CONTENTS

Jessup, R. W.: The Ecology of the Area adjacent to Lakes Alexandrina and Albert

Grsson, E. S. H.: Singing Sands

Manican, C. T.: The Simpson Desert ee 1939—Scientific es No. 6, Geo-

logy—-The Sand Formations R

Crocker, R. L,, and Corton, B. C.: Some Raised Beaches of the Lower South-East of

South Australia and their significance a5 a! 2%, Pr A thy

Crocker, R. L.: An Introduction to the Soils and Vegetation of Ere iid South

Australia es ate a Pi SS Pa est !

Crocker, R. L.: Notes on a Recent Raised Beach at Point Brown, Yorke Peninsula,

South Australia

Bursipce, N. C.: Germination Studies of Australian RSS RoE with special

reference to the Conditions necessary for Regeneration. (a) Kochia one

F. v. M., (b) A. pyramidata Benth. (c) K. georget a ee

Jounston, T. H., and Becxwitu, A. C.: The Life Cycle of the Sheep Liver Fluke in

South Australia Le =, cg a! +4 ri by AF, Als Fe

Womerscey, H.B.S.: Studies on the Marine Algae of Scuthern Australia—Introduction

and No. 1. The Genera Isactis and Rivularia (Myxophyceae) ..

Womerstey, H. B. S.: Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern Australia—No. 2.

A New Species of Dasyopsis (Family Dasyaceae) from Kangaroo Island ..

Earpiey, C. M.: The Simpson Desert SENTERO 1939, Scientific rpg No, 7. ea ties

—Part I. Catalogue of Plants oe af . 4

Kieeman, A. W.: An Age Determination of Samarskite from Mount Painter, South

Australia 7 4: a Ae: ry

Hate, H. M.: Australian Cumacea. No.13. The Family Lampropidae

Turner, A. J.: Contributions to our Knowledge of the Australian Tortricidae aso

doptera), Pt. II .. ; fy ’

Bursince, N. T.: Morphology and Anatomy of the Western Australian aperies of

Triodia R. Br. I, Internal Anatomy of Leaves +4

Crocker, R. L.: The Simpson Desert Expedition 1939 Scientific Reports: No. 8—The

Soils and Vegetation of the Simpson Desert and its Borders .. L 9 #8

Boomsma, C. D.: The Vegetation of the Southern Flinders Ranges, South Australia ..

Mawson, D., and Secnit, FE. R.: Barium-rich Aplitic Gneisses of Broken Hill ..

Norruoore, K. H.: A Fossil Soil from Kangaroo Island,, South Australia

Crespin, I.: Foraminifera and other Micro-fossils from some of the Tertiary Deposits

in the vicinity of Aldinga Bay, South Australia .. =

Sparcc, R. C.: Reconnaissance Geological mare of pers of the Western Foothills

of the Mount Lofty Ranges ‘ fe a:

Epwarps, A. B., and Mawson, D.: The Moorumbunna Meteorite .

Page

108

110

121

127

137

297

als

348

THE ECOLOGY OF THE AREA ADJACENT TO

LAKES ALEXANDRINA AND ALBERT

BYR. W. JESSUP, DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Summary

This paper is concerned with the ecology of the area which links the Savannah Woodlands

communities of the eastern Mount Lofty Ranges with the communities of the South-East of

South Australia on the one hand and the mallee communities of the Murray Mallee on the other.

More specifically the survey embraces the Hundreds of Manarto, Mobilong, Freeling and

Brinkley of County Sturt and Malcolm, Seymour, Coolinong, Jeffries and Bonney of County

Russell, representing a total of 1,100 square miles. Fig. 1 shows the relationship of the area to

the rest of the State. On account a lack of development, due to comparatively low rainfall and

poor natural conditions of soil, much of it is relatively inaccessible.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED

THE ECOLOGY OF THE

AREA ADJACENT TO LAKES ALEXANDRINA AND ALBERT

By R. W. Jessup, Department of Botany, University of Adelaide

[Read 15 November 1945}

Prates I to TV

CoNnTENTS

I [ytropuction .. -f 4 ar Fe

Jl Curmate re a3 re

Ill Gmrowocy ANn PHYSIOGRAPHY ..

1V Tue Sors . ae a3

(a) Red-brown Earths . -<

(b) Podsols with Solonized Subsoils

(d) Soils of Intermediate Nature 4

(ce) Soils of partly lacustrine Origin .. 44

(4) Soils derived from Igneous Parent Materials

Vo MrcHaAntcar ann Cnewrcan ANALYSES OF THE SOILS ..

VI Tre Osicixn op THE Sos)... ae > < 4

VII THE VEGETATION by .. = irs 53 hs bp

(a) Hordeum murinum—Danthonia semiannularis association

(b) Casuarina stricta association es $s e.

(d) #. oleosa-~E. dumosa edaphic complex .. uf re me a=

(e) E. angulosa-B. cneorifolia—M. uncinuta-B. Behrii edaphic complex .. 25

(f) E. diwersifolie-E. angulosa-E. leptophylla edaphic complex .. ., 2

VIII THe DeveLormENTAL CoMMUNITIES \t ae 4 + rv Lod OS

IX Summary aA se + 1” + ty nt fe bs i. 3d

X ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Aa sla a's ia tg .# is os .. 33

XI REFERENCES ee .. re of ae = 23 i, + 2. 35

INTRODUCTION

This paper is concerned with the ecology of the area which links the Savannah

Woodland communities of the eastern Mount Lofty Ranges with the communities

of the South-East of South Australia on the one hand and the mallee communities

of the Murray Mallee on the other. More specifically the survey embraces the

Hundreds of Monarto, Mobilong, Freeling and Brinkley of County Sturt and

Malcolm, Seymour, Coolinong, Jeffries and Bonney of County Russell, represent-

ing a total of 1,100 square miles. Fig. 1 shows the relationship of the area to the

rest of the State, On account of a lack of development, due to comparatively

low rainfall and poor natural conditions of soil, much of it is relatively inaccessible.

With regard to previous literature, Wood’s “Vegetation of South Australia”

(21) gives a good general account, while Crocker (5) has adequately dealt with

the ecology of the lower South-East, The soils of the mallee have been investi-

gated by Prescott and Piper (15), while soils related to some of those considered

in this paper have been described by Taylor (19) in the upper South-East and

Stevens et alia (18) in the lower South-East.

Trang. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, (1), 30 June 1946

CLIMATE

The greater part of the area lies within Davidson’s (6) warm temperate semi-

arid zone with P/E greater than 0-5 for five months of the year, but in the

western and south-easterly portions P/E exceeds 0-5 for seven months of the

year, This is within the warm temperate semi-humid zone.

ADELAIDE

Fig. 1 Map showing the locality of the area stirveyed

The influential rains fall in the winter and spring, with June the month of

highest rainfall (fig. 2). Murray Bridge has a secondary maximum in September.

Figures for temperature and relative humidity are only available for Strathalbyn,

which lies just outside the western limits of the area. Relative humidity is low,

particularly in the summer.

GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

Broadly the surface deposits consist of Jevel-bedded Miocene limestones

overlain by much wind-blown sand of Pleistocene to Recent origin (7). Inter-

posed between the light grey wind-blown sands of the southern portion of the

area and the consolidated Miocene limestone is a layer of mixcd calcareous and

siliceous sands unconsolidated except for an indurated capping. The calcareous

and siliceous sands form both dune sheets and dunes, the system being related to

the Pleistocene coastal dunes of the lower South-East.. This period of oscillating

land and sea level has also resulted in the formation of limited areas of raised

Pleistocene shell beds. According to Howchin (8) the Coorong, which may

represent to some extent a former outlet of the River Murray in a more southerly

direction, was formed during these times. The presence of lacustrine deposits

overlying the wind-blown sands adjacent to Lakes Alexandrina and Albert

indicates inundations following the arid Recent,

Topographically the area consists of gently undulating plains, but to the west

of the mallee plains the land rises fairly rapidly to the Bremer Range, which is the

eastern-most block of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Underlying the Miocene lime-

stone and occasionally outcropping is a granite batholith of Palaeozoic or Pre-

Cambrian age (10). According to Fenner (7) these hard, older rocks may have

influenced the course of the lower Murray, causing it to swing westerly from

Chucka Bend, carrying it to Tailem Bend instead of following the normal fall

of the land,

80 t 3

> n

Ee ul

a 26

= =

m =

= =

wu}

> eo

ee Ww

ae o&

45 :

Ww)

IF z

[a4

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY vJUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

PERIOD IN MONTHS

——. LANGHORNE CR.

—-—- MURRAY BRIDGE f MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALLS

+t MENINGIE

---—- MEAN MONTHLY MAX. TEMP.’

—s " a MIN." ; STRATHALBYN

_—— " REL. HUM.

Fig. 2

“

THE SOILS

The soils are yery closely related to the geology, so much so that certain

difficulties are encountered in their classification. They can, however, be grouped

as follows:

Soils derived from underlying sedimetitaries (red-brown earths),

Podsols with solonized subsoils.

Weakly solonized brown soils.

Soils of intermediate nature.

Soils of partly lacustrine origin,

Soils derived from igneous parent materials.

Kino

1 Rep-prown Eartus

These soils have been derived from the underlying sedimentaries of the

Adelaide Series (Proterozoic), which have undergone various degrees of meta-

morphism due to intrusion of igneous material. They are closely related to, if not

identical with, red-brown earths and carry an £, odorata—E. lencoxylon—E. fascicu-

lesa association, which is replaced by C. stricta on shallow skeletal soils which are

common on the steeper hills. Some profiles show an accumulation of lime above

the sedimentaries, To the east, with decreasing rainfall, these red-brown earths

are replaced by brown weakly solonized soil. The transition zone is rather broad

and Table I gives the resttits of laboratory analyses of a profile front this zone. In

this case no horizons are developed and there is considerable lime accumulation

above the underlying rock. The reaction is that of a brown weakly solonized soil.

2 Poosors with SoLonizep SurRsoirs

These soils were formed under high rainfall conditions in the Pleistacene

from the calcarcous and siliceous sands of the old coastal dunes and dune sheets,

probable accession of cyclic salt at the time of leaching accelerating the down-

ward movement of the clay fraction while under arid conditions in the Recent

the surface sands were subjected to aeolian redistribution (Crocker—paper un-

published.) The pedogenetically related podsolized sands of the lower South-

East have their podsol characters more pronotinced, while in the area discussed

in this paper with conditions of much lower rainfall the solonetz characters are

more prominent. Thus the pH values are higher and the subsoils which are

faintly mottled show fairly well-developed columnar structure, sand from the

A horizons penetrating the B horizon to a depth of 7” and the tops of the columns

varying in diameter from 3 ta 9 inches, Beneath the columns the subsoils show a

nutty structure.

Soils of this group are widespread in the region surveyed and are associated

with three major types of vegetation: (a) mallee-heath and heath; (b) 4, diverst-

folia—£. angulosa association; and (ce) FE. angulosa-M. wicinata association,

The profiles correspond to descriptions given hy Taylor (19) of light and normal

phases of the Laffer gand, and others to the Llill Country suite. For convenience

the soils are discussed in three sections: '

{a} Mallee-heath and heatk soils—Over the greater part of the area shown

on the vegetation map as mallee-heath and heath the soil is a Laffer sand. There

are two phases: (a) light phase. lacking a sandy clay Jouny stibsoil, and

(b) normal phase (pl. iii, fig. 2). On sandy rises the soil profile corresponds to

descriptions given for the low sandy rive type of the Hill Country suite. The

soifs occupy a gently undulating plain which is not subject to water-logging,

although the water table, which is usually at a depth of 10-15’, may come to within

G’ of the surface. Analyses of the ground water have shown a variation of fram

1-6% total soltible salts. Outcrops of limestone are not infrequent.

PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PopsOLs WITH SOLONIZED SUBSOILS

(1) Heath and mallee-heath soils

Laffer sand

light phase

grey sand

very light ) 6"

grey 9 pa | sand

Hill Country Suite

low sandy rise type

grey pa | sand

5 7"

very light

grey sand

24"

yellow

A3 sand

Laffer sand

normal phase

erey cand

very light 9

10 sand

23"

sandy clay

2g" loam

grey

orange=brown

The B horizon may be at a shallower

depth and underlain by more yellow

sand, decreasing in colour with depth.

orange=brown

Je" sandy clay loam

Fig. 3a

PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PopsoLts witH SOLONIZED SUBSOILS

(2) E. diwversifolia-E. angulosa soils,

Hill Country Suite Hill Country Suite

intermediate sandy rise type low sandy rise type

ree 5 grey sand

very lig 5

grey & SS

yellow

yellow 40"

decreasing in

colour with

@epth

sand

726K

(3) E. angulosa- M. uncinata soils.

Laffer sand Hill Country Suite

normal phase intermediate sandy ridge type

ey or dark ey or dark

a grey 4 | sand al erey ; sand

very light 4 very light grey

grey iW ? yellow 12"

sand 14

orange-

brown 20 aun orange=-brown 24

sand

sandy clay

loam

40" 40"

sand

60"

sandy clay

loam

Fig. 3b

Table 0 gives the resuits of Iaboratory analyses of these soils. Mechanical

analysis shows that the surface horizons contain a preponderance of coarse over

fine sand and that the amount of coarse sand decreases with depth, As with

brown weakly solonized soils, the silt content is low and the amount decreases

through the surface horizons. Outstanding among the chemical! data are the very

low figures for phosphoric acid (*005% P,O,) and acid soluble mangaticse

(30 paris Mn,O, per million). The parent material of the soil itself is deficient

in phosphorus. Prescott (14) has shown the mtrogen content of these soils to be

strictly proportional to the phosphate level, In connection with the nitrogen

estimations, it should be noted that a considerable proportion of the organic

matler is very resistent to decomposition and therefore of Tittle immediate use to

the plant as a source of nitrogen, In addition to deficiencies in the major plant

foods, various minor elements, notably copper and zinc, are lacking [Riceman

and Anderson (17) ]- ‘The povrness of the soil is reflected in both the native

vegetation and the stack grazing upor it.

(b) Soils assoriuted with the FE. diwersifoha—E. angulosa association—The

atea indicated on the vegelation map as £. diversifolia—E. angulosa association

is topographically one of low sand dunes (in the cuvastal region) and low Wine

stone hills, The soils belang to the Hill Country suite, There is only a limited

extent of Taylor's low sandy rise soil type, since it is found only in some of the

hollaws between the crests of the coastal dunes, it ts usually associated with

E. lexcoxylon var. pauperila, Outstanding features of the profiles are the great

depths of yellow sand whose intensity of colour decreases with depth, and the

complete ahsence of a subsoil.

It is noteworthy that the reaction of a sample taken in the coastal EL diver si-

folia—E. angulosa association (Table IIT) ts higher than that indicated in

Table LI, where the sample was taken further inland from the coast.

Here again the profiles correspond to descriptions given for the normal phase of

the Laffer sand and the intermediate sandy ridge type of the Hill Country suite.

There is, however, a greater depth of sandy clay loam subsoil, Throughout the

area shown on the vegetation map as alternating &. eleosa—E. dumosa and

E, angulosa - M, wncinata associations, the leached sands which support the latter

community are present as sandridges showing parallelism and running approxi-

mately east-west. Between these ridges is brown wealsly solonized soil support-

ing the E. elcosa— EB. duinosa association (pl. ti, fig. 4). The sandridges are of

variable width and distance apart. In parts the leached sands predominate, while

elsewhere there is a greater proportion of brown weakly solonized soil. Near

Murray Bridge the soil profile is underlain by granitic material.

3 Weaxiy Sotontzen Brown Sorts (“Maiee” Sorms)

Movement of clay has occurred by the process of solonization [Prescott

(13) ]. The most outstanding feature is an accumulation of lime in the subsoil,

cither in the form of limestone rubble or as limestone hardpan which may be

structureless or may consist of limestone nodules which have been cemented

together hy calcium carhonate, The hardpan may be 20” in thickoess (pl. iii,

fig. 1). Beneath this zone of maximum line accumulation is a layer which varies

in character with the nature of the underlying rock but always containing much

fine-grained calcium carbonate, the amount of which decreases with depth,

Two phases may be distinguished ;

(2) A shallow phase, very common in the interdune areas, Where “scald-

ing’ has occurred, limestone appears at or near the surface, Its shallow nature

is its chief agricultural disadvantage,

PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOILS

(1) Weakly solonized brown soils

shallow phase deep phase

brown brown;

3 Yt to red-brown

loam brick-red q

sand

17"

aq"

sandy clay

loam

50"

(2) Red-brown earths

brown to red- 2

brown sandy loam

brown to red-brown 8 to loam

12"

clay loam

2o"

schist, hornfels

ete.

Fig. 4a

(b) A deep phase—In the deep profiles the B horizon becomes lighter in

colour with depth, It has been divided into a B, and B, for analysis. Sometimes

the A. horizon ts a dark-brown sand, and in any case the brown or red-brown sand

becomes lighter in colour with depth. More rarely the lower levels of the A hor-

zon may be a sandy loam. The deep sands often support E, angulosa with ov

without KE. olcosa, E. dumoasa or LE. leptopliylla,

No evidence of columnar structure is scen in the phases described above,

but nutly structure may be shown by the subsoil,

OF interest is the occurrence of some localized areas in the mallee where the

soil will not wet under tain. Locally these are known as “grease-spots.” An

examination of one such area following a rain showed thar the surface sail

particles had, under the influence of the drops, formed a thin crust heneath which

the soil was quite dry. Even the crust was sot wetted, bul rather was due to

compaction and rearrangement of the particles. A field estimate of texturé

revealed no differences from the surrounding soil, Other writers mention similar

cases which are attributed to waxy or fatty substances in the soil (15).

Table V gives the results of analyses of a deep phase profile. The phosphate

status of this soil is not much higher than that shown in Table IV, although potash

is very much higher, Fertility in regard to nitrogen is low. There is a greater

preponderance of coarse sand than in any of the podsols with solonized subseils.

Near Tailem Bend, on hoth the eastern and western side of the River Murray

and in the vicinity of Ashville, are some very shallow soils having affinities with

terra rossas developed on exposed limestone hardpan. The soils may be wp to

6” in depth but are usually legs, and are red-brown or brown sandy loams, They

support C. stricta, M. pubescens, and towards their margins E. odorata.

4 Sos or IntrerMEpIATE NATURE

Tn the Hundreds of Coolinong and Maicolm, where the brown weakly solonized

soils reach the limits of their range in a southerly direction, are other soils inter-

tiediate in character between brown weakly solonized soils and podsols with

solonized subsoils. Representative profiles are shown in fig. 4b.

Type (a) supports a small area of ©. leucoxylon var. pauperita, The pH

values af 7*4, 7°1 and 7-1 for the A,, A, and B, horizons are lower than those

obtained for "mallee" soil. The percentages of total soluble salts of 02, *05 and

-05 were obtained for the A,, A, and B, horizons respectively.

Type (b) has surface horizons similar to the Laffer sand, while the subsoil

resembles that of a “mallee” profile. The values of 7°4, 6°9 and 7-3 were obtained

for pli of the A,, A, and B, horizons respectively, and °053% and -023% for

total nitrogen of the A, and A, horizons.

In Type (c) the values ot 7°6 ior the A horizon and 7-8 for the B horizon

were obtained for the reaction, These are lower than corresponding reactions

given by “mallee” soil. The subsoil shows strongly-deyeloped nutty structure.

The salt concentration is moderately high, as shown by the values -08% for the

A horizon and 04% for the B horizon of total soluble salts,

5 Sos or Partriy LActistrtne Oniarn

Here two distinct types may he recognised: ou the one hand the soil formed

as a result of deposition of material of predominantly silty ard calcareous nature,

and on the other, the one farmed from deposits in which sand and clay pre-

Womittale. Each soil has its own distinctive associaled yegetation, and in both

cases the lactistrine deposits overlie an older soil profile of the Laffer sand type.

PROFILE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOILS

(1) Soils of intermediate nature

Type (a) Type (b)

he ai sandy loan dark grey sand

rown 50

brown sandy loam light grey g" sand

al brick-red Bl sandy

clay loam

red-brown Bl clay loam 18"

26"

Type (ea)

prom 3{ A | yn Sandy loam to loam

orange-brown (>| 3 | qu Clay loam

(2) Soils derived from igneous parent material

shallow phase

deep phase

brown ad sandy loam

A 3" of red-brown sand

red-brown ae. sandy loam

schist brick-red [BO iB" sandy clay

loam

pegmatite

Fig. 4b

(a) Soil developed, in swampy areas of local internal drainage—In some

swamps there is simply a considerable depth of unconsolidated calcareous material

incorporated with which may be some sand and sub-fossils of the gasteropod

Coxiella confusa. More usually, however, there is a layer of black silt loam over-

lying the calcareous layer. These two horizons are superimposed upon a narrow

PROFILE CHARAGTERISTICS OF SOILS OF PARTLY LACUSTRINE ORIGIN

(Due to retreat of lakes)

Stage (a} Stage (b)

black dark grey 1 eandy loan

sandy clay black sandy clay

18"

light gana

erey

24n

mottled

ct grey and

38 orange~ sandy

grey and orange- yellow loam

brown mottled

4g" sand

>65"

Stage (c)

dark grey to black

grey sand

orange-brown and te

yellow-brown mottled 15 16"

sand

34"

Sandy loam

v5"

Fig. 5

grey siliceous sand Jayer, the A, horizon of the old soil profile. The old A,

horizon is now strongly mottled, showing grey, atange and red-brown colonra-

tions due io conditions of intermittent waterlogging. Mechanical analysis yeveals

that this horizon contains more coarse sand than the old A,. This is not typical

ef an ordinary Latter profile.

The remaining two horizons show a marked increase in clay content.

Sodium is obviously important in the base exchange complex, since in addition

ta pronounced plasticity and stickiness on wetting, the subsoil is impervious to

water. Small limestone pebbles and fossils of Cowviella confusa are found in the

B,, horizon, which is a mottled green-blue and orange-hrown. On the margins

of the swamp the calcareous and/or sand layers do not occur. Instead, the black

silt loam which may be up to 7” in depth is followed by the sand or clay layers.

Ot interest ig the widespread occurrence beneath the silt loam of a narrow layer

(4-22" thick) of consolidated limestone containing Coxiella confusa fossils.

Table VI gives the results of laboratory analyses. Outstanding features af

the niechanical analysis are the figures of 35°3% obtained for silt in the silt loam

horizon, and the 97% Joss on acid treatment of the unconsolidated calcareous

layer, Clay has been rendered mobile by solonization and has accumulated in the

B horizon, Results for loss on ignition are correlated with organic and collnid

contents. Organic matter is responsible for the black colouration of the silt loam

which is high in nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, but the total soluble salt con-

tent (mainly chloride) precludes plants other than extreme halophytes. “The

chiaride concentration of the surface horizon Auctuates according to the amount

of water in the swamp. ,

That this type of swamp has never been connected with the lakes or the

Coorong is evidenced by the presence of the surrounding hills with their podsolized

sands, which in the swamps themselves underlie the lacustrine deposits.

(b) Sails directly associuted with advance and retreat of the Lakes Here

again the lacustrine deposits overlie the old podsol profile, but they are of pre-

dominantly sandy and clayey nalure, The typical immature profile has a black

sundy clay with pronounced nutty structure overlying the sands which are iow

strongly mottled, Thus the inundation of the lakes over the land and their sub-

sequent retreat tool place later than the arid Recent geological period. A series

of developmental stages can be traced in the soil profiles. These are shown in

fig. 5. Table VIL shows the results of analysis of a Stage {b) profile. Compar-

ing these results with those given in Table VI, it is seen that again there is an

increase of coarse sand with depth in the A horizons of the old Laffer profile.

However, in the present case, the amounts of coarse and fine sands in the old

A, horizon are about equal, whereas fine sand predominates in the old A, of

Table VI.

The presence of a greater proportion of this somewhat more mature sail and

of more grassland than samphire swamp in the Malcolm Plains, indicates that the

lake retreated earlier from this region than from the Waltowa area or, at least,

the retreat was more complete,

The final stage of maturation [Stage (c), fig, 5] can be seen in a narrow

zone fringing the Coorong and the lakes (in part), These soils carry Casuarina

stricta. Apparently this area has been longer exposed. Table VIIT gives the

results of Jaboratory analysis af the mature soil, The surface horizon shown m

this table has more coarse sand and Jess silt and clay than the surface horizon of

Table VII, This has resulted from increased separation of the fitter particles.

Greater removal of silt and clay has also reduved rhe amount of potash and phos-

phonic acid,

Summing up, then, three stages of maturation of these soils have been dis-

tinguished,

vegetation.

As a result, it is possible to trace seral stages in the associated

6 Tue Sows Dertvep rrom Ieneous Parent MATERIALS

In the vicinity of Rocky Gully is a small area of soils derived from peg-

matite, schist, etc., and containing visible fragments of quartz, felspar and mica.

The soils have affinities with brown weakly solonized soil.

Two phases have been distinguished, but the shallow phase is more common.

This type has been taken for analysis (Table 1X). No subsoil is developed in the

profile analysed.

MECHANICAL AND CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE SOILS

Ha. of Bonney) Hd. of Brinkley, Scction 88

Loc. of Sample: Hd. of | Hd. of Bonney

Monatto| Section 173 Section YS

Sect, 472

Transit. i

Pedogenic type: | “mallee”| Podsol with solon- | Hill Country } Podsol with solonized sub-

andred-| ized subsoil; Laffer, suite, low soil. Hill Country suite

Rune sand(normal phase)| sandy rises (inter. sandy ridge type)

earth

Taste I Taste I] Tasie ITI Taste IV

Horizon A At 2 rT A B-C | Ax Ag Aa Bi

Depth 0-8" 10-5" 5-17¢ 17-20°" 0-5" 5-21") (44" 4-24" 24-60" 60-75”

Reaction a-4 7°53 7-2 7*8 8:6 8-3 | 7- 7-7 89 9-0

To Fo %o Go | To Fo Fe Ga “ Fo

Coarse sand 20-6 (57-0 53-0 34:9 S08 53-2 |56-2 52-7 41-0 41-4

Fine sand 42-6 598 45-4 50-9) 45-9 44-2 [403 45+4 42-3 45-8

Sie uh te 29+7 145 0:3 0-5) 1-1 0-2 | 2+1 0-6 0-2 1-7

Clay a we | 99 2°] 0-4 12-4) 0-8 1-3 O7 0-7 5-2 12-4

Loss on acid treatm. 1 0-9 ~- —| — — |— _— — —_

Loss on ignition ) 7+3 ; 1:3 0-3 2-0; 1+2 0-6 v4 O-4 0-8 =

Nitrogen, N.. “183 “(26 -015 — “039 — 095 — —_ —

Phas, Acid, PsO, *054 005 ‘(07 — O06 “O04 +OLT 2 — —_

Potash, K.O 1:29 “06 “06 —| Ob -05 -07 OF — —

Mangan., MnsO. ; — 30 p.p.m —j — 30 p.p-m. = —

Chlorides, as NaCl) — “005 — —| — a -003 “N02 “ho —

Total Sol. Salts “06 “02 O1 +12 2 02 | “03 “Ot “04 +07

Loc, of Sample:

Pedogenic type:

Horizon

Depth

Reaction

Coarse sand

Fine sand

Silt

Clay en pa

Loss on acid treatm,

Loss on ignition

Nitrogen, N

Phos. Acid, PsO

Potash, KsO

Mangan., MnO,

Chlorides, as NaC}

Total Sol, Salts

Hd. of Mobilong, Section 27

Brown weakly solonized soil

TABLE V

Ag Ay Bi Bs

0-15" 15-27" 27-33" 33-517] 0-3" 3-247

8-6 8-6 8-4 8-6 | 758 8-7

To Yo To Ge Fo Fa

60-2 70-0 52-8 «= S44 | Ded 0-2

35-6 2665 33-0 289 [1-2 2-0

2:3 (<4 0-5 0-2 135-3 2-0

06 23 12-7) 15-0 | 8-4 0-3

— — — — |22:-7 97-0

1-3 0-8 -0) 18 | 21-2 —

“023 — — — -436 “O71

018 0120 «-— — ‘112 034

“18 “14 4g 0 “94 “46

“O08 oo7, — — j12-N40 2-192

“04 +04 “02 3°51

O04 | 12-23

TId, of Bonney, Section 171

Lacusttine otigin (Internal drainage swamp)

Tante VI

24-27" 27-39" 39-61" 61-72"

a8 8-6 B-4 8-7

%o To Ga %

23-9 45-1 17-0 12-9

55-5 42-2 43-5 21-3

9-6 1-0 8-8 6-2

2:5 5-5 28-0 49-2

79 g+4 4-0 9-0

= 1-5 39 13-1

1-64 4-90 1-67 0-19

Locality of Sample: Hd. of Malcolm, Section 600 |Hd. of Bonney, Sect. 368 | Hd. Mobilong

Section 535

Pedogenic type: Lacustrine origin due to retreat| Lacustrine origin due to| Derived igneous

of lakes. Stage (b) retreat of lakes parent material

Stage (c)

Taete Vil Tasre VIIT Taste TX

HROrizon ge sae etter AY

Depth ee oe oe | OLF 7-18" 18-24" 24-65" | 0-10" 10-34" 34-757" 0-3

Reaction ee owe] 690 7:7 83 8-7 6-8 8-5 9-0 8-2

Ge Ya %o lo % A % To

Coarse sand ... -.. ou | 45-3 34-8 49-3 53-1 | 65-4 57 +6 33-4 S1-4

Fine sand 4. a se] 42°99 = 30-6 48533799 131-8 42-2 56°6 36-4

Silt onc nes ee oe RF 4-2 way 9-0 ee 1-0 9-0 8-2

Claes mis ee se] RS 1-2 0-2 2-7

Loss on acid treatment} — —. mee =! ws. _ _ =

Loss on ignition... us| 29 47 055 1-1 | 1-8 0-4 5:7 2+8

Nitrogen, N wus “116 096 -— — 6 — all -081

Phosphoric acid, PsOs -. 030 041 — = 017 “014 = +047

Potash, KsO 2,0 2.0 ++ +29 1:16 — — 1} “10 = ‘66

Mangan., MnsOc ... ..--| — — fron — i. — = os

Chlorides, as NaCl ...] -007 -011 — —_ “010-004 “007 002

Total soluble salts ....{ +03 +04 0-06 20) -03 +03 “04 “02

Taste X

Sample % Silica % Other Insol, Residue % CaCO,

1 20 8 72

2 30 5 65

3 45 0 55

4 51 3 46

5 37 28 35

6 34 20 46

See

7 36 63

8 32 68

9 47 53

THE ORIGIN OF THE SOILS

The geological history of any area is of prime importance in a consideration

of the origin of the soils. Climatic factors are largely responsible for the develop-

ment of the mature soil profile from the parent material,

In the South-East of South Australia the outstanding physiographic feature

is the ancient dune system parallel to the existing coastline and connected with

successive stages in the retreat of the sea in the Pleistocene (7). The fluctuation

in relative position of Jand and sca level is attributed to glacial and interglacial

conditions, These dunes are superimposed upon Ievel-bedded Miocene marine

limestones which are usually overlain by more recent calcareous deposits and in

part by siliceous sands. The consolidated dunes have arisen from unconsolidated

dunes similar to those present along the coastline at the present time. Thomas

(20) gives an analysis of the coastal dunes at Robe as about 65% calcium car-

bonate and 25% silica. At Discovery Bay, Victoria (3), they consist af 75%

calcium carbonate, while the finer sands of Portland Bay have up to 93% calcium

carbonate. The latter is derived from the remains of marine organisms com-

minuted by wave action, while the quartzite fragments have stirvived a previous

katamorphic cycle and are probably Oligocene in origin. In addition, Thomas has

shown that the sands contain small amounts of iron and aluminium which

decrease in amount from the surface downwards. Since ferruginous and

aluminous materials ate absent from the original shell remains, their presence is

attributed to continued accumulation of atmospheric dusts containing ferro-

magnesian minerals.

The Pleistocene dunes of the South-East have consolidated cores which

aré commonly overlain by leached siliceous sands. There are extensive

interdune sandplains, the soils being podsols derived from yellow sands

which probably represent the remains of the A hvurizons formed from the

calcareous and siliceous sands of the dunes by leaching under high rain-

fall conditions in the Pleistocene and which were resorted by aeolian agencies

under arid conditions in the Recent as suggested by Crocker (paper un-

MALLEE’ BROOMBNUSH , MURRAY BRIOGE,

40 ‘\

f MALLEE-HEATH, EAST OF MEMNGE. = eo ee

\ CLDWEASIFOWIA- & Anken oS ee

35 / ASSOCIATION, SOUTH DF MEMINGIE.

PERCENTAGE

+02 08 “15 “32 “50 ro 2-0 MM,

PARTICLE DIAMETER

Fig. 6 Distribution curves for particle size of the surface sands

published). Evidence of such resorting results from a comparison of the dis-

tribution curves for particle size of the dune sands and the interdune plain sands.

Many of the podsols have structured subsoils, and the Riddoch sand (18) which

is a meadow podsol has a columnar-structured solonetzic B horizon, Where the

limestone hardpan capping of the dunes was exposed by removal of the overlying

sands, terra rossa soils haye developed.

Some of the soils 4{ the area considered in this paper are closely related

pedogenetically to those of the South-East. However, instead of a system of old

dunes running parallel to the existing coastline, there is an extensive dune sheet

beginning somewhere about the latitude of Wellington and extending beyond the

southern boundary of the area surveyed. Its northern’ margin is not clearly

defined, since there is a gradual increase in the proportion of calcium carbonate

and decrease in siliceous sand proceeding north from its approximate margin,

The calcareous and siliceous sands of the dune sheet are unconsolidated except

jor an indurated capping, while the old dunes of the lower South-East are more

consolidated. Furthermore, the soils developed om thig dune sheet have higher

pA values than might be expected. Thus in the Mundreds of Laffer and Willa-

looka, where the rainfall is about 18” per annum, the Laffer sand has a pH value

of 6°5, in the surtace horizons aud 7-8 in the subsail (19); while in the vicinity

of Meningie, with a rainfall of about 20” per aunum and a similar soil profile,

the subsoil has the same pH value of 7'8 but the surface sands have a pli value

of 7-3, Soils of the Hill Country suite in the Hundred of Bonney have a pH

value about 2 units higher than similar soils in Laffer and Willalooka.

Examination of the sands ef the dune sheet reveals some macroscopically

visible fragments of marine organisms, but generally the comminution of their

remains has been fairly complete. Tragments of Bryozoa, foraminifera and

molluscs, can be distinguished hy washing and examining the material under a

inictoscope, Since the podsols with selonized subsoils have a low phosphate

status, aud in the sucface horizons low potash, the parent material was analysed

for these constituents, using the ordinary hydrochloric acid method of extraction,

The values of -0099% for phosphoric acid and 1*30% for potash were obtajned.

A number of samples were also treated with hydrochloric acid to determine the

proportions of calcium carbonate and silica present, The results are presented

in Table X. Crocker (paper unpublished) has suggested that much fine-grained’

calcium carbonate was winnowed out af the coastal dunes and dine shevts.

Differential winnowing would explain the variations indicated in the analyses.

The redistribution of the surface sands in the Recent resulted in the exposure

o£ limestone hardpan near Taitlem Bend, Ashville and Waltawa, and at the same

time gypsum dunes which are now usually overlain by a thm covering of “mallee”

soil were built up at Cooke Plains, Shallow soils having affinities with lerra rossas

have developed on the limestone. The northerly as well as easterly scarp faces.

on some of the sandhills show that both southern and western witids played a part

jn the redistribution. Distribution curves for particle size of the surface sands

(fig. 6) show the same general trends in the three cases, The sands associated

with the £. angulosa—M. vncinefa association have undergone the greatest

amount of resornng, while there is no significant difference between the other two.

curves, Thus the soils of the sandplain were largely developed tw situ. The tela-

tive amount of resorting as indicated by the sievings is supported by an examina-

tion of the sand grains under a microscops. Thus the larger grains of a sample

taken in the E. ungulesa—'M_ wncinata association near Murray Bridge are more

highly polished than grains of similar size from the mallee-heath at Meningie.

The small grains do not show the effect ta the same extent.

It has been pointed ott in the section dealing with the spils that the deep

yellow sands have a zone of maximum colour intensity in their upper levels, and

that at greater depths the sand becomes light yellow and finally light grey in

colour, In this connection there is an occurrence in the Hundred of Bonney of

a series of law hills, all of which are about the same level above the surrounding

plain and which have fragments of ferruginous sandstone from the size of gravel

vp to lf across embedded in the grey sand of the surface, which is about 6” in)

depth. Beneath this surface horizon is the orange-brown sandy clay loam suh-

soil, which gradually decreases in colour and texture to a light yellow sand with

depth. Somewhat consolidated mixed cafcareons and siliceous sand is encountered:

at about 4°

THE VEGETATION

There is a close relationship between the soil and its associated yegetatiat;

climate is also important, but in the area considered in this paper climatic changes

are not so clear cut so that their effect is less obvious.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMMUNITIES

At the beginning it should be potnted out that the term community is used

int a géfieral sense to mean an assemblage of plants. The basis of classification is

the association as defined by Wood (24), All the associations herein considered

are climax commutiities with the exception of the Hordéwn-Danthonia association,

which is a stage in the sere samphire swamp-grassland—Caswarina stricta,

The concept of succession is restricted to those seres where the development

1s due to the influence, partly or wholly, of the plants themselves.

Ecologically the area is a very complex one. The soils are closely related,

topography plays a large part and transitions between associations are frequent

and not always cleariy marked. ‘Thus heath, mallec-heath (ecotone), C. stricta -

X. australis (ecotone), £. diversifolia- E, angulosa association and H, angulosa +

M, wncinata associations all occur on soils belonging to the group podsols with

slonized subsoil,

For the sake of clarity in discussion Table XI sets out the plant communities

and the factors determining their distribution.

Hordeum murinum—Donthonia semiannularis association

As with most Savannah communities there has been considerable invasion by

intraduced species, Most likely D. semiannularis and Stipa selacea were the

original dominants. Pryor (16) describes a similar community in the Australian

Capital Territory (S. selacea—D. auriculata association). Selective grazing by

stock would doubtless have been of importance in altering the botanical composi-

tion of the sward.

In addition to H. murinwmn and D, semiannularis, other plants practically as

important are H. marilimym, Bromus madritensis, Avena barbata and Eredium

cygnorum. Common plants are Medicago tribuloides, Stipa setacea, Cryptostemma

calendulaceum (Cape dandelion), Trifolium glomeratum, T. tomentosum and

Moraea xerospatha var. monophylia,, Less commonly Salsola Kali and Kochia brevi-

folia are found. Marrubium vulgare (horehound), Curduus tenuiflorus (Scotch

thistle), and occasionally Lycium ferocissimum (African boxtborn), and Aspho-

delus fistulosus (onion weed) are present along roadsides, Distichlis spicata ts

present in the earlier stages of the sere but is later largely replaced by the other

species. The plants form a continuous ground cover. Of the 19 described species

only 6 are natives, The most important family is the Gramineae with 7 species.

The community occurs on soil derived from lacustrine deposits. {Stages

a and b, fig, 5.) Strong westerly and southerly winds are an important feature

of the habitat.

Casuaring. stricla. association

(Pl. ii, fig. 2)

This community is found on soils belonging to several different pedological

groups in the same climatic zone in the area surveyed. A comparison of floristic

lists shows some differences, but in addition to the dominant species, many others

are shared in common

SULISNIET

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(aapia

Apues operpour

-JauT) ens

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(aseyd peus0u)

pues Jayey

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Axune) IH

aAoqe s¥

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Axyuno [PH

‘QJINS IBYeT

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SADINNUDIMEAS “CT

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Ayunusw0D

In the Hundred of Monarto the associated soil is largely a shallow

red-brown earth, but some “mallee” soil is imcluded. = Physiographically

the area is steep and hilly, The community occurs as two separate patches

in a locality otherwise occupied by Savannah Woodland of E. odnrata,

E. lewtoxylom and £. fasctculosa. In addition a few isolated groups

of sheaak occur scattered through the eucalypts. Edaphically there is little

difference between the two habitats, but the Casuarina tends ta be found on

shallower soils. The differentiation is due largely to microclimatic influence,

sheoak replacing the eucalypts where there is a rainshadow effect. The association

has all the characteristics of a typical Savannah Woodland. with the dominant trees

scattered, shrubs not abundant and a continuous ground layer.

The only seral phases recognised are Scirpus modosus along sandy creeks

which flow irregularly, and crustose and foliose lichens (including species of

Acarospora and Porwelia) and xeric mosses on outcropping rocks. Parmelie

ausiraliensis is aceasionally present on the ground.

The most common shruhs are Acacia brachybotrya, Pimelia glauca, Bursaria

spinosa, A, piycnantha, Cassia ercmaphila, C. eremophila var. platypoda, Kochta

hrevifolia and Nicotiana glauca; less common are A, armata, Hakea lencopter

and A, Mensclii, A. ligulata, Olearia floribunda, Dodonact viscosa, H. rugosa,

Beveria opaca, and Halorrhagis elata are rare. Callitvis propingua and Myoharum

plityrarpum are trees of fairly common occutrence, while Eremophila longifolia

(only recorded along watereourses} and Pitlosporum phillyreoides are rare,

Common undershribs are Rhagodia crassifolia, Enchkylaena tomentosa and the

prostrate Atriplex semibaccatum. Wittadinia triloba is not comnion, while Come

sperma volubile and Dampiera rosmarinifolia (Wild Rosemary) are very rare

Common associated herbaceous plants {frequently of seasonal aspect) are

Lemandra leucocephala, Helichrysum apiculatim (including a dwarf form),

Velleia paradox, Bulbine bulbosa, Microseris scapigera, Trichiniwm spathu-

latum, Helipterum Jessenii, Helichrysum obtusifolium, Erodium cicutarium,

Lepidosperma laterale and Gahnia lanigera. Rarer herbaceous plants are Dianeila

revoluta, Lomandra dura, Kennedya prostrata, Halganea cynaca, Wahlenbergia

gracilis, Thysanoius Patersonii, Salsola, Kali and occasionally Acaena avin,

Convoluulus erubescens, Dichopogon strictus, Asphodelus fistulosus and Lomandra

densiflora occur. Many species are only present in grazed paddocks whet pro-

tected by clumps of Lomandra leucacephala, This also applies to the taller grasses.

Many introduced species are common, especially along roadsides, ‘These

include Plantago Bellardii which is locally very abundant, Salvia Perbenaca (wild

sage), Erythraca Centeurium (common Centaury), Foeniculitm vudgare (fennel),

Plantago lanceolate (ribgrass}, Moraga xcrospatha var. monophylla, Anagallis

arvensis (scarlet piropernel), Trifolixm arvense (hare’s-foot clover), T. pra-

cwmbens (hop clover), Medicago minima, Hedypnois éretica and Cryptostemma

calendulaceum (Cape dandelion),

Native grasses present are Stipa clegantissima, S. eremophila, Danthonét

penicillata, D. carphoides and less commonly S. semibarbata, Newrachne alopecs-

roides and Themeda australis, The following introduced grasses are present in

the community; Avena berbata (bearded oat), Brisa mavima (large quaking

grass), Vulpia myuros {rat's tail fescue), Scleropoe rigida (Festuca rigida),

Lolium subulatum and Lepturus cylindricus,

Loranthus exocarpi (mistletoe) is a common parasite on the Casuarina

stricta, and one specimen was recorded on Eucarya persirarins. Cheilanthes tenut-

folia (parsley Fern) is found throughout most of the area, but in the southern

portion is present only where protected by rocks or other plants.

rod

Many of the recorded species are typical of the Savannah Woodland com-

munities of the Mount Lofty Ranges as a whole, others of the E, oleosa—

E, dumosa association, Among the 82 species the following families are repre-

sented: Gramineae 17, Leguminosae 11, Liliaceae 8, Compositae 8, and Cheno-

podiaceae 5, Compating these with the most important South Australian families

listed by Wood (21) as Compositae, Leguminosae, Graniineae, Chenopodiaceae,

Orchidaceae, Cyperaceae, Myrtaceae (in order of importance), it is seen that four

of the five most important for South Australia as a whole are well represented in

this association. Twenty-two of the listed species are introduced plants. Of the

native species four are endemic to South Australia—Lomandra densiflora, Casua-

rina stricta, Gahnia lanigera and Acacia Mengelii, The latter has a very limited

distribution, being found in a small area nétth and north-east of Monarts South.

ain analysis of the rest of the flora shows that 21 species are shared in common

with Temperate Australia, 14 with Australia as a whole, 12 with Eastem Aus-

tralia, 2 with Western Australia and 7 with both Eastern Australia aud Western

Australia,

Where the C. stricta association occurs other than in the Hundred of

Menarto m this survey, the soil either has affinitics with terra cossas or is a brown

weakly solonized soil or to a lesser extent the mature phase (Stage c. fig. 5) of

the soil derived from lacustrine deposits. The topography is gently undulating.

In these localities the community tsually cecurs adjacent to E. oleosa —B. dumosa

association, but there is no evidence to indicate that it is a seral phase culminating

in mallee. Rather, field evidence shaws that it is an edaphic climax, the lmiting

factor being the shallow nature of the soils. Of interest in this connection is the

teidency for the eucalypts i the adjacent mallee fringe to become more scattered

or for the £. oleese and £, dumosa to be replaced hy E, odorata. On the very

shallaw terta rossas Melaleuca pubescens takes the place of C. stricta (pl. ii,.

fig. 3).

Plants present in the Hundred of Monarto but not recorded elsewhere in

this association are Acacia brachybotrya, A. armata, Pitlesparum phillyreatdes,

Rhagadia crassifolia, Hokea rugosa, Myoporum platycarpum, Eremophila longi-

folia, Beyeria apaca, Dampiera rosmarinifolia, A. Menselii, Olearia floribunda,

Dianella revoluta, Dichopogon strictus, Trifolium arvense, T, procumbens, Medi-

cago mitima, Wahlenbergia gracilis, Cheilanthes tenwifolia, Anagallis arvensis,

flalganea. cyanea, Plantago lnrceolata, Foericulum vulgare, Bulbine bulbosa,

Microseris scapigera, Welleia paradoxa, Thysanotus Patersoni, Erythraca Con-

taurinm, Acaena ovina, Exocarpus persicorins, and the grasses Brisa maxima,

Bromus madritensis, Themeda australis, Scleropaa rigida, Stipa semibarbata,

Vulpia myures, Aira caryophyllea, Leplurus cylindricus, Lolium subulatiens and

Neurachne alopecuroides,

Species recorded elsewhere but tiot in Monarto include Melaleuca pubescens,

Gallitris Drummondii, Daviesia brevifolia, Hibbertia sericea, Marrubinum vulgare,

Loins austrahs, Lepidosperma carphoides, Carduns tenniflorus {Scotch thistle),

Senecio lautus, S. picridifolia, Euphorbia terracina, Galinia deusta and Callistemon

ruguiesus which forms socicties in low-lying areas of improved water relation-

chips, Cullitris propingua is much more widespread. A distinctive appearance ts

given to the community by Lepidosperma laterale, L. carphoides, Gakuia deuste

and Lowmondra leucacepiala, In Monarto the first three species are not prominent.

Tn the yicintry of Ashville an ecotone of Cy stricta and Nanthorrhoea australis

can be recognised between the C. stricta. and the E. diversifolia — B. angulosa asso-

ciations, The soil profile corresponds to the description given for the [GL Country

low sandy rise type.

E. odorata — E. leueoxylon—E. fasciculosa association

(Pl. ii, fig. 1)

Although these three eucalypts occur in constatit combination throughout the

areca occupied by the community, the relative niumbers are somewhat variable.

E, odorate is most common, with an increasing proportion of E. fasciculosa in

the northern and southern portions of the area. The &. odorata has a semiv-mallee

habit with commonly two or three main trunks arising from the lignotuber.

Towards the cast this habit is more pronounced, E, wdveraia at first mingling with

&. sivosa and E. dumasa. F, leucoxylon and FB. fasciewlosa are trees with typical

woodland form, having short boles and spreading round-headed crowns which are

greater in depth than the length of the bole.

The physiography of the habitat is variable, being steep and hilly in parts

and elsewhere gently undulating, The soil is a ted-brown earth which is slightly

podsolized in the extreme north.

With regard to the floristics of the association any species recorded for the

C, stricta association of Monarto may be present, and in addition the following:

shrubs commonly present are Acacia obliqua and A, calamifolia var. euthycarpa;

shrubs and undershrubs of rare occurrence are A, spinescens, Goodenta primu-

lacea, Helichrysum retusum, A, farinosa, Ulex europacus (gorse), Hibbertia

stricta and Thomasia petalocalyx; yery rare are Asclepias fruticosa and Teuchrium

racemosuim; Lepidosperma carphoides is widespread and abundant in the ground

layer; Xanthorrhoea semiplana, X. quadrangulata, E. camaldulensis (red gum) and

Pteridium aguilinien (bracken fern) are extremely rare in the far north of the

area where there is an improved rainfall; herbaceous plants and plants of seasonal

aspect are Anguillaria dioica, Helipterwm moschatum, Echium plantaginewm (Sal-

vation Jane), Rapistrum rugosum (wild turnip), O.ralis corniculata, Pieris

echioides, Sonchus oleraceous, Asparagus officinalis, Silene gallica, Bartsiqa lati-

folio, Hypochaeris radicata, Stellaria media, Senecio laytus, Caladenia cardiockila,

C. dilatata and Diurus maculata; Loranthus Miguelii is tarely present on

£. odorata,

E, oleosa.—E. dumosa, edaphic complex

E, oleosa— FE. dumosu. association

CPL iii, fig. 3)

The mallee commutities in South Australia ace found within the area

bounded by the 20” end 8” annual rainfall isohyets (22), Near Ashville, where

the rainfall approaches 19” per annum, £. olcosa, E, dumosa and less commonly

£. gracilis accur, but many of the associated plants are typical of the &, diversi-

felia— FE. ongutiesa association. Wood and Baas Becking (23) have pointed out

that the mallee is really a vast ecotone connecting the sclerophyll communities of

the south with the arid commitinities of the north of the State,

The habitat in the areca considered here is in general gently undulating and,

as can be seen by reference to the vegetation map, interspersed throughout the

greater part of it are sandhills which carry 4, avgulosa—M_ uncinata association.

This is a transition area between the communities of the Sauth-East of the State

and the mallee proper. No serq) phases are present, the comtnunity being closed

and mature and having the status uf a climatic climax. The soil belongs to the

hrowh weakly solonized group. although in the vicinity of Tailem Bend E, odorata

occurs on shallow soils with terra rossa affinities.

The &. ofeosa—E. dumosa association is the only association of the edaphic

complex of the same tame represented in this area, Throughout the association

£, dumosa and E. oleosa oecur in fairly constant combination, although locally

either ynay be absent, Associated with them are &, leptophylla, E, calycagona and

E. gracilis, any of which may focally become co-dominanr. In a few localities

&, odorata is the dominant, the other mallees being partly or entirely lacking-

Where the sail is deeper, such as on sandrises, B, angulosa may be found with or

without 22, oleasa, E, dumosa or E. leptophylla. However, &. angslosa is charac-

teristic of the H..angulesa—M, wncinata and E. diversifolia— E. angulosa associa-

tions rather than the mallee proper, £&, calycogona is restricted to the shallow

phast of sail.

Thos seven eucalypis with nvillee habit are present as co-dominants and

many different combinatiens (vegetation types) occur throagh the area, The

difficulties of classification are similar to those encountered jn the Mixed Eucalypt

Forests of New South Wales (12), There the different vegetation types are the

result of varying topography which influences the micruelimate. In the mallee

the topograpliy is uniform. Depth of snil with its effect on moisture relationships

is probably the factor which controls the distribution of the mallee eucalypts-

Chance distribution of seeds may play some part.

Callitris propingua (native pine) is common, particularly in the Hundred of

Seymour, In the acca surveyed the southern-most limit of this pine corresponds

fairly accurately with that of the E, oleesa—E. dwmosa association, It is lack-

‘ng in the £, diversifolia—E. angulosa association and the mallee-heath af the

Wiundred of Bonney. Edaphic factors controlling its distribution are obscure,

since it farms societies om both deep sands and shallow soils with limestone near

the surface. C. Morissoni also occurs on hoth deep and shallow soils, but

C. verrucosa shows preference for deeper soils. C. verrucosa has previously been

recorded for the eastern side of the River Murray, but is present also on the

western side,

Melolcuce pubescens and M, acwiminata are universally present. Cominon

trees are Myoporum platycarpum, Excorya acuminatus (native peach) and

E, persicarius (bitter andong) ; less common are Pittosporwn phillyreoides and

Exocarpus cupressiformis (native cherry), The following shrubs and under-

shruhs ate commonly present: Acacia Osuuldit, A, forinosa, A. microcurpa,

Kochia brevifolia, Enchylaena tomentose, Bassia uniflora, Rhagodia crassifolia,

R_ nutans and Hakea leucoptera. Less commonly present are Acacia sprnescens,

A. colomifolia, A, liqulata, A. rigens, Cassia cremaphila, C. eremophila var. platy-

poda, C, Sturtii, Daviesia genistifolia, D. brevifelia, Olcaria floribunda, O, previdi-

foliu, Atriplex semibaccatum, Bassia biflora, Phebaltum bullatunt, Bursaria spinosa

atid Dodonaea bursariifolia. Rarely present ate Pomuderris racemosa, Reyeria

Leschonuultii, B. Leschenaulfii var. rosmarinoides, Halganea cyanea, Pimelig

glonca, Exocarpus aphylls, Westringia rigide, Grevillea tlicifotia (hollybush)-

Dodonaca uttenuata, D. stenosyga, Eremophila crassifolia, E. glabra (tar bush),

Boronia inornate, Kunzea pomifera, Olearia pimeleoides var. mitnor, Helichrysum

retusum and Acacia Menselit, A. rhetinocarpa is very rare, Previously it had been

recorded for Monarto South, but the present specimens were collected south of

Mutray Bridge, Callistemon rugulosus (scarlet bottiebrush) forms pure societies

in low-lying areas of improved water relations, The introduced plants Nicotiana

glauca {native tobacco) and Lycivim ferocisssmum (African boxthorn) are

occasionally found.

Herbaceous plants, apart. from Gahnia lanigera, G. deusta, Dianella revoluta,

Lomandra lexcocephals, Lepidosperma laterale and L. carphotdes, which are

frequently plentiful, aré not common, but Helichrysum leucopsidium, H, aptew-

lotum (everlastings), Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale (angular-leaved pigface),

Lomandre dura, L. densiflora, and Geodenia primulacea are found. Rarely present

are G. varia, Wahlenbergia gracilis, Mesembryanthemum australe (roundly-leaved

pigface), Chetranthera linearis, Microseris scapigera (yam), Cucumis mmyriocarpus,

Citrullus vulgaris, Convoloulus erubescens and Lavetera plebeja (Austealiat

hallyhock). Thysanotus Patersonii, Mesembryanthemum erystallinum (ice

plant), Echium plantagmeum (Salvation Jane), Nicotiana suaveolens (tobacce

bush), Swainsona Greyana (Darling pea), Pupaver aculeatum, Oxalis corniculata,

and Limun marginale (native flax) are very rare. The parasites Cassylha

melantha and C, pubescens are often abundant on shrubs and eucalypts. Clematis

microphylla (old man’s beard) and Billardiera cymosa are climbers which are

occasionally present. On land from which the native vegetation has been removed

but which is otherwise undeveloped, fale grazecolens (stinkwort) and Jalsola

Kali become abundant, Marrubium vulgare occurs along roadsides.

Grasses, apact from Triodia irritans which forms local societies, are not

abundant but the following have heen recorded = Slipa semibarbata, E. elegantis-

sima, Donthonia semiannularis and the introduced Flardewmn murinum (barley

grass). Xeric mosses are often conspicuous in the ground stratum. In concluding

notes on the fora it should be pointed out that the scedlings af the encalypts were

not seen in this association.

There are 104 recorded species in the association, and of these only 7 are

introduced. The most important families are Leguminosae 16 species and 2

varieties (gers Acacia 10 spp. and 1 variety), Myrtaceae 12 (genus Eucalyptus

7 spp), Compositae 8, Chenopodiaceae 8, Gramineae 5, Liliaceae 5, Santalaceae 5

and Pittosporaceae 4, An analysis of the flora shows that 35 of the species are

found in Temperate Australia, 32 in Eastern Australia, 13 in Australia as a whole,

10 in both Eastern Australia and Western Australia, and 3 in Western Australia,

6 species and 2 varieties of species are endemic to South Australia, and of these

Acacia Mengelit and A, rhetinocarpa are restricted to the area considered in this

paper. :

Considering |he genus Acacia, we see that of the 8 species not limited to South

Australia, 7 are found also in Eastern Australia and 1 in Western Australia. It

ig obvious that the centre of origin of these species is_mainly Eastern Australia.

The other important genus is Eucalyptus, and of the 7 species, 3 are found also

js Eastern Australia, 3 in Western Australia, and | is typical of Temperate

Australia.

For a comparison of the floras of the E. oleosa--E, dumosa and the

E, angulosa— M. wncinate associations see page 28,

In the extreme north of the acca occupied by E, adorata—E, leucaxylon —

E. fasciculosa association there are several small isolated mallee communities on

ironstone capped hills, e.g., 4 miles south-east of Mount Beevor in the Hundred

of Monarto. The soil cover is extremely shallow, the underlying rock (schist)

atid ironstone nodules being exposed, Stunted E. dumose and &, leptophylla have

been recorded, as well as Melaleuca pubescens. The ground between is bare except

for some clumps of Schoenws deformis. In addition occasional stunted yaccas

(Xanthorrhoca quadrangulala and X. semiplana) are present, The areas are

rather curious, since they might be expected to carry Casuarina stricta.

E, angulosa —E, cheorifolia— Melaleuca uncirtata — Barvkea Behrit

eilaphic complex

E. angulosa —_M, uncinate association

(PL iv, fig. 2)

Allied associations have been reported on Kangarao Island by Crocker (4)

as the £. cneorifolia—M. uncinata and E. casmophylla—M. wncinala associa~

tions. Together, these form the &, cheorifolie -M_. wnctnata edaphic complex.

Boeckea Behrii is entirely lacking on Kangaroo Island. On the mairiland, the

£. angulosa —M. wxcinate association extends from north of Kinchina to the south

of Bordertown. In addition, M. uneinata is found in the Southern Districts,

Yorke and Eyre Peninsulas and westward to Kingoonya, &. Behrit is rare in the

Southern Districts (2). Ising, Cleland and Black have listed the plants found

between Monarto South and Kinchina (9).

The habitat is undulating, while the associated soil is a podsol with

solonized subsoil. Rarely the broombushes occur on “tnallee” soil or soil derived

from rock of igneous origin, but in these cases the community is modified by the

presence of eucalypts of the £. oleose—E. dumosa association.

The distributions of M. xncinate and B. Behrii are largely controlled by soil

moisture content. In the area receiving from 13-15% rainfall per anim,

M. wacinata is much more abundant than B. Belirii and occurs commonly on deeper

sands than the latter. while both may be present on soils of intermediate depth.

Under slightly higher rainfall conditions ([6-18’), B. Behrii is more common

and is found also on deep sands. Thus B. Behrii prefers slightly more favour-

able soi] qtoisture conditions than M, ucineta, Supporting evidence is afforded

by thé recorded distribution of the two species in South Australia (Black 2), Both

Species are rather unusual in their local distribution, since there are often large

areas of apparently suitable soil either sparsely colonized ar completely unoccupied,

Edaphic control of the distribution of the eucalypts is marked. Thos, where

the surface horizons are deep, E, angulosa is the only mallee present. 2, lepto-

fkylla occurs where the profile is shallower. However, it does not follaw that

because the soil is shallow &. leptophyila will be present. The margins of tle

dunes have shallow sand horizons but do not necessarily carry a Fringe of

£. leptophytia, Ali that can be said regarding the edaphic requirement of these

two species is that Z, lepiophylia prefers shallower soils than #. angulosa, which

is not so limited in its requirements, Soil moisture content is again the determin-

ing factor.

The Hundreds of Coolinong and Malcolm are “eritical” areas, because here

four associations reach the limits of their range in the area surveyed. Thus here

is the southern limit of the &, angulosa—M. wneinata and FE, oleosa—E. dumosa

associations and the northern limit of the EB. diversifalia—E. angulosa and

Casuarina pusilla—Xanthorrhoea austratis associations, As a result, 8, Behrit

invades the surrounding heath and YY. australis and E, diversifolia invade the

mallee-broombush,

When limestone occurs near the surface, Melaleuca pubescens and M,

acuminata tay replace the broombushes, A gradation of broombush to teatree

may be traced proceeding up a rise which has limestone exposed near the crest,

The iollowing plants are usually present in addition to the dominants:

Leplospermum coriaceum (green tea-tree). Calythrix tetragona, Lasiopetalum

BGehriit, £. Baueri, Hibbertia stricta, H. stricta var_ glabriuscula and H, stricta

var, canescens. Ln addition the following are common: Correa rubra, Boronia

cacrulescens, Brachyloma ericoides, Astraloma kwmifusum, A, conastephioides

(flame heath), Acacia calamifolia yar. euthycarpa, A. pycnuntha, Baeckea crassi-

folia, Exocarpus cupressiformis, E. spartea, Grevillea lavandulacea var. sericea,

Hibbertia sericea and H. sericta yar, scabrifolid. Fairly common are Aracia

spinescens, Dillwynia uncinata, Olcaria picridifolia, Daviesia brevifolia, D. genisti-

folia, Eutavia microphylla, Slackkousia monogyna, Olvaria glutinosa, O. lepido-

phytia, O, floribunda, Helichrysum retusum, Dianella revolute, Thamasia petalo-

calyx, Dodonaca hexandra, Prostanthera Behriana, Grevillea ilicifolia, Hibbertia

virgals var. crassifolia, Hokea lewcoptera, Spyridium vexilliferum, S. subochyea-

tum, Pomaderris racemosa, Beyeria Leschenaultti var. rosmarinoides and Casua-

rina Muelleriana Rarely present are A. rigens, A. microcarpa, Phebalium

bullatuem, Excarya persicarius (bitter quandong), Prastanthera snicrophylia,

Pimelia flava, E, acuminatus (native peach), Dodonaea cuneata, Eremaphila

crassifolia, Myoperum, platycarpum, Pomaderrig obcordalt, Rhagodia crassifolia,

Pimelia glauca and Halganea cyanea. Very rare are Solunwm nigrum, Acacia

Monzelii, A. colletoides, A. rhigiophylla, A, ligulata, A, calamifolia, Kunsea

fomifera, Pomaderris obcordata, Adriana Kloteschit, Lomandra densiflora,

Prostanthera aspalathoides, L. dura, L_ lercocephala, Zieria veronicea (previously

recorded for the Square Water-hole, Mount Lofty Ranges and Kangaroo Island,

but collected and quite common around Harrict Till), Styphelia exarriena,

Dedonaea viscosa, D, atlenuita, Psoralea potens, Westringia angustifolia and

Bursania spinosa,

Callistemon rugulosus occasionally forms societies in low-lying areas of

increased sol moisture content, The following grasses are present but are not

common; Tried irritans (porcupine grass), Vanthonia semiannularis, Stipa

wariabilis, S, setacea, 5. eremophila and the introduced species Bromus smadritensis

and ira cdryophyllea (silvery hair-grass). The three Gymnosperms, Coallitris

propingua, C. verruscosa and C. Drummondii are of common occurrence, Addi-

tional herbaceous plants include the following: Micreseris seapigere (yam),

Helichrysum Baxtert (vicinity of Harriet Mill), Wahklenberyia gracilis, Senecto

lautus, H. leucopsidium, H, aptewlatwn, Irodia achilleoides, Drosera glanduligera,

D, Planchomi, D, Whittakeri, Goodenia vitria, Loudonia Behrii, Mesembryanthe-

mum aeguilaterale, M, axsirale, Erodiwm cieularitum (on cleared land only),

Ewmex qustralis and Anagalhs femina (blue pimpernel). Climbing plants include

Clematis wucrophylla and more rarely Billardiera cymosa and Muchlenbechia

adpressa, The parasites Cassytha melantha and C, pubesceus are commonly

present on the eucalypts and shrubs, while C, gladella has been recorded on

8, Behriv in the Hundred of Coolinong. Orchids which haye been found include

the following; Pterosfylis nena, P. mutica and Lyperanthvs wigricdns in Coolinong

and Caladenia cardiochila elsewhere. Thelymitra asurea was collected at Harriet

Hill.

Lepidesperma laterale, L. carphoides, Gahnia deusta and G- lonigera are a

conspicuous feature of the ground vegetation. The introduced plants Jnula

graveolens (stinkwort), Cryptostemma calendulaceum (Cape dandelion) and

Erecthites quedridentaia are present on land which has been cleared of native

vegetation but which is otherwise undeveloped. Lycium ferecissimum (African

boxthorn) is occasionally found.

As pointed put previously Melaleuca pubescens and M. acuymingta may be

present occasionally, but these species are more typical of the E, oleosa—

&, dumosa association,

Out of a total of 130 recorded species only 7 are introdticed plants. The

most important families are Leguminosae 14 species and | variety, Compositae

14 species, Myrtaceae 11, Gramineae 7, and Orchidaceae 5, Acacia is the most

important genus, An analysis af the flora shows that 52 of the species are shared

in common with Eastern Australia, 29 with Temperate Australia, 13 with both

Eastern and Westerrm Australia, 12 are found throughout Australia and 2 are

shared in common with Western Australia, Thus most of the species are of

Kastern Australian origin, Nine species and 4 varieties endemic to South

Australia are present. In addition the position with regard to Acacia

rhigiophylla ts rather doubtful, Apart from its occurrence im this area, where it

is fomnd over 7 square miles of countey centred about Kinchina, it was recorded

in 1902 from West Wyalong, New South Wales, This is an unusual distribution

and could well be confirmed ty comparison of specimens from the two localities.

The following lists of species give the floristic differences between the present

association and the £. oleosa—E. dumosa association. Present in the mallee but

not in the mallee-hroombush are Acacia Oswaldii, A. furinose, A. rhetinocarpa,

Lavatera plebeja, Swainsona Greyane, Cassia Sturt, C. eremophila, C, éremophila

vat. platypode, Nicotiana suaveolens, Encalyptus oleosa, E. dumasa, E. gracihs,

E, odurata, Popaver aculeatum, Oleuria pimeleoides var. minor, Salsola Kalt,

Cutrullus vulgaris, Kochia brevifolia, Atriplex semibaccatum, Enchylaena tomen-

tosa, Rhagodia nutans, Bassia uniflora, B, biflora, Stipa sémibarbata, S, elegantis«

sima, Hordeum murinum, Thysanotus Patersonii, Cheiranthera linearis, Cucumis

myriocarpus, Pittasporum phillyreoides, Eremophila glabra, Mesembryanthemum

erystallinran, Dodonaca burseriifolia, D. stenusyga, Goodenta primulaced, Wes!-

ringia rigida, Linum marginale, and Nicotiana glauca. This is a total of 38 species,

Present in the mallee-broombush but not in the mallee are Acacia rhigiophylla,

M, uncinata, B. Behrii, Leptospermum coriaceum, Calythrix tetragona, Baeckea

crassifolia, Olvaria glutinosa, Helichryswm Baxteri, Senecio lautus, [rodia

achilleoides, Prostanthera aspalathoides, Bromus madritensis, Awa caryophyllea,

Boronia caerulescens, Zieria veronicea, Dodonaea hexandra, D. viscosa, H ibbertia

virgata var. crassifolia, A. colletoides Thomasia petalocalys, Grevillea lavandn-

lacea var. sericea, Cassytha glabella, Prostanthera microphylla, Erecthites quadri-

dentate, P. Behriana, Westringia angustifolia, Stockhousia munogyna, Eradium

civwtarinm, Dodonaca cuneate, Anagullis femina, Casuarina Muelleriona, Law-

donia Behrii, Pimelia flava, Psoralea patens, Muchlenbeckea adpressa, Spyridium

vexilliferum, S. subachreatum, Pomaderris obcordata, Drosera peltata, D, glandu-

ligera, D, Planchonix, Brachyloma ericoides, Astroloma hunufuswn, A, cona-

stephioides, Styphelia exarrhena, Pterostylis nana, P. mutica, Lyperanthus nigri-

cans, Culudenia cardiachila, Thelymitra asurea, Stipa setacea, S, eremophila, and

S. variobilis, This represents a total of 53 species. The E, olcasa—E. dwmose

association has more Acacias, eucalypts and Chenopads, while the £, agulosa—

M, wncinata has exclusively Droseras, Epacrids and orchids, With more favour-

able seasonal conditions, orchids would have been recorded i the mallee.

"The chief differences in the origin of the species of the two associations are

that more species of the mallee-broambush are shared in common with Eastern

Australia than is the case with the mallee which has more species in common with

Temperate Australia.

Table XIL gives the life-spectrum of the E. angufosa—M. uycindta asso-

eration

Tan.e XIL

spp- MM M N Ch i G HH Th E 5

Normal spectrom .... bu 40 6 WY RW YY 2 8 1153 —

E.angilose-Meancinatanssoc, «=5, 126 — 24 ab WG lb * — het 2

The outstanding feature is the lack of tall trees and the prominence of the

small shrub (25 cm.-2 m.), and toa lesser extent of small trees and tall shrubs

(2-8 m,). This, then, is predominantly a community of shrubs,

B. diversifolia —E, angulosa—E. leplophylla edaphic complex

This complex is 4 result of the influence of topography in a sandplain and

sandhill region. An analysis of the vegetation shows that on the crests of the

hills eucalypts are the dominants and give the characteristic appearance to the

community, while shrubs and ground vegetation (consisting of specics belonging

to the families Cyperaceae and Restionaceae) are wot important. This assemblage

constitutes the E. diversifolia—E. angulosa association. Secondly, on hill slopes

where shrubs give the facies, eucalypts are subordinate and the amount of ground

ra)

vegetation is intermediate between hill crests and flats-between-hills. Tis is the

mallee-heath and is really an ecotone between the £, diversifolia—E. angulosa

association and the heath. And thirdly, on flats-between-hills where shrubs and

ground vegetation give the characteristic appearance, ecucalypts are entirely

absent. These heath patches are usually very localized, Scattered throughout

various other associations ih some localities in the area surveyed are deep sanil-

hills which also carry heath, but the community is Wominated by soniewhat

different species to that of the heath plain. Finally, the blue gum (4. lencoxylevu.

var. pauperita) forms socielies in flats where there is increased moisture (pl, iv,

fig. 1), ¢.f. E, Baxteri which is found only on the ranges where it reaches the

limits of its range in the upper South-East (5).

The dividing line between the E. diversifolia=E, angulosa association and

the mallee-heath with its small included patches of heath shown on the vegetation

map is 2 relative one, since the three communittes furm a complex pattern, How-

ever, there is 2 marked (endency towards dominance by the &, diversifolia—

EF, angulosa association in the coastal fringe and by maliee-heath m the sandplain,

The change is a gradual one, but the physiognomy of the vegetation an the two

areas is distinct, Throughout the whole area the soil is of the Laffer and Hill

Country types,

&, diversifolia—E. angulesa association

As pointed out above, this conmunity occurs in the sandhills fringing the

sandplain or on isolated hills scattered through it, The soil profile may be shallow

with limestone near the stfface. The dominatits form a dense growth. E. diverst-

folia and E, angulosa are nove abundant than E. leptophylla, which is prevalent

in the mallec-heath. On shallow soils &. diversifola occurs alone.

In hollows between the coastal sandhills there are isolated areas where

eucalypts are lacking and shrubs are stufited (often less than 6” in height)-

Frequently the only plants present are mats of Kungea ponufera with scattered

Banksia marginata, Astralama humifusum and Hibbertia sericea, Occasionally

A, conostephioides, Thomasia petalocalye and Mesembryanthemum australe may

be pfesent, These treeless areas are due to an accumulation of salts in the soil-

A sample taken from the first few inches of soil where the sheubs grew to

a height of 3° 6” but where mallees were lacking, gave a value for total soluble

salts al *17%.

In addition to the dominants. the following plants are usually present; Mela-

levca pubescens, M. fasciculifiora, Kunzea pomifera, Pullenaea tenuifalia,

P. prostrata, Xanthorrhoea australis, Hokea vittata, Thomasia petulocalyx, Seirpts

nodosus, Hibbertia sericea, H. sevirea var. scabrifohu, Boronia caerulescens,

Dianella revolita, Correa rubra, Exocarpus cupressiformis and &. spartea, Fairly

common are Leptomeria aphylla, Casuarina Muelleriana, Acratricke vordaia,

Phyilota pleurandroides, Encarya persicarins, &, acuminatus {the latter two

species especially in the fringes of samphire swamps), Lasiopetulum Behrii,

L, Baueri, Hibbertia stricta, H. strirta var. glabriuscula, Hakea rostrata, Grevillea

lavandwlacea var. sericea, Isopogon ceratophyllus, H. leucoptera, H. rugosa,

Brachyloma ericoides, Baeckea crassifolia, Astroloma humifuswn, A, cono-

stephivides, Leucopogon Clelandii, Calythrix tetragona, Melaleuca acuminata,

Daviesia brewifolia, Acacia myrtifolio, A, longifolia var. sophoreae, O. picridifolia,

A, ligulata, and Dillwynia floribunda, Fairly rare are Helichrysum retusum,

O. leptaphylla, O. axillaris, A. pycnantha, Euphrasia collina, Spyridium sub-

ochreatum, S. vexilliferums, Pomaderris racemosa, Hibbertia virgate var. crasst~

falia, Crypstandra tomentosa, Pimelia glauca and P. humilis. The following

plants are very rare: Kennedya prostrate, A. spinescens, Leptoxpermum, myrsin-

vides, Lomandra densifiora, L. leucocéphula, Styphelia exharreve, Conospermum

patens, Grevillea ilicifolia, Spyrtlium eriocepinlum, Pomaderriy obcordata,

Fimelia flava, Damptera rosmarinifatia, Myoporunt insnlare, Lexcopayon cosiatus,

Bursaria spwosa, Dodonaea bursariifolia, LD. atlewuata, Rhagodia crassifolia and

Adriana Kloteschii.

The following additional herbaceous plants or species of seasonal aspect have

been recorded as commonly occurring: Stackhousia monogynta, Thelymitrs

ovistata, Drosera peltata, D, glanduligera, Loudonia Beira, Mesembryanthemum

aequilateraic, Helichrysum leucopsidium, Senecio lautus and Polygonwa aviculare.

Less common are frodia achilleoides, Microserts scapigera, Wahlenbergia gracilis,

Goodenia varia, G. primulacea, Mesembryanthemum australe and Pimelia acto:

phylia, Ground vegetation consists of the following members of the Cyperaccae;

Gahnia deusta, G, lanigera, Cladium juncenm, Lepidosperma laterale, L. car-

phoides and Schoenus deformis. The Restionaceae is represented hy Hypolaenc

fastigata, Grasses are rare but several species have been recorded. ‘These include

Stipa vuriabilis, S. eremophila, Danthonia sctacea, Bromus madritensés, Newrachnie

alopecuroides, Themeda australis, Agrostis Billardieri, Deschampsia caespitosa and

Bromus madritensis. Triodia éritans is more common. Climbing plants. include

Hardenbergia monophylla Mueldenbeckia adpressa, Billardiera cymosa and

Clematis nucraphylla. Cassythe melantha and C. pubescens are present on shrubs

and trees and C. glabella ou shtubs only. The mistletoe Loranthus ntiraculosus

var, Mefalenece is present on Melaleucu pubescens but has not been recorded on

other Melaleuca spp.

Several introduced species are presertt along roadsides. These include

Carduus tenwiflarus, Cruptostemma calendulacenm (Cape dandelion), Riener

Acetosella (sheep sorrel), Anagaliis femina, Lycium feroctssimum and Marrubinm

vulgero, The composites Brechtisties quadridentata and Inula graveolens are

abundant on laid from which the native vegetation has been removed but which

is otherwise undeveloped. Ruyksia ornafa and B. murginata have both bern

recorded but are more typical of the mallee-heath and heath, Cuallitris verritcese

is not found in the Hundred of Bonney but is particularly abundant along the

boundary of the Hundreds af Coolinang and Maleol, Restricted to this area is

a glaucous form of C, verracasa, Mallee seedlings are found in some localities

(pl. i, fig. 1 and 2),

The total number of recorded species is 130, and of these only 10 haye been

introduced. Most important families are Leguminosac with 12 spp., Campositae

12, Myrtaceae 11, Proteaceae 10, Gramineae 10, Epacridaceae 7, and Cyperaceac 7.

Ontstanding features are the importance of the familics Proteaceae and Epacri-

daceae and the deficiency of members of the typical South Australian families

Chenopodiaceae and Orchidaceae. An analysis of the flora shows that SL species

are shared with Eastern Australia, 3 with Western Australia, 12 ate found in

Australia as a whole and 30 are typical of Temperate Australign. Seven of the

species and 4 varieties of species are endennc to South Australia,

It ig of interest ta compare the floristics of this association with that of the

EB. angulosa—M. uncinata association. The following list gives the spectes

recorded here but not present in the mallee-broombush: EB. diversifelia, Acecia

mirtifolia, Phyllota pleurandroides, Hardenbergia monophylla, A longifolia vav.

sophoreae, Cryplandra tomentosa, Dillwynia floribunda, Kennedya prosteata, Pul-

tenuca fenuifolia, P, prostrata, Carduusg tenuiflorus, Olearia axillaris, Melaleuca

fasciculifiora, Leptospermum meyrinotdes, E. leucarylon var. pauperita, Xanthorr-

hoea australis, Danthonia setacea, Neyrachne alapecurvides, Themeda australis,

Agrostis Hillardiori, Deschampsia cacspiiosa, Thelymitra aristata, Leucopogon

Clelanadij, Acrotriche cordeta, Leurapogon costatus, Leplumeria aphylla, Dodonaea

bursovitfolia, Merrubium vulgare, Scirpus nodosus, Cladium junceum, Hypolaens

fastigata, Schoenus deformis, Conospermum patens, Banksia ornata, B. marginata,

Hakea vittaia, H, rugosa, H. rostrata, [sopogon ceratophyllus, Myoporum insalare,

Pomaderris obcordata, Spyridium ertocephulum, Stackhausia monogyna, Goodenia

primulacea, Dampiera rosmarinifolia, Pimelia humilis, P. octophylla, P. flava,

Rumex Acetosella, Adriana Klotaschti, Euphrasia. collina and Loranthus miraci-

losus vat. Melaleuca. ‘This is a total of 52 species,

Present in the E. angulosa—M. uecinata association, but not in the

B_ diwersifolia-—E, angulosa association, are: Melaleuca wneinata, Acacia

colletoides, Solanum nigrum, Psoralea patens, Dodonaea cunecata, Prostan-

thera aspalthoides, Pterastylis mutica, Stipa setacea, Baeckea Behrii, Eutaria

microphylla, Daviesia genistifola, Dillwynia uncinata, A. microcarpa, A. calami-

folia, A, rhigiophylla, A, Menzelii, A. rigens, A. calamifolia var. euthycarpa.

Oleuria glutinosa, Helichrysum Baxteri, H. apiculatum, Leplospermum coriacewm,

Callistemon rugulosus, Lomandra dura, Danthonia semiannularis, Aira caryo-

phyllee, Pterostylis nana, Lyperanthus nigricans, Caladenia cardiochila, Thely4

mitra azurea, Phebalium bullatum, Zierta veronicea, Dadonaca fiexandra,

D. wiscosa, Prostanthera microphylla, P. Behvriana, Westringia angustifolia,

Callitris Drummondit, Drosera Planchon, Myaporun platycorpum, Eremophila

crassifolia, Halganea cyanea, Beyerta Lesehenaultiy var. rasmarinoides and

Erodium cireutarium. This is a total of 44 species.

The families Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Proteaceac and Epacridaceae are repre:

sented by more species in the 2, diversifolia-—H. angulosa association.

Mallee-heath

(Pl, iv, fig. 3)

This is an ecotone between the &, diversifolia—E. ongnlesa association and

the heath, 20 that the species present are typical of both associations. A few are

absent from the heath. &, leptephylla is more wumerous than it is in the

E, diversifolia-—&, angulosa association, and again E. diversifolia can tolerate

shallower soils,

Casuarina pusilla—XNanthorrkoea austrolis association

{Pl. iv, fig. 4)

Crocker has described a similar association in the South-East as the

X_ australis— Hakea rosivata association (5), The nomenctature of the com-

munity is difficult site many species are about equally abundant. Other yery

important perennial species which miay locally become codominant are Basksia

marginata, B. ornate, Haken vittaia and Phyllota pleurandroides. Many of the

shrubs are about 2’ high.

In addition to the species given aboye, the following are common:

Adenanthos terminalis, Leucopogon coslatus, Euphrasia colline, Hibbertio stricts,

Pulfenaca tenuifolia, Boronia caerulescens, Ilakea spp. (difficult to determine

because firing destroys the fruits), and Acrotriche cordata,

Fairly common are Astroloma humifusum, Leucopogon Clelandti, Correa

rubra and Pimelia humilis, Rarely present are Lomandra densiflora, Isepegon

cerataphyllus, Astroloma conestephinides, Leptospermum. myrsinoides, Daviesia

brevifalia, Hibbertia sericea, Pultendea prostrata, Leucopogon Woodsit and

H, virgata var, crassifolia, Lhatskya alpestris, which was not recorded for the

mallee-heath, is very rare. Helichrysum Baxteri, Drosera peltata, D. pygmaca

and Thelymitra aristata are of seasonal aspect, The ground vegetation is a con-

spicuous feature and consists of Schoenws deformis, Lepidosperma carphoides,

Hypolaena fastigaia and L. laterale. Cassytha glabella is parasitic on the shrubs,

As hag been pointed out, the heath vegetation associated with some sandhills

has a somewhat different Aoristic composition to the heath of the plains. Any of

the following species may be dominant or several may be codominant: Basrksia

ornata, Phyllota plewrandroides, Casuarina pusilla, Leptospermum coriaceum or

Baeckca Behrii, The last two species occur where the heathy hill is adjacent to

E. angulosa—M. wicinata association. Plants present which are not listed for the

heath plain are Brachyloma ericoides, Phebalium bullatum, Conospermum patens,

Bacchea crassifolia, Thomasia petalocalyx, Spyridium subochreatum, 5. vexills-

ferum, Kunzea pomifera, Clematis microphylla, Mesembryanthemum aequilaterale,

Casuarina Muelleriana, Beyeria Leschenaultii var. rosmarinoides and Helichrysum

Blandowskianum.

THE DEVELOPMENTAL COMMUNITIES

Primary sticcession is not evident in most of the area studied since coloniza-

tion has proceeded to a stage where the communities are mature. There are, how-

ever, two important exceptions, the governing factors being in both instances the

salt and moisture contents of the soil.

Succession IN AREAS FROM WHICH THE LAKES oR COORONG HAVE RETREATED

Here the sere is samphire swamp—grassland—Casuarina stricta.

The samphire swamp i& a practically pure community of Salicornia aus-

tralis (?) Although the plants themselves are somewhat scattered, the community

in a closed one through the spreading of the root systems ( 11). Locally Atripler

poludosum, Nitraria Schoberi, K ochia opposotifolia and Mesembryanthemum

australe are present. Cotula coronopifolia is abundant along drainage channels,

but is never present when the salt content of the soil is high, Melilotus indica

and Spergularia rubra are sometimes found in the early stages, but they are later

replaced by other species as the sere progresses,

With reduced salt and water content of the soil other species begin to appear.

Hordeum maritimum is one of the first. and also at an early stage Distichlis

spicata, Initially they are found around the raised columns of samphire, but later

spread to form a continuous sward. The mature grassland is considered with the

climax communities, although it is really a subclimax. Relic samphires. are

common in the grassland (pl. iii, fig, 4).

The climax community consists of Casuarina stricta with scattered clumps

of Scirpus nodosus. Cladiwm junceum is a conspicuous associate, and also Dis-

tichlis spicata, Bursaria spinosa is yarc. There is no evidence of any further

development,

The percentages of total soltible salts in the surface few inches of soil are:

Salicornia australis zone - - - 4-13

Mature grassland = — - - “OF

C, stricta - - - - - ‘03

Osharn and Wood (11) give the following figures:

Arthrocnemum arbuscula - - 16°9-17-5

A, halocnemoides - - _ - 29-4-9

Successton 1n SwAMrs Due To LocaL INTERNAL DRAINAGE

Here the sere is samphire swamp—Cladiwns jilum—tea-tree thicker. No

futther stages can be discerned. It is not, however, an example of sinple zona-

tion, since there is definite evidence of biotic succession. Again the samphire

swamp consists of rather open dwarf shrubland of Salicornia aystratis (7).

Frankenia poauciflora, Plagianthus microphyllus and Nitraria Schoberi are some-

times present. ringing this is a sedge zone consisting of the cutting grass

Cladium filum. The outermost zone is a tea-tree thicket of Melaleuca fasciculi-

flora and M, pubescens, Wither may be locally absent, Occasionally the Cladium

filwm sedge meadow is more extensive, in which case the tea-trees are included

either as a discrete zone or dispersed throughout. Nicotiana glauca and Inula

graveolens are found around the margins.

These swamps are fringed by HB. diversifolia-E. angulosa association, which

begins abruptly. Hwcarya spp. are conspicuous in the fringe, and often also

E, leucoxylon var. pauperita.

The following gives the percentage of total soluble salts in the different zones :

Salicornis australis - - - 413

Cladium. filumt - - - -) 18-76

M. fascteuliflora and M, pubescens - \

A sample taken at the margin of the E. diversifolia - E, angulosa association

showed only ‘02%.

SUMMARY

This paper deals with the soils and vegetation of the area adjacent to Lakes

Alexandrina and Albert. Undulating plains with much wind-blown sand overlying

Miocene limestone are characteristic of the area.

The soils. are classified and described and mechanical and chemical analyses

given of representative profiles. In one instance the maturation of an immature

soil is traced, The most widespread soils are the padsols with solonized subsoils.

Their origin is discussed.

The plant communities and the factors responsible for their maintenance are

set out together with detailed floristic lists. Two areas in which biotic succession

may be traced are described.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes especially to acknowledge the advice given by Professor

J. G. Wood and Mr. R. 1. Crocker. To Mr. B. 5. Glasgow who was responsible

for the drawing of the vegetation map and the figures for reproduction, those who

accompanied me in the more inaccessible parts, and my friends at Willingale and

Coolinong with whom I stayed while domg some of the field work my thanks

are due.

REFERENCES

Bacnovp, R. A, 1941 “Physics of Blown Sands and Desert Dunes”

Brack, J. M, 1929 “Flora of South Australia,” Govt, Printer, Adelaide

Coutson, A. 1940 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 52, (2)

Crocker, R. L. 1941 Trans. Ray. Soc, S. Aust., 65, (2)

Crocker, R. L. 1944 Trans. Roy. Sor. 5S, Aust., 68 (1)

Dayvinson, J. 1936 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 60

Fenner, C. 1930 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust., 54

Hoewcnin, W. 1929 ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust., 53

Isrne, E., CLeanp, J., and Brack, J. M. 1926 The South Aust, Naturalist,

Wows nis Gre

10 Mawson, D.,and Parkin, L. W. 1943) Trans. Roy. Soc, 5. Aust., 67, (2)

11 Oszorn, T. G. B,, and Woop, J. G. 1923 Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 47

12 Pmsceon, I, Thesis, Univ. of Sydney

13. Prescorr, J. A. 1931 Council Sci. Ind. Res, (Aust.), Bull, 52

14 Prescott, J. A. 1939 The Science Review

15 Prescott, J. A., and Prrer, C. 1932 Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56

16 Pryor, L. Thesis, Univ. of Adelaide

17 RicemAn, D. J., and Anperson, A. 1943 Dept. Agric., S.A., 47, (2)

18 Srevens, C. G., et alia 1941 Council Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust,), Bull. 142

19 Taytor, J. K. 1933 Council Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.), Bull. 76

20 Tuomas, R.G. 1938 Council Sci. Ind. Res. (Aust.), Bull. 113

21 Woon, J. G. 1937 “Vegetation of South Australia,” Govt. Printer,

Adelaide

22 Woop, J. G. 1929 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 53

23 Woop, J, G., and BAAs Becxinc, L. 1937 Blumea, 2, No. 4

24 Woop, J. G. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, (2)

EXPLANATION OF PLATES I-IV

Piate [

Stages in the development of the lignotuber of the mallees. E. diversifolia, E. angulosa,

and EF. leptophylla,

Prater II

Fig. 1 Mallee habit. E. odorata, with E. leucoxylon in the centre of the photograph.

Lomandra leucocephala in the foreground. Callington.

Fig. 2. Casuarina stricta and Lomandra leucocephala on skeletal soil. Callington.

Fig. 3 Melaleuca pubescens on shallow soil with terra rossa affinities. Ashville.

Fig. 4 Transition between podsol with solonized subsoil of the dune and brown weakly

solonized soil of the interdune areas.

Pirate III

Fig. 1 Great thickness of limestone hardpan in the B horizon of a “mallee” soil

Profile. Near Murray Bridge.

Fig. 2 Profile of the normal phase of the Laffer sand.

Fig. 3 &. oleosa—E. dumosa association. Murray Bridge.

Fig. 4 Relic samphires in grassland. Malcolm Plains,

Prate IV

Fig. 1 Society of E. leucorylon v. pauperita with Kunzea pomifera and Scirpus

nodosus. Meningie.

Fig. 2 &, angulesa—M. uncinata association. Murray Bridge.

Fig. 3 Mallee-heath plain.

Fig. 4 Casuarina pustlla—Xanthorrheea australis association,

F : , S. Aust. 70 (1

kK. W. JESSUP Trans. Roy. Soc. Aust., 70 (1)

SEAAL AREA OF SAMPHIRE SWaue

AND GRASSLAKD.

RIVER SWAMPS (JARIGATION AREAS}

il] ~~

YZ CASVARNG STRICTA ascoclanion

COMPLEX OF {_DIVERSIFOLIA - ¢ aNcLLOSA

AND + OLCOSA - £ OUMOSa ASSOCIATIONS

MALLEE= HEATH

ALTERNATING £_OLfOSa - £_puwosa aNd

TLLARGULOSA - MUIGINATA ASSOCIATIONS

a] SCATTERED HEATH SANDHLLS

Ss gated Seeereet

VEGETATION MAP SQ .

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1046 Vol. 70, Plate |

Q, Plate tt

Vol

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Roy. Soe S. Anst.

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SINGING SAND

BYE. S. H. Gipson, M.Sc., A. INST. PHYS.

Summary

Roaring or singing sand dunes have for many centuries been known to exist in desert regions,

but were not recorded as existing elsewhere than in waterless regions until Hugh Miller

discovered a beach of musical sand on the Island of Eigg in the Hebrides in 1884. Following

the publication of his finding the existence of many similar deposits has been noted. Although

only two occurrences of squeaking sand in Australia have been reported, one at Phillip Island,

Victoria, and the other at Botany Bay, New South Wales, many of our beaches contain sand

which to some extent possesses peculiar acoustical properties.

SINGING SAND

By E. §. Tf, Greson, M.Se., A. Inst, Phys.

fRead 1} April 1946]

INTRODUCTION

Roaring or singing sand dunes have for many centuries been known to exist

in desert regions (6), but were not recorded as existing elsewhere than in water-

less regions until Hugh Miller discovered a beach of musical sand on the Island

of Eigg in the Hebrides in 1884. Following the publication of his finding the

existence of many similar deposits has been noted. Although only two

occurrences of squeaking sand in Australia have been reported, one at Phillip

Island (7), Victoria, and the other at Botany Bay (5), New South Wales, many

of our beaches contain sand which to some extent possesses peculiar acoustical

properties.

The niimber of singing sandhills which produce a sotind when the sand is set

sunning down the slope is relatively stnall, in spite of the fact that they have

heen known to exist for so long. Beaches which produce a musical noise when

distutbed by being walked upon or by stroking the dry surface appear to be fairly

common. The present paper deals with further Australian deposits of singing

sand, and with some physical properties of the sand.

SOME AUSTRALIAN MUSICAL SANDS

On the eastern side of the north arm of Boston Island, Port Lincoln, there

is about half a mile of ocean beach which has been known to local residents for

matiy years for its sonorous properties. The sound which accompanies normal

walking on the dry sand announces that the beach is peculiar. By sweeping the

surface with the hand or shuffling and scraping the surface, quite a loud note of

high pitch is obtained. It is rather like that heard when a roughened rubber sole

is swept across the pile of a carpet, more of a swish and not very musical, and it

differs only in intensity from that sometimes heard when the sand on the Adelaide

beaches is vigorously disturbed.

Sand possessing this peculiar property to some degree has been collected on

oceasions at many sites from Cape Jervis to the Semaphore. When conditions

have heen favourable, sand from at least Port Noarlunga, Hallett Cove, Glenelg

and the Grange has appeared to be almost as musical as that from Boston sland.

On Boston Island the dry sand always appears to be ready to emit a note when

disturbed, even if only driven by a strong wind. The conditions frequently pre-

vailing at the other beaches prevent the sand singing sm situ, although with. treat-

ment it can often be made to produce a sound,

According to reports received, many other deposits of sand with some

acoustic properties exist on Australian beaches, but so far no reliable evidence

has been found indicating the presence of musical sand in Australia away from

the coast.

INVESTIGATION AND EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS

GrapvinGc AND Gratn Size

In a number of reports dealing with the musical properties of sand it has

been stated, without experimental evidence, that the grains appeared to be

uniform in size, Samples of approximately 3 kilos of sand have been reduced to

250 grammes in a Jones sample splitter, and the specimen obtained placed in a

Troms, Ray. Soc. S. Aust, 70, (>, 30 June 1946

Rot-tap Automatic Shaking Machine on a set of standard sieves, The results

obtained in grading the sand have been represented ina series of graphs, where

the percentage of sand passing through them has been plotted against the size of

the holes in the sieves, The steepness of the curyes gives an indication of the

uniformity of the size of the grains in the sample considered. Although the sands

taken range from excellent types of musical sand, like that from the Island of

Figg, to sand which is silent under all circumstances like that from Moana, no

outstanding difference is apparent from these curves.

Sand which is musical on the beach also emits a note when a pestle is rapidly

pressed into a mortar containing some of it. Certain sands which appear to be

silent on the beach will emit a note in a mortar, although not as readily, nor with

the same intensity as the sand which is musical on the foreshore.

In grading sand some form of uniformity coefficient is oftem adopted, this

coefficient sometimes being the ratio of the largest size of the smallest grains.

which constitute 60% of the sand, to the size of the smallest grain which would

be included in 90% of the larger particles, The more uniform the sand the

smaller is this coefficient, its value being unity when all the grains are of the same

size. Table I, giving the explanation of the grading curves, also gives the value

of the uniformity coefficients. The value of the uniformity coefficients calculated

in this manner have been tabulated with the key to the graphs,

TAgte [

Sand Uniformity Ceefiient

Moana sand hills, South Australia, silent —- - - I

Arno Bay, South Australia, fair in mortar -~ |

Port Noarlunga, South Australia, (A), feeble 1

Boston Esland, South Australia, (B), excellent — - 1

Island of Eigg, Hebrides, excellent - - - - 1

Second Valley, South Australia, fair in mortar 1

Glenelg North, South Australia, feeble on beach 1

Cape Jervis, South Australia, good - - - - t

Simpson Desert, Central Australia; dead - - - 1

Warrnambool, Victoria, silent - - - - |

Port Noarlunga, South Australia, (B), goo - — ‘fs

‘

Oe fe OOD

SU aAtnnn aw ye 4

Boston Island, South Australia, (A), excellent - - It

Glenelg South, South Australia, (B), goad - - -

Bundoona, Central Australia, dead - - - -

Brightone-Sands, New South Wales, silent - -

Glenelg South, South Australia, (A), fair - - -

Brighton-le-Sands, New South Wales, good -

Palm Beach, New South Wales, good in mortar - -

Wollongong, New South Wales, dead - - -

dnt pe

Sewn

ow Sino Woh tA OO,

on ® by

ok eee

SO. OF “EN

The results obtained by sieving the samples of sand do not support the con-

tention that for sand to be musical it must be more uniform in size. On the other

hand, the size of the grains does play some part in determining the character of

the sound produced, if any, in a mortar. A large sample of Boston Island sand

was graded into fractions according to size and tested separately in a mortar with

the following results :

Size of grain Results obtained in mortar

Less than 0251 mm. - Very poor sample of musical sand

0:0251-— 0-295 mim. - Just a feeble squeak

0-295 -— 0°353 mm, - Good musical sand

0-353 -— 0-422 mim, - Better than mixture, higher pitcly

Greater than 0:422 mm, . Better than mixture, lower pitch

THROUGH THE SIEVE.

Except in one case, where the size of the grains was about 1 millimetre, all

musical sands which have been described seem to be less than half a millimetre

in size. Most musical sands measured appear to be in between 0°3 mm. and

0°5 mm., a range in which practically all the sand examined here would fall.

PERCENTAGE PASSING

° q 5 5 4

SIZE OF SIEVE OPENINGS IN NIUMLLIMETRES.

Fig. 1

POD ee ee re er

v is

iy (0), /

x AD /

x oft

Ss)

| “2 “3

SIZE OF SIEVE OPENINGS 4h MULLINTETRES

Fig. 2

“KILLING” SINGING SAND

It has been reported that singing sand can only be made to respond to treat-

ment on the beach, and that even careful transport appears to rob the sand of

its peculiar power. However, sand carried from Port Lincoln by motor car and

stored for nine years still appears to be quite normal, Some evidence to support

the belief that musical sand will gradually lose its musical properties has been

found, For example, a quantity of excellent singing sand from Hallett Cove,

stored in a sack on the floor, lost its power to sing in just over a year. By the

treatment to be described it could be restored. On the other hand, if the material

is kept in a metal container where the risk of contamination by dust and moisture

is considerably reduced the time limit scems to be indefinite. Many samples,

including one from the Island of Eigg, have been stored in tins for over nine

years without any apparent change.

Wilson (4) found that sand shaken in a tin gradually lost its power of pro-

ducing a note in a mortar. After a great many demonstrations with Boston Island

sand it similarly began to lose its power of creating a note. If a pestle is con-

tinually pressed into the sand for about half an hour it becomes quite dead.

MASSING THROUGH THE SIEVE.

2 5S

SZE OF S/EVE OPENINGS MM NULLINFEF RES.

Fig. 3

Similarly, if a sample of musical sand is placed in a glass bottle, and rolled

mechanically while in a horizontal position, the musical property is gradually

destroyed, Every sample of musical sand which has been submitted to this treat-

ment has lost its peculiar property. However, if the sand is well covered with

water during the rolling process, and afterwards dried out, even after rolling for

four hours, the dried sand is still able to emit a note when suitably disturberl.

The water evidently protects the grains from the rough treatment sustained when

the dry sand is rolled.

Although rolling or continual hammering in the mortar appears to make a

difference to the acoustic property of the sand, the actual change appears to be

very small. A quantity of Boston Island sand was split into four samples, one

of which was pounded for an hour, another rolled for two hours, the third rolled

with water for four hours and dried, and the fourth left untreated. A sieve

analysis with each fraction failed to mdicate any change brought about by the

treatment,

Revivinc Sanp

If musical sand which has been killed is thoroughly mixed with water, ani

the liquid poured off before all the particles have settled, and the process repeated

several times, the sand when dried appears to regain its power to sing mm the

mortar. Most samples which have been rolled and thus treated have regained

their musical powers, while sands which did not exhibit the musical property to

any degree have been improved by this procedure. Although this washing treat-

ment has been sticcessful in reviving the musical properties of many parcels of

sand, it is not always efficacious. Evidently some sands, like that from Moana

sandhills, are definitely dead, and no treatment as yet devised will make this type

of sand utter a note in the mortar. Some investigators have found that singing

sands are more effective after a shewer. Although washing has been found to

definitely improve the acoustic properties of the sand, it cannot be the important

factor in desert regions.

Rolling and washing can be continued alternately with satisfactory results.

One sample of sand from Port Noarlunga, which did not sing on the beach. but

which did give a good note in the mortar, has been rolled and revived five times.

After rolling for 15 hours in all, it is still capable of emitting a sound. The

washing and drying treatment does not always give back to the killed sand its

acoustic properties, and at times the process has to be repeated to be effective,

If the finer particles are separated by sieving from sand which has been

killed, the residue un the sieve does not regain its power to emit a note. The

agitation of the grains during a vigorous separation on a sieve would tend ta

silence the sand, A gentle movement of the sieve might be expected to separats

the sand without deterioration, but on attempting to restore sands from various

sources by this method no success has been attained.

Moisture AND SINGING SAND

Most writers agree that sand is silenced by the addition of moisture, although

on some occasions singing sands have been investigated after rain with satisfactory

results, It seems to make no difference if 0°05% of water by weight is added

to sand in the mortar, 0-19 makes a marked difference, while the addition of

1% only allowed a very feeble note. On the Adelaide beaches sounds can often

be produced by sweeping the dry surface sand over the damp sand below, Asa

rule the sand must he dry, and in a number of cases, local sand which responded

in a feeble manner on the beach, has given quite a satisfactory note In the mortar

when thoroughly dried.

It has been frequently stated that musical sand cannot be transported any

great distance or kept for any Jengih of time if it is to retain its powers.

Lewis (8) found that when the roaring sand of the Kalahari desert was

left exposed to the air away from the dry interior it absorbed up to 0'2% of

moisture and became dead, On the other hand, Bolton (2) attributed the

deterioration of musical sand on exposure to the loss of moisture. Both accounts

give details which cannot be dismissed hghtly. To: further complicate matters,

Bolton (3) found that from his collection of 600 varieties of sand only two pro-

duced a squeak when wetted. The local musical sands examined seem to belong

to the larger group which only produces a note when suitably disturbed in the

dry state,

IMPURITIES IN SAND

Regularly shaped grains free from any adhering matter have been observed

in all but one deposit of musical sand, and [rom ihe work described above i

appears that some small quantity of fine material produced by abrasion between

ais

the grains might be able to prevent the production of sound. In the case of

beach sand it is to be expected that any fragments of shells and other calcareous

fragments would be the first to be broken up by the rolling process. One per

eent. of finely divided calcium carbonate added to musical sand interfered very

seriously with its peculiar property, but it was still more musical than sand which

had been tumbled about in the bottle, Two per cent. of French chalk consider-

ably reduced the intensity of the sound, but slightly raised its pitch. When finely

divided pipe clay was added, 1% reduced the intensity and raised the pitch, while

3% tendered the sand silent, One per cent. of finely divided pumice stone

reduced the intensity and raised the pitch, while 19% of powdered resin prevented

the production ef a note, A further sample of musical sand mixed with 1% af

pipe clay, which had been ground up with water in order to obtain a more uniform

distribution of the clay, upon drying was still feeble in its powers to produce a

note. ‘Three per cent. of Moana sand, which is quite dead, appears to have very

little effect on Boston Island sand, but 69% or more greatly reduces the intensity

of the note produced in the mortar. Thus it appears that, by addition, quite a

considerable amount of foreign matter is necessary to prevent the production of

sound, yet the sand appears to be killed by some slight change brought about by

rough treatment.

Although an absence of coutamination may be a contributing factor, under

some circumstances determining whether the sand will sing or not, it does not

appear to be a necessary condition, for Bagnold (1) found in Libya that the vocal

sands contained considerable yuantities of fine material mixed with the grains,

and the grains wert coated with oxide,

The roundness of the grains might also be expected to be a contributmg

factor towards the production of sound, but most beach sands appear to be well

rounded, With suitable treatment sand which can produce a note may be “killed”

and “restored” alternately. Hence it ig unlikely that the actual shape of the

grains could be altered during the treatment which has been found to produce

the reversal of the acoustic properties of the sand.

Visratine Air Pockets

Although the air between the grains must be affected by the emission of the

sound when the sand is set moving, it does not appear io play an essential role

in the production of sound, for it has been found that musical sand will emit a

liote When agitated in a vacuum.

The mortar was placed ander a bell jar on the plate of a vacuum pump, and

a pestle with a very long handle was made to pass through a rubber tube and

protrude through an openiltig at the top of the jar. The upper end of the rubber

tube was closed on the handle of the pestle and the lower end fastened to the neck

of the bell jar, When the air was removed the rubber tube allowed the pestle

to be moyed up and down into the sand. The note was still produced, although

reduced in intensity, when the sand was disturbed in the mortar, the sound pass-

ing through the metal plate on which the apparatus was arranged.

lt has been suggested that the air spaces between the grains of sand, acting

as Tesonators, were responsible, the cumulative effect giving rise to an audible note.

This demonstration shows that neither the air between the grains of sand, nor that

in the tiny hollows in the grains themselves, can be responsible. Barking sand

from Hawaii consists almost wholly of fragments of coral, and the grains on

grinding displayed hollows. The presence of these air cells has been used to

explain the origin of the sound produced when the sand is disturbed. Jf such

inicroscopic air pockets did vibrate, the pitch af the note would be extremely high,

well above the range of human audibility.

Urtra Sonics

The note emitted by a single oscillating sand particle would be well above

the range of audibility. [In order to detect any such high frequency tones, if pro-

duced, a microphone attached to an amplifier designed to handle high frequencies

was placed near the mortar, while the pestle was forced into the sand. <A filter

incorporated in the circuit prevented the passage of tones lower than 15,000 cycles

per second, With several samples of good singing sand no high frequency tones

could be detected. The apparatiss was checked, using a beat frequency oscillator

giving a minimum frequency af 16,000 cycles per second. I am greatly indebted

io Mr. D. W. Cox, of the School of Mines, Adelaide, for his assistance in carrying

out this particular investigation.

As the sound made by the sand was quite loud, the high frequetey com-

ponents required to give this audible note by interference would have to be of

considerable intensity, and no difficulty should be encountered in detecting their

presence if they did exist. It appears that no such high frequency tones were

produced, at least when the sand was disturbed in the mortar.

Tue Norse or Moving Sanp

To determine the character uf the sound produced when sand moves dawn

an incline the following procedure was adopted. The sand was placed in a

triangulatly-shaped hopper with a slot 9 cm, long and 0°3 cm. wide. An incline

10 cm. wide and 53 cm. long caught the sand as it icll from the hopper at the rate

af 250 grammes per second. A barrier at the base of the incline held back a layer

of sand 2°5 cm. thick, and by adjusting the inclination of the trough the tumbling

savid grains were kept moving over the stationary sand retained in the apparatus.

A sensitive movimg coil microphone was employed to pick up the sounds created

by the sand, and a five-stage amplifier, capable of a million-fold amplification

arranged to magnify the sound, With smaller apparatus great difficulty was

encountered it obtaining any sound that could be heard distinetly from the back-

ground noises present, even in an otherwise empty and well insulated room, In

the final trial the whole apparatus was placed in a large carton and surrounded

with a layer of 12 cm. of finely divided wood flour. The apparatus was placed

in a well insulated studio and covered with several thickuesses of insulating

material when set going,

Four types of sand were compared, Boston Island, a good sample of singing

sand from Port Noarlutiga, and two quite dead sands from Moana and Sema-

phore, The noise in each case appeared to be somewhat like that produced by a

whistling kettle before the water is thorouglily boiling: something like the rustling

of rain on an iron rool or the sound produced by sand falling on to a piece of

crumpled paper, The note produced by the Noarlunga sand was perhaps slightly

higher in pitch than the other sounds, Although the acoustic properties of thes¢

sands when tested by other means fall into two distinct classes, the sounds hearil

were almost identical.

There was a drop of 2 cm. from the hopper to the top of the incline, and

also a longer drop at the base of the slope, and the sound produced by the grains

falling in these two places may have altered the character of the sound heard.

When once the slope was established, the sand moved uniformly as a rule, but at

times it would accumulate on the slope, and then commence to move again on an

increased scale. Listening to the sand this feature could be detected as the

intensity of the sound alternately increased and decreased with the irregularity

in the movement. It appears then that, although the falling sand contributed to

the sound detected, the sliding grains were mainly responsible fur the sounds

produced,

TEMPERATURE

Musical sand which has been heated strongly or cooled with liquid air still

gives forth a note in a mortar, both under these extreme conditions, and. also when

it has regained its normal state. Sand which is normally silent is similarly

unaltered by heating or cooling.

Exvastic Properties

After removing all large fragments which would clog the apparatus, the sand

was placed in a funnel with the spout drawn out so that only a fine stream of

sand emerged. A -piece of 2°5 cm. plate-glass was rigidly fixed at an angle of

45° to the horizontal, so that the sand had a fall of 30 cm. before impact with a

point about 1 cm. from the lower edge of the plate. In falling this distance the

sand grains did not diverge to any extent, the area of cross section at impact being

about 0-5 cm, in diameter. As there was a tendency for the sand grains to fly out

” MIOQANA t

WARDANG “ys. SILENT SAND.

sLeveLc

— a GLENELG WASHED- For.

_ BosToN $15. - Good Note.

PERCENTAGE

[es] 1S Cor.

WS TAYCES FRom' GLASS SLES sf Cams,

Fig. 4

Sand “Spectrum"

The percentage of sand collected by a series of marrow containers placed against each

other so that the sand falling on to a piece of tilted glass is reflected along the scries.

in all directions a screen caught all particles which moved beyond a fixed sector,

the centre of which was the point of contact with the glass. The grains which

bourtced off at an angle less than 10° with a central line were caught in a set of

narrow troughs placed perpendicularly with the motion of the particles, The

sand catight in various containers was weighed separately. With all the samples

tested practically all the grains fell short of 13 cm. The first experiments were

conducted with five troughs, and, as the restilts appeared to be consistent, the

number of divisions was increased to 14.

A number of different sands has been examined by this apparatus, and some

of the results obtained are illustrated by the graphs above (fig. 4). In each case

the percentage of sand retained by a particular box as ordinate has been plotted

against the number of that particular box giving a kind of sand spectrum.

In order to check the method to compare the elastic properties a large sample

of Glenelg sand was separated by this procedure. The five divisions in the receiv-

ing apparatus were employed, but the samples of sand collected in the last three

divisions have been weighed together, giving only three fractions. The sand

collected in each of the first two divisions was again passed through the apparatus,

and in each case the first and second fractions were again separated. The results

are set out in each case as a percentage into three classes—A, B and C.

LARGE SAMPLE

——

49-5 33-1 17

| | | | al |

B Cc A B Cc

46-7 34-2 19-5 40-7 36°3 23-0

Tt kt fort Pf tc

A B Cc A 5B C A B Cc A B+C

46-8 33-6 19-5 47:7 33-0 19-2 49-5 33-0 17°6 49°5 50-6

The direction and speed of the grains after impact will depend upon their

direction and velocity before collision, as well as on the shape and composition of

the particles, It is obvious that this procedure does not separate the grains

according to their elastic properties alone, but the separation is influenced by some

other factor—most likely by the interference which is certain to take place among

the falling grains. Although not a true “spectrum” of the elastic properties of

the sand, the results obtained do demonstrate with regularity some very com-

plicated property of the particles. As a rule there appears to he some difference

between silent and singing sand, In most cases the singing sand grains are

projected further after impact with the slab of glass. This difference has been

noticed with sand that has been improved acoustically by washing. On the other

hand, singing sand from Boston Island which has been silenced by abrasion gives

almost the same “spectrum” as the untreated sand.

As the musical sand from Hawaii is composed of tiny fragments of coral,

while in other deposits the principal constituent of the singing sand is quartz, it

appears most likely that the elasticity of the particles is not the deciding factor

in determining whether the sand will sing or not.

CONCLUSION

lt appears that the presence of singing or musical sand depends upon the

treatment that the beach receives. Many beaches do possess, at intervals, sand

with definite sonorous properties. However, Boston Island beach, Port Lincoln,

appears to be more favourably situated, and it always can be relied upon to squeak

when dry.

_ It has been shown that rough treatment of musical sand, or the addition of

impurities, will destray its properties, and it is suggested that its condition can

be altered by the action of the sea.

A study of the size of the particles, their uniformity and their purity, seems to

indicate that there is little difference between singing sand and sand which 1s

silent. Air is not necessary for the production of sound in the mortar, nor do

any high frequency tones accompany the audible note. Further work is being

undertaken in order to investigate the origin of the sound, and no explanation

can be offered at present.

In conclusion, the author wishes to thank the many kind friends who have

assisted in the collection of samples and information. Without their valuable

aid this work could not have been possible.

COON Ati Ne

REFERENCES

Bacnotp, R. A. 1941 The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes

Botton, — 1884 T.N. Y. Acad. Sci., 73

Botton, — 1890 Ibid., 21

Carus-Witson 1888 “Musical Sand”

Carus-Witson 1892 “Nature,” 44, 318

Curzon, Lord 1923 “Tales of Travel,’ Hodder & Stoughton

Haty, T. S. 1892 “Nature,” 44, 279

Lewis, A. D. 1936 South Af. Geog. J., 49, 23

Mitrer, Hucn 1858 ‘The Cruise of the ‘Betsey’ ”

THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS: NO. 6, GEOLOGY - THE SAND

FORMATIONS

By C. T. MADIGAN

Summary

As it was already known that the chief features of the Simpson Desert were sand and spinifex,

one of the principal objects of the Expedition was to study the sand formations with a view to

discovering the mechanics of their building, the origin of the sand, the past history of the area

and the present position in the desert cycle. These are all fundamental questions which are

exercising the minds of geologists and geographers in connection with all deserts of the

world, and to which no wholly satisfactory answers are yet agreed upon. The problems of the

Simpson Desert has already been discussed by the author (Madigan 1936 an 1938), and it

seemed no further progress could be made without the help of more field observations. It was

partly for this reason that the desert crossing was made in a west-east direction instead of

north-south, so that the journey that lay across the sandridges and not in the lanes between

them, making it much more arduous but allowing the maximum sand ridge observation

THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939

SCIENTIFIC REPORTS; No. 6, GEOLOGY — THE SAND FORMATIONS

By C. T, Mantcan

[Taken as read 11 April 1946]

Prates VY to VIII

INTRODUCTION

As it was already known that the chief features of the Simpson Desert were

sand and spinifex, one of the principal objects of the Expedition was to study

the sand formations with a view to discovering the mechanics of their building,

the origin of the sand, the past history of the area and the present position ia

the desert cycle, These are all fundamental questions which are exercising the

minds of geologists and geographers in connection with all the deserts of the

world, and to which no wholly satisfactory answers are yet agreed upon. The

problems of the Simpson Desert had already been discussed by the author

{Madigan 1936 and 1938), and it seemed that no further progress could be made

without the help of more field observations. It was partly for this reason that

the desert crossing was made in a west-east direction instead of north-south, so

that the journey lay across the sandridges and not in the lanes between them,

making it much more arduous but allowing the maximum of sandridge obsetyation,

The first thing to do was to observe and record not only the morphology of

individual sandridges but also their distribution and variation throughout the area,

30 as to provide a picture of the whole desert as well as to give details of par-

ticular sand piles. Such general descriptions of deserts are at present very rare.

In the past, examination of sand-dune or sandridge areas has presented great

difficulties, but these have largely vanished in this age of air travel, and no doubt

complete accounts of the nature and arrangement of the sand formations in all

deserts will soon be available from aerial surveys.

The general nature of the Simpson Desert sandridges was observed by the

author in the aerial reconnaissances of 1929 (Madigan 1929). These observa-

tions have since been supplemented by ground visits to the desert margin, as

well as by Mr. Colson’s observations on his crossing along the 26th parallel, and

finally by the ground work of the Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939. This dis-

cussion will therefore begin with an account of all the known facts about the

Simpson Desert sand formations as they exist today. The reader is referred to

the map of the area already published by the author in these Transactions

(Madigan 1945), spare copies of which would be gladly supplied on application.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SAND FORMATIONS

The area occupied by sandridges is shown on the map referred to. The

western margin is the Finke River, with the outliers of the James and MacDonnell

Ranges to the north-west, a sand plain to the north and Lake Eyre to the south.

Taking the Mulligan as an eastern boundary (or the rabbit-proof fence to the

west of it), and the lower Diamantina and Warburton as a south-east boundary,

the whole of the area thus eticlosed is a flat plain rising from below sea level at

Lake Eyre to 600 fect in the north-west, and covered with a grid of patallel sand-

ridges of almost constant trend which is shown by the courses of the Hay and

ns. Roy, Soc S, Auat., 70, (1), 30 June 1946

isd

Mulligan, the end of the Finke and the long axes of the dry lakes in South Ats-

tralia. North of the 26th parallel the sandridges are regularly spaced and con-

tinuotts, but south of it they tend to be in groups with more sand-free open

spaces between and dry lake beds elongated in the direction of the ridges. The

area thus defined is the Simpson Desert. To the south-east of it, that is In the

country north of Birdsville, and on the flood plains of the Diamantina and Cooper,

the sandridges still continue but fade away not far beyond the New South Wales

border with a definite margin only in the northern Flinders Ranges to the south.

In this south-eastern area the sandridges still have definite trends and are of the

game nature but they are much further apart, often occurring as great isolated

individuals on the gibber plains (sce pl, viit), to which special names haye been

given in some cases. They are not in general a hindrance to motor transport as

there is plenty of open country, The exception to this is the country in South

Australia between the Cooper and the Northern Flinders, and particularly north

of Lakes Gregory and Blanche and in the neighbourhood of the Strzelecki Creek,

where the sandridges are close and jumbled and the country as sandridge desert,

which also applies ta the country along the east side of Lake Eyre as far as the

Birdsville track. Otherwise the country to the south-east is very different from

the Simpson Desert, and the borders of the Desert are quite obvious and familiar

to the local inhabitants. They may be recognised as the limits beyond which no

one would attempt to go with an ordinary motor vehicle, for there is never any-

thing to be seen ahead but an unbroken series of sandridges. Most of the details

following apply to the sandridges of the desert proper.

Numbers ond spacing of sandridges—Although the ridges are so strictly

parallel, the spacing is not as even as seems at first, but varies from a few hundred

yards to half a mile im the desert proper. Invariably, the smaller the sandridges,

the closer the spacing (see pi. ¥i, fiz. 1), Between Camp 5 near the Hale, and

Camp 14 near the Hay, 477 sandridges were crossed in a distance of 90 miles

measured across the ridges. This is five sandridges to the mile, and gives an

average spacing of 332 yards from crest to crest, which may be taken as the mean

for the main part of the desert. The biggest desert sandridges were seen between

Camps 8 and 10, in the middle of the desert, where 84 were crossed in 21°6 miles,

which gives just under four to the mile or 450 yards intervals,

At Andado Station there were two big sandridges half a mile apart with the

station in the Jane between them, followed to the cast by the first of five small

ridges 760 yards away, the five being separated by am average distance of

135 yards, then another big ridge a further half mile or more to the east (see

fig. 7). At Camp 8 (see fig, 2) the intervals between crests were 347 yards,

193 yards and 622 yards, giving a mean of 387 yards, Between Camp 22 and

Birdsville, outside the desert, where the big candridges are separated by gibber

plains, the spacing was more irregular and much greater—3/ ridges occupied

22 niles, giving an average interval of just over 1,000 yards.

In all, the Expedition crossed 754 sandridges between the Finke near Char-

lotte Waters and Birdsville, a distance across the ridges of about 230 miles, which

gives an average of over three to the mile, but advantage was taken of some stony

country on the west side of the desert which would bring the overall average to

about four to the mile,

Trends—The trends were extraordinarily regular and the ridges practically

straight in the main desert (see pl. v, fig. 2). The trend of the nearest ridge to

the camp was taken cach morning by prismatic compass from a point on the crest

to the furthest peak visible, often only a few hundred yards away, and recorded

without any reference to or memory af the previous day's reading, yet the figure

was often the same on successive days, at places up to sixteen miles apart,

‘Q]ZOS ana} “Mojaq ‘]e}UOZIOY Sau, aAy IeIs ]EIsj2aa ‘QAoqY ‘g dure Je seBprupueg ssose uolyzoas

Z ‘Sty

a OO a a ee ee ee ed

L749 Oo cos ovor aos; oooe ange ooor cost eoor

*a]RIS ansz ‘Mojaq ‘[eyWOZIOY sau} aAY ajeos [IIA ‘aAOqy ‘OpepuYy Je Sasplapues ssose uoNdaS

1 ‘31

OORT voor ooEr oser oor

330, 332, 328,

325, 326,

ille the successive readings were 322, 325, 330, 329,

Between Camps 6 and 14 the readings were 325,

and Camp 23 near Birdsvi

330, 327, 327, giving a mean of 328, which, with a compass variation of 5°

gives the true mean trend as 333°, or N.27° W. Between Camp 16 on the Hay

336, 330, 326, 332, On the east side of the desert, particularly east of the Mulli-

gan, the ridges are mote straggly, yet the mean of these trends is 329°, giving a

true trend of 334°, or N. 26° W., which is practically the same as for the main

desert crossing,

At Camps 26 and 27, south of Birdsville, the trend was N, 20° W,, a dis-

tinctly more northerly trend ; at Camps 40 and 41 near Lake Eyre at the north end

it was N.10° W.. and at Camps 47 and 48 near the south end of the Lake it

was N.8° W.

On the west side of the desert, at Mayfield’s Swamp. the trend was

N.1i° W., and at Andado Station N.9° W., but at Camp 1 it was N-25° W.,

practically the mean trend for the main part of the desert.

Height and Length—The height varied from about 30 feet to 100 feet_ Cross

sections were measured with tape and clinometer at Andado Station and at Camp 8

(fz. Land 2). At other places heights were determined from a single angle of

elevation from the base and pacing to the crest. The crest of the big sandridge

at Andado Station was 86 feet above the ground immediately east of it At

Camp & the highest crest in the section was 63 feet above the bottom of the lane.

At Camp 10 a height of 84 feet was measured. At Camp 17 on the Queensland

Border the height was 38 feet, and at Camp 18 it was 35 feet, A big sandridge

on the gibber plain at Camp 23 (pl, viii, fig. 1) measured 77 ft, 6 ins., amd another

near Atidrewilla Waterhole on the Diamantina (Camp 28) gave 80 feet, It was

reckoned that some of the sandridges in the middle desert attained a height of at

least 100 feet, The highest ridges seen on the march were net measured,

The sandridges in the main desert run right through it unbroken, and many

of them must be 200 miles or more m length. From the air, at 4,000 feet, they

were seen & tun from horizon to horizon, a visible distance of some hundred

miles. Only one sandridge end was seen and rounded aniong all the 626

encountered on the desert crossing between the Hale and the Mulligan. This one

ended ato claypan between Camps 11 and 12, Al! the others presented an un-

broken front and had to be climbed over, Occasionally two sandridges canverge

and join, with a single ridge continuing on, the stem of the Y thus formed

invariably pointing northwards, but not more than half a dozen examples of this

were seen on the desert crossing.

The aerial examination and this crossing of the centre showed that the main

desert is a grid of very long, straight and parallel sandridges of moderate height

and fairly evenly spaced at five to the mife. In all this area of 300 niiles by 200

miles the structure is astonishingly uniform and simple, There are no complica-

tions of pattern, to spurs or cross ridges, nothing but a succession of sandy lants

separated by low ridges of sand, ribbing the level surface in straight and parallel

lines. There can be no area of thts size in the whole world of stuch complete and

orderly uniformity. Of few places surely could it be said that there is nothing

in any one particular locality to distinguish it from another a hundred miles away.

This uniformity is confined to the main desert. Round the borders it 1s

much less marked. To the north, between the Hale and the Hay, the sandridges

fade down through sandy undulations, still keeping their direction, into level

sandy plains, but on other sides of the desert the marginal sandridges are wavy

and straggly, and though maintaining a constant general direction they may change

their trend in curves through as much as 45°, and convergences are the rule rather

than the exception. This has been observed and photographed from the air tt

the neighbourhood of the railway line on the western side of the desert near the

Finke, at Goyder’s Lagoon on the Diamantina, and to the east of Lake Eyre [see

pi. v, fig, 1, and illustrations in the Geograplical Review (Madigan 1936, pp, 211,

214, 215} }.

Mr. E. A, Colson, who traversed the 26th parallel in 1936 with one black boy

and camels, reported that the sandridges along this parallel occurred in groups,

about two miles wide, with some ten sandridges to the group, separated by narrow

rubbly flats, which became dry Jakes towards Poeppel’s Corner. The trend was

about N.20° W. On the return journey he made a detour of some 40 miles to

the south and found the sandridges smaller and stragply, with a larger proportion

of flats of rubbly loam and the travelling much easier,

Crass Sections of Sandridges—It has Jong been known that the ridges

throughout the desert are unsymmictrical, the slope on the west side being gentler

than that on the east, giving the effect of a series of geritle dip-slopes and escarp-

ments. Of the pronounced slopes on each side of the crests, the western one

avergged about 15° and the eastern about 25°, but the western approach rose

almost imperceptibly from near the foot of the next ridge to the west, while the

eastern slopes changed direction comparatively abruptly at the base of each sand-

ridge. The lowest part of the lane hetween ridges was always towards the west.

