lt fn ee Efe we > RAP AG ee ; Bp.

nn — : - flee ff oer elge

AS _~ Earpiey, C. M.: SimpsonDesert- Expedition 1939=-Scientific Reports No. 7—Botany

a Pt I. The Phytogeography of Some Important Sandridge Deserts compared with ’

oy _~_* -that-of the Simpson Desert .. a ens io os Hedin i ae tenigs h |

Corton, B, C.: Southern Australian Gastropoda, Parf IIT .. .. .. -.. ..- 30

—.. Jessup, R. W.; A> Vegetation and Pasture Survey of Counties Eyre, Burra and

: Kimberley, South Australia ., re ay oe . ss > = Ae oe 6]

Jounston, T. H, and Esowps, S. J,: Australian Acanthocephala No.7... 69

- Jounston, T. H., and Crarx, H, G. : Cestodes from Australian Birds, I. Pelicans © .. 77

WomersLey, H.: The Genus Tragardhula Berlese 1912 (Acarina Trombiculidae) a ee}

Srecu, R, L., and Perry, R. A.; Plant Ecology of Part of the Mount Lofty Ranges (1) 91

Cresrin, I: Indo-Pacific Influences in Avstralian Tertiary Foraminifera] Assemblages

(1) rae Cr f; me * - i: a “i Pe if rw

Womerstey, H. B. S.: The Marine ‘Algae of Kangaroo Island. II. The Pennington Bay

Region ., es .. Re SF + f es - es s. 143

Epmonps, S. J.: The Commoner Species of Animals and their Distribution on an

Intertidal Platform at Pennington Bay, Kangaroo Tsland, South Australia .. 167

: Fr - :

“PART. IL

Witson, A. F.: The Charnockitic and Associated Rocks of North-Western South Aus-

tralia. II, Dolerites from the Musgrave and Everard Ranges oe “x eae 4-1

Hossrevp, P. S.: The Stratigraphy of the Aitape Skull and its Significance... 201

Lovertpcr, A.: On Some Reptiles and Amphibians from the Northern Territory .. 208

Boomsma, C, D.: The Ecology of the Western Clare Hills, South Australia ., + 216

Boomsma, C. D.: Nomenclaturé of Eucalypts, with Special Reference to Taxonomic

Problems tin. South Australia , Fs ES ts ta = i prt Zal

Warts, A. W.: The Geology of the Boolcoomata Granite .. at 36 + +e 228

Mawson, D.: Sturtian Tillite of Motint Jacob and Mount Warren Hastings, North

Flinders Ranges 2 A es Py x — * so ia wo 244

Hossretp, P. S.: The Significance of the Occurretice of Fossil Fruits in the Barossa

Senkungsfeld, South Australia - zi am a a v 3 ~ er 2

Lancrorb-Smiru, T.: The Geomorphology of Courity Victoria, South Australia ere

Mawson, D. and Sxentr, E, R.: Purple Slates of the Adelaide System .. op Peed,

BALANCE SHEET Si 281

List or Fetrows = = ia - = uF ha sf Ms ea 23) gee

286

InDEX

[the

—_~

VOL. 72 PART 1 : AUGUST 23 1948

he ih

s/ ;

TRANSACTIONS OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

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THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939 —- SCIENTIFIC REPORTS

NO. 7 - BOTANY

PT. THE PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF SOME IMPORTANT SANDRIDGE

DESERTS COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE SIMPSON DESERT

By C. M. EARDLEY

Summary

In the course of determining the plants collected on the Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939 (Eardley

(36) ), considerable interest was aroused in the question of how the Simpson Desert compared in

aridity with other great deserts of the world.

THE SIMPSON DESERT EXPEDITION, 1939 — SCIENTIFIC REPORTS

No, 7 — BOTANY

PT, I. THE PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF SOME IMPORTANT SANDRIDGE

DESERTS COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE SIMPSON DESERT

By C, M, Earpiey *

[Read 8 April 1948]

With Map

CONTENTS

Introduction . aides vt ef 1

(A) Libyan Desert (North Africa) : Ls Lash - 4

(B) Takla Makan (Central Asia) .... te a sles val en my

(D) Western Sahara (North Africa) . - nu tt

(E) Simpson Desert (Australia) th ile eet as nt ifs ey Se,

(F) Kara Kum (Western Asia) tS. hen wink . _ _ wee 15

(G) Chihuahua (North America)... ee cs dea tn, vee a. 20

(H) Thar Desert (North-west India) at ae hae vr cmt a 21

Summary ,,,, rey Pre us sess wt we _ ten sai! a 24

Acknowledgment . _ a3 ah ete eet vag epee hs ain BS

Appendix—Comparative Tables T-TV iit ih, in al Lis a+ 26-29

INTRODUCTION

In the course of determining the plants collected on the Simpson Desert

Expedition, 1939 (Eardley (36) ), considerable interest was aroused in the ques:

tion of how the Simpson Desert compared in aridity with other preat deserts of

the world.

Information was now available on the vegetative cover of the Simpson Desert,

so a search was made for similar litcrature ahout seven other deserts which con-

tained parallel sandridges, As far as possible, meteorological data and relevant

general descriptions were also sought, but the emphasis was on the vegetation, and

the results are now presented in this study. It is felt that a useful measure of

comparative aridity has been obtained,

(A) LIBYAN DESERT

The eastern half of the Sahara is now generally referred to as the Libyan

Desert. Gatttier (5) stresses the difference between the Occidental and the

Oriental Sahara, saying that in essence it is due to “the extreme aridity of the

Libyan Desert, incomparably greater than that of the Occidental desert’? (p. 105,

op. cit,).

* Herbarium of the University of Adelaide.

Authorities for extra-Australian plant names have only been given in this paper

when supplied in the source yuuted.,

Traus. Roy, Soc, S. Aust., 72, (1), 23rd August, 1948

rept ef Capricorn

SAND-RIDGE DESERTS

1. Libyan Erg 3. Rub! al Khali 5. Simpson Desert 7. Chihuahua

2. ‘Pakiu Makan 4. WesternSahara 6, Kara Kum and Kisil] Kum 8. Thar Deseri

The Libyan Desert consists mainly of flat expanses covered with a stony

surface or a sand sheet; it also includes areas of various sizes where sand-

dunes occur. These dunes are distinguished by their tendency to form long

parallel lines whose regional orientation depends upon the direction of the

prevailing winds in the Jocality, It is these dume-areas which are of sa

much interest to the present study. By far the largest of them is the Great

Libyan Erg which Gautier considers “probably the most imposing mass of dunes

on the whole surface of the earth” (p. 103. op. cit.), with nothing comparable to

it in the Oceidental Sahara. The smaller dimne-areas will here be neglected in

order to concentrate attention on the Great Libyan Erg, which Rohlfs (8) called

the “Great Sand Sea.” Knowledge of this region, even of its extent, has been

almost entirely lacking until about 1930, It is the most inhospitable part of the

barren I ibyan Desert.

A summary of recent explorations in the Libyan Desert is given in Bagnold’s

popular book, “Libyan Sands” (2). His own desert journeys by motor car were

most extensive and included excursions into the Great Sand Sea im 1929 and

1930 (1). The only published account then available was that of Rohlis’ historic

journey of 1874 (8).

The Great Sand Sea lies against the western border of Egypt. Jt forms an

area roughly rectangular and about 300 miles long by 100 miles wide; the long

axis lies N.N.W. by S.S.E., and this is also the direction of alignment of the

long parallel dunes (just as in the Simpson Desert, as it happens), There is a

narrow plateau between the dunes and the coast in the north, and the oasis af

Siwa is situated at the base of the southern escarpment of this plateau, close to

the northern dunes. Another formidable barrier, the eastern escarpment of the

ereat Gilf Kebir Plateau, lies to the south of the Sand Sea; it is therefore very

difficult to leave Egypt by the western frontier except in the extreme north and

perhaps the extreme south.

Among the names famous in the exploration of the Libyan Desert, only a

very few can add to our ktiowledge of the interior of the Sand Sea, These are

Ruhlis (8), de Lancey-Forth (4), Bagnold (1 and 2), Wingate (11), P. A,

Clayton and Lady Clayton East Clayton (about 1933).

Rotilfs attempted to cross the dunes from east to west near the southern

end with a well-equipped caravan of seventeen camels; he very soon (ound himself

faced with the close, parallel sandridges over 100 metres high and from two to

faur kilometres apart (much higher and broader than the Simpson Desctt dunes)

He came to the conclusion that his camels would be exhausted after even four

days of travel across stich dunes, anil regretfully turned his direction north-north-

west for 300 miles along the lanes between the dunes to Siwa; or this occasion

he travelled 420 miles in 36 days. Unfortunately, the original accounts of Rohlfs’

journey have not been seen by the present writer, but it has been gleaned at

second-hand (from Bagriold) that Roklfs saw no plants in the whole of the 300-

mile journey in the duns execpt a little grass an nearing Siwa, Such an absence

of plant life is highly unusual, even for a desert, though scen in other parts of

the Libyan Desert, as dleseribed by MacDougal (7) and Thomas (10).

De Lancey-Forth, formerly commanding the Frontier Camel Corps, was

inspired in his journeys by the search for the legendary oasis, Zerzura, as were

many other explorers. His journeys into the Sand Sea were ky camel. Tn the

winters of 192] and 1924 he went about 100 and 200 miles reayeerively, south of

Siwa, the second journey being an extension of the first along the dite janes,

This route lay some 50 miles west of Roblfs’ route, bur the western edge of the

duges was not seen. Jm one or two sandy valleys he found add, grecn bushes

(un-naned), too biller fur camels to eat, but there was no other vegetation,

In 1922-23, de Lancey-Parth investigated the south-eastern edge of the dunes

and penctrated them ag far as Rohlfs had done hefore turning north-north-west.

The only vegetation found was in a valley thinly grassed for a wile or two. Tt is

probable that this valley lay on the track of a vaguely known and very difficult

Arab caravan voute across the southern dunes of the Sand Sea, connecting Kufra

on the west with Dakhla Oasis on the east; Bagnvld also saw this track in his

journey presently to be described, De Laneey-Forth’s Journeys were not puh-

lished until 1930 (4),

Bagnold’s travels, unlike these, were all by motor-car, He was among the

pionecrs who demonstrated the accessibility of big dunes to light motor-cats. and

heeame very expert at negotiating them P, A. Clayton also made extensive desert

journeys hy car. Tt may be argued that there is less chance of seeing any vegeta-

Gum present when travelling by car, but the fact remains that, of the accounts

sten, Bagnold’s expeditions alone collected and named *he ane of two plant species

foiind in the Sand Sea.

Bagnold attacked the dimes from Ain Dalla, making virtually three trips into

them in 1929 and 1930. Ain Dalla is a small nasis about half-way along their

eastern mitegin. He penetrated further westward than Rohlfs of de Lancey-Forth

{1922}, and found the mysterious caravan route between Kufra and Egypt, but

he wae unable to follow it ont of the dunes on the west side and had to make his

escape southwards along the lanes between then. This purt of his journey took

perhaps a fortnight, but he had travelled 700 miles in the dunes and seen note of

the urea than any of his predecessors, having crossed a great many of the dunes

at might angles in both directions.

W. 7B. K, Shaw went with Bagnold as botanist. His collection of 21 species

in all was identified at Kew, and his published notes on the vegetation of the

actual San! Sex (6, 1931) are most helpful. The only species he saw there was

Ephedra alate yar. Deciisnei Stapf., usually as single, isolated bushes 18” high in

pure sand, Fle also collected a piece af wood from the remains of a dead shrub

in the heart of the Sand Sea; it was. identified as another species of [phedra.

This genus contains several widespread desert plants and belongs to a group

represented in all the continents except Australia, Along the rarely used camel

route across the dunes from Kufra, he saw the shriyelled remains of plants for

some hundreds of yards, in places. They were nol worth collecting, but he thought

they might have been a species of the grass virtstida, Then, for great distances.

he saw no plants at all save for rare tufts of the same small, withered grass,

Within sume miles of this route are the following two entries on Bagnold’s map-

"40 green bushes” and °200 green bushes” (1),

The other plants on Shaw’s list were collected outside the Sand Sca and near

wells. He also went with Bagnvid in 1932 on a long round trip of 6,000 miles

jrom Cairo and back, to the southern part of the Libyan Desert towards the

Sudan, and collected a further 27 species, again identified at Kew and published

with his notes (6, 1934),

For further information on the desert plants hetween the Nile Valley and

the Sand Sea, the accontits of the botanists MacDougal (7) and Ilamshaw

Thoinas (10) may be consulied, Both emphasise the absence of plant life for

stretches of many miles and the poverty in number of species. It is of interest

to note that several of the genera quoted by them are also characteristic of the

Kara Kum Desert, eg., Aristida, Caliganum, Salsola, Haloxylon, Ephedra, and

Tamarix which is important in all the Old World Deserts.

In 1933 Orde Wingate (also in search of Zeraura) actually crossed the dune

belt from east te west about 130 miles, and returned on his own tracks; he tra-

yelled with camels on lat. 264-27° N,, crossing two of Bagnold’s tracks and alsa

Rohlis’, Wingate was m the dtines 35 days, Ile saw “several brilliant green

shrubs, usually halfway up a dune. They were very bitter and only eaten

sparingly by the camels (¢.f., de Lancey-Forth). He also recorded a couple ol

pieces of dead tamarisk trunks. It is not known whether the green bushes of

Wingale and de Lancey-Forth were Ephedra, ax in Bagnold’s case.

Only allusions to the journeys of the Claytons have been seen by the present

writer, and published accounts were sought in vain.

Daring the recent military campaigns in northern Africa (1940-3), certain

small mobile units operated far south of the coastal strip on special missichs ;

they traversed the desert by all modern means of transport, and there was some

travelling in the Sand Sea with jeeps, Bagnold pioneered the formation of such

iinits, and some popular accounts of their work have been published, One of

these, (a) is written by W. B. K. Shaw, the botanist of earlier expeditians

with Bagnold; another is by Malcolm James (b). however nothing is added ti

the precisé botanical knowledge of the Great Sand Sea,

To attempt a formal account of the meteorology of the Sand Sea ts nt pos-

sible; Rohlfs probably recocds some useful information, and we know that he

experienced rain there in 1874 (his book was unayailable to the writer). Bag-

nald, from hig extensive knowledge, states that the amount of raintall throughout

the Desert is ill-known but conspicuously sporadic, and absent for perhaps eight

years ala time. Engler (25) and Gautier (5) say the same thing, mentioning

heavy local storms once in twelve years, and giving an apparent average of about

3:9" annually in the French Sahara. Another factor is the large diurnal range

of temperature in the erg or dune desert. Also, the air is very dry, with relative

humidity usually under 20%, and evaporation from a free water surface is quoted

as being 4.2. or more, yearly (MacDougal). The temperature drops quickly

at night in the dunes, and in winter there may be nocturnal frosts, but nothing

fa’) "Long Range Desert Group,’ Collins, London, 1945

(iy) “Born Of the Desert," Collins, London, 1945

to approach the winter cold of the Takla Makan, Dry winds are an impottant

feature of the Lihyan climate. Human inhabitants are few in umber and con-

fined to the larger of the oases; this is in contrast tu the western Sahara, where

there are small, nomadic tribes of camel herders.

To sum up, the Great Sand Sea is quite uninhabited, scarcely visited, and

very difficult for lrayelling, With stall exceptions the large parallel sandridges

are bare of vegetation. Amoug the few plants which have been seen there and

identified are Ephedra alota var, Decaisnex Stapf, and possibly another species of

Ephedra, together with grass fragments, perhaps Aristida sp., aud remains of

supposed tamarisk (11) trunks.

These bare parallel dunes are very much more arid than the Simpson Desert,

with its comparatively good cover of vegetation between the dunes at least; the

Libyan dunes are also much higher.

REFERENCES

1 Bacworn, R. A, 1931 Journcys in the Libyan Desert. 1929 and 1930

Geog. Jour., 78, 13, 524, 576 et seq.

Bacnoitn, R. A. 1935 Libyan Sands, London

3 Bari, Joun 1927 Problems af the Libyan Desert. Geog, Jour., 70, 21,

96, 105, 209, 512 et seq,

4 Yortu, a B, pe Lancey 1930 The Zerzura Problem. Geog. Jour,, 75,

48-5i

5 Gaurizr, E. F. 1935 Sahara; The Great Desert. New York

6 Kew Burr. Misc. Invormy. 1931 The Flora of the Libyan Desert

(Plants collected by W, B. K. Shaw), 4, 161; 1934, 7, 281

7 MacDovear, D. T, 1915 Desert Ecology in North America and North

Airica, J, Ecol., 3, 42-55 (notices)

8 Ronnrs, G. 1875 Drei Monate in der libyschen Waste. Cassel, (Not

seeti

9 Scie O. 1926 Die aegyptisch-arabische Wiiste. Introduction to

“Vegetationsbilder”, Rethe 17, Heit 5/6. (Edited by Karsten, G., and

Schenck, LL, et al.) Jena

10. Tomas, H. HamsHAw 1921 Some Observations on Plants in the Libyan

Desert. J. Ecol, 9, 75-89

11 Wineate, Orne, 1934 Tn Search of Zerzura. Geog. Jour., 83, 280-308

B. THE TAKLA MAKAN DESERT

The Talda Makan is the most terrible of all the five or six Asiatic desert

regions. alid probably comparable only with the worst parts of the Libyan and

Sahara Deserts. It lies in Central Asia in the southern patt of Sin-kiang, the

westerh-most province of China. ‘This elevated depression, also known as Kash-

garia or astern Turkestan, is almost surrounded by some of the highest moun-

tains in the world. On the north are the Tian Shan Mountains, un the south the

mountains and plateau of Tibet, and on the west the Pamirs; to the east lies the

Wandering Lake, Lop-nor, and the Takla Makan extends into the Gobi Desert.

These mountain batriers are considered by Popov (16) to account for the

poverty of the vegetation of Kashgatia, so [ar as species numbers go, compared

with the richness westward in the deserts af Asia Media; however, the inhos-

pitable sund-dtunes of the Takia Mukan are hardly in need of this explanation for

their lack of plant life. Sir Aurel Stein (18) estimates the size of this desert as

about ‘900 miles long from cast ta west, and 300 miles in its broadest north-south

extent. It lies between long. 78°-93° E. and lat. 37°-41° N. The River Tarim,

lowing from west to east, bounds the desert almost completely mm the north;

three roughly equidistant smaller rivers flow across from the southern edge of

the desert towards the Tarim, Only two teach it now, thongh in the past less

arid conditions have prevailed. The other rivers coming down from the moun-

tains sao lose themselves in the desert,

Clur best accounts of rhe Takla Makan are those of the Scandanavian explorer

Syen Herin, and the British archaeologist Sir Aurel Stein. Of the relevant

Russian literature we have only seen a botanical paper by Popoy (16), Stein’s

published maps (18) are excellent, including details of the veyetalion and terrain,

[edin’s journeys were probably more numerous ard penetrated the heart af the

desert, while Steity was chiefly concerned in visiting buried cities and ruins; we

gather from Medin (14) that it was scatcely worth while making a botanical

collection because of the sparsetess of plant life,

The ‘Takia Makan depression is actually about 3,000 feet above sea level;

this, combined with the high latitude (37°-41° N.), gives it Far colder winters

thas any of the other deserts under consideration, Prosty ceriainly occur on

winter nights in the Sahara, and in the Simpson Desert too, but the mean January

(winter) temperature for the Sahara is everywhere abuve 50° F, as quoted by

Kendrew (15), In Central Asia, the mean for January 1s much below freezing-

point, small rivers are frozen all the winter, and the temperature rarely rises above

{reezingepoint even at noo. Scanty records from Kashgar and Yarkand at the

western end of the desert can guide us, together with observations made hy

Hedin on his journeys and quoted by Kendrew. He recorded a minimum of

-25" f, in January in the middle of the Takla Makan, and on 2 January i

maximum of only 8° F. At Tarini Jangikol (alt. 2,890°) at the eastern end, Hedin

observed the following mean temperatures during his stay— February 17°

March 40° F, April 55° F and May 69° F. The stnumer temperatures are not

correspondingly lower. In the Sahara lhe difference between the mean summer

and winter temperatures is of the order of 35° F.5 at Kashgar it is 60" F., a

tremendous range. The daily range, as far as records show, is in the neighbour-

hood of 30° F., as in the Sahara, “The mean summer temperatute for July ig over

80°F. for Kashgar and Yarkand, compared with 90-100°T. for Saharan

stalions, and there are maxima of over 100° F., according to Kendrew (15). ;

Rain falls mainly in summer, but is augmented by melting winter snow; &

mean anmial precipitation of 3-5 inches has been recorded at Kashgar; in the

heart af the desert it is probably less aud very crratic. The mean relative

hinuidity is gencrally low, and the high mountain harriers are responsible for

extluding the rain-bearing winds, The figures just given (chiefly from Kendrew)

for mean values in Central Asia are from records of only 1-3 years, (Refer also

to ‘Table I in the Appendix.)

There is no doubt that Hedin's journeys crossed the waterless desert dunes

which are of so imtich interest to. us. The most arduous of these journeys was

in spring 1896 from the western end, 120 miles castward to the first river flaw-

ing north (the Khotan-daria) ; on this occasion he lost two out of five men and

seven out of eight camels (12). The chief difficulties were the sandstorms, the

heat, the slowness of travel over the high, compound, steep sand-dunes or

“dawans", sometimes as much as. 200-300 fect high, Stein (18) later attempted

a erussing in this region with a better prepared caravan, but he was forced to

turn back; he vouches for the height of the sandridges, stating that the camels

situply became exhausted crossing them, These dunes are practically paraltel,

and continuous enough to make detours around them out of the yuestion, Some

of the dunes of the Sahara and Libyan Deserts are of this type and magnitude.

In the dunes at the edge of the deser! there were occasional shrivelled reeds and

grass tussocks and solilary poplars; the last plants seen were tamarisks, Im the

desert itself on the fine, vellow, shifting sand of the dunes there was scarcely any

vegetation, Onee or twice plants were seen on these dunes, a solitary tamarisk

(Tamarix elongata) here and there, reeds (“Kamish’” Lasiogrostis Splendens )

m 2 hollow, and two or three icolated poplats. LEyentually Hedin and the

remnants of his party reached the river with its dense groves of tamarisks and

poplars (““Vograks”) in the sandy sail. The tamarisk out in the desert commonly

Brows as a shrub on top of a conical ound of sand held by its reots, and these

“tamarisk cones” are mentioned and figured hy both Stein and Hedin; the rare

poplars and tamarisks found are often dead. Bagnold (2) describes tall tamarisk

cones or “terabil” in the desert of southern Egypt, and these tamarisks seem to

he the hardiest of all the vegetation. Along the River Tarim, the small ‘saline

soil Saxaul” tree, Haloxvlon (or Anabasis) slounadendran (= Arthrophyton

Haloxylan) occurs in place of tamarisks,

Hedin (13) alsv crossed the eastern end af the desert from north to suuth,

in the cold of winter. The sand-dunes here are still parallel, but this time he

travelled almost in the same direction, occasionally crossing the main dunes at an

angle, There were smaller transverse ridges which he had to climb, dividing the

valley bottoms into a series of depressions or “bayirs’. The vegetation was as

already described, rare patches af “Kamish” 8-9" high beitig seen.

Ephemerals are absent from the Tall Makan. Popov (16) states that the

saimé scantiness of vegetation prevails in the Sahara, but that there is compara-

tively rich development of psannmophytes in the deserts of Asia Media on the

western side of the Pantirs, 7¢., in the Kara Kum and Risil Kin. Ile supplies

the following species names for the common names used by the explorers:

Desert poplar or tograk = Populus euphratica Oliv, and P. pruinasa;

Tamarishs = Tomerix Pallas, T. hispida, T. raimosissinia Ledeb. (forming

cones), and others ;

Reeds = Lasingrostis splendens (Gramincac)—the Index RKewensis has

‘Lasiagrostis’.

Saline spots occur between the dunes, where the peripheral streanis penetrate

the degert underground, and here halophytes like /ycitwm, Nilraria and

Hadlostachys ave found. Other plants occurring, probahly im the belt of riverine

follest veretation, are Phragnites communis (the common reed), Uheyerhise

inmpflata and Alhayi Kirgisorun.

Popoy says that the only psammuphytes he occasionally found in Kashgaria

were Agriophyllun and Corispermium (both Chenopodiaceae}, which are annual

sand halophytes.

{n brief, then, the Yakla Makan is characterised by very large sandridges

almost as devoid of plants as is the Great Libyan Sand Sea. Tis altitude (a

platean over 3,000’ high) is equalled by only one oi the other deserts in the

present study, the Chihuahua (Mexico); and the Jatitude is also higher than all

except the neighbouring Kara Kum Desert, These two factors give the Takla

Makan colder winters than the other deserts, though its summers are still very

hot; the ahnual temperature range is therefore greater than in most other deserts.

The Tew plants or their remains, seen only on tare occasions during a journey

in the dunes, are poor, shrubby specimens of isolated Tomariv or Populus, and

a smal) reed-like grass (Lasioyrostis), The lamarisks usually grow out of the

top of a cone of sand held hy their roots. The species names are quoted here just

as given by Hedin and Popov, and it 1s not considered necessary in the present

study to go into the relationship of the species or their synonymy, No ephemeral

plants occur, and the desert supports no human inhabitants, The Simpson Desert,

though uninhabited, does not approach the Takla Makan in barrenness or ii

extent.

REFERENCES

12 Ilemwn, Sven A, 1898 Through Asia, 2 vols, J-ondon

3 Hen, Sven A. 1903 Central Asia and Tibet, towards the Holy City ol

Lassa. Pt, 1. London

14 Heo, Sven A. 1904-1907 Scientific Results of a Journey in Central

Asia. 7 vols, Stockholm

(5 Kexprew, W.G. 1927 The Climates of the Continents. 2nd Edn, Oxtord

16 Puroy, M.G. 1931 Between Mongolia and Iran. Bull, Appl. Bet., Lenm-

grad, 26 (3-5), 45-84 (71-84 English Summary )

17 Srery, Str M, Auren 1907 Ancient Khotan. 2 vols, Oxford

18 Svery, Sie M, Aveer 1928 Innermost Asia. 4 vols. and maps. Oxtord

Cc. RUB’ AL KOA

Southern Arabia contains the worst portion of the Arabia Sand Desert; it

is kmown as the Rub’ al Khali or Empty Quarter aud is uninhabited. This

remained one of the unexplored regions of the earth until quite recently, when

it was crossed from south to north by Bertram Thomas (21) in 1931; a year

later Philby (19) traversed the south-western part from east to west. Both these

journeys were camel journeys of well over 300 miles, each through a varied desert

terrain including high, bare parallel sand-dunes. Thomas, contrary to expecta-

tion, [ound water, but it was saline; Philby found none. Vrom the accounts

of these two experienced Arabian travellers are obtained our most adequate

picture of the vegetation, and it is considered sufficiently representative. Both

published good maps, especially Philby (19).

The planrs seen were scarce, but were such an important part of the economy

of the expeditions, providing the sole camel food and firewood, that they were

continually mentioned in the narratives by their Arabic names, Some isolated

vegetation was usually in sight, though often dead, and it was seldom necessary

to make camp where none existed. Philby (20) states “from all accounts the

Libya: Desett is worse off for vegetation than the Empty Quarter under the

influence oi a long drought”, In the Libyan Desert fodder for the camels is

catried with the caravan, but in Arabia the camels have only the forage they can

find om the journey, and the desert crossings of Thomas and Philby were both

made under these conditions, which would be quite impossible in the Taibyan

Desert. ‘This gives a measure of aridity of the Rub‘ al Khali; the Arabs accomn-

panying Philby often stated that, in their judgment, a given arca luoked as if it

had had no fain for four or five years or longer, and this was very probably

the case.

There is little doubt which are the important plants of the region—an Arabic—

but their exact botanical identity is more uncertain. Thomas (22) gives a few

botanical equivalents, and Thilby (20) quite a long list in an appendix, On

comparing these and weighing the evidence, the following information ts obtained.

Hadh—probably Salsola sp. (Chenopodiaceae), according to Thomas (22).

A saline, sage-coloured bush, the hardiest of all the desert plants. A good

camel pasture, but too small lor firewood. Widespread. Philby (20) gives

“Hadh" as Cornuleca mouocantha Del, (Chenopadiaceac), on the authority

of Rohlfs (8); the explanation may be that this name applies in North

Africa where Rohlfs travelled.

Abal—Calgonum sp, (Polygonaceae). A large shrub often forming thickets.

Tt also is very hardy and widespread. The wood is a good fuel, and large

enough for making titensils and small structures,

These two appear the most important, Philby adds two more as being the further

staple plants of the southern sands, viz.:

Alyua—-Diplerygium glaucum Decne. (Cruciferae),

Andab—Cyperus conglowmeratus Ratth, (Cyperaceae). A small sedge.

Then two slightly less hardy:

Rirkan—lagonia gluttnosa Del. (Zygaphylaceae).

Zaht—Tribulus sp. A shrub, probably small, (Zygophyllaceae),

Under more favonrable conditions at the cdpge of the desert occur several species

of Acaci and grasses of the genus Aristida, There are dlso salt plains carrying

samphires (Irthrocrenmm spp, and rélated genera),

The plants showed distinct zonation, and the sands were usually better

vegetated than the gravel plains. Philby (20) indicates that an ephemeral vegeta-

tion occurred after rains, but suv little of it; he just mentions Sadan (Newrada

Rosaceae) and Halam (7?) as tiny plants. His scientific “collections” (“plants”

not specified) went ta the British Museum, and sore, at least, of his botanical

information came from that institution, The writer could not discover where the

plants named by Thomas (22) were determined.

The Rub’ al Khali, then, is much less arid than the Libyan Desert or the

Takla Makan, as evidenced by sume vegetation (dead or alive) being always in

sight; this vegetation is sufficient to sustain a few travelling camels, and to pro-

vide firewood. By contrast, camel fodder must be carricd with the caravan in

the Libyan Desert. Two shrubby plant species are the most important in the

Desert—“Hadh" and “Abal" (probably Salsola sp. and Cualligonum sp. respec-

tively )—whilst a few others, including a sedge, a crucifer and some Zygo-

phyllaceac also occur commonly in places; ephemerals grow after rain, and many

other plants of less importance are present, The general se of Arahic common

names by both Philby and Thomas would have made precise identifications diffi-

cult, unless good collections were also available, The Rub‘ al Khali is uninhabited

for the most part. The dune regions with their vegetated valleys, and often

slopes also, must bear some resemblance to those of the Simpson Desert, but

apparently extensive arcas deyoid of vegetation do occur, particularly on the

gravel plains.

REFERENCES

19° Paruy, AH. Sr. Jous 1933 The Rub! al Khali, Geog. Jour., 81, 1-26

20 Putcny, H. Sr, fonw 1933 The Empty Quarter. London

21 Tuomas, Bertram 1931 A Camel Journey across the Ruh' al Khali.

Geog. Jour., 78, 209-242

22 Tromas, Bertram 1932 Arabia Telix. London

23) Twrtcuunt, K.S. 1944 Water Resources of Saudi Arahia. Geog. Review,

34, (3), 365-386

D, WESTERN SAHARA

The western part of the Sahara is better known than the Great Sand Sea.

but it has been more difficult to obtain precise mformation about the Hora of the

ergs. as distinct from the flat, stony desert (hamada, gsevir and reg) and the

wadis or dry watercourst's; the wadis, especially, are the must favourable plant

habitat, The ergs cover only a small percentage of the total desert area, they

are more accesstble thai the Libyan Erg and may contain sand-free passages a few

injles wide, through which it is easy to travel.

Most of the knowledge of the Algerian Sahara is dite to the military and

scientific surveys of the Kyench during the last 60-70 years, and the present in-

gecessibility of niuch of the releyant French literature has been a great clis-

adyantage in this study. Among the more important sources of information avail-

able were Gautier (28), Engler (25) and Maire (30); the scientific reports of

the Voureau-Lamy Expedition 1898-1900 were unfortunately among those nol

seen (27),

The Algerian ergs aré not quite so large as the Great Sand. Sea, nor so

regular and unbroken; moreover, wells anc pasturages may be present. The

Edeyen Ere in Fezzan is 2 humid erg and habitable, with permanent lakes which

are usually salt or brackish but in some cases iresh, The Great Orienta) Erg and

the Great Occidental Erp are drier, but the Occidental is furrowed by long lines

of verdure which seem to follow underground wadis, Other ergs without obvious

watercourses, like the Erg-er-Rawi atid the [enidi lrg, have plentiful under-

gtoutid water and associated pasturage,

The most inhospitable of the great Algerian ergs ts the Esh-Shesh Erg,

where wells are very few. From Gautier’s remarks, it seems likely thal there

have been rare “good seasuns” when the natives could find same grazing in it for

thvir Mocks; he stated that it is “accessible at a pinch”. This was before the

recent successfil journeys of Bagnold and others inte the Great Sand Sea, when

that ere was still believed inaccessible, Monnd, in 1937 (31), casually mentions

that he crossed the El Shesh Erg when on a camel trip and gives a photograph

wy a mass of bare sand-dune summits, but no detailed account.

‘The area covercd by the Oriental and the Occidental Ergs is, in each case.

rowehly 100 x 200. miles, and there are, of course, other relatively insignificant

occurrences of dunes and unconsolidated sand in the West; but it is really difficult

to olftain exact information about the vegetation of a giver erg or dtine-field-

Generally speaking, sands are capable of better water relationships for plant roots

than the various types of stony desert. but there must he ayailable the minimuin

Water requitement cither as a phivial or shallow subterranean supply.

Tt is enlightening to repeat the general ttpression of Gautier who las known

the Sahara long and intimately. He says that the emphasis is on the absence of

Plands, and a “pasturage"” is a relatively luxuriant area Where there are tufts of

plants at least fifty or sixty yards apart. This makes grazing “an extremely

ambulatory exercise”: moreover, these pasturages are tsolated from one another

hy a camel journey uf matty hours and often many days; even distances of the

order nf 100 miles. Local rain-storms cause the occasional appearance of short

lived ephemeral vegetation in normally hare regions; even so, the plants ate very

sparse. Apparently the root system of each must he able to exploit a great deal

oi soil, without competition from its neighbours, in order to obtain sufficient

moisture.

This type of vegetation is “ashab" pasture and consists of a few different

species, chiefly Sazignya longistyla (Cruciferae). a rosette plant with purple-

flowering stems from 4 to 18 inches high. In the Australian semt-desert arcas,

and probably the deserts also, ephemeral cruciferous plants of similar habic are

yery common after winter rains, Such plants were found in numbers and relished

hy the camels on Madigan’s 1939 Simpson Desert Expedition, on the eastern

margin of the desert where rain had fallen. We have not the long acquaintance

with the Simpson Desert which is necessary to speak authoritatively about the

ephemeral vegetation appearing only after rains; it ia probable that these desert

rains are not so infrequent in Australia as they are in the Sahara, To return w

the discussion of the ephemeral species of the Sahara, commonly accompanying

Savignya longistyla and its allied species (see list helaw), there is another

important crucifer, Moricandia arvensis, together with Plantaga ogdta and

Launea resedifolla,

Tamarisk “cones”, like those of the Takla~-Makan Desert, hardly figure in

descriptions of the dunes of the Sahara, though Bagnold (2) does describe a

small group of high ones up to 50 feet called “terabil”, Tamarix mannifera, in

the flat sand-desert of southern Egypt. But several shrubs, including tamarisks,

cause the accumulation of sand mounds in the western Sahara and stil] survive,

é.9., Nitraria, Limoniastrum and Aristida pungens.

A short list has heen appended of the important species present among the

few platts of the Great Ergs; more crucifcrous species might be included. In

the mass they occasionally produce quite a floral spectacle, and most nf them are

favourite fodder plants; indeed, almost any plant provides fodder for camels.

It is considered that the nomad tribes and their grazing camels have no small

destructive effect on the vegetation of the Sahara (Chevalier).

Qne very helpful source for this list was Engler (25). Maire (30) is

probably the best modern authority on the systematic botany of the Sahara and

gives a very good outline of past work on the subject, as well as a flora of the

region; but it was disappointing not to see the third part of his study, which he

planned to contain an account of the vegetation from the geographical and ecologi-

cal points of view,

Important PLaxts ov tits Westerns Satara

Ow Dowes

Aristida pungens Desf, “drinn” (Gramineae), Widespread here and in the

other Old World deserts. A grass of moderate size with long, shallow

rhizomes, valued as a fodder and sand-hinder. A. plunosa and other

species also occur. Vig, Veg.-bilder, 6 Reihe, Heft iv, Taf. 24 (29).

Cornmulaca monacantha Del. “had”, (Chenopodiaceac.) A spreading shrub,

fayourite camel fadder.

Calligonum comosum L’Hér, “arisch”. (Polygonaceae.) A broom-like switch-

shrul or small tree; important as camel fodder, Also C. azel Maire. A

noteworthy gens of Old World desert plants. Fig, Veg.-bilder, 20 Reihe,

Heft i, Taf. 3c, (29).

Savignya parviflora Webb (includes S. aegyptiaca and S. longistyla, Cruci-

ferae). Polymorphic, short-lived, ephemeral herbs following rain; often

the chief constituent of “ashab” pastures. Old World deserts; valued as

caine] fodder. Pig. Veg.-hilder, 20 Reihe, Heft i, Taf. 3c. (29).

Moricandia arvensis DC (Cruciferae), Another important “ashab" ephemeral

with the qualities of Sazignya.

Malcolmia aegyphaca Spreng. (Cruciferae). A widespread dune anrmal.

Camel fodder.

Leunva resedifolia O, Kantze (Compositae). Perennial.

Plantage ovata (Plantaginaceac). A small herb of the “ashab’.

Ephedra alata Dec. and other species (Gnetaceac). Mostly leafless switch

hishes.

Ox Frarrer SaAnpy AREAS

Tamarfta spp. Tamarisk (Taniaricaceae). Small irees, especially along wadis,

Including T. aphyila Karst. “athel’*.

Limontastirum guyonianim Coss, et Dur. ( Plumbaginaceae). A shruh, often

large and half-buned, Only the flowers acceptable as fodder.

Retama ractam Webb (Leguminosae). A leafless switch-shrub of the Old

World deserts, Only the flowers taken for fodder. Fig, Veg.-bilder,

6 Reihe, Welt iv, Tat, 23 (29).

Euphorbia guyoniona Boiss, et Rent. (Euphorbiaceae), A leatless switch

shrub, Fig. Veg.-bilder loc. cit.

Matthiola livida DC (Cruciferae). Small, herbaceous sand ephemeral.

Traganum nuda Del. (Chenopodiuceae). Shrub,

Nitraria reiusa Asch. (= N. tridentata Zygophyllaceac), Shrub.

The dunes of the Western Sahara, then, are predominantly bare. Ths most

noteworthy of the sparse vegetation are the rhizomatous, creeping grass Aristida

pungens, various species of desert shrubs often broom-hke in habit, and a selection

af ephemeraly (chiefly Cruciferae) of much importance after rain. These lalter

attract ihe nomad tribes im certain seasons.

The Simpson Desert is more denscly and variously vegetated than-the driest

of the Saharan ergs, and its dunes do not attain the size of the largest in the

Sahara. But in both cases ihe most widespread species is a grass, /lristida for

the Sahara, and Triodia for the Simpson Desert. Further study of the ephemeral

flora of the Simpson Desert is needed.

REFERENCES

24 Cannon, W. A. 1913 Botanical Features of the Algerian Sahara. Carnegie

Inst, Pub. No, 178. Washington D.C.

25 Enever, Avorr 1910 Die Pflanzenwelt Afrikas. Bd. I. (Die Vegetation

der Erde, 1x.) Leipzig

26 Fourrav, f. 1896 Un voyage dans le S. tunisien et dans Je 5. algérieh

région du Grand Erg. Paris. Sec. Géogr. Comptes rendues, 99-102

27 Foureau, F. 1905 Documents scientifiques de Ia Mission saharienne, 1,

400-413 (Mission Fourean-Lamy), Paris, (Not seen)

28 Gatrisr, E. F. 1935 Sahara. The Great Desert. (English ed., translated

by Mayhew.) New York

29 Karsten, G. and Sctrencx, II. 1903 Vegetationsbilder. Reihe 6, Heft iv;

and Reihe 20, Heit i, Jena

30 Marre, R, 1933 Etudes sur la Flore et la Végétation du Sahara central.

Mém. Soc. d’ Hist. Nat. de l’ Afrique du Nord. (Pt. 3 not seen)

31 Monon, Tw. 1937 New Journey to the Western Sahara, 1935-36, Geog-

Jour., 89, 152-156

32 Scuweiyrurtn, G, 1913 Pflanzen, in E. Hartert’s Expedition to the Cen-

ital Western Sahara, Novilates zoologicae, 20, 145-163

33 Sytanrz, H. L. and Marsut, C. F. 1923 The Vegetation and Soils at

Africa. With maps. New York

E. TIJE SIMPSON DESERT

This desert lies almost in the centre of the Australian continent, in the three

States af South Australia, Queensland and Northern Territory, It is a uniform

area of continuous, parallel sandridges, running north-north-west and south-south-

east and forms part of what is known as the Arunta Desert. Two or three water-

courses enter it, and there are scattered shallow claypatis occasionally filled by

rain, but no permanent water except Anacoora Bore on the western margin, and

sotie springs in the south (38). Tt has been explored and described recently in

considerable detail, both from the air and on the ground, by Madigan (37, 38, 39,

40); it is therefore unnecessary to do more than mention the most important

points here, but readers should consult these reicrences and maps.

Madigan (38) reviewed journeys by himself and by earlier explorers around

the margins of (he desert. including his aerial reconnaissance in 1929. He was

also the leader of the scientific expedition in 1939, which made the frst ground

crossing of the centre of the desert. and travelled some 200 miles, from west te

egst, by camel across the parallel dunes. The series of Scientific Reports of this

expedition may be found in the Trans, Roy. Soe. S. Aust., where they were

published between 1944 and 1948. (See especially the “Catalogue ot Plants” (36)

and “Soils and Vegetation” (35), Reports No. 7 and 8), Colson (34). inv 1936,

had crossed the southern part of the desert by camel, practically along the 26th

parallel of latitude, No other crossings have been tecorded, and the aboriginals,

though nomadic, only visit the deser{ margins,

The dunes vary in height from abottt 30 feet to 100 feet above the level of

the broad passages between them, and -hey are spaced on the ayerage at four

per mile but may be closer when small, They are strictly parallel and apparently

wobroken for lengths up tn 200 miles; the eastern slope is steeper than the

western, and they consist of fine, red sand.

The upper slopes ol the ridge are steep and usually bare and uncunsolidated,

with # sharp erest of live sand, while the lower slopes and inter-dune passages

may be well vegetated with low, shrubliy plants, clucfy spiny clumps of the grass

“spinifex” (Triodia Busedowit TE. Pritzel), so characteristic a genus of the Aus-

tralian sandy deserts. Occasionally larger sliuhs are also present, particularly

several species of the genera Acacia, Cassia and Crotalaria (Leguminosac),

Grevillea and {okea (Proteaceae). and Evemophila (Myoporaceae). The last

three peneérva are particularly Australian in their affinities, whilst Acacia is repre-

sented only by the peculiarly Australian phyllodineous section of the genus; other

Aticia species are known as desert plants elsewhere. The shrubs Sida and

Thibiscus (Malvaceae) should be added to the list, and also another shrubby

grassy Important at times on the dunes, vis.. “Cane Grass”, Zygochloa poradoxra

(R. Br.) 5S. T. Blake 1941 (better known as Spinifeas paradoaus (RK. Br} Benth.),

The habitat differences hetween this species and Vriodia have been explained by

Crocker (33); briefly, Zygochlne is found on the unstable sand of the dine

crests, which are not always bare, while 2'riodia is restricted to the lower slopes

and corridors between the dunes.

The small, shrubby Chenopodiaceae, so common m the semi-deserts of Aus-

tralia arid other parts of the world, occur to some extent, but the family Legu-

minosae is more important among the dunes of the Simpson Desert. Euculypts

are rare and usually associated with the few watercourses which are defined, nol

by water, but by a line of verdure; only two species of Aucalypius were found.

These were, firstly, small trees of E, coolabei Blakely and Jacobs (formerly

included with &. aecrotheca TV. Mouell.), “Desert Box”, and secondly

E. pyrephore, Benth, “Bloodwood”, up to 12 m, high,

Some other small plants occurred in the desert. and they are listed in the

present wriler’s Botanical Report (36) as “Plants found in the desert proper”

It is believed thar there must sometimes be present an ephemeral flora similar to

that seen on the River Diamantina to the east after good rains, but it was mot

eonspicnous in che winter of 1939 when Marigan’s crossing was made, though

he does record great mats of the succulent camel fodder “Munyeroo” (various

Portulacaceae—in this case Porlufaca intraterranea J. M. Black) at camp 11

around claypans of walter near the middle of the desert. .A few small ephemeral

types of Cruelicrac, Goadeniaceae and Compositae .were found which might be

more abundant in oceasional good seasons. Compared with some, but not all, other

important deserts of the warld, the Simpson Desert is well covered with vegeta-

ion, though Madigan (39) found both caniel food and firewood very searce in

the centre of the desert. Between the dunes and on their lower slopes, the small

shrubs (chiefly Triodie) are of the order of a few yards apart; many may be

dead, but they do persist, holding the sand and forming a seed bed. Tvriodta is a

perennial rhizomatous grass, often with a peripheral habit of growth, the centre

of the bush dying and disintegrating, leaving a hollow ring. Many T'riodia

species, like, 7. Basedowii, have pungent, hard, needle-like leaves of little use for

grazing.

Few precise records of the climate of the Simpson Desert are to be had.

However, together with the Lake Eyre region to the south, it forms the driest

part of the Australian continent, receiving less than 5’ average annual rainfall;

seven South Australian stations are below this figure. Evaporation is high, and

the Meyer Ratio P/s.d, relating it to rainfall (refer to stction on Thar Desert),

does not exceed 2 for any month of the year (Prescott (41) ). Other sources of

information on the climate are the Commonwealth Climatological Atlas of Aus-

tralia (42) and the reports. of the 1939 Expedition, especially Madigan’s geological

report (40), and the meteorological log uf his journey (39) from May to August.

Crocker (35) gives data on the great variability of the rainfall, which has no

particular seasonal periodicity.

Madigan's obseryations in the winter of 1939 may be summarised as fol-

lows :—‘Weather brilliant three-quarters of the time, with warm days to frosty

nights. Temperature range 23°-78° F,, Min, temp. at grass 23° F., Mean min. at

gtass 8°5 F. Average max. temp. 70°F. Rain, six rainy periods in ten weeks,

mostly very light, In 5 days, 14” fell im the desert ; and in 6 days, 2” fell at the

Mulligan—this was exceptionally wet. Wind did not exceed 20 miles per hour

in the desert.”

From Commonwealth sources—summer temperatures up to 110° F. or over,

with nights at 60°-70° I’. Raimfall—never as low as zero, but varies from less

than 2” up to #2; and droughts of less than 2” may last for three or four years.

At Charlotte Waters, on the western margin, the total annual amounts in inches

from 1895-1915 were as follows —

10-40, 2°84, 7:16 5°23, 2°74, 3:79, 3:22, 2:40, 9°67, 3°78, 3°94

2-11, 5°43, 12-31, 2°75, 6-81, 4°58, 2°73, 4°37, 9°06, 1°43.

The lowest recorded is 0°43 at Kanawava on the Cooper in 1896.

Some further data supplied by Madigan are quoted below.

Simeson Desert Climate — From Chim AvoLoGicAL

Atias oy AusreAtiA (W. S. Watt).

Temperature Jan. Feb, Mar. Ap. May Jun. Jaly. Aug, Sept. Oot Noy. Dee

Mean daily max. 100 100 95 8&6 76 7O 70 75 82 90 6 49

Mean niax. for year 86° F.

Mean daily miin. 73 73 67 58 50 45 43 46 52 60 6? 71

Mean min. for year 59° B.

Mean daily - - 86 68606 6872 GR OGH—iO—C GHC StsC*OL 80

Mean annual tetup. 73° F,

Relative Humidity:

9 aan. 31 35? 45 28

(<34)

Meau rel. him, at 9 am, for year 38? (<41))

3pm. <2) 25 30 <20

Mean rel. hum. at 3 pm. for year 22.

<i <h & <i <i <4 <3 = <t i

Mean annual rainfall <5”

wise

kee

Rainfall (inches) i"

The Simpson Desert lies over the Great Artesian Basin, whose waters reach

the surface at natural mound springs and bores outside the desert margins; per-

mazent surface water is absent. It has been briefly compared with other important

deserts in turn, at the end of each section of this study and, after careful considera-

tion, of the vegetation particularly, has been placed fifth out of eight in order of

aridity. The Libya Desert and the Takla Makan are without doubt much mare

barren of plant covering. The sands of the Rub‘ al Khali are probably more bare

than those of the Simpson Desert, and it is also believed that rainless periods of

one or more years occtir there. In the Western Sahara some of the ergs may

support less vegetation than the Rub‘ al Khali, while some others are more humid

than the Simpson Desert. The Kara Kum often exhibits complete vegetative

cover of the dunes with groves of sinall irees, perhaps comparable to the Aus-

tralian “mallee” formation; temporary grazing takes place there, and the rainfall

1s about the same as in the Simpson Desert, but we believe that more vegetation

and hetter soil-waier relationships exist in the Kara Kum. It has been shown in

Section H that the Simpson Desert is more arid than the Thar in India, where

the ratio of rainfall to evaporation is higher, with sparse settlement and grazing

flocks.

Some uncertainty is felt about the comparison of the Mexican Chihuahua

Desert with others; the average annual rainfall does not exceed 8” and vegeiation

is very scarce (the last could not he said of the Simpson Desert), but whatever

the technical aridity of this desert, conditions are ameliorated by its smaller size-

It has been rated less arid than the Simpson Desert,

REFERENCES

34 Corson E, A. 1940 The first recorded crossing of the Simpson Desert from

west to east. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust., S.A. Branch, 41, 10-21

33 Crocker, R. L. 1946 Soils and Vegetation of the Simpson Desert and its

Borders, Sci. Report No. 8, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, (2), 235-258

36 Earner, C. M. 1946 Catalogue of Plants. Sei. Report No. 7, ioc. cit,

70, (1), 145-174

37 Manpican, C. ‘I. 1936 The Australian Sandridge Deserts. Geng, Rev.,

26, 205-227

38 Maniean, C, T. 1938 The Simpson Desert and its Borders, Proc, Roy.

Suc. N.S.W., 71, 503-535

39 Mauican, C. I. 1945 Introduction, Narrative, Physiography and Meteo-

rology- Sei. Report, Trans. Roy, Soc, 5. Aust., 69, (1), 118-139 (with

map

40 Manican, C, T. 1946 The Sand Formations, Sci. Report No. 6. Loe. cit.,

70, (1), 45-63

41 Prescorr, J. A, 1936 The Climatic Control of the Australian Deserts.

Loe, cit., 60, 93-95

42 Warr, W, S, 1941 Climatological Atlas of Australia, Commonwealth

Bur. Meteorol,, Melbourne

F, THE KARA KUM DESERT

The Kara Kum Desert comprises most of the province of Turkmenistan jn

western Turkestan, to the cast af the Caspian Sea. The Amu Darya (or Oxus

River) flows down from the Parnirs, in a north-westerly direction into the Aral

Sea, crossing the desert; the partion un the south-west of it is the Kara Kum

and that on the north-east is the Kisil Kum. The sand desert is here the most

extensive formation.

Detailed accounts are available for the south-eastern Kara Kuni, emanating

largely from the Russian Sand Research Station at Repetek established in 1912;

this south-eastern portion represents about one-sixth of the total arca of the

Transcaspian Kara Kum, Ir is a varied terrain and probably a fair sample of

the whole Aral-Caspian desert region of Asia Media,

The Central Asiatic Railway runs from Krasnovodsk on the Caspian, sldiets

the somth of the desert and eventually turns north-east across. it beyond Ashabad.

thence by way of the oasis of Mery, Repetek, Bokhara, Samarkand and Tashkent,

erossing the Oxus about 50. miles beyond Repetek. The area now to be described

js diamond-shaped, with Mery on the western carner and the Oxus forming the

niurth-eastern sides Repetek (lat, 38° 5’ N., Jong, 63° E.) is near the north point

of the diamond, which is bounded by railways on the west, extending north-east

and south-east [rom Mery; Afghanistan abuts the south-east side, and the diamond

is about 200 miles across.

These deserts of Western Turkestan are also known as the deserts of Turan

and provide at interesting comparison with the desert of the Tarim Basin just

over the Pamirs in Eastern Turkestan. ‘The emergent Feature is the greater rich-

ness of vegetation in the Rarssian deserts of the west; this was touched upon

above in the discussion nf the Takla Makan Desert, where the mountain barriers

alnminst surrounding the latter are mentioned as effective means of isolation from

plant inimigratits (47). However, the psaimmoplyte flora of Turaw containg 4

striking number of endemic species, and even genera; Popov (47) puts this down

iq “an extensive process of specicy formation in post-Miocene times,’ which did

HOE accur in the Tarim Basm or in the Sahara, He imentions especially the

absence [rom the Takla Makan of a hardy psammophyte pioneer grass like

Aristide pennata var, Karelin, which is endeinic in the Caspian-Aral deserts

(ihe Saharan equivalent is dristida pungens),

The reasons for this extensive process of species formation need not be

discussed here, except insofar as they may be connected with the environment

at present provided for plant life, The platts of the Kata Kum sand deserts

show fairly rapid colonization af movitig sand and succession of ditterent types

of vegetation, eventually stabilising the dunes. The qnestion is whether these

plants are exceptionally well fitted lor an arid sandy environment. or whether

there is also some ameliorating influence in the environment itself. The work of

Mrloy (44) at Repetek, though not denying the first alternative, lends support to

the second; his studies in the moisture changes of the sand confirm the presence

of a special stib-superficial horizon, roughly 1m. down, of tacreased moisture

content und with drier sand above and below it. “The annual rainfall is less than

4" and lie attempts to explain the phenomenon hy the faculty of those partictilar

sands to absorb condensed water vapour from the air, upon and in the surface

layers, at night.

Human oeenpation in the eastern Kara kann is restricted (a the oases and

narrow river valleys. Shepherds and their flocks sometimes make temporary

excursiots iuto the desert, obtaining, water from wells which easily fall io because

of the sandy soil. Repetck is purely a railroad setUement and receives ira honse-

hold water by tail. ft is in the midst of unstabilized harchan sands with scanty

yeretation, ‘The Russian interest in this area is not purely scientific; parts of

i, have economic possibilities for sheep and cattle-raismg, with problems of

exploitation of the natural fodder yery familiar to Australians; there is also the

question of the control of the moving barchan sands by vegetation near the settler

areas; the saxaul forests, too, must be preseryed for fuel; and finally there are

ambitious projects for irrigation close to the sands.

Tixtensive exploratory journeys im the south-eastern Kara Kum were mile

hy Doubiausky (43). We are much indebted to him for his acconnt. which is

yery foll and most helpful botanically,

These deserts are mainly within 1,000 feet of scatevel, and the extreme and

protracted winter cold of the Takla Makan at 3,000 fect is mot to be expected,

The Turan deserts are very hot in stunmer, possibly not quite so hot as the Takla

Makan} some figures may be given, but should be accepted wilh caution as repre-

seuting mainly short-term records; compare these also with those already given

Tor the Lakia Makan. No evaporatiot or atmospheric humidity data seen to be

available, but the air is stated to be very dry, and the great diurnal range of

temperature common to deserts is normally about 20°C, (1.0, 36° F.), according

to Doubiansky, with higher inaxima; this figure is about the value given for the

akla Makan and Sahara,

The daily minimum temperatures in winter fall as low as — 20° C. (— 4° F.)

at 4 am., but they are ot stistained as in the Takla Makan, and any snow which

falls usually thaws during the day, or carely lasts a week or two (Seifriz (48) ).

Doubiansky states that the average winter air temperattfe is never below Treez-

ing point at Reperck (Seifriz states that the ayerage for January alone is

— 777°C. (=18°F.), which is probably not a contradiction of Doubiansky’s

statement}, and the average tor stiminer 1s > 30° C. (86° F.),

The avnual rainfall has two jmaxima, one in spring and a lesser one in

auttimm; there are no tains in summer for at least four months, sometimes cight.

Much of the Tura sand-dune desert has an annual rainfall of less than 4’.

Some figures are set out in the Appendix (Table I) giving rainiall and tempera-

iure values.

The Sanps and tis VEGETATION

According to Doubiansky (43), the portion of the south-eastern Kara Kum

mapped by him represents abour one-sixth of the total trans-Caspian Kara Kun

and is made up as follows —

(1) One sixth consists of a barchan range of bare sand bordering the River

Oxus in a band 10-50 km. wide (6-31 miles), covering an area of about

9,000 sq. km. (= 3420 sq. miles). Repetek seems to be in this region.

(2) One-sixth consists of sandy lily carrving @ growth of shrubby psammo-

phytes and saxaul forests.

(3) One-quarter consists of sandy ridges richly covered with vegetation.

The rest of the area comprises sandy-clayey plains wnd foothills and does

nut cornice us here; the regions just sct aut will now be described in more detail.

(1) The berehan range is made up of parallel “barchan rows” running

rotighly north-east anc south-west, generally at an angle to the river. The sand

is probably derived mainly (rom fiver valley alluvium and forms at once into

these barchan rows, hardiy passing at all through the stage of the companent

sing:e crescentic barchans. The barchan rows are not very high, say 3-10 metres

or even 18 metres (60 feet), they have vertically sintious crests and are up ito

several himdred metres long, with a basal width of 100 metres or less and a valley

pf the same width between.

Work during four years at Repetek has shown that the crests of the barchan

rows have a seasonal movement transverse ta their length; in summer they moye

sonth-egst 15-20 metres and in winter back again under the influence af the pre-

yvailing winds (which are not vecessarily at right angles to the barchan row);

the net change of position, if any, is very smail; the side on which the steep or

slip-slope occurs is thus regularly reversed. Plants establish themselyes on the

more stable lower slopes and hollows between the rows, where a sparse growth

nt the hardy endemic pioneer grass Aristida pennata Trin. var. Karelini Trin, et

Rupr. “seline* is almost the sole species found; it is a coarse grass forming

shrubs three feet high, of sume fodder value, and able to survive much burying

and uncovering by the sand. Doubiansky estimates that it covers at least 109% of

the barchan sand area, This is (he psammophyte that Popov (47) expected in

vain to see, above all others, in the Takla Makan, (C4, Triodi Basedowit, Simpr

son Desert. }

In the hollows between the barchans occur the annual sand halophytes —

Agriophyilum latifolium F. et M, (Chenopodiaceae); Corispermum hyssupi-

folium L. (Chenopodiaceae) ; Horanimowia ulivina FL et M. (Chenopodiaceae), a

sinall spiny shrub; and Simirnewia turkestana Bge. (Leguminosae), a shrub occa-

sionally stet: here,

(2) Under suitable condilions, the hbarchans are stabilised into sandhills by

pioneer shrubs, many of them switch bushes, First in importance is the

Aristida sp. mentioned, then Calligonum spp. (C. Caput Medusae, Schrenk,

C. arborescens Litw., C, elatum Litw.). These are all leafless Polygonaccae,

some of them endemic. Further species arc also importatit:—Ammodendron

Conall Bge. (Leguminosae), a shrub or tree; the whole genus consists of

psammophytes endemic to Turkestan; Ardcia sp, (Leguminosae), arhorescenit;

fremosparton flaccidum Litw. (Leguminosae), a leafless tree or shrub, the whele

geniis is endemic to the sands of Turkestan,

It ig not to be supposed that these first-line pioneers suffer no casitalties,

for the colonisation of these wind-swept sands is often full of sethacks, Less

resistant plants. following on these are :—

Calligonum eriopodum Bge. (Polygonaceae), arborescent; tstragalus ammoden-

droan (Leguminosae), semi-shryh; Aristida pennata Trin, var, minor Litw.

(Gramineae); Salsola Richteri Kar. (Chenopodiaceae), arhorescent; Carex

physodes M. B, (Cyperaceae), a low endemic sand-sedge forming a thin cover

between the bushes, it is the most widespread plant in the sands of Turkmenistan

and important for forage; as it covers the sand, the carliest pioncers disappear

entirely; this plant does not survive in drifting sand.

The third stage follows in which, among other species, Calliganum setosin

Litw.. (Polygonaceae) is the most widespread shrub, and Arthrophatum urbar-

escens Litw, the Sand Saxaul (Chenopodiaceae), forming tall, leafless clumps, is

the most important,

Under the influence of humus from this cover of vegetation, the sand becomes

consolidated and saline in the surface layers and the climax forest community

of these sands is able to develop, This is 4rthrophytim AHaloxrylon Litw.

(Haloxylon Ammedendron Chenopodiaceae) or Saline Soil Saxaul. It develops

first in the hollows between the sand ridges as an almost pure community af

open structure,

The Saline Soil Saxaul is a small tree 12’-20’ high, greatly valued in Turkes-

tan as a source of fuel. It grows nowhere else in the world and is really a very

remarkable forest formation, capable of developing in pure sandy or salty deserts

with an annual rainfall of only 4 inches or even less. The forest occtipies small

and scattered areas and has, of cotrse, heen over-cxploited in parts, especially

along the Middle Asiatic Railroad. Regeneration from seed is not very easy;

a denuded Saxaul forest probably reverts to hare barchan sands. Aphedra spp.

(Gnetaceae) are small shrubs characteristic of the pioneer stage, but not abundant.

Studies by Petrov (quoted hy Seifriz (48) ) of the root systems of Kara

Kum psammophytes, establish the fact that the hardiest of the pioneers of moving

sands, Aristida, Eremosparton and Aimimodendron, exploit only the “sub-super-

ficial” moisture horizon with an extensive horizontal spread of roots in the layer

uf sand 40-150 cm. helow the surface; there is driet sand both above and below

this. The plants following these in the succession soom develop roots which also

tap the ground-water, found at a fairly constant depth of J-4 metres, in the

barchan valleys} this is unusually shallow for a desert and probably goes far to

explain the relative fertility of the Kara Kum sands. Besides the important

plants named, there is quite a rich eplivimeral spring vegetation (Seifriz (48) ).

(3) The most widespread formation in the South-eastern Kara JXam is that

af the saudy ridges covered with vegetation. They are up to 50m, high {170’)

and 3-5 km, long (2-3 miles), and run chiefly north and south or north-north-east

and south-south-west; the eastern slope is the steeper and there are broad-

bottomed valleys between. Secondary bare areas are to be found on the tops

of these ridges, here and there.

It seems unlikely that these ridges are harchan rows of the type just described,

merely stabilised by vegetation; they are on a much larger scale and probably

have a different history.

Only on the occasional bare arcas are found a few of the more hardy

psammophytes mentioned earlier. The steeper slopes have the shrubs Calligonim

and Astragalus with an herbaceous cover of Curex physodes. On the lower

slopes and valley bottoms these die out at the invasion of a cover of annual prasses

which may yield a large amount of forage in the occasional good seasons, atid at

other times leave the ground bare. Tt seems better, however. to have the more

reliable growth of sand-sedge (Carex physodes), even though it is a poorer

fodder, with some of the psammophyte shrubs to yield frewood. This can be

ensured by checking the natural plant succession by controlled sheep pasturing,

It will be remembered that trees or stunted trees of the genera Tamarix and

Pobplis comprise the bulk of the extremely sparse vegetation of the Takla Makan

Desert; so far these have not heen mentioned as important in the Kara Kum.

However, the same species do occtir naturally along the Oxus and elsewhere,

atid they are also used for planting to control the moving barchan sands beside

the settled valley of the Oxus. Paulsen (46) mentions tamarisks on knulls in the

“Hummock Desert”.

Gur final impression of the south-eastern Kara Kain is that it is one of the

more fertile deserts with a richly developed endemic flora (22% of the species,

according to Paulsen) of well-adapted psammophytes, and this ts linked with

yery favourable soil-water relationships established in spite of low rainfall. We

consider it better vegetated and’ more fertile than the Simpson Desert,

REFERENCES

43 DovunrAxsey, V. 1928 The Sand Desert South-eastern Kara Kun. Bull.

Appl. Bot., Leningrad, 19, (4), 225-285 (English Summary)

15) Kenorew, WG. 1927 The Climates of the Continents. 2ud edn, Oxford

44 Koppen, W. 1931 Grundriss der Klitnakunde. Berlin

45 Ornov, B. P. 1928 Ecological Conditions in South-west Trams-Caspian

Kara Kum. Bull, Appl. Bot., Leningrad, 29, (4), 359-401 (English

Summary )

46 Pautsen, OG. 1912 Trans-Caspian Vegetation. Copenhagen. (Review

only seen, in J. Ecol, 1, 1913, 133-137)

47 Poroy, M.G. 1931 Between Mongolia and Ivan. Bull. Appl. Bot., Lenin-

grad, 26, (3-5), 45-84 (71-84 English Summary)

48 Serreiz, W. 1932 Sketches of the Vegetation of some Southern Provinces

of Soviet Russia. J. Ecol., 20, 69-77

49 Vassinizv, 1. M, 1930 Ueber den Wasserhaushalt von Pianzen der Sand-

wiisten, Bull, Appl. Bot. Leningrad, 25, (3), 267-272 (English

Summary )

G. THE CHIHUAHUA DESERT

The western and south-western part of North America contains the most

important of the deserts of that continent, vis., the Great Basin Desert, the

Mohave Desert, the Sonora Desert and the Chihuahua Desert. The last, which

lies chiefly in the central platcau of Mexico and the State of New Mexico, will

be our chief concern, because i} has a sandy reginn about 100 miles square (54),

soine 30 miles south of Et Paso on the border. This includes an area of parallel

dunes Iscally called Los Medanos, which ran north-west aud south-east for about

20 miles, They ate white or yellow in colour and nearly bare of vegetation,

There is a raad through them, which oiten becomes entirely obliterated by blown

sand, andl also a railroad traversing dunes about 40 feet high.

The sand aud dunes sutrotind soine large lake beds belonging to an internal

drainage systent in mortkern-most Chihuahua, and from these they are probably

derived; the dunes are active and largely unstabilized, They are from 50 to 300

feet hish (53), and, as with most stich inhospitable places, are not very well known

to botanists.

Shreve (53) reports that the vegetation is mainly shrubby, sparse amd

irregtilar, giving as the characteristic pants the tollowiyy:—

Poliomitha tmeana (Lubiatac), a woody bush;

Yucca ¢lata (= Y. rddiosa, Liliaceae), a plant with a large sani-bindiug rool-

system and a stem which lengthens on silung up;

Prosopis chilensis (= P. julifora, Leguminosac); Mesquite or Algaroba Bean-

AV widespread stirub or tres in southern LUS.A,

Arlanisia. flifolia (Compositae); Sand sage brush, a small shrub;

Dolea scoparia (Leguminosae) ; and

FHymenoclea monogyra (Conipositac ), shrub.

To these, MacDougal (52) adds—a shrubby Senecio {Compositae), Chryse-

thamuus (Compositae); two frequently occurring perennial grasses Sporobolus

eryplandrus and an Andropegen,; and the remnants of annual plants: He stresses

the doninance of Poliomintha.

He states, atso, that the valley bottom near Samalayuea, an oasis on the rai

way in the dtines 30 miles south of El Paso, has yegetation typical of the mesquite

plains, vis., Prosopis juliflora Mesquite Tree (Leguminosae) ; Zisyphus (Rhamna-

ceae); Aoeberlinia spinosa (Capparidaceae); Atripler canescens (Chenopodia-

ceac) and ah annual Croton (Luphorbiaceac). The valley bottom referred to is

prabably not an mterdune hollow. Chemical analyses of the dune-sand are

also given,

li is not easy to find incteorological records far this precise area; annual

rainfall figures for the various stations in the neighbouring desert range from

just under 3” to about 16” per annum, and the annual evaporation values quoted

by MacDougal (52) are tnany times greater. FI Paso (alt. 3,760"), on the Rio

Grande, is the nearest available statiow and has a rainfall of 9°5” with the maxi

nitim in Jilly; July is also the hottest month with a mean tenmperalure of B0°5° ¥.,

January is the coldest month with a mean of 44° l.; the means of scyeral yearly

extremes are 104° F. and 12° F.; the daily range of temperature ts quite high

anl has a value between 30°75 and 38°5° I. for the whole year, as is usual in

deserts.

Shreve (54) has published a map showing the mean annual rainfall of

Northern Mexico, in which the dune area under consideration falls into the zone

receiving 9-200 mm. (0-8”). Judging from his tables showing the length of rain-

less periods experienced at the recording stations, some of which are in negiph-

bouring deserts, it must be quite unlikely that so much as a year passes without

rain; this is in strong contrast to the Sahara and Libyan Deserts,

It is difficult to assess the degree vot aridity of this desert in comparison with

others, since its much smaller size lessens its importance. The sandridge portions

of it may be less vegetated than most of the Kara Kum or the Simpsotr Desert,

but it seems more correct to rate it less arid than these in the present state of

our knowledge. Jn comparison witht the Thar Desert in India, the Chihuahua,

we believe, is more harren of plants, though the Thar is larger and more important.

The criterion of hiuan habitation as a meastire ot aridity may break down where

relatively small areas like the Chihuahua are concerned, because their lack of

development is not such a serious economic loss to the country as the neglect of

larger areas would he.

REFERENCES

50 Brnsown, L.. and Darrow, BR, A. 1944 A Manual of South-western Desert

Trees and Shrubs. Univ. Arizona Biol, Sei. Bull. No. 6, Tucson

51 Harsupercer, J. W. 1911 Phytogeographic Survey of North America,

645. New York

44 Koppen, W. 1931) Grundriss der Kitmakunde. Gerlin

52 MacDoucar, 1). T. 1908 Botanical Features of North American Deserts.

Carnegie Publication, No. 99, Washington

53 Suseve, F. 1942 The Desert Vegetation of North America, Hot. Rev.,

8 (4), 238

St Suereve, P. 1944 Rainfall of Northern Mexico, Ecolagy, 25, (1), 105-

ill

H. THE THAR DESERT

This region is described hy Blanford (58) as that part of the great Indian

Desert which has dense areas of parallel sand-ridges. The great Indian Desert

iself, he states, is by far the miost important accumulation of blown sand in

Tha; it is situated in Sind and Rajputana and extends roughly from Karachi

and the Rann of Cutch, north-east almost as far as Delhi, and is bounded on the

north-west. by the alnvinm of the River Indus and its tributaries, anid on the

south-east by the Aravalli Hills.

The sandridges of the Thar form two important groups converging on the

Rann of Cutch, one group extending due north from the Rann and haying the

indus on its west and north, the other runuing north-east front the Rann with the

Riyer Luni on its south-east side. The latter area of sandridges consists of

smaller and more irregular cures, The dunes near the Rann are highest of all

and are quoted by Ilanford as having an elevation of 400-500°; the areas covered

by dunes. are of the order of 30 miles wide. The other parts of the Indian Desert

have more isolated and irregular sandhills. As these long, parallel dunes of the

Thar Desert ate considered by Madigan (37) to be closely comparable to those

of the Simpson Desert, though of lesser extunt, it stems worth while to examine

their vegetation,

The fullest account available was that of Blatter and Ilallberg (55), who

made a journey in the eastern Thar in October-November 1917, through the

lesser of the two mai sandridge areas, Their rotite formed a square, each side

measuring about 100 miles. At the corners of this square were Jodhpur, Bap

(just north of Phalodi), Jaisalmer and Barmer, There is a railway between

Rammer, Jodhpur and Phalodi. The other part of ithe journey was made on

camels.

A. vegetation map of India has been prepared by Schiokalsky (59) in 1932, in

conmmeéction with her work on the soils of that country and her soil map. Accord-

ing to this, the route of Blatter and Hallberg lay mostly in the types designated

by her as (1) “Arid sandy desert and barren land,” and (2) “sendy desert wits

thorn’; about one-quarter of the route lay in type (3) “steppe desert with thara”,

The “thorn” formation is not described in detail, We may ussume, then, that

latter and) Hallberg really travelled through some of the most arid sandy country

in the Thar Desert and that the vegetation they describe is relevant to the

present study.

Vaughan Cornish (36) states that the region is well surveyed and that ell the

plans slow these parallel sandridges. Madigan (37) reproduces a similar survey

map with parallel ridges for country adjacent io the Simpson Desert. It seems

unlikely thal country as arid and uninhabited as the Simpson Deser| would come

within routine land stirvey work, and it is inferred that the Thar is a less im-

hospitable region than the Simpson Desert. Meteorological data for comparison

are scanty, but it is clear that though the Thar Desert is without streams and has

a most erratic rainfall, it still supports sparse settlement with scattered villages

aiid aulmerons flocks and herds of camels, goats, cattle and sheep; there are also

shrubs and bushes and occasional small irees subject to grazing. The vegetation,

therefore, is probably more comparable with the Australian semi-desert areas

which also have parallel sand-dunes in a milder way-

Blatter and Hallberg discuss the climatic data available in the arca visited by

them, They quote a year with no rain at all recorded for certain stations, and

another occasion on which 10” fell in one day at Jodhpur; 1917 (the year of

their visit) was tinusually wet with totals ranging From 20-40” in different

localities, as compared with average values, caleulated over 40 years, of 7-13".

The mean nunber of rainy days is from 13-18 per annum; 1917, of course, was

much higher. ‘The wet season is during the summer monsoon from Jute to Sep-

tember inclusive; the cold season is from November to March and characterised

by extreme temperature variations, often falling below freezing point at night,

The relative humidity is always low, atid vety hot and violent winds with sand-

stoims are frequent in April, May and June,

In Australia, the Simpson Desert is in an area of the continent within the

5” atmual isohyet (42) and with a high variability. Prescott (41), in his analysis

of the climates of the Australian deserts, uses the Meyer ratio—P/s.d.—, cal-

culated month by month, to define areas of successive aridity; the area having

lowest values coincides with the Simpson Desert region where it is between 1 and 2

for the months of greafest valiie, never higher; in the major part of the surround-

ing truly desert region this monthly value rises to a maximum of 4 or 5,

The monthly values for P/s.d,, calculated for Pachbhadra from data given

by Blatter and Hallberg in connection with their journey in the Thar Desert, ate

as follows :—

Jan. - - O84 May - 0:58 Sept. - - 448

Feb. - - 0°35 June - - Wi Oet, - - O08

March - O17 July - - 8:08 Nov. - - O12

April - 0-09 Aug. - - 10:03 Dec, - - O20

Note the high values for July and August.

Hosking (37) has prepared a map showing the values for the Meyer ratio

(calculated from mean annual precipitation and mean aanual satucation deficir)

over the whole of India. The lowest values occurred over the Indian Desert and

here he analysed a small area in more detail,@) using the monthly instead of

2 ) This more detailed map is unpublished, and quoted by kind permission of the

author.

annyal values. for the Meyer ratio, as we have done, and drawing the isologs of

the maximum monthly value occurring in the year, as Prescott has done for Atis-

tralia. Hosking found that there was not a close correlation between the lowest

values of the Meyer ratio and the distribution of the sand-dunes of the Thar

Desert. There was au area below 2, more than 100 miles across, on the right

barik of the Indus around Sukkor, whereas the Thar Desert lies on the left bank

of this river. The values for the desert itself are from 3 to 6+ (Ilosking) and

as high as 10 (our own dala, table above). As far as this criterion of deserl

chmate goes, not more than the north-western half of the Thar is comparable

with the desert regions covering most of the centre of Australia, and none of it

ts quite so arid as the Simpson Desert, unless the steppe west of Sulkor be

included in its borders.

In view of this, comparison of the vegetation of the two sandridge areas

loses Some of its interest, However, a short description of the plants recorded

by Blatter and Hallberg will be given here, and it becomes significant to note that

their visit touk place in October-November just after the usual period of heavy

rains, and m a phenomenally wet season. They may therefore have seen the

vegetation in a better state than usual (as. did Madigan on the Diamantina),

though no ephemerals were found and few atmnals. With this in mind, an

attempt will be made to extract from their results what plants actually grow on

the sandhills of the Thar Desert. It appears that whenever the dunes are suft-

ciently stabilized, they can support quite a dense caver of vegetation. Most of

the plants are deep-rooted shrubby perennials and are listed below.

After this examination, one 1s drawn to the conclusion that the environment

of the south-eastern Thar Desert, at least, is by no means as arid as that of the

Simpson Desert.

PLANts GRowinG on tHe Dunes of tne Trar Desert

(ret. 55)

x = Widespread and important plants

< Calotropis procera R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae)—One of the earliest and most

hardy colonisers of hare dune slopes; a quick-growing coarse shrub of catholic

taste, JJunes may have a pure society of this plant.

x Indigofera argentea Burm. (Leguininosac)—Another typical dune pioneer

often forming a pure socicty; it has a low ctown of horizontal branches near

the sand surface.

x Crotalaria burhia Hamilt. (Leguminosa¢)—The most abundant plant of the

region, following close after the above two pioneers and replacing them;

shrubby.

x Leptadenia spartium Wight (Asclepiadaceae)—A common dune shrub, usually

a secondaty arrival and rarely dominant,

Acrua pseido-lojnentosa Blatt. and Hallb,, and A. tomentosa Forsk. (Amaran-

taceac), These grey-white shrubs grow with Crotalaria at the edge of dunes

and on sandy flats, which probably recall the Australian bluehush and saltbush

plains in appearance,

x Calligoniun. polyganoides L. ( Polygonaceae)—A large bush up to 5-6’ diameter,

occurring chiefly on sand, but adaptable, showing a preference for dune crests

which it may monopolise; roots often exposed.

x Cyperus arenarius Retz. (Cyperaceae)—-Establishes itself in thick patches on

the lee slope of dunes; this and other Cyperactae are the most effective sand

stabilisers im the region, on account of their creeping rhizomes,

x Panicum turgidwm Forsk, (Gramineae)—An early coloniser with the shrubs.

“

Citrullus colocynthis Schrad, (Cucurbitaceae)—An early coloniser.

Farsetia jacquemontii Hook. f. et Th. (Cruciferae)—An early coloniser.

Penmisetum cenchroides Rich, (Gramincae)—A common sand and dune grass.

Eleusine sp. (Gramineae )—An early coloniser,

Capparis decidua Vax (Capparidaceae)—Occurs on Hat sand with Aerua; a

shrub or tree.

Among the commonest sand grasses wete Lvagrosis tremula Hochst., EZ, ciliaris

Link, and other species; Cenchrits catharticus Del. and Pennisetum prienrtt

Kunth.

Breweria latifolia Benth. (Convolvulaceae)—A typical sand shrub.

Small Convoelvulus spp. and Polvgala spp, occur between the bushes,

The following may be mentioned among other plants occurring —

Lyctum berbarina L (Solanaceae)—A shrib at umes conimoii on dines.

Boerkavia diffusa L, (Nyetaginaceac)—A sniall trailing plant also throughont

Australia.

Aristida, two species (Granineac),

Haloxylon salicornicum Bunge (Chenopodiaceae )—Abundant locally, but pre-

fers gravel: grows in sand-holding clumps.

Cassia obovata Collad, (Leguminosae)—Locally abundant on dunes.

Zisyphus volundifolia Lam. (Rhamnaceae)—A prickly shrub or tree.

Cistauche tubwlosa Wight (Orobanchaceac)—A root-patasite growing ot)

various shrubs-

Tamarix articulata Vahl. (Tamaricaceae)—Collected, but apparently not

common, (Synonyms TP. epliylla, L.. YT. oricntalis, Vorsk., T. articulate Vahl).

This is the evergreen Athel Tree now widely used for dry, sandy areas in

South Australia.

REFERENCES

55 Brarrer, E., and Hatreera, F. 1918-21 The Flora of the Indian Desert

(Jodhpur and Jaisalmer), Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Suc., 26, 218, 525,

811, 968 et seq.; 27, 40, 270, 506 et seq.

56 CornisH, VaucHAn 1897 On the Formation of Sand-dunes, Geog, Journ.

9, 292 et seq,

57 Hosxine, J..S. 1936 The Ratio of Precipitation to Saturation Deficiency

of the Atmosphere in India. Current Sci., 5, (8), 422-423

37 Maviaan, C. T. 1936 The Australian Sandridge Deserts, Geog, Rev. 26,

205-227

58 Mepricorr, HW. B., and Brawrorp, W. T. 1879 A Manual of the Geology

of India. Ist edn., Caleutta. See Pt. I, p. 436, et seq.

41 Pruscorr, J. A. 1936 The Climatic Control of the Australian Deserts.

Trans. Roy. Soc. $, Aust., 60, 93-95.

59 ScuoKxanscy, Z. J. 1932 The Natural Conditions of Soil Formation in

India. Dokuchaiev Inst. Soil Science. Acad, Sei, U.S.S.R. Leningrad.

60 Tayvitor, T, GrirritH 1918 ‘The Australian Environment, Melbourne

SUMMARY

In order to assess the comparative aridity of the Simpson Desert in relation

to other important sand-ridge deserts of the world, a study has been made of the

veretation of seven of them. It is considered that vegetation is ihe best climatic

index available for regions where quantitative meteorological data are generally

so few, The results of this study are briefly summarised in the appended

Tables I, 1, III, and IV, in which the deserts in question have been placed in order

of aridity. Some doubt is still felt about the correct position of the Mexican

Chihyahva Desert in this list; it may be more arid than the Thar, but it ts cer-

tainly less important on account of its much smaller size. Approximate geo-

graphical position, altitude, and size of the deserls are given in Table I]. The

degree of plant cover, the dominatits and the state of habitation are summarised

in Table [1I. Table IV lists noteworthy genera in each desert.

It is clear that the first four deserts in this list form a very arid and barren

group, and that the Jast four, including the Simpson Desert, are much better

coyered ; some of them, like the Thar, have much of the character of a steppe.

A comparative study of the availability of tuderground water would go far to

explain this; it is also certain that some of these deseris enjoy a far more regular

rainfall than others in which dry periods of a iew years are the rule, ‘The

stretches of absolutely bare dunes in the Great Libyan Trg and the Talla Makan

seem to be unique, ever. among the deserts of the Old World.

The plants actually present are mainly perennial shrubs and psanyuophytes,

occasionally reinforced by ephemerals; the Tawiarix and Populus of the Takla

Mukun are tree types of stunted growth, while the Kara Kum achieves regular

forests of the small saxaul trees. Each of the regions shows considerable indi-

viduality in its flora, particularly the Mexican and Atistralian areas, ag one might _

expect; there is a much closer degree of similarity between the more cortigious

deserts of the Old World. Attention nmust be drawn to the importance of a

shrubby grass in three ef the deserts—Triadia in the Simpson Desert, and two

species of Aristida, respectively, in the Western Sahara and Kara Kim,

For a detailed account of the vegetation of the Simpson Desert, the puper i

this series by R. L. Croeker (35) should he consulted, as well as the list of species

collected on Madigan’s expedition as reported upon by the writer (36).

As far as this study is concerned, special habitats like wadis and water-

courses have not been considered. As they have a denser and often distinctive

vegetation, attention has been fucused on the dune areas.

Where possible, meteorological data have been included, but they have proved

quite inadequate for comparative purposes, except in the case of the Thar Desert.

It is interesting to note that before 1925 the Libyan ire, the Rub‘ al Khali

and the Simpson Desert were practically unexplored. Our knowlege of the

Takla Makan and much of the Western Sahara gots hack only to about 1860,

thowgh the primitive method of camel travel was used in all the recent snrface

explorations, except in the Jabyan Erg where Bagnold and Clayton used

motor cars.

In conclusion, it muy be inferred that the Simpson Desert, the worst of the

Australian sandridge deserts, conrpares in size with the most important dune areas

of the earth and, though arid, is exceeded in this respect by the Libyan Erg,

Takla Makan, Rub’ al Khali and Western Sahara, but not by the Kara Kum,

Chihuahua and Thar deserts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

A. debt is due to the late Dr. C. T. Madigan, who tread the almost completed

paper before lis death and made important suggestions for improvement. The

section on the Simpson Desert was nat completed at that time and he contributed

much metcorological data for ik.

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SUMMARY OF DESERT VEGETATION

Great Lisvaw Ere or SANn Sea:

Paratlel sand-ridges complete’'y bare. Rare bushes of Ephedra to be seen. There ate

inthcations that very localized ephemeral patches of Arisiida. may spring up alter rain,

which falls possibly once in eight years. Entirely unitthabited.

TaKLA MAKAN:

Paral’el sand-ridges completely bare. Peripheral regious of the desert have solitary

Tamarix, holding mounds or “cones” of sand, and almost as hardy is Populus, the “toerak’!

ot desert poplar, These occur as miserable shrubs or a amass of dead uwigs; near the

rivers they form dense groves, Rare patches of a small reed (Lasiogrosfts) occur Te

the dunes, Ephemerals absent. Entirely uninhabited.

Rus’ av Kriatr or Empty Quarrer:

A varied terrain inctuding bare parallel sand-ridges. Stretcbes of, say, 20 miles without

vegetation, either dead or living, are rare. The most important plants are the widespread

“Ahal” (Calligonum) a large shrub, and “Fladh” (Salsofa) a stall shrub. A few other

pants are frequeit and there is, with Jitcle doubf, an ephemeral vegetation after the

infrequent rains. Penetrated on the borders by nomad camel herders in good seasons.

WHSTERN SAHARA:

A yatied region including some large dune-ateas or ergs. Some are humid and proyide

some waier and grazing far flocks and herds, others are bare and dificult to. penetrate;

veetation probably inchides the perennial “drinn” erass (Aristida pungens) and shrubs

of the genera Cornulaca (Chenopodiaccae) and Calliqanum (Polygonaceae), After rains

there may be a rich ephemeral vegefatian, chiefly of cructicrous herbs. Most of the

ergs allaw of cecasional nomad camel srazing at the edges, at least.

Srmpsan DESERT?

The whale area covered with loug, parallel dunes, qitite well vexctated with shruhs and

occasional small trees, Planis are thickest on the lower dunes and corridors between,

where they are ustialy some feet apart. Lhe crests of the dunes ure, for the most

part, relatively bare and unstable, though comp'etely covered dunes occur in patches.

Trivdia Bascdowti, more or less alive, is quite the most conspicuous bush of the corridors

and lower slopes (Porcupine Grass or falsely called “Spinifex’). True Spiutfer

paradoyus (now Zyygochlow paradoxa) is the sparse shrubby dominant of the ridges.

‘There is an assortment of associated perennials, annuals and ephemerals, some attaining

Jecal datninance. Uninhabited: water is lacking.

Kara Kum:

Chiefly saud-desert with bare, paral'el dunes bordering the tiver. They are unstabilized,

but the large grass Aristida penneta var. thay occur on the Jower slopes, with some

chenapndiaceous shrubs in the hellows. The barchans often become well covered with

yegctation, forming shrnliby sandbilis and eyentually dwarf forests uf Saxanl trees, The

yuuctation is varied and largely endetnic. An ephemeral flora oceurs fin spting, Shepherds

and their flocks make sporadic excursions fram the casts and tiver valleys, and the dwarf

forests yie'd firewood.

CHIHUAHUA?

The sna‘test of the deserts considered here, including same parallel dune areas atmost

bare af vouetation: what occurs is shrubby, sparse and irrecular, Ephemeral vegetat on

prohably present from time to fime. Degree of habitation nat known. The vegetatian

seems lo be modified Mesquite (Prasejis) torrimtion, dominated by Palianintha CLabratee),

Taar?

Taree parailel sand-ridge areas are present, probably even better yegetated than the

Mara Kum, with a variety of shrubs end some small trees. Sparsely inhahited. with

ceattored yil’aees and numereds flocks anrl herds of camels, nats, cattle and sheep, There

are commrehensive land sutvey mans. of the reo’on available, Important genera are

Culotrehis, Crotalaria, Calliganun, Cyperus, etc.

Tarte LY -—— APpPenpdix

Summary cf Chief Families and Genera represented

A. Linyvan Ere

Pphedra (Gnetaceae)

‘braces oi Gramineae

B. Taxita Maxan

Tamarix (Yamaricaceae)

Populus (Salicaceae)

Lastogrostis (Graminea)

C. Rus’ at Kuarr

Salsola (Chenopodiaceae)

Cornulaca. (Chenopodiaceae)

Calligonum (Polygonaceae)

Dipterygium (Cruciferae)

Cyperus (Cyperaceae)

Fagenia (Zygophylaccac)

Tribulus (Zygophyllaceae)

D. Western SAHARA

Aristida (Gramineae)

Cornulaca (Chenopodiaceae)

Calligonium (Polygonaceae)

Savignya (Cruciferae)

Moricandia (Cruciferae)

Malcalmia (Cruciferae)

Launea (Compesitac)

Pianfaga (Plantagmaceac)

Ephedra (Gnetaceae)

E. Simrson Desert

Triodia (Grainmeae)

Zygochloa (Spinifex) (Gramineae)

Acacia (Leguminosae)

Cassia (Leguminosae)

Crotalaria (Leguminosae)

Hakeca (Proteaceae)

Grevillea (Proteaceae)

Lxemophila (Myoperaceae)

Sida (Malvaceae)

Hibiscus (Malvaceae)

Portulaca (Portulacaceac)

Salsala

Rhag odia (Chenopodiaceae)

Kochia

. All present ta some

Bassiit extent

Atriplex

Enchylaena

FF. Tara Kum

Aristida (Gramineae)

Agrinphyllum (Chenopodiaceae)

Arthrophytum (Saxaul) (Chenopodiaceae)

Corispermusm (Chenopodiaceae)

Foraninowia (Chenopadiaceae)

Salsola (Chenopediaccae)

Calligonum (Polygonaceae)

Smirnovia (Leguminosae)

Ammodendron (Leguminosae}

Acacia (Leguminosae)

Eremosparton (Leguminosae)

Astragalus (Leguminosae)

Carer (Cyperaceae)

G. Carnuanus Drsert

Poliemntha (Labiatae)

Yucca (Liliaceae)

Prosopis (Mesquite) (Leguminosae)

Dalya (Leguminosae)

Aymenoclea (Campositac)

Senecio (Compositac)

Chrysathamntius (Compositae)

Sporobalus (Gramineae)

Andrapegor. (Gramineae)

H. Tuar Desert

Calotropis (Asclepiadaccae)

Lepladenia CAsclepiadaceae)

Indigofera (Leguminosae)

Crotalaria (Leguminosae)

Aerua (Amarantaccac)

Calligonum (Polygenaceae)

Cyperus (Cyperaceae)

Panicum (Gramineae)

and others (Gramineae)

SOUTHERN AUSTRALIAN GASTROPODA PART III

By BERNARD C. COTTON

Summary

Shell pyriform, with flattened base; base spreading, with a sharp edge round the entire

circumference; dorsal part of the margin, on the right side, anteriorly and posteriorly obscurely

ribbed; the left margin edge medially wavy; dorsum sharply humped, the central portion of the

dorsum in the holotype mostly white through the outer layer of shell being dissolved away with

hydrochloric acid; normally the dorsum is light brown as shown by patches of the original outer

layer left in other specimens which have also been treated with acid; margins and extremities

calloused and spread; medium brown-coloured base becoming cream towards the lips at the

aperture; aperture wide and curved; outer anterior lip declivous; aperture turns sharply left towards

the posterior end; twenty-seven teeth covering the whole length of the aperture; teeth moderately

developed, produced slightly across the base, rather coarse and widely spaced, brown with cream

interspaces; fossula white, slightly concave, sulcus wide and shallow, neither denticulate; interior of

shell, examined in a broken specimen, ivory white. Length 49 mm., width 35 mm., height 25 mm.,

animal unknown.

Rit]

SOUTHERN AUSTRALIAN GASTROPODA

PART Ill

Ry Bernarn C. Corton *

[Read 8 April 1948]

Two new species and one new gents of Gastropods from south-western Australia

are described here

Zoila rosselli, sp. nov.

1. I, fig. 2-6

Shell pyriform, with flattened base; base spreading, with a sharp edge round

the entire circumference; dorsal part of the margin, on the right side, anteriorly

and posteriorly obscurely ribbed; the left margin edge medially wavy; dorsum

sharply humped, the central portion of the dorsum in the holotype mostly white

through the outer layer of shell being dissolved away with hydrochloric acid;

normally the dorsum is ight brown as shown by patches of the original outer layer

left in other specimens which have also been treated with acid; margins and

extremities calloysed and spread; medium brown-coloured base becoming eream

towards the lips at the aperture; aperture wide and curved; outer anterior lip

declivous; aperture turns sharply left towards the posterior end; twenty-seven

teeth covering the whole Jength of the aperture; teeth moderatcly developed, pro-

duced slightly across the base, rather coarse and widely spaced, brown with cream

interspaces; fossula white, slightly concave, sulcus wide and shallow, neither

denticulate; interior of shell, examined in a broken specimen, ivory white.

Length 49 mm., width 35 mri., height 25 mm., animal unknown.

Loc—F¥remaatle, W. Aust.

Remarks—The species is constant in character, size and shape. Only three

distinct species and four subspecies of the primitive cold water cowries belonging

to the genus Zeila are known, and they are found in Western and South Aus-

tralia. There are four Tertiary species in the Miocene of Victoria, 2. consobrina

McCoy 1877, Z. platypyga McCoy 1876, 2. simplicior Schilder 1935 and

Z. toxorhyncha Tate 1890. None of the Tertiary species resembles the Recent

one here described. Probably Z. rasseiii is more closely allied ta Zoila decipiens

Smith I880 described from North-Western Australia than to any other species,

but if is distinct. Z. rosselli differs in the Aattened base with its spreading and

sharply-edged margin and coarse spaced teeth of the columella and outer lip.

Curiously, Z. rosselli has the general shape of Siphocypraca aus Linne 1758

Mediterranean, and of Bernaya tenlerei Cazenavette 1846 Arabia, and Bernuya

fultoni Sowerby 1903 Natal, but these three species have well-rounded bases,

and Bernaya is edentulaus. Syphocypraca has a complete set of spaced teeth ou

the margins of the wide aperture, a feature which in some way recalls Z, rossellt.

The holotype specimen D. 14220 is figured in five different positions, and another

broken specimen belonging to the series is figured to shaw the interior structure,

Mr, Harold Rossell, after whom the new species is named, took the four

specimens before me at Fremantle from a beach near North Wharf just beyond

the wall where all sorts of rubbish come ashore, The bucket dredges dump their

contents straight out to sea opposite this little beach, and the shells may have come

from the bottom of the harbour, He writes: “I remember small stones, some with

shells stich as Turbo setosus stuck in them in a partly fossilised state... — | often

picked up immature Cypraca scotti on this little beach, but of course scath were

*South Australian Museum, Adelaide.

Trans. Kay. Suc. S. Auats; 72, (1), 23rd August, 1948

and some actually had the remains of their animalg in... . If 1 remember, the

time would be about October, after the equinoctial blows of September.” Mr.

Rossell also remarks that “it must he a long time since | took them, . . . a! least

thitty years ago, | remember it very well, atid the dorsum was pale brown,

somewhat marked with tiny scratches and cleaned at once with the application of

hydrochloric acid. 1 imagined then that it effected an improvement in the shell’s

appearance, but | was just beginning to collect things, and had it been recently

I would have known better.” The only specimens known are six taken by Mr.

Rossell, four of them in the W. R. Steadman Collection. one of which, the holo-

type, described, was donated by Mr. Steadman to the South Australian Museum.

One specimen from Cottesloe is in the Australian Museum, actording to informa-

Hon recetved,

Aleyna acia sp. nov.

Pl, f, fig. 7, 8

Shell small, conical, turbinifarm, solid, protoconch finely spirally Guar-

rawed and blunt, of oné and a half whorls; first spire whorl conyex, closely

lirate with seven close-set cords; third convex, bicarinate, upper carina at

about the centre of the whorl, lowet immediately aboye the suture: ahout

ten stout roundish axials from tlie suture cross ard form somewhat vertically

compressed nodules on the upper carinae and on the intercaritial lirac, least

prominent on the medial Jirae, more prominent on the lower carisa and

largest on the upper; round the base are ten rather broad, rounded spirals:

mouth nearly circular, labrum bevelled on, the inside, slightly effuse at the

base, hollowed on its surface, without any spreading callus; columella with

a prominent tooth which is actually a plait; a broad band of rosy tint winds

round the base to the basal lip and extends between the tubercles of the

lower carina and so ean be seen as spots just above the suture; in some speci-

mens a narrow ted band appears between the main axials just below the

stitute and in some a series of dashes extends from its inner margin to the

base nearly to the aperture of the shell; the lip is round, smooth inside, with

a slight gutter behind; the body whorl has seven or eight equidistant raund

tibs of sizes equal to the interspaces; some have axial red lines eywal in

width to the white interspaces, sometimes broken into articulated lines,

especially about the periphery of the hody whorl, much less over the base:

the first and second whorls may be red and the body whorl with seven or

eight streaks of red with equally wide streaks of white from the suture to

the periphery, and coral red base; some have the first three whorls red. the

next two whorls, the ultimate and penuttinate, with about six zig-zag Lroad

brown flames and rather narrower white interspaces extending to a brown

hase; one form has the two carinations articulated with brown, the rest of

the shell being light chestnut brown, the first and second whorls being rosy

red, Dinmeter 1-8 mm.; height 3 mm. ‘

Lov.—W, Aust.: Rottnest (type), King George Sound, Mopetoun. S. Aust.:

Cape Korda, 60 fathoms.

Remarks—The species 13 bicarinate and more strongly sculptured than Alleyna

australis Uedley 1907, from Mast Head Island, 17-20 fathoms; the columellar

tooth is less developed, and the colour pattern is different.

fIolotype: Reg, No. D, 14219, South Australian Museum.

Austroliotia gen. noy,

Genotype: /iatia botanica Medley 1915, New South Wales.

Shell depressed, moderately heavily sculptured, aperture trumpel-shaped, not

strongly variced; umbilicus wide; operculum horny, multispiral but with faint

traces of granules.

Distribution—New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Aus-

tralia, Tasmania, New Zealand.

Remarks—Liotina Fischer 1885, genotype L. gervillei Defrance, a fossil, has

becn tsed for this temperate Australasian genus with widely umbilicate depressed

shells, with moderately variced aperture and simple, multispiral, horny, operculum,

Liotina is more applicable to a well marked tropical and subtropical group of

species, with extremely solid, not very depressed shells having a very narrow

cylindrical perforation. The genotype, 4. botanica, typical of a southern Aus-

tralian series, seems to be a temperate relative of the warm water Liotina,

Austroliotia is separable from Munditia, in which the shell is more planorbid

with a tendency to reduction of sculpture to knobs on the double keel, and having

a very wide perspective umbilicus, lightly variced aperture and simple, horny,

multispiral operculum. Species belonging to Austroliotia, besides the genotype,

are A. australis Kiener, A. densilineata Tate, and others may also belong here.

Key to Species oF AUSTROLIOTIA

a. Spiral lirae defined be = ses sole = ne we australis

aa. Spiral lirae weak ine Ws oe seve <a1 ay .. densilincate

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 1

Fig. 1 Zoila rosselli sp, uov., ventral, holotype.

Fig. 2 Zoila rosselli sp. noy., dorsal, holotype.

Fig. 3 Zoila rosselli sp. nov., anterior, holotype.

Fig. 4 Zoila rosselli sp. noy., posterior, holotype.

Fig. 5 Zoila rosselli sp. rov., dorsal aspect of broken specimen showing interior.

Fig. 6 Zoila rosselli sp, nov., lateral, holotype.

Fig. 7 Alcyna acia sp. nov., ventral,

Fig. 8 Alcyna acia sp. nov., dorsal.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1948 Vol. 72, Plate [

; ) Gwen De Wwiarish

wee eee a

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"BIEN.

A VEGETATION AND PASTURE SURVEY OF COUNTIES EYRE, BURRA

AND KIMBERLEY, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY R. W. JESSUP

Summary

In the past, ecological studies of the natural vegetation in South Australia have had as their

objective the classification, mapping and description of the floristics of the plant communities,

together with an enumeration of the edaphic and climatic factors responsible for their maintenance.

The present work has a similar approach. Throughout most of the region discussed the natural plant

assemblages are used as the basis of a sheep-grazing industry. Some consideration is given,

therefore, to the plant associations as natural pastures. Their species composition and the frequency

of occurrence of the fodder plants are included in the lists giving the floristics of the association.

The ultimate aim of this work, however, is to present an accurate picture of the distribution of the

species which occur in the area and their total rainfall requirements. Over much of the country the

soils are comparatively uniform, enabling the sifting effect of declining rainfall on the species

composition of the plant assemblage to be studied. It was fortunate that the field work was carried

out in three very favourable years — 1945, 1946 and 1947.

A VEGETATION AND PASTURE SURVEY OF COUNTIES

EYRE, BURRA AND KIMBERLEY, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By R. AW. Jessur *

[ Read 10 June 1948]

INTRODUCTION

In the past, ccological studies of the natural vegetation in South Australia

have had as their objective the classification, inapping and description of the

floristics of the plant communities, together with an eiumeration of the edaphic

and climatic factors responsible for their maintenance. ‘Ihe present work has a

similar approach. Throughout imost of the region discussed the natural plant

assemblages are used as the basiy of a saeep-grazing industry. Some consideration

is given, therefore, to the plant associations as natural pastures, Their species

composition aud the frequency of occurrence of the fadder plants are included in

the lists giving the floristics of the

association, The ultimate aim of

this work, however, is to preseit an

accurate picture of the distribution

al the species which occtir in the

area and their total rainiall require-

nents. Over much of the country

the soils are comparatively uniform,

enabling the sifting effect of dechin-

ing rainfall on the species composi-

tion of the plant assemblaze to be

studied. it was fortunate that the

held work was carried out ip three

very favourable years—1945, 1946

and 1947,

The area considered in this paper

coinprises Counties Eyre, Burra

ce ir oN and Kimberley, a total of about

LOCALITY PLAN ‘8 6,000 square miles of country, Re-

bitte pO ase acu 7 ference to the locality plan (fig. 1)

— 4 shows that the three Counties

Vip. 1 extend from the eastern searp of the

Mount Lofty Ranges to the longitude of the River Murray, bounded in the south

by a line [roni Swan Reach to Cambrai, while the northern boundary lies slightly

south of the Broken Till railway line, Since by far the greater portion is semi-

arid or arid—and even where the rainfall is higher skeletal soils are widespread—

little cropping is carried out, the land being mamly used for sheep-grazing (fig. 2).

