CONTENTS

Simpson, D, A.: The Epiphyseal Complex in Trachysaurus rugosus

Brack, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of South Australia. No. 45 ....

Fenner, C,: Australites, Part V. Tektites in the South Australian Museum, with some

Notes on Theories of Origin

Jounston, T. H., and Ancet, L. M.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Freshwater

Molluses. Part XIII

Roprnson, E. G.: The Petrological Nature of some Rocks from the Mann, Tompkinson

and Ayres Ranges of Central Australia

Spricc, R. C.: Thrust Structures of the Witchelina Area, South Australia

TuHomson, J. M.: The Nullarbor Caves System

Krne, D.: Geological Notes on the Nullarbor Cavernous Limestone

Corron, B. C.: An old Mangrove Mud-flat exposed by Wave Scouring at Glenelg,

South Australia

Corton, RB. C.: Fossil Oysters used for Road Metal ....

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M.: Some Nematodes from Australian Hosts,

together with a Note on Rhabditis allgent ....

Spricc, R. C.: Early Cambrian “Jellyfishes” of Ediacara, South Australia and Mount

John, Kimberley District, Western Australia

Mountrorp, C. P.: Gesture Language of the Walpari Tribe, Central Australia ....

Jounston, T. H., and Muirueap, N. G.: Larval Trematodes from Australian Fresh-

water Molluscs. Part XIV ...

Sreenit, E. R.: A Soda-rich Composite Intrusive Rock located in the Booleoomatta

Hills, South Australia ....

Womerstey, H. B. S.: Studies on the Marine Algae of Southern Australia. No. 3,

Notes on Dictyopterts Lamourous

Mawson, D.: The Elatina Glaciation. A Third Recurrence of Glaciation evidenced in

the Adelaide System

Jonns, R. K., and Krucer, J. M.: The Murray Bridge and Monarto Granites and

Associated Rocks of the Metamorphic Aureole

Womerstey, H. B. S.: The Marine Algae of Kangaroo Island II], List of Species I

BonytHon, C. W.: Evaporation Studies Using some South Australian Data ....

Cooper, H. M.: Stone Implements from a Mangrove Swamp at South Glenelg ....

Mawson, D. W.: Basaltic Lavas of the Balleny Islands. A.N.A.R.E. Report ....

HossFietp, Paut S.: The Late Cainozoic History of the South-East of South Australia

Love, J. R. B.: Worora Kinships ...,

Fry, H. K.: Aboriginal Social Systems ....

100

102

109

113

= SF ae aa ll SNR

(aw use ¥

VOL. 73 PART 1 DECEMBER 1949 NS anes Sy

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THE EPIPHYSEAL COMPLEX IN A TRACHYSAURUS RUGOSUS

BY D. A. SIMPSON

Summary

Gladstone and Wakeley (1940), quoting earlier workers (Spencer 1886 and Legge 1897), describe

the epiphyseal complex of two skinks, Cyclodus gigas and Gengylus ocellatus. In these lizards the

parietal eye appears to be a degenerate structure. Cyclodus gigas has a long, well-developed pineal

organ, and a parietal foramen, but no parietal eye. In Gengylus ocellatus, a parietal eye was found in

the embryo only ; in the adult there was a large pineal organ, but again no parietal eye. A drawing

of the parietal eye of Sincus officinalis, from Calvet (1934), is reprinted ; the nerve, lens and retina

seem well developed, but the epidermal scale covering the eye is densely pigmented and quite

opaque. Gladstone and Wakeley therefore conclude that in the Scincidae, the parietal eye is

atrophied and purely vestigial.

THE EPIPHYSEAL COMPLEX IN TRACHYSAURUS RUGOSUS

By D. A. Simvson*

(Communicated hy A. A, Abbie)

[Read 14 April 1949]

INTRODUCTION

Gladstone and Wakeley (1940), quoting earlier workers (Spencer 1886 and

Legge 1897). describe the epiphyseal complex of two skinks, Cyclodus gigas

and Gengylus ocellatus. In these lizards the parietal eye appears to be a degenerate

structure. C'yclodus giyas has a long, well-developed pineal organ, and a parietal

foramen, but no parietal eye. In Gengylus ocellatus, a parietal eye was found im

the embryo only; in the adult there was a large pineal organ, but again no parietal

eye. A drawing of the parietal eye of Scincus officmatis, from Calvet (1934), is

reprinted ; the nerve, lens, and retina seem well developed, but the epidermal scale

covering the vye is densely pigmented and quite opaque. Gladstone and Wakeley

therefore conclude that in the Scincidae, the parietal eye is atrophied and purely

vestigial.

-FRONTAL BONE

_-- PARIETAL BONE

PARIETAL FORAMEN

ORAMEN MACHUM

Fig, 1

A. Dorsal aspect af head of Trachasourius rugosis showing parietal

Meck ant foramen (x 4).

B. Dorsal aspeet of skull showine panetil foramen (» 4).

The epiphyseal complex im its fullest development, us seen in Sphenodon,

comprises the following structures:

T. The pineal organ proper, a sac-like ependymal diverticulum, with an

enlarged end-vesicle probably representing an eye which has failed to emerge

from the cranial cavity. “he organ sends nerve fibres to the habenular ganglia

(right nucleus in Siphenodon).

II. The parietal eye, a simple vesicular organ lying in the parictal foramen.

It shows:

(i) a retina of three layers: an inner layer of cylindrical ncurosensory cells,

a midile of plexiform nerve ffbres, and an outer layer of ganglion cells;

(vi) a lens, of translucent columnar cells;

(iti) a parietal nerve, ending in the left habenular ganglion in Sphenodon, but

in the right in the Lacertilia,

The parietal eye lies anterior to the pmeal organ; it is suggested that in the

earliest vertebrates, both lay side by side as dorsal paired eyes (Dendy, 1911),

It is of some interest, therefore, to find that all these structures noted in

Sphenodon can be found in the skink Trachysaurus rugosus, Morcover, they

are qititc as well differentiated.

* Department of Anatomy, University of Adelaide,

Traus. Roy. Suc. &. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material comprised four adult lizards, and one 60 mm, foetus. These

were investigated by gross dissection, and also microscopically, Both transverse

and longitudinal sections were employed aud they were stained with haematoxylin

and eosin, piero-indigo-carmine, Weigert-Pal, or De Castro’s silver stain, accord-

ing to requirements.

FINDINGS

1. The dorsum of the skull shows a parietal foramen, less than + mm. in

diameter on the surface, but expanding to a ctip-like recess on the innet aspect

(fig. 1).

2. fn the parietal scale Gver this foramen there is a depression, in some

lizards markedly paler than in the rest of the seaie. E.R, Waite’s (1929) descrip-

tion of the "pineal area’ as a group of nine small scales may prove a little mis-

leading, since the actual scale covering the parietal eye is single, constant and

relatively large.

3. Sagittal sections show a parietal eye, a vesicle of columnar cells lying

in the inner part of the foramen, in loose and extremely vascular connective tissue

(fig.2). The vesicle shows regional differentiation, The superior quadrant

consists mainly of very tall columnar cells, with a few interspersed splenoidal

cells not attached to either basement membrane, This arrangemen( provides a

biconvex lens entirely free from pigment. The remainder of the vesicle forins

a tetina, skarply defined from the iens aud heavisy pigmented. Thige rather

indistinct layers, comparable with those described in Sphenodon, can be identified:

an inner, of heavily pigmented columnar cells, sending irregular processes towards

the centre of the eye; a middle of tangential fibres, and an ill-defined outer layer

of ganglion cells, with strands of pigment, The hyaliie external limiting mens-

brane is very well developed, Whether the black pigment of the retina was imtra-

cellular cou.d not be determined, Some debris in the centre of the vesicle may

represent a vitreous body.

The epidermis oyer the foramen is less pigmented than elsewhere (in the

section, fig. 2, the epidermis has slipped iu the left where the unpigmented area

is clearly visible at *). The connective tissue filling the foramen belween eye

and skin is devoid of pigment. This tisstic has a strongly lamellar structure in

fixed material and seems comparable with ihe more massive parictal ping seen

in Sphenodon,

Connective tissue immediately around the eye is condensed to form an ill-

defined capsule and in the region of the (oramen contains many melanophores.

In the foetal specimen, the eye is represented by only a simple diverticulum

from the roof of the third ventricle. extending up to the parictal region (hy. 4)-

4, The pineal organ proper, as distinct from the parictal eye, lies more

posteriorly. It is a twisted cylindrical diverticulum, arising from the caudal end

of the roof of the third ventricle, The cells are apparently ependymal, being

clear and columnar, and they rest on a very clear basement membrane (hg. 3*)-

The sac is contitimous with a spherical terminal vesicle, very closely resernb-

ling the parictal eye; there is even a lens-lke thickening of the superior wall.

However, the rest of the vesicle is almnst devoid of pigment and, unlike the

parietal ¢ye, contains no true gangtion cells. There is no gap in the skull over

this pineal vesicle,

The stalk of the pineal sac is related anteriorly to the dorsal sae, which

reaches almost to the terminal vesicle; it is a thin walled diverticulum, adherent

in its turn to the paraphysis. The paraphysis is lined with cuboidal ceils and is

in continuity with the choroidal plexus of the lateral ventricles. In the foetal

specimen the paraphysis was extremely well developed,

5, The nervous connections were not satisfactorily established, A nerve

was seen to leave the parietal eve from its postero-ventral quadrant, but could

not be traced to the habenular region, where presumably it arose. No nerves

attached to the pineal sac could be found.

