any member of the camp will use them, and there is an even stronger

prohibition on the use of the dead man’s name.

DisposaAL OF THE DEAD

The disposal of the dead has been narrated by Gason (1874, p. 22) and

by Howitt (1904, p. 446), but the following extract of a translation from the

German in “History of the Lutheran Mission” (1886, p. 17) differs in some

details from that already recorded.

“The two large toes of the deceased Dieri aborigine are tied together, and

then the whole body is sewn into a net. There is no particular place set aside

for the grave, but generally, the body is taken to a place where the ground is the

easiest to dig. Usually the excavation is about four feet deep.

“Then the body is carried on the heads of three men and laid down at the

graveside. Again it is placed on the heads of these men, who then kneel. An

elderly man, holding in each hand a thin rod, steps opposite the body, and asks

it who or what has been the cause of its death, believing that the dead person will

answer this question. Any one of the three men may act as interpreter, and give

the answer, which is usually the name of a person in another tribe who is probably

disliked.

“As soon as the person has been named, the bearers throw the body to the

ground, and then begins a terrible noise of wailing.

“The body is placed within the grave and covered with bushes and pieces of

wood, the last so that the wild dogs cannot uncover the remains.”

Howitt (1904, p. 446) differs [rom the above description mainly in that

the men sitting around—not the three body-bearers—act as interpreters for the

deceased. Both this author (1904, p. 751) and Roheim (1925, p. 97) mention

the ceremonial eating of the dead.

The following is additional information on the disposal of the dead:

Yo make certain that the person is dead, the body, when carried to the

grave on the heads of the three bearers, is dropped on the ground in such a way

that the neck is broken.

The interpreter of the dead man’s answer to the clder’s question sometimes

used the art of ventriloquism, the voice appearing to come from the dead body

itself. Attendant mourners and onlookers at this inquest viewed the dead man’s

answer as the natural thing to happen, as it was essential that the person, not

the group, who caused the death should be named. Howitt (1904, p. 448) also

states that the name of some native of another tribe is given.

170

The body was interred at full length, with the head towards the north, that

is, face looking south. According to a native legend, the dead man’s spirit leaves

the body at death and travels underground to the south, and shortly afterwards

returns to the body in the grave, but, at that time, does not stay with it. It is

believed that, at some undefined period, the spirit will again inhabit the body.

Food which might be consumed by the visiting spirit was sometimes left at

the graveside.

The two large toes of the deceased are tied with fibre, and the whole wrapped

inanet. Leaves of bushes or grass are used to line the grave, and, after interment,

pieces of wood, bushes, or twigs were placed on top. Sometimes sand and dirt

completed the mound, which was about two feet in height. The mound often

became higher and larger on account of loose drift sand accumulating amongst

the bushes and twigs.

If a man committed an offence contrary to the tribal law and was put to

death, he would be buried in the same manner as other members of the tribe,

but there would be no mourning ceremonies,

MovurNING

All the people of the tribe mourn for the first night, but afterwards the rela-

tives only of the dead person continue. This mourning consists of a great deal of

wailing, and, in the case of the women, the cutting of their flesh. The bodics

of both men and women are smeared with pipe-clay.

In some of the Central Australian tribes, it is said that the object of painting

the body of a mourner is to render him or her more conspicuous, so allowing the

spirit to see that it is being properly mourned. (Spencer and Gillen, 1889, p. 511.)

The mourning must be continuous and whole-hearted in order to pacify the spirit

of the deceased.

Mourning songs, consisting of the repeated chanting of two or three words,

alternately soft and loud, continue for some weeks. The greatest amount of grief

is displayed at the death and burial of the elder members of the community, but

the mourning ceremonies of decrepit men and women are short, while still-

born and young children are buried without any mourning, and the ground levelled.

Stillborn children were frequently caten.

There is no evidence of collective or tree burial, and cremation or smoke

drying was not practised.

RaINMAKING

The bull-roarer [’janta] was used in connection with rainmaking. Howitt

(1904, p. 394) has written of rainmakers and their importance during the

frequently recurring periods of droughts.

An elder of the Dieri had custody of the bull-roarer, which was kept from

public view. He was known as the rainmaker, and it was his duty to manipulate

it during the ceremony. ‘The article was nearly always regarded as an object of

magic, and there were restrictions on the showing of it to women and uninitiated

youths.

171

Another way of causing rain was by rubbing goanna fat into the body of a

boy; the grease causing steam to rise from the body. This was supposed to

form into a cloud from which rain would fall. Upon one such occasion, states

‘l’, Vogelsang, the boy happened to be the son of the rainmaker.

Grease is often associated with the making of rain, and is used in many

ceremonies of this kind in Australia.

Howitt (1904, p. 799) narrates the Darana legend, which is connected with

two heart-shaped stones kept by the Dieri. These stones are believed to be

senders of rain, and in the rainmaking ceremonies are smeared with fat, while

Roth (1897, p. 158) states that in North-West Central Queensland, a sacred

stone was anointed with fat when asking it for rain.

AN OMEN

If one’s nose was itching, the native believed that this was an infallible sign

that a relation would soon arrive at the camp.

Discussion

In spite of the attention that has been already given to the subject, the follow-

ing points as to the actual origin or motif of these customs should be deserving

of further investigation:

(a) The action used by one native to another in order to stop the fight.

(b) The lending of women to groups and a probable hypothesis of group-

marriage. (Howitt, 1904, p. 179.)

(d) The prohibition on the deceased’s name.

(e) The use of the art of ventriloquism during the inquest ceremony.

(f) The only type of burial practised being earth burial.

(g) Uhe mourning ceremonies depending largely upon the age and social stand-

ing or status of the individual concerned.

(h) The use of grease in rainmaking ceremonies, and the native idea of steam

causing rain to fall.

(i) Many omens must exist, although they have hitherto received little notice.

REFERENCES CITED

Anonymous 1886 Geschichte der Luth. Mission in S. Austr., Tanunda, 17

Basepow, H. 1925 Austr. Aboriginal, Adelaide, xiv

Gason, S. 1874 The Dieyerie Tribe, Adelaide, 22

Howrrr, A. W. 1889 Trans. Roy. Soc. Vict., 1 (2), 96

Howitt, A. W. 1904 Native Tribes of Sth-East Austr., London, 179, 185, 394,

446, 448, 751, 799

Rownem, G. 1925 Journal Anthrop. Inst., 55, 97

Rotu, W. E. 1897 Eth. Std. Nth-West Central Queensl. Abor., Brisbane, 158

Spencer and Gi.ten 1899 Nat. Tribes of Central Austr., London, 109, 461,

511

ABORIGINAL NAMES AND USES OF PLANTS IN THE

NORTHERN FLINDERS RANGES

By J. B. CLELAND and T.HARVEY JOHNSTON

Board for Anthropological Research, University of Adelaide

Summary

The information contained in the present communication was obtained during our visit to

Nepabunna and adjoining regions in the Northern Flinders Ranges in May, 1937. Our chief

informants were Ted Wilton (Native name, Warri), Albert Wilton, and Archie MacKenzie,

members of the Anyamutina (Unyamutna) or Wailpi and Parnkala (Bahnga-la) tribes. The former

tribe ranged as far south as Blinman, while the latter occupied territory further south, including

Hawker.

172

ABORIGINAL NAMES AND USES OF PLANTS IN THE

NORTHERN FLINDERS RANGES

By J. B. CLeLanp and T. Harvey Jonnsron

Board for Anthropological Research, University of Adelaide

[Read 13 July 1939]

The information contained in the present conimunication was obtained during

our visit to Nepabunna and adjoining regions in the Northern Flinders Ranges

in May, 1937. Our chief informants were Ted Wilton (Native name, Warri),

Albert Wilton, and Archie MacKenzie, members of the Anyamutina (Unya-

mutna) or Wailpi and Parnkala (Bahnga-la) tribes. The former tribe ranged

as far south as Blinman, while the latter occupied territory further south, including

Hawker,

FILICALES

Pleurosorus rutetfolius (R. Br.) Fée. Maire-ruta.

PINACEAE

Callitris glauca 1. Br., Native Pine. Vin-ba; not used.

GRAMINEAE

General terms for grass. Ngaru (Nguru).

Gencral name for seeds. Pau-a (vau-a).

Digitaria Brownti (R. et 5.) Hughes (= Panicum leucophaewm Benth.)

Yu-tara.

Paspalidium gracile (R. Br.) Hughes and Panicum decompositum R.Br. In

both cases the names had been forgotten by our informant. The seeds were used.

Stipa variabilis Hughes. A speargrass. Yutara; not used (see Digitaria).

Pappophorum avenaceum Lindl. Vairi oota, or oota; seed ground for food.

Another kind of grass. Mairi oota (see Pappophorum),

Eragrostis sp. Love-grass. Yutara (see Digitaria, etc.).

Trioda sp. Vak-ari. Occurs on the hills; only one kind is known in this

region. Used at camps (angu = camp) for a bed in the wurlic (= wilya). The

seeds are ground,

Astrebla pectinata F.v,M. Mitchell Grass. Seeds ground and eaten.

Dactylocnemium aegyplium (1..) Willd., Nguru (seed) ground with a large

or small grinding stone (wadla or wadla rappa), respectively, then cooked and

eaten.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus vaginatius R. Br. Widna.

Cyperus Gunnt Hook f. Ooru.

Cyperus rotundus L. Yelka; A-la. Reported as not growing in this region,

Trans. Roy. Soc. §.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

173

LiLlACEAE

Dianella revoluta R. Br. Vu-ru. The stems are pounded to make a fine fibre

and are then held in the hands and clasped around the flowering stem of the yacca

(Xanthorrhoea) to collect honey from the flowers, Children eat the white

leat bases.

Bulbine sp., Native Onion Weed. Ana-lilli-lilli. See also Lotus australis.

Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata F. v. M. Ardla-uru. The gum (enura) is

used (after heating) for fixing weapons, attaching stone axes to their hafted

handles, etc. ‘he term ardia is said to mean fire. For uru see also Cyperus

Gunni and Dianella.

CASUARINACEAE

Casuarina lepidophloia F.v. M. Black Oak. Alku.

URTICACEAE

Urtica sp. (nettle). A new-comer, i.e., an introduced plant, hence no native

name.

PROTEACEAE

H. Ednicana Tate. Yandana.

Hakea leucoptera R. Br. V(w)erna. The roots are used for obtaining water.

Pieces about three or four feet long are stood on end ina rock cavity or a receptacle

for half-an-hour or more to collect the water. Often fire is used to heat one end

of the root first.

SANTALACEAE

Exocarpus aphylla R. Br. Artara. Not used.

Eurarya acuminata (R. Br.) Spr. et Summ. Native Peach. Wurti. Native

peach seed, wurti muku. The kernel of the “stone” is eaten as well as the pulp,

wurti mai-i (mai-i == the edible pulp of fruits).

Eucarya spicata (R. Br.) Spr. et Summ, ‘True Sandal wood. Oordluru.

T.ORANTHACEAE

Loranthus exocarpi Behr. Werti-bi, wertabi, wertipi. The fruit, Yappi

wertibi (yappi means fruit).

Loranthus Maidenii Blakeley (on Acacia ancura var. latifolia), Mulka

wertibi, Ze., wertibi from mulga. The fruit (?) is boiled ina receptacle (formerly

heated with hot stones in receptacles called burnda), strained, cooled and then

drunk (an amount that would go into a hollowed hand) three times a day. Used

for inflammation of the genital region in males and femles. ‘This information

suggests a European origin, such use probably being suggested by the mucilaginous

fruit. Note the “three times a day.”

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium cristatum F, v. M. Leaves slightly scented. Seeds not used.

Chenopodium album L. Fat Tlen (introduced). A “newcomer”; no nase.

174

Rhagodia parabolica R. Br. Old-man Saltbush. Nilpena (note that this is

the name also of a station).

Atriplex vesicarinm Hew. (2?) Willa kura.

Bassia longicuspis Fv. M. Yelkari.

Bassia paradoxa (R. Br.) F.v. M. Urtu (= prickly) ; not used.

Bassia sp. (2-spined species). Woma-era.

Kochia sedifolia PF. v. M. Bluebush. Il-la; not used.

Salsola kali L., Buckbush. Yilka. Children and adults break off dry

pieces of a branch, about one-quarter inch long, press one end into the skin to

make the stem stand upright, and then set alight to the other end. The twig

burns slowly and makes, on the skin, a rounded burn which is considered an

ornamentation.

Babbagea sp. Numminya-numminya.

Enchylaena tomentosa R.Br. Ruby Saltbush. Wool-ami. Berries some-

times eaten,

AMARANTACEAE

Trichinium exaltatum (Nees.) Benth. Wildida, reldelda.

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia diffusa L. Aru-wirri. Root cooked in ashes and then eaten.

PHYTOLACCACEAE

Codonocarpus pyramidalis F. v. M. Alyunga.,

AIZOACEAE

Tetragonia expansa Murr. Native spinach. No name available. Used as

a source of moisture in stcaming cresses (see under Cruciferae). Not utilized

as a food formerly by the natives, but now used after boiling (or after cooking

in a hole).

PoORTULACACEAE

Portulaca oleracea L. W/(v)idla verka, wirlda. Seeds ground for food,

stems chewed in dry times. Plant cooked in ashes like spinach and Boerhavia.

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis Mitchellii Lindl. Native Orange. Higga; fruit eaten.

CRUCIFERAE

Lepidium rotundum DC. Werkundu. Steamed in the following manner

and then caten. Fire and hot stones are placed in a hole; then spinach (Tetra-

gonia expansa) is put in the bottom of the hole or on top of the hot stones, then

the cress, succeeded by more spinach, then hot stones are placed on top and the

whole is covered with sand and left for about an hour.

Lepidium oxytrichum Sprague. Kuppinupinya.

175

PITTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporum phillyreoides DC. Ma-tu; not used.

Bursaria spinosa Cav. Mapalu.

LEGUMINOSAE

Acacia Victoriae Benth. Min-ga.

Acacia rivalis J. M. Black. Silver Wattle. Nguri. The fairly plentiful

gum is eaten; the seeds are ground and eaten.

Acacia salicina Lind). Broughton Willow. W(v)alkuru, ulkuru, relkura.

Acacia tetragonophylla F. v. M, Vaira (vera).

Acacia Oswaldii F. v. M. Oolka; seeds eaten.

Acacia aneura F. v. M. Mulka. The native name has become corrupted to

mulga. The seeds of mulgas and other Acacias were formerly ground and eaten.

Gum from Acacias (but not from the native pine, Callitris) is eaten. The twigs

of various species of Acacia are used for obtaining ash for mixing with pituri.

Barbed spears made of mulga are called wardla-ta. The following, except

(4) A, Kempeana, are apparently all forms of the composite species, 4d, aneura,

and are given different names by the natives:

(1) Mulga with broad phyllodes and grey foliage; red wood; brownish

glaucous branchlets; slightly curved phyllodes, 5°5 to 6 x 0-5 cm.

Munye-mimmi.

(2) Mulga with long narrow flattened ycllowish phyllodes ; medium brown

wood; brownish glaucous branchlets; linear, slightly curved phyllodes,

9 to 10°5 em. x 2 to 3mm. Wunni-wychi, wunni waitjena.

(3) Common grey mulga with long narrow grey-green flattened phyllodes ;

blackish wood; smoother, reddish glaucous branchlets; linear phyllodes,

65 to 10cm. x 2to2°5mm. Millilu.

(4) Acacia Kempeana ¥. v. M. Mulga with short broad phyllodes, slightly

curved, 3 to 3°5 cm. x 3°5 mm. Mulpurru, nulpuru.

(5) Mulga with long narrow linear phyllodes, brownish (but not polished)

branches and leaves rather narrower and less flattened than in (2);

foliage slightly yellowish; wood medium brown; branchlets reddish

glaucous; phyllodes nearly terete, 10:5 to 12 cm. x 2mm. Ardla-ti.

Cassia Sturtii A. Br. Unila, walnina,

C. eremophila A, Cunn. Murrku; seeds eaten.

Lotus australis Andr. var. parviflorus Benth. Ani-lirri-lirri. (See also

Bulbine sp.)

Psoralea patens Lindl. Fibre used for net-making.

Clianthus speciosus (G.Don) Aschers et Graebn. Sturt’s Pea. Murra

punna.

Templetonia egena (F.v.M.) Benth. Broom Bush. Vigni (Veenyee).

Used for covering game traps dug along wallaby pads to catch smaller macropods

{rock wallabies and euros).

176

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Zygophyllum, all species (several were collected). Midti (mid-di) ; not used.

Tribulus (T. terrestris L.. and 'T. occidentalis R. Br. were collected). Eeta

(= prickly).

SAPINDACEAE

Heterodendron olcifoliim Desf. Bullock Bush. Minera. The red tissue

between the sphcrical black seed and the capsule is eaten fresh. The twigs are

used for supplying ash to be used in preparing pitpuri for chewing.

Dodonaea attenuata A. Cunn. Wawaru.

MALVACEAE

Lavatera plebeja Sims. Woolma; fibre used for string.

Malva sp. Marsh Mallow. Woolma; used for poultices.

Malvastrum spicatum (L.) A. Gray. Wuthari, ut-(h)a; not used.

Sida intricata Fi. vy. M. (W)udari. See also Malvastrum and S. petrophila.

Sida petrophila F.v. M. (probably). Ur-dari.

Abutilon leucopetalum F.v.M. Woolma (oolma), same name as given to

Lavatera and Malva, but the difference between these plants is recognised.

Hibiscus Huegeliit Endl. Native name forgotten by interpreter; plant

not used.

‘THY MELEACEAE

Pimela microcephala R.Br. Wirri-pirri, wilpari, wilpiri. Bark removed,

plaited and put around the neck as a cure for colds. Ripe berries eaten.

MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca pubescens Schau. Black Tea-tree, Wuta.

Melaleuca sp. (“white Tea-tree”’). Al-aru.

Melaleuca glomerata F. v. M. and M. linophylla F. v. M. Ooda. The two

species are recognised as different but the same name is applied to both, as well

as to M. pubescens.

Eucalyptus intertexta R. VY. Baker. Box. Yundu, Yunta. Seeds ground

and eaten,

Fucalyptus oleosa F.v.M. and F, transcontinenlalis Maiden. Madia,

mudla. This name is applied to any kind of mallee with rough bark on its stem.

The lerp (Psyllid) from #. oleosa is edible and is termed How-arec.

Eucalyptus Gilii Maiden, and other mallces with smooth stems. Ada ada,

awilla awilla, mundu-warra; not used.

Eucalyptus rostrata Schlechtd. Red gum. Wirra; seeds not used. The

witjeti grub (larva of a large moth) occurring in the roots is eaten and is called

Wai-api. Red gum, mallee and box were used formerly for obtaining wooden

or bark dishes (food vessels). The native name of the red gum appears in that

of the townships Oodla Wirra and Wawirra.

177

UMBELLIFERAE

Didiscus glaucifolius F.v.M. Called a “new-comer” by our informant,

hence no native name.

PRIMULACEAE

Anagallis sp. Pimpernel, introduced. A “new-comer,” hence no native name.

Regarded as poisonous.

ASCLEP{ADACEAE

Marsdenia australis (R. Br.) J. M. Black. Nundi, nandi (the creeper),

mai-aka (the fruit); eaten either raw or cooked.

Cynanchum floribundum R. Br. Name forgotten by our informant. Fruit

and seeds eaten.

OLEACEAE

Jasminium lineare R. Br. Ngamaruka. Mr. C. P. Mountford informs us that

this plant is considered by the local aborigines to be the food of the “Muri”

(spirit child).

CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulus erubesceus Sims. Nyunya, ootya.

BorRAGINACEAE

Heliotropium europacum L. Potato Weed. Ardu-mai-i.

Trichodesma seylanicum (Burm.) R. Br. Uru-lundula.

LABIATAE

Ajuga australis R. Br. Bugle. Wulpa-werta,

Prostanthera striatiflora F.v.M. Vau-uru.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum nigrum L. A “new-comer,” hence no name.

Solanum Sturtianum F.v. M. Windari.

Solanum petrophilum F.v.M. Urlumbu; not used. Name apparently the

same as that applied to the following species.

Solanum sp. (with few prickles). Alamu; fruit not eaten.

Solanum cllipticum R.Br. Immaru; fruits eaten.

Datura stramonium L. A “new-comer.”

Nicotiana velutina Wheler. Uro-rindju-lu; now utilized by the natives when

short of tobacco, the leaves being used when somewhat dried off on the plant.

Nicotiana glauca Grah. Introduced Tree Tobacco. A “new-comer” (no

name).

Pituri is (or was) used in the locality but the natives do not know the plant,

Duboisia Hopwoodii, {rom which the material is derived, as the supply of the

prepared product was traded from the north through the Lake Eyre region.

178

M YOPORACEAE

Myoporum platycarpum R.Br. Imburu. The gum, gnuri, is used for fixing

weapons and closing holes.

Eremophila longifolia (R.Br.) F.v.M. Verti werka; Vada waka. See

also Eucarya acuminata.

Eremophila Sturt R. Br. (?). Langdu; nectar used.

Eremophila scopariti (R. Br.) F.v. M. Wi-uka; not used,

Eremophia sp. (with linear leaves). Alkata,

Eremophila glabra (R. Br.) Ostenf. Ooli-werdi.

Eremophila sp. (with green flower). Ooli-werdi.

CAM PANULACEAE

Wahlenbergia spp. (W. Steberi A. D.C. and W. multicaulis Benth.; both

were collected). Warri wirra.

GOODENIACEAE

Seaevola spinescens A. Br. Yudli. ‘The fruit is highly prized and eaten.

The leaves and branches (both dry and green) are placed in a hole in the ground,

burnt, and the boy who has been circumcised recently then squats over the hole

and micturates into the hot ashes there, so that steam rises around the penis;

this is done for about ten minutes and the process is repeated frequently. For

sores in the male or female, water is used instead and the sore part placed over

the hole and thus steamed. The root is boiled (cvidently a European innovatian,

though originally heated stones may have been used to raise the temperature of

the fluid) and the liquid drunk for stomachache and urinary trouble.

COMPOSITAE

Cassinia laevis R. Br. Yuilpo.

Senecio sp. Wildulda.

Xanthium spinosum L. Bathurst Burr. A “new-comer”’; no name.

Inula graveolens (1...) Desf. Stinkwort, introduced. A “new-comer”;

no name.

Centaurea melitensis 1. Star thistle. A “new-comer’; no name.

GASTROMYCETOUS FUNGI

Podaxon sp. Oordli-uta; not used.

Phellorinia strobilina (Kalchbr.) Kbr. et Cke. Ooliwoota, apparently a

general name for this type of fungus, since the same name was supplied for

Podaxon,

LIcItENS

Encrusting lichens on rocks and mosses and trees. A-ta turra, not used.

ALGAE

A greenish filamentous alga which forms, when dried, an interlacing cover-

ing on the clay flakes of previously flooded land, is called Nang-ga (a term mean-

179

ing a woman’s whiskers). The plant has been identified for us by the British

Museum (Nat. Hist.) as Nostoc commune Vauch. var. flagelliforum (Berk. et

Curtis).

INTRODUCED SPECIES

The following introduced species (already noted) were called “new-comers”

and our informants said they had no native names. The natives were deliberately

tested out on these as a check on the reliability of the names given for native

species. ‘The introduced species comprised: Nettle, fat hen, pimpernel, Dafura

stramonium, tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca), Solanum nigrum, Bathurst burr,

and a star thistle.

Worps FoR PARTS OF PLANTS, ETC.

Seeds from trees (pines, eucalypts, etc.), Yai-appi (wyappi). Fruit, yappi

(cf., Loranthus exocarpi). Ldible pulp, mai-i (cf., native peach). Dry wood of

any kind, wurti nurtyu. Leaf, wurti alpi. Flower, ookalla. Root, wirti (wurti)

avata, Seeds of Mitchell grass and other seeds generally (such as are ground

and eaten), paua, vau-a. Gum from pines, XNanthorrhoea (yacca), Myoporum

and various wattle trees, gnura. False sandalwood (Mvyoporum) gum was pre-

ferred for fixing stone axcs to their handles.

Hale and Tindale in their “Observations on Aborigines of the Flinders

Ranges, etc.” (Mem. South. Austr. Mus., 3 (1), 1925, pp. 45-60), published a

number of native names for the local flora (pp. 59-9?) as follows: Nardoo,

Marsilea quadrifolia (= M. Drummendit), Ara; pine, Callitris robusta, Bimba ;

plack oak, Casuarina lepidephloia, Ailko; needlebush, IJakca leucoptera, Barna ;

native peach, Fusanus spicatus, Wulti [the authors have confused the “peach”

and sandalwood, the former being Eucarya acuminata, for which we received a

similar name, Wurti] ; buckbush [Salsola kali], Yilka; wattle, Acacia sp., Nguri;

bullock bush, Heterodendron oleifolium, Minyara ; red gum, Eucalyptus rostraia,

Wera; box mallee, Eucalyptus sp. [E. intertexta| Yunda; tea tree, Leptospermume

scoparium [probably a Melaleuca] Ora; Sandalwood, Myoporum platycarpum,

Emburu; edible geranium, Lrodium cygnorum, Ajinarupo; edible geranium,

Geranium pilosum, Windu. The strong fibres of Hibiscus Huegelii were stated

to have been prepared by macerating in water and then converted into twine for

making nets for the capture of wallabies. Yam sticks, mungu witi, used also as

fighting sticks, were made from selected mallee wood (p. 48). Roots of Erodium

were eaten. The dish made from the bark of the red gum is termed beki or

wichi (p. 59). The information enclosed in square brackets has been added by us.

Most of the native names given by these authors are similar to those obtained by us.

The term Yunda for the box mallee, Eucalyptus intertexta, is apparently the

origin of the name of a township, Yunta.

FLINDERSIAN LORICATES

By BERNARD C. COTTON, Conchologist, South Australian Museum,

and BENJAMIN J. WEEDING

Summary

In preparing this revision of the Flindersian Loricates we have been exceptionally fortunate in

having access to the South Australian Museum’s collection which contains the large collections

made by the late Dr. W. G. Torr, Edwin Ashby and the late Sir Joseph Verco and W. L. May. In

addition, the valuable material collected by enthusiastic members of the South Australian

Malacological Society has been submitted to us for examination. Furthermore, we have, between

us, personally collected around a large part of the South Australian coast, as far west as Fowler Bay.

Every species has been examined by us personally except Parachiton opiparus, the one specimen of

which is in the Australian Museum and the doubtful Acanthochiton deliciosus Thiele, in the Berlin

Museum.

180

FLINDERSIAN LORICATES

By Bernarp C. Cotton, Conchologist, South Australian Museum,

and BENJAMIN J. WEEDING

Prate VII

[Read 10 August 1939]

In preparing this revision of the Flindersian Loricates we have been excep-

tionally fortunate in having access to the South Australian Museum collection

which contains the large collections made by the late Dr. W. G. Torr, Edwin

Ashby and the late Sir Joseph Verco and W. L. May. In addition, the valuable

material collected by enthusiastic members of the South Australian Malacological

Society has been submitted to us for examination. Furthermore, we have,

between us, personally collected around a large part of the South Australian coast,

as far west as Fowler Bay. Every species has been examined by us personally

except Parachiten opiparus, the one specimen of which is in the Australian

Museum and the doubtful Acanthochiton deliciosus ‘Vhiele, in the Berlin Museum.

We have not used here many varietal and subspecific names, which are

regarded by us as being of little value. The features upon which these are based

are not constant and the forms are not confined to distinct geographical boundaries.

On the other hand, names are given specific status when the differing features,

however small, are constant and can be supported by a separate geographical

location. All species in the different Faunal Regions should be allowed a certain

amount of variation.

Several names are accepted which have been previously recorded as synonyms.

These are, in most cases, the names of some of the rarer species, where lack of

material makes it impossible at present to definitely confirm their exact status.

It is better to stimulate research by recording then separately ; their true status

will never be ascertained if they are indiscriminately synonymised with other

species.

‘The first list of South Australian Marine Mollusca was published by Angas

in 1865. It contained the names of fourteen species of loricates, several of which

have proved to be foreign. In Bednall’s list, privately printed in 1876, two more

species were added. Adcock’s list, published in 1893, contained the names of

twenty-one species, but cight of them are certainly not found here.

it was Bednall who, influenced by the publication of Pilsbry’s Manual.

encouraged by Professor Tate and aided by the collecting of Matthews, made the

first allempt to record and classify every genuine South Australian species. In

his historical monograph of 1897 thirty-seven species were recorded, only one of

which was misidentified.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

181

‘This timely publication gave an added impetus to local collectors and, during

the few years that followed, workers such as Bednall, Matthews, Torr, Ashby,

Maughan, Saunders, Kimber and others rapidly added to our knowledge of the

variety and number of Loricates found around our shores. So much so, that when

Verco’s list was printed in 1908, only eleven years later, fifty--wo species were

recorded, and Torr’s paper, published four years later, included sixty-one species.

No list of South Australian Loricates has been published since Torr’s Mono-

graph of 1912, but Ashby’s 1918 list of Australian species, credited this State with

sixty-six species, and Ircdales and Hull’s Monograph of Australian Loricates lists

sixty-seven species recorded from our coasts.

The Systematic List now presented is not confined to the poiitical boundaries

of South Australia but covers the whole of the coastline known as the Flindersian

Region. This Region extends from Geraldton in Western Australia to Wilson’s

Promontory in Victoria, and includes the northern and western coasts of

Tasmania,

Except for a few extra limital species, the Loricates of this Region form a

distinctive group, quite different from those of the Peronian Region in the East

and the Dampierian Region in the West.

Pilsbry, in 1892, classified the Loricates into three Superfamilies which he

named: Loplacophora, Mesoplacophora and Teleoplacophora. The wealth of

material discovered since makes it advisable to raise the status of these Super-

families to Orders and to add another Order to include a group widely represented

in this Region.

Our classification proceeds from the simpler to the more complex forms end

is based upon the study of the valves and girdles alone. The anatomical features

do not seem to help in any marked way. Even the radula, which has proved so

helpful in the classification of other Orders of Mollusca, varies too much, even

in individuals of the same specics, to he accepted as a reliable guide. This leaves

only the differences in the shell and girdle by which the various forms can be

grouped in a satisfactory manner.

Order EOPLACOPHORA

The Order Eoplacophora is characterised by the absence of insertion plates.

It is regarded by some workers as the most primitive, representing the forms

from which the more highly developed types have evolved. Other workers regard

the members as degeneraies from the Ischnochitonid group. It has only one

Iamily in this Region, the

LEPIDOPLEURIDAE.

The members have small fragile shells with weak granulose sculpture. The

insertion plates are absent and the sutural laminae small and widely separated, the

few gills posteriorly situated. It contains two genera, Terenochiton and Para-

chiton, separated by the different girdle covering, shape of posterior valve and

station.

182

Although a number of species is found in very deep water, many of tlie

commonest are found in the Laminarian Zone, living in company with and under

identical conditions as the Ischnochitons, making the theory of degeneration

through environment difficult to accept. The group is probably degenerate from

a different and older line than the /schnochitonidace,

It should be noted that the simple forms of this Family do not show the

varietal differences common in more elaborately sculptured forms, so that even

sinall differences, when constant, must be regarded as of specific value.

Genus TERENOCHITON

Terenochiton niger Torr (D11686) is accepted as a distinct species from

T. matthewsianus Bednall and has a black animal. The holotype of Hednall’s

species was, unfortunately, lost at sea, and it will never be known for certain

whether the animal of the shell he described was red or black. The shells of the

two forms show little difference, and T. niger Torr has been recorded as a

synonym of 7. matthewsianus Bednall. T. niger can be separated on sight from

the red-footed form and, although the holotype was from Western Australia,

the black-footed varicty is found throughout the Region and it seems more reason-

able to record it as 7. niger Torr, than to refer to it as “the black-footed variety

of 7. matthewsianus Bednall.”

The Peronian species Terenochiton badius Hedley and Hull was first taken

at Port Jackson, New South Wales; a similar species was taken by Saunders at

Cape Jervis in 1917 and was recorded as 7. badius Iledley and Hull, 1909. Since

then the species has been taken in a number of places as far west as Spencer Gulf.

Tt is our smallest Loricate and in gencral appearance similar to T. badius. he

Flindersian species, however, has distinct differences and we here describe it as:

Terenochiton iscus n. sp.

(Pl. vil, fig. 1)

Holotype—Gulf St. Vincent, S. Australia. D1232, S.A.M.

Shell small (5 x 3 mm.), oval, sub-carinated, sculptured with minute granules.

Colour, buff to decp orange. Anterior valve, the lateral areas of the median

valves aud the post-mucronal area of the posterior valve, irregularly granulose.

The jugal area is not separated from the pleural area. ‘his central area of the

median valves and the anti-miucrenal area of the posterior valve, have the pustules

arranged in rows. Generally, 7. iseus has about 40 rows of pustules across the

central area with cight pustules in the row.

The Peronian form has about fifty rows with twelve granules to the row.

The larger and fewer granules of I. iscus give it a slightly coarser appearance.

Ashby has recorded this species as having a buff foot, but over thirty

specimens collected by us in Spencer Gulf have had the typical bright red foot

of T. badius.

183

The species is usually found attached to soft smooth sand-stone, well buried

in sheltered pools. We have never found isolated specimens, they have been in

groups or colonies, and the same colour as the rock to which they were attached.

Genus ParacttiTox

Parachiton pelagicus Vorr, 1912 (D11688) is one of the species now

restored to the List. It has been recorded as a synonym of P. columnarins Hedley

and May. It differs from that species in the angle of divergence, sculpture and

shape of the posterior valve, and although paucity of material makes it impossible

to decide the exact slatus of this species at present, cnough differences have been

recorded to warrant keeping the Ilindersian separate from the Peromian species,

until a longer series proves whether they are identical or not.

Among specimens dredged by the late Sir Joseph Verco near St. Francis

Island was the large posterior valve of a distinctive Loricate, not yet recovered.

It is certain that dredging around the Nuyts Archipelago will result in the dis-

covery of the complete shell, and as it cannot be confused with any known specics,

we name it after its discoverer and describe it as:

Parachiton verconis 1. sp.

(PI. vil, fig. 2)

Folotxpe—St. Francis Island, $. Australia, D11689, S.A.M.

The posterior valve is 5 x 5 mm., colour a light buff. Anti-mucronal area

exceptionally long and covered with about eighty rows of small coalescing

granules, giving, where touching, a net-work appearance. Post-mucronal area

very short and concave under the mucro, with short rows of coalescing granules

and suggestions of growth ridges.

The nearest related species appears to be P. puppis Hull, a Peronian species

found in a restricted area at Vaucluse, Watson Bay, N.S.W. The number of

minulely grained striae in the Flindersian species is less than in the Peronian,

giving it a slightly coarser appearance.

Order MESOPLACOPHORA

Vhe Order Mesoplacophora has the insertion plates well developed, although

small, ‘he teeth are smooth and the girdles clothed with scales. By some

workers it has been regarded as the basic group from which all the other Loricates

have either devcloped or degencrated. Others regard it as the first step from the

primitive to the more highly developed forms.

The Order is represented by two [Families in this Region.

The first, the Ischnochilonidac, includes the simple unspecialized ferms with

small insertion plates and smooth teeth. The second, the Cellistochitonidae, while

associated with the fschnochitonidae by its radular features, is distinct in the

peculiar scalloping of the teeth and elaborate sculpture of the tegmentum.

184

Genus IscHNocHITON

Iredale and Hull’s identification of [schnochiton elongatus Blainville and

Ischnochiton lneolatus Blainville is accepted tentatively. In several publications,

f. elongaius has been recorded as /. lincolatus, and 1. lineolatus as 1. iredalei Dup.

Blainville’s descriptions are meagre, but there is no detail in those descriptions

which cannot be applied to those species for which the names are accepted. Also,

most workers are familiar with Iredale and Hull’s Monograph, and it will prevent

further confusion to accept their nomenclature until more definite and independent

information can be obtained.

The records of Ischnochiton variegatus I. Adams and Angas and Ischno-

chiton altkinsoni Iredale and May, have also been much confused. While there is

no comparison between the small coarse unicoloured species from ‘Tasmania and

the larger, smoother, mottled species from Yorke Peninsula, it must be admitted

that intermediate forms are not casily separated. The great variety of forms

found in these species has led to the introduction of species and subspecies

which cannot, at present, be recognised as valid.

[schnochiton (Heterogona) praperensts Ashby, 1920, is a valid species and

not a local variant of /. cariosus Pilsbry, as has beeen recorded. J. cariosus has

from four to six coarse nodulose rays on the lateral area, J. properensis has from

eight to ten finer nodulose rays on the latcral area. In general appearance

I, properensis is much smoother and darker coloured than /. cariosus,

Both Ischnochilon (Heterosona) fruticosus Gould, 1946, and Ischnochiion

(Haploplax) lentiginosus Sowerby, 1840, must for the present he regarded as

extra-limital species. The records for leniiginosus from South Australia are:

three specimens from Yankalilla, Matthews’ Collection, and one from Robe, ‘Vorr

Collcetion, all now in the South Australian Museum.

Ischnechiton (fLuporoplar) levis Vorr, 1912 (111976), has been restored

to our List. It has been confused with Ischuochiton (Euretoplax) wilsoni Sykes,

1896. Both species have been taken hy us in Spencer Gulf and are quite distinct.

Z. wilsont differs from 7. levis in its distinctive colour and larger and conspicuous

striate girdle scales.

Lschnochiton (Charloplay) purus Sykes, 1896, has been taken as far west

as St. Francis Island by Dr. W. G. Torr. IJlis specimen is undoubtedly this

rare spccics.

Ovatoplax n. subg.

Vhe subgenus Ovafoplaxy is here introduced for /schnochiton (Haploplax)

mayi Pilsbry 1895. ‘This species has been placed in various genera—

[schnochitan, Haploplax, Svpharochiton—none of which are suitable.

Shell small to medium, ovate and of low clevation. Tegmentum weakly

sculptured. Internally as in /sehnochiten but separated from that genus by its

girdle scales, which are oval, weakly striate and loosely packed.

ischnochiton (Haploplax) mayi Pilsbry, 1895,

Sub-genotype

185

Genus IscH NORADSIA

We record all three forms of Ischnoradsia in the List. The strongly sculp-

tured Peronian form (/schnoradsia australis Sowerby) is not common in this

region, but it has been taken as far west as the South-East coast of South Aus-

tralia, The weak sculptured form (J. evanida Sowerby, 1840) is the common

species in this region, while the smooth form (J. novae-hollandiae Reeve, 1847)

is a varicty of doubtful value. The three forms do not confine themselves to

geographical boundaries.

Order Isoplacophora n. ord.

Shells small to large with large insertion plates and sutural laminae, Girdles

large, fleshy and covered with spicules or cornecus processes, rarely with scales.

This new Order has been introduced for a large group of Loricates which

previously has been included in the Order Mesoplacophora. “Yhis must not be

regarded merely as an artificial arrangement to divide the species into more evenly

balanced groups, easier to key. It represents a distinct group of Loricates with

probably no close phylogenetic association with either the preceding or following

Orders. A number of fossil Loricates examined and classified by Ashby in recent

years seem definitely to point to a separate line of evolution.

The Order includes four Families in the Flindersian Region—Cryptocon-

chidae, Cryptoplacidac, Choriplacidae and the Plaxiphoridae.

Family CRyPTOCONCHIDAE

In the Family Cryptoconchidae the following alterations should be noted:

Genus ACANTHOCHITON

Acanthochiton (Notoplar) rottnestensis Ashby, 1929 (D12565), is placed

in the genus Craspedochiton Shuttleworth, where it evidently belongs.

Acanthochiton deliciosus Vhiele, 1911, has been included with considerable

douht; it is probably a very juvenile specimen of Acanthochiton Rimberi Vorr.

Acanthochiton bednalli variety johnstoni Ashby, 1923, we give full specific

status. It has never been fully described or figured, so we here describe it.

ACANTIIOCHITON youNnstont Ashby, 1923

(Pl. vii, fig. 6)

Hololype—Woodman’s Point, W. Australia, D12185; size, 16 x 7 mm.

Shell small to medium, clevation low. Colour white with black or green

mottling. Anterior valve—irregularly pustulose. Pustules round and flat. Faint

or no undulations. Median valve—lateropleural not separated; irregularly

covered with flat round pustules. Jugal area—this area varies considerably,

often narrow with six or seven weak striae, but sometimes with nine or ten

weak striae. Girdle—large, fleshy and spiculose. Sutural tufts—conspicuous

and silvery white.

186

Similar in general appearance to A. bednalli, but that species has ovate

pustules, a wider jugum with more, deeper and broken striae and green sutural

tufts. A. johnstoni can be recognised on sight by the round pustules and white

sutural tufts.

Habitat—All around the Flindersian Region, but less common than bedualli.

Acanthochiton tatei Torr & Ashby (Ncotype, D13732), 1898, takes the place

of the Peronian A. granostrialus Pilsbry. he differences are small, but the

species has the support of geographical locality for validity.

Acanthochiton verconis Vorr & Ashby, 1898 (112201), is returned to the

List with considerable doubt. It has been recorded as conspecific with A. wilsoni

Sykes. The differences may only be varietal but, until larger serics prove them

definitely identical, we prefer to leave them separate. A, verconis may be the

weaker western end of the series or a deep water form of 4. wilsont,

Acanthochiton lachrymosus May & Torr, 1912, is accepted as the Flindersian

representative of A, coai Pilsbry. It differs from the Peronian species in the

wider jugal area, tear-drop pustules more confused and over-lapping and smaller

and finer girdle spicules ; these minor differences added to its geographical location

supply our reason for recording it as a separate species.

Genus NoropLax

In the Notoplax series, the records of Notoplax speciosa I]. Adams, 1861,

Notoplax subspeciosa Iredale & Hull, 1925, and Notoplax spongialis Ashby, 1923,

have been confused.

Examination of the material in the South Australian Museum and consulta-

tion with the British Museum authorities has convinced us that all three are

distinct species and that all three have been recorded as N. speciosa H. Adams.

Noteplax speciosa H, Adams, as described by Pilsbry, appears to be the

large fleshy-girdled Cryptoplax-like animal with short thick spicules. It inhabits

sponges and has been found in Tasmania and as far west as Streaky Bay.

Notoplax spongialis is similar and also lives in sponges. It differs from

N. speciosa in its felt-like girdle. This species is found in Tasmanian waters and

as far west as Gulf St. Vincent. At the western end of the region a slight variation

is found in the sculpture, and this form is now known as Notoplax glauerti

Ashby, 1923.

Notoplax subspectosa Iredale & Hull is an entirely different animal, which

lives attached to rocks. In life the wide thin girdle spreads over the valves until

only the jugum is exposed. All that is seen of the shell is eight short coloured

lines drawn through a large oblong spiculose girdle. This species is not uncommon

and is recorded as far west as Western Australia.

Notoplax rubrostrata Torr, 1912 (D13717), is not associated with the

“spectosa” group. It is the Flindersian representative of Notoplax costata

H, Adams & Angas. It differs from that species in being smaller and weaker

sculptured. The ribbing of the anterior valve and lateropleural areas is nodulose

187

instead of continuous. The pustules of pleural arca are less pronounced, and the

post-mucronal area is less distinctly noduled. As with many other species it grows

larger and more strongly sculptured in the colder waters of Tasmania, where it has

been named N. extra Iredale & Hull. Both the rose- and plum-coloured

specimens are found in South Australian waters.

Crocochiton n. yen.

‘The new genus Crocochiton is here introduced for the peculiar species

Acanthochiton crocodilus Yorr & Ashby.

Shell medium to large, elongate, wide, elevation low. Sculpture of tegmen-

tum triangular pustules. Anterior valve with five slits, median valves one and

posterior valve multi-slit. Girdle spongy and spiculose. Genotype—Acantho-

chiton crocedilus Torr & Ashby.

There does not appear to have been any other specimen of this rare species

taken since Dr. Torr found two at Marino over thirty years ago, but valves found

in shell sand along the western coast of Yorke Peninsula point to the existence

of much larger varieties, if not new species.

Family CRYPTOPLACIDAF

In the Family Cryptoplacidae, one new species has been added to the list.

Genus CRYPTOPLAX

Ashby’s holotype of Cryptoplax striata var. weslernensis, 1923 (D10717),

conforms so closely to the description of Crypfoplax striata occidentalis

Iredale & Hull, 1925, that we are compelled to regard them as conspecific, Ashby’s

name having prior claim. As no adequate description or figure of either has

been given, we add the following description:

CRYPTOPLAX WESTERNENSIS Ashby, 1923

(PL. vii, fig. 4)

Shell medium. Valves almost as wide as long, their sides forming an obtuse

angle making the beak very sharp. The tegmentum is sculptured with rows of

large granules. Anterior valve—as broad as long. Median valves—close, flat

and shield shaped. Posterior valve

“striata.”

This species is separated from C. striata Lamarck by its wide, fat, pointed

median valves and sculpture of nodulose ridges. (In living examples the valves

will probably be spaced differently.) !

We are giving this form specific status because of its distinctive features and

because it does not appear to blend with eastern varietics.

The holotype we figure is an old badly crumpled, eroded specimen.

mucro terminal, Girdle—similar to

Choriplacidae n. fam.

The Family Choriplacidae is here introduced for the unique genus Choriplax.

The known specimens are so entirely different from other species, that this seems

188

the wisest thing to do in the interest of accurate classification. Characters of the

Family are:

Shells of medium size, elongate. Girdle thin and horny, covering the whole

of the shell like a periostracum, except the apices of the valves which constitute

the tegmentum. Articulamentum very large. Sutural laminae and sinus obsolete.

Insertion plate large, unslit or slits obsolete. The whole shell transparent.

We list it directly after Cryptoplax, of which it may be a highly specialized

form.

Choriplax pattisont Ashby, 1921, the unique specimen of which is now before

us, is likely to remain rare, for a Loricate that dwells in the giant kelp forests

in the turbulent depths of the Pacific Ocean, is fairly safe from even the most

persistent and enthusiastic collector.

Fanuly PLAXIPHORIDAE

Gents PONEROPLAX

Records of the species of Poneroplar, in the Family Plaviphoridac, have been

thoroughly confused. The species, which are emergent ones, are so abundant

around the southern coast of Australia and Tasmania, that they were probably

taken to Lurape by every exploring vessel that visited these shores. Consequently,

they were named by Blainville, Quoy and Gaimard, Haddon, Sowerby, H. Adams

and Angas, besides Pilsbry and Thiele. With exceptionally variable species and

such a large variety of names to choose from, the quandary of early workers can

be understood.

We are following Iredale & Hull in recording the smooth form as P. costata

Blainville and the wrinkled form as P. albida Blainville. We do this to prevent

adding to the confusion and because we think this identity more probable. The

recorded opinions of Thiele and Ashby, who both examined the holotypes in the

Paris Museum, however, do not appear to coincide with Ircdale’s and Hull’s.

Poncroplay conspersa H. Adams & Angas, 1864, is given full specific status.

This highly sculptured form is easily distinguished by the two ribs on the lateral

area. It is not confined to Port Lincoln but has been taken by us all around the

South Australian coast, from the Bight to MacDonnell Bay.

Genus KoPIoNELLA

The genus Kopionella we have also placed in the Family Plaviphoridae. In

gencral appearance, sculpture and girdle it appears to be more closely allied to that

group than to the Loricidae.

Order TELEOPLACOPHORA

The Order Telcoplacophora contains all the most highly developed forms.

It includes a variety of species which vary greatly in external and internal features

but all have reached a high state of development. The characteristic feature of

the Order is the grooved or pectinated teeth of the insertion plates. It contains

189

three Families, the Loricidae, Lepidochitonidae and Chitonidae. In the first

Family one species is here described as new:

Family Loricipar

Lorica elliottae n. sp.

(PL. vii, fig. 9)

Holotype—Rottnest Island, W. Australia, D11658, S.A.M.

Shell large; size, 71 x 34 mm. Altitude, 24 mm.; angle of divergence, 40.

Semi-carinated, colour brown. Anterior valve—erect, curving forward at the

top. The sculpture consists of about seventy finely granulated rays, Under the

lens fine longitudinal ridges give a net-work appearance. Median valves—ateral

area with about twelve fine ridges becoming weak and obsolete at the jugum,

netted with fine longitudinal ridges. Pleural arca with eight or nine finely granu-

lated rays. Posterior valve—small, mucro posterior, recurved, Sculptured as

lateral areas. Girdle—generic.

Habitat—Rottnest Island, W. Australia, and Corny Point, S. Australia.

Collected by Mrs, L. A. Elliott.

Family LEPImDocHITONIDAE

The Family Lepidochitonidae is included in this Order. The well-developed

grooved insertion plates, the highly specialized girdle covering and the presence

of eyes in some of the species, all denote an advanced group.

Acutoplax n. gen.

A new genus is here introduced for the reception of several species:

Shell small to medium, elongate oval, elevated and carinated. Sculptured

with longitudinal sulci on the pleural arcas, Girdle of packed spicules. Well

developed insertion plates with grooved teeth. End and median valves multi-slit.

Genotype—Callochiton mayi Torr, 1912,

Differs from the South American genus Jcoplay in the multi-slit insertion

plates of the median valves and the sulci of the pleural area.

Family CHITONIDAE

In the Family Chitenidae we have accepted the generic name Anthochiton

Thiele instead of Ahyssoplax Thiele, which has been used for our Australian

species. The name Rhyssoplax has page priority over Anthochiton, but the

Genotype of Rhyssoplax, Chiton affinis Issel in no way represents our shells. ‘The

genotype of Anthochiton, Chiton tulipa Quoy and Gaimard, is a South African

species which approaches more nearly our own forms.

Genus MucrosQuaMa

Two new species are here described in the genus Mucrosquama. The first

was dredged by Sir J. Verco in Hardwicke Bay, and recorded by Torr in 1912 as

190

Chiton limans Sykes. The record was ignored and doubted because C. limans (=

Mucrosquama carnosa Angas) is definitely a Peronian species. However, Verco

was scrupulously careful regarding the locality of species he collected and the

locality has never been dredged since, This, added to the fact that the specimen

has a number of distinct differences from the Peronian specimens, induces us to

describe it as:

Mucrosquama nielseni n. sp

(PI. vii, fig. 8)

Holotype—Hardwicke Bay, 5. Australia, D13720, S.A.M.

Shell of medium size, elevated and carinated. Colour pale ochreous yellow

with light and dark brown blotches on some of the valves. Anterior valve—erect,

with ten weak pustulose rays and a few pustules in the interstices. Median

valyes—lateral areas with two to four pustulose rays. Pustules of the posterior

edge projecting as teeth. Pleural area with from five to eight ridges crossing the

area and a few weak ridges partly crossing it and fading out towards the jugum,

leaving a large smooth triangular jugal area. Posterior valve—antimucronal area

with a few weak ridges. Postmucronal area with ten rays of two or three pustules.

Girdle—generic. Microscopically striate.

Mucrosquama nielsent is undoubtedly the Flindersian representative of

M. carnosa Angas. In M, carnosa most of the ridges cross the pleural area, in

M. nielsent half of the ridges cross that area. The two species bear the similar

relationship to each other, as Anthochiton jugosus does to Anthochiton diaphorus.

We feel confident that further dredgings will produce more specimens.

The second species was dredged in Spencer Gulf in March, 1938, by Mr. WK.

Sheard, from the Fisheries launch ‘““Whyalla.” We describe and figure it as:

Mucrosquama sheardi n. sp.

flolotype——Dredged Spencer Gulf, S. Australia, D13721, S.A.M.

Shell of medium size (25 x 10 mm.), elevated and carinated, colour cream

blotched with dark green and brown. Anterior valve—sculptured with eleven

rows of irregular oval and round nodules, about nine nodules in a row, diminish-

ing in size towards the apex. Median valve—tlateral area with two rows of

strong round or oval nodules, about ten in a row, diminishing in size towards the

jugum. Pleural area with about fiftcen fine grooves. Posterior valve—mucro

anti-median, Antimucronal area grooved as pleural area. Post-mucronal area

with twelve short radial rows of small nodules, about five or six in a row. Jugal

area—weakly grooved, with grooves fading out towards the apex leaving apex

smooth. Girdle—clothed with strongly striate and mucronate scales,

This species is closely allied to Mucrosquama verconis Torr & Ashby, 1898

(D12380), but differs from that species in colour and sculpture. The nodules of

the lateral areas, anterior and posterior valves, are smaller, rounder and more

191

separated than the wide, oval interlapping nodules of M. verc onis. The fine

grooves or ridges of the pleural areas are less oblique than those of M. verconis,

being almost straight across. The predominating colour of M. vercents is pink,

while that of M. sheardi is green.

Genus SYPHAROCHITON

Sypharochiton maugeanus Iredale & May, 1916, is included in the List.

This species is the Tasmanian representative of the New Zealand S'ypharochtton

pelliserpentis Quoy & Gaimard. It differs so little from that species that its

validity will always be questioned. We include it because its minor differences

are supported by geographical grounds.

Genus ONITILOCHITON

On the above grounds we have also allowed Ontlhochiton occidentalis Ashby,

1929, specific status. Individual specimens of Onithochiton quercinus Gould, 1846,

from the Eastern States, will always be found that are difficult, if not impossible

to separate from the western species. However, the western forms average out

much larger and smoother than the eastern forms, and this, with the minor

differences cited by Ashby and the geographical locality, influenced us in giving

it full specific status.

KEYS TO THE LORICATES OF THE FLINDERSIAN REGION

Key to Orders

a. Insertion plates absent or almost obsolete + i .. EOPLACOPHORA

aa. Insertion plates developed

b. Teeth smooth

c. Insertion plates small, girdles clothed with scales .. MESOPLACOPHORA

cc. Insertion plates large, 2 girdles leathery, spiculose, or with

corncous processes, rarely with scales ” .. .. IsorPLACOPHORA

bb. Teeth grooved, striate or pectinate .. a igs .. TELEOPLACOP HORA

Order EorLacorHoRA

with one Family in this Region

Family LrpmpopLEuRIDAE

Key to Genera

a. Girdles with scales, posterior valve nor mal is és .. Terenachiton

aa. Girdles spiculose, posterior valve abnormally long ih .. Parachiton

Genus TERENOCHITON

Key to Species

a. Anterior valve with regular granulose rays

b. Lateral area even

ce. Animal red tS ihe soe) is oF Pes .. matthewsianus

cc. Animal black .. . ip me - a .. niger

bb. Lateral areas corrugated Ae ee a .. livatus

aa. Anterior valve irregularly granulose

d. Shell sub-carinated .. 1% ot ies ae -. tscus

dd. Shell strongly carinated .. an ft By -. glauerti

192

Genus PARACHITON

Key to Species

a. Sculpture granulose

b. Posterior valve normal, mucro not extremely posterior

c. Shell highly elevated, lateral areas smooth . ,

ec. Shell of normal elevation, lateral areas corrugated

bb. Posterior valve abnormally large, mucro extremely posterior

aa. Sculpture matt, not granulose .. ite Fa ute 43

Order MESorLACOPHORA

Key to Families

a. Tecth not scalloped .. ls Le — ou he ot

aa. Teeth scalloped 7" ve <i os

Family IscHoNocuiroNntIDAE

Key to Genera

a. Insertion plates of median valves unslit, or slits obsolete

aa. Insertion plates of median valves slit

b. Insertion plates with one slit .. a a a

bb. Insertion plates multi-slit

c. Girdle scales minute, shells polished ..

ce. Girdle scales large, shells sculptured

Genus SUBTERENOCHITON

Key to Species

a. Sculpture weak, irregularly granulose .. M as os

aa. Sculpture strong, granules in rows at ae =

Genus IscuNocHiton

Key to Subgenera

a. Lateral area radially sculptured

b. Girdle scales medium size, oval and striate

bb. Girdle scales of various size and shape

c. Girdle scales not mucronate

d. Scales micro scopic and closely packed .. Ps a

dd. Scales medium size, loosely packed

ce. Girdle scales mucronate

aa. Lateral areas smooth

e. Girdle scales convex and glossy

ce. Girdle scales not convex and glossy

f. Girdle scales oval and striate

g. Girdle scales conspicuously striate ..

ge. Girdle scales microscopically striate

ffi. Girdle scales flat and smooth .. :

Genus IscH NOCHITON

Key to Species

a. Anterior valve with medium to strong radial ribs

b. Girdle scales large .. be a ro = ee

bb. Girdle scales medium or small

c. Anterior valve nodulosely ribhed

d. Girdle scales medium, striae of pleural area zig-zag ..

dd. Girdle scales small, striae of pleural area not zig-zag

e. Pleural area finely granulose .. é “pe “3

ee. Pleural area coar sely granulose -

ec. Anterior valve not nodulosely ribbed

f{. Pleural area coarsely pustulose and edge of lateral

area not toothed

ff. Pleural area not coarsely pustulose. but edge of

lateral area toothed

g. Striae of pleural area wrinkled =. na 12

gg. Striae of pleural area not wrinkled a ext

pelagicus

collusor

verconts

opiparus

ISCHNOCHITONIDAE

CALLISTOCHITONIDAE

Sublerenochiton

Ischnachiton

Stenochiton

I schnoradsia

gabrieli

bednallt

Ischnochiton

Heterosona

Autochiton

Ovatoplax

Strigichiton

Haploplax

Leurctoplax

Euporoplax

Chartoplar

milligant

lineolatus

variegatus

atkinsont

pilshryt

ptychius

tateanus

193

aa. Anterior valve not radially ribbed or ribs weak and obsolete

h. Ribs weak and obsolete :

i. Pleural area strongly ridged .. 2. .. falcatus

ii. Pleural arca not ridged a ag .. elongatus

bh. Anterior valve not ribbed, sculptured with

separate pustules .. fess ae a -. contractus

Subgenus HETEROZONA

Key to Species

a. Lateral areas strongly nodulosely ribbed

b. Ribs divaricating .. aes Pa ioe a uh .. fruticosus

bb. Ribs not divaricating

c. Girdle with intermingled large scales =e af .. cariosis

cc. Girdle with no intermingled large scales .. a .. subuiridis

aa. Lateral areas weakly nodulosely ribbed .. <r ss .. praperensis

Subgenus AUTOCHITON

One species only .. ah A oe isis ee ns .. torri

Subgenus OVATOPLAX

One species only .. sn af Ne 9 Se ee 2. MAYI

Subgenus STRIGICHITON

One species only .. * a ae _ 4 i .. werconts

Subgenus HApLoplax

Key to Species

a. Girdle seales of various size

b. Surface of shell glossy, colour variable ed ua 2. smmaragdinus

bb. Surface of shell matt, colour distinctive Sher A .. vresplendens

aa. Girdle scales of equal size

c. Shell broadly ovate, elevation low, scales large .. .. dentiginosus

cc. Shell elongate oval, elevation medium, scales small .. thomast

Subgenus Euporoprax

Key to Species

a. Shell small, elevated, clongated oval

aa. Shell medium in size and clevation, ovate

Subgenus EurErorlax

One species only .. w ist ee a mi os .. wilsont

Subgenus CHARTOPLAX

One species only .. ey is , - Ret si, oe purus

Genus STENOCHITON

Key to Species

a. Anterior valve longer than wide

b. Shell seven times long as wide, colour brownish .. .. longicymba

bb. Shell three or four times long as wide

c. Shell low, girdle not curling under .. ue ee .. pilsbryanus

ec. Shell elevated, girdle curling under ni el .. eymodocealis

aa. Anterior valve wider than long .. 7 ie a .. pallens

Genus TSCHNORADSTA

Key to Species

a. Pleural area sulcated

b. Suleations continuous and strong :s a an .. australis

bb. Sulcations short and weak ae ae a fe .. evanida

aa. Pleural arca not sulcated .. novae hollandia

Family CALLISTOCHITONIDAE

Key to Genera

a. Sutural laminae separated .. i a a oe .. Calhistelasma

aa. Sutural laminae continuous .. Callistassecla

194

Genus CALLisTELASMA

One species only .. a im a He a ba

Genus CALLISTASSECLA

One species only .. ade ae & a we Sy

Order IsopLacopHora

Key to Families

a. Anterior valve with less than eight slits

b. Tegmentum of valves imbricating oe or

bb. Tegmentum of valves not imbricating

c. Girdle large and fleshy .. a +h ss is

ce, Girdle reduced to a thin skin = ae as

aa. Anterior valve with cight or more slits .. a a

Family CryprocoxCHIpAE

Aey to Genera

a. Sculpture pustulose

b. Girdle finely scaly

ce. Girdle anteriorly produced .. Pe 2 bs

ec. Girdle normal .. Se ae ms si san

bb. Girdle not scaly

d. Insertion places and sutural laminae normal size

e. Posterior insertion plate directed backwards ..

ec. Posterior insertion plate normal ase

dd. Insertion plates and sutural laminae large and wing-

shaped .. : ie ate Re: an ae

aa. Sculpture not pustulose

f. Sculpture mostly linear .. gs fe ed

ff. Sculpture triangular

Genus CRASPEDOCHITON

One species only .. 4 _ fs ah A =

Genus CRASPEROPLAX

Key to Species

a. Sculptured with fine granules, common in shallow water

aa. Sculptured with coarser granules, rare and dredged ..

Genus Merturopiax

One specics only .. LS &: ee hy ed ie

Genus ACANTHOCHITON

Key to Species

a. Girdle leathery

b. Postulose sculpture irregular

c. Pustules of various sizes

d. Jugal area granulose .. Aa ett rsa oe

dd. Jugal area pitted te ey ou ea ln

cc. Pustules of similar size : fe “we he

bb. Pustulose sculpture in regular rows

aa. Girdle spiculose

e. Girdle of medium size, sutural tufts conspicuous

f. Jugal area finely pustulose —_ a He

fi. Jugal area not pustulese

Jugum grooved ns

ee. Juguin not grooved but lined

h. Pustules round and flat

bh. Pustules elliptical .

ee. Girdle large, sutural tufts not conspietous

i. jPustalose sculpture fine

. Jugal arca narrow, pustules crowded

Jugum wider, pustules less crowded

i Pts ose sculpture coarse, tear-shaped

a 72

meridionalis

mawtlet

CRYPTOCONCHIDAE

CRYPTOPLACIDAE

CHORIPLACIDAE

PLAXIPHORIDAE

Craspedochiton

Cras pedo plax

Afeturoplax

Acanthochiton

Notoplax

Bassethullia

Cracochiton

roltnestensis

variabilis

cormnuta

relrojecta

Rimbert

delictosus

SHCUFUL

pilsbryt

gatligi

bednalli

johnstoni

falei

colsoni

weEreonts

lachrymoasus

195

Genus NoropLax

Key to Species

a. Girdle thickly spiculose, ribs not prominent

b. Girdle coarsely spiculose

c. Girdle large and fleshy, spicules short and thick

cc. Girdle wide and thin spicules longer

bb. Girdle finely spiculosc

d. Post-mucronal area not ribbed Me

dd. Post-mucronal area ribbed .. kf mh.

aa. Girdle leathery with spinelcts, ribs prominent.

e. With one nodulose rib on the median valves

ce. With two nodulose ribs on the median valves

Genus BASSETHULLIA

Key to Species

a. Pleural area sculptured Ae sn wa ws ane

aa. Pleural area smooth

Genus CRrococHITON

One species only .. 1, a a s a

Family CrypTopLACIDAE

One genus only

Genus CryPTopLax

Key to Species

a. Girdle coarsely spiculose

b. Sculptured with crumpled or wavy ridges

bb. Sculptured with nodulose ridges

aa. Girdle finely spiculose

Family CrroRIPLACIDAE

One genus only

Genus CHORIPLAX

One species only

Family PLAX teHoORIDAE

Key to Genera

a. Lateral area defined by smooth or wrinkled ridges, girdle with

corncous processes only, posterior valve not recurved ..

aa. Lateral area defined by nodulose ridges, girdle with corneous

processes and oar-hcaded spicules, posterior valve recurved ..

Genus PoNEROPLAX

Key to Species

a. Pleural arca not concentrically wrinkled ..

aa. Pleural area concentrically wrinkled

b. Lateral area with one radial rib ..

bb. Lateral area with two radial ribs

Genus KoprronELla

One specics only

Order TELEOPLACOrITORA

Kev to Families

a. Teeth not finely pectinate

b. No insertion plate in posterior valve

bb. Insertion plates in all valves

aa. Teeth finely pectinated

Family LoricipAr

Key to Genera

a. Anterior valve abnormally large .. ae Ae =

aa. Anterior valve of normal size a iar As

spectosa

subspectosa

spongialts

glauerti

rubrostrata

subviridis

malthewsi

glypta

crocodilus

Cryptoplax

striata

WCSECVUCHSIS

iredalei

Choriplax

pattisont

Poneroplax

Kopionella

costala

albida

cons persia

matthewst

LoRICIDAE

LEPIDOCHITONIDAE

CEHITONIDAE

Loricella

Lorica

196

Genus LorriceLtta

One species only .. ie if as Be

Genus Lorica

; Key to Species

a. Elevation medium, shell broad

aa. Elevation high, shell narrow

Family LeprpocuttronipAr

Key to Genera

a. Shells not sculptured

b. Shells large with leathery girdle ne

bb. Shells small or medium, packed spiculose girdle

aa. Shells with pleural area grooved

Genus Evpoxor.ax

One species only

Genus PARICOPLAX

One species only

Genus Acuror.ax

Key to Species

a. Most sulci extending across the pleural area

aa. Most sulci not extending across the pleural area

b. Sulci extending half-way across the pleural arca

bb, Sulci extending one-fourth of the pleural area

Family CHITONIDAE

Key to Genera

a. Girdles scaly

b. Seales tightly imbricating

ce. Apices of scales round

ec. Apices of scales pointed

bb. Scales large and loose

d. Posterior valve with insertion plate

dd. Posterior valve callused

aa. Girdles not scaly

e. Girdle with caleareous spines

ce. Girdle not spinose

{. Girdle fleshy with microscopie scales

ff. Girdle fleshy with fine spicules

«. Posterior valve callused

gg. Posterior valve with insertion plate

Genus ANTHOCHITON

Kex to Spectes

a. Anterior valye smooth

b. Scales small and oval

bb. Scales large and sub-oval

ec. Pleural sculpture weak

cc. Pleural sculpture strong

aa. Anterior valve ribbed

d. Lateral ribs non-nodulose

e. Interstices of lateral ribs not pitted

ce. Interstices of lateral ribs pitted

f. Radial sculpture strong

ff. Radial sculpture weak

dd. Lateral rihs nodulose

g. Longitudinal sculpture strong

gg. Longitudinal sculpture weak

angasi

cumolia

cliiottae

Eudoxoplax

Paricoplax

Aculoplax

iornata

crocina

mayt

ruta

klemi

Alnthochiton

ATucrosquama

Supharochiton

Clavarizona

Acanthoszostera

Onithella

Ountthochiion

Luedina

oruktus

torrianius

diaphorus

calliozonus

bednalli

exoplandus

tricostalis

geraldtonensis

197

Genus MucrosguaMa

Key to Species

a. Anterior valve ribbed nielsent

aa. Anterior valve not ribbed

b. Sculpture of lateral areas round separate nodules .. .. sheardi

bb. Sculpture of lateral areas oval interlapping nodules 2. werconis

Genus SYPHAROCHITON

One species only .. ite ne Pa ne ed a -. mangeanus

Genus CLAVARIZONA

One species only .. ie 9 Ba bs v4 re .. firtosa

Genus ACANTHOZOSTERA

One species only .. od 4 oc * a3 ar! .. gemmata

Genus ONITHELLA

One species only .. Li a ab per 4 he -. ashbyn

Genus ONITHOCHITON

One species only .. “3 sy be re *, be .. occidentalis

Genus LUcILIna

One species only .. at ae * ah ks Ss .. Aulhtana

A SYSTEMATIC LIST OF THE LORICATES OF THE

FLINDERSIAN REGION

Phylum MOLLUSCA

Class LORICATA

Order MESOPLACOPHORA

LEPIDOFLEURIDAE

TERENOCINTON Iredale, 1914 (subtropicalis Tredale)—imatthewsianus Bednall, 1906, Gult

St. Vincent, South Australia (Neotype, D13734); niger Torr, 1911, Hopetoun, Western

Australia (D11686) ; liratus H. Adams & Angas, 1864, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia

(Neotype, D13735); iscus n.sp. Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia (D1232)5 glauerti

Ashby, 1928, Rottnest Island, Western Australia.