Vurther, the low and unreliable rainfall limits the possibilities of plant introduction

and pasture improvement, so that grazing is dependent on the drought-resistant

native species. Overgrazing of these pastures has caused widespread degenera-

tion of the plant cover, with resultant loss in stability af the svils. Wheat was

formerly much more widely grown, especially in Countics Eyre and Burra, but

untavourahle results caused recession of thie wheat-growing arcas and their

reversion, to grazing.

VICTORIA

So a eee

* Assistant Sor Couservator, Department of Agriculture, Aclelaide.

Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 72, (1), 24rd August, 1948

CLIMATE

While the southern portion of the area has a typical Mediterranean climate

with rainy winters and dry summers, this tendency towards a maxiinum of rain

in the winter is not so pronounced in the north where summer rains are an

important feature. This is shown in Table 1, which sets out the monthly rain-

falls of four recording stations;

TaBLe I

Mean monthly and anntial rainfalis of four recording stations.

Sedan Burra Paratoo Oodlawirra

January - - 6 79 61 96

February - - 58 72 oil) 71

March - - 65 83 64 40

April - = - 89 122 46 74

May - - - 123 192 88 103

June - - - 149 231 90 120

July - ~ - 117 213 §2 103

August - - 150 226 72 134

Septernber - 132 205 72 104

October == - 109 166 66 81

November - - 72 94 80 9]

December - - 65 94 78 96

Total Fe 1,195 1,777 829 1,133

The summer rains are associated with thunderstorms which are of mon-

soonal origin. A characteristic of many of the rains associated with summer

thunderstorms in the northern pastoral areas is the scattered nature and sharply-

detined limits of the showers. Occasionally, extremely severe hail and wind

accompanies the thunderstorm and much damage is done to the vegetation. These

storms usually only cover a narrow strip of country, In Table IT a comparison

is made of the monthly rainfalls of the Gums and Florieton, two recording

stations separated by four miles of plain, for three years during which there were

significant differences in the annual rainfalls. It is noteworthy that the biggest

differences in monthly rainfall occur during the months when thunderstorms are

most often experienced. In several instances no rain was recorded during the

month for one station, while the other had useful rain.

TaAgie II

Rainfall characteristics of The Gums and Florieton for 1892, 1899 and 1926

Monthly Rainlatl Ampual Rainfall

Vear J. rE mM A mM LL Jy A S&S Of NM D Cums Vlorieton Diff.

1g92 + Flor, 11 7. — 40 $2 45 89 123 157 429 92 459 4,002 4,255 233

Gums 90 40 — 28 31 31 68 113 121 386 48 46

1999 - Gums 10 222 §0 3s 38 201 2h 50 172 30 46° 15 899 748 151

Flor. — 165 58 27 20 173 — 60 238 — ~— W

1926 - Flo. — — 4 47 191 97 33 206 162 142° — Hi 875 G82 107

Gums — — IW 34 209 635 45 145 292 38 23 13

The summer rains are of higher intensity than the winter rains (Table T11).

Tasre III

Showing the difference in intensity of the summer and winter rains.

Tre Gums 1919-1942

roM A OM. J Jy. AJ SO. NM Do Year

3 $5.0

Average number of wet days - - - - 23 20 1.8 23 4.3 34 58 59 43 3.3 2,

Rainfall (points) ver wet dsy - - - 32 36 26 21 2) #433 #492 «#17 «18 «22 «(2

Rainfall isohycts are shown

in fig. 2, The average annual

rainfall varies froin 23” in the

extreme south-west to 7’ in

the north-east of the area,

Physiographic features in-

fluencing rainfall are the

north-sotth ranges along the

westerm boyndary which are

part of the Mount Lofty -

Flinders Ranges. system, and

the level plains which are

characteristic of the country

east of the ranges. Along the

ranges the isohyets follow cle-

yation in a general way, while

on the plains rainfall decreases

from south to north.

No temperature records are

available from any locality

within the area. Summers are

warm ta hot and winters cold

to mild. June and July are

the coldest months, and in

these two months in particu-

lat, especially im the north,

eget cle ON GN ; fairly heavy frosts are com-

ONG mon, Falls of snow occur

very rarely in the highlands

around Hallett and Burra,

which are in one of the cold-

est portions of the Stale.

During the summer monrths,

Fig, 2 particularly in drought years,

dust-storms are frequently ex-

perienced. They result in a mantle of dust forming on the shrubs, particularly the

saltbush and blucbush, due to their hairy leaves and stems.

The distribution of the vegetation in the area considered in this paper is

determined primarily by climate, soils being of lesser importance. Of the climatic

facturs the rainfall-evaporation ratio which gives a measure of the moisture avail-

able to the plants is most important, since teniperature is rarely a limiting factor

to plant growth except in the Burra and Hallet! highlands. Davidson (4) con-

siders thut for general plant growth, if during any period P/E excceds 0-5, suffi-

cient moisture is available. Most of Counties Kimberley, Burra und Eyre are

within Dayidson’s warm-tensperate semi-arid zone with P/E exceeding O-5 for

five months of the year during the May-October period and nil months for the

November-April period. In a portion of the north-east P/E exceeds 0-5 for

only four months (May-October period). Mowever, along the ranges af the

western boundary P/E exceeds 0-5 for sevet) months of the year (six during the

May-October period and one during the November-April period). Mean annual

temperatures are hetween 60-65° F.

Considering herbage plants specifically and from direct observations st the

Waiie Insitute, Trumble (12) considers it necessary for P/E to exceed 0-3 if

the surface four inches of soil is to be maintained above the wilting point. Rain

falling during the period in which P/E exceeds 0-3 he terms the influential rain-

fall. For most of the area studied P/E exceeds 0-3 for less than five months of

the year, although it is six in the south-western portion along the ranges, The

influential rainfall decreases from about 15” per year to less than 5”

GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPIHY

The mallee plains are composed of level-bedded Tertiary limestones, while

the outcropping rocks of the ranges are of Precambrian and Cambrian age.

Hossfeld (6) has described the geology of the eastern scarp of the Mount Lofty

Ranges between Keyneion and Dutton. A feature of the north-western portion

of the area is the systeni of alternating ridges and valleys, which have a pro-

nounced north-south trend. This area is continuous with County Victoria, where

a similar topography has been described by Stephens (11).

Drainage is largely endorcic, although the River Marne and the Burra Creek

following heavy rains flow imo the River Murray. The eastern scarp af the

tanges is steep and the sharp gradient, especially during summer thunderstorms,

causes the creeks to carry much alluvial inaterial onto the foothill plains, Here

the creeks flood out in alluvial basins. The drainage pattern of the plains of the

north-east is characterised hy watercourses, which unlike crecks are not defined

by hanks, but are broad depressiotis lacking a well-defined channel. They are

particularly valuable to the grazier for their production of herbage following

rains which may have caused little response on the higher ground. Overgrazing

of the watercourses and consequent destruction of their protective bush cover

results in scouring and the formation of channels. The water no longer spreads

over the broad extent of the watercourse but is confined as in a creck. At this

stays, the watercourse has lost most of its grazing value.

The surveyed area varies from about 300-3,000 feet above sea level (fig, 2),

the highest land being in the vicinity of Burra and Hallett, Mount Bryan

(3,063 feet) is the highest peak.

THE SOILS

Four major soil groups are represented in the area, and also allied skeletal

soils, ‘Their distribution is shown on the soil plan, They are:

1. podsols and podsolic soils; 4. desert loams; anil

2. red-brown carths; 5. skeletal soils:allied to the above groups

3. brown solonized soils ;

Podsals and podsolic soils

The podsols are restricted to a small area in the extreme south-west, where

the rainfall exceeds 22” per annum, The underlying rock is generally within

about 2 feet of the surface and outcrops on the ridges, although there are

deeper alluvial soils in the valleys, Soil profiles show a grey sandy loam over-

lying yellow-grey sandy loam, and a subsoil consisting of mottled yellow and

yellow-brown or grey and yellow-brown sandy clay loam or clay.

Pringing the true podsols on the lower rainfall side is a zone of grey-brown

podsolic soils whose subsoils are yellow-brown and unmottled.

Red brown carths

The red-brown earths have been considered in detail by Piper (8) and are

not further discussed here. Included in the red-brown earths shown on the soil

map is a small area of degraded rendzina of the Yangya silly loam type, as

described hy Stephens (11).

Table IV sets out the results of laboratory analysis of a red-brown earth

profile collected one mile south of Whyte-Yarcowie (8).

Taste 1V

Laboratory analysis of a red-brown carth profile.

Locality of sample: Section 513, Hd. Whyte

Depth - = 5" 5-14” 1419” 19-25”

Horizen - - A B, B, B, 0

Reaction - 71 74 7-6 $-2

%o Yo Jo Go

Coarse sand - 17:6 14-7 6-1 5-4

Fine sand - 35°9 26+8 12:5 13-5

Silt - ~ 16-8 9-3 5-7 63

Clay - - 242 41-8 64-4 58-1

Loss on Acid

Treatment - il 1-5 2:0 11-0

Nitrogen N - +102 067 “O77 +074

Phosphoric

Acid P,O, - *055 +050 — —

Potash K,O - 0-83 1-06 — —

Chlorides as

NaCl - - 0-011 0-015 0-020 0-020

Brown soloniged soils

‘These are the most widespread soils in the area, since they occupy the mallee

plains. The brown solonized soils have been described by Prescott (9) and in

detail by Prescott and Piper (10), and later by Crocker (3).

They are usually sandy loams averaging a depth of about 6” and overlying

a layer containing abundant nodular limestone and some hardpan, but the latter ta

nol so strongly developed as further south (7). Beneath this layer of maximum

lime accumulation is a zone containing niuch friable lime and clay, Tertiary lime-

stones are found at shallow depths, Along the foot of the ranges where rainfall

is higher, the soils contain less lime and have a deeper A horizon and a well-

developed sandy clay loam subsoil, The brown solonized soils tend to grade into

red-brown earths, but the linc of demarcation is usually made definite by the

interpolation of skeletal soils. Along the River Murray the surface soil is

extremely shallow (1-2) and travertine limestone is exposed over wide areas.

Results of laboratory analysis of a brown solonized soil profile collected near

Morgan are given in Table V (10).

Taste V

Laboralory analysis of a brawn solonized soil profile.

Locality of sample: Section N, Hed, Cadell

Depth - - - - (-4" 4-9" 9-36" 3-66" 6G-85"

Horizon - - - A A B BC Cc

Reaction - - 8-7 8:7 lime- 8-8 8-8

% % stone Yo %

CaCO, - - - - 5-0 66 105 25-4

Coarse sand - - 36°2 32-3 6-1 3-0

Tine sand - - - 41-3 43-9 23°9 20°9

Silt - - - - 4-7 4-7 6:3 4-3

Clay - - - - 7-9 77 43-6 30-4

Nitrogen N - - r +080 081 -020 “014

Phosphoric Acid P,O, 049 +050 0139 —

Potash KO - - -52 50 1:65 —

Chlorides as NaCl - +007 +02] +406 419

le, 2

WNETCHOWLA Hi, S:

pS idaho

;

Say

i hares

cS eeles qs F ae. dg

| —

-4 = rE

ACOMOOLOO STH.

"5 WELL

oy KING

- LEGEND —

~~ an

@FLORIETON

Guay +, 38

SOS,

POOSOLIC

FODSOLS AND

SMELETAL SO/LS,

RED-BROWN EARTHS.

™ @MT. MARY

5 Mien

SUTHERLAND

bp EUBUNDA,

BROWN SOLONIZ20 SOILS,

GESERT LOAM AND

SONS AND

RED- AROWHN EARTHS

BRUWN = =SOLONIZED

Fig. 3

THE DESERT LOAMS

Two types of desert loam soils are found in the area surveyed:

(1) Caleareous desert loums in which moderate lime occurs.

(2) Desert loams in which small amounts of limie may be present.

The following is a typical calcarcous desert loam profile:

O- 7” dull brown sandy loam;

7-15” dull brown loam with moderate lime;

15-30” brown clay loam;

30-58” red-brown clay;

58”- red-brown clay with slight gypsum.

The depth at which lime is encountered varies from 6-20".

always detected in the subsoils.

In the less calcareous desert loarms the surface soil is a brown loam, that is,

these soils are characteristically heavier textured and have a somewhat brighter

colour in the surface horizon, Nodular lime is absent from the profiles, but light

lime may be found at a depth of about 3 feet. These desert loams, therefore,

have less lime, and atiy litne which is present is at greater depth than in the

calcareous desert loams,

The two types of desert loam profiles, moreover, are found in different sites,

those containing little lime being characteristic of watercourses while the cal-

careous soils are present in higher sites,

Caleareous desert loams carry Kochia sedifolia as the shrub dominant, while

K, planifolie and Atriplex vesicarium are associated with the less calcareous soils.

Results of Jaboratory analysis of a desert loam profile are shown in Table VI.

Gypsum is not

Taste VI

Results of laboratory analysis of a desert loam.

Data supplied by Mr. C. G, Stephens, Waite Institute.

Locality of sample: Block 36, Hd. of Walloway

Depth - - - - G+” 125" 5-7” 7-10" 10-22" 9-22-34" = 36-

Coarse sand - - — 218 7-9 7-1 6°6 3°9 2:6 22

Fine sand - - - 49-5 50-0 34-4 33°2 20-7 3065 29-6

Silt - = = = 1065 17-8 33-0 31-8 19-5 28-6 32-4

Clay - = = = 159 19-6 22-3 24-8 49-5 28+1 29°7

Less on Acid Treatment 1:3 1:3 1-2 2-2 1-4 7-2 4-6

Reaction = - - %-67 8-6 8-17 8-23 8-28 8-82 8-73

Total Sol. Salts - - -064 “085 +128 -085 ao 166 +302

CabO. oe fom 070 me = “042 5-22 <

Potash K,O- - - — 1-284 — oes 4 —

Phosphoric Acid PO, — Wi = ~ — ~ =

Nitrogen N - - - = “127 ~104. -076 — — ee

Skeletal soils

Shallow immature non-arable soils are associated with the ranges,

Country

tock frequently outcrops, or the soils are very shallow and contain an abundance

of rock fragments,

THE VEGETATION

Kleven plant associations have heen recognised and mapped. Table VII sets

out the factors determining their distribution,

Climate, particularly rainfall, is

most important, while soils play a very minor role in determining the distribution

of the associations but determine the distribution of some species within the

associations.

Taste VIL

Plant Associations

E. camaldulensis podsols >23"

E. leucoxylon red-brown earth, podsols, 19-23”

Savannah skeletal

C. stricta woodland skeletal, brown solonized 14—-10"

E. odorata skeletal, brown solonized 14—19”

L. wultflora-L. diva Savannah skeletal, red-brown earth, 103-18”

browt! solonized, desert

loam

FE. anceps-E, dumosa browf solonized 12-144”

E. brachycalyx-R. oleosa\ mallee scrub brown solonized, skeletal 103-12”

E. alcosa-E. qrucilis brown solonized, skeletal §-104”

M, flatycarpum-K. sedi- tree-shrub brown solotized, desert <R”

folia steppe loam

Cy lepidaphlota desert scrub brown solonized, desert <R”

loam

Eremaphila-Dodonaea- shrubland skeletal 94-134"

lcacta

(1) Evcaryprus CAMALDULENSIS association (pl. I, fig. 1).

Red gum (E. camaldulensis) forms an open savannah woodland where ihe

rainfall exceeds 23” per annum, The habitat is undulating to hilly, while the

soils are podsols. Besides being the dominant of this community, E. camaldu-

lensis occurs along creeks throughout the area.

Shrubs and undershrubs are practically absent from the community. The

following occur rarely: Acacia pycnantha, A. rhetinodes, Astroloma hiuanifusum.

Pimelia glauca, Dawiesia ulicina, Dillwynia floribunda, Thomasia petalocalyx and

Eulaxia microphylla, Pleridiagn aquilinum is not found cast of Reyne Hill.

The association is characterised by its herbaceous species, of which grasses

are the most common. Danthonia setucca, Stipa variabilis and in parts Trifolium

subterraneum dominate the pasture. Usually associated are Avena faiua, Bromas

rigidus, Cryplostemma calendulaceum and Erodium botrys, Towards the drier

limits of the A. camaldulensis association Danthonia setacea is replaced by

D. semiannularis, a species demanding less rainfall. Commonly occurring herba-

ceaus species are Brisa maxiina, B. minor, Bromus mollis, Cynosurus echinalis,

Hypochaeris radicatu, Hordewm leporinum (formerly H, murinum), Trifolium

anguslifolium, Scirpus sp. and Vulpia myuros, Less common, are Aira caryo-

phvllea, Acaena ovina, Trifolium arvense, Rumex acetosella, Vittadinia triloba,

Stipa eremophila, Halorrhagis eluta and Themeda aystralis,

Rure herbaceous species are Convolvulus erubescens, Erodium ctcutarinm,

Poa australis, Oxalis corniculata, Rumex pulcher, Drasera whittakert, D. pygmaca,

Scleropoa rigida, Cheilanthes tenutfolia, Enneapogon nigricans, Erechthites quadri-

dentata, Trifolium glomeratum, Wahlenbergia sp., Chenopodium carinatum,

s MAETCHONLA HLS. +

HALLETT @MT. RYAN EAST,

® ° a boats +

hte

B29!) #..Levcoxreoy

S35 ASSOC.

E. OOORATA ge plese

ay ASSOC. RSG yp é Nee

CASUARINA | STMICESA Z

wf ASSOC. 7 |i

: @aya\t

be “4

yy, t L20N

Sol Lomswora pu9d A 2 \

a] fs MuLrieLoRs assoc. \@ROBERTSTOWN +

Vo Bi ANCERS —

ray f. OUM@SA ASg0C.

i &. GOLFNSA

&. BRACHFCAL #5500,

+4] &, aLeosa —

+4) & GRACES ASSOC.

MKDAORUM PLATS CARPUM —

KOCHIA SOBIt0LA A550C,

ves cas

3 i CASUSIMA = LEPIDOPHLDIA ASSOC,

Re ERMOPH ILA - DODONAEA ACACIA ASSOC

VEGETATION MAP

— SCALE —

a & We 16

Kennedya prostrate, Lomandra fibrata, Souchus olevuceus, Lolium subulatuit,

Moraca xerospatha var, monophwlla, Stipa drummondii and Ranunculus lapparens.

Helichrysum apiculatum and Lomendra dura are very rare.

Of the weeds present is the community Lchiwn planlaginenm ig the most

widespread, Ovwulis cernpa is of fairly common occurrence, The following are

rare: Salvia werbenace, Asclepias rotundifolia, Iris gernunica, Rosa carina,

Solanum nigrum, Inula graveolens, Romulea rasca and Onopordon acanthium,

Grazing and invasion by introduced species have considerably modified the

wative pastures. In lightly stocked paddocks the sward is dominated by the

wallaby and spear grasses and contains much Shp eremophile and few annuals.

With grazing, Themeda australis (katigaroo grass) and Stipa eremophila are

among the first species to he removed, and at the saine time there is an increase

in annuals like Bromus vigidus, slwene falua, Cryptostencna calendylarescen,

Erodium botrys and Hordeum leporinum. Many of the species which appear

are of doubtful fodder value on account of their low production of edible growth)

and their short life. Echinapogen ovatus is particularly abundant along road-

sides but is not found to any extent in grazed paddocks.

There is a notable absence of introduced pasture plants in this good rainfall

country, and with the rare exception of paddocks im which subterranean clover

has been planted, the pastures are grass dominant. Apart from the rarely

oceurring leguminous shrubs which are now found principally along roadsicles.

the only native legume found in the cammunity is Kennedya prostrain. This does

not veer in grazed paddocks. The medies which are common in Other plant

commumities (Medicago hispida, M. trunculata and M. mindna) do hot grow von

these acid soils, the principal herbaccous legumes. being Trifolium angustifolium

and T_ arvense.

(2) Evcanyrrus LRUCcOxYLON association {pl (1, fig. 2),

E. feucoxylon (blue gum) association covers a considerable area of the

Mount Lofty Ranges and reaches (he easternmost limits of its distribution where

the rainfall is about 19’ or slightly less per annum. The habitat is undulating to

hilly, while the soils are red-brown earths, podsols and related skeletal soils. Near

Keyneton the transition from red to blue gum is die to declining rainfall, not to

any soil change. &, leucoxylon yar. pauperila is also present,

Shrubs and undershrubs are not generally a conspicuous feature o] the com-

niunity. Bursaria spinosa, Acacia pyenantha and Pimelia glduca are rare, while

Acacia urmate, A. rhetinodes, Cryptandra amara yar. longiflora, Helichrysrim

vetusum, Triodiv irritans, Exocarpus cupressiformis and Sida corrugate are very

rare, In the area discussed in this paper Daviesiu ulicina, Dillwynia floribunda

and Thomasia petatocalys are restricted to padsolic soils in the vicinity of Keyne-

ion, A. brachybolrya, Enchyloena lomentosa and Kochia browifolia are found in

the driest parts of the habitat.

Callitris prepinqua occurs om skeletal soils with red-brown earth affinities

towards the drier limits of the community.

This association, like the red gum country, is characterised by its herbaceous

species but contains more volunteer medics and clovers with the grasses. Shipa

curiabilis and Danthonia semiannularis dominate the sward. Usually associated

species are Vittadinia triloba, Avena fatwa, Erodiwin botrys, Bromus rigidus and

Hovdewn leporinwm. Commonly occurring herbaceous species are Trifolium

angustifolium, Vulpia myuras, Stipa eremophila, Medicago trunculata and

M_ hispida. The following are less common: Krodium cicutarinm, Oxalis

vorniculate, Cheilunthes tenuifalia, Aristida behriana, Cryptostemma calendu-

lacewm, Trifolium arvense, T. tomentosum, Helichrysum apiculatum, Hypochaerts

yadicata, Medicago minima and Helipterum jessenii, Fairly rare are Bronias

madritensis, B. mollis, Scirpus sp., Lolium subulatum, Rhagodia nutans, t.omandra

dura and L, multiflora (both species being found on skeletal soils), Wahlenbergia

sp., Anguillaria dioica, Brita maxima, Aira caryaphyllea, Plantago lanceolata,

Eyechthites quadridentata, Convoloulus erubescens, Souchus oleraceus, Geraniun

pilosum and G. wiolle.

Species uf tare qecurrence include: Moraca xerospatha var, monophylla,

Euphorbia drimmondii, B. minor, Liancila revolute, Trifolium subterranewm

(podsolic soils vicinity Keyneton), Dichopogon strictus, Lolium cylindricus,

Lepidium hyssopifolium, Chenopodinm varinatum, Cynedon dactylon, Clematis

microphylla, Kennedya prostrata, Sherardia arvensis, Hnncapogon nigricans,

Velleia paradoxa, Themeda australis, {Ialorrhagis elota, Drosera whittakeri,

Salsola kali, Schismus barbatus (the latter two species only im the driest of the

blue gum area), Acaena ovina, Trichininm spathulatum, Stipa elegantissima,

Senevio lautus, Calocephalus citreus, Ranunculus lappaceus, Bulbine bulbosa,

Loliton subulatum, Stipa drumumondii, Trifolium glomeralum and Scleropoa

rigida.

Echium plantagineum is the most widespread weed. Salvia verbenaca and

Oxalis cernna are fairly widespread, while the following wre occasionally found,

especially along roadsides: Marrublum vulgare, clsphodelus fistulosus, Onapordon

aceule, O. ucanthium, Carthamus lanatys, Rosa canina, Solanum nigrum, Ulex

curopacus, Cynara cardunculus, Poeniculum vulgare, Heliotropium europacwm,

Romulea rasea and Polygonum aviculare, (mula graveolens 1s conspicuous in

wheat slubbles following summer rains,

Changes in the native pastures simuar to those brought about in the red gum

country by grazing and invasion by introduced species have occurred here. The

most widespread soils associated with the community are red-brown vatths, and

these are considerably less acid than the red gum soils, As a result the medics

Medicago trunculata, M. hispida and move. particularly on the drier side the less

valuable W. minima make a more balatced pasture. The family Leguminusae is

represented by several species amongst the generally inedible and sclerophyllous

shrubs, but the otdy native herbaccous leguine is the rarely occurring Keanedya

prostrala,

(3) Casuartwa srrrera association (pl. IT, fig. 4).

C. stricta (sheoak) ig a small tree which is found throughout the Mount

l.nfty Ranges, generally on shallow skeletal soils, on which it replaces the dominant

tree vf the mature soils of the area. It is, however, by no means restricted to

such halitals, since it is found in various parts of the State on a variety of soils.

Jn the area considered in this paper sheoak forms an open savannah woodland

along portion of the eastern scapp af the ranges, but dees not extend on io the

foothill plains. The rainfall of the habitut, which is characterised by rough hills

with skeletal soils, is between 1427 and 19” per annum, While most of the area

is devoid of Lomendra multiflora and ts really a grassland community with only

scattered trees, in parts this species gives a charactefistic Tacies to the community.

lt ig particularly pronrinent towards the foot of the hills.

Shrubs and undershrubs are unimportant. cacti armata, A. brachybotrya

and Rhayodia parabolica are fairly rare, while the following are very rare;

Bursavie spinosa, lcacia pyenantha, Korkia brevifolia, Dodonaea attenuata,

Enchylaena tomentosa, Pimelia glauca and Niceliana glauca.

Stipa variabilis and Danthoma semitnnularis dovainate the sward. \!sually

associate! species are Aredirm bolrys, Fittadinia triloba, Llordenm, leporinium and.

Avene fatha. Commonly occurring species are Medicago hispida, M. trungulata

antl AZ, winima, Trifallum angustifollum and Rromus rigidus, Cryptostemnma

colendulacewm, Trifoliwm arzense, Enneupagon nigricans, Hypochaeris radivata,

Supa eremophila, Mulpia myuros and Eredinm cicutarium are less common.

The follawing species are rare: Salsola kali, Stipa eleguntissima, Acacia

avind, sliva caryophyllea, Brisa mavine, Oxalis cornteulata, Anguillaria divicu,

Convolwdus erubescens, Halorrhagis clata, Cheilanthes tenuifolta, M’aklenbergia

sp. Chenopodium cardlahan, Lolium subuldtum, Moraea xerospatha var. mano-

phylia, Sonchus oloraceus, Atriplex semibaceatuat, Kennedya prostrata, Heli-

chrysum apiculatem, Helipternm jessenti, Lomandra dure, Khagodia nutans,

Dichopagon stvictus, Trickiniwn spathiatum, Bulbine bulbosa and Ranunculus

Jappacents,

Echinm plantaginewns is the most widespread weed, Salzia vorbenaca, Romu-

lea. rosea, Owxalis cernmua and Qnopordon acaule ate common. Rare are Solanum

nigrum, Carthumns lanalis, Foentculum culgare, Scabinsa marijina, Asphodelus

fistulasus and Onopordon acanthiuns.

Comparison of species and their frequency of occurrence shows that these

pustures associated with sheoak are yery similar to the native pastures of the

blue gum country.

(4) Fucanyprus oporara association (pl. II, fig. 3).

&. oderata (peppermint gum reaches its maximum development on the

western slopes af the Mount Lofty Ranges and the adjacent plains. On the

eastern side of the ranges the rainfall decreases sharply, so that climatically the

anly Favourable habitars for FE. oderala are the eastern slopes and a narrow strip

along the foot of the hills. The nabitat is characterised by brown solonized soils

on the foothill plains and skeletal suils in the hills. The lower limit of rainfall is

about 144” per annum. In addition to being the dominant of this community,

F, odorata occurs in the yalleys among the hills. which carry Acacia-Dodonnya-

Eremophia association and extends throughout the driest of the area along creeks.

East of Ludunda Eucalyptus calciculivix is present in the community.

Callitris propingua, Pitlosporum phillyreoides and Myoporom platycarpum are

very rare, being found only on ihe [vothill plains, the driest portion of the habitat.

Shrubs are somewhat more prominent im this community than in either the

red gum or blue guy country. Varticularly is this so near Sedan where Kochia

gevrgsi, K. brevifolia, Rhagodia parabolica, R_ crassifolia, Cassia eremophila var,

flatypoda, C. sturtii and Acacia brachybotrva evidently at one time formed a dense

growth. For the habitat as a whole, commonly occurring shrubs and under-

shrubs are #leacia armatae, A, brachyhotrya, Kochia brewifolia, Enchyluenua

famentosa and Bursaria spinosa. A. pycnaitha is fairly common, while Kochia

geerge?, Cussia sturtit, C. eremophila var, platypoda, Rhagadia parabatica,

Ke. crassifoha, and Sida corrugata are prevalent in the driest of the commutiily.

Rare are Zygophyllum fruticulosum, Kochia aphvlla, Bassia uniflora, Cryptandra

amare var, longiflova, Hakea leucoplera, etcacia collelaides, A, spinescens, Doda-

naca attennata, Khagodia gaudichandiana, Pimelia glauca, Lotus anstralis and

Felichrysium retasmw. Nicotiana glauca occurs along creeks in the foothill plains,

In the blue gum country near Keynetot there arc one or two very mindr

oceurrences. ot L. eddrafa on residual lateritic hills. These isolated hills have a

capping of kaolinitic material containing ferruginous stainiugs. Associated with

the peppermint gum on one such hill Calhistemon terctifolixs was recorded. ‘This

constitutes a new distribution for the species which is nurmally found in the

southern Mlinders Ranges. The parasitic Cassylha melaniha was abundant on

Whe (allistemon,

As in the blue gum community, grasses and medics form a fairly well-

balanced pasture. Clovers, however, are wot so prominent, Stipa variabilis and

Danthonia semianudaris dominate the sward, but in the drier areas the spear

grass is more prominent. Usually associated herbaceous species are Eredium

hotrys, Vittadinia trilobo and Hordeum leporinum, Common species are

E, exgnorum, Avena fatua, Medicage trumculata, M. hispida and MM. minima.

Schismus barbatus, Erodiwn cicutarium, Evncapogon nigricans, Hypochaeris

radiéata, Rhagodia nutans, Aristida behriana, Anguillaria dievica and Bulbine

bulbosa are fairly common,

The following species are rare: lripler muelleri, Dianclla revoluta, Salsola

kali, Aiva carvophyllea, Euphorbia driunmostdii, Cryptostemma calendulacent,

Pulpia myUuros, Ranunculus lappaceus, Helichrysum apiculatum, Helipterwm

jessenti, Trifoliam arvense, T. angustifelimn, 1. lomertoswm, Chenopadinm

carinatun, Themeda australis, S. eremophila, Trichininnt spathulatwm, Stipa

elegantissima, Plunlaga lanceolata, Scirpus sp., Convolvylus erubescens, Bromus

rigidus, Brisa maxima, Loliuot subulituom, Clematis microphylla, Wahlenbergia

sp,, Lepidium hyssopifoltum, Sonchus oleraceus, Owalis corniculata, Scleropoa

rigida, Senecio laulus, Trichinuonalapecuraideum, Dichopogonsirictus, Erechthites

quadridentata, Mordea xerospatha var, monophylla and Cheilanthes tenutfolia.

Lomandra multifiora and more yarely L, dura vccasionally give a chatac-

terislic appearance to the comununity by forming a layer beneath the trees,

Of the weeds, Echitan plantagineum is again the most widespread species.

Very common also ure Salma verbenaca, Komulea rosea, Oxalis ceraua and

Onopordon acaile, The following are rarely [nund: Lavciem ferocisstimnin,

Solanum nigrum, Marrubino. vulgare, Carthaumus lanatus, Foentculum vulgare,

Onopordon acanthium, fiula gravetolens and Heliotropium europaewm.

Gencrally the pastures are similar to thase of the blue gum country, but in

the drier portions of the habitat ceriain changes take place. ‘The red gum

and bluc gum associations contain few shrubs, and those that do occur

are sclerophyllous and generally of little fodder value. In the foothill

plain poriion of the peppermint habitat, however, several palatable shrubs

occur, ‘Yhese are Kochia george’, Rhagodia poarabolica, RK, crassifolia, Cassia

sturtit, Enchylaena tomentosa, Bassia yniflora and Khagodia gaudichandiana,

Among the grasses the more drouglit-resistant Stipa zirtabilis becomes more

prominent than Danthonia sewiannularis. Clovers, grasses like Bromus rigidus,

and other plants such as Cryptostemme calendulecerm, which are important con-

stituents of the natural pastures of the higher rainfall country, became rare. At

the same time more drought-resistant fodder plants like Schimues barbatus and

Eradtitm cygnorwin come m tu take their place. Medicago minima, the most

drought-resistant of the medics. is prominent. Species like Enueapogon atgricans

and Soalsola kali, which have such a wide distribution in the arid country and which

grow following summer rains, become conspicuous.

These changes are seeu only in the driest of the commutity. On the slopes

of the tanges. where the rainfall is higher. the native pastures are very similar

to those of the blue gum association,

(5) LoMANDRA MULTIFLORA— L. puRA association (pl. III, fig. 1).

his community has received no attention since Wood (13) mentioned its

accurrenee, The habitat has a rainfall of 104” to 18” per annum and ranges

from 1.500-3,000 feet above sea level. In these highlands frosts are commoi

during che winter, while light falls of snow occur very infrequenily, The

region is rough and hilly, bur the Lomandras also extend aeross che broad

valleys between the ridges, Their density, however, is lower in the valleys and

the community here assumes more the characteristics of a grassland. [t is difficil!

to say whether Lomandra was originally as prominent in the valleys as on thie

hills, but it probably was nut. Tlowever, reports of te early stirveyors sometimes

refer to black grass or tussock grass in places where little or nu Lontandra can

be found today, but their reports generally only distinguished between arable lane

and stony grazing land,

The association does not occur elsewhere in the State and does nat extend

{ar heyond the northern boundary of the area mapped, but it docs extend further

to the west. A characteristic of the cormmunity is the general absence of trees, but

there are some local occurrences of Eucalyptus leucoxylon, E, odorata, Caswarina

stricta and Callitris propinqua. Where these species occur there ig no change mm

the understorey except perhaps in its density, The treelessness of the area, which

is definitely supported hy early survey reports, ix difficult te explain. Neither

suils nur rainiall appear to be limiting factors for tree growth, silice ever the

skeletal soils might reasonably be expected to carry sheoaks. The rare occurrences

of stiecaks in the area are on such soils. It appears that the only factor which

could perliaps be limiting is tunperature. No difficulty, however, is experienced

in growing various species of cucalypts around farm buildings in the area, but

(he seedlings when young are given protection which they would not receive under

natural conditions.

Throughout most of the association L, dura and L. muitifera occur as co-

dominants, byt in the drier phases of the community 1. nuwdtifera occurs alone,

‘Vowards the eastern boundary of the association esr of Ilallett, Cryplandra

aniara var. longiflora is a promiment species, while Triadia trritans veplaces

Lomandra on one or two hills south of Burra. Associated with the Tviedta is

Nanthorrhoca quadrangulala.

Shrubs and underehrubs are not a prominent feature. Flowever, in drivt

areas Kochia uphylla is frequently abtindanr in depressions in the valleys, while

K, georget is common and K. brevifolia rare. Hakea lencoptera, Acacia oswaldis,

A, ligulata, Lyciune australe, Evemoplitla longifohia, Enchylaena tomentosa,

Rhayodia spinescens, Cassia sturtit, C. eremophila yar. plotypoda and Bassia

wuflory are only Coaud adjacent to mallee. Nicotiana glauca ig associated with

creeks in drier parts of the habitat. Acacte wictoriae and A. colletoides are

restricted to the country uorth of Whyte Yarcowie in this community, On the

vusturn slupes of the hills near Burra, Nitraria schoberi is an early colonizer of

badly eroded and, In addition to the species listed above from drier localities,

Acacia spinescins, A. prvenantha, Aoarmeta and Vinelia glance are very rare else-

where. Bursaria sprnese and Sida carrugata are more widespread,

Herbacvons plants are the most important members of the cummuanity. Stipe

variabilis and Deanthovio semiannularis dominate the sward, Usually associated

herbaceaus specics are Viltadinia triloba, Erodium botrys, Atriplex muelleri, Stipa

eremophila, Medicago Jispida and M, minnia, \.ess common are M, tryncylata,

Avena fatua, Melipterumn jessenti, “triples campanulatan, Wehlenbergia sp.

Luphorbia drummondy and Aristida belvriana, Lepidiun hyssopifolium, Lrodium

cygnorum, Enneapegon nigricans, Covolonlus erubescens and Tlordeyn

leporinum are fairly common,

The following species are rare: Trifolium tomentesum, T. arveuse, TY.

angustifolium, ffolichrysum apicnlatian, Schismus barbatus, Owalis cornictlata,

Moraeca xerospatha var. monophylla, Lrechthites quadridentala, Khagodia nutans,

Bromus rigidus, Vulpia myuros, Stipa elegaittissima, Bussia patentionspis, Chena-

podium carinatiun, Lolium subulation, Dichopogon strictus, Sherardia arvestsis,

Frodium cicutarium, Uhemeda anstralis, Cryplostemma calendulacesan, Atriplex

senubaccatwm, Dianella revoluta, Tenerinim racemosun, Kachin tomentosa var.

humilis (only recorded near Terowie), Lotus australis, Sanchus olcraceus, Bromus

madrilensts, Anguilluria dioica, Blennodia trisecta, Bassia selovolacnnides, Z% vyo-

dleoylkiim auvmoephihon, Lepidosperma sp., Aypochaerts radicata aud Cymbopogon

exallaiivs {only it creel beds).

Lucalyplus largifloreys (river box) fringes two Jazoons north of Terowie.

Muehlenbeckra cunninghamii is associated.

Widespread and coniinion weeds are Echium plantagineum, Corthomas lanatius

and Onopordon acaule, Asphodelus fistilesis is particularly common near Burra

and Terowie, Salvia verbenaca is fairly common, Another species, S. eechiopis,

oceurs near Liloaloo.

Rare weeds are Nenthnm spinosum, Marrubiun vulyare, Panda graveotens,

Lycium ferocissimamn, Ilchotropiun curapaewn, Citrullus enlgaris, Cynara

cardinculns, Solamune nigrum, Quvalis cernuad, Sisyibviniw orientale and Afalea

parviflora,

The Loiwandra community has a wider rainfall range than any other associa-

tion in the area studied, and as a result pasture species which are important in (he

tugher rainfall portions are frequently unimportant clsewhere and vice versa.

Furthermore, the pastures vary considerably in density, In the highest rainfall

ateas, under judicious grazing, there is a fairiy good ground cover. but uorth of

Whyte Yarcowte the pasture is yery uneyen with many bare ateas, associated with

which are scattered surface stones.

The lisis of species and their Irequencies of occurrence as given aboye are

for thie association as a whole, An txamination of the distributions and

frequencies of the speetes shows that trom the pasture viewpoint the area can be

divided into two regions, the dividing line heing approximately the 14" rainfall

isohyel, This corresponds to the rainfall at which 1, dura ceases to he as pro-

muinent as L. wultiflera, In the region which has a 14-18” annual rainfall Dan-

thonia sennannularis, Stipa variabilts, Lrodium balrys, Medicago hispida, Mf. Gun-

cHlala, Stipa eremophila, Bromus rigidus, Aristida behriana, Avewe falua,

Hordcewm leparinum, Cryptostemma calendulaceum and Erodium cicittarinin are

the most promment species in the pasture. Less common are Themcda australis,

Salsola kali, Enneupagon nigricans and Atriplex wuelleri, L, dura is grazed but

the harder L. mudéiflora is inedible.

In the 103-14” ypainfall region Stipa vartabilis is more prominent than

Danthowa semiannlaris; there is much less Medicago hispida and M. lrunculata,

but M. viva tends to take their place. Medics, however, are absent in the driest

af the area. Other prominent species are Hrodivm bolrvs, E, cvgnariwin, Stipa

eremophila, Schismmus barbatts, Convolwulus erubescens and Rhagodia nutans.

Muineapagen aiyricuig and Salsela kali ave more common, white there is less

Aristida behrviang and Avena fatug; Atripler compannlatwm largely replaces

el, urmelleri,, Sinilerly, there ts less Eechtuit plantaginesm, but in this aréa ahd all

the communities where it occtits on the drier side, this plant must be regarded

usa useful fodder species. Kochia george is a useiul fodcer shrith,

The mallee commnpunities,

The area discussed in this paper is an ideal one for a study of the mallee

connminities because the assaciated soils ave fairly uniform throughout, there is

an absence of sandhills which cause local variation m soil moisture content, and

she annual rainfall decreases from west to vast through the habiial, A study can

‘hus he wade of the effect of variations in rainfall under comparatively uniform

edaphic conditions.

Three plant associations whose dominants are eucalypts with mallee habit

ocour in the area. E. anceps--£. dumosa association is found on brown solonized

soils in the 12-143” annual rainfall zone. With slightly lower rainfall (10}-12”)

ahis enmmunity is replaced by one dominated by E. brachyealye var. chindoo wid

E. olevdsa, With lower rainfall Fi. brarhyealyx disappears. Tle mast xtrophytic

community is the #. oleosa—E. gracilis association which is found on brown

sulonized soils in the 8-104" annual rainfall zone.

(6) E. snceps—E, uimosa association.

Only a few remnants remain of this association in the area studied, ‘since

ast of the land formerly supporting it has been cleared for wheal-growing.

Even where the dominants have not been destruyed intensive grazing has removed

the associated species, The habitat is characterised by brown solouized soils

which, on account of slightly higher rainfall, contain less lime and are of greater

depth than the soils carrying the other two mallee communities,

Occasional trees of Myopormmn platycarpum, Callifris propingua, and

Eyearya sp. are scattered through the mallee, while Pittosporum phillyreoides and

Heterodendron. olcifalinm are very rare.

lt is in the mallee and drier communities that shrubs become really important

constituents of the vegetation. Sclerophyllous shrubs are an important element

in the sclerophyll forest formations of the Mount Jofty Ranges, but the high

rainfall communilics in the area being discussed in whis paper are essentially

snvanuah woodlands in which shrubs are of rare occurrence.

The following shrubs and undershrubs ure common: Khagadia parabalico,

Acicia brachybotrya, Enchylaena tomentosa, Cassia shurtil, ©. eremophile var.

plotypoda, Bassia yniflora, Kachia brevifolia, Melaleuca pubescens, Dodonaea

attenuata, Kochia georget and Cassia cremaphila, Vairly common are Ateacia

collotoides, Westringia rigida, Zygophyllum fruticulosumand Rhagodia crassifolia,

while Grevillea huegelii, R. spinescens, R. gaudichaudiana, Sida corrugata,

Eremophila longifolia and Acacia oswaldii ave tairly rare, Rare are Kochi

aphylla, Bassia parviflora, Acacia calamifolia, A, ligulata, A. notabilis, Olearta

floribunda, Bursaria spinosa, Eremaphila divaricata and Atripley rhagodivides,

Mivhlonbeckia cunningham: grows in swamps.

Dominant herbaceous species are Stipa variahilis and Schismus barbatus.

Usyally associated herbaceous species are Danthonia scmiainularis, Medicago

minima and M. hispida. Salsola kali, Atriplex muellert and Viltadinia Iritoba are

commonly occurring plats, while Erodium botrys, Khagedia mutans, Lfordenwim

[cporinim, Convolvulus erubescens, Siswabriun orientale and Lirodimm exgnorwn

are less common. Rare ate Wahlenbergia sp., Stipa elegattissima, Euphorbia

drummondit, Oxalis corniedlata, Avena Jatua, Lomandra wmrdtifiora, Tencriwn

racemosuit, Anguillaria diorca, Cryplastenurie calendulacemimn, Fimcapogon

nigricans, Medicago trunculata, Lepidinn hyssopifolium, Dianelt revoluta,

Trichinium spathuldtunt, Helichrysum apiculatian, Cynodon dactylon, Nico-

fiuite sp., <ltriplex semibaccatum, A, campanulatymt, Echann plantaginewmn and

Hassia sclerolacnvides.

Cassytha meluntha is parasitic on mallees and shrubs.

‘The following weeds occur in the community: Onnperdon ucaule is COMMON 5

Heliotropium europaeum, Salvia verbenaca, Citrullus wulgaris, lyciwm ferocissi-

mun, Inula graveolens, Reseda luteola, Oxalis cernua, Carthamus lanatus ans

Foenicultuam vulgare are rare.

Of the eleven common shrubs present in the community, five are good

Todder species, These are Cassia stertii, Kochia qeorgei, Rhagodia parabolica,

Euehylacna tonentosa and Bussia wniflora. C. sturtii, K, georget and A. wriflora

are among the most palalable of the Cassias, bluebushes and bindyis respectively.

Modonded attenuatd is grazed to some extent bul is not important, Kochia brevi-

folia is unpalatable and very tarely grazed. Melaleuca pubescens and Acucia

brachybotrya are not grazed,

Rhagodia crassifolia is the only useful species among the four fairly common

shrubs. JV eslringin rigida and Acacia colletoides are grazcd to some extent but

are not significanl, (Species like D. attenuata and 4. ¢vllefoidés are Mable to be

grazed slightly when sheep are sheltering among them, Tlicy are often caten up

to the height the sheep can reach.)

Both dominant grasses are good forder species, Stipa variabilis germinating

With summer rains, while Sehisams barbatus comes away quickly with winter

rains but soon dries up with any hot weather, Of the three usually associated

herbaceous species, Danthonia sominnnularis and Medicago hispida are important:

M. minima is Jess valuable, since it (oes not produce as much edible growth as

M, hispida. The summer growing Salsola kali and the winter growing Atriplex

mueller; ave useful fodder plants among the commun species. Pittadinia trifoba,

however, is yery rarely grazed, All the less common species are useful fodder

platits, the annuals, Evodinm botrys, £. cxgnorwn, Hordeum teporiuam, and

Sisyiebrrun orientale growing with winter rains.

(7) Evcatverus o1osa — E, akaciyCAtYX association.

The dominants of this community are #. oleosa aud E. brariwealya var.

Chindoo, EE. gracilis is commonly present as a codominant. The habitat 3s level

to undulating and is characterised by brown solonized soils.

Wecasional trees of Myoporum platycarpim, and very rarely Heterodendran

oleifolium, Callitris propingua, Piltosporum phillyreoides and Eucatya sp. are

scattered throuph the mallee,

Shrubs and undershrubs are conspicnous in portions of the habitat and prac-

tically absent elsewhere, depending upon the density of the dominants, Atriplex

Stipitatum is common in the southern part, while further north, in County Burra,

f, vesicdvinm and <1. stipilatum may occur together (pl. LLL, fig. 2).

Other common species are Bussla wiiflora, Kochia brevifolia, K, tomentosa,

Kuchwlaena tomentosa and Zygophylhun fruticulosum, Fairly common are

#, glaucescens, Myoporum doserti, Nhagadia spinescens, R, goudichandiana,

(Mearta muclleri ant Cassia sturtii, waile Kochia georgei, K, triplera, Greville

lucegeln, Westringia rigida, Acacia colictoides, Exocarpus aphylla, Melaleuca

pubescens, Bassia parviflora and Dodonaea attenuate are fairly yare, ‘The tollow-

ing species are rare: Eremopltila seoparit, FE. longifolia, Rhagodia parabalica,

Kochi. sedifolia, K. aphylla, Acacia asziwaldit, A. brachybatrya, 1, notabilis,

A. microcarpa, Sida corrugata, Templetonia eqena, Cassia eremophila, C. ereimve-

Phila var platypadd, Atriplex rhagodioides, Nitraria schoberi, Rhagodia crassi-

folia, Kochiu tomentosa var. apressa, Araeie calamifoliu, Hakew lencoptera and

Eremophila glabra, Bursaria spinosa and Kochia pyranidata ave very rare.

Nicetiqua glauca oceurs along creeks and swamps.

The patasitic Cussytha melantha is rarely Sound on the eucalypts.

Dominant herbaceous plants are Stipa wariabilis, Schismus burbalus, Bassia

Stlerolaenoides, Aviplee companilatun and Zygophyllian anunephilum. Bassia

decurrons and Salsola kali are nsually associated, Fradiuim cygnorum, T'etrayonia

erpansa, L. botrys and Z2ygophvilum crenatum are fairly rare. Rare are Dun-

Hama semiantularis, Miltadinia triloba, Alviplesc spongiosum, A, senibaccatum,

A, muclleri, Medicaya minima, M. hispida, M. frenculota, Mesembryanthemum

erystullinnin, Lfordewn Jeporinum, Cryplostemma calendutacerm, Stipa elegan-

tissima, Miugodia vutans, Vulpia myuros, Lepidium hyssopifohum, Kehinm

Pantaginvnmn, Siswnbrivn orientale, Enncapogon wigricans, Euphorbia drwm-

mondii, Dianella vrevolutit, Teneriuas racemosumn, Chenopodiimn desertorum,

Ch. micraphythean and Trichiniian spathulatum.

Of the weeds Cirullus vulgaris, Qnoporden acanle, ITeliofrapinnm eurapaecwnt

and Carthomus lanelus are common, The following are occasionally found:

Inula gravevlens, Romulea rosea, Marrubisne vulgare, Reseda luteola, Sulia

verbenaca, Ovxalis ceruud and Lycinn ferocissouum,

Eucalyptus largiflorens fringes some swamps which occur tear Sedan.

Your of the seven common shriths are useful fodder species: Bassia uniflora,

Knchatacna tomentosa, triplex vesicarium and Kochia tomentosa. A, stipttaliun

is unpalatable and practically useless. 2yvgopleyllum fruticulosum may be grazed

occasionally bat is unimportant. Cassia sturtit, Rhayodia gaudichandiana,

R. spinescens are the only useful fairly cormmon shrubs. Ofearia iuelleri and

more particularly Myoperian deserts are grazed to some extent but are not

important. “Zyyoplyluin glauceseens is never under any circumstances grazed.

Stipw cariubilis, Sehisimus barbatus, Rassia selerelaenoides and sltriples

conpanndation are the niost important of the deninant herbaceous species. Zygu-

plollan anunephitien is not grazed. OF the usually associatal species Sulsela

kali is a useful plant. Bassia decurrens is of value when yourlg. Tetrayonfa

exrpiise, Kredi betrys and Le. evgnorunt, al whiier-grawing species, are fadder

pans. Ayyophylhum crenatuvt is valueless,

(8) FE. oLnesA—TE, racers association (pl. IL, fig. 3).

The habitat is characterised by level plains or gently undulating country

with brown solonized soils, North of Burra the association ig found cia lower

slopes of hills and in the broad valleys betweem the ranges. Portions of the

yalley botoms, however, are liable to occasional inundation following heavy rains,

aud here the mallee is replaced by Kochia aphylla and Acacia victerive shrub-

lids, On the very shallow brown solonized sous along the River Murray, from

Swan Reach to Morgan, mallee is replaced by sandalwood (Afyoparim platy

ca¥push) and bluebush (Koclia sedifolia). This is due to edaphic aridity.

Further south, at Tailem Bend, Jessup (7) has shown that mallee-habit encalypts

are replaced by Cisuartua stricta on shallow soils similar to those in (he Swat

Reach Morgan area. These shallow soils are considered by Crocker (3) to have

fad their sandy .A horizons stripped off in a recent arid period.

&. eleosa and HK. gracilis occur as codominants, although where limestote. is

jar we surtace F. gracilis is perhaps more prominent. Toth species are about

equally drought-resistant, relic occurrences being found in the arid north-east of

South Australia, The cap on the receptacle of E. cleasa may be either Jong and

tipered into a beak or shortly and bluntly conical. Maiden called the tapered form

Li, transeantinentalis, However, all gradations oecur from the bluntly conical ta

the tapered cap and there is ag ecological basis for subdivision mto two species

In this paper, therefore, all forms are designated as L. alevse,

The density of the dominants varies considerably, and this affects the preva-

lene af shrubs, Towards the skallaw soil zone along the River Murray the

vucalypts are somewhat scattered. Here shrubs are particularly prominent.

In addition to the mallees the following small trees ceeur: Afyepornar platy

corpuid and more rarely Callitris prapinqua, C, glauca, Hetcrodendron oleifoliun,

Eucarya sp., and Pillesperum phillyrcoides. C. glance zs Sound only in County

Kaniberley im the region discussed in this paper and does nut oceur south of

Viale.

North af the Eudunda-Morgan railway line diiples vesivariyit i= praminent

itt the shrub Javers and in parts furms a continuwus understorey. ‘Tiis t= par-

ticularly so on parts of Tuilkilky. Pandappa and Ketchowla stations, Further

south 4. vesicariuni is replaced by «1, sepitatim. In the Sutherlands-Mount Mary

area Noelia sedifolic is promivent, Other common shrubs and undershrubs are

Zygopiwlum glaucescens, Myaporwin deserli, Acacia colletoides, Bussia weflara,

Kocliia linevafolier and K. triptera,

Vairly common are Tenpletania egena, K, famentosa, A, loimentosa var.

appressa, Zygophyllum fFridiculaswn, nuchylacna tamentosa, Rhagadia spinescens,

K. gaudichaudiana, Cratystylis conacephala, Atripler rhugadioides, Loeay pys

aplylla, Fremophila scoparia, Qlearia muelleri, Lycium australe avd Chenopodium

nitreriaccum (small-leafed form), Grevillea hwegelii, eleucia Osivuldii, Cassia

sturlii, C. eremophila and C. vremaphila var. platypoda, Westringia rigida and

Bassia parviflora ave fairly rare. Rare shrubs anc tndershrubs are Nifraria

sthobert, Sida carruyata, S$. arlricata, Hakea leucoplera, Dodouton wlonuate,

Lvremophila longifolia, E. glabra, L. opposotifolia, Leyeria leschenrullii, Mela-

lruca pubescens, Koehia pyranidata, Acacte nelabilis, A. ligulata, K. yeorget

and Khagodia crassifulia,

Nicotiana ylmeca, and more rarely Koelwa aphylla, Muehlenbeekia cnnning-

hermit and Chenopodium aitrariacenm: ate found m depressions Hable to periodical

flooding, The following species have a limited distribution: Clearia pimelevides,

Acacia. vicioriae, 4. caulamifolia, Codonocarpus pyranidalis, Solanum elliptioum,

Trichintum obovatum, Eremothila alternifolia and Lepidhun leptapetalim, OF

these species C. pyraniidalis, E. alternifolia, S. ellipticum, TL abovatum, and

A, pictoriac are found only in ile far north of the habitat, the latter along water-

courses. Olearia puneleoides was only recurded cast of Terawie. Lepidiun

leptopelalum is very common south of Morgan.

Donrnant lerbaccous species are Bassia decurrens, B- sclerolacnoides, Stipa

waridhilis and Zygophyllum ammephilum. Usually associated herbaceous species

are «triplex campanulalian, Schismus barbatus and Salyela kali, while Zyqo-

phythen crenatum, Lradium cygiornm, Tetragoma exvpansa, Chenopodium

deserlormu and Ch, imicraphyllion are fairly commot,

The following species are rare; the three medies Medicwgo nutnima,

M hispida and M, trenenlata which are found only im depressions, Bradinn

batrys, <llripler imuelleri, A, limbatum, A, ocilutinellunt, 24. caunatliottein, Bassia

paradoxt, Danthonia semiannularts, Blennedia cardaytinoides, B, trisecta, B- cen

tarinn, Bassia brachyptera, Ch. cristatum, Babbayio acrvaptera, Tragus uugslro-

linus, Enneapagan nigricans, Bassia patenticuspis, Dianella revolula, Stipa

elugantissima, Eragrostis ielsii, Exphorbia driuimmondit, Lotus eustralis var

parcitorus, Lepidium hyssopifolim, Mesembrvanthenuun erystalliiuo, Alripler

senibuccaiunl, Goodena eycloplera, A, spongiosum and Sisymbrianim oMentale.

Cv dihapogen exaltaiies plows ii creck beds.

Atlditianal berbaccous species which wre fowl i country accasionaily

inundated are Bronas rightus, Tenerium vacemosum, Sherurdin ercensis,

Puspalidiun: gracile, Erechthiles quadridenidia, Nicotiana sp.. Mittadinia (riloba,

Polygaiuin aviculare, Echium plantaginenne, Sonchus oleraceys, Malva parviflora,

Convalrulus erubescons, Rhegodia wutans, Oxalis corniculata, I ohlenbergia sp,

antl Lordeum leporiawin,

Weeds which are found in the areware Marrubinm vulgare, Cina graveolers

sIsphodelus fishilosus, Solanum a Lvyetium ferocisstiiun, Carihaniss lanatus,

Reseda lwleola, Ceutaurca solstitialis, Cy catitrapa, Saloia verhenaca, Heliotropinin

curve pei, Citrullus culguris and Xandhtiun Spinosum, Carriehtera annua was

found along the railway Tine at Morgan, Many of the weeds decir principally

in depressions which are liabk: to floading.

Only three of the nine common shrubs are useful fodder species: Bassie

wnuflora, Airiplexs vesicarium and Korhio sedifotia, K- triptera is unpalatable

and never under any cireunistances grazed. Six of the 14 species of fairly

common shrubs are useful plants: Knchkylaend tomentosa, K. tomentosa, Craty-

stylis conacephala, K, tomentosa var. appressu, Rhagodia gaudichandiana and

AK. spinescens, Trmpletonia egena, Eremophila scoparia, Rxocarpus aphylla an)

Chenopodium nitrariaceum (smallteated yariety) are grazed to some extent byt

aré not important, J.yctum australe is similarly practically valueless, Cratystylis

conoceplula, which so much resembles Kochia sedifolia in geneval appearance, is

tiut as resistant to grazing as the true bluebush.

The only really important fodder plants among the dominant hetbaceot|s

Fpecies are Stipa varigbilis and B. sclerolaenoides, while Atriplex cantpamelatunc,

Schistins barbatus and Salsola kali, the usually associated species, ure all usefe!

plants. Insufficient evidence was accunmlated on Chenopodium desertorum aval

Ch, uiicrophullin to enable their palatabilities to be assessed.

These stony mallee areas, which are unsuited to cultivation, produce more

valuable fodder shrubs than the sandy mallee. The herbaceous species, too, ate

more persistent on the stony areas, which are therefore hetter adupled to grazing

than the sandy inallee.

(9) Exemoriuca—Dopnwaga—Acacta association (pl. 111, fig. 4).

Qn the tugged lills north of Burra &. oleosa 1. gracilis association is oily

found on the lower slopes of the hills and in the valleys between the ridges. The

hills themselves are almost entirely without mallee but carry shrublands in whieh

the dorminants ate species of Eremophila, Dodanoca and dvcache, Word (1d)

first described the shrubland association,

Dodonaea lobulaia, D, atienyata, Eremophila serrulata, £. alternifolia, Acacia

colamifolia and A. acinacea are the dominant species, crowing vo a height of about

six Leet, Triodia irritans is dominant on parts of the Fiteairn Range. Rhagodia

harabolica is also prominent, Tairly commonly associated shrubs and inmlershiruls

ave Bassia uniflora, Trichinine obovatumn, Kochia brevifotia, Acacia pycnanthaand

Hygophyllum glayceseens, Rare are Sida corrugata, RBursaria spinosa, Leti-

chrysume retusum, Eremophila upposotifolia, Cassia eremophita, C. cromoplila vav.

(latypoda, C. artemesioides, C. sturtii, Enchyloena tomentosa, Sida pelraphibs,

Kochi tomentosa var. appressa, Rhagodia gaudichaudiana, R. spinescens, Solanum

ellipticutn, Cadonocarpus pyrumidalis and Acacia nolabilis, ‘The Tollowing species

are very rare: AKochia georget, Haken lencoptera, Kremaphila longifolia ard

Nicotiaha glauca.

Culhites glauca, aud more rarely Aelerodendran wleifalinnt, Piltasparvay

phillyreodes and Eucaryu sp. are small trees of oecasional oecurrence,

Rock outcrops are widespread bit in soil pockets the following herbaceous

species are common: Stipa variabilis, Erodium eygnorwie, Danthonia semi-

annvlaris and Alriples campenuatinm, Fairly common are Pittadinia Lrilotie,

Luphorbia drummondit, Erechthites quadridentata, Ovalis corwiculata and Russia

fratentiouspis, Schismus barbatus, Rhagodia nutans, Sulseli bali, Medica?

udiniina, M. hishida, Wahlenbergia sp. aud Tetragonia expansa are fairly rare.

Rare are eliriples mucleri, Bromus rigidus, Stipa elegantissina, Rehinim pladita-

gineunt, Chenapodium cristata, Aristida behviana, Enneapogon nigricans,

Lomandra dura, L. multiflora, Zygophyllum crenatum, Convoloulys eribescens,

Nicotiana sp., Brodin ciculuriun, Medicaga truncata, Sonchus alovacens,

Coadenia cycloptera, Trichintum spalhalatum and Stipa eremo phil,

Carthdmus fanatus and Heliotropion europecum are the only weeds,

This community contains few valuable fodder species. A’hagodia parabolica,

which is not widespread hut is only a dominant species in restricted localities,

is the only valuable shrub among the dominants, The grain of Triadia irnitans

(porcupine grass ) is eaten readily by sheep but is only produced in good years

when there is a supply of herbage and grass. Some of the other dominants ave

grazed slightly, but none are important. 7 “rhichinem abawatum aud Bassia uniflora

are the only uscful species among the five fairly common shrubs and undershrubs.

The palatable Cassias appear to have been more common prior to grazmeg,

Mach of the area is wasteland, herbaccons species being confined ty shallow

soil pockets. The four common herbaceous planis—Stpa carlabilis, Dunthonia

semiannularis, Evodiwn cygnorum and Alriplea camponulutune are valuable

fodder species, assia patenticuspis is the only usctul plant aniong the five fairly

common herbaceous apecics, Owdlis cormenlata, &rechthites quadridentitl, Fitta-

dinia triloba and the poisonous Euphorbia drummondil being of no value.

(10) Myororum pLatycArPUM — KocHIA SeDIFOLTA associalion (pl. TV, fig, L).

In South Australia, where the rainfall exceeds 8” per annum, the dominant

trecs are usually species belonging to the genus /:ucalypfus, but in the more arid

regions trees belonging to other genera becume the dominants. J7, platycarpudns

(sandalwoud), which in the mallee is only of occasional occurrenee, is. the

dominant tree over a considerable portici. of the north-east of the State, Assc-

ciated widely with it as an understorey is the sallbush (flriplex vesicarium), but

on risitig ground where imestone is near the surface of the soil bluebush (/achia

sedifolit) replaces the saltbush, THowever, tm the area disciased in this paper the

habitat is characterized by soils in which lime oceurs at shallow depth, so that

buebush 45 the shruh dominant, saltbush seing found principally in watercourses,

The transition {rom bluebush to saltbush dominant conimunities ocetirs pear the

northern boundary of the area surveyed, the first saltbush country being on

Pitcairn Station.

The occurrence of AK. sedifolia as. Tar south as Blanchetown wind Swan Reach

makes this the xouthern-most occurrence of any bhichush dontinant conmnunity

in this State.

Fleterodendron olcifolium is fairly common, while Lucarye sp, and Pito-

spornm phitlyreoides are rarely found, ‘The shrub layer is almost a monospeuilic

conuntinity of blucbush, other shrubs and undershrubs being comparatively rarely

found. However, Sida corr ugala, S. intricate, and Chenoapodtiuan nitrarincenut

(smallteafed form) are fairly common, Rare are Rassia obliquicuspis, Enehy-

Iacna tomentosa, Nachia tomentasa var. abpressa, Rhagedia spinescens, R. gaudi-

chaudiana, Cassia eremophila, C. eremophila var. platypoda, C. sherti, «leacta

oswaldi, Kochia georaet, Lycinm uusirule, Exucurpus apliylla, Llakew leveoplera,

Evemophila scoparia, H. longifolta, Bassia (vicuspis, and of shallow soils among

rock outcrops Side petrophila, Trichiniuin ebovaluu and Lremoplila aliernifotia.

Bassie uniflora is only found adjacent to mallee. Lremophila sturti is very rare

inthe northern part of the habitat. Shrubs whieh are conspicuous in the Morgan-

Rlanchetown area but which are vate elsewhere in this agsaciation até Acacia

collctoides, Templetania egena and ALyeporunt deserti,

In addition to 4iripiee vesicariam, shrubs atid undershtubs typical of water-

courses are Kochia pyramidata, K, brevifolia, Salununt elliptiewm, Nicotiana

glauca, eledcia victoriae (rare in north and absent in south) and Nitravia schoberi,

NMuchlenbeckia cunningham, Eremophila glubra, EB. smacylata, Kochi aphylla and

Chenapodiun nitrariacewm are found in areas Hable fo. flooding.

Dominaut herbaceous species are Stipa nilida and Bassia patentiouspis,

Usually associated ave Tefragenta expanse, Schisnies barbatus (particularly on

sand accumulations), Salsola kali, Zygophyllwn ammophitiin anil Bassia sclero-

kienoldes, while Atriples campanulatum, Lotus australis var. parviflorus, Brod tian

esynorimu and Zyyophvilwen crenatime are fairly common, and %. iodecarpun,

huphorbia drummondti and Bassia decurvens are fairly rare.

Rare are triples velialinetiim, 2). angulatum, Craspedia pletocephala, Rassia

brachypierd, Bo paradova, Erodinim etcutariuut, abbagia aeroplera, Kaneapagon

maricans, Stenopetuliam lineare, Trichiniwie spathulatim, Dactyloctentumt #oiln-

lans, Tribidys terrestris, Tragus australianus, Chenopodinm cristatum, Lupharbret

erentaphiia and Atriples linbatan. llerbaccous plants typical of watercourses

and «iepressions are Coavoleulus erubescens, Nicotiana sph., Erechthitys guadri-

dentata, Hragrostis dielsii, Bliotnodima trisecta, Stipa eremophila, Tenchrinin

racemosunt, Goodema cycloptera, Marsiliea drummondii, Trigunella suacissina,

Stipe elegantissiina, Lepilinm faseteulutum, Paspalidian gracile, Modena hispida,

M. inininta, Denthonia sesmiannnlaris, Vitladinia trilaba, Mult puret{flora, Lepi-

dinm hyssopifolium, Lavatera plebeja, Chloris truncata, Souchus olevaceus,

Mallenbergia sp., Rhagodia nutans, Oxalis coruteutata, Kehiunt plantagineun,

Polygon avteulare, Atriplex spongiasuie and in creek beds Cyrmhapagon

vacaliatus,

Nantktum spitosum is the worst weed occurring in the pzsioral country of

south Australian. Lt completely takes charge of watercourses following summer

rains. eisphodelus fistulosus, although nol af wide occurrence, is anather bad

weed in watercourses, The following weeds are found principally in water-

courses but are relatively tnimportant: Cilrullus wulyoris, Heliolrepimm enro-

pac, Carthainus lanatus, Onopordon acaute, Inalie graveolens, Marrubtum

oulgare and Nomulea rosea,

With the possible exception ot Casuarina slricfa (sheoak) the dominant

specics of the previously discussed associations have no fodder value. Llowever,

the foltage of A ypormn platyearpuim and also Avterodendyen oletfolium is pulled

duriuy drought periods tor sheep feed, Bluebugh is an excellent drought reserve,

but is not grazed to any extent when more palatable herbaceous feed is available.

Duritiz good seasons, therefore, no damage is done to the bush cover by increasing

the stocking rate above the carrying capacity oi the average years. Saitbtsh is

itore palatable than bluebush, but again is not grazed extensively when grass and

herbage are available. Aochia pyraniidata (black bluebush) is of no value, Sida

intrirata isa useful species, but Si corrugala and Chenopodium nitrariacenm

(stnatlleaied fourm), while grazed to some extent, are not important.

Apart from ft. vesicartum, of the slirubs found in watercotses teach vie-

luriee, which is of rare occurrence in this area, iy the only edible species, Kuelia

brewifolia, Solangm olltpticum, Nicotiana glouca and Nilrayin schobert ave wor

grazed, Chenapodiuer uitraticeun is the most usehal shrub found in eoumiry

liable to Roading,

Although the species of Bassia which are found in the area are small under-

shrinks, they are regarded as herbage by graziers and are best considered with the

herbaceous species, Stipa adtida and Bussia patenticuspis are the must important

herbaceous qlants. The winter growing Schismus barbatus and T'etragonie

éxpoysa and ihe summer gruwing Soalsola kali are important associated spucies,

Zygoplathon aminophiian is not grazed but RBassia selerolsenoides is of

value. 4. ammophilum, 2. iedocarpum and Z. crenalum all grow following

winter rains. Valttable fairly common species are Atripler campanultnin and

Erodium cygnorum. Zygophyllan crenatum and the poisonous Lalis australis

vat. parviflorus are of no yalue. dt is signtheant that Lofas is spreading in the

pastoral country, since it is an early colamzer of eroded soils.

Watercourses are the most valuabic portion of the country to the grazier,

since here any rains which fall have their most benelicial effect and the species

prowing there are ainong the most valuable [odder platits. The presence of water-

eourses in the north-east of the State is largely responsible for the higher ecarry-

ing capacity compared. with the north-west. Unfortunately, however, the carrying

capaciy of the watercourse ts sa much greater than the adjacent country in the

same paddock tha: the areas around heavily stocked hui not overstocked water-

courses are invariably caten out,

Of the plants restricted to watercourses the following we among the mosl

valuable fodder plants: Aedicaygo hispida, MW. aimima, Danthonia seniannuluris,

Trigonella suavissina, Convoloulus erubescens, Chloris truncata, Pasbalidians

grocie, Eragrostis dielsii, Sonchus oleraceus, Lavatera plebeja, Stipa elegantissima,

Echium ploitaginewm, Goudenta cycloptera, Rhagedia nistans, eltriplex spongiv-

sain and Stipa eremophila . Of na value are [Mulidenbergia sp., Nicotiana sp,

Erechihites quadridentata, Blennodia driseola, Tenerium racemosum, Lepidivwn

fascieulehont, Vittailinia triloba and Ovalis corniculata. Polvgonwm aviculare is

very rarely found. Data concerning Marstlee drwusnendit were confliciing, Many

other species which are mut limited to watercourses are also, of course, present.

Apart from the deleterious effects of the fruiting bodies of plants like

Nanthiuar sptnosun in the wool of sheep, the most serious aspect of the growth

vf weeds in watercourses is their crowding out of valuable fodder species,

On Braemar and adjoimiug stations in the area carrying AY. platycarpumn—

K. sedifelia association there are three or four isolated hills with very small

patches (usually only a few trees) of mulga (leucia ameura and A. anecura var.

lutifolia), “These are the southernmest outliers of the mulga communities which

are found on hills iv the north-east of the State. Afriples vestcarium grows int

the suil pockets with the mulga, and also, more rarely, Eremophila alternifolia,

Characteristic herbaccous plants are species like Paspalidtum gracile, Ovxalis

cornicnlata, Convoluulus erubescens, Telrugonia expansa, Bassia palenticuspis,

Shpu variabilis, Danthonia seimiannulavis, Euphorbia demamondi) and Erodinia

eynurnm, some of which on the plains only grow in watercourses. Netholaene

brownlli is common.

(11) CASUARINA LEPIDOPHLOIA association (pl. LV, fig, 2).

This plant community has uot previously been recorded in South Australia,

although Leadle (1) has deseribed a similar association in New South Wales

where Agteradendron oletfolian is a codominant. In South Atistralia JY, ofe?-

foliyin is ore prominent with black oak along the New South Wales border on

sanilier soils than those supporting black oak in the area described in this paper.

Isolated societies of black oak are fotind throughout many of the plant com-

mumilies in the arid areas of South Australia.

The fiabitat consists of level plains characterised ly desert loams and brown

solonized soils,

Tilack oak varies considerably in density but where is reaches ils maximum

development it farms a deuse scrub, becoming more open towards the limits of its

range wilh scattered chumps of very depauperate black oak interspersed with open

areas of Kachia sedifolia, associated with which is usually Myaporum platy-

carpun, This very open country has aot been mapped as black oak association.

Throuphour the habiat K. sedifolia dominates the understorey, but on the less

calcareous soils its place is taken by A. plenifolia and Atriplex vesicariua, Tn

watercourses. where the soil invariably contains very litte lime, A. sedifolia is

replaced by AY, planifolia, and, in the ceutec wf the watercourses, A, vesteartuam,

Heterodendyon oleifolivit and Lucarya sp. are of fairly common occurrence,

Pitlosporum phillyrevides is very rare. Common associated shrubs and under-

shrubs are Khagodia spinescens, R. gaudichaudiana, Kochia tomentosa and

Enchylaena tomentosa, Fairly common are Sida intricata, S, corrugula, Temple-

tonia egsna, Exocurpus aphylla, Cassia sturtii, Chenopodium nitrariaceum (small-

leafed form) and Zygophyllum fruticulosum, while Kechia georget, Acacia colle-

inides and Hremuphila scoparia are fairly rare,

‘Vhe following species are rare: #. longifolia, Li. oppasotifoha, EB, sturti,

Avacta oswaldtu, Atriplex stipitatim, Myoporunm deserti, Hakea leucopltera, Bassia

tricuspis, B, wniflora, Cassia eremophila, C. eremephila yar, platypoda, Eremophila

glabra, Kochia tomentosa vat, appressa and Bassia obliquicuspis, Sida pelrophila,

Trichininan obovdtuin and Eremophila alternifolia, which are limited te stony rises,

and Dodonaea attenuata and JK, tomentosa var, tenuifolia are very rare.

Shrub species which although not necessarily restricted to watercourses show

maximum development there are: Kochia pyramiduta, K. brevifolia, Nutraria

schoberi, Nicatiana glauca, Solanum eltipticum and Acacia victoriae. Fuund in

local depressions rather than watercourses are Kochia uphylla, Muehlenbeckia

curninghamii, Chenopodium nitrarjacenm, Eremophila maculata and Lycnene

australe,

Dominant herbaceous species are Stipa aitida, Bassa patenticnspis and

RB. selorolaenoides, Usually axsociated are Solsola kali, Zygophyllum ammaphilumy,

Telrayonia expansa, Alripler campanulatum and Erodiwi cygnorum, Lolns

australis var. parwiflorus ard Bassia decurrens ave fairly rare, Rare are Euphorbia

drianmondi, Schismus barbatus, Euphorbia eremophila, Bassia brachyplera,

BR, paradosa, Stenopetalum lineare, Enneapogon nigricans, Tribulus terrestris,

Atviples vellutinellum, A. angulatun, <, limbatum, Zygopliy|lnim codocarpmm,

Erodinn cicutarinm, Babbogia acroptera, Dactyloctentum vadulans, Tregus ans-

tralianus and Chenopodium cristatum,

The following herbaceous species are typical of local depressions and water-

courses: Lrodiophyllum elder, Blennodia trisecta, Mittudinia triloba, Erecthites

quadridentata, Marsilea drummondti, Nicotiana sp., Convoloulus erubescens,

Oxalis corniculata, Danthonia semionnularis, Lepidium hyssapifolinm, Medicago

hispida, M. minima, Wahlenbergia sp. Trichintum alopecuraidenm var. rubri-

floruim, Paspalidiunr gracile, Stipa eleganlissinia, Alriplex spongiosum, Tenwertune

raceniosum, Goodenia cycluptera, Lragrastis dielsti, Trigonella suavtssima, Malwa

parviflora, Sonchus oleracens, Lawitera plebeja, Chilaris truncata and Lehion

pluntagineune,

NXanthium spinosum, Heliotrapien europatum, Cilrullus qulgaris, Friuli

graveatens, Marrubinim wigara and Solanum nigrum are weeds found in water-

econrses. in the southern-most black eal: cunntry ucar Morgan, Reseda luteolie

accurs WL watercourses.

The branchlets of Casuarina lepidophloia are eaten by stock and the species

may be of some value as a fodder. Bullock bush and sandalwood have previously

wen (lisetssed. Foliage of Aucarya and Pittesporum phillyrecides is grazed.

Kochia plonifulia is cousiderably more palatable than A’. sedtfolig, All of the

common shrubs and undershrubs—hagodia spineseens, FR. gandichandiant,

K. tomentosa and Enchyloena tomentosa are useful fodder plants, OF the tairly

common species Cassa sturti and Sida witricata ave palatable. 5S. corringata,

Templetonia eyena, Exocarpus ophylla, Zygophyllwm fraticuloswm and Cheno-

poditun nilrariaceum (small-leafed form) are grazed to some extent but are not

important, A. georgei, a fairly rare species here, is perhaps the most palatable

af the Kovhias, Acacia victoriae is the only edible species among those found

principally in watercourses. Chenypadinm vitrariaceum is the only species grazed

among the shrubs found in depressions.

Stipa nitida, B. scleralacnoides and Rassia patenticnspis are the most

important of the herbaceous species, Zyyophyllum ummophilem is the

only useless plant among the usually associate! herbactous species.

Of the watercourse plants the following are useful: Convoloulns erubescens,

Mvdicago hispida, M, minima, Trichiniion atopecuraideum var. rubrifiorum,

Paspalidium gracile, Stipa elegantissima, Atriplex spongiosum, Goodenia cyelop-

tera, Hragrosis dielsit, Trigonells swavisstma, Sonchus oleracens, Livatera

plebeja, Chloris truncata, Danthonia semiennularis and Echtum plantaginenm.

Errects or OvercraAzine tim Arion Prany Comuunitirs

When stock are introduced into any country the plants are naturally con-

sumed in their order of palatability. ‘The most palatable species are consumed

first, and witless the country is stocked judiciously eventually only the unpalatable

plants remain, Frequently the unpalatability takes the form of spine develop-

ment, excessive hairiness or the accumulation in the leaves of unpalatable chemical

substances, Young plants of mulga and sandalwood growing during drought.

times when little or uo fresh growth is made are not eaten by sheep.

A similar formation of unpatatable chemical substances must be the cause

of the imedibility of plants like Kochia triptera, Zygophyllum apiculatum,

#. ammophilwn, ete. However, in heavily stocked country the very survival of

the planis depends upon some quality which protects them from the grazing

animal,

Through the black oak and sandalwood-bliebush country, the principal

fodder shrub is the bluebush (K. sedifolia). The floristic composition ef the

pastures has almost certainly been greatly modified by stocking, Areas which

now are almost pure shrublands of bluchush probably at one time carried other

more palatable shrub species. It is now impossible to assess the original com-

position of the pastures, but there is ample evidence that Cassiags were at one

time far more common. The dead sticks of these species are found where few

living plants remain, and ateas from which sheep are excluded often produce a

dense growth of Cassia,

Ag a result of competition for moisture, unthinned stands of blucbush rarely

contain much herbage and grass. Grazing, with restant reduetion in the

density of the bush, causes the appearanes of hindyis, principally Rasyia

patenticuspis following winter rains, and spear grass (Stipa nitida) following

sunnier rains, Eventually overgrazing resulls in complete destruction of the

bluebush (pl IW. tig. 3). The land has then lost its protective cover and the rate

uf soil loss is greatly increased. On the sandy loam and loam soils dverlying

heavier textured subsoils, loss of the suriace soil brings aliont serious consequences.

‘The exposed subsoil does not readily absorb water and constitutes a very poor

seed Ded (pl TV, fig. 4). Forniation of gutters on sloping land restilts fram the

lnck of plant cover and the increased rate of rta-off of water, much of whieh is

How Jost hy evaporation from swamps into which the watercourses drain. The

bindyi and spear grass lack the permanency and drought-resistance of the bluebush,

Jleavy winds and the blasting actian of wind-borne soil particles are capable at

destroying the patchy ground cover of herbaceous species in surprisingly short

ine,

On the scalded arcas the most important pioncer plant is Sida tutricalu, As

has already heen pointed onl, the poisonous Lotus is also an early colonizer on

have areas. ‘The inedible Nifraria schoberi is likewise spreading on exposed sub-

soils in the north-east of the State. This species normally grows it somewhat

gallue watercourses aud swamps and its spread om the eroded arcas is due in the

somewhat higher salinity of the subsoils as compared with the surface soils. br

some areas Nitraria has completely taken charge, and by its spreading habit oF

wrowth has almost entirely excluded other species.

In the north-west of South Australia, iu the myall-blucbush country, over-

grazing and destruction of the bluebush results in its replacement, under certain

conditions, by K, pyramidata (black bluebush), whieh is a free seeding, impatat-

able species. The black bluebysh plays a very important part in the degeneration

of the pasture since it still affords excellent protection to the soil. Unfortunately,

however, the species does not grow to any extent on the shallower soils with

their aceumulatiou Of lime wear the suriace, such as are found im the north-east

where A. pyrantidala is practically restrieted to watercourses, Here the soil

rontains little lime. Restriction of A, pyranidata to watercourses in the worth:

vast does not appear to be due to soil moisture relationships, since the species docs

crow on higher ground where the lime at at greater depth and also on stony ills

with a thin cover of soil and no moisture-holding subsoil, Further, A. pyranidata

is absent on highly caleareous. soils in areas receiving comparatively good raitifall

for hluebush country.

Asa result of the absence of a K. pyvamidala stage in the degeneration of

the K, sedifolia dominant pastures of the north-east, the destruction of the blue-

bush presents a much more seriotis problem than in the north-west of the State,

Astudy of the arid flora indicates the following points with regard to land

adnunistration :

(L) ‘The fallacy of any fixed carrying eapacity. This should be a fluctuating

Value assessed each year, and will depend largely tapon seasonal conditivis.

(2) The importance of rigid control of stock numbers during times of drought

wher herbaceous plants are absent and the perenmial bush ig under climatic

stress, Loss of hush invariably occurs during droughts Deeause of the

excessive grazing it receives.

(3) Inerease of sheep numbers in yood years above the carrying capacity al the

average seasons should be permitted. When there is an abundance of

berbage and grass, sheep do not harm. the less palatable bush cover.

(4) ‘The fallacy of spelling paddocks. which have lost completely their sattbush

ur bluebush. Unless seed is re-introduced when there is a cover of bindyi, vic.,

on the land, a permanent cover can never be rewttained. A temmporary

cuver of herbaceous species may result. only to dry off and be blown away,

Such herbage might just as well be watilized.

The bluehush (K. sed?folia) country of the north-east of the State requires

eaveti exainination from time to time to deternmne whether the bush is being

gvergrazed. It is important that here stib-stage of black blucbush is tacking

when deterioration in the plant cover occurs, Asa result the dangers of soil

instability following overgrazing are much more serious than on the sanity

brown solonized soils of the north-west of South Anstralia, where hilling of

btuebush often results in its replacement by black bluebush,

((} The importance of spelling paddocks that still conlam bush before all seed

plants are destroyed. When the bush cover is obviously becoming thin, stock

should be removed (in good years) to enable seeding and seedling establish-

ment to take place.

(7) A balauce between herbaceous plants and perennial shrubs should be aimed

at. Moderate grazing is beneficial, in that it catises pruning of the bush.

Some thinning of the original bush cover 1s on some cuuntry desirable to

promote the growth of herbage. Through competition for moisture, closed

communities of bush prolibit the growth of herbaceous plants (and also the

establishment of bush seedlings),

(8) Carrying capacity should not be determined solely on area of country but

also on the numbers of waters, and particularly an assessment of the condi-

ton of the pastures, quantity and cypes of fedder plants, Inereasecl number

and correct spacing af waters in matry cases would enable the more uniform

grazing of the country and lower the concentration of stock about existing

yaters, Large numbers of sheep in a large paddock, will only one water,

results in severe overgrazing and trampling of bush and ils ultimate removal

around the water, and progressive zones of less intensively grazed bush for

a radius of 3 or 4 miles, the normal grazing range of sheep in this country. It

is only during the winter when the sheep do not water or following heavy

raing in the summer when swamps, claypans, cte., are full, that the portions

of large paddocks farthest from water are grazed,

(9) Those responsible for land admintstration of pastoral country should be able

to recognise at aw early stage indications of degeneration af the plant cover.

li we are going to stock the country for long-term economic returns we

nist of fecessity sacrifice some of the most palatable plants, but at @ certain

level which can only be ascertained by a study of the plaut communilics, an

equilibrium between stock and plants shouid be maintained. In the bluehush

country of the north-cast the best single indicator of condition of the ptant

eaver is the bindyi, Bassia patenticuspis, A high frequency of occurrence of

this species indicates excessive stocking.

Tite DIstRIRUTION Oy THE SPECTES

.\ plant association is made up of species whose climatic and edaphic ranges,

ati least in part, coincide with those of the dominant. The dominarts are

frequently more specific than the associated species in their requirements, par-

ticularly the moisture status of the snil, so that the associated species often have

a wider distribution. When the environmental conditions required by the

dominant are most like those of any associated species, the species reaches its

hiaxitmnum development and has a high frequency of occurrence in ithe assuvia-

tion which takes its name from that dominant,

In the area considered in this paper the sifting effect of declining rainfall on

the botanical composition of the plant assemblage is ideally studied. As the

species. approaches the limits of its rainfall range ot the drier side it gradually

hecomes less common and eventually drops out altagether. Tt may, however, occur

under more arid conditions in restricted favourable habitats such as watercourses,

swamps, ete. Phe result is a localized collection of plants typical of higher rainfall

country.

Some species have a very wide distribution beyand the lower limit of their

rainfall requirements in these specialized halitots, while others disappear rapidly.

Not all the plants growing in walercourses and swamps are outside of their normal

rainfall tange. Species like Trigonella suavissina and Lrodiophyllian elderi only

craw in swamps and watercourses. The upper limit of rainfall of the species

appears to be determined by competition rather than the appearance of any other

limiting factor. Other more vigorous plauts which are better fitted to the environ-

ment take its place.

In Table VUI which sets out the distribution of all the species which grow in

the area, ah attempt has been mace to define some of the total rainfall require-

ments of the plants. This is a first approximation only. since the physical texture

of the soil, slope and evaporation have a larwe measure of control over the moisture

available, Thus on sandy soils a species may be found under conditions of lower

raintall than ow heavier-textured sotis. Similarly, a species which normally has

a cettain upper limit of rainfall may be found in somewhat higher rainfall country

under certait: conditions, TToweyer, the important point in both cases is that the

moisture available to the plants in these “specialized” occurrences is al a similar

level to that in their normal rainfall ranges. Thus the species may grow under

conditions of higher rainfall than normal on stecp slopes or shallaw soils where

there is sonte measure of edaphic aridity,

Plants growmg it. any area in equilibrium with their environment give an

indication of the moisture status of the soil, Dor example. the occurrence of

red guns along creeks in arid areas indicates that the moisture status in the root

zane of the red pums must be at least equivalent to that in the red gum dominant

country near Keyneton, where the rainfall is in excess of 23% per annum,

A knowledge of the rainfall requirements of the plant species will enable the

construction of maps showing isohyets of soil moisture availabilty, and in areas

where few rainfall recording stations exist but where the platits and their normal

cainfall requirements are known a consideration of the environment will enable

construction of more accurate maps showing rainfall isohyets.

The following notes were made on the distribution of the species,

Erodiophyllum elderi is not found south of Braemar, and in fact is very rare

in the area. It is a species found in watercourses and flooded gromud in portions

of the horth-east of South Australia,

Kochia planifolia does not occur south of Kia Ora.

Cusnurina lepidophloia, near Whyalla, is a dominant species im an area receiv-

ing 10” rainfall per annum, Societies of black oak are found in somewhat higher

rainfall country.

Dactvloctenium radulans does not occur south of Braemar and is rare in the

area, since it is on the southern limits of its range.

Eremophila sturtii is restricted to the country north of Kia Gra ond is tare

i. the area, since it is or the southern limits of its range.

Zygophyllum iodocarpum is found only in the extreme nutth of the M. platy-

carpum — A, sedifolia and black oak association habitats.

Chloris truncata and Luavutera plebefa are limited to watercourses in the

M. platycarpum—K. sedifolia and black vak associations. beimg typical at higher

rainfall country, hey were, however, only recarded in these two associations m

the area studied.

Trigonello suavissima is on the southern limits of its range in ihe area and

ts Of rare occurrence. It grows only in watercourses aud swamps,

Chenopediuny nitrariaccum: Two forms are found—a largeteafed erect

growing variety which occurs only in swamps, and a smalleafed dwarf under-

shrub which grows only on highly calcareous soils which carry K, sedifolia.

Babbugi. acraptera does not occur south of the Eydunda-Morgan rajlway line.

Atriplex vesicurium does not occur naturally south of the Eudunda-Morgan

raliway line, but has been successfully established there artificially. It only grows

in the 4. oleosa — 12, brachycalyx and E. oleasa— gracilis associations adjacent to

Al. platyearpiun — K. sedifolia or black oak associations-

Myoporinmn deserti, in the area discussed, does not oceur in country which

receives more than 12 of rain per annum,

Exocarpus aphvtla does not occur in the area where the rainfall exceeds 14”

per annum, but oceurs elsewhere ynder conditions of somewhat higher raintall.

Acacia dcinacea, m the three Connties, is restricted to a small area nortiy

vast ol Terowie.

Callitris glauca occurs only in the northern portion of the area. It is found

principally in the ranges north-east of Hallett and Terowie, and also in the ranges

on Pualco.

Codonocarpus pyramidalis in this area is found only in the ranges north-east

of Mount Bryan,

Eremophila oppositifolia does not occur south of the Morgan-Eudunda

railway.

Solunum elliplicum is found only in the far north of the area studied, and

apart from its occurrence in the hills carrying Dodonaea— Eremoplila ~ Acacia

association is restricted to watercourses.

Trichinium obovatum is found only in the far forth of the area and is

limited to skeletal soils.

Goodenia eyclaptera occurs only in the north of the area, Where the rain-

fall is less than about 8” per annum it is restricted to watercourses.

Bassia obliquicuspis is found only in the north of the area and is here on the

southern limits of its range.

Kochia triptera, on sandy soils, grows in country receiving less than 8” pet

annum ia the north-west of the State.

Alriplex stipitutum is very rarely found where the rainfall is less than 8”

per anu.

Schismus barbatus is found only in watercourses and on sand accumulations

where the rainfall is less than 8 per annum. It is near the extreme lower limits

of its range at about this rainfall.

Acacia colletoides does not grow where the rainfall is less than about 8” per

annuin, It is found in the M. platyearpum—K. sedifolia association and the black

oak country oly adjacent to mallee.

Cryptandra amara var. langiflora occurs from Keyneton northwards through

the ranges Lo the hills west of Collinsville.

Anguillaria divica was not recorded below 12” rainfall country in this area,

but it occurs in the north-west of the State on sandy soils in areas receiving about

7” per annum.

Exocarpus cupressiformis and Daviesia wlicina were not recorded in this area

where the rainfall was below 21” per annum, and Thomasia petalocalyx and

Astroloma humifusuat below 22” per aunum, Elsewhere these species occur

under conditions af much lower rainfall.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The writer is much indebted to Mr. B. Glasgow, who prepared all the plans

‘for reproduction.

REFERENCES

1 Beavee, N. C. W. 1947 ‘The Vegetation and Pastures of Western New

South Wales. Govt. Printer, Sydney

2 rack, J. M. Flora of S, Aust. Govt. Printer, Adelaide

3 Crocker, R.L, 1946 C.S.LR. {Aust.) Bull, 193

4 Davinson, J. 1936 Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 60, 88-92

5 Fenner, C, 1930 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 54, 1-36

6 Hossrecv, P,S, 1935 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 59, 16-67

Jessup, R. W.

Piper, C. S.

1946 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, (1), 3-34

1938 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, (1), 53-100

Prescott, J. A.

118-147

1931

C.S.LR. (Aust.) Bull., 52

Prescott, J. A., and Prper, C. S.

1932

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56,

STEPHENS, C. G., ef al. 1945 CS.LR. (Aust.) Bull, 188 ,

TruMete, IT. C.

Woon, J. G.

1937

1937 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 61, 41-62

getation of S.

Aust.,

Govt. Printer, Adelaide

Tas_e VIII

Showing the distributions of the plants growing in the area, x denotes the presence

of the species in the association. The associations are as follows: — (1)

Eucalyptus camaldulensis, (2) Eucalyptus leucoxylon, (3) Casuarina stricta,

(4) E. odorata, (5) Lomandra spp., (6) E, anceps-—E, dumosa, (7) E. oleosa-

E. brachycalyx, (8) E. oleosa—E. gracilis, (9) Eremophila— Dodonaea — Acacia,

(10) Myoporum platycarpum—Kochia sedifolia, (11) Casuarina lepidophloia.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8%) (9) (10) (11) Limit of rainfall

Eutaxia microphylla

oe oe Om OCS de 237"

Astroloma humifisunt - - - 2 jee eee Le pe ee) Yad Anse

Pteridium aquilinum = - - - - x hey yet eS » 24”

Danthonia sctacea - - = * & | wos ¢ © € « %”'s iw “ea”

Cynosurus echinatus = - = - - ox oy ie fs) a SE G » =23"”

Rumex pulchcr = = - - - - x Sm «ss MM ast FS: =

Poa australis - - = > - x ee 1 ee, eT » 22”

Drosera pygmaca- - = = ., oF

Lomandra fibrata - - - - tam wt Sf Mf ff ob, odd id ok Oe! =

Asclepias rotundifolia - - - = & he bb &@ & 3 —

Iris germanica - - = - - x ae ee ee eh eo “a a

Rumex acetosella - - - - = x o an 4 aa?

Daviesia ulicina = - - ~ = Mame “A app aap oo e a we ee =

Acacia rhetinodes - - - - ex & | &£ Fate & & & § ~ (2

Dillwynia floribunda = - - - rp hme ge ee ast PP it “e Cidcs i“ BE

Thomasia petaloclayx - - - me 6 of RR oe tw eet _

Trifolium subterraneum - - ae ee a So Sa » 2l”

(Mt, Barker strain)

Rriza minor - - - - - PER + + ye Ee ye oe Oe Ue OS » 20”

Velleia paradoxa - = - = ns CN ae eS old pees Rae ded aly =

Bromus mollis - - - - a ee ee +f 3 2k”

Geranium pilosuni 2 e - - x x i » of fF M of oe » 19”

Geranium molle - += -— = ie a a Se So» Oe = » 22”

Drosera whittakeri - - - OO £ 8 one woo 5 € 8 a Last

Trifolium glomeratum See odd + e+ + oe we nm on & » 20"

Stipa drummondii - - - a a » 19”

Rosa canina - = - E - ck os Oe oe os Sah 2 4 «619

Acaena ovina - - - - oS ey ee hg ME CR: « 18”

Halorrhagis ciata - - - - x x ¥ + wk ik kee » 17”

Kennedya prostrata - - - 2 te He Ke or we ow hf oof oats » 17”

Scirpus sp. - - - - - er A ah nae the ew 4G de ey eg _—

Aira caryophyliea - - - - x * Fs we ie » 17"

Briza maxima - - - = > x x x Ses eer » 17”

Ranunculus lappaceus - - - See ee Se ee Se . o 8 _

Scleropoa rigida - - - - - «x KX + Ke es ee eh _—

Cheilanthes tenuifolia = - - - sx MP ok cee ow o@ ye 4 7 » =«15"

Casuarina stricta - - - - tPotd es) oy Fh oe me neh ob oe note wh » «14"

Pimelia glauca - - - - “x &© © &© & e 2. 2» & 2 G » 14”

Trifolium angustifolium - - - XxX YM Rw ww - ® » 16"

Hypochaeris radicata - - - - x x ox x + eh ert be = y: » 18”

Trifolium arvense - - - “x x xX x «x i - # » 15"

Themeda australis - ~ - ‘xe x - Sy see ot é » 16"

Bromus madritensis - = - - «x «* - Ox ye » 1?"

Chenopodium carinatum - - - x x x* x*« ® . ‘i —— _

Lolium subulateun = ~ 4 - «x * ee et oy 3» 13”

Moraea xerospatha - - - “x x x & x is % i y» «15

1) (2) (3) ¢4) (8) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) C11) Limit of rainfall

Onopordon acanthium - — - ~- =—- x x * K K 2s 2 6 6 4 wy 2"

Helichrysum apiculatum - - = & 2 Me Se Be Ho » e 6f —

Avena fatua - - - - - - x x xX xX * xX «© © «© © «© » 12”

Anguillaria dioica - - - - - x x xX x * &% © © «© © © —

Cynodon dactylon - - - a ee ee ee ee a a —

Oxalis cernua - - - - ~ x x K xX XK X X © © © « » 14”

Cryptostemma calendulaceum - ex K * © KX K KX ws mw + » =12”

Vulpia myuros - - - - =“ * *£ x © NK 6+ € 6 wf ue —

Lomandra dura - + - . a) x x, 3% x x - . x . , * ” 13”

Acacia pyenantha - - - - = x x x x x +» =» w # «© 6 » 12”

Bromus rigidus - - - - ~ ¢ x 8 KX * ¢ + & KH & A in Bs

Erodium botrys <- - - - - xs Ss xX x* * X& & #8 =X @& 4 ». LO

Hordeum leporinum - - - -~ «* % xX xX X X X © xX «= «6 » 12"

Salvia verbenaca - - . - 7 ® xR RW KY eH KR © + » 14”

Stipa eremophila - - - - =x x x x x «© « x «© & G » 13"

Romulea rosea - - - - met: 3 x eG OR Ee Vee Gi oe 4+ yy aat

Eucalyptus camaldulensis - - - x x x xX xX xX X¥ « x x * » 23”

Stipa variabilis - - - - co x §S © X XX X X * KX + «8 —

Danthonia semiannularis - - - x *« x* x x x* * x «© x x » 8"

Oxalis carniculata - - - “kk x * & © *& «4 * & & » 13”

Vittadinia triloba - - - - - x x x * © x x xs x xX & » 1a"

Convolvulus erubescens - - -x © 4 B@ # * « & & B GF » 10”

Enneapogon nigricans - - - - x x« x © * x x K &*& XK x —

FErechthites quadridentata - - - x * «© &* X& «© «© X &® X X » 4

Wahlenbergia sp. - - - rew x kk! * 4% x 4) 3S ££ K& & » 12”

Echium plantagineum - a - tt ix ‘c& £ £ FO * A a. 12"

Sonchus oleraceus = - - - x © x* xX © + » x X © » 14"

Solanum nigrum - ~ - - = = © x «* © X X& + « Kx * 2 » 14”

Erodium cicutarimm - - - - x x * xX X 5» «© *£ X xX X _

Inula graveolens - = - - ~ =e x + KR MR KX YY we Mm XK B » 13"

Exocarpus cupressiforinis - - ee ee ee ae a a =

Lolium cylindricus - - - mie SM ma Wo yw & & le js a

Calocephalus citreus - - - oy om & mo wo» te it of fF te =

Eucalyptus leucoxylon yar pauperita . .« . , «© «© © «© © «a 4 et

Ulex europaeus - pS . - a a Pe ee ee ee » 19”

Plantago lanceolata - - - +#om & w& de tl te sf th Moe Pte =

Clematis microphylla - - - Pio “e yt to YH ell ty 44 -

Senecia lautus - - - ~ Sel oe ee nt ee ct =

Bulbine bulbosa = - - - - - - & x tt ¢ Bie GG a)

Acacia armata - - - - ok 8 £ R Be Bw ee Re » 14”

Cryptandra amara var - - = =. 4 © & HF 46 w + 2 ee 14-23”

Trifolium tomentosum - - - oe a a ee lower 13”

Heliptcrum jessenii - - - 7 foe x ew xm © He e + 13-22”

Dichopogon strictus - = ~ Se SC SS we HS «+ 4 of Be & lower 16”

Cynara cardunculus - - - 7 ee ee ee ee rr —

Foeniculum vulgare = - - - ee le a eS > “r

Acacia brachybotrya = - ~ - jie oe at Se a. 4D GA Ay 11-21"

Bursaria spinosa - - . - -~ 2. XX & x x * XX x «© 2 4 lower 11”

Helichrysum rettsiim - - = Sif lf SH kb of ow HH ee —=

Triodia irritans - - - - SE Me 3 of tt kl ee OA >

Lomandra muitifiora - - - -.+ * * © ¢ € . & . . lower I0k”

Aristida behriang - - - - - . © . oe # 2 ew ® wo ow » il”

Eucalyptus Jeucoxvloin - - - ses sR S 4,5 SY ey Pf APL) » 18”

Sherardia arvensis - - - a Se ae a » 14”

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) Limit of rainfall

Callitris propinqua - - - 7 2 oo et ek okie «6 3 Yb 9-19"

Medicago trunculata - = = - . x x x x x x x x « « fowerl3?