The epithalamic structures, hahenular nuclei and commissures are, however,

well developed, with a large median haberular nucleus. Nerve fibres ascend

from these triclei in the direction of the parietal eye; but their destination could

not be determined.

The whole complex is embedded in a loose connective tissue which is enclosed

within a tubular meningeal sheath (fig. 5).

Bone Non-ProMeNTED Pomentco Bone

EPIDCONIS EDIDEQMIS

Ria ovEn

FoRFBaAIn

Pia oven

TH ventgicee

Fig. 5

Compc site figure to illustrate most of the features of the epiphyseal complex

(x23 approx.),

DISCUSSION

Trachysaurus rugosus has thus a well-developed parictal eye, with na obvious

signs of degeneration, and at least the equal of that in Sphenodon. Like other

vertebrate parietal eyes, it is very primitive, with no eqiipment for focussing.

Jt has been much disputed whether the pineal sac and the parietal eye are

developed from two bilateral eyes—later becoming median (Dendy, 1911), or

from primarily median diverticula (Tilney and Warren, 1919), Both theories

are equally compatible with the observations made in Trachysaurus, and this

investigation does nothing to settle the controversy.

lt is impossible in a discussion of forin to avoid speculation on function.

Anatomically, the parictal eye of these lizards secms well adapted to uct as a

simple light receptor, though most writers deny such function in living reptiles.

The pineal sac may conceivably have a glandular function; ihe paraphysis is so

evidently part of the choroidal system that it may be presumed to secrete cerebro-

spinal fluid.

No physiological proof of a pincal glandular activity in reptiles is available;

the only real evidence for a photo-receptive function comes from the work of

Clausen and Mofshin (1939). These authors studied the oxygen consumption of

lizards (Anolis carolinensis) in the light and in the dark, before and after

pinealectomy, and found that pineal “vision” makes a significant difference.

TERMINAL

PINEAL PARIETAL EVE

VEBICLE

PARIETAL NERVE(?)

DORSAL SAC

PANT GF PARAOHYSIS

FOREBRAIN

POSTERIOR er.

ComMmissuRe rg

ErewovMaA ——

of HABENULAR

#QueDucY Commi Sssuge

Fig. 6

Diagratiinatie reconstruction of the epiphyseal camplex,

The course of the parictal nerve atl the relations of the dorsal sac

and paraphysis are parth: hypothetical. (Not drawn to scale.)

Brom an anatomical yiew, one may say for Trachysaurus what Dendy (1911)

said for Spkenodon:

“T think we must adnut that the pineal eye of Sphenodon is no longer at the

summit of its career as a light percipient organ, but the evidences of degeneration

are very slight. ... It is impossible for me to believe that an organ which retains

stich a complex histological structure ... ¢an be entirely fuictionless,”

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

J am indebted to Professor A. A. Abbic, who first came upon this eye during

an operation and suggested it as a subject for investigation; he has also assisted

me with adyice throughout this work. Dr, Adey has helped me with the micro-

photographs of sections kindly prepared by Mr. T, Canny. Miss G, Walsh was

good enough ta make the drawings from my drait sketches. 1 wish to express

my gratitude for all this assistance.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate I

Fie. 2

Photomicrograzh of parietal eye. Note overlying

parietal foramen, pigmeniation in retina and com-

meneement of nerve (N). Tlaematoxylin and

eosin, x 55,

N.B—During preparation of this section unpig-

ise eae memed epidermis over parietal foramen has slipped

Oe : : to the left (*).

a _—— : —

“Prcudcoparictal eye” or terminal vesicle of pineai

organ (HH. and E., x 32).

Note:

(a) eye-like structure except for pigmentation

and nervous connexion;

(b) attached, saccular, pincal organ (*).

in order to show the absence of a foramen

in the overlying bone.

Fig. 4

Sagittal section of the region in a 60 mm. foetus

to show the dorsal diverticulum from the root of

the third ventricle from the terminal portion of

which the parietal eye (P.E.) appears ta

differentiate (11. & I, x 52).

SUMMARY

1. The cerebro-epiphyseal complex in the lizard, Trachysaurus rugosus, 1s

described.

2. Contrary to all previous opinion on this system in skinks, the complex in

Trachysaurus equals in development the classical example found in Sphenodon.

REFERENCES

Carvet, J. (1934) L’Epiphyse, Paris (J. B. Bailliere et Fils), quoted by Glad-

stone and Wakeley (1940)

Crausrn, H. J. and Morstin, B. (1939) “The pineal eye of the lizard (Anolis

carclitiensis), a photo-receptor as revealed by oxygen consumption

stucies,” J. Cell. and Comp. Physiol, 19, (1), 29-41

Denny, A. 5. (1911) “On the Structure, Development and Morphological

Interpretation of the Pineal Organs and Adjacent Parts of the Brain

in tae Tuatara,” Philos. Trans., Ser. B., 201, 227-331

Giapstone, R. J., and Waxrey, C. P.G, (1940) The Pineal Organ, London

(Bzilliere, Tindall and Cox)

Tiuwey, F., and Warren, L. F. (1919) “The Pineal Body. Part I. Mor-

phology and Evolutionary Significance.” Amer, Anat. Mem., No. 9

Warts, E.R. (1929) The Reptiles and Amphibians of South Australia, p. 140,

Adelaide (Government Printer)

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY J. M. BLACK

Summary

EPACRIDACEAE Conostephium halmaturinum, nov. sp. — Frutex erectus tenuis ramosus fere

glaber; folia rigida, erecta, subimbricata, linear-lanceolata circa 5 mm. Longa supra concava, infra

3-nervia; flores parvi penduli axillares; sepala pallida, 3 mm. Longa 2 mm. Lata ciliolata; bracteolis

dimidio brevioribus quam sepala; corolla conica sepala vix-superans intus villosa; antherae 1/2 mm.

Longae cum filamentis prope basin corollae affixis; ovarium oblongum glabrum in disco annulari

situm; fructus non visus.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

No. 45

By J. M. Buiacr, A.L.S.

[Read 14 April 1949]

TEPACRIDACEAE

Conostephium halmaturinum, nov. sp.—Frutex erectus tenuis ramosus fere

glaber; folia rigida, erecta, subimbricata, linear-lanceolata circa 5 mm. longa supra

concaya, infra 3-nervia; flores parvi penduli axillares; sepala pallida, 3 mm. longa

2 mm. lata ciliolata; bracteolis dimidio brevioribus quam sepala; corolla conica

sepala vix-superans intus villosa; antherae 14 mm. longae cum filamentis prope

basin corollae affixis; ovarium oblongum glabrum in disco annulari situm; fructus

non visus.

Hundred of Heddon, Kangaroo Island—The only species hitherto found in

South Australia. Appears nearest to the West Australian C. planifolinm, F. v. M.,

but has much smaller leaves and flowers, bracteoles scarcely half as long as the

sepals, a glabrous ovary and a prominent annular disk (C. planifolinm has no

disk), Collector, J. B. Cleland.

LEGUMINOSAE

Acacia quornensis sp. nova—frutex gracilis circiter 2 m. altus; phyllodia

plana, lanceolata, pallide viridula, 2-5 cm. longa, 4-5 mm. lata, uninervia, superne

in mucronem inferne in petiolum brevem angustata; capitula numerosa, in racemis

quam phyllodia brevioribus disposita; flores 8-15 in quoque capitulo; calyx cyathi-

formis 4-5 lobis, petala 4-5, glabra; legumen planiusculum, super semina turgidum,

5-10 cm. longum, 8-10 mm, latun1; semina ovata, nigra, 6-7 unm. longa, funiculo

duplicato cincta, in arillum parvulum desinentia,

Hills near Quorn (Flinders Range). Nearest to A. retinodes, but has

smaller phyllodes, fewer flowers in head and glabrous calyx. Collector, M. E.

Groves,

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949

AUSTRALITES, PART V

TEKTITES IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM, WITH SOME NOTES

ON THEORIES OF ORIGIN

BY CHARLES FENNER

Summary

Tektites are small glassy objects, averaging about 10 to 40 grams in weight, but ranging down to

0.15 grams and very rarely up to hundreds of grams, found widespread and in considerable numbers

in nine known localities in the world. The group in which occurs the specimens of largest size is the

Indochinite collection; one of these, in the Paris Museum of Natural History, is broken, but

originally weighed four kilograms. Nothing comparable to this is known from any other group. The

source and mode of origin of tektites has puzzled the minds of a multitude of workers. Australites

have, for the past century, attracted particular attention, perhaps because they are so abundant and

widespread and because they are able to be classified within a small number of regular forms.

Moreover, as will be shown later, the australite forms show distinct evidence of two phases in their

development, as was recognised by some of the earliest investigators (Walcott, ref 1, 1898).

AUSTRALITES, PART V

TEKTITES IN THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM,

WITH SOME NOTES ON THEORIES OF ORIGIN

By Citaerns Fenner *

[Read 14 April 1949]

PRELIMINARY NOTE

Tektites are small glassy objects, averaging about 10 to 40 grams in weight,

but ranging down to 0-15 grams and very rarely up to hundreds of grams, found

widespread and in considerable numbers in nine known localities in the world.

