CONTENTS

Womerstey, H., and Konts, G. M.: New Genera and Species of Trombiculidae from

the Pacific Islands Me ts an et wh ¥ A oe

Jounston, T. H., and Epmonns, S. J.: Australian Acanthocephala No. 5

Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia, No. 44 ..

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: Some Nematodes from Australian Lizards ..

Turner, A. J.: A Revis:‘on of the Australian Phycitidae, Part I ..

Mites, K. R.: Pre-Cambrian Granites and Granitisation, with special reference to

Western Australia and South Australia

Prescott, J. A., and Lane-Poote, C. E.: The Climatology of the introduction of Pines

of the Mediterranean Environment to Australia ..

Crocker, R. L., and Woop, J. G.: Some Historical Influences on the Development of

the South Australian Vegetation Communities and their bearing on Concepts and

Classification in Ecology

Bursinpce, Nancy T.: Key to the South Australian Species of Eucalyptus L’Herit

Strepnens, C. G,: Functional Synthesis in Pedogenesis

Fintayson, H. H.: On the Weights of some Australian Mammals

Wirson, Ariran F.: The Charnockitic and Associated Rocks of North-Western South

Australia. Part IJ, The Musgrave Ranges—an Introductory Account ..

Spricc, Rec. C.: Early Cambrian (?) Jellyfishes from the Flinders Ranges, South

Australia

Evans, J. W.: Some New Eurymelids from Australia and New Guinea (Homoptera,

Jassoidea)

Womerstey, H, B. S.: The Marine Algae of Kangaroo Island. J. A General Account

of the Algal Ecology

Keruinc, L. C. P.: Pythium debaryanum and Related Species in South Australia

Mawson, D.: The Adelaide Series as Developed along the Western Margin of the

Fiinders Ranges

Lancrorp-SmitH, T.: The Geo'togy of the Jamestown District, South Australia ..

Sprica, Rre. C.: Submarine Canyons of the New Guinea and South Australian Coasts ..

Womerstey, H. B. S.: The Marine Algae of Kangaroo Istand. I. A General Account

Western Australia

Ornen, I. L.: Notes on the Genera Lychnothamnus and Lamprothamnium (Characeac)

Jounston, T. Harvey, and Beckwitu, Anne C.: Larval Trematodes from Australian

Freshwater Molluses. Part XII *3 aA a ss x3 na ae

Page

324

CECIL THOMAS MADIGAN, M.A., B.E.,

D.Se.,

PGS,

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED

OBITUARY NOTICE

CECIL THOMAS MADIGAN

Cecil Thomas Madigan, M.A., B.E., D.Sc., F.G.S., a leading Australian

geologist and geographer, a member of this Society for the past 25 years, and a

Past President, died at the early age of 57 years on 14 January 1947,

Curtailment of his span of life was doubtless the result of heart strain result-

ing from exceptional exertions in the field of sport, exploration and war.

His earlier education was received at the Adelaide High School, Prince

Alfred College and the University of Adelaide, where he graduated in Mining

Engineering in 1910. As a Rhodes Scholar from South Australia, he then pro-

ceeded to Magdalen College, Oxford, to continue with geological studies, which

were, however, to be postponed, for late in 1911 he joined the Scientific Staff of

the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911-14.

Dr. Madigan’s record during more than two years in Antarctica was out-

standing. It includes leadership of a sledging party which reconnoitred the ice

plateau in winter time under record adverse climatic conditions. In the summer

of 1912-13 he successfully led a sledge journey, charting a great length of new

coast line of the territory thereafter known as King George Land. On return

to winter quarters, he was selected to be in charge of all land operations pending

the return of the Expedition Leader, who at that time had failed to return from

a journey across the plateau ice.

His graphic account of the summer sledge journey forms a section of the

popular story of the Expedition, published as “The Home of the Blizzard.” He

was chiefly responsible for the meteorological record of the Cape Denison Station,

which is published as an important section of the Expedition’s Scientific Reports

issued from the Government Printing Office, Sydney.

On the advent of war when again in England in 1914, he joined the Royal

Engineers and served throughout the whole period with rank of Captain. Later,

having finally graduated at Oxford, he was appointed Assistant Government

Geologist in the Soudan, This post he relinquished in 1922 to join the staff of

the University of Adelaide.

With the outbreak of the Second World War, Dr. Madigan was appointed

chief instructor in the School of Military Field Engineering (Liverpool, N.S.W.),

attaining the rank of Lieut.-Colonel.

During his long term as lecturer in Geology, he found time to execute a

number of important geological investigations dealing with problems relating to

South Australia and to Central Australia, It is in the latter field that his work

has received most recognition. His explorations in the MacDonnell Ranges and

neighbourhood, and in the Simpson Desert, have established him as the leading

authority on the Geography and Geology of Central Australia, For this work he

was the recipient of wide recognition in scientific circles both in Australia and

abroad. He is also well remembered for his zeal in furthering the good work

of the Legacy Club and the University Graduates’ Association.

His published scientific works additional to those dealing with his Antarctic

activities mentioned above are the following :—

“A Description of some Old Towers in the Red Sea Province, North of Port

Soudan.” Soudan Notes and Records, 5 (1922), 78-82.

“The Geology of the Fleurieu Peninsula, Part I — The Coast from Sellick’s Hill

to Victor Harbour.” Proc, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49 (1925), 198-212.

“Organic Remains from below the Archaeocyathinae Limestones at Myponga

Jetty, South Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 50 (1926), 32-33.

“The Geology of the Willunga Scarp.” Proc. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 51 (1927),

398-409.

A.N.Z.A.A.S. Reports of the Glacial Research Committee (with D. Mawson), 19

(1928), 97-99.

“Preliminary Notes on New Evidence as to the Age of Formations on the North

Coast of Kangaroo Island.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 52 (1928),

213-214.

“An Aerial Reconnaissance into the South-Eastern Portion of Central Australia.”

Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc. (5S. Aust. Branch), 30 (1929), 83-108.

‘Lake Eyre, South Australia.” Geog. Jour., 76 (1930), 215-240.

“Pre-Ordovician Rocks of the MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia” (with

D. Mawson). Qld. Jour. Geog. Soc., 86 (1930), 415-428.

“Geology of the Western MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia.” Qld. Jour.

Geog. Soc., 88 (1932), 672-711.

“The Geology of the Eastern MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia.” Trans,

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56 (1932), 71-117.

“The Physiography of the Western MacDonnell Ranges, Central Australia.”

Geog. Jour., 78 (1932), 417-433,

A.N.Z.A.A.S.—Reports of the Glacial Phenomena Committee, 21 (1932), 464.

“The Geology of the MacDonnell Ranges and Neighbourhood, Central Australia.”

Reports A.N.Z.A.A.S,, 21 (1933), 75-86.

“The Australian Sand-ridge Deserts.” Geog. Rev. (1936), 26, (2), 205-227.

“Central Australia.” Oxford University Press, 1936 and (2nd ed.) 1946.

S. Aust. Royal Society Centenary Address: “The Past, Present and Future of

the Society, and its Relation to the Welfare and Progress of the State.”

Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 60 (1936), I-XV

“Additions to the Geology of Central Australia.” A.N.Z.A.A.S. Reports, 23

(1937), 89-92.

“A Review of the Arid Regions of Australia and their Economic Potentialities.”

A.N.Z.A.A.S, Reports—Presidential Address, Section P, 23 (1937), 375

“The Boxhole Crater and the Huckitta Meteorite,” Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61

(1937), 187-190.

“The Huckitta Meteorite, Central Australia” (with A. R. Alderman). Min. Mag.,

(1939), 25, (165), 353-371.

“The Boxhole Meteoritic Iron, Central Australia” (with A. R, Alderman). Min.

Mag., (1940), 25, (168), 481-486

“Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939: Scientific Reports—Introduction, Narrative,

pseu and Meteorology.” Proc, Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 69 (1945),

118-139.

“Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939: Scientific Reports— No. 6— Geology:

The Sand Formations.” Proc. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70 (1946), 45-63.

Adelaide, 14 July 1947 D. M.

NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF TROMBICULIDAE FROM THE

PACIFIC ISLANDS

By H. WOMERSLEY AND G.M.KOHLS

Summary

Description of Larvae-Shape ovate. Length (engorged) to 450, width to 300. Scutum pentagonal, as

figured, with the anterior margin lightly sinuous, posterior angle rounded. Sensillae ciliated on

distal half, with the sensillae bases nearer to each other than to PL and placed slightly anterior of

line of PL. Eyes 2+2, on distinct ocular shields, the posterior eyes the smaller. Chelicerae not

serrated on inner (dorsal) edge, with the usual small apical tricuspid cap forming the apical tooth, a

small subapical dorsal tooth, and a small subapical ventral tooth. Galeal setae nude. Palpi stout,

tibial claw bifurcate; seta on palpal femur 2-3-branched; on genu nude, on tibia only the ventral seta

branched; tarsi short, with basal and subapical rods, and five or six ciliated setae, one of which is

much stronger than the rest and over-reaches the tip of the tibial claw by the claw’s length.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA INCORPORATED

NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF TROMBICULIDAE

FROM THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

By H. Womersrey ! and G, M. Karis @

[Read 10 October 1946]

Eutrombicula gymnodactyla n. sp.

Tig, 1A-F

Description ef Lurvae—Shape ovate. Length (engorged) to 4504, width

to $00». Scutum pentagonal, as figured, wiih the amterior margin lightly sinuous,

posterior angle rounded, Sensillae ciliated on distal half, with the sensillae bases

neurer to each other than to PL and placed slightly anterior of linc of Pl. Eyes

[\¢

Vie. 1 Fotrambiewia (Aseeriseis) gxmpoitactyle 1. ep. A, dorsal seutim

(20900); B, palp in dorsal view (x 8601; -C, tip of chelicera (x 860); D, galeal

seta; MT, tarsus and metatarsus LLL (x 450); J¥, dorsal seta ( 860)-

2-+-2, on distinct ocular shields, the posterior cyes the sivaller. Chelicerae not

serrated on inner (dorsal) edge, with the usual small apices) tricuspid cap form-

ing the apical tovth, a small subapical dorsal tooth, and a simall subapical ventral

tooth. Galeal setae nuce. Palpi stout, tibial claw biturcate: seta on palpal femur

2-3-branched: on genu nude, an tibia onty the yeutral Seta branched+ tarsi shart,

with basal and subapical rods, and frye or stx citated setae, one of which is much

stronger than the rest and over-reaches ihe tip of the tibial claw by the claw's

length.

Dorsal setac 24 in number, to 3G) long, ciliated auc arranged 2,6,6.4.4.2.

Ventrally with a pair of branched setae on guathosoma, one on cach coxa, a pair

hetween coxae T and between coxae JIT, thereafter uncertain as all specimens

©) Entomologist, South Australian Museum,

©) Major $9.C., Usited States af America Typhus Coiimission, naw Enlomolovist,

TLS. Pulidic Tea'th Service, Rocky Moutta’n Lahoratery, Hamuiltun, Montana.

Traus. Roy, Sou. $. Aust. 74 C2), 25 July i947

were heavily infested with sporozoa but approximately to 204 in length, Legs:

I 2104 long, 11 195. U1 210p; tarsi land Tb with the usual dorsal sensory

rods; tarst ILL without any lone mudde set.

The Standard Data (sce Woinersley and Tfeaslip 1943) in microns ior the

type and three paratypes,

Standard ‘Vheoretion! Observed Coelh. of

Monit Deviation Hansa” Range Variation

AW ... 45-75220-75 1-50 +0156 44+25 -30-25 450-15 +0 are

BW... 60-0 ‘No variation recorded

SB... Wa =0-87 1-7340°61 Il-3 —21-7 15-90-18 -0 1-5

ASB .. 1-0 «No variation recorded

PSP | 2ie2540+75 1-50-0+53 12-75 23-75 210-240 Gr

SD, 4)-85-40°75 1-5020+53 36775-4373 39--42-0 36

AP | U5 20°87 1-7GaU-61 Le 3 24-7 10-210 8-8

AM 24-0 No variation recorded

AL... 25+5 20°87 1:72:0-61 20-3 37 24-0 27-0 6$

hy re 2'- No variation recorded

Sens. . 47-0 #1:°9 L-73aG 71 41-8 —-52:2 Ad +O] 37

Loe—tTis species iy desertbed from four specimens from Gatadactynts

lowisiedensis fron: Sansapor, Duteh New Guinea (G. ME. K-, Sansapor, No. 3,

26 Aug. 1944),

Renarks—In the pentagonal seutum th’'s species would fall into Sig Thor's

enbgenus Penlaqorel/a 1925, but the bifureate palpal claw puts it into Ewing’s

Entrombicula 1938, and the number of dorsal setae info -Lscariscus wing 1943,

We conentr, however, wilh Michener 1946 (Annais, Ent, Soc. Ainerica, 29, (1),

101118, in regarding vlscarisexs as a synonym of Lutrowbicnia.

The type and one peraivpe iv the South Anstralaa Museum, amd two para-

typea in the U.S, National Museum.

Genus Novstrembicula noy.

Larvae—As in Trambicula Berl s1., with the dorsal seutum ftrnished with

paired flamentous scnsitlae wil the usual five selac (one AM, two AL, aud two

PL}. but produced posteriorly and tongue-lke, sa as to inehide, in addition to

the above, same of the median sctee of some of the cersal rows as it the gerus

Gahatirpia.

* .

Genotype Mevotrembicula owigusis mm. sp.

Nevotrombicule awiensis 1 sy.

Digs 2 A-bT

Desciiplion of Lorvas—Shape eubrotund. Size sinall; lenge (unfed) 253 p,

width 180). Dorsal seutum large, tongue-shaped and produced posteriorly to

cake in the tywo anedian setae of the third dorsal row, in addition ta the AM, AL

and PL setee; scusiflaé long ard flamentous with cvisiions om the distal half,

bases wide apart and about midway between nes of AL and DL. Eves 2+ 2,

os distinet ocular shields placed close ta the lateral seutal margin; posterior eyes

the smaller. Cheliccra with only the nsual! apical tricussid cap, but on the immer

margin be’ew the cap with a rather prominent subajical angle, Gateal setae long

avd nude, Palni rather slender, with relher long slender and |Hfureaic ubial

clay, the dorsal prong of which is small and ficistiner; palpal fenry ancl genu

with a jone sle:vler, shortly citiared setaz all three setae on thin long and

apparently amide; tarsi moderately loti and conical, with a tong sulvzacal sensory

vod aud five of six louse eilinted setae,

i .

=, t

tat

Dorsal setae rather thick, slightly tapering, shortly ciliated and of two sizes,

arranged 2.4.4[2].4.2.2; the second row with the medial pair just off the scutum

and to 57 » long; the inner members of the third raw are on the scutum and are

view; B, veniral

860); E, tip of

Big 2 Novotrembicula owiensis nog. wid nosp. A, corsa!

view: C, dorsal scutum (+500); DTD, palp in dorsal view (x

chelicera (x 860); F, waleal seta; G, dorsal seta (x 860); H, tarsus and meta-

tarsus IID (x 450),

short to 24. Ventrally with a pair of branched or ciliated setae on the gnatho-

soma, one ou each coxa, a pair between coxac T and between coxae [IT and there-

after 6.2.2.2.2. to 24 long. All three pairs of coxae totiching. Legs: I 255

long, 11 240, JIE 273; tarsi I and If with the tsital sensory rod-like seta,

LEL without any long nude seta,

The Standard Data in microns for type aud two paratypes are:

Standard Thenrelical Ohset'yed Coeff, of

Meun Deviution Range Renga Variation

AW |... 89-3120 2-NS+0+85 83+1-> 95-5 87-0— 91-0) 2-3

PW.) 85-31-33 2. 310-94 $8-—-102+2 94-0— 98-0 2:4

SB. = GT-0+1-00 1-7340°71 Sark 65-2 600 63+0 2:8

ASB, do-#i-0 L73s0°71 1W-8— 21-2 15:0— 18-0 10-9

PSB , 112-0 No variation recorded

SD, 1280-41-00 L+73A0-71 122+8—133-2 127+(}-130+1) 1+3

A-2 .. 20-7403] 0340-22 10-1— 23-3 20-0— 21-0 2-6

AM , 40-3=0-88 1-3340-62 aa7— 44-7 59-G— 42-1) 3-8

PT cays 50-0) No variation recorded

PLE ot 43-0 No variation recorded

Sens... 67-0221-0 173071 GL:8— 72+2 66-G— 69-0 2-6

Lec-—Six specimens collected from the soil at the base of a large tree ot

Owi Island, North Coast of Dutch New Guinea, 15 Aug. 1944 (G. M. K,

Owi 22C.),

Nemarks—But for the prolongation of the dorsal scutum to include some of

the medial dorsal setae, this interesting species would fall into Trombicida $1.

The form of the seutum, however. is parallel to that found in the genus Guhrliepia

of the group of genera with clavate sensillac and justtties the ereetion of a new

genus.

The type and two paratypes in the South Australian Museum, three pata-

types in the collection of the Rocky Mountain Lahoratory,

Schongastia philipi n. sp.

Fig. 3 A-G

PA i of Larvor — Shape an elongate oyal, Length (unfed) 2364,

width 182. Scutum more or less hexagonal, with the posterio? muirein 3-sided

and deen hehind line of PL with a slight concavity medially; AM seta very much

es than AT. and PL. AL the longest; sensillae mote capitate than clavate

i their bases in dine with PL. Eyes 2+ 2, apparently oot on ocular shields,

the posterior eyes the smaller. Chelicetae not unusually slender, with apical

tricuspid cap and on the inner (dorsal) margin with three to four strong and

some smaller teeth. Galeal setae nude. Palpi stout, with trifureate tibial claw;

seta on palpal temur ciated or branched; on genn nile: on tibia dorsal and

lateral nice, ventral branched; tarzts short, with basal and suhapieal sensory

tads and several ciliated setae. .

Dorsal setae 36-40 » long, ciliated. 28 io number and arranged 2.8.6.6.4.2

Ventrilly with paired br anched setae on gnathosoma, a ciliated scta on each COXA,

a pair hetween coxae I and between coxae TIT, and therealter 4,6.6.6.2.2. to 23 fe

lone. Legs: I 256» long, TI 228 ps VT 250 yj tarsi Land If with dorsal sensory

rod, TTF with a long nude sela arising subbasally and dorsally.

The Standard Data for type and four paratypes are:

AW...

PW wns

ASB ...

PSB...

0 ne

A-P ...

Sens...

Standard Theoretical Observed Coelf, of

Mean Deviation Range Range Variation

48-61-12 2-5140-80 41-1 36-1 45-0 51-0 st

69-6-20°40) (89-90-28 66-9--F2°3 68°0-70-0 1L+3

18-40-40 0-890-28 15-7—21+1 15+0-20-+0 498

24-0 No yariation recorded

21-0 No variation recorded

43-0 No variation recorded

23+ 60-40 0-892-0-28 209-2643 22-C—24-(0) a8

22:240-73 1-4a-0+52 17-+3-27°1 21-0-24-U 7-4

59-2+1)-49 1-0440-34 §5°9--62°+5 58-0—60-0 1-8

426-1712 2°3140-79 35-1—30+1 39-U—45-0 5-9

30-0 with head 15/18

Vig. 3

Schingastia philipi n. sp.

scutum (x S00}; D, palp in dorsal view (x 860); E, tip of chelicera (x 860}5

I’, galeal seta; G, tarsus and metatarstis [II (450).

A, dorsal view; B, ventral view; C, dorsal

Loc—Ty¥pe and nine paratypes from a Vizard Letolepisina alpertisti from

Goodenough Isiand, New Guinea. 17 Jan, 1944 (3. M. KL, No. 486).

Memerks—The dentition of the chelicorae in this species ig somewhat different

trota the many small tecth gound in other species of Schdngastio, but this fs not

sufficient to warrant generic separation,

The type and four paratypes in the South Australian Masenm, and one para-

type to Ls deposited in the Eritish Museum; one paratype to be deposited in the

U.S, National Musetm and in the Rocky Bfiotaquain Labertiory.

Gents Oeneschongactia nov.

Alked to SelOngusiis but the cholicerae are short, curved aui stumpy with

the apex divided jute tvoa terminal Wiuny and thick teeth. with a pair (sometimes

three), of rather smaller teeth subapically. Valpal claw shorc and stout, tri-

fureate. Wledian tarsal chaw (empocdium) longer than the laterals but equally

thick. Sensillae clavate or eapitate.

OQenoschongastia cana n.sp,

Tig. 4.A-G

Leseription of Lartae—Shape an clongate oval, Lenath (infed) 252),

wilth 162.2. Darsal scutwm rouehly hexagonal with indistinet and fine pitting;

with the usual five nosreal ciFated setae , nf which AL are the lomeest and AM

the shortest, AM wich shart branches, AL and PL with long outstanding

branches; sensillaé broadty clavate, the head indistinetly and very shortly setulose,

sensillae bases about m lew with Pl; anterior seittcl matyin convex, posterfor

laterally angular, Thyes 2-+ 2, large, on well-developed ocular shields and closely

adjacent to seutum, posterior eyes the enaller. Chelicerae of peculiar form, short,

stow! and curved, apex truncate andl divided into two sirony, broad and blunt

teeth, and two (sometimes three) smaller teeth placed subap2eally on the inner

edge. {anleal setae imide. Palpi stout, tibial elow short, stout and trifureate;

femur with a lone atrong ela with long branches; genu with a nude seta; tibia

willt the dorsal and Taleral ectae mace, ventral branched: tarsi shart with basal

and subapical sensory rods and three or four ciliated or branched sctac. Dorsal

setae strange with strong ciliations, 36 im number ani arranged 2.8.10.6.6.4., t0

40-309 » Jong. Ventrally with the ustal pair of branched setae of enathosoia, a

single sela. on each coxa, a paly between coxee T and between coxae ITL, and there-

after 6.6.64.2, mere gender and with longer cations than the dorsal setac, to

30 tous. Lees: 1324p jong, 11 252 p. TEL S80 p: tarsi T and TT with the usuat

dorsal mod-like setae, tarsi [LE with a loug outstanding nude seta*; median clay

(empndium) longer than bar as thick a) the laterals.

The Standard Data tn wictoms derived frem 22 specimens are:

Standard Th-ore/ ica! Ohserved Coeff. at

Mean Devintion Range Range Variation

AW 62°8540-56 2H5+0+-40 FOS 69-0- 69-0 4.2

LAY 787 &)7F1 3:34+40-50 7 Foo aU 4-2

£6 — 34-854-0-49 2-3020-355 “75 D0+0--39- 0) 7-2

ASD... 28:9 0-35 Leedck0- 25 3 27th 22-0 5:3

3 She§ ees Peqeet he D1 370 24-)—27 +0) 5:8

Pe) 2-8 se()-45 2-ll4+f)+32 v1 4$8-0—57-0) 4-U

AAS 29-2 m1) 32 1-30-1023 7 27-Y—F3+0 5-2

JA $2+452e0 46 2:1540°+32 9 7 -0-36-0 G6

Al. 74-3 &)-50 2a3tb0- 45 §1-3 7 D—-B0-0 3-0

PE ... 89s§ seDS9 1:8-f-F0' 28 Hel SS -fa-u a-l

Seng... 460 with head 20/24

* Lniertunately omitted from fig. 4G.

v7]

Loc—The type and 72 paratypes from the mound of a brush turkey, Dobo-

dura, New Guinea, 18 May if44 (G. M. IK, No, 325).

The type and 22 paratype deposited in the South Avstralian Museum, 35

paratypes in the collection of the Roeky Mountain Laboratory, five paratypes m

the U.S, National Museum and five in the British Museum.

Yenierks—This genus and species in the pecttliar and characteristic chelicerae

and the palpal claw is very distinct from Schdngasiia, Neoschongasta and

Ascusehongasia,

FR =.

(

‘

A, dorsal view; B, dorsal

cheticera (x 860);

arsits LIT tx)450).

Tig. 4 Ovnoschdngasha cure nog. pid nosp

seutum (x500); C, palp ia dorsai view (x860); D,

£, galeal seta; T, dorsal seta (x 860); G, tarsus and smetat

Ascoschongastia “) uromys n. sp.

Fig, 5A-F

Description of Larvae —Shape oval. Tength (amengorged) 300», width

200. Scutum roughly rectangular with fairly well produced posterior margin.

AM short and normally ciliated, AL and PT lanceolate or foliate, to 16 4 wide,

Tig. 5 Aseasehangestia wromjyys uesp. B, ventral view: €,

dorsal scutum (xf00); D, tip of chelicera {x 860); Ic. waleal sela; Fy, darsal

ait yertral s

with longitudinal rews af strong dentures. Sensillae glohose, apparently nude, with

their bases only slight!y in advance of Hne of [L. bwes 2-- 2, .0n distinct oculer

shields; posterior the smaller, Chekeerae with only the usual apical tricuspid

@) Ewing (Proc. Biol Soe. Washineton, 53, 1940, p. 70-71) :

that the genus Paraschdngastia Wom, is syvuonymous with Neoseliire

(genotype WW. aiericave), aml for the remainder of the species of LV

conspecifie with emericdua lias proposed the name of slacos %

Gater as genotype. The choeiee of this Species at genotype is, however, somewhat mil+

fortunate, as it is a rather aberrant species with PL distinetly off the seutum.

recently shaw

Ha Esving 1929

coschougusha nat

eap. Galeal setae nude. Palpi fairly stoyt, with bifurcate tibial claw. Setae on

palpal femur, genu and tarsi apparently all nine. Dorsal. sctac all foliate or

lanceolate with strong dentures (ci. fig. 5D), to 64 long and 16m wide, 28 in

number, and arranged 2,6.6,6,6.2. Ventrally with usual pair oF branched setae on

gnathosoma, a single ciliated seta om each coxa, a pair between coxac I and

between coxaeé IL, and thereafter 5.6.6, anterior of atius, and of which the outer

two of the second six approach the doreal setae in form; then posterior of anus

42, foliate and dentate as on dorsimy the amlerior non-ftoliate ventral setac to

20 2 long. Legs: 1270p dong, if 220», 117 270; tarsi Land I with the usual

dorsal sensory rod, FIL without any long nude seta.

The Standard Data derived from the type and seven paratypes are as

follows:

Staudare Thearetion! Observe l Coeff. of

Mean Syiatian Ranes Raines Variation

NW 2. 50+6#1-74 4.02+1-23 35-B—fae 4 £5-0—-60+4 9-7

PAY, 09-S260-71 2-000-50 h3*5—73+5 t6-0°-75-0 2-9

Si dik +E0 1-41+0735 I4-8-- 23-2 18+0—21-0 7-4

ASE. 21-0 No varintiun recorded

PSB. 18-0 Wo variation recorded

SDs 34-0 No variation recorded

A-P . 21+G0-42 PT 30 18-0 25-2 1-0--24-0 5°5

AM (2. 1G:520-67 164047 11-G—21-4 =3-0-18-0) 9-9

AL ww 40-50-67 1-64220 +47 44-6- 54-4 ++8-U—31+0 GA

PL on. | GO O0+57 1-60+0-40 ABe2 fide d 47-063 +0 27

Seis... 28-1) with head 17/17. Only ore determination

Loc —The type and. seven paratypes from Crore lainington from Doho-

dura, New Guinea, 16 May 1044 (No. 315, G. M, K-.).

The type and two paratypes in the South Anstratian Museum, three para-

types in the Rocky Mountain Lahoratery, one paratype each in the U.S. National

Museum, aid the British Museum CN. 1T,).

Remarks—This species falls into the small gronp with [oliate seutat and

dorsal setae comprising 4. Jrasiate (Gater), aneeullechi (Wom.), foliata

(Gunther) and another species at present unpublishes,

Tt is close to wicenllochi but car. be disUugnished by the differcat mumber and

arrangement of the dorsal aid ventral setae, and by the centationa of the sctue,

althatw's: stron, being nowhere so large as in aicerdocin.

Ascosshongustia echymipeta n, si.

Tig. GA-C

Desrviptien of Larvae—Shape oval, Length (engorged) te 460», width to

350, Seuium toughb> reevangular, rather small, and faivly long, with the

posterior juargin yery shallow helen] PL. awl ightly sineetis; AM the shortest,

AL the longest but omy a fit: longer than PL, Sensil'ae giahose with short

distinet ciliatious; the sensillac bases ebout midway hutweeu AT. and PL. byes

2-|-2, on distinct oeular shielde antl well separate Trem semtal margin; the

posterior eyes very much the smailer. Chelicerne with only the apical trienspid

cap. Galgal setae nnde, Palpi stout, tibial claw trifurcate; setae on paypal

femur and gent iranched, on tibia all three mide, DS 34-48 in number, arranged

2.8.6.6.64.5(2),2(0), to 30¢ long. Vertrally with a pair of branched sttac om

guathosoma, a single ciliated setu on each coxa, a pair between coxae I and

betiwecn coxae UI, and thereaiter ca. 6.66444.2. to 26 long, Lees: 1 213.

lone, h 186, LU 220 pe 5 tarst I aucl il witl: the usual dorsal sensory rod,

Iti without any long nue sein.

Tue Standard Data from the type and 12 paratypes and threo other epeci-

DI eS

Seundard Observed Caelt. of

Mean Deviatiog Range Variation

. fhe jokthe 2) 1-1620+20 Hdd 45h 434-484) B65

paw o., | GleSckG- BG 2:12+0-87 55-167 4 57 -0-—-06-0 34

Noo a 2ide toe (3 1-17-4021 Tos!) 2o-4 is Gailey 5-7

21-0 No yeviation recorded

15-9 iion recorded

36-0 No variation recorded

nor SL GAO 149+ +25 DGB aueg— ies AF

SKS ZOE O35 1+45240226 a? 3 c BG

Sofs Ga BY 219720 +42 ou a3 ( el

Low. ©6442 Ge 34 MONE date Feb, i-4

ead i7/

fh — lscoschdngastia echinipera a.sp. A, dorsal seutum (x 500); By tin

of chelicera (2 809); C, pulp in doraat view (x 860),

Tg.

suc—The type and 12 panatye es from Echaiitpera ceckerelli from Dobu-

aura, ners Guinea, 29 Nov. 1943 (No. 46, G. MM. IS.), and another paratype from

ganie host, locality and date (No. 48, G. M, 48.) ; also two other specimens from

sun’ Lost and locality, 8 Dec. 1943 (No. 77, G. M. K.) 10 Dee, 1943 (No, 81,

CG. 30 K.),

ike type and four paratypes in the Seuth Australian Muscum, two para-

types each in the US. Nat. Miseam aud the British Museum CN. 41.) : reniaim-

ing epecimets in the Rocky Mountain Laboratory.

Rewnarks—in a new key to the species of AlecoschGugastia in preparation,

echyinivera will run down close to coorengense Jlirst and innisfailensis Wom.

and Heasp.. but is casiiy distinguished ly the seutum and the mumiber and arrange-

P.. pt } 3 §

ment of the DS.

AUSTRALIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND S.J.EDMONDS

Summary

Parasites of this species were found in the fish Callionymus calauropomus, caught in St. Vincent

Gulf, South Australia. Five of six fish examined contained this parasite, and in four of them they

were abundant. The intestines of all these fish contained crustacean material, especially amphipods

and cyprids. The collections examined contained both males and females, the latter being slightly

longer and broader than the males. In all the specimens examined the proboscis was protruded, but

in no case was the copulatory bursa of the male everted.

AUSTEALIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA

faa, 5

Ly T. Lisevey Joursrow and S.J. Romenes, Department of Zovlogy,

Universtiy of Adelaide

[Read 10 Octoher 1946]

livrorecninoruyscnus ALALotis Yamigati 1939

(Fig, 1-9)

Parasites of this species were found iu the fish Cilfiowvmus cooanrepenues,

caught mi St. Vincent Gulf, Sovth Australis, Dive uf six lish examine! con-

iained tis parasite. and in four of ern they were abundant. The intestines of

all these fish contained crusineein maceria!l, especialy amphipods and cyprids.

The collections examine! contained bot males and females, te letter heing

slightly longer and broader then the mates, In all the specimens examined the

proboscis was protruded, but In no case was the copolatory bersa of the male

evertesh

Vor Teneth of the tale is 1-4 10 2°7 mim, and the female 1°6 ta 2-8 mm,

The meaxiniing with of che tusle ia O45 tn G70 wim,, and the female G50 to

0-91 win. The beedly in both sexes is enrved ventrally anc devoid of spmes. The

préboscis is globular ta spherical in shape aud ig attached to the trumk ventre-

terminally (fiy. 1). The proboscis of the male is 0-10 to 0-14 mim. iong anil

Q-i0 te G-15 wim, in tts widest part. “Vhe correspouline méasurements in the

femate are 0-12 ta O16 mm. The acck portion of the proboscis is very short,

The srohoscis is armed with 25 hooks arranged in (en fongitudinal rows, consist-

ina af fiye rows each of three hocks alternating will fwe rows each of two hooks

(fy. 4.55. The lengths of the hooks, neasured along the curve from the pout

ef exivasion to the tip of the hook, are shown in the following table -—

Male Anieriot Middle Posterior

Row of three .... ace me 8 ta 78-1 jh 3U-35 jf 21-28 fe

Row of two, ‘ne ae ot 71-89 is 23~32 14

Temiale Antesine halle Pustertur

Row of three wi va BI-LO B42 28-82 py

Row af twa... +. Ate me 7 29-33 14

The proboscis sheath is bwb-like and hr the imale measures G12 to 0-22 mm.

Tong and OTL to O-14 mn. in its widest part. ‘The corresponding measurements

of the femate are 0712 to 0-20 mim. and O11 to O16 mm, ‘Phe sheath, which is

inserted wt the buse uf the prohoseis, is douhle-walle!. “Ube otaximuwm thickness

of each Jayer in both sexes is 1) to lay, A spindle-shaped cangtion is strated

at the pesterior end of the sheath, and the retinatula urise from the sie walls at

about this Tevel, A strongly deveaped retractor is present in hoth soxes. The

lenmisei aye short, elodt and eyindrical, and contain a well-developed tnewnar

system. The hypodermis is thick aud the lacunae of the body wall anastomoses

irecly.

Ail: system—There ure two sphéricnl to oval-shaped testes jtuced one

behing the other bul usualy pressed close together. They lie in the anterior part

slighty larger than the posterior, the dinien-

of the worm. The anterior testis is

sions of the former being O21 to 0-28 mm. Jong and €-20 to 0-26 mm. wide;

and of the posterior 0°20 to 0-22 mim. Jong and O18 to O25 wim, wide. Two

yaa efrerentia uiile near the anterver end of Lhe Saeiftigea’s pouch ty forin a

commit duct, which in most specinens is swollen at its hase te lerm a seminal

vesicle, This terminates tn a penis which projects into (he atrium of the bursa

Trang. Roy. Sac. 5S, Aust. 72 C1), 25 July 1947

and which is enclosed in a capsule or génital papilla. There are six cement glands

which are elliptical to pyriform, In most cases they lic pressed closely together,

The ducts of the six glands unite to [orm two lateral ducts, which join at their

buses to form a U-shaped cement reservoir. Two well-developed diverticula

project anteriorly from the bursa. The genital pare is terminal.

Fig. 1-9—Aypoeeliinorhyeechus alacolsts:

Aer

Female systeim—The general anatomy of the female system is shown in

fig. 6. In a typical spectmen the nterine bell ig O-15 mm. long and is separated

from the ulerus by a tiarcaw constriction, O't2 vu, in length. The uterus in the

same specimen is 0-35 mm. long and 0: 07 mm. wide at the anterior end, Some

of the female specimens contain floating ovaries, while the others bave both

ovaries and eges. Mature eges, when mounted in methyl salicylate, measure

50 to 54 long and 13 to 14 wide, The polar extrusions of the middle shell are.

well developed. A mamber of fennies bear a copulatory cap at their posterior

extrenity,

Systematic position—We consider that this parasite belongs to the species

Ifypoechinorhynchis aletcapis, deseribed by Yamaguti (1939, 325), from a

Japanese fish, Our measurements agree very closely with those given by him.

The hooks of our specimens, however, seem slightly longer, aiid the testes some-

what smaller than in his material We regard Mypoccimorhynuchus as a yalid

genus of the family Echinorhynenidae. The form of the probosets, as. well as

the shape, number and arrangement of its hooks, are sttipeestive of those of

Neocclitrorhynchus, but the characters of the cement glinds. are qanle different,

Although the parasites described hy Yamaguli were taken trom Alacups

flinthus, he stated that a single immature Temale spechnen was collected from

Cullionuyinus altigelis,

Pararhadinorhynchus mugilis n. gen., n. sp,

(Pix, 10-22

‘Thus species necurs in the mullet, Mugil cophalvs. Five of six fish examine

irom Port Wihinga in March, 1939, were parasitised, in ome case heavily. The

intestine of all the fish contained much plant debris with occasional mollises and

small crustaceans. Two other fish taken at American River, Kangaroo istand,

by Mr, TT. M, Coaper in January, 1945, also contained the same specics of parasite

im considerable mumbers. In the stomach of these fish were gastropods and

maumerous crustaceans (prawns, anmhlipods and copepods). Both imate and

female specimens were collected. The worms ate long ard eylidrical, the ferale

being longer and slightly broader than the male. Both sexes are devoid of hotly

spines, Th 2 length of the inale ranges from 3-1 do 11-4 mm., aud the wmuniun

width from 0-23 to O61 mm. The feimates are from 3° ta 19*2 ton, Jong and

from 0-22 to 0-69 mm. wide. The posterior hali or third of the female is twisted

in most cases into two or three spirallike convolutions fig. 19). Thig may be

duce to the fixing processes, All incastretictits were mare on anunalé cleared in

nicthyt salicylate.

Although the colicetion consists of a considerable namber uf both sexes, in

vnly two is the proboseis fully extcoded. It is therefore dificnt ta give a range

of values for the Jength mvt breadth oF that organ, Whe proboscis ia most adult

specimens is aoout OO nut. lone aud 0-2 nun. wile in the breadest part I

appears Lo taper clightiy tewaréls the hase, It bears 18 loneiadinal rows of hooks,

midst ef which are firntly attached hy rooting processes to the cuticle. Each row

consists af 16 to 17 hooks. The form of the proboscis [s shown in fig 10, and

TSCRIPTION GF FIG. 1-9

1, male; 2, female; 3, proftoscis; 4, 5. rows of hooks: @ female organs; 7, exer; 8, ToS. anale,

through cement @lands; 9, TS. male, through cement duets.

bh, lourta, Lin, brain; bw, bady wally ev, conitlatery cay od, counent duct: ef, comgulated

body Mid; ce, cement gland; er, cement reserveirs hit eaewatory diet: =, sanelion;

fo, woiital opening: gy, genital papilla: tf. earl aae a, Tacuuas lw. ligament; lin, loins

tudinal mnsele; lo, lateral openingeof uterine bells ny nielens: BY, probasrig; ps, grohuscis

shell; enh vetractar muscle: Sp, SeelFhigen’s peureliz sph, sphigcter; 1 testis: ny uteras;

nb, aterine bell: yh, vagritio) lath; vd, vue deferens; ve, vesierta seatinalis,

View, 10 Pararhedpweyrciag agucles UM, pate

fram an

mir ley 14,

15, 1.5. titeveh cement dects: Wi PWS. through reginn of ejaculatory duct;

17, T.S. reeion of esnution of izle.

or, middle anid posterior regions al pro ; 12 nosterior end of

VS. anteciur enil of aale; 14, T.S. through region of cement glands,

the sive ard fur of the hocks in fie, 11. Vhere is a slieht nech region, he

proboscis sheath is double-wailed Land mieasives From Obl ia 1:3 tr. long, and

from O-£2 to O20 min. wide. The thickness of earth wall ig about 0°02 nan, WA

brain is situated towards the base of the praboscrs sheath,

The lacuuar yystem of the Sody wrall shows tio well-developed tor niin ‘nal

lacunae, fromm which anastomasing chamuels arise (fe. 22), Nunerous small

nirclel ate foutid in the borly wall,

The Temnisct are about 0-8 mm. lang al exiend wadally as far as the

posterior portion ot the prahaseis sient, Transverse: acetivnas of dhe lenimiiset

shaw that they ate fat and that pyvo lacerat canals und a mmuber at largs 5

are po preset im these structures (fig, La).

Male systent—There are two elougute testes which No closé together. one

behind the ather, in the posterior half Gr rnd of Wie anual The anterior lestis

mecsires from 0°28 to 1-1 mm tone and trom O08 to O24 mim, wide. and the

posterior 9-27 to 1+) inn. long and O-58 ta 0°23 ing. wide. There are tivo Tome,

narreyy cotenl glands whieh reaee iin lengrts from O-fS to 2-5 mou. and is most

specimens they are swollen posterkaly. The duets frou these glands turn tivo

long cement reservoirs which usally ero constticterl in cne or two plaves iowurds

theiy posterior extremities. A long Sacituren's pouch lies hetwean the two

eement ducts and reaches forware as far as tite distal euds of the cement stats.

The vas deferens swells slightly towards jis postertar part to form a seminal

vesicle. There is an ejaculatory Guet and a weil- developed bursa which pears

rays. In none of the species examined was the bursa everted. The male

apertur: is terminal and 1s cuirrounded by manerous célis probably constituting

a ganglion,

Aemal’ systert—The structure and arraweenanit of the female <retem ts

shoayin te fig. ZO. ‘The taterine bell is aout G- 20 mum, Jove. The interrets proper

in ature specimens tanges from t-Lto l4 mm. in leneth, The genital ovening

is terminul aid the ganglionic comples which surrounds it is about i 13 wat, lowe.

Matere eges, measured in 709% alcohol. range from 56 ta 62 p long and 1-4 to

18. wide and bear polar prolangations of the mide shell.

Svatetatic position —This species does wer fit very well into Var Cicave's

conception (1923; 1910) of the Rhadierhvrchidav, but it resembles most of the

he proboscis, the shape af the hooks. the

members ef ihvt fine dn the form ni the S

double-walled proboscis sheath, the long, lrbular cement glands, and the faci ihat

its host is a fish. Tt ditters fron tne cnown getera of the family in the laste of

body spines, though mit such geous, Lepiorhy uckoides, Has already heen aduriied.

We propuse for the reception ai thts species anew genus, Pararfadinorl yr lis

with the following cha eabter §:—Rhadinorhiyne shidiae; badly elongate, cylindrical -

proboscis Tong, wih nnumerous hooks: proboses sheath dhuaurbleswelled with pro-

hostis gaastion towarls the posterior sets body devoid of spines; cement elas

two, lest. tubo'ar, swilllen slightly towares ths easly endl; numerals small

nuclei in body wall; genital ganetion well deve'oped. hi fish. Type. Pura-

rhadinvrkynelins oitgilis, Ixpes have been depositel im the Sonth Ausi-elian

Mrsenn, Adefaice.

RuaAnsnkuyscuus erst ()avieiphi 1802)

(Bie. 23-25)

Que imuminre female of this species was found i the iutestine of the

southern tuntiv, This mecceyi, caught off the Semaphore in St. Vineent uals,

Sotith Austriiiz, The worm was long and tubtilar, iis length being 17-1 mm:

anc its masini breadth OOO mm. The proboscis, which was fully retracted,

was 1-9 mun, long and bore many books. The proboseis shoath was double-walled

Fig,

a 233

18-22—Perarhadinorhyichus ougilis:

organs; 21, ex; 22, part

Rhadinorhwichius pristiss 23,

hooks; 23, ¢

18, maije; 19, fervale; 20, Temuic

of Tacunar svsteni.

anterfar end of female; 24, bey

and 2°8 mm. long. Two lemnisci extended back as far as the posterior part of

the proboscis sheath, The extreme anterior part of the body bore two sets of

hooks, one group surrounding that part of the body adjacent to the proboscis,

and the other group lying on the ventral side of the worm. The shape of the

hooks is shown in hig. 24, The specimen was filled with unripe eggs which pre-

verted the examination of the fernale complex. The largest of the eggs were

0:062 mm. long and 0-012 mm. broad. Three shells were seen, the middle bear-

ing well-developed polar prolongations (fig, 25),

The specimen agreed in all essential details with the figures published by

Lithe (1911, 44-46, fig, 58-63) and Meyer (1932, 47-48, fig. 23-25). The latter

mentioned several kinds of fish as hosts of the parasite’ The species is now

recorded for the first time from Australasian waters.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE

Lune, M. 1911 Acanthocephalen. Die Sitisswasserfaura Deutschlands. Ileft

Meyer, A. 1932 Acanthocephala, Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Tier-

teichs, Bd. 4, 2 Abt., 2 Buch, 40-62

VAN Crrayr, H, J. 1923 Key to Genera of Acanthocephala. Trans, Amer.

Micro. Soc., 40, 184-191

Van Creave, H. J. 1940 A Reconsideration of the Family Rhadinorhynchi-

dae. Jour. Parasitol., (1), 75-84

Yamacutt, S. 1939 Studies of the Helminth Fauna of Japan, part 29, Acantho-

cephala i, Jap. Jour. Zool, 8, (3), 317-351

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By J. M, BLACK

Summary

Acacia euthycarpa desc. Em. Frutex magnus glaber, ramulis teretibus; phyllodia usque ad 8 cm.

longa, 1 mm. crassa, teretia et 4-nervia, vel leviter compressa et in quoque latere duobis nervis

additiciis inconspicuis instructa; capitula gemina vel pauca in racemis brevibus efoliatis; flores ut in

A. calamiformi; legumen subplanum marginibus strictum, 8-12 cm. longum, 6-8 mm. latum; semina

longitudinalia funiculo conduplicato cincta.

Southern district to Flinders Range; Murray lands. Differs from A. calamiformis chiefly in

the straight-edged margin of the pods, which are not or very slightly narrowed between the seeds.

This is a more complete description than was given in these Transactions, 1945, p. 310.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

No. 44

By |. M. Bracx

| Read 10 October 1946]

LEGUMINOSAE

Acacia euthycarpa desc. em. Frutex inagnus glaber, ravitlis teretibis ;

phyllodia nsyue ad & em. longa, 1 mint, crassa, ieretia eb te “nervia, vel levirer come

pressa ct i quoqite. latcre Auobis nervis add ticiis 7 rconspicuis instricta) capituia

geniva vel paca in racemic hreyipus ca OHatis; flores ut in A, culaniforni;

Tequimeri subpla uum Marginibus si richamy, 2-42 oni. lougum, 6-8 mim. latur ; seni

longitudinal ia funienlo conduplicav cincta.

Southern district to Flinders Range ; Mitrray lands. Differs fram 4. cuiciisi-

formis chielly in the straightedged margin af the pods, which are nor at very

stig thy narrawed between “the seeds. ‘This is a more complete description thin

as given in these Transactions, 1945, p. 310.

Acacia pinguifalia nov. sp. Frutex glaber, ramutis teretibus; phyllodia

carnen terctia ereeta yel recnryata 2+ em. fonsa 2-3 mim. evassa obscure circa

12-nervia mucrone brevi duro terminata ad basin articulata; pedunculi solitarii

yel gemini 5-106 mm. longi: capstila cirea. 25-Ayra; sepala 3 lineari-spathulata

ciliata dhvidio breviora yuant petala; bractculae clavitiformes; legumen circa

3 cm, longum 2 min, lati comtortunt et super semina longitudinalia conyexumi;

semen nigram; funioulus fitorus, in ailum erassint album yuadruplicem

desinens.

Finniss River, near Lake Alexandrina; near Port Lincoln. Near 4. Bynocana,

Benth., and 4. Me noel, but is net vised aryl bas thicker phyllodes with more

ntinerous nerves,

Differs from 4. seletie R. Br, in the fleshy, much thicker and Jonge:

phyllodes. and the moniliform pod; from Af. gonopliylla Benth, 4 by the phyllades

not tetragonous or incurved and by the pod which in A, gouophylla is Hat, straight

and not twisted,

Acavia ceronalis nuy. sp. Rani subanguivti; phyllodt glabra, ovato-

oblonga vel Ivto-lanceolata, coriaeen, basin versus angustata, 3-43 cn. longa,

6-15 mim. lata, ebtusa. oblique laiesvia, peunivenia, nwrsinibus verviformibus:

Stipitle ie pratcipuc satis capinila parva, giebosa, 15-20 in quoque face

gatlard divposita, 20-25 flora, tenuts, puberuli, peduneuli. circa TO) mm, lonigi.

solitarii, gemini vel termi, racemos pliy lodiis atibac qual: bus fornautes ; sepala 5s,

iments spathulata, 1 mm. longa, spice pilosa, petatiy cuplo breyviora; ovetium

lubrum, brevissime stipiiatuim; legumen ignotem.

Crown Point, River Finke, Central Australia. The exact relation to

4, Vicleriae, Bexth,, cannot be known yntil the pod is found,

Deviesia nudula ndy, sp. Frures strietus glaber 1-2 nt. altas; ramuli longi

rigidi suicati-teretes apicé pungentes plerique aphylli, quandoqtue penieis foliis

brevilus (3-9 inm. longis) subualatie spinifor ‘andbtig divaricatis pongentibus

praeditt; folia cuns ramutis covtinuay flores 3-12 in racemis solitariis vel con-

presatis 1-24 em. Jonsvis fere ommihis Jatcralibys; pedicelli capdiares patentes

5-12 mm, longi; calyx -f mon. Joweus birhinatus in pedteeithun patlatin fastigalium.

Genubus brevibas aciiis, dusbis “superioribas hrevioribus approsimatisque; cariva

obtusa; lezumen immiaturw triangulare,

Berri (River Murray). Perhaps the same as D. brevifaliv, Lindl, var.

ephedroides, Genth., of Western Australia. Diiters from D, brevifolta in its

Trans. Roy. Soa S, Aust,, 71 (1), 25 July 1947

almost leafless character and in its wuch longer racemes with capillary pedicels

ustially two to three times as long as the calyx.

PROTEACEAE

Grevillea umbellifera noy. sp. Fruticulus 60-100 cm. altus, ramis validis,

asperis, fuscis, pubescentibus; folia erecta, anguste linearia, rigida, apice pungen-

tia, 5-10 cm. longa, 2 mm. lata, supra glabra, infra puherula et bisuleata, integra

aut pauca summa bi- vel tripartita, omnia rigide breviterque petiolata; flores

patici usqtte 20, pedicellata, in umbeilis vel capitulis icre sessilibus, plerumque

axillaribus, congregati; perianthium extus roseum, dense puberulum, inferne sub-

turgidum, ints saturate rubrum glabrumate, tubo 10-12 mm, longe; evarium

glabrum; gynophorus ruber, inferme perianthii basi adnatus; glandula nulla;

stylus glaber, ruber, 9 mim. longus, disco laterali; pedicellus puberulus, 4-3 im.

longus; fructus globosulus, niger, laevis, circa 12 mim. diametro.

Kocuibba, near Fowler Bay, Sept.-Oct., J. B. Cleland.

Kear the Western Australian G. brochystachya Meisn. in leaves and in-

florescence, but differs in a few of the upper leaves divided into two or three

linear segments, the flowers larger and the lower part of the gynophore adnate

to the base of the perianth.

SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN LIZARDS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND PATRICIA M. MAWSON

Summary

Most of the material dealt with in this paper has been collected over a period of very many years by

the senior author in New South Wales, Victoria, south-eastern Queensland, Central Australia and

South Australia. We are indebted to Professor J. B. Cleland for some of the specimens from New

South Wales, and to the late Dr. T. L. Bancroft for those from Eidsvold, Burnett River, Queensland.

Acknowledgment is made of assistance from the Commonwealth Research Grant to the University

of Adelaide. Types of the new species will be deposited in the South Australian Museum.

SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN LIZARDS

By T, ILAavey Jomnsron and PAratcia M. Mawson,

Departinent of Zoology, University of Adelaide

[Read 10 October 1946]

Most of the material dealt with m this paper has been collected over a period

of very many years by the senior author in New South Wales, Vicroria, south-

eastern Queensland, Central Australia and South Australia, We are indebted to

Professor J. B. Cleland for some of the specimens from New South Wales, and

to the late Dr. T. L. Bancroft for those from Eidsvold, Burnett River, Queens-

land. Acknowledginent is made of assistance [rom the Commonwealth Research

Grant to the University of Adelaide. Types of the new species will be deposited

in the South Austraiian Museum,

Host-Parastve List

VARANUS VARIUS Shaw. Fiysaloptera antarctica Linst, (Burnett R., Queens-

land). Physuloptera confusa J. and M, (5.1. Queensland). Ophidascarts

varanl n.sp, (SE. Queensland).

VarAnus Betti Dum. and Bibr. (Probably only a northern variety of 1, variws).

Physuloptera canfusa J. and M. (Burnett R.)-

Varanus coutm Gray, Physaloptera antarclica Linst, (Burnett R,, Queensland ;

Victoria). P, confusa J. and M. (S.B. Queensland; Victoria).

VarAnus oiuanreus Gray. Physalopterd confusa J. and M. (Central Australia).

VARANUS TUNCTATUS var. oRTENTALIS Fry (Eidsvold, Burnett R.). £/rysalop-

ferd sp.

Tinoud scrncoipEs Shaw. Prewnoncia tiliguae Johnston (New Sauth Wales).

Phwsalaptera antarctica Linst. (New South Wales; S.E. Queensland).

Pharyngaden tustrale J, and M. (Burnett R., Queensland). Pharyigodon

Hiliquae Baylis (Burnett R.).

Tinraua xrcrovutea Gray, Phvsaloptera antarctica Linst, Physaloptera spy

and Pharyngodon australe J.and M. (alt fram Katoomba, New South Wales).

TRACTIVSAURUS RUGOSUSs Gray, Theluidros Irachysauri nsp. (Adelaide, South

Australia) -

Teeenrcx ComnrnanaAnmt Gray. Pharyngodon tiliquae Baylis (Bathurst, New

South Wales).

Eanrsia srropata Peters. Pharyigodan tliquae Baylis (Sydney and isendall,

New South Wales).

EGErsiA weuitri Lacep. Pharynyodon tilignae Baylis (Sydney, New South

Wales),

Egexxia pautt Boulenger, Phoryugodon tiliguae Baylis. Aimphibiophilus

egeriice n. sp. (Both trom Musgraye Ranges, Central Australia.)

Lycosoma ouoyi D, and B. Lleyselopieyva sp. (Lower Hawkesbury River, New

South Waites).

Orpura xosusta Boulenger, Physuloptora sp.; Parathelandros ocdurae nm. sp.

(both from West Burleigh, S.H, Queensland),

Trans. Roy. Soa, 5S, Aust, 71 (1), 25 July 1947

Amphibiophilus egerniae n. sp.

(Fig. 1-3)

Two males and one female trichostrongylid worms were taken from the

intestine of Egernia dahli, Ernabella, Musgrave Ranges, Ceutral Australia. The

males are 3-9-4+4 nm, long, and the feimaic 83 mm, The body is spirally coiled,

and narrow lateral alae are present. The mouth leads to a small buceal cavity in

which is oue tooth, The oesophagus, +3 mm. long in the mals, is somewhat wider

iu its posterior third, and is surrounded by the nerve ring just before this level.

The vulva lies near the posterior end, +2 nm, in front of the anus, The tail

is 07 mm. long. The ege nearest the vulya is oval and measures 63 px 30 p.

The bursa is tightly folded in beth male specimens available. but the lateral

lobes appear to he symmetrical. The dorsal lobe is hardly demarcated from the

lateral lobes. The arrangement of the rays is indicated in the accompanying

Vig. 1-3, elanphibiophilus eperiive: 1, wead; 2, male wil; 3. posteriar end of fematc,

4-6, Ophidascnrts varant; 4, 4, head; 0, niule tail, Fig. 3, 4, 3 and 6 to same scale.

fig. (fig. 2), The external dorsal ray appears to arise from beside the base of

the dorsal, rather than from the latter. The dorsal gives sise to lwo branches,

each of which has fout teriuinal digits. The spicwies are stuple, *2 mm. in length,

with the proximal half wider than the distal. A gubernacuium, *O45--03 mm.

long is presciit.

The species appears to ns to he the nearest to those of the gems styiphi-

biaphiles, differing Erom them, however, in having four, instead of the three,

terminal processes on each bratich of the dorsal ray.

Ophidascaris varani n. sp.

(Pig. 4-6)

A single male worm belonging to the genus Ophidascuris was taken from

Varanus verius from Toowoomba, Queensland. Tt measures 7 mn, in length.

The very short interlubia ere separated from the lips by deep grooves, and both

iiterabia and grooyes are bordered by a wi: de continugiws ciicular flange. The

Hips haye a ery narrow latera . ange bearmg a fine dentizerous ridge, The

oesophagus is 42 mm. long, The position of ‘the tetve ring is not clear, The

posterior end natrows suddenly a the level of the anus. T he tail, -15 mm, lovg,

bears two pairs of lateral and twa pairs ol sub-inedian papillae, Vhere are a pair

at adgnal double-headed papiilue, and about 30 pairs of small pre-anal papillar.

The presence of median pre- and postanal papillae is doubtinl The alate

spichies ate ‘9 mm. long; the?r lengtii he'sg much shorter than any hitherto

recorded far species of Ophiduscuris, fn adrition to this characiristic the

present specimen differs from the other species of the genus recurded ag cecurting

in Australia, O. fileria (Duj.) and Q. pyrrlues }. and M., in the length of the

interlabia and iu th e number of caudal papillae,

PTIYSALOPTERA ANTARCTICA Linst,

This species has heen taken iv large munbers from Tiliqua seincaides (New

South Wales and S.E. Queensland); Farvars jouldi (Burnett River, Queens-

land; and YVietoria); T. wigrolutrn (Katoomba, New South Wales), and

F.ovarius (Fatrnett River, ¢ Queenslind ).

A very great variatian in size has boen observed, mature Lemiale specimens

in some collections being only about 2 ct, long, im others reaching 3 cm.

PiySALOPTERA CoNrUsA J, and M.

This species,, which was originally recorded by tts (1942) fram the tiger

snake, Noivelus sculains, is very clase to P. anterclica Linst., as redescribed “by

Irwin-Smith (1922, $7; 1922. 233) from material Crom Tiliyne spp. and Varanus

rarizs (1922, 419). tt was enecesteil by us that P, confusa unight be restricted

io snakes. This, however, does not seem to he the ease, since among a large

number of Physalopterids now examined froni /erwiivs spp, some are dete; mined

as P. entarchiee and some as P. confusa. The latter nomatede is naw recorded

from Feranus gowdi, Caloundra, South Qucensland, and Victoria; b. earins.

Toowoomba and West Burleigh, Queensland; F. belli, Kidsvold, Burnett River,

Queensland; and b. giganieus, Uermannshure, Central Austratia.

PHYSALDPTEMA Sp,

in seme collections there w ere Phy salopierid worms in an immature condition,

or teo poorly preserved for sativtactory examination, so rhat the species could

net be deterinined. Such mater a

wl was observed i collections from Tiigua

nigeeteicd Csatoriba, New South Wates}; Matonns punctatus var, neitndalis

(Fidsveld, Burnett River); Layoseia quayt (JTawkesbury R., New South

Wales): anh Ocdura robusta (\West Gurleigh, Queensfand),

PSEU AONE ALA TILIGUAE johusi OTL

Many ripen, of this parasite of the lungs were exatnined irom ile type

hinst, Tivqua scincondes, front Syduey, As in the original matetial, females only

were present,

Thelandres trachysauri n. sp.

(Tig. 7-8)

From Truchysaurns rugesus, Adelaide, Males up to 2 mm., females to

S75 mm. Vestibule practically absent. Oesuphagus 55 mim, long in the male,

‘Oamm, in the female, Lxeretory pore post- oesophageal, Nerve ring about ‘2 mm.

from the anterior end in the inate. The vulva is i-4 mm, Neate the pozterior end

of the body ima female 3-2 mm. long, @e¢., just posterior to the mid-hudy. Eggs

are thin-shelled, 34. x 100 p, The ‘fentale tail lapers gradually to a jie quit,

aad measures. 4 nm. in length.

The male tail, or dorsal spine, is ‘1 mm, long and bears one imedian papilla

at about its mid-lengih, There are a pair of pre-anal and a pair of post anal

papillae, and a niedian post-anal prominence which is a true papilla, The spicule

is ‘lL mm. long. The species closely resembles 7°. kurtune J. and M., from which

ii is distinguished by the greater length of the spicule end the different shape

of the egg.

Vie 7-8. Thelaintres tractysanet; 7, male; 8 fomale. 9-13, Larwthelandros

aedurac: 9, head; 10, posterior end af female; 11, posterior end of mate;

12, male tail, yentral ylew; 13, anierior cn) of female. Ig, ¥, 1U and 12 to

saine scale: fiz. 7 and 13 to same scale.

Parathelandros cediurae n. sp.

(big. 9-13)

From Oedure robusta, from West Burleigh, South-cast Queensland, Collee-

tions were madé¢ fron: several specimens of this host species. Males up to 1-6 mm,

lone and -24 mm. wide; feniales 6 mim. long and +32 mm. wide, inclusive ot the

tail spike anel lateral alae in both cases. Body tapering markedly towards head,

Lateral alae present from about pusterior end of oesophagts in level of anus,

and relatively very much wider in male than in female. Posterior end in both

sexes. bears. a long, tapering spined spike. In the female the posterior end bears,

in addition, three stout backwardly directed “horns” which ate stronely cuticular-

ised] extonsions of the body wall. but are nat so long as the tail spike. Oesophagus

‘3mm. long in the male, -6 nim. in the female, its anterior part cylindrical, and

ending in a large spherical bith -14 nim. in diamerer in the fetnale, In the adult

female the reciunr is very narrow and quite insignifieant, Nerve ring +13 mm.

in male and +15 mm. in jemale froin the anterior end of the hedy. Eweretory

pore post-oesophageal, just in front of vitlva in the femate,

Mate: Body tapers abriptiy at level of cloaea to end in spike +7 nan. lows,

on which are a pair of papillae and about 12-135 small spines (fig. 11}, A pair

of pre-anal anda pair of post-aoat pepillae are present. One spicules, *LP nim, lone,

and a gubernaculum about ~03 nin. long, have heen observed; the presence of a

secetid “syicuile is probable, bet was net seen, perhaps awing to the concentration

of tissttes in this region,

Tn the female the tail seine is about -O mit. longs, ant beats about 16. small

spines. The horn-hke processes at phe prstéricr eud of the body proper are

‘Tamm. lone (fig. 10). Uterus narrow. but very long and mach twisted, its loops

extending behind the terminstion of the itestinc. Eggs 142% 43). Vulva at

level of oesophage: ul buth or just post-oesophageal.

The species differs very Hetle from LF. qnotiy Chitwood, the distinguishing

features in ihe male of the present apenite being the absence of a median post-anal

papilla, the presence of tai spine and the presence of a spicule; and in the

female, the forut of the posterior ond of the hady and the size uf the eggs.

Praryncoson Diesing 1861

The genus Pharyngodon hs s heen recorded séveral Gmes fron Australiau

hosts, Fenty species being nained trom reptiles. These species are not oll insiydedl

in the yaluah'e analysis of, and key ta, the genus pitblishest by + Spanl (1220), since

P. hitdisi Thapar 1925 wae the only one af them described privy to 1926, Val-

lowing thar key, all the reeorded Australian species fall into the gronp “Aa”,

ihat is, species ta qwhicl caudal alae of the mate inelude the paiy ‘ol post-anal

papillae, ard in which the adanal pair of papillae are forked. We have further

differentiated this group as follows:—

1. Femate tail spined. Py Ravinia J. and M.

Feninte tail naked. =

Yo Spike ef male tai twa to three times Jnnegtlt af finrss, Paige Baylis

Spike longér than. liur sot Lavicee baat of, burs Pu hidia Thapar

Spike shorter than leigth ef bar Moansivale J. and M

Oiher differences between these species es the pasition at the exereteary

Like etze af thesee@ys, Ti ts retnerkable that three of them should laye becu

from the seine hast species, Tiliqua s selacoides. As iar as the infornia-

jresent avalinble is concerned, all these species appear valid.

PitarvNaones Thagisy Tryls 1930

This speeles was originally described from Tiliqnta scincoldes; it is now

recorded from that hast trom bidsveii, Queensland; higenrilis ct b ised (Sydney } ;

i. siviolate (eral. New South Wales; &. cuitninghani ( Eatherst, aus Sonth

Wales): and &. dali { Muserave Ranges, Central Australias. L’harvugedou sp.

gener oe by Thapar (192 5) [vom female enecitnens fro E. ewig hun azrees

vith the deseription given of P. Aliewur, ans can now be placed in ie s yyy

f the latter.

PHARYNGODON AUSTRALE J. and M.

Originally described by us (1942) from Tiliqua scincoides, from New South

Wales, this species is now recorded from the same host species from Eidsvold,

Queensland; and from Tiligua ntgrelutea, from Katoomba, New South Wales.

LITERATURE

Bayuis, H. A. 1930 A.M.N.H., (10), 5, 364

Inwin-Smitu, V. 1922 Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 47, 53-62; 232-244; 415-427

Jounston, T. II., and Mawson, P. M. 1941 Rec, S. Aust. Mus., 7, (1),

145-148

Jounstonx, T. H., and Mawsox, P. M. 1942 Ree. Aust. Mus., 21, (2),

110-115

Spact, E. A. 1926 A.M.N.H., (9), 17, 585-591

Tuapar, G. S. 1925 Jour. Helm., 3, 83-150

A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PHYCITIDAE

By A. JEFFERIS TURNER

Summary

Mr A. J. T. Janse is at present engaged on a Revision of the whole of the world genera of this large

family, and I am much indebted to him for sending me advance copies of some of his work. This

has encouraged and helped me in the preparation of this paper. The family is naturally divisible into

two subfamilies, the Anerastrianae, which have no tongue, and the Phycitinae, in which the tongue

is fully developed.

A REVISION OF THE AUSTRALIAN PHYCITIDAE

PART I

By A. Jerrerrs TuxNer

Communicated by H. Womersley, 14 November 16

Mr. A. J. T. Janse is at present engaged on a Revision of the whole of the

world genera of this large family, and I am much indebted io him for sending

me advance copies of some of his work, This has encouraged and helped me in

the preparation of this paper.

The family is naturally divisible into two subfamilies, the Anerastrianae,

which have no tongue, and the Phycitinee, in which the tongue is fully developed.

Subfam. ANERSTRIANAT:

Key ro Gr

1. Hindwings with 3 and 4 absent. 2

Hindwings with not both absent. 3

2. Forewings with 5 absent, 3 and 4 stalked. Stailina

Forewings with 5 absent, 3 and 4 separate. Calamotropha

3. Hindwings with 5 absent. 4

Hindwings with 5 present. 5

4. Hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked, 5

Hindwings with 6 and 7 coincident. Allocn

5. Hindwings with cell closed, 6

Hindwings with cell open. Anaresca

6. Forewitgs with 5 absent. 7

Forewings with 5 present, 8

7. Face with conical anterior projection. Anerastria

Face not projecting, &

8. Palni with terminal joint tarned downwards. Aachylolcla

Paipi not so. Lioprosopa

9 Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked. Sahuria

Forewings with 4 and 5 not stalked. 19

10. Fieswires with celf less than one-half. Enundlocera

Hindwings with cell more than one-half. Creohata

Gen. STAITINA Rag.

N, Amer. Phycit., 19.

Face with anterior tuft of scales. Pa'pi long, down-curved. Maxillary palpi

minute. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent. Hindwings with 3 and 4

absent, 6 and 7 stalked. Type, S. reseolinctclla, from North America.

STAITINA RHONOBAPHELLA Rag.)

Nov. Gen., 50; Rom. Mem., 8, 417,

Queensland. New Guinea. Celebes.

Trans. Roy. Soc, 5, Aust., 71 (1), 25 July 1947

Gen, CaLAmorroruiA Hmps.

P.Z.S., 1918, 91.

Face with pointed conical prominence. Palpi long, down-curved. Maxillary

palpi dilated. Dorewines with 6 and 4 separate, 5 absent. Tlindwings with

Sand 4 absent, 6 and 7 stalked. Type, C. pulverulenta Elmps.

CALAMOTROPHA PULVERIVENA [Imps.'*)

P.Z.S., 1918, 91.

West Australia: Sherlock River.

Gen, ANERASTRiA Hb,

Verz., 367.

Face with conical anterior projection, Palpi long. porrect. Antennae of male

with sub-basal dorsal notch. Forewings wiih 5 absemt. 9 and 10 stalked or

separate. tlindwings with cel] short, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent. ype,

A. lotelle Hb., from Europe.

ANERASTRIA 3iLRATILELLA Meyr,

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1878, 213.

Sydney,

ANERASTRIA ERASMIA ‘Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Old., 1912, 117.

Atherton, Injune, Carnarvon Range.

ANERASTRIA VIRGINELLA Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W., 1880, 253; aeurica Turn., Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1912,

113,

Darwin, Brocks Creek, Cape York, Cairns, Atherton, Duaringa, Lismore.

Ansrastria rhoedochros n. sp,

padaxpas, rosy.

@ 9, 18-22 mm. Head and ihorax dark reddish or rosy-grey, Palpi 6;

rosy-grey. Antennae pale grey; in male with a sub-basal dorsal notch followed

by a fusiform glandular swelling, Abdomen grey-whitish, base of dorsum

ochreous, Forewings with costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded; bright

rosy with slender white lines on veins cunfluent lowards base; cilia white, partly

rosy-tinged. Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia white. Forewings broader than in

A. virgineila Meyr,, with apices more broadly rounded.

North Queensland: Cape York in September and April (W. B. Barnard);

three specimens. Type in Queensland Museum.

Anerastria albivena n sp.

albivenys, white-veined.

é. 19-20 mm. Head and thorax dull rosy; face with strong conical

anterior projection. Palpi 6; dull rosy, Antennae pale grey; in male with basal

glandular thickening. Abdomen grey, base of dorsum ochreous; tuft whitish.

Forewings with costa gently arched, apex roatinded; bright rosy; veins slenderly

and discretely outlined with white; cilia rosy. Llindwings and cilia grey.

New South Wales: Murrurundi in October (Dr. B. L. Middleton); one

specimen.

©) = Sp. unknawn to ime.

ANERASTRIA. MICRORRHODA Turn.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1923, 453,

Darwin,

AWNERASTRIA METALEACTIS Meyr.

Meyr. Trans, Ent, Soc., 1887, 262.

Darwin, Noosa, Chinchilla, Bathurst.

Anerastria xylodes n. sp.

EvAwdys, wooden.

@. 24mm. Wead and thorax fuscous. Palpi 6; pale brownish. Antennae

grey. Abdomen ochreous; terminal segments and tuft grey-whitish. Forewings

elongate, costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale

brownish; a subcostal whitish stripe from base to two-thirds, edged bentath by a

fuscous line; a terminal series of minute dark fuscous dots; cilia pale grey. Hind-

wings grey; cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Cairtis in December (7, H, Taylor) ; one specimen,

Anerasttia clepsiphronica n. sp.

xhedidporcos, deceitful,

@. 18 mm, Head and thorax rosy. Palpi 4; rosy, Antennae grey.

Abdomen pale ochreous, terminal segments and tuft whitish. Dorewings with

costa gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; 3 and 4 closely

approximated at origin; rosy; all veins slenderly outlined with whitish; a sub-

marginal series of minute fuscous dots; cilia pale rosy. Hindwings and cilia

whitish. A close mimic of Ltoprosopa chlorogranuua Meyr., but readily dis-

tinguished by its shark-like head, There is a slight variation in the forewing

from that usual in Averastria,

Queensland: Brisbane in October; one specimen,

Gen. Lioprosona noy.

Aewrpugoros, smooth-faced.

Face smooth or with an anterior superior tuft. Forewings with 5 absent.

Hindwings with cell less than one-half, 3 and 4 staked, 5 absent, Type,

L. chiorogramma Meyr.

LIOPROSOPA NIPHOPLEURA Tiirn.

Proc, Roy, Soc. Old., 1912, 111.

Darwin, Melville sland, Brocks Creek.

LioprosiirA HAPLOSCHEMA Turn.

Proc, Roy. Soc, Old., 1903, 117; pleureckorda Turn, Proc, Roy. Soc, Qld., 1912,

117

Yeppoon, Duaringa, Brisbane, Stanthorpe.

LIOPROSOPA NIPHOSEMA Turn,

Proc, Roy, Soe. Qld., 1912, 112.

Darwin, Adeiaide River.

LioprosoPA HOLOPHAEA Turn,

Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1923, 42.

Darwin, Brisbane.

Liorrosora tcASMoPIS Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Old., 1903, 116.

Townsville.

Lioprosopa sTEREOSTICHA Turn,

Proc. Roy. Soc. QOld., 1904, 41.

Thursday Island, Dalby, Stanthorpe,

LIoPRosOPA EURYSTICUA Turn,

Proc. Roy Soc, Qld., 1903, 119.

Brocks Creek, Townsville.

Lioprosopa dimochla n- sp.

dizoxdos, two-barred.

8. 20mm. Head and thorax greyish-brawn, (Palpi missing.) Antennae

in male with sub-basal notch followed by a fusiform glandular swelling. Abdomen

whitish-ochreous. Forewings with costa straight, apex rounded; brownish-grey ;

costal edge fuscous; a whitish costal stripe from base to apex; a simular dorsal

stripe from base ta tornus, ifterrupted by ftscous dots at one-third and two-

thirds; cilia grey, bases whitish. Hindwings and cilia whitish.

North Australia: Brocks Creek in January (T. G. Campbell) ; one specimen.

Lioprosopa phaulodes n. sp.

dhavdmyps, paltry.

&, 16mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi 2 and a half; grey. Antennac

pale grey; in male with a sub-basal dorsal notch followed by a fusiform glandular

swelling. Abdomen whitish-grey, hase of dorsym ochreous. Forewings with

costa slightly arched, apex rounded; grey-whitish with spursely scattered [uscous

scales; a terminal series of blackish dots; cilia grey-whitish, Hindwings and

cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Dunk Island in May; one specimen,

Lioprosopa pelopa n. sp.

weAwmos, dusky.

@. 18 mm. Head and thorax dark brown. Palpi 4; dark brown, base

beneath white (Antennae missing.) Abdomen fuscous, base of dorsum brownish;

tuft white. Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rounded; brown; dorsum

broadly fuscous; costal edge white; two slender outwardly oblique while lines

from cosia hefore apex; a blackish terminal line; cilia white, apices except on

tornus fuscous, a short blackish median lime at apex, Llindwings pale grey; cilia

white.

North Australia: Darwin in December (G. F. Hill); two specimens,

Lioprosopa phaeochiton n. sp.

daoyxitwr, dark-robed.

@. 18mm. Head and thorax fuscous. (Palpi mussing.) Antennae grey-

whitish, Abdomen pale grey. Forewings with costa straight, apex rounded ;

dark fuscous;a broad whitish costal sttipe from base to apex, narrower towards

base. containing very fine londitudinal [uscous lines; a terminal series of minute

blackish dots; cilia grey with fuscous antemedian line. Hindwings and cilia

whitish.

North Queensland: Cape York in October (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Liepresopa pachyzancla n. sp.

muyvédyeAos, with thick sickles.

¢. 16-18 min. Head and thorax vreyish-brown. Palpi ascending, recurved,

thickened with appressed scales, apex pointed; dark fuscous. Antennae grey.

Forewings narrow, costa alinost straight, apex rounded; grey; a broad white

dorsat streak, narrawing towards base aul apex, containing very fine fuscous

longitudinal lines and a dot at two-thirds; cilia grey. Uudwings aud cilia grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November (W, B. Barnard) ;

five specimens. Tyne in Queensland Museum,

LioPrasopa syssexra Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soe. OLL, 1912, 113.

arwin, Chinchilla, Kinsberley.

LiofeosueA ZOPHOFLEURA Turn,

Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1903. 117.

Darwin, Brocks Creck, Claucke River, Townsville, Brishane.

Lioprosopa sporadica n. sp.

oropasuas, sprinted.

6, @. 16-20 mm. ead and thorax whitish, Palpi 3; whitish. Antennae

pale grey. Abdomen whitish, base of dorsum ochreonstinged., Forewings with

coste straight to middle, thence strongly arched; wlutish lightly sprinkled with

fuscous and browntsh; sametines a dark fuseous dot in dise at two-thirds; a

terminal series of datk fuscous Cots; cilia grey. llindwings and cilia white.

Hindwings grey-whitish 5 cilia. whitish.

North Queensiand: Cape York in Octoner and Noyanber (W. GB. Larnard);

two specimens.

jodivméys, slender,

é. Gam. Pead and thorax white. Palpi 3; white. Autennae whitish:

in male with sub-basal dors rch. (Abdomen missing.) Porewings with costa

sightly arched, apex rouniod; white; cilia white. Ilindwings and cilia white.

North Queensland: Deu Tsland in May; one specimei,

Lioprosopa tanybela n.ap.

ravySsAos, with long palpi.

2, 9. 14147 mm. Tread and thorax grey, Palpi in male 5, in female 8;

grey. Abdomen pale grey, hase of dorsum ochreous. Vorewings slightly arched,

apex. tounded ; whitish or grey-whitish; sometinies a few subdorsal or subterminal

blackish dots: a terntinal series of blackish dots; cilia concolorous. Hindwings

ana cilia white.

North Qveensland: Lindeman Island in September; four specimens,

Liopresopa haploa mn. sp.

ivAoor, simple

é. 18-20. Head grev; face in mate white, in female grey, Palpt in male 3.

white; ii female 8, grey, Autennae grey; in mate dentate, with a sub-hasal dorsal

notch followed by a clandiar swelling. Abdomeir ochrentis; tuft white. Fore-

wings with costa gently arched, apex rounded; grey-wititsh; veins outhned with

white? goractines a grey line above middle from baze to apex; cilia wlvite, Uind-

wings pale grey; cilla white,

North QOuvens'and: Tandeman Istand in September four speciniens,

Lioprosora MARCIDA Turn,

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W,, 1923, 455,

Queensland: Miles.

LiOPROSOPA MACRURRHYNC:LA Turn,

Prog. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1923, 456.

‘Townsville, Milmerran.

Lioprosopa thiomochla n- sp.

feapoydos, sulphur-barred,

é, 2. 20-22 mm. Tlead and thorax grev. Palpi £; grey, Antennac in

male shortly pectinaie (1 and a half); grey-whitish, Abdomen whitish-nevreous,

base ai dorsum brown, TVorewings with costa slightly a-ched, apex rounded;

brownmsh-grey; dorsum suffused with whitish-ochreous; a pale yellowish erstal

etripe from base to apex; a fuscous dot above two-fifths Gorsum; a subterminal

line of minute fuscous dots; cilia grey. Tindwings and cilia grey-whinsh.

North Australia: Darwin in November. Qneensland: Dalby. Nortit-West

Australia; Kimberley in February, Three specimens.

Licprosopa evsiobela n. sp,

xoAoBeAos, with short palpi.

¢. 23 mm. Head and thorax pale reddish. VPalpi short (1 and a fourth),

broad as base, gradually attenuating to an acute apex; reddish-grey, Antennae

pale grey; in male shortly laminate, with a shallow posterior excavation clothed

with long hairs near base. Abdomen grey; tuft ochreots-whitish. Forewings

with costa almost straight, apex obtusely pointed; duli rosy, paler towards

termen; veins slenderly outlined with while; a white costal stripe narrow at hase

and apex; cilia whitish. Hindwings and cilia whitish,

North Queensland: Gordonvale, near Cairns; one specimen.

Lioprosopa platymochla n. sp.

mAarupoxaos, broadly striped.

@,25 mm. Head and thorax white. Palpi S; external sturface grey ; internal

white. Antennae fuscotis; in male shortly pectinate. Abdomen ochreous; iuft

white. Forewings with costa straight, apex round-pointed; grey finely sprnkled

with while; a broad white costal siripe from hase nearly to apex; costal edge

grey-sprinkled; a grey linc beneath costal stripe; cilia white; Hindwings and

cilia white,

Queensland: Cunnamulla in October; one specimen,

Lioproesopa transecta 11. sp.

transectus, Cul across,

22 mm, Tiead, antennac. and thorax white. (Palpi missing.) Abdomen

ochreous-grey, towards hase ochreoits-brown. Furewings elongate, costa slightly

arched, apex rounded, termcn obliqucly rounded; white; a dark fuscous sub-

costal stripe from base to apex; a subterminal series of small dark fuscous marks;

a terminal series of minute terminal dors; etlia white. Hindwings and cilia white.

Queensland: Tnjune in February (W. 2. Barnard) ; ane specimeii.

Lioprosora MARCIDA Turn.

Proc, Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1923, 435.

Miles.

LIoPROSOPA MACRORRHYNCHA Turn.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W,, 1923, 456.

Townsville, Milmerran,

LIOPROSOPA BISERIELLA Hmps.

Rom. Mem., 8, 397. Turn., Proc, Littn. Soc. N.S-W., 1923, 455.

Darwin, Cooktown, Duaringa, Jericho, Brisbane, Sherlock River, Mimberley.

LIOPROSOPA DYSEIMATA Turn.

Proc. Roy Soc. Old., 1912, 112; arrepheea Turn., Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1912, 117-

Darwin, Dunk Island, Wyndham, Timor Laut.

LioFROSOPA EURYZONA Meyr.

Ent. Mo. Mag., 19, 256,

South Australia: Wirrabara,

Lioprosopa AcIDNIAS Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 117.

Townsville,

LioprosorA MINIMELLA Hmps.

Rom. Mem., 8, 392; Turn., Proc. Linn Soc, N,S.W,, 1923, 454.

Darwin, Thursday Island, Celebes, Borneo.

LIGPROSOPA CHLOROGRAMMA Meyr.

Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1899, 1,116; rhodosticha Turn., Proc. Linn. Soe. Roy.

Soc. Old., 1903, 116.

Reid River, Duaringa, Brisbane, Tweed Heads, Macpherson Range, Rose-

wood, Toowoomba, Injune, Milmerran, Murrurundi.

Lioprosopa poliosticha u. sp.

ToALWTTEXOS, grey-lined.

@, 22-24 mm. Head and thorax whitish. Palpi 4 and a half; grey-whitish.

Antennae whitish; in male with a stub-basal dorsal notch. Adbomen whitish, basal

half of dorsum ochreous; tuft wlute. Forewings with costa gently arched, apex

obtuse; white lightly sprinkled with minute grey scales; a pale grey median stripe

from base beneath cell to vein 2; cilia white, Hindwings pale grey; cilia white.

North Queensland: Herberton in September ; four specimens.

Lioprosopa rhantista n. sp.

avriszos, sprinkled.

8. 24-26mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi 3; whitish, Antennae whitish;

in male with a sub-basal comb of long hairs. Abdomen ochrcous or fuscous; tuft

white. Forewings with costa rather strongly arched, apex rounded; white very

lightly sprinkled with pale grey except on veins; cilia white, Hindwings grey-

whitish; cilia white.

North Queensland: Lindeman Island in September; two specimens.

LIopRosoPaA LAROPIS Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Old,, 1912, 113.

Darwin.

Lioprosora ARGostTIcna Turn,

Prac. Roy. Sac, Old., 1912, 115.

Darwin, Cape York, Dalby.

LieprosorA PSAMATITFLLA Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1879, 23453 nttens Butl,, Tr. Ent. Soc., 1886, 440; baliora

Turn., Proc, Roy. Soc. Old., 1912, 116.

Cairns, Teak Downs, Brisbane, Dalhy, Sydney, Fernshaw.

LioprosopA ANAEMOPTS Turn,

Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1912, 116,

Darwin.

LioprosovA ABLEPTA Turn.

Proc. Roy, Soc. Old., 1912, 114.

Darwin, Cairns, Dunk Island, Reid River, Nambour, Grisbane, Mount Tam-

horine, Bunya Mountains.

LIOPROSOPA TALIELLA Hmps.

Rom. Mem., 8, 402,

QOucensland.

Lioprosora MinorArts Low.

Trans. Roy, Soc. 5S. Aust,, 1903, 52.

Mackay.

Gen. Anchylobela nov.

dyyvAoBedos, with crooked palpi,

Tongue absent, Palpi moderate, porrect; terminal joint bent downwards.

Antennae in male with sub-basal dorsal notch, followed by a fusiform swelling.

Forewings with cell two-thirds, 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent.

Hindwings with cell one-half, 2 from before angie, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent.

Anchylobela haplodes n. sp.

dxAwdys, simple.

4. 16-17 mm, Ilead and thorax pale ochreous grev, Palpi 2 and a half,

terminal joint short, pointed; pale ochreous-grey, Abdorrwn pale ochreous-grey,

towards base deep ochreous. Forcwings with costa arched, apex rounded, termen

obliquely rounded; pale ochreous-grey with very scanty fuscous sprinkling; a

terminal series of blackish dots; cilia whitish. Mindwings grey-whitish; cilia

whitish.

North Queensland: Kuranda in September (W. B. Barnard), two specimens.

Type in Queensland Museum.

Gen. SaLurrd Rag.

Palpi long, porrect. Antennae in male with sith-basal dorsal notch. Fore-

wings with 4 and 5 stalked. Hindwings with cell less than one-half, 3 and 4

stalked, 5 absent.

SALURTA ADENOCERA Turn.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1923, 458.

Cairns, Cunnamulla.

SALURIA RUGDOESSA ‘Turn.

Proc. Roy, Soc. Qld., 1903, 120; distichella Timps., Proc. Zool. Soc., 1918, 101.

Brocks Creek, Cairns, Townsville.

SALURIA CALLIRHODA Turn.

Proc, Roy. Soc. Old., 1905, 120,

Claudie River, Palm Island, Townsville.

SALURIA LEUCONEURA Turn.

Proc. Roy, Soc. Qld., 1912, 118.

Darwin, Cape York, Innisfail, Townsville, Ayr,

SALURIA TIOLOocHROA. Turn,

Proc. Roy. Sec. N.S.W., 1903, 121.

Duaringa, Emerald, Birchip.

SALURIA PLEUROSTICHA Turn.

Proc, Roy. Soc. Qid., 1903, 115.

Brocks Creek, Townsville.

SALURIA CTENUCHA

Proc. Roy. Soc. Old., 1912, 118.

Darwin, Townsville, Injune.

SALURIA GRAMMIVENA Hmps.

Proc. Zool. Soc., 1918, 99; Turn., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W,, 1923, 459,

North Australia: Alexandria, Sherlock River.

Saluria stereochorda n. sp.

crepeoxopSas, straight-barred.

a, 2%. 24-26 mm. Head white. Palpi in male 3 and a hali, in female 5;

grey, lower edge white. Maxillary palpi in male short, ending in a terminal tuft

of long white hairs; in female filiform; grey. Antennae grey. Thorax white;

bases of tegulae grey. Abdomen in male grey; in female ochreous; in both with

base and tuit white. Forewings with costa straight, apex rounded; white, in

female sprinkled with grey; a straight subcostal grey bar from base to apex m

male, in temale a median suffused bar extending to angle of cell; veins 2 to 5

grey; in male cilia white, but on apex grey; in female grey with white apices.

Hindwings grey; cilia white.

Queensland: Bunya Mountains in September; two specimens.

Saluria pelochrea n. sp-

meAo'ypoos, dusky.

9°. 28 mm. Head, thorax, abdomen, and antennae fuscous. Palpi 3,

ascending; fuscous. Forewings with costa straight, apex rounded; fuscous; a

whitish line sprinkled with fuscous on custa from base to apex,

Tasmania: Burnie in January; one specimen.

SALURIA DESERTELLA ITmps,

Proc. Zool, Soc., 1918, 977; Turn., Proc, Linn. Soc. N,S.W., 1923, 459,

Alexandria, Injune, Carnarvon Range, Charleville, Cunnamulla, Sherlock

River, Wyndham.

SALURIA XIPHOMELA Low.

Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 1903, 52.

Cooktown.

SALURIA NEOTOMELLA Meyr,

Prac. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1879, 226.

Sydney.

SALURIA NEURICELLA Hinps.

Proc. Zool. Sac., 1918, 98.

Peak Downs.

SALURIA LEUCONEURELLA Hmps.

Rom, Mem., 8, 339.

Cooktown.

Gen, EmMatocrra Rag.

Nouv. Gen, 38; Turn., Proc, Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1923, 460, Type, E. leucocincta

Wik., from Archipelago.

EM MALOCERA LONGIRAMELLA IImps.

Rom. Mem., 8, p. 460.

Darwin, Brocks Creek, Townsville, Ayr, Brisbane,

EMMALOCERA LATILIMBELLA Rag.

Bull. Soc. Ent. Fr., 1869, 220; rvadiatelle Hmps., Rom, Mem., 8, 315; rhabdota

Turn., Proc, Roy Soc. Qld. 1903, 122; echrosta Turn., Proc. Roy. Soc.

Qld., 1903, 122.

Cape York to Tweed Heads, Bunya Mour-ains, Stanthorpe, Tabulum, Ben

Lomond, New Guinea.

EMMALOCERA ACHROMATELLA Hmps.

Proc. Zool. Soc., 1918, 126,

Dalby, Charleville, Broken Ill.

Emmalocera crossospila n.sp-

kpowsoanAos, With marginal dots.

@, 24 mm, Head and thorax pale ochreous-grey. Palpi 8; pale grey.

Antennae grey. Abdomen grey-whitish, partly ochreous-linged; tuft whitish,

Forewings with costa gently ached, apex acute, termen straight, oblique; whitish-

ochreous; a blackish discal dot above middle at three-fifths; a terminal series of

blackish dots; cilia white with a grey median line. Hindwings and cilia white.

Queensland: Yelarbon in November ; one specimen.

Gen. Anaresca nov.

gvapecxos, unattractive.

Palpi slender, porrect, Forewings with 2 from wel! before angle, 3 from

angle, 4 and 5 approximated at origin, 8 and 9 stalked, 10 from near end of cell.

Ilindwings with cell open, 3, 4, 5, stalked out of 2, 7 anastomosing with 12,

Anaresca xuthechroa n. sp.

LovPoxpoo's. yellowish,

2. 24mm. Mead and thorax whitish-ochreous. Falpi 2; grey. Antennae

grey. Abdomen ochreous; ttift whitish, Forewings wih costa straight, apex

rounded-reciangular; ochreous; a whitish median line from base expanded

towards termen; a terminal series of blackish dots; cilia whitish with a grey

median line.

North Queensland: Lindeman Island in September; one speciinen,

Gen. Alloea nov,

ahAnos, different.

Labial palpi short, obliquely ascending. Maxillary palpi about half length

of labial. Face with acute conical projection, Forewings with 2 from before

angle, 3 from angle, 4 and 5 staiked, 8 and 9 connate or short-stalked, 10 from

near end of cell, Hindwings with 5 absent, 3 and 4 approximated from angle of

cell, 6 and 7 coincident and anastomusing with 12; cell two-thirds.

Alloea xylochroa n. sp.

évAa ypoos, wood-coloured,

9, 26-28 mm, Head and thorax pale brownish-ochreous, Palpi 2; pale

brownish-ochreous, lower edge white. Antennae grey. Abdomen pale ochreous;

extreme basal aud apical segments white; tuft ochreous. Forewings with costa

slightly arched, apex rounded; pale ochreous with fuscous markings; sometimes

an interrupted sub-basal transverse line; sometimes an interrupted posimedian

blackish line; a white dot beneath two-thirds costa; a dentate subterminal tine,

sometimes interrupted, sometimes broadly suffused anteriorly; followed by a

dentate whitish line; a triangular subapical fuscous spot narrowly prolonged to

near tornus; a terminal series of dark fuscous dots; cilia whitish with a median

fuscous line, Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia whitish,

North-West Australia: Wyndham in January (T. G, Campbell); two

specimens.

Gen. Crecrotra Turn,

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931, 342.

Tongue absent. Labial palpi obliquely ascending, slightly curved upwards;

second jomt with appressed scales, rather slender; terminal joint short, conical,

obtusely pointed. Maxillary palpi large, in male ending in a tuft of long hairs.

Forewings with cell two-thirds, discocellulars incuryed, 2 from angle well

separated from 3, 3 much nearer 4 than 2 at origin, 4 and 5 stalked. Hindwings

with cell one-half, discocellulars incurved, the lower very oblique, 2 from three-

fourths, 3 from angle, connate with 4, 5, which are stalked. Monotypical.

Crrouora coccorpnruors Turn.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,, 1931, 343.

Canberra.

Subiam, PLIYCIPINAF

Key To GENERA

1. Hindwines with 4 and § absent. 2

Hindwings with 4 and 5 net both absent. 4

2 VForewitigs with & and 9 coincident, hindwings with cell open. Braopal hora

Forewings with 8 and 9 stalked, hindwings with cell closed. 3

3. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked. Diale ptu

Forewings with 3 and 4 connate, Abarys

4. Hindwings with 4 present, 5 absent, 5

Hindwings with 4 and 5 present. 26

§. Forewings with 9 absent. 6

Forewings with 8 and 9 stalked. 10

6. Forewings with 5 absent. 7

Forewings with 5 present. s

7. Palpt ascending, Ephesha

Falpi porrect. Plosia

6 Forewings with 8 and 10 stalked. Rehletodes

Forewings with 8 and 10 separate. i)

9, Palpi aseending. Hamocosoma

Palpi porrect. Synty pica

10. Forewings with 5 absent. 11

Foréwings with § present. 16

11. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked. 12

Forewings with 3 and 4 separate. 13

12. Hindwings with cell one-fifth. Crypladia

Hindwings with cell one-third to one-half. Eusopherodes

13. Palpi ascending, recurved. 14

Palpi straight. 15

14. Hindwings with cell one-half. Unadilla

Ilindwings with cell open. Sejthrophanes

15. Palpi swoilen to enclose penicillate maxillary palpi. Ancylodes

Palpi not swollen, maxillary palpi filiform. Crocydoporw

16. Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate or stalked. 17

Hindwings with 3 and 4 separate. Eucanpyla

17. Forewings with 2 and 3 stalked. Mesciniadia

Forewings with 2 and 3 not stalked. 18

18, Hindwings with 2 from well before angle of cell, which is long, 19

Hindwings with 2 from or from near angle of cell, which is short, 21

19. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked. 20

Forewings with 4 and 5 separate. Calerenura

20. VPalpi ascending. ELvsophera

Palpi potrect. Euageta

21. TForewings with 4 and 5 stalked. T'ylechares

Torewings with 4 and 5 separate. 22

22, Forewings with 5 from above angle of cell well separated from 4. Pempelia

Forewings with 4 and 5 approximated at origin. 23

24. Palpi ascending. Trissonca

Palpi porrect. 25

25. Maxillary palpi filiform, Ancylosis

Maxillary palpi in male penicillate. Tinperarsphia

Gen. ErnopHtHoraA Meyr.

Trans. Ent. Soc., 1887, 263.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with cell from near angle, cell open,

3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, 8, 9, 10 stalked. Hindwings with cell open, 4 and 3

absent. Type, Z. phoenicias Meyr.

ERNOPHTHORA FHOENICIAS Meyr.

Trans. Ent. Soc., 1887, 263.

Queensland.

ERNOPHTHORA MILICHUA Turn,

Proc. Linn, Soc, N.S.W., 1931, 342.

Yeppoon, Macpherson Range.

Gen. Diacervra Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc, Qld., 1912, 119.

Pulpt ascending, recurved. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, & and 9

coincident. Hindwings with cell closed, 4 and 5 absent. Type, D. imicrepolia

Turn.

Dracerta MicroroLiA Turn.

Proc, Roy. Soc. Old., 1912, 119.

Cairns, Brisbane.

Gen, Abarys nov.

ifaprs, light.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with 3 and 4 connate, 5 ahsent, 8 and 9

stalked. Hindwings with cell closed, 3 and 4 absent, 2 and 5 widely separate,

Abarys amaurodes n. sp.

dpavpwdns, Obscure.

@, 16mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax fuscous. Forewings narrow,

posteriorly dilated, apex round-pointed, termen straight, oblique; grey lightly

sprinkled with fuscous; markings dark fuscous; an outwardly oblique fascia at

two-fifths, paler in centre; a transverse subcostal mark at two-thirds; a terminal

suffusion and cilia fuscous. Hindwings and cilia grey.

Queensland: Brisbane in September; one specimen,

Gen. EpHestia Gn.

Fur. Micro., 81.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with 5 absent, 9 absent. Uindwings

with cell nearly reaching middle, 3 and 4 closely approximated or stalked, 5 absent.

Type &, elutella Ub.

EpursriA ELUTELLA Ib,

Meyr. Rev. Hdbk. Brit. Lep., 373.

Sydney, Gishorne, Melbourne.

EPOESTIA VICULELLA Barrett

Meyr. Rey. Iidbk. Brit. Lep., 388.

Darwin, Cairns, Gladstone, Brisbane, Dalby, Brunswick Heads, Deloraine.

South Australia: Kadina, Africa. Europe. America.

Ephestia pelopis n. sp.

medwrus, dusky.

8. 19 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax greyish-hbrown. Antennae grey.

(Abdometi missing.) Forewings with costa straight to middle, thence arched,

apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, moderately oblique; greyish-brown ;

a faint stffused transverse line at two-fifths; a similar but narrower line from

beneath two-thirds costa oblique to mid-dorsum; a terminal serics of minute

fuscous dots; cilia pale grey. Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia grey-whitish, apices

whitish; cell one-fourth.

North Queensland; Kuranda in Qctober (T°, P. Dodd) ; one specimen,

EPHESTIA CAUTELLA WIk.

Meyr. Rey. Hdbk. Brit. Lep., 388.

Darwin, Atherton, Lindeman Island, Townsville, Maryborough, Brisbane,

Rirchip, Kangaroo Island, Perth.

EPHSSTIA KUELNIELLA Zel,

Meyr. Rev. Hdbk. Brit. Lep.. 388.

Brisbane, Dunkeld, Launceston, Adelaide, Africa. Europe, America,

Gen, Peapta Gn.

Meyr. Rey. Hdbk. Brit. Lep., 386.

Palpi porrect, Forewings 2 and 3 sometimes stalk, 5 absent, 9 absent. Hlaind-

wings cell nearly reaching middle, 3 and 4 connate, 5 absent. Type, P. mfer-

punctella Gn.

PLGDIA INTERPUNCTELLA Gn.

Meyr. Rev. Wdbk. Brit. Lep., 386.

Mackay, Brisbane, Toowoomba, Stanthorpe, Milmerran, Charleville, Sydney,

Birchip, Adelaide, Perth.

Gen, Ecpurroves Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc, Qid., 1903, 124.

Palpi ascending, recurved, Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 9 absent, $ and

10 stalked. Windwings with cell one-half, 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 stalked,

S absent, Type, E. psepheniés Turn Enchryphodes Turn., Proc. Roy, Soc. Qld.,

1912, 123, is a synonym.

Ecrhevropes PSEPHENTIAS Turn,

Proc, Roy. Soc. Old., 1903, 125.

Brisbane, Lismore.

Eceneropns Agnicra Turn,

Proc. Roy. Sac. Old., 1912, 120. FE. aenictopa Turn,, Pree. Roy. Soc. Qld, is a

synonym.

Cairns, Atherton, Palm Island, Darwin.

Ecsietoprs ororrina Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Qls., 1912, 120,

Darwin.

Gen. Homorosoma Curt.

Ent. Mag., 1, 190; Himps. Moths Ind., 4, 66.

Palpi, ascending, recurved. Forewings with 4 and 5 siaked, 9 absent. Tlind-

wings with cell short, 3 and 4 approximated or conrate, 5 ahsent. Type,

II. smucila Fab., from Eurape.

HomorosomMaA VAGELLA Zel.

Isis, 1848, 863. Meyr. Proc. Linn, Soc, N.S.W., 1878, 214,

Cairns to Victoria, Ilughenden, Cunnamulla, Broken Lill, Birchip, Adelaide,

Western Australia,

HomorosoMA FORNACELLA Meyr,

Frac. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., [880, 219.

Cairns, Macpherson Range, Ben Lomond, Ebor, Sydney, Tasmania.

Homoeosoma centresticha n. sp.

xevrpoattxos, With central line,

¢@, 2. 18-20 mm. Head and thorax grey, Palpi and antennae fuscons.

Abdomen grey; tuft whitish. Vorewings narrow, costa straight, apex pointed;

grey; markings dark fuscous; a line from hase lo end of cell, connected by an

inwardly obligtic line with one-third costa; a white subcostal line from base to

end of cell; Lwo fuscous dots placed transversely at enc of cell; some minute

terminal dots; cilia whitish. Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Brisbane in October; Bunya Mountains in February. New

South Wales: Murrurandi in March. Three specimens.

Homocosoma rhapta n. sp.

farros, embroidered,

2, 18-20 inm. Ifead grey; face white. Palpi grey; second joint with post-

imedian and terminal fuscous bars. Antennae pale grey. Abdomen grey, towards

base dark fuscous. Forewings with costa nearly straight, apex obtuse; grey with

some fuscous sprinkling; markings dark fuscous; a triangular spot on base of

costa; a narrow transverse Fascia at two-fifths. becoming broader towards termen;

a uiinitte subcostal dot at two-thirds; a subterminal tine obtusely angled in niiddle

and agai between this and dorsum, edged posteriorly whitish; a terminal series

of dots; cilia grey, Hindwings pale grey; cilia whitish with stib-basal grey line.

Queensland: Aramac in June; Stanthorpe in November from larya ou

Acacia (H. Jarvis).

Homoeosoma euryleuca n. sp.

pvdevans, broadly white,

é, 17 mm, Head fuseotis-browh. Palpt exceeding vertex; brown.

Antennae grey. Abdomen whitish-ochreous; tuft whitish. Torewings with costa

slightly arched, apex pointed; brownisl-grey; a white costal stripe from base,

gradua'fy increasing in breadth tu middle, thence broad to terinen; two minute

fusevus dots placed transversely at two-thirds; cilia white. Mindwings whitish-

erey ; cilia white.

North Queensland: Cape York in October (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Homocosoma contracta nu. sp.

conlractis, narrow.

9. 17 mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi fuscous, upper edge whitish.

Antennae fuscous. Abdomen dark fitscous, towards apex grey: tuft ochreows-

whitish. Forewings narrow, slightly dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched,

apex obtuse, termen straight, oblique; fuscous eprinkled with white; a marrow

white line above middle from one-fifth to three-fifths: a dark fuscous median

line thretigh cell; suffused fiscous dots above dorsum at one-sixth and one-third;

a slender oblique subterminal line parallel to termen; cilia grey. Llindwings pale

grey; cilia white with faint grey sub-basal line,

New South Wales: Murrurundi in February (Dr. B. L. Middleton); one

specimen.

Homozosema pelosticta n. sp.

weAoczikros, dusky-spotted.

8, 9. 12-16 mm, Ilead, thorax, and abdomen grey. Palpi and antetmae

fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa almost straight, apex obtuse; grey with a few

minute fiscous dots; one median and sub-basal; another, sometimes double, at

end of cell; several in subterminal area; cilia white, Hindwings grey-whitish;

cilia white.

Queensland: Biloela (footplant Serghunr), in October. New Soanth Wales:

Ehor in December. Three specimens.

Homoescsoma ochrepasta n. sp.

ayparattos, pale-sprinkled,

?- 16 mm. Head, antennac, thorax, and abdomen grey-whitish. Palpi

grey, extreme base and apex white. Forewings narrow, costa nearly straight,

apex obtuse; whitish finely sprinkled with pale grcy; a terminal series of minute

terminal dots; cilia grey-whitish. Uhudwings and cilia white.

North Queensland: iSuranda, iin May (F. TP. Dodd); one specimen,

Homoecsoma atechna n. sp.

Greyvos, simple,

9. 21mm. Head, thorax, and abfomen grey. Palpi and anteunae fuscous.

Forewings with costa slightly arched. apex rounded; grey-whitish; cilia grey-

whitish. Ulndwings and cilia grey-whitisty,

Tasmania: Derwent Bridge, in Janiary; two specimens.

flomosesowa sTENOorIs Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Old., 1903, 126,

Birchip,

Homotosoma MELANoSTIcTA Low.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1903, 58.

Cairns, Atherton, Brisbane, Mount Tamborine, Toowoomba, Carnaryon

Range, Sydney.

Homoeosoma lechrioserma n. sp.

Aexploowios, obliquely marked.

&. 24mm. Tlead, palpi. and thorax grey. (Antennae missing.) Abdomen

pale ochreous-grey, towards apex whitish, Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa

straight, apex obtusely pointed; fuscotis densely sprinkled with white; a basal

fuscous suffusion edged posteriorly hy a slender oblique line from costa near

base to one-third dorsum, and itself edged porteriorly by a [uscous line; a fuscous

subcostal dot at three-fifths; a slender obliqtie white line from costa near apex

to three-fourths dorsum, edged anteriorly by a fuscous line; cilia grey-whitish

sprinkled with white, Hindwings and cilia whitish.

Queensland: Tweed Heads, in September; one specinien,

Homorosoma PARINARIA Turn.

Proc. Ruy: Soc, Old., 1903, 126.

Cairns, Eungella, Tweed Heads, Mount Tamborine, Macpherson Range,

Toowoomba, Uunya Mountaims, Stanthorpe, Lismore, Ebor, Sydney, Strahan,

New Zealand.

Gen, Sywrypics Turn,

Proc, Linn, Soc, N,S.W., 44.

Palpi long, porrect. Forewings with 4 and 3 absent, 9 absent. TTindwings

with 3 and 4 scparate, 5 absent. Type S. aleurades Turn.

SYNTYPICA ALEURODES Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1904, 45.

Birchip.

Gen, Cryprania Tarn.

Proc. Roy. Soe. Old, 121. Type, C. ruthobela Turn.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent, & and

9 stalked. Ilindwings with ce!l short (one-fifth), 5 absent. Type, C. authobela

Turn.

CRYPTADIA XUTHOBELA ‘Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc, Old., 1912, 121.

Cairns.

Gen, Duzorreranes Hrips.

J. Bontbay Soc., 1897, 475; Rom. Mem., 8, 79.

Palpit short, ascending, recurved. Vorewings with 3 and 4 connate or

stalked, 5 absent, 8 and 9 stalked. Uindwings with cell one-third to one-half,

2 front before angle, 3 and 4 approximated, connate, or stalked from angle,

5 absent. ype, FE. albicans Lmps.

Euzorneronrs ALaicAns Hmps.

J. Bombay Soc., 1897, 475.

15-16 mm. JTlead and thorax ochreous-whitish (inged with grey. Palpi,

antennae, and abdomen grey. Forewings elongatetriangular, costa slightly

arched, termen nearly straight, obhaue; whitish fehtly sprinkled with Fusecous;

markings fuscous; a white line from one-third costa to cne-third dorsum cdged

fuscous posteriorly; a slightly waved white subterminal line; cilia white. Hind-

wines grey-whitish ; cilia white.

For carly stages see Proc, Roy. Soc. Old., 1903, 127.

Townsville, Brisbane, Brunswick Heads, Ceylon, India.

Euzophcrodes concinella n. sp.

cancinnellns, neat.

g. 16mm, Ilead, palpi, thorax and abdomen whitisl-ochreous. Antennae

and ahdomen grey. Dorewings tiarrow, cosia gently arched, apex subrectangular,

termen straight, slightly ob liques ochreous-whittsh slightly sprinkled with fuscous ;

markings dark fuscous; basal dats on costa and dorsum al ‘most necting; an oval

dot on fold at one-igurth; three minute dots in a transyerse line at one-third; a

stibeostal dot at three-fiiths with anatiter slightly beneath and beyond; a sub

terminal line; cilia ochreous-whitish, IJindswings and cilia grey.

Cape York in October (W. B. Barnard) ; one specimen.

Evzopurropes Avtocrossa Low.

Tras. Roy. Soc. S&. Aust., 1903, 57.

Mackay.

Eezoriegoprs srapertinA Turt,

Prac, Roy. Soc. Qid., 1912, 121,

Darwitt.

Euzopresonrs Leprocosma Turn.

Proc. Koy. Soc. Qld., 1903, 127; paliocruna Low., Trans. Roy. Suc. S. Aust.,

1905, 104.

Townsville, Milmerran, Broken Hill,

Eucopherodes homophaea nu. sp.

tpopaws, uniformly dusky.

@,. Head and thorax fuscoug. Palpi pale brownish. Abdomen grey; tuft

erey-whitish. Forewings narrow, slightly dilated posteriorly, costa gently

arched, apex roundel; fuscous-brewn ; markings obscure, Tuscous; an outwardly

curved subterminal kine of dots nor reaching costa; some terminal dots; cilia

erev. Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

Nurth Queensland: Kuranda, in March (F. P. Dodd); one specimen,

Euzopherodes homecapna n. sp.

Spoxarvos, unitormly dark.

S. 16mm, Ilead, palpi, antennae, thorax, and abdomen fuscous, Tore-

wings natrow, costa sttaight, apex rounded; dark ftuseous; cilia fuseons. TTind-

witlgs with cell open, 3 and 4 stalked to near termen; grey, cilia grey.

“Oucens! and: Cunnamulla, in October; one specimen,

Evzopherodes schematica n. sp.

eyypaticas, well designed,

6. %. 15-16 mm. Head, thorax, and abdomen fuscous; face sometimes

partly white, Palpi fuscous., base and a median ring on second joint white

Antennae fuscous. Forewings narrow, costa straight, apes subrectangular; white

with dark fuscous markings; an outwardly oblique basal fascia; a second fascia

fram one-fourth costa to inid-dorstim; a dot beneath inideesta; an oblique line

from apex fo second fascia; a subterminal line followed hy some siffusion; a

terminal series of minute dots; cilia grev. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

North Queensland: Cape York, m November (W. G. Barnard); five

specimens. Type in Queensland Museum.

Euzopherodes phaulopa n. sp.

davdwres, mean-looking.

@, 26 mm. Head, antennae, thorax, and abdomen grey; pectus white.

Palpi fuscous. Forewings elongate, cosia gently arched, apex rounded, termen

obliquely rounded; pale grey sprinkled with fuscous; a transverse fuscous line

at one-fourth, angled inwards beneath costa, between this and dorsum finely

dentate; some terminal dots; cilia grey. Hindwings with ccll one-fourth;

grey-whilish; cilia whitish.

New South Wales: Scone, in September (H. T. Nicholas); one specimen.

Gen. Scythrophanes nov.

cxrOpodas, gloomy,

Palpi ascending, rectirved, Vorewings with 3 anc 4 separate, 5 absent,

8 and 9 stalked, Hindwings with cell open, 5 absent. Type, U. apatelia Turn.

ScvrHROPmuaAnks AvATELLA Turn.

Proc, Roy. Soe. Qld., 904, 45.

Brisbane.

Sc¥YTHROPOANES TRISsOMITA Tisrn,

Proc, Roy. Soc. Qld., 1912, 122.

Cairns.

ScYTHROPHANES ATECMARTA Turn,

Proc. Ray. Soc. Old., 1912, 122.

Cairns.

Gen. Usapitta Hulst.

Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc, 1890, 197.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Maxillary palpr filiform, Forewings with 3 and

4 separate. 5 absent, 8 and 9 stalked. Hindwings with cell one-half, 3 and 4

stalked, 5 absent.

LUNADILLA DISTICHELLA Meyr.

Prac. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1878, 215.

Brisbane to Gisborne, Glen Innes, Tasmania,

Gen. ANcyLones Rag.

Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr., 1887, 250.

Palpi straight, ascending, exeeeding vertex; second and terminal joints

strongly dilated, apex obtuse. Maxillary palpi of male ending in a pencil of long

hairs. Antennae in male with scape diated, base of shaft strongly dilated

antero-postetiorly. Forewings with 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 from ungle,

§ absent, Hindwings with 3 and 4 connate, 5 absent.

ANCYLODES PENICILLATA Turn.

Troc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1907, 46.

Murtva.

Gen, Eveamryta Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1882, 159.

Palpi moderate, porrect. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 7 and 8 stalked-

Hindwings with 3 and 4 approximated at orig'n, 5 absent. Type, E. ethetella

Mevr.

EUCAMPYLA ETHEIELLA Meyr.

Proc. Linh, Soc. N.S.W., 1882, 171,

Sydney.

Gen, Crocyporora Meyr,

Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1882, 158. Type, C. cinigerella Meyr.

Palpi long, porrect. Maxillary palpi filiform, Forewings with 2 from

before angle, 3 and 4 closely approximated from angle, 5 absent, 8 and 9 stalked.

Hindwings with 2 froin before angle, 3 and 4 connate, 5 absent; cell some-

times open,

CRocYDOPORA CINIGERELLA WIk,

35, 1719; stenopterella Meyr., Proc, Linn, Sac, N.S.W., 1878, 200.

Atherton, Mackay, Duaringa to Victoria, Glen Innes, Charleville, Ebor,

Broken Hill, Birchip, Strahan, Mount Lofty, Western Australia, Norfolk Island,

New Zealand.

Gen. MamsrrntrADLA

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with 2 and 3 stalked, 4 and 5 stalked,

8, 9, 10 stalked. Tlindwings with 2 irom near angle, 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent.

Iam unable to give the origin of this name, which I recetved from Sir Geo.

Hampson.

MESEINIADIA INFRACTALIS Wie.

30, 958.

12-13 mm. IJleatl, palpi, antennae, thorax, and abdomen ochreous-whitish.

Forewings narrow, costa straight, apex obtuse, termen obliquely rovinded;

achreous-whitish with fuscous markings; a dot on base of costa; a short dorsal

streak from base; a longer streak ou fold; a slender oblique streak fram two-

fifths costa, sometimes connected with a longitudinal streak above middie; some-

times another streak below middle; both ending in a large terminal suffusion;

cilia fuscous. Hindwings grey-whitish; cilia whitish.

North Queensland: Cairns, Innisfail.

Gen, EuzopHera Zel.

Trans. Ent. Soc., 1867, 453.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 8 and 9 stalied.

Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent. Type, £. biviella Zel., from Europe.

EuzoruerkA SUBARCUELLA Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W,, 1878, 211,

Darwin, Cape York to Victoria, Glen Innes, Injune, Adavale, Sca Lake.

Mount Lofty, Ardrossan, Perth,

EvuzorHera HOLOPHRAGMA Meyr,

Trans. Ent, Soe., 1887, 255.

Carnarvon.

Euzophera albicosta n, sp,

albicastus, with white costa.

8, @. 1822 mm. Head fuscous with narrow lateral margins. Palpi

fuscous, basal half white. Antennae aud thorax fuscous. Abdomen grey; apices

of segments and tuft white. Vorewings narrow, costa straight, apex rounded;

grey; a white costal line from base to near apex; more or less broadly suffused

and sprinkled with grey; a transverse tuscous fascia at one-third; an oblique

fascia from apex to three-fourths dorsum, edged with white posteriorly; cilia

grey. Hindwitigs and cilia pale gtey.

Western Australia: Denmark in March;, Yanchep in September; four

specimens

Euzophera flavicosta n. sp.

flavicestus, with yellow costa.

@, 48-20 mm, Head, palpi, thorax and abdomen brown, Antennae fus-

cous. Vorewings with costa straight, apex rounded, termen oliquely rounded;

fuscous-brown; a broad yellowish costal line from base to near apex, interrupted

by a yellowish dot at three-fiiths; a slender slightly dentate subterminal line;

terminal edge yellowish interrupted by a series of Tuscous dots; cilia grey. Hind-

wings grey-whitish; terminal edge fuscous; cilia grey-whilish with a sub-

basal grey line.

North Queensland: Cape York in October (W. B. Barnard); four speci-

mens. Type in Queensland Museum,

Euzopheta ischnopa 11. ap.

toxreros, thin,

?. 18mm. Head and thorax dark fuscous. Palpi much excceding vertex;

dark fuscous, extreme base whitish. (Antennae missing,) Abdomen ochreéotis;

tuft paler. Forewings narrow, slightly dilated posteriorly, costa gently arched,

apex obtuse; fuscous-brawn; three fuscaus dots in cell and two placed trans-

versely at its end; cilia fuseous. Ulindwings pale grey; cilia grey-whitish with

a faint sub-basal grey line,

North Queensland: Cape York in October (W. B, Barnard): one specimen,

Euzophera arrhythmopis i. sp.

dppufluoms, disorderly.