Dianella revoluta - - - - Pi A ae hee ee Be cor ck oe oe «ae

Rhagodia nutans = - - - - - » * xX X X xX *X X x x - y th”

Trichinium spathulatum - - - + &® © X xX & X xX xX x es —_

Polygonum aviculare = - - ~ — § ee 2 EP: + x x « —

Asphodelus fistillosuy - - - Bin Te Se ew M 3° Bb) ee be RB ad » 12”

QOnopordon acaule - - - - i: i ie oe i a a ee 12"

Carthamus lanatus - - - - * XX % BH OX KX & we x + » =~12"

Dodonaea attenuata ~ - - - ) & # @ + = ww & x =

Enchylaena tomentosa - - - 7 5 6% % XM x x x * S * x upper 21”

Kochia_ brevifolia - - - ~ e A OKk Ok ox oe x 8-20"

Medicago minima - - - - + x x & x © *% = x x» x lower 12"

Euphorbia drunimondii - = - ft, (he x x X xX X x* x x wpper21”

Medicago hispida - - - ~ + em * X © KX x x x x x ~~ Jlowerl3”

Lepidium, hyssopifolium - - - 5 mM © x * © & «© x x » oO”

Schismus barbatus - - = - + MH « ® & xX X X xX =X x upper 17”

Salsola kali - - - - - - *8 © X& X* xX © =x X x x & 3 aoe

Stipa elegantissima - - - 7 5 x x xX * © x x «© x x Iower 8”

Marrubium yulgare = - - - - 4 © x xX x x x x x Xx » 11"

Heliotropium curopacum — - - - x *¥ X x x x x x x upper23”

Sida corrugata ~ - - - 7 1) © oe Rw = wf RF S & » 20"

Scabiosa maritima - - - + - cai ot ocular : =

Rhagodia parabolica = - - - See Do Be ee re 11-17"

Atriplex semibaceatum e - - s+ © © «. © x & x. . 9-18”

Nicotiana glauca - - - - - + # © KR © + K © & x & _

Callistemon terctifolius - - Se ye a os ee ly —

Eucalyptus calcicultrix - - - 24 2 «2 +) ga, ry ft —

Trichinium alopecuroideum - 9fe vost, Ae... oe: 64 a

Acacia spinescens - - = Se See Bee ee ee lower 14”

Lotus australis = - - - = 2 43 = yooh se ft 4 3 —

Cassytha melantha - - - ~ e & 4 ee 4 & «x ta ft —

Lycium ferocissimum = - - - =. - ew wT Rte t tke ws » 10”

Rhagodia crassifolia - . = ob fy fh ath 3 le” —z et at 10-18”

Eucalyptus odorata . - - -—- ¢ «© & x x XS x x x 14-21"

Atriplex muelleri - 4 = - - x xX x « Ko ow. upper 17”

Myoporum platycarpum + - oe oe! i <x te a at oe » =o"

Pittosporum phillyreoides —- = - + + &9 KX + * & X KR xe x sy 16"

Kochia georgei - - - - = os oe eK KW Ee BE K K KX » 14”

Zygophyllum fruticulosun - Ss - = «© 2. x > a a so ars » 17"

Bassia uniflora - - - - ~ 8 5 oe ® eM HM we KX KX K «x » 18”

Cassia sturtii - - - - ee i upper 19”

Kochia aphylla = - - - - slit bef fe ome a eR gy 11-19”

Hakea feticoptera - - - - 4 Xo X + x x x x x upper 15”

Acacia colletaides - - = = = © «© *® » x & x x 8-17"

Cassia eremophila var. platypoda a a a a a a a n upper 14”

Rhagodia gaudichaudiana - = >was A2 4 & x x xX x x »X ar AS"

Erodium cygnorum - = - a x x » 16"

Muchlenbeckia cunninghamii - ee a i a x * x =

Lepidosperma sp. - - - - = Rp uw oe - SS ie —

Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata = “uit + & wv & hve —_

Kochia tomentosa yar. humilis - se el elUlelU UG ‘ 7 —

Salvia aethiopis - = 3 e -~ & 6 Xo. . - 4 _

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (13) Limit of rainfall

Acacia ligulata - - - - Ree te & Nhae x & x - a

Sisymbrium orientale = - ~ - j~ a OY he ee SE We om ‘ os

Eucalyptus largiflorens = - Se a rr ee es ae. —*

Cymbopogon exaltatus - - a <a er —

Acacia oswaldii = - - - - Hj of an Reem oF wm See UX » =14”

Lycium australe - - = - sean he GT Ro we Hh ee ER —

Eremophila longilolia - - - a ee a es »

Rhagodia spinescens = - - - Sle je fe x x © X x x x » =«14"

Acacia victoriae = - - - - ar a ne a eek 7 —

Nitraria schoberi - - - - a a a a a a a

Teucrium racemesum - - - er a re A a | 10-15"

Blennodia_ trisccta - - - ee ee ee oe x & & 8-13"

Bassia sclerolaenoides - £ "3 pou Eo | oe ae EF x x » Upper 13"

Zygophyllum ammophilum - - -~ oO © ff § dt wp wt + we ee = —

Xanthium spinosum = - - - e 4 fe Gs Sic «© * £ —

Citrullus vulgaris - - - . Sere a a x x XX —

Malya parviflora - ~ - - an x + se x x % —_

Eucalyptus anceps - - - se FF ao a + Oe OS J2-144”

Olearia floribunda - - - BS # + 4 KX 6 es 8 4 —

Eucalyptus dumosa - - - 2 ee X 2 F —_

Eremophila divaricata - - - ees x x »e «© «© « —

Acacia notabilis - ae “om 2 Lf Ge DS oe ck +e +e op: 8-15”

Melaleuca pubescens - = ~ ee ee a a a lower 9”

Westringia rigida - - - - eee me * PM & BE Ra 4 9-15”

Grevillea huegeliu - - - - a ee en Se we Se ee oe 815”

Atriplex rhagodiodes = - - - He 6 f¢ + Sak wy % Byres upper 15”

Bassia parviflora - - - - =. rk pe oe mw ey 7-14"

Acacia calamifolia =~ 2 6S ee ee we te + OK eS Sh 9-15”

Eucarya sp. - - - - - er ae se an i Sle ae ae —

Atriplex campanulatum ~ - Se. $$ Be fy te “Sf Sk XLS a

Heterodendron oleticlium - - 3 cs OD TO x x x xX xX »x upper 13

Cassia eremophila - - - Bow eee ow Op OS SS tk OK OK, S » 14"

Nicotiana sp, - - - - a ae a a: ee lower 10”

Reseda luteola - - - - =. 5 £ £ £ so Me mR Ge Lee 8 —

Acacia microcarpa - - - Ps bOe bos bce eosin idet ae ee

Eucalyptus brachycalyx es a ree, eral: ee 103-12”

Chenopodium. desertorum = - - Ce er eee) ee ee =

Chenopodium micraphyllum - - oe Sete" sen FF A S&S bet —

Kochia triptera - - - - wy yp a fy ity “te xe x 7-12"

Olearia muelleri = - - - - Oe es, ee x 3 3-13"

Eucalyptus oleosa - - - - x xX xX + 4 8-16”

Eucalyptus gracilis - - - + sy oe te +t + tt Oe athe Re Te 8-16”

Zygophyllum glaucescets - = = ie tow teh lan 2 lee te ee sey tipper 13”

Mesembryanthemum crystallinum - x b Y : 7

Zygophyllum crenatum - - - 7 om -- -o ot op te & upper 12”

Atriplex stipitatum . - - = op of th ot BE ome nm me Re & 8-12”

Atriplex vesicarium - - Fa “oe & & HOS +» wow ke Oe OX upper 12”

Kochia tomentosa - - - re er ee ee a a eo a » 12"

Atriplex vellutinellum - - ee ee a ae. ee a » 12”

Myoporum deserti - - - SF AP es, Ge CP om ee x Ho OF —

Kochia sedifolia - - - - ooh i ot ae ee Oe SA KR SS Ox » 12”

Eremophila scoparia - - - - - + «= «» - ox x = & » 12”

Exocarpus aphylla - - - oe if te Et bt ob x + x = B » 13"

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (40) (11) Limit of rainfall

Templetonia egena - - - ee a I PD ae 2s co & » «12"

Kochia tomentosa var. appressa - 7 «+ + * + 5 * X X & wp bs

Kochia pyramidata - ew og SO C4 Me HM HH H- & » 13"

Tetragonia expatisa - - - 4 lglg ee OR ae Rk _

Atriplex spongiosum = - - are ce ae) a. Soe ee Ces ie

Dodonaea lobulata - - “ su t & BUR +> a 38 » ¥ =

Acacia acifiacea = - - - - Sg) eth ee te Te ae fe =

Eremophila serrulata = - - - a a ae a) a —

Cassia artemesioides - - > ee ae es ee a —

Callitris glauca - - - - soi i a ws ae + = x L » =45”

Codonocarpus pyramidalis = - - tie £ Q 27 FA" g sow ft —

Eremophila alternifolia - - ms ey a ae e to ot oe OO —

Eremophila oppositifolia - - SP ee ie ks Ce ee es » 10"

Solanum ellipticumn - - - ceee er ete a CUE HE OE —

Trichinium obovatum - - - a Og ee RE ets FAO V8!

Sida petrophila - ~ - - ~ ts PRA es HE KE we S&S FS —-

Chenopodium cristatum - - =P gg etal Pup bee a me - Xe ote. By » 13”

Goodenia cycloptera - - - en Pk On) CO Pe tt SO 8-13"

Cratystylis conocephala - - a Se-§ es me moe Ee oe 6 7-11"

Beyeria leschenaullii = - - - A a ee era ee ne ee ae —

LLepidium leptopctalum - - ee we ee «a o 2 '§ * sO _—

Olearia pimelioides - - - A ee, Ce: ie re —

Blennodia cardaminoides - - » . es Fe 2a Sees. So oat o-

Centaura solstitialis - - - =~ OM nett te kecre Fy xa tt —

Centaurea calcitrapa - ~ - deme cve eee se > A Ree 2 —

Carrichtera annua - - - Sm D> bh te we ee Se Re A) —

Bassia obliquicuspis a - Soe ae Be ee Be RR Mpper dl’

Sida intricata - - - - a ee ee ee Pa a a: ee: =

Atriplex angulatum - - - oe yt se ot it oS OS wp] 2 ae TS » (12"

Bassia paradoxa - - - = BO CA OT of Wwe BY oe ee sf Ad"

Bassia brachyptera - - - “i & S18 2» © a S eR yy eE

Atriplex limbatum - - - — BD up be le OF om cy oe OO —

Babbagia acroptera - = - eee lee we oe OS Re mm ot »

Tragus australianus - - - ~ ee ow & A ® *F =

Paspalidium gracile - - - Pie Koay an | OF Se =

Trnprostis dielsit - - - - Hit ag + 4 oe 5 + Se Op » i"

Lotus australis var. parviflorus - ee a er Sa: a Cos a » UH"

Chenopodium nitrariacewm (sinall leafed

variety) - - - - - “oo. - . . 5 $ : . x x x ee

Chenopodium vitrariaceuim (large leafed

varicty) - - - - - = er er ee a Ge es eee swalnps

Craspedia pleiocephala - - - ZS yt «6 w, +, wh ene at Pace 5 —

Lepidium fasciculatum - - Slee lb et ole Lay we re’ 6 | EEE =

Eremophila maculata - - - aller a ee ee ee ee ee —

Marsilea drummondit - ~ ~ iy Se are aval otal com ©. fart) swamps

water-

Trigonella suavissima - - - —, + % & «w ¢ = B Peeters courses

Lavatera plebeja - - - - 7 5 + te & 3 et are Le =~

Chloris truncata - - - - sg Paw ae TR wre = oS oa

Zygophyllum iodocarpum = - - ee ee RS ee os 8 upper 10”

Euphorbia eremophila - - - Ie. 0'. 4. pts £ 7 A BS xe 8 _——

Eremophila sturtii - - - > HS FP t+ GS “oF “els » 8"

Bassia tricuspis = - - - - ae ee eer, a ed Ta —

(L) ¢2) €3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (12) Limitof rainfall

Stenopetalum lincare = - - - 2 oS @tD te Ste, le

x x —

Tribulus terrestris - = ~ Sr ee» Beek. Gy ote Bab be —

Dactyloctenium radulans = - r Har ap ue we RD et ae ow or Ht =e ny

Casuarina lepidophloia - - - Sh Smee OT te ae a ee de kh a 10”

Kochia planifolia ~ - - - cl a ee Oe ee ee eee » 10”

water-

Erodiophyllum elderi = - - - eC CS <n ee ee ee courses

Kochia tomentosa yar, tenuifolia - - . en ee ie | ee a eee =

Lrichinium alopecuroideum yar, rubri- ,

forum =~ - - - - ote ot heh fh me el i Me OS —_—

EXPLANATION OF PLATES IT—IV

Puiate II

Tig. 1 &. camaldulensis association, Keyneton, The origmal pasture was dominated by

Danthonia semiawinlaris and S Kiva variabilis but overgrazing has resulled in

predominance of annuals like Avena faiua, ITordeum lepormum, Bromus rigidus and

Lrodium totrys.

Fig. 2 E. leucoxylon association, Keyneton, Acacia pycnantha, Stipa variabilis and annual

utasses are the principal associated plants, Danthonia semionnularis is also present

but excessive grazing has resulted in reduction in the amount of Daitthonia and a

Stipa dominant pasture. »

Fig. 3 E. odorata association east of Keyneton. The principal grass is Stipa variabilis.

Vig. 4 Typical Casuarina stricta association west of Sedan near the easterti scarp of the

ranges. The herbaceous species are principally Stipa variabilis and Danthonia

seunapnilaris,

Piate III

Fig. 1 L. ditra—L. multiflora. association south of Burra. The grasses are principally

Danthania semiannularis and Stipa variabilis,

Fig. 2 £, oleosa—. brachycalye association east of Burra. The ussociated shrubs are

Atriplex vesicarium and A. stipitatun,

lig. 3 E, oleasu—P. gracilis association near Sedan, The associated shrub js Cratystylis

conecephala. The bush has been overgrazed and thitmed out resulting in replacement

by the less valuable Bassia decurrens, the plant growing between the remaining bushes.

lig. 4 Eremaphila—D odonaga—Acacia association near Terowie, Note the rock outcrops

and bare ground largely devoid of herbaceous species in foreground,

Piatt 1V

Fig. 1 M. platycurpum—k. sedifolia association, east of Burra. The bluehush has been

heavily grazed and the stand thinned to sume extent, The grass is Stipa nitida.

Fig. 2 Casuarina lepidophlota scrub north-west of Morgan, Associated with the black oak

is K.sedifolia which has heen very heavily grazed. The grass is Shpa nitida.

Mg. 3 Growth of Stipa nitida (spear grass) on country which oringinally carried bluebush,

Braemar Station,

Big. 4 Overgrazed bluebush country. The land in the background has been cofitour ploughed

to stop ruu-off of water. Photo taken following abnormally good seasons but the

soil in the foregrotind has nut respnded to the rains, Loss of surface soil by wind

erosion has left a mantle of limestone pebbles on the surface of the soil, Plants

in middle [oreground are Sida intricate, Paratuo Station.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1948 Vol. 72, Plate TI

Roy. Soc. 5.

Aust.,

1948

Pig,

Vig,

AUSTRALIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND S., J. EDMONDS

Summary

The three species of echinorhynchs described in this paper were collected from birds. One

(Centrorhynchus horridus Linst.) had been previously recorded from the Bismarck Archipelago; the

second, Polymorphus biziurae, is described as new, and an account is given of its larval stage; the

third, Gordiorhynchus hylae, is considered to be the adult stage of a larva described many years ago

(Johnston 1912; 1914) from Eastern Australian frogs.

AUSTRALIAN ACANTHOCEPHALA

No. 7

By T. Harvey Joinston and S, J, Epmowns +

[Read 13 May 1948]

(Fig, 1-20)

The three species of echinorhynchs described in this paper were collected

from birds, One (Cealrorhynchus horridus Linst,) had been previously recorded

from the Bismarck Archipelago; the sccond, Polymarphus biziurac, is described

as new, and an account is given of its larval stage; the third, Gordiorhynchus

hylae, 1s considered to be the adult stage of a larva described many years ago

(Johnston 1912; 1914) from Eastern Australian frogs.

Parasite Host Locality

Centrorhynchus horridus (Linst.) IHalcyon sanctus - - Old., N.S.W,

Palymorphus biziurae n. sp. - Bisiura lobata - - Sth. Aust.

latval stage - ~ = - Cherax destructor - - Sth. Aust.

Gordiorhynchis hylae (Justn.) - Podargus strigoides ~ Sth. Aust.

larval stage - = - - Ltmnodynastes dorsalis - Sth. Aust.

ip wom tl lle Aylaaureen - - - Sth Aust., NSW.

Wo ase Ft st - = Hyla caerulea -~ « Old.

We wish to acknowledge aur indebtedness to Professor J. B. Cleland of

Adelaide; Mr. J. T. Gray of Orrorao, S. Aust.; Messrs, G. G. and B. Jaensch

of Tailem Bend; and Mr. I.. Ellis of Murtay Bridge, for assistance in ubtaining

material.

Type and typical specimens have been deposited in the South Australian

Museum, No. 6 of this series of papers was published by us in the Records of

the South Australian Museum, 8, (4), 1947, 555-562.

CENTRORAYNCIUS HoRRIDUS (von Linstow, 1897)

Some material collected in 1919 by Dr, J. B, Cleland from the intestine of

fialcyon sanctus at. Stradbroke Island, Queensland, was examined by us and found

to contain one male, four females and some fragments of this species. The

specimens were not in a good state of preservation and have not cleared well. They

are long and cylindrical and taper slightly towards the posterior extremity, The

male is 9°3 mm. long and 0°8 mm. wide and the maximum dimensions of the

females are, length 13-5 mm, and breadth 1:0 mm. The proboscis of the hest pre-

setved specimen is 0°55 mm, in length, It consists anteriorly of a cylindrical

portion, 0°27 mm, long and 0-16 mm. wide, and posteriorly of a region 0°28 min.

jong, the diameter of which gradually increases as it approaches the body of the

worm. The maximum width of this posterior portion is 0-28 mm. We have

not been able to determine the number of longitudinal rows of hooks. Each row,

however, seems to consist of about 14 or 15 hooks. Their shape and arrange-

ment resemble closely those of C. horridus given by Meyer (1932, fig. 102).

The proboscis sheath is about 0-8 mm. long, is double-walled, and arises at about

the level of the seyenth or eighth hook. Two ellipsoidal testes of length

0°55-0°60 mm. and maximum width 0-35 mm, are situated in tandem in the

anterior third of the male. The cement glands are long, cylindrical and pressed

* University of Adelaide.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust., 72, (1), 23rd August, 1948

Fig. 1-9 Polymorphus bizturae

1, adult male; 2, adult female; 3. proboscis; 4, proboscis hooks 1-3 of each row,

from large female; 5a hook 5, from large female; 5b hook 5 from small male;

6 female genitalia; 7 eggs; 8 cyst from Cherax destructor; 9, everted male larva.

Fig. 10-11 Gordiorhynchus hylae

10, everted femate larva from Ligwnodymastes dorsalis; 11, some books from larvae.

References to letteriig—b, Initsa; cg, cement gland; cw, cyst wall; fo, female

aperture: gg, genital gland cell; Ja, lacunar vessel; 1, jemniscus; n, neck;

p, proboscis ; ps, proboscis sheath; sph, sphincter; sp, Saefftigen’s pouch; t, testes;

u, uterus; ub, uterine bell; vd, vas deferens; vs, vesicula seminalis,

together. The male opening is terminal. Qvarial ttasses yatying in diameter from

0:10 to 0-22 mm. are present in the females. The body cavity of two of the

females contains eggs, which are 36-44 » long and 14-18, wide. We have not

been able to determine whether they are mature,

Our specimens agree closely in most details with {the description nf

C. horridus as piven by Marval (1905) and Meyer (1932, 119-20). In their

census of Australian Acanthocephala, Johnston and Deland (1929, 149) reported

that Echinorhynchus sp. probably E. Aerridus, had been collected from /Taleyon

sanctus in New South Wales hy the senior author (Johnston 1910, 105). Tra-

vassos (1926, 58) transferred the species to Prosthorhynchus, and Meyer (1932,

119) to Centrarhynchus.

Polymorphus biziurae n, sp,

big. 1-9

About fifty specimens of this parasite m stages of development ranging

from larvae with cyst wall still attached, to adults, have been collected on different

occasions fram musk ducks, Biztiwa lobala, obtained for us by G, G, and

PB. Jaensch, and L. Ellis at Tailem Bend on the River Murray. The males and

the younger females are white, but the mature females are orange in colour,

Both the males and females are constricted slightly mm the antevior part of

the body.

ADULTS

The length of the males is 6°2-0°0 mm. and that of the egg-bearing females

1111-182 mm. The maximum width of the males is 0'8-1™4 mm. and that of the

females 1*7-2-8 min, The proboscis is cylindrical and in most casts it ts slightly

swollen in the posterior half. The proboscis of the specimens in our collection

shows considerable variation in length, viz., O-44-0-94 mm., that of the female

it. most cases being larger than that of the male. The maximum width of the

proboscis ig 0-26-0°35 mm. It is armed with 21-22 longitudinal rows, each of

9-11 hooks. The anterior five hooks of each row bear well-developed, posteriorly-

directed rooting processes. The shape and size of some of these hooks tm the case

of a large female are shown in fig, 4. and 5a, Fig, 5a and 5b show the relative

sizes of jdetitically situated hooks fram a large female and small male respectively.

Between the proboscis and the body there is an tmarmed neck which, when fully

extended, is 0°6-0°9 mm. long. In most of the specimens the neck is wholly or

purtly retracted. The anterior part of the body immediately behind the neck in

both sexes bears a large number of mintite spines. The proboscis sheath is

double-walled and arises in the anterior portion of the neck, Tts length is

1°3-2'°3 mm, There are two lemnisci which appear to be from one to one and

half times as long as the proboscis sheath, The body wall is thick and contains

numerous small muclei. The lacunar system consists of two longitudinal collect-

ing vessels from which smaller anastomosing vessels arise.

Two ellipsvidal testes of approximately equal size lie in the anterior half of

the male. Their Jength is 0-60-0-87 mm., and their maxinium breadth

0°28-0°-35 mm, Four long tubular cement glands arise near the level of the

posterior testis. The bursa bears two anteriorly directed diverticula and the male

opening 1s terminal,

The stricture of the female reproductive organ is shown in fig. 6. The

uterine bell is 0°35-0°43 mm. long and the uterus proper 171-1'6 mm. long. ‘The

vaginal sphincter is double and a gland cell surrounding the female aperture ts

in some cases very conspicuous, 50 that the vaginal camplex then appears to consist

of three bulbs. The female opening is terminal. Ripe eggs mounted in balsam are

58-65 w lome and 29-34 » wide and are without polar prolongations.

We regard this parasite as a new species of the genus Polymorphus. It

resembles rather closely P. cucullatus Van Cleave and Starrett (1940, 349) and

P. metabilis (Rudolphi 1819). Jt differs from the former in the number of

proboscis hooks and from the latter in the size and the shape of its egg.

Encystep Form, JuveniLtes AND IntERMEDIATE Host

Our material from 8. lobata contains a number of eyerted larvae of

P. bizivrae with cyst wall still attached to the parasite. Measurements made on

one male and one female larva after mounting in balsam are given below. Fig. 9

shows an everted male.

We have on a number of occasions obtained specimens of the yabbie, Cherax

dest¥uctor, and yabbic fragments from the stomach and intestine of B. lobata,

Fronr seme of these yabbies and fragments we have dissected out Palymorphus

eysts. Our records show ihat from yabbies in the stomach and intestine of

B, lobata or from those collected in the swamps at Tailem Bend, we obtained in

October 1938, two Polymorphus cysts; October 1939, two; December 1941, one;

March 1942, one; and March 1948, one. Measurements made of these cysts

mounted im balsam show them to be ihe same as those cyst walls attached to the

everted laryae of P_bigivrae in the intestine of B. lobata. This evidence indicates

that the yabbie, Cherax destructor, is the intermediate host of P, bisiurae, the

aduit form of which occurs in the musk duck, Biziura lobata.

An attempt to infect a yabbie with the eggs of P. biziurae carried ant in the

aquarium of the Zoulogy Department of the University of Adelaide gave nega-

tive results. Perhaps the eggs of the parasite after laying require a period for

further development before becoming infcctive.

Confirmatory evidence, however, that Cherax desiruclor is the intermediate

host of P. bigiwrae comes from the following facts. At Tailem: Bend in April

1947, laryae of P. bisiurae along with yabbies were obtained from the stomach

of the cormorant, Microcarba méelonoleucns. Five larvae with everted proboscis

were also obtained from the rectum of this bird. At the same locality in

December 1947 one cyst of P. biztwrae along with shrimp and yabbie fragments

was found in the gizzard of the spoon-bill, Plotalea flavipes, and three larvae with

fully everted proboscis were found in the lower intestine of the bird. The

cormorant and the spoon-bill seem to be unsmilalle as final hosts for this parasite,

since the juveniles found in the rectum of these birds had not undergone anv

development beyond that seen in the cysts from the yabbie, although the proboscis

had become everted.

The following table gives the measurements (in millimetres) made on the

larvae from different birds and on the cysts contained in the yabbie.

Everted larvae Everted laryae from Eyerted Jaryae from

Cyst an C henge jromintestine of rectum of Micro- rectuin of Plirfalee

destructor

Risinra labate — curbo melanoleucus flavipes

male female male female male female

Cyst membrane >

length - - - 22 -24mm. 24mm. 242mm, 22mm. 20mm. 2Intun. 19mm,

breadth ~ — 0-46-1-1 0-90 0-89 <4 fOr (a2 (8s

Length of werm 4-4 4-9 deh 3-6 4-2 48

Maximum breadth 8 0-7 10 1-1 OF Oo

Proboseis, length 0-65 0-80 0°67 0-75 ego Oat

Testes, length - Q+4 O42 0-35

Testes, breadik - 0-2 02 Ord

Fig. 12-20 Gordiorhynchus hylae

12. portion of male; 13, adult female; 14, proboscis; 15, some proboscis hooks

from adult female; 16, proboscis haoks showing changes in form of the rooting

processes; 17, L.S, male, showing inter pseudo-segmentation; 18, T.S. male

showing six cement glands; 19, vaginal complex; 20, exes.

The cysts from the crustacean may have one end slightly wider than the other

aud both extremitics have a wide shallow depression, one of which contains the

genital aperture. These larvae evert the proboscis if placed in tresh water. We

have wot found these larvae in any othet animal living in the swamps.

GoxninknyxcHts HYtag (Johnston) Johnston and Edmonds

Fig. 10-20

Four female and two male specimens of this echinorhynch were found in

the intestine of Poedargus sirigvides at Orroroo, South Australia, in May 1939,

by Mr. J, T. Gray. The wortns are Jong, cylindrical and widest in the posterior

region. Both sexes exhibit inner pseudo-segmentation of the type shown by

Cordiorhyichus clitorideus Meyer (1930). The posterior extremity of the female

ig much swollen and rounded, and near the female genital opening there is a small

epidermal protuberance, The body of both sexes is smooth.

The length of the males is 48-52 im., and the maximum width E:1-1-3 mim.

The length of the females i; 56-81 mm., and the maximum breadth 14-18

weusttred just in front of the rounded bulb at the posterior extremity of the wortn-

The diameter of this bulb is 1°9-2°5 mm, The proboscis is smal} in comparison

with the length of the parasite. Its length is 0°55-0°65 mm.. and its maximum

breadth 0°37-0'43 mm, Its width at the anterior extremity is 0°12-0-13 mm,

Between the proboscis and the body there js a short tinarmed neck 0°10-0-15 nim.

long and 0:30 mm. wide, In the largest fernale the total length of the proboscis

and neck ig 0°75 mm, The proboscis is armed with 26-28 longitudinal rows, each

of ten hooks, The first five hooks of each row are largest and possess well-

developed posteriorly-directed rooting processes. These rooting processes of

hooks six and seven are much reduced and an antcriorly-directed process appears.

It hooks eight, nine and ten the processes are anteriorly directed. Fig. 15 and 16

show the general arrangement and size of some of the preboscis hooks. Occa-

sionally a slight yariation in the shape and arrangement of the hooks in a row

observable, e.g., fig. 15, hook 5a, ‘The proboscis sheath is double-walled and is

inserted at the level of the tenth hook, ‘The point of insertion of the sheath, there-

fore, does not divide the armed portion of the proboscis into two parts as is the

case with the genera Centrorhynchus Lithe 1922 and Gordiarhynchus Meyer 1931.

The width of the outer wall of the sheath is about 20 p, and its length 1+1-1-6 mm.

fn one male specimen the sheath is yery much constricted near its middle. The

lemnisci are about 3-4 mm. long. There is one long and well-developed lacunar

vessel From which anastomosing vessels arise. The hody wall is thick and consists

of aii Outer epidermal layer surrounditig layers of circular and longitudinal muscle

tissue. No nuclei were noticed in it. Transverse and longitudinal sections show

that in both sexes an inner pseudo-segmentation is present similar tu that gecurring

in the female of G, clilorideus. The structure of the pseudo-segmentation of the

nale is shown in fig, 17.

Two tong and ellipsoidal testes of approximately equal length lie in tandem

in the afiterior half af the worm, Their dimensions are length 1°2-2°2 mm., and

maximum breadth 0-42-0°60 mm, There appear to be six tubular cement glands

pressed closely together, Four of these arise near the posterior testes. The

cement reservoirs are loug. The bursa bears two anteriorly directed diverticula

and the male opening is terminal.

All the females in our collection are densely packed with eggs and ovarial

masses, and we have not been able to trace completely the female genitalia. The

vaginal complex consists of three bulbs, and the genital opéting, marked by ©

swelling of the epidermis, is sub-terminal. As is the case in G, cliforideus the

ovarial masses develop in the larger, presumably dorsal, segments. Ripe eggs

are ellipsoidal and when mounted in balsam are 54-60 long and 24-28 » wide.

They are without polar prolongations. The nucleus in some of the eggs s€ems in

be dumb-bell-shaped.

Systematic Position

The genus, Gordiorhynchus, as conceived by Meyer (1931, 120-22), consists

of Centrorhynchinae with inner pseudo-segmentation in the female and with an

appendix near the female aperture. The sub-family, Centrorhynchinae Meyer

1931, consists of these Polymorphidae in which the insertion of the proboscis

sheath divides the proboscis into two parts. Both the male and female specimens

in our material show inner pscudo-segmentation, and the females possess a struc-

lure near the genital opening which seems to correspond to the appendix of

G, elitorideus, Internal pseudo-segmentation in male specimens of the genus,

Gordiorhynchus, has already been recorded in the case of G, falconiz Johnston

and Rest (1943, 229). The proboscis of the parasites in our collection, however,

is not divided intu two portions by the proboscis sheath, The double-walled

sheath in each of our specimens arises at the level of, or just posterior to, the

level of the tenth hook af cach row. We consider that the conception of the

genus. Gordiorhynrhus, should he witened to include echinorhynehs with inner

pseudo-segmentation in one or both sexes.

Evcysted Kori

From time to time during class dissections in Adelaide University white

acanthocephalan cysts have been obtained [rom the mesentery of the frogs,

Limnodynastes dorsalis and Hyla aurea, The presence of these cysts in H. aurea

in New South Wales and H. caerulea in Brisbane has alrcady been reported by

the senior author (Johnston 1912, 84-85; 1914, 83-84), who described the species

(1914) as Echinorhynchus frylae, Meyer (1932, 252) placed the species amongst

Acanthocephala incertae sedis. We have found that in many cases the proboscis

of the encysted parasile can be made to evert if the cyst is freed from the mesen-

tery and placed in fresh water. Fig. 10 shows a female specimen in the everted

condition, The size of the proboscis and the shape, size and arrangement of the

proboscis hooks show that this parasite is the encysted form of the worm which

we have ubtained {rom Podargus striqoides. The shape and size of some of the

proboscis hooks of the larvae are shown in fig. 11 and are drawn to the same

scale as thost of the adult shown in fig. 15 and 16. The following measurements

haye been made on the cysts and the everted larvae. Length of cyst 1-38-

1-70 imm., and maximum breadth 0°45-0-63 rim. Length of proboscis 0°58-

0°63 mm., and maxitoum width 0-35-0'40 mm., and armed with 28 longitudinal

tows each of ten hooks. Length of Jarvae 2°1-3:0 mm, and maximum width

0°45-0°65 mm.

It seems to us probable that the adult stage will be found in other nocturnal

predatory birds, since Podurgus is not a common bird in the localities from which

infected frogs were oblained, Travassog (1926, 43) and Meyer (1932, 117)

muentioned that the larva of Cen/rorhynchus lummidulus occurred in certain frogs

and snakes.

LiTRRATURE

Jonnston, T. H. 1910 On Australian avian entozoa. Jour. Proc. Roy. Sue

N.S.W., 44, 84-122

Jownxstoxs, T, 11, 1912 Notes on some Entozoa. Proc. Roy, Soc Qld, 24,

63-YL

Jounston, T, H. 1914 Some new Queensland Endoparasites. Proc. Roy.

Soc. QOld., 26, 76-84

Jounston, T. H., and Brest, E. W. 1943 Australian Acanthocephala No. 4.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 67, 226-230

Jounston, T. H., and Deranp, E, W. 1929 Australian Acanthocephala No. 1.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 53, 146-154

Jounston, T. H., and Epmonps, S. J. 1947 Australian Acanthocephala No. 6.

Rec. S. Aust. Museum, 8, (4), 555-562

Marvat, L. 1905 Monographie des Acanthocephala des Oiseaux. Rey. Suisse

Zool, 13

Meyer, A. 1930 Gordiorhynchus, ein neues Acanthocephalen Genus mit

innerer ovarialer Pseudo-segmentierung. Zool. Jahrb., 60, (1), 457-470

Mever, A. 1932 Acanthocephala, in Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des

Tierreichs, Bd. IV, 2 Abt., 2 Buch., 62-73, 119-120, 120-122

Travassos, L. Contribuicoes, etc. Revisao dos Acanthocephalos brasilieros, H,

Fam. Echinorhynchidae, ete. Mem. Instit. Osw. Cruz, 19, (1), 31-125

(Separate, pp.1-97)

Van Creave, H. J. 1945 A new species of the Acanthocephalan Genus, Poly-

morphus. Jour. Parasit., 31, 128-130

Vaw Cieave, H, J., and Srarrert, W. C. 1940 Acanthocephala of Wild

Ducks. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 59, 348-353

CESTODES FROM AUSTRALIAN BIRDS I. PELICANS

By T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND HELEN GOLDTHORP CLARK

Summary

Three new species of cestodes belonging to the genus Hymenolepis have been obtained from the

only Australian species of pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus Temm. Our present material was

collected from eight birds, all from Tailem Bend, South Australia, Messrs. G. G., Fred., and Bryce

Jaensch of that town, and Mr. L. Ellis, now of Murray Bridge, assisting us very generously. The

material was obtained whilst we were engaged in other parasitological research work, carried out

with the assistance of the Commonwealth Research Grant to the University of Adelaide. Types of

the new species have been deposited in the South Australian Museum.

CESTODES FROM AUSTRALIAN BIRDS

I. PELICANS

Dy T. Warvey Jounston and Herex Gotpruorr CrAng *

[Read 13 May 1948]

Fig. 1-17

Three new species of cestodes helonging to the genus Hymenolepis have been

obtained from the only Australian species of pelican, Pelecanus conspicillatus

Temm. Our present material was collected from cight birds, all from Tailem

Bend, South Australia, Messrs. G. G., Fred, and Bryce Jaensch of that town,

and Mr. L. Ellis, now of Murray Bridge, assisting us very generously. The

material was obtained whilst we were engaged in other parasitological research

work, carried out with the assistance of the Commonwealth Research Grant to

the University of Adelaide, Types of the new species. have been deposited in

the South Australian Museum.

Hymenolepis murrayensis n. sp.

(Fig. 1-8)

This cestode was found in four of the eight birds examined. Egg-bearing

worms were 90-185 mm. long by 0-75-83 mm. in maximum breadth. Segments

are broader than Jong, but in those which are gravid, the relative difference in

dimensions iy less marked,

The small scolex is distinctly marked off from the heck and measures

O-t7--25 mm, in diameter. The rostellar sac is 0*08 mm. wide and extends back

as far as the posterior margin of the suckers. The rostellum has 20-22 hooks

of two sizes and differing in shape (fig. 2, 3), the larger being 0-02 and the

smaller -016 mm. in total length (ie., the distance between two parallel lines

placed one at each end of the hook). The hemispherical or ellipsoid suckers

measure (08-1 by -1--12 mm,

The unilateral genital pores lie in the middle of the edge of the segment.

Elliptical calcareous corpuscles are scattered through the cortex. The ventral

excretory canal of the poral side has a diameter ahout ten times that of the dorsal

vessels. The yentral canal of the aporal side ig very much narrower than its

fellow. The excretory ducts pass below the venital ducts,

The testes develop before the ovary. Very early segments exhibit the out-

lines of the three testes and the cirrus sac, and those with mature testes show

an inimature ovary and yolle gland, while in later segments with a well-developed

ovary the testes either are degetierating or have disappeared. One testis lies on

the poral side of the segment, the other two on the aporal, one gland being more

anterior and lateral than the other (fig, 4). In segments in which the ovary is

just developing, the organs are about 0-11 mm, in diameter. The internal and

external seminal vesicles can be seen most clearly in segments with a mature

ovary and disintegrating testes. The external vesicula is retort-shaped and lies

between the cirrus sac and the testes. Between the two vesicles is a coiled portion

of the vas deferens, The internal vesicle occupies most of the length of the

cirrts sac, and narrows gradually tq the ejaculatory duct. The long narrow cirrus

sac, which has a well-developed muscular wall, ‘extends obliquely across three-

fourths of the width of the segment and slightly under the overhanging part of

the preceding segment. It measures 0'36-°37 by ‘08-09 min, in segments with

*University af Adelaide.

"Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust... 72, (1), 23rd August, 1948

doe

=\orm

*Tinm 3

-2mm

Fig. 1-8, Hymenolepis murrayensis: 1, scolex; 2, 3, rostellar hooks; 4, segment

with mature testes; 5, segment with mature ovary; 6, gravid segment; 7, 8,

sezments from contracted strobilae. Fig, 2 and 3 to same scale; 4, 5,8 to same scale.

esy, external seminal vesie’e: ex, excretary canal; gp, gemtal pore; isv, internal

acminal vesicle; a, ovary; pr, prostate glands; rs, receptaculum seminis; t. testis;

u, uterus; v, ‘vitellarium,

mattire testes, and 0°44--52 by :075--08 mm. in those with a mature ovary, There

is a chitinized ring around the opening Gf the sac into the genital atrium,

The ovary arises between the three testes and teaches its maxinium size

(0°25-'3 mm. in diameter) when the testes arc degenerating (fig, 5). It has

15-20 well-marked lobes. The yolk gland is compact, The large chitinized

seminal receptacle, 0+154 by +113 mm., lies ventrally in front of the ovary, and,

together with the cirrns sac, persists in gravid segments, The vagina travels

behind the cirrus sac and parallel with it from the receptaculum to the genital

atrium. The utertis arises as two lobes, one on either side of the ovary, but the

organ later fills the seyment and extends beyond the Jongitudinal excretory canals

(fig. 6}. Eggs measure about 0-04 by “3 nim., the oncospheres 0-02 by ‘614 mm.,

and the hooklets 8 long,

dn this species the ratio of length to breadth of segments varies consider-

ably acearding to the degree of contraction, and correlated with this the testicular

arrangement shows variation, In strubilae with very short contracted segments

the three testes lie almost in a Straight line and the excretory canals are sinuous,

but the number and sizes of the hooks agree with those of the more relaxer

worms. Occasionally a strobila has some segments with a linear arrangetnent of

the testes, whilst in others one aporal testes lies in front of the other, Some

strobilae are more elongate, with segments squarish or even longer than beoatl,

The only other species of Hymenolepis with 20-22 hooks, described from

Pelecaniform birds is H. suedici Stossich, but the latter has hooks 0-03 mmm. long,

and its very large cirrus sac extends below the overlapping part of the preceding

segment tu its anterior aporal corner, and there is no aporal excretory canal

(Fuhrmann, 1906, 749), Hy, fictitia Meggitt (1927 a) has 24 hooks, 34-39 j. and

48-52 win length. H. wagniuncinata Meggitt (1927 b) has more that ten hooks

measuring 39 p, and H. parvicirrasa Meggitt (1927 b) has more than 14, measur-

ing 43-48 », these two species being thus differentiated from H. murrayensis by

the sizes of their hooks. In JZ, phalacrocorax Woodland (1929) originally

described as unarmed, the testes lie outside the longitudinal excretory canals,

According to Hughes’ key to species of the genus (1941), H, murrayensis would

be placed near H. ficfitia.

Hymenolepis jaenschi mh. Sp.

(Fig, 9-13)

This species was found in the eight pelicatss mcamined, Egg-bearing worms,

measure 40-85 um. Tong and 62-67 num in inaximum breadth, with segments

broader than lung.

The scolex (fig. 9), 0-3-'39 mm), in diameter is sharply marked off from the

neck. The rostellar sac, 0‘07 mm. wide, and 0-16--24 tuni. long, extends bavk to

the posterior qargin of the suckers. The everted rostellunt is 0-22 by 025 nim,

and has 14 hooks in two alternating series, the larger hooks being 0-028 and the

smaller O-OL8 mm. long (fig 10,11). The suckers are abuut 0-2 mm. in eiamwter

er O-14 by *18 mm, if elongate. The anilateral enital pores are at, or slightly

in front of, the middle of the segment margin, The poral ventral longitudinal

excretory canal is about 0°022--026 mm, ‘n diameter, while the aporal and (he

two dorsal canals are very nartow. Calearenus corpuscles are abtindant.

The testes and ovary appear at about the sane time in young seemichts, hut

the former tend to persist in seements in which the developing uterus lias dis-

placed the ovary. One testis is aporal, two lie in the extreme posteriol region

uf the segment, the other aporal lestis lying in front uf the ovary, “F hey measure

0-064--08 mim, in diameter. The external seminal venicle is rounded o aval,

42nim

jor 13

“3m

nschis 9 seolex; 10, 11, rostellar hooks; 12, mature

segment; 13, segment with developing uterts.

Fie. 9-13—ITwwnenole p is fae

Fig. 14-17—Ayoenolepis ellisi: 14, segment with mature testes ; 15, segments with

mature ovaries; 16, gravid segmentt 17, segment from contracted strohila, Fig, 9,

12, 13 to same stale; fig, 10, 115 fiz. 14 and 17.

O-058--078 by -O5 mimi: the internal vesicle is elongate and may reach 0-05-

O16 mm, The thin-walled citrus sac lies year the anterior margin of the seg-

ment atid parallel with it; it measures 0-26-29 by O-05--06 mm., and extends

almost to the aporal exerctory canal. There is a well-defined ring of small spines

‘round the opening of the cirrus sac into the atriuin, and the adjacent base of

the cirrus is also provided with smatl spines for a distance of 0-05-10 imum,

The eyary lies inv the midregion of the segment between the testes and slightly

toward the aporal side, Jts two main lobes are subdivided ite a total of about

8-10 lobules, It measures 0°052--11. The large chitinized receptaculinn lics

behind the ovary, near the two posterior testes and dorsally to the yolk ¢land: it

Measures up to 0°073 by *054 min. in seements containing testes and uterus, The

vagina Uravely forwards From the receptaculim and then parallel with the cirrus

Sacto the atrium. In gravid segments, the bilobed sac-like ulerus fills the medulla

and extends beyond the excretory ducts, It is about 0-4 min. long and 0-5 min,

broad, Eggs measure O04 by O°3 min, and ihe ohcospheres 0-02 by 0-15 mm.,

With hooklets 8 long,

We do not know of ay species of Hymenolepis with 14 hooks described from

Pelecaniform birds. #7. magmuicinata Meggitt (1927) and FH. parcicirrosa

Meggitt (1927b) have already heen anentioned above, but theit hooks ditfer in

number atid size From those of H. jeenschi. Lf grouped according to Llughes’

key (1941). 1. jaeusehi would Approach Hl, fictitia Meggitt, a species with 24

hooks, 0-034--039 and 0°04--052 inn, long.

Hymenolepis ellisi n.sp,

(Fie. 14-17)

The material consists of three fragments without scolices, collected in

August 1942. They include mature and gravid segments and measure 60, 70

and 100 mnt. in length, with breadths of QO-72, 1-04 and +065 mm. Tespectively-

Most segments are broader than long, put those which are gravid tend to be

syuarish of even lounger than broad. The genital aperture is al about the middle

of the margin,

The three round or elliptical testes (*063-"08 mm.) develop before the uvary-

One is poral. the other two aporal, one of the latter being anterior ie, and nearer

the aporul edge of the segment than, the other, The external seminal yesicle lies

aporally behind the end of the cirrus sac aud measures O-1-0-2 by ‘08--00 mm.,

or exceptionally 0-2 by 0-12 mm. The yas then continues as a narraw tube into

the cirrus sac where it widens into a long internal seminal vesicle, 0-03-04 mm.

wide and varying in length according to its contents. The long ejaculatory duet

is coiled when the cirrus is retracted, The cirrus sac is large and thin-walled

and my ctitve to form an are with its concavity directed posteriorly, or ij may

appear ly project into the preceding segment: The organ measures 0-42--48 by

“075-085 i. seginents with mature testes, and imay reach 0-5-*7 hy -O7—-11 mm.

in gravid segments. Surrounding its opening into the large deep atrium isa ring

bE small spines, and the series is continued on the base of the cirrus. These

spines become detached readily.

The greaily lohed ovaty lics in the middle of the section. It arises between

the three testes, but the latter disappear by the time the ovary reaches its maximum

size (O25 mm. in width), The slightly lobed yolk gland measures 0'1-+}3 by

07-09 mm, The thick-walled receptaculum lies between the ovary and cirrus sac,

and measures 0109-11 by -145--16 tum. The wide vagina (average breadth

-035, maximunr ‘O44 mm.) les behind and parallel with the cirrus sac, anil

becomes slightly coiled as it passes ventrally to enter the receptaculum, The

uterus arises as two lobes, one on either side of the ovary, but when fully

developed it forms a sac filling the medulla and extending beyond the excretory

canals. Eggs measure about 0°04 by -03 mm., the oncospheres 0°02 by "015 mm.,

and the hooklets 7 in length.

Gravid fragments collected on another occasion probably belong to this

species because of the resemblance of the external seminal vesicle, receptaculum,

wide vagina, deep atrium, spined cirrus, and ring of spines around the opening

of the cirrus sac into the atrium. The maximum width of these segments was

0-09-1:3 mm., and the cirrtis sac measured 0:6-'75 by 0°8 mim.

This species differs from H. murrayensis in its spiny cirrus, thin-walled

cirrus sac and the ring of spines around the outer aperture of the latter. It

differs from H. jaenschi in its much larger cirrus sac, the position of the receptacu-

lum, the disappearance of the testes before the ovary reaches its maximum size.

The lack of a scolex prevents further comparison. The very large citrus sac

distinguishes it from all other Hymenolepis spp., from Pelecaniformes except

H. medici Stossich. In his account of the latter, Fuhrmann (1906) did not give

the measurement of the sac, but stated that it was very large, extending to the

aporal anterior corner of the preceding segment or else bending into an arc in its

own segment. The internal anatomy of the two species is rather similar, The

finding of a scolex of H. ellisi should permit a decision as to the identity or

otherwise of the two species.

LITERATURE

FuurmMann, O. 1906 Die Hymenolepisarten der Vogel, I. C. Bakt. Orig.,

42, 730-755

Hucues, R. C. 1941 A Key to the Species af Tapeworms in Hymenolepis.

Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc,, 60, 378-414

Mavuew, R. P. 1925 Studies on the Avian Species of the Cestode Family,

Hymenolepididae, Illinois Biol. Monogr., 10, (1), 125 pp.

Meceitt, F. J. 1927a On Cestodes collected in Burma. FParasitol., 19, 141-

153

Mecoitt, F. J. 1927b Report on a Collection of Cestodes, mainly from

Egypt, Part II, Cyclophyllidea, Family Ilymenolepididae, Parasitol.,

19, 420-448

Woon.anb, W. N. F. 1929 On some new Avian Cestodes from India. Para-

sitol., 21, 168-179

THE GENUS TRAGARDHULA BERLESE 1912 (ACARINA,

TROMBICULIDAE)

By H. WOMERSLEY

Summary

In 1904 Tragardh (Results Swedish Zool. Exped. To Egypt and the White Nile 1901) described

Trombidium niloticum from both larvae and adults found in apparent association and in large

numbers on the leaves of an aquatic plant (Pistia stratiotes) on the White Nile (coll. Gebel Ahmed

Aga 20 March 1901).

THE GENUS TRAGARDHULA BERLESE 1912 (ACARINA, TROMBICULIDAE}

By If. Womersrey

[Read 10 June 1948]

Fig, 1 A-G, fig. 2A-J

ia 1904 Trivardh (Results Swedish Zool. Exped. to Egypt and the White

Nile 1901) described Trombidinm nileticum from both larvae and adults found

in apparent association and in Jarge numbers on the leaves of an aquatic plant

(Pishie stratiotes) on the White Nile (coll, Gehel Ahmed Aga 20 March 1901).

For these larvae Oudemans 1911 (Entom. Ber., 3, (57), 123) erected the

genus Slaxkaartia and later, in his monographie study af the larvae of the “Trom-

bidiidae and Erythraeidae’™ (Zool. Jahrb., Suppl 14, 1912), he figured ancl

described the larvae in great detail. “[ragardh’s adult material was studied by

Berlese, who, in his monograph on the adult “Trombidiidae” (Redia 8, (1), p. 4,

1912) used the name Tragardhula as a subgenus of Trombicwla. Later, how-

ever, in the same work (p. 96) he adopted Oudemans’ name Blankaartia also as

a subgenus of Trogbicula.

The adult genus Trombicula as understood at the preset time is characterised

by the body being constricted medially, giving il a figure of 8 shape; by the elongate

crista snetopica. with a stibposterior sensillary area {furnished with paired fila-

mentous sensillae; eyes present or absent, but when present only one on each

side of the crista and closely adjacent to, or away from, the sensillary urea, In

Tragardhula. wilotica, however, they are placed well away from the crista and

well in front of the sensillary area, as figured by Berlese (1912) and as seen in

a specimen kindly given to me by the British Museum, which specimen was froin

Pistia, im India,

In the other known adult Trombicula species, either with eyes placed close

to the sensillary area, or wanting, there are also other smaller features which

enable them to be associated with some at least of the many larval genera which

have been proposed.

The larvae of the Trombiculidae are distinguished by having only a single

anteriorly placed dorsal shield, of varying shape, from rectangular to pentagonal,

hexagonal or tongue-like, and furnished normally with 1 ar 0 antero-median

setae, 2 antero-lateral setae and 2 postero-latcral setac, as weil as a pair of

sensillae which may be filamentous, clavate or globose. Additional sctac may

occasionally oceur on those scuta which are more or less tongue-shaped, but these

setae are usually situated hehind the posterolateral sctac. Eyes may he 1 or 2 on

each side or absent. Coxae I are furnished with only a single seta, and there is

a pir of setae between these coxac. ‘he legs are all furnished with a pair of

simple claws and a longer and more slender empodium,

The larva of Blankaatia nilotica (Trag.) has many characters which place

it outside the family Trombiculidae as defined above, In the first place it has two

antera-dorsal shields, the front one of which is large and reaches or overlaps the

anterior margin of the hady and is furnished with 6 setaé in addition to the

filamentous sensillae. ‘The second shield has a number of setae. The

pair of setae, normally between coxae I have migrated onto the coxae so that

cach carries 2 setae. Legs | and IT have only the paired claws, and no empodium,

the claws being apically fureate. On leg IIL the claws have an apical nail-lke tip,

«Entomologist, South Australian Museum.

Trans. Roy, Soc. S, Aust., 72, (1), 23rd August, 194%

Thos, while the adult Tragardieula nilotiea (Trag.) belongs to the Trom-

bictilidae, the larva certainly docs not, and the two stages described hy Tragardh

under this name cannot be associated,

ln 1936 Sig Thor (Zool, Anz. 114, 30) raised the genus Penlayanella tor

those species of larval Trombidiids in which the dorsal scutum was pentagonal

in shape, and the sensillac filamentous. As type he designated Trambidium ardcue

‘Trig. fram the White Nile. Other species were filirenhdlst (Ouds, 1910),

lragardhi (Ouds. 1910), smuris (Ouds. 1910), acescutellaris (Walch 1922) and

yorkin (Satnbon 1928).

Tins genus has been rather ignored by most workers, but Willmann in 1947

(Das Tierreich, Lig, 71 b, Trombidiidae, p. 292) admits it, and meludes the addi-

tional species desuleri (Methlagl. 1928) and cenlrepodis (Fwing 1928), Until

now, 110 adults af any of these species have been known, but 1m this paper adnlts

of P. acuscutellaris, both caught in the field and reared from larvae through

several generations are described, and it 1s shown thal they agree fully with the

subgenus Tregardhula Berlese.

The subgenus Megatrembicula was erected in 1947 by Michener (Aun,

LEntom. Soc. Amer., 39, 452) for four species of adult Trombiculids from Central

America, The subgenotype was Trombicula allcei Ewing, and other inclocdesd

species were 7. veluscot (Boshell and Kerr), 7) peruoiane (Ewing) ans!

M. attenuata Michener.

The essential character of the stibeenus was the position of the eyes, well

away from the crista and well anterior of the sensillary arca, Michener was also

successful in obtaining larvae of these species, except perwiiena, anc although he

could only separate these with difficulty, he pointed out their great similarity tp

Pentagonella of the Old World in their having a pentagonal scutum,

In 1916 Tanaka (Zentbt. Bakt., Abt. 1, Orig.) reters ta, and on pl. 4, fig. 37,

shows clearly, the position of the eyes as well away from the crista and in advance

of the sensillary area ina nymph of Trombicula japonica, then relerred ta a sub-

species of aulummnals (Shaw), which is not related in that the eyes in the latter

species are entirely wanting.

The following description of the adult of P. acuscutellaris fits clearly thost

af Megairombicula and Tragardhula, and both Pentagonella and Megetrambicula

therefore are synonymots with Vragardhula Berl. The facr that acuseutellaris is

the only species of Pentagonolla from the Old World as yet known friwn the adult,

but is not the actual genotype of Pentageneila, leaves a slight possibility that the

adult of ardeag (the genotype) may nat he a Tvagdrdhule. However, it having

been shown that Blankaartia nilatica (Ouds,) 1s nol related to Tragurdiuda

nilotica (Berl), can any other Egvptian larval Yrombicala with pentagonal

scutum be suggested as the possible larvae of Trg. wilolica? Of such larvae only

two have been described from Egypt, J. ardeac and T. tregard/i (Ouds, 1910),

both from Tragardh’s expedition.

The first of these was Trem the legs of a heron, Ardea emercva, irom the

White Nile, March 1901, the same locality and date as for Vrag. nilotica, While

the association of this larva with the adult cannot be accepted until suecessful

rearings have been inade, the habitat of the larvae on the legs of a wading bird,

and the adults on the Jeaves of an aquatic plant (Piste) is highly suggestive.

The second species of larvae, tragurdhi (Quds,) was frone the ears of a

monkey, Cercopithecus, and thus fram such w host habitat cam surely. be

disregarded,

Genus Tracarniuna Berlese 1912

Tragardhula Ver), 1912, Redia, 8, 4; Bhurkaurtia Berl. 1912. Kedia, 8, 6

(ion Oudenmng 1911 larvae); Pentagonella sig Thor 1936, Zool. Anz, 114, 30;

Megotrombicula Michener 1947, Ann, Entom, Soc, Amer,, 39, 442.

Adults of typical Trombicule figure of 8 facies. Crista linear with sub-

posterior sensillary area about as wide as long. Epistome rounded with fine teeth

and 1 seta. \ecessory spines on palpal tihia arising from a slightly raised boss

some distance from base of claw, Eyes large. 1-|- 1, well separated [rom erista

and well in front of sensillary area, Sternal plate distinct and well defined,

undivided, wider than long and lying between coxae I.

Genotype: Trombidiaim niloticum Trig., adult.

TRAGARDHULA actuscureraris (Walch 1922 )

Trambienla acuscutellaris Walch 1922, Kitasato Archiv. Exper. Med, 5, (3)

78; Gater, B..4, R., 1932, Parasitol, 24, 143-174; Metta, D. A., 1937. Ind.

J. Med. Res,, 25, (2), 353-365; Philip, Woodward and Sullivan 1946. Amer.

J. Trop. Med, 26, (2); Radford, C. B., 1946, Parasitol., 37, (1-2);

Jayewickreme, S. H., 1947, Nature, 160, 578.

Trombienla (Pentagoncla) acuseuicllaris, Sig Thor 1936, Zool, Anz., 114, 30;

Womersley and Heaslip 1943, Trans, Rov. Soc, S, Aust... 67, (1), 78.

Tragardhula acusculclaris, Willman 1947; Das Tierreich, Lig, 71b.

This species is widely distributed in the Asialic-Pacific Region TL was

originally described by Walch from Sumatra, aud has since been repurted from

the Federated Malay States (Gater), India (Mehta), Maldive Islands (Radford),

Ceylon (Jayewickreme), and | haye seen material collected by Lieut-Colt. C. R.

Philip Irom the Philippines, and by Maj. R. N, MeCulloch from Borneo. Tn all

casey the hosts of the larvae were species of Ruttus. The nymphal stage

of this mite remamed unknown nntil 146 when Radford described very

briefly the nymph reared from Jaryac. The adult retnained quite unknown and

unrecognised in the field until last year when Jayewickreme reported in “Nauire”

ihe successful rearing through several generations, using the recently established

methods of feeding the nymphs and adults on the eggs of species of mosquitoes,

Further, the adults can now be fairly casily recognised in the field, and laree

numbers of larvae have been obtained [rom captured females.

In the present work the adult male and fenalé are deseribed anet fignred for

the first time, and the opportunity ts taken of redescribing and figuring the larva

and nymph uiore iuily, For the material for this study | am yety much indebted to

Mr. S. H. Jayewickreme who very willingly supplied me with a considerable

amount of both reared and wild larvae and adults, “lhe redescription of the

hyiph is from a specimen supplied by Dr. C. D, Radford.

Redescription of Larvae, Lig. 1, A-P—Colour in life red. Shape oval. Lenetit

nnengorged 260 . (excluding gnathosoma), width 195 4, Morsal shield (fig. 1, 1)

pentagonal, with PW only very slighily greater than AW, and angle of convexity

of posterior margin, 7... PW/PSU = 2-0 or thereubouts, Sensillae long and fila-

mentous with ciliations ii distal two-thirds. Normal setae of setrun endl dorsal

setae ciliated and tapering. Eyes 2— 2, on ocular shields, the posterior eyes the

smaller, Palpi (fig. 1.12) stout; femur and genu furnished with a branched or long

ciliated seta; tibia with the normal 3 sctac, of which ihe yentral has branches, the

dorsal and lateral heing nude; paipal caav trifureate. Chelicerae (fig, 1,C) wita

the usual apical tricuspid cap, and on the inner edge a subapical f orwardly directed

tooth, Galeal setae nude, Dorsal setae 26 in mimiher, arranged 2.6.6,64.2 (fg,

1, AY. Veutral setae, excluding the single one tn each coxa, 24, arranged

R264/44.2 (fig. 1, 1), Dorsal setae t9 70 p long, veritral to 504. Legs long-and

peers]

225

ao8

see

ane!

“qe°

uaF

etek .

cod ao

Figs

au.8

Sage

a PsA

apres)

a4 33

Sone ie

Zz <i

=e EU

oa.

Kae St

"dani

BETS op

thas

Ea BS

Stuns be

SEs 8

yu ens

SoESs

sous

og:

S455

2 OUP

= -

SES

Carr

SU ES

Men

weg

[ze

aes

<q 3.

£G,

— a.

w 5

hob

slender, all 7-segmented, I to 330 long (including coxa), TI 312,, IIL 435 pj

tarsi I anid I] with the usual! dorsal sensory rod, TIL (fig. 1,1) with a long sub-

basal fine nude seta to 80” in length.

The Standard Data derived from 17 specimens from eggs laid by a wild

adult from Ceylon, 17 December 1947 (S, H. Jayewickreme), and one specimett

each from Federated Malay States and from Batavia reported upon in 1943

(Womersiey and Heaslip), and one specimen from FR, r. norvegicus trom the

Maldive Islands, 30th December 1944 (C, D. R,) are as follows:

Mean Standard Theoretical Ohserved Coeff, of

Deviation Range Range Variation

AW 77*40-58 2-61 +0+41 69-6 -—85+2 700 —B4-0 a3

PW ROel + 0-55 2-47 + 0-39 72:7 =87-5 75°6-86-8 1

SB 30-8 + 0-27 1:20+ 0-19 27+2=34+4 28°0-33-6 3-9

ASB 30:0 & 0-28 1-2440-19 26°3-33-+7 28°) 3068 41

PSR 4343 + 0-32 1:43 + 0-22 39°0-47°6 42-0-—44+8 3-3

sD 72:3 + 0-46 2:04 + 0-32 66°2-78°4 70-0-75+6 28

A-P 259 + 0°26 L162 0-18 22-4 — 29-4 25°2—28-0 45

AM 52+7 & 0-49 2504 035 46-6—58-8 50+4—56°0 4-0

AL 40:25 + 0-6] 1-$h 0-25 35-5—44-9 392-434 38

PT. 77-10-61 2°64 = 0-43 691-851 75°6—85>1 3-5

Sens. 84-0 No variation recorded

Redescription of Nymph, from a specimen reared from laryae by GC. D,

Radford in the Maldive Islands.

Colour in life bright red, Of typical Trombicwla facies. Length to 800 p,

width across hysterosoma 400,, Crista linear with somewhat diamond-shaped

ateola, and two filamentous nude sensillae, 146 « long, sensillac bases. 42 » apart-

Eyes 1+1, well removed from sensiflary area and about half-way between

extremes of etista, Chelicerae normal with fine inner serrations. Palpi with

tibial claw strong, with 2 accessory spines but these on a slight boss and placed

about midway between base of claw and articulation of palpal tarsts. Palpal

tarsus slightly clavate, not reaching tip of claw. Legs: shorter than body, I 660 »

lope, 1 460}, II] 470 p, IV 530 ,:; tarsus I less than twice as long as wide, 151

by 91, metatarsus 1 115 long. Dorsal setae numerous 40» long, uniform,

arising from closely set tubercles, uniformly thick with strong ciliations. Genital

discs 2 pairs.

Description of Adult—Fig, 2A-J. No apparent difference in the size of

males and females. Colour in Hfe deep red, Of typical Trombicula facies.

Length to 1,800», width across hysterosoma 1,200. Crista (fig. 2A) littear

with well-developed subposterior sensillary area, roughly diamond-shaped, with

the sensillae bases at the ends of transverse dumbbell-shaped areola; crista 300

long and sensillae bases 65 apart; sensillae 195 « long, filamentous and nude;

apex of crista forked. Epistome well developed, rounded conical with numerots

teeth and with a single seta 71 «long. Eyes 1 + 1, large, situated well away from

crista and midway of crista length. Chelicerae (fig. 2B) with finely-toothed inner

edge, Palpi (fig. 2C and D) with strong tibial claw and 3 accessory spines which

are distinctly away from base of claw, and another on outer edge opposite articula-

tion of tarsus, and on the outer surface another strong spine. Legs normal,

I 1275 p long, II 910», 111 9104, IV 1,235 py; tarsus I (fig. 21) 325 4 long by

163 » high, metatarsus | 247 » long; sterial shicld between epimera of legs I and

Fig. 2, A-J—TrayardAula acuscustellaris (Walch 1910) adu’t. A, crista, epistome

and cyes; B, chelicera; C, palpal tibia and tarsus from above; D, ditto from

below; E, coxae 1] and I and sternum; F, coxae III and IV with genitalia and

anus showing relative positions; G, genitalia of male; H, penis; I, tarsus and

metatarsus of leg I; J, posterior dorsa) seta.

If, markedly shorter than wide (fg. 2E). Genital orifice situated close into the

epimera of legs ITT and IV (fig. 2), with 3 pairs of genital dises. In the male

provided with a penis as figured (fg. G and IJ), the apical point of which is

asymmetrical. Dorsal setae numerous, umiformly thick, with short ciliattons

(fig, 27).

The synonymy of Tragardhula milotica (Tray. 1904) is as follows:

?Trombtdium urdeae Tragardh 1904; Microtrombidium a, Ouds. 1910, M.a.,

Ouds. 1912; Yrombicula a. Ewing 1928; Pentagonella a, Sig. Thor 1936, PB. a.

Willmann 1947 (larvae); Trombidiunt niloticum Trigirdh 1904; Trombicula

(Tragardhula) n. Berlese 1912, p, 4; Trombicule (Blankuartia) n. Berl. 1912,

p. 96 (non Blankaartia Ouds, 1911, larvae); Tragarihule n, Willmann 1947.

The following table shows the adult er nymplal species which belong to the

genus Tragardhula and the larval species which will possibly also be placed therein

as their respective adults are discovered,

Other species of Trombicula are known which in the larvae have a more or

less pentagonal scutum but do not fit with any certainty into Tragardhula, for

example 7°. aulwnalis of Europe, in which the adult has no eyes and belongs

toa group for which the name Neotrombicula llirst is available.

Aputts og Nympus

Trag. uilotica (Trigardh 1904) Traq. atlenuatu (Michener 1947)

Tray, acuscutillaris (Walch 1922) Trag. japonica (Tanaka 1916)

Trag, Peruviane (Ewing 1926) Trag. alleei (Ewing 1926)

: Trag velascot (Boshell and Kerr 1941)

LARVAE

Trag. alleet (Ewing 1926) Trag, [ahrenhelet (Ouds. 1910)

Trag. celascot ( Boshell and Kerr 1941) = Trag, aris (Ouds. 1910) .

Trag. ardeag (Tragirdh 1904) Trag. desaleri (Mcthlag!. 1928)

Trag. tragardii (Quads. 1910) Trag. japonica (Tanaka 1916)

Trag, yorkei (Sambon 1928) Trag, acuscutellaris (Walch 1922)

Trag. centropodis (Ewing 1928) Trag. attenuata (Michener 1947)

Tracarniuca ? (PENTAGONELLA) ARDEAR (Trag.)

Prot. lvar Tragardh, whom | recently had ihe very great pleasure of meet:

img in Stockholm, has very kindly loaned to me for study a number of slides of

his (1901) Egyptian material. One slide contained 4 specimens of his ardeae.

These have been remounted, and | am now able to give the followitig data to bring

the description into line with recent studies ot the species of larval Trom-

biculidac.

Fig. 1,.G—Dorsal scutum pentagonal with PSB greater than ASB, and SB

about in line or slightly in advance of PLL. Eyes 2+ 2, closely adjacent to postero-

lateral angles. AM and AL about equal, PL much longer. Sensillac flamentous and

ciliated on distal half. Chelicerae with the usual apical tricuspid cap only. Palpi

stout, tibial claw trifurcate with the prongs subequal; setae on femur and genu

with branches; on tibia ventral strongly branched or ciliated, lateral lightly

branched, dorsal nude. Galeal sctae with 2 or 3 light branches. DS long, to 84%,

arranged 2.6.4,8.6.4. Ventral setae rather shorter, arranged 2.2.6.6.24.2, Tarsus

of lee TIT with a long nude seta; of leg 1 and IT with the usual dorsal rod-like

sensilla,

ASB

PSB

A-P

Sens.

Standard Data in microns from 4 specimens are:

Mean

74-2 #14

87-5 +07

31°85 + 0°35

25°2

42-0

67:2

28-0

61-6

60-7 +£0:93

84-0

84-3 42:6

Standard

Deviation

2-80 + 0:99

1-40 + 0-49

0-70 + 0-24

Theoretical

Range

65°8 -—82-6

83-3 —91-+7

29°75 —33+95

No variation recorded

1-62 + 0°65

55°9 ~65°5

No variation recorded

4-51 + 1-84

70-8 —97°-8

Observed

Range

72°8 —78°4

86-8 -89°6

30-8 — 32:2

58 +8 — 61-6

80-0-89-0

Coeff, of

Variation

3°8

1+6

2-2

5:3

THE PLANT ECOLOGY OF PART OF THE MOUNT LOFTY RANGES (1)

By R.L. SPECHT AND R. A. PERRY

Summary

This paper deals with the ecology of that part of the Mount Lofty Ranges between the Torrens

Gorge in the north and Noarlunga in the south.

THE PLANT ECOLOGY OF PART OF THE MOUNT LOFTY

wb o&N

Seem

By R. L. Srecut and R, A. Perry *

[Read 10 June 1948]

CoNTENTS

INTRODUCTION... sla

TOrocRAPHY nes

GEGLOGY .. _- +. *3

CLIMATE .. ee =

SoILs _ a! = “a ae on

(1) Lateritic poiteuts ve 7 “ te a Sete

(2) Padsols a's w. a x, AA e

(3) Grey-brown podsols 4 bs i ae a

(4) Calcimorphic soils Hs Pe rr av) +

(5) Red-brown earths “s ts oe ate he

(6) Ferrimorphic soils , +t ] .

(7) Deep sands with neutral reaction

(8) Miscellanecus. soils oF 2

VEGETATION ala _ ‘ ae

A, Environmental Range of— ots rs _

(la) £. odorata = ot

(1b) FE. odarata. “Whipstick Mallee" type ;

E, leucoxylon rs us at

E. vintinalis vi

E. camaldulensis (syn BE. rastraia)

(5) £E. obliqua

£.

. fasciculosa

, cosmophylla

. rubida ad “y 23 4: Fi

(10) £, elaeophora Me Ss + _ -e

(11) Casuarina stricta .- os a “9 a

(12) Hybrids =“ 88 t zs a ee

(13) Formations - _ te - Sa

B. Classification of the Plant Communities

(1) £. odorata association y

(2) E, lewcoxylon — E. vinvinalis aésotiation

(3) E. camaldulensis association wf +

(4) Casuarina stricta association... i.

(5) “Stringybark” edaphic complex a4

E. oblique association J oe

E. obliqua— BE, Baxteri association

E. Baxtert — E. cosmophylla association

E. fascicilosa association .. «s + «fs

E. rubida association Ds oe - a

(6) Ecotones be - Rie mt

(ff) Miscellancous communities

SuMMARY 7 me @ fs ag és %

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

APPENDICES _ us a ~- -s

(1) Mechanical and chemical Gaatyses of sails

(2) Comparative floristic lists of five major vegetational groups

. Baxteri an 7 24 ne <2

RANGES (1)

* Department of Botany, University of Adelaide,

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.. 72, (1), 24rd August, 1948

INTRODUCTION

This paper deals with the ecology of that part of the Mount Lofty Ranges

between the Torrens Gorge in the north and Noarlunga in the south.

The area surveyed by Specht lies between the Torrens Gorge in the

north, grid ne 80 of the Adelaide and Echunga ordnance map in the east

an! grid line 68 in the south, while Perry surveyed the arca from grid line

H8 in the north to $2 in the south extending east from the coast te grid dine 68.

The only previous ecological work on this area was a reconhaissance

survey by Adamson and Osborn (1), As can be expected from reconnaissance

Survey, sume generalisations were made which probably apply to part of

the Mount Lofty Ranges but nat necessarily to the whole. Adamson anil

Cshern did not publish any vegetation map, nor did they indicate in the

lext the exact localities studied. Since then detailed work on the soils of

the southern portion of the Hundred of Kuitpo, by Taylor and ()'Donnell

(21) and on the geology by Sprigg (17, 18, 19) form a useful background.

te this study of ecology.

Considering the lmiited size but complexity of the area, it was deemed

necéssary that the ecology should be approached from «a study of the

autecology of the dominant tree species and of the formations. With this

in view the distribution of the tree species and formations was mapped by

projecting their limits on a contour map. As many factors as possible af

the environment were examined ind attempts were made to cortelate the

distribution of the species with the environment. The soils were surveyell by

borings at each grid intersection on the ordnance survey maps, ie, at

approximately 1,000 yard intervals.

Because of the complexity of the environment the study of the vegetation

could be regarded as a number of specially designed experiments in which

possibly only one factor at a time was variable. For instance, it was found

that soils of different nutrient status oceurred contiguously under the same

climatic conditions, while soils of one graup extended [rom regions of low

to high rainfall. Of course, any geheralisatiom can only be accepted on the

understanding that it may not necessarily apply te other areas af the Mount Lotty

Range. However, although other surveys of the ecology of this State have

been of rather a broad nature in comparison, they have yielded conclusions

roughly sinrilar lo some suggested in this survey. These have been indicated

it their appropriate places within the text. It must be pointed out that in

Healing with the trees whose roots tend ta penetrate to great depth, the

early stages of growth are considered crucial in their development within

the environment in which they are found.

Ais most of the soils throughout the area are extremely pour most of

the area has been left relatively undeveloped. It is only along the coastal

parts in the south, the Adelaide Plains and fertile valleys and ridges of the

Hills, that much agricultural development has taken place, Most of the

soils al the coastal area are planted with vineyards and orchards, but some

cereals are grown. The Adelaide Plain, althongh now closely settled, was

unre an extensive cereal growing area, while the small fertile portions of

the hills ave planted with orchards, vegetables and seme pastures. The

savannah woodlands are used in their natural state for grazing:

TOPOGRAPHY

The area forms part of an original extensive peneplain which has been

block-faulted during the Kosciuskan period (probably Pleistocene) and

rubseqnently dissected by three major stream systems—namely fram north

to south, the Rivers Torrens, Sturt, and Onkaparinga.

Creeks named First, Second, Thire, F outth, Fifth and Sixth Creek form

the major tributaries of the River Torrens, and Cox's, Aldgate and Scott’s

Creeks flow into the River Onkaparinga. Both the River Torrens and the

Onkaparinga are part of the old river systems present belore the faulting

cecurred. They must have been large enough to keep pace with the rise in

level due to faulting and have cut meandering gorges up to 500 feet in depth.

Smaller creeks such as Brownhill, Christie’s and Reynella Creeks aid the

drainage of the area,

In the southern section of the area three distinct faults are present. The

land rises sharply from the gently rising Adelaide Plains along the Eden

30"

e4DELAIDE

ST VINCENT GULF

RAINF ALL. MAP

LEGEND

>Z200C"

i5oo- 2000!

100-1500"

50o0-i0Q0"

o-S500'

® RAIN GAUGE

eNOARLUNGA

20" pel ALS

Fig, 1

Rainfall and altitude rhoap.

fault (with a throw of 600 to 700 feet) on to the Eden-Moana Block, again

at the Ochre Cove Fault Block and still again with a throw of 700 feet along

the Willunga Fault. The original peneplain level gradually slopes to the

south-west along these three fault blocks, the level of the Ochre Cove Fault

Block in particular dropping from 1,200 feet north of Clarendon to 400 feet

near Noarlunga. In the northern section, however, only the Eden Fault is

prominent but the topography is complicated by the indistinct extremities

of the Ochre Cove and Kitchener Faults, while the Burnside Fault occurring

a little to the west of the Eden Fault aids in confusion. The monadnock

structure of Mt, Lofty, which rises to 2,234 feet, dominates the topography.

A general idea of the topography can be gained from the rainfall map

on which contours for the 500 feet level and multiples thereof are indicated

(Fig. 1). The dissection is influenced by the nature of the rock, the slates

and phyllites giving more rounded and gentler sloping ridges than those

developed in the less rapidly weathering quartzites. Plate V shows a

photograph of a model made of the central section of the area.

GEOLOGY

Sprigg’s Reconnaissance Survey of the Geology of the Mt, Lofty Ranges

(between the rivers Sturt and Torrens) (19) and the Geology of the Eden-

Moana Fault Block (17) gives a detailed account of the geology of the area.

The undermass rocks consist of a series of Pte-Cambrian sediments,

called the Adelaide Series, which have been extensively faulted and folded.

8 h ADELAIDE

pe. — —BELAIR

i 4 ----STIRLING

IN INCHES

RAINFALL

Fig. 2

Mean monthly rainfall at Ade‘aide, Belair and Stirting.

190

ADELAIDE

— — BELAIR

-—- STIRLING

TEMPERATURE

Vig. 3

Mean monthly temperature at Adelaide, Belair and Stirling,

Of importance to the ecology of the area are the metamorphosed rocks of

the Barossian Complex, the sandstones, quartzites and phyllites of the Lower

Adelaide Series (the easterly half of the area) and the slates, Sturtian tillite

and flaggy slates and quartzites of the Upper Adelaide Series (the westerly

half).

Overlying the Adelaide Series on the Eden-Moana Fault Block from

Blackwood to Happy Valley Reservoir are remnants of a lacustrine deposit

of consolidated Oligocene sands on the old peneplain surface. In addition

large areas of Miocene marine sediments, mainly marls and limestone, and

limited areas of Pleistocene raised sea beaches occur on this block.

Since the Pleistocene the Torrens River and Brownhill Creek systems

have built up the large alluvial deposits of the Adelaide Plain with material

dissected from the fault blocks to the east.

In recent times the River Onkaparinga has developed an extensive

alluvial flood plain which extends several miles inland from its mouth.

CLIMATE

The meteorological data available from stations within and adjacent

to the area suggest that there is a close correlation between altitude and

climate, Rainfall data indicate an increase in rainfall with altitude (sce

rainfall map) rising from 17-94 inches per annum at Glenelg to 47-84 inches

per annum on Mt. Lofty Summit, with a deterioration in rainfall to the north

and in the rainshadow of Mt, Lofty Summit, This deterioration is caused

by the fact that most rains are borne by south-west winds. In all cases

February is the driest while June is the wettest month. The data available

for Adelaide, Belair and Stirling West show that there is an increase in

rainfall and humidity and a corresponding decrease in temperature with

altitude (sce Figs. 2 and 3).

ADELAIDE

—-— BELAIR

{' ——=- STIRLING

(P/E FROM P/S.D)

TRANSEAU RATIO

Fig. 4

Mean monthly yaliies for Transeau ratio at Adelaide, Belair and Stirling.

From the average humidity and average temperature, the Meyer and

Transeau ratios have been calculated, both of which show an _ increase

with altitude (see Fig. 4). From this data it is seen that Adelaide has an

influential rain period (P/E greater than 1/3) for 6°8 months, Belair for

8:5 months and Stirling West for 10‘7 months with influential rainfalls of

15:9 inches, 26°3 inches and 45-8 inches respectively (Trumble 23). When

Davidson's less accurate P/E greater than 1/2 is used, Adelaide lies within

Davidson’s warm temperate semi-arid zone while Belair and Stirlmg West

lie within his warm temperate semi-humid zone (10). However, it must

be remembered that all the above data give a rough approximation only of

the moisture relations within the soil, for the dissection of the country and

the water-retaining capacity of the soils play a large part in producing

microclimates. Much of the influential rains is lost to the soil as “run-off”

into the creeks, which consequently are moister habitats, while a clay soil

will tend to retain more moisture than a sandy soil in which most of the

water percolates through into the subsoil or to the underlying rock, Hence

‘under the same conditions of physiography and climate a deep sand will

tend «© be drier than a shallow sand over a clay subsoil which im turn will

tend to be drier than a soil with a predominantly clayey profile, Tt must also

he remembered that Trumble (23) in proposing his influential rainfall period

as those months with P/E greater than 1/3, based it on the time intetval

wvet which the surface soil of the Waite Agricultural Research Institute tends

tu be maintained above the wilting point for herbage plants. It does nat

necessarily follow that the same factor of 1/3 holds for all other plants and

seedlings.

Iusolation has a marked influence in producing microclimates in dissected

country; that is the micro-climates are also determined by aspect. Although

no attempt has been made to demonstrate this for the Adelaide Hills, the

southern sides of the ridges are apparently moister than the northern sides.

This is largely due to the direct effect of insolation on evaporation—the

sunny, warmer, north-facing slope being drier than the more shaded, cooler,

south-facing slope. This difference in micro-climate may also be enhanced

by the fact that most of the rain is borne from the south-west (this data

is available only for Adelaide but should be similar for the rest of the area),

hence giving a minor rain-shadow on the northerly sides of the ridge.

Consequently, with the decrease in temperature with altitude, the figures

fer Adelaide, Belair and Stirling West indicate that active growth of herbage

plants (average monthly temperature Iess than 55° F) is restricted for 3,

4 and 6 of the winter months respectively, and moderate growth (less than

50° &.) for nil, 1 and 3 months respectively. (Trumble 23).

Hours of sunlight and frosts appear to have little effect on the general

vegetation, but may play a part in the agriculture of the area,

From the data presented above it is evident that the area can be roughly

divided into at least three main climatic regions, namely:

(1) Country less than 500 feet altitiide with an influential rainfall period

of 6 to 7 months.

{2) Country 500 to 1,500 feet altitude with an influential rainfall period

at 7 to 9 months.

(3) Country greater than 1,500 feet altitude with an influental rainfall

period of 9 to 11 months.

with a Jarge number of micro-climates produced within each zone,

SOILS

In the seuthern two-thirds of the area a reconnaissance was made of

the pedology by boring holes approximately 1,000 yards apart, while the

remainder of the atca was mapped from observations made on profiles

exposed in cuttings and by a superficial examination of the soil. As the

sutvey Was on a broad scale no attempt has been made to map soil types,

the survey being only sufficient to pive an outline of the sail groups present.

Where the rocks of the Adelaide Serics or overmass sedinients ate

exposed there is a marked corrclaiion between the geology and the soil while.

in the south, soils derived from lateritic soils developed on the former

peneplain surface tend to predominate,

The soils can he grouped as follaws:—

A. Soils derived from Plio-Pleistoverie lateritic soils;

{1) Residual lateritic podsols.

(2) Trimeated lateritic podsols,

(3) Deep siliceous sands with strongly acid reaction.

(4) Lateritic podsols under conditions of poor drainage.

B. Soils formed under the present environmental conditions:

(1) Podsols.

(2) Grey-brown podsols:

(a) With high nutrient status,

(b) With low nutrient status.

(3) Calcimorphic soils:

(a) Rendzinas.

(b) Terra rossas.

(4) Red-brown earths.

(5) Ferrimorphic soils (?).

(6) Deep sands of neutral reaction.

(7) Miscellaneous soils.

RESIDUAL |

TERTIARY

LATERITIC

DEEP SANDS

SOILS Sala TRUNCATED p:

4 BAROSSIAN / L oReMIC

ERR I MORP

3 COMPLEX SOILS

quarTzites \

< ‘ MOSTLY SKELETAL SKELETAL AND

= t 1 iL

SANDSTONES POOSALS a | 3 MATURE PODSOLS

DEEP NELITRAL !

= SANDS

ree BASIE SLATES REO BAOWN GAaEr BROWN GAEY aS OWn

< AND SHALES ; 4 A 7

AND STURTIAN EARTHS PODSOLS a L, PODSOLS

TLLELITE ;

to) (ica NUTRIENT) (Low KUTRIENT)

TERRA ROS SAS ~RERRADED

MEN ZINN AS

e EIMESTONE. f ae , NO LIMESTONE

z RENZINAS ,

Fa 1)

s 20 2s 30 45 ao aS

RA'NFALL 'N INCHES

Fig. 5

Diagram showing the soils in relation to rainfall and parent material,

The relation of the soils to rainfall and parent material is illustrated in

fig. 5. The parent materials are arranged from bottom to top in decreasing

order of base content. Thus, generally, the soils at the top of the diagram have

a lower nutrient status and a lower pH than those at the bottom. Vor the pur-

pose of the diagram, the Tertiary lateritic podsols are regarded as the parent

material from which the present-day lateritic soils have been derived.

A. Sorts DERIVED rrom Puro-Preistocene Laterirtc Soiis

These soils are reli¢s from a more pluvial climate in the Pliocene when they

were developed aver most of the former peneplain surface. The profile developed

during this period is that of a highly leached podsol in which a seasonally fuctuat-

ing water-table produced. concretions of ferruginous material near the junction

at the sand and the clay horizons. Oiten ferruginisation appears as pockets

through the clay and the parent tmaterial (Stephens 20). The lateritic conere-

tions show great variation, In some cases they are massive while, in others,

pisolitic gravel and nodules oceur. Over the Oligocene lacustrine deposits a

ferruginised sandstone or a ferruginised conglomerate of water-worn quartz

pebbles occurs in the position of the lateritic concretions in the typical lateritic

profile,

However, when faulting broke up the old land surface im the Pleistocene,

dissection began and the lateritic profile was truncated lo varying degrees, Over

most of the area; especially in the northern half, complete truncation, down to

the parent rock has occurred. Eviderice of the former latetitic profile is. frequently

seen) by interise ferruginisation of the rack on the tops of the ridges. These rocks

thus exposed have developed soils in equilibrium with the present climate (see

below).

Lateritic soils in varying stages of truncation occur on the tops of the ridges

which constitute the former penepiain level on the Eden-Moana, Ochre Cave

and Willunga Fault Blocks. As shown in the section on topography, all these

fault blacks ate tilted to the south-west, On the Eden—Moana Fault Block

complete truncation of the lateritic profile occurs in its northern limit, At Belair

the profile is truncated down to the lateritic gravel (a truncated laterite), the

sand of the A horizon having drifted down the gradient to the south-west, or

eroded down the valley. At Blackwood a little to the south a shallow sandy A

horizon is present, this horizon becoming deeper as we move further to the south,

while very deep sands (over six feet deep) occur near Happy Valley Reservoir,

It appears that the sand of the A horizon has gradually drifted down the fault

block, stripping the profile in the north and accumulating in the south. Of course,

much of the sand will be washed away down the valleys, and there is a possibility

that the sands were winnowed during the arid period proposed by Crocker (8)-

Also there may have been a supplement of sand from the higher fault blocks.

Hence, conseyuent to these movements, the results of niechanical analysis (see

Appendix 1) show that the coarse sand: fine sand ratios of the sand and the

clay horizons do not agree as found by Northcote for a residual laterite on Kan-

garoo Island (12). Similarly on the Ochre Cove Fault Block, the truncated

Jaterite is seen ai Cherry Gardens, while further to the south a sandy A horizon,

which becomes progressively deeper, occurs, Near Blewett's Springs and

McLaren Flat, to the south of the arca surveyed, deep tateritic sand acctimula-

tions occur. On this fault block the laterite extends for at least 30 miles to the

sotth, On the Willunga Fault Block only truncated laterite has beem observed

as yel, his truncated laterite has been called Kuitpo gravelly sandy loam by

Taylor and O'Donnell (21).

The Bradbury kaolin mine is indicative of truncation of the deep lateritic

profile to the pallid clay horizon. In recent times up to 12 inches of grey clayey

soil of poor nutrient status has developed over the kaolin,

For cofivenience the lateritized soils will be divided into four classes. the

general profile characteristics of which are illustrated in hg. 6,

1. Residual lateritic podsols

This soil is characterised by a coarse sandy surface which may vary from

8 to 27 inches in depth and which contains wbout 509 of ironstone gravel in ihe

lower six inches. Quartz gravel often occurs with the ironstone, Owing to

accunulations of organie maller near the surface the upper tew inches are nsualiy

dark grey in colour, while (he remainder of the sandy horizons are light grey to

100

FROFILES CHARACTERISTIC OF SOILS DERIVED FRON LATERITIC FODSULS,

RESIDUAL LATERITE TRUNCATED LATERITE

dork erey Plt sand With orgenic matter ugh Deed 2 sandy loam with leteritic

Erey to orange with gravel and organic matter

yallow grey, red mottlings 7"

orenge with 12 sandy elay-loam to cley

red ae sand light grey loam with lateriti¢ grevel

1a"

ay grey 23"

eand + leteritic gravel

+ guertz

clay

sandy clay to clay

age

DEEP _LATERITIC SAND UNDER POOR DRAINAGE

erey dark grey

wand eand to sendy Louw

red brown

yellow grey clay + lroustone

ko light red brown to

grey and light grey

light grey olay

with red

mottlings

ironatone at depth

Fig. 6

Soil profiles characteristic of soils derived from lateritic podsols.

yellow-grey. Underlying the sandy surface horizon there is a mottled yellow-

brown, yellow-grey and light grey clay which may contain some ironstone gravel

in the upper few inches, The light grey colour usually increases with depth.

Mechanical analyses show great variation in the coarse sand : fine sand ratio,

possibly because of the movements of the A horizons as mentioned above. The

restilts of the chemical analyses show the soils to be extremely poor in P,O, and

nitrogen. Much of the organic matter is in a fibrous condition and does not break

down readily to available forms of nitrogen. Throughout the profile the soil is

acid in reaction (see Appendix I).

2. Truncated lateritic podsols

These soils are similar in formation to the previous one, but there is little of

the sandy A horizon present. The ironstone may be in large boulders or broken

down to pisolitic gravel.

10]

The profile cousists of a brown lo grey loamy suriace overlying at a depth

of 1 to 7 inches a yellow-brown to red-brown clay contaming red mottlings.

There are often large pieces of itonstone 6 to 12 inches in diameter near the

surface of the soil. At about 12 inches the clay beconres mottled red-brown,

yellow-brown and light-grey. The light grey colour increases with depth unul,

below about 2 or 3 feet, it is by far the dominant colour with only a few red-

brown inclusions in it.

The results of chemical analysis show that these soils are slightly higher in

nutrient status than the residual Jateritic podsol, The nitrogen figure is not a

trae index of the available nitrogen, as most of it is present as undecomposed

organic matter (see Appendix I).

3. Deep lateritic sands of acid reaction

Within the area of residual tateritic podsols there are several areas of deep

sands contaifing ironstone at depth. The profile consists of a grey sand over-

lying a yellow-grey to light grey sand at variable depth. Near Blewett’s Springs

these sands are predominantly coarse, the ratio nf coarse sand to fine sand being

8 or 10 to 1. The silt and clay fraction is never higher than 3-5% in the first

36 itiches. The high coarse sand : fine sand ratio suggests that these sands may

have been winnowed by the winds of the arid period (8). The mechanical

composition is remarkably constant with depth.

These soils are the most acidic (pH 5°0-5:5) and the poorest in atitricnts

of all the soils in the area (see Appendix I).

4, Lateritie podsols under swampy conditions

In several small isolated positions within the range of distribution of the

residual lateritic podsol these soils occur in flat and relatively low-lying situations.

Under these circumstances they become waterloyged in winter, due to the imper-

vious nature of the underlying clay. The profile is similar to the residtial laterite

piodsols.

B, Sols TORMED UNDER PRESENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Where complete truncation of the lateritic profile has occurred, soils have

developed on the underlying rock in recent times. These soils show a close

correlation with the parent material, podsols being developed over siliceous rocks,

grey-brown podsols and ted-brown earths over argillaceous rocks, calcimarphic

soils over calcateous rocks, and ferrimorphic soils over gneissic and schistose

rocks. Chrnate has been responsible for the differentiation of some of the scil

groups. The red-brown earth grades into the grey-brown podsol at the 25-inch

isohyet, and this in turn is progressively more leached with the increase in

influential rainfall until the nutrient status is so law that a definite sclerophyflous

formation takes the place of the savannah formation about the 35-inch isolyet.

In areas of impeded drainage deep degraded rendzinas occur. These grade into

shallow rendzinas in drier conditions.

Products of denudation tend to accumulate in some valleys forming a valley

complex, while a saline alluvial flat hag formed near the mouth of the River

Onkaparinga.

1. Puaésols

Wherever siliccous rocks of low cation status, such as quarizites and sand-

stones, ate exposed, podsols develop. As these rocks are very resistant to

weathering, most of the area over which they occur is very rugged and bold m

outline and skeletal podsols are developed (see fig. 7), However, in regions of

rainfall greater than 35 inches per annum and on the tops of ridges the moisture

102

has been sufficient to severely leach the weathered material of such low cation

status, and to produce a mature podsolic profile. Typically, the mature podsol

shows a sandy A horizon containing floaters overlying a B horizon of sandy clay

to clay (see fig. 7). On analysis these soils were seen to be low in P,O; and

total nitrogen and acid in reaction (see Appendix I).

PROFILES CHARACTERISTIC OF GREY BROWN PODSOLS AND PODSOLS

GREY BROWN PODSELS

DExP TEASE . SHALLOW PHASE

dork grey 1" Be esate dark grey =n olay Lom with state and

an dark brown an 3” organic matter

derk brown

yellow brown +4 clay loam +/- slate clay loam + alte

red brown + /equartz

1s7 15"

ig"

slate

clay + /- slate

ag"

decomposing slate

FODSOLS

DEEP PHASE SHALLOW PHASE

dark send with organic matter

ark grey ys = and quartzite durk grey 1" : sand with orgsnic matter

dere grey td gs Pa eee Pe and quertzite

light yellow * . dark to light

brown send+ /+ quartzite +/~ grey ind o qgenkngts

erange quartz

1} rsm

20"

quartzite

sandy clay to clay

+ /- quartette

decomposing quarteita

Fig, 7

Soil profiles characteristic of grey-brown podsols and podsols.

However, small areas of quartzites in the Middle and Upper Adelaide Series

tend to give skeletal podsols of a slightly higher nutrient status than siliceous

rocks of the ower Adelaide Series (see Appendix I), but these outcrops are

apparently ecologically insignificant in their effect on the distribution of the tree

stratum.

2. Grey-brown podsols

In that section of the area with rainfall greater than 25 inches per annum,

argillaceous rocks, such as slates, phyllites and Sturtian tillite have given rise to

a profile typical of a grey-brown podsol. In the mature phase this soil shows an

A horizon of a clay-loam sometimes containing floaters over a clayey B horizon

103

(sce fiy. 7). This mature profile is developed more extensively than in the case

nf a pousol (see above} because of the faster rate of weathering of the argilla-

ceous rocks, but it is scen especially in wetter regions (rainfall greater than

30 jnches per annum) and on the tops of ridges. In drier regions between 25 and

30 inches per aanum weathering is probably not so rapid, as erosion is nearer

equilibrium with deromposition and only an immature form of the soil is

developed (see fig. 7),

Analyses show that io the drier extent of the grey-brown podsols the soil is

relatively higher in P.O, and total nitrogen but grades into a soil about three

times lower in P,Q. and total nitrogen approximately along the 35-inch isohyct

(see Appendix 1).

[It appears that this decrease in nutrients is caused by increased leaching with

increased rainfail, This is supported by the fact that the savannah formation

on the relatively high nutrient status grades imperceptibiy into. sclerophyllous

formation on the relatively low nutrient grey-brown podsols with increase in rain-

fall, In all cases the profile is acidic. However, the low nutrient grey-brown

podsol is from three to four times higher in nutrient status than the podsol.

As would be expected in sedimentary rocks, variations acctir within the slate,

some tending to be more siliceous in composttion than others, These slates con-

sequently give tise to a profile sandier than that described above.

3. Calcimorphi¢ soils

The main area om which these soils are developed lies between the coast and

the Ochre Cove Fault scarp, Thick beds of Miocene marine limestone occur in

the southern half of this faull block, while cappings of travertitie limestone have

overlain the Adelaide Series in the northern halt, and Miocene limestone in the

southern half of the fault block. On these limestones and other limestone out-

crops of the Adelaide Series alkaline calcimorphic soils have developed.

Vhe travertine limestone probably had a lJoessal origi durmg the arid

Pleistocene to Recent Periods as proposed by Cracker (8). With faulting in the

Pliocene to Pleistocene, dissection of the original peneplain would occur, pro-

ducing valleys and completely eroding most of the lateritic profile formed in the

Pliveene. Later in the arid period toessal maller would be deposited aver the

soil of the whole area and leached to varying degrees, depending on the influen-

tial rainfall pattern. We can assume thar, in the Adelaide Hills, the pattern of

annual rainfall must have been much the same as at present (see fig. 1), but af

course lower in amount,

Consequently the calciumt carbonate was entirely leached out in the higher

rainfall regions, either then er under ihe present climate. However, in ihe moce

arid region—now indicated by a rainfall less than 25 inches per annum—the

ealcarcous matter was leached down to the underlying rock and there deposited

as travertine, This travertine would be formed over the whole topography but

subsequent erosion, especially in the present moister climate, has worn it away

greatly on the slopes and completely in the valleys where the pnderlying rock is

exposed. Of course, it cannot be dismissed that the calcareous slates and

quartzite might have added to the travertine, but it is too widespread aver non-

calcareous rocks, especially near Tapley’s Hull, for this to account entirely for its

origin. One would expect to find travertine overlying laterite in some places.

But, as yet. the only indications are the presence of ironstone within the traver-

tine on Shepherd’s Hill and around the degraded rendzina on O'Halloran Hill

(Sprigg 17). This laterite may be detrital lumps from higher altitudes.

Stephens has also noticed a buried Jateritic profile about a mile north of Christie's

Beach (private communication).

104

SOIL PROFILES

RENDZINAS DEGRADED RENDZINAS

dark grey an

loam to clay loss dark groy

grey brow:

6" 12 glayay loam + ¢aleium

Bw carbonate particles

travertine limestone

grey to white

38"

underlying rock heavy ¢lay +much

coleium carbonate

DEEP NEUTRAL SANDS

grey eh) eal saod with organic msetter

Yellow grey to

light grey

sand

sottled

ferruginous sendatone

Fig. 8

Soil profiles characteristic of rendzinas, degraded rendzinas and deep neutral sands.

Over most of the travertine a dark greyish-brown loam has developed which

shows very little differentiation into horizons. The depth of the soil may vary

from 3 to 15 inches, but in many places the travertine is visible above the surface

(fig. 8). The soils are well supplied with organic matter and have a fairly high

nutrient status. These soils—rendzinas— have been cleared of vegetation and

the land used extensively for cereal growing and vineyards.

Interspersed with the rendzinas near Reynella are small areas of red soil of

lighter texture, which resemble terra rossas. Soils allied to terra rossas have

developed on the Torrens and Beaumont limestone outcrops in the northern half

of the area, where they grade into the acid grey-brown podsols.

Under conditions of retarded -drainage the limestone has undergone extreme

decomposition, producing a deep degraded rendzina of heavy texture (fig. 8).

There is a narrow fringe of these deep black soils at the boundary between the

shallow rendzina soils and the grey-brown podsols.

10g

Along the Eden Fault scarp these caleimworphic soils prade into the red-

brown earths of the Adelaide Plains, while to the east of their extent they grade

into soils allied to red-brown earths developed over slates.

4. Red-brown earths

This soil is developed on the Adelaide Plains where the rainfall is less than

25 inches per annum, and appears to grade imperceptibly into grey-brown podsols

along the Eden Fault scarp and into the calcimorphic soils in the south-west

corner of the Plain. As no survey or analyses have been made over this area,

the reader is referred to Piper (13) who gives a detailed description and analysis

of the profile developed at the Waite Institute (the Belalie loam). In general

the soil is relatively high in P,O, and nitrogen and becomes alkaline in the

fi horizon, due to acctimulation of calcium carbonate,

It is possihle that the calcium carbonate in the profile is of the same loessal

origin as that proposed by Crocker to explain the origin of the mallee soils (8),

the loess being deposited oyer the deep detrital soils of the Plain during {he arid

Pleistocene to Recent Periods and subsequently leached, especially in the moister

present climate, to form the red-brown earth profile, The degree of leaching,

especially of the calcium carbonate, depends to a large extent on the rainfall, for

at about the 25-inch isohyet there is a transition to allied grey-brown podsols

which have no trace of calcium carbonate in the profile,

5. Ferrimorpiie soils (?)

As these soils are of limited extent to the east of Mount Lofty Summit and

along the Torrens Gorge, little data is available. They are developed on schistose

and gneissic rocks of (he Barossian Complex and appear to be lacking in profile

development. Superficially they are similar to the shallow form of the grey-

brown podsol and in some cases are indistinguishable from it. From the sclero-

phyllous nature of the undershrubs, they are apparently Jow in nutrient status.

As large areas of these soils occur ta the north of the Torrens Gorge a more com-

plete examination of these soils will be made by one of us in a subsequent paper.

6, Deep sands with neutral reaction

These soils are of limited occurrence and occur mainly near Noarlunga and

TYackham, The soil consists of a grey surface horizon containing some organic

matter overlying a yellow-red or a yellow-grey sand at 3 to 8 inches. The under-

lying C horizon is a mottled light grey, yellow and red ferruginous sandstone

{see fig. 8). The soil is slightly alkaline throughout and has a poor nutrient

status. The coarse sand figure is very high, which suggests that the sand from

which the underlying sandstone was formed had been winnowed,

7. Miscellaneous soils

Several other soils in addition to those described above occur only it small

areas,

(1) Along the drainage lines which have cut into the Willunga Fault Scarp

near Kangarilla there is a soil which is waterlogged throughout the year.

The profile consists of two inches of grey sand containing organic matter

overlying a light grey clay, which is particularly heavy and sticky. A

sclerophyllous formation dominated by E. leucoxylon is developed over

this soil (see Appendix T),

(2) Near Seaview a red sandy soil occurs. 18 inches of red coarse sand over-

Kes ced clay, which becomes heavier and yellower at 24 inches (see

Appendix 1),

106

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pue suoyEar sajea Aq parjosjuoD -Aaiz pue Saytsayey = payeounsy, ed (OP—SZ

USZ MOlaq dAatsi19yXa !yAAYOSY OF eau Saysazey ‘S[OS

syoadse BuUlsey-ysICN “f!OS TUTTE -pod uMorq-Aei3 ‘spospod ‘syjara

sonnel IojEM Aq Apuo payjorusy UAMOIG-pat ‘syios — aRYydsqUTaTRD) ‘ed (Of -02

SHILA [tos a2u0e yy

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SUOTPEOSSE BS9q}

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Uo EIDOSSE Sato}

wind 3teqa; pues Dpigue “Tp HAqdosaypas

UOIPELIOSSE 4s010F

sseqsSurys nabygo yp | tAydossyag

uopEInosse. Ynbyqo 4Sod05

SIAR ASUS qsexog "We 1 Aqdor3]95

- purypoos.

nnd qnads-yaeq | uoiyeroosse py Lyd 0} qni9g

-AduIys UMoIg -soo 'q-Mapeng “FZ [Aydo.sazag

UOTPEIIOSSE Puy] poom

wns yu | psopnniasuf “yy WAqdosapys

xu oydepa yreqéaursyg

norETDOsse _. PQILINS

yvoays DNAPS DULEDNSD) TAysosaps

WOTPELIOSSE purppoom

wns pry Sisuapnpyouns -y YSULEAES

wang wauryy | add} synurdirs “yg

wns ang adA, woptvomay yy

UOTJEIIOSSE SUyUt PuElpoom

ult “Y-uopkxoray “a YeUUeAes

pueypoom

lund yunusedda gy | UO!EIOOSsE NEnAOPA “7 YRUNEAES

| AyuIMUIO-) vowed T

2WEN woUTUOT)

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., Aucust, 1948 SPECHT AND PERRY

BROWN

es ADELAIDE

RED BROWN EARTHS

se GLENELG

RED BROWN EARTHS

ST. VINCENT GULF

+ sme fos ry ee ee

° es es ef/eis stew ew ee ’ .

Cores Or ast binetts .

hb ww oer © @ © * oh se & @

crete

P— ac 9 peer

KA “

TF 64 <7

SOl. MAP

————

pr 4

—-LECEND —

GREY BROWN PODSOL

ST 2

)

PODSOL

LATERITIC POOSOL

RENDZINAS avo TERRA ROSSAS

DECRADED RENDZINAS

DEEP SANDS or NEUTRAL REACTION

FERRIMORPHIC (?) SOILS

SALINE ALLUVIUM

(Lil

‘ We

\seaae

\\ Bs

KS CHA

ASN

—

107

(3) Saline alluvial flats have been developed near the mouth of the Onka-

paringa River. These consist mainly of variable Recent alluvium con-

taining shells. Parts are subject to flooding on exceptionally high tides,

as there is no part of the flats higher than 10 feet above sea level.