The group in which occurs the specimens of largest size is the Indochinite collec-

tion; one of these, in the Paris Museum of Natural History, is breken, hut

originally weighed four kilograms. Nothing comparable te this is known from

any other group, The source and mode of origin of tektites has ptizzled the

minds of a imultitude of workers. Australites have, for the past century, attracted

particular attention, perbaps because they are so abundant and widespread and

hecatise they are able ta be dassified within a small ntumber of rerular forms.

Moreover, zs will be shown tater, the australite forms show distinct evidence of

two phases in their development, as was recognised by same of the earliest

investigators (Walcott, ref 1, 1898),

Barnes (1940) records that the first printed word regarding tektites

(Moldavites) was a note by Joseph Mayer, 1787, and in the subsequent 160

years over 250 scientific papers have been written on these objects. must of the

papers being published in the past 40 or 50 years. Charles Darwin (1844) was

the first scientist ta theorize on the origin of Atstraliles; his theory, like many

athers, has long, been discarded,

The present writer was attracted by the australite problen about 40 years

ago (1907), a time when research on these objects in Australia was very active

and when the majority of Australian workers considered these glass blobs as

heing originated by a vast shower of glass meteorites, Since then the study of

auistralites has been linked up with analogous swarms of glassy blobs found else-

where, and many fascinating facts have been collected and much interesting con-

jecture put forward,

The “accepted” tektite groups or swarms teferred to in this paper arc, in

the general order of their discovery: Moldavites (Moldavia), Bilivonites (Buti-

ton, etc, Fast Indies), Australites (Southern Australia aud Tasmania), Inide-

chinites (Indo-China), Rizalites (Philippine Islands), Javanites (Java), South

American icktites (Colombia), Ivory Coast tektites (Africa), and Bediasites

(Texas, U.S.A.). Thus each content has its share, and though there are

distinct differences between each group, the possibility of some overlap in south-

eastern Asia and the adjacent is!auds must not be overlooked. In the “Rocks

and Minerals Magazine,” September-Octoher 1949, there is Teference to green

and blue objects found in North Queensland hy H, HH. Batchelor, of Htghenden,

Queensland, and referred to by him as “Australian Tektites’ Mr, Batchetor

has kindly presented io me two of these so-called tektites. On examination I

classify thim as jaspetoid fragments, such as are found in many places on the

gibber plains of Australia, particularly on those formed om tlie Cretaceous rocks.

They reveul no signs of their being meltec| glass, as true tektites are, and there is

no indication whatever of the internal flow-line structure that is one of the most

striking characteristics of tektites, ,

* South Australian Museum,

Tras, Rov, Soc, S, Aust., 73, (1). 16 December 1949

Largely through the interest of Sir Douglas Mawson, a special etfort has

been made by the Board of the South Australian Musetum to bitild up as com-

prehensive a collection as possible of australites and other tektites in that institu-

tion. The collection now ntimbers over 18,000 (March 1949), ineludimg 17,323

australites, 440 foreign tektites, and 364 other silica glass uobjecis, and it was

considered worth while to describe the colection as a whole. One of the dangers

that besets public and private eollections of these curious objects is that they

tend to be dissipated by giits, loans and exchanges. For instance, the very fine

Shaw collection, purchased by the South Australian Museum (Ferner, 1934),

consisted originally af 3,920 pieces; it npw consists of only 3,370 pieces. The

larger and more tecently piirchased Kennetr collection (Fenner, 1940) as

originally deseribed contained 7,184 pieces, is now reduced to 7,155. It is

probable that less than 10 per cent. of collected specimens are in registered

collections, and maty of the latter are abraded, flaked or fragmentary.

The total number of australites that [ell on Southern Australia has been

estimated ag at least one million, and at most ten millions, spread over 2,000,000

square miles (Fenner, 1935, pp. 128-129).

GENERAL DETAILS OF THE SPECIMENS DEALT WITH

IN THLS PAPER

1, Australites, General Collection, 919 specimens.— This general collection

includes smaller collections by Mrs. Leggitt, J. E. Johnson, J. 1. Johnston,

A. Il. Warren, J. H. Nicholls, C. Fenner and other persons named in the

2. Australites, Florieton (Pent) Collection, 339 specimens. — These were

collected in an atea north of Morgan, S. Aust., under the supervision of

Sir Douglas Mawson,

3. Australites, Shaw Collection, 3,370 specimens, — These are from the

Nullarbor Plains and southern Western Australia. They have been described

in detail (Penner, 1934),

4, Atistralites, Kennett Culiection, 7,135 specimens —These are from a vast

area of Central Australia, centred around Charlotte Waters. They have

been described in detail (C. Penner, 1940).

5. Australites, Cook Collection, 5,186 specimens. — These ate from the Gold-

fields atea of Western Australia, centred around Kalgoorlie, W. Aust.

6. Australites, Warren Collection, 368 specimens.— These are from the area

surrounding Marree and Oodnadalia, South Australia.

Torat AustramtFs: 17,323 specimens.

7. Other tektites, Moldavite Collection, from Bohemia, etce., 89 specimens,

mainly from Prof. Slavik, Prague.

§. Other tektites, Bilhtonite Collection, Billiton Island, 1 specimen from

Dr. Shenton, F_.M,5,

9. Other tektites, Javan tektites, Java, 47 specimens, from Dr. G. yon Koenigs-

wald, Java.

10. Other tektites, Indo-chinite collection, Indo-china, 42 specimens, from Prof,

A. Lacroix, Paris,

11. Other tektites, Rizalites, etc., collection, Thilippine Islands, 212 specimens,

mainly fram Prof. Otley Beyer, P.I.

12. Other tektites, Bediasite Collection, Texas, U.S.A., 39 specimens, from Proi-

Virgil Barnes, Texas, and PW. W. Cassirer, Paris,

ToraL Oriner Textives: 430 specimens

13. Other natural silica glasses; Darwin Glass Collection, Tasmania, 29 speci-

mens (from Launceston Museum).

14, Other natural silica glasses, Libyan Glass Collection, Libya, 2 pieces (from

Dr, L, J. Spencer).

15. Other natural silica glasses, Impactite Collection, Arabia and Australia,

4 pices, Irom various sources.

Torat Orur:, Naruran Sittca GLasses: 35.

16. General related material, Straw Silica Glass, South Austraia, 11 pieces,

collected hy the author, Trinityive (atom-bomb silica glass ).

17. General -elated material, Sand-tube fulgurites, 115 pieces, separately de-

seribed (Fenner, 1949).

18. General elated material, Pseudo-tektites, smoke bombs from steam trains

and steai-boats, etc, (ref. 8) (Fenner, 1938), 200 pieces.

19, General related material, plaster casts of ausiralites [rom the Walter Howchin

collection, 103 pieces.

Tora Genesat Reatep Matertan: 429 pieces,

Granp Tota: op Preces Rerernen ro my rats Paver: 18,217.

PROPORTION OF VARIOUS AUSTRALITE SHAPES

Australis have been classified according to their various forms hy the

writer (Feun:t, 1934 and 1940) (refs. 4 and 6), and this classification has been

found to fit in with the various collections subsequently described. Nevertheless,

it must he renientbered that only a small proportion of australites found are quite

complete. ‘There are three outstanding reasons for this:

(a) All australites have passed through two phases; in the first phase the

glass. apparently cooled siowly. and that part is stable; the anterior portion, which

was melted a second time, appears to haye cooled rapidly and is very hable to

break or crack; in all forms execpt the medium aud small lenses this portion flakes

off (see Fenner, 1935, p. 131, and 1938. pp. 200-204). “This double melting does

not apply to any other tektites, as far as is known.

(b) In the wetter areas of the strewn field, many specimens were swept by

rain intu recent streams and have accordingly become somewhat waterworn ;

many of these were recovered fram gold-bearing and lin-bearing gravels.

part in the abrasion. Insolation and consequent fracture and flaking must also

be considered.

Round forms (flanged buttons and lenses) have been found ta be the most

abundant in all collections hitherto described. Elongate forms are second in

number, and there is a third group of unusual forms, mosily of small size.

Of 17,000 specimens taken at random in the South Australian Museum

collection, the following gives an idea of the proportion of the various best

known types; apart from a number of broken chips, anyone familiar with large

numbers of australites can readily detect the group to which a flaked or abraded

form belongs. Those called “indicators” were originally larger lenses or ovals,

with rims, the equatorial and anterior parts of which have flaked away, leaving

just enough of the original rim to “indicate” the shape of the form when it finally

cooled (Fenner, 1935, vide ref, 5). In the South Australian Museum collection

there are maty specimens in which this flaking has proceeded far but has nat

been completed, one in particular is a fine large flanged dumbbell, No. T, 512.