This is well shown in fig. 1. The floors of the lanes scem flat. and this gentle rise

might have escaped notice if levels had not been taken,

The great mass of the ridge, the plinth, to use Bagnold’s term, is entirely

fixed, chiefly by spinifex (Tyiodia sp.) and canegrass (Spinifex sp), and there

can be no question of any lateral movement at all in recent times, All the high

ridges, however, have a crest of live sand of the order of 50 to 100 feet across,

which is subject to continual modification by varying winds. There is no hard-

and-fast line between the fixed sand of the flanks and the live sand of the crest,

and vegetation often reaches to the top, but on most ridges the sand along the

crests is obviously subject to movement, with frequent shp-slopes or sand-falls,

These sand-falls would not exceed 10 feet in vertical height in a 50-ft. sandridge,

the remainder of the flanks of the ridge being even and gentle spinifex-covered

slopes

On the western side of the desert the steep faces and sand-falls were mainly

on the eastern sidé of the crests, but on the eastern side the position was reversed.

Often there was a knife-edge along a crest which was equaily inclined on both

sides at the angle of repose of the sand. The reason for this will be discussed

later. The object is first to set out the facts.

The sharp crest of live sand was not universal but it was the general rule,

and applied ta most ridges in the main desert of 50 feet or over, In some locali-

ties, particularly in the neighbourhood of the Hay, the 30-foot ridges had rounded

summits with no sand-falls.

Fig. 1 and 2 both show the same phenomenon, a hump on the western side

af the sandridge, which was in fact fairly general though not conspicuous, Tt

gives the inipression that the crest tends to migrate eastward, leaving a broad

whale-back behind it.

Longitwdinal Prafiles—Although the pattern of the desert is simple, and the

ridges straight, parallel and fixed, yet the formations of the live sand on top of

the fixed and similar plinths show considerable variation, The simplest case is

shown in pl. vi, fig. 2, where the crest 1s a straight ridge with gentle slope on

the west side and sand-falls on the east. This preture was by Colson along the

26th parallel. Although it illustrates the general principle tt is exceptional in ts

simplicity. Most often the crests were wavy in plan as seen well in pl, y, Ag, 1,

and in the case of the bigger ridges they showed a distinct gerration when viewed

trom the side, due to the occurrence of a series of summits, as shown in pl vii,

fig. 1. These were referred to as saw-tooth ridges in the field, and were nwst

conspicuous in the middle of the desert and on the highest sandridges. The tive

sand of. the crest rises gently northwards to the highest point, with sand-falls on

the east side, then falls away more rapidly, the knife-edge curving back west-

ward down into a saddle, ta continue in an easterly curve and rise to the next

summit. Sometimes the knife-edge was continuous across the saddle, sometimes

the crest in the saddle was a rounded curve or whaleback, The sharp crested

ridge is the setf (plural siouf) or sword-blade of the Arabs of North Africa.

The appearance was of a series of sand-drifts with their long axes crossing the

ridges at a small angle, which placed the drifts slightly in echelon.

The arrangement is shown diagrammatically in fig. 3. The summits were

not more than a hundred yards apart, being much less on smaller sandridges, It

is to be noted that the summits are convex towards the sand-falls or slip-slopes.

The effect can be seen at the upper end of the desert sandridge in pl. vy, fig. 2,

and better in pl. v, fig. 1, which shows sandridges neat Lake Eyre with the con-

vexity and stecp sand-falls on the west side instead of the east, which latter was

Fig. J

Pian and eastern elevation, showing a common formation on Sandridge Crests.

the rule further north. This formation of the crests seemed very similar to

Bagnold’s “tear-drops” (Bagnold 1941, pl. xii b).

Route Notes on the Desert Crossing 1939—The nature and variations of the

sand formations haying been described, a general picture of the Simpson Desert

can now be given from the route notes of the crossing of the centre. Sandridges

begin immediately the Finke is crossed near Charlotte Waters. They are entirely

absent on the south side of the river, which is a stony tableland, On the river

flats there are some short ridges and the track to Andado winds between them

without the necessity of crossing. They are similar in every way to a section of

a long desert ridge. There are no signs of barchans. From Mayfield’s swamp

on to the stony area of Mount Day the track runs for 12 miles between iow

parallel sandridges,

Andade Station is on the north-east side of this stony area and on the western

side of the desert proper, The station and well lie in the lane between two very

high sandridges which run up from the Finke 40 miles away and continue on to

the stony area at Andado Bore No. 1. Between Camps 1 and 2, in the lee of this

stony tableland the sandridges were small and close, with sand in the lanes

between.

From Camp 8 near the Hale to Camp 15 on the Hay the course lay across

the desert sandridges. Camp 5 was on the eastern side of the valley of a branch

of the Hale. The country was at first stony with occasional small sandridges,

tive in the first four miles, but 70 were crossed in the next 15 miles, and 73 in a

similar distance the next day. They became progressively straighter and higher,

up to 50 feet, and sand was continuous between the ridges. Between Camps 7

and 8 the sandridges rose to an estimated height of 100 feet. At Camp 8 they

were again smaller. Fig. 2 shows a cross section at this camp. The saw-tooth

appearance of the crests was very conspicuous here. Post-hole boring showed

that gravel underlay the sand in the lowest part of the lane at Camp 8, at a depth

of 11 feet, beyond which the borer would not go, Sandstone fragments indicated

that silicified sandstone underlay the sand at that depth.

Fig. +

Looking south along a Sandridge at Camp 8 showing Crest formation,

At Camp 9 the ridges were big and somewhat irregular on top, with the

crests double in a few places, enclosing a long narrow basin or fulje which was

open at the south (windward) end.

Between Camps 9 and 10 the biggest sandridges of the crossing were found,

They were higher and rather further apart, 40 being crossed in 10 miles. They

were also more symmetrical, the west side being considerably steeper and the

bottom of the lane nearer the middle, The crests were again more irregular, with

some transverse superimposed dunes and hollows. A sandridge measured at

Camp 10 was 84 feet high, but higher ones had preceded it,

Camp 11 was less than a mile from Camp 10 and was on the edge of an

area about 10 miles wide where claypans occurred between the sandridges. The

ridges were still high in this area but the sand was thin between the ridges, with

some exposures of porcelainised sandstone and here and there the clay Aoors of

the claypans. At Camp 11 the crests were in snaky curves with the higher points

to the east, the saddles to the west. The saw-tooth effect was most pronounced

in this area, The spinifex-covered lower slopes were uniform, In some cases

the saddles were quite low, forming what almost amounted to a breach running

diagonally across the ridge in a north-east direction. It was only in this central

area, between Camps 9 and 11 that the summits and saddles were sufficiently

pronounced to make choosing a crossing-place worth while, except for the great

ridges on the gibber plains east of the Mulligan.

In many places along the knife-edge crests in the centre the live sand was

equally steep on both sides, as had been noted at Andado,

Between the claypans (Camp 11) and the Hay the sandridges dwindled to

30 feet in height or less, with no definite crests or live sand, but with broad

rounded summits, made hummocky with small hollows and mounds, The country

looked level from the top of a ridge and the view was wide, nor obstructed east

and west by thenext jagged crest, The ridges, however, maintained their direc-

tion and spacmg throughout,

Fast of the Hay the sandridges again became somewhat higher, 35 to 40 feet,

and strarghter. with a little live sand om top hut no conspicuous serration. The

herbage became more plentiful and some shrubs were permanent on the crests

The lanes east of the Queensland border became groves of gidgee (Acacia Cani-

bagei) and clay soils replaced the everlasting sand between the ridges. At the

Mulligan the ridges became broad tndulations which could not be described as

ridges.

Between the Mulligan and Birdsville there are some patches of sandridges

with sand between the ridges as in the desert, but mainly they are big ridges

standing isolated on the gibber plains, and sometimes a mile or more apart. The

plinths are more symmetrical than in the desert and the crests tend to be rounded

(see pl. viii), There is a marked absence of knife-edges in the Birdsville area,

but where there were sand-falls they were mostly on the western side at that

time, making crossing more difficult, The smaller ridges show a marked

asyrametry, with gentle slopes on the western side.

Observations previously made in the vicinity of Birdsville (Madigan 1929)

were checked, The small, short sandridges show ablation at the south-east etds

and extension in an apron of sand at the north-west ends. Wind erosion is much

more marked on the west sides than the east, though there are many sand-falls

along the crests on the west sides, A search was made for anything resembling

barchans, without success. The only small new formation on the gibbers noted

wag ear the police station. It was a narrow strip of sand rising to a height of

about four feet and running for a hundred yards in a N.N.W. direction, parallel

to all the big ridges. It was made up of two distinct lines of coalescing mounds

with a depression between them, making the surface htmmocky, There were

also transverse hollows. At the north end there were several separate low mounds

continuing in the same alignment as the two parts of the continuotis sand-strip,

Mr. R. Gaffney informed the author in 1943 that this sand-strip had broken up

into several independent dunes which trended N.N,W. and were long, narrow

and very gentle rises terminating in a crescent-shaped sand-fall at the northern

end, from which they tapered back to a point up-wind,

Mineralogy of the Sands—Dr. Dorothy Carroll has examined the samples

collected by the author and Mc. Crocker and the results have appeared in these

Transactions (Carroll, 1944), An account of Mr, Crocker’s work on the samples

will appear later. The Simpson Desert sands are somewhat finer thay most other

desert sands, but they agree with Bagnold’s general findings, both as to finehess

and distribution of gradings, Dr. Carroll found that the main bulk lay between

0°24 and 0-06 mm. Bagnold (1941, p. 6) gives the usual values for wind-blown

sand as between 0°3 and 0°15 mm.

Dr, Carroll considered that the quartz grains had had a long past history,

though not more worn than many beach sands or beach dune sands. There was

considerably more rounding in the finer grains, The grains could possibly have

passed through several cycles of sedimentation. The distribution of the heavy

fraction was very significant. Sillimanite was rich in the middle of the desert,

poorer to the east and south; garnet was much more plentiful to the west, and

epidote was also notably common to the centre and west. These minerals are

characteristic of metamorphic rocks, which oceur in abundance comparatively near

in the MacDonnell Ranges to the north-west but would be rare in the Mesozoic

and later sediments of the desert basin. The variety of the heavy minerals

suggested to Dr. Carroll that they had not travelled far from their source though

they showed considerable abrasion.

Wl METEOROLOGY

The weather conditions during the expedition have been described (Madigan

1945). They applied only to two winter months and have little bearing on the

annual wind regime. Unfortunately, information on the desert winds is very

meagre, There are no meteorological stations on the eastern side near enough

to take into consideration at all. On the western side there are Oodnadatta and

Alice Springs, but they have only been small stations where temperature, baro-

meter, rainfall and wind directions have been recorded by the postmasters at

9am, and 3 pm. There were no records of wind velocities till the war years,

when Air Force stations at those places noted wind direction and velocity at

1330 hours, that is, once a day, A summary of these observations is given in

the following tables for the years 1941 and 1943.

Axice SPRiIncs

Wind Veloc. No. of observations at 1,320 S.A.S.T.

M.P.H. Year N. N.W. E. S.E. Ss. S.w. W. N.W. Total

4-15 - - 1941 33 16 77 80 18 0 3 14 241

1943 13 i4 74 97 32 12 10 23 275

16-31 - - 1941 5 0 0 3 1 1 0 4 14

1943 1 9 4 2 0 0 1 5 13

32-47 - ~ 1941 0 O 0 0. 0 O 0 0 0

1943 if] 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

OopNADATTA

Wind Velo. No. of observations at 1,530 5.A.5.T,

M.P.H. Year N. N_W. Kh S.E. &. S.W. W. WN.W, = Total

4-15 - ~ 941 33 26 49 30 28 10 5 10 191

1943 25 25 43 42 43 16 il 12 217

16-31 - - 1941 31 14 9 16 22 12 6 6 116

1943 12 0 7 12 44 12 9 9 105

32447 - - 1941 0 0 1 1 2 0 1 0 5

1943 3 (i 0 0 0 0 1 G 4

Total 104 65 109 101 139 50 33 37 638

The tables show that for Alice Springs the east and south-east winds greatly

predominate, these two directions accounting for over 60% of the winds. West

and south-west winds are rare. 516 of the 544 recordings in the two years, or

95%, are for winds between 4 and 15 m.p.h., with 27 from 16 to 31 m.p.h. and

1 from 32 to 47 m.p.h. Of the 16-31 m.p.h, winds, north-west was the commonest

direction, with north the next, followed by east and south-east. There were no

recordings for this velocity from the north-east and only one each from south,

south-west and west. The one recorded 32-47 m.p.h. wind came from the west.

The stronger winds did not show any marked seasonal tendency but were well

distributed. The winds tend to be easterly in simmer, south-easterly in winter.

At Oodnadatta the régime is somewhat similar, the main differences being that

the winds are stronger and more of them blow in a aetidional direction. South

winds are commonest but not much more frequent than those from the south-east,

east arid north. Westerly winds are rarest. Over 34% of the winds were in the

16-31 m.p.b. group, with south winds making up 30% of their number and north

winds 19%, Nine winds in the 32-47 m.p.h, class were recorded in the two years,

three of them from the north and two from the south. Northerly winds are most

frequent in the winter, The strong winds show a marked increase in September,

when they are well distributed, with a bias towards south and west.

Alice Springs is in the middle of the MacDonnell Ranges, at a height of aver

1,900 feet, and ts a hundred miles north-west of the straggly sandridges of the

nearest edge of the desert, and over 200 miles from the middle of the desert,

Oodnadatta is 100 miles west of the south end of the desert, on a stony tableland

intersected by countless water-courses. There are no sand accumulations in either

vicinity, The two places are 300 miles apart. Although they are 100 miles west

vf the desert, climate varies in this great interior mainly with latitude, and the

differences in the two wind regimes are distinctly reflected in the sand formations

{o the east of then.

Mr. R. P_ Gaffney of Birdsville, a reliable observer, states that of the gentle

winds at that place, that ts those up to 20 m.p.h., 50% blow trom the south-east

and 30% from south-east to north-east. Of winds from 20 mph, to 60 mph,

40% blow from south-south-west to south-south<ast, and most of the remainder

from west of the meridian, with fewest betwevn south-east and sorth-north-east-

Others have stated that the strongest winds come from the south-west. Obserya-

tions, as well as the mean monthly isebars, show that the winds tend to be morth-

easterly in the summer and south-westerly in the winter.

Rainfall figures are much more carefully recorded in Australia than any other

climatic factor, and are available from most of the pastoral holdings throughout

the country, which makes the Commonwealth Weather Bureau rainfall maps

fairly reliable even in the desert areas. The 5-inch isohyet, a closed ting, has its

most southerly point at the north end of Lake Torrens, from which it practically

follows the railway line northward to BGundooma on the north-west side of the

Simpson Desert, from whence it runs north-easterly, follawing almost exactly the

borders of the desert sandridges round and down to Birdsville, and thence

southerly to Lake Callabonna and back round the edge of the northemm Flinders

Ranges in a curve down to Lake Torrens. It marks the border of the sandndge

area to the north and west. and encloses all the main sandridges to the east anc

south, and might in fact have been taken as the margins of the Desert except for

the different nature of the country east of the Diamantina, as explained above.

The 8-inch isohyet passes between the desert and Alice Springs, skirts the central

ranges and loops up north of the desert to about latitude 22° 30°. 1 is followed

closely by the 10-inch line which borders the Southern MacDonnells.

Inside the 5-inch line the rainfall is very erratic. It can better be described

as a 10-inch or nothing rainfall, For example, the rainfall at Mungerannie east

at Lake Eyre was 1,511 points in 1890, but for the years 1898 to 1902 it was

successively 252, 204, 191, 275 and 179 points, followed in 1903 by 507 paints,

the last disposing of the oft-quoted jest that “they never get the average.” 1,198

points were recorded in 1908. 1,237 in 1917, the year of the greatest recorded

floods when the Cooper ts sald to have run into Lake Eyre. and 1,209 points in

1920. (One inch is 100 points.) Between these years there were some with

iallg of two inches and below. ‘The lowest record is 98 points in 1929.

At Muloorina Station at the south end of Lake Eyre North, where records

were kept between 1881 and 1902, the highest fall was 771 points in 1883 and

the lowest 70 in 1888. For 1900, 1901 and 1902 the figures were 204, 267 and

125 points,

It may be mentioned here that an examination of the rainfall records of 15

stations in the Lake Eyre region showed that no conclusion eould be drawn fram

them as to whether aridity was increasing, as is often claimed, or not. The out-

standing feature of the records is that the rainfall is extremely variable, with no

marked rhythm, Records began at the telegraph stations at Charlotte Waters

and Strangways Springs in 1874. The best general season was in 1920 with an

average rainfall of over U1 inches, and the best on the Birdsville track (the stock

route from Marree to Birdsville) was in 1917 with rains of 13 inches, The worst

general season was 1929 with an average of 1-8 inches, but in 1876 Charlotte

Waters only received 1-7 inches, and Strangways Springs 2-1 inches. The worst

year on the Birdsville track was 1888, with 0'6 meh at Cowarie and 0°7 inch at

Muloorina, Good seasons in general were 1878, 1885, 1890, 1917, 1920 and 1939,

and very bad seasons were 1876, 1888, 1898 to 1902, 1927 to 1929, and 1940,

There were eight good seasons in 62 years, giving an average of about nine years

apart The good season is the exception, drought conditions the rule, a hard

fact about the arid interior that Australians are reluctarit to face up to.

The Simpson Desert lies in the zone between summer and winter raitts, so

rainfall is fairly evenly distributed, with a bias towards December, January and

February, The mean monthly rainfall is $ inch for those months, and less than

+ inch for the other nine.

As to temperature, the Climatological Atlas of Australia, published by the

Commonwealth Buteau of Meteorology, 1941, gives the daily normal maximun

for the desert during the three summer months as 100° F., with an average

maximum for the year of 86°, an average minimum of 59°, and an average mican

temperature of 73°. The same publication gives the mean relative humidity for

the year at 9 am. as about 38%, and at 3 p.m. about 22%, The figures for

January are 31% at 9 am. and under 20% at 3 p.m.; for April, 35% and 25% ;

for July, 459 ani 30%, and for October, under 30% and 20% respectively,

1¥V THE ORIGIN OF THE SANDRIDGES

From the morphology and nature of the sand-formations of the Simpson

Desert and the meteorology and physiography of the region as set out above, it

remains to deduce both the origin of the sand and the mode and time of formation

of the ridges, which should throw some light on the problem of the advance or

retreat of the present aridity.

The Origin of ihe Sand—Broadly the post-Mesozoic geological history of the

Lake Eyre Basin is simple and accepted by all. The retreat of the Mesozoic seas

was followed by lacustrine conditions with the depusitiaon of the Upper Cretaceous

Winton Series, mainly sandstones, on the lower Cretaceous marine shales. Scat-

tered about round the marginal areas of the desert are low flat-topped remnants 07

freshwater beds known as the Eyrian Series, consisting of sands and clays with

much gypsum. Some of these remnants contain Pleistocene freshwater shells

(Madigan 1932, pp. 98-100), others silicified wood and even derived Jurassic

cycads. They alnest certainly do not belong to any one period hut represent any

chance lacustrine or terrestrial depositions occurring throughout the Tertiary

and Quaternary, though they are generally regarded as of early Tertiary age,

Those in the Lake Eyre region give the impression of being late Pleistocenc.

The “Aat-tops” or “tent hills” are characteristic of the Lake Eyre Basin. They

include not only Eyrian formations but also lower and upper Cretaceous beds, as

well as Permian glacial sandstones along the Finke River, All show the same

superficial silicification, which is mo indication of their age, As the siliciheation

is SO universal it can reasonably be ascribed to the Pleistocene. It was once

generally regarded as due to deposition of silica by the evap0ration of water at

the surface, and was thus associated with the oncoming of aridity, but it is more

probably the B horizon of a former soil proftle, as put forward by Whitehouse

(1940, p. 13-14), though formed in the genial periods of the Pleistocene glacia-

tion sather than in the Pliocene.

lt is also clear that there were highly pluvial times in the Pleistocene when

rivers wete running, lakes were full, vegetation was plentift] and there was an

abundant fauna of giant forms whose remains are well known in the ossuaries of

Lake Callahonna and the Diamantina, while today we have a desert with a rain-

fall of under five inches, an arid psarmmophyte vegetation, and a much reduced

and relict fauna. There were world-wide fuctuations of climate in the Great Ire

Age, with advances and retreats of the ice, but a change of a comparatively few

degrees in mean annual temperature can bring about such alternations. It seems

quite unnecessary, even unreasonable, to postulate any such violent changes as

from pluvial to arid as we know it today, and back again, perhaps several times,

bat more probable that thete has been a long-term set towards aridity, a gradual

desiccation with some temporary halts and reverses, whether or not the peak of

aridity has now been passed, The probabilities should be more in favour of

uniformity than of what is more in the nature of catastrophism, with the swing to

aridity beginning at the close of the Pleistocene glaciation,

The upwarping of the east-west ridge in South Australia and the initiation

of inland drainage took place in the early Pleistocene. Even since then the rivers

From half a million square miles of country have continued to discharge their

loads mio the Lake Eyre basin right down to the present day, though those from

the nerth of the desert no longer reach the present Lake Eyre. The desert is

thas a great alluvial hasin which is still receiving sediment, coarser round the

margins, finer towards the lake, due to lessening grade. This is surely the origin

of the aeolian deposits. The subaerial erosion of the Cretaceous and Eyrian beds,

fa situ, under arid conditions, without the aid of accumulation by water trans-

portation was formerly invoked (Madigan 1936, p. 226), but this now seems no

more than a supplementary source. Those formations in the sandridge desert

tend to be buried by the sands, not eroded. They are found only outside the area

of deposition, particularly to the south where denudation has left scattered

remnants. There are no “tent hills’ in the main desert, but only very occasional

silicified crusts are found in the low places as at Camp 11 and on the Hay. These

ean be correlated with the duri-crusts of the desert margins. In the main desert,

then, the sand covers the older deposits. The rivers brought in the sand frora

the Lower Palaeozoic and Pre-Cambrian formations and crystalline rocks to the

west and north-west and the Upper Cretaceous and Eyrian sands and later

alluvium to the east, and they are still doing 3t, so that the sandridges must still

be growing where the streams flood out, though at a reduced rate owing to the

reduction in supply.

Gautier (1935, p. 44) says: “It ts in these alluvial basins ‘that, as a general

rule, the ergs are formed; and these sedimentary regions seem to be places par-

ticularly favoured by the big dunes.” This statement appears to be of world-

wide application. The worst sandridye deserts are in alluvial basins, for example

the Thar, the Karakum, and the Simpson, as well as the Saharan ergs, at least

in the west. Insolation and deflation may cause lesser sand formations, but for

the enormous quantities of sand found tn the places mentioned, transport and

aceymiulation hy water seem essential, This view is also lield hy Aufrére, In

the case of very old deserts, as the Libyan Desert appears to be, alluvial deposi-

tion may not have played the major role, but in a young desert like the Simpson

the conclusion seems inescapable that the dunes and ridges have been formed from

alluvial deposits that have never been consolidated,

Doubianski (1928, p. 232-233) shows that the sand formations of the south-

eastern Karakum were derived from the sandy-clayey alluvium af the River

Oxus or Amu Daria. He further states that single barchans, regularly crescent-

or sickle-shaped, regarded by Mushketov as the most frequent and characteristic

form for all deserts, are entirely missing in Karakum. Ile regards his ridges,

however, as “barchan rows,” formed by the fusion of the low flanks of slightly

curved barchans. The wind regime is not fully stated. and it seems more likely

that these are secondary formations on longitudinal ridges. He makes no attempt

to explain how the barchans come to be arranged in rows. A Aitviatile origin

is not sapported by Bagnold (1941, p. 168), who says of the Libyan Desert;

“The place of origin of the sand is usually fairly obvious, an escarpment Gr a

series of depressions where wind erosion is actively taking place," and also “The

most typical kind of country in which desert dunes are found is a flat erosion

surface." In the case of the Simpson Desert it seems cqually obvious that the

rivers are aclively supplying the sand into an area of 300 miles by 200 miles, com-

pletely covered with sandridges, and with no other adequate source of supply, as

it is hardly posstble that pre-existing sandstones can have disintegrated im siti

in such an extent.

That the sands of the Simpson Desert have a fluviatile origin is strongly

supported by the distribution of the heavy minerals m the sands, as found by

Dr. Carroll and referred to above.

The conclusion is that the Simpson Desert is the most uniform, active and

well-developed sandridge desert in Australia because it is a single basin of depnsi-

tion in the driest part of Australia.

The Formation of the Sandridges—How the sand came to be piled up in

longitudinal ridges parallel to the prevailing wind direction has been the subject

of considerable discussion. That the dominant direction is parallel to prevailing

winds was first pointed out by Aufrére (1928) and noted independently by the

author somewhat later (Madigan 1929). Vaughan Cornish (1908) first derived

the longitudinal ridge from dynes transverse to the wind by the joining up of

crests in succession dunes and the blowing clear of the line of sadlles, Then

there is the theory of blow-outs in a sea of sand. in the manner of the frlje or

Aufrére's cnoudeyres of Gascony, where the wind scours out longitudinal furrows

hike sastrugi In snow,

The author (Madigan 1936, p. 225-227) suggested that longitudinal ridges

hegin as many wavy longitudinal lines and evolve into fewer and larger straight

and parallel sandridges, a view that is supported by the further evidence of this

expedition and is, in his opinion, now removed heyond all doubt. Lastly, we

come to Bagnold’s dune-chain theory (Bagnold 1941, p, 222-2235), wherein the

Jungitudinal ridges grow by the extension of batchan dunes under the influence

of a dominant together with secondary winds.

The origin from transverse dunes can be dismissed on the grounds that such

x transition has nowhere been observed in operation, and such a complete and

wholesale conversion as must have taken place in the Simpson Desert for example,

where no tragsverse dunes occur at all, seems impossible. Blowouts could fnitiate

a longitudinsl parallelism, bur whether the long hollows bordered by sandhills

cach side, in the form of 4 hairpin open yp-wind, would be capable of almost

indefinite extension seems very doubtful. This theory requires a thick existing

sand sheet as a starting point.

Walther (1900) considered the barchan to be the fundamental structure and

formed his chains by lateral unions of barchans, so that their direction would be

at right angles to the dominant winds.

Aufréte (1928) and Madigan (1929) poittted out that long chains were

parallel to dominant wind, but drew attention to the importance of secondary

winds in modifying the crests and producing asymmetry of the whole ridge.

Prince Kemal ed Din (1928) shawed that the direction of the chains in the

Libyan Desert was not that of barchan-forming winds, as the crests on the chains

were transverse to the chain direction, Caporiacea (1934) confirmed this, and

stated four facts that applied to his zone, [ram Kuffra to Aweinat, namely, that

the dunes are not crescentic but elongated in the direction of the wind, that the

chains are parallel to the dominant winds, that there is a distinct asymmetry of

slope and that the gentle slope is on the side of the principal cross wind. He

stated further that he found small drifts on bare patches that were a few metres

long, half a metre high and a few metres apart, that were never crescentic but

all elongated in the same direction as the great chains and identical in profile

with them. The only crescentic dunes seen owed their origin to an obstacle such

as a stone and were only a few centimetres high but could form in chains dis-

cordant with the direction of the main chains, Inu some places he found the ridges

continuous, but in others, notably north of Zighen and Gebel el Hanaise, all

chains, which were running north-west to south-east, were interrupted by vast

sheets of smooth sand with a meridional trend, the sand sheets being as wide as

the areas covered by chains. This also obtained south of Aweinat,

Caporiacco (1936) later agreed with the author's suggestion {Madigan 1936,

p. 225) that the chains originated from longitudinal sand-drifts,

Bagnold (1941) has given us the fundamental principles of sani movement,

Their application under ever-varying winds, winds whose movement is further

complicated at the surface as soon 28 a considerable sand pile is accumulated, is

still a very complex problem. To apply physical principles exactly to the build-

ing of grand-scale sand formations it is necessary to know the complete wind

regime as well as the morphology of the accumulation in its various stages. Other-

wise we are restricted to probability and conjecture.

Bagnold refers to the Libyan sandridges as dune chains and derives them

from a single barchan dune whose horns are extended by strong secondary winds

at a small angle to the dominant wind, the gentler dominant wind being respon-

aible for the recurrent crests, The principal agent in the extension is here the

secondary wind. This requires that a chain grows away from a source of sand

out oo to bare country. Chains of separate barchans are known in Peru, where

alone they seem to be the chief type. Gautier (1935, p. 47) says the barchan ts

very rare in the Sahara, there being tio word among the indigenous people

corresponding to barchan, “One must search carefully through the biograplries

of Saharan literature to find any reference to this formation, and the barchan

theory would never have been formulated from observations made in the Sahara

alone. We should not, therefore, be too hasty in adopting the barchan or wind-

formed dune as the elementary unit of the ergs." This applies also to the Simp-

son Desert. It ts doubtful whether a typical hatchan oecurs in the whole of

Australia. In the Simpson Desert we are dealing with a great widespread alluvial

basin, as is the case with most of the world’s biz sandridge deserts, and we must

look for a mechanism that will form ridges throughout the area rather than one

that drives long ridges or a trailing line of barchans away from a relatively

restricted source. This mechanism is found in the long, narrow sandstrips noted

in the Libyan Desert by Caportacco and Bagnold and the single example descnbed

above near Birdsville. Bagnold himself shows (1941, p, 176-179) bow such

longitudinal sandstrips could originate, and it seems that he neglects this funda-

mental and common formation in favour of the rarer and more doubtful barchau

origin. It is true that the larger Simpson Desert sandridges, with their crests

and saddles, suggest an extended line of dunes, but there are no signs of the

initial stages of this even on the most favourable country, the gibber plains to the

east, where the sand supply is meagre. The serrations in the Simpson Desert

sandridges are regarded as a secotidary effect, tot a primary, At present they

concern the live sand crests only and are forming and thanging today. They are

not reflected in the main bulk of the plinths themselves. No vestigial barchan

wings are seen, such are shown in Bagnold’s illustration (1941, pl, 12 A, p, 224).

This should be compared with pl. vii, fig. 1 and 2, tn this account. The chain

of barchans is, of course, possible, and Bagnold’s picture looks like onc, but even

there the effects could be secondary and formed upon an already piled sandridge.

The conditions postulated for the origin of the Libyan Desert barchan chains and

the Simpson Desert sandridges are, however, quite different. In the one case the

chain is vistialized as prowing away from a source out ovet a bare plain, in the

other the ridges may originate anywhere within the widespaced source itself,

The origin and history of the Simpson Desert sandridges is considered to

have been as follows. They originated when aridity set in during the late Pleisto-

cene by wind action on the alluvial deposits, mainly unconsolidated, on the great

plains of the Lake Eyre basin.

The siliceous crust so common in the region is probably an old soil horizori

which remains covered and possrbly unbroken under the sandridges of the main

desert, but is exposed and mostly broken up and gone in the areas to the east

and south. If it is a B horizon, then it has been laid bare by the washing down

of the A horizon inte the basin, together with great quantities of the underlying

beds, a process that has continued at a decreasing rate dawn to the present day.

Longitudinal sandstrips were first formed by strong southerly winds. The

great majority af the sand-moving winds are southerly. The strips are formed

through transverse instability of the wind as shown by Bagnold, and so frequently

seen on a smail scale in drifting sand on a pavement or in stirface snow-drift.

Suitable southerly winds will extend the stp down-wind, others may build up

the up-wind end. Strong side winds will build up the whole length of the strip,

increasing its height and bulk. gentler winds will tend to spread it laterally.

When it reaches a certain height it will become an obstacle that will arrest all

sand driven by side winds at whatever angle. so that the lanes between strips may

be swept free of sand. The gentler southerly winds, between south-east antl

south-west, will drive the sand along the strips, now becoming ridges, and deposit

it at the northerly ends, so that all ridges will extend northward. This is seen

whereyer the «nd of a sandridge can be found, The northern ends end in a fan

of sand on the gibbers, never a drift running off at an angle, and the southern

ends show erosion. All sand becomes trapped on the ridge and travels along it.

Owing to alimentation from the side, the leeward end grows much faster than

the windward end is abraded; in fact, recession of the southern end is very slow

if not no more than seasonal, as it may be built up from time to time by stronger

southerly winds. The result is that the ridges are always growing in length, anu

the net movement of sand is along their lengih, These formations of ridges may

begin anywhere in the sand sheet; they have not necessarily all begun at the

windward side. That the sand has not all been driven northward [rom a southerly

sotirce is shown by Dr. Carroll’s distribution of the heavy minerals in the sands,

They are concentrated at the northern and western sides, near their source, and

fade away as one goes southward, This would be reversed if the origin of all

the sand were to the south-east,

Side winds will tend to move the ridges laterally and will be much more

effective while the ridges are small. Smaller ridges will overtake larger ones, so

that the larger absorh the smaller and grow at their expense, and eventually

the sandstrips that began as parallel bands whose length was measured in hun-

ireds of yards and heights in feet, become ridges up to a hundred feet high and

a hundred miles or more long. The regularity of size and spacing of the Simpson

Desert satidridges was not as perfect as at first supposed from aerial observations.

Everywhere large and small ridges were mixed, the larger ones invariably mach

further apart than the smaller and the intervals varying as described above. The

spacing is sufficiently irregular to be no more than a statistical effect, and not

regular enough to warrant any further search tor a principle determining it.

Small ones often occurred im batches. There was, however, an almost perfect

parallelism, This is in accordance with the processes here suggested. The trend

varies with the direction of the resultant of all sand-driving winds. It is east of

north in the Lake Callabonna area, a little west of north near Lake Eyre, and

west-north-west in the northern part of the desert, whieh agrees with the regional

variation in wind regime. The only feature thar still remains at all surprising is

the rarity of junctions of ridges. They are plentiful round the margins, par-

ticularly on the south and north-west sides, but on che journcy of this expedition,

hetween the Hale and Mulligan, hardly a junction was sten in crossing 700 ridges ;

in fact, only one junction was actually noted down. The interior is regarded as

the oldest and mast mature part of the desert, and it appears that there all ridges

that had made contact had completely joined up before all became fixed by vege

tation assisted by their size, [n the immature margins where junctions are

common the ridges are very wavy, whereas in the interior they are straight.

The strongest side winds hlow from between north-west and south-west,

with a preponderance of north-west winds in the north and south-west winds in

the south. Towards the east, north-easterly winds are more frequent than towards

the west, though not often strong, Tt is impossible at present to be more exact

than this, The results of these generalities are seen in the cross sections of the

sandridges. The gentle slope is invariably on the west side, but is more pro-

nonnced on the west side of the desert than on the cast, the ridges being more

symmetrical to the east. This indicates that during the process of building and

before the ridges becanie fixed, there ust have heen a slow migration to the east

in the manner of barchan movement. The sandstrips er small ridges would have

been more bulky at the np-wind or southern ends, trailing away to the north, as

strong winds tend te build up the up-wind end, and it seems certain that a

niajority not only of all winds, but of strong winds as well, blow from hetween

south-south-west and south-cast. Also, as the sandstrips graw northward, the

south end is the uldest and thus will have received more additions from the side

winds. ‘This means that the westerly lateral winds would move the northern ends

of the small ridges faster than the southern ends, as the rate of movement is

proportional to the bulk of the dune, and this conchtsion leads to a very pretty

and satisfactory explanation of the only remaining puzele, why when there is a

junction of ridges the stem of the Y thus formed is invariably to the north, a fact

several times drawn attetitinn to by the author. The reason is ow obvious, The

nerth end of a ridge moves faster and will make contact first with the ridge being

overtaken, leaving the lane between them open to the south, This would also be

the case even if the net movement were westward and not castward, but the

symmetry @f the ridges as well as what is known of the wind regime clearly

jnilicate an easterly drift in the northern parts of the desert. though to the south,

and particularly east of Lake Eyre, the movement may be westerly, as strong

s0ufh-east winds are common and the trend of the ridges is more nearly north

(as seen in pl. v, fig. 1), This picture clearly shows a swing lo the west at the

north end of ridges. Differential lateral movement also explains the waviness

of the ridges in the immature marginal zones, As the bulk has grown, movement

has slowed down, and the development and spread of the psaimmophyte vegeta-

tion has by now pennariently fixed the ridges in the main part of the desert,

though along the southern margins some of them seem to be still alive and mov-

ing. This may be a revival of movement due to the destruction of cover by

stock and rabbits, though the author has always held that such destruction has

never been on a sufficiently large scale to have any regional effect in this arca.

Now as to what is actually going on today in the main desert. The sand-

ridges are fixed as far as any maventent has been detected sitice the white man

entered the region, Owing te the bulk of the big ridges, as well as to the vegeta-

tion, any net displacement must be very small. particularly as there are sand-

moving winds from both sides. The plinths are fixed, but there is live sand on

nearly all crests, with sandfalls mostly to the east on the west side and to the

west on the east side, but reversible according to the strength and duration of the

last side wind, These crests were studied in detail at Andado and at Camps 8

and 11, and the general form is shown in fig. 3. The slope of the crest or seif

is determined by the side winds, and where a welldeveloped saw-tooth arrange-

ment of crests and saddles was scen on the desert crossing it-was under the action

of south-west winds at the time. These were driving the sand diagonally up

the side of the ridges and moving it northward. At Andado, when the wind

was about 30 m.p.h. from the south-west and the crests were “smoking,” it was

noted that on the lee side of the crest the wind at the surface was blowing along

the ridge and even upwards towards the summit and carrying sand northwards

and upwards along the steep slip-slope. These eddies were prevertting sand from

railing down the lee slope, and in fact bringing back the grains that tried to

escape. The configuration shown in fig. 3 is referred to as common, but it was

not universal, The smaller ridges with more vegetation and less live sand had

gently rounded crests with no peaks and saddles, Where the crests were sharp

an attempt was made to find some general pattern, with the result shown in fig. 3.

In this the sharp edges at the peaks are concave towards the wind, mot convex

as in the barchan, and the northern end of the edge as itt falls curves back slightly

against the wind and does not trail down-wind, The saddles are thus re-entrants

against the south-west wind, There was definitely noihing to be found on the

ridges resembling barchan formation, Conditions at the top of a 50- or 60-foot

ridge are, of course, quite unsuitable for barchan formation. Jt was not quite

obvious what caused the saddles, but the process seenis to be this, The bases of

the ridges are fixed and there is practically no general sand movement up the

sides of the slopes, which are protected hy close clumps of spinifex. The live

sand we are concerned with is already at the top of the ridge, Where the

vegetation does not approach so near the summit there is a wider source of sand

and a greater sand supply, hence a summit will tend to form between tongues of

vegetation that are creeping towards the crest. Pl. vit, fig. 2, definitely indicates

this. The principle is akin to the formation of parabolic blow-outs or fuljes, and

indeed these forms were seen Iving across some of the broader crests, but not

where sharp crests were in evidence. The fulje effect will be modified by the

sloping side of the ridge. It may also be the cause of the not infrequent sand-

falls found on the windward side of the sharp crests. at their northern and

recurving emis, where both sides of the crest were often at the angle of rest of

the sand.

The sand, then, From an eroding patch on the side of the ridge is driven

upwards and northwards, rising to a summit to the north. The interval between

summits was not very regular and can he ascribed to statistical effects. Actually

the present live-sand crests form only a minor part of the whole sand pile. ‘The

saddles were never low enough to be regarded as breaches in the ridge, and there

were no dunes or sand piles to the leeward of the saddles. In the case of the

smal] primitive ridges a strong cross-wind could cause complete breaches in them,

The sand-drift at Birdsville, referred to above, was thus brokett up, probably by

south-west winds, but the dominant winds can fill the gaps and maintain the

alignment. This continual change and reforming of the live sand of the crests

under winds of wide variation in strength would lead to considerable variation

with depth in grading of the sand. The importance of grading was not suffi-

ciently appréciated on this expedition, with the result that samples were taken

more for mineralogical purposes. It was only at Camp & that any systematic

sampling was dene, and this was at rather wide intervals along the section. The

higher percentage of finer grades and clay particles in the two inter-ridge samples

ag compared with crests is probably due to the winnowing effect om the crests,

where under present conditions of no net lateral movement and secondary winds

from both sides, the coarser fractions will tend to remain as residuals on the crests

and the crest sand to become more regular than that in the lanes, The “smok-

ing” effect in strong lateral winds will carry the dust and finer particles well down

into the lee of the ridge, where it will remain.

The dying out of the ridges to the north inte sandy plains can be ascribed

to two causes, first the rapid increase in rainfall From five to ten inches, and

second the nature of the sands which, being much nearer their source in the

ranges, will be more mixed, with a larger proportion of grit and pebbles which

inhibit the drifting of sand,

V THE PRESENT TREND OF ARIDITY

No valid reason presents itself to justify the widely held view that aridity

was greater in the past when the sandridges had their birth. That the sand-

ridges are now fixed is no proof, for the psammophyte and drought-resisting

vegetation which is mainly Triodia and Spintfex (cane grass) throughout Aus-

tralia, would take a long time to replace the fora of the pluvial Pleistocene and

become established over these vast areas. The ridges could form in the possibly

barren times between the decline of the ald vegetations and the establishment of

the new. Aridity in the Lake Eyre basin may actually have increased in recent

times, as a desert tends to become increasingly more arid by the mutual effect of

desert influences, without change of climate, as indicated by Gautier (1935,

p. 106), particularly by the blocking of waterways and the consequent with-

holding of water from the interior areas.

The sandridges are now fixed throughout most of the desert, but sand is still

heing delivered in reduced quantities to the area by the streams which do not in

most cases travel so far, and deflation of the gibber plains to the south-east still

continues, so that there is still some growth of sandridges in the marginal arcas

where they show signs of immattirity. Sandridge building has been very greatly

slowed up but is not yet quite dead, There is no evidence to show that the

advance of aridity has been halted, but it is not improbable that it has reached

its maximums. Owing to the higher rainfall round the Simpson Desert borders

and the strong hold of the protective “‘spinifex” cover which is practically immune

to the attacks of stock and rabbits, no appreciable extension of the sandridges

area ig possible at present and conditions appear to have become stabilized for all

practical purposes.

SUMMARY

The sotree of the sands of the Simpson Deserl is almost entirely the alluyial

deposits of the streams flowing into the Lake Eyre hasin, Sandridge formation

began at the close of the Pleistocene fluvial times when aridity became estab-

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate V

(C. T. Madigan, photo)

Iie, 1

Sandridges east of Lake Eyre, near the Birdsville track.

CC, TV. Madigan, photo)

ig,

A typical Simpson Desert Sandridge. Length shown, about } iile.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol, 70, Plate VI

CC, Ty. Mailigan, photo)

Small parallel Sandridges and dense Spinifex, Simpson Desert.

CE. A, Colson, photo}

Fig. 2

A Sandridge Crest, looking south.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate VII

(D. Marshall, photo)

Vig. 1

A “Saw-tooth” Sandridge at Camp 11. A Claypan in the foreground.

(D. Marshall, photo)

Fig. 2

Looking south along the Crest of the Sandridge shown in fig. |.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol, 70, Plate VIII

(C. PT. Madigan, photo)

Fig. 1

A giant Sandridge on the Gibler Plains west of Birdsville, Camp 23.

CC. PT. Madigan, photo)

Fig. 2

Crossing a great “Whaleback” Sandridge west of Birdsville,

lished, and has continued down to the present day at an ever decreasing rate.

The primary form is the sandstrip, The dominant prevailing winds originate and

maititain the longitudinal arrangement. The lateral secondary winds build up

the height, clear the lanes between, cause lateral shifting of the whole ridge and

thus bring about the coalescence of ridges, so that the larger ridges absorb the

smaller, Barchan formation is absent and the ridges cannot be regarded as

barchan chains,

There is no evidence of greater aridity in the past. The present fixation

of the ridges by vegetation does not prove amelioration of climate, as it would

have taken this flora a long time to originate and colonize the vast areas involved.

Aridity may have reached its peak; at any rate, owing to the “spinifex” cover and

the greater rainfall round the desert margins no material extension of the sand-

ridge area is possible under the present conditions, which appear to have reached

a state of balance.

LIST OF REFERENCES

Aurrirg, L 1928 L’Orientation des dunes continentales. Kept. Proc. 12th

Internatnl. Geogr. Congr. Cambridge. 220-231

Aurrére, L. 1931 Le cycle morphologique des dunes, Ann. de Geogr., 40, 362-505

Bacnoty, R. A. 1941 The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. London

Uagonsaces, L. Dr 1934 Osservazioni sul deserto Libico. L”’ Universo, Anno

15, No. 1

Caporracco, L. Dr 1936 Dune Australiane e dune del deserta Libico. Nota.

L’ Universo, Anno 17, No. 9

Carrot, DorotrHy 1944 The Simpson Desert Expedition 1939. Scientific

Reports, No, 2, Geology—The Simpson Desert Sands. Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 68, (2), 49-59

Doustansky, WV. 1928 The Sand Desert of South-eastern Karakum. Bull.

Applied Botany, 19, (2), Summary, 225-285

Gautier, E. F, 1935 Sahara, the Great Desert. (Trans. by D. F. Mayhew.) N-Y-

Kemat Ep Din 1928 Exploration du desert Libyque. La Géographie, Paris, tome 50

Maoican, C. T. 1929 An Aerial Reconnaissance into the South-castern Por-

tion of Central Australia. Proc. Roy, Geogr. Soc. Aust, S.A. Branch,

Session 1928-29

Manrcan, C. T. 1932 The Geology of the Eastern MacDonnell Ranges-

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56, 71-117

Manican, C. T. 1932 The Geology of the Western MacDonnell Ranges.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., 88, 672-711

Manican, (. T. 1936 The Australian Sandridge Deserts. Geogr. Review, 26,

(2), 205-227

Mapican, C. T. 1938 The Simpson Desett and its Borders. Proc. Roy. Sac,

N.S.W,, 71, 503-534

Manican, C. T. 1945 The Simpson Desert Expedition 1939— Scientific Re-

ports. Introduction, Narrative, Physiography and Meteorology. Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, (1), 119-139

VaucHAN Cornisn 1908 On the Observation of Desert Sand Dunes. Geogr.

Journ, 31, 400-402

Watrtrer, }. 1900 Das Gesetz der Wiistenbildung. Berlin.

Wuirtenouse, F. W. 1940 Studies in the late Geological Histary of Queens-

land, I, Lateritic Soils of Western Queensland. University of Queens—

land Papers, Dept. of Geol. 2, {New Series) 1

SOME RAISED BEACHES OF THE LOWER SOUTH-EAST

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

By R. L. Crocker ® and B. C. Corron ‘)

[Read 11 April 1946]

Piates IX to XVI

CONTENTS Page

INTRODUCTION week .. 64

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE e eieace AND Prvenenrey OF THE “Sita: Bake .. 64

Tue Rarsep BEACHES ne # 4. ce on " = A ni = iy

General Conchology .. “4 a ‘3 42 1 it a .. 67

Detailed Description of Sites. re # a Be “i Fi wt ~> 68

(1) Mt. Gambier District o a sp es iis or ae .. 68

(2) Woakwine Range .. i -yi pe _ 4. es bod wee OS

(3) Mt. Burr Range 3a Ac fe Pe: om a " es ..

(4) Konetta-Kingston Region .. bs a oy he os Re, hos

Additional Shell Beds of Interest .. By 4 =f e £4 fh oe Oe

AGE AND SIGNIFICANCE or DEPosiTs .. = mt oe se 3 & .. 74

Characteristic South Australian Beaches .. ie, ne We 3 . 74

Ecological Conditions of Deposition of the Raised Reashies ss, ha as ees

Relationship of Sites to Major Strand Dune Ranges .. : Hy WH va ES

The Anadara Beaches and Suggestions of Changes in Cinate e .. 46

Chronological Sequence in Lower South-East of South Australia for Post-

Miocene Geological Features .. a 4 A -2 ¥9

SUMMARY a 3H : as oi 4a ne sn af a ty .. 81

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Rot a”, +4 fe ~ es ME am op, a ee

REFERENCES .. a “s ot oe x. ap Be = x ue «. 82

INTRODUCTION

Attention has been drawn to raised beaches in the South-East by Tenison

Woods (12), Howchin (8) and Tindale (10). The first writes of them in a

general way, and Howchin mentions a specific raised beach on the slopes of

Mount Graham and another in the Mosquito Creek near Struan. Tindale has

described a beach on the Woakwine Range about six miles south of Robe on the

Beachport Road, and in an interesting paper has stressed the desirability of study-

ing the shell fauna of the ranges further inland. In view of the increasing

interest being taken in Recent geology by anthropologists, geographers and pedo-

logists, investigations of these deposits are particularly worth while.

The present paper gives the locations, conchology and physiographic and

geologic information relative to 16 previously unrecorded raised beach sites, in

addition to a full description of the occurrence mentioned by Howchin at Mount

Graham. The significance of the deposits in the Pleistocene-Recent chronological

sequence is also discussed. The study is essentially one in paleoecology.

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

OF THE SOUTH-EAST

Unique physiographic features in the South-East of South Australia result

from the arrangement of a series of ranges, with intervening plains, more or less

parallel to the existing coastline. They were first recognised by Tenison

@) Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adelaide.

@) South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, (1), 30 June 1946

MT.GAMBIER -

Map of Raised Beaches

of the Lower South-East

of South Australia

Woods (11) as representing a repetition of older coastal dunes or dune remnants,

which were stranded during successive stages in a retreat of the sea. This view

has subsequently been endorsed by a number of workers, (8), (5), (2), and is

now generally accepted.

The most inland range—the Naracoorte Range—is considered to represent

the original shore-line prior to the recession of the sea. Fenner (5) believes this

range to be an old fault scarp and not a sand-dune ridge, but it has been sub-

sequently pointed out (2) that there are both older calcareous dunes and siliceous

sands superimposed upon this scarp, and even though there also be a fault, it can

be considered a dune range.

The country east and north-east of the Naracoorte Range is all very much

higher and is an older and more mature land surface, but proceeding south-west

or west towards the coast there is a fall m height above sea level with successive

flats. The dune range remnants have impeded the natural drainage to the sea,

and as a result the inter-range plains are normally very wet in winter and late

spring. This is due largely to a general rise in the water table, both as a result

of local rains and rain in more remote regions. In wetter winters the water-

table may rise above the lowerlying portions of the plains. This has been modi-

fied a good deal by the construction of artificial drains. Originally the excess

water slowly found its way north-west and much of it finally filtered through to

the Coorong.

The chief physiographic features, together with the location of the raised

beaches described in this paper, are shown on the accompanying physiographic

map.

While the regular pattern of dune ranges and intervening flats is un-

interrupted in the region from Padthaway-Comaum to the coast, in the more

southerly parts of the South-East it is considerably modified by volcanic features.

The most important physiographically is the Mount Burr Range, the general

framework of which is composed of basalt, tuff and ash. Over most of this area,

however, are superimposed aeolian siliceous sands, though older calcareous dunes

also occur. Much of the Mount Burr Range region it has been suggested, was

an island or islands prior to the retreat of the sea, and the volcanic activity here

is thought to be considerably earlier than that at Mount Gambier and Mount

Schank (2), which is very recent.

The older consolidated dunes are composed of fine shell material, fora-

miniferal tests, etc,, for the most part, but may have associated shell beaches (see

later). The calcareous aeolianite of which the dunes are composed is normally

capped with six inches to two feet of travertine limestone, and occasionally the

whole dune may be more or less cemented along the accretion layers. The

travertine is considered due to lime enrichment through leaching from surface

horizons of the aeolianite. The older dunes form the backbone to all the strand

ranges, but superimposed upon them is a considerable quantity of highly siliceous

sands. These sands are wind-piled and are the re-sorted upper horizons of soils

which lost their stability during the last great period of aridity. It is thought

that the leached surface horizons of the soils formed on the calcareous dunes

made the greatest contribution to these sands and that the stripping of them

exposed the lime-enriched (travertine) B-C soil horizons (2), (3).

The most sea-ward series of old dunes is the Woakwine Range, which is

almost entirely travertinised calcareous aeolianite, and practically free of any

superimposed siliceous sands (pl. xi, fig. 2). There are remnants, however, of

another range at numerous places along the coast from Cape Jaffa to the Victorian

border, which forms some interesting weathering features at such places as Cape

Northumberland, Beachport, Cape Dombey and Cape Jaffa.

The inter-dune plains are underlain by Miocene limestones (12), (5). This,

however, only outcrops at the surface or is very near the surface in a small area

in the most southerly parts—roughly in the region enclosed by Mount Gambier,

Nelson, Port MacDonnell, Kongorong, Tantanoola and immediately north of

Mount Gambier. Elsewhere it is overlain by considerable quantities of calcareous

material left when the sea retreated, and superimposed over this in many regions

are aeolian siliceous sands, peats, soil, etc. Miocene limestone is also a prominent

feature in the elevated regions east of the Naracoorte Range,

THE RAISED BEACHES

The raised beaches described in this paper all lie within 16 miles of the coast,

but at varying elevations. Their positions are shown on the physiographic map and

are referred to as numbers throughout the text. They fall naturally into four

major groupings, according to their location :—

| (1) Mount Gambier district - = sites 1-9

(2) Woakwine Range - - - - site 10

(3) Mount Burr Range - - - sites 11-12

(4) Konetta - Kingston district - - sites 13-17

The heights above sea level are all from aneroid determinations and can

be considered closely approximate. The readings were carefully made in refer-

ence to known datum points and usually checked back. They should be correct

to within + 10 feet.

GENERAL CONCHOLOGY

The following list covers the more obvious and dominant shells found in the

17 sites herein described. They can be conveniently grouped into Fine Sand

Beach, Estuarine, Reef and Weed habitat facies. Under the various sites the

assemblage peculiar to each is indicated. All are recent species, well preserved,

and often retain their characteristic colours. Some of the dominant shells are

reproduced on pl. ix.

FINE SAND BEACH SHELLS

PELECYPODA

Katelysia scalarina Lamarck 1818 Glycymeris radians Lamarck 1819

Cardium racketti Donovan 1826 Mimachlamys asperrimus Lamarck

Tawera gallinula Lamarck 1818

Venerupis gallactites Lamarck 1818 Equichlamys bifrons Lamarck 1819

GASTROPODA

Uber conicum Lamarck 1822 Parcanassa pauperata Lamarck 1822

Bullaria tenuissima Sowerby 1868 Niotha pyrrhus Menke 1843

ESTUARINE BEACH SHELLS

PELECYPODA

Anapella pinguis Crosse and Fischer | Macoma deltoidalis Lamarck 1818

Laternula recta Reeve 1860

Anapella adelaidae Angas 1865

| GASTROPODA

Zeacumantus diemenensis Quoy and Cacozeliana granartum Kiener 1842

| Gaimard 1835 Assiminea granum Menke 1843

Eubittium lowleyanum Crosse 1863 Salinator fragilis Lamarck 1822

._ eee

REEF SHELLS

PELECYPODA

Brachyodontes erosus Lamarck 1818 Ostrea sinuata Lamarck 1819

Mytilus planulatus Lamarck 1819

GASTROPODA

Turbo undulatus Solander 1786 Cellana tramoserica Sowerby 1825

Austrocochlea torri Cotton & Godfrey Patelloida alticostata Angas 1865

1934 Murexsul fimbriatus Lamarck 1822

Austrocochiza odontis Wood 1828 Floraconus anemone Lamarck 1810

Micrastrea aurea Jonas 1844 Fasciolaria australasia Perry 1811

Tsoclanculus dunkert Koch 1843 Colus australis Quoy 1833

Sabia conica Schumacher 1817 Nerita melanotragus Smith 1884

(attaches to other shells) Melarhaphe unifasctata Gray 1826

Cominella lineolata Lamarck 1809 Neothais textiliosa Lamarck 1822

Cominella eburnea Reeve 1846

WEED SHELLS

Zemitrelia austrina Gaskoin 1852 Austrocochlea zebra Menke 1829

Phasianella australis Gmelin 1788 Naccula punctata Quoy and Gaimard

Cantharidus lehmanni Menke 1843 1835

Thalotia conica Gray 1826

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SITES

(1) Mount Gamoier District

In earlier physiographic studies of the South-East the strand dunes and old

shorelines in the Mount Gambier district have never been clearly defined, These

extend to within a very short distance of the Mount—less than three miles. In

discussing Howchin’s raised beach at Mount Graham, in the Mount Burr Range,

Fenner (4) has stated that “there is no evidence whatever of stich an encroach-

ment affecting the Mount Gambier area.” The major physiographic features

associated with the recent inundations in the Mount Gambier district are shown

in fig. 1a, on which the beach sites have also been placed and the approximate

extent of the volcanic soils shown. The main strand ranges have been named

for convenience. Fig. 1b is a cross-section along the line A—B on this map.

Site 1:

Location—In pasture field, adjacent road, Section 38, Hundred Macdonnell.

Height above sea level—150 feet.

General features of occurrence—Series of old dunes capped with travertine lime-

stone. Section exposed in quarry shows terra rossa - rendzina soil developed

from travertine in which there is evidence of very small traces of volcanic

ash, Below approximately six inches of travertine occurs calcareous sand, pro-

bably partly aeolian in origin. In both the travertine and underlying sand

are abundant shells.

Conchology—tThe shells found in both travertine and the aeolian sand are prin-

cipally of the fine sand beach suite, Aatelysta scalarina being the dominant

species. There are also a few estuarine species such as Anapella pinguis,

adelaidae and Macoma delioidalis, which suggests that a creek of brackish

water may have existed in the vicinity of this beach, Reef forms, or those

which may attach to debris are represented by the mussels Mytilus planu-

latus and Brachyodontes erosus. Both of these are found as odd examples

washed up on sand beaches. The shells of this suite retain their living

colours, the nacre of the mussel being preserved as in living specimens. At

the Outer Harbour, near Adelaide, the same suite of shells in the same rela-

tive dominance, size and colours may be found living today. PI. xii, fig. 1-3.

SITE 2:

Location—Roadside cutting adjacent Section 179, Hundred Macdonnell. About

100 yards from Blanche-Macdonnell hundred line, near the cheese factory

corner.

Height above sea level—\45 feet.

General features—Iin small consolidated sand rise which is an outlier to the main

strand range in which Site 1 occurs.

Conchology—An exactly similar suite of shells as in Site 1.

SITE 3:

Location—Roadside cutting adjacent Sections 428-487, Hundred Macdonnell.

“Mount Gambier - Nelson Road.

Height above sea level—i10 feet. The site is actually in a saddle, with consoli-

dated dunes on either side rising to approximately 140 feet.

General Features—Occurs with wind-blown calcareous sand in travertinised dune.

Conchology—Similar suite and same dominant species as in Site 1.

Site 4:

Location—Roadside, adjacent Sections 267-401, Hundred Caroline.

Height above sea level—i05 feet.

General featwres—Consolidated dune series. In valley between two dunes poly-

zoal (Miocene) limestone is exposed at surface and in a quarry, demonstrat-

ing the superficial nature of these strand dune and beach deposits.

Conchology—A similar suite of shells to that of Site 1.

Site 5:

Location—Roadside adjacent Sections 267-402, Hundred Caroline.

Height above sea level—90 feet. Another site a few hundred yards further

south-east and not mentioned individually here is 100 feet above sea level.

General features—This is a pebble beach exposed as a bench in a road cutting

at the edge of one of two dunes, which have an interesting long narrow

corridor running between them. This corridor is locally and incorrectly con-

sidered to be an old river, The pebbles are water-worn flints, obviously

weathered from Miocene limestone, and they are cemented in lime matrix

which contains shell material.

Conchology—Fine sand beach shell fauna as in Site 1. See pl. x, fig. 2.

SITE 6:

Location—Roadside adjacent Sections 146-616, Hundred Caroline.

Height above sea level—88 feet.

General features—Shell material in travertine at edge of old dune.

Conchology—Fine sand beach shells as in Site 1.

SITE 7:

Location—Roadside adjacent Sections 140-107, Hundred Caroline.

Height above sea level—95 feet.

General features—Travertinised shell bed.

Conchology—Here is a suite of exclusively reef shells similar in size, relative

dominance of species and colouration to that living at Cape Northumberland

today. The dominant shells such as Turbo wnadulata and numerous opercula

of that species, Patelloida alticostata, Nerita melanotragus and Cellana

tramoserica form the bulk of the deposit (see pl. xiii, fig. 1). On the flats

towards the sea south of the site the Miocene reef, on which this recent reef

suite lived, is exposed. It appears to be an extensive flat reef as seen on

parts of the South-East coast today, and the usual Miocene species of

Polyzoa, Chlamys and other marine fossils of the Miocene limestone are

plentiful in the rock.

SITE 8:

Location—Roadside, adjacent Sections 121-580, Hundred Blanche.

Height above sea level—t45 feet.

General features—Travertinised aeolian sand and shell deposits; associated with

a series of old strand dunes.

Conchology—Similar suite of shells as in Site 1.

Site 9:

Location—Section 170, Hundred Blanche, about one chain from road between

Sections 170 and 192, and in young pine plantation,

Height above sea level—210 feet.

General features—This is a deposit of small, water-worn flint pebbles, in which

no shell material was observed (pl. xi, fig. 1). It rests directly on Miocene

polyzoal limestone.

(2) Woakwine RANGE

Tindale mentions raised beaches on the Woakwine Range about 25 feet

above sea level. These were apparently on the seaward side of the range. The

site described here is near Rendelsham on the northern side of an arm of the

Woakwine Range, which extends east to eventually become the series of con-

solidated dunes on which Millicent is built.

Sire 10:

Location—About 200 yards west Rendlesham Railway Station.

Height above sea level—54 feet.

General feaiures—A small outlier to the main dune range. Abundant shell

material exposed beneath a travertine capping of about 6-8 inches.

Conchology—This deposit is interesting in that fresh water shells occur above

the marine suite. The marine suite is like that of Site 1, but immediately

above it are numerous freshwater shells of the species Lenameria pectorosa

Conrad 1850, an Eastern Australian species. There is also a lot of frag-

mentary shells in a similar state to those found at Mount Graham.

(3) Mounr Burr RANGE

Although the framework of the Mount Burr Range is volcanic, Miocene

limestones occur and probably underlie the basalt tuff and ash at depth. There

is a large system of fossil dunes which flank the range in a practically unbroken

line from Mount Graham past Mount Muirhead to Mount Burr and the Bluff.

While this interesting series of dunes, which appears to be of at least two definite

elevations, occurs on the north-west, west and south-west side of the range, there

is no counterpart on the north-eastern (landward) side of the range.

The first line of dunes along the Millicent- Mount Burr road going over

the Mount Muirhead saddle is approximately 140 feet above sea level, and the

second apparent line 210-225 feet above sea level.

In addition to these two series of strand dunes, there are several old dunes

in the valley which extends from the Mount Burr Mill to the Forest head-

quarters, and others occur scattered throughout the whole area.

Sire 11 (pl. xiv, fig. 1):

Location—Slopes of Mount Graham, Forest Reserve, Section 181, Hundred

Riddoch.

Height above sea level—Actual site 205-210 feet, associated travertinised dunes

to 240 feet.

General features—The shell beach is towards the base of an old dune perched on

the fairly steep sides of Mount Graham and is about 70-80 feet above the

lower lying country at the foot. The deposit is overlam by fairly dense

travertine 6-12 inches thick, which contains little or no shell material except

in the bottom inch or two.

Conchology—The mollusca are of the reef type and retain in part their living

colours. The remarkable feature is that the shells are of a steep beach type

and those found in deeper water. The community is like that of say, Middle-

ton near Port Elliot, and has the same shells, notably Scaeoleda illepida

Tredale 1929 and Negyrina delecta Cotton 1946; both species are found on

exposed deep water beaches (see pl. xiv, fig. 2).

Sire 12:

Location—Observation Pit, Mount Burr Research Station, Section 449, Hundred

Mount Muirhead.

Height above sea level—190-195 feet (actual bed).

General features—The deposit occurs at a depth of about 12 feet, and is over-

lain by soil and underlain by volcanic material.

Conchology—The mollusea are similar to those of Site 11.

(4) Konerra —-Krncsron Rrecion

This is predominantly plain country—very flat and with very poor drainage.

It is indeed portion of the great plain that extends from the Coorong in the north

to practically Nelson (Victoria) in the south-east, and which is interrupted only

by isolated occurrences of older dunes like the Hatherleigh Range and the Milli-

cent Ridge. From enquiries made by the authors, it is apparent that much of

this Konetta-Kingston area is underlain by very recent marine shells at fairly

shallow depth.

Sire 13:

Location—Main road adjacent Section 54, Hundred Smith. Near Konetta

Station homestead.

Height above sea level—36 feet.

General features—The exposure is made in a small rubble pit in a low bank

adjacent to the road.

Conchology—Estuarine shells are here imbedded in travertine limestone, beneath

which the same suite continues in a calcareous clay material. The species

are of the estuarine flat types—Salinator fragilis and Eubitttum lawleyanum

as dominants and odd species of the same facies.

Site 14:

Lecation—Sections 64 and 65, Hundred Smith, Koniak Station.

Height above sea level—35 feet.

General features—The soil in this area is a shallow rendzina developed on a

travertine limestone, which is frequently turned up in cultivation. This lime-

stone is crowded with very recent shells.

Conchology—The shells are principally of the fine sand beach suite with a mix-

ture of reef and weed types (pl. xv, fig. 2). The dominant species is

Katelysia scalarina, and there are a few Glycymeris radians, the common

globular ark. The weed dwelling Phasianella australis is represented and

retains much of its beautiful living colours. The mussel Brachyodontes

eresus, found in colonies on reefs, is represented by odd separate valves

which have evidently been washed up on the sandy beach. They still retain

the characteristic blue-brown colour of the nacre. The small Murexsul

fimbriatus is represented by odd specimens, which suggest that it also has

been washed up from an outlying reei.

Site 15:

Location—Approximately 5 miles north of Site 14, on main Kingston road.

Height above sea level—As for Site 14.

General features—As for Site 14.

Conchology—As for Site 14.

Sire 16:

Location—Section 1, Hundred Murrabinna.

Height above sea level—30-35 feet.

General features—The site extends over 2-3 miles in a low travertinised ridge,

the Ashmore-Murrabinna ridge, which flanks the main road and skirts the

Kingston-Konetta plain. The ridge carries an open savannah woodland of

tue gum and pink gum.

Conchology—Similar shells to those found in Site 1 (see pl. xv, fig. 1).

Site 17:

Lecation—Well, Section 99, Hundred Mount Benson. Wongolina Station, Flint’s

Paddock.

Height above sea level—Shell bed (about 4 feet below the surface) is 8-12 feet

above sea level.

General features—The country is flat and featureless, and carries depauperate

red gums. The shell horizon occurs at about 4 feet, below a fairly hard

travertine limestone.

Conchology—Here the dominant shell is the Port Lincoln oyster, Ostrea sinuata,

and the second dominant the Queen Scallop, Equichlamys bifrons (see

pl. xvi, fig. 1 and 2). Both are in living condition, the latter exhibiting its

deep red colour. Then follow in order of dominance and retaining much

of their living colour, Katelysia scalarina, Thalotia conica, Micrastrea aurea

and Tawera gallinula. The oysters are in clusters and have probably formed

on beds of old oyster shell.

ADDITIONAL SHELL BEDS OF INTEREST

Oyster Beps—On the Mount Gambier Range (see fig. 1 a, 1b) exposures of

underlying strata are rare due to the superimposition of siliceous sands, and, in

the neighbourhood of Mount Gambier, volcanic ash. The only exposure examined

in this range was a road cutting in Section 764, Hundred Blanche. Here a soft

horizontally bedded calcareous sandstone is exposed which contains the living

Port Lincoln oyster, Osfrea sinuata, in good condition, dispersed throughout a

thickness of some eight feet of the exposure (pl. x, fig. 1).

A very similar sandstone was noticed on a hill-top road cutting on the out-

skirts of northern Mount Gambier. This material is much older than the cal-

careous sandstone of the raised beach deposits already described, and is probably

Pleistocene in age.

FRESHWATER SHELLS—On the rendzina plains of the Millicent-Rendelsham

district, and in other parts of the plains, freshwater swamps were very extensive

before artificial drainage, and as a result of this freshwater shell deposits of vary-

ing thickness have been built up.

The most prevalent species is the freshwater snail Lenameria pectorosa,

which is still living in swamps in these parts, and is common in the Murray River

and its billabongs. Shells of this species occur both in the soil, the underlying

travertine and/or marly material, and may be present in considerable numbers.

[3]

LAKE %

- *

BONNE:

Fig. la

Raised beach sites (1-9) and the consolidated dune ranges in the neighbourhood

of Mount Gambier. Approximate extent of volcanic soil shown Ly shading.

| VOLCANIC ASH .

RAISED BEACHES [2.3] MOUNT GAMBIER

PLEISTOCENE eon

MIOCENE oy BURLEIGH Rance

MACDONNELL RANGE

Fig. 1b

Sketch section from the coast near Port MacDonnell to Mount

Gambier (A-B in Fig. 1a). Thickness of volcanic material exaggerated.

At times the travertinised layer may be some feet thick and almost entirely com-

posed of shells of Lenameria (see pl. xiii, fig. 2). At other times the soil is so

full of remains of these shells and is so completely formed from them that it is

loose and “snuffy.”

The shells are usually bleached white on the outside, though the inside

retains the natural delicate brown colour. Beneath the purely freshwater deposits

and incorporated with them to some degree, there is occasionally seen an estuarine

suite of rather small and scattered Katelysia scalarina and other associated

species, which indicate an abrupt change from estuarine to freshwater conditions.

The absence of Coxiella shells supports the indications of a quick change in

conditions.

Lanp Motitusca—South of Meningie the only native land snail recorded 1s

Magilaoma penolensis Cox 1868, and the type locality is Penola. It is synonym-

ous with M. pictilis Tate 1878, from Cape Northumberland. This species,

about 3 mm, in diameter, is also found in Victoria and closely allied to M. par-

pictilis from north-west Tasmania; the two species being the only ones in the

genus. Although the region has not been thoroughly searched and some further

small species might yet be found, the apparent absence of larger characteristic

native snails is of interest.

There are a few European species introduced during the last 30 years, and

they are now abundant. These include Helix aspersa Muller, Helicella caperata

Montagu, Helicella ericetorum Muller, Euparypha pisana Muller, and Cochlicella

acuta Muller.

AGE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF DEPOSITS

CHARACTERISTIC SOUTH AUSTRALIAN BEACHES

The characteristic features of some of the more important beaches in South

Australia and their shell fauna can be briefly described before discussing the

significance of the present raised beaches.

(1) Tur Ocean Sanp BEAcH

The surf swept ocean sand beach carries few species of Mollusca or

Crustacea, and practically no visible flora. Such beaches are found along the

ocean shores of the Coorong from Goolwa to Kingston. Here the dominant

mollusc is Plebidonax deltoides Lamarck 1818 (Donax of earlier writers), which

occurs in great numbers in coarse sand of about 0-5 mm. in diameter. The same

species occurs on various ocean beaches where the sand is coarse all around

Australia. It occurs on similar beaches near Port Lincoln and Kangaroo Island.

In South-Eastern Australia the species is probably a recent introduction carried

by ocean currents from the west in larval form.

(2) THe EsTuarINe AND Fine Sanp BEACHES

The estuarine type of beach runs almost imperceptibly into the fine sand

beach and many of the species of mollusca are common to each. <Katelysia

scalarina is found in the almost pure fine sand beyond the muddy sand of the

estuary, while Katelysia peroni is dominant in the muddy habitats which occur

adjacent to the K. scalarina bed. Uber conica prefers clean fine sand, but may

still be found in the muddy estuarine sand. These two types of beaches are so

closely associated that it is not surprising to find their shell fauna grade one into

the other.

(3) THe Warm Mup Frat

Common on raised beaches at Murat Bay, Port Augusta, Yorke Peninsula,

Fowler’s Bay, Dry Creek and Port Wakefield is the sub-fossil Anadara trapezia

Deshayes (Arca of some earlier writers), This belongs to a suite of warm-water

surface-dwelling mud-flat species found in the Zostera meadows. The associated

species include Torvamurex denudatus Perry 1811, Pyragsus ebinus Bruguiére

1792, Pyrazus australis Quoy and Gaimard 1834, Campanile laeve Quoy and

Gaimard 1834.

Although still living in New South Wales and Queensland, these species all

became recently extinct in almost all of South Australia. A living specimen of

Anadara trapegia is said to have been taken in Spencer Gulf.

ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF DEPOSITION OF THE RAISED BEACHES

The shell fauna preserved in the old beaches reflect the ecological conditions

under which they were deposited. Thus there are typical sand-flat, reef, estuarine,

deep water and weed suites. These can be signified by a name derived from their

most dominant species. They show a remarkable species convergence with

present-day fauna.

(a) Sand flats suite - - Katelysia scalarina —Bullaria tenuissima

Sites 1-6, 10, 15 association

(b) Estuarine suite - - Anapella adelaidae —Salinator fragilis —

Sites 1-6, 10, 15 Zeacumantus diemenensis association

Site 7 association

(d) Deep water suite - - Negyrina delecta — Scaeoleda llipeda

Site 11-12 association

(e) Weed suite - - - Phasianella australis—Thalotia conica

Site 14 association

It is of some interest that the deposits conform with what might be expected

from an examination of the position of the sites in relation to the surrounding

country.

The reef deposit site occurs adjacent to the Mount Salt-Nelson flat for

example, which is characterised by large surface exposures of Miocene lime-

stones. These are frequently very reef-like in appearance and were undoubtedly

sub-marine reefs at some stage during the inundation. Many similar reefs are

exposed at low tide today off Port Macdonnell and Cape Northumberland.

The deep water suite is perched on the steep sides of Mount Graham with

an immediate fall below the site of 50-60 feet over a distance of 10 chains, and

at least 100 feet within 40 chains. Such conditions are relatively unique in the

South-East, with its general lack of relief, and it is interesting that in the only

site where one could reasonably expect a deep water association, it is found.

It probably means that the relationship between the original beach and sub-marine

contours was of the same order as that between the position of the site on Mount

Graham and the adjacent flat.

It has already been suggested that the higher peaks and a large portion of

the Mount Burr Range were insular during some stages in the retreat of the

sea (2). The absence of any wave-cut terraces, however, would suggest that

the still stand periods were of short duration. What terracing there is appears

to be more apparent than real, and to be chiefly due to the superimposition of

older dunes (now consolidated) upon the slopes.

RELATIONSHIP OF SITES TO THE MAJOR STRAND-DUNE RANGES

The relative heights of the probable foreshores associated with the strand

ranges have been given by Tindale (10). In general they are agreeable with the

authors’. There is, however, a fall in level in all the ranges and intervening flats,

going northwards. As the beach terraces with which we are attempting to relate

them are all in the south, it has become necessary to use the southerly-most limits

of the ranges for correlation. These would give the following terrace levels :—

Woakwine Range - - - - - 20- 25 feet

Reedy Creek Range - - ~ - - 70-75 feet

West Avenue Range - = - - - 85- 90 feet

East Avenue Range = - - - - 105-110 feet

Baker’s Range - HOS - - 140-145 feet

Cave Range - - - - - - 180-190 feet

Naracoorte Range - = - - 220-250 feet

Sites 4-7 inclusive, 88-110 feet above sea level, occur in Burleigh Range and

are probably the extension southward of the West Avenue and East Avenue

Ranges. The steeper gradient of the country here has telescoped those two ranges

into one. The intervening flats are obviously only developed where the fall is

very slight. Thus skirting the Mount Burr Range it is probable that at least the

West Avenue Range, East Avenue Range and Baker's Range are all telescoped

into one, Tindale (loc. cit.) has suggested that the first strand terrace east of

Tantanoola is analogous to the West Avenue Range, This is most likely,

although it may even be correlated with the Reedy Creek Range. The occurrence

of a series of residual flints, chiefly overlying polyzoal limestone in a narrow zone

on the south-western side of the Mount Burr Range in Hundred Hindmarsh is

interesting (9), There is a large series of consolidated dunes 125-200 feet above

sea level on the higher side, and another series 85-100 feet on the lower side.

This narrow flat with flints is probably closely correlated with the Joyce flat

between East Avenue and Baker’s Ranges.

Sites 1, 2, 3 and 8 in Caveton Range have a general height above sea level

of 145-150 feet and are considered to be analogous to the old foreshore asso-

ciated with Baker’s Range, and one of the lower series of terraces skirting the

Mount Burr Range.

Site 10, 54 feet above sea level on the base of the Millicent ridge near

Rendelsham, is quite obviously connected with the western side of the Woakwine

Range, and does indeed stiggest that the sea was in the area subsequent to the

formation of that range. This could have been either a late incursion, or that

the range formed on an exposed sub-coastal spit during a minor fluctuation in

sea level or elevation of the land. The strand line of the Hatherleigh ridge would

be about the same height above sea level.

Sites 11 and 12 in the Mount Graham region, 190-210 feet above sea level,

are either related to the original Naracoorte Range still-stand, or as would seem

more likely to the Stuart? Range - Cave Range period, and are the oldest deposits

in the beaches described.

The position of Sites 13-17, inclusive, in the Kingston- Konetta district is

so well defined in relation to the dune ranges that no further discussion is

required, They are the most recent of the shell fauna described, and this is very

well reflected in their retention of the more delicate natural colours.

A reconstruction has been made of the old coastlines relative to the stages

represented by Sites 1, 2, 3, 8, Sites 4-7, and Sites 11-12, and are shown in fig. 2.

The coastline analogous to the Stuart Range - Cave Range still-stand is indefinite

in the Mount Gambier region. Portions of the area north of Mount Gambier,

which is fairly steeply rollmg are at a lower level, and in fig. 2B the coastline

has been shown as possibly being north of Mount Gambier. However, it would

seem equally likely that the Mount Gambier Range just south of Mount Gambier

itself was the coastline at this stage. This range is 210-270 feet above sea level.

THE ANADARA BEACHES AND SUGGESTIONS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES

Attention was first drawn to the sudden extinction of Anadara trapezia

(drea) by Howchin (7). It was later suggested by Hedley (6) that “its extine-

tion and that of its neighbour Pyrasus in South Australia are due to refrigera-

tion, and may mark a period in geological climate and time subsequent to that of

the Maitland raised beach (Hunter delta near Maitland, N.S.W.). The last cold

phase was reckoned by Professor David from the Koscuisko moraines to be three

to ten thousand years past.” It can readily be accepted that the extinction of

@) Also frequently spelt Stewart, biitch is probably more correct,

)

a MARACOORTE

nag

Sag

PENOLA

seaanganao |

]

’ [ee ha Rey.

4 tee

= : Brennen

NARACOORTE ?

“ia 1 NARACOORTE}

Vise

pee oe

Sheed ot al

es sek

}

Fig. 2

Stages in the retreat of the sea: A, Naracoorte Range foreshore; B, Stuart Range -Cave

Range still-stand; C, Bakers- Caveton Range still-stand; D, Avenue - Burleigh Range.

this warm mud site could be caused by low temperatures as they are all surface

dwellers. One would not expect such extensive casualties, for example, amongst

the oyster, Ostrea sinuata, because it lives at greater depth, although it might

suffer some damage.

The large deposits of Anadara at Port Augusta and elsewhere are in some

places washed by the tides and still show comparatively little wear. They can

readily be mistaken for living shells cast up on the foreshore. There is no doubt

that the Anadara horizon is very recent, and is a most important time factor in

our Recent geology.

No raised beaches have been located and recorded in the South-East where

this species or its normal associates have been dominant or even present. Occa-

sional specimens have probably been picked up, as they were known to haye been

used by some South Australian natives in their implements, and may well have

been bartered. There is apparently no evidence of the species in Kitchen middens,

however. The only definite Anadara from the South-East seen by the authors

was one isolated specimen found in a quarry in Miocene limestone at Naracoorte,

where its occurrence was undoubtedly accidental, and from which no conclusion

can be drawn. The discovery of a definite Anadara horizon in the South-East

would be most valuable and worthy of close search.

From the evidence of a single Woakwine Range terrace in which Katelysia

(Chione) was prevalent and the sub-fossil Anadara (Arca) absent, a migration

has been postulated by Tindale (10) for Anadara, Katelysia and Plebidonax

(Donax) with successively falling sea temperatures from the more southerly to

the most northerly latitudes in South Australia. He has also suggested that there

was “a relatively uniform 20-25-foot terrace extending along the whole of the

stable portions of the sea-~front of South Australia, disturbed only by minor

movements in the unstable down-faulted region of St. Vincent Gulf.” The shell

fauna at the Woakwine site was taken to be analogous in time with the raised

Anadara beaches about the St. Vincent Gulf, Spencer Gulf and Eyre Petinsula

coasts, though there seems little justification for this in view of the evidence for

local instability in the South-East.

It is known that Anadara was, for a brief time, present far south of the

South-East of South Australia, in Bass Strait for example. Tindale has suggested

that it had migrated north to about the Murray mouth by the time the Woakwine

Range terrace was built up. A good deal depends on whether Anadarea, with

rising temperatures, made at entirely westerly migration or an easterly one. It

may well have been that Anadara came from the west, and far from retreating

to the south, was advancing thereto at the time the Woakwine Range terrace was

forming.

Interpreting negative information such as the absence of a particular species

as indicative of a certain environmental condition, requires to be done with great

caution and is very dangerous. For example, the fact that Anadara does not

occur in the beach site at Woakwine and elsewhere does not necessarily mean that

temperatures were too low. Other ecological conditions might well have been

unfavourable and limiting. 1t is known that this species is confined to shallow

water and mud flats and does not occur on sandy or rocky beaches . It is signifi-

cant perhaps that practically all the known occurrences of Anadara raised beaches

in South Australia are where the requisite muddy conditions could have been

anticipated, and many are adjacent to where a stream or small river enters the

sea, In the South-East there are no such mud flats occurring along the coast

today, and in the absence of any defined hydrology it is unlikely that any occurred

west of the Naracoorte Range. A very similar reasoning can be used in the case

of Plebidonax, It does not occur, nor would it occur, either in the raised beaches

here under discussion or Tindale’s Woakwine Range site, just as it does not live

nor has not established itself on the Gulf St. Vincent beaches. Knowledge as to

whether it was present in the South-East at this time must await the discovery

of raised beaches of a suitable type.

Although the absence of Anadara, unless the other relevant environmental

factors can be suitably evaluated, cannot be assumed to mean low marine tem-

peratures, its occurrence can be taken as indicative of warmer seas than at present.

It has been suggested that these warmer seas may have been co-incident with

the last great period of aridity (3), which for want of a name will be called the

Great Australian Arid Pertod. If this is correct, the Woakwine Range, because

it was stripped of its leached upper soil horizons during the aridity, would be

pre-arid and pre-Anadara, On the other hand, were Tindale’s proposal correct,

the Woakwine Range would be post-Anadara, In any case the Woakwine Range

is pre-Arid.

The co-incidence of Avadara and the arid period seems logical, though no

evidence of a reliable nature has yet been produced. It is to be expected that

accompanying the meteorological conditions which led to the aridity, and finally

to the piling up of such large dune systems, were higher temperatures. It is not

known at what stage in the development of these conditions Amadara and

its associates became established along the South Australian coast, but they cer-

tainly persisted beyond the period of maximum aridity. It is probable that the

onset of aridity was rapid, but that the return to more ameliorable conditions has

been gradual. The last traces of desiccation have not yet disappeared, for the

crests of the larger dunes in the more arid parts of Australia (e.g., Lake Eyre

Basin, Simpson Desert, etc.) are still unstable.

CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE IN LOWER SOUTH-EAST

SOUTH AUSTRALIA FOR POST-MIOCENE GEOLOGICAL FEATURES

It has generally been considered that the recession of the sea, which led to

the stranding of the sequence of ranges from the coast to the Naracoorte Range,

was initiated some time in the Pleistocene, (11), (12), (5). However, recon-

sideration of the evidence, together with the new information presented here,

leads one to suspect that it might have been more recent than originally believed.

The beach site at Mount Graham is, for reasons given earlier, considered

contemporaneous with the Stuart Range-Cave Range shore line, perhaps eyen

with the Naracoorte Range. The Cave Range is the first range in the series west

of the Naracoorte Range. The fact that there is no higher series of consolidated

dunes on Mount Graham, which rises to over 600 feet, is additional evidence to

support this view.

The absence of any well-defined wave-cut terraces on the slopes of Mount

Graham would suggest that the early still-stand periods at least were not of

lengthy duration, and that the first elevations of the land were due to a series of

relatively close and sharp upward movements.

The oldest rocks in the region are the Miocene marine limestones, and super-

imposed upon these in the Mount Gambier district are more recent limestones

which are tentatively placed as Pleistocene. They are certainly much older than

the consolidated dunes, and later than the Miocene. The oyster in these beds is

apparently the living Ostxga sinuata, and not the Pliocene “O, hyotidoidea” Tate,

which apparently does not*belong to the genus Ostrea but is one of the tropical

“coxcomb oysters” of the genus Lopha common in the Pliocene beneath the

Adelaide plains.

The old strand dunes overlie the Miocene limestones about Mount Gambier,

and in the Mount Burr region are often superimposed on basalt, ash and tuff

deposits (2). The fossil dunes have been preserved by leaching of lime from

the uppermost horizons and its deposition lower down in the dune, so “consoli-

dating” it. The lime-free leached upper horizons, it has been suggested (2, 3),

were stripped in the Great Australian Arid Period, to expose in many places the

underlying travertinised horizon. This re-sorted leached material, both from the

dunes and other sources, has been left piled over all manner of material—cal-

careous acolianite, Pleistocene sandstone, Miocene limestone, volcanic material

(Mount Burr Range), and recent calcareous material left in the inter-range

flats, etc.

In the Mount Gambier region the siliceous sands are overlain by the volcanic

material which has been brought forward as evidence (2) in support of Fenner’s

theory that the volcanism in this area was so recent as to be “pre-historic.” It

clearly demonstrates that the activity of the Mount Burr region preceded that at

Mount Gambier and Mount Schank.

The present beaches of the South-East differ from the raised beaches, for

nowhere are they estuarine. It is indeed difficult to understand how estuarine

conditions could have prevailed in this region at that time, for there is no evidence

of ancient streams associated with the old foreshores. If the Murray River dis-

charged at a more southerly outlet or into a southerly extended Coorong, or if

the Glenelp River or an off-shoot of it had discharged more northerly, the

éstuarine conditions could be readily explained. That there has been a north-

ward draining of the Coorong very recently could be expected in view of the

warping that has apparently taken place in the south. This is possibly related to

the Mount Gambier volcanic activity. It is reflected in the fall in height above

sea level of the old foreshores proceeding northward. It seems also that there

is a south-easterly fall in the old foreshore heights from the vicinity of Mount

Gambier towards the Glenelg River.

A point of considerable interest in connection with the old foreshore she!l

deposits described in this paper is their remarkable state of preservation. In

almost all deposits a large proportion of the shells retain much of their original

colour and markings and their especial nacre. This even holds, though to a lesser

degree, for the most elevated, and therefore oldest, deposit—that at Mount

Graham. As stated earlier, this deposit 1s considered to be at least comparable

in time with the Stuart Range - Cave Range foreshore.

The condition of the shells in raised beaches was commented upon by

Tenison-Woods, who when discussing in a general manner recently raised sea

and estuary beds (12) in the region, says, “The shells in these beds have all a most

recent appearance, always retaining their colour and only slightly bleached... .

This circumstance I look upon as very remarkable; if the process of upheaval

had been gradual and slow, the shells found at 24 miles distant inland should

have a much more ancient appearance; moreover, it is impossible to understand,

since these shells are within a few inches of the surface... .” The only inference

that can be drawn from this state of preservation would appear to be that they

are very new indeed.

As pointed out earlier, no defined Anadara horizons which would be of value

as a chronological time index has yet been discovered in the South-East, The

most important recent chronological feature there would appear to be the wide-

spread evidence of aridity. Could the age and extent of the Great Australian

Arid Period be fixed, it would probably prove the most significant chronological

horizon in our Recent, because of its bearing on pedogenetics and the dynamics

of the native flora and fauna. Unfortunately, very little direct evidence has yet

been obtained. Browne (1) has recently suggested it was about 5,000 years ago,

while Crocker (3) believes it considerably less than 9,000 years ago.

There is no doubt that the raised beach deposits described in this paper, on

the evidence to be found in the general relationship between the exposed traver-

tine surfaces and siliceous sands presented elsewhere (Crocker, loc. cit.), are

pre-Arid. In view of the well-preserved nature of the shells, even where they

have been exposed in the surface travertine since the arid period, together with

the more important fact that the order of relative dominance, size and trueness

to type of the species are identical with living suites, it is thought likely that they

are of Recent age and that the Great Australian Arid period may have reached

its maximum in these parts as late as 3,000 years ago or even more recently.

The post-Miocene chronological sequence in the South-East probably was :—

Period Features Efoch

Volcanic activity,

Late Pliocene Mt. Burr Range.

Certain Limestones

to with Osirea sinuata

near Mt. Gambier.

Late

Old Dunes from cire.

Pleistocene Naracoorte Range, 20.000 years

to to

— Woakwine Range and 6,000 years

beyond.

Great Australian circ.

Recent Arid Period 3,000 years

Mt. Gambier — circ.

Mt. Schank volcanic 1,500 years

activity

SUMMARY

A description of 17 raised beach sites, 16 previously unrecorded, in the

Lower South-East of South has been given. The characteristics of the beaches,

their shell fauna, the ecological conditions they suggest, and their probable rela-

tionship to the old foreshores have been presented. The significance of the

deposits in the chronological sequence in this region has also been discused.

The remarkably recent facies and state of preservation of the shell material,

even where it has been exposed in surface travertine since the Great Australian

Arid period, leads to the conclusion that the aridity may have reached its

maximum in these parts as late as 3,000 years ago.

Volcanic activity at Mount Gambier and Mount Schank has been the most

recent geological event in the South-East. It is believed to have occurred about

1,500 years ago. Fenner (4) had previously considered it so recent as to be

“pre-historic.”

A short description is also given of some freshwater shell deposits, and the

land snails of the South-East.

ACNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful for the assistance of Mr. R. Williams, of Mount

Graham, in helping to locate the raised beach described by the late Pro-

fessor Walter Howchin. Thanks are also due to E. J. Leaney and D. W. Drew,

who assisted with some of the figures.

(1)

(2)

(3)

REFERENCES

Browne, W. R. 1945 An attempted post-Tertiary Chronology for Aus-

tralia. Pres. Address. Linnean Soc., N.S.W., 70

Crocker, R. L. 1941 Notes on the Geology and Physiography of South-

East South Australia, with reference to Late Climatic History. Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 65, (1), 103

CrocKker,.R. L. 1946 Post-Miocene Climatic and Geologic History and

its Significance in the Genesis of the Major South Australian Soil

Types. Bull. 193 CS.LR., Aust. (In press)

Fenner, C. A. 1921 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 45, 169

Fenner, C. A. 1930 Ibid., 54, 1

Heprey, C. 1915 Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 49, Pres. Address, 1-76

Howcuin, W. 1912 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 36, 36

Howcuin, W. 1929 Geology of South Australia, Govt. Printer, Adelaide

STEVENS, C. G. et al. A Soil and Land Use Survey of the Hundreds of

Hindmarsh, Young, Riddoch, Grey and Nangwarry, South Australia.

Bull. 142, C.S.I.R., Aust.

Tinpate, N. B. 1933 Tantanoola Caves, South-East of South Australia,

Geological and Physiographical Notes. Trans Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 57

TENrIsoN-Woops, J. E. 1862 Geological Observations in South Australia

TEniIson-Woops, J. E. 1866 Report on the Geology and Mineralogy of

the South-Eastern District. Govt. Printer, Adelaide

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate [X

Shells from various Sites.

1. KNatelysta scalarina 4. Lenaneria pectorosa

2. Macoma deltoidalis 5. Zeacumatus dicimenensis

3. Anapella adelaidae 6. Parecanassa pauperata

7. bullaria tenuissima

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate

Fig. 1

Pleistocene Beds with Ostrea sinuota, Mount Gambier Range.

Tig. 2. Site 5, Pebble and shell beds, Hundred Caroline

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XI

Fig. 1 Site 9, Flint pebble beach

Fig. 2. Acolianite limestone, showing the old accretion layers, Cape Northumberland.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XII

Fig. 1

A typical example of the dominant shells, Site 1.

‘

eZ Fig. 3

Travertine layers alternating with loose A close view of the travertine layer

sand, containing the same suite of shells, (above) and free sand layers (below),

Steele Site lL.

Trans. Rie, Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XTI1

Fig, 1

Fig. 2

Travertine limestone packed with Lenamerta pectorosa, low-lying flats near Millicent.

Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946

SS ere

~~ 4

Fig. 1

Site 11, Mount Graham.

Fig, 2

Shell material from Site 11.

Vol. 70, Plate XIV

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XV

Fig. 1

Shells from Site 16, from Ashmore-Murrabinna Bank,

Fig. 2

Travertine, rich in shells, ploughed up at Koniak Station.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XVI

Fig. 1

LE-quichlamys bifrons, Queen Scallop, together with other shells with living colour,

from Site 17,

Fig. 2

Oyster cluster, Ostrea stinata, from Site 17.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SOILS AND VEGETATION OF

EYRE PENINSULA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. L. CROCKER

Summary

The study of the ecology of the natural vegetation of South Australia has been directed towards a

classification of the formations and major associations, together with an analysis of the climatic

and edaphic conditions which govern their maintenance and stability. The modification of our

natural flora over the last decade by rapid and revolutionary changes in the land usage and local

agricultural economy has meant that the final picture is so far for complete and stresses the

necessity of finishing the work at the earliest.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE SOILS AND VEGETATION OF

EYRE PENINSULA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. L. Crocker

Phares XVII tro XXIII

[Read 11 April 1946]

CONTENTS Page

INTRODUCTION ha a0 4 $3 -4 ‘, be +4 Ab. i .. 83

Grotocy AND PrysiocraPHy— ,. us a ia fs Pi 1. BF

Tue Sous .. e f- 4. - a - a : = + .. 87

Tur CLIMATE ci 7 2: . “ ey “1 +}. os .. 92

THe VEGETATION .. ict © - i ste ot. + +. 53 . 95

Terminology .. 44 i 53 - * <: a ¥ ‘ .. 98

The Plant Communities ie ha rer ie Ae s a 4 1 95

1. E. cladocaiyx — Xantharrhoea Toteata- Casuerina Muellertana eda-

phic complex .. ile le ~ Ay - <4 se ae .. WF

2. E. cladacalyx—Casuarina 'stricta—E, oleosa-M- uncinata climatic

complex {a de i gs ad re ei J. 3 .. 98

3. E. odoraia—C. siricta edaphic complex -. 33 24 f. 35 .. 99

4. B. diversifolia—C. stricta—M. pubescens edaphic complex .. .: .. 100

5. £, angulosa var.-E. leptophylla—E. Floctoniae edaphic complex .. 11

6. E, oleosa—£. dumosa—E. gracilis edaphic complex .. ae, ie .. 102

7. Acacia Sowdentt— Casuarina lepidophloia edaphic complex . - 4 .. 104

THe Mars .. ee ra 7 be b. - ¥ Le ad Se .. 105

SuMMARY ,, a4 v 4 3 : &. = +4 ie ts .. 105

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS oS mn 4s ss a4 = Je mn ve .. 105

INTRODUCTION

The study of the ecology of the natural vegetation of South Australia has

been directed towards a classification of the formations and major associations,

together with an analysis of the climatic and edaphic conditions which govern

their maintenance and stability. The modification of our natural flora over the

last decade by rapid and revolutionary changes in land usage and local agricul-

tural economy has meant that the final picture is far from complete and stresses

the necessity of finishing the work at the earliest,

Eyre Peninsula is one of the regions that has been least studied and one in

which the original flora is still represented by large relict areas, which for varying

reasons (but chiefly infertility or shallowness of the soil), have been spared the

many land utilisation projects,

Presented in this paper are the chief features of geology, physiography, soils

and climate, which have an important beating on the distribution of the plant

communities of Eyre Peninsula. Many of the communities are described and

their principal constituents. indicated. Some of the associations are only, dealt

with in a very general manner, and still others, before their relationships can be

fully appreciated, require much fuller investigation of the floristics and a more

intensive analysis of edaphic conditions,

The area concerned is included in Counties Flinders, Jervois, Musgrave,

Buxton, Le Hunte, Robinson, and York and occupies approximately 15,100 square

miles, Agriculturally this region is to be considered chiefly of importance for

Tranz. Roy, Soc. S, Aust, 70, (1), 30 June 1946

grazing and cereal growing (mostly wheat). Unfortunately, cereal growing was

originally extended beyond the economic climatic limits and, in recent years, has

had to be withdrawn to the more reliable districts. In the very restricted areas

with an annual rainfall of 17 inches or mote, temporary or longer Jeys have been

established to a limited extent. Elsewhere grazing has been entirely based upon

the foundation native perennial grasses (chiefly Stipa spp. and Danthonia spp.)

or, where cultivation has been abandoned. on volunteer annual herbs and grasses.

GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

The geology of portions of Eyre Peninsula has been described in a general

way by a large number of authors (11), (12), (13), (15), (22). Their work,

however, has been chiefly of a reconnatssance nature and little or no detailed

geologic mapping has been carried out. Further, there have been no very recent

studies apart from those of Segnit (21) in the Robinson Freshwater Basin.

Dickinson (9) in parts of the Gawler Ranges, and the author on certain aspects

oi the Pliocene-Recent (5). The geology of the region is, therefore, only

imperfectly known.

The framework of Eyre Peninsula is essentially a gneissic and granitic

complex of the Pre-Cambrian age and is considered the stable Foreland of the

great Continental Shield that characterises Western Australia (10). It is bounded

on the east by the downfaulting of Spencer Gulf.

A metamorphic complex chiefly consisting of gneiss, schist, quartzite and

quartzite schist is widespread in the more easterly parts and forms the dominant

physiographic feature, with the exception of the Blue Range, from Central

County York to Port Lincoln. In the centre of County Jervois in the Hundreds

of Yadnarie, Mann, Jamieson, Campoona, Mangalo and Miltalie, there are par-

ticularly rugged hills up to 1,200 feet above sea level, but in the more southerly

regions, as between Koppio and Part Lincoln, the older Pre-Cambrian crystalline

rocks have been eroded ta a peneplain over which primary laterites developed—

probably in the Pliocene. This lateriticcapped peneplain has subsequently under-

gone considerable dissection, which is still proceeding. In many places the

lateritic material has been completely stripped to expose the underlying schist

and gneiss. Most of the region is between 300 and 800 feet above sea level,

The silicifed sandstones of the Blue Range which rests horizontally and

unconformably on the Pre-Cambrian metamorphic complex have been considered

hy Jack (13) as of doubtiul Ordovician Age. Marble Range which is a prominent

feature on southern Eyre Peninsula, is composed largely of slates and quartzites

and crystalline metamorphic rocks of doubtful age.

The most prominent physiographte feature on Eyre Peninsula is the Gawler

Ranges, which rise to over 1,400 feet above sea level and flank the region in the

north. The rocks are essentially felspar porphories of Proterozoic Age (11)

considered 1o have been formed either as a tremendous sill ar surface flow

(Jack loc, cif).

While in the Gawler Ranges, the Middleback Range, the high country in

central County Jeryois, and the Marble Range, heights between 1,000 and 1,500

feet above sea level are frequent, by far the greater part of Eyre Peninsula,

including almost all the area west and south-west of the Edillilie-Minnipa-

Cungena railway line. is less than 300 feet above sea level. In this region the

older rocks are chiefly granites, but they are only occasionally exposed at the

surEace, as at Mitnipa Hill, Calca Hill, Mount Hall, Mount Dunper, Wudinna

Will, ete. For the greater part the old buried granitic terrain is overlain by a

considerable thickness of terrestrial deposits (Jack 1912, 1914), including

Pleistocene calcareous sandstones and sands, Very recent siliceous sands are

frequently super-imposed upon the older terrestrial deposits. The Pleistocene

and Recent geology is particularly significant from the point of view of the

genesis of the soils.

The calcareous sandstones and sands on Eyre Peninsula are very widespread,

extending from Cape Catastrophe to Streaky Bay and discontinuously beyond to

the Western Australian border. Their features have been described in the neigh-

bourhood of Port Lincoln by Mawson (15), in portions of County Dufferin and

Robinson by Jack (12), in the Streaky Bay district by Segnit (21), and more

recently their distribution and significance has been disctissed by the author

(1945).

They consist essentially of a very recent series of unconsolidated dunes,

which discontinuously flank the coast and overlie a much older system of wind-

piled calcareous sands, This latter calcareous aeolianite is very extensive and in

Fig. 1

The Nullarbor-Spencer Dune System. The portion marked A has largely

drifted off the Nullarbor Plain, and that marked B from the calcareous

aeclianite shown in fig. 2.

the area under discussion occupies no less than three thousand square miles. In

general the aeolianite is in the nature of dunes or dune sheets, capped with a

layer of travertine of varying thickness. At times the aeolianite travertine is

only a few inches thick, while at others it is many feet, or a whole dune may be

weakly consolidated along the accretion layers. In the underlying unconsolidated

or partially consolidated material, foraminiferal tests and shell fragments are

frequently recognised, In the neighbourhood of Port Lincoln in the Wanilla

Basin, this aeolianite may be over 100 feet thick where it overlies transported

Jaterttic gravels. It is considered to have been built up duting the exposure of

large areas of the continental shelf, which accompanied the fall in sea jeyel asso-

ciated with the Pleistocene glaciations (5), The travertine capping is thought

to have been formed by lime enrichment through downward leaching and

deposition.

Extending from the Nullarbor Plain across the top of Eyre Peninsula tu

Spencer Gulf, in the neighbourhood of Cowell, is a huge dune system of very

recent origin. It is apparently purely deflationary in origin and has been piled up

during a severe arid period some 3,000-6,000 years ago (2), (6). The dunes

are of the seif type and run in an approximate north-west-south-east direction.

Their repetition distance is very variable,

CL, GAIRDNER

Fig. 2

Dune system (dotted) in relation to exposed aeolianite travertine (shaded)

on Eyre Peninsula.

These sands are highly siliceous, and for the most part le adjacent to large

exposures of aeolianite travertine. It is believed that the original soils developed

on the calcareous aeolianite were of a nature which rendered their upper (A)

horizons particularly unstable with the loss of vegetative cover in the arid period,

and that the now adjacent siliceous sands are chiefly from the stripping of the

ald A horizons. No doubt this material was considerably contaminated by soils

from other sources during the re-sorting, but the leached upper horizons of the

oils developed on the calcareous aeolianite would appear to form the chief con-

tribution to the siliceous sands of the eastern partion of what might be called the

Nullarbor-Spencer dune system, In the Hundred Jamieson these dunes extend

on to high country about 1,100 feet above sea leyel (pl. xvii, fig. 2), but for the

most part they have skirted this high country and have only filtered through to

Spencer Gulf through relatively restricted depressions north and south of the

main ranges. The effect of more local ranges on the distribution and orientation

of the dunes is sometimes very marked. A notable example is the influence of

the Darke’s Peak Range. This is a very spectacular range rising about 1,200 feet

aboye the surrounding country. It is some eight miles long, running north and

south and a quarter to half a mile in width. Fairly high white and yellow sand-

ridges abut the range on the western side and southern end. These ridges are

parallel, and are orientated in a north-west-south-east direction (that is the normal

direction for the system as a whole), both at the southern end of the range and

at some distance west of it. Immediately west of the range, however, the ridges

Wptrates Ea

OF me Garces 5

Fig. 3

Distribution of solonised sand dunes about

Darke’s Peak Range, Eyre Peninsula.

become very jumbled and many of them trend almost north and south. For some

four miles east of the range there is more or less sand-free country with good

arable soil (fig. 3). This has been sheltered by the range from superimposition

of the infertile leached sands, and it is obvious from the relationships of this sand-

free area to the range and sandridges, that the sand movement must have been

from directions lying between south-west and north-west.

The more important features of physiography are shown in pl, xxiii.

THE SOILS

In the foregoing section a brief analysis has been made of the geology and

physiography of Eyre Peninsula. In view of the fact that the greater part of the

region is overlain by Pleistocene and Recent terrestrial deposits, it is to be

expected that the relatively recent geological history should be very important 10

affecting soil genesis. Owing to this rather unique post-Pliocene geological

history, it might also be anticipated that most of the soils will be intrazonal.

Seven major soil groups occur, and their distribution ia shown on the

accompanying soil map (fig. 4). The soils are podsols and residual podsols, red-

brown earths, terra rossas, rendzinas, solonised siliceous sands, solonised brown

YQ O

ine

oe . wae

a CF Oss

er SS LS

AWN P00S0LS and RESIDUAL PODSOLS.

GF, TERRA ROSSAS AND RENOZINAS.

RED-BROWN EARTHS AND BROWN SOULS

ASSOCIATED WITH GNEISSIC ROCKS.

SOLONISED BROWN SOILS.

SOLON/SED S/LICEOUS SANDS.

Fig. 4

The distribution of major soil types on Eyre Peninsula.

soils.and desert loams, In addition, skeletal soils are common in some of the more

hilly areas associated with the ranges, These haye not been mapped separately.

though they are an especial feature in the Cleve-Miltalie districts.

l. Podsols. Residual Podsols.

Podsolised seils occur over a very restricted portion of lower Eyre Penin-

sula, and are very much intermixed with primary and secondary lateritic soils

and terra togsas, On the drier side they grade into what might be considered

grey-brown podsols, and finally. particularly along the eastern coastal scarp north

of Port Lincoln, to red-brown earths.

The dissection of the old laterised peneplain has led to a sedistritrution of the

horizons of the laterite profiles and the formation of at interesting pattern of

secondary soils, all podsolised to some degree and frequently containing a

Jayer of heavy ironstone gravel immediately above the clay. The surface horizons

are normally grey-brown or grey sandy loams of varying depths, The gravel

horizon may vary from almost nothing to 15 inches or so thick. and ts underlain

usually by yellow and red mottled clay. Hrom the limited number of analyses

made! jt appears that the pH of the surface horizons of these soils varies from

5:9 to 6'6 and their fertility status is low. One sample analysed“) contained

012% K,O and “021% P,O..

Pedsolised sands, some of which may be very deep, and which may or may

not coritain ironstone gravel in the subsoil also occur. A small quantity of

pisolitic gravel js usual in the upper horizons, especially in the shallower types.

Most of these sands which are probably of acolian origin and of diverse parent

material were, no doubt, piled in their present position during the last period of

aridity, In part they were derived fron) material transported during the break-up

of the peneplain and may contain, therefore, some of the upper horizons of

laterised profiles. It is hardly likely, however, that such a contribution could

have been large, because dissection of the laterite must have been initiated fairly

early in the Pleistocene. it had apparently proceeded a considerable distance by

the time the calcareous acolianite was blown up, for this abuts, overlies and

incorporates transported lateritic gravel in the neighbourhood of Pearlah and

Port Lincoln, and in the Wanilla Freshwater Basin there is as much as 100 feet

uf calcareous aeolianite in places overlying ironstone gravels and lateritic clays.

The podsols contain more pisclitic ironstone in the occurrences near the

ranges, The podsols and residual podsols are, generally apeaking, associated with

aclerophyllous heath, mallee heath, ar sugar gum heath vegetation,

2. Red-brown Earths, Grey-brown Podsols and certain Skeletal Soils.

Typical red-brown earths are rare on Eyre Peninsula, but there is a notable

occurrence in a narrow band on the slope from the ranges, extending from north

af Port Lincoln to Yallana. On the drier eastern (coastal) side this gives way

40 typical mallee soils, while on the wetter (westeri#) side are soils derived

directly in most cases from the old gneisses.

The red-brown earths are associated with peppermint gum (Z. oderata)

savannah with an admixture of mallee in places.

The soils developed directly on the old gnetssic exposures in the wetter dis-

iriets are very variable and frequently very shallow (skeletal), They are mostly

grey-brown, brown and red-brown sandy loams, loams and clay loams, with con-

siderable admixture of gneissic gravel or partially decomposed rock. These soils

can be considered, at least in part, as grey-brown podsols, though the high hase

status of the parent material and erosion have retarded the development of a

normal podsolic profile, These soils have carried a Casuarina stricta savannah

woodland, but where more podsolised, admixture with heath or sugar gum 38

usual.

Deeper soils (alluvial) occur in the valleys between the gneissic hills, some

of which are very wet and others of which exhibit evidence of salinity.

(1) Division of Soils, C.S.1.R. Divisional Reports, 22, 1943; 3, 1944.

(2) C. §. Piper—personal commutneation.,

Two samples of the foregoing soils analysed by Dr. C. S. Piper‘? had str-

face pH values of 6'1 and 6°5 respectively. Their potash status was 0°-30%

K,0, and phosphate status 030% and 017% P,Oy.

Some of the red-brown soils in Central Lower Eyre Peninsula appear to be

closely akin to the red-brown earths. Their colour, however, appears in part to

be derived from a sandy ironstone (possibly a fossil orstemm) which is quite

frequent in the Yallana - Cummins — Ungarra region.

3. Terra Rossas and Rendzinas

The large areas of calcareous atolianite which occur on Eyre Peninsula are,

for the most part, covered with a veneer of red, red-brown, chocolate, dark brown

and blackish loams and sandy loams. This is a typical complex pattern of terra

rossa and rendzina soils.

Although the aeolianite travertine is frequently exposed as sheet stone

at the surface and the soil is in any case tiormally very thin, pockets of deeper

soi] oceur, which in limited areas can be cultivated.

For the most part the soils are alkaline in reaction (pH 7°0-8°5) and are

known to be deficient in copper and cobalt (Marston ef al, 1938) in addition

to superphosphate, Owing to their shallowness and the frequent linrestone out-

crops, they can only rarely be cultivated and are used chiefly for grazing of sheep.

Tt is unfortunate that soils of such low fertility and limited agricultural value

eccupy such a large area of the reasonably reliable rainfall regions of Eyre

Peninsula.

In portions of the Nullabor-Spencer dune system which fal] within the sevpe

ot this paper, the soils of the inter-ridge regions are frequently shallow red-brown

loams and sandy loans, which have developed from underlying travertine. These

soils, although generally included with the solonised brown soils, have very close

affinities inorphologically and genetically with the terra rossas,

4, Solontsed Siliceous Sands,

The distribution of the Nullabor-Spencer dune system has been shown in

fig. 1, and portion is also shown on the soil map. Of that portion of the system

with which we are concerned in this paper, only a small area abotit Lock is

included in previous soil maps (19), The dunes in this system are piled into

long parallel ridges which trend roughly north-west and south-east and are rarely

more than 20-25 feet high, They vary considerably in their repetition distance,

but are usually 10-30 chains upart, though 40-60 chains are not infrequent.

The sands are white, grey, yellow-grey or pale brown and, except at the

north-easterly extremes, highly siliceous. They almost invariably overlie an

illavial horizofi of brown and yellow-brown sandy clay loam or sandy clay at

1-4 fect, and this more or less forms a “core’’ to the dune. Yellow sands {A2)

may underlie the more heavily leached grey and white sands of the surface

horizons (A1),

The illuvial sanily clay Inam and sandy clay core have probably been leached

in the profile wuder the weak solonising influence of cyclic salt accessions, and for

this reason Prescott has called the sotls in the neighbourhood of T.ock and similar

soils on the Upper South-East, solonetz.

One interesting feature of these soils is thal they are in a sense residual

podsols, for they had undergone considerable leaching prior to being built up

into the present dunes, It is believed, too, that the soils are largely af a more

southerly origin and are the aeolian re-sorted residua of older leached soils which

readily lost stability during the arid period, The principal source of supply of

(3s) C, S, Piser—personal communication.

this leached material was probably the upper horizons of the soils developed on

the calcareous aeolianire at this time, and these under a south-westerly wind com-

ponent have migrated further north and east, and been finally built up into the

present system.

On the whole the soils are of very low fertility, and on this account, and

because of their marked tendency to drift when cleared and cullivated, have bren

little used agriculturally. The interdune corridors, however, when the travertine

limestone is not too shallow, are frequently nsed for cereal growing.

The sands on the northern edge of the dune system are normally light brown

and allied to the Winkie sands of the Murray Mallee. This is probably due to

a larger component of less-leached, more-northerly-origin parent material, and the

upper horizons of what were probally the older solonised brown soils have most

likely made a much greater relative contribution. The frequent exposure of

travertine limestone in the interdune corridors is evidence of complete loss of the

old A horizon of some of the solonised brown soils. Indeed, the dunes along

the northern-eastern side of the system are probably almost entirely from this

soulce.

5. Solonised Brown Soils

The chief chatacteristics of the solonised brown soils (mallee soils) in South

Australia have been deseribed by Prescott (17), and later, and in greater detail,

hy Prescott and Piper (20). Although the Eyre Peninsula occurrences have beet

little studied, they conform in general with the principal morphological features

described elsewhere. They typically have heavier subsoils, considered due to

solonisation, are markedly alkaline with a pH varying from 7*5-9'5 and are

characterised by large quantities of calcium carbonate. This latter is normally

in the form of rubble or sheet travertine limestone, which, due to stripping of

variable amounts of the surface horizons, and/or super-imposition of wind-piled

material during the arid period, may cither be exposed at the surface or af

variable depth.

Tt was established on Section 12, Hundred Wilton, by boring thruugh a dune,

that the travertine exposed on either side was continuous beneath the sandridge.

The travertine and lime rubble horizons are illuvial zones, and it is believed

that the calcium had a triple origin in: (a) the original soil parent matter;

(b) accessions of cyclic calciuni normally present in yery small quantities in rain-

water; and (c) accessions of loessial calcium winnowed from the Pleistocene

calcareous aeolinite (5),

In the hilly and more actively eroding areas, as the elevated countey in the

central County Jervois (ie., the Hundreds of Yadnarie, Mann, Jamieson, Cam-

poona, etc.), where skeletal soils are very frequent, it is likely that accessions of

calcium from outside sources have been more readily removed, either before being

leached down in the profile, or subsequent to it, than in regions with no defined

hydrology. This may well explain the more restricted occurrence of lime-rubbie

and travertine in this region. Higher rainfall would also lead to a greater ground-

water temoval,

The same reasons are probably also applicable to the Gawler Ranges.

Although the soils on the hills themselves do not appear to contain very much

calcium carbonate, considerable quantities are in evidence in the subsoils of many

of the soils of the valleys and the desert Joams further north.

6. Desert Loams

It has already been pointed out in an earlier publication that the solomised

brawn soils grade gradually into the desert loamy (5), and that although the

limits of the mallee vegetation can be defined reasonably well, there is no clear-

cut division between the soils with comparable physiographic relationships at

this stage.

This ts particularly evident on northern Eyre Peninsula, where much of the

tree-steppe vegetation occurs on what could be considered an ideal “imatlee" soil.

As one proceeds further north, however, the solonising effect no doubt diminishes

as a response ta both lower ramfall and smaller contribution’ of cyclic sodium

salts, until finally, with the very light precipitation, these soluble salts tend to be

retained in the profile.

In the region dealt with in this paper, desert loams are of exceedingly limited

occurrence, and as those that do occur have very close affinities with the solonised

brown soils and the division separating the two is an arbitrary one, they can be

best considered as solonised brown soils.

THE CLIMATE

Eyre Peninsula has a typical Mediterratyean climate, with long summers

when precipitation is low and erratic, and temperatures and evaporation high,

alternating with the rainy winter seasons when temperatures and evaporation

are lower.

The rainfall varies from 24-25 inches per annum in a small region in the

vicinity of Green Patch behind Port Lincoln, to less than 10 inches in the region

about Iron Knob and Yardea. The mean annual rainfall is shown on fig, 5,

There are two physiographic features which have a marked influence on the

incidence and distribution of the mean annual rainfall, These are: firstly, the

elevated, dissected peneplain country associated with the ranges which extend

from Port Lincoln ta Moody; and secondly, the hilly regions west of Cowell, in

central County Jervoist

From the viewpoint of the climatic factors influencing the distribution of the

Natural vegetation, there is little doubt that the incidence of rainfall to evapora-

tion, as a measure of available moisture, the sub-soil reserves of moisture built

up during the period when soil evaporation and plant utilisation does not exceed

precipitation, and the temperature over the whole of the period during which

soil moisture reserves are adequate for plant growth, are the most significant.

Tn his climatic studies in connection with insect ecology in Australia,

Davidson (8) has taken a P/E ratio of O'5 as a threshold value, and considers

that ima period over which P/E exceeds this value adequate moisture isi avail-

able “for general plant growth.” He has accepted mean monthly P/E values as

his time units, and an that basis and a consideration of the mean annual tempera-

tures, has detined bioclimatic zones in Australia, ‘The region dealt with here falls

within Davidson’s Warm Temperate Semi-Arid Zone. The number of months

in which P/E exceeds 0-5 varies from six in the most southerly portions to four

in the north and three in the extreme north-east, and mean annual temperatures,

except for the extreme north-east are between 60-65° F.

Taking the arbitrary value P/E = 0-5 as the threshold value for defining

hbioclimatic zones is probably satisfactory for gencral plant growth. In consider-

ing herbage plants specifically, however, Trumble (23), from direct observation

of the growth of such plants at the Waite Institute and their correlation with

inean monthly rainfall, together with information gained with the evaporation

from soil blocks, defined the “influential rainfall.” This is the amount of rain

falling during the period in which P/E exceeds 0-3, when it is considered that

the surface four inches of soil is maintained above the wilting point for annual

herbage plants, The length of this period is known as the “influential rainfall

period.” Trumble has shown (loc. cit.) that the factor of P/E = 0-5 as used by

Davidson in conjunction with the Adelaide evaporimeter gives essentially similar

values under South Australian conditions as his value of 0-3 when allowance is

made for differences in the two evaporimeters used ag standards. The length of

the influential rainfall period on Eyre Peninsula varies from 7°5 to < 5:0 months

and the influential rainfall from about 16 inches in the lower Eyre Peninsula to

less than 5 inches in the arid upper north-eastern portion (23).

In addition to mean values for the annual temperature, Prescott (18) has

pointed out that two further constants are necessary to completely represent the

Fig. 5

Mean annual rainfall! distribution on Eyre Peninsula.

march of monthly temperatures, These are the amplitude of the curve about the

mean, and the phase or position along the time axis. Phase is expressed in terms

of the lag between temperature and solar radiation. Prescott has constructed

maps showing both the lag (in days) of temperature behind solar radiation, and

amplitude (in ° F.) of the mean monthly temperatures. The amplitude of the

mean monthly temperature on Eyre Peninsula varies from 7-11° F., and the phase

from 29-36 days lag of temperature behind solar radiation.

The climatic constants for Eyre Peninsula, after Prescott and Trumble, are

shown below in fig. 6.

An important feature of climatic constants are their variability, and for 2

fuller analysis of climatic factors figures for expectancy of both rainfall and

temperature conditions and P/E ratios should be made. Unfortunately, the

small number of meteorological stations and the limited period over which

recordings are available, together with the even greater scarcity of evaporimeters,

necessitating the use of calculated figures for evaporation, make this impracticable

at present. Some idea of the type of variability that occurs, however, can he

MEAN PERIOD INFLUENTIAL RAINFALL (MONTHS)

—_—--—= AMOUNT INFLUENTIAL RAINFALL (INCHES)

ee TEMPERATURE PHASE LAG (IN Days )

TEMPERATURE AMPLITUDE ( °F.)

sebsbes cate MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE ( ‘*¢.)

Fig. 6

Climatic constants for Eyre Peninsula (after Trumble, Prescott and Davidson)

gauged from the expectancies; calculated by Wark (25) for the only two Eyre

Peninsula stations with reasonably long records.

Influential Expectancies for Influential Rainfall (1.R.)

Record rainfall Once in 5 years Once in 10 years Once in 20 Years

Station (years) (modal value) LR, LR. LR.

< > < > < >

Port Lincoln - 48 17-37 13-77 21°55 12-09 24-01 10:79 = 26-2

Streaky Bay - 49 11-26 844-1407 6-95 15+56 $70 = 16-81

Influential Expectancies for Influential Rainfalt Period

rainfall period

(utontha) Once in § years Once iz 10 years Onet in 2D 4

(modal value) will equal or will equal or will equal or

<= > < > <= >

Port Lincoln - 73 a4 B-3 60 £8 56 99

Streaky Bay = - 5-7 4-9 oS 4-5 6-9 441 +3

A further index of variability of the influential rainfall is given below in

fig. 7, after Trumble (24), which shows the percentage of seasons with a

minimum wet petiod of four months (p, 97).

THE VEGETATION

The vegetation of Eyre Peninsula, in terns of plant communities and vegeta-

tion types, has been so little studied as to be almost unknown. The region is

relatively remote, and generally speaking, the soils are poor and unattractive. It

is not surprising, therefore, that so little interest has been taken in the plant

associations.

Two previous vegetation maps which include this region are Prescott's

“Vegetation Map of South Australia” (16) and Wood's “Vegetation of South

Australia” (27). In both of these pioneering works this region has been given

perhaps the least attention of any. In this present paper the vegetation types are

presented, together with the main soil factors, in much greater detail. The dis-

tribution of the major plant communities is embodied in one main map, which

covers the whole Peningula, The present work does not claim to be complete,

but considering the area evolved (approximately 15,100 square miles), general

inaccessibility, and the limited nature of the foundation work, it is thought to be

a very great advance. It is hoped that it might prove a useful thesis to students

in stating the major aspects of the ecology in perspective and might encourage

someone to continue to sort out the finer details. .

TERMINOLOGY

In the present paper the edaphic complex as defined by Wood (26) is used,

4s also is, in a restricted way, the analogous climatic complea which has been used

previously in several of the author's earlier papers, (1), (4). These are con-

sidered as secondary groupings of convenience. They do, however, serve to

illustrate some of the environmental relationships.

The primary units, the associations, are used in the sense of being charac-

terized by several species which are prominent and always present in the com

munity. In some cases the edaphic complexes, ete., are not subdivided into all or

any of their more fundamental umils, as more work is required to define these.

Qne valuable feature of the climatic and edaphic conyplexes is that they can be

used as mapping units fairly readily on account of the ease with which the

relevant edaphic and/or climatic conditions can be defined. They can he used in

conjunction with the text to give a logical picture when it is flot practicable to

map the associations. This latter condition occurs very Frequently,

THE PLANT COMMUNITIES

About 20 of the more important associations have been mdividually recog-

nised on Eyre Peninsula. Together with some of their more important initer-

relationships they are summarised below in Table I. A large number of the

associations have been mapped individually, but for the most part groups of

associations or edaphic and climatic complexes are mapped.

As the associations change gradually where climatic complexes are involyed,

the boundaries are necessarily somewhat arbitrary in these cases.

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1 E. cuapocAtyx— XANTHORRHOEA TATEANA—CASUARINA MUELLERIANA

ENAPHIC COMPLEX

This complex occurs in a region with an annual rainfall of 19-24 inches and

an effective rainfall period of 6°5-7-5 months, with >!15 inches effective rainfall

per annum. The soils are essentially podsols and include a complex pattern of

primary and secondary lateritic soils. Some of the highly leached siliceous sands

in this. area are probably aeolian in origin.

Fig. 7 Percentage of seasons with a minimum of four months wet period,

E. cladocalyx association (pl. xviii, fig. 2)

E. cladocalyx (sugar gum) is usually associated with sclerophyllous shrubs to

form a lowly integrated dry sclerophyll forest, though occasionally on some of the

podsolised skeletal gneissic soils it has a tendency to occur as a savannah woodland.

The E. cladocalyx dry sclerophyll chiefly occurs on residual lateritic podsols

and secondary podsols, both of which normally have the characteristic pisolitic

gravel layer immediately above the clay horizon as described earlier. The sugar

gum is almost invariably depauperate and twisted as though it were growing

towards the limits of its edaphic range. Amongst the sclerophyllous under-

shrubs Xanthorrhoea Tatéeana, Melaleuca wncinata, Hakea cycloptera and

H. rugosa are very prominent, Other important species include Adenanthos

terminalis, Lissonthe strigosa, Pultenaca trinervis, Leptomeria aphylla, Acacia

rhetinodes var. angustifolia, A. rupicola, Exocarpus spartea, Phyllota, sp., Gre-

villea ilicifolia, Spyridium leucopogon, Acrotriche cordata, Prostanthera spinosa

and Baeckia Behri. Goodenia robusta is often quite abundant in more restricted

localities.

In many of the local low-lying wetter hollows in this association communities

dominated by Callistemon rugulosus and Melaleuca decussata are common.