PARACHITON Thiele, 1909 (acuminatus Thiele)—pelagicus Torr, 1912, off Cape Jalia,

South Australia (D11688); collusor Iredale & Hull, 1925, Gulf St. Vincent, South Aus-

tralia (D11288); werconis n.sp. off St. Francis Island, South Australia (D11689) ;

opiparus Iredale & Hull, 1926, off Cape Wiles, South Australia.

Order MESOPLACOPHORA

ISCHNOCHITONIDAE

SUBTERENOCIITON Iredale & Hull, 1924 (gebrieli Hull)--gabrieli Hull, 1912, Western

Port, Victoria; bednalli Torr, 1912, St. Francis Island, South Australia (D11792),

ISCHNOCHITON Gray, 1847 (fextilly Gray)—milligani Iredale & May, 1916, Port Arthur,

Tasmania: lincolatus Blainville, 1826, Ile King, Bass Strait; cariegatus H. Adams & Angas,

1864, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia (Neotype, D13736); atkinsont Iredale & May,

1916, Sulphur Creek, North-west Tasmania; filsbryi Bednall, 1897, Sultana Bay, South

Australia (Neotype, D11766); piychius Pilsbry, 1894, Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia ;

tateanus Bednall, 1897, Sultana Bay, South Australia (Neotype, D13738); faleatus Hull,

1912, Western Port, Victoria; clongatus Blainville, 1825, New Holland; contractus Reeves,

1847, New Zealand, (error) South Australia.

Sg. HETEROZONA Dall, 1878 (cariosa Dall)—fruticosus Gould, 1846, New South Wales ;

cariosus Dall, 1878, Australia; subviridis Iredale & May, 1916, Port Arthur, Tasmania ;

properensis Ashby, 1920, Proper Bay, Spencer Gulf, South Australia (111890).

198

s.¢. AuTocuIton Iredale & Hull, 1924 (terri Iredale & May)—torri Iredale and May, 1916,

Bass Strait, Tasmania.

3.2, OvaTorLax n.sg. (may Pilsbry)—nayi Pilsbry, 1895, Eagle Hawk Neck, Fast Tasmania.

s.@. Srricicuiton Hull, 1923 (verconis Torr)—verconis, 1911, Ellenbrook, Western

Australia (D12868).

s.g. Hap.oprax Pilsbry, 1894 (smaragdina Pilsbry)—smaragdinus Angas, 1864, Port Jack-

son, New South Wales; resplendens Bednall & Matthew, 1906, Gulf St. Vincent, South

Australia (Neotype, P13739) ; lentiginosus Sowerby, 1840, Australia; thomast Bednall,

1897, Marino, South Australia (Neotype, D13737).

s.z. Evpororcax Iredale & Hull, 1924 (virgutus Reeve)—virgatus Reeve, 1847, Port Lincoln,

South Australia; levis Torr, 1912, Edithburgh, South Australia.

sg. EureroprAx Iredale & Hull, 1924 (aulsont Sykes)—wilsont Sykes, 1896, Port Phillip,

Victoria.

s.@. CHartorLax Iredale & Hull, 1925 (purus)—purus Sykes, 1896, Port Phillip, Victoria.

STENOCIHTON H. Adams & Angas, 1864 (juloides H. Adams & Angas)—longicymba

Blainville, 1825, Kangaroo Island, South Australia; pilshryanus Bednall, 1897, Troubridge

Shoal, South Australia; camodoccalis Ashby, 1918, Marino, South Australia (D981);

pallens Ashby, 1900, Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia (D978).

ISCHNORADSIA Shuttleworth, 1853 (australis Sowerby)—australis Sowerby, 1840, Aus-

tralia; evanida Sowerby, 1840, New Holland; novae-hellandiae Reeve, 1847, New Toland.

CALLISTOCHITONIDAE

CALLISTELASMA Iredale & Hull, 1925 (antiquus Reeve)—meridionalis Ashby, 1919,

Marino, South Australia (D13716).

CALLISTASSECLA Iredale & Hull, 1925 (snazelei Iredale & May)—iawler Iredale & May,

1916, Port Arthur, Tasmania.

Order ISOPLACOPHORA

CRYPTOCONCHIDAE

CRASPEDOCHITON Shuttleworth, 1853 (laqucatus Sowcrby)—rottnestensis Ashby, 1929,

Bathurst Point, Western Australia (D12565).

CRASPEPOPLAX Iredale & Hull, 1925 (wariabilis H. Adams & Angas)—variabilis H.

Adams & Angas, 1864, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia (Neotype, D13740); corniuta

Torr & Ashby, 1898, Marino, South Austraha (D12188).

METUROPLAX Pilsbry, 1894 (retrojecta Pilsbry)—reirojecta Pilsbry, 1894, Port Jackson,

New Sauth Wales.

ACANTITOCHITON Gray, 1821 (fascicularis Linn.)-—kimberi Torr, 1912, Aldinga, South

Australia (Neotype D13758) ; deliciosus Thiele, 1911, Bunbury, South Western Australia ;

sueurii Blainville, 1825, King George Sound, South Western Australia; pilsbryvi Sykes,

1898, Port Phillip, Victoria; ga/lifi Ashby, 1918, Port Lincoln, South Australia (D12189) ;

bednalli Pilsbry, 1894, Gulf St. Vineent, South Australia; johnstoni Ashby, 1923, Car-

narvon, Western Australia (1912185); fate? Torr & Ashby, 1898, Encounter Bay, South

Australia; ct/sont Sykes, 1896, Port Philip, Victoria: werconis Torr & Ashby, 1898, Gulf

St. Vincent, South Australia (D12201) lachrymosus May & Torr, 1912, Frederick Henry

Bay, Tasmania.

NOTOPLAX H. Adams, 1861 (speciosa H. Adams)—speciosa H. Adams, 1861, ‘Tasmania;

subspeciosa Iredale & Hull, 1926, Port Arthur, Tasmania; spongialts Ashby, 1923,

D’Entrecasteaux Channel, South Tasmania (113733); glauertt Ashby, 1923, Cottesloe,

Western Australia; rubrostrata Torr, 1912, St. Francis Island, South Australia (D13717) ;

subwridis Torr, 1911, Albany, Western Australia (112872).

BASSETHULLIA Pilsbry, 1928 (mnatthewst Pilsbry)—matthewsi Pilsbry, 1894, Yorke Penin-

sula, South Australia (Neotype, D1374); giypia Sykes, 1896, Port Phillip, Victoria.

CROCOCHITON n. gen. (crocodilus Torr & Ashby)—crocodilus Torr & Ashby, 1898,

Marine, South Australia (D12137).

CRYPTOPLACIDAE

CRYPTOPLAX Blainville, 1818 (larvacformis Burrow)—siriata Lamark, 1819, Kangaroo

Island, South Australia; westernensis Ashby, 1923, Rottnest Island, Western Australia

(D10717) ; iredalei Ashby, 1923, Port Lincoln, South Australia (D12306).

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate VIT

199

CHORIPLACIDAE

CHORIPLAX Pilsbry, 1894 (grayt H. Adams & Angas)—pattison? Ashby, 1921, Cape Banks,

South Australia.

PLAXIPHORIDAE

PONEROPLAX Iredale, 1914 (costata Blainville)—costata. Blainville, 1825, King George

Sound, Western Australia; albida Blainville, 1825, Ile King, Bass Strait; couspersa H.

Adams & Angas, 1864, Port Lincoln, South Australia.

KOPIONELLA Ashby, 1919 (maltherwst Iredale) —inatihewsi Iredale, 1910, Sultana Bay,

South Australia.

Order TELEOPLACOPHORA

LORICIDAE

LORICELLA Pilsbry, 1893 (angasi H. Adams & Angas)—angasi H. Adams & Angas, 1864,

Rapid Bay, South Australia.

LORICA H. & A. Adams, 1852 (cimoltrs Reeve)—cimolia Reeve, 1847, Australia; elliotae

n.sp., Rottnest Island, Western Australia (D11658).

LEPIDOCITITONIDAE

EUDOXOPLAX Iredale & May, 1916 (inornaia Tenison-Woods)—inornata Tenison- Woods,

1881, North Tasmania.

PARICOPLAX Iredale & Hull, 1929 (crocina Reeve)—crocina Reeve, 1847, probably New

South Wales.

ACUTOPLAX n.gen. (inayi Torr)—niaoyt Torr, 1912, Stanley, North-west Tasmania

(Neotype, D10679) ; rufa Ashby, 1900, Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia (D11700) ;

Rlemi Ashby, 1926, Daly Head, South Australia (111703.

CHITONIDAE

ANTHIIOCHITON Thiele, 1893 (tulipa Quoy & Gaimard)—oruktts Maughan, 1900, Mac-

Donnell Bay, South Australia (D1489) ; torriana Hedley & Hull, 1910, Kangaroo Island,

South Australia; diaphorus Iredale & May, 1916, Norfolk Bay, Tasmania; calliosonus

Pilsbry, 1894, Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia; bednalli Pilsbry, 1895, Yorke Peninsula,

South Australia (113742); eraptandus Bednall, 1897, Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia

(Neotype, D13744) 5 tricostalis Pilsbry, 1894, Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia; gerald-

tonensis Ashby, 1921, Geraldton, Western Australia (1910709).

MUCROSQUAMA Iredale & Mull, 1925 f(carnesa Angas)—nielseti 1. sp., Hardwicke Bay,

4 South Australia (D13720) ; sheardi u. sp., Spencer Gulf, South Australia (D13721) ;

werconis Torr & Ashby, 1898, Gulf St. Vincent, South Australia (D12380).

S¥YPHAROCHITON Thiele, 1893 (pelliserpentis Quoy & Gaimard)—inaugeanus Iredale and

May, 1916, Port Arthur, Tasmania.

CLAVARIZONA Hull, 1923 (htrtosa Blainville}—hirtosa Blainville, 1835, King George

Sound, Western Australia.

ACANTHOZOSTERA Iredale & Hull, 1926 (gemmatus Blainville)—geneunata Blainville,

1825, New Holland.

ONITIIELLA Mackay, 1933 (helenae Mackay)—achbyi Bednall & Matthew, 1906, Port

Willunga, South Australia (Neotype, 113745).

ONITHOCHITON Gray, 1847 (1idulatus Q. ct G—neglectns Rochcbrune)—occidentalis

Ashby, 1929, Dongarra, Western Australia (D12627).

LUCILINA Dall, 1881 (confossus Gould)—hulliana Torr, 1911, Ellenbrook, Western Aus-

tralia (D12873).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII

Fig. 1 Terenochiton iscus sp.nov. Fie. 6 Acanthochiton johustont Ashby

Fig. 2 Parachiton verconis sp. nov. Fig. 7 Notoplax spongialis Ashby

Fig. 3. Mucrosquama sheard? sp. nov. Fig. 8 Mucrosquama niclsent sp. nev.

Fig. 4 Cruptoplar westernensis sp. nov. Fig, 9 Lortca elliotae sp.nov,

Fig. 5 Nofoplar speciosa H. Adams )

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER

MOLLUSCS PART VI

By T. H. JOHNSTON and L. MADELINE ANGEL, University of Adelaide

Summary

Cercaria clelandae n. sp.

We have obtained this echinostome cercaria only from Planorbis isingi Cotton from Tailem Bend,

finding it in one of eight snails in December, 1938, in none of 177 in early February, in three of 60

ten days later, in two of 114 in March, and in 12 of 2,129 in May, 1939 - a total of 18 infected

amongst 2,488 examined during summer and autumn. The average of infected snails was one in

138.

200

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

PART VI

sy “L. H. Jounston and L. Maperine ANCEL, University of Adelaide

[Read 10 July 1939]

Cercaria clelandae n. sp.

We have obtained this echinostome cercaria only from Planorbis isingi Cotton

from Tailem Bend, finding it in one of eight snails in December, 1938, in none

of 177 in early February, in three of 60 ten days later, in two of 114 in March,

and in 12 of 2,129 in May, 1939—a total of 18 infected ainongst 2,488 examined

during summer and autumn. The average of infected snails was one in 138.

The organisms are comparatively large and easily visible to the unaided eye.

They are negatively phototropic and tend to remain near the bottom of the tube,

swimming upwards occasionally. They exhibit the usual echinostome creeping

movement, the body altering from an almost spherical form when contracted to

become long and narrow. Cercariae were measured after fixing by adding boiling

10% formalin to an equal volume of water containing them. In fixed specimens

the body is curved and bent to make nearly a right angle with the tail. Body

length (based on 20 cercariae) 230-290»; breadth about 100 #, range 89-130 yw;

average transverse diameter of the oral sucker (measured under cover glass) 46 p,

that of the acetabulum 61», the ratio of these two diameters being about 3:4.

The tail in living extended cercariae is a little longer than the body, very occasion-

ally nearly twice as long; but in fixed material the length is 320-460» and the

breadth 35-50 ». There is no tail fin.

The collar is not very prominent. Including the four spines at each corner,

there are 45, 37 being arranged in two rows uninterrupted dorsally, those of the

oral series being slightly longer. All are sharply pointed. The body surface has

a covering of small, slightly curved, spinules distributed ventrally as far back

as the posterior border of the ventral sucker, but on the dorsal surface the raws

terminate a little in front of this level. The prepharynx, small pharynx, very

long oesophagus, and intestinal crura are typical of the echinostome group.

The details of the excretory system are very difficult to determine. The

terminal muscular sac is sometimes differentiated into 2 posterior rounded or

squarish part and an anterior smaller, narrower poruon formed by the bases of

the two long excretory ducts. The latter contain a few minute refracting granules

in their postacetabular portion, the number increasing greatly in the preacetabular

part of the tube where the concretions are larger and closely packed, three or four

occupying the lumen in transection. The duct (concretional descending tube of

Johnson, 1920) narrows near the level of the prepharynx, forms a loop

just behind the collar region, and then travels back {as the ascending tube of

Johnson) close to the descending duct, the two parting company at the level of

the anterior acetabular region. ‘This ascending canal divides at about the level

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2) 22 December 1939

201

of the middle of the bladder, the anterior collecting tube passing forwards in

company with the ascending canal, to terminate beside the oral sucker. The

ascending canal has a number of ciliated areas, at least seventcen flames (obvious

only at the death of the cercaria) being counted from its posterior extremity to

the level of the mid-oesophagus. The anterior collecting tube has six flame cells

connected singly with it and distributed in the region between the oral sucker

and the intestinal bifurcation, At the level of the anterior part of the acetabulum

there are three flame cells, probably forming one group; then follow six others

(probably two groups each of three flames) between the first group and the point

of origin of the ascending canal. The posterior collecting tube is short and has

three groups of flames, three in each, associated with it; the most anterior of these

groups arising almost at the point of origin of the posterior collecting tube. Thus

there are apparently 24 flame cells on cach side, the general arrangement resemb-

ling closely that described for Echinostoma revolutum (Johnson, 1920; also com-

ments by Beaver, 1937, 87, and by Sewell, 1922, 130 and 117 footnote). A caudal

excretory canal passes back from the bladder and soon bifurcates, each branch

travelling almost directly outwards to open on the corresponding side of the tail.

In some cercariae a small agercgation of cells, the genital anlagen, may be

seen just behind the acetabulum, and a smaller group between the latter and the

intestinal bifurcation represents the rudiment of the genital pore and associated

ducts. Comparatively large cystogenous gland cells are abundant, forming a more

or less continuous layer in the body, about nine of these cells occupying the body

width in the postacetabular region.

The redia stage was found chiefly in the liver of the snail. The apex of the

organ generally contained abundant encysted metacercariae with few rediae, this

region being followed by a part of the liver packed with rediae and containing

fewer cysts. Occasional rediae were found distributed through the rest of the

body as far forward as the anterior portion of the pulmonary chamber. This stage

apparently represents the daughter redia generation. Sporocysts and mother

rediae were not seen, The rediae vary from colourless to bright orange and

measure up to 1:2 mm. long by 0'16 mm. wide. Tach usually contains two or

three cercariae. rarely more than six. There are a prominent pharynx, short dark

intestine, prominent foot processes and a more or less inconspicuous collar just

behind which is the birth pore. Flame cells and excretory tubes were not recognised,

It was ascertained that the cereariae did not invade fish (such as carp) or a

planarian, Convoluta, but would enter other molluscs such as the pond snails,

Ameria pyramidata and A. pectorosa, Planorbis isingi and Limnaca lessoni, as

well as the bivalve Corbiculina angasi, Our observations indicate that Planorbis

is the preferred second intermediate host, the invasion of Ameria being slight

compared with that of Planorbis when both are placed in the same small aquarium

with the cercariae.

The cysts of the metacercaria were found chiefly in the liver and quite often

within rediae. ‘Vhey are very uniform in size, 150-159 » in diameter, with a firm

202

thin transparent cyst wall through which the collar and body spines, suckers, and

main concretional excretory canals are visible. The metacercariae, expressed from

their cysts, show very little advance in development from the cercaria, though the

Figs 1-8

Vigs. 1-8 Cercaria clelandae: 1, redia with escaping cercaria; 2, redia with intestine longer

than usual; 3, cercaria (formalinised) showing region of spination dorsally; 4, extended

cercaria, showing excretory system, fifth group (counting from posterior end) shown

incomplete—the suggested connections of some flame cells with the collecting tubules are

indicated by dotted lines; 5, sketch of cercaria in movement; 6, resting position, same as

in formalinised specimen; 7, metacercaria, suckers not indicated and full number of collar

spines not shown; 8, head end of metacercaria. Figs 1, 2 and 6 are drawn to same scale;

figs. 3, 7 and 8.

203

collar spines and body spination are more obvious. Over 200 cysts were fed to

two ducks and a rat in the hope of obtaining the adult stage, but without success.

The absence of a fin fold on the tail, the presence of body spines on both

surfaces, the arrangement of the collar spines in a double row, and the point of

branching of the main excretory canal, place this echinostome cercaria in the

echinata group of Sewell (1922), to which Echinostama revolutum belongs. ‘The

disposition of the collar spines in a double row, uninterrupted dorsally, and the

differentiation in size of the spines of the oral and aboral rows, together with

the distribution of the body spines, suggest that the adult may be an Echinostoma

or an Echinoparyphium. In the presence of 45 collar spines (including the four

in each corner) it resembles some species of both these genera. Amongst these

are Echinoparyphium recurvatum and E, flexum (Linton) whose collar armature

is very like that of our form. Our cerearia and redia closely resemble those of

the former species as described by Wesenberg-Lund (1934), except that the point

of bifurcation of the main excretory canals in the cercariae is differently situated.

In E. flexum, McCoy (1928, 208), whose account of the cercaria is very brief,

described the bifurcation as occurring at the level of the posterior end of the

ventral sucker. All the species of Echinoparyphium so far recorded from Aus-

tralia by S. J. Johnston (1916) can be excluded because of the number and

arrangement of the collar spines. Some species of Echinostoma having 45 spines

have been described from the Commonwealth. £. bancrofti T, H. Johnston from

Gallinula possesses spines of a different form and the presence or absence of body

spinules is not recorded. EF, australasianum Nicoll from Antigone ditfers in regard

to the relative sizes of the spines of the two rows. A European species, E, baculus

Dies., as figured by Dietz, has a much more marked difference in size between the

corner spines and those of the rest of the series, and, besides, body spinules are

stated to be absent. We expect the adult stage to occur in some bird which utilises

pond snails as a food supply.

We have named the organism Cercaria clelandae n. sp. in recognition of the

work of our former colleague, Miss E. R. Cleland (now Mrs. Simpson).

LITERATURE

Beaver, P. C. 1937. Experimental studies on Echinostoma revolutum (Froelich),

a fluke from birds and mammals. Ill. Biol. Monogr., 15 (1), 1937, 1-96

Jounson, J. C. 1920 The Life Cycle of Echinostoma revolutum (Troelich).

Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool., 19 (11), 1920, 335-388

McCoy, O. R. 1928 life History Studies on Trematodes from Missouri. Jour.

Parasitol., 14, 1928, 207-228

Sewe , R. B. 1922 Cercariae indicae. Ind. Jour. Med. Res., 10, Suppl., 1922, 1-371

WeEsENBERG-LuND, C. 1934 Contributions to the Trematoda Digenea. Part H.

The biology of the freshwater cercariae in Danish freshwaters. Mem.

Acad. Roy. Sci. Litt., Danemark, ser. 9, 5 (3), 1934, 1-223

SUNDRY NEMATODES FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS

By T. HARVEY. JOHNSTON and PATRICIA M. MAWSON, University of Adelaide

Summary

We published recently some papers dealing with Strongylate nematodes from marsupials in

Queensland and New South Wales. The present paper refers mainly to representatives of other

nematode groups which are not commonly met with in that mammalian order. For some of the

material we are indebted to Mr. L. Gallard, of Narara, near Gosford, N.S.W. (1909-1910), most of

the remainder having been collected by the senior author during the same period. The present

investigation was carried out in accordance with the terms of a Commonwealth Research grant to

the University of Adelaide. Types of the new species have been deposited in the South Australian

Museum.

204

SUNDRY NEMATODES FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS

By T. Harvey Jounston and Patricia M. Mawson, University, Adelaide

[Read 10 August 1939]

We published recently some papers dealing with Strongylate nematodes from

marsupials in Queensland and New South Wales. The present paper refers

mainly to representatives of other nematode groups which are not commonly met

with in that mammalian order. [or some of the material we are indebted to Mr.

L. Gallard, of Narara, near Gosford, N.S.W. (1909-1910), most of the remainder

having been collected by the senior author during the same period. ‘The present

investigation was carried out in accordance with the terms of a Commonwealth

Research grant to the University of Adelaide. Types of the new species have

been deposited in the South Australian Museum.

List or Hosts AND PARASITES REFERRED TO

Perameles nasuta Geottr.: Subulura peramelis Baylis, Physaloptera peramelis

n.sp., Lipetalonema sp., Trichuris peramelis Baylis.

Dasvyurus viverrinus Shaw: Echinonema cinctum Linstow.

Trichosurus vulpecula Shaw: Protospirura marsupialis Vaylis.

Petrogale penicillata Gray: Dipetalonema sp.

Macropus ruficollis Desm.: Dipetalonema sp.

Macropus ualabatus Less. and Garn.: Dipetalonema spelaca Leidy.

Macropus agilis Gould: Macropostrongylus macropostrongylus Y. and M.,

Mf. yorkei Baylis.

Certain other strongyles, described recently by Davey and Wood (1938),

are referred to, and a new name is proposed for our Cloacina minor

(J. and M., 1938).

SUBULURA PERAMELIS Baylis

(Fig. 1)

From the intestine of a bandicoct, Pcrameles nasuta, Gosford district, N.S.W.

(coll. L, Gallard). Only females were collected, 20-21 mm. long. Anterior

end with two lateral and four submedian lips, as well as six shorter intermediate

processes; lateral lips cach with papilla; intermediate process on each side of

lateral lip also with papilla; lips much longer than those indicated in Baylis’ figure.

Mouth small; buccal cavity about 20 diameter anteriorly, widening at base to

about 100 », posterior limit difficult to determine, walls thick and chitinized; three

large rounded teeth at base of capsule, but accessory teeth not observed.

Oesophagus 1:9 mm. long, widening gradually until near base where it becomes

deeply constricted and then expanded into a large almost spherical bulb, about

0-2 mm. diameter. Nerve cord not observed. Excretory pore at about mid-length

of oesophagus, and 0°65 mm. from anterior end of worm.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

205

Body tapering gradually posteriorly, narrowing suddenly near the tip of the

tail; latter conical with tiny papilla at tip; tail 0-5 mm. long; vulva 9 mm, from

anterior end, just in front of mid-length of body; uteri divergent; eggs

asymmetrical, 30 x 40 p, thick-shelled.

Our specimens show some differences from Baylis’ account (1930) of the

species, collected from Perameles obesula, in North Queensland. They are much

longer, and have a larger buccal capsule, longer lips and much smaller eggs.

Physaloptera peramelis n. sp.

(Figs. 2-4)

From stomach of Perumeles nasuta fron Gosford district (L. Gallard), and

from three others from Sydney district.

Males 20-30 mm., females 30-40 mm. long. Cuticle very finely striated longi-

tudinally ; reflexed around lips but not completely enclosing them. Two lateral

lips each with an outer median tooth, internal to latter is a tripartite tooth; each lip

bearing a subventral and a subdorsal papilla, and possibly also a larger lateral

papilla. Oesophagus 4°3 mm. long in female, anterior muscular portion 0°6 mm.

long. Nerve ring at 0°45 mm., and excretory pore at 0°75 mm. from head end,

Cervical papillae just in front of level of excretory pore.

Male—Posterior cnd thick; caudal papillae difficult to distinguish; six

pedunculate papillae seen on one side, four similar papillae on opposite side; five

and three respectively of these were preanal; also three (? two pairs) just in front

of anus and four pairs behind anus. Bursa 1 mm. long; our figure is drawn from

a dorso-ventrally flattened specimen in which the anterior edge is bent over so

that the bursa appears relatively wider than normal. Spicules unequal; one longer,

thinner, 0-6 mm. long, 0-04 mm. wide at its base, tapering to a fine point; the

other 0-3 mm. (possibly more) long, 0°06 mm. wide at base, tapering towards

free end, suddenly constricted near short rounded tip. Surface of bursa with

tubercles.

Female—Probably only two ovaries. ‘Tail bluntly conical; anus 0°45 min.

from its tip. Vulva at about one-fifth body length from head end; 2°85 mm.

behind termination of oesophagus. Eggs 45 by 344, with larvae and thick shells.

‘To this species belongs the specimen described (not named) by Ortlepp

(1922, 1080-1, fig. 44) from the same host species from J.ondon Zoological

Gardens, the locality being indicated merely as Australia. Ortlepp found five pairs

of postanal papillae in the median series.

EcHINONEMA cINcTUM Linstow, 1898

A female specimen, 13-1 mm. long, was taken from the intestine of a “native

cat,” Dasyurus viverrinus, in Sydney The general form of the body agrees with

Linstow’s account, but the head bears three rows of spines instead of two as

stated by him; besides, all spines are shorter than his measurements, the head

appears shorter, and the neck is indicated as more markedly constricted. Yorke

and Maplestone (1926), in their generic diagnosis for Echinonema, stated that

206

there were three rows of spines on the head, and their figure shows such an

arrangement. Since the figure is an original one, we assume that it was based on

material collected from a bandicoot in the vicinity of ‘Townsville, North Queens-

land, Maplestone having been for some time associated with the Institute of

Tropical Medicine. Linstow’s material came from Isoedon obesulus from the

Upper Burnett River, that species being represented by a very closely related

form, /. macrura, in northern coastal Queensland.

Figs. 1-8

Fig. 1, Subulura peramelis, head, Figs. 2-4, Physaloptera peramelis: 2, anterior end;

3, head, anterior view; 4, bursa. Fig. 5, Dipctalonema sp, from Perameles nasuta, head.

Figs. 6-7, Macropostrongylus yorkei: 6, head, lateral view; 7, head, anterior view.

Fig. 8, Macropostronyylus macropostrongylus, head. Figs 1 and 3 are drawn to same

seale; 2 and 4; 5 to 8. c, cloaca; e, element of leaf crown; 1, lateral lip.

In spite of the discrepancy between Linstow’s account and the observations

ef Yorke and Maplestone and of ourselves, we regard our specimen as belonging

to E. cinctum, The spines of the third row are much shorter and thinner and

207

less obvious than those of the first and second rows, and were probably overlooked

by Linstow, whose specimens were perhaps also in a different state of contraction,

causing the difference in the form of the head and neck and in the disposition

of the spines.

There are 14-16 spines in cach row in our specimen, their length being 0°13,

0:14 and 0-08 mm., respectively. Then follows an unarmed, slightly narrower,

region, measuring 0°06 mm. behind the tip of the spines of the third row; this

neck region being succeeded by nineteen rows of shorter spines occupying an area

extending back 1:5 mm. from the head end. The spines of the first two and the

last three rows are 0°01 mm. long; those of intermediate rows 0°04--05 mm. long.

Behind this spiny zone, the remainder of the body is covered with minute spinules.

Oesophagus 1+1 mm. long, 1:12 of body length; tail 0-5 mm. long.

PROTOSPIRURA MARSUPIALIS Baylis

This large nematode is now recorded from Trichosurus vulpecula from the

vicinity of Sydney. It is already known from Queensland.

DIPETALONEMA SPELAFA (Leidy)

A mate specimen from the body cavity of Macropus ualabatus from the Blue

Mountains, New South Wales. In recording the presence of Filaria sp. from the

host, the senior author (1909) stated that the species appeared to be F, spelaea.

Our re-examination of the original specimen has shown it to belong to [eidy’s

species.

DIPETALONEMA sp.

An immature female from the vicinity of the liver of Macropus ruficollis,

from the Gosford district, New South Wales. Length 62 mm.; maximum

breadth 0-7 mm.; width across head 0-13 mm.; width at anus 0°13 mm.; tail

0-1 mm. long, conical, with a pair of minute rounded subterminal papillae on

ventral side. Cuticle striated transversely,

DIPETALONEMA sp.

A female, considerably shrunken and macerated, 95 mm. long, was found in

the body cavity of the rock wallaby, Petrogale penicillata, from the Gosford dis-

trict (coll. 1. Gallard).

DIPETALONEMA sp.

(Fig. 5)

A female from the lung of Perameles nasuta, from Sydney. The specimen

is a fragment 50 mm. long, with the cuticle striated longitudinally. Head with

four, perhaps six, low circum-oral papillae and at least four larger papillae further

back. Further details cannot be detected. The head bears a strong resemblance

to that figured by Linstow (1898, 470) for an unidentified nematode from Dasypus

(error for Dasyurus) hallucatus Gould from the Upper Burnett, Queensland.

They probably belong to the same species. Two rows of papillae occur also in

208

D. robertsi Johnston and Mawson, 1938, but the head is larger and the circumoral

papillae closer to the mouth than in the latter species.

‘TRICHURIS PERAMELIS Baylis

A number of females, some of them fragmentary, were found in the intestine

of Perametes nasuta, from the vicinity of Sydney. Tength 6°5-10°l mm. In the

largest specimen the oesophageal region was 5'‘7 and the rest of the body

5-4 mm. Maximum breadth of anterior region 0°05 mm.; of posterior region

0-08 mm.; width at junction of the two parts 0°06 mm. Cuticular striations not

recognised, Eggs 44-46 long (including polar plugs) ; 20-23 » wide.

Qur specimens show considerable differences from the females of Baylis’

species which was obtained from /soodon obesulus from North Queensland.

These may be tabulated:

T. peramelis Baylis N.S.W. Specimens

Length of female - - - 11 to 19°5 mm. 6°5—10°1 mm.

Oesophagus: body length — - 2:3;3:4 1:2

Length of oesophageal region 8°3—15°4 mm. 5-7

Length of posterior region = - 2°7—5°5 mm. 5-4

Maximum breadth - - 0-19—-33 mm. 08

Breadth at junction of the two

regions - - - - 0-1—17 mm, “06

Iiggs - - - - - 053 by :028—-03 mm. ‘02—:023 mm.

It is with considerable doubt that we place our specimens under T. peramelis,

but in view of the few females examined, and the absence of males, we deem it

umwvise to erect a new species

CLOACINA CORNUTA (Davey and Wood, 1938) J. and M.

This species was described from Macropus agilis, North Queensland, as

Macropostrongylus cornutus, but its characters appear to us to agree with those

of Cloacina, a revised diagnosis of which was published recently by us (1938)

and a comparison with Macropostrongylus was made, C. cornuta resembles

C, robertsi J. and M. (1939) in many features, but possesses longer submedian

papillae; a relatively deeper, thinner and more anteriorly placed buccal ring;

shorter spicules; and a differently shaped dorsal ray. It also resembles C. similis

J. and M. (1939) in regard to the head papillae and most measurements, but the

former has a shallower buccal ring, shghtly shorter spicules, and a uarrower

female tail.

CLOACINA MINOR (Davey and Wood, 1938) J. and M.

This species from Macropus rebustus, North Queensland, was placed under

Macropostronyylus, but we refer it to Cloacina. ‘(he head is rather like that of

C. macropodis J. and M. (1938), but the papillae are larger and the buccal ring

thinner, while the dorsal ray has shorter terminal branches, and the length of the

spicules and relative positions of the anus and vulva are different.

209

Cloacina longelabiata nom. nov.

Our assignment of Macropostrongylus minor Davey and Wood (1938) to

Cloacina necessitates the renaming of our C. minor, the accounts of both species

having appeared in 1938, but the former has priority. We suggest C. longelabiata

for our form on account of its long wide lips.

PIARYNGOSTRONGYLUS ORNATUS Davey and Wood, 1938

This worm from Macropus robustus, North Queensland, resembles closely

P. gamma J. and M. (1939) but differs in the length of the dorsal ray, ratio of

spicule to body length, position of cervical papillae and excretory pore, form of

the oral papillae, and the absence of bifid bristles on the papillae.

ReMARKS ON MACROPOSTRONGYLUS

(Figs. 6-8)

Specimens of M. macropostrongylus Yorke and Maplestone and AM. vorkei

Baylis, recorded recently by us (1939) from Macropus agilis from North Queens-

land, were examined. In both species there are setae on the submedian papillae—a

single long bristle on each in Af. yorkei, and a pair on each in M, macropo-

strongylus.

Baylis in his account of M, yorkei was doubtful regarding the presence of

a leaf-crown, but the structure occurs in our spccimens where it consists of six

elements in submedian, dorsal and ventral positions, the dorsal and ventral

clements being much smaller than the others. The wide lateral lips appear to

be without elements. The head of Af. yorker is indicated in figs. 6-7, and that

of M. macropostrongylus in fig. 8.

LITERATURE

saytis, H. A. 1930 Some Heterakidae and Oxyuridae (Nematoda) from

Queensland. A.M.N.H. (10), 5, 354-366

Bayiis, H. A, 1932 A new species of the Nematode genus Trichuris, from

Queensland. A.M.N.H. (10), 9, 31-32

Davey, D. G. and Woon, W. A. 1938 New species of Trichoneminae (Nema-

toda) from Australian kangaroos, Parasitol., 30, 258-266

Jotrnston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1938 An account of some Filarial

Parasites of Australian Marsupials. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62 (1),

107-121

Jounstron, LT. H., and Mawson, P, M. 1938 Some Nematodes from Austra-

tralian Marsupials. Rec. 5S. Aust. Mus., 6 (2), 187-198

Jonunsron, T. H., and Mawson, P, M. 1939 Strongylate Nematodes from

Queensland Marsupials. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63 (1), 121-149

Lunsrow, O. v. 1898 Nematoda. In Semon’s Forschungsreisen in Australien,

5, 469-471

Ortiepp, R. J. 1922 The Nematode genus Physaloptera. Proc. Zool. Soc.,

Lond. (4), 999-1,107.

Yorke, W., and Maprestonr, P. A. 1926 ‘lhe Nematode Parasites of Verte-

brates. Lond.

A SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SPHAGNUM BOG

By R. L. CROCKER and C. M. EARDLEY

(Department of Botany and Waite Agricultural Research Institute,

University of Adelaide, South Australia)

Summary

Special interest centres round the discovery early this year of two small Sphagnum bogs near Lake

Leake, a few miles east of Millicent in the South-East of South Australia. Such bogs, on account of

their high acidity and oligotrophic character, provide a very specialized habitat for plant life, and

their study affords valuable information about problems of plant distribution (Baas Becking and

Nicolai, 1934; Wood and Baas Becking, 1937).

210

A SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SPHAGNUM BOG

By R. L. Crocker and C. M. Earpiey

(Department of Botany and Waite Agricultural Research Institute,

University of Adelaide, South Australia)

[Read 10 August 1939]

Piate VIII

Special interest centres round the discovery early this year of two small

Sphagnum bogs near Lake |.eake, a few miles cast of Millicent in the South-East

of South Australia. Such bogs, on account of their high acidity and oligotrophic

character, provide a very specialized habitat for plant life, and their study affords

valuable information about problems of plant distribution (Baas Becking and

Nicolai, 1934; Wood and Baas Becking, 1937).

In poorly aerated soils saturated with water where conditions for bacterial

decomposition are unfavourable, peat may be formed from a variety of vascular

plants, mosses and lichens. In peats the plant structures usually remain intact,

and the level of the bog is gradually raised by the addition of further plant

remains.

The reaction of peat bogs varies. The “Fen peats” of East Anglia occur in

areas where the ground waters contain much calcium carbonate, and where the

soil level is not appreciably highcr than the water table. Such peats are often

alkaline. The peat formers are members of the Cyperaceae and Juncaceac, and

as the fen peat is built up it may become high enough to develop a more acid or

“Hochmoor” peat (Braun-Blanquet, 1932; Ashby, Richter and Barner, 1938).

Sphagnum peats are invariably acid in reaction (pH 3°7-4:5, Baas Becking

and Nicolai, 1934; Wood and Baas Becking, 1937). ‘The bog near Millicent

occurs in one of the wettest parts of the South-East (the rainfall at Lake Leake

is 33 inches per annum) and has a typical acid reaction—pH 4-3, Another acid

peat (pil 4-0-4°5) occurs at Square Waterhole, Mount Compass, South Australia ;

there the peat formers are members of the families Cyperaceae and Restionaceac

(Adamson and Osborn, 1924). Observations by Stelmach (quoted by Baas

Becking and Nicolai, 1934), show that some species of Sphagnum can decrease

the pll of weakly alkaline culture solutions, whilst one at least can cause an

increase in the pH of the culture medium. The mechanism of this change in pl

by Sphagnum is not clear, but Baumann and Gully (quoted by Baas Becking and

Nicolai, 1934), suggest that the cell wall is colloidal and can exchange ions with

the soil solution, cations being absorbed whilst hydrogen ions are freed trom the

cell wall.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

211

SPHAGNUM in South Australia

Sphagnum spp. have been found in quantity in New South Wales, Victoria

and Tasmania (Watts and Whitelegge, 1902, and Watts, 1912), and one small

area in Western Australia has been discovered near Pemberton (Nicholls, 1932).

Search through the literature for previous records of Sphagnum in South Aus-

Ay N

e— —-9chns. __ a"

Fig. 1

Plan to show Vegetation of Sphagnum Peat Bog

tralia has not proved very fruitful. Mueller (1881) does not record Sphagnum

for South Australia in his lists of Australian mosses in the last volume of his

“Fragmenta,” but amongst correspondence betwcen Mueller and Tate recently

discovered in the Department of Botany, one letter by Mueller refers to a

212

“Sphagnum bog near Mount McIntyre” which Tate had visited in November,

1882, Tate (1883), in his account of this journey, records two species of vascular

plants collected in a “Sphagnum bog near Mount McIntyre” and three from

“Lake Leake.” Sphagnum itself is not mentioned in his lists. These localities

coincide almost exactly with the present occurrences,

The only authentic records for Sphagnum in South Australia appear to be

two quoted by Watts (1912) and Watts and Whitelegge (1902). These two

species were collected about 1900 or earlier by a Miss Campbell (later Mrs. Flora

M. Martin), who apparently lived in Victoria and sent collections of mosses to

I. M. Bailey in Queensland and who, in turn, forwarded them to Brotherus in

Helsingfors. The only locality quoted is “South Australia.” C. Warnstort

(1911) in his monograph on the Sphagna of the world, erected a new species

(Sphagnum dubiosum C, Warnstorf) on one of these specimens. The other is

Sphagnum subbicolor, Hampe which is found in all the eastern States. It is not

known at present whether our specimens belong to one of these species, but they

have been sent to an expert for determination.

Locality and Vegetation of the Millicent Spuacnum Peat Bogs

The bogs occur on the boundaries of Hundreds Riddoch and Hindmarsh in a

poorly drained, swampy region, approximately 150 feet above sea level. On the

higher podsolised soils the vegetation consists of Eucalyptus Barteri (Benth.).

Maid. et Blakely, dry sclerophyll forest intermixed with patches of heath. The

more important bog is mapped in fig. 1.

The area is not large (approximately 200 yards by 600 yards), and the

Sphagnii, which is only a few inches high, is confined to a small patch in one

corner. Myriophyllum propiiquum A. Cunn., replaces Sphagniamn in the rest of

the bog and merges with it at their conjunction. Myriophylluim is probably also

a peat former.

Species of Cyperaceae, Restionaceae and Melaleuca occur in clumps through-

cut the bog and a fringe of Melaleuca squarrosa Donn, practically surrounds the

bog, and separates it from the dry sclerophyll forest.

Eucalyptus Huberiana Naudin occurs in the transitional zone between

Melaleuca squarrosa Donn. and the Eucalyptus Basxteri dry sclerophyll forest.

The plants associated with Euc. Barteri (Benth.) Maid et Blakely, in the

dry sclerophyll forest, are: Pteridtem aquilinum (L.) Kuhn (Bracken), dcacia

oxycedrus Sieb., A. melanorylon R. Br.. Leplospermum scoparium Forst et [..

Encalyptts Huberiana Naudin (kindly determined by Mr. W. F. Blakely), and

Epaeris tmpressa, Labill.

The plants found in the bog itself are: Sphagnum sp., Cladinm articulatum

R. Br.. Gahnia psittacorum Labill., Carex fappressa ?), Restio tetraphyllus

Labill., Leptocarpus tenar R. Br., Xvris eperculata Labill., Juncus pallidus KR. Br.,

Leptospermum scopartum Forst., et £., Melaleuca sguarrosa Donn., and ALyrio-

phylhom propinquum A. Cunn.

213

Hoth lists of plants are probably incomplete, since the areas have only been

visited at the end of an exceptionally dry and hot season. It would be desirable

to investigate the microscopic algae and bacterial flora also.

Particular interest is attached to the finding of Restio telraphyllus Labill. in

the South-East. ‘his plant, known as Tassel Cord-rush in Victoria (Ewart,

1930), forms large tussocks four to five feet high (PI. viii). The plant is dioecious

and, on this occasion, only female flowers have been found. Tate (1890) in his

“Flora of Extratropical South Australia” records both Restio tetraphyllus Labill.

and Restio complanatus R. Br. for the Mount Gambier district. J. M. Black

(1922), in his recent “Flora of South Australia,” did not quote these records of

‘Tate, since they could not be authenticated by South Australian specimens in

cither the Adelaide or Melbourne Herbaria.

Distribution of SPHAGNUM

The discontinuous distribution of Sphagniwn in Australia has been noted

above. The nearest recorded occurrence of Sphagnum to the South Australian

South-Eastern bogs and to those of Western Victoria is at Mount William,

40 miles north of Melbourne, over 200 miles away. Haas Becking, in a series of

publications (1934 and others), and Wood and Baas Becking (1937) have empha-

sised the cosmopolitan distribution of the spores of most cryptogamic plants and

also the selectivity of the environment. The distribution of Sphagnum in Aus-

tralia supports the thesis that similar or identical plant communities occur where

the environmental conditions are similar and extreme.

SuMMARY

The unusual occurrence of two small typically acid Sphagnum peat bogs near

Millicent, in South Australia, is recorded in a rainfall area of 33 inches.

The vegetation of one of them and its surroundings are described. Among

the plants on the bog is Restio tetraphyllus Labill., a large tussock rush found in

Victoria, but apparently of very restricted distribution in South Australia, as it

has not been recorded in this State since 1890.

Ii is concluded that the presence of these Sphagnum bogs is duc entirely to

the selectivity of the environment since the spores of cryptogamic plants are prac-

tically universal.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is desired to thank Dr. J. G. Wood, Professor of Botany in the Adelaide

University, for assistance and advice during the preparation of this paper.

The Government DBotanist in Victoria, Mr. F. J. Rac, kindly checked

specimens of Restio tetraphyllus Labill, in the National Herbarium in Melbourne ;

and it is also desired to thank Miss Joyce Vickery of the National Ierbarium,

Sydney, aud Miss Alison Baird of the Botanical Department in the University

of Western Australia, for help in tracing Sphagnum records and literature.

214

REFERENCES

Apamson, R. S., and Osporn, T. G. B. 1924 The Ecology of the Eucalyptus

Vorests of the Mount Lofty Ranges Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 48, 87

Asuby, RicuTer and Barner 1938 German-English Botanical Terminology

117 London

Baas Becxtna, L. G. M. 1934 Geobiologie The Hague

Baas Brecxinc, L. G. M., and Nicovat, f. 1934 On the Ecology of a Sphagnum

30g Blumea 1 (1), 10-45

Brack, J. M. 1922-1929 Vlora of S. Australia Govt. Printer, Adelaide

Braun-Branguet, J. 1932 Plant Sociology New York and London 251, 293

Ewarr, A. J. 1930 Flora of Victoria Melbourne

Pearnsipes, M. 1938 Graphic Keys for the Identification of Sphagna New

Phyt., 37, 409-424

Mvrnter, F, von 1878-1881 Fragmenuta Phytographiae Australiae, 11, Suppt.

Melbourne

Mvertrer, F. von, and Tarn, R. 1881 List of Charas, Mosses, Liverworts,

Lichens, l'ungals and Algals of Extratrop. S. Aust. Trans. Roy. Soe.

S. Aust., 4, 5

Nicuoirs, G. E. 1932 Presidential Address, Zoology Section A.N.Z.A.A.S.,

21, 133 Sydney

Tarr, RarpH 1883 A List of Unrecorded Plants and of New Localities for

Rare Piants in the South-East Part of this Colony Trans. Roy. Sec.

S. Atist., 6, 99

Tarr, Rare 1890 Flora of Fxtratropical S. Aust. Adelaide

Warnstorr, C. 1911 Sphagnologia Universalis, Engler’s Pflanzenreich, 51 Heft

Leipzig

Warts, W. W., and Wuurerecce, T 1902 Census Muscorum <Australiensium

(1), Suppt. to Proc. Tinn. Soc., N.S.W., 27

Watts, W. W. 1912) The Sphagna of Australia and Tasmania Proc. Linn.

soc., N.S.W., 37, 383-389

Woon, J. G. 1937 The Vegetation of South Australia Govt. Printer, Adelaide

Woop, J. G., and Baas Becxine, L. G. M. 1937 Notes on Convergence and

Identity in Relation to Environment Blumea 2 (4)

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate VIII

Sphagnum—M yriophyllum peat bog near Lake Leake.

The taller plants shown are Cladium articulatunu (left foreground) and

Restio tetraphyllus (Tassel Cord-rush) on the right and in the distance.

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NOMENCLATURE

By J. G. WOOD Department of Botany, University of Adelaide

Summary

Ecology in Australia has reached a stage at which the major plant communities have been

described. The accumulation of this knowledge has resulted in a state of affairs not unknown in

other parts of the world; many workers in Australia (Patton, 1933; Blake, 1938; Pidgeon, 1937;

Wood, 1937) have stressed the inadequacy of existing systems of classification and their failure to

account for the status and relations of plant communities. Further progress in Australian ecology

demands some degree of clarification and unification of these systems, and in this paper it is

proposed to review ecological concepts from the standpoint of certain fundamental considerations

and from actual experience with Australian communities.

215

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND NOMENCLATURE

By J. G. Woop

Department of Botany, University of Adelaide

[Read 10 August 1939]

Ecology in Australia has reached a stage at which the major plant com-

munities have been described. The accumulation of this knowledge has resulted in

a state of affairs not unknown in other parts of the world; many workers in

Australia (Patton, 1933; Blake, 1938; Pidgeon, 1937; Wood, 1937) have stressed

the inadequacy of existing systems of classification and their failure to account

for the status and relations of plant communities. Further progress in Australian

ecology demands some degree of clarification and unification of these systems, and

in this paper it is proposed to review ecological concepts from the standpoint of

certain fundamental considerations and from actual experience with Australian

communitics.

FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Underlying all ecological work is the fundamental fact that any particular

plant specics requires for ils existence a certain environment. Similarly any

natural assemblage of species is characterised by a definite environment, although

individual members in the community may possess a wider potential environment.

The assemblage of species indeed owes ils existence in large measure to the fact

that its components have been selected by the environment.

Added to this is the further fact of experience that the initial assemblage of

species in any environment is capable of altering the chemical environment, and

so producing ultimately a change in the composition of the species-aggregate.

These two fundamental facts—-selectivity of the environment and change—

are illustrated most clearly in cryptogamic communities in extreme environments.

In aqucous milieu the water factor and its sometimes profound influences on

metabolism are excluded, and consequently this environment may be characterised

with greater precision than subaerial environments. The more extreme the

aqueous milieu, as in peat water, hot springs, evaporating brine, the more restricted

become the species capable of living in such environments; and further, owing to

the universal distribution of spores of most cryptogams and bacteria, the com-

munity in extreme milieus tends to a constant species-composition (Baas Becking,

1934). Furthermore, in these extreme environments unstable and stable com-

munities can be distinguished. In concentrated salt-brines, for example, the

pioncer species is a green alga, Dunaliella, which on death allers the chemical

environment by providing cellulose, so that cellulose-destroying bacteria appear;

these, in turn, are followed by anaerobic sulphate-reducing bacteria which reduce

sulphates to sulphides, the latter providing a substrate for autotrophic purple

bacteria. With the changes in composition of the medium brought about by the

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

216

species themselves we see a succession of unstable communities, and finally a

relatively stable one. The stable community has a species composition different

from the unstable ones but derived from them by competition, and it is also

N FALL C inches)

Tig. 1

Three dimensional diagram illustrating relations of plant associations to

phosphate (P05), mitrogen and rainfall.

1, Euc, obliqua forest; 2, Luc, Bartert-Euc. cosmophyila scrub; 3, Enc. diversifolia

serub; 4, Fue. levcorylon savannah woodland; 5, mallee; 6, Alripler vesicarium

scrubland; 7, mulga scrub; 8, Triodia desert.

217

characterised by a definite chemical environment. Brines of different salt con-

centrations contain communities differing in their final species composition ; these

are stable and only change when the medium changes in composition due to

external causes.

Even in subacrial communities of phanerogamic plants where universal

distribution of seeds is no longer possible and where the water factor becomes

prominent, convergence of species in similar cnvironments, and especially in

extreme environments, is marked (Wood and Baas Becking, 1937).

3aas Becking and his collaborators (1934) have defined the chemical milieu

of a few organisms living in aqueous environments, [fi we knew the environ-

mental limits for every species in the flora of a country, we could in large measure

define the composition of a plant community which would occur in any particular

habitat; but only partially so since the factor of competition between species has

been left out of consideration. Figures 1 and 2, derived from the extensive data

of Prescott (1931), Prescott and Piper (1932), Prescott and Skewes (1938),

Piper (1938), ‘laylor (1933), Taylor and O’Donnell (1932) and Wood (1937),

show how closely the vegetation communities in South Australia are determined

by climate and by chemical factors of the environment.

Any system of classification of plant communities must include the ideas of

floristic composition determined by environment and of change.

VEGETATIONAL STATICS

The Third Botanical Congress defined the unit of vegetation as a “community

of definite floristic composition.” The idea of the community ig an abstraction

but rests upon a basis of reality. The reality is the fact of experience that specics

of plants tend to occur together in definite combinations which we call a com-

munity. Pieces of vegetation (stands; show a few species constantly present and

prominent in the community as a whole. These specics are not necessarily the

most numerous, but they frequently occupy more cover than other species and

give a distinct look or facies to the community. These species we call dominants ;

they are capable of exisling in a greater range of environmental conditions and

are often more aggressive than other species more or less frequently associated

with them.

For the delinitation of a comminnity it is necessary to cxanune a large number

of stands with similar combinations of species, preferably spatially separated from

one another. The greater the number of stands examined the more truthful

becomes the picture of the community. The community may be named from its

dominants.

Iexperience shows that these units can be divided into two classes: first,

communities which are relatively stable in a well-defined environment, and second,

communities which are unstable and in which individual species gradually alter

the edaphic environment and eventually give rise to more stable communities. The

stable communities are called associations. ‘Lhe unstable units which show a

218

succession to an association following raun-Blanquet (1932) and avoiding the

controversial word “associes’’ we may call stages.

The fundamental picture is similar to that described previously for simpler

aquatic milieus, namely, the association is the resultant from the interaction of

two sets of factors: those of the environment which is selective and that of com-

petition. The association as defined above is readily recognised in the field and

forms the static social unit in any system of classification. Associations may be

grouped into larger units on a floristic basis, but such groupings are obviously

undesirable since they neglect habitat factors and competition.

VEGETATIONAL DyNaAMIcs

European ecologists limit the term succession to the series of stages which

culminate in the association. Clements (1916), and following him Tansley, con-

sidered that the associations as defined above were capable of further changes

which were grouped under the general term succession. He also introduced the

idea of the mono-climatic climax, ¢.c., a terminal community determined by climate

alone and independent of soil type. Tansley (1935), on the other hand, has recog-

nised that different soil types may occur within the same climatic zone and give

rise to different “edaphic climaxes,” the terminology of Clements is retained, how-

ever, in that edaphic climaxes are regarded as sub-climaxes of the climatic climax.

The soil types of the earth are in general conditioned by climate, but not

invariably so. Sometimes the nature of the geological substratum influences soil

development profoundly, both in texture and in chemical make-up; examples in

South Australia are continuous areas in the same climatic zone of podsols

(sclerophyll forests) derived from quartzites and red-brown earths (savannah

woodland) derived from slates and phyllites; in Eastern Australia conjunctions

in the same climatic zones are found of red earth (rain forest) from basalt and

podsols (sclerophyll forest) from sandstones. Furthermore, orographic agencies

as rivers, glaciers and, especially in arid climates, wind action, provide different

soil types within the same climate which are not related directly to climate and

which carry quite different plant communities.

On account of their inclusion of kinds of change other than biotic change

under the term succession the unit of Clements and ‘Tansley is more comprehen-

sive than that of European ccologists, and their “association” may include several

associations as defined above. How chaotic is the nomenclature of units can be

seen in the comparative table given by du Rietz (1930).

{t is apparent that most of the difficulties experienced by Australian workers,

and also the divergence of views among different ecological schools, is based on

vagueness in the concept of succession and its causes. The term succession covers

a number of phenomena of multiple origin, and its use is complicated by the fact

that it has been applied in different ways to different grades of plant communities.

In fact, a succession of communities may take place: (a) owing to soil changes

brought about by the species themselves (biotic causes), (b) owing to soil

219

changes brought about by external agencies (edaphic causes), (c) owing to soil

changes brought about by the structure of the community (structural causes).

These successions lead to three different climaxes or end points—a biotic climax,

N FA LL Cinches)

40 40

35 35

30 30

25 25

20 20

18 18

15 15

ze) 1d

5 5

Three dimensional diagram illustrating relations of plant associations to

phosphate (P2Q;), pl and rainfall.

1, Euc. obliqua forest; 2, Euc. Baxteri-Euc. cosmophylla scrub; 3, Euc. diversifolia

scrub; 4, Ene, feucoxylon savannah woodland; 5, mallee; 6, Antriplex vesicarium

scrub steppe; 7, mulga scrub; 8, Triodia desert.

220

an edaphic climax and a structural climax—within the same climatic zone.

‘Vansley has recognised two types of sttccession: autogenic or biotic succession

and allogenic or succession due to external causes, but all are considered to lead

to one climax,

First we may consider biotic succession in which the flora itself may modify

the edaphic envirgnment in any climate on any soil, mature or immature. We can

distinguish two kinds of biotic succession: first, primary on new soils, rock, ete.

(lithic succession, etc.) ; second, secondary, due to fire, grazing, ete. The stages

in the two types may be different but ultimately lead to one association on any

definite soil type.

3ut the termi succession is also applied to include relationships between com-

munities i which a uniform terminal community is theoretically possible, There

are two main sorts of such theoretical stccessions. “Che first includes conimmunities

on cliff, steep hill slope, shallow and mature soils in the same climatic zone, iec.,

communities on physiographic units. These communities are stable, and each is

the end point of a scrics of biotically induced stages. ‘They are, in fact, associa-

tions. LEdaphie uniformity could only be attained by the levelling down of all

physiographic units to one soil type. The second sort of succession of this kind

is that kuown as zonation as in the distribution of communities around salt lakes,

marshes, cte. In this case also uniformity of edaphic environment is only

theoretically possible by removal of the factor causing the edaphic zonation im

chemical composition.

It is illogical, and from the point of view of field studics, not expedient to

eroup such successions with the biotically induced successions considered above.

Yhey mav be called edaphic successions, and the fact of experience is that we are

dealing with a succession of associations which culminate in a terminal association

which is the edaphic climax association. “The series of associations in one climate

and on immature soils related to a mature soil type and related floristically form

a closely-knit complex which may be called an Edaphie Complex and named from

the dominants of the edaphic climax association. This unit is the natural unit of

complexity above the association.

Within the same climatic zone several such complexes may occur on related

or different soil types. These complexes may or may not be closely related

floristically. Those complexes which are related floristically can be grouped into

larger units. Australian experience suggests that it is desirable to characterise

this unit not only by floristic composition but also by life form and structure

which in the final analysis are expressions of the characters of the species them-

selves. Tt is suggested that the term Formation be used for this unit; it 1s

analogous to the formation of Tansley but is not necessarily a climax community.

There remains now for discussion possible succession within edaphic com-

plexes and formations. In South Australia, where the writer has had consider-

able experience with the plant communities, the edaphic complexes and formations

are stable; they are determined in the one climatic zone essentially by soil condi-

tions; and where one complex or formation abuts on to another there is no

221

evidence of unidirectional invasion of one group by the other, Ecotones may exist

between edaphic complexes and oscillations may occur due to local causes, climatic

or edaphic. The oscillations are not unidirectional, however, but fluctuating,

they are “climax fluctuations” in the sense of Braun-llanquet.

So far as the writer’s knowledge of Australian ecology extends the same is

true of all edaphic complexes and formations within the same climatic zone with

two exceptions. The exceplions are the unidirectional invasion of cucalypt forest

by rain forest on soils of basaltic origin (Fraser and Vickery, 1938; Blake, 1938;

and Pryor, 1939) and the invasion of savannah and savannah woodland hy

brigalow (Blake, 1938).

In these cases the factor controlling invasion appears to be one of integration,

primarily concerned with the structure of the communities under discussion, We

may consider the case of the rain forest invasion. The Australian plants of the

eucalypt forests frequently possess a wide potential environment, for example in

South Australia many of the plants of the high forest with an annual rainfall of

40 inches on soils containing ‘05% P.O, are found also in the mallee-hcaths with

an annual rainfall of 18 inches and on soils containing ‘005% P.O, (see figs. 1 and

2). Asaclass they are light demanders and intolerant of shade. Iraser and Vickery

11938) have described the invasion of F. saligna-Syncarpia lorest by rain forest.

Even ina relatively closed forest, such as E. saligna forms, a considerable amount

of light reaches the lower strata; furthermore, whenever a break occurs in the

rain forest, /. saligna and Syncarpia regenerate in large numbers, forming dense

thickets of saplings which are gradually replaced by rain forest. At rain forest

margins one finds gencrally the same rain forest species which form a dense cover,

killing the eucalypt-forest species by light-compcetition and gradually by their

death enriching the soil with humus, thereby raising its water-retaining capacity

and allowing eventually the development of rain forest. This invasion may

proceed until the rainfall and humidity limits of rain forest are reached. The

invasion of savannahs by dense thickets of brigalow, which also change the soil

type, is apparently analogous.

In these cases obviously we are dealing with a biotically induced succession ;

it differs in degree from those discussed previously by the fact that it is induced

primarily by the structure of the community. It would appear then that Clement’s

concept of the climatic climax is applicable only to highly integrated communities.

ln lowly integrated communities eduphic factors determine the nature of the

climax communities and it may be difficult to describe them by a single name.

In conclusion, one other point should be stressed, this is that it is possible to

arrange a succession of “climate climaxes.” [u the system considered above one

fuctor of the environment, ziz., climate, has been made constant. One could also

build a system making not climate but edaphic factors constant. As an example

one can cite the mallee soils of South Australia, which are constant in profile and

in chemical make-up over areas in which the rainfall decreases from 18 inches

to 5 inches per annum. On this soil type, and with decreasing rainfall, one sces

222

| . DID40PO “ZT { eigiads SD) |

pueppooa, (xeuys s1ydepa) vypuope -Z

yeuurars «| |

re F La ; |

snyd4yeong | woptvoona] “a {| DIAS “SDD |

| Cxeupo oiydepa) wopfeoona, a |

auo}yOI9 | Noplvomnay 3

~SYDUIUUA “FT

DnbYyge “s—-sypuiid. aT

| DYO[S4IwUP “F ; uMouy ANF ION

ysoioy |! si (xeuno o1ydepa) vyofrssaaip v7 |

smd Ayeany |

poxipy \ ; DyDLYS “SDD

Dydydowusod “37 | (xeunp omdeps) oytydousos -g |

yso10y | | DIIJLAJS “SD

WAydosaqos DAGYJOBD}O T= psopnaspf 7

snydsqeony | | {. (xe omydepa) DLoydoanja "7

. DJILPS TT “HOLPRIDOSSE

BsonnIspf “sf Yovd JOT pep ut

pnbyqo-g PHAOSDE “YY Pa PeleD UE

: MLD “| uaAts JOU saseqs |

(xeunjs omydepa) vubyge ‘g | “oye ‘ortad ory] a[duexs]

oman Hos | nove ee

| [Suiits ts :

aInyonays ; Woy apy faamgonayzs Bloy ‘sos pany BIOY *T10s BLO los | kK

1 RAOY S|TOS pati AVS ; “OEqeysuyy | grown Anois

XVWITO 4

OILVNITID NOTLVAUOST XHTHNOD DIHdVaY | NOILVIDOSSV FOVIS | TInn

DIAS PY YNog ut uoway yofumy yoy ‘s}satoy snjdXjponczy uosf aplunxsy Yr Spueq joabojorz

I Ztavy

223

a series of communities inter-related floristically and passing from savannah

woodland through mallee, tree-steppe and finally shrub-steppe (Wood, 1937).

Only by selecting more or less arbitrary climatic zoncs can definite associations

be delimited. Similarly, figs. 1 and 2 show similar relations to rainfall between

sclerophyll communities which are characterised by low phosphorus requirements.

‘The reason is that all classifications are arbitrary and designed for convenience.

The scheme outlined in this paper accounts adequately for the classification and

inter-relations of communities observed in practice. The essentials of the scheme

are summarised in Table I.

REFERENCES

Baas Becxrnc, L. G. M. 1934 “Geobiologie,” den Haag

Brake, S. T. 1938 Proc. Roy. Soc. Queens., 49, 156

Braun-Bianguer, J. 1932 “Plant Sociology,” Eng. Trans., New York

CLements, F. E. 1916 Carn. Inst., Wash., Publ., 242

pu Rietz, G. E. 1930 Svensk. Bot. Tidsk., 24, 489

Fraser, L., and Vickery, J. W. 1938 Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 68, 139

Parron, R. T. 1933 Proc. Roy, Soc. Vict., 46, 117

Procron, |. M. 1937 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 62, 315

Preer, C. S. 1938 Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, 53

Prescott, J. A. 1931 C.S.LR. Bulletin, No. 52

Prescott, J. A., and Preer, C.S. 1932 Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56, 118

Prescort, J. A., and Skewes, H. M. 1938 Ibid., 62, 320

Pryor, L. D. 1939 Private communication

Tanstey, A. G. 1935 Ecology, 16, 284

Tavtor, J. K. 1933 C.S.LR. Bulletin, No. 76

Taytor, }. K., and O’Donnett, |. 1932 Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56, 3

Woon, J. G. 1937 “The Vegetation of South Australia’? Adelaide

Woop, J. G., and Baas Becxina, L. G.M. 1937 Blumea, 2, 329

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANDIBULAR TORUS

By FRANK J. FENNER, Honorary Craniologist, South Australian Museum

Summary

Danielli (1884) and Hansen (1895) first described the occurrence of hyperostoses of the lingual

surface of the lower jaw in Lapps, Ostiaks, and Eskimos. In 1908, after the examination of the some

400 Eskimo skulls, Fiirst described these hyperostoses in greater detail and proposed the term torus

mandibularis for the formation. He defined the mandibular torus as a bony bulge or series of bulges

on the lingual side of the alveolar process of the mandible above the mylohyoid line. Variable in

development and extent between the canine and the second molar tooth, it is usually most

pronounced opposite the second premolar tooth, and consists throughout of compact bone.

224

OBSERVATIONS ON THE MANDIBULAR TORUS

By FRANK J. PENNER,

Honorary Craniologist, South Ausiralian Museum

[Read 10 August 1939|

Prate IX

Danielli (1884) and [fansen (1895) first described the occurrence of hypero-

stoses of the lingual surface of the lower jaw in Lapps, Ostiaks, and Eskimos.