An analysis of these 17,000 selected forms

Round forms -

Elongate forms

Teardrops -

Rare forms

Unclassified

fragments

TABLE A

Flanged buttons, whole = - - - , 108

Flanged buttons, chipped - - - - 968

Flanged button fragments - - - - 397

Lenses, complete - - - - - 1914

Lenses, slightly chipped or abraded - 744

Lens cores, front and margins flaked off - 4147

Other round forms, partly broken - - 1505

Total common round forms: 9783

Ovals, broad - - - - - - $73

Ovals, narrow - - - - - - 674

Ovals, general - - - - - - 339

Boats - - - - - - - 600

Canoes - - - = + te is 146

Elongates, general = - - - - - 1514

Dumbbells, complete - - - - - 264

Dumbbells, broken = - - - - ~ 499

Ladles, and other unusual elongate forms - 115

Total common elongate forms: 4724

Teardrops, typical = - - - - - 331

Teardrops, unusual - - - - - 5

336

Pitted discs - - - - - - 5

“Spheres”, probably deep lens cores - - 9

Crinkly tops - - - - - ” 23

Helmets, trays and other small forms - 50

Pear-shape, ati asymmetrical dumbbell - 1

Flat-tops (special type of lenses) - = - 53

“Indicators” as elsewhere described - 74

Air-bombs - - - - - - 19

234

Australite fragments + - - - 1923

Grand Total: 17000

is given in the following table:

Percent- Percent-

ageof ageof

round total

forms collection

1-1 0-64

9-9 57

4-1 2-34

19+5 11-2

7-6 4+38

42-4 24-4

15-4 8-9

100-0 57-56

12-2 3°38

14-3 3:97?

7:2 2-0

12:7 3°52

3-1 0-86

32-1) §°9

5-5 1-55

10-6 2-94

2e4 0-68

100-0 27°8

98-6 1-95

1-4 0-03

100-0 1-98

214 0-03

3°85 0-05

9-83 0-14

21-42 0-30)

O-4 =

22:04 Qed

31°62 0-43

8-1 O-d1

100-0 1-37

11-3

100-0

An interesting comparison may be drawn from the three largest collections

that have bven classified according to shape, namely, the Shaw Collection

(Fenner 1934, ref. 4), the Kennett Collection (Menner 1940, ref. 6), and the

South Australian Museum Collection, which includes the Shaw and Kennett

Coltections, plus more than 7,000 additional specimens. The conclusion may be

drawn that the various types shown in the following table occur throughout the

strewn-field in about the same proportions. The absence of “tare and unusual

forms” from the Shaw Collection may be due to the inexperience of the writer

at that time, for many of the figured Shaw specimens (Tenner, 1934, ref. 4) would

otherwise have been included in that group:

Tanie B

Shaw Wennett 5.4, Museum

1, Round forms - - + 1369 3935 9783

2. Wlonpgute forms - - - 400) 1140 4724

3. “feardrops - - - - 134 62 336

4. Rare forms - - - not clagsificd 102 234

5, WJnelassified fragments - - 1927 1943 1923

Total forms cousidered - 3920 7182 17000

There is anotlicr group of collectors about which fittle has been written.

These are the native birds that wander over the tektite-sprinkled area, particularly

emus and “plain turkeys’. So niany aitstralites were fotund in the crops and

gizzards of emus that in earlier years the popular name given to australites by

the people of the Outback was “emu-stones’, a tame which still persists here

and there. The Australian Bustard or Plain Turkey (Eupodolis australis) was

also a collector. Somewhere about 1940 or earlier one of these birds was shot and

dressed by Mr, M. Kirkham, as seen and attested ta hy Mr. H. McDonald, of

Port Augusta, South Australia. There were 49 australites and two other black

stumes in the crop of the bird. The author has one specinjen irom this collection

and a photograph of 41 others. Seven were retained as souvenirs by members

of the party. The total weight of the specimiens was 44 ounces. Of these 42,

round forms were in the majority, as follows: 31 rounds, 6 elongates, 1 probable

teardrop, 1 unusual form, and 3 iragments, This collection was, of coiirse, a

specially Selected] one, but it indicates the abundance of australites among the rock

fragments of the salt-bush and mulga plains, and the predominance of round

forms.

The largest and least abundant of the round forms are those called

“bungs”, 2-1 co 4:2 em. major diameter, 1°6 to 3°35 cm. minor diameter. Next in

size and ahyiudance are the “small cores”, originally lenses as were the bungs,

1:6 ct, to 2.3 cm, major diameter, 1-1 cm. to 1°7 em. minor diameter, The

beantitul and interesting group called “flanged buttons” cluster in the small range

of 1-3 cm. to 1:9 cm. inajor diameter, ‘7 cm. to 1°1 em. minor diameter. The

most alundant in numbers, and those which most comtnonly retain an unbroken

shape, are the lenses, which are also the smallest of the round forms, -6 em. te

16 cm. major diameter, -3 cm. to 1:0 em. minor diameter, In weight, the

smallest lenses arc less than -3 prams, and the Jargest bung is over 100 grams.

‘The measurements and weighis shown in the foregoing paragraph and

the graph (Fenner 1938, ref, 8, pp. 199-202) were dong in 1938 on a selected re-

presentative series of VLU unbroken shapes, An application of these conclusions to

the whole of the round specimens, over 9,000, in the South Anstrahan Museum

Collection, confirms the sizes and relative abundance of these types in a large

and comprehensive collection, +\ careful examination, without individual

ieasurements, of the ovals, boats, lenses, fanged buttons, canocs, dumbbells and

teardrops in the South Australian Museum collection also suggesis strongly that

the variations in size and weight of the clongate types are in a practically similar

proportion, There are very large, vety smal, and intermediate types of lenses.

nvals, bouts, dumbbells, and teardrups, though there appear to he fewer very large

canoes, end fewer very small teardrops,

Lt will be uferstood thit rhe observations ulade and thre colelisigns reached

in this paper are specially based a the 18,217 specimens in the South Austrahan

Museum, but sot without consideration of the collections in other Australian,

Furopean, British and Americaty Maseuins,

OTHER NATURAL SILICA GLASSES

Passing reference should be maze to the other natural silica glasses in the

South Australian Museum Collection.

Darwin Glass—This has commouly been accepted as a Lektite, but it presents

peculiar differences of composition, form and distribution, Lt oceturs within the

‘Australite strewnfeld, but is limited to Mount Darwin, in North-west Tasmania.

It consists of light-green, shapeless, small masses of flung glass. There is no

evidence that itis an impactite and if oceurs much more abundantly than impac-

tites do, and there is no sign of a crater, I has distinct differences [rom tektites

(Fenner 1940, ref. 6), and though: it may he of cosmic ofigim it presents mary

difficulties of inclusion among’ the tektites so far as our present knowledge goes.

Libyan Glass—This has been fully described by Dr. L. J. Spencer, who

visited the area and collected much material. Dr. Spencer docs not consider it a

tektitt. It appears iudeed to present a more puzzling problem tham the accepred

tektites. Its coriposition is much more siliceous and its shapes quite ditferent

from those of tektites. Its distribution suggests a cosmic origin, but there appears

tu be oo other fellowship with the tektites.

Tmpactites—These are usually Fused country rock found in or m= close

association with meteorite craters. Some microscopic forms figured by Spencer

have the shapes of some tektites. There is no doubt of their origin either al

Wabar, Henbury, or elsewhere. But their numbers and distribution show them

to have uo bearing on the origin of the vast tektite swarms found in olher parts

of the world.

Straw Silica Glass—This is fund where haystacks or strawstacks have

been burnt. ‘The silica of the straw accumulates in shapeless masses. Analyses

sliows a high goda-potash eontent, ‘There is uo doubt of their origin (Fenner 1940,

ref. 6), and they are mentioned only because they are included in the collection.

Sandtube Fulgurites—Associated with these are rock-face fiilgurites, They

are due to lightning and occur where sands or rocks are struck by lightning.

Their forms are interesting, and their compositions ate those of the rocks or

sands affected. There is no evidetice of their relation to tektites (Penner 1949),

Smuke Botnbs—These are small siliccous. forms, mostly spherical, but also

with many dumbbell and teardrop forms, They ure “coughed” up irom the

farinels of steamtrains or steamships and may be found by careful looking oi

railway tarpaulins and along beaches wherever steamships oy steattrains ply-

They are the product of the silica content of steam coal and are uf microscopic

size. There is no doubt of their origin, and they have becn adequately described

and figured (lenner 1938, ref 8).

Pseudo-T'ektites—In evety collection examined by the author there has been

a number of specimens which Took like tektites but which are waterworn pieces

of lydianite or iroustone, or other curiously shaped gevlogical ar niitieralogical

specimens, Their origin is undoubted, and they are of no apecral interest except

that they persistently occur, even when the colfectors have been as keetr anc

observant as awe the aboriginal folk of Australia.

‘Trinityite--This is the name given to the silica plass forimed on the desert

sorface from the melt produced by the firing of the first test atom bomb near

Alamogordo, New Mexico. Several small specimens were presented by Lincoln

La Paz, Direvtor of the Institute of Meteorites, Albuquerque, New Mexico, To

bring the col ection up to date, the Director nf the South Australian Museum,

Mr. H. M, Hale, has. receives! from the Officer Commanding the british Com-

monwealth Occupational Forces in Japan samples of Silica glass that resulted

from the fusion of tiles and building stones by the atom-bomtb at Hiroshima,

Taster wasts—The casts of the Mowehin collection prove ta be qunte

typical, excep: that ane specimen has a very large central burst gas bubkic. The

original How:hin collection, with a large number of other fine specinens, ts in

the Tate Museum of the University of Adelaide,

DISTRIBUTION OF AUSTRALLTES

E J. Duan published a map in 1912, showing 70 spots where one or mahy

australites had been found. Dr, Thorp, in 1914, showed 85 locality spots,

Using these two maps and nmch subsequent information (Henner 1935,

ref. 5, pp. 134, ete.) the writer published a map showing about 300 spots or

lucalities, but with many spaces where it would appear that none had heen found.