Casuarina Muelleriana—Nanthorrhoea Tateana- Melaleuca waeinadia heath asso-

ciahon

Qn the podsolic soils lying between the western slopes of the ranges west-

north-west of Port Lincoln, and the Marble Range region, ihat is westward from

Wanilla, and as far north as Edillilie, sclerophyllous heath, more or less admixed

witht mallee, is very widespread. It also occurs intermixed with &. cladocalyr

sclerophyll forest in the eastern portion of Hundred Wanilla, the western portion

of Hundred Louth, and the central northern section of Hundred Lincoln.

Where intermixed with the 2. cladocalyr association the principal heath Jand

shrubs are essentially the same species as occur as undershrubs in the adjacent

sugar gum community, although Dawesia brevifolia and Crevillea ilicifolia may

be much more abundant. It is not possible to define any soil characteristies which

might be correlated with the occurrence of the /. cladocalyx. As pointed out

earlier, however, this species appears to be towards the limits of its edaphic range,

and itas very doubtful mdeed whether it has. ececised i these cases,

The principal heath species are Casuarina Muelleriana, Xantharrhaca

Tateuna (yaecka), Hakea cyclaptera, Mclalenca wncinata (broambush), Banksia

mia guiala (honeysuckle), and strolama sp, Other sclerophyllous undershritbs

occurring include Acacia rhehnodes var. angustifolia, Lasiopetalum Baueri,

Calythria tetragona, Hibbertia spp., Deawiesia inerassala (2?) and Baeckew Beli.

In places there is a good deal of admixture of the heath with mallee, and

seattered sheoaks (Casuarina stricta), Occasional mallee trees or mallee chimps

occur throughout the whole assuciation, though in the eastern parts at Jeast they

are more prominent where there are superimposed siliceous sands. The principal

mallee species are Eucalyptus angulosa, £. leptophylla, and &. Lendsdowncana.

There is another mallee which could not be positively identified, but which has

affinities with E. leplophylla.

Yowards the northern limits of this association mallee becomes very pro-

minént, and in addition te the above species E, Ploctoniae occurs,

Banksia marginate and Leplospermnunt coriaceynt show a marked preference

ior the lighter and deeper sands in this. region,

E. cladocalyx —C. stricta—heath association

This association can be considered as an edaphic ecotone, It occurs through-

out the dissected peneplain regions north-west of Port Lincoln on podsolised

soils associated with underlying gneisses,

&, cladocalyx is often absent from this community and it might be better te

recognise more than one association, Amongst the associated sclerophyllous

undershruhs Hakea cycloptera, Grevillea aspera, Astroloma conostephioides,

A huntifusum, Acacia pyenantha (golden watile), etc., ate common,

Where the skeletal gneissic soils are less podsulised the tendency is for a

straight-out Casuarina stricta (pl. xix, fig. 1) or E. cladocalyx savannah wood-

land, and this rather mixed association can be considered an ecotonal link between

these communities and the sclerophyll forest and heath associations,

2 E. cuanocaryx —CaAsvArInA stRicTA—E. onrosA—M. uncrnata

CLIMATIC COMPLEX.

FB, cladocalya association and Casuarina stricta association

On the slightly podsolised brown and chocolate skeletal soils associated with

the gneissic hilly country in the eastern portian of Hundred Lotith, much of

Hundred Koppio, and in more restricted occurrence elsewhere in the higher rain-

ee)

fall regions of Eyre Peninsula, the most important association is a savaunsh

woodland dominated by Casuarina stricta (sheoak |) (pl. xix, fig. 1).

Much less important on yery similar soils is an 7. cladocalyx savannah

woodland,

Little is known of the floristics of these two associations but the latter is

restricled to the wetter districts, while the Casuarina stricta .association also

occurs much further north, Interspersed with mallee and broombush ( Meluletica

uncinata), it is still found on the skeletal soils of the rough hilly as far north

as Cleve,

Eucalyptus oleosa— Melaleuca uncinata -Triodia. irritans association.

On the high country about Cleve in Central County Jervois the soils. are

chiefly skeletal, derived from metamorphic rocks, and apart from the Casuarina

stricta associations mich of the region is mallee sernb and broombush. The prin-

cipal species are E. oleosa and less prominently FE. djunosa, while E. anceps and

E. gracilis have been recorded. The principal associated shrubs are Melaleuca

anciuata, Pomaderris racemosa, Dadonaga hexaidra, Bursuaria spinosa, Haked sp.,

Rhagodia sp., Cassia eremophila and Melaleuca pubescens.

Another species which occurs in the mallee-broom communities in this region

is E. brachycalyx var. Chindoo. It does. not appear, however, to be as widespread

as the other eucalypts.

The most prominent grasses are the perennial native grasses, especially

Danthonia semiannularis and Stipa eremophila.

In many of the valleys on alluvial and deeper soils Eucalyptus calciculirix

(water mallee) often associated with Lomandra sp, (probably L. dura), Stipa sp.

and Danthonia spp. occurs.

On some of the more stony hills Trivdia wrifans is particularly conspicuous.

In Hundred Campoona, coarse pinkish sands are quite a feature and

E.dumosa, E, brachycalyx var. Chindoo and more spatingly E, leucoxylan (almost

a mallee form) occur associated with Lasiopetalum sp., Acacia ‘Sp, Triodia

irmtans, Daviesia brevifolia and Melaleuca uncinate.

This association is closely allicd to several other mallee communities in its

florisitcs. The M. uncinala whieh gives quite a particular physiognomy to the

community, shows a very marked preference for sandy soils or shallow skeletal

soils. Wherever soils approaching the normal solonised brown soils occur, this

association is replaced by another community,

3 Eucaryprus oporArA—C. STRICTA EDAPHTG COMPLEX

E. odorata association (pl. xix, fig. 2)

A very limited area of red-brown earths flank the ranges north of Port

Lincoln on the Spencer Gulf side, Elsewhere they are of restricted occurrence,

These soils grade rather gradually into skeletal chocolate and brown gteissic soils,

which carry a C. sirtcta savannah,

The red-brown earths carry a E. adorata savannah woodland, which reaches

its maximum development on the range footslopes at Yalluna, west of Tumby

Bay. In its edaphic, physiographic and climatic relationships the association can

be paralleled with that occurring along the western footslopes of the Adelaide

hills, on a similar soil type.

From a little north of Yallana the association follows the footslopes tu as

far south as Poonindie Plains, where there is a little admixture with Casuayina

stricta and E. ¢aleiculirix, The principal grasses are Danthonia semiannularis

and Sitpa spp.

4 E, prversuronrA—C. srricta—M. PusEsCRENS EDAPTI!C COMPLEX

This is the complex which is associated with the extensive occurrences of

calcareous aeolianite, on the iravertinised surface of which have developed terra-

rossa—rendzina soils.

Tt is of some interest that the same associations are to be found on geneti-

cally related soils in the Lower South-East of South Australia (4), and Yorke

Peninsula. On Kangaroo Island, on these soils, occurs the closely related

E. diversifoha—E, rugosa association,

&. dversifolia association (pl. xx, fig. 1 and 2)

This association occurs over a very large portion and discontinuously extends

from the southern-most portions of Eyre Peninsula io the uecighbourhood of

Streaky Bay. The dominant species is E. diversifolia (white mallee) and asso-

ciated with it, particularly in County Flinders, is a large number of sclero-

phyllous shrubs and, undershcubs. The soils are very shallow terra rossas

developed on the travertine horizons of the old dunes,

Immediately behind Port Lincoln, where the aeolianite limestone has

encroached upon both lateritic gravels and the older gneissic rocks and over

which they may frequently rest as a relatively thin mantle, there is a large

number of other cucalypts associated with E. diversifoka, Chief amongst these

are E, rugosa and £. conglobata, but E, angulosa, £, transcontinentalis and

E. Landsdowneana occur, especially where the ironstone gravel is mare apparent.

E, dumosa occurs with 2. diversifolia at times on these soils,

In the region immediately behind Port Lincoln the associated scleraphyllous

shrubs include Pomaderris obcordata, Templetonia retusa, Grevillea aspera,

Acacia Gili, A, armata (chiefly marginal to gneissic outcrops), Dodonaea

cunedta, D, attenucta (?), Lasiopetalum Schulsenit, Hakea rugosa, H, wvittata,

Pultenaea acérosa var, acierlaris, Halgania cyanea, Scaevola aemula, Pimelia

stricta, Hibbertia stricta var. glabriuscula, Goodenia sp, (aff. affinis), Stack-

housia monogyna and Xanthorrhoea Tutcana (rare on aeolianite),

The ptincipal petennial grasses are Danthonia setacea, Stipa sp. (probably

S. eremophila) and S, semibarbata var. gracilis.

E. diversifolia and E. rugesa (?) both occur, but again discontinuously, on

recent systems of unconselidated dunes of calcareous acolianite, which lie

adjacent to the coast in some parts. It will probably be possible in future to

recognise two distinct associations—an E. diversifolia association and an £.

diversifolia—E, rugosa. association.

E. calcicultrix association,

This rough-barked mallee is frequently known as “water mallee” .and

though not restricted entirely thereto, it is most widespread on some of the terra

rossas associated with aeolianite travertine in the western portion of County

Robinson, In much of this region, as about Chandada, it is sufficiently important

to reach the rank of an association dominant,

The association is fairly open and approaches savannah woodland. _Asso-

ciated sometimes are Melulenca pubescens (dry-land titree) and Callitris pra-

pingua, while Acacia ligulata, Geijera linearifolia and £, diversifolta may occur.

The principal grasses ate Stipa eremophila and Danthoxia semiannularis.

iol

Casuarina stricta - Melaleuca pubescens association.

This association, another associated with the terra rossa—-rendzina complex

of the aeolianite travertine, is probably the most widespread on Eyre Peningula,

It occurs interspérsed with the former two associations, and although it is

intimately connected with the &. diversifolia association in distribution both on

Eyre Peninsula and elsewhere in South Australia, it is Horistically (and hence

structurally) very different.

The association is essentially an open savannah woodland. The principal

dominant species is Casuarina stricta (sheoak), and over wide areas may be sole

dominant (pl. xxi, fig. 1). Melaleuca pubescens is, however, frequently asso»

ciated and in restricted localities may be sole dominant. It will probably be

better in more detailed work to further subdivide this community.

The most prominent perennial grasses are Danthonia semiannularis (wallaby

grass), Stipa eremophila (spear grass) and S, falcata (spear grass), while

Bromus rubens ts often a conspicuous annual grass. Calimia lanigera (black

rush) is quite a feature in parts gi County Robinson, and probably elsewhere.

Casnerina stricla association.

On some of the large calcareous dune systems along the coast a closely allied

association occurs. One such system was examined in Sections 292 and 297,

Hundred Ripon, and another near Perlubie, Hundred Finlayson, County Robin-

con, In both localities the sandhills were very unstable and poorly vegetated.

The dominant tree was C, stricta, which was very dispersed; associated were a

number of shrubs, chief of which wete Eremophila crassifolia, Lasiopetalum

discolor, Beyeria Lesehenaullii, Thryplomene Migueliana, Pusanas acuminatus and

Lomandra leucocephala, The most prominetit grasses were Danthonia semi-

annularis, Stipa eremophila, S. barbata, Stipa sp,, Pucetnellia stricie, Bromus

rubens and B. rigidus. On the dunes nearer the coast Olgaria sp,, Spinifex

hirsutus and Scirpus wadosus are most important,

5 E. ANGuLosA var.- E, LepropnHy~ttA—E. Froctoniag EDAPHIC COMPLEX

E. angulosa var.—E. leptophylle— Melalesea unctnata association

On the solonised siliceous sands of the Nullarbor-Spencer dune system which

eut across the north of Eyre Peninsula is a typieal law mallec-broombush scrub.

There are perhaps modifications at the north-eastern edge of the system, but

generally speaking E. angulosa yar. (possibly yar, cerutocorys) and £, lepta-

paylla (marrow-leafed mallee), together with Mclalexca uncinata (broomibush),

give a characteristic facies to the vegetation.

Other mallees oceur, and of these E. oleosa, E. dwnosa and £. Floctoniae

are the more important, and they all show a preference, at least in the mare

heavily leached dunes, for the lower slopes of the sandrises.

Associated with the broombush on the more highly ieached dunes are a large

number of other sclerophyllous shrubs—Haekea cycloplera, H. ulicina, Casnarina

Muzelleriana (oakbush), Acacia spinescens, <4. farinosa, Leptospermumt coriaceum,

Phebahum pungens, P. bullatum, Baeckia crassifolia, Thryptomene calycme,

Grevillea pterosperma, Hakca multilinedta, Spyridinm bifidum, S, subochreatum,

Calythrix tetragona, Gyrostemon ramulasus, Astralama conostephioides, Boronia

cagrulenscens, Hibbertia stricta, Loudonia Behrii, Homoranthus Withelmii.

Evocartus spartea, Aolus villosa, and Triodia wrritans.

At times the oakbush (C, Muelleriana) is so abundant as to give a charac-

teristic facies to thé association.

102

In the drier regions, where the sands are not so heavily leached, as north

of Minnipa, the greater part of these sclerophyllous shrubs do not persist, but

M, wncinata, Triodia writans, Leptospermum coriaceum and Evacarpus spartea

are all very prominent (pl. xxi, fig. 2).

E. oleosa— M. uncinata association.

On some of the solotietzic sandrises /:. oleasa may be so prominent as to be

the domimant tree in the community. This occurs in the sandy regions north-

east of Cowell. E. franscontinentahs, E. dumosa, E, angulosa var. and £. lepta-

phylla also occur, but to much less extent. Other species include M yoporum

plutycarpum, Melaleuca wncinata, Acacia rigens and Baeckia crassifolia,

&, Floctoneae—E. dumosa—M, vncinata association

This association is widespread in the Cummins-Yeelanna region, where there

is an interesting pattern of grey sands and sandy loams (with red-brown clay

subsoils), and red-brown loams. [it occurs on the former soil types. lt can be

considered analogous ta the foutslope community of the solonised dunes,

In addition to E, Floctoneae and FE. diumosa, E. leplophyllu, E, oleosa and

FE. calycogona occur. ‘The latter appears to be particularly prevalent in this

region where ferruginous, gravel (not pisolitic—possibly fossil orstein) occurs

in “the soils,

Associated with the mallees ate a number of sclerophyllous shrubs, including

Melaleuca uncinata, M, pubescens, Grevillea ilicifolia, Exocarpus spartea, Lasio-

petalum Behrii, Dactiesia ovata, Dodonaea Baueri, Leptomeria aphylla, Astroloma

conostephioides and Bae kia crassifolia.

6 E. oreusA—E. pumosA— FE, GRACILIS EDAPHIC COMPLEX

This complex includes all those associations that occur on the major types

of what have usually been considered brown solonised soils. Some of the soils

are red-brown shallow sandy loams over travertine limestone, others merely

contain large amounts of lime rubble in the B, horizon, while others are fairly

deep light to medium textured soils allied to Murray Valley types like the Bar-

mera sand,

E. dumosa—&. incrassata (?) association

In many of the inter-ridge areas associated with the aystien of solonised

dunes there is a community dominated by Eucalyptus dumosa, and a closely allied

species. which may be E. incrassata. Many of the species which occur on the

dunes also occur in this association,

The following species were prominent on a shallow red-brown loam over

travertine limestone in this association near Rudall—Afelaleuca uncinata, Kucarya

acuminala, Acacia spinescens, Cryptandra tomentosa, C. amara, Lasiopetalium

Baueri, L. Behrii (?), Dompiera lanceolata, Grevillea ilicifolia, Exocarpus

aphylla, Baeckia crassifolia, Phebalium bullatwim, Brachyloma ericoides, Brachy-

come ciliaris, Dampiera rosmarinifolia, Boronia inornata and Hibbertia stricta.

The rainfall] in this region approximates 14 inches per annum,

E. oleosa~£.. brachycalyx association

In some of the drier regions, as about Mitchellville (rainfall 11 inches per

annum), on brown sandy loams and loams usually underlain by travertine, there

is am association in the inter-ridge areas dominated by EL. oleosa and £. brachy-

103

calyx var. Chindoo. The other species present have a more arid facies than the

previous association and include many members of the Chenopodiaceae, The

following tecord made at Section 12, Llundred Wilton, can be taken as an cxample

of the floristics of this association. Melaleuca pubescens, Geijera linearifolia,

E. gracilis, Grevillea Hueglit, Fittosporum phillyreoides, Exocarpus uphylia,

Daviesia sp., Myoporum deserti (?) Dodonaea stenozyga, Rhagoiia spinescens,

FR. crassifohu, Kochia tomentosa var, appressa, K, friptera var. pentaptera,

Atriplex stipitatum, Enchylaena tomentosa and Cratystylis conocephala. Amongst

the annuals Mesembrianthemum. acquilaterale, M. australe, Bassta sclerolacnoides,

8. obliquicuspis, Angianthus tomentosus, and Zygophyllum fruticulosum ate

prominent. The principal grasses are Danthonia semiannularis and D_ sefacea,

Stipa Drummond, S. eremophila, and Schismus barbatus (especially on small

sand shadows, where Mesembrianthenmwm crystallinum is alsa often associated).

In restricted area where the soils are heavier Alriplex vesicarium occurs.

E. oleosa—£. gracilis association (pl. xxit, fig. 2)

This is the most dominant and widespread of the mallee communities and

very closely allied to the previous association. It is the principal mallee assacia-

tion in the Minnipa, Warramboo and Kimba regions, and also occurs jn the

Cowell district. £, dumosa and Myopornm platycarpum may also be associated,

but the two important mallees are F£, oleasa (red mallee) and E. gracilis (Kong

inallee), The subdominant low tree-shrub stratum includes. Melaleuca pubescens,

Geijera lineorifolia (candlebush), Acacia Oswaldij, A. lNgulata, Erermephila

scoparia, Crevillea Hueglet, Exacarpus aphylla, Piltosparum phillyreoides, and

usually where the soils are lighter and deeper, odd Callitris propingua (native

pine).

In the lower shrub stratum the composite Cratystylis conocephala (locally

ealled bluehush) is very prominent, and may give a particular facies ta che com-

munity, <lériplex stipitatum, Rhagodia spinescens and Enchylaena tomentosa

also trequently occur, and the chief grasses are Danthonia semiannyluris, Shpa

eremoplila and S. varinhilis.

Between Yaninee and Minnipa, Casuarina lepidophloia occurs as a dispersed

dominant in this association,

Casuarina lepidophloia association

On soine of the lighter and deeper types of the solonised brown soils occurs

a more or less open savannah woodland duminated by Casuarina lepidophioia

(hlack oak, or belar). There is a notable occurrence about a mile north of

Yaninee. Associated with the helar are x number of orher sinall trees, af which

Myoporum platycurpum, Encarva acuminate, Laxocarpus oaphylla are most

important, while the smaller shrubs include Cassia eremophila, C. Stevtii and

Acacia ligulata,

Callitris propingqua association

Associated with outcrops of granite on Eyre Peninsila are soils of higher

fertility status, and they frequently carry a Cuallitriy propmmqua (native pine)

woodland,

‘The same, or a very closely allied association occurs on deep red-brown

sands, as about Kimba, or at other times of shallow soils over travertine

limestone.

Tr is not infrequent, where the soils are light-textured and deep, for a com-

munity dominated by Casuarina lepidephloia and Coallitriy propingua to occur.

This community should perhaps be given association rank,

104

Stipa eremophila —Danthonia semiannularis association,

Throughout the mallee regions on Eyre Peninsula, and especially in narth-

western County Robinson and County Dufferin occur open grass savaniah

regions which have always been tree-less.

The most prominent grass is one of the sq-called spear grasses, Stipa

eremophila, but also present to some degree are other species, of which Danthonta

semiannularis appears to be the most important,

The areas occupied by this association are usually small and dispersed,

though from the grazing point of view they are very important, and the total

area is considerable,

7 <Acacta SuwpdENI — CASUARINA LEPIDOPHLOIA EDAPHIC COMPLEX

This complex is important on the arid side of the mallee communities and

occurs on very closely allied soils of the brown solonised soils group.

Acacia Sowdenti~ Myoporum platycarpum association.

In the Whyalla region the most important association is a tree-steppe com-

munity dominated by Acacia Sowdenti (myall) and Myoporum platycarpum

(sandalwood). The taller woody shrubs occurring are Heterodendron oleifolium,

Eremophila scoparia, Eucorya acuminata, Acacia Oswaldti, Geijera linearifolia,

Cassia Sturtii and Exocarpus aphylla, but they are tairly sparse and a particular

physiognomy is given to the association by the more or less continuous lower

shrub stratum, The principal species in this are Atriplex vesicarizwm (saltbush)

and/or Kochia sedifolia (bluebush). Other species occurring, however, include

Kochia pyramidata, Enchylaena tomentosa, Atriplex slipitatum and Kochia triptera

var. pentaptera.

Where the soils are a little lighter, Hakea leucoptera and Lycitum australe

are often present.

The ground flora is comprised chiefly of various species of Bassia, of which

obliguicuspis is the most prominent, and sparse grasses such as Stipa vuriabilts,

Danthonia semiannularis and Enneapagon nigricans,

This association has already been described north of this region on Yudna-

pinna Station (7).

Casuarina lepidophloia—Kochia sedifolia association

It is not unusual for occasional trees of C. lepidophloia (black oak) ta occur

in the previous association, but at other times an association dominated by this

gpecies and with a continuous shrub-steppe stratum occurs. The principal shrub

is Kochia sedifolia, but Atriplex vesicarium and other species also occur,

Associated with the black oak may be occasional Myoporum platycarpum

and Acacia Sowdent, The soils frequently contain a good deal of lime-rubble

or travertine in the sub-soil.

Atriplex vesicariunm — Kochia planifolia association.

This association is very restricted on the area under consideration atid has

already been described in the Yudnapinna region.

Kochia sedifola association

This shrub-steppe association, which may at times be almost monospecific

sO far as the dominants are concerned, occurs in places. It is most probably

associated with soils containing a good deal of free lime. Associated with the

105

K. sedifolia may be Atriplex vesicarium, and occasionally Koehia planifolia and

Kochia Georgei. Eremophila scoparia, Casuarina lepidophloia, Myoporum platy-

carpum and Heteradendron oleifolivm may occur very sparsely,

Other Communities

Two communities of some local interest are the Eucalyptus camaldulensis

association, which is probably most important in the neighbourhood of the Big

Swamp and Little Swamp on southern Eyre Peninsula, and the Lucalypfus

lexcaxylon association. The latter association has only been observed as a very

limited one in some of the valleys in the dissected peneplain behind Port Lincoln

and on some of the skeletal soils west of Yallana.

E. camaldulensis association, in addition to fringing swamps. also occurs as

a fringing forest along some of the creeks.

THE MAPS

Soil Map—This map has been compiled from a recognition of the main types

in the ficld during several visits to Eyre Peninsula, and subsequently following

out their distribution with the aid of all the information available, Of great value

were data contained in the original survey records.

No attempt has been made on the map to indicate that in the sand-dune systeni

assuciated with the solonised siliceous sands, the soils of inter-dune areas are

normally brawt solonised (mallee) soils, frequently shallow over travertine lime-

stone, The red and red-brown soils in these latter cases have distinct affinities

with the terra rossas, Nor has any attempt been madc to indicate separately the

major areas of skeletal soils, Their distribution is obvious by reference to the

physiographic map, pl. xxiii. They are a mast iinportant feature in the Cleve-

Miltalie region in Central County Jervois.

Veyetation Map—Atter field differentiation of the major communities and

their inter-relationships, their distribution has been defined with the assistance of

the original survey diagrams. In most cases no attempt has been made to map

associations, though where there are large floristic differences between some asso-

ciations within the same edaphic or climatic complex, they have been mapped

separately,

SUMMARY

The most important features of the geology, physiography, soils, and climate

which influence the distribution of the major plant communities of Eyre Peninsula

are described, and soil and vegetation maps presented. The area concerned is

approximately 15,000 square miles and includes Counties Flinders, Jervois, Mus-

grave, Buxton, Le Hunte, Robinson and York.

Twenty-three plant associations have been defined, and these are grouped

for convenience inta seveli ¢daphic and climatic complexes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to officers of the Lands Department ior assistance

in collecting data from the original survey records, and to E. J. Leancy, Miss

H. M, Kinnear and Miss D. W. Drew for help with the maps and diagrams,

Special thanks are also due to Miss Nancy Burbidge for her assistance in

classification of the bulk of the Eucalypt species, which presented many

problems, on the clarification of which she is still engaged,

J.C. B. Norton of Cowell, Bruce Ritchie of Big Swamp, and W. M. Brown-

rigg, Agricultural Adviser at Streaky Bay, were generously helpful during visits

to Eyre Peninsula.

w bo

“I

ise)

106

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Crocker, R. L. 1941 Notes on the Geology of the Lower South-Hast

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Crocker, R. L, 1944 Soil and Vegetation Relationships in the Lower

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Howcnin, W. 1929 Geology of South Australia. Gillmgham & Co. Ltd.,

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Jack, R, L, 1912 5S. Aust. Department of Mines, Bulletin 1

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Marstox, H.R., ef al. 1938 Studies on Coast Disease of Sheep in South

Australia. C.S.1.R. (Aust.). Bulletin 113

Mawson, D. 1907 Geological Features of Part of Eyre Peninsula. Trans.

Roy. Soc. S$. Aust. 31

Prescott, J. A. 1929 Vegetation Map of South Australia. Trans. Roy.

Soc. S, Aust., 53

Prescort, J, A. 1931 The Soils of Australia in Relation to Vegetation

and Climate, C.S.I.R, (Aust.), Bull. 52

Prescott, J. A. 1942 The Phase and Amplitude of Australian Mean

Motithly Temperatures, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 66, (1)

Prescot, J. A. 1944 A Soil Map of Australia. CSR. (Aust.), Bull.

Prescott, J. A., and Pipke, C. §. 1932 The Soils of the South Austra-

lian Mallee. Trans. Roy. Sac, 5S, Aust.. 56

Seenit, R, 1938 S. Aust. Department of Mines. Bull. 17

Tatz, R. 1879 The Natural History of the Country around the Head of

the Great Australian Bight, Trans, Adel. Phil. Soc., 2

Trumore, H.C. 1937 The Climatic Control of Agriculture in South

Australia. Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 61

Trumeatr, I7, C. 1945 The Relation of the Wet-Season Variability to Fat

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70, Mate SVE

Vol.

Wan

Aust,,

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Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 1046 Vol. 70, Plate XVII

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 146 Vol, 70, Plate XIX

Trans. Roy. Suc, S. Aust, in

Vol. 70, Plate 4X

Trans. Ray. Soe. S. Aust. Mb Vul. 70, Plate NXT

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Relief Map of Eyre Peninsula

107

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Adelaide

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVII TO XXIII

Pirate XVII

Fig. 1 Consolidated calcareous aeclianite exposed in a road cutting near Calca, County,

Robinson. The old accretion layers are faintly visible.

Fig. 2 Climbing sandridges passing over the high country between Cowell and Kimba.

Pirate XVIII

Fig. 1 Calcareous aeolianite—an unstable dune system near Perlubie, County Robinson.

Fig. 2 Eucalyptus cladocalyx association near Wanilla. Xanthorrhoca Tateana is very

prominent as an. undershrub.

PLateE XIX

Fig. 1 Casuarina stricta association on a gneissic hill near Wanilla.

Fig. 2 Eucalyplus odorata savannah woodland.

Pirate XX

Fig. 1 Eucalyptus diversifolia—Eucalyptus rugosa association on aeolianite limestone

near Port Lincoln.

Fig. 2 Eucalyptus diversifolta association on shallow terra rossa soil developed from

aeolianite travertine behind Port Lincoln.

Pirate XXI

Fig. 1 Casuarina stricta savannah on shallow terra rossa soils, Hundred Rounsevell,

County Robinson.

Fig. 2 Eucalyptus angulosa var—E. leptophylla—Melaleuca uncinata association north

of Minnipa.

Pirate XXII

_ Fig. 1 Eucalyptus oleosa (red mallee) on a brown solonised soil which contains traver-

tine limestone and rubble, Near Mitchel'ville.

Fig. 2 Eucalyptus oleosa—E. gracilis association, Kimiba. Cratystylis conocephala (blue-

bush) is an important undershrub.

Prate XXIII

Relief Map of Eyre Peninsula,

NOTES ON A RECENT RAISED BEACH AT POINT BROWN,

YORKE PENINSULA, SOUTH AUSTALIA

BYR. L. CROCKER

Summary

With greater interest being shown in the geological Recent, the occurrence of raised beaches

is especially important. The elevated beach deposit described in this paper is at Point Brown,

a small bluff some 4-5 miles south of Port Rickaby, on Spencer Gulf.

NOTES ON A RECENT RAISED BEACH AT POINT BROWN,

YORKE PENINSULA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. L. Crocker

[Read 11 April 1946]

PLaTes XXIV ann XV

INTRODUCTION

With greater interest being shown in the geological Recent, the occurrence

of raised beaches is especially important. The elevated beach deposit described

in this paper is at Point Brown, a small bluff some 45 miles south of Port

Rickaby, on Spencer Gulf.

GENERAL COASTLINE FEATURES

The coast features at Point Brown are very interesting. The Point is com-

posed of cliffs some 12-16 feet ahove sca level, which form a small though

prominent bluff. On either side, that is, both north and south, the chiffs rapidly

disappear ag they become both lower and covered with calcareous coastal dunes.

These Jatter are practically absent at the Point itself,

‘The cliffs are entirely composed of travertine limestone. This is hard and

dense and has been built up by the cementation of pisolitic lime rubble. These

rubble units are readily detectable and, being more resistent to weathering than

the matrix, frequently stand out prominently.

Towards tie base of the cliffs there appears much less lime rubble, and the

whole rock is more clayey and more weakly cemented, The result is a good deal

of undercutting from occasional high seas, and a tendency for the formation of

caves. Unfortunately, this lower portion of the cliffs is mostly obseured by Fallen

blocks of the overlying travertine, and cannot be traced right to sea level.

Flanking the whole coastline for some miles in either direction is a limestone

reef some 4-6 chains wide. This reef. only broken by occasional small rock-free

areas, is very flat, and drops away suddenly on its sea-ward margin. It is sub-

merged by 2-4 feet of water at high tide and is normally completely uncovered at

low tide, though limited areas of it may be covered by a few inches of water.

The limestone of which the reef is formed is a typical travertine in which lime

rubble nodules are obvious. The general features of the coastline are shown in

fig. 1 and in pl. xxiv and xxv, fig. | and 2.

THE RAISED BEACH

The travertine cliffs exhibit the development of two or three hard pavement-

like surfaces which are horizontal and apparently extend back into the cliff. The

travertine immediately underlying these pavements is normally much more

resistant than the material either above ot below and tends to form a projecting

shelf. Towards the yery top of the cliff, above one of these hard pavements,

occurs a raised beach deposit. This is normally 6-8 inches thick and, though

lime-cemented and with a thin payement capping, is very mich softer than the

underlying travertine, which is more or less sheet stone,

The deposit contains numerous shells chiefly of a reef suite; the dominant

species is the black winkle Nerita melanetragas. The shell bed is practically

free of any of the lime-rubble so conspicuous in the underlying travertine, which

Trans Rey, Soc. S. Aust., 70, (1), 3 June 1946

Trans, Roy. Suc. S. Anst., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XXIV

Fig, 1) Travertine limestone exposed in the eliffs at Pomt Brown

Trans. Roy, Sor S, Aust., 1946 Vol, 7, Plate XNV

Pig, 1 ‘The travertine reef exposed at low tide.

Vig. 2) The raiserk beach at Point Brown.

109

it has post-dated. Its more recent origin is apparent from the manner in which the

deposit has filled vertical cracks in the travertine. The material in these fissures

can be traced up to the overlying shell bed, from which it is indistinguishable.

It is interesting that a raised beach has already been described some 15 miles

further south at Point Turton by Clark (1). Here the upper limit of the bed

was only 5-6 feet above high water mark, but as the high water limits are rather

indefinite, it is probable that the two deposits bear approximately similar relation-

ships to sea level. The Point Turton deposit could be traced for some two miles

and was overlying Miocene marine limestone. It is most likely that the two

deposits were formed at the same period when the sea, relative to the land, must

have been at least 10-12 feet higher than at present.

AEOLIAN SAND

{——— SHELL BED

TRAVERTINE

LIMESTONE

ice)

SEA LEVEL

Fig. 1

Sketch section showing the main coastal features at Point Brown.

Mast of the shells are represented on the beach adjacent to the site today, and

include “) Nerita melanotragus, Zeacumantus diemenensis and Emogamia flindersi.

In addition to the species still living in this region there is also Euplica

bidentata, which evidently became extinct in South Australia about the same time

as Anadara trapezia, although still living in Western Australia today.©).

REFERENCE

(1) Crarx, E. V, 1928 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 52, 189-190

@) Identified by B. C, Cotton, Conchologist, S.A. Museum.

@) B. C. Cotton—Personal communication.

GERMAINATION STUDIES OF AUSTRALIAN CHENOPODIACEAE

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY

FOR REGENERATION

By NANCY T. BURBRIDGE, M.Sc., WAITE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Summary

The characteristics of the germination of Atriplex vesicarium Hew. were described in a

previous paper (1) which in now followed by a similar study of three species of a genus

which, in South Australia at least, is of comparable importance. Over the last few decades the

condition of the arid pastoral area has deteriorated. For various reasons the natural

vegetations has proved unstable under stocking and as a result increasing attention is being

given to the remaining shrubs and to the remainder of the shrub country. Much of the latter

carries the palatable but longer-lived bluebushes. Of these Koshia sedifolia (Black Bluebush)

are very long-lived, but the life-span of K. georgei (George’s Bluebush) is probably

comparable with that of Atriplex vesicarium, which Wood (4) gives as about 12 years. In all

species longevity is likely to be dependant on the particular incidence of good and bad

seasons,

110

GERMINATION STUDIES OF AUSTRALIAN CHENOPODIACEAE

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY

FOR REGENERATION, Il — (a) Xochia sedifvlia Fv. My (bh) K. pyra-

iwidata Benth, (c) K. georges Diels

By Naney T. Burmece, M.Sc, Waite Agricultural Research Institute

[il April 1946]

Puatsy XXVI

The characteristics of the germination of Afriples vesicarium Few. were

described in a previous paper (1) which is now followed by a similar study of

three species of a genus which, in South Australia at least, is of comparable

importance. Over the last few decades the condition of the arid pastoral areas

has deteriorated. For various reasons the natural vegelation has proved unstable

under stocking and as a result increasing attention is being given to the remaining

shrubs and to the remainder of the shrub country. Much of the latter carries

the less palatable but longer-lived bluebushes. Of these Kachia sedifolia (Bluie-

bush) is one of the most important. Both this species and K. pyrawadata (Black

Bluebush) are very long-lived, but the life-span of K. georgei (George's Blue-

bush) is probably comparable with that of triplex vesicarinm, which Wood

(4) gives as about 12 years. In all species longevity is likely to be dependent

on the particular incidence of good and bad seasons.

The present study was an attempt to obtain information of value in the search

for methods of preserving the natural shrub vegetation which is in real danger of

complete destruction. The general features of eermination are much the same

in all three species. As compared with Alriplexr wesicarium development is

extremely rapid and the optimunt temperature is higher, These characteristics

are believed fo hold for the whole genus.

THE SPECIES

The plants are monoecious, The pierianth is five-lobed, the Iobes being

imbricate. This structure becomes enlarged and a scarious wing is developed

during the maturing of the seed. Owitig to the wing, transportation af the seed

is by wind.

The seed is similar to that of Atriplex, ie., a small disc-shaped siructure,

but it is placed horizontally is the ovary, not vertically. The point of the radicle

is towards the jufction of the ouler and inner perianth lobes (pl. xxvi, fig. 4).

It is from between these lobes that the young root emerges at the time of germina~

tion. The seed is looge within the ovary. As in Atriplex it ts normally retained

within the fruit though in K. pyromidula, where the fruit as well as the wing

becomes scartous, the structure may split and celease the seed. In the field the

fruits, found lying under bushes or in debris, are often empty, due to insect

depredations, Ants are the most destructive, and their holes are commonly sut-

rounded hy discarded fruits,

The seeds of K. sedifolia used in the test were collected at Yudnapinna

Station near Port Augusta, in Octaber 1943 (No. 4,168) and March 1945

(No. 4,269). Despite the incidence of poor seasons this species has produced

seed four times in the last three years. This is not in accordance with the

observations of other workers (4). The flowers appear after rains occurring

during the warm season. A, pyramidata flowers in late winter, the seeds falling

in spring or catly summer. It ts a heavy seeder whenever there are winter or

Trans. Rey, Sec. S. Aust, 70, (19, 30 dune 1946

111

autumn rains. Seeds used in these experirnents were collected at Yudnapinna in

December 1942, K. george: secds about the same time as A. pyranidata, but may

also flower after summer rain. The seed used was collected at Pallamana in

June 1944.

METHODS

The methods employed were the same as those used for Atriplex vesicarium

and already described (1). The only difference was that tests ran for two weeks

instead of three. Unless stated otherwise, the meditm used was sand moistened

to 60% saturation,

RESULTS

A, Errects or TEMPERATURE

(a) Optimum Temperature

The optimum temperature was sought first in Kochia sedifolia (4,168). The

14 cabinets of the multiple temperature incubator varied from 6-41°C. Ina

preliminary test the seeds were remoyed from their fruits and placed on moist

filter paper in 9°0 x 1-5 cm. petri dishes. In less than 24 hours, at all except the

lowest temperatures, 50% of the embryos had burst out from their seeds. In

three days germination was complete.

This escape of the embryos from the seed a few hours after moistening can

hardly be called true germination, which is a process involving actual growth of

tissue. It seems more probable that, because of imbibition and increased turgor,

pressure in the curved embryo results in a rupturing of the testa, The

process is analogous to the escape of a coiled spring.

Embryos which had appeared at 41°5° C. were already blackened at 24 hours,

so that it was clear that, as in 4. vesicuriwm, actual damage to the tissues or rapid

attack by pathogens occurred at high temperatures.

In all other tests the medium used was sand which had been passed through

al mm, sieve. This medium delayed the assessment of results owing to the burial

of the seed, but rapid germination was found to be characteristic of all species,

In the next test K. sedifolia (4,168) was again used. Half the seeds were

removed from their fruits, and the remainder were untreated, The results are

shown in Table I. Similar results were obtained with K. pyvamidata and

K. georget. (See Tables U1 and II,)

TABLE [

Kochia sedifolia germinated in multiple temperature mecubator.

50 sceds per petri dish with sand at 60% saturation. Sum of two replications.

Increase per Day %

°C. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 il 12 13 14 Germination

A. Removed from fruit:

AN! a ag at Pty oy ee td gy

36-0 > 43 1 I i- - ipeE 6s SS FE Kn 57

5 4. 5S 8 4 1 —~ FY ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ — ., 72

26°5 s+ By lz 3 = LS OS iwi SiS Sl > —7>=7n 81

24-5 mwaeey 2 3 1 i - KF Free ee 79

22:5 .. 69 Be we ee ee ee eee eee "73

200 . W 6 — — 1 Pr-O E SS = 73

5 .. OF FF 1 FT ’o’were ~~ ~ ~~ ~~ = 75

16+5 2 $2 T1 7 3 2 = — eS — a 75

jas 0 jet ae Oe IG ae Bm St te 92

1345 . IT 2 33 10 2 Som eee if 85

11+5 eed S§ 22 13 19 8 3 1—_— — — 32

9-0 . 4 2 6 3 1% 15 14 #14 i 9 — 1 76

60 6. oS 1 — 1 7 8 5 2 3 — WW - 334

B. Not removed from fruit:

50 seeds per petri dish with sand at 60% saturation. Sum

°C.

41-0

36-0

30-5

26:5

24-5

22+5

20-0

18-5

16-8

14-5

13-5

11-5

9-0

6:0

l wand |

FOwNnanare

112

Increase per Day

7 8 9 10

2 —

— 1

1 —

_ 2

2 1

ll 1

4 V4

Taste IT

woneseel || lat

Germination

Kochia pyramidata germinated in multiple temperature incubator.

of two replications.

°C.

40-0

ERE ReEePRRSS

BRNTOrRN ADB NM UL so

& Ne nS

SeSEmMnAnRADOUAAMAH

| NEA nAHeE Hone |o

Increase per Day

lounwaen | w | wn |

ae |

8 2

3 =

3 1

2 4

13 6

10 6

1 —

TABLE III

| lrwoalg

luwol we |

seeds per petri dish with sand at 60% saturation.

Increase per Day

°C.

40-0

35°5

29-5

25+5

22°5

20:5

*Sand disturbed and all seedlings counted.

alaluanan |

—

eS)

nel] lewmawl

woo

Kochia georget germinated in multiple temperature incubator.

Sum of two replications.

9 10 11 12 13 14

6 8 4 — — 1

4 4 — — 1 —

1 — 2 — = #5

2 Po me 2h eh +.

SS ——

2 2 => => + =

4 1 ee

ge o— | a ae ]

8 4 7 — @ zZ

1 3 20° — — 1

— — Wi 5 4 1

Germination

113

It will be noticed that, as in dfriplex vesicarinm, removal of the secds of

K, sedifolia from their fruits greatly improved the rate and amount of germina-

tion, In all species a wide temperature range is tolerated. This range is higher

than that for Atriplex vesicarium, No germination took place at 41° C., while at

the lower temperatures there was retardation.

(b) Maximum Temperature

' The optimum temperature tests wete followed hy maximum temperature

experiments designed on the same lines as those for Atriplex vesicarium. It fs to

be regretted that, owing to the smallness of the cabinets in the multiple tempera-

ture incubator, it was not possible to run concurrent tests using all species. All

seeds were tested in their fruits.

In the first test K. pyramidata was subjected to a 41° C. maximum, The

schedules used were:—

A, up to 41°C. daily for one hour, down to 16° C. at night;

B, up to 36° C. daily for one hour, down to 16°C. at night;

C, up ta 30° C. daily for one hour, down to 16°C. at night;

D, up to 41° C. every third day commencing third day of incubation. Up to

30° C, on remaining days. Down to 18° C_at night;

E, up to 41° C every fifth day commencing fourth day. Otherwise as for D;

F, up to 36° C. every third day commencing third day, Otherwise as fer D.

Controls were kept at 27°C, 25°C, 23°C. and 22°C. There were two

replicates of 50 seeds.

The test was done twice and the results are shown in Tahle IV. There js

no indication that maximum temperatures up to 41°C. have a detrimental effect

on germination,

Tapie IV

Maximum temperature test in K, pyramidata, — 9% geemination

Ax By Gs Dy E, Fi 27°C, 25°C. 23°C, 22°C.

Ist bes S44 330045 49-33 43 36 45 a4

2nd... 31 34 26 av 25 34 39 33 25 32

A maximum temperature of 41° C. was also tried for K. sedifatia (4,269)

follawing Schedule A, described above, except that the night temperature was

18°C. There were control dishes at 25°C, 23°C. and 21-5°C. Four replicates

were. used. {

The dishes under treatment showed a lower germination than the controls.

Best results were obtained at 21°5° C., and on a ¢ test the schedule germination

rate differed significantly at the 5% level. Differences in the temaining results

were not significant, They were as follows; Schedule A.; 18-59%; Controls at

25° C3 300% ; 23° C.: 24°5% ; 21°5° C.: 320%,

Only one test with K, georgei was possible owing to scarcity of seed. The

schedules used were; A,: Up to 35°C. for one hour daily, night temperature

14°C. B,: Up to 42:5°C. for one hotir daily, night temperature 16:5° C.

C.: Up to 42°5° C. for one hour on alternate days, night temperature 16°5° C.

Control dishes were held at 18°5°C. The results were: A,: 20%, B,: 12%,

Cy; 226%, Control: 34-6%. These indicate that K. georgei has a maximum

temperature tolerance rather lower than that of K. pyramidata.

Tt seemed likely that all species would survive a greater maximum tempera-

ture than 41°C Accordingly the multiple temperature incubator was adjusted

8¢ that the compartments registered as follows: 1: 50°0°C, 2: 43°S5°, 3+ 36-0°,

4: 31°5°, 5: 27°5°, 6; 25-0%, 7: 22°5°, 8; 20-0°, 9: 18-0°, 10: 16-0". 11: 15:0°,

12: 12‘5°, 13: 10-0°, 14; 7-0°.

114

K. sedifolia (4,269) and K. pyramidata were then tested with the following

schedules: A,: Up to 50°C. for two hours per day, down to 20°C. at night.

B,: Up to 43°5° C. for two hours per day, down to 18° C. at night. C,: Up to

36° C. for two hours per day, down to 16° C. at night. Control dishes were held

at 22°5° C. There were four replicates of 50 seeds each.

MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE

Exer 2

No germination occurred

for either species under A,.

B, and C, effected K. pyra-

midata but not K. sedtfolia,

The results are shown in 40

Graph 1, The germinative

period is typical for Aochia.

Tt may be contrasted with

the longer period found in

Atriplex vesicarium.,

The results for K, pyra-

midata were unexpected after

the first tests. Apparently

the dtiration of the maxi-

mum temperature period was

likely to be significant. Using

43-5°C., the effect on K.

pyramiddia of a one-hour

maximum period was tested

against a two-hour period.

The schedule followed was

similar to that of B, de-

scribed above, The permina-

tion was: one-hour maximum

200%, two-hour maximum

65%, 10

FO sedifolio

—- tp A3C.

ort JTL.

~*~ Control (225)

PERCENTAGE GERMINATION

Since it had been found that A pyeamudeta

a 50°C. daily maximum was — Unite 43T.

lethal, a further test was made ee B35.

with K, sedifolia in which

— Confrot (2250)

the seeds were subjected to

this maximum every third ;

day. There were three treat- fl 3 5 7 Ee 13

ments, A,, with maximum DAYS OF INCUBATION

temperature 50° C, on Ist, 4th, Graph I

7th and 10th days, B, up to 50°C. on 2nd, 5th, 8th and 11th days, C, up to

50° C. on 3rd, 5th, 9th and 12th days. The control dishes were held at 20°C.

‘The test was carried out three times; once with a two-hour maximum period and

twice with a one-hour period. The results are shown in Table V.

TABLE V

Kochia sedifolia; effect of 50° C. maximum every third day, % germination.

Aa Ba C. Control (20°C.)

2 hour maximum se... iw ww. 1355 4°5 6-5 39-0

1 hour maximum (a) esta va 13-5 20-5 10+5 18-5

1 hour maximum ({b) at we 525 24-5 30-0 48-5

These results provide further evidence of the importance of the duration

of the maximum temperature period and suggest that heat penetration into the

dishes is rapid.

115

Subsequently the incubator was adjusted so that the top compartment regis-

tered 47° C., and K. sedifolia (4,269) was tested under the following treatments:

A,: Up to 47° for one hour daily, down to 19°5° C. at night. B,: Up to 47°C.

on 2nd, Sth, 8th and 11th days, night at 19°5° C. C,: Up to 47°C. on 3rd, 6th,

Oth and 12th days, night at 18°C, Control dishes were held at 21°5° C. The

results were: A,:23'5%, B,: 345%, C,:33-0%, Control 47%,

This test was repeated with K. pyramidata, More than six months had

elapsed since the previous test with this species, but it was disappointing to find

that the seed was no longer viable and the experiment had to be abandoned. This

is further discussed under longevity.

The information obtained in the maximum temperature tests is summarised

in Table VI According to this soil temperatures of 45°C (113° F.) or higher

immediately following heavy summer tains would adversely affect germination

of these KCochwa spp. with the possible exception of Kochia sedifolia,

Taste VI

Summary of results in maximum temperature experiments,

Temperature K. sedifolia K. pyramidata K. georges

30°C, No adverse effect ~ cf. Tables I-III

35-36°C. No adverse effect Slight effect if daily Slight effect even with

maximum period is two one hour maximum

hours, period.

41°C, Some effect which is Effect not significant

increased if the maxi- with one hour maxi-

mum period is two mum period, but signi-

hours. ficant with two hour

period,

42-5-43-5°C. Some effect with two Some effect with one Definite effect with

hour maximum period. hour and strone effect one hour maximum

\ with two hour period. period. With alternate

day treatment effect

lessened but still eyi-

47°C. Definite effect which is dent,

much lessened when

maxima occur every

third day.

50°C, No development with No development with

continuous maximum.

With maximum every

third day effect less

with one hour than two

hour max, but always

siguificant,

B. Errects or Som Saruration

All three species were germinted at 23°5° C. under the following conditions of

soil saturation: 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%, 100%. The results are shown in Table VII.

Tasie VII

% germination under yarying conditions of soil saturation.

contmuous maximum

treatment.

Species 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Kochia sedifolia 17 67 75 69 68

K. pyromidata 61 61 73 70 «58

K. georges 37 48 57 50 40

116

Tt will be noted that there is toleration of a wide range of moisture condi-

tions. This with the equal toleration of temperature suggests that Kochia spp.

are capable of germinating under a wide range of field conditions.

In Kochia sedifolia (4,168) removal of the seeds from their fruits resulted in

> 80% germination at all saturation levels under incubator conditions.

Kochia sedifolia (4,168) was also used in a glasshouse experiment run con-

currently with one on Aériplex vesicariwm which was described in the first paper

of this series. The seeds (100) were planted in flat tins 15 x 6 ems., each holding

one kilogram of soil. The treatments were as follows -—

Series 1, watered to 70% saturation continuously.

» 2 watered to 70% saturation 2 weeks, then left dry 3 weeks.

» 3. 10 ccs. water per week.

» 4 left dry.

Tn each series half the tins had buried seeds and in the other half the seeds.

were scattered on the surface. There were three replications,

Treatment continued for ten weeks (9 June-10 August), after which all

tins were brought to the 70% saturation level for three weeks, The results are

shown in Table VIII and Graph Ii.

Taste VIII

Ist 2nd 3rd 4th-10th = 11th 12th 13th Total

Treatment week week week week week week week To

Cont. 70%

saturation 18-3 25-7 0-9 -- —_ — = 44-9

Buried Seed

Cont. 70%

saturation 4-4 17-3 ¥-7' 19-6 — — — 43-1

Surface Seed

14 days 70%

21 =, dry 30:7 17+7 9 04 = = — 49-7

Buried Seed

14 days 70%

21 +, dry 1-7 17°7 1-7 20:9 49 1:7 0-9 49°5

Surface Seed

10 ccs. water

per week —_ — — — 43-6 71 Org 51°6

Buried Seed

10 ccs. water

per week — _— _ = 9-3 10-7 4:0 24-0

Surface Seed

No water

Buried Seed — — — — 18-7 13-7 0-4 32°8

No water

Surface Seed — — — oo 3:6 16-4 4-0 24-0

117

It will be noted that in the first two series buried seed started more rapidly

than surface seed, but the latter finished at the same level. There was a distinct

periodicity owing to intermittent watering in the case of the surface seed, but the

final result was not affected. This is contrasted with the results in Airiplex

vesicarium, where cessation of watering after the second week had a detrimental

effect on the result. In series 3 and 4 no effect of treatment was evident.

clad TREATMENT

9 —70/ Saturation

oe 4 Payt 0h Safunation 9

—t— -10 cc* walter per week +

60 —O— —No waGr

& cn

2} °

PERCENTAGE GERMINATION

ie]

6 7

WEEKS

Graph If

C. Errecr or SATURATION x TEMPERATURE

The test was made with K, pyramidata. The results are shown in Table IX.

As in Atriplex vesicarium higher saturations gave better germination than lower

when the incubating temperature was either above or below the optimum range,

TABLE IX

Effect of saturation temperature for K. pyramidata. -— % Germination

Saturation

Temperature °C. 40% 609% 80% 100%

365 ail raat _ 2 1 6

29-0 veel sal 31 25 41 34

25-5 ati isa 35 30 32 39

22+5 of Age 39 40 35 35

17+5 at int 32 38 41 39

14-0 ote snp 20 25 25 35

118

D. DeErtH ofr PLANTING

Seeds of all three species were platted at various levels in 600 cc. heakers,

whose sides were covered with black paper to exclude light, and incubated at

23°0°C. The results are shown in Table X.

TaaLte X

Effect of depth planting, — % Germination

Depth of planting Kuscdifolia K.pyramidate KR. yeorges

Surface H ' 53+3 28>0 16:0

at avy a , 16-0 16-0 12-0

at 1" . ee — 1-3 4-0

ata" as oy a _ _ —

at 3”. Wes —_ -— _

A comparison of Tables X and VIII shows that the moist atmosphere condi-

tions in the incubator favoured the seeds on the surface, Jn the field a shallow

burial would provide less variable moisture conditions than the surface, and hence

a more propitious habitat.

E. Loncevrry or Seep

K. sedifolia (4,168) was collected, in October 1943, from the bushes and

stored in airtight ‘tins, Gertmination tests have given consistently good results,

No. 4,269 was collected in March 1945 and also stored. In June there was a rain

of 180 points on the collecting area, which brought up a number of seedlings.

A week later a collection was made of seed still lying under bushes and seed

remaining attached to the plants. This material was tested for viability at

22°5° C, The seed from the ground proved quite unviable while that from the

bushes gave 2% germination. From this it appears that seeds remaining un-

germinated after the first heavy rains may have a very low viability. Such a

conclusion is consistent with the results of the glasshouse experiment (Table

VII),

The seeds of K. pyramidata were collected in December 1942 from the

ground beneath the bushes. Up till June 1945 viability showed a gradual falling

off. No further test was made until January 1946, when no seeds germinated.

As there had been no alteration in methods of storage this was probably due to

a change in the seeds themselves. It remains to be seen whether the viability in

K. sedifolia 4,168, collected a year later, will decrease rapidly in 1946.

DISCUSSION

The optimum temperature being higher for Kochkia spp. than it is for

Atriplex vesicarium, it is not surprising to find that there is toleration of higher

daily maxima, The rapidity of germination and the toleration for a wide range

of temperature and saturation conditions demonstrate the adaptability of the

species under the prevailing climatic conditions which are so characterised by

irregularity of both intensity and incidence of precipitation (2) (3). Germination

and establishment of K. sedifolia would be possible after rains in almost any month

of the year though January might, in some seasons, be unpropitious. K. pyra-

midata and K. georget would probably be affected by high temperatures in

January but the limiting factor for all species, during the hot season, would be

the rapidity of the drying out of the soil rather than the occurrence of danger~

ously high daily maxima. In view of the shallow planting favoured by the seeds

it would be interesting to know what diurnal changes in moisture content take

place in the top half inch of soil in arid country.

119

The structure of the light-winged fruit has considerable influence on the

possibility of regeneration of detiuded land because, owing to the winds so preva-

lent in open arid country, there is little chance of the fruits finding an anchorage

on a bare surface. Similarly the results of the tests on depth of planting show

that the seedlings are unlikely to be prominent among the pioneers colonising a

sand drift. Again, if the great majority of viable seeds germinate following the

first heayy rain after seeding, then there will be no important seed reserve in the

soil over a long period. Hence the species can only be maintained in places where

there are enough mature bushes to provide both a regular supply of seed and

enough litter to catch the blown seed. A denuded area adjacent to land carrying

mature bushes would be regenerated, though with great slowness, if there was a

covering of dead or living ephemerals to hold the blown seed. In other words,

Kochia spp. are not important during the early stages of the ecological sere.

SUMMARY

Germination in Kochia spp. is rapid and complete in a few days.

A higher optimum and a wider range of temperature is tolerated than is the

case in Airiplex vesicarium.

It follows that a higher daily maximum temperature can be endured without

adverse effect on the rate of germination.

Kochia sedifolia can withstand higher maxima than either K. pyramidata or

K. georgei.

A wide range of soil moisture conditions is tolerated by all species,

Planting deeper than 4 inch severely reduces the number of seedlings.

Seeds under field conditions are not likely to remain viable for any long

period.

None of the species is likely to be important during the early stages of re-

gencration of denuded areas tinder natural conditions,

REFERENCES

(1) Bureiwcr, N. T. 1945 Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 69, (1), 73

(2) erin and Skewes, H, R. 1941 Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust.,

65, (1),

(3) Murray, B. J. 1931 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 55, 91

(4) Woop, J. G 1936 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 60, 96

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 71, Plate XXVI

Sc. NTP.

Fig. 1. Kochia sedifoha: a, fruit from above; b, vertical section of fruit;

c, ovary with seed; d, seed. a. and b.x4,c. and d, x 10.

Fig. 2. K. pyromidata: a, fruit; b, vertical section of fruit. x4.

Fig. 3. K. georget: a, fruit; b, vertical section of fruit; c, fruit from above. x4.

Fig. 4. Floral diagram showing the relation between seed and perianth lobes.

THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE SHEEP LIVER FLUKE IN SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND ANNE C. BECKWITH, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Summary

The sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatical, is not common in South Australia. It is found from

time to time in sheep slaughtered at the Metropolitan Abattoirs, as well as at some country

centres, such as the South-East. Attempts by us to ascertain from what particular localities

such infected animas are derived have not been successful, because sheep may have been

bred in one district and sold elsewhere before reaching slaughterhouses. Mitton (1944, 202;

1945, 13) has stated recently that the parasite is not widespread in this State, but occurs in

sheep in the South-Eats, along the River Murray swamps, and in the Southern Hills, and is

liable to be found in any locality where creeks and marshy areas along rivers abound and

remain wet throughout the year. The markedly seasonal character of the rainfall, which is

mainly a winter one, and the hot dry summers play a very important part in limiting the

prevalence and distribution of the parasite in South Australia.

121

THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE SHEEP LIVER FLUKE IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By T. Harvey Jonnston and Anne C, Beckwirn, University of Adelaide

[Read 9 May 1946]

The sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica, is not common in South Australia.

Tt is found from time to time in sheep slaughtered at the Metropolitan Abattoirs,

as well as at some country centres, such as the South-Rast. Attempts by us co

ascertain from what particular localities such infected animals were derived have

not been sticcessful, because the sheep may have been bred in one district and

sold elsewhere before reaching the slaughterhouses. Mitton (1944, 202; 1945, 13)

has stated recently that the parasite is not widespread in this State, but occurs

in sheep in the South-Hast, along the River Murray swamps, and in the Southern

Hills, and is liable to be found in any locality where creeks and marshy areas

along rivers abound and remain wet throughout the year. The markedly seasonal

character of the rainfall, which is mainly a winter one, and the hot dry summers

play a very important part in limiting the prevalence and distribution of the para-

site in South Australia,

Until we commenced in 1937 our studies of the life cycles of local trema-

todes, the only species whose life history in Australia was known was Fasciala

hepatica, which is tot a native of Anstralia. Before reporting our own observa-

tions, we propose to review briefly the earlier attempts to ascertain what kinds of

pond snails may serve as the intermediate hosts for the parasite in the Common-

wealth, Such investigations were carried out in New South Wales and Victoria

because of the prevalence of liver fluke in the moister parts of those States.

The earlier records of the occurrence of the cerearia stage in various pond

snails in the eastern States are now regarded ‘as incorrect (Johnston and Cleland

1937, 193), as the genera and species of molluscs mentioned have since been

found refractory to infection by the miracidium of Fusciola hepatica. Amongst

such records are those of Cherry (1895; 1917) and Fielder (1896), as well as

members of the Victorian Field Naturalists’ Society (1896), Cobb (1897, 459;

1898, 182) reported that Bulinus brazicri (now known as Isidorella brasieri}

was the intermediate host in Australia, basing his statement on his observations

near Moss Vale, New South Wales; hut Bradley (19262) pointed out that

Cobb's figures indicated two distinct snails, B. brasiert and Lymnaea brasieri.

Cherry (1917) reported that larval stages of the sheep liver Auke had been found

in Victorian species of Bulinus and Planorbis, but that statement lacks confinna-

tion and, no doubt, was based on incorrect determinations of the larvae.

During 1925 and 1926 a determined effurt was made in New South Wales

by Bradley and McKay to ascertain the actual transmitter. Bradley (1925)

found that 15% of L, brasieri examined in the Monaro district were infected

with distome cercariae and that that snail was probably the intermediate host of

F, hepatica, Next year (1926a) he extended his examinations to other species

of freshwater snails, and included the New Enpiland tableland in his survey. He

reported finding a pigmented type of larva (as well as others) in L. brazier, and

stated that, on epidemiological grounds, he considered that snail to be the inter-

mediate host of the sheep fluke in New South Wales. In a short paper (1926 b)

he referred to the presesice of L. bragieri in fluky sheep paddocks in New Eng-

land, and to its usual absence from paddocks where fluke did not occur in sheep-

Trans, Roy, Soc, S. Aust, 70, 41), JO June 1946

122

In a later paper (1926c) he referred to the pigmented larva as Cercaria pigmen-

tesa and recorded its occurrence in 40% of a small number of L. brasier? in an

aquarium inte which sheep fluke eggs had been introduced; and such cercariae

were found during summer in 69 and 72 days after the eggs had been added.

McKay (1926a,b,c) succeeded in tracing the complete Nie cycle in

L. braszieri, in which snail he found three kinds of pigmented larvae, one of which

agreed with Thomas’ account and Ggures of that of FP. fepatce. The cysts were

fed to guinea pigs and the adult stage of the liver fluke of the parasite was

obtained. Attempts (1926b) to infect with miracidia of . hepatica other kinds

af pond snails, as well as the land snail, Succivea australis, proved unsuccessful.

In a later paper McKay (1928) published rather more information than was

contained in his earlier report (1926b).

Clonies Ross (1928b) stated that L. brasieri was the only Australian snail

which had been proved to be an intermediate host for F. hepatica; and in the

next year, in conjunction with McKay, published a very important paper dealing

with the life history and control of the liver fuke, as well as its transmitting

snail in New South Wales, Attempts to infect other pond snails (Bulinus spp.,

Gabbia, Segmentina) were unsuccessful. Specimens of L. brasteri were found

in the central district of Victorta, and that species was regarded as the transmittet

in that State also. Specimens were also received from Tasmania, and though

showing certain differences in form from typical L, brasieri, were regarded

as belongitig to the same species (1929, 26-27). Rabbits and guinea pigs were

found experimentally to be able to harbour the adult fluke (Ross and McKay

1929),

Bradley (1933) stated that L. brazieri was the usual (if not the only) local

intermediate host for larval stages of F. hepatica, and drew attention to the par-

ticular kind of aquatic environment required by the more common pond snails

(including £, brasiert) in the highlands of New South Wales. Cotton and

Godirey’s statement (1932, 160) that Jsidorella brazieri was the intermediate

host is an error due, no doubt, to having confused two different animals bearing

the same specific name.

Mitton (1944, 202; 1945, 13), when dealing with Auke in South Australian

sheep, gave a brief account of the life cycle of F. hepatica and republished figures

of L. brazieri, stating that the latter was the only one through whicli the parasite

in Australia could undergo its larval stages. There is no evidence that L, Lrazieri

occurs in South Australia, but, as we shall indicate, there is a related Jocal species,

L. subaquotiis, which has similar habits, and is capable of transmitting J*, hepotice

in. this State,

Our early efforts to infect Amerianna spp. and L, lessoni, using eggs or

miraciilia of I’, hepatica, were unsuccessful, For many years we have attempted,

when opportunity offered, to ascertain whether L. sxduguatilis, whose habits

closely resemble those of L. brasieri, could serve as the intermediate host and thus

afford an explanation of the local infestation of sheep, The snails of this species

used in cur experiments were collected in Hazelwood Park, an enclosed public

reserve in a suburb of Adelaide, From this park sheep and eattle are excluded

and in tt rabbits are rarely seen, hence natural infection of the snails with liver

fhike is very improbable; and none of these molluscs has revealed infection with

any trematode larvae when tested prior to using them for our experiments. The

creek is dry in summer, but its waters enter the Torrens after rain in winter and

early spring. We had difficulty in keeping the snails alive in our aquaria until

recently, and liver flukes were rarely available at times when this snail conld be

obtained.

123

We found that eggs hatched in 27 days in late aitutm (May-June). Ross

and McKay published information regarding the length of time needed for

hatching under different conditions of temperature and under dinrnal changes.

Their results indicated a minimum of eight days at about 80° F.; 9 days at 77° F.;

10 days in January—imidsummer (maximum 86° F. and minimum 64° F,); the

period lengthening to 28 days when the daily room temperature was between

64 and 75° F, for 16 hours and 46-52° F. for 8 hours, No hatching took place

at about 50° F., but eggs remained viable through the winter and hatched om the

advent of warm weather. They stated that it would appear that, with alternating

periods of relatively high temperatures during the day, cold conditions during the

night checked development only proportionately to the length of the Jatter. We

did not have an opportunity to ascertain the period required during summer im

Adelaide where the day and night teniperatures have a higher average than jn

Sydney, but Ross and McKay’s observations would suggest about tight or nine

days if such eggs had reached a moist environment. The hot dry summers in

South Australia must play a very important part in controlling hatching of fluke

eggs and the pre-swimming life of the miracidium. Mitton (1945, 14) stated

that 9 to 20 days , aceording to temperature, were necessary In summer, but that

in winter hatching might require five or more months.

From one of a few L. subaquatilis exposed to miracidia in mid-Jane some

rediae were taken in early August, ie, 48 days later. On 27 June 1945, eggs

obtained by teasing live flukes were added to shallow aquaria containing the same

species of snail, Eight of the latter which died during July and August showed

no trace of infection, but all snails which died after 10 September contained Jarge

numbers of rediae, This indicated that the cold weather had prevented hatching

and infection until some time after August. The rediae first detected amongst

these dead snails were small, but they already contained daughter rediae, On

2 November cercariae were observed swarming from a dead snail and were

identical with those of F, hepatica. This observation indicated that from eggs

obtained in midwinter, under laboratory conditions, cercariae may be developed

and escape from infected snails four months later, i¢., In late spring. These

cercariae encysted readily on lettuce leaves (as well as elsewhere), usually within

a few minutes after escape. The infected leaves were fed to rabbits on 7 Noyem-

ber, On 15 January 1946 one rabbit was killed and a small F. hepatica was taken

from a bile duct, the worm, though only 20 mm. long, already containing eggs.

On 8 February another rabbit was killed and eight fukes were recovered, mast

of them being = little larger than the first one obtained, Hence adult flukes may

be produced in midsummer under Adelaide conditions in 69 days after the

ingestion of cysts in late spring. Mitton stated that maturity was reached in

10 to 12 weeks from the time that cysts entered the final host. Ross and McKay

(1929, 25) reported that the bile ducts are apparently mot reached by the warder-

ing young flukes until after the thirty-ninth day in experimerital animals, and that

maturity was attained in the bile ducts of an experimental guinea pig in 13 weeks.

One of our observations, recorded above, indicates that a shorter period can

suffice.

On 19 Noverber 1946 another attempt was made to infect a number of

L, subaquatilis, but too many eggs must have been used, since all the snails were

killed. In one which died on 4 December, f.e., 15 days alter eggs had been added

to the aquarium, abundant miracidia were found anoving in the itssties of the

mollusc. In another which survived until 10 December, minute sporocysts were

found, i2,, in 2L days after the addition of fluke eggs. In snails which died later

(in late December and yery early January) typical redite were recovered, but all

snails died by 5 January before cercarias had developed in them. These

124

observations seem to indicate that a period of 47 days in early summer is insufh-

cient to permit cercariae to be developed and escape from infected snails.

Cotton and Godfrey (1932, 158) mentioned as recorded localities for

L. subaquatilis Tate—River Torrens at Adelaide and Reedbeds, Henley; Victor

Harbour; and Millicent. They also published a figure (pl. ji, ig, 2) which shows

a relatively more elongate opening of the shell and a different gradation in the size

of the whorls from that figured later by Cotton (1943, pl. xvi, fig. 7-8), the latter

illustration resembling more closely our specimens. We have collected the species

near Myponga (from a “black bog” due to a spring) ; near the head of Currency

Creek (also in a similar bog); the northern shores of Lake Alexandrina (in ruts

and shallow channels amongst the flooded samphire) ; and in a small pool in black

mud tt a rich pasture close to the Murray River near Murray Bridge; and in all

these localities fluke was present in some of the sheep, though none of the snails

taken by us was tound to be infected with PF. hepatica, We should mention thal

some years ago we were informed that rabbits in the South-East sometimes

harboured liver fluke, but unfortunately our netes regarding the locality have

been lost.

Tredale (1943, 211-214) reviewed the Australian species of Lymnacidaé and

stibdivided Lymsaea into several genera, including Peplimuea tor L. lessoni, and

Simlimnea for small Lymnaeids with a short actite spire, large normal (not

swollen) body whorls, well developed inner lip, calumeila not much folded, and

shell comparatively stout. He included under Simlimnea, L. brusieri trom New

South Wales, L. guani and L. neglecta from Tasmania, L. wictoriae from Gipps-

land, and £, sabaquofilis front the Torréns, South Australia. He also mentioned

that there were two MS names, L. wiridula and L. venustula applied to snails in

western Victoria, and another. £. tasmanica, from Tasmania. He suggested that

the last-tamed may haye been based on the European £. feregra, supposed ta

have heen introduced accidentally. Cotton (1943. 145) accepted some uf Jredale’s

new genera, but rejected Peplimnea, retaining /essoni under Lymnaea, He gave

a key to the Australian genera of the family and a more extended diagnosis for

Simdimnea (146). He listed the five species mentioned by Iredale, noted the

chief differences between some of them, and figured S, subaquatilis and S. gunni.

Since all these species have similar habits and are found in localities where

liver Auke occurs, it is reasonable Lo assume that all of them are likely to serve

as transnutters, and that Ross and MecKay’s L. brezieri from Tasmania was

actually one or more of the Tasmanian species of Simmlimaca, and that the Vic-

torian forms belonged to S_ wictariae. The carrier in south-western Victoria

has not been determined, but it ts possible that it is S. swbaguatilis, The habits

of S. bragier: have been described by Bradley (126a; 1933, 248) and by Ross

and MeKay (1928, 27-29).

In 1889 Whitelegge reported that cercanac oi Distoma sp. necurred com-

monly near Sydney in local pond snails, amongst which he included £. brasieri,

but without mentioning any particular species as host (1889, 307), I ivider

(1896 c) reported finding larval stages of flukes in the same species from southern

New South Wales, and figured a heavily pigmented round cyst trom it. He also

illustrated a minute stylet-bearing cyst fram the same host.

Bradley (19264) found three kinds of cercariae in L. brasteri in New

South Wales, one of them pigmented (figured, and probably belonging to

F, hepatica), and two unpigmented, one of which possessed a stylet. Later in

the year (19264) he descnbed these two latter as Cercaria cautellae (an echino-

stome larva) and C, pellucida respectively, C. pellugidit was stated ta resemble

C. brewvicaeca and C. polyndena. As Bradley’s specific name was preoccupied,

125

one of us (Johnston 1941, 282) renamed this plagiorchid larva as C. bradléyi.

In 1927 Bradley discussed the probable life cycle of C. catellae, to which species

he referred again in 1933. We considered this cercaria to belong to Echinostomua

revolutum (Johnston and Cleland 1937, 196; Angel 1941, 317).

McKay (1926a) reported that he found three kinds of pigmented cercariae

in L, brazieri, one of them being that of F. hepatica, the other two being less

heavily pigmented and not able to encyst on available material, Ross and McKay

(1928, 14) referred to the presence in L. brasiert of C. pellucida and C. greeri,

The latter had been described by Bradley (1926d) as occurring in Bulinus

brazieri, its author believing the cercaria to be that of a schistosome, but the general

form of the body, tail-stem and furcae indicate that it was a Strigeid (Johnston

1941, 282), Bradley (1933, 247) listed it as a parasite of L. brazieri.

We have found four different species of cercariae issuing from L. swb-

aguatilis from Lake Alexandrina. Two of these were furcocercariae helonging

to the Strigeida; the third was Cercaria parocellata, a schistosome larva described

by us (Johnston and Simpson 1939, 63) from L. lessoni; and the fourth was

identified as C. ellisi, an echinostome, originally described from L, lessoni

(Johnston and Simpson 1944, 125).

We desire to acknowledge gratefully assistance recerved from Miss L, M-

Angel who made the earlier observations in our laboratory; the following

veterinary officers: Messrs, F. VY. Collins, Burrage, McKenna, Smith, Pulsford

and Gosling; as well as B, C. Cotton of the South Australian Museum,

SUMMARY

Simlimnea subaquatilis is a transmitter of Fasciola hepatica in South Auws-

tralia; and some observations on the developmental stages of the parasite art

recorded.

Of four different kinds of cereariae found in S, subaquatilis, two (C. paro-

cellata and C. ellisi) were known previously only from Lymnaea lessoni from the

lower Murray region.

LITERATURE

Brantey, B. 1925 Med, Jour. Austr., 1925, 1, 690

Brapiey, B. 1926 Med, Jour. Austr, 1926, 1, (a) 147-159, (b) 396-397,

Brapuey, B. 1927 Med, Jour, Austr., 1927, 1, 673-676

Brapiey, B. 1933 Med, Jour; Austr., 1, 245-251

Cuerry, T. 1895 Proc, Roy. Soc. Vict., 8, 183

Crerry, T. 1917 Bilharzipsis, etc. Commonw, Deience Dept., Melb, 1-20

Cops, N. A. 1897 Agr. Gaz. N.S.W.. 8, 453-481

Cosn, N. A. 1898 Agr. Gaz, N.S.W., 9, 182-183

Corton, B. ©. 1943 Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 67, 143-148

Corton, B. ©, and Goprrey, F, K. 1932 5. Aust. Field Nat.. 13, 127-176

Fretper, W. 1896 Vict. Nat., 12, 1895-6, (a) 139-140, (hb) 146-147, {c) 13,

1896, 24-28

TrEDALE, T, 1943 Aust. Zoalog., 10, (2), 188-230

Jounstron, T, H., 1942 Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Anst,, 65, 276-284

JoHNSTON, aa and Ancer, L, M. 1941 Tratis, Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 65,

317-

JOHNSTON, fel and Crecano, E. R. 1937 Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 61,

191-201

Jomesron, T. H., and Smmpson, E. R, 1939 Trans. Roy, Soc S. Aust, 63,

63-68

126

Jounston, T. H., and Simpson, E. R. 1944 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68

125-132

McKay, A. C, 1926a Med. Jour. Aust., 1, 300

McKay, A. C. 1926b Jour. Aust. Vet. Assoc., 2, 9-14

McKay, A. C. 1926c Med. Jour. Aust., 1, 505-506

McKay, A. C. 1928 Rep. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 18, 794-805

Mitton, R. L. 1944 Jour. Agric. S. Aust., 202-

Mirron, R. L. 1945 Internal Parasites of ‘Sheep, Dept. Agric. S, Aust., Bull.

394, 24 pp. (13-17, Liver Fluke)

Ross, I. C. 1928 C.S.I.R., Pamphlet 5, 23 pp. Melbourne

Ross, I. C., and McKay, A.C. 1929 C.S.LR,, Bull. 43, 62 pp.

Ross, I. C., and Gorvon, H. M. 1936 The Internal Parasites and Parasitic

Diseases of Sheep, etc. Sydney

WHiITELEGGE, T. 1889 Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 23, 163-323

STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

INTRODUCTION AND

NO. 1 THE GENERA ISACTIS AND RIVULARIA (MYXOPHYCEAE)

By H. B. S. WOMERSLEY, DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Summary

The history of phycology in Australia is one of an enthusiastic beginning during the years

1840-1890, when numerous collections from the Southern Australian region (including

Tasmania) where sent to Europe and described by workers of that time. During this period a

considerable proportion of the Australian species was described, chiefly by W. H. Harvey, J.

G. Agardh, W. Sonder, T. Reinbold and others, and it is on the work of these men that

present-day phycology in Australia is based. A. H. S. Lucas, who was the only Australian

worker between 1910 and 1936, has given a more detailed survey of the early work

(Seaweeds of South Australia, Pt. I), as also has V. Mary (Journal of the C.S.LR., 18, No.1,

62).

lz?

STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

INTRODUCTION AND

No. | THE GENERA ISACTIS AND RIVULARIA (MYXOPHYCEAE)

By H. B. S, WoMersLey, Department of Botany, University of Adelaide

[Read 9 May 1946]

INTRODUCTION

The history of Phycology in Australia is one of an enthusiastic beginning

during the years 1840-1890, when numerous collections from the Southern Aus-

tralian region (including Tasmania) were sent to Europe and described by

workers of that time. During this period a considerable proportion of the Aus-

tralian species was described, chiefly by W. H. Harvey, J. G. Agardh, W-. Sonder,

T. Reinbold and others, and it is on the work of these men that present-day

phycology in Australia is based, A. H. S. Lucas, who was the only Australian

worker between 1910 and 1936, has given a more detailed survey of the early

wotk (Seaweeds of South Australia, Pt. 1), as also has V. May (Journal of the

C.S.1LR.,, 18, No, 1, 62),

For Australian students taking up the study of marine algae this history has

certain unfortunate results. The type specimens of most of the species described

before 1900 are in Evirope (with the exception of those of W. IH. Harvey, of

which numerous cotypes are present in the Melbourne and Sydney National Her-

baria), and not available to Australian workers. This means that determination

of specics must, in many instances, be based on descriptions alone. Apart from

the works of W. I. Harvey, which were usually well illustrated, most authors

gave no figures; descriptions were usually inadequate and only in Latin, resulting

in the utmost care being necessary to establish an identification today.

Since 1900, practically the only worker on Australian marine algae was

A. H. S. Lucas, who published several papers in the Linnean Society of New

South Wales, and wrote Part I and the first half of Part 11 of “The Seaweeds

of South Australia.” Since 1938 keys and notes on New South Wales algae

have been published by V. May, and Part Il of "The Seaweeds of South Aus-

tralia’ should be available by July 1946.

It is evident that at present scarcely a single species from Atstralian waters

ddes net require a thorough study, and each genus needs detailed revision. In

the past details of locality and occurrence have been generally inadequately given,

Although taxonomic studies are of first importance, extensive ecological

sutveys are needed, for it is such work that brings to light yariations in form of

many species and indicates how reliable certain taxonomic criteria may be. It is

during such ecological studies that associations of economically important species

are likely to be found.

This paper is the first af a series on marine algae from the Southern Austra

lian coasts and deals with two genera of the Myxophyceac, family Rivulariaceae,

which are cotmmon on rocky or tidal flat regions. The Myxophyceae as a whole

have heen left severely alone by previous workers, although many species are to

be found around our coasts.

Trans. Roy. Sec. S. Aust, 70, (1). 30 June 1946

128

No.1 THE GENERA ISACTIS AND RIVULARIA

These two genera belong to the family Rivulariaceae of the blue-green algae.

The family is a natural one, distinguished by a combination of false branching

and terminal hairs to the trichomes, and tisually with heterocysts at the base of

the flaments. Both freshwater and marine representatives of the family are

common, aid several matine species of Calothrix and [-yngbya occur in South

Australian waters,

Genus IsActts Thuret 1875

Thtiret, Essai Class. Nost.,. 1875, 376, 382; Bornet and Flahault, Rev. 1, 1886,

343; De Toni, Sylloge Algarum, 5, 646; Rabenhorst, Kryptogamen Flora,

14, 656; Setchell and Gardner, Marine Algae of Pacitic Coast of

N, America, 104; Newton, Handbook of British Seaweeds, 35,

Filaments erect, parallel, densely crowded and coalescent into a compact layer

attached to the substratum, simple or sparsely branched; heterocysts basal;

reproduction by spores unknown.

Isactis is a genus differing from Rivularia in its more simple trichomes which

are crowded and parallel. This gives rise to flattened, more or less orbicular

layers instead of hemispherical or more or less convex and lobed expansions.

IsAcTis PLANA (Harv.) Thuret

(Fig. 1, A)

Rwularia plana Harvey in Hooker, Brit. FL, 1833, 2, (1), 394; Isactis plana

(Harv.) Thuret in Essai, 1875, 382; Bornet and Thuret, Notes Algal. II,

1880, 163, pl. xl; Bornet and Flahault, Rev. [I, 344; De Toni, Sylloge

Algarum, 5, 646; Rabenhorst, Kryptogamen Flora, 14, 656; Setchell and

Gardner, Marine Algae of Pacific coast of N. America, 104; Newton,

Hritish Seaweeds, 35.

Fronds 0-4 to 0'9 mm. thick, spread out indefinitely on the stirface of rocks,

but usually less than 2 cm, across, dark green; filaments densely crowded, mostly

simple; trichomes 7-9'5 » diameter, light blue-green, tapering into a delicate hair

above when young; cells not to fairly deeply incised at cross walls, 4 to 1 times

as long as broad.

South Australian specimens seem to belong to the var. plana B. and F. in

which the layer is not zonate, filaments unbranched or nearly so, cohering together,

Hog Bay (on rocks in littoral), Vivonne Bay (edge of rock pools, on

mollusc Cellana), and Pennington Bay (on reef surface) on Kangaroo Island;

Port Noarlunga (on reef in littoral); Port Willunga (on reef in upper littoral),

Adantic, Mediterranean, coasts of Europe, North America, Apparently not

previously recorded from Southern Hemisphere. Probably to be found anywhere

in the Southern Australian region, at all times of the year. y

The only noticeable difference from descriptions of Northern Hemisphere

specimens is in the greater thickness of the frond (0-9 mm. against 0'5 mami).

Genus RryvunArt C, Agardh 1812

C. Agardh, Disp. Alg. Suec., 1812, 43, Syn, Alg. Scand., 1817, p. xxxviii, 130-131;

Syst. Alg., 1824, 19; Roth, Neue Beitr. z, Got., 1803, 261; Cat. Bot,, 3, 1806,

332; Bornet and Flahault, Rev. Nost. Het, 1, 1886, 345; DeToni, Sylloge

Algarum, 5, 648 ; Rabenhorst, Kryptogamen Flora, 14, 643; Setcheil and

Gardner, Marine Aleae of Pacific coasts of N. America, 105; Newton,

British Seaweeds, 38.

a ay, S

= Ws

Ee) Ss

SS Ee)

SE Ee ed

+ ae

a = oe ee oa oY

: Oia pe poe vo a Eva an ab a oe RT ig Soe LEST =

eS CE “ af a

<p Ss ..

ST TES SUF : : “

eS — SS

Rives

SSE

eantr tigre

SSarsas cS

SZ <a

oe TERCEEECTICCN CYP ree

EE —

ERLE ARS MN RCORDNES SRS Oa arama Ea

HBSW

{ Harvey's specimens.

Fig. 1

Isactis plona, group of trichomes; B, Riwelaria atra, group of trichomes with

, or confluent into a solid expanded stratum;

Rigularia ninde, group of trichomes; D, Rivularia australis,

, globose or irregularly lobed, light to dark green, softly

three typical trichomes from one o

two hormogonia; C,

Thallus hemispherical

or firmly gelatinous, at times hollow

filaments radiating from the centre or from the base, repeatedly false-branched

130

hieterocysts basal (or rarely intercalary), some species (sub-genus Gloeoirichic)

producing cylindrical spores contiguous to the heterocyst,

In view of the presence of intercalary heterocysts, as described below in

R. firma, R. polyotis and R, australis, the generic description must be modified

slightly, as hag been done above.

The species of Rivularia are far from satisfactory taxonomically, as consider-

able variations may be shown in different habitats. In placing any particular

specimen, attention should be focussed on all the features used in separating the

species rather than any single one. Five species can now be recorded from

Southern Australia, of which one is described as new; the other four are con-

sidered specifically identical with widespread Northern Hemisphere forms which

are probably cosmopolitan,

Staining with gentian viclet is often necessary tu distinguish details of the

sheath. Sametimes if a firm colony is breken up a layer of mucilage may cling

to the trichome and appear very similar to an individual sheath, stammng faintly

blue,

Key to THE SouTHERN AUSTRALIAN Species or Mivularia.

1 Intercalary heterocysts abundant, thallus very firm. R. firma n.sp.

1® [ntercalary heterocysts absent or rare, thallus either small or large and safft, 2

2 Thallus solid, hemispherical, less than 4 mm. acruss. Ro alra

2’ Thallus hollow, expanded, globose or plicate corriigate. 3

3 > Thallus dark olive green, plicate cornigate, usually less than tem. across. F, ntinda

3° Thatlus light green, hollow, soft. 4

4 Trichomes 5-7°5 thick, sheath thin. FR. australts

4! Trichomes 9-14 thick, sheath usually wide, lamellate. R. polyotis

Rivularia firma n. sp.

(Fig. 2, Aand B)

Thallus caeruleus, hemisphericis, solidus, firmissime gelatinus, 2 em. latus,

copiae 5 cm, latae; corptts qui produci potest, lentus. Trichomatibus contertis,

pressione non secendentibus, 2-3 latis inferne, superne 6-8-5 p. Jatis, in pilum

attenuatis; vaginis angustis, hyalinis, superne indistinctis, totus in gelatinam

amorpham confluens; cellulis superne diam. 4-1 brevioribus, ad genicula contrac-

tis, cellulis inferioribus elongatis. Heterocystis basibus et intercalaribus; basis

globosa, 10-18» diam.; intercalaribus usitatus copiosis, ovatis aut longis linearis,

cum crasso muro, 48. latis, diam. 2-20 brevioribus; basibus heterocystis in

concentrica zona dispositis-

Thallus dark blue-green, hemispherical, solid, very firmly gelatinous; indi-

vidual plants to 2 cm. across, masses farmed by union of several to 5 cm- across;

substance elastic, not easily tom, Trichomes crowded, not separable by pressure,

2-3. thick near basal heterocyst, expanding upwards to 6 to &'5p thick in

meristematic region, then tapering to a long narrow hair; sheath thin, hyaline,

vanishing above, but the whole in a very firm gelatinous matrix; cells in meri-

stematic region 2 to 1 times as long as broad, slightly to moderately incised at

ross walls, lengthening below to 3-6 times as long as broad. Heterocysts basal

and intercalary; basal approximately spherical, 10-18, diameter; intercalary

ones usually abundant, ovoid to elongate linear, thick-walled, 48 » wide, 2 to 20

times as long as wide, rarely causing any bulging of filaments ; basal heterocysts

usually produced in roughly concentric bands causing a faint zonation in trans-

verse section of the thallus.

Granite Island and Petrel Cove, near Victor Harbour (on rocks, particularly

in roughest places, in upper littoral and spray zones), Antechamber Bay, Cape

13)

AE EEL EG) sore meee

—— ee

Bice @)

SSS

—

(ZER

See SS

SL ah ee

ES a 8

EE:

SL ees

——

Fig. 2

A and B, Rivulania frou usp; A, trichomes from young thallus; B, trichomes

lder thallus: showing intercalary heterocysts and cell arrangement; C, Rigu-

laria polyotis, trichomes with wide lamellate sheaths,

irom 0

132

Willoughby, Pennington Bay, Vivonne Bay, on Kangaroo Island (in upper

littoral, probably all along east, south and west coasts).

Occurring throughout the year, but usually better developed in winter.

Tu general, R. firma forms a zone in the upper littoral on exposed rocky

coasts, frequently occurring on otherwise bare rocks and in situations where it

is often exposed to desiccation for several hours daily. ‘The firmly gelatinous

thallus enables it to withstand considerable exposure,

The presence of abundant intercalary heterocysts distinguishes this species

from any previously described. They are usually much elongated, 2 to 20 times

as long as broad, lying within the trichome sheath. When much elongated each is

often slightly wider at the ends where the walls are somewhat thicker than in the

centre, with finely granular colourless contents (see fig. 2, B). Intercalary

heterocysts such as these have apparently not been described in any other species-

Occasionally, however, they occur in both RF. australis and FR. polyotis, though

only very rarely,

The very firm and solid nature of the thallus 1s also a distinctive characteristic.

Hormogonia develop beneath the superficial layers of the thallus, and

because of their confinement within the very firm gelatinous matrix often develop

into ovoid or elongated masses of compressed, often polygonal, cells instead of

the usual cylindrical trichomes, This type of hormogonia development is particu-

larly characteristic of species of Riwularia with a firm thallus,

Specimens collected from the south side of Granite Island, Victor Harbour,

in December 1943, were brownish, with pitted surfaces, particularly distorted

heormogonia, and unusual abundance of intercalary heterocysts. This is attributed

to a heat wave and low tides shortly before collection, the specitnens probably

being dead and atypical when collected,

Type and cotype specimens are catalogued urider numbers A 2205 (KI. 5)

and A 2,204 (K.E. 4) respectively, in the Algal Herbarium, Department of Botany,

University of Adelaide,

RivuLaria AtTRA Roth

(Fig. 1, B)

Roth, Cat. Bot., 3, 1806, 340; Bornet and Flahault, Rev. IT, 1886, 353; Harvey

Phye. Britt. t. 239; De Toni, Syllage Algarum, 5, 664; Rabenhvorst,

Kryptogamea Flora 14, 645; Setchell and Gardner, Marine Algae. ., , 107;

Newton, British Seaweeds, 38.

Thallus solitary or confluent, hemispherical or flattened, up to 4 mm. in

diameter. Filaments radiating from the centre, densely compacted, abundantly

false-branched. Trichomes 2°5-5, thick below, expanding slightly to S-6'2¢

thick above, then tapering to a narrow hair; cells yellowish-green, shorter than

broad above, lengthening below to 3-6 times as long as braad, not or very slightly

incised at cross walls; cross walls very indistinct below; sheath hyaline, incon-

spicnous, but often fairly thick. Heterocysts basal, spherical to ovoid, 7-10

diameter. Older specimens may show faint zonation of heterocysts in section of

the thallus, Hormogonia forming towards ends of outer trichomes.

Port Noarlunga {on reef, littoral); Marino, Moana (on rocks); Part

Willunga (on reef, littoral); Vivonne Bay, Kangaroo Island (around edges of

littoral pools, south side of Ellen Point), Occurring throughout the year.

Europe, North America, Japan, Australia (previously recorded by Nord-

stedt). Cosmopolitan.

Two varieties of Rivularia atra have been distinguished; var, hemispherica

(Kitz.) B. and F., with hemispherical colonies, very dark green, and var,

confluens (Kitz.) Bornet, in which the thallus is a flat confluent mass, deep blue-

133

green, trichomes 5-7 wide. Both varieties seem to be present in Sonth Aus-

tralia, although many gradations between the two are shown.

The main differences from déscriptions of Northern Hemisphere species lic

in (a) trichomes expanding slightly to up to 6°24 thick, Setcheil and Gardner,

however, record a width of 5-7 w for trichomes in var. comjluens ( Kutz.) Bornet.

Young outer trichomes, in our specimens, taper evenly from the base, being

5-6°2 w thick; (b) sheath often quite thick in our specimens, whereas it is given as

“thin” in all descriptions,

RIVULARIA NiTmA Ag.

(Fig. 1,C)

C, Agardh, Disp. 44, 1812; Bornet and Flahault, Rev. IU, 1886, 357; De Toni

Sylloge Algarum, 5, 661; Rabethorst, Kryptogamten Flora, 14, 646;

Setchell and Gardner, Marine Algae . . . 108; Newton, British Seaweeds,

38; R. plicata Carm, in Hooker’s Brit. Fl, Crypt., 392; Harvey, Phyc. Brit.

t, 215; Phyc, Aus, Syn. No. 787.

Thallus usually hollow, variable in outline, expanded and plicate-corrugate,

to 2 em. across, dark olive green in colour, Filaments crowded, usually tapering

from the base to a jong narrow hair, from 3°5 to 6-3 » thick below, occasionally to

8-Sp thick next to heterocyst, tapering evenly to 2 thick in the hair, or some-

times expanded slightly upwards; cells olive green, mostly 4-1 times as long as

broad, often longer below, not or slightly incised at cross walls, Sheath usually

prominent and distinct, hyaline or yellowish-brown. Hetetocysts basal, ovoid to

spherical, 6 to 12 across.

Pelicati Lagoon, American River, Kangaroo Island (on flat rock in littoral),

Collected during January 1946, but probably present throughout the year.

Specimens from this locality are identical with Harvey's No. 591 B (as R, plicata

Carm.) from King George Sound, Western Australia.

Britain, North Europe, Mediterranean, Nova Scotia, Alaska.

Only apparent difference from Northern Hemisphere specimens lies in the

somewhat thicker trichome (to 6°3 » thick as against 2-5 in descriptions).

RIVULARTA AUSTRALIS Harvey

(Fig. 1, D)

Harvey, Some Acc. Marine Bot, of W- Aust., 566, 1854; Phyc. Aus. Sym, n. 786;

Sonder, Alg. Austral. hact, cogritae, 42, n, 1,047; Bornet and Fishault,

Rev. II, 362; De Toni, Sylloge Algarum, §, 658; Newton, British Sea-

weeds, 40; Rabenhorst, Kryptogamen Flora, 14, 646,

Thallus irregularly globose, soft, always hollow, to & cm. across, usually a

metallic blue-green in colour; occasionally growing as masses of smaller irregu-

larly united hollow thalli, _ Trichomes easily separated by pressure, Jong, almost

paralfel, expanding in width from 1-3 » near heterocyst to 5-7-5 » in meristematic

region, then tapering to a fine hair; cells in meristematic region 4 to f times as

long as broad, slightly to moderately incised at cross walls, becoming longer below.

Sheath very thin, hyaline, usually only detectable near heterocyst. Filaments

below straight or slightly undulating. Heterocysts ovoid to spherical, 10-13 » by

% ahs intercalary heterocysts very rare, ovoid to oblong, similar to those ia

R. firma,

The very soft thallus, trichome width and absence of a sheath distinguish

this species reasonably well.

Sourh Australia: Port Willunga (on reef, littoral). Victoria: Port Lons-

dale (January 1941); Phillip Istand (January 1946); Brighton (January 1853);

Frankston (January 1903); San Remo (February 1929).4) New South

Wales. Eden (January 1910),"'? Tasmania; Tamar Heads (December 1864) ;

Low Head (February 1935)"; Bast Beach, Low Head (February 1927) and

March 1932). Western Australia: Cape Riche (Harvey's 592).

Most of these records are during the months of January and February, but

the species probably occurs during all months of the year.

Atlantic, Europe, England.

Specimens of Harvey’s A. niltda Ag., No. 5931, recorded by Harvey from

Brighton, Port Phillip and Georgetown, Tasmania, have been examined and foun:

to belong to Ft, australis Harv. According to De Toni, Sylloge Algarum, 5, 660,

FR. nitida Ag. as figured by Harvey in Phyc. Brit. t. 68, is a synonym for

R. bullata (Poir) Berkeley, and Iarvey’s and Sonder’s Australian specimens are

referred to the latter species. The only difference in the specimens placed by

Harvey tinder the two species, &. australis and R, nitida Ag., lies in the external

appearance of the thallus, Harvey’s R. australis was slightly smaller and firmer

that his R. aitida, but both show trichomes expanding upwards to 5-7'5 p thick,

with the cells 4-1 times as long as broad, slightly to moderately incised at the

cross walls. ‘Fhe sheaths in both are scarcely detectable, very thin and hyaline.

Heterocysts are spherical to ovoid, 7-94 by 7-118. Intercalary heterocysts are

rare, but present, in Harvey's 592 C,

Haryey's F. witida Ag. (R, bullaia (Poir) Berkeley) must then without any

doubt be referred to his own species, FR, australis, He records FR. australis as

growing on rocks near low water at Cape Riche. Possibly his specimens of

RR. nitida were growing in more sheltered conditions. and this would account for

the slight diffcrences in the external thallus structure.

A. specimen in the Melbourne National Herbarium, named as J. witida var.

bullata Kiitz., from rocks at Port Phillip, is probably also referable to FR, axstralis

Harvey, Sonder’s specimens of PF, bullata from “Adelaide” (according to

De Toni) may also be referable to 2. awstralis Harv.

It appears then that the true R. bullata cannot as yet be recorded from

Australia.

It should be noted, however, that AM, australis Harv, and R. bullata (Poir)

Berkeley are closely related, Frum descriptions, it appears that the main difter-

ences Jie in the firm thallus and sliglithy wider trichomes (io 8-5 or 10) of

R. bullata compared with the very soft thallus and trichomes to 75 wide of

AR. australis Hary,

Rivu.aArra PotvatTts {Ag.) Bornet and Flahault

(Fig. 2C)

Bornet and Flahault, Rev. I], 360; De Toni, Sylloge Algarum, 5, 659; Raben-

horst, Kryptogamen Flora, 14, 647. RR. plicafe Hary. Australian Alg.

(1857) ; Sonder, Algae Austral., 42 (see De Tont, 5, 659).

Thallus light to dark green (darker when young), very soft, hollow except

when young, irregularly giobose, to 8 em. across. Trichomes easily separated by

pressure, expanding in width upwards from 2-5 near heterocyst to 9-14 «4 in

taeristematic region, then tapering to a moderately thick hair; cells in meristematic

region $ to 1 times as long as broad, not or slightly incised at cross walls, becam-

ing longer below. Sheath usually prominent, thick, hyaline, lamellate, expanding

above. Heterocysts basal, ovoid to spherical, 10-28, by 10-14, Interealary

( These specimens had been identified by A. H. S. Lucas. as leuthesia difformis (L.)

Aresch., aud one specimen from Tastminia, low Head, as Cadi poimaides J, Ag,

135

Amevican River, Kangaroo Island (on Posidonia, Zostera and algae on tidal

flats, often detached and floating. Common throughout the year. West Beach,

Port Adelaide River, Port Noarlunga, Port Willunga (on Hormosira Banksit

Dene. and on reef, littoral), Typically occurring under calm sheltered conditions,

such as on tidal flats and inlets.

Europe, Atlantic, Mediterranean, Southern Australia.

The cambination of soft, hollow thallus, thick trichome and wide Jamellate

sheath distinguishes this species. Occasionally, however, a few specimens of an

otherwise uniform series from the one locality have failed ta show any notice-

able sheath.

The records of this species given by De Toni (5, 659) as under “RF. plicate

Hary, Aus. Alg. (1857), Sond, Algae Austral., 42, non Carmichael, nec Lloyd,"

cannot be discussed as none of these specimens are available for examination.

Ecotocicat. Nores on THE Sourm Austraian Srecies or Riwuleria

The South Australian species of Jsacfis and Rivularta are found m the upper

littoral or spray zone on rocky coasts, or in littoral regions in tidal inlets, where

they are often floating. Although records are still very fragmentary, except for

Kangaroo Island, there are probably few places on the coast of Southern Aus-

tralia where one or more oi the above species do not occur,

Rivularia polyatis is characteristic of tidal inlets such as American River and

the Port. River, where conditions are very calm, This species is usually epiphytic,

particularly on Posidonia australis Hooker and Zostera Muelleri (rmish (Amer-

can River), or on Hormosira Banksii Dene. (Port Willunga) ; young specimens

occur on the reef itself at Port Willunga, and may be solid. #, polyotis is often

cast up on the beaches of Holdfast Bay during winter months,

Rivularia australis probably favours somewhat similar habitats, Only one

specimen of this species has. heen found in South Australia, but from records

available it appears to be common in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria, and the Tamar

in Tasmania.

On the rocky exposed south coast of Kangaroo Island, and similar places

on the mainland (Granite Island, Petrel Cove), the dark green, very firm blobs of

Rivularia firma are usually found. This species is confined to the upper littoral

and spray zones, where it may have to withstand exposure for several hours

each day.

The small blobs of Rivularia atra and Isactis plana occur usually in littoral

situations where they may have to withstand some exposure, but appear to be

less hardy than Rizularia firma. At Pennington Bay fsactis plana occurs in areas

of scattered small patches almost anywhere on the reef surface, but invariatry

where it is always covered with water,

Rivularia wmitida occurs on flat rock in the littoral zone at Pelican Lagoon,

American River. Here it is subject ta severe drying and desiccation during low

tide on hot days, for no water is retained near it. It appears to suffer little

damage from this.

The Southern Australian species of Rivularia and [sactis then are typically

littoral algae; R. firma flourishes under the roughest of conditions, while

R. folyotis, R. australis and R. nitida favour calm sheltered places. FR. otra anrl

Tsactis plana occur in intermediate conditions, All these species seem to oecur

throughout the year.

From the literature available, it appears that Jsactis plane has not been pre-

viously recorded from the Southern Hemisphere,

136

SUMMARY

One species of Isactis and five of Rivularia (Myxophyceae) are now known

from Southern Australia, including one species, R. firma, here described as new.

The presence of abundant intercalary heterocysts in R. firma is considered as dis-

tinguishing this species from all others of the genus.

An examination of W. H. Harvey’s specimens of R. australis and R. plicata

Carm, (R. nitida Ag.) has shown that they are specifically identical, and his

R. plicata Carm. must be referred to R. australis Harv. It appears that records

of R. bullata (Poir.) Berkeley may be incorrect, the specimens actually being of

R. australis Harv.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to Dr. Francis Drouet, Chicago Museum of Natural

History, for confirmation of Rivularia firma as being previously undescribed.

Specimens of Rivularia from the Lucas collection, Division of Plant

Industry, C. S. & I. R., Canberra, and the National Herbarium, Melbourne, were

examined through the kindness of Mr. W. H. Hartley and Mr. A. W. Jessep

respectively. Dr. E. McLennon, Department of Botany, University of Melbourne,

also kindly forwarded specimens for examination.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XXVII

AKG a

RATAbs

om, be

Dasyopsis clavigera n. sp.

Type specimens: A, from Pennington Bay; B, from Vivonne Bay.

- F260

STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

NO. 2 A NEW SPECIES OF DASYOPSIS (FAMILY DASYACEAE)

FROM KANGAROO ISLAND

By H. B. S. WOMERSLEY, DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Summary

Previous to this communication on the genus Dasyopsis has been known only from the

Northern Hemisphere, where seven species have been described. Five species occur in the

European and Mediterranean regions, and two on the western coast of the United States of

America. (De Toni, 1,177; Smith, 356).

137

STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

No. 2 A NEW SPECIZS OF DASYOPSIS (FAMILY DASYACEAE)

FROM KANGAROO ISLAND

By H. B. S. Womerstey, Department of Botany, University of Adelaide

[Read 9 May 1946]

PLATE XXVIT

Preyious to this communication the genus Dasyopsis has been known only

from the Northern Hemisphere, where seven species have been described. Five

species occur in the European and Mediterranean regions, and two on the western

coast of the United States of America. (De Toni, 1,177; Smith, 356),

The family Dasyaceae comprises a natural grouping of members of the Cera-

miales showing sympodial growth of the axis, while Dasyopsis is distinguished

from other genera of the family by the apparent absence of periccntral cells sur-

rounding the central axis or siphon of the stem, This apparent absence, however,

is actually due to separation of the pericentral cells from each other and from

the central siphon by corticating cells which penetrate between them, This will

be discussed more fully Jater.

The species described as new in this paper agrees with Dasyopsis in all

essential aspects, but shows several distinctive differences, as far as can be

ascertained from descriptions alone, from all other described species, An alga

such as this, being so far removed from other species of the genus in its geo-

graphical distribution, fortns a most interesting record. It is worth noting, how-

ever, that the closely related genus Dasya shows a strong Australasian distribution

of its species, 25 of 46 described species occurring in the Southern Australian

and Tasmanian regions. Other genera of the Dasyaceae are also well represented

in these regions,

The range in external form is remarkable in this species (see fig. 1, A and B,

pl, xxvii). When fiest collected only the extreme forms (pl. xxvii) were known

atid the existence of two species was suspected. A complete range of form

between the two extremes has now been found, and the form in any particular

habitat appeats to be correlated with the roughness and severity of wave action

in that habitat.

This alga has been collected during ecological studies on the marine algae

of Kangaroo Island. In later papers it is hoped to survey the ecology of the south

coast of the island, particularly the Pennington Bay and Vivonne Bay regions.

Dasyopsis clavigera n-. sp.

Named after the clavate (clith-shaped) form of the branches,

OccuRRENCE AND Hastr

The only known occurrences as yet ate on the southern and western coasts

of Kangaroo Island. Serial numbers of the specimens deposited in the Algal

Herharium, Department of Botany, University of Adelaide, are given below.

Pennington Bay, 20 and 25 May 1945—Cast up and growing in the Cystophora-

coralline association in the south-east corner of the main reef. (This reef

is the largest of many similar ones in the Pennington Bay region, and is

also the most accessible.) Sometimes epiphytic on Cystophora sub-

rasé. Roy. Sec. 5S, Aust,, 70,.(1), 30 June 1946

138

forcinata (Mert.) J, Ag., or with Ceraminm nobile J. Ag. epiphytic on it.

No. A2,727 UK.L 527),

15 January 1946 In the Cystophora-coralline association and along

the eastern edge of reef and to one foot down the vertical side. Often

with a heavy epiphytic growth of Janta sp, ‘Tetrasporangial, spermatangial

and cystocarpic plants present. Nos. A 3,049 (KI. 849), A2845 (KL

645).

A2845a has been selected as the type specimen (fig. 3, A).

Vivorme Bay, 23 May 1945—On rocks just above the Cystophora zone, on the

south side of Ellen Point. Only tetrasporangial plants found. No, A2,726

(K.1. 526).

31 December 1945. From just inside Elley Point, extending

around the point and at least half a mile west, in a region just above the

Cystophara zone (lower littoral). Plants mainly tetrasporangial.

No. A 2,997 (K.I. 797).

West Ray, 6 January 1946—Cast up; epiphytic on Sargassvm sp. and with

Plocamium sp. and Nitophyllun sp. epiphytic on it, Plants tetrasporangial

or sterile, Nos, A3,199 (KI. 999), A3,251 (IKI, 1,051), A3,253

(K.T. 1,053), A 3,265 (K.I. 1,065).

It seems probable that Dasyopsis clazigera occurs generally along the south

and west coasts of Kangaroo Island, tusually in regions where it is subject to

considerable or very heavy wave action. All the habitats in which it has so far

been found correspond to the lower littoral or the upper margin of the sub-

littoral,

The extreme forms of this variable alga are illustrated in pl, xxvii, A and B,

The type specimen, A, from Pennington Bay is the largest found, being 20 cm.

high and consisting of numerous ercct terete stems from a common base, the main

stems being rarely branched but all closely set with short lateral branches

1 to 3 cm. long, giving each frond 2 narrowly pyramidal outline.

The specimens in pl. xxvii, B, from Vivonne Bay (May 1945) are quite

typical of those collected at this time, Each consists of one to five clavate, sunple

or occasionally branched, stems from a common base, the whole forming a tuft

2 to 5 om, high.

During January 1946 specimens collected from the end and about half a mile

to the west along the south side of Ellen Point, Vivonne Bay, showed all degrees

of variation between the specimens shown in pl. xxvii, B, and smaller specimens

of the form shown in pl. xxvii, A.

The plants in all cases cotisist of a terete stem or branch densely clothed

with branched, filamentous pseudolaterals, giving the frond a woolly appearance,

but usually becoming shrubbier and finally denuded near the base.

The form of this alga shows adaptiom to the extremely rough conditions

under which it grows, At Vivonne Bay, particularly in the habitat where the

smaller unbranched specimens grew, waves are continually breaking ditéctly onto

the rocks, arid the short, stout, terete fronds, with a common adhesive base and

little branching, together with the close occurrence of the plants, offer minimum

resistance fo the breakers, In somewhat less exposed places more branched

plants occur, showing gradation to the forms met with on the Pennington Bay

reef,

On the reef studied at Pennington Bay, D. clavigera occurs in the south-east

corner (Cystophora-coralline association) and along the eastern edge of the reef.

All the plants in these regicns show profuse laterals, but vary from one to

139

mumectots main stems from the common hase, Owing to the very flat and hori-

zontal nature of the reef, and the sudden vertical drop into deep water at the

edge, the breakers tend to surge over the edge and along the side of the reef,

rather than breaking onto it, These conditions are clearly less violent than at

Vivonne Bay, and allow greater development in size and lateral branching of the

alga. A dense covering of other algae on the reef also affords mutual protec-

tion for each,

Branched forms of D. clavigera are uniformly of a yellowish-brown colour,

with the extreme tips often a rose red, The Vivyonne Bay plants of May 1945

(pl. xxvii, B), however, were all deep rose red in colour. It seems that with

greater development only the youngest parts retain the red colour-

The forms of D. clavigera met with so far in different localities, therefore,

appear to be closely related to the forces of wave action which they have to with-

stand. The importance of physical factors in determining the form of an alga

is quite clear in this case; such criteria as degree of branching, and particularly

size, are of little value taxonomically. and i is more than likely that forms pre-

viously separated on such criteria will have to be united when their full range of

fori becomes evident.

VEGETATIVE STRUCTURE

Dasyopsis clavigera shows the sympodial type of growth that is charac-

teristic of all the Dasyaceae, The growing region, illustrated in fig. 1 D, shows

clearly the development of pseudolaterals. A lateral, arising from the base of

the previous generation, continues the growth of the axis, while the upper parts,

which become displaced, form the successive units of the sympodium (3, 2, 1 in

fig. 1D) and develop as branched, apparent laterals (pseudolaterals). These

pseudolaterals develop in spiral sequence, densely covering the stem and branches

except for the lower parts and base which usually become denuded. The stem

between the pseudolaterals is bare, and where they are not too dense the spiral

arrangements can be readily distinguished. Fritsch (p.572), however, refers to

the pseudolaterals in other species of Dasyopsis as being distichous!y arranged,

although they are spiral in the genus Dasya.

The genus Dasyopsis differs from Dasya essentially in that the pericentral

cells became separated from the central siphon by large corticating cells which

penetrate between the original pericentrals. The presence of pericentral cells

has often been denied, but Fritsch (p. 574) points out that their apparent absence

is due to intermixture with cortical cells and separation from the central siphon.

Fig. 1 D illustrates the method of cortication of the main axis. At the bases

of the pseudolaterals which have just been displaced small elongate cells develop

and rapidly form a thick cortex to the stem. Fritsch (p.572) records five peri-

central cells generally for Dasyopsis, but mm this species no definite number could

be distinguished. At the base of each apical tuft of the filaments the structure

is clearly polysiphonous, but cortication commences so early, with the corticating

cells penetrating between the original ones, that a Cross section just below the

apex shows a ring of cells, some of which may be larger than others, surround-

ing a large certral siphon (see fig. 1 EE), The cortex rapidly becomes many cells

thick, but often in the younger parts four to six cells are larger and stand out

from the others (fg. 1 F). In older stems no distinctive cells are apparent,

though the central siphon is always evident. being several times larger than any

other cells in the stem. It may well be that the number of pericentrals is five,

but this could mot be established in any of the plants examined. The adult stem

is 1-2 mm, thick, and the cells have rather thick walls.

Fritsch (p-572) refers to the pseudolaterale of Dasyopsis as uniseriate, though

noting that in Heferosiphomia the three basal segments of the pseudolaterals

140

Fig. 1 Dasyopsis clavigera n. sp.

A; form of specimen from Vivonne Bay; B, form of small specimen from

Pennington Bay; C, tuft of hairs from near apex; D, the growing point, show-

ing sympodial growth; E, ¢ross section of stem just below growing point, F,

cross nay i stem lower down; G, psendolateral tult bearing stichidia.

Axli, Bx &,

141

become polysiphonous, while according to Falkenberg (p. 169) the basal segment

may also become polysiphonous in Dasya.

In this species the base of each pseudolateral is clearly polysiphonous (fig. 1,

D, G), and divided by successive dichotomies into @ number of monosiphonous

filaments, all curved upwards and iti towards the stem above. All the filaments

lie in essentially the seme curved plane.

After being displaced from the growing point each pseudolateral develops

into a small dense tuft, Further development, however, into lateral branches ny

to 2 em. long, may occur, such as in the branched forms from Vivenne and

Pennington Bays; «.e., the pseudolaterals retain the power of further growth, the

extent to which this occurs being determined by the conditions under which the

plant grows.

The form of the filaments is illustrated in fig. 1 C, D, G. At or close to the

apex of the stem or branch the filaments taper uniformly in the upper half. As

they become larger, and further from the growing point, the upper tapering part

invariably becomes broken off, leaving the filaments terminating at the largest

cell, the end of which is squarely cut off. Apparently the rough conditions under

which the alga grows allow only the strongest basal part of the filament to

remain. No trace of the breakage is left. however, Further from the apex the

pseudolateral tufts become stubbier, until the stem is finally denuded, although

scars in the positions of the old tufts often remain.

Filament dimensions: near growing points, 38-60, thick, 47-115, thick

when fully developed. Cells at base of filaments 13-2 times as long as broad,

2-5 times in widest region, 6-8 times towards the ends. Cells in all parts with a

distinct firm gelatinous sheath, wider towards the base. Pseudolateral tufts

1-2 mm. long, giving the fronds a thickness of 2-4 mm.

Attachment to the rock substratum is by means of an adhesive disc. At

Pennington Ray the plants are often epiphytic on Cystophora subfarcinata

(Mert,) J.Ag., and may be heavily epiphytised themselves with Jania sp.,

Ceramium nobile J. Ag., Palysiphonia dasyoides Zan. and other algae.

The filaments of the pseudolateral tufts comprise the main photosynthetic

organs of the alga, Each cell contains numerous rose-red laminate chromatophores,

usually irregularly polygonal in outline, though in occasional cells spindle-shaped.

They ate confined to the peripheral cytoplasm of the cells, the colourless spaces

teft between them giving the whole cell a reticulate appearance in face view. The

outer layer of cells of the stem usually contains similar chromatophores.

DEVELOPMENT OF STICHTDIA AND TETRASPORANGIA

Plants bearing tetrasporangia and cystocarps have been collected during both

May and January, so it is likely that fruiting material may be found at any time

of the year.

A stichidium originates as one brauch of a dichotomy of the pseudolateral

filaments, very close to the growing point, An initial row of cells each cuts off,

from below upwards, six pericentral celle (fig. 2B), Each of these pericentrals

then divides transversely to the length of the stichidium to form an upper cell

which develops into the tetrasporangium, the lower cell remaining as a basal

supporting cell, This basal cell then cuts off two cover cells on the outside

(fig. 2B, C), and all from one layer of pericentrals lie in the same plane, slightly

below and outside cach tetrasporangiun (fig. 2A),

The central row of cells elongates slightly at this stage and as the tetra-

sporangia mature they become almost completely exposed (fig. 1G, 2A,C)-

14z

Mature stichidia comprise 10 to 13 series of pericentrals, but usually only four

tetrasporangia form in each row of six. At an early stage the young stichidium

has a wide base and tapers to the apex (fig. 2A). Development occurs from the

base upwards, and by the time the stichidium is mature most of the tetraspores

in the Jower part have escaped (fig. 1G).

KBSW

Fig, 2 Dasyopsis clavigera nu. sp.

A, young Stichidium; B and C, transverse and longitudinal section respectively

ef “nature stichidium; D, pseudolateral tuft beating spermatangia; EF, cystocarp.

143

Mature stichidia are borne profusely on the pseudolaterals, each on a short

monosiphonons pedicel of 1-3 cells. Each is oblong cylindrical in shape, narrow-

ing at the top to a uniseriate beak of up to five cells (fg. 1G). Length 310-450»,

width 80-110. Tetrasporangia tetrahedrally divided, rose-red in colour, 24-25 u

in diameter,

DEVELOPMENT OF SPERMATANGIA

Spermatangia develop on filaments of the pseudolateral tufts, in a similar

position to the stichidia. Often 70 to 80% af the filaments bear spermatangia,

A row of 6 to 10, but usually about 8, almost quadrate cells forms in plane

of one of the filaments, and beyond this row of cells the filament develops

normally though much less extensively, forming a chain of only 3 to 5 small cells

(fig. 2D). Each of these quadrate cells. cuts off two rows, one above the other,

of 8 pericentral cells; later more may be farmed, giving up to 16, and these become

the spermatangial mother cells. Each of these gives rise to 1 to 3 (usually 2)

spermatangia, resulting in a horizontal row of from 16 to 32 spermatangia. At

the apex af the spermatangial mass a group of 2 to 4 larger cells, surrounding

the axial eclls, is usually left. Development occurs from the base up, but most

spermatangia form almost simultaneously. Spermatangial masses 75-120» long,

30-50 » wide, the whole encased in a gelatinous matrix (see fig, 2)-

This is it general agreement with spermatangial development for Dasyopsis

(also Polysiphonia) as recorded by Fritsch, It will be noticed also that many

similarities are shown with development of tetrasporangia as previously discussed.

Cystocarr STRUCTURE

Cystocarpic plants of D, clavigera were found during both May and January.

Cystocarps occur in the axils of pseudolateral tufts, the penecarp being

attached at inaturity to both the base of the pseudolateral and the main branch,

bul more so to the latter (fig. 2E), Fritsch (711) states that as a general rule

only one cystocarp matures on each branch, but in this species up to six were

found on one Jateral branch. They offen occur on otherwise almost denuded

branches. ach cystocarp is large, spherical, with 2 prominent apical heal

surrounding the osteole, the whole just showing through the crowded pseudo-

laterals when mature. Length when mature 0-8-1-2 mm., width 0°6-0°85 mm.

Pericarp of three layers of cells, containing a large mass of dark-red carpospores,

Carpospores irregularly ovoid to spherical, 9-18 » long.

Early stages of cystocarp development have, as yet, not been found,

RELATION TO OTHER Species or Desyopsis

D. elavigera appears most closely related to D. rerwicornis (see Falkenherg,

664, De Toni, 1,178), differing in the terete stem compared with the angular

stem and winged branch insertion of the latter, Other species also appear to

possess distichously arranged pseudolaterals, these also being monosiphonous,

whereas jn D. clavigera they are polysiphonots at the base and spirally arranged.

D. clavigera appears to be the only species of Dasyopsis known from the

Southern Hemisphere, thus establishing considerable geographic discontinuity

within this genus.

Taxonomic DEscrIFTion

Frondes cum caulibus unus aut plures, erecti teretes, ex uno base, principes

eaules parce ramosi, plerumque tecti cutn brevibus ramulis quoquoversunt

egredientibus; [rons jn forma angusti pyramidis, 4-20 cm. altus, ramwli 1-2'5 em,

longi. Cables et ranuili tecti cum brevibus floccis psendolateralibus ramellis,

nudis ad hasem. Pseudalaterales polysiphomi ad basem, aliter monosiphonij et

144

decomposites-dichotome. Cellulae pericentrales nullae, axi cortice rhizoideo

immediate cincto, 1-2 mm. latae. Cystocarpia globosa, ostéolata, cum rostro in

apice, 0°8-1:2 mm. longa, 0°6-0'85 mm. lata, cum copia rubidorum carposporum.

Spermatia in ramellis pseudolateralum, 70-120.a longa, 30-50 Jata. Stichidia

in ramellis pseudolateralum, oblonga, rostrata, 310-450 longa, 80-110 p lata, in

pedicello monosiphonio 1-3 cellulorum. Color fulvus, juvenis sanguineus.

Specimina exsiccatione chartae adherent.

Fronds comprising one to several upright terete stems from a common base,

main stems rarely branched, but usually closely set with short Jaterals, spread-

ing on all sides, giving a narrowly pyramidal outline; frond 4 to 20 cm, high,

laterals 1-2-5 cm. long. Stems and branches covered with short tufts of pseudo-

lateral filaments, denuded near base, Pseudolaterals polysiphoncus at base, other-

wise monosiphonous and dichotomously branched, Stem with a single central

siphon, pericentrals obscured, 1-2 mm. thick. Cystocarps globose, osteolate, with

a prominent beak, 0-8-1-2 mm, long by 0°6-0°85 mm. wide, containing a mass of

dark red carpospores, Spermatangia borne on filaments of pseudolaterals, masses

70-120 » long, 30-50, wide. Stichidia replacing filaments of pseudolaterals,

oblong cylindrical, apiculate, 310-450» by 80-110, borne on a monosiphonous

pedicel of 1-3 cells. Colotir yellowish-brown, rose red at branch tips or in young

plants. Adheres to paper.

Loc.—Pennington Bay, Vivonne Bay and West Bay, Kangaroo Island, South

Australia. In lower littoral or sub-littoral fringe, on rocks.

Type (No. A 2,845a) and cotype specimens have been deposited in the Algal

Herbarium of the Botany School, University of Adelaide. Cotypes have also

been sent to the National Herbaria of Melbourne and Sydney.

SUMMARY

A new species of the genus Dasyopsis, D. clazigera, from the south coast of

Kangaroo Island, is described, The range of form in relation to its habitat is

discussed, and the development of vegetative organs, stichidia and spermatangia

outlined.

It is considered that in finding the range of form and variation of a species

an ecological approach is necessary. The geographical discontinuity between this

species and others of the genus (from Europe and west coast of the United

States) proves this to be a most interesting record.

REFERENCES

De Toni, G. B. Sylloge Algarum omnitim hucusque cognitarum, 4, ( 3 and 4)

FALKENBERG, P. Die Rhodomelaceen des Golfes von Neapel.

Fritscu, F. E. Structure and Reproduction of the Algae, 2

Smita, G. M. 1944 Marine Algae of the Monterey Peninsula

THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939 - SCIENTIFIC REPORTS

NO 7, BOTANY - PART ONE: CATALOGUE OF PLANTS

By C. M. EARDLEY, HERBARIUM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE

Summary

This collection compromises approximately 350 spices representing 50 families, including

Fungi, Pteridophyta (Masilia only) and Flowering Plants; Lichens were not collected. The

actual Desert crossing was merely a portion of the journey of the Expedition, and 79% of the

species listed here were collected outside the Desert proper, in the neighbourhood of Charlotte

Waters and Andado Station, on the western side and especially along the track from Birdsville

to Marree, on the south-eastern side; here the Diamantina was in flood and much of the

country in good heart.

145

THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939 — SCIENTIFIC REPORTS

No. 7, BOTANY — PART I: CATALOGUE OF PLANTS

By C. M. EaAnpiey, Herbarium of the University of Adelaide

Pratzs XXVIII ro XXX

[Read 9 May 1946]

CoNTENTS Page

INTRODUCTION is 53 am J ole jw te L “ 145

Ittwkeary =... a -. Zu in x i be ale 14 +4 149

SUMMARY OF PLANTS COLLECTED .. o be “a rd a: ae pe 130

PLANTS FOUND IN THE SIMPSON DESERT ProreR Pa ‘. PT ; 150

List of ALL PLANTS COLLECTED ., ad ate _ a] — _ “ 153

Fungi — Pteridophytes ~ Monocotyledons — Dicotyledons.

SuMMARY ae “ - b. o 44 7 ‘i o ae 173

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .. +4 4 as 3 <> a e. 4 173

REvERENCES .. “4, as af: _, as ole ‘> ie ne ~ 174

INTRODUCTION

This collection comprises approximately 350 species representing 50 families,

including Fungi, Pteridophyta (Marsilia only) and Flowering Plants; Lichens

were not collected, The actual Desert crossing was merely a portion of the journey

of the Expedition, and 79% of the species listed here were collected outside the

Desert proper, in the neighbourhood of Charlotte Waters and Andado Station,

on the western side, and especially along the track from Birdsville to Marree, on

the south-eastern side; here the Diamantina was in flood and much of the country

in good heart.

The 76 species collected from Camp 5 to Camp 19 inclusive, are listed

separately and considered to belong to the flora of the sandridge Desert proper,

interrupted only by the floodplain of the Hay River.

The plants come from three States—South Australia, Central Australia and

Queensland. The regions around the Desert are fairly well known botanically and

it was not expected that many new plants would be found; however, there is a

new species of Atriplex, A. cordifolia described by J. M- Black, from Camp 45

on the eastern edge of Lake Eyre North. Mr. Blake and Mrs. Lee discovered

among the Gramineae and among the species of Swainsona respectively, further

examples of forms recognised by them as new, A possibly new variety of

Zygophyllum ammophilum is also described. Dr. G. H. Cunningham, of New

Zealand, and Dr, J. B. Cleland have established one of the fungi (Schisostoma

laceratun:) as new to Australasia.

In his paper “The Simpson Desert and its Borders” (42) (q.v. with its

bibliography), Madigan gave an account of the journeys of earlier explorers

around the margins of the Desert, It is interesting to survey their botanical

activities. Sturt (1845) did not collect on a yery large scale, apparently confining

himself to plants that looked new or interesting, and Robert Brown, who wrote

the botanical appendix to Sturt's narrative, found a large percentage of new

plants in the 100 or so collected by Sturt during 1844-46. Hodgkinson (1876)

seems to have made only the usual general vegetation notes on his map, Lewis

(1874) had a collector and naturalist, F. W. Andrews, with him, but states that

‘rane, Roy, Soo, S. Alist., TO, (1), 30 Juhe 1946

146

there was so little to collect that he confined himself to “grasses”; he gives no

report on these grasses nor any indication of what happened to them, Barclay

(1878) apparently did no collecting. Winnecke (1877-81 and 1883) was in touch

with the great botanist, von Mueller, and collected carefully, sending his plants

to von Mueller for identification, He complains that four sets of collections were

destroyed during the 1877-81 journey by the inattention of members of his party

during his absence from camp; but appended to the journal (15) of his 1883

expedition is a very interesting list of 85 plants determined by yon Mueller,

Lindsay (1885-86) had Dittrich with him collecting, and sent packets of plants

back to von Mueller, but no further account of these plants occurs in Lindsay's

atticle in. the Proc, R. Geogr. Soc, 1899. T. E. Day (1916) did not collect (9).