In 1908, after the examination of the some 400 Eskimo skulls, First described

these hyperostoses in greater detail and proposed the term torus mandibularis for

the formation. He defined the mandibular torus as a bony bulge or series of

bulges on the lingual side of the alveolar process of the mandible above the

mylohyoid line. Variable in development and extent between the canine and the

second molar tooth, it is usually most pronounced opposite the second premolar

tooth, and consists throughout of compact bone,

Furst noted that a great development of the torus sometimes occurred in

individuals who showed but little tooth-wear, whilst some juvenile skulls also

exlubited traces of it. He considered, therefore, that although the torus may

originally have been related to tooth wear, it had become a racial character.

Later writers, notably Hooton (1918) and Hrdlicka (1910) stressed the

functional origin of the mandibular torus. considering it to be a reinforcement of

the alveolar process of the mandible to withstand the strain imposed on it by ihe

rough animal diet of folk living in northern latitudes. A consideration of the

strains imposed on the bone of the mandible by vigorous chewing suggests that

the mandibular torus would be almost useless as a strut to reinforce the mandible.

Hrdlicka also notes that “. .. . its occurrence in infant skulls indicates that at

least to some extent the feature is already hereditary in these Eskimo

{Southampton Island).”

Campbell (1925), commenting on the absence of this formation in the jaws

of Australian aborigines, says, “If, as has been stated by some writers, the

mandibular torus is essentially a functional adaptation, its marked absence in the

Australian native requires some explanation, for an examination of his dentition

must convince one that it would be difficult to find another people whose mastica-

tory habits subjected the dental system to greater stresses than did his.” Camp-

bell’s more recent publication (1939) on the food habits of the Australian provides

abundant support for this statement.

Weidenreich (1936) recently described the occurrence of the mandibular

torus in the jaws of Sinanthropus pekinensis, This discovery gives the torus a

new significance and places further difficulties in the way of any junctional

explanation. In his monograph on the mandibles of Smmanthropus Weidenreich

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

225

discusses the various theories of the significance and origin of the mandibular

torus. He enlarges the definition of the torus, distinguishing two types: (a) the

striation type, consisting of oblique striations running from behind forwards and

downwards, and being confined to the region of the molar teeth; (6) the tubercle

type, consisting of tubercles of compact bony tissues lying just below the alveolar

border, and occurring usually in the region of the premolar and canine teeth.

As there would appear to be some inconsistencies in his discussion of the

subject, further comment on Weidenreich’s theories may not be out of place. He

says of the two types of torus that “..,. the former (area of striations) is nothing

else but a regular and specific differentian of the posterior rough part, whereas

the swellings are to be considered as exaggerated irregularities of the same

> and that “whereas the tubercle type always

occurs in combination with the striation type, the latter may occur independently.”

Discussing the comparative anatomy oi the feature, Weidenreich notes that “the

striations of the molar region are very common in the chimpanzee as well as the

gorilla,” but he “failed to observe anything (in the anthropoids) that could be

considered to be in direct relation to the tubercle type of Sinanthropus.” Sum-

ming up his views on the morphology of these structures, “the writer belicves

that the formation of the striation type of Sinanthropus depends on the attach-

ment of the mucous membrane to the surface of the bone.” “As to the tubercle

type, that is to say the real torus mandibularis, ] am inclined to the suggestion

that the protubcrances are pillars left during the reduction which the formerly

much bulkier alveolar process has undergone in the course of human evolution.”

character occurring occasionally,’

It is difficult to reconcile these latter statements with the suggestion that

....the more pronounced swellings of the antertor part (tubercles) are nothing

else but a continuation of the elevations of the molar region (striations).” For

these reasons, and for others noted in the writer’s own investigations, one feels

* as well as “tubercles,”

that Weidenreich is in error in including “striations,

under the general heading of torus mandibularis.

Drennan (1937), stimulated by Weidenreich’s discovery, has described the

occurrence of the mandibular torus in the Bushman of South Africa. He follows

Weidenreich in considering the striations and tubercles to be different types of

mandibular torus, but in both his series of Bushman mandibles he notes the

eecurrence of the tubercular mandibular torus unassociated with the striation

type. This is not in agreement with Weidenreich’s dictum, “whereas the tubercle

type always occurs in combination with the striation type. the latter may occur

independently.”

It is with Weidenreich’s statement that “im all the existing hterature no

mention is made of its occurrence in Negroes, Malayans, or primitive races Jike the

Australians, Melanesians, etc.” that this paper is particularly concerned.

The results of the present investigation, which are claimed to be significant

both in number and varicty, are set out 1 the following table. The writer has here

considered only the “tubercle type” as being the lorus mandibularts.

226

TABLE [|

Incidence of Mandibular Torus

in Australians, Papuo-melanesians and Tasmanians

Total Specimens Torus Torus Present

Race Examined Absent V. Small Smail Medium Large

Australian - - - 400 394 3 2 1 =

Papuo-melanesian - - 180 171 8 1 —_ =

Tasmanian = - - - 18 16 1 — i —

Small tubercles were also noticed in the jaws of one Chinese, one “Negro,”

one Arizona pueblo-dweller, one Lapp, and one ancient Etruscan.

The three mandibles showing the greatest development of the torus mandibu-

laris are illustrated in plate ix, and descriptions of them are set out below.

1. Australian (A46, Australian Museum, Sydney. From Cowra, N.S.W.,

Male Post-European burial). PL. tx, fig. 1.

Below the second premolar tooth on the left is a small discrete tubercle of

compact bone. Its dimensions are approximately 11 mm. high and 11 mm. long,

while the highest point, which stands out 4 mm. from the general contour of the

mandible, is 7 mm. below the alveolar edge. The posterior-stuperior aspect of

this tubercle is grooved, apparently for a fine nutrient vessel.

On the right side there is a similar slightly smaller tubercle, and in this case

a fine vascular groove runs over the highest part of the tubercle. There is also

a very small tubercle just below the right first premolar tooth.

‘There is some roughening of the alveolar edge just beneath the molar teeth,

but nothing sufficiently distinct to be called “striations.”

2. Melanesian (A18044, South Australian Museum, Adelaide. From New

Caledonia. Male). Pl. ix, fig. 2.

In this mandible there is one small tubercle on the left opposite the inter-

space between the first and second premolar teeth. Its dimensions are approxi-

mately 7 mim. high and 8 mm. long, while the highest point, which stands out

3 mm. from the general contour of the mandible is 5 mm. below the alveolar edge.

This tubercle is separated from another very small elevation below the first molar

tooth by the groove of a nutrient vessel.

On the right there is a general clevation of bone extending from the canine

to the first molar tooth. The bone just beneath the alveolar border in the region

of the molar teeth is slightly raised and traversed by several vascular grooves—

the formation here might fall within the class of striations of Weidenreich.

3. Tasmanian“? (A22275, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, from

Mount Cameron West, Tasmania. Male). Pl. ix, fig. 3.

This mandible is characterised by bilateral swellings in the region of the

canine and preniolar teeth. The dimensions of the bulge on the right are approxi-

mately 9 mm. high and 14 mm. long, while the highest point, which stands out

blood. Hrdlicka (1928) accepted it as Tasmanian.

227

3 mm. from the general contour of the mandible, is 7 mm. below the alveolar edge.

The torus on the left is of similar dimensions but slightly smaller. There are no

striations in the molar region.

The right medial incisor tooth in this jaw is undeveloped, causing a slightly

asymmetrical arrangement of the remaining teeth.

Four hundred Australian mandibles were carefully examined to find the

frequency of occurrence of the striations. The results are set out in Table IT.

Taste II]

Occurrence of Striations and Tubercles in Australian Mandibles

No, of Striations

Specimens Striations Tubercles and Tubercles Nil

400 - - - - 28 6 — 366

Development :

Very slight - - - 15 3

Slight - : : = It 2

Moderate - - - 2 1

Great - - - - an —

These figures do not suggest any relation between the striations and the

tubercles and do not agree with Weidenreich’s statement that “the tubercle type

always occurs in combination with the striation type.

Table IIT shows the distribution of the mandibular torus among various

human races, from information obtained from several writers, mainly Weidenreich.

CONCLUSIONS

(1) Weidenreich’s differentiation of a “striation” and a “tubercle” type of

mandibular torus is open to question, the latter form only being considered to be

the torus mandibularis of Furst.

(2) The torus mandibularis does occur, although very rarely, among Aus-

tralian, Tasmanian, and Melanesian mandibles.

(3) While no theories of the morphology of the torus are presented here,

it is suggested that the functional hypothesis of Hooton and Hrdlicka is inadequate.

SUM MARY

The literature concerning the mandibular torus is reviewed and the findings

of Weidenreich discussed in some detail.

Series of Australian, Melanesian, Tasmanian, and other mandibles have been

examined for the occurrence of the mandibular torus.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is indebted to the Board of Governors of the South Australian

Museum; to Dr. Anderson, Director of the Australian Museum, Sydney; and to

Dr. Clements, Director of the Australian Institute of Anatomy, Canberra, for

permission to examine material under their care,

228

‘TasLe II]

Occurrence of the Torus Mandibularis in Man (Tubercle Type only)

Group

Eskimo (Greenland) - -

Eskimo - - - 7 -

Eskimo (Western):

Adult Male - - -

Adult Female - = -

Children - Z = =

Eskimo - - - - -

[Eskimo Male - - - - 5

Female - - -

Ostiak — - - - - -

Lapp - - - - -

Lapp - - = - -

Lapp: Adult Male - - -

Adult lemale - ~

Children - - - |

Icelander - - - -

Ainu - : - - a

Japanese: Neolithic - .

Modern Japanese (Kinai) -

. Japanese (Kranto) -

American Indian (South

California) — - - -

Seandinavian: Prehistoric and

Middle Age -

Later Periods -

Norwegian: Middle Age Male .

Middle Age Female :

lLater Periods:

Male & Femate

Italian = - = = 2 S

Sinanthropus - a z =

Chinese: Prehistoric -

Reeent — - - -

Moravian = : - -

Bushman: Prehistoric - -

Recent - - =

Australian 2 - - es

Bantu - - - - -

Australian - - - -

Papuo-Melanesian - - -

Vasmianian - - - -

Total

Percentage

85-0

87-0

79°5

60-0

24-2

97-0

62°5

33°3

31-4

29-4

30°35

26°8

38°8

12:9

67°9

24-0

62° 1

14-0

meh

anna)

me Ph) One

BONN OR

eOHKacdcs

bo oo

| |

(slight)

69°7

9-4

Average as

given by the

Authors

liirst and Hansen (1915)

Ifooton (1918)

Hrdlicka (1910)

Allen (1890)

Schreiner (1935)

Danielli_ (1884)

Danielli (1884)

First and Hansen (1915)

Schreiner (1935)

, Hooton (1918)

from Weidenreich (1936)

Hooton (1918)

| First and Hansen (1915)

Schreiner (1935)

Weidenreich (1936)

Drennan (1937)

Campbell (1925)

Shaw (1931)

Fenner (1939)

Vol. 63, Plate IX

Soc. S. Aust., 1939

[rans. Roy.

sapoioqny = B

SL77ZV eGipurur uvrueuise [,

¢ “Sy

suoleltys = q ‘opItoqny =<

HOST V 2qipueu ueluopsye) MON

Z SIT

saposaqn} = eB

OPW IIGIpuew uelypensny

1 314

229

Financial help was obtained from the David Murray Scholarship Fund, Uni-

versity of Adelaide.

Dr. T. D. Campbell and Dr. C. Fenner have kindly read through the manu-

script, and Mr. K, Sheard helped with photography.

REFERENCES CITED

ALLEN, H. 1890 A Clinical Study of the Skull. The Toner Lectures, lecture

X. Smithsonian Miscellan. Collections, Washington, 1-77

Camppety, T. D, 1925 The Dentition and Palate of the Australian Aboriginal.

Univ. of Adelaide Publications No. 1

CAMPBELL, T. D. 1939 Food, Food Values, and Food Habits of the Australian

Aborigines in Relation to their Dental Conditions. Aust. J. Dentistry,

1, 45, 73, 141, 177

Dante, I. 1884 Arch. per l’Antrop., 14, 333, 599, quoted by Weidenreich

Drennan, M. 1937 The Torus Mandibularis in the Bushman. J. Anatomy,

72, pt. i, 66

Ftrst, C. 1908 ‘Torus Mandibularis bei den Eskimos und anderen Rassen.

Anat. Anz. Ergangungs, Heft zu 32, 295-296

Furst, C., and Hansen, Fr. C. C. 1915 Crania groenlandica. Copenhagen

Hansen, S. 1895 Bitrag til Eskimoernes Kraniologi. Medd. om Gronland, 17,

356

Hooron, E. A. 1918 On certain Eskimoid Characters in Icelandic Skulls, Am.

J. Phys. Anthrop., 1, 53-76

iIrpricka, A. 1910 Contribution to the Anthropology of Central and Smith

sound Eskimo. Anthrop. Papers of the American Museum of Natural

History, 5, pt. 11, 211

Higpricka, A. 1928 Catalogue of Numan Crania in the U.S. National Museum

Collections. Australians, Tasmanians, etc. Proc. U.S. Nat, Mus., 71,

1-40

SCHREINER, K. E. 1931-1935 Zur Osteologie der Lappen, Inst. £. Sanmen-

lignende Kulturforskning. Ser. B, 18, pt. i, 1935; 18, pt. ii, 1931; quoted

by Weidenreich

SHaAw, J. M. 1931 The Teeth, the Bony Palate, and the Mandible in Bantu

Races cf South Africa. London

STEADMAN, F. St. J. 1937 Malocclusion in the Tasmanian Aborigines. Dental

Record, 57, No. 5, 213

WeEIDENREICH, Ff. 1936 The Mandibles of Sinanthropus pekinensis: a compara-

tive study. DPalaeontologia Sinica. Ser. D, 7, Fase 3

Wuonverty, J. 1939 The Cranial and other Skeletal Remains of ‘Vasmanians

in Collections in the Commonwealth of Australia. Biometrika, 30,

pts. iii and iv, 305

THE DIPLOSTOMULUM STAGE OF CERCARIA MURRAYENSIS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and E. R. SIMPSON, University of Adelaide

Summary

We described recently (1938) Cercaria murrayensis from the pond snail, Limnaea Icssoni, taken on

several occasions during 1937 and early 1938 at Tailem Bend and Swan Reach, Murray River,

South Australia. The relationship to two North American cercariae, and especially to C. flexicauda

Cort and Brooks, was discussed. The larva was stated to belong to Proalaria, it was mentioned that

the succeeding stage occurred as a diplostomulum in the eyes of certain freshwater fish.

230

THE DIPLOSTOMULUM STAGE OF CERCARIA MURRAYENSIS

By T. Harvey Jomnston and Le. R. Simpson, University of Adelaide

[Read 14 September 1939]

We described recently (1938) Cercaria imurrayensis from the pond snail,

Limnaea Icssoni, taken on several occasions during 1937 and early 1938 at Tailem

Bend and Swan Reach, Murray River, South Australia. ‘he relationship to two

North American cercariae, and especially to C. flericauda Cort and Brooks, was

discussed. “The larva was stated to belong to Proalaria, and it was mentioned that

the succeeding stage occurred as a diplostomulum in the eyes of certain fresh-

water fish.

On 16 October 1937 a number of the cercariae were placed in an aquarium

with a golden carp, Carassius auratus, and additional larvae were added two days

later. On 18 and 19 October the fish showed symptoms of disease. On the 20th

these were more pronounced, the fish becoming very lethargic and remaining near

the surface on the light side of the vessel. It did not respond to a quick move-

ment of the hand, both eyes being markedly protruding and very bloodshot. The

carp diced on the 21st, and on dissection many metacercariae were found in the

lenses of both eyes.

On the 23rd the experiment was repeated with a congolly (Pseudaphritis

urvillei) and three golden carp (Carassius auratus). These fish, immediately

after being placed in the tanks with the cercariae, became very active, then after-

wards, lethargic. On holding the aquarium to the light hundreds of cercariae

could be seen floating. They were not attracted towards the fish, but great

numbers were observed entering the mouth passively in the respiratory water

current. All these fish died during the night.

On 24 November 1937 a golden carp which had been infected with cercariae

in the preceding May, died. Numbers of full-grown diplostomula were secn

moving in the outer soft tissues of both lenses. The parasites were able to live

for several hours in water, contracting and expanding slowly, but unable to make

much progress. The two lmbs of the bladder and the intestine, which was filled

with refracting granular material, were clearly visible.

In April 1938 some rice fish, Orysias latipes (Schlegel), were placed in

infected water and dissected in less than an hour. In many cases, death had

already occurred as a result of the great number of penetrating larvae. Numerous

tail-less cercariae were found crawling through the body tissues; many were

observed in the roof of the mouth, and the gill filaments were commonly suffused

with blood. Cercariae were found to have penetrated the gills and the surround-

ing tissues. They were seen moving along the inner walls of branchial blood-

vessels and in the different chambers of the heart. The structures immediately

around the eyeball were haemorrhagic, this region containing the greatest number

of cercariae. Specimens were seen penctrating the eyeball in the angle between

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

231

the cornea and the eyelids, and several were noticed in the aqueous humour, while

others were observed in a blood-shot areca on the edge of the vitreous humour,

and a number had already reached the lens. Cercaria murrayensis is thus able

to penetrate certain species of freshwater fish through almost any part of the

body surface, specimens congregating rapidly around the eyes and finally reaching

the lens. Davis (1936b) proved experimentally that blood-vessels afforded an

easy path for the progress of related cercariae, hence their rapid distribuuion

through the tissues of the host. In an earlier paper (1936a) he showed that

there was present in the body of C. flexicauda, a ferment possessing a histolytic

action on tadpole skin and muscle, A similar enzyme doubtless occurs in our

species and facilitates entry into the host, Direct penetration of the eye through

the cornea was not observed, but may have taken place, though sections did not

afford any positive evidence. La Rue, Butler and Berkhout (1926) stated that

penetration through the cornea by allied forms was first observed by Steenstrup

in 1842 and confirmed by later workers.

If the parasites enter in too great numbers they interfere with the sensitivity

of the fish and soon cause its death, If present in smaller numbers we ascertained

that they will develop in about six weexs into full-grown diplostomula in the lens.

Mr. G. Jaensch (who has generously assisted us in regard to material) has

reported that golden carp, up to six inches long, when placed in a tank at his

home at Tailem Bend with infected Lruanaea lessoni died within 48 hours, while

specimens of the Murray bream, Therapon bidyana, of similar length, remained

apparently unaffected.

In addition to the fish already mentioned, Melanotaenia nigrans and Pseudo-

mugil signifer have been successfully infected in the laboratory.

We noted that all small fish brought from the Murray River to Adelaide in

receptacles containing Liwnaea which were emitting abundant cereariae (Cy menry-

rayensis) were dead by the following morning. Such fish included golden carp,

Nannoperca australis, Galaxias olidus, congolly (Pseudaphritis urvillei) and

callop. Natural infection, always slight, was found in the lens of larger specimens

of golden carp, Murray cod (Maccullochella macquariae), callop (Plectroplites

ambiguus) and Murray bream (Therapon bidyana), all from Tailem Bend.

‘The snail host lives in the quiet water of the swamp, feeding on vegetation

growing in depths of a few feet. It is in such situations that small fish find their

food and protection and no doubt become infected by cercariae. ILeavy infesta-

tions could occur if such fish swam through a mass.of these larvae, and such fish

would be either killed er disabled and thus likely to be taken by various fish-

eating birds which are well represented in such swamps.

Small fish infected artificially with diplostomula were fed to laboratory-bred

white rats and to muscovy ducklings in an endeavour to obtain the adult stage,

but the results were negative. As a result of our further study we now believe

that the diplostomulum will be found to reach maturity in gulls or terns, most

probably Larus novaehollandiae. This question will be discussed later in the

present paper.

232

The diplostomulum possessed a thin leaf-like fore body and a small dorsal

hind body. The mouth, just below the tip on the ventral surface, was surrounded

by the anterior sucker. A short prepharynx and a muscular pharynx were present.

The small oesophagus bifurcated into two well-defined caeca filled with a highly

refractive flocculent substance and ending blindly at the level of the antcrior part

of the excretory bladder. “Two lateral suckers normally formed a slight swelling,

one on either side of the anterior sucker, but could be retracted each into a cup-

shaped depression. The ventral sucker, at the beginning of the second half of

the body, lay just in front of the large holdfast organ consisting of a raised margin

surrounding an irregular concavity. This pit, lined with cuticle bearing minute

spines, was supported by a few large clear cells, and the tissue surrounding it

contained small dark-staining nuclei (figs. 4, 5).

‘The brain (fig. 6) consisted of two cerebral masses connected dorsally by a

wide commissure. An anterior nerve was traced forwards for a short distance,

and a posterior nerve as far back as the excretory bladder. Granular unicellular

glands were seen scattered throughout the body and opening directly on the

surface. A small group of them was present in the base of the anterior sucker.

‘The reproductive system was represented by a group of cells lying mesially,

posterior to the holdfast organ. Transverse and longitudinal muscle fibres could

be seen readily in living specimens and were strongly developed on the ventral

surface just anterior to the holdfast organ.

The exerctory bladder consisted of two ventro-lateral halves connected by

a dorsal median portion opening dorsally on the hind body (figs. 2,3). The main

vessels (fig. 1) arose from the lateral margins of the two halves of the bladder

and continued forwards until just in front of the level of the ventral sucker. With

them were connected both the primary and secondary excretory systems. The

main tube of the former arose at the level of the posterior margin of the ventral

sucker and was somewhat J-shaped. It contained ihree ciliated areas. Its short

stem divided into an ascending and a descending tubule. The latter passed

posteriorly almost beyond the bladder, then was directed forwards and gave rise

to flame cells, usually in groups of three. he anterior tubules travelled forwards

and appeared to end alongside the anterior sucker. The flame cells and their

connections seen by us are indicated in fig. 1. In the study of the cercaria stage

we were unable to observe ciliated areas corresponding to those in the main tube

of the primary excretory system of the diplostomulum, but this may have been due

to the large penetration gland cells obscuring their presence. In the secondary

excretory system a transverse canal connected the two main exeretory ducts just

in front of the ventral sucker. From this canal arose on each side an ascending

and a descending branch, the latter terminating at the level of the bladder, the

former becoming continuous near the anterior sucker with its fellow from the

opposite side and with a vertical median branch passing back to join the transverse

canal. From the latter also arose a median posterior tubule lying above the region

of the ventral sucker and holdfast organ. ‘The calcareous concretions associated

233

Diplostomulum murrayense

Fig. 1, Compressed specimen, showing excretory system; 2, dorsal view; 3, longitudinal

section; 4-6, transverse sections. All drawings except fig. 1 were made with the aid of a

camera lucida; figs. 3 to 6 were drawn to the scale beside fig. 3. b, brain; e, exeretory

pore; eb, part of excretory bladder; g, unicellular gland cells; hf, holdfast organ;

i, intestine; n, longitudinal nerve cord; p, pharynx

234

with these tubules were circular in outline, and were found io vary in size in one

specimen, and in number and arrangement in different diplostomula. Blind

branches of the tubules were sometimes noticed containing no concretions.

The following are the measurements of ten diplostomula killed by adding

to the water containing them an equal volume of boiling 10% formalin: length

of body 231 p-392 4, mean 2964; breadth of body 1544-215 4, mean 177 »;

length of anterior sucker 22 4-43, mean 34,; breadth of anterior sucker

42 w-51 w, mean 47 »; length of ventral sucker 30 »-37 w, mean 344; breadth of

ventral sucker 34 p-47 », mean 394; length of holdfast organ 71 4; breadth of

holdfast organ 79 p.

In the original account the cercaria was stated to be closely related to an

American form, C. flextcauda Cort & Brooks (1928), whose later stages were

investigated by Van Haitsma (1931). He showed that the diplostomulum

developed in the crystallme lens of a freshwater fish and had been described by

Hughes and Berkhout in 1929 as D. gigas. Van Haitsma gave an account of the

adult stage obtained experimentally from North American gulls and compared it

with the related specics, Diplostomum huronense (also from American gulls) and

DD. spathacewm from European gulls.

Cercaria murrayensis is obviously very closely related to C. helvetica XIII

of Dubois (1929; 1938), 1.e., Cercaria C. of Szidat (1924; 1927) which develops

into Diplostemulum volvens Nordmann in the lens of certain European fish and

later, in gulls, into Diplostomum spathaceum (Rud.). The two cereariae ditfer

chiefly in the number and arrangement of the “caudal bodies.” Dubois (1938, 178)

refers to several species of related cercariae, the adults (where known) occurring

in gulls.

The diplostomulum described in this paper shows, as one would expect from

the foregoing remarks, considerable similarity to D, huronense as described by

Hughes and Hall (1929), D. brownit Hughes (1929), D. gigas Hughes and Berk-

hout (1929) (ve., D. flexicaudum), and to some described by Van Cleave and

Mueller (1934, 238-245) from the eyes of freshwater fish in New York State.

The resemblance is closest to D. brown and 1D, gigas, The average length and

breadth of 2. murrayense lic about midway between those of these two North

American species ; but the holdfast organ is much larger in relation to body-length

and the sucker ratio is 1-2, whereas it is 1:03 in 72. brewni and 1:06 in D. gigas.

Cort and Brackett (1937) recorded the occurrence of precocious development of

D, flexicaudum in the species of pond snails (Limnaca spp.) in which the cercaria

stage is produced. Hughes (1929), Van Haitsma (1931) and Dubois (1938)

have indicated that La Rue’s (1926) name Prealaria as applied to the spathaceuim

group of Strigeidae must be suppressed in favour of Diplostomum, ‘originally,

applied by Nordmann to a larval stage (D. volvens), the term Diplostomulum

being reserved for the metacercaria stage occurring in the eyes of fish.

La Rue, Butler and Berkhout (1926) gave a concise survey of the recorded

occurrences of strigeid larvae in the eves of freshwater fish in Europe and North

235

America. They also published a list of fish found to be infected naturally in Lake

Michigan, together with the degree and percentage of infection. Nordmann

(1832) is reported to have found Diblostomum volvens so abundant in the eyes

of freshwater fish in Europe during the summer as to cause cataract. This

parasite is now known to be the larva of D. spathacewm and is very closely related

to D. murrayense which appears to be its Australian representative. Steenstrup

(1842) was the next to refer to similiar occurrences of such trematodes. Salzer

(1907} gave an account of the pathogenic effects of D. volvens on the lens of

trout. Blochmann (1910) referred to the death of various kinds of aquarium fish

due to invasion, both natural and experimental, of Cercaria fissicauda Val. (which

is probably the larva of D. spathaceumt).

Szidat (1924) gave an account of his Cercaria C. which he showed, devcloped

into Diplostomum. volvens in the eyes of freshwater fish and later into the adult

stage in European gulls. The effect on fish was to produce more or less turbidity

in the lens, but when the invasion was too heavy death was caused. Entry took

place through the body surface, but the scales and bones limited the penetration

into the soft tissues; the brain, bload-vessels and other organs were invaded for

a short time, but the final destination in the fish was the eye, chiefly the lens.

In 1926 Ward and Mueller described a “pop eye” disease of trout fry. Next

year Szidat (1927) gave an account of mortality of Acerima and Leuciscus due

to marked cerebral haemorrhages caused by the penetration of the furcocercaria.

In 1928 Cort and Brooks in describing C. flericauda and some others mentioned

that these larvae were able to penetrate into fish and became localised in the lens

as Diplostomum. Hughes and Berkhout (1929) reported that D. gigas (closely

related to D. spathaceum), which infests the lens of North American fish, caused

impairment of vision, heavily infected lenses becoming flaccid and mis-shapen,

the digestive system of the diplostomula containing a highly refractive granular

substance derived from the lens material.

Haitsma (1931) traced experimentally the complete life cycle of C. flexicauda,

showed that D. gigas was a synonym of D. flericaudion and that the latter was

closely related to, but distinct from, ). spathacewm from European gulls. Ie

gave an account of the pathology of the invasion of fish eyes (p. 507-510), the

parasite (when invading in great numbers) being regarded as an important cause

of mortality amongst freshwater fish in North America. Davis (1936b) studied

the penetration of C. flexicauda into fish and tadpoles through the general surface,

thence into the blood-vessels, heart, brain, eyes, muscles, liver, gills, kidney and

digestive tract; death being caused by haemorrhages, though paralysis (due to

invasiun of the nerve centres) was at times contributory. Davis (1936a) also

showed that the cercaria produced a histolytic ferment which permitted penetration

of the tissues of the host.

The adult stage of Diplostomium murrayense will almost certainly be found

to be a parasite in the rectum or cloaca of a lariform bird, most probably the

silver gull, Larus novaehollandiae. Some strigeids are known from Australian

gulls and terns but, as yet, no species of Diplostomum (s. str.) has been reported

236

from them, though Krull (1934) obtained Neodiplostomum pricei from Larus

novachollandiae (bred in Washington D.C., U.S.A.) by experimental feeding

with fish containing metacercariae ; the adult form was transferred to Mesoophoro-

diplostomum by Dubois (1936) who has since recorded it (1938) as a parasite of

a North American gull, Larus delawarensis.

Grateful acknowledgment is made of gencrous assistance given by Messrs.

G. and F. Jacnsch, of Tailem Bend. Our work was made possible by a research

grant from the Commonwealth to the University of Adelaide.

REFERENCES

Those marked with an asterisk were not available

BLocHMANN, ]*. 1910 Sterben von Aquarienfischen durch Einwanderung von

Cercaria fissicauda La Val. Centr. f. Bakt. Orig., 56, 47-49

Cort, W. W., and Bracxetr, 5. 1937 Two new species of Strigeid cercariae

from the Douglas Lake region, Michigan. Journ. Parasit., 23, 265-280

Cort, W. W., and Brackett, 5S. 1937 Precocious development of the meta-

cercaria stage of Diplostomum flexicaudum in the snail intermediate host.

Journ., Parasit., 28, 545-546

Corr, W. W., and Brooks, S. T. 1928 Studies on the holostome cereariae from

Douglas Lake, Michigan. Tr. Amer. Micr. Soc., 47, 179-221

Davis, D. J. 1936a Report on the preparation of an histolytic ferment present

in the bodies of cercariae. Journ. Parasit., 22, 108-110

Davis, D. J. 1936b Pathological studies on the penetration of the cercaria

of the Strigeid trematode, Diplostomum flexicaudum. Journ. Parasit.,

22, 329-337

Dvsois, G. 1929 Les Cercaires de la region de Neuchatel. Bull. Soc. Neuchat.

Sci. Nat., 53, 1-177

Dupors, G. 1938 Monographie des Strigeida (Trematoda). Mem. Soc. Neu-

chat. Sci. Nat., 6, 535 pp.

Hvuatxs, R. C. 1929 Studies on the trematode family Strigeidae (Holo-

stomidae}, No. XIV. Two new species of Diplostomula. Occas. Pap.

Mus. Zool, Univ. Michigan, No. 202, 1-28

Hucues, R. C., and Berxuour, P. G. 1929 Studies on the trematode family

Strigeidae (Ilolostomidae), No. XV. Diplostomulum gigas sp. nov.

Pap. Michigan Acad. Sci., 10, 483-488

Huenes, R. C., and Haut, L. J. 1929 Studies, etc, No. XVI. Diplostomulum

huronense (La Rue). Pap. Michigan Acad. Sci., 10, 489-494

Jounston, T. H., and CLeranp, E. R. 1938 Larval trematodes from Australian

terrestrial and freshwater molluscs. Part IV. Cercaria (Furcocercaria)

murrayensis n.sp. Tr. Roy, Soc, S. Aust., 62, (1), 127-131

237

La Ruz, G. R., Butier, E. P., and BerKuout, P. G. 1926 Studies on the

trematode family Strigeidae. No. IV. The eye of fishes, an important

habitat for larval Strigeidae. Tr. Amer. Micr. Soc., 45, 282-288

Sarzer, F* 1907 Anatomische Untersuchungen iiber den Wurmstar der Fische.

Arch. f. Augenheilk., Wiesbaden, 58, 19-39, Referate in Cent. f. Bakt.

Ref., 39, 204

Szipat, L. 1924 Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Holostomiden., Il.

Entwicklung der Cercaria C. Zool. Anz., 61, 249-266

Szipat, I..* 1927 Ueber ein Fischsterben im Kurischen Haff und seine Ursachen,

Z. Fischerei, Berlin, 25, 83-90

Smipat, L.* 1928 Ueber cin Massenfischsterben im Kurischen Haff, Schr.

Phys.-okon. Ges., Konigsberg, 65, 245-247

Van CLeave, H. J., and Muerer, J. F. 1934 Parasites of Oneida Lake fishes.

Part III. A biological and ecological survey of the worm parasites.

Roosevelt Wild Life Annals, 3, 161-334

Van Hartsma, J. P. 1931 Studies on the trematode family Strigeidae (Holo-

stomidae). No. XXIII. Diplostomum flexicaudum (Cort and Brooks)

and stages in its life history. Pap. Michigan Acad. Sci., 13, 483-516

Warp, H. B., and Muetter, J. F.* 1926 A new pop-eye disease of trout-fry.

Arch. {. Schiffs. u. Tropenhyg., 30, 602-609

A NEW SPECIES OF THE FAMILY NEPTICULIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA)

By J. O. WILSON

Summary

Owing to the small size of these minute insects, which rightly have been classed as the smallest of

the Lepidoptera, much patience is needed for their study. They are extremely difficult to see and

handle, and therefore have been much overlooked, but are evidently much more numerous than

appears at present.

238

A NEW SPECIES OF THE FAMILY NEPTICULIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA)

By J. O. Wirson

[Read 14 September 1939]

Owing to the small size of these minute insects, which rightly have been

classed as the smallest of the Lepidoptera, much patience is needed for their study.

They are extremely difficult to see and handle, and therefore have becn much

overlooked, but are evidently much more numerous than appears at present.

J. 9 . WILSON,

Sc+R,

Fig. 1

The Nepticulidae are generally easy of recognition by the rough-haired head,

the large scape which is concave beneath and forms the eyceap, and the neuration

which is much degraded and of peculiar construction.

The larvae, so far as is known, are all leaf miners, usually pupating outside

the mine.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

239

The material for this paper, which comprises four examples of the follow-

ing species, was taken by the University of Adelaide Anthropological Expedition

to the Warburton Ranges in August, 1935. As these specimens were dry and

there was little hope of successful setting, three have been mounted on cover

glasses—which allows inspection from all angles—and the fourth used for

dissection.

Nepticula warburtonensis n. sp

4, 2%, 3-4 mm. Head yellowish-ochreous. Antennae %, ochreous. Eyecap

whitish-ochreous, large and smooth, Thorax ochreous. Patagia pale ochreous

posteriorly with brown-black scales. Forewings lanceolate, costa arched then

straight to apex, pale ochreous, irrorated throughout with brownish-black scales.

Vein R, absent or coincident with R,. Cilia pale ochreous with scattered

brownish-black scales near apex. Hindwings lanceolate with costa arched then

concave to apex, light fuscous, cilia light fuscous.

Four specimens, coll. Wilson. No. 1 type, Nos. 2 and 3 paratypes, No. 4

dissected.

‘The evidence obtained from a study of descriptions of known Australian

species indicates a close association superficially with N. chalcitis Meyr., from

Western Australia. Detailed anatomical studies of many of the species is, how-

ever, lacking, and therefore correlation as to form and especially neuration must

stand in abeyance.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many thanks are due to Professor M. |. Mitchell, University of Adelaide,

for use of special microscopic apparatus; also Dr. Hackett of the University

Anthropological Expedition, and to Mr. Womersley and Mr. N. ‘Vindale of the

South Australian Museum, for help and criticism.

REFERENCES

Imus, A. D. 1936 Textbook of Entomology, revised

Meyrick, E. 1906 Descriptions of Australian Tineina. Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 30, 56

Meveicx, E, 1926 Revised Handbook of British Lepidoptera

Mevrercx, E. Exotic Microlepidoptera

Tittyarp, R. J. 1926 Insects of Australia and New Zealand

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

NO. 38

By J. M. BLACK, A.LS.

Summary

SCHIZAEACEAE

Schizaea dichotoma (L.) Sm. In drying swamp inland from Tunkalilla Beach; Dec. 1938, J. B.

Cleland. A new record for South Australia. Also in New South Wales, Queensland, New Zealand

and tropical Asia and America. Small specimens, the leaves 9-12 cm. long, 2-5 times

dichotomously divided, the segments about 1 mm. broad and slightly channelled.

240

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

No. 38

By J. M. Brack, A.L.S.

[Read 14 September 1939]

SCILIZAEACEAE

Schizaca dichotoma (1..) Sm. In drying swamp inland from Tunkalilla

Beach; Dec. 1938, J. B. Cleland. A new record for South Australia. Also in

New South Wales, Queensland, New Zealand and tropical Asia and America.

Small specimens, the leaves 9-12 cm. long, 2-5 times dichotomously divided,

the segments about 1 mm. broad and slightly channelled.

GRAMINEAE

Panicum Whitet J. M. Black, in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 41:632, t. 39

(1917), and pl. i, FL. S. Aust., 59 (1922). Differs from P. decompositum R. Br.

in panicle-branches slender, not rigid, the lowest one always solitary and the

upper ones cither solitary or in pairs or threes, the leaf-sheaths, or at least the

upper ones, beset with long spreading hairs seated on tubercles, and the fruiting

glume more prominently nerved, P. decompositum is glabrous; the panicle-

branches are rigid and brittle, and the lower ones are clustered or whorled round

the rhachis.

A type-specimen of P. Whitei was submitted in 1917 to the late Dr. O. Stapf,

then principal agrostologist at Kew, who at first accepted it as a new species, but

subscquently decided that it was a form of P. decompositum, and his opinion was

followed by me in the Fl. S. Aust. 5. T. Blake, of the Biology Department of the

University of Queensland, has recently found P. Whitei growing in the districts

of Western Queensland, north of our border, where it is known as Pepper Grass

or Pigeon Grass. He considers that the two species are quite distinct in the field

and in the herbarium.

In South Australia P. Whitei has been collected on Cooper and Strzelecki

Creeks, 1916, S. A, White; Pandie Pandie, on Diamantina River, 1934, /. B.

Cleland, and at Cootanoorina, W. of Warrina (Tate Herbarium as P. effusumn).

P. decompositum is common in our far-northern and north-eastern districts. In

Queensland, according to Mr. Blake, it is called Star Grass or Windmill Grass;

E. Breakwell, in his “Grasses and Fodder Plants of New South Wales,” gives

it the name of Native Millet.

Amphibromus recurvatus J. R. Swallen. Vivonne Bay, K.1., “in swamp,”

Dec. 1934, J. B. Cleland. First record for the island. Hitherto this species has

only been found in Tasmania and in our South-East.

Zoisia Matrella (L.) Merrill. Robe, Jan. 1938, Miss C. M. Eardley. First

record outside Kangaroo Island.

Trans. Roy. Soc. 8.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

241

*Schismus arabicus Nees. Marree, Aug. 1932, J. B. Cleland. Determined

by C. E. Hubbard, of Kew.—Western Asia and North Africa.

Scareely differs externally from *S. barbatus (L.) Juel (S. calycimus

(Loefl.) Coss. et Dur.), but the flowers are different. The flowering glume is

oblong-lanceolate, 34 mm. long, and divided to one-third, or almost to the

middle into two acute lobes, and the palea is only about two-thirds as long.

In S. barbatus the flowering glume is broadly ovate, 2 mm. long, and is

divided to about one-sixth of its length by a short notch, with two short sub-

obtuse lobes, and the palca is as long as the flowering glume. S. arabicus has

only been found at Marrec; §. barbatus is distributed all over our dry North.

Perotis rara, R. Br. var. euryphylla, Domin. Macdonald Downs, C.A., March

1936, Miss Jean Chalmers. Recorded in these Transactions 62: 352 (1938) as

P. indica (L.) O. Kuntze. Mr. C, E. Hubbard, to whom a specimen was sub-

mitted, considers that P. rara is distinguished irom the Indian species by longer

outer glumes, narrower leai-blades and looser spikes. Glume | is about 7 mm.

long (without the long awn), and glume IT is about 5 mm. long, while in P. indica

the length of the glumes is 14-24 mm. In the var. euryphylla the leaves are

relatively broader (3-4 mm. broad) the outer glumes scabrous-ciliate on the

nudnerve.

Stipa

Stipa tenuiglumis Hughes. Kingscote, Rocky River; Eleanor River (all

Kangaroo Island), J. B. Cleland. Some of these island specimens have very

slender stems and leaf-blades, glume I only about 10 nim. long and glume I] about

7 mm. long, the awn very slender and the column about 15 mm. long. Among

our numerous specimens from the southern parts of the State I find it impossible to

distinguish satisfactorily S. compacta, Ilughes from S. fenuiglunis.

S. effusa Wughes. Resembles S. tenwighwnis, but is placed by Miss Hughes

in section Aphanoneurae because oi the very short lateral nerves of glume IL.

Nodes brawn, glabrous, usually 3-4 on the glabrous stem; glume I about 9 mm.

long, sub-3-nerved; glume II 7-8 mm. long, sub-5-nerved; flowering glume 5 mm.

long, including callus of about 1 mm.; awn very slender, 4-5 cm. long; column

about 1 cm. long; bristle straight,

Overland Corner (River Murray); Moolooloo, Hawker (Flinders Range).

‘The type came from Lachlan River, New South Wales. A new record for South

Australia.

S. variegata Summerhayes ct Hubbard is in the description distinguished

from S. pubescens R. Br., by the column of awn only about 1 cm. long, but an

examination of a co-type from Sandergrove, near Lake Alexandrina, retained

by Professor Cleland, shows that the column is 2 to 24 cm. long, just as in

S. pubescens R. Br. and S. eremophila Reader. In our specimens of the latter

species the column varies from 2 to 3 cm. in length, and in S. pubescens from

2 to 44cm.

An exactly similar specimen was collected at Sandergrove by O. E. Menzel

some 40 years ago, but the flowering glume is riper and golden-pubescent, so that

242

S. variegata appears to be a form of S. eremophila, of which it has also the rather

loose panicle, 10-30 cm. long.

There is little to distinguish S. pubescens from S. eremophila, except that

the latter species has a looser panicle and its flowering glume becomes, when ripe,

pubescent with golden or reddish-brown hairs, while that of S. pubescens remains

white-pubescent. But some specimens have only the callus golden-pubescent,

while the flowering glume proper is whitish. Bentham considered specimens of

eremophila as a form of pubescens, A co-type of S. eremophila, collected by

Reader at Borung, Victoria, has glume [ 18-21 mm. long and glume If 13-15 mm.,

while Miss Llughes records, in Kew Bull., 1922, p. 18, a specimen of S. pubescens

with glume I only 14-15 mm. long.

Stipa hemipogon Benth. |-eaves chiefly basal, the long blades erect, filiform-

involute, the sheaths more or less pubescent; ligule short, ciliate; nodes pubescent ;

panicle dense, narrow, 20-30 cm. long; glume I 14-15 mm. long, 3-nerved;

glume IT 13-14 mm. long, sub-5-nerved; flowering glume 6 mm. long (including

callus of 2 mm.), white-pubescent; awn about 54 cm. tong, the column 16-17 mm.

long, unilaterally plumose, the long hairs continued along one side of the bristle

for about half its length. (Tig. 3.)

Minnipa, E.P., Nov. 1915 J. Wf. B. A new record for South Australia. The

type came from Western Australia. Our specimens have a longer panicle and

rather longer awns than in the typical description.

S. bigeniculata Hughes, which was recorded in Fl. S. Aust., 671, should be

deleted for this State, as the plants thus named have proved, on a closer investiga-

tion of our specimens of this difficult genus, to be chiefly referable to S. arisii-

ghimis.

CYPERACEAE

Schoenus racemosus n. sp. Rhizoma repens, squamis duris brunneis nitidis

striatis obtectum; culmi teretes, simplices, enodes, rigidi, erecti, 12-30 cm. longi,

1 mm. diam.; folia non evoluta, prope basin culmi sita, inferiores squamis rhizo-

matis subsimiles, 1-2 sunimac clausae, arctae, ore dense lanato-barbatae, in

laminam brevissimam (5-10 mm. longam), rigidam, subulatam desinentes;

inflorescentia racemosa, angusta, densa, 2-4 em. longa; bracteace 3-4 (raro 1-2),

folio summo subsimiles, pedicellos breves erectos singulos usque quaternos sufful-

cicntes; spiculae 1-10, fusco-brunneae, anguste lanceolatae, 9-13 mm. longae,

2mm. latae, 1-florae; glumae margine dense ciliato- lanatae, inferiores vacuae 3-4,

mucrone 2-25 mm. longo pracditae; gluma florifera 7-8 mm. longa, acuminato-

cuspidata; supra florem sunt plerumque 2 glumac vacuac, summa tabescens;

stamina 3; antherae lineares, connectivo in appendicem brevem rubram producto ;

nux alba, obovoidea, obscure trigona, transversim rugosa, 2 mm. longa; setae

hypogynae nullae. (Tab, x, fig. 1.)

S. Aust.—Koonibba, E.P., Aug. 1928, J. B. Cleland; Chance’s Line (on

reserve 7 miles south-east of Hartley and near Lake Alexandrina), Oct. 1938,

J.B. Cleland.

243

Mr. S. T. Blake, of the Queensland University, who is revising Cyperaceae,

has kindly assisted me in the elucidation of this species. He writes: “The species

is to be placed in the section Nudicaules recently proposed by Kitkenthal, which

is characterised chiefly by the reduced leaves, the racemose or semipaniculate

inflorescence, the usually ciliate margins of the glumes and the usually nodeless

stems. (It is part of Bentham’s series Paniculatae). The other South Australian

species belonging to the section are Sch. laevigalus W. V. Fitzg. (1903-4) =

Sch. brachyphyllus F.v.M. (1875) and Sch. carsei Cheeseman (1906) =

Sch. monocarpus Black (1928), the former of which has mostly 1-noded stems

and much more obtuse glumes, while the latter has glabrous glumes and a smooth

nut. The nearest ally appears to be the Western Australian Sch. caespilitius W. V.

Fitzg., which, according to the description, has a similar inflorescence, woolly

orifice to the leaf-sheaths, and rugose nuts, but differs in the cacspitose habit,

more numerous glumes and the presence of hypogynous bristles.” Mueller’s

name of brachyphylius is much earlier than Fitzgerald’s but Blake considers that

Mueller’s short differentiation in Fragm. 9:29 does not constitute a valid

publication.

Schoenus deformis (R. Br.) Poir—Cape Spencer, Y.P., April 1936, J. Bb.

Cleland. A new locality.

LILIACEAE

Lomandra sororia (F. v. M.) Ewart. Leaves 15-30 cm. long, filiform, striate,

scabrous, scarcely 1 mm, broad; flowers crect, in a short dense raceme 2-3 cm.

long, the males subsessile, the females on short peduncles; segments acute or

acuminate, the male ones about 24 mm. long, the filaments broad and those

opposite the inner segments are adnate to them; female perianth 34-4 mm. long.

Mount Lofty; Chain of Ponds; Carey’s Gully.—Victoria; New South Wales;

Queensland.

iys very slender, less rigid, and in

ERRATUM

ee , along road from Cape Jervis to

: ipti qus racemosus inser .

In line three of description of Schoenus raceniosus w locality.

“vaginae” before “inferiores.

restio coniprandfus R. Br. Slender specimens with few spikelets; perianth

of four segments in both sexcs, all the male segments narrow, the two outer ones

of the female flowers narrow, folded and keeled, the two inner ones broad

and flat; capsule flat, opening along the margins, 2 mm. long by 25 mm. broad,

2-celled, or one cell sometimes abortive, seeds ovoid, white 14 mm. long. Differs

from the following in the stems flattened, 2-3 mm. broad, and in the absence of

barren branches proceeding from the stem. According to Mueller the stems in

eastern specimens vary from 2 to 6 mm. in breadth.

Bulls Creek, Flinders Chase, K.1., Dec. 1934; J. B. Cleland.

Restio tetraphyllus Labill. Stems stiff, slender-cylindrical, with sheathing

bracts appressed, becoming brown, 1-2 em. long, the middle bracts producing

244

filiform much-divided barren branches 10-15 cm. long, the barren branchlets

with minute distant leaves or scales, of which the sheaths and subulate blades are

each about 2 mm. long.

Sphagnum bog near Millicent; March 1939; KR. L. Crocker—Both species

occur also in the eastern States and Tasmania. They have been previously

recorded from our South-East, but these appear to be the first herbarium

specimens known in South Australia.

PROTEACEAE

Grevillea muricata n.sp. Fruticulus; ramuli rigidi foliaque juvenilia

pubescentes; folia adulta dense muricata, glabrescentia, alterna, patentia, teretia,

rigida, obtusa, mucronulata, 7-10 mm, longa, 13 mm. diam., subtus 1-sulcata,

marginibus arcte revolutis paginam inferiorem lanatam tegentibus ; flores axillares,

saepius solitarii; pedicellus 3-5 mm. longus, duabus bracteis munimis sulfultus ;

perianthium rubellum, dense tomentosum, tubo 9-10 mm. longo, superne angustato,

inferne ampliato, intus puberulo ct pilis deflexis prope basin circumbarbato, limbo

recurvo, globoso; torus fere rectus, ovarium villosum, brevissime slipitatum ;

glandula hypogyna inconspicua, annularis; stylus 18-20 mm. longus, ommino

pilosus, disco stigmatico laterali; fructus ovoideo-oblongus, circa 12 mm. longus,

tomentosus. (Fig. 4.)

Between Vivonne Bay and Kingscote, Nov. 1924, /. B. Cleland; Birchmore

Lagoon and near Western Cove, K.I., Nov. 1886, J. G. O. Tepper.

The leaves have the same muricate surface as in G. Rogersii Maiden, but

differ in shape, being terete, obtuse with a short point, longer and not clustered.

The flowers differ in the denscly tomentose perianth and style, the almost straight

torus and the annular hypogynous gland. It should probably be placed in section

Ptychocarpa.

Grevillea aspera R. Br. Specimens from Wilpena Pound, at first collected

without flowers, were mistakenly determined by me in these Trans. 61: 242

(1937) as G. oleoides Sieb. When flowers are present G. aspera can be recog-

nised by its very short, thick, clavate style, only 46 mm. long, The leaves in

some specimens are devoid of the wart-like asperities which gave the species its

name. Although usually 3-7 cm. long by 2-4 mm. broad, some of the leaves in

northern specimens are 10 cm. long and 10 mm. broad.

POLYGONACEAE

Rumex dumosus A. Cunn. Iron Knob, E.P.; Nov. 1936; J. B. Cleland.

A new locality.

[LEGUMINOSAE

Acacia confluens Maiden et Blakely in Journ. Roy. Soc, N.S.W., 60: 183,

t. 16, figs. 1-7 (1927).

The first reference to this plant is in Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 22: 109

(1898) in “A list of plants collected on Mount Lyndhurst Run by Max Koch”

245

(the determinations being by J. H. Maiden and R. Tate), as follows: “Acacia

retinodes Schlecht., Wattle. Aboriginal name, [Vecrilda.”

Some 19 years later Maiden described it as a new species, adding: “Wyrilda

of the Mount Lyndhurst blacks, by whom the seeds are eaten (Max Koch,

No. 48).”

By the courtesy of the Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney (Mr.

R. H. Anderson) I have seen the type, which has not been re-discovered during

the past 40 years. The thick pod and the long and distant peduncles (12-18 mim.

long) show an external resemblance to those ot A. salicina, but the flowers and

funicle are those of A. retinedes. The pods are 10-20 cm. long, or rather more,

8-10 mm. broad, while the longest I have seen on our southern specimens of

retinodes are 15 cm. jong and 6-7 mm. broad. Bentham, however, describes the

pod of retinodes as 3-8 inches by 3-4 lines (74 to 204 cm. long by 6-8 mm. broad).

A, confluens may be merely a thick-podded form of A. relinodes.

Acacia gracilifolia Maiden et Blakely, Le. p. 191, t. 18, fig. 9-14 (1927), also

lent for examination, has not been collected since its original discovery by our late

Conservator of Forests, Mr. Walter Gill, in 1900 in the Flinders Range (no exact

locality). It somewhat resembles A. Menselii, but the phyllodes are more slender,

longer, frequently curved and appear to droop. The flowers have almost all fallen;

the common receptacle or summit of the peduncle is about 2 mm. long, so that

the species appears to be one of those intermediate between the globular-headed

and spicate-headed Acacias. Both species were shortly described in Fl. S. Aust.,

688.

Gastrolobium clachistum F. vy, M. Fragm, 9:67 (1875) = Pultenaca

cymbifolia, J. M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 39:96, t. 10 (1915), Mr.

C. A. Gardner, during his stay at Kew, observed that the specimens under these

two namcs were indistinguishable. This is confirmed by the examination of a

specimen of G. elachistum, from “Eucla, $.A., Oliver” (no date), presented to

the Tate Herbarium by Mueller. As far as now known its distribution is:

Kangaroo Island (between Kingseote and Cassini); near Eucla on the Great

Bight, and westward to Israelite Bay and Salmon Gums in Western Australia.

STERCULIACEAE

Gilesia biniflora EF. v. M. Fragm. 9:42 (1875) = Herimannia Gilesii,

F.v. M. Le.; Fl. S. Aust., 693 (1929) ; Corchorus longipes, Tate in Trans. Roy.

Soc. 5. Aust.; 22:119 (1898); Humenocapsa longipes (Tate) J. M. Black in

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49: 273 (1925); FL S. Aust., 371, t. 163 (1926).

New South Wales—along River Darling, between Wilcannia and Pooncarra,

May 1939, Col. Butler, I don’t know whether this plant has been previously

recorded for New South Wales; it is not mentioned in Moore & Betche’s

Fl. N.S.W. (1893), or in Maiden & Betche’s Cens. N.S.W. Plants (1916).

Apparently rare, though widcly distributed, it has now been found at

Charlotte Waters, C. Aust., EZ. Giles (1874) ; Eucla, W. Aust., J. D. Bett (1889);

Mount Lyndhurst Run, S. Aust., 42. Koch (1898), and this year on the Darling.

246

A specimen from the Darling was sent to the Kew Herbarium, where it was

named as above. The Director (Sir Arthur Ill) adds: “We have not made a

detailed investigation of this species, but Gélesia is probably generically distinct

from the African Hermannia,”’

The principal distinction appears to be that Gilesia has free, narrow-linear

filaments, while Herimannia has broad flat filaments, united at least towards the

base and usually much dilated in some portion of their length. The seed of

Hermannia is described as having the radicle next the lulum; in Gilesia biniflora

the hilum lics midway between the radicle and the chalazal end of the seed. The

seeds are pendulous and the radicle turned inwards towards the placenta.

(fig. 2.)

Helichrysum decurrens F. vy. M. Fragm. 8:44 (1873) = HA. retusum Sond. et

F. v. M. Fragm. 8:46 (1873) non Spreng. Syst. 3:484 (1826); Osothamnaus'

relusus Sond, et F. v. M. in Linnaea 25:510 (1852) ; H. adnatum, Benth. Il. Aust.

3:628 (1866) pro parte.

South Australia—Harrogate; Strathalbyn; Nuriootpa; Goolwa; Pinnaroo;

Lameroo; Karoonda; Wynarka; Murray Bridge; Kangaroo Island; Gladstone;

Stansbury, Y.P.; Port Lincoln, Yeelanna, E.P. The specimens from Kangaroo

Island have broader leaves, showing more of the white undersurface——Also in

Victoria and New South Wales.

My reasons for treating H. decurrens and I. retusum as one species, and

ff, adnatum Benth. as distinct, were given in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 40: 74

(1916) but the name then adopted and in the FL S. Aust. was A. retusum. Under

the International Rules of 1935 H. retusum Sond. et F. v. M. is now illegitimate,

being a later homonym of HZ. retusum Spreng.

Var. scabrum (Benth.) nov. comb, Varies in the longer leaves (5-30 mm.

long and barely 1 mm. broad), very scabrous with stiff short hairs on the upper

surface, the upper leaves erect or erect-spreading —Osothamnus scaber Vl. v. M.

in Linnaea, 25:407 (1852); A. adnatum var. scabrum Benth. Fl. Aust., 3: 629

(1866).

Flinders Range. The type of O. scaber was collected by Mueller in October

1851, at Crystal Brook, Cudnaka and Ultonulta. The last two names are not

known in the Land Office today, but probably Cudnaka is an early form of

Wanyaka. On other labels signed by Mueller it is quoted as near Arkaba. Exactly

similar specimens have been collected in recent years on the hills near Ilawker

and Quorn. It has sometimes been confused with Cassinia aculeata,

EXPLANATION OF FIGS. 1-4

Fig. 1) Schocnus racemosns—A, the plant; B, spikelet; C, nut.

Fig. 2 Gilesia biniflora—D, upper part of one valve of the capsule with two seeds in position

and bisected Jongitudinally.

Fig. 3) Supa hemipogon—k, awn; fF, outer glumes.

Fig. 4—Grevillea muricata—G, branch; FH, perianth spread open.

247

Stipa hemtpogon; 4, Grevillea muricata

Gilesia biniflora;

Schoenus racemosus,;

THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL SKULL:

ITS NON-METRICAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

By FRANK J. FENNER, M.B., B.S.

Honorary Craniologist, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, South Australia

Summary

In 1931 Wood Jones (31) pointed out the importance of non-metrical morphological features in the

study of the racial characters of the human skull. He drew up a scheme for the description of these

features, and in later papers (32) (33) (34) (37) analysed several series of skulls according to this

scheme. Krogman (16), in 1932, described the Australian aboriginal skulls housed in the Royal

College of Surgeons Museum, England, following Wood Jones's arrangement. As Krogman noted,

his series was too small to determine whether any geographical variation in these features occurred.

For this reason, and because Krogman's study did not appear adequate in certain respects, this work,

which comprises the detailed examination of 1,182 adult Australian aboriginal crania, was

undertaken. The geographical distribution of these skulls is as shown below:

248

THE AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL SKULL:

ITS NON-METRICAL MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS

By Franx J. Fenner, M.B., BS.

Honotary Craniologist, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, South Australia

[Read 14 September 1939]

PLATES X& AND XI

In 1931 Wood Jones (31) pointed out the importance of non-metrical

morphological features in the study of the racial characters of the human skull.

He drew up a scheme ior the description of these features, and in later papers

(32) (33) (34) (37) analysed several series of skulls according to this scheme.

Krogman (16), in 1932, described the Australian aboriginal skulls housed in the

Royal College of Surgeons Museum, Ingland, following Wood Jones’s arrange-

ment. As Krogman noted, his series was too small to determine whether any

geographical variation in these features occurred. Tor this reason, and because

Krogman’s study did not appear adequate in certain respects, this work, which

comprises the detailed examination of 1,182 adult Australian aboriginal crania,

was undertaken. The geographical distribution of these skulls is as shown

below:

State Male Female

South Australia = - - - - 291 271

Victoria - - - - - 103 90

New South Wales - - - 106 &2

Northern ‘Territory - - - 94 66

Queensland - - - - - 59 47

Western Australia - - - 19 8

Pathological skulls, skulls of children, and specimens from unknown

localities were excluded from the series. The skulls examined are housed in the

following institutions: South Australian Muscum, Adelaide; Museums of the

Department of Anatomy, University of Adelaide; National Museum, Melbourne ;

Muscum of the Department of Anatomy, University of Melbourne; Australian

Museum, Sydney; Australian Institute of Anatomy, Canberra.

T owe sincere thanks to Professor F. Wood Jones, late of the University of

Melbourne; Dr. C. S. Mead, late of the University of Adelaide; Mr. D. J.

Mahony, Director of the National Museum, Melbourne; Dr. C. Anderson,

Director of the Australian Muscum, Sydney; the late Sir Colin Mackenzie, who

was Director of the Australian Institute of Anatomy, Canberra; and the Board

of Governors of the South Australian Museum, Adelaide, for their permission

to examine the skulls in their care and for the ready assistance they kindly offered.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

249

The expenses incurred in this investigation were defrayed by grants by the

Council of the University of Adelaide from the David Murray Scholarship Tunds.

It was hoped, in commencing this work, that variations in the cranial

characters in the different geographical regions of Australia could be compared.

It soon became apparent, however, that this would be difficult. ‘The only easily

decided geographical division, i.¢., the division into States, is a political and in no

sense a biological one. The mass of detail involved in such a comparison would

also be unwicldy.

The impression gained from the examunation of this large series of skulls

is that there are three geographical groups of skull types: (1) the southern

group (type A), comprising those from Southern and South-western Queens-

land, New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia; (2) the Northern Terri-

tory group (type B); and (3) the Queensland group (type C).. Following the

advice of Professor Wood Jones, I have treated the whole series of skulls as

a unit—the Australian skull, commenting on local variations where these exist.

The scheme of examination followed is that claborated by Wood Jones, with

a few additions. The considerable sexual difference in the Australian aborigines

makes the sexing of most of the skulls fairly casy. Where other parts of the

skeleton were present, the sex of the skull was checked by their examination.

Hrdlicka (12) and Klaatsch (15) had previously sexed many of the skulls of

this series. 1 sexed these specimens independently, and in the great majority ot

eases my determinations agreed with those of Klaatsch and Hrdlicka.

Fach skull was then examined in detail, and the results of the examination

recorded on cards, which were printed by and are preserved in the South Aus-

tralian Museum. The results were correlated and the occurrence of the various

features described are presented below as percentages. Some of the skulls

examined were damaged and could not be examined completely—the number of

skulls on which any observation was made has therefore been indicated.

(1) Cranial Form (Number of skulls, 669 8, 506 ).

The dolichocephaly of the Australian skull is well known. Following Sergi’s

classification of cranial form for the norma verticalis we get the following

figures :

Taste |

Cranial form Complete Series

3 Q

long ovoid “ - - - 61% 61%

Long brisoid — - - 2 - 24% 26%

Long ellipsoid - - - - 10% 3%

Rather short, wide ovoid - ~ 3% 5%

Pentagonal ovoid — - - - 2% 5%

The dominant form is a long ovoid with a narrow bifrontal and moderate

hiparietal diameter. The temporal fossae are poorly filled; in those forms classed

as brisoid the line of the temporal fossa was distinctly concave. The long

250

ellipsoid type corresponds to a long ovoid in which the parietal bosses and the

biparietal diameter are reduced. The most strongly dolichocephalic skulls

generally fall into this class, which is predominantly a male type. The other two

types correspond with the mesocephalic skulls (see Hrdlicka’s (12) figures), the

rather wide ovoid presenting a general broadening of the skull in both parietal

and frontal areas, and the pentagonal ovoid type having a greatly expanded

biparietal breadth and a narrow bifrontal diameter. These broader skulls were

twice as common in females as in males, and generally the female skulls are less

dolichocephalic than the male. Some of the pentagonal ovoid class bore a

remarkable resemblance in general cranial form to the ‘Tasmanian skulls.

Of the local groups many of the Queensland skulls were shorter and their

temporal fossae better filled than in the typical southern skull. Hrdlicka (12).

by his measurements, found that “Both the absolute height and the (mean height)

index are lowest or next to lowest in South Australia, where the cephalic index

is also low; and both are high in Queensland where the cephalic index is also

higher.” Itrom norma verticalis most skulls were strongly phaenozygous, only

16% of male and 3°1% of female skulls approaching a cryptozygous condition.

Amongst the Queensland skulls, however, 11°8% of the male and 14:9% of the

female skulls approached ecryptozygy. ‘This is an indication of the better filled

temporal fossae and shorter rounder skulls occurring in North Queensland.

As would be expected from the strong masticatory apparatus of the Austra-

lian aborigine, the temporal lines were generally strongly developed and extended

far up on the vault of the skull. Below the inferior temporal line became con-

tinuous with a well-developed supramastoid crest on the squamous part of the

temporal bone, thus limiting the plantm temporale sharply behind and below.

This supramastoid crest could always be detected. although in many female skulls

it was only slightly developed. The degree of development of temporal lines and

supramastoid crest 1s summarized in the following table:

Tarte I

Parietal ‘Vemporal Supramastoid Frontal

Development Tuberosity Line Crest Enminences

é g 8 2 é 2 é g

Absent - - - 2% 1% Se — = 10% 5%

Slight - - - 23% 14% ae ee 3% 10% 48% 25%

Small - - - ASG 47% —_— CO% 72% 39% 63%

Moderate - - 25% 31% 1% 12% 36% 18% 3% 7%

Great - r - 2% 7% 68% 85% 1% — a

Very great - - — 31% 3% — —_—

Parietal tuberosities could be distinguished on the majority of skulls. ‘They

were rarely very prominent (JTable LL) and in only a small number of skulls was

that “full-blown” appearance in the parietal region, which characterises the

Tasmanian cranium, in evidence. There were no local variations beyond a some-

251

what greater development of the parietal bosses in male Queensland and female

Victorian skulls.

Small frontal eminences (tuber frontalia) can be distinguished on most Aus-

tralian skulls, often better by touch than by sight. Sometimes they show up

clearly on a flat “penthouse” forehead. Their development is summarized in

Table 11; there were no local variations of any significance.

The paramedian flattening of the Australian skull on either side of an

elevated sagittal ridge of the parietal and often the frontal bones has been men-

tioned by most observers. Klaatsch (15), working on Roth’s series of Qucens-

land crania, discussed in some detail the form that this ridge may take in the Aus-

tralian skull. e suggested that there was a relationship between this sagittal

frontal ridge (the torus frontalis medianus) and the bregmatic eminence and

ridge of Pithecanthropus. There was considerable variation in this feature in

the present series of skulls. It was sometimes completely absent, this occurring

both in some of the female skulls with rounded well-filled foreheads, and in

occasional males with very receding flat foreheads. In its extreme development

it passes up from a strong glabella as a prominent rounded ridge on the, frontal

bone, obliterating the supraglabellar fossa (which generally les just above

glabella). It may end at the bregma or may pass back as a pronunent ridge on the

anterior part of the parictal bones. In the latter case, the paramedian areas of

the parietal bones were usually flat and ill-filled, especially at the anterior end,

this form corresponding to the bregmatic eminence of Klaatsch. Sometimes this

bregmatic eminence took the form of a flattened elevated shicld at the bregma.

All degrees of development from complete absence to the condition described

above are encountered.

A ridge occupying only the upper two-thirds of the frontal bone was not

uncommon. Juvenile skulls often showed a prominent development of the torus

frontalis medianus, and it is a very prominent feature of scaphocephalic skulls.

(10.) Table IT! shows the degree of development of the median frontal mdge

in this series.

Taste II

Median frontal ridge Complete Series

Development A g

Absent — - r = - - 25% 40%

Slight - - ~ - - 21% 27%

small 5 = = = - 38% 28%

Moderate - a “ - 14% 4%

Great - - - - = 2% 0-6%

The ridge continues back on to the anterior part of the parictal bones in

17% of male and 5% of female skulls (Table TV).