@, 12-14mm, Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax grey. Abdometi fuscous;

tuft whitish. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa straight to three-fourths, thence

ached, apex rounded ; grey; an outwardly curved whitish line froni one-third costa

to mid-dorsum preceded by some luscous suffusion; a fine whitish subterminal

line indented in middle, preceded by a fuscous costal dot; cilia grey, Lindwings

and cilia grey.

North Queensland: Cairns in December. Queensland: Redland Bay, near

Brisbane, in November. Two specimens.

Gen. Euageta nov,

elayyros, clear bright.

Palpi long, porrect. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 8 and 9 stalked. Hind-

wings with cell long, 2 from before angle, 3 and 4 stalked to near termen,

5 absent. Distinguished from Eusophera by the porrect palpi.

Euageta arestodes n-sp-

dpeotwdys, pleasing.

8, @. 14-16 mm. Head and thorax pale fuscous. Palpi 4; grey, base

beneath while, Antennae and abdomen grey. Lorewings with costa straight,

apex rounded, termen oblique; pale fuscous; a white costal stripe from near base

to near apes, broad in middle, narrow at each end; costal edge pale fuscous;

a slender or suffused white subterminal line; sume minute terminal dark fuscous

dots; cilia white. Hindwings grey-whitish: cilia white.

Queensland: ITnjune in April (W. BR. Barnard); two specimens. Type in

Queensland Museum.

Gen. CAtTErREMNA Meyr,

Tidbk. Brit Lep., 375.

Palpi ascending, recutved, Vorcwings with 4 and 5 separate, 8 and 9 stalked.

Hindwings with 3 and 4 stalked, 3 absent. Type, C. terebella Zmelk., from

Europe.

CATEREMNA MICRODOXA Meyr,

Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1820, 231,

Darwin, Duaringa, Launceston.

CATEREMNA ATERPNES Turn,

Proc. Roy. Soe, Qld., 1912, 125.

Darwin,

CATEREMNA SEMIFICTILIS Turn.

Trans. Roy. Soc. Qld., 1912, 125,

Stradbroke Island.

CATEREMNA QUADRIGUTTELLA Wik.

35, 1,711.

13-18 mm. Uead, palpi, and thorax fuscous, Antennae grey. Abdomen

grey, bases of segments sometimes fuscous. Forewings rather narrow, posteriorly

dilated, costa almost straight, apex obtusc, termen almost straight, slightly

oblique; white with fuscous markings; a hread oblique bar from: base of costa

to dorsum, a bar from one-third costa to mid-dorsum, where it jomms a latge

suffusion broadening to termen and connected to apex; two blackish dots placed

transversely in dise at two-thirds; a slender subterminal line edged posteriorly

white followed by some grey suffusion, a terminal series of blackish dots; cilia

grey-whitish. Hindwings grey; cilia whitish,

Darwin, Cape York to Lismore, Milmerran, Mount Lofty, Western Australia.

Cateremia ¢ataxutha n. sp,

karaéoulos, tawny posteriorly.

&, 9, 14-16 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, and thorax ercy. Abdomen

fuscous: apices of segments and tult pale ochreous. |.egs fuseaus with whitish

tings; posterior tibiae whitish. Forewings with costa moderately arched, apex

round-pointed; termen straight, slightly oblique; grey-whitish sprinkled with

fuscous} a slender median dark fuscous line forning the anterior margin of a

broad transverse fuscous fascia and preceded hy a fuscous dorsal spot; a slender

wavy Tuscous subterminal line ellged poterierly with whitish; aw interrupted

fuscous subterminal line; cilia grey, bases whitish, Mindwings pale ochreous;

cilia grey-whitish,

North Australia: Darwit in December. Queensland: Toowoomba in

October. Ten specimens.

Cateremna mediolinea n. sp.

mnediolineus, with central line.

9, 16-18 mm. Ilead. palpi, thorax, and abdomen white. Antennae grey.

Forewings narrow at base, costa gently arched. apex ebttse, termion shghtly

rounded, moderately oblique; pale brownish-yeliow; a metian white line from

base of costa to termen above mindte, its margins sprink’ed with blackish above

and beneailt; an obscure white subdarsal line sprinkled with blackish; a narrow

grey-whitish terminal fascia sprinkled and margined with blackish; cilla grey-

whitish. Hindwings and cilia grey.

North Queensland: Cape York in April and June (W. 5, Barnard); two

specimens, Type in Queensiand Museum.

Cateremna leptostila ni ep,

AerrutriAas, Narrow- winged.

2, 14 mm, Head, palpi. thorax, and abdamen fuseous, Antennae grey.

Forewings narrow, dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex obteec, termen

a 2 > y ’ Pp

oblique; whitish sprinkled with fuscous; markings fuscous; a line from base of

costa to two-thirds dorsum; a postmedian square uniting this with costa; a very

fine line from costa near apex to two-thirds dorsum; some terminal suffusion;

a terminal series of dots; cilia {uscous. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

New South Wales: Broken Hill in March; one specimen.

CATEREMNA LEUCARMA Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W., 1880, 230.

Brisbane, Cunnamulla, Sydney, Birchip.

CATEREMNA ALBICOsTALIS Luc.

Proc, Roy. Soc. Qld., 1891, 93.

Cairns, Atherton, Townsville, Mackay, Bundaberg, Brisbane, Stradbroke

Island, Lismore.

CATEREMNA METALLOPA I.ow,

Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 1898, 46.

Mackay.

Cateremna melanomita n. sp.

peAayopcros, With blackish lines.

$. 18mm. Head and thorax grey. Palpi grey; second joint with post-

median whitish ring. Antennae grey. Abdomen fuseous; extreme base of

dorsum and tuft whitish. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched,

apex rectangular, termen almost straight, slightly oblique; grey densely sprinkled

with fuscous to middle, thence slightly; a sinuate blackish line from midcosta to

mid-dorsuin; a similar doubly sinuate subterminal line; a terminal series of

blackish dots; cilia grey Huindwings and cilia grey.

North Queensland: Mackay in October; one specimen.

CATEREMNA PAMPHAES Tutn,

Proc, Roy. Soc. Qld., 1904, 47.

Darwin, Townsville.

CATEREMNA HNEMIBAPHES Turn.

Proc. Roy. Soc. QOld., 1904, 47.

Sea Lake, Hobart, Quairading, Perth,

CATEREMNA ATOoDEcTA Turn,

Proc. Roy. Soe. Qid., 1903, 129,

Brisbane, Scone, Sydney.

CATEREMNA THERMOCHEOA Low.

Trans. Roy. Soe, S. Aust., 1896, 160.

Darwin, Brishane, Cardiit, W. Aust.

CATEREMNA ODONTOSEMA Turn.

Proce. Roy. Soc, Qld., 1912, 126,

Cairns, Imbil.

Gen. Tynocuares Meyr.

Ent. Mo. Mag., 1883, 256.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 8 and 9 stalked.

Hindwings with cell short (one-fifth to one-fourth), 2 from near angle, 3 and

4 stalked, 5 from angle.

TYLOCHARES COSMIELLA Meyr.

Proc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W., 1878, 212.

Duaringa, Brisbane, Sydney, Moruya, Broken Hill, Melbourne, Dirchip,

Murtoa, Wirrabara, Mount Liebig, Perth, Rottnest Island.

Tylochares epaxia n. sp.

eraéeos, handsome.

2. 23mm. Head brown; face whitish Palni and antennae grey, Thorax

grey; patagia whitish, Abdomen ochreous with a series of central inscous dats.

Forewmgs with costa almost straight, apex subrectangular, termen slightly

rounded, scarcely oblique; grey, a well-marked straight white sub-basal

line, followed by a broad fuscous transverse fascia suffused posteriarly; an out-

wardly curved stender whitish subterminzl line, indented beneath costa and above

dorsum, edged posteriorly by a series of confluent fuscous dots, an interrtipted

fuscous terminal line preceded by whitish suffusion; cilia grey, apices whitish.

Hindwings bright ochreous; cilia grey, apices white,

North Queensland: Lake Darrine, Atherton Tableland, in January (E. J.

Dumigan) ; one specimen.

Tylchares prays n. sp.

murs, gertle.

©. 24 mm. Head, antennae, and thorax grey, Paipi grey; apiees of second

and terminal joints white. Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa rather strongly

arched, apex obtitse, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; grey sprinkled

with whitish; a fuscous basal patch containing an oblique outwardly curved

hlackisii transverse line; closely following this a slender outwardly ciirved grey

line irom one-fourth costa to two-niths dorsum; a grey median dot above middie

and another heneath two-thirds costa; a sufltised grey spot above three-fifths

dorstim; a broadly suffused grey submarginal line not reaching turnus; a terminal

series of grey or fuscous clots; cilia grey; apices white. Hindwings pale grey;

cilia white with a grey median line.

QOucensland: Bunya Mountains in January; Stanthorpe in March. Two

specimens.

TYLOCHARES SscertucHa Turn,

Proc. Roy. Soc. Qid., 1903, 130,

Stanthorpe, Gisborne.

Tyjochares gypsotypa n. sp.

Anforuros, with white marking,

8, 2. 18-21 mm. Lead, antennae, and thorax grey. Valpi long, much

exceeding vertex, in male 2 and a hali, in iemale +; grey, towards base white.

Abdomen ochreous, towards base grey, Torewings narrow, costa slightly arched,

apex obtuse, termen obliquely ronnded; grey; a broad white stripe, sprinkled with

grey, narrow ac cach end, from base to apex; sometimes a setics of munute fuscous

terminal dots; cilia grey. Tlindwings pale grey with darker terminal lime; cilia

white.

North Queensland: Cape York in October and Noyeniber (\W. Ji. Barnard) ;

two specimens, Type in Queensland Museum.

Tylocheres anaxia n. sp.

dvaévos, of little worth.

2, 9. 16-17 mm. Head, palpi, antennae, thorax, and abdomen erey.

Forewings dilated posteriorly, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen slightly

oblique; grey; a fine whitish transverse line at one-third, angled outwards in

middle, preceded and followed by more or less fuscous suffusion; short fuscous

streaks On veins i terminal area; a terminal series of fuscous dots; cilia grey-

whitish. Hindwings and cilia grey-whitish,

North Queensland: Cape York in November, Dunk Island in May; three

specimens,

Tylochares paucinotata n, sp.

panctotatus, scantily marked.

2. 16 mm, THead and thorax fuscous-brown; face pale brownish.

Anteunae fuscons, (Abdomen missing.) Forewings narrow, dilaled posteriorly,

apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; greyish-brown with some fuscous dots;

three placed transversely al one-third; a median dot; an outwardly curved stib-

termina! line of dots; cilia grey, Hindwings grey-whitisl ; cilia whitish with a

faint sub-basal grey line,

Cape York in Octoher (W. B. Barnard); one specinien,

TYLOcHARES EREMONOMA Turn,

Proc, Ray, Soc, Qld., 1912, 125,

Adavale,

TYLOCHARES PROLEUCA Low.

Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 1903, 58.

Srisbane, Deniliquin,

TYLOCHARES HEMICHUIONEA Turn.

Proc. Rov, Soe. Old., 1912, 226,

Caloundra, Brisbane,

Tylochares chicnopleura n- sp.

xlovorAevpas. With snow-white costa,

é, @. 16-20 mm. Tlead.palpi, antennac, anc} thorax fuscous. Abdomen

pale grey. Forewings narrow, costa straight, apex rounded; fuscous; a snaw-

white costal stripe fram near base to near apex; costal edge fuscous: cilia white,

on tarnus grey, but sumetimes wholly grey. Hindwings and cilia pale grey.

(Jueensland: Watwick in December, from laryae feeding in Acacia galls;

two speciniens,

Tylochares endophaga nz. sp,

‘vaadayos, feeding internally.

@. 21 mm. Head, palpi, and antennae grey. Palpi not excceding vertex;

grey, towards base white. Abdomen with basal half ocfireous, terminal half

erey, Forewings with costa slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen strajelit,

not oblique; grey ; a white stripe, sprinkled with grey, from base to near apex; cilia

srev. Ilindwings grey wlutish; cilia whitish.

Queensland: Bribie Island, near Culoundra, in October; one specimen froin

larya feeding in an coca gall.

Tylochates pastopleura n. sp.

martcaTAcupes, With eprinkled costa,

2, 9. 15-16 mm. Head, antennac, and thorax grey, Palpi fuscous.

Abdonicn whitish, in femate slightly orhreous-tinged. Forewings narrow, costa

slightly ached, apex rounded; grey; a costal stripe from base to apex, over one-

third breadth of wing, sprinkled’ with fuscous; a terminal series of minute fus-

cous dots; cilia whitish cr grey-whitish, Hindwings with cell one-third ; grey-

whitish; cilia whitish,

North Queensland: Cape Yorly in Ociober and November (W. B. Barnard) ;

two specinens. Type in Queensland Museum.

TYLOCHARES GONIOSTICHA Tt,

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1915, 803.

Musgrave Range.

Gen. PemeeitiA Hb.

Verz., 369.

Palpi ascending, recurved. Forewings with 2 from well above angle, 5

separate, 8 and 9 stalked. Hindwings with cell short (one-fifth), 2 from angle,

3 and 4 stalked, 5 absent.

arate OPIMELLA Meyr.

Proc. Roy. Sac. N.S.\W., 1878, 20

Brisbane, Mount Tamborine, Siasithose: Miles. Miulmerran.

rend an CANILINEA Meyr.

Proc. Linn, Suc, N.S.W., 1878, 209,

Brisbane, Toowuonbhe, Carnarvon Rance, Marrurundi, Sydney, Goulburn.

Eatoomka.

PEMPELIA HEMICIILAENA Meyr,

Trans. Ent. Soc., 1887, 260,

Victoria,

PEMPELIA MicRocosMA Low.

Tratis. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1893, 166.

Gen, Trissonca Meyr.

Proce. Linn. Soc. N-S.W., 1882, 138.

Paipi ascendiig, tectrved. Norewings with 5 separate, approximated at

origin, § and 9 staked. Hindwings with ceil shorl (one-fifth to one-third), 2

from angle, 3 and 4 statked, 5 absent.

Trissonca clytepa in sp.

kAuromos, Noble.

$, 9. 14-17 mm. Head fuscous; lower edge of face whitish. Palpi and

thorax fuscous. Antennae grey. Abdomen ochreous. Tees fuscous with whitish

rings; SBOSHAEAE pair whit-sh. Fores NY

igh:

rs tather narrow. posteriorly dilated, costa

d, termen t scareery obliqee; a ftuseois

led 1 r blackish Tne posteriorly from two-fifths costa to

mid- dorsum, atigied outwards beneath costa and again above muddle; disc bevond

tins grey or partly grey-w hitish, with some fusseus adiwixttire; an outwardly

curved ilackish subterminal tine; a sleriicr blackish submargival line preeeced

Ly more of less white sulfusion; cilia prey, apices whitish,

North Queensland: Kuranda (f. P. Dodd) ; ; two specimens.

yates A finuted by a sleiiie

TRISSONCA TANTUEMIS Meyr.

Trans. Ent. Soc., LE97, ry epiterpies Tura., Pros. Rov. Soe, Old., 104, 42

Darwin, Cai thestot, Towisyille, Bowen, Paingcta, Yeppoon, Hfshariey

Toow bomba, C Cc

SSUNCA Menperitonsa Law.

Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Say 1903, 37.

Cooktawn, Towrsville, Nambour, Priskanc, Tweed Heads,

TRIESONCA MESACTELLA Meyr,

Proe. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1879, 225.

Sydney

Gen. IlyroceypHta Rag.

Bul. Soc. Mnt. Fr, 1890, 119.

Paipi long, porrect, Maxillary palpi in male penicillate. Forewings with

4and 5 st alleed. 8 and 9 stalked. Tiindwings with cell short, 2 from angle, 3 and

4 stalked, 5 absent.

Hypogryphia amictodes n. sp.

duixtweys, Untiarked,

é, 9. 22-23 mm, Head and thorax grevish-hrosu, Palpi 4; grey, near

base wlitish, Antennae and abdomen grey. Forewings narrow, posteriorly

dilated, costa siraight to middie, thence gentiy arched. epex rounded, termen

obliquely rounded; greyish-browtn; ciliz concolorovs. Ilindwings pale ochreous-

grey; chia whitish,

Queensland: Duyaringa in December; Toowoomba in October (W. B, Bar-

hard) 3 two speecmens. Type in Qieenstard Museum,

Gen. Ancyzos!s Zel

Tsis, 1839, 178.

Palpi porrect. Manitary palpi fiiiorm. Porewings with 5 separate, 8 andl

9 stalked. Hindwings with cell short, 2 fram angle, 3 and + stalked. 5 absent.

Type, 4. cinitamonea Dup., from Turope.

ANCYLOSIS LAPSALIS. Wik,

29, 829,

é, %. 14-16 mm. Head, palpi, antennae and thorax fuscous. Abdomen

pale grey. Dorewings with costa slightly arched, apex routdl-pointed, termen

straight, slightly oblique; pale ochreovs-grey; a fuscous de~ below middle at one-

third ; yanartow dark uscous terminal fascia; eilin grey; apeces whitish.

North Queensland: Townsville, Queenslanil: Yeppoen, Also from Ceylon,

AwneyLosis ecrirAscra Hinps.

Rom. Mem, 8, 193,

a} 2 22-25 nim. Tlead and thorax whitish-ocshreois; patagia and legulae

pinkish, Palpi @; lower edee yess e Aiitennae pate grev. Abdomen grey-

whitish. Torewings with cotta ¢ r tu imide, theme arched, apex pointed,

termen very obliquely rounnled sw h more ar jess piesish-tinged with slight

inkling; a median line from hase jo two- hirds ar more, edeed ales with

beneath wit blackish scales; a termina) series of bieckie dots; cilia

winitish, fiindwinks gray-whitish: cia whitish.

Norh Queevsinud: Towusville, Qucensland: Peek Downs, Gayodah, Mam-

hiowr, Brishanc, Dalby, lnjtine. New South Wales: Scone.

fciastiyes, saiphur-lined.

os 22-24 mm. Jicad ant thorax ochreots-srey, Valoi 6; grey, lower

etige exoept termimd jomt whitish. Antennae grey. “\ritoimen Fuseents. tore-

swith costa genily arched, apex obtuse, termer ob iaely rounded; grey, in

dite suffused with whitish; ia fomale a fite pale yellow Hue frem bate to apex;

near apex, a broader stibmedian Hise trom base to terimen; a sinivier subdorsal

line nich narrower exoest near ly a subcostal fiecons dot at one-third and

another at end of cel; a terminal series of blackish dois; clin grey. Liindwings

grey; ciliu grey, towards corsum whitish,

Queensland: Tijune in Ociobcr (W. SB. Barnard); two specimens. Tyve

Quecnslonul Musenm.

PRE-CAMBRIAN GRANITES AND GRANITISATION, WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO WESTERN AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY KEITH R. MILES, DEPARTMENT OF MINES, ADELAIDE

Summary

A review of the Australian Pre-Cambrian Succession reveals occurrences of granites and rocks. of

granitic appearance encountered over very considerable areas and apparently involving vast periods

of geological time. With the changing modern concepts of the origin of granite and of granitic-

looking rocks, all evidence concerning the relationships of these rocks in both time and space, both

with one another and with other adjacent geological formations, assumes a new significance, from

the point of view of both historical geology and the specialized problems of petrogenesis. It is time

that such evidence should be brought forth once more and critically re-examined in this new light.

Periodical stocktakings are always valuable, and, to the scientific worker, can prove both salutary

and encouraging.

PRE-CAMBRIAN GRANITES AND GRANITISATION, WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO WESTERN AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Reitur R. Mares, Department of Mines, Adelaide

[Read 14 November 1946]

PLate [

CONTENTS

Tage

TR TRADUCTION A : gd re a me 64+ AA

Qeiotn of Gir siete Nie WILKS C OTeTPTS a ws a ea OS

GGRANITTSATION is 2 4, a. AP a Se BS

GRANITIEAMION AND THE Pry Cadnyegas SUUCESSTUN 4. . oe oe

Wrartrn ASTRALIA 45 rf é> i wd re 3. 58

Sorin AUSTRALE _ _ } rs _ wa ope 60)

Teuxyane Con sineienioss ae ts aS ave ee ts Be

CONCLUSICN .. _ L. .- ot, ot wee OA

AL RNOWLEMI MENTS a 1} ti bs + wee (OS

INTRODUCTION

J review of the Australiau Pre-Cambrian Succession reveals oceurrences. of

granites and rocks of granitic appearance encountered over very considerable

areas and apparcutly involving vast periods of geological time, With the chang-

ing woderti concepls of the origin of granite and of granitic-looking rocks, all

evidetice concerning the relauionships of these rocks in both time and space, both

with ene atiother and with other adjacent geological foruutions, assumes a new

significance, from the point of view of both historical geology and the specialized

problems of petrogenesis. Tt is tame that such evidence should be brought forth

once more and critically re-examined in this new light. Periodical stocktakings

are always valuable, and, to the scientilic worker, can prove both salurary and

encouraging,

ORIGIN OF GRANITE — MODERN CONCEPTS

Professor H. 11. Read in two memorable presidential addresses to the British

Geaiogists Association, entitled “Meditations an Granite, Parts I and IT’ (Read

1943, 1944), has p'aced all English-speaking geologists forever deeply in his debt

for a ciear presentition of the” facts of the problem of the origin of gratite and

of the modern trend of thought, which are thrown into proper perspective by im

exceedingly Waminaling historical background. This historical review, like all

rood seiciice, hus u truly international flavour and follows the argaments and

anttoverstes Of the British, Vrench and lennoskandian wasters from the ais

18th ceniury wp te the present day. Tt has probably come as a shock to many

Austrahiin gculogis ts to learn that ideas very similar to the present concept ion

of “granitisation” Were first put forward by the Frenchman (Ami Bond) in 1824,

Ane ‘that the thesis lias beer steadfastly deve! loped andl claburated by most of the

great Hrench geotogists from that vine onward. Such ideas were diatuetrically

appoe ‘ed ta the principles of igneous gevlogy laid down by leading petrolegists of

the German School, under whose far-reacliig influciice British and American

thovigut, intortiunately, remained clouded until well into the 20th century.

The nid concept of “ieneous” reek based on the fundamental thee-told

classification of rocks inta Igneous, Aqueous or Sediruentary, and Metamorphic,

the first rung of the ladder to which most of cur first student steps were guided,

Trang, Roy. Soe, 5, Auet,, 71 (1), 23 July 1947

is proving untenable in certain important respects and can no longer Sully sustain

us on our upward climb. This fact has been amply demonstrated by Read in

his review of French and Vennoskandian literature and sipported hy the latest

reseqrehes of many workers in both Britain and America. [t has hecome increas-

ingly apparent that there is a Tahdamnent: u genetic difference between the we

main groups of so-called “igneous” rocks, ie., basalt and granites, and that cone

trary to past beliefs an understanding of the origin, mechanies of emplacement,

trend of differentiation. by-products and so on of the first group in general con-

tributes very little towards ihe understanding of the same features of the latter

group, W, ©) Kennedy (in Kennedy and Anderson, 1938), discussing this

pr obtent, hns advanced the idea of two apparently iudep2udent expression; of

“magmatic” activiry called Volcanic and Platonic Associations—the former con-

sidered to be derived from a universal basaltic magina, which has originated trom

the remelting of a basaltic éarth shell, the intermediate layer. The latter are

considered to be derived from a primary wiiversal granodioritic parent magna

which las developed by remeltiug of the so-called “pranitic’ layer within

orogenic zones, where tectonic thickening at the earth's crtist has brought the base

of the granite within the range of meling. Tinportatit ditterences in rhe mude of

irruption in the two cases have been cited. The granite aud granodiorite barholiths

appear lo penetraic slowly upwards, accompattied by a wave of granitisation aud

migmatisarion of the country tocks, until arrested by some unknown form of pre-

sure balance akin to hydrostatic contr) before they reach the surface. “Vhe ascetit

of basaltic magma, however, is belicvedl to be directly towards the surface by wey of

a system of relatively narrow dyke-like fissures with no large intercrustal reservoirs

being forme. “The magnia is then erher extended as laya flows or furms injected

hodies ef various sizes, such as sills or Jacecliths, which may themselves represent

yolegaie reseryoirs. No large scale migmatisation or nietasomatic replacement of

commlry rocks is ever performed by stich basic magmas, whose ditferentiation and

subsequent evolution ave controlled largely by fractional crystallisation processes.

Wirhowt necessarily conceding the validity of all of Kennedy's conclusions

in their entirety, i! is apparent that there are certain maja irreecnneilable differ-

chees in the mode of oecurrence of these two groups of rocks pointing to two

quite distinct fomis of so-calied “igneous” activity. This is nowhere more clearly

demonstrable than froemt studies of the Archaean grantic rocks throughout the

world. from which it is also becoming more and more clear that the division

between “Teneous” and “Metamorphic” ith the old three fold classification, fe,

as far as Ketedy's “photonic aysoviation” of granitic rovks amd the hogh-grute

mectano- phic rales Are Come rnd, is nwre apparent than real, ned that it haany

cases the distinetton between ortho- and para-gneiss completely breaks down, J+

is Iron the observation of instances iWhusivaling this last faer ape by dedyerionts

therefrom that we have reached this moderty viewpoint on the origin of pratiite.

GRAN LTISATION

The pith of this viewpoint can prebably best be summed up in ihe word

“oranilisaiion,’ a word which aceording ta Grout (1941) has been loosely used

by writers fer a number of years and whieh has pate chet defined by Read

(194-4), retaf an analysis of definitions fram many sources, as “the precess by

Which solid toeky ave converted to racks ol granitic obs meter without passing

through a magmatie stage.” Some French writers appare ntly wee the ler

felspallisaiion as synonymous with granitisation,

Gramtisnction of country rock is dependent aqpon the sntrodtuction and peta

sousatising action of some farn. of very active emanalions-—-zasemis, (uid or both—

whose origin is ver ahsewre Those chanatins, whether vapours of solutiniys,

are apparently extremely active and tetuotis atid must be at least heated above

the critical poimt of water (365° C. at aeproximately 200 atniospheres}, Vhe

mdchamics of introduction ot these eraninsing emanations have bee discussed in

considerable detail by Prench and Ienuoskausdian authorities. Apparently two

chief processes are recognived—lit par lit tjection ar preferential replacenietit

anda form of bodily chemical replacement througly “soaking up” or “hnbibiuion”

(to use the French term) without distorden or diy sul rheseiy ve of the -countyy reek,

and migration of material by what hits heen termed “oil spot? meeharism, dn this

respect C. E. Wegmann (7931, 1935, 1938) has emphasise? the importauce af

intergranuiar films iy the utolecular replacement and ovgratou of material and

aimitur reactious.

One of the most puzzling vatives of granitisation is why and how the final

resint of the permeation and replacement process is apparentiy always the forma-

lion of granite Or granitic rock, irrespective of the composition of the country rock

attacked, This bas been exp!nined in the concept of migration and advancing

“fronts,” developed by Weemann (ap. cit-), Backhmd (1938), teynolds (1943,

1944) and others. Material from the gramlising emanations is reyarded by them

as selectively replacme the components of the pre-existing rock, adding here,

taking away there; so as to leave natsicistang material granitic in composition, ‘Tlie

displaced material 1s driven forward with outgoing emanations and fixed in an

outer zone ar “Tronr.” The geochenical relationships invotyed in granitisarion

have been expressed in mathematical terins by Holmes (1945) as: “Granite =

pre-existing rock phty added material (A) introduced by aiid abstracted from

incoming emanations (A -|- x) aims displaced iaterial (8B) driven forward with

outgoing emanations (B+ x). The remarkable feature about these entanations

(.A\—- x) is that (*) apparently Jeaves ne trace, fram which we may deduce that

they camot represent ordinary twasma.

Qualitative geuchemical studies of ine successive stages Of gramtisation in

the field recently carried out hy Dr, Doris L. Reynolds on the Newry igneous

Complex (1943, 1944) have demonstrated that the minimum iroductions (A)

were Na, Ca and Si, and displaced matertals (B) eventually carried forward were

Al, le. Me, Ik, H, Ti, P, Mn. These (predominantly basic) displaced inaterials

were fotind to have been fixed in an aureole of “igneous looking’ basic ancl wltra-

busie tucks, and it is cone uted from these stwdies that before any givei mass of

comity reck was granitised ir passed through a preltuiuary stage of basification,

In 2 very recent paper (146) (abstract only availabie at tiny of writin) Dr,

Reyrolts has evtarved om this subject and cemonsirated that the eeochemical

changes leading lo pranitisation in rocky of af) iypes invariably includes an iniial

entieluucnt in femic constituents and alkatis (hasifeation,” “dest: ann fol-

lowed hy @ stage of felspathisation or gramitisatiant proper. Details of the stages

in mielisnmatic alteration ef petitic, seni-pelec, peammitic and hasic 1eHLous

Waehes Ape eIVven, prev iding valuable criteria Ter the recogmilion of the provenance

Of metal tftis ov “enclaves” in eennite.

1) vonsidering the ariel grauite perhaps the most satisfying feature of

the “oplacement metamorph: sm” " hypothesis is im connection with the space

jwollon, particularly as it as ers le enormotis regionally «neissuse granitic

masses Of tae Archaean sivells and ancient continental blocks turned the muwypor

hatholitlis usually torming cores tu folded ranges uf periods later than Archaen-

vole. In both these cases, if the grunite is cons sidered to he strictly intrusive, that

fe. viel to the pre-existing rocks, then the sprace factor renders this view

tuiluindde. There is no evidence Of Gisplacemnent of country rocks on even the

sintlles, fraction of The seale required, nor has there yet been imagined any

mechamen of doming, subsidence, block faulting, stoping, ete., that conid acco

ard

jor the entrance of such volumes of usagima tovelyed. ATL the evidence, om the

uther had, pomis Lo replacement with little or no bulk changes in volume. ITow-

ever, us far as minor granitic intrusipns stich as dykes, silly and veins of any age

are concerned, the actual injection of inuterial as liquid, ie, magma, tule places of

weakness would appear to be an eqitally losical explanation.

Tinully, attention may be drawi to the division of granites into the three

catesories chtimerated ubove, viz.: (a) <Archaean granite masses, (bh) core

batholitls of later age, and (c) miner intrusions of all ages, and to the sugges-

ton, for which there appears to be some claim, (hat there was vreater igneous and

mictamorphic activity in Archaean times than at any later date, with the inference

of a poszible findamental difference iv origin between the Archaea metumerphic

rocks (particularly grauitic) and Wiose of later periods.

GORANITISATION AND THE PRE-CAMRBRIAN SUCCIESSION

We nay now come tow consideration of the relationship of the granitisation

replacement concept of the origin of granite to the question of the Pre-Cawibrian

Succession in Australia, In the light af the modern viewpoint, ir is necessary to

re-exumine evilence a5 to relative age of granite emplacements and the petro-

genesis of adjacent rocks. His how clear Urat apparently petrosraphically dis-

similar types of granitic rock, ¢y., an apparently magsive gramte, product of the

granitisation process, and an adjacent granitic gneiss or schist, product of partial

cranitisation, and alsa pussilily a more basie type of igueous Iooking rock—say

cioritie Or monzcnitic, representative of Weguin'’s Mg-Ve “front—anay all be

¢lose'y linked both ju aye and origin. Furthermore, it is evident that pressure

movernents resaldug from adjustment of tuinor volume changes in the country

rocks dnring (he gramtisation process might resuli in buddy displacements of the

already formed plastic or fluid granite ntash producing ine-usions of massive non-

guelsic granite into its own coptemperancous gramtusation products,

Tn such a case it appears conceivable to the present writer (hat, especially

where the gramitised sediments show rapidly varving character and composition,

the chermieul composition and petrographical characters uf the intrusive eranite

wil Gt the more gramtic portions of adjacent inigmatites might vary to such an

extent as to give the impression that the two “granites” were neither con-

SQeUlIeGus nor contemporaneaus. TL is possible, therefore, that Hmited field and

laboratory observations may Haye in some cases Jed to entirely erroueous con-

clusions as ta the relative age of granitic magmas. urther, if the granitisation

theory is accepted, then the correlation of grauite on chemical and mineral com-

pestion alone ohvimisly beeraes tiereasingly difficult.

Consequently it is opportune tn review such evidence as 1s available regarding

the periods ot emplacement of all bodies Gf Ire-Cambrian plutouie rocks. both

the granitic and the more basic types, in the hope that a cleaver picture may

emérye of the nature aid seope of Pre-Cambrian ighcous activity thronghent the

Commonwealth, Tt it considered that by makin studies of this kind, teresting

eviderice should be obtained to aid the elucidation of some of the mysteries of

the Archaean basement complex, the primeval fourdatioa upon which all other

suMosieal Tormations have subsequently heen built. ly is to be anheipated that

seh weak will also lead 19 some interesting conclusidnus regarding relationships

of ove depostts lo igneous activity and the granitic rocks, anc will tins have can-

aiderpble cconamic significance.

There is no doubt that there are ta Australia numerous areas whieh would

provide exevllent seupe for studies ui the pheniimena oF gramtisation and gramte

emplacement in rocks ot (iaty different ages, Same ot Usese oecurrences were

doseytbed and cisenssed at the meeting of ALN AGAALS. held in 1059, lat the

pubrished abstracts of papers submitted (Report of 24th Mecting A.N.Z.A,A,S.,

Canberra, 1939, p, 95-98) shows that the conception af granitisation held at that

time differed in several important aspects from the more modern ideas already

expres-i. The terms “granitisation® and “assimilation” were their apparently

sid fo describe rather similar pracesses taking place at the margins of and

comsoquent upor granitic maguia intrusions. No clear conception of the meaning

of “gratitisation,” in its modern sense, or of its probable rote m granite magma

farmat‘an was then indicated.

The “Findamental Camplex™ rocks—the granites, gneisses and mivmatites

associnied with high-grade schists of the Archaean Shiclds—provide exposures

om the largest scale that are most suttable for these investigations, The ervatest

areal distribution of these rocks occurs in Westers Australia, South Atstralia,

Northern Territory and probably Queensland. Although many such areas are

stluated in geagraphically remote regions and if consequence have not received

detailed study, there are stil nutwerous ovcurrences im reasonably accessible

locales which are relatively inknowh, The present writer's own personal expuri-

ences are concerned with areas in Wester Australia, and to a lesser extent i

South Austratia, which ere the subjects ef this paper. The motes presented fn

the following sections refer to observations made in such areas, and wre confined

in pardeuler te the Pre-Cambrian granites.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Acgance at David's Geological Map of the Commonwealth of Australia

reverts (he southern half of Western Australia depicted as composed very largely

af “eranites of Mosquito Creck Series, of Older Proterozoic Ave." which enclose

seaitered “Islands” of inetaumrphic sedimentary and igneous rocky representing

the VYilgarn and Kalgoorlie Series, disposed iu a general meridional trend. The

“rranite” ares of this great Archaean Shield Si reality comprise strietly Limited

outerops oF a wide avd diverse variety of acid metaniorphie and igneous rock

types—nassive granites, banded or guvissic wranites showing every gradation Tram

sligit Uinecar arrangement of minerals through more striped types enclosing relics

of absorbe:l schists to ebvious hybrids, composite gneisses or mieiiatites, aud to

sehists in which anly ininor quantities of uiterlaminate:l “igneous” uiaterial ean

he distinguished, Large tracts of country iivervening between these ‘granite’

oulcrops. particularly in the central and eastern yoldfielts areas, are eavered with

superlicial deposits of sand, forming Jew. breadiy winlulathue serub-coyered

plains im wach outereps are rare anil comprise lew, bare mounds or flat floors of

missive granite, The rocks underying these saudy plains are weneraliy aceepted

as Imtuy erunitic Gr gneissic ity ehariucier, and are of1en distinguished in jocal

miutpping by the synibel Gr/Gn. (HI, AL Eilis 19349),

Ti sees eclezr that this great granitic massif. sehiclh ean Ue reasanuatily

assumed to extend discontinuously oyer an area of the order of 200,000 square

miles, cannat be regarded as having the generally accepted form of a batholith,

yor yet that of 2 series of batholiths, as this would imply a body or bodies extend-

ing to Cepths ef many hundreds of imiles inty the earth's erust. Rather. it would

apoei that it may have the form of a great crustal sheet or sheuts of comsinlerahle

horizontal extent, buat relatively shallow dept.

The regional geplogical structure in some of the “islaids” forming partion

of the Western Australian goldfields with which the writer is familiar, fg. the

Yilynon (FUis 1939), portions of Coolearhe, North Cauleerdie amt About

Margaret Goldfield appears to be celutively siraple, eemprising fm many oases

comparatively geith: Toiding with littl: evidenee that the presen remmnanig oi vie

Kalsoorhe and Vileari Series are the roots of original fol! ruowutain chame

or the products af such other major eragenic movements as Might be expected

to accompany the bodily intrusion of vast masses of magia.

On the contrary, generally speaking the banding of the granite-gndisscs ayer

considerable areas coincides perfectly with the regional and local structures found

in the schists of adjacent ‘islands’ of Yilgarn or Kalgoorlie Series. whilst ona

sniall scale banding is frequently ta be scen reproducing the structure lines af

original schists, af which reficts are still preserved unreplaced, It is quite apparent

that these granitic rocks have not developed by the forcetal mtriusion an) apware

stoping of a granitic magna, but rather by sonie process of quiet soaking anid

replacement of the original country rock schists, es., “granitisation.” in which

original end lines were first undisturbed, but pas ‘the “oerarilisalion froai’’ moved

forward the heated mass became more fiid, pasty ad probably culminated locally

iInmagma which could rentain in place or move bodily as an intrusive niass, finally

crystallisiny as massive granite scl ds thal aybose atitcrops are (emi! as the

isolated “rocks” within the samdy plains mentioned above,

Some excellent expusures for the detailed inyestigalian of the prestucts of

granitisation are to be found im these gollhelds regions, more particularly amongst

the high-rrade schists of the Vilyarn. Goldfield in such localities as Yellawdine-

Mount Palmer district, 24 mites east cf Southern Cross, aud the Hope's Lill-

Corinthian distriet, running north from Southeru Cross, Av interesting feature

ef these and other areas of the Western Australiana goldlelds is the fact that a

ereat praporeign af the original rocks ave basic in charaewr—the Ialgoorlie and

Y Tyarn “greenstaues” contaia great thicknesses of bagic, probably mainly basultic,

Java News anetanorphosed in varying degree, aud seme bodies of basic aud ultra-

basic intrusive rocks, doferites and gahhras. In many areas these rachs, rich iv

Fe and Me, are now represented by twunphibolies and am phiholite schists, It is

obvious that during regiaual granilisation of the qriginal basic rocks enormous

quaiatiticn of Te and Me imtet have migrated out of the rocks undergoing

alteration, anc it ts poss sible that many of the existing ampliholites aed? canpli-

holite schists may represent in fact the fixarion of cafemic materi in a basic

“Tront’’ pre ceding grautisation as his been outived abovs. These amphtbolites

eonld Hien perkaps be more accurately classed as amphitintitie diabrochites (atter

Duns, J. A. 1942). Sunilarly it w nich sec possible that I‘lis” Greenstone Series,

snbrlivishan “bE the VYilgarm Sv sium, may represtnt birt a broad “front” of basinca-

tion of the roeks which may have bad an original ronmosition similar ta his

Whitestone Series.

Detailed investigations of areas in the Dartine Rages. near Perth, in recent

vears by BR. LT, Prider (1941, 1945), and others, have rested in an accumulating

of evidence for at least two phases ef Archaean granite cinplaecient in this

region; {a} development of liybrid graiite gneisses and mignatites Crout

griabselion of pre-existing formations (possibly part of the predominantly ineta-

secdiineutaey Chittering-Jimperding Series, rehets wf which are exposed to tine

north-east of Perth); (b) cimplacenient of a younger nieroeline granite which

has cneolfest considerable portions of (2), The younger granite is consislered by

Trider to helong “to a distinctly later period than the granite which gave rise 10

the livkvid grate gneisses.” Llowever, remnants of xeceliths of the ori inimuil

“basement” rocks, comprising Pe-rich hotnblence-hivitite epi: fote hornfels. enciased

in the pranite eneisses which Prider considers fo be derived frum pre-existilie

baste te iteues, rack, may well represent “diabrochites,” reticls of an ovignial Mw We

“fran, and under existing concepts of the processes of etanitisation revi- ayed

above it would not appear incunceivable that the mraunite givisses and the wotinger

ftatite ate more closely relared mt tre a] petravencsis bia bas hitherig been

Sumneel,

-\oother area of particular interest which Prider has recently described

(Prisier 1945 b) is Al Dangin, 50 miles cast of Perth, where lenticular xenoliths

OF cliwrneckitie rock types—ranging from ultrabusic (olivine-horublemte and

corchertte Aypersth emites ) to basic (plagivelase- from bien cespybdstave eranulites —

are fommd enelose:l in country rocks of hybrid gneiss or “ach! charnwckiles’

(cordisrile-hypersi hene-quartz- felzpar gneiss. ete.), Prider cone'ades that the

acl cbornpeckites have developed by grani‘sation of pre-existing hypersihene-

hese basic charnuckites which are themselves the re-erystallised products of

baste auturusions conkuninaled by assimilation of alttuines sediments. Here

agan:. ly application of the theary of a lyancing fronts, it would appear that the

develssmeit of the uitraiasie and basic ehar nockites may have been a necessary

prelounary step towards the -gradtizadon of the original basic sedinients to form

acid chanmwekite gneisses and may thas have been an integral part of the one

proges=, These oceurrences are of particular interest to us in South Australia

license of the development of stniar rack ispes amongst the granjre gneisses ur

Iivers Peninsula originally described by Viliey (1921),

Cither areas i \Weslern Australia where excellent exposures of Archaeau

eratite afd gneisses suitable for intensive investigations are to be found ate in

the Tt of “peripheral gneisses” extending arguad the coastline from Cape

Natiraliste m the south-west corner of ihe State io Albany, and thence

eastwards for many mudes along the south coast, and it is lioped that these studies

will he made in the tight of recent developments concerning the origin of granites.

SOULE AUSTRALIA

lieve in South Australia contributions towards the petrovenesis uf the Pre-

Cambria graiitic rocks have been disappointingly few. This can only partly be

expacned by the relative inaccessibility of many of the more interest onterops

ni these rocks, Rather it would appear that studies of the stratigraphy of the

Protesoznie formations have completely eyer-shadowed consideration of the older

“Tuiuanental” rocks.

eetian’s (1937) investigation of the “diorite’ inclusions in the granite of

Crate Ista ported towar ds the possibility of replacement of intruded couttry

rock to fortu granitic rock, whilst Aldernian’s (1938) study of the chemical anc

mineralogical changes invalved in the production of the augen gneisses of the

Huniwe, Seruly avea slands out as a notable coutribulion to ‘the petrogenesis of

these vyorks. The augem gneisses, injection gneisses and pegmatised schists of

Weis region are considered hy “\lderrian to he duc ta intimgle injection or pernica-

tion of original Setpentary schists (? phyllites now sericite schists) along bedding

and fohmiten planes by alla silicate solutions. "This is apparently concetved as

Hi Additive metasomaticn: in which it is calelaterl that vole inersases up In

mpcisariate tlouble the original wailityts vould be incurred during the reactions.

Intesnal stresses get wp in the gne'ssys as a resilt are conelided by Alderman to

have {seen respousihle [ar of cart dyranic ielanesrphisin of the rocks.

Cufortumately the value af this work is weaktned, in the present writer's

apnion. hy Jack of supporting field] evidence. When the considerable body of

schists and injection gneisses in the whole area is considered, volume increases

of the Order indicated might he expected lo produce more noticeable effects than

mere local grarntlation or niylowiitzatina zones within the selisrs.

Rovk exposores ii portions at least of Lie Tissniabugy Seri} aroa, partiotiarly

iy the vieinity of the South Para River, are excetlemt, und much of the district,

sittated as ic is within easy distance of Adelaide, should prove a miwst Fruitful

subject for detailed held mapping anc petrological studies. Numerous other

stall areas olf Archaean schists ascociated with granitic gneisses—ile Barossian

ray

Series are to be found scattered threnghout the Mount Loity Ranges, ivs., at

Jonenten, Darossa, Aldgate, YuuWalilla (Benson 1909), Meadows Valley

(Mawson 1923), Normanyille, Myponga Tiers, Mount Compass, Mount Craw-

for district (England 1935), Tanunda district (Ilossield 1923). Bensan (1909)

has noted a marked similarity in, aiid certain character‘stics of the “igneous”

rocks of many of these widely scatlercd areas, whieh meved him to postiale a

enue petrovraplic province in which one magnia—the Houghton magira-~was

responsib'e for these gneisacs by injection into the Barossian Schists. Ty the

light of modern ideas on granttisation, the whole subject of the Tloughton magma

nicht well he re-examined.

The present writer wag recenily privileged jo make a brief visit of inspection

of the Little Gorge area, about 34 miles sonth of Normanville. Here metamor-

phosed jhnenitic grils and conglomerates, presumably basa! heds of the Adclaide

Series, ure found interlaced and injected or replaced lit-per-lit by pink pegmatite

felspar stringers. Iminediately cast of these auterope the racks grade to phytic

schists with imenite- and magnctite-bearing anirtz-felspar veintets and m places

containing parphyroblastic pink felypar and blne opalescent quartz. Nearby the

rocks develop a definite graniic gneissic structure «and hybrid jencous-looking

rock tynes are developed, ¢.7., broadly gnetesie “epidote syenite.” The wriles was

left with the impression that chis district should prove highly instructive for the

study of the progresstve metamorphism and pranitisation of a series of sedi

mentary rocks,

One of the hest known regions of Archatozole gneisses in South Australia

is in sonthern and western Eyre Peninsula. Tilley (19216) has reengnised and

deserihed four groups ar divisions of racks froin this arca which, in descending

order of antynity. ares (1) The Thetchison Series, (ii) The Flinders Series,.

(ii) The Warrow Series, and Civ) The Dutton Series,

The Hintchison Series is considered to be predom‘nant!y of sed'mentary

oricin—tolonites. cale-magnesian silicate rocks, paraeneisses and graphite rocks

(Tilley 1920, 192] a)—anil has been invaded abd metamorphosed by the granites

and gneisses of the Flinders Series, the most wide-spaced member of ilie group.

The Warraw Series comprises metamorphosed sediments and is distinguished

from the Hutchison Series by predaminance of massive quartzites fo the former.

A Inter lit-par-ht injection into the Warrow schists of granite characterised by

an ghundance of tourinalme in its deid differenriates, restdted in development of

the Ditton Series inicetion gneisses,

Tilley (1921h) has deseribed the racks of the Plinders Services iu detail

—horntlenle and biotite granite eneisses, charnockitic hypersthene and dicpside

eranites, with aplites and pegmatites, the latter being espacially characterised by

hanthtnde, Tle concludes that the sneissie strnetyre in the granites is a primary

struetire representing a foliation immarted to the racks during cunsotidation.

It is significant that the genera! trend of foliation in the Flinders Range gneisses

(north-south, with vertical io sitep westerly dips) is similar vw the geweral strike

and dip of the Tutehisou Series sediments, whieh are apparently intruded and

muclosed by the granite gnisses ut contain localities in the Sleaford Tay area.

Tilley Was prtd considerable attention io intercalated bands af basic rocks in the

acid gneisses, vis., amphiholites, hornbtente schists, pyrocene eranulites an) the

like, whieh he concludes tu represent metamotphosed renmants of pre-existing

basic janeouly rocks “of slightly bigher aetdliry than the norial gabbra'd or

doleritre types of intrusive” (1921 bh, p. 11), products of an earlier consoliration

whieh haye been cugulled by the later avid eneisses. Tle has described aud illus-

tated loniicukir drawn-out and contorted bodies nf such basic inchisions, whose

inlding is explained ay plastie derormation follawing Wi-par-lt injecllon and

magnia flow, i.¢., ptygmatic folding cotsequent upon intrision by the granitic

gniciss.

it would appear that a good case for granitisation, i.c,, production of Mlinders

granitic gneisses and migmatites by replacentent of the original (? Lutchison )

Series, could be presented. The presence of the abundant remnants of basic

“igneaus” rocks--tare components of the normal [lutchison Series—as xenoliths

in the migmatites suggests onee again the possibrlty that these amphibolites may

represent relicts of the fixation produets of a basie “front” which preceded the

onset of regional pranilisation in the avea.

Further studies of the geology of Southern Eyre Perinsula are

apparently yet required to confirm the stritigraplie position of the Warrenr

Series anil discover the genetic relation, if any, between the Flinders and the

Ditton Setics of gneisses, Another region of granitic rocks Ekely ta yield

interesting results trom a detailed investigttiion is in eastern Eyre Pentnsula,

im the belt ranumye northward from Port Littcaln to Iron Knob and heyond.

Finally, brief mention may be made of the granitic rucks of the Flinders

Ranges. Prohably the most interesting occurrences yet recorded are thase inv ihe

central igneous and tictamorphic complex of the Mount Pumter region, Mawson

(1923 b) has correlated these with the Archacozuic Era, but according to rezevl

investigations described by R.C, Sprigg (1945), in-aizas yet unpublished report,

there is here evidence of a Lower Palaeozoic age for the igneous activity, possibly

related to Ordovician orogenie movements.[? Twa types of granite lave been

recuguisel—a typically siressedl or sheared red granite in which all phases of

assimilation aid granitisaliou replacament of Hie adjacent Proterogvic (Adelaide

Series) metamorphosed sediments have been recagnised, aud a white or leaeo-

granite also intrusive into the Proterozoic sedinients but thongit to be younger

than the red granites. The white granite outerops arc typically massive,

uiustressedl and frequently closely associated with the Thick Quartzive horizon

of the series, which is conimonty found as xenoliths in the granite.

Seatiered outcrops of leuerocratic graniic are algu found in the Flinders

Ranges oiitside the Mount Painter area proper. Petrogtaphie devails of some of

these occurrences near Uimberatana have recently been described by Mawson and

Daliwitz (1945). who consider these intrusions to be “in the nature of epula

summits abave rhe general plutonite muss of a large scale granitic intrusion”

(p. 48) itto the thick Proterozoic ail Cambrian sedimeiits,

Inthe Mount Painter area there are numerous good examnles of gracatioml

contacts between gneissie red granite and adiacent quartzites and qimartzite

inclusions in whieh the strike and_ tip of gnetssosily im the granite anc ot bedding

siructures im the quarizies remiin sensibly constant, and grate Imperceptihly one

into the ther, Rock exposures in the Mott Painter acea are excellent, aid,

despite the relative inaecessibility and rugged nature of Ure country, parts wf the

area would provide wouderfal oppertuiities fur detailed field stusies and funda-

mental research into the mechanism of auiplacemezt and petrowenests of these

EUS,

In the preceding notes the writer lias commented on a Tew areas of Pee-

Cambrian granites, gruviie aieisses and uigawiatites whieh have come to his notiee

and Which, in the light of modern ideas, ke considers would well repay fnrther

intensive studies. No doubt many South Australian evolugists more famitar with

the State than he, ean recall other areas equally stiituble. It js to be hoped that

J a) A recejit deternination of the lexd/arsnivm ratio on samarskite from Mount

Painter (Kleeman, A.W. lOth, Vrags, Roy. Soc. S. Anat, 70, 175-177) supports sue --

tion ¢o y Lower Palaeozeiy age,

they, their agsociates and students will combine to foster a spirit of more search-

ing enquiry into this subject of grartitisalion and the origin of the gramie

“magma.”

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

The general problem of the genesis of ore deposits snd of the oreforming

fluid, and more particularly the origin of those ore deposits must clusely asseciated

with granite or with rocks of the “plutonic association,” is still very much a con-

truversial subject. It is a subject very closely allied to the gramte problem and

naturally theories of gratitisation and replacement meramorphisin are of special

interest ta the ceonontc gealoeist. Bor these who have nut questioned the ortha-

magmatic attire of granite a reasonably satisfactory expianation of the genesis

gt certain of the tuctallic ores typically associated with grauite, c.g. tin, tungsten.

tantaluia, molyhdenum, bisnnith, elec. has been prayided by theories of dillerentia-

tion fret gramte magma, and expulsien of ore hearing solutions together with

awl phase volatiles, und subsequent deposition under resr-icted physico-chemical

conditions, On the other hand, if a granite cin be forued from pre-existing

sedimerts by the action af suitable emanafions, chen the primary source of any

mitallic cements which may be fond associated with such granite becomes more

obseure than ever. Uncer ‘these circumstarices they can EE DTeSet either majerial

which has migrated forwatd and out from the origtnal sediment duri img granitisa-

tion. ie. possibly forming an advancing metit, Hierafs front, or they may be

ofisinal components of the granitisndeu emanations. Ju the former case the

apparent restriction of certain metals, ey, tin, do a granule agsecindon beeprmes

more puzzling than ever, since other metals, og., platinnm and chromium. are

four ia assaciation only with basic magia,

Rastall lias pointed out another very puyeiing feature of nretallagenesis asse-

elated with granites, uartiely, dhe sperade distribation of certain rinerals m hime

aul place. Vor examnle, the tin-tumgsten-lourmatine association with granite i3

fairly common but ig found in Western Europe only with the Hereynian gramles,

jn Mrleva with lare Mesozoic probibly Cretaceutas gramiles, aud in Bolivia pro-

bably Tertiary (Rostall 1945, 9. 27). In Western Australia this association is

found in the Pre-Cambrian granites. Discussions such as these may at first appear

largely academic, but when consideration is given to the subject from the poime of

view of developing a working basis Lor scientific prospecting the economic urgency

of the whole problem becomes obvious.

A specific case which munedialely springs ta mind is thal of the search for

new ate deposits in the guldhelds of Western Australia. Potentially aurifcrous,

the “kingly” country af prospectors i generally aceepied to be the “greenstone”

country of the “islands” mentioned ahuye, The surrounding granitic and prncissic

cotiry, on the ether hand, is usually cesidered to be non-aurifcroms. despite the

frenueni presence of qnariz reefs within i. Accepting the otinciple of the forma-

riot UE the granitic bodies by replacement of pre-oxisting rocks, there arises the

possibility that pre-existing gold also ocewtred within these -ocks and touch of the

are fount ib known aurtiferous belts in the greenstane areas may represent

*throwouts” farmed by the forward migration of enld from the gramitised areas.

Ir is comceivahle smder such civctimstances that reqiiiiuts of such original

eold-beating rocks and local concermtratiuns of anrifercms niatertal may have heen

earned back or atherwise retarded from mieniing oul of the area of granitisation

and hus may occur within the granice areas, purticulathy within the marginal

soRiEsiC nugniatite zones. The are bodies of the Kedna May (WA. ) Amalgamated

Gold Mines nt \W estonia ithe Vil garn Goklield, containing golc, tungsten ami

minkytdeniia, are found in bietile guwiss country. na number. Ot other scattered

lacalities in the northern Yigarn Goldfield small gold workings are to be found in

what are considered to be renet grcenstane lenses either partially or ecimpictely

a by graniuc gneiss (Maiheson 1940).

‘he question of the Sensis of iron are deposits has heen a subject for active

sapbcrndes for many years. In an invesligation of irom otes associate] with

handed henutite rivdirloares or “jasper bars’? iu Western \ustraiia several years

aga, tie writer noted cvidence suggesting at least two geet tatious of iron con

COTIELAH ON | (a) a molecular seplaceminnt of silicu bands in original magnetite 4

hematiic quar tuites by granviar crystalline hematite, and (b) later chiplaccment

ef ciseqraaut tentenlar bodies or veins of coarse crystalline specular or micaceous

hematite often intergrown with quartz, At the time of writing tits replacement

was ccisidered ta be a sinpereene process, though possibly assisted hy heated

magmade waters (Mites LHL. p. 197). The rum ares ot Koalyanohbing, 35 miles

north-east of Southern Cross in the Yilgarn Galdield. shaw these fes tyres in no

amill deeree. The Keclyanobbing Range forms a long narrow belt of vertical

dipping banded iro formations in gregustone suey iriuwed both on the cast

and west hy broad areas of gramte ani for gneiss. There is reasoi to believe hat

large arvas of ferrughious roc Ns—hasit scluists, lavas atid barx ded wou Lorivi-

ons—aust have been replaced during the emp.acement of all this granitic rovk.

The writer has seen in other parts of rhe district excellent examples of graiitised

or deraruredd Gaaded trom Tormetions in which ail the gron Gre has been remover,

probakly as soluble haides, leaving cither a beached white quartzite or in suine

cases banded Huarite quartzite (Miles HHS), it is possible Wat the iron niigrat-

ine forward wilt the progres Ave 24 ane sat ium of country cock at Koolyanobhiag

tas forme an wivancing “berrig front” hich may have been vespansible for the

eaurse qitattz-speelir crigtiae deci # oat posnibly even for the earker aaain

eratular hentawtibs replacement bodies mentiond above. The temieney for all its

irou to coucerpraie within 2 restrieted zone, Je, rhe original beiieth bunmuute

quartzite horizon, miy idschiy he explained ‘patrtly hy a chenii¢al altnuty ot the

meray maaberial, for the a ‘ready highly ferragirnus Lynvled sediment, and

hiv Le slructital ent rot (damming asiod) cxered hy these banded errs

quartzite beds.

partly

This subieet Of tis rekdienship (Fr are) of mejeecat gtanie bowues to Pres

Cambrian Landed iron eve Awsnsils, Atel as at. Vani pees

Mt "F ollering Haee i VW astern sat Linea and it the Mid Reis it S

14 rg

Sasi Bates sie, Shaidel bu qeeh wooed: Puarlieeg dye tua.

CONCLES EAN

Crsctcepattad of che i nine drublen ! met girs

Hsikevertad ab tre ey nine en qe om mast ah

He oceuirigin Joo

; mconteb stidert ant th fe Lowi Tinks COMET IY provisies

ie Lit ivieneive mv esd me OF vine arate ; har pars

tae Ts Tact gramiies eat esr ecsaciates, dori Gta et deiaiied le

stimbies ae rouinre i The weiter woud par {tits art s.fves Lhe nece:

wat c

WOT ANG care Sal cel ra ny at faces und i

aaviraty otoreal ¢

ou beth reriogel and t deimitet seves Bs a peclininary ti: cheimest anid Laat Fr

Sint CIES, a primis rey stowhieh Tas pot aly ays Teote Frat

lea pide workers, 1 carrying Uut tis ispe of iavestipaiion ul

Ohetryctida GF payers is first pearing, folluawer by oenpartial po iN ve:

these tors, tristher widt a balanced aad treieul tiseussini of Uh: inpiismtions

andl detuetinus to be anya frum them. tn this connection i} may he nar

place to draw attention tq the critical review of some reeert works a:

Oli Th

ase ie stigs

gested speeificalinns for 2 satisfactory report, which were issued a few years mys

ly FLD Goat (Letty,

By means of researches such as these we in Australia should be able to eon-

tribute notably to world knowledge on this most fascinating and contentious of

questions. “What is granite ?’—and at the same time take a worthy place with

ather observers in countries in which the granite rocks, cspectaliy those of the

Archaean shield, are abundautly displayed,

The ideas discussed in the preceding pages are not new, as las been eleariv

indicated, nor are they provit to be of general application, whilst sume of the

suggestions put forward by the present writer are frankly admitted to he pure

speculation, tot baséd on any personal cxperterce, Hevvever, ii any of these

suggestions are sufficiently exeresting te slimtdate amonget geological workers,

partientarly these in South Ansiralia and Wesrerty Atistraiia, a teriewed interest

in, and a fuller awareness of, the problems of the granite of both DPre-Combrian

and later ages, he will feel amply resvarded,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is indebted to Mr. S$. B. Dickinson and Mrs. 1, KL Ward and

R. T, Prider for constrtictive criticism and many helpful suggestions coring

revision of the text of this paner.

WORKS TO WHICH RETERENCT IS MADE

Atnerman, A, R, 1938 Augen Gneisses in the Wumbug Scrub Area, South Ans-

tralia, Trans. Roy, Sec. S. Arise. 62, 163-181

BAcKLUND, Ll, 19388 Zur “Granitisationstheovie’ Geol. Foren Forhanl,, 60,

177-200.

Lensus, W. N. 1909 Petrographical Notes on Certain Pre-Cambrian Rocks oF

the Mount Lofly Ranges, with special reference to the Geology of the

Moughton District. Trans Rov, Soc. $. Atat., 33, 101-140

Duxw, J. A. 1942) Granite and Magmation and Metamorphism, Econ, Geol.

37, 231-238

Fis, IL. A. 1939 The Geology of the Yilgarn Golditeld, South of the Great

Eastern Railway, Geol. Surv. W. Aust., Bull. 97 :

Excudnn, Il. N. 1935 Petrographie Notes on Tutrusions of the Houghton

Magnia.in the Motnt lofty Ranges. Trams. Ray, Soc, $, Aust, 59, 1-15

Growr, Kb, 1941) Formaiion of Teneous-looking Rocks by Metasontatisit:

A Critical Review and Sugvesterl Research, Bull, Geol, Soc. Amer, 52,

1.525-1,576

Honarns, A. 1945 Natural Llistory of Granite. Nutire, 155, No. 3.046

Hossvetn, P, S, 1925 The Tanunda Granite and is V eld Relations, Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust, #9, 191-197

Kesneny, W. Q., and Anuresoy, EM. 1938 Crustal Layers and the Origin

ot Maginas. Bull. Vole., Series IL. Tome LT, 24-82

Ikremaian, A.W. 1937 ‘The Nature and Origin of the So-called Diorite Tacha-

sions in the Granite of Granite Island, Trams. Roy. Soe. &. us. 61,

207-220)

Matnesoy, R, §. 1940 Reports on some Mining Groups iw the Yilgarn Gold-

field, Ann. Prog. Repl.. Geot. Surv. W, Aust., for 1939, 18-43

Mawsox. D. 19232 Notes on the Gerlogical Features of the Meadows Vailey.

Trans. Roy. Soe, S. Aust., 475 371-375

ine

Mawesox, D. 1923b Tgneous Rocks of the Mount Painter Belt. Trans. Roy-

Soe. S. Aust., 47, 376-389

Mawsun, D., and Darnwitz, W. B. 1945 The Seda-Rich Leucogranite Cupo-

las of Umberatana. Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust., 69, 22-49

Mixes, K, R. 1941 Magnetire-Hematite Relations in the Banded Iron Forma-

tions of Western Australia, Proce. Aust. Inst. Min. Met., N.S. No, 124,

193-201

Mites, K. R, 1946 Metamorphism of the Jasper Bars of Western Australia.

Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 102, 115-134

Priber, R- T. 1941) The Contact between the Granitic Rocks and the Cardup

Series at Armadale. Journ. Roy, Sac. W. Aust,, 27, 27-55

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\W. Aust., 29 (for 1942-43), 137-149

Priwer, R. T. 1945b Chartiockitic und Related Cordievite-bearing Rocks from

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Rastraty, R. 1. 1945 The Granite Problem, Ges!. Mag., 82, 19-30

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Air phote of Granite Area, yhoul 7 miles worth of Moting Painter, Flinders Rauge.

North at top of photo, Shows leucogranite (lower right half of photo) intruding

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ROA,ALP, Photo ¢(Vertieal) No. 102, Rio 337, 07'S... Long. 130° 30’ E -

139" 30’ 12 April 1945. 5

Seale approximately 27°5 chains to the inch,

THE CLIMATOLOGY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF PINES OF THE

MEDITERRANEAN ENVIRONMENT TO AUSTRALIA

By J. A. PRESCOTT AND C. E. LANE POOLE

Summary

Apart from its native grasslands and forests, the continent of Australia originally offered so little in

the way of plants of economic value to man that plant introduction has always been of great

importance in the development of the country. The botanic gardens, early established in the capital

cities of the colonies and at Darwin, were originally essentially acclimatisation centres and testing

grounds for introduced species of plants, although they have generally lost their importance in this

regard and this function has been replaced by the plant introduction activities of the several State

Departments of Agriculture and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.

THE CLIMATOLOGY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF PINES OF THE

MEDITERRANEAN ENVIRONMENT TO AUSTRALIA

By J. A. Prescort @) and C. E. Laws Poorer @)

[Read 14 November 1946]

CuNTENTS

Page

Incronuctios F, és - 4 he ks wd oa re 36 perp nlf;

CumAric Consipeg ations 1 the fi +} ‘hs ts rt He s+ 68

Pinus vidiuta .. di = é. fs es ons al. on ‘5 see A

Pits canartensis he i als a + na ts a ad. a. G2

Pinus pinaster .. 3, “ ne oe “ tus oe $3 ia stn AE

Pinus nigra ty os 4: aA 1s 43 aA ‘a \: a 1. 97

Pinus halepens's H ba es rt te AS pr An ie -. 78

StumMany oy Teypenaruan ReQurremMmEnts .. 4 i i ne nA .. 78

Suavey cr Tor Rescurs of Pree Intropvetiows To AUSTRALIA ., te a ota 1D!

Aesthetic plantugs .. es 4 nt et Le “4 PT: is Pome it)

Vorestry plantations =... _. o 4 ve i+ at uf o: ip SI

ISCURSION ., “ oo bs 33 oe $4 b4 Ae 4 = 1 683

The atowth of Monterey Pine in re‘ation to Environmental Conditions —.. 23 BS

The Choice af Appropr-ate Species for Southern Australia .. “ a's a4. WEF

ACK NGWLOND i MENTS “> we Ay he ba s4 - &9

ReEreRnNcEs .. .. = a “ iy 4 89

Sovrers or PXroamMarion 4 a Hy ny 24 oe 3 89

INPRODUCTION

Apert from its native grasslands and forests. the continent of Australia

originally offered so little in the way of plants of economic value to man that

plant introduction has always heen of great importance in the development of the

country. The botanic gardens, early established in the capital cities of the colonies

and at Darwin, were originally essentially acclimatisation centres and testing

grounds for introduced species of plants, althongh they have generally lost their

importance in this regard and this function has been repiaced by the plant mtroduc-

tion activities of the several State Departments of Agriculture and the Council

for Seientific and Industrial Research.

©) Director, Waite Agricultural Research Institute,

©) Formerly Inspector-General ot Forests and Acting Principal Australian Forestry

School.

Trans, Roy. Sec. S, Austs, 71 (1), 25 July 1947

In the early years of colonisation there nist have been extensive trial and

error in these activities, but the exigencies of quarantine and the exhaustion of

the more obvious introductions have made it increasingly necessary to place plant

introduction oa more logical footing. Some highly desirable tmtroductions such

as the sony bean have proved exe cedingly dificult, while there is no dotibt that

athers have failed through a lack of knowledge of suil and clintatic requirements,

In 2 reeent discussion on ecology anc the study af chinate reported in Nature

by Day) (1946) emphasis was p’aced on the ‘ion for the growth-cycles of

introduced spesics ta be in phase with the annual seasonal cycle, “Two cxarmples

ave given of such lack of harmony in Beftain. The European larch begins its

growth trmch too early, while Lhe Corsican pine continues growth utiti) itch too

Tate: Jeeattse of this they suffer seriously from frost im many situations, This

tends markedly to restrict the arcas within whieh they cau, be grown stieeesstully,

It is the puipose of the present contr “pation to review the climatic reyuire-

ments of @ mtibey a species of the genus Pinus which thrive in the shinee

rancan tegion or in regios having a sivailer CANE sueh as See eee aud t

determine kow far such climates are reproduced in southern Anstraha- In the

light of actual experience with these speciés in Australia, the abi ss imay re aye!

some general prine’ples which may be of service in such plant introdnction work,

The species chosen are:

Pinus radiata D. Don, the Moncerey pine, from California.

Pinus catariasis C. Smith, the Canary [stud pine.

Paes i itlasier Aiton, the clister pine, of southern France, Portugal and

Pinas vigra Arnold ov Pinus lericio Poirot. the black or Corsican piac, also

of the Mediterranean region,

Pinus falepensis Miller, the Meppo pine of the eastern Medirgrrancun.

he Monterey and Canary Island pines hays very restricted mative havitals.

so that the climatic conditions of these environments can be very narrowly cetued,

The other pines ave more widely distribases, and the associated climates are there-

fore ms quite so easily cerermmed,

CLIMATIC CONSIRE RATIONS

lo dawing with perennial plats, 1emperuure ar! anoisture condiiuys

throughout the year are of inpertinee, “Poterance to low or high temperatures

aw be import. and greater erupaasis has therefore buen placec in this siudy

on temperate, Rainfal is rot, however, cotip-otely overlouked

In dealing with tauperatures, use has been nade of the convene method af

wave fourm gnalesis adepred by Preseatt (12), whieh cuabies the iwelve mean

monthhy temperdicures Lo be reduced to Use tlires values oF annuai mean, amphtinie

BESCRIPTIGCN Gr FIG. 1

Maps of the Mediter

(a) Natural distvibution of flying

(h) Mean annual temperature,

(ce) Mesn anoual amplitude of temperatirre.

Py wieder, Fo ape.

fd) Temperattre chase expressed in ters of Ing fv days behind solar raliation,

(0 Sea alsa Vay (1845).

Ae] Peanariensis .~_ |

ROR Apinaster. |

EY Phalenensis.

MEAN ANNUAL |

TEMPEAATUAR "Fr-—

TEMPERATURE | ;

AMPLITUDE “F.f-~rg_!

Wh,

eet

0 id

re a

‘

Big, 2

Map of the Mediterranean region, showieg mean annual rainfall in inches

based on data of Kendrew (1927), Brooks (1932), and Terhertsoh (101).

and phase. It is assumed that there is some correlation between daily ampitudes

and annual amplitudes.

Of imporrange in the ease GF moisture conditiuns are the total amount of

effective or influemial rainfall and its distribution in time. In the Mediterranean

climate: under consideration, the rainfall has a marked winter incidence and the

ienath of the rainy season becomes an important index. To secure identical

combinations of all these factors is wot always an easy matter, but it 15 essential

to secure identical combinatians of at least mean autual temperature and ampli-

tude with the appropriate seasonal rainfall One dilfculty 1s to assess the con-

tribution of coud and fog to moisture supply. This ts particularly so in the case

of the Canary Island pine and the Monterey pine. it is probable that mm these

cascs, in the Australian environment, somewhat higher rainfall should be allowed

than is recorded for the native habitats.

Mazis of the Mediterraucan region, iiustrating the geographical distribution

of four of these pines, tugether with temperature characteristics and annual rain-

fall, are given in fig, 1 and 2.

Pinus rApara (Monterey pine)

Pinus radiate is a native of California and shares with Cupressus macracarpa

the very restricted habitat of the Monrerey peninsula. Leimg essentially a costal

species nccurring near sea level the temperature conditions can be readily ascer-

tained without iterpolatian, and the raimfail conditions are simularly reasonably

well known. The other habitats of this pine ate Ano Nucyo Point, San Simeon

say (Cambria), two of the Santa Barbara Islands and the Island of Guadalupe

off the enast of Southern California, The climatic conditions on these islands

have nut been ascertained, bttt they are likely to include low amplitudes and a late

phase. Atterition has necessarily been restricted to fhe occurrences on the

inainiand,

lo Table [ are given the essential data Tor Californian localities near the zone

of natural occurrence of this pme. Santa Barbara and San Luis Obispo have late

phases associated prestimably wiih greater oreanic influences. All the ainphindes

arc quite low. The annual rainfall on the Monterey peninsula has been estimated

hy Mason (1934) to range from 188 inches at Carmel to 23°7 inches on Htckle-

berry Hill, with almost datly summer fos.

TABLE |

Temperature and Rainfall Characteristics of Locavilies in ar

near the Calilornian Zone of Occurrence of Pinus radinia

Temperaturé Characteristics Rainfall Characteristics

Phase, leg

lel nd solar Length ()

Anntigl Mean Amplitude radiation Annual Seasonal of season

Locality iad oF: days ins, ins. qmonths

San Luis Obispo S8°5 6-2 49 21-9 21 6-7

Santa Barbara * on 398 0-3 50 18-9 18 6-7

Santa Cruz Ba ai, a +3 fed 36 270 25 7-8

Del Monte _.. ct . 56-4 O-0 35 15-4 14 5-6

For practical purposes, therefore, may be sought zones in southern Australia

having the following temperature characteristics:

Mean annual temperature .. reat pits .. 56-60° F.

Amplitude 5+5-7-0° F,

Phase... bigs vue ese ite dave a. 38-50-days

Parallel zones (fig. 3 and 4) are found to occur in the sotith-west of \Weszern

Australia atid in the “coastal regions of South Anstratia, Victoria and northeri

Tasmania. Iangaroo Island al the islands in Bass Strait also come within the

zone. The climate is thus essentially maritime, Rainfall conditions within this

zone are, however, anuch more favourabie than in most of the Californian

localities, and it tuay be assumed that adjacent zones with anual rainialls of

25 to 39 inches may come within the fayour able zone , providing soil conditions are

suitable. tt is known from Australian evperience that this species is rather exact-

ing im its soil requirements, and througheeart this discussion il must be bere im

mind thet edaphic seideth are deliberately excluded from consideration. It is of

interest to list Australian stations which offer pavalicls to these Californian

stations.

TABLE 2

Temperature ond Rainfall Characteristics of Australian Localities haying

‘Temperature Reaimes similar to those of Californian Stations in of near the

Habitat of Pies radfeta.

Mea ania Mean annuat Length of

fempersuture Amplitude Phase rainfall wet seusun

‘Leealily er, oF, days ins. months.

Eddystone Point, Tas. = 2 366 fy-3 42 29-4 12:0

Curme, King Island, Tas. |. ; 55-7 3-3 A7 34° 12-0

Albany, W. Aust... = 599 O35 45 37+2 11-4

Eclipse Island, W. Aust. .... we 8985 af h2 32-7 2-0

Karridate, W. Aust. sees wee SOR amie) 44] 478 - 98

Cape Borda, §. Aust. hae we 5876 fit AL 2463 vas)

Kingscote, S, Aust. ... . 80-4 6-6 41 Wed rere!

Cape Northumberland, S. Aust... 30°9 td 38 2045 6

Robe, S. Aust. vee O49 6-5 37 24-7 9-3

Mount Burr Forest. 8. Ast: 56+5 a7 56 30-7 9-4

() ‘Lhe mean length of season in this and the following tables is based of inean

monthly values ior rainiall and probable evaporation. It would be preferalsie to use the

meat of the lengths of individual seasons, but this iafovmation was avaiable in erly a

ad cases. ‘The estimates are likely to be soumewhat luo high. perlcularly for the lighter

values,

Tt will be seen that the South Aus-

tralian stations approach most closely

the Californian ones in respect both of

temperature and rainfall. The close

parallel herween Kingscote, Kangaroo

Island and Santa Barbara may be

noted as one example. Vhe Atistralian

stations have also longer rainfall

seasons and a greater certainly of

stunmer rainfall. This may well com-

petsate for the absence of stmiuer

fogs in tie Astralan environment.

Pinus CANARIENSIS

(Canary Island pine)

This pine, like the Monterey pine,

oeewtrs in a rather restricted zone, but

ag titude plava a part in the de-

termination of its habitat, it has proved

ligcessury to interpolate same of the

climatic information available in the

standard textbooks of climatology and

the report of Byles (1932). It has

heen assumed that this pine finds tis

optimum, temperature conditions al

altitudes between 2,000 feet amd 6,000

Teet, with 4,000 feer as a probable

ideal. Although the coastal stations

of the Canary Islands have a mari-

thie climate similar to that of coastal

Calivarnia, there appears to he a sig-

nificant increase in the annual tem-

peratire rauge with increasing height

above sea level. No part of Austraha

shows the sharp changes 1n topography

characteristic of the Canary Islands.

ivies assumes a probable annual rain-

tall of between 12 and 30 inches. ‘he

lensth of the raitty season cannat be

precis’y deteymined from the avail-

alike data, but it appears to be in the

reigibourhood of eight nionths, with

a vreuter certainty than in s\ustralia

rain in the = sunimer

The temperature data which

are appraptiate to the dtscussion are

Table 3.

absentee of

mcutihs,

sivesit li

P. canariensis.

Tig. 3

Meps of the southowest part of Australia,

illustrating localities Where temperature con-

ditions are similar with respect to mean,

amplitade and phase to those of the zones

of native occurrence of P. vadiata and

P. canaviensis and the Portuguese habitat of

P. pitasier, Whe numbered lines are isohyets

of rainfall in inches. The line of circles

parallels temperature conditions with respect

to appropriate combinations of mean aid

ainphtude in the ease of P. cenariensis.

TABLE 3

Tempe-ature Characteristics in the Neighbourhood of the Zone of native Occurrence nt

Pins cannricusis,

Leight above

sea level Aunnal mean

feet oF,

Santa Cruz. ‘Venerifte ; a 130 67 +4

[uerto de Orotova, Teneriffe sn 70 67°3

Guiruar, Tenerife an} an 366 64-3

(2) Vilaflor, Teneriffe —.. PF we F400. 54°5

Las Canadas, Teneritic on 2 6,357 48-9

Las Palmas, Grand Canary . 30 67°8

Funchal, Madeira... . 80 65-0

Agadir, Morocco cess _ . — h3°2

Mogodor, Moraceo _... : 4 30 03°7

Phase,

lag behind

Amplitude solar radiation

co F,

days

G3 53

cg) 57

75 63

9-8 41

11-4 32

54 59

6+3 a)

7:5 56

5+6 40

From the data available it may be assumed that the temperature requirements

of Pinus canariensis approximate to the following conditions on Teneriffe:

Mean Amplttnde Phase

TF wr, days

At 2,000 feet ang chs . 606 Bg 53

At 4,000 feet es . wae 8B 9-€ 44

At 6,000 feet 6 ext ... “SL0 11-C 36

P.radiata.

Fig. 4

Map of south-eastern Australia, illistrating localities where

teniperaiure cohditions are similar with respeet to mean,

amplitide an phase to those prevailing in the California

home of P. radiata. ‘Lue areas are shaded and include

Kangaroo Island, the islands of Bass Strait, certain coastal

repions af South Australia and Victoria and the north-cast

corner of Tasmania. ‘Vhe numbered lines are the isohyets

with antiual rainfall expressed in inches,

Tt is possible to

obtain appropriate

combinations of mean

annual empcrature

and amplitude over

the whole range. and

these cambinations

haye been plotted on

the map of Australia

and are illustrated in

the maps of fig. 3

and 5, The nearest

approach fo similar

conditions occurs near

the coast at the

extreme western and

eastern geographical

linnts in Anstralia.

Stirling West in South

Australia, Terang in

Vicloria, and |aun-

eeston in Tasinania,

closely approach in

some respects the

mea climatic habitat.

Some selected yaltes

ot this kind are given

in ‘Vablé 4.

() Calculated from partly interpolated data.

TAnLe 4

Temperature and Rainfall Characteristics of Australian Localitica showing

some Features similar to those of the Zone of mative Occurrence of the

Canary Island Pine.

Temperature

Phage, lag

Annual hehind salar Annu Length of

meat Amplitude radistion — rainiall wet season

oR °F days ticles months

Cape Nuturaliste, W. Aust. _. 61:3 6+7 $1 33*4 8-0

Busseiton, W. Aust. ..., _ _. 60-6 B85 39 32°0 §-0

Bombala, N.S.W. = i. 27 11-0 28 238 12-0

Gabo Island, Vict. . fu wa 591 69 45 37°3 12-0

Launceston, Tas. aye ew . §4-9 Q-4 3l 2871 12-()

Terenyg, Vict. .... es ; _. 459-5 8-5 36 28°9 12-0

Stirling West, & Aust. , cae DOT G3 ot 46-8 11-4

Tn most of these cases rainfall may well be excessive and more favourable

conditions may possibly be found in semewhat crier zones adjacent Lo the appro-

priate température Zone,

PINUS TINASTER (Clister pine)

This pine occurs naturally and is cultivated successfully on the Attantic

coasts of southern France and Portugal. Certain strains are characteristic of

Mediterranean France. Spain, Italy and Corsiea, ‘The species also occurs in

Morocco, in fairly humid environments in the mountains up ta a height of 7,009

feet, mainly im the middle Atlas and in certain localities in the Rif, It is rare in

the Grand Atlas. It docs not generally occur east of lialy or Tunisia, but is said

to occur on the coastal islands of Dalmatia, ‘The African occurrences are not

regartied as jumportant, but they afford evidence at least o7 the climatic range of

the species. On the whole, the cluster pine therefore belongs essentiatiy to the

Western Mediterranan. It is regarded as beine much less drought resistant than

the Aleppo pine, Pais halepensis, wuich is much more widely distributed but

which does not occur im Portugal,

On the basis of its distribution two races are recognised: maria and

mesoguensis, he former race belongs to the Allantic coast, the second to the

Mediterrancun regions and probably also ta Moreceo and Algeria. The Moroccan

strain is said to be more tolerant of calcareous soils than are the principal races.

The temperature and rainfall characteristics of typical localities are given in

Table 5. The wettest month in these regions is October; antiwin and not winter

is the wettest season.

TABLE 5

Temperature and Rainfall Characteristics of Localities it

or near the Zone of mative Occtrrence of Pinus pinaster,

Temperature

Phase, lay

Annual behind solar Ati Ociaher Length of

mean Ampliwde radiation rainfall rainfall rainy season

Laorality or Ps days inches inches months

Atlanuie Enyironment--—

Bordeaux, Trance 54-1 13-9 3 307 36 12

Ayeachon, France 5567 13:7 al 34-1 4-5 2

Biarritz, France ... 507 115 37 — _— _—

Lisbon, Portugal 59-3 10-3 38 29-7 34] 9

Oporto, Puartugal 57-4 99 35 = om, =

Coimbra, Portigal 58-5 10+5 34 —/ — —

Santiago, Spain 54°69 10-0 37 62-0 6-7 12

Meditertanean Environment—

Var, France wee DOCS 13-8 35 39-3 6-4 il

Nice, Franee thls .. 59-4 13-8 35 30-9 5°S ia

Toulon, France ... ae a8-9 14-2 33 29-1 4-6 10

Marseiiles, France an 3688 14-4 32 22-6 4-0 9

Tle dé Levant, France .... 58-6 13:2 34 - — —

Montpellier, France ... 56-1 15+8 30 30-9 4-1 11

Can Corse, Corsica a BORD 13-1 39 27-0 4-2 —

Can Pertusata, Corsica... 60°6 12-4 42 22-4 2-9 —=

Jles Sanguinaires, Corsica 61+7 13-0) 45 216 3-0 —

Ajaccio, Corsica... G14 12-3 39 26:4 3+8 9

Bastelica, Corsica oo — — 466 44 11

Corte, Corsica... lea — — 34+5 3:8 16

Genoa, Italy vs a, ae 15-0 35 52-0 7+8 12

Sessari, Sardinia wa =5O9 4-6 37 = 3-4 —

In Corsiva, the zone of 7. pinaster occurs ai altitudes of from 1,390 to

3,500 feel, when it gives place to P, lericio (P. migra). It is probab'e that

originally 7’, pinaster: extended to sea level. Corte is uear the average for the

Corsican Habitat with an annual + raiifall of 34-5 inches, a minimum monthly rain-

fall of O-5 inches in July and a maximum incnthly ra: infail of 5:6 inches in

November. An estimate of conditions in Morocco, near the north “Aftican Hinit

of its occurrence, is possilile from data available for Dayet Ashlef. Estimates for

the temperature characteristics of the Corgicaii and Moroczan habitats are given

in Table 6. It is diffienlt to predict the correlation between amplitude and phase

and altitude without some ioral data, but the data for Sessari 1 Sardinia at an

altitude of 730 feet is of some assistance in the case af Carsica,

TARLE 6

Ustimates of Temperature Characteristics of Corsican and Moroccan

Habitats of Poays prvester.

Catsiva Moroveo

Sea fevel Monn range Upper limit

Mean xnnual tenmperature Gl’ PF, 5a° Re, 51° FL 33° F,

Amplitude - - - 13° F, 15° F, 16° FB, 16° F.

Phase - - - 41 days 35 days 33 days 40 days

‘Che fotlowing general limits may he suggested for the temperature cherac-

teristics of the zone of P. piiasler:

Mean annual temperacire te, yes F.

Aniphtude , an ee vile -15° P

Phase. Se a 3Y dayg

It is possible further to separate the eerie aba Mediterranean zone from

ihe Portuguese zone in order to define the temperature couditions more narrewly.

Vor the Mediterranean zone these 1 wnay he roughly dened by tive following limits

and their linear interpolations:

Mean annuzl temperature 54° Ty 61? F.

Aniplitude “i i — 14°F. 13° F.

Phase cue _ . 80 dars 41 days

For the Portuguese zone the conditions can be more narrowly defined :

Mean annual temperahire - — 39° Fb,

Amplitude oe sii re aw 10° R,

Phase Ait . ne me . 86 days

‘Thess latter conclitions, with mxlactuies annual rainfall, are closely reproduced

by conditions at Collie, Bridgetown and Donnybrook in Western Austraiia, rela-

tively near to the coastal plantations of this species of the State lorest service.

There iy an approach to these conditions m eastern Gippsland and the adjacent

coastal regions of New South Wales,

The relevant data for these Australian stations are given in Table 7, where the

inetith of April corresponds ia October in the northern hemisphere,

Tanne 7

Climatic Data for some Australian Stations cortespendive in

Temperature Conditions to Portuguese Hahitats for P. pinaster.

Temperawiure Riki tall

Mean Wettest Length

aunual Amplitude Phase Annual April month of s¢asun

Loeality cae OF Pit: days Inches inches iiehes miunths

Weatern Australia—

Collie ten . O94 10-4 435 39-4 2:0 7-5 5-0

Donnybrook 60-6 8 39 41-1 17 73 8-2

Bridgetown ven BBA7 a7 37 34-2 1-7 59 81

Victoria and New Sont h Wales—

Gabo Island _. 591 (9 45 37-3 3-1 4-5 12-()

Mallra wa B73 §-3 3 23-5 1-4 2:3 12-0

Sale a au BPS Oey 31 23°9 1-7 2:5 12-0

Bega AR ve alhD 10-2 2Y 33+3 2-2 3-9 12-0

Bodalla : zat ABS, as 33 36-1 2-8 4-0 12-0

Moruya Heads ., 60-8 8-3 36 34-9 31 +0 12-0)

The raintall cistri-

bittion in the eastern

Austtevan stations

camo be said to

approsch at all the

conditions in Portugal,

notably in the nbsciice

of a true drought

perigd in summer.

Parallel conditions are

therefore restricted to

\Western Australia.

For the Mediter-

yanean zomtes there is

ray wider range of

parallel temperatiure

conditions, proyreliig

only mean ard ampii-

td talcet1 imta

coisheration, There

is At approach to

equiva emt phase con-

ditiens in northern P_conariensis

Viclovia and on the —

western tide of the Fig. 5

Souther tableland of Map of south ea Bipin Australia, ilastratine localities where

teniperalure conditions with respect to meau, atnplitude

New Fateh Y ales, of and phase are sinilar to those prevailing in the habitat of

whieh Purrvinjuek and P, catericisis in the Canary Islands. The arcas are shaded

Acvlate n ray be taken and include areas in eastern Victoria and the south-east of

fe rentesentative, The New South Wales. The line of circles indicates parallel

ae cea Te conditions with respect to mean and amplitude only, The

approoriate esmbina- numbered dines ure isohyets with annual rainiall expreesed

toms Of mean and in inches.

amplitude in temperature oceur from the north of New Fngland in an arc reach-

ing as far as Rutherglen in Vietoria,

The conditions at Adclong ahd Burrinjuck are given helow in Table 8.

Tarte &

Climatic Data [or two Staliows in New South Wales corresponding

in Température Conditions tu the Mediterranean Habitat of £. pinaster.

Temperature Rainfall

Mean Wettest Length

Lopaiity wefiual Amp itude hase Annitat Anvil muuth of season

Adelong _ oy oD 13-3 3 29-3 1:9 4-0 {2-0

Surrinjuct a B80 13-0 Ai) 33+K 2] 4-3 12-0

The conditions of evaporation at both these centres is such that near-drought

conditions prevail during three summer months. It is probable that appropriate

conditions occur near these localities at higher elevations. The information con-

cerning the climatic conditions under discussion are illustrated in fig. 3 and 6,

Pinus NIGHA

(Black pine, Corsican

pine, Austrian pine)

The climatic condt

tions under which the

black pine grows. 1n

its natural habitats are

not so easily defined

owing to the paucity

of crect meteoralogi-

cal data, associated

with the fact that

these habitats are at

some elevation rang-

ing from approxi-

mately 600 feet in

southern France and

Australia to 6,000 feet

in Cyprus and Ana-

toha. No climatic data

have actually been se-

cured relating directly

ta one of the known

liabitats of this pine,

but rainfall reqire-

ments are generally

P pinaster.

Fig. 6

Map of south-eastern Australia, jilastrating localities where

teniperatute conditions with respect to mean, amplitude : .

and phase ate similar to those prévailing in the native regarded as high, in

hahitats of P. pinaster. ‘These areas are shaded. The area the neighbourhood of

macked M is just worth-cast of Canberra and reproduces 50 tncties per annum.

the temperature conditions of the Mediterranean habitats. * f

The arca macked P, near Adelaide, reproduces the Portu- Tre main centres of

guese conditions more closely. The lines of circles distribuiton are wide-

indicate areas where the Portmguesc conditions ure spread but obviously

parallcled with respect. ouly ta mivan and. amplitude, The localised, They include

areas enclosed in heavily dotted lines indicate aveas where i fn :

the Mediterranean conditions are similarly reprodtced, southern France, ut

The numbered lines are isohyeéts cf meat annual rainfall cluding the Cevennes

expressed in inches, and Pyrenees ; Corsica,

Sicily and Calabria, Austria and Dalmatia, and the region of the Taurus moun-

tains, incl ding Cyprus and localities in Syria, The species also oceurs in the

Crimea and itr the Caucastis region and in the Balkans generally. Ai isolated

occurrence in the Rif of Morocco at 5,000 feet links Africa with the Spanish

habitat.

In order to secure an approximation to the temperature conditions of these

habitats, correlations were graphically established between altitude, mean tem-

perature, phase and amplitude. Phase tends to be late both at sea level and at

very high altitudes, and to be generally correlated with amplitude for geographi-

cally grouped localities.

On the basis of these correlations the following estimates of temperature

conditions appropriate to Pinus nigra have been obtained :

TABLE 9

Temperature Characteristics associated with Habitats of P. nigra.

Mean Atuplitude Phase

oR oF, days

Mean of all estimates si uke ae <SU4 17-6 31-4

Mean for lowest recarded a altitudes * we 5370 18-() 31-2

Mean for highest recorded altitudes wie we 480 17-4 32+8

Highest temperature estimate (Cyprits) .. cer BTS 20-4 32

Lowest temperature estimate (Austria) .... we A604 18-5 26

The high yalues for amplitude suggest teat Prius nigra is associated with 2

much more continental climate than the pines that baye so far been considered.

_ No Australian locality has a temperature range as high as that of these

habitats of Pinus nigra. The nearest approach is im the highlands of New South

Wales and Victoria. Tasmania is too much within oceanic imfluences to attord

parallel couditions.

Comparison of the above characteristics may be made with the following

for Australia:

Mean Amplitude Phase

ap, oP

des

Mount Buffalo, Vict. ... bys wee 46-4 11-9 3+

Omeo, Vict. a -m Love we 593 12-6 28

Nimmitabel, NS.W. 1, ae 3865 114 28

Crookwell, N.S.W-. - = we «S29 12+4 31

Waratah, Tas. ... 4 Lone ne F6e4 6°6 39

Pravus HALEPENSTS. (Aleppo piite)

The Aleppo pine is much more widely distributed than the other pines under

discussion, £, pinaster and P. Jialepousis occur ieunediately below the zone of

P. nigra, the fornier in the western and the fatier in the eastern Mediterranean.

According to Bean (1925) this is the commonest pine on the south coast of

Europe, and is ut its fittest on the Dalmatian coast. Jt is more drought resistant

than P. pinaster or 1. nigra, and its temperature requirements are continental

rather than maritime.

Conditions for two extreme localitits may be quoted:

dAnnaal

Mean Amplitude Phase rainfall

a a! FE days iuches

Raztisa (Adriatic coast) bay we §=61-6 15-0 AQ 50-2

Bou Taleb (Algeria, 4,100 ft. altitude) a $395 19-0 37 1W7+1

This latter station has an effecEve rainfall period of approximately nie

months. Temperatures of typical localities for this species are quoted in Table 10.

TAsie 10

Temperature Characteristics for Habitats of P. halepensis.

Locality Mean Amplitude Phase

os OF er days

Mean of coolest conditions — .... an itr we SBA 18-9 31

Dalmatian coast .... deo on see! tas ~, 61-2 15-0 39

Palestine coast ... ia wae Aa. La .. 68-2 12-3 47

Best range in ie shh ve ie a. as R=? 2-1 33

Caucasus. a ae bs aw 96 20 38

Southerb Praiee 4 at 4,000 feet , = hes te .. §4 17 25

Syrian mountains ris} ‘ats ‘ps bint we 592 18-9 34

Generally speaking these conditions are more continental than occur in Aus-

tralia, but the coastal localities can be more closely paralleled. The Dalmatian

conditions with respect to mean and amplitude only are reproduced to the north

of Cootarnundra, New South Wales.

The Palestine coastal conditions are reproduced fairly accurately near Gerald-

ton, Western Australia, as indicated :

Mean Amnlicude Phase Rainfall

ae oF, days inches

Geraldton, W, Aust.. “5 st a. 67-2 8-2 47 18-7

Chapman, W. Aust. ar sxc ven G66 11-9 43 18-3

SUMMARY OF TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTS

It may be convenient ut this stage to summarise the inean temperature

characteristics of the habitats of the pines under discussion, This is set out in

the following table, The summer and winter {emperatures are obtained by

respectively adding and subtracting the mean and amplitude for each species.

Taste 11

Summary of Temperature Conditions characteristic of Mean Wabitats of

Pines of the Medéiterrancan Bnvironment,

Amipli-

Mean tude Thase Summer Winter

Species ae (aa oT, days oF oF,

FP. radiata =: sy es cm wey OB 6 42 4 52

FP, canaricnsis —..,, bert .. 56 10 44 66 46

P, pitdster—Atlantic sertvivaninelit A . 49 10 36 69 49

Mediterranean environment ... 58 14 36 72 44

P. nigra... Se i, ion haa as “50 18 a1 68 32

F. halepensiy ® wed ue oe ww 60 V7 36 77 43

The main contrast ts between the maritime climate associated witte P. radidla

and the continental climate associated with P. nigra. For the first three species

listed it is possible to reprodiice fairly accurately the appropriate conditions inh

Australia. Tor the Jast two species the amplitudes are not reproduced in

Australia.

The temperature homoclimes of the first three species are given in the maps

of fig. 3, and fig. 4, 5 and 6,

SURVEY OF THE RESULTS OF PINE INTRODUCTIONS

The first introduction of pines was for aésthetic purposes and for shelter

breaks, and it was mot till the very end of Lhe last century that plantations began

to be established to yield soitwood for industry.

ATSITHETIC PLANTINGS

The first successful imroductions were wadoibtedly rhe Mediterranean pines.

One which, owing to its economic unimportance has not been dealt with climati-

cally, was the first favourite aestheticaily, the stone pine (Pinus pier), Its

wnbrelia crown and its edible seeds contributed to its choice. Next came cluster

pins and then Aleppo pine in order of favouritiam, ‘These three have survived

in city gardens anid parklands, liomesteads in the country and in windbreaks

around the paddocks. from Perth to the Narthern Tablelatids of New South

Wales, whiorever the rainfall was sufficient and rhe soil sutiable. Canary pine was

a later introduction, and it was not so extensively planied for ornanient. The

seed wis hard to precure, and also the trauspianting of the seedlings is trouble-

some, Tilack pine under the namie of Larivio was planted, but only rarely, Growth

figures of some of these species planted for ornament and shelter are of imerest.

Monterey Pinn

t was tnt till the seventies of last century that this pine was introduced from

Californin. Tis esteacrdinerily rapil growth mace it a prime favourite, and the

Mediterranean species came to be avglected. (rown as a specimen tree, or in

avenues, it puts cm as mach as three-qearters Gf an inch in diameter and as much

fee: in height iva year, ft is yery easy to raise in the nursery and can he

planted out when ouly a year old. “ was omy tattiral thar this pues should have

becom: the prime favourite for planting, both for ornament aud shelter. Lt wis

planted everywhere in Australia w here trees could be grawn at all, anil it has

survived in the helt of winler rainfall where this is more than 20 inebes, Li has

failed in the summer rainfall helt, and its narthern coastal Huitit hi New Sonth

Wales is around Taree, In the sunimer rainfall and surbirimpical warmith if degelets

a very hranehiy distorted fiahir of growtl: ail succumbs to the attacks ef Diplouss

Tig injury by stummer Ingilenaind, ARIE y yihe GA por a lou: Live} tree.

Cumprresk witht Flack ¢ pins, Whith geaes ior 409 year shortlive,

for jt only attains about 126 years in its malive site i ntroduction

of this tree is too Feee! at us ye cant af a ¢ eran Gl as lke chiparya er

cay rol ene i , eect tips it

oue dideed where ne s leficient quit shi} coudiiions arc apt sittin tactery. bn these

citeunizinnees tee He iit emeuimeny ee eretyan thers

40 years. All round hevtse taints’ qf santhern ‘Austratin may

ery share

be seeu

grand imiens GF Mumulerey pine cf G0 seers ald Same of the nobleai of (ean

huve } be i fered in recent wears ow! Lorde ot soltwagdd camel lag Ue

war. Specinwrs four fee dn diatoworer ane 120 fest in hetghy are seit ia he en

inthe Bowral disrrict of New Sonth \VWalvs, where | bork tak? aud soll eau,

are vefy favnirabie, Sreh fine ireys nes be secu da all the seuthern

including Wesrern Ai a les awhese ie ramtail mare yn thirty mches,

the raliniad drops the vate of growth el, Wi atiinde

cuinpersaling im sui Sticgeaes the ah “Hopravement,. it

60 years old, are to be found ea tue New South Wates tabtsta

‘nicl NE bhy trees.

Srinsitcl

3p Cideaeter ancl BO pet int height

5 there are iwoa specimens 22 jiches

a very como ornamental tree

hat: ag tty Territory, there pe

rn it As a rarer free in

CP, foasijolia) qacs beth

its sty

itt dinars:

arma

thes costa 1ey

wf ons

ant hug ventaced at iu nes

CLUSTER PINE

Around Adelaide this pine atiains a diameter of 30 inches and a height of

80 feet in 30 to GO years, In the Lity Park in Iiobart there are specimens

AQ inches in diameter and up to 89 feet high. Very good specimens are lo be secu

in the better rainfall areas of Victorea, There were sore magnificent specimens

at Duntroon in the Austratian Capital ‘Verritory, one was 36 inclics in diameter and

70 feet high. In the coastal region of New South Wales altacks of Chernivs

reduced the vigour of this tree.

3EACK PINE

This pive is rare as an ornament tal tree i suaithh Agsteatia, Ty Victoria there

are fine specimens in Ballarat, Mount Macedon ard in many of the paris af scaler

townd. Some parlicularly Hotrishing trees ure to he seen in the monniain tawn-

ships, such as Yackandan, south of Albury,

Tt $$ twt common in New South Wiles, though it is to be found i mery of

the stations of the southern highlands, Two good spectens are ta be seen at

Kapperk smabalungy in the Australian Capital Territory. At Walerawang here

is a fine sow of them, anid they are so welt acelimatised vkat crops of seediigs

have escabliched themiselyes in the a udjoiuiag paddock, 1. Geas not appear to lave

been introduced itt Tasmania in the carly days,

Around Adelaide this pine attains a diameter of 3D : ;

70 Feet in 50 ta 60 vears lt is frequently used as a witicbreak, In many tiand

dry areas, eepcc cially whafe there is lime in tke soil, thie ttee flourishes where

cluster pine fails, At Mudgee, New South Wales, it is the best ¢treet iree,

Anepry Dinu

aches and a helghr ot

Stemming np the position so far as Me ormanenial a ed arboricwtiral planing

goes. al the snecies of pines heing bivestigated have sreceeded ir all pers of

sonthera Augiralia where rainfall siticed atid soil comfitions permitted, TL must

be retaitbered that trees planted Tor otnamenr, avenues ened Rindbreakse have a

much better chance of sarvival shaw tress planite; Lin the close formation neccesary

to assure a crop Of timber velding logs. ‘The ceouomic B antation of the favester

affords, therefore, a much betrer test of the suitability of 2 species po the varius

factors of ejvironment.

PORESTRY PLANTATIONS

With her apparent wealth of timers, rt wus only itural that the artiicial

creation of forésts by planting should have cuir very Jate in the history of Ats-

tralinn development. The first State to fine) the nee-l for growing timber was

South Australia, which was deficient even in hardwoods Frem the hepinning of

her history. So in 18é8 the first plantations of softwoods were est tablished. Liv

that date the vieorets growth of Monterey pine bal been recognised, and in con-

sequence it became the chosen foresters’ tree very carly. The areas planted cach

year were small, and. in addition to Monterey pine, some of the Med literranca.

pines were also planter, a some viaces the species sere mine! and valuable

dala on comparative growtha were ebeuned, Woirrabary, Dune tale rand Kutpy,

also Penola aod Mount Mcintyre in the South-Hast, were all sites of plantazons.

The rate of aanual planting was sradhially increascil tart] the twenties of this

century, when it reached several “thous vid acres a year and consisted a’most

entirely of Mouterey pine. By this time. teu, the other States had embarked on

softwood plantations, 80 that aregs came to he planted in widely separated parts

of the continent. While Monterey pime was accepted as Une best tree of all. other

species, including the icur Mediterranean pines, continued iu be tested wniler

plantation conditians.

Montesry PINk

This species has proved quite successtul in the better soils in the harri couniry

uf ihe south-west of Western Australia. .\reas of suitable soil were, however,

so rewlricted that it was found best io make cluster pine the mam planting species.

In the South-East of South Australia, plunttions uf this spee'es have attained!

the best developmetit in the continent. There are now over 80,000 acres ay plarti-

tion in this region, and ihe cut of logs amounts to aronnd 5,000,000 cubic feet af

timber. This supplies both the saw-logs and ihiunings Tor the production of

cellulose, also logs for the making of veneers. Some ides of the rate of growth

in this ifeal climatic site will be gained by a study of the yield per acre, The

maximum rate of growth ineubie feet per acre is 300. The average is around 2/5,

8.000 cubic feet of logs have been commonly ent per aere Trom plantations 26 10

30 years oid, The success of this epecies im this region has led to the farmarion

of private companies, wid these have estalished plantations udjoining those ol

the State Department of Weeds and Forests, Tt may now be confidentiy aceepterd

that Uis region will heeame the most important softwood forest area of Anstralit.

and that this is wholly dite to the stecess of Monterey pine,

While growth was slower, exelent eroos lave been grown at Pnrvtaleer,

Wirrabara, Mount Crawford and Kuitpe, Conipated with South Australia,

Victoria has not mantel so extensively. The best plantations are in the Bright

district. The growth here is not so good ay im the Souti-as! of Sontiy Australia.

There ave a number of sniall plantations of ¢reat interest, but nowhere is feere any

large body of pine forest. The Ballarat Water Supply authority established a

very successtul plantation in its cateliment area. Privare companies have made

planiations, aud the one et Portland is the Jargest. ‘Lhe growth approaches that

of the Mount Gambier district,

In New South Wates Monterey pine hes not dene well in the coastal sites.

On the other hand it has suececded in the Mountain tegion in the Tamut diserict.

Here ati excellent rate of growth has hesn maintained. Tt ix uufortumate that the

planting policy established in the twenties was abandoned for l4 years. As a

resilt the total arca of plantations of pine is iusignineant. While there are many

small plantations, nowhere is there a sufficietttly large area except in the Tumut

district, to test thoroughly the suitability of any of the species,

In the Australian Capital Territory, pine planting was. started im 1914 fur

aesthetic purposes to cover [he bare Stroma mountain near the capital. Econotic

plantations, chiefly of Monterey pine, have heen established since 1926 in the

higher rainfall areas in the foothills ai the mountain range which forms. the

western boundary of the Verritary, The growth has been satisfactary, 11 -com-

pares with average siles in similar country in the Titnvat district of New South

Wates, The rate of growth js less than in the South-last of South Aystralia

and yuold average 200 cubie teet per were per year, In spite of the dryness of

the Stromlo site the aesthetic plantations have dene quite well, but although very

heavy thittiiig hag been carried out they would seem to be reachiig their phesical

rotator and it is doubtful whether they can be carried bevonnt 35 years. This

area is a goad example of the econumic vilue af Monterey pine, Stroma fas

supplied the bulk of the flooring for the ecotruyes in Canberra, and, in spite of the

faci thet the climatic fuctors are defimicly unfavourable. ra other species of tree

would have given such returns.

Somall arboreta, established by the Commonwealti Torgstry Bure to test

the suitahilily of different exotic trees for plantation purposes, gave very Tileresi-

ine resnlis. They were established at alsitucles varying Iron: 1,500 to 3,060 feet,

Up to 4,500 feet Munterey pine proved the most vigorous of all trees tested,

Tn the qilozs at 3,000 feet, iv failed to become established] aver thre suceessive

seasons, It was not clear whether it was the elect of long stiow cover or of low

temperatures.

In Tasimania, only very restricted plantations of his ssecies have been made,

and they have not been successful.

CAx AY Die

In South Australia 240 acres have becn planted and they are seattered in areas

at Wirrabara, Mount Crawlord, Kutipo, Second Valley aud Bundaleer, Tt has

cone best of all at Kuitpo. where Uiere is a 43-year-old sland. The trees are up

to 22 inches in diameter and 90 feet in beight. ‘Che oldest individual trees are at

Wittabara, and al 65 years are 28 inches in diameier and 104 feet in heighr,

Wester Australia only possesses expernuental areas of this species up to

S acres in exten. These caver a wide area in the south-west m the same localities

sabsenuentiv mentioned in connection with the Aleppo pine, with the addition

of East Karrup.

The largest ireces are at Hamel, and at 45 vears are 154 inches in dhameter

and 83 icet im henrht. They have done well at Manjimup; there they are 21 vears

old and have grown to an average of 10% iuches and 4 timsxinium of 14 inches in

diameter and heights of front 70 to 80 fect. The species has done well at Nannup

and felon.

In. Victoria there are 0 forest plantations of this species,

New South Wales lias used this pine for reclaiming country in process of

erosion by wind along the Murray at Moira. It is even heatthier louokimg than the

Aleppo pine with which it is associated and is making vigorous growth, “It ds

exceprional tu see a plot that is nov a tiniform healthy dark green colour.” reports

ihe Porester, The mean antual increment in diaueler is 0-44 inches, and in beigh

PS feet, The maximam figures are 0-63 inches and 271 feet respectively. Unlike

Aleppo pine, which stands the frusis of the hollows in this district, Canary pine

is susceptible. These differences in frost tolerance are in keeping with the dilfer-

enees In whe climatic associations of the we speces in cheir mative habitats,

In the Capital Territory only a yery small area has heen planted with this

species. TL gives proumse at Stromlo of making nll logs, but cannot, of course,

conmpete with Monterey pine in vigour of growth,

Ciuster PInk

dn South Australia areas of pluatations running wp to 1,500 aeres have been

established in the South-East. Whe eatliest trials were, however, made at

Bundaleer, where there is one acre sixty-one years old. It was also planted at

Wirrabata, Mout ‘Crawford, Kuitpo and Second Valley. The development

everywhere compares favourably with that of the artifictally created forescs in

the Lamdeés of Gascony. Where it was planted in allernate rows with Monrerey

plive Tt has been suppressed by the more rapid grower, except on siles where soil

condilions have been unsatisfactory tor the latter, Tt premises to play a larger

part ja the planting programme of the Stateus soil surveys reveal areas where it

is Ukely to be the more successful. At Wirrabara it has attained 93 feet in 65

years and a diameter of 30 inches,

in Western Australia this species has been accepted as the best pine for the

coastal pains fron: Perth ta Bnssetton. Considerable areas have been planted,

mul at frst a good deal of (rouble was experienced, ‘Phe growth im some tireas

was very poor indeed. Research inte the cause revealed that it was a questietr of

soil fertility. The vse of superphosphate has, it is claimed, corrected the trouble.

[INessell and Stoate (1938), Perry (1939),] Considerable work has also heen

frome on the question of the different races of cluster pine and Perry (1940)

reports that the type From Leiria in Portugal wes jonnd to be the ast vigorous

and gave the most symmetrical shane of trim.

ln Vieroria ithe Forestry Commission has established some 2,200 acres of

plantation at Anglesea, Frankston and Wuare. The oldest is now 21 years, and

diameters are up to 14 inches. ancl heights 56 to 65 feet. Lt is elafmed that this

tree has heen moderately successful only on the best sites in these areas.

dn the Australian Capital Territory it has only been the sttbject of experiment

in the altiuuedinal arborera. It bas wot done weil, but it is interesting io note thut

it has tor been Killed by the very severe frosts that are experienc) in this terrifary,

Tt survives even at 4.500 feet.

In New South Wales it was planted im varios locaivies between Eden andl

Nowra. Nawhere have large arees been planted, so chat it cannot be said io have

heen seriously tested, The interruption of all saifweod planting was a contribut-

ing [actor to the lack of evidence in this State. Ty the south coastal plantarians

it has sot proved successful. Chrepenes undoubteuty affected is tarly growth,

No attempt has been mace to stleer the hest race for ihe region,

In Tasmania only stall experimental plots have been planted at Strahan an

the west cuast aud at Triabanna and Llastnigs om the east coas:, They are all

very young, but veporls do uot give much encouragement, The Department has

now intratuced the Portuguese ctirain, From witch berter results are expeeted.

Hiinack Pink

dn South Australia the vatal area planted is about 200 acres seaitered in small

plantatiens at Wirrabara, Mount Crawtord, Kuitso and Secoml Valley; avi in

the South-East at Peiota, Mvern and Careine, with largest area at Moune Eterr,

OF acres. At Wirrabara it has reached 82 fect qn 16 inches diapyeter in-63 years.

Nowhere is it at ail comparable with rhe growth seem in Evwrope.

In Western Ansiraha planting has hecn contined ta experimental plots in the

ineahes tadieated uncer Aleppo pine, and iis addition at Pemberton in the south

of the kan couniry, sphere 3 its erawth is reported as good, tr all other ‘ocalmias

the species bas dome bad'y. The trees are 28 fect bigh atl heave a diameter af

Shainches at l7 years at Pemberion,

In Wreloria sone +300 xeres have been pinnae ny the biecttiear localities :

Atve Vales, Angieséa, Pright, Creswick, ides VW ‘ai Jecchwarh,

St asherhenae: Ovens, Staley, ° Fuore ned, Waste, Tt} Jon regions

Weer toy alt is over 40 iaches and where the soil is of guod cla The oidest

iras are JZ

2 years old, and the tight of the treus ranges from Gi 20

the diameters from 8 to 14 inches.

Jo Cvew South Wales this species was triel in ail the experincital plante-

s. dis het eroywrh 7a ar eo. Nato aml Dow Stare beeest peer

These ave all suml raft) and Tig sires. There is a falling olf

te i in tye drier reginas. A trial was maz We will, sect a the Calabrian

foreais im Siaty, ant the yes tress pineo) eut at Piler PiU near Barker to the

moulttaus, They ure only li ye; su Lomb rf is ant neste Sh say mach

aheut tieir griwtt, They are bien! the survival is 999%. -The height is

2b feet aud diameters yun tip in 7d }) ine

Tq ite Ausicadand Capital Territovy aw arca of tis spreles, wits piace] get

Viorces Crock inthe fonthitths of the rye, Pie eoced wil gana fon Corsten dat yory

mined raves retwtes. ‘The lest type has mate tau tres. hur there cre minaerous

Fab bees swith shevt seiles, dy ie ati ae eeperimestal pets wiready

Tod tm, three = tiphs ye unser tr Calabar, the ane from the Cevennes

5 staal, (be “Et Ci Metin Eve. ACT are | ey

thore are twe plois af the Corsican

type. “Phey here nr este useful trees ive years, hul are ui suftidienty vigntoi to

eivotage Farther planting in this ity aten,

e sou

Areppo DINE

South Australia again leads in area planted, but the tefal is very small around

230 acres ‘nu all, divided between Win rabara, Bundatecr, Kuitpo and Mount Burr.

The best grawth was attained ai the first two stations. At Kuitpo it is only fair,

and at Mount Burr it is poor. The mastmum height growth) was reached at \Wirra-

bara—-101 fect witha diameter of 37 inches.

In Western Australia it has ony heen platted in experimental plois. They

cover a wide area in the southavest. Miuadaring. \puiecross, Hamel, Manj mup.

Harvey; then back from the coast at Dontiybrook, amd Natnup and in the karti

enuniry at Manjimup. The hest resutts are tecarded at Applecross wear Perth.

‘Twelve acres, now 15 years old, show an average Leight af 41 feer and a diameter

of Sy inches, The trees are vigorous aad ot gv od form. A small plot of a third

vi an sere at Mundaring, new “24 gears old, shows a mead leigh: of 52 feet and

diattteter of 9'2 inches, Some of the break trees tun up to 114 inches in chaineter.

In Victoria experiments were made of planting it at Ovens and Beech lorest,

but it failed in both stipes.

in New South Wales this is one of the species chesen to arrest the wind

erosion al Narrandera and at Moira on the Murray, Mr 8. U, Byles reports as

follows +

’The plantaticis at Moira show Ure best raat lh of any Aleppo pine |

have seen in Austratia. They ate vrowiig on sand duties previowsly? nnibered

with Callilris glauca. The trces are healthy and the stem-farm. remarkably

gol far the species, rom mpmory I would say that these plant ations are

equal co. i) nor better thay, anything DT saw in che sunt of Prence,”

lis avetase rate af growth is O-37 inches in diameter a year with a asain m of

O64 inches: the curresponding anmtieat height increments are 14 feet and 2 feet

Pe=precr ively.

‘Vor Geewri or Moxtaisy Prnicis KELATION To ENVLONMeNTAL Connirlass

A ehety ina mimher of ‘oentes in southern Acs; “iti 2 of tae various aupeets

of the rare ot groytin of sue his beet ¢ slut by the Corrimon-

werd Moreerey Dern. Moab S.iikasal eoneetinn (27 8k SEWER

dieu at Bicunt dimtr, in & i rags rala, Grawhy starts Li in 1-Atotist, and 71%

T= pulon Deiwern th nL A oulbert there is resdricis awe in the Su nity,

Vn, trgh We: ume 1295 a7 i

CMMLHIULA i t

Wirtes, i

CUFn ay

stoner t

pts

Syrowth y

spe Gan a sp

2 Lue i tj iste lies.

eine 2) coca rit

sod Jims Mico tin

Aor bie trite me

eG 13 soa 696

a) » oa ow OF

0-8 ee ee ee 7)

The chhet grevth pe aboard’ in Wester: Sveneiith showed a piristion

from other stations. Gravwth startet in July, and 279% of the anntial shart was

put on between then and the end of September, 16% was put on between October

and March, and the greatest growth took place in the antumn with 57% corre-

sponding with the heaviest rain, 20-9 inches al that time of year.