For the collecting done on Madigan’s own earlier expeditions, sce his “Simpson

Desert and its Borders” (12); another paper of his, “The Australian Sand-

ridge Deserts” (11), has some general vegetation motes,

In 1937 G. H. Clarke was with E. A. Colson and collected 77 species

between Abminga and Anacoora Bore; 19 of these were not included in the

present collection. The difference in the twa lists of species at Acacia is most

instructive (unpublished records of the Waite Institute). In August 1938, C. P.

Mountford collected on the south-west fringe of the Desert while with a search

patty for some putative remains of Leichhardt. His plants were identified at the

Adelaide University Herbarium and include only one or two Further species {list

unpublished), notably Alaluya. hemiglayca, Whitewood.

Some of the plants collected by the 1939 Simpson Desert Expedition are rare,

and the determination) of others is in doubt. because they belong to difficult genera

(eg., Frankonia). Two or three plants could not be identified on account of

insufficient material. The families represented by the largest number of species

are as follows, the asterisk marking those containing the more important desert

plants itt this collection.

Sp eoll. tn Spp. cotl, in

Total Desert proper Tetal Desert proper

Nocfspp (C519) No,olspp. (© 5-19}

Chenopodiaceae - 31 o* Euphorbiaceae - ¥Y 2

Gréinineae - - 30 4 Solanaceae - - &§ 4

*Legumincsae - 40 1}* Cruciferae - - 7 1

Composite - 3b 4 Alvoaceat ik i}

Amarantaceae - 13 4 Zywophyllacese - 7 0

*“Myopbrarveac - 12 3¢ Frankeniaceae - 6 0

Cyperaceae - 12 3 Loranthaceae 5 1

Malvaceae - - Ww i *Proteacest — - 4§ 4*

Goodeniaceae - G 3

It is seen that half the total number of species collected is evenly distributed

among the first four large families, and the remaining 50 families are represented

only hy a few species each, with the exceptions quoted above.

The predeminance of Chenopodiaceae in number both of individuals and

species is a characteristic phenomenon of our drier areas and, to a lesser extent,

of those in many other parts of the world. Of the Leguminosae, 14 are species of

Acacia, and it is these and some species of Cassia which, because they aré

perennial shrubs or small trees, are so important in the Desert proper. Families

represented by the larger shrubs or trees are Myoporaceae and Proteaceae. The

Euecalypts are of first importance wherever they occur. Eucalyptus Coolabah is

found here and there, while E. pyraphora is present, though rare, and the tallest

tree in the Desert. The preponderance of Gramineae, Leguminosae and Com-

positae is a normal feature of most floras-

147

The two families so outstandingly characteristic of the Australian flora as a

whole, Myrtaceae and Proteaceae, ate represented by relatively few species, but

they at least have the importance of tree status. It is interesting to see the

smaller, chiefly Australian families like Goodeniaceae, Myoporaceae and the

endemic genera of the Amarantaceae well to the fore.

The Gramineae are notable because two shrubby species are ubiquitous in

the Desert; indeed, one of them, Triodia Basedowit (Porcupine Grass or “Spini-

tex"), is the averwhelmingly constant and frequent plant of the Desert sands.

The other is Cane Grass, Spinifex paradoxus (now to be known as Zygochlod

paradoxe), Their ecology is described by Crocker (8) in another of the present

series of reports. The common name “Cane Grass" has, in this paper, been

applied also to some other grasses on account of their habit; they are Glyceria

ramigera (now Eragrostis australasica), Chrysopogon fullax and Echinechioa

Turneriana,

The Chenopodiaceae of the Desert proper are practically limited to a few

common species, e.g, Rhagadia spinescens, Kochtia lanosa and Enchylaena

tomentosa; the same applies to the Compositae.

It seems, then, that after the two shrubby grasses mentioned, the chief trees

and shrubs hardy in the Desert belong ta the families Leguminosae, Myopora-

ceae and Proteaceae, together with Eucalyptus Coolabah (Desert Box), Dodonaea

viscosa, a very few Malvaceae. Senevola depauperato, a few Chenopodiaceae, and

some of the small, shrubby Amarantaceae, Euphorbiaceae and species of Solana.

A tree which occurs more rarely is Codonocarpus cotinifolius (Native Poplar}.

The remaining families tabulated above are represented chiefly by small annual or

perennial plants-

The presence of several species of fungi, probably rather localized, is imter-

esting. The conditions must be generally unfayourahle for geaphytes and even

ephemerals, though there is still much to learn about this most important aspect

of the Desert flora. As regards the rest of the collection, a few short remarks

on species of particular interest will be made.

Ruppia maritima (Hale River)—There is a scarcity of records of the dis-

tribution of this cosmopolitan aquatic plant in Australian inland waters, but one

has little dowbt that it must be widespread in spite of tlie distances separating

suitable habitats; it is also recorded for many waters and spririgs in the Egyptian

desert. The only other aquatic plant was a Myriophyllwm; Mursilia does not fall

into quite the same category.

In the Gramineae, the large number of Eragrostis species (ten) should be

mentioned. No Schismms barbalis { Mediterranean Grass) was collected, This

is an introdyced annual which has rapidly mvaded the northern areas of South

Australia, and is bound te follow transport routes to Central Australia.

Piilotus tatifoliws, frst collected by Sturt and evidently not uncommon in

this region, is interesting taxonomically.

Friiting specimens only of the rare Acacia peuce were gathered at Andacdo

Station and near Birdsville, on the western and eastern edges of the Desert

respectively, ihe only known localities for this species; the globular flower-heads

have not yet been described, bur probably will be in the second edition of J. M-

Black’s “Flora of South Australia’ (3). Most writers who have seen this tree

mention its “pine-like habit.” It ts commonly called “Casuarina" at Andado,

which is misleading, and ‘“Waddy” (13) at Birdsville. Blake (1938) gives photo-

graphs (4) and it is also illustrated here in pl, xxix; F. M. Bailey (1) calls it

"Tronwood.”" Colson (1940) (7) says that the wood is as heavy as iron and nearly

as hard; that it was used for the suryey-line mile-posts erected by Poeppel on

148

the Queersland-South Australian border in 1879, and that these posts are still

in good condition, Dr. L, K. Ward collected it at Andado in 1925 and 1928 and

took photographs. T, E. Day (1916) (9) published a photograph described as

“Casuarina” which probably illustrates this species, Acacia peuce is very likely

on the way to extinction.

The only mulga collected was A, brachystachya, Umbrella Mulga.

Triumfetta Winneckeana (Tiliaceae) is a small plant found on the crests of

sandridges in the Desert and apparently seldom collected. Winnecke obtained

the first specimens in his journey north-east and east of the Desert in 1883 (15).

Plagianthus incanus specimens have now been found far from the type

locality and extend our knowledge of the species greatly. Another malvaceous

plant, Sida inglusa, must be well enough known by now, but its large, spiny fruit

completely enclosed by the calyx is still remarkable.

Some of the Goodeniaceae are worth mention. Calogyne Berardiana is a

small desert plant like a Goodexia, except for the curious divided style bearing

an indusium on each of the two branches; Leschenaultia divaricata is a leafless,

wiry bush with podlike capsules.

Much help from various botanists is very gratefully acknowledged, as follows:

Fungi—Identified by Dr. J. B. Cleland of Adelaide.

Gramineae—IJdentified by Mr. S. T, Blake, Brisbane Nattonal Herbaritim,

the author of many studies on grasses.

The genus Enneapogon—Identified by Miss N. T. Burbidge, Waite Institute,

who has recently revised tt.

Cypersceac—Identified by Mr. S. T. Blake, a specialist on the family.

Chenopodiaceae—Identified with the help of Mr. R. L. Crocker, the collector,

and Mr, R, H, Anderson, Chief Botanist, National Herbarium, N.S.W.

The genus Swainsona—Identified by Miss A. Melvaine (Mrs. Lee), National

Herbarium, N,5,W,

Mr Blake determined over 60 species, a large share of the work most eriti-

cally and competently performed.

In addition, Mr, P, F. Morris, of the Victorian National Herbarium, has

thecked the identity of Trimmfetta Winneckeana and determined Exphorbia Mac-

Gillivrayi and a puzzling form of Bassia quinguecuspis.

The Western Australian State Herbarium has also been consulted.

Finally, Mr. J. M. Black’s Herbarium was continually used and his advice

sought. Most of the plants in this list are described in his ‘Flora of South Aus-

tralia,” Adelaide 1922-29 falso Part I, second edition, 1943) (3), and in his

“Additions” published annually in subsequent volumes of the Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust.; in other cases, a reference to a description, not necessarily the original

one, has been given.

The excellent and important botanical collection itself, with the careful notes

of Mr. Crocker, the collector, has been presented io the Herbarium in the

Botanical Department of the University of Adelaide by Dr, Madigan.

Now that we have a picture of the flora of this most inhospitable of the Aus-

tralian deserts, as displayed in the present list and in Crocker’s companion paper

on the plant ecology (8), the question at once presents itself, “How does this

vegetation compare with that of the other great deserts of the world, and does. it

help us to an accurate conception of the true relative aridity of our own desert 2”

This theme has, therefore, been developed as a logical conclusion to the present

paper, and, it is hoped, will soon be published.

149

ITINERARY

Dates and Camp Numbers (C.) as used in Collector’s Notes

MAY, 1939 JULY

25 1 ¢€.20

26 2 C.21. Georgina™ flood plain

27. Charlotte Waters 3° C.22

28 Andado H.S., Mayfield’s Swamp 4 C€.23, Stony flat

29 eI Qo 5 C.24. Red gibber flat

» 30 sp Eastern edge of Desert crossed

31 js » Indinda Well 6 C.Z5. Birdsville Hotel

oy 1 Andado Bore No. 2 8

2 Crown Sin., Finke River; Mayfield’s 9

Swamp; Charlotte Waters; Andado 10 North Birdsville

3 Abminga Creek, S. Aust; Indinda 11 Leave Birdsville

Well South Australian Border crossed

4 Near Andada 12 €.26, Diamantina River

5 Atndado Bore No. 1 C.1. The 13 C.27. Eleanor Creek, S.A.

Iiliterz 14 C€.28 Andrewilla W.H., Diamantina

6 C.2. Flood plain of Todd River 15 C.29 Burt's W.H. Diamantina

7 C.3. Flood plain of Hale River 16 €.30. Goyder's Lagoon

8 C.3. Edge of tableland and Hale 17 C.31- Canegrass Swamp, Goyder’s

flood plain Lagoon

9 C.4, Hale River channel, Allua Soak 18 C.32. 7-Mile Creek, Goyder’s La-

Western edge of Desert crossed goon Bore

10 C.5. Mulga flat with Porcupine Grass 19 C.33. Gibber plain

11 C.6. Desert proper 20 Mount Gason

12 C.7 21 C€.34. Mount Gason

13 C.8 Rain 22 €.35

146C.8 23 €.36. Warburton River. Hot bores

5 Ck , 24 C. 37. is ss Cowarie

16 C8, Station, Derwent Creek

17 C9 25 C. 38

18 C.10 26 C.39. Cowarie Crossing. Warbkur-

19 C,11. Gidgee hollows ton flood plain

20 C12 27 C.40. Claypans, Kalamurina Stn.

21 C13 28 C.41. Gypseous area

22 €.14 29 C€.42. Junction Warburton River

23 C.15 and Macumba River, near L. Eyre

24 C,16, Flood plain of Hay River 30 €.43

25 €.17 31 C.44. Gypseous claypan

Queensland Border crossed at C_17 AUGUST

26 C.18. Gidgee hollows, Queensland 1 C,45 Dillon Bush hollows

a7 c.19 i . 2 C.46

Rabbit Board Fence crossed 3 C47

28 C.20. Claypans, “Lake Crocker” 4 C.48

29 C,20. Mulligan River,?) Kudda- 5 C.49. Near Lake Eyre North

ree W.H,, Kaliduwarry Station 6 C€.50, Clayton River branch

30 C.20 7

8 Lake Letty. About 15 miles N. Marree

9 Marrce

@) There has been much confusion about the correct limits of the Mulligan and

Georgina Rivers, and the two names have been used rather indiscriminately on the plant

labels —R. L. Crocker.

150

SUMMARY OF PLANTS COLLECTED

Total Desert Total Desert

spp. spp. spp- app-

Fungi - . - 8 6 Sapindaceae - - 3 1

Marsiliaceae - - Tiliaceae - - ji 1

Potamogetonaceae - I Malvaceae - - 10 3

Gramineae - - 50 4 Sterculiaceae - + 1

Cyperaceae - + 12 1 Frankeniaceae - 6

Liliaceae = - id Thymelaeaceae - 1

Amaryllidaceae - 1 Lythraceae - - 2

Proteaceae - - 5 4 Myrtaceae - - 4 3

Santalaceae = - - 1 Halorrhagidaceae - 3 1

Loranthaceae - - § L Umbelliferae - - 1

Polygonaceae - - 3 Gentianaceae - - Jj 1

Chenopodiaceae -~b1 9 Convolvulaceae. - 2

Amarantaceae - 13 4 Boraginaceae ~- - 2

Nyctaginaceae ts TI Verbenaceae - - 3 2

Phytolaccaceae - J 1 Labiatae - - - 2

Aizoaceae - ~ Solanacege = - - 8 4

Portulacaceae - - 38 Scrophulariaceae - 2 1

Caryophyllaceae - 1 Myoporaceae - - 12 5

Capparidaceae - Jj Plantaginaceae - 1

Cruciferae - - 7 ij Cucurhitaceae - - 2

Leguminosae - - 43 14 Campanulaceae - 2

Geraniaceae = - - 4 Goodeniaceae - - 9 3

Zygophyllaceae a+ wf Brunoniaceae ~ - 4d

Meliaceae - - | Compositae - - 36 4

Euphorbiaceae - 9 2 — —

Totals - ~- 346 76

Of the above 49 families present, the 23 families in heavy type are those

with representatives collected in the Desert proper (i.e., between Camps 5-19

inclusive), the number of species being given in the last column opposite the

appropriate family.

PLANTS FOUND IN SIMPSON DESERT PROPER

Collected between Camp 5 and Camp 19, inclusive, from 10 June 1939 to

27 June 1939, Plants collected before 10 June 1939 may have occurred in

the Desert without being collected again. Camps 15-16 were along the flood-

plain of the Hay River.

FuNGI

Montagnites Candollet—C. 16-17.

Podaxon pistillaris—Common, C. 7-8.

Tulostoma albicans—C. 16-17.

T, McAlpinianum—Common, C. 7-8,

Disciseda cervina—C. 16-17.

Pisolithus tinctorius—Hay River.

GRAMINEAE

Setaria Brownti—cC. 18,

Zygochlaa poradoxa (= Spinifex paradoxus), “Cane Grass’*—Common in

Desert, C. 5, 6, 7, etc,, though not collected there.

Triodia Basedowit “Porcupine Grass” or “Spimifex”—Occurs very frequently

in Desert.

Eragrostis eriopoda—2 collns., in Desert only, C, 8 and C, 16.

151

CYPERACEAE

Fimbristylis dichotoma?—C. 19, very common.

PROTEACEAE

Hakea leucoptera—C. 8, not collected here; identification fide R. L. Crocker.

H. intermedia—Up to 2 m. high; C. 7, C. 10.

Grevillea juncifolia—Up to 3 m. high, very common, C. 6-8.

G. stenobotrya—Up to 2 m. high; collected only in Desert; C, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13.

? G. striata, Beefwood—Up to 5 m. high, C, 5; leaves only.

LORANTHACEAE

Loranthus sp—‘On Hakea leucoptera” (sic) which was not collected in the

Desert; C. 8.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Rhagodia spinescens—Common with Triodia, C. 10.

Atriplex vesicarium—C, 19, Gidgee ~ Saltbush association,

Bassia bicornis—C, 19, Goathead.

B. intricata—C,. 19.

B. paradoxa—C, 19-20.

B, untflora—C. 19.

Kochia lanosa—C, 11 and C, 18.

Salsola Kali—c. 5.

Enchylaena tomentosa—C, 8, C. 9, C. 19,

AMARANTACEAE

Trichinium alopecuroideum var. rubriflorwm—Common, C. 14.

T. obovatum var. grandiflorum—C. 8, C. 11,

Pitlotus latifolins—Very common on all Canegrass sandhills between Andado

and C. 10.

Amarantus grandiflorus—C, 11,

PHYTOLACCACEAE

Codonocarpus cotinifolius, ‘Native Poplar’—C. 16, Hay River.

CRUCIFERAE

Blennodia pterosperma—C. 11.

LEGUMINOSAE

Acacia Cambaget, “Gidgee”—Not collected in Desert, but certainly occurs at

C. 11, 18, 19 and probably elsewhere.

. brachystachya—Not collected in Desert, but occurs at C, 5. ‘‘Mulga.”

. dictyophleba—C, 6, to 2 m. high; C. 11.

. igulata—“‘Sandhill Wattle,” C. 6, to 2 m. high.

. Murrayana—C. 6.

. patens—C, 6-C. 8, up to 1 m. high.

. Wattsiana—Prob., no fruits, C. 17, 5 miles east of Hay River.

Cassia pleurocerpa—‘Sandhill legume,” C. 10, C. 13.

C. eremophila—Common C. 7, C. 14; flood plain of Hay River.

Crotalaria Cunninghamii—‘Parrot Bush” or “Felt Bush,’ Common Andado,

Das fas By fa py

C. 8.

C. dissitiflora—C, 8, C. 15.

152

Psoralea eriantha—C, 14.

Swainsona rigida——-Common after C, 17.

S. microphylla ssp. affinis—C. 6, 7, 13.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Adriana Hookeri—Common C. 5-C. 8, but often dead.

Euphorbia Wheeleri—Very common Andado; C. 11.

SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea viscosa—Edge of Desert, C. 12, C. 13 and C. 18,

TILIACEAE

Triumfetta Winneckeana—C. 6-8.

MALVACEAE

Sida corrugata—C. 6 and 7 common, C. 8, C. 19 Gidgee hollow.

S. virgata—Common up to C. 13.

Hibiscus Krichauffianus—‘Common across S.D.”

MyRTACEAE

Eucalyptus pyrophora—‘Bloodwood.” Rare, C. 17-18, 9 m. high,

E. Coolabah—C, 6-7, 5 m. high; C. 12-13; Hay River, 7-9 m. high.

Thryptomene Maisonneuvii—C. 18.

HALORRHAGIDACEAE

Halorrhagis Gossei—C. 9 - 10.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea Muelleri—Hay River flood plain, C. 15.

VERBENACEAE

Newcastlia cephalantha—C, 17.

Dicrastylis Doranii v. eriantha—C. 16 - 17.

SOLANACEAE

Solanum ellipticwum—C, 5 and Hay River.

S. esuriale—C, 16,

S. coactiliferum—C. 14.

S. chenopodinum—C, 19, Gidgee hollow.

ScCROPHULARIACEAE

Morgania glabra—C. 15.

MYoPoRACEAE

Eremophila Latrobei—C. 5, C. 18.

E. longifolia—C, 7, C. 8.

E. Willsti—Very common, C 6- 7.

E. Strehlowii—Very common, C. 12 - 13.

E. strongylophylla—c. 5.

GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia cycloptera—C. 6.

Calogyne Berardiana—C. 5.

Scaevola depauperata—C, 5, C. 8, C. 18; only in Desert.

153

COMPOSITAE

Calotis erinacea—Andado to C. 7.

Hehipterum moschatum—cC, 8.

Helichrysum ambiguum vy. paucisetum—C. 13.

H. roseum v. Davenportii—C. 8.

Total, 76 species in 23 families.

LIST OF ALL PLANTS COLLECTED

Cryptogams

FUNGI

For descriptions of the following fungi, see J. B. Cleland (6).

BASIDIOMYCETAE

(1) HYMENOMYCETALES

AGARICACEAE

Coprinus sp.—Spores oblique, sometimes ovate. 7°5 to9 nx 5-5. No details

of locality.

Montagnites Candollei Fr—Sand-slope between C. 16-17. Spores 15 to 28

x95 to Llp.

(2) GASTEROMYCETALES

FIYMENOGASTRACEAE

Hydnangium glabrellum (Z. and D,) G. H. Cunn—Spores spherical, 11 to

125. No details of locality, Identified by Dr. G. H. Cunningham, of

New Zealand (v. his “Gasteromycetes of Australia and New Zealand,”

Dunedin, N.Z., 1944).

TULOSTOMATACEAE

Podaxon pistillaris (L.) Fr.—Common between C, 7 and 8. Stable sand.

Spores 13 to 5px 9p. Capillitium scanty, brownish, 5 to 7p. 16.6.39.

Tulostoma albicans White—Sand-slope between C. 16 and 17. Spores 5°5 p.

TL. McAlpinianum Lloyd—Stable sand, common between C. 7-8. Spores 45 y.

16.6.39.

Schizostoma laceratum Ehrenb. ex Leveille. (Queletia mundkuri Ahmad.

Journ. Indian Bot. Soc., 20, 135, 1941.) Named for the Punjaub, the genus

is a new record for Australia. Also found in Africa. Identified by

Dr. G. H. Cunningham, of New Zealand.

LycoPERDACEAE

Disciseda cervina (Berk.) Cunn—(1) Near C. 3; spores 6-7; capillitium

short, fuscous, 3-7 to 4°54, (2) Sand-slope between C. 16-17; spores

me 7S»; capillitium short lengths, occasionally branched, brown, 3-5

to 3° pw.

. SCLERQDERMATACEAE

Pisolithus tinctorius (Micheli ex Pers.) Coker et Couch.—(1) Flood plain,

Hay River; spores 9». (2) Channel of Hay River; spores 8-5 p.

Pteridophyta

MARSILIACEAE

Marsilia hirsuta R. Br—Watercourse, Charlotte Waters, 27.5.39.

Mersilia Drummondit A. Br., “Nardoo”—Georgina River, C. 21. 2.6.39.

154

Phanerogams

MONOCOTYLEDONS

PoTAMOGETONACEAE

Ruppia maritima L—Channel of the Hale River. A water plant,

GRAMINEAE

ANDROPOGONEAE

Chrysopogon fallax S. T. Blake, Univ, Queensland Papers, Dept. Biol., 2,

No, 3, 9, 1944, “Cane Grass,” Seven-mile Creek; tall grass 1-1'5 m. high.

18,7.39.

Dichanthium humilins J, M, Black—(1) Finke River, Crown Pasi. Co, 2.6.39,

(2) Common on flood plain of Hale River, C. 3,

Eulalia fulvw (R. Br.) O. Kuntze—Watercourse, Charlotte Waters.

Iscilema membranaceum (Lindl.) Domin—(1) Finke River, Crown Past. Co.

. (2) Inter-ridge watercourse near Andado H.S.

I. vaginifloram Domin—(1) Charlotte Waters; in watercourse and associated

with Eragrostis sp. 27.5.39. (2) Common on tableland and small water-

course therean between C. 30 and C, 33.

ZOYSIEAE

Tragus australianus S. T. Blake, Univ. Queensland Dept. Biol. Papers 1,

No. 18, 1941—Off small watercourse, C. 34. Formerly referred to as

T. vacemosus (L.) All. 21.7.39.

PANICEAE

Brachiaria praetervisa (Domin) C. E. Hubbard (Urochloa praetervisa (Domin)

Hughes)—(1) Finke River flood plain, Crown Station. 2.6.39, (2)

Flood plain of Hale River, C. 3. 7.6.39,

Digitaria ammophila (¥, Muell.) Hughes—C. 34. 217.39,

Ichnanthus australiensis (Domin) Hughes—Sandridge 8 miles north-east

Andado Bore. 5.6.39.

Panicum decomposiium R. Br—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39.

(2) Abminga Creek. 3.6.39. (3) Flood plain of Hale River, C. 3. 7.6.39,

(4) Common in canegrass swamp; Goyder's Lagoon, 17.7.39. (5) Edge

of claypan, gypseous hollows, C-41. 28.7.39.

P. Whitei J. M. Black—(1) Inter-ridge watercourse, Andado Station, 30.5,39.

(2) Common about Diamantina River. C. 29. 15,7.39.

Echinochloa Turneriana Domin, in Biblioth, Bot., 20, Heft 85, 307, (1915),

cited as an alternative name for Panicum Turnerianum Domin Le, “Cane

Grass”: tall grass about 1 m, high along Diamantina channels and

Goyder’s Lagoon, C, 29. 16.7,39.

Eriochioa australiensis Stapf ex Thellung in Vierteljahr. Natiirforsch. Ge-

sellsch., Ziirich, 64, 697 (1919)——Swamp between Charlotte Waters and

Andado.

E. pseudo-acrotricha (Stapf ex Thellung) C. E. Hubbard ex 5. T. Blake, Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 67, 43 (1943)—(1) Watercourse between Andado and

Charlotte Waters, 28.5.39. (2) Finke River, Crown Pastoral Co. 2.6.39.

(3) Very common about Goyder’s Lagoon. 16.7.59. (4) Common along

Warburton River. 23.7.39.

E. longiflora S. T. Blake, Univ. Queensland Papers, Dept. Biol., 1; No. 18,

1941—(1) Sandy watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.539. (2) Burt's

Waterhole, C. 29. 15,7.39,

155

Plagiosetum refractum (F. Muell.) Benth—(1) Very common with Spirfes

(Cane Grass) on rather unstable dune, east of Andado Station, 29.539.

(2) “Drooping Oat Grass.” Sandhills near Mulligan River. 28.6.39

Selaria Brown Herm., in Rosen, Beitr. Biol. Pflanzen, 10, 61, (1910)—Rare,

sand-slope, C, 18, Old. 26.6,39,

S. Dielsii Herm., hc,, 52, (1910)—Box flood plain of Finke River between

Charlotte Waters and Mayfield Swamp. 2.6.39.

Zygochloa paradoxa (R, Br.) S, T, Blake. (Spinifer paradoxus (R, Br.)

Benth,), N,B.—"Spinifex’” is regularly used as a popular name and

applied to Triodia spp. q.v., a long-standing and unfortunate confusion,

(1) Sandhills near Mayfield Waterhole ; “Cane Grass”; male plant, 28.5.39,

(2) “Cane Grass” 1-14 m, high; sandy flat, near C. 3; female plant. 8.6.39,

Recently published as a new getius, Univ, of Queensland Papers, Dept.

Biol., 1, No. 19, 1941,

AGROSTIDEAK

Aristida anthoxanthoides (Domin) Henr.—Inter-ridge watercourse, Andado

Station. 30.5.39.

A. Browniuna Henr. (A, Muelleri Henr.)—(1) Sandhill near Andado Station

homestead. 29.5.39. (2) Between sandhills, 2 miles north-east C. 1.

6.6.39. (3) Sandy Creek, near C. 3. 8639. (4) Claypan and gidgee

country, 28.6.39. (5S) Red gibber flat. 5.7.39.

A. arenaria Gaud.—(1} Between sandhills, 2 miles north Mayfield's Swamp,

Andado, 2.6.39. (2) C. 3. 86.39. (3) Gibber tableland; C. 33. 19.7.39.

Stipa nitida Summerhayes and Hubbard—Cominon about gypseous claypars,

C. 44 and 45, 1.8.39,

Sporobolus actinocladus F. Muell—Very common, stony tableland. Goyder’s

Lagoon Bore. 18.7.39.

Agrostis avenacea Gmel—J. W. Vickery, Contribns. N.S.W. National Herb,, 1,

No. 3, 1941. (1) Andrewilla, small swamp. 14.7.39. (2) A very

common grass, Goyder’s Lagoon, C. W. 167.39.

AVENEAE

Eriachne nervosa Fiwatt and Cookson, in Ewart and Davies, Flora of the

Northern Territory, 44 (1917)—Abminga Creek channel. 3.6.39.

£. Benthamii Hartley, J. Linn. Soc. Bot., 52, (No, 344), 345, 1942 (E. owste

Nees var. pallida Benth.)—(1) Charlotte Waters. watercourse. 27,5.39.

(2) Wetter habitat, red gibber flat; between C. 23 and 24, 5.7.39.

£. aristidea F. Muell—(1) Sandhill, east Andado Station. 29.5.39. (2) Sandy

Creek, C, 2, 6.6.39. —

FESTUCEAE (Enncapegon spp. determined by N. T. Burbidge.)

Enneapogon avenaceus (Lindl.) C. E. Hubbard (v. N. T. Burbidge, Proc, Linn.

Soc. Lond., 153rd Session (1940-41), pt. i, Aug. 1941, 52.)—(1) Common

in claypan hollows west of Mulligan River. 286.39, (2) Common in

gibber country, Mount Gason. 20.739.

EB, cylindricus N. T. Burbidge, loc. cit—Between sandhills near Cowarie

Station, C. 37. 25.7,39,

E. polyphyllus (Domin) N. T, Burbidge, Joc. cit—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte

Waters. 27.5.39. (2) Inter-ridge watercourse near Andado H.-S. 30,5,39.

(3) Small watercourse off Finke (Crown Past. Co.). 2.6.39. (4) Flood

plain. Hale River, C. 3. 6.6.39. (5) Common on gibber country, Mount

Gason, 20.7.39

Trivaphis mollis R. Br—(1) Sandy watercourse. 27.5.39. (2) Flood plain of

Hale, C. 3. 8.6.39.

156

Triodia Basedowii E. Pritzel, “Porcupine Grass” or “Spinifex’; v. note on

Zygochloa above. (Formerly known as T. pungens, v. Black, Flora S.A,,

First Ed,)—(1) Base of sandhill east of Andado Station, 29,5.39. (2)

Between sandridges, about 2 miles north of Mayheld's Swamp, Andado

Station. 2.6.39. (3) Between sandhills, 2 miles west of C. 8. 13,6.39.

Also widespread in the Desert.

Diplachne Muelleri Benth. (D. fusea (L.) Beauv. var. Muelleri)—-(1) Water:

course, Charlotte Waters. 27.539. (2) Common along bore drains,

Goyder’s Lagoon Bore; C. 32. 187.39. (3) Seven-mile Creek. 187.39

(4) Bore drain, Mount Gason. 20.7.39.

Cynosurus cristatus L., Bentham and Hooker, British Flora, 536, 1908 edn,

No loc.

Eragrostis setifolia Nees—(1) Charlotte Waters. 275.39. (2) Channel of

Hale River; near C. 3. 8.6.39,

E, leptocarpa Benth—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39, (2)

Andado Station homestead bore. 29.5.39, (3) Stony flat, C. 23. 4.7.39.

(4) Watercourse off stony gibber plains, Goyder’s Lagoon Bore. 18,7,39.

E, laniflora Benth—Gentle slope of sandrise; C. 1, 6.6.39,

E, japonica (Thunb.) Trin—Charlotte Waters, watercourse, 27.5.39.

E. eriopoda Benth—(1) Between sandridges; C. 8, 13.6.39. (2) Sandy rise;

near C. 16, Hay River. 24.6.39.

E. Diels Pilger—(1) Sandridge. 29.5.39. (2) Common in sandy watercourse;

C, 2. 6.6.39. (3) Flood plain of Hale; near C. 3. 8.6.39, (4) Common

on sandrise; C. 24. 5.7.39. (5) Very common about Andrewilla Water-

hole. 14.7.39, (6) Very common in hollows and base of sandhills; C. 40

and 41. 28.7.39.

E. tonfertiflora J. M. Black—({1) Finke River, Crown Past. Co. 2.6.39

(2) C. 4. 9.6.39.

E. Basedowiti Jedwabnik, in Bot. Arch,, 4, 328 (1923)—(1) Sandy watercourse,

Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39. (2) Common about claypans along Rabbit

Board Fence; C, 20. 29.639. (3) Sandy patch at edge of sandridge on

gibber plain, 19.7.39, (4) Watercourse, edge of sandhill; C, 39. 27,7.39,

E. Basedowit Jedwabnik forma vel sp. aff—Sandridge slope, Kaliduwarry

Camp. Not common. 29.6.39.

E, australasica (Steud.) C, E, Hubbard, Kew Bull., 26 (1941) (= Glyceria

ramigera F. Muell., and other synonyms).— “Cane Grass.” Tall grass

about 1-2 m. high, common in some swamps on Goyder's Lagoon; C. 31.

17.7.39

Tripogon loliiformis (F. Muetl.) C. E, Hubbard, Kew Bull., 448, 1934

(Diplachne loliiformis F, Muell.)—() Near C, 34, 21.7.39. (2) Gibber

plain between C. 32 and 33, 197,39.

CHLORIDEAE

Chloris pectinata Benth. Fil, Aust, 7—{1}] Sandy watercourse, Charlotte

Waters, 27,5,39. (2) Common at 7-mile Creek. 18,7,39-

Ch, virgata Sw—Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39.

Astrebla pectinata (L.indl.) F. Muell. ex Benth—‘Mitchell Grass." (1) Clay-

pans neat Rabbit Board Fence. 286.39. (2) Gibber plain; C. 32, etc.

18.7.39. (3) Stony tableland, Mount Gasou. 20,7.39.

Dactyloctenium radulans (R. Br.) Beauy.—“Button Grass.” Sandy water-

course, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39,

Leptochloa digitata (R. Br.) Domin—Large tussock to 1 m, high, Bed of Finke

River, Crown Past. Co. 2.6.39.

137

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus aristatus Rottb—(1) Hale River Channel; C. 4, Allua Soak. 9.6.39.

(2) Derwent Creek; C. 37. 25,7.39.

C. bulbosus Vahl, Enum, pl. ii, 342 (1806)—(1) Charlotte Waters, 27.5.39.

(2) Hale River Channel; C. 3. 86,39. (3) Hale River Channel; C, 4,

Allua Soak. 9.6.39. (4) “Yowa.” About "Lake Crocker,” in small sandy

watercourse. 28,6.39,

C. dactylotes Benth., forma vel sp. aff— Too young for satisfactory deter-

mination. Common on edge of Abminga Creek (Gidgee and Box). 3.6.39,

C. sp. aff C. dactylotes Benth. and C, alterniflorus R, Br.—Too young for satis«

factory determination, Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39.

C. difformis L.—Cowarie, Derwent Creek. 26.7.39.

C, gymnocaulos Steud. Synops. Cyper., 12 (1855); = C. waginatus

R, Br, vat. denstflorus Benth., Fl, Aust., 1, 273, (1878)—(1) Kuddaree

Waterhole, Georgina River. 29.6.39. (2) Common along bore drain,

Mount Gason, 20.7.39, (3) Common along edge of Warburton Channel

(also hot bores). 23,7.39.

C. daevigatus L.—Goyder's Lagoon, boré drain. 18.7.39,

C. rigtdellus (Benth.) J. M. Black— (1) Edge of waterhole on Warburton,

about 6 miles from C, 38. 27.7.39, (2) Edge of claypan near C. 39 on

Warburton flood plain. 27.7.39.

C. victoriensis C. B, Clarke, in Kew Bull. Addit., Ser. viii, 12 (1908)—Water-

course, Charlotte Waters, 27.5.39.

Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl.? —Very common amongst Gidgee about

C, 19. 27.6,39.

Seirpus maritimus L—Common at Goyder’s Lagoon, bore drain, 18.7.39.

5S, australiensis (Maiden and Betche) 5, T. Blake, Proc. Roy. Soc, Qld. 51,

179, 1940—Derwent Creek: C. 37. 25.7.39.

LILIACEAE

Bulbine semibarbata (RK. Br.) Haw—Common along Diamantina and Eleanor

River flats. 13.7.39.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Crinum pedunculatum R. Br—‘Murray Lily.” 7 Flood plain of Mulligan

River, Qld.

This determination is in doubt, the perianth segments are harrower

than those of most South Australian specimens; Black (3) 2nd ed., now

considers the South Australian species to be C, flacciduim Herbert.

DICOTYLEDONS

PROTEACEAE

Hakea intermedia Ew. et Davies—(1) Plain west of Andado Station. 29.5.39,

(2) Rarely exceeding 2 m. high, between sandridges; C. 7. 12.6.39,

(3) C. 10. 18.6.39.

H, leucoptera R. Br., probably, no flowers—Needlebush near C. 2, Also in

sandhills between C. 1 and 2. Probably also in Desert, C. 8. 6.6.39.

Gremillea juncifolia Hook—(1) Andado Station. (2) Flower tangerine. Tree

rarely exceeding 3 m. high, Very common between sardridges from C, 6-

C, 8. 13.6.39.

G, stenobotrya F. Muell—(1) Sandhill near C. 5, 11.6.39, (2) Common

between sandridges, C. 6 and 7; shrub 14-2 m. high. 12,6.39. (3) Sand-

slope Grevillee. Tare to G 12, mere common between C. 12 and 13.

Flower, pale yellow,

158

?G. striata R, Br., leaves only—(1) Sandhill; C, 5, 11.6.39, (2) “Beefwood™

tree to 5 m. high; creck near Mount Gason; C, 34, 21.7.39.

SANTALACEAE

Santalum lanceolatum R. Br—‘Sweet Tree." Creek near C. 3. Good camel

fodder; slightly drooping habit. 8.6.39.

As some of the leaves on this specimen are almost 3 cm. broad, ‘t

has been considered to belong to the type rather than the variety

which follows. The majority of the leaves are no more than 1 cm, broad.

var. aigustifolium Benth—‘Sweet Bush” or “Wild Plum.” Gibber plain neat

C, 33, Fruit black when ripe. 197,39,

LORANTHACEAE

Loranthus Exocarpi Behr—Andado Bore No. 1. Mistletoe on Acacia peuce.

L. Muaidenti Blakely—Mistletoe on Mulga; C. 3. 8.6,39.

L, Murrayi F, Muell, et Tate—Mistletoe on Mulga; Co. 3. 8.6.59.

L. gibberulus Tate—No flowers present; berries only. The specimen is prob-

bably a glabrous form of this tomentose-leaved species. Noa locality given.

Blakely has described this form with glabrous leaves as var Tatem (Proc.

Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 47, 395. 1922).

L, sp.—Mistletoe on Hakea leucoptera, C. 8. 17.6,39,

This specimen approaches L. Quandang Lindl. and L. Maidenii Blakely,

but the leaves are glabrous. The specimen is incomplete and does not

show the type of inflorescence.

POLYGONACEAE

Rumex crystallinus Lange—Eleanor Creek, Andrewilla Waterhole. 14.7,39-

Polygonum plebejum R. Br.—Diamantina River; C. 28 and 29,

Muehlenbeckia Cunninghamit (Meisn.) F. Muell. “Lignum.”—(1) Creek,

Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39. (2) Inter-ridge watercourse near Andado

H,S. 30.5.39. (3) In Coolabah flood plain of Hale River. 7.6.39. (4)

Goyder’s Lagoon. 17.7.39. (5) Sandhills between Warburton River and

Cowarie Station. 24.7.39.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Rhagodia porabolica R. Br. “Oldman Saltbush."—Tall shrub 13-2 m. high.

Andtewilla Waterhole; C. 28. 147.39.

Rh. spinescens R. Be—(1) Abminga Creck. 3.6.39. (2) Watercourse off table-

lands C. 3. 8.6.39. (3) Common with Triodia between ridges; C. 10.

18.6.39. (4) C. 34, near Mount Gason, 21.7.39,

Chenapodium auricomum Lindl—(1) Near bore, Andado Station, 29,5,39,

(2) Goyder’s Lagoon. 16.7.39.

Ch. cristatum F. Mtell—Finke flood plain (Crown Station), very common.

2.6.39,

Ch, Blackianum Aellen (Dysphania litioralis R, Br.), Trans, Roy, Soc, S. Aust.,

58, 172, 1934—Inter-ridge watercourse, 1 mile north Andado H.S. 30.5.39.

Ch, myriocephalum (Benth.) Aellen (Dysphania myriocephala Benth), loc. cit.

—Edge of claypan; C. 39. 27.7.39,

Ch. simulans F. Muell. et Tate (Dysphanta. simulans FY. Muell, et Tate), loc,

cit—Fairly common about “Lake Crocker,” Old. 28,639,

Alpiplex angulatum Benth.—(1) Mount Gason. 207,49. (2) Flood plain of

Warburton. 20.7.39.

159

A. cordifolia J. M. Black in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, (2), 309, 1945—

Sandhills and hollows east of Lake Eyre North, C. 45, with crucifers and

Buekbush (Salsola Kali?) ; not a dense plant. 1.8.39.

Mr, Black has described the above new species from this specimen; it

is near 4. Muelleri in the fruit, but the leaves are smaller, sessile and

cordate. An erect, glabrous annual, 40-60 cm, high, stems and branches

rigid, whitish; leaves ovate-lanceolate, sinuate-dentate, somewhat thick,

ashy-erey, with minute papillae, sessile-cordate at base, 7-15 mm, Jong,

6-8 mm. wide; flowers clustered in the axils, upper clusters androgynous,

lower ones female (owing to an error, the lower clusters are described as

male in the original Latin diagnosis); {ruiting bracteoles almost as in

A. Muelleri, but scarcely denticulate, sub-rhomboid, 3 mm. long and broad,

lightly three-nerved., .

. elachophyllum F. Muell—Charlotte Waters, slaty rise, 27.5,39,

. halimoides Lind) —(1) Gibber plain, C. 34, 21,7.39, (2) Warburton flood

plain flats. 23.7.39,

. leptocarpum F, Muell—Near Warburton at Cowarie Crossing, 26,7,39,

. imbatum Benth—(1) Very common in Needicbush sand hollow; C. 24.

5.7.39. (2) Sandy hollow between two sandridges west of Cowarie; C. 37-

25,.7.30. (3) Goyder’s Lagoon (?). Approaches var. sexifidum J. M.

Black.

A, nummulorium Lindl. “Giant Saltbush."—(1) Probably this sp.; swamp near

Mayfield. 28.5.39. (2) Ligmmm-Box association, Georgina River, Queens-

land. 29.6.39. (3) Shrub 14 m. high; Georgina Box flood plain, 2.7.39.

(4) Shrub 1 m. high; common on plain about Goyder's Lagoon Station

and Sotith, 18.7.39. (5) Flood plain, Warburton; about 2 m. high; “Old

Man Salt-bush,”’ common. 23.7.39.

. Quinti F. Muell—Stony tableland, Abminga, 5, Aust. 3.6.39.

. spongiosum F, Muell,—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39. (2)

Abminga Creek. 3.6.39. (3) Tableland and watercourse, Andado,

2.6.39. (4) Georgina; C. 21, 2.7.39, (5) Sandhill, Andrewilla, 147.39.

(6) Stony gibber tableland between Goyder’s Lagoon and the ald Station

homestead; C. 31. 17.7.39. (7) Grey flats of Warburton. 237.59. (8)

Warburton River flood plain. 23.7.39. (9) Lake Letty. 8.8.49.

The usual wide range of form and size of fruits and leaves was en-

countered in this collection of specimens of A. spongiasum.

. velutinellum F. Muell—Sandhills, Burt's Hote. 15.7.39.

. vesicarium Heward—(1) Gibber tableland, Abminga. 2.6.39, (2) Table-

land about 5 miles south of C. 2. 6.6.39, (3) Gidgee-salthush association,

about C. 19. 27.639. (4) Gibber tableland; C. 34, 21,759, (5) Gibber

tableland; C, 34, 21.7.39. (6) About gypseous claypuns between C. 44

and 45. 1.8,39.

Bessia bicornis (Lind}.) F, Muell—(1) Sandrise near Indinda Well, Andado.

31.5.39. (2) “Goathead”; Gidgee-diriplexr hollow, 27.6.39,

B. brachyptera (F. Muell.) R. I. Anderson—Lake Letty. 8.8.39.

B. convexula RH. Anderson—Between ridges east af C. 22, 4.7.39.

B. divaricata (R. Br.) F. Muell—(1) Tableland west of Andado Station Home-

stead, 31,5.39, (2) Stony flats between C. 23 and 24, 5.7.39,

B, eriacuntha (F. Muell.) R. H. Anderson—Bore No. 2, Andado, stany Cre-

taceoug tableland. Probably this sp., but perianth immature. 1,6,39,

B. intricata R. HW, Anderson—(1) Gidgee hollow, C. 19. 27.6.39. (2) Comtmoan

about claypans, C, 20, 28.6.39, (3) Andrewilla, small watercourse, C. 28.

ante (+) Stony tableland, Mount Geson, 21,739. (5) Lake Letty,

8.8.39,

ee a

Pa Ba

oy oS

ia 4]

B, lanicuspis F. Muell.— (1) Charlotte Waters, 27.5.39. (2) No, 2 bore,

Andado, 1.6.39, (3) Abminga. 3,6.39. (4) Stony rise, North Birdsville.

10.7,39. (5) Common on gibber tableland; C. 34. 21,7.39.

B. paradoxa (R, Br.) F. Muetl—Gidgee-Afriplex hollow; C.19-20. 28.6,39.

B, quinquecuspis F. Muell—(1) Probably this sp.. Stony rise 4 miles north

Birdsville. 10.7.39, (2) Flood plain and watercourse of Diamantina River,

Andrewilla Waterhole. 15.7.39. (3) Small sandrise east of Andado

Station. A form with the perianth tube almost at right-angles to plane

of attachment and to stem. 30,5.39.

B, patenticuspis R. H. Anderson—Lake Letty. 8.8.39.

B. Tatei F, Muell.—Stony rise, C. 34; tare, 21,7.39,

B. uniflora (R. Br.) F. Mueli—(1) Common about C, 19 in gidgee hollow.

27.6.39. (2) Very common in sand hollows; C, 24, 5.7.39. (3) About

Diamantina, Burt’s Waterhole; C. 29. 15,7,39.

var. incongruens J. M. Black—(1) Abminga Creek. 3.6,39, (2) Watercourse

at Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39.

Babbagia acroptera F. Muel). et Tate—(1) Claypan, samphire gypseous hollows

near C, 20, 28.6.39, (2) Edge of sandhills, C. 38. 26,7,39,

B. dipterocarpa F. Muell.—Andado Creek. 1.6.39.

Kochia aphylla R. Br—Rare on flats between ridges; near C. 23 4,7,39.

K. coronate J. M. Black—Sandy watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.9.

K. Georgei Diels—Abminga. 3.6.39,

K. lanosa Lindl. — (1) Gidgee hollows near C. 11. 196.39. (2) Gidgee

hollows near C, 18. 26.6.39,

K. pentagona R, H, Anderson—Common on gibber plain between Goyder’s

Lagoon and C, 33, 19.7.39.

K, planifolia F. Muell—C. 34. 21.7.39.

K. pyramidata Benth.—C, 34, 21,7,39,

K. tomentosa (Mogq.) F. Muell—(1) C. 3; probably this sp. 86.39. (2) C. 34.

217.39.

var. appressa (Benth.) J. M. Black—(1) Gypseous hollows. 28.7.39. (2)

Low edge of Warburton; C. 42. 29.7,39. (3) Edge of gypseous salt clay-

pan between C. 44 and 45. 1.8.39.

Salsola Keli L., “Buckbush’— (1) Sandtill near Andado Station. 29.5.39,

(2) Near No. 2 Andado Bore, 1.639. (3) C, 2, 66.39. (4) Near C5,

with Canegrass, etc, 11.6.39.

var. strobilifera Benth—-(1) Watercourse near Andado H.5. 305,39. (2)

Abminga, 3.6.39.

Enchylaena tomentosa R, Br—-(1) Abminga Creck. 3.6.39. (2) C. 8. 13.6.39.

(3) Inter-ridge; C. 9. 17.6.39. (4) C, 19, 27.6.49-

Threlkeldia inchoata J, M, Black—Abniinga Siding, watercourse. 3.6.39.

Th, procerifora F. Muell—(1) 5 miles north-east of Charlotte Waters.

28.5.39. (2) Lake Letty. 8.8.39,

? Pachycornia tenuis (Benth,) J. M. Black—(1) Neac C. 2; no fruits present.

6.6,39, (2) 3 miles west of Andado; no fruits present. 31.559. (3)

“Take Crocker.” 28.6.39. Some spp. of Samphire with insufficient

material. — () “Take Crocker.” 28.6.39. (5) C. 43, 31.7,.39.

AMARANTACEAE

Trichinium alopecuroidewn Lindl—(1) Sandhill west of Andado Station.

29,5.39, (2) Flat between sandridges east of Andado Ilomestead. 30,5.39.

(3) Very common between sandhills; C_ 1 and on. 6.6.39,

var. rubriflorum J. M. Black—(1) Very common in a satidy watercourse;

C. 2. 6.6.39, (2) Common; C. 14. 23.6.39.

161

T, exaliatum (Nees.) Benth—(1) Stony slopes by Finke River, 30.5.39. (2)

Edge of watercourse, Finke River, Crown Pastoral Co. 2.6.39. (3) Sandy

watercourse; C. 2. 6.6.39.

T. obovatum Gaudich—Flat east of C. 22, 4.7.39.

var. grandiflorum Benth—({1) Andado Station. 28.5.39. (2) Tableland

gutters. 13.6.39. (3) Towards crest of ridge. 19,6,39.

T. corymbosum Gaudich—Abminga Siding. 3.6.39.

T. helipteroides F. Muell. var. minor J. M. Black—(1) Abminga, 3.6.39. (2)

Tableland east of C. 4, 9.6.39.

T. macrocephalum R. Br—(1) Abminga. 3.6.39, (2) Watercourse east of

C. 4, 9.6.39,

T. semilanatum Lindl.—Charlotte Waters, 27.5,39.

Ptilotus latifolius R. Br——(1) Sandridges east of Andado. 305.39, (2) Very

common on all canegrass sandhills between Andado and C. 10. 18.6.39.

The identity of this species has been checked carefully with specimens

in the Tate Herbarium and seems in no doubt whatever, It has, on the

rim of the staminal cup, alternating with the filaments, an equal number

of membranous, divaricate teeth; specimens in the Tate Herbarium, on

examination, proved also to have these membranous teeth, The interest

lies in the fact that this was not mentioned by J. M. Black or by Bentham;

indeed, Bentham probably did not know the plant very well, it is somewhat

rare. Bentham described the genus Ptilotus as being without intervening

teeth between the stamens; in the very closely related genus Trichinium

he has a small section Squamegera, to include the species showing this

character, which, however, he does not consider of absolute generic

importance,

P. Murrayt F. Muell. var. major J. M. Black—At Eleanor Creek along

edge of sandhill; C, 27-28.

dmarantus grandiflorus J. M. Black—(1) Charlotte Waters, creek or water-

course. 27.5,39. (2) First sandhill west of Andado, 29.5.39. (3) Towards

crest of sandridge; C. 11. 19,6,39.

A, Mitchellit Benth—Watercotirse between Charlotte Waters and Andado

Station. 28,5.39,

Alternanthera angustifolia R. Br,—Sandy watercourse, Charlotte Waters.

A. nodiflora R. Br—(1) Indinda Well, Andado Station. 31.5.39. (2) Andre-

willa Waterhole, 14,7.39,

NYCTACINACERE

Boerhavia diffusn 1.—(1) Inter-ridge watercourse near Andado 11.8. 30.5.39.

(2) On Box Flat, overflow of Finke River, near Charlotte Waters.

2.6.39. (3) Very common in flood plain of Hale River; C, 3. 7.6.39.

PHYTOLACCACEAE

Codonocarpus cotinifolizs (Desf.) F. Muell_—Hay River, sandy bank at edge

of flood plain. 24.6.39,

AIZOACEAE

Carpobrotus aequilaterus (Haw.) N. E. Br. (Mesembrianthemum acquilaterale,

Haw.)—East side of Lake Eyre; low, undulating, sandy country,

Telragonia expansa Murr.—Cowarie, Derwent Creek; C. 37; “Wild Spinach,”

25.7.39.

Aisoon quadrifidum F, Muell. (Gunniopsis quadrifida (P. Muell.) Pax)—

Gypseous hollow; C. 41, 28.7.39-

162

Trianthema décandra L.—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39. (2)

- . On sandhill about Burt’s Hole. 15.7.39.

T. crysiallina Vahl—Charlotte Waters, 27.5.39, var. clavata, J. M. Black;

C, 33. 19.7.39.

T. pilosa, F. Muell—(1) Sandhill near Andado. 28.5.39, (2) Sandy water-

course near C. 2. 6.6.39.

Glinus lotaides Loefl—(1}) Small Box Swamp, near Andado H.S, 30,5.39.

(2) C. 28 or 29.

PorTULACACEAE

Calandrinia ptychosperma F. Muell.—(1) Andado. 1.6.39. (2) Common,

7-mile Creek, 18.7,39.

Portulaca intraterranca J. M. Black—‘*Munyeroo”; C. 2. 6.6.39,

Great mats of “Munyeroo” were seen around the claypans at C. 11.

This common name is applied to various succulent Portulacaceae; good

camel fodder (13).

P. oleracea. L. probably—Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39,

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Polycarpaca corymbosa (L.) Jamk—Saindy watercourse, Charlotte Waters.

27,5,39.

CAPPARIDACEAE

Polanisia viscosa (L.) DC. Andado Station. 31,5,39,

CRUCIFERAE

Blennodia eremigena (F. Muell.) Benth—(1) Flood flats near Cowarie Station.

24.7.39. (2) Edge of small claypan, Howers white. 27.7.39.

B. blennodioides (F. Muell.) Druce (8. lasiocarpa F. Muell.), Trans. Roy.

ae S. Aust., 62, (1), 101, 1938—(1) 7-mile Creek. 18.7,39. (2) C, 38.

26.7.39,

B, pterosperma J. M. Black—(1) Sandy watercourse, Charlotte Waters.

27.5.39, (2) C. 11, 19.6.39. (3) Very common on sandhills about the

Diamantina from Birdsville to Andrewilla Waterhole. A “Wild Stock.”

14.7.39. (4) C. 38. 25.7.39.

B. filifolia (F. Muell,) Benth—(1) C. 33, 21.7.39. (2) C. 42. Junction of

Macumba and Warburton River, 29.7.39,

Menkea sphaegrocarpa F. Muell.—7-mile Creek. Flower white. 18.7.39.

Lepidium ratundum DC—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 275.39. (2)

Abminga. 3.6.39. (3) Edge of sandhills along Eleanor River; C, 27-28.

12.7.39. (4) Goyder’s Lagoon. 16.7.39.

Stenopetalua nutans F. Muell—Very common on flats cast of C. 22. 4.7,39

LEGUMINOSAE

MIMOSOIDEAE

Acacia brachystachya Benth, “Umbrella Mulga."—(1) “Mulga.’’ Sandy water-

course near €.2. Tree to 4 m. high.; pods absent. 6.6.39. (2) “Mulga.”

Very spreading habit. 7.6.39.

4, Cambagei R. T. Baker. “Gidgee’—(1) Abminga. (2) Edge of tableland

and Hale flood plain. Tree to 5 m. high. 8.6.39,

A. colletioides A. Cunn.—~(1) Sandhills near C. 40 and 41. 28.7.39, (2) Sand-

hills about Lake Eyre; C. 48, 4.8.39.

The legumes with these specimens are abnormally large for the species,

up to 18 mm. broad and 12 cm. long and curled; they are not attached to

the twigs bearing the phyllodes.

1635

A. dictyophleba F. Muell.—(1) Shrub 1 m. high. Sandhills north-east of

Andado Bore No. 1. 5.6.39. (2) Sandridge in Desert proper; C. 6. Tree

to 2m, high. 11.6.39. (3) Towards crest of ridge, C. 11. 19.6,39.

' The phyllodes of these specimens are larger than usual, up to 7 cm. long

and 1°5 cm, broad.

. estrophiolata F, Muell. “Tronwood”—Flood plain of Hale; C. 3. 7.6.39,

. Kempeana F. Muell. (in the absence of fruits) —Creek near C. 2. 6.6.39.

. figulata A, Cunn—(1) “Sandhill Wattle,” between Andado H.-S. and Finke

River, 2.6.39. (2) Between C. land C. 2. 6.6.39, (3) Near crest of sand-

tidge (west side); C. 6. Tree to 2 m. high. 11.6.39.

A. tigulata A, Cunn, or 4. salicina Lindl—(1) Near bore at Andado Home-

stead, 29,5.39. (2) Sandy creek near C. 3. To 2 m. high. 6.6.39.

These two specimens are without pods and difficult to name exactly.

. Murrayana F, Muell—-(1) Andado Station. 29.539. (2) C. 6. 11.6.39,

. patens F, Muell—Common between C, 6 and C. 8, Seldota more than

1m. high.

A. peuce I. Muell., Fragm. iti, “The Sheoaks,” J. M. Black. (1) Andado

Station. (2) North of Birdsville.

These are the two classic localities for this rare species. Fruits, but

“no flowers; the latter have never been described. Loranthus q.v. (Mistle-

toe), on tree. J. M. Black quotes phyllodes to 25 cm. long, these speci-

mens have them 30 and 40 em. long; v. introductory remarks, Madigan

(1945, 122) states that there are only 50 or so trees remaining at each of

the two localities.

A. salicina LindlL—-(1) Flood plain of Finke, near Charlotte Waters. Small,

drooping tree, 2 m-3 m. high. 2.6.39. (2) Finke overflaw between Char-

lotte Waters and Mayfeld Swamp. Sometimes slightly drooping, 2.6.39.

(3) Common along Warburton River; also collected at Kuddaree Water-

hole on the Mulligan. 23.7.39.

? A, stenophylia A, Cunn,— Kaliduwarry, Kuddaree Waterhole, Georgina

River. Tree about 3 m-. high. Identification uncertain in absence of pods.

29.6,39,

A. tetragonophyllia F, Muell. “Dead Finish*—Swamip between Charlotte

Waters and Andado Station. The phyllodes are unusually long—up to

6 cm. 2.5.39.

A. Wattsiana FY. Muell. (probably this species in the absence of fruits) —

5 miles east of Hay River; C. 17. 24.6.39.

? A. aff. teretifoliae Benth. (no flowers or fruits)—C. 34. Tree 3 m, high, on

stony rise. 21.7.39,

Nene monosperma Fo Muell.—In small watercourse, Charlotte Waters-

2.5.39,

Dy ee

ra ts

CAESALPINIOIDEAE

Cassia pleurocarpa F. Muell. “Sandhill Iegume."—(1) Very common on sand-

hills at Andado Station; C1, 566.39. (2) C, 10, 186.39. (3) C. 12.

216.39,

C. desolata F, Muell——{1) West of Andado, 31.539. (2) Creek near €, 2.

6.6.39. (3) Stony flats near C. 23. 4.7.39. (4) Near Lake Eyre North;

C. 49. 5.8.39.

C. Sturtt R, Br—Abminga Creek. 3.6.39.

C. Sturt R. Br. var. involucrata J. M, Black—-Common on gibber plains; C, 33.

19.7.39,

Some of the specimens of C’. desolata and C. Stwtii ave very ajHicult

to separate_

164

C. eremophila A, Cunn,—(1) Andado Homestead. 295.39. (2) Common

between sandridges; C. 7, 12.639, (3) C. 14. 22.6.39. (4) Flood plain

of Hay River, (In this specimen leaflets are unusually long—up to 8 em.)

246.39. (5) Stony watercourse, Birdsville. 9.7.39. (6) In creeks; C. 34.

21.7.39, (7) C. 49, near Lake Eyre North (also has leaflets to 7 cm- long).

5.8.39. (8) Near Lake Eyre North; C. 49 (leaflets up to 6 cm. long).

68.39,

Specimens 3, 5 and 6 have unusually broad leaflets, up to 5 mm. wide.

C. artemistoides Gatidich.—Abminga,

Bauhinia Carronti F, Muell. “Queensland Bean,” “Bean Tree,"—Not in flower,

pods and leafy shoots only, Occurs along Eyre Creek, Kaliduwarry

Station; C. 20, 29.6,39,

PAPILIONATAE

Crotaleria Cunninghamis R. Br. “Bird Flower."—(1) Slope of sandridge east

of Andado Station, 29.5.39, (2) “Parrot Bush" or “Felt Bush,” Common

on sandhills from Andado Station to C.8, 13.6.39. (3) Andrewilla, sand-

ridges. 14.7.39.

C. Mitchellii Benth.—Box flat near Georgina River; C. 21. 2.7.39.

C. dissitiflora Benth. A species with a wide range of forms—(1)} Sandhill

saddle, Andado Station. (2) Poisonous pod. Sandhills, Andado Bore.

1.6.39. (3) Common on sandridges; C, 8 13,6.39, (4) C. 15, 23.659.

{5) “Broombush.” Much greyer in appearance than further west, Sand-

hills about Georgina; C. 21. 2.7.39. (6) Sandy part, 7-mile Creek, 18,7,39,

Pritzel (Fedde, Repert. xv, 356, 1918) has distinguished the species

C, Strehlown Pritzel, which differs from C. dissitifora Benth, mainly im

being glabrous and in having leaves of only one leaflet. In the above range

of specimens, however, there occur glabrous, slightly pubescent and densely

grey-pubescent fonns. Also, some of the glabrous forms have three

leaflets; in all cases the terminal leaflet is larger than the other two.

Although some of the above specimens conform to the description of

C, Sirehlowii, we prefer to fallow J. M, Black and include them all under

CG. dissilsflora,

C, Nowae-Hollandiae OC.—Sandhill, Andado Station. 28,5.39.

Trigonella suavissima Lindl—(1) Georgina River about Kuddaree Waterhole;

C. 20. 29.6.39, (2) Goyder’s Lagoon; C. 30. 16.7,39. (3) Lake Letty,

“Clover.” 8.8.39.

Lotus australis Andy. var. parviflorus Benth.— (1) Inter-tidge watercourse

near Andado H.S, 30.5.39, (2) Flood plain of the Hale; C. 3. 8.6,39-

(3) Common about claypans; C. 20. 28.6.39. (4) Watercourse; Goyder’s

Lagoon Bore. 18.7,39. (5) Creek; C. 34. 21.7.39, (6) Flats and near

claypans. 27.7,39.

Psoralea eriantha Benth—{1} Sandhills about C, 14. 23.6.39. (2) Common

on sandridges about Mulligan River; C, 20. 2.7.39. This specimen has

unusually large leaflets. up to Scm. Jong. (3) Sandhills along Diamantina,

Burt’s Waterhole; C. 29. 15.7,39,

P. cinerea Lindl—(1) Mayfield Swamp. 28.5.39. (2) Kuddaree Waterhole;

C, 20, 29.6,39.

P. patens Lindl—(1) Finke River Crossing mear Andado, Common about

swamps. Leaflets very large, up to 7 em. “Verbine.” 2.6.39, (2)

Georgina flood plain; C, 21. 2.7.39, (3) Andrewilla Waterhole. 14,7.39.

(4) C. 33, 19.7.39.

Tephrosia purpurea Pers.—No locality or date.

Sesbania aculeata Poir—Kuddaree Waterhole, Georgina River; C. 20. 29.6.39,

165

The species of Swainsona were identified by Mrs. Lee as follows:

Suwinsana rigida (Benth.) J. M, Black—(1) Common on sandridges after

C. 17. 27.6.39, (2) Common on sandhills about Kalamurina Station;

C, 40, 27.7.39.

S. oligophylla F, Muell., ex Benth—(1) Watercourse, 1 mile north Andado

H.S. 30.5.39, (2) Sandy watercourse, Charlotte Waters.

S. microphylla A. Gray ssp, tomentosa A. Lee, MS.— (1) Near Warburton

River; C, 37. 24.7.39. (2) Near Kalamurina Station; (. 40. 27.7.39.

S. microphylla A, Gray ssp, affinis A. Lee MS (S. affinis Maiden and Cheel

ined.)—(1) Between C. 6 and C. 7. 12.639. (2) Near C, 15, 23.6.39,

5. oroboides F. Muell. ex. Benth, ssp, oroboides A. Lee, MS.—Charlotte

Waters, 27.5,39.

§. stipularis F. Muell. var. purpurea A Lee, MS.—C. 41, 28.7.39.

S. phacoides Benth. ssp. phacoides A, Lec, MS.—Near C. 2. 6.6.39.

Glycine sericea (F. Muell,) Benth—Sandrise, C. 24, and elsewhere east of

Mulligan River. 5.7.39,

Vigna lanceolata Benth—tlarge creeping herb, common along banks of Finke

River, Crown Station. 2.639.

GERANIACEAE

Erodiwm cygnorum Nees—(1) Watercourse, Crown Pastoral Co. 2.6.39. (2)

Warburton River, Cowarie Station; C. 37. 247.39. (3) Lake Letty,

88,39,

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Nitrarta sehetres L, “Nitre Bush."—"Dillon Bush.” Gypseous hollows; C. 41-

28,7.39.

Zygophyllum fruticulasum DC—Stony rises about Mount Gason, 20,7.39.

Z. compressum J. M. Black—(1) Common about “Lake Crocker”; C. 20

28.6.39. (2) Clayton Branch, North Lake Eyre; C, 50: 6.8.39.

Z, Howiltti F, Muell—(1) Finke River. 2.6.39. (2) Sandridge near Andado,

4.6.39. (3) C2. 66.39. (4) “Lake Crocker"; C. 20, 28.6.39.

Z. humillimum M. Koch—Sandhills about Warburton River; C. 37. 24.7.39.

Z. sp. (aff. ammophilo)—(1) Andado Creek, 10 miles north of home-

stead, 1.6.39. (2) Edge of watercourse and tableland, Finke River

(Crown Pastoral Co.), 2.6.39.

These specimens have affinities with both Z. ammmophilum F. Muell-

and Z compressum J. M. Black. The flowers are four-partite and the

filaments cight in number; ihe fruits are four-angled and very like those

of Z. avmophilen, they have nearly truncate summits and sharp corners

ou the angles when immature, these usually round off. The petals (yellow }

and sepals are both 3 mm. long, that is, equal as in Z. ammophilum. The

filaments are like those of Z. compressum with the lower part broadened

into a membranous wing on either side, ending abruptly in an acute tonth;

in Z. aymwophilum, on the other hand, the filaments gradually broaden

towards the base with no teeth. All three types haye similar erect, ciliate

glands around the ovary, The leaflets of these specimens are oyate-oblong

or cuneate and broader than those of .Z. ammophilum, not appressed ta

each other, and often notched at the summit, characters not seen in

Z. compressum, Leaflets are up to 12 mm. long, The petiole is rather

broad and flat. Ag far as could be ascertained, there are one or two seeds

in each cel] of the ovary.

Mr, J. M-. Black has in his collection a fragment of a plant with similar

leaves and only one fruit, collected by Captain S. A. White at Dalhousie

166

Springs in August 1913, The two specimens under discussion were col-

lected in the same region. For the present, they might be considered a

broad-leaved variety of Z. ammophiluim,

Tribulus hystrix R. Br—(1) Sandhills near Mayfield Swamp, Andado.

28.5.39. (2) Inter-ridge watercourse, Andado, 30,5.39.

MELIACEAE

Owenta acidula F. Muell—Sandslope near C. 24. ‘Emu Apple.” 5.7.39.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Phyllanthus lacunarius F. Muell—Kalamurina Station. 27.7.39.

FP.sp. Female only—Near C. 38. 26.7.39.

P. Fucrnrohrit F. Muell., probably this species——Andado Station. Female

flowers only, 29.5,39.

Ricinus communis L. “Castor-oil Plant.”"—Andado Station Homestead bore

29.5.39,

Adriana Hookeri (F. Muell.), Muell. Arg. Male and female—Common between

C. 5 and 8, but frequently dead. 13.6.39,

Euphorbia Wheeler? Baill—Very common on all sandridges between Andado

and C. 11. 19.6,39,

E, Drummondu Boiss—(1) Sand plain east of Andado Station. 30.5.39. (2)

Abminga watercourse. 3.6.39,

E. eremophila A, Cunn.—(1) Andado Station. 31.5.39. (2) C40. (3)

C.41. Probably this sp. in the absence of seed.

FE. Macgillivrayi Boiss., Benth. Fl, Aust. 6, 50. ‘Probably identical atid

synonymats with E, hypericifolia, a cosmopolitan weed’ (F, Morris)—

Finke River, Crown Pastoral Co. 2.6.39.

SAPINDACEAE

Dadonaea viscosa 1.—(1) Occurs rarely on sand slopes all the way across the

Desert ta C. 12. More common C. 12-13. 21.6.39. (2) C. 18. 26.6.39.

D. attenuata A. Cunn—cC. 50, Clayton River. 6.8.39.

D. microzyga F. Muell—(1) Stony tise; C. 34. 21.7.39. (2) Near Lake Eyre

North; C, 49. 6.8,39.

Atalaya hemiglauca F. Muell. “Whitewood.”— Not collected, but stated by

Crocker to have been seen in the Desert sandridge country.

TILIACEAE

Trinmfetia Winneckeana F, Muell,, in Append. to Mr. Winnecke's Explo.

Diary. 1883, Also F, M. Bailey, Queensland Flora, 1, 156—(1) Creeping

herb cotnmon on crest of sandridges about C, 7 and on, 12.6.39. (2)

“Bidgee-widgee” (in error on account of the burrs, probably). Very com-

mon on top of sandridges; C. 6-8. Flower yellow. 13.6,39,

MALVACEAE

Lavatera plebeja Sims—(1) Finke River, Crown Station. 2.6.39. (2) Lignum

Claypan, Mulligan River; C. 20. 29.639. (3) Andrewiila Waterhole;

C. 28. 14,7.39.

Malvastrum spicatum (L.) A, Gray—Abminga, 3,6.39.

Plagianthus glomeratus (Hook.) Benth—(1) C. 42, Female flowers only.

30.7.39. (2) C. 48. About.arm of Lake Hyre, 4.8.39,

There are two separate branches, bearing respectively male and female

flowers.

la?

P_incanics J. M, Black—C. 48, About atm of Lake Eyre, 4.8.39.

Male and female flowers occur on distinct branches at least, probably

on distinct platits.

This species was described from material with male flowers only,

collected in ihe Gawler Ranges, Eyre Peninsula, From the present collec-

tion, the description in Black’s Flora of South Australia may be extended

as follows:—“‘Smiallest leaves about 2 mm. long; largest ones 15 mm. long

and 11 mm. broad, tapering into a petiole and 3-5-toothed at the summit.

Female Howers about the same size as the male ones, corolla only slightly

longer than calyx, style branches three with some small abortive anthers

aroutid their base.’ These specimens differ more in appearance from

P. microphyllus F. Muell. than the plant originally described by Mr, Black,

on account of the generally larger leaves. Mr. Black describes the flowers

of P. glomeratus and another species as bisexual; our experience is that

androecium and gynoecium neyer both fully develop in the same flower, 4

point made also by Bentham.

Sida corrugata Lind!—-(1) Slope of sandridge east cf Andado—an efficient

stabilizer. 29.5.39. (2) Very common in all sandhills to ©. 3, Inter-ridge

watercourse 1 mile north of Andado. 305.39. (3) Watercourse, table-

land Abminga. 3.6.39. (4) Sandy watercourse near C. 3. 8.639. (5)

Low and spreading, fairly common on Canegrass sandridges. C. 6 and 7.

12.6.39, (6) Low and spreading, about boundary of stable and unstable

portion of ridge; C. 8, 14.6,39. (7) Small, spreading shrub, Gidgee hollow ;

C, 19, 27.639. (8) Spreading, prostrate plant at edge of sandhills and

hollows; C. 37. 25.7,39.

S. virgata Hook.—(1) Sandy slope east of Andado. 29.5.9. (2) C. a. Very

common in sandy watercourses and lower parts of sandvidges. 8.6.39.

(3) Common on sandridges and slopes up ta ©, 13. 21.6,39

S, iutricata F, Muell—(1) On stony rise, Mount Gason Station, { Probably

this sp.) 20.7.39, (2) About 30 cm, high, between C, 46 and 47, 2.8.89.

S, inelisa Benth—(1) Sandrise 1 mile north-west Indinda Well. Andado

Station. 3.5.39, (2) Saney flat between C. 1 and 2. 6.6.39.

Several species of the genus Sida are extremely common in the drier

areas of S. Aust., and, no doubt, in contiguous regions of the other States.

The majority of these specimens fall into the three species, 5. corrugata,

S. intricota and S. virgata. S. corrugata seems to be the most polymorphic

of the three and has in the past been divided into several varieties; in view

of the intergrading of the characters used by their authors to separate

them, the utility of doing this is questionable, as Bentham himself wrate.

S$. intricata, in our experience, preserves iis individuality as a smuall-

leaved bush of upright habit.

In his Flora of South Australia, J. M. Black considers S, prdrnculata

A. Cunn. to be a variety of S. corritgata, but later (Trans, Roy. Soe,

S. Aust., 59, 258, 1935) changes his opinion and raises it to specific rank}

the occurrence of the flowers in small or large axillary racemes, quoted as

a diagnostic character of this form, is very common in 5S. cerrugata and

is often associated with smaller leaves and fruits than those described for

S. pedunculata A, Cunn, As a rule these racemes have very many small

linear bracts, giving them a characteristic appearance.

In this Simpson Desert collection, some of the specimens are probably

what is described as S. pedunculata A. Cunn,, but the others are closer to

the type; they have all beem grouped simply as S. cerrugala Lindl,

Abutilon ofocarpum F. Muell—(1) Inter-ridge watercourse at Andado Station,

30.5.39. (2) Lower sandhill. Andado Station. 29.5,39.

166

Hibiscus Krichauffianus F. Muell—(1) C. 1, sandhills. 6.6.39. (2) At base of

sandhills; C, 37, 25.7.39, Also common across Simpson Desert.

STERCULJACEAE

Melhania incana Heyne—(1) Sandy watercourse off tableland; No, 2 Camp.

6.6.39. (2) Common between ridges east of C, 22, 4.7.39, (3) C. 34.

21.7,39.

FRAN KENIACEAE

The only genus in this family with which we are coucerned is Frankenia.

It is an extremely difficult one on accoutit of the high degree of general resemb-

lance among the species, making it necessary to resort to microscopic characters

for classification.

The only really comprehensive survey of the Australian species was pub-

lished by V. S. Summerhayes in the Journ. Linn, Soe., 48, 337-388, 1930, q.v.

J. M. Black has studied the South Australian members in particular and has

described several new species (7. especially Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 56, 43,

1932), and it is hoped that he will soon be in a position to look at this collection

of ten gatherings,

The genus is characteristic of the Mediterranean, and desert zones of Aus-

tralia and other parts of the world. None, however, were found im the Desert

proper.

Only the practised expert can hope to come to sound conclusions about the

identification of the species of Frankenia, and in the meantime tentative sugges-

tions alone will be made for the naming of these specimens.

A. Near F. gracilis Summerh. or F. Sturtt Summerh.—(1) C. 33. 19.7.39.

(2) Edge gypseous salt claypan; C, 45, 1.8.39.

Probably F. hamata Summerh—Small shrub, Abminga. 3.6.39.

Near F. orthotricha J. M. Black—C, 43; edge flood, gypseous claypan.

31,739,

Near F, gracilis Summerl.—Claypan area near Rabbit Board Fence and

“Take Crocker’; C, 29. 28.6.39.

Near Ff. gracilis Summerh. But unlike F. gracilis, these plants have terete

leaflets up to 16 mm. long. They also haye white flowers in contrast to

all the other specimens collected, which had pink flowers—(1) Common at

edge of compact white sandhills near Warburton River; C. 37. 24.7,.39.

(2) Banks of lower Warburton and gypseaus sand-hollows; C. 42, 29.7.39.

(3) Edge of gypseous claypan between C. 44 and 45.

Near F. foliosa J, M. Black and F. muscosa J. M. Black — Small dense

shruls 10-15 cm. high. “Lake Crocker”; C. 20, 28.6.39.

Near F. subleres Summerh. and F, foliosa J. M. Black—Edge gypseous

claypan; C. 45.

vu oop

TILYMELAEBACKAE

Pimetea trichestachya Lindl—(1) Diamantina; C. 28 and 29. (2) Sandy

watercourse, near C. 34, 21.7.39,

LYTURACEAR

Lythrum Hyssepifolia L—C. 29; Diamantina, 15.7.39.

Ammannia multiflora Roxb.—(1) Edge of channel of Abminga Creek. 3.6.39-

(2) C. 28 or 29; Diamantina. 14.7.39.

MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca glomerate F. Muell—Paperbark teatree. Finke Channel, Crown

Pastoral Co. 2,6,39, Rather rare here.

169

Eucalyptus pyrophora Benth—(1) “Bloodwood.” Tree with rough, brown

bark, 9m. - 12m. high; C. 3. 86.39. (2) “Bloodwood.” Rare, hollow

between C. 17 and 18; rough bark, tree 9 m. high, 26.6.39.

£&. Caolabah Blakely and Jacobs. W. F. Blakely, Key to the Eucalypts, 245,

Sydney, 1934. (These specimens would formerly have been included in

E. microtheca F. Muell,)—-(1) “Desert Box.” Swamp, Andado Station.

28.5.39. (2) Creek, flood plain or swamp between C. 6 and 7. Tree to

5 m. high. 12.6.39. (3) Between sandhills from C, 12-13. Entirely

smooth-barked, 21.639. (4) Tree 7-9 m. high. Flood plain of Hay

River. A little rough bark at base of grey-white trunk and branches; C. 16.

(vw. Madigan, 1945, pl. viii, fig. 1.) 246.39. (5) “Box.” Georgina River

(Queensland). Tree to 6 m. high. Stem rough-barked, branches smooth;

C. 20. (Madigan, 1945, pl. viii, fig. 2.) 29.6.39, (6) Tree to 12 m. high.

Box habit. Eleanor Creek, S. Aust.; C. 27, 13.7.39. (7) Tree, 6m. - 9m.

high. Box habit. About junction of the Warburton and Macumba Rivers

near Lake Eyre; C. 42, 29.7.39.

Thryptomene Maisonneuiti F, Muell—(1) Between Andado Bore No. 1 and

the Illitera, amongst canegrass sandhills, 5.6.39, (2) C. 18; between

sandridges. 26.6.39,

HALORRHAGIDACEAE

Halorrhagis Gossei F¥, Muell—Between C. 9 and C. 10, 18.6.39.

H. heterophylla Brongn—(1) Very comnion on flood plain of Hale River;

C. 3, 7.6.39. (2) Warburton River, 23.7.39.

Myrtophyllum verrucosum Lind|—Hale River Channel; an aquatic and swamp

plant. 9.6.39.

UMBELLIFERAE

Didiscus glancifolius F, Muell—(1) Near C. 2, in sandy watercourse ai edge

of sandhills, 6.6.39. (2) Watercourse near C. 34. 21.7.39.

GENTIANACEAE

Lyrythraea Centaurtum Pers —Andrewilla Waterhole. 14,7,39.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Convoluulus erubescens Sims. “Australian Bindweed.”—(1) Inter-ridge water-

course near Andado Station homestead, 30.5.39. (2) Common in flood

plain of Hale River; C. 3. 7.6.39. (3) Common on sandhills about Dia-

aes Burt’s Hole. 15.7.39. (4) Flood flats near Cowarie Station.

24.7.39,

Jpomoca Muelleri Benth—(1) Sandy watercourse; C. 3. 8.6.39. (2) Common

on Hay River flood plain; C. 15, 23.6,39,

BORAGINACEAE

Heliotropium tenuifolium R. Br. var. parviflorum J. M, Black, Proc, Roy. Soc.

S. Aust,, 57, 1933—Near Indinda Well. 31.5,39.

Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.) R. Br—(1) 10 miles north of Andado.

1.6.39. (2) 8 miles north-east of Bore No. 1, Andado. 5.6.39,

VERBENACEAE

Neweasilia cephalantha F. Muell—c. 17. 25.6.39.

N. spodiotricha F. Muell. —No locality.

knit ey Doranit F. Muell. var. eriantha F, Miell—Between C. 16 and 17,

5.6.39,

170

LARIATAE

Teucrium racemosum R. Br—(1) Andado Station, 285.39, (2) Waterplain

of Georgina near Kaliduwarry Station; C. 20. 29.639.

Mentha australis R. Br. “Blackfellows' Tea Plant-"—(1) Diamantina; C. 28

or 20, (2) Andrewilla Waterhole. 14.7,39.

SotANACEAE

Solanum ellipticwm R. Br—(1) Very common on tableland watercourse,

Abminga, 3.6.39. (2) Mulga flat; C. 5. 11.6.39. (3) Hay River. 246,39.

{4) Gibber plain. 19.7.39.

S. esuriale Lindl.—(1) Charlotte Waters, 27.5.39. (2) C. 16. 24.6,39,

S. coactiliferum J. M, Black—C. 14. 22.6.39,

S, chenopodinum F. Muell—Gidgee hollow; C. 19. 27.639.

Datura Leichhardtii Fo Muell—Finke River Bed (Crown Pastoral Co,).

? Nicotiana Goodspeedii Wheeler (Trans. Roy Soc, S. Aust., 60, 169, 1936)—

C. 34, Identification doubtful in absence of lower leaves. 21.7.39,

N. ingulba J. M. Black, loc. cit—Charlotte Waters. 27.5.39.

N. velutina Wheeler, loc. cif-—(1) Near Andado, 2.6.39. (2) Claypan

country near Rabbit Board Fence; C, 20. 28.6,39,

SCROPHULARTACEAE

?Mimulus sp. Fragments only—Very common in Canegrass Swamp; Goy-

der’s Lagoon. 17,7.39,

“Morgania glabra R. Br—(1) Common on flood plain of Hay River; Cc. 15,

23,6.39. (2) Near Mount Gason Bore. 207.39 (3) C. 42, Macumba-

Warburton. 30.7.39.

MyoporsceAE.

Myoporum montanum R. Br—Shrub to 2m. high, Mount Gason Head Station,

20,7,39,

Eremophila Latrobet F. Muell—(1) C, 2; near tableland. 6.6.59. (2) C5.

(3) Sandridge; C. 5. 9.639. (4) Common in hollows east of Hay

River; C. 18. 26.6.39. The corolla lobes are distinctly acute in many of

these specimens.

longifolia (R, Br.) F. Muclt—(1) Banks of Finke River, Crown Pastoral

Co. 2.6.39, (2) Sandy creek off tableland near C. 3, 86.39, (3) C. 7.

Comimon, but irregularly so, 12.6.39. (4) C8. 13.6.39.

E, wWillsti F. Muell—(1) On stabilized sandrise east of Andado, 30.5.39,

(2) Very common between C, 6 and 7. 12.6.39.

The branches in these specimens are glabrous instead of glandular-

hairy. (Also noted by von Mueller in the botanical appendix to Win-

riecke’s journal of his 1883 expedition in this region,)

E. Freelingit F. Muell—Very common on tableland country, Collected near

Finke River (Crown Station). 2.6.39.

E. bignoniiflora (Benth.) F. Muell—(+) Common about waterholes along

Diamantina; C, 28 and 29. 14.7.39. (2) C. 36; Warburton River, 237.39,

. Duttonii F, Mucll.—Tableland near Clayton River. 6,8.39,

i maculata (Ker) F, Muell—(1) Charlotte Waters. 27.539, (2) C. 24.

5.7.39,

_ MacDonnellii ¥, Muelt.— (1) Base of sandhill east of Andado Station.

305.39. (2) Hale flood plain. 7.639. (3) C. 47 and 48. 48,39,

var. glabriuscnla J. M. Black—(1) 8 miles north-east of Andado Bore No, 1.

6.6.39. (2) Common in flood plain of Todd River, between C. 2 and 3,

7.6.39,

hy tty

171

E. Strehlouni E. Pritzel, Fedde Repert., 15, 356, 1918—Common on sandridges

and slopes between C. 12 and C. 13, 21.6,39.

E. strongylophylla F. Muell., Fragm, Phyt. Aust., 10,—(1) Small watercourse;

C. 2. 6.6.39. (2) Common in sandy mulga country near C. 5. 9.6.39.

PLANTAGINACRAE

Pluntago varia R, Br—(1) Watercourse near Andado H.S. 30.5.39. (2) Sand-

hill along Eleanor Creek; C, 28. 14.7.39,

CUCURBITACEAE

Melothria maderaspatana (L.) Cogn—Common in flood plains of Hale and

Todd, and occasionally between sandridges; C. 3.. 7.6.39.

Cucumis Melo L. var. agrestis Naud——“Uleardo Melon,” Finke River. 2.6.39.

CAMPANULACEAR

Wahlenbergia Sicberi A., DC., Proc. Roy. Soc. §. Aust., 58, 182, 1934—Water-

course near Warburton; C. 38. 25.7,39,

W. quadrifida (R. Br.) A., DC., loc. cik—7-mile Creek. 18.7.39.

GoopENIACEAE

Goodema lunata J. M. Black—Andado Creek, 1.6.39.

G, subintegra F, Muell—(1) In Canegrass Swamp, Goyder's Lagoon. 17.7.39.

(2) Common at 7-mile Creek. 18.7.39. (3) In small, sandy watercourse;

C. 34, 21.7,39.

tr, cyeloptera R, Br—(1) Sand-dune, Andado Station. 29.5.39. (2) Sand-

hill 8 miles north-east of Andade Bore No. 1. 4.6.39, (3) Very common

on sandridges; C, 6. 116.39. (4) Common on sandhills near Diamantina

and Eleanor, C. 28, Andrewilla. 14.7.39,

Calogyne Berardiana (Gaudich.) F. Muell—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte

Waters, 27.5.39. (2) Among Needlebush on sandy rise in tableland

country near C. 2. 6.6.39. (3) C. 5. 9.6.39,

Leschenaultia divaricata F. Muell-—Common in flood plains of Hale, Todd, and

also at base of sandridges. (1) Andado Station sandhill, eastern slope.

29,5.39. (2) Sandhill, 10 miles north of Andado Station, 1.6.39,

Seaevola spinescens R. Br.— Rise on stony tableland, C. 34, Mount Gason,

21.7.39.

S. depauperata R. Be —(1) Sandhill, C. 5, with Porcupine Grass and low Mulga.

Glabrous form. 9.6.39. (2) Between sandridges; C, 8. Rough, hairy

form. §3.6.39. (3) Sandrises near C. 18, Glabrous form. 26.6.39.

S. collaris F, Muell—(1) Commou on sandy banks about “Lake Crocker”;

C. 20. 28.6.39. (2) C. 40, gypseous hollaw, 27,7.39.

S. ovalifolia R. Br—Very common in flood plains of Todd and Elale, and in

some of the sandflats hetween. (1) C. 3. 7.6.39. (2) Slope of sandridge,

C. 20, Mulligan River. 29.6.39. (3) Diamantina; C. 28 and 29. (4)

Sandy watercourse near C. 34. 21.7.39.

BRUNONIACEAE

Brunonia australis Sm,—Common in sandy mulga country near C. 5. 9.6.39.

CoMPOsITAE

Minyria denticulata (DC.) Benth.—(1) Watercourse, Charlotte Waters.

27.5.39. (2) Watercourse, Andado, 30.5.39. (3) Tableland water-

172

course, Abminga, S.A, 3.6.39. (4). 7-mile Creek, near Goyder's Lagoon

Bore. Common. 187.39. (5) Small, bushy plant about 23 cm, high. Clay-

pan, gypseous hollow, C. 4), 28.7.39.

M. suaedifolia F. Muell—Small, bushy plant about 30 cm. high, Near

gypseous salt claypan between C. 44 and 45. 1.8.39,

M, leptophylla DC—On stony gibber country; C. 34. 21.7.39,

M, integerrima (DC.) Benth,—In creek channel, Abminga. 3,6,39.

Calatis erinacea Steetz—Fairly common along sandridges from Andado to C2.

12,6,39.

C. lotiuscula F. Mucll, et Tate—In Dillon Bush hollow near C. 45, 1.8.39.

C, hispidula F. Muell.— About the dumps, Indinda Well, Andado Station,

3.6.39.

Senecio fautus Sol——(1) Kuddaree Watethole, Georgina River, Kaliduwarry ;

C. 20. 29.6.39, (2) Andrewilla; C. 28. 14.7.39. (3) Goyder's Lagoon.

16,7.39,

S, Cunninghamii DC.—Shrub about 1 m. high along Warburton River. 23,7.39.

S, Gregorit. F. Muell—(1) Charlotte Waters. Sandy watercourse. (2) C, 3

7.6.39, (3) Hale Channel; C. 4. 9.6.39. (4) Common on sandhill water-

courses about Cowarie Station; C. 38. 26.7.39,

S, maynificus F. Muell—Lake Letty Bore. 8.8.39.

Pterigeron cylindriceps J. M. Black—Charlotte Waters; watercolirse, Creep-

ing herb.

P. adscendens, Benth.— (1) Charlotte Waters; watercourse. 27,539, (2)

Bore at Andado.

P. lidtroides (Turcz.) Benth—{1) Watercourse, Charlotte Waters, 27.5,39

(2) Andado Creek, 10 miles north of homestead, Spreading herb, mauve

flower,

Epaltes Cunninghanui (Hook.) Benth —Rare, small scraggy shrub about 75 em.

high, Andrewilla, banks of waterhole. 14.7.39.

Sphaeranthus indicws \.—About waterholes along Diamantina River; C. 26.

12.7.39.

Helipterum moschatum (A. Cunn.) Benth—(1) Sandy tableland between C. 4

and 5, 9.6.39. (2) Between sandridges near C.8, 13.6.39, (3) Common

along sandhill edge, Eleanor Creek; C. 28, 12.7.39. (4) C, 48. 48,39.

I. stipitatum F. Mucell—(1) Sandy mulga watercourse; C. 5, 9.6.39. (2)

Common between C. 4 and 5. 9.6.39.

H. pterochaetum (F. Muell.) Benth—(1) Sandy dissected tableland east of

C. 4. 9.6.39. (2) Stony rise; C. 34. 21.7,39,

H. florihundywm DC.—(1) Sandy watercourse, Charlotte Waters. 27,5.39, (2)

Inter-ridge watercourse near Andado H.5, 29,5,39, (3) Common on

tableland and erceks near C. 2. 6.6.39, (4) Flood flats between Warbur-

ton River and Cowarie Station. Very common. 24.7.39. (5) Off edge of

gypseous salt claypan; C45. 1.8.39,

H. strict (1indl,) Benth—Andrewilla; C. 28. 14,7.39.,

H. Charsleyae F. Muell—(1) Abminga Creek. 5.6.39. (2) Between C. 4 and

5. 9.6.39.

Lxiolaena leptolepis (DC.) Benth,)—Goyder's Lagoon. 17.7 .39.

Helichrysum apiculaiwn (Labill.) DC—No locality,

H, ambiguuim Turez, v. pauciselum J. M. Black—Fairly common about C. 13.

22.6,39.

H, semifertile F, Mucll—Watercourse near C. 34. 21,7.39.

H. roseum (Lindl.) Druce v. Davenportit Renth—Between ridges near C, 8

where more rain has fallen. 13.6.39.

H. podolepideum F, Muetl—Common on gibber plain. 19.7.39,

173

Rutidosis helichrysoides DC—(1) Inter-ridge watercourse, Andado Station.

(2) Georgina flood plain; C, 21. 2.7.39.

Myriocephalus Rudallii (F, Muell,) Benth—Box Swamp, Andado Station.

M, Stuartit (F, Muell, et Sond.) Benth—(1) Watercourse at Charlotte Waters.

27,5,39, (2) Andtewilla Waterhole, 14.7,39.

Gnephosis cyathopappa Benth-—Box Swamp, Andado Station. Probably this

species, but inflorescences immature.

G. skirrophora (Sond. et F. Muell.) Benth—Common about claypan country.

C. 20. 28.6.39.

G, eriocarpa (F. Muell.) Benth—Watercourse, Charlotte Waters.

EriocMamys Behrii Sond, et F. Muell.— Claypan, gypsedus hollow; C. 41.

28.7.39.

Craspedia chrysantha (Schlechtd.) Benth—Flood plain of Diamantina River;

C. 29, 15.7.39,

SUMMARY

A botanical list is given of the plants collected by R. L. Crocker on this

Expedition, with his field notes, The material was gathered all along the route,

from Charlotte Waters just north of the South Australian Border, across the

parallel sandridges of the Simpson Desert to the north-east, and then southwards

via Birdsville and the eastern side of Lake Eyre to the railway Ime at Marree;

a journey by camel of 800 miles; in the months of June, July and August 1939.

Two hundred miles of this lay across the heart of the Desert, Iutherto unexplored

except by air; it is the most arid of the Australian deserts.

The collection numbers 350 species in 50 families, including Fungi, Of these

species, 76 were gathered in the Desert proper and are listed as such; the few

new forms were found outside the Desert only, and include a new species of

Atriplex, A. cordifolia J, M. Black. The great majority of the plants was deter-

mined at the Herbarium of the Adelaide University Botanical School, with the

notable exceptions of Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Szvatnsona and the Fungi, which

could be submitted to specialists,

Short lists are included which summarise the itinerary and the plants col-

lected. Dor a map of the route of the Expedition, see the leader's narrative

(Madigan, 1945) (13).

The character plant of the Desert is the bushy, perennial grass, Tricdia

Basedowit E. Pritzel, ‘Porcupine Grass” or “Spinifex.” A varicty of shrubs

and small trees also occurs, but it is considered that we have not as yet

an adequate account of the ephemeral flora which one supposes to be present on

tare occasions after rain, though Pertulaca, “Munyeroo,” is evidently part of it,

and perhaps also the cruciferous herbs common on the Birdsville track, where

good récent tains had fallen. The shrubs and small trees belong chiefly to the

families Leguminosae, Chenopodiaceae, Myoporaceae and Proteaceae, in that

order,

Referetice has been made to earlier collectors on the margins of the Desert,

and plants of particular interest, notably the almost extinct deacia peuce K. Muell,,

have been discussed in the introduction.

In comparison with the other great deserts of the world, the Sitnpson Desert

is tolerably well supplied with vegetation, though it is by no means the most

fertile of them. This comparison has been drawn in some detail and, it is hoped,

will soon appear as Part TI of the present contribution,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Tt is a pleasure to thank those specialists and colleagues named in the intro-

duction for their contributions to the present account, some of which have been

long

174

delayed in reaching the stage of publication. Mr. Crocker also, the botanist

of the Expedition, has given much advice during the preparation of the paper.

In conclusion, the Adelaide University Herbarium is very grateful to Dr.

Madigan for the plant collection, and for entrusting it with the important work

of determining the specimens.

TA nt wn

REFERENCES

Battey, F. M, 1899-1905 The Queensland Flora, Brisbane

BentHam, G. 1863-1878 Flora Australiensis. London

Buack, J. M, 1922-1929 Flora of South Australia. 1943, Pt, I, Second

Edition. Govt. Printer, Adelaide

Brake, S. T. 1938 Proc. Ray. Soc. Qld., 49, 156-204

Braxe, S. T. 1943 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 67, (1), 42-61

Cretanp, J. B. 1934-35 Toadstools and Mushrooms of South Australia.

Govt, Printer, Adelaide

Conson, E. A, 1940 Roy. Geog. Sov. Aust., S.A. Branch, 41, 10-21

Crocker, R. L. 1946 The Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939: The Soils and

Vegetation of the Simpson Desert and its Borders, Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 70, (2). In press

Day, T. E, 1916 Report and Plans of Explorations in Central Australia,

Northern Territory of Aust, Bull. No. 20)

Ewart, A. J,, and Dayres, O. B, 1917 Flora of the Northern Territory-

Melbourne

ManicAn, C. T. 1936 The Australian Sandridge Deserts, Geog. Review,

26, No, 2, 205-227

Mantcan, C. T. 1938 The Simpson Desert and its Borders. Proc, Roy,

Soc. N.S.W., 71, 503-535

Manrcan, C. T. 1945 The Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939, Introduc-

tion, Narrative, Physiography and Meteorology. Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 69, (1), 118-139

Mapican, C. T. 1946 The Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939—The Sand

Formations. Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 70, (1), 45

Wrwnecke, C. 1884 Mr. Winnecke’s Explorations during 1883, South

Aust, Parl. Paper No. 39

For less general references see the text.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXVIII, XXIX and XXX

Prate XXVIII

1 Trivdia Basedowi ('Spinifex”), the typical Desert vegetation, with -cacia sp, an.

the skyline; C. 12. . ; ;

Triodia sp, (“Spinifex”) shownig a comnion ring formation.

_ 3 Hake teucoptera (““Needicbush”) shrubs at C. &

Crotalaria dissitifiera (A) and Gravillea sienobotrya (B); C. 13.

Prater XHKIX

1 Zygachloa paradoxa (Spinifex paradorus), “Sandhill Canegrass”. Herbarium specimen.

. 2 Acacia pence, “Waddy", Birdsville.

. 3. Acacia pence, a group of trees at Andado Bore No. 1,

Prare XXX

1 Psoralea patens, Finke River eros3ing near Andado Station.

2 Calotis erinacea, a sandhill daisy, C. 13,

3 Acacia Cambaget (“Gideee"), with Triadia Basedowii (“Spinifex"), C. 18-19.

. 4 Blennodia plerosperma (A ~ flowering), Salsolo Kali (B), and Zygachloa paradoxa

{(C - “Canegrass*), Andrewilla Waterhale,

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AN AGE DETERMINATION ON SAMARSKITE

FROM MOUNT PAINTER, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By A. W. KLEEMAN

Summary

The occurrence of urainium-bearing minerals at Mount Painter was described in a paper by

Sir Douglas Mawson (3). In that paper he described as “Fergusonite” a mineral that was

analysed by W. S Chapman in 1911 and by the present writer in 1944. Both of these analysis

were made on impure material. More recently the writer has obtained from Sir Douglas purer

material, on which the present analysis was made.

175

AN AGE DETERMINATION ON SAMARSKITE

FROM MOUNT PAINTER, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By A. W. Kireeman

[Read 9 May 1946]

The occurrence of uranium-bearing minerals at Mount Painter was described

in a paper by Sir Douglas Mawson (3). In that paper he described ag “Fer-

gusonite” a mineral that was analysed by W. S. Chapman in 1911 and by the

present writer in 1944, Both of these analyses were made on impure material.

More recently the writer has obtained from Sir Douglas purer material, on which

the present analysis was made.

The mineral is associated with monazite, hematite and brown feldspar in 2

quartz vein and was separated by hand-picking under a binocular microscope.

The Samarskile is dark brown in colour, transparent in thin edges and hag a

resinous lustre. When altered it varies from light brown to yellow, often in the

same fragment. There is also a black mineral with a splendent lustre which js

probably titaniferous hematite; it was difficult to avoid some grains of this

mineral, and some or all of the titania in the analysis may be due to this mineral,

There is also the possibility of some feldspar and iron-stained quartz contaminat-

ing the powder,

In all about 2 grams of the mineral were obtained for the analysis. This

was divided into five portions and different series of constituents were determined

on each portion. As the primary object was the determination of lead and

uranium, methods were chosen best suited to these two elements. In general the

course of analysis follows that recommended by Schoeller (5, 6). The miteral

was attacked with pyrosulphate and the melt lixiviated with tartaric acid. The

bulk of the Jead was found in the residue from this process and was always

contaminated by iron sulphates. The remainder of the lead was recovered by

treating the filtrate with hydrogen sulphide. In one portion the fusion was

leached with dilute hydrochloric acid, This solution contained all of the uranium

as well as iron, aluminium, rare earths and some of the lead. The tiranitam was

separated from the rest of the elements precipitated by ammonia by keeping the

uranium in solution as a complex with hydroxylamine-hydrochloride after a

method of I, Hecht (1). This gave a slightly higher result for uranium than

was obtained when uranium was separated after the earth acids and iron had

heen precipitated. No attempt was made to determine the stale of oxidation of

the iron or uranium because of the small amount of material Moreqver the

mineral was considered to be slightly weathered and probably oxidised.

THE AGE OF THE MINERAT.

Three determinations of PbSO, gave 0°68%, 0°72%, and 0-80%, with a

mean of 0°7396, Four determinations of U,O, gave 10:0%, 10-49%, 10-53%

and 10:8%, with a mean of 10°4%, This made the Pb/Ur ratio 0'057, which

according to the simple formula T= Pb/Urx7'23x 10" years (Keevil, 2) is

equivalent to an age of 410 million years. No account is taken for possible ¢an-

tamination by ordinary lead, and im view of this and the difficulties encountered

in the analysis, it is suggested that the age be taken as 400+ 50 million years

ans; Roy, Soc. S. Aunt., 70, (1), 5) Jame 1946

176

THE FORMULA OF THE MINERAL

The analysis of the mineral is given in Table I, column 1, with an analysis

by R, C. Wells of the Samarskite from Glastonbury, Connecticut, in column 2

for comparison. The constituents are listed in order of decreasing ionic radius.

The SnO,, SiO, and Al,O, reported are considered to be impurities. The SnO,

was insoluble in the original bisulphate fusion, which according to Schoeller

(5, 166) is an indication that it 1s mechanically admixed. A!,O, is possibly

derived from the glassware.

Tasie I

(1) (2) (1)

U:O2 - ~ 1042 7°85 (UOs,) FeO, - - nd

Pho = - «54 34 NbsO. = = 50°54

CaO - ~ 211 “33 TaOs - - 2:66

CeO. - - “38 "53 (CeyOs) WOs - - te

LaOxetc. + 18 1-55 TiQ, - ~ +20

ThOw - - nil 3:47 AlLOs - 4 AB

Y2Ouete, - 4°93 12°47 SiO, - ~ 2°40

MnO - ~ +43 1-75 HiO+ - = 5:26

SnO. - = 3°36 20- - ~ 262

FeD - ~ 13-16 2-1) Remdr, -

MgO - ~ 51 “02 —

100-18

-46

—e

99-51

The cerium is reported as CeO, , as the consideration of ionic radii suggests

that the smaller Ce” ion would more readily fit im the structure.

Taste II

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Ur & Pb ~ - “Al “29 +36 +68 37

Go. 2. 87 05 “49 ‘74 -09

Rare Earths & Th -37 1-03 1-03 KS 1-61

Mn, Sn, Zr, ete. - 06 23 — +19 +22

Fe" & Mg - ~- | 4,92 “28 “85 +66 1+55

Ferry - 2 -~ >») 1°19 — - “24

A metals - - 342 3-07 2-73 3-12 4°08

Nb te a, 395 3-08 3-44 379 27

Ta So) “12 66 62 "52

Ti sa +s « 02 +18 20 — “4

Ww - - * — — — — +06

B metals - - 3-89 3-92 4-26 3+87 2-4

(14) Mount Painter, South Australia; (2) Glastonbury, Connecticut;

(3) Atitanamalaza, Madagascar; (4) Aslaktaket, Norway; (5) Miask, U.S.5.R.

Table TI gives the ionic ratios of the elements in the two tninerals and in

three others quoted in Dana’s System (4). The proportions are calculated on

the basis of total metals = 7 rather than oxygen = 14, as in several of the analyses

the state of oxidation is uncertain. The metals present fall into three groups:

Ca, rare earths, Th, Ur and Pb form the first group in which the ionic radii are

close to 1°02; Mn, Sn, Zr, Fe’? and Mg form the second with radii above 0°75,

and the third group contains Nb, Ta, Ti, W and Fe’ all with radius about 0°66.

A and B,

placing Nb, Ta, Ti, W, Fe’’” in group B. They then divide the minerals into

two groups, those in which the ratio A:B=1:1 and those in which the ratio

A:B=1-2. The former group contains Fergusonite and the latter group

Euxenite and Eschynite. They also place Samarskite in the latter group, but in

the footnote point out that Machatschki assigns a value of 3:4 to the A: B ratio

and that in the Glastonbury mineral the ratio A:B=2:5(A,B,0,,). If Fe’ in

the Glastonbury mineral is assigned to the A group the ratio is 3°07: 3-92. In our

The Revisors of Dana’s System divide the metals into two groups,

177

mineral with all the iron in the A group the ratio is 3°12: 3°89, but if some of

the iron is assumed to be in the ferric state it could approach the 2:5 ratio. How-

ever, in view of the slight difference in the ionic radii, the metals of the niobium

and the ferrous irom groups should be placed together. This Jeaves the metals

with ionic ratio about 1-0 A, which may constitute up to one-third of the metals

present. Until much more is known of the arrangement of the metallic ions in

the structure the only possible classification is a chemical one, and if this is so

only Nb, Ta and Ti should be in group B. On the facts presented above it is

obvious that any attempt to find a classification in which there is a fixed ratio

between the A atid B metals is doomed to failure. The proportion of A: B must

vary with the average yalency of the A metals in order ta keep the metal: oxygen

ratio at 1:2. Thus if A is divalent FeO + Nb.O. = FeNb,O,; if A is trivalent

YO, + Nb,O, = YNbO,.

In our specimen the average valence of A is just below 3, so that A: B= 3:4.

In the Miask Samarskite A: B is 4:3, suggesting an average valence of A above

3. This would be the case if all the ions were reported in the ferric state.

This line of reasening brings the Samarskile group much closer to Fer-

gusonite and suggests that the only difference between the two groups is the

greater amount of rare earths in Fergusonite.

SUMMARY

An analysis is given of Samarskite from the uranium field at Mount Painter.

The age determination places the age of the mineralisation in Lower Palaeozoic

and infers that the general metamorphism of the area is of the same age. The

presence of 10% of uranium in the mineral suggests that it is the primary source

of tiranlum on this field.

REFERENCES

1 Heenr. f. 1934 Quantitative Methods of Micro-analysis with special refer-

ence to the Gordonia Uraninite, Am, Jour. Sei, 227, 221

2 Keevir, N. B. 1939 The Calculation of Geologic Age. Am. Jour. Sci., 237,

195

3 Mawson, D, 1944 The Nature and Occurrence of Uraniferous Mineral

Deposits in South Australia. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68, 334

Pacacue, C., BERMAN, H., and Fronpec, C. 1944 Dana's System of Minera-

logy, 7th Edit., 1. New York, 1944. (Referred to as “Dana’s System.”}

Scnoeiter, W. R. 1937 “The Analytical Chemistry of Tantalum and

Niobium,’”? London, 1937

Scnoeiter, W. R.and Power, A. R. 1940 The Analysts of Minerals and

Ores of the Rarer Elements, 2nd Edit. london, 1940

n wm &

AUSTRALIAN CUMACEA NO. 13

THE FAMILY LAMPROPIDAE

By HERBERT M. HALE, DIRECTOR, SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM

Summary

Two species are represented amongst the many Cumacea now available from southern and

eastern Australia coasts. Both are referable to Hemilamprops and have been taken only

between lat. 34°-43° S. and long. 147° -152° E.; the depths range to 120 metres.

178

AUSTRALIAN CUMACEA. No, 130)

THE FAMILY LAMPROPIDAE

By Herpert M. HAze, Director, South Australian Museum

Fig. 1-4

[Read 9 May 1946]

Fam. LAMPROPIDAE

Two species are represented amongst the many Cumacea now available from

southern and eastern Australian coasts, Both are referable to Hemulamprops

and have been taken oily between lat, 34°-43° S. and long, 147°-152° E.; the

depths range to 120 metres,

Genus Hemitamerors Sars

Hemilamprops Sats 1883, 11 and 55; Stebbing 1913, 55 (ref.).

Hemilamprops is separated from Lamprops (Sars, 1863, 239) by male

characters only. If Lamprops carinata Hart (1930, 34 (12), fig. 4.A-E) is

retained in Lamprops, then the latter differs from Heimilamprops only in that the

male lacks pleopods. A few spécies are referred tentatively to one or other of

these genera because the female only is available. A combined key of the females

of all species placed in the two genera is therefore given below.

Key to FemaAves or Species or Lamprops ann Hemrlamprops

1. Telson with three spines at distal end. 2

Telson with more than three spines at distal end, 9

2 Carapace with at least one ridge on each side, below frontal lobe. 3

Carapace with sides smooth. 7

3 Peduncle of uropod subequal in length to telson. 4

Peduncle of uropod distinctly longer than telson. 5

4 Wo distinct antennal notch. Carpus of first peraeopod reaching to level of front of

carapace. Pedunele of uropod shorter than endopod. H. wniplicata (Sars)

A distinct antennal notch. First peraeopod shorter, its carpus not nearly attaining

level of front of carapace. Peduncle of uropod a little longer than endopod.

L. (?) bering? Calman,

5 Carapace with a longitudinal ridge near mferior margin and below a carina rimning

from antero-lateral margin to hinder edge. H, oractlis Hart.

Carapace with no ridge below the carina extending from antero-lateral margin ta

hinder edge. 6

6 First peraeopad slender, the carpus reaching to level of frout of carapace. Peduncle

af uropod longer than endopod, H. mattisont Hale.

First peracopod stout, the carpus not nearly reaching to level of Front of carapace.

Peduncle of uropod stibequal in length to. endopod. A. lata sp. nov.

7 Median dorsal crest of anterior half of carapace not deiiticilate.

Tl. (3) ultimae spel Zimmer.

Median dorsal crest of carapace dentictilate 8

8 Dactylus of first peracmpod longer than propodus and twige as long as carpus,

H. cristata Sars

Dactylus of first peraeopod shorter than propodus andl little longer thaty carpus.

H. pellucida Zitamer

a For No. 12 see Rec, S. Aust. Mus., 8, (3), 357-444, fig. 1-60)

Trans. Roy. Soo, S. Aust., 70, (1), 30 June 1946

179

9 Telson with five spines at dista? end. 10

Telson with tore than five spines at distal end. 21

10 Peduncle of wropod ¢onsiderably shorter than telson. H.. diversa. sp. nov.

Peduncle of uropod at least as long as telson. 1!

{1 Carapace with at least one ridge om each side. 12

Carapace without lateral ridges, 16

12 Carapace with not more than two ridges on each side. 13

Carapace with three or four ridges on each side. 14

13° Carapace with a single curved ridge on each side below frontal lobe: pseudorostrum

short, truncate in front, H. (?) californica Zimmer,

Carapace with two ill-defined curved ridges crossing’ cach branchial region: pseuda-

rostrutn longer, tapering to the subacute front. L. sarst Derjavin

14 Uropod with first joint of exopod distinetly shorter than second. L, fasciata Sara.

Uroped with first joint of exopod subequal in length to second, i)

I$. First joint of endopod of uropod more than half us long again as combined lengths

af second and third joints, L, krasheninnthant Derjavin.

First joint of endopod of tropod little longer than second and third together.

I., quadriplticata S, 1. Smith @),

16 Peduncle of uropod subequal in tength to telson. \7

Peduncle of uropod distinctly longer than telson. 18

17 Antero-lateral margin of carapace not dentate. All distal spines of telson truly terminal

L. fuscata Sars

Antero-lateral margin of carapace with five tecth, Two of distal spines of telson

situated below the other three. 7.. serrata, Hart ().

18 First antetina almost three-fourths as Jong as carapace. Oprous in posterior peraeopords

three times as long as merys. I. €?) comala Mimmer (),

First antetina not more than half as long as carapace. Carplis in posterior peraeopots

at most not much longer than merus. 19

19 Pedunele of uropod longer than endopod. L. carinato Hart.

Peduricle of uropad shorter than endopod, ))

2% Carapace with denticulate median dorsal crest; eye wanting. Telson not much shorter

than peduncle of uropod, H. normani Bonnier.

Carapace without denticulate dorsal crest; eye developed, Telson only half as Jory

as peduncle of uropod- L. korroensis Derjavin “},

21 Telson with six spines at-dista! end. Eye without corneal lenses. HY, assimilis Sars.

Telson with eight spines at distal end. Ere with sight corneal lenses,

H. rosea (Norman)

Hemilamprops lata n. sp.

Ovigerous female—Integument thin but calcified and brittle; reticulate

pattern somewhat diffuse.

Carapace more than one-fourth of total length of animal, and a little mors

than pedigerons somites together; it 1s very broad, half as wide again as deep

and as wide as long; on its upper surface a sharp carina runs from the ocular

lobe to about middle of length, and terminates at antetior end of a wide median

gutter which is margined on each side by a ctest-like ridge which extends practi-

cally to posterior margin; a short and not very well-defined carina extends from

the front of each pseudorostral lobe towards frontal lobe, and from neighbour-

hood of antennal angle to posterior margin is a rugose ridge resulting from the

sudden inflexing of the inferior lateral part of carapace; posterior parts of sides

with short, irregular, and not well-defined ridges. Ocular lobe not mitch wider

@) See remarks by Calman, 1912, 629. L, fasciata, quedriplicata and krashentuntkovt

(Derjavin, 1926, 179, pl. iii, fig. 6, and pl. vi) seem to be very closely related,

() fide Hart, 1930, p, 14 and fig. 4F.

“) Possibly representative of a new gers.

() A species from fresh water.

180

than long and with small corneal Jenses. Pseudorostral lobes widely truncate

and slightly concave, both as seen from above and fram the sides; meeting for 2

distance equal to only about one-twentieth of total length of carapace. Antero-

lateral angle sybacutcly rounded; no distinct antero-lateral sinus.

First pedigerous somite short, smooth except for some obscure tubercles at

anterior margin, and partly concealed by pleural parts of second, which is

dorsally longer than any of the others; second somite with a pair of dorsal

earinae, on each side of which is a dorso-lateral ridge arid a broken lateral carina;

third with ridges as in second but with the lateral ones more distinet; im fourth

and fifth somites the same ridges are present but are short and those of the sides

tend to bécorne almost tooth-like,

First three pleon somites with, on each side, a longitudinal dorso-lateral

carina, a lateral ridge and a faint infero-lateral cara; fourth to fifth somites

each with a strong, median, longitudinal carina, flanked on both sides by 2 lateral

tidge and an infero-lateral ridge; the last, though feeble, is more distinct than

that of third somite; filth somite little longer than fourth (which is longer than

the subequal first three somites) and with sides subparallel and a little sinuate;

sixth somite only about half as long as fifth, very slightly dilated at the rear

where it is distinctly broader than long; like the two preceding somites it has a

median dorsal ridge (but one that ts much less pronounced) Aanked on each side

with a dorso-lateral carina and an obsolete lateral ridge; telson elongate, sub-

triangular, roundly subtruncate at distal end and more than twice as long as sixth

pleon somite; each lateral margin of telson is very finely serrate for part of

proximal half and in distal half bears half-a-dozen articulated spines: its apex

is furnished with three spines subequal in length,

First antenna with first segment of peduncle subequal in length toe second

and third together, and second fully twice as long as third; Aagellum as long as

second and third peduncular segments together, two-jointed (possibly a third

minute joint), the second joint more than half as long again as first; accessory

lash four-fifths as long as main flagellum, two-jointed, the second segment twice

as long as first, Second antenna with second segment short, third shorter than

first and a little longer than fourth,

Palp of first maxilla with two filaments.

Basis of third maxilliped only about one-fifth as long as combined lengths of

remaining joints, with external distal angle not at all forwardly produced and

furnished with two very lung plumose setae; ischium very short; merts with a

forwardly produced but not greatly dilated outer lobe; carpus longer than either

mefus or propodus, which are subequal in length and each longer than dactylts,

First peraeopod stout and rather short, the carpus not reaching nearly to level

of anterior margin of carapace; basis not much more than two-thirds of length of

rest of limb: carpus longer than ischium and merus together and about equal in

length to propodus; dactylus subequal in length to merus, and with longest

terminal seta (like distal setae of propadus} as long as propadus,

Second peraeopod five-sixths as long as first leg; basis subequal in length

to rest of limb and with exopod rather small; ischium relatively large, armed with

a strong distal spine as well as slender setae; merus half as long as carpus and

with a stout inner distal spine; carpus longer than propodus atid dactylus together

and with a row of inner spines, one near proximal end being longer than the

others; dactylus twice as long as propodus, with distal setae short.

Third and fourth peracopods with two-jointed exopods; basis in third pair

nearly twice as long as rest of limb, that of fourth half as Jong again as remain-

ing joints together, that of fifth a little shorter than the rest of limb; in all three

181

posterior limbs the merus, carpus, propodus and dactylus successively decrease

2 little in length while the two longest distal carpal setae together with the pro-

podai seta reach well beyond the tip of dactylus,

Peduncle of uropod so strongly keeled above that it is subtriangular in

section and with a score of spines on inner margin; it is one-fourth as long again

ag telson; endopod barely shorter than peduncle, with first segment mot very

much longer than second and thicd joints combined and second distinctly shorter

than third; spines of inner margins of joints of endopod respectively sixteen,

five and six, and stout terminal spine only half as long as distal joint; exopod

equal in length to first and second endopodal segments combined,

Fig, 1

Hemilamprops lata, type female and allotype male; lateral views

and (ceph.) cephalothorax from above (x 23).

Colour, creamy-white. Length, 6-4 mm.; embryo with pleon curyed oy¥er

back, 0°42 mim.

Adult male—Integument brittle, less calcified than in. female, but with

sculpture similar though less pronounced; the crests on the branchial regions of

the carapace in particular are noticeably less elevated, so that as seen from the

side the dorsal outline is far less irregular,

Carapace a little longer in relation to total length of animal than in adult

female and less broadened posteriorly; seen from above it is suboval in shape;

nearly half as wide again as deep, longer than wide and almost twice as long as

bread, Antero-lateral margin as in female, but anterolateral angle rather

more obtuse.

Telson relatively a little longer than in female, but with similar armature;

the median of the three terminal spines is shorter than the other two.

First antennae with first peduncular segment longer than in female and with

both flagella three-jointed, the distal joint in both longer than either of the

remaining Ewo, Second antenna with flagellum reaching quite to end of fifth

pleon somite.

182

Mandible with ten and eleven spines in the row.

Third maxilliped as in female except that basis and exopod are wider,

First peraeopod relatively a little longer than in female, the basis being

five-sixths of combined lengths of remaining joints, and propodus a trifle longer

than carpus.

Fig. 2

Hemilamprops late, type female and allotype male; ant., antennae (x 56);

mxp., third maxilliped (x 30); prp., first to third and fifth peraeopods

(x 30); plp,, pleopod (x56; rami, x 250); urop., uropod with fifth and

sixth pleon somites, and telson (x30),

Basis of second peraeopod one-sixth longer than rest of limb; armature and

proportions of joints otherwise much as described.

183

Third peraeopod not specially modified, differing only from that of female

in the wider basis and large exopod, which has the peduncle, as in first and

second pairs, very broad.

The three pairs of pleopods are similar to those figured for other species al

the genus (fig. 2, plp,).

Peduncle of uropod Jess than one-fifth longer than telson and barely longer

than endopod, the first joint of which is armed with a greater number of spines

than in the female,

Length, 5 mm.

Loc—New South Wales; off Sydney, from stomach of Morwong or Jackass

Fish—Doctylopagrus macroplerus (A. C, Simpson, July 1939); off Coffs Har-

bour, 50 metres (K. Sheard, A. Trawl, Jume 1941); 11 miles off Eden, 120

metres (type female, K, Sheard, A, Trawl, Jan. 1943); off Wata Mooli,

70 metres (allotype male, K. Sheard, Trawl Station 4, July 1943); 5 miles east

of Port Hacking, 100 metres, on mud (K. Sheard, Trawl Station 7, July 1943);

Of Jibbon, 45-50 metres, on coarse sand (K. Sheard, Traw! Station 10, Aug.

1943); off Ulladulla, 75 metres and 80 metres, on coarse sand (K. Sheard,

A. Trawl, June and Aug. 1944), Tasmania: off Babe) Island, lat. 39° 55° S..

long. 148° 31° E. (“Warreen” Station 29, Jan. 1939). Types in South Austra-

lian Museum, Reg. No, 2,802 and 2,804,

The type is the largest female available; other ovigerous examples are only

40 mm, and 5°5 mm. in Jength and the uropod has fewer spines, there being

sometimes only about ten on first joint of endopod and fifteen on peduncle, which

also may be a little shorter in relation to the telson. Almost always the median

ef the three terminal spines of the telson is distinctly shorter than the others, as

in the male figured (fig. 2, urop. 3). In small immature specimens (3 nun, or

so in length) the carapace has the sides, as seen from above, converging slightly

towards the rear, and it is less widened that itr the adult, but is still broader than

in the related Antarctic mesoni Hale. The last-named hears a close general

resemblance to fata but is separated by its relatively gigantic size (the immature

female, 20-5 mm.), the shape of the pseudorostral lohes which are not widely

subtruncate in front, the character of both first and second antennae, the less

robust peracopods, the different proportions of the uropods, ete. It should be

neted that the cleaning and mounting of the posterior appendages of the single

available young female of mawsoni shows that very small exopods are present

on the third and fourth peraeopods (see Hale, 1937, 46).

Hemilamprops diversa n. sp,

Ovigerous female —Integument semi-membtanous with small reticulate

patterning (especially distinct on carapace), but almost polished; smooth except

for the sculpture of carapace as described.

Carapace short and robust, less than one-fifth of total length of animal, three-

jourths as long as pedigerous somites together, very little wider than deep and

not much longer than broad; seen from above the sides are curved and converge

tawards the widely subtruncate front; on the back a sharply defined, median

carina rung from the ocular lobe to about three-fourths of length of carapace;

in posterior fourth the dorsum is depressed between the slightly swollen branchial

regions, the indentation emphasised on each side by a feeble crest, which fades

into a faint antero-lateral fold continuing forward outside (or below) the frontal

lobe; the dorsum is hollowed on each side between the median carina and the

irontal-lobe stitures, Antero-lateral margin almost straight, very slightly concave,

and scarcely any indication of antennal angle. There is no distinct pseydo-

184

rostrum, the lobes only just meeting in front of ocular lobe, which is rounded,

with small lenses. Frontal lobe large, extending to about half length of carapace.

First pedigerots somite short, its pleural parts partly overlapped by those

of second which, like the third, is longer than any of the other somites; none is

much expanded laterally,

Pleon distinctly longer than cephalothorax; first and second somites sub-

equal in length, then successively increasing in length to fifth which is two-thirds as

long again as sixth and tapers to the rear; sixth little dilated posteriorly, where it

is distinctly wider than long; telson narrowly subtriangular, rounded at distal end

and twice as long as sixth somite; each of its lateral margins bears three slender,

Fig. 3

Hemilamprops diversa, type female f

and allotype male; lateral views and 4 Ay

(ceph.) cephalothorax from above £

(x 25). ‘“P 7

finely serrate, spines; its distal end has three similar spines subequal in length,

and. above these a pair of much longer subapical slender spines.

First antenna with first joint of peduncle longer than second and third seg-

ments together; second twice as long as third; flagellum three-jointed, as long

as second and third peduncular segments together and with second joint much

the longest; accessory lash two-jointed, two-thirds as long as main flagellum.

Second antenna as usual in female of genus; second segment about half as long

as third, which is a little shorter than fourth.

Mandibles with ten and eleven spines in the row.

185

Basis of third maxilliped half as long again as remaining joints together and

with outer distal angle rounded but not at all forwardly produced; merus slightly

dilated, nearly three times as long as ischium, and two-thirds as long as carpus

which is little longer than propodus.

First peraecopod with carpus reaching to level of front of carapace and with

propodus and dactylus long and slender; basis half as long ss remaining joints

together. carpus not much longer thati merus; propodus one-filth as long as

dactylus and longer than ischium, merus and carpus together.

Second peraeopod two-thirds as long as first; basis little longer than distinct

ischium, merus and carpus together; carpus half as long again as merus and

almost twice as long as propodus which is about two-thirds as long as dactylus.

Third and fourth peraeopods with two-jointed exopods: hasis of third half

as long again as remaining joints together, that of fourth about as long as rest

of limb, of fifth much shorter than this; merus, carpus and slender dactylus of

posterior limbs subequal in length and propodus much shorter; three distal carpal

setae, like propodal seta, reaching well beyond tip of dactylus,

Peduncle of uropod less than four-fifths as long as telson, armed with half-

a-lozen slender spines on distal half of inner margin; endopod nearly half as long

again as peduncle and one-fifth as long again us exopod. with its first segment

one-fourth as long again as eombined lengths of second and third, which are

subequal in length; spines of inner margins of joints respectively twelve, four

and three, and terminal spine as long as distal joint.

Length, 4-5 mm.; ova approximately 0°28 mm, in diameter.

Adult mele—Carapace with sculpture much as in female except that the

median dorsal carina of anterior half is grooved medianly, producing the effect

of a pair of ridges when seen from above; viewed thus the carapace is narrower

at the rear, where it is not much wider than deep and about two-thirds as broad

az Jong; it is equal in length to the pedigerous somites together and is more than

one-fifth of total length of animal.

First pedigerous somite shorter than the others, which do not differ much

in length and are not expanded laterally.

Pleon a little longer in relation to cephalothorax than in female but somites

one to six of the sanie proportions; telson two and one-half times as long as sixth

somite, cach of its lateral margins with four spines. its rounded distal end with

three spines but differing from those of female in that the median one is nearly

twice as long as the others; there are similarly two stthapical spines, seated on

the dorsal surface, which are longer than any of the other telsonic spines (see

fig. 4, tels. #1.

First antenna relatively very slightly larger than in female but with flapella

more subequal in length, each composed of three distinct segments, the distal

ef which is the longest. Second antenna with flagellum reaching well beyond

end of sixth plean somite.