In 1% of males and 2% of the female skulls there was a ridging of the

anterior part of the parietal bones in the midline, without a ridge of the frontal

bone.

252

CLON [PUTS] OAyayY Wodd ‘preppy NW W'S 'FEFLE WD

J[NYS Arosa, ULOYLION ape JO stpeaqaaA BULION

Cvs wey. wor ‘oprepapy “WW'S ‘28502 V)

[NYS Ueypeasny INOS apeur JO syPdIAAA LUTION

1 3h

*su2 yr?)

‘9

CO AOR deg woay Msauprxg “snyy cysy ‘eezy) CO) ‘uess0yy TY wos “foupas “snpy cismy ‘66191 WD)

[PRIS Puvysusan() apRU JO SYRIA VULION [NYS puepsuaan() aeur jo sipeaydeaa BULLION

b St] ¢ Sty

| ee eT > oe rr eee |

‘ILO <a "2 AdAL‘o

254

Taste IV

Parietal prolongation Complete Series

Development "a @

Absent - E = = - 83% 95%

small - - - - - 12% 4%

Moderate - - - - 5% 1%

In two male skulls a prominent frontal ridge was divided by a shallow

median groove. In three male skulls the whole of the sagittal region of the frontal

and parietal bones was raised into a ridge, and in one male skull a median crest

was present only in the neighbourhood of the obelion.

‘The sagittal suture sometimes lies in the bottom of a depression and there

are two factors involved in the production of this phenomenon. Firstly, the

anterior part of the sagittal suture, the pars bregmatica, may be situated in the

bottom of a groove. In thesc cases there was generally associated with the groove

a continuation of the median frontal ridge into the parietals.

Secondly, the pars obelica of the sagittal suture is occasionally situated

in the bottom of a rather wide excavation. This condition, originally termed

the depressio prelambdoidea by Barkow,“ extends sometimes into the pars

lambdoidea of the sagittal suture. It is more common in female than in male

skulls and is not accompanied by an elevation of the adjacent parts of the parietal

bones. Shore (23) has recently discussed the excavation of the sagittal suture in

detail. He has named it the interparietal groove, and that term will be used

here. ‘Turner (28) and Wunderly (39) have commented on the frequent and

pronounced development of this imterparietal groove in ‘Tasmanian skulls.

Occasionally the whole length of the sagittal suture lay in the bottom of a slight

groove, and occasionally the groove was confined to the pars lambdoidea. The

occurrence of this feature is summed up in Table V.

TABLE WV

Interparictal groove Groove confined to

Development Pars bregmatica Pars obelica Pars lamboidea

3 2 é 2 3 2

Slight - - - 5% 3% 07% 2:2% — =a

Small - - - 19% 6% 45% 97% 12% 1:0%

Moderate - - 3% 1% 06% 3:1% — =

‘he whole sagittal suture lay in a groove in 3-4% of male and 1:2% of

female skulls. Grooving of the pars obelica was somewhat less common in the

Queensland skulls, a fact possibly related to the steeper occipital planing in these

specimens.

Norma lateralis—lt is probably from this aspect that the regional differences

in the shape of the cranium are best seen. The proguathism and depressed nasion

() Quoted by Klaatsch (15), p. 131

255

contribute largely to the “typically Australian” appearance of the skull from

norma lateralis. Campbell (5) has investigated the prognathism of many of the

skulls of this series, and further description seems unnecessary. The depressed

nasion and the form of the glabella will be treated in detail later (see under

11, The Form of the Orbit).

The diopterographic tracings of Berry and Robertson (1) will have

familiarized workers with the typical normae of the Australian skull. A con-

sideration of the outline of the cranial vault as scen in the lateral norma resolves

itself into a consideration of three parts: (1) the forehead from glabella to

bregma, (2) the superior parietal portion from bregma to a point on the parietal

bone about one centimetre anterior to obelion, and (3) a posterior parietal and

superior occipital part between this poimt and inion.

In most cases the forehead recedes in a striking manner, although rounded

high foreheads are met with, particularly in female skulls. Woollard (36) notes

that in the aboriginal brain “the frontal pole slopes sharply backwards, not having

the fulness which is present in the European brain.” ‘There are distinct local

variations in the slope of the forehead, as can be seen from a consideration of

Table VI.

TaBLe VI

Northern Territory

Complete Scries Only Queensland Only

Recession of forchead é Q é g é Q

Reeedes strongly - 45% 28% 53% 33% 28% 13%

» moderately 48% = 57% 39% 57% 48% = 50%

fe slightly = 7% 18% 8% 10% 24% 37%

The male Northern Territory skulls showed the greatest degree of recession,

many of the strongly masculine specimens having remarkably low flat forcheads.

Amongst the Queensland aborigines, on the other hand, the forehead was much

higher and more rounded, and the strongly receding, flat, “penthouse” type of

forehead was rarely met with.

Between the bregrna and a point generally situated a centimetre or so anterior

to the obelion the contour from norma lateralis was almost flat or slightly convex

upwards, At this posterior point the contour line took a fairly abrupt turn down,

the outline of this posterior part of the cranium is very typical of the skulls from

different localities. The typical southern Australian form is a flat, gently sloping,

line as far as lambda, and below this point the occipital bone may project back,

or may curve forwards slightly to the inion. In the Queensland and Northern

Territory skulls the posterior parietal region falls off much more abruptly; it is

generally flat but at times is somewhat rounded.

Two special types of contour were common amongst the Northern Territory

specimens, especially the male skulls. Firstly, a type in which the forehead was flat

and low and seemed to pass back to just behind the bregma. There was no distinct

superior parietal portion as in the southern Australian skulls—the outline of the

256

Taste VIt

Contour of posterior parietal region and occipital plane

of sqtiama occipitalis.

Northern Territory

Recedes cently: Pee a : Only n ae oe

flat - - - 74% 78% 46% 56% 52% 51%

rounded - - 12% 7% 19% 12% 9% 4%

Recedes abruptly:

flat - - - 12% 13% 29% = 24% 36% 45%

rounded - - 2% 256 6% 8% 3% —

parietal region fell away fairly abruptly from a point just behind the bregma. This

was found in 24% of the Northern Territory male and 17% of the female skulls.

Secondly, a variety in which the line from glabclla to imion was an even curve,

with no angulation or division apparent between forchead and superior parietal

region or between superior and posterior parietal regions, nor did the occipital!

plane of the squama occipitalis bulge backwards. This type occurred in all

groups, but more frequently in Northern Territory male skulls than in the others

(5% of all male skulls, 15% of male Northern Territory skulls). Tt did not occur

lo a greatly increased extent in the Northern Territory female skulls (4% of all

female and 6% of Northern Territory female skulls).

It was noted in discussing the excavation of the posterior part of the sagittal

suture (the interparietal groove of Shore (23) ) that this condition had been

termed the ‘‘depressio prelambdoidea.” As Klaatsch (15) points out, the use

af this term has been extended by le Double aud Broesicke to denote the trans-

versely directed depression of the posterior part of the parietalia, This latter

condition has been noted in a large number of aboriginal skulls, but here it seems

to be due rather to a projection backwards of the whole of the occipital plane of the

squama occipitalis than to a depression of the posterior part of the parietal bone.

‘The appearance of the inside of a skull showing a well-developed occipital bulge

supports this interpretation. There are two deep symmetrical excavations

between the lambdoid suture and the transverse sinus. Endocranial casts and

aboriginal brains also show that the occipital region of the brain often bulges

strongly backwards. Woollard (36) has noted that “the occipital pole which

Tanie VIIT

Northern Territory

Occipital bulge Complete Series Only Queensland Only

Development é 9 é g 3 Q

Whdenit a e+ © Bee BRSs 39% 47% 45% 41%

Slight - - - 15% 18% 20% 28% 13% 20%

Small ~ - =* A2% A2% 27% 23% 36% 35%

Moderate - - 15% 13% 10% 2% 6% 4%

Great - - - 2% 06% 4% — — —

257

looks like a slender projection in the baby, still retains its protuberant aspect in

the mother, though becoming more of a rectangular block.” Table VIII shows

the varying development of this occipital bulge.

‘Che Northern Territory and Queensland skulls show a lesser development

of this occipital bulge than the southern ones. This may be correlated with the

steeper occipital planing of the crania from these regions.

Norma occipitalis—From norma occipitalis the Australian skull typically has

parallel sides and a gabled roof.

Tarte IX

Complete Series

Norma occipitalis é g

Gabled roof:

with parallel sides - ~ - - 59% 55%

with converging sides — - - - 27% 17%

with diverging sides - - ss 7% 13%

Rounded roc:

with parallel sides - - ~ - 4% 9%

with converging sides —- - - 2% 1%

with diverging sides - - - 0°3% 2%

side and roof rounded = - - - O07 % 2%

‘The area between the sagittal suture and the parietal bosses may be flat or

even concave. When the median frontal ridge continues back on to the anterior

part of the parietals this gabled appearance is accentuated. This flatness of the

parietals, the receding forehead and beetling brows give to the Australian cranium

that so-called brutal aspect on which so many observers have commented.

These skulls have been described in Table IX as having a ‘gabled roof.” In

other specimens these parts of the parictals are more rounded, so that from norma

occipitalis the roof looks like the are of a circle; these have been described in

the table as ‘‘rounded roof.” The lateral walls are generally straight or slightly

rounded, Depending on the degree of development of the parietal bosses the

lateral walls may be parallel, converging or diverging upwards. The diverging

type is characteristic of juvenile and some female aboriginal skulls.

In some male crania the parietal tuberositics are small and the lateral

walls, from norma occipitalis, converge somewhat above. As Klaatsch has

noted, this temporal area is sometimes concave, limited below by the strongly

developed mastoid crest. In these cases the greatest skull breadth usually hes on

the temporal squama just above the supramastoid crest.

In the majority of Australian skulls a transverse occipital torus is present

between the superior and supreme nuchal lines. Klaatsch has analysed this con-

dition in some detail in the Queensland skulls of the Roth collection. It is found

in all degrees, from a slight rounded elevation between the superior and supreme

nuchal lines, to a remarkably prominent torus. The torus is sometimes divided

into two prominent lateral parts by a median depression. In a few instances

there is a slight development of the external occipital protuberance.

258

VA 3, TYPE A.

7ggny ne 4

(PRC Fig 3 2a tom

Koulie ) SATYPE B.

Meri Fie Tee

Fig. 5—Norma lateralis of male South Australian skull (A 20587, S.A.M.,

Adelaide, from Fulham, S.A.)

Fig, 6—Norma lateralis of male Northern Territory skull (A 11434, S.A.M.,

Adelaide, from Melville Island, N.T.)

259

6, TYPE C.

Ct cms,

3, TYPE C.

Fig. 8 pe eas eras,

Fig. 7—Norma lateralis of male Queensland skull (FE 15199, Aust.

Mus., Sydney, from Mt. Morgan, Q.)

Fig. 8—Norma lateralis of male Queensland skull (1233, Aust. Mus.,

Sydney. from Cape York, Q.). The influence of Melanesian

contamination is obvious from the proportions of this

specimen.

260

TABLE XN

Transverse occipital torus:

Complete Series

é 2

Absent - - - - - - 7% 18%

Slight — - - - - - - 16% 28%

Small - - - - - - 47% 41%

Moderate - - - - - 25% 12%

Great - - - - - - 5% 06%

Very great - - - - - 2 skulls

External occipital protuberance:

Absent - - - - - - 95% 99%

Small - - - ~ - - 3% 14%

Moderate - - - - - 290 —

CRANIAL FORM—SUMMARY

Summarizing, we may say that the Australian skull is long, low and narrow,

with deep temporal fossae, receding forehead and a gently sloping, flattened,

posterior parietal region. ‘The development of a sagittal ridge of the frontal

bone and the flatness of the parietal bones between the tuberosities and the

peer apse Ail n ™~

e oe? ber

Pita

— 2 ee oo

Neda

OP oe meneees ewe htt

“~~ TYPE B

“he

5 -”

Poe ”

wee

Fig, 9

Diopterographic tracings from norma lateralis of the outlines of typical male

skulis from South Australia, Northern ‘Territory, and Queensland. The

differences in contour described in the text are evident.

261

sagittal suture contribute to the “ill-filled” appearance of the skull. The occipital

and nuchal planes of the squama occipitalis generally meet at a rather sharp angle,

and their junction is marked by the development of a prominent transverse

occipital torus. The temale skull is somewhat shorter, higher, and more rounded

than the male.

Regional variations are found in the Northern Territory and Queensland

crania, the former usually having low receding foreheads and a steeply planed

posterior parictal and occipital region, and the latter having higher foreheads,

fuller temporal fossae, shorter, higher skulls and a steeply planed posterior

parietal and occipital region. The skulls from the Northern Territory area are

on the whole narrower and smaller than the others,

Hrdlicka (12) has measured an extensive series of Australian skulls. Lt

may be useful to quote some of his conclusions about regional variations as

determined metrically. “Both the absolute height and the (mean height) index

are lowest or next to lowest in South Austraha, where the cephalic index is also

Jow; and both are high in Queensland where the cephalic index 1s also higher... .

in north-western and northern Australia where the cephalic index is decidedly

low, the height index is near or at the maximum. In size the skull is smallest

in the Northern Territory and north-western Australia, largest in Victoria... .

The facial angle is lowest (greatest prognathism) in south and west Australia,

highest in Queensland . ... the palate is relatively longest (or narrowest) in

central and south Australia, relatively shortest (or broadest) in Queensland, and

especially in north-west Australia |... Admixture (Papuan) and local varia-

tions are doubtless both involved in the observed differences of characters. But

these differences are so appreciable that anthropology will hardly be justified

yx”

henceforth to refer merely to ‘the Australian’.

(2) Cranial Asyniuetry (Number of skulls, 662 ¢, 501 2 ).

Estimated fram norma verticalis there was quite a high degree of symmetry.

Taste XI

Cranial asymmetry Coniplete Series

From norma verticalis From allaspects

g g é g

Symuinetrical - - - 66% 61% 43% 39%

Normal asymmetry = - - 26% 33% 45% 52%

Reversed asymmetry - - 8% 6% 12% 9%

By rotating the skulls which appeared symmetrical from norma verticalis

about a transverse axis through the auditory meatus, it was found that the left

occipital prominence (normal asymmetry} was present in 29% of these male and

31% of these female skulls. Right occipital prominence (reversed asymmetry)

was present in 5% of both sexes. The complete figures are given in Table XI.

@) In this sentence Hrdlicka's comments (not quoted here) referring to the facial

angle are erroneous (according to his tables of figures)

262

(3) Sutures (Number of skulls, 6694, 507¢ ).

In all Austrahan skulls the sutures are simple.

Coronal suture—Vhe pars bregmatica of the coronal suture was noted as

simple or very simple. The pars complicata was noted as simple in 67% of the

male and 59% of the female skulls, and complicated in 33% of the male and

41% of the female skulls. The pars temporalig was lincar in 80% and simple

in 20% of both sexes.

Sagittal suture—In 92% of the male and 94% of the female skulls the

sagittal suture was simple, in the remainder complicated. The pars obelica of:

the sagittal suture was either linear or simple in type.

Lambdoid suture, The lambdoid suture was simple in 56% and complicated

in 44% of both sexes, The pars asterica was usually linear or very simple, the

pars media the mosi complicated section and the pars lambdoidea simple or

complicated.

Traces of the transverse occipital suture were present bilaterally in 19 males

and five female skulls. A complete transverse occipital suture was present in

three male and three female skulls.

AV metopic suture was present in four male and five female skulls and traces of

the frontal sttture persisted in 11 male and 18 female skulls.

Augier (Poirier, Charp and Nicolas (22) ), in discussing the synostosis

of the bones of the vault. suggests that Todd and Lyon (26) have insufficient

basis for contradicting Gratiolet’s law, that synostosis occurs earlier in inferior

human races than in civilized ones. In order to obtain data bearing on this

question, and also because the order of sutural fusion seemed to differ soniewhat

from Todd and Lyon’s scheme, the degree and order of sutural fusion was noted.

The less reliable synostosis of the outer table was all that could be determined,

as very few skulls had been opened.

Complete fusion of the coronal, sagittal, and lambdoid sutures was noted in

21 male and 17 female skulls, and in 46 male and 22 female skulls the sagittal,

coronal and pars lambdoidea of the lambdoid sutures were completely fused.

Considering only those skulls in which fusion had commenced but was not

complete, it was most advanced in the sagittal suture in 73% of the male and

48% of the female skulls. In 26% of the male and 52% of the female skulls

fusion had proceeded furthest in the coronal suture, and in five male skulls (1%)

the lambdoid suture was more completely fused than either the sagittal or coronal

sutures. Fusion was more advanced in the lambdoid than in the coronal suture

in 14% of the male and 2% of the female skulls.

In the coronal suture fusion had proceeded furthest in the pars temporalis

in 83%, and in the pars bregmatica in only 7%. In 8% the pars bregmatica and

the pars temporalis were synostosed to about the same degree, and in 1% the

pars complicata showed the most advanced synostosis. ‘These figures were

approximately the same in the two sexes.

Fusion usually started in the pars obelica of the sagittal suture and extended

from there anteriorly and posteriorly. The pars bregmatica was generally the last

263

to fuse, in 33% of the skulls in which the sagittal suture was partly fused it is the

only region in which there was no complete synostosis. In a few skulls, 7% of

the male and 18% of the female specimens with synostosis of the sagittal suture,

fusion was most advanced in the pars bregmatica. It was noticed that in a number

of these the pars bregmatica of the coronal suture had also fused earlier than the

other parts of that suture, ic., fusion seemed to spread from bregma in all direc-

tions. In the lambdoid suture synostosis almost invariably commenced in the pars

lambdoidea. Several skulls showing anomalies of sutural synostosis were noted,

but a detailed description of these is not warranted here.

Comparing these figures with those of Todd and Lyon, it appears (at least

from the exocranial aspect) that fusion is most advanced in the coronal and not

the sagittal suture in quite a high proportion of cases. Yodd and Lyon con-

sidered that the synostosis of the coronal suture usually began in the superior

or bregmatic portion; in Australians it almost always begins in the inferior

portion or pars temporalis.

Owing to the irnpossibility of determining the ages of any of the skulls a

rigid comparison of sutural fusion in the Australian and other races is impossible.

All we may say is that the order of fusion appears to differ somewhat from that

in Europeans, and that of the three great sutures of the cranial vault, fusion was

nearly always least advanced in the lambdoid suture.

(4) Ossa Suturarium (Number of skulls, 547 6, 463% ).

These were of frequent occurrence, being found in 68% of all male and 69%

of all female skulls.

Tasle XII

Ossa suturarum Complete Series

g g

Present - - - - - - 68% 69%

Bilaterally - - - - - 67% 57%

On right only - - - - - 19% 23%

On left cnly - 14% 20%

It would be tedious and cumbersome to set out in detail the mode of

occurrence of these Wormian bones, suffice it to say that they occurred in every

possible combination. and oceurred alone, unilaterally and bilaterally in the

lambdoid, parieto-mastoid and occipito-mastoid suturcs.

The bones present were distributed in the following way (Table XI).

Taste XIII

Ossa suturartuin Complete Series

8 Q

In lambdoid suture - - - - &8% 80%

In occipito-mastoid suture — - f - 25% 30%

Jn parieto-mastoid suture . - 24% 22%

In the male skulls examined there were 579 ossicles on the right and 471 in the

left lambdoid suture, and in the females 410 in the right and 361 in the lett

264

lambdoid suture. In two male skulls there were a large number of medium-

sized bones extending along the whole length of the lambdoid suture, and in three

male skulls there were many small ossicles in the lambdoid suture,

Preinterparietal bones occurred in 33 males and 26 female skulls. They were

multiple in eight male and ten female skulls, and single in the remainder. One

mediuni-sized sutural bone was present in the pars postica of the sagittal suture

in six male and two female skulls, and in one female skull there were five medium-

sized ossicles in the posterior part of the sagittal suture and one pre-

interparietal bone at lambda. A preinterparietal bone occurred without any

sutural bones in one male and six female skulls.

Tiny inclusions in the coronal suture were seen bilaterally in 13 male and

four female skulls, and a mediuni-sized ossicle occurred in the coronal suture

bilaterally in two male and two female specimens. Each of the following occurred

once in female skulls: one medium-sized bone in the right coronal, two small

ossicles in the left coronal, and one large bone in the right coronal suture. In

three male and two female skulls inclusions occurred only in the coronal suture.

‘Tiny ossicles occurred in the nasofrontal suture in eleven male and eight

female skulls.

A large os bregmaticum occurred in one male Northern Territory skull.

A small ossicle occurred bilaterally at the junction of the zygomatic bone,

the frontal bone and the great wing of the sphenoid bone in one male skull, and

in the right sphenotrontal suture in one male and one female skull. In another

male skull sutural bones occurred along the whole length of the right squamous

suture.

Evidence of an os Incae (true interparietal bone) occurred in six male and

five female skulls. In two male and two female skulls a single complete os Incae

occurred, and in one male cranium a tripartite bone was present. The right two-

thirds of the bone occurred in one male and the left two-thirds in one male and

one female. The medial third only occurred in one male, and the two lateral

thirds only in one female skull,

(5) Tvpe of the Pterion (Number of skulls, 401 6, 365¢ ),

The frequency of the occurrence of variations in the region of pterion of the

Australian has been mentioned by many observers. Table XIV shows briefly the

frequeney of the various types of contact.

TAnLe XIV

Type of ptecrion Complete Series

Sphenoparietal contact bilaterally - 67% 62%

rontotemporal contact :

Bilaterally - é 5 4 4% 4%

On right only = - - - - 3°5% 44%

On left only - - - - 375% 4-4%,

Stellate junction unilaterally — - - 2°5% 3%

Junction through epipteric bone - 19% 22%

265

A bilateral stellate junction occurred in one female skull only. The skulls in

which epipteric bones occurred arc considered more fully in the next section.

Of the sphenoparictal contacts the following details were observed.

TanLeE XV

Width of sphenoparietal contact Complete Series

3 g

Right=-Ieft - - - - 27% 22%

Right > left - - - - 35% 35%

Right < left - = - - 88% 43%

Wherever possible the width of the sphenoparietal contact was m -asured

and the average widths are given below. ‘The contact was classed as narrow

when less than 5 mm. wide, usual when 5-10 mm. wide, and large when more

than 10 mm. wide. This classification gave the following results :

TasLle XVI

Width of contact Camplete Series Northern Territory Only

3 g é Q

Narrow - - - - 15% 16% 25% 36%

Usual - - - - 58% 67% 50% 55%

Wide - - - - 27% 17% 25% 9%

Right side - - - 8:1 mm. 7-3. mim. 7-5 mm. 6°73 mn.

Left side - - ~ - 841mm. 7-21mm. 8-limm. 5-8 mm.

As well as the sphenoparietal contact being somewhat narrower in the

Northern Territory skulls, it was found that the pithccoid (fronto-temporal )

contact was more frequent in the Northern Territory series.

Taste XVIT

Pterion Complete Series Northern Territory Only

$ 2 é g

Percentage of pithecoid contacts - 11% 13% 16% 2596

The temporo-frontal contact varied greatly in width. The broadest recorded

was 26 mm. for a contact occurring on the right side only, and 21 mm. for a

bilateral pithecoid contact. This type uf articulation went through all gradations

to a stellate contact, the average widths for the whole series, excluding the stellate

contacts, being:

Complete Series

Width of contact é .°)

Right side - - - - 10-8 min. 9-5 mim.

Left side - - 7 - 10-5 mm. 9-7 min.

These pithecoid contacts were generally effected through a well-developed

frontal process of the temporal bone. Ina few cases (the exact number was not

266

recorded), there was a frontal process of the temporal bone which failed to effect

a pithecoid contact. In one case it was noted that a fronto-temporal contact was

apparently due to very small great wings of the sphenoid bone. In another case,

where the contact was wide, there was a frontal process of the temporal; a

temporal process of the frontal bone, and a small epipteric bone involved in the

contact on each side.

(6) Epipteric Bones (Number of skulls, 415 ¢, 4079 ).

Epipteric bones occurred in 24% of the whole series of skulls, equally in

males and females. Their distribution and size is indicated in Table XVII.

Taste XVIII

Bilaterally Right Only Left Oniy

3 2 $ 2 3 Q

Of all Australian skulls - - 7%o =—9% 11% 8% 6% 7%

Ofthese: small = - - - 24% — 10% 18% 21% 13%

moderate - - 41% 60% 53% 68% 37% 66%

large - - - 35% A0% 32% 24% 42% 21%

When they occur unilaterally the other side may have a normal contact, or

rarely, a pithecoid contact, the ratio of normal to pithecoid contacts being about

the same as in the whole series of skulls. Occasionally, when the cpipteric bone

was small, there was an actual sphenoparietal or fronto-temporal contact present as

well; usually, however, the epipteric bone made the whole of the contact. Of

the epipteric bones, 33% in the male and 26% in the female were noted as

extending hack along the anterior part of the squamous suture. In two male and

ten female skulls there occurred more than one bone at pterion, four bones being

present bilaterally in one female and unilaterally (on right side) in one male and

one female skull.

When they occurred bilaterally the epipteric bones were usually of about the

same size, considerable differences in size being seen in four skulls only.

(7) Supraarbital Foramina, Notches or Grooves (Number of skulls, 667 ¢,

509 @ ).

Supraorbital foramina occurred in only 26% of the series (25% &, 28% @).

Even when they were present there were generally large grooves or notches

present as well, the foramen transmitting a small part only of the nerve and vessels.

In the remaining skulls notches were present in 61%, and grooves in 40% (no

significant sexual difference). In one male and three female skulls there was no

trace of a groove, notch, or foramen in the upper orbital margin. Table XTX

summarizes the conditions found.

In 10% of the male and 8% of the female skulls in which foramina occurred

these were double, this condition occurring bilaterally in one male and one female

skull, and in the remainder twice as often on the right as on the left. The second

foramen could be described as a foramen of Ilenle in about half of these cascs.

267

Taste XIX

Foramen Foramen

on Right on Left Notch Notch

Notch (or Notch (er on Right on Left

Bilaterally Groove) Groove) Groove Groove

Sex Foramina Notches Grooves on Left on Right on Leit on Right

d - 6% 36% 30% 10% 8% 5% 4%

@ - 9% 37% 28% 8% 11% 2% 5%

Supraorbital grooves varied in depth from wide deep grooves to very shallow

almost imperceptible markings on the upper orbital margin, Of the cases in

which grooves occurred their degree of development varied as shown below.

Tapte XX

Supraorbital grooves Camplete Series

a) g

Very shallow - - - - 25% 21%

Shallaw - - - - - 30% 40%

Modevately deep - - - 45% 39%

The supraorbital notches or grooves were generally situated in the medial

third of the supraorbital border, foramina occurring a little further laterally.

In no undoubted Australian skull were there any traces of grooves made by

the supraorbital nerves on the squamous part of the frontal bone.

(8) Foramen Ethmoidale Anterius (Number of skulls, 459 2, 403 ).

This foramen passed through the fronto-cthmoidal suture more commonly

than through the frontal bone, and in no case did it pass completely through the

lamina papyracea of the ethmoid bone.

In one female skull the anterior ethmoidal forarnen had a frontal exit on

the right side, and was absent on the left.

TABLE XX]

Foramen ethmoidale anterius Complete Series

é 2

Through suture bilaterally - - - 51% 59%

Through frontal bone bilaterally — - - ~ 39% 28%

Through frontal on right, suture on left - - 4% 5%

Through frontal on left, suture on right - - 6% 8%

(9) Sutures of the Inner Wall of the Orbit (Number of skulls, 420 , 367¢ ).

A fronto-maxillary contact occurred between the lamina papyracea of the

ethmoid and the lacrimal bone in three male and seven female skulls. It was

found bilaterally in one male and four females, on the right side only in one male

and two females, and om the left side only in one male and one female. This

pithecoid contact varied in width from one to six millimetres (usually 2-3 mn),

and in most cases a frontal process of the maxilla and a maxillary process of the

268

frontal bone contributed equally to its formation, In one male skull the contact

was effected through a frontal process of the maxilla alone.

The lacrimal bone was usually much reduced in these cases, occupying the

lower posterior part of the lacrimal canal. No trace of a lacrimal bone could be

found in one male Victorian skull, an expanded frontal process of the maxilla

making good the deficiency. In this specimen a “lacrimal crest” occurred on the

expanded frontal process of the maxilla.

In one male skull (on the left side, normal contact on right), and in one

female skull (on the left side, fronto-maxillary contact on right), a long narrow

process of the lamina papyracea of the ethmoid bone extended forwards above a

reduced lacrimal bone and came into contact with the frontal process of the

Q;5.A.

Fig. 10

Variations on the inner wall of the orbit ;

(Shading = accessory bone; e-= ethmoid; f = frontal; } = lacrimal; m= maxilla)

maxilla. In one male skull similar contact was effected by the extension back-

wards of pari of the frontal process of the maxilla above a reduced lacrimal bone.

Small accessory bones were present in the neighbourhood of the Jacrimo-

frontal articulation in one male and two female skulls, Several of these conditions

are illustrated in figure 10.

The width of the lamina papyracea of the ethmoid bone in the neighbour-

hood of the anterior ethmoidal foramen was measured. The average width in

male skulls was 12:2 mm., in female skulls 11°6 mm. There was a considerable

reduction in the width of the lamina anteriorly, i.e., where it articulated with the

lacrimal bone, in 9% of the male and 5% of the female skulls.

Sutural irregularities on the inner wall of the orbit occurred most frequently

in Victorian skulls, beyond this no regional variation was found.

(10) Spheno-mavillary Fissure (Number of skulls, 459 6, 403 ¢ ).

Three varieties of fissure occurred amongst the Australian skulls, wis.:

type 1, narrow with parallel sides, type 2, diverging as it was traced forwards,

and type 3, slit-like with an expanded anterior extremity.

They were classed as very narrow when theic greatest width was less than

3 mm., narrow when between 3 and 5 mm., sual when between 5 and 8 mm.,,

269

wide when between 8 and 12 mm., and very wide when more than 12 mm.

Following this division the results obtained were:

Taste XXII

Complete Series

Type l ‘Lype 2 Type 3

3 g Q g

19% 11% 45% 43% 36% 46%

Spheno-maxillary fissure

Ot these:

Very narrow (< 3mm.)

Narrow (3-5mm.) — - - 30% 31% 37% 25% 27% 27%

Usual (5-8 mm.) - - 3% 2% 52% 57% 55% 54%

Wide (8-12 mm.) - - os — 10% 16% 17% 18%

Very wide (> 12mm.) - — — 1% 2% 05% 1%

Duckworth (9) describes an Australian aboriginal skull with a deficient

posterior orbital wall. Those skulls in which the inferior orbital fissure has been

classed as very wide (three male and eight female skulls) correspond with Duck-

worth’s “imperfect post-orbital wall.”

(11) Phe Form of the Orbit (Number of skulls, 623 ¢, 471 ).

The axis of the orbits varied in obliquity between horizontal and strongly

oblique, but the conimonest condition was a slight obliquity of the axes, In the

female skulls obliquity was less pronounced than in the male.

TABLE XXIIT

The orbit Complete Series

Axes: $ g

Horizontal — - - - - - 7% 17%

Almost horizontal - - - - 10% 15%

Slightly oblique — - - - - 36% 40%

Definitely oblique - - - - 42% 25%

Strongly oblique - - - - 2% 1%

In 2% of the crania the orbital axes were in the same line, but instead of

being horizontal were skewed down to one side (to the right side twice as often

as to the left). In two male and three female skulls the axes of the orbits

appeared to slope slightly upwards and outwards.

The obliquity of the axes was noted as being unequal in 6% of the male and

3% of the female skulls, and was usually greater in the right side (eight times

as often on the right in males and twice as often on the right in females).

The orbits of the Australian aborigine are large, the great cavernous orbits

beneath over-hanging brows being one of the striking features of the Australian

facial skeleton.

They vary considerably in shape, from a low straight-sided rectangular type

to an almost circular condition. WKlaatsch says, “The circumference of the orbits

offers greater variations than in any other race, from the circular, as in anthro-

270

poids, to the depressed form.” They are usually more angular in the male and

more rounded in the female skulls (65% of male and 28% of female skulls being

angular rectangular).

VTanteE XXIV

Complete Serics

Angular Rounded

Orbital shape Rectangular Rectangular

é g 3 g

he «& © ww ¥ ites 3% 6% 5%

Moderate height - - 40% 14% 22% 41%

High - - - - 9% 11% 69% 24%

The orbit was relatively higher in females than in the males; this is also

evident in Hrdlicka’s figures.

“The orbits were not always a true rectangular shape, they were often (in

15% of all cases, equally in both sexes) higher laterally than medially. ‘This

condition was generally associated with a strongly oblique inferior border cutting

off the infcro-medial angle.

Wunderly and Wood Jones (37) have pointed out that the inferior margin

of the orbit provides a useful point for differentiation between Australian and

Tasmanian skulls. The inferior margin inclines upward at each end, especially

the medial end, in the Australian, and the inferior margin is gencrally more

oblique than the superior orbital margin. ‘To quote these writers: “In the Tas-

manian skull the inferior margin is straight over a larger part of its length, and

the obliquity of the inferior margin is generally equal to, or only slightly greater

than, that of the superior margin. The inferior margin is usually fairly thick

and well rounded, while in the Australian it is generally thinner... .”

In 4% of all cases the orbits were recorded as being lower laterally than

medially. ‘This was noted especially in long, low, rounded orbits approaching

an oval in shape. The orbits were noted as being small in 4% of the skulls, and

there was no significant sexual difference in this feature.

A feature of the Australian orbit which has attracted attention from several

observers (Turner (27), Klaatsch (15), Burkitt and Lightoller (4), Krogman

(16) ) is the flattened lateral border of the orbit, ie. the lateral wall and the

lateral part of the inferior wall pass round a low flattened border on to the facial

surface of the malar bone. This feature was not systematically examined in this

series. It was noticed that all degrees of sharpness of this lateral border occurred.

In juvenile and some female skulls the border was quite sharp and definite, and in

many adult skulls the orbital walls passed over a wide low bevelled edge onto the

facial surface of the malar bone. Ina few skulls, where the malar tuberosity was

strongly developed, the lateral wall of the orbit appearcd to be continuous with

the facial surface of the malar bone, a slight convexity only intervening between

these regions. Klaatsch (15) considered that “. ... where the orbital border of

the malar is found to be rounded, without a well-defined boundary for the eye-

271

cavity, its aboriginal nature can be accepted.” he condition of the upper and

lower borders was noted and is recorded as rounded or sharp.

TABLE XXV

Upper and lower

orbital borders Complete Series

Rounded - - = - - z 45% 3%

Moderately rounded - - - - 10% 9%

Sharp - - - - - - - 7% 31%

Moderately sharp - - - - - 18%. 31%

Upper border sharp, lower rounded - - 9% 14%

Upper border rounded, lower sharp - - 11% 3%

‘Thus the upper and lower borders of the orbits were generally rounded in

male and sharp in female skulls. In female crania, where the upper and lower

borders differ, it was generally the upper one which was comparatively sharp.

This was related to the supraorbital devclopment in these skulls.

Wood Jones (31) did not include a study of the glabella and supraorbital

ridges in his series of morphological fcatures. In view of the importance of this

supraorbital region in the formation of the face in the Australian, an attempt

has here been made to record the varying conditions found. This subject warrants

closer study than can be devoted to it in a general paper such as this, for many

of the features depend on two or more factors for their development.

The prominence of glabella was estimated according to Lroca’s table

(Martin (19), p. 873), although the receding forehead in the Australian somewhat

modifies the picture. A prominent glabella may be due to a great projection

forwards of the actual glabellar region—a visiére frontale, a deeply depressed

nasion, or, as was usual amongst these skulls, a combination of these two factors.

No direct estimation of the relative importance of the two factors was made.

Again, it is not possible in a general paper to discuss in detail the relative

development of the glabella and of the supraorbital ridges. Suffice it to say that

a prominent glabella combined with relatively flat trigonum supraorbitale occurred

fairly frequently, especially in Northern ‘Territory male skulls. he reverse

condition, with a great development of the supraorbital torus and only a

moderately prominent glabella which then lay in a shght depression between the

tori, occurred frequently in the male skulls from South Australia and Victoria.

The supraorbital region was classified as one of Cunningham’s three main

types (following Martin (19), p. 876). Type 1 proper rarely occurred in this

series; the skulls so designated in Table XXVI11 ugually had slight superciliary

ridges or none at all, while a moderately deep nasion caused the glabella to appear

slightly prominent, although there was no definite protuberance here. A definite

margo supra-orbitalis below a crista superciliaris occurs very rarcly in Australian

crama. The various findings are summarised in Table XXVI.

272

TaBLE XAXVI

Complete Series

Supra- Supra-

Supra-orbital Region orbital glabellar Glabellar

Type l Type 2 Type 3 ‘LYorus Fossa Suture

Development: & io) é ce) a 9 é fe} 3 2 é Q

absent - - —_— — —_- — -- — 74% 97% 53% 81% 18% 80%

slight - - 3% 21fo — — — - 18% 10%

small - - 66% 67% 16% 67% 13% 909% 8% 3% 3% 39 649% 10%

inoderate ~ 29% 12% 00% 32% 59% 10% 14% — 44% 16% -- =

great - - 2% — 24% 1% 28% — 49%

Taste XXVIT

Camplete Sertes

Supraorbital region é ut

‘Type 1 - - - - - 13% 72%

Type 20 - - - - - 03% 26%

Type 3 - - - - - 24% 2%

Vabre XXVIII

Glabella Complete Series

$ 2

3roca: = - - - - - - — 3%

IL - - - - - - 9% 48%

Ik - - - - - - 34% AA%

Me veh nt oS Bee 5%

Vv - - - - - - 17% —

VI - - - - - - 3% —

It is obvious that there is a well-marked sexual difference in the supraorbital

region. Strongly developed supraorbital ridges do occur in a few undoubted

females (e.g., Burkitt and Hunter (3) ), but generally the brow region of the

female is almost devoid of superciliary ridges and the prominence of the glabella

is due to the depression of nasion. In the males, on the other hand, there is a con-

siderable variation from great overhanging ridges to a relatively slight supra-

orbital development similar to the female condition.

A definite torus supraorbitalis was present in 26% of the male and 3% ot

the female skulls. In 47% of the male and 19% of the female skulls there was a

definite depression above the glabella, the fossa supraglabellaris. In many cases this

extended laterally, as a concavity above the supraorbital tori. In a small per-

centage of cases, where the brow region was strongly developed, there was no

supraglabellar fossa, although supratoral depressions were present. This was

due to the median frontal ridge filling up the fossa and extending right forward

to the glabella. Where the superciliary arches were strongly developed there was

usually a distinct jagged glabellar “suture,” formed by the fusion of the out-

growing masses of bone in the midline. ‘This glabellar “suture” is, of course,

quite distinct from the persistent frontal suture (sce Sutures (4) ).

273

(12) Lufraorbital Ioramen (Number of skulls, 6126, 4602 ).

‘The infraorbital foramen was ‘“‘normal” (i,¢., single) bilaterally in 80% of

the skulls of both sexes. In 17% of the male and 16% of the female skulls there

was a sinall accessory foramen, usually situated above and medial to the main

foramen. The communication of this accessory foramen with the infraorbital

canal was in all eases determined by the passage of a fine wire, in order to exclude

occasional venous foramina occurring in this neighbourhood.

In 5% of the male skulls (34 specimens} and 3% of the female skulls (15

specimens) a true pithecoid exit of the infraorbital canal, generally double, was

present. In one male skull the pithecoid exit was represented by three foramina

on each side, all of approximately the same size. A few of the cases recorded

as “accessory foramina” were larger than usual and probably represent a develop-

ment intermediate between the tiny medial accessory foramen and the pithecoid

condition of multiple exit.

Of these skulls wherein the infraorbital foramina were described as pithe-

coid, there was a septate condition of the anterior part of the infraorhbital canal

in five male and five female skulls. In these a line vertical septum of bone

divided the anterior part of the infraorbital canal into two parts. The septum

was obviously visible fron norma facialis in only two of these skulls. In the

remainder it stopped just short of the exit of the canal, which in some of these

cases looked downwards rather than forwards, due to the deep excavation of the

infraorhital fossa. This latter condition is discussed more fully below,

VTante XXITX

Complete Series

Accessory Medial Pithecoid

Foramen Exit

5 7 6 8

Present in: 17% 16% 5% 3%

Of these—

bilaterally - - 30% 32% 24%

on right only - - 34% 36% 52% 27%

on left only - - 36% 32% 24% 73%

Combinations of pithecoid exits and small medial accessory foramina

occurred in a few skulls. In three male and one female skull there was a

pithecoid exit on one side (the left in all save one male) and a normal exit with

a small medial accessory foramen on the other. In one male skull there was a

pithecoid (double) exit and a small accessory foramen on the right and a normal

exit and accessory foramen on the left. In one male and one female skull there

were two tiny medial accessory foramina on both sides.

In 24% of the male and 44% of the female skulls there was present a suture

passing from the infraorbital foramen over the orbital margin and inferior wall

of the orbit to the posterior part of the inferior orbital canal. Ina few cases the

274

facial part of this suture ended in the junction of the lacrimal bone with the

orbital plate of the maxilla. The orbital part of the suture then passed from the

posterior end of this lacrimo-maxillary articulation to the posterior uncovered

part of the infraorbital canal. Occasionally the facial part of the suture extended

from the infraorbital foramen to the malo-maxillary suture, and on the orbital

plate of the maxilla another suture passed from the malo-maxillary suture to the

infraorbital canal. When an accessory medial foramen was present the facial part

of the suture sometimes arose from this foramen, sometimes passed from tne

main foramen through the accessory foramen to the orbital margin, and soric-

times appeared to effect no connection with the accessory foramen.

Klaatsch (15) noted that “in R.62 a slight prominence tends to divide the

foramina, a variation which may prove important, because in anthropoids it 1s

more common to find two infraorbital foramina than one.” This feature was:

noticed in quite a number of skulls, but it docs not appear to represent an attempt

to subdivide the foramen. It occurs where a finely dentate infraorbital suture:

arises from the infraorbital foramen. The suture is prolonged down below the'

margin of the infraorbital foramen in the centre of a slight projection of bone.

In all cases in which this projection was present (including R.62) it was

associated with a trace of the suture.

It appears that when the infraorbital suture was finely dentate it tended to

persist into adult life, whilst a linear type of suture, such as was present in many

juvenile skulls, usually fused early,

Tavpte XXX

Complete Series

3 g

Infraorbital suture present - - - 24% 44%

Of these bilaterally - - - - 66% 74%

on right only — - - - 18% 12%

on left only - - - 16% 14%

The infraorbital canal was completely roofed in from the lower orbital

margin to the spheno-maxillary fissure in one male and one female skull, this con-

dition occurring bilaterally.

The facial surface of the maxilla varies somewhat in aboriginal skulls.

There may be an “infraorbital fossa” consisting of the infraorbital fossa proper

and the canine fossa, which cannot be distinguished from it. This common large

fossa varies in form from a large shallow depression to a large or small deep

fossa. ‘he two fossae may be present and separated by a small bony prominence,

and either infraorbital or canine fossa may be present alone. In a few skulls the

facial surface of the maxilla was quite flat and in one female skull it was definitely

convex, giving a peculiar appearance to the face.

275

The form of the fossa on the facial surface of the maxtha was noted in

289 male and 238 female skulls (Table XXXL). In the remaining skulls it was

generally a large rather shallow concavity, sometimes divided by an osseous

prominence into upper and lower parts.

Burkitt and Hunter (3) have attempted to explain the infraorbital fossa by

considering it to be a concavity between two bony buttresses developed in

response to the thrust from the canine and incisor teeth and the molar teeth,

respectively. As they pointed out, there is also, in a large number of cases, an

actual excavation of the fossa, which is remarkably pronounced in some specimens,

so that the inferior orbital border projects forward like a shelf above the deep

fossa, and the infraorbital foramen faces directly downwards.

Taste XXXI

Complete Series

“Tnfraorbital” fossa: 3 g

Large and deep - - - - 28% 27%

Large and moderately deep - - 11% 15%

Shallow — - - - - - 26% 17%

Moderate size and depth = - 27 Go 26%

Small and deep - - - - - 8% 15%

(13) The Form of the Jugal (Number of skulls, 629 ¢, 478 @ ).

In no skull of this series was there any trace of a divided malar bone. In

the description of the shape of the malar bone given below “angular” was applied

to a bone in which the anterior part of the facial surface looked forwards, and

made an angle with the lateral and posterior part of the bone; “rounded” applied

to cases in which this angle was gently rounded off, and “flat” to those in which

the whole external surface of the bone made a fairly flat plane facing antero-

laterally.

TABLE XXXII

Complete Series

Malar bone: g g

Shape: angular - - = = 20% 6%

rounded - - - - 51% 64%

flat - - - - = 29% 30%

Size: — small - ~ - - 4% 37%

moderate = - - - - 75% 61%

large - - - - - 21% 2%

The lower margins of the zygomatic bones were generally everted, but

occasionally they appeared parallel when the skull was viewed from the faciat

aspect. The inferior border of the bone was usually convex downwards, but

was sometimes straight. It ustially formed a flat rather rough surface for the

attachment of the strong masseter muscle. The occurrence of these various

conditions is summed up in Table XX XITT.

TABLE XXAIII

Complete Series

Inferior border of malar bones: 3 g

Everted and convex - - - - 77% 75%

Everted and straight - - - - 15% 20%

Parallel and convex - - - - 4% 2%

Parallel! and straight - - - - 3% 3%

In Australian skulls the malar tuberosity takes the form of a prominent ridge

on the malar surface of the bone running parallel with the inferior border. This

development is much more marked in male skulls, In many of the female skulls

it was not developed at all (Table XXXALV).

TasBLeE XXXIV

Malar tuberosity-—~ Complete Series

Development : é g

Absent - - - - - - 8% 45%

Slight - - - - - - 14% 26%

Small - - - - - - 35% 22%

Moderate - - - : : 30% 6%

Great - - . s ~ £ 13% 1%

Klaatsch (15), Burkitt and Hunter (3), Turner (27) and others have com-

mented on the prominence of this malar tuberosity, and noticed that when it was

very strongly developed the floor of the orbit passed out on to the facial suriace

of the malar bone, so that there was only a rounded bevelled orbital border.

Burkitt and Hunter attempted to correlate the development of this bony ridge

with the wear of the molar teeth, and considered that it was a mechanical strut

developed in response to the thrust from the molar teeth.

The angle between the superior border of the temporal process and the

posterior border of the fronto-sphenoidal process was 90° in 40% of the skulls,

less than 90° in 50%, and more than 90° in the same nuniber. There was no

sexual difference. This angle is correlated with, but not absolutely dependent

upon, the development of the marginal process. The degree of development of

this bony tubercle is indicated in Table XXAXV.

ABLE XXAXNYV

Marginal process— Complete Series

Development: é Q

Absent ~ - - - - - 0-7 % 3%

Slight - - - - - - 6% 16%

Small - Z a - is - 25% 32%

Moderate - - ~ - - 42% 39%

Great - - - - - - 28% 10%

Krogman (16) drew attention to the concavity of the inferior margin of the

maxilla, so that the facial aspect of the malo-maxillary suture was situated on a

downward projection fateral to the concavity. A glance at a few skulls of other

races indicated that this condition is conmmon amongst them. Records were kept

of the form of the inferior border of the zygomatic process of the mavxilla, it

being termed “normal” when the curve of its lower border formed an are of less

than one-quarter of a circle, and ‘‘concave” when the malo-maxillary suture was

situated on a downward projection as described by Krogman.

TABLE XXXVI

Complete Series

Zygomatic process of maxilla: d g

“Normal” bilaterally — - - - - 47% 70%

“Concave” bilaterally - - - - 47% 22%

Normal in right; concave in left - - 3% 4%

Normal on left; concave on righ: - - 3% 4%

The greater number of concave lower borders in the male skulls is

correlated with the larger and more massive build of the zygomatic bone in that

sex. There is some regional variation in the frequency of occurrence of this

concave lower border to the maxilla, it being much more common in the Northern

Territory and the Queensland series—~7/% in Queensland males and 70% in

Northern Territory males, compared with 37% in male skulls from Victoria,

New South Wales and South Australia. The females from the two northern

groups show a similar higher incidence than the southern females.

The diamond-shaped face of the Australian is brought about by a broadening

of the check region (with large malar bones facing antero-laterally) and a lateral

convexity ol the zygomatic arch, so pronounced that in many skulls, especially

those from the southern States, the greatest breadth of the skull is that between

the two most prominent points of the zygomatic processes of the temporal bones.

The zygomatic arches of the Australian are thick and heavy, a useful point

of differentiation from Tasmanian crania, where they are very light (as Wunderly

and Wood Jones pointed out); and they are generally quite strongly convex

upwards.

(14) Nasal Bones (Number of skulls, 584 ¢, 442 2).

The nasal region of the Australian aborigine is one of the most typical parts

of the facial skeleton. “Vhe low, rounded, saddle-shaped bridge of the nose is well

known and was invariably present.

Viewed from nornia facialis the nasal bones are usually shaped like an hour-

glass, constricted in the middle. Sometimes there was no such constriction and

the sides of the nasal bones were then cither parallel or diverged below. They

have been classified as wide (smallest width of the two bones more than 12 mm.),

usual (smallest width between 10 and 12 mm.), and narrow (smallest width less

than 10 mm).

278

TABLE XXXVIT

Complete Series

Not Constricted Not Constricted

Constricted in Middle in Middle

in Middle Parallel Sides Diverging Sides

Nasal bones: é Q 3 g é g

Of all skulls - - 88% 80% 9% 15% 3% 5%

Qf these: Wide - 16% 12% 19% 18% 21% 24%

Usual - 50% 28% 46% 39% 53% 52%

Narrow 34% 60% 35% 43% 26% 24%

Measurements were made of the widths of the two nasal bones at the fronto-

nasal suture, at their narrowest, and at their widest parts. The average dimen-

sions thus determined were —

TanLe XXXVITI®

Coniplete Series

Nasal bones: 3 g

Upper breadth (57 (2) ) - - 11°9imm. 1i-linm.

Smallest breadth (57) - - 9-6 mm. 9-2 mm.

Lower breadth (57 (3) ) - - 17-6 1mm. 16°7 mm.

The nasal bones were slightly narrower in all measurements in the Northern

‘Territory and Queensland crania, especially the female skulls. In one male and

three female skulls the upper breadth, measured from the extremities of the

fronto-nasal suture, was the greatest.

The two nasal bones were not always the same size; when they were unequal

the right side was wider than the left somewhat more commonly than was the

reverse, Where there was such an inequality it was confined to the upper part of

the nasal bones in 9% of the male and 6% of the female cases.

TABLE XXXIX

Complete Series

Nasal bones : $ g

Right > leit = - - - - - 35% 40%

Right = left = - - - - - 39% 33%

Right < left = - - - - - 26% 27%

The inequality above was so great as to exclude one nasal bone from articu-

lation with the frontal bone in two male and three female skulls. In all except

one male specimen it was the right nasal bone which articulated with the frontal

bone.

The internasal suture was gencrally of linear form throughout its length,

although the upper part was often slightly dentate, Jt was recorded as. finely

dentate throughout in 2% of the male and 3% of the female skulls, and showed

@) The numbers after the measurements in Table XXXVIII refer to the reference

numbers of Martin (19), 2, p. 661

279

some degree of synostosis in a surprisingly large number of specimens. Synostosis

seemed usually to begin at its upper end. Table XL sets out the observations

made on the internasal suture. “Partly synostosed” indicates more advanced

fusion than a synostosis of the upper part only of the suture.

TanLe XL

Complete Series

Internasal suture: é g

Not synostosed: linear — - - - 61% 78%

finely dentate - 2% 3%

Completely synostosed — - - - 9% 5%

Partly synostosed — - 7 - o 14% 9%

Synostosed above only - - - 14% 5%

some of the skulls in which there was a complete fusion of the internasal

suture were those of old persons with advanced synostosis of the sutures of the

cranial vault. In 50% of the male and 35% of the female specimens with

complete obliteration of the internasal suture, however, fusion in the coronal,

sagittal and lambdoid sutures was just beginning. There was no evidence of any

fusion of the sutures of the vault in 21% of the male and 33% of the female

skulls in which synostosis had commenced in the upper part of the internasal

suture.

In two male skulls there was present in the upper part of the internasal

suture, betwcen the two nasal bones and the frontal bone, a definite ossicle

measuring about 5 mm. x 4 mm., forming a small os internasale.

The nasofrontal suture was usually convex upwards. When the curve of the

nasofrontal suture between its two extremities described approximately a semi-

circle, or was even more convex, it was recorded as “high.” Where it

described a low curve, forming only a small are of a circle, it has been called

“low.” In a few cases the nasofrontal suture was straight or even concave

upwards.

Tape XLT

Complete Series

Nasofrontal suture: é g

Low - - - - - - 47% 47%

High - - - - - - 52% 50%

Slightly concave - - - - 0-°3% 3%

Linear - - - - - - 24% 24%

Finely dentate - - - - - 73% 75%

Partly synostosed — - -

3% 0-6%

The nasofrontal suture was gencrally finely dentate, sometimes Hnear, and

was in a few cases partly synostosed,

Small ossicles were sometimes found in the nasofrontal suture, the details

of the occurrence being given under Ossa Suturarum (4).

280

In one male skull from South Australia medial extensions of the frontal

processes of the maxillac excluded the nasal bones from articulation with the

frontal bone.

The curve of the nasal bones when viewed from norima lateralis were classi-

fied according to Martin’s three types (p. 946), although owing to the low bridge

the concavity was usually greater than Martin represents.

TanLte XLII

Complete Series

Nasal bones—lateral view: 3 9

Martin’s type I - - - - 16% 10%

55 va 5 i - - 68% 72%

at es) - - - - 16% 18%

Very small nasal bones occurred in one female skull, and in one female

specimen with a very slight development of the nasalia there appeared to be only

one bone present between the frontal processes of the two maxillae.

There was a peculiar condition in one male Victorian skull. ‘he nasofrontal

suture could not be clearly distinguished and a single piece of bone, 5 mm. wide

in the region of the fronto-maxillary contact, 3 mm. wide at its narrowest part,

and 5 mm. wide at the lower end of its junction with the maxillae, took the place

of the nasal bones. There was a compensating increase of the frontal processes

of the maxillae, Whe central spike of bone projected freely forwards for 10 mm.

from its junction with the maxillae.

(15) The Narial Aperture (Number of skulls, 624 6, 471 ¢@ ).

The narial aperture in the Australian is large and wide and its shape can best

be described as ovoid. There are many variations in the shape of the aperture,

but they are difficult to analyze and of doubtful morphological significance. Some-

limes it is more definitely oval, sometimes pyriform, sometimes almost triangular.

The average greatest width of the pyriform aperture in the whole series was

27-3 mm. in the male and 25-9 mm. in the female. There were slight regional

differences, the New South Wales and Victorian crania having the widest and the

South Australian crania the narrowest narial apertures.

The aperture was classed as wide when more than 27 mm. across, as narrow

when less than 25 mm. wide, and as usual when its width lay between 25

and 27 mm.

Taste XLIIL

Complete Series

Narial aperture: é g

Narrow (< 251mm.) - - - 9% 22%

Usual (25-27 mm.) - - - = 44% 61%

Wide (> 27mm.) - - - - 47% 17%

The lower narial margin is a region of great importance in racial anatomy,

and its conformation in the prognathous Australian is of particular interest.

281

Macalister (18), in his analysis of the lower narial margin, described the

paraseptal ridge and its lateral continuation, the anterior dental ridge, as forming

the posterior border of the prenasal fossa. Klaatsch called this border the margo

infranasalis, and named the anterior border of the area or fossa prenasalis the

crista prenasalis, The crista prenasalis is the continuation medially of the lateral

border of the pyriform aperture.

Burkitt and Lightoller (4), analysing these features amongst the Australian

and other races, were struck by the great variability of their development in the

Australian. They sought to explain these variations on mechanical lines

“variations in the area prenasalis and the lower margin of the apertura pyriformis

are due chiefly to tooth pressure of the upper incisor or canine tecth,” and they

visualise the prenasal crest as acting as a buttress or strut. Of the margo infra-

nasalis they say that “while its paraseptal portion is probably related to tooth

pressure, the anterior dental portion may or may not be.”

Johnson (14) has recently advanced another explanation of the causes and

significance of these ridges. His explanation is of some interest to us in that it

attaches to these features a biological and morphological significance which

Burkitt and Lightoller’s mechanical explanation does not. Briefly, the crista

prenasalis represents the advancing edge of the incisor crest of the maxilla, while

the margo intranasalis is “the anterior edge of the premaxilla passing from the

nasal spine laterally along the floor of the nasal fossa, up which it extends as far

as the ridge for the inferior coneha.” After considering the comparative anatomy

of the region in the primates and the various human races, he concludes that “in

the prognathous types of man the margins (of the narial apertures) are formed

yy the maxilla and premanilla in degree varying according to the amount of sub-

nasal prognathism, whilst, in the orthognathous white, the narial margins are

completely maxillary.” Most of the specimens in this series were examined before

he publication of Johnson's work.

in the Australian the lateral borders of the narial apertures are sharp. As they

turn medially at the lower narial margin to become the crista prenasalis or incisor

process of the maxilla, one of several things may happen to them. Generally the

erista prenasalis of the Australian becomes rounded and disappears on the alveolar

sart of the maxilla vertically above the roots of the lateral and medial incisor teeth.

Sometimes the erest can be traced right to the midline as a faint ridge. Somie-

times it 1s more prominent and seems lo fuse with the medial part (Macalister’s

paraseptal ridge) of the margo intranasalis. This Icads to a moderately sharp

lower narial margin shutting off the nasal cavity from the face and simulating

the ISuropean condition. In a few cases the crista prenasalis could be definitely

traced medially as two indistinct ridges, a few millimetres apart, to the midline.

Sometimes, when this division of the prenasal crest occurs, the anterior part of

it disappears on the alveolar border over the incisor teeth, while the posterior

ridge continues medially to the midline. The frequency of occurrence of these

various forms of crista prenasalis is sunimarized below.

282

Taste XLIV

Complete Series

Crista prenasalis : é 2

Crest disappears over lateral incisors - 49% 66%

‘, “3 » medial ,, = 17% 10%

Crest traceable faintly to midline - 31% 22%

Crest becomes 2 faint ridges, each

passing to midline = - - - 2% 1%

Crest 2 becomes faint ridges—pos-

terior passing to midline, anterior

disappearing over medial incisor 1% 0-4%

‘There was a similar variability in the margo infranasalis. There was 10

trace of it (at least in its medial part, the paraseptal ridge) in 27% of the skulls

of both sexes, and its development amongst the remainder varied considerably. In

59% of the skulls a rounded transversely directed elevation replaced the mareo

infranasalis.

Fig. 11

Diagram showing the various parts of the lower narial margins

mentioned in the text (F.W.J.)

C.P. = crista prenasalis; P.R. = paraseptal ridge;

A.D.R. = anterior dental ridge

Macalister (18) and Burkitt and TLightoller (4) both mention that the

anterior dental ridge “is often channelled and contains the anterior superior

alveolar nerves and vessels to the incisor teeth.” Johnson does not mention this,

233

but it is obvious in many Australian skulls. The canal in the anterior dental ridge

can often be traced from the incisor crest just in front of the incisive foramen

medially to the anterior part of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity. just

below the ridge for the inferior concha and just behind the lateral narial margin.

Wood Jones (35) has recently clarified the anatomy of the anterior superior

alveolar nerve and vessels and has shown that this canal in the anterior dental

ridge is the anterior end of the canalis sinuosus in which these anterior superior

alveolar nerve and vessels course.

The paraseptal ridge seems to arise from the middie of the anterior dental

ridge as it courses across the floor of the nasal cavity. The medial part of the

anterior dental ridge is often barely distinguishable and the anterior dental ridge

and paraseptal ridge then appear continuous, forming the margo infranasalis of

Nlaatsch. Figure 11 is a diagrammatic sketch of these elements.

The development of the margo infranasalis is summed up in Table SLY.

‘Together, the margo infranasalis and the crista prenasalis determine the

form of the lower narial margin. Table XIV summarizes the types of margin

that occur amongst the Australians following the definitions given in Martin (19).

The various descriptive names given for different types of narial margin

are not of much morphological significance, they are merely convenient methods

of indicating the degree of encroachment of the incisor process of the maxilla

over the anterior edge of the premanilla in the region of the lower narial margin.

Where the prenasal crest fades into the alveolar process of the maxilla over the

lateral incisor teeth and the margo infranasalis cannot be distinguished in the foor

TABLE XLV

Margo infranasalis: Complete Series

Development : $ g

Absent - = - - = - 27% 26%

Slight - - - - - - 16% 10%

Sma!l—rounded - - - - 27% 26%

Smali—sharp - x - - - 14% 18%

Moderate—rounded - - - - 5% 4%

Moderate—sharp - - ~ - 6% 6%

Round transverse elevation - - 5% 5%

of the nasal cavity, the lower narial margin is described as a pithecoid groove.

lf there is a transversely directed rounded elevation separating the nasal cavity

from the face, the condition is described as the clivus nasoalveolaris. A pro-

iinent margo infranasalis and a prenasal crest disappearing over the lateral or

medial incisors constitute the infantile condition, and if both prenasal crest and

margo infranasalis can be traced to the midline, prenasal fossae can be dis-

tinguished.

The “European” form of lower narial margin is the high sharp crest, extend-

ing from the lateral narial margins to the anterior nasal spine, and shutting the

interior of the nasal cavity off from the face. This trenchant rising edge is formed

284

Taste XLVI

Complete Series

lower narial margin: & g

Pithecoid groove - - - - 16% 18%

Infantile form - - - - - 21% 32%

Prenasal fossae - - - - 21% 9%

Pseudo-Luropean type - - - 25% 22%

Clivus nasoalveolaris . - 5 17% 19%

of the confluent lateral margin and paraseptal line and masks the anterior dental

ridge, ‘This formation, typical of the European, never occurs in Australians.

The pseudo-European in Table XLVI refers to a condition in which ether the

crista prenasalis is traceable as a definite ridge to the anterior nasal spine, and

the margo infranasalis cannot be made out (in 79% of the cases); or the crista

prenasalis fuses with the anterior part of the margo infranasalis (paraseptal

ridge) to produce a similar effect (21% of the cases). In all cases there is a fine

ridge only, never the sharp edge shutting the nasal cavity off from the alveolar

process.

In a few crania, namely those in which the crista prenasalis was definitely

bifid, and a margo infranasalis was present, two shallow prenasal fossae could be

distinguished on either side.

The degree of development of the anterior nasal spine was estimated accord-

ing to the table of Broca (Martin, p. 948). In many cases, when the margo infra-

nasalis was absent in its medial part, the anterior nasal spine appeared to project

straight forwards from the incisor crest of the maxilla.

Tanre XENI

Complete Series

Anterior nasal spine: 3

3 g

Absent - - - - - - 2% 1%

Very slight : - = : - 7% 9%

Broca 1 - - - - - - 61% 66%

an ee a 2 - - - - 24% 21%

3. Ce - : = - A% 3%

moe © Tee ke A 3 Mabe es

(16) The Nasal Septian (Number of skulls, 336 ¢, 276 2).

The condition of the nasal septum is shown in Table XLVIIT. Tt will be

seen that the Queensland ecrania had a much higher proportion of the primitive

median nasal septun.

‘TABLE XEVIIL

Complete Series Queensland Only

Nasal septum: é g é 2

Median - - - - 39% AL% 62% 63%

Deviated to the right - 32% 38% 16% 26%

Deviated to the lett - - 29% 21% 22% 11%

285

(17) Foramen Ovale (Number of skulls, 618 8, 488 @ ).

There is a considerable degree of variation in the region of the foramen ovale

in Australians, and these variations can best be set out in tabular form (Tables

XLIX, L, LI). The foramen ovale was complete in 89% of the male and 90%

of the female skulls. Of these complete ones, 7% of the male and 8% of the

female specimens showed sutures passing to the foramen spinosum or to the

foramen lacerum, while 6% of the male and 9% of the female skulls were bounded

medially (from foramen lacerum) or posteriorly (from foramen spinosum) by

a thin spicule of bone.

TABLE NLIX

Complete Series

Foramen ovale: g g

Complete bilaterally in - ~ - - 89% 90%

Of these: small - - = - - 11% 23%

usual - - - - - 76% 71%

large - - - - - 13% 0%

Right > left - y - - - 27% 25%

Right < lett + - - - - 22% 22%

Varner f. Complete Series

Foramen ovale: 3 g

Incomplete foramen avale in - - 11% 10%

Of these: Communicates medially

with PF. lacerum - 31% 41%

Bilaterally in. - - 35% 15%

On right only in - 40% 50%

On left only in - 25% 35%

Communicates posteriorly

with F. spinosum 23% 33%

Bilaterally in - - 13% 25%

On right only in - 27% 25%

On left only in - 60% 50%

Communicates with

I. spinosum and

I’, laceruni - 26% 26%

Bilaterally in - : 8% 16%

On right only in - 59% 38%

On ieft only in - 33% 46%

In the classification according to size a foramen measuring about 6 mm. x

4mm. was taken as “usual.” Some hundreds of [oramina were measured, and

eventually it was possible to grade the size of the foramen with considerable

accuracy merely by inspection. “Large” and “small” describe foramina noticeably

bigger or smaller than the “usual” (6 mm. x 4 mm.) type. Of these complete

286

foramina, 3% (of both sexes) were circular in shape, and 2% of the male and

0:5% of the female were noted as being very narrow ovals. One male and one

female skull had “hour-glass” foramina, and the long axes of the foramina in one

male skull were transverse.

Taste LI

foramen ovale: Complete Series

Of complete foramina: cy g

Suture to foramen lacerum - - 39% 2%

Bilaterally in - - - - 27% 43%

On right only in - - - 46% 43%

On left only in - - - - 27% 14%

Suture to foramen spinosum — - - 4% 0%

Bilaterally in - - - - 21% 43%

On right only in - - - 61% 28%

On left only in - - - - 18% 27%

Thin plate of bone posteriorly (from

EF. spinesum ) - - - 5% 8%

Bilaterally in - ~ - - 4% 33%

On right only in - - - 50% 329%

On left only in - - - - 46% 35%

Thin plate of bone medially (from

I. lacerum)} - - - 1% 1%

3ilaterally in - - - - 57% 17%

On right only in - ~ - 14% 5096

On left only in - - - - 29% 33%

Analysing the figures in another manner, we find that there is a tendency

to a deficiency medially (actual deficiency, suture, or thin plate) in 11% of all

male and 9% of all female skulls. There is a tendeney to a deficiency posteriorly

in 11% of male and 16% of female crania.