Dendrogra ¢phical records shaw that durng periods of drought not only

does the diamerer increment cease but shrinkeges oeettr. The same phenonienon

was observed by Dr. MacDougal in the forests near Monterey atid Carmel, ‘She

d’ference is that in tts natural habitat the drought aud shrinking occurs in the

autumn, for. though Vithe ram Falls, ine luisty weather im summer reduces

transpiration losses, while in Australia shrinking has only been recorded in the

summer iofiths, and there is a significant increment in autumn,

Monihly nicasurements by Mr. M. RO. Millett of the average increment

in diameter of ten trees at Canberra during the year 1943 have been plotted in

relatinn to temperature and climatic conditions in the diagrams ot fig. 7 and 8.

Growth is seen to be restricted hy low temperatures in mid-winter, and by Juw

reitfall in summer. The cliruatic infes used, the ratio of rainfall to the O-7th

power or evaporation [Prescoti (1986)], permits of the assessment af the

effectiveness of the monthly rainfall ay coutrolied by the evaporation. A bimiting

values to this ingex greater than approximately 0-6 is indicated for the period of

cfivetive rainfall, The greater Lenperatire range encountered ai Canherra may

he compared with that of the Californian home of the Ce the mean sumuner

and winter temperatures of which aré indicated in lig,

In fig, 9 is illustrated the growth cyele of this pine im relation to imeanm air

temperature, based on observations dy Mr. Milletr at Yarratumia, AVC{V., duriug

the years LO40-1944, on trees that were kept watered to eliminate ty te pauntall

factor a3 much as pos-

sible. The increments

recorded are the tour-

weekly averages for

fivetrees. ‘To he noted

are the much greater

growth ja spring than

jn the atittimn, and

the absenee of srawth

in the seventh and

eighily periods i July

atl Aurust,

The experience in

die Australian Capital

Territory and on the

southern tablelands of

New South Wales

gests Winits. of

ranee of this pine

myterte the rarher re-

stricted range of irs

native he bitat, The

‘imi in the Territory

at 4.500 feet is asso-

riate] pr obably with a TE MPE RATUR E

eait annual tempera-

tare of 45° P) with an

cmplituce Gf 12"5°F., Mean inesetment in nuflimettes per niouth of ten trees at

corresponding ‘aes Hemueter pile, 26 years old, in plentations at Canlerra,

A... in the vear 1943, plotted against the corresponding

Meat temperature of monthis temperatures. The data are those of Millett.

INCREMENT

Tig. 7

the coldest month of 32° F. and a mivan temperature of the warmest month of

57° BK. Assuming that 42°F, is the mean monthir temperattre liniting growth

and a probable rainfall of more than thirty inches, growth will probably be

possible for mast of the seven warmer wionths of the year with occasional checks

through summer droughs.

Conditions in the Tun district are associated witi a mean arinual rain-

fall of 31 inches and a mean annual temperature of 59° TP. with an amplitude of

13°5° PF. February is a drought month in terms of average valites for raintall

and evaporation, and Novemher, December ard January are also likely to be

drought months in a proportion of seasons, A mean temperature of 45° Ir, in the

coldest month is. some 2 to 3 degrees warmer than Canberra, but sull 7 degrees

cooler than the native winter climate of this species.

Tre Ciuorce o¢ APPROPRTATE SPECIES FOR Sourirern AUSTRALIA

The very high yiclds given by Monterey pine wake it the foresters’ chore

wherever it will grow. Even though tse mean amuual increment drops to 100 cubic

feet per acre in some

Pea adits fe tea ibe

E leeahtivs, it is diubie

ful whether — otlier

species would yield as

1s wieiy =

high returns i such a

short tine as this “re-

markatle pies!) on

10 the sanie sife.

Foresters in all the

suyrkern States of

Australia must con

"nue Ly experinient

with jit well beyond

the regions.of eptinum

climatic factory sliows

on the map of fig, 4.

lt is & clumancaily

toleraut species aml

fiag shuwa itseli very

hardy in the heavy

J oF M AM J J A S ON D frost districts of New

Ma Souilh Wales. This

Fig. 8

The increment daia af fig. 7 plotted against the monthly Opens a a Side

elunatic index of moisture conditions. The index is the large area of. Out”

ratio of precipitation to the O-7th power of the evaporation. tain country in both

Vietoria aml New

South Wales. Rainfall more than temperature limits its distributi6n beyond its

optimum sites, but seasonal distribution of the rain plays an important part.

Caution must be éxercised in trying to establish it in the regions of weil distributed

rainfail, while to try and grow it for ecomomic purposes in the summer ranfall

areas is to court failure. While 30 inches and over of tai are desirable, such

excellent resilts haye been obtained in a winter taintall of 22 to 25 inches that

foresters should continue lo experiment with this pine im these comparatively low

rainfall regions, low, that is, [vom a forester’s point of view.

INDEX

CLIMATIC

) One of the botanical synonyims of this pine is DP. isiquris, and m the early days

of its introdaction in Soath Atisrraliq it was officially referred to in Annual Reports as tie

“Remurkable Pine.’

Of the Mediterranean pines, cluster pine alone appears to offer a promise of

cconowde return to the forester. Jt has succeeded well outside its optim

climatic belt in Western Australia shown on the wap of fig, 3. It tas proved a

cesirahle tree in the soils of South Australia where these were found unsatisfac-

tury for Monterey pine. Lt will play a more and more important part in the

south-Iast of that State, not only in bringing into production these poorer soils

but also in breaking up the very large arcas of Monterey pine aul so reducing

the spread of disease, both eulomological and mycological, Further planting of

this species is indicated near Adelaide,

Sew South Wales presents an encouraging held for the establishment of

plantations of cluster pine. Experimental planting should be resumed on the

south coast, using the best race of Portuguese pine fron the forests of Leiria.

Further ip oon the

tableland the race

known as var. fraiiil-

font; nught well be mm

used. So much better

is the form of the 4

Leiria race, that even

where the climatic

factors point to the

vee pt the Mediter- 3

rane races the Par=

tugacse should be tried Z

first,

Canary aud Aleppo = 2

pines will fill very

valuable roles mc)

arrestivg wind erasion 3

in many parts of — |

the flower rainfall

regions. The eco-

none return in tim-

ber trem such planta-

tions is of regannety 40 50 60 70 Ff

Importance, But wi

provide a usetul com- TEMPERATURE

mocdity Th a very scan- Fig. 9

lily tree-clad region. illustrating the growth evcle oF Monterey pive at Yarra-

In the amonunmsinous !uinia. Austegiian Capital Territory, based on the neasure-

distriels where water ments of M. R. O, Millett. The increments recorded are

F taose af the mean girths of four trees over periods af faur

bad has taken weeks, for thirleen successive lunar months of the vearcs

puace, these species 1940-1944. The trees were watered to eliminate the rainiali

will be hetter adapted fuctor so iar as possible.

than any for planting

on the yery poor eroded steep siopes, The Chapman district of Western Australia

suggests itself as a possible area tor trials with the Aleppo pine,

Black pine appears to be climatically exotic. While the experiments with it

in the mountains of New Sounth Wales are encouraging, there is no doubt that in

all cases Monterey pine on the same sites would yield higher returns. It is possible

ihat with western yellow pine (Pinus porderasa), black pine miay fill a useful

tole in brealang up the large areas of Monterey pine in the same way as eluster

is doitig in South Australia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Tho authors wish ta acknowledge their indebtedness to Miss C, M. Eardley

for the preparation of a bibliographic guide to the species discussed, and ta Miss

Rk. Dow for assistance in the computations. The data of fig. 7, & and 9. relating

to the increments in growth of 2’, radiela at Canberra, were kindly provided by

Mr. M. R. ©. Millett. To Mr. T. N. Stoate, Mr A. t.. Pinches, Mr. A, V. Gal-

braith, Mr, D, H. Perry, Mr. B. U. Byles and Mr. A. [elms of the several State

Forestry services, acknowledsmenis are due for assistance in compiling the resulls

of introductions of the various species ta Australia.

REFERENCES

Bean, W. J. 1925 “Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the Briltsh Isles,” 2, (4th Edn.)

Brooks, C.F. P. 1932) “Le Climat du Sahara et de UArabie” (“Le Sahara”).

Soc. de Geographie, Paris

Byres, B.U_ 1932) Commonwealth Forestry Pureau, Bull, No, 6

Day, W. Kk. 1945 “'Forestry,”’ 19, 4-26

Day, W. R. 1946 “Nature,” 157, 827-829

Hernertrson, A.J. 1901 “The Distribution of Rainfall over the Lands.” London

Kenprew, W.G 1927 “The Climates of the Continents’ Oxford

dKessect, S. L., and Srovrr, T. N. 1938 “Pine Nterition,” Vorests Dept.

\W. Aust., Bull. No. 50

Mason, II. L. 1934 Carnegie Inst., Washington, Contributions to Talaconto-

logy, pt. iv, 124

Perry, D. H, 1939 Australian Forestry, 4, 12-14

Perry, D. Tl. 1940 Australian Torestry., 5, 85-87

Prescott, J, A, 1942 Trans. Rwy, Suc. S. Aust., 66, 46-49

Prescott, J. A. 1946 “Nature,” 157, 555

Woops Anp Toresrs DerarrMent, Soutn Avusrrarrs, Annual Reports

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Asciierson, P., and Graenyer, P. L913 “Synopsis cer Mittel-europaischen

flora,” 1. Leipzig

satiny, L, H, 1923 “The Cultivated Evergreens.” London

Tartaxpier, J. A., and Trasur 1902 “Blore de l’Algerie et de la Tunisie.”

Algiers

Dean, W. J. “Trees and Shrubs Uardy in the Lritish Isles,” 2, 1925; 3, 1934.

JLondon

S0rssieER, KE, 1881 “Flora Orientals,” 5, Geneva

Bonnier, G. 1934 “Flore conypléte de France, Suisse et Belgique,” 12. Paris

Byzes, KH. U. Commonwealth Forestry Bureau, Bulls 2, 5, 6, 8

Currrenpen, F. J. 1932) Conifers in Cultivation. Report of Conifer Confer-

ence, 1931. Royal Hort, Soc.. Londan

CottmaAn-Rocers, C, 1920 “The Conifers and their Characteristics,” London

Coste, IT. 1906 ‘Tlore de la France,” 3. Paris

Dariimore, W., and Jacnson, A. B. 1931 “A Handbook of Coniferae.” London

90)

Kaupercer, L. 1938 “Les Arbres du Maroc.” Paris

Fiort, A., and PAoverri, G. 1896-1898 “Flora analitica d'Italia.” Padua

Gorpox, G. 1880 “The Pinetum.’’ London

Grossirtim, A. A. 1939 “Flora Kavkas,’ 1. Baku

Grtnwarn, A. 1929 Seed Catalogue, Wicner-Neustadt

Havurwitz, B., and Austin, J. M. 1944 Climatology. New York

Heer, G. 1906 “Wlustrierte Flora yon Mitteleuropa,” 1. Munich

Kent, A. H. 1900 “Veitch’s Manual of the Coniferae,” [.ondon

Kew Roy. Bor, Garpens 1938 ‘“Handlist of Conilerac, Cycadaceae and

Guetaceac grown in Royal Botanic Gardens.” London

Lazaro &, IprzA 1906 “Compendio de la Flora Espagnola,” 1. Madrid

Linpsay, A. D. Commonweaith Forestry Bureau, Bull, 10

MueELtex, F., von 1881 “Select extra-tropical Plants.” Sydney

Post, G. 1933 "Vlora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai,’ 2. Beirut

Reimer, A. 1940 “Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs.’ New York

Rovy, G., and Foucaun, J. 1914 “Flore de France,” 14. Paris

Senints 1866 “Pinaceae.” [.ondon a

sHAw, G, R. 1914 “The Genus Pinus,” Cambridge, Mass.

Tromeé 1903 “Flora von Deutchland, Osterreich und der Schweiz.” Leipzig

SOME HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN VEGETATION COMMUNITIES AND THEIR

BEARING ON CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION IN ECOLOGY

By R. L. CROCKER AND J. G. WOOD

Summary

Recent advances in the understanding of the climatological and pedological pattern of Australia

have been paralleled by an improved knowledge of the post-Tertiary historical sequences. New

concepts of plant geography and ecology have also been developed. It therefore seems opportune to

attempt an analysis of some of the main features of the development of the South Australian flora,

and a definition of the factors which have influenced the species-mosaics as aggregated into the

present communities.

SOME HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

SOUTH AUSTRALIAN VEGETATION COMMUNITIES

AND THEIR BEARING ON CONCEPTS AND CLASSIFICATION IN ECOLOGY

By R. L, Crockrr © and J. G, Woon?

[Read 10 April 1947 |

CONTENTS

I Lureonverros 4 oe 4 - ee Re af . "i we G1

Il Grotastcat Factors té a4 .: Fr. 7 “ eo ee .. $2

1, Physiographic Tnfluences .- a “il +e ins os in} +. 2

2. Climate Influences .. id an is “ ae 2 ne . 95

UI fizsteey or tr Farny AvsrsaAurAN Frora .. ot ye + “ .. G6

IV Tue Recenr Aripiry me a A. oe 4 ate os oe .. 100

1. Age of Maximum Aridity a 3 4 an ba Ht .. LOU

2. Trends in Climate .. 24 vA ot ie ct + ri .. Wt

3. General Effect of Aridity .. te wh “ 1 ~ _ seh OF

4, Coutrection of Area, and Survival Peei ats 4 <9 . .. 104

Vo Devevormenr or Presenr ComMMOoNITIES 2. i re Be 7 .. 16

1. Migration and Re-colonisation -. ot ty be 5 a3 .. 106

2 Mo gratory Routes .. an ie 2 Por ir Ae 44 .. U7

VI Tyres ann Proprems oF Spectres DisTrincTion ,. 4 - -. 2. 205

1. Wide (continuous) Distributions vi he rv =< a 2. ahh

2. Restricted Distributions — Relic and Endem'c Speetes 4 “ .. Til

3. New Species and Taxenome Problems 4, te ae ee -, LI6

4. Some Reviston and Further Considerations .. N «t es -. 120

Vil Eeconnerca, Coxceprs AND THR TEVELOe MENT OF THR Sout AMWSTRATTAN

VEGEPATION .. A, as ‘ 4 de ns Ae 7 .

VILL Disersstox ann Caxceuswins .. bi 4 5. re 4s ot .. 128

JX Summary .. +4 a ole 4: she _ .- $. Le _ 31

I. INTRODUCTION

Recent advances in the understanding of rhe climatological and pedo'ogical

pattern of Australia have been paralleted hy an improve: knowledge of the oost-

Tertiary historical sequences. New concepts of plant geography and ecology have

also heen developed. It therefore seenis opporttine to attenipt an analysis of some

of the main features of the develapment of the South Australian flora, and a

definition of the tacters which have influenced the specicsmosaics as aggregated

into the present comintunities.

Vhe following discussion has been contined chieHy to South Australia, but

the implications and principles can he applied much more generally, and indeed

many of them to the Australian flora as a whole. Where necessary. or desirable,

no kesitation has been felt in taking examples From ontsi’e, or extending the dis-

cussion beyond, South Australia.

@) Waite Agricullural Research Institite,, University of Adelaide.

(1) Department ol Botany, tiniversity of Adelaide,

Trans. Roy. Suc. S. Aust., 71 (1), 25 Tule 1947

Il. GEOLOGICAL FACTORS

Modern flowering plants are generally considered to have had their origin in

the Cretaceous. Since then the palacontological record shows a differentiation to

more riodern types, and by the close of the Phocene most fossil plants exhibit

close generic and even specilic relationships tu present-day groups (Thomas

1934). It is unnecessary, thercfore, to go beyond a consideration of post-Jurassic

times in phytogcographical studics of the Atstratian flava.

The historical influeuces which have a bearing tpon tle development of the

Sontht Australian vegetation caa be considered as being ether physiographic or

cimtmtic.

1. Prysmurarmic [NrLueNctus

(1) Creracrtous

The early Cretaceous times in Australia were periods of cousiderable marine

uniudation, and there was a clear comnection of the seas with the ocean to the

north, both im the Gulf of Carpentaria region, and te the north-east of Brisbane

(Bryan and \Whitehouse 1926). It has also heen stiggested that there was a

possible cormection with the south, via the Eucla region and the Great Australian

Bight. If this were so, east and west Australia would have been completely

isolated in the carly Cretaceous.

Swamp conditions followed in the late Cretaceous. There are, however, large

gaps in the record, and it ts firobable that swatups did nat follow directly the

marine sediments (David 1932). They were, in any case, probably much more

restricted than the earlier seas. The approximate extent of the Cretaceous seas

(after Ward 1926) is shown in fig. 1,

ger

Vig. 1

Approximate cxtent of Cretaceous scas in Australia.

The latest epoch of major folding in Australia is also believed to have taken

place in the Cretaceous. This must Fave increased habitat diversity and had

important effeets upon the distribulion of the Cretaccons flora. However, neither

marine inundation nor the tectonic movements had much direct influence upon

the migrations of the flora of southern South Australia. During this period land

connection with the east was apparently continuous, and with the west was

probably so,

(2) Tenriary

During the long interval between the late Cretaccous and the Miocene, Aus-

tralia apparently enjoyed great stability and was reduced to a peneplain. This

peneplain is capped by Miocene marine beds in Western Australia and is therefore

pre-Miocene, and is probably pre-Oligocene (David 1932),

The Eyrian series is generally considered Eocene or |

lawer Oligocene. The

Oligocene proper in South Australia is represented by freshwater alluvial and

lacustrine deposits, including lignitic beds, and they have been described by a

number of workers (Broughton 1921, Mawson and Chapman 1922, Tlowchin

1929, Sprivg 1942, and others). Towchin says of the plant remains, “there can be

no doubt they represent suh-acrial conditions with low relief of the land and

sluggish drainage.”” The deposits are isclated, and were apparently local.

No major physical barriers to vegetation migrations between south-east and

south-west can be envisaged, therefore, in the early Tertiary. In the Miocene,

however, considerable areas in southern Australia were submerged, and this must

have destroyed the existing vegetation over a large region. The distribution of

Miocene-Pliocene seas in southern Australia reached their greatest extent im the

ancient Murravian Gulf. They are shown below in fig, 2 (after Ward 1926).

Fig, 2

Extent of late Tertiary seas in Austraiia.

Jn addition to destroying the vegeration (]ie seas themselves must have proved

a very extensiye barrier to migration, and effectively isolated floristically south-

east and south-west Australia, Late in the Miovene (David 1932, Sprigg 1942)

earth movements began. These continued into the Wliocvene, and through the

Pleistocene to the Recent, The result was a recession of the sca by the early

Pleistocene very nearly to its present position, though parts of the South-Kast of

South Australia were still inmndated.

In areas not subjected to inundation the peueplain which {formed tm the early

Tertiary continued to exist and to beeame further reduced. but volcanic activity

in the eastern States, which began in the Tertiary, led to mothlicaions in both

soil type and physiography in some regions, The volcanisin has continued an i

reduced scale right thraugh the Recent, when restricted activity occurred in the

South-East of South Australia (Fenner 1921, Crocker 1941),

The late Tertiary earth movements were particularly important in caster

Australia, where portions of old peneplaius were uplitted to natiate the prerent

cycle of erosion in the main divides of today (David 1932), South-west Aus-

tralia was less subject to these movements, and the old peneplain, although uplifted

in part, is still preserved there to a remarkabe degree,

In South Australia the carth-anovements were characterised by block-faulting.

which enlminated iu the elevation of the Mount Lofty-llinders Range system.

Over what até today the Mount Lofty Ranges it is likely that the Miocene marine

sediments, which have subsequently been stripped, were very thin, aid that hefore

the end of that period or early in the Pliocene, planr colonisation of the clevated

regions had begun. Discussing the Eden-Maana fault block, Sprigg (1942) says

the faulting was strongly pivotal. and, although continuing to the present day.

most adjustment occurred pricr to a restricted transgression of the sea to the

Pliocene. The old peneplain land surface is still preserved in certain pliysin-

graphic featires of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Hy contrast. the Binders Jacl

stich conspictous and general evidence of the older peneplanation, and the preater

degree of erosion there suggests that the herst block may have been raised earlier

(Mawson 1942), This is almost certain from a consideration of other geological

data (Aprige 1946), The same period of earth movements which built up the

Mownt Lofty-Flinders system of ranges was also responsible for vhe initiation of

the sunkland of St. Vincent and Spencer Guli (Towchin 1929, Bente 1950.

Sprige 1046)

(4) QuatecrNary

The blockfaulting initiated in the Tertiary has continned, thaueh oa a reduce t

scale, to the present day, A. series of retreats resulted in the emergence of large

arele in the South-East of South Atsiralia in the Pleistocene (Woods 1866.

Fenner 1930, Ward 1941, Crocker 1941)—perkans as a readjustment Lo belated

and dwindling voleante activity.

The Mout Letty - Flinders system was further modified in the Quaternary.

and the Gulfs reached their present extent probably mm the late Pletstocerne—

early Recent, Athough the data reyuire reviewing critically, it has been suggested

thar at gbont the sane Gime, om somewhat earlier, regional warping and

filing an a horizon through Ureken Hill- Peterborough and westward Irom

Spencer Gulf had dammed back some of the older rivers, producing a great inland

drainage busin (Howchin 1913),

That the Gulfs have acted as a barrier to migration, from east ta west amd

vice-versa, is shown by an analysis of acleropliyil comummities on adjacent penti-

sulas of the region (Wood 1930),

Apart trom the Gulfs there appear ta have been no physiographic barvinrs

to migration in South Australia during the Pleistocene-Recent.

cFTy

2. CumaAie [INFLUENCES

Past climates and their influences upow vegetational dynamics cau oply be

isenssed very vaguely in regard Lo pre-Quatertiary times.

‘The Cretaceous. or al least the early Cretaceous, is considerci! to have heen

a period of low temperatures over roost of Australia (David 1932), I) has heen

sugeested that “the hightands of South Atistralia, especialy perhaps the Gawler

Ranges, wate white with snowfields,”

Tertiary climates are a little clearer, Apparently the early Tertiary was

characterised by abundant rainfall and mmderate temperainres, for in the Lower

Oligocene such mesic elements as Nobho/agus, LTindrrsia and Tristanew wore wide-

spread in what are today the more arid parts of South Australia (Chapman 1937).

Associated with them were some of the early Eucalypts. including A. Mitentevati

Etrine., and Ly Kifsout, Deane,

The Mipcene marine deposits being characterised hy corailne limestones

indiente warm seas. lneleed, warmer conditions than present are considered to

haye prevailed right through to the preglacial Pleistocene (Whitehouse 1940). Tt

is nut wolikely that, at least during part af the Miocene, raintall was lower than

at present. Fhe PRocene is generally thought to have been humid, though White-

house has stiggested that in Queensland there may have been two periods of

aridity, allernating with wetter times,

fr is apparent that insuthcient date Wave been accumulated so far to permit

anything more than very general andlysis of pre-Pleistocene climates. On the

other hind, post-Tertiary cliuaies can he evaluated hetter, especially for the late

Neistncene- Recent, but the evidence (s still very searity and the conclusions, berta-

tive, ‘The infornation available has been recently simmarised by Browne (1945).

Terhaps the best evidence for a pluvial Pleistocene climate is afforded by the

nove or Jess extinet rivers and iakes, and the former exittence of Jarge herbivores,

in what are now the most arid parts of Australia (Tate 1879, 188+),

H has also been considered that the whole of the Pleistocene was a wel period

i Vieloria (Tals 1938). These opinions tow seem to be generally accepted.

David (1932) points ott that the reduced temperatures would lower evaporation,

and this alone would have the effeet of inereased rainfall, Whitehouse (1910),

on the other hand, believed that. althotigh inmost of the i ‘leistocene was pluvial,

the very late Pleistocene was characterised by arid conditions in Queensland. The

evidence, however, now suggests that desiccation was later than this. It is inter-

esting that the Pleistocene glacial conditions, which were associaled with semi-

aridity in much of the northern hemisphere, should have baen so generally humid

ih Atistralia, The reason appears to lie in the minor extension of the Autaretic

ice-cap and its stability, coupled with the absence of atiy major ice-caps in

Australian.

Atthoueh rainfall was probably plentiful throughout, femmperatyres yaried

with Pleistocene glacial and interglacial conditions. These changes must have had

aomarked effect upon the local flora. Pleistocene glacial soudiions im Australia

were restricted to small ice fields in eastern Australia and Tastnania, These were

too sia'l (see Brooks, 1926) to maintain anticyclones of sufficient intensiry to

serimisly deflect cyclonic depressions. The Antarctic. ice-caps are considered to

have heen more stable than those in the uorrhern hemisphere (Zeuner 1945), and

to have had only minor expausions in the Pleistocene. However, whit expansions

there were probably resulted in a more northerly meni path for Aistatetic “lows,”

which, in the absence of any deflection from the Austradan continent, brought

pluvial conditions to Austratia generally, t: would appear quile logical that crhese

continued with only small Maetiations Hironghont the whale of the Pleistocene,

incising the interghial periods This tas samy supsort in the geological

eviderice,

There can be little dewbt, then, that the South Austrian Pleistocene fora

Was enbject 1 to varying climatic pressures, and migratiotts occurred with the chang-

ing conditions. Seine time after the close of the Meistucene the rainfall sh arply

declined and a period of desiccation commenced. Before proceeding to a detailed

diseussion of the results oi ths aridity, it is imferesting ta consider the influence

of the major post-]urassic historical changes on the primary Australian fora.

11, HISTORY OF THE EARLY AUSTRALIAN FLOPA

The argin of the hes fora hus been cousidered by only a srr

maeber of writers. Of these Healer 5 (1860) “Tarroduetery [Essay to the Vlora

of Tasmania’ is rezarded as a casi Since then a restticted Heerature has

developed, cspecally in relation to the genus /orcalypfis, which bas been con-

sidererl as providing the key to the autochchonous element. Works of especial

jmportanse are thove of Cainbage (1913) and flerbert (1928).

Torker pointed cut thar although the Australian fora was ¢ sshecthyiseet hy

a large number of “restriore nM tthat is confine! ty Australia’) specter aad re.

it es J ihied the same primery featurcs as the Gara: of other continents. ‘He

recognised four elements s as having played the maior ro-es in its development,

wupey, Ariarei in Ney Zealenil- i wi, Jude-Mataya pee Avastraian

elenwits, These can he reduced to three elements, Inde-Melavesien, Antgretic

ait) Attstralin.

The Avturetic chimevr is widespread in southern Austrata and Tasniinia

ate] exbibtis. close affinities with the Voras ef New Zealand, southern Sonth

Americz. the suh-Antercctic jsios, and to a less extent South Attica. The cistr: in

How of this elenieiut Prats seit the southern hemisphere | nas heen Nel as eyi-

fenee of farmer land connection. hat che areanmments faye net heen cotiineiny.

vie bas bee drawl y Gibbs (1921) to the close affinities between the

vie element in Tasuriin, aed the Sera of ecrrain monntains i New Guinea.

fi Auetral-Antarenie eleivent tu have oferated originally tranr

Bah "4 once reson, “dat nrudaces metcor loviee! evitkeure for possibil ties af wil

of the diaspores, VE ates cer its QTE ia, # ;

ered an ancient ove elsewhere,

Who ba do-Molutesian clement is the Somiiant one ti semttrapieal aml weptica!

ard 33 tines Bora of the avid end senw-acil reiiars

hoon the Austratven elament whieh reaches its

say tampnead* it ite ed Fat tralia, partientarly in sonth-weet Ausiralin.

at ah e flora of ssouth- weet Acusirahin

hoere:t bas Hoenn Peeus

Aa strata cmreles, mani

that precio, bier ren"

fayelepment dr spialeo

hie

Au isival with mie §/ naw ne ered devut Spy step ich Is,

tee irmyces. Gurdnes (12) has a tet the: faculties of defining with exat ti

tn ihe Australien elect. aed thas maily. grasa prey tomb:

begins tact have trie: mice volig ur paleeotrupac

tel ee ctteati vis 34 wien aca Flic

it wa ctu farubes ped ecoups. wl are entirely AUELE

ponsiy renmrescuted etsevhery Peparn rte ate

pray niel srcel fa eb i

moat,

The ¢

ser i ee

eit shoat

iinet cents

‘ ; goes ns elhipire aad Barksat wea weston

Sent Pavansalin | mm “hat wi LyG7). and is preserved also i the Higseite af Murwell-

Yallourn, Victoria (David 1932). Hooker was lel to suagesi frum the arlined

and generic peculiarity of the flora in south-west Australia that Western Australia

was the cenirinu of the Australian fara, We poiits ottt, owever, that from

the viewpotit of habitac diversity, one would normatly expect Last Austealia to

to be richer in peculiar forms. Most ol the work concerned with the arigin and

development of the Australian element bas been concernes| with floristic elements,

and very little attention has been given to the importance of paraliel geolsgical

faclors im ils evolution,

In any case, sich considerations would have been of little value wniil com-

clusions from studies ov the basic geuiogy of Australta had reached) something lhe

Stability. The first plant geagrapher to consider geological factors very fully was

Diels (1606), wha postulated the possihiliy of a pan-Australad flora prior to

its beme split up hy the Cretaceous seas, Wool (130) alsa considerc! mat the

isclation of the two centres im south-west and south-east Austravia, front which

migration hag subsequently proceeded, was initiated with the epicontirental

Cretaceous seas. Subsequently, it was believed, a lirge measure of isolation lias

heen amitained it west Australia, while coisiderable admixture with “ndo-

Melanesian and Antarctic elements has uceurred im the cast. Hooker had suyerested

that the flera of Sotith Avistratia, which is poor ia enemies, would be found ta be

derivative, aiid internuediate iu character between that of the east and west.

Wood (lve. eff.) was able to confirm this in an anabvsis at the sclerophyil ecm

mmlics on Kaneuron [yi gud vhe adjacent pouuisaiay, end was able to denu-

strate that the Seuth Anstradan gulfs had acled as a harrier to recent mirration.

Towever, since hookers day no conyineing arguments have been advanced

to support lis sigeeshow thar Western Austrafia wus the centrum of the Ats-

irdlian vlemot, althougli it is established a5 a ceutre of dispersal, in his analysis

of Lhe distribution of the genus Anculwiiis, Herbert (1928) lias coneltuled that it

ig Nol possible to locate Lae centre of origin af thal genes, lat that ip is fairly

certain that it suecessfylly estabushed utseit in pessons with @ teniperate climate

aml abandant rainfall in the jate Creiacvous or curv Tertiary. This paper of

Terherc is also notewoethy th being the first we whiels the ceet of an earher

aridity was considered sysicmatically.

tris worth) veviewing the effect af the geo osical factors upon ihe rlisibi-

tion of the primary elements of the Australian [lura,

Firstly, the significant foristic aad patewhntanical evidence indiwates thar the

typical Atistralian element probably originated in the laie Cretaceous or early

Tertiiry. There is no eviltice of its being widespread mntit the early Periary.

Ty that dnue, eg. -eury Oligocene, such gener) as Penksie, Loker, Porvacniil,

Lomein cout Kuceiyties were well established in Sotih Austeata. though auch

admixed with a New Mealand Antarctic element waited by the tytk beech,

Nathafequs. Tt is obviews that feo mach etlentien lias been focussed an the

imporidnes of the early Cretaccous seas as isolating primacy elements of the -Ams-

tralian fora. fo the firs: place, alihoueh it is possibie thst cast and yost Avstrnlin

were then completely isuinted, the gestogiecal evideure far 1 is so scaut thal such

a supposition inust he consicered deibtoal da any case, uhere is ny evidence ag

yet thar rhe primary cloments of the Ausivalinu Gora hed arisen by the carly

Cretaceous, atvl indeed all the evatizble evideuwe engeests a deter origin. It is

probable tht the sewtbese Austratian flora was abies to migrate fron east to west,

if not thronal all the Crelaceons Ne certainly through the greater part of i. and

through all of the later portion. Tn Seth Austealia land connection with Srith-

Mast Australia was apparently eoutinuons throughout,

The over-uemphasis yt:pon the japortaace of the Cretaceotts epicontinental suas

has bee associated with complete negleet, with the exceprion of a consideratuar

wt the importance of the South Australian guifs (Wood 1930), of the mauner in

which tealation has been maintained heiween ¢ast and weat ta thé long interval

singe the lower Cretaceous.

Hernuse of the incompleteness of the Cretaceous record and the history of

the early Tertiary the centre of origin of the Australian clement will probaly

always b= unknown. Nor ts it reasonahle to suggest that there was cme centre of

origin tor the whole clement. The richiiess of the Mora of south-west Australia

cao be oaderstood better me terme of aim carly widely-distributed fora. Thar a

large ancl typical Ausiralian element was wilespread in the earty Tertiary has

already heen established, Te portions of such an element were eubsequely

isolated in the south-west from general phunt pewpraptical principles it is logical

lo asseinie that with we aud continued isalation a rich encemie fora would have

developed, The ynestionts reyuiring auswer aré firstly, ti what period was such a

pan-.Sestratian florg likely to have existed; secondiv, when and hew did tso’ation

pectin: and thirdly. in what manner has isolation hea so sueressfilly maintained,

Ti js ahvions thar alt three answers are requived iU sitistactoriy explain the presen

distrilanions, and it will be necessary to refer back to the post-Jurassic geotoyica!

iactors swannarised preyionsiy,

As Gardner (1942) points ont. the present dletribuiian of a large number

of Austisilai genera Tends definite otippert to the theory of the previous

exisicnee Of a pan-Australian clement. Tt was. this fact which led Diels to

shggest civision by Cretacenus epivantinental seas. Reasons have already been

siyen why this suggestion is untenable. [t has been shown, however, that iypical

Australian genera such as Yekeo, Konksia, Eucaulypins, elo, were widespread it

the lower Tertiary oyer a great part of south and east Australia, Lovfortunarely,

paleabetameal evidence does not extem! to \Westeru Austratia, Neverthetsos, the

cirguimetuitial evidence is aimest overwhehning. It has been mentioned that iu

the long imerval between the retreat of the lower Cretaueis seug amid the mid-

Tertinry Australia enjoyed preat stability, and diving this tine wes redmeod eo

an almost perfect pencplatu, with very few. ff any. conspicuous ranges. As a

couseyuence, the soil and climatic pattern intist have heen extraordinarily regular

and the zones broad. These circum=tanees must liave been very Favnurable, if

not unique, for the wide distribution af the floral umits. It was at sure stage or

stages Of this peticplanation that lateritisation, preseryed today as a fussil suil

characttr. was so general. Tt ts most hkely, theretore, that the elements wide

spread in south and east Australia during the Oliggcene were also prominent in

snith-west Australia, more especially oe these were Gmes of abundant rainfall.

Following luteriusaltion, and probably well into the carly Pleistucene, seit cone

tions over much of southern Australia preserved aw remarkable iiniferiniiy aml

morphological relatianship, The evidence them is strenely in favaur of a par

Austratian flora from the early Tertiary.

This tniformity would only be preserved if no marked barriers to migration

were to develop. Should a subdivision of the flora occur, divergences could sub-

sequently more easily make place. (tf so happens that the long period of pos

Cretaceous stability wes broken ia the Miocene by the infdation of epeirogenie

arth movements, and by the inundation of a cottsiderahle portion of setirhern

Australia. Although the chinatic zonation was broad, and edaphic conditions

exceptionajly uniform, there can be lirtle doubt, in view of these svas, that the

southern pan-Aastralian flura was restricted to two mejur regions in the date

Tertiary. he effect of marine inundation as a barrier ta migration was height

ened by the warmer conditions that prevailed during the late Tertiary, for this

chee eect would have resulted ii a migration restricting many gronps io whe

Mast soatherly portions. The Mincenc seas had withdrawn alinost ta that extsHow

at present by the clase of the Pliocene. :

Whilst it is believed that the foreguing establishes a strong case for isplition

of the Autvtraliaa element in two widely suparaed portons ot the continent,

it ts stil Hess ssuary Lo eaplain how the isulation has heen mure or less maintained

siice the PHocenc, Li is necessary io consider in amore detail the types of

barriers bie bh mighy hve preserved isolation. They ave of many kinds. It bas

2s heen suggested that wore Gr less sinmaitaucously with the development at the

Tertaty scas there oecnrved a senat hy anil migrarion of the fora i southern /\ns-

ivalia as # reaponge to thatgts in eluate, and that this increased d the effect uf

tle seas in isolating the Horas of the two regiens. ‘This climatic change wag

probably Tesponsihie far the conprete disappearance of soae of the more imesic

eleinents it Western Anstealia, like Nelfiota jus, and which accempanied Ute early

Austecian flor in the early Tertiary of nocthern Soath Arstralia, :

probable that these muye nisse elements, or some or them, wained suiladvie nich

in smuih-east Australia during this so ntherty migration, bocnuse Sih ataneats

(Kosciusko epoch) wiieh were iititted im the Miocene, or even eatlier, were

increasing habitat diversity,

As mewiinned earlier, these carthamovements ibaiced the bre ak-up af the

ol peneplais, ceul bad their most profound Giect in eastern Australia, In

Weseern Anetreha drwy iiiuenee was slieht, ainl nich of the old pene

plain is preserved. In South Aystratia the climate owas greatly modified

with the uplife of the Mount Tofly-Flinders Range region. Apart from this

anealy He effect the climatic pattern, as distinet from intensity, in South and

Western Anstetin has been little chawed. This being su, Use arid regiun al the

head of ir wt Great Ausiridian Bieht ther, as today. might | u¢ a barrier to migra-

cio Tver the south-awestera province of Western Atwirala. Wuh higher

riinfall conditions, a more northerly aml nerth-eastery ¢npinsion of ite

flora of South-west Australia would be Inuically expected. Such conditiens seem

to have seonrred over Austraia genesally in the Weistocene, so that during that

time the Light area may vot have heen such a climacie bar io iuigration.

There are, however, barriers to migration ather than those of elhuatic and physio-

giaphy. The imugt itiertant dre sett barrievra, Vhere is good reason to

believe that such existed. and an obvious one wes the laplite. barrier of the swil

lyp¢ developing om the large deposits of Tertiary imestone inland trom the Head

pi the Wieht. The is sufateit flora of the south-west was one selected for lateritic

soils anc would be largely, if not entirely, unsure] to sued different conditions.

Further, the gull region af South Australia must have been a barrier io east-west

migraliois, as W bod (1930) has chown. The infle neé ut the gilts, however,

kas been too recent to have been of very great signfeance insofar as the niain-

tetiance of the historical isolation af tle Aura of the southwest is concerned.

it is important, but autweighed by the orher factors alresly meitione. With the

decHne in rainfall associated with the carly-mid Recent aridity, there woulil Inve

been a general contraction of the Australian flora and further isolation, The

aridity of the Bight region Nas undounledly heen sulieient to preserve isolation

silce,

ir apoears that the richness in enelegites of the flora ai south-west USER,

sspecally thoge of the Australiun clumont, 7s explained reasonably well hy the

basic hisvorical fucty amd is evidence for an early pan Australian flura. ‘The

piimary division between the lloras of santh-west and south-east Australia took

pluce prolaibiy dir ithe Mineene., Since that time the south-west has been can-

tiuously, ov almost comtinesus!y, floristically isolatel from: the south-east, wath

the result that it has preserve great floristic stability. It is wniceessary and

undesiralle ro consider (iis region as the cenit of origm of the Australian

elemonl, hut ap is lowtcal to helieve ust it has been a centre of dispersal ar variots

Hues,

(

100

i the other elements it is Hkely that the lido-Mclanesian is a very old one

in the Australia flora, and that invasions through northern Australia have heen

Frequent and sometimes protonged, It is likely that a major expansion and

colonisation oceurred duriug the climatic changes in the Miocene, when a Jarge

seaie sutrhiward migratign is postulated as a response to warmer ccinditions.

There must, however, have heen many subsequent duetuations, especially during

the colder Pleistncene. That farge portion of the Amarctic element which ts

associate] with the motintain piateaix of eastern Australia and Pasnania must

be relatively recent, for tt is hard ta imagine ifs members anding suitable habitats

in the penepiained Ausrralia of the early Ternary. la ail Hiketihioud suitable

habitats fev this group were mio: aviuilabk wast) the onset of the gincial comcditious

of the Pleistocene, for althdugh the he'gins uf the higher plateaus may have

approached those of today, the Phacene and pre-giacial Pleistocene are considered

wattuer than the present. Gibbs’ (fer. crt.) suggestion that their successtal estab-

lishment was ihe result oF long distanee dHepersal must be considered a possibitity.

The epvieragenic uplifts wlueh raised the main divides of eastern Australia

increasing habitat diversity, both edaphically and climatically, also gave an

opportunity tor siecessful colonisatians by other elements. Sutiar opportunities

woulda be presente’ by any climatic fnetitations cf the glacial amt iner-giacsl

Pielsiocenn, drow (1545) has sugg gested a waior expaision of the raim-torest

Neca caring the Mindel- Riss mid- Pleiscocene inter-glicial This seems po--

sible. Although chinatic-indyuced migrations ocevrre it in the Ploistocene, it is

neverilie ema to Be remembered that ihe ice-sheets in Australia were so restricted

as ta be almost nesuvible. and the Cimate may have beet mich more sishle than

previously thought.

The terecoime comments on the origt: and certain femtures of the Australian

flora are an introduction to discussion on the effects uf the post-Plelstacene petal

eLarcig, This cesigveation bis had such an impartant miluence tpen ihe

leyelopim! my and distribution of the presett vereiation units and caminunities that

it is necessary lo cousicder th im greet coil,

IV. THE RECENT ARLDITY

1, Tne Ace or MaAxiaus Anipity

The exact age of the devwlopmicet of neteinrane aridity is uneeriain. It wis

consifered by Whitehouse (1940) that the dccine in raintall respett: sible for the

une systenis in squth-vescern Quceemlam) oceurred in tee very iare Dicist SURE,

"Elis iew dias reeoutiy b aeveptol ts Lrvak and Jones (1D. 43) din vieir Strat

eraphical aatine @7) the Be wrogical Sfsiryy of Greens! smh Our the otter ‘and

its (PNY, Trent firs dnp areal preys ger aphic eT [ies sal

congidere’ that ibe rainfall deoreased in the « aris Reoent,

rhe “Dick foneriy wag teats te oavel du Soul sty

an palvoceteccent dasa lave Habe preset | WHT % te

the ete cts of masnuiaia anetty. ip bas heen er

“prnia air mach lees i yan & GLa) Vernrs ten e ve -

East of South Ausitalia the dune-hu fame

Have HUe recent as §QU0 ihatrs va

sa tie ltt

shetty

There ¢ devbt that the mgs

to the oe po eno? PK cimnéite stro: erie

(fue. cit) im atrer

ayia ify at ajent Ena. ¥ ey :

seni liar a iteewnr age cen be age ut w wi temaiely at miele fe comsiaeyscd

to Save Lee whout 4906.6, COU years as

101

2. Trenns 1x7 CLIMATE

The most important resa't of che desiccation was undenhtedly the wholesale

destruction of ihe native flufa, which led wltinmately to aceclerated wind and water

erosion, Jt is obvious that the degree of aridity, or rather the uature and extent

of the stresses iniposed upon the vegetation were entirely clafite to the chmuatic

conditions prevatiing Innmediately prior to the deercase in rainfall rather than the

leve) of rafnfall itself, for the vegvlation cmmmmaities «sald be in a stale af

balance (Cyuamic) with the edapho-clisnatic enyironinet. I: has been generally

acreed that the Pleistocene which preceded the aricly was a wet periad (sec

carer}. dn Spith Australia the large flrvlattie and terrestrial deposits while

cover so miteh of the State are considered to be af tits age. The trend of wristity

in the Sinipsai Desert Pein ne heen discussed by Madi gait (1946), who sa

“No valid reasom preschts ipsety ef jnstity the widely kel view that avidity was

greater in tie past when ie sandridges Ted their bib?’ He points aut that the

fact that the sahyeirialgas are now lised is 1d proof, Mai it would take a lomg thine

in replace the flara of the phivial Pheistecens, and that “tly ridges eould form

in the possibly barren ress bengeet the decline af the old yegelation end the

establishment ot the mew.

The relariyve sature of the avidity is, of cotrse, anpirent, but as doubts have

heen expressed] to the wew that ahsolite desiccation has been greater thau at

present, tad because the questicn is of same imneriance in the consideration of

vegetation! dynamics, the evicdenes witl he brielly reviewed. Su far as the

muthers can devoting there leave been no suswestions that the present-day chmate

is wore aril ihan that whieh led to the br Aldine upoaf the large Atstralian dune

systems. ‘The question, then. is whether the present-day climate is more humid

than that dering the piling np af the sand dunes and drineshouts, ar whether mere

bumid cotilions have intervened het ween Fhen aml nay,

Fills (1939) considers that im the reson of the avecient Murrey Gulf there

have heen relatively weiter and drier perinds tolowing the initiation of the post-

Pleistocene aridity “the present ane ininediate past hsine relatively wel’ Tis

evirlenee for infermutfent avidity during: the tina! d-p of Wie Anes was bused on

the ocentrence of horizons of aipagng: cosed lime aecumelatien within the sand-

tidgees. Thik phoaimaneran wiehy f Ad iny

Crank an { POAG). co Trimet row he considera doubefat. The evidence for wetcer

camlfens in dis reclan, however, is in portant ami is af thtee types. Piret thers

Tee crap” pinks efothe mallee These are believe] dno pa fhe sofott

sie af class af “se ot seen with te cevelarincent of powdery cap

aod would require a laeler refufall thea that (or the formation af

sanperently nol operctine

= bea

eyes herp Une te thor canses, as apes

un:

the orietpal dunes. Phe ailing an of pynsuin dines

in the vesien todas. Second there coe che dratiige rig 3 rh rouwh the sane

helaw Tadeo Mitactthra whioh are ered to base develanei) belirs

Ms isepapgegt

corenjie Ppeeiee pa suk dhiopia, ay

Onecnslancd, W hitehanse (19417) fr nade a plonees

the ceqeral aud drtf:, Ty

Ra ‘ as

study of Use Tare

Clininter, wlint Ins Groyided p yritsites eratotovical i t pate optoe

loniral sircits eleaayhere fe Antsiralia, Te ren cee gh la i pile ale (hth s

seinert do tie iminve aril verte, hin fallawe ft the Malu prone fda slipes

Were has eet mm slteht aperéase fa retatatl, rigs page

(1) deorak | cherenecr sors, ¢ 2) tee ere araat Vine ep Te:

rence Png the rivid mvsinens ay which fey

(2) the retuection ne chy af

Goan sni's tetas,

“clive type! “ates. dn Seatth Aastretin

wotter centiions sien ihe a Sere enneilers (Croeker UML. 143 to

he sprgesuat 4 -(}) the wind emis tags ao The Sonthi-Paet. whieh ate

Tuer asta ii aah eel =r {2) the sewierenes of Posen frragae of

10>

Nolopale Taujekalo in the lewer Murrey in the lower Murray whieh had

developed a keel-as a resuit of a suilden increase ji temperature aud/or salinity

(Cotton 1935), and (4) the evidence Lor warmer seas in very recent times in

South Ausiralia, and the suggestions that these may have been coincident with

the period of greater aridity (Crocker 1946), Acklitiunal evidence is to We had

ja the oceurrence of extenstye sypsilm deposits, as those ia Ue upper South-Last

and near Menimeie (Jack 1921), and gypsum in buried profiles neur Dinduleer

(Siephens ct af 1945) where coluliticns are tou nmi for thete tormacion ditaws

and is ulso provided hy the necurrcuce of Inssil caleareeus soll havizons wider

climatic conditions i which Time prt acermiation would not he expected to orenur

we present. Sieh fos) TD horizons are to he louie in che “travertine” of the

fordertown district, tin Western Austr: sqianeté sails occurring aw Roeky

Cully, present manual rainfall over 30 inches, padiguie gromeér aridity (Stephens

1946) than at prescin.

A cousiderable body of independent card, tach of whieh is of a pedelogical

nature, has been advanced theretore in suggest greater avidity in the past, and

most of it appears “yalid.’ On the other land, some of the evidence as the fact

that the cune sysiems are aw vegetated (Mills 1939, Crocker 1941) is of little

or no valne m ivself, iyidence wi reduction of the elective arca al “active type"

duties mm south-western Oneensland, as advanced by Whitehouse (1940) and

aecepled by Browne (1943), is alsa of dunbtful value, for the “eal? low,

conipletcly-vegemted dunes which occur as outhors to che Simpeon Desert eit be

matched by similar low yesetated dines within the desert proper. Wille no

suggestions of the present being wore arid than the peried Of masxhvgu dune

lnutdinzes have been advanced, it las beew stated ihat certain buried profi’es, as

those ia the alluviuun areas of the Noarlunga-Sellicks district of Soitth Australia,

ey inchieate preacer podsolisation than the super-impesed present suil aud miter

fying red soils (Crocker 1946). Ji is very difienl: to assess the age ui these

profiles. however. They conld incicnie, though at presenr ip is nectesary to

proceed cautiously, thal Here has heen a yery pevent decline following post-artd

wetter conditions, Whitehouse (1940) tends to such a conclusion ow the

abundance of aboriginal artifaets in the far west uf Queensland, in regions where

there js iow to peruavent water.

While further evidence is still desiruble on some aspects, it would seen that

(1) preceding the onset of aridity climatic conditions were itch more humic than

at present; (2) subsequerit to the maxiniuwim aridity there was an increase in ruin-

fall, though not of a high order, and indeed very snail by comparison with the

preceding deerease—orherwise gypsum and He accunmtifations of the driver period

wonld Eave been entirely removed i solution; (3) there muy have heen a yery

recent minGr decline in rainfall, but considerably mute paleopedolowicid resuprel

will be needed to further elucidate this. by short, climatic conditions today do not

Ciffer wreath: (rent those when dine-building was ar is maximum, but rainfall is

upparcnthy sightly higher.

The discussion eq far has been concerted chiefly with rainfall as an index

of clinate, Teniperatire effects are much more difficult to deline. It is apparent

that the temperatures of the late Pleistocene, which coivided with the lust preat

glawation, were low, so that in addition ia high rainfall precediig tke initigdon

ef aridity, we can deduce colder conditions.

The extinction in southerts Atistralia ot a suite of surface-dwelling narine

species doimmnated by Avadara lrapesia, which are uow to be found in many

locaitics alone the southern coast as sub-lossils. is of parricular interest. These

species are sill living in mere northern (warner) waters. and it je considered

ther very recent extinetion was die to a sudden decline in temperature, Lt is

18S

also certain that the suite was present in southern waters for a very limited time.

The suggestion has been mude that the briet stay of these species was coincidental

with and consequent upon the high Lemperatures associated with aridity (Crocker

1946), It has not been suggested at what stage in the development of the desicca-

ton madara and its associates became established along the southern Australian

coast, hut it is likely that they persisted beyond the period of maxinnun cdiunc-

building (Crocker arid Cotton 1946).

There is strong evidence, therefore, to indicate that higher temperatures than

those prevailing at present oceurred in Suuth Australia a very short time ago, and

these were probably coincident with the lower rainfall of the arid period,

Fig, 3

Tie recorded distribution of dune sysiems and dune sheets in Australia,

(Chiefly aiter Madigan, Hills, Prescott and Crocler.)

3. GewntraL Errects or Agiwiry

Loss of soil stability in South Australia and surrounding regions ov a

erand scale resulted from the sudden modification of clirnate, and it led to the

build-up of the extensive systems of avolinn deposits, dunes, dime sucets, etc., at

most Of cur major and lesser ergs (fig, 3), Stich widesprea:dl wind erosion could

onty have occurred following the wholesale destreetion of the local flora, It is

apparent that for this to have happetied the aridily must have beot wot only

extremely severe, but its onset must have been particularly sudden. Orierwise

the vegetation would have been able to nraintain soil stability by simpie migration,

It was obviously unable to do this.

Jt is interesting, to picture what probably happened. A catastrophic’?

decline in. rainfall which initiated the aridity placed such a stress on the pre-

arid flora thet over the greater part of the State and beyond it was almost com-

pletely wiped out. Aw carly replacement of rhis ofl flura by a xeromarpnic ome

capable of withstanding the aridity, that is capable of migration anc ecesis under

the extreme conditions, was not possible, This was chiefly because the most

O) From the biological viewpoint.

144

desiccated region today, as ior exarnple, the Lake Myre Basin, were, prior to ahe

anset of aridity, so moist that centres for the rapid dispersal of the diaspores of

the required arid element mast have been extremely few, and perhaps alinost non-

existent. As the remuants of the more humid Hora disappeared and disintegrated

under the extreme desiccation, both wind and water erasion were greatly

accelerated, The eroding power of occasional heavy rains, which no doube still

oceurrerl, but with probabiy greatly reduced frequency. was very high and carried

considerable quantities of silt and sand into the drainage basins. ‘Uhis, in the

absence of a protective vegelative cover, was transported and winnowed by the

winds to initiate dune systems, In other parts the fluviatile agencies pluyed a

sma'ler and snialler part, until finally, at the other extreme, dune systems of a

purely deflationary origin on which fluviatile agencies were uniniportant became

piled up by wind (Crocker 1946) playing on soils which had completely lost their

stability. This loss of soil stability was not general (sve fig, 4), nor did it proceed

Wy the same degree or with the same

lapidity everywhere. Certain soils

were Anich more linhle to complete loss

ol stabihty than others, depending, no

doubt, Upon a comiplex of factors. In

South Australia soils which were

derived from highly ecaleareous parent

material or which contained large

quanhues of Lime in the profile were

purticularly tngtable, As a result the

A horizons of the soils developed on

the line Peisiacene calcareous dunes,

those of our present mallee regions,

Which lad received large quantities of

coleimmt as loess, and those derives

from calcareous rocks, as the Tertiary

Jimestanes af the Nillarbor Plains,

were largely stripped, transported and

resorted to fort ergs. Typical

samples are the Nutarbor-Spencer , 1 ; 5

dune system, and those af the Sonth- Portions of Soitth Australia where loss of sail

; aha 3 , stability was cither general or frequent during

Fast wu) “mallee” regions. the: inid-Kecent. aridity,

LL ods possible that strong winds

greatly assisted the dune-huilding, bil such a possibility may be dismissed [or

wanl of any evidence one way or the uther. Althou vl uollung can be said of the

Wtensity of arid winds, the general wind pattern was apiparcutly very simular

to thal today, hecanse the dune systews throughout Australia, which are entirely

or whnust entirely of the sandridge or se/f iype, show a consistent orientation willt

the wid regimes of the present (Madigan 1936, ilills 1939).

One consequence of the fact that soils varied in their erodibility and that

possibilities for the maintenance of vegetative cover, despite the adverse climatic

trends, varied in different localities (see later), was that the dunes were not all

iniljated at the same ume. Por example, although resultant from the same arid

peril, the time of dune-huilding initiation and maxima may not have coincided

exactly in different localities, The Murray mallee systems may have been slightly

im advance Gr behind thage, say, in the lower South-Tast.

Fig. 4

4, CONTRACTION oF THE FLozA, awy Surytyar Poct

Although over the greater part of South Australia and the adjoining hititer-

land regions the old vegetation was largely destroyed and countless species must

105

have been entirely extinguished, remnants of the pre-arid flora managed Lo survive

the desiccation in especially favoured situations.

The pre-arid topography was alniost iWentical with that of today, except for

the purely superficial sand deposits, Jt is obvious, therefore, that the rainfall

gradients were similarly zoned. This pattern is determined chiefly by lautude

and distance from the coast, but is modified by other factors, most important of

which are the influences of mountain ratiges and hills. Lt is apparent that when

the severe climate stresses associafed with the siden onset of desiccation were

imposed, the mesic flora’s sole defence was a migration towards wetter conditions.

AUSTRALIA

Fig. 3

Principal refuges during the Great Australian Arid Period.

Successinl migrations would oniy be possible where the rainfall gradients

were steep—that is where the distances between climatic horizans were small and

where the propagule dispersion capacity, the establishment capacity and the ecesis

capacity of the species were rapid erough.

Reference to the present rainfall distribution, and comparison with a topo-

graphic map, indicate quite clearly that the possibilities for successful migration

were very limited and could occur only adjacent to the maser ranges. The ranges

were irnportant regions of survival for another reason even where their influence

on rainfall was not so great, for within thew occurred the greatest diversity of

microclimates. In the ranges and hills were the larges- number of ecological

106

niches, the greatest variation in habitats, to be offered the retreating vegetation.

They were, therefore, the principal refuyes af the relic flora which survived the

stress Hf aridity, Other refuges of less impor ance were the major drainate lines,

any of the lakes which, although reduced in area, did not entirely dry up, and

other centres more humid than surrounding areas,

The principal refuges of the arid periad ix South Australia and adjacent

regions are shown on the aceainpanying map (fig, 5). The most nriportant were,

no doubt, those of the Mount Putty -Flinders Range system. Others of note

were Kaigarou Island, the ratiges of easter Eyre Penirisu! a, the Gawler Ranges,

fhe Muscraves, the Macdonnell-James Rane system (Central Anst_.), the Gram-

pians ( Vict.) aud the Murray drainage system, Atihough these were the main

centres of survival, the vegetative cover within them was very restricted, This is

evidence?! by the preseuee of eliubing dunes in the Miltalic region of Eyre

Peninsw. These duties are wutliers of, but more or less cantimuos with, those

of the Nullarbor-Spencer Gune system, and cover portion ot the ranges of

central County Jervois. Similar evideree is provided by the aeolian sands

of portion of the Mount Loity Range system, as for example, those that are su

eonspievtous in parts of the Bremer Valley.

V. DEVELOPMENT OF PRESENT COMMUNITIES

The muimerots ecological niches which acted as centres of survival were also

the foval points from which commenced the migrations leatite ta the establish-

ment of the present-day communities. No dontit the climatic duress associated

wilh the desecation resulted in reat modifications in the flora. In all likelihood

the isolation and continued sires of existing under conditions anoreaching or

at the Tintits of tolerance tof most species, fayertted a large number of sib-species

atudstruns relatively unitportant previously, and restilted tn endemism of varying

deerecs, It is interesting to trace the major aspects of this development and to

atiompi a defnitivn of seme of the migratory routes and the orinciples involved.

1. Micration ann REcCoOLONISATIGN

Mtthongh the eeverity of the andi rested in such a rastriction in aren

nf species en the destruction of the pre-arid veeetation on a grand senle, it fs

probable that a claw recolonisation was besun hy a few droveht resistant and

perhaps some new genotypes. before any iupravement in rainfall took place, Any

sich yieration, hawevor, must Baye heen slow and limited to a few previously

unimpartant species with pour disired| cupacitics, for atherwise the Ines af gal

stability sie mot have been em widesntead nr Nave proces ted so far. le is

obvious that the greatest number of species surviving in the relatively few refuges

were far from heing under optim conditions and conmetition for the available

ecological habitats was freat. Jt was not wt] an intmrovement in chumtie cun-

ditims. which prohably included an increased rainfall and slivhtty Thwer tem-

puratures, resnlied 3 in a relouse of hath the preseure of competition atid the jres-

wate Of an acleeree climate that re-rolenisetion could) be very effective.

The speed at which re rolanisatien proc veded uid the pattern it folirawed

won'd depend an many fagtars, tn tle titimate analysis if wonbl he governed

hy the ability of the individual cpccins ans is s hiotypes to produce and disseminate

propaglas. The sped with which species could exploit the oppertiupities of an

extenlel elimatic habitat range wold depend, therefore, on their especial

inechbatisias tor dspersal. Althnush most plant seogranhers believe thet Tong

distance dispersal ts of infrequent oseyrrence awing to the effective harrier of

éestallished comiiainities, such a deterrent would not be ppurative tm this case

heennse the area being colonised was viritally a bare ote, Tt is likely, therefore,

that will the relaxation af climatic stress the species with capacity for wide

dispersal of gernvules rapidly became widespread anil, especially away From tic

centres of survival, played the dominant role iv the early stages uf Ue seres.

2. Mreratory Raves

Dissenmnation cf propagules is, of course, only the first stage in the process

of re-colonisation. Tt ig necessary for them to germinate and hecome established

in the new sites. Only germules which come to rest it saitable habitats, that is

habitats within the range of rolerance of the ecotvpe, can hope to survive awl

ecesise. Within the climatic amplitude of the biotypes, stecessful establishinent

of species in the invading flora would be governed, therefore, principally hy

olher enviranmertal factors. In the relative absenre of commpetitiun in the initial

stages. there can be little douht that the distrilmtion of she early elements was

determined within their climatic toler ranees, chiely by the edaphic environment.

Soil conditions aver and ahove the effect of chance distribution uf the initial

propagules, were umloublediy the major ecological agents which modified the

checkerboard of the invading vegetation, and indeed. imposed upon it a special

pattern.

Athouch the underlying causes and the modes of dispersal are fondamental

ta distribition, they would have had httle influence in just where the propagules

initially came to rest. This was dependent upon the reiationshiw mi the parent

plant to the agents of dispersion, physiograply, ete., thet is, chiefly dependent

ypon imetcorvlogical factars, waterways atl pliysiagraphic conditions. he cxaet

site ay which a propagnic lodges and germingtes is, as has been pointed ont by

Cain (1944), entirely due to chanee in the sense thet there ig no conscious

cO- operation hetween the geramle and rhe complex of dis aper sal agencies. Fallow-

ing disperzal, germination, and in suitable habitats ecesis, aggregation and re-

dispersal ot species no donk eveurred, aftd very soon the factor of competition

becime Operative, iniposiny a general, shouch variable, brake upon the rate of

nugration, Nearer the centres of survival the harricr o£ corapelit: on would

obviously be imposed earlier because of the greater densily of propagtnes,

With the release of climatic pressure on the relic fora, re-colonisatiog, no

Combt, commenced fram most refuses, Tr is appirens. therefore, that put.artial

nigration could have proceeded in many directions at ance. The extent and speed

at which these movements tack place was goverued, apart from these fectors

resi.bng within the species itself like dispersal capacity, chiefly hy the soil mosaic,

as menhoyed previously, This is imeed a priteipie of eynamic plant gcorraptiy

(Greason 1923). lt has heen stressed by (nai (1944) in saying that succeserul

migration deptuds upon the aecurrenee of a “continuity of habitats which are

within the Epa aight mf Jie thipraling spaces.” The “egolagical

amplivde” of a anecies has its scat cw ita genetic goubL. vtion, and stric Uy, there:

fore, within the species iteclf, hut the ocstittence ef sairnble habitats within this

rang? is chichy » Tuneton of peologhal ard peru, ‘opical | uistory im owhieR vovetas

fan phos ao important, int winor, rove, Ibis almost cer-ain, therefore, that vine

eg migratory routes in the development of rhe present South Australi dom

have bern from the suryival eetiires aiuag series oF closely revatie) spits.

The extengive dune systems, muy at which are Hnked directly wits

survival cantres ihe Spencer-Vincent evsten, Maurras oiiliee dimes, Simp

Deseri, ele—would, [or exanple, have been adiniable rorites for re-colonisition,

and were, 19 doubt, some of the niet important micratury tracts. Others were

the gibber downs, the imallve.—<lesen loam soil complex, ancl drainage lines, both

minor andor The mallue-deserl lown soil cormples covers a multirude of

variition, bat with of there ts a repefidan oc closely related edaphic lots

whic! are not beyond the dispersal vange af inaiy species. It was quite clearly

one of the major migratory rouces, fadeed, in the broad scuse, anc omitting the

‘raise lines, the avolizm sand systems. the gibher downs, and the matlee-desert

lofin suil complex: have been the three major edaphic influences in the develup-

ment wad distribation ni the present flora. Vo these may be added the red-brown

eats which extend in a practically unbroken sequence From the Adelaide regian

vw thy {ower parts of the northern Flinders, and the terra rossas and their allies

which wry assneiated with acolianite limestone.

ip addition to the intportance of series of clusely relared edaphie habitats

within the ecological tolerances of the advancing spevies, climate Tvs been a de

tenn influence on the direction of the main highways. As The wigrattons

ree: worl their greatest impels with a small inerease in raunrfall, it is obvious thal

they proceeded progressively [rom more bumid to drier areas, This is well

Hearted by an analysis of the principal elements of the vegetation of the lower!

Soatli-Rast of South Australia, OF a total number of 212 Australian species

resardes| on a general ecological survey of the region (Crocker 1944), 146 were

limited to eastern Australia und South Australia, 52 wete to be found in borh

east and west Australi, and 23 were restricted to Sout Australia. One species

(a grass) was limited to South Australia aud Western Australia. It is obvious

that the major re-colenisation in this region has proceeded from the east, that is

from survival centres in western Victoria. The above analysis was made on the

verctition as a whole. A separate analysis of the sclerophyll communities, which

occur on soils that were completely unstable and therefore devoid of yegetatioin

during the aridity, would undonbte "ly haye shown this trend even more strongly,

for it is most kely that a few isolated swamps of the inter-range plains of the

region did nor become completely dry. They probably acted as focal points ior

re-cliatvibition of some species like Gelnia ihda, Poa australis, ete.

The principal migratory routes in the re-establishment of vegetation cover

and the development of the present communities in South Australia are shown

in fu, & They have been superiniposed npon a somewhat simplified soil map

based on (hat published by Prescott (1944), together with information collected

by ono of the authors (ik, 1. C.)\. The interpretation has been modified to suit

the requirements of the present paper and no attempt has been made to indicate

the wilegration of types. such as the occurrence of mallee or gibber soils in inter-

dayne voridoars, ele. Mare detailed information an soil distribution im South

Australia can be obtained trom other publications (Prescott 1931, 1944, ete, ).

VI TYPES AND PROBLEMS OF SPECIES DISTRIBUTION

he problems of ecology. and im its broader aspects plant geography, are

large'y those of explaining the types of species distribution and che differences

between plant conmonities. Because species anid their biotypes react differently

to changes an environmental conditions, that is, because their potential edapho-

climatic environments vary, in the uittmate analysis their distribution is governed

by the individual ranges of tolerance. The individual may, therefore, have a

potentially wide or marrow distribution, depending upon the oecurrence of sutt

able cmatice and cdapbie habitats.

Tt is been diffiewlt to obtain an independent ascessment of the offeet ot

siils atid climue wpe the cistiibution of species within an association, because

chine plays a dominant role in pedagenesis in determining both the geochemigal

trends and the morpholowy of the tinal sew profile. Phe mutter is further eam

pleated by the problewt of possibte migrations and their direction, A unique

oppurtunity was offered to study the respouse to elaimges in climate in the lower

South-East of South Australia, where both the direction af migration was known,

109

and was predominanily unidirectional, and a series of closely allied and largely

identical soil types extended, because of an unusual history, across the climatic

zones, passing through several of them, The effect of climate was seen to he a

gradual modification of both specific composition and structure of the community

—a Fuealyptus Baxtert scleraphylous forest. As species approached the limils

“S,

“4

Sand sheets ele.

Predominantly sandy dune-systems,

ANT Podsols and Pecl-brown sarths.

WU Terra rossa. - Rendzinn aff

(HH Matlee - Deserf toarn compter.

Chcedly ranges «rol Hood plains.

Fig. 6

The principal migratory routes,

of their climutic range oi this soil they became dwarfed and depauperate and

finally dropped out (Crocker 1944). This “sifting” effect of climate was first

noticed by Good (1937) in arid communities. On the other haid, soil changes

usually depend on geological history, and vegetational responses to them at the

same climatic horizon are sharp and clear-cut and are by no means difficult to

follaw,

The results of the studics cited in the previous paragraph led one of the

authors (R. L. C.) to the conclusion that “edaphic factors... . are responsible

110

for the distribution of formations and associations within any climatic horizon.”

While this generalisation was, in the light of future experience, only a part truth,

it could be made quite accurate by the addition of the words, “other things being

equal.” In practice, except in restricted areas, other things are not equal. First

and foremost there are varying migration capacities and the possibility of opposing

migrations, For example, it is unquestionable that communitics dominated by

species dispersing eastwards from the Mount Lofty-Flhnders Range refuges met

somewhere the barrier of vegetation migrating westwards fro eastern centres

of dispersal, such as the east coast mountains or the Barrier Ranges, and viee-

versa. Migrations in all directions was obviously going om simultancousiy and

influenced the distribution of communities. It is better, however, to bring the

discussion back to the species level. While some species within a community are

—,

Fig. 7

The recorded distribution of bladder salthush, ctliripier vestcarien.

dependent in that their habitat tuleranecs rerpiire the shade or protection, ete., af

another of a higher stratum, an understandme of the factors affecting the area

of non-dependent (chiehy dominant) species will usually provide the key to an

understanding of the former.

Within narrow lanits the chance scitling of propaeniles determines the exact

distribution a3 pointed out by Pidgeon and Ashby (1942). In the broader sense,

however, there oecur many other interesting types of distribution which cannot

be attributed entirely to chance. Virstly, there are distributions where oyer wide

areas within the one climatic zone) the same species keep recurring. Typical

examples are the mallees Eucalyptics cleosa and Lf. gracilis, and saltbush Atriplex

(?) Climatic zone is hare used in the sense of the zone of tolerance far the indi-

vidual species.

lil

wesicarium. Secondly there is the type of distribatinn, and ane that is more

puzzling, of a species hike vicocia feuce Cwaildy), which occurs as two small

eroups of a few hundred or Jess trees ow Lhe gilbor Arwns, now separared by

approximately 200 miles of Simpson Desert sand (Crocker 1946). Another type

of discontinuity is that of the sugar gum (Rucalyplus claderalyve), whieh occurs

in three relatively isolated regions in ‘South Anstralia, riuncly, restricted parts of

Kangaroo Istand, Myre Peninsula end the Southern Phoders Ranges. Cain

(1O4¢), iw his valuable thesis of plant geography. bas wopled the terny disymaction

to those distributions where individual species are separated by moye than the

normal dispersal enpacity of the type, and concludes that major disjunctions have

almast exclusively resulled from Iusiorical eaases.

) is obvious that the development of the South Austrelian fora which fas

already heen traced im ontline, kas been such that seulogical aiid plant geographical

problems im arcal distribution of species wail only , be indetstood clearly if the

Instorieal background is apprecta Leal, At pe sesilit the restricted knowledge ot

paier bilan, paleopedolngy. an] paleocinatelogy males anything like 2 full

evalyalion muipossihle. With the start thai has already | aren mitdle, however, it is

worth while to rate some of the problems and anomalies aml to attempt an

explanation of the more striking discontitities

1. Wipe (continuous) Distrigutions

The present recorded distribution of ty plea vestewin is interesting, It 1s

shown in the accompenyiny fgure 7. Bearing iu mind the principle thai dispersal

proceeded eluefly [rom wetter ‘Lo drier habitats; it is Hikely that A/riplex vesieuriiem

had several centres of redisiribution. [ts isolared seeurrense in the Maedonnell

Ri mges iaBEests that one migration emanated from ‘here. The northern Flinders

und Gawler Ranges were also probably. centres of survival and redispersal, Nor

iy il pecessary to believe thal there were not a hers. Th two miailees, Bucalyplus

oleasa and FapalsAlies grarilis Vkewise probably survived the aridity in geo-

graphical tsotation in several refuges (Eyre Peninsula, Mount Lofty Ranges, etc),

irom which they have subsequently spread (see fig, ®). The Victorian and

Riverina occurrences are probably migrations irom South Australia. Wide and

continuous distributions of these types are merely indicative of the occurrence af

extensive odapho-climatie habitats within the tolerance ranges of the species, and

an ability and opportunity for wide dispersal, for cstablishimn. and ecects, The

two mallees and Alripler vesicariuns oceur on tle desert team mallee soil

complex, The two bal groups merge more or less gradually into each other in

Souta Australia. While the climane ranges of the two mdlecs are less arid than

those of Alriplex vesirariunr, which suggests more tuimnd and probably mare

southerly centres of survival for them, the distributions do overlap, and towards

the limits of their ranges the three species are frequently found toycther. ellviplee

tesicariunt is a species with Lairly wide edaphic tolerances. Tn addition to erow-

ing con mallee soils and certain of the desert lomims, at is xb to estabhsh and

eccaise on some of the gibber desert soils and certain allvvial soils of the Riverina.

Berause of these wide toleranecs i has nor heen dilficull fur it to find a series of

suitable habitats within its norma! dispersal capacity.

2. Resrricrep Drstrinorians—Rriae AND EwNorstre Spaces

‘There aré two ways of regarding species of very restricted distribution, either

as young endemics or as old endemics, thut is relics of a previous flora. Willis

(1938, 1940), for example, considers that most endermics are your species rather

than relics. Ridley (1925) susvests the tert epibioties for relic endemies. Much

doult and considerahle d:lerence of opinion still exists ahowt the (nfer-relation

112

ships of the factors causing speciation, but it lias nevertheless been clearly demton-

strated that isolation, #s in mountain systems and occanic is!ands, results tn a high

degree of endeniusm.

‘This is well shown in southern Austra‘ia by the high percentage of endemism

on Kangaroo Island by comparison with the adjacent peninsulas (Wood, 1930).

An analysis of the distribution patterns of the sclerophyll communities in these

peninsulas showed that of the &2 species endeinic to the region as a whole, 88%

were found on Kangaroo Island, and 47% of them were restricted ta it. The only

other peninsula with endemic species was Eyre Peninsula, where the remaining

12% oecurred. tr is perhaps even better cemnnstrated by the comparative

endemism in southern Australian cucalypts (Iferbert 1928), In the south-west

corner uf Western Australia (Shark’s Bay-Eucla districts) 74°2% of the

Recorded desir tusion

of the Gre Mallecs

wa iy ee

Eesalyntos «tease f

Fiz. :8

The recorded distribtiton af the two miallees Eucalyptus aleosa atrd

&. grucilis in Australia, Wheir general arcas ave almost tdentical.

eucalypts are endemic to the which has had a long and undisturbed

geological hisiory. Termerate east Australia, geologically a much more disturbed

area. and cunnceted by imore or less continuons mipuntain chains with the tropics,

exhibits endemism of ony 48°7%. among the cucalypis. The case for high

enilemism in geographicaiy isolated areas is, therefore, supported by Australian

evident.

ft is of considercble interest in assessing the status of species in our flora to

know whether the endemics are young or relic. During the recent extreme aridity

the climatic stress tmposed a rigid selection upon the Australian plant populations.

This, as pointed cut earier, meant the preservation of species in which the

biotypical range was considerably modified, The overall result was the extinction

of many hictypes (and species) and the preservation of others. The areal extent

of the present derivatives cau for this reason alone, iv, climatic selection, have

q13

little relationship to the distribution af the pre-arid parent stock. In addition to

the direct climatic filtering to which the old vegetation was subjected, others

equally important in determining the presen distribiitions lave been stper-

imposed. First there was the effect of desiccation upon the semis themselves. This

influence was profound, To varying degrees oyer myst of South, Agesiralia satis

lost their stability, and, ander the accelerated erosion resulting, were stripped of

some or all of their A horizons which were re-sorted and piled into dune systems,

or ¢pread out as sand sheets. When the re-colonising species began Lo spread

rapidly with the release of climatic pressure, they were confronted then with an

entitely new (in the narrow sense) or drastically inodified (in the hroader sesse)

soil patberi.

irom a consideration of the foregoing, the conclusion seems io be that the

present distributions, except where the climatic zones are narrow, cannnl do more

than give one oF two glimpses of the fora of the pre-arid part,

An undoubted relic is Lizistone Mariac, and another Macrogenia Mace

doniiclii, which are found in a single valley, the Glen of Palms, in the Macd-rmel

Rangcs, Central Australia, It was suggested by Spencer (1921) that it was a

remnant of an older flora and

imdicative of a wetter climate

in the pugt, There seems no

SIMPSON j other explanation that could

be applied.

AUCE SPRINGS

Another species witich

appears io be relic is Acacia

Peres. Its known distribuuoa

has been already descrinud and

is shown in Re. 9. Tp is diffe

cult £6: imagine that i: could

| be a new species, for the

gereera? very Pinited orcurreneces are

Aoveie poes separated by an unfavetsabie

i edaphic habitat, namely. 200

Gtale

een J miles of desert sands. The

Cistauce is far beyorts, the

The distribution of waddy, sleccia pene Vhis. is a Cspersal capacity of the

spectacular tree growing fo approximately 50 feet high, speres, unless lone ds-

anée ilspersal had operated.

Althouzh dispersal by ageuls euch as birds (Ridley 1930) ean occasionally

be responsible for wide disimnetiona, it fs tht considered Jikely to have

operated tn this case. Mar one reason there appear lo be ample Gnoceypied

habitats within the edaphea-climatic qanipliitude of the saecivs, and if ir sere

capable at dispersal, establishment an) ecesis over a range of 200 nites, it

seems extraordigary that tt has vot nimde more progress tearer howe, even agsuri

ie ore or two oecurrences have nol vel heen recorded, “The most likely explana-

tian would appear to be thet it isa true relic, which was furmefly widespread but

was restricted to ecological niches in widely separated localities with the onset.

of avidity. During the desiccation the desert sands piled up between, With sub-

seqtont amelioration the species has agrated and spread, but only fo a very sinall

extent: perhaps iv is still towards the Kavts of its (olerayives.

Ore of the most interesting casey of discovttiniitv in Soeth Acueralia ig tat of

sugar sum, Fucalyplus cladocalye. It occurs in three svidely spaced localities

(sce Ay, 10): (1) Southern Eyre Peninsula, (2) Kangaroo \sland. and (3) the

southern Finders Ranges. On Eyre Peninsula it grows chiefly on the lateritic

114

res-duals and podsols, and is particularly depauperate, It has been suggested

that it is towards the limits at its edaphic-climatic range (Crocker 1246), On

Kangaroo Island 1: flanks creeks and occurs on soil associated with the older

sedinentaries. Tt is a much more handsome tree than on the adjacent Lyte

Peninsuia. The lower Flinders distribution is linnted to the acighbourhnod of

Wirrabara, although there are severat outliers further aorth.

tn our opinion ihe three areas ai Nucalyptis cledoculve have developed from

three centres of survivel, and are true relics, \Vhy the species has nat spread

more is difficult to understand, becauss its use it homestead plantations indicates

that it has a wide edaphic ranee. for some reason the species has a poor ntigra-

tion (pius establishment) capacity. In this connection it is necessary to remember

that raness of tolerance, tat is minimis, optimum ard wiaximum fevels of

tolerance to. any ecologic factor. vary at dilferent stages of development. The

possibility that Eucalyptus cladegely is a new species and that ils poesent dis-

tribabion puttern is due te long distance (srersal, is very difficu, wo believe.

‘Pos interesting cases ot tiscentiiity

Toys bien abservert reeemtiy by CC, D.

=. One ts the rediscovery of an

rad siiingvbark, fecal ypems

ay,

o4.

Ju fhe

vieveba, wear Clare, South Ads- i.

u\" é nakteet recorded occurrence ve me

ig gia) Graapians a Viereria, “The 94

The oecurrence of grey ironbirn, y 4)

fignitpidaia, in the northern

hows; the nearest record is

ulyence near Jlorshani Saale

cnee a a a ES ie

Mibough the general appicaron 00, oe yaw f VY

lnc Cistance dispersal as a means of ar Lf) {

an ine discontinuitics has been largely — Seeedyedus efadocatya Surg

< |r Skotrsbere ==

», ihe possibility

cs weet! cases has bee |

mitted, Vhe iain wrgdiients Fic. W

edhe theory have rested upott Ut pie natural distribution of sugar vin,

ert dieivilintien of etidemics in rele Anem'pius cladoratur, in South Australia.

iawn th mie or isolation, and because of

the difficulty of demonstrating taat iar tetvelled @ermules could enter and compete

in the communities already present. In the early stages Of the re-cotonisation of

South Australia this competitions Factor would be Tess important, because, as

pointed out earlicr, the avea was virtually a bare one and the chatices of successiul

long-distance dispersal niust have been greatly increased, Such conditions would

be shott-lived, however. Long-distance dispersal is undarbtedty accomplished in

the ease of light germules like tle spores of mosses and lichens (Ridley 1030,

Baas Beeking 1944). These, in addition to beimg widesoread, Trequently develup

and grow in such extreme and selective environments thal the problem of com-

petition in an already closed conimnanivy is tess Trequenthy operative. A cage of

distributien of this type in South Australia is-that of Sphagnum, which is found in

two cr three small swanips near Mount Burr (Crocker and Eardley 1929). The

negrest recorded occurrence of Spaghnuan is near Melbourne, approximately

250 miies away. The thors extreme aad specific the enviroment, ile tess likely

ig compection, and the wore likely is lung distance dispersal ta he operative.

Classic examples are the distribution of Repfhia mariving al the “Danalielfuin”

community (Weod and Baas Becking 1937),

A special type of discontinuity is that of the two acacias, 4. Sotudenit Maiden

and 4. Loderi Maiden, The fortner is conspictious in the Tarcoola-Bucklebua-

Port Augusta area at the nerth of Eyre Peninsula, while the jatter is of limited

vecutrence south of Cockburn along the New South Wales border and extends

into that Stale (see fig. 11). The two species are very closely related. They are

aimoat identical im habit, appearance atid other morphological characters. They

oeedr within the same climatic zone, of very situilar soil Iypes, and are associated

in ihe communities they dominate with a large number of jhe same species, They

differ tawonomically chiefly in the leweth of the phyllodia (4-8 cm. and 7-11 em.

respectively), and in the pod of l. Loderi being moriliform, while that of

+l, Sowdenii is but slightly constricted. Species of this type which are only slightly

different morphologically, but which are georreplically very isolaicd, haye heen

defined as vicerteus (Setchell 1935). In the author's apiition the above twa

species have Uescended from the same piatent species, once widespread, and are

merely the praduet

ot bietypical isozation

within that species:

tt is likely that the

wisiribution af cicacia

Sumwdent?, for exanple,

as develaped either

front survival centre

i the northern Tlin-

ders, ur, as is more

hikely, from the

Caovler Ranges. On

the ather hand, 4eacia

Loder: was distributed

from some other re-

Fig. 11 fuges, probably in

The disjunction between the vicarious species Teacia Sendenti and New Sonth Wales.

«lracia Loderi. Under the differine

cdaphn-climalic sclee-

tion pressures in the two regions, biotypes which vary in niinar characteristics

have been preserved and have been given specilic rank,

Depending on the point of view, 4. Sowdenii and 4. Loderi can he con-

sidered either relic (old) or young endemics. for obviously they are both, The

relationship between age of species and area ag proposed ly Willis (1922) would

rclegate them to the position of young epecies, on the other hand they are certainly

relic in that they are descended from a previonsly more widespread parent that

was restricted in area as a result of unfavourable climatic development, liven

better evidertce is presented! for relic status by the distribution of species. like

Livistona Mariac and .icdcia pence. Tn cases lke these the historical sequences

indicate a reasonably good basis for consideration ag relics,

It is essential, however, to rctain the dynamic concept of vegetation and to

realize that the historical changes, which cause contraction in area. may preserve

in some of the old populations stram characteristics that wil! allow rapid expansion

of area for the uew edapho-climatic conditions when the resirictive pressures are

remoyed. In other worrls, relic species caw be widespread, as well as cortined in

area (epibiotics). In the broad sense, therefore, species like Alriples vesicartiun

and Lucalypins oleosa may he, and probably are, true pre-arid relies. Young

entlemics might also have become widespread in South Australia, provided their

ecological amplitudes were wide eticingh to permit dispersal, establishment and

116

ecesis either on a high level of competition, or 1f they had developed prior to, or

upon the release of climatic pressure. at a lower level af competition.

Whe deacia Sowdenii and A. Loderi discontinuity has been considered an

example of bintype isolation of 4 more widespread parent gpecies br population.

Th view of the new historical data it would seem that some of the etosely related

pairs of species (Wood and Baas Deeking 1937), in ihe Enculypl scherophyll

forests af the MIve Mountains regioty of New South Wates and i the Mount

Lofty Rares, South Australia, might he considered to haye had a similar origin,

Tt is tot unlikely that inthe pluyial pre-Aridl, that is, 1 the late Ficiscocene and/or

the carly ecerl, or al an even eprier time, a series of suitable édapho-climatic

trahitals existed to bridge the intervening area. Tsolultan followed with the aridity

(or earlier), and has resulted in differential biotype selection, Many of the pairs,

therefore. are prohably related historically 16 3 ciraiion pareur, and are at exuinype

of divergence rather than convergence,

3. New Srecicvs Any Taxonomic Proimews

Timoteet-Ressovsky (1942) has applied the term micra-cvolmtion to variation

for which seientiie evidence of mnde of operation can be obtained. Speciation

and geographical differeijtiation belong to this class. As a reotilt of much generic

work consideruble agreement has been reached on the factors involved in micr'h-

evolution, and it is agreed that mutation is fle met mechanism for providing

new evohitionary material. Cytozenetic work has also shown thet [iri

speciation is generally due to the accumulatow of small character differences,

and uot lo sitele mutations as claimed by Willis (1940). What jittle is kauwn af

iniiition rates suggests that they are of @ very low order and that they arise at

random (Sewell Wright 140). Eyolution, or successful differentiation resutting

if, speeiution is the resist of factors other Vian miration shaping the evoludoniys

material, and of these s@lenion and isolaiion are most important (Timofee!-

Ressovely 1940, Darlington 1940, ete}. ‘Phe rote or the different Jactors in

evolylion no doubt varies under different cireumsumees ay pointed ont hy

Diver (19403, nor ig there any theoretical reason for believing this 1s not sv

(Sewell Wright 1940).

In the foregoing stctions reasons lave been given for assinming a large pre-

avid relic element in unt fara. Certata discontinuans cistributions have been dis

cussed from t's enele, because a orciie origin appears to be the miuet logical ancl

suraightiorward explanation of their presi aveat. Le is Ghvions, however, tht

considerable evolutionary dilferentiaticus has probably Gecnrred since the Onset

of aridity, some of which would have resittiod in full speciation. Further, the

isolation resuling [ram the contraction of tie flora mst have favoured speciation.

Tan'ation is cunddered a directive factor in evolution by Tinwreol-Ressovsky,

The chief importance of geographical isolation Tes in the restriction of free inter

breeding, whieh results tron partial isolation of a population. Recanse of this,

isolated portiuns of the original population with differing evolutionary potentials

might give vise to mutations which eine unter different selective pressires, and

firally result in considerable divergence within the different centres or isolation.

The absorption of differentiations reculling im this way is probably prevented by

the restrictions to interhroesing. Th is possible thal i this snarnner, nr someting

closely vhin, reproductive isolation and henee full speciation can be ultimately

achieved. On tke other hand, reproduetive ikoluiiun may be more frequently the

restit of hybridisation and intercrussing Following the reunion of adaptive cote

plexes developed under geoaraphical or ceelogical isolation (Dhebzhansky 1941).

In either case geographical ivolatton Las played an dinportant role. So far as the

Australiana flora is coticerned, the contraction in area associated with the wid

period must have been an important diteeive factor promotiag biotypical differen-

tiation. [urther, of the release of climatic pressure, the rapid expansion of area

of those biotypes able to exploit the wew edapho-cinatic Iothilais aiust have given

some exccilent opportunities Tar renuion—that is for hyhricisation, back-crossing,

and various. other types of intercrossing.

It might be expected then, in view of the history of the Australian fora, and

the present state af knowlelee of isetors effecting speccution, thet considerable

differentiation has occurred Smee the iselation of tle fore in niumerotis centres

of surviyal during the Recene desirention, Many of thee divergences have pro-

bahly reeuttedd in fell speciation. Cine limiting fac or is navdeatheeddty the relatively

short lime invoived. Liven assuimitig ihat the arid period was centred much longer

wero than is at present believed (4. Q00-6.,000 years), 1 was probably not more tian

19,000 years aga, Considering the generally low orcer of those mutation yates SY

which haye been measured hy g weNeUcis!s, ai the fact that the great majority of

these in any case haye no adaptive va ne, the amount of ft epeciiion oyer shits

period ast have heer limited. Tt wowd of course depend, anongst olher thine,

upon the degree of both potential and developed c diiFeresiliatinn in a@ particula

eroup prior to contraction, and this woult have varied widely within the diltering

spteics complexes,

Generaphical and ecolagical isolation are very closely related and grade into

each other. The importance of ecological isolation in differentiation, however,

does not seem to have heen sufficiently stressed, With veeutition, areal limitations

within the climatic tulerarices of a species dre miost Frequently (letermined by

edaphic tacters, either direct!y or indirectly. It is obvtoug that greater selection

pressures are operative at these bottadaries, which are useal'y much sharper than

clinmtic hetidari ics, and city mutations of edaphic adaptive value have an oppor-

tunity of avoiding absorption in panmixy by migration to diferent sail types. Tn

this way they may cscape disintegration. evea thoush they possess no sterility

barrier. Cain (1944) lias cummmariset the ease tor this th pe of differentiation

extraucdinarily well, and concludes “Wha spreiatou is usually a population-

pctiphery phenomenon which gains espression threagh migration that allows

isolation and selection,” When the total peripheral areas of widespread species

are considered the enormous opportunities for achievement nf ecological isolation

are realized,

“There are, therefore, several reasons for helleving that a fairly ranid evel

tionary developmen! of some species groups wad have occurred subsequent to

coritraction during aridity.

Some of the chief diticuities of the Arstralian ecologist. cr plant gcagraplier,

Pconcerned with Biolog seal aeicer vithin species, and the fact thal this varies

cnoruimisly, The range of biotypical variation permitted in a species fs largely

subject to certain tuxuimernic Led ahem und the svt iermetiet’s personal HiteTLTe=

tation of them, The example of 4eneu Seadenit and Acacia Loderi ig a case in

point, [lere relatively minor dHferences have led to acknowledgment sf twa

suparve species, Tn the author's opinion @ tr fs ebrengaly. doubtful whether the

differences beluycen thease two are heyond the bietypica! ransa af a normal Speciee,

‘The fact that the real distributions ave isolated from each other is quite undez-

standable au histurical groumnis.

() ‘The examples are too few at present ta he considered an entirely reliable indox

of likely rates in nature.

( Tven if specific rank were justified in tls case other examples are readily. at

hand.

1lé

Difficulties of this kind wre common for the ecalogists and are due, amongst

uther things, tu Hie Tact that a static syste of nomenclature (the Linnaean) 1s

being applied to something dynamic. or a mumber of practical reasons, well

summarised by Uuxley (1940), this ts unavoidable. On the other hand, as

Turrill (1940) points out, faxonontists emphasise, unimientionally, certam

Magnostic characters withont knowing their reat significanes. Obviously, miury

problems for the taxonomist can only be solved by a consideration of the develop-

ment ef the group. Coititined reference hag heen nude in preceding sections to

the low level of eonrpevirion in the early stages of te-eulonisatiun This low level

of competition has been of considerable inmurtauee in aivencing expansion af

area and the clistribution of certain species. Tt has been pointed out hy Worthing-

tot (1V40) that in strdying cases of differentiation in nature the evolution of the

envirenment must be considered in addition to that of the organisms, and rhat the

existence of mamerous unoccupied niches and the absenee of predators are very

mmporGuit in determining the amount of differentiation possible, Le was consiler-

jie die evalution of fresh water fish, bur his comments apply ao Tess to plant

species, and in essence merely amouut to lack of competition increasing the rate

of potential differentiztion-

With the rapid expansiou of the flara following the release of climatic

pressure, normal rates of differentiation nist lave been greativ exceeded fur those

biotypes which were suited to exploit the new edapho-climatic conditions, «A large

percentage of the first viable seeds of niigramts would themselves become suc-

cesstul migrants, and more generations would be passed through in a Tanited tine,

As anentioned cartier, the brake of competition would soon be applied, but this

woulcl not be fully operative, at least for some species, witil sumethivie approach-

img the sual equilibria of plant commmiiics was achieved. Here then is another

reasor la anticipate relatively rapid differentiation within some groups of the

Australian flora,

With relatively short-term geographical isolation of the type suggested during

the Great Atistralian Arid Period, it wok! be most likely that differentiation only

rarely procecded as far as fw speciation, at Jeast in the sense of the ataimment

of inter-specific sterility, Expausion of the flora froni the centres of suryival

would almost certainty have led iu some cases to consolidation ol gene varia-

tians i the attainment of full speciation. Usually, however, such a level of

differentiation would not be teached, and the result would merely have heen con-

siderable hybridization, Indeed iu citer cise we could capeet ite production of

a laree number of heterozygous hybridised and inter-erossed forms and very

variable “species ecmplexes.” Mauch of the differentiation developed durniug

izolation has tndoubrediy stubseqiienthy been preserved hy some form of ecological

isalatien. Cain has poimted out that hybridization and the production of hybrid

sivatius is particularly likely to aceur with a change in ecological conditions, as

with inan’s activities in removing a barrier cud permitting free intermixing, That

this harrier is [requently that of biolegieal conipetition is certain, but it may be

any barrier to crose-fertiisativon, In the case of insect pollinated plants it might,

for exunple, be dus to invasion hy inseets which cover a wider range. In the

hylitidisatien between two species of Soliduga suidied by Goodwin (1937) it was

due tu opportunities for migration presented with the drainage of the swamp.

Although most studies on hybridisatian have been made in relatively small arcas,

itis whvieus that possibihties for its development with lhe release of ctimatic

pressure following contraction, and isolation of the greater part of the Australian

flora were exceptional, Further, these were greatly stimlated by the relaxation

of another normal ecologic barrier in the law level of competitian,

118

Reasons have becn given to indicate thal expansion during recolonisation gave

a potentially variable species, whether new or relic, a great opportunity of develop-

ing that variability under different selective pressures, and where Gifterent oppor-

tunities for inter-crossing occurred. This probably also encouraged an

extraordinary biotypical yartation and the production of wicespreacd lyhy “id forus.

If the historical seyuences and their consequences which have been pustuluted ate

correct, it would be expected that: (1) there would be a large relic element in

our flora (¢xamples have been given to stbsiantiale this); (2) considerable

differentiation is likely to have occurred in some groups during isolation, rmost

of which, however, did not develop reproductive isolation; and (3) because of

(2), and the subsequent release of climatic (and biologic) pressure, extraordinary

opportutiities for hybridisation and intercrossing occurred during migration. Lf,

as has been considered, the artdily was centred us reeemily as 4,000-6,000 years

ago (or even thottgh it were considerably older than this), the & xpansion of the

fora is sufficiently recent to have preserved each of this supposed complexity in

some groups. It might be further expected, therefore, thac it would be exceed-

ingly difficult to say where some species shoyld begin and/or end. Vhat this is

$0 is apparw! to any toxonomist or ecolagist who cus been faced with the necessity

oF classifying related Australian species. Tf michr be antieiguled us a corollary

that many “species.” frequently taxonomically goad sneries, would nor have

developed genetic isolation during geographic jsolation and would he largely

preserved in different areas today by cenlogiec barriers. These species would show

free cupeeity for hybridisation if brought together. Very hile has been aitenpted

in the s:ucy of hybridisation hetteeh related species in Austatig, Ir has been

suspected fer a long time that the genus Lineal yptis had a great capacity Tor the

produciaa of polymorphism in this way. Some mast iuseresting and valuable

recent work of brett (1946) has demonstrate) that iis is. sr, aud to a dearee

never previously dmagined. Tis work also inylicates quite clearly that nainy

species of Eucdlypts are preserved) ag entities solely an account of che ecological

isolation they anjoy. ‘The camptexity ot forms ii many species groups in the

Australian flora must be considered strong suppert Tar a very recetit es pansion

vf area.

Perhaps the best example of hietypical complexes recorded in Australia is

afforded by the /ucaly tus ofrosad, ficressela group of malocs. terbert (1928)

repos that of 33 exctlyit species recoriied tor the goldhe ls region of Western

Australia (34 endemic), a'niost all the Fornis‘*) are allied fo rhe wboye two

groups. E, dumesa ancl L. inerussata forma somewhat similar complex in South

Australia, Another esse of a complex within one group of closely related

species is shown hy the endenies on hangaroe [sland. Of the &2 endemies.

belongins to + genera, listed hy Wond (1930), nu Iess than twelve are spevies and

yaricti¢s ef (he gums Paulienace. That ts, athough the eidemics of the revion

belong in 47 differeit genera, 13% a7 them are ‘nn gue genus, and most of flick

are closely reated. It ts apparen: that historical ecolagital stresses Tinye per-

mitted potential variability in the genus Pultendes on Wangnroo Island to develop

fairly freety. Asa resnit Pudteneva is a virile genus.

Species complexes of this type are ony hkely to he thoroughly unterstood

as a result of cytovenctic studies, folluwed by experimental analysis of hy bricisa-

lien of the type curried out by Geodwin on Selidacga, ane being dane by Hrett

lor Evcely plus im Tasinenia

3 Many of these are ohvroisly not deserving af specter rane.

4. Some Reviston ano Furtiier CGONSIDERATIONS

Tn the preceding sections a survey bus been attempted of the major geological,

puleoclimatological and paleupedological factors which have intlienced the

development of the veyxetation of South Australia, Althourh secological condi-

tins since the Cretaceous haye becis fundamental in their modification af (he

floral mosaic fn various ways, a period of severe aridity in the middle Recent

which followed a phivial epoch, and was apparently rapid in its ensel, has been

the grenxtest niodifying influenee jusofar as the distribution of the present units

is concerned, It resulted in both wholesale destruction of myny species and a

contraction of area of almost all those surviving.

The contraction in area caused vartous degrees of isolation in the centres of

survival, and with subserjient climatic variations there has been canple upportuuily

for reqnion; these were factors which made For diversification. Other influences

also probably eucouraged speciation where the potentialities existed. There are,

however, obviously large relic elements in the present flora-—-perhaps the largest

portion, and many of the restricted species are old and not new endeniics,

fas Ukely thar destruction ot the pre-arid flora frequently meant extinction

in one refuge area and preservation in auother nearby. ‘The absence of a species

in one region, therefore, clearhy does not iudicate that ik never extended so fur,

Frequently it -was merely unable w obtain a suitable survival niche in oie Ineality,

but able ta do so in another, Cases itt puint are the absence of the stringybarks,

Lucalyptis obliqua and i. Burteri, or the eyp gums (2. cosyrophylla on Lyre

Peninsula, They are present both on Kangaroo Island and in the Mount Lofty-

Fleurieu Peninsula regious. Owe world expect the southern portion of Eyre

Peninsiia to be a povrer centre of survival than the other reyions, because it is

poorer in habitat diyersity, and there is nu valid reason for assuming that ihese

Species were not otice present {here.

Although itis always ylificult, and at

present frequently imrpossibic, ta reach

a sateinctery tinderstanding of the

veason fora particular species distribu-

Vion, we con be relatively certain of one

iportunt Fact. That is that the plant

ravuuunities Hrenmselves are vot —

the combinations are new, One would

expec! as a result thal they would

show smne signs of instability, There

are, luwevyer, via preat instabilities

apparel, and this must be duc to

gi chormous stabilising tnflnence

af pinssessinn, together with the high

cUlonising yutential when the level

Fix, 12

Enecalyplus diversifola association (hatened),

° Saeed fied = : . first Section 6, Handred Uley, Fyre Peninsula.

of competition is low. The first Pye qaublechatehed portion is an extension

oeeupadt of m waeant miche there- since the original survey.

vicer hols a great adventage, One ;

case in which the relationship beiween two associations appears to be im

a state of flnx is that of the Aucalvptas diverstfalia associatiou and the

Melalenco = pubescens-Casuarina stricta association, where the two ocetir on

shatlaw terra rossa soils developed cn aeclianite limestone. Indications are

that the balance between these two assuctations, the former a scleraphyll sertith

and tbe other an open savainah woorllamd, is a very delicate one, and that the

selerophyll as invading the woudlamd in some places. At Seetiuon 6, Tlundred Uley,

lyre Peninsula, the area occupied by the ¢clerophyll scrub today is very much

121

greater than that delimited by the surveyors in their land survey nf 1877. A

different ipe of instability, which is potentia) rather than real, is shown hy

speeies which are growing al the extreme limits of their toleranees. Most of these

must he poor competitors and could readily be replaced hy species more sited to

the envirounient were they available. Lxamples of tits mdive inchide Lucaly pris

cladocalyy on Fyre Veninsia, which is existing aver much of its arca in a

depanperate state on soils and under climatic conditions which are supporting the

nore highly integrated £, Bawvteri association on Kangaroo Island. Another case

is the extreme dwarhng of A, Bawferi at the limits oi its edapho-climatic range

in the Upper South-East, and then there are a large mmber of species which occur

in an excessively dwarfed state in many of our communities; for exainple

Beéaksta morqiitata, whieh occurs normally wy a tree ar tal) shrub, can be reduced

to Jess ther six inches in height and still ececise-

Recause of the complex of factors which can modify the relationships between

soil andl yevefation it is not surprising that other things are not equal, atid the

generalisation that withi the saine elinatie horizon the distribution af yegetation

is determined by soil conditions Frequently does not hold, There are difficulties in

defining soil-vegetalion relationships precisely. Firstly, there are the taxunontic

problems mentioned earlier, and secondly there are, from the soil viewpoml, the

severe limilalions dipased by analytical techniqnes, especialy those which attempt

to evaluate spoil fertility, These difficntties will always be apparent because soil

fertility, for instance, is without exact defitition unless referred to a particular

biotype or series of hiotwpes, while the subtleties of geuotypical variation which

have ccological significance wiil abwavs escape the taxctiomist to a gieater or

lesser degree, Added to these problems are (he dilliculties of assessing the

climatic and purely biological factors of the environment. Indeed, plant ecology,

ar for that matter ecoloey generally, is faced with some yery real problems. The

acceplance of the faet that speciation represerts na absolute stage in evolu

lion, (see Muliet 1940}, but is gradually arrived at, and that im the taxonontists”

species all types of intergrades occur, meats that identification and understanding

of the genotypical variation with which the geographer or ecologist is dealing is

a necessary prerequisite, Further, he nas to assess the contplex environment aud

inter-relave these lwo, that is organism and environment. Although in a general

way the factors concerned are known fairly well, further progress so far as plant

ecology goes must depend largely upon progress in other lields, stich as pedology

and climatology,

Despite the limitations imposed by difficulties like the above, and the dise

continuities that have heen stressed, it is nevertheless possible to arrive at very

useful classifications and understanditigs of the vegetation. South Austratia has

been «a goad centre far working ont many of these relationships because the overall

simplicity of rhe soil mosaic, the regularity of the climatic zonatton, and the limited

refuges, beth tw extent and number, trom which the present communities have

develope), has impressed upon the vegetation patterus a simp icity that is wanting

in the eastern States,

VIL ECOLOGICAL CONCT PTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF

THE SOUTTI AUSTRALIAN VEGETATION

The dynamic view of vegetation bas resnited in the concept of a succession

of plant communities towards a rlimae association determined entirely by climate

Qf the earlier propounders of the succession concept perhaps Cowles (1901) was

the fiaet Th was Clements (1916), however, who brought it prominently to the

fore and wabordted jt in his publications until plant eculagy became burdened

122

with a yery special terminolovy, chiefy developed about deductive theories. The

succession of associations leading to the final climax is lmown as a sere, Lt was

suggested that in the present-day communities the climax was readily recognis-

able—at was the most widespread assemblage within a climatic zone and that all

other communitics could he classified as seral sta, wes, efther as relic communitics

or as communities leading dircetly ta the climax,

A pioneering attempt by Wood (1937) to classify the connuunities of South

Australia and slow their inter-relationships on a sneeresional basis. although doing

much ty hring order out of chaos, was soon found wanting, It resulted ina

reconsideration (Wood 1939) of some of the fundamentals underlying ecological

nomenclature.

‘The Tailure to apply successfully the suectssioital concept to a-classification

of Sou Avstralian commyanites has largely been due to the Ietorical develop-

ment ef the vegetation, We have suggested that the present associations have

resulle | drum: the re-cutotisation of vast hare areas by dispersal irom centres

ef shrvival. The associaliis are very young and their distribniion has been dete

ined within a climatic zone chielly by edaphic conditions, The distribution

patterns have heen greatly ii!fienced. however. by other factors stich as individal

dispersal capacities, chance dispersals, opposing migratinis, location oi survival

cetitres, bidtypreal differentiation, barriers, ele. It is not si rprising thet the final

sperits-apsregates Pig ae cle.) are nut made up af anus with identical

tolerances, nor weuld this ever be expected. Altheash, therviore, the specias

which played a dominment pare in the developmental seres associated with re-

colonisaiion are probably afl stil living. it is cbviens that presen t-lay aguregates

are different anc cannot be considered seral stages in ihe accepted Clements sense

--uniess, Indeed, they all be considered edanbic subelimaxes. One micht as well

emsider them all edapho-eljnatie climaxes, but must appreciate their dynamic

state.

It is a logical comsetyuence of speciation ant evolution, and of historical

changes, that the dynamic nature of veyeration wil? always be nmintained, The

degree of stability will he greatly roverned hy the historical sequentes, and these

will vary from country to country. it is perhaps dinderstandable that the concept

of succession towards a chniwx and the concept of ¢ chiigcie-ytdaiged migrations

ot whole communities, rather than individuals. has heer pusked so far im America,

where Ue paleontological Teck id indicates a very bone history. sud where elinatic

fineluations, though cxtensiys, have heen gradual Gleason (1923), for examples,

lias beets alste to produce a comuiterabie quitinily of data ta saew that the principal

vegetational Blevigentet; mm the Middle West were differcniiated im the Vertiary anil

“have continuous y mauttained wheir procest relative position.” Such conttimity

of rclatiouship could never he cnyigaged for Moments of the stustradian vegeta-

linn. inthe Tertiary, wien Australia was, reduced to an alioat pertzct ita eplain

chinatic CHitiaxes would perhaps haye heen recogmmsable in the chearetical sense.

The eculogieal c chucepts and units of classification proposed by Clenieits

(T16), and followed by Tansler, were based upon the philosoutical ccnceat of

arganism, Since this classification had heen fond suwurkable for Soult Aus-

tralian vegetation, Wood (19, 3) proposed a rational hasis which should underlie

any system of classiication of pian comnumities, and tentatively suggested auuits

of convenience. Tt is proposed here to amplify and extend the considerations

given in the previous paper, and, othe light of further field experience, io define

units seilable for classifying vegetation.

Eculory, in large measure, consists in defuing the lintiis of species which

erOW atiraly together, and in understanding the Euctors respansible iw, their

Hainieminee as a commomty. Ecology, atier all, is a branch of physiology. In

423

the laboratory we study the reactions of species when ali environmental factors

save one or two are constatit; in ecology in the feld we study these reactions when

the whole constellation of environmental factors varies and where we have the

added complication of competition between speccs.

The basic fact tinderlving all ecological work is rhe matter of experience

that any partievlar species will develop and be maintained only within certain

environmental hinits—these linits include soil cenditions af nutricnts, water, etc.

and climatic conditions. These limits we may verm the “potential environment”

of the particular species.

Any particular environment selects from any population of species exposed

to it those species whose potential enivirorunent coincides in part with the actual

environmert—in other wards, we are fed to a shnple Darwinian explanation.

Competition between species and changes in the genetic constitution may

eatise changes in freqticncy, and an initial assemblage of species. may atter the

chemital emyiromuerl, so opening the

way for further change in the species-

aggregate,

The potentis: environments of com

paratively Tew species are accurately

known. We are familiar enough with

species with exacting environmental

couditions in the case of bacteria—the

hasis of the technique of bacteriology

is the prodveron of selective media

for arawth, Wood and Baas Recking

(i937) have erawn attention toa the

muvereal gerurrence of a community

of vreens, bine greens and diatoms and

omingied by Ruppia nearitiura in salt

lzkes where che conccutration of salts

is 6-10%. Aud in a mote extreme

environment, viz. salt brines (up to

about 20° tela, salts), there appears a

ceumiitity Rlentical in all parts or the

work! dominated by Denaltella wivilis, The potential environments of raumbers

of this conmunity for three chigrides ait different corcentrations have been

delinnted by Baas Hecking.

Wood (1937) has drawn ailewtian to cavergence in species-composilion of

oligotrophis hogs (pH 4:°0-4:5), at Drenthe (Holland) and Mount Conpass

(Seuth Ausiratia), where closely allied speeles of the sammie penera cecur in the

sate comtuunities, Eardley (1843) studied a South Austrahan fen (neutral to

allailine prats) and showed the temiarkeble siuarily i specivs-composition with

Fast Anglian jens and same North Aimerican swans. Wood (189) ilnsrrated

how some of the chief assoctauions in South Australia were related io annual rain-

fall, pliospliate content and pH of the soil.

Tt is a maatter of experience that some species lave a wide potential environ-

ment, whilst others Have an extrerne!y limited one, and (ais js particularly true

of many species of the genus Ericelypius. With these underlying ideas in mind,

vegetation unils (ic., species-agercgates which live naturally together) can be

considered.

Suppose we consider a hypatheticul case of a community of four species,

é, 8, ed, Wlinse porential environments with respect fo iwo independent factors.

say, x and y, are as follows. the species a extending over the whole area (ig. 14).

124

If the unit community is defined as one of definite and uniform coniposition,

as was done by the Third International Botamieal Congress, then it is clear that

there are several different ufita occurrmg within the labitut. These units are

the ‘associations’ of Swedish ecologists, They lead to a completely unwieldy

classification, e.g. Ostvald (1923) has described 164 separate associations in a

stretch ef moorland 40 square mites in area,

On the other hand, Tansley (1939) considers the tree dominant only as

Cefiring the associat’on, and on this classifeaton the whole area dominated by a

woulL he the unit. Tansley's classification of the British oak-beechwouds, together

with some habitat factors is as follows —

clysociation (chmax) > oalebeechwood.

Consociatians (one dominant only).

( Ouercetum vaboris - — - damp clays and Joams:

onk ) neutral to alkaline

Ouerceluat sessilijlarde - (a) savannah woodlands-podsols

- (b) with heath-peaty podsols

Fagetuim calciculum - — - rendzina pH 7-5-8-0

beech Fagetint rubosim — - - brown earth 4:5 -7°7

Fugetume ericetosum - - podsol 35-455

cersocies (seral stayes) are;

btrchwood ————> oalkkewood

ashwaod = ————> beechwooil

Vhis unit of Tansley (the association) is too broad a unit of classification

for practical purposes. Indeed, the cxample ubove secs to violate the very idea

of an “association” of plants, for the yroupings of associated plants are tofally

uniike in the different communities—some consociations have no species in

common with each other! It also violates ‘l'ansley’s definition “constant habitat,”

for, although climatic factors remem relatively constant in the above association,

other equally important factors. ms. soil types, nutrients, pll and water relation-

ships are widely different. The system really breaks down owing ta the wide

patentia! environment of the dominant species—much wider than that of any of

the species associated with it.

Suppose we take a specific case, and apply Tanslcy’s classification to the

conunmiiiies in South Australia dominated hy &Aucelyplus Baxter’, the Dbrowi

strinsybark. The following well-defined cammunities are readily distinguished:

E, Basteri-E. Huberiana — - - wet podsuls

Fé. Baxtert-E. oblique - - - normal podsals

EL Baxteri * - 2 dry and shallow podsols

A. Baxtert-E, diversifolia - - siliceous sands and

resinual podsols ever ironstone

> lateritic soils (residual podsols )

EB. Baxteri-E. cosmophylla

The rainfall over the whole gronp of communities varies trom 40 ta 14 inches

per annum. The floristic make-up aud species-Irequency of cach of the above

comugnrines is quite distinctive; some of the communities have few species in

common except £. Baxter’, The first cummunity is a savannah woodland, the

second and third dry scleraphyil forests, the fourth a mallée scrub, and the fifth

a treeless macchia. There ig no evidenee whatever of any successional trends

between then

125

Furthermore, in the Suuth-Rast of South Atistralia, ranges of residual

podsols occur purallel to the coast and at right augles to the raivall isohycts,

From 30 inches in the south ta 14 inches in ihe north, Progressing northwards,

ofc fiads a gradual dropping out of sume species and their replacement by others,

E. Bovteri continues as a dominant throughout; in the wetter areas as a forest

tree, (hen ne a stuntes small tree, them as a slirub less than 3 feet high. Vinally

it disappears, but most of the plants associated with tt in the stunted phase con-

fine on ats heath or wallee-heath, obviously related to the former commmnity.

Tt is clewe that HK. Bavteri ts a species with a wide potential environment,

mich wider than that of most of the other plates associated with it, To celine

a community based on the distribution of FE. Kaxteri alone is Lo ignore the asso-

ciated species and simply to define the area ocenpicd by the cucalypt species.

Relatively few species are distributed purely at random, and associations,

under whatever system, are delermited subjectively. In defining ai association

we take a middle course between the British-A\merican and the Scandinavian-

Swiss schools. We define an association as a conslenl association (ie., growitg

tog ther } af dominant specits recurring in siptilar habitals, The term dominant

SPreies relers not only to the tree species, but also to the dominant shrub and/or

herb specie s which give the characteristic look or Facies ta the community, It is

similar in practice to the * scongogiation. "of Tanstey, but without the iuplications

inherent in lis definition, This ts the grotiping ot greatest tse in Vegetation

studies in Australia, though not neve sesaiiesly the most furduamental unit. fi prac-

lice we bave found associations to be closely cor related with soil types; ar it on

different soil types, then some comperisating Jactor can normaily be found, eg,

water relalions, nutrients, ete.

The assveiation iy made up of smaller units and may be grouped into larger

ones.

The snialler unita ate the type and the society. Type we define as « local

chanyr ia the dominants ef the upper stration of an assoctation which is accon-

panied by little or ne chanye in the other dancimants, A Suctety is 2 local change

qi the dontinants of tie lower stratuns,

‘he coticept of type has beet used fora long time in forest practice. Appar-

ently if was first used by Graves (1899), who ¢ tated “the same type of forest will

tend x0 be produced on ‘the same classes of situation Keser suil in a specified region.

There will be yariations within the type, but th sharacterisuic features will

remain constant, that is the predomimant specits, Retisity habit. ot trees, character

of undergrowth, etc, If a portion af the forest is destroyed by fire, wind or wther-

wise, the lype may for the time being be changed, but if lefe undisturbe| will

rever= to the original form, provieled the condition of the soil is not changed.”

This definition, i essence, is sil retained in the Glossary of rechnical terms

of the Society of American loresters (1944), where 1 1s added: “The tert

suggests repetitions of the same characters wordler similar conditions.”

Pryor (1939) first used the term in ecological liverature in Australia, nsing

“onant titative floristic uiiformity of the domtnants” as the criterion, Pidgeon

(1942) delined forest type as “a forest stand which has, wherever it necurs, the

suine floristic composition of dominants, ancl which develops in essentially similar

habitats.” Tn both definitious the term “dominants” refers to the dominant

tree species.

Hoth the above workers have sed this unit with advantage. for it is a reality

in the field, “Phe anthors of the present paper disagtee with their definition of

fores* type since it neglects the associated species, and in this way departs some

what even from the original concept. ITowever, the difference is one of definition

vather than of fact, for Pryor (lec. cit.) states: “In an area with very few

dominant species, eg., jarrah region of Western Australia, the lowest order com-

munity (ie., type) mitst be determined by some criterion additional to the floristic

composition of dominants, ¢.7,, the floristic camposition of the lower strata of

the community.” and again, “ihe vegetation type corresponds approximately with

the Association of Braun-Bliunquet and the Faciation of Clements.” The essence

of Braun-Blanquer’s association is “uniform floristic eonposition’—not of

dominants only. We prefer, therefare, the definition of type as described above,

In practice, there is no conflict between different Austratian workers in actual

delimitation of types in the field. The corwept of type has been used in studying

the forests of the mountainuus areas of New South Wales and South Anstralia

(Pryor 1939; Pidgeon 1942; Boomsma 1946), In these areas the need for such

a unit aries from the extreme sensitivity of many Lycelyptas species ta changes

in the miero-habital; changes which in other parts ef the world cause allerations

in the shrub or herb layers only. Ir is clear that some eucalypt species have a

wore restricted potential enyiranment than have the shrub species with which they

are associated,

The type is a mote fundamental unit than the association as dutined above,

alia jt will be clear that an association as defined by ts is a collection of types

In a forest association, the floristies Of the ussociated species of the undergrowth

remain the same, though there may be local changes in the tree species.