Since then, from an exanunation of thousands more specimens, and frome informa-

tion received, it would appear that there are few, if any, spaces south of the line

drawn on the 1935 map where no australites have been found. ‘This limitation

is of special interest.

With some hesitation the idea is put forward that there are many areas

where australites are more abundant. such as Walgoorlie; Charlotte Waters,

Nullarbor Pliins, Lake Eyre and district, Yorke Peninsula, Floricion, South

Australia; Western Vietoria y Northern Tasmania; Port Campbell ( Victoria); and

the goldfields of eastern New South Wales. On the other hand, collecting may

have been easier or more carefully carricd out in these areas. y

Tt is ctirious that the large collection made by Sergeant Nennett

should consist of specimens so much larger than the average (x7 in some groups)

of those collected by W. H. C. Cook mostly on the southern Nullarbor Plains:

Yet large specimens, as well as very small, are found everywhere within the

strewnlield. From the South Australian Museum collection one geis the idea

that the very largest are found in the north and north-west areas, bnt this cannot

be proven, for the very large ones of other more populated localities may have

been retained as souvenirs or curiosities by the finders,

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF TEKTITES

A large aumber of chemical compositions is available, as set out in Sum

mers (Summers 1908; Barnes 1940) and several others, such as Suess, Lacroix

and Michel. Summers, earlier, and Barnes, later, haye graphed these various

analyses jn a number of informative ways. The definite facts that emerge [ram

these analyses is that the recognised ltektite swarms are very similar 10 each other

within that swattn, and that differences oceur between the characters of one

swarin and those of another, There may be discerned considerable differences

between the accepted tektites and such glasses as Libyan Glass and Darwin Glass.

Also there may be some overlap within the four groups that occur m South-east

Asia, the Biililonites, Indo-chinites, Philippine Island tektites, and the Java tek-

tites; this has never been suggested or proved, Specific gravity and refractive

index comparisons do not contradict these findings. Summers held a belief,

founded on a small number of analyses, that australites increased in density

towards the west, and Baker and Forster suggested (1943) “that the extra-

terrestrial body from which the australites were shed travelled from north of west

to the south of east across the Australian continent, since the specific gravity

values of atistralites decrease from north of west to south of east.’" That means,

and it is a point of importance, the australite swarm travelled with the rotation

af the earth. The writer has nothing to add to the excellent and comprehensive

work done by Barnes (1940) and others concerning the chemical composition of

tektites and related bodies,

RADIOACTIVITY OF TERTITES

In 1933, V. S. Dubey (Nature, 28 October 1933, p. 678) determined the

radioactivity of several silica glasses, mostly tektites, He concluded that, apart

from Darwin Glass, there was a significant correspondence in radioactivity,

measured in radium and thorium per gram. His results were:

Ra x i9-¢ Th «i0-*

per grain per gram

1. Moldavite - - - - - 1-07 1-08

2. Moldavite (Habri) - - - 1-02 1:60

3. Moldavite (Probsch) - - - 0-78 1°40

4. Maldavite (Radomolice) - - 0-99 1:86

5. Billitonite - - - - - 0-96 0-96

6. Anstralite (Lake Fyre) - - 0-96 0-50

7. Australite (Victoria) - - - 0-85 1-84

8. Darwin Glass (Tastnania) = - - G50 1-13

9 Glass (old beads) - - - - 0-48 —

Facilities were not available to carry out a radioactive comparison tn

the terms of this iable, but excellent instruments were at hand to make a

comparison in terms of beta particles, using whole specimens, and the restilt

is set oul in the following report. The results cover a wider range than

those af Dubey, and are somewhat similar except so far as Darwin Glass is

concerned. Though the radioactivity in terms of beta particles is m general

low, Libyan Glass is practically non-radioactive, The report by W. G. Fen-

ner is as follows:

“The examinations were carried out using a beta-particle counting tuhe,

totally enclosed, plus specimen, in a lead-chamber. The background count

was obtained in three separate runs of ten minutes each, distributed through-

out the examinations, and was consistently within the expected random

distribttion.

“Because of limited time, and as it was not permissible to break or

crush the specimens, several major causes exist for discrepancies and for

some lack of consistency, and make it impossible ta take the figures at

their face value. These causes are:

"(i) Differences in geometry of the various tektites with rospect to

the Geiger-Muller tubu

“(i) Possible variation in distribution of the radio-active material

through the different specimens,

“(iii) Varying densities between specimens and within cach specimen.

No allowance hag been made for absorption.

“The different weights of the specimens used is of little importance

compared with the above irregularities.

“Despite these drawbacks, however, it secms reasonable, on the actual

results, to assign a general order of degree of radioactivity. More specimens,

and proper control, are required to confirm this.

TABLe C

“Column 1 gives the weight in grams; column 2 gives the count per

mimite; column 3 gives the duration of the test in minutes; column 4 gives

the excess coint per minute for each specimen or group of specimens.

1 Z 3 4

Reg. No, Locality Background a 79 30 0-0

T. 806 Libya, Africa One picce of sand-polished 15°0 92 10 1-3

Libyan Glass

T,899 Vexas, U,S.A. Two Bediasites 418-6 10-0 10 2-1

T, 424 N.W. Tasmania [our pieces of Darwin Glass 10-7 11-0 10 3]

T. 264 Cential Australia Two medium lens core Atis- 62:5 10:7 10 2-3

T. 266 tralites

T. 283 Cental Australia Two large narrow oval Aus- 73-5 12-3 10 4-4

tralites

T. 692 Indo-China Large fragment of Indechinite 72-2 10 10 2:9

T. 685 Indo-China Large fragment of Indocliinite 30-4 12:3 10 4-4

T. 708 Philippine Three meditim Rizalites 21-2 10 36

Islands

T. 857 Philippine Two large regular Rizalites 78:5 12-0 10 4-1

T. 860 Tslands

T. 885 Lhatiice "Three Moldavites 172 13-2 20 5-3

Bohemia

T. 821 Te Wairoa, Large piece of volcanic obsidian 56-4 15°7 30 7°38

New Zealand

Taste D

“Extracting certain of the above and combining them we get the follaw-

ing results: the numbers at the heads of the columns have the same signifi-

cance as in the preceding table.

2 3 4

T. 424 } Nth.-West Darwin Glass 11:0 10 3-1 Darwin Glass count

Tasmania

T. 264 Central Australites 1-5 200 36 Australite mean count

T. 266 Australia

T. 283

1.685 |) Indo-China Indochinites 11-6 20 3-7 Indochinite mean count

T. 692 I

T. 708 Rizalites. 11-8 20 3-9 Rizalite mean count

T. 857

T, 860

Pailippine

Islands

“Conclusions— From these results there would appear to be a radio-

active similarity between Darwin Glass, Australites, Indochinites, and Riza-

lites. It would he of interest to compare their overall chemical compositions,

particularly the rarer elements.

Libyan Glass is lacking in any positive radioactivity while the volewnis

obsidian is positively radioactive ta the greatest degree of the specimens

tested: all others lic between these extremes, It must be remembered huow-

eyer that even the volcanic obsidian hay but a minnte trace wi radioactive

material present; it must also be rermembered that in each cause the material

iu a portion of the surface layer of about 1 mm, thick only has been Sulyeet

to examination, due to the softness of the beta particles. Assuming it to be

aranium in equilibrium, that present in the obsidian is certainly Jess than

D039 U,O,. Many igneous rocks of the earth's surfice haye the sine

and greater orders of radioactivity.”

No spectroscopical analyses were available for inclusion. bul my atrenlion

has been drawn to a separately published paper hy Ekkehard Preuss, ot Jena.

Although not mentioned in the bibliographies quoted, this is a thorough and

yalnable contribution to the tcktite problem. Incidentally, Preuss mentions Borneo

tektites, which were to be expected but had not previously been reported.

SHAPES AND STRUCTURES OF AUSTRALITES

Australites have the most tegular shapes of all the tektites, and a= most

af these shapes have been dealt with and figured fairly abundantly uy vurivus

authors, little comment is necessary except to say that the greater the uum

ber af specimens examined, the more remarkable appears the vegularity of

the forms. Professor Skeats wrote about two unusual types, the ‘ise and

the “pineseed” and Gearge Baker (ref. 1946) figured several special forms.