RAINFALL w INCHES

ny w) £ a1

9 ° 5 °

NUTRIENT STATUS

LOW MEDIUM HIGH

Solerophy]l

Solerophy1) Sevannah

Savannsh c Casuarina striate

Casuarina atricta

BE. odorats

bad

bt EX. loucoxylon.

c w

H E. leucoxylon

x z

e £ on E. vyiminalia

a 4

B. viminslia

—

& 2 & w rod

oa B. camaldulensies X, camsidulensis

i! wv —

2&8 s

E. faacicnlosa 5

BE. fasciouloss

oo}

oF ow

> 8 z

ae E. Baexters

ar %

E, obliqua

E. oblique

E, sosmephylla

B, cosmophylla

“Ulos Fo Sgpoedeo #ursyerea seiee MoT = 9 pus wnyped = _ydye = y iAwTTeA = A ‘yoedse oLequos | g (4oedey ULayyiog = Nf

z —

I zt

+ ne EF, robide

p ——

Fig. 9

Diagram showing the relationship of the dominant Eucalypt species. with rainfall and nutrient

status of the soils.

THE VEGETATION

It was found on reconnaissance that numerous changes in the species com-

position of the vegetation occur over a very small area. Consequently it was

108

deemed advisable that the autecology of individual species should be investigated.

A summary of the results obtained is shown in fig. 9, 10 and il. Following the

discussion on the environmental range of the species, there is an endeavour to

group the species into logical commutiitics, but of course any attempt is largely

artificial and only for convenience. The nomenclature of the species follows that

of Black (3) and Blakely (4).

E.odorata

[| SSRRSRS RRR SS

as Ww

ED}

Diagram illastrating the distribution of various species of Eucalyptus in relation to soils

and rainfall. The numbers on the figures refer to soils natned in Figure 5.

Hatching from right to left (downwards) indicates presence on South-facing aspects only-

Hatching from left to right (downwards) indicates presence on North-facing aspects only.

Cross-hatchiug indicates presence on hoth aspects.

A. EnyrronMENTAL RANGE

1A. Eucalyptus odorata (peppermint gunt)

This species warrants further mvestigation in regard to its acceptance as 2

genotype, for, especially in its eastern limit, the peppermint gums exhibit a large

variation in characteristic features. R. G. Brett (private communication) sugeests

that the species is actually a hybrid polymorph between Eucalyptus odorata,

Eucalyptus fasciculosa, and possibly a mallee with E. odorata the dominant

member of the cross. However as all peppermint gums, which show the same

wide range in morphology, agree with Blakely’s broad description of E, odorata,

his description is accepted in this report.

E. odorata occurs within the drier part of the area, the 30-inch isohyet

forming approximately the upper limit of the species, while the coast forms a

barrier to it reaching the lower limit of its potential range. The species appears

to be uninfluenced by the texture, the pH, or the nutrient status of the soil, for it

109

flourishes equally well on red-brown earths, grey-brown podsols, podsols, residual

and truncated Jaterites, and ovey the calcimorphic soils which occur within this

rainfall range. It las been noted that towards ihe wetter limit of its distribution

there is a marked tendency for the species to occur on the drier northern aspect

only. Towards its drier limit the species is confined to soils of relatively high

water-retaining capacity such as calcimorphic soils and red-brown earths, but as

the rainfall increases, the species can spread over truncated laterites or residual

laterites with a shallow A horizon, both of which though low in nutrient status

have a clay horizon near the surface. However, the peppermint gums never occur

on the deeper laterilic sands nor on the skeletal podsols developed over the thick

quarizile of the Adelaide Series. These soils have a relatively low water-retaining

capacity. These facts indicate that it is the moisture relations within the soil

which are the major controlling factors in its distribution, This is illustrated im

fig. 10,

The potential range of the species in this area is far wider than that found

in other parts of the State, for Crocker (7), Jessup (11) and Piper (13) have

shown that the species is restricted, im the areas which they studied, to red-brown

earths (sometimes becoming slightly podsolised) within rainfall limits of 15 to

25 inches per annum, On Eyre Peninsula (7), where the maximum rainfall is

only 24 inches per annum, the species is restricted to the red-brown earths between

18 and 20 inches per annum, although podsols and residual podsols occur con-

tiguous to it,

Jessup (11) also deals with the drier limits (15 inches per annum) of the

distribution of E. edorata on the eastern side of the Mount Lofty Ranges.

Around Bordertown, in the Upper Sonth-East, the species flourishes on calci-

morphic soils with a rainfall of 20 inches per annum. Hence it appears that in

the drier limit of its range E. odorata is mainly confined ta alkaline soils of clayey

nature, which have a high water-retaining capacity, whereas a wider range in

regard Lo soils occurs towards its wetter limit, provided the higher rainfall and

the lower water-retaining capacity of these soils compensate to satisfy the water

requirements of the developing E, ederata.

1B. “Whipstick peppermint” ecotype of Eucalyptus odorata

At the foot of Black Hill on a podsol developed over the Mount Lofty

quartzite, two distinct areas of this “whipstick mallee" occur within the Z, fase#-

culasa sclerophyll community. The tree appeats to approach Blakely's descrip-

tion of E. odorata vat. angustifolia, although many of the trees exhibit fruits of

the same size as the typical 2, odorata,

As this ecotype of £. odorata is of restricted occurrence it can only be noted

that the soil is a podsol, low in nutrient stats, and developed with a rainfall of

approximately 25 inches per annum,

2. Encelyptus leucoxylon (blue gum)

This species is largely controlled in its distribution by the moisture relations

within the soil. It occurs withit the limits of the 25-inch and 40-inch rainfall

isohyets. hut within this range it is markedly influenced hy aspect. In the drier

limits the species occurs either mixed with FE. odorata or alone on the shady,

moister, south-facing slope, but as the rainfall increases in about 30 inches per

annum it occupies both slopes, while with further increase the species is confined

ta the warmer, drier, north-facing slope of the ridges. This phencmenon is

masked in the northern half of the arca where the rainfall increases rapidly along

the scatp from 25 inches to 30 inches pev armum within three-quarters of a mile,

110

thus limiting E. /eucoaxylon to the north-facing slopes, whereas in the south the

same increase occurs gradually aver two miles, Within this range occur grey-

browti podsols with relatively high nutrient status, and residual and truncated

laterites of relatively Jow nutrient status. However, although these soils differ

im tiutnient status, their water-retaining capacities, apart from the shallow sandy

horizon of the residual laterite, would be of the same-order. The fact that water

relations play a large part in controlling the species distribution is further sub-

slantiated by the appearance of £. Jevea@rylon on residual laterites in the fringing

community around the deeper lateritic sands in the southern part of the area.

Here E. fascieulasa js distributed over the deep sands of the ridges with

E, leucoxylon occupying an area, often only a Tew chains wide, on the shallower

sandy of the residual laterite, the clay horizon of which would tend to produce

hetter water relations within the soil. In the wetter situations of the drainage

lines and adjacerit flat areas, E. comaldulensts takes the place of F, leucoxylan.

E, cumaldulensis also tends to supplant E. leucvaylon over the grey-brown

podsals on wetter ridges along the Torrens Gorge, the Sturt River, and the River

Onkaparinga. However, two exceptions to this general scheme occur.

The podsols developed on the Mount Lofty quartzite act as a barrier to the

distribution of the species. Wherever podsols occur, in whatever rainfall, there

is a sharp division between the blue gums on the grey-brown podsols and the

“stringybark complex” on the podsols. This is rather curious, for the pousols

and laterites are of approximately the same acidity and nutrient status in P,Q,

and nitrogen. Of course, most of the podsols are of a very skeletal nature,

especially in thetr drier limit, and possess a low water-retaining capacity. This

fact may be of value, but there is no gradual transition evident from blue gum

to the “stringybark complex” as there ts with increase in rainfall and decrease in

PO, atid mtrogen with leaching on the grey-brown podsols. This data suggests

that some other factor is influencing its distribution as well as moisture relativn-

ships. It may he inicro-nutrient deficiency on the podsnls, It may he bound up

with competition between the trees of the “stringy-hark complex” and the “blue

gums.”

There is also a small occurrence of blue gums on deep Tateritic sands near

Happy Valley Reservoir which seems an exception to the general scheme of water

relations. Tig. 10 shows the general relationship existing between J. Jeucaxylou,

soils, and rainfall. In other parts of the State water relations seem to be a pro-

minent controlling factor. On the eastern side of the Mount Lofty Range

Jessup (1L) has found ble gums occurring on red-brown earths with a rainiall

as low as 13 inches per aunum. It should be noted that these soils would possess

a relatively high water-retaining capacity. Boomsma (5), working on the Southern

Flinders Ranges, also gives evidence which indicates that water relations play a

large part in the species’ potential environment. He found blue guins along the

watercourses where the annual rainfall was over 16 inches, on red-brown earths

with am annual rainfall greater than 17 inches, and on podsols of lower water-

retaining capacity with an anuual rainfall greater than 21 inches for sayanna!

and grealer than 26 inches for selernphyll formations associated with it,

3. Eucalyptus viminalis (manna gun)

This species occupies the moister, south-lacing aspect of the ridges with

E. lewraxylon or E. comalidulensts aceupying the northern aspect between the

30- and 40-inch isohyets (sce above). In higher rainfall areas it lends to oceur

along walercourses.. The density of the trees increases with rainfall front an oper

woodland on the drier side to @ closed forest in its wetter limit. Althouyl this

species occurs in small areas on truncated lateritic soils it ig largely confined Lo

111

the richer grey-brown podsols. This is probably due to higher water relation-

ships within the grey-brown podsols, The distribution of FE, viminalis in relation

to soils and rainfall is shown in fig, 10.

4. Eucalyptus camaldulensis (syn. E. rostrata) (river red gum)

In the drier limit of the area this species is confined to the creek beds or to

some distance on each side, but along the Rivers Torrens, Sturt and Onkaparinga,

where the annual rainfall is greater than 27 inches, it extends over larger areas.

The species is confined to grey-brown podsols on the slopes and ridges and

alluvial soils in the valleys, both soils bemg rich in P,O, and nitrogen and having

high water relations, Where the redgums extend over the ridges near the rivers

they tend to occupy a similar habitat to that of E. leucoxylon on ridges along-

side minor streams. The species does not extend into areas with rainfall greater

than 35 inches per annum, Its soil and rainfall requirements are summarised

in fig, 10.

5. Lucalyptus obliqua (stringybark)

This species is a dwarf ecotype of the species growing in the eastern States,

for it rarely grows higher than 80 feet.

This stringybark occurs on a wide variety of soils, such as podsols, highly

leached grey-brown podsols, lateritic soils, and ferrimorphic soils (all of which

arc low in P,O, and nitrogen), provided the annual rainfall is greater than

| Nee

Ld OOK, oo]

OX KO

OT EET

Efa sciculosa

eee

Oe Og

Fig. 11

Diagratn illustrating the distribution of various species of Eucalyptus in relation to soils

and rainfall, The numbers on the figures refer to soils named in Figure

Hatching from right to left (downwards) indicates presence on South-facing aspects only.

Hatching from left to right (downwards) indicates presence on North-facing aspects only.

Cross hatching indicates presence on all aspects.

112

approximately 35 inches. lt extends up to the maximum rainfall for the area of

48 inches per annum on Mount Lofty Summit. Aspect plays a part in its dis-

tribution towards its drier limit, for it tends to occupy the moister southern

aspect. On the grey-brown podsols it tends to form either a pure commitunily or

one mixed with Z. wiminalis on the southern aspect, while a pure community of

KR, lexeoxvion occurs on the northern aspect., Similarly towards the drier limit

of FE, obligna on the podsuls, E. obliqua tends to occur with &, Baxter on the

southern aspect, while E, Barteri and FE. fasciculosa occur on the northern, The

soil andl rainfall requirements of LE. obligua are illustrated in fig. 11.

If we remember that a large perceritage of the rainfall is last to the soil by

vun-off in the Adelaide Hills, the environmental ranges found by Crocker on the

low undulating sand-dunes of the South-East (6), and by Raldwin and Crocker

on the flat Jateritic peneplain of Kangaroo Island (2) are comparable to that

shown above ior the Adelaide Hills. It should be noted here that on the flatter

country of the other two localities the lower rainfall limit of the species may be

as low as 24 inches per annum.

6. Eucalyptus Baxtert (brown stringybark)

This species has.a restricted range of soil nutrients, occurring on only the

very poor podsols, but with a wider moisture range than that of A. obliqgua {sce

fig, 11}. This is especially evident where the padsols developed over the thick

quartzite of the Adelaide Series occur in regions with rainfall as low as

30 inches per anntim such as on Black TIill, Marialta and Stonyfell Ridge. In

these localities E. Baxteri tends to occur with E_ fasciculosa on the moister south-

facing side of the ridge towards its drier limit, while E, fas¢icwlosa occupies the

northern aspect alone. However, with increase in rainfall Z. Baxteri soon

occupies: both aspects, while &. ebligua occurs with it at first on only the southern

aspect but eventually at about the 35-inch isohyet on both aspects. As the rainfall

increases still further H, Aaxtert tends to be more pteyalent on the skeletal

quartzites than E. wbligua, and where the podsols are better developed there is a

tendeney Jor E, Baxtvri to occur on only the drier aspects.

Ilowever, although the environment appears to be suited for its growth, no

specimen of #. Baxteri was found on the podsol on Acklands Jill. Taylor and

O'Donnell (21) have noted &. Baxtert occurring on truncated laterite in the

Hundred cf Kuitpo, and the authors have noted similar occurrences further

down the Fleurieu Peninsula. Considering these occurrences, it at first seems

rather surprising that B. Baxtert is not Found on the lateritic soils of the area,

but on closer examination it is seen that these soils are mainly in regions with

annual rainfall less than 35 inches, and this wetter limit is near the apparently

anomalous area on Ackland’s Hill.

Taking into consideration the effect of differences of topography on moisture

relations within the soil between the Adelaide Hills, Kangaroo Island (lower

rainfall limtt approximately 20 inches per annuni) and the South-East (lower

limit about 22 inches per annum), the environmental range of H, Baxtert is

similar in the three habitats, that is, the species is restricted to soils very low in

P,O, and nitrogen such as podsols and laterites, and with a Jower range of

moisture relations than E_ obligua,

li, Eucalyptus fascteulosa (pink gum)

This species occupies the dricst position in the “stringybark complex”.

occurring in areas with rainfoll as low as 22 inches per annum and extending up

to 40 inches per annum. In all the localities where this species has been fouttd

the soil is acidic and Jow in P,O, and nitrogen, but the texture of the soils (all

phases of laterite podsols, highly leached grey-brown podsols and ferrimorphic

soils), varies considerably.

In its drier limit the species is confined to podsols and residual laterites with

a deep sandy A horizon or deep Jateritic sands, the species maintaining its posi-

tion only by the fact that these soils have a very low water-retaining capacity.

When the A horizon becomes shallower, the water relations of the soil for the

same climate improye, and EF. fuSciculosa gives way to E. leucoxrylon. As most

of the country where tt occurs is gently undulating, aspect here plays little part.

In the drier limit of its distribution on the podsol of Black Hill, Rocky Hill

aid Stonyfell Ridge the species occurs pure on steep, skeletal, quartzite slapes

ott all aspects. As the rainfall increases E. Barteri appears mixed with it on the

southern aspect with pink gum pure on the northern aspect, and with further

rainfall increases B. Baxteri occurs with it on both aspects. At about 35 inches

per annum, as mentioned above, £. obliqua appears and the pink gum tends to

he confined to the drier aspects, the size of the area it occupies becoming pro-

gressively smaller until only a few scattered trees occasionally occur within the

“stringybark coniplex” at about the 40-inch isohyet. The fact that the 40-inch

isohyet is approximately the species’ upper limit explains. its absence on soils of

low nutrient slatus between Stonyfcll Ridge and National Park, The soil

and rainfall requirements of #, fascicylosa are illustrated in fig. 11.

A\s this species occupics only small areas in the broad survey carried out by

Crocker in the South-East (6) little comparison can he made. One author (Specht)

however, has noted on the leached sands of the South-East, that as the rainfall

decreases FE, fasciculosa tends ta become more prevalent and to supplant

E. Baxteri. On the eastern side of the Mount Lofty Ranges Jessup (11) has

shown that the species occurs over relatively rich red-hrown carths in a rainfall

as low as 15 inches per annum. This seems anomalous compared with the

environmental range found on the western side,

8. &. cosmophylla (scrub or cup gum)

E, cosmophylla occurs in limited areas throughout the “stringybark com-

plex” with rainfall between 35 inches and 45 inches per annum, principally on

podsolic and lateritic soils and always on the sunny aspects of the ridges (see

fig It). A pure community occurs on a sieep north-facing quartzite slope in

Waterfall Gully and in the Brownhill Creek watershed. The species tends to be

limited in extent because of competition with other taller Eucalypts which obstruct

the sunlight. Thus £. cosmophylla tends to develop on very skeletal soils

where the scarcity of soil restricts the number of other Eucalyptus species

developing. The fact that the direct effect of insolation is a marked controlling

factor is supported by the occurrence uf scrub gum on only the sunny aspects,

to matter what the rainfall. Taking into account the difference in topography

this environmental range corresponds to that found on Kangaroo Island by

Baldwin and Crocker (2). On Kangaroo Island the direct effect of isolation does

not apply, for the area is a lateritic peneplain,

9. Eucalyptus rubida (candle-bark or whife gum)

This species occupies a considerable area around gully heads on highly

leached grey-brown podsols with a rainfall greater than 45 inches per annum.

Xs the annual ramfall decreases ta 35 inches the species is confined to a narrow

belt of wet alluvial soi along the larger creeks, Its distribution in relation tu

soil and rainfall is illustrated in fig. 10.

1l4

10, Eucalypius elaeophora (bastard box)

As this species only makes its appearance in the extretne north of the area

no attempt has been made to determine its etvironmental range, This will he

dealt with in a later paper. In this area the bastard box occurs on podsols and

ferrimorphic soils of low nutrietit statis,

11, Casuarina stricta (drooping sheoak)

This species occurs scattered amongst FE. edorata and E. leucoxylon on

various soils from the coast to about the 35-inch isohyet. On very steep cliffs

such as occur in the Torrens Gorge, Morialta. Slape’s Gully, near the first water-

fall in Waterfall Gully, the Sturt and Onkaparinga gorges, pure communities

may be developed on either aspect, The sheoal occurs with Banksia near Noar-

lunga and Hackham on deep siliceous sands of neutral reaction and of low water-

retaining capacity with a rainfall 20 to 22 inches. From this evidence it appears

that Caswerina stricta can exist in much drier habitats than E. odorata, which

oftett occurs in contiguous habitats which are less steep or, as in the case of the

deep sands, of higher water-retaining capacity. This evidence is supported by

the occurrence of Casuarina stricta on shallow gneissic soils along the dry Palmer

scatp on the east of the Mount Lofty Ranges, with a rainfall of 20 inches per

annum. This stand extends. to the south, where it occurs on very shallow red-

brown earths (with terra rossa affinities) around Lake Alexandrina (Jessup 11).

Here the rainfall is about 15 inches per annum. On Eyre Peninsula Crocker (7)

has found the species occurring over calcimorphic soils and skeletal gneissic

soils from 14 to 22 inches per annum.

Crocker (6) has also found Casuarina stricta associated with sandy terra

rossas in the South-East, where the raimfall is as high as 28 inches per annum.

These observations suggest that Casuarina stricta can exist over a wile tange af

soils in respect of reaction, nutrient status and texture, but appears to be limited

to those conditions in which the compensating moisture relations are low-

12. Hybrids

Hybrids between different species of Eucalyptus have been found especially

at the junction of the distribution of two species. These hybrids possess

characters intermediate between the two parent species, makitig identification of

some trees difficult. Such a case occurs between E, wminalis and Li, caimaldu-

lensis giving rise to trees with anomalous E. ziminalis fruits, and between

E, vimtnalis and E. rybida, thus forming stands of trees which gradually grade

from one species into another,

Hybrids also occur between E, viminalis and E, leucoxylon, E. obliqua and

£, Baxteri, E, odoratw and &. lewcoxylon, and E. ramaldulensis and E. lexcoxylon.

13. Formations

As is the case of the species of the first stratum, the undershrubs exist over

a definite environmental range, some heing ecological wides, others having a

limited range. In general there are two dehnite formations—the savannah

woodland formation being developed over soils rich in P,O, and nitrogen, sucls

as red-brown earths, calcimorphic soils and the slightly leached grey-brown

podsols, while a sclerophyllous formation occurs on more heavily leached grey-

brown podsols, podsols, laterttes and ferrimorphic soils which are lower in PO,

and nitrogen. On the grey-brown podsols a transition between savannah and

sclerophyll occurs. This is probably connected with increased leaching with

increased rainfall. However, an abrupt change occurs at the junction between

richer soils and podsols. Within the formations, variation within the under-

ST WNCENT GULF

FORMATIONS

ORY SCLEROPrY LL

]

Espey BANKSIA ORNATA

or DOMINANT

ied BANKSIA HARGNATA

DOwINANT

| SAVANNSH

“urs

o | 2

res

Map showing the distribution of the formations.

shrubs occuts with every microhabitat, some species being dominant m one

locality, others in another, but throughout the formation the same composition

usually occurs. Conospermum patens and Hypolaena fastigiata are restricted to

the residual laterite on the Eden~ Moana fault block, while Banka ornata

appears on the deep lateritic sands on the Ochre Cover fault block. In all cases

the formations are developed independently of the dominant trees.

Some characteristic species (¢.g., Hitbertia acicularis, Olearia ramulosa, etc.)

are ecological wides and occur throughout the savannah and sclerophyll, but

extreme splitting would come into ecological classification if these species were

taken into account, Further investigation, however, is wartranted into the

aulecology of individual species of the lower strata.

The distribution of the formations is indicated in fig. 12 and in pl, VI,

B, CUASSIFICATION GF THE PLANT ComMMUNITIES

In classifying plant communities the authors have adhered as closely is

possible to the scheme proposed by Waod (9). An association is defined as any

ttatucal group of specics occurring in similar habitats, When there is a modifica-

tion of only the dotninant tree stratum of an association by a small change in

environment, these stands are called vegetation types of the association, i,

however, the associated undershrubs change with the microhabilat over a smail

area while the tree stratum of the association remains the samc, these stands are

termed societies of the association, The tem community is used for any

assemblage of plants, All the communities appear to be climax communities,

the only communities showing seral relationships occurring in the swamps and

sandhills or as stages in the regeneration of forests after clearing and burning,

The vegetation has been classified into nine associations, the relationships

and environments of which are summarised in ‘able I.

1. Eucalyptus odorata association (see pl, VILL, fig, 3)

Within the rainfall limit of 30 inches per annum a pure association of

£. odorata savannah woodland occurs over red-brown earths, calcimerphic soils,

aud grey-brown podsals. Over all this area E, odorata grows to a small tree less

than 30 feet in height or may assume a “mallee” habit. Associated with it and

sometimes codominant are Melaleucu pubescens (on the calcimorphic soils) and

Casuarina stricta, both of which are small trees. Acacia pycnantha also forms

a distinct second stratum with grasses such as Danthonia spp., Stipa spp. and

Themeda australis, usually constituting the ground stratum, However, the

savannah woodland has been invaded by a large number of introduced plants,

which in many cases alter the facies of the association, ¢,y., olive (Olea europaea),

hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) or dog rose (Resa cantina), but usually the

facies is little changed, for even though the invaders are numerous they are small,

The land on which this association occurs is some of the best in the ares,

Much of it has been cleared and is now being used for cereal growing, vineyards

and grazing.

A. floristic list is given in Appendix TI.

2. Eucalyptus leucoxylon— Eucalyptus viminalis association

This association lies between the 30 and 35-inch isuhyects on grey-brown

podsols and truncated faterites, LZ. leucoxylon occupying the drier northern aspeet

af the ridges between the 30- and 35-inch isohyets, with £. wimtnalis on the

moister southern aspects. The undershrubs are essentially the same as in the

£, oderuta association, with Lfibbertie acicularis and Oleavia raniudesa more

prevalent. The undershrubs show no variation at all with aspect. Jence as these

two Eucalyptus species tend to occur mixed on the tops of the ridges and further

south, it is best to look upon these pure stands with similar undershrubs, as

E. leucoxylon and E, viminalis woodland types differentiated by mierohabitats

within the E, leucorylon—E, viminalis association,

Between the 25- ane 30-inch isohyels £. teucoxylon occupies the moister

southert! aspect either alone ar mixed with Z. odvrate. E. odorata then oecurs

on the drier northern aspect. These pure £. levcoxylan savannah woodland

stands may be considered as an Fi. lewcoxylom type of the above association, for

it occupies a similar microhabilat. However, although the mixed savannah stand

of E, leucoxrylon and EF, odorata oceupies a similar place to the E, leucexylon

type, it must he considered as an ecatone between the two associations.

3. Eucalyptus camalduiensis association (see pl. VIII, fig. 1)

This association is well defined. As the distribution and the environmental!

range of E, camaldulensis has been discussed above, there is no need for recapitu-

lation. Along the creek beds Cyperus vaginatus, together with Juncus pallidus

and J. polyanthemas, are the dominant plants. Occasionally Cylisus canariensis

and Rubus fruticosus have invaded the association in the wetter regions, How-

ever, away from the creeks the vegetation is of the same savannah type as decurs

within the &. /eucosylon—E, vimirtalis association. In the watercourses amongst

the lateritic sands Leptospernuim pubescens, Melaleuca decussata, Callistemon

salignus, Acacia rhetinoides, and 41, verniciflua occur as well as the species men-

tioned above.

4. Casuarina stricta association (see pl. 1X, hg. 4)

This association occurs in limited areas of extremely low water relationships,

such as steep rocky slopes and the deep siliecous sands of neutral reaction near

Noarlunga and Hackham, where the rainfall is just over 20 inches per annum.

On these deep siliceous sands Banksia inarginata and, in some places, Callitris

propingua, are codominant. Here the association is definitely selerophyllous, the

most importunt plants being Xanthorrhera seimiplana and Adenanthos terminalis.

Other common shrubs are Jodonaea viscosa, Bursaria spinosa, Olearta ranvilosa,

Exacorpus cupressifornus, Calythrix tetragona, Acacia pycnantha, A, armata,

Bunksia ornata, Hibbertia stricta, Grevilledt lavandulacea, and Kennedya prostrata.

Aseclepias rotundifolia and Solanum sodomecum have invaded the area, Scirpus

nodosus and Lepidosperme carphoides ave fairly common, while Muchlenbeckia

adpressa, Carpobrotus aequilaterale, and Adenanthos terminalis oceupy large areas

of ground. Of the herbaceous plants Oenothera odorata and Salvia verbenaca

are common, while the grasses Euncaupegon nigricans, Themeda australe and

Brisa maxima occur sparingly. Loranthus Afiquelii sometimes infests Casuarina

stricta.

On steep slopes the association approaches a sclerophyllous community,

Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata in particular being dominant. E.wxocerpus cupressi-

formis, Bursaria spinosa, Dodonaca viscosa, Olearia ramulosa, Bdnksia marginata,

Asclepias rotundifolia and Osteospermum moniliferum are often prevalent,

together with ferns such as Cheilanthes tenttfoha and Pleurosorus rytifolius and

the grasses Themedw australis, Stipa setacea and Danthonia semiannularts.

Loranthus e¢xvcarpi occurs occasionally on Casuprina siricte and K-racarpus

cupressifornis.

From the nature of the Casuarima stricla association jt seems that it could

be classed ag an extremely dry association of the “stringybark edaphie complex.”

In some parts, however, it has closer affinities to a savannah woodland formation,

while aceording to Wood (24) a savannah woodland formation of Casuarina

stricta oceurs on rendzinas near Port Noarlunga,

5. “Stringybark edaphic complea” (see pl. Vill, fig. 2, 3,4, and 1X, fig, 1, 2, 3).

On soils low in nutrient status, provided the water relalions do nat permit

the development of &. edorata or EF. leucoxylon, there necur six species of

Eucalyptus (namely E, fovcieulosa, E. Baxteri, EH, oblique, EB. cosmophylla,

118

£, rubida and &. elacophora) whose environmental ranges coincide with the

habitats found within this section. All of these six species are extremely sen-

sitive to small changes in environment. As shown above, the distribution of all

is controlled by the moisture relationships within the soil and the nature and/or

the PO, and nitrogen level of the soil, while EZ. cosmophylla is probably con-

trolled by insolation.

In dissected country, especially with a complex pedology such as occurs in

the Adelaide Tiuls, a large number of micro-habitats occur every few chains.

Each microhabitat is favourable for the development of a certain combination

of Excalyptus species and undershrubs whose atitecology coincides with the con-

ditions at that spot. Thus we have a large number of combinations of species

produced, cach occupying only a limited area (which is often quite small but may

be up to a couple of square miles in extent),

Hence, within the area, it is possible to distinguish the combinations of

Eucalyptus spectes which occur in similar habitats which are set out in Table IL.

Taece IT

QN PODSOLS AND LATERITES ON GREY-BROWN PODSOLS

E, obliqua &, obligua

E. obliqua—E. Baxteri E. obliquaé —L. fasciculosa

EL. obliqua~E. Baxteri—E, fasciculosa Li, obliqua— E, rubida

E. obliqua— FE, Baxteri—£. casmophylla E, fasciculosa — EB, cosmophylla

FE. obliqua-£. Baxteri—E, cosmophylla- —E. fasciculosa

&. fasciculosa £, rubida

F, oblique — E. fasciculasa

BE, obliqua-—E, fasciculosa— FE. cosmo-

phylia

BK, Baxtert—F., fasciculosa ON FERRIMORPHIC SOILS

E. Baxteri—k, fasciculosa-E, cosmo- E, elaeophora

phylla FE. elaeophora—F, fasciculosa

E, Baxtert— FE, cosmophylla #. ¢laeophora~ E, obligua

E, fasciculosa E, obligua

E. cosmophylta

In general the undershrubs constitute a sclerophyllous community of

remarkably constant composition no matter what the combination of dominant

trees, although the frequency of the individual species varies with the micro-

habitats. However, these changes in the frequency of the species may occur

within a single combination of Eucalyptus species as well as between combina-

tions, thus giving little significance to the use of the tudershrubs in an attempt

to classify the communities under discussion.

A glance at the map of the distribution of the six Eucalyptus species in the

area under discussion reveals the extreme difficulty of formulating a satisfactory

system of classification of the combinations of these species. Considering the

variability of the micro-habitats over a small area, it seems jrstifiable to consider

areas containing these species where a more uniform habitat exists. Such a case

is found on the more level topography of the lateritic peneplain of Kangaroo

Island and the sand-dune ranges af the South-East. On Kangaroo Islanil

E. Baxteri- E. cosmophylla sclerophyll association is present over a wide area

with E. obhiqua, BE. Baxtert and £. cosmophylla occurring mixed in the wetter

regions (2), In the South-Rast, E. Baxter sclerophyll association occurs over

wide areas of a uniform edaphic condition with B. abligua occurring on the better

soils with a rainfall greater tham 24 inches per annuin (6), We therefore see

119

that under a more uniform habitat the same species (both trees and undershrubs)

will be present in the same combination and frequency over a wide area and can

he classified as an association. On close examination of the Adelaide Hills the

E&. obliqua-—E. Baxfert association of the South-East and the E. Baxter? -

E. cosmophylla association of Kangaroo Island are apparent over small areas

where an analogous environment is present,

As K. fasctculosa occurs pure in large areas toward the drier limit of the

complex it seems logical to class this as an association, H, obliqua also tends to

occur pure over the highly leached grey-brown podsols. Definite areas of

E. rubida occur along the watercourses in a rainfall of 35 to 45 inches per annum,

and in larger areas on gréy-brown podsols in the wetter regions. Hence we

could separate an E. ebligua association and an EF, rubide association, but for

further evidence to support these last two associations we stall have to look to

the eastern States.

It is seen that within the “stringybark edaphic complex” there are possibly

at least five associations, namely ;—

E, obfigua association E, fasciculosa association

£, obliqua—E. Baxteri association E. rubida association

&, Baxtert Ff. cosmophylla association

As only the southern limit of E. elaecophora occurs in the area, no conclusiott

can be reached as yet as to its status in the “stringybark complex”,

The other combinations may be regarded as forest types or ecotones of the

above associations.

The dominant tndetshrubs of this dry sclerophyllous edaphic complex vary

from place to place independently of the iree species. Usually about six species

(Acacia myrtifolia, Pultenaea daphnoides, Leptospermum scoparinm, Epacris

impressa, Hakea rostrata, Nanthorrhoea semiplana) appear to be codominant,

but local yariations in percentage [frequency occur. On the grey-brown podsols

Daviesia corymbosa tends to become a codominant undershrub as well. On the

deeper residual lateritic podsols near Blewitt’s Springs with a rainfall of 25 to

30 inches per annum Banksia ornate becomes a codominant undershrub, while

under swampy conditions Banksia ornata is replaced by Callislemon spp. Often

Ploridivm aquilinum and grasses have become dominant on the highly leached

grey-brown podsols and Jaterites after clearing.

A floristic list is given in Appetidix IT,

Cytisus canariensis, Ulex europaeus and Rubus fruticosus have invaded the

complex in places, especially along the roads.

The moist shady valleys of Waterfall Gully tend to develop a peaty swamp

vegetation with dense stands of Leptospermum pubescens, Gahnia trifida and

Goedenia ovata, while on the edges occasional Utricularia dichatoma, Sprengelia

fncarnata and the fern Schisaea fistufosa occur, It is within these swamps that

specimens of Todea barbara occur. The swamps do not persist far down the

creek but give way to moist regions which support dense mats of ferns such as

Gleichenta circinate, Blechnum capense, B, disevlor, Adiantum acthiopicuim and

Pteridium aquilinym, together with an occasional specimen of -4splenium flabellt-

foliuns and Pléuresurus rutifolius. Similar swampy creeks are found near

Longwood,

In the creeks near Heathfield large quantities of .dporogetom distachyus

(Cape pond weed) and Lemna minor can be found in spring.

6. Ecotencs

(1) Evotones, in the sense of transition zones rather than tension belts, occur

between all the associations, but especially along the junction of the “Stringyhark

13)

edaphic complex” and other associations, as here we have seven Eucalypt species

with overlapping environmental ranges.

(2) E. odorata-E, leucoxylon—E. fasciculosa ecotone, LE. leucoxylon and

F. odorata have overlapping environmental ranges between the 25” and 30”

isohyets on both the grey-brown podsols arid Jaterites of the Eden-Moana Fault

Block. Towards the drier hmit £. Jencarylon occupies the shady moister aspect

of the ridges, whereas towards the wetter it spreads. out over both aspects.

FE, odorata ig here unaffected by aspect and occurs mixed with E&, leucoxr on

up to the 30” tsohyet. Such stands oceur on the Eden-Moana Fault Block from

Happy Valley Reservoir to National Park, As shown above. the nutrient status

of grey-brown podsols and laterites is different, the laterites being low whereas

the grey-brawn podsols are relatively high, Consequently, although the Eucalyptus

species are not affected, the undershrubs. are respectively those associated with

selerophyllous and savannah communities. On the shallow lateritic residual

podsols of the Ochre Cove Fault Block an E. leucoxylon scletophyllous com-

imunily containing a. few isolated trees of E. fasciculasa merges into the £. fasci-

culosa association of the “stringybark-edaphic complex” on the deeper lateritic

residual podsols, This association contains an occasiotial tree of E. fewcoxylon,

Throughout the areas of blue gum and peppermint gitm mentioned above, small

areas of an E, wiminalis sclerophyllous community occur,

The difficulty arises in classifying such stands, Ag the E, fencoxylon-

£, odorata selerophyllous cormmunity has a constant structure over a considerable

atea, one could look upon this as an association, with the EZ. leucoayion sclero-

phyllous stand, such as occurs on the Ochre Cove Fault Block and at Tlappy Valley

Reservoir, as a sclerophyllous woodland type within the association. However,

#6 pointed out above, there is a marked change in the undershrubs independently

ef the associated trees, so that E, lencorwlon—E. odorata savannah and

FE. leucoxylon—F, odorata sclerophyllous woodlands occur contiguously over

considerable areas. This change in the undershrubs is too vast to allow rhe

stands to be classified as societies within the same association, The presence of

patches of &. viminalis throughout, and occasional trees of L, fasciculosa in the

stands on thé Ochre Cove Fault Block, provides further evidence that the stands

do not constitute an association, It therefore seems better to regard the stands

as an ecotone between the three associations, occurring at its limies, fe, the

&, odvrate savannah woodland association, the £, lexcoaylon=E. wimenaliz

savannah woodland association, and the E&. fesecic¢ulosa sclerophyll woodland

jissoctation,

The species composition of the savannah stands ts similar to that of the

#, odorafa association. In the selerophyllous stands several undershruhs are co-

dominant. On the Eden-Moana Fault Block Banksia marginale, Adenanthos

terminalis and Kungea pomifera ace prevalent in the south on the deeper residual

laterite whereas Xanthorrioca semiplana, Hokea rostrata and H. uftcina are

prevalent in the north on truncated laterite. A list of the species present in the

sclerophyll stand is given in the appendix.

The “whipstick mallee” form of &, edorafa on the podsol at the foot of

Black Hill could possibly be classed within this ecotone.

7. Méscellancous communes which oceupy only small areas

(1) Coastal Sandhill communities

At Port Noarlunga and Christie's Beach there are small areas uf sandhills

on which distinct communities develop.

A, At Port Noarlunga the dominant plants are three shrubs, Acacia lengi-

folio, Myoporum insulare and Oleoria axillarts, which all grow to a height of

12)

4 to 6 feet. The most important associated plants are Calocephalus Brownii,

Leucopogon parviflorus, Arctotis stoechadifolia, Muehlenbeckia udpressa, Cakile

maritima, Carpobrotus aequilaterale, Rhagodia baccaia, Suacda australis, S pinifex

hitsutus and Scirpus nodosus. Others which occtir much less frequently are

Dianella revoluta, Scaevola crassifolia, Kennedya prostrata, Pimelea serpylltfolia,

Lotus australis, Lugula campestris and the grass Layuris ovatus. It should be

noted that a large proportion of these plants are prostrate creeping plants. All

the plants are stu2ted and dwarfed owing to the poor and saline nature of the

soil and the exposed position.

B. At Christie's Beach there is a smaller area of dunes which are not as

well stabilised as those at Port Noarlunga. The flota is not as well developed,

the dominant and sometimes only plant being Ammophila arenaria, Other plants

are infrequent, but the following do occur :—Acacia longifolia, Olearia axillaris,

Dianella revoluta and Euphorbia terracina,

(2) Coastal cliff communities

With the exception of the two small areas of sandhills mentioned above the

coastline is generally marked by cliffs, the vegetation of which, besides being

extremely variable, 1s scattered and stunted owing to the exposed conditions and

shallow soils. The chief shrubs present are Alyxia buxifolia, Myoporum insulare,

Olearia ramulosa, Beyeria Leschenaultii, Nitraria Schoberi, Acacia Ligulata,

A. longifoha, Eutaxia microphylla, Atriblex paludosum, Lixchylaena villosa,

Rhagodia baccata, Pomaderris racemosa, Melaleuca decussata, and Wesiringia

rigida. Other plants which commonly occur are Carpobrotus aequilaterale,

Scaevola micracarpa, Myoporum parvifolium, Zygophyllum Billardieri, Kennedya

rostrata, Dampiera rosmarinifolia, Dianella revoluta, Cakile maritima, Oenothera

odorata, Asphodelus fistulosus and Pelleia parado-ra.

(3) Coastal Swamps

Near the mouth of the Onkaparinga river thete is a small area of saline

swamp, some of which is subject to flooding at. high tides. This small area

contains the best example of succession found during the survey, The sere can

be illustrated as follows }—

Arthrocnemum sp.

Arthrocnemum. sp. - Salicornia sp.

Salicornia sp,— Atriplex paludosum,

‘ V

Vo Alriplex paludasum — Nilraria Schober:

The direction of the arrows indicates deeper watcr table, decreasing salinity

and less frequent flooding,

A. In the lowest areas which are subject to flooding at high tides

Arthrocnemum sp. is the first plant to become established, The spreading habit

of this plant leads to a gradual raising of the ground level due to collection

of alluvial material,

122

B. On the slightly higher areas not subject to such frequent flooding

Salicornia sp, becomes cadominant with Arthrocnemum, Associated with these

two plants is Samolus repens,

C. Where flooding is rare and only oceurs at exceptionally high tides

Arthrocnemum. is not so important although still present. The dominants in this

part are Salicornia sp, and Aériplex paludoswm. Associated with them are

Somolus repens, Plagianthus microphyllus, Kochia oppositifolia, Frankenia pauci-

flora, and Carpobrotus aequilaterale.

D, The highest parts of the swamp are only Aooded by the infrequent fresh-

water floods caused by overflowing of the Onkaparinga River. A more complete

vegetative cover is present. The dominants are Nitraria Schoberi and Atriplex

paludosum, and associated with them are Salicornia sp., Arikrocnemum sp.,

Enchylaena villosa, Suaeda australis, Rhagodia baccata, Plagionthus mucrophyllus,

Wilsonia kuimilis, Carpobrotus acquilaterale, Frankenia pauciflora and Distichlis

spicata. Juncus maritimus is common in some parts.

SUMMARY

This paper deals with the ecology of portion of the Mount Lofty Ranges

between the River Torrens atid Noarlunga.

Working on the premise that every plant has a certain potential environ-

ment, the climate, soils and vegetation have been studied and attempts made to

correlate the distribution of the dominant trees and association with the environ-

ment.

Both mechanical and chemical analyses have been made on soil samples

typical of each of the soil groups present in the area, and suggestions are given

as to the genesis of each soil.

To add breadth to any conclusions drawn from the data collected, the

environmental range of the dominant species is discussed with reference to their

environment in other parts of South Australia which have been studied by other

ecologists.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It would be impossible here to satisfactorily acknowledge the great assistance

which has been so willingly given in this research by a large number of people.

We can sincerely say that their help has been greatly appreciated, In particular

we would like to express our appreciation of the help and advice which has been

s0 readily given by Professor J. G. Wood.

REFERENCES

(1) Avamson, R, S., and Oszorn, T,G. B. 1924 The Ecology of the Eucalyp-

tus Forests of the Mount Lofty Ranges (S. Aust.), Trans, Roy Soc,

5. Aust. 48

(2) Barpwrn, J. G., and Crocker, R, L, 1941 Soils and Vegetation of por-

tion of Kangaroo Island. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 65, (1)

(3) Buacx, J. M. 1921 Flora of 5, Aust. Govt. Printer, Adelaide

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(5) Boomsma, C, D. 1946 The Vegetation of the Southern Flinders Ranges

(S, Aust.) Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, (2)

5 Spr ; EREY

Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., Aucust, 1948 BRET, AD Ems

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-VECETATION MAP—

FUCALYPTUS ODORATA

E. QDORATA

FE, LEUCOKYLON

E. VIMINALIS

» CAMALDULENSIS

E., OBLIQUA

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/7.\WuN ——

—

(7)

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

(24)

123

Crocker, R, L. 1941 The Soils and Vegetation of Lower South-East

of 5S. Aust. Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 68, (1)

Crocker, R, L. 1946 An Introduction to the Soils and Vegetation of

Eyre Peninsula, S. Aust. Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust., 70, (1)

Crocker, R. L. 1946 Post-Miocene Climatic and Geologic History and

its significance in the Genesis of the major Soil Types of S. Aust. Aust.

C.S.L.R. Bull. 193

Crocker, R, L., and Woon, J. G. 1947 Some Historical Influences on

the Development of the South Australian Vegetation Communities and

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Soc. S. Aust., 71, (1)

Davipson, J. 1936 Climate in relation to Insect Ecology in Australia.

Trans. Roy. Soc. $. Aust., 60

Jessup, R. W. 1946. Ecology of an Area adjacent to Lakes Alexandrina

and Albert. Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Aust., 70, (1)

Norrucote, K. H. 1946 A Fossil Soil from Kangaroo Island, S. Aus.

Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 70, (2)

Piper, C. S. 1938 The Red-brown Earths of S. Aust. Trans. Roy,

Soc. S. Aust., 62, (1)

Piper, C, S. 1942 Soil and Plant Analysis. University of Adelaide

Prescott, J. A. 1931 ‘The Soils of Australia in relation to Vegetation

and Climate. C.S.1.R. (Aust.) Bull, 52

Prescorr, Jj. A. 1944 A Soil Map of Australia, C.S.LR. (Aust.) Bull.

177

spricg, R, C. 1942 The Geology of the Eden-Moana Fault Block, Trans.

Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 66, (2)

Spricc, R. C. 1945 Some aspects of the Geomorphology of portion of

the Mount Lofty Ranges, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, (2)

Sprig, R. C. 1946 Reconnaissance Geological Survey of portion of the

Western Escarpment of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc.

S, Aust., 70, (2)

Steruens, C.G. 1947 Pedogenesis following the Dissection of Lateritic

Regions in $, Aust, C.S.I.R. (Aust.) Bull. 206

Tavtor, J. K., and O’Donnett, J. 1932 The Soils of the southern por-

tion of the Hundred of Kuitpo, S. Aust. Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 56

Trumsie, H. C. 1937 The Climatic Control of Agriculture in S. Aust.

Trans. Roy Soc. S, Aust., 61

TruMsBLe, H. C. 1939 Chmutic Factors in relation to the Agricultural

Regions of 5. Aust. Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 63, (1)

Woop, J. G. 1937 The Vegetation of S. Aust. Govt. Printer, Adelaide

124

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APPENDIX II

Comparative floristic lists are given for five major vegetational groups

occurring within the area, No indication is given as to the percentage frequency

of each plant, the x only indicating the presence of that species within that group.

The nomenclature of the species is that given by Black (3). An asterisk before

the name of a species indicates that the species has been introduced tu South

Australia.

- ES Sues ¢ ae

e 88 88 S55, 88 88

& Sg A Seppe 83 §5

4 Qe Be wags O8 ay

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Adiantum aethiopicum - - - - H . P x

Cheilanthes tenuifolia - - - - #H x x x x x

Pteriditum aquilinum - - ~ - - G . x : x

Pleurosorus rutaefolius > - - H : : : x .

Callitris propinqua- - - - - - M x x :

C. tasmanica - - - - - - M : . . * x

Themeda australis - - - - - Ch x x x x x

Neurachne alopecuroides - - = - FH x . 5 x

*Ehrharta longifolia - - - - - “ . ‘ x " .

Stipa variabilis - 7 = = = x x x x x

S. setacea - - - - - - -~ #H x x x A

*Oryzopsis miliacea = - - - - « x x , 4

*Aira caryophyliea - - - - - # x x

*Avena fatua - - - - - - HA x x ‘

*Holcus lanatus - - - - - » HA . 4 x

Danthonia spp. - -~ - - - - #H x x x x

Enneapogon nigricans - - - - #H : 4 x .

Briza maxima - - - - - -~ FA x x - x

B. minor - - - “ ~ - — ott x x x . :

Distichlis spicata - - - - ~ H x . . . .

*Vuipia myuros - - - - - - FA x x + 4 ‘

*Bromus spp. - ~ - = = - #H x x a Fs :

*Cynodon dactylon - - - - - HA x x ° ‘ .

*Lolium spp. - - - - - - #H x x Fs 4 4

*Hordeum murinum =~ - > - - H x x - <

Cyperus vaginatus = - - - - - H : : . x

Scirpus nodosus - - - - - - G&G ’ . . x .

Lepidosperma laterale - - - Ch : ’ x = x

L, viscidum - - - - - - Ch ‘ . : . x

L. semiteres = = - - - Ch , “4 x ‘ x

L. carphoides = - = - = 2 £” 6h . i x x x

Chorizandra enodes - -~ + = Ch : : : . x

Hypolaena fastigiata - ~ - 7 H ‘ ‘ x a

Juncus pallidus - - ms < i ~ #H x x x x x

Dianella revoluta - - - - G x = x x x

Reya umbellata - - . - - ~ G¢ x x x . x

Anguillaria diotce - - - - A 1G: x x : x

Lomandra dura - - - - - - Ch x x ' x

Thysanotus Patersonii

T. dichotomus = - -

Caesia vittata - =

Bulbine bulbosa -

Dichopogon fimbriatus

Bartlingia sessiliflora -

Xanthorrhoea quadrangulata

X. semiplana - 7

*Asphodelus fistulosus

Hypoxis glabella ~

Calostemma purpureum

*Sparaxis tricolor -

*S. bulbifera - -

*Romulea rosea - -

*Homeria collina - *

*H, miniata - - -

Patersonia longiscapa -

Dipodium punctatum

Thelymitra aristata -

T. antennifera - ~

Acianthus exsertus -

Lyperanthus nigricans

Eriochilus cucullatus -

Caladenia dilatata -

C. deformis = +

Glossodia major - =

Diuris maculata =

Pterostylis nana -

Casuarina stricta -

C. striata - - “

C. Muelleriana - -

Isopogon ceratophyllus

Adenanthos terminalis

Conospermum patens

Persoonia juniperinum

Hakea rostrata - ~

H. rugosa - - -

H. ulicina - - -

Banksia marginata -

B. ornata - - -

Grevillea favandulacea

Exocarpus cupressiformis

Loranthus Miquelii -

L. exocarpi - -

*Rumex crispus - -

*R. acetosella - -

128

Life Form

agnaaAmAgaAAmMAMAAgRAAAANAaAEmAAAAA

HititiezzzeezeuzzZzee

E odorata

association

(1)

4H 4 4 #

E. lettcaxylon-

E. viminalis assoc.

x eR KR KH

x A

H A A OK

Sclerophyll of

E. odorata-E. leu-

coxylon-E, fasci-

culosa ecotone

~ A AR HA A Aw AK KR *

A x Hw

Casuarina stricta

association

edaphic complex

Stringybark

(3)

YAH AWA RK RK WH A ww

AA RA

4 A RR AA A

A Hw HX

Muehlenbeckia adpressa

Carpobrotus aequilaterale

Ranunculus lappaceus

Cassytha glabella

Drosera binata

D. glanduligera

D. Whittakeri

D. Planchonii

D. auriculata

D. peltata -

Crassula Siebariana

Bursaria spinosa

Marianthus bignoniaceus

Cheiranthera lincaris

Billatdiera cymosa

*Rubus. fruticosus

*Rosa canina

*Crataegus monogyna

Acaena ovina

A. sanguisorbae

Acacia continua

A. armata -

A. obliqua =~

A. spinescens

A. verniciflua

A, rhetinodes

A. myrtifolia

A. pycnantha

A. rupicola -

A. vomeriformis

A. melanoxylon

Daviesia corymbosa

D. ulicina = -

D.. brevifolia

Eutaxia microphylla

Pultenaeca daphnoides

P. pedunculata

P. largiflorens

P. involucrata

P. acerosa var. acicularis

Dillwynia hispida

TD. floribunda

Platylobium obtusangulum

*Ulex europaeus

*Cytisus canariensis

“Trifolium procumbens

129

Life Form

AAAZZAAAZAAAAAZAAASSRS SSS ee Se MIAssseeeynaagynawyws

E odorata

association

(ay

ye 6

wx KOR

4 KA KR KR KH

A A

E. leucoxylon-

E. viminalis assoc.

Ho RR

Sclerophyll of

E, odorata-E, leu-

coxylon-E., fasei-

culosa ecotone

Casuarina stricta

association

edaphic complex

Stringybark

AA KK KR KH RH HM HK KRW

HH KR A KR KH A AH RH OR MK KR KAW KK AK OW OR KY

‘

*T. subterraneum -

*T. arvense - -

*T, angustifolium -

Psoralea patens -

Swainsona oroboides var-

Kennedya prostrata -

Hardenbergia monophylla

Glycine clandestina -

*Erodium botrys - €

*E. moschatum = - -

*Oxalis corniculata -

*O. cernua - - -

*Linum marginale -

¥*L. gallicum - -

Boronia caerulescens -

Correa rubra - -

Tetratheca pilosa ~

Adriana Klotzschii = -

Stackhousia monogyna

Dodonaea viscosa -

Spyridium parvifohium

S. spathulatum - -

S. vexilliferum = - “

Cryptandra tomentosa

*Malva parviflora -

Hibbertia sericea -

H. stricta - - -

H. acicularis - -

H. virgata - -

*Hypericum perforatum

Hybanthus floribundus

Pimelia spathulata

P. flava - - -

FP. octophylla - -

Lythrum Hyssopifolia

Leptospermum scoparium

L. pubescens - =

L. myrsinoides - -

Kunzea pomifera -

Callistemon salignus -

Melaleuca decussata ~-

M. pubescens - -

Eucalyptus obliqua -

FE, Baxteri - - -

E. odorata - -

E. cosmophyla = - =

hirsuta

130

Life Fovm

BZRQZ22m2z222n4e42an444e4e2o4zz2zrrToasnrazroinen

E odorata

association

E. leucoxylon-

E. viminalis assoc

Sclerophyll of

E, odorata-E, leu-

coxylon-E. fasci-

culosa ecotone

3 K

1 a

BE 22

PR ee

29 2c

on nS

Ow ane

(4) (5)

a :

, :

. ‘

x =x

‘ x

5 ;

: ¢

. x

- x

x é

. x

* x

. =x

« x

. x

*. x

* x

. x

- x

. x

. -

. x

> =

yiminalis

rubida = - -

elacophora = -

leucoxylon = -

. fasciculosa -

Calythrix tetragona

*Oenothera odorata

Halorrhagis tetragyna

H. teucrioides = -

Eryngium rostratum

*Foeniculum vulgare

Astroloma

A. conostephioides

Lissanthe strigosa

Leucopogon parviflorus

L. hirsutus -

L. virgatus -

L. rufus = -

Acrotriche serrulata

A. fasciculiflora -

Epacris impressa -

Sprengelia incarnata

*Anagallis arvensis

*A.femina = -

*Olea europaea -

Logania fliniflolia

*Erythraea centaurium

*Asclepias rotundifolia

*Convolvulus arvetisis

*Echium plantagineum

Teucrium racemosum

*Lavandula Stoechas

*Marrubium vulgare

*Salvia verbenaca

Prostanthera Behriana

*Stachys arvensis

*Solanum nigrum

*S. sodomaeum = -

*Lycium ferocissimum

*Verbascum virgatum

*Tinaria Elatine -

*Bartschia latifolia

*Plantago varia = -

*P_ lanceolata -

*P. coronopus -

Opercularia scabrida

humifusum

131

Life Form

Z2me2azdeeezeazgaaazaezaaazaanogniasr

420

AAAHHH ZS SZ AZHZAZAs

ie)

E, odorata

association

(ee

E. viminalis assoc,

E, leucoxylon-

land

* HW

4” HW

Sclerophyll of

E, odorata-E, leu-

coxylon-E, fasct-

culosa ecotone

yn OA

Casuarina stricta

association

Stringybark

edaphic complex

nad

HK KH HX WH KH A KM OR

“a

*Sherardia arvensis -

*Scabiosa maritima =

Wahlenbergia gracilis

Lobelia gibbosa - es

Goodenia geniculata -

G. primulacea - -

Velleia paradoxa -

Scaevola microcarpa -

Dampiera lavandulacea

Brunonia australis -

Stylidium graminifolium

Brachycome exilis -

Vittadinia triloba -

Olearia grandiflora = -

O. ramulosa - -

Senecio hypoleucus = -

*Osteospermum moniliferum

Cryptostemma calendulaceum

Helichrysum Baxteri

H. scorpioides - -

H. apiculatum = - -

Ixodia achilleoides -

*Inula graveolens -

Craspedia uniflora -

*Cynara cardunculus -

*Centaurea calcitrapa -

*Carthamus lanatus -

*Tragopogon porrifolius

*Cichorium Intybus -

*Hypochoeris radicata

*Picris echioides - -

*Sonchus oleraceus -

Megaphanaerophytes

Mesophanaetrophytes

Nanophanaerophytes

Chamaephytes -

Hemicryptophytes

132

Life Form

AeAzzntndamAzogggrz2ar

RAUNKIAER’S Lire Form Kry

(MM)

(M)

(N)

(Ch)

(H)

ge aR

ws £9

of eg

Tu tH

og Se

ad piel

q) (2)

x =x

. x

x x

x .

x -

x x

x Pr

x x

Geophytes -

Helophytes

Therophytes

Epiphytes

Succulents

Sclerophyll of

E, odorata-E. leu-

coxylon-E. fasci-

culosa ecotone

(3)

Casuarina stricta

association

Stringybark

edaphic complex

| E. odorata 4 E. camaldulensis 7 E. fascicvulosa

2 E. teucexylon 5 E. obliqua 8 E. cosmophylla

3 EL yimngls . 6 E. Baxter 9 E. rubida

PLATE V

Meteraph of anndel ta seals showing Wastribution wt chier Knculypt species in

Peon bye Lopoe ry piiw.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aunst., 1948 Vol. 72, Plate V

Fig.

fw nd

Bw dN

EXPLANATIONS OF PLATES VI—IX

Pirate VI

Aerial photograph showing sclerophyll formations (dark areas) on podsols on

Stonyfell Ridge as compared with savannah woodland on grey-brown podsols on

Greenhill and Long Ridge to the South.

Aerial photograph showing sclerophyll forest on podsols on Black Hill and Rocky

Hill (Morialta area) compared with savannah woodland on grey-brown podsols

near Montacute Road.

Piate VII

E. leucoxylen savannah woodland on the north-facing slope

Elbow.

E. viminalis savannah woodland on the south-facing slope } mile above Devil’s Elbow.

3} mile above Devil’s

E. leucoxylon sclerophyll association on truncated lateritic soils.

E. leucoxylon—Banksia marginata association on the deep sandy soils near Happy

Valley reservoir.

Piate VIII

E. camaldulensis savannah woodland near Blackwood,

E, fasciculosa sclerophyll scrub on truncated lateritic soils near Chandler’s Hill.

E. odorata sclerophyll association in National Park.

E. Baxteri sclerophy!l forest near Mt. Lofty summit.

PLaTe IX

E. obliqua sclerophyll forest near Mt. Lofty summit.

E. cosmophylla sclerophyll association in Waterfall Gully.

E. rubida association on grey-brown podsols (low nutrient status) at Picadilly Valley.

Casuarina stricta association on deep neutral sandy soils between Hackham and

Morphett Vale.

Vrans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, L948 Vol. 72, Plate VI

Fig, |

Vil

Plate

Vol.

LO48

Aust,

Soc, &.

Roy.

Traus.

Vol, 72, Plate VIII

1948

Roy. Soc, S. Aust.,

Trans.

I “Sig

r 72, Plate IX

Trans, Rov, Soc. S. Aust, 1948 Vol. 72, Plate

ig. 4

INDO-PACIFIC INFLUENCES IN AUSTRALIAN TERTIARY

FORA MINIFERAL ASSEMBLAGES

By IRENE CRESPIN

Summary

A recent examination of the microfaunal content of samples from numerous bores drilled in the

Adelaide Plains by the Department of Mines, South Australia, has revealed some interesting

information about the palaeogeography and stratigraphy of Tertiary sediments in Australia. Certain

forminiferal assemblages and zonal foraminiferal species have been discovered in the Tertiary sub-

surface deposits in the Adelaide Basin which indicate an extension to Southern Australia of Indo-

Pacific conditions in Upper Middle Miocene and Lower Pliocene times.

133

INDO-PACIFIC INFLUENCES IN AUSTRALIAN TERTIARY

FORAMINIFERAL ASSEMBLAGES '!!

By Irene Cresrin

{Read 10 June 1948]

1. INTRODUCTION

A recent exantination af the microfaunal content of samples from numerous

bores drilled in the Adelaide Plains by the Department of Mines, South Australia,

has revealed some interesting information about the palaeogeugraphy and strati~

graphy of Tertiary sediments in Australia. Certain [nraminiferal assemblages and

zorial foraminiferal species have been discavered in the Tertiary sub-surface

deposits in the Advlaide Basin which indicate an extension to Southern Anstralia

of Indo-Pacific conditions in Upper Middle Miocene and Lower Pliocene times.

The work upon which the wriler has been engaged in recent years has

involved investigation of foraminiferal faunas af Tertiary deposits nat only in

Australia but in New Guinea, Papua, Timor, Java and Sumatra, With the dis-

covery of Indo-Pacific assemblages in the sediments in the Adelaide Basin, time

seems opportune to consider some observations that have been made and to

attempt a correlation of the Australian deposits with those in the Indo-Pacific

Region.

Perhaps the most striking observation is the very large area over which the

same foraminiferal assemblages and even the rock types are to be found in the

Region. The area extends from Japan south through the Philippines and Sumatra,

east through Jaya, the smaller islands. cf the Netherlands East Indies, New

Guinea; Papua, the Solomons and New Ilebrides, and north to islands such as

Guam, From Timor it extends south to north-western Austral, and from there

across southern Western Australia to South Australia and north-western Victoria.

Early in these mvyestigations it was realised that eastern Australian Tertiary

and Recent faunas were very slightly influenced by the climatic and hathymetric

conditions that prevailed in the Indo-Pacific Region from Tertiary times onward,

and it is intended in this paper to indicate the hmuts of such influence, as indicated

by the distribution of the larger foraiminifera.

The sources from which information regarding the distribution of the larger

foraminitera in the Australian Tertiaries has been drawn, are rock collections

which have heen made during reconnaissance surveys by geologists attached to

various companies in their search for oil in the North-West Basin of Western

Australia, and by geologists of the Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources

from the Nullarbor Plains and Eucla sections in Western and South Australia,

as well as samples from bores which have been drilled for water in the Adelaide

metropolitan area by the South Australian Department of Mines, and in the

Mallee and Wimmera areas in north-western and central western Victoria by the

State Rivers and Water Supply Commission.

[fl PUBLISHED AND UNPUBLISHED SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Little published work is available on the problem of the stratigraphic position

of the Tertiary foraminiferal rocks in Australia and their relationship with Indo-

Pacific stratigraphy.

Howchin (889) recorded Lepidacyclina under the name of Orbitolites from

the limestones at Clifton Bank near Hamilton, Victoria.

©) Published by permissiun of the Director of the Bureau of Mineral Resources,

Geolazy and Geophysics, Departinent of Supply and Development. Based oo u proper

read before Section C of the A.N.Z.AVA.S, Verth, August 1947,

Trans. Roy. Soc, S Aust., 72, (1), 23rd August, 1948

NOATHERN

TERRITORY

GREAT AUETRAUAH BIGHT

AUSTRALIA

SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE TERNARY :

ROCKS AND FORAMINIFERA tocAuTicS AFFECTEO fs ex eu,

BY INDO=PAGIFIC INFLUENCED, yreace

4 us ca ET

Chapman (1910), in his study of the Batesford limestone, referred the

Lepidocyclinae to European species, and Crespin (1926) listed Ledipocyclina

from a limestone at Green Gully, near Keilor, Victoria.

The first record of larger foraminifera in north-west Australia was made

by Chapman (1927), when he determined Lepidocyelina dilatata in a limestone

submitted to him by F. G. Clapp from Exmouth Gulf. Later, in 1935, Chapman

and Crespin determined Eocene foraiminifera from rocks from. the Giralia-Bullara

area, North-West Division, Western Australia, collected by Messrs. Rudd and

Condit. Species of Discocyclina, Asterocyclina and Pellafispira were recorded.

In 1932 these two workers described Lepidocyclinae from bores in the Tertiary

rocks of Victoria and suggested a correlation (based on the determination of

Spiroclypeus in a limestone from Hamilton) of these deposits with “Stage e” in

Java. Crespin later (1936) considered the specimen to be a section of a test of

Lepidecyclina.

Raggatt (1936) included a short account based on departmental reports by

Chapman and Crespin, of the Tertiary rocks of the North-West Basin, Western

Australia, in his geology of the area,

135

{fn a report to the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advance-

meat of Sesence in Auckland (1937), the writer summarised the occurrences of

Tertiary marine rocks in north-west Australia and indicated their relationships

with Indo-Pacific types, and at the same time Chapman reported on the discovery

of Eocene rocks in that area.

Crespm (1936) discussed the larger foraminifera in the Tertiary rocks of

Victoria which were referred to the Lower Miocene, and suggested that the sub-

genus Lepidocyelina indicated a younger age for the beds. Later, in 1941 and

1942, she made: detailed studies of the genera Cyeloclypeus and Lepidoryclina

respectively in the Tertiary of Victoria and indicated their position in the Indo-

Pacific stratigraphy. The subject was discussed further in her work on the Ter-

tiary deposits of Gippsland, Victoria (1943).

Glaessner (1943) brought up to date the various lincs of thought regarding

Indo-Pacific Tertiary stratigraphy in his “Problems of Stratigraphic Correlation

in the Indo-Pacific Region.’ Australia received little attention by Glaessner

because of lack of published work.

Information on the foraminiferal assemblages in South Australian Tettiary

deposits was derived from Howchin and Part’s study of the foraminifera in the

iietropolitan Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide (1938), and from Howchin'’s work on

other bores in 1935 and 1936. Chapman’s report (1916) on the Mallee Hores in

Victoria formed the basis for work in that area and in the Wimmera.

Considerable evidence has been derived from’ unpublished departmental

palaeontological reports since 1934, and these may be discussed under ewo head-

ings: f(a) North-West Basin, Wester Australia. atid ([b) Southern Western

Australia, South Australia and northavestern Victoria,

(a) Norta-Wesr Basix, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Information has been derived from rock collections made by geologists dur-

ing recornaissance surveys for various companies engaged in the search for oil.

In 1934 D. Dale Condit and E, A. Rudd, on behalf of Oil Search Ltd.,

investigated the Exmouth Gulf area and collected limestones containing typical

Eocene atid Miocene Indo-Pacific foraminifera. H. G. Rageatt carried out

further work for Oil Search Ltd. in this arca in 1934, and in 1935 he was accom-

panied by Washington Gray of the Commonwealth Oil Refineries Ltd, Both

geologists made large collections of fossiliferous material, Im 1936 E, A, Rudd

made a further reconnaissance of the Exmouth Gulf area for Oil Search Ltd. and

extended his survey down to the coastal section at Red Bluff and Cape Cuvier,

aud in 1941 geologists attached to Caliex (Australia) Oil Development, visited

the Exmouth Gulf area and made enllections from sections in Rough Range and

Cape Range area,

(b) Soutuers Westexn Austratia, South AUSTRALTA AND

NorrH-WEsrERN VICTORIA

The greater part of the information on this region has been derived fom

hores drilled for water in South Australia and north-western Victoria, and from

collections of fossiliferous limestones male by geologists of the Bureau of Mineral

Resotirces, Canberra, and students of the University of Adelaide. The State

Rivers and Water Supply Commission ef Victoria has bately been drilling for

water in the Wimmera, and since 1908 has had a drilling programme in the Mallee.

In 1944, H, B. Owen of the Burean of Mineral Resources accompanied a

party of geophysicists of the same organisation on a trip along the coastline of

the Great Australian Bight from Port Lincoln jn South Australia to Eyre tu

136

Western Australia, and then across to Booanya and Balladonia. Owen collected

from all available limestone outcrops between Ceduna and Norseman and made

geological observations in this Tertiary Basin.

Last year Mr, Kitig, a student of the Department of Geology, University of

Adelaide, explored caves on the Nullarbor Plains and collected rocks from

various localities in the vicinity of the caves.

Limestones have also been examined by the writer from Cook and Ooldea

on the Transcontinental Railway,

HI. METHOD OF CORRELATION OF TERTIARY MARINE ROCKS

IN THE [NDO-PACIFIC REGION

The basis of correlation of the Tertiary marine rocks in the Indo-Pacific

Region is the distribution of the larger foramimifera in them. Dutch palaeonto-

logists found it difficult to recognise some of the European stages in the Indo-

Pacific, and in 1927 Van der Vlerk and Umbgrove instituted a “letter” classifica-

tion, Since that time a considerable amount of detailed work has been carried

out on the Tertiary fautias in the Netherlands East Indies by Dutch palaeontolo-

gists in collaboration with field geologists, with the result that a convenient classi-

fication was put forward by the late Dr. Tan Sin Hok in 1939, and this can be

applied readily to those ‘Tertiary rocks in Australia which come under the

influence of Indo-Pacific conditions at the time of deposition, Tan's scheme,

which has been modified by Glaessner (1943), is as follows:

Upper Neogene (formerly “g” -“h”)

Upper Middle Neogene ("E, *)

Neogene - = > Lower Middle Neogene (“L, ’ -"£.,")

(Lower Neogene (Aquitanian, “e”, included

in Miocene)

Oligocene (‘c?-"d", distinguishable from

Palaeogene - - 4 ., Agquitanian only if reticulate Nummul-

lites present)

Eocene (“a’ - “b’?)

This scheme is further modified in its application to Australia. It is con-

sidered that the following close approximations can be made—the Lower Neogene

ta the Lower Miocene, the Middle Neogene to the Middle to Upper Miocene,

and the Upper Neogene to the Pliocene.

Characteristic larger foraminifera for the stages are:

Pliocene - ~ - Absence of larger zonal foraminifera

Lipper Miocene (L, vy - Trybliolepidina rusten

Middle Miocene (“E, ae oe Nephrolepidina, Miogypsina, Flosculinella,

Cycloclypeus, Ausirotrillina

lower M iocene (ery - - Lulepidina, Spiroclypeus, Nevalveolina

Oligocene (‘'c”-“d’?) - Eulepidina and reticulate Numazelites

Eocene (“s7-"b’") - Assilina, Nunimultes, Pellatispira, Disco-

cjclina, Asterocyclina, Actinocyclina

Rocks containing typical Eocene (“a"-"h”), Oligocene (“c”-“d") and

Lower Miocene (“e’’) larger foraminifera are fotind only im north-western Aus-

tralia. Zonal foraminifera af “f stage” are widely distributed not only in rocks

in the North-West Basin but on the Nullarbor Plains and in the Eucla Basin, and

in bures in the Adelaide Plains and north-western Victoria. ‘lypical “f,” rocks

137

with Tryblivlepidina rutlent have not yet been found. Pliocene deposits probably

equivalent to ‘'g” occur along the north-western cuast, on the Nullarbor Plains,

and im the Adelaide Basin.

IV. APPLICATION OF THE “LETTER” CLASSIFICATION TO

AUSTRALIAN MARINE TERTIARY DEPOSITS

Localities from which typical zonal foraminifera of the Indo-Pacific Region

have been recorded in Australia are listed in Table 1, which also gives the strati-

graphic position of the various deposits.

A. Rocenr (“a -“b")

The only localities in Australia from which “a”-"b” foraminifera have been

recorded are Giralia and Bullara south of the head of Exmouth Gulf. and at Red

Rluff and Cape Cuvier in the coastal section south of the Exmouth Gulf area in

the North-West Basin, Western Australia. Species of Discocyclina, Astero-

cyclina, Actinocychina, Pellatispira and Numogprulites have been determined, The

exact position of these beds in the Eocene stratigraphic sequence is uncertain,

Pellatispira and Discocyclina disappear at the top of the Eocene,

B. Oricocenr (“e"> “d*)

Definite Oligocene limestones are also restricted to the North West Basin of

Western Australia. Large species of Eulepidina (E, dilatata, E. papuaensis)

large Cycloclypeus (C. eidae) and small reticulate nummulites occur in the lime-

stones from the base of an open gorge north of Mount King, Cape Range, and

from the base of the section at Badjirrajirra Creek (north fork) 4°7 miles from

it; mouth on the Exmouth Gulf side of Cape Range. Chapman recorded

#. dilatata from Exmouth limestones in 1927, He described E, pupuaensis from

a limestone at Bootless Inlet, Papua (1914), which contained small nummulites

(N. iatermedia) and which is now considered tu be of Oligocene age.

C. Lowrr Mtocenr (“e’’)

Similarly, limestones containing typical Lower Miocene zonal foraminifera

have not been foutd south of the North-West Basin. Eulepidines typical of

stage “e” CE. insilaenatais, LE. papuaensis) are present in limestone 22 titles

south of Yardie Creek Station, Cape Range. Other zonal forms, Spiroclypenus

tidvegunensis and Neoalveolina pyytiaed, together with small Nephroleptdina

occur in rocks from Rough Range near Exmouth Gulf Homestead. Eulepindina,

Spireclypeus and Neoalveolina are not known to range above the top of “stage ev”.

D. Mivpin to Uerer Miocene (£")

Rocks of “stage {” are widely distributed in the North-West Basin und

accur as far south as the section across southern Australia from Roganya and

Tialladonia in Western Australia tu Colona east of the head of the Great Aus-

tralian Bight in South Atistralia, thenee to tear Adelaide and across to north-

western Victoria. No typical “f,"" rocks have been found. It ig more satts-

factory to subdivide the “stage f” rocks irr Australia into “f,-f," and “f, - £,”-

Probably some of the limestones in the Badjirrajirra Creek section may he refer~

able to “f,", but “£,”" has not yet been recorded.

“f,=£," rocks contain two assemblages of zowal foraminifera :

(2) An upper one with Nephrolepidina with some species showing Tryblio-

lapidina tendencies, Floseudinella, Cycloclypeus and Miogypsina.

(1) A dower one with Nephrolepidina and Cycluclypeus,

138

Limestones containing Assemblage 1 occur in the Badjirrajirea Creek svc-

tion, Cycloclypeus being the dominant form. This tock may be referable to “f,"'-

Well preserved specimens of the echinoid Conoclypeus were found in thése beds,

Assemblage 2 shows an intermingling of typical “f° and “f,” species and

is fairly widely distributed in limestones in the Cape Range and Rough Range

sections.

“f,-£," rocks have a wide distribution in Australia, and two assemblages

of foraminifera are recognisable in them;

(1) Without Lepidacyclina but with Austrotrillina, Flosculinella, Margino-

pora, Valvulina, Sorites, Peneraplis and Miliolidae,

(2) With Lepidocyelina, also Flosculinella, Marginopora and Miliolidae.

It is possible that these two assemblages are equivalent in age, the absence

of Lepidocyctina in Assemblage 1 being due to change in facies rather than

difference in age,

Assemblage 2 is recorded from only two localities, one at Exmouth Gulf

Station Outcamp in Rough Range, and the other near Yardie Creek Homestead,

Cape Range in the North-West Basin. The assemblage is well known i the

limestones in New Guinea and Papua and in parts of the Netherlands East Indies-

Assemblage 1 occurs in rocks in widely separated areas, fram the North-

West Basin, Western Australia, through the Nullarbor Plains to South Australia,

thence to north-western Victuria, the same rock type octirting from North-West

Basin to the Nullarbor Plains. The limestone is cryptocrystalline, the fora-

minifera tests usually being stained black, The assemblage occurs in friable:

limestones in bores in the Adelaide Plains and in the Mallee and Wimmera inl

north-western Victoria.

Rocks containing Indo-Pacific Pliocene assemblages are not common in the

Australian ‘Tertiarics. Some of the coralline limestones in the Yardie Creek

area, North-West Basin, have been placed in the Pliocene but no joraminitera

are available to confirm this.

The limestones near Minilya Station, North-West Basin, contain Margino-

pora, Sorites, Peneraplis and Valvulina and in the absence of zonal Miocene

farms ate referred to the Pliacene, An identical rock, both in lithology anil

faunal content, occurs at Qoldea on the NuUarbor Plains and in the vicimty uf

Weebabbie Caves near Eucla. Numerous casts of molhiscan shells, reierable to

species recorded from the Adelaide Plains deposits are present in the rack,

In the vicinity of Adelaide, extensive fossiliferous deposits known as the

“Adelaidean” underlie the Adelaide Plains and outcrop at Ilallett's Cove, at

Christie's Reach, Port Noarlunga and at Aldinga. The foraminifera genera

Marginopora, Sorites, Peneroplis and Valyaltma torm a characteristic assemblage,

bit the occurrence of zonal species of the Kalimnan stage of Victoria indicate a

Lower Pliocene age for the beds.

Vv. COMMENTS ON THE INDO-PACIFIC ZONAL FORAMINIFERA

IN AUSTRALIAN TERTIARY DEPOSITS

The zonal foraminifera in the Eocene (“a-b"), Oligocene (“c-d’") and

Lower Miocene (“e’) rocks call for little comment. All species that have been

determined are characteristic of the deposits of these ages throughout the Inco-

Pacific, from Japan, the Philippines, Netherlands East Indies, New (Guinea,

Papua and north-western Australia, but are not known from southern Australis.

Tlowever, in the Middle to Upper Miocene rocks which do extend to southein

Australia, several species vf zonal importance througboul the Indo-Pacific not

anly occur there but were described from the area,

139

The most important zonal form. used in the correlation of “{ stage” rocks

is Lepidoeyelina with its two subgenera Nephrolepidina and Trybliolepidina,

The genus is found in the North-West Basta of Western Australia, but has not

yet been recorded from limestones on the Nullarbor Plains nor in the vicimty

of Adelaide and north-western Victoria, but it does occur in western, central

southern and south-eastern Victoria. Lhe subgenera Nephrolepidina is the

zonal furm for “{,-1,” beds and it has not been recorded south of Cape Cuvier.

Similarly, Miogypsina, which is characteristic o£ the "“f,-f," assemblage, has

not been found south of the North-West Basin,

In “f,-£," beds, Nephrolepidina gradually gives way to Tryblolepidine,

which is yery common at this horizon in the Indo-Pacific. On the Nullarbor

Plains, from Boounya in Western Australia to Colona in South Australia, thence

to the Adelaide Bures and Mallee and Wimmera Bores, 7rybliolepidina is

replaced by an assemblage in which the most important zonal form is Austro-

ivillina howchint, The associated zonal genus Flosculinella does not occur east

of Colona,

Austrotrillina howehint, of such importance in “f stage” foraminiferal faunas

in the Indo-Pacific, was described by Schlumberger (1893) from Lepidocyclina

limestones at Clifton Bank, near Hamilton, western Victoria. The species has

been recorded from “e stage” but has its preales! development in "f stage’. The

age of the beds from which .4. howchini was described has been based on the

Lepidocyclina population, which is dominated by the subgenus Trybliolepidina

and which is regarded as the equivalent of “f,~ 0", aud somewhere about the

boundary of the Burdigalian and Vindobontan of the European stages (Crespin,

1942), Records indicate that 4. iowchint has not been found in the Indo-Pacific

Region outstde Australia in rocks younger than "f,”.

Other species which have been described from the Victorian Lepidacyclina

limestones and which are found as far north as the North-West Basin ih

Western Australia, are Gypsina howchini, Planorbulinella plana, and P_ inaequi-

lateralis, Two other zonal species, Crespinella umbonifera and Calcarina verri-

culate, were described from bores in the Adelaide Basin from the ustrorrillina

Aowchini horizon (Howchin and Parr, 1938), C, werriculata is very common

in the Lepidocyclina limestones at Batesford, Both species are fotmd m the

North-West Basin,

An interesting assemblage of recent warm water genera, Muarginopora,

Sorites, Peneroplis, Miliolidae, oceuts in the “f,-4," rocks and in the Pliocene

in that portion of the Australian Tertiaries which have been subjected to Indo-

Pacific influences at the time of depasition. This assemblage is found in rocks

of topmost Miovene to Recent age throughout the Indo-Pacific, age being deter-

mined by the presence of zonal foraminifera. It is associated with dustrotrillina

in “f,-f,” limestones at Cape Cuvier im north-western Australiz, in some of

the limestones on the Nullarbor Plains, and in bores in the Adelaide Plains and

in the Mallee and Wimmera. Marginepora rarely occurs in association with

Lepidocyelina, duc apparently to the fondness of the former genus for quiet

iropieal waters such as are fuund in the proximity of coral reefs. Lepidocycline

is usually associated with bryozoa which thrive where currents are present.

The Marginopors-Sorties-Peneroplis-Miliolidac assemblage occurs with zonal

Lower Pliocene (Kalimnan) species in the “Adelaidean’’ of the Adelaide Basin.

VI. POSITION OF THE MIDDLE TO UPPER MIOCENE AND

PLIOCENE DEPOSITS OF SOUTHERN VICTORIA IN THE

INDO-PACIFIC “LETTER” CLASSIFICATION

Rroadly speaking, the majority of rhe bryozoal limestones in the Tertiary

deposits of southern Victoria can be correlated with “f,-f,” stage’, based on

140

the presence of Trybliolepidind in the upper portion of the section. The writer,

in her investigations on the genera Lepidocycline and Cycloclypeus in Victoria

(1941, 1942), showed that the subgenus to which the Lepidocyclina belonged

was Trybliolepidina, and that the species of these two genera were different

trom those in known Indo-Pacitic deposits. She suggested that this difference

hit species. was duc to “the presence of ati embayment in south-eastern Atistralia

in which other species, but still with Indo-Pacific affinities, flourished.” Glaessner

(1943) sums up the problem in the following statement: "Fauna! relations

between the surprisingly uniform Tertiary of the Indo-Pacific Region and that

of south-eastern Australia and New Zealand are limited and are either created

hy “eturythermic” species which were able to cross the boundary of the tropical

belt or by short-lived climatic or ecologic changes, creating a suitable environment

for warm-water species and genera. In the Tertiary of Victoria the Bateslordian,

containing a group of Lepidecyclina as well as Ausirotrillina and perhaps some

other Indo-Pacific smaller foraminifera, forms a short-lived link with the Indo-

Pacific Region.”

Although 4Axsirorillina howchini was described from the Lepidecyctina lime-

stone at Clifton Bank near Hamilton, it is not a commo y iorm in the Lepido-

eyeling deposits in southern Victoria. It does not occur im the rich Lepidoryclina

limestones at Batesford and Flinders in the central southern portion, nor in Brock's

Quarry and in the mamerous bores from which th> Lepidocyclina horizon has

been recorded in Gippsland, but it does occur sparingly in that horizon at Skinner's

section, Mitchell River, near Bairnsdale, Gippsland, Tine specivs is well repre

sented in the partion of the Mallee Bores which have been subjected to Indo-

Pacific influence and where it is associated with Marginopora. The typical

Indo-Pacific genera Miogypsina and Flosculinella have not been recorded trom

Victoria,

The Middle Miocene bryozoal limestones of south-eastern South Austraha

and western Victoria contain no large zonal foraminifera, but some of the Time-

stones are correlated with the “f,-f,” beds of Victoria by means wi smaller zonal

species which are associated with the larger forms in the Lepidorycfina

limestones,

No zonal Indo-Pacific foraminifera are known From the Victorian Lower

Pliocene—referred to as the Kalimnan—which suggests unsuitable ccolagic con-

ditions during Pliocene times in Victoria. According to present knowledge, suit

ahle conditions did not extend eastward beyond the vicinity of Adelaide.

Vil. SUMMARY

1, Indo-Pacific influence in faunal assemblages in Australian Tertiary rocks

extends from North-West Basin, Western Australia, to southern Western Aus-

tralia, across the Nullarbor Plains to South Australia and north-western Victoria,

2. Correlation of the marine Tertisaries of Australia with occurrences clse-

where in the Indo-Pacific Region is made by means of the larger foraminifera,

which form the basis of the letter classification instituted by Dutch palaeontolo-

gists in their work in the Netherlands East Indies,

3. Eocene (“a-b'), Oligocene (“c-d") and Lower Miocene (“e'’) rocks

containing typical zonal foraminifera are not recorded south of the North-West

Basin, Western Australia.

4, Middle to Upper Miocene (“f") zonal foraminifera are widely is-

tributed in limestones in southern Western Australia, across the Nullarbor Plains,

in the vicinity of Adelaide and in north-western Victoria, Even similar rock

types have been recognised.

141

5. No larger zonal foraminifera of age yalue are present in the rocks of

Pliocene age, local zonal species being age determinants. But associated with

the local species are well-known Indo-Pacific recent forms. Rocks containing

such assemblages occur in the North-West Basin, at Qoldea on the Nullarbor

Plains and im the Adelaide Bore sections and in the coastal sections south of

Adelaide, where they are referred to as the “Adclaidean” and gre Lower Pliocene.

6. The Lepidocyclina limestones of Victoria, which are considered to be

equivalent to “f,-f,” stage indicate a short-lived link with the Indo-Pacific. The

genus Lepidocyclina, which is represented by the subgentts Trybiialepidina, shows

Indo-Pacific affinities, but the species are distinct.

7. The conclusion drawn from the above observations is that Indo-Pacific

conditions extended down the coast of Western Australia, across the southern

part of the State into South Australia and north-western Victoria in Middle

Miocene to early Upper Miocene (“f.,-f,”) time, with a very limited extension

into southern Victoria, Then followed a gradual recession of conditions. No

Pliocene deposits containing Indo-Pacific forms are known east of the Adelaide

Plains and the sections south of Adelaide along Gulf St. Vincent. According

to Cotton, of the South Australian Museum, the examination of molluscan faunas

in South Australia suggests that this recession has coritinued westwards during

Pleistocene and Recent times.

Vill. REFERENCES

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Cuapman, F. 1927 Ona Limestone Containing Lepidocyclina and other Fora-

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CuArman, I, and Cresrix, I, 1930 Rare Voraminifera from Deep Borings

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142

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Taste 1

Correlation of Australian Tertiary Localities Based on Indo-Pacific Foraminiferal Assemblages

De eT ee ee ee ee ee ee a

Letter. Nullarbor Plains, i . Mallee and

Classification Zonal “yar ° , . * Adelaide Basin, Wimmera,

Age patD tc v Foraminifera North-West Basin, Western Australia Te Celene x S.A. North-Western

11 miles N.W, of Minilya-Waroora

Marginopora boundary on coast road.

Sorites Minilya Station } m W. of Gerardi Adelaide Bores

Valiulina Bore. Ooldea “Adelaidean”

Lower Pliocene ? “g" Peneroplis Minilya Station 3.25 m. S.E. of Chirrita Surface near Hallett Cove --

(absence of Minilya Station 3.25 m. S.E. of Chirrita Weebabbie Christie’s Beach

zonal Miocene Bore, Caves Pt. Noarlunga

forms) Mini'ya Station shallow well on track Aldinga Section

: between Chirrita and Gerardi Bores.

Yardie Creek, W. of Cape Range.

“F 3" Trybliolepidina —_ -= _ =

rutient

E. flank, Giralia anticline where Bullara Mallee Bores

track crosses first Jow hills. Adelaide Bores Nos. 2, 4, 9, 11

(without Approx, crest Chargoo Dome { m, from Bore No. 65 (near Murray-

Lepidocyclina) Minilya-Waroora boundary fence. Booanya (600'— 620") ville)

“EU Austrotrillina Limestone Range on Waroora road Balladonia Bore No. 58 Ph. Ballarang,

Flosculinella 4.5m. N.W. of Waroora road crossing Madura (208'- 311’) Allot. 28.

to Calcarina of Lyndon River on main coast road Top of Eucla Nathan Brewery | Campbell's Bore

; Crespinella from Minilya, Section (500’— 524’) Ph. Tunart

ro Marginopora Trealla Hills, Cape Range, S. end of White Wells Kinnish Direk (387'= 406’)

Valzilina Chargoo Anticline. Outstation No. 1 (280’- 318’)| Wimmera Bores

Miliotidae Cape Cuvier, Coastal Section. Colona Kinnish Direk Dimboola No. 1

Upper Miocene Gully 4 m. N. of Red Bluff, Coastal No. 2 (265’- 365’)| (80'~ 131")

Section.

wen OT Terra Se — eT | Sara

Leputocyclina

(chiefly Yardie Creek Homestead, Cape Range. — — _—

Middle Miocene Trybliolepidina) | Exmouth Gulf outcamp Rough Range.

Flosculinella

Marginopora

Miliolidae

Gorge W. of outcamp Exmouth Gulf

Station, Rough Range.

Open gorge N. of Mt. King, Cape

“FQ” Nephrolepidina Range (top of section).

Flosculinella E. of Yardie Creek Homestead, Cape

to Miogypsina Range. — _ —

Cycloclypeus Bed of Creek, 3.5 m. from Bullara on

1" road to Giralia, S. of head of Exmouth

Gulf.

Portion of Badjirrajirra Creek Section,

Cape Range.

Rough Range, near Exmouth Gulf

Bulepidtia Station Homestead,

Neoalvectina 22 m. S. of Yardie Creek, Cape Range. _ a I

ewer “Milscent Mel! Spiroclypeus W. end of Cape Range, Yardie Creek

Miogypsinoides Station. 2

Cycloclypens Gorge N. of Exmouth Gulf Station

outcamp, Rough Range.

Eulepidina Open gorge, N. of Mt. King, Cape

Oligocene “c"— dd" with reticulate Range (base of Section). — —_ Aa

Nummulites Badjirrajirra Creek 4.7 m. from mouth,

Cape Range.

Bed of Creek at track crossing 8.5—

Nummulites 9 m. from Bullara on road to Giralia,

Discocyclina S. of head of Exmouth Gulf.

Eocene “a’—"'b” Pellatispira 10.5 m. from Bullara on road to Giralia. — — -_

Actinocyclina E, flank of Giralia anticline where track

Asterocyclina to Bullara crosses the first low hills.

Red Bluff Section most southerly ex-

posure of yellow limestone, Cape Cuvier.

THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND

Il. THE PENNINGTON BAY REGION

By H. B.S. WOMERSLEY

Summary

The first paper of this series (Womersley 1947) gave a general description of the algal ecology of

Kangaroo Island, together with an account of the more important environmental factors for the

island as a whole, and a discussion of the terminology found most satisfactory in describing the

algal ecology.

143

THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND

II. THE PENNINGTON BAY REGION

By H. B.S. Womerstey*

[Read 8 Jaly 1948]

CoNTENTS

INTRODUCTION = fe : Ro - on oe ne ne

ENVIRONMENTAL Conarmriné 5 is am Py

ZON ATION u's te ote on bs =:3 ah : ss ne

Tue Arcar Aswcarions te = = 25 =n

Description of the “main reci,” Penningitun Bay .. =~ a bs

The Supra-littoral Zone — _.

Prasiola community zs te vs vs : a '

Lichina community vt a

Isolated rock-pool community =~.

The Littoral zane... ~ -- an

Rear littoral ‘ Batictabieis fe

1. Symploca hydnoides association i ws

2. Gelidium pusiliim association a4

3, Rivularia firma association .. Ls 7 it

4. Ectocarpus confervoides and Pylaiella futveseent

seasonal associations .. Ni 2:

5. Entcromorpha acanthophora agadcdattast by AL +>

6. Ulva lactuca associatior;

Littoral assoc‘ations : be as <4 S2 - yé

7. Polysiphotiia Fhutex association be

8. Cystophyllum muricatum association “; au

9, Jania fastigiata asscciation ..

10, Taurencia heteroclada association a+

11. The Cystophora complex at bs ¥.

(a) Cystophora uvifera

(b) Cystophora subfarcinata

{c) Cystophora siliquosa

(ad) Cystophora brownii we i

(e) Sargassum tmuriculatum as ze ray

12, Hormosira banksii association a A “i a

13. Cystophora—coralline association

Intermediate communities AA re at

Chance distribution of minor species on ther main ret a

Flora of shaded, rear littoral pools .. 2.6 et: ¥y

The Sub-littoral fringe .. _ “¢ +4 + 4

Cystophora intermedia association

The Sub-littoral * * ;

Zonation below the sub- littoral fringe ‘a a 4 re

F'ora of deep outer pools on the reefs “.

The deeper sub-littoral flora + + ¥. bs

SEASONAL VaRIATION ty THE AtcaL Frora .. ch Ao as 33 et

(a) Seasonal occurrence .. 4 Ae e* 2%

(b) Seasonal development of stable specits te 1% +4 ty

* Departinent of Botany, University of Adelaide.

Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 72, (1), 23rd August, 1948

144

Vamarien UNues Wave Aciinx ee Ay tn ai 7 7 -» 43

Parisiism anp Evirairtisat 2 ~ af an ’ AA : ‘ 14

VawricaL Distrmecrion om ReLAtON va Lrautr Ad wt An ae .. To4

SvuarMary = _ fe & tx is ' i t - hs

AUK NUWLENGEM ENTS ‘, 8 = OU i: ' vs ‘ “1 ’ 16

REFERENCES «(> Men a le se ets te me Ls a: w 15

INTRODUCTION

The first paper of this series. (Wemersley 1947) gave a general description

of the algal ecology of Kangaroo Island. together with an account of the more

neaportant environmental factors for the island as a whole, aid a discussion of

the ternunolcey found most satisfactory in describing the algal ecology,

This paper deals with one of the distinctive regions of the Kangaroo fsland

coast, wts., the horizontal rock platforms of the Pennington Bay regioiy and other

areas of the south coast of the island (see previous paper). The Pennington

Ray reefs, because of their easy accessibility [rom the American River settle-

ment, have been studied in some detail, The sare type of rock platform has

heen briefly examined elsewhere along the coast—east of Vivonne Hay and at

Sou'-West River—and their algal ecology wppears to be similar in a‘l cases, This

is in accordance with the similarity in structure of the recfs and in the environ-

mental conditions to which organisms inhabiting them are subject,

These rock-platform reefs are classed as a distinet section of the Exposed

Rocky-ceast Subformation around Kangaroo [sland (Womers!ey 1947). They

are formed by wave action from consolidated calearcous sand-dunes af Recent

to Plerstocete age, and alternate with areas of Precambrian rocks along the

south coast.

Pennington Bay is nut well defined. The western part of the bay ts formed

of cliffs 80 ta 100 feet high overlying Preeambrian rocks. In the cetitral and

vustern parts the sand-rock cliffs are lower, usually less than 50 feet high, form-

ing small outereaps and headiands, separated by sandy beaches backed by sand-

dunes (see pl, X), Further to the east the cliffs are more continuous aud tend

ta be higher.

From the cliff bases stretch ottt the horizontal wave-cut platforms, composed

of the same calcareous sand rock as the cliffs. Exeept ina few cates where wave

action has eroded small caves at the cliff base, the cliffs descend almost vertically

to the Mat reef surface. Rock aboye high water level is usually sharply pitted

and ridged, that on the reef itself less so but sul forming a hurd and rough surface.

The characteristic feature of the reefs is their flat, horizontal surface and

vertical drop off at the edge into decp water of 10 to 20 ject. Many reels are

undercut in varying degrees, with occasional tunnels and blow holes up through

the reef surface.

The following account is based largely on the reefs occurring along some

1} miles of coast at Pennington Bay and to the east. The Precambrian rocks

which form the western headland of the bay are vot included in the discussion,

The most accessible rcef is also one of the largest, It is situated some 100 yards

west of the track to Pennington Bay frem the American River — Hog Bay road,

and almost die south trouta large sand hill known as Mount Thishe. This reef

itlustrates well the main features of the reefs generaily. and must of the algal

associations found in the region occur on it. The distribution of the algal associa-

tions on this ‘imain reef? (pl, XI, fig. 1) will be used ay a basis for the following

deseriptious, reference being made where necessary to other réefs,

145

Almost the whole surface of these rock platforms is dominated by algac,

though moiluses and other animals are characteristic of many associations. In the

rear littoral, on sloping and more exposed rock, several animal associations occur,

often pire but sometimes ca-daminant with algae in restricted areas. It has

praved must satisfactory to deal with the algal associations by themselves.

although mentin ig made jn cases where algal-animal biocenoses oceur. A full

accoynt of the fauna of the Pennington Bay reefs is given by idimonds (Edmonds

1948).

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

A general accotmt of the environmental conditions of the Kangaroo Island

coast has been given previously (Womersley 1947). The mote important environ-

menial factors at Pennington Bay are summarised below.

Tidal Range—Spring range, 24 feet approximately; neap range, 14 feet

approximately, The effect of wind and the state of the sca greatly modify the

lidal rise, often cansing low or high water when Icast expected.

Roanglness—Conditions on outer paris of the reefs are always rough, becom-

ing calmer further in as breakers passing uver the reefs gradually lose their Larce.

Breakers are a constant feature of the Pennington Bay coastline, but with a north

wind and cal, sea they are only 1 to 2 feet high (pl. X and XT), Such conditions,

hawever, are nut common, and with a heavy swell breakers up to 8 or 10 feet

high occur off the teefs (pl IX, fig. L, pt. 1).4) During calm conditions and a

low tide, most ni the reefs may be exposed, or have few waves passing over them.

Jtigh summer air temperatures may kill or damage large recf algae under such

conditions.

At the reac of the reels conditions are usually much caliner, bat most areas

wf slopitig rock are washed over by srnall waves, and pools of still water occur

only at low tide.

Lentperature—The following table of sea temperatures on the main reef gives

some idea of the yearly range. All figures are isolated readings, but the daily or

weekly variation is small owing to dcep water close im shore,

Taste I

Sea temperatures on the main reef, Pennington Bay

Jan, April May June July Supt. Nav.

Temp. °C, - = 19°0 18-5 17°5 16-0 15-5 14-0 16-0

Temperatures on the main reef are usually within 1° C. of the sea tempera-

ture off the reef (warmer in suinmer, warmer or cooler in winter depending on

the air temperature). On rock platforms aboye the reef siurface, and usually

ahove high water level, isolated pools may occtir where water termperatures reach

30°C. during summer. Such pools bear a characteristic but sparse algal com-

munity (see later).

The yearly range in sca temperature ig small (about 5:5° C.), but variation

ja size and seasonal necurrence of a number of reef algae can best be attributed

to this.

Airy temporatures—Pew figures of air temperatures ure available. Some for

Kingseote (on the north coast of Kangaroo Island) haye been given previously

(Womersley 1947). The climate generally is insular and mild, Air tempera-

tures of most impartanve in ihe algal ecology occur on hot suyrmer days, when

they may reach 37°C. Ef combined with a norfh wind and low tide exposing the

( Part £ refers to the first paper of this series (Womersley 1947),

146

reef surtace, this may result in considerable damage to reei algae, particulariy

species of Cystephora and [ermosira banksti (which oceurs on higher levels of

the reefs). No harmful effect of exposure during low tides in winter montns

has been observed, nor would be expected as air temperatures ave nut often ligher

than sea temperatures {roni June to September,

IWinds—Southerly to westerly winds are most frequcut on the south coast

of Kangaroo Island. Easterlies often oceur, but oceasioual northerlies during

hot summer weather arc the only winds of direct importance in the algal ecology

(see under Temperatures).

Chlorimty—tsolated readings (January 1946) have given a chiorimty of

19°5-19-6/,,. (salinity 35°2-35-4%/,,,) for water om the reefs. Little annual

change would be expected. Tsolated pools above the reef surface are often more

saline, particularly in summer (chlorinity 20-5-22:29/,,), and usually lower after

heavy rain.

wkalinity—Colorimetric methods have given a pl of 82 to 8-5 for water on

the reef,

ZON ATION

The relatively small tides, and constant breakers, result in 10 marked hori:

zontal zones such as described by numerous workers in regions of vreater tidal

range. Algal zonalion does occur, however, and differerices im reef levels of only

2 or 3 inches frequently cause profound changes in the algal associations (see

reef section, fig. 1), The greatly dissected nature of the coastline, and the

variety and grading of the habitats on the reefs, tend to obscure any obvious

zonation, but over the whole area of the coastline examined there occur numerous

well-marked associations, characterised by fairly distinct environmental conditions,

The average horizontal level of the reefs seems to correspond fairly closely

to a tucan low tide level (neaps). Some areas, either on the outer edge or else

where on the reefs, are a few inches higher than the rest, while shallow channels

and pools. often occur on the reel surface. Such features are well shown on

the main reef (see map and pl. X1, fig. 1),

The reef surface is therefore classed as being in the litferal sone TTow-

ever, Gwing to the form of the reefs, few of the algac on their flat surface are

ever completely exposed: many occur in shallow pools or areas of water retained

on the teef at low tide. In other slightly higher areas the growth is so dense

that a2 considetuble amount of water is retained in the masses, and such areus

arvé washed over by occasional wayes. Only at the rear of the reefs on sloping

and vertical rock which is classed as the rear [ittoral are the algae exposed for

any length of time at low tide (see reef section, fig. 1).

The algal associations grouped together in the littoral zone are therefore

stibject to a much smaller degree of exposure than are littoral associations on

steeply sloping rock in calmer seas. This is a characteristic feature of horizontal

rock platforms wherever they oceur, in contrast to {he conditions on stecply slop-

ing coasts. Algal ecological literature contains very few accounts of similar

rock platforms, which are however a distinctive feature of many parts of the

southern Austratian coast.

The littoral zone is considered ta imelude all algal associations at higher

clevations, subject to wave action ar spray. These may oceur 2 or 3 feet above

actual high tide level, but this is due entirely to the effect of wave splash and,

in some areas, of shade.

() For discussion of terminology see Worersley 1947.

The only algal community which can truly be classed at Supraliltaral is one

of Prasiola, which is found only where penguin colonies occur, This habitat is

alsa subject to fine, blown spray, bnt is more seini-terrestrial than marine. At

Jeast ome mollusc association can be best considered ag supralittoral (Edmonds,

this journal, p. 168).

The edge of the reef, and ta 1 or 2 feet down the vertical side, is termed

the sublittoral fringe (pl. XTV, fig. 4). A very distinctive association of algac

veeurs on this part of the reefs, The imporiance of the sublittoral fringe zone

i the broad aigal ecology of Kangaroo Island has been ouilined in the first paper

of ths series,

selow the edge of the reef, for at least 3 or 4 feet down {as tat as it is

possible ta investigate), zonation qccurs, but the deeper sublittoral flora is known

only from the assemblage found cast up and nol growing on the reefs, Dredging

olf the shore is, unfortunately, quite impossible,

THE ALGAT. ASSOCTATIONS

Description or THE Mats Reev

The shape and appearance of the main reef at Pennington Tay is shown

in pl. XT, fig. 1 and by the map. It measures some 70 yards across and 75 yards

from beach to cuter edge. Other rects ae Pennington Ray are shown in pl. EX,

fie. 3, pt. I.