In wailing associations into larger groups any characteristic of the association

may surve as a basis for classification, “lhese classifeations abstract some

characterislies of the association. Tl is clear that several alternative classifications

can be made; they ate not necessarily mutually exclisive bul are complementary.

and any may shed sume light on vegetation problems,

The Freneh-Swiss school groups asvacintions inte larger units on the basis. of

a common flora, although (his sometimes leads to grouping together of associations

which are not nearly aiied. Using structure ani lite form as erieria, associa inns

may he grouped into such units as selerophy!l forest, saytmmah woedlarid, savani-

nah, cle., in any partionlar arca. These are the Forinatious of Tumsley and are

groupitizs of greay convenience, although their use does not always lead to

groupitte of nearly related associations, e.., the mallee-heath and heath of the

upper South-East (Jessup 1946), nearly related im flovisties and habitat would he

separated on this basis.

Tn Sonth Australia we have used one feature of the habitat, vis., alMed soils.

associated with velated flaristic caarposition ef specles as a basis for Cassification.

Within definite climatic Jimuits, associations on nearly related soil types and witlt

related flofistie composition are grouped cogether as an Mdaplic Caniples.

striking cxample of an Exfaphic Complex is the associations Tout on podsolizerl

soils in the Mount Lofty Ranges within the climatic sone linuted by the 25-50"

unniual isoyet. Detailed work im pragress (Specht M46) shows that on these

soils wellalefned aysoviations oceur with the followmyr eucalypts as domiiants;

fs. oblique, BE. Bacteri, FE. cosmephylia, b, fascientoso, ff. Weucerylon, The

podsols inelude normal, immature and residgal podsols, podsals on deep sands

wl “vrey-broywn" podsels; they vary in their natrient and water retitions.

Floristic lists for each of these eummilthities show that with few exceptiona the

sue spucies occur in cach of them; their frequencies, however, differ greatly in

the different assuciations, btit are constant for any one community associaied with

& particular eucalypt. Shrub species dominant in one association may he only

vecasinnal or Tate ii another, Ub js possible that licre we sce the selective effcet

of environment at work on a relatively volng species-population. Selection has

procveded to such an extent that the separate associations can readily be dis

tinguished, hut the associations themselves bave unity in Horistic composition and

in habitat in the Hdaphic Complex.

127

The greater portians of South Australia possess a heritage from the past, in

thal many soils retain certain morphological features which are “fossil,” he. not

Eormed in equilibrium with present climate, but relies of former, more or less

irreversible, soil processes. The result of Recent aridity has heen a stripping and

resorting ef the upper horizons of many of the old soils, and the building up and

exposare of “new? soi] material, which ts naw re-subjected to pédogenic processes

The result is a very diverse pedogenic history for many soils.

1a this complicated yaricty of habitats the Edaphic Complex is of yalue. For

example, in the upper South-Hast, on neutral to alkaline sands, Jessup (1946)

lias shown that a mallee sernb—cthe A. dizersifolia-l. augutosa association—oceurs

om crests of hillss on shallaw sands-al the same type, anc on well-drained adjacent

cand qiain or heath, the Casumina pusilla-Nunthorrheca aysfralis associatior

ocenrs, The Bill slopes is an ecole or transition region wilh dominants from

hath esgociutions present and wilh EF, Jeptopinylla more prominent--this is the well

knew) mallve-heeth. In the twa assoriations the agsociajed species are quite dis-

tinct. On utidulating plaing in this arca the vegetation ct first sight is extremely

complex, yarving with every rise, and its edaphic relattouships only became clear

when the well-detined sandhill-plain region was studied, ‘Such areas can often

best be mapped as a Complex and sorting oui of associations left to detuiled study.

Sinilarly, om the laterite and assuciated soils on Kangaroo Island, the fol-

lowing agsociations can be distinguished :

E. Baxtert-E, cosmophylla ~ - on Jaterite soils

Ky remata - > “ - on heavy or massive laterite

i diversifolia-E. cosmophytl om laterite soils with some

siliceous sands

om siliceous sands

(A horizon of the laterite)

& Basleri-E. diversifolia =~

"Vhe matlee-broomlush complex in the South-East, Kangatoo Island and Eyre

Peninsula (Crocker 1946, Jessup 1946, Wood 1937) 1s a good example of @

complex of associations closely allied, but showing some marked floristic differ-

etices owing to endemism on Kangaroo Island and Eyre Peninstla, and to differing

selection pressures im centres of survival in the three regions during the aridity.

The vegetation on the immature soils derived from the Hawkesbury Sand-

stone in New South Wales, and described hy Pidgeon (1942), is an Fdaphie

Complex,

In the associations described above there is no evicence of succession or of

invasion, but only of transition. Indeed, selectivity af enyironment—espceially of

climatic factors—is particularly marked in styeral areas of South Australia where

a relatively uniform soil extends over'a wide range of present-day climatic condi-

tions, Examples are the ranges in the South-Past. the restduai podsols on Kan-

garoo Island and the mallee soils. [ere we may follow the slow dropping out ank|

replacement of species by others as rainfall decreases, till at the two extremes are

found commiinitics with few or no speeics in common.

Communities which in Tanslvy's system are regarded as seral. ic, those which

show allogehic succession, may also be growped as an edaphic complex, The

commutitics on steep hillsides and skeletal soils, as well as on mature soits on

tops of ridges, and on gentler slopes in the Mount Toviy Ranges, may he cited

as am example, In each case the habitats are different and selective, so are the

floristies, although they are allied. The hillside comimunities are stable, and a

uniferm teritinal community is onty theoretically possible by a levelling down ot

all physiographic units to the uniform soil typ¢. These examples might be termed

edaphic successions; but in any case it is desirable to separate them from biotically

induced successions.

128

‘The examples given of the past listery of South Atistratian soils and yegeta-

tion and the impossibility of reconstilutig the past, illustrate the dangers of

dommatisiny about successions of this kind. ALL our experience indicates that

succession should nat he wsed in any scheme of classilicaiion of communities,

This does not imply that biotic stuccession does not occur, It is obvious on

sand dunes, and in swamps generally wlere the plants themselves cause changes

in the liabitit to produce a special soil carrying, at cquiaibrinm, a terminal com-

mninity. Within associations as defined by us biotic sucerssidnal changes occur

following fire, iclling. grazmg, cte., hut there is no evidence al seri changes,

only a selectivity of the habitat, This is well illustrated in the lower South-East,

where the following communities in the same ciimatic zone ate clear-cut both in

floristics and habitat and with na evidence of seral staves between or leading

to then.

I. lisylert - - Sélerophyil forest - - on residual padsols

Nuntliorrhoca-Hakea Heath — - - - - wet acid podsols

Ji, cuinaldilensis = Savaunah woodiand - - meadow podsals

intermediate meadow

porlsol-rendzina

GCahufe-Cladiwie - Siivannah - “ - - rendzina

Alelelonca pubescens Savaniah woodland ~ térra tassa

BE, ovata ~ - - Savannah woodland

Much oi the lack of succession is doubtless due to the low degree of imtegra-

tion of the open and ligt-demanding conimtaities of Eucalyptus as well ag to

the historical factors diseyssedl previously. Invasion t more abyious in highly

integr aied enmniunities and cera dainty oseurs if Australia where rain forést

impinges on Fucalypt forest. bat the lack of suecession in our forests generally

prolubits iis we a8 a characicristice in any scheme af elassileation: .

VOT. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

OF the elements which make up the Australian flora the Australian element

is the most prom iment in the southern regions, As has been iudicated its centre

of origin is ohsetive. Imi in all likelihood: there were Many evntres. [ts present

giv supeests a snutlie fs urigin, hut it is more Uhkely that the

prin jury Genenis developed wher Auiistia generally had a tumperate and more

unitocur elisa, 71 Ferbert nen has suegested ihat the yenws Excalyptns

successfiiy established jtse! ‘ uniler a feraperate climes with abutmlant rainfall.

li is perhips siznifieant tha 4 Sloat the tivaston rovtes af the Tadu-Melanesian

element there has been practically nO byWwu-Wwely traffic, This lack of reriprority

Was early noted by p Ploaber (1850), and it does SUgLOSE TNYisiuTs following with-

drawal of the Anstraliatn elginent to the sous. Tu inty ease, the evidence is very

st ronigly in voter of semuathings in the mature af a pan-Australian fiora int the

carly Tertiary—at least over the sovthern half of Austra ha, Stich a pdssibiiity

is miade more likely by the edaphic and climatic wifurmily which existed, for at

this time the cortinent was reduced fo un alntosi perieet peiepluki. This

uniformity was broken by marine trans rem sions, yoleanic uctivity and earth-

mayenients which reached their mesxivum iu the lee Terti lity, thowsh cach, Ain

especiaily the Teter, carried om inte the Quateriar Vv ia seme extent. J fabitar

‘liversity wits iurther } jiereased in the Pleistocene by the generally hich raitifall

causing active crosion of the newly-fornied divides, are] ihe epi reading of large

alluvial depasits. In the late Pigiglacene other factors such as the deposition ar

large quantities of calcarcous loess ayer Southern Ausiralia led to a modification

129

of the edaplic conditions, while jn the Quaternary generally, large pseilations

in the Mura occurred as a response to changing climatic conditions.

OF these clituatic changes, the mos( significant from the viewpoint of the dis-

tribution oF the present vegetation communities kas been a post-Pleistocenc period

al aridity, which followed plavial cordifinns,

The desiccation was so severe and sudden (hat it resulted in a considerable

portion of the pre-arid flora being entirely wiped out, The surviving remnants

were isolated in numerotis refuges, ios) imporiaay Of which were those Ta yuhs

where habizat diversity, espeolaly eliniatic diversity, was sentient, The presert-

day plant commmnities are the result af re-colomisation of vist, viebaally bare,

areas, especially in the atid regions. This expansion uchicved ils greatest sti ans

with a sight release of the clinvatic presspre, “The Auetralian Nera today can-

(aims novery large pre-arid relic clenien:, Despite the fevourabh: concitions tay

biotypical ciiferentiation with reunion following isolation and the possibilities ot

later invasions (greatly favoured by the law level of competition), it is likely that

this relic portion je still rhe Targer. Ln a broad way the dais of the arid regions isa

blending of the Indo-Melanesivn element fronr the nests and north-wast wit the

Awstraiian element from ihe santh-west. south om sauth-east, which las ovcurred

subsequent. to the Great Australien Arid Period. It can he looked on, theretore,

as a large ecotonal region, This htendiue of the two elements is well Mustrated

by the floristic analyses of Murray (1931) and Gardner (1942),

There is evidence for 4 post-leislncene xerothermis period in many places

in the world (see Huntington and Visuer 1922), bul nowhere does it appear Lo

have been sG severe, or to have had sech far-reaeling consequences as im Ats-

tralia, nialess perhaps in (he sonthern Mediterranean reyion, Tn view of the close

relationship between the accurrence of maximum arility, warmer seas and higher

seas (10-20 feet) in Australia, and the evidence for a post-glacial worldwide

(eustatic) rise in sea level of this arder, it is mot wolikely that aridtty was mueh

more general at this tine than has beet imaging). Jansen (1924), frou saidies

on the Rear iver delta, Gritish Colunbia, has concluded that present tempera-

tures hay¢ not persisted for more tan 4,000-5,000 yens, the mird-post glacial

being warmer. Although Anstralia largely liex in the Istitudes where dhe Ingh

pressures tend to favour aridity, it is likely that the widespread edfects of the

desiceation were dic to a conibination of Factors. OF theae the general lack of

relief (neat-pencplanation) of the greater part of the continent, large areas of

laterised sos which in many areas probably preserved up to this tinve much of

their easily-atripped JA horieons, the ocenrrence over much of Australia af great

quantities of alluywam and detrital meterial, anil of certain lime-rich soils in

southecn Australia which were liable lo casy loss of stability, together with the

presence af a very mesic fora, are wiost imporiant aad are stfiicient to explain

the results.

One fact which is apparent From the analysis ef the cevelopment of the south

Australian plant communitics is that the asgectations themselyes are very young.

Their distribution has been determined within a climatic zone chicily by c:laphie

conditious, im that these have been responsible toy the sequence of related haditats,

which have made ap the migratory routes aud nave largely determined the speed

and direction of migration.

As already mentioned the distr;budan patterns have heen greatly influenced,

however, by other factors such as individual dispersal capacities, chance dispersals,

opposing migrations, location of survival céitres, varying degrees of biotypical

differentiation (including speciation), barriers, ete. It ig nol surprising that the

final species-aggrcrates (associations. etc.) arc not made up of units with identical

lolerances. Nov is it surprising that an attempt to inter-relate these communities

136

(Wood 1937) as seral stages in the accepred sense of Clements (Clements 1916)

shold tive been unsuccessiul. The cegeee of stability of vegetation will be

governed hy the historical sequences, and these will vary greatly froin woutry ty

coluintry and within a country.

In some respects the respente of the flora to aridity in Australia was very

similar to sume of the fora Auetuations of the Pleistocene Ice-ages in ie

northern hemisphere, Uhese, bke cur aridity, wiped out the yereution over laree

areas, but jef{ centres of survival, Glaciation, however, was a mueh mort gradual

Phenomenon, permitting a considerable amount of adaptive differentiation 14

proceed, More important still was the [aet that mast species bad a sufficiently

wide amplitude and a fast erough migration capacily to keep ahead of the ice in

ils advance, and to follow it fairly closely in retreat, In this way wholesale

destruction wes avoided and the pattern oi re-columisation has ween, in fact,

entirely different. Chances Jor unlimited fybridisation and/or cousulidation of

biotypical differentiation did nat ovcur io the same dewree. The time factor, tun,

Las heew so very differest. The lastorieal sequences aud their COTSEMENCEeS Sey

sufficient 10 explain the specific sibility of the north Europenn and Amertean

floras by eonmparisnn with ihe yroat specific complexity of the \ustratiaw Hora.

The ordinal and specific peculiarity of the flora of South-west Austratia and

the ‘high percentage of endemies (70-80%) is considered to be adequately

explained by a consideration of the palcobutanieal evidence in telaiion to geological

and chmatic history. A pan-Anstralian flova probably existed in the vatly

Tertiary. A southerly elimatic-induced contraction in the Miocene coincided with

the inundation of large portions of southern Australia, and effectively isolated

Noristically south-east and eourhewest Australia, The sea had retreated altiost

lo its present position by (he end of the Pliocene, Despite certain expansions of

the flora since that time, a large measure of, if not complete, isolation of the flura

of the south-west has subsequently been maintained. The barriers to thigration

have heen chiefly edaphic and ctimatic, though the [oundering of the gulls of

South Australia was also sitnificant.

The richness in endemics of the flora of south-west Australia is the most

interestine feature geographically in the flora of the continent.

ly was mentioned in discussing this matter earlier that the Dora isolated in

the sunth-west by the las Pertcury seas was a peneplain flora, and dhat before or

sitve then it must have become “adapted” to laterisie soils because they were at

some stage af the Tertiary 2 widespread feature of the peneplains. Western

Australia largely avoided the jute ‘Pevtiary-Quaternary upliits whieh resulted

in the eastern divides aud the Mouyt Lotty-Flinders system, and kas ven both

prior and subsequent to this, one of the wost stable parts of the Commonwealth,

Vhe Teteritic soils are preserved there to a betrer degrce than anywhere else in

Australia, This emphasises the mupurtance of edaphic barriers in mainwaining

isolation after the removal af other physical barriers on the fetreat of the Ter

lary seas. Ln addition to the edaphic barriers mentioned earlier is that caused

lw the develapment, with accession af calearcous loess during the late Pleistocene,

of a larke area of pedocalcic sors lying right across the migratory routes. ‘This

alone would prove a severe and extensive obstacle to late migrations, That the

Australian element jn the sonth-west of Western) Australia ds one seleeted hy

lateritic soil can hardly be doubted. According to Gardner (loc. cit.) those parts

of the suuthayest richest im the purely Ansiralian element are the sand heaths.

“Phe floristic wealih of these heaths is probably unparalleled anywhere else oar

earth,” he says. Tf js significart that these are in the region of Australia where

parts of the old laterilic profiles ate preserve, but more significant, these sand

livaths are some ot the few regions where the old A barizang of ie laterite.

131

trineated more or less, and perhaps suffering some local rearrangement, are still

presetved.()) The sand, which is underlain by laterite, is portion of this old A

horizon. The floristic stability of the Mora of the south-west is paralleled, there-

fore, by a great measure ot edaphic stability, Because of the narrow climatic

zonation, climatic stability, ur at Jeast the provision of a wide range of climatic

habitats within a short distance, Las been maititained also for a long time.

From the stirvey that has been made in this paper of geological Instory, and

its consequences on the Australian, and especially the Setth Australian flora, it

is apparent that these geological [actors haye played an imporrant part in the

development of many groups of plants.

The foregoing considerations, both on the Australian flora and the develop-

ment of the vegetation af South Australia, are haved on only a very impertect

understanding of Tertiary and Quaternary geological and climatic history, in

addition to a very restricted paleohatanical Literature. Their tentative nature

must, therefore, he stressed. Tlowever, although many modifications to the con-

clusions ate to be expected, the present agreement ammngst geologists on many

of the basic facts in the Australian posi-Mesoznic record, extended ecological

and peolosica) knowledge, and the establishment of many new principles in plant

geography are sufficient justification for um attempt of this type. Further

improved interpretations will depen! largely on advanees in Australian geology,

pedolivy, paleohotany (including paleoevology), cvingenctics and phylogeny.

This analysis of the time factor in ecology with ils insistence on the selective

effect of edaphic factors and migrating plant poprlalions has strengthened the

view put furward by one of us (J. G. W. 1939) and amplified here, wvis., that

the basis underlying ecology is a physiological one, and that in the case of

species growing naturally together the potential environment of the individual

species overlaps the actual environment. In no case is fhere evidence of

succession or progression to a climatic cliniax,

In the system of classification of comruunities proposed, the unit (the

association) is based upon constant eésociation of dominant species in which

the term dominant refers not only to tree species, but lo characteristic species

of other layers. The concept of edaphic cumplen, first propased as a unit of

convenience, is shown by practical experience to be especially valuable in view

of the complex soil mosaic consequent on the previous history of the area

considered.

TX. SUMMARY

1. Au analysis is made of some of the factors affecting the development

of the Australian flora in the light of an improved knowledge of the geological,

pedological and ernlogical pattern of Australia, ancl in relution to the more recent

paeobotanical literature,

2. Evidence for a mid-Recent period of aridity in Australia is brought

together and summarised, The significance of this desiccation on the disiihytion

pattern of species and communities in South Australia is disctissed in some detail,

The presence of a large pre-arid relic clement in the flora is postulated, and reasons

given to explain the presetice of a large number of “species complexes.”

3. A namber of Australian plant geographical prohlems are considered, These

include the origin of the Australian elemenl, and the high degree of endemism in

the santh-west of Western Ausiralia.

4. LEeological concepts are discussed in the light ot the time factor inyolyed,

The hases underlying systems of classification are discussed and crolugical units

are defined.

= ——————————————————————

4. G, Stephens, Bull, 206, CSA.R. (Austt, in press

132

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to acknowledge information on the distribution of certain

species provided by N. C. W. Beadle, C. A, Gardner, and 7, W. Whitehouse.

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KEY TO THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS

L’HERIT.

By NANCY T. BURBIDGE, M.SC.

Summary

The publication, in 1934, of Blakely’s “Key to the Eucalypts” marked a definite advance in our

knowledge of the genus, since the book made a very useful companion to Maiden’s rather bulky

“Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.” It was a pity that Blakely’s work, which was the result

of years of patient and intensive labour, appeared under such misnomer, since identification of

specimens with the aid of his “key” is difficult even when one has acquired a certain familiarity

with the genus. This is particularly so when dealing with some of the members of such a complex as

that around E. odorata or E. oleosa. Owing to the number of new species described by Blakely and

the modification of some of the older ones, the key in Black’s Flora of South Australia is no longer

adequate and a new one is needed.

13?

KEY TO THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS L’HERIT,

Ry Nancy T. Buruiogu, M.Se.

Waile Agricultural Research Institute, Adelaide

{Read 10 April 1947]

The publication, in 1934, of Blakely’s “Key to the Eucalypts” marked a definite

advance in out knowledge of the genus, since the book made a very useful com-

panion to Maiden’s rather bulky *'Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.”

It was a pity that Blakely’s work, which was the result of years of patient and

intensive labour, appeared under such misnomer, since identification of specimens

with the aid of his “key’t is difficult even when one has accired a certain

familiarity with the genus. This is purticularly so when dealing with some of the

embers of stich a complex as that around /. odarata or £. olcosa. Owing to

the number of new species described by Blakely and the modification of some of

the older ones, the key in Black's Flora of South Australia is no longer adequate

and a new one is needed.

Since Blakely’s death no botaiist hag taken over his eucalyptological work,

which is fo he regretted when the economic and botanical importance of the genus

is considered, The whole genus is badly in need of integrated research by

taxonorists, ecologists and geneticists, and hence this paper merély tri¢s to

clarify the present canfusion so that a key to the South Australian species can

be construeted,

The genus Eucalyptus meludes aii unusually high percentage of variable and

unstable species which, for want of a more definite, term. can be called poly-

morphic, Hybridisation is known to occur in the field, and evidence concerning

ily extent in Tasmania is being accumulated by Rrett (5). Under natural cordi-

tions, and with stich slow growing and long-lived species, it must be a long period

before the resulis of any cross can be stabilised. It is possible that complete

stability is never attained, ahd the plants representing various stages may be found

close together in one locality or scattered throughout a region according ta UWteir

adaptability to different habitat conditions. Possibly this explains the existence of

some of the species complexes. But, whatever the cause of palymorphy may be,

it is the rusulting variants which must be deal with in a key.

Whien there is a series of related forms. the stalus given to any particular

variant depends partly upon the amount of material available for comparison.

If specimens A,, C, and E. are found they may all apparently deserve specilic

rank. Add D, and they may be reduced to varieties. Add B. and Fy anu it

becomes very difficult to sepatate them at all under any reliable character. On

the other hand, the larger and more polymurphic a species. beconies, the harder

it is to delineate i sharply from other related species, Llence a balanee must be

struck, and since the meaning of the word “species” is, under these circummtunces,

tnore that) ustially uncertain, one is foreed to take a somewhat yliilarian view

and seek the most workable arrangemen! for practical purposes.

This work is not intended as a complele revision of the local species which

would require some years of study hoih in the herbarium and in the field, as well

as a fuller knowledge of Eucalyprs occurring in other parts of Australia. The

writer is in full ayreement with Ferdinand von Mueller when he states, "to assign

to each species ifs proper place involves the study of all allied congeners. and

these are often... . dispersed at wide distances in Australia” (9), At preserit

there are large gaps in localities whence specimens have been oblained, Until

the areas around the Great Australian Bight and to the north of the Nullarbor

Plain have been studied, relationships with Western Australian species cannot

Trans, Roy, Soc, S. Aust., 71, (2), 1 Ducrmber 1947

138

be solyed. Central Australia is still, botanically speaking, terra incognita and

much remains to be learnt concerning the southern species whielr extend north and

the tropical forms which occur over the boréer of Sottth Australia. In the east,

alfmities with species in New Sonth Wides and Victoria are better understood,

but knowledge is far fram compleie,

DISCUSSION OF CHARACTERS USED IN THE KEY

Jn his preface Blakely states thal the original intention of Maiden was to

design a key based on the nature of the cotyledonary and juvenile foliage. Owing

ra incomplete data this proved impossible and Blakely used the anther type in his

primary division of the genus, The shape and number ot juvenile leaves is hilely

to be of real importanee when relationships are bem traced, but in a key such a

character would be difficult to employ since the necessary material is nat always

available to the collector. In basing bis key om the anthers Blakely followed

Bentham (1), but, anfortunately, great familiarity with his herbarium material

antl i certain lack of field experience led to subdivision into a large number of

groups based on sight differences in shape. The result is confusing both to the

novice and to the experienced botanist. The original plan as designed by Bentham

was reasonably sound, though until adequate anther material of all species is avail-

able the value of this character cannot be fully estimaied. Plakely's subsections

are so difficult to recognise that anthers have been emitted from this key, except

where several features of the organ cun Le contrasted with corresponding

characters in other species,

Bentham’s secondary divisions were largely based on the character of the

fruit, and in the preparation of this paper more and more reliance came to be

placed on this feature, particularly om the nature of the dise and the type of the

valves. Correlation between anther type and fruit character was imperfect, though

it exists to some extent. This issue is probably confused beeause of the number

of lines of development which are tepresenied amung the species.

The top of the fruit is formed of four zones. The outer rim represetits the

abscissian line left by the fallen operculum and is known as the calycre ving, the

ext is the staminal ring, then the so catled disc whose ontogeny has not yet heen

described. It is not certain that this term has been consistently employed by

botanists. Inside the cise is the top of the ovary which ruptures into the valpes.

The variations produced im these zones in different species are considerable. The

calycine ring is rarely important, though it is wide and conspicuous in the Ruwers

and fruits of &. pyrifornis and its affinities. This fact has been employed in the

key, li some cases the staminal ring is a narrow clevated ring in the Hower, but

it usually hecomes inconspicuous in the frat, In others, eg, EB. lencoxvion, the

ring ts comparatively wide, but thin and projecting over the disc. In this species

the ritig etther falls away during maturation of the fruit or ic remains partially”

attached on one side of the fruit In E. intertexta, and also in ZL. calciculirix,

which lies between £. lrucox\lon and ££. adorala there may also be a distinet

Stamiinal ring in the maturing irvit, but usually it is not deciduous and it may

hreak up into a number of small pieces attached aromd the rim of the fruit,

In fresh flowers and young fruits the dise ig more or less continuous with the

top of the ovary. As the fruit matures or, in collected specimens, dries the dis-

tinction between the two paris becomes increasingly marked until, with the open-

ing of the valves, they appear quite unrelated. The dise itself may be broad az

in £. Martert, a narrow ridge as in E. wnerussula, a ring as in 4. aleasa or E. lepto-

fiivila, or it may be little more than a Nning to the top of the tube when the

capsule ts sunken as in A. fasciculosa ur A, odorata. When broud the disc may

be domed, i.@., convex as in 2. camualdulessiy anc 2. wiminalis; Ral as iu EZ witeen

ar onancave, 1.e., oblique as in &, ebliqua and EF, lencoxrylon,

139

The valves may be short and triangulur as in E, caialdulensis in which case

they represent Lhe top of the ovary, or they may have sharp points formed by the

rupturing of the persistent hase of the stvle asim 2, mevassata and £. dunwsa, or

the sharp points may be long and coherent at the apex due ic the persistence at the

entire style as in E. vleosa. La the latter case the valves are brittle ant may break

off short, confusing the inexperienced student.

Just which type can be regatded as the most primitive is a question demand-

ing a wider and more extensive study and correlation with the affinities demon-

strated by such characters as juvenile foliage and anther shape, Owing to South

Australia's central position, geographically, the local Eucalypts include species

vepresenting a number of different lines of development, Consequently much

speculation here concerning phylogeny within the geuus would be ont of place.

In specimens bearing immature ftnit the valves open during drying and

release the seed. Sucli capsules may appear Eully developed and will give a false

impression uf the size normal for Lhe species. In plants growing im arid habitats

a lack of soil moisture or a sudden hor spell at the crucial time may induce a

similar dehiscence of immature fruit. Another probable cause of subnormal size

and shape in fruit, apatt from insect or mechanical damage, is when no seeds

mature, This is suspected when Ji. Morrisii, which is supposed to have a high

convex disc, bears fruits with flat ones (pl. i, lig. 4 b-c).

The word “striate” has caused sorne colifusinn ih the literature. Blakely

used it rather freely whenever the bud or fruit was slightly marked by longitudinal

lines. Others have allowed the term to cover fruits which Blakely would have

called ribbed. In this paper the word is used when longitudinal ridges or lines

are apparent owing to the shrinkage of nor-sclerised tissnes, e.g. H. tuerdssata

var. costuta, while “ribbed” has been tised when the ridges are deep enongh to have

been evident when the specimen was fresh, e.g.. E. pyrifermis and E. inerassala

var. angulosa, Ina Tew cases it is difficult to draw a line between the two condi-

tions, but in general the above use of the terms can be quite consistent.

With reference to distyibution, it may be stated bere that Blakely's lists al

localities were compiled from the material in the Sydney Herbarium. They are,

therefore, incomplete in some cascs, ¢.g., 2. elacophera, aud incorrect in others,

e.g., E. gontocalya, The latter reference was based on @ specimen which is, in the

writer's opinion, ZL, claeophara.

Short deseriptions of the spectes have been included to make the use of the

key easier. Field details such as bark, wood colouration and juvenile foliage have

been omitted. ‘The writer carmor claim a wide knowledge of the first two, and

a! have been covered in Dlakely’s descriptions.

Key To THE SPECIES

(N.B—tThis key is based on appearance of specimens when dry. Ribbing

or wrinkling of bres and fruits is always lese evident in fresh material, )

A, Staminal ring Jobed, Bais tetragennus, Teaves oposite ~- 1. endesmipides

AA. Steuminal ring. not Iobed

$8. Operculum thick, leaving avhrnad tim cutside the staminal ring,

Dise with an erect citizge atound the pattiglly sufken valves.

©. Buds nericellate, calyx tube ribbed,

D. Vroit more than 4 en. i (ameter = ches a re 2 pyriforntis

DD), Fruit less than 4 em. im diameter : 1 & pachy phyla

CC, Buds sessile, calyx smooth,

D. Buds glancous veel re aide _ lee wee ae AL oxwnilra

DD. Buds net clancons oa chit =f a, 8 Old fieldii

BB. Opereulum uct thiele.

C. Dise broad and conver ar flat around the short broad valves.

T. Valers either markedly exsert and contributing te the lemsth

o) the truit ar in the orifiee. ;

140

E. Peduneles and pedicels slender, Operculum rostrate or

conical ie Hi aut uA “3 an: Hy. Len

EE. Peduncles and also pedicels when present not slender,

usually short and stout.

F, Mallees or small stunted trees.

G. Species occtirring in arid interior.

H, QOperculum conical to restrate.

qtiite sessile,

I. Operculum acuminate to beaked. Bud glaucous ..

fl. Opereulum obtuse. Buds not glaucous ....

HH. Operculum hemispherical. Fruit pedicellate

GG, Coastal or subcoastal species,

H. Operculum hemispherical or hemispherical-conical.

Buds and fruits pedicellate

HH. Operculum conical to rostrate.

very shortly pedicellate or sessile

FF, Trees occurring in higher rainfall areas,

G. Fruit about 10 x 10 mm., markedly sessile (except

var.), usually in globose clusters, Operculum hemi-

spherical or short and very obtuse 3 5

Fruit almost ot

Buds and fruits

GG. Fruit smaller than above. Operculim conical,

TT, Juvenile leaves avate-orhicular, glaucous. Buds and

fruits more or less glaucous cert thn ia

HH. Juvenile foligge broad or narrow lanceolate, pale

green, Ruds and fruits not glaucous.

T. Umbels with three flowers ee Mae sey

Il, Umbels with three or more flowers occurring on

same btanch.

J. Umbels on leafless branches or racemes

JJ. Umbels all axillary

DD.

E. Operculum conical, about as long as. the tube.

femi-longitudinal, Bark rough 2 mn sm whe

EE. Operculum shorter than tube, hemispherical. Venation

longitudinal. Bark smooth wh ne a t,

CC. Dise natrow and forming aring or rim on the top of the fruit

or, if broad, concave and extending obliquely into the

capsule of forming a lining inside the tap of the fruit.

D. Dise forming a ridge ar concave and oblique,

E. Qperculum hemispherical -apicu'ate, Dise strongly

oblique mm - vig bn wh ne

Valves enclosed and more or less concealed by the disc.

Venation

El. QOperculim conical or rostrate (except F. concinna),

G. Staminal ting obscure or if evident on fruit then

not broad and extending over the disc.

YW. Flowers in axillary umbels,

IT Stamens all fertile Onter ones not markedly

fonger than inner, Buils without conspicuous

oil glands.

J. Anthers versatile, opening widely to base with

cells parallel and side by side, with a con-

spicwous gland on back.

KK. Trees in high rainfall country.

L. Buds not angular at base. Fruit turbinate

LL. Buds angular ut base. Fruit cylindrical ..

KK. Mailees.

L, Buds and fruits sessile on very short but

not flattened peduncles, bicostate or un-

tibbed. "Top of ovary sot ridged between

valves when dimmature. Valves in orifice .

6. camaldulensis

& var. obtusa

4. pxqanilra

. Morrisit

. Bwarhona

CONT

9, remota

10. diversifolia

U1, Baxrtert & vat.

pedicellata

12. rubida

13. ciminalis

13a. vininalis var.

racemosa

13b. wintinalis var.

Auberiana

14. vitrea

15. pouctflera

16. oblique & var,

miegacarfa

17. owefa & var.

grandiflora

18. elacophora

19. cosmophylla

141

LL. Buds and fruits pedicellate, or if sessile

and bicostate then with flattened peduncles.

Top of ovary usually ridged between valves

in immature fruits.

M. Valves deeply enclosed. Umbels deflexed

MM. Valves in or near orifice. Umbels

erect.

N. Valves broad and triangular with short

points. Fruit 10 x 10 mm. or larger.

©. Fruit smooth. Peduncle terete

OO. Fruit striate. Peduncte terete or

narrow but flatiened ... Eu git

OOO, Fruit coarsely ribbed, Peduncle

broad, flattened rH 70 ite

NN, Valves narrow and more or less sub-

ulate, Fruit smaller than above.

QO. Buds and fruits short and fat, the

latter broader than long and so sessile

as to be almost imbedded in the end

of the flattened peduncle Non

OO. Buds and fruits not as above.

P, Fruits sessile, striate, on thick

peduncles wh sags * Ae

PP. Fruits pedicellate, sometimes only

shortly so.

Q. Calyx tube 2-4-ribhbed and pass-

ing into a flat pedicel. Peduncle

flattened. Operculum —hemi-

spherical-conical, obtuse “ny

QQ. Calyx tube not 2-4-ribbed.

R. Peduncles and pedicels not

slender. Operculum = shorter

than tube,

S. Buds smooth or very

minutely striate, Peduncle

terete... ee ae A

SS. Ruds with radiately ribbed

or striate opercula. Peduncle

angular or flattened st}

Sie Peduncles and pedicels slen-

er,

S. QOperculum as long as the

cupular calyx tube, obtuse ..

SS. Operculum shorter than

tube, hemispherical and flat-

topped he _ soe

jJ. Anthers more or less adnate to the top of the

filaments; dehiscing by pores, slits or by broad

cells opening back to back. Valves narrow and

subulate.

K. Filaments sharply reflexed in bud and with

a bend when flowering,

L. Buds and flowers pedicellate

LL. Buds and flowers sessile a ty

KK. Filaments crumpled in bud, with or without

some reflexcd, not bent when flowering.

L, Buds and fruits sessile. Leaves erect

LL. Buds and fruits pedicellate. Leaves

spreading.

M. Fruit globose to sub-tirceolale. Opercu-

lum mot wider than tube at junction.

20. pimpintana

21. tncrassata

2ia incrassata var.

costata

Z1b. incrassala

var. angulosa

22. cunglobota

25. anceps

24, rugosa

25. dumosa

26. pileata

27. brachycalyx &

var. chindoao

28. concinna

29, leptophylla

30, wncimata

31, cucorifolia

142

N. Leaves opposite, sessile or almost so.

Plant usually very glaucous. Operculum

rostrate ie -- . .

NN. Leaves alternate, petiolate.

O. Operculum with the same suriace

texture as the tube.

P. Operculum conical.

Q. Leaves shining and glossy

QQ. Leaves, buds and fruits glau-

cous ... hs on ba

‘

PP. Operculum rostrate, Leaves dull

and more or less glaucous .,.. iw

OO. Operculum yery obtuse or flat-

topped, the surface wrinkled and

usually a different colour from that

of the smooth tube ;

MM. Fruit urceolate. Operculum smooth,

wider than tube at junction

Outer stamens sterile and longer than

Ruds with translucent oil glands,

J. Buds and fruits quadrangular

IT. inner.

JJ. Buds and fruits not quadrangular

HH. Umbels paniculate, sometimes

uinbels also present.

I, Buds 7 x 5 mini, valves of fruit narrow, enclosed

in orifice se so

simple axillary

II. Buds 4x 3 mm., yalyes broad and exsert Su

GG. Stamina! ring broad (up to 2 mm.) and conspicuous

after flowering, more or less deciduatis,

H. Three flowers per umbel.

I, Fruit smooth,

J. Fruit 7-15 mm. lone He

JJ. Fruit more than 15 mm. long

If. Fruit subangular, 4-6-ribbed

HH. Umbels with

6-7 mm. long

three or more flowers. Fruit

DD. tise Very inconspicuous and lining the rim of the calyx

tube,

E. Flowers in axillary ambels which may become clustered

or terminal due to lack or loss of leaves.

F. Leaves more than 0-8 cm, wide.

G. Buds crumpled or wrinkled like a withered apple.

Leayes lancedlate to ‘broad lanceolate, the marginal

ficeve distant and the leaves often tri-ncrved at the

ase, , Ah, —, aut box nig bts 1

GG. Buds more or less angular with angular pcdicels,

not wrinkled like a withered apple.

H. Fruits more than 4-5 x 4-5 mm.

I, Buds sessile or on very short thick pedicels.

Leaves lanceolate ot broad-lanceolate, rather

thick, Mallee tty orth ston he ne

Il. Buds pedicellate, often markedly so. Leaves

narrow lanceolate or, in tree forms, broad au

HH, Fruits 4-5 x 4-5 mm. Btids very shortly pedicel-

late, slightly glaucuos. Leaves narrow lanceolate ..

32, Gillig & var.

petiolaris

33. olcosa

33a, oleasa. var.

Peeneri

33b. oleosa var.

glauca

33c. oleasa var.

angustifolia

34. Flocktoniae

35. calycogona &

var, Stafforati

36. gracilis &

var. erecta

37, intertexta &

var, fruticosa

38. coolabah

a9. leincosylon

39a. leucoaylon

var. widcrocarpa

39b. leucorplon

var. angulata

39c, leucoxrylow

var. pauperite

40. calcicultrix

41, Lansdawneana

42. odorata

42a. odorata var.

angustifolia

143

FE Leaves watrow Linear, less than 0-8 em. wide .... a. = 43, wiridis

EF. Flowers in paticnlate umbels.

I. Leaves alternate. j

t. Fruit smooth ot with one or two striations, mot

costate,

H. Operculum as wide as the top of tube.

T. Buds and fruits pedicellate. Trees,

J. Opercutum conicil,

KR. Fruit larger than $-7 x 4-5 tin.

L. Leaves, buds and Irnits glaucous... oo) 6Ada. hem phloia

var. adbicits

LL. Leaves, huds and freits not glaucous... 44. homibhloin

EK. Fruit 5-7 x +5 mm, (sometimes alimost my

sessile) sans “ wie Sue apt AdD, Remiphleia

var. mmieracarpa

TJ. Operculurs hemispherical wi a, ws 45, laryiflorens

Tl. Buds and fruits sessile ov very shurtly peuicellate

(see also hemi phiéia yar, mécracarpu above).

J. Opercilum conical, Fruit stbangular, up ts

10x 9 min, Leeves lanceblate

en Al, Lansderneara

JJ. Operevium hemispherical. Fruit 3-5 x 3-5 mm.

Leaves broadly lanceolate wide as a 46. Behriana

HH. Operculuin conical, narrower than tep of tube ... 47. faseivwlasa

GG. Fruit iresolate, costate. Operciulum hemispherical-

apiculate Sr 10d ta, Ao st ae aw 4B. cladocety.r

FF, Leaves opposite te on eur nat set a 4, gamephylla

NOTES ON THE SPECIES

1. EucAtyerus Fupesmiowes PF. Muell, in Fragm,, ti, 35 (1860).

Dwarf mallee or small tree, Melure leaves opposite, shortly petiolate,

lanceolate, subglaucous, 4-6 x 1-2:5 cm. Unibels axillary, three-flowered,

peduncles terete. Buds clavate, tetragonous, obtuse, shortly pedicellate,

6x 4mm. Opferculum hemispherical shorter than tube, Stamens in four

clusters aliernating with small calyx teeth. Fruit pedicellate, campanulate to

urceolate, sinooth or slightly angled, 14 x 10 mm. (after Biakely)-

This species, recorded for the Birksgate and Blyth Ranges in the extreme

north-west of the State, has no close affmity with any other South Australian

form.

2, Evcauyetes pyrivormrs Turez, in Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose., 22, pt. ii, 22

(1849),

Mallee with strageling habit. Mulure leaves allernale, petiolate, broadly

lanceolate, 6-15 x 24 cm., surtace dull. Uwibels axillary, 3-flawered, peduncles

deflexed, thick and short. Buds ovoid or pyriform, shostly perlicellate, 5-6 x

3-4 an, Operciulin conical with a rostrate apex, very thick but narrowing to

about 4 mm. thickness at the point of atlachment to the catyx tube, striate, twice

as lony as tube. Tube wide and shallow with 7-9 coarse ribs and a few smaller

ones. Svaiieis red or yellowish, Fruit broadly turbinate, more than half the

height being due to the high disc. Staminal riug preseit as a line separating

the calycine ring and disc, the latter erect and with a distinct ridge around the

broad, thick, deitoid, partially sunken valves. fruit 4 x 7 cm. (pl. 1, fig. 2).

This species, with FE. pechyphylia and E. Oldfieldu, is distinguished by the

thickness of the operculum and by the ridged disc which forms a smal] crater-

like valley around the valves, These characters are less distinct in E. Old fieldit,

which forms a link with LZ. orynwtra, E. Ewartiana and FE. Marvrisis,

It is known to occur along the transcontinental railway from Tarcoola

westward,

144

3, Evcaryrtus pAcwypiyita F. Muell. in Jour, Linn. Soc., 3, 98 (1859).

Mallee, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, ovate or broad to narrow

lanceolate, 6-10 x 2-5 em. Uombels 2-3-fowered, axillary, peduncles tercte,

spreading not deflexed, 6-10 mm. long. Buds shortly pedicellate, ovoid-rostrate,

25x 20 min, Operculint conical-rostrate, striate to ribbed, about 2-3 mm. thick

at point of attachment, 1-14 times as long as broad, Tube wide and shallow with

3-5 sharp but narrow ribs and with smaller ones hetween. Frits as in E, pyri-

formis bat smaller, 15-20 x 20-30 mm,, ribs more rounded in older fruits (pl. i.

fig. 3),

Description of the bud was taken from Maiden (Crit, Rev, pl. 75,

fig. 5-6). This species was collected by Professor J. 13, Cleland at the junetion

of Boundary and Fraser Creeks on the border of South Australia and Northern

Territory.

4. EvcaLyvprts oxyMmiTxa Blakely in Trans, Roy, Soc S, Aust., 60, 155

(3936).

Glaucous mallee. Mafure (eaves alternate, petiolate, broadly lanceolate.

thick, 5-7 x 2-4 cm. Uvwibels axillary, 3-7-flowered, peduncles short. Buds

shortly pedicellate, ovoid or globular with a hooked-rostrate apex 10-12 = 7-8 mm.,

glaucous, = Opercudam hemispherical-rostrate or conical-rastrate, 2-3 times as

long as wide shallow tube, Fruit pedicellate. glaucous, subglobesc, 11 x 11 mm.

dise broad, semiconical, smaller than calycine portion (after Blakely) (pl. i,

fig. 1).

Frujting specimens used by Blakely have not been seen by the writer, The

affinities of this species and also the identity of S. A. White’s Everard Range

specunens (se¢ below) depends on whether the disc in this species is ridged

around the valves or not. lis occurrence in this State is still in doubt.

5. Evcaryerus Otprizimt F. Muell. in Fragm., ii, 37 (1860),

Mallee. Mafure leuves alternate, pdtiolate, narrow to broad lanceolate,

7-13 x 1°5-3 cm. Umbels axillary, 3-flowered, peduncles thick, sometimes very

short, Buds globular to ovoid-rostrate, almost or quite sessile, 20 x 10-15 mm.

Opercelum conical or rostrate, thick, longer than tube. J'ube smooth, wide and

shallow. Fruit hemispherical to turbinate, 11 x 15 mm.; disc portion nearly as

large as base, ridge and hollow around valves less evident than in H. pyrtfermus

and Z. pachyphylla (mostly after Blakely).

There is some doubt a3 to whether this species actiially occurs in Sotith

Austraha. Plack (FI. S. Aust.. 418) mentions a specimen from Missionary

Plains, MacDonnell Range under BE. Oldfieldit which has since been described

by Blakely as , owymitra (see above), The specimen consists of buds and

leaves without fruits. Of S. A. White's material mentioned by Black (/c.J,

both have leaves and fruits but no buds. In his MacDonnell Range specimen

the dis¢ is ridged though rather smaller than is illustrated for E. Drummondii by

Maiden (Crit. Rev., pl. 74, fg. 4b), while im the Everard Range material

the Eruits have a convex disc, reminiscent of that in FE. Ewartana. Pending

collection south of the border the recording of FE. Oldfeldii for this State raust

remain doubttul,

6. Eveatyprus cAMALDULENSIsS Dehn m Cat, Pl. Hort. Camald. ed. 2, 20

(1832). £. rostrata Schlecht. in Linnaea, 20, 655 (1847).

Medium to large-sized tree. Mature leaves alternate, peticlate, lanceolate,

5-11 x 24 cm. Umibels axillary, 5-10-flowered, peduncles and pedicels slender

and lerete, Buds ovoid or diamond-shaped, acute, pedicellate 6-10 x 3-5 mm-

Operculym conical and acute or rostrate, longer than the wide shallow tube.

145

Fruit hemispherical or broadly cupular with the erect yalves at least as long as

ithe wide base, 6-8 x 5-6 mim,, the valves broadly triangular and more or Jess

ipcurved.

This widespread species occurs throughout the State. It is associated with

watercourses and creeks.

7, Evcaryprus Morrist: R, T, Baker in Proc, Linn, Soc, N,S.W,, 25, 312

(1900),

Mallee or small tree, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lnear-lanceolate to

lanceolate, 6-12 x 12 cm. Umbels axillary 3-6-fowered, peduncles semirerete or

terete, 5-10 mim. long. Buds ovoid, sermisessile on short thick pedicels which

may be slightly angulay as they pass into the calyx tube, 7-10 x 4-6 mm, with

copious dark oil glands. Operculiam conical, yery obtuse, 14-2 times as long as

tube, 7'ube obconical, about as long as broad, smooth or with one or two smal)

ridges. Fruit truncate-turbinate or ovoid according tu the convexity of the wide

disc, valves short and broadly triangular, exsert at the top of the disc (pl. i,

fig, 4).

With regard to the variation in the development of the dise, Maiden (Crit.

Rev., pl. 135, fig. 6) figures the disc as continuous with the valyes. This is

always more marked in fresh material than in dried. Matden’s fig, 6 was

apparently taken from R. T. Paker’s original plate, but neither atithor states

whether the specimen tised was fresh or dry, In material collected by the writer

an excellent match with Maiden’s fig. 6a and 6b has been obtained. i inost of

the South Australian specimens the buds and fruits are smaller than the dimen-

sions given for New South Wales material.

In this State the species is fuund in the Flinders Ranges, from Quom

northwards.

8. Encaryprus Ewartidna Maiden in Jour. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.. 53, 111

(1919),

Mallee. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate, 5-9 x 1°5-2-3 cm.,

surface dull. Umbels axillary, 3-7-Aowered, peduncles terete, up to 2 emt. long.

Bus pedicellate, clavate or globular, 8-10 x 6-8 mm. Operculum very obtuse,

being hemispherical or basally truricated-spherical, thick, 1-14 times as long as

tube, smooth. Vube wide and shallow, half as long as wide. Fruit pedicellate,

globose or clayate due to the very convex disc which provides nearly half the

length, valves deltoid and very exsert, 8-10 x 8-12 mm. (pl. i, fig. 8),

Despite the fact that Maiden (Crit. Rev., 44, 12D) staled that the anthers

placed this species among the Macrantherae, Blakely included it with the

Platyantherae, Blakely records this species for South Australia, but gives 4

Central Australian locality—Missionary Plains, MacDonnell Range. Hlack (3)

states that the valves have long points (1p to'’4 mim. long), which break off carly.

These have not been seen hy the writer,

9. EucaLyprus remota Blakely in Key to Euc., 197 (1934).

Mallee, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate, to broadly lancenlate,

slightly falcate resulting in better development of the base on one side than on the

other, coriaceous, 6-!2 x 1°5-3 cm. Wuithels axillary, 3-8-flowered, peduncles semi-

terete, 5-11 mm. long. Buds pedicellate, clavate, 4-6 x 4-5 mm, excluding the sub-

angular pedicels. Operculum hemispherical or hemispherical-apiculate, about as.

long as the tube. Tube obconical, passing into the pedicel ta form a long narrow

funnel, surface wrinkled in dried material. #Hruit pedicellate, pyriform, slightly

wrinkled when dried, flat-topped, 6-9 x 5-8 mm., dise slightly convex and rounded

jo very slightly coneave but usually Hat, about 1 mm, bruad; valves shorr, in

orifice or almost covered by dise (pl. ii, fg. 1),

. 146

Blakely placed this species near GB. Consideniana and E. Sieberiana, which

hoth belong to eastern New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania, Llowever, to

the writer the relationship with [. diversifelia, which occurs in the same localities

as E. remota, is far more marked, especially in the fruits. The buds and slightly

asymunétrical leaves suggest a link with Z. ebligua. E. remola is known ag 2

useful indicator plant for a soil type on Kangaroo Island, which is, so far, the

only area in Which the species has been found,

10. Kucaryrtus piverssrotia Bonplaud. in Ml, fard. Malm., 35, t. 135 (1813).

E. santalifolia F. Muctl, in Trans. Viet. Jnst., 1, 35 (1855),

Latge Mallee, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, linear-lauccolate to broadly

laneegiate. Covbels axillary, 3-6-flowered, pediineles semiterete 4-7 mn. Jong.

Bids shortly pedicellate or subsessile, shape of two cones attached hase to base,

smooth or very slightly wrinkled when dry, 7-10 x 4-6 min. Opercitunt conical

or conital-tosirate, about the same size and shape as the combined tube and

pedical, 4-6 mm. Jong. Tube obconical, 3 mm. long, Fruit sessile or very

shorily pedicellate, hemispherical to campanulate or abconical, 8-12 x 10-15 mnz.,

dise 1°5-2 mm. broad, slightly convex and tounded or fat; valves broad and

triangular in orifice and slightly more exsert than in Z. remota, so that the short

points protrude above the disc (pl. ii, fig. 3).

When buds are lacking it iz noi easy to distinguish between Lf. diversifolie

arid 2. vermota, but the fruits of the former are larger, have a wider dise and are

always niore shartly pedicellate than those of the latter.

This species occurs as a coastal or subcoastal mallee from the west coast ob

Eyre Peninsula to the Victorian border, including Kangaroo Island,

11. Eucanyerus Baxtert (Denth,) Maiden and Makely in Crit. Rev., 70, 451

(1928). FE. sanrtalifelit yar. (?) Bartert Benth. in Fi. Austral. 3,

207 (1866),

Small to medium-sized tree, Mature leaves allernate, petiolate, ovate to

broadly lanceolate, asymmetrical at base. Umibels axillary, 5-9-flowered, peduncles

stont 4-6 mm. long. Buds obovoid on short thick pedicels, 4-5 x 3-4 min.

Operculum hemispherical, slightly shorter than the obconical or hemispherical

hibe. Itrvit sessile, subglobular due to the convex disc which is 2-3 mm. wile,

9-12 x 10-13 inm., arranged in tightly packed globose clusters on the short stout

peduncles, valves ineurved, in orifice or slightly exsert (pl. iil, fig. 1).

lfa. FE, Baxrrrt yar. PRDICELILATA Maiden and Blakely in Crit, Rew., 70, 457

(1928),

Ditters from the above in that the fruits are shorlly pedicellare. The opercula

ave yertuense.

The species occurs in the Mount Lofty Range and southwards to the South-

East and the Victorian border, also Kangaroo Island. The variety is known to

occur in the South-East and may be found in other parts of the above districts.

12. BucaLyrrus RUBIDA Deane and Maiden in Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 21, 156

(1899),

_ Medium to large-sized tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate.

Unibely axillary or lateral on leafless portions of the branchlets, 3-fowered,

peduncles semiterete or slightly fattened, Auds shortly pedicellate or almusl

sessile, ovoid or cylindrical, 5-7 x 3-5 tim. Opercului conical, obtuse. Tube

cylindrical, slightly Jonger than or equal to the operculum, Fruif sessile or shortly

pedicellate, obovoid or turbinate, 5-6-x 6-7 mm, ; dise concayt, valves deltoid and

exsert.

147

The South Australian material seen was less glaucous than as described by

Blakely. It appears to lie between /. elecophora and E. viminalis among our

species. It occurs in the Mount T.ofty Range.

13. Eocacyprus vimrnauis Labill in Nov. Holl, wi, 12, t, 151 (1806).

Large tree, Mature /eaves alternate, petiolate, linear-lanceolale to lanceolate,

10-20 x 1-2-3 cm, Umbels axillary, normally 3-flowered, peduncles subangular,

3-6 min, long. Buds obovoid with pointed apex and short usually thick pedicels,

6-10 x 3-5 mm. Opercilwan conical to conicalrostrate, equal to or slightly longer

thai the obconical tube, at its broadest somewhat wider than tube. J'ruit sessile

or very shortly pedicellate, turbinate to subetobular or pyriform, 6-8 x 6-9 mm.

(including valves); dise convex, coniributing to the length of the fruit, aboul

1 mm. wide, valves exsert and erect, sburt and broad,

Occurs in the Mount Lofty Range and southwards to Mount Gambier and

the Victorian border.

13a. Fucatyprus viminaris var. kAcEMos* (T°. Mueil.) Blakely in Key In Fouc.,

162 (1954).

In this: variety the umbels are arranged on short leatless branches. Blakely

states that the umbels are 3-flowered, but South Australian specimens agrecing

excellently in other respects with the figure (Crit. Rev., pl. 118, fig. 9) have multi-

flowered umbels. There is no rcferenee m the text of the Critical Revision to this

variety, and Blakely’s note appears ta be the only description. The variety occurs

inthe South-East of the State,

13b. Evcanyverus vias Ais var. Hunertawa (Nandin) N, ‘T. Burhidge stat,

nov.; E. AunéxiAwaA Naudin in Second Mem,, 42 (1891),

&. Huberiana was separated from £. tuminalis by Wakely, though Maiden

(Crit. Rew, 28, 175) considered it merely a synonym and remarked that it was

always possibie to find multifowered umbels on trees with mostly 3-Howered ones-

E. Huberiana differs in timber value, rougher bark, form of growth and in the

multilowered unibels. Recent specimens, collected mear Adelaide, showed some

branchlets with 3-flowered umhels and some with four or more flowers, This

supporis Maiden’s observation and there seems to be no character which can be

used for differentiation at (he specific level and Ihe form is herein given varietal

rank (pl. ii, fig, 2), Naudin’s species was based on a single tree growjug under

cultivation at Nice. This is a practice which is open to criticism. Many Euca-

lypts produce an atypical growth under horticultural conditions, and also rhere is

no evidence concerning the origin or purity of the seed used.

Distribution is the same as in A. wiuindlis, also on Mangaroo Island.

is. Evearyetus vitrea R,'T. Raker in Proc. Linn, Soc, N.S,W,, 25, 303 (1900).

Medium to large-sized tree. Jfalure leaves alternate, petivlate, narrow to

broad lanceolate, the venation very oblique and approaching semilcngiludinal, the

tail) nerve some distance from the edge and ircquently there are minor nerves

outside, 10-15 x 15-2 cm. Umbels axillary, singly or it pairs or in short axillary

panicles, 7-12-flowered, peduncles terete or semitercte, 7-10 mm, long, Buds on

relalively stout pedicels which pass inta the tube without marked change,

clavate, 5-6 x 4:3 mm. Operculwim hemispherical-apiculate or conical-acute, as

long as tube. Tube obconical or cylindrical, /reit pyriform, shortly pedicellate,

5-6 x 6-7 mm. dise 1-2 mim. broad, convex or almost flat, covermg the short

enclosed valves.

In the south of the State. Specimens from Waitpinga, Kalangudoo, Mount

Gambier and other South-East localities have been sten,

148

15. Eueatverus patcircora Sieber in Spreng, Syst. Cur. Post, iy, 195 (1827),

Small to large tree. Malure leaves allernate, petiolate, lanceolate, venation

longitudinal or almnst so, 8-14 x 13-3 cm. Uibels axillary, 5-12-floweredl,

visually about 9, peduncles thick, terete or compressed 7-15 mm. long. Buds

clavate, pedicellate 5-7 x 4-5 mim, Operculum hemispherical, obtuse, shorier than

tube, Fruit shortly pedicellate, globose to pyriform 7-10 x 5-8 mm: disc flat bul

rather prominent, extending over the enclosed valves (after Blakely).

This ig a vare species in South Australia. No specimens were available

during the preparation of the above description, It is reported to aceur in the

Mount Gambier district.

16. Evearyprus optiqua L'Herit. in Sert, Ang. 18, 20 (1788).

Large tree. Afatwre frawes alternate, petiolate, lanceolate, asymmetrical at

base and slightly faleate, Umbels axillary or sometimes arranged in short

racemes or panicles, peduncles terete or semitercte, 7-20 rin. long. Byds on long,

relatively thick pedicels which pass without sharp increase in size into the calyx

tube, 10-12 x 4-5 mm. with pedicel. Operculmn hemispherical-apiculate, slightly

wider than tube at junction, shorter than obconical tube. Fruit pyriform ar

ovoid, 7-9 x 7-4 mm; dise oblique, ie., concave, covering the short enclosed

valves. In some South Australian specimens the dise is almost flat.

Ii occurs from the Mount Lofty Range near Adelatde to the South-East,

and is also found on Kangaroo Island.

16a. EUCALYPTUS OBLIQUA var, MEGACARPA Blakely in Key to Euc., 194 (1934),

This can be distinguished from the above by its coarser buds and larger

fruits, 10-12 x 10-12 tmm.. which are more definitely constricted at the orifice

than in the typical form (pl. ii, fig. 2).

The type material of the variety, which came from Millicent, has been seen

at Sydney atid in the collection of Mr, J. M. Black. In other specimens, [rom

Eight Mile Creek, in the Waite Institute Tlerharium, the buds are often clavate

and swollen, a maliormation appatently due Lo some gall-lorming insect.

17. Kucacyprus ovata Lahilf, m Noy., Holl, pl. ii, 153 (1806).

Large tree. Muaivre leaves alternale, petiolate, lanceolate to ovate-lanccolate

or ovate, 7-l4 x 2-4em. Umbels axillary or on leafless portion of the branchlets,

4-8-flowered, peduncles terete or semiterete, 5-10 mm. long. Buds pedicellate,

smooth, obconical-rostrate or clavate or like two cones attached base to hase,

7-10 x 46 mm. Operculuin conical, shortly acute or rostrate, shorter than or

almost equal to the tube, sometimes with a sharp ridge marking the junction with

the obconical tube. Frat! broadly obconical, 5-8 x 5-7 mm., the calycine and

staminal rings forming a flat band or dark line around the ottside of the rim;

disc rounded, half to one mm. broad, valves short and broad,in orifice (pl. iit,

fig, 3).

Oceurs in the Mount Lofty Range and south to Mount Gambier and to Victor

Harbour, Also on Kangaroo Island.

Ifa. EucaAyerus ovata var, GRANDTHLORA Maiden in Crit, Rev., 27, 146 (1916),

Buds (15 x 9 mm.) and fruits (10 x 15 mm.) larger than above, the forme)

with rostrate operculum and the above mentioned ridge, the latter broadly

obconical and slightly constricted below the rim..

Kalangadoo and Mount Gambier,

18. EvecALyptTus ELAEOPHORA F. Muell in Fragm., iv, 52 (1864).

Mediiun to large-sized tree, Mature leaties alternate, petiolate, lanceolate 16

broadly lanceolate, 10-22 x 1-5-3 cm. Unrbels axillary, sometimes in pairs, 3-7-

flowered, peduncles flattened and angular, 3-12 mm, long, Buds sessile or sub-

lay

sessile on thick angular base almost indistinguishable from the tube, cylindrical,

more or Jess bicostate or angular, 8-10 x 4-6 mm, Opercitlum conical, shorter than

tube. Frit sessile or very shortly pedicellate, cylindrical or obconical with a thick

more or less angilar base, otherwise smooth, 6-9 x 6-8 mm; disc less than 1 mm.

broad, Forming a narrow rim around the short broad valves which are exsert or in

the orifice (pl: iii, ig. 4).

Blakely apparently had no South Australian material at Sydney except the

poor specimen which was included under £, yontvealys, so reference to this State

was ontitted on p, 146, but it was included in the list of species oceurring in South

Australia on p. 289.

_ Southern Flinders Range, Mount Lofty Range and southern parts of the

State, includiny Kangarou Island,

19. Evearyrrus cosmopmycuaA I’, Mucll. in Trans, Vict. Inst., 1, 32 (1855).

Varying from a small mallee-lke shruh to a medittm-sized tree, Matnre

leaves alternate, petiolate, usually thick and coarse, lancealate to broadly Tanceo-

late, 10-15 x 1-4 em, Usnbels axillary, 1-3-flowered, peduncles very short and

sometimes lacking, Buds vbovaid, bicastate on very short flattened pedicels,

14-18 x 9-12 mm. Operculum: conical, conical-apiculate or rostrate, shorter than

or eqnal to tube and sometimes wider. Filaments cream or pinkish coloured.

Fruit hemispherical, turbinate or shortly cylindrical, more or tess bicostate,

10-17 x 12-18 mm., the calycine and staminal rings forming a sloping outer cdge

to the rim, with the steeply oblique dise lining the inside around the 4-6 short,

broad but acute valves which are just below the orifice (pl. iii, fig. 5),

Blakely states that the umbels aré 3-6-fowered bul none with more than

three flowers have been seen by the writer. Mueller’s original description was

“tri-Horis.” Neither af Mueller’s variatians, included by Blakely (p. 103) are

sufficiently distinct tn warrant separation, The figures. ia Critical Revision

(pl. 91, fig. 4-5) show only slight deviation from the normal, and recent collect-

ing does not indicate any real differentiation,

Occurs in the Mount Lofty Range and south to Encounter Bay and ‘an-

garoo Island.

20, Evucaryrrus PrmriniAna Maiden in Crit. Rey, 16,211 (1912).

Mallee. Muture leaves alternate, petiolate, lancealate to broadly lanceolate,

6-9 x 2-4 em, Uimeels axillary, 3-8-flowered, peduncles terete or scmiterete,

deflexed, Buds obconical or cylindrical, rostrate, pedicellate, striate, 20-30 x

10-14 mm. Operentim hemispherical-rostrate or conical tostrate, smooth of

faintly striate, Frat pedicellate, cylindrical and gradually narrowing into the

pedicel, striate, disc as described below for £. incrassata, valves with short points;

deeply enclosed (pl. iii, fig. 6).

Occurs on the eastern border of the Nullarbor Plain at Ooldea and Barton.

21, Kecatyyrus monassara Labill in Nov., Holl, pl. it, 12, t. 150 (1806),

sens stricto,

Mallee, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, nartow to broadly lanceolate,

612 x 1'5-3.cm. Umbels axillary, 3-7-flowered, peduncles slender, terete or semi-

terete and slightly angular, up to 3 cm. long, Buds cylindrical-ohovoid to ureeolate-

rostrate, shortly pedicellate in the former case to long pedicellate (up to 6 mm.)

in the latter, 10-18 x 4-7 mm, Operculum-conical to very trostrate with a more or

less hooked apex, commonly somewhat wider than the calyx tiibe and shorter,

smooth or with obscure fine wrinkles or with promiuent lines but not distitictly

ribbed. Yvbe obconical or constricted in the middle and very urécolate, smooth

to striate with fine lines or chscure nibs. Frith pedicellate or sessile, ureeolate or

barrel-shaped being constricted at each end, smooth or slightly wrinkled when

130

mature, LO-12 x 9-10 mm.; the tube wider than the disc, so that the calycine ring

forms a narrow but distinct platform around the erect rather sharp disc whose

outer face is formed by the old staminal ring and whose inner is oblique to almost

erect; valves with subulate points due to the persistence of the base of the style,

when open either in orifice or, more asually, below and enclosed (pl. 1, fig. 8-9).

When immature the top of the ovary is ridged between the unopened valves. This

last character is found im the remaining varieties below, and also in the members

of the dumosa complex,

Occtits on Yorke Peninsula, in the Flinders Range, the Murray Mallee ane.

south to the Upper Sourh-East.

It has praved impossilie to make a satisfactory demarcation between this

species und B. angulasa Sehaucr,, a wide range of inlermediates haying been

enllected. The specimens have therefore heen grouped as follows. [i is probable

that these represent mere points in a scries, and collectors are warned that inter-

mediales may be fond.

2la. EucanyrTus wncrAssara var, costata WN. T. Burbidge stat. nov:

E. costata Behr. et. Muell. in Miq. Ned. Kruidk, Archief., 4, 136

(1856).

A coarser form than the above. Mature leaves fairly thick and coriaceous.

Linbels un slender flattened pediincles (up to 3 cm. long), which broaden below

the Aowers. Buds similar to the above. hut more definitely ribbed or striate,

Opercntis as above, -Pviit on short, more or less angular pedicels, barrel-

shaped or cylindrical, marked by striations or sharp narrow ribs, 10-18 x 9-12 mm,;

dise as above, valves enclosed (pl. ii, fig. 10).

‘Chis is the FE, angulosa of various writers on South Australian ecology

(10) (19). J. M. Black combines it with the following, as did Maiden. The

striation or ribbing of both the bud and the frnit is far less pronounced in fresh

material, The ribs ure revealed on drying, due to shrinkage of the less sclerised

portions. Maiden (pl, 14, fig. 2) shows a fruit rather more coarsely ribbed thaq

the majority ot specimens, but it can still be contrasted with that in his fig. 3,

which is the form described below.

Ocetirs on Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas and Kangaroo Island; alsa in the

Murray Mallee and the Upper South-last,

2lb. Kucanyvrres Inceassat var. ANouLOSA Beith. im Fl, Atst,, iii, 231 (1866),

pro parte; 4. angulosa. Schaner, in Walp. Repert., 1, 923 (1843) sensi

stricta,

A very coarse form with thick lanceolate leaves. Umbels 2-5 flowered,

peruneles. thick, flattened, 10-20 mim. tong. Brds obovate or cylindrical with

short pedicels, 20-25 x 10-15 mm, Operculum conical or shortly rostrate, striate

or ribbed, shorter but not wider than tube. Y#be obeonical or cylindrical, coarsely

and deeply ribbed by projecting hard ridges which continue into the slightly

flattened and ribbed pedicel. J’raf almost cupular to cylindrical, coarsely ribbed

by the abovementioned ridges, 15-20 x 14-18 mm.; dise and valves as in other

forms above (pl. ii, fig. 11).

This coarse form agrees with Maiden’s illustration (pl. 14. fig. I, 3, und 5),

ie., with Western and South Austraiian inaterial, Tn this State it is mainly found

on Eyre Peninsula. ‘

THE DIUMOSA COMPLEX

This group of forms has always heen a difficult one. The type of EZ, dumasa

was collected by Allan Cunningham in New South Wales. Specimens in the

Sydney Terbanuin, collected at Wyatong., which is accepted as approximately the

type locality, proved ta have cylindrical buds which were smooth ar almost sn,

151

and to haye a conical operculuin shorter than the calyx tube. This form is rare

in South Australia but occurs along the eastern border and near the Murray

River. In this State most of the material classed as E. dumasa has buds with

ribbed conical upercula. ‘This agrees with the Western Australian species,

E. pileata. There are intermediates in the eastern part of the State, but on the

whole the two are reasonably distinct, There is also L. brachycalyx with an

obtuse, conical op¢reulum which is striate rather than ribbed. On Kangaroo Leland

there are a number of forms, “he most distinctive is E. conglobata, in which the

buds are so sessile as to be flattened at the base and the calyx ite is wider than

long, There is also Z. rugosa, where the bud has a flattened pedicel and the tube

is 2-4-ribbed.,

Unitortunately, the whole group is complicated by the description of H, anceps.

Maiden described this as a variety of HE. conglobatu, bm piaced it intermediate

between /. conglobatu dnd E. dumosa. It differs from the former in that the

buds and [riits, though sessile, are not basally flattened and the fruits are barrel-

shaped and from E. dimosa in a relatively shorter calyx tube and in the

lack of pedicels. Compared with true A. duimosa this diagnosis would hold, but

in practice E. anceps lies between E. pileaia, F, rugosa and EB. conglobata, aril as

such it includes a heterogeneous collection of variations, Presence or absence of

pedicels is nota good diagnostic character, and sessile buds and fruits of L. rugosa

wre difficult to place; the same applies to £. pileata, and apart from individualistic

variations such as these there are probably a number of hybrids and ecotypes.

Another species related to the group bit more casily recognised is EZ. concinna.

An effort to reduce some of the forms to varictics proved unsatisfactory and

they were retained as species to avoid adding to the existing confusion.

22. Fucanyerus concurezara (R. Br.) Maiden in Crit. Rev., 6, 273 (1922).

Matlee. Mature [eazes alternate, peliolate, thick, narrow to hroad Janceolate,

5-14 x 1-3-2-5 em, Conbels axillary, 3-8-flowered, peduncles short, thick, more

or less angular, broadened at the top to form a receptacle, Buds squat, broadly

ovoid, flattened at the base and closely sessile, 8-10 x 6-8 mm. Operculium shorbly

and broadty conical, obtuse or acute, smooth or shghtly striate, as long as or

sightly longer than tuhe, Yube shortly cylindrical, bicostate, about twice as wide

as long, Fruit cylindrical or hemispherical, 2-3-ribbed, 5-6 x% 8-10 mm_j disc

narrow, valves with subulale points which project above the rim (pl, ait, fig. 7).

Iéyre Peninsula and Kangaroo [stand,

23. Lucaryrrces ances (R, Br.) Blakely in Key to Euce., 118 (1934),

Mallee. Juvenile Ivaves opposite, sessile, slightly lobed at base as to be

almost stem clasping, ovale ty broadly lanceolate, Matire leaees alternate,

petiolate, lanceolate, rather thick and rigid, 5-12 ~ 1-2-5 em. Unbels axillary,

3-6-Rowered, peduucles relatively thick, fattened or subangolar, 6-12 mm. long,

Buds sessile or almost sa, cylindrical or ovoid, narrowed at both ends, 810 x

4-6 mm. Operculum conical, obtuse. acute or shortly rostrate, radiately striate,

about the same length as the tube or slightly shartar, ruff sessile on thickened

peduncles, cylindrical to barrel-shaped, striate, 7-10 x 6-8 mim; + disc marrow, valves

in orifice, short but subulate (pl. ili, fig. 8).

Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, Murray Matlee, Upper South-East and

Kangaroo Tsland,

24. Evcaryptus rvaoss (R. Be.) Blakely in Key ta Tue., 120 (1934),

Malice. Motire loaves narrow to broadly lanceolate, 3-10 x 1-2 cin. Unibels

axillary. 3-8-Alowered, peduneles stout, flaitened, broadened below flowers, becam-

ing coarser during toaturalion of fruits, Buds pyriforn on short, stout, fattened,

1$2

3-4-angled pedicels, 6-7 (9-12 with pedicels) x 5-6 nm. Operculum hemispherical,

flat-topped or very obtuse, smooth or slightly striate, a litthke narrower than the

ribbed tube or almost equal, also shorter. /ruit pyriform or turbinate, ribbed with

2-4 main ribs two of which are broadened below into the flat pedicel, and some-

tines with a few striations (pl. 1, fig. 10).

Eyre Peninsula, Kangaroo Island, Encounter bay and the Upper South-East.

25. Eucaryerus pumosa A. Cunn. fide Schauer in Walp, Rep. Bot, Syst., 2, 925

(1843).

Mallee. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate, 6-10 x 1-2 em, Uimbels

axillary, 4-8-flowered, peduncles comparatively stout and semiterete. Buds

smouth, eylindrical, shortly pedicellate. 7-12 x 3-3 mm. Operculun hemispherical

to shortly conical, minutely striate or almost smooth, much shorter than the

eyindrical tube, J’ruit cylindrical to campanulate, somewhat wrinkled or striate,

shortly pedicellate, 6-10 x 5-7 mm.; dise narrow. valves with protruding subulate

points (pl. iii, fg. 9).

A New South Wales species which extends to the eastern border of this State

and down into the Myrray Mallee.

26, Eucaryprus PiteaTa Blakely in Key to Euc,, 120 (1954),

Mallee. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow to broad lanceolate,

55-10 x 1-3 cm. Uimbels axillary, 3-6-flowered, peduncles terete or semiterete,

6-15 wm. Jong. Buds pedicellate, obovoid or cylindrical, 8-14 x 4-5 mm.

Qpereulyan hemispherical to acutely conical, radiately striate or ribbed, sometimes

wider than tube, shorter than or equal to the cylindrical or obconical or cupular

tiibe, which is smooth or striate. Jruil pericellate, cylindrical or obconical, striate

or almost smooth, 7-10 x 6-8 mim.; dise narrow, valves sunken with protruding

subulate points (pl. ai, fig, 11).

Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Penitisula, Murray Mallee, Encounter Bay, and Kan-

garoo Island.

Forma, Obovgid pedicellate buds with almost smooth operculum. No fruits

available, This form seems distinct enough to warrant mention, but without.

fruits and further information it dacs tot scem strong enough to make a variety.

It oecurs on Eyre Peninsula.

27. Tucanyrtus psrachycaLtys Blakely in Key to Euc,, 119 (1934).

Mallee, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, linear to narrow Tanceolate,

shining, 5-10 x O'7-1'5 cia, Uvtbels axillary, 3-9-Howered. peduncles slender,

slightly flattened, Buds avoid-clipsoidal, on slender pedicels, 7-9 x 4-3 mm.

Opereuiuue conical, obtuse, about the saine size and shape as the cupular, striate

tiibe, asually with irregular wrinkdes rather than striate, commonly slightly

different m calour fram the tube. Frat hemispherical to cainpanulate or turbmate,

sinooth or faintly striate, 6-7 x 5-6 mm.; disc narrow, less than 0'5 mm, wide;

valves subulate and exsert except where the brittle points have been broken off

(c.f. Blakely) (pl, ii, fig. 12).

This species could be mistaken for #. oleosa vat. angustifalia, but it can be

differentiated by the large obovate versatile anthers with a conspicuous gland and,

in fruit, by the turbinate open capsule (nat globular as in LE. alevsa) and by the

spreading rather than erect valves,

Eyre Peninsula, Flinders Range and to the east theres! along the border of

the shrub steppe and mallee scrub.

27a. EvcALypTus BRACHYCALY® var. CHINDOO Blakely Lo

Buds somewhat sinaller thait those above, 5-6 x 3-4 mm. Operculwmn striate

and very obtuse, slightly longer than substriate eupular tube, alse slightly narrower

than (ube giying a marked “ege-in-ege-eup” appearance, Fruit as above,

154

It is doubtful whether this variety is a true one, The species itself 3s quite

distinct and may be recognised by the slender peduncles anc pedicels to the wnbels,

the cupular calyx tube about the same size and shape as the operculum and by

the narrow shining leaves, Jt was untortunate that Blakely cottiradicted his owit

description of the operculum.

Distribution as above,

28. Eucatypres concinnaA Maiden and Blakely in Crit. Rev., 71, 49 (1929) ;

E, ochrophylla Maiden and Blakely in Crit. Rev., 71, 50 (1929).

Mallee, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanccolate, broad or narrow, thick

and glossy. Umbels axillary, 3-7-flawered. FPeduncles terete or semiterete,

612 min, long. Buds clavate, pyriform or cylindrical, 8-10 x 6-8 mn, on pedicels

like the peduncles and 4-12 mm. long. Operculum hemispherical, very obtuse or

flat-topped, about half as long as broad, more or legs striate, sometimes slightly

broader than tube. Stamens red (type from Victoria Desert) or pale (Cleland’s

specimens quoted under original description of FE, ochrophylla), Fruit pyntorm,

almost turbinate or cylindrical, smooth or faintly striate, 6-10 x 6-10 mm; disc

about 1 min. wide, rounded above with the dark line of the calycine ring outside,

capsule slightly sunken but the subulate valves protruding and spreading or rarely

coherent at top as in Z. olvosa (pl. ili, fig, 13).

Cleland’s specimens of E. ochroplylla show a definite variation towards

&, concinna, and the buds cannot be separated in any particular character, The

type of &. concinna has very long pedicels (matched among L. ochrophylla

material) and the buds are golden-brown, whereas in 2. ochrophylla they are

greenish. The yellowish colour of the leaves in the latter speeics is not a reliable

character.

Occurs along the transcontinental railway at Ooldea and Immana,

29. Eucanyerus teeroritvie.a FL Mauell. in Miq. Ned, KRroidk. Archief., 4, 123

(1856),

Mallee, Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, linear or narrow lanceolate, with

numerous oil glands, 5-10 x U-6-1-5 cm, Umbels axillary, 3-8-flowered, peduncles

5-8 nim, long, terete or semiterete. Buds like two more or less equal cones

attached base to hase, on a slightly angular pediecl as thick as. the peduncle,

5-7 x 3-4:nm. = Ofercoulwii conical, actite or obtuse, abottL as long as tube or

shorter. Stamens sharply reflexed in bud and with a sharp bend in the filament

when flowering. Fruit pediccllate, hemispherical to cupular, 4-5 x 4-5 mm; disc

forming a flat or rounded riny at the top of the fruit; valves narrow, subulate and

protruding through the orilice (broken off m old fruits) (pl. iv, fig. 12).

Alone the transcontinental raihvay at Ooldea and Tarcoola, also livre and

Yorke Peninsulas, Flinders Range, Murray Mallee and Kangaroo Island.

30, Evcaryprus uwcryAta Turez. Pull Soc, Nat. Mosc., 22, 23 (1849),

Very close to the preceding species bul buds atid fruits somewhat coarser.

The chief difference is in the bud, which is sessile or on a short thick pedicel

indistinguishable from the tube, Operculiwn conicul, obtuse and shorter than the

obconical or cylindrical tube 6-8 x 3-4 mm. J’ruit sessile or almost so, pyriform

or barrel-shaped, 5-6 x 4-5 mm. (pl. iv, fig, 13).

These two species were united under the latter name by Bentham in the

Flora Australiensis, but were separated by Maiden. It would be difficult to

separate them without buds, though the slender pedicels and yellow-red branchlets

in E. lepiaphylla ate characteristic.

Fyre Peninsula seems to mark the eastern limit of this Western Australian

BDecies,

154

31. Eucaryrrus cnrortrotra DC., Prodr., 3, 220 (1828).

Mallee. Malure leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow linear to linear lanceolate,

5-11 x 0-4-1 cm. [/mbels axillary, 6-15-flowered, peduncles short. Buds cyliny

drical, shortly pedicellate or sessile, 7-12 x 3-5 mm, Operculwm smooth, cylin-

drical to conical, obtuse, about the same length and shape as the tube. Fruit

shortly pedicellate or sessile in densely packed semiglobular clusters, hemispherical,

5-6 x 7-8 mm.5 disc flat, about 1 mm. broad, around the partially exsert, subulate

but short valves.

Kangaroo Island and Encounter Bay.

32, Eucatyprus Gittir Maiden in Crit. Rey,, 15, 177 (1912).

Glaucous mallee, Muaturve leaves opposite or almost so, glaucotis, sessile or

shortly pedicellate, ovate, oblong or shortly lanceolate, 4-6 x 1-2°5 cm. LU mubets

axillary, glaucous, 4-9-flowered, peduncles scmitercte, slender. Buds glaucous,

ovoid or cylindrical-rostrate, pedicellate, 8-15 x 4-7 mm. Operculun conical,

acuminate or rostrate, longer than the cylindrical tube. #rutt ovoid or globular,

pedicellate, 5-8 x 5-8 mm.; disc very small, valves exscrt, long and subulate but

usually broken off short.

Northern Flinders Ranges.

32a. EucAryetus GiLtw var, PETIOLARIS Maiden in Jour, Roy. Soc. N.S.W,,

53, 59 (1919),

Differs from the above only in that the leaves are definitely petiolate (up to

1 cm-_) and broadly lanceolate. It is doubtful whether this form is worth retaining

as a variely,

The type came from Wirrahara, but other specimens from the northern

Flinders Range have been seen,

33. Eucayprus oLeosa I’, Muell. in Mig, Ned. Kruidk. Archief,, 4, 128 (1856),

sensu stricto,

Mallee or small tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow lancvolate,

usually glossy, 5-I0 x 1-2 cm. Umibels axillary, 5-14-flowered, peduncles semi-

terete, Huds pedicellate, ovoid or cylindrical, Operculum conical, longer than

cupular or semiglobular tube. J’*rwit pediccilate, globular or clavate 5-9 x 5-9 mm.;

disc nafrow, valves thin, long and subulate, very exsert, coheretit at the apex Lut

breaking casily and henee often lacking from specitnens (pl. iv, fg. 4),

A photograph and some fragments of the type material have been obtained

through the courtesy of Dr, F. P, Jonker of the herbarium of the State University

at Utrecht, Holland. It is mixed FA. wneinuta Turez. (buds and flowers) and

&. oleosa F. Muell (immature fruits). The latter, which is regarded as the true

type, was, according to the Melbourne Herbarium authorities, collected from the

Murray Mallee, Whet inquiries concerning the type were first made it was hoped

that the specimen would show the shape of the operculum, since this feature is

variable and hag heen the basis of diiterentiation in several varictics, Unfor-

tunately, this is still unseltled. It is believed, however, that the specific name

was assoctited with a form having a conical operctilum, since Mueller’s species,

£. sociths, published in the same paper. has a rostrate one.

One of the most important and widespread mallee species, as can be seen by

reference to Wood’s vegetation map (10),

33a, EvcALyrtus oLzosa var, Peenerr Blakely in Key to Euc., 270 (1934).

Leaves, branchlets, buds and fruits more or less ashy-grey. Leaves oblong

to oblong lanceolate. Operculum obtusely conical, twice as long as cupular inbe.

This may not be a good variety, Blakely founded it on material from Ooldea,

and specimens probably belonging to it have been receiyed from Fyre Peninsula

atid Kangaroo Island,

135

33b. EUCALYPTUS OLEOSA var. GrAuCA Maiden in Jour. W. Aust, Nat, Hist. Soc.

3, 171 (1911); E. socialis F. Muell, in Miq. Ned. Krujdk, Archief., 4,

132 (1856); FE. transcontinentalis Maiden in Jour. Roy, Soc. NSW,

53, 58 (1919),

Leaves lanceolate to broad lanceolate, usually dull or subglaucous. Buds

cylindrical- or urecolate-rastrate. Operculum rostrate and longer than cylindrical

ot urceolate tube. Fruit narrowed into orifice and sometimes with a tendency

to he urceolate (pl. iv, fig. 1).

The nomeniclature of this form was confused by Maiden, In Crit. Rew, 15,

167, he redeseribed var. glauca and listed £. soctalis F, Muell. as a synonyi.

Later he quotes his description of E, trancontinentalis (Crit. Rev., 34, 268) with

E. oleosa var, glauta asa synonym, but there iz no mention of £. socialis, Seth

Ausiralian material matched with Maiden’s specimens in Sydney is identical with

the type of E. sociulis [rom Mueller’s material in the Melbourne herbarium, It

does not seem to be distinct enough for specific rank and forms a link between

E. oleosa and E. Flocktoniae. It would appear that Blakely’s description of

i. socialis was superfluous.

This form occurs from the Nullarbor Plains eastwards across Eyre and

Yorke Peninsulas, along the Flinders Range to the north and also east to the

Murray Mallee, the Victorian border and Kangaroo Island.

33c, EucALyrTug OLEOSA var, ANGUSTIFOLIA Maiden in Crit, Rev, 39, 278

(1919),

Leaves narrow to broad Ianceolate, asually glossy. Buds pedicellate, cylin-

drical or ovate, Operculunt crumpled or wrinkled on the surface, cottical or

cylindrical, very obtuse or flat-topped, different in colour from the tube, Fruit

globular (pl, iv, lig, 2).

When Maiden described this variety he gave #£. socialis F. Muell, as a

synonym and figured (Crit. Rey, pl, 65, fig. 17 a-b) a Murray River specitnen

collected by Mueller. This specimen is referred to as “the type,” and then as

“a reptted type specimen from Mueller,” but it is not cleat whether he means it

as a type of Z. secialis or of his var. angustifolia, There is, however, no mentiot

of such a specimen under the original description of E. soctalis, so that B. socials

is nota synonym of this yaricty. Blakely gave Mueller's species full ranking, but

retained E. oleosa var. angustifolia and quoted a specimen from Pinnaroa, collected

hy J. M. Black, as the type,

Subsequent to the publication of the Key, Hlakely appears to have decided

that E. oleusa yar. angustifalia should be given specific rank. There is a Jarge

amount of material in the Sydney Herbarium which he separated out under the

name E. lamprophylla. This. includes Black’s Pinnaroa specimen. The species

was never published, it is a distinct variety but, without the characteristic buds,

difficult to separate from the rest of E. oleosa. Since there is doubt concerning

the bud shape in the original E. ofeosa, specific ranking for this form would

hardly be advisable. Mueller’s specimen, mentioned by Maiden, is presumably

the type-

Distribution is the same as for E. vleosa seusw stricto. It is particularly

common on Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island.

34, Kucanyrrus FrocxTontae Maiden in Jour, Roy. Soc. N.5.W., 49, 316

(1915).

Mallee or small tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate, 6-12 x

1+5-2°5 cm. Usmbels axillary, 3-7-flowered, peduncles semiterete, broadened at

lop but nol flattened, Buds urceolate-rostrate, pedicullate, 12-17 x 5-8 mm.

Operculium with broad base, hemispherical or conical and with a lofig beak,

136

up to twice as long as the urceolate tube and broader at the junction.

Frutét yrcevolate, broad at base and constricted below the wide orifice; disc arrow,

valves as in &, oleosa but very brittle and usually broken off and hence appearing

enclosed, 8-10 x 7-2 mm.; pedicels angular (pl. iv, fig. 3).

This species forms a link between EF. aleasa and the Western Australian

species H, torquata. It occurs from the Nullarbor Plain across Eyre and Yorke

Peninsulas.

35, Eucaryerus cArycocona Turcz. in Bull. Phys. Math. Acad, Petersb., 10,

338 (1852).

Mallee. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, linear to lanceolate, 5-10 x

0-7-2 cm. Unmobels axillary, 3-7-flowered, peduncles slender, terete or yemiterete.

Buds clavate, quadrangular, pedicellate, 6-10 x 4-6 mm.; with numerous oil

glands, Operculum shortly conical, obtuse, acute or apiculate, not angular, shorter

than the angular tube. Frat cylindrical or urceolate, quadrangular but less

sharply so than when in flower, smooth, pedicellate, 8-12 x 5-6 mm.: dise lining

the top of the tube and obscured by the narrow persistent staminal ring; valves

small and deeply enclosed (pl. iii, fig. 15).

Eyre and Yorke Peninsula, Murray Mallee and upper South-East,

35a, EUCALYPTUS CALYCOGONA var. StArrorpi Blakely in Key to Euc., 265

(1934).

A coarser form than the above. Mature Jeuues lanceolate to broadly

lanceolate, thick, 6-12 x 1°5-2°5 em. Uwmibels as above. Buds 15 x 5-6 mm,

including the pedicel, shape as above, Operculym conical acute, apex angular.

Stamens white or pink. Fruit 14-16 x 7-9 mm,

Lyre Peninsula and, according to Blakely, also near Encounter Bay.

36. Eucaryerus cracivis F, Muell, in Trans. Vict. Inst, 1, 35 (1855).

Mallee or medium-sized tree, Mature lcaves alternate, petiolate, narrow

linear to lanceolate, oil glands conspicuous as black dots, 4-9 x 0-6-1-5 cm.

Umbels axillary, 4-12-flowered, peduncles terete or semiterete. Suds clavate

(with pedicel), not angular, with numerous oil glands, pedicellate, 3-5 x 45 mm.

(pedicel about 3 mm). Operculam hemispherical or patelliform, obtuse or

apiculate, shorter than the obconical tube. Jirwit ovoid to pyriform, smooth,

pedicellate, 5-6 x 3-3 mm.; disc lining the top of the tube or oblique, the rim

formed by the narrow ridge of the staminal ring; valves short and broad, enclosed

or very near the orifice (pl. iii, fig. 14).

Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas, Flinders Range and south to the Clare hills,

Murray Mallee and upper South-East.

36a. Eucaryprus GRAciLis var, rreeta Blakely in Key to Enc., 266 (1934),

Leaves erect, narrow linear, shining, oi) glands yery numerous. This appears

to be a dry country form. It is possible that it is not a very definite variety.

Eyre Peninsula, Murray Mallee and the northern edge of the mallee scrub,

37, EvcaLyptus INTERTENTA R. T. Baker im Proc. Linn. Soc. N.SW., 25, 308

(1900).

Small to fairly large tree. Jaltre leaves alternate, petiolate, linear to lanceo-

late, 7-12 x 0-7-2 cm., bluish or stibglancous. Cowhels in terminal or subtenninal

panicles or rarely solitary in upper axils, 46-fowered, peduncles slender, terete

or sethiterete. Buds oboyoid, clavate on slender, subangular pedicels, 5-7 x

3-5 min. Operculwnt conical, acnte, somewhat narrower than the tube and shorter,

Tube obconical and sometimes slightly constricted in to the orifice, with one oar

two lines continuous with the angles on the pedicels. Fruit abovoid or pyriform,

fet

pedicellate 6-8 x 5-7 mm,; orifice contracted, the persistent staminal ring ¢om-

mouly hiding the narrow isc; valves short, enclosed ot near orifice (pl. iv, fig. 14),

Everard and Birksgate Ranges and south-eastwards to the Flinders Range,

also west of Port Augusta,

37a. EUCALYPTUS JNTERTEXTA var. FRUTICOSA Blakely and Jacobs in Key to

Euc., 168 (1934).

Mallee. Mature leaves as above but rarely dull and bluish, more usually

shining and yellowish-green when dried. Umibels as above, Operculirm shortly

conical and sometimes apiculate, due to the point on the thin pre-operculum which

persists till or almost until flowering. Fruit as above,

This form is found on rock slopes in arid country, whereas the typical form

oceurs low on the slopes adjacent to creeks hordered hy E, camaldulensis, It was

based on a Northern Territory specimen but extends down to the northern

Flinders Range atound Hawker and Quorn.

38 Eucatyerus coorakaH Blakely and Jacobs in Key to Euc., 245 (1934).

Tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow to broad laneolate, 7-15 x

1-3 em. Umbels in short terminal or subterminal panicles, 3-6-Howered,

peduncles slender, subangular. Buds ovoid, pedicellate, 3-5 x 3-4-mm. Opercuium

conical, acute or apiculate, about the same length as tube or slightly longer, Lruil

hemispherical or broadly turbinate, 3-4 x 4-5 mm.,, the rim of the tube thin and

fragile with very thin disc; valves short, broad, obtuse, exsert and more or less

incurved,

The South Australian material of this species was formerly placed with

E. microthecg F. Muell. The differences between the two appear to be slight.

Tt occurs in the northern parts of the State near Lake Eyre and the northern

Flinders Range.

39. BucALyprus LeucoxyLon F. Muell. in Trans. Vict. Inst., 1, 33 (1855),

sensu Stricto.

Small or medinmrsized tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow ta

broad Iancevlate, 7-15 x 1-3 em. Umbels axillary or lateral on leafless portions of

branchlets or in short panicles, 3-floweted (except variety), pedtncles terete

or semiterete, Buds clavate, ovoid or cylindrical-rostrate, wrinkled when dry,

pedicels normally lorig and flattened and angulat above as they pass into the calyx

tube, sometimes short and semitercte. Opercitluim conical, acute or rostrate with

a sometimes angular point, as Jong as or longer than the obeonical or turbinate

tube, Stamens with translucent oi} glands in the filaments, especially the outer

anantherotis ones, Staminal ring 1-2 mm. wide, conspicuous when the stamens

fall, hiding the oblique dise, deciduous during the maturation of the fruit or

remaining attached to one side of the rim. Fruit pyriform, ovoid or subglobular,

on long terete or semiterete pedicels (except in short pedicelled forms); disc

oblique but not covering the short broad enclosed valves. In the typical form the

buds are 8-13 x 6-7 mm. and the fruits 10-15 x 8-13 nn, (pl. ii, fig. 7), This

occurs in the southern Flinders Range, Mount Lofty Range, Murray lands and

in the South-East and on Kangaroo Island,

This species shows considerable variation and a large number of forms have

been named. Both red- and white-Apwered individuals occur, bit are not

restricted to any particular variety. Some plants are glaucous, but not reliably so,

Many of the forms seem to grade into one another, but despite this the fullowing

varieties are Included.

404. EvcanyPrus LEucoxYLon var. mMAcRocarFA J. F, Brown in For, Fi,

S. Aust. (1882; &. Irucoxylon var. erythronenia F, Mucell, in Mig. Ned

Krnidk, Archief,, 4, 127 (1854),

158

Buds 16-20 x 10 mm., pedicels very angular. Operculum rostrate. -Fryit,

15-22 x 15-18 mm, (pl. ii, fig. 6),

There seems to be some room fur doubt concerning the legitimacy of Brown's

uame. Maiden (Crit, Rev., 21, 91) accepts it because the variety includes both

red- an? white-flowered forms. This point had been mentioned in Brown's

deseription, where it is stated that “we have ventured to apply the name micero-

carpa,,..as being more directly specific. and. in order to individuate them from

the red-flowering sports of the true representative of the species Leucoxylon,”

This latter fact is the more important as it means that Mueller’s description is

definitely inadequate, being “filamentis sanguineis.” According to Maiden

(Lc.) and Brown there is no doubt as to the synlonyimity of the two names,

Maiden and Blakély have been followed in this paper because: (i) Mueller’s

description is inadequate; (ii) the wide variation within the species means that

varietal names represent little more than arbitary points in a series; and (iii) 50

litte can be gained in this case by a strict application of the rules of priority.

To waive Mueller’s description hecause it is not diagnostic is an admittedly risky

procedure, since what constitutes an adequate deseription has never been definitely

stated and the great majority of the early descriptions leave much to be desired,

Tlowever, in this case an argument can be made for either name, and therefore the

status quo has been maintained.

The variety was based on specimens from Eyre Peninsula. It also ocetirs in

the Mount Lofty Range and on Kangaroo Island, Tntermediates occur in the

Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges.

39b. Evcatyrtus Levcoxyion var. AncutaTa Benth, in FI. Austral. 3, 210

(1866).

The relation between this variety, the preceding and var. regulosd F. Muell,

is nut clear (c.f. Crit, Rey,, 12, 91), Bertham’s description states that the calyx

tube is distinctly angled. ln most large-fAuwered forms the pedicel is flattened

as it passes into the tube and the two rihs thus formed, with two smaller ones

between, pass upwards to be lust in the upper part of the tube. Blakely states

that the fruits im this variety, which is not known to the writer, are subangular.

Iu all material available the fruits are rounded, any angularity having heen lost

during maturation. Maiden considered (1e:) var. angular was not the same as

var. mucrocarpe, but gives no grounds for his opinion, Further collecting may

elucidate this point, but the variety docs not seem to be a sound one, It is reported

to have come from the Mount Lofty Range,

39c. EucALyprus LeucoxYLON var, PAUPERITA J. E. Brown in Bor. Fl, S. Aust.

(1882) ; A. jugalis Naudin in Second Mem., 37 (1891).

Umbels three or more flowered. Buds ovoid or pyriform, peduncles, and

pedicels shorter than in above varieties, 5-7 x 3-5 mm. Operculum conical or

conical-apiculate rather than rostrate. Frit globular turbinate to hemispherical,

6-7 per mm,, relatively wider and shallower than in other varieties (pl. ii,

fig. 4-5),

This form docs not seem to he sufficiently distinct to warrant specific rank,

Some specimens are distirictive with more than three flowers per wmbel and short

pedicelled pyriform buds. but these grade into normal but small fruited forms of

4. lencoxylon.

Mueller’s original description of EB. leucoxylen stated “tri-raro-quingtte-

floris.” This referred to his variety pluriflora which, as stated by Maiden, is

E.. calcieulirix F. Muell,

From Clare north into the Flinders Range, also in the Mount Lofty Range

and on Eyre Peninsula.

159

40. Eucatyrrus cALcrcuLTerx F. Muell, in Mig. Ned, Kruidk. Archief., 4, 129

(1856).

Mallee or small tree, Mualwre leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate ta broad

lanceolate, the marginal nerve usually distant. Umbels axillary or clustered ou

leafless portions of the branchlets,3-7-flowered, peduncles semitercte, 4-8 mm.

long, Bury clavate on more or less angular pedicels 5-7 x 4-5 mim., the surface

crumpled or wrinkled like that of a withered and shrunken apple. Operculum

cortical, acute or obtuse, slightly shorter than the tube. Fruit pedicellate, some-

times shortly so, pyriform or truncate-ohovoid, 5-8 x 5-8 mm.: dise narrow, very

oblique or lining the top af the tuhe, yalves short and enclosed but not so deeply

so as in £. odorata (pl. i, fig. 7),

E. culcicultric occupies a position between E, odorata and ihe sitall fruited

forms of E.lencorylon, and it is Sigtificant that, while based on Mueller’s

F_ odorata var. calciculérix, it also includes his Z. lexco.rylow var. pluviflera. The

species ig a well-marked one and can be distinguished by the characteristic

wrinkling or erumpling of the surlace of the buds when dry, the usual retention

of a staminal ring during the maturation of the fruit and hy the marginal nerve

of the lanceolate leaf being distant fram the edge, J3lukely’s var, porosa based) on

E, porosa TF. Muell, illustrates the tendency lowards E. lencoxylon and does not

warrant separation. Var, obscura appears to have been well named, There are

two specimens in the Sydney Herbarium named A. caleiculirta var, obscura, Both

were collected by Maiden at Bundaleer Forest, March 1807, One specimen is

E, fruticetorum, which as stated below ts Z odorata var. angustifolia, and this is

also represented in the Melbourne Herbarium. The other appears to be that

referred to as having “ihe general facies of EF. fascicnlosa” (Key to Euc., 225).

This latter specimen probably belongs with L. hemiphloia var. microcarpi,

Eyre Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, flinders Range, Adclaide Plains, and

Murray Mallee,

THE ODORATA COMPLEX

This, like ihe diosa complex, has been the centre of considerable confusion

and the arrangement in the Key to the Eucalypls 1s untortunate. The true sittia-

tion appears to be as follows: E. odorata, for which E, cajuputea F, Muell, is a

synonym, is the tree form which is found around Adelaide and which becomes

mallee-like as it goes north to Mount Remarkable and south to Fneounter Bay:

E, odorata var. angustifolia is synonymous with E_ fruticetorum F, Muell, which

is not distinct enough to warrant specific ranking. Tt appears to link E- odorata

with ihe very narrow-leaved &. viridis R, T. Baker, ‘The type specimen af

Mueller’s £, odorata var. erythrandra has been seen. As pointed out, in a private

commuttication by a Melbourne authority, it is the same as 2. Lansdowmeana

F, Muel!, and J. E. Brown, The latter is a distinct species. having normally sessile

and coarser buds and {rvits in short panicles or clustered umbels. lakely’s

descriplion of this variety is erronecus and appears to have heen based on a ted-

flowered specimen of K. oderata. Tm the type specimens of E. adardlw (from

Light’s Pass) and of . cajuputea (from the Fhnders Range) the filaments appear

to have been red, though it is not always easy to be certain of this character when

dealing with dried material. These specimens are in the Melbourne Herbarium

and have been seen. Blakely’s Z. adurata var. refracia (Key to Enc. 226) is an

abnormality. Similar reflexed stamens have heen observed in flowers of other

species. Usually only some of the flowers on a branch are affected, T his variety

cannot be retained. Var. macrocarpa (Le.) is £. Jansdouneana.

41. Evcanyrrus LanspowweAna F, Meell. and J, E, Brown in For. Fl., S. Aust,

pt. dc (1890), £ odorata var. erythrundra F, Mitel, in. Mig, Ned. Kruidk,

Archief,, 4, 129 (1856).

160

Mallee. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, thicker and coarser than those of

F£, odorata, lanceolate to broad lanceolate, 8-13 x 1-3°5 em, Umobels always

clustered and usually in short panicles or the umbels grouped close together on a

leafless portion of the stem, 3-8-flowered, peduncles semiterete, Budy sessile or on

short thick angular pedicels difficult to distinguish fram the obconical and some-

what anfgular tube. Operculum conical, acute or obtuse, shorter than tube. Jruzt

sessile or shortly pedicellate, cylindrical or barrel-shaped, striate or bicostute,

8-10 x 7-9 mm: disc very narrow, lining the top of the tube, valves short, deeply

enclosed (pl. iv, fig. 8).

Southern Eyre Peninsula and Kangaroo Island,

42. EvcaLyrrus oporata Behr tind Schlecht, in Linnaea, 20, 547 and 567

(1847). sensu stricto; E. cajupulea F. Muell, in Mig. Ned Kruidk.

Archief., 4, 126 (1856),

Tree or mallee. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow to broad lanceolate

(narrow in mallee forms), 6-14 x 1255 cm, Unmbels axillary or clustered on

leafless portions of the branchlets, peduncles semiterete, 8-15 mm. long. Buds an

angular pedicels 2-7 mm, long and passing without abrupt change into the slightly

angular obconical tube, 6-8 x 3-5 mm,; dise lining the top of the tube, the rim

thin, valves deeply enclosed, short (pl, iv, fig. 5).

Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas, southern Flinders Range, Adelaide Plains,

aa Lofty Range and south to Encounter Bay, Kangaroo Island and Murray

Mallee.

42a. EUCALYPTUS OpoRATA var. ANGUSTIFOLIA Blakely in Key to Enc., 226 (1934);

E. fruticetorum F. Muell, in Miq, Ned. Kruidk. Archief., 4, 131 (1856).

Mallee. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, narrow lanceolate, 5-14 x

O'3-1'S cm., surface dull and subglaucous, especially when young though older

leaves are like those of the above. Buils shortly pedicellate, smaller than in the

above but sttbglaucous though similar in shape. srwit turbinate, cipular or

pyriform with striations running down into the short angular pedicel (pl. iy,

fig. 6).

Port Lincoln, central Flinders Range between Quorn and Wirrabara.

43. Euecacyprus yirtpis R. T. Baker, in Proc, Linn, Soc, N.S.W., 25, 316 (1900),

Mallee or small poorly-shaped tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, very

narrow, linear, 6-16 x 0°3-0:5 cm. Unmbely axillary, 3-S-flowered, peduncles

semitercte, 5-7 mm. long. Buds cylindrical or ovate, on short pedicels, 5-7 x

3-5 mm. Operculwm shortly conical, smooth or slightly striate but not pinched 11

to form an angular pot, as long as the tube which is cylindrical and which passes

into the pedicel more abruptly than in any other members of the odorata complex,

Fruit pedicellate, hemispherical ta semi-globular, 4-6 x 4-5 min.; disc very narrow

and lining the rim, valves short and enclosed (pl. iv, figr, 7).

Flinders Range near Ilorrocks Pass and Quorn,

44, Eucalyptus HEMIPHLOIA F. Muell. ex. Benth. in Fl, Austral., 3, 216 (1866),

sensu stricta,

Tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate 10 broadly laricvolate,

7-t4 x 1-3°5 com. Usnbels in panicles or in paniclelike groups on leafless portions

of the branchlets, 4-8-flowered. Buds cylindrical-clavate, pedicellate, 7-10 x

5-6 mm., pedicels subangular and sometimes the striations pass up on to the tube

Operculum conical, smooth, acute or pointed, aboitt as lung as tube or shorter.

Fruit pyriform urceolate or cylindrical, pedicellate, canstricted at the orihce.

6-8 x 4-6 mm,; dise small and oblique or lining the top of the tube, the old

stathinal ring forming a narrow rini to the orifice; valves deeply enclosed (pl. iv,

fig, 10).

161

Marden notes (Crit. Rev., 11, 14) that Mueller in his Census gave Pragm.

ii, 62 (1860-61) as the reference for the description of this species, However, the

remarks in this volume of the Fraugmenta hardly constitute a real description, and

Blakely was tight in giving the reference as above. On the other hand, Blakely

gives E. albens Mig. in Ned. Kruidk. Archicf., 4, 138 (1856), despite the fact

that Mueller in the Eucalyptographia (also quoted by Maiden) points out that the

name, which was a misprint [or £. pallens DC., was given without diagnosis, hence

the correct reference should be 2. albens Mig, ex Renth., Fl, Aust., 3, 219 (1866).

Blakely accepted E_ hemiphloia, FE. albens and E, microcarpu as distinct species,

but the writer ig in agreement with Maiden when tre considered the last two io

be varieties of the first, a decision he later revised. As noted by Blakely

(Key to Euc., 236), “in Victoria it (i.e., E. microcarpa) seems to pass gradually

into the typical form (te., E. hemiphloia).” This is typical of the problem facing

the student of the genus. Specimens which appear absolutely distinct are found

on more extensive collecting to grade into one another. &. albens differs in its

usttally larger buds and fruits and in the glattcousness of the leaves, branchicts,

buds and fruits. Jn no species of Hucalyptus does glaucousess prove to be a

reliable character, and a study of the dimensions given for EH, hemuphioia and

E, albens in the Key and hy Maiden (Crit. Rev., 58, 443) will show that there is

a cerlain ovetlapping.

Southern Flinders Range between Latira and Mount Remarkable.

44a. Eucaryetus HEMIPHLOIA var, MicrocarpA Maiden in Crit. Rev., 47, 207

(1921); E. microcarpa Maiden in Crit. Rev., 58, 483 (1923).

Differs from the above mainly in its smaller buds and fruits which are

pedicellate to sessile. Buds 6-7 x 3-4 mm. Opercilum has an angular tip (also

seen in species of the odorata complex), Tube subangular, ruil cylindrical or

slightly smaller at each end. 4-7 x 4-5 mm, (pl. iv, fig. 11).

Distribution as above,

44), EucaLverus HeMIPHLOLA yar, aLBENS F. Muell. ex Maiden in Crit, Rev,,

11, 20 (1914) ; &. albens Miq. ex Benth. in Fl. Aust. 3, 219 (1866).

Differs from the typical form in being glaucous on all parts and in the usually

larger buds and fruits. Blakely gives the following dimensions; Buds 10-15 x

5-8 mm. Jirwt 9-12 x 8-10 mm, In most of the South Anstralian material these

organs are smaller but still larger than the dimensions for HJtemiphloia sensi

stricto (pl. iv, fig. 9).

Distribution as above.

45, EucALYPTus LARGtFLORENS FL Muell. in Trans. Vict. Inst., 1, 54 (1855);

E. bicolor (A. Curn.) Hovker in Mitchell’s Jour. Trop, Aust., 390

(1848).

Tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate, surface dull and faintly

binish, 7-13 x [-2 em. OUvmbels in awillary or terminal panicles, 3-8-lowered,

peduncles slender, Buds obovoid or eclavale on slender pedicels, 3-5 x 2-4 mm.

Operculum hemispherical or almost conical, shorter than tube. Fruté cyhtutrical

or pyriform, the orifice slightly constricted, pediccllate, 3-4 x 3-4 mm.; disc very

narrow, valves enclosed and short.

Along the River Murray. Also occasionally in the Flinders Range.

46, Eucanverus Renrtawa F. Muell. in Trans. Vict. Inst, 1, 34 (1855).

Mallee or small tree. Malure leaves alternate, petiolate, ovate or broadly lanceo-

late, 7-12 % 1°5-5°5 cm, Uihels 3-6-Nlowered, im terminal panicles which may be

open or short and campact. Bui sessile, cylindrical to Obovoid, 5-G x 2-3 mm.

Opercuium hemispherical or shortly and obiusely conical. /’ruit sessile or almust

162

so, hemispherical or chovoid, 3-5 x 3-5 mm,: disc narrow, valves short, enclosed

or just below the orifice.

Blakely gives 5-7 mm. as the length of the fruit, but none as Jarge are present

in South Australian specimens. Maiden figures (Crit. Rev., pl, 48, fig. 6) some

larger fruits, but the disc is quite different from that in other material of the

species atid the identity is therefore in doubt,

Eyre Peninsula, southern Flinders Range, Murray Desert and Kangaroo

Island.

47, EwcALYetus FASCcICcULOSA F,, Muell, it. Trans. Vict, Inst, 1, 34 (1855).

Medium-sized tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate to broadly

lanceolate, 8-18 x 1'5-3°5 cm. Unibels in axillary or terminal panicles. Buas

clavate on stibangular pedicels, 4-6 x 3-4 min. (pedicels 3-5 mm. long), usually

with iiumerous oil glands. Operculum shortly conical and narrower than top of

tube. Fruit pediccllate, obconical, cylindrical or pyriform with a thin rim lined

by the disc, valves short and enclosed (pl, i, fig. 6).

Mount Lofty Range to Encounter Ray, Murray Bridge, Upper South-East.

48, Eucatyrtus crapvocanyx F, Muell, in Linnaes, 15, 388 (1852).

Small to medium-sized tree. Mature leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate to

broadly lanceolate, 8-14 x 1°5-3 em. Usnbels clustered on leafless portions of the

stems or in panicles, peduncles terete. Bwds cylindrical, urceolate, pedicellate,

10 x 46 tum. Operculuim hemispherical, apiculate, much shorter than tube but

sometimes a little wider, 3x.4-6 mm. Fruit ovoid or cylindrical-urceolate, having

a constricted orifice, almost smooth or becoming rugose or costate on drying,

10-15 x 5-10 mm. ; disc forming a narrow rim, valves deeply enclosed (pl, i, fig. 5).

Eyre Peninsula, southern Flinders Range and Kangareo Island.

49, Eucanuyprus GAMopiyria F, Muell. in Fragm., xi. 40 (1878).

Glaucous mallee, Mature leaves opposite, sessile or amplexicaule, orbicular,

lanceolate or cuneate when the pairs are joined, 3-8 x 1-2 cm, T/mbels poorly

formed, singly or in short panicles, in the upper axils or terminal. Individual

umbels with few flowers. Buds clavate or pyriform. pedicellave, §-7 x 4-6 mm.

Operculum hemispherical, much shorter than the obconical or pyriform tube.

Fruit campanulate, pyriform to almost urceolate, 8-11 x 6-8 mm.; rim sharp

around the narrow oblique disc, valves short, broad and triangular, near orifice

or enclosed.

Blakely states that this is a very glaucous species, but our material was ouly

just glaucous. This character is never very dependable,

Near the north-western corner of the State.

Species Not INcLipep In THE Key

There is 2 group of tropical species which is known to extend inta South

Australia. Matertal of these is by no means satistactory, since buds, fruits and

leaves are rarely included on the same specimen aud notes regarding habit and bark

character are usually lacking. Consequently there is a certain doubt concerning

the true identity of the specimens, end the species have, therefore, been omitted

from the key. However, an account of the South Australian Eucalypts would be

incomplete without some reference to them.

In his Flora of South Australia, Black includes FE. pyrophora Benth, and

E, terminalis F, Muell. (p. 420), and in his additional notes (p. 694) it is stated

that the White Wash Gum of Central Australia is 2, papuana I’. Muell., not

&, terminalis F. Muell. Ina later paper, by J. B, Cleland, for which Black identi-

fed the plants (G), there is a reference to EB. dichromophloia F, Muell,, which has

163

been recorded for the Mann and Musgrave Ranges by Black (3), and, in the

same journal, a paper by Blakely (4) describes E. papuana var, aparrerinja, In

the Key, Blakely lists H. ferruginea F. Muell, as South Australian bit gives a

Central Australian locality.

All these species come in the Corymbosae and all belong to the Macantherae.

Without adequate material and field notes it is difficult to distinguish between

some of them, Until further collecting is done it will be difficult to decide which

of them should be recorded for this State.

Another species of interest is A. gonyylocarpa Blakely (4), for which one

South Australian specimen is recorded with the type description. ‘his came from

“25 miles 8.5.W. of Mount Watson,” but consists of leaves only and, in Blakely’s

Opinion, represents the juvenile slate of the species. This requires checking.

E, trivalva Blakely, l.c., and &, orbifolia F. Muell. (4) (7) may also occur in

this State.

F. Kalangadooensis Maiden and Blakely is described as a probable hybrid.

The type material appears to represent an unusually large form of FE. viminalis

yar. Huberiana. Further collecting may determine the status of this form.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to acknowledge the financial assistance given by the

authorities of the University of Adelaide, which made possible a visit to the

important collections in the National Ilerbaria at Melbourtie and Sydney.

Reference must also be made to the helpful co-operation of the staffs of these

institutions, both during the visits and at other times,

Mr. J. M. Black and Professor J, B. Cleland kindly lent their valuable collec-

tions, which include a number af type and other important specimens, The

Eucalypts among the specimens. of the Tate and the Flder Exploring Expedition

Collections were also consulted in the Herbarium of the Botany Department of the

University of Adelaide.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Benrnam, G, 1866 Flora Auistraliensis, 3

(2) Bracx, J, M. 1929 Flora of South Australia, Govt, Printer, Adclaide

(3} Brack, J. M. 1934 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 168

(4) Rraxety, W. F. 1936 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 60, 153

(5) Brerr,R.G, 1937 Papers and Proc, Ray. Sac. Tas., 75

(6) Cxetanp, J. B, 1936 Trans, Roy. Soc. S$, Aust., 60, 114

(7) Gagpwer, C. A, 1940-41 Jour, Roy. Soc. W. Aust., 27, 187

(8) Jessur, R. W. 1946 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, 3

(9) Muetrer, F. vow 1879 Encalyptographia

(10) Woon, J. G. 1937 The Vegetation of South Australia, Govt. Printer,

Adelaide.

Frequent reference is also made to Blakely’s “Key to the Eucalypts” and to

Maiden’s “Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.”

164

Puate I

. E, axymitra (from type in Tate Herb.) 5. E. cladocalyx

. pyriformis 6. E. fasciculosa

3, EB. pachyphylla 7. E, calcicultrix ;

4, E. Morrisii 8. E. Ewartiana (from portion of type in

J, M, Black’s collection.)

(All drawings natural size.)

Py,

remota

obliqua var. megacarpa

. diversifolia

, leucoxylon var, pauperita

leucaxylon var. pauperita

. leucoxylon var. macrocarpa

(All

7. E. leucoxylom sensi stricto

& E. inerassata sensu stricto

9. EB. inecrassata sensu stricto

10. E. tucrassata var. costate

11. E. tnerassala var. angulosa

drawings natural size.)

{5b

Pate IT

1. &. Baxteri 6. E. pimpiniana 11. E, pileata

2, E. viminalis var. T[uberiana 7. E. conglobata 12. E. trachycalyx

3. &. ovata & BE. anceps 13. 5. concinna

4. FE. elaeophora 9. E. dumasa 14. EF. gracilis

5. E. cosmophylla 10. &. rugosa 15. E. calycogona

(All drawings natural size.)

i. Lansdowneana

2. hemiphloia var. albens

oleosa var. glauca

eleosa var. angustifolia

oleosa sensu stricto

ND Gt bh ON

bs the toy tb ay

odorata var. angustifolia

. hemiphloia sensu stricto

. hemiphloia var. microcarpa

« leptophylla

» wncitata

i. mteriexta

(All drawings natural size.)