Two of these (13 and 14) are abraded elongate indicators, and several of the

others are variants of the teardrop form: there is always wt good deal of

variety in thix group. The most interesting are Agures 3A and 3B. In the

larger S.A. Museum collection there are about 50 such forms. They are

all very small and very complete. The writer has called them helmets, tritys,

scoops, ete. Mr. Baker calls the ones he figures “howls,” which tsa yery ap-

propriate name for what have elsewhere been called “helmets”’ (n Fenster

1940, plate XIX, several of these small forms are figured,

Before passing on to a brief comment concerning the shapes und struc

tures of other tektites, mention should be made of a very Ineniitiftal tuned an

formative series of photographs of sections, especially of Manged buttuns.

published by George Baker (Baker 1944, plates I, U1, I11). Ina plonge inte

the theary of the evolution of round forms (ref. 8) the author drew a dia-

grain (fig. 2) and graphs (figs. 1 and 3), to illustrate his ideas, IL ts of much

interest ta find the very definite (Beeke linc effect) internal How structure

just as wauld have heen expected on the basis of the two phase (twire-

melted) theory of origin, Other tektite forms show equally definite internal

flaw lines, but no signs of two meltings,

Apart from flanges; which mostly occur on buttons of the sizes already

ctated. bul whieh also oceasionally but rarely eccur on ovals, dumbbells,

ladles, and So on, there is little notable or characteristic external markings,

‘Abrasion is common, but erosion grooves are rare; the most notable of these

erosion grooves which resemble arabic writing, and im some cases ennelfunn

markings, which are generally considered ty be evidence of lomg berial in

moist earth, are seen on those from the moister parts of the strewnheld.

The curious and obviously incorrect belief that australites are still falling

ig held hy a few people, who are unfamiliar with wall-known facts about tek-

lite strewnfields (Fenner 1935, pp. 148-139).

Other interesting exterior features ure the flow lines visilile an the un-

rerior surfaces of many farms, Ue pitting of the posterior surfaces mainly

due to small barst gas bubbles, and the spiral or cincentrie flow-ridges that

occur on the anterior surfaces of flanges, Jenses, ovals, ete Such markings

are ubsent from flaked lenses or oval cores,

Baker infers that australites with anterior concentric. Ayw ridges did not

rotate in dlight; if this is true, the whole qtestion of fornr as evidence of ori-

ain must be reconsidered. Practically every australilte, except very smalt

forms has, or had, anterior ow ridges, here is a remarkabie and conyincing

example of a fairly large flanged dumbbell indicator (No. T.512) im the South

Australian Museum collection, as already mentioned.

SHAPES AND EXTERIOR SURTACES OF OTUER TEKTITES

Moldaviles have structures and heatty of colour found im no other tek-

tites. A striking shape ig a flattish, dise-like, radially ridged rosette, Many

are vesicular, som¢ appear to be considerably corroded, the greater number

are practically shapeless, many are sharply broken across at right angles to

the axis, sonie are tear-drops of a Jong and special type. The genera] charac-

ier of the surfaces, with their wrinkles, grooves, and pits, is very charac-

teristic. Im a large collection, as in that at Prague, one may detect groups

or types, bur not in any way comparable with the regularity and symmetry

uf ausiralites. Moldavites are possibly the oldest, as well as the first known

of the tektites,

Indo-chinites are extremely abundant, and in Professor Vacroix’ museum

in Paris there may be scen the greatest part of the largest known tektite,

as well as a remarkably fine collection of indochinites generally. The suriace

is usually rough and vesicular. Beautifully round flat ovals oceur, alsu large

teardrop forms. The surface structure is of great variety, as figured by Lar-

roix (1935), Surface corrosion is ef much importance on the Inde-chinices,

ag it is on the Moldayites, but it is not nearly so general nor so important

on the Anstrilites and the other tektite groups.

The Billitonites, of which the writer has examined only the British

Museum collection and one ‘specimen in Adelaide, do mot reveal so much

character as other groups. The Adelaide specimen is a flat oval, with bubble

qats and possible corrosian marks, Although there may be some oyerlap

between the Billitonites, Javan tektites, Indochinites, and Rizalites (PI.), yet

in the well formed specimens they can be detected one from the other. All

are shiay and pitchblack, with many forms approximating to spheres, orals,

lenses and an secusional dumbbell. But the surface markings described and

figured by Lacroix, Barnes, Beyer, Flodge-Smith, and von Koenigswald and

those in the SA. Museum collection show distinct differences.

The writer has handled specimens from the Ivory Coast and from

Colombia, but has not considered them closely enough to justify comment.

They are black, glassy blobs, quite foreign to the places where they were

found. On chemical and physical tharacters they have been accepted by

several leading European authnrities. On this evidence we also may Certa-

tively accept them as tektites until such time as material is available for com-

parison and enquiry.

The latest group of tektites, the Bediasites, has been well described and

figured by Virgil Barnes (1940). They are black, like all other tektiles except

Moaldavives, and while many of the shapes approximate to flat rounds, ovals,

rounded cylinders, and teardrops, many are shapeless and fragmentary... Many

also have very deep U-shaped and V-shaped grooves. Though black. they

have a light purple tinge, but are green jn transmitted licht, Both externally

and in section, as well as in chemical composition and in distribution, they

may well be accepted as ltrue tektites. Barnes did not regard them as costnic

objects, but suggested a possible lightning origin. This, wrote Barnes, was

an effort “to create enough interest to catise the investigation of all the ter-

restrial possibilities before accepting the metearitie arigm with all its un-

proven aud unprovable postulates.’’ In response to this the writer has pub-

lished a paper (Fenner (949) on lightning-formed silica glass tuhes. The

anpreven and unprovable postulates to a terrestrial origin for tektites have

Leen closely considered and rejected by many high and competent au-

thorities.

Two groups, Libyan Glass and Darwin Glass, are so different in many

ways fram accepted icktites that they are not considered in this paper. If

the origin of tektites constitutes an cnigma, as has 50 often been stated, there

are faets associated with Darwin Glass and Libyan Glass that are even more

puzzling. Tinpactites are not considered, also, but for the very definite rea-

sous that their origins and ilixtribution are su clear and indisputable; they

are not Lektites,

Yhe first people to collect and name australites were the Ausivalian

aharigines. Ly these folk they were carried as curiosities, and also as objects

of mystery and magic, as shown by the collection that had been thus tised,

now displayed in the British Musenm at Bloomsbury. The aborigines called

them ly various names meaning “staring eyes” or “emu eyes."

N. BG. Tindale, ethnologist of the South Australian Museum, has poinled

out (hatin some cases aborigines made small implements from this obsidian

materitl, but so far as is known none was made from the larger specimens.

It js significant that all such implements as are known, from the Broken

Hill and Yorke Peninsula aveas, first appear in the Mudukian culture, This

is the latest but one of the aboriginal ctillure sequences and lends support

to the fact, indicated by all other available evidence, that the fall of the aus-

tralite swarm was a comparatively recent occurrence.

Different tektite swarms are of different ages, but the australites appear

to have been one of the last to occur.

Concerning the age of the australite fall, all the evidence is that this was a

quite recent occurrence, though before the coming of the white men and probably

alsa belore the coming of the aborigines. Practically all forms are lying on the

surface of the rocks, or if buried they are under blown sand or shaliow recent

alluvilinn, Early in 1949, Motinted-constabic Homes, then slationed at Marree,

qiekecd up a “pickle-bottle full’ of typical australites on the dry flat surface of

vasieru lake Myre. This area is a salt-pati ar playa, covered by shallow water only

dt times of exceptional fladds, Constable Homes’s find thts provides additional

eviderice of the recent origin of the australite swarm.

In “Nature,” 50, 1894, pp. 184 and 206, Dr, Cater Sir) Edward Sticling

described in detail the finding of skeletons of the giant extinct bird Genyornis

newlant, at Lake Callabonna, South Australia, Associated with the skeletons,

whieh were practically on the surface of the “lake.* were numerous “gizzard

stones," totalling in weight 14 ounces. All these stones were of materials com-

mon to the desert plains of the interior; but, thotigh carefully examined and

recoride:|, include nothing resembling obsidian or australite tnaterial,

The area where Genyornis lived was well within the australite strewn-field,

and living birds (emus, plain turkeys, etc.) are well known, for their selection of

ausiralives as gizzard stones. frewyornis was of yery late Meistocene to Recent

age, 50 that we have here another tem of evidetice stigeesting that the fall of the

australites was post-Genyornis; that ia, ta Has been concluded from other avail-

able evidence, “geologically recent but historically remote,”

TINAT. CONSIDERATIONS

There ig no need to include a bibliography, except where spect! re-

ference has been made in this paper, as excellent lists haye been included

in the publications referred to, the best and latest being that of Virgil Barnes

(1940) where he lists about 250 references. Through all this hterature the

“problem” remains, as it does in subsequent publications. The theories put

forward muy be classified as terrestrial voleanic, meteorite impaci, lunar

yoleanic, eluctrical, and tneteoritic,

The exponents of terrestrial origin have shown mastetly ingenuity in their

theories: Every conceivable possibility has been explored in the effort to avoid

acceptance uf a cosmic theory, But three facts might be noted in this matter:

(1) Robert Hooke (1665) quoted by Spencer (1937) discredited the fall of

iron meteorites from the sky. Fourcrey (and Biot?) in 1803, quoted by Paneth

(1940), found difficilty in persuading their French colleagues of the authen-

ticity of slune tneteorites.

(2) Most modern authorities who are familiar with the numbers and

conditions of distribution of tektites (such as Lacroix, Suess, Michel, Paneth,

Beyer, von Konigswald, as well as #l) Australian workers for the past 30

years) have accepted tektites as “ylass meteorites.” Virgil Barnes ix ap-

parently an exception.

(3) Lightning, meteoritie impact, and lunar theories (except thal of

H, H. Nininger) would not account for distribution. Lightning and dust

storms oucur all over the world, but tektites occur only in special areas and

with definitely distinct form and distribution. Meteoritic impact is too weak

ah agent to have done the work, except for the few small impactites re

corded from Wabar and Henbury.