First peraeopod with carpus reaching a little beyond level of anterior margin

of carapace; basis two-thirds as long as remainder of limb; carpus quite as long

as mefus and ischium together; propodus and dactylus each longer in relation to

combined lengths of ischium, merus and carpus than in female,

Second petraeoped more than two-thirds as long as first; basis longer than

the next four segments of limb.

Third peraeopod with no specialized appendages but like fourth with basis

relatively wider and longer than in femsle and with the usual wide exopods,

setae of all posterior peracopeds as in female.

Fig, 4

Hemilamprops diversa, type female and allotype male; ant., first antenna (x 85);

prp., first to third peraeopods (x45); urop., uropod with filth and sixth pleon

somites and telson (x 45); end., last segment of endopod of uropod (x 180; spine,

x 550); tels., distal end of telson from above (x 180).

187

Pedunele of uropod longer in relation to Afth pleon somite than in female

but still Jess than four-fifths as Jong ag telson; in distal half it is armed with

seven shart, stout serrate spines, preceded by a couple of more slender spines;

endoped only one-third as long again as peduncle and one-fourth as long again

as exopod, the inner margin of its first segment with two dozen spines (alterna-

tively long and short) and its second joint with five inner spines; third segment

of endopod specialized, there being at secand-fourth of Jength of inner margin

a recess, at both proximal and distal ends of which is an articulated spine more

modified than the others margining the ramus; the proximal spine is curved

backwards and inwards, has two small triangular projections near the base and

has on the inher (Or posterior) margin a thin lamellate and serrate plate (fig. 4,

etid. 4); the spine at posterior end of the recess, atid alsn a short subapical and

longer apical spine of the joint ave divided in proximal half by a suture.

Length, 5 mm,

Loc-—New South Wales: off Broughton Island (K. Sheard, submarine

light, 11,30 p.m, to midnight. Dec. 1938); off Sydney, fron) stomach of Mor

wong or Jackass Fish—Dactylopagrus macropterus (A. C. Simpson, July 1939) :

off Coffs Harbour, 50 metres (K. Sheard, A, Trawl, June 1941}; 11 miles off

Eden, 120 metres (K. Sheard, A. Trawl, Mar. 1943): aff Wata Mooli, 70 metres

(K. Sheard, A, Trawl, July 1943) ; off Jibbon, 70 metres (K. Sheard, A, Trawl,

July 1943) ; 4 miles off Eden, 70 metres, in silt (type loc., K, Sheard, Oct, 1943):

5 miles off Eden, 60 metres, on mud (K. Sheard, submarine light, Dec. 1943);

14 miles east of Cronulla, 150 metres, on mud (K. Sheard, Jan, 1944); off

Ulladulla, 75 metres and 60 metres on coarse sand (K, Sheard, A. Trawl, June

and Aug, 1944). Tasmania: south end of Marion Bay (W. S, Faithridse,

Fuphausiid bottom net, Dec, 1944), Types in South Australian Museum, Reg.

No. C. 2,808-2,810.

The size is a little variable (adult male, Tasmania, 5-5 mm.), as is also the

armature of the lateral margins of telson and inner edge of first joint of endopod

of urepod ; the spines of the distal end of telson (three truly terminal and a longer

subapical pair) are constant. An ovigerous female 5 min. in length has five

spines on cach lateral margin of telson and fourteen inner spines on first jonni

of endopod of uropod. A male has fourteen short and fourteen longer spines

on inner margin of endopod of uropod, but the spines of second and third joints

of this ramus are as in type and paratype adult males. The peduncle of the

uropod may he very slightly longer in relation to the endopod of that appendage

than in the types.

The specialized third segment of the endopod of the uropod of the aclalt

inale seems to he distinctive for the species.

Of the forms referred to Hemilamprops and Lamprops, Hemilamprops (?)

californica Zimmer (1936, 429, fig. 36) and perhaps also Lumprops serrata Hart

(1930, 36 (14), fig. 4, F-G) agree with diversa in having a pair of telsonic spines

which are neither truly terminal nor lateral. In Zimmer's paper these spines are

figured and described as being situate ‘Below, and somewhat external ta the two

lateral spines” of the terminal three, whereas in diversa they emanate from ahove

the three terminal spines. Hart's fig. 4, F shows for Lamprops serrate a pair of

spines seated, apparently, beneath the three terminal spines,

Amongst the differences separating diversa from the Californian species the

different sculpture of the carapace and the proportions of the uropod may Ie

mentioned; in Zimmer’s species the perluticle of the last-named is as long as the

endopud, and is fully as fung as the telson,

188

SUMMARY

The first two representatives of the family Lampropidae to be noted from

Australian waters are described, Both occur, apparently fairly commonly, off

the eastern coasts of Australia and Tasmania, between lat. 34°-43° S. The forms

are Hemilamprops lata and H, diwversa spp. nov.

REFERENCES CITED

CaLmManx, W. T. 1912 “The Crustacea of the Order Cumacea in the collection

of the United States National Museum.” Proc. U.S. Nat., Mus., 41,

603-676, fig. 1-112

Deryavin, A. N. 1926 “The Cumacea of the Kamchatka Expedition.” Russ.

Hydrobiol. Zeits., 5, 174-182, pl. ili-iv

Hlace, Hersert M. 1937 Cumacea and Nebaliacea. Rep. B.A.N.Z. Antare.

Res. Exped, 1929-31, 4b, No. 2, 37-56, fig. 1-14

}iart, JosepHINE F. L. 1930 “Some Cumacea of the Vancouver Island

Region.” Contrib. Canadian Biol., ns., 6, No. 3, 23-40 (1-18), fig. 1-5

Sars, G. O. 1863 Nyt Mag. Naturv., 12

Sars, G. O. 1883 Oversigt af Norges Crustacea, Forh. Selsk. Christian.,

1882, No. 18, 1-124, pl. i-vi

Sreppinc, T. R. R. 1913 Cumacea (Sympoda). Das Tierreich, Lief., 39,

1-210, fig. 1-137

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VOL. 70 PART 2 ~ res - DECEMBER 1, 1946 ~

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CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE AUSTRALIAN

TORTRICIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) PART II

BY A. JEFFERIS TURNER

Summary

Disorderly.

I substitute this name for C. acritodes Turn., which is preoccupied.

189

CONTRIBUTIONS TG OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE AUSTRALIAN

TORTRICIDAE (LEPIDOPTERA) PART II

By A. Jervesss Turner

[Communicated by H. Womersley, 13 June 1946]

Capua arrythmodes nom. nov.

dppvOnwdns, disorderly.

I substitute this name for C, acritedes Turn., which is preoccupied.

Subfam. KUCOSMINAL

Hermenias rivulifera n. sp.

rivueliferns, carrying a rivulet.

4,19 mm, Head and thorax pale grey. Dalpi 34; grey. Antethae grey;

ciliations in male minute. Abdomen grey. Legs iuscous with whitish rings;

posterior pair whitish. Iorewings narrow, costa scarcely arched, apex rounded,

lermen extremely oblique; in male with a broad costal fold reaching heyond two-

thirds; whitish with numerous longitudinal fuscous tines; these combine to form

an undulating median line lo apex, basally three-forked, forks subcustal, median,

and one lo fold; costal edge fuscous; cilia white wilh fuscous bars, below mid-

termen pale grey. Tindwings grey; cilia whitish,

Queensland: Maryland, near Stanthorpe, in April (W. B. Barnard); one

specimen.

Hermenias cailimita n. sp.

xaAAyutos, prettily threaded.

3, %,10-12 mm. Tlead, thorax, and abdomen fuscous. Palpi 21, whitish.

Antennae fuscous; eiliations in male minute, Legs fuscous with whitish rings;

posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings narrow, costa scatceiy arched, apex

rounded-rectangnlat. termen straight, scarcely oblique; in male without costal

fold; white partly suffused with grey; markings dark fuseous; costal half of

basal area clear white to one-third, there interrupted and cotitinued as a syb-

costal streak to apex, interrupted again at two-thirds and befere apex; many

fwscous dots in basal area; many oblique dark fuscous streaks from apical two-

thirds of costa; a ctirved line from two-thirds of costa to tertien bencath apex;

a spot above two-fifths dorsum; several fine longicudinal streaks in disc; a white

apical dot; a dark [uscous terminal line; cilia white, on apex blackish, on tornus

grey. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba in October (W. B., Barnard); two specimens.

Type in Queensland Museum.

Bathrotoma spodostola n. sp.

omvdourvdvs, grey-cloaked.

8,18 mm, Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi 24; grey. Antennae

grey; ciliations in male minute. (Abdomen missing.) Legs. fuscous with whitish

rings; posterior pair whitish. VForewings narrow, costa gently arched to middie,

thence straight, apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; in

male with a broad costal fold nearly reaching middle; whitish mostly suffused

with prey; markings fuscous; very numerous costal strigulae; a small sub-basal

median spot; a series of strigulae on dorsum; an elongate median spot broader

anteriorly, tapering to a point postcriorly; a wedge-shaped spot above tornts;

Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 70, (2), 1 Dee. 1946

190

another wedge-shaped spot beneath apex, connected by a strigula with costa; a

line from apex to tnidtermen; cilia white with an apical spot and a bar beneath

it, from middle to tornus grey, Hindwings grey ; cilia whitish,

The unusual shape of the forewings is lke that of B. telanographa Tumi,

Western Australia: Margaret River in November; one specimen.

Bathrotoma aethalostola n. sp.

alfaAnotoAas, hlack-cloaked.

9, 15 mm. Head and thorax grey, Palpi 24; grey. Antennae fuscous-

Abdomen pale grey, Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish.

Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex subrectangular, termen straight,

not oblique; grey; markings dark fuscous; a series of minute costal strigulac;

an irregular dorsal blotch from base to two-fifths; a post-median blotch not

reaching dorsum, posteriorly indented and margined with white, anteriorly touch-

ing dorsal blotch; a slender line from costa near apex to midtermen and almost

to tornus; grey with a few dark fuscous hars beneath apex. Hindwings grey:

cilia whitish.

Western Australia : Tantmin in October; one specimen.

Spilonota brachytycha n. sp.

Apayrmrvyos, with short fold.

é.14mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey, Palpi 25; whitish. Antenne

grey. Forewitigs with costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen almost straight,

oblique; male with a broad costal fold reaching one-third; whitish mostly suffused

with grey; a series of oblique fuscous costal strigulae in apical half; a circular

whitish tornal area, posteriorly edged with silvery-white, containing three short

blackish longitudinal lines; a narrow oblique apical dot; cilia grey. Hindwings

pale grey; cilia whitish,

Western Australia: Perth (Mount Dale) in January (W. G. Barnard); one

specimen.

Spilonota euploca n, sp,

eliaAaxos, well woven.

¢, 20 mm, Head fuscous. (Palpt missing.) Antennae fuscous; cillations

in male minute. Thorax fuscous with a grey central spot. Abdomen fuscotis;

tuit grey. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly fuscous.

Forewings with costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded,

slightly oblique; fuscous with dark fuscous and grey-whitish markings; four grey-

whitish spots on dorsum, each with a central fuscous stria; a dark fuscous

pretornal spot; dark fuscous strigulae on basal half of costa; similar markings

edged with grey-whitish on apical half; brownish spots in mid-dise at two-fifths

and one-half ;.an erect row of short dark fuscous streaks from tornus half-way

across wing; a dark fuscous stbmarginal line from costa to near tornus; cilia

grey with fuscous bars. Hindwings grey; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Brisbane in March; one specimen.

Spiloneta sphenophora n, sp.

eqdnrodapns, bearing a wedge.

#, 12 mm. Head and thorax gecy. Palpi 3; grey, lower edge whitish.

Antennae grey. Abdomen pale grey. Legs fttscotis; posterier pair whitish.

Forewings with costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termen straight, slightly

oblique; whitish with patchy grey suffusion and fuscous markings; a series of

19!

triangular costal dots with intermediate minute dots; some grey dots in disc; 2

wedge-shaped spot based on dorsum from two-thirds to tornus, its apex acute

and reaching one-third across disc; a grey spot before termen containing a short

longitudinal blackish line; cilia grey with some fuscous bars. Hindwings and

cilia pale grey.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in January (W. B. Barnard); one

specimen.

Spilonota ebenostigma n. sp-

§Bevootrypas, with black dots.

@, 12-13 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous. Palpi 3; fuscous,

terminal joint white. Antennac fuscous; ciliations in male minute. Legs grey

with white rings; posterior pair white. Forewings narrow, costa straight,

apex pointed, termen straight, obliquc; in male with a narrow costal fold

reaching one-third; whitish partly suffused with grey; markings fuscous;

numcrous costal dots edged with whitish; basal part of dorsum strigulated; aa

irregular spot on one-third dorsum reaching more than half across wing; a

triangular spot on dorsum before tornus; four black dots in a line from tornus,

first three approximated, fourth above middle; cilia grey-whitish. Llindwings

and cilia grey, ;

Victoria; Mount Buffalo in June, January; three spacimens,

Spilonota dyselia n. sp.

SyoyAcos un-illumined.

4,2, 1416 mm. ITlead, thorax and abdomen Tuscons. Palpi 2; fiscous.

Antennae {uscous; ciliations in male minute. Legs fuscous; posterior pair grey.

Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded;

in male with a broad costal fold nearly reaching middie; fuscons slightly sprinkled

with ochreous-whitish ; some obscurely darker oblique costal strigulae; a fine dark

fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous. Hindwings dark grey; cilta grey.

North Queensland: Cairns in August and March; Atherton in September;

Townsville in June, Queensland: Brisbane in May. Ten specimens.

Spilonota metabola n. sp.

pera Bodos, variable.

&, 2, 1416 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey, Palpi 4; whitish-grey-

Antennae and abdomen grey. Legs whitish; anterior pair in male fuscous with

whitish rings. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen

straight, oblique; grey-whitish; markings dark fuscous; a short basal line on

dorsum; two or three fine obliqne costal strigulae, that from one-third longer; a

streak along fold; a median longitudmal streak from one-fourth, connected with

a broader streak to apex; cilia whitish, Male without costal fold; markings

except apical streak not developed; some fuscous suffusion on fold and above

middle of disc. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Western Australia: Denmark in March ( W.B. Barnard); two. specimens,

T haye made the female in the Queensland Museum the type.

Spilonota liphaema n. sp.

Aahatos, pallid.

$, 2, 12-20 mm. Ilead, thorax and abdomen whitish-grey. Palpi 3;

whitish-grey. Antennae grey. Legs pale grey with whitish rings; posterior pair

whitish. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate,

oblique; male with a broad costal fold exiending to middle; whitish sprinkled

192

with grey; markings pale fuscous; numerous slender obliqtie costal strigulae,

longer towards apex; an apical dot; tornal area whitish-grey, edged posteriorly

by a silvery terminal line, containing three minute longittidinal blackish streaks;

cilia grey, apices partly whitish. Hindwings whitish-grey ; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Toowoomha in August, Septemher and November (W. B.

Barnard) ; five specimens. Type in Queensland Museum.

Spilonota zophotypa n. sp.

€vporuros, with dark markings,

@, 18 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous. Palpi 34, grey, second

joint with fuscous oblique bar before middle, Antennue grey; ciliations in male

minute. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish, Forewings

with costa almost straight, apex obtuse, termien straight, oblique; in male with a

broad costal fold reaching to middle; whitish-grey heavily marked with fuscous;

basal area to two-fifths occupied by fuscous extending two-thirds across wing

and containing dark fuscous dots and costal strigulae, its dorsal margin very

irregular; a narrow fascia from costa beyond middle to tarnus, interrupted above

dorsum; four costal dots beyond this, with minute strignlae between them: a

rather long oblique streak from apex; a series of terminal dots; cilia grey with

dark fuscous bars and sprinkling, Tlindwings and cilia dark grey.

Western Australia; Denmark in March (W. B. Barnard); one specimen.

Spilonota ochronephes n. sp.

“oxpovedys, pale clouded,

3, ¢%, 11-14 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey-whitish. Palpi 34;

grey. Antennae grey; ciliations in male one-half. Legs whitish, Forewings

narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen very obliquely rounded: in

male with a narrow costal fold reaching to one-third; whitish with slight grey

suftusion ; markings pale fuscous; numerous minute costal strigulae, better shown

in female; some dots. in disc, more numerous in female; a longitudinal streak

from middle of wing to apex; fine dark fuscous terminal line; cilia whitish, on

apex dark fuscous. Hindwings and cilia whitish-grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in August; Stradbroke Island in January; ‘weed

Heads in Septetnber; Toowoomba in October; Stanthorpe in September,

October, December, January and February. New South Wales: Brunswick

Heads in December. Ten specimens.

Spilonota notosphena n. sp.

veroadyvos, with dorsal wedge,

¢, 10 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen whitish-grey. Palpi 35; grey,

terminal joint white. Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Legs white;

anterior pair grey. Forewings narrow, costa scarcely arched, apex acute, termen

sinuate, oblique; in male with a costal fold reaching two-fifths; white with some

grey suffusion and fuscous markings; a scries of costal dots and others in basal

area; an oblique mark from above two-fifths dorsum to middle of wing; an out-

wardly oblique wedge-shaped dorsal spoi before tormus; a slender line fromm

three-fourths costa to termen beneath apex; cilia whitish-grey. Hindwings and

cilia grey.

Queensland; Macpherson Range in November; one specimen.

Spilonota eutyptycha n. sp.

-ebpurriyes, with broad fold.

é, 11-i4 mm, Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palp? 34; while, some-

193

times with an obliqti¢ fuscous line on second segment, Antennac grey. Abdomen

grey, Legs whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings with costa slightly arched,

apex pointed, termen sinuate, oblique; male with a broad costal fold extending

to two-fifths; grey; a broad white costal stripe from base to apex; numerous

oblique fuscous lines from costa; a fuscous terminal line; cilia grey, Hindwings

grey; cilia whitish,

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in December (\V. B. Barnard) ;

nine specimens,

Spilonota diplostigma n- sp.

SurA0orrypas, twice branded.

¢,10mm. Head, thorax and abdomen prey. Palpi 34; grey, towards apex

white, Atitennae grey. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow,

costa straight, apex acute, termen sinuate, oblique; white suffused with grey

except a longitudinal median streak; basal area sprinkled and costa strigulated

with fuscous; a broad oblique dark fuscous mark in dise at one-third; a rhombi-

form dark fuscous spot on dorsum betore torts; a slender Jine from three-

fourths costa to tornus; a terminal line; cilia pale grey. Hindwings and cilia

pale grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in August; two specimens,

Spilonota ammostigma n. sp,

éppoortypes, branded with sand.

§, 13-14 mm. Head and thorax whitish-grey. Palpi 3; grey, mner surface

whitish, Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdumen grey. Legs

whitish; anterior pair grey, Forewings narrow, somewhat dilated, costa slightly

arched, apex acute, termen strongly sitiuate, oblique; costal fold in male vestigial ;

whitish with slight grey suffusion towards dorsum; markings dark ochreous-

brown; a slender or moderately broad streak from base ending in a pretornal

spot; in female some strigulae on costa near apex, an apical spot, and a short

terminal liney in male these are obsolete; two or three mintte blackish dots above

tornus; cilia grey, on apex blackish, Hindwings grey: cilia grey, towards apex

whitish,

Queensland: Stanthorpe in October; two specimens,

Spilonota clastomochla n. sp-_

kAucropoxadcs, with broken bar.

4, %, 13-15 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous. Palpi 25; white,

outer surface suffused with fuseous. Antennae fuscous; citations in male

minute, Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish, Forewings

with custa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, slightly oblique; in male

with a narrow costal fold reaching to one-fourth; whitish-grey; a dark fuscous

median blotch, giving off a line to termen beneath apex; a broad wintish-grey

costal streak, which becomes white at apex; this is crossed by obligtie fuscous

lines; a dark Fuscous spot above tornus; a fuscotis terminal line not reaching

tornus; cilia grey, on apex dark fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Western Australia: Albany and Nornalup in November; four specimens.

Spilonota mediocunea n. sp.

mediocuneus, with a median wedge,

16 mm. Head and thorax grey-whitish, DPalpi 24; grey. Antennae grey.

Abdomen grey; tuft whitish. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Torewmgs

narrow. costa slightly arched, apex acute, termen straight, oblique; grey-whitish ;

194

markings fuscous; a median elongate wedge fromm base to middle of wings, lincar

at base, gradually becoming broader on fold, ending in a sharp point; some costal

strigulac, more numerous towards apex; a terminal grey suffusion, traversed by

two parallel erect lines from before and beyond tornus; a blackish apical dot;

cilia whitish, on apex blackish. Ilindwings and cilia pale grey.

Spilonota atmophanes n. sp,

arpopavys, smoky.

a, 9%, 13-14 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuseous, Palpi 3; fuscous.

Antennae fuscous. Legs fuscous with whitish rings: posteriar pair whitish.

Forewings narrow, costa almost straight, apex rounded, termen obliquely

rounded; male with a broad costal fold extending to middle; grey with

fuscous markings; a series of minute costal dots; a curved line from four-fifths

costa to an apical dot; a curved line crossing this from costa before apex to mid-

termen continued ta tornus; a spot on base of dorsum; very irregular spots in

disc at two-fifths and three-fifths, the latter larger; some white dots in and

beyond middle; cilia grey with some fuscons bars. Hindwings and cilia

pale grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba in October; Bunya Mountains in April (W. B.

Barnard) ; two specimens,

Spilonota euthytoma n. sp.

chduropos, straight cut,

@, 15 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen dark fuscous. Palpi 34; white,

a median dot on upper edge of second dot, and lower edge of terminal joint,

fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Legs fuscous; terminal joint grey-whitish, Fore-

wings with costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, slightly oblique;

on costal side of a straight line from base to apex whitish-grey, traversed by

oblique fuscous costal streaks; on dorsal side of line mostly suffwsed with

fuscous; tornal area grey; an erect curved transverse white line from before

tornus, preceded by a fuscous dot; a straight transverse erect white line beyond

tornus; cilia grey; on apex [uscous.

Tasmania: Strahan in Webruaty; one specimen,

Spilonota mesosticha 1. sp,

paeuvoonyes, With median streak,

¢. 16 mm. Head grey. Thorax whitish; side tufts fuscous. Palpi 4;

fuscous, inner surface of second joint whitish. (Abdomen missing.) Legs

whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex

pointed, termen straight, oblique; whitish with slight fuscous sprinkling; a broad

fuscous streak from base to middle, along fold; a short oblique streak [rom apex;

cilia whitish, Hindwings and cilia prey.

Spilonota leucopyga n. sp.

Acvxonvyos, white-rumped.

&, 12 mm. Head fuscoiis. Palpi 24; fuscous, lower edge whitish.

Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Thorax whitish mixed with fuscons,

Abdomen fuscons; tuft white, Tegs whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings

narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen straight, oblique; in male

with a narrow costal fold reaching to one-fourth; fuscous with white markings ;

broadly white from base of costa to mid-disc at one-third, enclosing a fuscaus

subdorsal spot near base; a series of costal strigulae separated by fuscous; two

oblique streaks. from two-thirds dorum and tornus uniting to form an inverted

195

Vy an erect seties of minute black streaks before termen across middle of disc,

the lower three approximated; a black apical dot; a white terminal line; cilia

grey, on apex black. Hindwings dark grey; cilia whitish.

New South Wales: Kosciusko (3,000 ft.) in January; one specimen.

Spilonota niphosticha n.sp.

ndoanyos, white-lined,

3,12mm. Head grey. (Palpi missing.) Antennae grey; ciliations in male

minute. Abdomen fuscous. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous with whitish

rings. Forewings narrow, costa alimost straight, apex obtusely pointed, termen

sinuate, oblique; in male with a moderately broad costal fold reaching one-fourth ;

pale fuscous; costal fold white; a white subcostal streak from base to three-

fourths, interrupted at one-fourth; some costal strigulae in apical fourth; two

black dots ahove and before tornus, followed by a curved transverse white line,

this by two mintite black dots, and this again by a white line; transverse white

line: a fuscous apical dot; cilia whitish, on apex fuscous, Hindwings grey; cilia

pale grey.

Western Australia: Perth in Augusl; one specimen received from Mr,

W. H. Matthews.

Spilonota lucifera n, sp.

luciferus, shining.

2,12 mm. Head grey-whitish, Palpi 34; white, outer surface of second

joint grey towards apex, Antennae fuscous. Thorax and abdomen dark

fuscous. Legs, anterior pair fuscous; middle pair whitish with fuscous rings

(posterior pair missing). Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex pointed,

termen straight, oblique; dark fuscous; matkings white with brilliant silvery

lustre; a series of short costal streaks with slender fuscous centres, first basal

and spotlike, second and third reaching half across dise, fourth short, fifth pro-

longed as a solid silver bar ta tornus, fifth very short, sixth, seventh and eighth

rather longery a short submarginal line before middle of termen; cilia grey,

bases whitish. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Tasmania: Cradle Mountain (3,000 ft.) in February; one specimen.

Spilonota baeades nh. sp.

Bawéys, tiny.

@, 9mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 24; grey. Antennae

grey; ciliations in male minute, Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings

narrow, costa straight, apex acute, termen sinuate, oblique; in male without

costal fold; whitish-grey with numerous minute pale fuscous dots and strigulae;

an irregular pretornal spol; an apical dot and terminal line; cilia whitish-grey-

Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in August; one specimen,

Spilonota subpallida n. sp.

subpallidus, somewhat pale.

é, 14 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Talpi 3; grey-whitish.

Antennae prey; ciliations in male minute. Legs grey. Forewings with costa

straight to two-thirds, thence arched, apex obtuse, termen obliquely rounded,

in male with costal fold extending to beyond middle; pale grey with some fuscous

sprinkling; three or four fine oblique costal streaks towards apex; a white

suffusion before fermen containing three fine blackish longitudinal lines; ciii«

grey. Lindwings and cilia pale fuscotis.

Queensland: Stradbroke Island in September; one speciinen,

196

Spilonota phaeochyta n. sp,

aioxutos, darkly sufftised,

?, 20 mm. Head and thorax fuscotis. Palpi 6; fuscous. Antennae grey.

Abdomen grey-whitish, towards apex grey. Legs fuscous, Vorewings with costa

shghtly arched, apex round-pointed, termen rounded, slightly oblique; whitish

sprinkled with fuscous; basal area and a dorsal streak from base to tornus

whitish; four minute whitish dots on apical half of costa; a series of dark fuscous

terminal dots; cilia fuscous with narrow whitish bars. Ulindwings and cilia

grey-whitish.

Western Australia; Yanchep in September; one specimen.

Spilonota pellopis n. sp.

wedAXomis, BTeY,

@, [4-16 mm, Head and thora pale ochreous-grey. Palpi 24; grey, apex

of second joint pale fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen

grey. Legs whitish; anterior pair grey with whitish rings. Forewings with costa

slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; in

male with a broad costal fold reaching nitddle; whitish mostly densely suffused

with grey; numerous pale fuscous streaks from costa, short on basal half, longer

and oblique on apical half, and there separated by whitish; three or four very

fine short longitudinal blackish subterminal streaks; cilia grey. Hindwings and

cilia pale grey.

New South Wales: Brunswiel Weads in January (W. B. Rardard);

twa specimens. Type in Queensland Museum.

Spilonota tornosema n. sp.

Tupvooyos, With tornal marking.

?, 15 mm, Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 3; grey, lower edge

white. Antennae grey. [Legs grey with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish.

Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded;

grey with patchy brownish suffusion;.a series of fuscotss dots on basal half of

costa; on apical half oblique strigulac. brownish with fuscous bases; a suffused

subdorsal fuscous spot at two-fifths; an oblique apical fuscous dot; a small

brownish tornal spot traversed by a slender blackish longitudinal line; beyond

this an erect series of three blackish lines, edged posteriorly by a silvery line on

termen; cilia grey, IJindwings prey; cilia whitish with a grey sub-basal line,

Western Australia: Perth (Mount Dale) in June (W. B. Barnard); one

specimen.

Spilonota stenophylla n. sp.

orevopuAdas, Narrow-winged.

3, 13-14 mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi 3; white mixed with

pale grey. Antennae fuscous. Abdomen grey; apices of segments dark [uscous.

Legs fuscotis; posterior pair grev, Vorewings very narrow, costa almost

straight, apex pointed, termen sinuate, oblique; male with a narrow costal fold

reaching to one-third; grey with fuscous markings; a white intertupted streals

from base of costa to apex; a series of costal strigulae, those near apex separated

by white; a scrivs of dorsal dots from base to two-thirds; a series of dots on

lower edge of whité streak from base to one-third; a dark fuscous strealt travers-

ing white streak at two-fifths, then bent along its lower edge to termen beneath

apex; tornal area grey containing a short blackish longitudinal line; cilia grey.

Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Western Australia: Albany and Denmark in Match (WW. B, Barnard) ; two

specimens, Type in Queensland Museum.

197

Spilonota poliophylla n.sp.

roAtoduAdas, grey-winged,

8, 11 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 34; white, at apex

grey. Antennae fuscous. Legs fuscous with white rings; posterior pair whitish.

Forewings narrow, costa nearly straight, termen sinuate, oblique; male with a

broad costal fold reaching two-fifths; grey with whitish suffusion along costa;

a series of fine ftscous costal strigulac; a slender dark fuscous median streak

from base to apex, expanded by fuscous irroration beyond middle, and then

interrupted; two white apical costal strigulae; tornal area grey with two short

blackish longitudinal streaks; cilia grey, on apex fuscous. Ilindwings pale grey;

darker at apex; cilia pale grey, on apex darker.

Western Australia: Denmark in March (W. KB. Barnard); one specimen.

Gen. Hylotropha nov.

BAoTpades, forest-bred.,

Pulpi porrect; second joint with projecting hairs abeve and beneath,

terminal joint short, Thorax smooth. Forewings with 7, 8, 9 stalked, 7 to

termen. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 approximated, 6 and 7 stalked. A

development of Acroclita.

Hylotropha leptotypa n. sp.

Aerrorumos, lightly marked,

9,16mm. Head and thorax grey . Palpi 25; grey, internal surface white.

Antennae fuscous. Abdomen fuscous. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous.

Forewings with costa gently arched, apex pvinted, termen sinuate, not oblique;

whitish suffused and strigulated with pale grey faintly greenish-tinged ; markings

fuseous; basal patch indicated by several transverse lines; a narrow inwardly

oblique fascia from costa about nviddle to two-fiiths dorsum, not fully developed ;

severul fine longitudinal lines in disc; a broken subterminal fuscia; a dark fuscots

apical dot; cilia grey, on apex dark fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

New South Wales: Mittagong in January; one specimen.

ACROCITA SEDITIOSANA Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1881, 684,

Spdonoia deloschema Turn., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1914, 554.

Batrotoma cataplasta Turn., Proc. Linn. Soc, N,S.W., 1915, 192,

Eucosma phaeoscia Turn., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1916, 534,

North Queensland: Atherton. Queensland: Nambour, brisbane, Macpher-

son Rauge, Bunya Mountains, New South Wales: Ebor, Sydney, Bull.

ACRGOCITA NEGTHEDA Turn.

Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 1916, 524.

Queensland: Bundaberg, Brisbane, Esk, Toowoomba. One example has

been bred from a larva feeding on Lantana.

Acroclita hemiochra n. sp.

€yiunypos, half pale.

4,2, 9-12 mm, Hesd, thorax and abdamen fuscous. VPalpi 24; whitish,

terminal joint usually fuscous. Antennae fuscous; in male simple. Legs

fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish. Forewmgs with costa

scarcely arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, oblique; grey-brownish; a rather

broad suffused white streak from midbase to apex; numerous. dots in basal area

198

and on costa dark fuscous; a large spot on three-fifths dorsum followed by a

tawny blotch extending on termen from apex to tornus, fuscous-brown; a dark

fuscous terminal line preceded by a natrow pink suffusion; cilia grey-brownish,

bases white, in female more or less mixed with pink, Hindwings and cilia grey.

Western Australia; Denmark in March (W. B. Barnard) ; four specimetis.

Type in Queensland Museum.

Acroclita erythrotypa n. sp.

Epvbporuros, marked with red.

9, 14 mm. [lead and thorax pale ochreous-grey. Palpi 24; whitish,

Antennae grey, Abdomen pale fuscous. Legs whitish; anterior pair grey.

Forewings with costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, not oblique;

pale ochreous-grey mixed with red; a broad white costal streak from base to

middle, giving off at one-third a white streak to tornus; an apical dot and a

terminal line fuscous; cilia white. Hindwings grey; cilia white, towards

tornus grey,

Western Australia: Albany in February (W. B. Barnard); one specimen.

Acroclita rubrisignis n. sp.

rubrisignis, with red markings,

9,14 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 34; whitish. Antennae

grey, Legs, anterior pair grey; middle pair reddish on dorsum; posterior pair

whitish. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate,

not oblique ; whitish; markings reddish and grey; a grey dorsal suffusion broaden-

ing to half across disc at one-third, narrowing to tornus; an oblique reddish

mark from midcosta towards but not reaching tornys; a series of minute costal

dots and strigulae; a broad grey terminal fascia; a short upwardly oblique line

from midtermen; a reddish apical dot and terminal line not reaching tornus:

cilia white, bases grey, on apex reddish, Hindwings grey; cilia whitish,

Western Australia: Busselton in October; one specimen.

Acroclita polybalia n. sp.

woAuBadws, With mary dots.

?, 13mm. Head grey, Palpi 2; grey. Antennae grey with dark fuscous

annulations, Thorax pale fuscons. (Abdomen missing.) Forewings narrow,

costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; whitish sprinkled

with grey; markings brownish dotted with dark fuscous; a moderate basal patch

with rounded posterior edge; a rather narrow median fascia from two-fifths

costa to three-fourths dorsum; a triangular mark on four-fifths costa: an incom-

plete terminal line; cilia whitish with fuscous sub-basal line. Hindwings and

cilia whitish.

Western Australia; Denmark in April (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Acroclita ochrophara n. sp.

&xpodapas, pale cloaked.

é, 9%, 1012 mm. Head and thorax whitish-ochreous-grey. Pilpi 24;

white, sometimes tinged with pale ochreous-grey, Antennae grey; in male

simple. Abdomen fuscous; tuft grey. Legs whitish. Forewings with costa

gently arched, apex pointed, termen simuate, not oblique; male without costal

fold; ochreous-whitish; markings reddish; a series of minute costal dots, some-

times pale fuscous; a spot or some stiffusion on fold at one-fourth; an oblique

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streak from midcosta; strigulae beyond this silvery-edged; an apical spot; a

slendet fuscous terminal line; cilia whitish. Ilindwings pale grey; cilia whitish.

Western Australia: Albany and Busselton in February (W. B. Barnard) ;

seven specimens, Type in Queensland Museum.

Acroclita actomochla n. sp.

dxpopoyAcs, with an apical bar.

@, 12-14 mm. Head and thorax pale ochreous-grey ; Palpi 24; whitish,

terminal joint dark fuscous. Antennae fuscous. Ahdomen grey. Legs fuscous

with whitish rings; posterior pair except tarsi whitish, Forewings narrow;

costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen strongly sinuate, slightly oblique; basal

area whitish-ochreous; a series of dark fuscous costal dots; a fuscons dorsal

suffiision from near base to two-thirds; a curved ochreous-brown bar from mid-

costa to apex; a slender dark fuscous terminal line preceded by a broader

ochreous-brown line; cilin white, towards apex datk fuscous.

Western Australia: Waroona in January; Perth in February (W. B-

Barnard) ; two specitnens, ‘lype in Queensland Museum.

Acroclita nimbata nu. sp,

nimbalus, clouded.

4, 13 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen pale ochreous-grey. Palpi 2;

whitish. Antennae pale grey; in male simple. Legs whitish. Forewings with

costa gently arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, not oblique; male with a narrow

costal fold reaching two-fifths; whitish mostly suffused with grey and with some

fuscous sprinklings; a series of fuscous costal dots; a whitish area on costa fram

two-thirds almost to apex, with a curved outline reaching one-third across dise,

defined by a fine fuscous margin; subterminal area grey with fuscous dots and

longitudinal strigulae; a fuscous apical dot; cilia whitish. Hindwings pale grey;

apex and terminal edge whitish; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Toowoomba in January (W. B. Barnard); one specimen.

Acroclita commatica n. sp.

Koppatixos, Impressed,

18 imm. Head and thorax whitish-grey, Palpi 24; white, apex

and 2 median dot on second joimt dark fuscous. Antennae grey.

Abdomen fuscous. . Legs whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings with costa

gently arched; apex pointed, termen obliquely rounded; white mostly suffused

with grey; markings fuscous; a series of short oblique lines from: costa with

intermediate dots; some grey suffusion on fold; a longitudinal interrupted

blackish streak above middle from three-fifths lo four-fifths; a blackish streak

running to termen heneath apex; a very fine lite from three-fifths costa strongly

curved outwards so as to run through interruption in discal streak, and then

sinuate to mid-dorsum; a terminal line; cilia whitish, Hindwings and cilia grey.

Western Australia: Collie in November; one specimen.

Acroclita atacta n. sp.

druxrosy confused.

#, %, 14-16 mm. Head and thorax fuscons-brown, Palpi 2; fuscotis-

brown. Antennae fuscotts. Abdomen fuscous; tuft whitish, Legs fuscous

with ochreous rings; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings with costa

arched to middle, thence straight, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, oblique;

male with a broad costal fold reaching one-third; shining white suffused with

200

firey ; markings brown and fuscous; basal patch indicated; a fuscous spot on two-

thirds costa, followed by an inwardly oblique grey-whitish suffusion across disc;

terminal area with four transverse brown lines partty edged with dark fuscous

and anastomosing, separated by confused grey-whitish lines; cilia fuscous. Hind-

wings and cilia grey.

Queensland; Toowoomba in September and November (W. EB. Barnard);

four specimens. Type in Queensland Museum,

Acroclita albifusa n. sp.

albifusus, suffused with whitish.

4,13 mm. IJiead, thorax and abdomen fuscous. Palpi 2; grey. Antennae

grey-whitish ; ciliations in male one-half. Forewings with costa gently arched,

apex rounded, termen obliquely rotinded; male with a broad costal fold reach-

ing one-third; ochreous-whitish with fuscous markings; basal patch well defined

towards costa, deficient towards dorsum; a series of dark fuscous costal dots and

strigulae; a large roundish dorsal spot before tornus, its apex touching a spot on

two-thirds costa; a grey terminal fascia edged with dark fuscous; cilia ochrecus-

whitish with fuscous bars. Hindwings grey; cilia whitish, towards tarnus grey.

Queensland: Toowoomba in September (W. B. Barnard); one specimen.

Ancylis eupena n, sp.

evrqvos, finely waver,

9, 11 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 14; ochreous-whitish.

Antennae grey. (Abdoinen missing.) Forewings natrow, costa slightly arched,

apex acute, falcate, termen sinuafe, oblique; whitish posteriorly with some

ochreous suffirsion; basal half with numerous transverse fuscous lines more or

less interrupted into dots; posterior half with five broad oblique wedge-shaped

blackish lines separated by white lines; an erect blackish line with slight trans-

verse projections from tornus two-thirds across wing, preceded by ochreous and

followed by grey suffusion; a white terminal line from apex meeting apex of last

costal white line; cilia on apex blackish, beneath apex ochreous, traversed by an

erect biackish line, below muddle fuscous. Ilindwings and cilia dark grey.

Queensland; Mount Tambourine in September; one specimen.

Ancylis panolbia n, sp.

waved cos, happy.

é.14mm,. Head brown. Palpi 24; brown. Antennae grey; in male simple.

Thorax whitish-grey with dark fuscous dots. Abdomen pale grey; tuft whiush,

Forewings with costa straight almost to apex, apex pointed, moderately falcaite,

termen sinuate, not oblique; male with a narrow costal fold reaching to near

middie; whitish slightly sprinkled with grey; markings fuscous; numerous costal

strigulae; four dorsal spots, near base, at one-fourth, at one-third, and before

ternus; a slender curved line from three-fourths costa to tornus; an apical spet

and terminal line; cilia fuscous, bases biackish, on tornus whitish. THindwings

pale grey; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Macpherson Range (Springbrook) in October (W, B. Bar-

nard) ; one specimen.

Procoronis capnophanes n, sp.

Karvodarys, dusky.

8, 15 mm. Itfead and thorax insevus. Palpi 34: fuseous. Antennae fus-

cous; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen grey, towards base pale brownish,

Legs whitish-ochreous; atiterior and middle pairs with fuscous rings om tibiae

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and tarsi, Forewings with costa arched to middle. thence straight, apex pointed,

termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; male without costal fold; white with

extensive fuscous suffusion and strigulae; a large fuscous basal patch, its outer

edge from one-fourth costa to two-fifths dorsum, angled above middle; numerous

fuscous costal strigulae; median area paler; many fine transverse fuscous lines

in apical third of disc, those near termen with whitish between them; cilia

Tuscous, Hindwings and cilia dark grey.

Queensland: Toowoumba in May (W, B, Barnard); one specimen.

Eucosma periptycha n. sp,

mepirrixas, fenced around.

9,12 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 24; fuscous; lower edge

whitish. Antennae fuscaus. (Abdomen missing.) Torewings narrow, costa

scarcely arched, apex rectangular, termen obliquely rounded; a costal stripe from

base almost to apex white; a series of minute triangular dark fuscous costal dots;

a white dorsal spot near base, sprinkled with fuscous, continued along dorsum

to middle, where it expands triangularly teaching middle of disc; some white

suffusion before tornus, edged posteriorly by a curved dark fuscous line; cilia

white with dark fuscous bars, apices grey. Hindwings grey; cilia whitish.

Western Australia: Albany in February (W. RB. Barnard); one specitnen.

Eucosima nitida n, sp.

Hitidus, neat.

29,14 nm. Head fuscotis; face white. Palpi 3; white. second joint with

three transverse fuscous bars. Antennae grey. Abdomen grey; tuft white.

Legs whitish; anterior pair grey. Forewings with costa slightly arched, termen

sinuate, not oblique: white with slight partial grey suffusion; markings dark

fnscous, sharply defined; costal edge dark fuscous to two-fifths; a line from costa

near base to fold, along which it is continued to one-third, where it joins gn

oblique streak from two-thirds dorsum half across cise; a large pretornal spot;

a series. of costal strigulae; a spot on termen above middle; a dark fuscous apical

dot: cilia white with a few dark fuscous points, towards tornus grey. Hindwings

vrey ; cilia pale grey.

New South Wales: Mittagong in January; one specimen.

EucosmsA vAcayNrura Turn,

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Atst., 1916, 525.

This species is variable. Of the three specimens before me only two have

the hindwing veins outlined with dark fuscous, Tn one there ig a whitish spat

with grey strigulae on the middle of the dorsum of the forewings.

Queensland; Brisbane, Macpherson Range (2,500 ft.), Toowoomba.

Eucosma anisospila n. sp.

dgoorXos, unevenly spotted.

@, %, 12-15 mm. Head white. Palpi 14; fuscous, apices white. Antennae

fuscous; ciliationus in male minute. "Thorax white mixed with fuscous. Abdomen

grey. Legs fuscous with white rings; posterior pair white. Forewings narrow,

costa gently arched, apex rotinded, termen obliquely rounded; male without costal

fold; white with dark fuscous spots and dots; several dots near hase; an elongate

spot from one-third dorsum to near one-third costa, sometimes forming a com-

plete fascia; a second spot on two-thirds dorsum, sometimes connected with a

202

spot on three-fourths costa; a tornal spot, sometimes connected with that on costa;

a variable number of dots on margins and in disc; cilia pale grey. Hlindwings

grey; cilia whitish with grey sub-basal line.

Western Australia: Kalamunda, near Perth, in December and January

(W. B. Barnard) ; five specimens, Type in Queensland Musetim.

Eucosma eridela n. sp.

Epdydos, clearly marked.

9,13 mm. LIlead whitish, Palpi 2; whitish, Antennae fuscous. Thorax

fuscous or whitish. Abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish.

Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termet sinuate, oblique;

white; markings dark fuscous; a costal series of oblique wedge-shaped streaks

with intermediate dots; a slender curved transverse line at one-third enclosing

basal patch; joined by a slender line from base along fold; sometimes a similar

costal line; a wedge-shaped dorsal spot before tornus, sometimes with a discal

spot above it; a whitish tornal area cdged with dark fuscous and containing two

or three minute longitudinal blackish lines; cilia grey. Hindwings and

cilia grey.

North Queensland: Mackay in Octoher; two specimens.

Eucosma charmera 1. sp.

Xapyypos, pleasing.

é, 18-20 mm, Ilead and thorax fuscous-brown. Palpi 24; grey. Antennae

fuscous; in male simple. Abdomen grey; tuft grey-whitish. Legs fuscous with

ochreous-whitish rings; (posterior pair missing). Forewings with costa gently

arched, apex rounded, termen sinuate, slightly oblique; male without costal fold;

dark grey tinged with brownish; a dark basal patch, its posterior margin curved

from one-fourth costa to two-fifths dorsum, narrowly edged with whitish; costal

area dark from one-third to apex, containing five pairs of whitish strigulae from

costa; a narrow dark erect wedge-shaped tornal spot, containing some blackish

connected dots; dorsal area between this and basal patch grey; tornal area

whitish edged anteriorly and posteriorly by erect silvery lines and containing two

blackish dots; cilia white with three very slender fuiscous lines, Hindwings grey;

cilia whitish.

Qucensland: Toawoomba in September, New South Wales: Ebor in

December; two specimens.

Eucosma striphromita n.sp.

arpipopnras, closely threaded.

8, 2, 13-14 mm. Ilead and thorax grey. Palpi 24; white, apex of second

joint grey. Abdomen grey; basal segment brownish.. Legs grey with whitish

rings; posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex

rectangular, termen straight, not oblique; male with a broad costal fold extend-

ing beyond middle; whitish partly suffused with grey; markings fuscous-brawn;

numerous costal strigulae; a median fuscotis-brown sufftision from near base to

three-fourths; a scries of long wavy sletider closely packed strigulae; a pule sub-

terminal spot; a terminal line; cilia white with three fine blackish bars beneath

apex, Hindwings grey; cilia grey, towards apex white.

New South Wales; Brunswick Heads in December (W-. B. Barnard);

two specimens. Type in Queensland Museitm,

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Eucosma symploca n. sp.

avprAokos, wterwoven.

@, 9, 10-14mm. Head grey. Palpi 2; fuscous, inner surface and terminal

joint whitish. Antennae fuscous; in male simple. Thorax fuscous mixed with

whitish. Abdomen fuscous. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous with whitish

rings. Forewings strongly arched, apex rectangulat, termen straight, not oblique;

in male without costal fold; white sprinkled and strigulated with fuscous; mark-

ings dark fuscous edged with black; basal patch large, interrtipted by a white

fascia, outer edge from one-third costa te mid-dorsum, with an acute posterior

tooth on fold; median fascia from one-third costa to near tornus, margins very

irregular, broadest on costa, often with a slender nearly erect process from outer

edge below middle; a curved line from four-fifths costa to midtermen; an apical

dot; cilia whitish with fuscous bars. Hindwing grey with a whitish terminal

line; cilia prey,

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November (W. B. Barnard) ;

seven specimens. Type in Queensland Museum.

Eucosma. ebenocosma n. sp.

eBevoxogpos, decorated with black,

9, 16 mm. Head black. Palpi 24; white, second joint with three black

dots on outer surface. Antennae black, Thorax white with a black posterior spat.

Abdomen grey. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex obtusely pointed,

termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; white; markings black; two broad

oblique streaks from costa, first from one-fourth to belaw middle at one-third,

second from midcosta to mid-disc at two-thirds, the two broadly connected in

disc and produced in a triangular expansion extending [rom apex to midtermen;

a dot on base of dorsum; a triangular mark from three-fourths dorsum, its apex

touching apical triangle; cilia fuscous, on apex and midtermen black. Hindwings

and cilia dark grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda; one specimen received from Mr. F. P. Dodd.

Eucosma ‘phaeoloma n. sp.

Paoruptas,, dark-fringed.

8, 12 mm, Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi 2; dark fuscous.

Antennae dark fuscous. Abdomen brownish. Legs fuscous, Forewings narrow;

costa straight, apex obtuse, terme slightly rounded, oblique; male with a broad

costal fold reaching two-fifths; grey-whitish sprinkled with fuscous; a broad

fuscous costal streak from base to apex, with a series of oblique dark fuscous

strigulae in apical half; four minute blackish dots in an erect ne from tornus;

an apical dark fuscous spot giving off a slender fuscous submarginal line; a pale

terminal line; cilia brown, bases dark fuscous, Hindwings with 3 and 4 co-

incident; grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, in June; one

specimen.

Eucosma dolichosticha n. sp.

SoAryoortyos, With long lines. i

@, 15 mm. Head. antennae and thorax pale grey, Palpi 14; pale grey.

(Abdomen missing.) Forewings with costa gently arched, apex rectangular,

termen sinuate, not oblique; male with a narrow costal fold extending to about

middle; ochreous-whitish with some fuscous sprinkling, markings dark fuscous;

204

a broad subcostal snffusion from near base to termen, containing several long

dark fuscous lines; numerous. oblique costal strigulae; a strongly oblique line

from mideosta to middle of disc, with two others slightly beyond and parallel,

all ferruginous-edged ; two less oblique and converging subapical lines; a white

tornal area, edged anteriorly by a fuscous line, and containing three slender

longitudinal blackish lines; a terminal line; cilia fuscotis, apices whitish, Hind-

wings grey; cilia whitish,

North Queensland: Cape York in April (W, B, Barnard): one specimen.

Eucosma psammopasta n, sp.

Xapporacros, sprinkled with sand,

8, 15 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous-brown. Palpi 2; brown-

whitish, Antennae fuscotis; in male simple. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior

pair with dark fuscous rings. Forewings: with costa slighily arched, apex

rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; in male without costal fold;

white; markings brownish; a basal patch containing many blackish dots, its outer

margin faintly indicated; a moderate median fascia from midcusta to three-fifths

dorsum, partly edged with blackish dots and strigulae; a slightly curved fascia

from three-fourths costa to tornus, edged anteriorly with blackish dots; a series

of blackish costal dots; a fine blackish line close to termen; a fine fuscous line

rout apex; cilia whitish. Ulindwings pale grey; a fine fuscous line round apex:

cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York in May (W. B. Barnard); one specimen.

Eucosma enprepes n. sp.

eompergs, come\ly.

é,12mm, Head and thorax fuscous, Palpi 2; fuscous. Antennae fuscous ;

in male simple. Abdomen fuscous; tuft grey. Legs whitish with fuscous rings;

posterior pair wholly whitish. TForewings with costa strongly arched, apex rect-

angular, ternien straight, not oblique; fuscous with dark fuscous transverse lines

and strigulae; towards dorsum white: a small basal patch, its posterior edge

indicated by a transverse line with sharp median angle; a moderate fascia from

one-fourth costa to one-third dorsum, edged with dark fuscous, posterior edge

angled above dorstim, a fascia from costa before middle to termen before tornus,

broad on costa, narrow on dorsum, giving off a short line iowards apex, which

partly encloses a white spot; a regular series of dark fuscnus costal dots with

intermediate striyulae; a slender line from three-fourths costa ending in three

short btanches to termen below middle; a dark fuscous apical dot; cilia grey

with whitish apices:

North Queensland: Cape York in October (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Bucosma diaema n. sp-

Siayos, blood-stained,

@,1&mm, Head and thorax pale ochreous-grey. Palpi 34; pale cchreous-

grey. Antennae grey. Abdomen pale fiscots; tuft whitish. Forewings rather

broad, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly

obligue; pale ochreous-grey with slight reddish suffusion on dorsum and beneath

midcosta; a triangular reddish apical blotch nearly reaching tornus, preceded by

a suffused whitish line; some minute Iuscous costal dots; cilia whitish, bases

barred with friscous. Hindwings grey; cilia whitish.

Queensland: one specimen bred from fruit. Unfortunately the record of

locality and food plant has been Lost.

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Eucosma leuconephela n, sp.

Acuxovepedos, Clouded with whitish.

2, 16 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-brown. Palpi 2$; fuscous-brown.

Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute, Abdomen fuscous. Legs erey;

posterior pair whitish. Forewings with custa gently arched, apex pointed, termen

sinuate, not oblique; male without costal fold; fuscous-brown; posterior two-

thirds of costal area whitish with many longitudinal fuscous-brown lines; a large

hasal patch; a costal series of dark fuscous oblong dots; an apical dot; cilia

brown. Hindwings grey; cilia whitish, bases grey.

New South Wales: Ebor in Decenjber; one specimen,

Eucosma syntaractis n. sp.

ovropaxr, confused.

&,%, 13-16 mm. Head fuseous; face ochreous-whilish. Palpi 24; fuscous,

upper edge ochreous-whitish, Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male one-fourth,

Thorax fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-grey; tuft whitish. Legs dark fuscous;

posterior pair whitish, Forewings with costa gently arched, apex pointed,

termen obliquely rounded ; male without costal fold; whitish more or less suffused

with grey; markings fuscous; basal patch not well developed, but posterior edge

sometimes distinct ; an irregular series of oblique costal strigulac; a median costal

spot at two-thirds, sometimes connected with costa and termen beneath apex; a

terminal line; cilia grey, bages whitish. Hindwings pale grey; cilia whitish.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads it December (W. BE. Barnard);

six specimens, Type in Queensland Muscum,

Eucosma tornecosma f. sp.

Topvoxocuos, With tornal ornament,

¢, 14mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi 2; fuscous, inner stirface and

terminal joint whitish, Antennae fuscous. (Abdomen missing.) Legs fuscous

with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish, Worewings natrow, costa nearly

straight, apex pointed, terrnen sinuate, oblique; brown mixed with Luscous; a

series of fuscous costal dots; a whitish spot containing fuscous dots on mid-

detsum; a brown tornal triangle traversed by a longitudinal blackish line, edged

posteriorly by a silvery terminal line, and above by a curved fuscous line; a

fuscous apical dot with a minute white centre; a fuscous terminal line; cilia grey

with a fuscous median line. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

Queensland: Noosa in May; Brisbane; two specimens. Mr. A. R. Dodd

has bred one example from Lantana,

Eucosma ochrotorna 11. sp.

dxporopres, with pale tornus,

8,13 mm. Head and thorax foscous. Palpi 2; grey-whitish, upper edge

fuscous. Antennae fuscous; in male dentate with miniite ciliations, Abdomen

fuscous; tuft grey-whitish, Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings

dilated posteriorly, costa rather strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen almost

straight, oblique; male with a broad costal fold extending to beyond middle;

whitish with grey strigulae; towards costa prey-suffused ; a series of dark fuscous

costal strigulae separated by whitish; basal patch indicated by a fuscous spot at

one-third, posteriorly bidentate, connected by a slender oblique line with costa;

median patch from two-thirds costa, narrow, strongly oblique to middle, there

interrupted, completed hy an obiong spot on three-fifths dorsum; a dark fuscous

sinuate line from three-fourths costa te midtermen, preceded by a broad gtey

206

suffusion; tornal area occupied by a large whitish suffusion extending almost to

costa; cilia whitish, Hindwings whitish; towards apex grey with fuscous

strigulae; a broad grey and fuscous suffusion on dorsum; cilia. whitish,

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in December (W. B. Barnard);

one specimen,

Eucosma transfixa n, sp,

transfixus, pierced through.

@,16mm. Head and thorax pale grey. Palpi 24; grey. Antennae fuscous.

Abdomen fuscous ; dorsiim of first segment white. Legs pale grey; posterior pair

whitish. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex subrectangular, termen

straight, slightly oblique; whitish with some grey suffusion; markings fuscous;

a longitudinal streak from near base to apex, interrupted at one-third; a series

of minute costal dots; a dorsal spot before tarnus; an apical dot; cilia whitish.

Hindwings and cilia grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda in June; one specimen.

Eucosma gracilistria n. sp,

gracilistrius, with slender lines.

?, 15 mm. Head and thorax brownish-fuscous, Palpi 24; brownish-

fuscous, Antennae fuscous. Abdomen ochreous-whitish. Legs grey; anterior

pair fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish. Forewings with costa

gently arched, apex rectangular, termen sintiate, not oblique; ochreous-whitish

with fuscous markings; basal three-fourths of costa with minute strigulae; an

oblique line from three-fifths costa, becoming tratisvetse about middle, ending on

three-fifths dorsum; several fine longitudinal lines running into this; a series of

more or less interrupted fine lines running from median line to termen; three

oblique streaks from apical part of costa; an apical dot; a terminal line; cilia

ochreous-whitish with a median fuscous line. Hindwings with 2 and 3 connate;

grey-whitish; cilia grey-whitish.

North Queensland: Palm Island in May; one specimen,

Eucosma apicinota n. sp.

apicinatus, with apical mark,

@, 12mm, Head and thorax whitish. Palpi 24; grey-whitish. Antennae

grey with dark fuscous atnulations; in male simple. Abdomen whitish-grey-

Legs grey; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings narrow, costa slightly

arched, apex obtuse, termen sinuate, oblique; male without costal fold; pale grey;

markings dark fuscous; a broad whitish costal streak beyond middle; some

whitish suffusion in dorsal area; a series of minute costal dots; a whitish suffii-

sion before tornus, containing two minute longitudinal blackish streaks; an apical

spot, cilia grey, on apex dark fuscous. Hindwings with 2 and 3 longe-stalked or

coincident ; whitish; cilia whitish,

North Queensland: Mackay in August; one specimen.

_Evosma polymita n. sp.

qedupatos, With many threads.

4, %, 12-15 mm. Head and thorax white, Palpi 24; white, in male with

apex of second joint fuscous. Antennae grey, in male with minute ciliations.

Abdomen grey; tuft whitish. Legs fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings

with costa scarcely arched, apex rectangular, termen straight, not oblique; in male

with a broad costal fold extending beyond middle; whitish with patchy grey

207

suffusion and fuscous markings; numerous fine oblique costal strigulae; an

irregular spot on fold at one-third connected by a line or by suffusion with base;

a line from three-fourths costa to midtermen, closely followed and connected

with a parallel line; dorsal area except near base whitish, traversed by fine

oblique threads, which anastomose confusedly in disc; a wedge-shaped apical dot ;

cilia white with some fuscous bars. Hindwings grey; cilia grey, on apex white.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in December and January (W. B.

Barnard); four specimens, Type in Queensland Museum.

Eucosma petversa m1. sp.

perversus, askew,

@, 13mm. Head and thorax ochreaus-whitish. Palpi 2; pale grey. Antennae

gtey; in male simple, Abdomen whitish; towards apex grey. Legs fuscous;

posterior pair whitish. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched, apex round~

pointed, terinen straight, oblique; male without costal fold; whitish with some

grey sprinkling; markings fuscous; a large basal patch with posterior edge angled;

numerous fine oblique lines from costa; a suffused oblique line from midcosta,

broadening in middle of disc, connected with a suffused spot before tetmen; a

spot before tornus; a slender line from costa before apex to midtermen; au

apical dot; two or three minute longitudinal lines in tornal area; cilia whitish

with a median fuscous lite, Hitdwings and cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland; Yeppoon in June; one specimen,

Eucosma atripunctis n. sp.

alripunctts, with black dots.

é, 12-15.mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi 14; pale grey. Antennae

fuscous; in male simple. Abdomen fuscous. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior pair

fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa almost straight, termen sinuate, not oblique;

male without costal fold; whitish more or less heavily sprinkled with dark grey;

markings dark fuscous; basal patch undefined; a series of oblique costal streaks,

more or less thickened on costal margin; an oblique bar from one-fourth dorsum,

net reaching costa, anteriorly suffused, posteriorly well defined, sometimes

interrupted; in one example the dorsal bar is succeeded by a broad white patch;

two to four minute elongate black dots in an erect line beyond tornus; edged

posteriorly by a white line; a tornal spot; cilia fuscous with a whitish basal line,

Hindwings grey; cilia grey-whitish, with a sub-basal dark line.

Queensland: Bunya Mountains in March; three specimens,

Eucosma aspersa n. sp.

aspersus, splashed,

#, @, 15-16 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 2; pale grey.

Antennae grey; in male simple. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings

slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, not oblique; in male without costal

fold; grey with fuscous markings; a broad longitudinal suffusion from near base

to termen beneath apex; a series of fine short oblique costal strigulae; a slender

oblique line from midcosta to central suffusion, and a similar line from two-thirds

costa to termination of suffusion; a broad white splash in tornal area, containing

three or four black dots, and edged posteriorly by a curved silvery line; cilia

grey. Hindwings grey; cilia grey-whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York in April and May (W., B, Barnard); two

specunens. Type in Queensland Museum.

208

Eucostma polyplega n. sp.

moAdvrAryos, with many stripes.

4,13 mm. Head and thorax pale fuscous. Palpi 3; whitish. Antennae

grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs whitish; anterior

pair grey. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen

obliquely rounded; in male without costal fold; whitish with pale fuscous. mark-

ings; some dots in basal area; numerous short oblique lincs. from costa; central

area itregularly suffused, and connected by several oblique lines with dorsum;

a subterminal stiffusion; an interrupted terminal line; an apical dot: cilia whitish

with some fuscous bars. Ilindwings pale grey; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Caloundra in September; one specimen.

Eucosma acrosema n. sp,

Axpoonpos, with apical mark,

8, 14 mm. Head and thorax grey-whitish, Palpi 4; grey-whitish.

Antennae pale grey; in male simple. Abdomen grey; base of dorsum brownish;

tuft whitish. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish, Forewings narrow, dilated

posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, not oblique; in

male with a narrow costal fold reaching two-fifths; whitish with slight fuscous

sprinkling; markings fuscous; a median spot at one-third; another at two-thirds,

its lower pole with a fite curved process towards tornus; some oblique costal

strigulae heyond middle; a blackish apical dot, giving off a slender terminal line

not reaching tornus; cilia grey-whitish, on apex blackish.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in December (W. B. Barnard);

one specimen,

Eucosma leucopleura n. sp.

AevxorAewvos, with white costa.

é,%, 14-16 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 4; grey.

Antennae grey; in male simple. Legs grey; posterior pair whitish. Forewings

narrow, costa scarcely arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, oblique; male with-

out costal fold; a broad white or grey-whitish costal streak from base to apex,

attenuated at extremities; a series of fine oblique lines from apical half of costa,

near apex edged beneath with blackish; a blackish or tuscous median dot at

four-fifths; a slender terminal line not reaching tornus; a blackish apical dot;

cilia pale grey. Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked or coincident; pale grey; cilia

pale grey.

Queensland; Stanthorpe in September. New South Wales: Brunswick

Heads in December, Four specimens (W. B. Barnard). Type in Queens-

land Museum,

Eucosma leuconota n. sp.

Aeuxovwros, with white dorsum,

9, 14 mm. Head and thorax white mixed with dark fuscous. Palpi 3;

fuseons, at base and apex white. Antennae fuscous. Abdomen grey; penulti-

mate segments fuscous. Legs whitish; anterior patr fuscous with whitish rings.

Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, oblique;

white with dark fuscous markings; a small basal patch connected with a central

patch extending to three-fourths; a series of costal dots; an oblique wedge-

shaped dorsal spot before tornus; an irregular apical patch; an incomplete

terminal line; cilia white, on apex dark fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in January (W. B. Barmard);

‘One specimen,

209

Eucosma austeéra n. sp.

dusterus, gloomy.

é,%, 14-16 mm. Tlead, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 14; grey.

Antennae grey; in male simple. Legs grey with whitish rings; posterior pair

whitish. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen sinuate,

not oblique; male with costal fold reaching one-third; grey with fuscous strigulae

on costa; a slender strongly oblique line from three-fourths costa to termen;

sometimes irregular whitish suffusion or blotches and fuscous spots in disc;

some fuscous suffusion on tornus; supratornal area grey, edged posteriorly by

a white subterminal line, and containing three short longitudinal blackish streaks;

a fuscous apical spot and terminal line; cilia grey, Hindwings with 3 and 4

coincident; brownish-grey ; cilia grey,

Queensland: Brisbane in December; Toowoomba in October (W, B.

Barnard) ; ten specimens.

Eucostna eurypolia n. sp.

ciputodos, broadly grey.

$, 18 mm, Head and thorax grey. Palpt 14; white with grey dots.

Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. (Abdomen missing.) Legs fuscous

with whitish-ochreous tings; posterior pair whitish, Forewings with costa

slightly arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; male without costal

fold; pale grey; a fuscous basal spot on casta, not reaching dorsum, connected

with an irregular median costal spot; apical half of costa with short pale streaks

divided and separated by fuscous; an oblique fuscous subapical bar; cilia [uscous

above and grey below middle of termen, Hindwings grey; cilia fuscous..

Queensland: Tweed Heads (Burleigh) in September (W. B, Barnard);

one specimeil.

Eucosma ceratodes n. sp.

xepatwdys, horn-coloured.

2, 16 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous-brown. Palpi 3; grey.

Antennae grey. Legs grey; posterior pair ochreous-whitish. Forewings with

costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termen sinuate, not oblique ; fuscous-brown ;

a slight fuscous median suffusion connected with a similar subterminal suffusion ;2

small semilunar tornal spot, brown partly edged with blackish; cilia brown. Hind-

wings and cilia grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in Octoher (W. RB, Barnard) ; one specimen.

Eucosma fulva n. sp.

fulvus, yellowish-brown.

é,.14mim. Jlead and thorax pale ochreous-grey. Palpi 24; pale ochreous-

grey. Antennae fuscous; in male simple. Abdomen ochréous-fuscous; tuft

whitish-ochreous. Legs ochreous-grey; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Fore-

wings with costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded,

oblique; male without costal fold; ochreous-whitish with yellowish-brown suffu-

sion and markings; numerous slender transverse lines in basal half; in apical half

these lines are mostly confluent and curved; a slight subterminal fuscous suffusion

above dorsum; cilia ochreous-whitish; bases grey. Hindwings dark grey; cilia

grey mixed with ochreous-whitish.

Queensland: Stanthorpe in January (W, B. Rarnard) ; ene specimen.

Eucosma phaedropa n. sp.

dudpwros, cheerful.

@, 14-15 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-brown, Palpi 24; fuscous,

210

Antennae grey. Abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior

pair grey. Forewings with costa scarcely arched, apex round-pointed, termen

sinuste, not oblique; brown, numerous minute fuscous and whitish strigulae ort

costa; basal patch undefined; a short sub-basal fuscous line on dorsum, with

some whitish suffusion above; an irregular median dorsal whitish suffusion; a

fuscous triangle based on dorsum from two thirds to tornus; a large whitish

tornal area with some grey sprinkling, edged posteriorly by a grey terminal line,

and above by a thick blackish curved line; a blackish apical dot; cilia whitish,

apices partly fuscous, Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland; Toowoomba in April and May (W. B. Barnard); two speci-

mens. Type in Queensland Museum.

. Eucosma ammopastea n, sp.

dpporacros, sprinkled with sand.

é, 14-16 mm. Head and thorax whitish-brown, Palpi 2; fuscous, base

and apex white. Antennae grey, ciliations in male minute. Abdomen pale

ochreous-grey ; tuft whitish, Legs grey ot fuscous, with whitish rings; posterior

pair whitish, Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex. pointed, termen alimost

straight, oblique; male with a narrow costal fold reaching to two-fifths; whitish

sprinkled and strigulated with brown; a costal series of strigulae fuscous at their

bases; middle of disc with irregular brown markings and sometimes sprinkled

with fuscous; a white terminal linc closely preceded by a brown or fuscous line;

cilia brown. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate; pale grey; cilia whitish.

New South Wales: Broken Hill in March; two specimens.

Eucosma tornocycla u. sp.

reproxdos, with tornal ring,

8.9.14 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 2; fuscous, Antennae

grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous with whitish

rings; posterior tibiae and femora whitish. Torewings with costa slightly arched,

apex pointed, termen obliquely rounded; male without costal fold; dark grey;

basal third suffused with whitish except margins and a median line; numerous

dark fuscous costal dots separated by minute white strigulae; 4 large grey tornal

blotch reaching three-fourths across wing, edged with fuscous, containing three

minute longitudinal blackish streaks separated by white lines; a dark fusceus

apical dot; cilia grey mixed with fuscous and whitish, Hindwings and cilia

pale grey.

North Queensland: Eungella in June. Qucensland: Toowoomba in April,

Two specimens.

Eucogma dasycerca n. sp.

Sacvxepxos, bushy-tailed.

$, 2,15 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi 2; fuscous, terminal joint

and apex of second white. Antennae grey, basal joint white; ciliations in male

minute. Abdomen grey, ending in a terminal dense tuft of long ochreous-whitish

hairs. Legs prey; posterior pair whitish. Jorewings narrow, costa slightly

arched, termen straight, oblique; in male without costal fold; white with grey

and fuscous markings; a grey costal streak from base to near apex; a grey dorsal

streak from base to tornus, thickened at three-fifths, where its upper edge is

rounded and capped with fuscous; some fuscous suffusion above tormus; a

fuscous oblique streak behind termen from apex; a fuscous terminal line; cilia

white, buses fuscous except below middle, on tornus grey. Hindwings prey:

cilia whitish.

Queensland: Toowoomba in March (W. 3B. Barnard); two specimens.

Type in Queensland Museum,

211

Eucosma prosphiles n. sp.

mpoogpAys, pleasing.

2, %,10-1l mm. Head, thorax and abdomen pale grey. Palpi 24; whitish,

Antennae pale grey; ciliations in malé minute. Legs whitish; tarsi with dark

fuscous rings. Forewings with costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen

straight, slightly oblique; male without costal fold; white with brown markings

and blackish strigulae; a sub-basal transverse line; a narrow transverse fascia at

one-fourth; a moderate outwardly curved fascia from before middle of costa to

mid-dotsum, its margins strongly dentate, sometimes with a blackish dot or short

longitudinal line above middle; a narrow brownish or grey fascia from three-

fourths costa to tornus, sometimes interrupted by blackish dots; a series of

blackish costal dots, separated by white or brown; a strong curved blackish line

from costa to termen cutting off extreme apex; a slender blackish terminal line;

cilia white, partly tinged with brown, Hindwings pale grey; a slender blackish

line round apex; cilia grey-whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York in April (W. B. Barnard); six specimens.

Type in Queensland Museum.

Eucosma tapina n. sp.

Tarewos, modest,

é, 16mm. Head pale grey. Palpi 3; white, apex of second joint grey.

Antentiae grey; in male simple. Thorax brownish-grey, Abdomen ochreous-

whitish. Legs whitish; anterior tarsi fuscous with whitish rings. Forewings

with costa slightly arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, scarcely oblique; male

without costal fold; grey-whitish with some brownish and fuscous sprinkling,

terminal half more suffused; numerous oblique brown costal strigulae, one from

middle long; a short erect silvery line from above tornus, and another before

midtermen, between these several fine longitudinal blackish lines; cilia whitish-

grey, towards apex and above tornus fuscous. Hindwings grey; ctlia whitish.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in January (W. B. Barnard);

one specimen.

Eucosma neurosticha n.sp-

peupoutiyos, with lines on veins.

@, 18mm. Head and thorax ochreous-grey. Palpi 3; fuscous, upper edge

ochreous-grey. Antennae dark fuscous; ciliations in male minute, Abdomen

ochreous grey, towards apex fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa slightly arched,

apex pointed, ternien slightly rounded, oblique; male without costal fold:

ochreous-grey-whitish with some fuscous sprinkling and markings; sub-basal

median aid dorsal dots; irtegular median spots at one-third and two-thirds, the

former connected with dorsum; slender oblique costal strigulae in apical half;

veins im terminal area slenderly fuscous; an ochreous-whitish terminal line

preceded hy a dark fuscous line; cilia grey with fuscous points. Hindwings with

3 and 4 connate; grey; cilia grey.

Queensland: Murrurundi in February; three specimens received from

Dr. B, L, Middleton.

Bactra capnopepla n. sp.

xervorerdos, in dark clothing,

@.15mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 2; Fuscous. Antennae {yscous;

ciliations in male minute. Abdomen brownish-grey; tuft grey. Legs fuscous;

tarsi with whitish rings; posterior pair grey-whitish. Forewings narrow, costa

gently arched, apex pointed, termen sinuate, oblique; whitish suffused and

minutely reticulated with fuscous, appearing grey; markings dark fuscousy; a

212

series of minute costal strigulae; a slender slightly curved line from one-third

costa just crossing fold, sometimes interrupted ; an oblique line from costa beyond

middle half across disc, there much thickened and gradually bent upwards to

apex; sometimes interrupted; an apical dot and terminal line; cilia grey with

whitish and fuscous points. Hindwings and cilia grey,

Queensland: Noosa in October; one specimen.

Bactra ablabes n. sp,

&BAaBys, harmless.

@, 16mm, Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 14; grey. Antennae fuscous;

ciliations in male one-third. Abdomen brownish-grey; tuft grey-whitish, Legs

fuscous (posterior pair missing). Forewings narrow, costa gently arched, apex

obtuse, termen straight, oblique; whitish suffused with grey and slightly brownish

tinged; markings dark fuscous; nymerous short oblique costal strigulac; a small

spot in disc at one-third, followed by a terminal fuscous suffusion; an apical dot

and terminal line; cilia grey with an ochreous-whitish basal line. Hindwings

and cilia grey.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in December (W. B, Barnard):

one specimen.

Eucosma aulacota n. sp.

aiAdaxoros, furrowed.

é,17mm,. Head whitish on crown, sides and face grey. Palpi 24; whitish,

basal half of second joint grey, sharply defined. Antennae grey; in male sitnple.

Thorax whitish; tegulae pale brownish. Abdomen grey. Legs whitish partly

suffused with fuscous; posterior pair wholly whitish. Forewings with costa

slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen rounded, not oblique; male with a broad

costal fold extending to middle; whitish with numerous fuscous lines and strigulae

on dorsum and in tornal area; short strigulae on costa, with a small spot on

slightly beyond middle; long slender oblique lines in disc, those nearer termen

transverse; a small marrow mark on tornus; cilia whitish with fuscous bars.

Hindwings and cilia grey,

Queensland: Killarney (Acacia Plateau, 2,000 ft.) in October; one specimen,

Bactra eurysticha n, sp.

epuarixes, broadly striped.

3, 16mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi 24; grey. Antennae grey; cilia-

tions in male one-half. Abdomen pale grey; tuft whitish, Forewings with costa

gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique;

grey; an ochreous-whitish median line from base to three-fourths, there broadencd

and directed upwards to apex; cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings pale grey;

cilia whitish,

New South Wales: Mittagong in February; one specimen.

Herpystis chrysosema n, sp.

xpevouypes, with golden markings.

@, 16 mm. Head whitish-brown. Palpi 24; brown. Antennae fuscous.

Thorax and abdomen hrownish-fuscats. Legs fuscons with whitish-ochreous

rings; posterior pair whitish-ochreous. Forewings with costa slightly atched,

apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; whitish-ochreous

partly suffused with fuscous; markings deep golden-brown; a basal patch com-

posed of three transverse lines, its posterior edge nearly straight; closely followed

by a median spot at one-fourth, connected with a costal spot; a fascia from

three-fifths costa, bent inwards above middle, continued to three-fifths dorsum,

213

preceded and followed by some {uscous suffusion; a pretornal elongate-oblong

spot; a line from three-fourths costa to tefmen above tornus; a parallel sub-

apical line; an apical spot; cilia whitish, bases fuscous. Hindwings fuscous;

cilia whitish with a fuscous stb-basal line.

Queensland: Stanthorpe (W. B. Barnard); one specimen.

Gen. Idiomofpha nov.

iSto popdos, peculiar,

Palpi ascending; second joint thickened with appressed scales and expanded

posteriorly at apex; terminal joint minute. Thorax smooth. Forewings with 2

from two-thirds, 7 and 8 separate, 7 to termen. Hindwings with cell long;

3, 4, 5 closely approximated at base, 12 anastomosing with cell from near base to

neat middle, then diverging, A peculiar and isolated geius.

Ydiomorpha reticulata n, sp.

reticulatus, net-like.

#, 20 mm. Head and thorax fuscotts, Palpi 2; fuscous. Antennae fis-

cous; ciliations in male minute, (Abdomen missing.) Forewings strongly

dilated, costa slightly arched, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique;

male with a strong costal fold extending beyond middle; ochreous-whitish

sprinkled throughout with [uscous, appearing grey; an irregular fuscous suffusiort

in dise from middle to threc-fourths, containing a whitish-ochreous dot at three-

fifths; terminal area finely reticulated with fuscous; a fuscous terminal line; cilia

pale brownish with some fuscous bars. Hindwings and cilia grey,

Queensland: Toowoomba (W. B, Barnard) ; one specimen.

Gen ANATHAMNA Meyr.

Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1911, 261.

While in 4. plana Meyr. 3 and 4 of the hindwings are closely approximated

at origi, the following species have these veins connate, and in the second they

are shortly stalked on one side of the type specimen. Yet they appear congeneric,

and, I think, the definition of the genus should be widened so as to inclide them.

Anathamna psathyra n. sp.

xabapos, dry.

8, 9, 18-22 mm. Head whitish-ochreous or greyish-nchreous, in female

purplish-grey, Palpi 14; whitish-ochreous or purple-grey. Antennae pale

ochreotis-grey; ciliations in male one-half. Thorax whitish-ochreous more or

less suffused with purple-grey. Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs pale ochreous.

Forewings with costa moderately arched to one-third, thence slightly, apex rect-

angular, termen rotunded, not oblique; whitish-ochreous more or less suffused

with greyish-brown variably disposed; a dark fuscous spot in middle of dise

variably developed, sometimes reduced to a short streak, ahsent in female, some-

times connected by a line with one-fourth costa, and in one example to two-thirds

dorsum; a few costal dots; an incomplete fuscous line from costa near apex to

midtermen ; cilia whitish-ochreous. Hindwings with 3 and 4 commate; whitish-

ochreous or grey; cilia concolorous, Variable in colour and markings, It lacks

the blackish costal strigulae of 4. plana Meyh,

North Queensland: Cape York in November (W. B. Bartiard); ten males

and one female. Type in Queensland Museum.

214

Anathamna castanicolor n. sp.

castanicolor, chestnut-coloured.

8,18 mm. Head and thorax reddish-brown, Palpi 2; white sprinkled with

reddish-brown, Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen grey;

terminal segments brown; tuft ochreous-whitish. Legs brown-whitish with

fuscous tings; posterior pair white. Forewings with costa rather strongly

arched, apex rectangular, termen sinuate, not oblique; 3 and 4 connate; whitish

obscured by brown and grey strigulae; numerous dark fuscous dots and strigulae

on costa; some reddish-brown spots containing some fuscous scales; roundish

costal spot at one-fourth and middle; a spot.on base of dorsum connected with

base of costa and with a large spot on mid-dorsum, and this with a spot on

dorsum before tornus; a large subapical spot sending a fine irregular line to mid-

termen; an clongate dark fuscous apical dot; three partly confluent dots on mid-

termen; cilia fuscous with several pale brownish bats towatds tornus. Hind-

wings with 3 and 4 connate or short-stalked; grey; a broad white costal streak;

cilia grey.

North Queensland; Cape York in October (W. B. Raynard) ; one specimen.

Gen, Lobophora nov.

Ao Badopos, lobed,

Palpi porrect, Thorax with a posterior crest, Forewings with 7 and 8

stalked, 7 to termen. Ilindwings with termen incised, tornus prominently lobed;

3 and 4 coincident, 5 curved and approximated at base, 6 and 7 closely approxi-

mated tawards base,

Lobophora axiologa n. sp.

dgodvyos, remarkable.

8, 16mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous, Palpi 24; fuscous, upper edge

grey. Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen fuscous; basal seg-

ments and tuft grey. Forewings narrow, posteriorly dilated, costa strongly

arched, apex pointed, termen slightly rotinded, strongly oblique; pale brownish;

markings fuscous-brown; an elongate spot on dorsum from base to one-third,

indented above; minute strigulae on basal half of costa, on apical half fuscous

dots separated by ochreous-whitish strigulae, each with a minute fuscous centre;

an irregular line from one-third costa to middle of disc, there bent at a right

angle, and thence longitudinal to near termen; a subcostal parallel line, and

between this and preceding two fine longitudinal lines; a fuscous apical dot and

another above tornus; terminal area ochreous-whitish; cilia ochreous-whitish,

with twa fuscous bars above middle. Hindwings sinuate beneath apex, middle

of termen widely excavated, termen strongly lobed; pale grey, thinly scaled

except towards apex; a slender fuscous line edged with brown on termen beneath

apex; cilia whitish, above excavation with a grey basal line.

North Queensland: Cape York in April (W. B. Barnard); one specimen.

ARGYROPLOCE DELOCIILORA Ttitn:

This species, though variable in markings, is usually constant in colouration ;

but there is a remarkable aberration in the Queensland Museum in which the

forewings are grey instead of green and the hindwings and abdomen brownish-

tinged.

Queensland: Brisbane, Bunya Mountains,

215

Argyroploce ophiocosma n, sp.

Sdioxoguars, With serpentine ornament.

$, 18 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen grey. Palpi 2; grey. Antennae

gTey; ciliations in male miftute. Tegs grey; postertor tibiae in male with very

dense jong hairs on dorsum. Forewings posteriorly dilated, costa slightly,

arched, apex rectangular, termen rounded, scarcely oblique; pale brownish; basal

two-fifths whitish unevenly suffused with grey; the outer edge of this basal patch

defined and with a subdorsal tooth; a costal series of dark fuscons strigulae;

beyond basal patch a series of costal dots separated by whitish strigulae with

minute fuscous centres; a triangular group of small fuscous spots at two-thirds;

immediately beyond a narrow serpentine fascia, thrice curved, grey with central

fuscous and marginal whitish line, arising from two-thirds dorsum, it ends below

costa near apex in a wide grey expansion; beyond this beneath costa a round

whitish spot with a central grey dot, edged above by a dark fuscous line, and

beneath by an irregular Euscous spot; a narrow leaden-grey irregular-edged fascia

from beneath costa near apex to tornus; cilia whitish with a few fuscous bars.

Hindwings dark grey; cilia whitish,

North Queensland; Cairns in December; one specimen received from Mr.

F. H. Taylor.

Argyroploce niphostetha n. sp,

rupoornfa, snowy-breasted,

8,21 mm. Head and thorax brown. Palpi 14; brown, lower edge white.

Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen grey; basal two-thirds of

undersurface snow-white. Anterior legs fuscous with whitish tarsal rings;

middle pair with ventral surface snow-white, dorsal surface partly dark fuscous;

posterior pair snow-white, in male with defise tufts of long hairs on tibiae.

Forewitgs with costa strongly arched, apex rectangular, termen rounded, not

oblique; ochreous-brown with fuscous strigulae; basal patch densely strigulated

except towards costa; costa wilh alternate dark fuscous dots and minute

strigulae; a fuscous suboblong blotch on dorsum from middle to tornus, reach-

ing half across wing, and a spot on midcosta representing median [ascia; four

slender oblique leaden-grey lines from apical third of costa, the last two con-

nected by a series of longitudinal fuscous streaks; three elongate dark fuscous

terminal dots between apex and midtermen edged by a sinuate ochreous line;

cilia grey, bases brown. Hindwings grey; a snow-white costal streak not reaching

apex; cilia grey. ae .

North Queensland: Malanda, Atherton Tableland, in October; one specimen,

Argyroploce symplecta 1. sp.

vuprdceros, Interwaven,

3, 16 mm. Head fuscous. Palpt 14; ascending; whitish. Antennae

fuscous; ciliations in male minute, Thorax fuscous; tegulae and crest whitish.

Abdomen fuscous; tuft and underside whitish, Legs fuscous with whitish tarsal

rings; posterior pair whitish, Forewings with costa gently arched, apex rect-

atigulat, termen sinuate, not oblique; white with fuscous strigulae and dark

fuscous markings; a narrow basal fascia with a short upward curved median

process and another on dorsum; a subcostal dot at one-fourth; median faseia at

first narrow, interrupted beneath costa, then widened and very irregular reaching

dorsum from two-thirds to tormus, posterior edge with a circular excavation

beneath middle; tornal area beyond this white with slight grey sprinkling on

anterior edge, upper edge of area subcostal and strongly curved, alternate minute

blackish and brown longitudinal lines on posterior edge; oblique strigulae on

216

posterior two-fifths of costa, blackish at base with brown prolongations ; a blackish

apical dot edged with white, and this with blackish; cilia on upper half of

termen brown, on lower white, but narrowly blackish on apex and tornus. Hind-

wings grey; cilia grey, beneath apex whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York in June (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Argyrtoploce toxosema n. sp.

rogounpos, narked with a bow.

9, 18-19 mn. Head and thorax dark brown. Palpi 2; dark brown or fuscous.

Antennae fuscous. (Abdomen missing.) Legs grey; tarsi fuscous with whitish

rings; posterior pair whitish. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rect-

angular, termen slightly rounded, not oblique; grey with fuscous strigulae, towards

costa purplish-tinged; a broad dark fuscous line from one-fourth costa to apex,

dentate beneath, where it approaches mid-dorsum, narrow at apex, its edges

irregular ; costal edge whitish with fuscous dots and strigulac; an erect purplish

tornal spot crossed by three or four dark fuscous longitudinal lines; a dark

fuscous spot on midtermen, cilia ochreous-whitish, on midtermen apices fuscous.

Hindwings dark grey; cilia grey-whitish.

Queensland: Yeppoon in October; Tweed Heads in January; twu

specimens (W. B. Barnard}. Type in Queensland Museum.

Argyroploce atactodes n. sp.

kraxrwons, confused,

3, 18mm, FHlead and thorax fuscous-brown. Palpi 14; grey, Antennac

grey; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen grey. Anterior legs ochreous-whitish,

tarsi fuscous with whitish rings; middle pair pale brownish; posterior pair white,

tarsi grey with fuscous rings. Forewings with costa strongly arched, apex

rounded-rectangular, termen slightly rounded, not oblique; 7 and & closely

approximated at origin; ochreous-whilish with brownish and grey strigulac;

markings fuscous-brown; basal patch dark except extreme hase, its posterior

margin rounded; a spot on midcosta representing median fascia, with some

irregular suffusion between this and tornus; a series of dark fuscous dots and

strigulae on costa; a double very fine Jeaden-grey line from two-thirds costa to

tornus; two similar lines from costa to termen, the last edged with fuscous, in

which terminate three or four short longitudinal fuscous lines; cilta fuscous.

Hindwings and cilia grey.

¢, 19 mm. Forewings pale brownish-ochreous without strigulae; a well-

defined dark fuscous triangle on base of dorsum extending two-thirds across

wing; a sharply defined dark fuscous apical mark from three-fourths costa to

midtermen; all other markings absent, except a dot on midcosta; cilia dark

fuscous, towards tornus pale brownish-ochreous, This appears an extreme

aberration, but probably the species is variable.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November (W. B. Barnard) ;

two specimens. Type in Oticensland Museum,

Argyroploce eimpyra n. sp.

¢urupos, scorched.

?, 18 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi 1; brownish. Antennae grey, Thorax

grey; crest dark brown, Abdomen whitish-ochreous mixed with fuscous. Legs

fuscous, tarsi with whitish rings; posterior pair grey-whitish. Forewings rather

narrow, dilated posteriorly, costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termes

2l7

straight, not oblique; whitish obscured by reddish-brown and fuscous strigulae;

markings dark fuscous; a series of costal strigulae; a small costal spot at one-

fourth, and another in middle; a large oval blotch from tornus almost io costa,

its centre leaden-grey; cilia reddish-brown, apices fuscous, ardtind tornus wholly

fuscous. Hindwings dark grey; cilia pale grey, towards apex grey with a grey

basal line.

New South Wales: Brunswick Heads in December (WW, B. Barnard); one

specimen.

Argytoploce zophophanes n. sp.

fodoqayys, gloomy.

9, 20 mm, Head and thorax fuscous-brown, Palpi 34; fuscous-brown.

Antennae fuscous. Abdomen fuscous-brown; tuft grey-whitish. Legs fuscous ;

tarsi with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly whitish, Furewings strongly

dilated, costa almost straight, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, slightly

oblique; dark fuscous; a small sub-basal fuscous tuft on dorsum; a whitish dorsal

streak from near base to three-fourths strigulated with durk fuscous and brown;

a natrow band of whitish and grey suffusion at two-thirds; a dark fuscous fascia,

broad on costa before apex, gradually narrowing to a slender line ending on

tornus, irregular-edged; a broad white terminal line edged with grey from costa

before apex to near tornus, containing three downwardly oblique blackish

streaks; cilia fuscous, bases brownish, of apex mostly brownish. Uindwings

with 3 and 4 stalked; grey; cilia grey.

North Queensland: Kuranda in September (W, B, Barnard); one specimen.

Argyroploce auchmera n. sp.

abyyrpos, squalid,

2, 18 mm. LItTead and thorax fuscous. Palpi 14; fuscots. Antennae

fuscous. Abdomen grey, Legs fuscovs; tarsi with whitish rings; posterior pair

whitish. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rotinded, termen slightly

rounded, not oblique; fuscotis partly mixed with whitish; a series of dark fuscous

costa! dots and strigulae; a small whitish spot on one-third costa; an irregularly

dentate fascia from midcosta to two-thirds dorsum; a sub-basal dark fuscous

line of raised scales from dorsum half across wing; some whitish suffusion on

mid-dorsum and in dise at two-thirds; a narrow irregularly dentate subterminal

fascia from costa near apex to a grey spot on tornus, edged posteriorly by a

fuscous line edged brownish from costa to termen below middle; a similar short

line at apex; cilia whitish, towards tornus fuscous. Hindwings grey; cilia grey,

from two-thirds termen to apex whitish. This species shows a general similarity

to the preceding, but has very different palpi.

Qucensland: Tweed Heads in June (W. FP. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Argytoploce nephobola n. sp,

vo Bodos, clouded.

4, limm, Head, thorax and abdomen grey, Palpi 1; second joint smooth,

broadly expanded at apex, terminal joint minute. Antennae grey; cilfations in

male minute. Legs fuscous with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish. Fore-

witigs somewhat dilated, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen rounded,

‘slightly oblique; grey partly suffused with fuscous; a costal series of dark fuscous

dots alternating with minute strigulae; a large costal blotch extending three-

fourths across wing, white with some grey sutfusion, invaded by a [useous bar

fram midtermen ending in a broad central suffusion; between this and tornus

two short longitudinal blackish streaks: cilia white with a broad fuscous bar on

midtermen and narrower bars above and beneath. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in April; one specimen,

218

Argyroploce lychnospila n, sp,

AvyvoomaAas, with shiny spot or blotch,

4, %,1416mm. Head and thorax blackish, Palpi 14; blackish. Antennae

fuscous; ciliations in male minute. Abdomen fuscous. Legs blackish with

whitish tarsal rings; posterior pair whitish of grey, tibiae in male with long white

hairs above atid beneath, Forewings stiboblong, costa slightly arched, apex

rounded, termen rounded, not oblique; leaden-grey mixed with fuscous or

blackish; small fuscous or blackish costal strigulae; a leaden-grey suffusion pre-

ceding a pale brownish tornal area crossed by a downwardly oblique blackish line

changing to reddish-brown as it approaches midtermen, sometimes prolonged to

tornus; cilia grey, bases blackish. This is a variable species, for in addition to

the aforesaid markings there is frequently a snow-white shining spot on two-

fifths costa, or a costal blotch from one-fourth to three-fourths, sometimes pro-

longed to tornus. Hindwings in male grey; in female brown with grey terminal

hand; cilia white, towards apex grey with a whitish median line.

Queensland: Noosa in April and May; eight specimens,

ARTICOLLA PROSPERA

Two examples have been bred from the fruit of Omtphaletis queenslandiae

(Euphorbiaceae).

Atticolla myriolychna n. sp,

pupwAvyvos, with countless lights.

9, 14 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 2; fuscous. Antennae

fuscous, Abdomen pale fuscous. Legs fuscous with whitish tarsal rings.

Forewings narrow, costa almost straight, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded ;

8 and 9 stalked; dark fuscous sprinkled with numerous minute bluish-white

shining scales mostly arranged in circles so as to appear dots; small whitish dots

on costa and dorsum; a whitish terminal line from apex not reaching middle;

cilia fuscous. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate; dark grey, cilia grey.

North Queensland; Mossman; ene example bred from the fruit of Hearnie

sapindina (Meliaceae) in Brisbane in August.

Atticolla scioessa n. sp.

oxoeis, gloomy.

a, 14 mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi 14; dark fuscous:

Antennae datk fuscous. (Abdomen missing.) Legs fuscous; tarsi with whitish

tings. Forewings triangular, costa almost straight, apex pointed, termen straight,

oblique; 7, 8, 9 closely approximated at base; dark fuscous to middle, beyond

this paler; some whitish suffusion on dorsal and terminal margins; veins in

dorsal area outlined with dark fuscous; a median whitish discal dot; costa with

dark fuscous and whitish strigulae; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with 3 and 4

stalked; dark grey; cilia fuscous.

North Queensland: Lake Barrine, Atherton ‘Tableland; one example bred

from the fruit of Acrenychia vestifa (Rubiaceae) in Brisbane in July,

Laspeyresia cyanosticha n. sp.

xvavogriyos, blue-streaked.

$, %, 1416 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous; face whitish. Palpi

14; white. Antennae pale grey; in male simple. Forewings with costa slightly

arched, apex rectangular, termen sharply incised beneath apex, slightly rounded,

slightly oblique; fuscous; a short grey-whitish oblique streak with fuscows

219

central line from dorsum before middle, sometimes obsolete; a broad outwardly

curved whitish streak from two-thirds dorsum with a fuscous central linc, or

sometimes two lines; whitish costal strigulae separated by dark fuscous; the last

two larger; a lustrous blue line from midcosta, at first very oblique, curved

around end of second dorsal streak, and ending obtiusely above tornus; between

this and termen three short longitudinal blackish streaks; a similar blue streak

from three-fourths costa to terminal incision; a blackish apical dot; a fine fuscous

terminal line; cilia white, bases with blue lustre’ Jindwings fuscous; cilia

whitish.

North Queensland; Koah in December; three examples bred from fruit of

Parinarium nonda {Rasaceae),

Laspeyresia aetheria n. sp.

diepios, heavenly.

4, 16 mm, Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi 1; ochreous-whitish.

Antennae fuscous; in male simple. (Abdomen missing.) Legs fuscous. Fore-

wings strongly dilated, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen incised beneath

apex, not oblique; six white costal strigulae, mostly long with blue apices, fourth

strigula much longer, curved to termen just above incision, thence bent along

termen and white to tornus; a pair of faint oblique grey lines from one-third

dorsum to apex of second costal strigula; a similar pair from two-thirds dorsum

to apex of fourth costal strigula; a broad curved whitish streak ftom tornus to

fourth strigula, interrupted by a fuscous dot above tornus; cilia fuscous. Hind-

wings fuscous with slight purple sheen; a broad thinly scaled and translucent

central stripe; cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York in October (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Laspeytssia argyroela n. sp.

dpyupoyAes, with silvery rod.

&, 12-13 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous. Palpi 14; whitish,

upper edge fuscous. Antennae fuscotis; in male simple. Legs fuscous; tarsi

with whitish rings. Forewings with costa slightly rounded, apex rounded-

rectangular, icrmen slightly rounded, scarcely oblique; brownish-fuseous ;

numerous long oblique dark fuscous strigulae separated by whitish strigulae; a

wide curved whitish streak with central fuscous line from mid-dorsum halt

across disc; a silvery white erect rod from before tornus half across disc; a

lustrous blue line from midcosta to apex of this rod; between rod and termen

four or five blackish longiudinal streaks; cilia fuscous. Hindwings dark fuscous;

cilia grey-whitish,

QOucensland: Tweed Heads in September, South Australia: Flinders

Isiand in November. Two specimens.

Laspeyresia deloxantha n, sp,

éqAogarfus, clear yellow.

@, 12mm. Head dark fuscous; face yellow. Palpi 2; yellow, basal half

of second joint fuscous. Antennae and thorax dark fuscous. Abdomen grey,

Legs fuscous; tarsi with whitish rings; posterior pair whitish. Forewings with

costa gently arched, apex obtusely pointed, termen slightly tounded, oblique;

clear yellow; a nartow fuscous basal fascia slightly prolonged on costa; some

minute fuscous dots on costa before middle, and on dorsum before two-thirds;

terminal area fuscous with darker longitudinal lines, its anterior edge nearly

straight from three-fifths costa to two-thirds dorstim; some dark fuscous

strigulae on apical thitd of costa separated by ochreous-whitish strigulae; a

220

slender incomplete yellowish terminal line; cilia fuscous, Hindwings fuscous;

cilia ochreous-whitish with a grey submedian line, on tornus and dorsum grey,

North Queensland: Mossman; one example bred from the fruit of Hearnia

sapindaria (Meliaceae) in Brisbane in July.

Laspeyresia delomilta n. sp.

dAopAta, vivid red.

9, 12 mm. Head red. Palpi 2; red. Antennae dark fuscous. Thorax

dark fuscous; margins of tegulae and crest red. Abdomen fuscous with three

pale ochreous transverse lines on dorsum. Legs fuscous with reddish rings;

posterior femora grey, towards apices fuscous (tibiae and tarsi missing), Fore-

wings with costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; vivid

red with fuscous strigulae and markings; a series of dark fuscous and pale

ochreous costal strigulae, the latter increasing in length towards apex of wing;

a very irregular fuscous line from one-third costa to near tornius; the strigulae

in disc above this are longitudinal; a whitish-ochreous line edged with fuscous

from two-thirds costa towards one-third termen from apex; cilia dark fuscous

with leaden grey lustre in oblique light. Hindwings fuscous with a broad

ochreous central stripe to two-thirds; cilia whitish. In colour of forewings this

resembles L. martia Meyr., but the markings differ. The ochreous centre of the

hindwings is also distinctive.

North Queensland: Cape York in May (W. R. Barnard); one specimen,

Laspeyresia tornosticha n. sp.

7opvoctixos, with tornal lines.

6,10 mm. Head fuseous; face whitish, Palpi 2; whitish. Antennae

fuscous ; in male simple. Thorax and abdomen fuscous, Legs whitish, Fore-

wings with costa slightly arched, apex rounded-rectangular, termen rounded,

slightly oblique; fuscous; a series of whitish costal strigulae separated by dark

fuscous; four outwardly curved whitish lines from middle third of dorsum

nearly half acrass disc; two inwardly oblique slightly diverging whitish lines from

tornus, the anterior short, the posterior reaching half across wing; a slender

interrupted dark fuscous terminal line; cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia erey.

The tornal lines distinguish this from L. tefrazancla Turn,

North Queensland: Cape York in April (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Laspeyresia callilampetes n, sp.

KadAtAaymrerys, beautifully shining.

2, 14 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 2; fuscous. Antennae

fuscous; in male simple. Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous, Forewings narrow,

posteriorly dilated, costa straight, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, slightly

oblique; fuscous with brilliant purple and blue reflections: cilia fuscous. Hind-

witigs atid cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in November (W. B. Barnard); one

specimen,

MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN

SPECIES OF TRIODIA R.BR

By NANCY T, BURBIDGE, M.SC., WAITE AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE

Summary

The first paper of this series dealt with the macroscopic characters of the species under discussion

(4). The features so described are of interest to ecologists and taxonomists as well as to the

anatomist since the variation in form, particularly at the junction of sheath and lamina, is of

diagnostic value. As might be expected, this variation is correlated with modification of the internal

anatomy which will be described later.

The great diversity in the anatomy of grasses is well known, but few grass leaves, which have been

described, are so modified to permit the various life processes to continue despite the aridity of the

habitat (8). There is a tendency in ecological work to class the grasses with the herbaceous species,

but these tussock grasses play more the part of small shrubs in their particular plant association (3).

So far as the Australian environment is concerned they are the tropical counterpart of the

chenopodiaceous shrubs which are so important in southern arid country (14). They are, therefore

drought enduring species and their anatomy is specialized in accordance with their need.

221

MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF THE

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF TRIODIA R.Br.

Il. INTERNAL ANATOMY OF LEAVES

By Nancy T. Bursivce, M.Sc., Waite Agricultural Research Institute

[Read 13 June 1946]

Purates XXXJ to XXXVII

The first paper of this series dealt with the macPoscopic characters of the

species under discussion (4). The features so described are of interest to

ecologists and taxonomists as well as to the anatomist since the yariation in

form, particularly at the junction of sheath and lamina, is of diagnostic value.

As might be expected, this variation is correlated with modification of the internal

anatomy which will be described later,

The great diversity in the anatomy of grasses is well known, but few grass

leaves, which have been described, are so modified to permit the various life

processes to continue despite the aridity of the habitat (8). There is a tendency

in ecological work to class the grasses with the herbaceous species, but these

tussock grasses play more the part of small shrubs in their particular plant

association (3). So far as the Australian environment is concerned they are

the tropical counterpart of the chenopodiaceous shrubs which are so important

in southern arid country (14). They are, therefore, drought enduring species

and their anatomy is specialized in accordance with their need.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The only fresh material available was that of Triodia pungens R. Br., which

differs, in a number of important features, from all the other species, This was

unfortunate, but lack of seed prevented the growing of any other species. As

a result herbarium specimens were utilised, The material was treated in alcohol

according to the method described by McLean (9). Leaves which had been so

prepared proved much better for cutting than boiled material, though satisfac-

tory mounts were made from the latter. The sections of the laminae were taken

about I-1'5 cm. above the petiole. All sections were cut free-hand.

GENERAL STRUCTURE

SHEATH

As was stated in Pt, I, the leaf arises spirally from the node. In his work

on Saccharum officinarun <Artschwager (2) described how the leaf traces

descending from the leaf took a horizontal course at the level of the node and

then passed down the centre of the stem, In Triodja a similar condition exists,

The culm, which will be more fully described at a later date, has a central cote

of vascular tissue bounded by an endodermis and often possesses a small hollow

pith, There is a narrow cortex.

For the sake of convenience the development in Triodia will be described

from just below the node up to the lamina.

The first leaf traces which become distinguishable from the vascular core

are found in the cortex about 2-4 mm. below the insertion of the sheath on the

node. The distance varies according to the length of the internode, and also with

the specics. These primary traces are small (pl. xxxii, fig. 6) and consist of little

more than one or two protoxylem elements and a few fibres. At the level of the

node a number of larger traces become recognisable as they pass almost hori-

Trane, Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 70, (2), 1 Dee 1946

222

zonally across the nodal plexus and into the cortex, where they take up positions

between the primary traces (pl.2xxxli, fig-7). At this stage the outer margin of the

sheath breaks free, followed by the inner. The last portion to become free from

the culm is that part of the sheath into which the last trace passes from the nodal

plexus. In some species this is the meclian nerve, e.g, T. secunda (pl. xxxii, fig. 8)

and YT. fongieeps, but in T. puxgens it is the first lateral on the side towards the

immer margin, When the sheath has become separated the bundles have the

follawing status. The median nerve is usually large, as are the first laterals on

either side, while between the median and each lateral is a subsidiary nerve which

represents the continuation_of one of the original primary nerves. In some species

there are two subsidiartes, and this condition is Further disctissed below. Outside

the first lateral on either side is another small bundle (primary) followed by x

large one, and then the bundles rapidly decrease in size towards the margin

{pl. xsax, fig. 1-8).

Immediately above the junction of sheath and node the tissue is pulvinal

(false node of some authors). The bundles are free in the general parenchyma

and the associated fibres are not fully lignified. The condition in 7, pungens is

shown in pl, xxxi, fig. 2-3). There is a large number of siliceous cells m the

abaxial epidermis.

Above the pulvinus the parenchyma between the bundles becomes loose and

then breaks down, leaving spaces (pl. xxxi, fig. 3-6; pl. xxxii, fig. 9). These cavities

extend up the sheath for more than three-quarters of its length, Then they

gradually decrease until they disappear just below the orifice. Such cavities occur

in many other grasses. They have heen figured for Lolinm rigtduim (7),

Saccharum officiuarum (2) and in Agrostis tenuis (1), and appear to be a normal

feature of sheaths, From the pulvinus to the orifice there ig a progressive increase

in the relative amount of sclerenchyma present. The fibres associated with the

bundles become linked with the abaxial epidermis, while other fibres develop in

the central portion of the adaxial surface (pl. xxxi, fig. 5-8; pl. xxxii, fig, 9).

In species other than 7, pungens the abaxial surface of the sheath js smonth

or has shallow grooves due to the presence of fibres over the bundles, In

T. pungens, as the sheath emerges above the ligule of the preceding sheath, the

median abaxial portion becomes definitely grooved, In the cavities so farmed

the epidermal cells carry papillae with either blunt or acute apices and chloren-

chyma is developed along the sides (pl. xxxi, fig. 5-7; pl. xxxii, fig, 1). Cells con-

taining chloroplasts are found throughout the general parenchyma ai all levels cf

the sheath in all species, But only in T. pungens is there any well-defined tissue

similar to that found in the laminae.

T. puxgens is also peculiar in having a resin secreting epidermis. This

special tissue is found along the abaxial epidermis of the Hange of the sheath.

The best development occurs on exposed portions, i.e, in the same part as the

chlorenchyma described above but on either side, The resiniferous tissue con-

tinues up the margin to the auricular ridge (4), where it is interrupted by the

auricular hairs (also epidermal in origin). It is found again on the petiole, but

disappears at the base of the lamina (pl. xxxi, fig, 5-13).

THe ORIFICE AND THE PETIOLE

At the orifice the margins of the sheath become thinner, while the central

portion beeames thickened and more or less triangular in section, At the same

time the nerves which will pass up into the lamina are feund grouped in this

central part. They usually consist. of the median, subsidiary and first, third and

fourth laterals. The number of laterals involved varies in different species. In

T. secunda three marginal veins on either side pass into the fringed auricular

appendage (4), whereas in T. puagens the number of laterals yaries from one

223

form af the spectes to apother, Open lamina forms have more nerves than closed

lamina ones (Lce.) (pl. xxiv, fig. 3, and pl. xxxvii, fig. 1), Compare also

T, lanigera in pl, xxxiv and xxxv, The second laterals disappear,

The behaviour of the subsidiaries was found ro vary in different species.

In 7. jungens, as is shown in pl. xxxi, one subsidiary is present in the sheath,

but in the petiole a second pair develops as an off-shoot from the first laterals

(pl. xxxi, fig. 11). This second pair becomes associated with the selerenchyma which

linked the first laterals to the abaxial epidermis. Thus ultimately all lateraly are

attached to adaxial groups of fibres (pl. xxxi, fig. 12 and 13). T, irritans is

anomalous in chis part of its anatomy. In the sheath there is one pair of subsidi-

aries but the blade is variable, a comnion condition being one subsidiary on one side

of the median nerve and two on the other (pl. xxxiv, fig. 7), Occasionally there are

two pairs of subsidiaries or the sheath condition is continued up into the petiole.

These differences are due to the amotint of branching which may or may not

take place in the petiole (pl. xxxii, ig, 4), Lf the median alone branches a state of

asymmetry is found, while in other specimens studied both the first laterals

and the median nerve had branched, In this case one of the lateral branches was

very small and soon died out (pl. xxxii, fig. 5). As this was produced on the

same side as the medtan off-shoot the resultant lamina appeared symmetrical

(pi. xxxvii, fig. 2). In T. Basedowit and T. lanigera two subsidiary nerves are

present on either side of the median in the sheath as well as in the lamina

(pl. xocxti. fig. 2-3; pl. xxxiv, fig. 1-2). In the remaining species the single sub-

sidiary of the sheath continues up into the lamina,

The Jength of the petiole varies in different species and on different leaves

of the same plant. It is always highly sclerenchymatous and triangular in section.

The development of the petiole which, of course, is not a true petiole in the

ontogenetical sense, determines the angle between the sheath and the leaf blade.

Strength at this point is essential if the whole organ is to survive a prolonged

period at or near the wilting point.

The ligular hairs are unicellular but the hairs of the auricular ridge and

petiole, when developed, are multicellular though the septa are few. In tomentose

forms like T. Basedowti and T. lanigera the hairs are coiled and tangled together.

As the petiole passes into the lamina the adaxial and abaxial surfaces

(adaxial only in 7. pungens) becume lobed between the bundles. The proportion

af sclerenchyma to parenchyma decreases (pl. xxxi, fig. 1]-13) and chlorenchyma

is developed on the sides of the grooves, so that there is a gradual transition into

the condition found in the limina.

LAMINA

The general arrangement of tissues is much the same im all species except

T. pungens, Plate xxxiv shows a series of diagrams tepresenting the stricture

of the lamina im all species. It will be noted that T. pungens is quite outstanding

(pl. xxxiv, fig, 3), It should be compared with fig. 6 which represents Plectrachne

Schinstt, a member of aclosely related genus. Species of Plectrachne were formerly

grouped under Trivaphis R. Br., though very different from Robert Brown's

type species T. mollis, They are coarse tussock-forming grasses of the same

type as that found in Triodie, and they have a similar distrihution. The two

getlera ar¢ separated mainly ott the length of the lobes of the lemma. In

Plectrachne the lobes are elongated into long awns, whereas in Tyiodia they vary

from obtuse or acute lobes longer than the base of the lemma (T. pungens,

T, lanigera and T, Rasedowii) to mere indentations of the apex of the lemma

(T. irrtians, T. angusta and T. seeunda). In view of the variation within Triodie

the distinction between the geneta is not wholly satisfactory and it is interesting

to find such an affinity in the leaf anatomy.

224

The variations in internal structure of the lamina agree with the affinities

deduced during the taxonomic study (5) and expressed in the key based on floral

structure, Thus T, pungens, T. Basedowsi and T. lamigera which, as stated above,

have deeply lobed lemmas all have two pairs of subsidiary nerves. T. Wiseanu

and 7, bristoides share a number of characters, The main difference is that in

the former the inner faces of the lamina (¢x., the adaxial or upper face) have

two instead of one groove unopposed to a corresponding one on the outer face

(pl. xxxiv, fig. 4-5). It ig doubtful whether such a character could be regarded

as diagnostic.

T, irritens and T. Fitzgeraldii are remarkable for the amount of sclerenchyma

which is developed. It will be noticed that in the former the bundles are linked

to the abaxial sclerenchyma, and in the latter to the adaxial. Also, as has already

been mentioned, 7. irritans is ofterr asymmetrical, Leaves of this type were

found on specimens available from both Western and South Australia, so the

condition cannot be regarded as a mere abnormality. T. irrifans shares with

T. Wiseane and 7. brisioides the character of haying the chlorenchyma compara-

tively free from the sclerenchyma, whereas in T. Fitsgeraldii and T. longiceps

the groups of chlorenchyma, with their associated parenchyma sheath, are prac-

tically enclosed in fibres, particularly on the abaxial surface (pl. xxxiv, fig. 8-9).

In T. angusta and T. secunde sclerenchyma has. been reduced to a minimum

and the chlorenchyma is bounded by mesophyll cells, It is significant that both

these favour habitats where moisture is likely to be available for a longer period

than is the case for the other species. Thus 7. angusta grows on the upper banks

of rivers and creeks subjected to periodic flooding in the wet season, while

T. secunda is found near drainage channels or on wide flats which are also subject

to occasional flooding in good years (pl, xxxiv, fig. 10-11, and pl, xxxvi, fg, 1)-

It was stated in the first paper of this series that when the leaf was fresh the

blade was more or less open, #¢., V-shaped in section, whereas when dry the blade

closed wp and became U-shaped, In pl. xxxvii, fig., a section made trom fresh

tnaterial of 7’, pungens illustrates the former condition, while pl, xxxvi, fig. 1,

shows the latter in T. exgusta. The section in this case was prepared irom a boiled

leaf which had been taken from a herbarium specimen. T. angusta though, with

T. secunda, among the least xeromorphic in internal structure, never has a very’

open lamina, Consideration of the diagrams on pl. xxxiv and the photographs

will explain why JT. pwngens exhibits the most marked changes in the degree 97

open-ness.

Towards the apex of the lamina the lateral nerves die aut oné by ane,

commencing with the marginal pair until the median, subsidiaries and the first

laterals remain. In species having two pairs of subsidiaries the outer ones are

the next to disappear; then the inner followed by the laterals, leaving onty

the median. Ac the same time there is a progressive reduction in the amount of

mesophyll and chlorenchyma, so that finally in all species the pungent point is

formed of the median nerve surrounded by sclerenchyma.

HISTOLOGY

Ermermis

The cells of the epidermis may be subdivided as follows:—(1) normal

epidermal cells, (ti) siliceous and suberised cells, (ili) secretory cells (T. pungens

only), (iv) hairs, and (v) stomates.

(i) Normal epidermal cells—In surface view the majority of the epidermal

cells have the same undulating wall as has been described and figured for many

other grasses, In vertical section they appear about as wide as deep, but the

outer wall is thickened and the central cavity is consequently more or less oval.

225

Epidermal cells above a vein or on the adaxial surface of the sheath are simpler

in outline (surface view) than are those between the veins or in the grooves of

the laminae,

(ii) Stliceous and suberised cells—These are short and occur together either

in pairs or two siliceous cells separated by a suberised one. ‘The latter cells are

always more or less square or shortly rectangular, but the siliceous cells vary from

rough squares to double axe-shaped bodies. The shape is simplest in epidermis

covering sclerenchyma, fe., above a nerve. In section the cells are shorter than

the surrounding cutinised ones. They are absent from the abaxial face of the

sheath,

(ili) Secretory celis—These have been mentioned in the description of the

sheath in T. pungens, and are responsible for the production of a sticky resist

which is visible to the naked eye as a line down the margins of the sheath. If

the production of resin is very vigorous, as it is in good seasons and after rain,

drops of the substance may fall on to other parts of the leaves, including the

Jamina, The function of the resin is obscure. The modified epidermis is always

produced on the outer margins of the sheath and on the portion which will

project above the preceding sheath. The development is commonly interrupted

above a vein (pl. xxxiii, fig. 3), The thin-walled secretory cells are supported by

thick-walled ones whose projecting tops form minute flanges, In surface yiew

(pl. xxxii, fig. 10) these stand slightly above their neighbours, which, like them,

are short and wide.

Secretory epidermis is rare atong grasses, but resin is produced in ather

species of Trindia, ¢.g., T, Mitehellii and T. stenostachya, which are not known

ie occur in Western Australia,

(iv) Hairs—The hairs developed from the epidermal cells are of three types:

a, papillae or unicellular hairs in which there is a projection of the cell wall;

b, long multicellular hairs in which several septa are present, and c, two-celled

hairs which are found only in the grooves of the laminae.

The papillae may he blunt or sharp-pointed, but the walls are always

thickened in the same manner as those of the normal epidermal cell (pl, xxxv,

fig. 1 and 2; and pl. xxxvi, fig, 1). These papillae are found on all parts of the

adaxial surface in all species. They do not develop on the exposed parts of the

abaxial surface but are abundant in all grooves except in T. pungens (pl. xxxiii,

fig. L). In the grooves the papillae interlock with those on the opposite face. This

must prevent complete collapse of the grooves when the leaf is in a state of wilting.

If the grooves were fully closed there would be serious interference with

transpiration and respiration. Rigid papillae are also present in the grooves of

the leaf sheath in T, pungens (pl. xxxti, fg. 1).

Multicellular hairs occur in pubescent species such as T, fanigera and

T. Basedowni, and also on the auricular ridges uf all other species. They may be

stiff and more or less straight as in 7, putters or coiled and tangled as in the two

last-named species.

The hairs of the ligule are intermediate between the last two types, The

hairs ace divided off from the epidermal! cell, hut other septa were ahsent in those

inspected.

The two-celled hairs are found al intervals along the bases of the grooves

on Jaminae uf all species, Their relative abundance varies considerably from

species ta species, as does their size. They are scarce in 7. lanigera and

T. Rasedowni, and abundant in T. anguste and T. secunda, The hairs consist of

a hulhous-hased cell imbedded between the epidermal cells and epidermal in origin

and an apical cell. Both cells are thin-walled (pl. xxxiii, fig, 2; pl, xxxvi, fig. 1 and

2). In pl. xxxv the drawing of the TS. lamina of T. Fttzgeraldti also shows some

226

of these hairs, but the cut has not passed directly through their bases, These

organs are the same as those deserjbed by Prat (11) as being characteristic of

his Chloyidoid type of epidermis, under which he classes the Eragrostideae.

Triodia has been placed in this sub-family by some authors. Frat’s hypotheses

concerning the relationships of grasses are extremely interesting, but it is possible

that some of his affinities may be due to parallel! development in similar habitats

as well as to phylogeny. That a large group of Australian arid species would

come under his Chloridaid type is a case in point,

The fact that these two-celled hairs are (except in T. pwigens) in direct

contact with the thin-walled mesophyll tissue between the bundles (pl. xxxiti,

fig. 2; pl. xxxvi, fig. 2). makes it possible that they are ussociated with the response

of the tissues to changes in atmospheric moisture content. However. since the

hairs occur in other genera and subfamilies which do not have such specialised

laminae, the point cannot be settled without the aid of the physiologist.

In 7. pungens the hairs occur only on the upper surface and only in grooves

between Iateral nerves, They are placed directly above chlorenchyma and are

amaller with a Jess butbous base than in other specics.

(v) Stomnales—These are of the normal grass type. They are to be found

anly an protected surfaces. They are present in grooves in the sheath of

T, pratgens and on the overlapping flanges of the margins as well as in the grooves

of the lamina adjacent to the chlorenchyma in all species.

VASCULAR TISSUE ANT ASSOCIATED SCLERENCHYMA

The vascular bundles are uf the festucoid type, since there is a mestome

sheath as well as a parenchyma one, An unusual feature is the breaking-up of

the phloem into two, or sometimes three, groups in the Jarger bundles such as the

median and tirst laterals. The division occurs as a result of the formation of

small fibres, and is found in all bundles of sufficient size whether in the sheath or

the Jamina. In the section of T. lantgera (pl, xxxv) the phloem is not completely

intruded, but in ph xxxvi, fig. 1, the phloem groups in the lamina of 7. angusta

are quite distinct. Subdivision of the phloem oceurs it) other Australian

xeropliy tes.

The arrangement of the peripheral sclerenchyma developed betiveen the

epidermis and the bundie varies from species to species (pl. xxxiv). Whether

this sclerenchyma is in direct contact with the mestome sheath or whether the

two ate separated by the parenchyma sheath varies not only with the species but

alse fram one bundle to another( pl xxxv, fig. 1-2).

CHLORENCUYMA AND ASSOCIATED PARRNCHYMA

The chlorenchyma is formed in bands along the sides af the grooves on the

lanvinae, The tissue is by no means extensiye, If the ratio between the amount

of chlorenchyma and the amount of vascular tissue per unit area be taken as a

Weasure of xeromorphy, then these leaves must be placed high among the

sclerophylls,

The detail of the cells was very difficult to discern even in fresh material.

The walls are thin and the contents dense, so that staining of tissiies is even. In

the various drawings they are stippled to distinguish them from the adjacent

nicsophyll cells. While the general arrangement of the cells is compact, there are

alwavs air spaces immediately below the stomates.

The cells of the parenchyma sheath of the bundle are extended as arms of

a single cell in thickness around the chlorenchyma (pl. xxxv) and divide the latter

from the peripheral sclerenchyma. These mesophyll cells contain plastids and, ix

fresh material. large compound starch grains, The cell walls adjoining the

227

chlotenchyma are pierced by innumerable pits. Rhoades and Carvalho (12)

found that plastids in the parenchyma sheath of the maize leaf were directly

concerned in the elaboration of starch. They state that the plastids in Zea Mays

are different fron those of members of the Pooideae, Nevertheless, a similar

function is probably carried on by the plastids in the chlorenchyma sheath in

Triodia.

Mersoruyiu

The tisstie of the leal belween the parenchyma sheaths of adjacent bundles

is formed of thin-walled cells with occasional thick-walled fibres which appear

to he selereid in function. The latter are purticularly evident in T. Fitsgeraldix

(pl. xxxv, hig. 2).

It is believed that shritikage of this tissue would result in the reduction of

the widih of the groove, wilh consequent interlocking of the epidermal papillae

and the protection of the slomates. The transverse bands of tissue are clearly recog-

nisable in all sections (pl. xxxv, fig. 1-2; pl. xxxvi, fig. 1) except in T. pungens,

which is again different from the remaining species (pl xxxvil, fig, 1), Owing to

the lack of grooves development of the thin-walled tissue occurs only between the

median and the subsidiaries (pl. xxxit, fig. 1). As indicated in the figures the

cells are commonly shrunken in prepared mounts, though they are turgid it

pL xxxvit, fg. 1, which was from fresh material, “he mesophyll cells pass without

demarcation into the epidernial cells which, though thin-walled inside, have a

cutinised and sometimes papillose outer wall (pl xxxiii, fig. 1), In pl, xxxv

it can be seen that there is a similar inodification of the epidermis at the bases

of the grooves adjacent to the median and subsidiary nerves, Tt is at these points

that the closing and opening of the lamina causes the greatest strain, and these

modified epidermal cells are homologous with the bulliform cells af Duval-Jouve

and figured by him for Sesleria cverulea (7). Similar cells haye also been

figured by Arber (1) for Deschampsia caespitosa,

In species where there is comparatively little sclerenchyima the body of the

leaf is made up of parenchyma cells similar to those of the parenchyma sheath

(pl xxxv, fig, 1). In TY, pungens there is a parenchyma zone below the lateral

uerves. In fresh material the cells contain plastids and are rich in compound starch

granules. This provides some explanation of the fact that this species, coarse

though if 1s, provides a nutritious reserve fodder for sheep.

DISCUSSION

Very little has, as yet, been published concerning the anatomy of the Aus-

tralian grasses. One of the most detailed studies was that of Vickery (13), wha

discussed a number of species from the Andropogenvac, Zoysieae and Tristagineac

eceurring in New South Wales. As all of these have a panicaid anatomy direst

‘comparison with Triodia is difficult.

Turning to overseas work, the coltrast between the structure of the Jamina

in the Australian Trivdia spp. with that illustrated for Sieglinyia decumbens

Benth. (= Triodia decumbens Beauv.) by Burr and Turner (6), supports Stapf's

view ihat Tyiodia should he restricted to the Australian species. On the other

hand, if resemblances are sought there is a likeness hetween the furrowing ai the

lamina in Triodia ancl that in Psomima arenaria (1.c.), in various South American

species of ITeirachloe (10) and m the South African eiristida vestira (1). Sinee

the four genera concerned belong to three sub-families ‘of the Gramineae, the

similarity between them can only be due to parallelism. Tt is interesting thar the

habitats in which the iwo former grow share certain ecological features.

Consideration of the behaviour of the lamina in Trivdia during periuds of

wilting male it clear that mere folding together of the two halves of the leaf is

228

not sufficient. Such a folding would expose, not protect, the stomates in the

grooves of the outer (7... the lower) surface. This is in conttast to the condition

in the species mentioned above, where there is no furrowing of the lower surface.

Since the closing of the blades is known to take place as the leaf is drying, there

must be some mechanism to prevent over-exposute of the outer grooves. This

is probably the reduction in volume of the thin-walled tissue between the bundles.

Shrinkage of this mesophyll would have the desired result without seriously inter-

fering with the efficiency of the more important chlorenchyma and vascular tissue.

The large amount of mechanical tissue must act as a support against permanent

collapse during such periods of strain.

Discussion of the course of the leaf traces in the culm from the node down

must be left until this part of the plant is described in Part lil. The fact that

the minor bundles are free only in the internode immediately below their sheath,

while the major bundles continue down the culm for some distance, is in accord

with other work (2).

SUMMARY

The manner in which the leaf traces pass between the sheath and the node

has been described. It differs only slightly from one species to another.

The bundles within the sheath have a definite arrangement, and only the

number of minor veins on cither side varies.

A number of the marginal veins are lost at the orifice. The remainder pass

up through the petiole into. the lamina, and then at the tip die out from each side

until only the median one continues into the terete pungent point.

The lamina is deeply grooved and stomates occur only in the grooves, The

differences in structure from species to species could be of value in diagnosis

if so desired.

Chlorenchyma is scanty in the lamina, and in the sheath occurs only i

T. pungens. Mechanical tissue is abundant except in F, angusta and T, secunda.

T. pungens is different from all other species and anatomically stands quite

apart. The lamina is very similar to that of Plectrachne Sciringti. It is also

peculiar in having a resin secreting epidermis on the margins of the sheaths.

This character is shared with several non-Western Australian species.

Resemblances with some other genera are discussed briefly, as is the

mechanism which permits the closing of the grooves on both sides of the lamina

during periods of water shortage.