FUNCTIONAL SYNTHESIS IN PEDOGENESIS

By C. G. STEPHENS

Summary

Soil is composed of weathered rock material modified by additions of organic matter derived from

vegetable and animal life. Despite the obvious association and contributions of rock, climate and

organic matter, there have been in relatively modern times different genetical classifications of soils

which have rested purely on geological, climatic or organic factors of soil formation. Largely

because of the language difficulty these monogenetic classifications were but slightly influenced by

the work and theories of Dokuchaiev until well after the beginning of this century, four or five

decades since his earlier publications on the genesis of soils. There seems little doubt that

Dokuchaiev was the first to fully realize the function of more than one factor in soil formation, and

that the factors were not independent of each other. In this connection Neustruev (1927) states:

“.,.1t should be noted that though Dokuchaiev had established such factors of soil formation as

climate, parent rock, relief, vegetation and age of the country, he still, in the first place, emphasised

the idea that it is their interaction which leads to definite conditions of soil formation.” Ototzky

(1946) quote Dokuchaiev as follows: “Knowing all the physico-geographical elements of a certain

locality, it is easy (!) to predict which soil covers it.”

168

FUNCTIONAL SYNTHESIS IN PEDOGENESIS

By C, G. Srepuens *

[Read 10 April 1947]

Soil is composed of weathered rock material modified by additions of organic

matter derived from vegetable and animal life. Despite the obvious association

and contributions of rock, climate and organic matter, there have been in relatively

modern times different genetical classifications of soils which have rested purely

on geological, clirnatic or organic factors of soil formation. Largely because of

the language difficulty these monogenetic classifications were but slightly

influenced by the work and theories of Dokuchaiey until well after the beginning

of this century, four or five decades since his earlier publications on the genesis

of soils, There seems little doubt that Dokuchaiev was the first to fully realize

the function of more than one factor in soil formation, and that the factors were

not independent of each other. In this connection Neustruey (1927) states:

“|... it should be noted that though Dokuchaiey had established such factors of

soil formation as climate, parent rock, relief, vegetation and age of the country,

he still, in the first place, emphasised the idea that it is their interaction which

leads to definite conditions of soil formation.” Ototzky (1946) quotes Doku-

chaiev as follows: “Knowing all the physico-geographical elements. of a certain

locality, it is easy (!) to predict which soil covers it.”

Dokuchaicv gave the formula

P=f (K.0,G,V),

in which P stands for soil (pochva), K for climate (klimat), O for organisms

(organism), G for subsoils (gornaya poroda) and V for age (vosrast) of the soil.

According to Neustruev it was Sibirtsey who first established the frequently

“predominant role of climate,” “the idea of zonality of soils and zonal types of

soil formation,’ Sibirtsev also distinguished ‘a division of intrazonal soils”

to which, in addition, he appled the term semi-zonal, thus acknowledging their

pattial dependence “on climate and their occurrence in definite zones beyond

which they are found but rarely, and that in peculiar conditions.”

A recent mathematical treatment of the role of factors in soil genesis is that

given by Jenny (1941) in his book, “Factors of Soil Formation.” He expresses

the relationship between soil properties (and hettce the soil which is an ensemble

oi soil properties) and the environment by two equations:

s=f’ (cl’,o’,r’,p,t),

and s={f (cl, 0, r, p,t ----)

in which the symbols cl’, o’, r’, p and t represent soil climate, soil organisms,

soil relicf, patent material and time, and cl, o and r represent environmental

climate, organisms and relief; s is any soil property, and the svil-forming factors

represented by the symbols are postulated as independent variables, ne., “they are

the independent variablee that define the soil system.”

From the second of the above equations Jenny derives an equation of partial

differentials, namely:

ds ds i os

is = (—) del + (— do + =| dr

dcl/ oa, t.p, b do! cl, r, p, t. dr/ cl, 0, p,t.

os ds

+ (=) dp + (—) at

dp? clo, t. at/ clo, r. p.

* Waite Agricultural Research Institute, University of Adclaide,

Trans. Roy, Soc, S, Aust. 71, (2), 1 December, 1947

i69

The interpretation of this equation is that the tota! change of any soil pro-

perty, and hence differences between soils, depends on and is a function of the

sum of the changes of the soil-forming factors; also, assuming that it is possible

to assign a numerical scale to each of the variables, the magnitudes of the partial

differentials are true indices of the importance of the yarious factors,

In reality it is not possible to derive the values of the partial differentials

because of actual and uncontrollable variation in one or more of the remaining

variables, and because it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to assign a

numerical scale to some of the variables, particularly o and p. In addition, cl, 0,

r, and p are, or can be, multiple factors and yield groups of functions; for

example, the ratio of precipitation to evaporation (P/E) and temperature (T)

are largely used to characterise cl. Furthermore, the variables, despite

their being assigned an independent status to facilitate the mathematical

approach, are in nature not completely independent, relief for instance, as is

well known to geomorphologists, being a function of parent material and climate,

but having a partially independent relationship with soil. The treatment is thus

to.a degree philosophical, rather than rigidly mathematical. Hence it is necessary

to work ont the significance and role of the various soil-forming factors on a

statistical, gtaphical, or diagrammatic basis.

Jenny illustrates the function of each of the soil-forming factors by dis-

cussing them in turn in their relationships to various soil characteristics. He does

not attempt to show the effects of interaction or illustrate the variables operating

together; rather his efforts are directed towards. separating and illustrating the

effects of the individual variables.

More recent work by Jenny (1946) illustrates the relationships of soil series

and types mapped in vatious soil surveys to the individual soil-forming factors,

particularly how various sequences of soils are related to changes in the value

or composition of one of the variables. Ife postulates “five canonical functions

of pedology” where four of the variables remain constant, thus:

Climolunctions = - s=ft (cl) O.npt

Biofunctions - - s=f (0) cl, r, p,t

Topofunctions = - - s=f (r) cl, 0, p, t

Lithofunctions = - - s=f (p) cl,o,r,t

Chronofunctions. - - s=E (t) lo,T, p

Designating an ensemble of s values by E(s) he writes:

Soil = E(s) = [ (clo, r,p,t.-... »)

and defines the various soil sequences as follows:

Climosequences. - K(s) =f (cl) 9 5, pt

Biosequences - E(s) =f (0) g, rq,

Toposequences = - E(s) =f (r) cl, 0, pt

Lithosequences - E(s) = f (p} cl,o,r,t

Chronosequences E(s)=€(t) oo,r, Pp

Toposequcnces include clinosequences and hydrosequences, the former cover-

ang the effect of the slope factor (i) and the latter the effect of the water table

factor (w) on soil formation.

Each of the soil sequences is illustrated by reference to maps and diagrams

relating to soil series defined in soil surveys. Examples quoted are as follows:

170

Chronosequence: (Tujunga), Hanford, Greenfield, Ramono, Placentia,

(San Joaquin) series.

Lithasequence: Colma, Ilugo, Sweeney, Sheridan series.

Toposequernces: See Clinosequence and Hydrosequence.

Clinosequence? Sheridan sandy loam, shallow phase, Sheridan sandy

loam, deep phase.

Hydrosequence: Panoche clay, Oxalis clay, Levis clay.

Climosequence: Panoche, Sorrento series.

Biosequence: Parr, Octagon, Miami series,

Jenny states that every homogeneous soil type or series belongs. theoretically

to each of the five canonical functions and illustrates this by pointing out that

the Panoche series is a recognisable meniber of more than one soil sequence. He

thus indicates a method of recognising the rdle of more than one variable in

determining the soil series or type.

Recently, in Wilde’s “Forest Soils and Forest Growth” (1946), Doktuchaiev

was quoted as follows: “The soil is a result of reactions and reciprocal influences

of parent rock, climate, topography, plants, animals and age of the Jand.”” Wilde's

formulation following this is

Ss ={ (g.e, b) dt,

in which $ is the soil, g is geological substratum, e is environmental influences,

b is biological activity, and t 1s time. This equating of the soil as an integral of

the soil-forming factors against time has a distinct appeal as a more precise

formulation that that of Dokuchaiey or that of Jenny. In particular the value

of some of the variables has changed with the passage of time: for instance

certain soils largely owe their morphological characteristics to a climate operating

in past geological time, ¢.g., lateritic soils were formed in Australia most probably

in the Pliocene, and as they exist in “fossil” form today are not particularly

affected by or responsive to the prevailing climate. Wilde apparently does not

regard g, e and b as independent variables.

The purpose of the paper presented here is to record a diagrammatic method

of synthesis of the role of the soil-forming factors and to relate the components

of the diagrams both to the independent variables of the Jenny equations and to

the pattially dependent and partially independent variables which the soil-

forming factors actually comprise in nature,

Let the variables which determine the soil (S) be represented as follows:

C forclimate

R for shape of the land surface

W for height and other features of the water-table

P for patent material

T for time

In nature these are not completely independent variables and their known

dependencies are sect out in Table I-

Taste I

A change in C may cause a change in O, R, W, P, S but not in T

a ” $7 » chi ”? ” ” Cc, W, P, S ” ” ” T, R

” " ” R ” noo ” ” C; oO, WwW, P, S) ” on T

” a” a3 Ww ” ” ” ” uu O, Ey S ” "7 ” T, C, R

” oi 4 P w ” ” ” 2] O, R, W, 5 yy ” $9. T, Cc

” " ” T ” teow ” a G O, R, W, P

t ” cay S rT) rot ” ” O, R, W, Pp but not in T, Cc

171

A complete list of the possible relationships between any two of the variables

is given by the partial differentials in Table IT.

Tasie II

as as aS aS 0s as

ac 80 eR aw a at

ac 3C ac ac ac aC

dS 80 aR aW aP oat

a0 90 a0 40 80 90

a8 aC aR aW aP at

aR dR OR aR oR OR

as ac 380 aw aP art

aw aw aW aWw aW aw

a8 @C @0 aR aP aT

dP oP oP oP oP aP

8s ac 80 OR aw aT

oT oT oT oT oT oT

8s aC 80 OR aw aP

Reference to Table I and a consideration of the lack of effect of changes in

aT OT 8ST AT aT oT

C, O, R, W, P and § on the change of T show that —-» —,—- »——» — & —

as. ac. a0. aR. ow oP

are of no consequence in soil formation and that T is a completely independent

ac dC dR

variable, Similarly —-, —, —, & —— do not operate, Hence the relationship

ap a0 aw

between a soil.and the soil forming factors is probably best expressed like Wilde’s

equation as: sS= Ss (C, O, R, W, P) dT

in which T is independent and C, O, R, W and P can have both dependent and

independent status.

The function of these soil-forming factors can be qualitatively (and some-

times quantitatively) but precisely indicated both as independent and interacting

variables by the diagrammatic and mathematical representation of the relation-

ships of the soils mapped in soil surveys to the variations in the factors which

characterise the environment of the area surveyed. Provided the environment

is studied in the necessary detail during the course of a soil survey, it is possible

to determine in some degree the relative importance of the different soil-forming

factors in the genesis of the different soil series or types. This has been done in

some soil surveys in Australia, with the result that it is now possible to present

useful diagrammatic expressions of the dependence and interaction of the soil-

172

forming factors. The comparison of a soil map based strictly and entirely on

ficid obseryation of soil morphology and distrilmtion with topographic, hydro-

graphic, climatic, geological and vegetation niaps and a study of the Tertiary and

Recent geomorphology of the same area are geverally most revealing regarding

the functions of climate, arganisms, relief, water-table, parent material and time

in soil formation,

The construction of diagrams to illustrate the importance of the factors and

the order in which they have operated calls for some ingenuity, but it has been

found possible in a relatively simple arrangement to inlegrate the functions of

the variables operating in the formation of different soil scries and types occurring

in the same locality. Examples of three such diagrams relating to widely

separated surveys of various sizes are illustrated in fig, 1,2 and 3. ‘Iwo of these

diagrams; in a provisional and rudimentary form, and devoid of any mathematical

interpretation, were published previously in the bulletins describing the relevant

soil surveys; namely in:

1. CS.LR, (Australia) Bulletin No. 150, 1942, “The Soils of the Parishes

of Longford, Cressy, and Lawrence, County Westmorland, Tasmania.”

2. CS.LR. (Australia) Bulletin No, 188, 1945, “A Soil, Land-Use and

Erosion Survey of Part of County Victoria, South Australia.”

The third diagram relates to the following:

3. Tranzactions of the Royal Sociely of South Australia, 67, (2), 1943, 191-

199, “The Pedology of a South Australian Fen.”

In their present form the diagrams give qualitative expression to the variables

of the Jenny equations and provide 4 means of recognition of his soil sequences;

which are naturally segregated in different portions of the diagrams, They also

confirin the crude additive character of the soil-forming factors expressed by his

equation of partial differentials, Im addition they provide a framework or

teference grid on which can be recognised the appropriate place at which the

partial differentials of the partially dependent and interacting variables

C, Q, R, W, and P operate in determining the course vf soil development, in

relation to the independent variable T. Inspection of the diagrams shows how

a “lateral analysis” relates the various steps in soil formation to the independent

Jenny variables and how a “vertical (time) analysis’ reveals the dependent

reaction of the natural yarighles and their ultimate control of soil formation. ‘The

diagrams should provide a useful starting point in the quantitative evaluation of

the factors C, R. W. and T, which lend themselves to such treatment.

Fig. 1 is a pedogenetic diagram of the soils of the eastern portion of County

Victoria in the wheat-growing and sheep-raising country of South Australia. It

includes all of the soils mapped aver an area of about 600 square miles, shawing

how each soil series is a synthesis of the functions of the variables dealt with

above. The morphology of the soils, a soil map, a topographical map and

diagram, a rainfull map and other climatic data and details of the gealogy and

vegetation of the area were published in the soil survey bulletin mentioned pre-

viously. In addition, in this diagram the contribution of calcareous Ipess ta the

morphology of two of the soil series is shown; this following the recent work

of Crocker (1946).

In the first column on the right-hand side of the diagram is shown the

relationship of the various steps of the diagram to the Jenny variables, Recogni-

tion of his soil sequences is easy, for example the Caltowie, Canowie and Bunda-

leer series comprising a climosequence. In addition, soils whose genesis is

dominated by one or more variables cam be recognised, For example, both the

¥angya silty-loam and the Beetaloo series are formed on calcareous materials in

173

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seTqQutres Temyes Fup{owrsAU; @Ty JO SdyysuCTyS Ter Og} AOYS BTeT{UsIETITP Terjzed euz

wapant Ts Wee Tros uyzea Tres wUpBpUeLT Troe

haba a ES woes Res] BAOHA~Ped | SOTTO wurepued | peperteq | Tee TS7s

setzas aeprep gel 115 3 alt PE

Ea cetae |_| spay [~~ totoe os

eoyres

STAOR TES

Py * WerssAus gnt26 puYTpoom / ywurEaes vmaniee

ee pamiosi= cm ayuors wag eRgOA TROT enqdtteang | ByTONs TEE BywONT ter Saaenes Taare

oe (wOysvyavA

_ BOTSTTEOOT BOTATTWOOT SOTPTINIOL BOTITTEOOT BOTT VOOT BEYATTROOT MOFRFTMOOT SOFATTEIOT GOTFTWOOT STIFF TERT Tworydeszee))

Tete TY 10930K r9F 10 BUT TSS 480439K 101394 zetag TW ty twoo<e--- @1EUFT9

4uendoTeasp

---——— yuerer fre) qu808y quesey =osnonnygu09 --——- Thos JO

wee asyawraray

dé d@

serisate ues suorde eu yo Rzequeu seyaua

-——— mmypAntye Tepant {oo IuposeTeog oeteotas uek wou{weUST gnoorvateg == | ~—-= een a

de<- Teh83H

quereg

a ow fa fae fafa mt DOT I WTIMIOF PeUpTy er dooq #OLTRUB - - — - —

Bree oTtotg B2O0T ENOSIESTTD

re (3

sfOl Tea Bt} 70 sedots puy ede4 TITR

to-—+n TS puypreqen pequodeueay JO Teyzeqed Tonppweg AqderFodoL

woyqenbe Auves ays Fo

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Pepaes UVpAQ@Ep< erg

174

all localities in the area, irrespective of the change of the leaching factor under

a change of rainfall from 14 to 24 inches per annum; ée., the morphological

characters of the two soils are predominantly governed by the geological factors

relief and parent matérial, climatic variation in the region surveyed producing

no correspondingly significant variation jn profile characteristics, However, on

passing further into the adjacent lower rainfall eountry, the climatic factor

Operating on this parent material does become significant, [or at rainfall jevels

ot 12 inches per annum and less a soil devoid of the neatly black sub-surface

layer chatacteristic of the Yangya silty loam is formed, Stich 2 soil has been

described at Melton by Prescott and Skewes (1938).

Suils dominated by the climatic factor are {he Caltowie, Canowie and Bunda-

leer series, and, corresponding to approximately the same climatic variation but

on different parent material, the Pirie, Yarcowie and Belalie series. The Caltowie,

Yarcowie, Canowie, Belalie and Bundalecr series comprise the mallee, red-brown

earth and podsolic zonal sails of the region. Retention of calcareous loess in the

Caltowie and Yarcowie series, as well as being a function of climate, is also

governed by relief, and similarly both variables operate in the accumulation of

cyclic salt in the Pirie series,

There are two aspects of time as a soil-forming factor which are important.

First, as used in the body of the diagrams, lapse of time since initiation of soil

formation is a real meastiré of actual age of the soil, However, such a time

lapse does not necessarily precisely specify the maturity aspect of soil develop-

ment, since maturity can be reached at various rates. Maturity is a characteristic

of the soil itself and should be regarded ay a dependent variable comprising ore

of the S values which make up the soil ensemble. In the diagrams the soils are

classified as immature, mature, overanature and senescent, Concerning the

classification of the solonchak—the Pirie scries—the designation as immature js

in conformity with the possible development of this soil to a solonetz aml

ultimately a solod, but since it is in equilibrium with the present accession of

cyclic salt, it may equally well be considered as mature,

In the second column on the right hand side and at appropriate places in the

diagram partial differentials indicate differentiation of certain of the variables

with respect ta change of other variables. For example, the establishment of

different parent materials in the various sites where soil formation ensues is

dR @R @P @aP

shown to be dependent on the partial differentials —-- ——, —~, —— while the

oP €8C OR ac

efiect of climate and organisms (restricted to végetation in the diagram) ts

dO @S as

indicated by the differentials —, & — The functions of this latter group

oC 00 dc

of differentials fs dealt with more comprehensively following the discussion of

fig. 2.

Fig, 2 is a pedogenetic diagram of the soils of the Longford-Cressy district

which hes in the Launceston Tertiary Basin in northern Tasmania, It relates to

all the soils mapped over an area of approximately 100 square miles in a region

devoted to mixed farming. The details of the morphology of the soils, a soil

map, a cross sectional diagram showing the relationship of the soil to topa-

graphical and geological features and climatic and vegelation data were published

in the soil survey bulletin referred to above,

175

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176

_ _ As in fig. 1 the relationship of the various steps of soil formation to the

independent variables of the Jenny equation is shown. Also the function of the

partial differentials is illustrated by the upper portion of the diagram involving

dk OR OP oP aC eO dS as

,— — & — and the lower —, —, — & —

dP AC OR oT eT eC dO AC

This diagram is of particular interest because of the age of some of the soils,

i¢., time varies widely, and consequently there las been a correspondingly large

variation in the climate to which some of the soils have been subject.. Hence,

unlike fg. 1, where geographical variation in climate was of the greatest signi-

ficance, this diagram refers to a restricted area of considerable chronological

variation of that function and its corresponding effect on the development of the

older soils. Consequently some of the soils are senescent.

It is appropriate to point out at this point that since podzolisation is largely

an irreversible process, and since there is a variation of climate with passage of

time, the soil will not fully respond to the lowered leaching factor (regrade) in

drier periods. In fact, further soil development is probably only induced when

the leaching factor exceeds a value near its previous maximum. Hence the

influence af —— on soii formation is largely as a discontinuous integral function.

In fig. 1 and 2 the function of the organisms variable has been only partially

indicated, dependence of the soil, both on the vegetation and directly on the

chmate being indicated. Vig. 4 shows for one soil, the Woodstock sand, a more

comprehensive treatment of the operation af the time, climate, organism and soil

variables and indicates the dependent reaction of climate on time and of

organisms and soil on climate with an interaction between organism and soil, If

consideration of O is restricted to the vegetation, this type of diagram if applied

to each soil provides an ecogenetic treatment as well as a pedogenetic one. It is

ec 385 8@S AS aS

apparent that sou jis a function of —-, —, —— & —. —= covers the

aT dc a0 aT OT

alteration of the suil for constant yalues of C and O, that is, maturation

under a steady environment. Vegetation on the other hand is a function of

8c 380 @O0 a0

—, oo, SO SO the last term including the effects of evolution, i.e, in this

aT 38C as oT

case the development and extinction of species in the area since Pliocene times

where such génesis has been independent of the environment.

The Evcalyptus saficifolia woodland associated with the Woodstock sand is

do a0

an edapho-climatic ¢Hmax; hence —_ & — have played co-deminant roles

ac as

he)

in its fornintion. In the case of a climatic complex. —— plays the more prominent

part and the same vegetation association may extend over a number of soil types;

: ; gO

for an edaphic climax —— is the more significant function,

177

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178

The third figure is a pedogenetic diagram of the soils of Eight Mile Creek

Swamp, a coastal fen formation in the lower south-east of South Australia. The

diagram relates to the four named soil types found on the fen proper, which

covers an area of about 3,500 acres. The details of the morphology of these

soils, a soil map, a cross-sectional diagram of the fen showing the relationships

of the soils to yery small changes in relief, and climatic and geological data are

ineltided in the publication referred to above. In addition, the ecological relation-

ships are described in the text and figure of a paper on the vegetation of the fen

by C, M. Eardley (1943), who considers the age of this peat formation to be less

than 5,500 years. The simplicity of this diagram distinguishes it fram the other

two to a marked degree. This simplicity is due to the dependent sequence of

events following the establishment of the topographical factor. This determines

the position of the water-table, which in turn is the selecting factor operating

on the climatically and geographically available species and thus deterntines the

plants growing on afy location. The plants, in turn, determine the nature of

the parent materials which, all being of about the same age, give rise respec-

tively to the four soil types.. The establishment of the relief factor is a simple

process as compared to the geomorphological processes inyolved in the establish-

ment of the parent material and relief factors in the two former diagrams,

As seen on the diagram, it is possible to indicate the relevance of the Jenny

variables, but quite obviously the variables involved are not independent but

rather dependent on a fore-runner variable modified in one case by the effect of

the local climate in determining the total number and type of species available

to colonise the area. The dependence of the variables is shown clearly by the

sequence of partial differentials.

This diagram indicates that the same four soils comprise simultaneously a

hydrosequence, a biosequence and a lithoseqience.

Considering along general lines the above diagrams and temporarily retaining

both a dependent and independent status for T at well as for C, O. R, W & P,

we imay derive from

S=f(C,0,R,W,P,T)

the following equations. of partial differentials.

. Where T is independent and C, O, R, W and P are functions of T and of some

other set of independent variables

DS 0S <dC aS 30 aS oR as aw aS GP as

—_— FO eee eee ea ee eee OS To

—s TT

eT oC aT @O0 AT dR OT oW oT oP oT oT

Similarly when P is independent and C, O, R, W and T are functions of P

and of the other set of independent variables

DS aS aC gS a0 aS dR aSaW aS OS aT

4 a ft te

dR oF @W OP oP 3T OP

aP ac ae 80 ap

k7¢

Similarly for W, R, O and C in turn

DS @S ec 6S 80 OS dR OS AS OP ; oS aT

a ef ef ee

ow sCaw scoOow aRaw aw aP dW aT aw

DS dS oC as00 385 aS aw. aS oP 8S OT

tH eS + —

eR AC AR BOAR AR SW aR OP OR. at AR

DS as oC os aS AR aSdaW OS aP oS oT

— “

—+—— oa Hes

ac 80. 80 aR dO BWaO oP a0 oT dO

DS_@5 85 80 aS AR ASaW 9S aP_ as aT

oc ac eO8C BRAC AW dC AP BC AT BC

These comprise a set of simultaneous equations which mathematically define

the sail, Allawance must be made for T being independent so that on causal

OT AT OT OT OT

grounds —-, —, —,——, —— and 1 niay be reduced to a constant — say Ky.

ec dO dR SW GP

ac dC aR

For similar reasons —~, — -and 1 may be represented by Ky and ——- & — and 1

ew dO

by Ks. The soil, specified by the very complex integral of the abave equations, can

be most simply represented by the sum:

DS DS DS DS DS DS

sr te tt tH HS

ec 60 AR AW OP aT

a | AS {a0 a0 a0 a0 |

= K, + —-]+ — {[—+14—+— + + —

oc Bk aT/ 80 \dac oR aw oP oT

=e dR OR os /aw aW aw ow aw

raat + Ky fo [feee —— 4 Sto)

ae " 3P oT aw \ac a0 AR eP oT

os ee OF oP aP oP es

— + —+—+14+—j]4+—(K,

+ Se aR aw aT aT (

oS AS

This expression includes partial differentials such as ——-, —— etc. corres-

ponding to the effects of the independent variables of the Jenny equations. The

other terms express the dependent relationships between the variables involved in

soil formation.

The above equations and diagrams shaw the involved manner in which the

soil-forming factors integrate with one another in the pedogenic process. Although

the diagrams refer to more or less restricted localities, it is obvious that some

measure of similar mterpretation applies 10 the broader classification of soils such

as the soil groups, and points to the fact that it is futile to attempt too simple a

186

genetic classification of the morphologically defined great soil groups. Sufficient

exploration has now been made to leave no doubt that on a morphological basis

there is a limited number (probably less than filty) of great soil groups. The

relationship of these groups to their genetic factors is, however, not simple.

Although climate docs play a dominant réle in the genesis of certain of the

soil groups, it has been established that the groups do not lie in exactly similar

climatic zones and the boundaries of adjacent groups interdigitate to a consider-

able degree in the different continents. In this regard the senescent and fossil

character of some soils is important; as an extreme example the lateritic podsol

soils of southern Australia extend into arid regions and, besides illustrating the

above point, are a good indication of the largely irreversible character of the soil-

forming process, only the slightest detectable reversal of lateritic podsol genesis

being associated with the drier periods of the climatic cycle, It seems, theretore,

that, if it is essential to have a genetic classification of soils correlated with the

morphological aue, the arrangement will necd to be on a multidimensional basis.

Such a tabulation is not readily constructed.

Pliccsas

39 Varied greatl 3

aT Sree. ae

Dependent

Troaction

eo. 28

ac oc

ee ee a

2s. 39

a0 a3

Woodstock sand

Senescent

Tusalyptus ealicifolta

Woodlsnt

Bdaphe—-Climatic Climax

Lataritic podsol

—————eee

Interaction

Fige 42 DETAILS OF Ta OPERATION OF THE TIME, CLIMATZ, ORGANTSH

AND SGIL VARIABLES IN THE PEDCGENHTIC DIAcRAaN

OF THE WOODSTOCK SAND.

131

Another consequence of the lack of appreciation of the number of variables

involved in the genesis of even the great soil vroups has been the repeated

attempts to seek near periect correlation between large scale climatic and soil

maps. Similar correlations are saught between climatic and yegetation maps.

On maps of a continental scale, the mapping of sofi and vegetation bouridaries

is of necessily based to some cansiderable degree on imperfect correlations of

these features with climate, topography and parent matertal. Snbsequent strdies

of climate frequently point to correlations of certain lines between climatic

categories with boundaries of soils and vegetation in fallacious interpretation of

the degree of importance of the climatic iactor. It is obvious that until conti-

nental soil maps can be prepared almost entireiy on a morphological hasis the

effect of the climatic factor canmot be fully assessed. Vor that reason the study

of smaller areas with precise soil mapping, and in which there is a significant

geographical and/or chronological variation of climate, is of the greatest

importance,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of, discussions with

Dr. W. H. Bryan, Department of Geology, University of Queensland; Professor

J. G, Wood, Botany Department, University of Adelaide; Mr. E. A. Cornish,

Section of Mathematical Statistics, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research;

Mr. W. H. Maze, Geography Department, University of Sydney; and Mr. R, L.

Cracker of the Waite Agricultural Rescarch Institute, Aclelaide.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crocker, R. L. 1946 “Post Miocene Climatic and Geologic History and its

Significance in Relation to the Genesis of the Major Soil Types of South

Australia.” Counce. Sci. Ind, Res. (Aust.), Bulletin No, 193

HaArpiey, C. M. 1943 “An Ecological Study of the Vegetation of Eight Mile

Creck Swamp, a Natural South Australian Coastal Fen Formation.”

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 67, (2), 200-223

Jenny, H, 1941 “Factors of Soil Formation,” McGraw Hill Book Co.

Jenxy, H. 1946 “Arrangement of Soil Seties and Types according to Fune-

tions of Soil-forming Factors, Soil Science, 61, (5), 375-391

Neustauev, 5. S. 1927 “Genesis of Soils," Academy of Sciences of the

U.S.S.R. Russian Pedological Investigations, IT]. Leningrad

Ororzxy, P. 1946 Personalia. Professor Dr. Basile Dokautchacv (1846-1903).

Official Communications of the International Society of Soil Science,

33-38

Prescott, J. si. and Skewes, H. R. 1938 “An Examination of some Soils

from the mote Arid Regions of Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,

62, 320-M1

Sterrens, C. G., Bacpwin, J. G., and Hosxinc, J. S. 1942 “The Soils of the

Parishes of Longford, Cressy and Lawrence, County Westmorland,

Tasmania, Counc, Sci, Ind. Res. (Aust.); Bulletin No. 150

SterHens, C. G. 1943 “The Pedology of a South Australian Fen.’ Trans,

Roy. Soc, S, Atst,, 67, (2), 191-199

StrepHens, C. G., et al. 1945 “A Soil, Land-tse, and Erosion Survey of Part

ef County Victoria, South Australia. Counce. Sci, Ind. Res. (Aust.),

Bulletin No. 188

Wing, §. A, 1946 ‘Forest Soils and Forest Growth.” Chronica Botanica Co.

ON THE WEIGHTS OF SOME AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS

By H. H. FINLAYSON

Summary

At the suggestion of Professor J. B. Cleland, whose researches into the alimentation of aboriginal

man in this country have now entered upon a gravimetric phase, I herewith record the weight of

some eighty-eight species and sub-species of mammals of Australian occurrence.

182

ON THE WEIGHTS OF SOME AUSTRALIAN MAMMALS

By H. I. Frxraysan

[Read 8 May 1947]

At the suggestion of Professor J. B. Cleland, whose researches into the

alimentation of aboriginal man in this country have now entered upon a gravi-

metric phase, I herewith record the weight of some eighty-eight species and sub-

species of maininals ot Australian occtirrence,

The published data on this head is scanty and of doubttul value. Tt has been

chicfly derived from the statements of bushmen and other rural observers, whose

approach to the smatter is sometimes tinged by that frivolity which, in the

ichthyological field, has become proverbial, Iiven when the intention is of the

best, the weights so derived are usually af the “estimated” variety, and though

supposed ability in the difficult feat of estimating weights is olten a matter of

pride, some gross errors have been introduced in this way.

All wetghts quoted in the sequel have been personally determined by the

writer in the field with the balance, upon recently Iilled animals, and are recorded

in grammes and kilos.4?

It i not proposed here to discuss fully the scientific value of body weight as

a character in the descriptive treatment of mammals, except to remark that tts

value aid appropriateness in a general account of an animal ts so great as to lift it

almost to the rank of a descriptive necessity. No other quantitative datum conveys

so easily an impression of general bulk, and in conjtinction with linear dimensions

its graphic value in illustrating differences of body build in different species, or

of sexnal dimorphism in the same species, is very great.

On the other hand, its almost universal neglect by taxonomists is not with-

out sound reason, owing, in the first place, ta the great difficulty of adequately

correlating body weight with growth phase without a much more intimate

acquaintance of the animal in life than falls to most systematic writers. In many

marsupials also, concordant criteria of maturny as derived from epiphysial

condition in the skeleton, cranial sutures, and dental phase, do not

correspond with the maximum values for either linear dimensions or body

weight, and the latter may cither markedly increase or diminish after skeletal or

dental maturity is attained. A second difficulty arises from the massive error

introduced into the observed weight by unascertained variations in the weight of

the sternach contents, particularly in large herbivores; and a third, from the

influence of climatic, seasonal and general ecological [actors, which cannot be

brought under statistical control as geographic or other racial variation.

In the list which follows, species have been treated on as wide a geo-

graphical basis as the field data allowed, but the use of trinomials has been

limited for the most part to eases where the differentiation ts marked,

ar at least has been fully defined. Several growih stages have been included,

wherever possible, and the terms immature, subaduit, adult, and aged, which

(0 To the main body of the data I haye subsequently added approximate values for

a few specics of excéptiorial interest, where weights of [reshiy killed animals were hot

available, “These values were obtained by weighing preserved matetial of known history

and correcting the result with a modulus of dehydration, extracted from the loss of weiglit

undergone by Similar specmiens weighed fresh in the field and submitted to the same

process of preservation [or the same length of time. These citations are differentiated as

"approx."

Vrenz. Roy. Soe. 5, Aust., 71, (2). 1 Decetnper 1947

183

ate apperided to each citation, are chosen after a consideration of the criteria

named above and are subject to the limitations there noted, In most cases these

terms have been furiher amplified by the addition of the head and body length

in millimetres. The maximum weight found in the field for the adult of each

species has always been included in the citation, but this does not necessarily

mean that much higher weights may not be reached.

Finally, it is desired to emphasise that though each individual observation

is accurate, the hody of data which is collectively represented by them is of an

interim and tentative character only, and is here assembled to meet a general

or popular want, rather than a systematic one, In its present form it ig quite

inadequate for (as an example) the resolution of problems of specific, still less

of subspecific, identity.

Fuller data will be provided in monographic treatment of many of the

species here mentioned, and some already so dealt with may be traced in. the

list of references.

MONOTREMATA

Ornithorhynchas anatinus Shaw

(a) Olangolah Creek, Otway Peninsula, Victoria; umm. ¢ ; H. and B. 311 mm-;

wet. 900 ¢.

(b) serarene River, East Tasmania; subad. 9; H. and B, 382 mm.; wt.

1°36 keg,

Echidna aculeata Shaw

(a) Yavan Creek, Tumut district, New South Wales; @ ; H, and B. 470 mm. ;

wt. 2°72 ke.

(b) Olangolah Creek, Otway Peninsula, Victoria; imm. @ 5 LI. and B. 406 mm.;

wt. 1°82 kg.

(d) Flinders Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania; 9 5 H. and B. 450 mm.; wt,

3°64 ke.

(e) Arthur River, West Tasmania; ¢ ; H. and b. 500 mm.; wt. 4°32 kg,

(4) Macquarie River, East Tasmania; ¢ ; H. and B. 485 mm.; wt. 3:19 kg.

(g) James Range, Central Australia; ¢ ; H. and B. 468 mm.; wt. 2°50 kg.

(h) Kooringa, Mid-north South Australia; wt. 2°61 kg.

MARSUPIALIA

DASYURIDAE

Sminthopsis crassicaudata crassicaudata Gould

(a) Moutajup, Grampian Range area, West Victoria; ad. 9; H. and B.

82 mim.; wt. 11 g.

(b) Murray Mallee, South Australia; ad. & ; H. and B. 84 mm.; wt, 15 g.

Sminthopsis crassicaudata centralis Thomas (1)

(2) West of Appamurma, Lower Diamantina River, South Australia; ad. 2 ;

H. and B. 83 mm,; wt, 10 g.

Snunthopsis leucopus Gray

(a) Fleathmere, West Victoria; ad. ¢ ; H, and B. 98 mmm.; wt. 32 g.

184

Anlechinomys spencert Thomas

(a) East of Erliwunyawunya, Musgrave Range, North-West South Australia;

imnm, @ ; H. and B. 85 mm.; wt, 14 g.

Chaetocercus cristicduda Kre{it

(a) Chundrinna, Everard Range, North-West South Australia; subad. 9 ;

TH. and B. 133 mm,; wt. 68 ¢g.

(b) Ibid.; ad. ¢; H. and B. 160 mm.; wt. 122 ¢

subad. 9; H. and B. 130 mm.; wt. 60 g.

Chaetocercus cristicauda hilliert Thomas (2)

(a) Cooncheri, Lower Diamantina River, South Australia; ad. 3; H. and B.

190 mm.; wt. 175 ¢g

Phascagale flavipes Waterhouse

(a) Wantpinge, Fleurieu Peninsula, South Australia; ad. @; H. and B.

112 mm.; wt. 49 g.

(b) Ibid,; ad. 9 ; H. “anid B. 104 mm,; wt. 24 g.

93 mm.; wt. 23:5 g.

Dasyurus vivverinus Shaw

(a) Cradle Valley, North-west Tasmania; subad. 9; II. and B. 298 mim.;

wt. 690 g,

(b) North Macqttarie River, East Tasmania; ad. @ ; H. and B. 350 mm.; wt.

1°37 keg.

wi, 1°37 kg.

Dasyurus geoffroyi Gould

(a) Chundrinna, Everard Range, North-West South Australia; ad. @ ; Il. and

B, 290 mm.; wt. 550 g.

Dasyurus meculatus Kerr

(a) Welcome River, North-west Tasmania; imm, @; H. and B, 425 mm.;

wt. 1-60 kg,

(b) Ibid.; ad. ¢ ; H. and B. 564 mm.; wt. 2-04 kg.

wt. 2°96 kg.

Sarcophilus harrissi Boitard

(a) are River, North-west Tasmania; imm. 9; H. and B. 442 min, ;

2°50 kg

(b) Arthur River, West Tasmania; imm. ¢ ; H. and B. 415 mm.; wt. 3°23 kg.

(d) Jbid., ad, ¢ ; H. and B. 615 mm.; 8°67 kg.

Myrmecobius fasciatus fasciatus W. aterhenke

(a) Narrogin, South-west district Western Australia; ad. @; H. and B.

242 mm.; wt. 293 g. (approx,),

Myrmecobius fascidthes rufus Wood Jones (3)

(a) Oolarinna, Everard Range, South Australia; ad, ? ; H. and B, 262 mm.;

wt. 347 g. (approx.).

185

PERAMELIDAE

Perameles quant Gray

(a) Ross, East Tasmania; subad, 9 ; H. and B. 299 mm.; wt, 450 2.

(b) Dunkeld, West Victoria; ad. 2 ; H. and B. 313 1mm.; wt. 550 g.

Isoodon auratus Ramsay

Pundi, 70 miles west of Everard Range, North-west South Australia; suhad.

@ . H. and B, 235 mm.; wt. 260 ¢.

Tsoodon obesulus Shaw

(a) West Sister Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania; ad. ¢; H. and B. 338 mm.;

wt. 1°36 kg.

(b) Blue Tit, Rothwell district, Tasmania; ad. @; H. and B. 357 mm.;

wt. 1°36 kg.

Thalacouy's lagotis Reid

(a) Kings Creek, George Gill Range, Central Austratia; ad. 9; H. and B.

335 mm.; wt 1°37 kg.

(b) Eewellina, Musgrave Runge, North-west South Australia; ad. é 3 ID. and

B. 428 mm.; wt. 1°70 kg.

Thalacowys lagotis sagitta Thomas (4)

(a) Goyder’s Lagoon, Lower Diamantina River, South Australia; aged @ ;

H. and B. 385 mm.; wt. 1°56 kg.

(b) fbid.; ad. 9.; H. and B, 291 mm.; wt. 660 g.

Thalacomys minor miselius Vintayson (5) (6)

(a) Cooncheri, Lower Diamantina iver, South Australia; ad. @ 3; H. and

B, 241 mm.; wt. 435 ¢g.

(b) Jlid.; ad. 9; IL. and B. 247 mm.; wt. 312 ¢,

Chocropus castanotis Gray

(a) Macdonnell Range, Central Australia; inmn, @; H. and B. 165 mm.;

wt. 153 g. (approx.),

Notoryctes typhlops Stirling

(a) Qoldea district, South Australia; ad. 9 ; FI. and KB. 114 mm.; wt. 66 g.

(approx. ),

(b) Liddle’s Hiils, Basedow Range area, Central Australia; H. and B, 120 rm.;

wt. 71 g. (approx.).

Notoryetes typhlops caurtiuss Thomas

Sturt Creek, Kimberley Division, Western Australia; imm. ¢; H. and B.

94 mm.; wt. 47 g. (approx.)-

PHALANGERIDAE

lcrobales pygmaeus Shaw (7)

(a) Coomooboolaroo, Dawson Valley, Queensland; ad. 4; H. and B. 75 rom.;

wt. 14g. (approx.).

(b) Fitzroy River, Rockhampton district, Queensland; ad. 9; H. and RB.

73 mm.; wt. 12 g. (approx.).

186

Dromicia concinna Gould

(a) Ifeathmere, West Victoria; ad. 9 ; FI. and B. 91 mm.; wt. 21-5 g.

(b) Meningie, Lake Alexandrina, South Australia; ad. @ ; H. and B. 81 mm.;

wt. 19 ge.

77 mm.; wt, 16g.

Petaurus breviceps Waterhouse (8)

(a) Penola, South-East district, South Australia; ad. @ ; H. and B. 163 mm.;

wt. 130 g,

(b) Ibid.; aged 2; wt. 90 g.

Trichosurus vulpecula Kerr

(a) Cradle Valley, North-west Tasmania; ad. 2 (grey phase); H. and B.

495 mm.; wt. 4°10 kg.

(b) Ibid.; imm. & (grey phase) ; H..and B. 400 m.; wt. 1-81 kg,

(d) Heathmere, West Victoria; subad. @ ; H. and B. 362 mm.; wt, 1°75 kg.

(©) Pecaree, South-East district of South Australia; ad. 8; H. and B.

440 mm; wt. 3°07 kg,

({) A garden, Adelaide, South Australia; subad. @; H. and B. 405 mm.;

wt. 1°75 kg.

(g) Palana, Flinders Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania; ad. @ ; H. and B. 502 mm. ;

wt. 4:09 kg.

(h) Choorlabinna, Musgrave Range, North-west South Australia; ad. é@;

H. and B. 390 mm.; wt. 1°37 kg.

(i) Eewellina, Musgrave Range, North-west South Australia; ad. @ ; H. and

B, 372 mm.; wt. 1-48 kg.

(j) Wollara, Basedow Range area, Central Australia; subad. 6 ; H. and B.

313 mm. wt. 910 ¢.

(k) Thangool, Callide Valley, Queensland; subad. ¢ ; H. and B. 410 mm,; wt.

1°36 kg. (9).

Trichosurus caninus Ogilby

(a) Upper Ryan’s Creek, North-east Victoria; ad. 9 ; H. and B. 508 mm,;

wt. 2°73 ke,

(b) Jbid.; subad. & ; H. and B. 476 mm; wt. 2°16 kg.

Petauroides volans volans Kerr (10)

(a) Green Ilills Forest, Batlow district, New South Wales; ad. ? ; H. and B.

440 mm,; wt. 1-36 kg.

(b) Jbid.; subad. 2; IL. and B. 415 mm.; wt. 1-02 kg.

Pseudochirus laniginosus Gould

(a) Hatherleigh, South-East district, South Australia; ad. ¢; H. and B.

305 mm. ; wt. 800 2.

(b) Jbid.; ad. @ ; Ho and B. 318 mm.; wt..800 g.

161 mm.; wt. 140 g.

(d) A garden, Adelaide, South Australia; subad. ¢ ; H. and B, 270 mm.;

wt, g,

187

(ce) Williamstown, North Mount Lofty Range, South Austratia; ad. g ; H. and

B. 300 mm. ; wt. 700 pg.

(f) Penrice, Lower North district, South Australia; ad. 9; H. and B,

310 mm.; wt. 700 g,

Pseudochirus cooki Desmarest

(a) Blue Hills, Bothwell, Tasmania; ad. ? ; IJ. and B. 357 mm.; wt. 1°36 ke.

(b) Macquarie River, Fast Tasmania; imm. 2 ; H. and B. 290 mm.; wt. 570 g.

Phascolarctos cinereus adustus Thomas (11)

(a) Karithoe Creek, Callide Valley, Queens!and; aged § ; H, and B, 665 mum. ;

wt. 6°36 kg.

(b) Coomooboolaroo, Dawson Valley, Queensland; aged 9; H. and B.

635 mm.; wt. 5°45 kg.

Phascolarctos cinereus victor Troughton (12)

(a) French Island, Westernport Bay, Victoria; ad. ¢ ; H. and B. 830 mm. ;

wt. 14:09 ke.

(b) /bid.; ad. @ 3 1L and B. 730 mm.; wt. 8°82 kg,

Tarsipes rostratus Gervais and Verreatix

(a) South-west Western Australia; ad. @; HH. and B

(approx.).

(b) Ibid; ad, 9 ; IL. and B. 81 mm-_; wt. 17 g. (approx.).

. 78 mm.; wt 13 ¢.

MACROPODIDAE

Hypsiprymnodon moschatus Ramsay

(a) Gorge Range, Ingham district, North Queensland; ad. 6; Hl. and B.

325 mm.; wt. 500 ¢. (approx.).

Potorous tridactylus Kerr

(a) Upper Macquarie River, East Tasmania; ad. 4; H. and B. 385 mm.;

wt, 1°81 ke.

(b) Blue Hills, Bothwell, Tasmania; ad, 9, H. and B, 350 mm.; wt. 1°36 kg.

(d) Gorae, West Victoria; imm, ¢ ; H. and B. 303 mm.; wt. 690 ¢g,

(e) Jbid.;imm, @, H. and B. 336 mm.; wt. 950 g, (13).

Culoprymnus cantpestris Gould (14) (15)

(a) Cooncheri, Lower Diamantina River, South Australia; ad. 9 ; H. and B.

277 mm.; wt. 1°06 ke.

(b) fbid.; subad. @ ; H. and B. 282 mm, wt. 850 ¢

Bettongia lesuenri Quoy and Gaimard

(a) Yaringa, south-west of George Gill Range, Central Australia; subad. 9? ;

TH. and B. 285 mm.; wt. 910 g.

(b) Desolation Glen, Rawlinson Range, Western Australia; subad. 9 ; H. and

B. 245 mm.: wt. 770 g.

©) The weight formerly quoted (850 g.) was a typographical error,

188

Bettongia cuniculus Ogilby

(a) Macquarie River, East Tasmania; ad. é ; H. and B. 325 mm.; wt. 1°59 kg.

Aepypryninus rufescens Gray (16)

(a) Thangool, Callide Valley, Queensiand; ad. ¢; H, and B, 383 mim. 3

wr. 2°30 kg.

(b) Ibid.; subad. 2 ; H. and B. 387 mm.; wt. 3°19 ke.

Lagorchestes hirsutus Gould

(a) South of Koonapandi, Musgrave Range area, North-west South Anstralia;

ad. 9 ; H. and B. 338 mm.: wt. 1-70 kg.

(b) Jbid.; subad. ¢ ; H, and B. 325 mm.; wt. 1-59 ke.

H. and B. 200 mm.; wt. 275 g,

Lagarchestes conspicillatus Gould

(a) Mareeni Plain, north of James Range, Central Australia; ad. @ ; 1H. and B.

400 mm. + wt, 3-00 kg.

(b) /bid.; suhad. @ ; H. and B. 400 mm.; wt. 3-00 kg,

Petrogule penicilata herberti Thomas (17)

(a) Spring Creck, Taroom district, Queensland; ad. ¢; H. and B, 535 mm.;

wt. 5°90 kg,

(b) Jbid.; subad. 9 ; H. and B. $15 mm.; wt. 5:00 kg,

Petrogale vanthopus Gray

(a) Oraparinna, Flinders Range, South Australia: ad. @ ; H. and B. 570 mn. ;

wt. 7°50 kg.

(b) Ibid.; subad. ¢ ; H. and B. 550 mm.; wl. 6°36 ke.

490 mm.; wt. 6°13 kg.

Petrogale lateralis Gould (18)

(a) Ertiwunyawunya, Musgrave Range, North-west South Australia; ad. a:

H. and B. 498 mm. ; 5:00 kg.

(b) King’s Creek, George Gill Range, Central Australia; subad, 3 IJ, and B.

425 mmi.; wt. 3°63 kg.

465 mim.; wi. 3°50 ke.

Macropus (Thylagale) eugenii Desmarest

(a) Rocky River, Kangaroo Isiand, South Australia; imm. ¢@; H, and B,

475 mm.; wt. 4°09 kg,

(b) Jbid., subad. ¢ ; H. and B, 495 mm.; wt. 5-00 ke,

Macropus (Thylogale) flindersi Wood-Jones

(a) Flinders Island, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia: ad, é; IL and B.

545 mm.; wt. 6°13 kg.

(b) Jbid.; ad. ¢ ; H, and B. 462 mm.; wt. 5-00 ke.

Macropus (Thylogale) billardicri Desmarest

(a) West Sister Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania; ad. @ ; H. and B. 623 mn), ;

wt, 9:09 kg.

189

(b) Flinders Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania; ad. 9 IL. and B. 570 mm.;

wt. 7°50 kg.

wt. 6°36 keg.

(d) Macquarie River, East Tasmania; subad. 9; H, and TL 442 mm.;

wt. 3°18 kg.

wt. 2°72 kg.

(f) Macquarie River, Last Tasmania; imm. @; H. and B. 349° mm. ;

wt, 1°36 ke.

Macropus (wallabia) ruficollis ruficollis Desmarest (19)

(a) Yavan Creek, Tumut district, New South Wales; imm. ¢ ; H and B,

627 mm.; wt. 8°18 keg.

(b) Heathmere, West Victoria; ad, 4 ; IL. and B. 785 mm.; wt. 24-09 keg.

wt. 13°63 ke.

(d) Black Range, South-East district, South Australia; ad. ¢; H. and B.

703 mm. wt. 16°8L kg.

(e) Furner, South-East district, South Australia; ad. & ; H. and B. 662 mm. ;

wt. 1409 keg,

Macropus (wallabia) ruficollis bennetti Waterhouse

(a) Macquarie River, East Tasmania; imm, 9; H, and B. 545, mm, ;

wt. 5°90 kg.

(b) Welcome River, North-west Tasmania; imm. @; H, and B. 620 mm.:

wt, 9°09 ke,

613 mm.; wt. 10°67 kg.

(d) Tbid.; ad. 9; H, and B. 655 mm; wt, 14°09 ke.

(ec) Stanley Point, Flinders Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania; ad. 6 ; H. and B.

770 mm.; wt. 24°54 keg.

(f) Arthur River, West Tasmania; ad. é ; H. and B. 740 mm.; wi, 22°72 kg.

Macropus (wallabia) ualabatus ualabaius Lesson and Garnot

(a) Blunt’s Gully; Ryan’s Creek, North-east Victoria; aged ¢; H. and B.

800 min.; wt. 18°18 kg.

(b) Hillas Brook, Tumut district, New South Wales; ad. 2; H. and B.

760 mm.; wt. 14°79 kg.

Muacropus (wallabia) agilis Gauld (20)

(a) Serpentine Creek, Rockhampton district, Queensland ; subad. ¢ ; H.and B.

725 mm, wh, 17°73 kg.

(b) Ibid.; subad. 9 ; H. and B. 643 mm,; wt. 12°27 kg.

Macropus (wallabia) dorsalis Gray (21)

(a) Mount Lookerbie, Dawson Valley, Queensland; imm. @ ; H. and BE.

450 mm.; wt, 3°18 kg.

(b) /bid.;imm. ¢ ; H, and B. 540 mm.; wt, 5°45 ke.

(d) Spring Creek, Upper Dawson Valley, Queensland; ad. g 720 mm,;

wt. 15°90 kg.

190

Macropus (wallabia) grevi Gray (22)

(a) Clay Wells, South-East District, South Australia; aged 9 (emaciated);

H. and B, 648 mm.; wt. 5-97 kg.

Macropus (wallabia) parryi Bennett (23)

(a) Drumburle, Greyillea Plateau, Queensland; ad. ¢; H. and B, 805 mm. 3

22°72 ke.

(b) Jbid.; ad. 9 ; H. and B. 790 mma.; 15-45 kg.

(d) Jbid.simm, g (large pouch young); H. and B. 405 nm.,; 1°82 kg.

Macropus giganteus giganteus Zimmermann (24)

(a) Coomooboolaroo, Dawson Valley, Oucensland; aged ¢; H. and B.

1,110 mim.; wt. 50°09 ke.

Drumburle, Grevillea Plateau, Queens!and: subad. 9 ; H. and B, 835 mm.;

wt. 22°70 keg,

950 inm,; wt. 30-90 ke.

(d) Gorae, West Victoria; imm. 9 ; IT. and B. 724 mm.; wt. 10°68 ke.

(e) Jimmy’s Creek, Grampian Range, Victoria; subad. ¢ ; H. and T}. 900 nim.

wt. 23°23 kg.

Macropus giganteus melanops Gould

(a) Padthaway, South-East district, South Australia: imm. ¢; H, and B.

576 mm.; wt. 5°45 ky.

(b) Lake Wangary, Eyre Peninsula, South Australia; imm. ¢; Ul. and B.

850 mm.; wt. 20°90 ke.

870 min. ; wt. 25-90 ke.

(d) Point Turton, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia; ad. @: H. and B.

1,055 tum, ; wt, 46°82 kg.

Macropus gigantens fuliginesus Desmarest

(a) Rocky River, Kangaroo Island, South Australia; ad. é; H, and R.

1,247 mm. ; wl. 62°27 keg.

(b) Zbid.; ad, 9 ; TT. and B, 845 mm.; wt. 25-22 kg.

Macropus giganteus tasmanicnsis Le Souef

(a) Mount Morrison, Ross district, Tasmania; inmm. ¢ ; H. and B, 775 num. §

wt. 18-18 ke.

(b) Quoin, Ross district, Tasmania; ad. 9 ; H. and B. 835 nim. ; wt, 22-74 ke.

wt. 43°18 kg.

Macropus rufus Desmarest (25)

(a) Old Booleoomatta, North-east of South Australia: aged 8; H. and B.

1,397 mm.; wt. 77-27 kg.

(b) Teherricoonunyi, Lower Diamantina River (23), South Australia; ad. @ ;

H. and B. 970 mm.; wt. 33:18 ke.

880 mm.; wt. 20°04 kg.

(d) Wollara, Basedow Range arca, Central Australia; imm. 9 ; H. and B,

580 mm.; wt. 7°72 ke.

(b,

—

ioy

Macropus robustus robustus Gould (26)

(a) Coomooboolaroo, Dawson Valley, Queensland; imm. 9 ; H. and B.

570 mm.; wt. 6°81 kg.

Macropus rebustus eribescens Sclater

(a) Mount Norwest, Willouran Hills, South Australia; ad, @; Ti. and B.

1,020 min.; wt. 50°00 kg. (27).

(b) Ibid.; ad. 9 ; H. and B. 800 mm.; wt. 22°72 ke.

(d) Oraparinna, Flinders Range, South Australia; subad. ¢; H. and B.

970 mm.; wt. 37°73 ke.

Macropus robustus woodwardi Thomas

(a) Deception Creek, James Range, Central Australia; ad, @; H. and PR.

890 min, ; 40°22 kg.

(b) Ernabella, Musgrave Range, South Australia; imm. 63 Il. and B.

748 min.; wt. 20°00 kg.

(d) Oparinna, Musgrave Range, South Australia; imm, ¢ (pouch young) ;

H. and B. 355 mm.; wt. 909 g.

PHASCOLOMYIDAE

Phascolonws atitchelli Owen

(a) Hillas Brook, Tumut district, New South Wales; aged @; H. and B.

960 nim.; wt. 23-18 kg,

(b) Peearee, South-East district, South Australia; subad. ¢; H. and B.

_ 800 min.; wt. 19°54 ke,

Phascolomys ursinus Shaw

(a) Falana, Flinders Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania; ad @ ; HT. and B. 830 mm.;

wt. 21°36 keg.

(b) Jbid.; ad. @ ; H. and B. 807 mm.; wt. 16°59 kg.

Phascolomys tasmaniensis Spencer and Kershaw

(a) Cradle Valley, North-west Tasmania ; ad. @; H, and B. 935 mm.;

wt. 27:22 ke.

(b) Ibid.; ad. @ ; H. and B. 875 nm.; wt. 22-72 kg.

wt. 20°90 kg.

(d) Meadsfield, Bothwell, Tasmania; imm, ¢ ; IL. and B. 695 mm. ; wt. 9°77 kg.

Lasiorhinus latifrons Owen.

(2) Portee, River Murray, South Anstralia; ad. @: H. and B. 991 mm.;

wt. 25-45 ky.

(b) Ibid.; ad. 9 ; H, and B, 1,020 mm.; wt. 27-27 ke.

MONODELPHIA

Pteropus scapitlatus Peters

(a) Coomonboolaroo, Dawson Valley, Queensland ; ad, @ ; H-and LB. 230 mm.;

wt. 280 g. ca. (28).

192

(b) Cape Kersaint, Kangaroo Island, South Australia; ad, 4 ; IL. and B.

190 mm. ; 270 g,

Arctocephalus cinereus Peron

(a) Outer Waldegrave Island, Eyre Peninstla, South Australia ; imm. 23

II. and B. 1,000 mm.; wt. 21°36 kg.

Canis familiaris dingo Blumenbach

(a) Oparinna, Musgrave Range, South Australia; ad. ¢ ; 7. and 8, 870 mm.;

14:09 keg.

(b) Ooleebinna, Musgrave Range, South Australia; ad. g ; cranial length

211 mm.; wt. 16°36 kg.

Vulpes vulpes Linne

(a) Oraparinna, Flinders Range, South Australia: ad, ¢ ; Ho and LB. 550 mm.;

wt. 6°16 kg.

(b) Dashwaad’s Gully, Mount Lofty Range, South Australia; aged ¢;H. and

B 700 mm.; wt. 5.68 kg,

Cervus (Dama) dama Linne

(a) Little Tier, North Macquarie River, Tasmania: imm, 9 (feral) ; H. and

B. 1,000 mm.; wt. 19-09 kg.

Oryctolagus cuniculus Linne

(a) Moutajup, Grampian Range area, West Victoria; ad. 3; H. and B.

495 mm.; wt. 1°75 kg,

(b) Dashwood’s Gully, Mount Lofty Range, South Australia; ad. ¢ ; H. and

B, 465 mm.; wt. 2°16 kg.

400 mm. ; wt. 680 ¢.

(d) Chimdrinna, Everard Range, South Australia jai, 4; H. and B. 425 mm.;

wt, 2°04 ke.

(e) Spilsby Island, Spencer’s Gulf, South Australia; ad. éi H. and B.

485 mim.; wt. 1°70 kg.

Lepus europaeus Linne

(a) Julia Range, Lower North district, South Australia; ad, 9; H. and B.

590 mm.; wt. 3°07 ke. ;

(b) Point Turton, Yorke Peninsula, South Australia; ad. @:; H. and B.

615 mim.; wt. 3-18 ke.

Ratius villosissimus villosissimus (Waite) (29)

(a) Appatniinna, Lower Diamantina River, South Australia; ad. ¢ ; H. and

B. 188 mm.; wt. 185 g.

(b} 7bid.; imm. 2 ; H. and B, 140 mm.: wt. 90 g.

Ratius greyi greyi Gray

{a) Callawonga Creek, Fleurieu. Peninsula, South Atistralia; ad. ¢; H. and

B. 139 mm.; wt. 82 ¢.

(b) Boat Harbour Creek, Fleurieu Peninsula, South Australia; ad. 2; H. and

B. 157 mm.; wt, 112 g. ,

(d) fbid.; imm. 2 + H. and B. 122 mm.; wt. 51 g.

193

Ratius grevi peccatus (Troughton)

(2) Heathmerc, West Victoria; ad. 9 ; H. and B. 159 mm.,; wt. 100 ¢.

(b) Joid.; ad, $ ; Ho and B. 169 mm.; wt. 130 g.

Rattus litreola lutreola Gray (30)

(a) Rat Island, Lake Alexandrina, South Australia; ad, ¢g; H. and B.

173 mm.; wt. 190 =

(b) Jbid,; ad. 9 ; H. and B. 178 mm.; wt. 190 g.

162 mm.; wt. 148 ¢-.

(d) Blackfellows Creek, TMleurieu Peninsula, South Australia; subad. ¢ ;

H. and B, 156 mm,; wt. 130 g.

(ce) Heathmere, West Victoria; imm, ¢ ; H, and B. 134 mm.; wt. 70 g.

(1) Mount Clay Range, West Victoria; imm. ? ; H, and B. 98 mm.; wt. 26 g.

Rattus ratins valtus Linne.

(a) Mackenzie River, Grampian Range, Victoria; ad. @ ; H. and GB, 179 mm.;

wt. 168 g.

Rattus rattus alexandrinus Geoffroy

(a) Jimmy’s Creek, Grampian Range, Victoria; ad. ¢ ; H. and B. 189 nim.;

wt. 178 g.

(b) A garden, Adelaide, South Australia; ad. 9; H. and B. 190 mim,;

wt, 190 g.

Rattus norvegicus F.rxleben

(a) Meadsfield, Bothwell district, Tasmania, ad. 36; [1, and B. 262 mim.;

wt. 445 ¢.

(b) A garden, Adelaide, South Australia; subad. 9; TH. and B. 206 mm.;

wt, 200 g.

fe) fhid.; ue. @ ; TT. aad DB. 145 mim.; wt. 100 zg,

Mus musculus Linne (31)

(a) A house, Adelaide, South Australia; ad. 3 ; H. and B. 83 mm.; wt. 19 g.

(b) Ibid.; ad. 9 ; H_ and B. 86 mm.; wt. 22 g.

83 mm.; wt. 11°5 g.

(d) Ernabella, Musgrave Range, South Australia; ad. 6 ; H. and B. 80 mn;

wt, 9g,

Pscudonys (Pseudemys) higginsi Trouessart (32)

(a) Cradle Valley, North-west Tasmania; ad. ¢; IL. and B. 132 mm;

wt. 75 g. (approx.).

Pseudomys (Psendomys) minnie Troughton (33)

(a) Appamunna, Lower Diamantina River, South Austratia; aged ¢ ; 1]. and

BR, 131 mm.; wt. 80 g,

(b) Jbid,; ad. @ ; H. and B. 134 mm; wt. 75 g.

Pseudomys (Thetomys) nanus Gould (34)

(a) Koonapandi, Musgrave Range, South Australia; ad. 6; H. and B.

101 mm.; wt. 28-5 g.

194

Pseudomys (Laggadina) hermannsburgensis hermannsburgensis Waite (35)

(a) Wollara, Basedow Range area, Central Australia; ad. ¢; H, and B.

74 mm.; wt. 14°5 g.

(b) Ernabella, Musgrave Range, South Australia; ad. ¢ ; H. and B. 80 mm,;

t. 13 g.

71 mm. wt. 7°5 g.

Pseudonwys (Gyomys) apodemoides Finlayson (36°37)

(a) Coombe, Ninety Mile Plains, South Australia; ad. 6 ; H. and B, 86 mm.;

wt, 16 g.

(b) Tbid.; ad. ¢ ; H. and B. 93 mm.; wt. 18 ¢

Mastacomys fiuscus Thomas (38)

(a) Cradle Valley, North-west Tasmania; ad. @; H. and B, 168 mm;

wt. 160 ¢. (approx.).

Hydromys chrysogaster fulvolavatus Gould

(a) Fulham, Torrens Creek, South Australia; ad. @; H. and B. 343 mm,;

wt. 985 ¢.

(b) Ibid.; ad @; H. and B, 310 mm; wt. 700 g.

292 mm,; wt. 390 g,

(d) Furner, South-East district, South Australia; imm. @ ; H. and B. 293 mm. ;

wt. 425 ¢

df yareiya cP Se: Sig . (29)

(a) Innamincka, Bareat River: South Australia; ad. 9; H. and B., 355 mm.;

wit, 500 ¢

LIST OF REFERENCES

The references are, in all cases, to papers by H. H. Finlayson, published

in Trans. Roy. Soc. S.A., as follows:

1. 1933 : 57,197 14. 1932 : 56, 148 27. 1936: 60, 158

2. 1933 : 57,200 15. 1936 ; 60,159 28. 1934 : 58,230

3. 1933. 57, 203 16. 1931 : 55,85 29. 1939 : 63, (1), 88

4. 1935 : 59,233 17. 1931 ; 55, 82 30. 1935 : 59, 224

5. 1932 : 56, 168 18. 1930 ; 54,179 31. 1939 : 63, (1), 115

6, 1935 : 59,227 19, 1930 : 54,47 32. 1933 : 57,129

7, 1934 : 58,221 20. 1931 : 55,71 33. 1939 : 63, (1), 94

8. 1930: 54,177 21. 1931 :; 55,73 34. 1941 : 65, (2), 224

9. 1934 : 58,224 22. 1927 + $1, 363 35. 1941 : 65, (2), 215

10, 1934 : 58,220 23. 1931: 55,75 36. 1932 : 56, E70

11, 1934 : 58,221 24, 1931 : 55, 68 37. 1944 : 68, (2), 210

12. 1935 : 59,223 25, 1936 : 60, 157 38. 1933 ; 57,125

13. 1935 : 59,221 26, 1931 : 55,69 39. 1939 ; 63, (1), 114

THE CHARNOCKITIC AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS OF NORTH-WESTERN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By ALLAN F. WILSON

Summary

This paper is the first of a proposed series dealing with the geology of the Musgrave Ranges. Some

features of the major rock types are outlined below, and other papers are in preparation which will

amplify and supplement this introductory account. Ultimately the petrogenesis of this new series of

“Chamockitic” rocks will be treated.

. 195

THE CHARNOCKITIC AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS OF

NORTH-WESTERN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

PART I THE MUSGRAVE RANGES—AN INTRODUCTORY ACCOUNT

By Attan I, Wixson *

[Read 8 May 1947]

Pratrs Il ro 1V Ann GeotocicAL Map

CONTENTS

Tage

A. Inrropeection

Previous Work ss ba i “a es ba +} a. o's -. 195

Location and Terrain .. . oe af bs vs - MH ive .. 196

Locality Plan .. 3 ar .. a — an = 24 ~. 199

Concerning maps and rristhods rw i ix = rm a Ah .. 196

The term “Charnockite” ry = Pd vs =, 3 4 .. .. 198

B. Mayor Rock Typrs

I. Tu Gwerssrs

Umbyarra to Kenmore Parl .. -_ _ .t +. .. ” .. 198

The major area—general features of the gneisses ., us at -- 1, 199

(1) Gneisses showing Sediinertary origin .. . te .. 200

(2) Gneisses not showing Sed'mentary origin ‘intl coitam ning no ;

fluorescing zircon... + a .. a AS ., 20

(3) Gneisses not showing Sedimentary origin and containing

fluorescing zircon... ale oe sc ts > “4 * -- 203

Ii, Tae Non-Gnersstc Cuarnocnitns

(1) The Mt. Waodraffe and Trudinger Pass Totecmediat and Basic

Rocks .. L204

(2) The Upsan eins Giaii! tic “Rocks x ss wv te ts .. 206

(3) The Norite to the S.W. of Tjatjanja .. 4 _ “ 24 ,. 266

(4) The Ernabella Granudivritic Massif .. ty se - ot .. 206

Til. Pegmatites .. ac . _ a e te as . ts o 208

TV. Doalerites a . ele os ve ye . a AR “ .. 208

V. Mylonization Af. 33 it ie ta 4 bt 3 iG .. 209

C. Conciusion ann SUMMARY i « r + " 4 ia .. 209

D. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .. an . ile = * Me . 2 .. 210

E. BieiiocrApHy ., + a ict ote + by “i a Ly ive 2D

A. INTRODUCTION

This paper is the first of a proposed series dealing with the geology of the

Musgraye Ranges. Some features of the major rock types are outlined below,

and other papers are in preparation which will amplify and supplement this intro-

ductory account. Ultimately the petrogenesis of this new series of “Charnockitic”

rocks will be treated.

Previous Work

A bibliography of previous workers in the Musgrave Ranges is appended.

The two most notable contributions to our knowledge are those uf Basedow (1905)

and Jack (1915). Basedow’s account covers the reconnaissance of the South

* Geology Department, University of Adelaide.

Trans, Ray, Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2), 1 December 1947

196

Australian Government North-West Prospecting Expedition of 1903 which

penetrated further west than the Musgraves, into the Mann and Tomkingon

Ranges and to the Western Australian border. j ack’s work was carried out in an

abnormally dry season (1914), Gonsequently most of his time was spent 10 ihe

south-east of the author's area. Notwithstanding, the accounts of both Basedow

and Jack contain valiable obgervations, to which reierence will be made in later

papers.

Locanity axp TeeeaLy

The Musgrave Ranges are the casternmost of a series of rugged east-west

anonntain chains i the far North-West of South Avstraha.

Phese rariyes begin in the east witli bold desert-red Sentinel Hill (180 miles

\est Of the Adelaide to Alice Springs railway Hine at Finke, Northern Territory),

[See locality plan, p. 199.] As one continues westward from Sentinel Hill the

Miseraves grow in magnitude and area, but are never more than 30 niles fron

orth to south, Tkey reach their culmination in the mountains in the vicinity’

of Mount Woodroffe, 5.000 feet above sea level. and 4.000 fect above the desert

plain. This range continues west for aver 100 nules. but a spur passes west-

north-west throwzh Opparinna and thence into the Petermann Ranges within the

Northern Territory. ‘To the west of the Muggraves, the Mann and then the

Tomkinson Ranges cottinuc almost into Western Australia.

A characteristic feature of the Musgrave Ranges is the abrupt mater in

whieh most of Uke mountains ise from the plain. Groups of precipitous istand-like

hills punctuate the flat plains, which are bormded on either side by precipitous

mountain ranges, Such rugged scenery creates a strong impression of some

Norwegian ford. ‘This illusion is greatly accentuated by the lengthening shadows

of evening.

The main aren under consideration (see map) comprises the ranges from

Ketimore Park (approximately longitude 132° 30’ E.), westward for 30 miles to

Mount Woodroffe and Erlywanyawanya (approximately longitude 131° 40").

Latitide 267 15S. runs through the centre of, the ranges, Most detailed work,

however, was done within a few miles of the Preshyterian Mission Station at

Frnabetla,

‘Che period of the two field operations undertaken in the Musgraves was

during the most exhausting time of the year—that of the Central Australian

summer, The first occasion was during December 1943, January and February

1944, followed by a second in December 1945 and January 1946, these perinds

heihg the only times available for the purpose, W ith Ernabella as the base of

the survey, the ranges were investigated by horse, camel. and motor truck, but

largely on foot, Transport difficulties and seasonal conditions limited the most

intensive work to a tadius of 10 miles from the base. Considerable reconnaissance

and some detailed work was carried out over a wide area, as far west as Mount

Woodroffe and Erlywanyawanya, and Kenmore Park in the east. Positions uf

camp sites and consequent geological work were often hampered by water

difficulties.

Concrentne MArs aAnp Metiions

in 1892 Carruthers published a map of the north-west of South Australia,

on a scale of £ inch to 1 mile, This appears to have been the basis of maps used

by all later expeditions to the north-west. When a map of the Central and

astern Musgraves was needed, existing maps, which had their uses for general

purposes, were inadequate for more detailed work. [ence T was compelled to

make my own maps, and used rough theodolite and compass methods for speed.

‘The aix-trigged points of Carnithers which fell within my area were incorporated,

197

with the exception of that of Mount Everard. The actual location of the hurler

ig unknown to the author and to all at Ernabella. Nor do the natives know of

any trigged mountain in the plotled posiiion of Mount Everard, The map of the

Vicinity of Ernahella was prepared on a seale of 4 inches to 1 mite. The lacver

arca was prepared on a seale of 2 inch to 1 mile, using some of Carruthers’ data

when my own data and time were insufficient. Nruanerous patioraunc photographs

were used to check as much detail ag possible, Some truck ntleages were

incorporated.

Owing to difficulty in location of parts of the track from Lrnabella to Ken-

more Park, reliance bad to be placed om truck mileages and compass readings,

Wath the truck “milcages" in need of calibration certain parts niist be regarded as

sketch maps. This applies also to the area just north of Aluka, the viernily of

the “pass” to the cast of Ombagunda, near Pig Tree Gully Seak and Unesan

Dowrts.

A pnémutic compass bias only hmited use in these ranges. The magnetic

variation was found tu be 45° Lo the east of true north. The rocks of the area

greatly affect the compass, so much so that great care must be taken a that

instrument is to be used among the mountains. When on the plains, accurate

readings can be obtained, The magnetic variation is tisually very crratice. Lven

on the same hill | have noticed a difference of up to 5° ty 6° between readinys

taken sitting and standing, although exactly im the same place, Bearings taken

when one is enclosed in rugged ravines are often well-nigh useless, Mary hear-

igs were found, on checking, tn be hopelessly inaceairate, he only way to take

4 reasonable compass reacing was found to be by standing in such a position that

the interfering rack is equally distributed om all sides. Such being the case, a

cumnpass suryey was olten found most tedious, Some type of sun-compass would

dnubtless he easier to manage,

Aboriginal names were used on the map where possibte. Care must be taken

with these, however, for native placenames are rarely ag precise in meaning as

our own. For instance, while pointing te Mount Spee, the author was told that

th aborisinal name is “Inindi.” But it was later discovered that the mountuin

has no particular native nae, but that *“Inind1” reters to the “region” af the rock

hole situated at a considerable distance to the south-west. The probable explana-

tion is that to the aboriginal the turmidable and barren Mount Spec has no

need foria name, so when pestered by the white man for one, the nearest he can

vive is “luoindi.”’ Similariv, “Tjatjanja” (ar “Tjatja’) probably refers to a rock

hole the south of the mountain given that name. “‘Ltjinpiri” to ihe aboriginal

iienotes the series af rock holes to the east of the imposing mouniain mass which

the missionaries at Ernabella call Mount Itjinpirt.

In the absence of suitable aboriginal ames several were coined. ‘The origin

oft most of these will be obvious, but some need explanation. “Trudinger Pass”

(snitable for harses het found aiffcult for camels) was named after Ronald

Trudinger, friend and host at the Ernahella Mission, “Brock Pass" (probably

negotiable with camels) was named after Richard Brock, who accompanied the

author on the second expedition. “llenderson Rack Hole” is a fine water about

which the aboriginals apparently know very littl because ij is just above a big

cliff and away from normal hunting grounds, It was discovered while descending

Mant Woodroffe and was named after Ronald Henderson, who skilfully drove

the truck through the nearby difficult Brown's Pass.

The large bare water catchments of the Musgrave Ranges make rock holes

fairly common, but very Few are reliable. On the atcompanying map all reason-

ably useful waters are shown, that is, those which were found with some water

during the two dry seasons of the author's visit.

198

When vertical aerial photographs are taken'*? many parts of the accompany-

ing map will, of course, need to be somewhat modified. However, it is considered

that the map is a definite contribution to our present knowledge of the area, and

little difficulty should be experienced in locating any position marked on the map.

Therefore, apart from the geolory represented, the location of various features

of the area (rock holes, passes, etc.) seems to justify its publication,

Tae Term “CiwaArnockirn”

The ranges coniprise a complex mixture of gneisses and ancient but later

deep-seated non-gieissic igneotis tocks. Numeraus dolerite dvkes cut all of these

earlier systems. Al rocks of the Musgrave Ranges are of Precambrian age

exeepiing, of course, the thick mantle of Recent red desert sands and loans of

the yulleys between the ranges.

Most of the Musgrave Ranges rocks, both the gneissic and non-gneisste types,

are hypersthene-bearing. Notable papers have been published im recent years

trealing Chartiackites from several regions of the world, and it appears from the

diverse origins which are claimed for these hypersthene-bearing igneous rocks,

eneisses and granulites, that the term ‘“Charnockite’ has lost antich of

what it was originally intended to convey. Ilowever, for the present,

until petrogenctic relationships in the Musgrave Ranges have been more fully

interpreted, these rocks may well be called “The Charnockites and associated rocks

oi North-Western South Australia.”

BRB. THE MAJOR ROCK TYPES

I. Tr Gyrisses

Loatnyarra To Kenarore PARK

At Umbyarra Bore ancient gneisses were first noticed on the track west from

Finke. Umbyarra is 64 iviles west of Winke in the Northern Territory. They

outcrap as low hills annd remnants of horizontal sandstones of the late Mesozoic

and early Cainozoic. At Utnhyarra some peginatites were obseryed, bat most

of these are barren, One pegmatite conteins guod erystals of muscovite and some

tourmaline. The general trend of the peeatites is N25° EF. To the west the

ene'sses are more extensive, though they rarely form any more than low hills and

mcanspicuous outeraps in the mulga serub,

About 2 miles west uf Umbyvarra Bore a prominent but low range of hills,

about a mile and a half to the worth of the track, was visited. This is probably

typical of similar low lines of bills which protrude at intervals from the surround-

ing’ flat country. The hills consist of a non-foliated biotite-bearing eranite; the

flanks of the hills show excellent curtacts with the ancient gneisses, Nimmerous

chunks of gheiss were noticed to be partly “assimilated” by the granite. A Few

barren pegmatites are present.

Siuilar granitic gnetsses continue to the west, but become more heavily

injected by vast-west dolerite dykes towards “The Gap.” 122 miles [rom Finke,

and approximately on the Sonth Austrahan-Northern Territory border. At The

Gap” the gneisses show considerable crush, The doterites are similar to those of

the Musgrave Ranges. Duscdow made observations concerning parts of this area

of the “Ayers Ranges” (Hasedow 1905, p. 78).

©) Within a few days of presenting this paper to the Society a batch of 27 low.

level oblique aerial photographs were sent ta the author by courtesy of the Australian

Gtoxraphical Society, These were taken with a view to publication in “Walkabout,”

the oraan of the society, bence the prime purpose of the photographs was not carto-

graphic, They show the northern part of the Ranges near Mount Woodroffe, Trudinger

Pass, Alalka, ‘Valjaritia and Wedge Hill. The photographs reasonably confirmed ihe

accuracy Of the map in these regions. A few minor alterations were made.

199

At Beefwood Creek, 135 miles west of Finke and a few miles south of the

Northern Territory border, an interesting pyroxene granite intrudes the acid

gieisses.

From Beefwood Creek the types of gneiss vary more frequently, The

most common is granitic, but intermediate and basic types are plentiful. At Ken-

more Park, nearly 180 miles west of Finke and just within the area covered by

the map, the variety of gneisses is great. Garnet-bearing and/or hypersthene-

| |

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ERNABELLA 3 7 ae

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Fig. 1 Locality Plan

bearing gneisses are abundant. The general trend of all of these gneisses from

Umbyarra to Kenmore Park is north to south. The dip varies from 60°-70° to

the east or west.

Tur Mayor AREA AND GENERAL I'EATURES OF TILE GNEISSES

The area to the west of Kenmore Park was studicd in more detail. Irom

the map, the importance in this arca of gneisses and granulites is readily seen.

Most of these gneissie rocks are a dove-grey colour with streaks of dull dark

brown pyroxene and occasional black shining amphibole.

200

The map shows that the gneisses commonly have a north south strike“) with

a steep dip to the cast, Towards the north-western part of the area, however,

the strike of the gneisses swings around from a few degrees west of north to

take on an almost east-north-cast trend near Kuna-mpunja and Wardulka, The

dips are such as to suggest that the western half of the area is part of the westerit

limb of a south-pitching syncline, Anomalous dips and strikes are not uncommon,

but most of these are close to junctions with the non-gneissic igneous rocks.‘

These may represent minor buckling, reversal af dip and possible overthrusting

related to the origin of the igneous rocks, Further detailed work is needed in

critical areas.

The question of the origin of these giieissic rocks is difficult, and ir would

be premature at this stage of the investigation of the rocks of this region to state

final conclusions as to their petrogenesis, However, certain suggestions are put

forward, and these are linked with the ideas of “palingciesis” and “granitiza-

tion” considered as having acted on a grand scale (see p. 209).

From the held evidenee ile author considers that the area consists of a

series of ancient highly metamorphosed sediments whose eventual granitization

has brought abotit most af the non-gneissic igneous rocks. However, in hand

specimen, the sedimentary origin of the gneisses is usually not so obvious,

The following observations on some of these gneisses are nut primarily con-

cetned with the setting out of petrogenetic relations, ‘These will appear in sub-

sequent papets.

However, the order of the gneissic types is probably chronological: thal is,

the racks first described are the oldest,

(1) Gneisses. showing sedimentary origin.

(2) Gneisses. not showing obvious sedimentary origin,

(a) Acidic gneisses without flioresciny zircon,

(b) More basic gneisses without fluorescing zircan,

(3) Gneisses not showing obvious sedimentary origin, Mu showing

fluorescing zircon.

(1) Gyeisses suowInG SEDIMENTARY OrICIN,

The gneisses showing an obvious sedimentary origin are not plentiful, The

recognition of rocks as of sedimentary origin can often be difficult. In this area of

charnockitic rocks, plutomie conditions resulting in palingenesis and granitization

ure assumed to have been in force for considerable periods. Rocks of the arkase

type, 1f present under such conditions, could be presented in such a form as io

defy recognition of their origin. Argillaceous and highly calearedus racks probably

could be more casily identifted,

No rock was found whieh obviously came trom a highly calcareous rock.

Wut there are some for which an argillaccous origin is suspected. ‘These areas

are of limited extent:

(1) part of the complex gneissic system to the south-west of Mount Cur-

ruthers ;

©) The term “gneiss” is here used for rocks showing vatying degrees of banding.

The word “gneiss” is preferred to “foliated rock,” since the banding is considered to

represent the bedding planes of the original sediments, now pneissified. The ternis ‘din’

and “strike” are therefore used to describe this handing, No schists were noted,

() The term “non-gneissic igneous rock” igs meant to convey the idea that rye

major igneous rocks of this urea liave heen derived from sediments, the gneissic atruc-

ture of which has become obliterated in the process of formation of the "igneous masses.

201

(2) possibly the greater part of the gneisses to the north-west of Pulpatjara

Well;

(3) small patches 1 mile to the noruh-west of Taljarit}, and 14 miles to the

west-suuth-west of Talfaritja;

(+) patches 1 mile worth-west of Top Springs;

(5) patches up the Ernahelia Creek from Top Springs;

(6) some of the gneisses to the north-east of Erlywanyawanya Roek Hole:

(7} 23 miles due west of Mount Carruthers;

(8) 1 mile north-east of Taljaritja Well.

These rocks contain variable ainounts of at least Sour of the following

minerals garnet, cordierite, sillimanite, biotite and a green spinel, The garnet

is always visible in hand specimen es pink rounded crystals, usually about 2 mm.

in diameter. The cordicrite in the field is not noticeable in most specimens, though

the presence of a “greasy” dull yeliowish-brown wilh the garnct Icads one 10

suspect that mineral. (but “greasiness” is by no means necessarily indicative of

cordierite, for most of the hypersthene-bearing rocks of this area show some

“preasiness”.) Only in one locality, (7), has macroscopic sillimanite been

observed. It occtirs as brown crystals up to 2 em. Jong, The dull dark green

spinel shows very high ahsorption, so much so that with a cursory glance at 4

slide, one could quite easily overlook it, grouping it with the iron ores. It usually

oecurs intergrown with iron ures, Sillimanite is commonly aligned within the

spincl, but ar localities (7) amd (8) the sillimanite also occurs as plentiful

euhedral crystals. In all of these rocks biotite is plentiful. However, in the

normal gneisses and non-gneissic charnackites to be mentioned below, biotite

occurs usually as a yery minor accessory,

It should be stated thar the presetice of garvet in acidic rocks must not be

taken as necessarily indicative of direct sedimentary origin in this region. Garnet

has been nated in many other places. byl usually near the junctions of the main

Frnabella non-gneissic “igneats’” mass and im the gneisses around certain

“cupolas” to the east (é.g., Spinifex Hill), and often in mylonized zones,

Some analytical data and petrographic descriptions have been assembled, but

will be withheld tor ielusivi in later papers. However, it may be stated that in the

analysis of an “injection enciss” over 5% corundum is indicated in the norm.

The author considers that the rocks which show evidence of sedimentary

origin are often greywackes of perhaps relatively high alumina content, and that

later investigation may show that kurge tracts of the gneisses can claim palin-

genetic rélationships. with arkosic rocks,

(2) GNEISSES SHOWING NO Onviods SeniatrANrany Orta.

(a) Acidic Gueisses withait Finoreseing Zircon.

Many specimens representing over 00 localities have been carefully studied

under ultra-violet light. Tn large munibers, a zircon has been revealed as Hiny

points of orange light, Sometimes the crystals ate tip to 5 mm, but ustially of

the order of 1 mm, in length. In most of the gneisses, however, no fluorescence

was observed. and petrographic work has revealed that a somewhat different non-

flavrescing zircon (?) exists in these rocks. The author hopes (hat it may be

possible lo trace petrogenetic relationships by making us¢ of this zircon criterion.

The areas represented by the Anorescing zircons are indicated in the sketch map,

p. 202, 1n hand specimen, little indication is given of the presence of otherwise

of the Auorescing zircon. Lowever, those with Auorescing zircon do seem to

exhibit a somewhat more “igneous” appearance,

202

The present indications are, however, that the gneisses without the fluorescing

zircon are somewhat older than those with the fluorescing zircon. Investigation

into this interesting phenomenon is at present only in the early stages.

A number of modes have been established by the Rosiwal method, and same

analytical work has been undertaken. (Details will appear later.) From this

it was found that all gradations from granitic to granodioritic recks occur within

this acid group. At average type (adamellitic) occurs at the little rock hole,

2 miles west of Top Springs.

This group of gneissic and sometimes granulitic rocks are dove-grey and

of a greasy lustre. The dark minerals are usually concentrated into rough,

more or less continuous plates throughout the rock, and there are usually sume

rude bands of feldspathic material. These strike north-south, with a fairly steep

dip which varies from east to west. The rocks are usually fine-medium grained.

Microscopically these gneisses and granulites usually show rather rounded yet

REA CFFLUORESCINGGNEISS — Ee |

longqus Rack

6 B Miley

interlocking grains, with the ferromagnesians of slightly smaller dimensions than

the salics. Some quarte yrains are particularly ragged and associated with

myrmekite, while others protrude as smalf irregular “fhngers”’ through the rock.

The plagioclases are tstially twinned on albite and pericline laws with

composition about andesine (An.33). They ate variable in amount, but are

commorly plentiful, Myrmckite is Giten assuciated. Quartz at times contains

numerous non-orientated needles. Shadowy extinction is common. The “fingers”

of quartz are mentioned above.

The potash feldspar is usually abundant and represented by an orthoclase

microperthite, but sometimes by a poorly twinned microcline microperthite. The

proportion of the other minerals yaries greatly, but hypersthene is usually the

cotamonest. The pleachroism is strong in rusty pinks and greenish-greys, with

a slightly variable optic axial angle (negative) of about 80°. This pyroxene

often shows considerable cracks filled with greenish alteration products. A pale

green non-pleochroic motiochine pyroxene (probably diopside) is usually present,

but hypersthene predominates.

201

Hornblende is sometimes relatively plentiful but is often absent. Pleochroism

is usually yellowish-grey, light hrown, dirty green, with ZAc 23°-25°.

Magnetile is often abundant and at times an important constituent.

Secondary magnetite is commonly deyeloped ueat hypersthene. Biotite is asso-

ciated in small amount with the iron ores, Pleochroism is pale straw-yellow to

orange-brown.

Zircons (?): present indications are that all of these crystals, which are non-

Huorescent, are usually murky and tending to be brownish and much cracked-

Apatite is commonly present.

On chemical analysis, a lypical gneissic rock revealed the normal features of

ati “igneous” rock of adamellitic composition, Such rocks could well be called

acitlic giieissic charnockites.

(b) Intermediate and more Basic Gueisses without Flucresciug Zircon.

‘These are best represented by some of the dark gneisses at Gilpin's Well,

although patches of similar rocks occur near Kuna-mpunja, Brown's Pass, and

elsewhere.

In these rocks the gneissic structure is usually marked and ts revealed on the

weathered surface by streaks of tiny greyish ragged quartz crystals, and shiny

magnetite, On fresh surfaces, specituens are a bluish dark grey (contrast the

“dove grey” of acitlic gneisses} with the typical greasy lustre of the other

hypersthene-hearing types.

Microscopically these rocks are gratioblastic, with an ayerage grain

size of the plagioclase just under i mu. in diameter, and that of the ferro-

magnesians about 0-5 mm. Modal proportions are Plagioclase 65%, Ilypersthene

14%, Diopside, 79, Quartz under 59%, and Hornblende, ete., 9% (Gilpin's Well).

The plagioclase is usually a well-twinmed labradoritic antiperthite (An. 45)

with plentiful opaque needle inclusions. The hypersthene is fresh and displays

the usual strong pleochroism.

The monuclinie pyroxene is pale bluish green-grey, non-pleochroic, and has

ZAc = about 45°.

Quartz usually oveurs as the finger-like protuberances so commonly seen in

the more acidic gneisses. The mineral ofteti bas needle inclusions similar to

those in the plagioclase.

Mugnetite is usually quite plentiful in these rocks. The zircon (?) 1s non-

fluorescing and of the murky type, noted above in the acidic gneisses. Some

apatite and hintite are commonly present and associated with the magnetite.

Potash feldspar and hornblende are very uncommon,

Such rocks could well be cafled quagtz-dioritie gneissic charnockites.

(3) GNuISSES SHOWING NO OBVIOUS SEMIMENTARY ORIGIN AND CONTATN-

ING FLUORESCING ZIRCON.

From the sketch map on p. 202 it can be seen that these gnheissic rocks appar

to occupy mainly —

(a) an east-west belt from south of Monnt Woodroffe through south

Trudinger Pass and Brock Pass to the Inindi area;

(b) the east-west Mount Cuthbert Range to the north;

(d) many other minor localities.

The strike of these gneisses is still the same north to south of the whole region,

with the dip exceeding 45° east or west, excepting in the area near the Wardulica

Rack Hole [Locality (b) ]. Here the gneisses take on a imore of an east-west

trend.

204

As was suggested above (p, 201), it seems that these gneissic rocks are a

little coarser (thongh still far from coarse-grained) and look more “Tpneous” than

the gneisses, free irom the fluorescing zircon,

As in the first group of gneisses, this gronp shows gradations from the highly

acid to the granodioritic and quartz-dioritic types. The normal grain size is found

to be about 1 mm. in diameter, with the ferromagnesians perhaps a little smaller.

The rocks show the customary greasincss of all the hypersthene-bearing rocks

of this region, In most, the typical doye-grey colour is evident, though some

specitnens show more of a fawi-grey, owing, perhaps, to alteration,

Orthoclase microperthite is usually plentiful, bat microcline microperthite

is only oceasionally present. At times, an acid andesine is the dominant feldspar,

This plagioclase is commonly. antiperthitic. A quick method for distinguishing

the perthitic from antiperthitic feldspar was noted. This consists in viewing

them tsder considerably reduced ilhimination. The antiperthitic particles ther

appeared pale pink, while those of the perthite remained colourless.

Quartz occurs as ragged tongues and scattered like millet-seed throughout

the putash feldspar in varions rocks, Occasionally non-orientated ncedle-

inclusions are developed in the mineral,

The dominant ferromagnesian iniverals are a typical pleochroic hypersthene

and a pale bluish-green non-pleachroic diopside. These are commonly arranged in

rough bands which are separated by the salic-rich hands. Common hornblende has

Leen noticed, but it is not typical of these gucisses, Iron ores are often plentiful

and are conmmonly interlocked with the pyroxenes.

Apatite oeurs in variable amount, hut mostly associated with the pyroxenes

and iron ores, Seyeral crystals of zircon of the fluorescent type occur in all

slides. The fluorescing zircon is clear and colourless under convergent light,

whereas the non-fluorescing zircons (?) ar¢ almost always murkier and, under con-

yergent light, usually show a very pale pinkish-fawn tint,

II. Tre Non-Gyeisstc CHARNOCK!ITES

Large areas of non-gnetssic rocks) are shown on the map. Most of these

would usualy be called igneous rocks. Though these are younger than the

gneissic rocks, the final period of crystallisation of the non-gheissic “igneous”

rocks is probably not far removed from that of some of the gneissic types.

At present these non-sneissic rocks may be divided into four divisions. In

this scheme the oldest types are listed first, he four divisions are —

(1) The Mount Woodroffe and Trudinger Dass Intermediate and Basic

Thocks,

(2) The Upsan Downs Granitic Rocks.

(3) The Norite to the south-west of Tjatjanja.

(4) The Ernahella Granodioritic Massif.

(1) THe Motnt Wooprorre-Trupincer Pass Ixreraepiate anp Basic

Rocrs.

(a) The Mount Woodroffe rea,

The map indicates that on all sides of the Mount gneissic rocks predominate,

but near the summit considerable areas of quartz-dioritic and dioritic rocks occur.

There are basic and ultrabasic patches in places. Directional characters were not

noted in any of these charnockitic rocks on Mount Woodroffe. However, the

strike and dip of the surrounding gneisses, and the comparison with the basic

©) See footaote (? on p. BOO

205

rocks which continue itt a north-easlerly direction to Trudinger Pass, suggest that

these rocks probably comprise a large sill-like structure. This is more evident in

the range between Brown's Pass and Landmark Hill. Directional characters

were not noted in any of these rocks, bur suine may be expected when field work

can be carried out on the cross-section of the apparent sill structure.‘ Recon-

naisance only has been possible in this area up to the present.

In hand-spechnen the rocks of Mount Woodroffe are medium-grained, con-

sisting of pale amethyst grey and greasy bot shiny plagioclase, mottled with

patches of dull black pyroxene,

Twin striae are not easily seen in the plagioclase in band-specimen, bul Under

the microscope albitetwins are plentifid. This antiperthitic feldspar (70%) 1s

a tid-andesine.

Hypersthene usually occurs as large tabular rounded crystals about 4 mm, x

3mm, It is very strongly pleochroic, Diailage is also pyesent. Chiartz, is noted

in accessory amount. Potash feldspar hay nor yet been sceh except as the anti-

perthitic lenses, Zircon is quite rare and of the non-fluoreseing type.

Hypersthenites appear as patches np to an acre i” area on the sides of Mount

Woodroffe, Another outcrop occurs in [rown's. Pass between the Woodroffe

vocks and the basic rocks stretching north-east to Trudinger Pass, These ultra-

basic rocks are commonly associated with magnetite and very coarse: dinritic and

noritic rocks similar in appearance to those of the summit described ahove. The

hypersthenites are fresh, dense homogeneous iedium-grained, greasy and very

dark grey rocks, Micvoscopically, they are found to consist almost entirely of

pyroxene, most of which is a strongly pleochroi¢e hypersthene. There is a little

non-pleachroic pale green diallage. Plaginctase is usually present in extremely

small amount, as tiny interstitial particles, Very little primary iron is present iv

slides studied to date. bil in the field, solid boulders of magnetite are common

as floaters near the hypersthenites. Directional features were not observed.

(b) The Trudinger Pays Basie Rocks.

As suggested above, these noritic rocks are linked with the Mount Wood-

rofte rocks, ‘The outcrops in the Pass were noted during: a particularly arduous

reconfiaisance on caniel, and time coyld not be spent trying to determine the

yelation of these rocks to the gneisses.

The grain size of this hasic suite varies greatly. Sume textures are those

of the very coarse norites, others are doleritic, but the average is that of a medium

grainedL norite. The composition varies somewhat from a charnockitic basic

dtorite toa typical norite, In hand-specimen the diorites are similar to those of

Mount Woodroffe, but a little darker. They are also comparable microscopically.

In hand-specimen the norites, however, are coarse dull brownish-black heavy

rocks composed mainly pi large dull grey plagioclases, poikilitically including

numerous small preasy grains of pyroxene. Albite-twinming is not obvious 10

hand-specimen, There are several large clots of dill greasy dark brown pyroxene

crystals.

Microscopitally, these norites consist of over 6096 basic andesine with the

test of the rock composed of hypersthene and diallage, whose propertics are

similar to those of the Mount Woodroffe roeks. Tron ores are not plentiful. No

fluorescing zircons occur in these rocks.

OY The aerial photographs (see footnote, p. 198) suggest that there is very little

@ucissic structure im these rocks. Some of that anggested in the pholagraphs of the

north-west Hank of Mount Woodroffe may be linked with the profound mylonitization

known to veeut along the northern flank of the Mount,

206

(2) Tne Ursan Downs Granitie Rocks,

Litt'e work has been done in the Upsan Downs area. These medium-grained

granites are characterised by large flesh-coloured feldspar crystals, Considerahle

crush has taken place, and in some localities beautiful crush-augen gneisses are

developed (¢.g., the Pass one mile to the north-east of Victor’s Well, and at

Erlywanyawanya Rock Hole to the south-west uf Mount Woodroffe). These

rocks contain no fluorescing zircon.

At the tock hole in Brock Pass a granite vccurs among contorted and partly

“assimilated” gneisses, This granite shows fluorescing zircon, thus, although show

on the map by the symbol used for the Upsan Downs Granite, it may well repre-

sent another epoch.

(3) THe Norte to tre Soutti-west or TyAryAnya.

These norites comprise a considerable belt on the spur two or three miles

south-west af Tjatjanja. The rocks from this locality vary in grain size, ranging

from coarse norile to micronorite. Normally the racks are mottled greasy, dark

blue-grey medium-grained, and the abundance of a resplendent bronzy biotite is

the most striking feature. | Noted by Jack (1915, p. 18) J.

The plagioclase shows prominent albite-twin striae. Under the microscope,

half of the rock appears to cotisist of an acid labradorite, It is often associated

with the hypersthene poikilitically, The plagioclase is an antiperthite.

Hypersthene and diallage are present in equal amount. Mapnetite is scarce, as

also is soine imteftstitial orthoclase microperthite. No fluorescing zircon was

noted,

A small orthite-bearing pegmatite similar to that at Koli Koli (see p. 208)

cuts these norites near the northern-most junction with the charnockitic granite

af the Tjatjanja spur. This alone suggests that these basic rocks are older than

thase of the Ernabella massif,

(4) Tite ExnAperta Granonroritic MAssip,

This rock type oceurs as a great meridional helt with Ernabelia near the

centre. Though the belt is granitic around Tjatjanja ta the south, the massif,

taken as a whole, is probably granodivritic,

The map shows “cupolas” of similar inaterial in several other places. notabl+

among the gneisses :---

(a) South and north-east of Koli Koli rack hole to the west.

(6) South of the Stony Jump Up to the east.

fc) Bald Hill and Spimifex Hill further to the east.

Tt is regretted that owing mainly to difficulty of terrain and climatic condi-

tions, many of the junctions between the gneisses and the non-gneissic acid rocks

could not always be studied as well as ane would desire. They have been located

on the map, however, to facilitate future investigation.

The best junctions were found on the western side of the massif inv the Mount

Carruthers area near Ernahella, and at Alalka to the north. In these localities

large sheets of fresh rock are exposed in the water-courses, and the study of

xenoliths and other phenomena is facilitated thereby. The eastern junctions are

not readily studied, Many of these occur beneath sandy valleys. The junctions

in the Tjatjanja area are relatively broad zones, but xenoliths are not common.

In the Mount Carruthers arce the trend of the xenoliths in the Ernabella

massif is between N.25" EB, und N. 35" E. with an approximate dip of the rude

xenolithic lenses of 70° to the east, Small aplitie veins are often found with

207

identical dip and strike of the xenoliths, but the pegmatite veins are almost always

trending W.10° N. and dipping south 75°-80°, ‘The strike of the gneisses ts

usually north-south, hence these xenoliths are usually at an angle of appraxi-

mately 25° (o the gneisses, This may indicate some pre-crystallisation movement

of the non-gueissic “igneous mass” relative to the gneisses, from which it was

probably derived by granitisation.

In the dlalka Rock Tole area, xenoliths are common. The trend is between

North and N, 18° E., the usual being about N. 15° EZ, No evidence of aplitic or

pegimatitic activity was found,

In all localities where xenoliths could be studied, a great diversity of xeno-

lithic rock types was apparent. The xenoliths which are most obvious are armphi-

bolitic, but on closer investigation partly assimilated clongated fragments of

gneisses of all types outlined above are found to be the more abundant, Xenoliths

in the area south-west of Mount Carrtithers were traced to their probable equiva-

lents in sifie in some instances, A common size for the lens-shaped xenoliths ts

about 20 ems. x 5 ems, x 10 cms, Many larger and smaller ones were found,

A feature af many of the acidie inclusions is the presence of biotite which

has developed throughout the lens. Basic inclusions usually show a marked

reaction rim of hornblende. It iy hoped later to publish some microscopic

observations on the xenoliths.

The conspicuons paucity of pegmatites, aplites and quartz veins mdicates the

special “dry” conditions under which these post-gneiss hypersthene-bearing acidic

rocks crystallised.

The Racks of the Eraabella Massif, whether granitic or granodioritic are

very similar in most of their characters, In hand-specimen they are medinm-

grained, greasy bluish dark grey granitic rocks composed of bliish-grey feldspars

of medium size, small blue-greyish glassy quartz irregularly scattered, and small

ragged areas of greasy dark brown ferromagnesians. In several localities large

phenoctysts of plagioclase are present (up lo 6 cms. x 2 cms,), and these with fhe

rest of the plagiaclase usually shaw splendid albite-twin stnac. Phenocrysts ol

the pyroxencs are found at times,

Under the microscope these rocks are holocrystalline and more or less

allotriomorphic granular. For the most part the ferromagnesians are of somew bal

smaller dimensions than the. salic constituents (average of rock 1-3 mm, to

2 mm, long).

The plagioclase (50% ) is a mid-andesine and well twinned, It is sometimes

a little antiperthitic. Orthoclase microperthite (about 207%) contains rounded

quartz inclusions (millet-seed type) i considerable number. T hese inclusions ate

uncommon in the plagioclase,

Ouarlz (15%) is ragged and interstitial except when included in the polash

feldspar. Myrmekite is plemiful. ‘Ine tongued character of the qiartz (so

common iu the gieisses) is an uncommon feature of these mon-gneissic

charnockitie rocks.

Preferred orientation of the dark minerals is not present io any marked

degree cither in the field or in microslide,

flypersthene is not so notably pleochroic as itt most gneisses and racks of

the Mount Woodroffe area: A weakly pleochroic or non-pleochroie pale gryenish-

grey monoclinic pyroxene (probably a species of diopside) is plentiful. There

is no apparent age difference in the two pyroxencs- Apatite and magnetite arc

plentiful. Hornblende occurs, but usually in small amount and has crystallised

after the pyroxenes. Hornblende is plentiful, however, in the cupola phases, for

instance, at Spimfex Hill and Bald Hill,

Biotite oceurs as sinall faking crystals on some of the patches of magnetite,

Zircon is plentiful and is of the fluorescent type,

208

Analytical and petrographic datu have been collected, but are being withheld

for lhe present, Tt should be noted ttal this rock type fas all the characters of

a “nositial igneous rock.” It is hoped to show later the palingenetic relation of

this “igneous type” to the gucisses,

Ill. 3 Peasxatirrs

Pourly defined small pegmatites outcrop throughout the Ernabella plain

among the charnockitic granodiorites. Only occasionally are they found among

the gneissic rocks, The Musgrave Ranges, as a whole, are very poor in peg-

matites. An ititensive search was made for these, and specitnens and notes have

been taken of each one found, Aplites are much rarer. Mast pegmatites are

usually only about one foot wide. and less than three or [our chains long. Their

strike 1s almost always West 10° North, with a dip Sonth 75°-80°. In places

dolerite dykes are found cutting across these pegmatites.

The minerals noted are set otit in approximate order of abundance. Heematite

is otten in well crystallised masses, Fiolite is usually much contorted, and ragzed

books oceur up to 7 ems. in diameter, Large strcons are often found embedded.

No omscovite has been found anywhere in the ranges.

Hornblende—This mineral is the dominant mineral cf many pegimiatites, and

has heen noted us Iurge black shining erystals up to 8 cms. in length. Garnet

eccurs in some of the pegniatites ay dull greasy reddish-brown rounded subhedtal

crystals up to 3 ems. across.

Orthite (Allanite)—Oceasional small pockets of large tabular crystals were

noted in a few of the pegmatites of ihe Ernabella plain. The mineral is jet black,

and has no cleavage but a pitch-like conchoidal fracture. Specific gravity is about

3°5, and hardness roughly 6-5, Thongh too weak to affect the electroscope, a very

Weak radio-activity was revealed after an exposure of wp to three weeks on photo-

graphic plates. Throughput the ranges only a few pounds of the mineral were

obtained, though a thorgugh search was made. Anulytical work is in progress

to use this mineral in age-determuination. Zircow js present in certain pegmatites,

as black or dark brawn euhedral crystals, up to 2 ems, long, Though very weakly

radioactive (about the same as the orthite), they do not fluoresce under altra-

violet light. This is remarkable, for the zircons of the parent rock, the

charnockitic granodiorites of Ernabella fluorescence in orange. Preliminary

iivestigalions with autoradiographs indicate that the fluorescence decreases

regularly as the radigactivity and depth of dark brown increase. Apatite occurs as

tiny etthedral pale blue crystals, but is rare, Yorrtmalixe was found in only a

few cases, and is of the cominon bluck variety.

Among ihe gneisses true pegmatites are tarcly found. At Koli Kol Rock

Hole an imteresting but quite small hornblende pegmatite occurs, in which nail-

hike erystals of orthite and an orange-iucrescthg euhedral resinous “zircon” occur.

Similar pegmatites at Trawanja and Arkalanja show neither orthite nor zircon.

Work is in progress on the pegmnatites.

TV. Dornernrtre DyKes

Cutting all of the other rock types, dut probably nor far removed im age from

the Ernabella massif, is a large suite of dolerites. A common trend is a few

degrees south of west, with a dip to the south of 60°-70°, Another set is present

near Ernabella, with an approximate north-south strike and dip to the east nf

25°-40°. Similar dyke-rocks occur all the way to Umbyarra, about 140 miles ta

the east, and according to Dr. Jack, far to the south-east into the Everard Ranges.

and beyond. Dr, Jack observed (Jack, 19L5, pp. 15, 18)in these regimrs to the

south-east, that the basic dykes cut the gncissic and non-gneissic rocks, but not

209

those of the Adelaide Series (Proterozoic—the “Cambrian” of the earlier geolo-

gists), These dyke rocks, as scen in the Musgraves, consist essentially of labra-

dorite lathes, with hypersthene, diallage and olivine combining to give the typical

ophitic texture of dolerite. Specimens [rom about one hundred dykes have

been collected for description,

V. MyriowrrizAtion

Most rock types of the Musgrave Ranges have been mylonitized in places.

A large collection of material showing transition types lias been made for future

work. Dseudo-tachylytes are well developed.

Both gneissic and non-gneissic types may show a crushing and a rolling ont.

They are often found to grade ihrough a crush zone of mylonitized augen-

gneisses to dense halleflinta types. The gneisses so farmed are not to be confused

with the gneisses outlined aboye. The crushed rocks are only in association with

major fault zones.

Thongh considerable arcas of crushed rocks may be of later origin, most of

this mylonitization seems to have taken place after the pegmatites were emplaced,

and is probably associated with the widespread epidotization noted with the joint-

ing which led to the dolerite intrusions.

The coincidence of the west-south-west trend of the dolerite dykes and major

zones of miylonitization is evident in the following cases,

Intense mylenitization (with pseudotichylytes), epidotization and basic dyke

injection are plentiful throughout :—

(1) the tectonic valley stretching from Upsan Downs through the valley

just north of Tjatjanja and Mount Ferdinand to the Gilpin’s Well and

Big Hill localities;

(2) the tectonic valley from Taljaritja Well through Top Springs and along

the creek south of One Tree Hill: and

(3) the great tectonic valley running along Tietkin’s Creek, through Nalja-

wara, Ernabella, Brock Dass and into the Oowallinna areca.

There is also a coincidence of these same features with the weaker develop-

ment of the north-south basic dykes in the Ernabella. area,

Tt is apparent that the conditions which allowed typical mylonites ta form

mist have been considerably different from those prevailing at the depths where

the charnockites crystallised. Hypersthene is always absent from these mylonitized

rocks, and hornblende and garnet with biotite and marked mortar structure are

characteristic.

C. CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY

The Musgrave Ranges consist of a complex series of many rock types, all

of Precambrian age. Present indications are that the chronological order of the

major rock frotips seems to be the following —-

1. Guneisses showing sedimentary origin and represented by garnet, cordierite,

spinel and sillimanite gneisses, and containing no fluorescitg zircon, This

group is thought to represent the oldest rocks in this area,

2. HUypersthene-bearing Gneisses Sor showing obvious sedimentary origin but

containing No fltcorescing zircon.

3. Huxpersthene-bearing Gneisses Not showing obvious sedimentary origin

but containing a flworescing zircon.

2i¢

4, Hypersthenc-bearing non-yneissic Intermediate and Basic Rocks of Mount

Woodroffe and Trudinger Pass. . These haye no fluorescing’ zircon.

5. The Upsan Dawns Granitic Rocks. These have no fluorescing zircon,

6. Hypersthene-beuring non-gneissic Granites and Granadiorites of the Ernabella

Massif.

These “igneous” rocks contuin fluorescing zircon and xenoliths of the

guicisses,

7, Pegmmatites of the Ernabella area.

8. Mylonitisation and Basic dyke injection.

The hypersthene-bearing rocks may be called charnackites. The position m

the above sequence of the numerous altered basic dykes and masses of several

epochs has yet to be determined.

The gneisses of group 2 are thought to represent, in part, the granitized

equivalents of the ancient sediments. The gneisses of group 3, with their fluoresc-

ing zircon, are tentatively considered to represent possibly a superimposed meta~

morphism (with the introduction of considerable new material) of some of the

eatlier gneisses. This is well seen at Kuna-unpunja, where patches of the rela-

tively coarsely-grained aad more granitic rocks of group 3 cut across acid, inter-

mediate and basi¢ types of group 2. Similar directional features are always present

in both groups, but those of gtoup 3 are almost always much less marked.

A criterion suggested for the differentiation of the gneisses of group 2 and

group 3, therefore, rests on the critical problem of the origin and introduction of

the fluorescing zircon. The non-gneissic igneous rocks of group 6 may indicate

a relatively mobile and somewhat contaminated equivalent of the gneisses of

group 3, because these, as stated, contain plentiful fluorescing zircon and xenoliths

of all types of gneiss, The rocks of group 4 and 5 contain no fluorescent zircon

and are thought to have crystallised alter those of gronp 3,

The ubiguity of hypersthene, the relative rarity of hormblende and biotite and

the marked paucity of pegmatites signify the “dry” conditions under which these

charnockitic rocks finally crystallised.

D, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my indebtedness primarily to Professor Sir Douglas

Mawson, and also to Messrs. A, W. Kleeman and H. E. E, Brock of the Geology

Department of the University of Adelaide, for interest and advice in many

matters. D. R. Bowes kindly made two chemical analyses. Without the willing

co-operation of the Superintendent (the late Rey, J. Love), staff, and natives of

the Presbyterian Mission Station at Ernabella, the field work during the two

seasons would haye been impossible. Mr, Trudinger, in particular, rendered

yaluable hospitality, Finally, I must thank R. Brock for his outstanding assist-

ance while accompanying me on the second expedition to the area.

E. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Basenaw, 1H. 1905 “Geological Report on the Country Traversed by the South

Auatralian Government North-West Prospecting Expedition, 1903,”

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 29

Basevow, H. 1915 “Journal of the Goyernment North-West Expedition

(March to November 1903). Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc, Australasia,

S. Aust, Branch, 15

Trans. Roy, Soc. S, Aust., 1947 Vol. 71, Plate it

Fig. 1. Looking north-north-west from Naljawara, 34 miles east of Eruabella.

Note how island-like hills of non-gneissic charnockitie gramodiorite punctuate

the plain.

Fig. 2. North-north-east approach to Trudinger Pass, taken two miles south-west

of Kuna-unpunja, Most of the rocks are of gneissic charnockite, with norite in

the pass. Tjakunja on left; Landmark Hill on right in distance.

Vie. 3. Mount Spec, taken from northern junction of mica norite to south-west

of Tjatjanja. Most rocks are acidic and intermediate gneissic charnockites.

Fig, 4. Non-gneissic charnockitic granodiorite cut by parallel dolerite dykes.

South-west tip of hills, two miles west of Palpatjara Well,

Trans. Roy, Soc. §. Aust., 1947 Vol. 71, Plate Ill

Fie. 1. Looking north fron Mount Carruthers, showing north-south gneissic

charnockites in distance on left, Top Springs and Ernabella Creck gorge in centre

in distance, and Mount [ijinpiri and other non-gneissic charnockitic granodiorite

areas to the right.

Fig. 2. Looking north from east side of Razor Hill, nine miles north-vorth-east

of Ernabella. Razor Hill consists of non-gneissic charnockitic granodiorite; hills

to right are gneissic and in part show obvious sedimentary origin,

Trans, Ray. Soc. S, Aust., Lo4F Vol 7l, Plate IN

big. 1, Looking east frown suniniteal Mount Woodroffe (over 3.00 feet, highest

mountim in South Australia). Mount Spee is flat-toppec mountain on deft iA

distance. A stunted species of “spinifex” (Triodia) is abundant.

Fig. 2. Looking west from simimit of Mount Woodroffe. Foreground of noin-

gueissic charfockitic quartz-diorite with gntissie wranitic charnoclite oy rivht

Major vetetaton—sturnted spevies of Vriocdin.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2), Dec. 1947

SENTINEL HILL 4

’

MATUNGA HILL

MT.CUTHBERT® ~

A, WILSON

‘

4 MITCHELLS KNOB

5 +. * :

+ OR HIL

we WEDGE HILL

FIG-TREE GULLY RLH

. Va ‘

Sse eer

saRUNNING-WATER SOAK

‘

. . ’

7 ¢ 7 4 \ :

ONE TREE HILL2) | ;

. , RH!

1G ALL

MT.CARRUTHER

, * GILPINS WELLea

"oo. SEpe we .

~a.ie*

> s

ee Se ae

' aw . 7 :

“S! ) KENMORE PARKA

“Fs \We 6G

> “MTFERDINAND «

. ‘y oe *, .

a ye ae * a |

eee

' MTWOODROFFE

‘

TJATJANJA

Tey F ne

7 USGR SA

GEOLOGY & Centra aE astern MUS AVE. Res. SAUs

[+] GNEISSIC CHARNOCKITE (OLDEST Rocks) fro STRIKE & DIP OF GNEISSES

PAZ] CHARNOCKITIC DIORITE & NORITE / VERTICAL GN. + _ HORIZONTAL GNEISS

E a HYPERSTHENITE a TRIG POINT OF CARRUTHERS

[xx 9 GRANITE » UPSAN DOWNS

PROMINENT HILLS

FeeN%] BIOTITE NORITE

eRH ROCK HOLE

H+] CHARNOCKITIC GRANITE & GRANODIORITE

[__] RECENT FixeED REO SAND

f———] BASIC DYKES (Post CHARNOCKITE)

*S, UPSAN DOWNS = Pr

SCALE IN MILES

211

Brown, H. Y. L. 1890 “Report on Journey from Warrina to Masgrave Ranges.”

Parl. Pap. No. 45

Carrutuers, J. 1892 “Triangulation of North-west Portion of South Australia.”