Tektites, like meteorites, haye not been found in ancient geoluginal sys-

tems, Doubtless they fell, and possibly they have devitrified, just as the

ancient iran-nickel and stony meteorites have less slowly rusted away.

The bibliography of tektites shows several interesting variations (f the

cosmic theory, A most interesting paper by Hardcastle (1926) should not

be overlooked; his paper embodies his theory in its sub-title: “Plastic sweep-

ings of a meteorite.” Forty years or so ago most Australian workers thought

of tektites as a swarm of glass blobs, part of the solar system, arriving upon

the earth, Michel, Suess, Lacroix, and others brought in the idea of a hight-

metal meteorite, shedding its silica content as it blazed across the skys this

is a modification of Hardeastle’s theory, who thought oniy of stany meteca-

rites, all of which have siliceous “skins,” and some of which may haye shed

siliceaus blohs,

Now, Fl, AH. Nininger, in a booklet entitled “Chips from the Maori,”

(1940) puts forward the idea that the tektite swarms were formed by the

impact of huge meteorites on the loose “hanite’’ chips of the moon, sending

off showers, some of which reached the earth. Dr. Nininger does the writer

the honour of saying that the cosmic theary advocated by this authar wauld,

if true. explain the presence of the australites, with similar occurrences @x-

plaining the presence of tektites in other parts of the world. The writer

can doa no less than admic that Dr Niniger’s complicated and ingenious

theory would, if teue, also explain the same puzzling facts.

But Lincoln La Daz writes of the “Chips from the Moon” theory (Popu

lar Astronomy, No, 5, May, 141, p. 267), as follows: “Jf the lunar craters

were known to be due to the impact of meteorites, and if such impacts on

the surface of our satellite were known to produce molten misses, from

which bodies with the chemical composition of the tektites could be derived,

and to impart to these masses velocities sufficient to enable them to escape

from the attraction of the Moon, and if certain other essential conditions

were known to be fulfilled, then Nininger’s conjecture, ot his own words,

“might indeed afford a very handy salution to many battling problems.”

On the other hand, Lia Paz himself (Abstracts Geological Society of

America, 1940, p. 1919) leans definitely ta the lightning hypothesis. To the

writer, who bas written on lightning-aused racks and sands as well as oti

tektites, this appears as a theery whieh is not only unsupported by evidence,

but is quite beyond belief, Consider the australites alone, which occur almost

everywhere over 2,000,000 square miles of southern Australia, south of a

line going from 5.1L. to N.W., in a land where heavy duststorms and electri-

cal sterms occur with at least equal frequency over the northern areas. Why

should such storms always form one kind of object, in form and composition

in the south, and never produce any such forms in the north?

The writer falls back on Pateth’s comprehensive paper on “The Origin

of Meteorites” and retains the theory of the Cosmic Origin af Tektites, re-

calling the sapient words of de Fourcroy (1940, p. 6): “By climinating the

absurd or impossible, one finds oneself compelled ta adopt what would pre-

viously have appeared to be almast incredible.” Paneth’s authoritative paper

is especially recommended to sceptics of the casmic theory.

One may be pardoned, perhaps, for quoting oneself (C.F. 1940, p, 324):

"The present job before students (of tektites), it seems to me, is tentatively

to accept tektites on the (well-enown and accepted) evidetice of distribution,

form, composition, ete., us being wlass meteorites, and to «devote atiention

to a study of the details of their possible derivation (within the solur system),

so far as this may be revealed by physical examination and facts of dlistri-

bution,” In this way may be added something to “the camplete story of the

origin of meteorites,” and to a wider knowledge of the solar system itself.

Tlarrison Brown (1948) suggests that “in meteorites scientists possess

a Rosetta stone that may well prove to be a major key in answering’ some

of the problems of the solar system. and perhaps of the Universe itself.

Brown makes no mention of tektites, but indicates that the earth’s compo-

sition 15 probably equivalent to the mean composition of meteoritic or plane-

tary matter. In this, the highly siliceous tektite swarms may well find their

place,

Careful consideration of the South Ausiralian Museum collection of

tektites has strengthened the cosmic theory of the crigin of tektites. All the

available evidence tetids to confirm the opinion that tektites are of extra-terrestrial

origin,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are due for assistance given by the South Australian Museum Board,

W. R. Riedel, W, G, Fenner, and Miss Helen Moody.

1 Watcorr, R. H. 1898 “The occurrence of so-called Obsidian Bombs in

Australia,” Proc, Roy. Soe. Vict, 11 (ns), {1}, 25-53, with plates

and analyses.

2 Basnes, Vircww E. 1940 “North American Tektites." Univ, of Texas

Publication 3945, 477-583, with plates and analyses,

Darwin, CHartes 1844 “Geological Observation on Volcanic Islands.”

London, 44, (p. 38, 2nd ed., 1876), with figure,

Fenner, C. 1934 “Australites, Part I. Classification of the W. H. C.

Shaw Collection.” Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust. 52, 62-79, with plates

and figs.

Fenner, C. 1935 “Australites, Part Il, Numbers, fornis, disiribution

anil origin.” Trans, Roy. Soc. 5, Aust., 59, 125-140, with maps and figs.

Fenxex, C. 1940 “Australites, Part IV. The John Wennett Collection,

wich notes on Darwin Glass, Bediasites, etc.” Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,

64, (2), 305-324, with plate and figure.

Fensus, C, 1949 “Sandtube Fulgurites, and their bearing on the Tektite

problem.” Reeords Sth. Aust. Mus., with plates and figure, 9, No. 2.

Fenner, C. 1938 “Australites, Part 1. A contribution to the problem

of the origin of Tektites.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, (2), 192-216,

with plates and figures.

Summers, H. S. 1908. “‘Obsidianites, their origin from the Chemical

Standpoint.” Proc. Roy. Soc. Viet. 21 (ms.), (11), 423-443, with

analyses.

Baxre Geonce, 1946 “Some utvisizal shapes and features of Australites

(Tektites)”, Mem. Nat. Mus., Mclb., 14, (2), with plates.

Baker, Grorck 1944 “Flanges of Australites.” Mem, Nat. Mus,, Melb,

14, (1), with plates and figures.

Lacro.x, Arperr 1933 “Les Tektites de 1’ Indo-chine et de ses abords et

celles de la Cote d'Ivoire.” Archives du museum d’histoire naturelle,

Puris, vol, du Tricenteniare, Tom XII, 151-170, with plates.

Spencer, L. J. 1937 “Meteorites and the Craters on the Moon.” Nature,

139, 655, 17 April 1937.

Paneru, KF. A, 1940 “The Origin of Meteorites.” Halley Lecture, 16 May

1940, Clarendon Press, Oxford, with plate.

Harncastur, H. 1926 “The Origin of Australites: Plastic Sweepings of

a Meteorite.” N.Z. Journ, of Sci, and Tech., 8, No. 2, 62-75,

Nisixcer, H. H, 1940 “Moon as a Source of Tektites.” Geol. Soc. of

Am. Bull., 51, Abstracts, p. 1936; also booklet, “Chips from the Moon,”

Surss, Franz Ep, 1932 “Zur Beleuchtung des Meteoritenproblems.” Mit-

teil. der Geol. Gesellsch, in Wien,” Band XXV, 115-143, with figure

and analyses.

Brown, Harrison 1948 “Meteorites, relative Abundances, and Planet

Structures.” Scientific Monthly, U.S.A., 67, No, 6, Dec, 1948,

Preuss, EKKEHARD 1935 “Spektralanalylische Untersuchung der Tektite.”

Published at Jena, Mineralogical Institute, with Plates.

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER

MOLLUSCS PART III

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND L. MADELINE ANGEL

Summary

Cercaria beckwithae n. sp. On 27 October 1948, 6 of 49 Planorbis isingis collected from a small

artificial rock pool in the garden of Mr. G. Jaensch, Tailem Bend, were found to be giving off stylet

cercariae of a type of not previously encountered by us. This pool is fed with water pumped from

the neighbouring swamps, being filled up approximately once per fortnight during the summer

months. It is several years since snails were introduced into the pool by Mr. Jaensch, and as the life

span of Panorbis isingi appears to be under two years, it follows that infection of the snails must

have occurred in the pond itself.

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

PART XIII

By T. Harvey Jounsron and L. Mave.mve Anoun*

[Read 12 May 194]

Cercaria beckwithae n. sp.

On 27 October 1948, G of 49 Plahorbis tsingi coliected [rom a small artificial

rock pool in the garden of Mr. G, Jaensch, Tailem tend, were found to be giving

off stylet cercariae of a type not previously encountered by us. This pool is fed

with water pumped from the neighbouring swamps, being filled up approximately

once per fortnight during the summer months. Tt is several years since snails

were introduced into the pool by Mr. Jaensch, and as the life span of Penorbis

ising? appears ta be under two years, it follows that infection of the snails must

have occurred in the pond itself.