REFERENCES

(1) Arner, A, 1934 The Gramineae. Cambridge

(2) ArtscHwacer, E, 1925 Jour. Agric. Res., 30, (3}, 197

(3) Bureipcz, N. T. 1942-43 Jour. Roy, Soc. W, Aust., 29, 151

(4) Bursmar, N. T. 1945 Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust, 69, (2), 303

(5) Burpince, N. T. 1943-44 Jour. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., 30, 15

(6) Buer, S,, and Turner, D. M. 1933 British Economic Grasses, London

(7) Duvat-Jouve, J. 1875 Ann, Sci. Nat. Bot., (6), 1, 294

(8) Ganvner, C. A. 1941-42 Jour. Roy. Soc. W. Aust., 28, 11

(9) McLean, R. C. 1916 New Phyt., 15, 103

(10) Parom, L. 1941 Rev. del Mus. de La Plata (n. Ser.), 3, Sec. Bot., 183

(11) Prat, H, 1936 Ann. Sci, Nat, Bot., (10), 18, 165

(12) Rennes: M, M., and Carvatuo, A. 1944 Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 71,

(13) Viexery, J.W, 1935 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 60, 40

(14) Wooo, J, G. 1936 Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 60, 96

229

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXXI TO XXXVII

Pirate XXXI-

T. pungens, a series of diagrammatic sections from the node to the upper part of the

petiole: ah., auricular hairs; c., cavities in mesophytl; 1, ligule hairs; m.n., median nerve;

n.p., nodal plexus; t.e,, resiniferous epidermis; scl., sclerenchyma; v.b., vascular bundle; Ist 5.

and 2nd s., first and second subsidary nerves.

Pirate XXXII

1. T. puxgens, transverse section of part of the sheath showing grooves with chloren-

chyma. x 150; c.. cavities in mesophyll; ch., chlorenchyma.

2. T. Basedowii, diagrammatic section of sheath showing two pairs of subsidiary nerves;

m.n., Inedian nerve; s.n.. subsidary nerve, x 20.

3. T, Basedowtt: T.S., petiole. x 20.

4. T. irritans a showing ote paix subsidiaries. x 20).

\. ~ ‘‘ showing median and first laterals each with a small

off-shoot. x 20,

6. T. secunda: T.S, culm, just below junction of sheath and node. x20.

Hs + } stages above, 6. x20.

9, - T.S. higher up sheath. Note single pair of subsidiary nerves. x 20.

10. T. pungens, surface view of resiniferous epidermis. x

Prare XXXII

LT. pungens: T.S., central portion of lamina showing the thin-walled mesophyll and

bulliform cells on the upper epidermis between the median and subsidiary nerves and between

the fatter and the first Taterals. chlor., chlorenchyma; b.c., bulliform cells.

2. T. angusta: T.S., portion of lamina showing bulbous based tyo-celled hairs in the

grooves.

3. T. pungens: T.S., outer portion of sheath showing resin secreting epidermis.

Pirate XXXIV

Diagrams illustrating the variation in construction of the lamina: 1, T. lanigera;

2, T. Rasedounti; 3, T. pungens; 4, T. Wiseana; §, T. brizioides, 6, Plectrachne Schinzii;

ak irritans; 8, T. Fitzgerald; 9, T. longiceps; 10, T. angusta; 11, T. secunda, All approx.

Xx OU.

Prats XXXV

1. T. lawigera: T.S. lamina, x170.

2. T-. Fitageraldit: T.S. lamina. 170.

b.c,, bulliform cells; h., hair; g. groove; m., mesophyll; p.s., parenchyma sheath; scl., scleren-

chyma; st. stomate; v.b., vascular bundle; m.n., median nerve; Ist s. and 2nd s., first and

second subsidiary nerves; 2nd |., second lateral.

Pirate XXXVI

1, T. angusia: T.S, lamina (note double phicem and transverse bands of thin-walled

mesophyll,

2. 7. angista: portion of above showing detail of bulbous based hair in groove.

Pirate XXXVII

1, J. pungens: T.S. lamina,

2. T. irritans: T.S. lamina showing two pairs of subsidiary nerves.

230

Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 1946 ; Vol. 70, Plate XXXI

Plate XXXIL

Vol, 70,

231

1946

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Trans. Roy. Soc, §. Aust.

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Vol. 70, Plate XXXUI

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946

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Trans, Roy, Soc. S, Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XXXIV

234

Trans, Roy, Soc, 5. Aust, 1946 Vel. 70, Plate KXXV

Trans. Rov. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XNXNVLI

Fig. 1

T. anousta: T.S. lamina (note double pliloem ane transverse bands of thin-walled mesophyl!

! I 5

Fig. 2

T. aiguste: portion of above showing detail of bulbous based hair m groove,

Plate XXXVII

70),

Vol,

Aust., 1946

Soc.

Roy.

‘Trans,

Fig. 1

TI. pungens:

cl.

S. lamin

lamina showing two pairs of subsidiary nerves.

TS.

iritans :

THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939 SCIENTIFIC REPORTS:

NO.8-THE SOILS AND VEGETATION OF THE SIMPSON DESERT AND

ITS BORDERS

BYR. L. CROCKER, M.Sc.

Summary

In spite of the isolation and inaccessibility of the Simpson Desert, its flora has been very well

collected about the fringes. This collection began with the early explorers — Sturt, Warburton, Lewis

and Winnecke — and has more recently been added to by a large number of botanists, most

prominent of whom have been J. B. Cleland, S. T. Blake and G. H. Clarke.

235

THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939 SCIENTIFIC REPORTS: No. 8—

THE SOILS AND VEGETATION OF THE SIMPSON DESERT

AND ITS BORDERS

By R. L. Crocker, M.Sc,“

PLATES

CONTENTS

Page

I. InrRopucrion... a = e. ap - +4 s5 de -- 235

Il. Grorocy Anp PHYSIOGRAPHY .. . i va bi as .. 236

Ill. Curmare .. Pe 3 io bs i ‘% bs H 6a oer BOR

IV. THe Sorts et *. ae af Ms - = a 4 .. 237

1, The Sands .. as “4 .. we te $3 rw . .. 238

(i) Distribution, and Form of the Dune System -.- -- . -. 238

(ii) Laboratory examination .. ay ve i, ie <4 -- 239

(iii) Additional Analytical Data .. be E. .. 245

2. Brown Soils Associated with Surface Gibbers .. re “4 .. 246

3. Soils of the Flocdplains - 4 ms re aA oF .. 248

V. THe Veceration ‘ ao) os -_ 54 <2 i2 2: .. 248

1, Triodia Basedowii-Spinifex paradaxus Edaphic Complex .. .. 249

2. Astrebla pectinata- Atriplex vesicarium-Bassia spp. Edaphic

Complex, ti i ae s - 3 i ta -- 253

3, Eucalyptus coolabah - Atriplex swnmularium Edaphic Complex .. 254

4. Vegetation of the Bore Drains bi 4% x bs + 256

XI, Som-Vecerarion ReLrationsHiIps ,. ae 1é ge fa - .- 256

VII. Summary anv Discussion .. F be +. 257

VIII. AcKNoWLEDGEMENTS 3. = - ot. be 4 .. 257

IX, Rererences Ly ic te bs ba e be 4s ays -. 258

INTRODUCTION

In spite of the isolation and inaccessibility of the Simpson Desert, its flora

has been very well collected about the fringes. This collection began with the

early explorers—Sturt, Warburton, Lewis and Winnecke—and has more recently

been added to by a large number of botanists, most prominent of whom have been

J.B. Cleland, S. T. Blake and G. H. Clarke,

The only published ecological study of the Simpson Desert has been made by

Blake (1937), who touched the south-east portion when classifying the plant

communities of western Queensland. The present paper is the result of ‘a rapid

transect across the centre of the desert and a journey along its south-eastern

fringe in 1939, together with notes made during an earlier visit to the northern

portion in 1937, The floristics, insofar as the important perennials are concerned,

are very complete. The collection of annuals and ephemerals are as complete as

was possible under the seasonal conditions prevailing,

During both the 1937 arid 1939 expeditions a limited number of soil samples

were taken.

eee

©) Ecologist, Division of Snils, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,

Waite Agricultural Rescarch Institute. Botanist and Soil Surveyor, Simpson Desert

Expedition, 1939.

Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 70, (2), t Dec. 1946

236

GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY

The geology and physiography have already been very fully reviewed by

Madigan (11) and will only be outlined briefly here.

The Desert extends some 300 miles north of Lake Eyre and is approximately

250 miles across at its greatest width. It is predominantly sandy. Roughly

triangular, it is bounded by the Finke River in the west, the Diamentina and

Mulligan Rivers in the east and the Eastern MacDonnell, Harts, Jervois and

Adam Ranges in the north.

The west, south-west, east and south-east of the Desert in surrounded by

gibber plains, claypans and watercourses interspersed with tableland remnants

of early Tertiary (Eyrian series) and late Mesozoic (Jurassic-Cretaceous) rocks.

In the north-west the Archaean and early Palaeozoic rocks of the Eastern Mac-

Donnell and Harts Ranges outcrop, and to the north the Cambro-Ordovician of

the Jervois, Tarlton and Toko Ranges {Madigan (11), Whitehouse (19) |.

MEAN MEAN

ANNUAL RAINFALL ANNUAL RAINFALL

CORDILLO DOWNS SOUODNADATTA

1892-1940. 16832-1940

5-70 INCHES 4:54 (NCHES

“O t4}

ral

z 4 3

i= H \

7° i

4 '

a = ' ‘

z of3 AT Ak a

a 9 rh ‘ ve ian "

A i 4 f Ha n WOW

6 wt Nid? a A RN Ho \

yt a n\ ed f ‘ tas \ i Ta HN

i wee A ‘fi . oF H ‘ ‘

Sat ae ed + + \ wt OM \ rth

Zz #7 ¥ . ’ hk; ' 4 i SV Wrxsens Dh

Zz {¢ ‘ - LW Lee ey ap OME A

qd, 4 Bs sf ~ 7

“sy y

Fig. 1

The principal physiographic feature of the Desert is formed by the parallel

sandridges which vaty for the most part from 25 to 100 feet in height and trend

north-west—south-east; that is parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds

[Madigan (10), (11) ]. The ridges, which may be more than 150 miles long,

are approximately 300-600 yards apart and are almost always unstable at the

crests. The intet-ridge areas, including the lower slopes are fixed by sparse

vegetation. The eastern slopes are invariably steeper than the western. In the

extreme north of the desert the ridges lose themselyes in a featureless sandplain.

Claypans and saline lakes are common about the south-west, south and south-

east parts of the region.

All the southern rivers and watercourses flow into Lake Eyre, as also do the

Finke, Diamentina and Mulligan, However, the Hale, the Todd and the Hay

Rivers, and a number of additional minor creeks from the north and north-west,

are lost in the Desert sands, During exceptional floods the Hale and the Todd

probably link with the Finke and ultimately reach Lake Eyre.

237

CLIMATE

Practically the whole of the area falls within Davidson’s (8) Hot Desert

Zone, with P/E greater than 0°5 for nil months of the year and mean annual

temperatures higher than 70° F., with an amplitude of 15-16° F. and a phase lag

of some 18-22 days behind solar radiation (15).

Very little accurate data on the climate is available, as meteorological stations

about the fringes are exceedingly rate and the records not cntirely reliable. The

rainfall, however probably averages between four and ten inches annually, and

increases from south to north due to the increasing influence of summer mon-

soons. Its most conspicuous feature is its unreliability. This is well iMustrated

in fig, 1 which gives the annual distribution of rainfall for two stations, Oodna-

datta and Cordillo Downs, for the years. 1892-1940,

Rainfall expectation figures for several stations about the edge of the Desert

have been calculated by E. A, Cornish,” and are listed below.

TABLE I

Rainfall Expectation Desert Margin Centres

Rainfall Expectation

Once int the same 20 years Once in the same Once in the sane

annyal rainfall (R) 10 years (R) 5 years (R)

will equal willequalcr willequal willequal or willequal will equal or

Station orexceud belesathan orexceed belessthwt orexceed be less than

ins, ius. ins. ins. ind ins.

Muloorina Sin. (21 years) 10-30 1-23 8-00 1-$7 6-01 2-09

Cowarie Station (19 years) 11-99 1-04 7-79 1-59

Birdsville (41 years) 13-06 1-30 11°38 1-72 8-20 2°39

Cordilla Downs (53 years) 16-83 1-61 12-93 2-10 944 2°87

QOodnadatta (44 years) 9-65 1-73 7°95 2°10 6°31 2°65

THE SOILS

‘The soils of the Simpson Desert and its borders fall into three major

groups -—

(1) Sands—which predominate in the desert proper and range from the very

deep and unstable sands of the ridge crests to the shallower sands of

both the inter-ridge areas and the northern sandplain.

(2) Brown soils—associated with surface gibbers and derived directly from

the break-up of the old pre-Pleistocene peneplain, which is still repre-

sented by isolated mesas and buttes.

(3) Alluzial soils—of the floodplains. These are chiefly grey and grey-

brown and are very variable in texture.

No discussion of the soils of the Simpson Desert and its borders could be

initiated without reference to the quite revolutionary and important suggestions

made by Whitehouse (19) in his studies of the late geological history of Queets-

land, Briefly, he considers practically all the soils west of the Great Divide in

Queensland to be laterites. or laterised to some degree, or to be secondary soils

derived from vatiotts horizons of an original laterised profile.

This laterisation is considered to have occurred at two periods in the

Pliocene when high temperatures coincided with high rainfall conditions. The

laterites began to form on a gently sloping plain from the Great Divide to the

Lake Eyre region, Later, pluvial periods of the Pleistocene, which coincided

®) Officer in charge. Division of Biometrics, Council for Scientific and Industrial

Research,

238

with low (ice-age) temperatures, initiated the break-up of this peneplain and

the redistribution of the laterised horizons. This process is continuing today,

though at a much retarded rate. Thus the red Ioams and redistributed red loams

are considered remnants of the uppermost or (ferruginous) zone of a lateritic

profile, and the gibbers and “billy” remnants of a once widespread siliceous zone

—in places probably a continuous shect—a. fossil B horizon.

1. Tue Sanps

{i) DistRinuTION AND Form oF THE SANDRIDGES

The limits of the sandridges have been defined by Madigan (11), and in

Queensland by Blake (4), In a new soil map of Australia Prescott (16) has

shown the approximate limits of both sandhill and sandplain areas. On the south,

east and west fringes the sand desert is bordered by gibber plains and rolling

stony downs, with isolated flat-topped tableland remnants. The dunes are

orientated parallel to the direction of the prevailing winds [Madigan (10 (11) ],

tretiding north-north-west and south-south-east. As has been shown by Madigan

(11) the individual sandridge may be two hundred miles long, and over large

distances the ridges preserve remarkable parallelism and repetition. They are

stable except for the crests of the higher ones, and definite movement takes place

only along their length. Probably only with very high wind velocities from a

direction approximating right angles to their length is there likely to be actual

movement of sand from off the ridge, and in these cases it is not likely to be

great, Although there may be a loss or gain of sand, the dune itself is quite fixed.

@ LOG INTERVAL OF 4)

PERCENTAGE

(CORRESPONDING

PARTICLE DIAMETER

Fig, 2

239

‘The mean repetition distance is approximately 4 mile, The sand grains ate

predominantly quartz (Carrol Joc. cit.), and were na doubt derived from quartz-

bearing rocks, including certain horizons of the Pliocene laterised profiles and

their foundation rocks. The occurrence of heavy miterals of a domimantly meta-

morphic and granitic assemblage indicates, however, that the contributions from

the arenaceous Eyrian series, which have been suggested as the source of the

satids (Whitehouse loc. cét.), are only partial.

(ii) Laporatory Examination “

Mechanical Analysis—

Mechanica! analysis of a number of the soil samples taken in the Desert have

been carried out. As far as the dune sands were concerned, the percentage of

clay (i.¢., fraction less than ‘O02 mm, diameter) was so low that it was mot con-

sidered worth while carrying out a full mechanical analysis. The samples were

therefore first dispersed with sodium oxalate or sodium hydroxide and the clay

decanted off, following standard soil sedimentation methods. After oven drying,

the sand was sieved through a series of 1.M.M. sieves using Smith’s (7) tech-

nique, except that six shakings were given instead of four. . The following

sieves were used: 2 mm., 1] mm., 0°5 mm., 50, 70, 90 and 200 mesh.

The various fractions were then plotted on a summation percentage diagram

(summation perecntage against log particle diameter), from which percentage

distribution diagrams were constructed using a log interval of 0-1 on the particle

diameter scale. The advantage of using this technique is that much more detail

can be shown in the distribution curves which are, in this case, drawn from some

18 points, instead of only seven had direct plotting from the sievings been made.

The general results are illustrated in fig. 2, 3,4, 5. In fig. 2 the distribution

oi a number of surface samples taken in a traverse actoss a series of ridges at

Camp 8 in the centre of the Desert, together with one or two additional samples,

@) The following samples were taken. The principal soil collection was carried

out at Camp &, about the centre of the Desert, where a series of samplings was made

across seyeral dunés. The position of these (A-E} is shown in a section drawn by

Dr. C. T. Madigan (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, (1), 47).

Catalogue number Depth Location

6,221 0-12” Goyders Lagoon, Floodplain of Diamentina R,

6,222 0-26" Sandridge crest, Mulligan R:

6,223 (Sample A) 0-46” Sandridge crest, Camp 8, towards centre Desert.

6,225 (Sample B) 5-37"

6,226 (Sample B) 37-46”

6,227 (Sample C) O45” Sandridge slope, Camp 8.

6,228 (Sample D) 0-18" Sandridge crest, Camp 8.

6,229 (Sample E) o- 5”

6,224 (Sample B) (- 5"

; Inter-ridge carridor, Camp 8,

6230 (Sample E) 5-26"

6,23: (Sample E) 26-45"

Inter-ridge corridor, Camp 8.

6,232 0-12”

6,233 16-27” Inter-ridge corridor, Camp 19,

6,234 27-32”

6,235 32-46" J

6,236 0-6" — Gypseous hollow between sandhills, near con-

~ 6,237 6-20" ; Huence of Macumba and Warburton Rivers.

5,199 Q- 2” Sandplain at north end of desert.

5,200 4-16" }

240

are shown, Samples 6,223‘4) and 6,228 are unstable crest samples, and samples

6,224 and 6,229 inter-ridge corridor samples in the Camp & series. It is seen at

once that the peak (modal) diameters of the crest samples are coarser than those

of the corridors. 6,227 (fig. 3), a slope sample, taken between the sites 6,224

and 6,228, shows a peak diameter intermediate between these two, It is also

apparent that the greater part of the sand in the corridors has a particle diameter

of less than 0-1 mm., and that the greater portion of the sand of the crests has a

particle diameter greater than 0-1 mm.

The other samples taken support the general conclusions from those taken

at Camp 8; for example (in fig. 2), 6,222, a sandhill crest along the Mulligan

adjacent to old Kaliduwarry Station homestead, and 6,232, a corridor sample

from about 16 miles west of this.

This is extremely interesting, as Bagnold considers it is the finest sands that

collect at the top of dunes and the coarsest at the bottom, Bagnold (1935) (1941).

PERCENTAGE

(CORRESPONDING TO LOG INTERVAL OF -1)

PARTICLE CIAMETER

Fig. 3

It is to be noted that the particle size distributions for the crest sands is

much more restricted in range than those of the inter-ridge areas, particularly

in the coarse sand range. In the samples from the interior of the Desert there

was no sand present in the crests with a diameter as large as O'5 mm. 6,222,

situated on clay flats of the Mulligan flood plain, is a more recent dune, lighter

in colour than the ridges of the Desert, and obviously a mixed sand, Recent

dunes in desert regions are apparently always lighter in colour (Gautier).

The heterogeneity exhibited in the sands, see fig. 2, 3, 4, 5, is only to be

expected in view of the fact that steady meteorological conditions never last long

enough to build up any great thickness of uniform sand. The fact that the

crest sands are much more restricted in their particle diameter range, evidences

the greater wind winnowing to which they have been stibjected, 6,228 is a regular

sand indicating steady conditions of wind and sand supply for a reasonably long

time, while 6,223, the adjacent ridge crest, does ot show anywhere near the

() The numbers are the catalogued numbers of the samples in the Soil Library of

the Division of Soils, C\S.I.R., at the Waite Institute, Adelaide.

241

same degree of sorting. This is probably due partly to variation within the

dunes themselves, accentuated by the fact that the former is the mean of a vertical

section only 18 inches deep, while the latter section was 46 inches, These

samples, although from unstable ridge crests, were taken about a day after a very

steady fall of some 14 inches of rain, when the sand was quite coherent and at

about field capacity to at least 15 inches, The fact that the former sample was

able to be bored out with a soil auger below the depth of moisture penetration

indicated a much firmer packing of the particles belaw—in other words, 6,223

is a mixture of accretion layers (typical of the dip slope) and sand which has

been subject to avalanching, whereas 6,228 is composed almost entirely of the

latter. The indications are from 6,223 that a change of slip slope of the small

unstable crest from east to west is by no means unusual, that is, the strong winds

must blow from two almost opposite directions. This may be only occasional,

but there is further evidence for it in the almost symmetrical nature of some of

the crests. However, there is no doubt that during the building up of the greater

= w

uw Go

PERCENTAGE

(CORRESPONDING TO LOG INTERVAL OF +f)

PARTICLE DIAMETER

Fig. 4

part of the dune (which is now quite stabilised) the strong winds were from

the west or sotith-west. Most probably only occasional east or north-east winds

are strong enough to reverse the minor slip slopes of the crest today.

The broadness of the distribution about the modal diameter in most of the

sands indicates either lack of sorting or a mixture of two sands of slightly differ-

ing dominant diameters, This has already been mentioned in connection with

6,223, which it was suggested was a mixture of both avalanched and accretion

deposits. Mixed sands always indicate some change in conditions, either a change

in the long term wind regime, or a change in the continuity of sand supply.

Bagnold (1941) mentions that the possibility of change in conditions is so great

that it is not surprising that on occasions the grading of a sand may differ greatly

at the surface and a few inches below.

6,227, a dip slope sample (0-45), exhibits this broad distribution about the

peak diameter, and could quite easily be the result of a mixture of two sands

with differing predominant diameters. Two hypothetical sands, which when

mixed would give the distribution curve of 6,227, are shown by the dotted lines

in fig. 3 above. 6,225 (fig. 5), a subsurface sample 5-37 inches, below 6,224, is

242

almost certainly a mixed sand of the above type. The presence of mixed sands

would indicate, as would indeed be expected, that the conditions which governed

sand accumulation, principally wind regime and supply of raw material, varied

considerably during’ the building up of the Simpson Desert dune system.

Some of these variations, especially sand supply, probably had a purely local

effect. Indeed, the variation met with does not mask general similarities such

as the dominant diameters of the corridor as compared with the crest sands, The

sands may be relatively uniform for a considerable depth, and even minor pecu-

liarities in the distribution may occur throughout. This is well illustrated in

fig. 4 where the frequency distribution of a corridor profile taken in three

horizons, 6,229 (O-5 inches), 6,230 (5-26 inches), 6,231 (26-45 inches), is shown.

The repetition of certain features as the second small peak diameter in all three

horizons, and the general similarity between the three, would indicate uniformity

of sand supply and wind conditions,

)

VAL. OF 1

= 1

u Q

PERCENTAGE

(CORRESPONDING TO LOG INTER

PARTICLE DIAMETER

Fig. 5

A special case of a mixed sand is that where the peak diameters of the two

sand components are widely separated. Bagnold, loc. ctf, has shown that this is

so in sand sheets, and suggests that if the ratio of the two peak diameters is of

the order of 10 to 1, the sand will temain a relatively immobile sheet, Under

these circumstances the coarser grains are too heavy in comparison to the smaller

to move even by stirface creep, they tend to hecome uniformly dispersed and

protect the finer material from the normal eddies of turbulence. As a result, the

sand sheet remains ripple-less and becomes stabilised,

It was thought that it might be interesting to see how far these conditions

were fulfilled in an Australian sandplain. During an earlicr expedition with

Dr. C. T, Madigan (1937), a soil sample had been taken by the author in the

featureless sandplain at the north end of the Desert about six miles south of the

junction of the Arthur and the Thring (see pl. xhi, fig. 12). The frequency particle

size distribution of the surface 4 inch is in entire agreement with Bagnold’s

theory (5.199, fig, 5, above).

The two peak diameters correspond to a particle size of approximately

-08 mm. and -8 mm. respectively, that 1s, one is almost exactly ten times as great

as the other,

243

The distribution of 5,200 (4-16 inches, below 5,199) has interesting implica-

tions when considered in conjunction with 5,199, and helps to explain the method

by which the sand sheet was stabilised. Apparently the sand originally had a

peak diameter slightly higher than -O8 mm., but the distribution curve was skew

with a greater extension into the coarser diameters, very much in fact like the

curve for 5,200. Under the influence of moderate to strong winds the finer

material has been removed by saltation and suspension, and to a lesser degree: by

surface creep. Much of the coarser material was of too large a diameter and too

heavy to be shifted far in surface creep under the bombardment of the smaller

particles in saltation, and the proportion of these relatively immobile grains there-

fore contitmed to increase in the surface layer until they were sufficiently

numerous to protect the finer materials. The distribution of 5,199 can be looked

upor as the equilibrium state, when even in the strongest wind practically no

sand would be removed from the sheet.

The sandplain at the north end of the Desert was, therefore, probably the

first portion to become perfectly stable and be colonised by vegetation.

Reference to fig. 2 and 5 shows that the distribittion about the peak diameters

for the typical corridor sands and those of the northern sandplain (exclud-

ing the surface 4 inch) are almost identical, The peak diameters are ptac-

tically the same, barely higher than ‘08 mm.; and in both cases the curves

are skew with a noticeable extension to the coarse side. The corridor

samples 6,229, 6,224 and 6,223 all show tendencies to slight second maxima on

the coarse side. These similarities are borne out by a close relationship im the

vegetation of the corridors and the sandplain (see later), This may indieate that

originally the sand-sheet was more widespread and occupied much of the Desert.

Absence of sufficient coarse grains in the more southerly regions, together with

perhaps other differetices dependant on the supply of sand material, could lead

to increased mobility and the building up of the complex sandridge system there,

while gradual loss of mobility was causing the stabilisation of the sheet to the

north. [Et is unhkely that this was the only mechanism, and it is certainly not

necessary to have a sand-sheet preceding the formation of a sandridge as Madi-

gan (10) has pointed out and as 1s so clearly demonstrated by the chains about the

margins, with their clean gibber flats and sand-free corridors.

The particle size-frequency distribution curves of the Simpson Desert sands

agree with Bagneld’s theories in most respects, The only setious disagreement

seems to be in the relative dominant particle diameter of the crest and corridor

samples. He has found in his Libyan Desert studies that with seif dunes the

finest sands collect at the crests, and the coarer sands in the hollows, and that

with ripples the reverse is the case. In the Simpson Desert this generalisation

breaks down, and we find the crest samples have coarser peak diameters than

those in the hollows, which are all of the order of “08 mm_ Carrol’s"? (lve cit.)

sievings of the same sands collected by the author, together with four additional

crest samples collected by Madigan, intlicate the same relationship. Bagnold

says the finest sand-dune material kaiown has a peak diameter of “08 mm.; for

particles below this diameter the minimum wind velocity required to shift the

grains actually increases. It is suggested that the extreme fineness of the

Simpson Desert sands has an important bearing on the reversal of the relation-

ship he postulates as being general. There can be no doubt that 6,224, 6,229

and 6,232, our corridor samples, were taken within the plinth, as he has defined

&) Carrol has plotted the quantities retained on the various sicves directly above

the sieve size, instead of midway between that size and the mext coarsest.

244

it. It is again to be noted, however, that the crest samples have a much narrower

distribution than corridor samples, and larger grains, too heavy to move in sur-

face creep, collect in the hollows, There are relatively few of these heavier

grains,

The extreme fineness of the Simpson Desert sands suggests that previously

abraded material has made the bulk of the contribution, and there can be little

doubt that the arenaceous beds of the Eyrian series supplied most of it. Un-

fortunately, practically nothing is known of the mineralogy of the Eyrian series.

Full mechanical analyses were carried out on a few samples, and together

with other analytical data are summarised in Tables If, II and IV, The

extremely low silt figures (mostly less 1%) with somewhat larger amounts of

clay are interesting, and have already been commented on by Prescott and

Skewes (17) who mechanically analysed a number of desert sands, The presence

of I to 6% of clay, and almost complete absence of silt, is apparently a charac-

teristic feature of even the most highly sorted desert sands, and is no doubt the

result of the almost complete removal, as loess, of the silt fraction through

constant wind winnowing. The very fine material, less than ‘002 mm, diameter

(the clay fraction, or part of it), apparently has too high a uid threshold to be

lifted up as readily by the ruling wind conditions. Bagnold, loc. cit., has quoted

the case of a wind strong enough to move pebbles 4°6 mm. in diameter being

unable to shift particles from a loosely scattered layer of Portland cement,

Calcium carbonate, as measured by loss on acid treatment, is uniformly low.

6,235, a subsoil sample (32-46 inches) of a corridor soil type carrying an asso-

ciation of gidgee (Acacia Cambagei) and saltbush (Atriplex vesicarium) is an

exception.

TABLE IT

Analytical Data on Dune Crest Samples

Sample number .. aA = 6,222 6,223 6,2274*) 6,228

near —____ —

Location .. 6 Pas -- Mulligan Camp 8

River

Vegetation ss oF .. Spinifer A Triadiv Ss.

paradosus paradoxus Bascdowii paradexus

Depth (inches) ., +4 be 0-26 0-46 0-45 0-18

Chemical data— % % % %

Total soluble salts __ K's 01 *13 “259 “O01

Sodium chloride at . — “05 -110 =

Nitrogen Fe Ae Ls 003 — —_ 005

Phosphate (PsQ5) .- o “008 _ — “O14

Reaction (pH) WE ae 7+3 6-5 6:6 7:0

Mechanical atialysis

(as percentage fine earth)—

Coarse sand : ee 57-0 = = 55-3

Fine sand ne t -- 40-9 = <= 43-2

Si ide Ck gs ada OT 7 = 0:0

Clay 2. es e 4'= 1-4 -— ss id

Loss on acid treatment .. 0-3 —_— — O41

Moisture re 0-2 — = 0-2

Loss on ignition 1 _ 0-4 — _ 0-6

eee ae ee ene

(*) Dip slope sample.

245

TasLe IIT

Analytical Data on Inter-dune Corridor Samples

Sample jumbers .. 6,224 6,225 6,226 6,229 6,230 6231 6232 6233 6,234 4,235

“

en a See Se

Location ile oh Camp 8 Camp 8 Camp 19

Vegetation ., «= Triediaand Grevillea Triodwaand Jigkes Acacia Cambaget and

Alriplex vesicarium

Depth (inches) 2. OES 5-37 37-46 80-5 5-26 2645 0-12 16-27 27-32 32-46

Mechanical analysis— % Ty %a % %

Coarse sand be 16°6 84 10+1 11-3 8-6

Fine sand .. not 66°7 not 85:0 75:7 67:2 86-2

Silt .. .» — deter- 1°6 OL 1-0 17 27

Clay ate «mined 13°6 determined 565 12-0 7-1 17-8

Lass on acid treat-

ment Lt oF 0-7 0-3 07 1-5 23°9

Moisture .. o's 2-0 0-6 1+6 2:9 249

Chemical data—

Total soluble salts -OR “07 +338 “02 02 04 “OL 179 +783 +570

Sodium chloride .. +03 “03 “144 — — — tr. “069 -340 +245

Nitrogen -- *019 -Q13 — 19 _ “010 “O11 _— —

Phosphate (PsOs) -018 -018 — 020 -017. — “O17 “O17 -021 —

Reaction (pH) .. 6-4 6:9 73 GF 68 71 77 8-6 813 88

(iii) ADDITIONAL ANALYTICAL DATA

Soluble salts and chlorides are relatively unimportant in the sand-dune crest

samples, at least in the first two feet. The concentrations for the deeper samples

6,223 and 6,227 (Table Ii) indicate, however, that beyond the depth of penetra-

tion of the normal rains moderate salinity is likely and concentrations of »15--35%

should not be unusual. In the inter-dune corridors, soltible salts are low in the

surface horizons, but may be very high in the subsoil. 6,234 is an extreme case

where the conditions are apparently more favourable to saltbtish than Triodia,.

which is replaced entirely. Prescott and Skewes (Joc, cil.) found saltbush soils

of the north-east and northern pastoral areas of South Australia more saline than

the Trtodia. soils, although the latter can be more saline (¢.g., 6,227) than they

expected,

The moderate salinity of 6,223 supports the arguments made earlier that

this. sample is a mixture of accretion and avalanched material. 6,227, a dip slope

snes is entirely of accretion sand. Water tends to percolate along the accretion

yets.

Soil reaction was determined with the normal glass electrode method. The

gidgee-salthush hollows are the most alkaline, increasing from pH 7-7 in the

surface foot to pH 8'8 at 32 inches. The sands generally, other than this profile,

are acid to neutral, The lowest value obtained was pH 6:4, and the Simpson

Desert sands do not appatently reach the very low values recorded for the Gibson

Desert sands (17), which may mean that the former have not previously been

through such extreme leaching (laterisation}. There is normally a slight increase

in pH with depth.

Nitrogen values are as expected, extremely low, and conform with those

recorded for arid aeolian deposits elsewhere in Australia, The ridge crest samplés

are lower in total mitrogen than the corridor samples.

Phosphates (as P,O,) are also very low, varying between "008 and -021% in

the samples analysed. The figures for 6,232, 6,233 and 6,234 of the gidgee-

saltbush profile indicate that P,O, content alone is not a sufficiently reliable index

246

of fertility for the generalisations made by Prescott and Skewes (loc. cit.). Tt

is seen by reference to Tables If and III above that there is no significant

difference in the P,O, figures for saltbush (Afriples vesicarium) as against

porcupine grass (Triodia Basedowit) in these samples. The high alkalinity

(pH 7-7-8°8), and the quantity of free calcium carbonate (23°9% at 32-46 inches)

of the subsoil of this profile may, in conjunction with the P.O, level, be of more

importance.

TABLE IV

Analytical Data on a Simpson Desert Sandplain Profile and a Profile from a

Gypseous Hollow near Lake Eyre

Sample number a ut -- §.199) 5.2009 5.201) 5236 5,237

nd —————

Location .. = nb as .. sandplain, Simpson Desert near confluence of War-

burton, Macumba R.

Vegetation e4 i ve af Triodia and Eucalyptus Nitraria Schaberi,

pachyphylla Salsala kali, Bassia, etc.

Depth (inches) ., mw re we 0-4 4-16 16-30 0-6 6-20

Mechanical analysis— % a % % %

Coarse sand -. et Pa pe A 25-0 23°6 1146 23-1

Fine sand... ns Pw 52-2 64-0 64-2 47-3 57 +3

Silt .. ia Re 44 4 0-6 a45 1-0 Orb 0-6

Clay .. os °4 44 st 41 O64 ez 18-1 Y+2

Loss on acid treatment -. f 0-2 0-2 0-2 17-7 a7

Moisture w Pan P) Pw 0-4 0-9 1-0 60 2'6

Chemical data—

Total soluble salts .. Jy + tr. tr, Ot “77 “845

Sodium chloride ., a nie tr. tr. nil “003 ‘016

Nitrogen at he APs ae 023 “024 — -007 —

Phosphate (PsOc) .. os 1 “O15 “016. _— — —

Reaction (pH) rv. ale ane 7-0 6-6 6-5 8-1 8-0

2. Brown Sols AssociATED WITH SuRrAcE. GIBBERS

As mentioned earlier, brown soils associated with surface gibbers are very

extensive about the sand desert margins, and there is little doubt that they are

more or less continuous beneath the desert sands. The sand is entirely superficial,

Evidence for this is the frequent occurrence of gibber flats between the sandridge

on both the eastern and western sides of the Desert, and the limited occurrence

of gibbers in the corridors near Camp f1. Colson also reports that in crossing

the Desert along the 26th parallel in 1936, stony corridors were frequent during

the western two-thirds of the journey. Very strong evidence of a greater extent

of these soils in the past is also presented by the distribution of the spectacular

tree, waddy, or, as it is sometimes locally called, “Casuarina” (Acacia peuce).

This tree occurs on gibber downs in two very restricted localities: (1) near

Birdsville, (2) near Andado bore No. 1, and in each case there are only a hundred

or two trees. The two localities are now separated by more than two hundred

miles of sand.

In origin the soils are secondary, having been derived from the break-up

atid erosion of the Phocene peneplain. The gibbers are in part remnants of the

B horizons of the laterite or lateritic profile developed over this plain (Whitchouse

1940), that is, they are in part a fossil horizon. It is unlikely, however, that

all the gibbers have had this origin, as duricrust gibbers with their “patina” and

high polish are very characteristic of desert regions generally.

@) Taken from J. A. Prescott and H, R, Skewes. ‘Trans, Roy Soc. S. Aust, 62,

(2), 1938.

247

The gibbers, which reach their maximum dimensions in Sturt’s Stony Desert.

(Blake loc. cit.), are very variable in size.

The sails of this group need more thorough investigation before their varia-

tion will be fully understood. No sampling of them was done on the 1939

expedition. Crabholes are of frequent occurrence, especially about Birdsville

and on the south and west sides of the Desert, and where they occur the gibber

shelf is almost devoid of vegetation. In places, over very large areas, the soils

are crabhole-free, but every gradation occurs between the two extremes. The

sampling of these soils, carried out by various workers earlier, was for the most

part in connection with studies on crabholes (normally gibber-frec) to the south

and west of the Desert.

The soils are all heavy with clay loam and clay surfaces, or very rarely a

lighter surface (¢.g., loam or sandy loam), which rapidly becomes heavier, There

is usually slight lime in the subsoil, and gypsum is frequent in the BZ horizon.

It has already been shown in studies on soils derived from outliers of the

Arcoona Tableland in South Auistralia (6) that the gibber shelf soils are highly

saline, while the greater Jeaching in the nearby crabholes has washed down the

soluble salts to greater depths. This is no doubt the case wherever the crabholes

oceut, and is demonstrated by a wide collection of profiles taken by J. K,

Taylor) in 1938, the soluble salts and pH of two of which are given below

(Table V), together with samples collected by the author at Mutooroo (South

Australia) in 1939. In this latter case the shelf gibbers are milky quartz.

TABLE V

Soil number, » 5602 5,603 5,604 5,605 5,606 5,607 5,608 5,609 5,610

An aS Creat S.

Location ve ~s 12 miles west of Stony Plain, 3 chain from 5,602

Coward Springs, crabhole

Depth (inches) v G4 4-10. 10-83) 33-42 O9 8-15 15-24 24-33 34-42

Total soluble salta (9%) +044 +049 +075 26108 3-468 3-455 3-283 3+308 3-394

Chloride (as % CL)... 1003 -005 = -021 “315 b-44006-1'S)) 14059613

pH cs 1» 87 8-0 8:0 82 76 $0 680 80 @1

Seil number -- ba 6,240 6,241 6,242 ~— 6,243 6,244 6,245

—————————————— a ey

Location it oe North Plain Paddock, Quartz gibber shelf,

Muitooroo, crabhole 2 chain from 6,240

Depth (inches) ce +7 7-23 23-36 O1% 13-24 24-36

Total soluble salts (9%) -059 “O85 1-85 +422 2-00 2-46

Chloride (as % Cl.) .- — -0f8 -265 “184 93 -69

pH a0 zr ae 8-6 79 8-2 8:0 83 &=1

It has been suggested hy Crocker and Skewes (6) that the high soluble salt

content of gibber shelf soils, together with the very great edaphic aridity of which

it is indicative, is the cause of the scarcity and even complete absence of vegetation

on these soils, The soluble salts are principally sodium chloride, sodium sulphate,

and calcium sulphate. There is no doubt that except in local depressions large

areas of gibber soils are never wet beyotid two or three inches, otherwise there

would be much more evidence of downward leaching of the salts. J. K. Taylor‘

considers that the mechanical action of raindrops on an already wet surface may

(°) The author is grateful to Mr. Taylor for making the data on these samples

available.

(“) Personal communication.

248

materially disperse the sodium saturated clay of the surface layer, to form an

almost impervious soil surface. This may well be the reason for lack of penetra-

tion, and the fact that gibber profiles with a lighter textured surface have a much

lower soluble salt content supports this suggestion, as, for example, that collected

on the 1937 expedition, 100 miles north-west of Oodnadatta: 0-2’ *01%,

2-10” -01%, 10-46” -01% (17).

Although the very saline gibbcr soils are more or less impervious ta water,

the crabholes, which collect considerable quantities during rains in run-off, and

some other areas (most likely with a lighter textured surface) are less saline.

Soil salinity is probably the most important index of fertility in these soils,

because in addition to the question of toxicity of high salt concentration it is a

measute of the water relationships. However, single walt factors for the

assessment of fertility are very dangerous, . It is suggested that the following

soil-vegetation relationships for the stony deserts be tentatively accepted.

Surface 12 inches Vegetation

(1) High salinity .- 4G No vegetation or occasional samphires and Basstas.

Ephemerals on smati sand shadows.

(2) Moderate salinity Saltbush, grasses and yarious Fassia spp.

(eg., edge of crabhole)

(3) Low salinity .. we Saltbush, bluekush, wealth of grasses (especially

Eragrostis, and in northern parts Asirebla and

ephemerais,

‘s Acacia spp., Eremophila spp.

Soil reaction is markedly alkaline in the stony desert soils, usually with

surface pH values between 7°5S and 8°7, and subsoil values of the same order.

There are, however, one ot two anomalous soils in the samples collected by Taylor

with subsoil pH values as low as 6°4,

3. Sorts or tHe Fioop Pains

These soils, as is readily understandable, are very variable. They are chiefly

grey or brown in colour, and are normally medium to heayy textured. This is

the “channel country” of Blake and others. Prescott has grouped them as “grey

and brown soils of heavy texture” in his new soil map,

Analytical data on a typical sample from Goyder’s Lagoon, a flood plain of

the Diamentina River, is given below.

Sample humber .. .- 6,221 Mechanical analysis— %

Depth (inches) .. .. 0-12 Loss on acid treatment 16

Description -. .. 5. grey clay Moisture .. 1... OG

Vegetation ., .. .. lignum,ete. Chemical data—

Mechanical analysis— Ty Total soluble salts .. 03

Coarse sand hs 0am 23 Nitrogen 1. 4. .. “05

Fine sand .. .. .. 35°5 Phosphate (PsO;) .. 07

Silt a ae oe 4-0 Reaction (pH) .. .. 8-1

Chay tot 42m 50-9

VY. THE VEGETATION

The vegetation of that portion of the Simpson Desert in Queensland has

already been described by Blake, Joc, cié., but in his studies on this Desert fringe

it was not possible for him to see in perspective the desert as a whole.

249

In the desert proper, although the sandhill communities are varied, they

retain on sandridge crest and inter-ridge corridor a remarkable consistency. This

is to be found across the whole region. The relative abundance of species varies

a great deal, but the most important ones are the same practically throughout.

Some prominent species present on the eastern side, like Crotalaria Cunning-

hamii (parrot bush), occur only sparingly or are apparently absent in the west,

and vice versa, but stich species are relatively few.

The principal communities have been divided into associations and grouped

ag edaphic complexes, and are summarised in Table VI as below. The distribu-

tion of the edaphic complexes is shown on the generalised map, which has been

compiled from information from all available sources including original survey

diagrams of the Lands Department, Adelaide, and in Queensland that published

by Blake (4). The base map is after that of Madigan (13) but has been simpli-

fied, only the actual Desert camp sites being. shown. His original map should

be consulted for greater detail.

Taste VI

Vegetation Associations

Association Hubitet Edaphie Complex.

1. Spinifer poradorus OY Unstable sandridge crest

2. Triodia Basedouti Inter-ridge corridors and

Tower slopes

3. Nifraria Schohert Inter-ridge areas near

Lake Eyre Triadia Basedowii—

4. Triodia Basedouni~Grevillea Sandplain Spinifex poradorus

juncifaliq— Eucalyptus

pachyphylla

5. Acacia Cambugei—Altripler Restricted inter-ridge

vesicarium areas

6 Acacia peuce-—Bassia spp. Gibber downs Astrebie pectinata—

7. Astrebla pectinata—Bassia spp. Gibber downs Airiblex vesicarium=

8. Atriplex vesicariun—-Bassia spp. Gibber downs Bassia spp.

9. Eucalyptus coolabsh Fringing channels and

finodplains oo

10. Atriplex nummuloriun Floodpdains pet ius i

11. Chennpodium auricomum Floodplain swamps PAPER “tor

12, Muchlenbeckia Cunningham Floodplains and swamps

1. TrroprA BASEDOWU ~ SPINIFEX PARADOXUS EDAPHIC COMPLEX

(1) Spinifex paradox‘us association {see pl. xxviii, fig. 2, and pl. xliii, fig. 13)

Throughout the Desert the sandrige crests, except in the case of very low

sandrises, are unstable and practically devoid of vegetation. The most important

and consistent perennial is Spinifex paradoxus (cane-grass), a moderately good

sand-binder, which usually grows to about four feet high and has rigid much-

branched stems (pl. xxxvili, fig. 2).

A few other perennial or semi-perenhial species which occur are Pijlotus

latifolius and Sida corrugata var. peduncylata, In places, particularly on sand-

©) The bulk of the systematic work on the Simpson Desert material was done Ly

Miss €. M. Eardley, who is presenting the results in separate papers. She arranged and

supervised the whole of the identifications. Only one family, the Chenopodiaceae, was

done by the author.

) Now Zygochlou paraduxa (R. Br.) S. T, Blake.

250

ridge crests in the western portion of the Desert, the creeping herbaceous binders

Trinmfetta Winneckcuna and Tribulus hystrix ave found. Crotalaria Cunning-

hamii (parrot bush) and C. dissitiflera, although most prominent on sandridge

slopes just below the unstable crests, nevertheless are frequently conspicuous on

the crests themselves; the former was only observed from the region of the Hay

River and east thereof, and the latter, which occurs across the whole Desert, is

much more hoary and pubescent in the eastern than western parts. In the latter

it is almost glabrous. The most important annual plants are the chenopod,

Salsola Kali (buck-hush or roly-poly), two grasses Plagiosefum refractum

(“drooping oat grass”) and Eriachne aristidea, and Trichodesma zeylanica

(water bush). All four species grow very rapidly after rain and are drought

escaping rather than drought reststant. Salsele Kali, after dying off, remaits as

at important sand-binder for some time, and on sandridges adjacent to the eastern

side of Lake Eyre individual plants five feet high and nine feet in diameter

were common,

Blennodia pierosperma and Goodenia cycloptera are particularly prominent

atter rains on the lower horizons of the unstable crest mear the stable slope—

unstable crest interzone. The former is very colourful and good camel fodder

while it lasts, but dies off and disappeats very rapidly.

(2) Triodia Basedowii association (pl. xxxviii, fig, }; pl, xxxix, fig. 4; pl. xd.

fig. 6)

Triodia Basedowni (commonly called “spinifex" or porcupine grass) is the

iiost important species of the whole desert, occurring as it does in all the sandy

inter-ridge areas, on the lower ridge slopes and on the northern sandplain. The

individual plants are very much branched, and the leaves spiny. Spreading out

from the centre, it grows as dense tussocks, which apart irom the flowering

panicles supported on a slender stem, are rarely more than two and a half feet

high, but varying greatly in diameter and often dying in the centre. tn the

hollows the individual plants are sometimes so close together that camels dislike

walking amongst them; usually, however, they are more widely spaced. The

species flowers relatively quickly after rains. sending up slender stalks terniinat-

ing in the spikelet panicles and very much resembling a field of wheat (fig. 6).

It. is a drought resistant plant.

Throughout the Desert a great number of other species occur associated with

the “spinifex,” but their incidence is very spasmodic and they only rarely add

anything to the physiognomy of the association as a whole, For cotyenience

(see Table VI), the spinifex communities have been divided into two: {1) those

of the inter-ridge corridors and lower slopes, and (2) those of the northern

sandplain, The general similarities of the two edaphic habitats have already

heen referred to. The division into two associations is an arbitrary one, and a

large number of species of the sandplain (¢.g., the Grevilleas) are often con-

spicuots in the inter-ridge corridors and on lower ridge slopes. Although

“spinifex" is present in both the hollows and on the slopes, the relative abundance

of associated species im these two situations varies a good deal—one grades, of

course, gradually into the other.

In the sandy hollows very few plants other than Triodia Basedowi are found.

Occasionally there are shtttbs or small trees, ¢.g. (see pl. xxxix, fig. 4; pl. xl, fig. 6),

clumps of needlework (I1akea lewcoptera), scattered Grevilleas (Grevillea stenc-

batrya, G, juncifolia) or Eremophilas (E. longifolia, E, Latrober), and sometines

growing under the shelter of these larger shrubs or small trees are Khagodia

spinescens and Enchylacna tomentosa. Two small shrubs of the Euphorbiaceae,

Euphoria Wheeleri and Adriona Hookeri are often prominent, while Euphorbia

Drummondii and E. eremophila were recorded. Trichiniunt alopecuroideum was

common in corridors near the western edge of the desert but rapidly disappeared

going east. The composites Heitchrysum rosexm var. Davenport and Helipierwm

moschatum may be locally conspicuous after rain, but they are very short-lived, as

also are the grasses, Eragrostis eriopoda, Aristida Myelleri, A_arenaria, Eragrostts

Diels, Enneapogon cylindricus and Enneapogon asperatus (the latter three only

prominent during the expedition east of Lake Eyre), Practically the only other

plants of the hollows worth mention here are Scacvola depawperata, Thryptomene

Maisontcuni and Portulaca intraterrenca (munyeroo," an excellent camel

fodder}.

The sandridge slopes, that i$ the regions between the hollows proper and the

unstable crests, are fixed by T. Basedowii. A much larger number of associated

species (rarely abundant enough to give a particular facies to the community)

oceurs here than in the hollows jalthough all the perennials present there are also

found in varying degree on the slopes. The most prominent woody shrubs or

small trees to occur are Crevillea stenobolrya and G. juncifolia (especially in the

easterly portion of the Desert), GC. striata (?) (rare, only seen in the western

part), Atalay hemiglauca (whitewood), Hakea leucoptera (needlebush),

Eremophila Strehlouni, E, Macdonnellii var, glabriuscula, FE, Macdonnellit (this

species recorded in western side of Desert only), E. Willsii, E. strongylophylla,

Dodonuea viscosa (occurs sparingly across the whole désert), Acecia ligulatu

(“sandhill wattle’), A. dictyophleba, A. patens, A, Murrayana and Cassia

plewrocarpa (sandhill cassia), Acacia Wattsiana (?) and Owenia acidula (emi

apple) were recorded only along the eastern edge of the desert (i.¢., east of the

Queensland border). Other plants occurring on the slopes are Sidu corrwgala,

S. wirgata, Hibiscus Krichauffianus, Amarantys grandiflorus, Scaevela avalifolia,

S, depoyperata, Leschenaultia divaricata, Crotalaria novac-hollandiae, Goodenta

cycloptera, Trichedesma zeylanica, Myriocephalus Stuartit, Newcastha cephalantha,

Catotis ertnacea and Euphorbia Wheelert and the grass Eriachne aristidea.

Acacia brachyphylla was common on some of the low dunes and dune slopes

at the western side of the Desert.

Present to varying degrees but more or Jess confined to upper slopes in the

interzone between the stabilized slope and unstable crest, are Sida corrugala var.

pedunculata, Sida virgata, Ptilotus Jatifolius, Tricktntwm obowtum var. grandi-

florwm, Blennadia pterosperma, Crotalaria dissitiflora, C. Cunninghamis (parcot

lush), Panicum reversum (Paractaenum novag-hollandiae) and some species very

common on the crests, like Salsola Kali (buck bush) and Plagiosetum refractum

{drooping oat grass).

A large number of species has been collected Erem sandhill and sandridge

slopes about the Desert fringe that do not apparently occur throughout the Desert

as a whole. More extensive work, however, may reveal the presence of some in

the Desert. The most important af these ot. the western side were Abutilen

otocurpum, Sida inclusa, Trianthema pilosa, Heliotropium tenutfotiim yar, parvi-

florum, Polanisia viscosa, Bassia bicernis, and the grasses Erayrastis laniflora,

E. Dielsit, Aristida Browniana and Ichnanthus australiensis, On the eastern and

south-eastern side of the Desert, adjacent to the channel country, gihber plain

or dissected tableland, are found Zygophyllum humillinum, Lepidivm rotundum,

Babbagia acroptera (lower slopes only), Bassia uniflora (very cuntmon in places

at edge of sandhills along the Diamentina), Péilotws murrayi yar. major,

Acucia sp. (probably A. colletioides), Trianthema decandra, Atriplex velulinellum,

A, spongiosum, Swainsona rigid, Psoralea eriantha, Plantago veria, and the

grasses Eragroslis Basedowiti, E, Dielsii, E. eriopoda (on sandy slope near Hay

River) and Seteria Brownli. A single specimen of Codonacarpus cotinifolius

252

was seen on a sandslope adjacent to the Hay River floodplain. ‘These fringe

desert species, although important focally, are not typical of the Desert proper.

Many of them are making the most of a temporarily favourable sand slope habitat

and have little chance of gaining a foothold in the Desert itself, as they are

species of the floodplains or gibher tableland (e.g., Plantago. varia, Eragrostis

Dielsii, A, velutinelium and Bassia bicornis.

Although Triodia Basedowii is the most important species throughout the

hollows and sandy slopes, and the other species present occur too sporadically to

influence the general appearance of the association, there is a considerable area

west of the Hay River where the sandridges are much lower (frequently less

than 30 fect) and the relative abundance of the species quite different. Here

many species which occur only sparingly in other parts are more abundant, and

the elsewhere prominent T, Basedowit is much less conspicuous (p). xxxix, fig, 5),

The crests of these tises are not unstable as with the higher ones, but fixed chiefly

by species which throughout the remainder of the Desert occur sparingly on the

upper slope-ridge crest transition zone, together with plants of the unstable crests

proper. The most prominent species are Cassia plewrocarpa, Eremophila Sirei-

lowtt, Evemophila sp., Spinifex paradorus, Acacia Murrayana, Grevillea steno-

botrya, Calotis erinacea (“sand hill daisy”), Leschenaultia divaricate, Adriana

Hookeri, Euphorbia Drummondii, Ptilotus latifolius, Crotalaria dissitifiora, Sida

virgata, S. corrugata, Trichodesma zeylanica, Plagiosetum refractum, Triodia

Basedowti, Eriachne aristidea, Eragrostis sp. Less frequent are Acacia ligulata,

Grevillea juncifolia, Dodonaea viscosa and Salsola Kali. The short-lived Portue

jaca intraterranea (“munyeroo’) was common in this areca.

(3) Nitreria Schober association

In the sandhills about Lake Eyre where the soil is gypseous and tnore saline,

vegetation is very scarce. Yriodia Basedowit (spinifex) does not occur, and in

its stead in both inter-ridge areas and on lowet slopes Nitraria Schoberi (dillon

bush, nitre bush) is found. Other shrubs and small trees are practically absent

except for occasional clumps of low needlebush, Hakea loucoptera,

On the sandridge crests in this region Spinifex paredoxus (cane-grass)

occurs very sparingly, and the most conspicuous feature at the time of the expedi-

tion was the large bushes of Salsola Kali. Annuals and cphemerals prominent

after rains include Crotalaria dissitiflora, Trichodesma seylanica, Myriocephalus

Stuart, Blennodia pterasperma, and Goodenia cyclaptera. On the lower slopes

Sida virgata is often prominent. Swatnsona stipularis grows in profusion on

the slopes and in the gypseous hollows shortly after rains,

(4) Triodia Besedowii — Grewillea juncifolia —Eucatyptus pachyphylla association

(pl. xlii, ig. 12)

At the northern edge of the Desert, as described previously, the sandridges

give way to a featureless sandplain—particularly south of the Jervois aad Tarlton

Ranges. The principal species on this sandplain ate Triodia Basedowii (spinifex)

and a few scattered stunted trees and large shrubs, of which two siallees

Eucalyptus pachyphylla and Eucalyptus sp, (probably E, orymitra) and Grevillee

junctfolia are most important.

On the 1937 expedition a journey was made about eight miles south from

the junction of the Arthur and the Thring Rivers to take a soil sample on the

sandplain, At that time a fairly severe “dry spell” was in progress, and annuals

and ephemeérals were non-existent,

As discussed Previously this community is very closely linked, edaphically

and floristically, to the Triodia Basedowii association of the imter-ridge corridors.

254

(5) Acacia Cambagei - Atripler vesicariwm association.

Acavia Cambagei (gidgee or stinking wattle) 1s to be found in a few hollows

in the Sinipson Desert, but is very tare west of the Queensland horder. Last

af that longitude it is much more frequent, and reaches its greatest importance

(at the latitude of our crossing’) twelve to eighteen miles west of the Mulligan

River at Old Kaliduwarry Station. Here it is assnciated with Atriplex vesi-

carium as an under-shrub (see pl, xl, fig. 7: pl. xli, ig. 8), The soil has a red fine

sand surface horizon of about twelve inches, increasing in texture fo a sandy clay

with abundant amounts of {ree soft calcium carbonate at three to [our feet (see

Table III). The subsoil contains moderate quantities of sodium chloride

(°25-"34% as Cl).

Associated with the saltbush are a number of other chenopods, principal of

which are Kochia lanosa, Enchylaena tomentosa, Bassia uniflora, B. paradoxa,

B, bicornis and B. intricata, The principal grasses are Arishda sp., Eragrost;s

Dielsti and Enneapogon sp.

At the edges of the hollows and lower slopes, the saltbush is replaced by

Triodia Basedowii and other common species of the sand slopes like Acacia

Murrayana, Grevillea juncifolia, Trchodesme seylanica, Cassia pleurocarpa and

Crotalaria, etc.

2. ASTRERLA PECTENATA —ATRIPLEX VESICARIUM — BASSIA spp,

EDAPHIC COMPLEX

The associations in this edaphic complex are very variable. They are the

associations of the gibber flats, the stony downs, and the lower stony rises, The

edaphic factors influencing the principal variations are not fully known, and 2

more thorough mvestigation will have to be made to elucidate them. However,

microclimate, determined through topography, as has already been shown by

Andrewartha (1), is no doubt very important. Soil salinity is also a most

important factor and has a large influence on the distribution of mitchell grass,

samphire and the chenopods generally. In the crabhole country much of the

gibber shelf is too saline and too arid to support vegetation at all.

(1) North-east of Lake Eyre

‘The vegetation of the gravelly downs area in south-western Queensland has

already been very Eully dealt with by S. T. Blake (1938). Ile pointed out that

the dominant grass in that area is Astrebla pectinata (barley mitchell prass),

This grass, however, becomes less prominent southwards as one follows the downs

north-east and east of Lake Eyre. It occtits in only restricted habitats in South

Australia, where the principal gibher downs grasses are Hnneapogon polyphyllis,

FE. avenuceus, Sperabolus actinocladus, Isedema vaginiflorwm and Tripogon

loliifarmis,

Certain shrubs of the Chenopodiaceae are frequently locally important on

the gibber country, especially Kachia tomentosa, K, pyramidata, K. aphylla,

K. planifolia K. pentagona and Atriplex vesicarium, The species of Bassia and

arinual saltbushes may be very abundant in good seasons, ¢.g., Bussia divaricata,

BR, inivicata, B. lanicuspis, B. quinquecuspis var. glabra (?), B. patenticuspis,

B, Tatet, Alriplex spongiosum (pop saltbush), and less abundantly, A. halimotdes

and 4. dngulolum. Other annuals and ephemerals, common after rains, are

Salsola Kali, Blennodia filifolia, Helichrysum podolepidium, Helipterum flori-

bundum, H, pterochactum and Mimuria leptophylla. Other plants recorded

during the expedition included Seaevola spinescens, Sida intricata and Mal-

vastrum. sp,

On the low stony tidges larger shrubs and small trees occur spastodically.

Of these the most important are Acacia Cambagei, A. fetragonopitylla (dead

finish), Cassia desolata, C. Sturt yar, involucrata, Acacia Victorias (usualiy

254

confined to wetter parts), Acacia pence (very limited distribution), Hremophile

Duttonii and E, Freelingit. 3

In places there is little vegetation other than the burrs atid bindyis (Bassia

spp.), but this was very rare im July 1939,

Fremophila Latrobet occirs at the head of small storiy gullies, as already

recorded by Blake (loc, cit.).. In these stnall creeklets off the stony rises a wide

and interesting variety of plants occurs. Of those recorded, the most itaportant

trees and shrubs are Acucia aneura (mulga), A. Cambayet (gidgee), Santaliie

lanceolatum. var. angustifolinm (sweet bush), Cassia cremophila, Grewilles

striata (becfwood), Acacia ligulata and [remephila maculata, Didiscus glauci-

folius, Zygophyllum fruticwlosuin and Pimelea trichostachya were frequent near

Mount Gason, Of the more ephemeral and herbaceous species the following are

noteworthy as occurring im this habitat; Nicotiana Goodspeedii, Trichinium

obovatum var. grandiflorum, LTelichrysum semifertile, Helipterum floribundusm,

H. pterochaetum, Alriplex spongiosum, Trichadesina geylanicu, Chloris pectinata,

Iscilema vayinifloriwm, Goodenia subintegra and Lotus australis var. parviflorus.

In small sandy pockets or shallow accumulations of sand on the gibber downs,

anntials, most of which are normally associated with sandridges, oceur, Of the

grasses, Eriachne aristidea, and less abundantly Plagioscluim refractume, asso

ciated with Aristida Browniana, A. arenaria and Iscilema vaginiflorum are to be

found. Probably the most important ephemals are Portulaca spp, (muryeroo),

Helipternm moschalum and Geodenia cycloptera,

In places erabholes occur; these are both a wetter and less saline habitat than

the surrounding gibber downs and support abundant vegetation,

Marsilia (nardoo) occurs tn many local wetter situations.

(2) North-west of Lake Eyre

Only limited opportunity was. afforded of studying and collecting on the

gibber dowus on the south and western side of the desert. Collecting was limited

to the imtnediate neighbourhood of Abminga and Charlotte Waters, and an area

near Andado Bore Na, 2.

It is: interesting to sce many plants conwmon on the eastern downs present

herve also, Important species common to both areas include Atripler vesicarium.

(salibush), Kochia aphylla, K. plamfoho, Cassia desolata, Acacia Cambaget,

Acacia peyce (“waddy”), Bassa lanicusps, B. divaricutu, and the grasses

Evineapagon spp.. and Eragrostis leptacarpa.

Acacia peuce (“waddy”), occurring as it does im two such restricted and

widely separated localities, one on either side of the Desert (Andado Bore No, 2)

and noar Birdsville), has special significance. There ig little doubt these two

occurrences are remnants of what was probably previously a wide belt before

the aridity from which the sands accurnulated and piled up over the gibber

dowtis between.

Pachycornia tenuis (samphire), which ts quite common on the gibber downs

about Atmitiga, was not recorded between Goyder's Lagoon and Cowarie Stauon.

lts presence indicates very high soil salinity.

3 WucaLypros cooLABAH — ATRIPLEX NUMMULARIUM EDAPHIC COMPLEX

(Pl. xxxvili, fig. 2; pl. xi, fig. 9)

This complex ineludes all the associations fringing river channels and floor»

plains, For simplicity these are divided into four associations :—

Eucalyptus caolabah association

triples nunonularnen association;

Chenopoadtim anriconimm association ;

Muchlenbeckia Cunninghamit association

255

Eucalypius coolabah fringes the channels and occurs ou the floodplains of

all the rivers which flood into, ot border, the Simpson Desert—the Finke, Hale,

Todd, Hay, Georgina, Diamentina, Warburton and Kalikoopah Rivers, Coolabah

was also noted between some sandhills east of the Hale, where it no doubt repre-

sented the extreme flood limits of some ecrcek from the Harts Ranges.

Beyond the fringing forest, associalions dominated by .déripleer muenuyn-

larium (old man ¢altbush) are common, Local swamp communities of

Eragrostis australasica (cane-grass), Muehlenbeckia Cunninghamit (\ignum), or,

associated with the north-eastern rivers, Chenopodium anricomunt, alsa oceur.

Bauhinia Carronit (bean-tree) and deacta salicine are fairly common along

the channels of the Georgina, and Eremophila bignomiflura and Acacia sabetnd

are found about waterholes jn hoth the Diamerttina and Warburton Rivers, Local

fringing communities domitated by paperbark titree (Melaleuca glomerala) grow

along the Finke and Eremophila Mucdonnellit, E, Macdonellii var. glabriiscula,

E. longifolia, Acacia sali¢ina and A, estrophialata oecur on the floodplain of the

Hale. Todd and Finke Rivers,

Other species of particular prominence along floodplains, and about channels

and waterholes of the Diamentina, Georgina, Warburton, Finke, Hale and Hay

Rivers, inchide Psoralea patens (“verbine”), P. cinerea, Scaevola ovalifolia,

Alternanthera nodiflora, Rkagadia pavrabalica, Gnephosis eriocarpa, Tewertum

racemosum, Halorrhagis hetcraphylla, Lavatera plebeja and Morgania glabra, In

addition a large number of other species, principally ephemerals, were collected

and will be listed elsewhere,

In the Finke and Male doodplains a large nutnber of grasses were collected.

There include Panituet decompasitun, Aristida Muelleri, A, anthoxauthoides,

Eriochloa sp.. [seilema vaginiflorum, |, membranaceumt, Eulalia fulog, Dichan-

thivim humilins, Leptochlaa digitata, Chloris virgata, C. pectinata, Eragrostis con-

fertiflora, BE, Dielsii, B. japonica, Triraphis mollis, Enneapegow polyphvllus,

Brachiaria praetervisa, Sctaria oplismenoides, and Eriachne ovata var. pallida,

The following species were recorded in a sandy inter-ridge watercourse near

Andadi homestead: Eragrostis Basedowti, Enneapogon polyphyllus, Aristida

Mueller’, dscilena anembranacenam. Panicum White’, Sida corrugata, Leptdinm

rolundam, Muehlenbeckia Cunninghamit, Pterigeron latrotdes, Dysphania

litoralis, Plantage varia, Boerhavia diffusa and Helipterien flavibundum.

As Weing typical ot a number of moderate-sized sandy creeks off the gibber

downs about Charlotte Waters and Abminga, the following species occur:

occasional Hyealyptus coolabah aud Acucia Cambages (gidges), together with

Cassia Slurhi, Aeacia brachystachya, Threlkeldia mechoata, Kochia coronata,

triples sporgivsiim, Bassia uniflora yar. inconyruens, Eriochloa sp., Panicum

decomposlum, Tseileme vagierflorum, Lidatia Filva, Daetyloctention vadulans,

Chloris virgata, C. pectinata, Lragrostis Basedowi, E. japonica, E. leptacarpa,

Ei, setifolia, Diplachue Muellert, Triraphis motlis, Cyperus Victariensis, C. dacty-

lates, Swainsona Olignphylla, Calogyne berardiana, Nicotiana tngulba, Lepidium

rotundum, Blennadia plerosperma, Guephasis eriocarpa, Heliplerin floribundum,

LH. pterachactum, UW, moschatum, Myriocephalus Stuartti, Senecio Gregorir,

Minuria inteyerrima, M. denticulata, Plerigeron latraides, PB. adseendens,

Neptunia monosperma, Zyyohhvllwm Howitt, Portulaca oleracea, Trianthema

decandra, «lmarantus grandiflorus, Trichintum exallatum, Euphorbia Drusm-

mondil, eve,

The vegetation of Seven Mile Creek, near Goyder's Lagoui Bore, can be

taken as typical of many of the larger creeks off the gibber tableland in that

regian, The principal (rees are Encalyfitus coolabah (box) and Grevilea striata

(heeEwood). together with occasional Acacia Victoriae, Eremophila sp. and

256

Sanialum lanceolatum. Amongst the associated species Bassia bieornis (goal-

head), Salsola Kali (buck bush), Goodenia subinlegra, Wahlenvergia quddrifida,

Calandrinia ptychosperma, Blennodia lasiocarpa, Menkeo sphaerocarpa, Minuria

sp.. the grasses Chloris pectinata, Chrysopogon sp., and in the more sandy parts,

Crofalarta dissitiflora, are most common.

Echinochloa Turneriana (cane-grass) grows along most of the numerous

small channels that intersect the flood plain of the Diamentina River at Goyder’s

Lagoon, Beyond the cane-grass, and liable to less frequent floodings, are lignum

(Muehklenbeckia Cunninghanut) and saltbush (Alriplex numwmularium) fats.

Much of the saltbush is now dead and only old sticks remain. The principal

#rasses apart from cane-grass are Hriochloa sp. and Agrostis avenacea, Other

species recorded were few and practically limited to areag adjacent to the small

channels, Craspedia chrysantha, Ixiolaena leptolepis and Senecio lantus were

particularly common, together with iripley limbalum (annual saltbush), Blen-

nodia eremigent, Lepidium rotundum, Alternanthera nadiflora, Lotus australis

var, parviflorus and Trigonella suavissima, Chenopodium auricomum (blue

bush) swamps are frequent adjacent to the southern edge of Goyder’s Lagoon,

The grasses, Eragrostis australastca (cane-grass) and Panicum decompositum,

are commonly found in these swamps,

4 Vucrrarion or Bore Drarns

The vegetation along bore drains at Mount Gason and Goyder’s Lagoon is

practically confined to a grass Diplachne Muelleri, together with Scirpus mari-

timus, Cyperus ldewigitus and C. gymncrauios,

VI. SOIL-VEGETATION RELATIONSHIPS

Soil factors, including the moisture regime, appear to be the most important

environmental factors governing the distribution of the vegetation in and about

the Simpson Desert,

The general similarity between the corridor and northern sand-plain soils

is paralleled by a very close relationship between the floristic composition of the

communities associated with each, On the gravelly downs the moisture relation-

ships (and consequent soluble salt status) appear te be particularly important in

the distribution of the associated communities,

The effect of soil fertility ig much mote difficult to assess than the other

envirohmental factors. It is quite possible that much of the sand has not been

transported far by wind, and that local variations in mineralogy of the sands,

dependant upon fluctuations or differences in supply and composition of parent

material, is reflected in their fertility. Unfortunately, chemical methods of assess-

ing soil fertility are very restricted in both range and application. The use of

single yalue factors, as has been shown earlier for the phosphate (P..O,) status,

as a fertility index, is extremely dangerous,

But in any case on a survey of this type, catried out on only two short visits

to the region, only broad generalisations on the soil-vegetation relationships can

be made. The associations fall yery neatly, however, into edaphic complexes,

and can be conveniently mapped as such,

No meftion has been made in the text of the Cosuorina decaisneana (desert

oak)—Triodia Basedouri association that occurs on an undulating sandy off-

shoot of the Desert south and east of the Finke River, west of Rumbulara and

Alice Well; or of the Astrebla spp. (mitchell grass) and Acacia Cambagei

(gidgee) downs north of the Desert sandplain. The former is a varjant within

the Triodia Basedowii—Spinifex paradoxus edaphic complex, and the latter has

mauy alhnities with Blake's “Ashy Downs association.”

257

The distribution of certain species on one side of the Desert and apparent

absence on the other, ¢.9., Crotelaria Cunninghamii on the eastern side, probably

indicates their spread from a surviving centre,

VII. SUMMARY

The general ecology and climate of the Simpson Desert and its margins has

been briefly reviewed and the soils described, The soils fall into three main

groups; (1) aeolian sands; (2) brown soils associated with stitface gibbers; and

(3) alluvial soils associated with floodplains of the principal rivers and water-

courses,

Some analytical data on the soil types has been presented, and in the case of

the Desert sands a series of sicvings carried out. Unfortunately, the number of

samples taken on the expedition were limited.

The most important feature of the brown gibber soils is their high salinity,

which varies considerably with micro-climate.

The Desert sands are predominantly quartz and near the extreme limit of

fineness for aeolian sands (°0& mm. diameter).

The peak diameters of the sands are coarser on the ridge crests than in the

inter-ridge corridors, and the reverse therefore of the relationship found for the

Libyan Desert sands and postulated as general. It is suggested that the extreme

fineness of the Simpson Desert sands is responsible for this reversal,

The extreme fineness of the sands suggests that they consist of previously

abraded material, probably having passed through several cycles of erasion, and

the arenaceous Eyrian series were probably the principal source of supply. The

limited presence of minerals of a predominantly metamorphic and granitic suite

(Carrol) show that contributions from other sources have also been made.

There is a conspicuous absence of the silt {*02--002 mm. diameter) fraction

in the sands. This has no doubt been removed as Ioess, and deposited further

afield—chiefly to the north and east.

The sand gradings are variable and many of them have the characteristics

of mixed sands. The surface half inch from the northern sandplain is a special

mixed sand with two peak diameters, one approximately ten times as great as

the other-

Tt is suggested that the reason for the development of a sandsheet in the

north, and the typical sandridge system in the south, may rest in a difference in

grading of the parent sand, which it is supposed contained more coarse sand m

the former.

The principal vegetation conmunities ate described under twelve associa-

tions. These have been grouped for convenience of demonstrating the major

habitat linkages, and for ease of mapping into edaphic complexes.

The chief communities on the Desert sands are dominated either by Triadia

Basedowti or Spinifex paradoxus.

One of the most interesting vegetation assemblages is an association of the

gibber downs dominated by Acacia peuce (waddy). This occurs as two small

relict areas on either side of the Desert now separated by more than 200 miles

of superficial sand.

A tentative vegetation map af the area, drawh from all the information

available, is presented. The base map used was that of Dr. C, T, Madigan,

Vill. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Some of the analytical work on the soils was carried out by laboratory

assistants under the direction of Dr. C. S. Piper, and in which H, R. Skewes also

assisted, I am especially grateful to Dr. C. T. Madigan for the opportunity of

258

accompanying him on both the 1937 and 1939 expeditions, and the many pleasant

and interesting associations and experiences resulting therefrom. I have un-

consciously absorbed from these associations a large number of ideas and much

stimulating philosophy.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

(19)

REFERENCES CITED

AnprewartHa, H.G. 1940 Trans, Roy. Soc. of S. Aust., 64, (1)

Bacnotp, R. A. 1935 Geog. Jour., 85, (4)

BAGNOoLD, R, A. 1941 Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes

Brake, S. T. 1938 Univ, of Qld., Papers, 1, (8)

Carrot, D. 1944 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68, (1)

Crocker, R. L,, and Skewes, H. R. 1941 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,

65, (1)

Crocker, R,. L, 1941 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 65, (1)

Davipson, J. 1936 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 60,

Gautier, E, F, 1935 Sahara, the Great Desert (trans. by Dorothy

Mayhew)

Manican, C. T. 1936 Georg Review, 26, (2)

Manican, C. T. 1938 Jour. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 71,

Maniean, C. T, 1938 Aust. Jour, Sci., 1

Manican, C, T. 1945 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, (1)

MarsHa., T. J., and Hooprr, P. D. 1935 C.S.LR. Bulletin 86

Prescott, J. A. 1942 Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, (1)

Prescott, J. A. 1944 C.S.LR, Aust. Bulletin 177

Prescott, J. A., and Skewes, H. R.. 1938 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,

62, (2)

SmitH, R. 1940 Jour. Aust. Inst. Ag. Sci., 6, (4)

Wuitenouse, F, W. 1940 Univ. of Qid. Papers, 11, (1)

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Ss Aust, Lodh Vol. 70, Plate NXNNVIIL

Tig. J

Triodia Buscduwit association in inter-ridge corridor near Camp 6. The deal grasses

ave Ereorosis and Arenaria spp. Photo, D. Marshall

“«

Spinifer faradvrius assueyition a) crest of Viv solvidee adjacent to food-plain of

Diameritinn River. The eruciter Hiwering se profusely as Silenitedin perosfernar

Eucalyptus covlabal fringing the Dirmentioa channers,

Phoiu, CT. Madigan

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XX XIX

Pig. +-—Spinifex paradoxrus, Salsola Kali and cacia Murrayana towards crest of a low dune.

The dead grasses are chiefly Plagiosetun refractum and Eriachne aristidea.

Vie. 4—Triadia Basedowti association in inter-ridge corrider, with dead -learia sp. about small

claypan, Serrated crests of “tear drop” sandridges in background. Camp 9.

Photo, D. Marshall

Pig. 5—Triodia Basedowil, Salsola Kali, Cassia pleurocarpa, Crotalaria ‘dissitiflova, oldriaua

Hookeri, Acacia Murrayana, vte., ov low sandhill west of the Hay River.

Photo, D. Marshall

Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust, 1946 Vol. 70, Plate NL

Vie. 6

Privdit Bascdewiti aud Gresilica stenobotrya on disie corridor west of the Hay River,

near Camp 14.

Mheopo, 1, Mirexhiall

Pig. 7

wleera Combagei an intervideo carmdae (tiwht) with Privdie Baseducit stabilising

(he slopes of a herve nostible ridve (left Tererrouid).

Photo. D. Marshall

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 1946 Vol, 70, Plate XLI

Fig.

Al. Cambagei-Atriplex vesicariim association in corridor between Camps 18 and 19.

Photo, D. Marshall

lig. 9

load plat of Tay River. /ficalyptus covlabuh with Scaedola ocalifolta as the most

prominent undershrub. Principal grasses .lrisiida and /ragroslis spp.

Photo, D. Marshall

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., M46 Vil. 70, Plate NLU

Fie, 10-—Shores of Lake Eyre North, Sulsela Nati Croty-oly ) at base at sandhill (force ratosd )

with Nitraria Schobert and Salsela Aoti the principal vegetation nenrer the lake.

Photo, C.D. Metebigars

Ki. Ll—slracta pence Cwaddy ) = Bassia spp, or eibher dowrs uorth of Birdsville.

Photo, D. Marshall

Fig. 12--Trimtia Baseduwit-Greeilea gticttolia- Kucdlypius pavlyphylla association or sand-

iain south of junction of Marshall avd Thring Rivers at north end of Simpson Desert.

Photo, C. T. Matigua

Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XLIII

. Fie. 13

Low sandridge near Camp 12. Spinifexr paradoxus association on ridge crest (fore-

ground) and Triodia Basedowti in corridor.

Photo, D, Marsltall

Fe _ . ee ee

Fig. 14

Sandridges flanking a flood-plain offshoot of the Mulligan River near old Annandale

Station, The trees skirting the flood plain are Acacia Cambagei.

Photo, D. Marshall

Fig. 15

Eucalyptus coolabah lining a small ereeklet off the gibber downs at Andado Bore No.2.

The ground flora is mainly grasses (Enncapogon spp. and Sporobolus actinocladus )

and bindyi (Bassia spp.).

Photo, D. Marshall

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946

SCALE —-EDAPHIC COMPLEXES =

10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 fod rans

el é

me MiSs = ERVO\? aa Triodia Basedowic- Spoinitex praradoxus.

nee NS Astrebla pectinata- Atriple ‘CA

ig ‘ WN Pp Fa oO we : X VESLCQLLUM Lr

HAR Eucalyplics coolabah-Alriplex nummularum.

VEGETATION

MACE we MAP OF

PALICE SPRI AN Laas Ae.

SXS!IMPSON DESERT

aN AND

ANDADQ |-#

BORE Nass

NORTHERN TERRITORY

* . oo ment fp fm = ff © afm be «mre @ —r:

SOUTH | AUSTRALIA \

\ \

al )

‘ &

iy .,

oP © eee 6 ae cee « eee

THE VEGETATION OF THE SOUTHERN FLINDERS RANGES, SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

By C. D. BOOMSMA

Summary

This paper contains an account of the vegetation of a portion of the Southern Flinders Ranges. The

area is the hinterland of the coast from Port Pirie to Port Augusta, extending inland for a distance of

approximately 20 miles. The area comprises about 650,000 acres, in the whole of which the

vegetation associations were mapped; in addition detailed mapping of vegetation types was carried

out in a smaller area of about 15,000 acres situated in the Hundreds of Darling and Howe.

259

THE VEGETATION OF THE SOUTHERN FLINDERS RANGES,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By C. D. Boomsma

[Read 8 August 1946]

This paper contains an account of the vegetation of a portion of the

Southern Flinders Ranges. The area is the hinterland of the coast trom Port

Pirie to Port Augusta, extending inland for a distance of approximately 20 miles.

The area comprises about 650,000 acres, in the whole of which the vegetation

associations were mapped; in addition detailed mapping of vegetation types was

carried out ina smaller area of about 15,000 acres situated in the Hundreds of

Darling and Howe.

PITYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

This larger area contains five topographic regions, and the smaller area con-

tains three of these regions, viz., a coastal spur of the Flinders Range with the

associated foothills and hillocks in the cast. Numerous high peaks are present,

but the absence of lakes and swamps is noteworthy in an area which recerves up

to 30% annual rainfall. The topographic regions are:—1, Coastal Plain; 2, Coasial

Spur of the Flinders Ranges; 3, Eastern Foothills; 4, Eastern Hillocks ; 5, Eastern

Plain.

Coasrat, PLAIN

The plain yaries in width from onc half mile to six miles, being widest near

Baroota and narrowest near Yatala Harbour. It eceurs along the full length

of the coast from Port Pirie to Port Augusta and is bounded in the cast by the

coastal spur of the Flinders Range. Because of the gradual slope to the west

drainage is generally impeded, as indicated by restricted communities of man-

groves at Port Pirie and salt tolerant herbs in the northern portion of the coastal

plain. Nevertheless, numerous crecks and smaller watercourses have their out-

Jets to the sea.

Coasray Spur ov THE PLInpERS RANGES

This spur forms the most prominent topographic feature of the area and

contains peaks of considerable altitude—the Bluff, Mount Remarkable (3,178"),

Mount Brown (3,152’). together with numerous stccp-sided peaks of lower

altitude.

Advanced dissection contributes to the rough nature of this region, the hill

slopes being steep and abrupt with few gaps in the ridge line to permit crossing

from side to side. The western side is the steeper and is frequently a scarp face,

but the eastern side grades into foothills. Drainage is free, there being

numerous steep-sided creeks and several long gorges cut through the resistant

quartzites, In general the ridge tops are rounded ta flat rather than angular,

although access ts reduced to a minimum,

EAsTERN FOOTHILLS

Unlike the western side, in the east the coastal spur grades into foothills

with broader, less steep-sided valleys. The foothills are round-topped when

isolated, but minor flat-topped ridges are frequent. Drainage is adequate and

free, there being numerous crecks flowing north, south, cast and west. In the

south, Beetaloo Reservoir receives the flow from several creeks, while several

others flow castwards into the Rocky River. Willochra Creek flows inland and

Trans, Roy. Soc. &. Aust.. 70, €2), 1 Dee, 1946

260

northwards, and receives many eastward flowing tributaries such as the Beautiful

Valley Creek, Mount Brown Creek and Richman Creek, Access is possible over

most of this region.

Easrern HILLocks

The eastern foothills grade into the eastern plains as small hillucks. The

topography is undulating and the hillocks are pleasantly rounded. The hillocks

ate more noticeable in the south than in the north of this area. Wrainage is

adequate, creeks being numerous and flowing in all directions. In the south of the

region the Rocky River flows southwards into the Broughton River, whilst in

the north, numerous eastward flowing creeks flow into Spring Creek. Access 15

free, there being few topographic obstacles other than the watercourses.

EastTern PLain

The eastern plain is elevated to 1,200’ and lies between the eastern hillocks

and the Pekina Ranges which are east of the area under discussion. The plain

is traversed by numerous sub-parallel watercourses, which adequately drain this

region. In the south of the region drainage is to the south, and in the north

drainage is to the north. Access is free, there being few topographic obstacles

other than watercourses and low ranges.

GEOLOGY

The geology of Counties Frome and Victoria is continiious in a north-south

direction, there being similar upland ridges of resistant quartzite beds often

separated by intervening softer beds. The softer beds yield more readily to water

erosion, so that the watercourses tend to follow the strike of these beds. Zones of

weakness are found in the more resistant quartzite beds, and there the water-

courses are able to cross into the adjoining softer beds.

Stephens ef al. (15) produced a list of the rock types occurring in County

Victoria, as well as a table showing the relation between rock type and physio-

graphy. They discussed Fenner’s conclusions that the prevailing structures were

due to tilted fault blocks, and also Howchin’s theory of the relation of presetit

topography to ancient watercourses, The authors’ views were not conclusive as

they observed ancient stream gravels, but no major strike faults, However, fold-

ing is general in County Victoria and also in County Frome, the axis of the folds

being ina north-seuth direction, the folds being anticlines or domes, and synclines

or basins, ¢€.7., Caltowie is located along the axis of a syticline and Jamestown

is sitiated on an eroded anticline,

The Pre-Cambrian succession in County Frome forms the backbone of the

ranges and is widespread in its occurrence. To obtain the correct order of the

beds in County Frome, detailed field work is necessary, as the titimerous faults

and folds cause many variations in the normal order of succession, Segnit (14)

has mapped in details considerable areas of the Flinders Ranges and includes

several areas of County Frome. Segnit (14) and Howcliun (9), as well as others,

have recorded the basins, pounds and the domes. Some of the basins have been

iitilised as sites for reservoirs, viz., Baroota and Beetaloo Reservoirs. It is

notable that the maiu features of this vast geological series are maintained in an

unique fashion over vast areas,

Parallelism, which leads to a duplication of the beds, is frequent and some-

times the correlation with forest types is remarkable, ¢.g., a basal transition bed

of purple-grey quartzite occurs well up in ihe thick quartzite bed in Sections 19,

10, 8 and 4, Hundred of Darling, over a distance of 10 miles and supports an

exclusive forest type of E, leuco-rylan, '

261

The publications concerning rock-lypes of the area provide a more complete

picture of their distribution and relationships than is possible in this paper,

Briefly, rocks of the middle Pre-Cambrian to lower Cambrian are present and

include ‘such rock-types as sandstones, quartzites, conglomerates, siliceous slates,

dolomitic limestones, grey shales and felspathic sandstones. The absence of

igneous rocks, volcanic rocks, laterite and extensive mineralization is notable.

Segnit (14) measures a thickness of over 10,000 feet from Pichi-Richi Pass and

Horrocks’ Pass areas. The coastal spur of the Flinders Ranges is mainly com-

posed of the resistant Flinders Range quartzite and purple slates with a general

dip to the east, while the eastern foothills are mainly composed of the middle

group of the upper Pre-Cambrian, Sturtian tillite is found outcropping in the

eastern hillocks, and travertine limestone is found on the plains.

CLIMATE

To adequately describe the climate reliable records are required from many

stations for a considerable period of time. Unlortunately, there are but few

stations, so that climatic data are extremely limited. Consequently, the division

of the subject arca into small climatic zones is problematical.

It is convenient to describe the climate under:—J, Rainfall; 2, ‘Temperature.

RAINFALL

Because of the important relationship between annual rainfall and forest

formation, all available gaugings were collected from both official stations and

reliable settlers. The data were used to draw an inch gradient isohyet map, By

comparing the maps the trend of saltbush to mallee, to peppermint, to grey-box,

to long-leaved box associations is seen to follow the trend of low annual rainfall

arcas. to those ef higher raiiail,

The characteristics of the annual rainfall may be divided into reliability,

sources, effectiveness, period of wet season, fogs and snow,

Reliability—Although the greater part of the smaller subject area receives

more than 20” mean annual rainfall, droughts are frequent and severe. The

expectation of receiving the average rainfall is relatively high in this area, but

is low over a great part of the Jarger subject area. Drought occurs when the

annual rainfall is much below the mean, with consequent disastrous results on

the growth of annual plants. Large woody plants like the eucalypts, which may

have a tap root up to 50’ long are well fitted to survive periods of drought, but the

nature of the effect of drought on eucalypt associations would require a con-

siderable amowut of regular field observations extending over a period of years.

Tt is noted that £, cladocilya is tolerant and even drought resistant when

planted out of its natural habitat, It grows naturally on areas receiving 33”

rainfall, but will grow when planted on areas receiving 12” rainfall, eg,, at

Loxton. Many smaller plants have specialized structures to aid drought

resistance.

Sources—During the winter the greater proportion of the rainfall results

from the normal west to east procession of the pressure systems. Showers, are

frequent and light rain may extend over several days, but in summer monsoonal

storms from the north may produce floods in a few hours.

Effectiveness—The sol] réceives a higher proportion of moisture from a

5” rainfall extending over days than from a 5” rainfall extending uver a few

hours. A small shower of 25 points has little effect on the percentage of soil

moisture during the hot summer, as evaporation is so rapid. Various equatious

262

have been advocated to express the effectiveness of a mean rainfall, The most

efficient and convenient ta use is that of Trumble (17), which requires the rain-

fall to be greater than one-third of the evaporation from a free water surface,

On that basis the rainfall is effective for the five months, May to September,

over the whele of the simaller subject area. In the eastern vicinity of the uplands

of the coastal spur and eastern [foothills the period of effective rainfall may be

be as long ag six months. Farther cast, on the eastern plain, beyond the rain

shadow effect of the uplands, the effective rainfall period is no more than five

months. Inthe north, where the mean annual rainfall is under 13”, the effective

petiod is also less than five months. Stephens et al (15) give the analysis of

weather data for the adjacent County Victoria. There it is shown that a portion

of the coiinty has a period of five months of effective rainfall.

Extent of the Wet Season—In areas where there is at least five months of

effective tainfall, wet and dry seasons are characteristic of the climate. Typical

areas having wet seasons are those in the rain shadows of uplands, when July

is the average wettest month, and March the driest. In the north, where there

is no rain shadow, the rainfall of 13” or less is equally distributed its each month,

and so there is no obvious wet season,

Fogs and Snow—Fogs occur occasionatly each winter, but snow rately, falls

being separated by years,

TEMPERATURE

On the smaller subject area there is a hot summer when temperatures over

100° F_ are frequent. followed by a cold winter with frosts, Frosts do not occur

to any extent on the coastal plain. Mean monthly temperatures are less in the

eastern vicinity of the coastal spur where clevations are considerable, than on

the eastern hillocks. or eastern plait.

In the hot season severe scorching dtist storms are frequent and sear the

crowns Of trees, while strong winds in the wet season cause some windthrow of

trees, The drought resistance of plants is tested during these periods, in which

the transpiration rate must be greatly increased. Both Pidgeon (10, 11) and

Cockagne (3) have observed that exposure to wind caf be limiting when other

factors favour the development of a forest.

SOTLS

To show the relations between vegetation and soil types a soil map is

required. As time did aot permit the gathering of sufficient data to map the

soil types, it is possible ro make only general observations.

In the smaller subject areas the soils are classed us either residtal or trans-

ported, In the case of residual soils, the skeletal soils are shallow and have an

incomplete profile, ‘They are typical of the upland arcas and comprise at least

one-third of the area of soils on the smaller subject area, Deeper soils. result on

areas of more favourable topography and may be classed according to whether

they were derived from calcareous or non-caleareéous rocks, The development ot

the profile of transported soils generally depends on the age of the soil. as

recently transported soils. show immature profiles, whilst those of ancient water-

courses show more complete profiles, Stephens, ef af (15), give a detailed

description of the soils in part of the adjacent County Victoria, and relations are

evident between these soils and those of County Frome.

The soils of the smaller subject area are derived from Pre-Cambnan racks,

and Table I shows Lhe general relations between rocks and soil groups,

263

TABLE [

Pre-CAMBRIAN SERIES

| I :

Residual rocks Transported soils

, I

Profile incomplete

Profile complete

| | \

Calcarcous Non-calcareous Recent Ancient

rocks rocks

2 ero

Drier localities Wetter localities |

Skeletal soils Terra- Red-brown Podsols Alluvial

rossas earths

Observations in the smaller subject area show that the two extremes of soil

tolerance occur, The E, transcontinentalts association, a mallee association, is

restricted to the terra-rossa soils derived from calcareous rocks of the middle

Pre-Cambrian. But the £. leucoxylon association occurs on most of the soil

types, from skeletal to alluvial. Other vegetation associations show a

soil tolerance to a lesser degree, viz., the E. cladocalyx association is typically

found on skeletal soils of the quartzite uplands, but in the Hundred of Howe

it is found on terra-tossas derived from calcareous rocks.

The soil groups may be further related to other natural features (Table I1).

Taste If

Mean

Formation Association Locality Soil Type Annual Rainfall

E. claeophora Uplands Skeletal 27" plus

Dry - mA Paodseal 20",

Sclerophyll E, cladocalye af Skeletal Zo",

Forest ” ” Podsol 24” oo

E. lencoxrylon s Podsol i Ca

E. cladocalysr 7 Terra-ressa 18”,

&, leucaxylon Various Podsol (3 nn 2

- 4 Red-hrown 7” ~~

4 Water-courses Alluvial 16”

E. microcarpa Foothills Podssl te,

| a Red-brown 17”,

Savannah i Valleys Alluvial 17”,

Woodland FE. odovata yar. Tillocks Red-hrown 7”,

erythrandra

- Plains Solonized brown 14”,

E. calcicultrix Hillocks Terra-rossa 15”,

” Valleys Alluvial 14”,

EB. camalidulensis Valleys Alluvial Ww

x Valley slopes Red-brown 18”,

Mallee FE. trancontinentalis Plains Solonized-brown 12”-17” pius

Ridges Terra-rossa 17”-24" plus

264

As in other parts of South Australia, there is a clear-cut division between

sclerophyli communities on the nutrient-poor skeletal soils and podsols, and

savatinah woodlands on relatively nutrient-rich soils. The above associations are

widespread and typical, but changes occur under the influence of compensating

factors, especially water relations, ¢.g,, E. slacophora and &, cledocalys associa-

tions may approach savannah woodland and £, wncrocarpa and E. leucaxylon

approach sclerophyll forest in formation,

The same association tends to recur in similar environments, but precise

evaluation of an environment extending over thousands of acres depends upon

climatic records, physiographic and suil surveys, all of which are fragmentary.

Consequently, a detailed study correlating environment and association is not

possible. However, when the vegetation map is superimposed upon the isohyet

map the main trends are apparent. The trend is from mallee associations

(£, transcontinentalis) on limestone ridges ta &. odorata var. erythrandra

(peppermint) association on the hillocks; then to J. micrecarpa (grey-box) on

the red-brown soils of the foothills; then te E. /eucoxrylon (blue gum) associa-

tion on soils of varied origin; to £. cladocalyy (sugar gum) and £, elagophora

(long-icaved box} associations on the podsols derived fram quartzites of the

uplands. This trend coincides with increasing annual rainfall and increasing

altitude and is summarised in Table II. The occurrence of the associations are

shown an the vegetation map.

To a large degree changes in any factor of the environment are reflected by

changes iu the association, Soil water content is a major factor.

Tn same instances aspect produces marked effects, eg. the extension of the

E. ctnialdulensis association up the southern aspect af protected valleys, On

the exposed cough north-west aspects in the range country, the hardy Callitris

Prapriyia colonises and successfully excludes other tree species. The Banksia

marginata society is limited to a few acres on the protected southerly aspect of

deep fertile yorges in the range country. Constant exposure to winds produces

a defective growth form and a stunted forest type may be observed om the westeri

scarp of the Flinders Range in the £. cludocalyx association, and on the upper

slopes of the quartzite series in Section 19, TMundred of Darling, in the

E. leucoxylon association. Yhat the soil moisture relationship is dotninant is

shown by the occurrence of an island of E. camaldulensis on a skeletal soil on the

upper slopes of a quartzite ridge at the site of a permanent spring.

The natural changes of an association are frequent and involy: three main

alterations:—1. Changes in formation. 2, Alterations in the frequency of

dominant species. 3. Alterations in the growth habit of the dominant species,

In addition, extensive alterations have taken place in forest associations

threngh man’s opening up of the country, inyolying clearing, burning and grazing,

together with the subsequent introduction of exotic species and soil erosion. In

changes of formation to type an association reflects a change in the enyiron-

ment which may meat that ether the dominant species is sufhiciently exclusive

and tolerant to grow in the changed environment, or the change is mot of suffictent

degree to enable the development of another association. The &. cladocalyx dry

sclerophyll formation is Trequently observed on areas of Jess than 19° annual

rainfall as a savannah woodland formation, while the FE, leycoxylon savannah

woodland formation on areas of more thar 24% annual rainfall {requently adopts a

dry sclerophyll formation. More often an association adapts itself to minor changes

in the environment by alteration in the frequency of the dominant species, or

alterations in the understory, thus forming a forest type or a society respectively.

When the change in the efvironment is sufficiently great other tree species may

become associated with the dominant, resulting in a grading forest type between

two associations; ¢.9., &. camalduylenses association in the watercourses, changes

265

through E. camaldulensis~— E. leucoxylon grading forest type of the lower valley

slopes to E. lewcoxylon association of the middle slopes,

The major forest types recognised, together with factors chiefly responsible

for their maintenance, are set out in Table III. The factor chiefly responsible

is the soil water content, which is only partially expressed in terms of annual

rainfall. The occurrence of types is indicated on the vegetation map of the

smaller area of 15,000 acres, and to a large extent on the balance of the area.

Tance III

Associations and Forest Types

Associations Types

LowLanps—

E. oleosa

E. transcotitinentalts

E. gracilis

E, leptophylla

E. fruticetorum

E. dumosa

E. viridis

E. calycogona

E. caleicultriz += - = &. calcicultrig~E, camaldulensis

E. calcicultrix -E, leucoxylon

E. calciculirix—E. transcontinentalis

E. odorata var. erythrandra EB. odorata var. erythrandra—E. microcarpa

E. odorata var. erythrandra—E, microcarpa-E. leucozxylon

E, odorata var. erythrandra-E. leucoxylon-E. microcarpa

=. camaldulensis

E, microcarpa - - = E. microcarpa—E. odorata var. erythrandra

E. microcarpa-E. leucoxylan

FE. micracarpa-&. leucoxylon- E. camaldulensis

E. microcarpa- E. cladocalyx

FoorHitts—~

E. lencorylon - = * EE. leucoxylon-£. transcontinentalis

E, leucoxylon—E. niicrocarpa

E. leucoxylon—E, elaeaphora

E, leucoxylon -B. cladocalyx

E. lencoxylon-E. camaldulensis

E. leucoxylon - E. calcicultrix

E, leucoxylon—E, micrecarpa-E. odorata var. erythrandra

=F, cumaldulensis

Urr.anns—

E. cladocalyx ~ = «+ E, eladocalyx —E. nticrocarpa

E. cludocalyx —E, leucoxylon

E. cledocalyx -E. elaeophora

FE. elaeaphora - = - E, elaeophora—E. leucoxylon

E. elaeophora—£, cladocalyx

E. elaeophora— FE. camaldulensis — E. leucoxylon

E. elacophora— Stunted E. leucoxylon

VALLEYS—

E. caimaldulensis - - ~ E, camaldulensis —E. leucoxrylon

. camaldulensis - E. leucoxylon—E. microcarpa

. camaldulensis-— FE, cladocalyx -—E. elagophora

. camaldulensis -E, calcicultrix

. camaldulensis—Callitris propinqua

th hha

266

VEGETATION

NOMENCLATURE

Wood (19) summarised the terms and meanings and pointed ont the con-

fusiou that exists, and then defined an association as a constant group of dominant

species rectirring in similar habitats, where the dominant species refer boih to

tree and undergrowth species which give the characteristic look or facies of the

community. This definition of an association is adopted in this paper.

Associations may vary in floristic content and vegetative habit. When the

variation takes place amongst the dominant tree species then the variant com-

munity is a forest type, but when the dominant tree species are constant, but

changes wecur in the undergrowth, then the changed community comprises a

sociely,

The development of claser subdivisions is the obvious step in the mapping

of forests. This is brought about by the use of the concept of forest bypes.

Because this term has only recently been ased in Australian ecological

publications, a brief history of its origin will be given, Griseback, in Germany

in 1838, classified the plant communities and used the term “plant association.”

His usage of the term “plant association” is identical with the present usage of

“forest iype.” Graves (8) in 1899 stated that, “If mature is left undisturbed,

the same type of forest will tend to be produced on similar classes of situation

and soil in a specified region. There will be variations within the type, but the

characteristic features of the forest will remain constant, that is the predominant

species, density, habit of tree, reproduction and character of undergrowth, If a

portion of the forest is destroyed by fire, wind or otherwise, the type may for

the lime being be changed, but if lett undisturbed, it will revert to the original

form,”

Ecological workers trom 1920 onwards were active in Europe and often very

detailed communities were described, but application of similar principles to

Australiaii coinmunities is unsatisfactory. Pidgeon (10), in 1937, was aware

of the problems created by the frequent dominance of the genus Eucalyplus and

grouped the communities for the coastal area of New South Wales as mixed

Encalyptus forest. She added detailed forest types in 1941 (11).

Forestéi’s in vegetation suryeys of Australia have, [or a long time, probably

since 1917, used a subdivisional system involving forest types, whete a type ts

defined as a variation in the dominant stratum: of the assaciatim. In this case

there is no recognition ol succession, associations, or smaller units, as the forest

type is the only unit used.

The botanical mapping of forest types ts carried out according to the

Aoristic content of the dominant stratum, together with characters uf habic ane

form, so that with field experience ocular estimates are all that are necessary in

fixing the boundaries of ally two adjacent types. For example, 2. camaldulensis

type, which is found along the watercourses, may give way ta E, leucoxylon

type on the middle slopes of the valley, There is, however, a zone of gradation

(see Table IV) of varying width in which £. camaldulensis ig more frequent

than A. lenvoxyon; climbing further up the slope, the {wo species intermingle

and form the £. lencoaylon type. LE the zone where the species are approxi-

mately equal in frequency is five chains wide. then it was mapped as the

E, leucoxylon—E, camaldulensis type. Lf less than five chains wide, then notes

were made on the map of the presence of other species, during the gradation

fromi one community to another. It is not proposed to map the types of a further

subdivision tsed in forest suryeys,where the trees are classified as growing stock

and the area is divided into open areas, regenerating areas with seedlings or

coppice, saplings, poles, piles and finally stags or over-mature trees.

267

TAste LV

Valley bottom to upper slopes

Topographical position Forest type;

Valley bottom - - - = = #. canialdulensis

Lower slopes of valley . - - &. camaidulensis-—£&. leiwcoxylon:

Middle slopes of yalley = - - ~ £. leneoxylon

Ridge tops - . - - ~ E. cladocalye or E. cloeophora

It is evident that the boundaries of the types are not constant, as man it a

short space of time has considerably altered them by burning, clearing, and by

extensive exploitation of the trees. These alterations are shown by areas of

regeneration with large stumps. The composition of an altered type may have

been due to selective exploitation, and this change can be examined by identihea-

tion of the stumps through the use of wood technology. In addition the enyiron-

ment slowly alters over a long period of time, and so growth adjustments are made

by the residual types, either by changes in habit or composition,

To a large extent residual soil series ate correlated with the nature of bed-

rock (see ‘Table L), as well as the effective rainfall. Inter-related correlations

are frequent between soil types and plant types on a given area of 10,000 acres

approximately, Some correlations ate particularly stable, e.g., E. transcontt-

nentalis, a mallee in this district, is always found on calcareous soils:

The factors deterinining the distribution of vegetation involve interrelations

between soil fertility, rainfall aud water-retaining capacity of the soil. A few

vegetation societiés and types are widely dstributed over a variety of sites, so

that the compensating factors are difficult to evaluate in the absence of further

data, such as rainfall gaugings, soil surveys, frost incidence, and the effect of

drought. An example is Callitris propmgna, a widely occurring tree on soils

witha quartzite bedrock, which may oceut as a restricted forest type in the range

country of Section 19, Hundred of Darling, or may form a forest type with

E, camaldulensis bordering Mambray Creek, or occur as a member of the under-

story in the #. leucoxylon, £. muerocarpa and F. calcicullrix associations.

FLoRISstTiIcs

Quick identification of the xpevies, frequently from a distance up to

300 feet, is necessary to make the best use of the time available for mapping.

The most conveniem method in mapping the occurrence of species is to use a

key based on field characters, as cue based on the various organs would impede

the rate of mapping.

It frequently happens that the ustal heterogonic variations of a species. are

significantly different [rom the published description, which is often Nmited by

incomplete examination of a specics. Even so, the genus Eucalyptus, besides its

numerous identified species and varicties, still seems capable of producing new

forms. It is common knowledge that specific identification generally requires a

comprehensive collection of correctly named specimens for comparison, for

example, certain species like BE. femiphloia, have been recorded and denied by

different botanists for South Australia. The following floristic difficulties were

encountered: FE. jugalis, a previously imperfectly know species in this State, is

secorded in Blakely, but described by Maiden as a synonym of &. leucoxylon var.

pauperita, which is definitely a different tree from E. jugalis, E. leucoxrylon var.

panperita, if justified, is irregular i its occurrence, and is merely a depauperate

268

form of EF. leucoxylon inyolving little constant botanical difference. The field

characters of habit and form were insufficient to separate E. microcarpa,

E, albens and E. hemiphlota irom one another. The separation of a number of

mallee species is difficult both in the field and the laboratory, for example, the

difference between conical and rostrate-shaped opercula used to separate E. oleosu

and #, transcontinentalis, between which gradations are found. . calci-

cultrix, black mallee-box, was identified and is recorded in Blakely (2), but is

omitted by Black (1). However, the two varieties recorded by Blakely were

not located, and it is doubtful whether they occur in this area. The narrow-

leaved peppermint is best named E. odorata var. erythrandra,) despite the rare-

ness of red-flowering ttees.

It sees certain that a detailed use of field ecology would strengthen and

facilitate identification of the genus Eucalyptus. Throughout this paper the

nomenclature of the genus Zucalyptus conforms to that of Blakely, and the other

species to that of Black.

THE PLANT ASSOCIATIONS

Eight associations have been defined in the area, These are named from

their dominants, formation, topography, soil type and rainfall characteristics,

as set out-in Table III.

E. calcicyltrix Association

The description of E. calcicultrix is facilitated by the study of a Jarge pure

stand near Yatina in County Dalhousie, There it may be a small tree up to

25’ high or a mallee with several stems arising from a common rootstock, The

bark is greyish, somewhat flaky, and often with bruwnish stains caused by dust.

The stem is generally less than 12” in diameter at 4’ from the ground, but trees

up to 20” in diameter with a height np to 30’ occur along the Booleroo Creek near

Booleroo. The crown is compact, rounded, pleasantly fresh-green and is often

a shining green on a sunny day. The leaves have an obvious venation, the intra-

marginal veins heing very distinct, and when dried, the veins may stand out as

1idges. The shape is ovate, acute and usually under 4” long, but a wide variation

in shape and size has been observed. The buds mature in October, and early flowers

are observed in October, whilst late ones may continue to February. The buds

are typically stellate in arrangement, pedicellate, and are somewhat similar to

those of FE. odorata var. erythrandra, The matured capsules are held for at

least one year, and the proportion of length to breadth is reasonably constant.

E, caleicultri# oceurs as a pure stand ina few restricted areas near Quorn,

but near Yatina there are at least 500 crowns per acre forming’ a thin canopy

to the exclusion of any other tree except for a sporadic dryland ti-tree, AZelaleuca

pubescens, Acacia Victoriac, Dodonaca attenuata, and Bursaria spinosa, are the

shrubs occasionally seen; Zygophyllum crenatum, Zyyophylium spp. are common

herbs, while Danthonia spp. and Stipa spp, are the commonest grasses forming

the partial ground cover.

E. calcicultrix is found in three vegetation types. One is a semi-arid malice

type, dominated by Z. trancontinentalis— E, calcicultrix, This type has numerous

shrubs, herbg and mat-like plants in the understory, This type ts generally found

on solonized brown soils and terra-rossas,

The E, valcicultrix —L. lencoxylon type is a savannah woodland in facies,

although it contains numerous shrubs, herbs and ground cover plants in its under-

() Personal communitation—N, T, Burbidge,

269

story, Here E. leucoxylon is at its limits of occurrence and has a dwarfed and

defective form duc te twists in the stem, and an uribalanced, wind-blown crown.

Along the fertile banks of watercourses, in semi-arid country, E. caleicultrix is

found associated with £. camaldulensis as a narrow fringing community. In

general it occurs on areas with Jess rainfall than E. oderate yar. eryihrandra and

the soils are predominantly solonized,

E. odorata var. erythrandra Association

This association ig typical of the eastern limits of the lowlands, being found

on the eastern hillocks and to the west of the eastern plain. To the east it grades

into the mallee-box atid mallee associations, and to the west into the 8, micra-

carpa association through the E. nticrocarpa—E. oderata var. erythrandra forest

type. This association occupies a similar ecological position to that of the

E, odorata association in the foothills. of the Mount Lofty Ratiges, The tree is

rather similar from a distance, having dark-grey, twisted, rough bark, often

stained by exudations of kino. In height it may reach 45’, with a bole up to

25’ long, and is often 20” in diameter at 4’ from ground level, The crown is

thin, heing composed of narrow lanceolate leaves up to 5” long, which are often

pendant when the tree is growing on more favourable sites, The leaves are never

a shining green but are usually dull or subglaucous, and so the crown has a

similar dull appearanec to that of E. odorata, but is thinner in density. Occa-

sional saplings have erect leaves which gradually become depressed as the tree

matures, Buds mature in autumn, early flowers may be seen in April, and late

flowers in August. The buds have a wide range of shapes and lengihs of

pedicels, but the inflorescence is typically stellate with 6-7 buds. There is also a

wide range of capsule sizes, but the proportion of length to width is reasonably

constant. The matured capsules are held for less than one year.

In describing the appearance of the association, considerable diffeulty exists

in locating a compact arca that has not been altered biolically, Just north of

Melrose, anc also near Yandiah, are two areas in which occur several hundred

trees per acre. No doubt there are other isolated patches, hut it is thought that

the original density was much less, for at least half of the trees are of small

diameter, It is therefore presumed that the association was a typical savannah

woodland and had a similar facics to that of the £. odorata association.

Geographically, it is believed that this association is the northern counterpart of

the B. oderata association. It occurs on the Bundaleer Ranges far ta the wesl

af the area mapped, therefore no attempt has been made to define the limits of

its ocenrrence, This association now consists of isolated patches along a few

uncleared roads, and single trees left standing as the remnants of 2 once wide-

spread association,

There is a widely spnced dominant with a few seattered shrubs, such

as. Bursaria spinosu, Acacia armata, Acacia Victoriae and Acacia pycnantha,

Grasses form the bulk of the ground cover, and are mostly Danthonia spp. and

Themeda triandra. Some annual species of Stipa are also found, together with

many exotic grasses and annuals such as Achium plantaginensm which covers

thousands. of acres.

This association contaitis two forest types, the E. adorata var. ervthrandra -

LE. microcarpa, and the E. odorata var, erythrandra— FE, calvicullrix. The former

is found along the western boundary of the eastern plain, and the latter along

the westerri margin of the coastal spur as well as on the northern and southern

limits nf the arca mapped. I[t is also occasionally found with E£, camaldulensis -

E. leycoxylon, and E. microcarpa— E, leucoxylon types.

270

E. microcarpa Association

Grey-box is the common name given to £, micrecarpi, and also to the very

similar trees, E. hemtphloia and EK. albens, While EZ, smicrocarpa forms an

exclusive association and occtirs as a pure stand over a large area, both the other

species oceur scattered with E. microcurpa, A small area of E. hemiphloia occurs

due west of Murraytown, but E. albens occurs only as a mixed stand,

&. microcarpa is a tree often growing up to 70’ in height, and useful trees

may have a diameter of 36” four feet from ground levei, although larger trees have

been measured. The crown is not dense as the leaves ate generally over 3” long,

cockled and are dull green, sub-glaucous to glaucous. Much variation is there-

fore encountered in the colour of the leaves, The bark is characteristicully grey to

light-grey in colour, tightly plaited, and continuous even up to limbs. only 47 in

diameter. An occasional tree has smooth white upper bark. The buds and

capsules are generally shortly pedicellate. The buds mature in February and

early flowers appear in late February to March, Although cream-coloured

fiowers are general, two trees with pink flowers were recorded. E. hemiphloia

has a capsule nearly twice the volume uf E, microcarpa and E. albens has a

capsule about twice the volume of &. hemiphinia, Buds of both the latter species

mature earlier than those of HZ. mucracerpdt, In each species the timber is dense,

hard. durable and nutty-brown in colour,

The association is a savannah woodland, but it is doubtfal if any virgin

areas are now in existence, as pit sawing, siceper cutting, and clearing has taken

place for a period of 80 years in this reasonably accessible forest. It seems

certain that there were once 10-20 trees per acre over a grassy ground cover.

On two occasions this association was found with a thin, incomplete canopy

which was successful in crowding out all shrubs and the ground cover. This

can be seen on the lower western slopes of Richman’s Valley, and a limited area

‘1 the north-east of Section 9 in the Hundred of Darling. Occasional occurrences

of shrubs such as Bursuria spinosa, Acacia pycnantha, Acacia Victoriae, Acacia

Wattsigna, and Dodonaea attenuata are to be observed. The grasses are

numerous and are chiefly Danthonia spp. and Stipa spp. Casuarina stricta occurs

att the more rocky sites. with sporadic occurrences of Callitris prapingua,

On the western margin of its occurrence where it grades into the eucalypt

associations of moister areas it forms forest types with #£. leucaxrylon, EB. camal-

dulensiz, EB. cladocalyx or E, elazophora, The number of trees per acre is

generally over 400, and the understory is often shrubby when it occurs with

EB. cladocalyx or E, elacopkora.

On the drier margins near Yandiah it occurs with E. odorata var. ery-

thrandra, and on other areas with Casuarina sivicta, The former type has a

similar understory to the pure E, micracerpe type, but the latter contaitis several

societies. The most frequently occurring are the soft grasses, replaced by porcu-

pine grass, Triodia iritans, which in turn is replaced by Xanthorrhoea quadrangu-

lata and Calythrix tetragona.

Although the geographical occurrence of the box association has been

mapped, considerable areas have been cleared which may amoutit to one-third

of the original areas dominated by this tree. The northern limit of the associa-

tien is in the vicinity of Mount Brown, and the southern limit near Wirrabara-

Thig distance is about 50 miles with a width of 10 miles near Wirrabara, but the

association does not extend over the crest of the coastal spur as has been

reported by Robertson (13).

E, leucoxylon Association

Because Z. lewcoxrylon is such an adaptable species, generalities are too broad

271

to convey precise information. In the larger subject area, it is the dominant of

a degraded sayannah woodland near Saltia where the mean annual rainfall is

approximately 12”, On the southern ridges of the Beetaloo Valley, where the

mean annual! rainfall is approximately 15”, it forms a serubby type with affinities

to a mallee association on ihe one hand, and a savannah woodland on the other.

A. calaculfrix is present in equal numbers,

This association is at its best on the red-brown earths, with a moist climate,

and on alluvial soils or terra-rossas with an even moister climate. ‘here it may

reach a height in excess of 80’, with a clean straight bole of 40° to 8” top

diameter and 30” diameter at 4’ from the ground, This class of tree is generally

Tree of dry rough bark, but as the climate becomes drier there is a tendency for

dry rotigh bark to persist ag a basal “stocking” of 6’ in height, and may even

clothe half the length of the bole, The smooth bark has.2 grey-whie base with

olive-green and slaty-blue streaks,

In the Range sections 4, 10, 11 and 19, Ifundred of Darling, this species varies

from a stunted tree of 25’ in height to a tree of 65° in height, according to the

suitability of the site. Here the bark markings are yellowish-green and some-

times almost orange in colour. Generally the leaves are dark shining green on both

sides, the venation is obvious, and the length is 3-8" with a corresponding range

in width from °5-'8 of an inch, The buds are nore uniform in size and shape

than those collected from the Mount Lofty Ranges but agree in being restricted

to the maximum of three per peduncle. The operenltim is typically conical, but

sometimes sub-rostrate. Buds mature in April and carly flowers may be seen in

April, but the flowering period is indefinite, beg antiually May to December.

The fruit shows great variations in yolume and shape and the valves are deeply

éticlosed in the larger fruits, but are shallow in the smaller fruits.

The association ts typically a savannah woodland and exhibits ay adapt-

ability to environmental changes. It may have a dense sclerophyllous under-

story in the high rainfall range areas, or a shrubby xcrophytic understory in the

E, leyeorylon—E. calcicultriy type on the outlying southern ridges of the

Beetaloo Valley. Typically, the understory consists of a ground cover of grasses

with a few scattered shrubs such as Bursaria spinosa, Acacia. pycnantha, and

Acacia Wattsiana, Societies of Acacta continua—Calythrix tetragona occur in

the ranges; eleucia rupicola in the EL. leucoxylon—£, microcaypa forest type, and

Acacia brachybotrya in the pure £. leucoxylon type on a terra-rossa in Section

1B, Hundred of Howe.

The frequency of the dominatits is much greater than in the original virgin

areas. This is due to the stimulation of regeneration from the timber operations

of 1870 to the present day. It is now commen to see stands with 200 stems per

acre, but it is thought that the original stands had only 20-30 trees per acre,

{i the smaller subject area F. leucoxrylon forms at least six iypes, one of

which includes a mallee, A. franscantinentalis, The mallee association occupies

limestone and calcarcous ridges in the higher rainfall areas, and the areas

are small and are usually islands or inliers in a savannah woodland formation.

The understory consists of numerous sclerophyllous shrubs and herbs, such as

Hibbertia sericea, Hibbertia acicularis, Hakea rugosa, Grevillea lavandulacea and

Acratriche spp.

The £, leucoxylon-E, microcarpa type is a grading type between the

&. microcarpa and the F, lexcoxylow association, The understory may be grasses

on the more favourable sites nearer the E, leucoxylon association, or shrubs such

as Bursoria spinosa, Xantherrhoea quodrangulata, Casuarina stricta and Triodia

wrilans prominent on the less fayourable sites.

272

The &, leycorvlon=-E. cledocalyx and E, leucorylon—E, elaeaphora types

may reach the status of a dry sclerophyll forest where a thin canopy partially

shades the forest floor and the understory is a dense assemblage of sclerophyllous

shrubs and herbs. These types are best seen on the coastal spur on areas receiv-

ing at least 24 mean annual rainfall. The «understories are composed of

Calythric —Xanthorrhoca—Cassinia complanata society; the Hakea whicina—

Hibbertia stricta society and the Acacia PVattsiana society. There Calythrix

tetragona and Hibbertia stricta may reach 8 and G6’ in height respectively.

E, leucoxylon forms a forest type with Z. camaldulensis on the broad valleys

containing fertile red-brown earths, or alluvial soils receiving a rainfall of 20”

plus. The understory is usually a grassy ground cover wth scattered shrubs of

Bursaria spinosa and Acacia Wattsiana, Some fine large trees occur in this

forest type.

In semi-arid areas, 2. lexcoxylon manages to obtrude into the mallee areas.

Tt may form a relatively pure type on red-brown soils as in the elevated Beautiful

Valley, where the trees are several hundred to the acre, stunted and small with

twisted defective stems. The understory is grassy, with.a few herbs, On terra-

rossas of the southern ridges of Beetaloo Valley, &. Jencoxrylon forms a type with

E. colcicultrix over an understory of Cassinta lecvis, Bursaria spinosa, Xan-

thorrhoca quadrangulata, Pittosporum phyllyreoides and Lepidosperma spp, The

habit of &. leucoxylon shows gradual changes from the extreme of dwariness in

the above drought resistant type to the fine trees of the normal savannah wood-

land type. The understories also show changes in size of the species, floristic

content and frequency.

The northern geographical range of the E. leuwcoxylon association is only

partly shown on the vegetation map, as there are small islands north of Quorn in the

vicinity of the Dutchman's Keel, aud far on the eastern plain scattered remnants

of islands are now marked by an occasional stump, or a scraggy windblown tree

on the roadside. Generaily it is not found on the coastal plain, but is found in

valleys on the western side of the Beetaloo Valley throughout the coastal spur,

as islands in the higher rainfall areas, and typically occupies the area between

the &. cladocalyyr association and the £. microcarpa association.

£. cladocalyx Association

Tew large pure areas exist and the association extends from four miles

north of the Hughes Gap road to Purt Pirie to as far nerth as the Dutchman’s

Keel, just a few miles north-west of Quorn. It is typical of the uplands, rarely

descending below the 1,000’ contour, and is generally found on the exposed

quartzite ridge-tops, but occasiunally occurs on limestone ridgetops in the Beetaloo

Catchment atea.

At its best Z£. cladocalyx is a handsome tree, having a clean, yellowish-brown,

smooth barked bole with a striking, small, dark-green compact crown perched on

the erids of the branches. The bole reaches 70’ in length to the first branch with

a total height of 120° and diameters of 72” have been recorded four feet from

ground level. Botanically, it is well figured in the “Forest Flora of South Aus-

tralia” by J. E. Brown (3),

On areas near the limit of its occurrence which receive approximately 18”

mean annual rainfall, the association is savannah woodland in formation. This

formation grades into the complex dry sclerophyll formation as the rainfall

INCTEASES,

E, micracarpa or E, lencoxylon are frequently fownd associated with

£. cladocatyx in the savannah woodland formation. In these types the dominants

are widely spaced, usually less than 60 trees per acre, but the regeneratinn may

increase the number of stems to over 100 per acre,

273

As is to be expected in an association with this range of environment, a

number of societies are found in the understory. The sub-humid E, cladocaly—

E. microcarpa type has an understory of grass cover with occasional shrubs.

The E. cludocalyx—E. lencoxylon type has a similar understory, but in

moister localities the understory may contain numerous shrubs to form societies

of Acacia Wattsiana or Cassima complanate and grass, or Triodia spp,, Lomandra

spp. and grasses on podsols,

In cooler, moister localities islands of pure E. cladocalys may occur, and

these may extend over an area of up to 300 acres of adjacent uplands and valleys-

The undersiory grades into a dense assemblage of shrubs in which three common

societies are seen. The Acacia (¥attsiana society forms a dense, bushy, exclusive

society which may be difficult to penetrate. Calythyiv tetrayona—Xanthorrhoca

guadrangulata —Cassinia complanata also form a deise society which amay be

difficult to penetrate, Hakea wlicina—Hibbertia stricta—Casuarina Muellerina

comprise a society on extremely infertile exposed skeletal soils of the range

sections 4, 8, 10 and 19 in the Hundred of Darling. Small areas of Triodia spp.

were also seen. ‘These understories are also found in the £. elaeophora

association.

Associated plants are trees, Callitris propingua, Casuarina stricta, Exocarpus

sported, and Exocarpus eupressiformis. Shrubs are Acacia continua, Acacia

rupicola, Acacia pyenantha, and in watercourses, dcacw iteaphylla, Acacia calama-

folia and Callistemon rugulosus. Other common shrubs are Daviesia ulicina,

Daviesia corymbosa, Hukea rugosa, Grevillta lavandulacea, Callistemon tereti-

folius and Euxtayia microphylla, The commonest herbs are lJibbertia sericea,

Hibbertia aciculoris, Astroloma fumifusum, Acrotriche spp. and Goodenia

pinnatifida. The rush, Lepidosperma sentiteres, may sometimes form small exclu-

sive societies on exposed skeletal soils,

On the coastal spur Casuarina. stricta is often the dominant tree on southern

aspects, and Callitris propingua on the northern aspects. Water plants, geophytes

and grasses are scarce, and only occasional Danthonia spp. and orchids were seen.

The pure £. ¢eladocalyx association grades into the pure E. claeephera agso-

ciation through the &£. claducelya—E. clacophora type.

B. elavephora Association

This association occupies a greater area of the highlands than the A. clado-

calyx association, and occurs as a pure association, exceeding 4,000 acres in

area. It tends to replace E. cladocalyx on the wetter sites, and may contititie

aleme the banks of watercourses lo intrude into the A. camaldulensis sayannah

woodland formation in Section 9, Hundred of Darling, and Section 3, Hun-

dred of Hawe,

E, elaeophera has a rough, persistent, scaly bark which is continuotis to the

sitaller branches. The tree is not impressive in habit, top height being generally

under 40’. The stem is frequently forked and the branches twisted, howed

and bearing 4 thin crown, This tree habit is typical of the frosty, wet highlands

with infertile skeletal soils, In the protected fertile valleys it may reach a top

height cf 50’ and be 40” in diameter at four feet from the ground. Botanically,

it agrees with the description in Blakely (2).

All the eucalypt species found on the uplands form forest types with

E, elaeophora and are associated with shrubby understories similar in composi-

tion ta those found in the &. cladecelys association as previously described. The

understory at its most complex development closely resembles some of the under-

stories of the dry sclerophyll formation dominated by A. ablique in the Mownt

274

Lofty Ranges. Notable differenves are the absences of Pulfendea spp.,- Lepto-

spermumn spp., Banksia spp., Preridium aquilinum, and [xodia achillevides. The

nearest 4. obliqua association js distant, being near Clare, where there are several

thousand acres.