Parl. Pap. 179

“Erper Exproration Expepition, Scientific Results of” 1893 Trans. Roy.

Soc. of S, Aust., 16

Forrest, J, 1875 “Explorations in Australia.” London

Gites, FE. 1872-1874 “Geographical Travels in Central Australia, 1872-1874”

Gossr, W. C. 1874 “Reports and Diary of Mr. W. C, Gosse’s Expedition in

1873.” Parl. Pap. No. 48

Htsse, S. G. 1897 “Stock Route Expedition from South to West Australia.”

Parl, Pap, No. 51

Jack, R. L. 1915 “The Geology and Prospects of the Region to the South of

the Musgrave Ranges, and the Geology of the Western Portion of the

Great Australian Artesian Basin.” Geological Survey of S. Aust.,”

Bull. 5

Macrice, R. T, 1904 “Extracts from Journals.” Parl. Pap, No. 43

Murray, W,R, 1901 “Report and Map.” Parl. Pap. No. 148

We tts, L. A., and Grorcr, F. R. 1904 “Reports on Prospecting Operations in

the Musgrave, Mann and Tomkinson Ranges.’ Parl. Pap. No. 54

EARLY CAMBRIAN (?) JELLYFISHES FROM THE FLINDERS RANGES,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By REG. C. SPRIGG

Summary

A richly fossiliferous horizon has been discovered within the massive Pound Quartzite formation

which underlies the Cambrian Archaeocyathinae limestones in the Flinders Ranges, South

Australia. The fossils occur as impressions on surfaces of flaggy quartzite. The five genera and

species described are almost certainly all pelagic Coelenterates, and while several forms are referred

to the class Scyphozoa, it is possible that one or more species may be more correctly assigned as

Hydromedusae. The more problematical forms may prove to be pneumatophores or swimming

bells.

>t:

—+=

EARLY CAMBRIAN (?) JELLYFISHES FROM THE FLINDERS RANGES,

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Rec. C. Sprice *

[Read 8 May 1947]

Pirates V ro VITI

ABSTRACT

A tichly fossiliferous horizon has been discovered within the massive Pound

Quartzite formation which underlies the Cambrian Archaeocyathinae limestones

in the Finders Ranges, South Australia. The fossils eceur as impressions on

surfaces of flaggy quartzite. The five genera and species described are almost

certainly all pelagie Coclenterates. and while several forms are referred to the

class Scyphozoa, it is possible that one or more species may be more correctly

assigned as Hydromedusae. The more problematical forms may prove Lo he

pneumatophores or swimming bells.

INTRODUCTION

In this paper a group of fossils recently discovered in the uppermost forma-

tion of the Adelaide Series (Upper Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian) is discussed.

The fossils were found on a rise

approximately three hundred yards

south-west of the principal south-

mine workings at TEdiacara, near

Beltana, South Australia, They ae a pserione ard

uccurred as impressions in flaggy (

EDIAGARA

/ ait Paste

Caakresr

- Herrsaie,

quariziic and are among the oldest ,

cirest records of animal life in the act

world. SOUTH AWSTRALIA

if the environmental associations

of the forms have heen correctly

interpreted there is good reason [0

consider all the forms pelagic and [ree

swimming, They all appear to lack

nurd parts and to represent animals of

very varied affimitics. All are pro-

sably Coelenterates and all may be ADELAIDE

jeliyishes, although in at least two

cases insufficient dctail is available to

niake rcliable comparisons with any

living or fossil animals (zis., Papilio-

natu, Dickinsonia and ithe tnmamed

circular form described in association

with Beltanella). Just possibly the latter two forms may be floats or pneumato-

phores of colonial coelenterates.

One form (Ediacaria) is referred tentatively to either of the orders

Semaeostomeae (Discomedusae) or Rhizostomeae of the class Seyphozoa, while

another (Beltanella) may be referable to either of the classes Hydrotmedusae or

Seyphozoa.

* Assistant Government Geologist, South Australia.

Trans, Roy. Sos. S. Aust., 71, (2), 1 December 1947

213

STRATIGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Fossil jellyfish as casts and impressiotis have heen described from the Lower

Cambrian of New York, Sweden, Russia and Bohemia, and now fram Australia;

from the mid-Cambrian of British Colunihia and Alabama; from the Silurian of

Victoria and from the Permian uf saxany; from the jurassic of Solnhifen,

Bavaria and from the Cretaceous of Texas. he identity of some of these

fossils has heen questioned, and some are better referred to the Prohlematica. The

stratigraphic range of jellyfishes is alinost certainly pre-Cambrian to present,

As indicated above the fossil jellytishes described in this paper are very

probably Lower Cambrian in age. The fossil impressions were found in the

“Pound’ quartzite formation of the Upper Adelaide Series, ‘This massive forma-

tion, which frequently measures several thousands of feet in thickness, imme-

thately precedes massive Cambrian Plenspongia (= Archaeneyathinac) lime-

stones, ‘The impressions occurred at a horizon approximately 100 feet strati-

graphically below the base of the limestone, and approximately 600 feet below the

first Pleospongia remains yet located at this localiry.

Generally speaking the horizon of the Pleospongia is considered to be

near the top of the Lower Cambrian (David, 1927). On this assumption the

present fossils would have been living in about middle Lower Cambrian rine.

The “Pound!” quartzite im which the fossils were found js considered tentatively

(Mawson, 1939) to represent the base of Cambrian sedimentation in South Ans-

tralia, although there is reason to believe that the dawn of the Cambrian nay

eventually be taken back still further (Sprige, 1942),

With perhaps the exception of Davill’s (1936) Tapwiai problematica, and

certain anmelid tracks common in several quartzites of the Adelaide Series, the

new fossils represent the oldest undoubted marine animals recorded in Australia

(fg. 2). They provide the first reliable indication that the Pound Quartzite is

uf marine origin.

MODE OF OCCURRENCE AND PRESERVATION

Considering the extremely perishable nature of jellyfishes and related soit-

hodied coelenterates (many jellyfish contain 99% sea water), it is remarkable that

any of them should have left traevs of their existence in the fossil state. It is

obvious that very special conditions of hurial would be necessary for their pre-

servation. Walcott (1898) suggests that in the ease of many United States

Cambrian forms the medusae probably had the habit of living on a muddy bottom

in great mumbers, Associated fossils suggest a shallow water envitonment. There

appeared to be rapid burial and consolidation of the sediment, not by exposure

hetween tides, but entirely beneath the water, Tn other cases, stich as at Solh-

hofen, Bavaria (Lower Jurassic), medusae have been found in extremely fine-

grained slales.

Agassiz (1862) notes that the living Aurelia flavida, aller the spawning

period, ts Freyuently seen iv lange numbers Aoating on the water. There has been

a thickening of the tissues by am increased deposition of animal substance, The

©) Tt is to be noted that, contrary to popular conception, the South Australian

Pleospongia ate not reef builders. Their spatial distribution within the enclosing

sediment simulates “coral meadows” conditions, This explains why. in this

case (and im many other cases) Archaevcyathinae do not occur right from the

base of the so-called Archacocyathinae limestone, The Archaeos are usually restricted

{a mare or less definite hotizens within ithe Limestone formation, and even in the most

highly fossiliferous of these, actux! focsil remains form only a relatively small portion

ef the rock. They are not massed remains as in modern coral reefs.

214

of the umbrella and oral region drop off during this period. It can be seen that

in this dried out condition the medusae, when stranded on beaches and covered

by sediment, offer much better chance for fossilization,

Caster (1945) notes that when Aurelia and other medusae are washed ashore

and stranded during low tide in midsunmer, they quick'y dry oul on the surface.

“Dehydration of the aqueous jelly brings out in surface relief embedded struc-

tures, which in life would hardly be discernible, except by transparency, on the

exterior, While the upper surface

x is hardened. thus inhibiting de-

N hydration, the surface in contact

NY with the heach remains soft and

NS 2 : ine, .

N often turgtd as in life. Depending

Vit laze « Crindstone ange on the texture of the sirand, the

OQ p<". Feel #2 sanals fore ge fzive,

imprint made br the surface may

be faithful or mdistinci. The in-

coming tide picks up the partially

embedded jellies and carries them

say tie hy old Se further ashore, and occasionally

Perr cherty PO aa ae turns then over to embed them

feet nnindr Hlaggy guarfzife, aga At (urn Ot tide with the erst-

while downside up.” He notes

iurther that extraordinarily rapid

i iki a cna exclusively with buried pelagic

forms. The fossils are impressions

in flaggy sandstone quartzite, and

the grooves of the impressions are

” epee | ts F E

ry solidification of the entombing

\ inatrix is not necessary, as firm

8 jellyfish can be dug from tidal sands

y SSPE Chocolate shales one of today wherein they haye appar-

Ng Feet sandstones i etitly remained buried for a much

= OF fact, COGLELES GH Graneted longer time than tidal periodicity.

N veas Checolete shales ad Sx the ‘Casé of the’ newly. dig

R Seep Sernatstonés with covered fossils we are dealing

1%)

FOO foep Grey shales.

445 feck Butt- white sand share.

|——- Agoréx. horizon of stained with ferruginous material

HEAR, or possess a film of clayey material

EL F040 Massive and Ft Th Toe S ys se

Lg OO4 ee Porentamed mao ¢ enclosing sediment was origin-

Jj ARCAAEOCVATIAIMALE ally a fine-graiied and well-sorted

sund witich had aeeumulated near

‘

g PS > ee tS : the western margin of the vast

S'S Nppo « A LYE SHO RS. Flinders sedimentary geosyneline

a Ny Fee (Out eee porte Fe, The environment of entombment

uy was that of intertidal flats or ot the

S 8 strandline,

My g Toughening of the surtace tissues

S) ‘ of the fossil animals as described by

Ne Agassiz and Caster seems almost

pad certainly to have occurred prior to

Fig. 2 h 2 . . rs ai

, . burial, and judging from the attt-

eeteliaey Senne peas tobias ee tude of the fossils in the field

associate tMHations a PIIndercs anges he yt we pak .

[modified after Sic D. Mawson 1939 (2) |, ste animals were mostly preserved

showing approximate horizons of known with their ex-umbrella surfaces

fossils. uppermost.

als

It is noted that the fossils were all found on “free” faces of faggy quartzite,

and always on the upper surfaces of these slabs. (Beds dip at 10° to 20°). The

fissility of the quartzite appears to have been controlled to some extent by the

presence of clayey films, which might also have had significance in the preserva-

tion of the fossil impressions.

DESCRIPTION AND TENTATIVE CLASSIFICATION ® OF

THE FOSSILS

Class SCYPHOZOA

Order (2) SAEMOSTOMEAE or (?) RHIZOSTOMEAE

Genus. Ediacaria Sprigg, gen, nov.

Genotype Ediacaria flindersi Sprigg, gen. et sp. nov,

Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series. (Lower Camhrian),

Ediacara, South Australia.

Being monotypic the new genus shows the species characters described below.

Generic characters include the hell-like manubrial structure and other structures

of the central disc area. Comparisons between Edtacaria and other most closely

related genera are given below,

Ediacaria flindersi Sprigg, gen. et sp. nov.

(Pl. I, fig. 1)

Ilolotvype: No. T.1, Tate Museum Collection, Adelaide University, South Aus-

tralia,

Deseription—Medusa impression circtilar, radially syimmetrical; surface

flattened, bet with radial and concentric features of low relief, Three concentric

zones are clearly distinguishable,

Inner Zone—(?) Manubrium bell-like, constricted near its jumetion centrally

with the suh-imbrella surface and expanded distally. It lies aver sideways and

is compressed laterally, Length 15 mm., and maximum width (flattened) 14 mm.

At least three pendant lobate pouches extend 9 tu 11 mm, centrifygally from the

base of the manubrium. Beyond these pouches the central zone is essentially

smooth, although there is an incomplete concentric grooye half-way to the zone

Wargin,

Median. Zone—Suriacc smooth, somewhat inflated: zone delimited on inner

and outer aspects by concentric grooves—one (or Lwo) on inher margin, and one

deeper with associated minor and less regular grooves on the outer. Two well-

marked tradial grooves are present, while indistitict radial striations are more

numerous.

External Zone—Surface flattened or only slightly comvex in transverse

section with minor concentric undulations or flutings and numerous radial grooves

or striae. In the annular segment representing three-fourths of the perimeter, at

least 44 separate radial grooves can be recognised. Although somewhat irregular

in themselves, they are distributed around the zone relatively evenly. Most diverge

centrifugally, but some converge in this direction. The outer margin (perimeter

of fossil) is fairly regular (ciretilac), and with one or two doubiful exceptions

is devoid of marginal notches. A concentric groove les approximately 4 mm. in

from the perimeter of the form.

() Classification used in this work is ‘bused on that of Parker and Haswell 1940.

216

Dimensions—largest diameter 114 mm. Respective widths of inner, median

and outer zoncs along greatest raditis 20 mm., 17 mm, and 25 mm,

Discussions and Comparisons—The specimien is considered lo be the impres-

sion of the sub-umbrella surface of a “dried out” jellyfish. Organs adjacent to the

oral surface uf the original animal have coime to stand ott in relier, and the

manubrium. stands out strongly, The central zone probably corresponds with the

gastrovascular cavity, and external structures of the central disc region are supéet-

imposed wpoEn It.

The sub-triangular (?) manubrial structure has been so iuterpreted because

of its apparent fusion centrally with the sub-wmnbrella surface, and because no

other comparable structures are distributed radially about the centre. The flattened

attitude of this manubhrial bell bears a superficial resemblance to the insert lobes

of the central discs of Kivklondia (Caster) and Rhizostonutes (aekel). How-

ever, the absence of more of these structures radially disposed about the centre

largely contradicts this view, In life the manubrial structure would be suspended

vertically from the central region. The shape of the month opening cannot he

judged.

Borgimatl Lespet

er Orreeatge Carat

SR Kestiel Canals

r Srameach.

‘3 Cad Ore = vesculer

cme sic)

oe Wiarw brie

eretent pouches

(genital sees)

B SYarracth ae

Kediot Comat Weve ‘iietle apna?

saeusth > Merokica

Ce ee Ir gy Tee, obit

‘ we has Seerian,

Fig, 3

Edijacaria fliudersi

A, details of the subuimbreila surface of the reconstructed form; B, crass section

through radial canals; C, actual profile section along a diameter of the fossil.

The three pendant pouches extending radially from the base of the manubriwn

are possibly gastro-gemital sacs in conection with radial canals, Judging from

the distribittion of the three sacs preserved there were probably eight of these in

the original ammal.

Various concentric futings, with the exception of that adjacent the margin

of the form, are referable to the circular muscles of the stb-umbrella. The epi-

marginal groove is probably a circular canal, in which case the narrow flange

beyond it would probably be a “hood.”

The well-marked radial grooves of the median zone correspond with inter-,

ad-, or per-radial canals, whereas the much finer, numerous radial striations of

the outer zone and to a much lesser extent of the median zone suggest more minor

canals, splitting and radiating towards the cireular canal. This may merely be

shrinkage creasing, but in any cases such ercases would tend to follow such rela-

tive weaknesses as the canal lines. The grooves are sub-parallel and tend to

inerease in number centrifugally, a feature which is in keeping with the canal

theary.

217

Two marginal notches can be interpreted; these are at intervals corresponding

with the separation indicated by projection to the margin of the stronger radial

canals of the median zone, It is noticeable that in each case deeper radial

striations continuc to cach notch. The annular (?) hoad structure, where observed

beyond one marginal notch, is indented in sympathy. This would support the

view that the notches are regular marginal features, possihly originally enclosing

sensory structures, Om the other hand it is noted that in other portions of the

fossil where cantinuons sections o7 the margin are preserved, other notches are

not apparent. This would suggest that the two notches noted may be accidental

invaginations of the margin consequent upon deformation during burial.

There are no indications of marginal tentacles, but in view of the coarse

nature of the enclosing sediment and the probable delicate nature of such tentacles

tf present, it is difficult to imagine that evidence of thent could have been pre-

served. Furthermore, experience with modern jellyfish (Aurelia, etc.) indicates

that in many cases the marginal tentacles drop off in the senescent stages.

There appears little doubt that Ediacaria is a Seyphozoan. The form

obviously had a datiened saucer or dise-Jike umbrella, and for this reason is

referred to either of the orders Semaeostomeae (Discomedusae) or Rhizo-

stameac, To decide further to which of these orders the form belongs, a detailed

knowledge of the structure of the mouth and oral arms would be necessary. In

view of the nature of the preservation af the specimen thig carmot be hoped for,

However, it is noticeable that the manubrial structure ag interpreted is relatively

simple—a fact which suggests correlation with the Semaeostomeac, or could per-

ceivably mdicate an even simpler class relationship (2iz., Hydrozoan), The

absence of marginal tentacles on the other hand ts a Rhizostomid character, but

in view of the difficulties already pointed out evidence such as. this is primarily

negative. It does seem, however, that no strong tentacles existed—a fact which

would preclude membership of the order Trachymedusae of the class Trachylinac.

Detailed comparisons with other fossils is exceedingly difficult in view of the

lack of kuowledge of many critical features, but it is noticeable that closest (super-

ficial) resemblance is perhaps with Rhizestomiles and Semacostomites (both

Haekel) of the Upper Jurassic of Solnhofen, Bavaria. In these forms three

concentric zones can be inferred, but otherwise there is little similarity in ayail-

able detail of the central dise regions, King muscles are well developed in the

outer portions of A/isostomites. as they are in Ediacaria. No obvious ring canal

is pteserit in Rhizostomites as it is in Ndiagaria and Seviaeostomites, and whereas

the margin of Scmacostomites is split up into 120-128 marginal jobes, such sub-

division is not apparent in the other two forms.

Ediacaria (7) sp, Sprigg

(Pl, 1, fig. 2)

Specimen No, T.2., Tate Mus. Coll, Adel, Univ., 5. Aust,

Deseription—Impression fragmentary; original fetm apparently circular, but

less than one-eighth of the perimeter is preserved, although the outline af the

central disc region is almost complete. In all, three concentric zones can he

made ont.

Central Zone—Surface smooth except where badly preserved; slightly

inflated; perimeter sub-circular.

Median and Outer Zones—Zones poorly differentiated; median one js smooth

and of variable width. Outer zone inflated somewhat towards outer margin,

and traversed by numerous sub-paralle! radia! grooves which fade towards either

margin. Exterior margin slightly lobate with indications of two minor notches.

218

Discussion and Comparison—In view of the absence of structures in surface

relief in the central and median zones of this fossil, it is suggested that here is a

cast of the ab-oral or ex-urnbrella surface of a jellyfish. The poor state of pre-

servation of the centremost portion of the fossil form prevents complete assess-

ment of this fact, but nevertheless there appear to be no signs of mouth or pastro+

genital structures, The centrally inflated region appears to have collapsed over

the stomachs of the animal and preserved, therefore, the roughly circular outline

of this region.

Tn the outer zone which, presumably, in the living animal was thin, the sub-

parallel radial grooves are well preserved, These are very numerous and appear

unbranched; they may represent radial canals or merely be shrinkage creases.

Prominent tadial striations continue directly to the two minor marginal notches,

and there are no signs of marginal tentacles,

‘Tentatively the fossil is considered to be an impression of the ab-oral surface

of a species of Ediacatia. As with the holotype specimen, three concentric zones

can be interpreted, the outermost of which is traversed by very numerous racial

striations, Indefinite notches which are separated by approximately equal intervals

appear marginally in both forms. Width relations of the respective zones of the

fossils agree favourabiy.

Class (?) SCYPHOZOA

Genus Beltanella Sprigg, gen. nov.

Genotype Beltanella gilesi Sprigg. gen. et sp. mov.

Pound quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian) Ediacara,

South Australia.

‘

Being monotypic this new genus shares the species traits described below.

Until more is known of the fossil, generic characters should include the octagonal

arrangement of the circular (?) gonadial structures and their association with the

radial canals, the presence of a well-developed delicate peripheral umbral or velar

structure and the simple circular oral aperture.

Beltanella gilesi Sprigg, gen. et. sp. nov.

(Pl. ii, fig. 1)

Vfolotype: No, T.3., Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., S. Aust.

Description—Medusa impression circular. Umbrella rather flat, but falling

away sharply near its onter margin. (?) Velariuim horizontal, depressed approxi-

mately 4 mm. in relation to the flat ex-umbrella surface. Umbrella region sub-

divided into two zones by a faint annular groove as follows,

Inner Zone—Surface smooth, broken only by annular grooves respectively

5 and 12 mm. in diameter at the centre. Centremost area depressed very slightly.

Ouler Zone—Surface dominantly flat, but slopes away steeply near outer

margin of umbrella. This secondary (sloping) surface has. the form of a highly

truncate cone whose apical angle is approximately 80 degrees. Zone characterised

by the presence of circilar (?) gonadial strictures, approximately 10 mm. in

diameter, These regular structures are arranged on either sides of the major

radial canals in an octagonal pattern centrally within the zone. At Jeast

four of these can be recognised and each possesses an inner concentric

groove 3-4 mm. in diameter. Two paired radial grooves (? canals) are diametri-

cally opposed, and a third set lies radially at right angles. The grooves pass inter-

mediate hetween (7?) paired gonadial structures but do not continue into the inner

219

zone. The ex-umbrella surface is slightly lobate at the edge of the flat raised

portion, but below where the conical surface meets the (?) velarium the margin

is smooth.

Fig. 4

Beltanella gilesi

A, details of extmbrella surface and related embedded organs; B, transverse

section through restored form; C, true profile section along diameter of form.

Velarium—Structure marginal, obviously thin, well developed; undulose

surface depressed ; undulations annular in plan,

Dimensions—Maximum diameter of fossil 110 mni., minimum 97: widths

along single radii of inner and outer zones and yelarium respectively 18-20, 21-23

and 10-14 mm.

Discussion and Comparisons—The specimen is the cast of the ex-umbrella

surface (ab-vral) of a jellyfish.

The central zone evidently corresponds with the gastrovascular cavily as at

its margin it gives off paired grooves which are interpreted as interradial canals.

There are no signs of subdivision within the cavity and no indication of com-

plicated manubrial structures. The simple circular grooves situated centrally may

be oral structures, or possibly representative of a collapsed truncate gastric

cone which occurs in some jellyfish to aid in the even distribution of food to

various portions of the animal's stornach,

The radial grooves of the outer zone are thought to be interracial canals,

although why they should be paired is not known. There is no sigi) of branch

canals from them, uor is there present any groove suggestive of a circular canal.

The circular (?) gonadial structures which are distributed- evenly around the

centre of this zone may be considered as paired in relation to the supposed radial

canals. The central annular grooves of each gonadial structure may mark a genital

operculum,

The (?) velarium or peripheral umbral jelly is remarkably well preserved

considering its obvious delicateness; its contained annular undulations may indicate

ring muscles,

The decision to place Beltanel{a within the Seyphozoa must be regarded only

as very tentative, as the animal has many restrictive features characteristic of

either certain orders of the Scyphozoa or of the Hydrozoa, For example, the

simple mouth, the presence of a few unbranched radial canals and the association

220

of the gonads with the radial canals are Trachylinid (Hydrozoan) characters. On

the other hand the flattened disc-shaped umbrella, its relatively large size, and the

absence of large tentacles are more characteristic of the Scyphozoa. It appears

very likely, therefore, that Bellanella is a. member of a group, ancestral to either

or both the Seyphozoa and Hydrozoa of modern times. Indeed, this is to he

expected considering the great age of the fossil. The author knows of no living

or fossil jellyfish with which useful comparison of the foregoing specimen can

be made.

The fossil 1s tentatively classified with the Scyphozoa, mainly in view of the

absence of the large tentacles which are typical of the Trachylinids.

On the slab of rock carrying the holotype there are at least four additional

circular structures (10-23 mm. in diarneter) which may represent juvenile forms.

All display annular grooves, and in the largest specimen, the central portion (9 mm.

in diameter) is raised relatively to the otiter zone. In the latter example (which

is photographed with the holotype) there is very definite evidence of a velar

structure, 2 mm. wide, similar to that of Beltanella,

Still another possibly related form found at the same locality is the dise-like

impression shown on p), ii, fig. 2 (specimen No. T4). This external cast is almost

Fig. 5

True profile section of nha form figured on pl. uy, fig. 2.

perfectly circular with a slightly raised rim near the external margin. The whole

structure stands in relief a little above the face of the quartzite slab, and its

surface is evenly convex, except in the marginal region, where it is raised some-

what; it shows no recognisable anatomical structure or ornamentation. This

smooth depressed (annular) arca (7-10 mm. wide) is faintly reminiscent of a

velar structure, Maximum diameter is 104 mim., nat including the latter structure.

The impression may be that of a simple discoid jellyfish or of a hydroid float.

Class (7) HYDROZOA or (?) SCYPHOZOA

Genus Cyclomedusa Sprigg, gen. nov.

Genotype Cyclomedusa davidi Sprige, gen. et sp. nov.

Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian) Ediacara,

South Australia,

This genus also is monotypic, and in view of the lack of detail of most of

the critical features of the form the generic characters are based tentatively om

the sculpturing of the (?) ex-umbrella surface of the form.

Cyclomedusa davidi Sprigg gen. et sp. nov.

(Pl, iii, fig. 1)

Holotype: No. T.5., Tate Mus. Coll,, Adel. Univ., S. Asst,

Description—Impression circular, depressed, with concetitric undulations.

Centra] portion raised, distinctly nodular. The whole form exhibits striking

radial symmetry, Surface subdivided by at least seven annular grooves. For

convenience three major zones are recognised.

Inner Zone—Consists simply of the hemispherical nodular portion mentioned

previously. Approximately 2-5 mm, in radial width and 1-5 mm. in height.

Median Zone—Subdivided into two annular portions of low relief, the inner

of which is traversed in turn by two annular grooves, while the outer is

z21

ornamented by very numerous radial striations about 3 mm. in length. There are

approximately 16 of these grooves in each quarter. A poorly developed annular

groove traverses the outer portion.

Outer Zone—Surface sculpture very similar to that of the median zone;

the smooth inner portion is bounded by annular grooves and the outer is traversed

by numerous poorly developed radia! striations averaging 4 mm. in length, The

outer margin to the zone is very poorly preserved.

Dimensions—Maximum diameter probably 50 mm. Average widths of the

inner, median and outer zones along single radius 2-5, 11-0 and 11-0 mm,

respectively,

Discussions and Comparisons—The surface ornamentations, which stand in

strong relief, appear to be of superficial significance, but some of the annular

flutings may be related to ring muscles of the subumbrella of a jellyfish. No

structures which can be attributed to a body cavity or to gonads are visible.

A arpoe Fig: 6

de —— fenctio! Cyelamedusa davidi

fi s ‘nf liars, . $ i.

4D EZ A, details of the surface ornamentation of the

Ye restored form;

Aisate 4 .

B . B, ptofile section along a diameter af the

i . Fretife Section ‘ i er

sis OT ead say are ss tei, actual iussil.

There is no evidence of extra-matginal structures, but as noted, the marginal

region of the fossil is poorly preserved. ,

In view of the paucity of critical detail, it is only with hesitation that the fossil

is provisionally included within the Coelenterata. The form is highly problematical

and possibly only represents the restricted central portion of a larger animal. It

does seem certain from its regularity and complexity, however, that the form is

not a pseudafossil.

Genus Dickinsonia Sprigg, gen. nov.

jenotype Dickinsonia costata Sprigg gen. et sp. nov.

Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian) Ediacara,

South Australia

This genus which is monotypic, exhibits the species characters described

below, Animal of ovoid form, (?) inflated aborally and possesses a marginal

crenulate Mange. Median longitudinal furrow gives off very mumerous subradial

grooves to the outer (crenulate) margin of the form,

Dickinsonia costata gen. et sp. nov.

(PL iii, fg. 2)

Holotype: No. T.6., Tate Mus. Coll., Adel, Univ., South Australia.

Description—Impression ovoid, bilaterally symmetrical, essentially flat.

Median longitudinal furrow approximately 35 mm. long, gives off 80 to 90 radiat-

ing or diverging grooves or costae (7?) alternatively to the outer margin of the

fossil. Margin slightly crenulate, the notches corresponding with the intersection

of the radiating grooves. Well developed concentric epi-marginal sulcus marks

off a marginal Hange.

Dimensions—Length 68 mm.; width 60 mm, Flange width variable, from

2 to 7 mm., due to distortion.

222

Discussions and Comparisons—The fossil is the impression of the (?) dorsal

aspect of a bilaterally symmetrical animal of very doubtful affinities. During

burial the animal was flattened and compressed slightly obliquely in a manner

which suggests that it was strongly convex dorsally, The afiimal was symmetrical

across both longitudinal and transverse planes. Radiating grooves or costae may

represent chitinous rods or canals, while the epimarginal groove may represent

a circular canal. No gastrogenital structures or appendages are apparent,

It is exceedingly difficult to classify Dickinsonia on the little detail ayailable.

The author knows of no related animal with which to establish relationships, and

until new specimens with more detail are found little more can be suggested than

that the animal is probably a coelenterate.

Fig. 7

Dickivisonia costata

Details of surface ornamentation of the restored

form as viewer in elevation (A) and in plan (B).

There are certain superficial features in which it resembles the problematical

form Discophyllum peltatum (Hall), but these apparent resemblances soon dis-

appear when detailed comparisons are made. Discaphyllwin is a rounded or oval

flattened form with bars which radiate froni the centre of the form, and not from

a longitudinal furrow as in Dickinsonia. Also there are fine concentric undulating

lines that cross both the rays and the interspaces between them, Comparable

structures do fottoccur in Dickinsonia. There is no flatige structure in Disco-

phyllum, nor is the external margin crenulate, The ribs fade out before the

margin is reached.

(?) Dickinsonia sp.

(PI. iv, fig. 1)

Specimen No. T.7., Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., South Australia,

Description—Impression fragmentary, radially costate; costae continue to the

margin, Margin rounded, slightly crenulate in sympathy with the disposition of

the costae. A slight bending of the costae, noticeable 7-8 mm. in from the margin

of the fossil, indicates a tendency to flange formation,

Discussions and Comparisons—From the little detail available for comparison

of this specimen with the foregoing holotype the major similarities are concerned

with the radiating costae, which in both forms are strongly developed and continue

to the somewhat crenulate margin. In the holotype specimen the costae are

interrupted by a very well marked concentric sulctis, whereas in the latter specimen

there is only the faintest hint of interruption of the radial costae in a similar

position, None of the costae in the second specimen appear to diverge as if to

unite alternatively into.a central furrow as in the type form,

The correlation of this fossil with Dickinsonia is quite tentatve and the form

must be considered problematical.

228

Genus Papilionata Sprigg, gen. nov.

Genotype Papilionata eyrei gen. et sp. nov.

Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian) Ediacara,

South Australia,

The gerius is monotypic and shares the species characters described below.

Unfortunately, the yereric characters must be based on the shape of the fossil

and its resiticted surface sculpture, The form is bilaterally symmetrical,

papilionaceous with the amygdaloidal “wings” fused anteriorly. A marginal

gtoove is present and the posterior margin of the wings ig met by sub-parallel or

slightly radiating grooves.

Papilionata eyrei Sprigg, gen. et sp. mov.

(Pl. iv, fig. 2)

Holotype: No. T.8.. Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., South Australia,

Description—Impression bilaterally symmetrical, Left hand portion im-

perfectly preserved and fragmenta]. Complete impression papilionaceaus, the

“wings” being fused for approximately 30 mm, in the anterior aspect, The left

hand wing is amygdalvidal in plan, curved convexly on the inner margin, and

rounded and slightly lobate (posteriorly) on the lateral margin, From the

posterior portion of this margin, radial grooves converge towards a central point

near the inner margin, but fade out after 10 to 20 mm. The grooves are stronger

and longer at the posterior extremity, and they are fot visible forward of the

cetitre of this margin. The single notch on the lateral margin may mot have

anatomical significance, being probably a crenulation due to the animal's assumed

position of rest. The lateral margin is paralleled by a well-developed groove

through which the radial costae continue uninterrupted. The groove diverges

slightly from the margin at the anterior end. <A similar divergence is apparent

in the “reflected” wing.

Dimensions —~Maximum width of complete extended form 150 mm.

Maximtim length and width of single wing 112 and 56 mm, respectively.

Discussions aud Comparisons--The impression has been described as bi-

laterally symmetrical, but there is a possibility that two separate ofganisms may

be represented, the line of “fusion” as described being a fortuitous overlap of the

respective organisms. Nevertheless, the excellent “reflection” of the two portions

appears to predispose of this view. The single wing impression suggests

a disc-like jellyfish lying upon its margin with portion of its umbrella surface

folded under.

The atithor knows of no similar organism with which useful comparison

can be made.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to Dr. Curt Teichert for valuable suggestions at

several stages in the preparation of the manuscript, and to Professor J. A. Prescott

for undertaking the photographing of the fossils at the Waite Research Institute.

REFERENCES

Acassiz, L. 1862 “Contributions to the Natural History of the United States

of America,” 4, 63

Caster, K. E. 1945 “A New Jellyfish (Kirklandia texana, Caster) from the

Lower Cretaceous of Texas.” Palaeoritographica Americana, 3, No, 18

224

CHAPMAN, F, 1926 “New or little known Fossils in the National Museum.”

Pt. xxx: A Silurian Jellyfish. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 39, (1), 13-17

Davin, T. W. E. 1927 “Note on the Geological Horizon of the Archaeo-

cyathinae.” Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 51

Davin, T. W. E., and Trttyarp, R. J, 1936 “Memoir on Fossils of the late

Pre-Cambrian (Newer Proterozoic) from the Adelaide Series in South

Australia.” Angus and Robertson, Sydney

Krestrncer, A. 1939 “Scyphozoa” (in Schindewolf, O., Handbuch der Palaeo-

zoologie), Bd, 2A, Lief 5, Berlin, 70-109

Mawson, D. 1939 (1) “The Late Proterozoic Sediments of South Australia.” —

A.N.Z.A.A.S., 24

Mawson, D. 1939 (2) “The Cambrian Sequence in the Wirrealpa Basin.”

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63, (2)

Parker, T. J., and Haswetr, W. A. 1940 “Text-Book of Zoology.” Mac-

Millan & Co., London

Spricc, R. C. 1942 “The Geology of the Eden-Moana Fault Block.” Trans,

Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 66, (2), 201

Watcort, C.D. 1898 “Fossil Medusae,” Monograph. U.S.G.S., 30,

Trans. Roy, Soe. S. Aust,, 1947 VoL 71, Plate V

; Photo hy K.P. Phillips

hie. 1 Hatewaria flinders! Sprigg

(approx.

Thote by K.P, Phillips

ie, 2 Hdtacaria (2) flindersi Sprigg

Slightly less than natural size,

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., L947 Vol. 71, Plate VI

. : Phote by K.P. Phillips

Fie. 1) Beltanclla yilest: Sprigg

Two thirds tatural size.

Pliote by KT Phillips

{>).

Fig. 20 Discotd Seyphozeun or Zooidal Hoat (x

Trans, Roy. Soe, S. Aust., 147 Vol. 71, Vlate VII

Thate hy KU. Mallips

Mhioty diy te TS Phiten

Tice. 2 Jicvkinsania costal Sprige

Shelitly ducer than falaral size,

Trans, Roy. Soe, S. Aust., 1947 Vol. 71, Plate VIIL

Phote by K.P. Phillips

Big. 1 Dtchinsonta (2) sh Capprax. x14)

Photo hy K.P. Phillips

Kiv, 2 Pupilionata eyrei Sprige

(approx, x @).

SOME NEW EURYMELIDS FROM AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA

(HOMOPTERA, JASSOIDEA)

By J. W. EVANS

Summary

A collection of Homoptera recently sent me by Mr. D. C. Swan included representatives of eight

species of Jassoids belonging to the family Eurymelidae, which he had collected in New Guinea

during the war. Five of these species are described below. Of the remainder, one, Eurymeloides

nigra Evans, is confined to New Guinea, and two, Eurymeloides punctata Sign, and E. adspersa

Sign., both of which are well-known Australian species, are recorded from New Guinea for the first

time. The host plants were species of Eucalyptus and Melaleuca.

225

SOME NEW EURYMELIDS FROM AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA

(HOMOPTERA, JASSOIDEA)

By J. W. Evans*

Communicated by D. C. Swan

[Read 7 August 1947]

A collection of Homoptera recently sent me by Mr. D. C. Swan included

representatives of eight species of Jassoids belonging to the family Eurymelidae,

which he had collected in New Guinea during the wat. Five of these species are

described below. Of the remainder, one, Eurymeloides nigra Evans, is confined

to New Guinea, and two, Eurymeloides punctaia Sign. and E, adspersa. Sign., both

of which are well-known Austrilian species, are recorded from New Guinea for

the first time. The host plants were species of Excalyptus and Melaleuca,

Of the remaining four new species of Eurymelids described below, the most

distinctive is [poella devisi, which was collected in North-west Australia by the

late Dr. Consett Davis, whose tragic death in 1944 was an irreparable loss to

entomology in Australia,

Eurymeloides sogerensis sp. nov,

Length, 5mm. Head, face evenly dark brown, but for the outer margins of

the lora and maxillary plates, which are cream. Pronatwm brown mottled with

pale greyish-brown, Scutellum dark brown. Tegimen dark brown, irregularly

mottled with dark grey. Thorax, ventral surface and legs, dark brown. Male

Genitalia, aedeagus as in fig. 1, A.

Holotype, 8, from Sogeri, New Guinea (D. C, Swan, 5/45), in the British

Museum. Paratypes in the South Australian Museum,

Eurymeloides motuana sp. noy,

Length, 7 mm. Head dark nigger or reddish-brown mottled with yellow ;

ante-clypeus dark brown; lora and adjacent parts of the maxillary plates

yellowish or pale brown, Pronotwi nigger or reddish-brown mottled with ivory.

Scutellum, the angles black, centrally dark brown with oval yellowish markings.

Tegmen black with two irregular white, transverse fasciae and with a white

marking at the distal apex of each anal vein. Legs brown, the bases of the

spines and the proximal tarsal segment of the hind tibia, white, Male Genitalia,

aedeagus as in fig. 1, 0.

Holotype, &, irom Port Moresby, New Guinea (D. C, Swan, 5/45), in the

British Museum. Paratypes in the South Australian Museum,

Eurymeloides nigrebrunnea sp. nov.

Length, 7-2 mm. Head, maxillary plates pale brownish-yellow ; ante-clypetus

lora and fronto-clypeus pale reddish-brown; vertex dark hrown mottled with

apricot yellow. Pronotum and Scutcllwm chestnut brown or brown mottled with

yellow. Tegmen black with two white fasciae, each with a large irregular biack

marking, «anal veins distally white. Legs, femora pale brown, tibiae dark brown,

the bases of the spines and the proximal tarsal segment, white. Male Genitalia,

aedeaptts as in fig. 1, C.

Hololype, 8, from Port George, North-west Australia (C, Davis, 5/43), in

the British Museum. Paratypes in the South Australian Museum,

* Imperial Institute of Entomology-

Trans. Roy. Suc. 5. Aust,, 71, (2), 1 December 1947

226

Ipoides brunomaculata sp. nov.

Length, 5 mm. Head, face, but for the vertex, yellowish-ivory with a median

longitudinal dark brown stripe. Vertex pale brown irregularly mottled with

chestnut brown, Crown and pronotum pale chestnut brown mottled with

yellowish-ivory. Scutellum deep chestnut brown with two pale semi-circular

markings. Tegmen pale hyaline brown with irregular white markings; veins

white, brown in part. Legs very pale brown. Male Genvtala, aedeagus as in

fig. 1, F.

Holotype, &@, from Port Moresby, New Guinea (D. C. Swan, 5/45), in the

British Museum, Paratypes in the South Australian Museunz.

F G H

Ipoides melaleucae sp. nov.

Length, 5 mm. Head, face, niaxillary plates greyish, the rest of the face pale

greyish-brown evenly mottled with dark brown. Crown, pronotum and scutellum,

greyish, sparsely mottled with brown. Tcgmen very pale hyaline brown; yeins

brown with white bars. Legs, femora dark brown, tibiae pale brown. Male

Genitalia, aedeagus as in fig. 1, G.

Holotype, &, from Sogeri, New Guinea (D. C. Swan, 5/45), in the British

Museum, Paratypes in the South Australian Museum.

Anipo pallescens sp. nov,

Length, 5°5 mm. Head, face, maxillary plates, lora and fronto-clypeus

laterally, ivory partially suffused with apricot; ante-clypeus, the fronto-clypeus

227

medially and the vertex, deep coffee brown with pale oval markings, Crown and

Pronotum pale greyish-brown mottled laterally with dark brown. Sextellum,

anterior lateral angles dark brown, the remainder pale brown, Tegmen pale

hyaline brown with evenly distributed circular colourless hyaline areas. Thorax,

ventral surface and legs marked with a pattern of pale and dark brown. Male

Geniiaha, aedeagus as in fig, 1, F.

Holotype, 8, from Sogeri, New Guinea (D. C. Swan, 5/45), in the British

Museum, Paratypes in the South Australian Muscum.,

Ipoella davisi sp. nov.

Length, 5 mm, Head, face almost fat; ante-clypeus natrowly depressed

anteriorly, dark brown; fronto-clypeus medially dark brown, shading to pale

brown, laterally ivory; lora brown adjacent to the arite-clypens, laterally ivory ;

maxillary plates ivory anterior to the antennae, dark brown beneath the eyes;

vertex chestntir and very dark brown, posteriorly ivory. Crown brown with

irregular dark brow? markings. Pronotum buff mottled with brown. Scutéellum

dark brown. Tegmen hyaline, the costal margin and the apex smoky brown, the

remainder dark brown with a broad proxima! white fascia and white markings at

the apex of the first anal vein. Some specimens have also a distal white fascia.

Male Genitalia, aedeagus as in fig. 1, D.

Holotype, 8, from Isdell River, Walcott Inlet, North-west Australia

(C, Davis, 9/43 on Ficus), in the British Museum. Paratypes in the South Aus-

tralian Museum.

Bakeriola tasmaniensis sp. nov.

Length, 5 mm. Head, face black sparsely mottled with brown but for the

outer margins of the maxillary plates, which are white and the Jora, which are

cream, partially suffused with pale brown. Crown of head and pronotum pale

brown mottled with dark brown. Seutellun darle brown. Tegmen, clavus con-

colorous with the pronotum, the remainder hyaline brown with circular and

irregularly shaped colourless area, Legs dark brown but for the coxae, the tarsi,

and both ends of the tibiae and femora, which are pale brown. Male Genitalia,

aedeagus as in fig. 1, H,

Holotype, 8 from Risdon, Tasmania (J. W, E., 4/39), in the British

Museum. Paratypes in the South Australian Museum,

Bakeriola tubra sp. nov.

Length, 4-8 mm. General coloration dark brown. Head, face evenly convex,

dark brown mottled with reddish-brown. Crown and pronotum irregularly

mottled with dark brown and reddish-brown. Scutellum dark brown, mottled

antero-medially with pale reddish-brown . 2'vgmen, hyaline dark and reddish-

brown with oval white markings. Legs reddish-brown, hind tibia with three spurs

and several spines,

Holotype, é, from Moolooka, Queensland (4/44, E. F, Riek), in the British

Museum. Paratype in the South Australian Museum,

Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 71, (2), Dec. 1947

T. LANGFORD SMITH

GEOLOGICAL MAP

PORTION OF HUNDREDS OF

BELALIE, YANGYA, CALTOWIE, TARCOWIE, MANNANARIE AND WHYTE

COUNTIES VICTORIA AND DALHOUSIE

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

+ SCALE =

80 60 40 20 0 80 ig60 CHAINS

MILES

a ‘69 ¢ |

afi tL

ty '

I~ aN

| [iI

1 POREST

RESERVE

sesserserenlT) Quartzile & Sandstone

[====]H Slates & Shales (Tapley Hill Series) = =lc Slates &Phyllites with some Shales & thin beds of Dolomitic Limestone

“4° 4°|G Tillite Series oe

—--=|* Arkose Grit in Tillite Series JA Phylliles a Slates with some thin beds of Dolomitic Limestone

-——F Sub-Glacial Quartzite Vv} Alluvium with no rock outcrops

SIS JE Slates Phyllites « Hornfels T. LANGFORD-SMITH

1942

SlB Quartzite & Sandstone

THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND

By J. W. EVANS

Summary

Kangaroo Island lies off the South Australian coast at the base of Gulf St. Vincent, being separated

from Fleurieu Peninsula by Backstairs Passage (10 miles wide) and from Yorke Peninsula by

Investigator Strait (about 26 miles wide). The Island is 90 miles long and up to 32 miles wide,

narrowing to only ¥% mile wide between the American River inlet and the south coast (see fig. 1).

The long axis of the island is approximately east-west; the island lies between latitude 35° 5’ S. and

35°34 7’ E. and 138°8’ E.

228

THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND

I. A GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE ALGAL ECOLOGY

By H. B.S. Womurscey *

Puates IX to XILL

[Read 7 August 1947]

INTRODUCTION

Kangaroo Island lies off the South Australian coast at the base of Gulf

St. Vincent, being separated from Fleurieu Peninsula by Backstairs Passage

(10 miles wide) and from Yorke Peninsula by Investigator Strait (about 26 miles

wide); The Island is 90 miles long and up to 32 miles wide, narrowing to only

4 mile wide between the American River inlet and the south coast (see fig. 1).

The long axis of the island is apptoximately east-west; the island hes between

latitude 35°5’S. and 35°344°S, and between jongitude 136° 32’, and

138° 8 E.

‘The situation of Katgaroo Island in relation to the mainland, and the shape

of the island itself, result in great variation in conditions of roughness along the

coast, The exposed and rough south and west coasts contrast markedly with the

calmer areas of the north coast, while the American River tidal inlet forms a

distinct type of habitat not found elsewhere around the island,

From the point of view of algal ecology Kangaroo Island offers a particularly

satisfactory area for study, cspecially in ilustrating the control exerted on the

algal flora by the degree of wave action.

This paper is the first report on work carried out during the past four

years. The aim has been, firstly, to give a general account of the intertidal algal

ecology of a part of the Southern Australian coast, since there have heen no

previous ecological studies of this region; secondly, to obtain as comprehensive a

list as possible of the species present; and thirdly, ta carry out autecological

studies of the more characteristic and dominant species.

In this paper it is proposed to describe the more important environmental

factors for the island as a whole; to discuss the terminology found most satis-

factory; and to give a preliminary general account of the broader aspects of the

algal ecology. In subsequent papers the more detailed ecology of characteristic

regions will be dealt with, and a cetisus of the known species will be given.

Floristic and ecological comparisons with other areas will also be left to later

papers. By first presenting a general survey of the algal ecology of the whole

island, it is hoped to give perspective to the later detailed descriptions of indi-

vidual localities.

The localities atound the island which have been studied are shown in fig, 4.

Of these, Pennington Bay and American River have received most attention. It

has been possible to pay only one or two short visits to the western end of the

island, while the very rough nature of the country and lack of roads prevents

visits to most of the intervening parts of the south and west coasts. This, and

the restriction of field work to the University vacations, have limited examination

af most localities other than American River and Pennington Bay to January.

Seasonal changes in places other than American River and Pennington Bay are

therefore unknown as yet, but the associations which occur in these places and

are described in this paper are almost certainly present throughout the year.

* Department of Botany, University of Adelaide.

Trans. Ruy. Sor. 5. Aust, 71, (23, 1 December 1947

229

The areas studied at Western River and Middle River consist of the coast

on cither side of the river mouth, These rivers rn only after heavy rain, al

other times being blocked by a sand bar at the mouth, American River, however,

is an extensive tidal inlet, consisting of a series of lagoons with wide tidal flats

and i central channel, opening to the sea thrangh a mouth some 250 yards wide.

The amount of fresh water entering the lagoons from small creeks is teghible,

except for possible local effects after heavy rain, The conditions at all “River”

localities, therefore, are truly marine.

Previous Marine Ecovocican Stupies im AtsTRavia

Australian phycology is based to a Jarge extent on the work of the early

European algologists, Harvey, Agardh, Sonder and others, who described collec-

tions sent to them from Australia. As a result, very little ecological information

is available about the carly localities from which collections were made, THarvey

(1854), however, gave short notes on the Western Australian coast, und ecological

information about many species in his Phycologia Australica,

More recently, Hedley (1915) has presented a very general survey of the

New South Wales coast, and Lucas (1935) has described the algal ecology of

Lord Howe Island. Pope’s (1943) survey of animal and algal life on a reef near

Sydney is the only work of a detailed nature, but deals primarily with the animal

ecology.

The review of Chapmati (1946) gives a comprehensive list of references to

algal ecology studies elsewhere in the world.

Previous Recorps FROM KANGARGO Istann

Previous records of marine algae from Kangaroo Island are very few.

Cleland and Black (1941) listed 11 species collected from near the mouth of

Sou" West River, and determined by A, H. S, Lucas, Lucas (1929), in his

census, lists two species from the island, while Part [ of “The Seaweeds of South

Australia” records Caulerpa hedleyi W. vy. Bossc, “dredged in some 8 fathoms off

the coast.” Part II of the “Seaweeds of South Australia” contains several

records, all incorporated by the present atithor. Two shott Teports on the

dtivularias and a new species of Dasyopsis have also been published (Womersley

1946 a and b).

The land vegetation of Kangaroo Island has réceived considerable attention.

Tate (1883) gave the first general account of the Island, and more recently

Wood (1930) has elucidated the relationships of the flora and shown a high

degree of endemism, particularly in species confined to the western end, Baldwin

and il (1941) have described yegetation commitnities in the central part of

the Island.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

1. THE Coasran GEoLogy

The present study has shown that while the individual type of rock has

little effect on ihe flora, the rock topography, in that it may result in different

types of habitats, may be of considerable importance in determining the algal

associations of an area.

The only reasonably detailed geological map of Kangaroo Island is that of

Wade (1915), which is followed in fig. 1, The backbone of the island consists

of Pre-Cambrian schists and gneisses, overlain in the central part hy siliceous

sand and laterite. On the west coast, eastern part of the north coast, and to a

lesser extent on the east coast, these rocks form magnificent cliff scenery, The

coast west of En Bay is of later age (Post-Cambrian) (Madigan 1928).

230

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The most significant geological features of the south coast of Kangaroo

Island are the outcrops of ancient rocks at the capes. These outcrops do not

rise to any notable height ahove sea level, and mostly appear at the font of cliffs

which fringe the shore. The extent of these outcrops of Pre-Cambrian rocks is

shown in fig. 1. Two types of rocks, granile and quartzite or niica schists, form

alternating patches along some of the coast. Between the areas of older rocks

the coast consists either of sandy beaches backed by sand dunes or of sand-

rock cliffs and horizontal reefs formed from older consolidated sand dunes, This

rock weathers into very sharp edges and pinnacles, and by its variable hardness

makes an irregular coast.

The two different types of rock found on the south coast of Kangaroo Island,

i¢., the flat rock platforms of consolidated sand-rack such as al Pennington Bay,

and the harder more steeply sloping rocks suck as secn at Cape Willoughby, west

of Vivonne Bay, and Cape Coudie, result in two very different habitats for algal

and anima! growth, and appear to illustrate the conditions occurring along most

of the south coast (cf., pl. ix, fig. 3, and pl. xii, fig. 1).

Most of the American River inlet consists of extensive sandy or sandy-mud

tidal flats, but in many areas, particularly in Pelican Lagoon, these stretch out

from low cliffs of the same consolidated sand-rock as at Pennington Bay on the

south coast,

The northern coast of the island is composed mainly of ancient rocks sloping

off into 3 to 12 or more feet of water, giving a relatively small area of rock

exposed at low tide-

2. Decree or WAVE Action

The degree of roughness of any locality is of prime importance in determining

the algal associations present. The south and west coasts ate exposed without

any protection to the Southern Qcean, and conditions are invariably rough. Heavy

breakers are a constant feature of this coastline (see pl. ix, fig. 1). Passing

along the north cnast, from west lo east, conditions become progressively calmer,

owing to the shelter afforded by the mainland. Northwards from Cape

Willoughby and past Hog Bay wave action is moderate, with breakers only in

rough weather, American River and Pelican Lagoon, quite unlike the rest of

the island, form an almost land-locked area where wave action is at a minimum.

Although wave action is of great importance as an ecological factor, its

measurement in any satisfactory way scems impossible, Average values of the

forces from wave action to which algae ate subjected in any one locality are

needed, These should be measured over short periods (when extrenies may

necur), as well as over monthly and yearly periods, In the absence of any such

measurements it is necessary, in some cases, to use the algae themselves as an

index of the conditions. This has heen done in subdividing the Rocky Shore

Formation into subtormations, depending on the presence or absence of

Cystophora intermedia J. Ag. This alga is dominant in the sublittoral fringe on

rough rocky coasts, but is replaced by other species of Cystophora on calmer

coasts.

3. Tipes

The tides around the Australian coast, including the main characteristics

and ranges of the tides in the South Australian Gulf region, have been described

briefly by R, W. Chapman (1938). The tides around Kangaroo Island are of

the semi-citrnal type, wilh two maxima, one appreciably lower than the other,

and two ininima during each 244-hour period. Vip. 2 shows the form of the

spring and neap (“dodge’’) tides at American River,

232

SPRING TIDES

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Fig. 2

Tide curves for spring and dodge tides in the American River Inlet and at

Pennington Bay (spring tides only). The range of each tide curve and times of

high and low water are comparable, but the heights given for each are arbitrary.

The curves are derived from 24-hour surveys carried out at the American River

Jetty, Muston Jetty, (3 miles south of American River Jetty), Pig Island in

Pelican Lagoon, (2 miles East of Muston) and at Pennington Bay on the

following dates: spring tides fan. 10-11, 1947; dodge tides Jan. 16-17, 1947,

jOOO

233

South Australian tides vary so greatly from piace to place along the coast,

both in their nature and times of high and low water, that it is necessary to

obtain actual records from cach locality. The tides have been analysed at com-

paratively few places, especially around Kangaroo Island, An automatic tide

gauge recently established at Hog Bay should give most interesting results when

records became available. The data given below for Kangaroo Island tides are

derived from information made ayailable by the Seuth Australian Harbours

Roartl and trom 24-hour surveys carried out at American River and Pentugton

Bay. It will be evident that until accurate and more extensive tidal data are

availabie, general limits and heights only can be given for the main algal zones.

Tidal range around Kangaroo Island is small, Along ihe south and west

coasts the spring range is about 24 feet, Passing eastwards along the north

coast it imereases Ly 44 feet at Kinyscote, just over 4 feet at American River aud

Hog Bay, 44 feet at Antechamber Bay, while a rise of G feet is recorded from

Cape Willoughby from old data (but this is probably too high), The neap (or

“dodge") tides probably have a range of about 14 feet on the south coast and

24 feet on the north. On the south and west coasts rhe small tidal range means

that the wind and strength of the swell may exert nearly as great an effect as

the tide itself, and little reliance can be placed on the tides alone.

The most notable peculiarity of South Australian Vides is the “dodging’*

tide, This is discussed by R. W, Chapman (1924). At Port Adelaide, where

the effeet is most prominent, the water level may remain almast constant far

24 houl's or more at the neap periods, The cause is that during the neap period

the sun and the moon, together with the other tide-producing forces, exert almost

equal but opposite effects, one nullifying the other, It has heen suggested that

the abnormally large effect of the sun is accounted for by the synchronising of

the natural period of swing of the basin of water between Australia and

Antarctica with the period of the tide-producing forces.

At American River (see tide curves, fig. 2) the dodge effect scems to be

present, though small, at the neap period. For abaut 6 hours the water level

remains almost stationary, before the next rise or fall commences, Along much

of the north coast this period of sweady water leyel seems to oeenr, but no data

are available as yet apart from isolated surveys at American Kiver.

During winter the mean sca level at Port Adelaide is from 4 inches to

6 inches higher than in summer. This applies also to Kangaroo Islatid, with con-

sequently higher tides during the winter months. With heavy west tu north

weather daring winter very high tides often oceur along the north coast. This

is due to Inyestigalor Strait being about 24 times as wide as Backstairs Passage,

with consequent building up of the water mass in the area north of Kangaroo

Island under the influence of westerly weather, The higher sea level during

winter is of considerable importance on the south cuast, where the inercase i8

large compared with the tidal range. The level of the horizontal rack plat forms

of the Pennington Bay region appears to correspond approximately with an

average Jow neap tide level in summer. While north winds and low tides oecasion-

ally leave much of the reefs exposed in summer, with consequent drying and

desiccation of the algae, this rarely, if ever, occurs in winter, Apart from

allowing a heavier growth in winter, this is also one of the factors controlling

seasona] changes on the reefs, Similar considerations may apply to a less extent

in che American River inlet,

4. Currents

The surface current flows from west to cast across ile Great Australian

Bight, passes along both sides of Kangaroo Island and on towards Tasmania

234

(see “Australia Pilot,” 1, 24). Eastward from the Bight the coastal current 1s

strongest in the period May to July, with an average rate of 7 miles per day off

the coast between Kangaroo Island and Cape Northumberland, During February

to April and August to October it is weaker, averaging 3 miles per day, while

from November to Jantiary it averages less than 2 miles per day. The currents

in Backstairs Passage are largely tidal, reaching a speed of 23 knots.

5. TEMPERATURES

Observations taken around the coast of the island give the following results

for sea temperature (Table 1). No data from other sources are available, but

the figures agree well with the temperature isotherms given by Sverdrup et al

(1942).

TABLE I

Sea Temperatures around the Coast of Kangaroo Island

South coast—Summer (Jan.) - . inshore 19-20° C,, offshore probably 18° C.

Winter (early June) inshore 16° C.

(late July) inshore 13+5° C,

(Sept.) - inshore 14° C.

{

inshore 20-21" C., offshore 19-20° C,

inshore 11-13° C,, depending on depth and

air temperature; offshore 13-14° C,

North coast—Summer (Jan.) -

Winter (Jutre) -

From this table it is evident that the yearly range of sea temperature on the

south coast is small, being about 4° C, offshore and 5 to 6° C. on reefs, The

range is greater on the north coast and depends greatly on the depth of water and

degree of roughness, since the calmer water is affected much more by air tetn-

peratures. On the tidal fats at American River temperatures as high as 32° C,

have been recorded during stmmer in 6-12’ of water, and as low as 10° C. in

winter, Algae on the flats must be able to withstand a far greater range in tem-

perature than south coast forms. In isolated rock pools at Vivonne Bay and

along the north coast temperatures of up to 30-34° C, are frequent in summer.

Atr TEMPERATURES

_ The climate of Kangaroo Island is fairly uniform. Some data for Kingscote

are given in Table If. The humidity figures probably give little indication of the

humidity near algae exposed at low tide. Air temperatures are of greatest

importance when a hot day (sometimes 35- 38°C. in summer) coincides with a

low tide. Under such conditions algae on the Pennington Bay reefs may be

almost or quite exposed for several hours and considerable damage may result.

Taste It

Air Temperature and Humidity Data for Kingscote

(From data made available by the South Australian Weather Bureau)

All readings were taken at 50 fect above sea level, over a period of 17 years.

: Jan. Feb, Mar. April May June July Avg. Sept. Oct. Nov. Deér. Mealy

Mean Max.

Temp.°C, 22-3 22-7 21-4 19-3 17-7 14-9 14-2 14-5 15-8 17-8 19-8 21-4 18-4

Mean Min,

Temp.°C. 14-5 15:6 14-2 12:35 11:0 96 BF 8S YS 105 12:1 13-8 11-7

Mean Rel.

Humidity 70 74 75 76 80 83 82 RO 79 75 72 72 76

235

6, SALINITY

Chlorinity of sea water on the south and north coasts is within the range

19'6-19-99/, (salinity 35°4-35°99/,.). North coast values are usually slightly

higher than those from the sonth coast. At Pelican Lagoon chlorinity in sum-

mer reaches 20°5°/,,, (salinity 37°0°/,,,), while in isolated rock pools (some with

a heavy growth of Auteromorpha) summer chlorinity figures of 24-0°/,, have been

ubtained, After three days of heavy rain (January 1946) chlorinity on the tidal

flats at American River decreased to 17°/,,,,; such conditions, however, are very

exceptional.

Normal sea salinity around Kangaroo Island is high compared with other

regions (¢.g., 34°9°/,, salinity near Sydney (Pope 1943) ).

7. ProsPHate AND NITRATE

Estimations of these two major nitrients are as yet tuo few in number for

any general conclusions ta be reached. It appears, however, that nitrate is often

extremely low (less than 1 part per 10°), while phosphate is rather variable.

Phosphate figures of 14 and 23 p.p, 10° have been obtained from the south coast,

and values between 2 and 60 pp. 10° from the American River inlet, Isolated high

figures. obtained at American River are probably due to the large bird population.

8. ALKALINITY

The pH of water (by colorimetric methods) at Pennington Bay is about

8°2-8'3, while at Pelican Lagoon figures of 8*1 have been obtained.

9, Dussorvep OxYGEN

The constantly boisterous seas on the south and west coasts result in water

supersaturated with oxygen, The water on reefs at Pennington Bay is usually

about 110% saturated with oxygen. Oxygen figures in shallow water at the

American River inlet in summer show high supersaturation during the day

(120- 150%, rarely as high as 250%), dropping to 50-70% saturation at night

(un extreme of 10% saturation has been recorded). Such large ranges are due to

the heavy growth of algae in the calm shallow water. For the most part it is

unlikely that oxygen content of the water is of importance in the algal ecology.

The Winkler method was used in all estimations.

10, Licut

No attempt has been made to measure light intensities at different depths,

but correlation of shaded littoral areas with communities of sub-littoral algae has

been observed at Pennington Bay and Vivonne Bay. On the south coast, with

constantly broken water, light penetration will be less than in calmer waters off

the north coast. At American River the large amount of silt carried in the tidal

current reduces light penetration and may influence algal distribution.

TERMINOLOGY

At the present stage there is little uniformity in nomenclature used in marine

algal ecology. Chapman (1946) reviews opinions expressed about terminology,

and advocates adoption of the terms used in land ecology. However, atid ecolo-

gists are far from agreement on their terminology, and until many more marine

ecological studies in different parts of the world have been carried out, uniform

and satisfactory meanings of the terms camot be expected. This applies par-

ticularly to the Australian coasts. As in the past, each worker must use the

terminology which best suits his locality and his own concepts

236

The definitions adopted here have been found satisfactory in describing the

algal vegetation of the Kangaroo Island coasts. Only further studies in other

regions of the Southern Australian coast will show to what extent the concepts

need to be modified, and their usage at present makes no pretension to be final.

AsSOciATION AND ComMMUNITY

The concept of an association is fundamental to all ecological work, yet many

different meanings have been applied to the term, The association is tised here

in the sense of a grouping of organisms distinct in species composition and facies

from another grouping. It is composed of a dominant or dominants usually

accompanied by other species whose presence is determined by responses to

factors similar to those influencing the dominants (see Rees 1935). This concept

is to some extent subjective, but experience shows (hat most associations are

objective entities. Studies over a long stretch of coast are usually necessary

betore the associations present can be determined, Intensive work on small areas

often results in variations of one basic association being considered as separate

associations. On the other hand, an association may be scattcred in its occurrence

and cover areas of only a few square feet of rock, yet may be typical of that

particular habitat, and pure and well defined in its occurrence. This is especially

true of irregular and dissected coastlines,

When associations oceur during certain periods af the year only, they sre

classed as “seasonal associations,"'

The term “community” is commonly tised with the same meaning as associa

tion, but often in a more general sense. It is applied in this and following papers

when the status of the algal grouping has hot been satistactarily established,

T'oRMATIONS

Apart from classifying the associations in their zones (see Jater), the only

other grouping used is the formation. This is applied to the principal types of

marine vegetation, much as it was used by Cotton (2912) for Clare Island ard

Rees (1935) for Lough Ine. Cotion’s formations were based on the substrate

and environment for algal growth, and comprised the fullowing :

1. Racky shore Formation.

2 Sand and Sandy-mud Formation.

3. Salt-marsft Formation.

lle also distinguished:

4. Vegetation of river nsouths.

5. Vegetation of brackish bays,

OE these, the Rocky Coast (“Shore’! of Cotton) aud Sand and Sandy-mud

Formations are found around Kangaroo Island, and they are real and natural

entities. Rees’ formations are based to a larger extent than Cotton's on the

degree of Wave action, but this is nearly always closely associated with the nature

of the coast, and there is little difference between the formations of Rees and

Cotton, The distribution of algae around Kangaroo Island shows that the degree

of wave action is the most important environmental factor, as was emphasises!

by Rees.

Use of the substrate and environment as criteria for “formation” is criticised

hy Chapman (1946, p. 658), who advocates following the practice of naming

land plant formations on the dominant species. Towever, Tansley (1940). 10

whon Chapman refers, describes Salt-marsh and Sand-dune Formations, and the

naming of formations on the type of plant, while conveying at the same time some-

thing of the natute of the environment, is common in land ecology (e.g,, mallee,

237

savannah woodlatd, forest formativns), Naming of the formation on the

dominant plant or amunal species is quite impracticahle in many cases, snch as with

the Sand and Sandy-mud Formation,

In any case the formation is an abstraction. Of the four chief characteristics

of an association, wiz., floristic composition, life-form, structure and habitat,

‘Tansley uses two only (life-form and structure) as a basis for uniting associations

into formations, Tt is just as logical to use either habitat or floristic composition

as a crilerion for such higher grouping (Crocker and Wood 1947).

Some algal formations in Tansley’s sense can be readily determined by life

form, ag., a blue-green formation and coralline-mat formation, On Kangaran

Island these formations are formed essentially of a single association, each

delimited by definite environmental conditions, with the former occurring above

the latter. It is evident that when the distinctive zones of algae around a coust-

line have very different life-forms. one zone mus! be chosen on which to base any

classification: around Kangarva Island this is the upper sub-ittoral zone, To

regard each zone as a distinct iormation is clearly not justified.

lt is well not to ose sight of the fundamental principle underlying the

existence of communities, namely, that certain species live together in a particular

situation because they have been selected by that environment, ie, all of the

species have the same habitat requirements for growth, This gives the basis for

sicfining associations.

Within any one tidal zone, different associations may occur depending tupon

lucal variations. These associations often have similar life forms, and possess

unity in the fact that they have certain habitat requirements in common. Such

“habitat zones” are realities atid are the natural units of higher grade than the

association.

In practice tide level, degree of exposure to wave action and nature oi the

substratum are the chief habitat factors. Using he latter two criteria a large

unit (formation) is obtained ; depending on the degree of waye action, the forma-

Hott inay be divided into sub-formations; and by using tide levels zonation 1s

obtained.

Using habitat factors as criteria does present us with realities common in all

parts of the world, and in this lies a real hope of achieving some degree of

uniformity in marine ecological nomenclature, The formations of Cotton and

Rees, or a combination of them, would be of world-wide occurrence, and sub-

divisions could well express the characteristic algal groups of the geographical

regions,

ZONATION

The ncetvrence of marine algae in distinct zones between and often below

tide levels is @ listinctiye feature of rocky coasis, though nrore prominent where

ihe tidal range is large. The tidal range around Kangaroo Island is small

(between 2 and 44 feet), but zonation is always present and often tarked.

In delimiting the zones around Kangaroo Island absence of accurate tidal

data is a limiting factor. Until such data become available, the position of the

zones of alwae in relation to tide levels can be given only approximately, and

what appear to be critical levels only from subjective observations, ‘Thus the two

main littoral associations of rocky cousts are referred to as being in the “upper

littoral’ and “lower littoral)! but the relation of these to tide levels cannot be

given. The upper littoral] zone of blue-green algae probably does nol extend to

high water mark of spring tides, except when influenced by splash effects.

As long as the occurrence of algae and animals on the shore ts referred to

as “zonation"—a word which js far toa well established to be dropped—there

238

seéins 110 justification for replacing the term “zone” by “belt.” as is advocated

by Chapman,

It has been possible to relate the algal zones to measurements of tide levels

only in the Ainerican River inlet. Here the stationary low water level of dodge

tides apjrears to be of most importance, marking the separation of the Hurmosivet

zone from a zone of red algae (Hypnea- Ci entroceras~Spyridia) which is nearly

always covered. This level is very little higher than the low water level of neap

tides (see graphs, fg. 2). On the south coast the low water mark of neap of

dodge tides in summer appears to correspond closely with the surface level of the

flat rock-platforms, and this marks a distinctive change in the algal flora. The

higher mean sea level in winter may cause an elevation of the littoral flora, but

the lower summer level will be the limiting factor at least for the more perma-

nent algae,

The littoral zone is therefore considered as ranging from the stationary low

of dodge tides, or the low water mark of neap tides to the upper limit of the

algal vegetation, Accurate fixation of this level will have to await detailed tidal

information.

The term “supralittaral” is often applied to the zone ahove high water level

of spring tides. Alternative names are the “splash” or “spray” zones. Cotton

(1912) has given good reasons for rejecting this term. and investigations around

Kangaroo Island support the view that algal vegetation above actual high water

level is simply an upward extension of the upper littoral algae under the influence

of shade and wave-splash, One exception to this lies in the occurrence of

Prastola during winter at Pennington Bay and on Shag Rock in Pelican Lagoon,

well above the arca splashed by waves. This alga is subject to fine blown spray,

but is as much terrestrial as marine. In both localities # occurs only where penguin

and shag excrement is present. The lichen Lichina may occur in small patches in

and above the splash area, and the mollusc Melaraphe untfasciata. extends many

feet above high water mark. Apart from these associations the term supralittoral

is of little use in describing the algal ecalogy of Kangaroo Island.

Below the littoral is the sublittoral, which extends down to the limit of algal

vegetation. The upper limit of the sublittoral. particularly on exposed rocky

coasts, bears a distinctive algal flora, and this area, between low water mark of

neap tides and extreme low water of spring tides, has been termed the “sublittoral

fringe” by Stephenson (1939). The sublittoral fringe on rough coasts is exposed

during the suck back between waves at low tide, and the short but frequent

periods of exposure to air are probably of importance in determining the algal

flora present.. On the south and west coasts of the island this zone is dominated

by Cystophora infermedia, which is strictly confined to the Tegion exposed

between waves at low tide, On calmer rocky coasts other species of Cyvtophara

are dominant, but these extend to 6 or more feet below low water, At American

River also the flora just below low water is not so distinctive, and is better

referred to as “upper sublittoral." The sublittoral fringe must be regarded

simply as a useful division of the sublittoral in certain areas, such as the rough

coasts of Kangaroo Island.

A GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE ALGAI, ECOLOGY

This account is of a general nature only, While it is derived from the study

of loealitics illustrating most of the coast and appears at the present stage well

founded, it makes ho pretensions to be final, and modification may be necessary

as other coastal areas are visited. Descriptions of the typical localities will be

given in [ater papers,

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240

Vig. 3 shows the basic zonation at the localities studied. Two main regions

are clearly defined:

(1) The American River tidal inlet where species of Cystophora (or other

large brown algac) are almost completely absent from the upper suh-

littoral zone. Horinosira banksii Dene., Celidivint pusillam (Stackh.)

Le Jol and Bostrychia simpliciuseula Harv. dominate the basic littoral

zones from lower to upper littoral,

(2) The rest of the coast of the island where species of Cysfophora (or

Eckloma radiata (Turn.) J. Ag.) are dominant in the upper sub-

littoral zone, Coraltine-nat and blue-green algae here form the two

characteristic zones of the littoral.

Hence, depending on the presence or absence of species of C'vstaphora, the

coast may be divided into two formations named from their characteristic habitat,

the “Sand or Sandy-mud (Flat) Formation” (American River jnlet) and the

“Rocky Coast Formation” (see fig. 4). The naming of these formations os rhe

habitat has been discussed under “Terminology,”

The chief differences between the two formations are:

(1) The difference in species compositivn, Species common to. both forma-

tions are rare, and if cominon they usually differ greatly in relative

abundance, The Gelidium pusillum association, well developed and pro-

minent im Pelican Lagoon, is present, but poorly developed at Pennington

Bay, and fragments may be found elsewhere along the coast, Hermosira

banksit forms well-developed associations in both formations, but ibe

ecological forms in cach are yery distinet (sce pl. G, fig. 4, and pl. E,

hg. 4). In number af species the Rocky Coast Formation ig siuch richer

than the Sahd and Sandy-mud Flat Formation, while the size of the

algae 1s usually greater in the former.

(2) Methods of attachment. A wide, expanded, holdfast dist is charac-

—

teristic of all the larger algae in the Rocky Coast Formation. Iu rough

places this dise is extremely strong. Other methods of attachment are

found in the littoral zone; viz., ramifying and densely matted attaching

filaments of the coralline mat association, and the gelatinous adhesive

thalli of the blue-green association of the upper littoral.

In the American River inlet the expanded holdfast disc is rarely

found, and the adhesive thalli of blue-green algae are almost completely

absent from the upper littoral. The chief mode of attachment is hy

thizoidal filaments (a notable exception being Hormosira), Attach-

ment of filaments by means of a basal cell or cells occurs in both

formations.

The growth substrahim. On rocky coasts the vast majority of algue

grow on rock, while a few occur as epiphytes where the growth is dense.

Many epiphytes can grow equally well on tock or on other algae, but

a few are limited to particular hosts (¢.g., Notheia on Hormosira).

At American River most of the tidal flats are colonised by the

marine Angiosperms Posidonia australis Hook, and Zostera wtuelleri

lrmisch, and these bear a profusion of epiphytic algae. Apart from

Bostrychia, Gelidium and Porphyra, which occur on rock in the upper

littoral, and to some extent Horimosira, all others are either epiphytes

or grow on shells anc small stones in the sand and mud. No macru-

scopic algac are able to grow directly in or on the sand or mud, although

they may often be partly buried in mud; growth in sand or mud is, how-

ever, characteristic of the marine Angiosperms.

241

In discussing the Rocky Coast Formation, no account is taken of stretches

of sandy beach between rocky sections of the coast. Rees considered such areas

as a separate subtormation, but devoid of algae. No macroscopic forms are found

on such beaches, and wherever rocks occur the typical algae of the Rocky Coast

Formatiori are found.

Within the Rocky Coast Formation conditions of roughness vary from very

rough to moderately calm, and the coast may be divided on the presence or absence

of Cystophora intermedia. This brown alga is found ouly in conditions of Lairly

strong to very strong wave action, and never occurs on calm coasts, It grows best

under the constant action of heavy breakers, and has by far the strongest thallus

for its thickness of any Kangaroo Island alga. Cystophora intermedia is dominant

in the sublittoral fringe zone fromr Cape Willoughby along the south and west

coasts, and along the north coast to between Western River and Middle River,

where it is replaced by other species of Cyslaphora,

. silyy Exposed Becky Coast

Sub-formation. Rarhy

Sheltered Rocay Coast pron

y G a ast

Veg y Sub-formadun. Formetion,

Sand and Sandy-mud Formatven,

Fig. 4

The Algal Formations and Subformations arownd the Kangaroo [sland coast,

Aréas in the Bay of Shoals and Western Cove not yet stUdied are left unclassified,

Only the localities actually examincd are shown on the map,

On the north coast between Cape Willoughby and Middle River (excepting

the Ameticans River inlet) other species of Cystophara (C. subfarcinala ( Mert.)

J. Ag., C. siliquosa J. Ag., and others) or Ecklonia radiata, and in some places

the red alga Acrotylus australis J. Ag., are dominant in the upper sublittoral zone.

These species require constant water movement, but sudden rough weather will

remove many plants from the rock. The outer edge af the Pennington Bay rock

platforms is very rough, with calmer conditions nearer in and at the rear of

the reefs, where Cystaphora subfarciiata and C. siliquosa are very common. Along

the whole sauth coast, however, C. inlermedia is dominant in the sublittoral fringe,

and although fairly common, the species characteristic of more sheltered coasts

occur only where conditions ate Jocally Jess rough,

The Rocky Coast Formation is therefore divided as follows (see fig. 4):

242

(1) Tue Exrosep Rocxy Coast Suprormation: from Cape Willoughby

along the south, west and north coasts to between Western Riyer and

Middle River. The area is characterised by the presence of Cystophora

intermedia in the sublittoral fringe.

(2) Tue SuELTereD Rocky Coast Suprormation: found along the north

coast between Cape Willoughby and Middle River, excluding the Ameri-

can River inlet, Characterised by other species of Cystophora, Ecklonta

radiata, and in some ateas Acrotylus australis, m the upper sublittoral,

Sargassum spp, may also occur in some areas.

Cotton found it necessary to divide his Rocky Shore Formation into Exposed

and Sheltered Series. This appears to correspond closely as far as environment

and status go with the two subformations of the Rocky Coast Formation on

Kangaroo Island.

Although referred ta as “sheltered,” the degree of shelter in this sub-

formation is very much less than in the Sand-and Sandy-mud Formation. The

latter is developed mainly in almost land-locked areas, whereas the Rocky Coast

Formation is always found on open coasts.

Within the exposed Rocky Coast Formation two distinctive types of habitat

occur, dependent om the geology of the coast (see “Coastal Geology,” under

“Environment”), These are the horizontal sand rock reefs, actually wave cut

platforms, occurring along much of the south coast (pl. ix, fg. 3), and the steeply

sloping rocky areas occupying the rest of the coast (pl. xii, fg, 1), A brief

description of the main associations in these two areas is given below, but detailed

reports will be left till later papers.

A, THE ROCKY COAST FORMATION

I. THE EXPOSED ROCKY COAST SUBFORMATION

(a) The Pennington Bay Rock Platforms

The type of horizontal waye-cut platform (pl. ix, fig. 3) found at Penning~

ton Bay occurs along much of the south coast of Kangaroo Island (see fig. 1)-

The reefs which have been studied in detail at Pennington Bay are probably

representative of this type of algal habitat, arid a detailed account will be given

in another paper, The following are the main associations found in the Penning-

ton Bay area:

{1) Tse Litrorat Zone.

Rear LrrroxaL Assoctations—These occur on the vertical or sloping

rock backing the reefs, usually at a higher elevation that the reef itself. The

associations are exposed at low tide, but washed or splashed continuously

at medium and high tides..

1, Rivularia firma association (pl. x, fig. 2), This alga favours areas where

wave splash is moderate or else there is constantly running water, For

further notes sce Womersley (19404).

2. Symploca hydnoides association: forming scattered patches in shaded

hollows of vertical or sloping rocks,

3. Gelidium pusilluim association: common, but usually poorly developed,

4, Enteromorpha association: forming bright green, usually pure areas on

sloping well-washed rack.

5. Ectocarpus confervoides and Pylaiella seasonal associations. These form

brown mats and tufts on well-washed sloping rock, Ectocarpus occurring

during winter and Pylaiella mainly in summer.

245

Lirroran Associations (on the flat reef surface).

6. The Cystophora complex. Four species of Cystophora, C. subfarcinata,

C. siliquosa, C. uaifera (Ag.) J. Ag. and C, brownii (Turn,) J, Ag,,

together with Sargassum muriculatum J. Ag., form a complex of associa~

tions on the flat reef surface, always where they are submerged. Each

species may form a pure association or occur mixed with one or more of

the others, depending on the depth of water at low tide (pl. x, fig. 1),

This complex covers the larger part of the reef sutface.

7. Hormosira banksti association, This is a well-marked association on

slightly higher and therefore more exposed parts of the flat reef surface.

On higher areas it is pure and dense (pl. ix, fig. 4, and pl. x, fig, 4);

in other places it may become mixed with species of Cystophora. Notheia

enomala Bail, et Harv. is always found growing from the conceptacles,

& Cystophyllum muricatum association. A pure area of this alga occurs in

well-washed, relatively calm, and rather sandy parts of the main reef,

9. Laurencia heteroclada association. This occurs in fairly rough places,

where it forms a dense mat of stunted piants.

10, Cystopkora—coralline association, A distinctive association found on the

rougher parts of the reefs, consisting of Corallina curieri Lamour. on

rock and Jania fastigiata Harv, on species of Cystophora; a dense and rich

association.

(2) THe Supcirrorat Frince

11. Cystophora intermedia association. This brown alga dominates the outer

edges of the reefs in the roughest conditions. It is an extremely rich

association of small, often stunted species (over 50 have been recorded

from an area of a few square yards), completely covering the rock

(pl. ix, fig. 2).

The stiblittoral assemblage will not be dealt with here, but it is very sitnilar

to that listed for Viyonne Bay (see p. 244). The coast at Pennington Bay js

very rich in number of species; over an area of 4 mile more than 220 species

have been recorded, and many more, no doubt, remain to be found.

(b) Steeply Sloping Coasts

Three main zones, each coniprising one association and in certain localities

others, uccur in the intertidal areas of the more steeply sloping parts of the south

and west coasts. Heavy wave splash or regular passage of breakers up sloping

rocks results in considerable upward extension of these zones.

1. Rivunarra-Isactrs Associarion of the upper littoral,

This association is composed of Hiznilaria firma Womersley, R. atra Roth.

and Jsactts plana (Hatv.) Thuret, all forming scattered, dark blue-green pela-

tinous thalli on otherwise bare rock. In some areas they are very well developed

(especially R. firma), in other places they are almost absent. Degree of wave

action is the determining factor, but the association is often poorly developed

where least expecied.

2, CORALLINE-MAT ASSOCTATION.

The lower littoral, between the blue-green algae and the sub-littoral fringe,

usually consists of a dense mat of stunted Fania fastigiata and/or Corallina (pro-

hably C. cuateri) (pl. xi, fig. 4). This mat is 1-3 em: in thickness, pinkish-white

in colour, and forms a continuous covering-on much of the rock. Where breakers

run well up sloping rocks it may reach a height of 5 or 6 feet, At Vivonne Bay

244

(on the south side of Ellen Point), Dasyopsis clavigera Womersley, and a small

stout Lawencia are prominent amongst the corallincs. This Jania-Dasyopsis-

Laurencia variant is probably general in many arcas of the south and west coasts,

but rather than being a distinct association it consists of the addition of the latter

{vo algae to the baste coralline-mat association,

3. C¥sTOPHORA INTERMEDIA Association of the sublitoral irttige.

This brown alga forms a Striking sublittoral fringe zone on sloping rocks

af the south, west and north-western coasts of Kangaroo Island, The upper edge

of the ussociation is olten very sharply limited, as shown in pl. xi, fig. 2, the zone

appearing as a dark band stretching along vertical rock at Cape Willoughby. In

situations where waves pass along the rock, rather than breaking against it, the

coralline-mat and blue-green zones may be poorly developed, but the sharpness

of the upper limit to Cystuphora intermedia can be sven from pl. x, fg. 3. Where

waves break heavily on rocks the upper edge 1s less well defined, and the coralline-

mat often merges with Cystophora trtermedia (pl. xi, fig. 4).

The dark-brown pinnate fronds of Cystophora intermedia reach a length of

40 to 45 em, The stems are extremely strong, and only very rarely are fronds

found cast up. A common epiphyte is Corynephloea cystophoree J. Ag.

THe SUBLITTORAL,

Study of the sublittoral flora is restricted to the algae cast up but not known

to occur in the intertidal area, The following list includes the commonest forms

af the sublittoral assemblage of the south coast, but comprises omly a small

fraction of the total,

CiLoropiyceaE—Caulerpa harveyi F. v. M.; C. obsew‘a Sonder; C. vesiculifera

Harvey: Codium goleatim J. Ag.; C. masnllosiun Marvey; C. pomoides

J. Ag.

PicseoruyckAr—Phloeocaulon spectabile Reinke; Dictyeta latifolia J. Ag.;

Zanaria turnoriana J. Ag.; Sporochnus scoparius Harvey; S. comosus C, Ag.:

Bellotia eriophorum Harv.; Bacyathalia cliftont Harvey; Perithatia inermus

(R. Br.) J. Ag.; Keklonia radiata (Turn.) J. Ag.; Scytothatia dorycarpa

(Turn.) Grev,; Sierecoccus axillaris Greville: Scaberia agardit Grey.;

Myriodesma quercifoliun (Bory) J, Ag.; Carpoglossam confluens (R. Br)

Kiitz.; Cvstophura monilifera |. Ag.; C. dumosa J. Ag. C. reforta ( Mert.)

{Turn.) J. Agi; C. siliquesa J, Ag.; C. paniculata (Turn,) J. Ag.; Sargas-

“a varias Souder; S. sonderi |. Ag. S. trichaphylliam J, Ag. ; S. cristatiem

_ Ag.

Ryovopuycear—Asparagopsis ermata Uarvey; Mychodea compressa Harvey;

Hypnea episeopalis 11, & H.; Delisew elegans C. Ag., Phacelocarpus lubillar-

dieri J. Ag.; Plocamium nidificum (iarv.) J. Ag.; P. preissianwin Sonder;

P_ coslatum (J. Ag.) H. & H.; Avmenocladia polymorpha (Harv.) J. Agi;

Antithamnion wmucronatum (J. Ag.) De Toni; Afonospora clongata (Harv, )

De Toni; Cereminm puberulum Sonder; Lasiothalia formosa (Warv.)

De Toni; Spongocloniwm sp.; Spyridia opposita Hary.; Sarcomenio dasyoides

Harv.; Nitophylhen curdieanin YWary.; Amansia pinnatifida Harvey;

Lenormandia spectabilis Sonder; Osmunduria prolifera Lamour. ; Thuretia

unercifolia Dene.

Oruer ComMuNItiEsS oF STEEPLY Siorinc Coasts

An Enteromorpha association occurs on ruck well above normal wave-splash

at Cape Coudie. It is dependent on the presence of fresh water percoiating

through the upper limestone stratum and ruming down oyer the harder ancient

rocks forming the base of the cliffs. “The species has not been determined, but it

occurs in dense, pure masses on otherwise bare rock. Enteromorpha associations

dependent on the presence of fresh water have been recorded by numerous other

authors (see Cotton 1912),

A Splachnidiwm rugosum association is found in the upper littoral at Cape

Willoughby, usually at a higher level than the Iue-green zone. The Cape is

composed of granite boulders, and where waves break heavily, leaving the rock

exposed hetween waves, Splachmidivm forms a pure association of short, tufted

plants (sce pl, xi, fig. 3),

At Vivanne Bay, on gneissie rock, Splacknidivns rugoasum: (1...) Grev. is often

common on wave-splashed rock, but may merge with Rivilaria firma, Helnin-

thora tumens J, Ag. and Polysiphonia dasyoides Zan, are also characteristic of

this region during January.

On other types of rock Splachnidium is very rare. If further studies show

thar it is restricted to granite or gneissic rock, this will be one of the very iew

cases known from Kangaroo Island of the type of tock influencing algal

distribution.

A marked feature of the south side of Ellen Point, Vivonite Hay, is the

occurrence of at least five species of lithothamnia, Elsewhere om the island they

are rare. Two distinct species (generic determination has not yet been possible)

form pure but localised communities in the littoral zone in what are apparently

rither specialised habitats. They grow as crustose thalli forming small irregular

branches.

The coast at Ellen Point consists af fossiliferons caleareous limestone over-

lying the hard gmeissic base. Wearing hack of the softer limestone has resulted

in many rock pools, from very small to over 20 yards across, being left

in the harder base (pl. xi, fig. 1), Most of these pools are subject to

wave itflux only at high tide, and during summer their water temperature fs cot-

siderably higher than that of the sea (up to 28° C. when xea temperature is

ree C.). .

home ot these pools bear distinctive algal conmmunities; others, where con-

fitions are apparently too severe, are devoid of growth.

One pool, shown in the foreground in pl. xi, fig, 1, contains a Lavrencig—

lithothamnion community. The lithothammion Lorms scattered, irregular pinkish

masses (to 10 em, across and 3 cm, thick), while Lawrencia heteroclada Harv,

gtows on the rack or the lithothamnion and is heavily epiphytised by Céeraminm

miniiatin. Suhr. and Polysiphonia abscissa. Harv,

In the rear pool of the two shown in pl. xi, fig. 1, the end shaded by the cliff

hears a community of red algae which are normally sublittoral forms, Dietymenid

tridens Grev. and RBornetii sp. are the commonest, while in another shaded aren

of the same poal Lyngbya meajuscula (Dillw.) Harv, forms a pure community in

January. The effect of continual shade is evident in both cases.

In another pool, at a lower level and snbject to wave influx except at low

tide, species of Cysfophora are dominant. One corner, however, is shaded by

overhanging rock, and here Ecklonia radiata, Scyhothealia doryearpa, M yriodesmut

fotifola Varv, var, duriuscula J. Ag. (with epiphytic Sphacclaria tribulvides

Menegh.) and Gelidium onstrale J. Ag. are prominent, All these are Hormally

upper sublittoral forms, ;

Tn some of the pools minor cotimuinities of Bryopsis plumosa (Huds)

C. Ag. Bryopsis baciulifera J. Ag.; Derbesia sp, two lithothamnia, and

two species of coral occur. This assemblage shows more relationship to the flora

af tropical waters, and is almost certainly due to the higher temperatures main-

tained in these pools during summer.

246

To deal adequately with the complex nature of the littoral zone at Ellen

Point requires detailed mapping of the greatly dissected coastline. The variation

in minor habitats is almost without limit, and similar complex areas probably

oceur along other parts of the south coast. However, the basic zonation of bluc-

green, coralline-mat and Cystophora intermedia zones is found on all rocks

directly exposed to the sea.

Ir. THE SHELTERED ROCKY COAST SUBFORMATION

Wave action on the coast included under this subformation is from moderate

to slight (see pl. xii, fig. 2 and 4). In fine weather waves gently Jap the shore,

while breakers a few feet high occur in rough weather. Some degree of water

movement is always present, whereas in the American River inlet conditions are

more often than not a dead calm on the tidal flats,

Littoral zonation is basically similar to that om exposed coasts, comprising

blue-green and coralline-mat associations.

1, Tse Uprer Littorar Zone of BLUE-GREEN ALGAE.

On the eastern end of the island, and at Middle River, Rivularia firma 1s

dominant, accompanied by Rivularia atra, [sactis plana and sometimes Symploca

hydnoides Kutz, In calmer areas KR. firma disappears and J. atra and /sactis

become dominant, From Middle River to Stokes Bay (and probably further east)

Brachytrichia quoyi (Ag.) B. & F. is prominent in January.

In some places where wave-splash is absent this blue-green zone may be very

inconspicuous, The gelatinous thalli occtir scattered singly or in patches on other-

wise bare rock. No other algae normally occur in this area of the upper littoral.

Blue-green algae are absent at Rocky Point, where the substrate is consolidated

sand rock and the littoral zonation is closely allied to that found in Pelican

Lagont.

A community of Nemalion helminthoides ( Velley) Batt. occtrs on rocks on

the east side of the beach at Middie River, in the mid-littoral, while on the west

side of the beach Cladosiphon. filum (Harv.) Kylin is common below the blue-

green zone.

2. CORALLINE-MAT ASSOCIATION.

This is ustially well developed in the lower littoral, often forming a closed

community with a well-defined upper edge (see pi. xii, fig. 4, at Emu Bay). Janta

fastigiata and fragments of C erallina are the tain constituents, but Dasyopsrs

elavigera and the Laurencia of the south coast association are abscut. Gelidium

prustllusn is often, in calmer localities, am integral part of the mat, while other

species commonly present are; Mrangehia plumosa Harv,, Pachydictyon pant-

culatum J. Ag., Zonaria turneriana J. Ag., Amphiroa charoides Lamour,

Laurencia heteroclada Harv., Ceramiuim miniatum and Polysiphonia spp.

At Rocky Point Gelidiwn pusilluim has become completely dominant, with

enly fragments of coralline left amongst the Horimosira association at a lower

Jevel. Above this is a zone of Bostrychta, similar but often better defined than in

Pelican Lagoon,

3. Tue Uprer Suscirrorar. ZONE.

This region, on sheltered rocky coasts, is characterised by the dominance of

fairly large brown algae, forming several associations in different localities.

Cystophora association.

Three species, C. subfarcinata, C. polycystidia Aresch., C. siliquosa, and to

a lesser extent C. spartioides, extend from low water mark to a depth of 6 or

$ feet, They may reach a length of 14 metres, and at luw tide in some localities

247

the fronds float at or below water surface, giving the zone a distinctive

appearance. [

C. subfarcinata is fotind throughout the subformation, but in calmer areas

(e.g., Rocky Point) forms numerous vesicles and is more branched. C. siliquosa

and C. sparttoides are restricted to slightly rougher parts, while C. polycystidia

becomes dominant in calmer regions. In shallow water and locally calm places

Cystaphyllum muricatum forms a distinct community,

Although C. polycystidia is characteristic of the north coast of Kangaroo

Island, it does occur in locally sheltered places on the south coast,

On the east side of Ballast Head (north of American River) Sargassum sp.

dominates the upper stblittoral.

Ecklonia radiata association.

At Hog Bay and Rocky Point, where wave action is slight, Ecklonia radiata

forms a distinct sublittoral fringe, accompanied by some C. snbfarcinata. Under

locally suitable conditions elsewhere around the island it may be found; at Cape

Coudie a protected channel bears a dense fringe of Ecklania.

Acrotylus australis association,

At Middle River and the east side of Cape Willoughby dense and pure

patches of the red alga Acrotylus australis occiir in the upper sublittoral. The

dark brown dichotomous fronds, from 10 to 20 em. high, completely cover the

rock, forming a distinct association. At both localities conditions of wave action

are very similar, and the general algal ecology is almost identical Caulerpa

brown Endl. often forms dense bright green mats within a few feet of low

water mark,

The following species are commonly cast up within the Sheltered Rocky

Coast Subformation; Codiuim spongiosum Harv., C. pomoides, Cladostephus

verticillatus (Light£.) Ag., Halopteris pseudospicata Sauv., Sargassum sp. (small

stunted plants), Cystophora batryocystis Sonder, C. grevilles (Ag.) J, Ag.

C. monilifera J. Ag. Amphiroa charoides, Dictymenia harveyane Sonder,

Laurencia, sp.

In Eastern Cove, atid probably in Western Cove, at least four distinet asso-

ciatiuns wecur in deep waler,

(1) Posidonia australis, known as the ‘sea grass” or “tape weed,” forms

extensive meadows on a sandy bottom in from 1 to 6 or 7 fathoms of

water,

(2) Scaberia agardhii Grev. occurs on a rocky bottom in from 4 to 3 or even

5 fathoms below low water.

(3) Cystophora monilifera occurs in from 1 to 7 fathoms,

(4) Chiracanthia arborea (Iarv.) Falk, forms dense masses, especially in

winter, in 1 to 24 fathoms.

The shore in the Bay of Shoals and Western Cove is sandy and muddy, with

few rocky areas. Tidal flats, however, ate not formed to any extent. ‘This type

of habitat is intermediate between the Sheltered Rocky Coast Subfermation and

the Sand or Sandy-mud Formation, with closer affinities to the latter. Until the

area has beett more thoroughly investigated, no classification will be attempted.

Along the shore of the Bay of Shoals Zostera muelleri is common, and

amongst it, on old shells, occurs the green alga Acetabularia peniculus BR. Br.

(probably a wititer form). In deepet water Posidonia australis is dominant.

Rock Poon AssocraTIons,

At Western River and Middle River rock pools are a feature of the coast.

They are mostly small, from 1 to 10 feet across and to 2 or 3 feet deep. During

summer the temperature in smaller pools (containing Hnteromorphe) reaches

248

35°C. The conditions in any pool depend on its size, height above sea level, and

general situation; the environment of smaller pools duriig summer is extreme in

both temperature and salinity conditions. ‘Two types of pools occur:

(1) EntixomorrHa Poon Association.

This association occtirs in the smaller and higher pools where coriditions

are extreme and very variable. &. lingtulata J. Ag, and E. tnlestinalis

(L.) Link, form a dense fringe around the edge. In summer exposure

on the water surface often kills and bleaches the upper plants. The

toleration these algae have for high temperatures is shown by their

active oxygen liberation under temperatures of 30-35° C,

(2) Hormosira -CrstorHorA Poor, Assocrarron.

In larger and lower pools, where waves enter more frequently ahd

emperalures are therefore lower, Hormosira banksiit forms a dense

fringe around the edge, at or just below water level (see pl. xii, fig. 3),

while Cystophora subforcinata, C. palycystidia, C, siliquosa, C. brownii,

and often Cystophyllum meuricatieu and Surgassin sp. grow on the

lower sides and bottom.

In many pools along the north coast, particularly those with a sandy bottom,

the only algal growth consists of small mats of Gelidium pusillten and tragments

of Corallina and Jania,

B. THE SAND AND SANDY-MUD FORMATION

The American River tidal inlet comprises several large lagoons with wide

tidal fats and a central channel, opening into Eastern Cove through a narrow

neck. Conditions are very calm, particularly on the tidal flats where large beds

of Pos:dona and other weed tend to minimise wave action.

Tidal range is just over 4 feet, decreasing only 2” or 3” from American

River to Pelican Lagoon (see fig. 2), The fast scouring currents during spring

tides, together with the sandy bottom, prevent algal growth in the channel proper.

The temperature range on the flats is large, for at low tide less than a foot, and

often only 1 or 2” af water covers the algae. Winter temperatures reach as

low as 10° C., summer up to 32° C. on the flats,

In Pelican Lagoon the tidal flats usually extend out from low ¢liffs of cal-

careous sand-rock (similar to the coast at Peuningion Bay) (pl. xiii, fig. 2), but

sandy beaches are frequent, especially between Muston and American River jetty,

South of Muston samphire swamps cover several miles of the shore,

An important characteristic of this formation is the large quantity af move-

able sand and mud. The fast tidal currents carry suspended mud, which algac

on the flats must be able to tolerate. The characteristic colour of Rhodophyccae

at “American River is a dirty brown, very different from the red of clean water

forins at Pennington Bay.

The basic zonation in Pelican Lagoon is shown in fig. 5. Where a sandy

beach occurs, [Yormosira or Zostera comprise the upper zone. Over most of the

flats the area colonised by Hormioyira, Zostera and Posidonia is much greater

than shown in the figure, but the sequence of zones and their positions in relation

to tide levels applies generally. Microscopic algae, particularly diatoms, are

usually present as epiphytes on the larger algae, but identification has not been

attempted.

On Shag Rock (a small island at the entrance of Pelican Lagoon), and

probably elsewhere where shag colonies occur, a filamentous form of Prasiola

covers rocks affected by the bird droppings, This appears te be a winter asgocia-

tion only, ovcurring seyeral feet above high tide level.

249

LitTorAL ASSOCIATIONS

1. BostrycutA AnD GreLIDIUM ASSUCIATIONS.

These two associations will be considered together, as they occur in very

similar habitats and sometimes become mixed, At Rocky Point, however, cach

association forms a distinct zone, the Gelidiuwm belaw the Bostryciia. Roth algae

form dark reddish-brown dense mats, up ta 1 em. thick, covermg the rock from

about mid to just below high water level of spring tides. They are restricted to

shaded areas of rock (see pl. xin, fig, 2, and fig. 5), With continual shade, the

mats retain sufficient water during the periods of exposure. Rock not shaded in

this zone is usttally bare of macroscopic algae.

| “ a4, he

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Gracilaria

(on mud)

-Sr Porphyra

wht) Whe

Bost fostrchie Bais ane) o™ Harasin a LL ee ee

aidan la Bare Zone dormosira Hypnea~Centroceras- Zostera Posidonia

di (molluscs) Spyridia

Vig. 5

Typical algal zcnation on Pig Island, Pelican Lagoon, The rel lation of each zone

1o tide levels is approximately true; but in many areas the tidal fats are much

wider and the Marmosira, Zostera and Po: sidoitue assuciations occupy far greater

areas than indicated. H.W.S., bigh water springs; 11..W S,, low water springs;

FLW.N,, high water. neapa: S.W.D., stationary water dodges.

As a general rule, Gelidium pusillum covers lower and more exposed rock

than Bostrychia (B. simplictuscula, with some B. mixta H. & H.). The roof and

sides of small wave-cut caves are the rnost suitable habitat for Bostrychia.

During winter a community of Porphyra umbilicalis (L.) J, Ag. occurs in

the lower Gelidium zone, but on more exposed rocks. The red-purple fronds

reach a lefigth of only 8 to 12 cm,, and Tie as flat sheets on the rock at low tide.

From the base of the low cliffs to the start of the Hormosira association (a

distance of up to 20 yards) is a zone bare of macroscopic algal growth. The area

is left quite dry and fully exposed to the sun at low tide. Such conditions are too

severe for any alga, but the molluscs Bembicrum melanostama and Modtolus

areolatus are common.

bho

co)

2. Jlormosira Association,

Hormosira banksii forms an extensive and couspicuous association in the

low littoral, from abour 1 fool above the dodge low to atv inch or two below.

Each plant erows either on the cock, or, if the substrate is sandy or muddy, on

the partially buried bivalve Brachyodentes crosus. The spherical water contain-

ing receptacles of Hormosira enable it to xrow where it is always exposed at low

tide (pl. xa, fig. 4).

The form of Hormosira banksit at Ainerican River is labillardicri Harv.

Tt differs from the south coast fori in being more branched, and having larger

aud more spherical vesicles. In both localities it grows only where it is exposed

for a period each day; this exposure must in some way be essential ta the growth

of the alga.

During winter Ectocarpus confervoides (Roth.) Le Jol, is a comman

epiphyte on Hormesira at American River, :

3, Utva Association,

Ulva factuca is always prominent at about low tide level, in the lower

Hormosivu and upper Aypuea- Ceatroceras - Spyridia associations. On the flats

north of the American River jetty it fotms a green band along the shore, super-

imposed on the Zoslera. association. In other areas it frequently becomes dominant

to form a distinct association.

Forms of Enteromorpha prolifera J. Ag., FE, clothrata Roth. and &, bulbosa

Kutz. are common in the lower littoral and upper sublitteral, sometimes forming

communities.

SupLittoran ASSOCIATIONS

4. Hyrrea -Centrocerass - SpvemraA AssociAtron.

This association extends from about low dodge level to 1 foot or slightly

more below. The dominant algae are brown-colovred Rhodophyceae, and where

dense give the zone an even brown appearance. Hypnea miusciformis (Wult.)

Lameour,,. Cenivoceras clavulatun Ag, and Spyridia bviannilata J. Ag. occur in

varying but often about equal proportions. They are all slender forms, rarely

more than 25 em, long, and are just expused at very low tides. In some places

Gracilaria confervoides (L.) Grev. is common; on muddy patches around rhe

small islands in Pelican Lagoon it forms dense but Ipcalised communities. The

hase of each plant is buricd in mud but actually attached to a molluse,

Other algae occur in the lower part of this association, and in somewhat

deeper water. The distinctive feature, however, is the virtual ahsence af any

species of Cystophora or other large brown alga. (The one exception is Surqassin

bifyrnie, which occasionally grows of rock on the sides of the channel where there

ig more water movement, but rarely in the tipper sublittoral.) The commonest

speci¢s are: Canlerpa remotifolia Sonder; C. simpliciuscula; Codiuin muelleri

utz., a lithothaminion forming spherical nodules to 5 em. across; Corallina sy.

(hemispherical tufts 20 cm. across), and more rarely Crstophylluam muricatynt,

5. ZoOsreRA MUELLERT ASSOCIATION,

Zostera muellert Lorms a pure atid dense association over large areas: of the

tidal flats (pl. xii, fig. 3), from low water level to 2 feet below, m some

places to uy nach as 6 feet belaw, This angiosperm spreads, almost entirely by

means of runners which anchor the plant in the mud and produce narrow leaves

(to 25 cm. Jong). dt seems to prefer a muddy substratum. Epiphytes on

the leaves are common (pl. xii, fig, 3), especially Centroceras clawulatum,

251

Cladophora ceratina WKitiz., Ceramiwn sp, and Nimenularia polyotis (Ag.)

Bb, & I. Amongst the Zostere, on sinall sandy patches, Chondria dasyphila

(Grev.) C. Ag., Spyridia biunnulata, Polysiphaiia patersonis Sonder and

Graciliaria confervoides oceur. Very rarely plants of Cystephyllum muri-

catum and Cystophera cephatornillas (Lab.) J. Ag. may be tound.

G. PesinontA austrapis AssOcraTIoN,

Posidonia australis colonises deeper parts of the tidal flats and the chantel

edges, [rom 1 to 10 feet below extreme low water, with occasional plants to

14 feer, In Eastern Cove it extends to about 7 fathoms. The long strap-like

leaves have a distinctive appearanes ay they just reach the water surtace on the

flats. at Juw tide,

The association is dense and pure. but the rough leaves hear a wealth of

epiphytes. On sntall pieces of leaf JO species are afien present. The most

important ones are: Mivularia polyotis, Ectocdrpus sp., <lsperacoccus bullosus

Lamott',, Colponienii sinuosa (Roth) D. & Sol, Sant nicrarthredia Lamour,

Cenfroceras clavulatum, Ceraminin pubcriulum, Spyridia bianniulata, Polysiphonia

succulenta Harv., P. fuscescens. Uary., P. dutivae Reinb. Many of these attam

their maximio development during winter months.

7. HaAnoritta avALts ASSOCIATION,

Another marine angiosperm, Helephila ovalis (R. Vir.) Took. forms ceise

patches between 2 and. 12 icet below low water, The ovate leaves, produced from

runners, reach a height of 15 cm,, but epiphytic growth on them is much less than

on the Zostcra or Posidonia,

The three marine angiosperms all spread Jargely by runners. This ensures for

the most part a pure associatton, but in shallow water all three have been observed

growing together.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to Professor J. G. Wood for advice during the

progress of this work and criticism of the manuscript.

in much of the field work the author has heen fortunate in having the

assistance of members of the staff and senior stidents af the Botany School,

University of Adelaide, Mr, S$. J. Ecmonds, of the Zoulagy Department, has

also been studying the anima! communities of the Kangarou Island coasty, and

most of the hydrological data were taken jointly by Mr. Edmonds and the author

The following have also rendered invaluable assistance ™m determinations of

certain algal groups: Dr. Francis Drouet, Chicago Natural History Museum,

U.S.A. (Myxophyceae, excluding Rivolaria); Dr. H. K. Phinney, Chicago

Natural History Museum (Cladophoraceac) ; Miss |. 4B. Moore, Botany Division,

DS. & TR. New Zealand (Stypocanlaceae) ; Miss V. May, Fisheries Division,

CoS. & LR, Cronufla, NSW) (species mentioned in census and confirmation

of others), The Directors of the Melbourne and Sydney National Herbaria have

given miost valuable assistance in the loan of named material Mr. D. J,

Rachetard, of the Fisheries Division, C. S. & [. R., Cronulla, has carried out

phosphate and nitrate analyses of sea water samples from Kangaroo Island. To

all these my. thanks are extended.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Larpwin, J. G., and Crocxer, RL. 1941 “Sojls and Vegetation of Portion of

Kangarco Island, South Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust, 65,

263-275

Cuarman, R. W, 1924 “The Vides of the South Australian Cost! Aust

Ass, for Advancement of Science, 17th meeting, Adelaide

252

Cuapman, R, W. 1938 “The Tides nf Australia’ Official Year Book of the

Commonwealth of Australia, No, 31, 972-984

CiarMan, V. J. 1946 “Marine Algal Ecology.” Botanical Review, 12,

628-6172

CLELAND, J. B., and Brack, J. M. 1941 “An Enumeration of the Vascular

Planis of Kangaroo Island. Additions and Corrections.” Trans, Roy.

Soc. S, Aust., 65, 244-248

Corron, A. D, 1912 “Marine Algae.” Clare Island Survey. Proc. Royal

Irish Academy. 31, pt. 15, 1-178

Crocker, R, L., and Woop, J. G. 1947 “Some Historical Influences on the

Development of the South Australian Vegetation Commttnities and their

bearing on Concepts and Classification in Ecology.” Trans, Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 71, 91-136

FlArvey, W. H. 1854 “Some Account of the Marine Botany of the Colony of

Western Australia.’ Trans. Royal Irish Acad., 22, 525-566

Hepiry, C, 1915 “An Eeological Sketch of the Sydney Beaches.” Prac. Roy.

Soc, N.S5,W., 49, 15-77

Lucas, A. H. 5, 1929 “A Census of the Marine Algae of South Australia.”

Trans. Ruy. Soc. of S. Aust. 53, 45-53

Lucas, A. IT. S. 1935 “The Marine Algae of Lord Howe Island.” Proce.

Linn, Soc. N.S5.W., 60, 194-232

Maptcan, C, T. 1928 “Prelimiuary Notes on New Evidence as to the Age of

Formations on the North Coast of Kangaroo Island.” Trans. Roy. Soc.

S, Aust., 52, 210-216

Porg, E, C. 1945 “Animal and Plant Communities of the Coastal Rock-

platform at Long Reef, N.S.W.” Proc. Linn. Soc. NS.W., 68, 221-254

Rees, T. K. 1935 “The Marine Algae of Lough Ine.” Journal of Ecology, 23,

69-133

Stepuenson, T. A, 1939 "The Constitution of the Intertidal Flora and Fauna

of South Africa, Pt. 1" Linn, Soe. Lond., Journal, Zoology, 40,

487-536

Sverpeup, H, U., Jounson, M. W., and Fremine, R. H. 1942 “The Oceans.

Their Physics, Chemistry and General Biology.” New York

Tanstey, A.G, 1940 “The British Islands and their Vegetation,” Cambridge

Uniy. Press

Tare, R, 1883 “The Botany of Kangaroo Island.” Trans. Roy. Soe. S, Ausi.,

6, 116-171 ;

Wape, A. 1915. “The Supposed Oil-hearing Areas of South Australia.” Bulle-

tin No. 4, Geological Survey of South Australia

Woop, f. G. 1930 “An Analysis of the Vegetation of Kangaroo Island and the

Adjacemt Peninsulas.” ‘Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust., 54, 105-139

WomMeEnsLey, H. B.S. 1946a “Studies of the Marine Algae of Southern Aus-

tralia, No. 1. The Genera /sactis and Rizwlaria.” Trans. Roy, Soc,

S. Aust., 70, 127-136

Womerstey, H. B.S. 1946b “Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern Aus-

tralia, No. 2, A new Species of Dasyopsis from Kan aroo Island.

Ibid., 137-144 ae eg

1, Plate IN

Vol.

”

w. Sac. S. Aust., 194

Vrans. Re

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Vol 71, Plate N

S Avst., 47

Roy, Saw.

Crans,

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Vol, 71, Plate XI

1047

Aust.

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ysnf Sor ay} Sttoje Suissed uMoys st ‘aspa saddn pazrutyy JUUOALA ‘WO Us[y JO apis yINos ay} uo sfood yoy [Sly

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1, Plate X11

Vol.

1937

Soc. 5. Aust.,

Roy

Trans.

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Vol. 71, Plate XITI

Soe. S. Aust., 194

Roy.

Trans.

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{} UT I {Pq ul IST old Log “lal

PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM AND RELATED SPECIES IN SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

By L. C. P. KERLING

Summary

During an investigation of pre-emergence rotting of peas at the Waite Institute it was evident that

infections of seedlings by Pythium spp. were important. It was not known what species were

concermed, and the writer undertook to investigate this problem during a brief sojourn in Adelaide.

253

PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM AND RELATED SPECIES

IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

L, C. P. Keatine *

Communicated by D. B, Adam

[Read 11 September 1947]

MATERIALS

During an investigation of pre-emergence rotting of pets at the Waite

Institute it was evident that infectiuns of seedlings hy Pytuiwir spp. were

important, If was not known what species were concerned, and the writer nnder-

took to invesligate this problem during a brief sojourn in Adelaide.

Available for study were six isolations of Pythium from pea seedlings which

had bees grown in a red-brown carth at the Waite Institute, two from potatoes

affected hy “leak” disease and one from a tomato seedling. The isolations had

been made by Mr. N. T. Plentje.

The vatious isolates were grown on potalo-dextrose, oatmeal, cornmeal and

water agars, respectively, as used by Middleton (1943), and on carrot agar as

deserihed by Johann (1928) and Schw’z (1942), Sinee carrot agar, which has

heen autoclaved, was said to be unfavourable fur oospore production (Schulz),

it was sterilised by steaming it twice at 95°C. However, oospore reproduction

was sectited quite readily on the autoclaved amedia, The cultures studied were

derived after a series of transfers from the edges of 24-26 hour old colonies, and

each time the inoculum piece contained about half-a-dozen hyphal tips, Attempts

were inade to use single hyphal tips, but only in one case which is mentioned

later was this sticeessful. The use of single zoospores was precluded because

their production was never observed. In all cases germinalion look place by

means of a germ tube. The observation of oogonial and antheridial characters

was facilitated by using cultures grown on a drop of potate agar in a small

moisture chamber made from a glass ring and cover slip.

The diameters of the reproductive organs provide important criteria for

differentiating species of Pythiwm, and it is desirable to measure large numbers

of these structtires to ascertain thelr range and mean value. It was found that

diameters of oogonia and oaspores were less variable than those of the sporangia,

and that counts of 100-300 revealed that they followed a normal frequency dis-

tribution. It is appropriate then to describe the variability of means in terms of

their standard errors calculated in the usual way, The sporangia, however, were

much more vatiable in size and shape and only limits in size observed are

described.

RESULTS

It was evident that the isolates could be referred to Pythmum debaryanum

Hesse or closely related species.

The genus Pythixm has been treated systematically at least six times and

has been the subject of several monographs. The isolates made locally have been

referred ta the species mentioned below and are reviewed in the light of recent

descriptions and figures of Drechsler (1946), Matthews (1931), Sideris (1932),

Van Luyk (1934, and especially, that of Middleton (1943),

* Laboratorium vour Mycologie an Aardappelonderzoek, Wageningen, Holland,

‘Trans, Roy, Sor. S. Aust., 71, (2), 1 December, 1947

Big. To Pythivn debervanuin Hesse

A-D—~Sporangia: E, Empty mono-

chnons antheridium; F, Dielittous an-

theridiuim; GO, Oogoniun penetrated by

hlonechinows and diclinous antheridia.

Fig. 20 Pythreiat wtimun Trow

‘A -B—Sporangia: C—J: Oogonia and

caspores each with oneé monactinots

antheridiuim,

Fig. 3) Pything: polymorphon Sideris

A-D—Sporangia; F, G, MW, Antheri-

ditm after fertilization; I, Interealary

oogonium: J, E, O, Small oogonia with

curved swollen antheridja; K, T., M,

Young cogonia with one antheridium.

Antheridial stallc typically ctitved; N,

Two autheridia io one oogoniumy

Fig. 4 Pythiin wexans de Bary

A-C--Sporangia: 1D, Mycelial body;

Ei, Genminating sporangium; F, Allantaid

antheridium and young cogonium; G, H,

L, oogoniuin with two oospores: N,

Aplerotic sogonioum; K,, Germinating

oospore with empty antheridium; M,

Germinating sporahgitim.

253

Pythiwn debaryanum Hesse

Hyphae 2°5-11 w, usually 4-5 in diameter; sporangia spherical to oval

terminal or intercalary, sontetimes in chains ranging [rom 9-41 p in diameter and

germinating by germ tubes; oogonia smooth, spherical, terminal, 14-29 », means

20°7-23°1 ~ in diameter. Antheridia one or more per cogonitim generally

diclitions but sometimes monoclinous when they arise some distance, 40-250 jc,

below the oogonium. Antheridia stalked, crooked-necked with the terminal

portion wblong, splierical ov clavate and 3-11. in diameter, apex obtuse or uarrow,

tapering gradually to the oogonial wall to which it is more or less applied.

Oospores smooth, aplerotic, 11-23 «. averaging 17-4-19-9, in diameter, with a

thick wall, Parasitic on Pisum salieun and Solanune tuberosum (see tig. 1).