On the noclh-west carner of the main teel are cliffs aboul 15 (eet hieh, with

a lodge 2-3 feet wide at the base. This ledge forms the western side of a sandy

pool, which is about 3 feet deep in the outer corer, and has a sinall sancy beach

the rear, The amount of sand on the beach and in the pool varies greatly at

different times. As a general tendency the beach and pool are heavily sanded

up in summer (pl. XIV, fig. 1), but with considerable bare rock in winter (p. XL,

hg. 3; also see map; this allows development of Ectocarpus aud Enteromorpha

associations on the exposed rock in winier. The amount of sand present, how-

ever, 18 largely dependant on the weather over the previous few weeks. The

eastern part of the reef is backed by rocks whieh have fallen from the elilfs—the

“Tailen vock region” (pl, XL, fig. Land 2). AL the north-ease corner of the reef

ig a sinall rack platform whieh contains several reel pouls on the top, about 5 feet

above the reef surface,

A noticeable teature af rhe reed is the absence of louse rocks an the stirface ;

a few which veenr i the fallen rock revion are aimost dry at low tide and too

large to be removed by wave action, This results i the virtual absetice of the

characteristic fauna, and to a lesser extent the flora, which inhabits the under-

surface of loose racks (see Pape 1943),

An important structural feature of the main reel is a ledge forming a drep

af (12 inches, running in a curve throuch the centre of the reed to the south-

cast corner (pl. NL, tig. 1; pl, XTV, fig. 1 and 2, andanap)}. This ledge, due to the

wniost continual streaming of water over it, even at low tide, bears a distinct

algal ussociation,

The areas colonised densely by J7ermtosira on the otiter part of the recfs are

slightly higher than the rest. Between the main area of J/ormosira and the ledge

is a shallow channel. 6 to 10 inches below the eastern part of the reef, which

widens out towards the sandy pool, [xcepi al an extremely low tide there is

same water movement along this channel, A less well defined channel passes in

from the attside edwe of the rec? between the two main areas of /Tarimosiva,

The western side of the reef js fairly even and 6 to 12 inches lower than the

eastern half,

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149

The outer edge of the main reel is greatly dissected, with numerous pools

and pot-holes (pl. XV, fig. 3). This is the roughest area of the reef and bears

the dense and distinctive sublittoral fringe association. The south-eastern corner

is more cven, but slightly higher, with a greater degree of exposure between

waves. Am association characterised by the articulated corallines, Corallina and

Jania, together with specics of Cystaphora, is developed here.

Owing to the position of the shallow channel, and slightly higher castern

side of the reef, general water movement is across. (he reef to the western side

where it streams off the reef. Very little debris is ever cast up at the rear of

the main reef, but is deposited on beaches on either side.

The suai reef has been described i9 some detail hecause it illustrates well

the manner in which slight differences in height of the recf (sometimes only

2 or 3 inches), and the degree of toughness in different parts, control the

uccurrence aud distribution of the algal agsociations (pL XAT, fiz. 2).

This will be evident in discussing the associations, and also Irom the cross

section nf the reef shown in fig. 1. The map shows the distribution of algal

associations cn the main reef during Jannary (full map), and daring August-

September 1946 (inset). These illustrate the summer and winter appearances

of the main reef, but owing to the varying amouuts of sand covering paris of

the rear fitioral in winter months, the distribution of rear littoral associations

often differs from that shown for August-September 1946.

At the western end of Pemington Bay, near the headland of U'recambrian

rock, is a ceef Formed of three pr four horizontal lerraces, each 1 in 2 Teer

vertically above the next and sloping steeply between eactt (pL XL, fig. 2). The

sand rock of this reef is the same as elsewhere in the bay, and there seems no

obviots reason for the deyeloyment of such a distinctive and different type of reef.

This “western terraced reef” bears seyeral algal-animal communities which

are absent or poorly developed on the typical rock platforms, The Mormosira —

Ectocarpus / Pylaiclla -anemone community will be referred to later, and a yery

prominent Modiolus (mollusc) association is described by Erlmonds. An asso-

ciation of stunted Lauwrencia heferocleda oceurs at a low littoral level,

The following account of the algal associations of the Pennington Bay

region is based largely on their distribution on ihe main recf, Reference is

made where necessary to their distribution on other reefs elsewhere in the

Pennington Bay region and also in Vivorne Hay, but the main reef has proved

to be very typical of this type of reef geusrally.

THE Suprarrrronan ZONE

Over most of the enast no algue are found in the supralittoral zone, bur i

restricted areas tiyo poorly developed algal communities occur, and also a. sparse

lichen community.

PRaAstora COMMUNITY

Prasiola sp, occurs ou rock or stones on sloping parts of the cliffs up to

25 feet above high water, hitt only where well developed penguin tracks pass op

these cliffs. One stich locality is about } mile east of the amain reef, The com-

munity as not prominent, and of infrequent occurrence. The ales, which is

undetermined specifically, forms small preen patches, rarely more than 2 or 3 em.

across, of tungled cylindrical flaments. Is habitat is subject to fine blown spray

in considerable amotmt, bul it is best regarded as a semi-terrestrial alga rather

than a marine one, Prasiola is best developed during the winter months,

150

The other two communities described below are not strictly supralittoral but

wecur at a level above the main littoral communities, and are deseribed here as

a matter of comyentence.

LicHinA COMMUNITY

Small black patches of the lichen Lichina confinis (Muell,) Ag. occasionally

cecnr in sheltered areas in the fallen rock region of the main recf, and in similar

habitats along most of the coast, On the south coast of Kangaroo [sland it

rarely forms a distinct association, but ig much more prominent and covers con

siderable areas of rock in calmer areas on the north coast. It occtirs at least

partly above high tide level, its distribution being controlled by waye splash

and shade,

TSOLATED ROCK-POOL COMMUNITY

On the small cleyared platform at the north-east corner of the main reef (see

map) occur several isolated pools. These pools ate about 44 feet above the reel

stirface, and are subject to wave splash only under tough conditions. Similar

pools situated abave high tide level occur tafrequently in the Peminglon Bay

region. Owing to their small size, habitat couditions m the pools are extreme;

on hot summer days water temperatures may teach 35° C., falling to 20° C. or

less at night; while winter temperatures are often lower than the sea lempera-

tire. Salinity conditions are also variable.

The flora of these pools is sparse and variable in its oecurrence, hut charac-

seristic of the habitat. It ig usually beter develaped during the winter. The

jolluwing species ure most Trequent: Pulysiphenia abscissa H. & H., PL fruter

Ilarv., P: dasyoides Zan., Laurcncia heteroclada Hary., Eclacurpus confercordes

(Roth.) Le Jol. (winter), Ceramiit minigtum Sule. and Cratroceras clogulalam

Ag, All are species of wide habitat range, and in many cases they are common

in littoral associations.

Tus Latroyan Zoxn

The associations of this zane utc conveniently divided into those occurring

on sloping rock at the rear of the reefs, and those on the flat reel surfaee. Those

in the tear littoral are more tolerant of exposure than the reef surface forms, and

except at high tide ate exposed between each wave. The distribution of the

Associations on the main reef during summer (January) and winter {(August-

September) ig shown in the map, The cross section of the reef during Septem-

ber (fig. 1} shows the yertical relationships of the associations berween Lhe shore

and the outside edge of the rect.

Rear littoral associations

J, SvMPLOCA HYDNOIDES ASSOCTATION

Synploce hydnoides itz., a hlamentous blue-green alga, forms dark, felt-

like irregular patches, to 3 ar 4 en. across, on sloping and vertical ruck at the

rear of the reefs. At high tide it is washed or splashed by each wave, but may

he left exposed for several hours at low tide. The soft spongy mats of the alga

retain water strongly. The height to which Syiploca reaches is controlled by

the amount of wave splash, varying from 1 (o 4 or 5 feet above the reef surface.

it is best developed in shaded areas.

Although at times this association is very inconspicuons, 5. ‘yuiploca ftydnoides

peeurs on rock bare of other algze. Lt is found in similar habitats on rock

platforms elsewhere along the south cvast of Kangaroo Island.

On one shaded rock in the iallen-rock region of the main reef a bincenose ol

Synploce hydnoides and the barnacle Tetrachita purpurascens occits.

15!

2. GELIMIUM PUSILLUM ASSOCIATION

This association at Pennington Bay is but a poor example of the G elidium

pusillum (Stackh.) Le Jol. association on calmer coasts, stich as at Rocky Point

or in the American River inlet. Conditions at Pennington Bay are mostly too

rotigh, and it is restricted to thin patches ou vertical and sloping rock in locally

sheltered places. On the main reef the cliff above the ledge forming the sandy

pool hag thin scattered patches in shaded hollows; it also oceurs in the fallen

rock region, mainly on the sides of the rocks.

On exposed rock, Gefidiuim pusilla forms yellowish-brown anich branched

thalli, Init when growing in pools the fronds are upright, less branched, ancl

1 to 3 em. high.

Like Syinplocd, this is mot a conspicnous association, but it is of general

Gecurrence i similar habitats on the sandrock reefs. In sotie areas it Is co-

dominant with the serpulid worm Galcolwria cuespitasa in a biocenose.

3. RIvULARIA #IEMA ASSOULATION

Rivuaria jira Womersiey forms dark blue-green gelatinous blobs up to

2 cm. across (masses to 4 or 5 ent, across) in parts of the rear littoral where

there is constant wave splash. or on ledges ever which waves stream. Such

habitats were exposed betweei waves at low tide, but ouly for very short periods.

A high degree gi aeration seems to be of ruost importance, “The firm gelatinotis

thalli can resist considerable exposnre during the oceasioval vary low tide and

hot sunnier weather,

Rivularia frie occurs aiong the south aud weal coasts of Kangaron Island,

in the upper littoral, whatever the type of rock. The association varies greatly in

its development frein place to place, for no obvious reason. At Pennington Bay

rocks i the rear littoral may be densely covered with the hemispherical blobs

(pl. X, fig. 2, pt. 1), with ne other algue present; in other places, and at

different tintes, the rock may be bare. Development is nsually better during

winter months, wul may be very poor in simmer.

On the main reef, the ledge running in a curve through the centre of the reel

to the south-east corner is usually dominated hy Rivwleria firma, This is a region

of constantly streaming, broken water, and is colonised by a distinctive group of

awac, Apart from Lt. frat, the coummonest are Hydroceleum glutinoswm (Ag)

Gomont, Ricwlerin atta Roth, Pelysiphonia frutex (epiphytised by Calothrrx

confersieula (Woth.) (Ag.). Hormasire banksit Dene, Léurencta hieteroclada,

with scatterer! plants of [rengelia pluinosa Hary,, and Chimpia absolela Harv.

The dominance of blue-green algae on this ledge is striking, but similar ledges

haye not been found elsewhere in Pennington Bay, though they may occur.

On the small “islands” on the ledge (sec map) and in more exposed parts

af this association, traleoleria cacspitosa atten becomes co-doninant with the

Nioularia.

4. Pcrocarpus CONPERVOIDES AWD PYLAIULDA. WULVESCESS SEASONAL

ASSOCIATIONS

Ectocarpus confervoides and Lyloiclla (Buchelotia) fuloescens Bornet occur

fa the same habilat on slaping rock i the jower rear littoral, or sometimes. in pools

in a similar position, at different Unves of the year, Eetocarpus occurs during

winter months (April to November), Pylaiella during the summer (Septenibe:

to May). Both species grow on sloping, well washed rock which is exposed

between waves at low tide (fig, 1; pl. XU, fig. 3 and 4, and map). They reach

their greatest size (to 7 or 8 cm, high) however where always covered, with

132

slight wave action. During summer the sloping rock at the rear of the sandy pool

(main reef) is ustially buried under sand. preventing Pylaiella front developing

there.

In appearance both algae are very similar, forming brown tufts, but whereas

Ectocarpus is abundantly branched, yioiella fulveseens is branched only at the

hase and the tufts are less distinct.

Seyiostphon lomentarius (Lyngb.) J. Ag. is frequently found in both asso-

ciations, especially in winter whe it is heavily epiphytised by Fefocarpin

confervoides.

5. ES TEROMORPITA ACANTHOPHORA ASSOCIATION

Enteromorpha acanihaphora Kiitz, forms a striking and pure association in

the rear littoral of the Pennington Bay reels, in very much the sate habitat as

Ectocarpus and Pylatella. Both associations hawever are remarkably distinct,

with tarely any intermixing, Why this is so is not clear, for rock on the same

slope and subject to apparently identical conditions may be covered by two quite

distinct areas of Eeclocarpus and Lnteromarpha. The association varies con-

siderably in its development from time to time, heing best developed in

late winter. Srnall scattered plants oceur in the inner channel area from time

to time,

Goth the Enleromorpha and Fetacarpits—Pylaiella associations occur where

loose sancl is carried about by the waves. The algac appear ta be very tolerant to

this sand movement, and may even survive short periods of burial in sand,

6. ULVA LACTUCA ASSOCIATION

Ulva lactuca L. (£. rigida (Ag.) Je Jol.) often colonises areas slightly lower

than Kaleromorpha, and scattered plants occur at the rear of many reefs. The

habitat is Jess exposed than that of Luteramarfha. Vhe platits are variable in

form, from broad expanded sheets to elongate undulate ribbons, and rarely more

than 12 em. high.

Littoral associations

The associations described below as being in the littoral zone are not strictly

so, as most of the algac are rarely exposed for any length of time. At low tide

many of the larger species reach the water surface, and others are cevered by

only u few inches of water, A few, stich as Hormosira, ate exposed at every

low tide. On calmer coasts Cystophara sybfareinata, C, silignosa and atten

C. brown are characteristic of the upper sublittoral, but with the exception af

C. siliquesa few of the reef algae extend into the sublittoral. Prom most view-

points it is convenient to regard the following associations as characteristic of

the littoral zone,

7. POLYSIPIONIA FRUTEN \SS8OcIATION

Polysiphonia frutex is common throighout the year on the jiedge and caliner

areas of the main reef. On other reefs at Pennington Bay, imeluding one imme-

diately west of the main reef, it forms a pure association on flat or sloping rock

in areas of medium to slight wave action, The alu reaches a height of only

5 to 7 cm., but is dense cnongh to give the area a dark brown appearance, Common

epiphytes are Polystphenia abscissa and Calothrix confernicola,

8. CysTorHYLLUW MURICATUM ASSOCIATION

The area between the sandy pool and the ledge on the main reef (see map) 3s

cavered by a pure assuciation of Cystophyllim nevrteatun (Ttrn,) J. Ag. Other

algae are virtually absent from this area. Cystapiyllum also oceurs as seactered

plants on rock in the sandy pool and near the fallen rock region. On other reefs

it is not common. but usually pure when it does occur.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., August, 1948 H. b. S. WomeRSLEY

MAP of tHE MAIN REEF, PENNINGTON BAY

CYSTOPHYLLUM —~-| CYSTOPHORA-

ASSOCIATION CORALLINE

ASSOCIATION

PYLAIELLA MIXED CYSTOPHORA

ASSOCIATIONS ASSOCIATION ttttttt A le thd

aoe ENTEROMORPHA HORMOSIRA

oe 4 Oe i + +

- “| ]6¥STOPHORA cae bt ee aaemeenennraaet : i-4% . ASSOCIATION ASSOCIATION DEEP OUTER POOLS

UW Ss . i .

UVIFERA

o°o

eoooomoe eo ©

4PPROX LOW TIDE LEVEL

YARDS

SANDY BEACH

SUMMER ASPECT APPROX, HIGH TIDE LEVEL WINTER ASPECT

JANUARY AUGUST-SEPTEMBER

153

The alga reaches a height of 20 cm., developing best at the cdges of slightly

deeper pools, Sphacelarie biradiala Asken. and Sphacelaria furcigcra Kuta. are

common epiphytes on the lower stems during summer. Occasionally {he plants

are alniost buried in sand, but appear to suffer litile damiage. The assuciation 15

always, but only just, submerged,

The rocky bottom in the north-eastern half of the sandy pool is rarely covered

by sand, and beavs a very mixed assemblage of specics. At low tide it is coveted

by 1-3 feet of water, with fairly calm conditions. Cystophyliem wiuricatium is

present here, though not well developed and in varying amounts throughout the

year. Other species may be prominent at different times, developing rapidly and

disappearing after two or three months, Such species are Liagora harveyaia

Zeh., Melinthory tnmens J. Ag.? Champia obsoleta (winter), Dictyopterts

acrostichoides (J, Ag.) Sehinite? Eetocarpus confervoides and Scytasiphon tomen-

turiuy (both winter), Pyfeiella fulvescens (summer), Muellerena sp, (winter),

with Lira lacluea and Enteromor pha acanthopltora in the shallower parts, This

mixed group of species is also found on the eastern part of the main reef, in

shatlower water near the fallen rock region, but is less well developed here, Most

of the species are found in other associations on the reef,

9, JANIA FASTIGIATA ASSOCIATION

Or several reefs in the Pennington Bay cezion (one immediately east of the

main reer) and also on reefs in Vivonne Bay, Jania fastigiata Wary. colonises

otherwise bare rock in the littoral zone. The association is nof a dense one, but

distinctive in appearance, “he fronds (to 4 or 3 cm, high) are bleached white

in swmnmer, but in many cases are heavily epiphytised by Coloflvix confercicolir,

viving the association a hlackish-green appearance. The habitat ts usually of fairly

ever rock, Just exposed at very low tides.

10, J.AURENCIA HPTEROCLADA ASSUCIATION

Laurencio heteroclada occurs as a minor component of several reef associa-

tions, and is widely distributed along the south coast of Kangaroo Island, On the

lower level of the western terraced reef (pl. XL, fig. 2), and sinilar sloping roek in

the low littoral, it forms a communiry whieh is doubtfully of association rank.

The alga grows as a dense burl, up to 7 em. high, yellowish-brown in colour, of

etirmed plants where it is subject to fairly heavy wave action, This habitat ts

rately exposed, being ently slightiy higher thaw the sublitloral frmge, A stunted

Sargassum, Cladosteplius verticillatus (Lightt,) Ags Cuslerpa brewmit Fadl...

cu. simplicinsenla Ag. and Cheelomorpha dercwinkt Kitz. often oceur with it.

ll. Vw Cysrorrora comPLex

‘The greater part of most of the Teunington Bay reefs is colonised hy species

of Cystophora. Their extent on ihe main reet is shown by the nip. The mixe:i

Cyslaphora association covers the area east of the ledge, consisting of numerous

shallow pools retaining 4 to 10 itches of water at low fide, and also the channel

area and must of the western part of the rect.

Four species of Cystophora, C. uaifera (Ag) J. Ag. C subfarcinila (Mert. }

J, Ag, © siliquosa J. Ag. and to a lesser extent CL brownit (Turn.) J. Ag..

tngether with Surgassum amurienatun J. Ag. form a complex of associations.

Depending on small variations in depth of water and calmness, cach may form att

almost pure association, or, as is more common, a nvxed association of almos!

any cumbitation of two or more species (pl N, fig. 1, pt. Ly. The shallow

pool area enst of the ledge on the mam reef is dominated by Cystophora sub.

forcinali, C. siliquesa and C. uvifera, svith some Sargassont mariciulatwn. This

is refereed to as a “mixed Castophora association”, Ags pire associations,

154

C. subfarctnata and C. siliguasa are most Frequent,

The importance of Cyslophora in the algal ecology of Kangaroo Islatid is in

many ways analagous to the importance of Enealypts in South Australian land

ecology, Ti the previous paper it was shown that the algal formations anil sub-

furmations around Kangaroo Island can be characterised by the presence or

absence of species of Cyslophora. OF some 25 species in the genus, 17 veeur

wround Kangaroo Islatid,

(a) Cystophora wifera forms a pire association on flatter and calmer parts of

Wie reefs. On the main reef it dominates an areca af more even rock running ont-

wards towards the sotth-east corner, and also parts near the western edge

(pl. XIV, fig, 3). Tt is densest where just covered at low tide, partly due to

insufficient depth of water at low tide to allow other (and larger) spevies oi

Cystophora to devetop.

C. wiifera forms short, rather stunted plants, to 25 em. high, with one to

several stems arising Irom the base. It shows remarkable seasonal variation in

vesicle production, which seems to be atiributable only to seasonal variation in

sea temperature (a range of about 55°C. on the reef), Cy awiifera has always

heen deseribedl as bearing spherical metic vesicles on the main stem (Hatvev

Phyc, Aus. pl 175). This is the form found in calmer waters or rarely cast wh

from the sublittoral, Cir the Pennington Bay reefs. vesicles have never been found

on the plants during January. My May, small clongate vesicles with a strongly

develuped mucra occur in small numbers on most plants. These approach closely

the vesicles of C. cephalornithos, which is only found in much calnier habitats.

In September vesicles are wumerous, the older ones eing almost Spherical and

with only @ stall mucro. The “typical” mutic vesicles are rarely seen, and hy

mid-summer the yesicles are lost. Lt seems evident that besides the controlling

effect of temperature in vesicle formation, the relatively rough conditions on the

Pennington Bay recfs cause ihe juvenile forms of vesicle (elongated aud

mucronate) to be largely retained.

Sargassum miurieaiine 15 commionly. present in the gaine area as CL nvifera

Sphacelavia furcigura, ant occasionally Sph, biradiata, grow epiplytienlly on

the stems.

(bh) Coslophora subfarcinata— Tins alga grows i slightly deeper water than

C. ueifera, where wave action is greater but not extreme. Apart from Horinasira

hanksit, Wis the most widespread species on the reefs. On the main reef it ts

ime of the dominants of the ntixed Cyslophora association, and is particularly

prominent iu pools more than 6 inches deep and in the channel area, where it is

always in G to 12 inches of water (pl. XUV, fig. 3).

Cystophora subfarcilata never produces vesicles on the Penningion Thay

reeds, or elsewhere om the south coast, In sheltered parts of the north coast,

however, vesicle lormation is commou. This is a clear case of ecological Forms

uncer different degrees of wave action.

a characttrisGe fringe around most of the deeper rock pools towards the outside

of the reel, and also on the western side of the veel where water streams off.

It cannot surviye strong direct wave action. Small plants occur over most of the

mixed Cyslophora association on the mai rect, hut only in deeper rock pools dacs

it attain WS anaxinnun length of 5 or 6 feet. Near the western edge of the reef,

Antithamnion hanawieides (Sond) De Tam, Antithanniow sp. and Dasya spp.

are common epiphytes on C. siliquosa.

On other reefs, and rock off the edges of reefs, C. silignosn forms a pure

association in 2 to 5 or more feet of water.

135

(ad) Cystophora browuit—This species is less common than the previous three,

and does not oceur on the main reef. On recs east of Pennington Ray it ts

sometimes codominant with C. subfercinata in 1-2 {vet of water (at low tide)

towards the rear. Only rarety has it been seen pure.

(e) Safgassuur murtculatum—This, the only nportant littoral species of Sar-

gassnit, 8 common an most af the rock platforms, and shows remarkable scasonal

development. On the main reef it occurs near the fallen tock region, on flatter

areas with C. wafer, and in the channel, but iy detisest ow the western side oF

the rect where it thrives in (he constantly streaming water, In the lalter area

itis often dominant, bat elsewhere is usunily subdominant to the Cystophora.

Doring suminer Sargassum ohuriculatum ig & short etunted plant rarely more

than 10 or 12 em. high, and it can be easily distinguished (rom Cystoplora unifern

only by is fattened stem. Growth commences during March or early April, and

during wiriter the fertile fronds are developed, reaching a licight of 40 or 45 cm,

By September small vesicles, almost identical with those of S. sowdert J. Ag., are

produced, but by varly November the fruiting frond disintegrates, losing both

receptacies atid vesicles. The stalk or the ok frond persists for some weeks,

but by January ihe plants are redueed to a short stem bearing a few branches

with crowded, almost terete leaves (such as figured by Agardh [1889] ). This

sinking seasonal development must be due to lower water temperatures, though

the annual range, as given previously, is small.

Throughout the Cystophora associations scattered plants of Hormosira

hauksii may occur chiefly on higher ridges (pl. X, fig. 1, pr. 1). Tiny dark

blue-green thalli of Aaniarie atra are alsa common on bare rock in the associa-

tio, An intermediate conunnnily helweer the mixed Cyslophora and Hormosira

associations on the main reef will be discussed later.

Several other algae ocetir irregularly in the Cystophera complex, varying

greatly in their distribution and occurrence in different seasons. These will be

dealt with later under “Chance distribution of minor species” (see p. 157).

Although the species of Cystophera ate the largest algae grauwing on the

reefs, much of the roek between the plants is feft bare, This is probably due im

some ncasure ta temoval of young plants of other species by the fronds of the

Cystophora as the latter are moved over the ro¢ék by waves. On one uccasiofi

(April, 1947) the channel area had beet almost denuded of algae, otly the

holdiasts remaining. Growth of new plants ia this area was poor, and it would

seem that few species apare from those of Cystophora grow readily in arcas of

shallow streaming water, Vet such a halter appears to be jtist as suitable as

many where algal growth is heavy, stich as the sublithoral (ringe assuciation.

When compared with the latter association the Cystephora: complex is poor in

humber of species, though composed of lacger planis.

12. TlokMOsIRA RAW KSTI ApsocnATIOW.

Formasiva hanksit (¥, siebert [Bory} Dene.) is more widespread than any

other alga on the Pennington Lay reefs. It oceurs from the outer edge to the

inner calmer areas, but only on higher parts of the reefs in fairly rough condi-

tions does it form a dense and distinet association. On two areas on the outside

of the charinel on the main reef, and a smaller area just east of the ledge near

the Cysiophora-corallime association (sve map), it becomes very dense, to the

exclusion of all other algae except a few epiphytes (pl, NLL, fig. 2 and 3). The

areas of pure Hormosira are only a few inches above the rest of the teef, but

are exposed hetween waves at low tide. sometimes for several minutes. On

many reefs the Hormosira association is near the outer cdge or sides, Many

reefs have the surfaces markedly ridged, and hear Sermosira only on the ridges

where il is exposed at low tide (pl. X11L, fig. 1)-

154

The chains of bead-like vesicles (about 1 cm. across) of Horinosira provide

am abundant reservoir of water for the alga to tolerate exposure and desiccation.

No other alga has a similar structure, so it is not surprising that Moruresira alone

can colonise these higher areas. The abundance of the plants in the pure areas,

aud their large size compared with the same species elsewhere on the reef, would

indicate however that some degree of exposure is beneficial to the growth of

Hormosira.

On the rare occasions of a hot north wind and very low tide, leaving the

reef exposed for some hours, Horwrosira on higher areas may suffer consi:lerable

damage, becomimg black and withered.

Noatheia anoinala is a very common parasite, growing from the conceptacles.

Other epiphyres are the black tuits of Polysiphonia nigrita Sender, and H qydia~

coleum (wagbvacewm Kitte. which forms small dark blue-green furry growths in

the constrictions between the vesicles.

The secend level of the western terraced teef (pl. XI, fig. 2) comprises

numerous pools, 3 to 6 fect across and up to 1 foot deep. Waves enter the pools

at medium aud high tides. Hoermostra banksti forms a dense fringe around the

edges, and well-deyeloped plants occur on the betiom, ustiaily reaching to the sur-

face (pl. XID fig. 4). Also on the bottom of the pools occur brown tutts of the

filamentous species Polysiphoniua abscissa, Ectoctrpus confermoldes (witlter} and

Pylaiela fulvesceus (sunmner), The rec anemone Aetinia tenebrosa is prominent

in shaded hollows around the edges of the poois, just below and for a few inches

above the water line.

The development of this Hormosira-Actinia biocenose is due exstuitially to

the specialised habitat—shallow pools expased at low tides and subject to wave

influx at higher tides. Prom the algal viewpoint it is best considered ag a variant

of the typical TJormosira association and has been seen only on the western

terraced reef.

13. CysTOPIORA —CORALLINE ASSCICLATION

The south-east earner of the main reef receives the full foree of breakers,

though on the eastern side waves tend to surge ayer and along the wlye, This

corner is shghtly higher than most of the reef, and bears @ closed and deuse asso-

ciation (pl. XV, fig. 1). On higher, but rough and ennstantly wave-swept parts of

other reefs the sane association is promiiteiit.

Dominant are the dark brown, densely branched fronds of Cystophora

paniculata (Tiirn.) J. Ag, often stunted lighter-brown fronds of C. subfarcinata.

and two species of the articulated coralline algae, Small tufts and mats of

Covallina cuvicri Lamx, cover most of the reck between the Jarger algae, while

Jania fashigiata Hat, is heavily epiphytic on.C, subfarcinala (pl. XV. hig. Land 2).

During winter Corailina cuveri (1. crispdta Lamx.) is a pale pmk, while Jue ts

a brighter red, In sunnner both are bleached to a Taine pink or white, but on ail

occasions the contrast of the brown fronds af Cystophere and the pink er wlnre

of the corallines gives the association a distinctive appearance (pl. NV, fig. f

and 2).

Cystophora paniculata is well developed in the rough areas but absent from

the rest of the reef. Though usually abundant, on oceasion it hus been almost

absent (September 1946). On some reels it is tare and the association 1s

dominated by the corallines.

The degree of epipliytisin i this association is yery high. Most species can

grow on either rock or the Cystophorw, Vhe rough warted stem of C. paniculata

provides an excellent substrate for many species. Some epiphytes are seasonal

in their aceurrence,

187

Species present Uiroughont the year include: Dassepsis clavigera Womers-

ley, Polystphonia nigrita, P. dasyoides, Heterasiphonia gunniana (Maty.) Falk.,

Chavlomorpha darwin, Caulerpa brorwnti, C. simpliciuscula, Laurencie, hetera-

cada and Autithomnion hanowioides. Less common ones are Zonaria sub-

articuluta (Laimx.) Papenfuss, Parhydictvom paricuddtion Jo Ag. Sargassum

hractcolasnin J. Ag, Si smericialdalumn, Siphophora chondrophylla (8, Rr.) ary,

(in pure but small palebes). odd plants of Hormosira banksii, Ceranium nobile

Jo Ag. C. miniatium, Mrenyelia plumase, Melugoniolithun charvides (Lamx.)

W.v. B. Melebesia sp. and Calothiria confervicala,

MVonospera clonyala ( Harv.) De Toni and Griffitisia monilis Hary, ave

common epiphytes, forming bright red tults, but they only ocenr during the

winter (April to November). Thuretia teres Hary. and Mychodea folioxa

(Hurv.) J. Ag. are found mainly on the stenis of C. paniculata.

INTERMEDIATE COMMUNITIES

Mitermediate and gracing communities between the associations discussed

above are not frequent, but as is expected on such reels variations in height and

exposure belween different associations will result in 2 mixing of species. In

addition, ather species may he suited by the intermediate habitats yel no: occur

in either of the main associations.

On the main reef, rock to the east and sonth-cast of the mixed Cystophora

association bears 4 community dominated by Horniosira benksii, Cystophora

wvifera and Lavrenciea heirroclada (which varies greatly in abundance during the

year). Sargasswn mariculitwt also occurs. The change between this com-

munity and the Cys/upiera—coralliue association takes place over 2 or 3 fect.

it is essentially an interinediate community between the mixed Cystophera and

fHormoxira associations, under conditions which ace suitable [or Lanrenciu

heteroviaila. Near the eastern edge of the reef Hormosira hecomes dominant,

The mixed ar variable assemblage of species found im shallow areas near

the Fallen reek region and on vock in the sandy pool is described on page 153.

The Hormosia—ancnume pool variant of ihe Hormesira association has been

dealt with on p. 156. Letocarpus confervoides and Pyluielia fulvescens, which are

subdominant in this community, dominate seasonal associatiots in the rear littoral,

while Polysiphonia abscissa is ulso characteristic of more isolated rock pools

(see p. 150).

Coance Distrmcrion or Minor Species on tite Main Krer

A niinber of algae ocetir on the main reef, but do not form a stable com-

panent of any particular associagion, At diferent times during the year they may

occtr on widely separated areas of the reef, usually in relatively small patches

within Jarger fairly uniform halntats. Chance establishment of the species under

temporarily suitable conditions, rapid development of individual plants and rela-

tively small spread from the original area, followed within.a few months by death

under changed conditions, seems to account for the observed distribution, The

following species bave attracted attention.

Liagora harpeyana grew near the fallen rock region and the eastern edge of

the reef in January 1946. In January 1948 if was prominent on rock in the sandy

paol, while in November 1947 it was found only on the outer western part of the

channel area, On other occasions it hus been found confined to the ledge.

Felininthora tumens €?) 1s best developed in the late winter, occurring on

inner parts of the reci. In September 19H it wae partly buried by sand in the rear

littoral, where it was exposed between waves. At orber times it has heen confined

158

to the sandy pool (January 1948) and a small area on the western side of the

chatinel (November 1947). Plants exposed and buffeted by waves are consider

ably stouter than those always covered.

Chanipia obsoleta, during September 1946, was so prominent in shallow inner

areas of the reef that it conld well he considered to dominate a community, -At

other times it has been confined to the ledge or eastern edge of the reef, but often

is vittually absent from the recf surface.

Cladosiphon fila (Warv.) Kylin is often absent from the reei, bul a tow

scattered plants may ocetir near the fallen rock region, and in November 1947 it

was qilite dense over a few square yards of the mixed Cystephora association in

the channel.

Cladosiphon verinicuaris (J, Ag.) Kylin bas been found in outer pools on

the main reef (November 1947), but is qitite common in a cove west of thy

inain rect.

Halapteris pseudospicata Sauy. and Phlveacaulon spectabile Reinke occur in

pools in 2 or 3 feet of water, and occasionally on rock in the sauly pool.

Cladostephus verticillatus is only rarely found in pools on the main reef, but

on the sides of rock in the lower littoral and upper sublittoral in other parts of

Pennington Bay it may be quite Gense.

Cladophora valunioides Sonder may occur as scattered plants almost any-

where on the reef, but usually only in a restricted area at any one time.

Priors of Suavep, Rear Lrrrorat Poots

A number of reefs in the castern part of the Pennington Bay region have

small caves, up to & or 10 yards im length, at the base of the cliffs. At high tide

waves ustially enter them, and pools often oceur at the entrance or just inside.

Such pools ate shaded, relatively calm, and contain an assemblage of algae of sub-

littoral affinities. The habitat is similar to sublittoral conditions in light and degree

of roughness.

Algae most frequently found in these pools are Apjohnia loetevirens Vary

(stunted), Rhipiliopsis pellata (J. Ag.) A. & B.S. Gepp, Ecklonia radiata

(Turn.) J. Ag. (Cin larger pools), Plocamiunt aigustiem (J. Ag.) H. & II,

Phacelocarpus labillardieri ). Ag., Corallina cuvieri, Laurencia clata (Ag.) Harv,

Haloplegma preissit Sonder, Spyridia oppasita Hary., Ballia scoparia Hary. In

oue stall pool less than 2 feet long and 1 foot wide, under an overbanying rock

in the fallen region of the main reef, the following small Clilorophyceae were

tound: Jwhipiliopsis peltata (abundant), Hryepsis baculifera J. Ag.. Derbesia

clavacforimis (J. Ag.) De Toni, Cawerpa sp, and aycheriy sp. These are all

rave species at Pennington Bay.

Other sublittoral species probably occur in such pools on other parts of the

south coast of Kangaroo Island.

Tre Superrrroran Friwce Zoxe

(CYSTOVMMORA INTERMEDIA ASSOCIATION

The sub-littoral fringe on the Pennington Bay reefs corresponds to the outer at

side cdges and a foot or so below (pl. XTV, fig. 4, and pl. XV, fig. 3). The outer

edge of some reels is probably a little above nican low waler mark, and on other

reefs slightly below, but the conditions at the reef edge are uniform as even at low

tide waves are constantly breaking on it, leaving it almost or just exposed for a

few seconds betweeti waves, ‘Lhe outer edge is the roughest habitat on the

reefs; the sides are less rough, but both are habitats of high aeration of the water,

short but frequettt exposure between breakers, and heavy forces from wave action.

155

The sublittoral fringe bears the densest algal association found anywhere on

the reefs, The rock is usually completely covered, and epiphytic growth is profuse.

In wumber of species the assuciaticm is very rich, On au area of 4 or 5 square

yards at the outside of the inain reef over 50 species have been collected + riast

are small in size and often stunted, onlv the Tueales being of any bulk. The

chiet requisite of an alga in this association is a strongly developed holdtast. The

masses of Lromds, however, afford considerable protection for each plant, as wave

forces can be exerted only from above and not from underneatl the plants,

The association is dominated hy Cystophore intermedia J. Ag. The dark

brown pinately branched fronds of this alga reach a length of 50 em., and give

it characteristic appearance to the reef edge (pl XLV, fig 4, and pl XV, fig. 4),

C_ gatermedia is remarkable for its inability to grow anywhere except in the

roughest, well aerated places, No satisfactory explanauion of this is available at

present, Although iis stems ace omy 3 or 4 mun. in diameter, they are extremely

sltong. A very heavy pull is needed to remove a well-developed plant, and only

m extremely rare occasions has this alen been fotd cast up on the beach.

The algae of the sub-ittoral fringe Delong mainly to two types. The

majority have elongate, often nich divided fronds which offer minimum Tesist-

wee to waves; others Torm mi(-like masses on the crock which are also protected

by larger bushier forma,

Where waves pass along the reef edge (eastern side of iain reef ), ©. inter-

inedia grows densely from the edge to 2 feet helow. In situations where there 15

heavy wave splash, caused hy projecting parts of the reef, it will vrow on the

surluce; this is particularly so on the outer highly dissected part of the main

reef and on the large rocks off the easter edge. However, where water streams

off the western side of the reef, and breakers are of reduced foree, €. siliguosy

replaces C, inferiirdia in the sublittoral {tinge to a large extent,

Cystophora intermedia is often leavily epiphytised by other algae, whieh

stow only front the conceptacles. The stem is too smooth and mueoid ly provide

a hold for algal spores. Daring sum the small brown blobs of Corynaplilec

eystophorae |, Ag. ave common on the upper fronds, while a species of Davw

and Grovwania muelleri Lary, wceur in winter.

Other larger alpae of the sublitroral fringe are Saryassune bractevlossi

(with lerechaetivm sp. epiphylic on the leaves) (pl. XV, fig. 4) and oveasional

pluits of Keklonia vadiaie, Seyvtothalia goryearpa (Turn) Grev.. Cystaphore

sportioidcs (Turn) J. Ag, and i, penienlata, C. subfarcinata and ST iganisee

do tit orcur below the reef edie except i calmer places.

The following are the must imperlant of the smaller eperies, Nearky all

are stunted in size wins to the rovgh Habitat, much lareer Lorie beitige cash my)

from deeper water,

Caulerpa browmi, C. sedoidcs (RB. Br.) Ag, CC stuphiciuseylas Codina

pomoides qT, Ag. Fachydietyon Mematciediet uit, Lobos pita bicuspidata wlresch.,

Dictyopteris acrostichoides (?), Cyinaserus parieqains (lamx) J. Ag; Liagera

harveyanu, Gelidium australe J, Ag., Meiayoniolithan charaidis, Corullina cuvicri,

Mychodea foliose, Gigartinn sp. lridaca prolifera (J. Ag.) De Toni (rare),

Chainpia obsolela, Hymenocladia polymorpha (1 Jarv.) J. Ag, L. consbersa

(Harv) J. Ag. Guvenile state only), Memastone furedayae Hary... Phytime-

phora imbricata, J. Ag., Sarconcnia dasyoides Darv., Ballja Scapuria, Calli-

hamanion laricinuin Uary., Griffithsta avnilereticn UW. & TY. Lalapleyina preissii,

HWerangelia plumosa, Chondria sp Laurencta heteroclade, L. robusta? L. elute

=) M.S. name for an aPharently wn¢deseribed species_

160

(with epiphytic Janczewskia tusmantca Falk.), Jeannercttia lobata H. & 4H.

Dasyopsis clucigera, ITeterasiphonia gunaiana, Thuretia teres, In ardition the

jallowing species are usually epiphytic on larger fucoids: Ceraminnt nobile, Anti-

thamnion hanowloides, Crouania Muelleri, Monospora clongata and Griffithsia

neonilis (both only in winter months), Mnellerena insignis (Harv.), De Toui.

Polysiphonia nigrita and P. dasyoides,

The large rocks off the eastern edge of the main reef (see map, and pl. UX,

fg. 2, pt. L) provide a_ habitat particularly favourable to Laurencia,

L. hetcrocluda, L. elata and &, robusta occurring in abundance. Al ntithanmyont

hanowioides is often densely epiphytic on all three species. The bright green oi

Coulerpa broqwuii and GC. siarplicinseula jroyides a striking coutract wmongst the

deep red of the other species.

Tur SepuirroraL ZONE

ZONATION BELOW TILE SURLITTORAL FRINGE

Study of zonation in the sublittoral is limited to 3 or 4 feet down the vertical

sides of some reefs; ¢ven this can be observed only on very caln days with low

tides. The following is, very broadly, the zonation down the eastern edge of the

miain reef,

To 2 feet below edge - - Cyslaphora tnterimedta

From 14-24 feet below edge - IWrangelia clavigera Harv., Gelidiun

australe and Seytothalia dorycarpa

Irom 2-3 fect below edge - - Perithalia inermis (R. Br.) J. Ag., and

usually below this Plocamun costa-

tum (J. Ag.) H. & H. and Phacelo-

carpus labillardieri

Luureicia clafa may be prominent at

about this level

FLORA OF DEEP OUTER LOOLS ON THE RVEFS

Seattered over most of the Pennington Bay reefs, particularly on the outer

parts (often within the siblittoral fringe—pl XV, lig. 3), are rock pools up to

6 feet or more deep, with vertical or steeply sloping sides. The Mora of these

pools is always submerged aml musi therefore be considered subiittoral, Light

intensity is lower in the pools than on the reef surface, especinily Lor smaller

species which are usually shaded by large fronds of Cystophora growing aronud

the edge, Conditions within the pools are calmer than on the reef surface,

Around the edge Cystaphora siliquosa is usually dominant. Were the fronds

remain well submerged, and wich ample roont for their development viten reach

a length of 2 metres. Sarqussune bracieolosum, and tu a lesser extent Scvlolfalta

darycarpa and eklonia radiata, are common near the edge,

Apart from the [ringing edge of Cystophora, the conspicuous feature of these

pools is the bright green masses of Cuulerpa which cover the sides in patches

up to a foot or more across, Carlerpa brownii, C. obcura Sond., C. Ayproides

CR. Br.) Ag. var. mvelleri (Sond.) W. y¥. Bosse, C. longifolia Ag, C. siiplicius-

culo, C, sedoides and sometimes C. scalpelliformis (R. Br.) Ag, are fonud, best

deyeloped where shaded by other algae or the pool edge. The characieristic

vegetative growth by means of surculi results in fairly pure patches of one

species, but much of the rock is left bare.

Other species irregularly distributed in these pools are Rhtpiliopsis peltata,

Dirtyasphaeria sericca Harv., Apjoknia laetorvirens (often the basal part only),

Halopteris pseudospicata, Phlorocarlan spectabile, Cladosrplion sermticiularis,

Dictyopleris acrostichoides, Dilophus sp. an Gyrinosorus varicgatus.

162

THE DEEPER SUBLITTORAT. FLORA

The following fist of species includes those found cast up but known not

to grow on the reef surface. Other species in the list do grow in the littoral or

sublitioral fringe zones, but are usualiy much larger when growing in the deeper

sublittoral. All sublittoral species found in the Pennington Bay region are nat

listed here, but a complete census and notes on the species known from Kan-

garoo Island will he published as a later paper. The cast up species found at

any one time depends greatly om the weather over the previous few days, and

no rehable data as to the absence of a sublitcoral species at any time can be

obtained,

CuLoropiycese: Codtwn galeatim J. Ag. (conmnon), C. manillosuim

Harv., C. spongiosum Wary, C. pomoides, Caulerpa harveyi W. vy. GB. Cun

abseura, Can. Ayproides, Cau, ethelac W. vy. B. Apjohnia laectevirens, Clado-

phora valonivides.

PGLAKOPITYCENR: Girardyva sp. (on Posidania australis); Phlocacaulon

spectalile, Faloptrris pseudospictta Sauv.; Dirtyota latifolia J, Ag., D. radicans

Harv., Dictyopteris mucllert (Sead.) Schmivz, Dilophus fastigialus (Sand,)

J. Ag, Zonaria subarticulota (syn, 2. turneriqna J. Ap), 2, crenula |, Ag,

Chlenidophora microphylla (MWarw.) J. Ag. IToitucastiicius Suposns (NM Tr.)

J. Ag, YW. spiralis J. Ag., Lobospira bteuspideta, Sporechuus scoparins Harv,

S, comesns Ag. Encyotialia cliftoni Ttarv., Bellativ eriophorum Lary.

Palyecriu sastericola (Flarv.) WKylin Cf), Merete anstralis Harv., Myriodesina

calophylum J. Ag, M. integrifalia Harv. Sieracocens axtilaris Grev,, Carpo-

glossum. conflucns (BR. Dry Kitz, Seaberia agerdiit Grev. (very common),

Cyslophora raceimosa Uarv., C. peetinua (Grey, and Ag.) J, Ag., C. platvlobiume

(Mert.) Jo Ae, ©. rofarta (Mert) j, Ag. C. greviller (Ag.) J. Ag, CL dumesa

J. Ag, C. monijiferg J. Ag. Sutgassiie bracteolosion, S. cristatua J. Ag.,

SN. trichophyllunt J. Ag. S. decipiens (R. Br.) J. Ag., S. sendert J. Ag., S. varions

Sond.

RuupepHycear, Common: slsparagopsis orimuta Harv., Delisea hypreotdes

Harv., Callophydits lambertit H. & H., Areschougia lowrencié Bary. Methrocloniiun

mueller? Sond., Hypiea episcopaliy H. ard H,, Plocaminm costalum, P. nidificun

(Hary.) J. Ag., P. mertensit (Grev.) Marv., P. preissianum Sond., Phicclo-

carpus labillardicr’, Mychoded ronipressa Hary., M. carnésa WW. and H., Giviesac

clay brown? Varv., Hynenecladia polvnorphe, Asmstithamnian aucroralun

(f. Ag.) De Toni, Bulla scoparia, B. callitricha J. Ag, Coramium puberulin

Sond, Masyphila preissii Sond. Luplilota articulata (J. Ag.) Selnntiz, Lasio-

tralia farniosa {Uarv.) De Toni, Afeuaspora elongata, Muellerena insignis,

Spougoclonium sp. Spwidie oppasita, Surcomenta dasyonles, Polysiphkaniqa mallar-

die Trarv., RBrangaiavtolic custeatiy (Xe) Sehmitz., Dexedusya bulbachacte

(Harv.) Falk., ebaensia pinnalifida Llarv., Aneuria fatifolie (Harv.) J. Ag.

Osmnudaria pralifera Lams, Posy naccarioides Hary., Thuretia quereifolia

Dene,

Qeessowan: Gualsonia wuawata Uatv. crare), Delixea faudehra Mont.

Brachryclodia marginata (Sol) Selinitz, Calloplwltiy coccinca Harv,, Gelinaria

uleniden Sond., Thammnocloniint claviferion J. Ag., Pevssonnelia australis Sond.

Metiayoniolithaw stelligekum (Lamx.) W. vy, By Coralinw pilifera ‘ants.,

clreschougia gruciiivioides (?), Thysavecladia laxa Sond, Erythractoniun

wigustatun Sonc., Gleiophyilis burkevlee (Hary.) J, Ag. Rhodophyllis tewwifolia

((ary.) J, Ag, Plocommm anguston, Po leptaphylina BKiite., Phacelocarpus

sessilis Harv., Stenaeludia harvesena J. Ag. slerelylus australis J. Ag., Giyartine

disticha Sond., (ridaca australisica J. Ag. Champia affnis (A. and H.) J, Ag,

162

C. tasmanica Varv., Cloioderma tasiuiica Zan., Rhodymenta aysiralis (Soud.)

Harv., Mymenveladia usnea J. Ag. Autithamnion dispar (Harv.) J. Ag.

(rifithsia unlurctica, Corman Fsogo nits Hary., Crauania westita Mary., Ptile-

cladia pulchra Sond., Spoitgocloniitm broynianum (Harv.) J. Ag. Wrangelio

crassa HE, and H., HY’, nuyriophvlloides Hary., WW. princeps Harv., Sarcomenia

delessertuidts Sond., Hypoglosszm mieradantum J. Ag. (PI, Claudia elegans

LLamx., Polysiphonia datvee Renmb,, Cladurus clatus (Sond.) Falk., Coelocloniuin

opuntivides (Harv.) J. Ag., Laurencia filifarnus 1 Mont. Jeannerettia lobeta,

Protokiiisingia anstralesica (Mont.) Falk, Artesia kittcingioides Mary., Leno

mandia marginata WL, and TH, L, mrelleri Suad., £. smithive (A, and F.) Falk,

Trigenta yinbellata J. Ag, Halodic ayer rebustim Elary., Dasva villosa Harv,

MH. ha five Harv, Heterosiphonia mtucitert (Sond.) De Toni.

SHASUNATL VARTATION IN THE ALGAL FILORA

(a) Seasonal ecculrence

The great majority of the algae growing on the Pennington Bay rock plat-

forms are present. thrpaghout the year. The larger brown algae, nearly all

qnentbers ef the Fueales. are the most stabie species, and probably live tor several

vears.

The Hetocarpus confervoides and Pylaicila filvescens seasonal associations

are the only ones limited in their oecnrrence tu definite periods of the year.

Certain characteristic species within other associations, particularly the

Cystophora—coralline and sublictoral fringe associations, are also scasoial. In

both these asaciations Afanoparu clangiuts “and Crifjithsia moiiilis are found onty

during whiter months, although the fornier ig accasionalls y east up frum the stb-

littoral in stimmer. Neonastomu fercdwyce is strictly a summer species. A

uuinber of epiphytes are alsa of seasonal uscurrence. Coryntophloce evstaphorac

is epiphytic on the recyptuctes of C. ywiophora iuternedia and C, aTignuse during

the summer, while a species of Dasve att Crouanio annelicri epiphytise the same

species of Cyslaphora mamly durag winter months,

Species dealt with under “Clauce distribution of minor species” are very

irreatilar ip their oceurrence anil apperent!y ned restricted to any oe period.

Information on seascnial ceeurrence of subtittoral species, derived from casr

up plans, is aul reliable, bit definite coilectae records will be give in the census

in a later paper,

(b) Seasonal dewulopurchl of sluble species

Many speeics on the reels aitain their maxinium development iz the late

winter. This is probably associated with lower sea temperatires, The svasonal

development of vesicles in Cystaphara weifera and of the fertile frands of

Sargassum murteulatuin has been described on pages 134 and 155. Grher species of

Sargossum cast ap from the sublittoral are best cleveluped in date winter when the

fertile fronds are borne. In this state the plirts are imost easily torn off and

cast up.

The Cystophera—coralline associatien is better developed ia winter when

the corallines are actively growing. Rivlaria firina and Enteromorpha aeailha-

fhora attain their maximum size in late winter.

Many species have heen found bearing reproductive organs on every visit Lo

Pennington Bay (at approximately 2-nonthly intervals during 1947), and it is

probable that most species are not strictly limited to any one period of the year.

Whether aay monthly eyele in reprodnetion carrelited with the tidal cycle aceurs

is not known, but is unlikely. as monthly udal variation on the south coast of

Jcangaroo Island is small and its effect saininiused by constant breakers.

During late winter (September) ucarly every specius an the reef bears vepro-

ductive argans, usually abundantly, and this time seems to be the most favour-

able period for reproduction, In September 1S46.it was difficult to find a speci-

men of most af the small Khodophycvas—such as Champia obsoleta, Aluellerenn

sp.. Monospora elongata and Liagora harecyena—not dearing reproductive cells,

hut at other Gines (e.g., mid-stummer} most specimens are sterile. Oiten 80% ar

90% of the plauts of dipiobiontic Rhodophycere are tetrasporic, while very few

plants are spenmatiigrel,

Liberation of zoospores and gametes in Eaferoumerphe and Ula is probably

dependant on suficieniiy fone exposure during very low tiles, Most of the

tucoids are fovhle througheat the year, but the species of Saryassuint produce

tertile fronds i winter and lose then in early stunimer.

"VARIATION UNDER WAVE ACTION

Stunting of algae under severe wave action ig a geueral feature of species

which grow both in the sublittoral proper and the sulitloral fringe ur

Cystophora—coralline associations. The roughest situations always show the

densest algal grawth, hut reduction in the degree of branching Im some (eu,

Hymenoclaia polyinerpita, Dasyapsis clavacra), and iicrease i branching frou

the base givin compact tafted forms in ethers (er, Cladaphara walontaides )

are the most gureral qadaptions to withstand the wmechinien’ foree of the breakers.

Custaphors intermedia, which grows best in rhe romuhest localities anc not on

calmer coasts, is one notable exception to stunting under rough conditions.

In Many Cnsts if ig eviden) that sige and pross external form are of litle

use as specific characters. Normaily pinnate or well-bratiched forms may become

simpie or nearly so on the edges of reefs, and all variations of form between the

extremes eens in intermediate habitats, Other species may reinin <distineiive

branching in all habitats, but witil the range in farm of a species under varying

cuyironmental conditions is known, ditferences in size and degree of branching can

be ase in separating entitics only with great caution. literal tissues and ech

alfucture, on the ocher hand, are usually reliable, Ail stuuted species on the reet

ures hecome fertile and must therefore be considered as mature plants.

The variation in Dasyepsis claviqera has been deserihed previously (Womers-

ley 1446), The following examples also illustrate the type of variation found,

Fymenocladia polymorpha on the reef edge cansisty of a few (2 to 5) on

branched clongate fronds from a conmiet hase, up to 12 em. high, but sublitteral

forms ure pinnately and ofter bipinna(ely branched and tegeh a he ight of 70 em.

Chidophers eelonioides—Sublittoral forms ave loosely branched, often with

one ara few main fiktments, und to 20 em. ov more tall. Th calmer parts of the

rocds it is S to 10 em. tall, but on the edge of the reel the thallus is a hente

sphevical mass of Flainents only 2 or 3 ei I igh,

Leuroncia hie teraclada—The variation in form of this wly Si Was commented

im by Uarver (18659, pl. cxtviit), and similar variation occurs in the Pennington

Vay forms. Small, poorly branched specimens are always found in rough places

or in shatlow water.

Ceulerpa spp-——The species of Caxlerpa feud growing in outer deep rock

pools of the reef (p, 160) are stunted when compared wilh east-up specimens, hut

the degter of branching and external iorm is fairly constant, When growing

on the reef surface sttnting is even more pranounced, while shade [rom other

wleae or pool edges allows development of larger frones,

PARASITISM AND EPIPHYTISM

When describing the various associations, the common epiphytes on other

algae have beet listed. In nearly every case it appears that the epiphytic alga

uses the “host” only as a stitable fon of attachment, there being no intimate

physiological relation between the two. This is indicated by the wide range of

“hosts” of many epiphytes, and alsu by the ability of mast to grow on bare rock

as well, As yet no critical examination of the method of umon of epiphyte to

host has been made,

One exception is that of Nothcia anomala on Hormosiva hanksi (see

Williams 1923), in which there appears to be some definite relationship as

Hormosiva is the only alga at Pennington Hay on which Neotlieia will grow.

Although this case is usually referred vo as “parasitism,” it is only partial, for

it is very doubtful how much, if any, nutrient Nofheie derives from its host.

Several other species appear to favour certain bosts because of the rough

nature of the stems or presence of couceptacles which provide suitable germina-

tion places. Gystoplora paniculata has unusually rough stems and ustally shows

profuse epiphytic growth. On a single plant of this species the followitig species

will often be found: Pelysiphonia myritu, Mychodia foliosa, Thurctia teres,

Antithanurion hanuwioides, Melobesia sp, and fragments of Corallina. Most other

species of Cystophora baye smoother stems, and epiphytes grow iainly [rom

the conceptacles. Species of Vusya and Crovanta nuellert are frequently found on

C. interwuicdia and C. siliqiuosa, Jania fastigiate grows on the stems of CL sub-

furcinate very heavily in the Cystophora—coralline association, while Polysiphonia

nigrita is very prevalent on Svytothalia, dorycarpa in outer rough pools

Epiphytes on algae growing in calmer parts of the reef are mnch sparser,

Sphacelaria bivadiata and Sph. [urcigera are commonly found on Cysfophora

uvifera and Cystophylhi muricaluni, but any others are usually microscopic.

Detailed information on recorded hasts for all species will be given im the

census.

VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION IN RELATION TO LIGHT

The horizontal surface of the Pennington Bay reefs provides a large

area for algal growth subject to fairly uniform light conditions, Only below

the reet edge, or in deeper pools, where algae are constantly submerged and the

water in a turbulent state docs light iniensity [all off greatly. These reefs are

therefore suitable for estimating the numbers and perecutages ot the algae which

are restticted to the reef surface (ie., with high light intensity) and those

resiricted! to the sublittoral (lower light intensity). This data for rhe Pernington

Bay region is presented in Table 11.

TasLe LI

Distribution of the Algal Classes in the Littoral and Subhittaral

Myxn thlore Pliseo- Wiens

' aif tyes pirvede phverse qeliwre ie Polat

Restricted to reef surface (littoral) q 5 21 30 02

Restricted to sublittoral - = u 14 38 0 142

Common to littoral and sithlittoral | 7 11 3 42

Total for each class - - . 7 2h 70 143 244

Fach class as % total - - 3 ii 28 38 100

% of cach class im literal = - - 100 Ab, 46 a7 42

Numbers of species 11 ihe various divisions of the table are uot tecessarily

exact, as some 30 anmisried species have not been included, and a few others have

been omitted as insufficient specimens and information about them are available.

The edge of the reefs bas been used as a dividing line between littoral and sub-

littoral. but algae growing on the reef surface or edge in the sublittural fringe

are incliaded in the littoral as the light telations are closest to true littoral condi-

tions, It is inevitab’e that there is a personal factor in drawing up such a table,

hut with the large numbers available this is probably small.

Jt is not suggested that light imtensity is the only controlling factor in

whether an alga grows on the reef or in deeper water. On the reet edge, degree

of roughness 1s of considerable imporlance, but light intensity is the major factor

for most species, and the edge of the reef is a natural lme of division in this

respect.

‘The tolal number of species collected from about one mile of fairly oniform

coastline is over 270 (including untamed species), On the main reef, an area

of ahout 75 yards by 70 yards, some 60 or more species have been found. ‘The

Pennington Bay area is clearly a viel one, and numerous other species are pro-

bably still to be found,

The Rhodophyceae camprise over half ihe total number of species, and

twice as many as the Phaeophyceae, Numbers for the Myxophyceac would be

iucreased if microscopic species were thoroughly collected, On the reef surface

there are more Rhodophyceae than any of the other groups, and more Thaen-

phyceac than Chlorsphyceae, Most of the Rhoadoplyceac, however, occur on the

outer rougher parts of the reefs.

When the percentage of each class in the littoral zone is est. vated, the

Chiorophiyceae and Phaeophyceae give the Iighest figure, 46%. Tor toth, The

proportion of Rhodophyccae in the littoral is lower, 37%, owing to the much larger

numbers af red algae which are restricted to the sublittoral. All the species of

Mysopliyceae known from the region occur in the littoral.

The numbers of each class common to both littoral and stiblittoral is rela-

tively small, and most of these oeenr near the edge of the reef in rough condi-~

tions, where the light intensity ai high tide is alight!y lower than om the reef

surface proper,

The Chiorophyceae and Phaenphyeeae show no difference in the proportions

of each class it higher or lower light intensities, but owing to the larger numbers

of the browns, more species than the greens are found on the reefs and also in

the subliittoral, The proportion of Rhodophyceae in the littoral is small, showine

that red ayac do tend to grow in deeper water, but owing to their much e¢reater

numbers, more ocettr in the littoral than ihe other classes,

The long standing concep! af a broad vertical distribution of green, brown

and red algae, in that order, holds onty for the Rhodophyceac at Petiningion Ray.

Red algae cast up from deep water are always a brighter red in colour than reef

forms, which are often ycllowish-hrown. Myxoaphyceae, however, show a strong

tendency ta grow in bright light intensities, thongh the thick gelatinous sheaths

of most species mus! greatly reduce the amount of light reaching the wctual cell,

SUMMARY

The algal associatious of the wave-cnt rock platforms of the Pennington Bay

region are described. These are classed into supralittoral (Prasiala community

only), littoral, and sublittoral fringe assuciations, while the deeper sublittoral

flora is also listed.

Most of the flat surface of the reefs is covered by the Cystoplora complex

(including several associations) and the Hormosira banksii association, while the

rich and dense Cystophora jalermedia aszociation is characteristic of the sub-

littoral fringe on the edge of the reefs. Other important associations are those

of itiewlaria firma, Fclocarpus~—Pylaiella (seasonal), Enteromorpha, Cysto-

phallnne and Cystephora—coralline.

166

Although the reef surface is remarkably horizontal, differences in height of

only a few inches cause clear-cut changes in the algal associations. The densest

associations ate those in the roughest places, where stunting of most species is

pronounced, Associations in calmer regions are sparse in number of species, with

considerable bare rock between plants, but often consist of larger individual

plants.

‘Phe algal flora of the region is very rich, over 270 species haying been found

along 14 miles of coast. Scusonal variation in the algal flora is discussed, and

examples given of the great variation in external form of many species catsed

by different degrees of wave action. Data on the vertical distribution of the alga!

classes in relation to light intensity is also given,

Correction to Part I (Womersley 1947)

For dcrolylus australis read Xiphophora chondroplylla (R. Br.) Harv.

Ippo. 241, 242, 247, and legend to fig. 3 (p, 289)], The provisional determina-

rion af this alga was based om sterile material, and fertile specimens collected in

January 1948 show that it is the brown alea Xvphephora chondraphylla, In

external form and T.S. of the thallus the resenibiance to Acrotylus is remarkable.

Our specimens are probably a saall form of the var. antnus J. Ag. The species

has not been previously recorded from South -\ustralia.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition to the acknowledguients made in the first paper of this series,

the author is grateful to De, Tore Levring, of Sweden, for the use of phiote-

graphs of the algae at Pennington Day, taken on a visit with the author curing

January 1948.

VINLIOGRAPHY

Acanoi, J. G. 1889 Species Sargassorumn Australiae. Svenska Vetenskaps-

Akademiens Handliugar, Wand 24, No. 3

ieparonps, S. J. 1948 Trans. Roy. Soc. 5, -\ust.. 72, 167-177

Hanviey, W. H, Phycologica Australica

Pore, KE. C. 1943) Animal and Plant Communities of the Coastal Rock-platform

at Long Reef, New South Wales.’ Proc. Linn, Sac, N.S.W., 68,

221-254

Wirzevws, M. M. 1923 A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Fueaceae.

Vroc. Linn, Soc. N.S-W., 48, pt. iv. pp. 634-646.

Woaersnev, LW. B.S. 1946 Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern Aus-

tralia, No. 2. A new Species of Dasyopss (Family Dasyaceae) trom

Kangaroo Island. Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 70, 137-144

Wowrersrey, H. B.S. 1947 The Marine Algae of IXangarco Island. TI.

A General Account of the Algal Ecology. Trans. Roy, Soc, S. Aust., 71,

228-252

Vig.

hie,

dig,

EXPLANATION OF PLATES X TO XV

Poate X

View of Pennington Bay from the east, with a Jow, ealm sea, The main reef is

in the left centre, and other reefs can be seen at the base af small rocky outerops

further around the bay.

Photo T, Levring

Prats XI

The main reef, Pennington Bay, from the cliffs above, The dark areas on the outer

parts are covered with Hermuosira, while the sandy ponl is an the lower right, Photo

taken at a very low tide.

Phota H. B.S. We

The western terraced reef, Pennington Bay, during a yery low tide. ‘The second

level bears the Hoermosira-anemone rock pools, with dense masses of the black

bivalve Modiolus on and just below this level.

Piatt XTI

The eastern part of the fallen rock region. The ntixe:l (ystaphora association covers

the foreground.

Photo H, B.S. W,

Photo H, B.S. W.

The Ja'len rock region on the main reef, during a calm high tide. Syimplaca hydinttes

oecurs on the wave washed rock, with FRigularia firma just above aud below water

level in the photo.

Photo HDS, Wie

Rock, normally covered by the sandy beach, exposed in September, 1946. On the

wave washed rock Ectocarpus and Enteroniorpha associations were well developed.

Photo S.J. FE,

Eetocarpus confervoides densely covering rock shown in Figure 3,

Pirate XITL

Hormosira banksit association on ridged rock. Hormosira ouly occurs on the ridges,

where it is exposed at low tide, with bare or sand covered rock between each ridge,

Phote Ty 1.

Junction between the MZormosira and mixed Cystophora association on the channel

edge, The sudden change due to a drop of 3 or 4 inches in the hetght of the reef

is clearly shown.

Photo H. B.S. W.

Photo t, .

Termosira banksii association, showing slight iatermixture with Cystophora.

The Tarmasira-anetone pool ow the western terraced reef, The anemuties appear

as dark areas in hollows on the rock at the far side of the pool.

PLaTE NIV

The ledge on the main reef, lookimpe shorewards. The beach was heavily sanded up

at this time (January 1948). The mixed Cystophora assuciation of the chatmel lis

shown on the left of the ledge.

Photo H. I. S. W.

Photo T, Le

The ledge on the main reef, from the fallen rock region. The alga in the Teft

foreground is Cystophyllum, with some Cystophora weifera.

Photo TL.

The mixed Cystophora associatiom, showing almost pure C. wiferan ¢, subfarciuata

vecurs on the lower left.

Phot TL.

The eastern edge of the main reef, showing the suddeii drop off into deep water.

Cyslophora interuedia forms a dense fringe hanging down the side.

Plate XV

The Cystophora-coralline association on the main reef. The black tufts are Coslophara

pouteuala, the lighter coloured fronds C. subfarcinata. Coraline and Janie appear

as light coloured patches.

Theate bt. Whores

Photu'P. 1.

Close up view of the Cyslnphora-coralline association. The white pinnate fronds of

Cordlina and dense tufts of Jania contrast with the dark fronds of Cysliphora

subfarcinata, with some Herwwesira also present.

Photo H. B.S. W.

The outer, highly dissected part of the main reef, where the sublittoral fringe

association is developed, Photo taken at a very low tide.

’ , 7 Photo d. P.

The Cystophora intermedia association of the sublittoral fringe. This alga is

prominent on the left of the photo, with Seryasswn bracleolusum in the centre and

a pant of Cedinm puntvides above the latter.

Phote H, B.S. W,

Plate

faa

™~

Vol.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1948 Vol, 72, Plate XI

Trans, Roy. Soe. S. Aust, 148 Vol 72. late NT

—

Fig.

Bie,

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 1948

Vol. 72, Plate NLT

Fig. 4

Trans, Roy. Sov, S. Aust. 148

Vol

72, late NIV

Trans. Roy. Sear

.S Atst,, 1948

Vol, 72, Plate XV

]

Fig:

THE COMMONER SPECIES OF ANIMALS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

ON AN INTERTIDAL PLATFORM AT PENNINGTON BAY, KANGAROO

ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By §. J. EDMONDS

Summary

This paper deals with the commoner species of animals and their distribution on a rock platform at

Pennington Bay on the south coast of Kangaroo Island, South Australia. An examination of the

fauna of this reef has been made by the writer during a number of University vacations from 1944-

47. At the same time Mr. H. B. S. Womersley of the Botany Department, University of Adelaide,

has been working on the algal ecology of the island and this reef (Womersley 1947, 1948).

167

THE COMMONER SPECIES OF ANIMALS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION

ON AN INTERTIDAL PLATFORM AT PENNINGTON BAY,

KANGAROO ISLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By S. J. Epmonps*

fRead & July 1948]

CoNTENTS

1 Lxtropeetion any ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .. a Ae ras .. 167

2 Geversr Desceritiap or fae PLATYORM AND TTS c Rhuinosuene - x .. 167

J kxypransAtroN or “LarMs. rf _& + 44 vt . - an 1, 168

+ Rectons of Tue PLarvorm: .. te Pz - _ ee +. “ls .. 168

A Sopra-littarst he i he ots ole H “s ts .. 168

B Litteral ger i “. Le i Bf rt. a“ af .. 168

C Sub-littoral Fringe .. Ac bs ae $ te . 3 .. 470

3 SUMMARY ! fr + ts . ne . AS

AprExnry A Rumba “Density of Somme Molfuses - mes om ate w. V5

Awennrm DD List of Species collected .. - ay 7 + ~! .. 76

i. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper deals with the commoner species of animals and their distribu-

tion oma rock platform at Pennington Bay on the south coast of Kangaroo Island,

South Austratia, An examination of (he fauua of this reel has been made by

the writer during a number of University vacations from 1944-47, At the same

time Mr. H. B.S. Womersley of the Botany Department, University af Adelaide,

has been working on the algal ecology of the island and this reef (Womersley

1947, 1948).

The author wishes to acknowledve the help which be has received from many

people. Is thanks are due to Prof. T. H. Johnston and Mrs. ?, M. Thomas of

the Adelaide University, aud Miss I. C. Pope of the Australian Museum, Sydney,

for advice and encoyragement, and to Mr. H. B.S. Womersley for discussions

and suggestions; ant to the following who identified many of the specimens

collected: Mr. di, MM. Tale (Museum, Adelaide)—Crastacea; Mr. RB. C. Cotton

(Mugemu, Adelaide \—Molluses; Dr. E. A. Briggs (University, Sydney )—

Iydroids : and Mr. K, Sheard (C.S.1.R.)—Amphipods. tTe also wisties to thank

those senior students and research assistants. of the Zoology Department of the

Adelaide University, in particular Mr. R. Specht and Miss H, G. Clark, who

have helped with the collecting and counting,

2. A GENERAT. DESCRIPTION OF THE ROCK PLATFORM

AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

Although a complete description of the reef has teen given by Wonrersley

(1948) it seems necessary that a brief description, at least, should also be made

here in order to give this paper some unity, The platform, which is almost

horizontal, lies between the levels of high and low water neap tides and is com-

posed of calcyreous sand rock of recent origin. Tt is washed by the waters of

the Southern Ocean and at high tide wave action over most areas of the reef is

strong. ‘The substratum is generally rocky. Near the shore, tuwards the west,

soir is usually deposited off the rock. A few large boilders, which can be moved

arly with great difficulty, rest on the platform at the eastern end put the rect,

* Zoology Paaiiciiehy: Walvecaice of Adelaide.

Trans, Roy, Soc, & Aust. 72, (1). 2oeel Aupust, 1948

168

They have formed where the cliffs have collapsed, No loose stones are to be

found, and therefore those communities which usually inhabit ihe undersuriaces

of loose rocks are not present. Most of the animals which live on the reef cling

firmly either to the cock or the dense growth of algae which is present.

Wamersley (1948) has drawn attention to the richness ancl duminance of the algae

oti this reef, There are two small rock pools filled by wave splasli high up in the

supra-litteral region, Further description of the reef is given, where necessary,

in other parts of this paper.

About a mile west of the main reef at Pennington there is a much smaller

rocky Formation where the caleareous sand rock has been ent mto three or Tons

wave-cut terraces. A study of the distribution of the animale on this reef has

thrown light on the zonation of the animals on the main reef. When this reef

is mentioned it is referred to as the “western terraced treet”,

An account of the environmental conditions af the coasts of Kangaroo Islanil

and at Pennington Bay is given by Womerstey (1947) and (1948), The hydro-

logical determinations were made jointiy by us. At Pennington Bay the dal

range is about 24 feet at spring tides and 14 fect at neap tides. The temperature

of sea measured off the edge of the platform at irregular intervals during the

year ranges from 19°0°C. in summer to 13-5° Co in winter, The temperature

of the water on the reef is usually within 1° C. of the sea temperature, The

salinity of the water determined during summer months varies between 35°2"/,,

and 35°4°/,,, and its pH. by colorimetric nicthods is about $:2-8"3.

3. EXPLANATION OF TERMS

The terms “littoral”, “supra-litiaral” ad “sub-litloral fringe’ are used in

this paper to deseribe the different horizontal regicus on the rock platform,

The meaning givet to these teritls by workers in marine ecology often differs

slightly. The author in this paper has adopted the usage of Oliver (1923) and

Cranwell and Moore (1938), and given a broad meaning to the term “‘hitoral”’.

The littoral or intertidal is. considered to he that region lying between the highest

waelt of the waves and the level of the low spring tides. The supra-littoral is

ihe spray region, and its lowest levels may be washed or splashed durin

exceptionally rough weather. ‘The subittoral fringe is a very narrow region

which is ttsually covered by the sea but which is sometimes exposed at the lowest

tides in very calm weather or at low tide when the wind js off shore.

Elizabeth Pope (1943), in her study of the plant and animal communities

al Long Reef, New South Wales, fixed the upper limit of the littoral region as

that of the average high water spring Hdes, On account of the mitch sinaller

tidal range aud the roughness of the sea ai Pennirigion Ray the heights of the

tides canot be determined as precisely as at Long Reef.

Karly in the study of the fauna of this and neighbouring reefs, tt was ste

that in many cases the distribution of aniwial lite is closely connected with the

distribution of plant lite. This is particularly noticeable in the case of the weed-

feeding molluses. Consequently reference is made in this paper from time to

time to the algae found on the reef.

4. REGIONS OF THE PLATFORM

A. SuPRAALITTORAL

The supra-littoral is rocky and the donunant inhabitant is the periwinkle.

Meleraphe unifasciata, Algae are not well establishe:l, but patches of a Hehe

of the genus Lichina are secasionally observed, . A, untfaseiata climbs highest

af all the molluscs on the reef and is found in great numbers an the tops anil

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sides of rocks.

does not occur here.

170

In the more sheltered parts of the swpra-tittoral the quick moving isopod,

Ligia australiensis, 1s common and hurries out of sight as one walks over the

tucks. Occasionally the large yellow crab, Leptograpsus varicyatus, is found im

the lower Jevels sheltering in crevices or under ledges of rock.

At the eastern end of the reel there are two smail shallow and isolated tock

pools filed with water from splash and spray. Jn summer months {lle tempera-

ture of the water in these pools has been as high as 35°C, and the salinity

40:29/,,,.. The following species haye been collected fron: then: Melaruphe wai-

faseiala, which forms thick clusters at the edge o7 the water, atid occasionally

Rembicium melanostoma, Siphonaria baceni, Siphonaria diemenensis and Galeo-

luria cespistosa,

B, Lirrorar

‘Phe greatest arca of the reef lies in this region. The upper limit of the

littoral varies from 1 to 5 fect above the level of bigh water spring tides, and

the Tower Emit is that of the low watcr spring tides. The littoral consist»

of (a) the more or less vertical cliff face at the rear of the reef, some

immovable holders at the eastern end and an area of sand towards the western

end of the platform, and (b) the platform itself which lies betwee the levels

of high and low water neap tides. An idea of the size and shape of the platfurn

can be obtained from fig. 1. Although the platform appears to be horizontal,

the drainage of the water from its surface shows that it dips slighity towards

the west. A most noticeable struciure on the platform is a sarrow ledge of rock

2 to 5 inches high which arises at the south-cast corner, runs to the centre of the

reef and then curves to the north-east. commer. The highest levels of the platform

are the areas between this ledge and the shore (level A in fg. 1) and the outer-

most parts of the platform, marked by a yery dense growth of Hormasira, A

natrow channel, 6 to 12 inches Jower than level A, arises between the ledysc and

the Hormosira at the south-east corner of the platiorm. This channel runs south-

west, gradually widens out and eventually becomes the main level of the platform

near a sdndy pool at the north-west corner (level B in fig. 1). This sandy pool

always coutains water, The surface of the platform is rocky and uneven and

contains depressions and holes from 1’ to 2‘ 6% deep. A thin layer of loose sand

up to 1% thick may he deposited on the rocky surface of both levels A awl B

near the shore. Although the platform is above the level of the low ticles its

stirface ix rarely dry, There are two reasons for this. Firstly, the platform is so

etoded and uneven that a considerable quantity of water is always retained on

its surface when the Ude recedes. Secondly, wave action even at low tide is

strong and waves which break against the seaward face of the platform wash

over ils surface, ‘Chere always appears to be a wash of water down Lhe channel

to whe north-west corner. At low tide the dense growth of algae tends to lie flat

on the reef, thus reducing the exposure of its surface. The eastern and western

faces of the reef ate either vertical or wnderent by wave action. The seaward

face of the reef is very uneven, broken and dissected,

a. ANIMALS ON THE Curr Pack at THe Rear LirroitsL

The fauna of this subdivision of the littoral consists chiefly of barnacles,

molluses and serpulid worts.

DAN ACTES

(i) ‘The highest level of the littoral is matked by a well-developed zane of

batnactes of which Chfhamalus anténniius is the most numerous. C, avtennatus

occurs on the tops and sides of rucks below high water spring tide level and on

rocks above the high water line whiek ere splashed or washed. Algae rarely

oceur at this level. Small graups of the honeycomb harnacle, Chamaesiplta

colujiig ave found here and rhere amongst the Cithamalns at the lower levels.

Well developed conmmunities of Chamavsipho colunmea haye been noticed on slop-

ing rock surfaces at other localities along this coast. Adult und juvenile spect

mons of Meleraphe wifasriata ocewr amongst the barnacies of this zone. Tubes

of the polychaete. Voleolaria cécspitosa, are scattered where (he racks are well

splashed or washed. C. antennalits atid G. caespitose often cluster together in

the small gutters or channels dawn which water drains back to the sea.

(11) The barnacle, Tefracila purpurascens forms a covering on the tops and

sides of rocks and on the indersurfaces of overhanging cliffs which are subject

to wash and wave action and which are protected from the sun. The alga,

Symploca hiydnaides, occurs in the same situation.

(ii) In the rougher and more exposed parts of the hitloral at the eastern

and westeri extremities of the reef where the elif face is protected fram the sea

only by a narrow platiorm-or by fallen rocks the surf barnacle, Catephragiteys

polyurerus, can be collected, A few isolated specimens of Bulanus nigrescens also

oecur here. These two barnacles ure not commuon on this platiorm, bul at many

other localities along the coast they form well-developed communities, Balunis

nigrescens al thess plaees is faund in the roughest parts of littoral where tue sea

surges up over racks. There is a particularly good developinent of Catophragniits

polvinerns below the Cléhanualus on the cliff face of the western terraced reef

at Pennington Bay.

Moriuses

The lower level of the barnacle zone gradually merges willy a zane of molluses

consisting Of (a) a band of gastropods of the Nolearmea —Sipionaria type and

(b) a narrow ad starply defined band of the bineblack bivalve. d/edralin puler,

Specimen: of Meloraphe waifasciate, Chthanralus autemiius and Galeolari

ctespitosa ace scatteret thronghoet thir moaliuse zone. iM, wifascia’d, however,

rarely exte@ids as low as the Modiolus, bur it is common to find specimens of

C. anteanutus growing on the bivalve.

(i) The Noiovrmea —Siphonaria band of imotluses cortains the Toliowing

species; NMotiucinea scobrilirala, Notoarineoa sephiformis, Actinolenca calanus,

Chiazacnice conoideu, Siphovaria dreuienensis, and sonetines Bembtetum melano-

stonut and Siphonarie bacon, The vertical width of the band varies [rein

13% to 5%. ‘The author has not been able to deteymine satisfactorily the zonation

of these gastropods at Pennmgion Bay. $- dicmenensis, S. baconi aud B. melaine-

Sioa are vsitally found at the Jower levels, B, mtelavoestoma occurs only on the

inore protecied rock surfaces where wave aclion is Aol sfroug.

(ii) The band of Modiolus pulca is not as well developed here as it is on the

western terraced reef, where it covers a horizuntal level about 2’ to 3° wide just

above the Hormosira— Actiitu pools, Specimens of the smaliet bivalve, Kellia

austrolis, are always associated with AY, pider. The latter has not been observed

in the imore exposed parts of the coast,

SrrPuLip Warsts

‘Vhere is a well-developed zone, in which Galcolaria carspitasa is most notice-

able, on the lower levels of the cliff {ace where the suyiace is rounding off to

172

form the platform. The tubes, however, are not as thick as the dense deposits

obseryed in more sheltered localities on the island, eg., at Rocky Point near

American River, and at Middle River on the north coast, G, ¢despitasa is seut-

tered over a wide area at Pennington in the mid to higher littoral region wherever

there is a good movement of water and no sand, It is. commonly associated wii

this reef with the alga Aiwularia firma, Scattered tubes ut G, caespitosa and

dark blobs of W. firnw are particularly well developed on the ledge of rock which

runs along the shoreward edge of the channel area of the platform. This ledge

is about 2”-5” higher than level A and water moves quickly over its surface.

Tubes of G. caespilosa in much reduced numbers can be found almost anywhere

on the platform itself.

Orem ANIMALS

(i) Where the cliff face is nearer the open sea, and especially where there

is a surging of water, a few specimens of the chitons, Penereplax cestata and

P. albida, can be collected. The larger crals are not commot on this reel, pro-

hably because it offers thent little shelter and protection, The Tollowimg species

have been collected: Leptograpsus variegatus, Cyelograpsis audaytnii, Optus

trancalis and Plogusia chabrus. At the water level and on imeist rock surfaces

the amphipod, Ayale rupicola, is comtnon,

(ii) The region of the boulders covers only a small portion of the reef

towards the eastern extremity of the shore, The boulders, which are lange and

difficult to move, test on the rock platform and lave been deposited where the

overhanging cliffs have collapsed. Hembtetan melanastonud, Galeolaria caespitesa

and the alga, Rizwlaria firme, ave well established on and near the boulders,

few specimens of the litturinid. Welanerita meclonotragus, are usually collected

here. Both B. melanostoma and M imelenotagus ave Tar more numerous on ihe

upper levels of the intertidal region of the north and east coasts of the island or

in the high rock pools at Vivenne Bay on the sonih coast. In these places there

are more boulders aud conditions are calmer, A smaller yariety of B. melanosiomea

is very common on the higher levels of the intertidal Hats at American River.

The houlders afford shelter for the crabs listed above and for a Tew specimens

ef the red viviparous anemone, Activia feuebrosa. This anemone ts particularly

numerous in and around the edges of the Horwtusiva pools of the western terraces|

reef,

Gii) The sandy portion of the rear part of the littoral cousists of loose sand

which is inimical ta aiiinal life, The small isopod, Actaeem pulfidu, is some

Limes cotlected from the drier sand and the springtail, Pseudanurida billitonensis,

rom the moist sand.

hb, AntMALs oy THE Rock PLATFoR ot

Plate XVI, fig. 2 and 3, and plate NVIL, hg, 1, give some idea of the richness

and density of the algal growth on the rock platform. Womersley (1948) consitlers

the most importait of these algal assaciationy to be: (1) a Cysloplowlirin anaes

rittunt association which 1s developed between the sandy pool aml the ledge of the

main reel; (2) a Cystophera complex whith covers the greater part of the reel

and which contains several species of the genus Cystophoera, vic., C. wvifera,

C. subfarcinata, CL siliquose, together with Sargassuns rericulafum; (3) a

Hormosira bankstt association which is most prominent on the higher parts at

the outermost edge of the platiorm; and (4) a Cyslophora —Coralline associa-

lioti on the rougher ark] more exposed south-east corner.

Wreed-Teeding molluses are found in ail these algal associations except the

Cystuphora— Coraline assoctauon. Darddnyla melaneckrema is fount on the

Cystophylim and dustrocechtes odantis, and to a less extent Phasianotrachus

173

hellulus and Zemitrella yorkensis on the Cystophera and Hormesira. Particular

reference might be made to the widely distributed alga, C. uzifera, which is squat

and busliy. [t is usual to find the following in or on this alga: Austracochlea

odontis, Comimella spp. Subwinella undulatus, Phasionatrochus bellulus, Zemi-

tyella yorkensis, Gibbula privssiang, a smali white ophiuraid, Amphiphalis

squamuia, Nereis sp., and numerous amphipods, The comimance of the algae on

the outermost part of the reef is most apparent. The rocky substratum around

the edge and down the vertical sides of the reef is covered with a thick carpe!

of short algae. Mew animals, except chilons, are found here.

The chief fauna on the higher levels of the platiorm (level A, in hg. 1)

consists of the weed-teeding molluscs, cfusirocechlea odontis and Cellana tramo-

seriou, in the channel region and level Bf. adondis and the starfish, Patirfella

calvary, avel on the exposed edges of ihe reef the elitons, Pouereplax albidw and

PB. castata,

GASTROPODS.

(i) clustrecochica odontis

at. odantis ig the most numerous and widely distributed molluse on the plat-

form and is found in most areas, ever in some of the deeper pools and potholes

along the outer edge of the reef It isa strong amd active creature and is found

on both weed and rock, If seems to have a partictlar liking for Cystophora

uviferd ai Lormoasira bonkst and is associated with them on many recis along

the coast. With Cellava trameseriva 7 Torms ihe principal animal community

on level A, and with the starfish. Patricia culear, the principal cammunity in the

channel adlon level oof the platiorn..

(ii) Cellana tramoserica

C. trameserice lives anly on the rocky substratum aml apparently feeds on

the micrasenpic algae which grow on its surface. Alusirocachlea odontis and

CC). feammoserica are the principal fauna on level A, Very tew specinens of this

qiolluse are found in the chanel area, and it is never tound where sand 1s

deposited, ft shaws a tendency to gather in the larger depressions on the rocky

surface of level wi, where it will be exposed only oecasionally. <\t other localities

it has heen noticed al much higher levels in the littoral, where it mmst withstand

considerable exposure, Such places are the high rock pools mt Vivonne Gay and

the higher rocks at. Cape de Coudie

(ii) Other gasirapods

Specimens of Siphenaria baconi, many possessing slightly eroded shells, are

sedttered ayer mest areas of the plattorm. ‘The species, however, is very

prominent on the higher parts of level A, near the fallen rock area where the

rocky substratum hears little algue. 8. decent often is found under thin layers

of sand. Patelloida ellicostata is comroon on the platform, more particalariy al

the higher levels, c.g., on the Jecdge which rims across the platiorm, ustre-

rochive bored oecuts on the higher levels of the plattorm. Cominella eburuca and

Cominclla linevlafe are found wn the weed, on the tock or in the sand mm most

parts of the littoral region, Juvenile specimens of Neothaiy tertiliosa and Sub-

ninella wedlulatus teed ou the reef. They are, however, more nimherous near the

edges of the platform. JVeracouts ancmone, Phesidnelia ventricosa and the key-

hole timpet, Sephivuelepus nigra, are sometimes collected on and amongst the

algae, Tethys norfolkensis appears during the summer months, The algas and

the rich epipliytic plant life which yrows on it afford shelter, and probab-y ood,

for a number of gastropods other than 4. ddonlis. Some of these molluscs are

Phasianolroctus bellulis, Phasianalrachys extnins, Gitbula preissiana, Can-

tharidus pulcherrimus, Zomilrclla yorkensis and Zemitrella scimiconte xa.

174

STARPISIH

The chief fauna of the channel region and level H consists of Austrocochlea

odortis and the eight-rayed starfish, Pobriclia culcar, ‘Chere is little doubt that

the starfish are confined to this level hecanse it is never completely exposed.

When the tide is very low and the movement of water down the channel very

slow and tesble, P, culcar seeks shelier in the deeper depressions or under algae.

The thin and temporary layers of sand which are somediunes deposited near the

sandy pool do not appear tu be detrimental to this creature. Tt is common to find

the starfish ingesting fragments of Coraline envier’, LP. calcar has been noticed

in ctevices and pools an this and other reefs well beiow the level of the low water

spring tides. Occasionally small flat isopods are foubd minving ever the urns

oi the gtarfish,

CHITONS

The outer edyes of ilic reef ure subjeet to strefig wave actron ain) are covered

with algae, davirveachleu odontis is rave here and is found only where there is

shelter, i.g., im cracks and under small ledges. The chitons, Poneroplax dlbida

and P. costaia ave the only animals established on this part. of the reef. They

are found in shallow depressions on the edges and on the vertical sides of the

platform and extend down to the sub-htioral fringe. Their plates are usualiy

cavered with tufts of small algae,

Orne ANIMALS

Crustacea are abuudant in the algae. The sinall crabs, [felicarcinins ovaries,

the weed crab, Naaia tuoda, and the sea centipedes, Puridelea wena anil

Enidotea perontt are asually foutrd in the weed, Ogstus fruacatus and Lriackeir

spimosus are rate, A sphaeromid isopod is otten cotlected in the algae but mo

burrows haye been observed in the rock. The following amphipods have been

identified, [Paldeckia chevreuxi, Hlusniupus subcarinata, Amphithoe ouslralicnsis,

Hyale nigra, Tyele rupicola, and Callopius sp.

The reddist-brown Tolothnria fuseuctnerce is often found in the alge ov

the sand which collects around the holdiasts of the more bushy species of weed.

A small white and active ophiuroid, farphipholixy squdnied, us useeily colleen

at the base of C. uzifere.

The anemones, anllapleyura avuseasa and Metaddeis veralia, ocetr on the

platform. 4. muscosu., wilh shell Iragmenis attached to tis exterior, is fanned in

cracks, crevices and under ledges, while 2, veretra is commoner amongst the shgue,

Polvehaets of the genus, Nereis, shelter in the holdfasts ot the algae and

tubes of Spirorbis sp, are common, especially On Sargassyim, Seatiered iubes of

Galealaria cacspitosa occur or the rocky substratum where there ts a good flow

Of water.

Two smull fish are sometimes collected from amongst ili weed; they are

Clinus perspicillatus and Syngnathus curlirestris, Smaller specimens of yarns

elongalus and Mugil cephelus have been caught im and near the sandy pool,

Tardigrades and nunicrougs free living nematodes, including Kpsilonemm sy, and

Trichoderma sp., have been identited im material scraped etf two rocks which

project from the sand near the shore. Aseittans aud sponges do not occur on

the platform itself. Pycnegonida and memertines are occasionally collected from

among the algae.

CC. Sunmirrprorar Wri

The sub-litural fringe comprises Lose paris of the reef near the level of

the low spring tides which are exposed cither momentarily between waves or

when an offskore wind coincides with a low spring tide. It is the most inaccessible

region uf the platfonn and one rarely has an opportunity of exmunining its Tauna.

175

The densest algal growth on the reef is found here and the rock is covered with

plant lite, Womersley (1948) points out that in an area of 4 or 5 square yards

it 18 comoton to find 40 or 50 dilferent species of algae and that epiphytic growth

is profuse. Vhe dominant algal associatiyn is one of Cyslophora intermediu;

other larger algae are Sargassum bractiolosuim and Licklonia radiata. The smaller

algae are listeil in Womersley’s paper, The dominance of the plant life in the sub-

littoral fringe and, as tar as can be determined, the sub-littoral on this and other

reefs of the south coast of this island is almost complete. The commonest aiijnal

in the sub-littoral fringe is the stalked ascidian, Boltena australis (Pyura uus-

tralis), but its nunibers, however, are not preat. 8B. australis is fotind on those

surfaces of the sub-litoral fringe which are almost vertical and it is usually con-

cealed amongst the larger algac. Sometimes the chitons, Peneroplas costeta and

P. albide, extend down from the Littoral into this region,

The Baleaus nigrescens—Pyurd pracputialis community of the sub-littorul

fringe ut Long Reel, New South Wales (Pope 1943), is not present at Peniing-

lon and has not yet becu observed in South Australia by the writer, Nor is there

here any ammal growth which corresponds to the dense Pyura stoloniféera com-

tunity of the sub-littoral region at False Bay, South Africa (Stephenson 1937)

Larger specimens of Swbntnella wedilatus, Subninella torqudlus, Neothais

textiliosa and Haliotis roei can be seen attached to rocks. Most of the other

gastropods which live on the rock plattorm are not found in the sub-littoral fringe.

Specimens of Patirtella calcur find their way into cracks and crevices. Colonial

hydroids grow on many of the larger algae. The commonest species are

Sertudaria minula and Orthopyxis atucrogona, the latter usually being found on

Sargassum bractiolosam, A sandy-coloured sponge is sometimes collected in

the holdfasts of sotne of the algae, A red sponge and a red encrusting polyzoan

are common on the ledges of rocks in this zone. When conditions are very calm

a purple compound ascidian, dustrobatryllus sp., is sometimes collected from

beneath the algae on the broken outer edges of the reef,

The fishes, Scorpis yeorgianus, J’seydolubrus psittaculus, Pseudolubrus

punchdatus and Myrus elongatus have been caught off the eastern edge of the

ylatform, :

5. SUMMARY

The fauna. of an intertidal platform of caleareous sand-rock has been

examined. Wave action is strong dail uo loosé stones are present. The most

prominent animals on the clit face at (he rear uf the reef are littoriuid molluscs

(Melaraphe unifasciate), barnacles (Chthamalus antennatus), molluscs amd

gerpolil Worms (Galeolaria caespitosa), On the plattorm itself the most pro-

minent and the dominant life form is a thick growth of algae (Cystoplhyliem

muricatin, Cystophora spp. Sargassim wmuriculatue, Hormosira banks, Coral-

lines and epiphytic ulyae). Weed-feeding molluscs (Anstrocochlea odontiv and

Cellana tramescrica) are abundant ot the algae and the platform respectively

Starfish (Potiriella calear) appear on the lower levels and chitons (Poneroplax

abide and P, costuta) on the exposed edges of the reef. Algae (Cystophora

intermedia, Sargassum bractiolisum, Evklonia vidiata, numerous smaller species

and profuse epiphytic growth) ar¢ ahnost completely dominant in the sub-

littoral fringe. Ascidians (Boltena (syn. Pyurda) australis) are found, but not

im grear numbers, im the sub-littoral fringe. A list of the speties collected is

also given,

APPENDIX A

In order to determine the density of the mollttse and starfish population a

metal frame 0-5 metre x O°5 meire was constructed and thrown at random on

the rocky substratum of the reef. The iumbers of imolluses on both weee aml

176

rock and starfish falling in the area enclosed by the frame were then counted.

As a result of 100 throws on each of level A and level 33 the following avctages

were abtained :

Level A Level B

Cellana tramoserjica = - - 2-8 O04

Austrocothlea adontis - - 10-5 12-0

Patelloida alticostata - - 0-5 0-2

Cominella spp, - - - 1-2 2-1

Zemitrella spp. = - - - 0-5 0-7

Siphonaria baconi 2 5-0 0-4

Phasixnotrochus belhulas - (he 2 Q-4

Subuinella undulates - O-1 -9

Neothais textiliosa = - — 0-2

Patiriella calcar + . - O-1 +0

APPENDIX B

List of animals collected at Pennington Bay

The species named are littoral except where otherwise tunmicated: sl =

stipra-littoral; sb!, = sub-littoral; l. = littoral; -+-~ denotes that the animal is

common.

COoELENTERATA—Actitia lenebrosa Karqu., Anthopleura muscose Drayton, Buno-

dactis weralra Drayton, ++. Sertularia mituta Bale sb, |» Orthopyxis macro-

gon (Lenden.) sbi.

PorirERA—grey sponge growing on weed, red sponge. sbi.

Nemarona---Trichodermit sp,, [psilonema sp.

NEMERTINEA—yellow nemertine, white nemertine,

Potycnarta—Nereis sp., + Spirarbis sp. + Galeolarta cavspitosa Lamarck.

Crusracka—-++ Chihamalus antennaius Darwin, Catophragmus polymerus Dar-

win, Balanus nigrescens Lamarck, + Tetreclita purpurascens ( Wood),

Chamaesipho columna Spengler, + Ligia australiensis (Dana) sl., Paridetea

inunda (Hale), Burdotea peranit (M. Edwards). Actuccia pallida (Nich and

Barn.), E-xoediceros aaculosus Sheard, Waldeckia chevreuxt (Stebb.),

Elasmopus subcortnutus (Haswell), Amphithae aystraliensis Bate, Hyale

nigra (Haswell) + Hyale rupicola (Taswell), Cealliopus sp., Ozins trun-

catus (Edwards), Leptograpsus varicgutus (Fabr.) sl. and 1. Plagnsta

Chabrus (Linnaeus), Cyclograpsus audowinis (M. Edwards), -—+ Halt-

carcinus ovatus (Stimpson), Hrivcheir spinosus (M, Edwards), Naria

tymida (Dana).

Mortusca—+ Poneraplax albida (Blainville) |. and sbl., --+ Poneroplax costata

(Blainville) 1. and sbl,, Maliotis roci Gray, Suphismelepas nigrata Sawerby,

+ Cellanw tramaserica Sowerby, ++ Patelluida aluicostata Angas, Actinoleuca

calamus Crosse, +- Chiusacimed conoidea Qu. and Gaim., ++ Natuectea septi-

formis Angas, + Notoacmea scabrilirata Angas, Cantharidus pulcherrimus

Wood, + Phasionotrochus bellulus Dunker, -|- dustrocechlea adontis Wood.

Ausirocochlea. terri Gray, + Gibbula preissiana Philippi, —-+ Subninella

undulatus Solander |, and sbl, Sutornella tarquartus Gmelin }, and sbl.,

Phasianella ventricosa Swainson, Melancrita melanotrayus Smith, -+ Mela-

raphe wnifasciata Gray sbl., 4+ Bembiciwie melanostoma Philippi, -+ Darda-

uula melanochroma Tate, Sabia cantca Schumacher (on other shells),

-| Neothais textiliosa Lamarck 1, and sbl., = Zemitrella yorkensts Crasse,

Zemilrella semicanvera Crosse, -4~ Cominella eburnea Reeve, + Cominetla

lineolata Lamarck, Iloruconus anemone Lamarck, Tethys norfolkensis

Sowerby, -+ Siponaria dicmenensis Sowerby, ++ Siphonaria bacon Reeve,

+ Modiolus pulex Lamarck, + Kellia aystralig Lamarck, Hapalochlaena

maculosa Hoyle.

177

InsectA—Pseudanurida billttonensis (Schott).

PotyzoA—red eucrusting type sbi.

EcutNopermara—-+ Patiriella calcar Lamarck, Amphipholis squamata Delle

Chiaje, Holothuria fuscocinereu Jager.

Ascinians—Boltenia australis (Pyura australis) Werdman sbl., Austrobotryllus

sp., sbl.

Prsces-M yxus elongatus sbl., Seorpis georgianus sbl,, Pseudolabrus psittaculus

sbl., Pseudolabrus punclulates sbl., Clinus perspicilatus, Syngnatlus curti-

rostris.

REFERENCES

Brieyr, K, M, F, 1938 Sowth African Intertidal Zone and its Relation to

one Currents, [and LT. Trans. Roy. Soc. of Sth. Africa, 26, 49-65,

67-

Cnaprman, V.J. 1946 Marine Algal Ecology. Got. Rev., 12, 628-672

Conman, J, 1933 Nature of Intertidal Zonation of Plants and Animals.

J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., 18, 435-476

Corman, J. 1940 Fatina Inhabiting Intertidal Seaweeds, J. Mar. Biol. Assoc.

U.K., 24, 129-183

Cotrron, B.C., and Goprrey, F, K, 1938 and 1940 Molluses of South Australia.

Pts. land 01. Government Printer, South Australia

Cranwe ct, L. M., and Moore, L. B. 1938 Intertidal Communities of Poor

Knight's Island, N.Z. ‘Trans. Roy. Soc, N.Z., 67, 375-407

Evans, R, G. 1947 Intertidal Ecology of Selected Locahties in Plymouth

Neighbourhood. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., 27, No, 1, 173-217

ifaue, H. M, 1927 Crustacea of South Australia, Parts I, [fl and II]. Govyern-

ment Printer, S. Aust.

Heptey, ©. 1915 Ecological Survey of Sydney Beaches, J, Roy, Soc. N.S.W..

49, 1-77

Jounston, T. H. 1917 Ecologicat Notes on (he Littoral Fauna and Flora of

Caloundra, Queensland. Qld. Nat., 2, 53-63

Jounston, T. H., and Mawsos, P. M. 1946 A Zoological Survey of Ade-

laide Beaches. Ilandbook of 25th Meeting of Aust. and N.Z, Assoc.

of Advance. of Science, 42-47

Micaarrskn, W., and Hartmever, R. 1905 Die Fauna Stidwest-Australiens,

Ergebnisse der Hainburger Stidwest-australischen Forschungsreise.

Ornivern, W.R. GB. 1923 Marine Littoral Plant and Animal Communitics in New

Zealand. Tratis, N.Z. Institute, 54, 496-545

Prarsk, A. S. 1939 Animal Ecology. McGraw Hill, N.Y. and Tondon

Porn, 2. CG. 1943) Animal and Plant Commutities on the Coastal Rock Plat

form at Long Reef, N.S.W. Proc. Linn Soc. N.S.W., 68, 222-254

Por, Li. C. 1945 Simplified Key to Sessile Barnacles. Kecords of Aust.

Museum, 21, No. 6, 51-372

Srepurenson, T. A., Srepuenson, A., and pu Torr, C. A. 1937) The South

African Intertidal Zone and its Relation to Ocean Currents (Indian

Ocean), Trans. Roy. Soc. of South Africa, 24, 345-382

Warre, E.R. 1923 The Fishes of South Australia, Govt. Printer, 5. Aust.

Womersiey, H. BS. 1947 Marine Algae of Kangaroo Island, I. Trans.

Roy, Soc. 5. Aust., 71, 228-252

Womerstey, H. RB. S. 1948 Marine Algae of Kangaroo Island, II. Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 72, 143-166

VOL. 72 PART 2 MARCH 30 1949

TRANSACTIONS OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY |

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS

KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Price - - Fifteen Shillings

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,

for transmission by post as a periodical

THE CHARNOCKITIC AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS OF NORTH-WESTERN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

I. DOLERITES FROM THE MUSGRAVE AND EVERARD RANGES

By ALLAN F. WILSON

Summary

An analysis of an olivine bronzite-bearing dolerite and much optical data are presented in a study of

several Precambrian basic dykes. Several interesting mineraliogical features are described,

including duteric anorthoclase, some remarkable pigeonite and other pyroxene associations, strange

skeletal olivine and pleochroic olivine. Courses of basic magma crystallisation are briefly discussed.

178

THE CHARNOCKITIC AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS OF NORTH-WESTERN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

IL DOLERITES FROM THE MUSGRAVE AND EVERARD RANGES

By Antan F. Witson *

[Read 8 July 1948]

Prate XVIIT

ABSTRACT

An analysis of an olivine bronzite-bearing dolerite aud much optical data

are presented in a study of several Precambrian basic dykes. Several interesting

mineralogical features are described, including deuteric anorthoclase, some remark-

able pigeonite and other pyroxene associations, strange skeletal olivine and pleo-

chroic olivine. Courses of basic magna crystallisation are bricfly cliscussed.