Geographically, E; clacophora does not extend north of Mount Brown, while

its santherly limit is 6-7 miles north of the ilughes Gap Road to Port Pirie.

Typically, it is found on the highlands and may reach an altitude of over 3,000’.

FB. cumaldulensis Association

As is usual, this association is found on fertile soils with an adequate water

supply. Such areas are the banks of watercourses, and the nearby plains which

are subject to periudical flooding. In semi-arid to arid areas EF. camaldulensis

grows in the watercourses, and as it stretches for many miles across otherwise

treeless country, it forms unique ribbon-like communities, This feature is vividly

shown on the vegetation map,

The tree has a smooth bark with a dull grey-white to light grey base colour,

relieved by patches of light-grey, white, light-ycllowish-orange colours, Some-

times there are only a few markings, but generally they ace more numerous after

the spring and summer rains when decortication takes place, The crown is dense

and luxuriant, being dull green and occasionally bronze in colour. Heights up

to 120’ have been recorded with diameters of 13’ at four feet from ground level.

Botanically, it agrees with the description in Blakely (2), Generally the buds

have a rostrate operculum, but some with a conical-shaped operculum were found

along the watercourses in arid areas. Robertson (13) makes some pertinent

remarks on the variation of bud shapes in relation to geographical occurrence.

In this area the buds mattire in late autumn to spring, carly flowers appear in

October, and late flowers in February and March. The capsules are usually in

the lower size tange as given in Blakely.

The association in its pure state is a savannah Woodland having a few widely

spaced trees over a ground cover of grasses with an occasional shrub and herb,

but when exploitation of the mature trees has been carried out, tegeneration may

he so dense that the crowns may form a thin canopy. The shrubs are Acacia

Fictoriae, Acacia rupicola, Avacia Wattsiana and Bursaria spinosa, , Qu the

mallee plains limited areas of Callitris prapingua mixed with E. canaldulenses

are found, as at Mambray Creek on the coastal plain, In watercourses ih the

highlands Casuarma siricia may be found associated with F. camialdulensis, and

along the deep gorge bottoms societies of Acdcia tteuphylla, tcacia calamafolia,

or Callistemon rugulosus are found.

&, leucoxyion is frequently found with Ef. camaldulensis, and this type

occupies similar sites as the E. lewcoxylon-—L. camaldulensis type, Tt also has

a similar understory. Dense societies of Acacia Waltsiana or Acacia rupicale

may be found in the understory over a ground cover of grasses.

Along the vatleys of the Ippinitchie and Whire Park Creeks limited areas

are seen where E£. microcarpi. has become associated with EZ, camuldulensis —

E. lvucoxylon type, In the frosty, wetter valleys of the eastern slopes of the

coastal spit, both E. cludacalye and FE. elazophora are found associated with

A. camaldulensis, Here the understory is tisually denser, and is typically come

posed of thickets of Acacia Wattsiuna, A small area of Banksia marginata in

tree form is found in this type in Section 4, Hundred of Darling, Thickets of

Casyarina stricta frequently oceur on either aspect of the steep rocky slopes of

skeletal soils. Geographically, its occurrence is unique in being closely correlated

with the presence of watercourses.

275

SUMMARY

This paper contains a description of the environment of County Frome, an

area of 650,000 acres. The main topographical feature is the coastal spur of

the Flinders Ranges with its associated foothills. The spur has a marked

influence on the climate, as the high rainfall areas are closely associated with it

and the rainfall decreases on areas a few miles distant from it, The six soil

series are derived from Pre-Cambrian rocks. Those of the higher rainfall areas

are mainly podsols and skeletal soils, supporting sclerophyll forests, while several

soil series are represented on areas with an intermediate rainfall which generally

support a savannah woodland, and on the drier areas are red-earths and solonized

brown soils supporting mallee formations.

Eight vegetation associations were mapped, representing three vegetation

formations. Lach association contains several types, where a type is defined as

a comimunity which varics from the pure association in floristic content or in

habit. The types were mapped on an area of 15,000 acres in the Hitindred of

Darling.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My thanks are due to Prof. J. G. Wood, Messrs. R. W-. Segnit, V. M, Healy,

C. B, Kay, C. G. Stephens and P. B, Casson for constructive criticism and sugges-

tions. To many of the stations owners, my thanks are due for permission to use

their rainfall gaugings, and it is with gratitude that I thank Miss N. T, Burbidge

of the C.S.1.R. for help in the complicated task of identification of species, and

Mr. C. Scarfe, apiarist, for his co-operation by carrying out the transport in

this vast telatively unmapped area, The Librarian of the Commonwealth Forestry

Bureau kindly supplied references to term “forest type.’

The map draughting was carried out by W. J. Tedmanson,

REFERENCES

1 Brack, J. M. 1922-1929 Flora of South Australia, Government Printer,

Adelaide

2 Braxery, W.F, 1934 A Key to the Eucalypts. Sydney

Brown, J. E. 1882 ‘The Forest Flora of South Australia. Government

Printer, Adclaide

4 Brown, J, FE. 1887 Annual Report. Woods and Forests Department,

South Atistralia

CocxacnE, L. 1928 B,.N.Z, Science Congress Report

Crocker, R. L. 1944 Soil and Vegetation Relationships, ctc. Trans. Roy.

Soc. S, Aust., 68, (1), 144

7 Graves, S. 1937 Foundations of Silviculture upon an Ecological Basis

Howeur, W. 1929 The Geology of South Australia. Adelaide

9 Osvorn, T. G. B., and ApAmson, R, 8. 1928 The Ecology of the Eucalyp-

tus .Forests of the Mount Lofty Ranyes, Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust.,

48, 87

10 Pinseon, I. 1938 The Ecology of the Central Coastal Area of New South

Wales, Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W., 63, (1-2), 1-26

276

Pioceon, I. 1941 The Forest Types on Soils Derived from Hawkesbury

Sandstone and Wianamatta Shale. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 66,

(3-4), 113-137

Prescott, J. A. 1929 The Vegetation Map of South Australia. Trans,

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 53

Rosertson, C. G. 1926 A Reconnaissance of the Forest Trees of Aus-

tralia. Govt. Printer of S. Africa

Seenit, R. W. 1939 The Pre-Cambrian—Cambrian Succession. Dept.

of Mines S. Aust. Bulletin 18

STEPHENS, C. G., ef al. 1945 A Soil and Land Use Survey of Part of

County Victoria, South Australia. C.S.1.R, Bulletin 188

TEALE, E.O. 1918 The Soil Survey and Forest Physiography of Kuitpo,

Dept of Forestry, S. Aust. Bulletin 6

Trumsie, H, C. 1937 The Climatic Control of Agriculture in South Aus-

tralia, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 41-62

Woon, J. G. 1930 An Analysis of the Vegetation of Kangaroo Island and

the Adjacent Peninsulas. Trans. Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust., 54, 105

Woop, J. G. 1939 Ecological Concepts and Nomenclature. Trans. Roy.

Soc. S. Aust., 63, 215

Woops & Forests DepARTMENT 1928 B.N.Z. Science Congress Report

S PEAK

Bei

fa)

PORT AUGUSTA

STIRLING NTH.

PORT PATERSON

POINT PATERS

ae nee ee

RED/CLIFF POINT

PERROOMBA

BOOLEROO CEN \.

RAy +H '

JOUNT MAMB

E CAMALDULENSIS.

E. MICROCARRS,

“hs

tA RS

£:

E. ELAEOPHORA,

TEA

alae

BEI e

i’

COASTAL

~“\

PEPPERMINT. waro Poin

SUCCESSION.

MALLEE

SALTBUSH,

GERMEIN

WIRRABARA F R.

COUNTY FROME

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

N THUS

RAILWAYS SHOWN THUS —_—_—_—_——_

ROADS SHOW

Trans. Rey. See, S. Atist., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate NLL

Fuculypiis lemiphfou, savannah woodland assoctttion, Melrose

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XLV

Eucalyptus cladocaly.,, savannah woodland associaton, Melrose

Encalypius camaldulensis association, showng mature trees in the foreground,

poles in the background with Callitris propinqua.

Traus, Roy, Soc, S, Aust., 1946

MS HILE

REGIONS

COASTAL PLAIN o-— FOO

COASTAL SPUR FOO - |2Boe

EASTERN FOOTHILLS l2cQa— looo

EASTERN HILLOCKS 1o°00— BOO

=——

_—= —~

EASTERN PLAIN UNDER 800

—_—_a_a—“X:___==

DIAGRAMMATIC

SECTION

LEGEND

I" GRADIENT iSOonyYETS ———

CONTOURS SHOWN

MET, STATIONS [fF SF4]

SETTLERS GAUGINGS

RELIABLE ESTIMATES

VANS

COUNTY FROME 7 ! : 7

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

loAg

SCALE

3a 4 -.

BARIUM-RICH APLITIC GNEISSES OF BROKEN HILL

By D. MAWSON AND E. R. SEGNIT

Summary

Herein is described in some detail the unique occurrence of barium-rich, aplitic schliers in the early

Precambrian, granitic, flaser-gneisses in the neighbourhood of Broken Hill. Their occurrence was

first recorded some 24 years ago by E. C. Andrews in his memoir on the Geology of the Broken

Hill District. In an appendix to that volume W. R. Browne makes special reference to these barytic

gneisses. He states on page 337: “A remarkable rock type was found in a few places in the vicinity

of Broken Hill, which appears to be unique in petrology. It was first observed as a dyke-like

intrusion into the Hanging Wall Augen Gneiss some distance south of the Municipal Abattoirs, in

fact at the most southerly extremity of the Augen Gneiss. Later on a precisely similar rock (B222)

was found near the western margin of the Platy Gneiss just north of the De Bavay shear zone, and

what appear to be allied types occur elsewhere in the Platy Gneiss, as on top of the hill in M.L.75.”

277

BARIUM-RICH APLITIC GNEISSES OF BROKEN HILL

By D, Mawson and E. R. Secnir

[Read 8 August 1946]

CONTENTS

iF Page

I, Inrropucrory Remarks .. - ss ay: He rr Rs ws 277

Il Tue Piecery Locayity .. Ls aa be 3 Bh a3 ws 1» 278

1. The nature of the gticiss in which the barytic schfiers oveur. .» 280

2. Petrography of the flaser-yneiss of the Piggery locality. ,. 33 -- 281

3, Petrography of the barium-rich aplitic gneiss. .. Ms si 84 .. 282.

(a) Rocks with high baridm content. Group T be 104 as .. 282

{b) Rocks of medium barium content. Group IT +4 .. 286

4. Petrography of the amphibolites. ,. wr ot pie wr ie «- 288

III, THe De BayAy Fautr Zone Locarity 4 3 oh ou fs .. 289

1, Petrography of the quartzo-feldspathic rocks containing barium. ., .. 289

2. Petrogtaphy of the amphibolites .. ay he ra ie a .» 290

3, Petrography of the epidote-clinozoisite rocks .. ae te = .. 200

IV. SuMaary or roe Disremurion or BArtum in THe Rocks .. be .. 291

V. RErERENces ne * wn “> ne am .. 293

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

Herein is desctibed in some detail the unique occurrence of barium-rich,

aplitic schliers in the early Precambrian, granitic, flaser-gneisses in the neigh-

bourhood of Broken Hill, Their occurrence was first recorded some 24 years

ago by E, C. Andrews in his memoir on the Geology of the Broken Hill District.

In an appendix to that volume W. R. Browne makes special reference to these

barytic gneisses. He states on page 337: “A remarkable rock type was found in

a few places in the vicinity of Broken Hili, which appears to be unique in

petrology. It was first observed as a dyke-like intrusion into the Hanging Wall

Augen Gneiss some distance south of the Municipal Abattoirs, in fact at the most

southerly extremity of the Augen Gneiss, Later on a precisely similar rock

[8222] was found near the western margin of the Platy Gneiss just north of the

De Bavay shear zone, and what appear to be allied types occur elsewhere m the

Platy Gneiss, as on. top of the hill in M.L. 75.”

An analysis by H. P. White (Mines Department) of this type of rock from

the De Bavay shear zone is given, This is quoted in our table on pp. 280-281,

Browne concludes his account by stating;

“This rock appears, in its barium content, to be quite unique among silicate

rocks, Jt seems most reasonable to suppose that the barium is contained in the

feldspar, but a calculation shows that there is not enough alumina present in the

tock to satisfy the feldspar formula, assuming all the barium and lime to he

present in this mineral, The latter must remain unexplained for the present.

Trans. Roy, Soc. S, Aust, 70, (2), 1 Dec. 1946

278

“As regards the affinities of the rock little can be said with certainty. The

dykes are apparently intrusive into the gneiss and are sometimes pretty closely

associated with gabbros. It was thought from the field occurrence, together with

the microscope characteristics, that the feldspar rock night be of the nature of

an anorthosite derived from the gabbro magma, but there is no certain proof

that thts is 50,”

Some years later S. R, Nockolds and E, G. Zies petrologically examined a

specimen catalogued as [B222] and believed it to be the same as that collected

from the De Bavay shear zone locality, which had been analysed by H, P, White,

as quoted in Browne’s petrotogical report.

The contribution of these authors to the problem is of a very high order of

merit. They concluded that the barium is included in the plagioclase—a new

barium plagioclase which they refer to as “a barium anemousite or, more appro-

priately, a barium anorthite.” 1

They state, however, that “the barium content in our analyses of the feldspar

shows a large discrepancy when compared with that found for the rock as 2

whole in the analyses made by JI. P. White. On the other hand, there does not

secm to be a sufficient quantity of any other minéral in the rock to bring the total

up, even if we assume the mineral in the rock to be rich in barium.”

Nockolds and Zies went further with the enquiry, and then stated; “Finally,

our analysis shows an amount of RaQ comparable with the hypothesis that it is

all in the feldspar, whercas White’s analysis demands the presence of another

barium-bearing mineral which, if it carries the same percentage as feldspar,

should be almost as abundant. It is thus possible that the rock varies in com-

position and that another barium-bearing mineral such as sanbornite was preseut

in the sample analysed by White.”

During a visit to Broken TIill, eight years ago, one of us examined the areas

remarked upon by Browne. The occurrence south of the old Municipal Abattoirs

site appeared to be of special interest. Of specimens collected, one was kindly

examined for BaO content by R, G. Thomas (University of Adelaide; now

C.S.LR, Geochemical Laboratory) and found to contain 13-79% BaO. From this

rock, by a bromiform separation, Mr. Fhomas then isolated the feldspars. The

mixed feldspars thiis separated were found to contain 19-50% BaO.

At this stage the problem had become a very interesting one, consequently

it was decided to prosecute it further. [t was obvious that there was no wni-

formity in the mineral composition of the various outcrops of these aplitic barytic

gneisses; more especially it was clear that the rock analysed by White was not

idetitical with that examined by Nockolds and Zies.

Iv the prosecution of this investigation the nature of the barium feldspars

proved so interesting that one of us has already published (Segmit, 1946) a

separate report on them,

THE PIGGERY LOCALITY

The area mentioned by Browne as south of the old Municipal Abattoirs was

found to be by far the most interesting and important. The general locality is

known as Soudan Hill; this is indicated on Andrews’ map where he shows a large

area of Augen and Platy Gneiss near the southern boundary of which ute, on the

southern slopes of the hill, two patches marked “barium,” roughly indicating the

whereabouts of the barytic aplite; outcrops of amphibolite are also shown.

279

We include herewith, below, a more detailed sketch map of the imme-

diate area, including the barytic aplitic schliers. A location where specimens

especially rich in BaO were obtained is marked with a cross on the plan.

The barium-rich schliers are irregular in width, ranging from a few inches

to a few feet in thickness. The broken nature of the outcrop, as shown in the

100 rafOls

SKETCH PLAN oF ROCK OUTCROPS

THE PIGGERY LOCALITY oN SOUDAN HILL

AUGEN GNEISS THE BLANK AREA

APLITIC BARIUM-RICH GNEISS

AMPHIBOLITE

PEGMATITE

plan, is due partly to sand and soil covering sections of the outcrop, and partly

to the irregular distribution of the rock itself.

The aplitic gneiss being distinctly lighter in colour than the general gneiss

of the locality readily catches the eye, and can be traced following along in general

accord with the schistosity of the flaser—gneiss.

280

Light-coloured phases of the gneiss are not always notably barytic. When

they are barytic, however, the nature of the weathered surface is usually a very

good indication of the probable richness in BaO of the rock. The feldspars rich

in, barium are more easily eroded, mainly by corrosion, than normal feldspars.

Their presence is indicated, therefore, when the exposed surface of the rock shows

pitting or smooth corrosion features, When present embedded in a mass of the

feldspathic material, quartz and usually also amphibole stand up in positive relief.

This is the one helpful criterion in the field in attempting to Jocate barium-rich

schliers in the gneiss.

The barytic aplitic phase of the gneiss appears to be distributed, in part at

least, along special shear zones in the flaser-gneiss. In some places it passes

rather abruptly into the normal flaser-gneiss with very low BaO content. In

other cases examined there is a progressive transition both m general physical

appearance and in BaO content from the richly-barytic, aplitic variety to the

normal flaser-gneiss.

Tue NATURE OF THE GNEISS IN WHICH THE BARyTic SCHLIERS OCCUR

W. R. Browne, who has dealt petrographically with the rock formations

surrounding Broken Hill, refers to extensive occurrences of rather similar

pmeisses extending with the trend of the country and outcropping both to the east

and to the west of the great Broken Hill ore body. He distinguishes in the field

three variations of this type of rock referred to respectively as the Hanging-Wall-

Gneiss, the Platy Gneiss and the Augen Gneiss. These three forms he regards

as nothing more nor less than phases in the crytallization of an original igneous

magma. He further states “that the augen gneiss and the platy gneiss are igneous

is beyond question.”

Our own observations suggest that in some areas these gneisses may be

sheared migmatites; they are traversed occasionally by fine-grained granitic rocks

which exhibit comparatively little evidence of structural orientation.

Brown quotes chemical analyses of these granitic gneisses. The mean of

three examples typical of the foot-wall and Potosi—Gneiss is given in column LV

of the table on pp. 280-281. The mean-of the Augen—Gnciss and the Platy—Gneiss

is stated in column V of the same table, Both of the above types are potash granites,

the former with a leaning towards granodiorite. Variations of these gneisses,

collected adjacent to the Groken Hill ore body were reported upon by I’. I.

Stillwell; these are more granodioritic, as will be seen by reference to column VI

of the table of analyses, where a mean of four such examples is piven.

In dealing with this class of Gneiss as the host of the aplitic schliers, we refer

to it herein as a sheared or flaser—gneiss.

I TI Itl TV Vv VI VII YIitl

SiO, ac set 49-10 55°12 68+97 66-4 72-04 69-29 35-1 42-0

AIO, 2543-20-72 AS14037 19471573268 25-8

FeO, a. = 0047S HB

reo” ate He19 0-36 3438 5°59 2-61 3-80 — _

Med a aa _— a 1-00 OBS 0-75 1-42 —_— —

CaO HS 1000B 2 PL 30 T

Na,O _- 1-68 1-13 3-14 1+79 2°46 1-56 a O-3

KO 7389 1-28 4BS 4-92 2409 2S

H,O+ |. tee D-35 1-36 (40 1-06 0-84 +12 — —

H,O- a ie (08 {}-22 0-20 0-14 0-18 0-48 — —

I II III IV Vv vi VIL WIIt

co, Wi es _ tr —_ 0-01 0-01 0-08 _ —_

TiO, .. ay, 0-17 0°65 0-10 0:65 0*36 0-64 = om

ZrO, —_ a — a a — _ _—

P,O, 0+06 0-25 0-26 O«19 0-11 — = —

so, 4 — a — a a at =o a

cl ‘ 0-04 a 0-06 tr tt — = a

Be sts ship ar 0-04 2 0-01 a a — — =

MnO __.... ees} 0-005 tr 0-03 0-28 0-03 0-20 — =

BaO a ait 14-72 9+23 0-09 0-10 0:05 — 35:8 25-8

$rO oy tes — tr _ tr tr — _ =

10028 100-26* 100-05 99-917 100-i1¢ 100-20 100-60 99-3

Less O forS & Cl “OZ 02

Total... w. 100526 100-26 100°03 99-91 100:1F 100+20 100°0 99-3

Sp. Gr... Des 2°887 2-806 2-694

*F, CrO;, NiO, Li,0, ¥:O. and CuO absent. fF Cr:Os, NiO, LO, and V2Os absent

$CrsOu NiO, and VsOs absent; LisO. trace.

I, Barium-rich gneiss [5081] from The Piggery, Broken Hill (N.S.W.),

Analysed by E. R. Segnit.

Il. Barium-rich gneiss [B 222] from the western margin of the platy-gneiss

just north of the De Bavay shear zone, Broken Hill (N.S.W,). Analysed

by H. P. White; quoted by Dr. W. R. Browne.

III. The faser-eneiss [5083] adjacent to the aplitic barium-rich schliers, at The

Piggery, Broken Hill. Analysed by E. R. Segnit.

IV. The foot-wall- and potosi-gnciss, Broken Hill; the mean of three analyses,

numbers 1, 3 and 4, of the table quoted by W. R, Browne.

V. The augen-gneiss and platy-gneiss, Broken Hill; the mean of two analyses,

numbers 2 and 3 of the table quoted ky W, R. Browne.

VI. The augen- and platy-gneiss adjacent to the Broken Hill lode; the mean of

four analyses quoted by Dr. F. L. Stillwell.

VII. Celsian of rock [5081 A] calculated to 100% after eliminating contaminating

plagioclase. Analysed by E, R. Segnit (1946).

VIII Calciocelsian mechanically separated from rock [5081]. Analysed by E. R.

Segnit (1946).

PETROGRAPHY OF THE FLASER-GNEISS OF THE Piccery LocALity

Quarts—feldspar—biotite flaser—-gneiss [5083] is a good example of the general

type of gneiss enclosing the aplitic barytic schliers at the Piggery locality. The

specimen was collected about six feet fron a barytic schlier, The schistosity is

strongly defined by the orientation of biotile-rich tracts and intervening quartzo-

feldspathic streaks and lenticular patches. In some portions of the outcrop

typical augen ate deyeloped. Its chemical character is illustrated by an analysis

made by one of us as stated in the table on pp. 280-281.

In the microscope slide the quartz is seen to be in irtegular grains up to

5 mm. in length, elongated parallel ta the direction of foliation of the rack. The

larger individuals usually exhibit undulose extinction. Solid, liquid and gaseous

inclusions are plentiful.

The feldspar is almost entirely plagioclase. It has a tendency to appear in

lens-shaped masses, one ot two centimetres in length, composed of smaller equi-

282

granular individuals averaging about 1 mm, diameter, These plagioclase grains

exhibit albite, and occasionally pericline and Carlsbad twinning, In a small

degree, stricitization is evidenced m some instances. The optical characters of

this plagioclase are: 2V = 89°; sign, negative; X’ A 1010 max.) = 18°. Thus

it is an andesine of composition An, ,Ab,,.

Biotite is abundantly represented in the slides of this rock, appearing usually

us lens-shaped aggregates parallel to the foliation. The small flakes of biotite

tend to accord with the foliation but may lie in any direction. In size individual

flakes rarely exceed 1 mm.x0°5 inm, It is a dark variety with strong pleo-

chroism, X = pale yellow-brown, Y= Z—= deep red-brown.

A little black iron-ore, apatite and zircon are present as accessories. The

latter is usually included in the biotite and exhibits pleochroic haloes.

The granodioritic character of this gneiss is borne out by the analysis which

shows it to be related more nearly to the augen— and platy—gneisses recorded by

Stillwell from locations adjacent to the Broken Hill Lode than to those recorded

ty Browne from elsewhere in the district (see table, pp. 280-281). It is probable

that the relative abundance of orthoclase and plagioclase in these gneisses varies

considerably even in neighbouring areas. However, we have established that the

gneiss at the Piggery adjacent to the barium-rich rocks is granodioritic in

character. It will be observed that the barium content, namely BaQ = 0-09%,

is notable, but probably not much greater than is normal in such rocks.

Another example of the flaser-gneiss, tock [5930], collected some 20 yards

from [5083], exhibits marked augen-steucture, It occasionally encloses streaks,

mainly composed of garnet and biotite,

A further example is rock [5932]. resembling [5083]. It was collected

within 4 feet of a barytic schlicr. This ts found to contain 0°29% BaO, which

is a notable increase on that of [5083].

PETROGRAPHY OF THE BARIUM-RICH APLITIC GNEISSES

A petrological study of specimens from the yarious outcrops indicates thai,

when considering the barium minerals contained therein, the barytic—gneisses of

the locality naturally fall into the following three groups:

I, Those containing 8% to 15% of BaQ. In these the barium minerals are

chiefly celsian and calciocelsian. In exceptional cases rocks containing

celsian or calcivocelsian from this locality may contain a yet lower BaQ

content.

II. Those containing 4% to 7% BaQ. The barium mineral in these is chiefly

hyalophane,

Ili. Those with lower amounts of BaO. In these the barium is taken up in

the structure of the plagioclase,

Group |

Herein comprised ate light-coloured gneisses, bearing only a small amount

of dark ferromagnesian constituents, which may be either hornblende or biotite.

The BaD content in these ranges from 8°04% in [5948] to 14:72% in [5081],

Rocks [5080] and [5081] were collected from the same spot marked A on

the plan (p, 279) and differ only in that [5080] contains even less ferromagme-

sian constituent than [5081]. There are occasional streaks of black biotite along

the shear planes of the gneiss. Elsewhere the rock presents a white alabaster-like

appearance, The former, [5080], was found to contain 12°65% BaQ, while the

283

latter, [5082], carries the record amount of 14°72% BaO. The feldspars of the

weathered surface of these rocks exhibit corrasion effects, indicating that they

weather more readily than normal feldspars. A petrological description of [5081 |

will suffice to illustrate the character of both specimens,

Calctacelsian—bytomnite—quartz—biotite-queisses

Rock [5081] is mainly an cquigranular mass of feldspar with subordinate

quartz and a small but variable amount of biotite which is directed in conformity

with the foliation of the adjacent gneisses,

The feldspars which constitute about 85% of the rock are of two distinct

varieties. These two feldspars govern the structure of the rock, forming an

equigranular mass, the individual crystal grains having rough irregular boun-

daries. The average grain size is of the order of 0-5 mm.

The more abundant of these feldspars is a variety of celsian, containing

about 4% CaO. The composition and optical properties of this variety dis-

tinguished as calciocelsian have heen described elsewhere by one of us (Segnit).

It now suffices to mention only that in thin section, it is quite clear and untwinned,

tarely showing cleavages and determined only with difficulty by subjecting to

both chemical and optical investigations, a heavy-mincral fraction separated from a

crushed. sample of the rock.

The second variety of feldspar is a plagioclase, [requently twinned on one

or both of the albite or pericline laws, Examples of other twin laws were sought,

but not found. Except when twinned this feldspar cannot be distinguished at

sight from the calciocelsian. Its ascertained characters are 2V = 80°; sign, nega-

tive; extinction angle X’ -\ O10 in section normal to 001 = 45°; these are the

characters of a bytownite of composition Ab,,An,,-

Quartz occurs in rather smaller grains than the feldspar; these are frequently

rounded, The norm indicates its presence to the extent of about 10%.

The biotite is the common red-brown variety; strongly pleochroic X = pale

straw colour, Y = Z= dark red-brown, It most commonly forms clusters of

small flakes, with which are associated the bulk of the accessory minerals. ‘These

comprise sphene, ilmenite, zircon, apatite and a little muscovite and orthite. Some

of the thnenite is replaced by fine granular sphene, and in these cases. expansiow

resulting therefrom has developed a system of radial cracks in the surrounding

feldspar. Similar radial cracks mantle the grains of orthite,

The chemical analysis of silicate rocks with so high a barium content presents

features requiring special attention and method, otherwise the barium recorded

may be grossly in error. Irregularities arising during the analysis of these barium-

rich rocks and minerals caused one of us (Segnit, 1946) to publish a short note

om methods to be adopted to ensure accuracy in such determinations.

A chemical analysis of [5081] is given in the table on pp, 280-281, which js

approximately equivalent to the following percentage (weight) composition;

Celsian 35°6, orthoclase 3:9, albite 13-8, anorthite 37-0, quartz 9-0, apatite 0°3,

black iron ores (ilmenite and magnetite) O-4, No pyrite is visible in the rock.

It is likely that the sulphur and the excess chlorine are present as adventitious

traces of chlonde and sulphate from the scepage of surface water into the rock

outcrop,

Rock [5939] cortains 9-399 TBaO. It is a light-coloured gneiss streaked

with only a very little coloured mineral, biotite, The weathered surface is

torroded, rendering obvious a small amount uf quartz raised in positive relief.

284

In microscope slide, calciocelsian is observed to be the principal mineral, with

which is associated some quartz irregularly distributed. Red-brown biotite is

fairly plentiful, and in places is seen to be changing its character with the libera-

tion of colourless dust-like sphene. In view of the fact that so much of the

harium is not acid soluble, it is probable that hyalophane is also present.

Of the accessory minerals clove-brown sphene is abundant; in some cases

the sphence has a core of black iron-ofe, probably ilmenite. Colourless apatite is

not an uncommon constituent.

Calciocelsion—bytownite—quartz—horablende—gneisses

Other rocks of this group, but containing hornblende as the ferromagnesian

mineral, are [5944], [5941], [5942], and [5948], These are generally similar

to the foregoing but carry hornblende which stands in relief on the weathered

surface in streaks and lenticles up to 3 cm. long, parallel to the foliation, Tiny

pink garnets also may be present.

Rock [5944], which is represeniative of the others, will be considered at

some length. The face of the hand-specimen is corroded by weathering and

exhibits a streaked gneissic appearance.

A microscopic examination reveals that feldspar, the chief mineral, forms

granular aggregates of interlocking individuals of very irregular outline, The

BaQ content of this rock was found to be 10-889 and it is almost completely acid

soluble, as in rock [5081]. This suggests the presence of a barium feldspar like

that of the latter rock, but no distinction can be made by optical means between

any of the feldspars of the slide except that a few show fine multiple twinning.

Most of the untwinned feldspar, like the calcincelsian of [5081], shows little or

no cleavage. On this evidence the feldspars present are considered to be similar

to those in rock [5081], namely calciocelsian and plagioclase.

Further investigation by chemical means is limited by the interlocking

granular and sieve structure of the rock being such that effective separation of

the constituent minerals by mechanical means. is almost impossible. Very little

twinning of the feldspars is observable in the slide. Sections showing one or two

good cleavages were examined on the Universal-Stage. ‘These proved to be

plagioclase of negative sign and 2V = 85°, indicating Ab,,Ang, bytownite. THis

finding was verified by the position of the 001 cleavage pole when superimposed

on Emmon’s graphs.

The quartz occurs in large irtegular crystal grains included in the feldspar.

The hornblende is strongly pleochroic. Its characters are; 2V = 79°, sign,

negative; Z/\c—= 18"; pleochro’sm, X= very pale green, ¥Y—=green, Z==

blue-green, The hornblende individuals lie athwart the foliae of the rock, They

often contait patches of dark inclusions, which appear to be the relics of original

biotite from which the hornblende has been formed. Dark brown haloes are

developed around small inctuded crystals of zircon and orthite, The apatite alse

gives rise to less. pronounced haloes,

_ OF accessory finerals, brown pleochrojc sphene is the most notable con-

stituent. Orthite 1s common; it is always altered, expansion during the process

causing radial cracks in the enveloping feldspar and hornblende. Apatite and

zircon ure less common.

Zaisite, secondarily developed, occurs as smal! erystal grains scattered irregu-

larly through the rock, Garnet appears occasionally as larger subhedral crystals,

Rock [5491] contains 11-21% BaO. It is rich in calciocelsian, Ouite

rarely scraps of primary white mica appear. Grains of brown sphene are pleni-

ful, Secondary zolsite is fairly abundant and there is some clinozoisite.

285

Rock [5942] contains 11'18% BaOQ. Calciocelsian and plagioclase are the

principal constituents, but quartz grains are in notable quantity. Brown sphene

and a little garnet are the most obvious accessories, while apatite and zircon are

also present.

Rock [5943] has a mineral constitution similar to [5944], though containing

somewhat less celsian. In it, however, there is a well-developed augen structure

as in the general gneiss of the locality,

Rock [5948] contains 8°04% RaQ. It is very light-coloured with occasional

faint streaks of dark amphibole. Microscopic investigation shows that the

abundant calciocelsian and plagioclase have undergone mechanical shattering and

are presented as fine granules. The amphibole, present in the slide as individuals

up to 1°75 mm. in length, has rather unusual pleochroic colours, namely yellow,

yellowish-green and yellowish-blue. Sphene in fragmerits up lo 1:5 mm. long 1s

plentiful. Odd apatites up to 1°5 mm. in length and occasional crystals of faintly

pink garnet up to 0-5 mm. diameter are to be observed.

Celsian—b ylownite-quarla—hornblende—gueisses

Rock [5O81A] exhibits flat gneissic banding in the hand-specimen and con-

tains 11-79% BaO. Though generally similar in outward appearance to the fore-

going, it differs therefrom in that it contains ordinary celsian.

Viewed under the microscope: it is seen to be att even-grained rock, of grain-

sizé about O-2 nm. Feldspar constittites 85 to 90% of the rock, the other 10 to

18% being chiefly quartz and hornblende. The two feldspars present, plagio-

clase and celsian, are both quite unaltered and practically indistinguishable in =

cursory microscopical examination.

The plagioclase, though rarely twinned, is found conforming to the albite

and peticline laws. The optic axial angle (2V) 1s 82° and the sign is negutive;

this, together with the high extinction angles of the albite twins, indicates 2

bytownite of composition Ab,,An,,.

The celsian is perfectly clear and untwinned. It commonly exhibits two

perfect cleavages at 90°. The optical properties are: 2V = 88°; sign, negative;

RI. a= 1579, B=1°583; y — 1588; ZAa—28°; Y=b. During the

examination of the slide of the universal-stage, about one crystal in three was

found Lo be celsian, This amount would account for the total BaO corlent of

the rock,

The hornblende, which is concentrated along gneissic bands: in the rock, ts 4

green variety with strong pleochroism; X= pale greenish-yellow, Y — dark

green, Z= blue-green,

Accessory mincrals are plentiful, They include epidote, sphene, garnet,

zpatite, zircon, orthite, chlorite, biotite and muscovite.

Rock [5937] contains 4-54% of BaO, practically all of which is acid soluble;

it is therefore present as celsian or calciocelsian, The barium content is lower

than usual for rock of this locality bearing stich minerals. This is to be explained

by the greater abundance of quartz and amphibole with reduction im the feldspar

content, The ferro-magnesian mineral is hornblende, the presence of which

renders more obvious the gneissic character of the rack.

Rock [5933] is a granular mass mainly of small equigranular particles but

includes some. larger straggling grains of quartz. Sieve stricture is well evi-

denced, especially in the case of the garnet.

The niinerals present are chiefly feldspars of which celsian js much in evi-

denee, and there is very little ordinary plagioclase, Hyalophane appears also to

286

be present, Quartz is the next most abundant constituent but is mainly in large

irregular masses, though small grains are infrequently met with among the

granular feldspars. Bluish-green amphibole is the principal coloured constituent,

though scraps of biotite are in evidence,

Light pink garnet is a rather abundant accessory and apatite is present in

quite notable amount. Original ilmenite has changed to grantlar sphene and

some fiagnetite. Orthite occurs sparingly in very tiny grains,

Grour [I

The barium-rich gneisses of this group contain from 4 to 7% BaO. In

these, hyalaphane is the chief barium-containing mineral. Rocks [5945] and

[5938] fall into this group.

Aplitic hyalophane—bytownite—mica-gneiss

Rock [5945] contains 7°06% BaO,. It is a grey, fine and even-grained rock

traversed by occasional white veins 3 or 4 mm. wide. The weathered surface

exhibits smooth areas. the result of corrosion. It is composed altnost entirely of

feldspar of which there are two varieties, namely plagioclase and hyalophane,

present in about equal amounts.

In microscopic examination, the plagioclase is observed to form compara-

tively large irregular individuals (up to 1°5 mm. in length) in which are abundant

inclusions. Some degree of secondary change is evidenced which has resulted in

the development of an opaque white alteration product. Twinning is hot common

nor is it clearly shown; but a high extinction angle in albite twins is indicated.

This, combined with a 2V of -87°, indicates that the composition is about

Ab, An).

The hyalophane forms a much finer equigranular aggregate among the

larger plagioclase. The average grain-size is about O'2 mm. It is clear, rarely

twinned or cleaved and presents an appearance very like that of quartz, The

DR. is low. 2V =—-76°, and the RL. is about 1:54. Most of the crystals exhibit

minor zoning phenomena, Early im its investigation, the fact that the barium in

this rock is not present in the form of celsian was demonstrated by the fact thet

it cannot be extracted by acid.

The rest of the rock is made up of small flakes of muscovite and biotite,

together with occasional crystals of apatite, sphene, zircon and black iron-ore,

The white veins obvious in the hand-specimen appear to be the channels along

which alteration has taken place. The material of these veins is characterised by

a relative abundance of the white opaque alteration product of the plagioclase,

Aplilie hyalophane-labradorite-quatts-qneiss

Rock [5938] contains 4°64% BaQ. It is rather different from the preceding

in that it Is porcelain-white in colour and contains dark specks and grains of black

iron-ore. However, the blk of the rock is constituted of plagioclase, quartz and

hyalophane.

Microscopic observations show the plagioclase to be well twinned on the

albite law, the maximum symmetrical extinction angle (X’ A O10) being 45°,

indicating a composition Ab,,An,,.; this is closely in accord with that indicated

by the optic axial angle determined as -88°.

The hyalophane is untwinned and can be distinguished from the quartz by

a slight difference in relief and by the fact that perthitic intergrowths are not

uncommanty to be seen growing into the edges of the crystals, which are up to

1 mm. in diameter. The optic axial angle 2V is -77°, which, according to

287

Winchell, indicates a composition of about Or,,Cn,;. Quarlz, containing

abundant inclusions, is plentiful, while the only other accessory constituents are

ilmenite and sphene.

Grove ITt

Rocks of this group have a BaO content of less than 3% and generally tess

than 2%. Here the quantity of barium present is so small that it has been taken

into the plagioclase framework, thus presenting barium~plagioclases. Rocks

[5936], [5080A], [5934] and [5935] are of this group.

Barium-plagioclase—quartz—hornblende-gnetsses

Rock [5936] contains 2°22% BaO, and is light grey streaked with a moderate

amount of dark amphibole.

Under the microscope the average grain-size is observed to be about 0:75 mm,

Feldspar and quartz, the former predominating, are the main constituents. Brown

sphene is abundarit, as well as smaller amounts of ilmenite, hornblende, biotite,

chlorite and epidote.

The plagioclase is well twinned on both the albite and pericline Jaws. It has

the following optical characters: 2V =S9°; sign, negative; X‘ A O10 (max.)

= 45°. The composition thus indicated, respectively by the 2V value and by the

extinction angle, is Ab,,An,, and Ab,,An,,. This variation is probably due to

instrumental error, rather than the effect of the barium content: ( |5080A]

shows no such yariation). The plagioclase ig quite tnaltered, occurring it

anhedral crystals which show a tendency to elongation parallel to the gneissic

foliation of the rack.

The quartz comtains an abundance of minute inclusions, imparting to it a

cloudy appearance, It frequently appears as large individuals, markedly elongated

in the direction of foliation. One such crystal observed measures 5°5 mm. by

1-3 mm. It also appears as small rounded grains distributed through the feldspar.

Rock [5080A], which contains 1-44% BaO, is similar to the foregoing but

differs in several respects. The feldspar is cloudy, due, partly to alteration pro-

ducts, partly to inclusions, Its optical characters are: 2V = 86°; sign, negative;

X’ A O10 (max.) =45°. In the case of normal plagioclase these figures would

indicate a composition Ab,.An.

BS 75"

Quartz is a little more abundant than in tock [5936], but the chief difference

is in the accessories. Of these latter sphene, biotite and hornblende are rare;

muscovite and black iron-ore are more common,

Rock [5934] is somewhat similar in appearance to [5938] but contains only

0:80% BaO. In microscope section it differs only in a relative paucity of quartz

and in the nature of the aceessory minerals. Of the latter the most important is

ilmemite, which appears in small grains surrounded by light-coloured granular

sphene. Rutile occurs im the centre of some of the larger grains of ilmenite.

Other accessory minerals present include zircon, muscovite, clinozoisite, orthite

and apatite.

The feldspar is generally twinned but albite and pericline types only are

present, The optical character are; 2V = 854°; sign, negative, X’ .\ 010

(normal to 001) = 41°, Thus it is a bytownite containing 2 or 3% of the celsian

molecule. Referred to the plagioclase series it approximates to Ab,,Ang,.

Barytic bytownite—quarts—biatite—yneiss

Containing 0°62% BaO, rock [5935] differs from the three preceding rocks

in being of finer grain (average about 0°3 mm.). It is a light grey, even, fine-

288

Prained rock. The weathered surface is fairly smooth but the feldspars are not so

depressed by corrosion as is usual in the high-barium racks of the locality.

It is made up chiefly of feldspar, which appears as irregular grains with

suturéd houndaries. Twinning is mainly a fine albite type, burt is rare. The

value of ZV is 80°, indicating a bytownite (containing, of course, a Jittlhe BaO)

of composition about Ab,,An,,. There is a patchy distribution of fine, irregular,

sieve-like intergrowths of quartz and feldspar.

Quartz is not very abundant, Of the minor constituents sphene is again

notable; biotite is present in small amount, but hornblende is absent; a little

apatite, orthite, zircon and black iroh-ore are present.

PETROGRAPHY OF THE AMPHIBOLITES OF THE Piccery Locaniry

Amphibolite [5082] is a tather typical example of the outcrop just east of

the main barytic belt, It is an eyen, medium-grained, very dark grey to black,

foliated rack found to contain 0:04% BaQ. In the hand-specimen there is a

strongly marked schistcse arrangement of the amphibole.

About half the area of the slide is feldspar; the rest is chiefly amphibole and

pyroxene, the former predominating. Just a little quartz is also present.

Plagioclase is in compact grains mostly under O35 mm. diameter. Jt is

usually twinned rather coarsely on the albite law; also ala A and ala B twinning

are to be observed. No example of pericline twinning is observable in the slide.

Optical determinations gave ZV = 83° ; sign, negative; X’ “\ O10 (normal to 001}

= 40°, The feldspar is thus a bytownite of composition Ab,,An,,.

The amphibole and pyroxene form somewhat larger and more irregular

étystals than the plagioclase, They are evenly distributed throughout the rock-

The amphibole is a light brawn variety with the following optical characters!

2V = 85°; sign, negative; D.R. = 0-022; Z Ac= 174°. Pleochrotsm X — nearly

colourless, Y= Z—light brown, Small zircons are sometimes inclitded atl

these have developed dark green pleochroic haloes.

The pyroxene is colourless or cloudy in section; it hay a high RL, giving it

a marked relief. Optical characters determined are 2V —56°; sign, positive;

DR. = 0-022; Z Ac= 40°. There is evidence that in part at least this pyroxene

has been made over to the amphibole.

There is present accessory black iron-ore, probably ilmenite, siirrounded hy

coloutless granular sphene,

Rock [5946] appears, in the hand-specimen, to be a variant of [5082]. Tr

contains a small proportion only of plagioclase whose composition is Ab, ,Ang,-

Tt is constituted of about 75% of amphibole. In this rock the breakdown of the

brown hornblende to actinolitic amphibole has proceeded very far, so that only

cores of the original mineral are to be observed.

Amphibolite [5079] is another modification of [5082] and is much finer in

grain. Colour, dari grey. ‘The BaO content is 0°09, Thete is no obvious

schistnsity in the hand-specimen, Relict structure discernible suggests that it is

the metamorphic equivalent of an original basic gabbro, Microscopic examina-

tion reveals that the plagioclase is very similar to that of rock [5082]. Its optical

properties were found to be 2V = 80°; sign, negative; X* A 010 (normal 001)

= 42°; thus it is a bytownite of composition Ab,,An,,. Twinning is. chiefly on

the albite law, rarely on pericline and ala laws.

The amphibole is in large connected aggregates of very small individuals.

It appears to have originated from the breaking down of the brown amphibole

289

which is to be seen in process of alteration in rocks [5946] and [5947]. This

secondary amphibole is a pale green actinolite with the following characters:

2V = 82°; sign, negative; Z Ac=20° (approx.). Pleochroism: X= colour-

less; ¥Y = Z= pale green.

Garnet is present in very abundant small rounded crystals, scattered chiefly

through the amphibole. Magnetite, chlorite and a little apatite are also present.

Rock [5947], collected 50 yards east of the main barytic schlier, is a type

intermediate between [5079] and [5082]. It is similar in appearance to the latter

but contains. no pyroxene. The amphibole is present in two forms, of which the

brown variety represented in [5082] is most abundant. In places the margins

of the latter are seer’ to be changing over to a colourless to pale amphibole of the

nature of tremolite or light-coloured actinolite comparable to that in rock [5079].

Plagioclase is Jess abundant than in the earlier described amphibolites,

Rock [5931] is a very fine-grained black variety oceurring to the north-west

of the barytic area, In the microscope slide it is seen to have a relict dolerite

structure but original pyroxene has been entirely converted to actinolitic amphi-

bole with pleochroism: yellow, yellow-gteen and bltte-green, Original ilmenite

has been converted to sphene and magnetite.

THE DE BAVAY FAULT ZONE LOCALITY

Though not exhaustively examined we succeeded in locating in this neigh-

bourhood only limited outcrops of barytic gneiss, none of which proved to be as

rich in BaO as some of those from the Piggery, Further, it is to be noted that

none of our samples from this area was found to contain as much barium as that

collected by the N.S.W. Mines Department and analysed by H. P. White.

There is here a wide outcrop of flaser-gneiss with occasional aplitic schliers,

oné at least of which carries a notable barium content. Amphibolites cutting the

gneiss are again met with; also towards the eastern side of the area there are local

natrow outcrops of an epidote, clinozoisite rock. The latter appear to have been

derived from an original basic igneous rock. Petrological notes on these various

types are as follows,

Quartzo—Feldspathic Rocks containing Barium

Included here are [5957], [5959], [5956] and [5958] collected in the south-

etn section of Mineral Lease 134,

Rock [5957], which contains 0°68% BaO, is a light to medium grey and

moderately coarse-grained flaser type of gneiss consisting largely af quartz and

feldspar with a notable development of biotite, ‘The latter appears mainly along

definite foliae, and the rock itself has a tendency to split along these planes,

It 18 variable in grain-size but chicfly constituted of equigranular feldspar

and quartz of about 0-4 mm. diameter; exceptional grains both of quartz and of

feldspar may reach to 6 or 7 mm. in length. The feldspar is frequently twinned

on both the albite and pericline laws. It has an optic axial angle of 80° and nega-

tive sign; thus it is an Ab,,An,, bytownite containing a little barium.

The biotite is strongly pleochroic with X—light yellow-hrown, Y =Z

=dark brown, Accessories are rather plentiful. Small grains of an epidote

mineral are most comiton, but there are present alsu a little apatite, chlorite,

muscovite atid black iron-ore.

Rock [5959], containing 0:64% BaO, is very fine-grained and darker

coloured than the preceding. It exhibits schistose structure and, hke the fore-

290

going, is composed of quartz, feldspar and biotite, with the feldspar rather less

plentiful than in the case of rock [5957]. The grains are roughly equidimen-

sional with an average size of about 0-22 mm, While the quartz is clear and free

from inelusions, the feldspar encloses abundant particles of biotite, apatite and

epidote, The feldspar is a barium-containing Ab,,An,, bytownite (2V = 87°),

The biotite is similar to that in rock [5957] but is more abundant, often in clusters

of small fakes.

Rock [5956] contains 2'24% BaO. This is a light-coloured gneiss, studded

with dark spots of actinolitic amphibole and specks of brown sphene, often strung

cut in the direction of schistosity,

In microscope slide the rock is seen to be mainly constituted of basic plagio-

clase, evidently carrying some celsian molecule and quartz. There is also a little

yellow to yellow-green actinolitic amphibole which tusually exhibits sieve struc-

ture and is associated with clinozoisite, Small grains of brown sphene are

abundant, but biotite, garnet, apatite and ilmenite are present in very smail

amount.

Rock [5958] is akin to [5957]. The weathered surface exhibits corrosion

pitting. Jt is mainly composed of quattz and basic plagioclase (probably barytic),

the latter predominating, Yellowish-brown biotite is not uncommon, Amphibole

in blnish-green laths is quite rare. Apatite and minute zircons are present. Tiny

granules of zoisite riddle some areas of the slide and grains of epidote are widely

distritnuited.

Amphibohites

There are in this locality also sore amphibolite intrusions. Examples were

collected near the south-west corner of Mineral Lease 134, Of these rock [5953]

is a coarst-grained yaricty with a marked schistose structure, Some 75% of its

bulk is hornblende, X= light brownish-yellow, Y= Z=—olive-green. The

plagioclase is an Ab,,;An-., bytownite, Accessories are biotite, apatite and black

Iron-ore all in yery small amount,

Rock [5954] is a dark, very fine and even-grained variety penetrated by a

mining shait on the western side of the area. In addition to basic plagioclase

there is much red-brown biotite. Magnetite aud sphene are abundant, while

apatite and faintly pink garnet are a minor feature. This rock appears to be a

meta-basalt.

Epidote—Clinosoisite Rocks

These were collected in Mineral Lease 109 and occur in narrow formations

and local patches in the eastern portion of the area examined.

Rock [5964] is light grey and of high specific gravity for normal silicate

rocks, It was found to contain 0°16% BaO.

Microscopically examined it is an even and fine-grained (0°3 mm,) rack,

composed of mineral grains exhibiting little tendency to develop crystal outlines.

There is present, but in subordinate amount only, a finely twinned basic plagio-

clase which ,however, in some ateas has undergone considerable alteration with

the development of coarse sericite,

Epidote minerals are very abundant and are present in two forms which are

indistineuishable mn ordinary light. Optic axial angle measurements were made

on a number of these, with the result that both epidote of 2V = ('—) 82° and

clinozoisite of 2V = (-+-) 824° were found to be present, each in relatively large

amounts. This is further indicated by the fact that many crystals show a high

D.R. and others show anomalous blue tints,

Fas)

Rounded grains of light brown sphene are quite common. Also black iron-

ore and chlorite are present.

Rock [5961] is very light grey and fine-grained, In microscope slide it is

found ta be composed almost entirely of zoisit. Yery small amounts of quartz,

sericite and chlorite are present,

Rock [5963] is an even, fine-grained, zoisite—clinozoisite-hornblende-plagiv-

elase variety. It bleaches to a very light grey celotr in the more highly zvisitise:!

areas, contrasting strongly with the darker colour of the original rock.

SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTION OF BARIUM IN THE ROCKS

The average barium content of the Earth’s crust is given (Clark) as 0-05%.

An overall average in the case of first-class analyses listed by Washington recard-

ing BaO is approximately 0:10%. In the case of normal basic rocks the BaO

enntent averages about 0'03%, but some groups of basic composition average as

high as 0°06%. Average granites contain about 0'08% BaQO, but an aplitic granite

group listed by Washington contains an average of 0°12%, Washington records

aplites containing as mitich as 0°30% and quotes an alaskite porphyry as contain-

ing 060%. Furthermore, magmas of some localities may be exceptionally rich

in barium; for instance a group of alaskites from Yellowstone average 0'28%0-

O¥ the rhyolites and granitic rocks of South Australia that have been analysed

for BaQ, the average is low, only about 005%. A surprising case is an abhitite

from Miltalie (see Jack, 1914), which is stated to contain 2°04% BaQ, The

aplitic granites of the Giant’s Head locality, Umberatana, South Australia,

recently analysed have no appreciable KaQ content. In the case of melaphyres

and amphibolites, several examples from South Australia average 0:05%.

In relation to the above it is interesting to make a comparison with the

barium content of rocks from the Piggery and De Bavay Shear Zone localities

of Broken Hill and of rocks associated therewith.

The average RaQ content, based on published analyses (see p. 280-281) of the

associated Broker Hill racks works. out at 0-10% in the case of the Foot-Wall and

Potosi Gneiss and 0°03% in ihe case of the Augen- and Platy-Gneiss,

The table on p, 292 summarises the barium content of rocks collected by

us from the barium-rich outcrops and in their immediate vicinity. The exact

Incalities of all the rocks specified by numbers were entered upon a sketch plan

which, unfortunately, was subsequently lost, However, it can be stated that 1hose

front the Piggery locality, except representatives of the general Aaser—gnciss, the

amphibolites and the pegimatite were tiken at regular intervals throughout the

full extent of the outcrops of the aplitic harytic gneiss, and therefore give a good

gencral idea of the degree of variation both in barium content and petralogical

character of the entire formation,

Tt will be observed that whereas very high barium values were obtained in

the case of aplitic phases of the Aaser—gneiss, a normal flaser-«gneiss collected

near the batytic aplitic bodies ai the Piggery was [ound to contain only 0°09%

BaO, and even less where further away; a sample collected nearer to the barytic

aplite contains 0°29% BaO. The amphibolites of the Piggery locality have a

BaO content ranging from 0°04% to 0-09%,

The feldspar of a coarse granitic pegmatite which intersects both the barium-

tich aplitic gneiss and the general flaser-gneiss, was found to contain 0-28% BaO,

292

Barium Conrent or Rocks rROoM THE PiccErY AND De Bavay

FAULT ZONE

BaO content: BaO content:

Rock percentage percentage

Number Total Acid Soluble Type of Rock

5079 0-09 0°08 Amphihbolite

5080 12-65 11:9 Aplitic calciocelsian-bytownite-quartz—gneiss

5080A 1-44 0-66 Barium—plagioclase-~quartz—horntlende—gneiss

5081 14°72 12-9 Calciocelsian—quartz—biotite-gneiss

5081A 11-79 i1-1 Celsian—by townite-quartz—-hornblende—gneiss

5082 0-04 — Amphiholite

5083 0-09 _ Flaser—cnieiss

5930 0-04 — Augen-gneias

5932 0:29 _ Flaser-gneiss

5933 10-03 5+1 Celsian—plagioclase+quartz—hornblende-garnet-gneiss

5934 0-80 G-32 Baritim—plagioclase—quartz—hornblende—-gneiss

5935 0-62 O53 Barytic bytawnite—quartz—biotite-gneiss

5936 2:22 1-8 Batium—plagioclase-quartz—hornblende—gneiss

5937 4-00 — Ce'sian—-bytownite—quartz—~hornblende-gneiss

5938 4-64 1-4 Aplitic hyalophane—-labradorite-quartz-gneiss

5939 9-39 4-9 Calciocetsian—bytownite—quartz—biotite-gneiss

5941 11-21 105 Calciocelsian—bytownite-quartz-biotite-gneiss

5942 11-18 9-4 Calciocelsian-by townite—quariz—biotite-garnet-gneiss

5944 10-88 108 Calciocelsian—bytownite-quartz-horablendc-gneiss

5945 7-06 0-96 Aplitic hyalophane-bytownite-mica—gneiss

5948 8-4 7-00 Calciocelsian—bytownite-quartz—-hornblende-gneiss

5950 0-16 — Aplitic labradorite-quartz—gneiss

5952 4-08 — Calciucelsian—bytownite—quartz—mica-schist

5956 2-24 0-60 Barium plagioclase-hornblende-quartz—clinzoisite—

pneiss

5957 0-68 “59 Barytic flaser—gneiss

5959 0-64 — Bytownite-quartz—biotite-gneiss

5964 G-16 —_— Epidote-clinozoisite rock

0-28 — Feldspar of pegmatite cutting the flaser-gneiss

The barium-rich aplitic rocks of Broken TUll, in part at least, appear to

occupy minor shear zones and were probably introduced as late crystallising frac-

tion of the granodioritic magma of the area,

Both the aplitic schliers and the general body of the gneiss appear to have

undergone an equal amoint of shearing, thorigh in the case of the aplitie rock

evidence of foliation shows up less in the hand-specimen owing to the compara-

itve absence of directed particles of coloured constituents.

Amphibolites at the Piggery locality cut across the direction of foliation of

the acid gneisses. They contain only a normal quantity of barium. Thus we have

no evidence that the baritim-rich schliers bear any genetic relationship to the

amphibolites,

On the other hand, analyses of the granitic gneisses of the neighbourhood

of Broken Hill show, in almost al! cases, an appreciable amount of barium. A

segregation vein in the Foot-Wall—Gneiss of the Zinc Corporation Mine is reported

(Browne) to contain 0°17% BaQ.

We found that while the normal augen-gneiss [5930] of the Piggery locality

collected some distance from the barytic schliers contains only 0°04% BaQO, the

cotresponding flaser—gneiss [5083] collected 6 feet away contained 0'09% BaQO,

while at 4 feet away [5932] it contained 0°29% BaO.

293

Specimens [5952] and [5937], recorded in the field as transitions in type

between the enclosing gneiss and the aplitic gneiss of the barytic schliers, were

found to contain respectively 4°08% and 4:00% BaO thus supporting the conten-

tion that they are, chemically as well as physically, transition types, The margins

of the schliers were fotind to he lower in barium than the central areas,

Usually the more aplitic phases of the gneiss contain a higher barium

content, but this is not always the case, for [5080] (12°65% BaO) and [5080A]

(1-44% BaQ) are both markedly wanting in ferro-magnesium mincrals.

The evidence obtained is strongly in favour of the schlicrs originating as a

differentiate of the granitic magma rather than genctically connected with the

amphibolites,

REFERENCES

Anprews, E. C. 1922 “The Geology of the Broken Hill District” (with two

appendices). Memoir of the Geological Survey of New South Wales;

Geology, No. 8

Browne, W, R. 1922 “Report on the Petrology of the Broken Ilill Region,

excluding the Great I.ode and its immediate vicinity.” Appendix I of

Geology Memoir No. 8 of Geological Survey of N.S.W.

Jace, R. L. 1914 ‘The Geology of the County of Jervois, and portions of the

Counties of Buxton and York, with special reference to Underground

Water Supplies.” Geol. Survey of S, Aust., Bull, No, 3

Larsen, Hurzsut, Griccs, Briz. and Burcess 1929 and 1941 “Igneous Rocks

of the Highwood Mountains.” Bull. Geol, Soc, Amer,, 50 and 52

Nocxotps, S. R., and Zres, E.G. 1933 “On a new Barium Plagioclase Felds-

par.” Min. Mag., 23, 448-457

Secnit, E. R. 1945 “On the Behaviour of Barium in Silicate Analysis.”

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, 311-312

Secnit, E. R. 1946 “Barium Feldspars from Broken IThill, N.S.W.” Min

Mag., 166-174

Sriruweit, F. L. 1922 “The Rocks in the immediate Neighbourhood of the

Broken Hill Lode and their Bearing on its Origin.” Appendix II of

Geology Memoir, No, 8, of the Geol. Survey of N.S.W.

Wasiincton, H. S. 1917 “Chemical Analyses of Igneous Rocks.” U,S.G.S.,

Prof. Paper 99

A FOSSIL SOIL FROM KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By K. H. NORTHCOTE

Summary

In the course of the field operations of the Division of Soils, C.S.I-R., on Kangaroo Island, South

Australia, during 1945, a soil belonging to a monotype series, named the Eleanor Sand, proved to be

of special interest both because of the morphology of its profile and because of its relationship to

the other soils of the Island. It is of interest not only to the pedologist and geologist but also to the

agriculturist in considering soil fertility problems.

294

A FOSSIL SOIL FROM KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By K, Il. Norracore®) (Communicated by J. A. Prescott)

[Read 8 August 1946]

In the course of the ficld operations of the Division of Soils, C.S.LR., on

Kangaroo Island, South Australia, during 1945, a soil belonging to a monotype

series, named the Eleanor Sand, proved to be of special interest both because of

the morphology of its profile and because of its relationship to the other soils

of the Island. It is of interest not only to the pedologist and geologist but also

to the agriculturist in considering soil fertility problems,

In this paper the topographical and vegetational associations, the morphology

of the profile and the origin of the Eleanor Sand are discussed.

The Eleanor Sand, typically, occurs on small, slightly elevated portions of

the lateritic plateau country of Kangaroo Island. These slightly elevated por-

tions af the plateau have suffered only a minimum of the natural erosion endured

by the plateau as a whole. From evidence brought forward it will be seen. that

these arcas represent remnants of the original plateau country.

The vegetation association typical of this sand is dominated by a dwarfed

form of Eucalyptus Baxteri (stringybark)., This association, because of the open

spacing of £, Baxteri, presents a peculiar physiognomy which js in striking con-

trast to the taller, closely grouped stringybark, EZ. Baxteri-E. obliqua associa-

tions of the main plateau soils. Lepfospermum myrsinoides (tea-tree), Adenan-

thos sericea and Platylobium obtusangulum commonly occur, but are only rarely

found on the main areas of the plateau soils.

Table I gives the detailed morphology of a typical profile of the sand.

Taste I

Detailed Morphology of the Eleanor Sand Profile

6-3" AQ Grey fine sand with soine organic matter,

3-7” A2 Light grey fine sand, main root zone.

7-14" A2 Light grey 10 white fine sand.

14-31" Laterite horizon Laterite boulders o¢ conglomerate laterite containing

(pseudo-B horizon) about 10% of brown or yellow-brown fine sand in

small chatinels. The laterite is sandy and con-

cretionary in form. It may be stained dark brown

by organic material on the surface,

31-44" B2 Yellow-brown clay with bands of concretionary

lateritic gravel,

4454" B2 Yelfow-brown clay with red and light grey inclusions,

Sometimes with bands of concretionary lateritic

etavel.

54-60" B-C Mottled red and light. grey sandy clay.

a0+72" c Light grey sandy clay with some yellow and light red

mottlings. Structure of underlying rock may be

preserved.

72” = Decomposing Precambrian sedimentaries.

@) An officer of the Division of Soils, C.S.LR.

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Anst., 70, (2), 1 Dec. 1946

yr)

The sand exhibits the main features suggested by Prescott (1931) as

occurring in a lateritic profile, and he considers that the laterite formations of

Australia are fossil in character. Iurther, it conforms to the profiles described

by Stephens ( 1946) for the “normal lateritic profile” of southern Australia, It

is essentially a podsol with an accessory laterite horizon, The laterite horizon

is lacated on top of the clayey B2 horizons, but does not invariably occur in this

position in related soils. Other bands of lateritic gravel occur at irregular

intervals in the B2 horizons. ‘These bands suggest that there were variations ™m

the level of the watertable during the period of laterisation. The clays of the

B2 horizon have a typically sub-kaolinitic fecl or texture, and the C horizon clays

have a typically kaolinitic texture. The structure of the underlying rock is

frequently preserved in the C horizon,

TABLE It

Laboratory Analyses of the Eleanor Sand‘

Location of sample site es South-western portion Tlundred of Seddon,

Kangaroo Island.

Soil type Te Rus in Eleanor sand

Soil No... a nsth bake 10139 10140 10141 10142 10143 10144 10145 10146

Depth in inches anh ass 3 37 7-1414-31 31-44 44-54 54-60 60-72

Texture z, sass us! S S s nS) Cc c sc s¢

Gravel % >2mm._.... —- — — oi 50. 24

Mechanical analysis of fine

earth % <2mimn—

Coarse sand .... ant aren 24-8 25-0 23-0 22-1 16-1 13-9 12:5 14-6

Fine sand... 4h = 69-9 7-1 74:4 75-2 45-6 40-4 383 52-1

Sit ... sal ies sais 1-3 1-4 «152 1-8 3-6 32 2:0 0-8

Clay ou pate suas 8 45 d-2 6:2 34-7 43-1 46:1 33-3

Proportion coarse to fae sand = 26:74 26:74 24:76 25:75 26:74 26:74 25:75 22:78

T-oss on acid treatment 9% .., 0-3 G2 OL 355 0-7 O82 D3 O-1

Moisture % .... ; ae O-4 O83 O11 19 1-9 2) 21 1-4

Total soluble salts T wit 0-008 0-013 0-008 0-013 0-023 0-020 0-023 G-035

Chlorides, % Cl tee “age 0-002 0-002 0-002 0-003 0-007 0-005 0-007 0-013

Reaction (pH) ee we 5-8 5:2 6+) G1 63 63 f:1 6-0

Table II shows the results of the laboratory examination of one profile

of Eleanor Sand. These analyses were carried out by methods described by

Piper (1942), The mechanical analysis shows that the fine sand is the dominant

fraction in all horizons. Both fine and course sand decrease in amount from

the surface to the deep subsoil. Further, it will be seen that the proporiion of

coarse to fine sand (see Table II) remains practically constant throughont

the profile. The silt content is negligible. Clay is the controlling factor

texturally, in the B and C horizons, although the fine sand is important.

Reaction shows it to be an acid soil, with pI rising slightly in the B horizons.

The analyses for the exchangeable cations (see Table IIT) show that this

soil is low in fertility. The figures for the number of milligram equivalents per

gram of clay are very low in relation to clay content and pli values; they are

about half the value over a similar pH range obtained by Piper (1938) for the

red-hrown earths. Magnesium is the dominant metal ion and calcium is second

in order of importance.

@) All analyses were carried out by the Chemistry Section of the Division of Soils

under the direction of Dr, C. S, Piper.

296

Taste IIL

Exchangeable Cations in the B and C Horizons

Soil No. bs: ne: ae as 10143 10144 10145 10146

Reaction pH _ fae aie 63 63 6-1 6-0

Total metal ions mg, equiv. per

100 grm, soil .- wiles aden 5:48 5-26 §-44 4-13

No, mg. equiy. exch. cations per

germ. clay eee Los oh 0-16 12 0-12 0-12

Percentage of total metal jons—

Ca x. th ns nal Rn 22 22 22 23

Mg ... wi see ian tas 60 63 64 65

1 aris mas te wt * 13 10 9 8

Na .. cis tnt Lt anit 5 5 4 5

The origin of the Eleanor Sand is of special interest. The profile charac-

teristics and the topographical situation definitely suggest that it is a relic of a

former period of laterisation. In recent years evidence has been accumulating

which suggests a Pliocene age for the pedogenesis of Australian laterites (vide

Whitehouse 1940). It is highly feasible that the Eleanor Sand is the remnant

of a “fossil” Pliocene soil, although some of the original surface horizon material

may have been removed. Therefore, it could be classified as a “laferitic residual”

which now appears in podsolic or pseudo-pedsolic form.

Crocker (1946) records that in the vicinity of Mount Taylor and Mount

Stockdale, Kangaroo Island, the lateritic residuals ate overlain by a covering of

grey and white siliceous sands, He considers that the sands are the re-sorted,

leached A horizons of Pleistocene calcareoiis sand dunes, This suggests the possi-

bility that much of the plateau received accessions of blown siliceous sand during

the Pleistocene; since the laterite would undoubtedly guard the subsoil against any

contamination by wind-blown sands, accumulation would have occurred in

the surface (A) horizons. However, evidence brought forward in this paper,

notably. the constant proportion of coarse and fine sands throughout the profile,

shows that all horizons are definitely related and that the surface (A) horizons

did not receive accessions of blown sand. Thus, it appears that the Eleanor Sand

is a relatively undisturbed fossil soil containing a laterite horizon in situ.

It is quite clear in the field that the Eleanor Sand is the immediate precursor

of the main group of plateau soils, the Seddon series, This relationship will be

discussed itt a forthcoming Bulletin of the Division of Soils, C.S.I.R,

The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor

J. A. Prescott, Chief of the Division of Soils, and especially for assistance in the

interpretation of the analytical data,

REFERENCES

Crocker, R. L. 1946 C.S.LR. Division of Soils, Bull. No. 193

Prper, C. S, 1938 Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust., 62, 53-100

Piper, C. S. 1942 “Soil and Plant Analysis.” University of Adelaide.

Prescott, J. A. 1931 Division of Soils, C.S.LR., Bull. No. 52

StepHens, C. G, 1946 “Pedogenesis following the Dissection of Laterite Re-

gions Southern Australia.” Division of Soils, C.S.I1.R. Bull. in press

WuitenHouse, F. W. 1940 Univ. Old. Papers, Dept. Geology, 2, (N.S.), (1)

FORAMINIFERA AND OTHER MICRO-FOSSILS FROM SOME OF THE

TERTIARY DEPOSITS IN THE VICINITY OF ALDINGA BAY, SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

By I. CRESPIN

Summary

This report gives the result of a microscopic examination of a small collection of fossiliferous rocks

made by the writer in 1936 from the glauconite deposits at Maslin Beach, Blanche Point, and of

material collected by Sir Douglas Mawson from the vicinity of Aldinga Bay. Only the micro-fauna

has been investigated as the mega-fossils have been described by many palaeontologists.

297

FORAMINIFERA AND OTHER MICRO-FOSSILS FROM SOME OF THE

TERTIARY DEPOSITS IN THE VICINITY OF ALDINGA BAY,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA)

By I. Cresprn

[Read § August 1946]

This report gives the result of a microscopic examination of a small collec-

tion of fossiliferous rocks made by the writer in 1936 from the glauconite deposits

at Maslin Beach, Blanche Point, and of material collected by Sir Douglas Mawson

from the vicinity of Aldinga Bay. Only the micro-fauna has been investigated

as the mega-fossils have been described by many palacontologists.

There is little doubt that the sediments examined are of Middle Miocene

age and are referable fo the basal part of the Balcombian Stage of the Victorian

Tertiaries. The presence, in some abundance, of certain foraminiferal species in

some samples suggests a correlation with the Longford Substage of the Balcom-

bian (Crespin 1943).

The samples examined are as follows;

1. Whitish bryozoal sandstone from a small Headland, just north of

Aldinga Creek.

2. Yellowish marl fram the same locality as No, 1, but stratigraphically

higher than that sample,

3. Yellowish marl from Cliffs immediately south of Aldinga Creek, about

200 yards north of the jetty, and stratigraphically higher than No. 2.

4, Yellowish marl from Cliffs 12 feet above beach level, several hundred

yards south of jetty, and stratigraphically higher than No. 3.

5. Greenish glauconitic marl, Maslin Beach, Blanche Point,

The micro-faunal content of these rocks and the distribution of species is

given below;

Species Localiites

T'oraMINnIFERA— 2 3 4

Anomalina ammonoides Reuss - - - - - sof

A. glabrata Cushman - - - - - 400 2

A. nonionoides Parr - - - - - ~ ivwt

Astrononion australe Cushman - - - - - -— =

Baggina sp. - ss - - # . -

Bolivina lumbata Brady - - - - - - -

R. victoriane Cushman - = “ - = = - =

Cassidulina subglobosa d’Orb. - - - - - = =

Carpenteria rotaliformis Chapm. & Cresp. - - - =

cet ad lobatulus (W. & J.) - - - - T

C. refulgens (Montf.) - - - - - - =

. ungerianus (d’Orb.) - - & - - I

- i a

{toe |

. victoriensis Chapm., Parr & Collins - = -

. sp. 2 - - - - - - ai

foreom] orn

Cc.

sp.

Denioline fliforonis (d’ Orb.)

D. fissicostata (Gumbel) -

D. obliqua (Linné) - ~ - - - - - =

}

oe ee ee ei a a]

Shipping, Commonwealth of Australia.

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust, 70, (2), 1 Dec, 1946

298

Species Localiites

12 3

D, soluta Reuss - - - = = a > pe

D. sp. - - = = = ~ _ - a

Discorbis orbicularis (Terg.) - - - 7 Sie -

D. sp - - - am 4 c 2 s =

Dorothia parri Cushman - - - + = iff

Eponides concentricum (P. & J. ) - _ - = : _

E. repandus (F, & M.) - “ #4 -

E. cf. scabriculus (Chapman) - - - - 4

Frondicularia sp. nov. - - - - - - -

Gaudryina (Pseudogaudryina) crespinae Cushman - - - -

Glandulina laevigata Reuss - - ~ = - =

Globigerinoides trilobus (Reuss) - - - - <e

Guttulina irregularis (d’Orb.) - - - - - -f

G. lactea (W.& J.) - - = ~ 5 = ——

G. problema (d'Orb.) - - = = ad

G. (Sig gmoidina) silvestri Cush. & Ozawa. - - - —

Gyr idina soldanit (d’Orb.) — - - - tf FS

Heronallenia lingulata (B, & H.) - - - -

H. wilsoni (11. A, & E.) - - = - Tae Oe

cf. Karreriella barbati Cushman - - = # 4

Lagena hexagona Williamson - - - - - - ¢

L, laevis (Monttf.) - - - - > - = +

L. marginata (W, & B.) - - “ = 2 ee

L. suleata (W. & B.) - - ~ - - « Lo %

Lenticulina articulata (Reuss) - - - - - Sa ee

L. gibba (d’Orb.) - - - - A ere

L. rotulata (luam,) - - ‘: - A ia 4 =

L. sp. - - - - - rs = - 1

cf. Massilina torquayensis (Chapm.) - = = . 5 4

Planorbulina mediterranensis d’Orb, - - 4 r -

cf. Planulina wuellerstorfi (Schw.) = - = ~ = =

Discorbinella biconcava (P. & J.) - - i - A

Polystomellina miocenica Cushman - € - + r

Pseudopolymorphina sp. - - = = 5 =

Pyrulina fusiforimis (Roemer) - - - - = = :,

Pyrulina sp. “ - - « = an

Pullenia bulloides (d’ Orb.) - - - = b 255

OQuinqueloculina lamarckiana (d’Orb.) - + - = x

Reussella spinulosa (Reuss) - - - - “= =.

Sherbornina atkinsont Chapman - - = = coc

Sigonidella elegantissima (P. & J. - - a es o« bk

Sigmomorphina cf. batesfordensis Parr & Collins > = 6 +4

S. chapmani (H, A. & E,) - - - = = af te

Sphaeroidina bulloides d’Orb. - - im = = -f

Spirillina inaequalis Brady - - - - = af

Textularia carinata d’Orb. - - - “ « ie

T. cf. flint Cushman - - - = a = =>

T. sagitiula Defr. - - - 4 s = “yy ed

Trifarina bradyi Cushman - 5 a - _ e+ be

Uvigerinella sp. - - - a ¥ 3] Ee. =

Vaginulina legumen (Linné) - - S E: c “ss 2

Verneuilina triquetra (Munster) - - - got cet

ar le Se Pe FO |

oe ee ee

[

ce ee |

Hag

THow ti Ane tL ter]

Ieee leat nrmaaa

is Se ee |

sa |

lmao I

kil S-r4

Species

SPONGIDA—

Ecionema newberyi (McCoy) -

ANTHOZOA—

Mopsea tenisont Chapman -

BryozoA—

Acanthodesia simplex (McG.) -

Adeonellopsis clavata (Stol.) - -

A, obliqua (McG.) - -

A. symmetrica (McG.) -

Cellaria contigua McG. - A

C. depressa Maplestone -

C. gracilis Busk * -

C, rigidia var. perampla Waters

Cellepora coronopus M. Edws. -

Chiastosella daedala (McG.) -

Crisia acropora Busk - -

Ellisinidra profunda (McG.) -

Escharoides erectus Canu & Bassler

Entalophora australis Busk — -

E. longipora McG. - =

Filisparsa orakeiensis Stol. -

Hincksina geminata (Waters) -

Hippomonella abdita (McG.) -

Hornera frondiculata McG. -

H. striata Stache - “

A. sulcata. McG. - -

Idmidronea sp, - - =

Idmonea bifrons Waters -

contorta Buslc : =

I. geminata McG, + *

I, milneana d’Orb. = -

I. trigona McG, - -

I. venusta McG. + -

Lichenopora australis McG. -

Macropora clarke (T. Woods)

M. crassatina (Waters)

Mecynoecia proboscidea (M. Edws.)

Membranipora concamerata Waters

M. macrostoma (Reuss)

Mesonea hochstetteriana (Stol.)

Omoiosia elongata Canu & Bassler

Palmicellaria magna Canu & Bassler

Porina gracilis (McG.) -

P. vertebralis Stol. - -

Retepora aciculifera McG. -

R. porcellana McG, - -

R. rimata Waters - =

Schigolavella phymatopora (Reuss)

Smittina ordinata McG. -

Smittinella tatei (T. Woods) -

Trigonopora vermicularis Maplestone

299

Localiites

- - : - --f¢f

- “ : ete gr 8b

- = - co = Pore

_ = a oe a

x Ly = SS fl ees

- : - a a a

é E M > £=f4

= - ua ee ee

- - - —_ =~ - £

_ L a ee ee

- — - i aaa” Ce om

2 s 5. Ss je pi

- - - + wm Fo £

- = - — ee oe eo

- - : - ---¢

- - - ee es

- - - + > £4?

‘ = = ee fh 24 oF #

- - - - ---¢f

- - - -- € & F *e

‘= = = - ff ~- ¢-or

— - ray ee

- - . - ---f

= = = - =s > 27

- - = -~- r-r-f--

7. e = > 2) 2

A iM “ S Set 2-8

" Fs - L. f& = Q's

A - 2 ean eee

- - - ~ Rito £

- * y 4 ag ce iS

- = = o. Fr Te- =<

+ ° ~- a= Ph mn my AE

= = - ~ Fs £

al * a - 7 7 7 FT

- - - S- ete ete

- 7 _ Ree Sin 9

- - —_ —- FF + FF =

> . > - rereé eft

- A - ~ Foot

- = - ~ = y fF =

- A > - -— f= -4

“J - + 24 75

a 4 e a

~ = < es =—_ = f-

4 * < a et ee

in tan tee al

Db ie T

‘4’ laawtea

360

Species Localiites

Ostracona— 12a45

Bairdia umygdalvides G, S. B. - - = - Ii = =

B. subdeltoidea G. 5, B. ~ - - ° a

Bythocypris tumefacta Chapman - - 7 - =

Cythere demissa G. S, B. - - - i a ——

C. dictyon G. 5, B. - - - - _ > + =

C, lactea G. S, B, - ~ - _ - as Te

C. cf, lautaG. S.B. - - = = - = _—

C. rastromarginata G. SB. - - s a - —s

C. scabrocuneata G, S, B. - - = - s+ 2

Cytherella lata G, S. B. . = - - ~~

C. pulchra G. 5. B.S - . = 7 - z —"

C. punctata G. S. Be - - ° = 3 te ee

C. subfruncata Chapman - - = sf = io

Loxoconcha australis G. S. B. - ~ 4 - - _ a

Macrocypris decora G. $. B. - - - - >

(m1 tm

te ler ate ia

The assemblage of species of foraminifera, sponge spicules, Mupseit,

bryozoa and ostracoda in samples 1 to 5, is typical of that found in the Balcom-

bian Stage of the Middle Miocene in the Victorian Tertiary deposits, certaitt

species of the foraminifera indicating that the beds may be referred to the Long-

ford substage of the Balcombian as developed in Gippsland.

Sir Douglas Mawson has intimated the stratigraphic sequence of samples

1 to 4 from Aldinga Bay, sample 1 being the lowest in the sequence. It would

appeat that sample 5, from Maslin Beach, Blanche Point, with its glauconitic

lithology, forms the base of the section. It is impossible to distinguish any

stratigraphic difference in age of the faunas between samiples 1 to 4 and 5, and

it must be concluded that, based on the micro-faunas, the five samples should be

referred to the same age, 7.2., to the Longford substage of the Balcombian.

(a) ForAminirerA—The foraminiferal assemblage is distinctly Baleombian,

although many of the species range throughout the Middle Miocene up to Recent.

Amongst the species of zonal value is am undescribed Cibicides, referred to as

Cibicides sp. 2, form which is very common in the sediments at Dowd's Quarry

near Longford, Gippsland, the type locality for Longford substage, and which is

present in all the Aldinga samples. An associated form is Polystontellina

miacenica, desctibed by Cushman from Batesford, Victoria. It is typically Bal-

combian in Eastern Victoria,

Qne of the most distinctive foraminiferal species is Sherbarnina aikinsoni,

which is well represented in samples 1, 2, 3 and 4, This form was described by

Chapman fron: Table Cape, Tasmania. It is rare in the Victorian Tertiarics,

one record being from the sample at 856 fect in No. 11 Bore, Ph. Colquhoun

near Lakes Entrance, in beds referable to the Longford subsiage. It has also

been found in South Australia in Culley’s Bore, Hundred of Willunga, between

the depths of 80 and 125 feet, and in a bore at Sellick’s Hill at 260-265 feet,

Other species characteristic of the Balcombian include Gaudryina (Pscudo-

gaudryina) erespinae, Bolivina victoriana, Sigmomorphina chapmani, Guttylina

(Sigmoidina) silvestri, Carpenteria rotaliformis, Ctbicides victoriensis, Heronal-

lenta inguwlata and Spirillina inaequalis, Al\ these forms, except H. lingulata and

JS. inaequalis, were originally described from Balcombian deposits,

} Notes for Nos, 1 to 4 supplicd by Sir Douglas Mawson.

301

(b) Ecionema newberyi and Mopsea tenisoni ate typical Balcombian

fossils. At Dowd’s Quarry, near Longford, spicules of the sponge E. newberyi

are very abundant.

many species can be determined. They are typical of the Balcombian deposits in

Victoria, The only species which was not recorded in Gippsland above the under-

lying Janjukian is Trigonopora vermicularis, which is present in sample 3.

(d) Ostracopa—Although the majority of species of ostracoda are long

ranging, the assemblage is typically Balcombian. Bythocypris tumefacta and

Cytherella subtruncata are the only Miocene species recorded, both being described

by Chapman from the Balcombian deposits in the Mallee Bores.

REFERENCE

Crespin, I 1942 The Stratigraphy of the Tertiary Marine Rocks in Gippsland,

Victoria, Min. Res. Surv. Bull. 9 (Pal. Ser. 4). Mimeographed.

302

COMPOSITION AND GENESIS OF LUNETTES$

By C, G, Stepwens and R. L. Crocker

[Read 8 August 1946]

INTRODUCTIGN

Attention was drawn to special land forms associated with lakes in the

Echuca district and in the Parish of Benjeroop, Victoria, by Harris and Hills

in 1939, Hills proposed a theory for their genesis, and subsequently amplified

this, at the same time giving them the name of Iunettes (Hills 1940).

OF recent years the authors have seen these land forms in all States except

Queensland. They ate a feature in southern Australia and are always associated

with depressions variously termed lakes, lagoons, swamps or pans which are

periodically wet and dry, The present paper deals with the general distribution

of the lunette land form, its characteristics and composition, and introduces new

evidence to indicate that an alternative theory of genesis is possible. The

probable age of the lunettes is also discussed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LUNETTES. ORIGINAL THEORY

OF ORIGIN

Lunettes are essentially low crescentic ridges with smooth even contours

that oecur on the south-eastern to north-eastern sides of depressions which are

frequently drainage terminals. They decrease in elevation towards the north and

south ends. Ir was because of their crescentic outline that the ridges were very

appropriately called lunettes.

There can be little doubt that the ndges have been built up by the dominant

westerly winds, which have played a major role in sand movement in southern

Australia generally (Hills 1939, Crocker 1946), The foreslope of the lunette is

generally steeper than the back slope, and usually provides a smooth clean sweep

for the eastern shore of the lake or depression. This frequently contrasts very

markedly to the irregular western edge (see pl. xlvi, fig. 1).

Hills (1939) quotes a mechanical analysis of “loam” from one of the ridges

described by him as typical and in which the sand fraction (0-5 mm, and over)

was only 6°49%, the “silt” fraction 78-3% and the material soluble in hydro-

chloric acid (chiefly calcium carbonate) 15°3%.

In suggesting the mode of genesis of Junettes, Hills (foc. ctf) considered

that the regular form of the ridges made it improbable that they were products of

aeolian surface drift and saltation. The fact that they were fixed was believed

sufficient to differentiate them from regular sand accumulations like barchans,

and other drift accumulations are usually irregular and hummocky, Further,

Hills says that during the periods when the depression was dry, “The material of

the lake floor is so fine-gtained that much of it would undoubtedly be lifted into

the air by strong winds and it is unlikely it would be redeposited on the lake

shore,” In view of the above, and the mechanical analysis of the typical ridge,

he suggested that lunettes were built up when the lakes and depressions contained

water. He considered they were composed of atmospheric dust “captured by

spray droplets derived from the lake,” and that “the essential feature in all is the

rans. Roy, Soc, 5, Aust., 70, (2), 1 Dec. 1946

303

deposition and retention of atmospheric dust.” The possibility of drift accumu-

Jations from the floor of depression during periods when the lake was dry was

discounted.

Before discussing the ahove theory further, some observations on Iunettes in

various parts of southern Australia will be briefly recorded.

OBSERVATIONS IN VARIOUS STATES

TASMANIA

A study of the soils of the Cressy-Longford district (Stephens, Baldwin and

Hosking 1942) revealed a distribution of lunettes of quite typical form on the

eastern side of a number of lagoons near Little Hampton and Wilmore’s Lane,

These lunettes are coarser textured than those described by Hills, being composed

predominantly of fine sand. Mechanical analyses“) of the Wilmore sandy loam,

the sor developed on the lunettes, are given in Table I.

TaAsLe I

Mechanical analysis of the Wilmore sandy loam

Soil number - - 6613 6614 6615

Depth in inches - - 0-6 6-11 13-27

Horizon - - = Al A2 B

; Yo % %

Coarse sand - - 12:6 14°7 14:7

Fine sand - - - 55+9 5648 52-8

Silt - - - - 10+(0 9-0 SQ

Clay - - - 15+7 16°9 26°6

Loss on acid treatment —- 1-0 0-8 (5

Moisture - - - 1-8 1:3 13

Loss on ignition - - 6-2 4-0 4-0

Reaction (pH) - - 6r1 6-4 7-2

The Little Hampton and Wilmore’s Lane Iunettes are associaled with rem-

nants of a low lateritic tableland, formerly the floor of the Launceston Tertiary

basin—a lower Pliocene formation (Singleton 1941).

Another lunette which has not been closely studied occurs on the eastern side

of Lake Tiberias in the midlands of the State. It is of a sandy nature.

VICTORIA

In addition to the extensive lunettes described by Hills (1939, 1940) and

Harris (1939), others occur. Some of these have been given close attention in

soil surveys, Baldwin, Burvill and Freedman (1939) mapped a number of

lunettes as Soil Type 4, in their survey of part of the Kerang Irrigation District.

These are undoubtedly almost identical with those described by Hills and Harris

for the nearby Swan Hill and Echuca districts. At Kerang Baldwin ef al point

out that “the rises have been stable for a long time and the soil profiles have

reached an advanced stage of maturity.”

Mechanical analysis of a profile of Soil Type 4 is shown in Table II, and

shows that the clay and fine sand fraction predominates,

silt +02—-002 mm. and clay < -002 mm.

304

TABLE IL

Mechanical analysis of Soil Type 4. Kerang

Depth in inches - 0-5 5-10 10-13 13-22 22-36 36-48 48-66 66-84

Texture - - - SL MC LC LC CL cL LC SCL

%o % % Yo Yo % % Yo

Rubble and gravel ~- 0 0 0-7 4+6 1:9 1-9 1-7 0+3

Coarse sand - - 22-9 15*3 11-7 12:3 13-2 12-2 10-4 11-6

Fine sand - - - §5+0 338 25°9 25+7 24-9 24-0 21°3 35-1

Silt - - ~ = 6-9 4-0 36 1-9 3°0 2-7 4+3 4:5

Clay - - - - 13-8 44-1 53+9 52°6 41-2 53°8 53:8 43-0

Moisture - - - 1-2 2:7 4-9 5-2 5-4 5*3 5-3 4-1

Loss on acid treatment 0-7 1+3 1:9 4:0 3:8 4-5 6°5 4-1

Loss on ignition 2 29 4-7 5-3 5:9 51 5-6 6-4 433

Calcium carbonate - 0-01 0-01 0:06 1-41 1-07 2-32 3482 1-91

Total soluble salts - 0+04 0-08 0°38 0°65 0-79 «80-92 092 0-81

Reaction (pH) - - 6-9 777 83 8-6 8-6 8:6 8-6 8-6

New Soutnh WALES

Smith, Herriot and Johnston (1943) have mapped and recognised lunette

formations in the Wakool Irrigation Area. The soil type found on them was

called the Warobyan sandy loam, and the mechanical analysis of a profile from

an eroded site (Table I11), reveals that it is largely composed of fine-textured

material, the sandy loam surface soils being due to normal profile deyelopment.

The old lunette formations “occur in close association with the mallee tises, and

appear to be contemporaneous” (Smith ef al).

Tarte III

Mechanical analysis of an eroded profile of the Warobyan sandy loam

Soil No. - = - - 7311 7312 7313

Depth in inches - - - +23 24-30 30-53

Texture - - - - cL MC MC

Fo %o %

Coarse sand - - - 8-0 52 3-1

Fine sand - - - - 29-9 18-9 16-8

Silt - - = - 79 795 3-0

Clay - - - - 50-0 58-3 65°5

Loss on acid treatment - - 5-1 11:2 12-6

Moisture + - - - 5°7 7:7 8-3

Loss on ignition - - - 8-1 10-1 10-0

Reaction (pH) - - - 8-3 8:3 84

Souta# AUSTRALIA

Lunettes occur in quite a number of localities in South Australia. The Bool

Lagoon region near Naracoorte, the terminal of the Mosquito Creek, consists of

a complex of alternating swamp and Iimette. A soil profile examined on one of

the ridges consisted of a deep coherent sandy loam, almost black in colour. There

is thus evidence that the sand fraction can dominate the composition of these

lunettes. Other lunettes in this region occur at Moyhall Swamp and Lake Roy,

This lalter carries a well-developed soil profile, the upper horizons being charac-

terised by fine sand, and the subsoil by clay (Table 1V).

305

Taste IV

Mechanical analysis of soil from Lake Roy Lunette

Soil Noo - = - ° 8518 8519 8520 8521

Depth in inches - - 0-3 3-10 10-16 16-22

Texture - - - - LS S-SL Cc Cc

Jo % % %o

Coarse sand - - - 9+] 8-3 3:7 2:9

Fine sand - - - - 71-1 74-8 26°6 17-1

Silt <- - - - - 8-2 72 1-9 1-0

Clay - - - - - 8-2 7:7 57*2 67°2

Moisture - = - - 1:0 O06 771 9-4

Loss on acid treatment - 0-7 0-3 1:6 2-0

Loss on ignition -: - 4-1 1-7 72 7°38

Reaction (pH) - - =~ 6-9 7-0 6-9 76

Other lunettes occur in the South-East of South Australia, and some of the

most conspicuous are those south of Kingston, as for example on Ashmore Station.

They have not been closely examined but appear very similar to those on the

Naracoorte-Penola plain, some of which were described in the last paragraph.

An interesting feature of many of the swamps in the Kalangadoo district is the

more loamy texture of the soils on the eastern bank. This is well known locally,

and freely acknowledged and used when choosing sites for crops like potatoes.

There is, however, no development of the true crescentic bank, which charac-

terises the type lunettes.

Lunettes have been observed by Northcote (1946) and others associated with

lagoons and swamps on Kangaroo Island. These vary considerably in texture,

and some are associated with the lateritic tableland.

Two well-marked funettes of a fine texture were recently investigated at

Hutton’s Lagoon and an adjacent depression, at Ucolta, near Peterborough. The

lunette on Hutton’s lagoon is badly eroded and the surface is littered with broken

stone chips. Amongst these aboriginal implements are recognisable, and the

presence of the stones is explained in this way. A soil sample from the eroded

surface is a clay in texture, and its mechanical analysis is given in Table V.

TABLE V.,

Soil number 10765

Retained by Imm. sieve (1mm.) 0-2 5+6

” ” 4 ory i] (0-5 mm.) 1-0

3 ) 40 mesh « (0°38mm.) 0-4 ad

» ww 7 4 LMM, , (018mm.) 4-0 oe

" ” 90 ” ” ” (0-14 mim.) 2:2 19-6

” % “120; it » (0°10mm.) 3-8 6

” ” 200 a” ” o (0-06 mr.) 5-6 nat

Passed through 200 4, it » (0-06mnt:) 8-0 age

Silt 23-0

Clay 36-0

306

Similar lunettes have also been seen at Willochra where the Willochra and

Boolcunda Creeks meet on a plain subject to flooding, and also on the south-

eastern shore of a small lagoon set deeply in a valley of the Flinders Ranges some

six miles west of Hawker,

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

An inspection of the unpublished soil map of the Salmon Gums District

survey (Teakle e¢ at 1935), indicates that the soil mapped as the Red Lake sand

has formed on lunettes, In addition the distribution of the Doust sand, eastward

of, and partially in association with, the Red Lake sand, suggests a contribution

of wind-borne material from the latter. The Red Lake sand is essentially deep

and light-textured with some accumulation of clay in the B horizon, which is,

nevertheless, dominated by the sand fractions.

At Lake Muir, which lies about midway between Mount Barker and Man-

jimup in the jarrah forest zone (rainfall about 30” per annum), there is an

extensive development of a somewhat modified Iunette of very coarse sandy

material, much of the sand being in the vicinity of 2 mm. in diameter. Lake Muir

is on the lateritic tableland.

On the western shores. of Wagin Lake, and Lake Parkeyerring, near Wagin,

there are two lunettes perfect in all topographic features (see pl, xlvi, fig. 2). They

are composed of very coarse sandy material with only a slight development of a

deep-seated B horizon. Mechanical analyses of material from the Wagin Lake

lunette are shown in Table VI.

TABLE VI

Mechanical analyses of soils from the Wagin Lake Lunette @)

Soil number 10762 10763 10764

Description Surface Subsurface Subsoil

Jo Jo %

Retained by 1mm. sieve (1mm,) 3:2 } 80-6 2-0 66+4 2:6 55-6

” % t at >» (0°5mm.) 36-0 coarse 19-6 coarse 23°38 coarse

" ” 40 mesh » (O38mm.) 11-0 sand 10-2 sand 8-2. sand

” ” 70 ,, EMM. , (0-18mm.) 30-4 34-6 21-0

” " 90, ay » (0°14 imm_) 3-4 11-2 &-& 29-8 4-8 22-4

” ” 120 ” > 9 (0-10 mm.) 3-2 fine 12-0 | fine 5-8 fine

” » 200, o> » (0-06mm.) 2-4 sand 8-0 sand 5+8 sand

Passed through 200 ,, 4s (0°06 mm1.) 2:2 3-0 6-0

Silt = = 9°55

Clay — — 12-7

GENESIS OF LUNETTES — A REVIVED THEORY

In discussing the lunettes of the Echuca district Harris (1939) considered

that “silt” blown from the adjacent depression was the probable source of

the ridge material, but he considered the explanation inadequate. Hills (1939),

as stated earlier, believed the material of the lake floors “so fine-grained that

much of it would undoubtedly be lifted into the air by strong winds, and it is

Institute, Adelaide.

307

unlikely that it would be redeposited on the lake shore, for there is no particular

feature there that would cause the dust to be deposited,” and 50 rejected this

mode of origin.

Two important aspects seem to be worthy of further consideration, Firstly,

clay dust is not usually, and certainly not entirely composed of ultimate particles

but of aggregates. A certain size range of aggregates would behave like sand

prains in being transported by saltation and surface drift—especially over a

limited distance. In this way silt and clay particles Irom the lagoon or swamp

bed could readily contribute towards the building of a lunette. The “clay pellets”

he mentions as possible would be closely analogous (Hills 1940). Secondly, the

végelution that would occtir at the edge of a lake depression, be it grass, samphire,

stirubs or trees, could provide the type of surface required ta cause deposition of

wind-transported material (Bagnold 1940, Chepi] 1945). Once this accumiula-

tion had attained even a slight elevation it would continwe to grow, both under ils

pen influence on the wind velocity and because uf any vegetation on the incipient

unette.

There seems no reason, therefore, why the lunettes of finer material (the

“loani ridges”) should not have been the product of saltation and surface creep.

Small qnantittes of fine particles being carried in true suspension could be

expected to be trapped within the accumulation, and locssial accession normal to

the region as a whole would also be contributed.

Itt putting forward his theory for spray-previpitated atmospheric dust as. the

lunette parent material, Hills was no doubt greatly mfluenced by the composition

of lunetces in the Swan Hill district. These are predominantly “silty.” Fineness

of particle size of the lunette material is indeed essential to the atmospheric dust

theory. The extensive occurrences of lunettes in southern Australia made tp of

material of widely differing grain-size, and listed in the foregoing section, indicate

that the silt and loamy nature of those originally described is by no means general.

Indeed, they exhibit a diversily apparently nol suspected by Hills, In many

localities, ¢.g., Cressy-Longford (Tasmania), Lake Roy (South Australia), Wagin

Lake. (Western Australia), lutettes characterised by the sand fraction are by ho

means uncommon.

It is apparent that Iunettes can be silt-clay dominant or sand dominant, an:l

probably every gradation between the two occurs. Any adequate theory of thetr

genesis must be able ta explain the presence of both loam and sand lunettes,

The Wagin (Western Australia) lunette is ideal is cssential icatures with

its erescentic and regular contours and perfect cross-section, but is composed

chiefly of very coarse sandy material (sce Table VI). It provides a key to the

origin of these: land forms and a decisive counter to the spray precipitated atmos-

phere dust theory. The size of atmospheric dust is considered to tange hetween

-000I—-01 mm. (Bagnold 1940), and Beadle (1945) has recently given the pre-

dominant size of particles in New South Wales dust-starms of high turbulence as

-03—-015 mm. The great bulk of the material in the Wagin Lake lunette is of

greater size than this, and obviously could not have been transported entirely in

atmospheric suspension, Some of it is too coarse to be transported by saltation

and was probably moved by surface creep. Moreover the Wagin Junette, like all

those of southern Australia, has been built up under the influence of predominant

westerly winds. These in Western Australia, together with southerly winds, are

the least dust-bearing, coming as they do at Wagin from the ocean and forest

vegetated regions first.

This latter point is of even greater significance in relation to the lunettes of

the South-East of South Australia. Lt is impossible to imagine the westerly and

south-westerly winds as dust-bearing except under extreme aridity in those

308

regions. These latter conditions would conflict with the presence of water in the

lakes and depressions so necessary for the provision of spray in the original

theory,

The presence of multiple lunettes, as those at Benjeroop, was indicated as

proof of the necessity of water. It is difficult to follow this argument. Recession

of the old shore line could have been caused by numerous factors—suddenly

improved vertical drainage, sinkhole development, increase in outlet size, deflec-

3 ’

comm SEALE ——

20 0 40 80 CHAINS

& Del. ROH.

fa -

ENQLA RIAD

gQ 9

Fig. 1

A series of typical lunettes on the Naracoorte-Penola plain.

The crescentic pattern of the lunettes and the regular eastern shore of the

swamps are apparent.

309

tion of drainage course, greater aridity, etc. Such a change would normally be

followed by an encroachment of vegetation to the new shore line, which could

act as a barrier causing discharge of wind-horne material (see pl, xlvit)-

It is seen, therefore, from the foregoing that: (1) lunettes are not necessarily

composed of essentially fitte material {silt and clay)—that is, there are loamy

lunettes and sandy lunettes, and lunettes of intermediate character; (2) that the

loamy lunettes could have been built up by aggregates of silt and clay particles,

which wotild behaye more like sand grains than the ultimate particles of silt and

elay; (3) the material in the sandy types is predominantly of too large diameter to

be carried in suspension as atmospheree dust (loess); (4) that multiple Junettes

ate not proof that the depressions were Full of water during the formation of the

crescetittc mounds, In view of these facts the initia] theory of the genesis of the

Iunette land form is considered inadequate, and it is suggested that lunettes merely

represent accumulation of wind transported material derived practically entirely

irom the floors of the adjacent associated depressions during a period in which

they were dry. Fheir composition is governed by the nature of the material present

on the surface of the dry floor, and immediately to the windward, during these

periods, together with the minor loessial contributions as occur intermittently in

the region as a whole.

The details of this theory are in full agreement with the qualified sugges-

tions of Harris (oc. cét.), and they are supported by all the evidence and by the

interpretation of Baldwin, Burvill and Freedman (1939). The latter describe the

lunettes in the Kerang district as “accumulations on the leeward side of what are

now depressions liable to inundation for varying periods. In one instance the

tise was being added to at the present time with clay dust from the barren salty

surface of such a diy swamp!”

The occurrence of Tunettes in such humid environments as Lake Muir and

in Tasmania also lends weight to the utlikelihood of atmospheric dust being the

principal parent material, The possibility of a more arid climate in the past cah-

not, of course, be discounted, and there is ample evidence of such aridity

(Crocker 1946) in southern Australia,

It is apparent from the regular curve and sweep of so many of the tastern

lake and swamp shorelines, i.¢., adjacent to the lunettes, especially by comparison

with the western shoreline, thal the accumulations making up the Iunette can

mugrate small distances against the prevailing wind (see fig. 1, and pl. xvi, fig. 1).

The steep foreslope is an expression of the fact that the steepest gradient in snr-

face roughness occurs at the shore, and the bulk of the windborne material is

deposited there. Any vegetation on the lunette would prevent the re-initiation

of particle movement necessary for the development of a steep back slope.

The recognition that Junettes can be either sandy or silty and clayey, or both,

depending on the supply of materia] from in and across the depression during dry

periods, places them merely as a special Jand form representative of a far more

general expression. For example, the slightly higher and more loamy eastern

sides of the swamps in the Kalangadoo sand regions of the Lower South-East is

a minor expression oi the same causative process (sce fig, 2 (a) ). In these

swamps the supply of material for the formation of ridges was limited, as they

are not partof any ancient or present drainage system or drainage by-way, being

due to subsidence in the underlying limestone, The low loam mounds which

occur along the eastern side of the Murray River and its anabranches (Hills 1939,

p. 314) is a somewhat similar example, where the detrital material was limited.

With @ drainage system supplying ample sediments, or where the purely local

supply is greater, the typical lunette land form develops. Depending on the

source of the parent material these will be of either predominantly fine, pre-

dontinantly coarse, or of fairly evenly mixed coarse and fine material,

310

Tt follows that one can expect in regions of finely fiuviatile and lacustrine

sediments, as in river terminals or flood plains, lunettes to be characterised by

fine-textured material, and indeed they are, ¢.g., Kerang, Benjeroop, Boort, Swan

Hill, etc. On the other hand, where a lunette occurs in a region in which erosion

is more active, and the landscape Jess mature, unless the region is singularly free

of sand, and coarse-grained rocks, it should be predominantly sandy, This és

demonstrated at Wagin Lake which occurs in a valley of the dissected lateritic

tableland, Where the supply of material is very large and conditions for the

formation of wind-borne accumulations frequent or prolonged, the deposits may

reach the status of littoral sand dunes, and lose the characteristic lunette regu-

larity. They may at times tend to trail off as a small system of seif-like dunes,

as with the Warobyan soil at Wakool, and partially the Doust sand at Salmon

Gums.

;

HUTTONS

LAGOON

(a) (c)

Fig. 2

Examples of three types of deposits which occur on the eastern side of

depressions in southern Australia,

(a) A “loam” accumulation near Kalangadoo, South Australia—

supply of materjal capable of movemetit by wind limited,

(b) Hutton’s Lagoon, Ucolta, South Australia, with a typical

lunette—supply of material moderate.

Section 631, Salmon Guius, Western Australia (after Teakle ctal.).

—supply of material capable of wind transportation considerable.

The small series of dunes which frequently fringe the easterm sides of lakes

and depressions in southern Australia have long been recognised as accumulations

blown up from the dry lake bed. Such an explanation was put forward by

Jack (1921) in illustrating the mode of formation of seed and flour gypsum

deposits of the Murray Valley, Yorke Peninsula, ete. Hills (1929) recognises

that the sand dunes east of Lake Hindmarsh are of this origin, It is of interest

to note that in addition to the loain ridges occurring to the east of the Murray

River and its anabranches, sand dunes also occur in a similar situation, An

excellent example is afforded by the distribution of sand dunes along the Cochran-

Yarrien Creeks—an old anabranch system associated with the Edward River—

itself a Murray anabranch, (see soil map, Smith ef al’).

Fig. 2 illustrates three types of resultant wind-piled accumulations that cau

occur with variation in the supply of detritus to a drainage depression which is

alternately full and dry.

AGE OF THE LUNETTE LAND FORM

The age of the linettes is uncertain. Llills considered (1940) that “J\mettes

belong essentially to the relatively wet late Recent epoch, although the view cannot

bé fully substantiated.”

In the South-East of South Australia lupettes are plentiful on the flats in a

rezion which is characterised by alternating strand dune ranges and swale flats,

considered to have been elevated with intervening still-stands in late Pleistocene

and Recent times. The lunettes south of Kingston in the same region are cet-

tainly Recent (Crocker and Cotton 1946), In Tasmania, the Little Hamptou—

Wilmore’s Lane lunettes occur on a low Jateritic tableland considered to be the

floor of the Launceston Tertiary Basin, Pliocene in age (Singleton 1941). The

dissection of this region was inatigurated in the Pleistocene, and is continuing

today on a reduced scale. It is interesting that the dissection has left the must

southerly of the lunettes without an associated lagoon. Smith et af (loc. eit.)

consider the lunette formations in the Wakool region (N.S,W-.) to be contem-

poraneous with the clusely associated mallee rises, He believes the latter to be

the oldest deposits and to have preceded the lacustrine and fluviatile deposits of

the Western Riverina, which are placed as late Pleistocene or early Recent.

Hutton's Lagoon (S. Aust.) is on valley floor sediments, composed of mixed

alluvial fan and colluvial apron material and undoubtedly Recent. Some of the

lunettes on Kangaroo Island are associated with latcritic tableland, while those

at Wagin Lake (W. Aust.) occur in a valley of a dissected lateritic tableland,

As the major dissection of the lateritic peneplajns 1s thought to have commenced

in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene, both these occurrences are post Pliocene.

It is apparent that the bulk of the lunettes belong to the late Pleistacene-

Recent period, and that they have been forming for a considerable time, and are

perhaps still being added to, as was suggested at Kerang by Baldwin et al

(lac, cit.).

The fact that all the lunette soil types, e.g., Lake Roy, Kangaroo Island,

Hutton’s Lagoon (S, Aust.), Wagin Lake (W. Aust.}, Kerang (Vict), Warobyan

sandy loam, Wakool (N.S,W-.), etc., exhibit considerable differentiation and

maturity of the profile is an indication of some age. The multiple lunettes are

of especial interest. They have been seen in South Australia (South-East} and

Victoria, and imdicate either a migration westward or shrinking of the lake. In

most cases the cause has probably been duc to a sudden deercase in size of the

lake, perhaps as a result of decrease in rainfall. In the South-East of South

Australia the migration of the lake shore may have been influenced by tilting as

suggested by Hills (1939). However, it this was so, there must have been

shrinkage at the same time—in all cases of multiple lunettes observed, the present~

day lake is much smaller in extent than the original one. The fact that the inet

lunettes are very much smaller than the outer would indicate a shorter time for

their fornsation, and/or a decrease in supply of suitable material (see pl. xlvii),

What influence the Recent arid conditions associated with a sudden deercase

in rainfall, considered to have been responsible for the wholesale destruction of

vegetation and loss of soil stability i11 southert Australia, has had in the formation

of Junettes is difficult fo assess. It is hardly likely to have had no influence, how-

ever, and may have been responsible for the initial drying up of lakes and lagnotis,

which have subsequently been alternatively wet and dry and are much shrunken

in area.

SUMMARY

Noles on the distribution and composition of the lunette land fot in south-

ern Anstralia getierally and analytical data on a number of soils from Iunettes

have been presented_

The initial hypothesis of their genesis put forward by Hills has been dis-

cussed and considered inadequate. As a more likely explanation than his spray-

deposited atmospheric dtist theory, it has been suggested that they represent

accumulations of wind-transported material, largely derived from their associated

depressions, called variously lakes, lagoons, swamps or pans.

It is demonstrated that lunettes can be dominated by the silt and clay or the

sand fractions, That is that there can occur either silt-clay lunettes or sandy

lunettes, or others in which the amount of silt or clay and sand is fairly evenly

distributed.

Evidence for age of the deposits points to their being late Pleistocene-

Recent, but all that can be said of some of them is that they are post-Pliocene,

and this aspect requires further investigation. There seems little to indicate

that they are associated with a relatively wet period of the Recent, as has been

suggested,

REFERENCES CITED

Bacnotp, R. A, 1940 The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Methuen

and Co, Ltd.

Batowin, J. G,, ef af 1939 A Soil Survey of Part of the Kerang Irrigation

District, Victoria. C.S.LR. Bull. No. 125

Beavre, N. C. W. 1945 Dust Storms. Journ. Soil Cons. Service N.S.W,, 1,

Cuepit, W. S. 1945 Dynamics of Wind Erosion. Soil Science, 60, 305-320,

397-411, 475-480

Crocker, R. L. 1946 Post Miocene Climatic and Geologic History and its

Significance in Relation to the Genesis of the Major Soil Types of

South Aystraha, C.S,LR., Bull, 193

Crocker, R. L., ahd Corton, B. C. 1946 Some Raised Beaches in the Lower

South-East of South Australia and their significance. Journ. Roy, Soc.

of S. Aust., (1)

Harris, W. J. 1939 The Physiography of the Echuca District. Proc, Roy. Soc.

Viet., 51, (N.S.), (1), 45

Hits, E. S. 1939 The Physiography of North-western Victoria, Proc. Roy.

Soc. Vict, 51, (N.S.), (2), 297

Hus, E. S. 1940 The Lunette: a new Land Form of Aeolian Origin. The

Aust. Geographer, 3, (7), 15

Jacx, R. L. 1921 The Salt and Gypsum Resources. of South Australia. Geol.

Survey 5. Aust., Bull. 8

Norracore, K. H. 1946 Private communication re unpublished soil survey data.

Sincteton, F. A. 1941 The Tertiary Geology of Austraha. Proc. Roy. Soc.

Vict., 53, N,3, (1), 1-118

SmirH, R., Herriot, R, I., and Jonnston, E, 1943 The Soil and Land Use

Survey of the Wakool Irrigation District, N.'S.W. CS..LR., Buil.

No. 162

STEPHENS, C. G., BAtpwin, J. G., and Hosxine, J. S. 1942 The Soils of the

Parishes of Longford, Cressy and Lawrence, County Westmorland, Tas-

mania. C.S.1.R. Bull., No. 150

Teaxce, L, J. H., and Burvitt, G. H. 1935 A Soil Suryey of Salmon Gums

Agricultural Area (unpublished report to Dept. Lands, W-. Aust.).

Private communication

Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust. 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XLVI

Hutton's Lagoon, Ucolta, Peterborough, S. Aust., showme the lunette on the eastern

side and the smooth shoreline at the fout of its foreslope. (Vertical aerial view.)

Typical cross-section revealed in the Wagin Lake, W. Aust. lunette by cutting of a

track to the shore. Steeper foreslope to Lake and gentle backslope clearly seen.

Trans. Roy. Sov, S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate NLVIT

A multiple lunette complex at Salt Lake, north-west of Naracoorte. (Vertical aerial view.)

RECONNAISSANCE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PORTION OF THE

WESTERN ESCARPMENT OF THE MOUNT LOFTY RANGES

By REG. C. SPRIGG, M.SC.

Summary

The remaining portion of W. Howchin’s Type Area for the Adelaide Series (Upper Proterozoic

and/or Eo-Cambrian) has been mapped and the geological history of the area with emphasis on

orogeny is discussed. Howchin’s broad findings on the Adelaide Series are confirmed, but his

Pleistocene “dead river” theory in its local application is considered to be untenable.

313

RECONNAISSANCE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF PORTION OF THE

WESTERN ESCARPMENT OF THE MOUNT LOFTY RANGES

By Rec. C. Spricc, M.Sc,

[Read 12 September 1946]

CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT “s ia “+ 26 33 as ds as 7 a MA a. 313

INTRODUCTION AND Previous. INVESTIGATIONS 2f ve * rw in .. 3t4

GEOMORPHOLOGY ~~ a hs at at x a. a +o t.3 .. 314

GEOLOGY as _ ve ha - ae % Es ts .- a8 .. 6315

Archaeozoic Era de ol 7 an %s .. . we we .. 316

The Adelaide Series .. *" ss =f 2; Pe aA ag Be .. 316

Lower Adelaide Series .. ae oe uA a ar pe as . 317

Middic Adelaide Series .. .-. ve r -, 324

Notes on the broader Sedimentary fea eatures of the Adelaide Series | in

the Adelaide Region: A summary and Sequence. .. 2 ~ .. 326

Tertiary : MA vp in - a a ae .. 330

Oligocene Latuseine Sediments “4 3-4 be ar as .. 330

Howchin’s Dead River Theory: A Criticism " 2 a ae .. 331

Tectonics $30 ks €h ‘a e's EF . »' a fy .. 333

Palaeozoic Orpatany ia rs oe 4 + = ws nf .. 333

Folding He be ne a i wy 7” = .. 333

Faulting we os bt a a me rh es yt .- 333

Koseiusko Epoch f. a 4 es =. ¥ .. 337

A Tentative Sequence of Local T ettnhic Events oie el. wi ” .. 339

MISCELLANIA .. an ss —_ oY + - a at a a .. 341

Sandstone Dykes se % oF -'s We me ba - ee .. 6841

Laterite ts se os He bu .. 342

Evidences of Recent uplift of Mt. Lofty Raviges ot 33 en ‘2 .. 343

Landslides and Screes oF aa Li - rs no oF hy ~. 343

Soils " s an ets 1e an ~, as + 046 ft +. 344

Economic Geology - ee s - fe ee > _ ss .. 344

Accuracy or Survey Data 14 “9 ep 4 +4 ~ wa ie 345

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ae - de iv 4, W, tx = b> .. 346

REFERENCES .. 3 ’. 2 ey - nF “A te .. bo .. 346

ABSTRACT

The remaining portion of W. Howchin’s Type Area for the Adelaide Series

(Upper Proterozoic and/or Eo-Cambrian) has been mapped and the geological

history of the area with emphasis on orogeny is discussed. Howchin’s broad

findings on the Adelaide Series are confirmed, but his Pleistocene “dead river”

theory in its local application is considered to be untenable.

Trans. Roy. Soc, $. Aust, 70, (2), 1 Dec. 1946

INTRODUCTION AND PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

This contribution to the Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges is the culmina-

tion of some two years private geological reconnaissance. The survey was under-

taken to be presented as portion of a thesis for the degree of Master of Science.

Since presentation the work has been expanded and slightly modified. The

portion of the thesis dealing with Geomorphology has been published separately

[Sprigg 1945 (2) ].

The area surveyed includes portion of the main escarpment foothills east of

the Adelaide Plains—St. Vincent Gulf senkungsfeld. To the north and south it

is bounded by the Rivers Torrens and Sturt respectively. It includes, therefore,

the northern extensions of the Eden—Moana and the Clarendon—-Ochre Cove

Tilt blocks, The Eden—Moana block has previously been mapped and discussed

by the author (Sprigg 1942).

With the exception of two relatively small areas, geological mapping had

been neglected in this region, Professor Howchin (1906), however, attempted

to overcome this deficiency by a general description of the structure and strati-

graphy of the younger basement rocks which he termed the Adelaide Series.

These classical researches culminated in the preparation of a “type” sequence,

which with slight modification is still accepted by most geologists. Mr. P. 5S.

Ifossfeld (1935), however, suggested radical modifications of the successional

detail of the Adelaide Series as a result of his own broad-scale geological survey

in the northern Mount Lofty Ranges.

In view of the close proximity of the area to Adelaide it #s surprising that

more mapping has not been undertaken in the past, but as Professor Mawson

points out (1939), “the faulted and broken nature of these beds in the neighbour-

hood of Adelaide renders a more complete investigation difficult and unattractive.”

Furthermore, the series is practically unfossiliferous,

The areas which have been mapped include about five square miles in the

Castambool vicinity by Howchin (1915) and approximately eight square miles

by Messrs. T. A. Batnes and A, W, Kleeman (1934) covering the Waterfall

Gully area. Howchin was attempting to elucidate the stratigraphical succession

of the basal members of the Adelaide Series. Garnes and Kleeman set out to

determine the thickness and stratigraphical relations of the Beaumont or Blue

Metal Limestores and associated beds in one of Howchin’s type localities.

Howchin (1927) also published a geological sketch map of the limits of the

Sturtian tillite near Eden

There are a few very sketchy and incomplete records of mining operations

published by the State Department af Mines. In 1928 Professor David announced

that he had discovered in the Adelaide Series a “Lipalian Marine Fauna” of giant

annelids and crustacea. He claimed that the fauna was distributed copiously

throughout several horizons of the Adclaide Series within the type area,

GEOMORPHOLOGY

In a recent publication [Sprigg 1945, (2)] the author dealt at length with cer-

fain major features of the geomorphology and hydrology of the central Mount

Lofty Ranges, which includes the area under discussion, In the development of

the modern land forms within this area, Kosciusko block faulting has played a

major role, and as this faulting is discussed later in this paper a very hrief sum-

mary of the former work is given here,

315

In the early Tertiary Period much of South Australia had been reduced to a

base surface, that is, a surface‘‘old and fully dissected.” This surface was then

buried by Tertiary lacustrine and marine deposits (overmass sediments). Late

in the Tertiary period block faulting commenced. Differential negative and posi-

tive movements of the various blocks, particularly those near Adelaide, resulted

in warping and tilting. A new cycle of erosion thus initiated has led to the

removal of much of the overmass sediments as well as much of the ancient erosion

surface. The topography in the vicinity of the major fault escarpments is

“young, well dissected,”

In the author's puper the configtiration of the major block fault pattern was

outlined, using several recently developed methods of land form analysis. Polar

analysis of stream flow directions provided data from which a new theory was

developed embracing a wider interpretation of river capture as a dominant factor

in the evolution of the Rivers Torrens and Onkaparinga, and certain smaller

related streams. Finally, quantitative hydrological factors were calculated

directly from Standard Military Survey Maps for the drainage basins and

drainage nets of the Torrens and Onkaparinga, This data supported the author's

contention that block faulting had controlled stream development very

considerably.

GEOLOGY

Adelaide Series sedimentary rocks predominate throughout the surveyed area,

The series includes all the horizons of Howchin’s lower Adelaide Series from the

Basal Ilmenitic Grits to the Sturtian Tillite. Two inliers of Barossian igneous

and metamorphic rocks are exposed as the combined result uf anctent fault move-

ments and erosion.

The Adelaide Series sediments generally have not suffered severe folding

except in the approaches to major fault zones. The presence of at least one

major “competent” sedimentary formation, the Thick Quartzite, has inhibited

sich folding. Over the greater part of its outcrop the Thick Quartzite occupies

a stibhorizontal set or dips to the south and/or west at low angles,

At least three sets of faults disrupt the ancient rock series. Two of them

date from the Palaeozoic era. These are respectively those associated with over-

thrust movements, and a group of steeply dipping normal or reverse faulis, The

third group or high angle faults strike more or less meridionally and are approxi-

mately parallel in strike with regional cleavage, but this latter correspondence may

he coincidental.

A protracted geological hiatus intervenes following the Palaeozoic deforma-

tion of these undermass rocks, The next record is of a nearly perfect fossil

peneplain or base surface originally buried beneath sediments of Iate Oligocene

or eatly Miocene Age. Evidence (Fenner 1931) fayours the theory that such

fluviatile sediments, and probably also Miocene Marine Sediments, originally

coveted the whole area.

With the advent of a third period of faulting (Kosciusko Epoch) the present

Mount Lofty “Horst” Range took form, Contemporaneously deep dissection and

the removal of the Tertiary sediments then began, exhuming the fossil peneplain

and consequently exposing the undermass rocks, Today only scattered outliers

of partly rewashed oligocene sediments remain on this area, while the Miocene

Maritie Sediments tongue out on the “back” of the Eden-Moana Fault Block

(Sprigg 1942),

316

ARCHAEOZOIC

In the present contribution the author uses the term Archaeozoic in C K,

Leith’s sense, Leith (1933, 171) defines the “Archaeozoic as the underlying

more or less indivisible, basement complex, containing igneous or sedimentary

vacks or both, in which ordinary stratigraphic methods do not apply.”

No detailed investigations were carried out on the metamorphosed sedimen-

tary and igneous intrusives which are attributed to this period, The meta-

sediments underlie the Adelaide Series with pronounced etosional unconformity,

reyeaimg a protracted geological hiatus—the ep-Archaean interval.

The original sediments have been metamorphosed to schists and gheisses,

Within the areas mapped “normal” intrusion by igneous magma is not prominent.

Igneons activity appears to have bees restricted largely to lit-par-lit injection and

to the formation of graphic quartz-tourmaline veins.

Mineralization of economic value has been very restricted in variety and

extent. Occurrences of copper minerals, although not infrequent, are of poor grade

and may have been formed in a much later period,

ADELAIDE SERIES (LATE PROTEROZOIC OR EO-CAMBRIAN)

Professor Howchin’s classical researches into the stratigraphy of the

Adelaide Series (1904, 1906, 1915, etc.) have formed the basis of a stratigraphical

succession which has met with fairly general acceptance. Due partly to a lack

of better exposures of the lowest members of the series elsewhere, Howchin

made his most significant observations in an area on the Central Mount Lofty

Horst near Adelaide, Unfortunately, as that author realised, this area was one

of intense faulting, which rendered stratigraphical interpretations hazardous even

after completion of systematic ficld mapping, The complete lack of fossils (with

the possible exception of obscure problemmatica recognised by Professor T. W.

E. David, 1922, 1928 and 1929) did not render the task easier.

More recently P, 5, Hossietd (1935) has disagreed fundamentally with

Howchin’s scheme and suggests radical modifications. Unfortunately, for reasons

which will be dealt with in a later paper, the present author considers certain of

Hossfeld's broader findings erroneous.

Mawson (1939 and etc.), who hag been the principal worker in this field in

succession to Howchin, has in general agreed with the latter’s findings. Geo-

logical sections have been made across the Flinders Ranges in several places, and

although as expected there is considerable yariation in successional detail with

Howchin’s log, a broader correspondence js fair. Up to date, in the Flinders

Ranges, Mawson has not succeeded in checking satisfactorily Howchin's findings

on the basal members of the Series. He has attempted to overcome this defi-

ciency im some measure by seeking out a section across these lower beds ina less

disturbed though metamorphosed area nearer Adelaide, at Mount Magnificent

[Mawson 1939, (1)]. Mawson writes that “the want of strict correspondence

between the succession in the two areas (Howchin’s Castambool area and Mount

Magnificent area—R. C, S.), is perhaps partly explained by the fact that deposi-

tion in shallow waters at points 30 miles apart cannot be expected to be identical,

It is especially remarked that whereas the marble horizons of ihe Torrens Gorge

sections are highly magnesic, those met with in the Motint Magnificent area are

notably deficient in magnesia.”

Others who have carried aut research on the series include Madigan (1925,

i927) and Barnes and Kleeman (1934), whose findings in general suppart

317

Howchin’s scheme. Segnit's findings (1939, 1940), although extensive, are very

confused, and it is now generally agreed (Mawson 1939; Sprigg 1942; Broad-

hurst 1943) that his geological survey results are practically valueless.

The present author has now mapped niost of Howchin’s type area, which

includes the foothills region about Adelaide from Marino on the coast to the

Torrens Gorge, In a previous publication (Sprigg 1942) heds of the Adelaide

Series from the base of the Archaeocyathinae limestones down to the Sturtian

tillite were discussed. In the text which follows sediments from the tillite down

to the basal ilmenitic sandstones are considered, and the writer has subdivided

formations of the Adelaide Series dealt with into two portions—the Lower and

Middle divisions. The line of division is madc at the base of the Glen Osmond

Arkosic Quartzite.

Lewer ADELAIDE SERIES

The Lower Adelaide Series in this contribution is defined as including all

sediments from and including the Basal Ilmenitic Sandstone or conglomerate up

to the base of the Glen Osmond Quartzite.

Concerning the lowest horizons of this group, the writer considers that not

all such beds are exposed within the “type area.” However, the major sedi-

mentary horizons as they occur in the area will be discussed, beginning with the

Basal Ilmenitic Sandstone and the probable locations of gaps ih the record noted.

Basal Ilmeniitc Sandstone

This horizon has been located at two relatively widely separated situations

in the area mapped, namely at the Torrens Gorge near Castambool, and adjacent

the Prince’s Highway between Crafers and Stirling. At neither locality are the

outcrops good or extetisive. Faulting in both cases has complicated the immediate

stratigraphical succession to such an extent that it is impossible to say with any

degree of certainty what is the natute of the immediate overlying sediments.

However, the marked unconformable relations of the sandstone with the Archaeo-

zoic complex are clear. No reliable estimate of the thickness of the unit is

possible, but it is at least 100 feet thick, and possibly much more and variable.