The above description covers fonr of the isolates from pews and one from

a potato aftected by “leak.” It agrees generally with those given by other authors,

and at this point only the sizes of ougenia and onspores deseribed above call for

commeut. If those quoted are compared with those of various authorities | Butler

(1913), Braun (1925), Sideris (1932), Van Luyle (1934), Middleton (1243) ].

it ig seen that the range of means we found is somewhat less than that deseribed

in the literature, Actually, statistical analysis reveals that the rueans for both

oogoma and oospores in our different isolates may be significantly diffevem, for

example. the mean diameters of oogonia and oospores of isolate 5 from peas were

20°7 20°09 and 17-4240-18 » respectively, whereas corresponding measure-

ments for isolate 2 (also referred to Pythtum debaryanum), were 23-1 p+0-19

and 19+ «+ 0°22 respectively. However, it is possible to arrange the isolates we

classify as Puthhan debaryannat in euch a way that differences between succes-

sive pairs are nol significant. The differences im means may indicate the existence

of strains, but they offer little warrenty for specific segregation,

Pythiinn ultnaon Trow.

Hyphae 3-9). newly 45 in diameter with frequent irregular mycelial

bores; Sporangia terminal or intercalary, 7-23», diameter, germinating by germ

tube; Oogonia smooth, terminal rarely intercalary, spherical 18-26 average

22-3 2+ 0:09 borne on laternis 18-90, long. Antheridia one per opgonium,

mnonacthons and arising from immediately below the nogonium (hypogyzous)

(fig. 2C-j), Antheridium tube-like, swollen, curved with apex fapering towards

oogenil wall, 5-8 x 11-23 2, Ovospores aplerotic, single spherical 12-23 average

18°3 6+ 0-00 in diameter, thick walled, Isolated Trom Sofaman tuberosum.

Middleton (1943), in concurrimg with Drechsler (1927) for the mamtenance

oF Pythinine wt as a distinet spectes, points out that its typically monoclinous

swollen antheridia, which originate close to the oogonium, afd curve sharply

upwards Lo make a narrow apical contact with the basal portion of the oogouinuin,

distinguish it from (ylhinw: deberyannan These features were churacteristic of

the igofate described and figured here. However, in another isalate, one from

peas (Tsolate 1) at least two types of autheridial structure occurred in the one

culture, One or more diclinous, long stalked, crook-necked anthericia typical af

Pythiniw debaryduum occurred in the same culture a5 mmonochnous, stallless

hypogynous antheridia characteristic of Pythian iti, There were alsa

many gradations (fig. 2).

Middletom, while he refers to the imfrequent occurrence of diclinous

antheridia in Pythian vltimuan says that “they are not distingtive enough ta be

utilized in the identification of the species” On the other hand, Van Luyk

(1934), with others, doubts whether such differenees hetween the antheridial

characters as are merilioned above aré suflicient. to segregate the two species, Ile

cousiders that Pytfinm debaryanwin, among its different strains, exhibits ditfer-

ences of the type deserihed; a view with which the writer concurs.

Pythiam poiyinarphon Sideris

Hyphae 3-7 in diameter. Sporangia spherical, subspherical terminal or

mtercalary 7-33 pin diameter and germinating by germ tube, Oogonia sphericul,

ternunal or intercalary, smooth but sometimes with one or more papillae (fig. 3,

J. M.) 9-25 a av. 16°2 ~=0'22 in diameter, Antheridia 1-2 per cogonium mono-

clinous, antheridial stalk typically faleate or sigmoid or with curved antheridial

cell (fig, 3, K.L.M). Antheridial cell not greatly swollen and with a long fertili-

zation tube, 8-20 long x 5-7 wide. Aller fertilization the apical portivn is

divided from the base by a narrow ting at junction with Govomal wall (fig. 3,

PG. 11). Swollen diclnous antheridia also oceur but mostly in association with

the smaller oogonia (fig. 3, J. E, O.). Oospores aplerotic, 7-23 p, av. 13.4 + 0°27

in diameter with somewhat thickened wall, Isolated fron: Piswan satiznesn.

The characteristic feature of this fungus is the shape of the aritheridial

branch, which may be curved like the letter C or double curved like the letter S.

Iu our tsolate the origin of the antheridial stalk was always monog¢linous, arising

some distance fron the aogonium and generally curving Ina wide haw to meet

the oogonial wall in the way illustrated by Sideris.

The swollen diclinons antheridia applying to the smaller wogonia described

above suggested the possible presence of more thair one strain tm our culture.

Ilowever, it was possible to secure growth from a single hyphal tip of this isolate

and the culture derived behaved i the way already described.

The isolate we describe is slightly different from 2, polymiorphon described

by Middleton aud appears to be the first record of the association of this fungus

with Pisim saliewm. Previous records associate J. folymorphon with Ananas

comosus in Hawaii aud Nicoliana T'ebacum in the United States,

Pythium evans DeBary

Hyphae 2-7» in diameter with irregular mycelial bodies associated (fig. 4.

1), Sporahgia terminal or interealary, spherical to oval 10-26 » in diameter and

germinating by germ tubes (fig. 4, M). Oogonia spherical terminal, 15-26 » av.

21-7 2+ 0°10 in diameter. Autheridin 1-2 per pogonium, diciinous, Antheridial

ecll very variable ii shape (hg. 4, GM. J.O.). In some cases, cylindrical and

hardly curved or swollen, in others slightly swollen er so swollen that che shape

is Nearly spherical, The arntheridial cell ov its stalk may be so curved thar applica-

Hen to the oogonial wall is narrow, In profile it may appear bell-shaped, and in

auether plane as au allantoid or dise-like structure covering the oogonitim (fig. 4

G.QO.). The cylindrical antheridia are 11-18 » long by 7-11 « wide, the spherical

7-9 ye in diameter, Qospores snwoth, aplerotic, 13242 ay. W'Bp~tO11 in

diameter and with a thick brown wall. Isulated froti Lycopersicon esculentum.

Middleton states that “PWhinm texans is readily distinguished from is

congeners possessing aplerotic oospores by its typically meonoclinous, stalked

autheridium which arises in close proximity to the ooganium and by the clavate

autheridial cell with the apes hell-shaped and broadly applied, sometimes fused

with the oogonial cell.”’

In respect to the origin of the antheridia Middleton saye that they are rarely

diclinous, but Drechsler (19466), who cultivated Pythium complectens Braun,

and like Middleton considers the name a synonym of Pytliim vexans, remarks

that “frequently the mycelial connection between the oogonial stalk and anthertdial

branch is too remote to be traced for certainty amid the confusion of ramifying

hyphae.” Thus the apparently diclinous character of antheridia in our isolate is not,

in itself, sufficient to distinguish it fron Pyhinm vexanse Antheridial shape in

our isolate Was very variable. It is true that in certain aspects, trimpet-shajred

sstructnres flaring out at the region of attachment, as described by Hraund, beil-

257

shaped apices as mentioned by Middlcton, and the bilobate and biramous male

cells, figured by Drechsler, were observed, but the antheridial cells were by no

means uniformly of these shapes,

However, there is another feature in which our isolate resembled deserip-

tions of Pythive vexans. According to Middleton the germination of oospores

of Pylhiyne is not commion ; it occurs more readily in Pythium vexans, a fact also

noted by Butler (1907) and Drechsler (1946). The ovspores of our isolate

germinated fairly readily to produce sessile sporangia wlich in turm produced a

germ tube (fig. 4, K), The sporangia, when they germinate first. produce a

vesicle into which the contents of the sporangia passed, The vesicles then

developed a germ tube,

GENBRAL DiscussroNn

Middleton considers that the origin and morphology of the antheridia afford

valuable criteria for specific ideutificalion. Our isolates, becuuse of close

resemblance in other respects, have had to be looked at particularly im respect to

antheridial characters, but we found these to be rather more variable than Middle-

tan’s descriptions might suggest, In one case (isolate 5) differently shaped

antheridia were even found on one branch. (See also the discussion under

Pythiune wltimeune.) Although we have distinguished our isolates in the terms

discussed above, we should bear in mind the advice of Buisman (1927) not to

define species too strictly: “It is not at all easy to determine if a special isolation

belongs to the well-known Pylhiuim debaryamiean or not,’ It is clear, too, thal in

view of the methods of reproduction concerned and the obvious chances of

hybridization, intermediate forms might he expected.

In view of the foregoing remarks, the following scheme of relationship of

the isolates examined is suggested, remarks refer to salient antheridial features :-—

Pythiqon altima Pythitun polymorphon Prthiumvexans

(Potato 1)

Monoclingus Morioclinous curved Diclinaus

swollen, stallsless

monoclinous

both debaryantin and

ultimum types

Vea (1)

diclinous

seldom diclinous

Pea (6) diclinous

monoclinaus

debaryanum type

T'yihiion

dchayyanin =

Potato (2) Pea (24

diclinous debaryanum diclinous debaryanunt

type lype

SuMMSRY

very variable

Pea (5) diclinous

variable

Pea (3) diclinous

debaryanumt type

The morphology of nine isolates of Pythiuim spp. grown in pure culture on

various inedia have been studied. Four isolates from infected pea seedlings and

one from a potato affected by “leak” disease were identified as Pxthinm

debaryanum Hesse, A fifth isolate front peas was identified as Pylhinm poly-

morphon Sideris. A second isolate from potato with “leak’’ was identificd as

Pythiuint ultimum Trow and an isolate from a diseased tomato scedling as

Pythium vexans De Bary.

258

All these species have a number of characters in common; spheroidal

sporangia and smooth aplerotic oospores, and are considered to be closely related

to one another, and this is discussed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my thanks to Professor J, A. Prescott, Director of the

Waite Agricultural Research Institute, for affording me facilities and the hospi-

tality of the Institute during a three months’ visit as a guest. J] am also very

grateful ta Mr. D. B. Adam of the same Institute, who suggested the problem

and gave a great deal of assistance in preparing this manuscript. Thanks are

also due to other members of the Institute staff, especially those in the Depart-

ment of Plant Pathology who helped in many ways.

LITERATURE

Braun, H. 1924 “Geranium Stemrot caused by Pythiuim complectens n. sp.”

Journ, Agric. Res., 29, 399-419 .

Beaux, H, 1925 Comparative Studies of P. de Baryanwn and two related

Species fron: Geranium.” Journ, Agric, Res., 30, 1,043-1,062

Buisman, C. J. 1927 “Root Rots caused by Phycomycctes.” Baarn,

Burier, E. J. 1913 “Pythinm de Baryanwn Hesse.” Mem. Dept. Agr., India,

Bot. Ser. 5, 262-266

Burner, E. J. 1907 “An Account of the Genus Pythivum and sonic Chytri-

diaceae.” Mem. Dept, Agric. India, Bot, Ser. 1, 1-160

Dercuster, Cu. 1946 “Pywhium allimum and Pythian debaryanum. (Ab-

stract,) Phytopathology, 17, 781-864

Deecustre, Cx. 1946 “Several Species of Pythium peculiar in their Sexual

Development.” Phytopathology, 36, 781-864

Jouann, H. 1928 “Grated Carrot Agar fayourable for Stuches of Pythium.”

(Abstract.) Phytopathology, 18, 710

Luye, A, van 1934 “Pythiwn de Barvanun Hesse emend, de Bary,” Beded.

Phytopathol. Lab. W.C, Scholten, Baarn, 13, 23-28

Marriews, V. D. 1931 “Studies on the Genus Pythium.” Univ, of N. Caro-

lina Press.

Mippieton, J. T. 1943 “The Taxonomy, Host Range and Geographic Distri-

bution of the Genus Pythium.” Mem. Torrey Bot. Club, 20, 1-171

Scnurz, H, V. 1942 “Arbeitsmethaden bet Kultur- und Infektionsversuchen

mith Pythium Arten.’”’ Centralblatt €. Bakt., IT, Abt, 105, 248-254

Sweris, C. P. 1932 “Taxonomic Studies in the Family Pythiaceae, IT Py-

thium.’ Mycologia, 24, 14-61

Trow, A. HW. 1901 “Observations on the Biology and Cytology of Pythiun

ultimum n. sp.” Ann. Bot., 15, 269-312

THE ADELAIDE SERIES AS DEVELOPED ALONG THE WESTERN

MARGIN OF THE FLINDERS RANGES

By D. MAWSON

Summary

The sediments now to be considered constitute a very thick series of formations of late Precambrian

age. Though varied somewhat in nature and in mass from their counterparts in the type area, they

are the northward continuation of Howchin’s Adelaide Series of the vicinity of Adelaide.

Deposition took place in a great geosynclinal trough.

259

THE ADELAIDE SERIES AS DEVELOPED ALONG THE

WESTERN MARGIN OF THE FLINDERS RANGES

By D. Mawson *

[Read 9 October 1947]

CONTENTS

I, Tne Grosynentxat Basey or Accuaunatioy 13 vs 4 ia .. 260

Il. Inyestication or tun AccuMULATED Sknt MENTS... nh A ar .. 260

A. General Remarks fe be ot 7 is * os .. 2)

B. Proterozoic sediments exposed to the west of Copley wy .. 262

1. Vabulated sequence of strata from the glacial horizon to that of

the Brighton Limestone re = +4 = ad i. 263

2. The stratigraphical equivaience af the Mt. Aroona Quartzite

with the Aldgate Sandstone Se - en . 244

C. Proterozoic sediments of the ncighbourhood of ups it i. we 265

1. General Remarks .. ee at . ne re .: ve 265

2. Section from Devil’s Peak to Lake Torrens Sunkland .. “3 1266

3. The Proterozoic sequence in the neighbourhood of Mundailio

Creek ens : . .. 266

(a) The Emeroo Range basal Fidabeinis and arenaceous + forma

tion $4 ws a eg the Say "7 ioe at .. 270

(b) The dolomite-magnesite series 7 AD, te can Sri

(d) Laminated (Taptey Hi‘) post-elavial srailites t +s .. 22

(e) The Brighton Limestone horizon it, abe _. 273

(i) Argillaceous and arenaceous seciments zhove thie Brighton

Limestone horizon + +e # + .. 273

(gz) The Pound Quartzite (Cambrian) .. BF

D. Brief review of the several! major formations constituting the ae

terozoic record of the Copley and Quorn Areas and the Pound

Sandstone i, ; 25 rv * jz «- .. 273

KE. QOvtcrops of the basal quartzite clenitis re in the South Fliiders

Ranves 2. oti .. L's . 273

1, The great aur tite ‘of the Port (ennmeti Gorge oe i 273

2. The massive quartzite of Mt. Remarkable... a i eye

F. The Mt. Arcona-Emeroo Range Quartzite as distinct from the Pond

Quartzite &+ i a =. a os ~~ Dd

G. Transgressional Proterozoic sediments loc ted to the west of the Lake

Torrens Suntkland a . 7 - , 34 a re .. 275

1. The Tent Till Rétauyion “ ; ; ode .. 275

(a) The Corunna Range tudaceous said arenaceous 5 fortation baw we 275

(b) Equivalence of the Coruna Range formation with that af

the Emeroa Range va ne ‘a a ts pa 1b 275

IM. CorrstAriox wrri Septments or tire Mr. Lorry Rass me et .. 276

TV. OTHER Correcarioxs 2: “4 vu i, tt ne we a oe eee

V. Stmnary.. + & és .- bs a g “i a ve O78

VI. Rererences ., oe o 64 e an Aa ro 7 4 s+» B78

The sediments now to be considered cons litute a very thick series of forma-

tions of lute Precambrian age. Though. varied somewhat in nature and in mass

* Geology Department, University of Adelaide.

Trans. Roy. Suc. 8. Aust., 71, (2), 1 Deceiber, 1947

fonm their counterparts in the type area, they are the northward continuater

ot Tlowchin's Adelaide Series of the vicinity of Adelaide. Deposition luuh

plave in a great geasynelinal trough.

I THE GEOSYNCLINAL BASIN OF ACCUMULATION

The geological record evidenced in the Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges

clearly demonstrates the existence in Tater Precambrian and early Cambrian

times of a geosynclinal depression extending from swuth to north for a distance

at several hundred miles, then turning to notth-west through the region uf the

Willouran Range on ty the Amadetis Strait region cia the Mount Deni

Mount Margaret Range and the Everard Ranges. In Central Australia it appears

ta have been mainly located between the great belt of basal conglomerate repre-

senled by Ayers Rock and Mount Olga on the south and the MacDonnell Ranges

on the north. Trom there 2 may have extended in the north-west to the region

of the “Desert Basin” and the Kimberley Ranges.

On the western margin of this great orogenic feature was an ancient massif

constituting the Early Precambrian land atea which has received the palaeo-

geographic name of Yilgarma (Cotton 1930). From the denudation of Yilgarnia

there came much, probably mst, of the detrital material contriburng to Ue sedi

ments of that progressively subsiding gcusynelinal trough,

The eastern margin of the basin is not so clearly defined, for there is sill

some uncertainty a4 to the age of the rocks of the more metamorphosed) terrain

of the easter fanks of the Mount Lofty Ranges, Further north, where the

sediments of the geosynclinal depression are easily recognisable, they, for the

must part. pass beneath the Tertiary formations of the Murravian Gult and

the Mesnznie succession eccupying the basin of the one-time Lake Walloon.

Qoly in the Barrier Ranges of western New South Wales aid in the neighbouring

region’ of north-eastern South Australia and possibly also the north-east tip of

(he Flinders Ranges cun we clearly demonstrate the existence of Precambrian

land on the vastern side of this Late Precambrian depression, This is Bryati’s

(1932) “Eastern Massif” and Andrews’ (1937) *Willyanta.’’?

In the northern Flinders Ranges, the swing of the hedded sediments around

to the west and north-west appears to have heen due to the existence of a more

stable crustal block (9 the north and north-east. This is definitely so still farther

yiorth, in the region of the MacDonnell Ranges.

Tl INVESTIGATION OF THE ACCUMULATED SEDIMENTS

GENERAL REMARKS

Returning now to the region which we have studied in considerable detail,

that between the ancient Jand masses Yilgarnia ard Willyamia. During the past

40 years I have had many opportunities of examining these ancient geosynelinal

sediments in selected areas in the region occupied hy the Flinders Ranges and

eastward to the Barrier Ranges. Measuremetits have disclosed that in the centre

of the basin the total thickness. of such deposits is immense (Mawson 1942).

In the marginal regions, somte at least of the very numerous formations repre-

sented thin out or ate absent, Already mich relating to the thickness and dis-

trifution of the sediments of the deeper parts of the trough has appeared in a

eevies of contributions submitted by me to this Society, but there still remanns

in he published extended observations on the glacial and fluvioglacial succession

nf the central portion of the basin. Thus far, | have dealt with the types of

sediments represented and their respective thickness. Their petrographic

261

characters have been only very cursorily touched upon, a detailed account af such

having been purposely withheld until the final review when the varying phases

of sedimentation can be comprehensively dealt with.

TERMINATION HILES

5 = ee

tas

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\ PARACHIL

/) i

am fo $

& ;

4 :

ee |

ona

Val Hawke

6 wy

' <

t) x

\ 9

‘ z

5 UGAAL

; '

f !

| 6

PORT AUGUSTA, oe

ar” ac of

coe “Ss,

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‘SCE u - 4 ILMINGTON

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SEAT BaRcon

GERWEIN \ QWIRFABARA

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CRYSTAL

Locality Plan

Concerning ihe corresponding

sediments represented in the eastern

region bordering the Willyamia

massif, [ haye as yet published

(mainly D, M. 1912) only very

limited detail, reserving most of

the results of work in that region

for consideration in relation to the

sedimentation Of the geosynclinal

basin as a wheille. In that region

the extensive survey conducted

under Andrews (1922) has added

greaily ta the knowledge of that

area, though principally relating to

the Willyama series itself,

Notable contributions relating to

areas of the central and western

belts have been furnished by llow-

chin and by members of the South

Australian Mines Department, in-

cluding, more especially, Dickinson

(1942), Jack (1914, 1922), and

Segnit (1929 and 1939).

Further south, in the Adelaide

region, Howchin has in the past

been the chief investigator of the

stratigraphical succession, but more

recently Madigan (1927), Hossfeld

(1935), Barnes and Kleeman

(1934), Segnit (1937) and Sprigg

have published important contribu-

lions to this subject. The latter,

who as a student, assisted ane on

occasions in field work conducted

in the Flinders Ranges, undertook

and has now campleted a check of

Howchin’s original work in the

vicinity of Adelaide, He has pub-

lished (1942 and 1946) an accoutit

of the various formations cansti-

tuting Howchin’s Adelaide Series

as occurring in the type locality,

including thickness and general

distribution in that area.

262

PROTEROZOIC SEDIMENTS EXPOSED TO THE WEST OF COPLEY

When examining an important occurrence of magnesite near Copley which

is located towards the western side of the great geosynelinal trough, 1 was struck

by the regularity of the sedimentary formations and freedom from faulting.

Accordingly, a traverse of some 16,000 feet of these beds was made extending

upwards from an immensely thick arenaceous formation to somewhat above

u glacial horizon, correctly regarded as equivalent to the Sturtian Precambrian

glacial horizon near Adelaide. This belt of sediments, which dips steeply to the

east, was found to extend for miles along the strike without a break. from

Mount Aroona it was traced for a few miles to the south-east, crossing to the

east of the main north road to Copley; 10 the north-west it extends for more than

20 miles from Mount Arvona, passing through Myrtle Springs Station and on t»

the neighbourhood of Termination [Till, There major faulting and shattering

abruptly dislocates the formation.

ADELAIDE Se SES NEAR COPLEY

waw ene

SSS

art ome

-2 — Flag ¥ —=____—_—_—

oo TOG eam cp

WE come

“—

A detailed section of the bower members of the succession has already been

published (Mawson 1941). A further geological seclion is now submiutied as

fg. 2 herewith. This carries the scquence from the glacial stage to the Brighton

Limestone horizon. The cross-section illustrated refers to observations made in

a location situated some two miles northward along the strike, from that of the

earliey Lraverse. In the locality indicated beds higher in the sequence than

exposed on the former linc of section are available for study.

It should be mentioned that the suggested hidden fault at the eastern end

of the earlier published section almost certainly does nor exist. “There the out-

eropping Precambrian rocks cease and the low-lying open country beyond is

occupied by the Leigh Creek Triassic basin. According to earlier reports relating

to this coalficld area the Triassic strata occupy a trough-faulted belt. Recently,

however, a survey of the area made by officers of the S.A, Mines Department

has shown that the Mesozoic rocks occupy basin-shaped, but not faulted, depres-

sions in the older formations,

263

TABULATED SEQUENCE, AS DISPLAYED IN Fic, 2, aF STRATA FROM THE

GiaciAt Horizon To THAT OF THE BricHTon LIMESTONE

Pre-Glacial Sediments

1 32 it. of Dolomite: strike N.20° W-. (true), dip 55° easterly.

2 138 [t. mainly shales.

(a) Flaggy calcareous shales ‘Thickness 104 ft:

(b) ¥ellow dolomitic shale, strike N.30° W, dip 60° easterly. Thickness

33 ft.

(d) Sandy shale. Thickness 20 ft.

Glacial and Fluvioglacial Sediments

(ef. items 32 to 36 of the 194% section.)

3 116 ft. of Fluvio-glacial muds and siltstone.

(a) Sandy fluvio-glacial grit with erratics up to 5 inches diameter,

Thickness 10 ft.

(b) Argillaceous siltstone, Thickness 48 ft.

(d) Fluvio-glacial mud of coarser texture and with occasional erratics.

Thickness 8 ft,

Thickness 11 ft.

(f) Fluvio-glacial muds, Thickness 26 ft.

4 299 ft. of Tillite.

5 143 tt. of Lamimated Fluvio-glacial series.

(a) Laminated shale with occasional ervatics: strike N.42° W, dip 46°

easterly. Thickness 80 ft.

(b) Laminated shale with erratics up to 6 inches diameter, Thickness 5 ft.

58 ft,

Post-Glacial Sediments

6 2,016 ft, of laminated flaggy shales, etc,

(a) Laminated shales. Thickness 110 ft,

(b) Laminated shale with some calcareous hands, Thickness 30 ft,

(d) Flaggy shales; N.35° W, dip 45° to the east. Thickness 567 it.

(ce) Faintly laminated fissile shales; dip 40° to the cast. Vhickness 307 ft.

(i) Slaty mudstone, Thickness 53 ft.

(g) Flagey slate; strike N.35° W, average dip 35° to the east. Thickness

843 ft,

7 724 ft. of somewhat calcareous flaggy slates.

(a) Flaggy calcareous slate in beds a few feet in thickness interbedded with

slates. Total thickness 43 ft.

(b) Flaggy, faintly laminated, slightly calcareous slates; dip 29° to the east,

Thickness 481 ft.

& 14 ft. of flaggy limestone.

9 248 ft. of slates.

(a) Laminated flaggy slate. Thickness 100 ft.

(b) Thin-hedded flaggy slate; dip 15° to east. Thickness 148 ft.

1) 24 ft. of Impure Limestone.

11 94 ft. of slate and sandy argillaceous flags,

(a) Slate; dip 15° to the east. Thickness 62 ft,

(b) Sandy argillaceous flags with some calcareous bands, Thickness 32 ft.

12 500 ft. of flaggy calcareous slates; dip falling off from 10° to 5° toward the east.

3 Massive limestone dipping at a very low angle. This is the Brighton

Limestone horizon.

264

From item (3) to item (12) inclusive, representing all sediments from the:

hase of the Sturtinn glacial formation tu the base of the Brighton [Limestone

amounts to 4,176 feet.

Toe Steaticnaprtea EquivALexce or THE Mount Aruona QuArTziTe

WITH THE ALDGATE SANDSTONE

The succession of strata as exposed to the west of Copley (Mawson 1941)

exhibils sufficient correspondency with that below the Sturtian Tillite horizon in

the neighbourhood of Adelaide, as established by Ilowehin, lo indicate equiva-

lence in tune of these respective series of beds. In the neighbourhood at

Adelaide, below the Sturtiaw Tillite, in descending order are lamimated shales

and minor quartzites, then shales with many intercalations of dolumite (Beaumont

Dolomites) more argillites, some phyllitic in places, aid then the Mount Lofty or

“Thick” quartzite.

s this is broadly the succession at Copley the Mount Aroona quartzite

was accepred (Mawson 1941) ag the equivalent of Howchin’s Thick Quartzite.

This decision was based on the fact that at Copley there is no outstandmgly thick

(quartzite in the series other than that of Mount Aroona; also at that time there

was a grave doubt as to the accuracy of Howchin's succession below his. “Thick

Quartzite.”

Te will be recalled that Ilowchin, on account of faulting and structural com-

plications, was not able, in the region between Mount Lofty and Aldgate, to

salisfactorily relate the outcrops of the lnwer members of his succession. lle

finally relied for sequence in that part uf his series upon the succession which

he established in the Torrens Gorge area, which is a region greatly affected by

faulting and structural complications,

Later work (Barnes and Kleeman 1934 and Mawson 1939 and 1946) had

cast some. doubt upon the relations, as established by Howchin, of the Torreis

Gorge succession helaw the Thick Quartzite, The suggestion made was that

Hawehin’s beds below the Thick Quartzite, as interpreted from the Torrens

Gorge wutcrops, might represent a duplication by faulting of his Upper Phyllites

and Dolomites. The probability that such is the case was favoured at the time

of publication of the Copley section (ID, M. 1941).

Since then, Sprigg (1946) has completed his reconnaissance of the Adelaide

Series in the neighbourhood of Adelaide, and though not entirely satisfied with the

evidence, owing to faulting and displacements in the Torrens Gorge area, he

conchides that the Upper and Lower Torrens Dolomite formations (Howchin’s

Upper and Lower Torrens Limestones) sequentially follow above a basal ilmenitic

sandstone and below the Thick Quartzite.

Howchin recorded that his Upper Torrens “Limestone” (actually dolomite)

had associated with it bands and nodules of chert. Now Sprigg has found magnesite

associated with this Upper Torrens Dolomite. As both these chert and magnesite

are peculiarities of the maim dolomite series near Copley, it is now evident that the

delomite-magnesite series above the Mount Aroona quartzite should he correlated

with the Torrens Gorge Dolomites, which latter are now accepted (Sprigg 1946)

with confidence as stratigraphically below the Thick Quartzite. Thus it is that

Mr. Sprigg (1946, p. 328) has incicated that the Motint Aroona Quartzite “may

prove to be the equivalent of the basal ilmenitic sandstone in Howchin’s type

area, while Wowchin’s Thick Quartzite would probably be contemporaneous with

one or more minor quartzites in Mawson's Mapnesite series of the Flinders

Ranges."

265

T agree with this stiggestion, « conclusion consequent) on Sprigg's proof that

the Torrens Gorge dolomites are a separate and earlier magnesiliferous series

distinct from the Beaumont Dolomites (Howchin’s Blue Metal Limestone).

Evidently, the Mount Aroona quartzite corresponds to the Aldgate sandstone;

that is, with the basal member of Tlowchin’s Adelaide Series, Howchin regarded

the Aldgate ilmenitic sandstone as of about 200 feet in thickness, Sprigg finds

that, in the Aldgate area the first 100 feet of the Adelnide Series is ilmenitic sand-

stone, and that while the relations are mot quite clear this appears to be followed

by upwards of 2,000 cet of alternating sandstones and gritty and sandy slates,

ali of which are located beiow the horizon of the |.ower Torrens Dolomite,

PROTEROZOIC SEDIMENTS OF THE NEICTMBOURIIGOD OF QUORN

GENERAT. REMARKS

Subsequent to my examination of the Copley area, an important occurrence

of magnesite was reported in the neighbourhood of Mundallio Creek, west of

Quorn, situated about 130 miles in a nearly due south direction from the former

locality (see fg. L). This has proved to be a repetition of the formation at

Copley, though containing less dolomite and magnesite. Here the general

sequence of formations is the same as at Copley, but here the upward range

exposed is greater, An unbroken succession extends froma great basal rudaceous

and arenaceous formation, equivalent to the Mount Arnona quartzite of the

Copley arca, up to and through the basal sandstone (Pound Sandstone) of the

Cambrian. There is thus exposed a conmplete successinn corresponding to the

Adelaide Series.

Howchin (1928) recorded some ot the geological features of the neighbour-

hood of Quorn with special reference to the tillite, but he did not recognise the:

magnesite formation, nor did he locate the remarkable development of quartzite

and conglomerate which constitutes the basal member of the Proterozoic sequence

in that area, More recently, Segnit (1939} completed a geological map of some

44 square miles of that area, but missed recording the existence of magnesite and

tnisivok the enormously thick basal quartzite ot the Proterozoic sequence for

the Pound Sandstone-Quartzite which is some 13,000 feet stratigraphically

above it,

MANNS LAN

Here again, as in the case of his map of the Mount Seatt- Mount Aroona

urea near Copley, Segnit (1939) mistook the thick basal quartzite of the Pro-

terozoic for that far ubove in the sequence ushering in Lower-Cambrian

fossiliferous formations. lis interpretation necessitated the incorporation in his

inap of a grand strike-fault along the face of the quartzite on ils eastern side,

We found no evidence of such u tnajor faut, though small displacements. do occur

and would be expected at the conlact of so yreat a mass af quartzite with the

less competent overlying argillaceous beds, where orogenic forces on a grand

seale have thrown the sedimentary formations into a series of folds,

264

Elsewhere in his map, Mr. Segnit unconsciotsly introduces faults to recort-

cile, it seems to me, the observed outcrops with a preconceived conception ot the

sequence. Unqtiestionably, there are a number of large scale faults in that area-

A iotable strike fault passes through the quartzite belt of the Devil’s Peak as

mentioned by Howchin (1928) and illustrated by Segnit (1939) ; another trends

along the valley between the Devil’s Peak and the Dutchman's Stern Range;

another throws down the country to the west of the great basal quartzite, sheat-

ing it in places, Other apparent lines of faulting are indicated in the diagram

herewith. Minor faults and displacements are, of course, numerous, as would

be expected in a region at one lime (late Cambrian ?) subjected to an alpine

orogeny and subsequently, afler peneplanation, recreated once agai a& a Tange

af mountains (late Tertiary} of the nature of block uplifts.

Section From Deve's PEAK WESTWARD TO THE LAKE TORRENS. SUNKLAND

The general relation of the strata in this area is illustrated in fig. 3 herewith,

which is a section from the Port Augusta-Lake Torrens Sunkland across the

Ranges to the Devil's Teak, We have found that the field distribution of out-

crops of the various formations is fundamentally dependent on the development

of a system of pitching folds, The structures thos developed are modified by

some major and frequent minor faults.

A typical anticlinal fold is that to he observed at Pichi- Richi Pass in the

neighbourhood of the Devil's Peak. There the great Cambrian quartzite (Pound

Formation) of the Dutchman's Stern Range descends again to the east as the

Devil's Peak. The intervening valley region of Pichi- Richi Pass 1s occupied

by sequentially undeslying sub-Cambrian beds which, however, are sliced by a

ctrike-fault along the crown of the anticline with considerable downthrow on

the vast side of this fault, Another strike-fault on a considerable seale slices the

guartzite of the Devil's Peak mass as illustrated in fig. 3. The qtartzite mass

of the Devil’s Peak ig truncated tu the north by a fault cutting diagonally across

the strike, while to the south it can be traced looping around on a course some-

what checkered by faulting, but eventually joins up with the southern extension

of the somewhat attenuated Dutchman’s Stern Range. What is important is that

outcrops of the Pound Quartzite (Segnit’s D7 formation) shown on Segnit’s

imap as appearing in the Pichi- Richi Pass region between its outcrop in the

Dutchman's Stern Range and its repeat in Devil’s Peak are not portions of the

Pound Quatizite proper but are underlying greywackes, arkoses and shales

separated sequentially from the former by a thick formation of chocolate shale.

In this region the sequence of beds. from the hasal conglomerate ot the

Proterozoic formation to the basal Cambrian quartzite is welt illustrated in a

straight rum of beds on the western side of the Ranges. There is there a

minimum of disturbance by faulting, a feattire strikingly indicated in Segnit’s

(1939) coloured plan of the locality, As already stated, however, we do not

agree with him where he introduces. a strike-fault on a grand scale along the

upper lint of the basal quartzite, The latter we have found ro be equivalent of

the quartzite of Mount Aroona in the Copley area.

‘Tae Proterozorc Succession TN THE NeiGunoursnon oF

Mennaryra Cerek

The succession ef beds in this locality is gtaphically represented in fig. 4

herewith. Descriptive details of the individual formations are given below,

Neither the absolute bottom of the great basal conglomerate-quartzite Formation

nor the nature af the pre-existing (underlying) rocks Is demonstrable in this

area owing to major block faulting of Tetliary times responsille for downthrow

Oi a wire belt of country (Port Augusta Lake Torrens sunkland) lying to the

west of the Emeroo Range. This problem is discussed later.

267

DIODONILONS

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268

TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE Proterozoic SUCCESSION AT MUNDALLIO CREEK

The Proterozoic succession of strata occurring in the neighbourhood of

Mundallio Creek, Southern Flinders Ranges,

sequence irom the lowest exposed beds,

sequence is graphically displayed as fig. 4.

Basal beds of course water-laid conglonierate accurring in an alternating

succession with finer arcnaceous sediments, Pebbles met with up to 6”

in diameter, mainly constituted of liver-coloured quartzite, bit some

appear ta be Gawler Range porpliyry, Dip 55° E, strike N,O° E. Near

the upper limit of this section is a sandstone with marked ilmenitic

banding but free from pebbles. Strike N.4° W, dip 55° E. The base of

this section was not observed but the total thickness measured is - -

2 Bands of ilmenite-bearing quartzite alternating with conglomerate, each

component batd being about 3 ft. thick. Strike N.4° W, and dip 70° E.

3 Alternations of sandstone with reddish argillaceous partings each of the

latter runying from 2 to 3 feet thick. Dip 70°. - - - - -

Quartzite without avy shale partings and with only faint traces of

bedding laminations, All but near the base is notahly white and hard. The

dip ranges from just about 70° below to near 80° at the top limit. The

strike swings around locally at the upper linit to N.4° W. - - -

5 A belt of sandstone somewhat reddened in part and with traces of minor

shearing. - - - - - - - - - - - e =

Quartzite of a generally yniform character with dip to the east between

72° and 65°, Strike N.14° W, below to N, true m the upper beds,

Quartzite, hard below and less resistant above, Average dip 70° ~

The Emeroo Range basal rudaceovs and arenaceous sediments: - -

Soft sandstone in part argillaceous, Outcrops deficient. Dip 72° to the

eastward = - - - - - - - - - a - - -

(a) Sandy shale, Dip 70°. - = = “ = = - 2 £

(d) Sandy Marl - - Bs = = 4 s rf = g

(e) Grey marly shale. Strike N. true, Dip 73° F. es Meg

Sandy to marly transitional beds: - - - - - < ef te

(a) Two very narrow seams of nodular magnesite embedded in marl

(b) Poor outcrop, but apparently marl and marly shale with some

narrow seatns of magnesite. - - - - - - a =

matly shale with thin dolomitic bands aboye. - - - - =

(d) Hard dolomite. - - - - = ~ “ - - -

(e) Marly Shale. - - - - - - - - - - =

(f) Bands of dolomite and thin-bedded marly shales. - - - =

(a) Marly shales with several magnesite Bands. Dip 70° = - - J

(b) Randed dolomite with irregular searns of chert and magnesite

passing above to alternating beds of shale and dolomite, Magnesite

mine workings are located in this section. - - = > -

Marly series with dolomite and magnesite; = - - - - - -

Arenaceaus beds enter the succession, becoming dominant over the

dalomitic shales at the top of this section where there appears a band of

Ainty quartzite exbibiting contorted bedding = - - - - -

(a) Laminated sandstone beroming mote massive above. —- - -

(b) Carbonate laminations appear in the sandstone and it finally passes

Total,

144

Total,

139

The beds are numbered in upward

True bearings given in all cases.

The

Feet

1,276

1,294

4,288

262

430

692

$75

346

719

286

209

into a calcareous sandstone (carbonate cement). - - - -

(c)'No outcrops: probably soft calcareous sandstone. - - - 5

14 (a) Sandstone which in part has a dolomite cement and accasional frag-

ments of dolamite embedded in it. - - - ” - - ~

(b) An association of anatly saridstone and sandy marl, strike N. true

dip 63° E. - - - - - = - - - - ° -

(d) Laminated shale. - - - - - - - - >

(e) Hard quartzite. strike N.4° W. dip 65°R. = - - - =

15 (a) Marly shale. - - - - - ~ - - = = -

(b) Sandy dolomite. - - - = - - - - - -

(d) Strongly laminated (varve-like) shales, - - - - - ~

(e) Sandstone with some marly hase, Certain beds are more marty.

Sandstone and shale, much of it dolomitic and marly: - - “ =

16 Laminated shales. - - - - - - - - - - -

Laminated Shale: ~ - - - - - - ~ - -

17 (a) True tillite (quite unsorted) containing erratics, also. fragments of

chert and dolomite of the underlying series, With the tillite are

some intercalated bands of nrorainte mud. - - - = -

(b) Finer grained, fluvio-glacial beds more firmly cemented and resistant

in the upper section. - - - - - - - - -

through the mote regularly distributed fluvio-glacial sediments.

(d) Sandy tillite passing upwards into typical tillite for a few yards in

thickness then reverting to Auvio-glacial sediments. - - -

18 (2) Fhuvio-gtacial, well laminated slates. . ; - - -

(b) Slate (rock-flour type) poorly laminated. Strike N. true, dip ae E.

Series of Glacial and Glacigene sediments: - = - ta “

(b) Laminated (Tapley Hill type) slates; somewhat flinty, Strike

eéR dip-fSh > sg oe eH Se oe

Laminated slates “ - - ¥ = - = t 4 a

20 (a) Slates somewhat calcareous, followed by a belt 54 fl. thick of

argillaceous limestone in which are reddish bands and pellet matk-

ings not tinlike the “hieroglyphic’ structure recorded elsewhere in

post-glacial calcareous strata of the § Austr. Proterazoie record.

(b) Strongly calcareous cedgewise pellet conglomerate. - = -

Calcareous. slates and argillaceous limestones: - - - - -

21 Slates which weather reddish) an outcrop though grey at a depth, Stains

of copper carbonate observed in bedding planes at several points along

the outcrop. This section iccames more arenaccous in its topmost limits

and there weather reddish brown. - - - = - - -

22 Shales and sandy shales with intenhedded sandstones (hrewnish outsrap),

Strike N.6°E. Dip 75° E. - - - - - ~ - - -

Slates with limited arenaceous intercalations: - - - - -

23 Reddish sandstones and same interbedded shale formations. - ~

Purple series of sandstones and shale: - > ~ “ = -

Total Proterozoic Formation represented, = - - - - - -

Basar CAMERIAN Fors ATION

25 Reddish to purple sandstone. - - _ ~ “i . - _

Massive sandstone and quartzite. ~ - - = 2 = = 3

Massive sandstone and quartzite (Pound Formation): - - - -

5 376

212

64 497

40 233

Total, 1,392

362

Total, 362

200

25 300

559

167 706

Total, 1,006

557

101 658

Total, 658

159 264

Total, 264

677

Total, 1,590

1,057

1,072

Total, 2,129

13,100

231

1,832

Total, 2,083

270

A comparison of the formations as developed in this Mundallio Creck

section with their equivalents in the Copley section demonstrates the fact that

in the former area, except in the case of the basal beds, the geosynelinal Pra-

terozoie sediments are not ticarly sa strongly developed as in the latter locality.

The explanation appears to be that the Mitidallio Creek area was nearer to the

old Precambrian store-line, where the subsiding basin was less responsive tu

isostatic Inading. Further eastward, in the Carrieton - Oraparintia belt, the total

thickness of the corresponding series of lets is notably greater éven than in the

region «i Copley.

REVIEW OF FORMATIONS

Tue Exjrroo Rano Basar Rupactous Ann Arcwacrous Formation

On the line of section across the Emeroo Range (fig. 4) a thickness of

about 4,288 feet of quartzite and conglomerates are traversed, of which the lower

800 feer is mainly conglomerate. Judging hy the coarseness of the conglomerale,

it is likely that the actual base of the formation is not fat helow the base of the

exposure.

In the case of the Mount Aroona Range quartzite of the Copley area, we

found near Myrtle Springs Mead Station some small pebhles appearing in the

quartzite at the lowest exposed outcropping horizon. There, as in the Emeroo

Range, the further downward extension catinot be observed owing to a major

down-throw of the region io the west.

The thick radaceous basal section, so well exposed in the Emeroo Range, is

composed of grit bands and pebble beds of varying thickness, At some horizons

botilders of 6 inches diameter are not tincommon, but generally sptaking such

1 size is exceptional. Pebbles of white quartzite and of liver-coloured quartzite

are commencst, but schist and lumps of ilmenite are not tncommon ingredients.

Some hrown pebbles resembled the felsitic base of the Gawler Range porphyry.

but nove such were observed to carry porphyritic feldspars.

Towards its upper limit, this basal radaceous section of the formation passes

through a stage of alternating beds, each several fect. thick, respectively of con-

glomerate and ot pebble-irce ilmenitic sandstone, Then fullows a short run of

similar alternations of ilmenitie quartzites and red shale. Thereafter Iollows

the mam niass of the formation, which is quartzite and arkose.

A petrological peculiarity, distinctive of a certain horizon itt this (quartzite,

is that wf a very obvious handing, duc to recurring deposition of clear water-

sorted quartz grains of larger size than usual along bedding planes. Whis banded

quariziie bas usually a faint to a somewhat stronger tinge of pink; it also may

he spotted with white specks of kaohinized feldspar. This latter feature is also

atrongly developed at some other horizons, where in many cases the original

beddine planes are not evident,

The sand grains of the early stages of deposition of this enbrinously thick

formation are generally coarycr und more arkosic than in the cage of later con-

tributions. In this section microcline is the most abundant tuineral, apart from

quartz. A pink to brown colouration is usually noticeable in this lower zone.

The quartzite af the middle region of the formation, where: it is apparently

inost resistant to weathering and cowsequently stynds ont as the highest ridge

of ithe range is whiter, more finely grained and not noticeably arkusic.

THe DoLomite - Magnesite Serres

In the Mundallio Creele locality this series is developed on a more limited

seale Wian in the Copley area. where strata of dolomite and niagnesite (Mawson

27%

1941) are scattered at intervals throughout the entire sequence between the thick

basal arenaceous belt of Mount Aroona and the glacial series above, a total thick-

ness of sedimetits of about 7,000 feet. The outcrop of these beds extends

unbroken both to the south-east and to the north-west from Mount Aroona for

a considerable distance.

Tseyurid Mount Parry, some 5 miles co the north, this formation is still well

exposed af the surface. ‘There the strata dip very steeply—nearly yertical—tn

the north-east, Thereubouts the maitt magnesite-hearing section of the beds

occupies a surface width of 3,000 feet; included therein are a number of sans

of magnesite, with a total thickness of not less than about 50 feet, ‘The most

westerly magriesite outcrop is of the very coarse nodular variety; there is lhere a

bed of 7 feet in thickness separated {rom a second bed 2 feet in thickness by a

thin parting. Another concentration of beds of magnesite occurs near the

upper limit of the castern side of the formation,

Details of the original area near Mount Arcona have already been recorded

(Mawson 1941), but since that date much exploratory mining work by costeans

and pits has been done on a width of 100 yards, selected where richest in mag-

nesite, The result of opening np the outcrop has been to expose more magnesite

bands than were reckoned to exist when we meagured up the original section, -\

very large tonmage of a good grade of magnesite is now exposed.

The magnesium-rich sediments were obviously laid down in shallow, saline,

land basins. The magnesite is uf sedimentary vrigin as a primary or penecon-

temporaneous sediment. Many of the magnesite beds are composed of nearly

pure magnesite, containing extremely Tittle calcium, Oceasional beds reach a

purity of 989% MgCO,. We now know this magnesium-rich formation to be very

widespread in South Australia, Lt is most strongly developed im the more

westerly areas, especially discussed iv this paper. Nevertheless, important beds

also appear in the more cemtral region of the geosynclinal basin, such as the

neighbourhood of Balcanoona (where magnesite rock composed of wuiform

pellets was originally described by Fred, Chapman as Mawsonelli), Johnburgh

and Robertstown. Sprigg (1946) has recorded pellet magnesite near Adelaide,

where it is associated with the Upper Torrens Dolomites in what is apparently

this same stratigraphical horizon,

The most rentrkuble feature of this maghesite is that it nsnally occurs in

a peculiar nodular form, A study of this structure has convincingly shown that

the nodules ave original pellets laid down in beds as in the case of clay pellet

formations, This appears 10 have been a development from muynesite sludge,

which had evidently accumulated in the first instance as thin laminae of almost

pure magnesite, eventually to be fragmeuted and re-accumlated as pellet beds.

SenrMents or GLACIAL AND FLUVIOGLACTAL ORIGLN

In sequenee above the Dolomite- Magnesile series comes a variable thick-

ness of glacigene beds. ‘These comprise depositions, of true tillite, bedded fluvio-

glacial mudstones with or witha embedded erratics and some inturvlacial hedded

areniaceous and argillaceous sediments, which are on occasions typtcally varved.

The variability in thickness of these glacigene beds in the area now undet

consideration is considerable. Jn the section near Copley 608 feet of chviously

glacigene beds were met with, but at Mundallio Creek there was found a total

thickness of 1,006 feet, Further south, near Crystal Brook, the section published

by Howchin (1928) shows a thickness of 1.240 fect. Further towards the

centye of the basin the thickness increases covsilerably. Llowever, it is riot only

272

that the tvtal thickness varies between wide limits within the State of South

Australia, but what is still more interesting is that the records preserved in

different localities within the State vary considerably in regard to the number

of glacial culminations evidenced. In some localities the glacigene beds embody

only one deposit of true tillite, whereas in other places there are 2, and even 3,

major horizons of tillite. These are separated hy fluvial and fluviogtacial sedi-

nents, presumuhly of interglacial periods,

One factor in the irregularity of deposition from place to place is due to

the fact that, over large areas nf South Australia, and adjoining territory, the

Sturtian Ice-Cap—tfor Icc-Cap it must have been—actually rested for a long

period of its existenee upom the rocks that underlie its glacigene depositions. In

ihexe areas, as the ice finally receded. 2 mautle of greater or less thickness of

glacial and fluviogtacial debris was spread over the glacially eroded surlace of

the pre-existing formations, In other areas deposition took place in deep water.

The old highland areas existing during that glacial epoch, such as in the

Neighbourhood of Olary, the Barrier Ranges, Eyre Peninsula and in the vicinity

of Mott Painter were all ice-capped and shed glacial debris into the sinking

geosynelinal area, Even portion of the iatter carried a capping of ice, so that

earlier sediments of the Adelaide Series were in some areas considerably erorled

hy the ice sheet before the glacial depnsits were eventually laid down over their

ice-eroded surface.

During the past 40 years the author has made extensive field observations

of evidence bearing on problems concerning this period of glaciation in Australia.

‘The broader findings are as just mentioned, but further elaboration is reserved

for a more detailed account in preparation.

Lawixatep (Tarrey If) Posr - Guactar Foxuarion

Vollowing stratigraphically above such beds of unquestionable glacigene

origin there is always a thick formation of shale. or its slate equivalent, con-

stituted of thin laminae which are not true varves, but the author is convinced

do represent a modified type or seasonal deposition. This eonclusion was reached

long ayo and voiced before the geological section of the Australian Association

for the Advancement of Science at its teeting in Adelaide in January, 1907.

Since then further convincing proof has Leen accumulated, and is being dealt

with in the compilation already mentioned.

The ribbon slates of this horizon in Howchin’s Adelaide Series have Jong

heen distinguished as the Tapley Hill Slates or shales as the case imay be. In

the main, they represent rock floyr washed out from the glaciated land during

the waning phase of the glacial period.

li its upward extension the Tapley Hill formation includes more and more

ealcarenus contributions, Eventually, in the upward sequence, some beds appear

of the composition of argillaceous limestone, ta he quickly followed by a greater

or Jess thickness of purer limestones of the Brighton Limestone horizon.

At Mundallio Creek this section of sediments amounts to only ahout 650 feet

in thickness, but m the vicinity of Copley it is much greater, namely, 3,598 feet.

This js evidetice that the neighbourhood of Copley was situated further from

the old shore line,

Not to be cojilused with the Aranna Range, which is part of the main Flinders

Ranges and extends north from Wilpena Poitnd,

273

THe Brichron Limestone Horrzon

The limestones and associated argillaceous beds of this horizon are com-

paratively shallow water depositions, for bands of intraformational chip and pellet

breccias appear in this portion of the sequence. The purer limestone formations

frequently extubit good evidence of their biostromic character.

At Mundallio Creek the main limestone formation of this hortzon does not

exceed 54 feet in thickness. At Copley it is thicker.

AraintAcrous AND AREMACKOUS SEDIMENTS ABGVE Tie Bericutox LAMESTONE

Horitzoys

At Mundallio Creck, as elsewhere in che State, the sediments of thig section

are mainly of a reddish tinge of colour, often chocolate to purple.

At Mundallio Creek the measured thickness amounts (o only about 2,130 fect.

According to Segnit (1939) these beds are much thicker than we found them to

he. We have found a vastly greater thickness further to the east in the deeper

portions of the hasin. No complete section of this portion of the sequence is

available for measurement at Copley, but to the south-west uf Copley such beds

are exposed on a tmajor scale between Mount Scott and Mount Deception. ‘Thus

again supporting the contention that Copley is farther east from the old shore

line than is Quorn.

THe Pounp Quarrzite (CAmBRiAN)

As the outerops met with in the Quorn area are faulted and considerably

eroded, our determination of the thickness of this formation as met with there

is subject to some revision, but it is believed to be approximately correct, Our

figure is about 2,000 feet. We cannot agree with Scgnit’s 739 ieet (1939). Also,

We are sure that Howchin’s figure of 800 feet for this quartzite as estimated hy

him at Devil’s Peak docs not correspond to the true thickness in the Quorn area.

The fact 1s that Devil’s Peak represents only a badly faulted and sheared frag-

ment of the Pound Mormation,

In the neighbourhood of Copley this horizon is developed im great strength

upwards of 2,000 feet in the Mount Scott Range.

At some 23 miles to the south-west of Copley, Sprigg (1947) made an

important discovery of fossils in a sandstone below the Archaeucyathinae limte~

stone. This sandstone appears to belang to the Pound Formation, and the dis-

covery Jends added support to the conlention that the latter is Cambrian. More

recently we haye visited the localitv of this fossil find and have been able to collect

additional specimens both of Sprigg’s medusa-like forns and of a plant-like

impression.

QUTCROPS OF THE BASAL QUARTZITE ELSKWHERE IN THE

SOUTH TFLINDERS RANGES

Tu the South Flinders Ranges there has come tinder our notice two other

areas occupied by outerops of this same quartzite, basal to the sedimentary

succession of the Late Proterozoic geosynclinal basin, One is that traversed by

the Port Germein Gorge road, and the other constitutes the main mass of Mount

Remarkable, The geographical sityation of the three areas mentioned in the

souch Finders Ranges and of the Mount Aroona belt further north is illustrated

i? fig. 1,

Tuk GREAT Quartzite or Port Germein Gorse

The Port Germein Gorge road ctits across this. quartzite at the northern end

vf a North-south directed and northward pitching anticline, The conformable

274

dolomile - magnesite series follows normally around the anticlinal structure;

additional proof that this great quartzite is stratigraphically below the magnesite

series a5 at Mundalliu Creek and at Copley and not just blocks of [ound

Quartzite faulted into their present position, A portion of The Dolomite -

Magnesite formation, trending in a general north-south direction, is to be seen

in the bank of the Gorge Creek at the western entrance to the Gorge, Just a little

farther to the west is located the Tertiary fault scarp of the Range; this effec-

tively drops the Precambrian formations out of sight beneath the plain.

Proceeding eastward through the Gorge whete the highway is hewn

through a great thickness of quartzite, a further re-appearance of that of the

Emeroo Range quartzite, the strike is observed to swing around from

south-north on the west side through west-east in the centre region to

roughly riorth-south on the east side where the road emerges from the quartzite.

A little further on the magtiesite series, having followed around the margin otf

the quartzite, again makes its appearance: here it is being worked by the Broken

Hill Proprictary Company, Still further on to the east, across the strike, and

just heyond the locality Bangor, the Sturtian ‘Tillite comes into view.

Returning to the dolomite formation, jt extends sonth alung the eastern flank

af the great quartzite anticline through the Wirrahara Forest and Beetaloa Water-

works Reserve towards Crystal Brook. In that vicinity also the tillite has been

recorded (Howchin 1929). Qn its western side and alemg its sauthern end the

great quartzite is truncated by major faults of Kosciuskan orogeny.

Tue Massive Quartzitr or Mount REMARKABLE

Tfowchin (1916) was struck with the great thickness uf the imposing ridge

of quartzite which constitutes Mount Remarkable. He suggested many possible

ways of acconnting for the great thickness; with none of which, however, was

he satished. He had not conceived the existence in South Australia of a single

quartzite formation of such magnitude, On its eastern side the country is thrown

down hy a great fault, again apparently of the Koseiuskan epoch. Qn its western

side there appears to be some faulting also, but from the overlying Sturtian Tillite

horizon there appears to be a regular upward succession to the west. culminating

in a large development of another major quartzite formation which, judging by

its broader features, appears to be the Pound Quartzite. In tis relation te

associated beds, there seems to be no doubt that the quartzite of Motnt Remark-

able is yet another outcrop of the great basal formation under consideration.

THE MOUNT AROONA-EMEROO RANGE QUARTZITE AS DISTINCT

FROM THE POUND QUARTZITE

Investigation of the several areas in the western Ilinders Ranges discussed

in preceding pages leaves no doubt that in that region, stratigraphically simmated

considerably below the record of the Sturtiun glaciation, and immediately below

an extensive series of beds peculiarly rich i) dolomite and magnesite, there exists,

as the basal member of a very notable section of later Proterozoic sediments, an

extraordinarily thick development of quartzite, which is arkosie in part and

stibject to a great development of coarse conglomerate at its base, In the Emereo

Range tlhe lower stction of this remarkable formation 1s exposed to view and

is observed to exhibit a brown to chocolate appearance, There, sandwiched

between some of the rudaceous and arenaceous beds are chocolate to purple shales

as bands up to several feet in thickiiess.

The massiveness of this formation is apt to cause it (a he confused with the

other extraordinarily thick arenaceous formation of that cegion—ihe Pound

275

(uartzite, The confusion is increased owing to the existence of purple shales

and sandstone at the base of the latter as well as heing found in association with

the former. Fossils have neyer been observed in the older formation, but in the

Pound Quartzite worm burrews are not infreyuent, Recently Sprigg (1947)

has made a very important additional fossil find,

TRANSGRESSIONAL PROTEROZOIC SEDIMENTS LOCATED TO THE

WEST OF THE LAKE TORRENS SUNKLAND

Tue Tent Hitt FORMATION

Segnit (1939) has referred to the horizon of the Pound Quartzite, that

extensive development of sandstones ard associated conglomerates widely

spread over the neighbouring region on the western side of the Port Augusta -

Lake Torrens Sunkland. To the earlicr geologists who have discussed the

geology of the region west of Port Attgusta, the age of this arenaccous formation

has been wu intriguing problem. The formation is usually met with in the form

of widely scattered mesas and biittes, obviously remnants of a Tormer grand

development. The descriptive term, Tent Mill Formation, has long been applied

lo it. This term came into cammon usage from the resemblance in profile of

some of the cutters or residial hills of the formation to ihat of a marquce tent.

Tn the absence of fossils it has been the custorn in the earlier records of the

Geological Survey Department to doubtfully refer the Tent Hill Formation to

the Ordovician. In the more southerly portion of the region, Dr. Jack (1914)

has referred to several ottterops which may be considered as representing phases

of this formation, includmg conglomerates and quartzites of the Corunna Range

near Iron Knob, the quartzite of the Blue Range in the Hundred of Verran, the

Moonaby Range conglomerate.

In this same general area, Segnit (1939) refers to this horizon the

extensive plateau formation in the neighbourhood of Lincoln Gap, and the rocks

of the Cortinna Range, Mount Laura, Mount Whyalla, Mount Young and

Hunmock Hill All are referred hy him, as earlicr mentioned, to the Pound

Quartzite which is his D7 fortation, which, by the way, is considered by him

to be the topmost horizon of the Precanvhriatr,

The formations under consideration in all these focalitics are conglamierates

and quartzites, usually flat-bedded or bat little inclined, nat obviously meta-

morphosed and with no indubitable signs of great antiquity, All repose with

evident unconformity upon highly metamorphosed sediments and granites, Fig, 5

is a section illustrating the relation of the Tent Hill formation of the western

plateau region to the block-uplifted folded rocks of the South Flinders Ranges,

Tor Corunna Rance Rupsctous anp Arenackovs Formation

We have exansined in same detail an example of this formation as occurring

in the Corunna Range, lucated north of and within several miles of Iran Kroh

township, This locality is well dltistrated in pl. xiv.

In the neighbourhood of the reservoir at Corurina Range, the beds strike

N.35° W. and dip to the north-east, At the base of the series the dip is as

stecp as 30°, but rapidly diminishes in the upper beds iu the east. Actually the

Range is the remnant of a synctinal basin, tor on its eastern side the dip is

reyersed, directed at low angles tu the west

276

At the base are red arenaceous and argillaceous beds; then follows a semark-

able deyelopment of conglomerate with some bands of quartz grit, A lower

100 feet thick of greyish, medium-coarse, arkosic grit is followed in vertical

succession by a whiter phase containing larger pebbles, Passing upwarils another

100 feet an extiemely coarse conglomerate is encountered. [lere masses of the

rock are composed of boulders of 4 inches to 6 inches diameter; occasiotial

boulders were met up to 15 inches long, Current-bedding is evidenced.

Most of the boulders are of milky quartz, while occasionally are met

examples of quartzite rich in bematite of a kind exactly resembbing the quartzite

of the Tron Monarch Lill, Red jasper pebbles wp to 10 inches diameter are of

frecjuent occtirrence. Several exaniples of quartzamuscovite-schist and banded

jaspilites were met with, Occasional pebbles of typical Gawler Range porphyry

were encountered. At some horizons there appear in the fine base of the con-

glomerate spangles and grains of pure hematite.

No evidence was forthcoming to indicate that these boulder beds were in

any way associated with glaciation. The total thickness of this formalinn #5

exposed im the Corutina Range is said by Segnit (1939) to be at least 350 jevt-

Dr, Jack (1922) was the first to record finding in this conglomerate pebbies

of Seldspar-porphyry itdistinguishable from tbat of the Gawler Ranges (tying

to the qvest), also of Serriginous jaspilite and hematite similar to the formation

at Ire’ Knob ancl Irotr Monarch (located a iew miles to the -sopth), Jack states

that at about 11, miles north-north-west of the Monarch i5 the easternmost

exposure of the great feldspar-porphyry mass that forms the Gawler Ranges.

Alsu relevant ty our investigation is Edwards’ (1936) record that pebbles of the

aucient Middleback lerrain are found in the conplomerate of the Moonaby Hange.

Thas {1 is quite clear, from this evidence alone, that the Tent Hill Forina-

tiem is younger than either the Gawler Range Porphyry or the Iron Knob. terrain.

Eeuiyarency of Tre Corunya Rance PORMeTION WITIE ‘THAT Cr THE

Emenoo Rance

The latest evidence bearing upon the question of age is our discovery that

the lower 800 feet at least of the Emeroo Range formation is composed of con-

glomerates, quartzites and red shales, petrologically similar to counterparts in the

Corunna Range, No stich association has been found in amy outcrops of ihe

Found Formation. Further. the range is strikingly similar tn that af the con-

glomerates of the Corunna Range, so similar thar this fact alone is must cor-

yincing: as to ile identity of these two,

Tr thus becomes clear, as already recorded (Mawson 1946), that the Minders

Ranges vast of Port Augusta (see pi. xv, fig. 2) represent Lhe crumbled sediments

nf the Late Proterozoic to Cambrian geasynclinal basin, while the Tent Hiil

Formation to the west of Port Augusta (see pl. xv, fig. 1) represents shallow

vaier sediments of the early stages of marine transgression over the coastal {ringe

of Yilgarnia, and corresponds to the basal formation of the Adelaide Series.

A further important deduction that arises is that we cah now fix ihe age of

the Gawler Range Porphyry as pre-dating the base of the Adelaide Series. It

may be tentatively regarded as a product of the period of Algoman revolution

(U.S.A, nomenclature). |

CORRELATION WITH SEDIMENTS OF THE

MOUNT LOFTY RANGES

While the succession on the western side of the busin in the region of the

Flinders Ranges can now, with a high degree of confidence, be correlated with

are

that in the neighbourliood of Adelaide, the relation between the sediments

dipping to the cast on the eastern side of the Mount Lofty Ranges and those ot

the Adelaide Series as established on the west side of the Rabge and in the

Tiinders Ranges is not so evident,

Tlowchin held that the sediments on the cast side of the Mount Lofty Ranges

which dip consistently to the east and become successively mote metamorphosed

ag they progress in that direction are the same beds as constitute the series, the

sequence of which he had established on ihe western slopes; the stecession being

repeated on the eastern side of the Barossian core of the Range. For instance,

he regarded the Grey Spur conglomerate, which unconformatly overlies Barassian

fineisses and faces east, as the Base of the Adelaide Seri¢s and equivalent to the

Aldgate sandstone.

We have since traced the Grey Spur conglemerate ta Dlackfcllows Creel,

near Mount Magnificent. Accordingly, on Hoyehin’s reckoning, the Black-

fellows Creek conglomerate and the overlying Mourit Magnificent Serves of beds

should be the basal member of the Adelaide Series. Howeyer, as already stated

{Mawson 1939), the marble in that series is almost free trom magnesia, and is

therefore unlikely to be the counterpart of the richly magnesic dolomites of the

Yower Adelaide Series as developed on the neighbouring western side of the

Ranges.

Consequently it is abyions that, before Towehin’s views regarding a repeti-

tion of the Adelaide Series on the east side of the range can be accepted without

further question, a thorougli-going investigation must be made, Hossfeld (1935)

lvolds that in the Williamstown area and to the east thereof, the Proterozoic rocks

belong to ati older series (his Para Serivs) than those (his Narcoota Series)

developed so well on the western flank of the Mount Lofty Ranges,

‘There is considerable evidence io support the contention that much of the

eastern flank of the Mount Lofty Ranges is occupied by rocks of Mosquito Creek

Age, Certainly in the Olary - Broken Ifill region there is a large development of

sedimentary rocks intruded hy the younger little-stressed granites, which underlie

with violent unconformity the Sturtian rillite formation and may be regarded as

stratigraphically equivalent to the Mosquito Creek Series of Western Australia.

These intrusive granites have associated with them pegmatite apophyses notable

for containing beryl, tantalite, cnlumbite and uraniferous minerals, just ag is the

case in Western Australia.

Thus the stage now teached js that, henceforth, we shall regard the Mount

Aroona quartzite as equivalent to the base of the Adelaide Series which, in the

vicinity of Adelaide, is taken to be the Aldgate Sandstone. But the equivalence:

ol the Grey Spur - Blackfellows Creek basal boulder beds and the Mount Aroona

quartzite, while possibly correct, has yet to be convincingly proved.

OTHER CORRELATIONS

The Late Proterozoic, Nullagine Series, of the north-western and northern

Australia has long beett correlated (Cotten 1930) with the Adelaide Series. In

Central Australia the Pertakmirra and Pertatataka Series exhibit a close relation-

ship in sequence of beds with the exception that the glacial horizon bas not yet

been recognised there.

As already published (Mawson 1946), a comparison with the Pre-Cambrian

record of Smith Africa is convincing that this division of the Australian record

has its equivalent in the Transvaal system and extensions of the latter in other

areas of Africa, he detail of the South African succession bears a broad

278

general cotrespondence to that existing in South Australia. Thus the Dassport

Glacial Horizon, the Lower Griquatown Tillite and the Numees Tillite (all

apparently records of the same glacial epoch) may be said to be broadly equiva-

lent to our Sturtian Tillite. The underlying dolomites and overlying limestones

rich in ‘algal” structures are a feature of rhe sequence in both cases. The great

conglomerate-quartzite formation at the base of the Transvaal System, resting

with violent unconformity upon older formations, appears to correspond to the

conglomerate-quartzite formation of the Emeroo Range and the Tent Hill Forma-

tion of Yilgarnia further west.

SUMMARY

Consideration is given to the succession of sediments occupying the great

geosynclinal basin which developed off the eastern margin of Yilgarnia during

Late Proterozoic to Middle Cambrian time. The present contribution deals only

with accumulations alony the western side of the basin in the region of the

Flinders Ranges, Subsequent contributions will deal with depositions respec-

tively of the castern margin and of the central region of the depression.

The sediments accumulated in two locations near the western side of the

basin are considered in some detail, The first is the neighbourhood of Copley,

the second is the district to the west of Quorn. The latter ts relatively nearer

to the western margin of the geosynclinal basin than in the fornier.

The sediments considered are of Upper Proterozoic age, equiyalents of the

Adelaide Series of the Mount Lofty Ranges and of the Nullagine Series of

North Western Australia.

Attention is drawn to a remarkable correspondence, so far as the broader

features of sedimentation of this geological period are concerned, of the Aws-

tralian record with that of South and Equatorial Africa,

Finally, the basal formation of the sedimentary acctimulation in this geo-

synclinal area has been traced westward as an attenuated transgressional depeasi-

tion overlapping the margin of Yilgarnia where it is known as the Tent Hill

Formation. This settles the age of this latter feature, a long-disptited preblem

itt South Australian stratigraphy,

A further deduction of some importance is that both the Gawler Range

Porphyry and the lron Knob iron-ore formation pre-date the deposition of the

Adelaide Series. Reference is made to the occurrence in the Olary - Broken Hill

region of sediments of Mosquito Creek age underlying the Sturtian glacial

horizon, and it is suggested that further detailed field investigation of the seli-

ments and meta-sediments of the eastern flank of the Mount Lofty Ranges may

prove them: to be of similar age.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The photograph from the summit of Iron Knob is reproduced by courtesy

of the Broken Hill Proprietary Coy, In the prosecution of field work associated

with this contribution, [ have been assisted by the co-operation of students,

amongst whom H. E. E. Brock and R. C. Sprigg have been notably helpful.

REFERENCES

Anprews, E. C. 1922 “The Geology of the Broken Hill District.” Memwirs

of the Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geology, No. &

Awnprews, E, C. 1937 “The Structura) Mlistory of Australia during the

Palaeozoic.” Proc. Roy. Soc, N.S.W., 71

279

Barnes, T. A., and Kreeman, A. W. 1934 “The Blue Metal Limestone and

its Associated Beds.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58

Bryan, W. H. 1932 “Early Palaeozoic Earth Movements in Australia.”

A.N.Z, Ass. Adv. Scierice, 21

Corton, L, A. 1930 “An Outline and suggested Correlation of the Pre-

Cambrian Formations of Australia.” Pres. Add. Roy, Soc, N.S.W.

Dickinson, S. B. 1942 “The Structural Control of Ore Deposition in some

South Australian Copper Tields.” Geol, Surv. S.A., Bull. 20

Epwagps, A. B. 1936 “The Iron Ores of the Middleback Range, South Aus-

tralia,” Proce, Aust. Inst. M.M.. New Series, No. 102

Hossrezp, ?. S. 1935 “Geology of Part of the North Mount Lofty Ranges.”

Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 59

Howcurm, W, 1916 “The Geology of Mount Remarkahle.” Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 40

Howcuty, W. 1926 “Geology of the Barossa Ranges and Neighbourhood in

relation to the Geological Axis of the Country.” Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 50

Howcntn, W. 1928 “The Sturtian Tillite and Associated Beds on the

Western Scarp of the Southern Flinders Ranges.’ Trans, Roy. Soc.

S, Aust., 52

Jack, R. L. 1914 “The Geology of the County of Jervois and portion of the

Cotinties of Buxton and York, with special reference to Underground

Water Supplies.” Geol. Sury. 5. Aust., Bull 3

Jack, R, L. 1922 “The Iron Ore Resources of South Australia.” Geol. Surv,

S. Aust., Bull. 9

Manicar, C. T. 1927 “Geology of the Willunga Scarp.”” Trans, Roy. Soc.

S. Anst., 51

Mawson, D. 1912 “Geological Investigations in the Broken Hill Area,” Me-

moirs Roy. Sac. S, Aust., 2, pt. iv

Mawson, D. 1939 “The First Stages of the Adelaide Series: As illustrated

at Mount Magnificent.” Trans, Ray. Soc. S, Aust., 63

Mawsox, D. 1941 “Middle Proterozoic Sediments in the Neighbourhood of

Copley.” Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 65

Mawsow, 1). 1942 “The Structural Characters of the Flinders Ranges.”

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66

Mawson, D. 1946 “The Geological Background of South Australia.” Hand-

book of 25th Meeting of A.N.Z.A.A.5,, Adelaide

Sronir, R. W. 1929 “Geological Notes from the Hundred of Adams, Flin-

ders Ranges,” Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 53

Sronit, R. W. 1936 “The Geology of the Northern Part of the Hundred of

Macclesfield.” Geol. Sury. S. Aust., Bull. 16

280

Secnit, R. W. 1939 “The Pre-Cambrian—Cambrian Succession.” Geol.

Surv. S. Aust., Bull. 18

Spricc, R. C. 1942 “Geology of the Eden- Moana Fault Block.” Trans.

Roy Soc. S. Aust., 66

Spricc, R. C. 1946 “Reconnaissance Geological Survey of Portion of the

Western Escarpment of the Mount Lofty Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soe.

S. Aust., 70

Spricc, R. C. 1947 “Fossils from a Sub-Cambrian Horizon in South Aus-

tralia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71

‘uor}eUIo} qouy uo1y Suiddip Ajdaaqs Japfo ay} uodn ArutoJUOIUN YUaOIA YIEM

Sat, YDIYM ‘soliag splefapy I} JO UONRUIO, [eseq snoadeuaie Puke SNoOddepNs oy} JO Ja NO [BUTSUAS

Surs[-jey B ‘asuey CUUNIOD Aly SI ddUEISIP ay} UP “yJOU Suryooy ‘qousyy Uosy Jo PruruINs ayy UTOIZ Mat A

AIX ®78ld ‘TL TOA spentaichine a wh

lrans. Rox, Soc. S. Anst., 1947 Vol. 71, Plate NV

Tig, |

View of the Lincoln Gap Range from the main highway ta the west ot

Port Aueusta, This is a formation of hint ‘tightly inclined (riartzites and

some pebble bers. It represents au overlap of the basal formation of the

Adelaide Series Gutu the shield mass of Vilgarmia,

Tip. 2

The Western scarp face of the Emeroo Range as viewed irom the Port

Anwusti—Lake Torrens sunkland- The entire range is constituted of

ereeply dipping beds of the rndaceous and arenaceons basal formation of the

Adelaide Series and represents depositions along the western margin

ot the Proteroyoic geosyncline,

THE GEOLOGY OF THE JAMESTOWN DISTRICT, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By T. LANGFORD-SMITH

Summary

The survey includes an area of over a hundred square miles in the Jamestown district. The beds

consist of Proterozoic sediments, which have been folded into synclines and anticlines with north-

south axes. Jamestown is situated in an anticline which has been differentially eroded to produce a

series of parallel ridges and valleys, while to the east of the town is a broad synclinal valley.

281

THE GEOLOGY OF THE JAMESTOWN DISTRICT, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By T. Lancrosp-Suiru *

[Read 9 October 1947]

CONTENTS

SuMMARY te “ as pe at pie be de 3 J .. 281

INTRODUCTION Ne 25 - ee is ‘ ae ‘ .. 281

Derarts of S1RATIGRAPHY 7 vs bs re ms ss .. -- .. 284

FAULTING AND Fotpinc.. ole “4 +. = a rf M4 AA .. 205

ACKNOWLENGMENTS ve a be e aii os .- 7 a ve 295

REFERENCES hs ie ae rw 33 . et a os by .. 295

SUMMARY

The survey includes an area of over a hundred square miles in the James-

town district,

The beds consist of Proterozoic sediments, which have been folded into

synclines and anticlines with north-south axes. Jamestown is situated in an anti-

cline which has been differentially eroded to produce a series of parallel ridges

and valleys, while to the east of the own is a broad synclinal valley.

There is a fair degree of correlation between the sediments in the vicinity

of Jamestown district and the Precambrian beds in the Adelaide district, the

vertical range including the beds between the Upper Phyllites and the Brighton

Limestones of Howchin’s classification. There are also verv marked correlations

hetween the Jamestown beds and the Precambrian at Appila Gorge and Orroroo.

The sediments below the glacisl beds are about 13,700 feet in thickness.

They include phyllites, slates, hornfels, shales, quartzites, dolomites and dolomitic

limestones. A feature of this group is the large number of thin hands of dolomitic

limestone, Phyllites and slates dominate the lower portions. In the central

section is a bed of arkose satidstone and quartzite about 200 feet thick. Above

the latter are more slates and phyllites, and also two distinctive beds of quartzite,

the upper of which underlies the glacial beds. These beds of quartzite outcrop

very prominently in the highest points of the Campbell Range, and its northern

continuation through Mount Lock.

The glacial beds are noted for their great thickness (3,000 feet), They

include a variety of tillite and fluvio-glacial sediments. Erratics are numerous.

Above the glacial beds is a transitional zone (300 feet} of fluvio-glacial

sediments, banded slates, and thin bed of Limestone. Above this occur about

10,000 feet of shales and slates with the typical Tapley LIill ribbon banding,

which in turn are overlain by a series of banded siliceous limestones.

INTRODUCTION

The field work of the following paper was carried out in 1941 and 1942,

while the writer was a member of the Council for Scientific and Industrial

Research party engaged on a Soil, Soil Erosion and Land Use Survey of County

Victoria (fig. 1). Jt is the first of a series of papers dealing with various

aspects of the Geology and Geography of the County Victoria area, publication

of which was delayed on account of the war.

* Department of Post-War Reconstruction, Canferra, A.C.T,

Trans. Roy, Soe. S, Aust., 71, (2), 1 December, 1947

282

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NEW SOUTH WALES

‘AUSTRALIA

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COUNTY. pF VICTORI A

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283

GEOLOGICAL SUCCESSION OF PROTEROZOIC SEDIMENTS IN THE

VICINITY OF JAMESTOWN, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

(sHowine PROBABLE CORRELATION WITH HOWCHINS CLASSIFICATION OF THE ADELAIDE serves )

HOWCHINS ADELAIDE SERIES PROTEROZOIC SUCCESSION AT JAMESTOWN

Banded siliceous limestones below

Brighton limestones, or basal beds of

Brighton limestones

Banded silceous timestones

Tapley Hill ribbon slates Tapley Hill series

Sturtian tillite Tillite series

Sub-glacial quartzite Sub-glacial quartzites

Slates, phyllites and hornfels

Quartzite and sandstone

Glen Osmond upper slates Slates and phyllites with thin beds

of dolomitic limestone

Mitcham and Glen Osmond quartzite Quartzites and sandstanes

Phylutes and slates with thin beds

of dolomitic limestone

Glen Osmond lower slates,’blue metal*

limestones, upper phyllites

TOTAL THICKNESS CF BEDS APPROXIMATELY

26,700 FEET ane,

Fig, 2

284

In the neighbourhood of Jamestown very little geological wark has been

attempted in the past. Investigations have been carried out by Howchin and

Segnit in the Appila Gorge near Tarcowie, by Howchin in the Orroroo district,

and by Hossfeld in the North Mount Lofty Ranges. The detailed stratigraphy

of the immediate vicinity of Jamestown has been neglected. No doubt this has

been due largely to the scarcity of surface outcrops in this district.

In 1941 the complete coverage of the district by air photographs of a scale

4 inches to 1 mile made a new approach possible, as small, obscure outcrops

were clearly shown in numerous localities. Apart from natural rocky gullies,

soil erosion gullies of recent occurrence proved of great assistance, as they

ireguently exposed the hed-rock for long distances. Scattered through the

ploughed fields, numerous low rocky outcrops which otherwise would have been

most difficult to. detect were revealed by the photographs. Not only were the

photographs invaluable in the detection of outcrops, but also in later mapping

work, Outcropping series could be accurately traced for miles with great

facility,

In general, the region consists of parallel alternating ridges and valleys,

running in an approximate north-south direction, ‘The area covered by the

survey is folded into a syncline to the east, and an anticline to the west. The

syncliné conforms in. topography to a broad, gently sloping valley, while the anti-

cline (on which Jamestown is situated) has been differentially eroded to form

an alternating series of ridges and valleys,

As a result of the investigations, it is now evident that many of the beds

in the vicinity of Jamestown are largely analogous to beds in the Adelaide district

described by Ilowchin and others. The vertical range appears to correspond

to Precambrian beds of the Adelaide district between the Upper Phyllites and

the Brighton Limestones (fig. 2),

Sections were run eastwards from the tillite-containing ridge directly south

of Mount Lock in the Hundred of Caltowie, to the tillite-containing ridge of the

Browne Hill Range in the western part of the Hundred of Whyte, a distance of

abaut 10 miles, These sections are shown on the accompanying plan and in fig. 3

by the lines PQ and RS. PQ runs in an casteriy direction six miles north of

Jamestown, and RS continues the section along a path running almost due east

of the town.

Considerable work was carried ont both north and south of the section lines,

and eventually an area of over a hundred square miles was surveyed and mapped

in detail, The findings of the survey are presented in the following text, with

uccompanying sections, taps and photographs.

DETAILS OF STRATIGRAPHY

SERIES "A"

PrYLLITEs AND SLATES WITH Tain Beps ov DoLtomitic LIMESTONE

This serics is in the form of a large eroded anticline which has been pro-

duced by folding through a north-south axig (see section “PQ"). It is bounded

to both cast and west by quartzite and sandstone ridges (“B” and “B1’). In

the few exposures where the junction between the series “A™ and “B and B1”

could be observed, the rocks af “A” were contorted, and it was not possible to

determine whether there was any unconformily, From the general trend of the

dips, however, it was apparent that if an unconformity did exist, tt was not

particularly marked,

285

ZAST-WEST SECTIONS

H? BELALIE 4 PART OF H? CALTOWIE

SOUTH AUSTRUALIA

i \\

Hen

Sect 109

HP Caltewe

“

NERC

SSN

a es

Sect § yonizonra FS ners emt? CHES sNect-102

enna VERTICAL "Mee fl cel re SSPE (se, “inpred ne Brla\ie

TLiavorgevih inte

Fig. 3

Dips were micasured at fiimerous localities through series “A”. They

yaried from about 45° W. near “BL” through the vertical to about 70’ E. near

“p" Except for some slight local variation due to minor folding the gradation

in dips through (he range of angles given was comparatively regular.

The width of outcrop of the beds of this series ranges from 4,000 feet in

Sections 140 and 139, Hundred of Belalie, to 9,300 feet one mile north of the

Belalic - Mannanarie [[undred line, Compression has badly crushed and folded

the former region, and the areas further south near Jamestown are almost com-

pletely covered by soil; thus detailed investigation was restricted to the northern

areas towatds Mount Lock. Here the true thickness of the beds is approxi-

mately 5,000 feet.

The rocks of the series are highly metamorphosed. Phyllites casily dominate

the group, but slates, some of which are arenaceous, are fairly well represented,

Pyrites crystals ity the form of little cubes are quite commonly found in both

these types; they frequently shaw decomposition tu limonite, and often cubes of

limonite occur as pseudomorphs. Loth phyllites and slates, when fresh, are

characteristically grey to bluc-grey, but show a great varicty of colours when

weathered. Shades of yellow and red as a result of iron-oxide staining are

comnictt

A few thin bands of quartzite impregnated with quartz veins were found in

parts, but this was not typical of the series.

A number of very thin beds of dolomite and dolomitic limestone occur

through the series. ‘These are well exposed along the road to the west of Sections

156 and 157, Hundred of Belalie, where they dip nearly vertically. A sample

of these dolomitic limestones was subjected to a rough quantitative analysis, the

assumption being made that calcium and magnesium would he almost entirely

286

in the form of carbonates, and iron and alumina of sesqui-oxides. The following

figures were obtained :

SiO, - - - - 24%

CaCO, - - - - 45%

MsCoO,- - - - - 20%

Fe,O, + Al,0O, = - - - 6%

95%

Howchin (1) described as “Glen Osmond Lower Slates” heds in the Orroroo

district which closely resemble the series “A”. He found calcareous zones in

these slates, which he believed represented the Blue Metal Limestones of the

Adelaide district.

Mawson (2) has compiled a detailed description of Middle Proterozoic beds

underlying the tillite in the Copley district. He found a large amount of dolomite

in these beds, which appears very similar to that in the series “A”.

Hossfeld (3), in his surveys of the North Mount Lofty Ranges, defined two

distinct series, the Para (older Adelaide) and Narcoota (younger Adelaide),

which were separated by an unconformity. We assumed that the basal beds of

the Narcoota Series were contemporaneous with Howchin's Mitcham and Glen

Osmond Quartzites (4). There is little doubt that the quartzites "B” and “B1”

in the Jamestown district are contemporaneous with the Mitcham and Glen

Osmond Quartzites, and it would therefore appear that they are representative

of Hossfeld’s basal Narcoota beds. Although there is no proof of unconformity

between beds “A”, “B”, and “B1", it is considered that the series “A” must

represent the upper beds of the Para series.

Summing up, it is most probable that the series “A” is contemporaneous on

the one hand with Huwchin’s Upper Phyllites, Blue Metal Limestones, and Glen

Osmond Lower Slates of the Adelaide district, and on the other with Hossfeld’s

Para series in the North Mount Lofty Ranges. It also appears similar to Middle

Proterozoic beds described by Mawson at Copley, and by Mowchin at Orroroo.

SERIES *B” AND “Ri”

QuARTZITES AND SANDSTONES

“RB” and “B1" are respectively the easterly and westerly outcrops of an

anticlinal fold,

THe Eastern Ourcror ("B")

The beds of “B” are exposed in the ridge which strikes roughly north and

south through the ceniral portions of the Hundred of Belalie. The direction of

strike passes through Jamestown, although no outcrop is visible in the town itself,

Proceeding from the. town in a northerly direction, the series is first exposed

in a low ridge immediately wesi of the railway crossing, where it has been

quarried. The ridge rises gently for about 33 miles, and then falls again, and

finally dips out of sight in Section 8S, Hundred of Mannanarie, approximately

8 miles north of Jamestown.

Half a mile south of Jamestown there is a small outerop in the form of a

low hummock a quarter of a mile in length, where the rock has been quarried

for road metal. A mile further south it outcrops in Section 75, Ilundred of

Belalie, and forms a gently rising ridge which continues in a southerly direction

for several miles.

287

The rocks of “B” are highly felspathic, the felspar in most cases showing

an advanced state of decomposition, which givés the rock a very distinctive

speckled appearance. In matty instances the kaolin has been weathered away,

leaving numerous small cayities between the silica grains, which causes the rock

to crumble easily. Textural gradations within the series range from fine-grained

sandstones and quartzites to grits, Sandstone is dominant, bul siliceous quartzites

do occur, Quartz veins are common throughout the series. When these veins

were found in the sandstone it was noted that they had not affected the impreg-

nated rock, indicating the intrusion of cold siliceous solution. Well-defined ripple

matks are a feature of the series, implying shallow water deposition.

At a distance uf 44 miles north of Jamestown there has been some strike

faulting, resulting in repeating outcrops of the beds for a short distance. This

faulting has been caused by the same pressure which was responsible for the

faulted zone to the west (see plan).

The true thickness of “BR” ranges from 150 to 250 feet, and the beds dip to

the east at 63° to 72°. There is no evidence of unconformity hetween “Ts” and

the overlying shales and slates of “C”,

THe Western Ourtcror (Pl)

“Bi” outcrops in a high ridge half a mile cast of Mount Lock (sec plan)

running almost due north and south of this point. :

To the north, this ridge was followed as far as the Matmanarie-Tarcowie

road, and from here it was seen to be continuing in a northerly direction.

To the south the ridge was traced to Section 140, Hundred of Belalie. From

here to Section 41, Hundred of Caltowic, there has heen a great deal of [aulting

atid shattering. From the latter point the series again outcrops in a ridge, and

this was followed for five miles to the south, into the heart of the Bundaleer

Forest, There has been much faulting in this area, und this has resulted in the

repeated surface outcropping of “‘B1". Close lo the eastern margin of one of

these outcrops, located in the forest just west of Section 287, Hundred of Belalie,

is a hed of crystalline limestone, composed of large calcite crystals. This bed

was followed for some miles to the south, and was found to be the same as that

mentioned by Lockhart Jack (5) in connection with the occurrence of rock

phosphate in the ITundred of Reynolds.

The beds of “BL” are almost identical in rock type to those of “B", although

they are generally more highly metamorphosed, Near Mount Lock the rock in

general is a fine-grained, highly siliceous, and extremely brittle quartzite. It is

alten arkose, although some of the more highly silicilied types do not appear to

contait any appreciable felspar or kaolin. Wery small pyrites crystals were

observed in one specimen.

jlowehin (loc. cif.) has described some qnartzile beds hear Mucra Hill as

Glen Osmond Quartzites. Since Mucra Lill is only 10 miles north of the outcrop

of “Bl” on the Mannanarie- Tarcowie road, and also since “B1” could be scen

continuing in the form of a ridge for some distance fo the north, it is probable

that the outcrop near Mucra Hill is a continuation of “RI”. In any case, there

is little dowbt that “R" and “BL” represent the Mitcham ahd Glen Osmond

quartzite of the Adelaide district. They would thus also be representative of the

basal beds of Hossfeld’s Narcoota scries.

SERIES “C" AND “cl"

SLATES AND PHYLLITES WITN 5OME SitALes AND HORNFELS.

AWD Thin Bens oF Doranrric Limestone

The beds “C” and “Cl” overlic “BY and “1. and are conformable to them,

288.

This was clearly shown in Section 137, Hundred of Belalie, and in areas near

Mount Lock.

Tue Eastern Outcrop (C)

The beds consist mainly of grey to dark blue-grey slates and phyllites, with

some shales and grey hornfels. The slates are mostly thitily laminated, although

there are a few instances of strong banding. Much of the rock is weathered on

the surface to a soft, yellow-brown slate which shows the bedding planes very

clearly. Cleayage planes are strongly developed and the cleavage angle is fairly

consistent at about 65° to the west. The true dip of the beds ranges from 65°

east near “B” to 75° east at “D". The average thickness is about 2,600 feet,

THe Western Ourcror (“CL")

The rock types of “C1” are very similar to those of “C’. The slates in parts

are arenaceous, and there are a few thin bands of sandstone and quartzite, which

sometimes occur as small lenses. There are also a number of very thin beds of

dolomitic limestone. These outcrop in the eastern part of “Cl” in the Mount

Lock area, in the bed of a small creek in Section 150, Hundred of Belalie, and

on the road between Sections 120, 116E, and 117, Hundred of Belalie. Scveral

bands of very similar rock were found at the northern corner of the Bundaleer

Forest Reserve, Analysis of a sample from Section 150, Hundred of Belalie,

yielded the following restilts !

SiO, : : - - 37-9%

CaCO, = - - = - 48-0%

MecO, - : - 21-0%

Al,O,-+ FeO, - - - 30%

109-9%

This analysis was conducted on the same basis as that of the dolomitic lime-

stone in “A”,

There is evidence of some minor folding and faulting in the beds of “C1”

just east of Mount Lock peak, and it is evident from the accompanying geological

plan that there has beet considerable pressure in this area, It is consequently

dificult to measure the true thickness of the beds. On the line PQ (see plan)

the thickness is approximately 3,500 to 4,000 feet.

The beds of “C” and “C1” appear to represent the lower portion of the

Glen Osmond Upper Slates in the Adelaide district, With the exception of the

dolomitic limestones, they also appear analogous with the lower members of beds

in the Orroreo district described by Howchin (Joc. cit.) as Glen Osmond Upper

Slates.

SERIES “Db” AND “pi"

QUARTZITES AND SANDSTONES

Tre Eastern Ourcrop (“1D”)

This is a prominent bed of quartzite and sandstone, which, however, has an

average thickness. af only 18 feet. The rock is fine-grained, and is white to

yellowish-brown in colour when fresh. When found as a quartzite it is sometimes

very compact and brittle. The bed is impregnated with numerous quattz veins.

Outcrops oceur as a series of small hummocks. These were traced from

Section 120, Hundred of Belalie, ina northerly direction, as far as Section 325.

The dip was found to be fairly constant at 75° to the east.

A small quarry in Section 135, Hundred of Belalie, shows that beds “C” and

“ER”, on either side, are conformable to “D”.

289

Tre Western Outcror (“D1”)

The beds of “11” comprise the peak of Mount Lock. Together with the

sub-glacial quartzites “F1", they constitute most of the highest parts of the range

containing Mount Lock. They alsc constitute the highest patts of the Campbell

Range on the western margin of the Bundaleer Forest, the latter range being

the southern continuation of that containing Mount Lock. Both “D1?” and the

sub-glacial quartzites “F1" form the backbone of the two parallel ridges which

are a very prominent featire of these ranges for many miles, to both north and

south af the Jamestown area.

The thickness of “D1” is very difficu’t 16 measure on account of the large

amount of rock talus on either side. At Mount Lock the thickness is between

45 and 90 feet, and the dip 45° to 48° to the west, The beds “C1” and “El” on

cither side appear to be conformable. The rock is very similar to that in “D",

except that i is morely highly metamorphosed. Most of the quartzite is dense,

siliceous, and very brittle, and contains quartz veins. It is extensively [ractured.

The quartzite “D1" has its counterpart in the Appila Gorge, some miles

north of the Jamestown area, In fact, comparison between the outcrops in both

places showed that the whole sequence of beds unmediately below the tillite

coresponded very closely. Segnit (6), from his observations in the Appila Gorge,

concluded that a large part of the Middle Precambrian formations are missing,

and have either been faulted out by strike faulting, or removed before the deposi-

tion of the tilliie, If this be so, then the great similarity of the sequence in the

Jamestown area infers that here also the Middle Precambrian beds tnust be-

missing. However, it seems to the writer most improbable that strike faulting

should have occurred in exactly the same manner and position in these two

localities. Also, if the missing formations had been removed by erosion, then an

identical amount of erosion must have occurred at hath places, which seems very

unlikely, It is not considered, therefore, that there has been any large-scale

removal of beds, either here or at Appila.

SERIES oR AND tert

Suiares, Puyvenitres; ann Hornvers

With the exception of the dolomitic limestones found in “CI”, the beds of

“EY and “E1” are identical with those of “C” and “CL”, consisting of slates and

phyllites with some hornfels and shales. The slates, in parts, are arenaceous,

The beds of “E” are 1,800 feet thick, and dip at angles ranging from

70° to 81° to the east,

‘There is great variation in the apparent thiekness of “E.1", as these beds

have, in parts, heen subjected to intense pressure. Near Mount Lock the thick-

ness 1s about 600 feet. There has becn considerable compression due to folding

in the neighhourhood of Section 44, Hundred af Caltowie, while about 7 miles

south of this point, in the Bundaleer Forest, the thickness increases to about

1,000 feet.

Near Mount Lock the dip is west at afoul 47°. The beds are conformable

with these above and below (“D1 and “F1"'),

SERIES “FPF” AND "FL"

SUB-GLACIAL (QUARTZITES

Tae Eastern Outcrop (“F”)

The sub-ghicial quartzite “F" which underlies the tillite in the central parts

of the Hundred of Relalie, is not a prominent physiographic feature, as is com-

290

monly the ease elsewhere, Tt outcrops on the lower western slopes of the tillite-

containing ridge “C”. In some areas it is almost entirely obscured by talus and

soil, and as even the best exposures are not complete it was impossible to secure

much detail.

The total thickness of F" is about 100 feet, but it was not possible to deter-

mine whether the whole of this was quartzite. Surface material indicated that

there are intercalated beds of shales and slates. The dip of “F” was difficult to

meastite accurately, but it is approximately the same (81° E) as the underlying

shales and slates of “E”. There is no apparent unconformity between “F"' and

the overlying tillite “G”.

The quartzite is. characteristically brown in colour, It is fairly compact and

is moderately felspathic.

THe Western Ovurcrop (“PI”)

The sub-glacial quartzites “FJ” are in two major beds. separated by heds

of shales aud slates, amongst which js a little tillite. There is no tillite al sll

below the lower quartzite.

In the Mount Lock area each of the quartzite beds is between 20 and 40 feet

in thickness, and the shales, slates, and tillites in between amount to about 130 Leet.

‘The only outcrop which provides a clear section through the series is about

7 miles north of Mount Lock, in the gorge through which runs the Mannanaric-

Tarcowie road. The lower quartzite here is a massive bed 100 feet in thickness,

while the upper bed is only 20 feet thick. Between the quartzite is 170 feet of

shales and slates, which do not contain any fillite. The tillite commences abruptly

above the upper quartzite, without any apparent unconformity. No unconformity

could be detected between the Jower quariziie and the beds underlying it (“EI”),

The Appila Gorge is only 6 miles dite west of these outcrops, and the relation-

ships between the exposures in the two localities are very close, At Appila the

tillite commences very abruptly, resting on a bed of quartzite 50 feet thick. Under

this quartzite is about 15 feet of shales, and then another bed of quartzite 40 feet

thick. It is notable that neither at Appila nor on the Mannanarie-l'areowie ruad

is there any tillite between the two beds of quartzite, although a little tillite is

present in the Mount Lock region in association with the shales and slates.

As previously noted, the stib-glacial quartzites “F1” and the quartzites “D”

form the central axis of the mountain range running north through Mount Lock,

and continuing ta the south as the Campbell Range on the western margin of

Bundaleer Forest.

In Sections 325 and 327, Hundred of Yangya, near the Bundaleer Forest.

the sub-glacial quartzites and adjacent series have heen displaced hy a consider-

able dip fault, the horizontal displacement being about 2,400 feet,

SERIES “G," "GI," AND “G2"

TILLITE

Tre Centrar Outcrop (“G”")

This tillite oitcrop forms quite 2 prominent ridge running north and south

through the centre of the Hundred of Belalie. Except for the gorge near James-

town, through which runs the Relahe Creek, the ridge constitutes a stream divide

for many miles. The average height of the ridge above the surrounding country

is ahout 200 feet,

‘The most tselul section through “‘G", ur in faet through any of the tillite

in the district, occurs in a small creek gorge firming through the northern part

uf Seetion 303 and the southern part of Section 160, Hundred of Belalie, about

6 miles N.N.E, of Jamestown, The gorge has been formed by the headward

291

VERTICAL SECTION

TILLITE SERIES ‘GIN SECTIONS 3032160, HUNDRED OF BELALIE

TOTAL THICKNESS OF BEDS 3000 FEET(APPROX).

tol

—

zo. a

iy o.b

Ae » f— Ih ey

SLATES WITH OCEABIONAL FORATICS, MERGES INTO “ATES Of TAREY HILL aE KITS

COMASE GRAMED ARKOSE GRIT

SHALES, SLATES AND TILLITES

SANDSTONE WITM QUARTZ VEINS, SOME IRGM ORIDE STAINING

SHALES, SLATES AND TILLITES

TINE GRAIMED SANDSTONE Wit fowE MLICIFIED QUART ZITE

SHALES, SLATES AMO ThLiTES SOME Of SLATCS FINELY BANDED

QUARTZITE

SHALES — PAQTLY CescuRED

QuaaTziTE

Oascunes

JAMNOSVONE wiTH NUMEROUS SMALL FLARE R Gr MURCOWITE

SANDSTONES AMR TILLITES. PARTLY O8scuaED

SAKOSE. SANDSTONE witts QUARTZ VEINS, IRON OXIDE STAINS

ARROSE SANDSTONE WITH QuaRTz VveiNE

SHALES AWD SLATHS, PARTLY CBSCUREO

ARKOSE SANDSTONE WITH QUARTZ VEINS = anICHMeD In PAaTD

THLITE WITH SHALES

SLATES WITH SMACK BRAATICS, AVERAGE DIAMETER 2MMe.

O8$CURED

QUARTZITE wires QUAATE VEINd, MOTTLED WITH IRON OxIOE STAINS

SHALES ~ DIPPINE Tse STEONG CLEAVAGE EVEL DERD

CONGLOMERATE

BROWN AQROSE QUARTZITE SHOWING HARO AND OFT Banton

SICIFIED TreetTE, TAINED wWiTd InGh DME

TILLITE | WITH ERAATICS.

STRONGLY SHEAREO ELATIAL CONGLOMERATE LARGE NUMBEX OF PEBBLES. MtOSTEY SLATE

SREY HORNFELS QANG QuARIEHTE ~SIZE 2S OMS- AMY KLATTENEO BY PHLSSURE

SANDSTONE, WyiN SOME QUAR“ZITE

THLEITE WITH ERRATICl, STRONGLY SHEARED

Quanta

TILLITE WITH SOME SHALES urtey Oascumes

MOTTLED BROWN ANG WHITE GUARTZITE WH RUAATZ VEINp

TILITE WITH MANY BQULOERS, SOME UH TO ST OAMETER, A NUMBER HOW

SSPLASHY PHENOMENA: SOME SHOW SHEARING STACKS

TIRLITE WITH SHALES. BTAONGLY COMPRESSED MAN HARATICS FLATTENED, PARTLY oBscUNED

SREY FLITEOUS BANDED SLATES, SHOWINe STRONG CLEAVAGE

FLLITE WITH MUMEARGUS ERAATICS UP TO 1acMs, WN DIAMETER,

GREY SLATES iT GOME Sanaly EMRATICS, MOSTLY LESS Tian 4 bnee

TIKLITE WITH THINLY LAMINATED SHALES RTL OBseuseo

DENSE OUARTZITE Wit QUAtITZ VEIn:

WITH RAOLIN: SPHTTAO APPEAR ANTE a

SOME CAVITIES IN QUARTZITE FiLLEO

TO IRON QUIOE aTAINING

TUTE SHOWS ATHONG COomPAESSCON PARTLY ObSCUAEC

SIUIOFIED QUARTTATE, MODERATE . CONTAINS QU&RTZ, VEINS

S7OWS {RON OXIDE STAININ

TRLITE, SHOWS COMPRESSION. PAATLY oBscuRneD

SUB"GLACIAL = QUARTZITS

292

erosion uf a stream following the line of a slight dip fault which has caused a

horizontal displacement of about 50 feet.

lt was found that when continuous exposures of the series could not be

oblained from the sides and bed of the creck, the missing beds could very uften

be found outcropping in the hillside above. Thus by the correlation of a number

of smull sections in the gorge, one almost continuous section was built up showing

great detail, The main features of this section are illustrated in the accompanying

diagram (fg. 4).

‘There is no evidence of major strike faulting in the series, and the details

at ihe section are such that if repetition of beds were present, it would almost

certainly be revealed. There is little doubt that the measured section represents

a continuous sequence.

he most notable feature of the series is the great thickness of the rillite,

which amounts to approximately 3,000 feet. As iar as the writer is aware, this

occurrence in the Jamestown district is the thickest Sturtian tillite formation yet

recorded. It is considerably greater than that recorded by Segnit (loc. eff.) in

the Appila Gorge (1,680 feet), A recent sumining up by Sprigg (7) of work

in the Mount Lofty Ranges indicates that the greatest measured thickness of

illite there is about 1,200 feet,

The tillite series is underlain by the aub-glacial quactzites “TF” (which have

already been described), the tillite commencing very abruptly above the quartzite.

Although unconformity has been recorded between the tillite and sub-glacial

quartzite from other parts of the State, there is no evidence of this in the James-

town district, Unlike the base of the series, there is no abrupt upper Jimit to the

tillite. A prominent feature of the upper part of the series is a bed of very

coarse arkose grit. It has a most distinctive appearance and proved most useful

as an index bed when examining the tillite outcrop “G2" on the eastern margin

af the syncline, in the Browne Hill Range. Above this arkose grit the glactal

and fluvio-glacial beds gradually grade into those of the Tapley Hill series, the

rocks of the latter series exhibiting their characteristic farm from 250 to 300 feet

aliove the grit. The transitional beds are described in greater detail in the Fallow-

ing section, “H”, The fact that no sudden break is evident at the close of the

glagial period would indicate that conditions gradually became warmer, introduc-

ing a period when fluvio-glacial deposition was dominant. Evidence irom thre

Jamestown area lends further support to the hypothesis that the Tapley Hill beds

have a varye-like origin,

There is less pure lillite in the upper than in the central and lower parts of

the tillite formations. Fluvie-glacial shales and slates are dominant, and in many

sections the only direct evidence of glacial conditions 1s the atcasional presence

of erratics. Although the central and lower horizons have a much higher pro-

portion of pure tillite, even here intercalated beds of sumdstones, quattzites, slules,

and slates are very numerous.

Erratics are particularly numerous in parts of the series, and in some instances

range up to 3 feet in diameter. The erratics represent many rock types. although

quartz, quartzite, slate, schist, granite, pegmatite, gneiss, and porphyry pre-

doutinate.

The beds dip vertically in the central parts of the Series “G", and at a steep

angle to the east im both upper and lower parts- There are signs of compression

throughout the series. and some shearing. stress is evident in parts. Cleavage

planes are strongly developed, and these have a fairly constant dip of about 65°

tu the west throughout,

293

Tue WesTERN Outcror (“GI”)

The tillite “(1" outcrops in the western fold of the anticline. It is found

above the sttb-glacial quartzites “FI in che central and western parts of the

Camphell Range, and the northerly extension of this which rtns through Mount

Lock, No complete sections could be obtained from these.areas, but examination

of the basal beds of the series revealed the same characteristics as those of “G",

which have already been described.

Isolated outcrops of the tillite in its wpper horizons showed that the angle

af dip becomes progressively smaller to the west, until the series grades into the

Tapley Hill series in the broad valley m which fies the township of Caltowie.

Structurally, this valley is a syncline, contrary to the neighbouring Jamestown

valley, which is an eroded auticline. On the western margin of the Caltowie

syneline the Tapley Hill series and tillite once again outerops in a ridge which is

the southern continuation of the Narrien Range. The latter contains the Appila

Gorge, to which reference has already been made in discussing Series ''G”

and “FE”.

Tne Eastern Ourcror ("G2")

The arkose grit in the upper part of the Ullite series “G" proved a useful

indicator when working on “G2”, where it is a distinctive bed 45 feet thick,

“G2” outcrops as the eastern fold of the syncline, m the Browne Hill Range—

known locally as the “Canowie Belt.”

The tillite was traced to the north as far as Section 469, Hundred of Whyte,

dn this part of the range faulting and folding is very prevalent, and ihere are

numerons intrusions of quartz veins. Frequently associated with the quartz is

a siliceous iron ore. To the south, it was noted that the tillite continues tor a

number oi miles south of the Ilundred af Belalie.

The Jamestown-Terowie road follows a valley through the tillite in the

vicinity of Section 202, Hundted of Belalie, This valley is the result of stream

érosion in the zone af weakness following a small transverse fant.

SERIES “HH” AND °H)”

‘Taprtey Hirt Staves AND SLATES

The beds composing this series are folded into a broad syncline with a north-

south axis. This syncline extends from the {illite-containing ridge “G” east of

Jamestown, to the tillite-containing Browne Ifill Range “G2”, and has aa

approximate width of 5 miles. The syneline is responsible for the presence of

a wide valley, which becomes broader and more clearly defined in a sontherly

direction towards Spalding. In the latter area the valley has a comparatively flat

floor, but proceeding north it is broken with increasing frequency by small rounded

hills and ridges. These reach their maximum development in the North Belalie

district, where the valley floor is almast completely replaced by a series of

alternating rises and deptessions, The hilly parts are covered by a relatively

shallow grey residual soil (Yangya silty loan1) in contrast to the deeper red-

hrown colluyial soils (Belalie Series) found in the depressions and on the valley

floor,

On account of the persistent soil covering on the beds of this series, iL was

only after detailed investigation that a satisfactory number of outcrops showing

dips could be found. In general the rocks have well-developed cleavage planes,

with an-angle of 50° 10 80° to the west, and these are frequently more clearly

defined than the bedding planes. Towards the Browne Hill Range the cleavage

and bedding planes are iargely coincident, and this has produced some very fine

Hagstones.

294

It has already been noted in the discussion on the tillite series that the upper

horizons of glacial beds gradtially merge into beds of the Tapley Hill series. This

transitional zone is about 300 feet in thickness, and consists largely of fluvio-

glacial slates in which occasional erratics occur. The lowest beds, which can be

safely assigned to the Tapley Hill series, are thinly laminated argillaceous shales

and slates, which in parts show ribbon banding. Most of these rocks are non-

calcareous, but interbedded here and there are very thin bands of dark blue-grey

impure limestone. These limestone bands appear to be similar to limestones which

overlie the tillites in many other parts of the State, The basal shales and slates

were mostly weathered to a soft yellowish-brown rock, while in some cases slates

were stained a deep purple. These basal beds of the series are similar in character

on both sides of the syncline,

The basal beds gradually merge into the more typical ribbon slates, which

dominate the series, However, occasionally the banding is not clearly defined,

and in some instances the slates are replaced by grey siliceous horntels.

The banded slates are very fine-grained. They closely resemble the Tapley

Hill slates in the Mount Lofty Ranges near Adelaide, and in the Flinders Range

further to the north. They ate very similar to those described by Howchin

(loc. cit.) at Orroroo,

The true thickness of the Tapley Hill series in the localities examined is from

10,000 to 11,000 feet.

SERIES "J"

BaAnvbep Siticeous LIMESTONES

In their upper horizons the rocks of the Tapley Hill series (“H”) merge

into impure banded siliceous limestones. Although outcropping in parts of the

north Belalie district, they are best exposed about four miles east of Jamestown

in Sections 319 and 320, Hundred of Belalie, where they are seen in a law hill

rising from the main valley floor.

The limestone has been used on a small scale fot cement manufacture, and

has been quarried in Section 319. The rock is fine-grained, very hard and com-

pact, and is dark blue-grey in colour. Banding is shown clearly on weathered

surfaces.

A representative sample of the limestones was analysed, using the assump-

tion that calcium and magnesium would be present as carbonates, and iron aud

aluminium as sesqui-oxides. The following results were obtained:

SiO, ‘ s : ~ 715%

Caco, - - - - 16°2%

MsCO, - - - - 64%

Al,O, + Fe,O, - é - 72%

101°3%

Although the rock is characteristically siliceous, the percentage of silica

shown here is much higher than would be given by limestones from specially

selected horizons. The sample chosen for analysis was reasonably representative

af the whole outcrop, A significant feature is the low proportion of magnesium

compared to that in the atialyses of limestones from series below the tillites.

It is believed that these limestones, “J”, may represent the siliceous lime-

stones below the Brighton limestones at both Adelaide and Orroroo, or else the

basal beds of the Brighton limestones themselves,

295 «

FAULTING AND FOLDING

The folding which has produced the alternating anticlines and synclines is

typical of a very large part of the Mount Lofty and Flinders Ranges. In this

particular region, the fact that the pressure was not completely uniform is shown

by the arcuate form which the outcropping beds now exhibit (cf. plan).

There has been strike-faulting south-west of Jamestown, which has caused

some repetition of beds in this sector. Repetition of part of the arkose sandstone

and quartzite bed (“B”) in the central part of the Hundred of Belalie has also

been caused by strike-faulting. There is no evidence of strike-faulting along the

lines of section (“PQ”, “RS”).

Although there has been a considerable amount of minor cross-faulting, there

has been little on a major scale. The largest cross-fault has resulted in a displace-

ment of nearly half a mile in the sub-glacial quartzites of the Campbell Range

(cf. plan). Minor cross-faulting has been responsible for the development of

zones of weakness in some of the beds, which has facilitated the down-cutting

of streams.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is indebted to Professor J. A. Prescott for the opportunity to

carry out the investigations, and to Sir Douglas Mawson for advice given from

time to time during the course of the survey.

Thanks are also due to Messrs. C. G. Stephens, R. Brewer and P. D. Hooper,

of the Soils Division of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for

their co-operation, and to Mr. L. M. W. Judell and Miss E, Gerny.

REFERENCES

1 Howcuin, W. 1930 “The Geology of Orroroo and District.” Trans. Roy.

Soc. S. Aust., 54

2 Mawson, D. 1941 “Middle Proterozoic Sediments in the Neighbourhood

of Copley.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 65

3. Hossretp, P. S. 1935 “The Geology of Part of the North Mount Lofty

Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 59

Howcuin, W. 1939 “The Geology of South Australia,” 2nd ed.

5. Jack, R. Locxuarr 1919 “The Phosphate Deposits of South Australia.”

Dept. Mines Bull., No. 7

6. Seenit, R. W. 1939 “Geological Survey of South Australia.” Dept. Mines

Bull., No. 18

7. Spricc, R. C. 1946 “Reconnaissance Geological Survey of Portion of

Western Escarpment of the Mount Lofty Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 70

SUBMARINE CANYONS OF THE NEW GUINEA AND SOUTH

AUSTRALIAN COASTS

By REG. C. SPRIGG

Summary

During the course of the second World War, officers of the Hydrographic Survey Branch of the

Royal Australian Navy discovered several huge gashes along the normal course of the continental

platform of New Guinea in the Morobe area. These are submarine canyons. More recently,

following an official request to the Navy on the writer’s behalf, further examples have been locatd

off the South Australian coast (fig. 1).

296

SUBMARINE CANYONS

OF THE NEW GUINEA AND SOUTH AUSTRALIAN COASTS

By Rec, C. Spricc *

[Read 9 October 1947]

CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION te a: Ae ale ay Ae oe 296

GENERAL FEATURES OF Sieicuune Canes ar a3 a Ph ae 297

THEORIES TO ACCOUNT FOR SUBMARINE CANYON ForRMATION a Pe 297

Low SEA LEVELS oF THE PLEISTOCENE AND POSSIBLE CANYON Br, netonn SHIPS .. 299

Tue New GuingA SUBMARINE CANYONS .. os a z AM 299

Coral Reef Relationships and Sea Level *Vatintions nf i aa 43 302

THE Murray SUBMARINE CANYONS .. ve Be: es 304

Continental Platform in Relationship to the Suiesavine bis ons... ey 305

Reconstructed Possible History of the Murray Canyons ets s 2 308

SuMMARY ie of > + a Ac ae Ae 4 i i 309

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS me Ae ate & Bos 4 fy un 17 310

REFERENCES .. 5 44 a ry; S be ‘ ay | Sf, 310

INTRODUCTION ‘

During the course of the second World War, officers of the Hydrographic

Survey Branch of the Royal Australian Navy discovered several huge gashes.

along the normal course of the continental platform of New Guinea in the Morobe

area, These are submarine canyons. More recently, following an official request

to the Navy on the writer’s behalf, further examples have been located off the

South Australian coast (fig. 1).

The New Guinea sub-

marine valleys have been

mamed respectively (from

west to east), the Waria,

Eia and Gira Canyons,

after the rivers which enter

the sea near their heads.

The Murray examples are

referred to as the west,

central and east submarine

canyons, and they occur

south of the centre of

Kangaroo Island. Their

association with the River

Murray at the time of de-

velopment is inferred, but

the case is not yet proved.

It is hoped that more light

will be thrown on this pro-

LEGEND blem when several more

SUBMARINE CANYONS...-._. echo-sounding traverses

cae es é , are completed in their

vicinity later this year.

Fig. 1 Locality Plan

* Assistant Government Geologist, South Australian Geological Survey,

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2), 1 December, 1947

257

It is emphasised thar, whereas the New Guinea examples have heen covered

extensively by sounding traverses aggregating several hundred miles in the

immediate canyon vicinity, the South Australian examples are known only ftom

a single traverse, ‘This was designed by the writer to locate the 100 fathom line

more accurately and to seek possibie canyon structittes which could be related to

the River Murray.

GENERAL FRFATURES OF SUBMARINE CANYONS

More than 100 submarine canyons are known from various parts of the

world, and the list is steadily increasing, These structures. have many features

in conn, vig, :—

1. Distribution is world wide.

2. The furrowing ts obviously the work of running water.

3, Most of the erosion appears to have been in soft watersoaked sediments.

4. Many submarine canyons are ubyiously genetically related to. adjacent

rivers,

Their greatest deyelopment cecurs at the “fall off” from the continental

shelf.

6. By analogy with subaerial valleys, they are youthful features of the earth’s

topography.

7. General similarities of canyons suggest simultaneous formation.

8. They are definitely post-Pliocene features, as evidenced by youngest wall

rock.

THEORIES TO ACCOUNT FOR SUBMARINE CANYON FORMATION

Numerous theories have been pui forward in an endeavour to account for

these interesting topographic phenomena, One school considers them to have been

subaeriaily eroded, while another regards them as a result of submarine currents.

In this paper the main theories will be outlined very briefly, and particular

attention will be paid to that theory concerned with sca hottom density currents,

which is the one favoured by the writer. In meking this latter statement, it is

recognised that under special circumstances various processes may have inter-

acted in canyon erosion. For example, where the canyon walls ate steep sub-

niarine slumping of sediments would almost certainly take place, and these effects

could be inensified by seismic activity, the net effect being increased crosion,

(a) Reciowat Urrrrr or THE LANp

This theory postulates world-wide continental uplift at the time of canyon

formation tu extents of 5,000 to 10,000 fect, This would expose the continental

‘lope to powerful subaerial stream erosion, Such a theory has little, if any,

factual basis, The earth’s crust is almost. cerlainly too stable to allow of such

rapid abd extensive fand movement. Even supposing such movements could

occur, it is considered very unlikely thal tae return to the present state could be

accomplished without much relative warping along the strike of the continental

platform, producing much greater irregularities of depth at the outer continental

shelf margin than is apparent todav.

(b) Tempoxary EvsrAtic Fact or Sra Lever.