CONTENTS Pace

1 YNTRODUCTION se Log rs ade a \~ 55 ie f. ot 78

Il Preyrovs Work 4a A. wa ws 7 - oe on a ms 179

1G) Miyeranocy ., .. - i ot or we “ he be ws 180

Feldspars 4. 1 de if st 14 nC ws . be 180

Pyroxenes A ~ to a el. bs - a as * Iki

Olivines At i it 28 3 at as ©. wi wr 183

Minor Constituents .. 6 on us Y a6 es a a 183

1V Prerrocraeuy -, RA A : es te . of . ce 184

A. Olivine Dolerites — .. ne se = xp it ite a a 185

(1) Olivine Orthopyroxene-hearing Dolerites be .s oe _ 185

(2) Olivine-hesting Dolerite; .. 6 ts ¥, a “ ro 189

BL Doelerites e +. hy sa ba As bit we a5 a 194

(1) Orthopyroxene- bearing Dolurites .. 4, a na is ar 194

(2) Normal Dolerites a: sy et ot Ly * it Ae 195

VV Perrucogy a be 4 +4 = 4 2s 2 os Mls a 196

VL Rererences ,, = “ 7 Ms ig va “? bé xs a 19%)

; T. INTRODUCTION

Small scale basic intrusions of Precambrian age occur in the ancient rocks

P OY ed some of the amphibolites, etc, west of Mount Carruthers; north-east ol

Taljatitja; ete.

‘ @) ¢g., 1 mile north-east of Ernabella; west of Top Springs; 2 miles south wf

Tnindi; etc.

@ eg., in Trudinger Pass, near Qowallinna, ete.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 72, (1), 23rd August, 1948

Trans. Roy, Soe. S, Aust., 1948 Vol, 72, Plate XVI

lig, 1 View of the platform from the sandy beach at low tide, showing the ledev, the

channel, Jevels A and Band the sandy pool (A composite photograph).

2 The algal mixed-Cystophora asso- Fig. 3 Cellana tramogserica avd lustroce-

ciation ou the higher level of the platform, chlea edontis on tue higher level of the

The gustroped in the centre of the field js platform, (Photograph by C. M. Eardley).

Cellana tramosertca, (Photograph hy |, M.

Thamas ).

NVIT

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179

MUSGRAVE RANGES

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Fig. 1

Plan showing location of Dolerites described in text,

In this paper, however, only those basic dykes are dealt with which are

unmetamorphosed and teasonably fresh. They belong to the “younger group”

but nevertheless are considered to be of later Precambrian age (sce Wilson 1947,

p. 208).

The dark chocolate-brown weathered outcrops of these basic intrusions make

prominent features on many of the desert-red hills of “granite” and gneiss. The

dykes, themselves, however. are usually not large. A commion size is about

300 feet long by 10 feet wide, Sonie are much more persistent, as, for example,

the natrow six-mile-long dyke running from east of Naljawara through Ernabella

10 the region south-west of Mount Carruthers.

Such narrow dykes and the absence of flat-lying sills of the type so coniton,

for example, in Tasmania and South Alrica limit a petrological study. hence this

paper will comprise, in the main, petrographic notes on the minerals and rock

textures.

Tr. PREVIOUS \VORK

Similar dyke rocks have been hriefly recorded from many places in the

Central Australian regiou. An excellent summary of the chief observations con-

cerning these is given by Farquharson in an appendix to a Western Australia

Geological Survey Bulletin (Vatbot and Clarke, 1917), Streich (1892) recorded

diorites and dolerites from several localities between the Everard Ranges and

the Fraser Ranye. J. A. Thomson (1910) described interesting olivine morites

and quartz dolerites from similar localities, Tate, Watt and Smith (1896)

noted olivine dolerites, olivine norites, diprites, gabbros and fine-grained

dolerites in the north-eastern MacDonnell Ranges. Basedow (1905) observed

heth diorttes and dolerites in the Musgrave, Mann, Tomlinson, Mverard and

Ayers Ranges. He stated that diorite dykes are very plentiful, whereas the

dolerites are less common, The present detailed work in the Muserave Ranges

has, however, failed to confirm this view. Dolerites (oiten olivine dolerites)

780

are much ore abundant than the diorites in that region, Jack (1915) gives

petrographic notes on several basic dyke rocky from the Everard Ranges, the

gottth-castern. Musgrave Ranges and the country between the ranges. He

recorded olivine gabbros, olivine dolerites, basaltic dolerite, ete.

In his summary, Farquharson (Talbot and Clarke, 1917, 144) concludes

that the humerous basic dykes in this centtal region of the Australian continent

show remarkably similar chatacters in the different localities. Me himself

describes norites, quartz dolerites and olivine dolerites,

Til, MINERALOGY

The dykes under consideration are composed essentially of a basic plagio-

clase, subealcic augite with or without olivine, bronzite and pigeonite. Magnetite,

ilmenite and anorthoclase are often present. (Quartz is absent except as an occa-

sional xenolith or as a rare Tate magmatic uineral.

1. ‘Tre Furpsrans

(1) Pracrocnase

In estimating the composition of the plagipelases, various methods were

employed. The simplest and most satisfactory method was to make use of the

abundant Carlsbad-aibité twins. The two extinctions were measured after tilting

on the universal stage to look direetly down the composition plane of both

pericline and the Carlsbad and albite twins. The extinction angles of X” to trace

of (010) were referred to a graph (labelled PL in figure 42) given by Chudoba

(1933, 45), and those for the Carlsbad-albite twins were referred to a graph

published by Kennedy (1947, lig, 2). Occasionally, as a check, full orientation

procedure was carried out and the results plotted on the Wulff net. When. this

was done, it was found that the optic angle for the plagioclase consistently

suggested a notably lower anorthite content than that indicated hy the plot of

the poles, eg., (O10) 1X.

2V % An (OW) 4 X, % An.

—8& 75 9]

(core)

90 73 83

+84 67 60

+88 3Y 35

— 86 21 (7) 31

(rim)

On the other hand, it was consistently found that the anorthite percentage

as stiggested by the optic axial angle (2.V) was notably higher than that indicated

by the extinction angles (most cxtinction-angle methods give reasonably cont

parable resulis). Ati example of this is seen in the same rock (No. 7972),

7V Ty Na, Ext. 4 J Peric & (010)| % An. from Ext. 4 |

—80 85 43% 81

—85 77 384 71

+85: 68 304 56

The plagioclase (though remarkably fresh) usually contains an abtindance

of dusty inclusions which decrease in abundance toward the more sadic rim of

() All numbers refer to specimens in the rook museum of the University of

Adelaide.

181

which a narrow selvage is usually quite clear. These inclusions often give the

thin sections a characteristic dark appearance.

Owing to the strongly zoned nature of the plagioclase, few measurements

of refractive index were made, Further investigation of the optical and chemical

properties of the plagioclases from this suite of dolerites should prove of value.

In almost all of the rocks examined, the plagioclases exhibit a considerable

range af composition gradually changing from a basic core (usually a bytownite)

through the ayerage, which is basic labradorite, to a narrow rim of andesine and

sometimes even basic oligoclase, In one rock (7972) the zoning is not gradual, but

shows notable hiatuses (see pl. XVIII (c) ). All zoning is normal—that is, from

« basic core to a rim of Jess basic plagioclase. The avetage grain size of the

feldspar lathes is about 1-2 mm. x 0-3 mnz., with some in the sub-gabbroie types

reaching & mm. x 2 mm.

(2) ANORTHOCLASE

In many dolerites a fraction of one per cent. of anorthoclase occurs as a

deuteric (late magmatic) crystallisation. tt is often more plentiful tm dolerites

lacking in olivine and hypersthene (¢.g., 7971 and 7970), but notable amounts

(5'2% in 7964, 3-4% in 2449) occur in rocks among those with the largest per-

centages of olivine and other pyroxene. ‘he mineral, though a plentiful accessory

and easily distinguished, has apparently been overlooked hy previous workers. Its

refractive indices are lower than that of Canada balsam. It is colourless and

clear with plentiful inclusions of apatite needles (pl, XVIII (d) ). Included mag-

nictite is often rimined in part with biotite. Optical axial angle (where measiired )

varied from 2 V (—ve) = 59° to 42°, (In one thin section variation in 2 V has

been as much as 52°-42°.) Plots of the cleavage poles appear in fig, 2.44)

Neither “eross-hatching” nor perthitic intergrowths was observed even under

high power magnification. The mineral is triclinic, not monoclinic.

| ANORTHSEIN, 2te9

2 ANCRTH WW 73964

Fig. 2

Part of Stereogtam showing relation of poles wf

(001) and (010) of Anorthoclase in two Dolerites

to those of Orthoaclase, Anorthoclase and Micro-

cline (after Emmons 1943, pl, XII, No. 7).

2. Tre Pyreoxienits

(1) Tu Orrriorvroxenns

Orthopyroxene is usually, though not exclusively, confined to the olivine

daletites. There are many olivine dolerites, however, lacking that mineral

©) In certain South African doferites some interstitis! “soda orthoclase of tow

axial angle” was present (Walker, Poldervaart, 1942, 131),

Qnving to the prevalent zoning, the composition was estimated from) the measure-

ment ot optic axial angles. This is, of course, not as accurate as R.1. estimation,

but sufficient for the purposes of this review. Polderyaart’s stiggested nomen-

clature of the orthopyroxenes is used, as also is his chart of optical propertics and

chemical conrposition (Pold, 1947, 167).

The most magnesie orthopyroxene is an Lustalile (OF. 89%) with

2V (+ve) =83° which scents plentilully as clear colourless cores wf a plen-

chroic bronzite (OF, 1696) with 2 V (-ve) — 81°, the whole pyroxene being

enclosed poikilitically by large labradorites im a coarse dolerite (No, 7964),

Rastalite (OF 99) with 2V ¢+-ve) = 84° also occurs tarely in No, 7970

as small irregular cores of a zoned pigeonite. Bronsite—The most ferrferous

orthopyroxene is still magnesia rich, and is a bronzite (OF. 22%) with 2 V (-vc)

=71°. The most common orthopyroxene has a weak pleochroic core af bronzite

(about OF, 149%) which grades into a strongly pleochroie rim of bronzilc

(about OF. 20%), The common grain size is 1 mm. x 0-4 mm,, but i some

(ég 7961) the branzite occurs as clongated crystals up to 4 mm, x 04 mm,

Nronzite often has a patehy extinction caused by ex-solution of lime (see p. 199),

or a fine lamellar twinning | || (O10 | probably caused by deformation durin

erystallisation.

(2) Tie CLinoryRoxenes

Three main varietics of clinopyroxene are present, vie., augite. sihealeic

augife and pigeonite. The nomenclature suggested by Poldervaart (1947 (a),

p. 161), is adopted, which subdivides the clinepyroxenes primarily on optic axial

angle. Thus those with 2V exceeding 45° are termed auyites, those with 2V

hetween 45° and 30° are subralcie ougites, and those with 2 V jess than 30° are

pigeoniies. In pigeonite, the optic plane may be parallel or perpendicular to (010).

Ii js often only possible to distinguish the three clino-pyroxenes hy measure-

inent of the optic axial angle, for colour and pleochroism, habit, refractive index

and often double refraction are naually very similar. Moreover, the ortlio-

pyroxenes (and even the olivines in some cases) present similar difficulties. Hand-

picking of grains from crushed samples of rock was therehy rendered tedious.

The only practicable way therefore to obtain reliable refractive index data was

io first determine 2V and ZAC on a grain “/y sit’ in an uncovered slide

(mounted tm glycerine on the universal stage), then to dig out that grain, and

by immersion methods, to estimate its refractive indices im sodium light.

The curves of Deer ant Wager (1938) were used to estimate the composi

tion, using 2V in conjunction with the y index, Data tor ZAC were carefully

enllected and may assist in amending Tomita’s charts (1934) which attempt to

relate ZAC to composition, These charts have been found itt many places

urroneuus, ZAC was always ten from a -sterographic plot of the optic elements

and is probably as accurate as 1° for most of the well cleaved or twitmed

aggites and most subcalcic augites, ZAC for the pigeontte was found dithcult to

estimate better than about +3” or 4° owing to the prevalence of poor cleavage

and lack of twinning. Details of these three clinopyroxenes —

Augites. y= 1°69-1-705;2V (-+ve) 52°-45": ZAC = 42°-37" 5 optic axial

plane |] (010) + tvinning rare; colorless te ¢xtremely faint green; Hon or very

weakly pleochroic. Ifabit: subhedral up to 1-4 nom. x Q'8 mim., usually O-3 mm.

x 0°73 mm; as cores of erystaly of sub-caleic augite into which the augite com-

monly merges,

Subcaleic Angiles. y = 169-1725; 2V (+-ve) = 45°-330%; ZAC = 41-30%;

wplic axial plane (O10); twinning timcommon, usually on (100); colourtess or

very pale green and non pleochroic, or pinkisly fawn and strongly pleochroic,

183

X= faint tusty pink, Y— faim fawn, Z— very faint green, X > VY >Z.

Habit: the most abundant pyroxene; subhedral, subophitie or strongly ophitic

crystals, often strongly zoned aid may form perfect Jink between augite an

some pigeoniles (q.v-)} grain size very variable (1°3 mim. x 0-4 nim. to 0-1 mm.

x O-l min.) ; refractive nidex, double refraction usually increase, whereas 2 V anil

ZC decrease regularly toward the border zones of the subcalete atigites.

Pigconites. y= 1°82; 2V (+ve) = 20°-0° (optic axial plane 2 (010) ):

7 = 1:730; 2V — 0°-30° (optic axial plane || (010) ) + twining extremely uncom

mon; cvlourless, or moderately pleochroic in faint pinkish fawns and greenish

tones sinular to the more ferriferons subcalcic augites. Ilabil: never abundant but

occurring with one or more of the other pyoxenes (depending on the variety of

pigeonite) and with or without olivine; late erystallisations often strongly ophitic.

with other types subhedral and strongly zvued; grain size yery variable but

usually somewhat smaller than the accompanying clinopyroxenes,

Present data indicate several unnsnal occurrences and associations, atid, as

far as can be ascertained, nothing quite comparable has been described from

elsewhere, Digeonite occurs in seven dolerites, and some of the properties anil

associates are set out in Table T.

From this it is apparent that the mode of oceurrence of the pigeonite differs

in all seven rocks. The probable significance of ihis is discussed i the section

on the petrology.

2. OLIVINES

Olivine oceurs in a large number of dykes. There seems to be no rile

regarding its occurrence, as for instance, m certain of the Kartroo dolerites, where

the mineral is present in all sills which do not contain orthopyroxene, (Walker and

Poldervaart, 1942, 135).

In the Musgrave and Everard Ranges, olivine is often found with an ortho-

pyroxene which at times encloses: it.

The olivine shows a remarkably constant composition (as deduced fron

measurements of optic axial angle which varies fray, 2V (ye) = 88° to

2V (—ve) =85 (2V (—ve) = 87° is common), This suggests a range in com

position from a forsterite (Pa 7%) to a chrysolite (Va 23%). The mineril

is usually colourless, cracked but remarkably fresh and free from inclusions.

In two rocks (7965 and 2460) there is a marked pleochroism: (X = blue-prey,

Z= fawn grey; N>Z). Some microscopic particles, possibly iron ore, are

orientated i117 the plane LZ, but are not thought to accotint for the marked

pleachraism,

Tn 7964, 2446, aud especially in 2449, the olivine contains plentiful inclusions

of rot ore,

The niveral wsually occurs as subhedral ervstals. about Q-6 mm. x OF mn,

but crystals up to 1-6 min. x 1-6 mm, occur. In 7965 olivine of essentially the

same composition (Mu 2196) is found enclased in augite, and also as sinall ophitic

particles of late formation (0-1 mm_ x 0-1 mm.).

In 7967 (and to less extent in 7968 and 7969) rare skeletal crystallisatians

occur in association with an unusnal “plamose” pyroxene (see pl. XVII, a; andl

description on page 194),

(4) Minox Consrirurnts

Jron ore is present in varying amounts in all rocks. This comstiluent appears

to be mainly aiaguetife with some ideenite in places intimately associated. The

grain size is yery variable, attaining 0-3 mni. x 0-3 mm,, but grams 0-3 mm. »

( Lisine the proposed classification of Deer and Wager (1939),

(84

0:2 mm. are common. Ti many rocks the primary magnetite is often concentrates

wiih the small patches of anorthoclase and secondary dusty iron ore.

Chromite (2). A few grains of the dull black mineral is included m maz

netite In most rocks.

vile and Dyrrholite aeeur sparingly in most rocks, aud are associated witli

the other iron ores.

Amphibole, No primary amphibote is present but a strongly pleochrime

variety occurs iu small amounts in the patches of deuteri¢ material in No, 7971.

Here it bas been formed in part by the alleration of some of the pyroxene.

X = yellow-green, Z = deep blue-green; ZAC =abotit 15°.

Bivtite. ‘his amineval is present in almost all rocks as small flecks associated

with the iron are and usually with deuteric anorthaclase, Some also occurs as

Hecks in ail the earlier minerals (otherwise perfectly fresh) and apparently out

of teach of later solutions. Common size is 0:3 mm. x O'2 mm. X= yellowish,

¥Y = Z== dark chestnut brown.

Apatite vecurs only as long colourless rods in the deuteric anorthoclasy.

In 7971 these rods are up to 2 mm. in length,

Tron Spinel is rare but occurs as small deep green isotropic grains associated

with magnetite, chrnmite and olivine, c.g., 7963.

Quarts was noticed in only two rocks. Tn 7971 it comprises about a halt

of the 3-4% of the acidic residue. If is distinguished from the anorthoclase and

plagioclase by its clarity, higher refraction and double refraction. It gives i

normal uniaxial (-+-ve) interference figure.

In the other rock (7972, q.v.) a xenolith of quartz occurs strrounded by 2

strong rim oi subcalcic augite (the dyke injects acidic gneisses ),

Chiloritic and Serpentinous and other alteration products are present in minor

amounts. ‘The rocks, however, ate unusually fresh,

IV, PETROGRAPHY

For descriptive purposes the dolerites have been classified on the tollowiing

features:

(1) presence or otherwise of olivines

(2) presence or otherwise of orthopyroxene ;

(3) texture.

A. O1avixn-nesring DOo-eRires

(1) OLIVINE OvriroryRoxENE-BEARING DOLERITES :

(a) those with coarse poikilitic texture (7964, 2446) ;

(h) those with subophitic texture (7963, 2460, 2449) ;

(2) Onivini-seanine Doierites (ic, free from orthopyroxene) -

(a) those with coarse poikilitie lexture (7968, 7969) ;

(b) those with subophitic texture ( 7966) ;

(cd) those with an unusual “Phuwese” texture (7967).

B. Dorerrtrs (ic. free from Olivitie)

(1) OeriropyRoxeNE-BEARING DOLERITES:

(a) those with ophitic texture (7970).

(2) Norman Docerires (ic., free from both Olivine and Orthopyroxene +:

(a) those with sub-ophitic texture (7972) 5

(b) those with aphilic texture (7971).

185

A, QOuivint-srarinGc DoLerrres

(1) Ouwine Ontivopyroxene-pearine Dorerrres

(a) Olivine Orthopyrexenc-bearing Gabbroic Rock with coarse Poikilitic

Terk)

|, No. 7964 is a remarkable fresh dark grey medium-graitied gabbroic rocks.

It was collected from a large dyke on the new “Royal Mail” track (Feb. 1944),

14 miles east of De Rose Hill hut,

In thm section the gabbro appears unusually well crystallised. The olivine.

orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene form euhedral crystals which are set poilsiliti-

cally in large tabular crystals of plagioclase up lo 6 mm x 2 mm.

A stmmary of the main mineralogical data is included in Table IT,

The Plagioclase is well twinned on the alhite and pericline and occasionally

onthe Carlsbad laws. Its composition is unusually constant (An 65%) but gives

way abruptly fo a clear anorthoclase. This mineral is in strong relief tu the

labradorite which, though perteetly ftesh, is often a pale chestnut brown on

recount of myriads of tiny Inchisiuns of iron ores (2). The anorthoclase has all

refractive indices less than that of Canada balsam, but 2V (-ve) varies from

51° im one case to 59° in another (see fig. 2). Associated with the anorthoelase

are the usual acicular apatite needles and biotite. The anorthoclase, which makes

up 52% of the rock, forms clear-cut boundaries with the Inbradorite (sve

pl. XVILd).

The orlhapyroxene occurs as beautifully formed crystals. The cores are

of a colourless. enstatite (OF 9%) and all gradations are seen fmta the strongly

pleuchroic rims of bronaite (OF 16%). “Lhe orthopyroxene contains no inclusions

af importance. The extinction is at times frregular and suggests the beginning

of the lamellar intergrowth mainly, so well seen in 7963 (see p, 199),

The monoclinic pyroxene is represented by non-pleochroie very pale green-grey

augite, The borders of some of the erystals begin to show a weak pleochroism in

greens and pinks, but it is the double refraction and extinction angle (ZAC =

36-37°) which serve to distinguish the ortho- from the elinopytoxene in recon-

naissance, Magnietite 1s included in the olivine in two ways, wis., as particles of

iran ore crystils scattered irregularly throiigh the mineral, and as myriads of

tiny oficntated iron ore inclusions.

2. No, 2446 is a “dark-coloured rock of medium grain with the normal

weathered surface’. It ocours as “a large east and west dyke 154 miles north of

Mount Tlbilie” (which ts the most promitient hill in the Everard Ranges). The

rock has heen briefly deseribed Ly Jack (1915, 18), and the dyke is figured in

the text.‘*?) His deseription iy deficient in that the most abundant pyroxene

(orthopyroxene) has been iwistuken for a clino-pyroxene, and the anorthoclase

has been overlooked. The rock in thin section is very similar 1o No. 7964

deseribed above, The ctystals of pyroxene are mol quite so well crystallised,

however, and there may be a little more clinopyroxene present than in 7964,

Vhe optical properties of the minerals, however, are almost identical in the twa

rocks, even though roek No. 2446 was collected 35 miles trom 7964, Both 7964

add 2446 contain minerals tore magnesia-rich than most of the dolerites. Even

thongh they have apparently cooled for a longer period, lamellar intergrowth so

‘) This rock is strictly of eabbroic texture but is. treated With the dolerites because

of its obvious telations,

(ROL, Jack briefly described tocks from several basic dykes in the region of the

iiverard and Musgrave Ranges. Vhese sippear an the report on his eeological reconusts-

sante in the area (Jack 1915), The origitl thin sections described by Dr. Javk are still

ivallable for examination, but unfortunately the hand specimens. are tissing.

Las

\ypical of many bronzites (ey., those of 7961, 7970, 7963, tte.) is absent. A

“shadowy” extinction is, however, occasionally present. It is probable that at

no time did early pigeonite form,

(b) Ofivine-Orthopyraxene-bearing Dolerites with Suboplitic Texture.

1. No. 7963 is a fine-mectium lolo-crystalline very dark grey rock, It occurs

as a steeply dipping east to west dyke cutting gneissic granitic charnockites near

a tiny rock hole a furlong north of the track about 19 miles from Ernahella

toward Kenmore Park in the eastern Musgrave Ranges,

In thin section the rock appears as a temarkably fresh olivine-bronzite-

bearing dolerite with only a very poor ophitic texture. It has apparently cooled

fairly slowly and in fairly “dry” conditions,

The results of @ chemical analysis and calculation of the norm and mode are

set out in Table IIL, and a stmmiary of the main mineralogical data is included

uy Table IL,

Tr is apparent at once that the normative and modal minerals are at con-

siderable variance: lt is stispected that this is largely due to a high alumina

content of the clinopyroxene, "This carmot be readily proved, however, far the

pyroxenes ure all so similar in general appearance and properties that it ts Loo

difficult at present to attempt a nimeral separation with a yiew to analysis, Caleu-

lations, based on estimated relative prapertions of the heayy iinerals and wark-

ing back Frain optical cata of the plagioclase, olivine and orthopyroxene, have

itlicated that the clinopyroxene probably contains about 109% Al,O,. Some

ALO, however, may be held in the orstopyroxene or even in the olivine.

Frankel (1943, 20) noted that some analyses (sitvilar to that under dis-

cussion here) showed “little similarity between the norms and modes by volume,

and still less between the former and mode by weight. Bowen (1928, 142)

points out that the norm does not take into account any alumina which may be in

the pyroxene, and thus false values for anorthite and consequently for pyroxene

are obtained”.

The relative percentages of MeO (notably hich for a dolerite), CaO and

AIO, are unusual, which fact has made selection of comparable analyses diffi-

cult. A iew dolerites from the adjoining region in Western -Ausiralia have been

analysed but tiost of these are quartz-doletites. The olivine dolerites from that

State are usually much Jower in MgO and also differ in other respects, No. 4,

in Table 111, is an exaniple of one such dolerite. A search through the available

literature has shown that the most comparable rocks are probably those deseribed

hy Prankel from the Karroo, and Ferguson from Rhodesia. The analyses with

their norms appear as Nos. 2 and 3.in Table S11,

The modal percentage (by volinne) of pyroxene in 7963 is given as 45:68.

The main pyroxene is a mon-pleoehroic faint yellowish-preen avgite with 2V

(-- ve) — 48", ZAC=39" A few simple twins are present (|| (100) ).

Commonly fan-like bunches of crystals oceur which presents an irregalar eXtinc-

lion in places, rendering difficult the aceurate measurentent of ZV and ZAC.

This extinction ts a type of “polarisation cross’? with the cross. indicating an

extinction angle (Z/\C) of about 38°. The refractive index (y) = 1-708

002. It is probable thar this is the pyroxene which has the high alumina content

discussed above.

Next in importance is bronsite which comprises about one-quarter of the

total pyroxene (45°6%). Ltis pleochroic in pinks and faint green-greys and has

2V (-ve) =71°, which suggests att approximate composition OF — 22%, The

extinction is usually straight and ita double refraction ts lower than im the clina+

pytoxenes.

187

The mineral often encloses olivine (Va 18%) and is itself sometimes partly

enclosed by the nan-pleochroic (or weakly pleachroic) clinopyroxene. A pately

extinetion Lending to grade into a fiae lamellar intergrowth parallel 1a (OLO) is

often seen in suitable sections.

_ The proportion of the third pyroxene {a sithcalcic augite) js difficulty tu

estimate. It probably makes. yp, however, between one-fifth and one-sixth of

the total pyroxene, At first sight contusion could easily arise as the pleochroisin

is almost exactly the same as that of the bronzite, Phe only certain method of

distinction is that of measurement af the optic axial angle (2 V (-}-ve) = 40-457).

although the large extinction angle (ZAC == 38°) and higher double refractian

assisl to identify the clinopyroxene in reconnaissance.“) This pleochroic clitic-

pytoxene is similar im some respects to that hr No, 7968, where it forms a con

timmons link between the carly pon-pleochroie augites, weakly pleachroic suly

calcic anyites aud more iron-rich pigeonites of later crystallisation,

No pigeonite (2V(-+-ve)<40°) was noticed, although a careful search wa-

made, “Nearest approach” to a late pigeonite is probably the pleochrote sub-

caleie angite deserthed above, No “carly pigeonite can he expeeted owing LW

the presence of the lamellar intergrowth in the bronzite, whieh intergrowths hav.

been formed by an mversion (?) of a pigeonite during the cuoling process. [Tad

the cooling heen accelerated some early pigeonite may have remained in

metastable condition, as in the ophitie dulerite Nu, 2453,

This rock covtamns much more offidne (han most of the other dolerites, It

is remarkably fresh and clear,

Of the 4% accessories, the ivon ores are the most importint, Ty order af

importatice they are magnetite, ilmenite, chromite, and pyrite. About 0-5% uf

brown dotite is present. Jt is asseciated with the iron, but no anerthectase was

noticed.

The plagioclase varies in composition from bytownite (An 829¢) to labra-

dorite (An 6796). Some edges of the plagioclases are somewhat more sodic, The

average is probably bytownite (An 729), The most common twin laws repre-

sented are albite, Carlsbad and pericline, ‘The mineral is somewhat clouded, nor

by alteration products Init by dusty inclusions of (2) magnetite (cf. 7964.

7961, etc).

2. No. 2199. Nos. 2449 and 2460 show the subophitie texture better than

the more basic rock No. 7963. Nos. 2449 and 2460 were collected by R. L. Jack

(1915, 19), and briefly described by him as) Nos. 14-32-48 and 14-3-23

respectively,

No, 2449 is a “dark-coloured rock, fairly coarse-grained and weathering to

a reddish surfiee”, The rack occurs in a “large dolerite dyke forming the cap”

of a black hill two wiles west-north-west frum Mount Carmeena in the Evyerari|

Ranges, where the dyke cuts granite. The dyke strikes approximately egst to

west und dips about 35° nerth (a phulograph of the dyke is given facing page 18

af Dr. Jack's account).

In ttit section it appears us ai olivine orthopyrexene-hearing dolerite, s\

sununary of the main mincralogical data is included in Table 11. The pleochroic

niineral 1s not augite (except only on some border zones) but a bronzite

(cf. Jack 1915, 179). The hiotite is always “associated with the magnetite” it is

true, but in this rock is duc to a late inagmatic (deuteric) alteration of the mag-

(% Johansen (1937, 3, 212) has eniphasised that orthopyraxenes cun have an inclined

extinction in certain sectians, Great care had to he taken in several of the dolerite

here described because of Ure presence of huil) an ortho- aud cling-pyroxene which

showed similar pleochroism.

netite and sometimes pyroxene. Colourless anorthoclase wich many coluurless

needle-like inclusions of apatite comprise the matrix of the biotite. No quariz is

present.

Typical masses of anorthoclase have 2V (=ve) = 52° and all refractive

indices below that of Canada balsaiu, A plot (1X) of the (010) and (001)

cleavages is indicated in fig. 2, Another good area of the mmeral has 2V (-ve)

42°+ 2°. No twinning is shown even in (he highest magnification, The mineral

has very low double refraction.

A notable feature of the olivine (Fa21%) is the abundance of squat

needles of (?) magnetite inclusions (especially in the cores), The mineral 1s

non-pleochroic (contrast Nos, 2460 and 7965).

The bronzite is more ophitic than the subealeie augite. The most ferriferous

hronzites occur in this rock (bronzite, OF = 22). It occasionally shows a patchy

extinction but no notable lamellar intergrowths. Neither early nor late pigeonite rs

present,

Though fresh, the feldspar is stained a dirly brown with minute dusty

inclusions. As the outermost zones of the plagioclase are reached this staining

is less marked. The composition varies gradually from cores approaching a

bytownite of An 75% to rims of andesine (An449% or even less). There is often

gradation from this last zone to the anurthoclase in such a way as tu suggest the

latter's crystallisation [rom the residual liqtors.

3. No. 2460 is “a very finely crystalline dark grey rock weathering to a

reddish surface”. It occurs as a “dyke in a swasip on track, 264 miles north

63" west from Moorilyania Hill", and is in the region between the Musgrave and

Everard Ranges,

Tn thin section it appears as an olivine orthopyroxene-bearing dolerite.

Dr. Jack (1915, 19) makes mention of an earlier generation of augite which is

distinctly pleochroic. On investigation this earlier generation “augite" proves to

he a typical brensite cuinparable with that in No, 2449,

It makes up approximately one-half of the total pyroxene. ‘The bronzite

encloses olivine (Fa 12%) but is itself enclosed by the non- or weakly-pleochroic

subealcic augite. It is readily distinguished from the clinupyroxene by its lower

double refraction, pleochroism and comiton straight extinction, “The tuineral only

oceasionally shows a patchy extinction. Neither carly nor late pigeantte was

observed.

Features of this rock are the protiounced development of dark brown dusty

inclusions in the lwtownite and labraclorite, and the pleochroism of the offerte

(¥a 12%) in Dive-greys and fawn-greys. No. 7965 is another rock showing 4

pleochrote olivine (q.v.)-

(ec) Olivine Orlhopyroxcac-heering Dolerites with Ophitic Texture,

Nos. 7960 and 7961. Dolerites belonging te this group are best represented

hy Nos. 7960 and 7961, which were both taken from the prominent dyke which

euls the charnockitic granodiorite on the west of the win valley between Erna-

bella and Mownt Carrtithers in ihe eastern Museravé Ranges. The dyke itself is

several miles fony and is probably cont'nuotts with a Similar dyke to the sonth of

Ernabella (see main map, Wilson 1947). This dyke is the most important of a

poorly developed set which strike more or less north and sotith with a shallow

dip to the east. This particnlar dyke is only about 15 feet thick, Int as. never-

theless, one of the largest dykes iu the eastern Musgrave Rarges.

() Most of the doferite dyes of the Muswrave Rives strike south of ives, and

dip steeply 60°-70° toward the soirtls,

189

In hand specimen the character of the dyke rock varies from a medi

10 coarse-grained very dark grey dolerite. Voth types appear retmarkably fresh.

A suniinary of the main mineralogical data is tneluded in Table IT, ‘The finer

phase (7960) was taken from near the bottom contact, whereas the coarser phase

(796L) was collected near the middle of the narrow low dipping dyke. Lille

ilitferentiation has taken placc.

The coarser phase is apparently somewhat richer in fron and volatiles, as

is revealed in both modal percetitages and optical properties of all three pyroxcties,

and the presence of a little late pigeonite which ts absent from 7960. The plagio-

clase is a slightly more sadic variety of labradorite. Bronzite commonly has

excrescences of a subcalcic augite, which often show a peculiar fan-like o1

stellate form with shadowy extinction (cf. that seeu in 79603),

In the modal percentages, an accessory amount Uf a soda feldspar is included

with the plagioclase. The mineral is sisular to that deseribed from tocks num-

hers 7964, 7966, etc., where it was cleterntiined as an anorthoclase, Ln this dyke

the amount varies from about 2% in No. 7960 to about 4% in No. 7961. The

anorthoclase is both interstitial and partly replacing the outer more sodic zones

of the plagioclase, No quartz has been determined but long apatite (7) needles

are plentiful as inclusions. .A pleochroie (yellow to brown) biotite and dutsiy

magnetite are usually associated with these patches of anorthoclase, which is

upparently mainly of deuteric origin.

Primary magnetite and pyrite ate plentiful, but the pereentage of total iron

ores 1s increased by the dull black material liberated om alteration of some of the

olivine and pyroxene.

The coarse phase (7961) contains much more bronzite than the finer phase

(7960). This may represent the inversion tu bronzite of the early pigeonite

(see p, 199), The presence o7 a continual gradation from the subcalcic angites

into the late pigeonites seems in this rock lo be assisted by the somewhat higher

concentration of late liynors (as indicated by the coarser grain size ancl increased

percentage of detiteric anorthoclase),

(2) Ontvine-pearing Donerirrs (1v., those free from orthopyroxene),

(a) Olivine-bearing Dolerites with coarse Potkititic Texture.

tL. No. 7968 is a dark grey medium-grained rock take fom the most

southerly of several parallel dykes which cut the south-west tip of the large mass

af charnockitic granodiorite situated about two miles west-north-west from

Palpatjara, which is three fhiles south of Ernabella. The dyke, which strikes

teward the west-south-west and dips 63° toward the south, is tignred ina pre-

viotis paper ( Wilsorr 1947, pl. 11, fig, 4),

Jn thm section this fresh rock appears holoctystalline with pyroxene and

olivine mainly set poililitically in relatively large (imax, 4-6 mn x 1°2 mm;

average 2°0 mm. x 1°0 mm.) crystals of labradorite, A summary of the main

mineralogical data is included in Table II.

The plagioclase (42-59%) is usually clear but occasionally has a pale brown

dusty patch due to tiny inclusions. The mineral is so poorly twinned (mainly

on the albite and pericline laws) that uo easier method of estunating its composi-

Hien was available than to use the plotting the poles of the cleavages on a

stereogram, Zoning is not prominent and the feldspar has a fairly constant

composition of An 67% + 3% (ie., a basic labradorite). Neo anorthoclase was

detected.

The pyroxene (48-19%) occurs i two generations, The larger crystals (up

ty 1'3 wim. x O4 mm,, but average 0-8 mm. x 0-6 mm) arc commonly subhedral-

elear and colourless (but very pale brownish pink in some atttermast zones )-

196

The cores have 2V = 52° and ZAC= 36", but there is a gradual decrease

towards the rims to pigeonite with 2V = 19°, ZAC = = 30°, optic plane || (010)

(see fig, 3 (a)). The strange “polarisation cross extinction effects are com-

monly present,

The smaller set of pyroxene crystals (a late crystallisation) ave virinally

colourless, although some show a very pale pink when parallel to X. They are

ragyed or sphenoid in shape, and have an average grain size of (15 mm, x

0-05 mm. ‘The grains are too small, and extinetion tom erratic to do accurate

optical determination om most grains “iu sitn”, but of those studied, many are

pigconite with vartable wplic axial angle (one with 2V (+-ve) as low as 17°;

optic plane || (010). ZAC could not be determined as there are neither suitable

cleavages tor twinning,

The olivine (669%) which contains about 249% tayalite molecule is fairly

clear and colourless, but along the plentiful cracks secondary maymetite and

serpentine have forined. Vhe mineral 4 is ul times subhedral but éommanty holey,

ail on rare cecasions simulates sume of the “skeletal" olivine of rock No, 7967

(qve),

Accessomies (2°8%) comprise mostly some primary magnetite, secondary

magnetite and serpentine, with a little pyrite. Neither anorthoclase nor bronztie

was observed. Though poikilitie and containing relatively coarse plaginclase,

the name “dolerite” is preferred to “gabbro” because of (he grain size and charac-

ters of the finer set of pyroxenes and its affinities with the main suite of

dolerites.

The apparent absence of both bronzite and early pigconite but the abundanee

of ‘a magnesic clinopyroxenc¢ is interesting. Tt is possible that the conditions

which allowed this poikilitic form (so uncommon in this avea) ur develop were

unsuited to the formation of cither at orthopyroxene ur early pigeonite.

2. No. #969 is dark grey medium-grained rock occurriny as a smtal] east-

west dyke cutting the gneisses near the junetion with the large charnockitic

granodiorite mass to the east in the ercek beds one mile west of ‘Top Springs

(5 miles north-north-west of Ernabella)).

Tn thin section this rock shows similaritics to two widely separated ezst-to-

west dykes (Nas. 7968 and 7967). “The plagioclase (uy to 6 wan, x 2 m0.

average 2-2 mm. x OB min.) ts a ae basic labradorite and comprises appruxi

mately 50% of the toek. lt cheloses poikilitically the pyroxenes and very similat

to those deseribed wbove in No, 7968. except that the smaller set (average

M15 mn. x 0°05 mm.) tend ina few places toward a crude development of the

plumose texture so pronounced in No. 7967. The grains are very small but no

senses was definitely proved (contras: 7968) although it is suspected. Neither

bronzite nar early pigeonite was observed. Olivine (often in part decomposed)

and inagnesia-rich clinopyroxenes ure plentiful (ef. 7968)-

(b) Ohwvine-bearing Dolerites with Subophitie Texture.

1. Nu, 7966 is a dark grey dyke rock occurring ov the eastern Aank of

Razor Lill, 11 miley north-north-cast of Krnabela. dt cits Whe chartivelitic

franodiorite just inside its junction with the gneisses. in thin section the rork is

seen to haye undergone a considerable amount of alteration by (mainly) detiteric

solutions. This has resulted in a precipitation of dusty iron ore and formation

of an amphibole, biotite and anorthoclase. A symmary of the main mineralogical

data is included mm Table JI, The percetitage (58:1) for plagioclase includes

4-5% anorthoclase similar in optical properties and relations to that described

elsewhere (¢@.g,, 7964). Usually the cores of the much zoned plagioclase are

quite a dark shade of brown owing to myriads of tiny dtisty inclusions of sper

ore (?), The more sodie outer tims show fewer dusty inclusions, and the

19%

anorthoclase is perfectly clear apart from the usual few needle inclusions of

apatite (7). The plagioclase often has a core with composition about An68%.

the outer zones ranging through the average type (a labradorite An65%) wa

sodic Andesine (An34%) or even less, as it gives way in many casts to the

anorthoclase.

‘The pyroxene is a strongly pleachroic relatively ferriferous variety of sub-

ralci angite and in places gives way to a pigconite (optic plane || (010), Plenti-

ful clouds of magnetite (?) dust are often seen scattered at random through the

pyroxene (contrast the regular zones of “dust” in the pyroxenes of No. 7970).

The olivine (Fa= 19%) is plentiful (6°3%), but much has heen altered to

serpenttinous material and iron ore (the original rock proper contained about 8%

olivine). A. little of the pyroxene has often becn altered to a biotite and pale

green amphibole, bat most of the deuteric products have been formed from the

iron ores,

Along a few lines of fracture abundant magnetite has been liberated frum

the pyroxenus, ‘These fractures Occurred after the maim period of deuteric

alteration, as rarely is the liberated iron ure surrounded by biotite,

The most peculiar feature of this rock is the absence of bronzite hut the

presenice (though rarely) of a small pigevnite core in some of the subhedral

crystals of subcalcic augite, The pigeonite has a high 2V (27°-30°) with optic

plane || (O10) and grades (with no break) into the surrounding subcalcic augile

{2V = 30-40°).

(e} Olivine-bearing Dolerites with Ophitie Texhore.

All olivine dolerites yet examined which lack in bronzite and have a notable

ophitic texture contain a pigeonite.

1. No. 2453 is a “very dark grey toek with reddish-brown weathered. sar-

faces”. Lt occurs “7 miles north-west of Ilealy Springs” on the track between

fndulkana and Moorilyanua Hill. ‘The rock has been briefly deseribed by Dr. Jack

(1915, 19) as No. 14-3-9. The important mineral pigeomte is omitted from

his description. his is not surprising, as both the subcalcic augite and pigeonite

are very similar in all obvious optical properties and only easily distinguished by

estimation of opti¢ axial angles.

The subcalcic augite shows ophitic texture exceptionally well with the ragged

plates averaging 25 min. x 15 mm. With this occitrs the pigeonite (4 (?) of

the total pyroxene). This pigeonite differs from some af the pigeonites described

in other rocks (c.g. 7970, 7961, 7968) in thar the optic axial plane is perpen-

dictlar to (O10) and there is a marked break between the two mincrals when

viewed under crossed nicols. Both minerals are ophitic but the pigeonite less so

than its host, the subcaleic wegile, Fig. 3 (b) indicates the strange variwiion in

optical properties from the pigeonite lo the rim of the enclosing clinopyroxene.

‘The pigeonite itself appears to have litte variation ( relatively) in optic axial

angle (2V (--ve) = 14° to 22°; ZAC = 39°; optic axial plane 1 (010)). This

probably indicates that the trend of the noti-pigeanitic climopyroxenes is upwards

toward the “Hump” of Tess’ “conrse of crystallisation” curve (see p, 197, and

fis. 4).

fhe absence of bronsite is noteworthy, The conditions of cooling were

apparently such that the carly pigeonite at no time was ablé to invert to ortho-

Jwrosene,

The olivine which is more magnesia-rich than usual (Fa 119) is not plenti-

ful (2°2%). IL is usually somewhat “corroded” and ettclosed in the early

pigeonite or other clinopyroxene. “The minwtal covtaing some dusty magnebte

inclusions and js somewhat serpentitised,

194

The plujioclase (59°79) is not nearly so variable m composition as usual.

ly js a labradorite (An62%). There is a small amount (049%) of a Lypical

shorthaghase.

A summary of the main mineralogical data is included in Table U.

2, No. 7965 is a dark grey rock taken from a prominent dyke at Vietoria

downs Homestead, 65 miles east from Frnahella and 125 miles trom the Finke

vailway siding in Northern ‘Territory.

in thin section the rock presents a medium-grained ophitic texture. A

suinmary of the main niineralogical data is included in Table IT,

A striking feature of the rock is the pleochroic olivine (X = blue-grey,

Z == fawn-grey). There are myriads of little inclusions of iron ore arranged

1 %, and the possibility of these causing the “pleochroism"” was investigated. It

seems that the pleochroism is intrinsic. This is yncommon, especially in such a

inagnesia-rich olivine (Fa 21%).

The olivine began to erystallige first and continued to form (with much the

sme composition, viz, Fa21%) to the end, where is oceurs with the late

igeonite and subealcic augites as small sphenpid particles only Or1 mm, x O°1 mm.

No. 2460 contains a pleochrote olivine (Fa 124), but ity associates are different

‘rom thuse in this rock.

Augite and pigeonite together make up 325% (by volume) of the rock,

Since both minerals exhibit the same pleochroism and both occur poikilitically the

only easy method of distinguishing the two species is by an estimation of optic

axial angle. The pigeonite usually uceurs in somewhat smaller grains, has a low

uptic axial angle and very poor cleavage, therefore it was found tnpossible to

definitely prove whether this species had its optic axial plane parallel or _pet-

pendicular to (010). The work done suggests, however, that it is |] (010). There

is probably a continuous series between the lower optic axial angle subcaleic augite

and these pigeonites (cf. No. 7968}. This pigeonite usually occurs as small

sphenoid erystals controlled by the poikilitic texture of the rock.

The aigite varics widely in composition, as indicated by the fact that the

sptical properties vary from 2V (-+-ve) = 46°, ZAC 42° through the mean

of 2V (+ve) =42°, ZAC=4l°, to 2V (+ve) = 31°, ZAC=— 37".

As stated above, there is probably a continuous series towards an almost

“uniaxial” pigeonite,

‘There is also a hitile pigeowite of a different nature. Tt is enclosed by the

augite, has 2V ( {-ve) = 19° with optic axial plane 1 (010), Thus this dolerite

contains two pigeonites, The “early pigeonite’ shows a break with the atgites,

Init the later type shows nu such break and probably forms a continuous series

fram the subicalcie augites,

No bronzite iz present; conditions of crystallisation were apparently such as

‘0 prohibit inversion uf the small amount of “early pigeonite”,

The plagioclase is zoned with compositions cstimated at hytawnite (An729%)

fur sume cores to basic andesine (An49%) for same rims. A basic labradorite

( An68% ) is common.

3. No, 2450. Dr. Jack (1915, 19) states that he collected this specimen

fram a dyke six and a half miles $.60° W, from Moorilyanna [fill”, @e.. about

18 miles west from the locality of 2453.

The getreral appearance of this rock resembles Nu. 2453. The oplntic

texture, for imstanee, is similar to that of 2453. However, there are considerable

aid significant mineralogical differences. A sunumary of the main mineralogical

‘lata is included in ‘Fable JI.

As it Inost rocks oliie was the first ferromiagnesian inineral lo crysiallise,

wud it continued for same Vime, Nu bronsite vor “early pigeonite” is present,

193

and the next mifieral to appear in the dugite (2V (-+-ve) — 49°-45°) rimmce

with subcaleic augite. The augite cores 2V = 49° with continuous gradation

toward the rims of a subealcic augite with 2Y = 37°,

On some edges (never enclosed) occurs a pigeanite, It has 2V (+e.

ranging from 22° to 15° with optic axial plane perpendicular to (010) and hence

usually shows a pronounced optical break with the main clinopyroxene, ‘I'hi-

change from the subcalcic augile to the pigeonite seems always to take place about

2V=37°. oth pigeonite and subealcie augite have well-developed ophiti

texture and seem to have come out together at the end as the Gnal crystallisation

(sce fig. 3(c) ).

In 7965 a “late” pigeonite crystallised with the last subcalcic augite, but int

that rock the pigevnite has the optic axial plane parallel to (010) and there is

probably @ continuous series between the two clinopyroxencs. Moreover, a plea-

chroie olivine (Fa 2190) is found in 7965 crystallising right through to the ened

uid occurs as small ophitic sphenoids with the two clinopyroxenes,

In 2450 the variation in the composition of the clinopyroxene is shown bs

the gradual decrease iti optic axial angle from 2V (-+-ve) =49° tw 37% It is

probable that the trend is along the “course of crystallisation" (see p, 199),

beginning near the top of the hump and ricar the poitt reached hy the clino-

pyroxencs of rock No. 2453.

Plagioclase is abundant (5596) and notably calcium-rich, Iv is well zoned

with cares of bytownite (An82%) ta rims of andesine (An46%), with an

average af bytawnite (about An75%). The plagioclase is much ¢learer thin

usual, with only a few cloudy patches of itelusions,

Anorthoclase is present but rare, and there is a little subhedral original

mmugnelite as well as the secondary dusty iron ore. Some serpentinous materral

is present as an alteration of some pyroxene and olivine.

(d) Olizine-bearing Dolerites with an unusual “Phonese’? Tertnre.

There are several fine-grained dark grey dyke rocks which cut the north-west

slopes of the charnoekitic granodiorite hills 14. miles east-south-east of Ernabella.

Similar dykes have been noted cutting similar rock near [yinpiri, 6 miles north

of Ernabella.

No. #967. A suinmary of the main mineralogical data ts included im Table II.

In thin section the plagioclase appears as lathes which attain the size af

2 mm. x 0-05 mm., with many 1 mm, x 0-04 mm. (average probably abour

04mm, x 0-03 mm.). The lathes show no flow structure and are in some places

criss-cross, in others intergrown with the “feathers'’ of pyroxeue. The plagio-

clase {about 25% of the rock) is clear of the dusty inclusions so common in the

dolerites of this area. The mineral is poorly twinned on Carlsbad and albite

laws and imeéasurements of extinction angles indicated a basic lahradorice

(An67-659), Zoning is not cominen attd anorthoclase rims are absent.

Pyroxene makes up about 55% (by volume) of the rock. lt oceurs iu two

forms. Up to two-thirds of the pyroxene form irregular and occasionally suh-

hedral crystals up to 0-4 mn. x O'3 mm. with an average size uf O-2 uum x

0-2 mm. The mineral is a clear, non-pleochroie augite of fairly uniform cone

position as indicated by 2V varying only from 45° to 47° and ZAC = 37 +27,

The augite often shows an extinction similar to the ‘polarisation cross’ noted in

the pyroxenes of other dolerites of the area (¢.g., 7963).

The other form af pyroxene is that which helps to make the texture of thi:

rack so distinctive, It occurs as feather-like and fan-like bundles of irregularly

tapering rods. The bundles are on the average 0°6 mm. long % 0:2 mim. wide

at the broad end and taper to OL mm. wide at the apex, although some attain

the dimensions of 1 min. x O'4 mm. x OZ mm. The pyroxene indivaenals then

selves are usually about 0-5 mim. long x 0°02 mim. wide. These phiinase clnster-

show ne preferred orientation, for sectiuits cut perpendicular and parallel to the

conling surface shaw uo significant difference (see pl, XVIII (b) ).

The mineral may be of almost the same composition as the main augile, but

no deimite measurements could be made owing to the small size and Lhe presence

of a wavy extinction, However, its double refraction is similar to that of the

‘ugites, it has a medium extinction angle, is non-pleochroic and 1¢ often seer

“sprouting” from the larger generation of clinopyroxenes. There is, however,

amall possibility that it is a “late pigeonite” similar to that found in No, 7968

and suspected tn Na, 7969,

Olizine (Fail%) is abundant (between 18 and 20%) sil distinguished

fram the clear pytoxene by having (1) a faint fawn tint (and a very weak

pleochroism; X slightly darker than Z), (2) many cracks filled with dusty iro

ore and irregular patches of brownish dust, (3) a somewhal higher double refrac-

tion (2V (-+ve) = 88"), The most striking feature of the mineral is tts mode

of crystallisation, Sometimes a solid subhedral crystal is seen, bot usually it

otcurs 28 a strange type of zuned crystal. Orientated inclusions of a very fine

niass of pyroxene atid plagioclase (sometimes suggesting coarsely devitrified

glass) are often so abundant and specially arranged that the crystal appears

skeletal. Plate XVIIT (a) shows a hexagonal form reminiscent of pseucdo-

hexagonal twinning (as is cordierite) but the arms of the crystal extinguish

together and have no properties of twins. In some cases crystals of pyroxene

well beyond the borders of an olivine are seen in optical continuity with pyroxene

some distance within the skeletal olivine. Fairly large individuals of clino-

pyroxene have been enclosed by groups of olivine crystals in such a way as to

suggest that some of the olivine crystallised after some of the clinopyroxene. In

places olivine acctits as small granules and blunt ragged prisins intergrown with

the phimiose pyroxene.

The evidence indicates that though olivine began to crystallise first (as in all

of these dolerites) it was soon followed by a clinopyroxene (but neither early

pigeonite nor brouzite) which contitiued with the olivine for a relatively con-

siderable length of time, While the last olivine was being formed the “plumose”

generation of clino-pyroxene began its formatian and continued to the end,

There is very little primary iron ore present. but most of the cracks in tle

olivine are filled with a dusty iron ores

Neither early pigconite nor bronzite is present, and no late pigeomie was

proved, Anorihoclase was tot noticed,

B, Donerrtes (Olivine Free)

(1) OetHoryroxeve-pranine Doceni res,

(a) Orthapyroxcue-bearing Dolerites with Ophitic Texture,

1. No #970 is a small cast-to-west dyke which intrudes gneisses near the

junction with the chartiockitic granodiorite about three wiles wesl of Ernabella-

ln hwnd spevimen the rock is similar to the other dykes, In thin section the

rock appears fairly fresh. A summary of the main mineralogical data is included

in Table 11.

Most of the $7°6% of plugivclase \n the tock is a basic labradorite (An66%)

but cores are often as basic as a bytownite (AnW7290) and there is commonly a

continuous gradation toward a narrow oligoclase border (about Ang5%). A

little deuteric anorthoclase (2V (-ve) = 52°) is presetit, but mo quartz was

obsetyed, The central part of many feldspar crystals shows the dusty inclusions

so commoat in the dyke rocks of this crea.

195

The pyrovenes present an interesting problem. it appears that both ortho-

pyroxene and pigconite have crystallised at much the same time. No ev-

dence was found which was sufficient to prove which mineral begai Lo erystallise

first. The final pyroxenes to form are a mixture of subealeic augite with some

hronzite and pigeonite. The orthopyroxene is similar to thar seen in No. 7961,

and has a hronzite core (Ot 16%) which gives way gradually in the more normal

Inanner toa bronzite rim (ahout OF 22%), The bronzite shows marked lamellar

twinning (|/ (010) ). The course of crystallisation in the clinopyroxencs.

hawever, is difficult ta follow. Some subhedral crystals arc found showing a

rentarkable zoning, Occasionally the core ix enclosing an cistatite (OF 99%)

aud is a prgeenite with 2V—ahout 20° and optic plane 4 °(010). "Phen follows

« perfect gradation toward w uniaxial pigeonite (2V—O0°) into pigeonite

with the optic plane || (Q10) (2Vs- 0" to 30°), Finally the gradation Icads

(with no hiatus) to a subcalete angite with 2¥V = 40°. The double refraction

regularly increases slawly from the core to the rim, but the extinction angle

(ZAC) remains fairly constant (about 34°). {n such a zoned pyroxene abundant

Nusty iron ore inclusions have been precipitated when the 2V reached about 32”

(fig. 3(d) ). The remarkable feature of this zoning is the fact that bronzite.

which shows a patchy extinction us well as a fine lamellar twinning (|| optic plane),

is present in the same rock and may have crystallised at much the same time its

the clinopyroxenes (see p. 197 for fuller discussion).

The pyroxenes comprise 34°79 (by volume) of the rock with the bronzite.

pigeonite and subcalcic angite represented in probably equal proportions.

The texture of the rock is moderately ophitic, but a considerable number of

the zoned clinopyroxenes have developed a subhedral form, The bronzite and

soiie clinopyroxene have, in places, developed a notable bladed form and some-

limes are secu in a coarse plumose Erin somewhat reminiscent of that in No. 7967.

(2) Noxarsn Doverirrs (7.c., free from olivine and orthopyroxene).

These rocks are similar in many ways to the olivine-bearing suite described

above. The absence ot hoth olivine and orthopyroxene, however, aod the

presenoe of somewhat more ferriferous pyroxenes and more detiteric acidic

inaterial suggest that this group is probably a later differentiate fram the com-

inon doleritic magma. Two types are recognised.

(a) Normal Dolerites with Ophitic Texture,

These are plentiful, especially in ihe eastern Musgrave Ranges. No. 7971

is a coarse-grained dark grey dolerite which outcrops prominently about 4-4 miles

from Kenmore Park on the track to Ernabella. Lt cuts the hypersthene granu-

lites and gueisses at a steep angle. In thin section this coarse doleritic rack

appears temarkably fresh, except for certain denteric reactions. Mineralogical

(lata are set out in Table 11,

The plagioclase (49°0%) is very well zoned with a composition showing

perfect gradations from cores of fabradorite (An66%) to rims of andesine

(An349), The probable average is a labradorite (An62%). The plagioclases

show the characteristic pale brown dusty inclusions. The modal figure of 49-0%

includes about 49 of clear acid deuteric material composed of both quartz and

anorthoclase, The deuteric solutions have attacked the pyroxenes in places yield-

ing a strongly pleochroic amphibole (X = yellow-green, Y= green, Z— deep

bine-green) with ZAC = 15", biotite (X — yellow, ¥=Z= very dark brown)

magnetice and apatite.

The amphibole comprises 3:8% of the rock, biotite 1°2% and about one-

third of the 7% magnetite is a dull black secondary tron ore.

The pyroxene (37:09) is a pinkish subcalcic augiile somewhat more fer-

rilerous toward the rim than at the core, The lowest optic axial angle observed

was 2V (+ve) = 35° (and ZAC = 38°), which was the outermost rin of a

crystal with a core with 2V (-|-ve) =40° (and ZA\C= 41°). Twinning on (010)

is more plentiful in this pyroxene than in any other of this area. The donble

refraction jis a little higher toward the rim but this is sot as marked as in

No. 7972, Neither pigconite, bronzite, nor ohyine is present,

(hb) Normal Dolerites with a Subophitic Texture.

No. 7972 is a medium-grained dark grey dyke rock, and one of several which

cut the gneisses forming the ridge between Gilpin’s Well and the track linking

Ernabella and Kenmore: Park, and 20 miles from Frnabella,

In thin section the texture is somewhat different from that of the other

dykes yet studied. Thenocrysts of clinopyroxene wre present, as well as the

smaller generation of srualler but more ferriferous pyroxene. Tt 15 in this

later’ pyroxene that the subophitic fexinure is developed. The plagioclase, ti,

occurs in two poorly defined generations, The larger set are comparable in size

with the phenocrysts of pyroxene, They shaw very marked discontinuous “on-

ing (pl. XVII (ce) ). The smaller set show the gradational zoning so cont

mon in this region. Mineralogical data are set out in Table IT.

Plagiaclase comprises 51°3% (this includes about 39 of deuteric quartz and

anorthoclase). The average composition ef the mineral is that of an acid

hytownite (An729%) but the cores of some crystals are as basic as an anorthite

(An91%), with the borders of many crystals reaching almost to an oligoclase

(An31%)}. The plagioclase is stained a fawn-brown (contrast the 4% deuteric

material which is clear),

The only pyroxene present is 4 suhealcic augite, The optical properties of

the atiter zones of the phenocrysts and smaller crystals suggest a gradual iron

enrichment ag the crystallisation proceeded (2V decreases from 39° to 36°;

ZAC increases from 40° to 42°; double refraction increases from. core to rim).

Two or three very small corroded crystals of a faint dull brown olivine up

io 0-3 mm, x 0°15 mm, oceur as inclusions in the phevocysts of subcaleic augite.

Beside the presence of quartz amongst the deuterie material; quartz oeciirs as ah

interesting xenolith. The clear mineral is surrounded by a prominent rim ot

subealcie augite. The lens of quartz anél pyroxene together is about 1°8 mm

long x 1 mm. wide, with the actual core of quartz about O'S mm. x O-3 mm, The

plentiful iron ores (5-6% ) comprise about half primary magnetite and the rest ts

dull black dusty secondary iron ore.

Neither “early” nor “late” pigeonite nor bronzite is present and otly two or

three tiny adventitious crystal of olivine occur.

V, PETROLOGY?"

Tue general the minerals of each dolerite indicate a normal course of crystallt-

sation with a trend toward a soda enrichment in the plagioclase and an iron (arul

part calcium) enrichment in the pyroxenes (and olivines), phenontema ably dis-

cussed hy several recent authors.

In several ways, however, the mineral assemblage differs considerably from

that of doléerites desctibed elsewhere, and associations obtain which have hilhertn

been largely thought improbable.

Some of the main unusual features will become apparent in a brief survey

of the pigeonites of these rocks, (Table 1). Piyeonite makes its appearance in

@) Qwing to lack of large sills no extended study of the course oi erystullisation

of the duleritic magma could be undertaken. he specimens here described wore collected

in the first instance to give an idea of the types of basic dyke rock in the urea,

197

styen dolerites and in each with its own peculiar associations, On plotting the

compositions of the ferromagnesian minerals of the pigeoniie-bearing rocks in

fig. 4, it is apparent (hat most of the atigites and subcalcic angites fall below the

“course of crystallisation” curve of Hess (1941, 585, fig. 10), When the

pyroxenes reach a Fs content of between 35% and 40% further anomalies arise.

In three rocks (7968, 7965, and 7961) the “course” drops steeply and passes

wver the border (2V = 30°) into the pigeonite zone, These pigeonites have

properties merging perfectly into the subcalcic augites. None of this type, haw-

ever, has been found to gradually transgress the line (2V == 0) inte the field of

pigeonites with the optic axial plane £ (O10). Walker (1943, 518) has recorded

sinilar eases and consillers such pigeonites are “ferriferous and hie just below

ie Terro-augite field of the triangular diagram.’ He suggests that such

pigeotiles (optic axial plane | (O10) have 2V tot much below 32°. In these

racks, however, 2V as low as 13° was measured (in 7965) and in 7970 all grada-

tions exist from ZV = 20" (1.010) through 2V = 0° ta 2V= 40° (|| (010) ),

Ja 2/50, on the other band, the course of erystallisation proceeds to Ts

content of 409% and the subcaleic augite is joined by w pigeonite with 2V = 20°

and optic axial plane 1 (O10). The reason is unktiown for such a marked break

hetween the two clinopyroxenes in 2450, whereas a perfect gradation exists in

Nos, 7961, 7965, and especially in 7968. All are olivine dolerites and only

No. 7961 contains any bronzire,

In 7263 there is an “early as well as a “late” pigeonite (see above). The

warly pigeomite in this rock, however, is rare, and is always found enclosed by

ihe augite (2VW=-=46"). Its optic axial plane is 1 (010), and there is con-

sequently @ sharp line of demarcation hetween the two pyroxenes, ‘I'bere is no

bronzite in this rock, probally because the cooling was sufficiently rapid to pra-

hihit the inversion of the early pigeonite, Olivine (Ta 21%) began to form early,

continued throughout the cooling and is plentiful im the final crystallisation as

sal! ophitic sphenoids (of much the same composition as the earlier material)

ald in association with the late pigeonite and some subcatcic augite.

In 2432 the crystallisation is interesting. Here (as in 7965) a marked

break is uoled between the early pigeomite (2V—=22°-14°; optic plane

4 (010) ) and the other clinopyroxene. But the olivine (Fa 11%) is more

iuaguesic. has already finished its main crystallisation and is found ag rounded

aml partly corroded crystuls in the pigeonites (and elsewhere), It does not

tppear as a later erystallisation. Moreover. the zoning of the clinopyroxene

cher Huin pigeonite is unusial. The early pigeonite gives way abruptly to a

subcalele augite (2V = 40°), which is gradually zoned till borders of augite are

reached (2V~<46°). This suggests that this rock shows 4 course of erystallisa-

tion comparable (though farther from “Wo") with that to the left of the majar

“hump” of the curve of Hess.

No, 7970 18.4 most interesting rock. Crystals of clinopyroxene occur showing

a remarkable zoning. The core, which sometimes encloses and enstatite is <

pigeonite (2V = about 20"; optic axial plane 1 (010)). Then follows a per-

lect gradation through uniaxial pigennite (2V—0°) into pigeonite (2V—~

0-40"; optic axial plane |! (010), and finally itoasubealcic augite (2V = 30°-40°).

Hrongite (OF 16-22%) is pletitiful in che slide and in places is rimmed with sub-

caleie augites (2V=35-40°). ‘The bronzite shows a fine twinning (|| optic

arial plane (010) ), and a shadowy extinction which suggests some exsolution

of lime. It is dificult to explain the presence and apparent stability of the early

pigconite which has its optic axial plane 1 (O10) and rims enstatite, Mveasure-

ay ae,

~ \ 2V252° 4010

A= Se

2V:30° ~~ —

—_—_—,

(a) No. 7968. Augite strongly

zoned throwgh subcalcic

augite to rim of pigeouite

Gwith optic plane || (010)).

(x 45).

(c} No, 2450. Augite (2V

— 48") zoned outward

toward subcalcic atgite

(2V = 37°). A break

eccurs and pigeonite

with optic plane orien-

tated differently (i.e,

1(010)) forms tips on

the main crystal. (x 28).

198

(b) No. 2453. arly pigeconite

with optic plane 1 (010))

enclosed by subcalcic augite

(2V = 40°), which is itseli

zoned toward an augite rim

(2V = 46°). The pigeonite is

not as ophitic as the other

clinopyroxene, (x 20).

2V=/0°Loo

~~ %

mS. 2Ve27°L010 |

2Ve38"

(d) No, 7970, Pigeonite (with optic

plane 1 (010) yery strongly zoned

toward uniaxial pigeonite, and

thence into a pigeonite with a

different oricntation (z¢., optic

plane || (010) and 2V=30°. A

gradation exists near the rim fram

this pigeonite into a subcalcic

augite (2V— 40). Magnetite dust

was precipitated while subcalcic

augite (2V = 32) was crystallising.

(x 35),

Pig. 3. Vigeonite Relations in Soni: Dolerites (see also fe. 4 and Table 1)

199

ments of refractive index have indicated that this zoning shows a cottse

crystallisation fairly close to the diopside- clinoenstatite line and toward the

extreme left of the two pyroxene field of Iless (1941, 586)-

ar <> ee te

2s nok

/ ae

/PIGEONITE

[iio] /

COURSE OF CRYSTALLISATION

BY HESS

- Lae

PIGEONITE [ | 010)

Vig. 4

Trends in crystallisation, as shown by the Clinopyroxenes of certain

Pigeonite-bearing Dolerites, compared with the course af crystalli-

sation suggested by Hess [Pyroxenes roughly plotted aguinst

y-curyes (Deer and Wager, 1938, p. 20, fig, 2) and approx,

2V curves (Poldervaart 1947 (a), p. 161, fig, 2 J.

Tu the non-pigeonite-bearing dolerites (e.g., 7963) a bronzite often occurs

which shows a patchy extinction or fine lamellar intergrowth, apparently identical

to that described elsewhere in orthopyroxenes within the range OF 15-35 (Polder-

vaart, 1947, 167, and pl. XIII, fig. 1). Hess seems to limit this phenomenon to

arthopyroxenes with a composition about OF 30 or greater, In these dolerites th«

first appearance of this apparent inversion [rom early pigeonite seems to be 1m

a bronzite with OF =16 (as in 7970) and is found in all more ferriferous

varieties to OF 22, In the coarse rock, No. 7964, much of the bronzite as mag-

nesic as OF 12, shows a prominent patchy extinction.

Owing to the narrowness of the dykes the strange zoning phenomena shown

by the clinopyroxenes cannot be explained by a gravitational settling of phenn-

erysts into deeper regions, especially in view of the fact that zoning is normal 1)

both orthopyroxenes and plagioclases,

REFERENCES

BAsepow, H. 1905 Geol. Report of Couiitty traversed by S. Atist, Gavern-

ment North-west Prosp, Exped., 1903. Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust..

19, 57

CAMPBELL, W. D. 1906 Geol. of Norseman District. W-. Aust. Geol. Surv.

Bull, 21

Cnunona, K. 1933 Determination of Feldspars in Thin Section, london

Deer, W. A., and Wacer, L. R. 1938 Two Pyroxenes included in Systeu:

Clinoenstatite, Clinoferrosilite, Diopside and Hedenbergite, Min. Mas..

25, 15-22

Derr, W. A., and Wacer, L. R. 1939 Olivines from the Skaergaard Intru-

sion. Amer. Min., 24, 18-25

Emmons R, C. 1943 The Universal Stage. Geol. Soc. Amer, Mem. 8

nnn ee Tee vv"

OLIVINE PIGEONITE - - -

[Fa, 11] j [2V = 14—22°; 4 (010)]

7 att No Bronzi

ave - + SUBCALCIC AUGITE ——> AUGITE o Btanats

(2V = 40 —45°] [2V = 46°]

III I

Burin” AP, Stak ee ee ee ee as Ee eee OS ee oe AT

[Fa. 21]

PIGEONITE AUGITE ———> SUBCALCIC AUGITE + -»- + «= «

it wero, | =o amas Scie

‘ PIGEONITE-~ -

[2V = 30 —13°; || (010)]

NN — ———— ee rerreoq_ mF

OLIVINE - - - - - - = ft ae “ - =~ ~~ < - 4

(Fa. 13]

AUGITE ——>SUBCALCIC AUGITE - - - - - - - .

2450

[2V = 49—45°] [2V = 45 —37°] No Bronzite

PIGEONITE - wt le

[2V = 22 —15°; 1 (010)]

a ee ee ee ee ee

OLIVINE - - - - - - - - -

[Fa.24]

AUGITE —— > SUBCALCIC AUGITE - - - - 2 ?

7968 [2Vv = 52 —45°] [2V = 45 —30°] No Bronzite

« 5 a -[2V = 30 —19; || (010)]

- PIGEONITE -

OLIVINE - - . - -

p [Fa. 19]

7966 PIGEONITE ——> SUBCALCIC AUGITE No Bronzite

{[2V = 28; || (010)] [2V = 38 —40 —35; ||(010)]

nn esos 00—0 SS

OLIVINE . - Ps - 7 ap be - ? , - — - - “

[Fa. 12]

BRONZITE - - - - - = oY wom £2

(OF. 17 — 22]

7961 SUBCALCIC AUGITE- - > =

[2V = 40 —30]

- - = PIGEONITE -

[2Vv = 30—25; || (010)]

ENSTATITE ——_——_> - BRONZITE- - .

(OF, 9— 10] [OF. 16— 22]

7970 PIGEONITE ——> PIGEONITE ——> PIGEONITE | - - No Olivine

(2V = 20 —0; 1 (010)] {[2v = 0] {2V = 0 —30; || (010)]

- - - SUBCALCIC AUGITE -

[2V = 30 —40; | (010)]

Tage I. Order of Crystallisation of Ferromagnesian Minerals in certain Pigeonite-bearing Dolerites

ROCK NUMBER 7964 7963 2449 2460 7960 7961 7968 7966 2453 7965 2450 7967 7970 7971 7972

a NE OO SSS SR _ ———eEeE=E=—OOooeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeEeEeeeee—e—eamamaaBapEeEeEeEeEeEeEe=eEeEeeEeEe=eeeeeeEeeeeEe—_eeeeeeeeeeeeeee nn SS eS eee.

PLAGIOCLASE 33-9 34:3 54-2 43 64-1 61:4 42-5 58-1 59-7 55+4 55 28 57°6 45-0 51-3

PYROXENE 50-2 45-6 29-7 20 23-4 30°7 48-1 19+3 35-2 32-5 30 49 34:7 37-0 41-3

OLIVINE 8-0 16:1 11°8 15 5:7 1-9 6°6 6:3 2:2 8-0 ‘ 12 20 — _—~ =:

ACCESSORIES 7:9 4-0 4°3 4 6:8 6-0 2:8 16-3 2-9 4-1 3 3 7-7 18-0 7-4

TEXTURE POIKIL SUB-OPH. SUB-OPH. SUB-OPH. OPH. OPH. POIKIL. SUB-OPH. OPH. OPH. OPH. “PLUMOSE” OPH. OPH. SUB-OPH.

een ee oe

. PLAG. An. % 67 — 65 82 — 72 — 67 75 —72—44 72 70 — 68 — 28 72 — 62 — 30 67 65 — 34 62 72 — 68 — 49 82 — 77 —46 67 —65 72 — 66 — 50 66 —62—35 91—72—31

Ay. Diam. 4X 15 mm. 9X +2 *8 X .25 1X +4 9 X +2 1:4 X 33 2 Xl 1:4 X <6 1 xX +25 9X +2 1:3X +4 “4X +03 4X +5 12% +4 ase eg

2V 51 — 48 50 — 48 — 35 50 —44— 37 45 — 40 43 — 38 — 30 40—31 52— 47 — 31 30 — 40 — 35 40 — 46 46 — 42—31 49 — 45 — 37 46 30 — 40 40 — 35 39 — 34

AUGITES and ZAC 37 — 36 42 — 39 — 38 38 — 39 39 40 36 37 36 39 38 41 38 37 32 41— 38 40

SUBCALCIC R.1I. 1:695=y 1-701 = y 1692 =y 1-698 =y 1-708 = y 1:710= 1:705 = 1-710 = y 1-680 = y 1:724=y 1-695 = y 1-698 = y 1:705 = y 1-719 = y 1:724=y

AUGITES (2V = 48) (2V = 45) (2V = 44) (2V = 43) (2V = 38) (2V = 36) (2V = 47) (2V = 43) (2V = 43) (2V = 40) (2V = 45) (2V = 46) (2V = 35) (2V = 38) (2V = 36)

Pleoch Nil Nil or Nil Nil, to X = faint green Nil or weak X = faint rust pink X = faint pink X = faint pink Nil Nil X = faint pink Nil to X= faint fawn X = faint pink

cf. bronzite X = pink cf, 7961 Y = pinkish Y = faint fawn Y=Z=colourless Y—=Z-=faint green Y=Z=faint green Y = faint pink fawn Y = faint fawn

Z= faint green Z= yellow green Z= faint fawn grey Z= faint yellow fawn Z=fawn grey

Av. Diam. 1-4 X -8 m.m, "6 X +3 6X +5 6X +4 “4X +4 +35 X +25 “5X +4 4X 3 2:5 X 1:5 1-6 X +6 ete. 1:2X1 +2 X +2, ete, +3 X +25, etc. 1:2X <8 *8 X +6, etc.

PIGEONITES 2V 30 — 22 30 — 19 28 — 30 22— 14 30 — 16; 19 22 28 —0; 0—30

; ZAC a — — — _ 37 30 39 39 — 38 29; — 38? _— 30

RIL. Pi =y 1-720 = y 1-720 = y 1-682 = y 1-730 =y y = 1-712 y=1-685 [2V=15 1(010)] — —_

Pleochr. (2V = 25) (2V = 22) (2V = 29) (2V = 16) (2V = 22, || (010)] (2V = 22) y =1-698 [2V=25 || (010)]

Optic cf. augite X= Y=V. faint pink cf. augite X = Y = faint pink cf. augite Nil cf. augite

plane Z = colourless Z=faint green ,

|| (010) || (010) || (010) 4 (010) || (010); 4 (010) 4 (010) 1 (010; || (010)

Av. Diam. 2X +1 ‘3 XK +2 3X 2 "6 X +2 “3X +2 “4X +2 4X 3

ORTHO-

PYROXENES Comp. OF. 8— OF. 16 OF. 22 OF. 22 — OF. 26 OF. 18 —OF. 22. OF. 18 — OF. 22 OF. 9 — OF. 21

2vV + 83 to —81 —71 —72 to — 66 —77 to —71 —77 to —71 +84 to —73

Pleoch. Nil to X = pink X=rusty pink cf., 2449 cf. 7961 X = pink — — = —_ — — X = pink —_ —

X =rusty pink Y = faint fawn Y = pale yellow S Y = faint green Y = faint green

Z = faint green Z = faint green Z= faint green Z=pale green Z=pale green

Av. Diam. 4X +3 mm. 5 XK +3 1X <6 4X +4 6X +3 8 X +4

OLIVINES Comp. Fa. 15 Fa. 18 Fa. 21 Fa. 12 Fa. 12 Fa, 12 Fa. 24 Fa. 19 Fa. 11 Fa. 21 Fa. 12 Fa. 11 — — —

2V — 88 — 87 — 86 + 89 + 89 +89 — 85 — 87 + 87 — 86 + 89 + 88

Av. Diam. 1 X +7 m.m. ‘SX +3 8X +6 8X +5 2X +3 “4X +3 6X +4 *25'X +2 5x +4 -3.X +25, ete. 6X +4 4X 3

ANORTHOCLASE % 5-2 Nil 2 2 2 4 Nil 4—5 0-4 Nil 0:2 Nil 2 3 2

2V —51 to —59 —42 to —52 —52 —52 —50

TABLE 3

Etc.

Chemical Analyses

1 2 3 4 5 1

47-98 48-61 49-35-4780 = 49-27 Q -

0-90 0-82 063 1:23 2-13 OR 2:22

13:79 13-35 13-15. 14-30-1357 AB

0-78 1-72 096125247 AN

8-89 9-13 «967, «12-09-1278 wo

DI jEN

0:16 0-14 O15 0-40 050 les

14-02 12-71 13-31 7-40 426 (*s

HY :

11-27. 9-67, 90110017, 851 FS

1:77, «2:02.14 254 244 Pes Ne

0-39 0-44-1513 060142 FA 7-53

0-31 1:06 = 0941-87055 MT 1-16

0-02 0:22 0-09 0-44 0-22 IL 1-67

0-12 an 0-10 = 1-23 AP 0-34

0-05 = Nil 4 +. PY 0-12

0-19 0-24 = Nil oo ee CR 0-22

Norms

2 3 4 5

2 - 35 264

2-44 668 3-89 BH

1697 9-65 21-48-2044

26-05 27:42 25-58 21-96

9-12 7-20 )

5-91 4-544 20-72 | 10677

2-59 2-21 | |

10-80-1794

5-02 | 24:01

4:75 8-76

10:54 7-47

| 17-05 =

510 406

2:55 1:39 1:86 3-71

1655 1919 22B 4-10

_ 0-24 _ 2-69

0-33 - L. w

Nil = Nil = —

a 0-06 0:22 0-24 034

Totals 100-64

100-19 99-85 100-38 99-69

Olivine Bronzite-bearing Dolerite, Rock Hole, 19 miles E. Erna-

bella, Musgrave Ranges, Anal., A. F. Wilson. No. 7963.

Olivine Dolerite, Kranskop, Orange Free State (Frankel, 1943).

Olivine Dolerite, Filabusi Dist., S. Rhodesia (Ferguson, 1934).

ete Norseman, W. Aus, Anal., E. S. Simpson (Campbell 1906,

p. ;

Quartz Dolerite, Mt. Holmes, W

Aus.,

(Farquaharson, 1912, p. 49).

Anal.,

Survey Lab,

Modes* (by Volume)

1 2

Feldspar 34-3 32

Late Feldspar —

Pyroxene 45+6 42

Olivine 16:1 14

Accessories 4-0

*Modes of 3, 4 and 5

not available.

Traus Roy Soc. S. Aust., 1948 Vol. 72, Mate XVIIL

Go No. a7. Olivine (a l1). showingr (bh) New Ar “SPlumaoase” pyroxene.

in the dolerite

wiairked skeletal and “hexaonal’ This is abtinedant

Tnelu whith contains the “skeletal” olivine.

The acicular crystals may be seen

“sprouting” from larger clinopyrox-

enes toward the base of the photo.

Ordinary liwht, x 60,

fori tinder erossed nicols.

sions vaindy very fine pyroxene.

x Al (ye LOA).

- 2 "

zoned from Anorthite (An91) to 2) rimming labradorite (fresh

Andesine (An35). Subcalcitc augite but with abundant dusty inclusions).

is other mineral. Crossed nicols, Biotite, rimming magnetite, occurs

x 40, at bottom and top left. Long apa-

tite needle included in anorthoclase.

Pyroxene at top is euhedral augite;

and that on right and left is enstatite

rimmed with bronzite. Ordinary

light. x40.

200

arouAnarson, R. A. 1912 Petrological Contributions to Geology of Western

Australia, W. Aust. Geol. Surv,, Bull. 45

Fercuson, J. C. 1934 The Geology of Country around Filabusi, Insizwa JDis-

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FRANKEL, J. J. 1943 Studies on Karroo Dolerite: (2) Some Younger [ntru-

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and 573-594

Jacx, R.L. 1915 The Geology and Prospects of Region 10 South of Musgrave

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Jonansen, A. 1937 Petrography. Chicago

PotnervAsrt, A. 1947 (a) Subealeic ferroaugite from Mount Arthur, [asi

Griqualand. Min. Mag., No, 198, 159

Powpervaart, A, 1947 (b) The Relationship of Orthopyroxene to Pigeomte-

Min. Mag., No. 198, 164

Srretcr, V, 1892 The Country between Everard Range and Barrow Range,

and between Barrow Range across the Victoria Desert to Fraser Range.

Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 16, 74

Tannot, H. W. B., and CrArkr, E. de C. 1917 Geological Reconnaissance of

Country between Laverton and the South Australian Border, W, Aust.

Geol. Surv. Bull. 75

Tare, R., Warr, J. A., and Siti, J. 1896 Horn Lxpedition to Central Aus-

tralia. Geological Report. Melbourne

Tiromson, J. A. 1911 Rock Specimens from Central and Western: Australia,

collected by Elder Scientific Exploring Expedition, 1891-1892. Trans.

Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 45, 292-317

Tomita, T, 1934 Variations in Optical Properties, according to Chemical Com-

position, in Pyroxenes of the Clinoenstatite-Clinohypersthene—Diopside-

Hedenbergite System. Jour. Shanghai Sci, Inst., Sect. 3, 2, 41-58

Wacker, F. 1943 Note on Pyroxenes of Basaltic Magma, Am. Jnl, of Sci.,

241, 518

Wanker, F., and Potnervaart, A, 1942 The Karrovo Dolerites of the Calvinia

District. Trans. Geol. Soc, S. Africa, 44, 127

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South Australia, Part I: The Musgrave Ranges—an Introductory

Account. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1948, pt. ti, 195-211

THE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE AITAPE SKULL AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

By PAuL S. HOSSFELD

Summary

During April 1929, the writer was engaged on a geological survey of the northern slopes of the

Barida Range near Aitape, Northern New Guinea. A survey of the lower section of the Paniri Creek,

on 26 April, resulted in the discovery of several human skull fragments. On the completion, at the

end of 1929, of the geological surveys in New Guinea by the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, to which

the writer was attached as a geologist of the Australian Commonwealth Government, the skull

fragments were taken to Australia, and later deposited in the Australian Institute of Anatomy at

Canberra.

201

THE STRATIGRAPHY OF THE AITAPE SKULL

AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

By Paut S. Hossreip *

| Read 9 September 1948]

INTRODUCTION

During April 1929, the writer was engaged on a geological survey of the

northern slopes of the Barida Range near Aitape, Northern New Guinea. A

survey of the lower section of the Paniti Creck, on 26 April, resulted in the

discovery of several human skull fragments. On the completion, at the end of

1929, of the geological surveys in New Guinea by the Anglo-Persian Oil Com-

pany, to which the writer was attached as a geologist of the Australian Common-

wealth Government, the skull fragments were taken to Austtalia, and later

deposited in the Australian Tnstitute of Anatomy at Canberra,

In a report by the Anglo-Persian Oi] Company to the Commonwealth

Government (Nason-Jones 1930) the discovery of the skull was referred to

bricfly and the associated rocks and fossils described, Nothing more was done

until Fenner (1941) described the fragments and included a brief description

of the site as supplied by the finder, the present writer. The present paper has

been written in order to describe fully the stratigraphy of the location and its

possible significance to huinaty pre-history,

The writer holds the opititon that the occurrence of human remains in Jleiste-

cene sediments in New Guinea, and the investigation of the relation of these

ileposits to the Pleistocene lee Age, may supply important evidence of the advent

of Man in Australia

The region which will be deseribed in some detail conrprises that part of

ilorthers: New Guinta which Ties between the Dutch border on the west and the

seitlement of Aitape on the east, and extends inland from the coast to the foothills

of the Bewani aud Torricel Mountains,

TOPOGRAPHY

Within this region there exist three well-marked hill areas. The most

westerly extends into Dutch New Guinea and includes in its northern portion the

(Oenake-Bougainville Massif. The central arca extends inland from the Serr

Hills on the coast to the relatively low hills between the Bewani and Torricelli

Mountains, The most easterly area consists of the northern foothills of the

Torricelli Mountuins and extends north towards Aitape, from which it is

separated by a coastal strip of swampy lowland.

Between these hill areas the country consists of large areas of alluvinni, con

tuning a large proportion of sago swamps.

The junction of the hill areas and alluvium is sharply defined and is probably

vonsiderably less than 300 feet above sea-level. The hills rise steeply from the

alluvium and attain heights of the order of 2,000 feet and over. The wholv region

with its juvenile drainage atid sharp differentiation of hills and plains presents

the appearance of an area from which the sea has receded recently. This view

is supported by palacontological und other evidence.

The western area of alluvium inchides the floodplain of the Newniayer River

und its tributaries, while the eastern area contains the floodplains of the Bliri.

Pier, Yalingt and Raila Rivers wnd smaller streams and their distributaries,

* Geology Department, University of Adeltaidy,

feuns Kea. Soc. &. Anst., 73, (2), 30 March 1945,

202

PART_OF_ NGRTHERN NEW GUINEA

SCALE

Q 2 Cates

LEGEND

RECENT

—>F 7 ane

— | ARV 7

PLEISTOCENE

ALING! SERIES

a maniliO GROUP

WY AURELALE

aes se

X SITE OF HUMAN SKULL FRAGMENTS

BE WANI MTs.

BASED ON MAP OF THE FIMSTH COAST ASTA APO.C.REPORT 51.420) 187

Fig. J

GEOLOGY

The three Inll areas consist of sediments belouging to the Lower Wanimo

Group, Finsch Coast Series, the Upper and Lower Aitape Groups, and of the

Oenake Series of igneous rocks. (Nason-Jones 1930.) The sediments range

in age from Pliocene to Oligocene and possibly Late Eocene, while the igneous

vacks are prohably of pre-Vertiary age.

These Terliary sediments exhibit steep folding and have developed complex

structures. lt is upon the eroded surfaces of these highly folded rocks that the

vently dipping Pleistocene beds have been deposited.

The Pleistocene beds have been divided into two grotps: (a) The Yalingi

Series; (hb) The Upper Wanima Group,

(a) Tar YALinar SERIES

These consist of beds of coarse pebbles and boulders, cemented in part, with

some interbedded thin argillaceous and areuaceous hands. They form a sub-

horizontal or gently dipping unconforniahle capping on the older rocks and are

developed chiefly in the Upper Nengo-Yalingi River area. Allbough subsequent

205

dissection bas broken the former continuity of this “sheet 1 ihany places, tt

former extent asa fluviatile outwash depusit on a gently sloping relatively even

surface can he recognised (Nason~Jones 1930),

(b) Thr Upear WANIMO GRouP

This consists of a calearcous and an argillaceous facies. Jn general, the leis

af this group outcrop along the intersection of the hill arcas and the coastal

allayial plains, and their inland continuations at elevations above sea-level

vslimated in most instances not to execed 200 fect. The few isolated high level

occurrences observed present anomalous features suggesting fault movements anil

local elevation.

The general picture is that of relatively thin deposits trmgmg ai uld coast

line which is marked by the lower slopes of the hill areas deseribed above, Thu

beds dip gently up to five or six degrecs away from these arcas and disappear

under the alluvium of the plains. The soil cover and lusuriant yexetation limit

the outcrops of these beds to the banks of streams. In these, the beds occur only

near the junction of the hill areas and the plains. These beds exhibit no evidence

of folding, the only earth movements in which they appear to have participate:

being those due to faulting, which are local in character wherever observed,

Asa rule, the calcareous facies ix developed wherever the rocks of the hill

area consist of calcareous or igneotis material, and the argillaceous facies wherever

the blue mudstones (bentonitic in part) of the Tower Wanimo and Finseh Coas,

Series supplied the detrital material.

The argillaceous facies in which the human remains were discovered consists

of blue mudstones and siltstones interbedded with some more urenaceous beds

and containing a few richly fossiliferous horizons.

Current bedding was soted but is not a general feature. The beds are

characterised throughout by the occurrence of broad zones containing partly

carbonized driftwood and other hard plant remains distnbuted irregularly

throuzh the zones, The abundance of this driftwood, the presence of currem

bedding and lenticular beds, and the recognition of fossil shells of fresh snd

brackish water and marine forms indicates the close proximity of a former shore

line to a shallow sea, or alternatively, deltaic conditions. ‘The origin of these beds

as deltaic sediments, except in restricted areas, is discounted hy their apparent

continuity as deposits fringing the farmer coastline.

The opinion that these beds originated under shallow water conditions in

quiet backwaters. in which estuarine and marine deposits were tntcriningled, anv

the author’s long association with anthropology, led to the close examination uf

the beds for human and animal remains, when acl where this did not detract

materially from the primary objective of the Survey, the geographical an

geological mapping of the area for its petroleum potentialities. All such examina-

tions of these Pleistocene deposits had therefore to be brief, and the author can-

siders himself fortunate that despite the incompleteness of the examination, which

should have oecupied months instead of the few hours that could be devoted tu

it, the search was tewarded by the discovery of the human skull fragments.

The examination of a section of these beds exposed ma cliff face forming

the bank of the Paniri Creck just above its junction with the Kiyen Creek,

showed a completely undisturbed layer of fossil shells dipping gently i a

northerly direction, The close examination of as much material a5 was possible

in the time available—about four hours—resnited in the discovery of the skull

fragments and a carbonized fossil fruit resembling a coconut, and the collection

of a number of shells and maternal containing Loraminiferal renmins. The skull

fragments were abtaincd at a Tevel approximately four fect below the ereded

upper surface of the formation, ot which a total thickness of 10 feet is exposed

in this section.

204

The eroded upper surface of this formation is overlain by coarse gravel beds,

twelve feet in thickness, which immediately underlie the subsoil, soil and primary

forest cover.)

SECTION OF BANK OF LOWER PANIRI CREEK

o4 85 a4 5 " zo FEET ae |

Tig. 2

The whole of this sequence is exposed in the cliff face forming the site of

the discovery and is reproduced in the section included in the text.

While a search of the site failed to disclose any other remains either human

or animal, this search was by no means exhaustive. Further, the occurrence of

oittcrops of this formation in numerous places, which could be given only a brief

examination, as well as their recorded occurrence outside the areas surveyed by

the author, suggest the necessity for their detailed exarnination for human and

animal temains, an examination that was not within the scope of the petroleum

survey during which the discovery was made.

The skull fragments have beet described in detail by Penner (1941), and

the associated fossils by the Commonwealth Palaeontologist, see Nason-Jones

(1930), and by B. C. Cotton, see Fenner (1941). While there is some discrepancy

in the two lists of species identified, due partly perhaps to the fact that two

separate lots were examined, both wrilers agree that the fossil suite exhibits

forms of fresh and brackish water and. matine species.

The collection of fossils submitted to the Commonwealth Palaeontologist,

whose identifications are quoted below (Nason-Jones 1930), included, it was

supplied to Fenner gave the thickness of the gravel beds as 6 ff.

205

believed, all the types represented, and was the main collection. The collection

retained by the present writer and examined later by Cotton (Fenner 1941) con-

tained, it was thought, only such types as were duplhieated.,

The following fossils, obtained from this site hy the present writer, are listed

by Nason-Jones. (1930)

PELECYPopa—

Arca nodosa Puphio afl, alba

ef, Eryeinra sp. Placenta mandirantfoncnsis

(74STEROPEDA——

Néritina sp. Melama denisoniensis

Melania woodwardt Melania seabra

FoRAMINIFERA—

Cibictdes praecinetus Icterostegita sp.

Cristellaria orbicularis Operculinela venosa

Cristellaria cultraia Operculina granulosa

Cristellaria calcaratu Palystomella craticulata

Lpamdes lumidus Owngueloculing lamarckiana

Eponides procera Rotalia sp. nov.

Epistomina eleguns Roatalta schroeteriana

Globigerina triloba Rotalia papillosa

Cotton (Fenner 1941) lists the following fossils in the lot examined by him,

which too was collected at the site hy the present writer —

“lrca (Tegillarca) granosa Linn. Cyclophorus sp.

Telescoptum fuscum. Schumacher Melania ci. guncea Lea

Papuine sp.; Land Shell AMelania cf. recta Lea

Nerttina cornea Linn. Melanw cf. canalivulata. Reeve

Neritina sonzerbianda Montrouzier Cyrene coarans Gmelin

Laoma sp.

The fossil fruit was submitted to Professor T, G, B, Osborn, at that tinie

Professor of Botany at the University of Sydney. A report on the examination

was forwarded to the writer and the following is a summary of Professor

Osborn’s conclusions,

“Morphologically this palm fruit closely resembles that of Cocos nuciferer,

the coconut, Its drupaceous unilocular character places it close to Cocos in the

Cocoineae section of the Paluiaceae, Its large size is also characteristic of the

fruit of the coconut palm, Anatomically it also shows a strong resemblance to

Cocos nucifera.”

As stated above, the argillaceous deposits included in the Upper Wanimo

Group occur on the lower slopes of the hill areas near their interscetion with the

alluvial plains, and he unconiormably upon the eroded surfaces of the steeply

folded rocks ranging from Pliocene to the older Tertiary in age. In the Barida

Range area they were observed in all the streams draining that range, both on

the northern and seaward slopes as well as on the southern slopes facing the

Mene-Bliri River floodplain, and parallel to the valley sides af those two streams.

They were recognised also ou the southern and inland slopes of the Oenake

Range facing the Pual-Neumayer Plain, and to a less extent on the northern and

seaward. slopes of that range.

DISCUSSION

A review of the literature dealing with the island of New Guinea indicates

that argillaceous and calcareous deposits referable to this formation have been

observed in many localities presenting similar topographic features. These

Meistocene deposits will he telerred ta in detail ina paper which is in course of

preparation. Various observers are in agreement that these deposits and the

enormous areas of juvenile drainage characteristic of the island of New Gajnea

indicate recent emergeuce of the land and hence elevation. [t ig Leue thal

mumerons localities are known where differential movement has taken place. How-

ever, the accurrence at intervals around the island of coustal plains with thet?

abrupt fransition to hill areas, and the wide distribution of shallow water depusiis

Of muds and silt fringing the hill areas, would necessitate, if clevatiun of the lanel

be postolated, the upward movement of the whole of the island of New Gries

is a block.

The writer is unable to aceept this hypothesis and believes that alternations

in sea-level supply the correer explanation for the regional character af these

lopographic and stratigraphic features.

Alternatious i sea-level have been due to various causes. In discussing

marine sediments and features of Pleistocene age, however, the effects of the

generally accepted fluctuations in sea-level during the Pleistacene Ice Age merit

first vonsileration, In the writer's opinion sich fluctuations can and da explain

satisfactorily the topographic and stratigraphic Leatures discussed above.

Tt is suggested as probable that the mpper limit of transgression of the beds

of the Upper Wanimo Group, where the heights ahove sea-level af such lintits

ire consistent over a sufficiently large area, marks the upper limit of transgression

ot the Mieistocciie Ocean prior ta the commencement of the First Glacial Period,

IE this is accepted, the first retreat marks the commeneement of the Pleisto:

cene Ice Age, In the locality discussed in detail, fluctuations and subsequent

advances and retreats. of the sea are maskerl by the extensive alluvial deposirs

lIowever, the observed erosion surface on the upper surface of the argillaccons

facies of the Upper Wantimo Group and deposition thereon of wrter-sorted gravels

suggest the return of the sea to its original limits, and such return could perhaps

he correlated with the First Interglacial Period,

Tt might be argued that the postulated successive advances and recessions of

sea-level during the Pleistocene Ice Age could account for the varied environment

of the fossil tauna of the Panirt Creek deposit, The deposit, however, exhibits

no evidence of any break in deposition from ils base where it rests unconformably

on the Pinsch Coast Series, to its upper eroded surface on which lie the gravel

and boulder beds. Further, although the fogstl shells and foraminifera exhibit

a varied environment, all of them were obtained frant the narrow zone indicated

in the accompanying section. It is obvious, therefore, that if atieeessive advances

of the sea occurred, sea-level rose ta ifs amginal height oly once, at the stage

during which the upper parts of the deposit were eroded, or alternatively, if a

uumbey of advances of the sea occurred, all evidence of previous transgressions

except that of the last two has been removed completely. If such were the case,

then the deposits in question could have been lait down at a date stage of the

Pleistocene. Further research may permit of a decision being made, but if the

latler supposition should prove to be correct, then the writer’s view that these

deposits date back to Early Pleistocene obviously caunol be mailained.

The writer desires to pomt ont, however. that should it be possible to

correlate the inital retreat of the sca due to the commencement of the Pleisto-

cene Ice Age with the upper limits of the Waninio Group, the occurrence of

tutian remains with Australoid affinities in these heds would prove the existence

of Man m New Guinea poor to the cammencement of the [ce Age. Tt would

follow that Man, even if he had no knowledge of sea travel, could have entered

Australia as sonn as the increase in the amount vf glaciation had lowered sea-level

sufficiently for hint ty crass the present Vorres Strait uver narrow and shallow

207

stretches of water. Even should further research place these beds higher in the

Pleistocene sequence than postulated by the writer, their dating, 1f this be found

possible, will have an important bearing on the date of the entry into Australia

of Australoid Man,

The emphasis placed on the argillaceous facies rather than on the calcareous

facies of the Upper Wanimo Group is due to the greater amount of information

supplied by the former and the difficulty in many instances of determining by field

examination the age of the caleareous deposits.

A stndy of both facies will be necessary if further work in the directions

indicated is undertaken.

The widespread occurrences of the argillaceous beds. however, and the pos-

sible occurrence in them of animal and human remains, suggests the importance

of a detailed examination of all the accessible deposits of this formation not only

in New Guinea, but also the search for them in adjacent islands,

SUMMARY

This paper describes in detail the occurrence inland from Aitape, in Northern

New Guinea, of fossil human skull fragments embedded in and contemporaneous

with deposits of Pleistocene Age. It the writer’s opinion, it may be possible to

correlate the upper beds of these deposits with the commencement of the Pleisto-

cene Ice Age and to date them therefore as Early Pleistocene, but much more

research is necessary before stich a correlation can be accepted. It is pointed

out also that the widespread occurrence of such deposits in New Guinea (and

probably in adjacent islands) offers a promising field for such research, Any

positive evidence which would assist the dating of these deposits would affect

materially the views held of the time of Australoid Man’s entry to Australia.

REFERENCES

Nason-Jones, J. 1930 Geology of the Finsch Coast Area, North-West New

Guinea, in the Oil Explor. Work in Papua and New Guinea by the

Anglo-Persian Oil Co., on behalf of the Comm, Govt. of Aust., 1920-

1929

Fenner, F, J. 1941 Ree. S. Aust., Mus., 6, 4

ON SOME REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM THE NORTHERN

TERRITORY

By ARTHUR LOVERIDGE

Summary

In herpetological literature of a century ago Port Darwin and Port Essington frequently appeared as

type localities of considerable importance. Since those days relatively little has been added to our

knowledge of the herpetofauna of Australia’s Northern Territory. It was, therefore, with

considerable satisfaction that the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University received

part of the collections made during 1944 and 1945 by Mr. T. R. Tovell of the Australian Imperial

Force, particularly so as it contained half-a-dozen species unrepresented in the museum’s collection,

of which one — Typhlops tovelli — had to be described as new.

208

CN SOME REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS FROM THE

NORTHERN TERRITORY

By AgtHur Loyeripcn +)

(Communicated by H. Womersley )

In herpetological literature Of a century ago Port Darwin and Port Essing-

ton frequently appeared as type loculitics of considerable importance. Sihce those

days relatively little has been added to our knowledge of the herpetofauna of

Australia’s Northern Territory, It was, therefore, with considerable satisfaction

that the Museum of Comparative Zoulogy at Harvard University received part

of the collections invade during 1944 and 1945 hy Mr. T. R. Tovell of the Aus-

tralian Imperial Force. particularly so as it contained halt-a-dozen species un-

represented in the museum's collection, of which one—Typilops tovelli—had to

he described as new.

Unfortunately, the data accompanying the first consignment was not toa

precise. Subsequently, Mr. Tovell kmdly supplied me with the following

mformation about the localities which had originally been stuimarised as “near

Darwin”.

They are Batchelor, at about 60 miles south of Darwin; Werrima and

Knuckey's Lagoon, about ¥ miles: Koonewarra, about 7 nvles; and Noonamah,

ahout 24 miles south of Darwin.

TyriLops rover. ( Loveridge)

Typhlops lovelli toveridge, 1945, Proc, Biol. Soe. Washington, 58, LI1:

Koonowarra Sports Ground, Northern Territory, Australia.

2 (MACLZ. 48844-5), Koonowarra Sports Ground,

Midbody scale rows 20; snout rounded, nasal cleft proceeding from preocular.

Diameters included in total length 36-40 times. Total length, 122 (118°5 +

3:5) min,

TyPniLors GUENTITERL Peters

Typhlops (Onychocephalus) quenthert Peters, 1865, Monatsh, Akad. Wiss.

4erlin, 259, pl. ——, fig. 1: Northern Australia.

1 (M.C.Z. 48843). Batchelor.

Midhody scale-rows 18; snout rounded; nasal cleft proceeding trom second

labial, Diameter 2°75 mm., included in total length 63 times. Total length

175 (172-5 + 2°5) mm.

This blind shake appeais to be closely related to 7. wiedii Peters of Brisbane,

Queenslatid. U1 would be interesting to know whether this black-tailed species

carries the tail upraised Wke a false head, aiter the manner of the Asiatic Mulicora,

the African Chilorhmophis, the American 4postolepis, ete.

NaATRix MAIRN Marten (Gray)

Tropidonotus mairii Gray, 1841, in Grey, Journ. Exped. West Atistralia,

2, 442: Australia.