In his map of the basal beds in the Castambool type area, Howchin (1915)

indicates a south pitching major anticline with a core of Barossian igneous and

metamorphic rocks. He records “on the western and southern side of the older

rocks, the basal grits of the Cambriat Series (Adelaide Series—R. C. 5.) ont-

crop at a low angle of dip. They closely resemble the ilmenitic grits of Afdgate,

with an occasional pebble included.”

The author has failed to locate the basal bed on the western side of the

pitching anticline, but instead Howchin’s Lower Torrens Limestone is [aulied

against the old core rocks, somewhat as can be interpreted on Howchin’s map,

On the eastern side another fault has brought a faintly ilmenitic bed of sand-

stone quartzite with overlying white marble against the old rocks, To the south

the two faults unite and continue as the Stonyfell fault, Within the angle formed

by these iwo south converging faults, the unconformable relations that the basal

ilmenitic sandstone bears to the Barossian is readily apparent. Post-basal-sand~

stone sediments are nol. visible in the sector, and so the relations are obscure.

The author has been unable to decide for certain whether the “faintly

ihnenitic bed of sandstone quartzite’ mentioned above is the basal ilmenitic

horizon, but apparently it is. However, this sandstone is overlain by slates and

then a créam-coloured eryptocrystalline marble which is Howchin’s Lower

Turrens limestone.

318

Alternate Sandstones and. Silty and Sandy Slates

This group of sediments, which will be treated as a unit, outcrops widely

to the east of the area, Extensive exposures occur near Stirling, where the

relations of the bed with the basal ilmenitic sandstone are not clear. Jt appears

possible, however, that the unit may follow closely above the recognised basal

sandstones, as it contains some ilmenite and its structural relations appear to tit

it in with that horizon. It may even belong to a hitherto unrecognised series.

Nevertheless, io positive statements can be made in this regard.

This furmation of arenaceous and argillaceous sediments is at least 2,000

fect in thickness, is arkosic in part and contains laminations of heavy minerals

net unlike some facies of the hasal ilmenitic sandstone. Its relations with the

Torrens limestones so far is unknown,

The Torrens Dolomites and the Lower Phyllites

Sediments of this association are dominantly fine-grained. They comprise

dolomitic limestone, dolomite and magnesite imterbedded with calcareous. slates

and phyllites, and minor sandstone quartzites occur frequently in the section.

On the area mapped the dolomites are practically limited ta the Castambool

and lower Sixth Creek vicinities. More restricted exposures occur in Fifth

Creek and in Horsnells Gully. Howchin recorded the former occurrences, and

upon completion of field mapping in this “type” locality arrived at a tentative

sedimentary sequence for the limestones and the basal ilmenitie sandstone. He

indicated a white and but{-coloured mathle (Lower Torrens Dolomite) 150 feet

thick, separated from 200 feet of blue limestones. with interbedded slates (Upper

Torrens Dolomites) by 1,000 feet of phyllites which include two bands of

quartzite, The writer’s investigations have indicated a similar succession bnt

that there is greater development of the upper limestones. In Pinkerton Gully

bliie-grey dolomitic limestones occur through a stratigraphical thickness of aboul

500 feet, and in Pinkerton Gully and near the River Torrens lower weir a com-

parable thickness was also noted.

The Lower Torrens dolomite is a creamy-white or buff-coloured crypto-

crystalline marble. Normally, it is massive throughout, although in some horizons

there is a tendency to indistinct lamination. Not mfrequenthy the marble is some-

what schistose with development of micaceous minerals, The Upper Torrens

dolomites are much less homogencous and range in colour from grey to dark blue-

erey. Nodules of chert are not uncommon, and some bands are slaty and

carbonaceous, Minor bluish and grey quartzites are mterbedded with these upper

dolomites.

It is suggested that the type section for the limestones be taken along the

eastern side of Pinkerton Gully, as this appears to be the only section in the area

not seriously affected by cross-faulting. It includes beds from the base of the

Lower Torrens Dolomite to within a few hundred feet of the base of the Thick

Quartzite. Major north-south faults oceur on either side of the block, hut do

not appear to have disturbed the beds significantly. Compared with other local

exposures of these beds there are several minor discrepancies which may be

resolved when detailed mapping of the type area has been titdertaken. For

example, it is noticed that in Sixth Creek, above the Stonyfell Fault, beds of

blue dolomitic limestones are overlain by a much greater thickness of phyllites

and slates than in the Pinkerton Gully Section. The log of strata given is jor

the Pinkerton Section,

319

The successional detail of Pinkerton Gully Section is as follows :—

Item No. Fest

400+

25,

24,

23.

22,

21,

20.

19,

18.

17.

16,

15.

14.

13.

12.

11.

10,

100

40+

150-200

400+

50+

150?

Phyllites with few very minor dark grey dalomites at intervals, and

small sandstone bands.

Banded impure dolomites with chert.

Massive blue dolomite with suggestion of “Mawsonella” structure,

Irregularly banded quartzite. Bands weather in relic!, suggesting

calcareous cement in alternate bands,

Phyllites with a few thi quartzites,

Thin dolomites in phyllite.

Very cheity blue banded dolomite (Analysis No. 5),

Grey dolomites with bands of “Mawsonella’’ siliceous dolomite

(Analyses No’s. 4 and 3 respectively),

Massive light grey dolomite with magnesitic “Mawsonella” bands,

Phyllites,

Massive io slaty blue dolomite.

Phyllite.

Blue dolomite with plentiful chert inclusions.

Medium-grained sandstone quartzite; grains weather in relief.

Slaty blue dolomite.

Phyllites with very minor blue dolomites,

Medium-grained jmassive quartzite; grains weather in relief,

Caleareous phyllites and plentiful thin-bedded bluc-grey dolomite-

Massive blue-grey dolomite.

Quartzite.

Slaty-phyllites with minor blue limestones,

Massive quartzite,

Phyllite with minor quartzites,

Reddish medium-grained sandstone quartzite.

Lower Torrens light buff-coloured dolomite (Analyses 1 and 2).

Items numbered 7 to 24, inclusive, constitute [lowchin’s Upper Torrens

Dolomites. It is to be noted that a section across the Mawsonella magnesites in the

Torrens Gorge, near the weir, indicates a greater development of these sedimerits.

Analysis of the dolomites are quoted in Table I and the approximate strati-

graphical position of the samples in indicated in the log of strata. The lower

limestone is essentially a dolomite, and as such is very different from the

Angaston, Paris Creck and Mount Magnificent marbles (Table I), which are

almost pure calcium carbonate and which, not without doubt, have been considered

contemporaneous [Mawson 1939 (1)].

TABLE I

Ingolubles

Serial No Locality Colour Analyst Caco, MerCO, or etc.

1 - - Torrens Gorge- |, buff T, W. D. 49-2 42+5 7-3

Zoin = is + *% m7 50-9 44-1 4-7

3 - - is i l. grey a 6:5 72-0 21-6

4 . m " ” blue-grey " 44-5 36+7 17-0

5 - = 33 45 in 3 48-3 38-8 8-1

15 - - Angaston - - white A 96-6 1:8 2:3

16 - = Paris Creek - a ms 98-7 0-5 0-5

17, - - Mt. Magnificent a W.B.D. 9646 0-8 1-8

T.W.D.=T. W. Dalwood, Government Analyst. W.B.D.=W. B. Dallwitz

[Mawson 1939, (1)]. 1, 2—Lower Torrens Dolomite of Howchin; 3~“Maw-

sonella” siliceotts magnesite, Upper Torrens horizon; 4, 5-Upper Torrens

Dolomites; 15, 16, 17-Angaston Marble.

320

Several distinct horizons within the Upper Torrens Delomites are siliceous

magnesites. These magnesites are readily recognised by the “Mawsonella” struc-

ture associated with them. Chapman described such structure as an algal form

(Muwsonella wooltanensis) having affinities with the liviag Halimeda. How-

ever, field observations on this widely occurring structure leave little doubt that

it is inorganic origin, as was shown by Mawson and Dallwitz (1945) during field

investigations neat Umberatana, Where the structure has been studied in the Tor-

rens Gorge and along the Corkscrw Hill Road many gradations between normal

“Mawsonella” and obvious intraformational breccias or cdgewise conglomerates

have been observed. Some of the “breccias” are of the “desiccation” type of mud

curl, The importance of Mawsonella structure stratigraphically will be discussed

in a later publication dealing with aspects of sedimentation in the Adelaide Series,

The Thick Quartzite

This massive horizon forms the bolder scenery of the western Mount Lofty

Ranges. Repeated dip faulting has displaced the quartzite in such a manner that

in outcrop the rock formation now occurs in isolated “slabs” surrounded by

slates and limestones, Of the more important of these “islands,” the most

northerly, forms Black Hill. To the south these are successively the outcrops

which form Rocky Hill, Slapes Hill (Stonyfell) and Mount Lofty. The most

southerly outcrop commefices just to the west of Upper Sturt and continues

across the River Sturt towards Cherry Gardens.

The quartzite shows little variation in mean grain size of the sand fraction

throughout its entre thickness. The amount of granular felspar (or its

alteration product) contained, however, is more variable. The original sediment

was obviously a well-washed and sorted sand deposited in an aqueous environ-

ment, Where the quartzite forms cliffs, variations in hardness (largely due to

irregular secondary silicification) are apparent, and it is seen that some bands are

much more massive than others, Some massive hands may measure almost

100 feet mn thickness with little apparent macroscopic variation. In other

horizons there is a tendency to slabbiness, the relatively thin layers of solid stone

being separated by thin partings of clayey or slaty material, There is little

apparent gradation in grain size froth the Thick Quartzite into both the under-

lying and overlying sediments. In several localities there is a restricted alternation

of thin bands of slate and sandstone quartzite for a short but variable distance

above and/or below the quartzite.

The low but variable angle of dip of the quartzite and a scarcity of food

dip readings in the bed make estimation of its thickness approximate only. A

thickuess of about 1,000 Feet is indicated, and this agrees with Howchin's (1906)

estimate.

Dip is to the south or west and rarely exceeds 20°, except in the vicinity of

the larger faults. At the “Three Sugarloafs” a northerly dip of 4° was recorded,

but this is probably related to faulting in that vicinity.

ln most exposures the base of the quartzite appears conformable with under-

lying sediments. To the east of Dunstone’s Quarries a doubtful slight uncon-

formity with an underlying 20-ft. quartzite has been noticed, It is thought more

probable that the apparent convergence here of the two arenaceous formations

may be a drag effect in the enclosed relatively incompetent slates in the proximity

of the great Stonyfell fault.

The considerable degree of ancient meridional block faulting to which the bed

has heen subject, in combination with its subhorizontal set, ic responsible for its

321

relatively large area of outcrop and the co-related widespread production of poor,

shallow, acid, gravelly and sandy podsolic soils.

The Upper Phyllites

This group constitutes a considerable thickness of dominantly argillaceous

sediments in which in the upper portions several quartzites appear together with

some yery minor limestones (dolomites), When Howchin classified the group

as phyllites he correctly observed that the alteration from slates to phyllites is

frequently associated with fault movements.

The junction of the Thick Quartzite with overlying slates and phyllites is

mostly quite sharp. There is no prominent gradation in grain size of the sedi-

ments and litle alternation of sandy and slaty bands. The lower portion of the

phyllites or slates show little variation, laminations are not pronounced except

in restricted horizons and quartzite bands. are not prominent. Approximately

650 feet above the base, however, there is a sirong quartzite bed. It is 30-40

feet thick and is fine~ to medium-grained, cross laminated and banded. A charac~

teristic weathering effect in which certain bands etch out in relief as though in

patt calcareous, renders it a useful field marker horizon. In some localities the

upper 10 feet are finer-grained and well laminated. Foreset laminations in the

sandstone, where studied, indicate currents from the south, With this bed is

associated a yellow dolomite. A smaller bed, a laminated fine-grained quartzite,

occurs about 100 feet below, and with this a thin band of blue limestone ‘5

associated.

Additional quartzites occur above the coarser-grained bed. One such is

15 feet thick and occurs 800 feet above the Thick Quartzite.

These several qtartzites can be seen to advantage on the south slopes of

Waterfall Gully, but they also outcrop one to two miles east of Belair Railway

Station and along the escarpment east of Coromandel Valley-

The relations that these beds hear to the Blue Metal or Beaumont

Dolomites ig not known accurately, asi the Beaumont fault has prevented measure-

ment of an unbroken sequence. The thickness of sediments “outfaulted” is

probably not great.

The Beaumont Dolomites

Essentially this group is made up of a number of dark grey dolomites sct

in caleareous. slates in which there are also several small quartzites, Beaumont

dolornites outcrop in several “isolated” localities, their position being determined

largely by faulting. The most northerly occutrence within the area flanks Rocky

Hill on the west. To. the south the group appears in the Magill-Stonyfell area,

at Beaumont. and in Brownhill and Chambers Creeks,

In the preceding scdimentary group, namely the upper phyllites, there is a

definite increase in lime content in the upper horizons, Several minor limestones

appear, and these are the fore-runners of the Beaumont period of deposition of

highly calcareous sediments, In fact, the gradation from the upper phyllites to

the Beaumont dolomites is such that if the full seqitence was available for study,

difficulty would probably be experienced in deciding upon a division. Ifowever,

the. intervention of the Beaumont fault has made a useful if rather arbitrary

break.

The slates immediately above the base of the Beaumont group include one

or possibly (near Waterfall Gully) two light cream-coloured cryptocrystalline

322

dolomitic marbles, The main bed overlies a reddish coarse-grained sandstone

quartzite, It has been located in association with the Blue Metal (Beaumont)

dolomites at Beaumont and in Brownhill Creek, and chemical analysis of samples

taken in these two localities indicate a very close correspondence in composition.

An apparently similar limestone was located on the western slopes from Rocky

Hill, and on the south slope from Sturt Creek immediately to the east of Coro-

mandel Valley.

Typical “Blue Metal” dolomites overly the cream-coloured dolomitic marble;

these beds have been dealt with in detail by Barnes and Kleeman (1934), and

readers are referred to this paper for a more complete description of them, The

authors measured 370 feet of sediments which included approximately 50 feet of

dolomitic limestones disposed in 13 bands, the thickest measuring 15 feet and

occutring at the lowest horizon.

Barnes and Kleeman made eight analyses of Beaumont dolomites, and for

purposes. of comparison made analyses of Howchin’s upper and lower Torrens

limestones (pre-Thick Quartzite formation). These analyses are reproduced

herein in terms of CaCO, and MgCO,, together with additional analyses by the

Government Analyst (Table IT).

TABLE IT

Dolomites and Dolomitic Limestones of the Beaumont or Blue Metal

Dolomite Series

Insolishles

Serial No, Locality Colour Analyst CaCo, MgCo, ur ete,

6 - - Beaumont - - J, buff - T.W.D. 47-0 34-9 12:7

7 - = Brownhill Creek i tr 49.9 38-0 6-9

6 - + Beaumont - - dk. grey T. A.B. 37-8 30:5 32-7

9 - -= Mountain Hut - Si sy 38-8 30-9 509

10 - ~ ¥ noo ‘ik dy 40-9 31-7 30-6

11 - - Beaumont - - a és 427 32-3 274

12 - -— Mountain Hut - ay AW.K, 43-8 34-0 2574

13. - - Beaumont - - black - T.A.B. 80-0 12:8 B-6

14 - - Mount Osmond

turn-off - - dk, grey ” 34-1 29+2 35°8

T.W.D. = T. W. Dalwood, Govt. Analyst.

T. A.B. = T. A. Barnes.

A.W, K, = A. W. Kleeman,

Referring to their results the authors write: “These analyses show rematk-

able similarity between the main Blue Metal Limestone oyer the whole area. The

high silica percentage occtirs as free quartz in the slide. The carbonate portion

is purely dolomite ; thus the rocks would be more truly classed as dolomites. The

inclusion of the analyses of the two Torrens Limestoues is for comparison pur-

poses. It was thought that some distinction might be made between the Blue

Metal and Upper Torrens Limestones on chemical grounds, There seem to be

no essential differences, the higher percentage of magnesia in the Upper Torrens

Limestone being due to weathering, which in these arcas tends to the formation

of magnesite. Nos, 9 and 17 are representative of the upper beds above the Blue

Metal Series. No. 17 is quite regular except for a greater percentage of clay.

No. 9 is composed entirely of black calcite with curyed faces which give an

untisual appearance in hand specimen, It forms an inconsistent band.”

523

The correspondence in chemical composition between the Upper Torrens

Limestone and the Upper Blue Metal (Beaumont) Dolomites as indicated by

Barnes and Kleeman is interesting. More so since the present author located the

white ctyptocrystalline marble in the lower Beaumont group which exhibits

strong affinities with the Lower Torrens Dolomite. This evidence led the writer

to atiticipate contemporaneity for deposition of the two groups. Similar impres-

sions apparently were in the minds of Barnes and Kleeman upon completion of

their analyses. Dowever, subsequent field mapping has proved such a theory

wntenable. Stratigraphically the Torrens Dolomites underlie Howchin’s Thick

Quartzite, but the Beaumont Dolomites occupy a superior position relative to the

marker formation,

A moot point raised by Barnes and Kleeman (see above) concerns the higher

percentage of magnesia in the Upper Torrens Dolomite, which they attribute to

the effects of weathering. This inference may or may not be correct, but the

occurrence of magnesitic ‘“Mawsonella” horizons in the Upper Torrens Dolomites

favours generally higher percentages of magnesia in that group as a whole.

The “Mawsonella” sample submitted for analysis was taken apparently un-

weathered from a deep road cutting, Similar Mawsonella beds in the Flinders

Ranges (¢.g., near Port Gerimein) are almost pure magnesite at the surface, and

the high percentage of magnesia has been shown to persist at depth.

The ereamy-white or buff coloured ctyptocrystalline marble of the Beaumont

group has not been recorded previously. The marble exhibits distinct laminations

in tnany instances. but otherwise in hand specimen and in chemical composition

is very like the Lower Torrens Dolomite, The unit is not restricted in field

occurrence, It was first noted adjacent to the Beaumont fault a little north-east

of Goldsack’s quarcies. The marble is ten to twelve feet in thickness, It occurs

again in Brownhill Creck, where it shows similar stratigraphical relations, vis.,

it overties a medium coarse-grained reddish sandstone and underlies the principal

Blue Metal Dolomites, Apparently the same bed outerops on the southern slopes

to Sturt Creek upstream from the Ochre-Cove block fault, and a similar dolomite

was noted immediately west of Rocky Hill about half of one mile north of

Watectall Gully.

The Glea Osmond Slates

Concerning these sediments, the following dctsils piven by Barnes and

Kleeman (1934) are informative: "The phyllites between the Blue Metal (Beau~

mont Dolomites—R.C.S.) and the Quartzite (Glen Osmond Arkosic Quartzite—

R. CS.) exhibit a sequenee. The beds just above the Gluc Metal are calcareous

phyllites with a few interbedded thin limestones. These semi-caleareous beds

occupy 440 feet above the Blue Metal. Above thein come 370 fect of argillaceous

rocks without the thin limestones. Then follows 670 feet of silty rocks, which

suggest a gradual development of the conditions which lead to the quartzite.”

This description probably does not indicate the complete transition to the

Glen Osmond Quartzite. Field mapping has revealed an important fault striking

north from Brownhill Creek across Mount Barker Road towards Mount Osmond,

To the east of this fault the beds are relatively undisturbed, but to the west the

Glen Osmond Quartzite is folded severely and even overfolded (in Unley

Corporation Quarry).

By reason of this faulting and an absence of better sections the complete

relationship that the Glen Osmond Quartzite bears to the Beaumnnt Polonntes

is unknown.

324

THE Mippte Apeiame Series

Under this heading only sedimenis from the base of the Glen Osmond

Arkosic Quartzite to the top of the Sturtian Tillite are discussed in this paper.

The author has dealt with other overlying Middle and Upper Adelaide Series

Sediments in a previous publication (Sprigg 1942). These latter sediments

include the Tapley Hill Slates and Limestones, and the Brighton Limestones of

the Middle Adelaide Series, and the “purple” or Upper Adelaide: Series which

inchides slates and quartzites up to the base of the Cambrian Archaeocyathinae

limestones,

Following deposition of the Beaumont Dolomites group, the prevailing con~

ditions of sedimentation suggest that there was once again a slow increase in

erosive activity on the adjoining land mass. The Beaumont Dolomites had been

deposited under quiescent conditions, during which interval there was little

increment of clastic sediment,

From then onwards muds in increasing quantities were carried into the

geosyncline. Succeeding sediments increased gradually in grain-size, and became

more silty. The gradation generally was excellent. Unfortunately, because of fault

ing, the full extent of sediments deposited immediately preceding the ctilmination

of this slow change has not been studied, Some degree of lamination is notice-

able in the upper zone, more particularly immediately underlying the Glen Osmond

Arkosic Sandstone Quartzite,

Despite this slow “build up.’ the junction of the Glen Osmond Quartzite

with the Glen Osmond Clay Slates is sharp. The author feels that this is a con-

yenient lower limit to the Middle Adelaide Series, The arkosic quartzite has

certain featuires which the present author claims foreshadows the glaciation of

the Sturtian Ice Age. Arkoses and varve-like associations may reflect a fluvio-

glacial origin..

The Glen Osmond Arkosic Quartzite

This quartzite forms a prominent feature in the foothills region, extendmg

from Glen Osmond to Viaduct Gully. Outerop of this horizon is repeated by

folding and faulting in the zone immediately cast of the Sturtian Tillite, extend-

ing south to and beyond Sturt Gorge.

The quarizite is not homogeneous Jaterally or vertically. Bands vary con-

siderably in mineral composition from arkosic gravels to laminated hard

quartzites. Howchin has recorded that the proportion of felspar to quartz in the

arkosic band is 30% to 40% (specimen taken at Mitcham). In view of the

relatively close stratigraphical association with the Sturtian Tillite the present

author suggests that the presence of so niuch felspar, mitch of it very littic

altered, favours fluvioglacial origin. The arkose probably reflects rapid aceumn-

lation and possibly cold climatic conditions, and the horizon may possibly corre-

spond with the lower tillite which outcrops over much of the north-eastern dis-

trict of South Australia (Howchin 1908 and Jack 1913).

The Mitcham. Slates and Quarizites

This group should include the Glen Osmond Arkosic Quartzite, but as the

latter is a valuable marker horizon it has been considered adyisable ta continue

ta distinguish the Glen Osmond Quartzite from subsequent quartzites, as Howchin

did. Due to this association of the Glen Osmond Quarizite with the Mitcham

Slates and Quartzites, the localities of outcrop already given for the (len

Osmond Quartzite also apply to the Mitcham sedimentary group.

325

As pointed out earlier, the Glen Osmond Quartzite introduces a period of

clastic sedimentation characterised by marked fluctuation of coarser- and finer-

grained sediments, The slates are frequently silty, siliceous and laminated, and

the quartzites show even more variation in type. They range from massive

reddish and white quartzites through flaggy and banded variants to fissile finely

laminated quartzites and (7?) varves, Sandstones are not uncommom, atid mary

of the quartzites exhibit shaly partings. In thickness the quartzites are very

variable, indicating considerable instabiliry of either, or more probably, both, ihe

local landmass and/or climate.

The slates immediately overlying the Glen Osmond Arkosic Quartzite exhibit

pronounced banding and lamination. In many instances there is a pronounced

alternation in coarseness or fineness in prain size from lamination to lamination

which strongly suggests varve formation. Also, within 100 feet of the base of

the Sturtian Tillite, remarkable varve associations have been found amongst fissile

quattzites. In conjunction with other factors, namely the arkosic formation

described previously, and the presence in the north-east districts of the State of

two well-developed tillites of Upper Adelaide Series age, these varve-like forma-

tions strongly suggest fluvioglaciation at about this horizon. The local Sturtian

Tillite (in its type area) can possibly he correlated with the upper horizon in the

north-east. If this is accepted there is a big possibility that the lower tillite ia

that area is cantemporanemis with the arkosic and the problematical varves af

the Glen Ostnond Quartzite vicinity,

Regarding the sediments overlying the Glen Ostnond varve-like slates, diffi-

culty has been experienced in determining the complete succession, At least four

prominent quartzites, and possibly more, are included in the sequence in addition

to minor “slaty” qtiartzite bands. Detailed survey will be required to determine

the exact chronological succession, as the extent of deformation to which these

beds have been subject renders interpretation difficult and measurement only

approximate,

The Sturtion Tillite Formation

The author (1942) has previously dealt with this datum horizon as it occurs

at Sturt Gorge. For additional detatls, readers are referred to the extensive work

by Howchin (1908, 1927, ete.) on this subject.

The tillite possesses a well-cleaved slaty or phyllitic hase in which, dispersed

ittegularly, are a typically unassorted collection oi sedimentary, igneous and

metamorphic “erratics." Larger erratics are frequently several feet in length,

and some botilders are strongly faceted. The tillite mass shows effects of con-

siderable stress and maity erratics are elongated in the direction of slaty cleavage

(fig. 1} and fractured transversely,

The Sturtian formation is not all typical tillite, but certain horizons repre-

sent normal fluyjoglacial interludes. Several such bands are gritty and gravelly

quartzites, and others include laminated slates. The conclusion of glaciation in

the focality is. anticipated by the appearance of fluvioglacial quartzites and

gravelly conglomerates, and limestones interbedded with mmor bands of tillite.

The iillite and fluvioglacial sediments were deposited in an aqueous environme

—a statiding body of water,

) The author is grateful ta Sir D. Mawson for drawing attention to a paper af

his in which reference was made to certain of these varve-like associations. The paper

was read to the A.A.A.S. meeting in 1907, but only the title was published in the Pro-

eeediigs of the Associating, Sir Douglas referred to the possible Ruvioglacial origin of

some of these varve-like structures.

326

Measurements catried out on the tillite formation (including the fluyio-

glacial horizon) indicate a thickness of at least 1,200 feet. Unfortunately, over-

folding and minor overthrusting has probably reduced the observable thickness

and consequently the reliability of the estimate.

Fig. 1

Sketch section through a deformed

tillite erratic as it appears on a vertical

plane in the direction of regional

cleavage dip. Relationships between

cleayage, pebble elongation and trams-

yerse fracturing are indicated. The

latter tension fractures are frequently

partially filled with fibrous quartz.

Howchin (1927, p. 335), in at least one of his papers, refers to an unconform-

ity at the base of the tillite in Viaduct Gully, Eden. He writes: “The uncon-

formity of the tillite to the older rocks is here a conspicuous feature, The Mitcham

Quartzites and Slates, which coming from Sleep’s Hill quarries, strike south-

westerly through Ayliffe’s old quarries and, either by a curve in strata or by sub-

siduary faulting, meet the tillite in the Viaduct valley at right angles.” In other

publications Howchin indicates an unbroken succession from below the Mitcham

Quartzites and Slates through the tillite into the Cambrian Archaeocyathinae

series,

The geological sketch map which accompanies Howchin’s impression on the

possible unconformity shows an “infaulted”’ block of tillite to the west of Eden

with pre-glacial quartzites running directly up against the fault, However, care-

ful observation indicates that this is not the case. The quartzites and slates are

folded and overfolded quite severely and are slightly faulted, but the folds

definitely pitch south across Viaduct Valley and pass conformably below the

tilite (fig. 2), Tillite is preserved in a pinched synclinal trough to the north of

the creek, but this exposure was evidently not observed by Howchin,

Notes ow Broaper SEDIMENTARY FEATURES OF THE ADELAIDE SERTES

IN THE ADELAIDE Recion. A SUMMARY

The basal member of the series in the area mapped is an ilmenitic and some-

what arkosic sandstone quartzite. The original sand was a well washed and graded

product of erosion from an environment of igneotis and metamorphic rocks. The

big development of heavy mineral laminations in the sandstone and the occurrence

of basal conglomerates in some localities in the Mourit Lofty Ranges, suggests

proximity to a landmass or more probably deposition in a shallow sea dotted

with small islands.

a2?

There is some iincertainty as to the next stratigraphical unit. Howchin

indicates that the Torrens Dolomites and Phyllites succeed immediately, and such

appears to be the case in the Torrens type area. However, in the Crafers vicinity

and east of Mount Lofty generally, there appears a thickness of at least 2,000 feet

of alternate argillaceous sandstone and silty slates, which near Aldgate an

THE STURT GORGE AREA

Geological Aeconnakssance Map

gE |

CaP toe

Fig. 2

The Sturt Gorge Area.

328

Crafers apparently rest ronformably on a basal ilmenitic sandstone. It may he

that the original Archaeozoic floor to the geosyncline was uneven, presenting

a sedimentary environment of the Archipelago type. In this manner rapid

variations in sediment type and thicknesses of basal or near basal units would be

expected, As more sediments accumulated on the sinking geosynclinal floor, the

effects of the original topographic irregularities would be neutralised and con-

sequently lateral variation in younger individual sedimentary units would ulti-

mately be minimised.

The succeeding sedimentary phase is daminated by deposition of calcareous

muds and dolomitic limestones (the Torrens stage}. Next there is an important

development of arenaceous sediments to form the Thick Quartzite, and this is

followed by the accumulation of more calcareous and argillaceous sediments of

the Beaumont stage. It appears that following deposition of the basal beds there

was a prolonged phase during which environmental conditions led to the deposi-

tion of a relatively thick series of caleareo-argillaceous sediments. Minor environ-

mental variations led ta accumulation of quartzites interbedded with the slates

and dolomites, while a major interphase resulted in the formation of the Massive

Thick Quartzite. It is suggested that the beds from the base of the Torrens

stage to the top of the Beaumont stage, inclusive of the Thick Quartzite, be known

as the Dolomites phase.

As a matter of interest, the occurrence of Mawsonella structure in mag-

nesite beds associated with dolomites (Torrens stage) below Howchin’s type

Thick Quartzite but above Mawson’s Thick Quartzite of the Flinders Ranges

suggests that the two “Thick” QOuartzites are not contemporaneous. If this theory

is accepted, the complete Dolomites phase of Howchin’s sequence (1.¢., Torrens

to Beaumont stages, inclusive) could be correlated with Mawson’s dolomite-

magnesite sequence of the Flinders Ranges. In this manner Mawson's Thick

Quartzite may prove to be the equivalent of the basal ilmenitic sandstone in

Howchin's type area, while Howchin’s (type area) Thick Quartzite would pro-

bably be contemporaneous with one or more minor quartzites within Mawson’s

magnesite series of the Flinders Ranges, Detailed field mapping of the magnesite-

dolomite beds. in an intermediate area (such as at Wirrabara} would probably

help to solve these relations.

To return to the consideration of the type sequence, The conclusion of

calcareo-argillaceous sedimentation is heralded by the appearance of silty slates

and siltstones, some of which are well laminated. The next younger formatioti

is the Glen Osmond Arkosic Sandstone Quartzite. The writer considers that

the base of this formation is a convenient line at which to indicate the top of the

Lower Division of the Adelaide Series, as the beds which follow, including the

Glen Osmond horizons, reficct a new set of environmental conditions.

Tn general the big development of dolomites and magnesites in the Lower

Adelaide Series, in association with the formation of interesting magnesitic tntra-

formational (desiccation) breccias, is thotight to indicate a warm climate with

deposition in a shallow eperic lake or sea. The absence of red beds suggests

that the climate was not arid and that the sediments were deposited im an aqueous

environment.

The “Basal” bed of the Middle Adelaide Series, on the author’s definition,

is the Glen Osmond arkosic formation. The arkose and certain associated yarve-

like sediments are interpreted to indicate local Auvioglaciation, and so would

indicate the onset of the glaciation which later was responsible for the formation

of the massive Sturtian Tillite of the type sequence. Laminated and massive

slates and quartzites, and finally perhaps true varves, were deposited on the Glen

Osmond arkosic formations prior to the deposition of the Sturtian Tillite.

329

Sedimentary units of the type series above the Sturtian Tillite are not dealt

with in this paper, although a complete log of strata for the type series is

appended. The Sturtian glaciation fades away through stages of Auvioglaciation

into a thick sequence of well Jaminated (Tapley Hill) calcareous slates, and then

into laminated and banded siliceous limestones, culminating in the Brighton

Limestone, Elsewhere in the State the equivalent of the Tapley Hill sequence

contains thin tillite bands, suggesting that the laminations as a whole echo fluvio-

glaciation, and, as such, may represent some peculiar variation of varve pairs

indicating seasonal influence. Mawson has discussed aspects of the lamination

pie previously and refers to the laminated slates as “extraglacial” (Mawson

1912).

At about the top of the Brighton Limestone horizon in the Adelaide region

(and probably at a slightly lower but variable stratigraphical horizon in the

Flinders Ranges), sediment types and colours reflect a marked environment

change. The grey-blue colours of the Tapley Hill Series give way to reds and

purples in the overlying alternating slates and quartzites, and continue to

the base of the Cambrian Archaeocyathinae limestones. Howchin called these

“red” beds the “transitional” series—transitional to fossiferous Cambrian, Until

a rehable decision is reached as to where the base of the Cambrian is to be taken,

it is suggested that beds above the Brighton Limestones but below the Archaeo-

cyathinae limestones be considered as the Upper Division of the Adelaide Series.

In the foregoing description it will be noticed that the author has deviated

somewhat from the subdivisions of the Adelaide Seties as suggested by Howchin,

Mawson, and others. It is hoped to discuss the merits of these various sub-

divisions in a later paper,

The following generalized log of strata for the Adelaide Series in Howchin’s

type area commences with the youngest stratigraphical unit,

Upver ADELAIDE SERIES

Iter No. Feet

25. 1,150 Pre-Atchaeocyathinae grey quartzites and slates,

24, 2,250 Alternate purple slates and purple quartzites.

23, 300 Massive grey-white quartzites,

22. 140 Purple slates,

21. 270 Massive quartzites,

20, 300 Purple and grey slates.

19, 180 Arkoses and quartzites.

18. 200 Flaggy quartzites.

17. 500 Purple and grey flagey quartzite and slate.

16. 630 Purple siliceous slates with intraformational flakes.

5,920

Mipo._e ApDELATDE SERIES

15. 100 Brighton limestones, dolomiitic above.

14. 10,500 Tapley Hill laminated slates below (7,500 feet), and banded slaty

limestones. (3,000 feet) above.

13. 210 Pluvioglacial sédiments and minor limestones,

12, 1,000+ Sturtian tillite.

11, 41,0004 = Mitcham slates and quartzites with Glen Osmond arkosic gravelly

on quartzite at base.

12,810

330

Lower APELAIDE SERIES

Tiem Na. Feet

10. 1,540-++ Glen Osmond slates and phyllites,

9, 450 Beaumont dolomites.

8. 1,000 Upper phyllites.

7. 1,000 Thick quartzite.

6 1,100+ Lower phyllites with minor quartzites and dolomites.

5, 430 Upper Torrens dolomiites with “Mawsonella” magnesites.

4, 680 Phyllites with sandstone quartzite bands,

3 150+ Lower Torrens dolomites.

Z. *2,000+ Alternate argillaceons sandstones and sandy slates.

1, 100+ Basal ilinenitic sandstones. Thickness very variable.

8,450

Excluding item two, the thickness of the Adelaide Series, in its type locality,

taken to the base of the Archaeocyathinae limestones, exceeds 25,000 feet.

TERTIARY TO RECENT SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS

Ouicocene LAcusTRINE SEDIMENTS

In the Adelaide region a great stratigraphical hiatus exists in the geological

record following the collapse and folding of the “Flinders” geosyncline. The

long period of subaerial peneplanation which followed exposed the “roots” of the

early Palacozoic fold-mountain range. The immense stratigraphical hiatus is

broken only by Permian glaciation in all the period between Cambrian and

eatly Tertiary.

Permian glacigenes are not preserved in the area under discussion, although

an outlier of these sediments occurs a few miles to the south-west on the Eden—

Moana fault block. The next oldest formation, which in this case does occur 1

the area, is a series of lacustrine sands and clays. It was laid down on an

extremely well developed “base surface.”

The series is typically lignitic in South Australia, and it is overlain con-

formably (or disconformably) by fossiliferous Marine Miocene and possibly

Upper Oligocene in some localities. By analogy with similar beds oceurring in

Victoria, their age is tisually considered Oligocene. The sediments are typically

grey-white in colour, although yellow clays and reddish sands occur not in-

frequently.

The uplift of the Mount Lofty Ranges (Kosciusko Epoch) has resulted in

extensive stripping of the Tertiary “overmass” from the central “horst” region.

On the lower portions of the pivotal or hinged fault blocks flanking the latter

region the Tertiary deposits are still in evidence. In the present area the Miocene

marine sediments have been removed entirely, although it is obvious that they

once covered most, if not all, of it. The underlying lacustrine sediments are now

almost gone, but retnnants of them occur in the Belair—Blackwood and Ironbank—

Cherry Gatdens districts. These exposures represent the northern “tongueing

out” of the complete series occurring on the Eden~Moana and Clarendan—Ochre

Cove fault blocks respectively,

The Belair—Blackwood exposures are described by Howchin (1933) in dis-

cussing a system of “dead rivers” of South Australia, In the succeeding section

of the present work the application of his “dead river” theory to these sediments

in shown to be a fallacy.

* Stratigraphical relations of this horizon are uncertain.

331

At Belair and Blackwood, road and railway cuttings have sectioned the

remnant lacustrine series, which are chiefly lighi-coloured clays and sandy clays

with minor sand beds, Processes of laterization have caused inctpient ferru-

ginous mottling or formed hands of gritty ironstone. Floaters and ctitcropping

beds of this ironstone have been of great aid in the field jn delimiting the

boundaries of the outliers.

About Cherry Gardens there are few excavations in, or natural exposures

of, the lacustrine heds, and once more ironstone floaters have been an invaluable

aid in field mapping.

Howcuin's Dean River THrory (1933)

The author has carried out field investigations in many areas studied by

Howchin in forming his dead river theory, and as a result believes that Howchin

developed hts theory far beyond the limits of his evidence. However, it is not

the author's intention to attempt to disprove Howchin's theory in its entirety, as

such refutation may be impossible. Where the theory concerns the Adelaide

region, it has been questioned previously by Fenner [1939 (1)] and Sprigg

fi942; 1945 (1}].

Howchin (1933, p. 2) considered that “the original river systems of South

Australia followed an inclined plane from Central Australia to the southern coast.

The elevation of the Mount Lofty Ratiges, at a comparatively late geological

period, formed an east-west barrier to the central drainage by which these older

rivers were truncated and formed numerous lakes on the northern side of the

barrier. Although the rivers ceased to flow in their lower channels, the physical

features incidental tn their former existence have persisted, somewhat modified

to the present (ime. Arnong these featurcs the most remarkable are the extensive

deposits of sands and gravels in a consolidated (as well as unconsolidated) con-

dition, which bear testimony to their former existence.” Tle then procveded to

describe in detail features of the nametons broad longitudinal valleys charac-

teristic of the Mount Lofty Ranges and in particular drew attention to many

ancient gravels, some of which were preserved in the valley bottoms and others

as outliers on hill-tops,

The details concerning multitudinous alluvial, fluviatile and lacustrine

deposits which Howchin had carefully collected and put on record on this

occasion covered a great range of sedimentary depositional environments, and,

as such, were without doubt extremely valuable. Unfortunately, these records

were all considered together and assumetl to be evidence of a single system of

remarkably parallel post-Miocene rivers draining from the far north of this State

imto the Southern Ocean. Plans of the “trunk streams” indicate an abnormal

stream pattern over which, presumably, geological structures wielded supreme

control tor great distances. Two such streams ran almost parallel courses for

100 miles; separated by a distance of betwecn only six and twelve miles. In one

section four streams are indicated in parallel flow for 30 miles atid spaced at

abotit 10 to 14 miles interval respectively. It is not suggested that cases af this

type are quite impossible, but it is pointed out that im order to make clairis of

thig nature yery complete substatitiating evidence is required,

Near Adelaide at least one of these “river channels” corresponds with early

Tertiary (? Oligocene) lignitic lacustrine deposits preserved in tectonic valleys

formed by back-tilting of the sub-parallel Kosciusko Epoch fault blocks [Sprige

1945, (1)], One such “channel” was described as passing along Llope Valley,

across Blackwood and south along the “back” of the Eden—Moana fault block,

To account for the apparent «liscontinuity of the channel to the east of Adelaide,

Howchin suggested that "a remarkable tectonic feature is present in the foothills

332

of the ranges in the neighbourhood of Adelaide. A crescentic segment has, by

faulting, been let down, which broke the continuity of the piedmont plateau .. .,

The piedmont plateau, to be consistent with the general physiographic features,

should be continuous between the Hope Valley plateau and the Belair—-Blackwood

plateau.” However, this is only partially true, as the Para block is a well-defined

tilt block with its fossil “base-surface” and overlying oligocene lacustrine and

Miocene marine sediments plunging beneath Adelaide [Sprigg 1945, (1)].

Referring to the Belair—Blackwood plateau Howchin records: ‘In the

approach to the Railway Station (Blackwood—R. C. S.) an interesting section

is exposed... . an ancient river channel filled with fluviatile deposits that are not

seen at the surface level and have no relationship to any form of existing

drainage.” This group of sediments outcrops widely in the locality, and, as in

the case of similar deposits at Hope Valley, they are outliers or rewashed rem-

nants of the once very extensive (?) Oligocene lacustrine sediments.

In the Hope Valley and Blackwood area (?) Oligocene lacustrine sediments

are exposed on the higher portions of the tilt blocks, but to the south they plunge

conformably beneath Miocene marine sediments. “Rewashing” of the out-

cropping lacustrine sediments has led to redistribution in the direction of the tilt-

down of the block, so that beds of sands and clays extremely like the original

beds (although they do not contain lignite) come to overlie the Miocene marine

sediments. This fact misled Howchin into believing the whole group of sands

and clays in outcrop to be post-Miocene,

In order to make the foregoing argument clearer, a plan has been prepared

(fig. 3) to illustrate relationships between Howchin’s “dead” Nutiootpa-Barossa-

Hope Valley-Blackwood and Noarlunga channel, and the outcropping (and in

part redistributed) oligocene lacustrine sediments, the preseryation of which has

largely been controlled by Kosciusko Epoch block faulting.

eM HOWCHING DEAD’

wt RIVERS ELAKE.

Vig. 3

Portion of the courses of two of

Howchin's “dead rivers’ have been

superimposed on a plan showing

Kosciusko Epoch Tectonic Valleys and

t related lignitic (7) Oligocene fresh-

Zo a Lopty

water deposits.

Flag 4A haiog,

ree"

333

TECTONICS

PALAEOZOIC OROGENY

Folding—Before dealing with fold movements in the restricted area sur-

veyed, an attempt will be made to trace very briefly the evolution of ideas on

folding of the Adelaide Series in the Mount Lofty Ranges. Only the miajor

stages in the development will be mentioned,

Professor Tate (1893) considered the Adelaide Series to be folded locally

in the form of a vast monocline. Howchin (1926) disproved this thean and

demonstrated that the beds were disposed in the form of a vast anticline with

a core of Archacozoic rocks exposed along the centre of the Mount Lofty Range

Horst. Subsequent field work has only modified this theory,

In the central Mount Lofty region, faulting has complicated the major

structure, but its detailed elucidation will follow systematic survey, To the

south the regional anticline is overfolded to the west (Madigon 1925, 1927), and

satellite major anticlines pitch to the south (Sprigg 1942). Hossfeld's (1935)

field mapping has disclosed what may broadly be termed a north pitching anti-

clinorium oceurring to the north of the River Torrens,

Viewed regionally, then, there is a domed anticlinorium with its major axis

directed north and south. It has pronounced satellitic major and minor folds,

some of which on the west are overturted to the west. The whole structure, more

particularly in the central region, is greatly disturbed by faulting.

As for the more restricted area mapped by the author the folding is con-

sidered to fall naturally into two distinct but interrelated groups. The major

group {which lies to the east of the overfold and overthrust zone) is charac-

terised by folds which are essentially gentle undulations with subhorizontal sets.

There appear to be two major factors controlling the fold character. Firstly,

the subhorizontal beds occupy a focalion representing portion of the “roof” of

the ancient fold-mountain anticline, Secondly, one of the large single sedimen-

tary horizons included is the 1,000 feet thick major “competent” bed of the

Adelaide Series—the Thick Quartzite—which protected adjacent formations

from more severe deformation.

The second type of folding is much more severe and pronounced in

character but is found much less frequently, being restricted to areas west of

zones of minor overthrust. Overfolding occtirs not utcommonly in such situa~

tions, and some excellent examples of this can be seen in Viaduct Gully. In a

ballast quarry north of the latter gully ome such overfold was recognised by

means of a drag fold on the averturned limb.

The severity of folding of this second type in the Clapham—Viaduct Gully

area is duc to two factors. Firstly, the beds have been caught up in minor over-

thrust movements. Secondly, the sedimentary formations which have been

disturbed are admirably suited to intricate folding (and faulting), Slates and

quartzites (chiefly) alternate to form relatively “tncompetent” and ‘'competent”

layers.

Feulfing—It has long been recognised that the Adelaide Series in the Mount

Lofty Ranges has been subjected to a considerable degree of major faulting, The

author’s survey has borne on (his contention and resulted in the discovery of

many additional faults, sone of which are very extensive linearly, in the extent

of “throw” and in the breadth of shatter zones, The larger faults conform to a

very definite fracture pattern,

For convenience of description the faults are classed in three major groups:

1, Low angle overthrust faults. 2. High angle faults of the overthrust “shalter

belt," 3, High angle faults of the major “meridional” pattern,

]

334

1, Overthrust Furdts—From the outset it is made plain that the extent of

over-riding along these faults is not extensive in any locality, Overthrusting

largely amounts to movement along planes of weakness where overfolding became

too severe.

Broadly speaking, the zone of overthrusting skirts the western foothills of

the Mount Lofty Ranges. The zone can be traced at intervals from Sturt Gorge,

through Viaduct Gully to Brownhill Creek (Mitcham Quarry area), after which

it is lost beneath the Adelaide Plains.

Minor overthrust disturbances are in evidence northward along the foot-

hills from Mitcham. They occur m Glen Osmond “gorge,” in Waterfall Gully

near Magill, and near Morialta. Sill further north an important overthrust

zone crosses the Torrens Gorge at the Waterworks tunnel, half a mile down-

stream from Sixth Creek.

Effects on sediments due to overthrust movements in the Sturt Gorge have

been described previously (Sprigg 1942). In this locality it was found that the

tather perfect cleavage in the Tillite base provided excellent planes of slippage.

At Viaduct Gully, Howchin (1927) referred to an overthrust fault immediately

east of the railway line where the upper limb of an overfold has glided over the

lower limb.

Exposures in the south quarry near the right angle bend in Brownhill Creek

display movement along low angle fracture or cleavage planes, There has been

deposition of quartz in associated tension fractures.

A quarry across the gully to the south-west of the Mitcham cemetery has

exposed intimate mashing of quartzites in slate. One large mass of quartzite

appears to have becn forcefully injected into slates and then severed off fram its

parent bed.

Mashing attributed ta overthrust faulting also occurs in the Torrens Gorge

at the Waterworks tunnel; the zone extends southwards to the east of the “Three

Sugarloats.” Slates and quartzites occur interrelated in confusion, Irregulariy

dissected masses of quartzite, large and small overfolding puckers, imbricaie

structure, overthrust gliding, normal and reverse faulting and quartz veins and

“pashes” occur in profusion, The zone of severest dislocation and breceiation is

at least 200 feet in thickness, but the extent to which movement has occurred

has not been determined; it does not appear to have been extensive, Below the

main zone of breeciation, and to the west, overfolding dominates,

An excellent small seale example of “itnbricate” structure is exposed in the

cliff section immediately over the north-western entrance to the Waterworks

tunnel to the Torrens Gorge. At least ten segments are plainly visible,

A prominent feature resulting from the overthrusting concerns. the marked

difference in degree ol folding to the east and to the west of the zones of maximum

movement. The over-riding’ segment ig mostly only gently folded (normal fault

drag effects excluded}, whereas the segment over-ridden is steeply folded and

overfalded. Both segments have undergone considerable “high angle” faulting

and it is probable that oyerfolds originally existed in the over-riding segments.

These could have been “faulted out” and removed by subsequent erosion.

Structural relations of this type have been noted in the Torrens Gorge, at

Brownhill Creek and in the Sturt Gorge,

Among the foothills near Mitcham and south to Sturt Gorge many minor

overthrust planes have been noted in close association with overfolds,

2. High Angle Faults of the Overthrust “Shatier Zone” — Contemporan-

tously with overfolding and overthnisting, beds catight in the zone of severest dis-

335

tortion were acutely faulted and shattered. So far, investigation has indicated no

yery regular fault pattern for these steep “normal” and “reverse” faults, but two

dominant sets strike approximately at tight angles. Hade and throw of the

individual faults is usually small, of the arder of 100 feet or less, Such faults

were apparently planes of readjustment during ihe period of overthrusting, The

nature of the Glen Osmond and Mitcham series of alternating slates and quartzites

appears to have facilitated fautlng,

3. The High Angle Faults of the Major Meridional Series—These faults

are regional in extent. They are well defined and usually extend many miles,

They provide the major lines of weakness and movement in the Adelaide vicinity.

The largest of then has been traced fot 26 miles, and at either extremity it can-

tinues strongly, In general the faults strike N.N.E. and 5.S.W. and adhere to

a reasonably regular pattern. Drag effect and brecciation is displayed magnil-

cently and there has been heavy deposition of quartz in associated tension frac-

tures, The throw of many of the faults was originally “east-down” with hade

nearly vertical, and usually extent of throw is to be measured in hundreds of feet,

The largest fault so far mapped has been named the “Ochre-Cove” fault.

Most strata immediately to the west of this fault are strongly influenced in their

dip for half a mile in the approach. The great extent of fault-drag suggests

that when the original dislocation occurred the beds in question (about the strati-

graphical horizon of the Thick Quartzite) were then deeply buried, Fracturing

was much less in evidence then than during subsequent periods of movement.

It is evident that this meridional series of regiowal faults has hgured very

prominently in the major physiographic evolution of the Adelaide region since

the early Palaeozoic era. Ai least three separate periods of movement along

some af the fault planes can be inferred.

Of these, the first probably occurred early in the Palaeozoic era before

erosion had “raised” the deeper beds far above the zone of “plastic deformation.”

Certain stresses acting upon the geosynclinal sediments brought about menoclinal

drag folding (more particularly in the relatively “incompetent” beds), which was

intensified until faulting occurred in most cases, As mentioned previously, the

faulting originally, in many, but by no means all cases, was “east-down” (see

Seetions A-A’, B-RB* and C-C’, Geological Reconnaissance Map).

The extent to which imonoclinal drag-folding and/or faulting occurred dur-

ing this period was largely governed by the type of rock under immediate stress.

The slates and phyllites typically were “dragged” severely prior to faulting, ¢.g.,

in Waterfall Gully, whereas the Thick Quartzite usually broke relatively cleanly.

llowever, in some instances (as to the west of Ashton and near Crafers along

the strikes of the Coromandel and Crafers faults respectively) argillaceous sand-

siones and massive quartzites have yielded extensively and are dragged down at

high angles of dip.

The second period of faulting along this meridiona)l series of fractures

probably occurred during the late Palaeozoic or Mesozoic era, buf this is only

conjectural. Indirect evidence suggests that ir followed a period of prolonged!

erosicm, perhaps pencplanation. By then the lower stratigraphical units of the

Adelaide Series had been raised very considerably relative to (he land surface,

and any heating effects of ancient plutonic magmas had faded away. The rocks

concerned were now high in the zone of fracture, Little or no definite evidence

of drag accompanying the reversal of the direction of fault throw has been

observed,

336

The third period corresponds with the Kosciusko Epoch (see below), when

after a prolonged period of peneplanation block faulting occurred again,

Fig. 4 has been prepared to present a simplified view of the fault pattern,

The Ochre-Cove fault is one which has shared in all three periods of movement.

ues

«ASHTON

SUMMERTON

MARINO

HALLETT co

OVERMASS SEDIMENTS

UNDERMASS SEDIMENTS

LATERITIC™ OVERMASS SEDIMENTS

” UNDERMASS “

ANelENT (FaLAEQzOIC) Faun TS

FOSCIWSAO EPOCH BLOCK FAULTS

ZONES OF OVERFOLLING & OVER THRUSTING

Of lsteritte Workonw «dove Sas Lore.

By CSargg 19 C

Fig. 4

Generalised plan showing names of faults described in the text. The Kosciusko

Epoch Faults are re-apened ancient (Palaeozoic) faults. Also indicated are

remnants of lateritic soils and laterized parent rock preserved on Kosciusko

Epoch Fault blocks. Laterization has occurred parily on ovettnass sediments

and partly in undermass bedrock. The altitudes at which Jateritic remnants

occur are indicated in hundreds of feet (e.g., 11+5).

337

It is probable that the main western escarpment faults (Eden and Burnside

faults) have had a comparable history.

Sufficient descriptive data has been iticluded in the geological reconnaissance

map to render detailed description of individual faults superfluous, Zones of

shatter and brecciation are indicated by cross hatching, and bedding dip readings

indicate the extent of drag in the vicinity of the important faults. Quartz

deposition in fractured zones is universal in the form of irregular vein infillings,

or as massive milky quartz reefs as in Horsnell’s Gully and at Upper Sturt.

Excellent examples of “Island” masses of quartzite “abandoned” in slates in

fault lines ceeur near Brownhill Creek and along ihe Black Hill road to

Montacute.

Ture Kosciusko Evoca or BLock FAULTING

Fanlting of this period occurs extensively in the central portion of South

Australia. Benson (1909), Fenner (1931) and Sprigg [1945, (1)] have dis-

cussed the general local plan (with particular reference to the central Mount

Lofty Ranges), and various authors have referred to still mote restricted por-

tions of it. Certain relative movements of the Eden-Moana Pivotal Fault Block

have been illustrated (Sprige 1942) and additional investigations on the Adelaide

Plaitis area is proceeding.

The foothills region surveyed is delineated on the west by the Burnside and

Eden faults. North from Viaduct Gully, the Eden fault is the major escarp-

ment-forming fault. The Burnside fault in this region is largely obscured hy

alluvial debris, although bores sunk short distances to the. west of this fault

indicate that it is a fault of considerable magnitude, South-west from Viaduct

Gully the Burnside fault appears to have become the major escarpment fault, and

as such it continues to the sea-board at Marino,

The Ochre-Cove fault, striking from Noarlunga, has its “hinge” point in

the vicinity of Eagle-on-the-Hill. This Kosciusko fault represents a re-opening

along portion of a more extensive palaeozoic fault which continues N.N.E. beyond

Eagle-on-the-Hill, passing to the west of Ashton. Field topography and evidence

from generalised contouring suggests a possible fault escarpment striking north

and south just to the west of Mount Lofty, and running out to the south in

the vicinity of Upper Sturt, Reconnaissance mapping has not lecated such

a fault.

The Kitchener fault may correspond in part with, the Stonyfell fault, and

if so it “hinges out” near Mortacute.

The westerly downthrow of the Burnside fault splinter relative to the

hotthern extension of the Eden-Moana fault block has been calculated; the extent

of downthrow at Mitcham, Burnside and Athelstone approximates 600, 900 and

1,100 feet respectively. By coincidence, from Athelstone to Springbank, the

Burnside fault splinter preserves a remarkably horizontal surface at about 450

feet above sea level.

The interpretation of “Kosciusko” faults as distinct from more ancient

faults has been dependent to a large extent upon obvious breaks in topography

or escarpment formations with which normal fault phenomena are in close asso-

ciation. In several instances washonts and quarries along escarpments have

exposed the exact fault line’ Where such exposures do not occur the location

of the fault in many cases can be decided from topographical conditions with

reasonable accuracy (providing, of course, stratigraphical and/or other evidences

of faulting are present),

338

Near the bend in the railway before the straight track descending into Belair

Station, a washout has exposed the Ochre-Cove fault. The fault is obviously

one of the more ancient group re-opened. On the western aspect the wall rock

is partly rewashed early tertiary sediments, but the opposing face is of shattered

Adelaide Series Slates and quartzites seamed with epigenetic quartz. North,

along the same fault, the topographic break is marked by similar disturbances and

floaters of epigenetic quartz, but the tertiary beds have been eroded away. At

the exposure mentioned above the Tertiary beds dip away westwards from the

fault at only a few degrees and the throw here is probably no more than 200 feet.

At Ochre-Cove and Noarlunga the same fault has dragged the tertiary beds up

to angles of 30° and 40°. The fault-throw in the latter locality is about 600 feet.

The Eden and Burnside faults, in a number of instances, have been delineated

within a few feet, but only on two or three occasions were “fault outcrops”

noted. One such “outcrop” of the Eden Fault is exposed in Goldsack’s Beaumont

Dolomite Quarries, where operations have left standing a vertical face of talus

and alluvial outwash which marks the trace of the faults. A buried “clifflike”

escarpment is indicated. Further north, in the vicinity of Athelstone, the same

fault was noted in natural “outcrop.” Partly rewashed and mottled early Ter-

tiary sands and sandstones abut (vertically in section) against the ancient slates

and quartzites.

The Kosciusko faults are not necessarily “simple,” and a particulat example of

“compound’ faulting will be described to illustrate this point. A site was selected

by the Department for Engineering and Water Supply for a second 2,000,00 gallon

pressure tank behind Springfield Estate. In excavating for solid foundations, bed-

rock was encountered over most of the proposed site within seyeral fect of the sut-

face, approximately at depths anticipated. On the western border, however, bed-

rock was not reached in sinking to 15 feet. Consequently it was found that a fault

traversed this western border producing a buried “cliff face” in the basement rock.

A sketch section (fig. 5) iliustrates the subsurface features, From evidence based

on topography the major escarpment fault occurs 100 yards or more to the cast,

indicating the formation of quite narrow fault splinters and the compound nature

of the major fault lines.

For evidence of recent movements along Kosciusko faults the reader is

referred to a later section on river deposits.

mt Lofly Horst

Region

Fig. 5

To illustrate subsurface relations at the original Springfield tank site.

339

A TENTATIVE SEQUENCE ror Loca Tectontc Events

An attempt has been made to summarise the major phases in the Orogenic

history of the Adelaide Series in the area mapped, by means of simplified hypo-

thetical sketches. The scheme proposcd must be regarded as only tentative.

During portion of the Proterozoic Era, the Cambrian and possibly during

the earlier Ordovician period, much of South Avwstralia was the site of the

accumulation of the yast Flinders [Sprigg 1945, (2)] geosyncline of sediments,

Sedimentation was terminated probably as a result of crustal instability due to

overloading and consequent collapse of the geosynclinal area, Deformation of

CAMBRIAN ABCHAFOCEATHONAL saree air 6

Sure SERS

AMIENTON LIMESTOWE

TAPLEY WikL SLATE & LIMESTONE

FelMIasc deal SEQMENTS

PHA LI TE

GLEN OSwoWD £ awikcwae Scares # Qusercies

UPKER Pureeires

BEAUMONT (Bcike ETAL) LIMESTONE

THICK iNdage rite

LOWER AyrLLiTEs

TORRENS b1MESTONES

ALTERMATE SLATES & Savosrowes/ Pas” poarevt)

BASAL UMENITE SANOSFOWE —

Eearcvran ERGSION SURFACE

MBCNEAN (SWFOLS IyTeUStOwe ch METASEDIMENTS

Ao a

eee an

nae]

Fig. 6

Diagrammatized cross sections to illusttate major stages in the history of fault

movements in the vicinity of Mount Lofty. The series is strictly tettative

and greatly simplified,

340

the strata in the southern portions. of the geosyncline (i.e, in the Adelaide

region) commenced with major stresses directed westwards. Major regional

folds with north-south axes were initiated and the complete east-west section

across the basin probably approximated an anticlinorium. Relatively minor

presstire from the north (in this area) may have introduced the weak doming

influence on the major fold structure. As the westerly directed pressure became

more intense a strong cleavage developed, and minor overthrusting commenced

in restricted areas. Howchin’s type locality for the Adelaide Series is one such

area. of overthrusting.

Fig. 6A represents an idealized sketch section across one of these zone of

minor overthrust at about the latitude of Belair as it might have appeared in the

early Palacozoic era. In the oyerfolding of the Mitcham alternate slates and

quartzites, variations in competence produced localised shearing stresses which

restilted in both high angle and low angle thrust faults upon which displacement

developed through flexing of the beds and bedding plane slippage. Isostatic

instability cased by the increased mass of beds superimposed in the vicinity of

the overthrust and overfold belt at this early period would, presumably, be largely

compensated more or less contemporaneously by transference of material in the

subcrustal layers,

At.a much later stage, when erosion had reduced the Jand surface very cons

siderably (e.g., had exposed the Brighton Limestones), a new isostatic imstability

was probably caused by the relatively greater erosion and transport of material

from the region of overthrusting. At this stage, presumably, tratisfer of material

in related subcrustal layers apparently would not occur so readily. Differential

crustal stresses would build up until relief came in the form of block faultiny

(fig. 6B). This first period of major block faulting probably occurred during

early or mid-Palacozoic Era. The older members of the Adelaide Series were

still buried deeply, as intense drag effects along many of the original block faults

suggest that the beds concerned were near the lower limit of the zone of fracture.

In the area major throw was down to the east, although this was not so in all

cases, Contemporaneous and subsequent erosion possibly reduced the ancient

land surface to a base surface (fig. 6C) and possibly kept pace with block fault-

ing, but such js only conjectural.

Following this long period of erosive activity, along some of the original

block faults cf the area, movement occurred again, but frequently in a reversed

direction (hg. 6D), ¢.g., Stonyfell and Crafers faults. Ln such cases where the

extent of reversal has exceeded the original throwdown, drag effects suggest

faulting down in a particular direction, while slratigraphical relations indicate

faulting in quite the opposite direction {sections A.A’ and C.C.*, Reconnaissance

map). The extent of displacement in most of these reversed Faults is con-

siderable. By now the lower units of the Adelaide Series were much closer to

the surface and high in the zone of fracture, and hence in the fault zones breccia-

tion and fracturing were much more strongly in evidence.

A further very prolonged period of peneplanation later reduced the area to

a remarkable base surface (fig, 6E), upon which only low monadnocks (eg.,

the “original’’ Mount Lofty) remained. With a further depression of the land

surface, the area (and much of southern Australia) became a site of deposition

of a series of ( ?) Oligocene lacustrine and fluviatile sediments. Much, if not all, of

the ancient ergsion surface, including many of the monadnocks, were buried

partially or completely, and then with a general negative moyement of the land-

mass, perhaps as early as the late Oligocene period, the sea transgressed the arca

and left its increment of marine sediments (fig. 6 F).

541

At approximately the end of Miocene time the instability of the land mass

was again apparent (fig. 6G) and further movements along many of the ancient

faults recommenced. Faulting continued actively throughout the Pliocene and

Pleistocene times (Kosciusko Epoch), with the formation of a horst range with

maximum local uplift at Mount Lofty. Minor fault adjustments made manifest

by small of insignificant earthquake tremors continue infrequently to the

present day,

With this latest uplift a new cycle of erosion was initiated, and consequently

the Oligocene and Miocene sediments were stripped from the higher portions of

the horst range and deep dissection of the undermass rocks comtnenced (fig, 6 H)-

MISCELLANIA

SANDSTONE DYKES

Several of these dyke formations have been found in the Belair-Blackwood

area. At least three of them occur in the road cutting immediately south of the

Belair Railway Station, and five or more are exposed in the railway cutting south

of Blackwood Railway Station, The dykes vary in width from one inch to four

fect six inches.

Two other sandstone dykes are known in South Australia, and the author

was present at Yankaninna in the Flinders Ranges with Sir. D, Mawson when the

first of these was found; the second example was found when making field

observations at Bibliando dome, In both these cases the dykes occurred

* 2 Ps 4 a oa

? a * ° ° 6

(?)Ohgocene clays & Sands, °

* . Mottle d) ‘8

s ° . .

leached slates wilh ferrus.

« gineus mottlings

ginoue- mett ting

too!

——_

VERTICAL SECTIONS

SANDSTONE

—_—_—

Horiz owas

S<IONS

Fig. 7

The sketches illustrate certain structural associations of sandstone dykes

discovered in the Belair-Blackwood vicinity, Example A occurs in q road

cutting at Belair, and example B in the Blackwood railway cutting.

342

in Sturtian tillite, and it is to be noted that the latest examples occur

in slates which are members of the Mitcham slates and quartzite group, which

the writcr considers may be members o£ a fluyioglacial or interglacial phase

associated with the Sturtian tillite,

The sedimentary relations of the dykes have been examined carefully ino

each of the cuttings, and they are rather similar in each case. Generalised sketch

plans and sections have been prepared (fig. 7) for two of these structures. The

Belair example (fig. 7 A) is strongly discordant, cutting the sedimentary lamina-

tions at about 60-80° and lying obliquely to the regional cleavage. This dyke

was formed before severe folding commenced, as the structure is inftieticed by

regional cleavage in an interesting manner, During folding, with the “stretch-

ing” of the slates in the direction of cleayage {compression at right angles), the

dyke structure has been drawn out, allowing deposition of quartz in the tension

cracks in the form of small-scale “ladder veins.” Subsidiary irregular quartz

veins also occur.

Speculation as to the origin of the sandstone dykes is interesting. The

dykes probably formed where tension produced open fissures and allawed aii

ingress of sand, presumably from above. In each case (with due allowance for

the effects of crosion) bedded sandstones of apparently similar comiposition are

known to occur stratigraphically above.

However, the Blackwood example (fig. 7 BR), which is the largest recorded

in the area (approximately 4 feet 6 inches wide}, presents some unusual features

the development of which are obscure. The botile-necked (in section) upper

portion and the drag affects apparent in the slates adjacent to the dyke are

peculiar,

LATERITE

The genesis of laterite in South Australia has recently received mitich

attention, particularly by Preseott (1931) and Crocker (1945), There now

seems to be genetal agreement that prereqiisite cunditions for the formation of

laterite include impeded drainage (¢,g., in low lying or peneplaned surfaces) and

tropical humidity. Such conditians were fulfilled over wide areas in Australia

in the Pleistocene (Whitchouse 1927, David 1932}.

Prescoit has demonstrated that must of the Jaterites of Australia are fossil

“B” soil horizons, and in South Australia these are almost invariably preserved

on plateau areas. Lateritic “ironstones” and laterised horizons occur overlying

a very diverse suite of Ged-rocks such as igneous rocks (as at Houghton), slates

(e.g., Belair), quartzites (¢.g., on thick quartzite plateau south of Hotsnell’a

Guliy) and Tertiary clayey sandstones (Cherry Gardens), In the Mount Lofty

Ranges laterisation was carried out both on overmass and undermuass sediments,

The period of formation was post-Miocene and probably pre-Pleistocene glaciation,

Occurrences of laterite or lateritic bed-rock are indicated in fig. 4, together

with the approximate heights above sea level of the respective outcrops.

If impeded drainage is a requirement in the formation of laterites, then

obviously only relatively low-lying and Hat (or only slightly undulating) surfaces

could provide such conditions, Such conditions of impeded drainage could not

obtain immediately adjacent (and on hoth sides) of prominent fault escarpmetts.

In this way it is obvious (after consideration of the altitudinal distribution of

faterites on the area) that very considerable block faulting occurred since their

formation. Relative movement between the Eden-Moana and Clarendon Ochre-

Cove fault blocks in this manner averages some 600 feet along most of its length,

and between the Para block and the major horst region about 1,000 feet,

Tt is anticipated that when the age relationships of the laterite are knowt

more fully, given that the formation of laterite imphes 2 Jand surface of yery

343

subdued relief (probably with undulations within the zone of latcrization not

exceeding, say, + 50 fect over considerable areas), one more link will be available

in dating periods of, and for calculating extent of, movement along block faults.

Already, in the Adelaide region, there are base-levels of (?) Oligocene, Miocene

and Lower and Upper Pliocene deposition which offer datum levels for calculat-

ing relative movement on a time basis (Sprigg 1942),

Concerning the age of the laterization, if a correlation can be effected

hetween the extensive series of mattled clays (occurting about the gulf region

of South Australia) and undonbted laterite, such would offer an excellent basis

for age correlation. In the author’s mind these mottled clays show many simi-

Jarities with the bleached and mottled “C” horizons of laterite profiles, and

recently F. W. Whitehouse (personal communication), on viewing these mottled

clays at Ardrossan, Yorke Peninsula, pronounced them as very probahly associated

with processes of laterization, The age of the mottled clays is definitely post-

Lower Pliocene Marine and almost certainly post-Adelaidean (Upper Pliocene

Marine).

A final point of considerable importance concerning Jaterization concerns

D. W. Johnson’s “double peneplanation” theory [see Fenner 1930, 1931; Sprig

1945, (2)], For reasons which must be obvious from the foregoing discussion

(impeded drainage and consequent depressed topogtaphy, etc.), the occurrence

of laterite over much of the Mount Lofty Ranges suggests that here is one very

potent argument in favour of such a theory, This and other aspects of faulting

will he considered in a subsequent publication.

Eviwence or Recew’ Upcirt of tHe Mount Lorry RAncrs

A search was conducted for any evidence which might indicate periods of

prolonged still-stand during the Kosciusko Epoch block faulting. No un-

questionable valley-in-valley structure was recorded, although a suggestion of

this structure was observed in the Torrens Gorge up-stream from Castambool.

River terraces are prominent features in the lower reaches of the larger escarp-

ment streams, as in Waterfall Gully, Brownhill Creek and Viaduct Gully. The

average elevation of these terraces ahove present stream level is about 15 to 20

feet, As anticipated, prominent terraces do not occur up-stream from lhe first

important tapids or waterfalls to the east of the escarpment faults. This feature,

together with the writer’s view that the modern stream bed has eroded too deeply

for the terraces to be normal flood plains, may be evidence of a recent uplift. In

contrast, il is noted that where flood plains (usually very small) occur in un-

doubted relation to the modern stream beds in question, they are elevated only

a few feet. This is the case above and below the waterfalls, where stream

prades are relatively low.

A more ancient feature associated with the block faulting concerns the

presence of a very remarkable river boulder conglomerate “perched” about

150 feet above the bed of Brownhill Creek and exposed im quarries to the east

of the “mouth” of thai valley. Phe conglomeratic boulders are unusually coarse

for the Adelaide region (many exceed 4 fcer in diameter), indicating a stream

with considerable erosive power. The boulders are largely well rounded quartziles

and they rest as a basement of quartzite.

A very similar boulder bed which resis on quartzite in a rail cutting north of

Hallett Cove has been described previously (Howchin 1933, Sprigg 1942).

LANDSLIDES AND SCREES

Landslides are not uncommon along steep valley walls, particularly where

the bedrock is slate. Excellent examples may be seen in Glen Osmond Gorge

344

within a mile of the Adelaide Plains. Several slides have occurred in soil and

talus along high-grade streamlets on the eastern slope, The slippage has, 11

several cases, blocked the original channels, and as a result the drainage has heen

divided, forming parallel streams, as often occurs when lava flows have displaced

streams from their original beds,

From near the Montacute Chutch Howchin describes (1915, p. 7): “the

greatest landslip that I have hitherto seen. At the base of the remarkable scarp

left by the slide an extraordinary medly of piled-up rocks occurs through which

the older “Corkscrew” Road was cut, and its effects can be traced to the level

of the valley below. A fault plane may have existed and created a line of weal-

ness from which the imperfectly supported rocks on the side of the steep valley

slipped away.”’ The present survey has established that such a fault does exist.

It is a minor branch of the Pinkerton fault.

In regions of steep topography where quartzite forms bedrock, landslides

are exceptional and their role is assumed by screes. Wherever steep-sided gullies

traverse the Thick Quartzite numerous examples are found,

In general, in spite of the common occurrence of extreme slopes and the

high grades of minor side valleys, landslides are infrequent in the area. Instead,

“youthful” instability is registered by large screes and talus accumulations.

THE Sorts

Skeletal soils figure prominently in the western escarpment foothills, The

high grades of stream run-off cause severe erosion, and so deeper soils aré

limited to valley bottoms.

The soils will ultimately be classified in some detail, but mearwhile several

major groupings scem obyious—the soils which overlie sandstone and quartzites,

the soils of the slates, phyliites and limestones, and the vailey bottom soils.

The major sandstones and quartzite horizons in areas of more subdued

topography give rise to podsolized soils, A thin grey! humic horizon is under-

lain by a leached sand, and then by a yellow heavy clay. These soils are acid

and generally unsuited for horticulture, although clovers may be established

quite well on them. In the natural state the soils support a sclerophyil vegeta-

tion dominated by heath, yacca and stringybark.

The slates, and to a lesser extent the limestones, give thin brown or reddish

Inams and clay loams. Travertine is frequently deposited in the “B” horizon.

Such soils commonly support apple orchards. In virgin state they support a

savantiah type vegetation association,

The valley bottom soils are normally grey to black at the surface, and com-

monly contain a high himus content. They are the most valuable agrictilturally

and are eminently suitable for market gardening.

Economic GEOLOGY

The Adelaide Series locally have only been mineralised to small degree,

Small quantities of a number of ore minerals have been prospected along the

foothills region. Two deposits have been worked on a very moderate scale, the

Glen Osmond silver-lead mines opened in 1841 and the Montacute copper mines

in 1843, These were the earliest mines in South Australia, and among the first

in Australia.

Fourteen lodes were discovered at Glen Osmond. Of these, six were

prospected and worked. The lodes varied in width from one to four feet and

consisted of siderite, iron oxides, barytes and quartz in calcareous slates. Shafts

were sunk om at least four parallel lodes to a maximum of 310 feet (see S.A.

Mining Reviews), During the period 1847 to 1850 an English company extracted

ore to the value of £30,000; the ore averaged 21 ounces silver and 71% lead

per ton,

These associated parallel Jodes were deposited in major regional joints, along

some of Which movement appeats to have occurred and which strike approxt-

mately east and west and dip 70 to 90° to the south. This same persistent joint

system has also provided the locus of ore deposition at the Mount Malvern deposit

(Section 269, Hundred Noarlunga). The galena occurs separately or intimately

associated with barytes and a little copper pyrites. In the oxidised zone cerussite

occurs in association with cerargyrite and copper carbonates,

The extent to which faulting controls ore deposition in the foregoing cases

is not known. At least one north-south faylt is known to strike from Brown-

hil] Creek to Glen Osmond through the mineralised belt, and some silver-lead

lodes are associated with coarse fault breccias,

At Morialta (Section 1,164, Hundred Adelaide) silver is recorded in asso-

ciation with lead and antimony deposited in a broken zone.

Several copper Iodes have heen prospected and mined in or near the Torrens

Gorge. Of these the Montacute mines were most important. During 1843 to

1844, 1,500 tons of 18% copper ore were won, Bornite, chalcopyrite and a little

tative copper and copper carbonates were mined from a wide compound fault

shatter zone in Sixth Creek,

Gold has been prospected in very small quantities in several localities.

Alluvial gold has been taken from Morialta, Torrens Gorge and Sixth Creek.

Quattz crystals, usually small, are found in most quartzite quarrics in con-

siderable numbers; a few are satisfactory for radio requirements,

The area is very convenient to Adelaide for building stone and ballast. The

Thick Quartzite has been quarried extensively as road metal, and in some cases

provides a good freestone. The Glen Osmond and associated quartzites have

provided another valuable source of road metal and railway ballast, The more

atkosic facies of the Glen Osmond quarézite jis in considerable demand as a

moulding sand.

At one time slates were quarried extensively along the foothills, but they

are oo longer fashionable in building construction. For fancy walls and “crazy-

paving” there is still a limited demand.

The Beaumont Blue Metal dolomites have been used to a limited degree in

“lime burning” as well as for road metal.

ACCURACY OF SURVEY DATA

The use of the term “reconnaissance” to describe the accompanying geological

map requires a few words of explanation. Reconnaissance here should not be

taken to imply the lack of accuracy associated with sketch mapping, bul as an

attempt to describe that degree of detail which a scale of 40 chains to the inch

permits. Field survey was carried out using base maps on a scale of 6 inches

to one mile, and practically all roads, major creeks and ridges were traversed.

Unsuitable outcrops in several localities reduced the reliability of some record-

ings, while in others extensive soil or vegetation cover prevented observation

altogether, Unfortunately, aerial photographs of the area were not available until

field work was in its final stages.

Particular attention ts drawn to the thick group of alternate slates and sand-

stones included very tentatively in the foregoing work near the base of the

Adelaide Series. These sediments outcrop extensively on the eastern Hmits of

the mapped area, but because of unsuitable outcrops in critical localities the

solution of certain puzzling problems associated with them must await the com-

pletion of field mapping in other areas .

346

Concerning the plan illustrating distribution of laterite or lateritic bedrock

no claim is made for finality. Boundaries, in many cases, have simply been

sketched in. Some outcrops may have heen omitted, and in other instances it

may not have been correct to mterpret certain ferruginization as lateritéc.

Finally, attention is drawn to the reliability of bed thicknesses mdicated in

the sttaticraphical table for the Adelaide Series. It will be readily appreciated

that the essentially subhorizontal set of strata over much of the area in associa~

tion with numerous major faults has introduced maiy difficulties, which in several

instances have prevented measurement of unbroken sequences. As far as

practicable such indefiniteness has heen indicated by plus and/or minus signs in

the stratigraphical table. In particular, the principal exposures of the lowest

members of the Adelaide Series occur in the Torrens Gorge region where the

full extent of faulting is still uncertain. In order to arrive at a more accurate

picture of the geological structure in this area and of the stratigraphical sequence,

if anywhere complete in outcrop, more detailed survey will be necessary.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted ta Mr. S. B. Dickinson, Government Geologist of

South Australia, for willing assistance on many occasions during the final phases

wf the preparation of the foregoing work for publication, and for undertaking

the redrafting of the geological map. The author also wishes to thank Professor

Sir Duuglas Mawson for securing for him aerial photographs of the area,

REFERENCES

Barnes, T, A,, and Krerman, A. W. 1934 “The Blue Metal Limestone an

its Associated Beds.” Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust, 58

Benson, W. N. 1909 Petrographic Notes on Certain Pre-Cambrian Rocks of

the Mount Lofty Ranges, with Special Reference to the Geology of the

Houghton District.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 35, 108-111

CHAmuERLAIN, R. T, 1935 Science, 81

Cencker, R. L, 1945 “Post Miocene Climatic and Geological History and its

Significance in Relation to the Genesis of the Major Soil Types of

Sovth Australia, C.S.1.R. Bulletin, No. 193 :

Davm, T. W. E. 1928 “Notes on Newly Discovered Fossils in the Adelaide

Series (Lipalian), South Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. 5, Aust., 52

Daym, T. WE, 1929 "Further Notes on the Newly Discovered Fossils i

the Adelaide Seties (Lipalian or Proterozoic), South Australia.”

Trans. Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust., 53

Davin, T. W_ E., and Tittyarp, R, J. 1936 “Memoir on Fossils of the late

Pre-Cambrian (Newer Proterozoic) from the Adelaide Series in Soutt

Australia." Angus & Robertson

Fexner, C, 1931 “South Australia—a Geographic Study.” Melbourne

Fenner, C, 1939 (1) “The Significance of the Topography of Anstey Lill,

South Australia’ Trans. Roy. Soc. 5S. Aust., 63, 1

Hossretp, P. S. 1934 “The Geology nf Part of the North Mount Lofty

Ranges.” Trans. Ray. Soc, 5, Aust., 59

owen, W. 1904 “The Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Parr I;

The Coastal District.” Trans. Roy Soc, S. Aust., 28

IJowcurx, W. 1906 “The Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Part II.”

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 30

Tloweinn, W. 1907 “A General Description of the Cambrian Series of South

Austfalia,” A.A.A.S,

MILES |

MOUNT LOFTY RANGES

RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY

THE WESTERN SCARE

k oO 2 3 MILES

Sample No.

Q (673)

@) (674)

Q) (202)

(78)

ooVv

SO Car

mars

— C%

site

ba 5-0 Grn)

= O

, =* %

g I

600 7 \ :

bo)

Marble Hill

ao ~

/ x N

/ Ta sont

coy © : Z

“o git a ag °

a ——— Z 4 Fi : oe

cS Ne ry j a a .

< ° ae

x ww Yu . \

ee ~ N x 2 = = e ™,

\ : —m a bi e

— P . ee a ca ooh eee et aS Ys é ‘

ake Oe KA gt te Ee RE ee = a / at SS: ; C

i Sl ae cwsg gig oe Ty Big 8 WE 28 # o RRS ‘ 5

5 ) a

ores g 9 | SS w o yh ~

pe ne a a i t\ a BS

Ca Ros { ¢ i ANS

! Gi pe %

; e y 20 \ 280

| ae Z ~ \

SECTION A-A | 4.

; Hs

4 _ »/.

s >= Ne

J Zz 4 <> wie

] u ~ § WA

a ii

/ SF = 2 —— \ Aa ex — =

ry | Onn = \ \ ° \

h 5. 30 Van q S. i

¥ . oN RQ eo

oN \ : © Lee

: \ oe > | he few

0 mo . oc al “o\

' — ° ° . ar

aaa ee . 4g a e ‘ F a = fea, *

WS ¢ 0/d, ba < . be

Sea /eve/ mets : ; : : og ise mee \' -.

Ss eCe ° ‘ re

° : : *. ee , 4 es aks

, = 1 A Fibs

‘ \\ : > . ae, : » ? i f] 9 ;

/ : y F -

i 4 e e Ne . ° Ps

Pi \ Se ; ° hag ip (: ° e - Bs > fe

: : s { : = 2 e . i %”

SECTION B- 8B / ? 2 oS! IAP oO fo

- == a Veh ty CA LAr \

14 @ ay igo) > ks AZ yi Pa

/ 7 Kid: fh OV AC

£» 4, — = 4 weet 4 ae cout Nae \ Pel

h NS : S

=3 Bn bas ms Ce ee ;

/ Sk a | ee 4 430 ae

es J THe ee Ae fe *8

{s 7 ——~. SS ° > beve a, en \ ee

r oo . ss aS 2 As és \ °

rs A )S _ ~ Vd ae aN a -\e a a fon VT. f

/ 25. | | : i é ° Ss - ¢) i ~N \ =

oe Seeks 25 7 e =

SM AD oy, gw es 3 is SS

GLEN 9 ! 4 H ’ Oe LIRR Lf Ss %

/ me ; e : ‘ “le Ss ~ bo 7 = N -

7 (EEE ' e ‘ys os b

fi = / 2s > | o We =f

7 a 7 : Z ry ‘ Ks me ‘Ne

‘\ |i AN Bee | MAREK ERE oe toby [oS A

4 iS ° n : \e S\ hs

° se / S ° aS se ie +

fs 2 / / ji > VO... SPAS : : ; fell: att es e

% 7 / % LO ae " 2 a at ers » ve ig Z

5 \ “e7 wv Nes 2 *\Re 40 ae

“4 //t See 2 HERR RTT S.

(7 = me ° ° Coy °

% P 4/4 PER St A, ° \ a

r 4 . -). Se Ne a ‘ S ta

Mitcham Stn 7 5 * e SS °\e e ae °

& D Cary ° ° i. “ie. p= wHly

Pil ‘A Ly tn a a 5 ° by 7}. 5 5 KN 8 =. 2

s i xe mt : ie

e : yy 4 Z * y es F | |

ics 7 \\\ g ‘ _ <= 2 ° 3 x ea ge a 5 }

‘ nei a PE as .

ws : 3 S a 4 ey o 9? % ss 5 ‘

3 7) Sz4 a HAIR oe a Sa 100

a ~~ = 7 SS << e 5 : 5 5 s i

= R =f =A -S we ® J

74 wees -. r) XS ~) S295 <4 6 § 5 = | '

+ or ie me! a i Cc; <

LAP ie A = 2 ~ e fA oS (6)

4 i) Z mt 4 = “8S, é > ° <0 Ap,

Z 29%} a \ KS oe) 10500

4 q ‘ : of Pe is 7 39 (

ef oe Wy — ¥ ; gine fe | |

‘° t ‘ . ’ |

A ra, ats 1 ‘ C j — ESP SLOG we ” 7 fons. bys ’ 5 |

Vj y) os 1 \ Ss « \yer st , Mt. Lofty Stn. Pa

‘ a sf ee oe ie” a - é : = f =. oe : : 3

ig ey As ian x. Si \ fen fe ste, ee: = Sec ieee ° : ' F ot = fs rae 2] 10

7 $0 le n “ \ \ J et a \ os o & e < flav 4

/ pa ee) 7 (fo os an Z SEE ai \ is y MIDDLE z va) ¥ ee

4 Ke Pegher - Xv eee = es { yh a ae & 4

Cc oS Bis ee | = IN Lee ly s. “* 2 ADELAI a 4 me ‘ 4 | +

: - A hs ae : ! me es jt 1 eet

raf S | a ~ ie A: bs a z 2 a SERIES 3 a D - 6 4

ret : ROA 0 WN y . . ; anal ae (App. 13000 ft) . ae is

438, \ o No = si Peg =

440 wo i Zz Ci its . : — , / - < 5 e y. 1400 oz ae

z, Ae Po. . ( ; =

a\) G wes, : ejo °& x Ff < 2; — a oy A if > = 9 ‘ A \ S02, 1900 ~

4 we zal ° 3 kez : aN a ak ee r)&

fe i e # £35 mae

eS ) Se D = ‘ tg Workcnrot

b 2 ° WwO wry id ie Oe es

v L 3 :

av , - ; {—

bo ea) vs ° ot) [ = Co

a a 4a QV Db ° A e =

S ‘ 1, Sa 7 D ore SITE 9 C OLS « -G = 8 ee

v v . ay .

D x : s ig ] 0° ° 8% oo ae Al: . ‘ Sal 1340 +

7 q S&* z <= Yr f° S . “74 fb S

- Py c v v7 - te a v “0 /; a 7 o/s o\ " / a ae, i us Neves)

D bhp e x foe : { ie \ ef % — y ° eer sf , er a> Ye tie ‘ Jo’

Hy. ” +] 2 A & 4 * ye si pi) oo a Ar y "cs ok dé. ote ie ats — =

ep ee OS \p af a* 9 Netees We 7 thea arth VN : : cA tera —_ vit 6

* BRA V5, 9 y 7 "Oye nore ty ee (A =" 2 ae. RK Ss I

t) = ox B&B iad i hae e ey y FP “3 e a is a) - cs 25, : < 3 2 450

\ . ie a ae 4 |p te. of WO Pe > ie AL is : <x S —

é oS 4 (bie, Bathe Ww vi ee ° A b/ ° alt 5 23 £: “0, ] ie

2 Vv 1. ~ i) fe Ce SS av & eo oo 20% oz a eaOnE Se eens

Fe ae Pee, aoe Yer bo Gof cS oF BI 5 < l000 +

9 fy FOE ‘es LE dle J WA —F a rae IRONBANK ae

5 | v a 44 eae Se “et bs oma ) KK & ° Agee) “Y ir 1s

S| 4 ) a —iige S pm ° OL es ae = ties

ip 9 VI rN S fae ee os FS ee edad. SS . we q rig 5 a eee

a > v . = S Pees Z ’s 2% ieee ° Qe Sat “il — eS Gey z : ‘s<¢- o = ae iar

= E54 fs Ha p f, “ ee 4 es hy ee, P ol a Ss . o ee

eR Up |S Ask: ib , SEG fo oF * DN SANA Gt SSRN CEOS EART Sr “yt tenes] (900

NOL; CaN Rs Wie pie ; VA Wes % st

~ bed . y : Veer Ms Sega 4 ; : as a p tne, Pe, °e ° Ss ois RS — . ve 4

ee ee ( ‘ a pd x he Sieg oN Sept * LOWER aes

oe ae R 2 rN SY Wife sibope as RSG aaa Ces

. Fig o ° 4 oe ¥ t 5 e ry ° 2 ° + on he ADELAI DE Pere ok |

, ofo - , o Nb oe /77ee,,_,

AG Jee Wl, Be iG yl \ a ss eg, 5) Ss SERIES ———_—s- yoo +

oN RAF OSES ne (App. 8500 Ft)

aes: “ — S ee bal SS

° BS wae of Ce A o> ( l j a

“S fy 622 2 oe" 2 (ep) = ; it 1 430

ce = 28) porn

LIMESTONE SAMPLES es g oR . 0 eee

2 < ° e a ¢ re--

0° ° oe fee Be 5 i == oe

Analyst CaCO; MgCO; _Insolubles , “AS 8 150?

ee | cor ¢ UE

7T.WD. 49:2 42-5 a CAR ne ee

TMD. 509 44-/ 47 [ce oye oe

TWD. os 72:0 LI6 = oad 5A I° 2,000 +

s , sg t E e Ae eS . .

TWD. 445 J6-7 7-0 “so 5

in REFERENCE TO SIGNS a ae

(76) TWD 483 BBY Net ON

He ° ee

(74) ZWD. 470 J4A9 hat NOTE — Blark areas of7 1773/9 ive mostly BEDDING __ — Ae 45° \ Litt oS a 100

1 O. 6. 8 oe =<

y . eae

(72) 7.W.D. 49-9 JB-O 69 of poorly outcropping slates. it D/C a ae a a eee zo i : § a

(BML) TA.B. JI78 IOS J2-7 FAULTS... _ __ ae I. $2 2

é ~ ew :

(/3)

GA)

(8)

(2)

(/7)

FIOINISISICIOISIOIES)

TA.B.

TAB.

TAB

AWK.

TA.B.

JO9

JO6

274

LI4

JSS

PRICH . oe ee PI eA

Assist. Govr.

Geolo GUST.

ao. Geological Survey.

LEGEND

TERTIARY BEDS

BRIGHTON LIMESTONE.

TAPLEY HILL LAMINATED SLATES

AND

BANDED SILICEOUS LIMESTONES

FLUVIOGLACIAL SEDIMENTS /NCLUDING

MINOR TILLITES AND LIMESTONES

STURTIAN TILLITE AND

MINOR FLUVIOGLACIALS .

MITCHAM SLATES AND QUARTZITES.

LAMINATED, ARKOSIC AND

VARVE -LIKE /N PART.

GLEN OSMOND ARKOSIC

QUARTZITE AT BASE.

SLATES AND PHYLLI/TES.

BEAUMONT DOLOMITES AND

INTERBEDDED SLATES & QUARTZITES.

PHYLLITES AND SLATES WITH

MINOR QUARTZITES .

"THICK QUARTZITE.

PHYLLITES »

UPPER TORRENS BLUE-GREY

DOLOMITES INCLUDING “MAWSONELLA””

PHYLLITES WITH MINOR

QUARTZ/TE BANDS.

LOWER TORRENS (CREAM-COLOURED)

DOLOMITES.

ALTERNATE SLATES AND SANDSTONES

STRATIGRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIPS

UNCERTAIN.

EP-ARCHAEAN EROSION SURFACE.

ARCHAEOZOIC IGNEOUS AND

METAMORPHIC COMPLEX.

Del. E.F-R.

D4M

TF E.MOORE. GOVERNMENT PHOTOLITHIOGRAPHER . ADELAIDE .

347

Howcuin, W. 1915 “A Geological Sketch Map, with Descriptive Notes on

the Upper and Lower Torrens Limestones in the Type District.” Trans.

Roy. Soc. $. Aust., 39

Howcuin, W. 1926 “The Geology of the Barossa Ranges and Neighbourhood

in Relation to the Geological Axis of the Country.” Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 50

Howcnin, W. 1927 “The Sturtian Tillite in the Neighbourhood of Eden, and

in the Hundreds of Kapunda, Neales English, South Australia.” Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 51

Howcuin, W. 1933 “The Dead Rivers of South Australia. Part II: The

Eastern Group.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 57

Jack, R. L. 1926 “Clay and Cement in South Australia.” Bull. 12, Geol. Sur-

vey, 5. Aust,

Manican, C. T. 1925 “The Geology of the Fleurieu Peninsula, Part I:

The Coast from Sellick’s Hill to Victor Harbour.” Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 49

Mapican, C. T. 1927 “The Geology of the Willunga Scarp.” Trans. Roy.

Soc. S. Aust., 51

Mawson, D. 1907 “The Association of Laminated Clays, Shales and Slates

with Glacial Deposits: Their Significance and Chronological Value.”

A.A.A.S,, Adelaide, 11

Mawson, D. 1912 “Geological Investigations in the Broken Hill Area.” Me-

moirs Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 2 (4)

Mawson, D. 1939 (1) “The First Stage of the Adelaide Series: As Illus-

trated at Mount Magnificent. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, (1)

Mawson, D. 1939 (2) “The Late Proterozoic Sediments of South Austra-

lia.” A.N.Z.A.A.S., 24

Mawson, D. 1940 “Notes and Exhibits: Tillite and other Rocks from Hallett

Cove, South Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 64, (2)

Mawson, D. 1942 “The Structural Character of the Flinders Ranges.’

Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 66, (2)

Mawson, D., and Dattwitz, W. B. 1945 “The Soda-rich Leucogranite Cu-

polas of Umberatana.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, (1)

Prescott, J. A. 1931 “The Soils of Australia in Relation to Vegetation and

Climate.” C.5S.LR. (Aust.), 52,

Seenit, R. W. 1938 “The Pre-Cambrian Succession.” S, Aust. Geol. Surv.,

Bull. 18

Secnit, R. W. 1940 “Geology of Hallett Cove and District, with Special Re-

ference to the Distribution and Age of the Younger Glacial Till.” Trans.

Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 64, (2)

Spricc, R. C. 1942 “The Geology of the Eden-Moana Fault Block.” Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 66, (2)

Spricc, R. C. 1945 (1) “Reconnaissance Geological Survey of the Mount

Painter Area.” Report on Investigation of Uranium Deposits at Mount

Painter, S. Aust. (Unpublished)

Spries, R. C. 1945 (2) “Some Aspects of the Geomorphology of Portion of

the Mount Lofty Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, (2)

Tate, R. 1893 “Inaugural Address.” A.A.A.S., 5

WootnoucH, W. G. 1904 “Petrographical Notes on some South Aus-

tralian Quartzites, Sandstones and Related Rocks.” ‘Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 28

THE MOORUMBUNNA METEORITE

By A. B. EDWARDS

Summary

As this siderite was found adjacent to Anna Creek Station’s Moorumbunna Paddock, it has been

named the Moorumbunna Meteorite to distinguish it from other falls from that region.

348

THE MOORUMBUNNA METEORITE

By A. B. Epwarps

With an Introductory Note by D. Mawson

[Read 12 September 1946]

Puates XLVIII anp XLIX

LOCATION AND DISCOVERY

(Note by D. Mawson)

As this siderite was found adjacent to Anna Creek Station’s Moorum-

bunna™) Paddock, it has been named the Moorumbunna Meteorite to distinguish

it from other falls from that region.

It was kindly presented to the University of Adelaide by Mr. G. K. G.

Warren, of Springfield, Mount Crawford, acting on behalf of his brother in

whose Anna Creek sheep station it was discovered by an aboriginal in the year

1943. As originally observed, only a small part of the meteorite projected from

the soil. It was found near a dam on the track leading from Anna Creek Head

Sheep Station to William Creek Railway Station (see plan), via McAlpine’s

LOCALITY PLAN

MOORUMBUNNA METEORITE SITE

STATION 42

eg | illfam Ck RLS.

METEORITE site? :

pia ae my i\

7 #PICKET STATION

RMS

Dam. William Creek Station is a point on the railway track to Central Aus-

tralia, situated south-west of Lake Eyre and 547 miles by rail from Adelaide.

The Moorumbunna Meteorite is a siderite of a total weight of 169 Ib. 14 oz.

It is elongated but compact in form, as illustrated in pl. xlix, fig. 3; extreme

length 50 cm., breadth 31 cm., and width 19 cm.

that the spelling should be Moorumbunna if to accord with the aboriginal pronunciation.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, (2), 1 Dec, 1946

349

The entire surface is pitted, apparently the result of corrosion which must

have continued over a long period of time. The pitting reaches a maximum depth

of 5 cm. below the mean surface level, thus indicating that the fall is by no

means of recent occurrence.

Dr. A. B. Edwards, of the C.S.I.R. Micrographic Laboratory, Melbourne,

kindly undertook to investigate its composition and texture. A slice was sawn

from one end of the mass and submitted to him for examination.

THE COMPOSITION AND TEXTURE OF THE

MOORUMBUNNA METEORITE

The following observations were made on a piece of the Moorumbunna

meteorite, measuring about 8 cm. x 7'5 cm. x 3:5 cm. and weighing about 1°5 Jb.,

put at my disposal by Professor Sir Douglas Mawson. The piece had been cut

so as to include a sulphide nodule, and portion of the exterior surface, which is

coated with a film of limonite.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

An analysis of the metal was made by Mr. F. D. Drews, of the Melbourne

University Ore Dressing Laboratory, and is as shown in Table I, column 1, where

it is compared with some other South and: Central Australian meteoric irons that

show similar texture.

Tasce I,

Analyses of Some South and Central Australian Meteoric Irons

1 A B Cc

Fe ne wie 89-53 91°77 91-54 90°57

Ni zh wey 8-82 7-80 7:54 7°30

Co ot saad 0-56 0-44 0-37 0-39

P bees i 0-29 0-08 0-08 nil

S 18 ge 0-02 0-03 0-01 1-12

Cl aly se 0-07 n.d. n.d. tr.

C mae Bact nd. 0-05 0-01 0°13

Insol. .... 1 0-30 0-01 0-03 0-22

Totals .... sigh 99°59 100-18 99-58 99-73

Lace ———— | ——

Sp. Gr. - 7-80 7:53 7-73

1. Moorumbunna iron. Analyst, F. D. Drews.

A. Boxhole iron (Madigan, 1940, Min. Mag., 25, 481).

B. Henbury iron (Alderman, 1932, Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 4, 555).

C. Kyancutta iron (Spencer, 1932, Min. Mag., 23, 329).

The sample analysed consisted of freshly-cut filings obtained by drilling

10 holes to a depth of about 1 cm. within an area 7 cm. x 7 cm., taking care to

exclude any limonitic skin.

The Moorumbunna iron is distinctly richer in nickel (plus cobalt) and in

phosphorus than either the Boxhole (Madigan 1940), the Henbury (Alderman

1932), or the Kyancutta (Spencer 1932) iron.

MACROTEXTURE

The iron is a medium octahedrite, with a well-developed Widmanstitten

texture (pl. xlviii, fig. 1), in which respect it resembles the three other

irons referred to above. The individual lamellae of kamacite are 0°5 to

1-5 mm. wide and 1 to 2 cm. long. In places, the regularity of the Widman-

350

statten pattern is interrupted by irregular veinlets of schreibersite swathed

in kamacite, but otherwise the texture persists practically to the margin, where

there is a “skin” of limonite less than 0°5 mm. thick.

The iron also shows a series of “Reichenbach lamellae,” consisting of thin

blades of troilite encased in kamacite (pl. xlvili, fig. 1, 3 and 4), in which respect

it resembles the Kyancutta iron. In addition, there is an occasional nodule of

troilite.

MINERAL COMPOSITION AND MICROTEXTURES

Microscopical examination of polished sections shows that the meteorite

consists chiefly of kamacite (a-nickel-iron) with lesser amounts of taenite

(y-nickel-iron), schreibersite, troilite, limonite and lawrencite.

Nickel-Iron Alloys

The a-nickel-iron (kamacite) which forms the broad blades in the Wid-

manstatten texture is iron-white and isotropic, strongly magnetic, and is readily

scratched by a steel needle. Its behaviour with standard etching reagents is as

follows: 1:1 nitric acid produces an immediate etching, bringing up grain

boundaries, cracks and scratches, and roughening the surface, but without

effervescence; 1:1 hydrochloric acid fumes tarnish the iron, but the effects are

inconsistent; 20% potassium hydroxide, and 20% potassium cyanide are nega-

tive ; 20% ferric chloride instantly darkens the iron, bringing up grain boundaries

and scratches; saturated mercuric chloride darkens the surface at once.

The y-nickel-iron (taenite) is also iron-white, isotropic, strongly magnetic,

and is readily scratched by a steel needle, so that it is not easily distinguishe1

from the kamacite in unetched surfaces, although it is harder than the kamacite,

as can be seen by examining the polishing scratches brought up by etching in

fig. 3. It is readily distinguished, however, by etching with 2% nitric acid

in alcohol, or with picric acid or bromine, which attack the kamacite, roughening

its surface, and leave the taenite practically unaffected. The standard etching

reagents, 1:1 nitric acid, 1:1 hydrochloric acid, 20% potassium hydroxide,

20% potassium cyanide, 20% ferric chloride, and saturated mercuric chloride

do not attack taenite.

The taenite occurs as narrow impersistent lamellae between the kamacite

bands (pl. xlix, fig. 1), and rather more abundantly in finer lamellar inter-

growths with kamacite in so-called “plessite’ areas (pl. xlix, fig, 1 and 2).

These are commonly triangular or rhomboid areas intersertal to the groups of

large kamacite blades, and probably represent the last portions of the iron to invert

to the a-form. They may show a simple lamellar intergrowth of kamacite and

taenite lamellae, or they may repeat the octahedral pattern on a microscale

(pl. xiviii, fig. 2, 3, 4). They are equivalent to patches of fine octahedrite

texture.

Associated with these “‘plessite” areas are smaller areas of so-called ‘dense

plessite” which consist of minutely fine intergrowths of taenite and kamacite

enclosed by taenite (pl. xlix, fig. 1). This “dense plessite’ after etching

generally appears almost black at low and medium magnifications, owing to the

etching of the innumerable kamacite boundaries.

Schreibersite

The phosphorus in the meteorite occurs as the iron-nickel phosphide,

schreibersite (Fe, Ni,Co).P, which appears tin-white to the unaided eye. In

polished sections it has a brownish tinge compared with the kamacite or taenite,

and is weakly anisotropic. It is strongly magnetic, and is hard and brittle, so that

it cannot be scratched with a steel needle, and is difficult to polish, developing

351

numerous cracks. It effervesces slowly with 1:1 hydrochloric acid, the bubbles

rising from the cracks in the surface, but is negative to the other standard etch-

ing reagents.

It occurs as blebs (pl. xlix, fig. 1) and as irregular or branching veinlets in

the interstices of the kamacite plates. Several veinlets of schreibersite, appear-

ing dark grey, “swathed” in kamacite, can be seen interrupting the regularity of

the Widmanstatten texture in pl. xlviii, fig. 1,2 and 4. These veinlets are 0°5 to

1 mm. wide.

Troilite

A nodule of troilite, FeS, cut in section, occurs in the margin of the piece

of iron (pl. xlix, fig. 1). The nodule measured about 2 cm. x 2 cm. x 1 cm. and

consisted of allotriomorphic grains of troilite separated from the iron by a narrow

rim of schreibersite next to the sulphide, and a further rim of limonite between

the schreibersite and the iron. The limonite appears to have developed from the

oxidation of kamacite, since the fall of the meteorite, for it contains residual

lamellae of taenite. The schreibersite is negative to all etching reagents other

than HCl, which caused slow effervescence. It is thus quite distinct from the

“swathing” kamacite reported by Perry (1944, p. 87) as enclosing troilite nodules.

The iron adjacent to the nodule in pl. xlviii, fig. 1, has been darkened by the action

of hydrogen sulphide set free during the etching of the specimen.

The troilite resembles pyrrhotite in all respects, except that it effervesces

vigorously with 1:1 hydrochloric acid with the evolution of hydrogen sulphide,

which is a distinguishing feature. Normally troilite also effervesces with 1:1

nitric acid, but this specimen failed to do so. The troilite also occurs as occasional

lamellae—the so-called “Reichenbach lamellae,” about 0-1 mm. wide and up to

3 cm. long, enclosed in “swathing’” kamacite (pl. xlviii, fig. 1, 3 and 4)). These

lamellae appear to occur in two (? three) parallel sets whose relationship to each

other is not clear. Each appears to be parallel to the long axis of the enclosing

kamacite blade. One of these troilite lamellae (pl. xlviii, fig. 4) appears to cut

through several small areas of schreibersite, enclosed in the kamacite.

Lawrencite

Minute drops of ferrous chloride (containing some nickel chloride) ooze

from freshly cut or freshly polished surfaces. If exposed to the air, they oxidise

first to ferric chloride and then to ferric oxide, deeply corroding the kamacite in

the process. If the specimen is immersed in kerosene the droplets are retained

as ferrous chloride.

ORIGIN OF THE MICROTEXTURES

It is established that the Widmanstatten textures in meteoric irons arise from

the transformation of original y-nickel-iron to o-nickel-iron (Edwards and

Hodge-Smith 1941; Perry 1944). The transformation proceeds according to

equilibrium relationships as outlined by Marsh (1938). The newly precipitated

a-iron grows most readily in the octahedral planes of the y-iron, so that oriented

blade-like crystals of a-iron develop. The a-iron carries a maximum of about

5°5% nickel, and any nickel (and cobalt) in excess of this amount is retained in

the untransformed y-iron, which becomes isolated in the interstices between the

widening blades of a-iron, This transference of nickel is probably caused by

the fact that the y-iron has a face-centred structure, and the a-iron to which it

transforms has a body-centred structure, whereas nickel can only form a face-

centred structure, and hence cannot substitute for iron so freely in the new lattice.

The effect of transferring the excess nickel to the residual y-iron is to depress

the temperature at which transformation to a-iron occurs, so that above a cer-

352

tain nickel content the temperature of transformation falls below the temperature

at which solid diffusion ceases, when any untransformed y-iron, now enriched in

nickel, remains as taenite.

The mass of iron thus becomes stable as an intergrowth of lamellae of

a-iron (kamacite) of varying widths, according to the nickel-content of the

original y-iron, separated by bands or lamellae of nickel-enriched y-iron (taenite).

Fach a-iron lamella is oriented in one or other of the octahedral crystallographic

directions of the original y-iron. Other conditions being uniform, the coarseness

of the resultant Widmanstatten texture will be in inverse proportion to the nickel

content of the original y-iron, 7.¢., to the nickel (plus cobalt) content of the

meteoric iron as a whole. With nickel (and cobalt) in excess of 20%, the tem-

perature of the y- to a-transformation is depressed to such a degree that no

transformation is possible, and the iron remains as a y-iron ataxite. Iron with

15% to 20% nickel develops an incipient Widmanstatten texture, and becomes an

“eotaxite.” Iron with 10% to 15% nickel form a fine octahedrite, that with

7% to 10% nickel forms a medium octahedrite. Iron with less than 5% to 6%

nickel transforms more or less completely to a-iron, and forms a nickel-poor or

a-iron ataxite (hexahedrite),

The areas of “‘plessite” and “dense plessite” represent interstitial areas where

enrichment in nickel has increased the proportion of taenite, and slowed down the

rate of diffusion, particularly in the case of the “dense plessite” areas, where

segregation of the minute kamacite and taenite bodies has been prevented.

The coarseness of the Widmanstatten texture is also affected by the rate of

cooling, which sets a limit to the extent of solid diffusion. In Ni-poor irons, the

transformation to a-iron takes place at temperatures sufficiently high for diffu-

sion to be rapid, so that the effect of different rates of cooling is minimised,

and the range of composition which can yield a particular coarseness of texture

is small. With higher nickel contents, and slower rates of diffusion, the effect

of different rates of cooling is more pronounced and the range of composition

which can yield a particular coarseness or fineness of texture is widened. Thus

the analyses cited in Table I show that medium octahedrites of similar texture

can develop from irons containing from 7°7% to 9°4% nickel (plus cobalt).

The troilite nodules appear to arise from onset of immiscibility between

sulphide and iron, caused by the presence of impurities, at temperatures when

the iron sulphide is still above its melting point. The “Reichenbach” lamellae,

on the other hand, suggest unmixing of iron sulphide from solid solution in the

iron at a considerably lower temperature.

REFERENCES

ALDERMAN, A. R. 1932 The Henbury (Central Australia) Meteoric Iron.

Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 4, 555-563

Epwarnps, A. B., and Hopce-Smiru, T. 1941 The Tawallah Valley Meteorite.

Rec. Aust. Mus., 21, No. 1, 1-8

MapicaAn, C. T. 1940 The Boxhole Meteoric Iron, Central Australia. Min.

Mag., 25, 481

MarsH, J. S. 1938 The Alloys of Iron and Nickel. Special Purpose Alloys,

Monograph Series, Alloys of Iron Research, 8vo, Chicago, 1, 55

Perry, S$. H. 1944 The Metallography of Meteoric Iron. U.S. Nat. Mus.,

Bull, 184

SPENCER, L. J. 1932 A New Meteoric Iron found near Kyancutta, South Aus-

tralia. Min. Mag. 23, 329

Vol. 70, Plate XLVIII

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1946 Vol. 70, Plate XLIX

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 3

353

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLVIIt

Fig. 1

Section of the Moorumbunna meteoric iron, showing Widmanstatten texture

of a typical medium octahedrite, with troilite nodule on the margin.

Etched with 2% HNOs in alcohol. Reduced # diameters.

Fig. 2

Portion of fig. 1 enlarged to show irregular lamellae of schreibersite (S)

swathed in g-iron (kamacite), A “Reichenbach” lamella (R) crosses the

field on the left, and several areas of “plessite” (P) can be seen. Magnified

3% diameters.

Fig. 3

Portion of fig. 1 enlarged to show a “Reichenbach” lamella (R) enclosed

in q-iron (kamacite), and areas of “plessite’ (P) and schreibersite (S).

Magnified 33 diameters.

Fig. 4

Portion of fig. 1 enlarged to show a “Reichenbach” lamella (R) intersecting

areas of schreibersite (S). Magnified 3 diameters.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLIX

Fig. 1

Interstitial area of “plessite’ consisting of lamellae of residual y-iron or

taenite (T), inter-leaved with orientated g-iron or kamacite. Etched with

2% HNOs in alcohol. Magnified 120 diameters,

Fig. 2

Area of “plessite” and “dense plessite’ (D) adjacent to a broad lamella of

a-iron (kamacite) which encloses blebs of minute schreibersite (S), and

is bounded by thin lamellae of y-iron (taenite) (T). Etched with 2%

HNOs in alcohol. Magnified 63 diameters.

Fig. 3

A general view of the Moorumbunna meteorite. Scale in inches.

354

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356

GENERAL INDEX

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described

are new to science.]

Acrocila seditiosana, neothela, (2), 197

Acroclita hemiochra,, (2), 197; erythrotypa

rubrisignis, polybalia, ochrophara, (2),

198; acromochia, nimbata, commatica,

atracta, (2), 199; albifusa, (2), 200

Algae of Southern Australia; Studies on the

Marine, Introduction and No, i, The

Genera Isactis and Rivularia (Myxophy-

ceae). Womersley, H. B. S., (1), 127

Algae of Southern Australia, Studies on the

Marine, No. 2. A New Species of

Dasyopsis (Family Dasyaceae) from Kan-

garoa Island. Womersley, H. B. S., (1),

Anadara trapezia, (1), 74

Anapella adelaidae — Salinator fragilis—Zea-

cumantus dimenensis association, (1), 75;

Anapella pinguis, (1), 67

Anathamna psathyra, (2), 213; castanicolor,

(2), 214

Ancylis eupena, panolbia, (2), 200

Argyroploce delochlora, (2), 214; ophio-

cosma, niphostetha, symplecta, (2), 215;

toxosema atactodes, empyra, (2), 216;

zophophanes, auchmera, nephobola, (2),

217; lichnospila, (2), 218

Articolla prospera, myriolychna, scioessa, (2),

218

Assiminea granum, (1), 67

Austrocochlea torri, odontis, zebra, (1), 68

Bactra capnopepla, (2), 211; ablabes, eury-

sticha, (2), 212

Barium-rich Aplitic Gneisses of Broken Hill.

Mawson, D., and Segnit, E. R., (2), 277

Bathrotoma spodostola, (2), 189; aethalo-

stola, (2), 190

Beckwith, A. C., and Johnston, T. H., The

Life cycle of the Sheep Liver fluke in

South Australia, (2), 121

Boomsma, C. D. The Vegetation of the

Southern Flinders Ranges, South Austra-

lia, (2), 259

Brachyodontes erosus, (1), 68

Bullaria tenuissima, (1), 67

Burbidge, N. T. Morphology and Anatomy

of the Western Australian Species of

Triodia R.Br. II, Internal Anatomy of

leaves, (2), 221

Cacozeliana granarium, (1), 67

Campanile laeve, (1), 74

Cantharidus lehmanni, (1), 68

Capua arrythmodes, (2), 189

Cardium racketti, (1), 67

Cellana tramoserica, (1), 68

Chenopodiaceae, with special reference to the

conditions necessary for Regeneration, II;

Germination Studies of Australan. Bur-

bidge, N. T., (1), 110

Cochlicelia acuta, (1), 74

Colus australis, (1), 68

Cominella lineolata, eburnea, (1), 68

Cotton, B. C., and Crocker, R. L. Some

Raised Beaches of South Australia and

their Significance, (1), 64

Crespin, I. Foraminifera and other Micro-

fossils from some of the Tertiary Deposits

in the Vicinity of Aldinga Bay, South

Australia, (2), 297

Crocker, R, L. An Introduction to the Soils

and Vegetation of Eyre Peninsula, South

Australia, (1), 83

Crocker, R. L. Notes on a Raised Beach at

Point Brown, Yorke Peninsula, South

Australia, (1), 108

Crocker, R. L., and Cotton, B. C. Some

Raised Beaches of the Lower South-East

of South Australia and their Significance,

(1), 64

Crocker, R. L. The Simpson Desert Expedi-

tion 1939, Scientific Reports, No. 8—The

Soils and Vegetation of the Simpson

Desert and its Boundaries, (2), 235

Cumacea, Australian, No. 13. The Family

Lampropidae. Hale, H. M., (1), 178

Dasyopsis clavigera, (1), 137

Eardley, C. M. The Simpson Desert Expedi-

tion 1939. Scientific Reports: No. 7,

Botany—Part I. Catalogue of Plants, (1),

145

Ecology of the Area adjacent to the Lakes

Alexandrina and Albert, The. Jessup, R.

W., (1), 3

Edwards, A. B., and Mawson, D. The

Moorumbunna Meteorite, (2), 348

Equichlamys bifrons, (1), 67

Enbittium lawlayanum, (1), 67

Eucosma periptycha, nitida, pachyneura, ani-

sospila, (2), 201; eridela, charmera, stri-

phromita, (2), 202; hymplaca, ebenocosma

phaeoloma, dolichasticha, (2), 203;

psammopasta, euprepes, diaema, (2), 204;

leuconephela, syntaractis tornocosma,

ochrotorna, (2), 205; transfixe, gracili-

stria, apicinota, polymita, (2), 206; per-

versa, atripunctts, aspersa, (2), 207;

poleplega, acrosema, leucapleura, leuco-

nota, (2), 208; austera, eurypolia, cera-

todes, fulva, phaedropa, (2), 209; ammo-

pastea, tornocycla, dasycera, (2), 210;

prosphiles, tapina, newrosticha, (2), 211;

aulacola, (2), 212

Euparypha pisana, (1), 74

Eyre Peninsula, South Australia; An Intro-

duction to the Soils and Vegetation of.

Crocker, R. L., (1), 83

Fasciolaria australasia, (1), 68

Floraconus anemone, (1), 68

Foraminifera and other Micro-fossils from

some of the Tertiary Deposits in the

Vicinity of Aldinga Bay, South Australia.

Crespin, I, (2), 297

Fossil Soil from Kangaroo Island, A. North-

cote, K. H., (2), 294

Geological Survey of portion of the Western

Foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges;

Reconnaissance. Sprigg, R. C,, (2), 313

Gibson, E. S. H. . Singing Sand, (1), 35

Glycymeris radians, (1), 67

Hale, H. M. Australian Cumacea, No. 13.

The Family Lampropidae, (1), 178

Helicella caperata, ericetorum, (1), 74

Helix aspersa, (1), 74

Hemilamprops (key to females), (1), 178

Hemilamprops uniplicata, gracilis, mawsoni,

ultimae spei, cristata, pellucida, (1), 178;

lata, (1), 178, 179; californica, normani,

assimilis, rosea, (1), 179; diversa, (1),

179, 183

Hermenias callimita, (2), 189

Herpystis chrysosema, (2), 212

Hylotropha leptotypa, (2), 197

Idiomorpha reticulata, (2), 213

Isactis plana, 1), 122

Isoclanculus dunkeri, (1), 68

Jessup, R. W. The Ecology of the Area

adjacent to the Lakes Alexandrina and

Albert, (1), 3

Johnston, T. H., and Beckwith, A. C. The

Life Cycle of the Sheep Liver-fuke in

South Australia, (1), 121

Katelysia scalarina, (1), 67; peroni, (1), 74

Kateylsia scalarina — Bullaria tenuissima

association, (1), 75

Kleeman, A. W. An Age Determination of

Samarskite from Mount Painter, South

Australia, (1), 175

Kochia sedifolia, pyramidata, georgei, (1),

110

Lampropidae, (1), 178

Lamprops beringi, (1), 178; sarsi, fasciata,

krasheninnikavi, quadriplicata, fuscata,

ra comata, catinata, korroensis, (1),

Laspeyresia cyanosticha, (2) 218; aetheria,

argyroela, deloxantha, (2), 219; delomilta,

tornosticha, callilampetes, (2), 220

Laternula recta, (1), 67

Lenameria pertorosa, (1), 73

357

Liver-fluke in South Australia; The Life

Cycle of the Sheep. Johnston, T. H., and

Beckwith, A. C., (1), 121

Lobophora axiologa, (2), 214

Macoma deltoidalis, (1), 67

Madigan, C. T. The Simpson Desert Ex-

pedition 1939, Scientific Reports: No. 6,

Geology — The Sand Formations, (1),

Magilaoma penolensis, parpictilis, (1), 74

Mawson, D., and Edwards, A. B. The

Moorumbunna Meteorite, (2), 348

Mawson, D., and Segnit, E.R. Barium-rich

Aplitic Gneisses of Broken Hill, (2), 277

Melaraphe unifasciata, (1), 68

Meteorite, The Moorumbunna.

B., and Mawson, D., 2), 348

Micrastrea aurea, (1), 68

Mimachlamys asperrimus, (1), 67

Murexsul fimbriatus, (1), 68

Mytius planulatus, (1), 68

Edwards, A.

Naccula punctata, (1), 68

Negyrina delecta—Scaeoleda illipeda associa-

tion, (1), 75

Neothais textiliosa, (1), 68

Nerita melanotragus, (1), 68

Niotha pyrrhus, (1), 67

Northcote, K. H. A. Fossil Soil from Kan-

garoo Island, South Australia (2), 204

Ostrea sinuata, (1), 68

Patelloida alticostata, (1), 68

Parcanassa pauperata, (1), 67

Phasianella australis—Thalotia conica asso

ciation, (1), 75

Phasianella australis, (1), 68

Plebidonax deltoides

Procoronis capnophanes, (2), 200

Pyrazus ebinus, australis, (1),, 74

Raised Beach at Point Brown, Yorke Penin-

sula, South Australia; Notes on a.

Crocker, R. L., (1), 108

Raised Beaches of the Lower South-East of

South Australia and their Significance;

Some. Crocker, R. L., and Cotton, B. C.,

(1), 64

Rivularia firma, (1), 130; atra, (1), 132:

nitida, australis, (1), 133; polyotis, (1),

134

Sabia conica, (1), 68

Salinator fragilis, (1), 67

Samarskite from Mount Painter, South Aus-

tralia; An Age Determination of. Klee-

man, A. W., (1), 175

Segnit, E. R., and Mawson, D. Barium-rich

Aplitic Gneisses of Broken Hill, (2), 277

Simpson Desert and its Borders. The Simp-

son Desert Expedition 1939. Scientific

Reports, No. 8. The Soils and Vegetation

of the. Crocker, R. L, (2), 235

Simpson Desert Expedition 1939. Scientific

Reports: No. 6, Geology—The Sand

Formations; The. Madigan, C. T., (1), 45

Simpson Desert Expedition 1939—Scientific

Reports: No. 7, Botany—Part I; Cata-

logue of Plants; The. Eardley, C. M.,

(1), 145

Singing Sand. Gibson, E. S. H., (1), 35

Spilonota brachytycha, euploca sphenophora,

(2), 190; ebenostigma, dyselia, metabola,

liphaema, (1), 191; zophotypa, ochro-

nephes, notosphena, euryptycha, (2), 192;

diplostigma, ammostigma, clastomochla,

mediocunea, (2), 193; atmophanes, euthy-

toma, mesosticha, leucopyga (2), 194;

niphosticha, lucifera, baeodes, subpallida,

(2); 195; phaeochyta, pellopis, tornosema,

stenophylla, (2), 196; poliophylla, (2),

197

Sprigg, R. C. Reconnaissance Geological

Survey of portion of the Western Foot-

hills of the Mount Lofty Ranges, (2), 313

Tawra gallinula, (1), 67

Thalotia conica, (1), 68

Tortricidae (Lepidoptera), Part II; Contri-

butions to our Knowledge of the Aus-

tralian. Turner, A. J., (2), 189

Torvamurex denudatus, (1), 74

358

Triodia R.Br., II. Internal Anatomy of

Leaves; Morphology and Anatomy of the

Western Australian Species of. Burbidge,

N. T., (2), 221

Turbo undulatus, (1), 68

Turbo undulatus—Brachyodontes erosus asso-

ciation, (1), 75

Turner, A. J. Contributions to our Know-

ledge of the Australian Tortricidae

(Lepidoptera), Part I, (2), 189

Uber conicum, (1), 67

Vegetation of the Southern Flinders Ranges,

South Australia; The. Boomsma, C. D.,

(2), 259

Venerupis gallactites, (1), 67

Womersley, H. B. S. Studies on the Marine

Algae of Southern Australia. Introduc-

tion and No. 1. The Genera Isactis and

Rivularia (Myxophyceae), (1), 127

Womersley, H. B. S. Studies on the Marine

Algae of Southern Australia, No. 2, A

New Species of Dasyopsis (Family

Dasyaceae) from Kangaroo Island, (1),

137

Zeacumatus diemenensis, (1), 67

Zemitrella austrina, (1),

Jounston, T. H., and Beckwira, AcC.: ay Life eas of ae: Se Liver sare in

CONTENTS -

PART I

Jessue,R. W.: The Ecology of the Area adjacent to Lakes Alexandrina and Albert ..

Gmson, ES. Hi: Singing Sands 2

MapiGan, C. T,:-The Simpson Desert Eampiios Sie iste ss ora No.6: on

logy——The Sand -Fermations is a >

CROCKER, R.-L., and Corron,.B. C: Some Raised Sais a the Lower pines of

South - Austratia and their significance

. oe . se ee

Crocker, R. L.: An Tatrosaetion to the oe and Vexetation of Eyre Peninsula, South

Australia = re Ae ape

Crocker, R. L.: Notes on a Recent Raised Beach at Point Brown, aoe Peninsula,

South Australia xf rin

Burpince, N. C.: Germination’ Studies of Australian Chenopodiaceae with special

reference to the Conditions necessary for Regeneration, II; (a) Kechia sedifolia

F. v. M., (b) K. pyramidaia Benth. (c). K. georgei Diels ;

South Australia a a

Womenstey, H. B.S.: Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern tas 9-29 pe

and No. 1. The Genera Isactis and Rivularia (Myxophyceae) .

Womersiey, H, B.S.: Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern ere a

A New Species of Dasyopsis (Family -Dasyaceae). from Kangaroo Island . “

Earbiey, C.-M.: ‘The Simpson Desert ee 1939, mentieatthe ei Ss No. 7. aise

Pact I. Catalogue of Plants = -

Kuzeaan; “A. W.: “An pte Determination of Samafskité from Mount: Painter, South

Australia : ore 3 oe , a RA a

Hate, H. M,: ataatnan Cumacea. No. 13. The Family Lampropidae

Be FES

PART II -

Tumees ot J. sin Madde tor ‘out Knowledge of ‘ied ee hang tes “em:

doptera), Pt. IIl-<. id ~

“ Burswer, N. T.: Morphology and ere of the Western Auistralian speriea0 of

Tricdia R. Br. HU, Internal Anatomy of Leaves”

CROCKER, R. L.: The Simpson Desert Expedition 1939 Scientifie Reports:

No, 8—The

Soils and Vegetation of the Simpson Desert arid its Borders: .. vs A

Boomsma, C. D.: The Vegetation of the Southern Flinders Ranges, South Australia .

Mawson, D., and Seenit, E, Re Barium-rich Aplitic Gneisses of Broken Hill ..

Nortucote, K. He: A Fossit “Soil. from Kangaroo Island,, South Australia- ..

Crespin, 1.: Foraminifera and-other’ Micro-fossils from some of the Tertiary Deposits

in the vicinity of Aldinga Bay, Sotith Australia ». x i se! “ 5 804 297

Sparec; R. Cr: Reconnaissance Geological Survey of eEtlonc of the Western i i teed

of the Mount Lofty Ranges .. “amt

. Epwarps, A. B., and Mawson, D.: The Moorumbunna Meteorite ot awe Th

es Oe meee

108

110

121