(18) The Forainen of Vesalius (Number of skulls, 594 ¢, 464 9),

In Australian skulls the foramen of Vesalius, when it occurs, lies on a long

slit which is situated medial to the anterior end of the foramen ovale, The slit

was present when there was no complete foramen of Vesalits.

Taste [II

Vesalian slit. Complete Series

Development : é g

Bilaterally absent - - - - 9% 6%

” slight < - - - 9% 8%

moderate - - - - 76% 82%

Present on right only - - - - 2% 2%

Present ou left only — - - - - 4% 2°5%

287

Augier (in Poirier, Charpy and Nicolas (22) ) describes the foramen of

Vesalius as being formed of two parts, one inferior and one superior. In the

adult, he says, the upper part is frequently obliterated, leaving only the inferior

part. ‘hus the exocranial opening of the foramen of Vesalius may be present

when the endocranial opening is absent. By passing a fine wire along the canal

it was determined whether or not the inferior opening of the Vesalian canal com-

municated with the superior part and opened within the cranial cavity. Where

the inferior part only was present, the foramen was recorded as incomplete, where

the wire could be passed right along the canal it was called complete.

Taste LII

Complete Series

loramen of Vesalius: 3 2

Complete foramen bilaterally - - 42% 44%

Incomplete foramen bilaterally — - - 44% 43%

Of these: size i - - - - 83% 83%

size Ul - - - - 17% 17%

Absent bilaterally - - - - 9% 9%

Absent on left, incomplete on right - 2°5% 3%

Absent on right, incomplete on left - 3% 17%

Where foramina were present their size was measured by determining the

largest size of wire which could be passed through them. This also ensured that

the foramen under examination was a complete one. The sizes recorded are as

below:

size 1 admits wire 0°25 mm. diameter

size il 7 je 0°50). Ls is

size it ~. 100, ine

size iv - aw 200° os i

Complete foramina of Paste LIV ; ae

Complete Series

Vesalius | Bilateraily On Right Only On Teft Only

8 2 g 2 $ 2

Test. ae Hs x 53% 58% 20% 13% 27% 29%

Of these: size i 34% 21% 40% 41% 34% 51%

size i 46% 54% 43% 39% 47% =—28%

size iil 19% 24% 17% 17% 19% 21%

size iv 1% 1% — 3% — —

Taste LV

Complete Series

Complete foramina of Vesalius: $ g

Right = left — - - - - - 55% 50%

Right > Ieft —- - - - - 17% 19%

Right < left = - - - - - 28% 31%

288

Wood Jones (31) says, “It (the foramen of Vesalius) may be present in

some form or other on only one side of the skull; in such cases the size of the

foramen ovale is usually notably different upon the two sides being larger on

the side on which the foramen of Vesalius is lacking.” Where there was obvious

inequality in the size of the two foramina of Vesalius this condition was noted

(Table LV), and in each case the correlation with the size of the foramen ovale

was determined. The results shown in Table LVI were obtained.

Tance LVL

Correlation between size of Complete Series

I. ovale and F. vesalius: é g

Larger foramina on same side - . 41% 3390

Large foramina on opposite sides — - 59% 67 Go

Where a complete foramen of Vesalius was present on one side only, the

foramen ovale was larger on the opposite side in 33% of male and 26% of

female skulls, the reverse was the case in 33% of male and 31% of female skulls,

the foramen ovale being approximately the same size in the remaining cases.

These results suggest, that in the Australian at least, the occurrence or not

of a foramen of Vesalius is without much effect in the size of the foramen ovale,

which is notably large im Australian skulls.

(19) The Foramen Spinosum CNumber of skulls, 642 ¢, 484 9).

The foramen spiosum was conipletc in both sides of 46% of the male and

36% of the female Australian skulls. In the other skulls all combinations of

completeness of the foramina existed. In a few skulls there was no trace of a

foramen spinosum (Table VILL), whilst in others the foramen was represented

by a notch. Where the foramen was more distinct than a notch all degrees of

imperfection of its medial wall existed. It was sometimes incomplete in the

Table LVIL

Complete Series

foramen spinosum.. é 2

Complete —- - - - - - 74% 69%

OF these: Bilaterally - - - 62% 32%

On right only - . - 7% 20%

On left only - ~ - 21% 22%

Vasre [VIII

l-oramen Complete Series

fb Me . Incomplete Incomplete

spmosum ; Absent Notch Only Medially Anteriorly

re) 2 3 2 $ g rs) g

Or whole series 3% 3% 6% 3% 21% 26% 3% 5%

silaterally - 21% 21% 279 44% 29% 28% 14% 13%

On right only 53% 50% 38% 31% 41% 32% 38% 32%

On left only ~ 26% 29% 35% 25% 30% 40% 48% = 33%

289

whole of its length, sometimes incomplete save for a plate of bone in the upper,

the middie, or the lower part of the medial wall, and sometimes communicated

anteriorly with the foramen ovale. The occurrence of these various conditions

is summarized in Tables LVII, LVIII and LIX.

Taste LIX

Foramen Complete Series, Incomplete Medially

ayes : Except in

spinosum + Except Above the Middle Except Below In the Middle

3 Q g g g g $ g

Of whole series 20% 25% 1% 4% 2% 4% 5% 6%

Bilaterally - 27% 32% — 17% 13% 11% 279% 19%

On right only 429% 37% 60% 50% 27% 42% 29% 25%

On left only- 31% 31% 40% 33% 60% 47% 44% 50%

Considering all forms of the foramen spinosum, we find that the conditions

were symmetrical in 62% of the male and 56% of the female skulls.

The relationships of the foramen to the angular spine of the sphenoid bone

was noted in the majority of cases. As will be explained in the next section,

Taste LX

Relation of F. spinosum to Complete Series

angular spine of sphenoid: g g

Anterior to spine - : - > 2 65% 61%

Lateral to spine - 4 - 5 - 10% I%

Medial to spine - - : - - 7% 10%

Through spine - - - - - 18% 20%

the angular spine of the sphenoid was frequently bifid, or ridge-bke, and the

foramen passed between the two spines—these have becn classified as passing

through the angular spine of the sphenoid.

(20) The Spina Angularis Sphenoidei (Number of skulls, 632 8, 486 2).

‘There was no sign of a spine of the sphenoid on either side in five male and

four female skulls. In five male and seven female skulls there was a small spine

Taste LXI

Complete Series

Angular spine of the sphenoid bone: é g

Present Bilaterally - - - - 98% 97%

Very small - - - - 15% 23%

Small - - - - - 40% 42%

Moderate - - - - 37% 28%

Large - - - ~ ¥ 6% 4%

Right > left - - - - 14% 10%

Right < left = - H 4 a 13% 11%

290

on the right but none on the left, and in three skulls of each sex the reverse

condition obtained.

It generally took the form of a small, blunt pointed spine projecting down

3-10 mm. from the angle of the sphenoid. Occasionally it took on different

forms and the frequency of these is shown in Table L.XIT.

TasLe LXII

Complete Series

Shape of angular spine of the sphenoid: é g

Usual - - - - - - - 55% 68%

Blunt - - - - - - s 11% 8%

Ridge - - - - - - 11% 7%

Sharp and fine - - - - - 5% 79%

General elevation of angle - - - 7% 3%

Irregular - - - - - - 3% 4%

Heavy - - - - - - 8% 3%

In one male South Australian skull there was no true spina angularis

sphenoidei on the right side, but a small spine was developed on the neighbouring

part of the temporal bone, like the spina angularis temporalis of the gorilla skull.

The conformation on the leit side was normal.

(21) Laminae Pterygoidei (Number of skulls, 620 4. 470 9 ).

‘he pterygoid laminae of the Australian skull are large and. as a rule,

widely splayed. They have been recorded below (Table LXIII) as moderately

splayed when the lateral lamina made an angle of 30°-40° with the median

sagittal plane, widely splayed when this angle was 40°-50°, and very widely

splayed when the angle was greater than 50°.

Table LNII

Complete Series

Laminae pterygoidet: é g

Size: Small - - - - - — men

Moderate - - - - - 7% 15%

Large - - - - - 78% 80%

Very large - - - - 15% 5%

Splaying of lateral laminae:

Moderate (30°-40°) — - - - - 46% 41%

Great (40°-50°) - - 3 - - 52% 579%

Very great (> 50°) - ~ - - 2% 2%

The lateral lamina was nearly always larger than the medial lamina. Where

this was not so (4% of male and 9% of female skulls) the lateral Jamina was

muuch smaller than usual, while the medial lamina had not been reduced.

The attached margin of the lateral lamina ustially faded away on the

sphenoid anterior to the foramen ovale.

291

TapLe LXIV

Complete Serics

Laminae pterygoidei: é g

Lateral > medial - - - 7 96 %o 92%

Lateral = medial - - - - 3% 8%

Lateral < medial - - - - 1% 0°6%

Taste LXV

Complete Series

Pterygospinous bar and spines of Civinini: 3 g

Pterygospinous bar (complete): - - 1:5% 1:2%

Silaterally = - - - - - 30% 40%

Right only - - - - - 20% 20%

left only - - - - - 50% 40%

Anterior and posterior spines of Civinini 6% 5%

Bilaterally — - - - - - 18% 26%

Right only = - - - - - 54% 26%

Left only - - - - - 28% 47%

Anterior spine of Civinint only — - - 3% 2%

Bilaterally — - - - - - 42% 55%

Right only - - - - ; 42% 11%

Left only - - - - - 16% 33%

Tarte LXVI

Complete Series

Band and spines of Hyrtl: & g

Band of Hyrtl (complete) - - - 4% 2%

Bilaterally —- - - - - 20% 22%

Right only = - - - - - 36% 33%

Left only = - - - - - 44% 45%

Anterior and posterior spine of Hyrtl - 4% 4%

Bilaterally = - - - 7 - 12% 29%

Right only - - - - - 32% 29%

Left only - - - - - 56% 42%

Anterior spine of Hyrtl only - - - 05% —_

Bilaterally —- - 7 =f 7 — —

Right only = - - - - - 67 Go —

Left only - - - - - 33% —

Posterior spine of Hyrtl only - - 19% 25%

Bilaterally = - - - - - 38% 40%

Right only — - - - - - 28% 31%

Left only - - - - - 34% 29%

292

TABLE LXVII

Compiete Series

Pterygoid fossa $ g

Deep - 63 - - - - 32% 21%

Filled above - 3 - - - 34% 35%

Shallow 4 - = A 7 S 34% 4476

Taste LX VIII

Complete Series

Seaphoid fossa: é g

Absent - - - - - - 5% 3%

Slight - - - - - - 16% 19%

Small - - - - - - - 56% 57%

Moderate — - - - - - . 23% 21%

Some devlopment of the spines of Civinini or Hyrtl was found in 37% of

the male and 39% of the female crania; Civinini’s spines or band occurring in

10% of the male and 8% of the female skulls, while in the remainder there were

anterior or posterior spines of Hyrtl. Details are recorded in Tables LXV and

LXVI.

Where there was a complete pterygospinous bar it passed medial to the

foramen ovale in half the cases, and over the middic of the foramen in the

other half.

Three types of pterygoid fossa are found in Australian skulls. It may

be deeply excavated, so that the apex of the fossa extends up to the level of the

infratemporal surface of the sphenoid. The apex may be filled with a mass of

bone extending for about 5 mm. below the infratemporal surface, the fossa being

deeply excavated below this, or the whole fossa may be shallow. In Table LX VIL

the first type has been called “deep,” the second “filled above,’ and the

* In two male and one female skull the pterygoid fossa was not

developed, and in these cases the pterygoid laminac were greatly reduced.

third “shallow.’

A distinet scaphoid fossa could usually be made out to the lateral side of the

medial lamina. Its development is summarized in Table LX VIII.

(22) The Jugular Foramen (Number of skulls, 657 6, 501 2).

The equality or otherwise of the jugular foramina has been recorded, and

the results are given below.

TasLe LXIX

Complete Series

Jugular foramen: é g

Right > left - - . - - 82% 82%

Right = left - - - - - 7% 6%

Right < left - - - - - 11% 12%

293

(23) The Tympanic (Number of skulls, 657 ¢, 500 @ ).

Martin (p. 889) describes four forms which may be taken by the bony borders

of the porus acousticus externus. They are:

Type 1 A circle.

Type 2 An ellipse with its long diameter in an antero-posterior direction.

Type 3 An ellipse with its long diameter directed obliquely from behind

below to in front above.

Type 4 An ellipse with a vertical greater diameter,

The occurrence of these various. forms of ports acousticus externus is given

in Table LXX.

TABLE LXX

Complete Series

Form of porus acousticus externus: é g

Type 1 - - - - - - 2% 5%

Type 2 - - - - - - 05% —

Type 3 - - - - - - 81% 78%

Type 4 - - - - - - 17% 17%

irdlicka (13) has summarized the present knowledge of aural exostoses in

his monograph on the subject. In the present series of skulls they were observed

in 15% of the male and 5% of the female specimens. The positions in which

they occurred are shown in Table LX XI.

The cause of ear exostoses is unknown. They usually arise from what were

the free upper ends of the tympanic ring, but may occasionally arise from the

squamous portion of the external auditory meatus, as was the case in one female

Australian, in which one exostosis was present in the superior wall of the right

meatus.

TALLE LN XI

Coniplete Scries

Aural cxostoses: é g

Present in - - - - - - 15% 5%

Of these: Qn anterior and posterior

walls - F - 13% 4%

Bilaterally — - - - 74% 100%

On right only - - 9% ss

On left only - - 17% —

On posterior walls only — - 83% 78%

Bilaterally — - - - 81% 78%

On right only - - 7% 17%

On left only - - 12% 5%

On anterior walls only - 4% 13%

Rilaterally — - - - 75% 66%

On right only — - - 25% —-

On left only - - — 33%

294

lirdlicka notes the part played by a “hereditary influence,” and this factor

probably explains the occurrence of aural exostoses in eleven out of 25 skulls

(presumably of one tribe) from Barmah, Victoria.

‘The tympanic bone, where it forms the lower boundary of the external

acoustic porus, is usually thick in Australian skulls. Viewed from norma lateralis

the floor of the external acoustic meatus may appear angular, when the anterior

and posterior walls mect to form a ridge which is the lateral prolongation of the

vagina processus styloidei. In the absence of this lateral ridge the floor appears

to pass gently from the mastoid process to the postglenoid process of the

zygomatic process of the temporal bone, and it may be flat or rounded.

‘Table LXXIT shows the occurrence of these conditions.

JTAnLeE LXXI

Complete Series

Tympanic bone, at porus acousticus externus: 8 g

Size: Thin - - - - - - 10% 11%

Moderately heavy - - - 2 78% 71%

Massive : - - - - 12% 18%

Shape: Rounded - - . : - 38% 48%

Flat - - - : = - 35% 15%

Angular - - - - - 27% 37%

The development of the ridge known as the vagina processus styloidei is

very variable, and it is not casy to record concisely the various conditions found.

I have here considered this rough ridge as consisting of three parts; the vagina

processus styloidei proper, a lateral prolongation of this bony spine, and its medial

Taste [XXIII

Vagina processus stvloidei and its Complete Series

prolongations : $ 8

Vagina processus styloidei proper - - 100% 100%

Size: Very small - - - - 3% 6%

Small - - - - 7 46% 50%

Moderate - - - - 43% 38%

Large - = - - 7 8% 6%

Lateral prolongation = - - - - 29% 40%

Size: Very small - - - - 43% 47%

Small - - - - - 52% 50%

Moderate - E - - 5% 3%

Medial prolongation — - - - - 90% 88%

Size: Very small - - - - 21% 27%

Small - - - - - 59% 62%

Moderate - - - - 19% 11%

Large - ; - - - 1% 05%

295

prolongation. In some cases there was a well developed spine at the inner end of

this medial ridge ; its occurrence and size is indicated in Table LXXIV.

Taste LXXIV

Spine at medial end of medial Complete Series

prolongation: 3 g

Present in - - - - - - 43% 46%

Size: Very small - - - - 29% 32%

Small - - - - 52% 60%

Moderate - - - - 19% 8%

A suprameatal spine is present in the majority of Australian skulls; its

development is shown in Table LAXAYV.

TapLe LXXV

Suprameatal spine Complete Series

Development : é g

Absent - - ; - 4 ; 6% 15%

Trace only - - - - - 12% 23%

Distinct - - - - - - 82% 62%

(24) The Foramen of Huschke (Number of skulls, 663 6, 503 ¢ ).

This foramen was rarely present in these Australian crania, and when it did

occur it was usually very small. Some traces were present in 5% of the male and

7% of the female skulls. In the table below it has been described as large when

the greatest diameter was 5 mm. or over.

Taste LXXVI

Complete Series

Foramen of Huschke: é g

Present - - - - - - 5% 7%

Dilaterally - - - - 58% 55%

Size: Small - - - - 44% 28%

Moderate - - - 44% 72%

Large - - - - 12% —

On right only - : - - 26% 24%

Size: Small - - - - 37% 2596

Moderate - - - 63% 75%

Large - - - x — —

On left only - - = - 16% 21%

Size: Small - - - - — 15%

Moderate - - - 100% 37%

Large - - - - — 28%

(25) The Styloid Process (Number of skulls, 662 8, 502 9).

A styloid process was present on one or both sides of 77% of the male and

66% of the female skulls.

296

VaBL—E LXXVITI

Complete Series

Styloid process: é g

Present - - - - - - 77% 66%

Bilaterally —- - - - - 80% 80%

On right only - - - - 9% 11%

On left only - - - - 11% 9%

When present the process was often quite small, and the large long styloid

processes characteristic of uropean skulls were rarely seen, When the styloid

process was large it was usually of a massive build.

Taste LXXVITI

Complete Series

Styloid process: é g

Size: Very small - - - - 3% 7%

Small - - - - - 36% 45%

Moderate - - - - 28% 30%

Long and fine - - - - 2% 1%

Massive and short - - - 4% 3%

Massive and moderate length - 9% 7%

Massive and long — - - - 18% 7%

Vance |LXXTX

Complete Series

Condyloid fossa: $ 2

Present : - - 7 - - - 1% 70%

Lilaterally - - - - 7296 69%

Size: Very small - - - 10% 16%

Snaalt - - - - 51% 47%

Mederate - - - 33% 35%

Large - - - a 4% 2%

Right>left - - - - 20% 28%

Right < left - - - - 14% 14%

On right only = - - - - 16% 20%

Size: Very small - - - 14% 31%

Small - - - - 59% 57%

Moderate ~ - - 26% 12%

Large - - - - 1:5% —

On left only - - - - 12% 11%

size: Very small - - - 29% 30%

Small - - - - 53% 60%

Moderate - - - 16% 10%

Large - - - - 2% —

297

(26) The Posterior Condyloid Forames (Number of skulls, 616 8, 473 ¢ ).

The occurrence of the posterior condyloid foramen and the condyloid fossa

is quite independent. Both were present in 20% of the skulls (in both sexes),

and both absent in 19% of male and 17% of female specimens. Fossae only were

present in 31% of male and 26% of female skulls, and foramina only in 9% of

male and 13% of female skulls. All other combinations of the presence of fossa

and foramen occurred.

The patency and size of the condyloid canal was determined by passing

wires of various sizes through it, as described under (18) foramen of Vesalius,

above. ‘The occurrence and size of the foramina is set out in Table LXXX.

Tante LXXX

Complete Series

Posterior condyloid foramen: $ 9

Present : - - ~ - 48% 55%

Bilaterally - - - - 35% 40%

Sede & A @ 2 a Be 7%

iii - - - - - 50% 49%

iv - - - - - 48% 44%

Right > left - - - - 36% 39%

Right < left - - - - 15% 14%

On right only = - - - - 37% 39%

Size il - - - - - 22% 18%

iti - - - - - 39% 45%

iv - - - - - 39% 37%

On left only — - - - - 28% 21%

Size ii - - - - = 21% 24%

iii - - - - - 50% 92%

iv - - - - - 29% 24%

(27) The Parietal Foramen (Number of skulls, 654 3, 500 ¢ ).

Boyd (2) on a small series of skulls found that the Australians differed con-

siderably from Europeans in the frequency of occurrence of the various emissary

foramina. The presence and size of the parietal and mastoid foramina was

recorded for the skulls of this scrics, Table LXXXT, using the same methods as

described above ( (18) Foramen of Vesalius), Parietal foramina were present in

6390 of the male and 65% of the female skulls. Tn 3% of the crania (of both

sexes) therc were two parietal foramina on one or both sides (bilaterally in one

male and one female skull), and in three male and four female skulls there was a

foramen in the sagittal suture as well as on one or both sides.

(28) The Mastoid Emissary Foramen (Number of skulls, 641 @, 487 @ ).

This was measured as described above. A mastoid emissary foramen was

found in 55% of the male and 44% of the female crania. In eleven male and

one female skull there were two foramina on one side.

298

The occurrence and size of the mastoid foramen is set out in Table LXXXI.

Taste LXAXXI

Coniplete Series

Parietal foramen and Parietal foramen Mastoid foramen

mastoid foramen é 2 3 g

Present - - - - - 63% 65% 55% 44%

Bilaterally - - - 36% 36% 479% 35%

Size: 1 - - - - 3% 9% 1% 3%

Woe - - - 50% 55% 36% 38%

ii - - - - 47% 36% 56% 59%

iv - - - - a — 7% —

Right > lef - - - 32% 7% 29% 23%

Right < left = - - - 15% 5% 17% =23%

On right only - - 33% 32% 25% 31%

Size: 1 - - - - 8% 11% 4% 9%

ilo - - - - 40% = 53% 48% = 55%

iii - - - - 50% 36% 38% 31%

iv + - - - 2% — 10% 5%

On Ieft only — - - - 28% 29% 28% = 34%

Size: i - - - - 13% 13% 6% 11%

Wo - - - - 24% 36% 36% 47%

ili - - - - 60% 47% 47% 38%

iv - - - - 3% 4% 11% 4%

In sagittal suture only - 3% 4%

Size: ii - - - - 50% 54%

iil - - - 50% 46%

DiscusstoNn

From the cxamination detailed above, three fairly definite types of Aus-

tralian skull emerge: (1) type A, the southern type, from South Australia,

Central Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and southern Queensland (7.c.,

the greater part of the continent); (2) type B, from the coastal areas of

ihe Northern ‘Verritory; and (3) type C, from the greater part of Queens

land (fig. 12). Intermixture makes the limes of division vague, and this

vagueness is increased by the paucity of matcrial from south-western and ceniral

Queensland and the more central parts of Northern Territory. Of these, type C

is by far the least homogeneous group, type A the most homogeneous.

So few specimens from Western Australia were available for examination

that the distribution of the types there cannot be given. One or two skulls from

north-west Australia correspond with type B, the rest of those examined were

similar to the common type A. A subsequent re-examination of the Northern

Territory specimens showed that some twenty specimens from Booraloola. on the

shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, correspond with type C rather than type BR.

299

However, the inclusion of these skulls in the Northern Territory series does not

materially affect the conclusions reached.

The distinctions between these types of skull have been indicated in the pre-

ceding pages. The different contours may be seen at a giance in the dioptero-

graphs (figs. 1-9).

It was pointed out earlier that in a metrical survey of an extensive series of

skulls, lIrdlicka (12) noted differences between the Northern Territory, the

Queensland, and the southern Australian skulls. Morant (20), in a more

Fig. 12

Map of Australia showing distribution of the different types of skulls:

A, southern type; B, coastal Northern ‘Verritory type: and

C, Queensland type. (See text)

extensive statistical analysis of published measurements, came to the conclusion

that only two racial types could be distinguished over the whole of Australia.

Qne was confined to the Northern Territory, and differed considerably from the

second, which he considered to he spread homogeneously over the whole of Aus-

tralia, by having a smailer brainbox and slightly differing proportions of height

to fength and breadth of skull.

Recently Wagner (29) has examined statistically all the published measure-

ments of the crania of the races of Oceania. In Australia he separates the Queens-

land and Northern Territory groups off from the southern groups, noting that the

former resemble each other more than either resembles the southern type. Conm-

300

menting on these findings, he says that “the geographically closest groups show

generally the greatest similarity, and the assumption that a foreign northern

clement has had its influence in a southerly direction, stronger along the east coast

than the west, is very plausible.” Later, comparing the New Caledonian crania

with the Australian, he finds a considerable likeness between them and the

Queensland group and says that“... . the geographical proximity of Queensland

aud Melanesian has played a certain réle and that not one but various racial

elements have left their mark on the indigenous population of the northern part

of Australia.”

By this examination of nou-metrical features, it has been possible to differen-

tiate the Queensland (type C) skull quite clearly from those occurring over the

rest of the continent, thus confirming Wagncr’s findings, Morant’s differentiation

of the Northern Territory (type B) skull js also confirmed, Probably the

measurements available to Morant were insufficient to enable him to establish

this third racial type (in most of his calculations Morant used the measurements

of 18 male Queensland skulls),

It is not possible, by the study of the non-metrical features of the skull alone,

to decide the exact significance of these variations. There are three possible

causes of the observed differences in skull type. Firstly, isolation for a long

period in different kinds of geographical environment. Secondly, the Australian

as we know him today may belong to a mixed race, different proportions of the

various parent races remaining in different areas of the continent and thus con-

stituting slightly differing racial types. Thirdly, the existing differences may be

due to more recent contamination of an originally pure Australian race by the

peoples at present living on the borders of the continent, that is by Papuo-

melanesians in the north-east, and possibly Malays in the north.

The third alternative is merely a later occurrence of the second, for it is

fairly obvious that the successive waves of people postulated in the latter must

have entered through the northern corridor. In this connection it is of interest to

note that a fragment of a fossil human skull found in Aitape, New Guinea, and

at present being examined by the writer, approximates fairly closely to the modern

southern Australian (type A).

The first cause suggested, ie., physical differentiation duc to long-continued

isolation in different types of environment, is not borne out by the geographical

distribution of the various types of skull nor by what is known of the habits of

the natives.

There has long been an opinion current that the modern Australians are of

poly-racial origin, although conclusive evidence has not yet been forthcoming,

Turner (27), using the breadth-height relations of the skull as a criterion,

suggested that along the southern seaboard of the continent there may have been

an inter-mixture (of the Australians) with a people in whose crania the height

index was normally less than the breadth index, and he mentioned the ‘tasmanians

as possible ancient inhabitants of southern Australia,

301

Wunderly (38) has recently summarized the evidence available concerning

the origin of the Tasmanians, and considers that it is highly probable that they

arrived in Tasmania after having crossed Australia, the remnants having been

absorbed by the later wave of early Australians.

The only extensive and detailed physical anthropological studies on the living

Australians are those carried out under the attspices of the Board for Anthro-

pological Research of the University of Adelaide. These investigations, sum-

marized in the articles of Campbell, Gray, and Hackett (6), were confined to

Central Australia. These writers considered briefly the possibility of the existence

of different physical types among the Central Australian aborigines. They came

to the conclusion that the population of the area under discussion was homo-

gercous, and their findings may be summed up as follows: “The consideration of

the results of blood grouping alone, or in conjunction with anthropometric data,

does not indicate the existence of distinct physical types among the Central Aus-

tralian tribes.”

It is unfortunate that insufficient skulls are available from Central Australia

to differentiate them clearly from the southern type A, if any difference exists.

Personal observations on living aborigines of central and southern Australia

suggest there are some differences, the more northerly peoples being less hairy

and less heavily built than their southern neighbours.

Considering now the third possible cause of variation, there has undoubtedly

been Papuan admixture in Cape Yorke Peninsula and around the Gulf of Carpen-

taria, and isolated skulls from these areas show distinctive Papuan features. To

what extent differences between the Queensland crania (type C) and those from

southern Australia (type A) are due to an extension southward of this Papuan

infiltration can only be determined by a detailed siudy of the living peoples in

these areas, such as has recently been undertaken by Birdsell and Tindale, of the

Harvard-Adelaide University Expedition.

We may digress for a moment to consider what support for this racial con-

tainination can be obtained from a study of the blood-grouping of the people

concerned, ‘Table T.XXXII shows the results so far obtained. It must

be noted, however, that these results may not be valid for anthropological pur-

poses, for the observers concerned, except Cleland, made no claim to be trained

physical anthropologists, and there has been considerable historic second and third

generation crossing with Kanakas in the coastal areas of Queensland.

Phillips notes that of the eight groun B aborigines which he found, one was a

native of Northern Territory, six belonged to tribes from far northern Qucens-

land, and one came from south Queensland.

The gradation of the B factor from Melanesia to southern Australia, if any

reliance can be placed on the data, would suggest that the Melanesian infiltration

has penetrated a considerable distance. Cleland (7) considers that the inter-

mixtures which introduced the B factor all occurred in the last few centuries,

most of them being quite recent. This point again can best be decided by field

investigations on the living.

302

TaBLeE LXXXII

Biochemical

Group O Group A Group B Group AB Index = A+AB

(Iv) (IL) (II) . —

Author Locality No. Gp No. % No. % No. Jo B+aB

Cleland and South and

Johnston (8) Central 299, 39% 407 61% — a — —_ —

Australia -

Tebbutt and

McConnel New South

(24) - - - Wales - 6 46% 6 46% —_ —_ 1 8% 7-0

Tebbutt (25) Queensland

(largely

southern) - 99 56% 06 37% ll 6% 1 06% 5+6

Lee (17) - - North

Queensland 227 60% 120 32% 440 64% 6 1:6% 4-2

Phillips (21)- Queensland - 39 32% 28 37% 8 11% — 355

Heydon and Melanesia

Murphy (11) (New Guinea

New Britain

New Ireland,

ete.) - - - 404 54% 202 27% 123 16% 24 3-2% 1-54

We may sum up by saying that on the evidence of this study of the non-

metrical cranial characters the Australian aborigine is not a pure homogencous

race, three distinct types occurring in different parts of the continent. They are

the long, low, southern skulls with their gently planed occiput and ill-flled

temporal fossae (type A); the smaller, higher, narrower Northern Territory type

(type B); and the shorter higher Queensland crania with the steep occiputs and

fairly well-filled frontal areas and temporal fossae.

It seems probable that the occurrence of these differnt types is due to at least

iwo factors: fa) the prehistoric Australian race was not a pure one, but the result

of the fusion of an Australoid with a Tasmanoid stock, and (b) there has been a

later wave of Papuan, and possible Malay, infillration into the northern part of

the continent.

Kiaatsech’s belicf that the Roth series of skulls on which he worked was

characteristic of Australia as a whole, is nol supported by the evidence now ayail-

able. After the study of a larger number of southern skulls than was at that

time available to him, Klaatsch could not but have been struck by their differences

from the Queensland specimens.

SUMMARY

The present work consists of the examination of 1,182 adult Australian

aboriginal skulls for their non-metrical morphological characters. To achieve the

uniformity of treatment with other similar racial studies, the plan of exumination

occurring respectively in the coastal Northern Territory and the Quensland areas,

have been differentiated from the common southern type A, which occurs over

the greater part of Australia.

303

The findings cannot be profitably discussed here—they are a contribution

towards a comparative racial study which can be undertaken when more evidence

of a similar nature is available.

It may be of some use to the practical anatomist, as distinct from the physical

anthropologist, to give a general summary of the main features of the Australian

skull. ‘The southern Australian skull (type A) will be taken as the standard,

as types B and C probably represent changes due to contamination with ‘las-

manian and other later migrant peoples.

In passing, it might be noted that the impression that the average Australian

skull is a brutish thing, with tremendous brow ridges, very low forehead,

cavernous orbits, very large palate, and a strongly keeled cranial vault, is an

erroneous one. It has obviously grown up owing to the frequent descriptions pub-

lished of outlandish male skulls, with exaggerated racial and sexual characters.

Wood Jones’ (30) reconstructed normac give a much better idea of the average

Australian.

The skull is long, low, and narrow, with a receding forehead on which a

median ridge can usually be distinguished and parietal bones which tend to be

flattened on either side of the sagittal suture. Small frontal tuberosities are often

more evident to the touch than the sight. The parietal tubcrosities are small and

the posterior parietal region very rarely attains that width and “full blown”

appearance characteristic of Tasmanian, The posterior part of the skull slopes

back gently behind vertex to lambda owing to the great occipital prolongation

f the skull.

The occipital plane of the squama occipitalis frequently projects backwards

as a distinct occipital bulge beneath the lambdoid suture. The occipital and

nuchal planes of the squama occipitalis usually meet at a fairly small angle, and

the line of junction is frequently marked by a well-developed transverse occipital

torus. A true external occipital protuberance is very rarely found.

The temporal lines are high and well marked, and the temporal fossae deeply

excavated, so that the minimum frontal diameter is small. This latter feature is

often accentuated by the lateral projection of the external angular processes of

the frontal bone.

‘Lhe sutural pattern over the cranial vault is simple and sutural bones occur

frequently in the lambdoid suture. Emissary foramina occur in the parietal bones

in two-thirds of the specimens, and in the mastoid region in about one-half of all

skulls,

The mastoid processes are often very small, even in large heavy male skulls,

but they vary considerably in size and shape. The tympanic bone is usually thick

and heavy, where it forms the lower boundary of the porus acousticus externus,

and has a well-defined ridge corresponding to the vagina processus styloidei. In

about 30% of cases the styloid process was not attached, and when present was

often guite small,

304

There is considerable variation in the shape of the porus acousticus externus,

but that most commonly found is in the form of an oval with its long diameter

directed from behind below to in front above.

The glenoid fossa varies considerably in depth and the zygomatic process of

the temporal bone is heavy and curved with an upward convexity. It is also curved

out laterally and often forms the widest diameter of the skull.

The basis cranii is long, the palate very large, the basal foramina usually

large, and the pterygoid laminae large and well splayed. Well developed foramina

of Vesalius are only occasionally found, and accessory spines of Civinini and

Ilyrtl occur in a considerable number of skulls. ‘The teeth are very large, rarely

carious, and usually heavily worn (the degree of wear depending on the age.)

‘The supraorbital region is usually heavy (at least in male skulls) and nasion

is deeply situated in all specimens, being a point of strong contrary flexure. Supra-

orbital foramina occur but rarely, a groove or notch usuaily marking the exit of the

supraorbital nerve. Grooves on the frontal bone from nerves or vessels are never

encountered,

‘The orbits are large and sub-rectangular in shape, and their infero-lateral

border is often not very clearly defined. ‘he nasal bones never rise to a definite

high bridge; they are low and saddle-shaped, small in size, and usually constricted

in the middle. The narial aperture is large and wide and the lower narial margins

usually guttered or smooth. ‘The anterior nasal spine is rarely well developed.

There is a considerable degree of subnasal prognuathism, the infraorbital

fossac are often very deep and the malar bones fairly massive with everted lower

margins and well-developed malar tuberosities.

Plates X and XI show different views of some Australian skulls from which

these features may be better appreciated than in diopterographic drawings.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Professor Wood Jones has been a stimulus and inspiration throughout

this work. I also wish to thank Professor F. Goldby, Dr. Charles Fenner, Dr.

T. D. Campbell, and Mr. N. B. Tindale, for their help and interest, and the staffs

of the various museums visited for their courtesy and unfailing assistance.

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CLELAND, J. B. 1930 “Further Results in Blood-grouping Central Aus-

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Med. and Ilyg., 41, (2), 26

Ducecworti, W. H. K. 1904 “Morphology and Anthropology” (Cam-

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Fenner, FF. J. 1938 “Some Australian Aboriginal Scaphocephalic

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Hryvpon, G. M., and Murpry, T. W. 1924 Aust. Med. Cong., Melb..

1923 Supplement to Med. J. Aust., 19 April, 1924, 234

Hrpricka, A. 1928 Catalogue of Human Crania in the U.S. Nat.

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Hrpiicka, A, 1935) “lar Exostoses” Smithsonian Miscellaneots Collec-

tions, 93, (6)

Jounson, It. H, 1937 “The Narial Margins in Man” J. Anat., 71, 356

Kraarscu, H. 1908 “The Skull of the Australian Aboriginal” Reports

from the Pathological Laboratory of the Lunacy Department, N.S.W.,

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Krocmanx, W. M. 1932 “The Morphological Characters of the Austra-

lian Skull” J. Anat., 66, 399

Ler, D. H. K. 1926 “Blood Groups of North Queensland Aborigines,

with a Statistical Collection of some Published Figures for Various

Races” Med. J. Aust., 2, 401

Macacisrer, A. 1898 “The Apertura Pyriformis” J. Anat. and Physiol.,

32, 223

Martin, R. 1928 “lehrbuch der Anthropologie,” 2, (Jena)

Morant, G.M. 1927 “A Study of the Australian and Tasmanian Skulls

Lased on Previously Published Measurements” Biometrika, 19, 417

Pirtirtps, G. 1928 ‘The Blood Groups of Full Blood Australian Abori-

gines” Med. J. Aust., 2, 296

Poinrer, P., Cuarpy, A., and Nicoras, A. 1931 “Traité d’Anatomie

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store, L. R. 1938 “A Note on the Interparictal Groove in Egyptian

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306

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agglutinins, with a Note on their Distribution amongst some Australian

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TepputtT, A. H. 1923 “Comparative Iso-agglutinin Index of Australian

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‘Turner, W. 1887 Report of the Challenger, ete. Zoology, 10, (1),

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Vidensk Akad., Oslo, 1, Mat.-Naturv. Ki. (2)

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Woop Jones, F. 1931 As above Part Ll, “The Non-metrical Morpho-

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logical Characters of the Northern Chinese Skull” J. Anat., 68, 96

Woop Jonrs, F. 1939 “The Anterior Superior Alveolar Nerve and

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Wootrarp, Il. Hi. 1930 “The Growth of the Brain of the Australian

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Vol. 63, Plate X

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1939

(Atop 149, WiayION wor ‘apreapy “W'S ‘Lessz V)

Ynys AIOLAIO TL, UTIYIION oy eul jo STPeIOey eULION

Cys ‘Aesinyy toary

yaoduems wWodj ‘apreppy “WV'S ‘90 V)

JAS uRyessny yYy Nos aye Jo siperoey eUlION

tate XI

Vol. 63,

.S. Aust. 1939

Trans. Roy.

(AsopA1aT, WisyAON Woy ‘apreppy “W'y's ‘Tessz VW)

[NYS Atop] UldYWON oy[elt fo sipeseq eULION

y1odueMS Wolf ‘aprepepy “JV'V'S ‘9OL V)

[HAs URypesjsny YyNOS ayer Jo sipeseq VULION

SOME NEMATODES FROM VICTORIAN

AND WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON and PATRICIA M. MAWSON,

University of Adelaide

Summary

The Victorian material examined was obtained from Macropus ualabatus Less. and Garn., M.

ruficollis Desm., M. billardieri Desm., Potorous tridiactylus Kerr and Dasyurus maculatus Kerr,

from Gippsland; and from Macropus giganteus Zimm., from the Wimmera. Some of it was

collected about forty years ago by Mr. A. S. Le Souef , Director of the Sydney Zoological Gardens;

that from Potorous was taken by Mr. H. H. Finlayson, Honorary Curator of Mammals, South

Australian Museum, Adelaide.

307

SOME NEMATODES

FROM VICTORIAN AND WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS

By T. Harvey Jounston and Patricia M. Mawson,

University of Adelaide

[Read 12 October 1939|

The Victorian material examined was cbtained from Mucropus ualabatus

Less, and Garn., M. ruficollis Desm., M. billardieri Desm., Potorous tridactylus

Kerr and Dasyurus maculatus Kerr, from Gippsland; and from Macropius

giganteus Zimm., from the Wimmera. Some of it was collected about forty years

ago by Mr. A. S. le Souef, Director of the Sydney Zoological Gardens; that from

Potorous was taken by Mr. LH. 11. Finlayson, Honorary Curator of Mammals,

South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

The Western Australian specimens were collected from Afacropus melanops

Gould, M. irma Jourdan, and Perameles myosura Wagner, all from the south-

western corner of that State.

Amongst the Victorian material we have recognised seventeen species already

known elsewhere; a new genus and species of Trichoneminae; and three species,

probably new, assigned to genera (seivsu lato) because of the absence of males.

The Western Australian worms belong to three known species. Seventeen of the

species mentioned are members of the Strongylidae, two belong to the Tricho-

strongylidac, two to the Oxyuroidea, and one to the lilarioidea. Types of the

new species are deposited in the South Australian Museum.

In the succeeding part of this paper the localities are indicated as G (Gipps-

land), W (Wimmera), and W.A. (South-western Australia).

Acknowledgment is made of assistance made available through the Com-

inonwealth Research Grant to the University of Adelaide.

PHARYNGOsTRONGYLUS Yorke and Maplestone

P. alpha J. & M.— Macropus giganteus (W).

P. beta J. & M.— M. giganteus (W).

P, delta J. & M.—M. billardieri (G), a new host record.

P. epsilon J. & M.— AM. ualabaius (G); M. billardier? (G), a new host

record,

P, seta]. & M.— M. ruficollis (G).

P. theta J. & M.— M. ruficolis (G), a new host record.

CLoacina Linstow

C, magnipapillata J. & M.— MM. giganteus (W).

BuccostroneyLus J. & M.

B. buccalis |. & M.— M. billardieri (G); M. ruficollis (G); both are new

host records.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

308

B. setifer J. & M.— M. ruficollis (G), new host record.

B. labiatus J. & M.— M. ruficollis (G).

ZONIOLAIMUS Cobb

Z. longispicularis (Wood) —M. giganteus (W). Females taken from

M. melanops (W-.A.) appear to belong to this species.

Z. udlabatus J. & M.— M. ualabatus (G).

Z. clelandi J.& M.— M. ualabatus (G).

Z. communis J. & M.—M. ruficollis (G); M. wma (WA), a new host

record,

Z, uncinatus J, & M.— AM. billardiert (G), a new host record.

Parazonrotamus J, & M.

P. coltaris J. & M.—M. ualabatus (G).

Potorostrongylus finlaysoni n. gen., nsp.

(Figs. 1-4)

From intestine, Polorous tridactylus Kerr, southern Gippsland, coll. H. H.

Finlayson.

Male about 10 mm., female about 11 mm. long; cuticle behind head inflated,

and body narrowed as far back as level of nerve ring. Head with eight large

lips; dorsal and ventral largest, each with conical papilla; four submedians next

in size, each with rounded papilla; two laterals shortest, each with rounded papilla.

Mouth small; buccal capsiie small, 11» diameter, 10 long, with base 26» from

tip of lips. Oesophagus about 0°75 mm. long; 1:3-4 of body length; suddenly

constricted near posterior end and then widening into a terminal bulb. Nerve

ring at 0°28 mm., excretory pore at 0°45 mm. from anterior end. Cervical papillae

not observed.

Male—Bursa prominent, longer dorsally than ventrally. Ventral rays short,

nearly reaching bursal edge; externo-lateral divergent from laterals, short, stout;

laterals almost reaching bursal edge, divergent at tips; externo-dorsal arising

separately, terminating some distance from edge of bursa. Dorsal ray bifurcat-

ing at about one-third length, each branch extending almost to bursal edge and

giving off, soon afier its origin, a short lateral stem. Spicules 1°25 mm. long,

1:8 of body length, narrow, with striate alae. Gubernaculum present.

female—Body tapering gradually to narrow, bluntly-pointed tail. Ovejectors

0°33 mm. long; vagina short, wide, 0-3 mm. long; vulva at 1°55 mm. and anus at

0-8 mm. from tip of tail. Eggs 0:08 by 04 mm.

Diagnosis of Potorostrongylus n.gen. ‘Vrichoneminac. Cervical cuticle

inflated. Mouth surrounded by eight large lips; short cylindrical buccal capsule;

ocsophagus cylindrical, ending in constricted region succeeded by bulb. Male—

ventral lobes of bursa continuous with each other; ventral rays parallel; externo-

lateral divergent from laterals; externo-dorsal arising separately; dorsal ray

bifurcating, each branch giving off a lateral ray. Female—tail tapering, bluntly

309

pointed; vagina a short distance in front of anus. Type P. finlaysoni n. sp. from

Potorous tridactylus Kerr.

The genus resembles Zoniolaimus in the shape of the buccal capsule and in

some of the lip characters. The main differences lie in the form of the oesophagus,

lip papillae, and the general appearance of the bursa.

TricHostroncyLus (3...) sp.

A sexually-mature female from the duodenum of Dasyurus maculatus.

Length 3-3 mm., maximum breadth 0-1 mm. Anterior end rounded, with three

shallow lips; buccal capsule absent; oesophagus 0°7 mm., 1:4°7 of body length.

Vulva 0°6 mm, and anus 0-25 mm, from posterior end. Tail tapering to blunt

point. Eggs 0°03 by -045 mm.

TRICIIOSTRONGYLUS (s.1.) sp.

(Fig. 5)

An immature worm from the duodenum of Dasyurus imaculatus. Length

4-8 mm., maximum breadth 0-15 mm. Anterior end a truncate cone, with six

small conical papillae and small, strongly cuticularized mouth. Oesophagus 1 mm.

long. Tail 0-1 mm. long, narrowing suddenly behind anal region io a sharp point.

The characters of the head and oesophagus suggest a young filarial worm, but

the form of the tail and the habitat do not support such a view.

DIPETALONEMA ROEMERI (Linstow)

Found in Macropus giganteus, Wimmera district.

SUBULURA PERAMELIS Baylis

Specimens from a Western Australian bandicoot, Perameles myosura, agreed

with the original account, except that the lips were slightly longer and the buccal

capsule a little deeper.

Oxyuris (s.l.) potoroo n. sp.

: : (Figs. 6-7) ;

Iemales from intestine of Potorous tridactylus, southern Gippsland, coll.

H.H. Tinlayson. length about 2 mm.; maximum breadth, 0:12 mm. Head with

three large lips alternating with three smaller; a pair of lateral and two pairs of

smaller submedian papillae arranged in a ring just behind base of lips. Buccal

capsule absent, Oesophagus 0-4 mm. long, narrow, with terminal bulb -O8 mm.

wide and -0/ mm. long. Nerve ring -O1 mm. and excretory pore at 0°36 mm.

from anterior end of worm. Anterior part of intestine wider than remainder.

Long tail tapering to become threadlike. Anus at 0-5 mm. from tip of tail. Vulva

at 0°8--9 mm. from head end; i.c., at 1:2°3-2°6 of body length. Eggs 45-50 » by

20-25 p.

In the ahsence of males, the species cannot he assigned more definitely to any

Oxyurid genus. It differs from any species hitherto described from marsupials in

the absence of a buccal capsule and of cervical inflation, as well as in the arrange-

ment of the lips. The specific name is the aboriginal name for the small rat

kangaroo.

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ae 10

THE CRANIAL OSTEOLOGY OF CERTAIN TUBINARES

By H. T. CONDON, South Australian Museum

Summary

While the general osteology of the Tubinares (Procellariiformes) has claimed much attention, there

is rather a lack of information regarding the characters of many Australian species, and little data

regarding variations due to sex, age or other causes.

311

THE CRANIAL OSTEOLOGY OF CERTAIN TUBINARES

By H. T. Connon, South Australian Museum

[Read 12 October 1939]

While the general osteology of the Tubinares (Procellariiformes) has

claimed much attention, there is rather a lack of information regarding the

characters of many Australian species, and little data regarding variations due

to sex, age or other causes.

‘The material described herein is chiefly from South Australia, and is now

contained in the Museum collection, The nucleus of the collection was

formed by the late Dr. A, M. Morgan, Honorary Curator of Ornithology to the

Museum from 1922-34, and since that time it has been the policy of the Museum

to retain the crania and other bones of specimens unfit for preservation as cabinet

skins.

The general icatures of the Tubinarine skull have been described by

Pycraft (8) in some detail. Many of its characters are distinctive but not unique

fronto-median

temporal

cranio-facial tract

cerebellar

eminence

Fig.

Skull of Puffinus tenutrostris, nat. size, sub-adult, showing regions

most affected during growth in Tubinares generally

to the order; in fact, the skull of certain smaller specics might easily be con-

fused by the uninitiated with those of Penguins (Eudyptula, etc.). Probably the

most characteristic features are (a) the large supra-orbital glandular depres-

sious, (Db) the large mandibles (with the upper hooked), (c) the “cleft” (schizo-

gnathous) palate, with large vomer, (d) the holforhinal nasal bones, z.e., not cleft

beyond the ends of the premaxillae, and (e) the angular appearance of the brain-

case, duc to the extensive and often deep muscular impressions of the hinder end.

The outline of the supra-occipilal region at once separates the family

Diomedeidae from all others (see fig. 2A). The size and shape of the pterygoids

readily distinguish some species of Procellariidae, while in other genera they

are very uniform. Basipterygoid facets on the basisphenoidal rostrum which

articulate with the ptervygoids occur in many species (absent in Diomedeidae),

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

312

and in the smallest forms they may be very minute structures. The lacrimal varies

greatly in the different species ; the longer axis may be vertical or horizontal, while

in certain Procellariidae one or other of the wings of the lree bifid end may be

enlarged and serves to distinguish the genus or species, In certain genera also, the

lacrimal becomes fused with the [rontals, nasals, and ethmoidal wing (antorbital

plate) ; in others it remains free.

The vomer is large in all species, with a ventral keel, often decurved

anteriorly or with a long spine. The relationship of the quadrate to the surround-

ing tympanic structures, as pointed out by Lowe (6) is of outstanding sig-

nificance and provides a means of readily grouping the various genera. |.owe’s

classification is as follows, but only members of his second family are dealt with

herein.

OckANItTipar, including Oceanites, Pelagodroma, ’regetta, Garrodia.

PRoceLLartipar, including Pelecanoides, Puffnus, Pterodroma, Dap-

tion, Thalassoica, Priocella, Procellaria, Pagodroma, Macronectes,

Diomedca, Phoebetria.

In the Oceanitidae (fig. 2 C) the aperture of the upper tympanic recess (ty)

is between the facets (1) of the opisthotic and squamosal, whereas in the Pro-

cellariidae (fig. 2D) (with sub-families Procellariinae and Diomedeiriae) it is

outside “the line of the two quadrate facets, which are, moreover, joined by a

solid bridge of bone.”

The character of the basitemporal plate is often useful; it may be smooth,

ridged, or with papillae or mammillary processes (as in Macronectes) ‘Lhe

Eustachian canal may be open or closed by a downward prolongation from the

inferior posterior wall of the orbit (alisphenoid).

The relationship of the supra-orbital glandular depressions to the width of

the intervening tract which separates them, seems to be almost worthless from a

classificatery point of view, although Pycraft employed it rather extensively;

this may have been an error due to the limited material at his disposal.

Unlike the usual condition in the mammalian skull the rapid ossification of the

skull in all birds, except the Dromacognathous types and the Penguins, soon

obliterates the sutures between the various bones so that it is a difficult matter to

determine the age of an individual by this means. A consideration of the thickness

of the frontal bones and the cerebellar region of the Tubinares is useful but not

decisive. In the smaller forms the latter region is relatively more prominent in

the young stages, when the transverse ridgcs corresponding to the underlying

sulci of the cercbellum are easily distinguishable. In young birds the antorbital

plate is always incomplete, varying in degree according to the genus, but in some

(e.g., Pterodroma, Daption, etc.) it becomes complete in the adult. The relative

size of the jaws to the rest of the cranium is often a guide, the hook being weaker

in young birds, and the shape of the region of the cranio-facial junction varying

with age,

313

Detailed comparisons of a scries of skins and skeletons have shown that the

majority of Tubinares found washed ashore after gales or flights of migration are

young or immature birds, and consequently much of the Museum material

obtained in this way is of this class. In the past, this fact has been generally over-

looked, and in conjunction with erroneously-sexed examples, has been responsible

for many worthless sub-species and even monotypic genera. In this connection

Foramen magnum

, “

Vig. 2

A. occipital region of Diomedea; B, ditto Azacronectes,

f- oe”

“\-O

diagrammatic ;

C, quadrato-tympanic region, diagrammatic, of Occanites; D, ditto,

Diomedca; {, facets for articulation of quadrate; ty, entrance to upper

tympanic recess.

the writer has examined the gonads of a score of immature specimens in the flesh

and feels that it is often impossible to tell the sex correctly by macroscopic

examination only.

Key To THE CRANIUM OF GENFRA AND SPECIES OF

Soutm AUSTRALIAN TUBIENARES

(Excluding the Prions, Storm Petrels and Diving Petrels)

I. Darsal border of supra-occipital region slightly curved, basiptery-

goid facets absent .. *, wt Aa oh si oe My

1. Fronto-median tract in form of a ridge, dentary with wide

external groove es ni fe re hs me it

2. Fronto-median tract of variable width, dentary of lower

mandible without external groove af aN r hs

(1) Size large (above 200 mm.) :

a. mandibles relatively Jong, heavy, culmen greatly

widened from above el * Ls ras

b. mandibles relatively shorter, light, culmen narrow

(2) Size small (less than 200 mm.) :

a. tomium of maxilla almost straight, base of culmen not

thickened as a dome ..

DIoMEDEIDAE

Phocbetria

Diomedea

J), exulans

D. cauta

2D. chlorarhyncha

314

b. tomium of maxilla strongly convex, base of culmen

thickened as a dome - D. melanophris ,

Il. Dorsal border of supra-occipital region strongly arched, basi-

pterygoid facets present .. ra Be 32 :

1. Size large (above 140 mm.) ..

2. Size smaller (above 70 mm.) :

(1) anterior portion of palate with bony roof extending to the

tip of the jaw

a. pterygoids from honeath Justa ‘ick widened Sntevignhe

hook of pre-maxilla weak.

(a) upper mandible slender, about 4} times as long as

greatest width at anterior nares

(b) mandibles widened at base, 34 times as ‘long z as

greatest width at anterior nares

b. pterygoids from beneath apparently “smooth,’ ‘eishyell

and widened anteriorly, pre-maxilla strongly hooked ..

(2) anterior portion of palate without bony reef but with a

large vacuity extending from the tip of the jaw to the

maxillo-palatines.

a. upper mandible greatly widened for more than 2 of its

length, hook weak .. a

b. upper mandible not widened “for more than i

length, hook strong ..

of its

D. chrysostoma

PROCELLARIIDAE

Macronectes

Puffinus

P, gavia huttont

P. tenwirostris

P. carneipes

Daption

Pterodroma

Priocella

Thalassoica

Order TUBINARES (Procellariiformes)

Family DIOMEDEIDAE

PHoesetria Fusca (Hilsenburg) — Sooty ALpatross

As far as known, examples of this species have never been found on Aus-

tralian beaches, reports of dark albatrosses probably referring to the Giant Petrel.

One damaged cranium, of unknown origin and sex, has the characteristic ridge

separating the supra-orbital glands and the deep and wide external lateral groove

on the dentary of the lower mandible.

In other features, especially the shape of

the mandibles, it resembles closely the skull of Diomedea chlororhyncha; but the

base of the culmen is raised in the form of a ridge near the cranio-facial junction

(cf. figs. 3-4).

Pycraft (8) separated the genus on the fact that the supra-orbital glandular

depressions were separated by a sharp ridge only. This feature appears to be

characteristic of the genus as several of the crania in the skins of this species,

as well as of P. palpebrata, have this ridge.

In other genera the glandular depres-

sions are separated by a ridge or narrow tract of variable width.

The pterygoid bones are similar in form to those of small Diomedca spp, but

correspondingly more slender.

As in other genera the antorbital wall is very

incomplete, and the ethmoidal wings do not mcet with the lacrimals.

Fronto-median

No.

B11380

Total Length

175 mm.

Culmen (Exp.)

120

Tract

315

supra-orbital

a glandular depression

Figs. 3-4

Fig. 3. Phocbetria sp. fronto-parietal region of cranium, nat. size;

Fig. 4 ditto, mandibles, nat. size

DIOMEDEA EXULANS CHIONOPTERA (Salvin) — SNowy ALsatross

Six crania from beach gathered specimens have been examined, representing

several stages of immaturity, as follows: ee

Exposed Total median

No. Collector Locality Date Culmen Length = Tract

11179 A. M. Morgan S. Aust. — 140 ‘

17975 H. T. Condon Younghusband 17/8/35 150 233 6

Penin, S.A.

7465 —_ S. Aust. — 158 247 7

11377 _ i — 165 255 7

11376 —_ es _— 170 264 6

11378 — A — 172 269 8

Apart from a relatively shorter culmen in the smaller and younger examples

the crania examined were remarkably uniform in structure, although the region

of the cranio-facial junction is relatively wider in older examples. Forbes (3)

figured the vomer of D. exulans, while Pycraft has indicated the main features

in his illustration of the dorsal and ventral views. Lowe (6), also, has figured

the quadrato-tympanic region of the skull (fig. 2C and fig. 2D) to demonstrate

the condition obtaining in all Diomedeidae and Procellariidac.

@) See Falla (2).

316

DioMEDEA CAUTA CAUTA Gould — WHITE-CAPPED ALBATROSS

Although breeding in Eastern Australia, this is a rare species in South Aus-

tralia. A few examples have been discovered, mainly in the South-east and the

Encounter Bay district.

The skull of D. cauta approaches that of D. exulans in the character of the

deeply excavated nasal fossae of the supra-orbital glands. Unlike those of the

smaller species of the genus the external borders of these fossae are strongly

raised posteriorly from a prolongation of the post-orbital processes, and approach

very closely to the free limbs of the lacrimals in the adult. In conjunction with

its size, the skull of this species is readily recognised by the long, narrow upper

jaw, and the basally thickened and broadened culmen. From a lateral aspect the

upper jaw is very deep at the base (figs. 6-7).

Three crania in the Museum collection as follows:

Fronto-

Exposed ‘Potal median

No. Collector Locality Date Culmen Length Tract

$297 A. M. Morgan Goolwa, S.A. —/4/1924 130 206 11

$293 J. B. Cleland Encounter B., --/1/1925 130 202 9

S.A.

6342 Pr mn —/1/1926 124 200 8

DIOMEDEA CHLORORHYNCHA Gmelin — YELLOW-NOSED ALBATROSS

From the reports of observers this appears to be a common species in South

Australia during the winter months. In 1935 there was a large visitation of the

species (Condon (1) }, during that year twelve crania being obtained, as listed

hereunder:

Crania of Diomedea chlerorhyncha

Fronto-

Exposed Total median

No, Collector Locality Date Culmen — Length ‘Tract

17979 H. VT. Condon Sellick’s B., S.A. 17/8/35 120 190 9

18017 B. C. Cotton Yorke Penin. S.A. ~/9/35 110 180 7

17866 H. C. Collyer Brighton, S.A. 24/6/35 115 182 8

17980 D. W. Brummitt Younghusband 17/8/35 118 183 8

Penin., S.A.

*18067 H. T. Condon Y m 112 180 9

18068 " “ ‘ 116 183 7

17918 45 Pt. Gawler, S.A. 21/7/35 114 178 6

17935 r Sellick’s B., S.A. 4/8/35 112 179 6

*17933 4 Hy . 115 177 6

¥*17934 be i i 107 175 5

17936 W. G. Torr Brighton, S.A. 17/35 113 180 6

17957 H. C. Collyer e 5 110 175 5

‘The crania are of birds of various stages of immaturity but all except three (*)

had a yellow culmen, although the unguis was uncoloured. Except for slight

differences in total length and the width of the fronto-median tract all specimens

are extremely uniform, The average total length is less than that of 1). melanophris.

317

The maxillae are different in character but otherwise the various bones of

the skull are indistinguishable from those of D. melanophris and D. chrysostoma.

Indeed, structurally, these three species are very closely allied, there being no

obvious differences in the pterygoids, lacrimal, vomer or other bones (including

the sternum). A specific determination is, in our present state of knowledge,

reliant on examination of the soft parts, including bill and plumage.

Figs. 5-7

Fig. 5, Dioredea exulans, imm., upper mandible from above;

Fig. 6, D. canta, upper mandible from above; Fig. 7, ditto, lateral view

All nat. size

DIoMEDEA MELANOPIRIS Temminck — BLACK-RBROWED ALRATROSS

and

DHOMEDEA CIIRYSOSTOMA Torster ~~ GREY-HEADED ALBATROSS

Both of these species, as a rule, occur together with the Yellow-nosed

Albatross, but apparently in lesser numbers. ‘There are five crania of

D. melanophris and one of D. chrysostoma in the collection. They are all very

similar, although that of D. chrysostoma is smaller (? juv.) and has the tomium

less strongly convex. For certain diagnosis of this species reference must be

made to the colourations and shape of the horny bill.

of its characters, appears to be between D. melonophris and D. chlororhyncha.

The skull of the Black-browed Albatross, however, usually has the base of the

culmen raised as a ridge or dome in the adult; this region corresponds to the base

318

of the horny culminicorn, and as such is distinctive from JD. chlororhyncha.,

No.

11379

17917

17978

17955

21992

No.

B22074

Bac, | er ee a ee

oe te We

Figs. 8-10

Fig. 8, Diowedea chlororhyncha, sub-adult; Fig. 9, D. melanophris, sub-adult ;

Fig. 10, D. chrysostoma, sub-adult. All nat. size

Crania of Diomedea melanophris

Fronto-

Exposed Total median

Collector Locality Date Culmen Length Tract

— — — 107 — 3

H. T. Condon Pt. Gawler, S.A. 21/7/35 108 178 4

“i Younghusband 17/8/35 121 197 6

Penin., S.A.

W. G. Torr Brighton, S.A. 17/35 116 188 5

A. Ey S.A, —/-/38 114 180 5

Cranium of Diomedea chrysostoma

Fronto-

Exposed Total median

Collector Locality Date Culmen Length Tract

— W.A. — 104 —_ 5

D. chrysostoma, in many

319

Family PROCELLARIIDAE

MACRONECTES GIGANTEUS (Gmelin) -~ GIANT PETREL

Remains of this species have been recorded from South Australia for almost

every month in the year, and they are especially common in the winter time. No

difficulty in identification is presented if the horny bill is intact, and it is possible

to tell the sex at a glance even in immature birds from the shape of this structure

alone (fig. 13 E).

The main features of the skull of the Giant Petrel are well known. The

presence of so-called “basi-pterygoid processes” was first emphasized by

{ " ie -et ae

temporal fossa glandular depression

’

lacrimal

‘ nasal

1 ’

Fig. 11

Skull of Macronectes giganteus, male, B 11382

Huxley (4), who from lack of further material was forced to quote their presence

in this species as a unique feature in the Procellariidae. Since that time basi-

pterygoid facets have been described in other species by Forbes (3), Shufeldt, and

others, and the resulting information has been neatly summarised in broad out-

line by Pycraft (8) in his key to the genera of the world. The descriptions,

however, were apparently based on a limited number of specimens in many

instances, and differences due to age or sex were not considered.

320

‘There are six crania of both sexes of the Giant Petrel in the South Australian

Museum. Remarkable individual differences are apparent. After separating the

sexes (the mandibles are smaller in females) it is revealed that there is much

variation in the width of the fronto-median tract between the nasal glandular

depressions (figs. 11-12).

In the appended tables the width of this tract at its narrowest part, together

with other measurements, is given for all specimens examined. From the limited

amount of material available, the data indicate that differences in the width of

this tract are approximately proportional to the length of the culmen and to age,

the area being wider in adult birds, Further examples may be needed for con-

firmation, but should this prove correct, a simple method ot telling the age ol

cabinet skins is indicated.

Crania of Macronectes giganteus (Gmelin)

Fronto-

Exposed median

No. Collector Sex Loeality Date Ciulmen Tract

B11383 at 4 at = 105 9

B11382 T. Batson é Middleton Bch., S.A, 14/10/1915 103 9

B6341 J. B. Cleland @ Encounter B., S.A. ~/1/1926 95 2:5

B11381 mS 3 ac ae 97 8

B1i7176 J.B. Cleland @ Encounter B., S.A. — 89 (2) 65

B17864 H. C. Collyer 9 Brighton, S.A. 21/6/1935 83 6°5

d e f

Tig. 12

Variations in form of frento-median tract in craifa of Macronectes giganteus:

a-d, males; e-f, females

a, culmen 105, tract 97 (B 11383); b, culmen 103, tract 9 (B 11382); c, culmen 97,

tract 8 (BR 11381); d, culmen 95, tract 2:5 (B6341), immature; e, culmen 89.

tract 6°35 (B 17176); f, culmen 83, tract 6-5 (B 17864).

@) Tlas the limy encrustation at the base of the bill well developed.

321

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In order to discover the significance, if any, of such variation, measurements

were taken of a series of seventeen skins of both sexes, as in the following table.

Most of these were young birds of various ages with shiny brownish-black

plumage. ‘he only individuals which appeared to be approaching maturity were

the following:

No, 697 (J. B. C. Coll.}. Female found by Prof. J, B. Cleland on the beach

at Encounter Bay, South Australia, in a dying condition on 21 January 1934.

This individual has the limy encrustation at the base of the bill and the light

brownish mottled ptilosis of older birds. Details from the attached label are as

follows: “iris, very dark brown; bill, pallid horny, whitish, integument between

the plates with a pinkish tinge; pharynx, livid whitish; feet, greyish-brown; total

length, 30°35 inches; span of outstretched wings, 74:5 inches.” Fronto-median

tract 12 mm. (the maximum for a female).

No. B6886. Female collected in St. Vincent Gulf by Professor F, Wood

Jones on 14 August 1926. There is a slight encrustation at the base of the bill.

The plumage is worn and mottled and there are many whitish feathers about the

head at the base of the bill. Details are as follows: “iris, very dark brown; bill,

very light horn colour tip darker; pharynx, whitish; feet, dark leaden grey; total

length, 79 cm.; span of wings, 186 cm.; weight, 7 lbs.” Fronto-median tract,

11 mm.

No. B2980. Female captured in 1916 and kept in captivity for three years by

Mr. H. Smith. The bird died on 1 July 1919. The limy encrustation at the base

of the bill is well marked, and the plumage is very worn, but these features may

be due to the unnatural conditions under which the bird lived. The skin exhibits

most of the features of an adult. Fronto-median tract, 11 mm.

The Os lacrimo-palatinum (os uncinatum) has generally been quoted as

absent in Macronectes giganteus. In two crania examined a male (B11381) and

a female (517864) there is a small vestige, about 3 mm. long, present. It projects

downwards from the base of the lacrimal near its junction with the wing of the

ethmoid, and probably represents the os lacrimo-palatinum of Puffinus, Diomedea

and other genera. Because of its fragility and minuteness the structure is probably

lost in the process of maceration in most instances.

PUPFINUS GAVIA HUTTONI Mathews — Wrurr-breastep (Fluttering) Petren “

The Fluttering Petrel is one of the lesser known species of Puffinus frequent-

ing South Australian seas. As at times it is very numerous (9, 10), being

seen in immense flocks, it is rather remarkable that its remains have not, up to

the present, been discovered on beaches after stormy weather.