11 hatehings (M,C.Z, 48851-61), Winnelite near Darwin,

Midbody scale-rows 15; ventrais 136-146; anals 2; subcandals 56-61; upper

labials 8, the third, fourth and fifth entering the orbit. except on right side of

M.C.Z. 48858 where third and fourth are fused resulting in 7 labials; lower

lahials 8, the first five in contact with the anterior chin shield; preoculars 1,

Heaney, Roy. Suc, S, Aust, 72, (2), 30 March 1949,

209

except ou left side of M.C.Z. 48859 where there are 2; postoculars 3, Total

feneth about 187 (147 +40) mun

These cleven young were taken from a batch of twelve eggs, one of which

had already hatched, found about 20 April, 1.0, at the begining of the dry seasai,

beneath a pile ef rubbish. When found some eggs were single, others slightly

cemented together in twos or threes. They measured approximately 25 x 16 Wu,

(T.R.T).

_ Trinomials are necessary since the separation by Rrongersma (1948) af a

well-defined race in Dutch New Guinea.

CERBERUS RYNCIOVS AUSTRALIS (Gray)

Hamalopsis australis Gray, 1842. Zool. Mise., 65: Port Essington, Norther

Territory, Australia.

9 @ (M.C.Z_) 48846, 48862), Fariny Bay about 14 miles trom Darwin.

Midbody scule-rows 23-25; ventrals I43-l44; anals 2: suhcaudals 44-51)

nostril cleft in contact with second labial; wpper labials 8-10; separated fron

orbit by suboculars; 3-4 lower lahials in contact with an anteriwr chin shiel.

Larger ¥ (M.C.Z. 48862), 587 (486 + 101) mm.

(ne was found lying at the bottom of a salt pan (T. R. T.). That Cerberus,

and not Hurria, is the correct name for these water snakes was pointed out by

Malevltu Smith {1930), and that rynchops, not rhynchops, was Sehneider'’s

original spelling by Loveridge (1948) when describing a new race and providing

a key to the gertus.

ASPIDOMORPHUS CHRISTIEANUS (Fry)

Pseudelaps christicanus Pry, 1915, Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 27, 91, fig. 6:

Fert Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.

9 {M.C.Z. 48847), near Darwin.

Midbady scale-rows 17; ventrals 195; anals 2; subeaudais 47> labials 7.

third and fourth entering the orbit. Total length 350 (300 + 50) mim,

This gravid ?, which carrics three eggs each measuring about 26 x G mm..

has more ventrals and fewer subcaudals than the topotype ¢ already in our

collection. That Pstudclaps of Duméril is a synonym of Aspidomorphus has

DEMANSIA PsAMMOPIIS (Schlegel)

Elaps psummophis Schlegel, 1837, Phys, Serp.. 2,455: Australia. Elope-

cephalus ornaticeps Macleay, 1878, Proc, Linn, Soc. N-S.W., 2, 221: Port Dar-

win, Northern Territory, Australia,

&? (M-C.Z. 48848-9), Batchelor and Rerrima.

Midbody setale-rows 15; ventrals 180-181; anals 2: subsaudals 70 (2)

-91 (3) pairs; upper labials 6, the third and fourth centering the orbit. Total

length of ¢ (M.C.Z. 48848), 290 (252 4- 58) mm.

The head of the young ¢ is black ahove and scarcely distinct from the deep

black nuchal bar; the body is fawn, each seale with a somewhat paler edge. The

head of the older 3 is oliye with the markings described by Macleay.

I follow Kanghorn (1942, 118). who has had the advantage of examining

much mere material, ii relegating ornaticeps, of which these specimens are almost

topotypes, to the synonyiny. Llowever, the fame proposed by Macleay was

Flapocephatus, not dilapognalitus as cited by Kinghorn. Kinghorn’s conclusion

appears to haye been based largely on the highly variable colouration, known tr

change with age, IJ would suggest the possibility af a northern race with more

numerous suheaudals for which the name alfvacca Gray, 1842, would be available.

If the Australian Museum's material could be sexed and arranged geographically

to supplement that furnished by Boulenger (1896, 322-324), while ignoring

Boulentger’s arrangement based on colour, the point might be settled.

210

DEMANSIA TEXTILIS NUCITALIs (Gunther)

Pseudonaja. uuchalis Giinther, 1858, Cat. Snakes Brit. Mus., 3, 2272 Port

Essington, Northern Territory, Australia.

é@ (M.C,Z, 48850), near Noonamah.

Midbody scale-vows 17; ventrals 197; anals 2; subeaudals 63+ pairs; upper

labiats 6-7 (left and yight), the inird and fourth entering the orbit. Total lengti

af &, 1130 (940 + 190+) nim.

HETERONUTA BiNOEL Gray

Heterovola binoci Gray, 1845, Cat. Liz. Brit. Mus., 174; Lloutman’s Abrolhios,

Western Australia,

18 (M.C.Z. 48801-6), Batchelor or Kerrima.

Dorsal tubercles keeled, m 12-16 rows, usually 14; preanal pores of eight

tales 4-5. Largest @ (M.C.Z. 48801), 105 (48 4-57) nm.

By day these geckos hide under any Object not of ti Or iron, the heat of

which is too great during the noon hors (T. R. TL).

DmeLopacTyLus stniceres ciaAris Boulenger

Diplodactylus ciliaris Boulenger, 1885, Cat. |.iz. Tyrit. Miis., 1, 98, pl. viii,

fig. 2: Port Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.

Juy, (M.C.Z. 48807), near Darwin,

Dorsal tubercles flat, Forming 2 ill-defined rows; no pores, Length, 53

(32-+.21) mm,

OFDURA RHOMBIFER Gray

Oedura rhombifer Gray, (844, Zool, Erebus & Terror, Rept. pl. xvi, fig. 6:

Australia,

3 (M.C.Z.), near Darwin.

Dorsals granular, small; femoral pores 12-+ 12, being separated in preanil

region by five scales; tail depressed, aval. Length 87 (43 +44) mm.

The shape of the tail conflicts with Boulenger’s redescription and conforms

to what has been noted by Kinghorn (1942, 120).

Since the separation of the African geckos under the name of Afroecdura

(Loveridge, 1944), the range of Oedwra is restricted to the Australian region,

GRHYRA VARIEGATA AUSTRALIS Gray

Gehyra australis Gray, 1845, Cat. Liz, Brit, Mus., 163: Port Essington and

Swan River, Australia.

3d @ (M.C.Z, 48864-5), near Darwin,

Dorsals granular, small; preanal pores 14 in male; scansors not separated

by a median groove, Length ot ¢, 124 (62 +62) mm.; 2, 109 (53 4-56) mm,

Taken in au old! building at MeMillan’s (T, R. T.). Gehyra (part), Gray,

1834, antedates the use of Peropus Wicemann, 1835, for this gens.

DiporiPHoRA BILINEATA Gray

Diporiphora bilineuta Gray, 1842, Zaal. Misc., 34: Port Essington, Norther

Territory, Australia.

5 (M.C.Z. 48808-11), Batchelor or Berrima.

Gular fold absent; preanal pores 2 in male; tail twice the length of head and

body. Tength af @ (M.C.Z. 48808), 179 (32. 127) mm.; 2 (M.C.Z. 48809),

166 (55 -+ 111) mim.

Timaua scrncomes sctxcorpes (Shaw)

Lacera scintcoides Shaw, 1790, i White, Journ, Voyage N.S.W., App, 242,

pl. ———: New South Wales.

Juv. (M.C.Z. 48817), Berrima,

211

Midbody scale-rows 36; anterior temporal as Jong us interparietal; forelimb

shorter than head and contained about twice in distance from axilla to groin.

Length, 154 (102 + 52) mm.

In vicw of its small size the proportions of this. skink are interesting for com-

parison with those of the New Guinea race—T. s. yigas (Sehueider).

LYGOSOMA (SPILENOMORPHUS) TAENIOLATUAD TAENIOLATUM (Shaw)

Lacerta tacuiolola Shaw, 1790, in White, Journ. Voyage N.5.W.. App.. 245,

pl. xxxii, fig. Ll: New South Wales,

3 (M.CZ. 48818-20), Hatchelor or Lerrima.

Midbody scale-tows 24-26; prefrontals separated, AJL three are jmmature-

Owing to the findings of Malcolm Smith (1937, 213), Sphenemorphus and

Leiolopisma are yelegated with some wusvivings to their former status of sub-

genera or, as Smith prefers to call them. “sections”.

LYGOSOMA (SPUENOMORPIIUS) FiscireRr Doulenger

Lygasonia fischert Boulenger, 1887, Car, Liz. Brit. Mus., 3, 2283; na. for

L. mucelleri Fischer (preac.), 1882, Arch, Naturg., 295, pl. xvi, fig. 16-19: Nicol

Bay, Western Australia.

2 (M.C.Z, 48821-2), Batchelor or Berrima.

Midbody scaic-rows 30; prefrontais separated; colouring characteristic

Jength of 9, 143 (49+ 94) mm.

Eneysted nematodes are numcrous on ¢xternal surface of stomach.

LycosomMa (SPHENGMORPHUS) ISULEPIS ISOLEPS. houlenger

Lygosome isolepis Boulenger, 1887, Cat. Liz. Brit. Mus., 3, 234, pl, xv, fig. 1:

Nicol Bay and Swan River, Western Australia.

2 (M.C.Z. 48823), Batchelor or Berrima,

Midbody seale-rows 30; lamellae beneath fourth toe 23, Length of ¢, 149

(72--+- 77) mm., but tail-tip regenerated.

Agrecing in all respects with the typical form rather than with L. 2. forrest

Kinghorn (1932, 358), this gravid @ holds four eggs measuring about 12x 7 mnt.

Lycosoma (LEIOLOPISMA) PECTORALE (De Vis)

Heteropus pectoralis De Vis, 1885, Proc. Roy. Soc. Old,, 1, 169: Warro,

Port Curtis, Queensland.

14 (M.C.Z, 48826-36), Batchelor or Berrima.

Midbody scale-rows 26-32; lamellae bencath fourth toe 19-27, in one specimen

there are 24 on the right and 27 on the Icit toe. Largest ¢ (M.C.Z. 48826),

118 (41 + 77) min,

In addition there were 13 damaged examples from same series or “near

Darwin”, which were not retained. All but iwo of them were of the strongly

keeled pectorule type, two others with dark throats represent the synonym

munudum De Vis (1885), their dorsal scales being almost smooth vet faintly

tricarinate dorso-laterally,

A. large specimen was recoyered [rom the stomach of a Linliy burtoms. In

the axilla of another of these skims were some mites (Troubicnla sp.n.), for

whose identification Tam indebted to Mr. H. Womersley of the South Australian

Museum. “Che species will he described in Mr. Womersley’s forthcoming

monograph.

Lycosoma (LyGosomMa) PUNCTULAYEM Peters

Lygosoma punctilatum Peters, 1871, Monatsh. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 646,

pl. ——, fig, 5: Port Bowen, Queensland.

212

1 (M.C.Z. 48866), Winnellic, near Darwin,

Midbody scale-rows 20; digits 5; toes 5; lamellae beneath fourth toe 14,

Length 118 (44-74) mm.

In life brown with a coppery sheen (T. R. T.).

Lyoasoma (LYcosoma) PUMiLIUM Boulenger

Lygosome. pumilian Boulenger, 1887, Cat. iz, Grit. Mus,. 3, 323: Cape

York, Queensland.

2 (M.C.Z. 48834-5), Batchelor or Rerrima.

Midbody scale-raws 20; digits 5; toes 5; lamellae beneath fourth toe 18-L9-

Larger measures 91 (41 + 50) mm.

‘The alleged difference in relative size of nostril and ear-opening between

pumilium and punctulatwm is uot apparent. LL. pumilinm seers to be closely

related to crassicaundnim which Malcolm Smith (1937, 322) refers to his new

section Jetiscincus,

ABLEPHARUS BOUTONIT METALLICUS Boulenger

Ablepharis bextonii var. metallicus Bouwlenger, 1887, Cat. Liz. Brit. Mus.

3, 347: North Australia.

4 (M.C.Z. 48337, 48867), Batchelor or berrina,

Midbody seale-rows 22-24; lamellae beneath fourth toe 17-20. Largest only

measures 93. (38 -+- 55) wm.

In life iridescent grey with black markings. Found on trees and yiosts, not

wider logs or in grass. A very active skink (T. R. T.).

ABLEPTIARUS LINEQOCELLATUS LINEOOCELLATUS Dumeril anil Bibron

Ablepharus linco-ocellatus Duméril and Pibron, 1839, Erpéi, Gen., 5, 817:

Australia.

5 (M.C.Z, 48838-42), Batchelor ar Berrima.

Midbody scale-rows 24-26; lamellae beneath fourth toc 17-18; supranasa!s

absent. All young, the smallest only 29+ (14+ 15+) nin, its tail-tip missing. This

little snake-eyed skink disgorged a spider.

DELMA FRASER! FRASERT Gray

Delina fraseri Gray, 1831, Zool, Mise., 14; Western Australia.

4 (M.C.Z. 48812-5), Batchelor or Berrima,

Snout as long as, or longer than, the distance between eye and cat;

frontonasals in 2 pairs; fourth labial below eye; midbody scale-rows 16;

anals 3, except in M.C.Z. 48814, where the wedge-shaped central scale fails io

reach the anal border. Largest measures 75 mm. from stout to anus, fail missing.

All taken beneath rocks; quite common in this area (T. Rk. T.),

Liauis nurtonts Gray

Lialis burtonis Gray. 1834, Proc, Zool. Soc, London, 134: New Sottil Wales,

2 (M.C.Z. 48816), Berrima.

Rostral twice as broad as high; upper labials 14; preanal pores 4; colour

form punctulata, Length of ¢, 260 (200-++ 60) mm., bit tail regenerating.

The oviducts of this gravid 9 held two undeveloped eggs ineasuring about

20x 12mm. In its stomach is a skink (Lygosoma pectorale)} measuring 49 mm.

from stioul to anus,

CycLORANA AUSTRALIS (Gray)

Altes australis Gray, 1842, Zool. Misc., 56: North coast of Australia, ir,

Port Essington, Northern Territory, Australia,

2 (M.C.Z. 26002), MeMillans, near Darwin.

213

These juvenile forms are so shrivelled by itnmersion in strong formalin that

theic habits might be described as “slender’’, ic, in this respect referable tu

aboguttatus (Gunther) of Parker’s (1940, 16) key, which differentiates the twa

species as follows:

Zygomatic process of the squatosal heavily sculptured und

forming a broad suture with the maxilla, Habitus stout ... ww eRstralis

Zygomatic process not sculptured aid separated from the

maxilla, wr oonly very narrowly in contact with it. Tlabitus

slender . = salt 1% i f dy iu vee Ubguthadies

Rot Parker (1940, 20) is mistaken in referring part of my (1935, 13)

albogutiatus to the synonymy of australis and suggesting that the frog (M.C.Z.

11647) from Alexandra (rot Alexandria), Northeru Territory, is really an

vastralis, Vt is true that the frog was received from the British Museum in $925

as 'Phractops tustralis’ (presumably identified by Boulenger), but both in zygo-

matic structure and colour pattern it agrees with alboguttalus. That the British

Museum skeleton of another frog taken at Alexandra by the same collector

happens to be qusfralis is interesting, for Parker records both species as occurrilig

at Port Denison, Queensland. Despite their close relationship the two spevies are

quite distinct,

The larger frog measured 45 mm. and was taken in a ditch of stagnant water

about six miles north of Darwin, the smaller was im sand behind the beach at

Lee Point about ten miles north of the town (TR ‘P.).

LIM NODYNASTES CONVEXIUSCULUS (Macleay)

Ranaster convexiusenlus Macleay, 1828, Proc Linn Suc. N-S.W., 2, 135,;

Iatew, @c.. Binaturt River, Dutch New Guinea.

5 (M-C.Z. 26003-7), near Darwin.

Vomerine teeth extending well beyond lateral borders of choanac; first and

second fingers stibequal; inber metacarpal tubercle slightly longer than the second:

asingle metatarsal Luberele which is not shoyel-shaped., Largest (M.C.Z. 26003).

ineastites SO tim.

Jn lite. Above, marbled with black aud grey: the spots someumes fAneh

edeed with white. Below, white vermicnlated (with brown). (T. RB. T.)

This species has heen recorded already from Darwin by Parker (1940, 54).

As he has scen the type ot L. elivaceus De Vis, which he refers to the synonymy Gf

ronveriusculus, it must be assuined that De Vis’ description of olizacrus as hayine

Livo metatarsal tubercles is erroneous, Parker is quite correet in concluding my

(1935, 19) L. sulmvai Steindachner is a composite, for both Queensland frows

(M.CLZ, 3610. 2623) conform to his new definition of converinsculus.

Ureronei, revcosa (Andersson)

Pseudaphryne rugase Andersson, 1916, Svenska Vetensk-Aka. andl, 52,

Na. 9, 31; pb i, fig. 4: Colossenm, southern Queensland.

1 (M.C.Z. 23991), Noanamah,

Ii correctly ideutilied, this 18 mm, juvenile is the first example of rugosu ta

he recorded from the Northern Territory. Also the first of its species in the

Museum of Comparative Zoclogy, jor L (1935, 31) erred in making ringasa a sub-

species of wiarmorafe aud the five frogs then referred to OU. on. rnyasa are simply

marintorata. As the ranges are largely co-extensive, Parker (1940, 70) did not

(eteet my moistake and the ciation un his p. 70 should he transferred to p. 69,

CRINIA SIGNIFERA SIGNIFERA Girard

Crinta (anidella) siguifera Girard, 1853, Proc, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

6, 421; “New Follatid,’ we, Australia,

214

8 (M.CZ, 35999-20000) Kiuckey’s Lagoon.

All are juvenile, the largest measuring only 12 mim. Six of them were taken

beneath a pandanus trunk (T. R. T.).

This is the form to which Darwin frogs are referred by Parker (1940, 87),

whose synonymizitg of my 1935 references is probably correct, for I utilised

or stressed other characters in defining the species of this difficult genus which

he hias so thoroughly revised.

ANLA CAERULEA (Shaw)

Jtana caerulea Shia, in White, Journ. Voyage NUS.W,, App, 248, pl, ——:

New South Wales.

4 (M.C.Z, 25992-3), Berrima.

Vomerine teeth betwee the posterior borders of the choanae, fron, which

they ace well separated: head as long as, or shorter than, broad; snout once and

a half as long ag eye; tytnpanuin two-thirds to seven-eighths the orbital diameter ;

outer finger half webbed; heel of adpressed hind limb reaches the tympanum ar

eye. Length af ¢ (M.C.Z. 25992), 72 mm,, of ¢, 74 mm.

The largest was taken at night on rocky ground, the others between sheets

al galvanised trou al Larrakeyah Barracks (T. R, T.),

HYLA RUBELLA Gray

Tyla rubella Gray, 1842, Zool. Misc., 57: Port Lssington, Northern ‘lerri-

tory, Australia.

@ (M.C.Z, 23998), Knuckey’s Lagoon.

Vamerine teeth between the posterior borders of the choanae: head luinyger

thai broad; snout once and a half as long as eye; tympanum two-thirds the orbital

dianieter ; outer huger without web; heel of adpressed hind limb reaches shoulder.

Leneth of gravid 9, 32 mm.

HyLaA avRea (lesson)

Rone aurea Lesson, 1830, Zool. m Duperrey, Voyage autour du Monde

w. sar... La Coquille, 2, 60, plo vil, ig. 2: Macquarrie and Bathurst Rivers,

New South Wales.

5 (M.C.Z. 25994-5}, Knuckey'’s Lagoon.

Vomerine teeth between the choanae; bead as long as, or longer than, broad ;

shout cnee aud a half as long as.cye; tympaniim three-quarters of, or equal to, the

Webital diameter; outer finger withoul web. Too shrivelled toe be worth

measuring.

JIXLA NASUTA (Cray)

Pelodvies wasula Gray. 1842, Zool. Mise.. 86: Port Essington, Northern

‘Teeritory, Australia.

2 (M.C.Z. 26001), near Darwin,

Vomerine teeth belween the choenac; head much longer than broad; snont

iWwide as loug as the eve; tympanum seven-eighths, or equal to, the orbital diameter;

puter finger without web; heel of the adpressed hind lin) reaches beyond tip of

sont. Lareer meastres 43 mm.

In life greentsh-black with a broad brown stripe down centre of back. Found

aneng leaves after burning of spear grass at McMillan's, about six mules from

Darwin (TLR, FL).

DIBLTOGRAPILY

Rovnmncer, G. A, 1896 “Catalogte of the Snakes in the British Museum

(Natural History),’ (ed. 2, London), 3, xii-+ 575, pls. i-x]

215

Kkincrorn, J. R. 1942 “Herpetological Notes, No. 4.” Rec. Australian Mus.,

21, 118-121, fig. 1

Lovertpcr, A, 1935 “Australian Amphibia in the Museum of Comparative

Zovlogy, Cambridge, Massachusetts.” Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., 78, 1-62,

pl.

Parxer, H. W. 1940 “The Australian Frogs of the Family J.eptodactylidac.”

Novit. Zool. (Tring), 42, 1-108, fig. 1-20, pl. i

Sautn, M. A. 1937 “A Review of the Genus Lygosoma (Scincidae: Reptilia}

and its Allies.” Rec. Indian Mus., 39, 213-234, fig. 1-5

THE ECOLOGY OF THE WESTERN CLARE HILLS, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By C. D. BOOMSMA

Summary

The object of this paper is to describe the ecology of the E. macrorryncha and related associations,

since little has been published on its occurrence in South Australia. A description of a fibrous-

barked eucalypt in a personal communication by Mr. C. B. Scarfe led to a field examination in the

Clare district. The eucalypt was located and it proved to be E. macrorryncha, thus constituting a re-

discovery, since Tate records it for this district in his notebook in 1889, which is the same as his

Adelaide district in hi Flora of South Australia of 1890. Later, in 1907, Maiden (6) briefly

acknowledged Tate in recording its occurrence for the Adelaide district, but after a field excursion

he denied its presence in 1909 (7). Black (1), in 1926, followed suit by omitting to record it, but

Blakely (2), in 1934, records it for the Adelaide district. Similarly, it is not recorded in the most

recent work by Burbidge (3).

216

THE ECOLOGY OF THE WESTERN CLARE HILLS, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

With Special Reference to the Disjunct Occutrence of E. macrorryncha (F.v.M.)

By C, D, Boomsma *

[Read October 14 1948]

The object of this paper is ta describe the ecology of the i. inacrorryneha aivl

related associations, since little has been published on its occurrence in Smuth

Australia, A description of a fibrous-barked eucalypt in a personal commuimica-

eucalypt was located and it proved to be £. macrorryncha, thus constituting a 1¢-

discovery, since Tate records it for this district in his notehook in 1889, which is

the same as his Adelaide district in his Flora of South Australia of 1890. Later,

in 1907, Maiden (6) briefly acknowledged Tate in recording its occurrence for

the Adelaide district, but after a field excursion he denied its presence

1909 (7). Black (1), in 1926, followed suit by omitting to record it, but

akely (2), in 1934, records it for the Adelaide district. Similarly, it is not

recorded in the most recent work by Burbidge (3).

The area comprises 40 square miles of range country, being the western hall

of the Hundred of Clare, lying directly west of the main Adelaide to Clare road,

E. macrorryacha is limited to the uplands east of the divide. See fig, 1 and 2.

The divide has an clevation of 1,500 feet; a few peaks are higher, and it ts

dissected by inany smal] valleys formed by the winter-flowing (ributaries. of the

flutt River. Valley formation has been slow, so the topography is accordingly

rugged and surface run-off is rapid.

In the main. the bedrock is of Proterozoic age and is quartzite or sandstone

with limited occurrence of argillaccous rocks. The general strike is north and

south, as shown by the north-south direction uf the axis of the range. Inter

mittent winter springs were obseryed which may indicate fault zones, otherwise

mm) fants were observed.

CLIMATE

Rainfall—The rainfall is mainly derived from the normal winter rains due

io the general west to east movement of the pressure systems, wich infrequent

heavy summer rains due to tropical troughs. from the north, The mean annual

rainfall in the tanges ig 27 inches, with 19 inches in the winter six months and

8 mches in the stummer six months. I is probable that this rugged topography

produces Incal rain-shadows with rainfalls up to 30 inches per annum. High

suminer iemperatures are frequent and severe frosts are common. The frosts

may be experienced during a period of seven months of the year, In reneral.

the cliniate is cold and wet in winter, watm and dry with occasional frost in

early sunimer.

SOILS

Kield observations show that the soils are, in gencral, shallow; skeletal soils

are frequent in oecurrence, and deeper transported sails are limited io the

broader Hutt River valley. Slight podsolisatiou is general, as most of the sails

have a grey sandy-loam surface horizon and up to 20 inches of slightly oxidised

clays. in the lower horizon. Occasionally a red-brown clay is observed with ber

rock at less than 36 inches.

Trak. Roy, Soe. B. Ayet., 72, (2), ch Mace bh 1949,

pes

“I

VEGETATION ASSOCIATION

CLARE DISTRICT

HO MILNE |

SSaeee

SSSSSS STS

Feleophors

EZ kconslelslensis

TTT. feucorylon

@ Cathiters progirgua

BLYTH

Cas, stricta

SY & Benksés marginals

QO Eeverato

NIWORT HAM

Tic. |

VEGETATION

Mloristics—The nomenclature of eucalypts is after Blakely (2) and that of

the other species after Black (1). The Horistic make-up of the understorey 4s

continuous in all the forest types, being composed of occasional scattered trees of

Casuarina stricla, Callitris propingua, Acacia pycnantha, and Exocarpus cupressi-

formis; Bursaria spinosa, Acacia Wattsiana, Hibbertia stricta, and Lissanthe

218

sirigasa are the chief shrubs. The commonest geophyte is Tliysanolus dichotomus,

and the characteristic ground cover of grasses consists of Themeda australts,

Hunthonia spp. and Stipa spp. Leguminous shrubs are missing quite frequently

from the understorey, which is unusual when there is a stringybark dominant.

LF BLAD

jece see ie eet A tie

a on

wie

THE PECOEOLD DISTRIBUTION OF

EF MATEORM HCA Felt THE

Saye NM TALES AFTER CE

CARTELS SOUTH AMSTPALTA

AY ¢ OD Bete Nata

Fig, 2

Alssoctations—Those present are all dominated by the eucalypts E. cameldi-

leusis, E. leucoxylon, EF. claeopharw and E, macrorryncha. There was no

{°, odorata, E. fasciculosa or mallee present. A stray E. caleicultrix was observed

i the Clare Pienic Ground, adjacent to the main road. Stands with more than

one eucalypt species as dominants are frequent, but . leucorylon is typical of

ihe drier exposed portions, A, camaldulensis of the moister valleys with higher

fertility, J2. mecrorrvacha on the wetter, cooler uplands, and E. claeuphora sup-

planting L. camaidulensis on the higher fertility sites with greater exposure. As

sh distinet boundaries between sites occur, il ig ual surprising that several eucalypt

species are found competing for dominance, It is therefore expected that the

ilegree of variation in the factors of the etvironment is greater than that tolera{ed

hy any one species,

The associations are ali savannah woodlatids with a variable number from

whe to a hundred trees per acre.

FE. lencoxylon association—This association occupies the greatest area, being

w part of the continuous distribution along the coast side of the Mount Lotty

Ranges from Adelaide to Quorn. In the area described it occurs on both the

western abil eastern slopes as a dominant, with occasional inlying islands of

( usuering stricta and 2. elacophora, The ground cover is grassy, often bare on

skeletal soils, and the dominant is only a medittm-sized tree, having a small crovuked!

stem up to 30. inches in diameter. The number of trees per acre varies from

under ten to a hundred, depending on the amount of clearing, grazing, buruing

uid the size of the trees.

&. camalduiensis assoviatian—This is typical of the valleys which have deep.

fertile, transported soils. The trees may reach a gross size up to 48 inches in

cHameter, heights up fo 80 fect are common, but regeneration is slower than

wulisation and the present occurrence ig only a remnant of the original stand.

‘The understorey is typically grasses, with a few bulbs, and occasionally Casuarma

stricta, Acacia pycnantha, Acacia rhetinodes aud Barsaria spinosa. Near Pen-

wortham, Banksia marginal is in the onderstorey,

219

FE, elucophora assoviation—This specs is rarcly an exchisive dominant on

areas greater than 5 acres in extent. It is found with £. Jencoarylon or E_ macrur-

ryncha, and again the understorey is continuous wilh meighbouring associations.

When it is found in vallevs the soils are less fertile and it 15 later replaced by

F, camaldulensis lower down the valley where the soils are more fertile.

FE. mocrorryncha. association — This association is now maiihy a savannall

woodland, but the ridge-tup parts of Sections 364, 365, 436, 535 and 536 have

Xanthorrhova guadrangulata and Lissanthe sirigasa im the understorey with w

grassy ground cover. The absence of leguines and Proteaceae ig marked, anil

this community can be classed as a gradation between savatinah woodland and dry

sclerophyll forest, The understorey is compused of scattered shrubs of Bursurit

spinosa and Acacia pycnaintha, with wv few herbs Hibbertia stricta, Avarit

sanguisorbae and a grassy ground cover,

The present facics of the EF. ieerorryacha association in this district 1s

similar to that of the E. leucoxylon and E, camaldulensis association. The under

storeys are continuous with the exception of the restricted occurrence of the

Nanthorrhuca quadrangulata understorey already mentioned. IJowever, this

understorey occurs in other woodland associations in other districts of South

Australia,

‘The distribution of £. secrerryncha in the eastern States af Australia is after

Carter (4). See fig. 2. Ecologists have described its field relations, notably

Pryor (9) in 1939, who states that it reaches its best development as a consocia-

tion on exposed upland sites of 2-3,000 feet altitude m the Australian Capital

Territory. Associated encalypts are FE. Rossii, A, meculosa and I. cordiert. The

understorey is considerably better developed there than in South Australia and

includes the tall shrubs Pomaderris eliptica, Acacia falciformis and Exocarpus

cupressiformis, Abundant small shrubs, mainly epacrids and legumes with

Xanthorrheca australis ensure an almost continuous ground cover. In Vietaria.

Ewart (5) in 1925 and Petrie et al (8) in 1929, deseribe it as the dommant of a

consociation on exposed upland sites on the Silurian formation at altitudes of

2-3,000 feet. These occurrences are comparable with each other in the broades

characteristics. The nearest recorded oecurrence of 2. macrarryncha to this area

ics at Stawell, 300 miles to the east in Victorian, As an isolated duplicate, genetic

origin is highly improbable; the restricted ocetirrence of this species requires u

knowledge of the methods of colonisation and invasion of eucalypts sitice earls

Tleistocene times. Similar disjunct occurrences have been recorded for

E. hemiphioia, E, albens, L. niicrecarpa, LE. pauctflera, Ee. rybida, be. cladocely

and Jf. evata,

lt is highly improbable that the Hundred of Clare contains the only suntable

site for £. macrerryncha in South Australia, and so the alternatives ace that thr

is a relict of a previously wider oceurrence or that it occurs elsewhere and ha-

not yet been observed or that it is a recent arrival and has net spread,

The association is not vigorous since it has not extended its boundaries m

sixty years but rather has contracted, due to death of mature trees and absenci

of seedlings to niaintain dominance along the boundaries. To this exrent the fell

observations favour the theory that it is a relict. Although occurrences. elsewhere

in South Australia are possible, they are improbalsic.

Ti is notewarthy that all the factors. which savour the “latis of at relict

strongly argue against this species heme a now arrival,

220

SUMMARY

The rediscovery of the occurrence of E. macrorryncha in the Clare Hills,

which is the only recorded area in South Australia, has led to mapping the

aecurrence with a description of the environment and community relations,

The disjunct occurrence of E. macrorryncha 300 miles from the nearest

recorded occurrence in the east at Stawell is difficult to explain. The explanation

depends on the past climatic changes which may have destroyed connecting sites

hetween the east, leaving this occurrence in the ranges as a relict.

Other species with similar field occurrences are E. albens, E. hemiphloia and

ff, microcarpa,

REFERENCES

Brack, J. M. 1922-45 “Flora of South Australia.” Govt. Printer, Adelaide

Brakety, W. F. 1934 “A Key to the Eucalypts,” Sydney

Bursince, N. T. 1947 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2)

Carter, C. E. 1946 “The Distribution of the more important ‘Timber Trees

of the Genus Eucalyptus.” Govt. Printer, Canberra

Ewart, A. J. 1925 ‘Handbook of Forest Trees”

Maen, J. Il. 1907 “Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus”

Maren, J. H. 1909 Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust., 32, (1), 325

Perrie, A. H. K,, Jarrert, P. H., Patron, R. J. 1929 “Journal Ecology,

17, (2)

Pryor, L. D. 1939 Handbook A.N.Z.A.A.S., Canberra

Woop, J, G., and Crocxer, R. L. 1947 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (1)

NOMENCLATURE OF EUCALYPTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO

TAXONOMIC PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By C. D. BOOMSMA

Summary

The identification of eucalypts has always been a task requiring all the faculties of judgment, and

even then, numerous contentious issues arise which persist without a satisfactory explanation. Such

an issue is the identification and naming of specimens which have some characters common to at

least two species; or a gradual variation of a single character from one specimen to another. In fact,

variation is so general that the limits require definition, but to do so involves a major statistical

examination on the four following variations: - Variations of a single organ during maturation;

variations of an organ on a single tree; variations of an organ between trees, including (a) variations

due to environmental causes and (b) variations due to genetic causes; variations between species.

221

NOMENCLATURE OF EUCALYPTS

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO TAXONOMIC PROBLEMS IN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Ry C.D. Boomsaa*

| Read 14 October 1948 |

The identification of euealypis has always. been a task requiring all the

faculties of judgment, and even then, numerous contentious issues arise whicli

persist without a satisfactary explanation, Such an issue is the identification an¢!

naming of specimens which have some characters commion to at least tywo species:

or a gradual variation of a single character from one specimen to another, fi

fact, variation is 50 general that the limits require defnition, but to do so inyolve>

a major statistical examination on the four following variations —Variations of

a single organ during maturation; variations of an organ on a single tree; varia-

tions of an organ between trees, ineluding (a) variations due to étrvironmental

causes and (b) vatiations due to genetic causes; variations between specics.

VARIATIONS OF A SINGLE OkGan DURING Maruration

The main importance of the stage of maturity of an organ to those engage:

it. the determination of species is the ability to recognise a given stage andl

describe it correctly, Juvenile leaf characters, for ¢xample, afford a ready means

for identifying some species, and this character may be used to separate or show

alliances between species. But tates of muturation vary and even an individual

season will determine the length of flowering period, character of nectar produc-

tion and the beginning of shoot growth, su this class of variation is least under-

stood.

VARIATIONS OF AN ORGAN ON A SINGLE TREE

Tt is known and accepted that variations occur, but just how great hay nut

been reliably determined. It is to be expected that the variation within a tree

would be Jess than between trees, and in the case of BE. obliqua this is borne out

by 4 statistical examination of capsule dimensions carried out by the author,

VARIATION (i; AN ORGAN BETWEEN TREES

It is known that variations are great, but fhe limits have not been determined.

The amount. of variation is apparenily least in endemics ta Sonth Australia, par-

ticularly those restricted in area, for example Lf, cladoculyx, FH, cosmoephylla,

E. cneorifolia, E. fasciculosa and FE. vemota. On the other hand species with a

wide distribution, including areas at the limits of the specific ccological amplitude

of the species, generally show a correspondingly wide variation in the character

of any one organ. The causes appear to be partly environmental and partly

penctic. Species which show wide yariatious include JE. olevsa, E. anceps,

E, lewcaxylou, EK, odorata, E. Hubeviann, , Baxtert, E. obliqua, and £. lepto-

phylla, The variations are diverse and different botanists have given varictal and

even specifte rank to specimens showing characters which anly represent one stage

in a séqtience of characters from one species to another, This confusion has been

accentuated by the practice of taking a small sample of a tree and raising it to

the cxalted position of a “type” with which all future specific determinations

must be compared. In material showing wide variation, the patadox is reached

that the more closely a single specimen is described for specific rank, the more

* Forestry Department, Adelaide.

‘rans. Roy. Sec. S. Aust, 72, (2). 30 March 1949, ,

222

fikely is it that an identification key will be unwarkable, Tn henth Australia, al

least half the total number of species exhibit such wide variation in characters

jhat the existence of intermediate forms between two species must he accepted,

(a) (urtations due lo environmental causes, Generally a species poscveses

a wider potential environment than és exhibited in its natural distribution; (oy

example, [, cladocalys can be grown on solonized brown suils in the 12” mean

annual rainfall of Loxton, although its best natural occurrence is i the Plinders

Ranges ow podsols with at least 25% mean annual rainfall. Wurthermore, deserip-

tions of characteristic environments for a species ate fragmentary and ther limits

of both potential and natitral environments ltive to be defined, so that to describe

vurlations ul character in argans due to environmental eatises can only be bused

on speculation,

However, variations in ecological character duc ta environmental causcs. Le,

stent form, frequency of occurrence and exclusiveness are frequently encountered

Such variations aré common to all plum species and need mot be delailed here

other than to remark that variatious are correlated with the diversity of enyiren-

widely occurring species, show many variations die to environmental causes. tt

would be expected that variations in ecological character would be at a miniomne

in large areas of constant etvironmental character. Soa far, no such large ares

has been encountered in South Australia, and it is unlikely that such an ares exists

in the tree zone.

(b) Furiations due to genetic causes, This question is intimately rele teil

to that discussed in the Following section. Maiden (4) in 1922 summarised the

evidence for genetic variation, and slated that intermediate forms occurred between

many eucalypt species. Furthermore, he described several plaiits as natural

hybrids. In South Australia it is probable that E, juyaly (Naudin) is of hybrid

origin, while 2. Nalangadoosnsis (M) and kK. Melntyrensis (M) are also pro-

bahly hybrids. Tn 1946, Brett (2) showed that eradations arise by selfing of

the F1 generation and occasional back-crosses. to the original parents. Some

members of such a swarn of individuals will be more suited to the site than

others and so will produce a stand of trees with a wide (but determinate) range

ol characters. As time progresses, fixation of characters inay oceir to give

rise to a hybrid-polymorph, ‘The stages from the hybricd-swarm to the hybrid

polymorph are conjectural, but Geld observations support such a view, lt is

possible, then, that polymorphs may produce new biotypes, 7.c., collections of

individuals breeding true for characters of taxonomic importance, and with a

narrow determinale yarialion of characters, No attempt has yct been made to

rlefine a species on such a basis, so it is a matter uf opinion when the amount of

variation shown by a polyinorph is sufficient to be accepted as a species or bia-

type, Tt shoult be noted that no two imdividuals arc identical in genetic

character, which explains the difficulty encountered in identification of material

collected from areas where hybrid swarms occur.

VARIATIONS OF AN Oroaw BETWEEN SeECIES

Interspecific variation is probably o7 genetic origin and the slady of grada-

tions between species is greutly facilitated by the theory of hyhridisin, and the

sexregation which is continwing in some cases ta the present day, Luecalypt

species in South Ausiralia do not all show segregation, but the probability of

observing genetic variation is highest amongst the widely oceurring species.

Observations suggesting genetic relationships belween species are sel oul in the

following notes, but first the scope of specitic sequences in juvenile and mature

leaves, buds and capsules, illustrated in the figures, should be examined, The

nomenclature is aller Blakely (1).

223

tig. 1-4 show a specific sequence in the juvenile loaf shapes of JE Mfuberinit,

lig. &-? show an interspecific sequence between HE. grmialis (fig. 5), J Huberigny (lig. 7).

and B, leneaaylon (hig, 9),

hig. 1-4 show a specie sequence iu juvenile leaf shape in BE. Huberiana;

lig. 11-18 show a portion af the mature leaf-shape sequence in E. trauscontinenta-

His; fig. 23, 24, 27, 28 and 32 show sequences of bud characters, while fg, 25 and 26

show the range of sizes and shapes encountered in E, lewcosy/on capsules. Fig. 40

shows the diversity of capsule characters in E. Bascteri, aud fig. 39 shows a large-

fruited form of /2. Luberiana,

Evidence of interspcofie sequences may be had from two sources. One is

the published data (the mos; recent being that of Burbidge (3) ), and the other

ay be obtained from the field. From the first souree there is general agreement

that many difficulties in uomenclature are due to mlerspecilic genetic variation,

win) trumerous exaniples are given by the authors already referred to,

Only a few of the sequences observed im the field have been illustrated and

the most familiar will be discussed, From the small area of ten acres in the

Hundred of Coonarie, specimens comprising fig. 29 were obtained, Fig, 29a

has buds that compare favourably with those of f. leptoplyla, but its leaves are

up ty ter centimeires long and two em, wide and agree with those of the nearby

kL’. wleasa, Fig. 29b has buds about twiee the size of those of 29a, and agree with

those af a type specimen of F. socilis in the National Herbarium, Melbourne.

The elongated conical operculum of fig. 29¢ and the sinal! waisted type of

fig. 29d are steps to fig, 29e, which is similar to the operculum of L. transcenti-

nentalis. lf the examples do not represent species but varieties, the position is

i? 1

Fig, 1148 show a specific sequence in mature leaf shape of &. transcnntinentatis.

Vie, 19-22 show an interspecific sequence im mature wal shane and capsives beareen

E. THuboriana (fig. 19) and 7. ome (fig. 22). Vig. 20 and 2) are intermeciate forms.

unimproved and the acceptance of numerous forms would he misleading. In

this occurrence the field suggests that this is a hybrid swarm as variations were

also collected of I. diversifolia, FE. rugosa and E. leptophylla.

Interspecific seqtietices lave also been observed in E. odorata, but these are

not quite so obvious. so that difficulty 1 experienced in separating E. raleiculirix,

E, odorata, E.Lansdowneana and E, jugalis. Vig. 33-35 show the similarily

of the capsules,

E, viminalis has often been observed in an interspecific sequence with

E. leucoxylon, as seen in fig. 5-9, which include a few steps of the juvenile leaf

shape sequence between the two species, On the same sinall area, specimens were

collected with triphylly and alternate leaves. See fig, 42 and 43,

E. leucoxslon is widely scattered and is concerned in matty interspecific

sequences. Fig. 5-9 show an interspecific sequence between F. feucoxylon and

E. Huberiana, E. leucoaxylon is closely associated with E. jugalis in the Yatina

district and specimens occur which are difficult to separate into species, Other

examples of genetic variation occur in LE, Jewcoxrylon, such as the sequence

between E. leucoxylon and F. calctculfrix near Cape Jervis, and specimens with

more than three buds per umbel from the Meningie district. See fig. 41.

, (, t, T |

a 5 0 °..%9 9 9 @

Pig. 23-24 show portion of the specific sequences in operculum shapes of E, oleosa (fig, 23)

and £. lranscontinentalis (fig. 24),

Fig. 25-26 show specific sequences in size and shape of capsules of E. leucorylon.

Fig. 27-28 show specific sequences m size and shape in the buds of &, cosmo phylia.

Pig. 30-31 show an interspecific similarity between buds of E. bicolor and E. interiexta

respectively.

Fig. 32 shows a specific sequence in operculum shape of buds of EB. camaldulensis.

Fig. 33-35 shaw the interspecific similarity of capsules of EB. odorata, E. jugalis and E. micro-

carpa respectively.

Ig. 36-38 show an interspecific similarity between capsules of E. viminalis, E. rubida and

E. Hubervana respectively.

Fig. 39 shows a large capsule form of &. Huberiana.

Mig. 40 shows the diversity of character in capsules of E. Basxteri.

Examples from other species such as A. jugalis, E. elaeophora and E. Hube-

riana have been collected and not figured. It is evident that these sequences

indicate relationships between species, and from the nature of the sequence and

from authoritics already referred to, Table I has been compiled. The purpose

of compiling the table is to indicate the species relationship in South Australia.

The groups are naturally subdivided, so that there is little chance of observing

an interspecific sequence between species of two groups and the order of each

species is to some extent arbitrary, but the probability of two adjacent species

forming sequences is higher than in those distantly connected. It is to be noted

that the table contains some species that are of reputed hybrid origin, such as

E. jugalis, E. unialata, E. Huberiana, E. vitrea and E. anceps, Interspecific

290.

Fig. 29 shows some genetic variants of £2. oleosa.

Fig. 41 shows an umbel of &. lencaxylon containing more than three buds.

Fig. 42 shows tripbylly in &. zdmanalis.

Fie. 43 shows alternate juvenile leat arrangement of £. wlpatitallis.

Fig. 44 shows an umbel of buds of 2, cosmophylla containing more than three buds.

sequences help to emphasise the relationships of species within each group, so

that it ig proposed that a study of these sequences will be of considerable use in

the identification of species.

SUMMARY

The identification of species of the large genus Eucalyptus (more than 500

species) is complicated by the occurrence of many forms that are atypical. Some

of these [orms are genetic variants and are of bybrid origin.

A selection of examples that occur in South Australia is figured and some

interspecific sequences are discussed, These sequences ate of use in confirming

species relationships in groups as an uid to identification.

Interspecific sequences are frequently observed in widespread species, but

not in endemics.

REFERENCES

1 Buaxety, W.F. 1934 “Key to the Eucalypts”

2 Beer, R. G. 1946 “Some Aspects of Hybridisation in relation to Taxo-

nomy in Eucalypts”. Unpublished paper. Section M., Aust, N.Z. Adv-

Science

Burner, N. T. 1947 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2)

4 Matwen, J. If. 1922 “Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus”

ive)

227

Taste I

Showing the Taxonomic Relationships in the Genus Eucalyptus

in South Australia

ajsapin ts Ed spas Sptimntnndzengtntonteyabtih vitrea

Spalantei OTA cies scscuscmtacetvsterue de Beuzevillei x

Soukiseqnsurapseratussnpetecessrnatogapstcane niphophils x

camaldulensis.... cece rudis x

e yngitnssteszeptesiect cabeatedircechvstveap® umbellata x

Wie Bs vassli le eax peungdgoshenlnnondst Morrisii

Searle Sheba fone plate odaettbe uke pebtie ATCEP Ss. cccrtecessesaunsesponyesy sve ates Peidel Meideedbe gered rugosa

PUUIMIOSA..ssecsesssessseaseesecrseeen pileata...... ines Drachycalyx....... conglohata

Sicates destinbedseraonuceiigesntonsi Depots: INCTASSAtA.... sere eeeeees tetraptera x

fe opahe sae anna sul atta AM yea nba) Blaxlandi x

PBAXtOT le csscccecssecseeesesereeeeees capitellata Xvieccuccsesseseeees Jsfvmtgange a ODHGUA

Sy vele nti day enh rprateastct WES Sebuayad otssa te ddasets Sis eot Seibel diversifolia......... remota

letter ieee ee Sideroxylon fruticetorum....... viridis

TeUCOXYON..sssecsessecnseneeas calcicultrix.... ee Od Orta... csecsenees microcarpa,........ hemiphloia

Fs atts dsueteetioha Puce sien jligalis Lansdowneana albens

elaeophora ;

las sresdtsataiedih cruasrsceetsanesoatsean es Huberiana........... sees VINUNALIS.. ce ceeeeees rubida... ee Dalrympleana

OVALA acscecceeeenerteeeres unialata xX... globulus x........ bicostata x

YY. gM age ota teToa TH iear cae dl cneorifolia

EOLCOSA..cacseesssesseresoens won transcontinentalis........ Gillii....... Sebeiand .... Flocktoniae

x denotes interstate species

THE GEOLOGY OF THE BOOLCOOMATA GRANITE

By A. W. WHITTLE

Summary

Old Boolcoomata Station is situated approximately 280 miles north-east of Adelaide, and 12 miles

north of Olary, which is on the railway line to Broken Hill. A very great portion of the area of the

Station is occupied by interesting granitic rocks and associated gneisses. These rock types occur

amongst a normal folded sedimentary series of argillaceous and quartzitic rocks.

228

THE GEOLOGY OF THE BOOLCOOMATA GRANITE

By A. W. WuiTTLe *

[Read 14 October 1948]

1. Inrropection axp Previcus Work ai he els \> ts -. 228

Il, THe prtncipan GRANITE Pose a's 4 4. _ “e t, .. 229

JIL Tur ArkAs occur sy GNEISstc Rock .. bi 4, ‘. “8 .. Bde

TV. Tur Country Rocks ., an os be 44 - . - .. 24

V. Srraucrcre ge ¥ a ty ts oe ies ste x3 .. 235

VIL MertramorPHism “ dle ws ~ e . 236

VIL lIewrous Injection IN THE CounTtay Rocks = ti ee .. 236

VIII. Mrinerarization CUeNtTRes o “a fe A. ia rs a .. 238

TX. Fearcres or tHE Contact, ‘4 +4 wo a Vv o> .. 238

X. Grawrrization PHENOMENA -, a2, i e's os “4 a .. 240

XI. Conchusioxs f. ir +4 a an .. 44 28 24 .. 242

1. INTRODUCTION

Old Boolcoomata Station is situated approximately 280 miles north-east of

Adelaide, and 12 miles north of Olary, which is on the railway line to Broken

Hill. A very great portion of the area of the Station is occupied by interesting

granitic rocks and associated gneisses. These rock types occur amongst a normal

folded sedimentary series of argillaceaus and quartzitic rocks.

Previous Work

The first important contribution to the geological study of the north-eastern

portion of South Australia was that published in 1912 by Sir Douglas Mawson,

Professor of Geology at the University of Adelaide. This work, which covered a

large area including the district in which the present work was done, was pub-

lished a5 a Royal Society Memoir. Subsequently Sir Douglas Mawson has con-

tinued his study of this region, including much detailed field work and petro-

logical analysis in the Olary district, A list of investigations by other workers

is given in the bibliygraphy.

The present investigation was carried out to determine the nature of the

Old Boolcoomata Granite and its relation to the sediments which it intrudes,

An attempt was also made tu discover some data which might suggest whether

this granite is the result of an intrusion or of the process known as gfanitization.

The area of the hatholith examined measures three miles east and west, by

two miles north and south, T.ow rounded hills of igneous and gneissic: rocks,

with a few large bare granite hills, make up the landscape. Traverses were made

across it in a north-south direction at quarter mile intervals, to pick up the dis-

tribution of rock types and to ascertain the position of conlacts between thei.

Subsequently, several of these contacts were followed to prove continuity between

the positions located by traversing.

Although there is a great diversity of rock types in the batholith, they may

he coriveniently considered in three main groups. These are (1) a medium to

coarse-grained muscovite granite, (2) a finer-grained, somewhat gneissic por-

phyritic felspar granite, (3) granitic rocks in which the presence of injection

gneisses is significant. The distribution of these groups may be seen on the

folded map.

* Mines. Department.

Trans. Ray. Soe. S. Atist,, 72, (2),.30 March 1949.

220

I. THE PRINCIPAL GRANITE PHASE

There are three areas in which this is the dominant reck type, two of which

are partly made up of patchy developments of the porphyritic felspar granite.

The principal granite area extends three-quarters of a mile north from the

station house and is then replaced by gricissic rocks, To the west it runs against

alluvium and the contact with the slates, while its greatest extent is eastward,

where it runs uninterrupted down towards Binberrie 1ill. Throughout this area,

medium to coarse-grained felspar-rich granite is the dominatit tock, The rock js

mostly massive, hut becomes slightly gneissic in places, particularly towards the

northern border of the belt. Jointing is well developed in twa major directions

at tight angles, while a minor third direction is sometimes present, The joint

planes usually have steep dips. These features produce excellent “tor structures

with occasional balanced boulders.

Sheeting structure occurs in large outcrops where a series of fractures have

formed separated hy several fect and lying parallel to the rock surfaces. In a

Jarge exposure, such as the slope of a hillside, a series of steps develops as over-

lying shects are weathered away, leaving the immediately underlying pavement

strewn with decaying granite boulders, ‘These pavements are large, smooth and

gently rounded, and have resulted from the expansion of felspars undergoing

kaolinization as well as by the alternate heating and cooliug of the granite by

day and night.

Erosion of the area is greatly assisted by the joint system, becarisé these

fractures start streamilets running along well-established channels which are

obviously scoured-out joint fissures. Similarly, the major streams which drain

the granite hills trend roughly parallel to one or other of the major jointing

directions.

Pegmatite veins, up to two or three feet wide, im general follow the

N.W.-S.E. direction of jomting, which suggests that the fissures ate pre-pegmatite,

developed in the early stages of the formation of the batholith, providing an easy

means of escape for the pegmalitic materials developed in the late stages of con-

solidation of the granite. Lrobably these fractures, carrying pegnmaties up ta three

fect wide, were enlarged by remelting along their margins, because there is a

gradation in grain size between the pegmatites and the enclosing granite. This,

however, may be the result of a chilling of the pegmatite along its margins.

The granite breccia (referred to later) trends parallel to the E.-W, joint

system and may therefore be related 10 the jointing, Naturally, accumulated

stresses would most readily he relieved along an already well-established fracture

system. Movement has occurred along some planes of jointing, shown hy the

local faulting of minor and major pegmatites. These joints post-date the pegma-

tites they offset, and helong to a different system from those along which the

pegmatites moved. These joints may be related to the brecciation,

The joints change direction toward the western portion of the main granitic

belt, and the associated pegmatites swing round to an almast westerly trend.

These lincal pegmatites are very abundant in the granite, half a mile N-E. of

the homestead. They are narrow. but extend many hundreds af yards east and

west. East and west of this locality, the lineal pegmatites are replaced by discon-

tinuous wider irregular pernatites which show no structural control. The peg-

matites are coarse-grained, rich in felspar, and poor in micas and accessories,

although tourmaline is abun¢lant in some,

An interesting feature of this granitic belt is the granite breccia, made up

of angular granite fragments up to several feet in size, sct in a fine-grained dark

matrix largely composed of crushed clayey ficlspars, quartz and mica. The large

230

broken boulders are all of the same type, viz., a granite identical with that making

up the major granitic zones. There are occasional slate or quartzite boulders

within the breccia, presumably, broken xenolithic material, In places there are

denuded surfaces resembling crazy pavements where the nature of the breccia

can be closely sttdied (pl. xx, fig. 7). Where angular boulders are absent, larger

grains in the matrix are streaked out into parallel rows set in finer mylonitic

Paraliel ore ih y \

of Fracture inl: +3)!

Granite.

FRACTURE PATTERN IN

GRANITE NEAR CONTACT

Fiz, 1

Fracture pattern in granite near its contact with the granite lreccia.

Ke Matrix rich in

¢'|Felspar Quartz

a land Muscovite

Fracture) \ 3

Lines, ips

FEET.S T= 20 FEET.

FRACTURED GRANITE PASSING

INTO BRECCIATED GRANITE

Fig. 2

Fractured granite passing into brecciated grate.

material, producing a “pseudo-hedding” effect, by the freak “sorting” of grains.

Most of the breccia carries angular boulders but there is much variation, this

between wide hands containing granite boulders there are these “bedded” zones

with a fine-grained matrix set with parallel rows of rolled-out rounded granite

or felspar grains which are porphyroclastie remnants of pre-existent granite

(pl. xx, fig. 2).

231

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232

The main belt of breecta occtirs along the southern border of the granite

near the homestead and is more or less continuous for about a quarter of a mile

northwards, while beyond this point separated discontinuous bands up toe a hum-

dred feet in width continue fer a further half mile north At either end these

bands pass through fractured granite (fig. 2 and pl, xxi, fig. 1) into tinbroken

granite, The fractured granite is a stage in the formation of the breccia, and i{ is

always closely associated with the brecciated granite. The drawings (fig. 1, 2)

illustrate how the granite is thoroughly traversed by intersecting cracks which

split i up into angular fragments. These cracks are at first quite narrow. but

towards a zone of brecciation the fissures widen and became filled with finely

crushed material, as the rock grades igto the true breccia. The major mass of

breccialed granite runs into alluvinnt near the homestead, while eastwards it is

gradually obscured amongst the granite.

The breceia often carries tillite, slate and quartzite, which have not been

granitized, forming local bands of angvilar boulders, set in a fine-grained chlorite-

rich base runting parallel with the general trend of the main granitic breccia.

-4 = ‘

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Feet 5. f 5 SCALE 4p 15 20 fErr

PEGMATITE WEINS OFFSET BY

NARROW SHEAR ZONES

Vig. 4

Peematitie yeins offset by narrow shear zones,

The map (fig. 3) showing porlinn of the brecciated area om a scale ol

100 fect to the inch, provides an indication of the general nature of the broken

zone. The angular granite boulder breccia occupies the greater portion of tlie

broken zone, while the general direction of the streaked and “bedded” portions

is shown following the trend of the zone as a whole. An area of irregularly

altered slate and tillite is shown with a doubtiul boundary due to surface rubble

obseuring the contact. Lens-shaped granite bodies occur in this rock.

Several lines of evidence support the concept of this peculiar formation as

a breccia. The angular shape of the boulders and the nature of the matrix are

typical of brecciation. Further, the angular fragments. and the matrix materials

are of the same type as the massive granite in the vicinity. The closely asso-

ciated fractured granite represents partial brecciation.

The best evidence is that of shearing in the vicinity of the broken granite,

where there are long narrow zones of mylonitized granite, two or three feet

wide, in which the rock is reduced to an extremely fine-grained chlorite-nch

283

sheared mass, with flattened elongated remnants drawn owt parallel to the fine

banding in the crushed matrix. These shears, which are several hundred feet

long, are parallel to the breeciated bands. Several of these are plotied on the map-

There ate numerous examples of pegmatites, faulted by joint fissures, which

are filled with fine-grained and angular granitic material (similar to the matrix

of the main breccia)derived from shearing of the walls of the fissure by the

movement which offset the pegmatites. These minor shear zones showing a dis-

placement of a foot or so extend parallel to the trend of the breccia (fig. 4),

On the other hand, no evidence of displacement is visible in the country

rock west of the point where the breccia runs out against the allivial flat, while

eastward the breccia disappears amongst the granite and can nowhere be traced.

Thus, when its great width is taken into account, it is odd that, if this is really

a breccia, it should have such a short longitudinal extent,

There are two other areas in which purely granitic rocks dominate; in both,

however, there are patches of porphyritic felspar granite. Roth have similar

features and cau be described under one heading. The grain size is irregular in

these rocks, and biotite occurs as well as muscovite, thus it may perhaps be

deduced that they are a little less completely granitized than the main granitic

mass, Generally it is a medium-grained granite, but fine-grained or coarse-

grained types occur in places. Although in the main massive, It sometimes

becomes gueissic in greater or lesser degree, and may locally puss into injection

gneiss ot carry xenoliths oriented parallel to its gneissic structure, There is a

special tendency for it to break down into numerous cuboidal blucks up to 6 fort

in dimensions rather than to form massive granite tors like the main granite. Thts

ig probably due to a more closely spaced jointing system, and the more irregular

grain size giving great unevenness during expansion, The granite boundaries

afe either well defined against the gricissic rocks, or grade hy the addition of

xenoliths into injection gneiss, Lath-shaped felspar phenocrysts up to $" long

and 4” wide, oriented parallel to the direction of the gneissic structure, are cnn-

mon in these gtatiites.

Toward the north-east these granites continue beyond the area mapped, while

to the west they grade into gneissic rocks toward the border af the “batholith".

There is no regularity in the distribution of the porphyritic phase in this gramte,

the strongest development being in the northerly belt of granite where porphyritic

rock occupies a ridge for nearly a mile in an east-west direction. Irregular

masses of pegmatite occur but are not strongly developed in either of these two

regions.

itll. THE AREAS OCCUPIED BY GNEISSIC ROCKS

These accupy a very large area. Throughout there is am abundance of

granitic rocks ranging from fine- ta coarse-grained types, which form, as it were,

4 base in which the gneissic material occurs. Thus, although the map shows

large areas of these gneisses, these are not to be considered as made up wholly of

this rock type, but rather that in these areas the occurrence of gneiss amongst the

granites is the significant feature.

Pegmatites of an irregular nature, both large and small, occur in these areas.

It is usual for granitic and pegmatitic material to occur in lit-par-lit fashion

along planes of schistosity in the gneiss, producing banded injection-gneiss. The

bands of igneous rocks are closely spaced, varying in thickness up ta an inch.

Schistose or slaty rocks have been converted, in general, to dark biotite-muscovite-

rich gneisses in which the black biotite bands contrast strongly with the light-

coloured quartzo-felspathic ones.

234

Quartzites are not very much altered, although in places there is a partial

loss of sedimentary banding, while elsewhere this is preserved by the introduetion

of granitic material along the bedding. planes,

Caleareous rocks which have been inclided in the granitic and eneissic

masses have a rec-hrown earthy appearance. They are massive, extremely fine-

grained and show no alteration, unless their highly ferruginous nature is due to

addition of iron oxides.

The distribution of the gneisses within the batholith may be seen on the map.

There is a change toward migmiatite well within the “batholith’. This is poorly

deyeloped in the border zone and narrow belts of gneiss, but becomes important

and at times dominant well within the batholith, Excellent examples of the grada-

tion of injection gneiss to migmalite are common. The richly biotitic injection-

gneiss gradually loses its dark bands, while the granitic bands expand and finally

take up most of the rock, leaving only faint wisps of dark micaccous minerals

winding in contorted lines through the granitic mass. Complete absorption of

the sedimentary material is not common, for in most cases contorted, discontinu-

ous faint wispy remnants remaim. Where the gneiss was coarse-grained the final

product is a coarse-grained granitic rock or migmatile,

The outcrops of gneiss aré different from those of the granite. There are

no “tor” structures or pavements formed by sheeting, but instead these rocks

form low outerops frequently running like blades or low rough walls for hundreds

of yards, in parallel rows, Jointing is present only in the strongly granitic

portions of the gneiss, thus it is not significant.

Targe bodies of basic rock occur in the gneisses. The rock is-a fine-grained

uralitized dolerite carrying epidote, and often it is associated with quartz reefs.

Sunilar associations of basic rock with quartz are also met with outside in the

country cock. The larger basics are marked on the map, but smaller occurrences

are numerous.

lV. THE COUNTRY ROCKS

There are three main types, ws, slate, tillite and quartzite, and of these

the slates have the greatest development. The tillites are distributed as one large

formation, several smailer ones, and as minor intercalations in the slates, The

quartzites occur similarly as one major band, and as groups of narrower bands.

The former is, in the main, a thick massive quartzite with associated bedded

qnirtzites, and it is interesting ta note that quire large ertatics are to be found

in it m places, The several groups of thin quartzites are arkosic, presumably

Nuvioglacial horizons in the slaty and tillitic Keds. Fracture cleavage oceurs in

the massive quartzites near fold axes, although in argillaceaus quartzites there is

a weak cleavage nearly always present. Jointing is strong mm the massive

quartzites,

The slates are strongly silicified and are of chocolate colour. In the mai!

they are varved slates with alternate fine sandy and clayey bands numbering from

6-12 to the inch and in them cleavage is usually very well developed, but bedding

is only obvious when the rock is weathered sufficiently to bring out the lithological

differences. It is not always safc to nse the varving as bedding because of ite

cross-hedded and irresular nature, Here and there the slates carry isolated

erratics up to 10” in dimensions. Frequently the slates are without structure.

even cleavage disappears, whet they resemble dark hiack-brown horufels, Occa-

stonal intercalated earthy limestones occur in the slates which are discontinuous

along the strike and are of no use as markers. Near the fluvioglacial sandstones

235

the slates change hy enlargement of the sandy component of the varying, and

pass into arkoses. These arkosic horizons are made up of several bands of

quartzilic rock up to 50 feet thick, separated by slate beds of sitnilar widths.

The major tillitic horizom will be considered later, while the other tillitac

beds are insignificant and may be passed over, There is the usual assortment of

rock types as erratics, although granitic, gneissic, and pegmatite material

dominates. Boulders range from small ones an inch or two in size tu larger ones

nieasuring a foot or more in diameter. The base of this fillite is slaty or phyllitic,

rich in miieacvous and chloritic material with a well-developed cleavage.

V. STRUCTURE

(a) Wiriin THE BaTHouri

The structure is straightforward, and although locally confused, these small

areas may be ignored in considering the general features.

The folded map shows the regularity of the strike of the foliation in the

eneisses, and in the granites, when preseut, The dips are steep to vertical with

a tendency to slope slightly southward towards the contact.

There is a tendency for one direction of jointing to follow the foliation,

and for one or two others to develop as nearly as possible at right angles to it.

(b) Ix tHe Country Rocks

Great difficulty occurred in deciphering structures in those areas where

alteratiun and injection by pegmatites occurred at a maximum.

In the southern and western portion of the area mapping was sin\ple, but

elyewhere there is s0 much alteration with the production of gneiss that bedding

is obscured or even obliterated. The best marker beds available were plotted,

thus a general idea of the structure was obtained, but there are many local dis-

turbanees and discontinuities.

On the edge of the altered area a syncline occurs with steeply-dipping over-

turned limbs to the south, becoming normal with flatter dips to the north. Beds

in the northern limb of this fold are strongly gneissic and carry numerous pegma~

tites, while the southern limb is made up of normal quarizitic and slaty rocks.

Air photos suggest the continuity of this synclinal axis eastward beyond the

zrea mapped.

North of this syncline an irregular, indefinite anticline occurs, Bedding 1s

ohseure atd indefinite here, but there is a general suggestion of an anticlinal

structure. Pegmatitic injection accompanied hy intense ptygmatic folding is at

its greatest development in thts region, and it is possible that these beds were

converted to-a sen-plastic state during the falding, hence their unusually irregular

puture (pl. xxi, fig. 2,3). The truncation of beds and their disappearance into

masses of pegmiatitic injection gneiss is a common feature. Air photos indicate

the presence of a fold axis extending eastward as a continuation of the anti-

clinal axis through these altered rocks,

The greatest density of pegmatites, the abundance of injection-gneiss and

the irregular discontinuous structural features of the rocks, suggest, if one

favours a granitization theory of origin, that the country in this vicinity is in an

ailvaneed stage of conversion to granitic rock, and the area is thus comparable

to the belts of gneissic rock within the batholith. If this is true, then in this

Incality the “granitic front” is moving in along an anticlinal axis.

216

VI METAMORPHISM

The study of metamorphic stages is difficult because im the places where

change has occurred there is a great amount of pegmatite which would be

expected to introduce complications due to introduction of material with great

effects on the already stressed country rack,

On the western side of the area where iolding is absent the sediments are

normal varved slates with occasional interbedded quartzites, Towards the east.

the alteration of the slates becomes progressively greater, thus half a mile west of

the homestead the slates became garnetiferous ninscovite-quarte schist, while

interbedded quartzites develop epidvi¢, actinolite and occasional red alimandine

garnets.

Amongst the injection-gneisses in the greatly altered country a milé south-

east of the homestead there are gneisses: free, or nearly so, of felspar. They

differ from the injection-gneiss by the abserice of thin quartzo-felspathic banding

and may thercfore he considered as products of stress rather than injection and

as representative of local advanced regional metamorphism, high-grade xnotted

crystalline schists are associabed with these gneisses. The more arenaccous. beds

associated with these occur as quartz mica-gneisses with epidote. These beds in

the lesser metamorphosed areas are qeartz-smica-schists rather than the more

common mica-schists which were yarved slates.

Pure quartzites amongst the greatly altered rocks are converted to epidote-

rich formations, in which bands up te 12” wide, rich im green epidote, traverse

the rock parallel to the bedding. Occasionally epidote bands traverse the rock ai

an angle to its bedding, filling joint-fissures, thus suggesting introduction of

epidote-forming material from an outside source, ‘The presence of a little

graphitic mica-schist is noted on the map showing mineral occurrences. This

has a gritty quartzitic base, with argillaceous and graphitic material making up

the major portion of the rock,

Muscovite kyanite-schist occurs with kyanite up to an incl long, but it is

restricted to certain horizons, The kyanite crystals are arranged. parallel to the

schistosity and their presence indicales am advanced stage in the metamorphism.

Some of the high-grade knotted mica-schists contain smali black prisms of tour-

maine forming a brownish red mica-tourmaline knotted schist. Although

garnets occut in the mica schists they are not found in the gneissic rocks,

Lime silicates, such as sphene, zoisite and epidote, occur in the schists and

gneisses. Thin impure siliceous limestones frequently occur amongst the varved

slates and arkosic quartziles, thus it is not surprising to find these minerals

developed in relatively large quantity in favourable places. Incipient growths of

sillimanite occur in some of the gneisses,

VIT, [IGNEOUS INJECTION IN COUNTRY ROCK

PrGMATITic AND GRANITiIc Prasss

Pegmatites are extremely plentiful, while there are a few <mtall granite

bodies, particularly west of the homestead.

Granite bodies are situated mostly close to the contact of the batholith with

the country rock, none. occurring beyond half a mile south of it, Closer to the

homestead granites ate associated with milky quartz reefs, Coarse pegmatitic

granite occurs on the ridge adjacent to the homestead, This body has irregular

borders and penetrates along the schistosity of the country rock in acparated

longues, and it can be traced without interruption back into the granite of the

bathlolith. Thus at this point the batholithic contact is sharp and very irrégular

in shape (see fig. 3).

237

The pegmatites aré best developed outside the zone of granitic injection.

There is a great density of pegmatite in the anticline south-east of the home-

stead, while away from this region they thin out, and on the western side of the

map disappear altogether, They are mainly sill-like, but occasionally are cross-

cutting, Most of the pegmatites are envrmotls in atiterop, standing up like great

walls and extending considerable distances, Generally they bear black tourmaline

ctystals, cither small with scattered distribution or as nests of radiating lustrous

black: prisms, prodtucing masses of schorl rock, Vegmatites, too small to mup, are

extremely numerous among the larger imstrusives, while in lit-par-fashion, peg-

matilic material makes the injection gncisscs which are the main rack type of this

area, Most of the pegmatitic intrusives are in argillaceous rock while there is a

noticeable increase in) pegmatites where qtiartzites. occur. The pegmatite is very

coarse-grained and rich in felspar for which mineral it has been worked (see

fig. 5), while in one or two places beryl crystals up to 18 inches long occur. Here,

too, there is usually an abundance of black tourmaline and muscovite. The latter,

although often in great quantity, is umfortunately in nests and pipes made up of

radiating and thickly inter-grown bundles of small plates, which on the average are

only a few inches long. Nowhere in the area, despite the abundance of pegmatites

rich in mica, are there any occurrences bearing large marketable plates of mica.

The beryl is not worked except in cages where felspar is being obtained, when the

hery! is separated out and sold when a sufficient quantity has accumulated. While

to light-pink mediun-grained aplites carrying little else besides quartz and felspar

are sometimes associated with peematites.

Basic rocks are mainly confined to the pegmatite-bearing areas, while a little

occurs near the contact as well as several large and smaller basic masses within

the granite mass itself.

The largest basic intrusive oceurs near the Wortan-in-White Copper Mine,

in the nature of a fine-grained uralitized and epidotized dolerite Tt is associated

with both pegmatite and qnartz reef and carries bundles of large blades of

amphibole (a dark green actinolite). Tlere the basics occur among altered

quarlzites, rich in felspar and biotite, hearimg eopper minerals which have pro-

bably been inwoduced by the basic rock. The copper is im the form of the car-

bonates, malachite and azurite,

An interesting group of hrownish crystallme rocks occurs about three-

qnarters of a mile south of the homestead, These are peeuliar albite-rich rocks

of igneous character, traversing the country rock in a north-westerly direction.

There are ptobably several dykes in this group, each being several hundred feet

long and up to 30 fect wide.

Quartz recfs. alten of large size, are to be found where there are bodies of

pegmatite and granile. All are quite barren of minerals, and vary from imilky

while quartz fo a semi-clear smoky type. In places ihere is an interesting varia-

tion in the quartz, resulting from the presence of a little pink felspar, suggesting

a primary origin of these particular reefs, They are best developed on the

western extremity of the pegmatite area in schists interspersed with, and parallel

to, the pegmatites, thus they niay have been formed late in the period of ptgma-

litie injection,

Silicification of cotintry rock in places round the contact has resulted in the

production of fine-banded dense quartzitic rocks which are very hard and have

a flinty fracture. In most cases this has been effective only a few chains along

the strike. Mylonites which occur here and there around the contact are similar

in appearance, but in the silicified sediments the banding is a continuous, original,

238

sedimentary feature, whereas in the mylonite the discontinuous and flattened Iens-

like bands are obvious signs of crushing, Blasto-porphyritic remnants also occur

in the mylonites.

VIUL. MINERALIZATION CENTRES

The ocetirrence of the various minerals is shown in fig. 5. These are out-

side the granitic area, except for two locatities which are noted because of shafts

which have been sunk there. The materials in the dumps contain no metalliferous

mineral, but according to local information they were sunk for gold and copper.

Much more definite are those occurrences in the country rock, where evidence of

mineral occurrence may be seen in outcrops or in the dumps,

‘The most important mineral is baryfes. A great mass of it occurs along

the ridge at Mulga Hill, as an impure harytes lode with a bedded structure pre-

served [rom the quartzite it has replaced. The extremities of the ore body become

siliceous and gradually pass into bedded quartzite. The barytes is very impure

and stamed red and green with copper and iron compounds, and in addition it

carries grains of ilmenite and hacmatite up to $% in dimensions. Further north,

barytes occurs amongst schistose rocks as smaller discontinuous bodies of better

quality, and although it is iron-slained, granular iron ores are absent. Costeans

across the schists reveal seams several feet wide but their continuity in depth is

unknown,

FELSPAR is of importance in this area and great quantities of it occur which

could be readily worked. Near Mulga Hill isa large felspar-rich pegmatite from

which much felspar has been quarried. Muscovite, tourmaline and beryl are also

abundant in this pegmatite.

Coprer occurs in several places. Near the Woman-in-White Quartz Reef,

there is a shaft now full of saturated copper sulphate solntion with crystals of

copper sulphate encrusting the wails of the opening above water level. The

country rock is quartzite, carrying small strings and veins of azurite and malachite,

Over the hill to the north there are a number of shafts sink m quartzites and

slates which carry copper carbonates in their outcrops, but apparently nothing of

any value was obtained, These shafts, it is said, also yielded some gold,

GRAUIMITE occurs in one locality. It is of poor grade and vccurs as a pritty

graphitic mica schist

Other well-developed minerals, of lesser economic importance, include the

tollowing —

GARNET, a red almandiie variety, occurs associated with epidote and

uctinolite in bunches of large crystals in quartzite beds on the hill south of the

homestead.

SeHenu, epidote and zuisite aré found on this same hill and clscwhere in

in the area. Thin impure caleareous beds amongst schistose and slaty rocks

probably supplied the lime to form these minerals.

Ky¥anrte occurs as thin bluish blades in schists to the west of Mulga Hill.

TX. FEATURES OF THE CONTACT

The contact of the igneous rocks with the country rocks is not always visible,

being in part covered by alluvium.

To the west the contact is sensibly straight, very sharp against the gneissic

granites, and trends north-westerly (pl. xx, fig. 4). The varved slates scarcely

change right up to the contact, except for the last two or three fect where they

lose their identity and berome greyish, schistose or phyllitic, and develop large

Note:

239

ee,

SEH,

vecnabinesiee\\ phy st

eps Baie Ns

By ish Bison ape)

Pee ee MINES

_BOOLC TA__GRANITE_

LOCATION OF

MINERAL GCCURRENCES

FOR tCeEceEne SEE FOLPER MAP

Fig, 5

The principal mineral occurrences of the grea.

240)

micas, Simiilariy, calcareous and tilhlic bands are without change right up to the

contact. Although the line ol contact between the country and the granite rock

may be mapped as a regular line, it has embavments and other irregulatities

extending either side of a nican contact line, but they cannot he shown on the

seale used. An unusually irregular portion of the contact is illustrated in fig, 3.

The contact to the north-east is well defined with strong mylonite zones developed

dlong it, The country rock against the mast easterly portion of the contact shows

an enrichment in felspar, producing m grey-white fine-grained granntkir rock,

X. GRANITIZATION PHENOMENA

Evidence to stipport a granitization theory of origin is to be gathered from

(1) the major folded tillite horizon an the south, and (2) from the batholith itself.

The tilite forms excellent exposures where it is folded in the southern por-

lion of the area, The voek, where well granitized, has a dense matrix of pink

orthocluse, black biotite, muscovite aud quartz, in which erratics with indistinet

outlines are set (plo xx, fig, 3). This matrix was formerly the normal phyllitic

ar slaty type which is typical of tillites in this country. The stage of alteration

of the rock is evidenced by its erratics, the outlines of which become faint in

slrongly greuitized rock, while the original shape and lithological character are

retained in unaltered portions of the tillite sull retaining a slaty base. Argilla-

ceous erraties are dark and harnfclsic, with none of the original slaty cleavage.

Quartzite erratics are unchanged except for re-crystallization which has occurred

in some, producing a dense stvutcuire which is so coutinuous. that individual prains

cannot be distinguished.

Granitic boulders appear fresh and unaltered, probably due to recrystalliza-

tion with the reconversion of secondary minerals to the original primiry ones,

which would readily occur under granitizing conditions. Gneissic rocks appear

fresh aid reerystallized with a strong gneissic structure, which may be the result

of reerystalization of coniponents such as felspars, quartz, and micas, to larger

individuals.

The granitic nature of the rock as a whole is manifest by ils general appear-

ance in Outcrap, namely, in the development of right-angular joint sets, and sheet

jointing parallel to the surfaces. The granitization is nat homageneous through-

wut, for unaltered tilltie may be in contact with strongly or partially altered

material. Where granitization has been weak the illite retains its slaty-phyllitic

hase, its grey colour, and its typical form of bladed cleaved outcrops. These

weather relatively easily so that erratics lie scattered avout, and cavernous holes,

he spaces once occupied hy erratics, appear in the outcrops. This contrasts

strongly with adjacent rounded granitic-looking outerops with no locsened anil

weathered erraties lying about, The solidity of the altered (illite is exhibited

where, in the anticlinal Told, ic forms a great ridge covered with rounded platy

outerops and granitic tors. Eancs af fiuvieglacials within the tillite take on an

apltic appearance where the grajitizing effects are greatest. When weathered

extensively, the granilized tillite looks like any decayed granite, The rectangular

joints become enlarged and the rock Wecomes syollen and friable by internal

expausion of felspars as these alter to vlays, finally leaving a sandy tmicaceous

residue of soil surrcynding the outerops, :

North-westward from the main anticline in tillite, a long ridge of altered

tilite makes a strong topographical feanire, Ieregularly granilized (lite and

Ihivio-glacials extend the (nll length of the ridge, but taward the creck at the

north-west ond of the ridge only odd bands of well gtanitized rocke remain amongst

onaffected tillites, {luvivglacials and varved slates.

241

A few hundred yards to the sorth of the granitized tillite here is a small

patch of granitized country rock, Locally the structure of the varved slates

heooumes unrecognisable, but in general they appear to “flow around" this small

altered area, Various rock types occur within, including am abundance of

injection-gneiss with granites and pegmatites, Quartzites, having well<lefined

vutereps, wind aboul aniongst the latter and do not appear to have been much

altered. Some amphibolite oceurs here also, while on the north-west margin

there 's a great development of snvill quartz reefs.

Whether the “bathalith itself? has resulted froni intrusion or granitization

is Uifficult to cecide without more information, particnlarly chemical data regard-

tp tle composition of the varicus zones of rock types.

The zottes of injection gneiss carry a great deal of granitic and pesimatitic

material and often this material actually dominates over gneissic rocks, while the

gneissic rocks themselves are largely made up of quartzo-felspathic “Tit-par-tit

bands”, Well within the batholith these injection encisses are gradually replaced

hy migmatites, indicating a conversion of the material of these gneisses. to the

components of granite. This conversion merely requires a recrystallization and

rearrangenient of meterials already present in the gneisses, attended by the expul-

sion of magnesium and iron. ‘The main constituents of these giicisses are quart

and micas or quartz-felspars and micas, while the granites in the area have similar

composition wilh little or no biolite. Thus it would appear that MgO and FeO

have been eliminated during the conversion of the gneiss to granite and that some

ielspat has been added. The pneisses also carry a good deal of iron ore as dis-

-ominated) grains, and since these do not occur in the granite they also inust have

Teen eliminated during the conversion.

larger and smaller borics of basic igieous rock within the “batholith” are

-ituated jn the zones of gueiys aml may represent local concentration of cafemic

comsiityents driven from country which has been coinpletely granitized. Similarly,

basics im the country rock are confined to the areas where there is an abundance

if pegmatitic and pranitic material which have produced high-grade schist, gneiss

ond injecuon-gneiss, thus these, too, may he basic segregations rather than intru-

>ives. Tn many cases they form irregularly-shaped bodies which are not truly

dyke pe sill-like.

The structure of the gneisses stugests replacement rather than intrnsion.

‘(here ts a general nodisturbed schistosity throughout the “batholith” sensibly

parallel to that of the adjacent country rock close to the margin of the granite.

Within the batholith there ts evidenee of two stages of the complete eranitiza-

Lt prucess.

The areas rich in mjection gneiss may represent the preliininary desilicalian

stag brought ahout by telspathization, plus some degree of hasification. The

greater part of these giieisses are felspar-rich because of numerous thin granitic

bands within them, the introduced felspars being mainly microcline. perthite and

oligoclase. Vhis indicates a considerable entichmerit in the alkalies potash and

soda, tic. a desilication uf pre-cxistent coiutry rock. Furthermore, these gneisses

wre niten rich in biotite and muscovite which represetits an increase in K,O, MeO

and FeQ, for there 18 insuflicient ai these bases in the country rock to permit the

direct production of these minc¢rals in the gneisses without outside wugmentation.

These added constituents may have been eliminated from country already com-

letely granitized, i.c., [rem country tow occupied by granite or porphyritic

granite and may be regarded as temporarily concentrated in the gneisses (which

are country rocks in the preliminary desilication stages). The next step would

thecefore be the elimination of the MgO, FeO and excess K,O from the

2AZ

gneisses into the surrounding country rock and the conversion of the gneisses into

granitic-looking rocks. Apatite (representing P,O.), magnetite, and other iron

ores (representing Pel)) are relatively abundant in the gneisses and may represent

some added degree of basification.

There is a similarity between the irregular granitization within the “batholith”

and the gramitized tillite further south in which are found all gradations from

completely unaltered tillite to crysialling granitic muterial in which the original

etratics are scarcely discernible, Heuce iL would appear that granitization as a

whole and the preliminary desilicavion process has operated selectively in tayvour-

able places and on favourable rock, thus explaining why the tillite (as a whole)

is granitized while beds above and below are not.

THE POSSIBLE EXISTENCE OF “WRoNTS”

Outside the batholith there is further evidence of granitization afforded by

coticentrations of certain materials as mincrals in country rock adjacent to the

hatholith.

On the hill opposite the homestead, sphene, garnet, hornblende and epidote

are abundant and may represent FeO, MgO, TiO, expelled from the batholithic

area, while the occurrence of the allile magnetite rocks nearby suggests local

conceniration of ntigrating Na,OQ and FeO. The quartzites have locally been

altered to quartz-biotite-epidote-gneisses and, considering the large quantity of

epidote present in them as well as the abundanee of biotite, sonie MgO and FeO

must have been ijatroduced into these rocks from an outside source, vis., from

country which has been converted tw granite.

The occurrence of copper and iron adjacent to the batholith may also be sig-

nifieant, having been driven forth from the granitized area and accumulated in

these places, The baryltes which occurs clase by may have resulted from the

deposition iu Javourable places of minor disseminated quantities of barium coam-

pounds expelled irom: the gramilized sediments. The schists, gneisses and quartaites

m which these mimeérals occur are in advanced stages of felspathization, manifest

by numerous felspar-rich pegmatites ationgst them and the abundance of telspar

and biotite in the wneigses themeelves,

Hence it would appear that in the caslerm portion of the area where the

country rock is strongiy folded and theroughly peritcated by pegmatites, and

where the greatest variety of miuerals bearing basic constitucnts are concentrated,

that a new centre of granitizalion is being established outside the batholith, pro-

ducing rocks comparable to those of the gneissie belts within the batholith,

Xf. CONCLUSIONS

There is much evidence which suggests that the granite masses of Boolcoo-

math are the result of @ process Of granitizacion rather than of intrusion.

Similarly the alteration of the bordering country rocks may not be entirely due

to -straight-out processes of regional metamorphism, bat inay be partly or even

wholly duc to metasomatising effcets of cmanations driven forth from an adjacent

area undergoing changes which eventually converted it to granitic rock,

However, before indisputable conclusions cam be reached on these probletuis,

more detailed work must be done. This particularly includes chemical work, in

order to he able more accurately to state the relative gains and losses of substances

in the several areas. Such conclusions as have heen reached here by field observa-

tions and by the examination of thin sections, can be only regarded as tentative,

otherwise false impressions may be gained.

243

Tt is hoped that they will be a useful guide to those who will probe more

deeply into the origin of this granite mass and its possible relationship to the

widespread. mineral occurrences in the Olary district.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is entirely indebted to the Mines Department of South Australia

for the time and facilities made available to him to carry out this study, and to

Mr. S. B. Dickinson for help and advice on the work in general.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Axperman, A. R. 1925 The Vanadium Content of certain Titaniferous Jron

Ores of South Australia. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 49, 88-90

Benson, W. N, 1909 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 33, 132, 110

Dickinson, S. B. 1942 Beryl and Andalusite Occurrences north of Olary.

Geol. Surv. 5. Aust. Review, No. 76, 80-81

Kvueeman, A, W. 1944 On the Analysis of Beryl from Rooleoomata, S. Aust.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68, 122-124

Mawson, D. 1912 Geological Investigations in the Broken IIH Area. Me-

moirs of the Roy. Soc, of S. Aust., 2, pt. iv

Mawson, D. Bad Amazonstone from Mulga Hill. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust..

31, 123

Mawson, D. 1916 Beryls of the Boolcoomata llills and Loadstone near

Woman-in-White Mine, Boolcoomata. Trans, Roy, Soc. S. Aust. 40,

262, 263

Mawson, D. 1944 The Nature and Occurrence of Uraniferous Mineral

Deposits in S. Aust. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68, 334-357

Mansrietp, L. 1947 Mulga Hill Barytes Occurrences. Geol. Surv. S. Aust,

Rev., No. 87

Spricc, R. C. 1944 Uranium Occurrence near Amerco Hill, North of Olary.

Geol, Surv. of S. Aust. Rev., No. 81, 91

Wootnoven, W. G. 1904 Petrographice Description of some Varieties of

Granite near Olary, S. Aust. Trans. Roy. Sor. S, Aust., 28, 181-192

GEOCLOSGICAL PLAN

BOOLCOOMATA GRANITE

_AND ASSOCIATED GRANITIZED SEDIMENTS ee hd

SCHIST WITH WINOR QUARTEIFES ___ — |

GRANITIZED TILLITE ANG SLATE

OQUARTZITIC SLATES WITH MINGA

QUARTZITES AND TILLITES . terse

HIGH GRADE SCHISTS AND INJECTION

GNEISS PARTLY GRANITIZED SEDIMENT. ——

EPIDOTIZED QUARTZITE

LOW-MEDIUM GRADE ScHisTs_-——- |

COUNTRY ROCK COMPLETELY GRANITIZED_|=

COMPLETELY GRANITIZED COUNTRY ROCK

WITH PORPHYAYTIC STRUCTURE... byte"

BRECCIATED ZOWES-.-~-..------- Rea

Nt &y wy Br te ARAN MANS Nh AN eed oe Ne] PEGMATITIC (INTRUSIVE

Oya ht i, ere 4] gti Met pty PSA MELAS CS cee

~~ 7 ‘L ee ak aaa Hn Vd seca) Ne eX ey De Basic tavhiteite gence nl

ts NAW A Ps ad (VA eli ARS MRA ee a GRANITIC WORN

QUARTZ REEFS.

REFERENCE TO SIGNS

GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARY OBSERVED... -- oe

GEOLOGICAL BOUNDARY INFERRED

STRIKE AND DIP OF FOLIATION IN GNEISS Pion

STRIKE AND DIP OF GEDDING__.--~ ~~ Pon

STRIKE AND DIP OF CLEAVAGE __ Adina

STRIKE AND DIP OF LINEAR PEGMATITES__ Zw

STRIKE AND DIP OF LOCAL JOINTING =..."

CHAINS. 50 3 siLes. STRIKE OF LINES OF LOCAL SHEARING... “"*

ANTICLINAL AXIS_..---------------.

SYNCLINAL AXIS.

WATERCOURSE....-.--------—-==

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF AREA

, Plate

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Fig. 1

Fracture in erate bordering the hrecciated granite.

The fractures are filled with richly chloritic and biotrtic

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STURTIAN TILLITE OF MOUNT JACOB AND MOUNT WARREN

HASTINGS NORTH FLINDERS RANGES

By D. MAWSON

Summary

Since my earlier contribution (Mawson, 1934) on the general geology of this area, the broader

features of the Proterozoic stratigraphy of the Flinders Ranges have been solved by a succession of

reconnaissances extending over wide areas during the past twelve years. What were then referred to

as the “Munyallina beds”, I hae since been ablt to correlate satisfactorily with defined horizons in

the Proterozoic succession of the Adelaide System. As a consequence, this paper is being written

with that object in view as well as to supply, as a result of a further examination of the region

executed in the year 1939, a detailed cross-section through the glacigene beds.

244

STURTIAN TILLITE OF MOUNT JACOB AND MOUNT WARREN HASTINGS

NORTH FLINDERS RANGES

By D. Mawson *

[Read 11 November 1948]

lotreductory Remarks stu 1ifs ait tiax pus ws a ae ne 244

Cross-Section of the Glacigene Sediments of Mount Jacob ... - us 293 245

Cross-Section of the Glacigene Sediments of Mount Warren Hastings tab 247

‘Vhe Post-Glacial Record within the area under consideration Au sats if 248

fhe Glacial Record .... ee sha cosh i, ct i 14 tym hase 249

The Pre-Glacial Record ‘ ey by wt ~ rash ty: P ay 250

Description of Plates - ws is ee G3 Li a a. 251

References mt nial : oy} bie set bes os ne -_ in 251

Since my earlier contribution (Mawson, 1934) on the general geology of this

area, the broader features of the Proterozoic stratigraphy of the Flinders Ranges

have been solved by a succession of reconnaissances extending over wide areas

during the past twelve years. What were then referred to as the “Munyallina

beds”, I have since been able to correlate satisfactorily with defined horizons in

the Proterozoic succession of the Adclaide System. As a consequence, this paper

is being written with that object in view as well as to supply, as a result of a

further examination of the region executed in the year 1939, a detailed cross-

section through the glacigene beds.

x ARKAROOLA STATION

! SCALE

a MT Warren Hastings : ed MCE

WOODNAMOKA WELL :

AMI. Jacob

MAC ing

2 WOOLTANA H.5.

Fig, 1

A very important matter left in doubt when my carlier contribution was

published was the existence or otherwise of a fault along the face of the massive

(ave Limestone formation. The possibility of a major fault in that location was

* Geology Department, University of Adelaide.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 72, (2), 30 March 1949,

245

discussed (Mawson, 1934, 188) but finally discounted, f#lowever, our later

investigation, and sttatigraphical considerations, show this to be a major fault

line, thrawing down some thousands of feet the block to the east thereaf; namely,

the country between the Cave Limestone belt and Mount Jacob. Thus it is now

demonstrated that the glacigene beds of the Mount Jacob Range are repeated

by faulting at Mount Warren Hastings.

_ Detailed cross-sections of the beds im these two localities are graphically

displayed in fig. 2 herewith. The lines of section are marked on the locality map,

hig. 1

CROSS-SECTION OF THE GLACIGENE SEDIMENTS OF

MOUNT JACOB

The mail coach track from Wooltana homestead to Paralana follows nort)),

for the first four miles, along the fovr of the Mount Jacob Range, with the gentiv

falling Lake Frome Plains extending beyond the horizon to the east, From this

track, at a point about two miles nerth of Wooltana homestead, the geological

section to he detailed below was run to the west over the Mount Jacob Range.

traversing the complete thickness of the glicigene beds. These are clearly

Sturtian in age. Herewith are descriptive notes dealing with each of the divisions

recognised in the plotted cross-section (fig. 2), stated in ascending order from

below upwards.

1, A few hundred yards across the outerop of poorly exposed pre-glacial

sediments, amongst whielt slates and dolomites are conspicuous.

Minor intrusive bodies of diabasé have heen reported (Mawson, 1926).

2. A belt of melaphyre. in places amygdaloidal. This may have been a

laya flow in Proterozoic times.

3. The above melaphyre is overlain by a reddish sandstone, of some con-

siderable thickness, dipping moderately steeply to the west. It appar-

ently post-dates the melaphyre. In sev¥eral places it is greatly disturbed

and shattered, suggesting that it is traversed by fault lines. {Late

Tertiary) connected with the downthrow of the Lake Frome Plains to

the east. Dip variable 30° t0 350° ta W; strike N. 2° K,

4. Melaphyre with some intercalations of a consolidated tuffaceaus nature

form the lower face of the range. The relation of the red sandstone

ta this basalt was not satisfactorily determined, the locality being dts-

turbed by faulting. Llowever, westward frou that point, the sue-

cession of beds is undisturbed by jaulting.

This thick basaltic formation appears to be mainly in the nature of

a lava flow and was originally scoriaceous in part, more especially at

the upper and lower limits. Former stcambholes are iiow filled by

secondarily introduced miterals, resulting in some locations of a truly

perfect and striking example of an amygdaloidal melaphyre. The total

thickness of this basaltic formation was found toe be 590 feet. Tis

upper surface is irregular and had evidently been subjected in places

to some crosion prior to deposition upon it of the overlying glaciyenc

sediments,

5. Dark grey tu greenish-grey breccia. Near the base there are plentiful

angular pieces and boulders of the underlying basalt, also abundant

fragments of limestone and dolonite, anc some shale, quartzite and

reef quartz, This is now interpreted as a glacigeie breccia. At

about 300 feet aboye the base some bands exhthit evidence of water

“I

16.

17.

246

True thick-

Wess mm feel

sorting. Above this level the tllite is of a more sandy nature; in other

ways also there is indicated to same degree the effects of water sorting

and elutriation. Erratics up to 2 feet in drameter were observed, In

the upper part of this division, limescone erratics are scarce; of these

quartzite is common, basaltic rocks are plentiful, and occasional

erralics Of quartz porphyry were noted .,,. ~s0 rote ne “17

Tillite with mich fine base in whick are distributed erratic boulders

up to 18 inches in diameter. Jaspero'd quartzite is the more abundant

rock type represented among the erratics. Only a small percentage

of the erratics shaw faceting : striae are rarely seen. A well striated

example was ohserved partly embedded in the tillite at about 200 feet

above the base of this division, At about 300 yards above. the base

there are some uarraw glacin-fluvial sand bands intercalated in this

tillite, At higher horizons, erratics exhibiting striations are more

frequent. These etratics are still mainly quartzite, some of a white

variety, others the jasperaid lvpe, Erraties of «quartz porphyry, con-

siderably kaolinized, are less frequent ... ei put beh tie

Glacio-fluvial sediments allernating with tillite,

(a) Band of sandstone. 1 ft. in thickness.

(b) Above is tillite, 6 ft. thick.

(ec) Dand of sandstone, 1 ft. thiek.

(d) Tillite, 34 ft. thick.

(e) Sandstone in part exhibitmg 4-inch Jaminations, At the base ts

a section of true varves; alternating laminae of red argillite and

white sand. Thickness, 93 ft, Dig, 33° to W.; strike, N.5° L..

Typical tillite in which some erraties of an unusial red-calouredd

porphyry were observed .... Se , : ie ne

Commences helow as a sundy phase of tillité bitt passes wphdtd into

a normal willie i which) small crratcs are studded through an

abundant rock-flour base .... tee sate bi: er eit whee

Glacio-fluvial, gritty sand-rock with some pebble erratics :

Commences below as characteristic tillite but quickly changes above

toa sandy phase. Near top are abundant pebbles ina very sandy base

Glaciv-fluyial sandstone 2 feet thick below. followed by LO feet of

sandy tillite, capped by 20 fect of glacto-fluvial sandstone we ats

Somewhat sandy tillite with plentifil erratics

Sandy tillite, less resistant ta weathering «.. no ews tart ces

Characteristic tillite in which, towards the upper limit, along the

stinmit of the Range, there are exceptionally large etratics up to

6 ft. in diameter; most of these are of quartzite, and many are well

striated a wel hla ake *

Tilhte with plentiful large crratics a a, post ett ways

Characteristic tillite with many latge erratics exhibiting striated faces.

Ati nustially good example of an ancient, typical tillite. Among the

largest crratics are chocolate-coloured quartz-feldspar porphyry and

quartzite, one of the latter measuring 5 ft. by 5 fu by 4 ft. This is the

topmost of the glacigene beds and where erosion has stripped the

500

247

‘True thick-

mesa in feet

overlying beds there is exposed the original surface of the old tillite

formation. Thus can be observed of the old suriace a concentration

of -erratics standing in relief by removal of the finer-grained elements

ef the old botlder clay, evidently the reswit of strface wash.

See pl. xxii, fig. 2... ue roa xf, ae p..t Bice ae 7)

Yotal glacigene formation .... 2,547

18. Immedtutety above the tilhte ts glucio-lacustrine mud and an irregular

band of limestone up to 3 ft. in thickness, followed by blue-grey

shales, dipping 23° to the west. Strike N.8° E. (see pl. xxiii, fig, 1)-

These post-glacial shales are, in part, finely laminated and correspond

to the Tapley Hill shales of the Sturt locality near Adelaide, Ags they

pass upwards, bands obviously somewhat calcareous make their

appearance, and finally, at about 1,200 feet stratigraphicatly aboye the

base, a thick limestoue formation with some cryptozoonic mottling is

tet with,

The general upward succession of strata to the west of the Mount Jacob

Range ullite figured in the diagram herewith (fig. 2) and extending as. far as

the vicinity of the Cave Limestone is well set out in the section on page 190 of

my carlier reconnaissance (Mawson 1934). Note, howeyer, that a fault extends

in a general north to south direction along the Cave Limestone belt throwing

down the Mount Jacob range black.

THE MOUNT WARREN HASTINGS BELT OF GLACIGENE BEDS

This belt 35 a repetition by faulting of the Mount Jacoh tillite. Some varia-

tion im details of the succeéssioi atid in total thickness is to be noted, but this may

be expected as anticipated irregularities inherent in glacial sediments deposited

al points several miles apart.

A matter calling for special remark is the fact that whereas these glacial

depositions at Mount Jacob rest upon basaltic effusive debris, there is an absence

of such at the western outcrop, the glacial beds there lying directly on top of

the undisturbed dolomite-magnesite-bearing series. This line of section is marked

yn the locality map, fig. 1,

Notes relating io the numbered divisions appearing on the diagraramatic

cross-section (fig. 2) are given below, True thick.

ness in feet

1. Preglacial shales and dolomites with some bands of sedimentary mug-

between 28° and 34° (see pl. xxii, fig. 1).

2. illite with abundant dolomite erratics, OQuartzite erratics up to

3 feet diameter are also abundant and not infrequently show ¢lacial

striae. A fine-grained grey granite is also represented among the

erratics (see pl. xxii, fig. 2) “its ron sane st ves ai 50

Glacio-fluvial sandstone, siltstone and rock-flour beds with some

erratics. Included are occasional bands a foot or two in thickness of

typical tillite ages 340 st» vas Leg re sts a. 626

4. Typical tillite at base of this section with quartzite erratics up to

24 feet long; some large ones of grey granite and gneiss, At 50 feet

abhave the base the tillite becomes more sandy until finally a ¢lacio-

fluvial arkose; later, appruaching the top of this division, it reverts in

nature to a sandy tillite .... tem dae abs bits un «= BA

jaa)

cu)

re)

rt)

”

WAM

roe

yea

eee ~ oe

PRE-GLACIAL MELAPHYRES AND DOLOMITE-BEARING SEDIMENTS

SEDIMENTS

GLACIGENE

GENE STRATA NEAR MT_WARREN HASTINGS

SECTION ACROSS THE PROTEROZOIC GILAC!

PRE-GLACIAL MAGNESITE & DOLOMITE-BEARING SEDIMENTS

CIGENE SECIMENTS

OST-GLACIAL,

Tig, 2

‘True thick-

ness in fect

>. Tillite with well glaciated ertatics nites we his na ste

0. Glacio-Auvial silts and muds, containing large erratics in the upper

sechou hed fast wee ie tase shed abe sate nie o4

7. A glacial nud base with plentiful very large erratics up to 2 feet

diameter, Nearly all erraties are quartzite; one is a quartzite con-

elomerate (pebbles in it also quartzite) -... oct Jase shi we 146

S. ‘illite and glaciotacustrine mud shales with plentiful latge erraties;

one is 4 course granite fief ) - . ae we «218

& Typical tillite with abundant striated erraticy io 3 Jeet in diameter ;

granite with quartzite common, Sonie erratics are greatly weathered

basaltic rocks ‘ie yes sive ari sate ore ack we 390

10. Glaciottuvial sandstone —.... dt fa sere odes am sad 32

11. Tillite oie en at &l

12. Glacio-fluvial sandstone... ess fis ves eee oye Mee 75

13. Characteristic tillite crowded with erratics eT sete sits pa aE

i4. A sand phase tillite seal ae ast fiat ois awe bY2

15, Typical tillite, rich in large erratics, many of which are striated wa «= 704

Total glacigene formation .... 3,098

16, Post-glacia! slates, strikiug N.12° E. and dipping west 33°,

Several hundred feet ahove the iipper surface of the foregoing glacigenc

beds, intercalated in this slate formation are thin hauds of limestone, then more

slates and finally a thick formation of crystalline limestone at possibly 800. feet

ahove the base. Dip here 36° to W.

THE POST-GLACIAT. RECORD WITHIN THE AREA UNDER

CONSIDERATION

These outcropping belts of glacigene accumulations are each followed by a

corresponding succession of post-glacial sedimenis, Namntely laminated rock-flour

silts below, passing upward into flaggy beds, among which are occasional bands

of a somewhat calearcous nature; these in turn finally lead to massive limestones.

This also, it will be noted, is the order of succession above the Sturtian Tillite

near Adelaide, which locality is some 330 miles further south. Tere, however,

the laminated slates formation is much less thick, while the limestone develop-

ment ts vastly greater and more varied.