A geologically recent, world-wide lowering of the sea level of up ta 10,000

feet, would perhaps account for the formation of ihe structures by subserial

erosion, However, the most extreme temporaty sinking of ocean basin floors,

supetimposed on effects of glacial eustasy, would have to be involved, and, up

to the present, there is no reliable evidence for such great vertical movements

298

withir) recent times. Eustatic lowering of the sea level (Zeuner 1946) is

estimated to account for a fall of only ahout 55 fathoms (330 feet or 100 metres)

at the height of Pleistocene glaciation (by extracting water from the sea and

tying it up in ice caps). Stch a lowering of sea level will obviously explain the

existence of many river channels across the shallow portions of the continental

platform.

There are several theorics based on the above. Sore ate very ingenions,

but they appear to be unsupported by fact. For example, Douglas Johnson

(1939), suggested a special type of eurren( called “spring sapping,” which

asstumes that water from subaerial sources, under special circumstance, seeps jnto

submarine (continental platform) sediments and escapes somewhere on the

continental slope. The water is thought to issue with dissolving power and kinetic

energy sufficient te erode canyons, Another theory by W. H, Bucher, 1940,

postulates reflex currents generated by powerful earthquake waves in the ocean,

However, us many of the largest cahyons acctir in areas least effected by earth-

quake shocks, this theory is of little importance.

The most satisfactory theory, at least to the author's mind, and one which

is very. strongly supported by ficld analogy and laboratory research, is one by

R. A. Daly (1942), which is based on special types of hottom density currents in

aqueous environments, The canyoning is considered to be brought about by

gravitational muddy bottom currents tenrporarily endowed with a density greater

than that of the normal water of the overlying medium, Duly suggests Turther

that stich muddy bottom currents were a feature of the Pleistacene glacial periods

when the sea margin was closer to the fall off from the continental shelf, and

when much of the earth’s climate was decidedly more pluvial in character than

today-

Studies in natural and artificial lakes (ey., Lake Geneva in Switzerland and

Lake Mead Reservoir in U.S.A.) indicate that muddy suspensions of the type

mentioned are by no means uncommon, and that their powers of erosion are

considerable. They are capable of deep excayution, and they frequently move

quite coarse gravels along the sloping lake bottoms.

Dr. FE. H. Keunen, of Toland (1938), has shown by Jaboratory experiment

that silt-laden bottom curtents casi erode and maintain themselves and become

selé-aceelerating down slopes typical of the continental shelf, Keunen conducted

his experiments in a large tank with bottom topugraphy designed to represent a@

typical section across the continental shelf and continental slope. Ile found, on

releasing muddy suspensions on the upper shelf area, that they gravitated down

the continental slope, and that if a slight crease existed down such a slope, silt-

laden water was pirated from cither side. thickening the current along the crease

and inereasing its velocity. Moreover, if the hottom was covered by clay, the

density current became turbulent beyond the continental shelf “fall off,” causing

the current to érode deeply and thereby adding to the current’s density, mass and

acceleration.

Knowing the slope factor and the density of the silly suspension, and by

measuring the velocity and the so-called hydraulic mean depth of the current,

Keunen arrived at an empirical formmla which can be used to calctilate the velocity

of given suspensions down particular continental slopes.

Applying this formula, Daly has found that on a continental slope of 1 in 15,

and with an effective density of the flowing water and silt mixture of 0-0005,

the velocity ig about 4 miles per hour, This would be sufficient ta sweep along

299

coatse gravel and, thereiore, to erode silt and sand with great ease. In this way,

there is an effective means of submarine erosion available for canyon excavation

under the right conditions.

LOW SEA LEVELS OF THE PILEISTOCENE AND POSSIBLE

CANYON RELATIONSIIIP

According to the theory of glacial eustasy, the luw sea levels of the Pleisto-

cene were due to the extraction of water from the sea cansed by accumulation af

ice, particularly on sub-polar landmasses of the Northern Hemisphere. According

to Zeuner (1946), and other authorities, the last glaciation reduced general sea

level by about 100 metres helow its present stand (the Pre-Flandrian Regression).

The geographic consequences of these various changes in sea level, correlated

with at least four glacial periods, mttst have been far-reaching. Coastline con-

figurations must have changed greatly and rapidly, while rivers were at the same

time alternatively betronked or engrafted. In addition, coastal features were at

the same time drowned or stranded,

In the present case, our concern is with the lower stands of sea level, which

resulted in coastal advance over considerable widths of the continental platiorms

af the world, Muddy river waters were now carried far across the continental

platform and closer to the steeper slopes cf the continental shelf before encounter-

ing the sea. At the same time, the related change of climate and relative alti-

tudinal increases of the local landmasses would tend towards increased pluviality,

at the same time swelling the volume of local rivers and consequently increasing

their sedimentary load. In mos( situations the soft sediments of the partially

exposed continental platform supplied further material for tiver transport, both

by traction and in suspension. Ocean waves also had access to these sediments,

extracting much material in susperision, The scene seeins now to have been set

for the operation of the most active canyon-forming processes,

The varivus muddy snspensions, and particularly those associated with

rejuvenated rivers, provided the hottom density currents, which, according to Daly

and others, in many cases were able to gravitate and maintain themselves across

the narrowed shelf zone to the greater slope beyond the shelf edge. This, in turn,

accclerated the suspension currents causing local canyon formation. Tn this way

many furrows were produced on the shelf edge, but, particularly where muddy

fivers entered the sea, deeper canyon structures were formed,

THE NEW GUINEA SUBMARINE CANYONS

The New Guinca submarine canyons are quite typical examples of submarine

yalleys which can be related very satistactorily to local river mouths (fig. 2).

They reach the large dimensions jor which such structures ate rioted, and their

courses Jie fairty cirectly across the continental platforis,

They differ somewhat trom the celebrated castern United States exiumples

in that their respective canyon heads approach within less than one mile or so

of the modern coast. In their close relationship with river months, they are akin

to the Congo type of submarine canyon (see Veatch and Smith, 1939).

Statistical details of the canyon structures are summarised in Table I. It ts

secu that lengths of the various canyons front their “heads" to the (projected)

continental shelf edge vary from 74 19 10 miles and that separation of the “heads”

from land is between 0°83 and 1:2 miles, ‘This information, considered in the

light of the local widih of the continental platiorm (7 ta 9 miles), indicates the

relatively direct courses taken by the canyon beds, At the sheli edge the struc-

tures tange in width between 2 ond 4 miles and their respective beds lie fram

300

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VANIND MAN

‘WadV JaOXOW

SNOANYO INIUYNGNS

NOANY) 4

4,500 to 4,800 feet below sea level in the same region (fig. 3). The canyon

bottom gradients are relatively steep, averaging between 1 in 10 and 1 in 13

(ie., 10°0 and 7'7%). Little is known of canyon development beyond the con-

tinental shelf edge, but the structures obviously continue strongly dowi the con-

tinental slope to abyssmal depths.

SE.

DieTH th

FATHOMS

7 8 32 10 Miles.

Fie. 3

Section through submarine canyons of the Morobe area, drawn along the

projected continental shelf edge. The portions of the section remaiting above

50 iathomis are barrier (coral) reefs.

Available information indicates that the ¢ea bed and canyon walls generally

ate of soft voleauic mud, except in shoals where it is coral. The muddy sediments

are excellent media for swift erosion and have certainly aided the rapid enlarge-

ment of the canyons, laterally and longitudinally.

The Fia subtuarine canyon differs from the other two in that its present

head does not oppose the modern mouth of its parent river. The old river outlet

is still to be observed opposite the canyon, but the new mouth is further west~

ward and is not opposed by a secondary canyon.

In view of the close ¢elationship with rivers entering the sea locally, statistics

of the respective parent river developmetit, namely trunk stream length and basin

area, ave been included in Table 1. As the area is one of high rainfail (Fdie

Creek and Kokoda average 107 and 143 inches per annum respectively), it is

obvious that huge volumes of water are discharged into the local seas annually.

The highest average monthly rainfall exceeds 16 inches, and probably during the

Pleistocene glacial periods was much greater, giving some indication of possible

erosive or transporting power of the local streams under most fayourable condi-

tions. Turbulent waters such as these, crossing an exposed sea bed of volcanic

ash, would certainly become extremely well loaded with sediment, stficient to

form powerful density currents.

Tasie T

Submarine Canyon Statistics (New Guinea Group)

Submarine

vanyon Proximity Modern “Parent

Width Length depth of 100 Rivers

of of Width at at Average fathom Length

Toral course edge of continental canyon lin¢ to Area of of

colitinental across continental sheli bottom land at intake trunk

Name shelf sheit shelf edge edge gradicrt catryon head basin stream

Bia - - 7 8 4 4,500 1:10-6 99 276 42

Gira - 7 7k 2 4800 I: 96 1:2 425 54

Waria - 9 10 3to 4 4500 1:12+7 0:8 1,520 96

302

Corat Retr ReLtArinnsites ANp Sea LEVEL VApgrATIONS

Massive coral reefs skirt the outer margin of the continental plalform in the

Morobe area. Between them and the shore line, small isolated coral colonics are

common, The outer barrier is breached hy the submarine canyons which are

lined wu either side by irregular but extensive coral reefs.

The outer reef base extends to at least 70 fathoms below present sea level,

and as deep water lies between these corals and the land, they appear to be

typical barrier reefs. Nothing is known of their present condition of growth,

e., whether their general sunken aspect is due to recent negative land or shelf

movement, or whether the corals are dead and cannot therefore build up to the

modern sea level,

According to Vaughan and Wells (1943) and Yonge (1940) +eef corals will

not Hourish in depths exceeding 25-30 fathoms, the controlling factor here heing

light penetration. Under these controlling circumstances, reef corals could nut

therefore have established themselves on the outer margins of the continental

shelf under the modern high sea level. As the shelf adjacent the reefs exceeds,

on occasions, 70 fathoms, a lowering of the sea surface by 40 to 50 fathoms may

be assunied for their establishment (unless equivalent land movements could be

proved). This assumption is in keeping with figures for the Pleistocene pre-

Flandrian tegression.!!) and it therefore seems probable that the coral reef

development commenced at this lime or during an even earlier Pleistocene

(glacial) low sea level.

Furthermore, on the assumption that the formation of all submarine canyons

was coutemporaneots (post-Pliocene), i can be inferred that barrier reef forma-

tion could not have pre-dated this period as such reefs would have dammed back

and destroyed bottom density currents, and therefore prevented canyon excava-

tion. This is in keeping with Gardiner's theory (1931, p. 115) that “there are no

indications of any true reefs living or elevated before late T ertiary (Cetiwzoic)

time.” According to Daly’s theory, discussed previously in this paper, the lower-

ing of sea level (here considered necessary for the introduction of coral growths

at the shelf edge) would also have been the most favourable for submarine

canyoning, due to increased pluviality and to exposure of soft continental plat-

form sediments, It seems reasonable. therefore, to assyme that the formation

of submarine canyons and the establishment of barrier reefs was contemporaneous.

Another condition for thriving coral growth is that the local water should

net be muddy, as muddy conditions reduce light penetration, and smother the

coral animal. If it is to be assumed that submarine eatiryon and reef establish-

ment occurred during the low sea Jevel phases of the Pleistocene, it would appear

that muddy suspension currents from cvastal waves as distinct from river action

on exposed continental platform sediments, were insignificant in this area, at

least for portion of the period of Jow sea level."#) If the former muddy currents

had been widely developed during the shallow sea level stand, the sheli edge reefs

ptobalily attaining almost 100 metres (approximately 330 feet oy 5S fathoms) beluw

modern sea level.

Pleistocene low seq levels, the muddy fractions of the outer cottinental shelf sediments

Were winnowed out to be deposited in deeper, quieter waters, leaving less muddy sedi-

ments in the littoral zone. This is. logical, but it would suggest that canyon furrowing,

if resultingy purely from bottom density currents initiated by. shore wave action, world

be active only for short periods during the successive low sea tevels. This surely would

reduve their significance considerably,

303

could not have been established due to the muddiness of the hottom waters, even

though other factors may have been favourable, It suggests, therefore, that the

density currents responsible for most of the canyon excavation were initiated by

silt-laden river waters entering the sea in confined zones. According to Keunen

(see earlier), once significant channels are formed down submarine slopes, density

currents become mare restricted, and in this way adjacent stretches of sheli edge

would remain free of silty suspension currents, thus allowing establishment of coral

growths while depth and conditions were satisfactory, At the same time, it is

obvious that coral growth within the course of the muddy density currents would

be completely inhibited, Hence the presence of gaps in the barrier reefs at the

point where the currents discharge across the outer edge of the continental shelf.

These gaps would be subsequently widened by undermining and collapse in the

normal course of canyon development. The two processes would also affect reefs

skirting the margins of the canyons, but here there would he a tendency to

restriction of [steral expansion and a steepening of the canyon walls,

It has been suggested previously that the low sea level stands, necessary for

the establishment of coral reefs in such positions, were correlated with one or

more Pleistocene glaciations, and, as reef corals do not flourish m waters below

20° Centigrade, a minimtom temperature of this order seems probable, However,

without detailed knowledge of reef sectioiis, which may reveal horizons of

repressed ot completely inhibited coral growth, this can only be conjectured,

Coral growth may have been destroyed locally, to he re-established only whetl

the seas warmed again during subsequent interglacials As the minimum average

monthly temperature of the local coral seas appears to be at least 25° Centigrade,

such a marked Jowering of temperature is improhable.

From the foregoing disctission, it is obvidus that the Antecedent Platform

theory of the origin of coral reefs (Hoffmeister and Ladd, 1944). is applicable

in this area if it is correct to infer that Pleistocene sea levels fell by as much as

40 to 50 fathoms, ‘This theory states that any bench or bank that ts located at a

proper depth within the circum-equatorial coral reef zone is potentially a coral reel

foundation,

In considering the survival of coral reefs in competition with the rising sea

level at the onset of a severe interglacial. it is 0 be noted that Daly (1935) has

calculated that the rate of rise probably never exceeded 3 mm. per annum, This

figure is well within the range ai reef upgrowth, Gardiner (1903) concluded

from his experiments that normal wpgrowth may be 27 to 45 metres per thousand

years, and later studies have confirmed such phenomenal growth rates. As H

corollary of this it Would appear that modern coral reefs evolved to their present

massive proportions only with the abnormally large (and relatively rapid)

fluctuations of the Pleistocene sea level, Such fluctuations would alternatively

reduce pre-existing Teefs with falling sea level, and initiate new ones with the

rising. The rapid sea level upgrade would facilitate maintenance of the prodigious

food supply necessary for rapid and healthy reef upgrowth.

Speaking generally, there is no positive evidence from any part of the world

that new submarine canyons are being formed under the present high sea level

stand, but it is quite possible that sore well-established canyons are still being

extended, especially in areas where the catyon heads approach close to the shore

and pluviality is relatively high—as in the Morobe area. In this case, two' of the

canyon heads (Gira and Waria) approach within less than a mile of their respec-

tive river mouths (althongh the local continental shelf is about 10 miles wide),

thus providing yery steep sea-bottom gradients ior silty suspension currents. In

the third instance, that of the Fia submarine canyon, the cunyon head does not

oppose the mouth of the modern Eia River, although an older outlet of the same

504

river obviously once did su. There is no evidence that the moderii outlet is

producing a new subnitrine valley, even though the 100 fathom line lies relatively

close to the river mouth, This may suggest that either the shel£ slope from the

newer mouth, although relatively steep, is stil] insufficient to maintain bottom

suspension currents over the distance, or that the amount of material in suspen-

sion, produced by Eia River waters, is now insufficient to produce significant

detisity currents. Yhere is the further possibility that well-established coral shoals

which effectively block and destroy any gravity currents interyene at the edge

ot the local 100 fathom linc. It may be that ail three factors are operating

simultaneously,

In the foregoing discussions little has been said of possible large vertical

movement of the New Guinea lund mass intensifying or diminishing Pleistocene

variations in sea level. ‘The faet that the outer continental platform is relatively

constant at 60-70 fathoms below sea level sigeests that the region has not moved

verlically very much in relatively recent times. The outer depth tigure shows

fair correspondence with similar continental platform relationship elsewhere in

the world, particularly in the coral seas, Neyertheless, this aspect is one which

demands close field investigations, as there are reports of late ‘lertiary or Pleisto-

cene coral reefs now raised many hundreds of feet above sea level in parts of

New Guinea (see David 1932).

Tt is noticed that the continental platform is penerally shallower to the south-

cas!, and thiy may argue in favour of at least minor local warpitig movements in

relatively recent times. This aspect may repay further investigation,

THE MURRAY SUBMARINE CANYONS

The present discoveries are the first to be found atone the Australian coast.

Original soundings in the canyon yicinity by the Admiralty were obviously very

seattered, and even if odd very extreme soundings had been recorded at the

canyon site, they would almost certainly haye been disregarded in the preparation

of sea-charts on the grounds that they might have been inaccurately located,

The little information at present available on the submarine canynits is limited

to a single “continuous” echo-sounding traverse across them (fg. 4). ‘The

traverse was designed to follow the 100 fathony litie, as this was considered to

offer the best means of locating possible canyons, It ran from opposite the

western end of Kangaroo Islind jo tear Beachport, a distance of almost 180 miles.

As a result of the survey, the platform edge has been found to be remarkably

regular, broken by major structures in only one localily. approximately due south

of the centre of Kangaroo Island. There is litfle or no doubt that these structures

are sulmarine canyons, a5 the wall slopes reach at least L in 4°7 as against the

continental slope hereabouts of 1 in 20 or less.

It is not yet proved that the canyons are genetically related to the River

Murray, but there is goo reason to assume such a relatotiship. The presence of

three canyons closely spaced on the shelf edge, which otherwise is remiarkably

even, suggests that one process or ohe group of processes only has controlled

canyon excavation, rather than that the process has been a fortuitous one. The

most likely contrel seems to haye heen by an ancienl river entering the sea locally

during a low sea level stand. The only large river available would be the River

Murray, although, of course, a secondary river from the drowned St, Vincent

Gulf bed could have entered the sea in this region, but it seems more Iikely that

such a river would be engraited on the extended River Murray.

The three separate submatine valleys occur in a shelf edge distance of only

three miles. They range to at least 750 fathoms (4,500 feet) at the survey line,

and almost certainly continue down the continental slope ta ahyssal depths

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cA M ay ( me

Chante e PWAS CdCaE AY Hooters

10 fathaar cartervass — — 0

408 Sethore onlsrcats ———t62

Frise we Bg ati

Vasile wtieragtive comes of fuer

Aina ecepee 2 ot Pte thorn)

nw dsue, MURRAY SUBWARINE CANYON

SATIN

Ce OS —Scais—

5 ovis ‘yun's Ay =e .

feensy lime —-— ~~ | Mitts eo ag ng Mite

Pian 4

Plan of the continental shelf, showing major physiographic features in the

subdiarine canyon vicinity, Sites "A" and "B” on the fathometer traverse

from Rohe to Cape Willoughby are the Jow poiuts indicated in fig. 7.

extent landward is completely unknown, but it is unlikely to be extensive. The

(Jeffrey Deep which lies to the south exceeds 3,000 iathoms). The canyons’

separate submarine valleys are so clause together that definite ridges occur

between two of them (fig. 5). From west to east, along the line of traverse, they

range in depth to 550, 625, and 750 fathoras respectively.

THE CONTINENTAL. Sele ann Canvoxw RELATIONSILIPS

The continental platform is relatively narrow in the Beachport-Robe coastal

rua; Tt varies in width from about 16 miles opposite Cape Banks to 3) ar more

opposite Cape Jaffa, From this latter point the shelf widens to more thai LOO

miles, due to the westerly sweep of the 100 fathom line and to the marked coastal

concavity associated with the Coorong, The shelf narrows again very consider-

ably west of Kangaroo Island. A sketch section across the continental platform

306

SEA LEVEL

Fig, 5

Profile section (“A”) through the Murray Canyons. Note steep wall

gradients as compared with the general gradient of the local continental

slope (“B”).

at its widest development is given in fig. 6. The very approximate grades of the

critical sections of this shelf are as follows:—continental shelf, 1 in 880; and

steeper continental slope 1 in 20.

Figures indicate depth in fathoms

Fig. 6

Generalised section across the continental platform fronting Jeffrey Deep.

The true shelf, as indicated, is more than 100 miles wide and represents

conditions opposite the Murray River mouth.

307

Fig, 4 has been produced from admittedly insufficient data. The soundings

used in the interpretation of the form line are mainly from Admiraliy charts, and

while these are distributed more copiously nearer the coast line; they are far too

few in deeper waters. Hence, while the plan probably gives a reasonable general

picture of shelf development, it must be considered as unreliable in detail. The

representation then is partly conjectural, but it is felt that it is a reasonable

approximation of the natural features. It is hoped that in the coming season

several more traverses will be made across the zone, and that a more definite

picture of the structures will thus become available.

The lines of the two traverses already made across the continental platform

are included on the plan, and the sea floor detail from the Admiralty charts has

been modified slightly in accordance with these, The first ta be run was the

Robe-Backstairs Passage traverse, but it failed to locate any definite “gorge” in

a favourable situation for a possible drowned River Murray course. However,

at least two possibilities apparent on the traverse (fig. 7) are indicated, and

through these two points alternate courses for the inferred drowned section of.

the River Murray are drawn on fig. 4. Minor seaward concayities in the

40 fathoms form line have been used in designing these two courses, but it 3s

realised that these form line deviations themselves represent only the best one

car do with such a paucity of soundings in this area. The immediate subcanyon

area is not covered by Admiralty charts, so the amount of interpolation in this

area 15 obvious.

DEPTH In IN W,

FATHOMS,

_PROFILE SECTION of SEA FLOOR.

CAPE JERVIS ro weak ROBE

Ecwo Sounpaje TRAVERSE

HUM.A.S_LACHLAN

Lg cA

Suygested Alternat Locations As &

foc Prowned Morray River

“ASSIST GOVT GEOLOGIST

sORI2_ SCALE Lee Oe et lo

uligo 2 4 € 8 10 12 te Ww w BME

oS WN

3O MILES 46 0 90 getaas, 100

The great exaggeration of the vertical scale in relation to horizontal distance

is to be noted carefully, ‘The sea floor over much of the section is extremely

flat; it varies less than 30 feet vertically from the 30 mile to the 80 amtile

indications on the section.

Shallows oceur immediately north of the submarine canyons, and these may

be associated in some way with Pre-Flandrian shore-lines. They do not come

within less than 5 fathoms of sea level {South West Rock is the shallawest) and

308

the nalure of the rock is unknown. It is possible that it may be consolidated

heac!) cand-dune material, such as that which oceurs at Wedge [sland at the foot

of Spencer Guli. If this is proved, it would be additional evidence favoiling an

ald coastline stand at about 40-50 fathoms {? Pre-Flandrian Regression).

Form lines in St. Vincent Gulf area indicate that there is a fairly definite

longitudinal depression line in this region. It is most probable that there was a

river in this zone during the Pleistocene low sea level stands, and that this river

Alnwed south, possibly to join the River Murray near Sanders Banik, A sounding

traverse has been run from Port Adelaide to Trowbridge Lighthouse in an

enmlenyout ta locate wn actual river course, but without success. However, cun-

sideralions of gulf bottom topography will be discussed in a later paper.

In the continental platform area facing the Southern Ocean, it must always

be borne in mind that littoral wave auction and other blanketing processes may

have effectively destroyed much or most of any old submerged river courses,

(Concerning the inferred submarine canyon “detail,” the valleys have been

represented diagrammatically ay parallel structures trending down the continental

slope. This appears to be the safest assumption in view of the information avail-

able, It is realised though that there is every possibility that two or all the struc-

tures may unite at some Jower point or points ou the continental elope, in den-

ritie fashion,

Possiztz Histortcst Drvr.orMEeNT or Tht Mugrkay Canyons

Thulussostatic terraces (see Zenner, p. 130) at Murray Bridge indicate rhat

within relatively recent times the local haze Jevel (and therefore sea level) has

heen at least 100 feet below its present position, The river bed in this locality may

have been eroded even lower if granite bars. had not intervened preventing rapid

ueepening in that locality.

‘This towering of base level is in keeping with the postulated low sea level

stands of the Pleistocene epoch which, according to Zeuner (1946) were as low

as 100 metres (330 feet or 55 fathoms) below present sea level datum. With

the retreat of the sea level to this extent the coast migrated seaward (Tre-

Plandrian coastline, see fig. 4) causing the River Murray, and possibly other

streams to advance over soft continental shelf sediments. The most direct course

from the modern Murray mouth region to the sea would bring the Pre-Flandrian

river mouth to a position about 40-50 niles east of the Murray Canyons, It

zeus probable, therefore, thar if the canyons were directly related to an old River

Murray mouth or months, the river nitist have pursued a tuch more westerly

course than that of the shortest route, As gradients of the local continental shelf

average | in 880, and in many places are far lower, it is not surprising if the

course did wander considerably. The river apparently hugged the Mount [ofty-

Kangaroo Island horst structure to some extent, much in the manner that the

existing river hugs the Mount Lofty horst today.

Such a course may have been fortuitous or controlled to a degree by minor

nurth downward movements, known to have occurred in south-east sub-coastal

resions during the Pleistocene. Littoral drift may also have operated, tending to

deflect the river mouth north and west with the retreating sea. However, the

ease for north-westward littoral drift along the south-east coast, at least to. the

authar’s mind, is far from proved, and will not be emphasised here.

A feature of the Murray canyons is their triplicity. This is particularly

noticeable in the absence of other large submarine canyons either to the east or

west along the shelf edge surveyed. They are unique in that only very stnall

distances separate each of the three canyons. T'rom the western boundary of

the most westerly canyon to the castern edge of the most easterly is less than three

miles.

There are at least two distinct scts of conditions which could have led to

such development. In the first place, three separate contemporaneous outlets can

he postulated, related either to three separate large rivers, or to three major dis-

tributaries of a delta system of the ancient (Pre-Plandrian) River Murray.

However, it is difficult to imagine three separate and contemporaneous large rivers

entering such a short stretch of coast, when for a distance of al least one hundred

miles to the east there is no further evidence (¢.¢, submarine canyons) of such

outlets. Nor does it seem probable that in delta formation three distributaries

would be maintained for a sufficient time to establish submatine canyons. If

such a delta formation is assumed to have existed, the probable effect would not

have been three separate canyons, but subparalicl submarine furrowing with a

tendency towards pirating by a major furrow and the ultimate formation of a

single large submarine canyon,

The second hypothesis is that the canyons were formed in association with

three complete changes in the course of the Murray, correlated with particular

tow sea level phases of the Pleistocene. It can be assumed thar later canyons

were formed by outlets conrpletely separate from the “sphere of infttence” of the

vlder canyon(s), as any course which discharged its load within the vicinity of

an established subitarine furrow would have that load pirated by it.

A further problem is the relative age of the submarine valleys. This could

possibly be determined only by detailed core sampling of the canyon walls for

jossil data. It is interesting to note that the easternmost canyon is the deepest,

and that the two to the west are progressively shallower along the line of section,

This sugzests that the cast canyon has heen subject to more prolonged erosion

hy bottom density currents. ‘The later currents would have been products of

cenastal wave action during subsequent low sea level stand, although the possi-

bility of enlargement by still a further low sea level and river association cannot

be overlooked.

SUMMARY

Six new submarine catryons are recorded, Three of them occur in the Morobe

area of New Guinea in close relation to modern or old river outlets. They are

eroded in volcanic mids {and probably also marine Tertiariés) across a conti-

nental shelf only 10 miles wide, which descends tc 50 and 70 fathoms at its outer

limit. ‘The continental shelf edge and the canyons themselves are lined by coral

growths, and from this, on the assumption that reef corals cannot flourish 1

walter deeper than about 25-30 fathoms, it is inferred that sea level had fallen

probably 40-50 fathoms at the time of camyon formation, sufficient to allow

barrier reef establishment af the shelf edge. However, in these estimates no

allowance is made for possible land movements, These submarine canyons are

of typically grand dimensions and relevant data goucerning their development is

presented.

The Murray submarine catiyons are the first to be discovered bordering the

Australian continent. They are considered to be related to the modern River

Murray, although the evidence for this is not complete, Three separate canyons

are apparent in a width of less than four miles. Two alternative thearies are

advanced for canyon triplicity, both haying relation to the repeated! sea level falls

of the glacial phases of the Pleistrcene

310

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to thank the Department of the Navy for supplying

Fair Charts of the Morobe area and for undertaking several survey traverses in

strategic positions in South Australian waters. Also, indebtedness is expressed

to Lieut.-Commander Little of H.M.A.S. “Lachlan” for the keen interest dis-

played in the search for submarine canyons, and to Dr. L. K. Ward for helpful

suggestions during the final stages of the preparation of the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Bucuer, W, H. 1940 Bull. Geol. Sec. Amer., 51, 489

Dary, R. A. 1935 “The Changing World of the Ice Age.” Yale Univ. Press,

New Haven

Dany, R. A. 1942 “The Floor of the Ocean.” Univ. of North Carolina Press

Dayip, T. W. E. 1932 “Explanatory Notes to accompany a new Geological Map

of the Commonwealth of Australia.” Sydney

Garpiner, J. 5. 1903 “The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive

Archipelago.” Amer. Journ, Sci., 16

Horrmerster, J, E., and Lapp, H. S. 1944 “The Antecedent-Platform Theory.”

Journ. Geol., 52, (6)

Jounson, D. W.. 1939 “The Origin of Submarine Canyons,” New York

Kzeunen, P, H, 1938 Geol. Mag., 75

Vaucuan, T. W., and Wetts, J. W. 1943 “Revision of the Suborders,

panies and Genera of the Scleractinia.” Geol. Soc. Amer, Spec. Pap.,

No.

VeratcH, A. C., and SmMiru, P. A. 1939 “Atlantic Submarine Valleys of the

United States, and the Congo Submarine Valley.” Geol. Soc. Amer.

Spec. Pap., No. 7

Yonce, C. M. 1940 “The Riology of Reef Building Corals.” Brit, Mus. (Nat.

Hist.) Grt. Barrier Reef Exped. Rept., 1, No. 13

ZEUNER, F.E, 1946 “Dating the Past.’ Methuen, London

PROTOCHARA, A NEW GENUS OF CHARACEAE FROM WESTERN

AUSTRALIA

By H. B. S. WOMERSLEY AND I. L. OPHEL

Summary

During a post-sessional excursion following the 1947 Australasian Science Congress in Perth, a

remarkable number of the Characeae was collected by the first author from a small, shallow swamp

on top of the peneplain of the “break-away” country above the Irwin River, near Minginew,

Western Australia. The habit of the plant, and the enormous size of the cells, was unlike any of the

Characeae commonly found in such localities. Most striking, however, was the complete absence of

stipulodes, bract-cells and bracteoles, a characteristic of no previously described genus of

Characeae.

Sil

FROTOCHARA, A NEW GENUS OF CHARACEAE FROM

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By H, B. S. Womerstey and I. L. Oruer*

[Read 13 November 1947]

During a post-sessional excursion following the 1947 Australasian Science

Congress in Perth, a remarkable number of the Characeae was collected by the

first author from a small, shallow swamp on top of the peneplain of the “hreak-

away” country above the Irwin River, near Minginew, Western Australia. The

habit of the plant, and the enormous size of the cells, was. unlike any of the

Characeae commonly found in such localities. Most striking, however, was the

complete absence of stipulodes, bract-cells and bracteoles, a characteristic of no

previously described genus of Characeae.

Nandor Filarski (1937) described (in q Hungarian journal) two Western

Australian Charophytes from specimens sent to him by G. QO. Allen. These

specimens were from the collection of J. Groves at the British Museum, and had

heen collected originally by Miss N. T. Burbidge. Filarski founded a new genus,

Charina, on one of these specimens, although he had no fertile material. (See

later notes.) The other specimen he referred to WVitellopsis as N. imflata Filarski

and Allen , Unfortunately, it has not heen possible to exainine material of

N, inflata, as no specimens exist in Australian herbaria, and Vilarski’s figures

(reproduced in fig. 2) are inadequate in many details. Prom Pilarski’s figures,

however, N_ inflata appears to be closely related ta our own species, also showing

complete lack of stipulodes, bract-cells and bracteoles, but differing in several

important details (see later).

It is therefore proposed to find a new genus, Protochara, with P. australis

H, sp, as the type, and to transfer WV, juflata to this genus as P. inflata (Fil. and

Aller) comb. nov.

Protochara australis 11..sp.

Plant dioecious, totally ecorticate, to 10 cm. high, light green in colour, with

no calcareous incrustation; attached by branched, colourless, sevéral-celled

rhizoids (fig. 1B). Stem stout, simple or with a few axillary branches, bearing

4 to 7 whorls of branchlets; stem internodes 1 to 3 emt, long, O-9-1+35 mm. thick,

Branchlets stout, slightly incurved, in whorls of 4 to 7, of 3 or 4 segments;

terminal segment consisting of a small mucronate cell, 110-200 » long, rmged at

the hase by 5 or 6 peripheral nodal cells (fig. 1D); subterminal segment large,

2-3 mm. long, 1-1} mm, broad, asymmetrically inflated with the inflated side

distant from the stem (fig. 1 A, B, D). intermediate segments 4-1 cm, long,

almost as thick as the stem, slightly inflated when young. Nodes consistiug of

10 to 12 peripheral cells surrounding a plate of inner cells (Ag. 1C, D, G).

Stipulodes, bract-cells and hracteoles completely absent. Chloroplasts minute,

forming vertical series in the cells (fig. 1 C),

Oogonia verticillate In the axils of the upper whorls of branchlets, or borne

singly or geminately at the nodes of upper branchlets (fig. 1A); each oogoniuin

arising from a separate peripheral cell of a node. Mature oogonia (fig. 1A, E)

ovyoid-cylindrical, 760-940 » long, 600-780 » wide; corona about 75, high, 225»

broad, of 5 small mucronate cells, thickened at the apices; spiral cells showing

6 or 7 convolutions. each cell encircling the oaspore slightly more than once.

Qospore black, cylindrical-oblong whei ripe, 490-560 long, 310-390 broad,

showing 4 or 5 ridges (fig. 1 E, I).

*Botany Department, University of Adelaile,

Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust. 71, (2); 1 December, 1947

312

Fig. 1 Protochara australis n, sp,

A, Apex of ‘branch of a female plant, showing branch arrangement and position

of oogonia, B, Antheridial plant showing general habit (natural size). C,

Appearance oi nodal cells with a branchlet removed, the main stem being

vertical, and with longitudinal rows of chloroplasts in the cells. D, Terminal

mucronate cell and subterminal inflated cell of a branchlet, showing the peripheral

cells of the nodes. E, Mature oogonium attached to peripheral cell of a node.

F, Oospore with spiral ridges (not quite mature). G, Section of node of 2

branchlet, showing arrangenient of central and peripheral cells. H, Antheridium.

p.c., peripheral cells of node, (AIL drawings by camera lucida.)

313

Cc)

taagnit

Fig. 2 Protochara infldta (Filarski and Allen) comb. nov.

A, Part of a plant showing the whorls of branchlets, together with oogonia and

antheridia. B, End segment of a branchlet, showing the mucro and basal cells

of the node. C, Mature oogonium. D, Misshapen oogonium. E, Anthcridium.

(After Filarski.)

Antheridia borne similarly io the oogonia, octoscutate, 800-1,150, in

diameter.

As far as could be ascertained from limited material, the structure and

development of vegetative parts and sexual organs agrees with that described for

the Characeae by Fritsch (1935).

‘Habitat—In swampy areas of shallow water (1040 cm. deep) on top of the

peneplain of the “breakaway” country between Mingenew (about 15 miles from

Mingenew) and the Irwin River coal seam, south-cast of Geraldton, Western

Australia.

314

Collected—28 August 1947.

From the same locality Lawmprothamnion macropogon (Braun) Ophel camb.

nov," and Nitella gclatinosa Braun wete collected.

The type specimen (No. A 5,917 4) has been deposited in the herbarium al

the Botany Department, University of Adelaide. Cotype specimens have been

sent lo the Herbarium of the Botany Department, University of Western Aus-

tralia, aud tu the Herbarium of the Royal Dotanic Gardens, Kew, England.

Prorociiara INFLATA (Tilarski and Allen) comb. nov.

The following description of this species (as Nitellopsis inflate) is given

hy Filarski.

Plantulae monoicac onmino ¢corticatae. Folia in verticillis 4-6, uniarticulata,

segmientum ultimum bicellulare, cellula ejus infima ut articulus unicus maxime

inflata, ellipsoidea aut globosa-dollitormis, articulo aequilonga, cacumine mucrone

minima acuta praedita. Foliola in nodo folii unico paucicellulari inevoluta, aut

in nodo numeris 3-4 evoluta, papillactormia, minima ventralia (anteriora},

Corona stipularis in fundo verticillorum foliorum nugquam evoluta, Oogania

solitaria aut bina nodo folii et basi foliortim orta; coronula oogonii ¢ cellularum

majorum verticillo pentamero unico; antheridia oogonis majora solitaria wyt

pluralia, hypogyna, m verticillis superioribus plerumque tantum modo evoluta.

Plantulae propter folia maxime tttmida, inflata, habitu eximie differunt a

Characeis ceteris; tantum Nitellam praeclaram Groves et Steph., plantulas Atn-

canas juxta oppidum <Cape Town> crescentes quodammodo in mentum

revocant praecipue propter cellulas nonnulas internodii foliorum interdum

similiter valde tumidas, fere globosas, sed folia loco mucronis corona minttissima

foliolis 3. composita praedito).

Habitat—The following locality notes, given by Miss N. T. Burbidge, apply

to both P, inflata and Charina verticillata (see later).

The specimens were collected from shallow water in Lake Parkeyerring,

about 5 miles south of Wagin, Western Australia, The water of the lake is

brackish, especially in a dry scasuon. Collection dates given by Filarski are X. 1933

for P. inflata and 5-6-35? tor Charina verticillata, On later visits Miss Burbidge

was. anable to find further specimens.

Filarski’s figures of this species are reproduced as outline tracings in fig. 2.

Details of nodal cells and antheridia are very indistinct in the original figure,

The habit of P. inflata is very like that of P, australis, as will be seen from

a comparison of ig. 1 and 2. Both species show simple, whorled branchlets, large,

often inflated cells, and complete absence of stipulodes, bract-cells and bracteoles.

The position of the sex organs is similar in both species, and neither species shows

any development of cortical cells. The species may be distinguished as follows;

1, P. australis is dioecious, /, inflata monoeciaus,

2 Coronal cells of the vogonium ure small in P, australis, large and con-

spicuous in P, mflata, P, austrdlis shows G or 7 convolutions of the spiral

cells, P. inflata 14 or 15.

3. The sub-terminal internodal cells of the branchlets of P. austraiis show

more pronounced asymmetry, and the lower cells are less inflared than in

P. inflata,

Filarski states in his description of P_ inflata that the antheridia are situated

below the oogonia, but his figures (see fig. 2A) show some below and some along-

side the oogonia. He also describes the ultimate branch segments as bicellular, the

) See Qphel: Notes on the Genera Lychnothamnus and Lamprethanmminun Trans.

Rav, Soe, S. Aust, 71, (2), 318.

sis

terminal cell being small and mucronate, In P. australis a distinet ring of nodal

cells occtirs at the base of the terminal mucronate cell, and it seems possible, in

view of the close relationship hetween the two species, that close examination

may show this to be the case in P. inflata.

Why Filarski placed his plant in the genus Nilellopsis is not clear. The one

species of Nitellapsis (N. obtusa J. Groves, from Europe) is distinguished by the

presence of very long, thick “bract-cells” which arise from the nodes of the

branchlets and are almost as large as the ultimate branchlet segment (Groves and

Bullock-Webster 1924). “Starch stats,” large, thickened, star-shaped nodes on

the rhizoids are also characteristic of N. ohtusa. The absence of bract-cells places

both the Western Australian species in a distinct genus from Nitellopsts,

The corona of 5 cells surmounting the oogonium places Protochara in the

tribe Chareae, as distinct froin the Nitelleae which have a corona of 10 cells. It

is necessary, however, to modify the description of the Chareae given by Groves

and Bullock-Webster (1924) and Groves and Allen (1934), in that the branchlets

ysually produce bract-cells. at their nodes, but not in Pratochara,

The relationship of the genera of the Charcae, including Protochara, is given

in the following synopsis (modified from Groves and Bullock-Webster),

1. Stipulodes and bractpoles absent,

2. Bract cells absent. Branchiets of 3 or 4 segments .... 2

. Protochare n, gen.

2. Bract-cells 1-2, very long. Branchlets of 2-3 very lohg

segments i b “ins mee ote %. .- Witellopsts Hy.

1. Stipulodes always present, sometimes rudimentary, Branch-

lets simple, of 4 or more segments. Bract-cells normally 4

or more.

3. Gogonia and antheridja produced trom separate peripheral

cells of the node) (ig, situated side by side). Stem

corticate ue +t doe ve net ne aid we Lychuothannims

Leonhardi

3, Ovgonia and antheridia produced frora the same peripheral

cell of the node.

4, Oogonium normally situated below the antheridium

Stem ecorticate Se, oh rah sant as we. Loimprothaniniten

J. Groves

4, Oogonia situated above the antheridiun, Stem corti:

cate or ecorticate ., m, Bie a Pt — Chara L.

The genera of the Chareae form an evolutionary sequence with Protochara

as the most prinutive, showing an advance in vegetative construction through

Nitellopsis, where only bract cells occur, to Lamprothamninm, Lychnothamuus

(which possesses a rudimentary cortex) and Chara, where bract-cells, bracteoles

and stipulodes occur. The Diplostephanae-tripiostichae section of Chara repre-

sents the culmination of the evohitionary series, showing complete 3-ranked

cottication and two well developed whorls of stipulodes.

The tribe Nitelleae is best considered as a separate evolutionary series

parallel to the Chareae. No genus so far described provides a satisfactory link

between the two tribes,

Besides the absence of stipulodes, bract-cells and bracteoles, Pratachara

shows another primitive character in the small number of convolutions (5 or 6)

of the spiral cells of the oogonium of P, australis. The oogonium ai P. inflata,

however, shows 14 ot 15 covolutions, and must be considered less prinmtive than

P. australis. According to Groves and Bullock-Webster (1924) Nitellopsis

@) See Ophel, la et

216

obtusa shows about 9 convolutions, whereas most species of Chara show more

than 12. Fossil oogonia attributed to Characeae, judging from figures given by

Groves and Bullock-Webster, commonly show a relatively small number of con-

volutions (as low as 5 or 6).

The relatively [ew segments to the branchlets, and the general simplicity of

the thallus, also point to the primitive nature of Protechara.

The naming of most fossil Characeous remains (usually oogonia), as species

of Chura, makes Chara in this sense a very much wider genus than the Chara

of living species, It is quite likely that fossil remnants would prove tu belong tou

Protochara it thallus structure were better preserved.

It is evident that Pretochara is the most primitive genus yet described of

present-day Characeae, and appears to be more primitive than any genus of the

Nitelleae. The general habit of the plant, however, consists of the stem with

whorled branchlets that is so typical of the group as a whole, and the oogania

and antheridia are of the highly specialized type common to all species. The

relationship and position of the Characeae amongst other plants remains as

obscure as ever.

LATIN DIAGNOSES

PROTOCHARA 4. gen.

Pluntulae omnino ecorticatae. Stipulodae, bractae-cellulae et bractéolae

omnino absentia. Monoecae aut dioecae, oogonia et antheridia 2 nodi peri-

metrotis cellulis orta, 45 cellularum corona.

Protochara australis n, sp.

TMantulae dioccae, omnino ecorticatae, usque ad 10 er. alta, subvirides, non

inerustatae; radiculae ramulis et multicellulariae. Caulis crassus, simples aut

ramulorum verticillis 4-7; internodia caulis 1-3 cm, longa, 0°9-1'5 mm. lata.

Ramulae crassae pauco incurvatae, in verticillis 4-7, quisque articulorum 3-4;

segmentum mucroniformis ultimum longim 110-200 p, perinietrotis nodi celhilis

5-6 in fundo; segmentum subultimum magnum non aequaliter inflatam; segmenta

inferiora longa 4-1 cm, lata 4-14 mm. Nodi perimetrotis cellulis 10-12. Stipu-

lodae, bractae-cellulae et bracteolae omnino absentia.

Oogonia in superiorum verticillorum ranmnlorum axillibus verticillata, soli-

taria aut bina nodis ramulorum; a perimetrotis cellulis propriis orta, Oogonia

oviformia-cylindriformia longa 760-940, lata 600-780; corona oogonii alta

circiter 754, lata 225, composita cellularum 5 paryarum mucroniformium;

cellulae spirillés convolutis 6-7. Oospora nigra, cylindriformia-oblongata, longa

490-560 p, lata 310-390 p, rugis 4-5,

Antheridia moda oogoniorum simili orta, octoscutata, diam, 1,150 p.

NOTES ON FILARSKUS GENUS CHARINA

In the same paper as Nifellopsis inflata. was described, Filarski founded a

genus Charina, based on the one species CY. verticillata Fil. and Allen, ftom

Wagin, Western Australia. None of the specimens on which the genus was

named was fertile.

Filarski’s reasons for founding a new genus are not clear, but were appar-

ently based on the vegetative form of the plant. Elis figures show a slender,

verticillately branched plant bearing numerous whorled, 2-cclled dactyls. ‘The

occurrence of two- (sometimes more, rarcly onc) celled dactyls such as these on

the hranchiects is a characteristic feature of ihe Nirelleac, as distinct from the

317

Chareae which bear only one-celled bracteoles on the branchlets. Filarski laid

considerable stress on the apparent dimorphism shown by different branches (or

plants?) of Charina; some branches bore only one-celled, blunt-ended, dactyls

instead of the two-celled, mucronate type. A feature of some species of Nutella,

however, is that the terminal cell of the dactyl is often deciduous, and this is

probably the reason for the apparent dimorphism stressed by Filarski.

From the figures given, the general appearance of the plant and its vegeta-

tive construction offer no feature to exclude it from the genus Nitella, In fact,

Filarski adds a note that J. Groves had suggested the plant was close to Nitella

subtillissima Braun, and in the absence of fruiting material the naming of a new

genus was hardly justified. Fertile material must be collected to prove whether

Charina can be retained or not, and it is to be hoped that both this species and

Protochara inflata will be rediscovered by Western Australian collectors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are indebted to Miss N. T. Burbidge for information on the

locality where she collected P. inflata and C harina verticillata. Mr. G. G. Smith,

Department of Botany, Western Australia, also collected some of the material

of P. australis.

REFERENCES

Fivarskr, NANpor 1937 “Idegenfoldi Charafelek Hatarozasa. (Determinatio

Characearum Exoticarum)” Matematikai es Termeszettudomanyi

Ertesito, 55, 476-495. (Budapest)

Fritscu, F. E. 1935 “The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae,” 1

Groves, H. J., and Atten, G. O, 1934 “A Review of the Queensland Charo-

phyta.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld., 46, 34-59

Groves, J., and BuLLocK-WEBSTER, G.R. “The British Charophyta.” 1, (1920),

2, (1924)

NOTES ON THE GENERA LYCHNOTHAMNUS AND

LAMPROTHAMNIUM (CHARACEAE)

By TI. L. OPHEL

Summary

The genus Lychnothamnus was established by Leonhardi in Lotos XIII, 1863, p. 72, having

previously been differentiated in 1845 by Ruprecht as a sub-genus to include the species in Braun’s

section “Charae pleurogynae,” viz. Charabarbata Meyen, C. papulosa Wallroth and C. macropogon

Braun. In “Fragmente einer Monographie der Characeen” 1882, Braun and Nordstedt recognised

the genus as distinct, but C. papulosa (under the synonym of C. alopecuroides Braun) was removed

into a new genus Lamprothamnus (later changed to Lamprothamnium by Groves, (1916), and C.

stelligera Reich was added to Lychnothamnus, so that the latter genus consisted of three species: L.

stelliger Braun, L. macropogon Braun and L. barbatus Leonhardi.

318

NOTES ON THE GENERA LYCHNOTHAMNUS AND LAMPROTHAMNIUM

(CHARACEAE)

By I. L. Orver

| Read 13 November 1947]

The genus Lychnothamnus was established by Leonhardi in Lotos XIII,

1863, p. 72, having previously been differentiated in 1845 by Ruprecht as a sub-

genus ty include the species in Braun’s section ““Charae pleurogynac,” vis, Chara

barbatu Meyen, C_ papulosa Wallroth and C. macropogow Braun. Tn “Frag-

mente ciner Monographie der Characeen” 1882, Braun and Nordstedt recognised

the genus as distinct, but C. papulose (under the synonym of C. aopecuroides

Braun) was retnoved into a new genus Lamprothamnus [later changed to

Lamprothamnium by Groves, (1916)]. and C. slelligera Reich was added ta

Lychnothamnus, so that the latter gens consisted of three species: L. stelliger

Braun, L. macropagon Braun and L, barbutns Leonhardi,

As Groves (1919) points out, the distinguishing character of the genus

Lychnothammus as established by Leonhardi is that the antheridia are produced

by the side of the oogonium. Of the three species placed in the genus by Braun

and Nordstedt it is only in the original type (Lychnothamnus barbatus) that the

relative position of the sex organs can be satisfactorily ascertained, since

Lychnothamnus stelliger (now Nutellopsis obtusa J, Groves) is digecious; and

in Lychnothamnus macropagen, white the antheridia are normally produced at the

branchlet nodes, the ovgonia ate almost invariably situated at the base and, when

situated at a branchlet node, scarcely ever oecur at a node where there is also

an aitheridium present,

Hy, in 1889, removed Lychnothawnus stelliger to a now genus Nilellopsis

namiig the plant Nitellopsis stelligora, his new genus being based on vegetative

characters. Considering the state of knowledge at that time the action was

hardly justifiable, since Lychnothamnus Stelliger satisfied Leonhardi’s generic

description to as great an extent as did Lychnolthamnus macrapogon. However,

sifice il is now known that the relative position of the sex organs is somewhat

vatiable, it does seem that something more is needed on which to base generic

distinctions.

The removal of Lychnothamnnns stelliger left two syecies in the genus,

Lychnathamnus barbatus Leonhardi and Lychnothamnus macrapagow Braun.

Groves (1919) examined specimens of Lachknothanimus macropogow Tram

Australia and Hongkong, Me found in specimens fron: Victoria one instance in

which an oogonium and antheridium occurred together at a free ede, and in

this case the two were produced side by side but proceeding from the same

peripheral cell, corresponding to Lamprothamnium Groves ( Laniprothamuns

Braun); in Lychnothamius barbatus, however, the antheridia and oogonia are

produced from different peripheral cells of the branchlet node, In the specimens

from Hongkong two instances were observed in which an ocogoniym and

antheridium occurred together; in both cases the two proceeded from the same

peripheral cell, but the antheridium occurred below the ooganium in cach case

as in the genus Chara Linn.

Despite the extremely close resemblance of ihe vegetative parts of Lychno-

fhamnus mactepeyon lo those of Lamprothannium papulosum J, Graves (sO

iitich so that some sterile forms of both species would be inchstinguishable—

Trans, Boy Soo SB. Aust, TL, (2), 1 December, 1947

319

Fig. 1

A, B, C, Lamprothammiun macropogen (Braun) comb, nov.

A, Portion of sterile plant from Harrier River, Kangaroo Island (nat. size).

B, Base of whorl, showing stipulodes; plant frum Robe, Xe 30. CG, Branchlet

node, showing side-by-side arrangement of antheridium and oogenium, Plant

from Harriet River. X c. 60,

D, E, Lamprothamninen papuloston J. Groves

(ID, after Migula; E, after Groves and Bullock-Wcbster.)

D, Portion of plant, nat. size. E, Base of whorl, showing stipulodes. Xe. 20.

320

ees

Fig, 2

A, B, Lamprothamnnan papulosum J. Groves (after Groves)

A, Oogonium. Xc.60 B, Upper part of the branchlet with fertile node. Xc. 20.

C, D, E, Lychnothamnus barbatus, Leonhardi

C, Base of whorl, showing stipulodes and rudimentary cortex. X10. D, Fertile

branchlet. X5. E, Oogonium, X 45,

321

fig. 1 and 2), and that the relative position of the oogonium and antheriditm

appeared yariable, Groves rejected the inclusion of the species in the genus

Lamprothamninm on the grounds that it would mean abandoning the one dis-

tnguishing character of this genus. He tentatively proposed the return of the

species ta Chara, In “Review of Queensland Charophyta” (1954), IH. Groves

and Allen list the species as Chara macrepoyon Braun,

In all the South Australian specimens so far examined by the author only

in two have an oogonium and antheridium been found together. In one, from

Kinchina (Coll, No. 254), the antheridium was situated below the oogontiim.

The other case was in a specimen from Harriet River, Kangaroo Island (Coll.

No. 31), and in this case the two were side by side. 11 both instances the two

reproductive orgung were derived from the same peripheral cell. Another

specimen from Kinehina (Coll, No. 25B) had two antheridia situated at a free

brauchlet node, one above the other, and both proceeding from the same peripheral

cell.

This derivation of the sex organs from the same peripheral cell confirms

Groves’ observations and supports his removal of Lychnothamnus macropogon

from the genus Lychnothamnus. Tt could tiot be said, however, that the above

facts support his proposal of returring it lo the genus Chara,

Groves’ reasons for ignoring the obvious relationship between Lamprotham-

nition papulosum and Lychnothamnus macrupegon are not clear. Braunand Nord-

sted{ (1882) had remarked on their similarity, and Groves himself (1919) says,

“In examining L, macropogon one is struck by the great similarity of its vegetative

parts to our European Lamprothanminm papuloswm,”

This similarity extends to all characters of the plants (sce also fig. 1 and 2).

Poth species are entirely ecorticate with clangated stipulodes, usually one opposite

each branchlet, at the stem nodes, The upper (usually fertile) whorls are con-

tracted imto heads, the hranchlets in bath species being incurved and of a small

number of segments (3-4-5) bearing usually five bract cells at the lower nades

with bracteoles usually absent.

Specimens of Laimprothamntuin papwlosum trom South Africa (McNicol

(1907) betray an even closer relationship by the production of a second row ot

stipulodes abace the whorl of branchlets (common in South Australian specimens

of Lychnothamnus macropogon), in the swollen segments of the branchlets of

the sterile whorls, and in the production of smooth spherical white root bulbils

(seen i most South Austrahan collections). The production of these bulbils by

Lychnothamnus macropogon is also mentioned by H. Groves and Allen (1934).

Groves (1919) chose to ignore these similarities rather than abandon what he

considered the one clistmguishing character of Lumprothantnivw—that of the

oogenium below the antheridium—yet in his description of Lamprothammninm.

papulosum he states (Groves 1924, 2, 8) that the relative positions of

the two are variable, In any case, instances of oogonia and antheridia

octurring together in Lyehnothamnus macropogon are so rave as to be regarded

as atypical, and it would be hard to justify the use of these isolated instances as

an ultimate phasis of classification. Rather, the extremely close morphological

resemblance of Lychnothamnus ihucropogon ta Lamprothamnium papulasium is

a much more reliable indication as to the relationship of the Australian species.

The name of this species row becomes Lumprothamniunt macropagon Brawn

comb. noy. with the following synonomy.

Chara macropogon Braun, 143

Lychnothavinuy amacropogen Trauh, 1868

Macropegon australicum Mizuta, 1891

522

‘The amended generic description is as follows —

LAMPROTHAMNIUM Groves, 1916

(Lamprothamnus Braun, 1882, non Hiern)

Stem and branchlets ecorticate, Branchlets of few segments with usually

five bract cells at a node. Stipulodes, in normal forms, long and declining,

pointed and opposite the base of each branchlet; occasionally secondary ones

produced. Sometimes a second series of stipulodes produced above whorl of

branchlets.

Monoecious. Upper fertile verticils contracted into compact heads,

Oogonium derived from same peripheral cell as antheridium when both occur at

same branchlet node. Oogonitm situated above, by the side of, or below

antheridium, Root nades producing spherical starch butbils.

Two species —

(1) Antheridia and oogotiia borne at same branchlet node—Lampro-

thansninat papulosum Groves.

(2) Oogonium at base of branchlets, antheridia at branchlet nodes—

Lamprothanmium macropogon (Braun) comb, nov.

Three other species of Lamprothamnus (Lamprothamnium) have been

described. The most important of these is Lamprothamnuus hansenit Sonder,

figured and described by Migtila (1900). This species is related to Lamprotham-

nium. papulosum but differs in not producing the long dense fruiting heads, in

having stouter branchlets and broader oogonia, This species is also closely

related to Chara succinaia Braun, and seems to represent a well-defined inter-

mediate form between Chara succinata and Lamprothamnium papulosum. Tf the

modified generic description of Lamprothamnium is applied, then this species,

because of the stated differences, is ineligible and becomes Chara hansenii

(Sonder) comb. nov.

The two other described species are considered by Groves (1924) to he

extreme forms of Lumprothamnium papulosum,

From the above discussion is can be seen that the typical species of Lanipra-

thamniuy are connected by intermediate forms with species af Chara and the

observations cast some doubt on the validity of the genus Lamprothamnium.

Classification of the tribe Charcae, with the emphasis not on the relative position

of anthericdia and cogonitim but on their deriyvaiion would be more satisfactory.

In this case the tribe falls into two sections -—

(1) Antheridium and oogonium derived from separate peripheral cells

(2) Antheridium and oogonium derived from the same peripheral cell.

(Lamprothamenm and Chara.) .

SUMMARY

The systematic position of the Australian Lychnothamnus macropogon Braun

(Chara macropogon Braun) is reviewed. Figures are given of this and related

species. From the evidence it is seen that the Australian species is more neatly

related to Lamprothamninm papulosum Groves, hitherto the sole member of its

genus, to which L. macropogon is now transferred.

However, the validity of Lamprothanimium as a genus is questioned.

(“) Also Protochara, see Womersley and Ophel, p. 311, this. Journal.

323

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is indebted to the following botanists at the University of

Adelaide:—Miss C. M. Eardley, B.Sc., Systematic Botanist, and Mr. H. B. S.

Womersley, M.Sc., Lecturer in Botany, for advice and for the loan of specimens;

and to Mr. R. Perry, B.Sc., for specimens.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE

Braun, A,, and Norpstept, O, 1882 “Fragmente einer Monographie der

Characeen.” Berlin.

Groves, J. 1916 “On the Name Lamprothamnus, Braun.” Jour. Bot., 54, 336

Groves, J. 1919 “Notes on Lychnothamnus.” Jour, Bot., 57, 125

Groves, J. 1924 (with G. R. Bullock-Webster). “The British Charophyta,”

Ray. Soc., London

Groves, H. 1934 (completed by G. O, Allen). “Review of the Queensland

Charophyta.” Proc, Roy. Soc. Queensland, 46, 34

McNicot, Mary 1907 “The Bulbils and Pro-embryo of Lamprothamnus

alopecuroides A, Braun.” Ann. of Bot., 21, 61

ma ea 1900 “Die Characeen,” in Rabenhorst, Kryptogamenflora.

eipzig

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER

MOLLUSCS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND ANNE C. BECKWITH

Summary

The present paper deals with two new furcocercariae which have been rarely met with by us. One,

Cercaria ancyli, belongs to the Strigeids, while the other, C. lophosoma, is a lophocercaria whose

unknown adult probably is a blood fluke inhabiting one of the species of fish occurring in the

Murray River.

324

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

PART XII

By T. Harvey Jounston and Anne C. Beckwith *

(Fig. 1-8)

[Read 13 November 1947]

The present paper deals with two new furcocercariae which have been rarely

met with by us. One, Cercaria ancyli, belongs to the Strigeids, while the other,

C. lophosoma, is 4 lophocercaria whose unknown adult probably is a blood Auke

inhabiting one of the species of fish occurring in the Murray River.

We desire to acknowledge otir indebtedness to Mr. G. G. Jaensch and his

family for help during our visits to Tailem Bend; and to the Commonwealth

Research Grant for financial assistance, Part XI of the series is being published

in the Records of the South Australian Museum, 1947, 563-584.

Cercaria ancyli n. sp.

(Fig. 1-3)

A very small furcocercaria, Cercaria ancyli, has been found parasitising two

different hosts, the gastropod Amerianna pyramidata, and the freshwater limpet,

Ancylus australicus. It is the first occasion on which we have found Jarval

trematodes in the latter mollusc. The cercaria was first observed as an infection

of one out of six Ancylus collected in the River Murray swamps at Tailem Bend

in April 1947, In May 1947 three out of 154 Amerianna from these swamps

eniitted the same kind of cercaria. Jt is possible that, owing to the superficial

resemblance of this species to C, axgelae Johnston and Simpson 1944, the former

may have been collected on earlier occasions, but confused with the latter parasite,

The cercariae are very active and swim, tail first, almost constantly. They

live for about 36 hours at room temperature, but keeping them in a refrigerator,

at about 1° Centigrade, in a vessel of water, prolongs the life to two or three days,

a useful expedient, as material was scarce.

Ten cercariae from each host, preserved in tle usual manner, were measured

with an ocular micrometer from a water mount. The measurements of the two

lots of cercariae differ slightly, particularly in the proportions of tail-stem length

to body length; but both body and tail-stem ure highly contractile, and as the

cercatiae possess no noticéable anatomical differences, the differences in the

measurements may be accounted for by their development in different hosts,

Measurements are given in micra and indicate the average, and (in brackets)

the range. Cercariae from Ancylus:—hody length, 114 (81-144) ; body breadth,

33 (27-41) ; tail-stem length, 112 (90-127) ; tail-stem breadth, 36 {27-41} ; furea

length, 114 (99-124); furca breadth, 21 (18-25); anterior organ length, 34

(2543); anterior organ breadth, 22 (18-25); ventral sucker length, 18-7 (18-

21); ventral sucker breadth, 17 (1419). Cercariae from Asmertanna:—body

length, 127 (93-153): body breadth, 37 ( 30-35) ; tail-stem length, 88 (72-100) ;

tailitem breadth, 35 (28-45): furca length, 116 (95-139); furca breadili, 21

(19-23) ; anterior orgun length, 32. (27-37); anterior organ breadth, 25-5 (25-

27); ventral sucker length, 18-7 (18-21); ventral sucker breadth, 19 (18-21).

The spines are restricted to the anterior organ and ventral sucker, In from

of the mouth are three rows of forwardly directed spines, ten to twelve in all,

*Zoology Department, University of Adelaide.

Trans. Koy, Suc, S. Aust., 71, (2),1 Decemher, 1947

32S

with usually only one or two in the most anterior row (fig. 1) and four to five

in the most posterior, A short spineless area succeeds the pre-oral spines, fol-

lowed by a band of five or six irregular rows of spines around the front part of

the anterior organ, The portion of the anterior organ anterior to the first row

of spines may be completely withdrawn, or pushed forward. The ventral sucker

bears three rows of rather irregularly arranged spines, approximately 50 in

number, and these, too, can be withdrawn into the cavity of the sucker,

The digestive system consists of mouth, surrounded by the pear-shaped,

highly contractile, anterior organ; a short pre-pharynx; well-developed pharynx ;

very short oesophagus; and a shart }nob-like caecum, all in the anterior third of

the body. The caecum is at times partly lohnlated in a manner suggestive of

meipient diviston into two caeca (fig. 1),

There is a group of six rather small penetration gland cells posterior to the

ventral sucker, arranged in two groups overlapping anteriorly. The ducts of

these pass forward and open each side of the niouth. There is a group of

probably four pairs of very small “head-glands” in the region of the antertor

organ, which stain very deeply with neutral red used intra-vitam, and are hence

conspictious features in such a preparation, The genital primordium js a triangu-

lar mass of undifferentiated cells between the bladder and the two sets of penetra-

tion gland-ceils, The nervous system was not observed. A large number of very

small, highly refringent granules are scattered throughout the body. Whether

these are part of the developing excretory system is uncertain.

The stem of the longifurcate tail contains six pairs of caudal bodies, the

first rather smaller than the others. The usual stalked cells line the borders of

the tail-stem. Both tail-stem and furcae are spineless, Transverse and longi-

tudinal muscle fibres are present. A unique feature of this cercaria is the curious

cuticular thickening halfway along the furea, opposite the opening of the

excretory canal, This is knob-like in some, in others more spur-like, and is

invariably present (fig. 2)-

The bladder is trilobed, consisting of a central portion with an antero-lateral

lobe on each side (fig, 1). Into this lateral lobe on either side opens the main

collecting duct, which receives two secondary ducts at the level of the ventral

sucker. The most anterior of these ducts drains the capillaries of two Hame-

cells, while the posterior, which is greatly coiled proximally, receiyes the

capillaries of two further flame-cells in the body, and one in the tail at the

level of the second pair of catidal bodies. Hence the excretory formula is

2[ (2) + (2+ (1) )]=10. In the region where the main ducts receive the

secondaries a transverse commissure connects the two sides of the excretory

system, passing across the hody posterior to the ventral sucker From the

posterior part of the bladder a wide duct leads back, dividing to surratund a small

island of Cort, then continuing centrally along the ijail-stem (fig. 3) and branch-

ing at the base of the furcae inte two vessels which open halfway along the

furcae, opposite the cuticular “spurs.”

In one specimen a variation in the number of flame-cells on one side was

observed. A third Aame-cell in the binder part of the body was connected with

the postetivr secondary duct on ofe side only, making the formula for that side

{ (2) +(1+2+ (1) )]=6 (fig 1). This was apparently a precociously

developed flame-cell of the metacercarial stage,

Sponocyst

The sporocysts (fig. 3) occur in the digestive gland in both hosts. They are

slender tubular steuectures, usually tangled together in masses. Much wf the fiver

Fig. 1-3, C. ancyht

1, body, showing spines, digestive system, glands, excretory system, genital

primordium; 2, tail; 3, sporocyst, showing cercaria emerging trom tear in wall.

Fig. 1 and 2 drawn from living specimens, outlines with camera lucida;

fig. 3 from Canada balsam mount, also with camera lucida,

tissue of the host may be destroyed. The living sporocyst is capable of slow

waving movements. Several sporocysts contained numbers of mature cercariae

at the Lime when the first host (Ancylus) died, and some of the cercariae were

observed pushing their way out through the walls of the sporocysts, but there is

32?

apparently no birth-pore. Characteristically, a number of constrictions divides

each sporocyst into several lobes, and the end may be marked by a small knob.

Length is very variable—a fairly long one measured 3 mm, There are no very

marked differences between sporocysts fram the two hosts, but those from

Amerianna tend 10 be slightly stouter and mure coiled than those from the smaller

host; Arcylus.

EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS

The sccond intermediate host of C. ancyli has not been ascertained, Attempts

vere made to infect experimentally with the cercaria the gastropods Lymnaca

lessoni, Amerionna pyramidata and Planorbis isingi; the lish Gambusia ajfinis,

and mosquito larvae; but results were in every case negative.

RELATION SILIPS

As far as has heen possible to ascertain, C. ancyli is the first cercaria from

a fresh-water limpet to be described fully. Fielder, in 1896, mentioned the presence

wf cercariae and of pigmented distome cysts in Aacylus tasmaniensis; while

Cherry, in 1895, reported having seen ccreariae trom the same species, and in

1917 from A. australicus. As these cercatiae were not described, it is impossible

ro know whether any of them could have been C. ancyli. The occurrence of this

cercaria in Amerianna as well, indicates that its nearest relatives need not neces-

sarily be parasites of fresh-water limpets.

One local cercaria, C. angelue, Johnston and Simpson 1944, also from

Amerianna, resembles C. ancyli closely enough to make identification troublesome

in routine examinations, The two species are distinguished, however, by a

number of features, namely, size—C. angelae is considerably larger; number of

gland-cells—eight in C. angelae, six in C. ancy; number of flame-cells—ten in

They are also distinguished by the form of the alimentary canal, the spination,

and hy the fact that the tail excretory tubules in C. encylt open half-way along

the fureac, but in C. angelae at the tips.

Several well-defined groups of cercariae can be eliminated immediately from

close relationship with C. ancyli, although possessing some features in common

with the latter. The Alvae group of furcocercariae (Miller 1923) all possess a

single pair of caudal flame-cells high in the tail-stem, apparently a group charac-

teristic rather than a species characteristic, aid common to several groups of

Surcotercatiae; but they differ from C. aacyli in various fundamental features,

such as the possession of a hrevifurcate tail. Probably much more closely related,

though still distinct, is the Apotemon group, again with one pair of flame-cells in

the tail-stem, and also resembling our larva in size, general proportions and

spination, hut differing in having four pairs of gland-cells, seven pairs of flame-

cells, and well-developed caeca. C. multicellulata Miller (1923) and its allies

a graup, as they have two pairs of flame-cells in the tail-stem, a larger number

of flame-cells in the body, and differ greatly in size, spine equipment and other

fealures.

The cercaria mostly closely resembling ours is C. dohema Cort and Bracket

(1937), a parasite of Lymnaea and Stagnicola, Of the relationships of this

cercaria, Cort and Brackett said (p. 278) that they could find in the literature

uo other strigeid larva resembling theirs. C. ancyli has exactly the same excretory

arrangement, similar type of gut and glatidular equipment, stmilar pre-oral spines,

six candal bodies in the tailstem and somewhat similar body proportions, — ln

actual size, however, C. dovhema is rather larger (body 156 long, tail-stem 179 4

328

long, furca 196 long); it also differs in having spines back to ihe level of the

pharynx, unpigmented “eyespots,” a pair of caudal bodies in the furcae, no headd-

glands and no furcal spur, and its sporucyst possesses a birth-pore. C. dohema

is said to penctrate into a mimnow (Jfnndulus sp.), and metacereariae (un-

described) recovered from the liver were considered to belong to that species,

but investigations of the life-cycle were not completed.

C. rfpomt Brackett (1939) resembles C. ancylt somewhat less closely. The

glandular equipment is very similar, and the excretory system differs only in the

presence of an additional pair of flame-cells in the postetior body; but it has no

pre-oral spmes, more extensive body spination, well-developed gut, eyespots and

no head-glands, C. sincera Olivier (1941) has an exctetory formula identical

with that of C. ancyli, and is very similar in size, but has only two pairs of

glands, a heavily spinose body, and long caeca. C. gramula Miller (1927) and

C. hirsuta Miller (1927) are two more species with exactly the same excretory

arrangements as C, ancylis in C. granula there are also occasional variatious in

the number of flame-cells in the posterior part of the body, as in our larva, Both

of Miller’s cercariae have, in addition, very short caeca, and six caudal bodies,

hut differ from our larva in size, and markedly in their penetration gland equip-

ment, although in both this is mainly posterior ta the ventral sucker. Both have

Setie on the tail-stem,

Two other cercariae with six post-acetabular gland-cells, C. higgins? Olivier

(1942) and C. wialloani Olivier (1941), are quite distinct from €. ancyli; both

are considerably larger larvae than ours, and both have sixteen flame-cells, twa

of which are in the rail-stem.

Cercaria lophosoma n. sp,

(Fig. 4-8)

Jn the course of examination of 2,920 specimens of the gastropod, Nofopata

hanteyé, tor trematode infestation, a minule new Jophocercaria, Cercaria lopho-

soma, has been recovered from two snails. These two infected specimens were

collected in May 15 and March 1946 respectively at Swan Reach on the River

Murray; ten other collections of this mollusc made at the same place between

April $942 and March 1947, and two collections made at Renmark and Morgan

respectively, yielded no further specimens infected with the same cerearia. It is

possible that the cercariae at times escape notice becatise of their small size.

C. lophosoma ts emitted mainly m the middle of the day. A few appear by

10.30 a.m., but large numbers are not emitted until between 12 noon and 2.30 pm,

When sufficient numbers are present, they tend to form a swarm in the tube.

They are planktonic organisms and swim very little, but will respond to vibration

of their tube with a few jerky bending movements of the tail. They float in

yarious positions (Ag. 6). The length of life is about 48 hours,

Cercariae. fixed by adding an cqual quantity of boiling 10% formalin to the

water in which they were swimming, wert measured in a water mount with an

ocular micrometer. The measurement of the breadth of the furcae excludes the

fms, which in preserved material are often bent or shrunk. The averages of ten

measurements are given in micra, with the ranges ia brackets; hody length, 95

(82-108) ; body breadth at widest part, 27 (21-32) ; tail-stem length, 196 (180-

213); tail-stem breadth, 19 (16-21); furca length, 63 (54-73); furea breadth,

7 (5-9). anterior organ length, 18 (16-19); anterinr organ breadth, 16 (14-19).

A difficulty encountered in studying this cetcaria was the impossibility of

making a ventral mount during life, partly because of the lateral compression of

the body, and partly because of the stiff cuticular crest. Hence the measurement

given as “body breadth” is nore exactly “bedy depth”

329

“ui eo-0

Fig. 4-8, C. laphosomea

4, body greatly contracted; 5, general features of body and tail, and excretory

system; 6, various positions assumed when floating; 7, body in extended position,

showing glands, central granular mass, and genital primordium; 8, sporocyst.

Fig, 4, 5, and 7 drawn from living specimens, outlines with camera lucida;

fig. 6 drawn freehand from living specimens in a drop of water without coverslip;

fig. 8 drawn with camera lucida from Canada halsam motmnt,

330

The body of the cercaria is, like that of C, Aelvetioa xvi (Dubois 1927,

p, 27) highly contractile. There are five to six rows of fine straight spines round

the front of the anterior organ. There are no further spines on the body, although

when greatly contracted it has a spiny appearance, due to the intense wrinkling

of the rather stiff cuticle (fig. 4). Small spines are seattered along the borders

of the tail-stem, and more thickly on the fleshy part of the furcae,

The anterior organ is highly contractile and, as in Sewell’s Indian Lopho-

cereartiae (1922, p. 46), definitely snoutlike, There are no “hollow, conical

spines” on the tip of this snout, as described for several Lophocercariae, but at

times drops of seerction from the gland-ducts which open on the anterior surface

of this organ, and which are highly refractive, may be scen. There is no ventral

sucker. There ate no eyes, though they have been described for some Lopho-

cercariae,

The glands (fg. 7) are numerous, mainly in the middle and posterior regions

of the body. Neutral red and Nile blue sulphate were used as intra-vitam stains,

Delafield’s haematoxylin and acetic acid alum carmine for permanent prepara-

tions, Two unicellular glands in tandem are situated ventrally, their ducts pass-

ing forward to open on the ventral surface of the anterior organ, separate from

the other ducts. These two glands stain deeply with both neutral red and Nile

blue sulphate, while a large group of glands dorsal to, and extending posterior

to them, stain more lightly with neutral red, but just as deeply with Nile blue

sulphate. These glands could not be accurately counted. but number more thar

twelve. Their ducts pass forward together centrally, to open on the apex of the

snout, In the middle part of the body is a group of deeply-staining granules

surrounded by a granular mass. It could not be determined whether these were

the rudiments of the ventral sucker, or part of the genital primordium. A

triangular-shaped mass ef cells, staining deeply with acid alum carmine and with

Delafield, situated just in front of the bladder, is certainly part of the genital

primordinum.

No trace of a digestive system is present; not even a mouth-opening was

observed. The nervous system could not be distinguished.

The dorsal crest is a conspicuous feature of this cercaria, It is fine, trans-

paren and slightly yellow, and is apparently formed of an extension of the cuticle.

ts shape yaries with the extension and contraction of the body (fig. 4 and 7),

The long slender tail is, tugether with the furcae, two to three times as long

as the body (fig. 5). It is provided with a few very fine, hair-like structures

dorsally, as well as the minute spines mentioned above. There are numerous

small rounded caudal bodies grouped round the central axis of the tail; these

disintegrate readily under pressure, A Tew scattered nuclei in the tail-stem stain

deeply with neutral red in life. The tail-musenlature is well developed, The

principal fibres run obliquely in two directions, and hence in two sets, one dorsal

and one yentral; when viewed from the side they appear to be arranged in herring-

bone Fashion, the apices of the one set directed forward, those of the other back-

ward. Longitudinal fibres also are present,

Each short slender furca is provided with a fine cuticular flange or fin,

extending round the whole furca, Longitudinal muscle fibres are present. At

the end of the furca the flange forms a pocket-like or flask-like fold, open

posteriorly, as is characteristic for this. type of cercaria. At the base of this

pocket, on the tip of the furca, opens an excretory pore,

As far as could be determined before the host died, the excretory system is

of the usual pattern, ie. 2 (24-1) = 6. The two sites of the excretory system,

34]

if it be bilateral, were, however, never seen simultaneously in oMe specimen. The

bladder (fig. 5) is bilobed, atid frotn each side a duct passes forward. From this

point, presumably owing to the fact that a ventral view was never obtained, only

one set of tubules could be seen, The main duct branches into twa, one passing

forward to receive the capillaries of two flame-cells, the other passing back to

receive a single flame-cell at the level of the bladder. There are no flame-cells in

the tail. There is a long island of Cort, from which a single duct passes back

through the clusters of caudal bodies, to divide inta two tubules about three-

quarters of the way back along the tail-stem (fig. 5). One tubule passes into

each furca, opening at the tip into the flask-like extension of the flange.

EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS

Unsuccessful attempts have heen made to infect the fish, Gambusia affinis

and Carassius auratus, and a tortoise, Emydura macquarit, with the cercaria.

SPOROCYST

The sporocysts are very small, round, or oval bodies (fig. 8), and at the time

of examination, after the death of the host, contained only germ-balls, which

stained more deeply with acid alum catmine than did the test of the sporocyst.

Large masses of these parthenitae were packed together in the liyer, They vary

somewhat in size, and also in shape, according to the pressure of the surrounding

tissue. The average length of ten, measured with an ocular micrometer from a

canada balsam mount of a stained fragment of liver, was 101 p, varying between

84 w and 120 p.

RELATIONSHIPS

The “Lophocerca” group of furcovercariac, so named by Luhe in 1909 to

include C. cristata La Valette and C. microcristate Ereolani, was defined fully by

Sewell in his “Cereatiae Indicae” (1922); the essential fealures of cereariae of

his “Lophocerea” group being the very small size, the relatively long, brevifurcate

tail with furcae provided with a fin-fold; body with a crest; eyes {in many) 3

gland cells in mid-body; anterior organ snout-like tather than sucker-hke; no

mouth, alimentary canal or ventral sucker; excretory formula, 2(2-+-1)—= 6;

development in small oval or rounded sporocysts. Sewell himself added four

cetcariae to this group (Cereariac indicae 1X, XIN, XX#LX, and LF), and since

then a4 number of other Lophocercariae haye been described,

Odhner (1911), Scheuring (1922), and Ejsmont (1925), have shown that

certain forms belonging to this group develop in the blood of Cyprinid fish into

species of the gentts Sanguinicola, Wall (1939; 1940), on the other hand,

described a cercaria possessing the characteristic dorsal crest, which developed

into Spirorchis pareus Stunkard, a blood-fuke of American freshwater tortoises.

However, the life-history of another species of Spirorchis, S. elepkantis Cort,

was described by Wall in 1941, and its cercaria possesses no dorsal crest. Thits,

if the possession of a clorsal crest be the only characteristic necessary for inclusion

of a cercuria in the Lephocerca group, it would at once become a highly artificial

group, closely related forms being separated, and untelated forms being grouped

together, Under Sewell’s more limiting definition the presence of a dorsal crest

is only one of several distinguishing fcatures, and the cercaria of Spirorchis

parvus ts excluded froin the group by the possession of an alimentary canal

(apharyngeal) and a veutral sucker, and by its exeretory formula of

2(/(0+1+134+(1+1+4 (1) )]=12. Furthermore, Wall's description of

jhe crest of the cercaria of S. puraies indicates that its structure is somewhat

(lifferent from that of the true Lophocereariae,

332

€. lephosowa is a Lophocercaria belonging to Sewell’s group, but distinct

irom all other members, In size it is closest ta C. helvetica XVI Dubois (1929),

which, like our cercaria, has numerous gland cells and no eyes. Complete com-

parison is nor possible becauze Dubois’ description ts very brief; the host of

Dubois’ larva is a very different gastropod, however, ziz., Lymnaea. C. lopha-

soma differs {rom Sewell’s Cercoria indica IX (from Indoplanorbis and

Gyraulus), XXNXIX (from Ammnicola), and LF (from Amnicole), in having na

hollow spines on the tip of the snout, no eyes (pigmented or otherwise). a greater

number of glands cells distribated differently, and finally, in size-—leing slightly

larger than C. indica 7X, and somewhat smaller than cither C. indica NX NIN or

C. indica LY. C. indica XU (from Amnicala and Merlanoides) has uo

apical spines, but is larger than C. lophosoma, possesses non-pigmented cyespots,

fewer gland cells, uo spines on the fureae, and a papilla-like structure ventrally,

though? to he a rudinientary genital papilla. The body of Scheuring's C. Sangutii-

colac inermis (from Lynmacy) is slightly larger, according to Ejsmont’s figures,

and the tail is larger in proportion ta the body than in our cercaria, The measure-

ments Ejsmont gives for his C. Sangutnicolae spp. from Bithynia and trom

Lyinngea are both somewhat larger than those of C, lophosoma; he shows two

excretory canals in the tail-stem, and though the large number of gland cells is

suggestive of our ceccaria, Ejsmont figures also a short, blindly-euding gut, in a

somewhat sinular position to the two special gland cells of C, lophusonut.

C. cristata La Valette (1852). from Linaea, which Sewell considered

(p. 53) might be the same organism as his C. indica NIIJ, is a larger cercaria

ihan ours, aceording to Ejsmont's figures; the cercaria which Wesenherg-Lund

(1934) describes as C. eristata hus the same body measurement as C. lophosome,

but the tail-stem is longer and the furcae very much Innger; there are special

apical spines, two excretory canals in the tail-stem, and the sporacysts are long

and provided with a sucking dise. C. microcristata (from Rithywie) is, according

to figures given by Ejsmont, smaller than C. lophosoma and all other known

Lophocerearige,

Martin (1944) redescribed a marine Lophocerearia, previously described by

Linton (1915), and named C. Joossi by Stunkard (1929) This larva is temark-

able tor having as its host an annelid worm, Hydrides. In all other respects it

is closely allied to the Lophocerea group, and the sporocysts are apparently of

the characteristic type. JSoth Linton and Martin consider it closely related to

cereariae of the genus Sanguinicola, At is, however, quite distinct from C, lopho-

suma in being larger, but with furcac shorter, and in having twelve to thirteen

rows of spines around the snout, and fewer glands, arranged differently.

C. laphesoma is distinet from C. sewelli Faust (1926), from Burnupia, which

15 lurger, has only two pairs of glands, a pair of partly-pigmented vyés, and as far

as can be seen from the figure, no fin-folds on the furcae. ‘Uhree other dorsally-

crested cercariae, C. witentoni Croft 1933, C. brevifurea McCoy (1926) from

Planarbis, and C. bombayensis No. 8 Soparkar (192¢) from Planorbis and

Tyinaea, show somewhat dubious affimities with true Lophorercariae, because all

possess simple, apharyngeal alimentary canals, and fin-less furcae, and they

develop in rediae. C_ bombayensis No. & and C. whitentoni possess also a rudi-

mentary ventral sucker, and the excretory systems are more complex than that

of the ttue Lophocerca type, It is possible that these three cereariae may be

more closely related to Spiroreliis or perhaps to Clinostomtum, since the cerearia

of Clinestamnum marginatim has a dorsal crest, finless furcae, alimentary canal,

ventral sucker rudiment, and five pairs of flame cells, and develops in rediae

Krull 1934)

333

SUMMARY

Cercaria ancyli n.sp., a parasite of Ancylus australicus and Anierianna

pyramidata, is a longifurcate pharyngeal strigeid distome cercaria with six pene-

tration glands, head giands, ten flame cells, an excretory commissure behind the

ventral sucker, very short gut, and a furcal spur. Metacercaria and life cycle

are unknown,

Cercaria lophosoma n.sp., a parasite of Netopala hanleyi, is a dorsally-

crested brevifurcaie, non-ocellate cercaria with numerous inicellular glands, but

without a ventral sucker or alimentary canal. It belongs to Sewell’s group,

Lophocercaria, and is closely related to the cercaria of Sangwinicola.

LITERATURE

Bracxerr, §. 1939 Jour. Parasitol., 25, 263-266

Cyerry, T. 1895 Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 8, 183

Curery, T. 1927 Bilharziasis and the Danger of the Disease becoming En-

demic in Australia. Commonwealth Defence Dept., Melbourne, 1-20

Cour, W. W., and Bracxerr, S. 1937 Jour. Parasitol., 23, 274-279

Crort, J], W. 1933 Trans. Amer. Mier. Soc., 52, (3), 259

Dubois, G. 1929 Bull. Soc, Neuch. Sei. Nat., 53, 27-28

Epis le 1925 Bull. de l’Acad. Polonaise Cracow Cl. Sc. Math, Nat., 877-

Fatusr, E. C. 1926 Parasitol,, 18, 102-103

Trener, W. 1896 Vict, Naturalist. 12, 139-140

Jounsron, T. H., and Simpson, &. R. 1944 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68

130-132

Keune, W. H. 1934 Proc. Helminth, Soc. Wash., 1, (2), 34-85

Lisron, E. 1915 Biol, Bull., 28, 198-209 (not available)

Line, M. 1909 Parasitische Plattwirmer, 1, Trematodes

Martin, W. E. 1944 Trans. Amer. Mict. Soc.. 63, (3), 237-243

McCoy, O. R. 1926 Jour, Parasitol, 15, 204-206

Miner, I. M. 1923 Jour. Parasital., 10, 35-46

Mitter, H. M. 1927 Parasitol., 19, 72-74

Opnner, ‘T. 1911 Zool. Anz, 38, 33-45 (not available)

Oxuivier, IL. 1941 Trans. Amer. Mict. Soe, 60, 45-52

Ouivier, L. 1942 Trans, Ameri, Micr, Soc., 61, (2), 168-179

Scnrurine, L. 1923 Zool. Jahrb, Abt. f. Anat., 44, 265-310 (not available)

Sewer, R, B.S. 1922 Ind. Jour. Med. Res,, 10, Suppl. 44-635

Soparkar, M. B. 1921 Ind. Jour. Med. Res., 9, 23-32

Wart, L. D. 1939 Jour. Parasitol, 25, (6, Suppl.), 28

Watt, L. D. 1940 Science, 92, (2,390), 362-363

Wact, L. D. 1941 Amer. Midl. Nat., 25, (2), 402-411

Wesenzerc-Luxp, C. 1934 Denk. Kel, Dansk, Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. Natur,

Math. Afd,, 9 Rackke, 3, 98-103

334

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335

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

1929. Prox. Wartrr Howcurtn, F.G.S.

1930 Joun McC, Brack, A.LS.

1931 Pror, Str Doucras Mawson, O.B.E., D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S.

1933. Pror. J, Burrow Crerann, M.D,

1935 Pror, T, Harvey Jounston, M.A,, D.Sc,

1938 Pror. J. A. Prescort, D.Sc. F.A.1-C.

1943. Hererrt Wonmerstey, A.L.S., FIRES,

1944 Pror. J, G. Woon, D.Se., Ph.D,

1945 Crem T. Manican, M.A, B.E., D.Sc. F.G.S.

1946 HeErpert M. Tlare

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC,

AS AT 30 SEPTEMBER 1947

Those marked with an asterisk (*) haye contributed papers published in the Society’s

Transactions, Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary,

Note—The publications of the Society are not sent to these members whose subscriptions

are in arfear,

pare. o Honowary FRinews

1945, *Buack, J. M., A.LS., (Hom. cause), 82 Brougham Placc, North Adelaide—lerco

Menab 1930; Fellow, 1907-45; Council, 1927-31; President, 1933-34; Vice-President,

1931-33,

1945, *Frenner, C. A. E.. D.Sc. Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adclaide-—Fellow, 1917-45;

Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary, 1924-25;

Treasurer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-37.

Feitows.

1945. Anntr, Prov. A. A., M.D., D.Se., Ph.D, University of Adelaide.

1935, Apvam. D. B.. B.Agr.Se. Walte Institute (Private Mail Rag), Adelaide—Cowinctl,

1939-42; Vice-President, 1942; Librarian, 1942-.

1927. *Arnrrvan, A. R., PhD. DSc. EG.S, Diy, Tidus. Chemistry, C.S.LR., Box 4331,

G.P.O., Melhourne, Vielorta-—Caonnetl, 1937-42.

1931. Awnrew, Rev. J. R., c/y 212 Voune Street, North Unley.

1935. *Anprewanrtsa. H, G., M.Aer Se, D.Sc, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1935, *#AnxnrEWARTITA, Mrs. IL. V., B.Agr.Se., MS. (nee ELV. Steele), 29 Claremont

Avene, Netherby, S.A,

1929. Awncet, F. M., 34 Fullarton Road, Parkside, S.A,

1939, *Awcet, Miss L. M., M.Se., c/o 2 Moore Street, Toorak, Adelaide.

1945, Banrtiett, H. K., L.Th., Burra, §.A.

1932. Bess, P. R., D.D.Sc.. L.D.S., Shell House, 170 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1928. Rest, R. J, MSc. F.A.C.1., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1934, Brack, E. C.. M.B.. B.S., Magill Road, Tranmere, Adelaide.

1945. BonyrHon, C. W,, B.Sc., A.A.CT., 269 Domain Road, South Yarra, $.E. 1, Vict.

3940, Bonyrson, Srr J. Lavincron, 263 East Terrace, Adclaide.

1945. Boowsaa, C. D., B.Sc.For., 2 Celtic Avenue, South Road Park, S.A.

1945. Troverron, A. C.. Mt. Sel'e Station, via Copley, S.A.

1947, Bowes, D. R., B.Se, 51 Eton Street, Malvern.

1930, Brooxmanr, Mrs. R, (nee A. Harvev), R.A. Meadows, S.A.

1944, Bunare, Miss N. T., M.Sc, CS.LR. Div. Plant Industry, PsO. Rox 109, Canberra,

1923. Rurnon, R. S., D.Se., University of Adelatde.

1922. *Campsru, T. D, DD.Se. D.Se, Dental Dept. Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide—

Council. 1928-32, 1935, 1942-45: Mire-President, 1932-34; President, 1934-35.

1944. Casson, P. B., B.Sc., For, (Adel.), Det. For., Mount Crawford Forest, S.A.

Date of

Election.

1929. Curistie, W,, MB. B.S, Edueution Department, Sovial Services, St Pirie Street

Adelaide—Treasurer, 1953-38.

Ww05. *Cre.asn, Pror. J. B., M.D, University of Adelaide—Pcrco Medal, 1933; Caneel,

1921-26, 1932-37 » Prostdent, 1927-285 1940-41 - Mice-President, 1920-27, 1941-42,

WAU. *Conguioun, T. F., MSe,, 10 French Street, Netherby, 5.A—Scerctary, 1942-43,

WO7, *Cooke, We T., DSc, AAC, University, Adclaide—Counei, 1938-44, bive-Prestdend,

1941-42, 1945-44; President, 1942-43,

1942. *Coorrr, H. M., 51 Hastings Street, Gleuelg, S.A,

1944. CoxntsH, Metyiiur, State Bank, Pirie Strect, Adeiaide.

1929, *Coriox, B.C, SJA. Museum, Adelaide—C murci?, 1943-16,

1924, ope Crrseigny, Sie C. T, C, D.S.0., MG. FRCP. 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

137, *Crovrer, Ro L. M.Se, Waite Institute (Private Mail Baz), Adelaide—Serrctary,

UHS-45> Council, 1945.47,

1941. *Diewinsos, S. G, M.Se., Govt. Geoloeist. Mings Department. Minders Sirect, Adelaide

1930, Drx, E. V., Hospitals Department, Rond!e Street, Adelaide, S,A.

104, Dunsroner, 8. M. L, M.B.. B.S. 124 Pavncham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide.

1931. Dwrer, J. M., M.B. B.S. 12 Cross Ruad, Kingswool, S.A.

133. *Eanniry, Miss C, M.. B-Se., Waite Lustitute (Private Mail Bags), Adetaide—Counecil,

194556.

1945, Eomonvs, §. J., BA. MSc., 56 Fisher Terrace, Mile Fnd, §.A.

1902. *Enoursr, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg, S.A,

JOd4, Fermes, Miss H. M,, B.Sc,, 8 Tastor’s Road, Mitcham, S.A,

1927, *Tixtaysox, TT. A. 305 Ward Street, North Adclaide —Couel, 1937-40

Wes, try. TT OK. DiS.0., A.D, BS. BiSe. FRAC... Town Hall, Adelaide—Conncil,

1933-37: [ire-Presiien}, 1937-38, 1939-4tl: Presiden), 1938-38),

1932. *Giason, E. S. 1, ¥.Se., 297 Cross Roads, Clarence Gardens, Adelaide.

1935, “GrLasyonrury, J. OC. G., BA, M.Se., Dip.tid., Beatty Terrace, Mivray Bridge, S.A.

1919, +Grastoneury, O. A,, Adelaide Cement Co., Grenfell Street, Adelatde,

1927. Goprrey, F. K., Robert Street, Payneham, S.A.

1935, fGornsack, H,, Coromandel Valley, S.A.

1930, Goong, J. R., RAgr.Se., 0.0. Box t80, Whyatla, S.A.

1925, tGesse, Stk Jawes H., Gilbert Touse, Githerc Place, Adeliide,

1910. *GrAnv, Prog. Sir Krew, M.Se., 172, University of Adelaide:

1930. Gray, J. T., Orroroo, S.A,

1933. Gueaves, H., Director, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide,

199%. Grivrire, H, B.. Donroh'n Road, Brighten. S.A,

Wed Gurev, D. J. BSc, Mineral Resources Survey, Canherra, ACCT,

1922. *Hacr, WH, M. Director, S.A. Museum, Adelaide -f’ orca Medal, 1946; Conneit, JOA Ad;

Mice-President, 1934-35, 1937-38: President, 1936.37; Treasurer, (938-,

1446, a Mes. J. E.. (nee A, C. Beckwith), M.8c., 89 Greenhil) Road, Toorak Gardens,

M44 Fiarats, J. R., BSc. 94 Aveher Street, North Adelaide, S.A,

185 Hewnerson, DL, Wi Crajastane, Woudiord, N.S.W,

i444. Herrtor, R. L., B.Agr.Se.. Soil Conservator, Dept. of Agricu'ture, S.A.

1924, *Hassrern, PLS. M Se, £32 Fisher Sireet. Wullarton, SA.

1944.) Huser, D. 5. W., 23% Payneham Road, Payneham, SvA,.

1947, Hoyrres, J. T.. BeSe. 13 Sherbourne Road, Merindie Gardens, S.A,

1928. Irovip, P., Kurralta, Burnside, SA,

1942, Jexxrns, C. BF. H., Department of Agriculture, St, George’s Terrace, Perth, W.A.

1918. *)ennison, Rev. J.C. 7 Frew Street, Faltlarton, Adelaide.

1945. *Tessur, R.W,, BSc, 3 Alma Road, Fullacton, S.A,

1). *Jounsox, B.A. M.D. MR.CS., "Tarnj Warra." Part Noatlinga, SAL

1021. *Jonwston, Peor. T. Hi, M.A, DSc, Univers ty of Adclaide—l’arra Midal, (935;

Coimeil, 1926-28, 1040-3 Mira-Presidene, 1928-31; President, 1931-32; Secretary,

1948-40; Rep, Fann ont Flora Roard, 1932-39; Evitor, 1943-45,

1999. {Koraxmar, TW. M_, Ph,D., M.B., F.R.GS., Khakar Buildings, C.P. Tank Road, Rem-

bay, India.

1033, *Krseyran. A. W., MSe., University of Adelaide: Secretary, 1045-,

1945, Layrox, IE, EF, T.. Cotonial Sugar Refinery Co., Kine Wiliam. Street, Adelaide.

1922, Lennon, G. A. M.D. B.S.. FRCP. AM.P. Building, King William Street, Adelaide,

1031, ducnnrook, Mes. W. V., (nee NS. H. Woods), M.A., Elimatta Street, Reid, ACT.

1938. Manpery, C, B.. B.DS.. D.1.Sc., Shell House, Worth Terrace, Adelaide,

1932. Mawn, FE. A, C/o Rank of Adelaide, Adelaide. ;

1939, Marsuatr, T. J., M.Agr.Se. Ph.D., Waite Institute (Private Mail Baz), Adelaide.

337

Date of

Hleotion

1920. Martrx, FC, M.A, Teehtical High School, Thebarton, S.A,

1005. *Mawson, Prov, Sm Dovenas, O.B.E., DSc, BE, PRS. University of Adelaide—

Perea Modal, 1O3L) President, 1924-25, 44-45; Pice-Frexidemt, 1923-24, 1925-26;

Council, 1941-43.

W2. Mavo, Tar How. Mr. Jesticn, LLM, KC, Supreme Court, Adelaide:

1943. McCarry, Miss D. F., B.A., B.Sc., 70 TTalton Terrace, Kensington Purk.

1944. McGuire, L. K,, Ramsgate Hotel, Menley Beach, S.A,

44. “Mines, K. R., D.Sc. ¥.G.S., Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adefaide.

1959. MryeemaAm, V_ H., Mammond, 5A.

1925. +Murcuet, Prop. Str W., K.CM.G,, M.A, D.Se., Fitzroy Ter, Prospect, SA,

1933. MitcHeri, Pror. M, L., M\Se, University, Adelaide.

1938. Moorwouse, F. W., M.Sc. Chief Inspector of Visheries, Flinders Strevt, Adelaide,

1940. Morrtock, J. A. T., 37 Currie Street, Adelaide.

1936. *Mountrorp, C. Pi, 25 First Avemie, St, Peters, Adelaide,

144 Muueunn, J. W.. Engineering and Walter Supply Dept., Part Road, Thebarton, S.A.

W444. Nuinwes, A, Ry, BUA. 62 Sheffield Street, Malvern, S.A.

1045, *Nowrancovr, K. T., RAgrSe., A.LA.S., 16 Carlzon Street, Rosefeld, S.A.

1930. Ocxenven, G. P., Primary School, Woodville, S.A.

1913. *Osuorm, Prov. T. G. B, D.Se, Department of Botany, Oxford, England Conancil,

1915-20, 1922-24; Presidenf, 1923-26; Wice-Prosident, 1924-25, 1926-27,

137. *Parntu, L. W,. BSc, c/o Mines Department, Flinders Strect, Adelgidu,

1945. Parrisoy, G,, 68 Partridge Street, Glenelg, "S.A.

1920, Pau, A. G, MLA, B.Sc. 10: Milan Avetie, Fuilarton, S.A.

1926, *Prrer, C. S., 13.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag). Adelaide—Conmeil, 1941-43;

Ptne-Presidvnt, 1943-45, 1946-47. President. 1945-46.

1947. Poysyton, J. O., M.D, MA, CHR. M-R.CS., L.R.CP., University of Adetaide,

1925. *Pursoort, Pror, J. A. CBI, DSe, ATA. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag),

Adelaile—Voreo Medul, 1958; Council, 1927-30, 1035-39; Pice-Presiduat, 1930-32;

President, 1932-33,

1926, Prrce, A. G,, CMG. M.A., Litt.D., F.RG.S., 46 Pennington "Terrace, North Adelaide,

1945, Pryor, L. D., M’Sc., Dip.Far., 32 La Perouse Strect, Griffith, N.S.W,

1917. #Ratr, W. L. M.Sc., Medical School, University of Melbourne, Carlton N. 3, Victoria

1044. Ricgmas, D. S.. BAer.Se, CSLR, Division of Nutrition, Adclaide,

1925. Rricwaxvson, A. E. V,, C.M.G., M.A, D,Sc., 314 Albert Street, East Melbourne.

1947. Riepm, W. R. B.Sc, St. Mark's Collere, Pennington Terrace, North Adclaide,

17, Rrx. CL E., 42 Watinouth Avenue, Glandore, S.A,

194, Renrwsow, FG. BSc, 42 Riverside Drive. Sudbury, Outaria, Canada,

1945, Ryxrz, J. R., Old Penola Estate, Penola, S.A

1944. *Sannans, Miss D. F., University af Queeuslaud, Brisbane, Queenstand.

1933, Seuwemer, M., M.B,, B.S., 175 North Ter,, Adelaide,

1924. *Seonir, R. W. M.A. B.Sc, Eneinveriog and Water Supply Department, Victoria

Square, Adelaide—Sorretary, 1930-35; Cownril, 1937-385 Mice-President, 1938-39,

1040-41; President, 1939-40.

1946. *Srisut, BR. M.Sc. (SDR. Division al Inlustrial Chemistry, Box 433), 6.7.0.

Melhonrne, Victoria.

1925, *Suravv, H., Port Eliot, SwA.

1936. *SHrAnp, K., Fisheries Research Div. C.S.LR., c/a Institute of Agriculture, Univ. WA,

1945. Sweparen, J. H.. B.Se, BA. efo Zine Corporation, Broken Hill, N\S.W,

1934 SumtyxKerern. R. C., Salisbury, S.A.

1942) Srmaxfavyns, H. W., 130 Fisher Street, Fidlarten, 5.4.

1938, *Srursay, Mrs, E. R., M.Sc, Warland Road, Burnside.

1924. Simpson, F. N., Pirie Street, Adelaide,

144, Suivi, C. A, N.. BiAer.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide, S A.

1941. i ed Lawnarorn-, B.S¢., Departiient of Post War Reennstruclion, Canberryt,

1947, Sourscort, R. Vi, M-B, BS, 12 Avenue Road, Unley Park, S.A.

193). Sourmwow, A. R,, M.D... M.S. (Adel), M-R-CP.. Wootoona Ter., Glen Osmond, S.A

1947, Specirt, R. (, BSc, 12 Main Road, Richmond, S.A,

4936, *Spatac. R. C.. M.Se,, Mines Tenartinent. Flinders Street, Adelaide,

1947. Sponuinn, M. B., BSe., Denartment of Aeviculture, Adelaide,

1958, #Srermess, C, GG. M.Sc, Waite Institute (Pricate Mail Rae), Adelaide

1935. Strrcritanp, A. (i, M-Agr Se, 11 Wootoona Terrace, Glen Osmond, S.A, Cinncil,

1932, Swaw, D.C. M\Se, Waite Institute (Private Mail Rag), Adelaide—Sreretary

1940-422 Pise-President, 1946-47; President, 1A7-,

338

Date of

Election,

1934, Symons, I. G., 35 Murray Street, Lower Mitcham, S.A.—Editer, 1947-.

1929, bases Z: K., B.A., M.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Couacil,

1938. *THomaAs, Mrs. I. M., (nee P. M. Mawson), M.Sc., 12 Broadway, Glenelg.

1940, TuHomson, Cart. J. M., 135 Military Road, Semaphore South, S.A.

1923, *Tinnatz, N. B,, B.Sc, South Australian Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1935-36;

Council, 1947-.

1945. Trver, N. S., B.Agr.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1937. *Trumete, Pror, H. C, D.Sc, M.Agr.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag),

Adelaide—Counctl, 1942-1945; Vice-President, 1945-46; President, 1946-47.

1894. *Turner, A. J., M.D., F.RE.S., Dauphin Terr., Brisbane, Qld.

1925. Turner, D. C.,, Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street, Adelaide.

1912. *Waro, L. K., 1.$.0., B.A,, B.E., D.Sc., 22 Northumberland Avenue, Tusmore—Counct!,

1924-27, 1933-35; Vice-President, 1927-28: President, 1928-30.

1941. *Wark, D. C., M.Agr.Se., Div, Plant Industry, C,S.I.R., Canberra, A.C.T.

1936. WaterHouss, Miss L. M., 35 King Street, Brighton, S.A.

1942, Watson, R. H., Central Wool Committee Testing House, 572 Flinders Lane, Melb., Cl,

1939. *Weepinc, Rey. B. J., P.O. Box 51, Minlaton, S.A.

1946. Watrrie, A. W, G. B.Se., Bridgewater, S.A.

1931. Wuson, C. E. C, M.B., B.S., “Woodfield,” Fisher Street, Fullarton, Adelaide.

1946. Wurson, A. F., M.Sc., University of Adelaide.

1944. Wuson, E. C,, M.A., B.Sc., High School, Renmark, S.A.

1938. *Witson, J. O., C.S.LR. Division of Nutrition, Adelaide.

1930. *Womerstey, H., F.R.ES., A.LS. (Hon. causa), S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Verca

Medal, 1943; Secretary, 1936-37; Editor, 1937-43, 1945-47; President, 194344, Vice-

President, 1944-45; Rep, Fauna and Flora Protection Committee, 1945,

1944, *WomersLey, H, B. S.. M-Se.. 43 Carlisle Road, Westbourne Park, S.A,

1944. Womerstry, J. S., B.Sc., Lae, New Guinea.

1923, *Woop, Pror, J. G., D.Sc. Ph.D., University ef Adelaide—l’erca Medal, 1944;

Council, 1938-40; Vice-President, 1940-41, 1942-43: Rep. Fauna and Flora Board,

1940-; President, 1941-42; Council, 1944-.

1943. Woon.anns, Harotp, Box 989H, G.P.O., Adelaide.

1945, Worrntey, B. W.. B.A. M.Sc.. A, Inst, P.. 6 Kensington Road, Wattle Park, S.A.

1942, ZimMMeER, W. J., Dip.For., F.L.S. (Lon.), 22 Docker Street, Wangaratta, Vict.

439

GENERAL INDEX

[Generic and specific names in italics indicate that the forms described

aré mew to sctence.]

Abarys amaurades 40

Acacia euthycarpa,

wudtila, 20

Acanthocephala, 13

Additions to the Flora of South Australia,

No. 44. J. M. Black, 20

Adelaide Series, The, as developed along the

Western Margin of the Flinders Ranges,

D, Mawson 259

Algal ecelogy, of Marine Alyae of Kantaroo

island. H. B. S. Wotnersley, 225

etlleca xylochrea, 38

Amphibiaphitis egerniae, 23

Anaresca authochrua, 37

Anckyloticla haplodes, 35

Anerastria rhodachros,

clepsiphronica, 30

Anipo. fallescens, 224

Iscaschongastia wromys, 10, echymipera, 11

Ancylosis thtasticha 53

Australian Acanthocephala No. 5. ‘T. Harvey

Johnston and §. J. Edmonds, 13

pingurfolia, ceronalis,

albivena, xrylailes,

Rakeriola tasmaniensts, rubia, 227

Beckwith, A. C,, T. H. Johnston and: Larval

‘Trematodes from Australian Freshiwiter

Molluscs Part XII, 324

Reltanclla_gilesi, 218

Black, J. M. Additions to the Ilora of South

Australia, No, 44, 20

Burbidge, N. T. Key to the South Australian

Species of Euculyptus, 137

Cateremna cataruthe, mediolinea, Ichtaptila,

48, melanomita, 49

Cerearia ancyli, 324, 326; lophesoma, 328, 329

Charnockitic and Associated Rocks of

North-Western South Atstralia. A. F.

Wilson, 195

Crocker, R. L, and J. G. Wood. Some His-

torical Infltences on the Development of

the South Australian Vegetation Communi-

ties and their Beartig on Concepts and

Ciassification in Ecology, 91

Cyclamedusa davidi, 220

Dickinsonta costeta, 221

Early Cambrian Jellyfishes from the Flinders

Ranges. R. C. Sprigg, 212

Fediccaria flinderst, 215

Emmalocera crossospila, 37

Ephestia pelopis 40

Eucalyptus—Key to the South Australian

Species of: N. T, Burbidge, 137

Eurymetids from, Australia and New Guinea.

J. W. Fevans, 225

Eurymeloides sagercnsis,

brunnea, 225

ELvitrombicula gynuindactyle, 3

motianda, nigro-

Euagete arestodes, 47

Eusopherodes coucinella, homophaca, hama-

capna, schematica, 44, phoulepa, 45-

EBusophera albicosta, 46, flavicosta, tschnopa,

arrhyihimopis, 47.

Evans, J. W. Some New Eurymelids irom

Australia and New Guinea, 225

Finlayson, H. H. On the Weights of some

Aiistralian Mammals, 182

Ilinders Ranges, The Adelaide Series as

developed along the Western Margin of

the: D. Mawson, 259

Functional Synthesis. in Pedogenesis. C. G.

Stephens, 168

Geology af the Jamestown District, South

Ausivalia, T. Langford-Smith, 281

Granites and Granitisation, K. R. Miles, 54

Grevillea wmbellifera, 21

Tlomocdsoma certtrosticha, rhapte, 41 enry-

leuce, cantracta pelostictt, achkrapasta,

atechna, 42, lechriasemea, 43

Hypoechinorhynchus alacopsis, 13

Hypogryphia amictodes, 53

Tpoella davisi, 227

Ipoides Anomaculata, melaleurac, 226

Jamestown District, South Australia, Geology

of the: T, Langford-Smith, 281

Johtiston, T. H., atid Beckwith, A. C. Larval

Trematodes fram Atstratian Freshwater

Molluses Part XII, 324

Johnston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. Some

Nematodes from Australian Lizards, 22

Kerling, L. C. P. Pythium debaryanum and

Related Species in South Australia, 252

Key to the South Australian Species of Euca-

lyptus. N. T. Burbidge, 137

Lamprothammum, 318

Lane Poole, C. E., and Prescott. J. A, The

Climatalery of the Intradyction of Pines

of the Mediterranean Environment to

Australia, 67

Langford-Smith, T. The Geology of the

Jamestown District, South Australia, 261

Larval Trematodes from Australian Fresh-

water Molluscs Part XII, T. H. Johnston

and A, C. Beckwith, 324

Lioprusopa, dimochla, phanlodes, pelopa,

Phaéochitan 31, pashvsanchia, spuradica,

rhadinodes, tanvbela, haplow, 32, thio-

macht, calohcla, platymachla, transecto,

33, poliasticha, rhaittista, 34

Lychnothamnus, 318

Madigan, C. T. Obituary Notice, 1

Mawson, D. The Adelaide Series as

Developed along the Westeru Margin of

the Flinders. Ranges, 259

Mawsen, P. M., and ‘Johnston, T, H. Some

Nematodes from Australian Lizards, 22

Miles, K. R. Pre-Cambrian Granites and

Granitisation, with Special Reference to

Western Australia and South Australia, 54

Musgrave Ranges. Charnockitic Rocks of;

A. @, Wr'son, 195

Nematestes from Australian Lizards, ‘Il. FH.

Jehnston and P. M, Mawson, 22

Nitellopsis, 314

Novetronbienia awiensis, +

Oenuschangastia cana, 8

On the Weights of some Atistralian Mam-

mais. H. H. Finlayson, 182

Gphel, I. L. Notes. on the Genera. Lychno-

thammmus and Lamprothamnium (Chara-

ceae), 318

Ophel, 1, L., and Wotnersley, H. B.S. Pro-

tochara, a New Genus of Characeae from

Western Australia, 311

Ophidascarts varani, 23

Papifiausia exrel, 2234

Pararhadinorhynchus miugilis, 15

Parathelandros oedurac, 25

Pedagenesis. Functional Synthesis in: CC,

Stephens, 168

Pharyngoden tliquae 26, australe, 27

Phycitidac, A Revision of the Australian. A.

Jeffries Turner, 28

Thysatoptera antarctica. confusa, 24

Pinus radiata 70, 80, 82; canariensis 72, 80,

83; pinaster 74, 81. 83; nigra 77,81, 84:

halepensis 78, BL, 85

Preumonema tiliquae, 2+

Pre-Cambrian Granites and Granitisation,

with Special Reference to Westermt Aus-

tralia and South Australia. K. R. Miles,

Presentt, J. A., and Lane Poole, C. TI. The

Climatulogy of the Introduction of Pines

of the Mediterranean Environment to

Australia, 67

340

Protochara, a New Getius of Characeae from

Western Australia. H. B. S. Womersiey

and I, L. Ophel, 311

Protochara australis 311, miflaia 3t4

Pythiim debaryanum and Related Species in

South Australia. L. C. P. Kerling, 232

Pythium debaryanum, ultimum, polymorplon,

vexans 252-237

Rhadinorhynchug pristis, 17

Saluria stereochorda, pelochraa, a0

Schongustia philipi, 6

Sprige, R, C, Karly Cambrian (7) Juily-

fishes from the Flinders Ranges, 212

Sorigeg, R. C. Submarine Canyons of the

New Guinea and South Australian Coasts,

296

Stephens, C. G,

Pedogens's, 168

Submarine Canyons of the New Garza and

Seuth Australian Cousts. R. C. Sprigs,

296,

Functional Synthesis ur

Thelandras trachysanri, 24

Trematodes, Larval, from Australian Fresh-

water Moaliuses, 324

Trissonca clytopa, 52

Trombiculidae, 3—i2

Turner, A, Jeffries, A Revision af the Avs-

tralian Phycitidae, 28

Tylochares cpatia, pravs, gypselype, TUK,

50, pancinotata, chienoplerra, crdofhage,

pastopletra, 51

Wilson, A, TP. The Charnockitic and Asso-

cated Rocks of North Westerii South

Australia, Part I, The Musgiave Ranges,

A. Fo Wilson, 195

Womersley, H. B.S. The Marine A'gac et

Kanvzargo Island, 228

Womersley, H. B. S., and Ophel, }. 1. Pro-

tochara, a New Genus af Charagvene trom

Western Australia, 311

Wormersley, H., and Kohls, G. M, New

Genera and Species of Trombicuiidae

from the Pacific Islands, 3 ;

Wood. J. G., and Crocker, R. L. Sume Hits-

torical Influences on the Development of

the South Australian Vegetation Com-

inunities and their Bearing on Cancepts

ind Classification in Ecology, Yk

ee oe

sono rT. Ha aaa Mawson, P, M.: Some Nematodes from eR Liaards 5

; ~ Tonnes, AD: A er of the Australian Phycitidae, Part-I~.-

* » Maus, K. R.: Pre-Cambrian Graiites and Granitisation, wake seca _feference to.

Seki a Ss Bad South Australia .. 9.» = - eas Hae ie

Ay a! ‘Goce, Rr = and Woon, J. G.: Some Historical Influences on the peeloender: at 3

be ‘South Australian Vegetation Communities and their bearing on Copenytt and”

“s+ o. -

PART I fi

np oa

ste Som at et Burner, taster T.: Key to pie South.Australian Species of Eucalyptus Levit

ea Srepaens, Co G:: Functional Synthesis in Pedogenesis mt a

-FINLAyson, H. H.: On the Weights of some Australian Ree ‘3

- Witson, ALLAN F.: The Charnockitic and Associated Rocks of Sirabaconnd “South

va Australia, Part I, The Musgrave Ranges—an Introductory ‘Account a vs

- Senco, Rec, ce: : Early Cambrian ( iF) Jeliyfshes from the Flinders Ranges, ‘Sonth

: Australia” fe pais Nyy. aN, Sk em PR rach ate er po

“Evans, JowW.: ‘Some New. Bory from Australia and New Guinea (Homoptera,

__Jassoidea): Ay! Ar: *) > iy = a a i: as a

ty we *

: ‘Womutuers HL B. ‘S.: The Marine Algae of Rasgivto Island. I. A General Seedy’

ass the: Algal Eevtoay eels a 5 as SES es A

Y ‘ Keung, LC P.: -Pythium dcbaryanam and Related Species in South Australia —

Mawson: D.:. The: Adelaide. Series as Developed along the Western Margin AS “the Ley

a se nbete Ranges aS a oe ts, Ka i ee ewes eee =

a > Wostenstey, ere “Rertiy ae Marine Algae, of Keangarce Islands ic x Genera. Account et fal

Westerit_ Australia Fs 2 as " et ned es :

ges Opnex, Lets “Notes on the Caaeva: Pees and Lamprothariniam lctaraceae):

_ -Jounston, 2 Harvey, and Beckwith, ‘Anne C.: Baral Trematodes from Acstralian’ a Mas

ae _ Freshwater Molfuscs. Part XIT : :