There is in the South Australian Museum collection an incomplete skeleton

of this specics, in all probability collected in South Australia. ‘Lhe slender bill

of the cranium is distinctive.

@) The nomenclature followed herein is that of Serventy (10, 11), who has recently

supplied us with further details of occurrence, identification and osteology, The present

writer feels, however, that P. gavia huttoni may eventually be raised to full specific rank.

323

Description of Cranium (fig. 14)

Mandibles relatively long and slender, hook of upper weak and slightly de-

curved, with a few foramena. Anterior nares relatively large and widened; nasals

entirely absorbed. Base of upper mandible depressed at the cranio-facial junction,

where there is a deep pit. Supra-orbital glandular depressions large, well marked

and uniform, and separated by a narrow fronto-median tract. Post-orbital process

very thin, large, wing-like, and flat. Parietal region smooth, rounded postero-

laterally and somewhat depressed from above; temporal fossae well marked,

bounded posteriorly by a prominent crest and extending for some distance on to

the prominent “cerebellar eminence”; paroccipital processes small. Lacrimal

roughly triangular, longer axis horizontal, pierced by two foramena, the larger

ventral one pneumatic, and in contact above with the frontal, anteriorly with the

nasal, posteriorly with the wing of the ethmoid and inferiorly with the infra-

orbital bar which is slightly bent wp to meet it. Os lacrimo palatinum well

developed, about 3 mm. long and widened at its distal end. A large foramen of

irregular shape is in the superior posterior wall of the orbit (orbito-sphenoid) ;

the anterior wall is incompletely formed by the wing of the ethmoid. The inter-

orbital septum is perforated by a large sub-circular foramen and the optic foramen,

the two running into each other, forming one. Mandibles parallel to the basi-

cranial axis. Palatines large and flattened, and slightly below the infra-orbital

bar, and the maxillo-palatines are just visible at their anterior ends. The vomer

is large, flattened, decurved anteriorly, with a ventral keel which does not extend

to the tip. The internal laminae of the palatines are in the form of fairly well

developed carinations. Pterygoids widened and flattened anteriorly at their

junction with the rostrum (cf. P. tenuirostris in form). Basipterygoid facets

present near the base of the rostruni; basitemporal plate triangular and relatively

smooth with transverse ridge. Eustachian canal closed by a prolongation trom

the alisphenoid with a wide exit. Lower jaw very weak, anterior symphysis short,

tip slightly decurved, perforated by many small foramena along a linc on the

dentary corresponding to the groove (sulcus) of the ramicorn. Coronoid process

of surangular small. Concave articular surfaces for the quadrate large, internal

articular process perforated by an elongate pneumatic foramen. Angle of

mandible truncated. Other features as in Puffinus tenuirostris.

Total length, 76 mm.; culmen, 42 mm.; fronto-median tract, 1:Q mm.

Probable length of exposed culmen, 34 mm.

PuFFINUS TENUIROSTRIS (Temminck) -- SHORT-TAILED PETREL

and

PUFFINUS CARNEIPES Gould — KFLEsify-rooTED PETREL

Among the large numbers of Mutton Birds discovered on South Aus-

tralian beaches following their return in November, some examples of the Western

Australian Mutton Bird or Fleshy-footed Petrel, Puffinus carneipes are not in-

frequently found among the remains of P. tendirostris.

324

l ridges ()

t b

Cia

ila,

etsy

‘ CL

Bills of South Australian Procellariidac: A, Pufinus carneipes; B. P. griseus:

C, P. lenuirostris; D, P. yavia huttoni; F, Macronectes yiganteus, all natural size:

F, dorsal view of bills of a, adult, b, immature, males of P. tenuirostris to show

character of naricorn. x2

Fig. 14

Crania of South Australian Puffinus, from above.

Natural size

326

As with most Tubinares, no difficulty in separating the two species is

presented if the horny bill is intact (fig. 13). Not rarely, however, this part has

disappeared through exposure, so that by the time the remains are gathered their

identity is not readily apparent.

In adults, the skulls can be distinguished by the relatively smaller and shorte

mandibles of Puffinus tenitrostris (igs. 2, 14), but in juveniles litile reliance can

be placed on this character, In these cases, the species can be instantly diagnosed

on the character of the pterygoids (fig. 15). In Puffinus fenwirostris these

structures, when viewed from beneath, m sifu, are greatly widened and flattened

anteriorly and of angular appearance, while in Puffiaus carnetpes they are com-

paratively slender and present a smooth and rounded appearance. Dorso-laterally

they are angular in both species.

Crania of Puffinus tenuirostris (Pemm.)

SAM. Pate!

Na. Collector Locality Date Culmen (1) Length

B5304 A. M. Morgan Robe, S.A. ~/12/1923 44 82

B5299 i 5 -/12/1924 43 82

B 12408 Miss J. Cleland = Encounter B., S.A. ~/5/1930 42 81

B11000 A. M. Morgan S.A. —_ 42 80

B18657 W. 2B. Hitchcock Younghusband ~—/2/1937 42 80

Penin, S.A.

BS079 — — — 34 72 > Juv.

Puffinus tenuirostris Puffinus carneipes

Fig. 15

Pterygoids, in situ, viewed from beneath. Greatly cularged

Shufeldt (12), in describing what he believed to be an adult of Puffinus

fenuirostris, notes that the “supra-orbital glandular depressions meet for a short

distance in the median line.”

None of the skulls examined exhibit this condition, the glandular depression

being separated by a wide and flat tract (in B12408 and B5079), a narrow ridge

(in B5299) or a deep but narrow groove (in B5304, B11000, and B18667).

327

Despite the variability of this region Shufeldt’s example, being adult, may belong

to some other species.

As with other Petrels, the form of the bill (horny culminicorn) is almost

independent of the shape of the premaxillae and maxillae, although in the

immature stages it may approximate closely in the form of these structures.

Serventy (10) has drawn attention to the remarkable changes produced in the

horny external tubular nares of Puffinus gavia by contraction of these parts

some time after death. In Puffinus tenuirostris and, to a lesser degree,

P. carneipes, this effect is most noticeable in immature birds. Jn fact, the writer

has found that this character forms a useful guide for the separation of skins of

young birds and adults. In the adull the structure is thickened and of smooth

appearance, while in juveniles it is shrunken in appearance and the integument

has one, two, or more longitudinal crinkles or ridges (fig. 13 E).

Crania of Puffinis carneipes Gould

S.A.M. Total Total

No. Colector Locality Date Culmen () Teneth

B18641 TT. T. Condon Reevesby Ts., S.A. --/12/1936 50 93

B5298 A. M. Morgan Robe, S.A. —/12/1924 49 90

B11394 — _ — 49 90

B5296 IT. Wood Jones Cotfin’s Bay, S.A. —/1/1925 49 89

B11904 J. B. Cleland Encounter B., S.A. —/1/1930 48 0) > Juv.

PUFFINUS GRISEUS (Ginelin) — Soory PErrReL

Remains of this Mutton Bird which, except for its size is very much like the

Short-tailed Petrel (Puffinus tenuirostris) were discovered on the beach at

Encounter Bay on 22 January 1931 by Professor J. B. Cleland (13), this being

the only record from South Australia. All remains of Mutton Birds from South

Australia should be re-examined to ascertain if they are of this species (fig¢. 13.28).

PLERODROMA LESSONT (Garnot) — Wuirs-niaprp Petre.

The White-headed Petrel has beea recorded from South Australia on five

occasions, and all examples are now in the Museum.

At a cursory glance the cranium of Pterodroma does not differ greatly from

that of certain species of Puffinus, Closer examination, however, réveals many

differences: the lacrimal is completely fused with the uasal and frontal and

ethmoidal wing, while in adults the antorbital wall is complete. The mandibles are

comparatively stronger than in Puffs, the upper being strongly hooked.

Anteriorly the palate of Pferodroma has not a bony root as in Piffinus, The

palatines are short and wide and basipterygoid facets are present at the base ot the

basisphenoidal rostrum. ‘The frontal region also is more prominent, being widened

and thickened in Pierodroma,

Individual variations in the specimens examined are slight; the supra-orbital

fossae are separated by a deep groove wider than the average in Puffinus. Com-

parison between crania of Pterodroma from South Australia, and Thalassotca

328

anterctica, and Priocella antarctica, collected by the Australasian Antarctic

Expedition (1911-1914) and which have also been recorded from South Aus-

tralian seas, although made on limited material, shows that except for the rela-

tively large size of Priocella, the other genera can only be distinguished from

Pterodroma by the character of the palatines, the outer margins of which are

tapered in Pterodroma but parallel in Thalassoica and Priocella. In the last-

named the pterygoids are greatly expanded, with “lateral wings.”

vacuity SN Sie Sox facet

5 exx<S¥

Daption capense

Fig. 16

Skull, Pterodroma lessoni: a, lateral view; b, from beneath; pal., palatine;

bpt. facet, basipterygoid facet; pt., pterygoid; vacuity, anterior vacuity of

palate; os lac.-pal., os lacrimo-palatinum. Skull of Daption capense, from

above, All natural size.

329

Skins of Pterodroma lessoni

ai Collector Locality Date

B16849 W. C. Hamilton Semaphore, S.A. 29/5/1933

B17808 B. C. Cotton Goolwa, S.A. 13/4/1935

J.B.C. Coll. J. B. Cleland Encounter B., S.A. 17/12/1924

Crania of Pterodroma lessont

S.A.M. Total Total

No. Collector Locality Date Culmen Length

B5265 M. Bonnin Boatswain Point, 26/12/1924 49 91

S.A.

B11905 J. B. Cleland Encounter B., S.A. ~/1/1930 47 90

Cranium of Thalassoica antarctica

S.A. M. Total Total

No. Collector Locality Date Culmen Length

B1167 D. Mawson Adelie Land lyl2 50 93

PrERODROMA MACROPTERA GOULDI (Hutton) — Grey-FAcED PETREL

The only South Australian example, a female, was obtained alive by the late

F. R. Zeitz, of the South Australian Muscum at Brighton beach, after westerly

gales on 19 August 1917. In the skin as it is today the forehead, lores and chin

are light in colour, not silvery-grey as given by Hutton in the original description.

(Ibis, 1869, p. 351.) Measurements are as follows: Total length, 395 mm.;

culmen, 34 mm. (1-3 inches); wing, 315 mm.; tail, 127 mm.; tarsus, 41 mm.

Tris: dark brown; feet and bill, black.

In December 1923 the late Dr. A. M. Morgan found at Robe, South Aus-

tralia, the decomposed body of a Pteredroma which he recorded as P. macroptera.

Since that time several examples of the related P. lessoni have been discovered on

beaches, and two crania of this species have been preserved. Comparisons of these

with that obtained by Dr. Morgan at Robe reveal no structural differences. It is

probable, therefore, that the Robe specimen was not P. macroptera but P. lessont,

or, alternatively, the two species are osteologically identical. From comparative

studies in other genera this latter view does not seem tenable, as some osteological

differences are usually apparent in the different species of Procellariidae.

Details of this cranium are as follows:

Fronto-

S.A.M. Exposed Total median

No. Collector Locality Date Culmen Length Tract

B5300 A.M. Morgan Robe, S.A. —/12/1923 35 110 2:5

DAPTION CAPENSE (Linne) —- Capr PETREL

There are eleven records of this species in South Australia. as follows:

Locality Collector Date

Goolwa, S.A. F. W. Andrews 11/10/1865 skin not preserved

South Australia S. White —/8/1870 two skins

Cape Borda, S.A. J. Burke ~/6/1891 two skins (male & femaie)

Encounter Bay, S.A. J. Shannon 8/7/1923 male

ss 5 4, J. B. Cleland 16/7/1926 sternum

Re fe i Miss J. Cleland —/9/1930 skeleton

330

Seachtf, S.A. E. Ashby 13/10/1926 female

Hallett’s Cove, S.A. H. TV. Condon ~/7/1935 sternum and wings

Yorke Peninsula, S.A. B. C. Cotton ~/9/1935 cranium (juy.)

South-East, S.A. A. Ey —/11/1939° “

” ” ey) —/11/1939 +s (juv.)

Apart from its brilliant black and white plumage, this species is readily dis-

tinguished by the skull (fig. 16), in which the upper jaw is greatly widened for

more than three-quarters of its total length and is bent at an angle to the basi-

cranial axis. As in Pterodroma in the adult the anterior wall of the orbit 1s

completely ossified and the lacrimal is completely fused with the frontal and wing

of the ethmoid. In the juvenile examined (318018), there is a large foramen

in the antorbital wall, cf. Puffinus, while the lacrimal is not completely fused

above. The cerebellar eminence is very prominent in this example and exhibits

transverse ridges corresponding to the sulci of the cerebellum. The area separat-

ing the supra-orbital glandular depressions is less than in the adult. The anterior

vacuity of the palate is wide and extends to the tip of the jaw (as in Plerodroma,

fig. 16), and basipterygoid facets are present. ‘lhe os lacrimo-palatinum is absent

in the specimens examined.

Crama of Daption capense

Exposed Frouto-

Culmen Total median

No. Collector T.ovality Date CApprox.) Length Tract

#13498 Miss J. Cleland [Encounter B., S.A. ~/9/1930 30 78 4

B180ts B. C. Cotton Yorke Penin, S.A. —/9/1935 26 72 3

B22084 A. Ey South-east, SA. —/11/1939 3l 81 3

B22085 gt -§ Wg + e —~/11/1939 30 79 2:5

K.ERERENCES

(1) Conxpox, H, T. 1936 South Australian Ornithologist, 13, 141

(2) Farra, R.A. 1937 B.A.N.Z.A.R.E. Reports, Birds, 115

(3) PFornes, W. A. 1882 Challenger Rep., Zoology, 4, 42

(4) Huxntey, PY. H. 1867 “The Classification of Birds” Proc Zooi. Soc

London

(5) Jones, F. Woop 1937 “Vhe Olfactory Apparatus in Tubinares.” Enna

36, 281; 37, 10, 121, 128

(O) Lowe, PLR. 1925) Proe. Zool. Soe. London, 1,433-1443

(7) Afurery, R.C. 1936 “The Oceanic Birds of South America,” 2 vols.

(8) Pyerarr, W. P. 1899 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 381

(9) Srerventy, 1D. 1. 1939 “Observations on Sea Birds,” South Australian

Ornithologist, 15, 31

(10) Serventy, D. 1. 1939 “The White-breasted Petrel of South Australia,”

Finu, 39, 95

(11) Serventy, D. L, 1939 “The Sternum in the Sub-genus Rheinholdia,”

Eni, 39, 126

(12) Suourrenpt, R. W. 1907 Amer, Naturalist, 41, 109

(13) Seuth Australian Ornithologist, 1935, 13, 121

THE CAMBRIAN SEQUENCE IN THE WIRREALPA BASIN

By D.MAWSON

Summary

This is another of a series of contributions recording field observations undertaken with a view to

elucidating the character and succession of the older rocks of South Australia. The Mines

Department has recently issued a publication (Segnit, 1939) bearing upon this same theme. As a

consequence, information relating to the chronology of the older formations of the State is now

rapidly accumulating

LEk.

bol

THE CAMBRIAN SEQUENCE IN THE WIRREALPA BASIN

By D, Mawson

[Read 12 October 1939]

This is another of a series of contributions recording field observations

undertaken with a view to elucidating. the character and succession of the older

rocks of South Australia. The Mines Department has recently issued a publica-

tion (Segnit, 1939) bearing upon this same theme. As a consequence, informa-

tion relating to the chronology of the older formations of the State is now rapidly

accumulating.

The present paper deals with the Cambrian sequence as recorded in the most

complete succession of strata of that age known to exist within the boundaries

of the State. The locality is that of the eastern margin of the Flinders Ranges

in the neighbourhood known as ‘he Bunkers. Elsewhere in South Australia are

known many localitics where there occur excellent exposures of strata represen-

tative of the lower portion of our Cambrian scdiments, beds typified by abundance

of Archaeoeyathinae. Howchin (1922) was the first to locate, in the neighbour-

hood of Wirrealpa and The Bunkers, beds superior in position to the Archaeo-

cyathinae-bearing series but still carrying Cambrian fossils, namely, Obolella,

Girvanella and Redlichia. Wowever, the thickness of these beds and their relation

to the underlying Archacocyathinae-bearing terrain he did not establish. That

locality is, therefore, of special stratigraphical interest, deserving more dctailed

investigation than could be achieved in the course of Howchin’s short visit.

Accordingly, the author has examined that area on several occasions during the

past decade.

Tlowchin’s remarks are illustrated by a sketch-section across the strike of

ihe beds where investigated in the vicinity of Balcoracana Creek, hat seciion,

however, was not accurately measured and purports to give only a rough represen-

tation of the relations of the beds, In any case, the line of section is intersected

in two zones by notable faults which result in misrepresentation of the truc

sequence,

We have nol only measured the beds met with in a traverse through the serics

at Balcoracana Creek but located and measured a more complete and less dis-

turbed cross-section of the Cambrian beds as met with in the vicinity of the Ten-

Mile or Billy Creek. ‘The localities of both of these sections are shown on the

map, fig. 1,

We are mainly concerned with the Len-Mile Creek section. ]lowever,

neither locality is free from strike faults, consequently, both of the traverses are

mutually helpful in arriving at the true Cambrian sequence. Details of both are

set forth below and the ‘Ven-Mile Creek section is graphically represented in fig. 2.

‘The examination of ihe beds has been spread over several field sessions with

students. Of the latter, L. W. Parkin and W. B. Dallwitz have been most

concerned,

. Soe. S.A., 63 (23, 22 December 1939

332

The locality map, which constitutes fig. 1, is not to be regarded as accurate

to scale in any of its details for, as regards the topographical features, it is almost

in its entirety a copy of the pastoral plan published by the Lands Department. As

is well known, the detail of these plans is often very far from accurate, The

rough indication of the distribution of the several stratigraphical units shown by

hatching is no more accurate than the map itself. In fact, it is intended merely

to broadly indicate the area occupied by outcropping Cambrian sediments.

# WIRREALPA

4 ‘

Sy dbihoreretse a

— ty

cinwan’ Ming Ab ®S ANGORIGINA HILL

ty Bs t™

©,

ZNCAREYS HILU 1

1 i

TRIPLE HILL

hs 4

LS MT EMILY

ENORAMA SPRINGS

F———Jere-camerian [[]|][]camarian [7-7] PLeISTOCENE— RECENT

Fig. 1

The range of hills known as The Bunkers extends for a length of about

25 miles, where it forms the eastern margin of the Flinders Ranges. It stretches

southward from a point about due east of Blinman. The Big Hill (First Hill) on

the Blinman-to-Wirrealpa Road, at about 12 miles east of Blinman, may be taken

as the northern limit of The Bunkers line of range. To the south it extends and

includes the Mount Caernarvon Range.

333

Throughout its length this range of hills is composed of a thick succession

of sediments with a general easterly dip. Though important lines of faulting

and some buckling are apparent, the region as a whole is less disturbed than are

most areas of these old rocks.

To the south, in the Mount Caernarvon Range, the Pre-Cambrian tillite and

fluvio-glacial beds constitute the highest hills. North of the Ten-Mile Creek,

the higher topographical features are carved out of the Archaeocyathinae belt of

the Cambrian and the eastern foothills are occupied by the upper series containing

Redlichia. The latter also occupy the low undulating country in the immediate

vicinity of Wirrealpa Head Station and for five miles to the wegt therefrom.

This pocket of Cambrian strata does not extend far to the north of Wirrealpa

Head Station, for it is there cut off by faulting. Immediately south of the Ten-

Mile Creek, Cambrian beds turn towards the south-east, then east, disappearing

beneath the plains.

Above the fossiliferous Obolella-Girvanella horizon of the upper beds the

formation continues as a vast thickness of sandy sediments, softer and more

argillaceous below, but more resistant above. The topmost beds of this post-

Archaeocyathinae formation are sandstones weathered out in relief and con-

stituting the Grindstone Range or Little Bunkers.

Tue Ten-MILE CreeK SECTION Across THE BUNKERS AND GRINDSTONE RANGE

‘This section was run across the strike of the formations along the line A-B

indicated on the plan, fig. 1. The beds represented are listed under eighty-one

successive items. The succession commences in strata regarded as of Proterozoic

age. Number one of the column is at the base.

The figures given below as the thickness of the respective beds are true

thicknesses deduced from the measurement of outcrop widths. The compass

bearings given are “true,” not “magnetic.”

The continuation of the beds above item (81) cannot be followed, for they

pass beneath the Pleistocene pebble beds yeneering the plain bordering Lake

Frome. A somewhat greater thickness appears to be exposed at the northern

end of the Range.

Reststant SANDSTONES OF THE GRINDSTONE RANGE

Aggregate thickness, 870 feet

81 156 ft. of reddish-coloured sandstone. Occasional bands containing small

water-worn pebbles of quartzite were observed in the upper portion

of this belt. Pseudo-fossil impressions of the clay-pellet type occur

in this division. In microscope section, the mineral grains are seen

to be angular though slightly more rounded than in the case of the

hard sandstone of (79). Patches showing aggregate polarization

represent former silicate particles, probably felspar, now kaolinised.

Tiny grains of tourmaline are not uncommon. Zircon particles

are rare,

334

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1,370

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335

of soft, white, even-grained sandstone. This carries a considerable

amount of interstitial white kaolin.

of fine-grained, comparatively hard, white sandstone, Weathered

surfaces usually appear of a reddish to purple colour. Dip, 42°

towards N. 45° I. (true).

The microscope slide shows this to be of an even grain-size, and

composed of angular particles of quartz amongst which fragments

of tiny prisms of zircon are not uncommon.

_ of thin-bedded sandstone with white clay partings.

. of thick-bedded sandstone.

CHOCOLATE SHALES AND Sorr FLAGGY SANDSTONE

Ageregate thickness, 6,410 feet; however, as the beds are

folded and faulted, the true thickness is probably miucli less.

Tt.

it.

ft.

of solt sandstone flags alternating with shales. This sandstone

weathers characteristically, developing abundant, regularly dis-

tributed, small ptts on the exposed surface.

. of sandstone.

_ of reddish, thin-bedded, flaggy sandstone. Dip, 48°.

r. of sandstone and sandy, chocolate-coloured shales. Dip, 48° to N.

50° E, (true).

ft. of soft, flagey sandstone. argillaceous sandstone, sandy shale and

chocolate shale. Dip, 48° to N. 50° E.

. of reddish-coloured, flaggy, soft sandstone.

. of sandstone, more massive below but passing up into a thinner-

bedded form above.

. of white to light pink, thin-bedded, flaggy sandstone.

. of soft, laggy sandstone. Outcrops coloured pink to reddish.

. of moderately hard, flaggy sandstone with occasional bands of

chocolate-coloured shale.

. of soft sandstones with a little chocolate shale.

. of sandstone; flaggy below to massive above.

of shales passing up to soft sandstone above. These beds are but

poorly exposed on low ground. The nature of the surface shoad

indicates that the shales include some thin bands of a calcareous

nature,

. of chocolate shales passing into greenish-grey shales above.

_ of chocolate shales. Dip, 33° to N. 55° FE.

CiocoLaATi: STALES AND Citerty DoLoarire

Aggregate Uickness, 76 feet.

. of dolomite. Nodules of a flinty chert are distributed through it.

Dip, 15°.

of chocolate shales.

of sandy dolomite with chert nodules.

58 230

57-100

56 40

55 272

54 = 180

53 95

52 9

5lsn 400

5la 100

50 =: 100

49 40

48 165

47 12

46 320

45 160

44 1,150

43 100

42 15

4] 100

40 400

39-150

ft.

336

CHOCOLATE SHALE AND Rep SANDSTONE

Aggregate thickness, 1,326 feet

. of soft chocolate shale and sandstone; more richly arenaceous near

the upper limit.

. of soft chocolate shale and sandstone.

. of chocolate sandstone, with one very thin band of limestone.

Dip, 25° to N. 85° E.

. of soft shales. QOutcrop largely hidden beneath soil.

. of red sandstone. Dip, 35° to N. 85° E.

. of somewhat calcareous sandstone.

. of calcareous sandstone.

. of soft argillaceous sandstone and shale; outcrop wanting.

FossILIFEROUS LIMESTONE

Aggregate thickness, 317 feet

. of nodular limestone embedded in a greenish-grey marly base.

Girvanella contributes to this calcareous formation.

t. of limestone, rich in Obolella.,

. of fossiliferous limestone, rich in ill-defined fragmentary remains.

ft. of knobbly, argillaceous limestone. Irregular calcareous nodules

are thickly packed in a greenish-grey, calcareo-argillaceous base.

This resembles item (51a).

. of hard, dark-coloured limestone rich in faintly-defined fossil

remains. Dip, 45° to N. 85° E. In the microscope slide, the rock

is observed to have been extensively recrystallised and to contain

detrital biotite.

CHOCOLATE SANDSTONE AND SHALE

Aggregate thickness, 1,730 feet

. of flaggy, chocolate sandstone and chocolate shales.

. of sandy chocolate shales.

. of chocolate shales exhibiting excellent ripple marks, and with well-

preserved cuboidal casts after halite crystals.

. of light-red and grey calcareous shales with a bar of pink sandstone

2 ft. thick located at 75 ft. above the base of this section.

DoLoMirE

. of massive dolomite. Dip, 48° to E. 50° S (true).

CHIEFLY CHOCOLATE SITALES

Aggregate thickness, 650 feet.

of chocolate shale and thin-bedded sandstone.

of chocolate shale with a calcareous band one foot thick at about

150 ft. from the bottom of the section.

. of shale, partly grey-coloured (lower portion).

50 ft.

700 ft.

400 ft.

45 ft.

337

Fiaccy LIMESTONE

of flaggy limestone with some interbedded shale.

GREY SHALE

of soft, grey-green shale; on the weathered surface, breaking down

to tiny chips.

SANDSTONE

Aggregate thickness, 445 feet

of sandstone dipping at 360°. In the main this is of a white to buff

colour, but weathers to brown and reddish tints. In microscope

section a specimen of the hard rock from near the base of this

quartzite was found to be composed of fine, even-sized quartz grains.

The presence of occasional tiny prisms of zircon was noted.

The lower 200 ft. of this formation is harder and more resistant than

the upper beds.

of passage beds initiating new conditions of sedimentations. These

are of the nature of impure sandy limestone below, passing upwards

into allernating bands of clay-shale and hard sandstone.

Dark Grey To BLAcK FosstLtrerous, FLAccy LIMESTONE

90 ft.

520 ft.

640 it.

Aggregate thickness, 1,250 feet

of laminated, black calcareous flags. Occasional Archaeocyathinae

and Sponge spicules were observed faintly outlined on the weathered

surface. Dip, 40° towards E. 15° S. (true). The microscope

section reveals that the delicate banding is due to alternating laminae

of coarser and finer grain. Amongst the grains of inorganic matter,

there are visible in the slide minute perforated particles of organic

origin which exhibit a regular pattern. These may be broken

fragments of Diatoms, Radiolaria, or portions of the wall of

an Archacocyathus. Unfortunately, these remains so far as yet

observed have been too fragmentary for satisfactory solution.

of flaggy, dark-grey to black limestones. These weather to a lighter

colour. They differ very little from the underlying division (32).

Not infrequently the elongated forms of Salterella appear weathered

out in relief on the surface. Several examples of an Archaeocyathus

were collected in this division. ‘These were mainly met with in the

upper section.

of dark-coloured and flaggy limestone, which weathers to grey and

buff-coloured outcrops. At the top of this division is a partly

silicied band, some 2 fr. thick, in which are traces of fossils.

Indistinct fossil markings are also noted on the outcrop at many

places. Only near the upper limit was a definite and distinct

Archaeocyathus observed.

338

TossiLirERous, SLaccy Limestone, iN PArt JNTERLAMINATED WITH SHALE

125

205

294

116

251

290

141

500

300

ft.

Aggregate thickness, 550 feet

of dark grey, flaggy limestone with shale partings. Dip, 43°.

of flaggy, laminated, impure limestone. On the weathered out-

crop, faintly outlined, was noted a single example of a cup-snaped

form resembling an Archacocyathus,

of bedded flags of a caleareo-argillaceous nature. Argillaceous

bands regularly altcrnate with calcareous bands each several inenes

thick. In the upper part of this section the limestone clement ts

reduced to mere strings of plates embedded in the argillaccous

element. Cup-shaped fossil sponges are met with near the top of

this division.

of thin-bedded, flaggy, impure limestone. Cryptozoonic structure

noted; also an Archaeocyathus was observed in the rock near the

upper limit of this division. Silicification evidenced, with the

development of chert nodules.

ARCILAEOCYATHINAE MARBLE

Ageregate thickuess, 1,240 feet

of grey, impure limestone for the most part exhibiting nodular

Cryptozoonic markings. These beds are Haggy to massive,

Silicification is evidenced in some bands. No detinite Archaeo-

eyathinae were secn, but faint markings appear to represent the

almost obliterated remains of such.

of very richly fossiliferous Archacocyathinae marble.

of dense limestone partly pervaded by a grey tracery. his division

except in its lowest part is very rich in Archaeocyathinae, Some

silicification evidenced. Dip, 45° to E. 15° S. (true).

of dense limestone rich in well-preserved Archaeocyathinae.

of limestone with some Cryptozdon structures and occasional

Archacocyathinae.

of dense, grey marble in which no Archaeocyathinae were seen.

of a grey marble rising above to a white massive form at the upper

limit of the section. Cryptozéonic structures were observed in the

lower grey rock.

Tur Pounp SANDSTONE FORMATION

Aggregate thickness, 800 feet

of sandstone, mainly reddish in colour but incorporating a white

section near its upper limit. Dip, 45° to E. 15° S.

of pink to red-coloured flaggy sandstones with partings of ripple-

marked shale. Pellet clots are present in several bands of the

sandstone. Smooth curved impressions not unlike moulds of

molluscan valves were observed in this division, but not sufficiently

definite to establish them as of fossil origin.

= ND w Bb

180

250

340

250

339

Sus-CAMBRIAN FORMATIONS

ft. of reddish-coloured shale and silt-stone exhibiting strongly ripple-

marked bedding planes.

ft. of buff-coloured limestone. On the line of section this is hidden

by a veneer of river wash, but further north along the line of strike

Soe

it forms a massive outcrop.

ft. of grey argillaceous limestone and shale. Crossing the line of

section, the bed of the Ten-Mile Creek is carved in this division.

ft. of coarse, flaggy limestone and finely laminated limestone, These

are usually notably argillaceaus. Interbedded with them are two

belts of shale. Micro-cryptozdon structure is well exemplified in

these beds and some nodular stromatolithic forms were observed.

ft of flaggy, argillaceous limestones.

ft. of somewhat calcareous, argillaceous flags and shales. In these a

grey colour dominates but the more highly weathered rock has

become reddened.

ft. of shales which are practically non-calcareous. Some otf the

laniinae are of silt and very fine-grained sand.

ft. of grey shales which on the weathered surface break down into

coarse chips.

ft. of thinly-laminated, non-caleareous flags with some calcareous

mtercalations.

ft. of brown micaceous flaggy slate.

ft. of somewhat calcareous slates.

ft. of chocolate slates which, along the weathered outcrop, are broken

down to small chips.

ft. of siliceous flags.

ft. of thin-bedded, chocolate slates. This section is seamed with belts

in which silicification, bleaching and other chemical alterations have

been effected by mineralizing solutions. Some calcium, iron and

magnesium carbonates and much baryta have been deposited in these

channels.

ft. of hardened, silicified, grey flaggy shale.

ft. of chocolate shale.

ft. of a reddish series of thin, flaggy sandstones with shale partings.

ft. of hard, reddish sandstone in which the bedding plane is clearly

defined by laminations.

Below this horizon chocolate shale and soft sandstone are showing in the

flat country lying further to the west, but outcrops are only occasional owing to

a cover of alluvial wash and soil. Marked changes in the direction of strike are

shown in this area, indicating considerable disturbance.

340

SECTION ACROSS THE STRIKE IN THE NEIGILBOURHOOD or BALCORACANA CREEK

SANDSTONES CONSTITUTING THE GRINDSTONE RANGE

In this locality the thickness of the strong, flaggy to thick-bedded sand-

stones which stand out in bold relief as the Grindstone Range, was not

measured. However, a rough estimate indicates a thickness of between 1,000

and 2,000 feet. The beds listed below all lie west of the Grindstone Range

and almost certainly do not include any repetition of the strata represented in

that Range.

DistuRRED BELT oF SEDIMENTS IMMEDIATELY UNDERLYING

THE GRINDSTONE RANGE

1,770 ft. (estimated at an average dip of 42°) of soft, reddish, flaggy sand-

stone, in part argillaceous. This division may include several strike

faults. An extremely disturbed belt near the top of this division is

indicated as a definite line of notable strike faulting.

Sort SANDSTONES

(Aggregate thickness, 1,675 ft., corresponds to beds immediately above

item (64) of the Ten-Mile Creek section.)

5 ft. of chocolate slate. Dip, 42°. Strike, N.4° W. (true).

270 ft. of soft sandstone. Average dip, 41°; and strike, N.5° W. Some

disturbance in this division indicates the probability of faulting hav-

ing taken place.

100 ft. of flaggy, fissile sandstone. Part of this division is curiously spotted,

expressed on the weathered surface of the rock by a characteristic

pitting.

940 ft. of flaggy, fissile sandstone, in part micaceous and laminated. Dip,

42°, Strike, N.5° W.

160 ft. of strong sandstone. Dip, 42°. Strike, N.7° W.

200 ft. of soft laminated, micaceous sandstone. The laminae over part of

this division range from '/,, to $ inch in thickness.

CHOCOLATE SHALE WitH LIMESTONE BANDS

(Apparently corresponding to items (62), (63) and (64) of

the Ten-Mile Creek section)

345 ft. of fissile chocolate shale with interbedded bands of buff-coloured

limestone, ranging in thickness from a few inches to 2 feet. The

limestone intercalations have a greater average thickness in the lower

part of this division than in its upper extension, Dip, 42°.

CyHocoLaTeE SHALE AND CierRTY DoLoMiTE

(Aggregate thickness, 73 ft., corresponds to items (59), (60) and (61)

of the Ten-Mile Creek section)

341

5 ft. of buff-coloured limestone carrying large nodules of flinty chert.

Dip, 45°.

60 ft. of chocolate shale.

8 ft. of dolomite with chert nodules.

CuocoLATE SHALE AND Rep SANDSTONE

(Aggregate thickness, 1,056 ft., corresponds to items (51B) up to and

122

170

168

145

235

ft.

it.

ft.

ft,

ft.

including (58) of the Ten-Mile Creck section)

of chocolate shale, sandy near the base.

of soft, red sandstone.

of chocolate shales with occasional belts of a grey colour associated

with rather frequent thin calcareous bands.

of sandy chocolate shale.

of soft, red sandstone.

of thinly-laminated, soft, chocolate-coloured. sandy shale.

of soft, red sandstone.

of sandy, chocolate shale.

of beds partly hidden by alluvium; apparently soit shale.

FossiLiFEROUS LIMESTONE

(Aggregate thickness, 344 ft., corresponds to items (46) to (51a)

of the Ten-Mile Creek section)

of nodular CryptozGonic limestone, in part somewhat marly. A

strongly marked band, 2 feet thick, rich in coarse Girvanella, is

located at 27 feet above the hase of this section. Some Pteropods

were noted in the Girvanella band.

of nodular, somewhat marly limestone. Girvanella is present both

in coarse and fine centric structures.

of flaggy limestone with some reddish-brown silicified traceries raised

in relief on the weathered face. In the centre of this section there

is a strong band rich in Girvanclla, A thin band of intraformational

breccia was observed in this section.

of rubbly, nodular limestone terminated above in a well defined band

of Obolella limestone.

of nodular, marly limestone in which Girranella and Cryptozdonic

stromatoliths occur.

of soft shale, coloured greenish-grey. This is marly in part and

becomes nodular towards its upper lint.

of Pteropod and Obelella limestone embedded in which at the upper

limit of this section are fragments of ‘Trilobites; also nodular

Girvanella limestone.

of dense dark-coloured limestone with some fossil markings.

342

CHOCOLATE SHALE AND RED SANDSTONE

(Aggregate thickness, 930 ft, corresponds to items (44) to (46)

of the Ten-Mile Creek section)

50 ft of chocolate-coloured beds, which are arenaceous below but upwards

pass into ripple-marked shale with casts of halite crystals.

90 fl. of a strong, red sandstone forming a high ridge. Dips up to 48°

noted.

560 ft. of a chocolate-coloured series of the nature of ripple-marked slate

below but becoming more arenaceous towards the upper limit. Casts

of halite crystals were met with in the ripple-marked shale,

210 ft. of ripple-marked chocolate shale. Dip, 25° to 30°.

420 ft. of chocolate slate. poorly exposed.

DistuRRED AND GreatLy Fauvrep Ben

Shattered chocolate shale and other beds partly hidden by a horizontal cover

of recent alluvium occupy a distance across the strike cquivalent to

a thickness of 1,000 ft. of strata. It is evident that in this neigh-

bourhood the normal sequence of beds has been disturbed by large-

scale elimination effected by strike faults. Items (28) up to and

imeluding part of (44) of the Ten-Mile Creek section are involved

in this crushed and fatlted belt,

ARCHAEOCYATITINAE MARBLE

950 ft. of Archasocyathinae marble. Dip ranges from 26° to 30°. A narrow

oolitic band, somewhat silicifed appears in the basal part of this

formation. At its upper limit the marble is shattered by severe

strike faulting. Equivalent strata in the Ten-Mile Creek section are

items (21) and (27).

THe Pound SANDSTONE FORMATION

A Utneck formation of red sandstone. Dip is 30°, strike N.10° W. (true).

Immediately below the overlying limestone this formation is slightly

argillaceous and softer. This corresponds to item (20) of the Ten-

Mile Creek section.

NOTES ON THE COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE CALCAREOUS FoRMATIONS

With a view to ascertaining to what extent the limestones have been

dolonutized, a rough chemical examination was undertaken by W. 1B. Daliwitz,

with the following results.

Three variants were selected cut of a collection of specimens from the

great belt of Archaeocyathinae marble, items (21) to (27) of the section.

(a) White Marble — Calcium carbonate 98°3%, magnesium carbonate

O-8%, ferric oxide and alumina 0'3%,. insoluble 0-59%.

(b) Pink Marble — Calcium carbonate 97-49%, magnesium carbonate 1°2%,

ferric oxide and alumina 0°4%, insoluble 16%.

6°0%, ferric oxide and alumina 0°4%, insoluble 1-6%.

Materials from other horizons gave the following results:

Flaggy limestone, item (38) of the section:

Caleium carbonate 81°5%, magnesium carbonate 5°7%, ferric oxide and

alumina 1°1%, insoluble 11-6%.

Massive dolomite, iten: (42) of the section:

Caleium carbonate 36°1%, magnesium carbonate 26°8%, ferric oxide and

alumina 3-1%, insoluble 34°5%.

Dark-coloured limestone, item (47) of the section:

Calcium carbonate 92°6%, magnesium carbonate 5°2%, ferric oxide and

alumina 0°5%, insoluble 2°1%.

Flaggy Obolella limestone, item (50) of the section:

Caleium carbonate 89-5%, magnesium carbonate 5-696, ferric oxide and

alumina 1°5%, insoluble 3°5%.

Dolomite, item (61) of the section:

Calcium carbonate 51°3%, magnesium carbonate 29-69%, ferric oxide and

alumina 4°1%, insoluble 136%.

The phosphorous content of some of these Cambrian limestones was ceter-

mined with the following results.

The dark-coloured limestone of item (47) of the Ten-Mile Creek section

yielded 0°03% P.O,. The corresponding limestone of the Ralcoracana Creek

section (40 feet thick at the base of the fossiliferous section) contains 0°02%

PO.

A band of Obolella limestone, in which Pteropods and fragments of Vrilobites

are visible, taken from the upper limit of the 24-ft. band overlying the basal

dark-coloured limestone of the Baleoracana Creek section, yielded 0-22%

P,O;.

Specimens collected from the fossiliferous limestones outcropping Hnime-

diately west of Wirrealpa Head Station were also tested, Of these a samp'e of

a large spherical nodule of Girvanella returned Q-04% PO,. Another sample,

rich in Girvanclla balls and radial oolites, was found to contain 0-039 P_O..

Tur Presence or Carbon AND HypracarnonaAckoUs SUBSTANCES

A notable feature of certain horizons of the late Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian

sequence of South Australia is the presence therein of uncombined (apparently

graphitic) carbon, and traces of hydrocarbonaceous substances. It is probable

that in the long past these horizons were source rocks of petroleam ot, but now

only the merest vestiges remain. The following cases may be mentioned:

1 A black argillite of Pre-Cambrian age in Aroona Valley, item (55) of the

Brachina Creek section as recorded in a previous publication (Mawson, 1959),

emanates a faint bitumenous odour on freshly quarried faces.

2 Black calcareo-argillaceous sha'es and impure limestones of Cambrian age

which overlie the Archaeoevathinae marbles in several localities in South

344

Australia, owe their colour to the presence of carbon. Such are recorded in

the Ten-Mile Creek section of this report as items (32) to (34). The equiva-

of these beds in the neighbourhood of Adelaide is met with as black calcareo-

argillaceous shales above the Archaeocyathinae marbles at Sellick’s Till.

The fossiliferous limestones of the upper divisions of the Cambrian in the

Wirrealpa basin carry traces of hydro-carbon oils. This is especially to be

remarked in item (47) of the Ten-Mile Creck section, The same feature

has been observed where this same limestone was met with in traversing the

Balcoracana Creek section.

W. B. Dallwitz, when determining the lime-magnesium content of the rocks,

as recorded above, was the first to observe the presence of traces of hydro-carbon

oils in these limestones. He later noted that a bitumenous odour was emitted

when grinding certain of the limestones.

With a view to ascertaining the carbon and hydrocarbon contents, T. W. Dal-

wood, analyst to the South Australian Mines Department, kindly examined

specimens of several of these and reports as follows: Black shale from Aroona

Valley (No. 1 locality) contains a trace of hydrocarbonaceous matter and 2°05%

of uncombined carbon. Black shale from Sellick’s Lill (No. 2 locality) contains.

besides a trace of hydrocarbonaceous substances, uncombined carbon to the extent

of 1:°96%. Limestone of item (47) of the Ten-Mile Creek section is reported as

containing a trace only of hydrocarbons. The same also is reported from the

corresponding limestone of the Balcoracana Creek area.

Loe)

REVIEW OF THE FORMATIONS REPRESENTED

Though the above cross-sections of the Cambrian basin in the neighbourhood

of The Bunkers include disturbed and faulted zones, the general sequence is clear.

In the case of the Ten-Mile Creek section, the formation appears to be practically

unbroken by dislocations of any note trom an horizon well below the base of the

fossiliferous Cambrian, upwards through over 7,000 feet of Cambrian sediments.

Still higher in the succession, a thick, untfossiliferous series of chocolate shale

with some bands of dolomite and a great development of sandstone continue

upwards for a further minimum thickness of several thousand feet. In the

estimation of the total thickness of this latter division, uncertainty is introduced

on account of disturbance by folding and faulting. These irregularities are

localized in a region of little surface relief, where outcrops are poorly displayed

for their satisfactory interpretation, However, we believe that the structure has

been sufficiently elucidated to allow of an approximate estimation of the thickness

of this disturbed section. The rocks traversed can be considered in four main

divisions.

THE UNFoSsSILIFEROUS PRE-CAMBRIAN BASEMENT

At the base are slates, limestones and sandstones which are quite normal in

sequence in comparison with similar beds underlying the fossiliferous Cambrian

as recorded elsewhere in the Flinders Ranges. These may be assumed to be Pre-

345

Cambrian though in the case of the thick sandstone-quartzite immediately under-

lying the Archaeocyathinae marble, | have, in earlier contributions, tentatively

regarded it as representing the base of the Cambrian sequence. Segnit (1939),

however, regards this sandstone as the topmost member of the Pre-Cambrian.

Where the line of section crosses the Tcn-Mile Creek, the exposed contact

between this sandstone and the Archaeocyathinae marble, shows no sign of

unconformity.

About 24 miles down the creck below the line of section, the gorge of the

Ten-Mile Creek turns across the strike of the Cambrian beds and continues thus

for some distance. This is at the point marked X on the map, fig. 1. A splendid

cross-section of the junction between the underlying sandstone and the Archaeo-

cyathinae marble is revealed, but there appears to be no evidence of an erosion

interval though there is some evidence of overlap.

It may be urged that erosion is suggested by the fact that this sandstone is

upwards of 3,000 feet thick in the neighbourhood of Wilpena Pound and the

Brachina Creek Gorge, whereas here as the Ten-Mile Creek it is only 800 feet

thick. This is to be explammed as follows.

The evidence available indicates that the land from which the sand constitut-

ing this huge deposit was shed lay not far to the west of Wilpena Pound. The

present line of the western margin of the Flinders Ranges probably coincides with

the near-shore margin of the off-shore geosyncline of those days. In this circum-

stance it is to be expected that the arenaceous deposition equivalent to the extra-

ordinarily massive sandstone constituting Wilpena Pound diminished in thickness

with progress to the east. The region of The Bunkers is about 25 miles frony

the western margin of the Flinders Range. The sediment now constituting The

Bunkers was originally deposited still further to the cast, but brought into closer

proximity to the western side of the Range by subsequent great diastrophic move-

ments which have folded the beds as we now find them. Thus may be explained

the equivalence of the 800 feet of sandstone in The Bunkers to the much greater

thickness in the vicinity of Wilpena Pound.

Tre ARCHAEKOCYATHINAE-BEARING CAMRBRIAN SERIES

This division totals somewhat more than 3,000 feet in thickness. It is

characterised by abundance and variety of forms of Archaeocyathinac, In part

this is a massive development of white limestone 1,250 feet thick, resembling in

character coral reef growths of later times.

The upper beds of this division of the Cambrian are in the main dark-

coloured, flaggy, impure limestones with, in part, some laminated, calcareous

shale. Fossils are less abundant, though Archaeocyathinae, Pteropods (Salterella),

Sponges and Cryptozdonic-like stromatoliths are to be met with as macroscopic

forms. We did not locate any Trilobites. However, quite similar Archaeo-

cyathinae-containing beds in southern South Australia have yielded Profolenus,™

Thus this division has been assigned to the Lower Cambrian.

346

Redlichia-Beaging-CAMBRIAN SERIES

This formation follows upon the foregoing but is of an entirely different

lature. Deposition under hot and highly arid climatic conditions is indicated by

the prevailing red and chocolate colour of the sediments and by the presence of

casts of salt (halite) erystals originally embedded in the muds. For the most

vart, the deposits were lanl down in very shallow water as attested by the preva-

lence of ripple marks. [tis probable that the bulk of these sediments was deposited

under terrestrial conditions in shallow fresh-water sheets which periodically

vnccame dried up salt pans marginal to the sea. At one stage the sea gained

entrance to the area and a thickness of 317 feet of marls and marine fossiliferous

imestone was laid down, his limestone is remarkably rich both in Gireanella,

Obolela and Hyolithes, Fragments of ‘Vrilobites are also numerous at one

toTizen, = Some years ago, Vrilobite remains were recovered from this same

horizon by Howchin and were deseribed by Etheridge (1905). More receutly,

PW.) Whitehouse has cheeked over the determination of these Trilobite rematms

and advises‘) that there can be no doubt as to their being referable to Redlichia,

mdicating an upper Lower-Cambrian or lower Middle-Cambrian age,

The base of this division is a strongly developed sandstone which appears

to rest conformably on the underlying Archaeoevathinae series. The thickness of

this arenaccous hed, which cotmmenced a new eyele of deposition, is given as

445 feet, which includes the underlying passage beds as well as the main sandstone.

The shales unmediately above the sandstone are grecnish-grey, but thereafter

all sediments, with the exception of the marine fossiliferous phase. are reddish

or chocolate-coloured, indicative of the oncoming of aridity. [t is also notable

that all limestones of this arid section contain a notable amount of magnesia and

in twe cases are dolomites.

The marine fossiliferous scetion which is scheduled as 317 feet in thickness

is a very characteristic and persistent belt. It has been observed to extend in a

curving but unbroken line across the country from about | mile to the south cf

the line of the Ten-Mile Creek section northward to cross the Wirrealpa Ilead

Staion to-Blinmian track at a point 2 miles south of Wirrealpa Old Station

huilehne; from there it extends a little further to the north, then swings to the

east. The same fossiliferous belt comes to the surface again in the vicinity of the

Licas

Tocahity

station buildmgs. It was in the section exposed in the creek at this latter

that Tlowehin first discovered fragments of Jrilobites.

When dealing with the fossil remains, more details will be supplied later

concerning this interesting horizon.

The aggregate thickness of this division is taken to be about 3.380 feet. This

figure is arrived at by combining the sum of item (35) to (531A) (unbroken

sequence) of the Ten-Mile Creek scetion with the unbroken sequence above the

fossiliferous horizons of the Raleoracana Creek section, namely, up to and includ-

“) Private comniunication.

347

“e

ing the 345 feet of “chocolate shale with limestone bands.” Above this latter

horizon is an immense thickness of sandstone which is better considered as a

fourth division.

‘Prick SANDSTONE FORMATION

A fault belt through this formation complicates the problem of accurately

computing its thickness. Assuming that the faulting has not introduced duplica-

tion of strata, the thickness of this division as indicated by the figures, for tha

Ten-Mile Creek section is 6,935 feet, but in the case of the Balcoracana Creek

traverse, a thickness of only 3,445 feet is accounted. Thus serious error

oceasioned by the faulting is apparent. The true thickness, however, cannot be

less than about 3,500 feet, which is the approximate thickness of the sandstone

belt as met with in the Balcoracana Creek traverse, less the 1,770 feet of extremely

disturbed beds.

But the topmost beds of sandstone observed, which form the eastern margin

of the Grindstone Range. are not necessarily the topmost beds of this formation.

Still higher beds are probably hidden beneath the eastern plain. It is to be

remarked that this sandstone shows evidence of becoming progressively coarser

at higher elevations in the serics; the last exposed beds actually carrying occasional

pebbles. Thus it would appear that the land margin was steadily progressing

castward during the period of deposition of this formation.

As to the age of this great sandstone belt, all that can be said in the absence

of fossils, is that it is conformable with the underlying Redlichia-bearing series.

Also, the sedimentary types represented have affinities with the underlying series.

The conclusion, therefore, is that these unfossilitcrous sandstones are also of

Cambrian age and may be either Middle- or Upper-Cambrian.

BiBLioGRAPHIC REFERENCES

[ermeringe, R. 1905 “Additions to the Cambrian Fauna of South Australia,”

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 29, 246

Hower, W. 1922 “.\ Geological Traverse of the Flinders Range from the

Parachilna Gorge to the Lake Frome Plains.’ Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Austr... 46, 46, 82

Mawson, D. 1939 “The late Proterozoic Sediments of South Australia.”

ALN.Z.AVA.S. Repts., 24, 85

Sranet, R. W. 19389) “The Pre-Cambrian—Cambrian Succession.” Bulletin 18.

Dept. of Mines. Adelaide

ON MAMMALS FROM THE LAKE EYRE BASIN PART V

General remarks on the increase of murids and their population

movements in the Lake Eyre Basin during the years 1930-1936.

By H. H. FINLAYSON

Summary

As indicated in Part IV of this series (2), two species of murids were in process of rapid increase

during my stay in the district in December, 1931. The increases culminated some four months later,

in one of several peak periods distributed over the years 1930-1936, each one of which might,

without exaggeration, he called a plague.

348

ON MAMMALS FROM THE LAKE EYRE BASIN

PART V

General remarks on the increase of murids and their population

movements in the Lake Eyre Basin during the years 1930-1936.

By H. H, Frxrayson

{Read 12 October 1939]

As indicated in Part 1V of this series (2), two species of murids were in

process of rapid increase during my stay in the district in December, 1931. The

increases culminated some four months later, in one of several peak periods dis-

tributed over the years 1930-1936, each one of which might, without exaggera-

tion, be called a plague.

Although this increase was of a phenomenal kind and the aggregate numbers

involved were undoubtedly enormous, both fell short of the levels suggested by

the accounts of Palmer in 1869, Bagot in 1887, and some others. Without

questioning the authenticity of these earlier accounts, a note of caution should

be sounded regarding the implications conveyed by such terms as horde and swarm

and migration. ‘loo often have these words conjured up a picture of dense

masses of rodents moving purposively over the land in plain view, as in the mass

migrations of ungulates. Whatever may be the case with diurnal rodents in other

parts of the world, such conditions, I doubt, have ever been attained in Australia,

and in arid Australia the spectacular element is entirely supressed by the nocturnal

habits of the species concerned. As a general indication of this lack of massed

effect it may be mentioned that in December, 1931, in riding on three successive

days over a triangular course of 100 miles, three rats were seen; yet at any point

on that course they could be trapped in dozens about the camps at night. In

interpreting the accounts cf most bushmen, moreover, the effect on the imagina-

tion of the sudden appearance of considerable numbers of animals, in localities

which may normally be almost destitute of vertebrate life, should be taken into

consideration.

The proper recording of these rodent increases, and the population move-

ments which follow them, is still to be undertaken. The data can only be placed

on a satisfactory basis by a strict statistical treatment by observers resident

throughout the whole period of activity and working simultaneously at different

points in the affected areas. Separate accounts of observations at isolated points

are already available in considerable numbers, but the inferences which can be

drawn from them are limited owing to the lack of uniformity in recording and

the widely different value of the observations made.

During the period 1930-1936, Mr. Reese has done valuable work by keeping

in touch with residents both north and south during the several visitations which

have occurred, and his reports to me from Appamunna and Miranda are based

partly on the results of trapping and poisoning, and partly on the observations of

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

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330

reliable blacks in his service, in the surrounding country. During a part of this

period Mr. G. Aiston, of Mulka, has also furnished records based upon the takings

of blacks, and the combined observations from these and some minor sources

now relate to a line through the affected areas of 250 miles north and south.

Welcome assistance has come also (through the courtesy of the Beltana Pastoral

Co.) irom Mr. Shelton at Cordilla, 75 miles south-east of A\ppamunna, The

data is nut of a strictly numerical kind, but thal from Appamunna gives reliable

information on the relative abundance of three discriminated species over a

period of six years, and enables several matters, the explanation of which has

iormerly rested upon conjecture, to be placed upon a basis of fact.

The main points which emerge irom a study of the data, which is sum-

wiarized in the graphs, are as follows.

i. Frequency of such Increases,

Although no detailed records are available for carher occurrences, these are

matters of common knowledge amongst the resideuts and (in recent years) there

were well-remembered plagues in the area in 1918 and 1926. There is insufficient

evidence at present to indicate a cycle, but the period during which the rat popu-

lations were in violent fluctuation, is so considerable a proportion of the whole

period which can be reviewed, that rapid change and flux is almost as “normal”

a condition as constancy. Clearly, therefore, the populations are at uo time strictly

comparable in general ecology and bionontcs to the permanent sedentary colonies

of suck coastal rats as asstmilis, greyi and lutreola, where the amplitude of the

increase and reduction movements are never of an extreme kind.“

2. the increases are of two distinct Kinds.

(a) Vhose due immediately to Jocal reproduction invariably folowing

increase or rejuvenation of vegetation. These periods cannot always be correlated

with local rains, however, since some of the most cifective of the rejuvenations

are caused by inundation of low-lying areas, fram the river channels. The rain

causing the fresh may have fallen hundreds of miles away,

(b) Increases due to the arrival of a migration wave. That this term is

justifed in a general way, and that the individuals composing the wave are

actually of distant and not local origin, follows from the extreme suddenness of

the arrival in many cases and to the fact that increases have often taken place at

times when the local vegetation was at a low ebb and the local murine population

almost negligible. I'urther evidence in support is given by the frequent absence

of reproductive activity at such times, and by the wide range of variation in

dimensions and structural features shown by the rats. strongly suggestive of an

admixture of strains from different districts.

The wtimate origin of all increases of type (Db) is, of course, ina local repro-

ductive increase of type fa). During the period under review, it is doubtful

whether anv of the local increases by reproduction along the 250 m. axis were

sufficiently energetic to initiate a wave, the origins of most of which were probably

north of Bedourie. A possible exception is the 1930-31 increase of Pseudontys

() Loeal “plagues” of dutreola are known, but they are of a very uid kind. Phe

best examples of which E have personal knowledge were insular.

351

minnie, which reached enormous proportions in the area about Goyder’s Lagoon.

Nevertheless, the urge to disperse rather than to concentrate is always operating.

Each local increase, unless reinforced by infiltration, rapidly fades away and

reaches vanishing point long before the life cycle of any of the three species

studied is run. The rapid dissipation of the rats after both types of increase is

a highly characteristic feature of the phenomenon, but more especially, of course,

when the “peak” has been the result of a migration wave. It 1s probable that most

of the maxima recorded in the graphs were produced by the superposition of a wave

upon a period of local increase, but a notable exception is the second peak of the

villosissunus curve, which occurred at a time when miaroos had been very searce

in the district for 18 months.

3. The Speed and Direction of the Movements,

In the literature on rodent plagues in Australia there are several references

to rapid movements of large bodies of animals along what appear to have been

narrowly restricted routes. These movements do not seem to have been so con-

diticned by any obvious topographical peenliarity, and the degree of credence to

be accorded some of them is doubtful. In the data available for the period and

area under review, there is no evidence of such, unless it be on a nunor scale,

along the river channels, which, of course, necessarily have a strong direcung

influence on any movement of the kind,

The movements have been comparatively slow, over wide fronts, sometimes

of 100 miles or more, and the term migration must be interpreted as a slow

diffusive drift rather than as a purposive movement. ‘The major movements,

however, have been definitely unidirectional, The approximate direction away

from the river channels has heen from north to south and by selecting junctures

when sudden increases took place successively at distant points, the approximate

rate of the movement may be ascertained, In the case of the vilosissiiuus wave

which arrived at Appamunna at the end of July. 1934, it was of the order of two

miles a day.

4, The Causation of the Drift and the Determination of its Direction.

This is still one of the most obscure features of such occurrences. ‘The

obvious suggestions of a departure from an overstocked and eaten out originaung

area in search of new and better feeding grounds leaves a great deal unexplained.

Such an influence would account Jor a radial movement of dispersion from a

centre, but fer a food urge to activate a unidirectional movement one must

postulate a maximum of supply in the direction of the movement, and this cannot

be shown to be the case in the Lake Eyre Basin. Vhe southerly movement from

south-west Queensland, down through the Govyder’s Lagoon district towards the

Rarcoo, took the rats towards country which was usually in poorer condition than

that which had been Icft. In the more remote sense it took them also towards

the better favoured coastlands of the south, but the cast and north-east coasts

were equally attractive and nearer.

The directive influence of water supply has been cited as a possible explana-

tion, In many cases it is open to the same objection as the argument of food

352

supply and has the further weakness that the indigenous rodents probably do not

drink, from necessity at least. During mouse plagues in the south Mus musculus

is stated to make use of surface waters frecly, but I have kept it in captivity (and

native species also) in health and vigour, for periods of two years on a diet of

grain and tubers, without water. In general the influence of water on the dis-

tribution of Australian mammals, particularly in arid districts, has been much

overstated. It is probable that all the smaller herbivorous forms are independent

of water as such, and even with kangaroos, drinking is in the nature of an

indulgence rather than a necessity, in most districts. he case is otherwise with

some introduced species.

The influence of topography upon the movement is undoubtedly a potent one.

Cleland has shown that in the Mus musculus plagues of 1916-1917 topography

had a decided effect upon the movements of the mice in New South Wales. In

the portion of the Lake Eyre Basin here considered conditions are peculiarly

favourable for the exercise of such an influence, since over large areas features

of vertical relicf in the form of permanent sand-covered loam ridges occur al

frequent intervals, and both these and the main river channels are disposed in a

north to south or south-westerly direction. he low-lying country, whether flood

plains, claypans, or gibber plains, is very generally disposed in the form of

corridors between these features, and in many parts of the country these form

the obvious routes of travel.

The influence of such a system upon the mass movements of terrestrial

animals upon arrival within its limits can scarcely be doubted. It does not

explain, however, the initiation of such a movement in areas where these conditions

do not exist, nor does it account for the absence of the opposite south to north

movements.

The contra directive effect of winds upon the normal feeding drift of many

ungulates is well known and Le Soueft (3) suggests it as the determining cause

of the first movement of rat swarms. In the Lake Eyre Basin the direction of

the prevailing South-East Trade is suitable for such an effect, and it may well be

a contributing factor, but it is difficult to accept it as the chief cause.

3. Specific Differences in the Response to the Inerease Stimulus.

While the times at which population maxima were attained by two or more

species frequently correspond, the curves show discrepancies, which on the whole

are more significant than the agreements. Thus Mus mtuscilus, for example,

responded to the stimulus before either of the other two. It was already

abnormally plentiful when the records begin in 1930, and it attained the stage at

which it could be trapped in hundreds each night four months before Pseudomys

minnie reached a comparable stage.“? It remained at its first maximum longer

C@) The habitual travelling routes of the local blacks are strongly influenced by this

natural grain of the country, and they sometimes tolerate great increases of mileage in

reaching a destination, rather than take a transverse course to it.

@) These maxima for the three species do not necessarily correspond numerically;

the numbers of the two indigenous species were never equal to those of the mice,

353

than either of the others, and after a partial recovery in August, 1932, declined

to a vanishing point, at which it remained, with little alteration for four years.

‘The two indigenous species differed further from Mus musculus in having

additional periods of great increase in 1932 and a smaller, but still definite, rise

in 1934. The history of the willosissimus population is decidedly different from

that of its associates in the earlier part of the period, insofar as its first increase is

much later and then shows a steady rise without fluctuation to a maximum which

corresponds approximately to that of Pseudomys minnie in May, 1932. Whereas

Mus musculus and Pseudomys minnic are herbivorous and gramminivorous,

villosisstmus is in part carnivorous, and its population movements towards the

end of this phase may have a symbiotic relation to that of the other two. The

second correspondence of maxima in 1935 is for the greater part fortuitous, since

the wvillosissimus increase is definitely related to a migration wave of short dura-

tion, which disappeared at Appamunna before the Ps, minnie population.

6. Reproduction, Sex Ratio, and Causes of Dispersion.

With regard to the incidence of reproduction and the ratios of the sexes

during swarms of murids in Australia, some remarkable statements have been

made. The data available for the period reviewed is inadequate for definite state-

ments on cither of these points and, morcover, its interpretation is usually com-

plicated by the mingling of migratory and local populations. In the detailed

treatment of each species (2), the main facts of reproductive activity which can

be deduced from the material actually examined are summarized.

Extraordinary claims have been made from time to time for the numerial

preponderance of either sex (3). The evidence on which they rest is unsatisfac-

tory, as personal test has convinced me that comparatively few bushmen can sex

rats reliably when the features of scrotum and mammae are not of an obvious

kind. The enormous preponderance of males, sometimes to the exclusion of

females, which has been asserted, undoubtedly rests on a failure to differentiate

between clitoris and prepuce; that is to say, rats that exhibit a protuberant organ

in the absence of a scrotum are invariably called young males, whereas a large

number of them are undoubtedly females, with occluded vulvae.

The question of the ultimate fate of the swarms is still obscure, so far as

recorded observation goes. Evidences of large scale mortality were quite absent

in the area during the whole of the period reviewed. No doubt, as suggested,

cannibalism plays a part in the latter phases of the occurrences, but it may not

be an important part. Loss of the unidirectional urge, dispersion rather than

cohesion, starvation and predators, together represent a powerful destructive

agency, and if the numbers of the rats are huge, so also is the area of vacant

country always ready to absorb them.

REFERENCES

1 CieLanp, J. B. 1918 Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 52, 123, ef seq.

2 Fintayson, H. H. 1939 Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 63, (1), 94-101

RECORDS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF MURIDAE FROM OOLDEA,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By H. H. FINLAYSON

Summary

In the preparation of a series of papers on Central Australian mammals. material derived from

adjacent arid and subarid tracts has come up for examination. The species involved are in most

cases allied to others occurring in truly Central Australian localities, and the districts yielding them

are peripheral to these and present similar ecological conditions. Their inclusion, however, in the

main series of papers is inexpedient, and I propose therefore to deal with them separately.

354

RECORDS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF MURIDAE FROM OOLDEA,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By HH. HH. Pauniaysox

[Read 12 October 1939|

Prares XIL axp X11]

In the preparation of a series of papers on Central Australian mamunals,

material derived from adjacent arid and subarid tracts has come up for examina-

tion. The species involved are in most cases allied to others occurring in truly

Central Australian localities. and the districts yielding them are peripheral to these

and present simitar ccological conditions. Their inclusion, however, in the maim

series of papers is inexpedient, and | propose therefore to deal with them

separately.

The most important collection is from the well-known locality Ooldca and

its vicinity and the greater part of it has been forwarded by Mrs. Daisy Bates,

who has supplemented her noble work on the aborigines of the area by frequent

and notable contributions to the knowledge of its Natural History. | take this

opportunity of briefly recording my appreciation of her help in working out some

of its mamumials.

In the Muridae four indigenous species are represented; all constitute new

records tor the district and two of them are represented by excellent series which

have thrown light on the prevailing range of variation, and provided an adequate

basis for a detailed restatement of characters. Both are desiderata in the study of

many, Australian rats.

Pseuposiys (PseupOMYS) MINNiE Troughton

Four examples of this species occur in the collection. In all characters they

are well within the range of variation of the species as it occurs in the Lake Eyre

Basin, whence | have recently reviewed a large series (2).

Vhe two freshly-made and unstained skins represent the pinkish, relatively

ungrizzled pelage of my Group 2 as there defined.

A mate and female taken towards the end of 1931 and alcohol preserved,

were buth sexually active; the male with large scrotal testes and the temale with

prominent mammac and pregnant with three 30 mim, embryos.

PsrupomMys (Psecpostys) RAWLINNAE Troughton (3)

‘This species was first deseribed from: Rawlinna, 400 miles west of Ooldea,

and appears to be known at present only by the two original specimens collected

by Mr. ALS. le Souct. one of which was inmmature.

Thirty-four specimens frou: Ooldea have been examined, comprising

three collections taken in October and December, 1931, and May, 1932, respec-

tively. During this period reproduction appears to have been quiescent, all

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

Lal

females examined having retracted mammary nippies and non-pregnant uteri; the

testes of all males, nevertheless, were large and scrotal. The stomach contents con-

sisted of finely comminuted vegetable matter, containing no harsh ligneous hbre

nor animal matter, but in several a surprismgly large proportion of sand. A

Luelaps occurs upon them, but rather sparsely.