On my second visit to the Mount Jacob area, T did not re-measure the post-

wlactal succession ahove the Mount Jacob belt; such data as appear in my eatlier

paper (Mawson, 1934), though hurriedly secured, should be a satisfactory record

up to the faulted area where chocolale shales appear; refer to item 10 of that

record. Summarized, the overlying beds there stated include from helow upward

about 1,250 feet of laminated slates and flaggy calcareous slates followed by over

2,000 feet of beds highly calcareous. These latter are massive limestone below,

in part siliceous and dolomitic, passing above to flaggy, banded limestones with

ussociated argillites, which bear the characteristic features of shallow water

accumulations. They are rich in oolitic and pisolitic structures, as well as

exhibiting several stromatolithic forms corresponding to types often referred to

24 records of calearcous algae, These latter can be seen also in the face of the

Nepowie Rampart a little to the north of Baleanoona homestead.

z49

The argillites and limestones of this belt are surprisingly (ree from any fori

of advanced metamorphism such as has affected their equivalents in the

Umberatana-Yudanamatana region sume 20 miles tu the west-north-west,

THE GLACIAL RECORD

Tt will be observed that the measured thickness of the glacigene belt at Mount

Jacoh is only 2.447 feet, while at Mount Warren Hastings it is 3,098 feet.

Perusal of the succession suggests that there is some indication of a rough corre-

pondence in the deposits of the two localities, if read downwards from the tops

in cach case. This suggests that the underlying surface upon which the glacial

sediments were deposited stood at a higher level at ihe Mount Jacob locatiory than

was the case further to the west; perliaps a result of the volcanic accumulations

in the former locality.

Details already listed of the changing nature of the glacigenc accumulations

illustrate the interbedding of true tillites with glacio-fluvial deposits. The latter

range from true varved sediments and well-graded sandstune, to water deposited

arenaccous and argillaccous beds with occasional embedded erratics. The most

massive tillites met with constitute the later depositions; there the erralics reach

unusually large dimensions, Dr. Woolnough (1926) mentions having observed,

in the more southerly extension of the Mount Jacob belt, a vitreous quartzite

erratic some 9 feet in length.

The glacio-fluvial sediments embedded in the glacigene successiom are nel

anywhere of great thickness, so that they cannot be construed as necessarily

inferring ati interglacial climatic break; they may haye resulted from purely local

conditions. There is therefore in this arca nothing corresponding to the thiclc

interglacial Wéillyerpa quartzite formation of the Bibliando Dome, which is

distant little more than 100 miles to the south, As these glacial beds are all of

one ¢poch, and as they are followed by a sedimentary sequence corresponding

with the post-Sturtian succession, we conclude that the Mount Jacob tillites are

of the Sturtian epoch, not of the earlier Bibliando (Mawson, 1948) period.

Erranes embodied in the glacigene deposits include some granites anil

por'phyries, so closely similar to types met with in sit in the Mount Painter com-

plex that it seems certain that they were in fact, derived therefrom. These are

mainly lioth grey and brown acid porphyries and both light grey and reddish

granite. less often gneiss and schist are encountered.

One quite remarkable erratic recorded is itself a tilloid rock, of which there

is Tittle doubt that it is actually a ullite. Thus the existence of an earlier glacia-

tion appears to be evidenced.

Cormmonest of all are quartzites, and of then one type appears to be identical

with the rock constituting the great quartzite formation overlying the central older

Precambrian complex in certain localities, such as along the Arkaroola near the

junction of Radimn Creek.

Low down in the succession erratics of dufomite and limestone are rematk-

ably abundant; a common type closciy resembles a limestone of the underlying

SeVICS,

In the Mount Jacob area the lowest part of the glacigene belt is remarkably

rich in fragmenis' of the underlying basic igneous rocks. This leaves no doubt

but that the ice responsible for the accumulation overrode areas of that basalt,

These facts are evidence of the existence of jiee-covered land in the vicinity

of Mount Painter during the Proterozoic glaciation, Jt is not necessary to look

250

ia the Gawler Ranges, as suggested liy Howchin, for the source of erratics of

red to brown acid porphyry, for occurrences. of the kind do oceur in the neigh-

bouring Mount Painter complex.

THE PRE-GLACTAL. RECORD

‘The sediments underlying the glacial formation are arenaceous and argille-

ccous flaggy beds with much interbedded dolomite and magnesite. This corre-

“ponds to the magnesitiferous formation met with beneath the Proterazoic illite

in many other parts af South Australia, for example with that recorded

(Mawson, 1947) west of Coptey and at Mundallio Creek, The extensive

development of sedimentary deposits of pellur magnesite (see Mawson and Dall-

witz 1945, p. 23) below the Mount Warren Liastings belt of tillite is specially

noteworthy, We did not meet obvious magnesite beds below the Mount Jacoh

tillite outcrop, doubtless owing to the very narrow bell exposed to view,

The pre-glacial basaltic igneous acuivity (Mawson, 1926) on a consitlerable

xeale exhibited below the Mount Jacob helt and its absence in the section 8 miles

to the west is evidence of its local nature,

NE.

COPDIERITE ~ PLEQUASTE—

CORUNDARA = SCHIST ETC)

re NAL

Al ‘

“te

ADELAIDE SYSTEM

Pig. 4

By following the Wywyana@?) dowr to its jluiction with the Arkaroola,

thence to the junction of Radium Creck, a complete cross-section of all under-

lying sedimentary formations between the tillite and the old Mount Painter

complex is traversed (sec sketch section, ig. 3). [ivst in the downward sequence

comes ihe imagnesitiferous dolomite-bcarnig series, then a massive quartzite

formation which shonld correspond with the Emetogo Quartzite (Mawson, 1947)

of the wearer Flinders Ranges. Next comes an older succession: argillites and

limestone, in part richly dolonvilic and sideritic, overlying a basal quartaite. Asso-

ciated with this section of the record is rather abundant basalt mt part, at least,

intrusive, Beneath this older group of sediments are the granites, gneisses and

granulites of the Mount Painter canplex,

The oldest series of sediments metitiohed above is referred to in the sketch-

section as the Arkaroola Series. It is everywhere greatly inctamorphosed, [n

come of its course the quartzite is rendered almost “vitreous”. The calcwrenus

formation has been converted to actinolite-phlogopite-siderite schists and marbles.

Calearcous slates haye been changed io scapolite-rich schists,

We have met a corresponding sttecession in other localities when passing

into the Mount Painter complex. In some other areas, this basal quartzite has

heen feldspathised and otherwise incorporated into the underlying gneissic system.

Roof pendants (Mawson 1923, p. 376) in the red granite cast of Mount

Pitts, composed of corundum, pleotiaste and cordierite schists, appear to be highly

metamorphosed fragments of this series,

~) "This creek iy spelt variously on maps in circulation. However, the speiling as

bere given is that advised as correct nsage by Mr. Greenwood, proprietar af that area

of country,

251

REFERENCES

Mawson, D. 1923 Igneous Rocks of the Mount Painter Belt. Trans. Roy.

Soc. S. Aust., 47, 376

Mawson, D. 1926 The Wooltana Basic Igneous Belt. Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust, 50, 192

Mawson. D. 1934 The Munyallina Beds, A Late Proterozoic Vormation.

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 58, 187-196

Mawson, D. 1944 The Nature and Occurrence of Uraniferous Mineral

Deposits in South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 68, 354-357

Mawson, D. 1947 The Adelaide Series as Developed along the western

Margin of the Flinders Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, 259-280

Mawson, D. 1948 The Proterozoic Glacial Record of the Bibliande Dome,

Proc, Roy, Soc. N.S.W.

Mawson, D., and Dattwirz, W. B. The Soda-Rich Leticogranite Cupolas of

Umberatana. Trans. Rov, Soc, 5, Aust., 69, 22-49

Wootnouvén, W. G. 1926 The Geology of the Flinders Ranges, South Aus-

tralia, in Neighbourhood of Wooltana Station. Proc, Roy. Soc, N.S.W.,

60, 283

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES

PLatTE xxii

Fig. 1—General view of the outcropping magnesite-dolomite-bearing series under-

lving the glacigene sediments. View looking south-west from a point about a mile

north-west of Mcleish’s Well

Thotre by R. H. Jones

Fig. 2—General view of the lower part of the outcropping glacigene sediments

where they overlic the magnesite-dolomite-bearing series about 14 miles west-north-

west of Meclcish's Well. The base of the glacigene beds is the tilite knob showing as

a dark patch near the left margin of the picture.

Photo by R. H. Jones

PLATE XXIil

Fig. 1—The top limit of the Ullite, where is appears as a cliff face capped by a

thin band of limestone followed by a thick series of laminated shales. Photographed

in creek bed on the western side of the Mount Jacob Range at western end of section.

Photo by R. H, Jones

Fig. 2—The top limit of tillite on the western side of the Mount Jacob Range and

west end of section. Here the thin band of limestone and slates capping the tillite has

heen eroded back to reveal a fossil moraine surface studded with large erratics.

Photo by R. H. Jones

Trans. Roy, Soe. S. Aust.. 1948 Vol, 72, Plate NNT

Fig. 1

Dolomitic series underlying the ghicigene belt of Mount Warren Hastings.

Vi, 2

Lower portion of the Mount Warren Llastings glacigene series

Trans, Rov. Soc, S. Aust, 1948 Vol, 72, Plate NNITI}

Fig. 1

Glacio-Auvial sediments overlying the upper limit of the

Mount Jacoh tillite.

Fig,

The original surinace features of the Proterozoic tillite

uncovered by erosion of overlying elacio-Auvial sedunents.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OCCURRENCE OF FOSSIL FRUITS IN THE

BAROSSA SENKUNGSFELD, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By PAut S. HOSSFELD

Summary

In a paper read before this Society in 1935 (Hossfeld, 1935) the writer, on page 51, referred briefly

to the occurrence of lignitized fossil fruits below the present surface of the Tanunda Plain. These

fruits were obtained at a depth of 320 feet below the surface from a bore just over two miles from

Tanunda, in a direction a little east of south, on Section 650, Hundred of Moorooroo, South

Australia, on the property of Mr. H. A. Lindner, who made the specimens available to the writer.

252

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE OCCURRENCE OF FOSSIL FRUITS IN THE

BAROSSA SENKUNGSFELD, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Paus $. Hossretp

[Read 11 November 1948]

In a paper read before this Society in 1935 (Hossfeld, 1935) the writer, ou

page 51, referred briefly to the occurrence of lignitized fossil irnits below the

present surface of the Tanunda Plain, These fruits were obtained at a depth of

320 feet below the surface from a bore just over two miles from Tanunda, in a

direction a little east of south, on Section 650, Hundred of Moorooroa, South

Australia, on the property of Mr. H. A. Lindner, who made the specimens avail-

able to the writer.

FOSSIL

FRITS

KITCHENER

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 72, (2), 30 March 1949,

253

They have been described and identified by Miss Helen T, Paterson, B.A.,

who is responsible also for the sections ahd. drawings. The descriptions and

illustrations are incorporated in the present paper.

A plan and a section are included in order to. demonstrate the writer's con-

clusions regarding the structure of the area.

The area described in this paper consists of the southern part of the

Tanunda Plain, the lowest part of the area, and the higher areas to the east and

west. The eastern section includes part of the Barossa Ranges in the vicinity

vf Mount Jatchener, and the westeri section consists of part of the Gomersal

Plateau.

As will be noted from the section the area is one of diversified relief, pro-

duced by the differential movements of [ault blocks and their subsequent dissec-

tion and erosion. The area appears to have formed a part of (he extensive Aus-

tralian Pre-Miocene Peneplain. Warping and block-fanlting, commencing probably

in the Larly Miocene in soine areas, and corititing episodically until Recent times,

have dismembered the region and destroyed much of the pre-existing drainage.

The trough faulting which took place in this area resulted finally in the

development of the Mount Kitchener Horst, descending by a series of step-fatlts

to the lowest part of the fault basin on which Tanunda is situated, and ascending

on the western side hy two or more step-faults to the comparatively low Goinersal

Plateau. The maximum vertical movement known is in the vicinity of 1,400 feet,

the height of Mount Kitchener being 1,965 feet, and the fossil fruit deposit

approximately 560 feet above sea level. The Gomersal Plateau, before recent

dissection partially destroyed it, appears to have had an clevation of between

850 and 900 fect above sea level.

Mount

Karceewen

PLIOCENE

FOSSIL

Ay FRUITS

GAWLER

X WARCOOTA

SERIES

HORIZONTAL 1} JAGH = J] MILE

SCALES | VERTICAL 1 INCH= 2000 FEET

FIG.

All of the above fault platforms, the postulated positions of which are marked

on the plan, ate covered to some extent by alluyial deposits, which mask some of

them completely, Thus ihe existence of the fault block an which the fossil fruits

oecur, and which will be referred to as ihe Kabminye Block, could not be proyed

nor its depth determined tuntil the bore supplied the necessary evidence.

The fertile plain on which the towns of Nuriootpa and Tanunda and a

number of villages are situated, owes its origin to the filling of a fault trough,

chiefly by alluvial deposits from the Barossa Ranges which form its steep eastern

margin.

“ED

wht >

(7.

1 A 19.

rst FIc. 3.

Phymatocaryon Mackayi—lig, 1, Whole [ruit presenting sutural edge. Fig. 2, Valves

separated, external view, Fig, 3. Valve, imner side. Fig. 4, Whole fruit showing

its sumunit.

Concotheca turgida—Fig. 5, Whole fruit. Fig. 6, Whole fruit showing sutural side.

Fig. 7-9, Valves separated, with shrivelled seed. Fig. 10-12, whole fruits. Fig. 13-

14, Valves external, internal.

Pleioclinis Couchmanti—Fig, 15, Side view of fruit. Fig. 16, Fruit seen from below.

Fig. 17-18, Showing valves, Fig. 19, Transverse section showing seed. Fig. 20,

Fruit seen from above.

255

The down-fauiting and warping which produced this fault trough extend

much further, and although not marked by the deposition of the deep: alluvium

characteristic of the Nuriootpa-Tantinda Plain, these extensions are so obviously

part of the same system of crustal deformation that they have been grouped by

the writer under the term “Barossa Senkungsfeld” and will he described aud

referred to as such in a paper which is being prepared.

The following descriptions, identification, scetions aud illustrations have been

supplied by Miss Helen T. Paterson.

Tn classifying the specimens Miss Paterson retained the nomenclature uses

by Baron von Mueller, but as his work had not been revised according to the

present knowledge of our flora the affinity to the existing genera has been shown

where possible.

NESCRIPTION OF FOSSIL FRUITS FROM SECTION 450,

HUNDRED OF MOOROOROO, SOUTE AUSTRALIA

Family SAPINDACEAE

Prywatocarvan Macnavi Mueller

Phymatocaryon Mackay, TY. v, Mueller, 1874, p. 11, 12, pl, it, fig. 1-15,

Two specimens of an oval drupaceous Ituit, somewhat pointed, with an

irregular muricated putamen, 3-valved. The furrows run in symmetrical form

from hase to apex. One specimen is very compressed as though subjected ty

pressure. These fruits resemble the living forms of Llacocarpus, for example.

FE. grandis, and correspond to those described by Baron yon Mueller, 1874-1883,

in his Observations of New Vegetable Fossils of the Auriferous Drifts, as

Phymatocaryon Mackayi, and by Henry Deane in his Tertiary Fossil Fruits from

Deep Lead, Fuster, South Gippsland, 1923, p, 490, pl. bx, fig. 15-16.

Several fruits of this genus are also described by Ettingshausen, Tertiary

Mora of Australia, 1888, p. 157, pl. xiv, fig. 3, 4, 5, Sa; p. 63, pl. vi, ig. 9-12

These were collected from Beaconsheld, Tasniania; apd Elsmore, New South

Wales.

ConcorHecs TuRcIpA Mueller

Concothece turguda Wy. Mueller, 1874, p, 42, pl. x, fig. 6-12;

Deane, 1923, p. 491, pl. lx, fig. 11, 17-21.

Several small capsular fruits occur, globular in shape, cavity deep and roumi.

Size circ. 3” long. Valves shaw an acute line at the edge and a partial aril or

prominence. These fruits resemble those found at Nintingbool in the Older Plio-

cene drift and also at Tangil, as described by Mueller under Concotheca turgida

In his Tertiary Vossil Pruits fram Deep Lend, Foster, Deane identifies several

fruits similar to C. turgida as belonging to the family Sapindacese, the genus

Alectryon (Nephelium 1. y, M.) of the preseni-day Hora suggests some afhnity.

PLeiocrinis Covcuwaniu Mueller

Pleioclinis Couchmowi FP, v. Muclier, 1883, p, 19, pl. xix, fig, 1-11.

Observations—A fruit resembling a nutmeg in appearance, 7-valved, 1” long,

wide, ovate. The outaide tubercular and of woody hardness, ane seed only,

not well developed, oblique with a minute apex and a smooth thin testa.

This fruit is distinguished from the genus Penlenne by the number of its

valves, Similar specimens have been found at Maddon and Nintinghool.

The present-day genus Pletugyitiner, Engler, shows the same plurality af

valves-

3].

Penteane trachyclints—Fig, 21, Front view of fruit. Fig. 22, End view. Fig. 23,

Section showing valves and seeds.

Rhytidotheca Lynchii—Fig, 24, Whole fruit. Fig. 25-26, Valves and seeds. Fig. 27-30,

Valves of smaller fruit, external, internal, side views.

Spondylostrobus Smythii — Fig. 31, Whole fruit. Fig. 32, Fruit seen from above.

Fig, 33, Section showing seeds.

257

PENTEUNE TRACHYCLINIS Mueller

Pentoune trachyclinis F, y. Mueller, 1874, p. 22, pl. viii, fig. 10-17.

Observations—a large fruit 14 long, 1” wide, broadly ovate; consists of five

valves to the base. These are thick and woody, seeds not developed.

Similar fruits have been found at Smythe’s Creek and in the Tertiary traver-

tine at Geilston Bay, Tasmania,

Henry Deane in his Fossil Fruits from a Deep Lead, Foster, compares fruits

found there with P. Clarket, F. v. M. (1923, p. 490, pl. Ix, fig. 1, 2, 3) and the

present-day Owenta venosa, but points out the difference in the number of valves,

only one out of three being 5-valved. These fruits show a similarity in shape and

number of yalyes to the family Meliaceae, which is not represented in Victoria

at present.

Family MELIACEAE

Raytinotneca Lyncoi Mueller

Rhytidotheca Lynchit F. vy. Mueller, 1874, p. 15, pl, iv, fig. 1-8,

Observalions—Several boat-shaped valves occur, c. 2?” long and 4” wide,

with roughened tubercular strfacé. These resemble the genus Flindersia, but its

wing-shaped seed in a decomposed state has not been preserved,

In F, v. Mueller’s Fossil] Fruits a similar type of fruit is figured as Rhytido-

theca Lynchi. This species shows an affinity to the present-day Plindersia.

Henry Deane describes and refers two fruits from a Deep Lead, Foster, to

RK. Lyncha, but stresses their resemblance to Flimdersia maculosa. These valves

are of a smaller variety.

Two complete, oblong, capstilar fruits, one 13” long, 4 wide, have each five

roughened valves, not echinate, and contain a woody placetita with flat seeds on

either side. These fruits may be referred to the same genus,

Family CUPRESSINEAE

SPONDYLOsTROBUS Smyth Mueller

Spondylostrobus Smythii F. vy. Mueller, 1874, pp. 8-9, pl. i, fig, 1-8;

Ibtd, 1883, p. 13-14, fig. 5A, 5B

Observations—A large fruit, 14” long, 3” broad, consisting of four valves

with wide ridges at the apex, becoming convex and narrow at the base. Seeds

two, free from the yalve. Similar fruits have been found at Haddon, Victoria;

Orange, New South Wales; and Launceston, Tasmania.

There is no evidence of this type in the present flora; the nearest affinity is

found in the coniier Callitris and its sub-genus Frenela; these plants show a

similar verticillus of fruit valves.

Discusston

A review of the available literature stiggests that while these fossils appear

to be of Pliocene Age, their position within the Pliocene catnot be determined

at present

Further collections and investigations might modify the above age determina-

tion. Whatever the final verdict as to their age may be, these fossils supply

evidence of the beginning of downwarping and possibly faulting, in the area.

The dismemberment of the peneplain in this area appears to have begun by crustal

warping, which eventually culminated in the development of block-laulting in

258

portions of the warped areas, Further to the north, warping produced monoclinal

flexures which can still be recognised. If the fossils are definitely of Pliocene

Age then the movements must be at least as old as the Pliocene.

These movements have continued episodically until recent times and may not

have ceased entirely; alluvial, lacustrine and fluviatile deposits covering the

Pleistocene-Recent Period occur in a number of areas in the Northern Mount

Lofty Ranges.

There is reason to believe that other deposits similar to the fossil fruit

occurrence in the Kabminye Block occur, not only beneath the Nuriootpa-T anunda

Plain, but possibly also in other similar localities such as the Dutton Plain, the

Mount Crawford Plain and others.

Although the existence of lignite of Pliocene Age is a distinct possibility, it

appears likely that, should such deposits exist, they would be comparatively small,

and probably uneconomic because of other adverse factors.

Acknowledgments—The writer is indebted to Mr. H, A. Lindner, of

Kabminye, for the loan of the fossils; to Mr. H. B. Lindner for his assistance to

the writer in many ways; to Miss Helen T. Paterson for the identification and

description of the fossils; and to Mr. W. Riedel for assistance in the age

determination of the fossils.

REFERENCE

Hossretp, P. S. 1934 “The Geology of Part of the North Mount Lofty Ranges.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 59

THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF COUNTY VICTORIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By T. LANGFORD-SMITH

Summary

The geomorphology of County Victoria is analysed on the basis of three distinct zones, known

respectively as the Pirie Plains, the Central Highlands, and the North-Eastern Plateau. An attempt is

made to interpret certain structural and landform phenomena within these zones, particular attention

being paid to the sand dunes of the Pirie Plains and the ridge-and-valley structure of the Central

Highlands.

259

THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF COUNTY VICTORIA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By T. Lancrorp-Smiru *

[Read 11 November 1948 |

CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT a - Lg i. a oe . % 2 f a “ .. 259

INTRODUCTION a te “— J, ats to ‘4 ts ise ct .. 261

PHYSIOGRAPHIC ZONES af .. be 4 a 4, 7 Es we .- 261

A. Pirie Plains ‘. = a y; rw ue > be ‘3 .. 261

(i) Shoreline . a os _ oe eo ~~ = .. 261

(ti) Tidal Flats . te ce e as _ ze _ .. 262

(iii) Broughton Plains ve 23 ~ a ot .. ae -. 262

(iy) Broughton River Flats ve i) a4 4 a tf .. 262

(v) Sand Dune Belt ,, “y a Pr . - - ie _. 263

(vi) Napperhy Conoplane ., Aes 4: os os ze a 1. 264

(vii) Napperby Pediment .. a ar ry ss a 4. -. 264

(viii) Milcowie Bleck ,. ws “s ry Eas * i + -. 265

B. Central Highlands - se 3s we - 4 an ie .. 265

(3) General .. is ra bs ae 1s al _ 265

(ii) Ridge-and-Valley Structure 265

(ii) South Flinders Fault-Line Scarp a = sf “ .. 266

C. North-Eastern Plateau .. as be ‘ ie 44 ts ae .. 266

TERTIARY GRAVELS in at .- le es we os “ _ _. 267

Tectontc MoavEMENTS +. iw “4 .. 7 =} 4, ate i .. 268

Main Tectonic Associations .. An a J we =! ye .. 268

Age of Movements... os zs Ra 7. H us is es .. 268

“Dotible Planation"” Hypothesis an Bi. ds wre _ zt b .. 269

Dratnace SYSTEMS .. 3 $4 14 Ae se 4 aie ras als .. 270

General .. t3 34 x an 06 oy no .. ke re i arr

“Stream Capture’ Theory .. “4 + tt re ta : - .. 270

Broughton River System nes Kile +] "s aif is A .. 272

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - ict ze an ve ds om ote Ss .. 274

REFERENCES .. qs nA - fF he 3s qa af wi se .. 274

ABSTRACT

1, The geomorphology of County Victoria is analysed on the basis of three

distinct zones, known respectively as the Pirie Plains, the Central Highlands, and

the North-Eastern Plateau. An attempi is made to interpret certain structural

and landform phenomena within these zones, particular attention being paid to

the sand dunes of the Pirie Plains and the ridge-and-valley structure of the

Central Highlands.

2. Attention is drawn to outcrops of Tertiary gravel within the County,

and the probable relation of this gravel to Tertiary and post-Tertiary topography

and drainage patterns.

3. An attempt is made to correlate tectonic movements that haye taken place

since the Tertiary.

4. The drainage systems within the County are discussed, and evidence

is submitted in support of a “stream capture” theory which would account for

anomalies in the course of many of the existing streams.

* Department of Post-War Reconstruction, Canberra, A.C.T

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 72, (2), 30 March 1949,

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261

INTRODUCTION

This is the second paper on the Geography and Geology of County Vic:

toria.“) It is an attempt to analyse the physiography of the area, and then to

interpret, on a geomorphic basis, certain structural and landform phenomena.

Air photos to a scale of four inches to a mile were available for the eastern

half of the County, and these were used extensively during the field investigations,

and also for mapping details of stream patterns. A contour map of the County

was compiled from the photographs with the aid of engineering levels and some

aneroid heights, and this has since been published in C.S.I.R. Bulletin No. 188,

1945. The drainage systems in fig. 1 are based on this map.

PHYSIOGRAPHIC ZONES

There are three major physiographic zones in County Victoria: the Pirie

Plains, the Central Highlands, and the North-Eastern Plateau (see fig. 1), OF

these, the Central Highlands is by far the largest and occupies all the central part

of the County. Only a small part of the North-Fastern Plateau (mostly confined

to the Hundred of Whyte) is included in Cotinty Victoria, but this zone extends

over a considerable area otstside tlhe County boundaries. The Pirie Plains include

the regions between Spencer Gulf and the Central Highlands.

The three zones are discussed in detail as follows:

A. Toe Pirte PLarys

These are defined as the low-lying coastal areas which are bordered on the

cast by the highlands and on the west by Spencer Gulf* The parts of this zutie

in the neighbourhood of the town of Port Pirie have been described in some

detail by Martin (1939) in a regional study of the Port Pirie district, Martin

has adopted a subdivision of the area which lus bean extended in ihe present

study to include the whole of the Pirie Plains, The writer is of the opinion that

Mattin’s classification would be difficult to improve, and the only aniendments

suggested are the insertion ef an additional very narrow subdivision, the “Nap-

perby Peditnent,” and the use of the spelling “plane” in preference to “plain”

in “Napperby Conoplain.” Martin's subdivision “Pirie Plains” has been changed

to “Broughton Plains” to avoid confusion with the larger physiographic zone

discussed in the present paper.

With these slight amendments, the classification reads as follows (sce fig. 1)

(1) Shoreline (v) Sand Dune Belt

(it) Tidal Flats (vi) Napperby Conoplane

(i) Broughton Plains (vii) Napperby Pediment

(iv) Broughton River Flats (viii) Mileowie Block

(i) SHORELINE

Within the limits of County Victoria the constline is approximately arcuate.

Although it ts not broken by any major irregularities, there is an intricate network

of small inlets and tidal waterways. Mangroyes flourish, and give to mtich of the

cuastul area the appearance of a tidal maigrove woodland. The coastal plain

adjacent to the shoreline is very fat, and the sea very shallow. There is thus an

extensive tidal area.

Australia,” Trans. Roy. Soc, 8. Aust, 71 (2), 261-205, 1947. ‘The ficld worl for both

papers was undertaken by the writer in 1941 aud 1942 while a inember of a C.S.1.R. Soil

Survey Party.

* See pl xxiv, fig. 1.

262

The larger inlets are Port Pirie Creek, Fisherman Creck, and Port Davis

Creek, Fenner (1931) considers that Port Pirie Creek was once the mouth of

the Broughton River, and Martin thinks that Fisherman Creek and Port Davis

Creek are also the abandoned estuaries of former rivers, Martin (1942) has

noted the presence of submerged off-shore bars in the neighbourhood of the

Fisherman Creek inlet. These bars are several feet below sea level,

The characteristics of a shoreline of emergence as outlined by Johnson

(1919) correspond very closely with those of the shoreline under discussion.

Examination of the dune ridges inland shows that considerable emergence must

have already taken place. However, the present existence of off-shore bars is

indicative of the initial stages of a period of emergence. It is therefore probable

that the whole process of emergence has not been continuous, bit bas occurred

in stages which have included minor static periods or even briet periods of sub-

mergence.

(ii) Tirpau Frats

Martin has defined this area as “that lying belween sea level and the western

Innit of the red sandy soils on the (Broughton) Plain to the east.” Phe whole

of the area is not continually subjece to tidal actiony the higher parts are only

occasionally flooded, following abnormally strong winds and high tides. Swamps

are a feature of the area, The soils are saline and are heavy in texture, cracking

extensively when dry. In times af heavy rain the area receives additions of

clay and silt which are carried down i suspension from the conoplane which lies

eastward. The tidal flats are characterised by ihe growth of saltbush and samphire,

zens

(in) THe Brovcntow Piatns

These are hounded on the cast by the sand dune belt, and on the west by

the tidal flats. The plains are divided by the Broughton River Flats into

narthern and a southern sector.

The Broughton Plains are found cnly below the LOO-ft, contour. They are

not perfectly Hat, but include a number of shallow depressions which become

swamps after rain. Martin has indicated that these depressions are due to the

action of streams which are now extinc!. IIe has found Lurther evidence of past

stream action neat the town of Port Vizie,

If the Broughton River once flowed to the sea via Port Pirie Creek, it mus!

have since passed through a period during which it wandered across various parts

of the Plains, and in this case could have been responsible for many of the stream

relics seen today.

(iv) THe BroucntTon River FLats

These are the flood plains of the Broughton River, They cover an area some

5 miles in width and 16 miles in length, stretching [rom just west of the town

of Crystal Brook to the Tidal Flats near the coast,

There is a rather abrupt break of slope in both the Broughton River and

Crystal Brook, as each of these streams emerges from the hills of the

hinterland on to the Pirie Plains, and in consequence there has heen considerable

deposition of suspended material. During floods a large part of the Broughton

Flats is covered by a sheet of water, which in many places does not completely

drain away or evaporate for some days. With each flooding’a fresh layer of silt

and clay is deposited.

The Mood plains are almost completely flat, falling into the slope category

of O° te 0° 30’.

2635

(v) Tae Sano Dune Ber

This consists of a series of undulating dunes, which show a tendency to ran

in a north-south direction, forming a succession of ridges approximately parallel

toa the coastline. The north-south trend is well defined in the northern sector,

ear Port Pirie and Warnertown, In the Hundred of Wandearah to the south

the dunes are more irregular, although the north-south tendency still persists;

they are here more gently undulating than to the north,

The dunes rise to a maximum of about 200 feet above sea level in the south:

castern corner of the Hundred of Napperby. In general, however, it is mnusual

jor the height to exceed 100 feet ahove sea level. Throughout the area, the

crests of the dunes are rarely more than 50 feet above the neighbouring swales;

20 to 30 fect is more usual.

Beeause of the amount. of loose sand that is blowing about at the present

tiie as a result of recent erosion, there is a common inipression that the whole

dune system is unstable, and that the dunes themselves are migrating, On investt-

gation, however, the majority of the dunes were found to be supporting a stable

growth of saltbush, bluebush and acacias, with some mallee. The degree of

erosion to which they had been subjected was rarely greater than that required

in expose the roots of the acacias. This in itself would indicate that although

tigration may have taken place in past geological time, there has not been any

recent mass movement, Additional evidence was afforded by the profiles of the

dunes. Whetiever these were examined they were found to conform ta those

of mature, fixed soils. Grey-brown to brown mallee sand (Wandearah series) was

the dominant soil type. Usually there was well-developed limestone rubble in

the subsoil, ancl in some cases a layer of shect travertine, Features such as these

are characteristic only of fixed dunes.

The impression that the dunes are migrating is caused by erosion of portion

mf the topsoil, which is almost pure sand, This erosion has been instigated hy

gazing and, if: some eases, by cropping which has disturbed the surface and

ittterFered with the narmal vegetation cover. It has required very little removal

vf topsoil to build up large masses of loose sand, which at present are continually

ivitting. I parts these sand drifts have caused considerable obstruction to roatt

transport, especially in the Hundred of Wandearah,

In ihe past there has been some tendency to assume that wind is the only

eroding element which seriously affects regions such as the Sand Dune Belt.

However, there is a growing inclination to place far greater significance than

tormerly on the relative mportance of water erosion in arid and semi-arid areas.

Although the greater part of Port Pirie’s rain occurs durmg the winter as a result

of the southern low pressure systems, nearly one-third of the yearly total of 13”

falls in the period October to March, and much of this in the form of thunder-

storms and rain of high intensity. Once soils of light texture such as those in

the area concerned have been cleared of their natural cover, they react readily

ja the erosive effects of heavy rainfall. The compactness of ihe upper horizon

is vonsiderably reduced, and even if there js no actual transportation of the soil

it Pacomnee extremely susceptible to wind sorting when dry and commences to

rift,

Reports from the Ifundreds of Pirie and Wandearah describe abnormal

stream How phenomena in some water-courses after heavy rain, for it would

appear that the direction of flow is not always constant. Since the gradient of

the water-courses in these areas is yery slight, any drifting of loose material along

the beds of the streams is likely to have a damming effect in the event of heavy

rain, resulting in the ponding of water. In such a case, unless the water breaks

264

ihrough the obstruction and resumes ite fortner course, it will eventually build

up until it finds a fresh outlet upstream, and a new stream system will come

into being,

The trend of the sand dunes parallel to the coast, their “fixed” character,

and their relation to the shoreline all indicate that they are old shore ridges,

vepresenting successive stages in the history of a prograding shoreline, The

probability Uiat they came into being following emergence of the coastal area has

heen noted by Martin, who also mentions a view which has been expressed to

the effect that the dunes came into existence following man’s settlement of the

area. The latter hypothesis would be completely untenable in view of evidence

available concerning the fixed nature of the dunes, although there is little doubt

that most of the sand at present drifting is the result of erosion which followed

varly human activity.

fvi) Tae Napreersy CoNoOPLANE

The Napperby Conoplane and Pediment are transitional zones between the

Pirie Plains and the South Flinders Range. Martin has included in his Cono-

plane the areas approximately between the 200’ and 500’ contours. The writer

has inserted a “Pediment Plane” in the upper limits of the zone, and this has

reduced the upper boundary of the Conoplane to about 400’,

The Conoplane consists of a iairly regular series of parallel alluvial cones,

composed uf material brought down from the steep western scarp of the South

linders Range by short fast-flowing consequent streams. The longitudinal profile

of cach of these streams shows an abrupt break of slope at the foot of the Pedi-

ment Plane, where a vast quantity of coarse rock miaterial and sediments has been

deposited. “Che present streams are not entirely responsible for building up the

higher parts of the cones, for here there is a corisiderable accumulation of talus

and colluvial material which has been brought down directly from the searp and

carried across the Pediment Plane.

Further down the alluvial material lecames progressively finer in texture,

and where the cones fan out on the Pirie Plains it consists almost entirely of

sill and clay. Each heavy rain results in the deposition of a fresh layer of

snaterial, and roads across the Iower parts of the Conoplane are frequently

impassable aiter raimas a result of freshly deposited sediments.

In the lower part of the alluvial cones the streams lose the well-defined

channels which are characteristic of their upper courses, and numerous distribtu-

laries appear.

(vii) ‘Tro Narversy PepiIMent

This subdivision is mainly of academic interest, for it is very much smaller

it arca than the others. It is found wt the base of the western searp of the

Flinders Range in the Napperby region and occurs as a narrow, steeply sloping

plane, which grades into the Conoplane in its lower limits (see pl. xxiv, fig. 2).

The width is variable, ranging from a quarter of a mile to two miles. The angle of

slope is also somewhat variable, hut averages about 6°.

A useful section through the plane is shown by the Napperby Creek, ‘This

exposes bedrock in many places, particularly in the upper limits.

It is significant that the Pediment Plane is too steep to permit accumulation

vf allavial and colluvial material, and yet on the whole is not subject to down-

ward degradation like the tmotritain scarp. At the same time it is underlain by

bedrock which is part of ihe range system. It is therefore probable that the

plane is dominantly one of “lateral planation,” corresponding to Johnson’s

definition (1932) of a pediment plane,

265

From evidence of shatter zones in the bedrock seen im the creck beds near

the lower limits of the Pediment, it would appear that the junction between the

Pediment and the Conoplane may represent the approximate position of ahe

original line of fault, and that the mountain scarp has retreated castwards a dis-

tance equivalent to the width of the Pediment—that is, between a quarter of a

mile and two miles.

(wil) Tae Mircowte Brock

Like the Napperby Pediment, the Milcowie Block is transitional between

the Pirie Plains and the Central Highlands. Jt is a relatively small area between

Crystal Brook and the southern extremity of the South Flinders Range. Martin

has noted that its western boundary coincides approximately with the 450! con-

tour, and is represented by a low but well-marked scarp. The Crystal Brouk-

Hughes Gap road approximately constitutes the eastern boundary, The maximum

height of the area slightly exceeds 600 feet above sea level, the average being

about 500. feet.

Where the Sand Dune Belt adjoins the Milcowie Block, it is appreciably

higher than the remainder of the Gelt, and it is possible that the uplift which

prodtced the Block was responsible for the extra elevation of the sand dunes in

this area. Lf this he so, the Milcowie Block must have been uplifted subsequently

to the major faulting responsible for the adjoining South Flinders horst, for the

sand dunes are tnore recent im origin than the fault scarp.

B. Tue Centrar, Hicaranps

(i) Generac

luland from the Pirie Plains ts an upland zone consisting of a complex series

of alternating ridges and valleys. Except for a small atea in the vicinity of the

Bundaleer Reservoir, these ridges and valleys are parallel and have a remarkably

consistent north-south trend.

Three high ranges are included in this “ridge-and-yalley" area, They are

the Sauth Flinders Range, the Campbell Range, and the Browne Hill Range:

both of the latter ate technically within the North Mount Lolty Ratuge system-

The highest of the ranges is the South Flimders. which reaches a maximum of

2,328 fevt at the Bhat.

Bordering the northern part of the Browne ITill Range in County Vietaria.

the upland area gradually toses its “ridese-and-yalley” structure and merges inte

a plaienu area. This has been termed the “North-Eastern Plateau” for the pur-

poses of the present study, and is discussed later under this heacling.

(it) Runce-anp-VaLLtey StRuctTurr

ln the past there has been no detailed investigation of this structure, whiel

is the most prominent physiographic feature of County Victoria (see pl. soxiv.

fig. 3:and 4).

Fenner (1931), commenting on the popular view that the ridge-and-valle;

structure has been due to tilted blocks, draws attention to the possibility of

differential erosion along the strike of hard heds as an explanation. He notes

that in any case the true origin of the structure has yet to be determined, Tilted

blocks have played an important part in producing mtich of the structure of the

Mount Lofty Ranges to the south, but except for a relatively small area in the

vicinity of the South Flinders horst, the structural geology of County Victoria

is notably different from that of ranges near Adelaide, Over a large part of the

vastern portion of the County, the writer’s investigations (Langford-Smith 1947)

have shown conclusively that the tilted block theory is not tenable, Here there

has been very little major faulting, and the country is folded into a series of

synclines and anticlines. Some of the present yalleys conform to the original

266

synclines. Examples of these may be found in the wide valley containing the

township of Caltowie, and that containing the headwaters of Belalie and Fresh-

water Creeks. Other valleys ate eroded anticlines, an example being the broad

valley in which Jamestown is situated-

In almost all instances, the crests of the ridges are strengthened by outcrops

of highly resistant quartzite. These are particularly prominent im the eastern

and western borders to the Jamestown valley, which are represented respectively

by the Browne Hill and Campbell Ranges. These ranges are the upfolded

margins of the adjaining synclinal valleys, and the quartzite which outcrops pro-

minently in the ridges is associated with the {illite series and its subglacial heds,

Differential erosion has therefore played an important patt in the development

of the existing ridge-and-valley structure.

The folding which produced the original synclines tonk place during one of

the great Palaeozoic mountain-building periods (Mawson, 1942). Geological

sections of the Jamestown district (Langford-Sumth, 1947) indicate the vast

amount of erosion that must subsequently have occurred to produce the Tertiary

pencplane. In the ridge-and-valley areas of the Central Highlands the mai

features uf this Tertiary landscape have been preserved io the present day. Sonmw

estimate of the minor degree of modification which has taken place caw be made

by 2 study of the Tertiary gravels and laterites which occur as residuals.

-aeey

(iii) Souty Fiinpers Pavurt-Ling Scaapr

The western scarp of the South Flinders Range is a particularly prominent

feature. The scarp is very precipitous, and in the vicinity of the [luff it rises

2,000 feet within two miles, attaining a maximum height of 2,528 feet above sea

level. The line of the scarp is partictilarly straight, running almost due nerth

and south.

Evidence from gorges and creek beds indicates that the position of the Tantt

or serics of fanlts which have been responsible for this elevated block is com-

paratively cluse to the present scarp, and tho latter must therefore be classifier

as recent. As was noted earlier, it is probable that the original line of fami!

cortesponds to the lower litnit of the Pediment Plane, This was shown to be the

ease in the Port Germein atea, some 10 miles to the north, but within County

Victoria conclusive evidence could sot be obtained iv the Lime available in the field.

Apurt from the main line of fault, there has been considerable minor faull

ing, evidenced by shatter zones along the base of the clilfs,

C. Tur Nortu-Eastern PLATEAU

From the physiographic point of view, the North-Eastern Plateay does not

have the same interest as the other two zones in County Victoria, Also, although

the platen extends for some considerable distance beyond the County bowndarics.

the part within the Connty itself is small, being largely coufined to the Tundred

of Whyte. For these reasons, only brief mention is made of the zone in the

present study.

These is no distinct boundary between the Central Tighlands and the North-

Eastern Plateau. The typical “ridge-qnd-valley” structure of the former fs

gradually replaced by a more irregular pattern, and the relative relief between

ridges and valleys becomes much smaller. In the far north-east corner oF the

County there are wide areas of comparatively level land,

The altitude of the Plateat is for the must part between 1,700 and 2,100 feet

above sea level, The zone is dominantly am area of internal drawage. There

ure no very distinct drainage lines, and the streams which do exist flow only after

rain. ‘This is largely hecause of the low rainfall, which is less than 16% for the

267

whole zone, and less than 14” in the north-east corner of the County, Near the

township of Whyte-Yarcowie are two playa lakes which contain large quantities

of water after rain In the summer months most of this water evaporates, leav-

ing 4 dry salty surface,

The soils in many parts of the Plateau zone have saline tendencies, and there

are appreciable areas of halomorphic soil (Pirie series).

~The hills and ridges within the zone are more rocky than in the Central High-

lands. They have little soil or vegetation cover and present a very barren

appearance.

TERTIARY GRAVELS

There are a number of relics of Tertiary gravel in County Victoria. For

the most part these outcrop as résiduals on low, rocky ridges within the broad

north-south valleys of the Central Highlands.

Howchin (1931-33) in his “dead-river” hypothesis claimed that these grayels

represent the courses of old north-south rivers which flowed during the late

Tertiary, and which were truncated by the Peterborongh-Olary upwarp. He

considered that the presence of gravels throughout the valleys of the Mount Lofty

Rauges inferred that a major nver system once flowed right through these parts

to the southern coast.

As far as the Mount Lofty Ranges near Adelaide are concerned, the argu-

iments against this theory seem fairly conclusive (Fenner 1939, Sprigg 1945-46}.

Ilowever, the present writer is inclmed to the view that althongh Hawchin’s

hypothesis is far too sweeping in its claims, it may have elements of truth in the

case of the northern areas in the neighbourhood of County Victorin.

From study of the “ridge-and-valley” structure of the County Vicluria

region, it would seem that there must have been sume form of north-south drainage

prior to the Petérborough-Olary upwarp, This drainage may have been related

to the present Lake Torrens area, but there is no evidence tu the effect that it was

part of the great north-south river system of the Tertiary which was later ponded

back to form a central Australian lake (David's “Lake Dieri’’), However, even

a small local drainage system would have left zelics of stream action, and it is not

unreasonable ta suppose that same of these relics would still be preserved.

Some of the gravels trom the low residual ridges within the broad valleys of the

Central Highlands are typical of present stream conglomerates (see pl. xxv, fig. 1),

vxcept that they have been somewhat silicified. The pebbles contained in these

specunens are well rounded atid have certainly been stream-worn, Gravels sue

as these are quite distinct from other gravels which occur on sitmlar residual

sites (in fact, sometimes on adjacent sites), and which contain much angular

material. “The writer has followed outcrops of the old conglomezate for cou-

siderable distances through the valleys near Jamestown, and it is significant that

the outerops followed a line which would be the logical course of earlier longi-

tudinal streams, [ct was also noted that the height of these residual outcrops

above the present baseline in the valleys wicreases from east to west. Tor example,

a typical gravel outerop in the Ifundred of Whyte is 30 feet above the present

stream bed, A similar outerop in the Hundred of Belatie is 130 feet above the

valley baseline. This is concurrent with the rainfall, which also imcreases. very

markedly from east to west, The inference is that erosion during Pleistocene

and Recent times has been proportional to the incidence of the rainfall, ‘

Fenner (1939), from his examination of ancient gravels in the Adelaide

teginn, concludes that they consist of re-sorted fault-apron material and relics

from streams which meandered over the pre-Miocene peneplane. He considers

268

that the deposits have largely “been formed by streams which cut back into the

scarp faces and flowed at right angles to the supposed directions of the hypo-

thetical ancient streams’ He therefore believes that jhe dead river theory “ts

in the main an untenable interpretation af the facts.”

However, in County Victoria, the location of the “conglomerate” type of

gravels on tesidual sites in the centre of broad synclinal and eroded anticlinal

valleys shows that they could not be resorted fault-apron material. Also, the

definite longitttdinal pattern of the outcrops down the central parts of the valleys

would indicate that they were formed im situ by streams which flowed imme-

diately prior to the Peterborough-Olary upwarp. It is therefore contended that

a modified version of Howchin’s hypothesis may be applicable ta the County

Victoria region.

It is considered that the more angular silicified gravels found on residual

sites both within the broad yalleys ard in some cases on the adjoining valley

slopes are relics of Tertiary laterisatiou, and that the silicified “conglomerate”

type of gravel has also been subject to laterisation. Bryan (1939) and White-

house (1940) have shown how laterisation can be responsible for the silicifica-

tion of sediments. They believe that the “billy’’ deposits of Queensland were

formed during wet, warm periods in the Pliocene,

In view of the fact that laterites are formed largely in areas of impeded

drainage, it would not be incongrtious to find pure laterites adjacent te “laterised™

ald stream gravels in sites which must have represented the Tertiary valley floor.

Since most of the ridges iit Courity Victoria have a resistant core of silicified

quartzite, it is unlikely that they have changed in form very noticeably since pre-

uplift time. Therefore it should not be difficult to make an approximate recon-

struction of the late Tertiary topography by mapping all the existing residuals

of laterite or laterised sediments, particularly in the Central Highlands where

there has been little or no major Tertiary or post-Tertiary faulting,

TECTONIC MOVEMENTS.

Matx TreeTtomic Associations

County Victoria is an area transitional betwee the North Mount Lofty and

the South Flinders Ranges. Largely as a result of this it exbibils structural

features witich can be related to fotir signiheant tectunic niovements; the Peter-

horough-CMary upwarp, the Flinders horst movements, the Mount Lofty horst

movenients, and the periodic uplifts of Pleistocene tu Recent time. First, there

is the high plateay country fo the central north and norrh-cast, which isa result

at the Peterborough-Olary upwarp; secandly, the South Flinders Range in the

Port Pirie area, which is part of the Flinders horst; thirdly, the mountaing and

ridges of the Central Highlands which consmate the ceniral and southern, parts

of the County, and which although related to the Peterborough-Olary upwarp

are also associated with the Mount Tally horst movements; and finally, the

coastal plains which exhibit evidence of nphtt from Pleistocene to Recent times.

The Gulf area to the west of the County, which constitutes part of the

Spencer-Vincent Sunkland, is a result of the Flinders and Mount Lofty horst

movements.

Ace of MovEMENtTS

There has been considerable ¢peculation in regard to the nature aud age of

these tectonic movements. The 1939 A.N.Z.A.A.S. committee an “Stmictival and

Land Forms” agreed upon a tentative correlation for the major Tertiary and

post-Tertiary movements in South Australia. This involyes a gentle uplift period

269

at the conclusion of the Miocene, accelerated uplift in the Pliocene followed by

a period of stillstand, and then further differential movement in the Pleistovene

continuing in special cases into Recent times.

Since 1939 there has been a tendency to favour a more recent age for these

inayements. It has been suggested (Brown 1945) that the period of accelerated

uplift may have been the early or middle Pleistocene instead of the Phocene,

Rrown quotes Fenmer’s yiew (1931) that the Peterborough-Olary upwarp pre-

‘ited the more violent Flinders and Mount Lofty horst movements, and remarks

that the upwarp may have begun in the late Pliocene.

Mawson (1942) has suggested that the Flinders and Mount Lofty horsts

may be the result of two distinct movements, the former being the carlier.

The Central Highlands of County Victoria, with the exception of the South

Flinders Range near Port Pirie, are technically part of the North Mount Lofty

Ranges, However, from the geomorphic point of view they do not appear to be

closely associated with either the Flinders or Mount Lofty horsts, and are more

directly related to the Feterhorough-Olary upwarp. The writer’s. stratigraphical

investigations (1947) of the Central Highlands im the Jamestown area showed

that there had not been any appreciable block faulting in this region, and there

was no evidence of major post-Lertiary tectonic activity other than simple uplift.

Since this area. merges into the Peterborough-Olary ridge, a large part of the

uplift must have been due to the Olary upwarp movements. However, the area

may have been further \plifted at the time of the Flinders and Mount Lofty

horst movements,

Evidence of Recent uplift in County Victoria, which was discussed in an

earlicr section, is common to @ large part of the South Australian coastline.

Crocker (1946) has discussed in some detail the evidence of uphlt in the South-

Eastern districts and on Yorke Peninsula, as indicated by sand dunes and raised

beaches.

The following is submitted as a tentative correlation of tectonic movements

in County Victoria from the Tertiary onwards, The table is based on the writer’s

observations within the County, co-ordinated with recent research elsewhere in

the Staie. Brown's suggestions regarding the age of the main movements have

been adopted provisionally.

Late Pltocene Gentle wupwarp of the Peterhorough-Olary ridge, accom-

(or early panied by uplift of the adjoming peneplane area at present

Pleistocene ?} represented in County Victoria by the Central Highlands

(with the exception of the South Funders Range),

inurly to (2) Major upift, producing the Flinders, horst, which included

Middle the extremity of the South Plinders Range near Port Virie.

Pleistocene Possibly further uplizt ef the Central Mighlands,

(lL) Renewed major uplift, producing the Mount Lofty horst,

and probably associated with this, renewed gentle uplift of

the Central Tighlands.

Middle Continued periods of mitor uplift, reflected by the sand-dune

Pleistocene system on the Port Pirie Plains. Evidence trom the Port

to Recent irie areca indicates that these movements are still in progress.

“Youre Prawation” iHypornesrs

Fenner (1931), following a suggestion by Douglas Johnson, drew attention

ta the possibility of a “double planation” hypothesis to explain certain existing

phenomena in Ue Mount Lofty Ranges, This hypothesis involves two periods

270

uf major uplift, each followed by a period of peneplanation, Fenner considered

that there may have been a prolonged period of stillstand between the two uplift

periods, during which much of the matare landscape of the Ranges (atich as the

Upper Torrens valley) was produced.

It was noted in the A.N.Z.A.A.S. Report of 1939 that supporting evidence

for this theory had not been forthcoming, and subsequently certain workers,

notably Sprigg (1945), tended to discount the hypothesis. Iowever, as a result

of some recent work, Sprigg (1946) is inclined to reconsider the question. He

notes that laterite occurs in many parts of the Mount Lofty Ranges and stresses

the necessity of impeded drainage conditions as one of the pre-requisites of lateri-

sation. Conditions such as these could have eccurred during a period of still»

stand between two major uphifts.

Further details concerning the age of the laterites in the Mount Lofty Ranges

will not only help to clarify the age and nature of the uplift movements in that

area, but by correlation with the laterites in the County Victoria region may throw

iurther light on the inter-relation between the Mount Lofty horst movements, the

Flinders horst movements, and the Olary upwarp.

DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

GENERAL

The drainage divide represented by the Peterborough-Olary ndge is just

outside the northern limits of County Victoria. This divide constitutes the

houridary between exoreic and endoreic streams.

North of the divide the whole of the drainage 1s endoreic. For instance, to

ihe north-west, drainage is by way of the Willochra system to Lake Torrens;

directly north is a region of local internal drainage, while to the north-cast the

streams spread out and lose their identity ow the Walloway Plains,

South of the divide, as the generul slope of the County is from north to

south, all the main streams flow in a southerly circction, They are exoreie, for

they finally join the Broughton River to enter the sea near Port Pirie.

The accompanying map (fig. 1) illustrates the general drainage patteri

of the area.

“STREAM Caprure” THEORY

As noted in a previous section, it watld appeat that the general structure

of the country immediately prior to the Olary upwarp was very similar to that at

present jn existence. It is probable at this early stage that the north-south

drainage was much more extensively developed than at the present day, and that

the upwarp truncated this system, building up the divide between the present

north-llowing and south-flowing streams,

However, it is apparent that the present streams are not completely governed

by the north-south structural characterist.cs. At intervals they make abrupt right-

angled bends to fow westward through gaps in the adjoining ridge. These gaps

are often in the form of narrow gorges, the walls of which rise steeply on either

side. The gradient of a stream in the gorge section is greatly increased, and rapids

and even small waterfalls are common. The slream emerges from the gorge to

jain another southward flowing drainage system. ‘The streams therefore cannot

be regarded as having attained profiles of equilibrium, as the grades reached are

separaied by short ungraded sections.

This type of stream pattern is characceristic of practically the whole of the

Maunt Lofty and Flinders Ranges and bas long been a topic for speculation.

Dr, Charles Fenner, in a personal communication ta the writer in 1942, stressed

271

the point that the phenomenon is a gearral one, and therefore that the explanation

for it must also be general and not restricted to any one locality. The writer

believes that some previous theories have suffered from the weakness that the

data used may not have been obtained from a sufficiently wide area. In the past,

all the detailed physiopraphic work in connection with the subject has been

restricted to the Mount Lofty Ranges in the Adelaide Region, and the writer

feels that the tectonic relationships peculiar to this area have at times been allowed

la Qutweigh other geomarphic factors. In the Adelaide area the Ranges have

been extensively block-faulted, whereas in County Victoria (with the exception

ef the Sowth Flinders Range) block-faulting 1s almost non-existent. Near

Adelaide the north-south valleys are to a large degree the result of this faulting,

whereas in County Victoria they are due to the presenee of synclines and eroded

unticlines in a peneplane which has been gently uplifted.

In County Victoria, therefore—and particularly in the Jamestown district

where the writer completed a detailed stratigraphical survey—any hypothesis

which ineludes block-faulting cannot apply. Theories which regard the east-

west sections of the streams as antecedent, haying cut through fault-block edges

fring a period of uplift, are theretoré untenable.

AAs a result of field investigation near Jamestown (Langford-Simith, 1942)

the writer came to the couclusion that (he explanation conld be found in streanr

capture on an extensive scale.

More recently Sprigg (1945) has expressed the same opinion in regard lo

sireams it) the Mowit Lofty Ranges in the Adelaide area, and it is submitted by

the writer that in view of the conclusions of these entirely separate investigations.

the general theury of stream capture should reecive serious consideration.

The Jamestown district affords typical examples of the stream pattern under

consideration, Therefore, in view of the fact that the structural geology of the

district is known in some detail, it js considered eminently suitable fer investiga-

tion i regard to the “stream capture” theory.

The accompanying block diagram (fig. 2) which is based on aerial photn-

graphs, illustrates the main physiographic features of the district, It may be

noted that the Belalie Creek flows ina southerly direction down the valley to thr

west of the Browne Hill Range, before swinging abruptly to the west and enter-

ing a gorge in a north-south ridge. The creek has a Jow gradient in the north-

south valley, but this increases considerably in the gorge section where there ary

tumerous rapids, and in one place (“The Cups") a stnall waterfall. After leav-

ing the gorge, Gelalie Creek is joitted hy a small north-south creck at Jamestown,

and shortly afterwards swings south again into the Baderloo Creck valley, where

it enters another low gradient stage, The diagram shows how I'reshwater Creek

drains the valley west of the Browne Ilil! Range below the point where Belalic

Creck swings west into the Jamestown valley,

The ridge containing the Belalie Creek gorge is a watershed four numerous

small consequent streams, which flow to both east and west. All these streams

show very active headward erosion and many of them have cut well back into

the ridge. It is of great significance that headward erosion is especially active ou

streams flowing to the west of the divide. ‘This is because the floor uf the

western valley is lower than that ta the cast, and in general stream profiles ate

steeper. One westward-fiowing consequent stream (marked A on the diagrain)

has eroded its way back completely through the ridge, being assisted to same

extent by the presence of a very small transverse fault. It is now commencing

tu cut its way into the adjoining valley floor, and its headwater zone has already

capiured some of the water from this valley. Before long, if headward ernsion

continues, it will capture the headwaters of Belalie Creek,

272

In the light of the foregoing evidence it is probable that Belahie Creek once

flowed right down the north-south valley and di not swing westwards through

the gorge near Jamestown. At this stage, Belalie Creek and Freshwater Creek

would have beet one continuous stream.

Wigs, 2

Block diagram of draimage pallern wear Jamestown; stream capture at A.

This is by no micans an isolated case, and throughout the Counly east-west

streams may be found in all stages of headward erosion right up to the point af

capturing a north-south stream. It is not known to what extent small transyerse

faults have accelerated headward crosion in consequent streams by creating zoties

of weakness, although in a few instances this is known to have been a contribut

ing factor, as in the example cited,

Brouguron River System

Although most of its tributaries flow from or through County Victoria, the

upper and middle reaches of the Broughton itself are south of the County houn-

dary, and consequently could not be investigated thoroughly in the time available

in the ficld. The lower reaches of the river are well within the County and were

examined in rather more detail,

Unlike most of its tributaries, the Broughton flows across the grain of the

country in a general east-west direction. It has its source in the high country

south of the Booborowie Flats. Flowing approximately westward to Spalding,

273

it is met by Deep Creek and Freshwater Creek flowing from the serth, and the

Hill River from the south. A few miles south-west of Spalding, after being

joined by the Hutt River flowing from the south, it dives through a gorge in a

north-south ridge. Shortly after emerging from this gorge it is joined by the

Bundaleer Creek from the north. After passing through Red Hill it is joined

by Rocky River, and then flows on to the Pirie Mains where it is -met by the

Crystal Brook.

The course of the Broughton River over the Pirie Plains is through floud

plains of its own making. An important feature of the upper parts of this sectivt

is the deep channel through which the river is at present Howing, The height of

the banks, which are very steep-sided, averages about 20. feet above the stream

bed (see pl. xxv, fig. 2). This down-cutting is evidence of an endeayour by the

stream to regrade its course after comparatively recent uplift. The course of the

Broughton River neaver the coastline is not clearly defined, and here are a number

of distributaries. Meandering channels are a feature of this part. Tle most

prominent channel is known as Deep Creek, which contitiues to the tidal Port

Davis Creek,

A detailed description of most of the Broughton tributaries has already been)

recorded (Langford-Smith, 1942), and it is not proposed tu discuss (hese at

length in the present paper. However, certain features which are common to ther

all have particular geomorphic significance. One of these is related to the stream

anomalies which have already heen expounded in the disctission on “Stream

Capture”. Because of these anomalies, each stream is subdivided inta series oi

genily graded reaches separated by shurt sections of steep gradient, Therefore,

the streams (with the exception of the lower Broughton) do not have profiles of

equilibrium. At each of the east-west sections of steep gradient the streant is

dowa-cutting rapidly in an attempt to propagate upstream the hreak in its profile,

In some cases this has already resulted in down-cutting ih the north-south sec

tions, and this will tend to continue until the whole stream system has attaimed|

a profile of equilibrium, Douglas Johnson (1938) has shown that a stream profile

can only be used as an indicator of change in level when the stream itself had a

profile of equilibrium prior ta the uplift, In other words, the only stream int

County Victoria which can be sed for this purpose is the lower Broughton.

However, a significant feature of nearly all the tributaries is the presence of twa

liver lerraces, one aboye the other, The higher terrace represents a ‘fossil flood-

plain originating during an earlier period. It would appear that this floud-plain is

inJicalive of an earlier period of heavier rainfall, for as already puinted out the

streams are not in equilibrium, and the almost universal down-cutting through

old alluvium cannot have been caused by isostatic change. The presence of old

alluvium above the present flood-plains of streams has bev noted in many paris

of castern Australia, and Whitehouse in particular has assumed thal it is indica-

tive of higher rainfall periods in the Pleistocene.

The time available for field examination of the middle and upper reaches of

the Broughton River was limited, and it was not possible to consider in detail

the question of its origin. However, a few significant paints are discussed briefly,

The most prominent feature of the Broughton is that i fluws in a general

east-west direction, which is apparently right across the grain of the country,

This fact has led Fenner (1931) to suggest that it is am antecedent stream.

Howcehin has proposed that it came into being after the Olary upwarp period,

as a result uf extensive ponding in the luw areas to the south of County Victoria.

However, it is important io note that over the course followed hy the Broughton,

the “ridge-and-valley” structure js not as strongly developed as in areas either

to the north or the south, and the river Rows through very few gorges in narth-

274

south ridges. If the river capture theory is substantiated im connection with

stream anomalies in the Broughton tributaries, it wotld not be unreasonable to

suggest that headward erosion of consequent streams may have been responsible

for the few “break-throughs” in the present course of the mam stream. During

the period of uplift there may have been a certain amount of local ponding which

could have hastened the “breaking-through” process in the case of individual

tidges. In the event of ponding, the degree of headward erosion required on the

part of a consequent stream would have been reduced.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to acknowledge his mdebtednegs to Professor J. A.

Prescott who provided the opportunity for carrying out the work.

Dr, Charles Femier and Sir Douglas Mawson proffered helpful advice and

criticism during the course of the investigations, and the encouragement of Mr,

C. G. Stephens of the Soils Division, C.S.1.R., was much appreciated.

Acknowledgments are also due to Mr. P. D, Looper of the Soils Division,

S.LR., and Mr. 11. E. Smith of the Regional Planning Division, Department of

ost-War Resanstruction, for their assistance with the drafting of the maps.

REBPERENCES

Browne, W. R. 1945 “An Attempted Post-Tertiary Chronology for Australia”

(Presidential Address). Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W., 70, (1-2), v-xxv

Bryan, W.H, 1939 “The Red Earth Residuals and their Significance in South-

Tvastern Queensland.” Proc, Roy, Soc. Old., 50, 23-32

“COMMITTEE on the Structural and Land V’orms of Australia and New Zealand,”

1939. Report of A.N.Z.A.A.S,, 24, 390-408

Crocker, R, L, 1946 “Some Raised Beaches of the Lower South-East of

South Australia and their Significance.” ‘Trans, Roy. Soc. S, Aust. 70,

(1), 64-82

Crocker, R. L. 1946 “Notes on a Recent Raised Beach at Point Brown,

Yorke Peninsula, South Australia.” “Frans. Rov. Soc. S, Aust., 70,

(1), 108-109

Fenner, C. 3931 “South Australia: A Geographical Study.” Whitcombe and

Tombs Ltd., Melbourne

Fenner, C. 1939. “The Significance of the Topography of Anstey Hill, South

Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Atist., 63, (1), 79-87

Howcnin, W. 1931-1953 “The Deal Rivers of South Australia.” Trans.

Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 55, and 57

Howenrn, W. 1929 “The Geology of South Australia.” Adelaide

Jounson, D. W. 1919 “Shore Processes and Shoreline Development.” John

Wiley & Sons Inc., New York

Jounson, D. W, 1932 “Rock Planes of Arid Regions.” Geos. Rev., 22

Jounson, D. W, 1938 “Stream Profiles as Evidence of Enstatie Changes of

Sea Level.” Jour. Geomorphology, 1

LANGFORD-SMITH, T. 1942 Thesis for the Degree of M.Sc. Adelaide Uni-

versity

Lancrorp-Smiru, T. 1947 “The Geology of ithe Jamestown District, South

Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2), 281-295

trict." Proc, Roy. Geog, Sov. S. Aust, 40, 43-68

275

Martin, F.C. 1942 Personally communicated

Mawson, D. 1942 “The Structural Character of the Flinders Ranges.” Trans.

Roy. Soc. 5. Aust., 66, (2), 262-272

Spricc, R. C. 1945 “Some Aspects of the Geomorphology of Portion of the

Mount Lofty Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, (2), 277-302

Spricc, R. C. 1946 “Reconnaissance Geological Survey of Portion of the

Western Escarpment of the Mount Lofty Ranges.” Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 70, (2), 313-347

Whirenouse, F. W. 1940 “Studies in the Tate Geological History of Queens-

land.” Univ. of Queensland Paper

‘anqonays “ULMOysaTURf IPou

= i ‘>

vi VA[[PA-puv-ISpLt BuyRsisnye ‘asuryy ppeqdwuey ayy ASpPLe yNos-1pjiou TeodAy e Suoje AuLpooT

S SpleMO] OISplLt otueS 9} UOI, JsoM SULyOOo'] ¢ Buy

Es b Sty

aj =

~ “

‘punomyoeq ayy ut darag “davog siopuryy yNog sy SPsBMay

SAAPUIP YA WNOS ayy LM ‘yuautpag Aqiadden oy, SILA [PLL oy Worz yseo Sugpool ‘suw[_q lq Puy,

cSt 1 31y

Soc. S, Aust. 1048

Roy.

‘Trans.

“I

Tras. Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 1948 Vol. 72, Plate XXV

Fig. 1

Gravels from a residual site. Note rounded, stream-worn pebbles.

Kip, 2

Broughton River on the

Pirie Plains south of Crystal

Brook, showing deeply incised

channel.

PURPLE SLATES OF THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM

By D. MAWSON AND E. R. SEGNIT

Summary

The nature and genesis of the shales and slates of chocolate to purple colour occurring at several

distinct horizons in the post-glacial Upper-Proterozoic strata of the Adelaide System is a matter of

interest. Certain features have suggested that in part they may be of tuffaceous origin. There are

several factors indicating this probability, such as the unleached nature of the shale, a considerable

proportion of the coarser particles being recognisable feldspar. The alkali and lime content of the

rock is high. Further, we have observed that these shales in some areas at least have a notable

content of barium and even copper; veins of barytes are a common associate and the occurrence of

blue and green copper stains between the laminae of the shale has been observed in a number of

localities. Also, among embedded rock fragments at one horizon in a belt of purplish-brown shale,

fragments of a soda-rich basaltic rock were found to be common.

276

PURPLE SLATES OF THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM

By D, Mawson and E. R. Secnrt *

{Read 11 November 1948}

The nature and genesis of the shales and slates of chocolate to purple colour

occurring at several distinct horizons in the post-glacial Upper-Proterozoic strata

af the Adelaide System is a matler of interest. Certain features have suggested

ihat in part they may be of tuffaceous origin, There are several factors indicat-

ing this probability, such as the unleached nature of the shale, a considerable

proportion of the coarser patticles being recognisable feldspar. The alkali and

lime content of the rock is high, Further, we have observed that these shales

in some areas at least have a notable content of barium and even copper; veins

ot barytes are a common associate and the occurrence af blue and green copper

stains between the laminae of the shale has been observed in a number of localities,

Also, among embedded rock fragments at one horizon in a belt of putplish-brawn

shale, fragments of a soda-rich basaltic rock were found to be common,

However, elsewhere, throughout 4 considerable thickness of strata, these

shales are very fine and uniform in grain anc. where they grade into arenites these

latter are domifantly composed of quartz particles, but with a notable contribution

of feldspar. In order to probe further the origin of these shales, material

collected close to the old Motint Deception Station homestead on the eastern

slopes of Mount Deception, 11 miles north-west of Peltana, has been analysed

hy one of us and atherwisc more fully examined, with the results detailed here-

with,

The horizon in the Adelaide System from which these specimens now sub-

jected to detailed examination were oblaimed is the thick purplish-brown belt below

the Cambrian Pound Quartzite, referred ta by Howchin as the Purple Slates. At

one place in the neighbourhood of the spot where the specimens were obtained

malachite stains were observed in the bediling planes of the shales.

Of the two specimens examined, one of very fine grain represents the more

normal type of this rack, while the other represents a coarser than usual band

of the shale.

The finer grained variety [8126], whew examined in the hand specimen, is

observed to be of a dark vinaceous red colour (Ridgway) and a faintly dis-

tinguishable fine sedimentary banding. It is soft, remarkably even-grained and

breaks with a smooth sub-conchoidal fracture. The microscope slide reveals. that

it is principally composed of grains of suarta, altered particles of feldspar and

minute flecks of mica, The quartz grains are clear and frequently very angular;

they tend to be concentrated in the lighter bands of the shale. The mica is clear

and colourless in tiny flakes so thin as to give only red and yellow interference

colours, The feldspars have evidently been largely decomposed to a featureless

mass, possibly mainly composed of the kaolinite group of minerals, It is this

matrix that is stained purplish-brown by the ferric oxide content of the shale,

thus imparting that colour to the reck as a whole. Calcite is distinguishable,

distributed throughout in irregular grains. It is stifficiently abundant to link up

with the 5% of carbon-dioxide found to be contained in the rock. Also, there

is present a small amount of chlorite, haematite, and a highly refracting mineral,

possibly zircon,

* Geology Department, University of Adelaide.

Trims, Roy, Soc, 5. Aust., 72, (2), 30 March 1949

277

The second [8127], coarser-grained specimen is a harder, darker purple rock

In this the mineral assemblage is similar to the preceding but the particles are

larger and more determinable. There is much quartz of larger grain-size and

frequently very angular; also fresh feldspar in grains of similar size and shape.

These mineral grains are cemented in an abundant matrix of dark-red iron oxide

with which is an assdciation of mica fragments and serpentinous material, The

more obvious feldspar is twinned plagioclase, the majority of which is charac-

terised by a low R.J, and an extinction angle on albite twins of 12°-14°, indicating

a rather sodic variety. Microcline and orthoclase are also present, ‘The un-

twinned feldspar is only with difficulty distinguished from the quartz when all

ig embedded in the dark matrix. Though very fine-grained this rock probabls

comes within the silt grade.

An analysis of the fther-grained variety is svated herewith, and included 7m

the table are analyses of other releyant shales and of a red micro-granite,

Publications dealing with the origin of red rocks are camiparatively few. 1:

is generally agreed, however, that the red colour is due to the présence of ferric

oxide, either hydrated as sume form of limonite or anhydrous as hematite

(Dorsey 1926, and Raymond 1942). Thus arises the question of the derivation

af the ferric oxide. Raymond (1927) deals at length with this matter, stressing

the widespread development of highly ferruginous laterites under warm. moist

conditions as an abundant source of Terric oxide. Te also discusses the develup-

ment of ferric oxide in atid regions, as is evidenced by the red colour of sands

and rocks in such areas,

Recently Lord Rayleigh (1946) hay investigated the cause of the red colour

of certain sandstones and finds that if chalybeate water is evaporated on the

surface of a solid body, eg., a sand grain, a red coating results. The same rei

colouration develops when evaporation takes place in air from an undisturhed

liquid surface. If on the other hand evaporation of chalybeate waters tales place

in an agitated liquid, as in a stream in the open, the iron separates as a light

yellow precipitate,

Tt is thus obvious that sand particles moistened by waters containing some

ferrous bicarbonate in solution and dried out will be reddened, rom this i

would appear also that argillaceous deposits in chalybeata waters evaporating

in shallow playa lakes would be reddened.

So red shales and sandstones can be accumulated either dm sity as terrestrial

deposits or can be derived from the transport of such peroxidised materials and

their sabsequent deposition under non-reducing conditions, This also waultd

normally imply a terrestrial origin, but in special cases, where organic life is

much subordinated or non-existent, deposition might conceivably take place as

shallow-water marine deposits adjacent to large land masses.

In our case the red-brown colour is given to the shale by the presence of

the remarkably small amount of 1°94% of ferric oxide, which amount is unusually:

low for a shale and particulatly so for red varieties (sce table of analyses),

It is interesting to note that certain bright-red to chocolate-coloured igneous

rocks may contain extremely little ferric oxide, as for example the porphyritic

micro-granite [5778] (Mawson and Segnit 1946), containing only 0-929.

Further, it is possible for a green slate to contain the high proportion of 3-48%

ferric oxide (see table of analyses), In this latter case jt must be present in 2

combination with other constituents,

278

I If Il lV Vv VI Vil

TO, + SF oe } fra 0-65 O86 O48 0-56 2-05 4-08

ALO, - = w=} WS-A¥ Wel5 11-59 11-350 28-00 14-02

Fe,O, es 5 + 194 4-03 5-160 3-48 3-07) 14589 0-92

FeO - - - = 2-80) 2546 254 1420 73 GOR 1-24

MgO - - - - 387 2-45 3220 G43 2400230023

CaQ = = = = 4-31 9-12 0-71 5:1] 3:50 15 0°77

Na,O 30S -& 1-81 1-31. 1-500 08320 ASL O08 347

ROe = = = 316 3-28 3-01 377) 2:10 O18 5 +24

H,O+ a 3-96 sens 5-08 2-82 i 10-38 = O73

H,O— co <S + 0-30 \ OF O37 5 3°60 O18

1,0, - = = G-16 0-17 O23 0-09 0-15 0-06 0-06

MnQ- - - - Q-14) — O07 O30 O06 Of4 0-04

BaO - = 0-70 8-05 O03 0-06 —_— ir, 0-07

ZrO, - = = = — — — — — 0-01 _

cud 7 fr ae 4 0-02 — Qld —

Cr,0., - = - = = = = — 0-06 _

NiO = - - - nil =: - 1-01 —_

Fil < : a j= ane == _ — — wil 0-Us

Cl - = = 0-G1 — — — O04 Q+TS —

OO, aq = = 9 — : - O31 0-01 —

S (Sulphide) - - Q+02 _ — _ — 905 _-

Cc 26 WS oe — — — — O11 =— —

100-24 100-60 100-23) 100-38 100-13 99-91 100-47

Less O for F, CL &$ ms = ~ — Q-01 0-05 03

Total - = ~ - 100-24 100-00 100-23 100-38 100-12 99-86 100-44

I. Purple slate from Mount Deception, S. Aust. Analyst, E. R. Segnit.

IJ. Average of 78 shales (Clarke, p, 631).

III. Purple slate, Castleton, Vermont (Clarke, p, 554),

TV. Green slate near Janesville, N.Y. (Clarke, p. 554).

V. Mean of analysis of two samples of Pleistocene locss, respectively frem

Illinois and Towa, Clarke (p. 514).

VI. Triassic chocolate shale, Long Reef, N.S.W. (Walton, 1906).

VIT. A red-brown, potash-soda micro-granite (Mawsan and Segnit, 1946).

279

Chocolate-eoloured shales diagnosed as probably redistributed tiffs are well

khown in the Triassic Narrabeen Series!) of the Sydney Basin (see table of

analyses), Such reddish, tuffaccous shales appear always to be associated with

hasic volcanic activity and the high content af Ferric oxide is deemed sufficient

™m cause the red colouration,

There is nothing very unusual im the chemical composition of our purple

slate. but three interesting features do stand out. The first is the very low

proportion of ferric oxide. The second is the higher than usual amount of

barium which is accounted for by the fact that a large area of South Austraha,

including the llinders Ranges, is a barium-rich petrolegical province. The third

feature is that the common elements more soluble under normal conditions of

weathering, nunely caleitun, soditim and potassium are significantly high. This

may be taken as implying that the detritus which contributed to the farmatiun

of the shale: origimated from erusion cither under arid or glacial conditions or

was partly, at Teast, in the nature of volcanic dust, The presence of copper

tather stggests the latter, hat may result fram the evaporation and concentratinn

of leachings under arid conditions,

The chemical and mineral composition of this shale does not correspond

with what would be expected if it were of voleanic origin. The iron content, is

ton low in relation tu that of calcium and magnesium for any common igneous

type. Also, the quantity of free quartz is excessive in relation to the magnesium,

Such feldspar fragments as are discernible indicate contributions from granites

and acid gneisses, not from basalts, There is, therefore, little support fer the

suggestion that voleanie ash may have contributed notably to the formation of

these chocolate shales,

Reverting to consideration of the shape of the mineral particles in the shale,

they are sometimes strikingly angular; some actually are long and thm-splintery,

They evidently have not undergone prolonged transportation or weathering. The

shape of the yvrains denotes material derived directly from a primary source,

It is interesting to récord (Hatch, Rastall and Black, 1938) that quartz

grains may take two or three cycles of weathering and transportation before being

appreciably rounded. Vurther, as stated by Twenhofel (1945), grains of quartz

of sand size ure very little or not rounded in stream transport, and that grains

0:25 mm. in diameter or less are very litte if at all rounded in aqueous trans-

portation on sea or lake shores.

In the case of our slates there js no evidence of Excessive rounding of mineral

vrains such as the millet seed sands of desert areas. But this would not te

expected to apply to the excessively fine-grained material constituting this shale.

The field nature of these belts of shale and siate is favourable to a loessial

origin, They are deposits of great thickness and homogeneity and of even grain-

size. In some localities they are so uniform in texture that there may be little

trace of bedding planes. At other times the slight difference in grain-size

observed in successive faint laminae may represent dust transported under vary-

ing wind force.

The lower purple series of our Adelaide System have distributed throughout

recurrent thin calcareous, dolomitic and sideritic bands which, as evidenced by

their porphyroplastic clay wisps and pellets, are clearly of yery shallow-water

terrestrial origin. We conclude that the evidence favours a terrestrial loessial

origin far the chocolate shale belts of the Adelaide System.

CY Reference to these shales has appeared since this paper was compiled. See Pre+

sidential Address of Dr. G. D. Osborne, Proc. Roy. Soe N,S.W., 73, 148.

280

REFERENCES

Crarke, F. W. 1924 Data of Geochemistry: U.S.G.S. Bull., 770

Dorsey, G. E. 1926 Jour. Geol., 34, 131

Harci, Rastars. AND Biack 1938 Petrology of the Sedimentary Rocks

Howcuin, W. 1929 The Geology of South Australia

Mawson anp Secnit 1946 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, 217

Rayveicu, Lorp 1946 Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, 186, 411

Raymonp, P. E. 1927 Am. Jour. Sci, Ser, 5, No. 75, 234

Raymonp, P. E. 1942 Am. Jour. Sci., 240, 658

Twenuorer, W. W. 1945 Jour. Sed. Petrol., 15, 59

Watton, S. G. 1906 Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W.. 40, 155

281

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1946 Hergert M. Hace

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Council, (928. 38: President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary, 1924-25,

Treasurer, 1932- 33: Editor, 1924-37.

FELLOWS.

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1945. *BaAntverr, IT. K., L.Th., 1s Claremont Aveniie, Netherhy, S.A.

1932. Bsa, P, R., D.D. Sc, L.D.S. ., Shell House, 170 North Terrace, Adelaide.

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1934. Brack, E. C, M.B., BS, Magill Road, Traninere, Adelaide.

1945, Sacer Cc. W,, 'BSc.. AA CI, 68 Strangivays Terrace, Nurth Adelaily, S\

1940, Bonyriroy, Ste af “LayiNeros, 263 Enst Terrace, Adelaide.

1945. *Roomsma, C.D, B.Se-For., 2 Celtie Aveniec, South Road Park, S.A,

1947, Bowrs, D. R., B.Sc, 51 Eton Street, Malvern.

1939. Brooxman, Mrs. R. D. (nee A, Harvey), BA., Mearlows, S.A.

1945. Broucuton, A. C., Mt. Serle Station, via Copley. S.A,

1948. Brownrna, 'T, O., BSc. (Svd.), 121 Park Terrace, Adelaide, S.A.

1944. *Burpmcr, Mrss N. T., M.Sc, CS.LR.O., Div. Plant Industry, P.O, Box 109, Can-

berra, A.C,'T.

1923. Burvon, R. S,, D.Sc, Universit’ of Adetaide—Council, 1946.

1922, *Campren, T. D. D.D.Se., D.Sc. Dental. Dept, Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide—

Council, 1928-32, 1935, 1942-45: Pi-e-President, 1932-34; President, 1934-35,

1944. Casson, P. B., B.Se., Fur. CAdel.), 8 Benjatield Terrace, New Town, Hobart.

Pate ot

Elevtion.

1929, Creistit, Wy M.B, B.S., Edneation Department, Suvial Services, 31 Pirie Streee

Adelaide—T4casyrer, 1933-38,

1895. *CieLany, Peor. J. By M.D., University of Adelaide—lerco Medul, 1933; Council

1921-26, 1932-37; President, 1927-28; 1940-41; Wice-President, 1926-27, 1941.42,

143), *CoLguHoUN, T. T., M.Sc., 10 French Street, Netherby, S.A.—Sveeretary, 1942-43,

1907, *Cooxn, W. T., D.Sc, AA.C.L, 4 South ‘Terrace, Kensington Gardens, S-A—Counet!,

1938-41; Fice-President, W4F{-42, 1943-44> President, 1942-43.

1942, *Coormx, IT, M., SL ‘Hustings Street, Glenelg, S.A.

O44, Consist, Mevitee, State Bark, Pirie Street, Adctaide,

1929, *Corron, B. GC, S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Couneil, (943-40, 194e-,

4924, ne Crespromy, Sir CT, 0, 5,0, M.D, PARA, 219 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1937. *Crockem, RL. D.Sc, Waite Inevitute (Privute Mail Bag), Adcluide—Seeretary,

043-45: Connei, 145-47.

4 “Drenivsox, 8, 7, Mise, Govt. Geologist, Mines. Beparument, Flinders Sireet, Adelaide

—Couneil, 1946-.

1930. Dix, E. V., Hospitals Department, Rundle Street, Adelaide, S.A.

1944. LGwstong, 5. M. L, MLB, B.S., 124 Payneham Road, St. Peters, Adetaide.

1931. Dwyer, J. M. MB, B.S. 105 Port Road, Tindmarsh, S.A.

1933. Beare Miss C. M., B.Se., Waite Institute (Priyate Mail Bag), Adelaide—Couneil,

943-46,

1945, *EpMonns, S. J., B.A, M.Sc, 56 Fisher Terrace, Mile End, S.A,

1902, *Engursr, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg, S.A.

1044, Ferres, Miss H, M., M.Se., 8 Taylor’s. Road, Mitcham, 5.A.

1927, *Winuayson, H. H., 305 Ward Street, North Adelaide—Conncil, 1037-40,

1023. *Fry, H, K, D.S.0, M.D. B.S, B.Sc, F.RACLP., Tawat Hall, Adelaide—Couneil,

1933-37 ; PGce-President, 1937-38, 1939-40; President, 1938-39,

1932, *Grason, E. S. H., B,Sc., 207 Cross Roads, Clarence Garriens, Adelaiue,

1935. *Giastoxaury, J, O. G, BA, M.Sc, Dip.ed, Beatty Lerrace, Murray Bridge, S.A,

1927. Gonrreny, F, K,, Box 951H, G.P.O., Adelaide,

1935. {Gotosack, H., Coromandel Valley, 5.A.

1939, Goom, J. R., B.Agr.Se., P.O, Box 180, Whyalla, S.A.

1925. jGosse, Sry James H,, Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adclaide,

1410, *#Grant, Prov. Sr Keene, M.Se., F.1.P., 56 Kourth Avenue, St. Peters, SA

1930. Gray, J. T., Orroroo, S.A.

3933. Greaves, 1T., 12 Edward Street, Gtynde, §.A,

1904. Grorrn, H. B., Dynrobit: Read, Brighton, S.A.

1448. Gross, G. F., South Australiun Museum, Adelaide.

1944. Guery, D. j., B.Sc, Minerai Resources Survey, Canberra, A,C.T.

1922. *Ha.e, H. M, Director; S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Verca Medal, 1946} Cowieil, 1931-34}

Vice-President, 1934-36, 1937-38; President, 1936-37; Treasurer, 1938-

149. Want, D, R.. Mern Merna, via Quorn, S.A,

1945, *Harpy, Mrs. J, E. (nee A. C. Beckwith), M,Se., Box 62, Smithton, Tas,

1944, Haners, J, BR, B.Sc,, 94 Arctier Street, North Adelaide, S.A.

i947. Hennerson, D. L. W., Craigsiane, Woodford, N.S.W-

1944, Hergror, R, I., B.Agr.Sc., Soil Conservator, Dept. of Agriculture, §.A.

1949. Hotvoway, B. W., B.Sc,, 33 Kyre Avenue, Kingswood, S.A.

1924. *Hossrrzn, P.'S., MSc. 132 Fisher Street, Fullarton, SA.

i944. Humuore, D. S$. W., 238 Payneham Road, Payneham, 5.A.

1947. Hurton, J T.. B-Se, 13 Sherbourne Road, Medindie Gardens, S.A,

1928. Irourn, P., Kurralta, Burnside, S.A,

1942, Jenxins, C. F, H., Department of Agriculture, St, George’s Terrace, Perth, WA.

1945. *Jussur, R. W., BSc, 3 Alma Road, Fullarton, SiA.

1910. *Jounsow, E, Ay M.D. M.R-CS., “farni Warra,” Port Noarlunga, SA,

1921, *Jounsron, Pror. T. Hy. M,A,, D.Sc... University of Adelaide—lVerco Mert, 1935;

Council, 1926-28, 1940-) Vice-President, 1928-31; President, 1931-32) Secretary,

1938-40; Rep. Kaun and Flava Board, 1932-39; Editor, 1943-45,

1939, }KHAR#HAR, H. M., Ph.D, M.B,, F.R.GS,, Khakar Buildings, CP. Tanke Road, Bom-

bay, India, .

1933, KiReMAN, A. W., M.Se., University of Adelaide—Secretary, 1945-485 VicePresi-

dent, 1948-, ;

1927, Lenpon, G. A, M.D.. BS., F.R.C.P., A.M-P. Building, King Willian Street, Adelaide,

1948. Laretan, T. R.N., N.D-H. (N,Z,), Director, Botanic Gardens, Adclaide,

1949. Lower, H, I. 7 Avenue Road, Highgate, SA.

1931. *Lupremic, Mas. W. Ve (nee N, H. Woods), M.A,, Flimatta Street, Reid, ACCT.

’

Thate a!

384

Eleedan,

1048.

1938.

1932.

1939,

1929,

1905,

1920,

1943,

yg, +

139,

1425.

1933.

1938,

1940,

1936,

10-4,

1944,

1944.

1945,

1930.

1947,

1913,

4937.

1945,

1029,

TW2h.

1948.

1847,

1925,

1926.

1945,

1944.

17,

1948,

1947,

1946,

1945.

19444,

1943.

1946.

1924.

1925,

1936.

1945,

1934,

1924.

141,

1941,

1936.

1947,

1936,

1947.

McCuuiscn, R. N., MBE, BSc. (Oxon), TAgt.Sei. (Syd), Raseworlhy Agricul

tural College, S.A.

Maprern, C. B., B.DS., N.N-Sc., Sheil House, North Terrace, Artelaite

Mann, EF. A., C/o Batik of Adelaide, Adelaide.

Marsuaty, T. J. M-Agr.Se, Ph,, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Afetside--

Council, 1LO48-.

Manrin, F. C., M.A., Techmeal High School, Thebarton, S.A,

*MAwson, Prov. Siz ‘Daucus, O.B.E., D.Sc. BE, F. RS., University of Adelaide—

Merca ” Medal, 1931; President, 1024- 25, 1944-45; Fice -President, 1923-24, 1925-26;

Couneil, 1941-43.

MAYo, THE Hon, Mr, Justice, LL.B, K.C., Supreme Court, Adelaide.

McGartny, Miss D. F., B.A., B.Sc,, 70 Halton Terrace, Kensington Park,

‘Mines, K. R. D.Sc. FIGS, Mines Depattment, Finders Street, Adelaide.

Mincuam, V. H., Hammond, §.A, ;

7Miteyerr, Prop. Siz W.. K.CMG., M.A., D.Se., Fitzroy Ter. Prospect, SA-

Mirenert, Pror. M. L., M.Sc, University, Adelaide.

Moornouse, F. W., M.Sc. Chief Inspector of Fisheries, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

Morrioce, J. A. T., 37 Currie Street, Adelaide.

*Mountrorn, C. P., 25 First Avenue, St, Peters, Adelaide,

Munrerr, J. W., Engineer‘ng and Water Supply Dept. Port Road, Thebarton, 5A.

Neat-Sauira, C. A. B,Agr. Sci, 16 Gooreen Street. Reid, Canberra, ACT,

Ninses, A. R., B.A., 62 Sheftield Street, Malvern, S.A.

*NorrHoore, K. FL, BAge Sc, ATLAS. 6 Charles Street, Porestville 5.4.

Ockenven, a. P., c/o Finders Street Practising School, Finders Street, Adelaide.

*0vaer, L. b.. 65 fait Avenne, St. Peters, S.A,

+Qsnorn, Prov. ‘T. G. B. DSc. Department of Botany, Oxford, Magland—Cuwned,

1915-20, 1922 OA; Presidetit, 1925-265 Wico-E'vesidest, 1924-25, 1926-27,

*Parkiv, L, W.. R8c., c/a Mines Department, Flinders Street. Adelaide.

Patrrson, G., 68 Partridge Street, Glenelg, S.A.

Patt, oat G.. MLA. Se. 10 Milton Avenue, Fullarten, $.A.

*Piprr, C. D.Sc., Waite Tnstitute (Private Mail Bar), Adclaide—Couneil, 1941-435

Vie Sine siden, 1943-45, 1945-47 » Presitont, 1945-46.

Pownie, J. K., B.Se., CSIRO., Davision af Biochemistry. University, Adelaide.

PoynToON, J). 0, M. iD., M.A,, ChR.. MRCS. LR.CP., University of Adélaide.

Adelaido—lorea Medal, 1938: Council, 1927- 30, 1935-30; Fice-Presitent, 1930-32:

President, 1932-33,

Price, A. G., C.M.G:, M.A.. Litt.D., F-R.G.S., 46 Pennington'Terrace, North Adelaide,

Pryor, L, D., M.Se., Dip.For,, 32 La Perouse Street, Griffith, N.S.W.

Rremman, 0. §., B.AgrSe., CS.LR.O,, Divisinn of Nutrition, Adelaide.

toro, W, R., B.Se, St. Mark's Colleze, Pennington Terrace, North Adelaide.

Rimes, G. D., 24 Wiinstan Avenue, Clarence Gardens, S.A,

Rix, C. EB. 42 Waymouth Aveuve, Glandore, SA.

Rovrysos, E. G., BSe., 42 Riverside Drive, Sudbury. Ontario, Canada.

Rrmii., J. R., Ohl Penola Estate, Penola, S.A

*Sanpars, Miss D, F, MSc,, University of Queensland, Brishane, Qheens and

Scnneiper, M., M.B., B.S. 175 North Ter., Adelaide:

oles ier te Victoria.

*Srenir, R. M.A, B.S. Engineering end Water Supply Depertment, Victoriz

Square, Atclide. Seren, 1930-35: Cremeil, 1947-38; Fice-President, 1938-39,

1940-415 President, 1939-40.

*SHEARD, H, Pert Elliot; S.A.

*Surann, K,, Fisheries Resvareh Mhiy. C.S.1.RO <f/e Tustitiie af Agriculture, Univ,

WA.

Srevieen. J. TH. BSe., A. c/a Zine Corporetion, Broken Hil, NVSAW.

Swinkrrenn, BR. C.. Salisbury, S.A,

Srmpsox, F. N., Pirie Street, Adelaide.

*5urpir, T. Lawerorn-, B.Se., Departement of Pooat-War Reconetrustian Canberri

A.C.T.

Sorvrncotr, R. V., MB, B.5,, 12 Avenue Road, Unley Park, SA.

Sounawoon, A, R.. M.D.. M.S. (Acel,), M.R.C.P., Waotoona Ter., Glen Osmond, 5A

*Srrncht, RT... WSe., PS Main Road. Richmond, S.A.

*Srricas. BR. Cc. MSc, Mines Depariment, Flinders Street, Adelaide,

Sprntivs, M. BR. BeSe, Department of Agriculture, Adelaide.

285

Date at

Election,

1938. *Svernens, C. G., M.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1935, STRERUAND, A. G, M.Agr.5c., 11 Wootoona Terrace, Glen Osmond, S.A. Council,

1947-.

"32, Sway, D, C, M.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Baz), Adelaide—Secretery,

1940 42; Vice-President, 1946-47, 1948-; President, 1947-48.

1048. Swann, PF, J. W., 38 Angas Roud, Lower Mitcham, S.A.

1934. Symons, I. G., 35 Murray Street, Lower Mitcham, S.A.—Editor, 1947-.,

Wer, tLavtor, J. K. B.A, M.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Cowncil,

1040-43, 1947-.

iG48. THomas, 1. M., M.Sc. (Wales), University, Adelaide. Secretary, 1948-,

1938. *Taroaras, Mrs. I. M., (nce P. M. Mawson), M.Sc., 12 Broadway, Glenelg.

Ww40. Titomson, Carr. J. M., 135 Military Road, Semaphore South, S.A.

23. *Tixnare, N. B. B.Sc. South Australian Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1935-36;

Council, 1946-47; Vice-President, 1947-48; Presideil, 1948-.

1945. Tiver, N, S., B-Agr.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adetaide.

1937. *TruMBLE, Pror, H. C., D.Sc, M.Agr.Sc,, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag),

Adelaicde—Couneil, 1942-1945; Vice-President, 1945-46, 1947-48; Preyihent, 1946-47,

1922. Turner, D. C, Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Strect, Adelaide.

IWiZ, *Warn, L, K., 1S.0, BA. B.E., D.Sc, 22 Northumberland Avenue, Tasmore—Comeil,

1924-27, 1933-35; Vice-President, 1927-28; President, 1928-30.

1941. *Warx, D.C, M.Agr.Se,, Div. Plant Industry, C.S.LR.O., Canberra, ACT,

1936. Warernouss, Miss L. M., 35 King Street, Brighton, S.A.

1039. *WerevtxG, Rev. B. J., P.O. Box 51, Minlaton, S.A,

1946. Worn, A. W.G., B.Sc., Mines Department, Flinders Strest, Adelaide,

1946. *Witson, A. F,, M-Sc.. University of Adelaide.

1938, *Wrtson, J. O.. CS-LR.O., Division of Nutrition, Ade’aide.

1930. *Womerstey, H., F.R.E.S, ALS. (/Ton. couse), S.A. Museum, Adelaide—l’erco

Medal, 1943; Sccretary, 1936-37; Editor, 1937-43, 1945-47; President, 1943-44, Vice-

President, 1944-45; Rep. Fauna and Plora Protection Committee, 1945,

1944, *Womerstey, TB, S.. M.Sc. 43 Carlisle Raad, Westbourne Park, S.A.

1944, Womenrsiry, J. S., B.Sc. Lae, New Gitinea.

1925. *Woop, Pror. J. G.. D.Sc, PhD, University ef Adelaide—Verceo Medal, 1944;

Council, 1938-40; Vice-President, 1940-41, 1942-43: Rep. Fauna and Flora Board,

1940-; President, 1941-42; Counpil, 1944-48,

1943. Woonraxns, Hanotn. Box 980H, G.P.O., Adeiaide.

1945. Wortnrey, B, W., B-A., M.Se., A. Inst. P., University, Ade'aide.

1948, Wvyaonn, A. P., 4 Woodley Road, Glen Osmond, S.A. j

1942, Zier, W. J., DipFor., F.LS. (Lon.), 22 Docker Strect, Wangaratta, Viet.

286

GENERAL INDEX, VOLUME 72

Names of genera and species in italics denote that the forms described are new to science.

Acanthocephala, Australian, No. 7;

T. H. Johnston andl S$, J.

Edmonds .. . .. 67-76

Acarina, “Trombiculidae : 83

Avats Skull, Stratigraphy of;

. S. HMossfeld .. - » 201-207

eliryia arin 31

Algae, Marine, of ihueatad Tst and;

H, B. S. Woamers'ey . 143-166

Amphibians. from the Nerthersi

Territory, Sore Reyttles and ;

A. Loveridge . 203-215

Austratian Asenthiahiblas No, a

T. Il Johnston and S.J

Rdmonels O97

Jnsteoliata custralis. 4). dyttsix

lineata mA os . 2 oz

Luressa Senkungsfeld, Occurrenci

of Wossil Fruits in; P. S.

Hossfeld o 2s . 252-258

Boulcoomata Granite, Geology of

the; A. W. Whitt’e 2. 228-243

Roomsina, C. D.; Leolowy of the

Western Clare Hills .. 216-220

-— Nomenclature of Eucalypts 221-227

Cestodes fram Australian Birds,

| Pelicans; T. H. Johnston and

Tlelen G. Clark . is 77-82

(harnockitie Roeks at North- West-

ern South Asginaliay AF.

Wilson > 178200

Chihuahua Desert, Phyrcogranhy

of .. f 20

Clark, Helen G. T. H. Fohnatecr

anu ; Cestodes from Australian

Birds, T Pelicans -. 77-82

Cuncotheca furgide. bh 255

Cotton, B, C.; South Australian

Gastropoda, part [Th .. -- 3032

Crespin, 1; Indo-Pacific Influetices

in Australian Tertiary Foura-

minifera! Assemblages .. - 193-142

Deserts, Phytogeography of Sand

_ ridge-; C. M. Eardley 1-29

Dolcrites from the Musgrave atid

Tiverard Ranges; A. I, Wilson 178-200

Iard'ey, C, ML; Phytogeography of

sotne Important Sandridge

Deserts cotnpared with that of

the Simpson Desert .. * 1-29

Feology of the Western Clare

Tills; C, D. Boomsina » 26-220

Edmonds, §. J.; The Commoner

Species of Animals and. theit

Distribution on an Intertidal

Platform at Pennington Hay,

Kangaroo Island -. 167-177

T. Ho Johnston and: Aus

tralian Acanthocephala, ‘No. 7 60476

Eucalypts, Nomenclature of, C. D.

Boomsma

. . 221-227

Eucalyptus amacrorryncha, “age hia

occurrence of 219

Foraminifera: Australian Tertiary

Foraiminiferal Assemblages ;

T. Crespin . 143-142

Fossil Friits; P, S. Hossfeld . 252-258

Geomurphology of County Vicluria;

T. Langford-Simith 2. 259-275

Granitization; A. W. Whittle 242

Hossfeld, P. S.: Significance of the

Occurrence of Fossil Fruits in

the Barossa Senkungsfeld 4,

Stratigraphy of the : Aitebe

Skull t . 201-207

TIymenolepis sagan tibertsis ra 77

H. jaenscht 79, A. vilist 81

252-258

Indo-Pacific Influences in Austra-

lian Tertiary Foraminiferal

Assemblages; 1. Crespin 134-142

Jacob, Mt., Geology of; D. Mawson 245

Jessup, R. W.; A Vewetation and

Pasture Survey of Counties

Eyre, Burra and Kimberley .. 33-68

Johnston, T. H. and S. J. Edmonds;

Australian Acanthocepha'a,

No. 7 ot oe Yr «O76

and Helen G. Clark; Ces

fodes from Australian Birds,

I Pelicans ie 77-82

Kara Kum Desert Pliytogeouraphy

of .- on 15

Langford-Smith, T.; Geomarpho-

logy of County Victoria 259-275

Libyan Desert, Phytogcography of 1

Loveridge, Arthur; On Some Rep-

tiles and Amphibians from the

Northern Territory .. 208-215

Marine Algae of Kangaroo Island,

II The Pennington Bay Region ;

H. B. S. Womersley :

Marine Animals, their Distribution

on an Intertidal Platform at

Pennington Bay, Kangarow

Island; S, J. Edmonds

Mawson, D.; Sturtian Tillite of

North Flinders Range

Mawson, D. and E. R. Segnit;

Purple Slates of the Adelaide

System : te

Penteuna trachyclints

Perry, R. A. R. L. Specht ad:

Plant Ecology of Part of the

Mount Lofty Ranges, I

Phymatocaryou Mackayi

Phytogeography of Sandridge

Deserts; C. M. Eardley F

Plant Fcology of Part of the

Mount Lofty Ranges, 1; R. L,

Specht and R. A. Perry

Pleiockinis Couchmuanti

Polymerphus bisturac an .

Purple Slates of the Adelaide

System; D. Mawson and E.R.

Seenit f i i

Reptiles and Amphibians from the

Northern Tereifery: A. Lovye-

ridge : =“ '

Rhytidotheca Lyne hit ‘ oe

Rub’ al Khali, Phytogeos raphy of

Segnit, I. 1. D. Mawson and;

Purp-e S‘ates of the Adelaide

System :

Simpson Desert, Phi toxcography

vf; C. M. fardley

. 143-166

. 167-177

. 244-251

. 276-280

. 208-215

257

. 276-280

Southern Australian Gastropoda,

part III; B. C. Cotton

Specht, R. L. and R. A, Perry;

Plant Ecotogy of Part of the

Mount Lolty Ranges, T a

Spondylostrobus Smythit

Sturtian Tillite, North Flinders

Range oe : oe

Takla Makan Desert, Phytogen

graphy of

Thar Desert, Phytiizeograptly of.

Tragardhula Berlese 1912 (Actin,

Trombiculidae) ; H. Womerstey

Vegetation and Pasture Survey of

Counties Eyre, Burra and Kim-

berley; R. W. Jessup ..

Warren Hastings, Mt, Geology af

Western Sahara, Phytogeography

Whittle, A.; Gedtbay ‘ot the Bool-

coomata, Granite P

Wilson, A. F.; The Charnockitic

and Associated Rocks of North-

Western Sonth Australia;

II, Dolerites from the Mus-

grave and Everard Ranges

Womersley, H.; The Genus

Tragardhula Berlese 1912

(Acarina, Trambiculidac)

Wamersley, H. B. S.; Marine

Algae of Katgarou Isiand;

II, The Peminaton Bay Re-

sion = a

Zoatle rosscilt

33408

247

, 228-243

. 178-200)

83-90

143-160