External Characters

This rat occurs in the district with Pseudomys miniic, to which it bears con-

siderable resemblance in some features, and for convenience in description com-

parison will frequently be made to that species.

Size small for this group; form stout, short-limbed and thick-bodied. The

size of the head in proportion to that of the body is about as in jmimnie (skull

length : H. & B. length = 1:3:°75), but the head is differently shaped with a

shorter more pointed muzzle. Eye from canthus to canthus ca. 7 mm. bar

shorter than in munie and differently shaped, its maximum width nearer the base

and the tip more distinctly pointed; its substance pigmented dark at the margins.

Mysticial vibrissae as in meine, 35 mm., mostly black, the smaller only white-

tipped.

Vhe manus variable but generally very large and stout, particularly im males,

and averaging decidedly heavier in both sexes than in ante, In the largest

male, length fron the base of carpal pads to tip of apicals 11-0 mm., and breadth

across base of digits 2-5, 5°5 mim.; in an equally large female the length is the

same but the breadth only 4°0 mm. The palmar structures are similar to mune

but the pads generally smaller and more prominent and the interspaces more

distinct, and there is a greater tendency for the duplication of the fourth inter-

digital (88%) and inner carpal (34%). The carpals are usually subequal, but,

if not, ite outer is the larger.

The pes of the same relative Jength as in imine but much stouter, the ratio

breadth to length only 5:1 as against 5°8. The pads are smaller and more

prominent, but equally variable though in different directions, Normally the

second and third interdigitals are subequal with the first and fourth. The fourth

is heeled in 61% and is larger than the first in 76%, subequal in the remainder.

The first interdigital is heeled in 74% (21% in imtinnic) and in the remainder is

simple. ‘there is great variety in the absolute size of these last two pads and in

the degree to which they are claborated by accessory folds; distinct satellites

are occasionally present. ‘The metatarsals are always small, though functional,

and they vary much in shape; the anterior is constant throughout the series, but

the posterior is absent in 21%. ts position with respect to caleaneum about as

In aeeatie,

The tail is variable in length. but is decidedly shorter in relation to the head

and body than in ainnic, the ratio tail: H and B being 1:1°25. as against 1:1°10

in the latter. lt terminates similarly.

Scrotum pigmented at free tips only. Spacing of mammae not ascertained ;

peciorals absent. Sexual differences small,

356

All flesh dimensions average decidedly lower than those of Ps. minnie, but

the variation is wide (up to 20%) and in most items there is an overlap.

Pelage

No field-made skins are available, but the following description is drawn up

primarily from ten skins made up after two or three weeks in alcohol,

The coat is short and soft but not silky. Mid-dorsally the length varies from

12-16 mm. and is longest in the December batch; the guard hairs, which are not

an important element in the coat, reach 20 mm, The basal four-fifths, a dark

iead colour (about Ridgway’s “Plumbeous Black”) succeeded by a pale subterminal

band of about 3 mm. of a dull ashy buff (not easily standardized) gradually

deepening in tone towards the tips, which, with the long guard hairs, are a cold

jet black. ‘The external effect is a fine grizzle of ashy buff and black, drab in

tone and at a distance approaching Ridgway’s “Saccado’s Umber.” Ina proportion

of individuals the subterminal band is yellower than the above (near “Warm Butt”

of Ridgway) and the external colour more olivaceous. The dorsal colour is

uniform from occiput to tail base, but the facial areas are colder and greyer in

tone, though strongly grizzled. The drab tones of the series are quite outside the

range of the Lake Eyre Basin minnie, but the more olivaceous ones make a distinct

approach to the yellow type from the flood plains of the Diamantina.

The belly fur is about 10 mm. long, The basal two-thirds almost as dark as

on the back, the distal one-third white or cream (in nature probably white ). The

dorsal colour fades slowly into the cream of the belly without a decided line of

demarcation upon the sides, which are greyish buff with the pink cinnamon tones

of the type from Rawlinna, appreciable in two only. The inner marginal aspects

of the ear are sparsely covered with greyish white shining hairs ; the outer anterior

aspect fairly well haired with blackish-brown, sprinkled with silvery-white at the

tip; the colour of car contrasts rather more strongly with the head than in minnie,

Outer aspects of the forelimb like the sides to within 5 mm. of the carpus, where

a conspicuous dark heavily pencilled patch is sometimes developed. Carpus and

manus haired with white or buffy white, sometimes very lightly pencilled with

dark. Outer aspects of hind limb like the fore; dorsum of foot pure white or

buffy white; a calcaneal patch as in Ps. minnie, but generally much more marked;

frequently jet black and extending further up the leg. Tail pure white below and

on the sides, but on its dorsum invariably grizzlcd to its tip, the admixture of black

being very heavy and the upper side strongly and sharply contrasted with the rest.

Skull and Dentition

Phe skulls of four males and four females, all showing decided wear on

M1, have been examined and measured, In structural characters the skull is

close to Ps. minnie and exhibits a similar latitude in the range of its variation,

both in dimension and form, It averages, however, decidedly smaller and stouter

in build, with a shorter muzzle, relatively still larger lacrymals and narrower

mesopterygoid fossa. These characters intergrade with minnie, but the upper

molar row, anterior palatal foramina, and palatal length are all shorter than in that

357

form and their maximum values fall short, or barely reach, the minimum values

for that species. In all other dimensions there is a generous overlap in the range

of the two species.

Flesh Dimensions

The following figures derived from 13 males and 8 females, all judged adult,

give the range of dimensions and the true means, to the nearest 0-5 mm.

Head and body: ¢ 106-125 (115); @ 107-122 (112°5). Tail: 82-98 (91);

86-107 (95). Pes: 24-26'5 (25:5); 24-27 (25). Ear length: 21-23 (21);

20-21°5 (21). Rhinarium to eye: 14-15 (14); 14-14°5 (14). Eye to ear: 9:5-11

(10); 9-10 (9°5).

Skull Dimensions

The following figures give the range and true means (to the nearest 0°1 mm.)

of the values derived from four males and four females, all showing decided wear

upon M?:

Greatest length: 29-0-31-2 (30-1) ; 29-6-31-1 (30°2). Basal length: 24°6-

26°9 (25-9); 26°0-26°8 (26:2). Zygomatic breadth: 15-0-16°9 (15-6); 15°6-

16°5 (16-0). Braincase breadth: 13°5-14°3 (13-8); 13-9-14°6 (14:3). Inter-

orbital breadth: 3-9-4+1 (4-0) ; 3-9-4°5 (4-1). Nasals length: 11°3-11-7 (11:5) ;

11:0-11-6 (11-2). Nasals breadth: 3:0-3°3 (3:1); 3°0-3-4 (3-2). Pavatal

length: 15°1-16-3 (15-6); 15°6-16°6 (16°0). Anterior palatal foramina: 6°6-

6°6 (6°6); 6°7-6°9 (6°8). Bulla: 5-0-5°5 (5:2); 4°8-5°4 (5-1). Upper molar

series: 5°0-5°2 (5:1); 5°0-5°3 (5:2).

The agreement with the animal frem Rawlinna is substantial. In skull

dimensions, five of the nine items quoted by Troughton merge in the range for

the Ooldea series, and the divergence of the others lies between 1°5-3:0% only;

much lower, that is to say, than the prevailing rate of variation. In flesh dimen-

sions three of the values for razwlinnae are within the range for the Ooldea rat;

the foot measurement exceeds the mean value for Ooldea considerably (27:5 to

25°5) but is only 0-5 mm. longer than the maximum for the present series.

Touching the pelage, there is an absence of any reference in the original descrip-

tion to the caleaneal patch and the dark dorsum of the tail, both constant at

Ooldea, but until further material fom Rawlinna and intermediate localities can

be examined, the importance of these discrepancies cannot be assessed and the

two may be considered conspecific.

Notomys Lesson

Five species or subspecies of this genus have been recorded from Ooldea.

The considerable series here reviewed has been built up by six different collectors

since 1926, It is the more astonishing to find, therefore, that none of these five

forms are represented in it, though the two species which are, have already

received names elsewhere. Even allowing for some uncertainty in identity of

kangaroo mice previously recorded, the above circumstance serves to emphasise

two factors which are a constant entbarrassment in working out the fauna of

358

sparsely occupied arid districts; namely, the ineffectiveness of desultory collect-

ing in defining the fauna even of restricted localities, and the impermanence and

migratory fluctuation over large areas, of a proportion at least of all vertebrate

types.

NoTOMYS AIsTONI Brazenor

For reasons fully indicated in a recent paper (2), | adopt this name with

reservation, as in the present chaos of the genus, it lies under suspicion af

synonomy with N. cervinis Gould, nec Waite, nec Wood Jones.

Three examples of it are present with the next specics in a collection made

by Mrs. Bates at Ooldea in October, 1931. In all essentials they are in close

agreement with the series from the Lake Fyre Lasin recently reviewed (op. cif.);

two of them represent the pelage type 1, and the other, an aged female in poor

coat, a duller colour phase of type 2.

A subadult male with moderately developed scrotal testes is of interest as

still showing the flat punctate condition of the presternal gland; the only example

possessing this combination of characters, so far examined. The female is preg-

nant with four large embryos.

NOTOMYS MITCHELLI MACROPUS Thomas

In seyen batches of kangaroo mice from QOoldea, taken in 1926, 1931 and

1932, this is the predominating species.

The material examined comprises 50 specimens, all originally alcohol

preserved,

Reproduction in general seems to have been inactive; of 14 adult or subadult

females examined only three give evidence of any activity; two in july, 1931,

being at a very early stage of pregnancy, and one in 1926, lactating. ‘Vhe 1926

batch included also several nestlings and half-grown young. The males of all

batches, even the largest, show marked reduction and retraction of the testis.

The largest testis found in scrotum is but 8 x 3 mm. (October, 1932), and the

largest in the abdominal site 4°35 x 2 mm. (June, 1932). Of the 42 which can

be sexed, 28 arc 4@ and 14 @.

The stomach contents vary from coarsely granular translucent tuberous

material to impalpable white flour; fibrous cellulosic material is generally absent

and sand is present in small quantities only. An interesting constituent in many

stomachs is a small proportion of chitinous debris of definitely insect origin; the

first such occurrence noted in the genus.

A Laelaps occurs very plentifully.

Lixternal Characters

As compared with N. “aistoni” and N. cervinus and N, ale-vis, the size is large.

the build stout and bulky, and the disproportion of fore and hind limbs distinctly

less.

The head is large with a long heavy muzzle region; the rhinarium-cve distance

notably longer than the eye-ear distance. The upper lip well developed; sloping

back as in cervinus Waite, not pouted as in aistont. Mysticial vibrissae to

57 mm., the postero-superior with their distal one-third white. Supra-orbitals

to 30 mm. dark throughout.

Ear: length to 28 mm. In alcoholic specimens the conch and basal parts of

pinna are pale but darken evenly and without mottling towards the margins which

are deeply pigmented, bluish-black.

‘The manus is large but tends to be narrow; the mcan width across the base

of digits 2-5 about as in aistoni (to 4 mm.), but the length from base of carpal

pad to apical pad a full millimetre greater, The third digit to 4 mm, Both in

absolute size and in the proportion and shape of its tactile structures it is decidedly

variable and bilateral assymetry is shown by several examples. The commonest

condition of the pad is: Outer carpal > inner carpal > second interdigital

> first interdigital — third interdigital, but the interdigitals are [requently sub-

equal and the carpals occasionally so. In all conditions the carpals remain much

larger than the interdigitals. The inner carpal is much broadened (though less

so than in aisfoni) and has a partial duplication or accessory told at its antero-

external corner adjacent to the pollex, and sometimes a heel basally. The outer

carpal is simple, narrow and longer than the inner. The median (second) inter-

digital is evenly pyriform, the first and third irregularly oval, but when all three

are subequal they tend to a rounder shape. ‘Satellite pads are absent.

The pes large, its length averaging 37 mm. and reaching 40 mm., and the

breadth at the base of digits 2-4 across the middle of the pads averages 4°3 mm.

and reaches 5 mm. The third digit to 8°5 uuu. and the hallux, which is set rather

posteriorly, to 3 mm, The undersurface of the digits is lightly haired; more

heavily than in aistoni, and decidedly less than in cercinus of Waite, and the

poorly developed apical pads are not covered. The footpads are variable but in

general are much as in cervinus Waite of the Lake Eyre Basin, third interdigital

> second > fourth > 1, but frequently 3 = 2 > 4 = 1, and ina few examples

1 > 4. The hailucal pad is unmistakably present in all 50 examples. The median

interdigitals are elongate oval, or slightly constricted towards the middle with a

rather sudden expansion at their distal end; their surfaces faintly striate trans-

versely. The first and fourth are low, rounded and smooth surfaced and widely

separated antero-posteriorly ; the first frequently 5 mim. below the fourth.

The tail decidedly longer than in cither ceretnus of Waite or “aiston?’; both

mean aud maxinin value excceding by a considerable margin the values for

these species; the ratio, head and body: ae is also ae her, the values for the

three species being, respectively, 1:1°43; 121737; 1:1°3

The mammary nipples are retracted in most females, but in cone

moderately prominent set the posterior are 10 mm. from the base of the clitoris,

and the anterior are 10 mm. from the posterior; their site is rather well indicated

by a narrow zone of white-based hairs. The scrotum is quite undeveloped in

the majority of males, but the site of its posterior extremities is faintly indicated

by a paired pigment spot.

360

The condition of the gulo-sternal glandular areas is highly characteristic, and

quite different from any phase of that present in “aistent”’ or cervinus of Waite

recently reviewed from the Lake Eyre Basin. In all adult or subadult examples of

both sexes of more than hali-growth the condition is as follows: Externally the

area is marked by a tract of specialized hairs, entirely white or cream in colour,

conspicuously glistening and strongly adpressed and directed evenly caudad with-

out diversions or opposition ridges. It begins on the mentum at a point 5-7 mm.

below the labial margin, covers the greater part of the gular surface and con

tinues with some narrowing to the siphisternum where it terminates acutely.

The shape of the tract in uncontracted material is somewhat hour-glass like,

with the constriction presternal, and at this point the tract is divided usually into

gular and sternal moities by a very narrow transverse band of the ordinary dark-

based ventral fur, though in a proportion of individuals it is continuous. The

gular portion is slightly sunken forming a shallow oval basin, variable in size

but as much as 16 x 12 mm, ‘Lhe skin hereabouts and on the sternum is flaccid

and oedematous. The sternal portion is raised and convex, following the curva-

ture of the thorax, and its hair covering is shorter and denser than on the throat.

The glandular function is evidently more diffused than in either ais/oni or

cervinus Waite, and neither on throat nor chest is there a discrete circumscribed

gland site, marked off by skin folds, as in those species, though the denser hairing

of the sternal patch may indicate some localization of activity, Whether sexual

activity influences the external appearance of the gland area, the material does

not permit of satisfactory determination. On the whole the sternal hairing is

less extensive in females than in males, but the differences are not marked.

In sparsely furred nestlings of II. & B. length 70 mm. ca. the distinctness

of the two gland sites is niuch more marked than in adult and subadults; the two

areas which subsequently become densely haired are now almost nude and are

separated by a broad band of furred integument.

Pelage

‘he following description is based upon sking made up from alcohol at once

on arrival from Ooldea in June, 1932, after not more than a week’s immersion,

Coat long, fine, soft and moderately erect. Mid-dorsally about 16 mm.; the

basal two-thirds a rather dark plumbeous, succeeded by a pale subterminal band

of about 3 mm. corresponding to Ridgway’s “Pinkish Buff,” and terminating in a

shining black tip. The subterminal band lengthens towards the rump but is

obscured by the increasing pencilling of black over the same areas. The general

dorsal colour is a sombre olivaceous drab, lighter on the shoulders and fore-

back, darker on the midback and rump, and mid-dorsally is between Ridgway’s

“Olive Brown” aud “Hair Brown”; the general dorsal colour quite similar to that

of many examples of Pseudomys rawlinnae of the same area. The mid-ventral fur

is about 10 mm. long, the basal half, except on the glandular areas, being a

plumbeous shade rather darker than that of the back, and the terminal half snow

361

white. On the sides the pencilling of black diminishes towards the belly and the

increasingly conspicuous subterminal band becomes richer in colour, until at its

junction with the ventral white it is an undiluted cinnamon buff, The dorsum

of the head is like the forcback, except that the muzzle is greyer; the upper lip

and a small area of the cheek are white, the rest of the facial area merging into

that of the crown and sides.

In the ear, the greater part of the pinna externally is well haired with

blackish-brown, sharply contrasted with the grizzled bases and the rest of the

dorsum, while internally the hairing is thinner, largely marginal and greyish-

white. The hairing of the limbs externally and internally follows that of the

sides and ventrum, respectively ; the carpus, manus and pes are pure white, except

that at the outer aspect of the heel in the latter there is an ill-defined blackish

patch. The tail is well haired on all surfaces except at the base proximally.

Dorsally it is blackish-brown (varying from Bistre to almost Black), the sides and

yentrum pure white. The tail hairs become noticably erect at about the mid-

point of its length and gradually lengthen distally to form a profuse brush

16-18 mm. long; the colour separation is sharply maintained throughout the entire

length of the tail.

Individual variation in pelage characters is apparently slight, but cannot be

satisfactorily defined with the available material since the bulk of it has obviously

suffered through alcohol preservation. This has led in the majority of cases to

the development of a decided but variable ferruginous tone in the coat, both.

terminally and in the underfur, which is quite absent in fresh skins. Variation

from seasonal, sexual and age causes appears to be very slight.

The dimensions of the series selected as being free from obvious immaturity

show considerable variation, particularly notable in material culled from a very

restricted areca; the head and body length varies by 13%, and that of the tail by

18%, ‘lhe sexes are virtually identical.

Skull and Dentition

‘Twenty-four examined and measured, of which 14 are males, 10 females;

the series includes numerous growth stages.

Size large, but comparatively narrow in the posterior zygomatic width and

in braincase; the muzzle region long and generally heavy, but decidedly variable

in these respects even in fully adult skulls, particularly in width of muzzle and

shape of nasals. Typically the contact of the nasals with the frontals is narrow

and there is a tendency for a sudden increase in width of the distal one-third,

diminishing again towards the apex. The posterior zygomatic width exceeds the

anterior, but the difference is not marked. The anterior margin of the zygomatic

plate with the base thrown well forward of the upper spur, which is well developed,

but the degree of concavity variable. Antcrior palatal foramina generally reach-

ing but slightly beyond the anterior margin of M1, never to the lingual cusp;

362

width 1:6-2°0, Mesopteryoid fossa varying in width by 70% in otherwise com-

parable skulls ; bullae relatively small. The incisor index fairly constant at about

60".9% An anterior accessory cingular cusp is present on the upper M? in jour

examples; it is developed on the same site and to about the same degree as in

N. cervinus of Waite et auct (2).

Flesh Pimenstons

The following figures give the range and true mean (in brackets) for 20

adult males and 6 adult females (to the nearest 0°5 mm.):

HTead and body: 100-113 (106); 101-118 (108). ail: 140-172 (155);

140-166 (150). Pes, Iength: 36-39 (37); 36-40 (37). Pes, breadth: 4-5

breadth: 3-3-4 (4): 3-3-4 (4). Far: 24-28 (25-5); 24-26 (25).

Skull Dimenstons

The following figures give the range of dimensions and true mean (in

brackets) for 7 males and 3 females, all free from obvious inmmaturity in external

characters and with marked molar wear (to the nearest 0-1 mm.) :

Greatest length: 31°4-33°2 (324) ; 31-0-33°0 (32:0). Basal length: 25°5-

20°8 (26:2); 25°5-26°9 (26-1). Zygomatic breadth, post.: 15-3-16°3 (16-0);

13°7-16°3 (16°11). Brainease, breadth: 14°5-15-5 (14-9); 14°5-15-1 (14-8).

Interorbital breadth: 5°2-5°8 (5-6); 5:2-5°6 (5-4). Nasals length: 11°6-12°8

(12-1): 11-6-f2-7 (12-3). Nasals breadth: 3:1-3-2 (3-2); 3:0-3°3. (3-1).

Palatal length: 16°0-17-5 (17-0); 15°8-17°3 (16:7). Ant. palatal foramina,

length: 3°8-6:1 (6-0); 5°6-6°0 (5°8). Ant. palatal foramina, breadth: 1-+7-1-9

(1°8); 1:6-2°0 (1:7). Bulla: 5+1-5-9 (5-5); 5-2-5-9 (5:6). Upper molar

series: 5°0-5°4 (5:2); 5:0-5-4 (5-2), Incisive index: 60°-62° (60°); 59°-

60° (60°).

In using the name N’. mifchelli macropus for the kangaroo mouse here

reviewed, | do so fully aware that on a basis of published data, a moderately good

case can be made out for its subspecific alliance with N. gould? of South West

Australia; and the existence of the Western Australia derived Ps. ravelinnae at

Ooldcea gives some colour, on the grounds of distribution, to such a view. Mv

reasons for taking the first course are briefly as [ollows:

1 Three specimens of Notoimys fron Coomandock, Gurrai, and Peake in

the South Australian mallee districts are in complete agreement in external

characiers and pelage with the Ooldea series; the correspondence extending to the

critical characters of the gulosternal area. The skulls are in general agreement

also, and the dimensions for the mallee skulls all fall within the range at Ooldea,

() But is evidently subject to occasional marked aberration; a single skull (not tabu-

lated) with imperfect data but almost certainly conspecific with this series, gives 52°.

) At base of digits 2-5 (maximum width of palm).

') From base of the outer carpal to extremity of the apical pads.

363

except for the zygomatic breadth which is higher and the interorbital width which

is lower, the deviation being of the order of 2% only.

These mallee specimens are more nearly topotypical of MN’. amitchelli macropus

than is the Victorian specimen of Brazenor, which differs in its less yellow colour

and paler ear backs.

2 According to Thomas and Gould himself (in emendation), the basis of

N. gouldi Gould is apparently the specimen from South-west Western Australia

figured by Gould (Mammals of Australia, pl. ix) as Hapalotis uuitchelli, “This

plate shows pelage characters very close to my Ocldea and Mallee series and Gould

states positively that there is an area of specialized hairs on throat and chest,

indicating a continuous, or scarcely interrupted gu‘osternal tract as in the material

here reviewed, Gould further states, however, that this Western Australia aniunal

occurred also in South Australia, instancing the identity of an example sent by

Dr. Harvey to London from the latter State.“ On the basis of Gould’s writings

alone, therefore, one would have little hesitation in using the name gould? for the

Qoldea animal, and this would necessitate an extension of range of gould: alinost

to the Victorian border.

from Western Australia, separated Dr. Harvey's specimen from them as the type

of N. smitchelli macrapus, and however slightly the distinctions between the two

have been indicated, one can hardly dow>t that they were real,

4 The recent review of the characters of “yeuwdi” by Brazenor has further

complicated the matter, as the animal he describes is evidently different from the

series collected by Shortridge and similarly named by Thomas. Its larger size

and some other characters suggest that it consists partly at least of macrotis, and

that the wider anterior palatal foramina claimed for the latter by Thomas is an

aberration,

Finally, it may be noted that two specimens of N. gould? trom Dwaladine in

South-west Western Australia, kindly lent me by Mr. Glauert, while too immature

for definite conclusions toa be made, favour the identification adopted here.

REFERENCES

1 Brazenor, C. W. 1934 Mems. Nat, Mus., Melb., 8, 84

2 Frnrayson, H. II. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, (1 ), 94-101

3 TrovcHton, E.te G. 1932 Records Aust. Museum, 18, (6), 289

4 Tuomas, O. 1921 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 9, 8, 540

364

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XII AND XIII

Prate XII

Figs. A, B, C, Aspects of the skull of an adult g of Nétomys miichelli macro pus.

Thomas. x 2:2 ca.

Fig. D. Dorsal aspect of the skull of a subadult 9 of N. mifchelli macropus of about two-

thirds body growth, to show disparity with A in the development of muzzle region.

x 2-4 a.

Fig. E, Right manus of an adult ¢ of Pseudomys rawlinnae Troughton (var. 7). Ex

alcohol. x3 ca.

Fig. F. Right manus of an adult 9 of Notomys mitchelli macropus. TEx alcohol. x 3 ca.

Pirate XIII

Figs. G, H, I. Aspects of the skull of an adult 4 of Pseudoms rawlinnae Troughton

(war. ?). x2-Oca.

Fig. J. Right pes of an adult @ of Psendonys rewlinnae Troughton (var.?). x2ca.

Fig. K. The gulosternal areca in an adult g¢ of Nolomys mitchelli macropus Thomas, to

show the general external appearance of the gland sites. The gular and sternal planes

are parallel, with the former considerably below the latter. Ex alcohol. x lca.

Fig. L. Worn right upper molars of an adult g of Notomys mitchelli macropus Thomas,

showing a well-developed accessory cingular cusp on M‘. x9 ca.

Fig. M. Scarcely worn right upper molars of a subadult Q of N. mitchelli macropus

Thomas. x9-5ca.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1939 Vol 63, Plate XII

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate XIII

ABORIGINAL DECORATIVE ART FROM ARNHEM LAND,

NORTHERN TERRITORY OF AUSTRALIA

By C. P. MOUNTFORD, Honorary Assistant in Ethnology, South Australian Museum

Summary

This paper describes a series of aboriginal paintings from Arnhem Land. Those on bark, with the

exception of D, pi. xvii, which Dr. D. R. Brown obtained at Groote Eylandt, were collected from

Gouldburn Island by Miss M. Mathews. The decorated wooden slab was secured from Groote

Eylandt by Mr. N. B. Tindale, and the painted stone from Millingimbi by Mr. H. Shepherdson.

365

ABORIGINAL DECORATIVE ART FROM ARNHEM LAND,

NORTHERN TERRITORY OF AUSTRALIA

By C. P. Mountrorp,

Honorary Assistant in Ethnology, South Australian Museum

PLates XLV to XVIII

[Read 12 October 1939]

This paper describes a serics of aboriginal paintings from Arnhem Land.

Those on bark, with the exception of D, pl. xvii, which Dr. D. R. Brown

obtained at Groote Eylandt, were collected from Goulburn Island by Miss M.

Mathews. The decorated wooden slab was secured from Groote Eylandt by

Mr. N. B. Tindale, and the painted stone from Millingimbi by Mr. LI.

Shepherdson.

It would appear that this type of art is confined to Arnhem Land, for neither

Roth (1902, figs. 79-93) when writing of the cave paintings of north-west central

Queensland, nor Hale and Tindale (1924, p. 153) who studied the art of Princess

Charlotte Bay, Queensland, made any reference to paintings on bark, although the

latter authors figured a fragment of turtle bone on which a man had been depicted,

as well as several groups of rock paintings. Similarly, the present author found no

trace of bark paintings of the Arnhem Land type among the aborigines of Port

Darwin.

The paintings described in this paper are typical of Arnhem Land, and in

the main picture the animals, birds, fish and plants that the aborigine meets in his

every-day life, although several totemic designs are included in the series.

Yellow, red, black, and white pigments have been used in the various designs

in the form of lines and dots on a background of uniform colour. No attempt has

been made to shade one pigment into another, although the three latter have

often been combined to produce varying shades of red and brown.“ The paint-

ings have been executed on the inner surfaces of sheets of bark, averaging

50 em. in length, that have been stripped from the trees and straightened out

while green. The walls and roof of the wet weather shelters of the aborigines

of Arnhem Land are made from similar sheets and form excellent drawing

boards on which the native artist can exercise his talent during the enforced

Icisure of the rainy season. Tindale (1925, p. 117), who noticed this characteristic

among the natives of Groote Island. writes: “Any bark hut that had been

occupied for any length of time contained such pictures.”

C) Tindale, 1925, p. 117, mentions that the Groote Islanders also increased their

range of colours by mixing the various pigments.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

360

DESCRIPTION

Prater XLV

A, executed in black and yellow lines and dots on a white ground, is a fair

representation of one of the large lizards, probably Varanus gouldti, The forked

tanguec, double penes and correct number of digits are incicated.

Bois an excellent drawing of the spiny ant-cater (Fehidna aeuleata). The

upper part of the body is covered with parallel lines of black, red and white, the

lower half with red and white lines intersected with yellow and black dots. The

spiny covering extends only over the body and tail (as in the living animal). In

the painting the enlarged claw of the hind [eet of the creature is wrongly shown

as the first digit on both tind and on one fore toot; the number of digits 1s alse

incorrect. Both eyes are indicated, whereas in a lateral view ently one wauld be

partly erased image of the same organ. A comparison of this painting with that

on C, pl xvii, shows that, in the latter example, the design is more conven-

tionalized, therefore less attention has been paid to detail.

Islands

Ocnpelli

Arnhem Land

if rs

Caledon Bay

“\_ NORTHERN TERRITORY

C, produced in red pigment on a white ground, represents a kangaroo, or

allied marsupial, with its young in the pouch. Both eyes are indicated (as in B,

pl. XIV) and the tail bent upward to fit the space available on the sheet of bark.

The body is covered with a chevron pattern, the head and tail with dots. An

examination of many ot the drawings of animals and birds in this series suggests

@) This is a common characteristic in the primitive art of Northern Australia.

While working with the Walpari tribe of north-western Central Australia one of the

natives made quite a creditable drawing, in side elevation, of our motor vehicle, except

that whereas two wheels were shown in the correct position, the others were drawn as

circles above the vehicle.

367

that they were painted from dead models (see 1}, D, and F, pl. xvi), but

the kangaroo in this example, although the legs are placed too far forward, is

depicted as alive and hopping.

D is an ingenious painting of a yam. It shows not only the tubers beneath,

but the vines above the ground. The tubers are executed in yellow, black and

white lines on a red ground, and the vines and leaves in white. Small leaves are

drawn on the crown of the tuber, and, as arrow heads, on the vines.

Ie and P show a slab of ironswood, collected at Groote [ylandt by ‘Vindale

(1925, p. 133), on which are paintings in yellow, red and white. EE represents a

lizard, and } one of the sca-going turtles. Spencer (1914, pl. iv) illustrates three

painted wooden objects, associated with the Muraian ceremonies of the Kadadu

and adjacent tribes. It is possible that If and Fo may have a similar significance

Plate AV

A, painted in yellow and white on a brown ground, is possibly a sword-fish

(Ntphias gladius), although no fins are delineated.

D is a much better representation of this fish, in which a number of ribs and

the backbone are portrayed by means of red lines dotted with white. Remarkable

attention to detail is evident in the picturing of the four parasizes on the right-

hand side of the body. These were identified by Mr. 11. M. Hale as Cymothoid

parasites of the order lsopoda. Vhe design, upper right, is possibly one of the

“Teather jackets’? (probably Canthertes sp.).

B--in red on a white ground— shows the fin arrangement and upturned

mouth of the much-dreaded stone fish (Syua@necia sp.). This fish inhabits the coral

recis of the Queensland and northern coasts of Australia, and is capable of inflict-

ing a dangerous, often fatal wound to any barefooted person who may tread on it.

Here again two eves are indicated, as well as the backbone and some of the internal

organs.

C is, in all probability, the well-known Mulloway or Butterfish (Seiena sp.).

The position of the spinal, ventral and dorsal fins, the shape of the tail, and the

projecting lower jaw, indicate that the aborigine pays more attention to detail

than is usually credited to him. (See also D, pl. xv.) The pattern of red

lines on a white ground, with occasional areas in black, gives a pleasing and

harmonious result, both in arrangement of line, mass and colour.

E, somewhat crudely painted in red on white ground, depicts the sea-going

crocodile (Crocedilits porosus). The distortion af the design to fit a cireum-

scribed area is a characteristic often seen in these bark paintings.

I’, in red and white lines on a yellow ground, is a painting of a saw fish

(Pistus sysron). Although this example is more diagrammatic than is usual, the

saw, fins and tail are sufficiently well placed as to make a tentative identification

possible.

368

Pirate XVI

A, with D, pl. xiv, and C and D, pl. xviii, illustrate different species of

tubers and yams. ‘he first-named is executed in a more extensive range of

colours than usual. The lower line of tubers is painted in dark brown; the next

in light red with white spots; the third in dark red with yellow spots; and the

uppermost line in light red with yellow spots. The parallel horizontal lines near

the top of the sheet represent the ground, above which the young shoots of the

yams are shown in various stages of growth. The shoot on the extreme left has

already developed leaves, the next three have not reached that stage, while the

one on the extreme right has met an obstruction which has forced it to grow

parallel to the surface.

B, in black on a white ground, is a particularly decorative painting of a male

kangaroo. The anatomical detail, such as the eyes, ribs, heart, lungs, stomach

and liver are painted in white, and sometimes spotted with red. The combination

of chevrons, parallel lines and dots makes this sheet of bark one of the most

attractive in the serics.

C suggests one of the small land lizards, but the details are insufficient for

identification. The colours utilized are red, black and white,

D, on account of the black head, the shape of the beak, and the association

of the long-necked fresh water turtle, suggests the jabiru (Xenorhynehus

asiaticus). ‘lhe legs of the bird are distorted to fit the narrow sheet, while the

alimentary canal, gizzard, and only one eye, arc indicated. The bird is drawn as

if lying dead.

E is a representation of one of the large lizards, in which little anatomical

detail is present, except the forked tongue and the double penes. The latter are

shown as club-shaped projections at the base of the hind fegs. (See also A,

pl. xiv.)

F is painted in black and red lines on a white ground, he curving beak,

and the shape of the head, resembles those of a brolga (A@egalornis rubicundus).

As in the case of the jabiru the bird is drawn as if dead, and the eye, gizzard, and

alimentary canal only are shown.

Pirate XVII

A illustrates a living emu on which the spinal column, alimentary canal and

gizzard are indicated.

B, in red lincs on a white ground, pictures a crocodile with the snout shortened

and bent slightly to fit the bark shect.

C, in yellow and red on a white ground, is a somewhat conventionalized

drawing of a spiny ant-eater. Quills outline the whole design, while the body is

filled in with a geometrical pattern. A comparison between this drawing and

that on B, pl. xiv, indicates how, even in the same locality, an animal may he

depicted in a widely differing manner.

369

D is a painting on a stone from Millingimbi, Crocodile Island, and represents

the head of Crocodilius porosus. This specimen, which is decorated in red and

black with white dots, is 31 cm. in length. The people of the Kadadu tribe, of

the east Alligator River, paint stones in a similar manner. Spencer (1914, p. 224)

illustrates a number of these stones, and gives the following description: “They

are, all of them, naturally-shaped stones, for the most part, apparently sand stone.

They all resemble objects such as yams, to which they approximate in shape, or

the eggs of different animals. In most cases the stones seem to have been rubbed

over, first with red ochre, in a very few yellow ochre had been used, and --- ---

white cross lines, and dots have been added.”’ Such stones are associated with

the Muraian initiation ceremony, It is likely that the Millingimbi example has

a similar significance, belonging, as it does, to an adjacent area. Mountford (1929,

p- 245) deseribes a rock carving from Panaramittee, South Australia, in which

the head of C, porasus had been engraved with considerable accuracy.

i, in red and white lines on a yellow ground, is a remarkable painting from

Groote Eylandt of a sailing canoe, similar to those in use in that locality. ‘Tindale

(1925, p. 111) figures this type of canoe, which varies from cighteen to twenty-

five feet in length. The sail of each vessel is supported on two long slender spars up

to seventeen feet in length. In the present painting the thicker lines represent the

ropes, and the more indefinite the mast. While the shape of the sail and the number

of ropes agree with Tindale’s description, the placing of those ropes differs in

several respects. [our men are paddling the canoe with decorated oars, a charac-

teristic also recorded by ‘Tindale (1915, pl. xii). On the same sheet are drawings

of a number of animals and birds. The lower right and middle left are probably

dugongs (Halicore dugong), and the lower Icft a sea turtle; the upper left may be

either a lizard or a crocodile, but the birds are not identifiable. This painting was

collected by Dr. D. R. Brown.

G is an unusual painting of a number of large fruit-eating bats, hanging

head downward from branches. The painting is in yellow and red on a white

ground. These creatures gather in large flocks in the mangrove swamps of the

northern coast of Australia, and form a considerable source of food supply for

the aborigines. In general, however, the eating of this meat is an old man’s

privilege. The extensive wings of the bat are indicated only by a small curving

line from each shoulder, but the large ears, fox-like head (from which the bat

receives the common name of “flying fox”) and the genitalia are plainly shown.

‘The patterns on the body of each bat are of more than usual interest, but whether

they are employed as a means of distinguishing different species, or purely an

artist’s dislike for repetition of the same decorative scheme, is unknown,

PLATE XVIII

With the exception of C and D, which are plant motifs, these paintings are

conventional designs, which appear to have been derived from fish or reptilian

370

form. ‘Pwo, Band F, are known to be Mardai’in totem designs,“) Gis a Maraiin

design, and it is likely that A and [1 are similar in meaning.

A, painted in lines of yellow, red and white dots, on a dark brown ground,

may have been derived from a fish motif. The head and eyes are duplicated on

either end as well as the V-shaped lines which probably represent ribs similar to

those drawn on E, pl. xv.

Bois a representation of a Afardai’in totem stone. A comparison of this

painting with that on A, pl. xvii, would suggest that this design also had its

origin in some fish-like form.

Cis a naturalistic picture of a yam, which bears a clase resemblance to that

illustrated on D, pl. xiv.

1D. in white lines on a dark brown ground, represents a different type of tuber.

At the crown of the yam are depicted short leaves and trailing vines, while the

projections at the bottem are either badly drawn, or perhaps specialized roots.

E, F, Gand I] are four bark drawings that indicate how a naturalistic repti-

Han motif can, by the process of conventionalisation, rcach a stage where the

source is not evident.

Li. figures one of the larger lizards (probably, /. gouldtij. In F the lizard

shape is still recognisable, although the head, tail and legs have been shortened.

In G the head, legs and tail are sull evident, while in H the conventionalisation

has reached a stage when, without reference to the intermediates, the reptilian

source is not recognisable.

G and Il are marain designs from Goulbourn Island.

I}ISCUSSION

The bark panitings described in this paper are, with the exception of FE,

pl. xvit, the work of the Manu tribe, who live on the mainland opposite Goul-

burn Island. Tew details were obtained by Miss Mathews at the time they were

collected, but for the most part they portray animals, birds, fish and reptiles so

well drawn that tentative identification is possible,

The designs and the combinations of the pigments on the majority of the

sheets are both pleasing and harmonions. Unfortunately, the high cost of print-

ing prevents their reproduction in natural colours.

In the majority of paintings under review, both external details and internal

organs are miiecated. As far as the writer is aware this is a unique phase of

primitive art, both in «Australia and elsewhere.

of initiates during wardatin initiation ceremonies. The designs usually relate to a rock

or waterhole that was created when ane or the other of the totemic ancestors sank into

the ground, Thompson's name merdatir and Spencer’s maraiin both occur in Goulburn

island mi connection with the bark drawings. Such designs in the latter locality, no doubt,

refer to a similar group of rituals to those recorded by both Spencer and Thompson.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate XTV

Vol. 63, Plate XV

rans. Roy.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate XVI

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate XVII

Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Austr., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate XVITL

371

The attention to detail displayed by some of the artists is also noteworthy :

ie., the claws and spines of the echidna, B, pl. xiv; the parasites on the sword

fish, D, pl xv; the Icaves and vines of the yam, D, pl xiv, A, pl. xvi, C, pl. xvii,

and D, pl. xviii; as well as the internal organs of the various animals and birds,

particularly the kangaroos, ]3, pl. xvi. Nevertheless, curious mistakes have crept in,

ic., the large claws of the echidna, 8. pl. xiv; the showing of both eyes, when

only one should be visible; and the fact that in the majority of cases the number

of digits on both the animals and reptiles is incorrect, though similar inaccuracies

do not apply to the birds, This error may be due to the inability of aborigines to

count definite numbers past four.

It has already been pointed out that several of the animals have been painted

as if lying dead, 7.c.; the emu, F, pl. xvii; jabiru, D, pl. xvi; brogla, F, pl. xvi;

and kangaroo, B. pl. xvi; such, hawever, is not universal. The echidna, LB, pl. xiv;

Apart from the much feared stone fish, B, pl. xv, all the animals, birds,

reptiles and plants are used by the aborigines as food, and with the exception of

the ceremonial designs on pl. xviii, are more or less identifiable. This

naturalism is iu contrast to the art of the Melville Islanders, whose designs are,

almost without exception, conventional (Spencer, 1914, p. 421). When compared

with the art of the Central Australians the difference is even greater. Mount-

ford (1937, p. 21) pomts out that “Gy far the greatest number of designs are so

highly conventionalized, as to be indecipherable without the aid of the artist who

produced them.”

The gradual development of a naturalistic motif to one of an abstract form

is well illustrated on pl. xviii, while the association of such abstract designs with

the ceremonial life of the tribe is worthy of much fuller investigation.

SUMMARY

This paper records thirty bark paintings, a painted wooden slab and a stoue,

the work of the natives of Arnhem Land. Each example is described and the

technique, symbolism and distribution is discussed. Relevant literature is also

quoted,

LirERATURE

Tlaue, HW. M., and Tunpare, N. B. 1934 Records S. Aust. Musetim, 2, (2)

McCartiy, I. 1938 Australian Aborigine Decorative Art

Roti, Wartrr FE. 1902 Bull. North Qld. Ethnology, (4)

Spencer, Barpwin .1914 Native Tribes of Northern Territory of Australia

Vurompson, Doxatp FE, 1939 Llustrated London News, 194

TinpaLte, N. B. 1925 Reeords S. Aust. Museum, 3

ATMOSPHERIC POLLEN IN THE CITY OF ADELAIDE AND ENVIRONS

By F. V. MERCER, Department of Botany, University of Adelaide

(Communicated by J. G. Wood)

Summary

Pollen is an important source of hay-fever, and in recent years methods for estimating the pollen

content of the air have been introduced and enabled records of atmospheric pollen throughout the

year to be obtained. This, combined with the usual laboratory methods, enables the offending plants

to be determined quickly.

372

ATMOSPHERIC POLLEN IN THE CITY OF ADELAIDE AND ENVIRONS

By F. V. Mercer,

Department of Botany, University of Adelaide

(Communicated by J. G. Wood)

[Read 12 October 1939}

INTRODUCTION

Pollen is an important source of hay-fever, and in recent years methods for

estimating the pollen content of the air have been introduced and enabled records

of atmospheric pollen throughout the year to be obtained. This, combined with

the usual laboratory methods, enables the offending plants to be determined

quickly,

In 1938 a study of atmospheric pollen was commenced at Adelaide. This

paper gives a preliminary account of the results obtained. The task has not been

easy since the morphology and characteristics of the pollens of Australian families

and certain introduced plants have not been described hitherto. Approximately

80 per cent. to 90 per cent. of the total pollen caught has been identihed as belong-

ing to definile families, and in many instances a more specific identification has

been possible. A fraction containing about eleven different kinds of pollen and

making up from 9 per cent. to 19 per cent. of the total number caught has not

yet been identified. The pollen comprising this group occurs in very small

quantities. This fraction is much higher (19 per cent.) in the region (Croydon)

in proximity to wasteland and indicates that the probable source of these pollens

is from weeds. Three kinds of grains, not yet identified, but occurring in small

numbers over definite periods, have been separated from this group on account

of their possible importance as sources of hay-fever.

A plant, to be an important cause of hay-fever, must fulfil several charac-

teristics: (1) it must produce large quantities of pollen—a plant forming a small

amount can only be a cause of local trouble; (2) the pollen must contain an

excitant—Conifers are wind-pollinated and yield large amounts of pollen, but

these plants are not important because their pollen is usually non-toxic; (3) the

plant must be widespread—a species represented by a few individuals can be of

little general importance.

These three features can best be seen in the wind-pollinated group of plants

which disseminate large quantitics of pollen in the air to secure pollination.

Anemophily is found in many plants and appears to have originated independently

in different familics. Tremendous quantities of dry, spherical, buoyant pollen are

shed, and are carried by air currents to the female flowers. The pollen is usually

thin-walled, the exine devoid of elaborate sculpturings and the furrows reduced.

‘The flowers are usually inconspicuous and unattractive to insects.

The majority of plant families are insect-pollinated. Bright, attractive

flowers with well-developed nectaries are formed; this combination of characters

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

373

attracts insects which transfer pollen from one plant to another, The pollen

grains are usually sticky, adhering together in lumps, and are sculptured or

ornamented. These plants are frequently blamed for producing hay-fever; they

may flower at the same time as an inconspicuous wind-pollinated plant, but

because of their attractiveness, are thoughtlessly described as the cause of the

trouble, The structure of the flower in these plants is often such that it is

extremely unlikely that pollen is shed into the air in sufficient amounts to be of

general importance.

Merion

The technique adopted was similar to that described by Wodehouse (1935). A drop

of melted methyl green glycerin jelly was placed in the centre of a microscape slide and

spread out to about the area of a Zin. cover slip. These slides were exposed horizontally

in specially constructed weather-vanes. Throughout the work the area counted was about

four square centimetres. The counting was done with a mechanical stage using a OX eye-

piece and 8 mm. objective. Higher powers were used to identify the grains when

necessary.

The sites were: (1) the Adelaide Town Hall at about seventy feet above street

level, (2) the Botany Department at the University of Adelaide at twenty-five feet above

ground level, and (3) at Croydon eighteen feet above the ground.

In the first two sites counts were made twice weekly on Tuesday and Thursday

afternoons from 1 August 1938 to November 1938. Counting was then interrupted until

March 1939, when it was recommenced. This was unfortunate, because November-

December are the height of the late spring pollen season, At Croydon exposures were

made daily from 1 August 1938 to 31 March 1939. From 1 April 1938 to 31 July 1939, tri-

weekly counts were taken at all sites on Monday, Wednesday and Friday. This gave a

more even distribution of the time of exposure, which unti! then was not identical for

the three sites.

RESULTS

GENERAL Discussion

‘The results obtained are shown graphically in figs. 1, 2, 3, and indicate a

succession of pollen grains from different plants invading the atmosphere from

time to time at Adelaide. Although separated by a half-mile and two-and-a-half-

miles a very close correspondence is seen in the figures for the three sites. The

period during which the pollen of any one species was caught was almost identical

in each case. This was particularly evident with the spring flowering deciduous

trees which had a well-defined pollination period.

The vegetation in the immediate neighbourhood of the sites varies some-

what—at Croydon large areas of land containing weeds are found; at the Botany

Department numerous trees are growing in the University grounds and nearby

gardens, ‘Uhese features, combined with the lower levels at which the readings

were taken, result in an increase in the number of pollen grains caught from

neighbouring plants (cf. high sh count at the University).

Unfortunately, figures were not available for the Town Hall or University

between November 1938-March 1939. However, since a fairly close correlation

exisis between amounts of pollen caught at all sites for the rest of the year, the

Croydon figures may be taken as representative of the others,

374

rom indigenous wind-

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375

members of the Myrtaceae, Acacia spp., and possibly a few grasses and members

of the Chenopodiaceae.

The total number of grains recorded were: 3420 at Croydon (twelve

months) ; 1,546 at the Town Hall (seven and a half months) ; and 6,060 at the

3otany Department (seven and a half months). The numbers of grains belonging

to different families or genera are given as percentages of the total number in

‘Table I

‘TABLE |

Percentages of Pollen Grains belonging to different Families or Genera

Grass Pine Cupressus Elm Plane Acacia

she A'S 5-0 10 306455 1-0

168 2 B35 70 70 04

Croydon

Town Hall

University - 60 60°0 2:0 4-6 2-4 O-l

Unknown

Species Araucaria Nod Alyrtaceae Chenopodiaceae

Croydon = - 19-8 0-1 2°5 2-0 14-0

Town Hall - 9-0 0-5 — 0-3 4-3

University - 76 O7 — O-l 0-8

Plantain Ash NOt Rosaceae No.3 Now$

Croydon - 0-5 6-0 0-6 3°5 0-5 4

Town Hall - 1-0 9-0 2°3 — 2:4 36

University — - O-7 13-0 0-5 — Ors 1-0

“" Entroduced Species

lt will be noticed that 73 per cent. of the University count consists of pollen

from only two species (4sh and Pine), This is due to the prescuce of these trees

in the immediate locality. Such a high percentage over-shadows the part

played by other components. I! we disregard this the readings for the other

species are quadrupled, and this probably gives a more accurate measure ot their

general importance.

During July little pollen was found in the air; towards the end of the month,

and in early August pollen from the early spring grasses was caught in small

amounts. During August the total number commenced to increase; this continued

throughout September and Octoher, and reached a maximum of ahout thirty

grains per day in the middle of the latter month. This was due to the spring

grasses and trees (elcacia, Pine, Eh, Palin, Cupressus). The trees were by tar

the greatest producers of pollen at this time. A group of unknown pollens was

also conspicuous. ‘This was made up from numerous species, At the end of

October a deercase in number ocetrred, due to the cessation of pollen-shedding

by trees. Tn the middle of November another maximum was noted; this was the

result of a large increase in the grass count. Throughout December the ;total

decreased until about six grains per day was reached. This value was maiutained

except for minor fittctuations during January-February and was produced by

376

grasses, plantain, Chenopodiaceae, Myrtaceae and unknown grains. A small

increase occurred in January and early lebruary due to the flowering of a species

of Tamarix which grew in the vicinity, and was, therefore, likcly to be more

prominent at Croydon than elsewhere. In March an increase was noted which

continued into April, and was due to the rapid rise in the Chenopodiaceae count.

During the last week in March and the first week of April two unknown species

were found, and they continued to be caught throughout April and May. There-

after the total number of all specics decreased, and only a few odd grains were

caught in May, June and July. In June and July Ash pollen was caught in large

quantities over a period of four wecks.

Grass INDIVIDUAL SPECIES

Grass pollen was one of the most important caught. Not only did it repre-

sent a large portion of the total but it was also present throughout most of the

year. he pollen grains of the grasses are very similar and it was not possible to

distinguish the various species by /their morphological features, but by taking into

account the flowering periods of the grasses commonly found around Adelaide

it was possible to arrive at the probable sources of this pollen.

‘The first grains appeared during the latter part of July. At this time the *

only widespread species in flower were Poa annua, L. (annual meadow grass),

and vena fatua L. (wild oat). The count increased, reaching about five grains

per day in the second weck in August. This value was maintained except ifor

minor fluctuations throughout September, October and the second week in

November. During the second week in November a sudden rise occurred and

a maximum of twelve grains per day was reached. At the end of the month a

decrease to about four grains per day was noted, Throughout Deeember the

count steadily decreased until only one or two grains were caught per day. In the

second week of January a very low count was recorded; this may have been due

to the unusually hot weather experienced at this time—heat withered the mature

flowers—and may not represent a normal reading. During March a small

increase was noted; thereafter, in April and May only a few odd grains were

caught, and the count finally fell to zero in June and Jitly.

The flowering periods of grasses occurring commonly around Adelaide are:

Poa annua, L. (annual meadow grass), July-December; Avena fata, L. (wild

oat) July-December; Koeleria phicoides, Pers., September-November; Ehrharta

longiflora, Sm. (veldt grass), September-November; Bromus mollis, L. (soit

brome), October-November; B. maximus, Desf. (great brome), October-Novemn-

ber; B. madritensis, 1. (Madrid brome), Octoher-November; Poa pratensis, L.

(Kentucky blue grass), October-December ; Hordeum aiurinum, L. (Cbaricy

grass), October-December; Danthonia spp., F. v. M. (Wallaby grass), spring-

summer; Lolium perenne, L. (perennial rye grass), October-March; L. subulatin,

Vis., (Wimmera rye grass), October-December ; Cynodon dactylon, Rich. (couch

grass),summer; Chloris spp. (windmill grass), summer; Paspalua dilatatim,

Poir. (golden crown grass), February-April.

377

These grasses, with the exception of Danthonia spp., are all introduced

species. They can be found in any vacant allotment, along roadsides and in many

gardens. Their flowering periods overlap considerably, so that they can maintain

a supply of pollen over long periods. This would account for the very steady

value obtained for grass pollen during the greater part of the year, Maximum

development (i.c., when most species are in flower) is reached in November.

This, as seen above, corresponds with the time when most grass pollen was in

the air.

UPRESSUS N

‘\ \

| | ' A \ ASH (9

=O eo ie PINE

\ Vo PLAN TAIN ——)

ae ae - GRAS! & aa -o aoe — {4+ —_ 9

[Same Pee

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AUGUST SCPTIMXR OCTOBER NOVEMBER MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY

Fig. 2

Record of atmospheric pollen in the City of Adelaide—Town Ha!l chart.

Fach division on the vertical axis equals ten grains.

PINE

The first pine polien was caught during the second weck of August and was

present until the end of October. A maximum was reached on 6-8 September.

The large quantities of this pollen in the air at the time can be gauged from the

count (2,000 per 4 sq. cm.) recorded at the University. This was much higher

than at the other two sites (flown Hall, 250; Croydon, 43). The most widely

planted pines around Adelaide are Pinus halepensis, Bieb. (Aleppo pine), and

378

P. canariensis, C. Sm. (Canary Island pine). These species are probably respon-

sible for 95 per cent. of the pine pollen found.

CUPRESSUS

Cupressus pollen was conspicuous during the spring months from the first

week of August until the end of October. The maximum occurred between the

middle of September and the first week of October, but was not well defined.

At the Town Ilfall a reading of 1,500 grains per unit area was recorded on

20th September. Various species of Cupressus, chiefly C. forulasa, Don.

C, snacrocarpa, Tart (Monterey cypress), C. Lawsoniana, Murr., and varieties

are grown in gardens, and these are doubtless the source of this pollen,

Tua

Pollen shedding commenced at the end of August, was well defined, and con-

tinued for hve weeks. The English Elm, Ulmus campestris, 1... is planted exten-

sively in the city. The trees grow to a large size and a single specimen is capable

of shedding much pollen, as is evident from the large counts at the Town Hall

and University.

Asi

The English Ash, Pravinus eveelsior, 1... is probably the commonest tree in

the city and suburban streets and gardens. ‘This explains the high Ash count

recorded for each site. Pollen shedding occurred from 7 June to 14 Jity, much

light pollen was shed and a count of 141 grains was recorded at the University

from 19 ta 21 June. Ash was the only pollen noted in any quantity during the

winter months

ACACIA

Acacia pollen was found oecasionally (an odd grain or two at a me) trom

jJuly-November. A small increase occurred in October at Croydon, caused by a

tree flowering in the neighbourhood, Several species of feacia, especially

at. dealbata, Link.. and A. decurrens, Willd. are fairly common in suburban areas

and probably most of the -4c@cia pollen was derived [rom these species.

PLANE

The Plane, Platanus orientalis, 1.. is extensively planted in streets and

gardens. [t Howered from the first week in September to Sirst week in October

and much light pollen was shed.

Stellate hairs from the under surfaces of the leaves were found frequently

on the slides, especially in the spring months. A second type of hair produced

from the fruits which commenced to disintegrate in late autumn was noted

throughout the winter and early spring. Several large Plane trees growing in

the University grounds account for the high Plane figures at this site. A great

deal of local controversy is centred around the Plane. Our restlts indicate that

botanically it can be regarded as a potential source of hay-fever. It 1s wide-

spread and produces large quantities of pollen and hairs, and thus fulfils several of

the characteristics of an important hay-fever offender.

379

\RAUCARIA

Araucaria pollen was catight on the slides for about four weeks from

20 September to 13 October. The close proximity of the Botanic Gardens explains

the high University count.

The grains represented were probably Araucaria

Bidwillii, Took. (bunya-bunya pine).

ACACIA. ———+

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AUGUST SEPTEMBER = OCTOBES * MABCH APR way Sune July

Hig, 3

Record of atmospheric pollen in the City of Adclaide—University chart.

Each division on the vertical axis equals twenty grains.

COMPOSITAE

Compositae pollen occurred sporadically from) November to March. The

large number of Compositae and the similarity of their pollen render it difficult

to determine the origin of these grains. During the autumn Erigeren crispus,

Pourret., was fairly commen in waste places. The pollen of this plant conformed

with the type of grain caught on the atmospheric slides at this time.

380

“TAMARIX

This pollen was noted at Croydon for about three weeks in January. It is

over-conspicuous at this site because of the influence of near-by trees, These

results can, therefore, apply only to isolated areas in which the species is found.

PLANTAIN

The English plantain (Plantago lanceolata, L.) is a common weed and sheds

large amounts of pollen over a long period, from November-March. From

5 to 12 December a series of slides were exposed at North Adelaide in an area

infested with plantain. During this period 258 grains, an average of 37 grains

per day, were noted; but generally plantain pollen never reaches a high

concentration.

CHENOPODIACEAE

The pollen grains of the Chenopodiaceae and Amarantaceae are not dis-

tinguishable, and it is very probable that both families are represented in the

group. This pollen was noted in small quantities (2-7 grains per week) from

August 1938 to May 1939. A maximum occurred from the first week of March

until the middle of April. This was particularly prominent at Croydon. During

these weeks that of the Chenopodiaceae was the most prevalent pollen and repre-

sented approximately 50 per cent. of the total pollen caught. Because of the

similarity of the grains it is only possible to indicate their probable origin. The

following species are found in many areas: Chenopodium murale, L. (nettle-

leafed goosetoot), August-April; C. album, 1. (white goosefoot), November-

August; Aimarantus viridis, L., January-March. These species attained their

greatest development during the autumn which corresponds with the Chenopo-

diaceae-Amarantaceae maximum pollen count. The ubiquitous C. murale was

the most important species.

The possibility exists that native Chenopods were also contributory factors.

These plants are fairly common near the sea coast, and their pollen may blow

in to the city.

ROSACEAE

Pollen of the family fosaceac was common at Croydon during August and

early September. Numerous almond trees grow in the vicinity, and the pollen of

this species corresponds with that found on the slides. The absence of this pollen

from the other sites indicates that it does not travel far from the point of produc-

tion; but in the neighbourhood of almond groves the concentration of rosaccous

pollen would be rather high.

Potten No. 1 (figs. D,D,)

Triangular in polar view, the edges of the triangle 19, to 25, long.

‘Tricolpate, furrows narrow, slit-like, and appear to meet at the poles. The lunes

must be somewhat triangular in outline to conform with the rigid triangular

equator. The grain appears as if composed of a number of triangles—a triangular

381

hexahedron; if this is the case the furrows will traverse the outer edges of the

hexahedron. The lunes sometimes lose their individual shape and fuse; this

imparts an irregular appearance to the grain. Germ pores smooth spherical and

may or may not protrude. Exine smooth and rigid,

ide view

Polar view

Side view

Pollen No. 4

Pollen No. 1

Pollen No. 2

Pollen No.2 Polar view

Pollen No.4 Polar view

Pollen No.3 Side view

Pollen No.3 Polar view

Side view

Pollen No. 5

Pollen No. 1

500 diameters.

ation of 5

All drawings freehand of fully expanded grains to a magnific

382

A grain or two at a time of pollen corresponding to this description was found

from November-March. This type of grain is characteristic of the family

Myrtaceae. The absence of data dealing with pollen morphology does not exclude

the possibility that it is also characteristic of other families; this group, therefore,

may not be an entity. The long period during which these grains were caught

corresponds to the combined flowering periods of myrtaceous plants around

Adelaide. Several species of Eucalyptus: E. leucoxylon, . v. M. (blue gum),

E. rostrata, Schlechtd. (red gum), /. ficifolia, F. v. M. (scarlet flowering gum),

i. calophylla, R. Br, 1. globulus, Labill, (Tasmanian blue gum), are ecmmon in

the city environs, and the pollen from these species probably represents at least a

portion of the group.

UNKNOWN GROUP

As already indicated this group consists of a number of different pollens.

‘The following grains were separated from this fraction:

Potten No. 2 (figs. Kk, E,)

Grains mostly spherical, a few slightly irregular 252 + 3. Furrows four,

long, tapering almost from pole to pole, each enclosing a single slightly elliptical

germ pore, Pores equatorially arranged, with long axis at right angles to the

furrow, Exine finely pitted, furrow membrane smecoth.

Ponten No. 3 (figs. C, C,)

Spherical-angular, 2 to 38 ,, pores three, usually prominent, conical

irregular at base, protruding and imparting to the grain a trilobed appearance ; the

actual germ pore is spherical, approximately 3 in diameter; exine very faintly

pitted.

Both grains. Nos. 2 and 3, occurred from the end of March until the last week

of April; although never reaching a high conceutration they were important, being

present at a time when little other pollen was about.

The pollen of the family Cesuarinaceae corresponds with the latter descrip-

tion, Several native members, Casuarina strictis and C. Muellcriana are fairly

common in the nearby hills and pollen from these specics is almost certainly repre-

sented in this group.

PuLLEN No. 4 (figs. b, By)

Spherical, slightly irregular, tricolpate, furrows not conspicuous, about

6 w-8 » wide at cquator, germ pore approximately 5 p, exine finely reticulate, This

was fairly conspicuous at Croydon from the end of October to the last week of

November.

POLLEN No. 5 (fig. A)

Spherical 22 to 284. LExine thin and easily ruptures, covered with

numerous granules; intine thick and the inner edge somewhat irregular. ‘This

grain resembles those seen in some of the Coniferae. It occurred chiefly at the

Town Hall and University sites from the middle of July until late August.

383

It will not be an easy task to determine the sources of the individual pollen

species of this fraction; some are possibly derived from native families, but the

greater percentage are probably from introduced species,

LacuNaRiA Harrs

Hairs from the seed pods of Lagunaria Patersonii, G. Don, were occasionally

found on the slides during the spring.

Factors INFLUENCING POLLEN CONTENT OF AIR

Because of the variation and length of exposures it was possible only to note

in a gencral way the effect of meteorological factors. Generally speaking rain

had a clearing effect and low counts were obtained in wet weather. The opposite

result was observed during sunny conditions, providing that plants were in flower

at the time.

The most important factor influencing pollen distribution is the nature of

the vegetation in the city, The influence of introduced and garden plants is clearly

seen. Much of the vacant land in the vicinity of the city has been colonised by

alien plants, and these areas form the main regions for production of atmospheric

pollen.

SUMMARY

(1) The succession and percentages of different pollen grains in the air from

month to month at Adelaide are described.

(2) The most important factor determining the cycle is the nature of the

vegetation in the city and environs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author’s thanks are due particularly to Professor J. G. Wood who

suggested this research, for his helpful suggestions and interest; to Dr. IV. Ray

Hone for his assistance; and the Adelaide City Council who provided facilities

for carrying out the work.

REFERENCES

Batyrat, R. M. 1927 Jour. Lab. and Clin. Med., 12, 1,151

Pexrunp, W. T., and Errox, B. G. 1929 Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. and Med.,

27, 650

Rowe, A. II. 1928 Jour. Lab. and Clin. Med., 13, (5), 416

Wopenousr, R. P. 1935 Pollen Grains, Magraw Hill Book Co.

THE NAUTILOID BATHMOCERAS BARRANDE

By CURT TEICHERT, Crawley Western Australia

Summary

The genus Bathmoccras Barrande is one of the most remarkable genera of the nautiloid

cephalopods. It is known by one species from the neighbourhood of Lake Huron, North America,

by one other species from Sweden and by two species from Bohemia. In all these places it occurs in

the Ordovician, and each species is only known by one or a very few specimens. To these a species

from the Ordovician of Central Australia, so far represented by one specimen only, is here added.

384+

THE NAUTILOID BATHMOCERAS BARRANDE

By Curr Teiciert, Crawley Western Australia

{Read 12 October 1939]

Puate XIX

The genus Bathmoceras Barrande is one of the most remarkable genera of the

nautiloid cephalopods. It is known by one species from the neighbourhood of

Lake Huron, North America, by one other species from Sweden and by two

species from Bohemia, In all these places it occurs in the Ordovician, and each

species is only known by one or a very few specimens. To these a species irom

the Ordovician of Central Australia, so far represented by one specimen only,

is here added.

In 1856 Barrande described a specimen from Bohemia as Orthoceras

coinplerum, and in 1865 he attached the generic name Bathmoceras to this species.

A bricf description of this genus was published by the same author in 1867 (p. 73),

and a second species, Balhmoceras praeposterwum, was added. Ile described thie

“une série de petits cornets; en forme d’éteignoirs,

superposés lun de Tautre, en dirigeant leur pointe vers Vouverture.’ More

elaborate descriptions and discussions of the affinity of the genus followed im

1874 (pp. 792-797) and Barrande reviewed the genus a third time in 1877

(pp. 92-93). Ne then announced its discovery by Swedish geologists in the

Ordovician rocks of Sweden,

A description of the Swedish form followed in 1880 by Angelin and Lind-

str6m under the name ot Bathmoceras linnarssont, and this species was made the

subject of an admirable morphological study by Ilolm in 1899.

Barrande, in 1874, suspected the identity of his Bathmoceras with the genus

Conoceras, established by Bronn in 1837 (p. 98) on a specimen from the Lake

TIuron Region figured by Bigsby in 1824 (pl. 26, fig. 6). In consequence, Hyatt

and others gave preference to the name Conoceras, but since then, Ulrich and

Toerste, in 1934, observed that Conoceras is an endoceroid, and not identical with

Bathmoceras.

Up to the time of Hlolm’s investigations the affinities of Bathmoceras had

been very doubtful and the genus was thought to represent, together with

Nothoceras Barrande, a special group of nautiloids which was called ‘“Prochoan-

ites” by Hyatt (1884) and “Prosifonata’ by Fischer (1887), and in which the

septal funnels were supposed to be directed forward instead of backward as in

other nautiloids.

siphuncle as composed of

Holm’s investigations went to show that Bathmoceras has an ellipochoanoidal

siphunecle and possesses very peculiarly-shaped deposits within the siphuncle which

were explained in elaborate descriptions and figures of serial sections and recon-

elructions.

In 1900, Hyatt, presumably without knowledge of Holin’s paper, established

the sub-order Schistochoanites for Conoceras (= Bathmoceras}) and Nothoceras

Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., 63 (2), 22 December 1939

385

which in the revised definition were supposed to be characterised by “more or less

incomplete funnels.” It may be mentioned that Sacmann in 1852 (p. 152) and

Foord in 1888 (p. 322) erroneously regarded Conoceras as a synonym of

Gonioceras Ilall, an altogether different genus. Furthermore, Blake, in 1882,

though under the assumption that Bathsmoceras was a synonym of Conoceras,

(p. 53), described as Conoceras eoum a specimen from the English Arenig

(p. 165) which apparently has no similarity with either of these genera.

No investigations similar to Holm’s morphological studies of Bathmoceras

linnarssoni have been made on representatives of any of the other species men-

tioned above, but there is very little doubt that the conspicuous acute ventral

saddle of the sutures is such an extraordinary feature that all these species must

be regarded as congeneric and very probably will turn out eventually to possess

siphuncular structures more or less similar to those of Bathmoceras linnurssoni

from Sweden.

In this paper I merely want to call attention to its unexpected occurrence in

the Ordovician of Central Australia, where it was first recognised by Miss M. E.

‘Turner as recorded by Madigan in 1932 (hb, p. 112).

SIGNIFICANCE OF BATITMOCERAS FOR THE CORRELATION OF

TIE LARAPINTINE SERIES

‘The only Ordovician fossils of Central Australia have been found in the

Larapintine series of the Macdonnell Ranges, the stratigraphy of which has been

described in detail in two publications by Madigan (1932, a and b). The series

is approximately 6,000 feet thick, but fossils are almost entirely confined to a

calcarcous shale, 74 feet thick, about 2,200 feet below the top of the series (see

Madigan, 1932, a, pp. 693-694). ‘This fossiliferous shale has furnished a fauna

of brachiopods, lamellibranchs, nautiloids, and trilobites described in various early

publications by R, Etheridge, juu., and by Tate. Strikingly Baltic affnitics were

recognised by both authors, particularly by Jctheridge.“) The specimen of

Conoceras, described below, was given to Dr. Madigan at the Hermansburg

Mission Station and comes, presumably, from these same strata, in the western

part af the Macdonnell Ranges. Any conclusions with regard to the exact age

of this Ordovician fauna apply, therefore, exclusively to the age of the deposition

of this fossiliferous band and not to the entire Larapintine series. Fortunatcly,

the occurrence of Bathmoceras in this band permits us to determine the age of

this band within narrow limits.

In Sweden Bathmoceras Uunarssont was found in the “Grey Vaginatum

limestone” of Kinnegulle®) in the province of Vastergotland and in the “Grey

@) A revision of the cephalopods with references to these papers, now dificult to obtain,

will be published later.

@) Raymond (1916, p. 215) doubted this. He wrote: “The numerous cephalopods

assigned to this zone [Asaphus limestone] in lists seemed to be derived [rom the lower part

of the “Upper Red” and possibly to indicate Gigas rather than Asaphuskalk. Among these

are Vaginoceras wahlenbergi (Foord), Bathmoceras linnarssoni (Ang.) and Estontoceras

preétcus.” This suggestion is very vague, and no further evidence scems to have been forth-

coming to support it.

386

Glauconitic Vaginatum limestone” of the Island of Oland. One specimen may

have come from the AMfegalaspis linbata limestone of Oland which immediately

underlies the horizon mentioned above (Ilolm, 1899, p. 271-272). The “Grey

Glauconitic Vaginatum limestone” is the ‘‘Lower Grey Orthoceras limestone” of

other authors and is now commonly referred to as Asaphus limestone, For the

convenience of readers not acquainted with details of the Ordovician stratigraphy

of Sweden the following stratigraphical table of the subdivisions oi the Ordo-

vician of Vasterg6tland (also essentially applicable to the island of Oland) is

here inserted (after Moberg, 1910, p. 76).

Occurrence of

a] . see 2 yp o

Swedish Subdivisions Bathmoce ras

in Sweden

Britisa

Equivalents

. me Brachiopol shale (Le » Emestone) - - - - _—

ASHGILLIAN I { ; rachioy ol shale (1 praena Emestone)

Pritucleus shale (with subdivisions) - - - - - =

CARADOCIAN - Chasimops limestone (with subdivisions) - - - - 4

LLANDEILIAN - | Ancistroceras limestone ania

\ Centaurus limestone - As

LLANVIRNIAN - [ Gigas limestone - - Sm

‘=Upper Didayine- . Alsaplius limestone - - N

( pper RESID | Prthemine Viwesors 5 | fsaphus limestone

graptus Shale) f

(= Lower Didyimio- nibata limestone - 2

graptus Shale) LU Plantiimbata limestone —

TREMADOC - - Ceratopyye limestone (with subdivisions - - - - —

The exact age of the lsaphus limestone has been thoroughly discussed by

Bulman on the basis of the evidence furnished by graptolites (Bulman, 19306,

pp. 12-15) and the conclusion reached by this authority is that the Asuphis

limestone is very slightly older than the zone with Didyimograptus bifidus, which

represems the lower part of the Upper Didyimograptus shale, and most likely

corresponds to the upper part of the Didwnograplus hirundo zone of the British

eraptolite section which is the upper part of the Lower Didymograpius shate.

Thus, the Asaphus limestone is equivalent to the tighest Skiddavian or rather

perhaps ivansitional between the Skiddavian and Llanvirn, Observations in

Seania by [Ekstroém (1937, p. 49), who found lnnbafa limestone omediately

underlying the zone with Didymograplus bifidus, seem to support the latter

alternative.“

Jt appears, therefore. that Bathimoceras linnarssoni appeared in Sweden in

late, probably very late, Skiddavian time and persisted until the beginning of the

Llanyirn.

‘Lhe two Bohemian species of Bathmoceras, according to Barrande (1874,

p. 796), were found at Wosek near Rokithan (in present spelling, Rekyeany) in

@®> For information regarding the Swedish graptohte succession and its correlation with

that of Great Britain the reader is referred to Troedsson, 1923, p. 242.

387

his horizon d,. Barrande’s original subdivisions of the Palaeozoic strata of

Bohemia have been subject to amendments and alterations by later workers and

Barrande’s “‘d,’’ now comprises a series of horizons ranging in age from early

‘Tremadoc to Llandeila. However, Barrande mentions that Rathmoceras occurs

together with Phacops (now Placoparia) sippei, a species characteristic of zone

dy: in Kettner and Kodym’s arrangement which is now in use. Zone dy, also

known as Sarka beds, is regarded as an equivalent of the Lilanvirn, It contains

Didymograptus geminus, which in Sweden makes its first appearance in the Lower

Didymograptus shale (zone with Phyllograptus cfr. tvpus = zone with Didyno-

graptus bifidus in Great Britain). The Sarka beds of Rokycany are, therefore, of

[Janvirn age, perhaps corresponding more closely to the Lower Llanvirn (see

also Kettner and Boucck, 1936, pl. i and iv). Moreover, Dr. B. Boucek, in a

letter dated 8 May 1939, tells me that Bathimoceras is restricted to dy: (Sarka

beds), where, though never abundant, it is characteristic of the lower part of this

series. Thus, in Bohemia, Bathmoceras makes its first appearance very slightly

later than in Sweden. The genus apparently left Sweden and migrated into

Bohemia at the beginning of Didymograptus bifidus time.

It is very unlikely that a highly specialized type like Bathmeoccras developed

several times in different parts of the world and approximate contemporancity,

or at least close continuity, must be assumed for its oceurrence in Europe and

Australia. The age of the fossiliferous strata of the Larapintine series in which

Bathmoceras is found can, therefore, not differ appreciably from that of the

Asophus limestone of Sweden of the Sarka beds (Zone dy.) of Bohemia and

must closely correspond to that of the very late Skiddavian and early |Janvirn

of Great Britain.

In Victoria, according to the latest correlation by Harris and Thomas (1938),

the British zones of Didymograptus hirundo and Didymograptus bifidus—those

to whose equivalents the occurrence of Bathmoceras in Furope is restricted

correspond to the zones with Didymograplus austrodentatus and Didymograptus

interstitus, vis., the lowest part of the Darriwilian. Even if some allowance is

made for the time required for the migration of Bathmoceras trom European to

Australian waters, it can be conchided with some degree of certainty that the

fossiliterous strata of the larapintine are to be correlated with the lower part

of the Darriwilian of Victoria.

As has been emphasised, this correlation applics only to the fessiliferous

strata 2,200 fect below the top of the Larapintine. It must, however, be borve

in mind that a long period of time was required for the formation of a graptolite

zone. Poulsen has recently shown (1934, pp. 45-46) that a Stlurian limestone

series in North Greenland (Offley Island formation) which is between 500 and

800 meters (1,600 to 2,600 [eet) thick corresponds but to one single graptolite

zone of the British graptolite tacies. It is, therefore, quite possible that the

entire Larapintine series of Central Australia docs not correspond to more than

a few of the Victorian graptolite zones and may not represent more time than,

say, the Yapcenian and Darriwilian of Victoria.

388

PALAEONTOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION

Family BariMoceraTipAE [Iolm

Holm, in 1899, recognised the unique characters of Bathmoceras and cstab-

lished the family Bathmoceratidae for this genus. According to Ulrich and

Foerste (1934) the family should also include the genus Conocerina Ulrich and

Foerste. It is most likely that the members of this family are an early off-shoot

of the actinosiphonate cephalopods (Cyrtoceroidea).

Genus BaTtuMocrras Barrande, 1865

‘The genus can be characterised as follows (mainly after Holm 1899, p. 287):

Orthocones with wide marginal siphuncle, ellipochoanoidal funnels. In the

siphuncle there are peculiar wall-like, adorally directed structures, originating

by corresponding deep incisions in the fleshy sipho. Sutures with strong, arrow-

like, acute lobes on the ventral side.

Genotype—Bathnoceras complerum DBarrande.

Bathmoceras australe n. sp.

Diaguosis—Characterised by strengly depressed cross-section, short camerae

and slow rate of expansion of the conch.

Description—The holotype and only specimen of this species is an internal

mould of a portion of a phragmocone with attached adapical part of the lving

chamber. ‘he entire specimen is 71 mm. Jong. Of this length 48 mm. are

occupied by the phragmocone, of which 25 camarae are preserved. The average

length of the camarae is thus about 2 mm. However, in the adapical part the

camarae are somewhat shorter, whereas they are longer in the adoral part, an

exception being the last camera which is only 1-4 mm. long. The lateral diameter

of the conch increases from 23:4 mm. at the adapical end to 31°7 mm. at the

adoral end. The corresponding figures for the dorso-ventral diameter are

17°5 mm. and 22°3 mm. This increase in diameter is almost entirely attained in the

adapical part of the portion of the phragmocone preserved. At a distance of 33 mm.

from the adapieal end the Jateral diameter is 30°53 mm, and the dorso-ventral

17-5 mm. and 22-3 mm. This increase in diameter is almost entirely attained in

the adapical part of the portion of the phragmocone preserved. At a distance of

33 mm. from adapical end the lateral diameter is 30°5 mm. and the dorso-ventral

diameter 22°3 mm. The rest of the phragmocone and the living chamber are

almost cylindrical. The living chamber seems io be slightly constricted in its

lower part between the bottom and an area approximately 13 mm. from the

bottom, but it is possible, though not Likely, that this constriction is due to weather-

ing of the specimen. Also, the ventral side of the conch seems to be very slightly

convex, whereas no corresponding concavity of the dorsal side is noticeable.

Until additional specimens have been found, it seems impossible to state definitely

whether the convexity of the ventral side is a natural feature of the conch or

due to distortion after embedding.

389

The sutures form low lateral saddles and a broad and shallow dorsal lobe.

Ventrally, the sutures form a broad, though slightly deeper lobe which, however,

neat the siphuncle in the middle part of the ventral side is interrupted by the

formation of an acute saddle, 5 to 6 mm. wide at its base and approximately

equivalent to two camerae in height. This saddle is also developed in the last

suture, indicating the shape of the septum which forms the base of the living

chamber.

The siphuncle is in contact with the ventral wall of the conch, Its cross-

section ig approximately circular and its diameter 6°3 mm., measured at the apical

end of the specimen. Owing to the uniqueness of the specimen no attempt has

been made to section the siphuncle, but from a study of weathered parts of its

surfaces it appears that probably its structure is rather similar to that of the

siphuncle of Bathnioceras linnarssoni as deseribed by [olm.

Horizon and Locality—Larapintine series, undoubtedly from the fossiliterous

strata 2,200 fect below the top of the series; Horn Valley, Glen Heten, Western

Macdonnell Ranges, Central Australia. “The holotype in. the Department

of Geology, University of Adelaide.

Remarks—The Australian species is easily distinguished from the Swedish

Bathimoceras linnarssoni by its smaller size and from the American B. angulosuim

by the smaller rate of enlargement of the conch. The Bohemian B. pracpesteriin

differs in the more circular cross-section of the conch. B. complerim from

Bohemia is evidently more closely similar to B. australe than any other species.

3th have a depressed cross-section and in both the living chamber is slightly

constricted in the adapical part at some distance from the last septum. The only

perceptible difference is in the shape of the ventral saddle of the sutures which

is wider in B. contplerum than B. australe, This feature seems of sufficient

importance to reqttire specific separation of two otherwise very closely allied

species.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Madigan for the loan of this interesting specimen. Dr. Madigan kindly

furnished information regarding the circumstances of the find. The writer also

wishes to thank Dr. B. Boucek of the Narodni Museum, Prague, for inforina-

tion regarding the distribution of Baethmoceras in Bohemia.

SUMMARY

A representative of the rare nautiloid genus Bathunoceras is described from

the Ordovician Larapintine series of Central Australia. ‘The distribution of this

genus in Europe and North America is discussed and it is concluded that the

fossiliferous beds of the Larapintine series can be correlated with the late Skid-

davian and early Llanvirn of Great Britain, with the Asaphus lmestone of

Sweden, with the Sarka beds (zone dy) of Bohemia, and with the T.ower Darri-

wilian of Victoria.

390

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANGELIN, N. P. et Lixpstrom, G. 1880 TFragmenta Silurica e dono Caroli

Henrici Wegelin, Ilolmiae [Stockholm], 39, 20 pls.

D’ArciuAc and pe VerNeutr, E, 1842 On the Fossils of the Older Deposits in

the Khenish Provinces. Trans. Geol. Soc. London, Znd ser., 6, (2),

303-408, pis. 25-36. London

BARRANDE, J. 1856 Ueber die Unterscheidungsmerkmale der Nautiliden,

Goniatiten und Ammonitiden und tiber die neue Sippe Nothoceras.

Neues ahrb, Min. Geogn., ete., 308-325, pl. 3. Stuttgart

BARRANDE, J. 1865 Défense des colonies, 11]. Etudes sur nos étages G-I,

367 Prage et Paris

BArranve, J. 1867 Systeme Silurien du Centre de Ja Bohéme, pt. i, 2, Céphalo-

podes, Texte pt. i. Prague

Barranne, J, 1874 Systéme Silurien, cte., Texte, pt. iii, Prague

BARRANDE, J, 18/7 Systéme Silurien, ete., Texte, pt. v, et Supplement. Prague

Bioesny, J. J. 1824 Geology and Geography of Lake Huron. Trans. Geol. Soc.

London, 2nd ser., 1, 175-209, T.ondon

Brake’ J.P. 1882 A Monograph of British Silurian Cephalopoda, pt. i. Intro-

duction and Silurian Species, 248 pp., 31 pls. London

Bronx, FH. G, 1837 Lethaea Geognostica oder Abbildungen und Bescreibungen

der fur die Gebirgs-Formationen bezeichnendsten Versteinerungen,

Band 1, 768 pp. Stuttgart

Burman, O. M. B. 1936 On the Graptolites prepared by Ilolm, pt. vii, Ark I.

Zoologi, 28A, No. 17, 107 pp., 4 pls. Stockholm

Exsrrom, G. 1937 Upper Didymograptus Shale in Sania. Sveriges Geol.

Undersokn., ser. C, No. 403, 53 pp., 9 pls. Stockholm

Fiscnter, DP. 1887 Manuel de conchyliclogie et de paléontologie conchyliologique.

Paris

Foorp, A. H, 1888 Catalogue of the Fossil Cephalopoda in the British Museum,

pt. 1, 844 pp. London

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of the Ordovician Graptolite Beds of Victoria. Mining and Geol. Jour.,

1, 62-72, 3 pls. Melbourne

Hots, G. 1899 On Bathmoceras. Geol. Foren. Stockholm Forhandl., 21, 271-

288, pls. vii-xiv. Stockholm (Also in Sveriges Geol. Undersikn..

ser. C, No. 179)

Hyarr, A. 1884 Genera of Fossil Cephalopoda. Proc. Boston Soc, Nat. Ilist.,

22, 253-388. Boston

Hyatt, A. 1900 Cephalopoda. Zittel-Eastman, Textbook of Palaeontology, 1,

502-592, T.ondon

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Austr., 1939 Vol. 63, Plate XIX

Figs. 1-4 Bathmoceras australe nsp. Holotype

(1) dorsal, (2) lateral, (3) ventral, (4) apical views . Nat. size

391

Kerrner, R., et Boucex, B. 1936 Tableaux synoptiques des formations du

Barrandien. Trav. Inst. Géol. Paléont. Univ, Charles. Prague

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Sweden. Sveriges Geol. Undersdkn., ser, C, No. 229, 1-210, Stockholm

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2nd Afdel., No. 1, 46 pp., 3 pls. Copenhagen, 1934

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Geol, Soc. Amer., 1933, 339-340. New York

OBITUARY NOTICES

THE HON. SIR LANGDON BONYTHON, K.C.M.G

It is with deepest regret that the Society has to record its loss by death of the Hon. Sir Langdon

Bonython. Although he had been a Fellow of our Society for only a few years, and would have

made no claim to be a scientific worker, yet he did such yeoman service to this State over a period

of sixty years in the cause of education, that both the Society, one of whose objects has always been

the encouragement of education, and the general community will long have reason to remember his

work with gratitude and appreciation.

392

OBITUARY NOTICES

THE HON. SIR LANGDON BONYTHON, K.CM.G.

It is with deepest regret that the Socicty has to record its loss by death of

the Hon. Sir Langdon Bonython. Although he had been a Fellow of our Society

for only a few years, and would have made no claim to be a scicutific worker, yet

he did such yeoman service to this Siate over a period of sixty years in the cause

of edueation, that both the Society, one of whose objects has always heen the

ericouragement of education, and the general community will long have reason to

remember his work with gratitude and appreciation.

He was Chairman of the Adelaide School Board as far back as 1888, in the

days before education was made free for all, The influence of Mr. Bonython,

as he was then, was exerted through his newspaper on the side of free education

for all, which was ultimately brought about by the Act of 1891.

Largely instigated by him and supported by the powerful influence of “The

Advertiser,” the School of Mines and Industries Act was passed in 1888 at a

time when there was no provision whatever for technical education in the State.

Vhe school was started in the basement of the [exhibition Building in 1889 under

the Presidency of Sir John Cockburn, who resigned a few months later ou

becoming Premier. He was succeeded as President by Mr. Bonython, who held

office continually for fiftv years and was knighted nine years after his election

as President.

During lus long term of othce he made the remarkable record of never miss-

ing a single meeting of the Council, except on the few rare cecasions when he was

out of the State. Ie saw the school grow from about two hundred students at the

outset to over five thousand individuals.

In 1916 he was elected to the University Council aud remained an active

mentber until his death.

lie was a generous benefactor to both the University and the School of

Mines, the Bonython Hall, Bonython Laboratories for Mining and Metallurgy,

and the Bonython Chair of Law representing munificent gifts that will not only

perpetuate his name, but be of everlasting advantage to the community.

le was a member of the first and second Commonwealth Parliaments, from

1901 19 1906, and he exerted considerable influence on the guidance of the State

through the medium of his newspaper, but his active and potent interest in educa-

tion was undertaken lo serve a cause which he regarded as fundamental to the

growth and progress of the State.

this was a remarkable life, not only because of his personal achievements, but

because it deservedly was the best tribute that can be paid to any man, that he

leaves his country the better and the richer for the way in which he lived.

ROBERT CHAPMAN

393

ALFRED ALLEN SIMPSON

Alfred Allen Simpson, C.M.G., C.B.E., F.R.G.S., whose death occurred atter

a long illness on 27 November 1939, had been a Fellow of the Society since 1920.

Born at Kent Town in April 1875, he was the eldest son of the late Mr. Alfred

Muller Simpson who arrived in Australia in 1849. Alfred Allen, like his father,

became Chairman of Directors of the firm of A. Simpson & Son Ltd., which was

established by his grandfather, Alfred Simpson, in Gawler Place in 1855.

Besides his business activities, he held a number of important positions in the

public life of the community, amongst which was that of Mayor of Adelaide. The

honours conferred upon him are an appreciation of his public-spirited services.

Ilis reading was extensive, his memory excellent and his interests wide.

Many overscas visiting scientists and others have been hospitably entertained at

his home at Burnside. On the occasion of the visit, in 1925, of Dr. Clark Wissler

and Mr. E. R. Embree, representing the Rockefeller Foundation, in connection

with the proposals for Anthropological Research in Australia, this Society held

a reception for the visitors and Mr. ltmbrce stayed with Allen Simpson ag his

guest. The financial assistance rendered later by the Rockeleller Foundation was

responsible for much of the recent important wotk in Anthropology in South

Australia. The firm of A. Simpson & Sons |.td were generous contributors to the

Australasian Antare:ic Expedition under Sir Douglas Mawson in 1911-1914, and

the brothers, Allen and Fred., in similar fashion supported the B.A.N.Z.A.R.

Expeditions of 1926-1931. Sir Douglas, in the course of the latter, named Cape

Simpson on the coast of MacRobertson Land after Allen Simpson.

Alien Simpson was for many years associated with the South Australian

Branch of the Roy d Geographical Society and was its President from 1925 to

1930, Under its arspices and with the co-operation of the Defence Department,

Dr. C. T. Madigan in 1929 made an aerial investigation of an area ol unknown

desert north of Lale Eyre of approximately 56,000 square miles in extent. On

his return he named this desert after the President, Allen Simpson. In the winter

of the present year, Dr. Madigan with a land party, including Mr. Robert Simpson,

second son of Allen successfully crossed the Simpson Desert from west to east on

camels. Allen Sim son’s generosity made this expedition possible, and in spite

of the severe disabilities of his illness he followed every detail of its progress with

intense interest. South Australia is notable for the public spirit of its citizens,

and Alfred Allen Simpson occupies an honourable position amongst those who

have served their cc untry.

J. B. CLELAND

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED).

Receipts and Payments for the Year ended September 30, 1939.

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ROYAL SOCIETY LIBRARY

Additions to List, as published in Vol. 61, 1937, of Governments Societies, and Editors with whom

Exchanges of Publications are made.

Jugoslavia -- Société de Science Naturelle, Ljubljana.

Geelong Free Library.

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

The last award of the Medal was made by the Society at the Annual Meeting in October, 1938, to

Prof. J. A. Prescott in recognition of his researches on soil problems, which work was carried out

mainly at the Waite Institute, Glen Osmond, and the results largely published in the Transaction of

the Society.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.

AS ON 30 SEPTEMBER 1939

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society's Transactions.

Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.

Note - The publications of the Society are not sent to those members whose subscriptions are in

arrear.

396

ROYAL SOCIETY LIBRARY

Additions to List, as published in Vol. 61, 1937, of Governments, Societies,

and Editors with whom Exchanges of Publications are made.

Jugoslavia—Société de Science Naturelle, Ljubljana.

Geelong Free Library.

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

1929 Pror, Wattrer Howciin, F.G.5,

1930 Joux McC. Brack, A.LS.

1931 Pror. Sre Doucras Mawsoyn, 0.3.1, D.Sc, B.E. F.RS.

1933 Pror, J. Burron Creranp, M.D.

1935. Pror. T. Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc.

1938 Prov, James A. Prescorr, D.Sc. ALC.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.

AS ON 30 SEPTEMBER 1939

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papers published in the Society’s

Transactions. Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.

Note—The publications of the Society are not sent to those members whose subscriptions

ure Ill arrear,

Date of :

Election. Hoxorary FELLOWS.

1910. *Bracc, Sir W. H., O.M., K.B.E., M.A. D.C.L., LL.D. F.R.S., Director of the Royal

Institution, Albemarle Street, London (Lellow 1886).

1926. *Cuarmayn, PF, A.L.S., “Crohamhurst,” Threadneedle Street, Balwyn, Vict.

1894. *Wison, J. T., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University,

England.

FrELiows.

1935, Apam, Davin Bowar, B.Ag.Se. (Melb.), Waite Agricultural Research Institute,

Glen Osmond, S.A. ‘

1925. Anrey, W. J., M.A., C.M.G., 32 Ligh Street, Burnside, S.A.

1927. *Arperman, A. R., Ph.D., M-Sc., F.G.S., University, Adelaide—Council, 1937-.

1937. Amos, G. L., B.Sc. 233 Cross Roads, Cabra, S.A.

1931. Annprerw, Rev. J. R., 5 York Street, Henley Beach.

1935. *AnperwartHa, Hersert Grorck, M.Ag.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute,

Glen Osmond, 5.A.

1935. *Anprewarroa, Mrs. Harrie Vevers, B.Ag.Se., M.Sce., 29 Clarcmont Avenue,

Netherby, S.A.

3920. AwnceL, Frank M., 34 Fullarton Road, Parkside, S.A.

1939. *AncrEL, Miss L. M., M.Sc., University, Adelaide.

1895. }*Asupy, Enwin, F.L.S., M.B.O.U., Blackwood, S.A——Council, 1900-19; Vice-

President, 1919-21.

1902. *Baxer, W. H., Ningana Avenue, King’s Park, S.A.

1936. Barriex, Miss, B.S., M.Sc. University, Adelaide,

397

Date of

Election.

1932. Brea, P. R., D.D.Sc., L.D.S., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1939. *Berxnr, R. M,, S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1928. Besr, R. J., M.Se., A.A-CLL, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1934. Brack, E. C., M.B., B.S., Magill Road, Tranmere, Adelaide.

1907. *Brack, J. M., A.LS., 82 Brougham Place, North Adelaide—Sir Joseph Verco Medal,

1930; Council, 1927-1931; President, 1933-34; Vice-President, 1931-33.

1936. Bonytnon, THE Hon. Sir Lanavox, K.C.M.G., Montefiore Hill, North Adelaide.

1923. Burnvon, Roy S., D.Sc., University, Adelaide, S.A.

1922, *Campnett, T. D., D.D.Sc., Dental Dept. Adelaide Hospital, Frome Road, Adelaide—

Rep.-Governor, 1932-33; Council, 1928-32, 1935; Vice-President, 1932-34; Presi-

dent, 1934-35.

1907. *CHapman, Sim R. W., Kt, CMG, M.A. BCE, FR.A.S., 23 High Street, Burn-

side, S.A-—Council, 1914-22,

1929. Cmustr, W., M.B. B.S. Pdueation Department, Ilinders Street, Adelaide—

Treasurer, 1933-8.

1933. Crarxe, G. H., B.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1895, Creranp, Joun B., M.D., Professor of Pathology, University of Adelaide, S.A.—

Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1933, Council, 1921-25, 1932-37; President, 1927-28;

Vice-President, 1926-27.

1920, CLELAND, W. Parox, M.B., B.S... M.R.CP., Dashwood Road, Beaumont.

1930. *Corounoun, T. T., M.Sc. Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1907. *Cooxe, W. T., D.Se., A.A.C.E, University, Adelaide—Council, 1938-.

1938, *Conpox, H. T., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1929. *Corron, Bernarp C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1924. ve Crespreny, C. T. C, D.S.O, M.D, F.R.CP., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1937. *CrocKker, Ropert L., B.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1929. *Davipson, Prorrssor James, D.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen

Osmond, $.A.— Council, 1932-35; Vice-President, 1935-37, 1938-39; President,

1937-38.

1928. Davies, J. G. B.Sc, Ph.D. Council far Scientific and Industrial Research, Box 109,

Canberra.

1927. *Davies, Prorrssor E. Harorp, Mus.Doc., The University, Adelaide.

1930. - Drx, FE. V., Glynde Road, Firle.

1932. Dunstoxr, H. E., M.B., BS., J.P., 124 Payneham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide.

1921. Durron, G. H., B.Se., 12 Malsbury Avenue, Kingswood, Adelaide.

1931, Dwyer, J. M., M.B., B.S. 25 Port Road, Bowden.

1933. Tarptey, Miss C. M., B.Sc. University, Adelaide.

1902. *Enoursr, A. G., 19 Parrell Strect, Glenelg, S.A.

1938. *Eyans, J. W., M.A, D.Se., Government Entomologist. Hobart, Tasmania.

1917, *Fewner, C. A. E,, D.Sc., 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adelaide ——Rep. Governor,

1929-31; Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31 ; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary,

1924-25: Treasurer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-7.

1935. *Fenner, F. J.. M.B. B.S. 42 Alexandra Avenuc, Rose Park, Adelaide.

1927, *Fretavson, TI. H. University, Adelaide—Council, 1937-.

1931. Frewry, O. W.. M.B., B.S., 68 Woodville Road, Woodville.

1923. *Frv, H. K, DS.O. M.D. BS. BSe, PRACP. Town Hall, Adelaide—Council,

1933-37; Vice-President, 1937-38, 1930-; President, 1958-1939.

1932, *Grrnsonx, FE. S. H., B.Sc., 297 Cross Roads, Clarence Gardens, Adelaide.

1935. *GLastonsuey, J. O. G., BA. M.Se., Dip.Fd., 4 Mornington Road, Unley, S.A.

1919, 7Grastonsery, O. A. Adelaide Cement Cc., Brookman Buildings. Grenfell Street,

Adelaide, 5.A.

1927. Goprrey, F. K., Robert Street, Payneham, 5.A.

1935. +Gotpsack, Harotp, Coromandel Valley.

1925. +Gosse, J. H., Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adelaide.

1880. *Govper, Gzorcr, A.M., B.Sc, F.G.S., 232 East Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.

1910. *Granxt, Kerr, M.Sc. F.LP., Professor of Physies, University, Adelaide, S.A.

1933. Gray, J. H., M.B., B.S., Orroroo, S.A.

1930. Gray James T., Orroroo, S.A.

1933. Greaves, H., Director, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide.

1904. Grreriti, A. B., Dunrobin Road, Brighton, 5.A.

1934. Guyter, Rev. H. A., Riverton, S.A.

398

Date of

Election.

1922. “Harr, H. M,, The Director, S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Council, 1931-34; Vice-

President, 1934-36, 1937-38; President, 1936-37: Treasurer, 1938-.

1959. Harvey, Miss A. B.A, S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1927. Hornen, Tur Hon. EF. W., B.Sc., Dequctteville Terrace, Kent Town, Adelaide.

1933. Hosxinc, H. C., B.A., 24 Northcote Terrace, Gilberton, Adelaide.

1930. *Hoskinc, J. S., B.Se., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1924, *HossreLtp, Paut S., M.Sc., Office of Home and Territories, Canberra, F.C.T.

1939, Hurron, E. M., B.Ag.Se., Roseworthy College, S.A.

1928. IvouLp, Percy, Kurralta, Burnside, S.A.

1918. *Istnc, Ernest H., c/o Comptroller’s Office, S.A. Railways, Adelaide—Council, 1934-,

1918.

1910.

1934.

1921.

193.

1933.

1939.

1922.

1930.

1938

1931.

1938.

1922.

1923.

1939,

1933.

1932,

1929,

1905.

1938.

1920.

1934.

1929,

1907.

1939,

1925,

1933.

1938.

1924+.

1936.

1925,

1930.

1913.

1937,

1929.

1928.

1926.

1936.

*Jexnxison, Rev. J. C, 7 Frew Street, Fullarton, Adelaide.

*Jounson, E. A. M.D, M.R.CS., “Tarni Warra,” Port Noarlunga, S.A.

Jounston, J., AS.A.S.M., AAC, AA.CL, Sewage Treatment Works, Glenelg, S.A.

*Jounston, Provessor T. Harvey, M.A. 1D.Sc., University, Adelaide—Sir Joseph

Verco Medal, 1935; Rep.-Governor, 1927-29; Council, 1926-28; Vice-President,

1928-31; President, 1931-32; Secretary, 1938-; Rep. Fauna and Flora Board,

1932-39,

Kuaxnar, M. H., Khakhar Buildings, C.P. Tank Road, Bombay, India.

*KLEEMAN, A. W., M.Sc., 46 Byron Road, Black Forest, S.A.

Leask, J.C, AM.LE, 9 Buller Street, Prospect.

Lenvon, Guy A., M.D, B.S., M.R.C.P., North Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.

*Louwyck, Rev. N. II, 85 First Avenuc, St. Peters, Adelaide.

*Love, Rev. J. R. B. MLC, D.C_M., M.A, Kunmunya Mission, via Broome, Western

Australia,

*Lupprook (Mrs. W. V.), N. H., M.A., Elimatta Street, Reid, F.C.T.

Maorern, C. B., B.D.S.. D.D.Se., Shell House, North Terrace, Adelaide.

*Manican, C. T., M.A. B.E., D.Sc. F.G.S., University of Adelaide—Council, 1930-33:

Vice-President, 1933-35, 1936-37; President, 1935-36.

Marsiati, J. C., Mageppa Station, Comaum, S.A.

Marsuatr, l. J., M.Agr.Sei., Waite Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

Macarry, Miss K. de B,, B.A., B.Sc., 301 Unley Road, Adelaide.

Mann, EF. A., C/o Bank of Adelaide, Adelaide.

Martin, F.C, M.A., Technical Tigh School, Thebarton, S.A.

*Mawson, Str Doue.as, O.B.E., D.Sc., B.E., FUR.S., Professor of Geology, University

of Adelaide—Sir Joseph Vetco Medal, 1931; Rep. Governor, 1933-; President,

1924-25; Vice-President, 1923-24, 1925-26.

*Mawson, Miss P. M., M.Sc., University, Adelaide.

Mavo, Hernert, LL.B. K.C., 16 Pirie Street, Adelaide.

McCroucury, C. L, BE, A.M.LE., (Aust.), City Engineer's Office, Town Hall,

Adelaide, S.A.

McLaccuurn, E., M.B., B.S., M.R.C.P.. 2 Wakefield Street, Kent Town, Adelaide.

Mevrose, Roverr T., Mount Pleasant, S.A.

Mixcuam, V. H., Beltana, S.A.

tMircHett, Proressor Str W., K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Se., Fitzroy Terrace, Prospect,

Adclaide

Mitcuett, Proressor M. L., M.Sc., University of Adelaide.

Moornmouse, F. W., M.Sc., Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Fiinders Street, Adelaide.

Morison, A. J., Town Clerk, Town Hall, Adelaide, S.A.

*Mounrrorn, C. P., 25 Virst Avenue, St. Peters, Adelaide,

TtMorxay, Hon, Str Georce, K.C.M.G., B.A. LL.M., Magill, S.A.

Ocksnnen, G. P., Public School, Norton’s Summit, S.A,

*Oszorn, T. G. B. D.Sc. Professor of Botany, University, Oxford, England—

Council, 1915-20, 1922-24; President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27.

Parkin, Lesure W.. B.Sc., c/o North Broken Hill Ltd., Box 20 C, Broken ITill, N.S.W.

Pati, Atex. G., Eglinton Terrace, Mount Gambier.

Puiprs, Ivan I, Ph.D, BAg.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen

Osmond, S.A.

*Prrrr, C. S., M.Se., Waite Agricultural Rescarch Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

Piatt, Proressor A. E., M.D. B.S., D.T.M., D.T.H. (Syd.), Dip.Bact. (london),

F.RVA.C|P., Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, S.A.

399

Date of

Election.

1925. *Prescorr, Proressor J. A., D.Sc. A.LC., Waite Agricultural Rescarch Institute, Glen

Osmond, $.A—-Sir Joseph Verco Medal, 1938; Council, 1927-30, 1935-; Vice-

President, 1930-32; President, 1932-33.

1926. Price, A. Grenrett, C.M.G, M.A, Litt.D., F.R.G.S., St. Mark’s College, North

Adelaide.

1937. *Rart, W. L., M.Sc., St. Peter’s College, Adelaide, S.A.

1925. Ricuarpson, A. E. V., C.M.G. M.A., D.Sc., Council for Scientific and Industrial

Research, 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne.

1905. *Rocers, R. S., M.A, M.D. D.Sc., F.L.S., 52 Hutt Street, Adclaide—Counceil, 1907-14,

1919-21; President, 1921-22; Vice-President, 1914-19, 1922-24.

1933. Scunemer, M., M.B., B.S,. 175 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1924. *Srenit, R. W., M.A, B.Sc, Assistant Government Geologist, Vlinders Street,

Adelaide—Secretary, 1930-35; Council, 1937-38; Vice-President, 1938-39;

President, 1939-.

1925. *Surarp, Hanotp, Nuriootpa, S.A.

1936. *SHeEarp, Kern, S.A. Museum, Adelaide, S.A.

1934. Sninxrietp, R. C., Salisbury, S.A.

1928. Snowe tt, H., 27 Dutton Terrace, Medindie, Adelaide, S.A.

1920. Simpson, A. A., C.M.G., C.B.E., F-R.G.S., Lockwood Road, Burnside.

1938. *Stmpeson, Mrs. E. R., M.Sc., Warland Road, Burnside.

1924. Srmpson, Frep. N., Pirte Street, Adelaide.

1925. +Smitu, T. FE. Barr, B.A. 25 Currie Strect, Adelaide.

1936. Souruwoop, Atperr R., M.D., M.S. (Adel.), M.R.C.P. (Lond.), Wootoona Terrace,

Glen Osmond, S.A.

1938. Steruens, C. G., M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1935, Srrickiann, A. G., M.Ag.Sc. (Melb.), 11 Wootoona Terrace, Glen Osmond, Adelaide.

1932. Swan, D.C, M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1934. Symons, Ivor G., Murray Street, Mitcham,

1929. *Taytor, Joun, K., B.A. M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen Osmond,

1923. *Linpare, N. B., B.Sc., South Australian Museum, Adclaide—Secretary, 1935-36.

1935. ‘Trice, F., Government Printing Office, Adelaide, S.A.

1937. *TrumaLe, H. C, D.Sc, M.Ag.Se., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen

Osmond, §.A.

1894. *Turner, A. jerrerts, M.D., F.R.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Q.

1925. Turner, Duptey C., National Chambers, King William Street, Adelaide.

1933. Watrkrey, A. B.A. B.Sc. Ph.D., Waite Agricultural Research Institute, Glen

Osmond, S.A.

1912. *Warn, L. Kerry, B.A. B.E., D.Sc. Govt. Geologist, Flinders Street, Adelaide—

Council, 1924-27, 1933-35; President, 1928-30; Vice-President, 1927-28.

1939. Waruurst, Miss B. W.. B.Sc., S.A. Museum, Adelaide.

1936. Warernousre, Miss Lorna M., 35 King Street, Brighton, S.A.

1939. Wreevtne, Rey. B. J., Eudunda.

1931. Wrsox, C. E. C, M.B.B.S., “Woodfield,” Fisher Street, Fullarton, Adelaide.

1938. *Witson, J. O., Nutrition Laboratory, University, Adelaide.

1935. Wixxtrer, Rev. M. T.. B.A. D.D., 20 Austral Terrace, Malvern, Adelaide.

1930. *Woxrrsiy, H. F.R.ES., A.T.S., Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1936-37; Editor,

1937-,

1923. *Woop, J. G. D.Sc. Ph.D., Professor of Botany, University, Adelaide—Council, 1938-.

ASSOCIATE

1936. Spriec, Recinatp C., Toddville Street, Seaton Park, Adelaide.

GENERAL INDEX.

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described are new to science. ]

400

GENERAL INDEX

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the

forms described

are new to science. ]

Aboriginal Arrangements of Stones in

Central Australia, Campbell, T. D., and:

Mountford, C. P., (1), 17

Aboriginal Avrangement of Stones — at

he South Australia, Mountford, C.

(1), 119

shart Crayon Drawings, IV, Mount- |

ford, C. P., (1), 3

Aboriginal Decorative Art from Arnhem |

P., (2), 364

Land, Mountford, C

| Berndt, R. M,,

Aboriginal Names and Uses of Plants at the |

Granites, Central Australia, en J. B.,

and Johnston, T. H., (1), 2

“Tboriginal Names and Uses of ial im the

Northern Flinders Rauges, Cleland, J. L.,

and Johnston, T. H., (2), 172

Aborigines: Notes on the, of the South-Fast

of Seuth Australia, If, Campbell, T. D.,

(1),

Abutilon leucopetalum, (2), 176

Acacia dictyophicba, stipuligera, aucura,

(1),

Babbagea sp., (2), 174

Basscthullia mathewsi, glypta, (2), 195, 198

Bassia longicuspis, paradoxa, (2), 174

Bathmoceras Barrande; The Nautiloid,

Teichert, C. (2), 364

Bathmoceras pracposterum, linnarssoni,

complexum, (2), 384; australe, (2), 388

derndt, R. M., The Human Figure in Papuan

Spatula Decoration, (1), 51

Notes on the Dieri Tribe of

South Australia, (2), 167

Black, J. M., Additions to the Flora of

South Australia, No. re (2), 240

Boerhavia diffusa, (1) (2), 174

Jonython, The Hon. Sir ets Ohituary,

(2), 302

succestrongylus, (1), 140; buecalis, (1), 141,

(2), 307; australis, D, 142; setifer,

: labtatus, (2), 308

» Bulbine sp. (2), 173

24; Victoriae, rivalis, salicina, tetragono-

phylla, Oswaldii, aneura, Kempeana, (2),

173; oxycedrus, melanoxylon (2), 212;

confuens, (2), 244, 245; retinodes, Men-

zelii, (2), 245

Acanthochiton kimbert, deliciosus, bednalli,

johnstoni, (2), 185, 194, 198; tatei, ver-

couis, wilsoni, lachrymosus, (2), 186, 194,

198; sucurii, pilsbryi, gathifh, (2), 194, 198

Acanthozostera gemmata, (2), 197, 199

Acutoplax, mayi, (2), 189, 196, 199; rufa,

(2). 196, 199

Adelaide Series; The First Stage of; as

ifustrated at Mount Magnificent, Maw- ,

son, D., (1), 69

Ajuga australis, (2), 177

Amaraitus audiflorus, (1), 25

Amphihr omus recury ats,

Anacephaleus dafus, (1),

Anagallis sp. (2), “197

Angel, L. M.. Larval Trematodes from Aus-

L \, 240

’ Chartoplax purus,

tralian Ireshwater Molluscs, Pt. Vi, (2),

200

Anstey Hill: The Significance of the Topo- >

eraphy of; South Australia, Penner, C.,

(1), 79

Anthochiton oruktus, torrianus, diaphorus,

calliozonus, bednalli, exoptandus, tricosta-

lis. gcraldtonensis, (2), 196, 199

Astrebla peetinata, (2), 172

Aristida arenaria, (1), 22

Atriplex vesicarium ,(2), 174

Austrogalloides flacus, (1), 46

Austrolopa cictoricnsis, (1), 44

Autochiton terri, (2), 193, 198

Bursaria spinosa, (2), 175

(2), 156

194, 198

(2),

Caencthrombium miniatum (larva),

Callistasscecla, (2), 193; mawlei, (2),

Callistelasma, (2), 193; meridionazlis,

194, 108

Callitris glauca, (2), 172

Calythrix longiflora, (1), 25

Cambrian Sequence, The; in the Wirrealpa

Basin, Mawson, D., (2), 331

Campbell, Tf. D., Aboriginal Arrangements

ot Stones in Central Australia, (1), 17

Campbell, T. D., Notes on the Aborigines of

the South-East of South Australia, 11,

(1-27

Canis familiaris dingo, (1), 115

Cape Spencer Area, Yorke Peninsula; The

Geolegy of, Glastonbury, J. O .G. (1),

Capparis Mitchell, (2), 174

Carex appressa ?, (2), 212

Cassia desolata, glutinosa ,(1), 24

Cassinia lacvis, (2), 178

Casuarina Icpidophloia, (2),

Centaurea melitensis, (2), 178

Cephalelus punctaiis, (1), 4G

Cercaria murrayensis; The Diplostormulum

stage of, Johnston, T. IL, and Simpson,

R.. (2), 230

Cerearia plotiopsis.

193, 198; clelandeac, (2), 200

(2), 184, 193,

rhadinostachyum,

album, (2), 173

(2) ,187

(1), 65; purus, (2), 184,

198

(1),

Chenepodium Zo

cristatum,

401

(2), 188, 195, 199

155

Chor:plax pattisoni,

Chyzeria australiense (larva), (2),

Cienfucgosia australis, (1), 24

| Diomedea exulans chionoptera, (2), 315

cauta cauta, chlororhyncha, (2), 316;

melanophris, chrysostoma, (2), 317

Dipctalonema spelaca, (2), 207; roemeri, (2),

309

| THplostomulum murrayense, Johnston, ‘TP. H.,

and Simpson, E. R., (2), 235

Dromeothrombium macropodus, (2), 150;

drouzis, (2), 151

| Dodonaea attenuata, (2), 176

| Duboisia Hopwoedii,

(2) 177

_ Eardley, C. M., A South Australian Sphag-

Cladium articulatum, (2), 212

Clavarizona hirtosa, (2), 197, 199

Cleland, J. B., Aboriginal Names and Uses

of Plants at the Granites, Central Aus-

tralia, (1), 22

Cleland, J. B., Abcriginal Names aud Uses |

of Plants in the Northern Ihnders

Ranges, (2), 172

Cc erodendron ovalifolium floribundum, (1), |

CEanthus speciosus, (2), 175

“Limatic Factors in Relation to the Agricul-

tural Regions of Southern Australia,

‘Trumble, I. C., (1), 36

Cloacina rebertsi, (1), 129; burnettiana (1).

130; similis, longispiculata, (1), 131;

bancroftorum, communis, macropodis, (1),

133; cornuta, miner (2), 208; longelabiata,

(2), 209 ; magnipapillata, (2), ; 307

Codonocarpus pyrainidalis, (2), 174

Commersonia crispa, (1), 24

Condon, H. T., The Cranial Osteology of

certain ‘Tubinares, (2), 311

Conaceras, (2), 364; coum, (2), 385

Convolvulus erubescens, (2), 177

Corehorus longipes, (2), 245

Coronostrongylus, (1), 4s coranatus, (1). |

145 i

Cotton, B. C., Flindersian Joricates, (2).

180 :

Cranial Osteology. The, of certain Tubin- |

ares, Conden, H. T., (23, 311

Craspedochiton rottnestensis, (2), 164, 198

Craspedoplax variabilis, cornuta, (2), 194,

198

Crocker, R. L., A South Australian Sphag-

(2), 210

num Nee.

Crocochiton crocod lus, (2), 187, 195, 198

Crossolhrombtum parkhousci, (2), 12

Crotalaria: Mitehellii v. tomentosa, (1), 24

Crvptoplax striata westernenst striata

Slant alis, (2), 187, 195, 198; iredalei,

195, 198

Cynanchum floribundum, (2), 177

Cyperus vagiuatus, gunni, rotundus, (2), 172

3 > ao , # S

Dactylocnemium acgyptiam, (2), 172

PDaption capense, (2), 329

Datura stramonium, (2), 177

Dianella revoluta, (2), 173

Didiscus glaucifolius, (2), 177

Dierastylis ochrotricha, (1), 25

, 386;

num Bog, (2), 210

Echinonema cinctum,

> Ecolugical Coneepts and

Wood, J. G. (2), 215

| Enchylaena tomentosa, (2), 174

Epacris impressa, (2), 212

Eragrostis sp, (2), 172

| Eremophila longifolia,

glabra, (2), 178

Friachne sp. (1), 22

trvthrina vespertilio,

| Rucalyptus polycarpa, odontocarpa, aspersa,

apodophylla, largiflorens, (1), 25; inter-

texta, oleosa, transcontinentalis, Gilli,

rostrata, (2), 176; Baxteri, Huberiana,

: (2), 212

Sudoxoplax inornata, (2), 196, 199

Zuporoplax levis, (2), 184, 193, 198; virgatus,

(2), 205

Nomenclature,

Sturtii, scoparil,

(1), 24

(2), 193, 198

Turarya acuminata, spicata, (2), 173

Furetoplax wilsoni, (2), 184, 193, 198

Euryurelella tonnoiri, (1), 47

Surymeloides & balimensis, (1), 48

Evans. J. W.. Some new Australian

hoppers (Homoptera, Jassvidea),

=xocarpus aphylla, (2), 173

Leaf-

(1), 4

The

of Anstey

Significance of the Topo-

Hill, South Australia,

Fenner, €.,

graphy

(1), 78

| Fenner, FL J.,

| Skull; — its

Australian Aboriginal

morphological

The

non-metrical

characters, (2), 248

Fenner, F. J., Observations on the Mandibular

| Torus, (2), 224

Finlayson, H. H., On

Lake Fyre Basin,

delphia, (1), 88

Finlayson, H. TL, On Mammals from the

Lake Eyre Basin, Pt. V, (2), 348

| Finlayson, H. FT.. Records and descriptions

of Muridae from Ooldea, South Austra-

Mammals irom the

Pt. IV, The Mono-

lia, (2), 354

| Flora of South Australia; Additions to,

| Black, J. M., (2), 240

| Gahnia psittocorum, (2), 212

Gastrolobium elachistum, (2), 245

Didymograptus bifidus, hirundo, (2

austrodentatus, interstitus, (2), 337

Dieri Tribe of South Australia, Notes on

the, Berndt, R. M., and Vogelsang, T., |

(2), 167

Digitaria Brownti, (2), 172

Gilesia biniflora, (2), 245

Glastonbury, J. O. G., The Geology of the

Cape Spencer Area, Yorke Peninsula,

(1), 14

Globocephaloides, (1), 146; wallabiac, affinis,

(1), 147

Grevillea Wickhami, (1), 23; muricata,

Rogersil, aspersa, oleoides, (2), 244

Guniheria kallipygos, (2), 157

402

| Lomandra sororia,

Hakea lorea, Cunninghamii, macracarpa,

macroptera, (1), 23; Ednicana, leucoptera,

(2), 173

Haploplax, lentiginosus, (2), 184, 193, 198; |

smaragdinus, resplendens, thomasi, (2), |

193, 198 i

Hleterozona properensis cariosus, fructicosus,

(2), 184, 193, 197; subviridis, (2), 193,

197

Helichrysum decurrens, adnatum, retusum, |

var. scabrruin, (2), 246 |

Heliotropium curopacum, (2), 177

Hermannia Gilesii, (2), 245

Heterodendron olcifolium, (2), 176

Hibiscus Huegelii, (2), 176

Hymenocapsa longipes, (2), 245

Ichnanthus australiensis {1), 22 |

Indigofera viscosa, georgei, boviperda, (1), |

Inula graveolens, (2), 178 i

Ipoides maculosa, loranthae, sorrisi, (1), |

48 |

Tpomaca sp., calobra, (1),

Ischnochiton tredalei, Dae ery elongatus |

lincolatus, variegatus, atkinsoni, (2), |

184, 192, 197; milligani, pilsbryi, ptychius, |

tateanus, faleatus, contractus, (2), 192,

197

Ischnoradsia australis, evanida, novae-hol- |

landiae, (2}, 185, 193, 198

fsoplacophora, (2), 185 i

(2), 177

Aboriginal Names and Uses

Granites, Central Aus-

Jasminium ie

Johnston, T. TL.

of Plants at the

tralia, (1), 22

Johnston, T. H., Larval

Australian Terrestrial

Molluses, Pt. V, (1), 63

Trematodes from

and Freshwater

Johnston, T. H., Strongyle Nematodes from

Queensland Marsupials, (1), 121

Johnston, T. H., Aboriginal Names and

Uses of Plants in the Northern Flinders

Ranges, (2), 172

Johnston, T. TT, Larval Trematodes from

Australian Freshwater Molluses, Pt. VT,

(2), 200

Johnston, T. II, Sundry Nematodes from

Eastern Australian Marsupials, (2), 204

Ledrapura compressa,

Johnston, T. H., Lhe Diplostomulum Stage of

Cercaria murrayensis, (2), 230

Johnston, T. F., Some Nematodes from Vic-

torian and Western Australian Marsupials,

(2), 307

Johnstoniana eitsthumi, (2), 151

Juncus pallidus, (2), 212

Keelia sedifolia, (2), 174

Kopionella mathewsi, (2), 195, 199

Larapintine Series, (2), 385

Lavatera plebeja, (2), 176

Leaf-hoppers: Some new

moptera, Jassoidea), Evans,

(Ho-

qd),

Australian

J. W.,

(1), 45

Lepidinm rotundum, oxytrichum,

Leponitlus conditor yar. ? (1), 111

Leptocarpus tenax, (2), 212

Leptospermum scoparium, (2), 212

filiformis, (2), ah

Maiden, (2), 17.

189, 196, 199; sandllr.

(2), 174

Loranthus cxocarpi,

Lorica ellotae, (2),

(2), 196, 199

Lorieates, TF lindersian, Cotton,

Weeding, B. J., (2), 180

Loricella angasi, (2), 196, 199

Lotus australis v. parviflor us,

Lucilina hulliana, (2), 197,

B.C, and

173

(2),

109

Macronectes giganteus, (2), 319

MaGcapoe chs sus yorkel, macropostrongy-

lus, (1), 143

Malva sp., (2), 176

Malvastrum spicatum, (2), 176

Mammals, On; from the Lake Eyre Basin,

Pt. IV, The Monodelphia, Finlayson, H.

i, (1). 88

Mammals from the Lake Fyre Basin, fFin-

layson, H. FL, (2), 348

Mandibular Torus, Observations on the,

Fenner, f. J., (2), 224

Marsilca quadrifolia, (2), 179

Marsdenia australis, (2), 177

Mawson, 12., The first Stage of the Ade-

laide Series: as illustrated at Mount

Magnificent, (1), 69

Mawson, P. M., Strongyle Nematodes from

Queensland Marsupials, (1) ,121

Mawson, DL. M., Sundry Nematodes from

Eastern Australian Marsupials. (2), 204

Mawson, P. M., Some Nematodes from Aus-

trahan and Western Australian Mar-

supials,, (2), 307

Mawson, D., Vhe Cambrian Sequence in the

Wirrealpa Basin, (2), 331

Melaleuca leucadendron, (1), 25; pubescens,

glomerata, Jinophylla, (2), 1706; sdquar-

rosa, (2), 212

403

Mentha, (1), 25

Mercer, F. V., Atmospheric Pollen in the

City of Adelaide and Environs, (2), 372

Metiropiax retrojecta, (2), 194, 198

Mitelloides moaensis, (1), 46

ings, (1), 3

Mountiord, C. P., Aboriginal Arrange-

meuts of Stones in Central Australia, (1),

Mountiord, C. P.,

of Stones at Moana,

(1), 119

Mountford ,C. P., Aboriginal

Art from Arnhem Land, Northern Ter-

ritory of Australia (2), 3604

Mucrosquama aielseni, sheardi, (2),

197, 169; vercoris, (2), 197, 199

Aboriginal Arrangement

South Australia,

190,

Murids, Their increase and population move- |

ments in the Lake Eyre Basin, 1930-36,

Finlayson, H. H., (2), 348

Muridae from QOoldea, South Australia,

Reeords and Descriptions of, Fintayscn,

H. H., (2), 354

Mus musculus, (1), 115

Myoporum platycarpum, (2), 178

Myriophyllum propinguum, (2), 212

Nepticula warburtournsis, (2), 239

Nepticulidae: A new species of the Family,

Wilson, J. O., (2), 238

Nematodes, Stroneyle, from Queensland

Marsupials, Johnston, T. IL, and Maw-

son, P. M., (1), 126

Nematodes, Suudry; from Eastern Austra-

lian Marsupials, Johnston, T. H., and

Mawson, P. M.. (2), 204

Nematodes, Some: from Victorian and

Western Australian Marsupials, Johnston,

T. H,, and Mawson, P. M., (2). 307

Neoschongastia, (2), 158: westralense vy.

trichosuri, perameles, (2), 159; queens-

landica, derrick!, (2), 162; simitht,

164; edwardsi, coorongense, petrogale,

a led a dasycerci, impar, lorius, (2),

165

Nicotiana Benthamiana, (1), 26; velutina,

glauca, (2), 177

Nothoceras, (2), 384

Notomys aistoni, (1), 103, (2), 357; cervinus

(1), 108; mitchelli, macropus, (2), 358

Notoplax speciosa, subspeciosa, spongialis,

glauerti, rubrostrata, (2), 186, 195, 198;

subviridis, 195, 198

Nostoc commune v. flagelliforum, (2), 179

Nyctophilus geoffroyi, pallescens, (1), 115

Onithella ashbyi, (2), 197, 199

Qnithochiton occidentalis, (2), 197, 199

Ovatoplax mayi, (2), 184, 193, 198

Owenia reticulata, (1), 24

Decorative |

(2), |

| Oxyuris potorvo, (2), 309

| Qzothamnus scaber, (2), 246

Panicum decompositum, (2), 172, (2), 240;

Whitei, effusum, (2), 246

Papillostrongylus labiatus, (1), 148

Pappophorum sp., avenaceum ,(1), 22, (2),

172

Papuan Spatula Decoration: The Human

Figure in, Berndt, R. M., (1}, 31

Parachiton pelagicus, verconis, (2), 183,

192, 197; collusor, opiparus, (2), 192, 197

Paraschongastia, (2), 165; dubia, retrocincta,

megapodius, peste, (2), 166

Parazonioluimus collaris, (2), 308

» Paricaplax crocina, (2), 196, 199

' Paspalidium gracile, (2), 172

| Perotis rara v. euryphylla, indica, (2), 241

| Pharyngostrongylus gamma, (1), 134; delta,

| (1), 130; epsilon, (1), 137; seta, C1),

| 138; eta, (1), 139; macropodis, brevis,

alpha, (1), 140; ornatus, (2), 209; alpha,

beta, delta, epsilon, zeta, theta, (2), 307

Phellorinia stroblina, (2), 178

Phoebetria fusca, (2), 315

Physaloptera peramelis, (2), 203

Pimela microcephala, (2), 176

Pittosperum phillyrecides, (2), 175

Plectronia latifolia, (1), 26

» Plourosorus ruteifolius, @. ie

Platyledra qonstrosa, (1),

' Podaxou pistillaris, (1), 26. i (2), 178

Pollen, Atmospheric; in the City of Ale-

laide aud Environs, Mercer, I (2),

372

Poncroplax albida, costata, conspersa, (2),

188, 195, 109

Pertulaca oleracea, (1), 23: (2), 174

Poatorostrongylus finlaysont, (2), 308

Prissella antarctica, (2), 328

Prostanthera striatiflora, (2), 177

Protospivura mavsupia‘is, (2), 207

Poe mnie, (1), ¢4, (2) 354; rawlin-

nae, (1) 101, (2) 354; forresti, (1) 101

Psoralea pustulata, (1), <A eens, (2), 175

Pteridium aquilinum, (2),

Ptereeaulon elandulosum, sade ad),

Pterodroma lessoni, (2), 327; macroptera,

gouldi, (2), 329

Putfinus gavia huttont (2). 322: tent ros-

tris, carneipes, (2), 323; griseus, (2),

327

Pultenaca evmbifolia, (2), 245

Restio complanatus, (2), 213; tetraphyllus,

(2), 213, 243

Rhagodia paraholica, (2),

Rhotidoides sidnica, (1), 47

~ Rumex dumosus, (2), 244

404

Saisola kali, (2), 174

Scacvola spineseens, (2), 178

Schoenus racemasus, (2),

monocarpus, caespitilius,

carsel, deformis, (2), 243

Schismus arabicus, barbatus, calveimus,

24)

Schivaea dichotoima, (2). 240

Schongastia jamesi, van der sandei, blestowe,

(2), 166

Senecio sp, (2),

Setaria sp. (1), 22

Sida intricata, petrophila, (2), 176

Simpson, Alfred Allen; Obituary, (2), 393

Simpson, E. R. Larval Srematodes from

Australian Verrestrial and Freshwater

Molluses, Pt. V. (1), 63

Simpson, E.R The Diplostomulum Stage

of Cerearia murrayensis, (2), 230

Skull; The Australian Aboriginal:

metrical morphological characters, F.

Fenner, (2), 248

Solanum nemophilium, centrale, pbhlomoides,

(1), 25; nigrum, Sturtianum, petrophilum,

ellipticum, (2), 177

Sphagnum Bog; A South Australian,

Crocker, R. L., and Eardley, C. M., (2),

210

Sphagnum dubiosum, subbicclor, (2), 212

Stenochiton longieymba, pilsbryanus, cyme-

docialis, paflens, ¢2), 193, 198

Stipa variahilis, (2), 172; tenuighimis, com-

pacta, effusa, variegata, pubescens, cremo-

242; laevigatus,

brachyphyllus,

phila, (2), 241; hemipogon, bigeniculata, |

aristiglumis, (2), 242

Strigichiton vereonis, (2), 193, 198

Subulura peramelis, (2), 204, 309

Sypharochiton maugeanus, (2), 191, 197, 199)... : : ,

NUMa naar) s (2) 4 | Womersiey, H., Further Notes on the Aus-

Teichert, €.. The Nautiloid Bathmoceras

Barrande, (2), 384

Templetonia egena, (2), 175

Terenochiton niger, mathewsianus,

(2), 182, 191, 197; ives, (2), 182,

197; liratus, glauerti, (2), 191, 197

Tetragonia expausa, (2), 174

Thalassoica antarctica, (2), 327

Themeda triandra, (1), 22

Tinospora smilacina, Walcottii, (1), 24

Trematodes, Larval, from Autstrahan ‘Ler-

restrial and Freshwater Molluses, Pt. V,

Johnston, LT. H., and Simpson, ff. R.,

(1), 63

Trematodes, Larval, from Australian Fresh-

water Molluscs, Pt. VI, Johnston, T. H.,

and Angel, L. M., (2), 200

191,

badius. |

Tribulus macrocarpus, occidentalis, (1), 24;

terrestris, occidentalis, (2), 176

Trichinium leucoma, (1), 23; exaltatum, (2),

174

' Trichodesma zeylanicum v. sericeum (1), 25;

(2), 177

Trichostrongylus sp., (2), 309

Trichuris peramelis, (2), 208

Triodia spp., (1), 23; (2), 172

> Trocnada «/pina, (1), 47

its non +

Lid

Trombella adeluideee, (2), 149

Trambicula minor, hirsti, var. buloloensis,

(2), 152; sambont, rioi, macropus, novae-

hollandiae, (2), 153; wickmanni, (2),

154

Trombididae, Further Notes on the Austra-

lian, with description of new species,

Womersley, H., (2), 149

Trumble, H. C. Climatic Factors in Rela-

tion to the Agricultural Regions of

Southern Australia, (1), 36

' Ulopora risdonensis, (1), 44

» Voeelsang,

Weeding, B. J.

Urtica sp.. (2), 173

Velleyva connata, (1), 26

T., Notes on the Diert Tribe of

South Australia, (2), 167

Wahlenbergia Sicbery,

multicaulis, (2), 178

flindersian Loricates, (2),

180

Wilson, J. O., A New Species of the Family

Nepticulidae, (2), 238

tralan Trombidiidae with description of

new species, (2), 149

Woaud, J. G., Ecological Concepts and No-

menelature, (2), 215

Nanthium spinosum, (2), 178

Xantherrhoca quadrangulata,

tralis, (2), 243

Xvris operculata, (2), 212

(2), 173; aus-

Zoisia Matrella, (2), 240

Zomolaumus bancrofti, (1), 123: bipapillosus,

conmninis, (1), 125; tnsularis, (1), 126;

uncinatus (1), 127; onyehoyale, (1), 128;

longispicularis, ualabatus, clelandi, com-

munis, uncinatus, (2), 308

Zygophyllum spp, (2), 176

Wholly set up and printed in Australia by Gillingham & Co. Limited, 106 Currie Street, Adelaide

CONTENTS

PART I

Movuntrorp, C. P.:; Aboriginal Crayon Drawings, IV Relating to. Every-day Incidents

of the Ngada Tribe of the Warburton Ranges of Western “Australia aa re

Grastonsury, J. O. G.: The Geology of the Cape'Spencer Area, Yorke Peninsula

Campsett, T. D., and Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Arrangements of Stones in

Central Australia

Cieranp, J. B., and Jounston, T. ericaces ‘Abo vital Waniee ee see of Plants at

the Granites, Central Australia

Campsett, T. D.: Notes on the Aborigines of the "South- Fast af South Australia

Part IT os.

Trumsiet, H. C.: Climatic Factors in Relation to the. Agricultural Region of

Southern Australia .

Evans, J. W.: Some New ‘Australian Leaf- hopoers ( Homoptera, Jassoidea)

Bernot, R. Murray: The Human Figure in Papuan Spatula Decoration

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Simpson, E. R.: Larval Trematodes from usteatin

Terrestrial and Freshwater Molluscs Part V..

Mawson, D.: The First Stage of the Adelaide Series: As illustrated at Mount

Magnificent

Fenner, C.: The Significance of the Topography of Anstey Hil, South “Australia

Fintayson, H. H.: On Mammals from the Lake Eyre Basin Part IV The

Monodelphia 2

Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Arrangement of ‘Stones at Moana, “South ‘Australia

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Mawson, P. M.: Strongyle Nematodes from Queensland

Marsupials ; a ne = ae es ae a a

PART II

Womerstey, H.: Further Notes on the Australian Trombidiidae ..

Bernot, R. M., and Voceirsanc, T.: Notes on the Dieri Tribe of South Acuaurates

CueLanp, J. B., and Jonwston, T. H.: Aboriginal Names and Uses of Plants in the

Northern Flinders Ranges ae a

Corron, B. C., and Weepine, B. J.: Flindersian Loricates i 3

Jounston, T. H., and Ancrr, L. M.: Larval Trematodes from Pe ern Brett

Molluscs, Part VI :

JoHNSTON, Pie H., and Mawson, P. M.: "Sundry Nematodes from Eastern Australian

Marsupials

Crocker, R. L., and EARDLEY, (SF M.: A South ‘Australian Sphagnum Bog

Woon, J. G.: Ecological Concepts and Nomenclature .

Fenner, F. J.: Observations on the Mandibular Torus

Jounston, T. H., and Simpson, E. R.: The Diplostomulum Stage of Cana

murrayensis iF ms =

Witson, J. O.: A new species ear the amie Newnciatie a

Buack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 38 .

Fenner, F. J.: The Australian Aboriginal Skull: its non- rial roenieeeee

characters ; ore

Jounston, T. H., and “Mawson, P. M.: Some Nematodes from Victorian and Western

Australian Marsupials +

Connon, H. T.: The Cranial Osteology of certain Tubinares

Mawson, Str D.: The Cambrian Sequence in the Wirrealpa Basin

Fintayson, H. H.: On Mammals from the Lake Eyre Basin, Pt. V ;

Frintayson, H. H.: Records and Descriptions of Muridae from Ooldea, South Aisa

Mountrorp, C. P.: Aboriginal Decorative Art from Arnhem Land

Mercer, F, V.: Atmospheric Pollen in the City of Adelaide and Environs

TEICHERT, C.: The Nautiloid, Bathmoceras Barrande .. A

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