Vrom 27 October 1948 to 24 January 1949 C. beckwithae has been identified

from 16 of 403 snails—approximately a 490 infection. It was not present in any

of 431 Planorbis cotlected from the same pond at the end of February 1949, Ht ts

of interest that the only other kind of gastropod present in the pond, imerianni

sp., is evidently not a snitable hust for this cerearia since none of these snails

was tound infected with it. This cercaria has not been found in Planorbis

collected from the swamps along the lower River Murray. As will be discussed

later, we expect to find that the adult is a frog lung fluke and experituents ta

ascertain the life history will be continued. That the infection was not an

isolated case is indicated by the following facts:—(1) that of 69 Planorbis col-

lected on 30 November 1948 and apparently negative when tested then, and agaitl

a week later, one was found to he giving C. beckwithae when next tested on

23 December; (2) that the one Plusiorbis which was positive from among 180

collected ot: 24 January 1949, wag not quite half-grown, ‘his iatler must cer

tainly haye been extremely siiall when the original infection Cound hy us hail

taken place, and would have been unlikely to survive at infection at that stage.

Tue Crrcaria

The cerearia is small, an average of 20 specimens fixed iu boiling 106 farma-

lin in the standard manner being 1652 by 100 wide. The range (105p by 105).

to 240» by 862) is considerable, because some cercariae are fixed in ereathy

extended positian, while others are completely contracted, The tail averaged

162m by 324; range 1126 by 30% to 202” by 37%. The oral sucker averazed 47p

long by 4 wine, while the aceialmlum was 296 hy 32,, giving an approximate

sucker ratio of 5:3. The acetabulum les in the posterior half uf the body, The

stylet is rather delicate in appearances length 322; width at base 5*3n; width at

tim, formed approxinmtely at (he end pf tie anterior third, AD. The tail is

inserted on the ventral surface of the body and is provided with a tramsparent fn-

fold dorso-ventrally placed and extending a very little distance around the tip on

the dorsal side, but for about a third of the length of the tai! on the ventral

* University of Adelaide,

In this regard we nuay state that observations on xiphidiacercariue examined il

this department corroborate the observation of Brooks (1943) that he bas bean “impressed

with the uniformity of the dimensiuns of the stylets of various species" aud believes that

“greater use can be made both of the shane at Jength of the stylet in describing anil

identifying cercarjac of this groupe’ Further, the size of the stylet in pot altered hy

prolonged jiimuersion in Vormaliy, aa we have yerifed with at least {wo kinds of

stihitlorercarlie,

Veons, Roy. SanS. Auer, 71), 6 December 1949

(fig. 5). When the tail is at rest, the flange is fluted, Under coverslip pressure,

the tail tends ta keel over to give the appearance of a laterally placed flange. The

tail stains blue with nile bluc sulphate but is uncoloured with neutral red,

The body is fairly clear; there are no coloured refractile granules as are scen

in many xiphidiocercariae. ‘The surface is beset with mintte spines, though these

are so small as to be indicated only under oil immersion magnification and under

favourable conditions of imira-vitam staining. Ordinary methods recommended

to show spincs, e.g., the use of picric acid and menthol, were ineffective. There

was no indication of the fie protoplasmic hairs described by some writers tor

related cercariae, Caudal pockets are not present,

ro4mm

Fir, 1; body of cercatia, outlines from camera fucida Grawing—letals of

excretory system trom living: specimens. Vig. 2; sporocrst. ifig. 3: cercaria,

gland cells and alimentary system. Figs, 4, 5, 6: sketches. 4, stylct.

§, tail in dorso-ventral view. 6, excretory cornua in mure extended position.

Reference ta lettering’ ep = excretory pare.

On either side of the body there is a group of glanil cells extending from

the bifurcation of the oesophagus almost to the level of the posterior horder of

the acetabulum. It is impossthic to determine the number accurately, but there

are from 3 to 5 (perhaps more) pairs. Specimens stained with nile blue sulphate

following neutral red show two pairs anteriorly and medially which are finely

granular btit tincoloured, while the remaining gland cells take on a dirty purple

colour; these and their ducts, however, tend to contract inte an indeterminate mass.

In unstained specimens the nuclei of the glands appear clear and are slightly

tinged with pink. Throughout the body there are a number of other cells, which

are presumably cystagenons, and wnder extreme coverslip pressure when the

nucier become evident it is not possible to distinguish such nuclei [rom those of

the gland cells in the same region.

There is a short pre-pharynx, a quite circular pharynx and a very narrow

oesophagus which biturcate: some distance anteriorly to the acetabulum. The

angle of bifureation is characteristically acute (figs. 1, 3); the crura are very

narrow, and in living specimens are not seen beyond the level of the posterior

border or the acetahwlum, and rarely as far as its anterior border, Staining

rendered them slightly more obvious, and in a few of the best preparations they

could Le secu to extend almast to the end of the borly, ending level with the inser-

tion of the tail Krull (1935) when deseribing the cerearia of Heematoloechus

conplecus, indicated very narrow intestinal erura and noted that they were very

diffiewll to see, even in the most lavourable specimens.

The excretory bladder is Y-shaped; the arms of the Y ienminating normally

below the level of the anterior border of the acetabulum, but in sone specimens

(notably in those which had been swimming in a solution of basic fuchsin in

normal saline) the arms were well above this region. There is, of course, a con-

silerable margin of difference between the levels reached in the expauded and

contracted positions of the bladder, he maitr excretory tubes are attached at

the anterior fips af the arms, ‘The flame cell formula is apparently

2[(343+43)+4+ ($+44-}-3) |. This is extremely difficult to determine, and

for a long time we thought that there were only two groups eath of three flame

cells, attached to the anterior collecting tubule, When the third group [rom the

anterior cnil was seen its pomt of origin from the collecting tubyies could not be

determined, and we are assuming that it is attached to the anterior tubule, as

seems Imost likely, Aguin, the point of bifurcation of the anterior and posterior

collecting julnies has not been seen definitely, though we [eel satisfied that it is

on a level jnst behind the anterior border of the acetabulum in a position where

the conyolutions Of the main exeretory tubule rendered any closer elucidation

impossible, In the postetiar groups not all the flame cells have been seen; the

last two groups however ‘re clearly indicated by the capillaries, In the first of

the posterior groups only two of the Clements have been scen, but we haye no

doubt thara third ts present. ‘Lhe excretory pore opens at the base of the tail

hy a crescentic slit on the ventral surface. There is uo caudal excretory tube as

shown by Sewell for several xiphidiovercariae. In stained, fixed gpecimens the

genital rudiment shows as an irregular undiffereitiated mass dorsal to the

acelabulum, and of about the same size.

EXPERIMENTAL INFECTIONS

We have not been able to obtain the cyst stage, though a number of different

animals have been used for experimental infections, Nepative results were

obtained with Daphnia sp.; Dytiseid beetle larvae; dragonily larvae, Aeschine

brewistyla and Austrolestus analis; the yabhie, Cherar destrucior; mosquito

larvae; leeches (Glossifhonia spp.) ; the molluses, merionna spp. and the host

species, Planorbis isingi; as well as with tadpoles and the fish, Gdmbusia affinis.

Cereatia uf all frog iung flukes of which the life-history is known eneyst

in larval insects, the majority in dragonfly larvae, In some species there is a

corisiderable degree of specificity for the second inter'mediale host. Krull (1931)

found that cercariae of Hacmalolocchus mediaplexus and H. parviplerus encysted

in Gyo epecies of Syyupetrum but did not infect closely related dragon-flies. On

“y=

ihe other hand, he (1933) thought it probable that many species of diagon-flics,

could serve as hosts tor A. complerus. Ingles (1933) suggested that the presence

of the intection of Ostiolym oxyorchis in frogs collected from ponds and its

absence froin ftogs of the same species collecled from small streams was due to

the habits of the intermediate host sitice most of the natural infections of

O. oxyorchis occurred in the pond-nhabiting dragon-fly, Sympetruim wah.

Such a specificity may well explain the fact that C, beckwithae has been {ound

only in a pond and not in the swarups, and also our failure to obtain jtg mera-

vercaria in the only two species of dragon-fly larvae which were available to us

fur experiment, and which had been obtained [rom the swamps. Krull (1932)

reported thar the metacercaria of Puenmobites longiplexus whose atlult stage

occurs in Kana sp, wus found in eysts or free in the body cavity of damsel Hies,

Lestes sp. We have not found metacercariae in numerous dragon-fly larvae

(Aeschua brvistyla) collected from swamps along the Lower Murray.

THE Sporocysr

The sperocysts are inconspicuous, and cannot be discerned as finite hudies

when the sril is dissected after death. Numbers of cercariae are found in the

liver; these apparently migrate from the sporocyst soon after the death af the

host, leaving the sporocyst as an empty sac. Staining of some of the dissected

liver material gave one good preparation of a sporocyst, a small body containing

(and more or less fled by) three or four cercariae (fig. 2). TF we had had suffi-

cient material ro sacrifice a living snail, the spurocysts would probably have been

nore obvious.

AFFINITIES

C. beckwwithae belongs to the Cereariae Ornatae, a group defined by Ltihe

(1909) as “distome cereariae with a stylet. in which the stender tail is furnished

with a fin fold.’ Since 1914, when Cort deseribed C. hemilophura and included

it provisionally im the “Ornatac.” workers have stressed the fact that the group

is probably an unnatural one.

Sewell (1922) created the “Prima” subgroup, and Faust (1924, table TL) in

his “synoptic flame-cell formulary for digenetic trematodes” placed C, hemi-

luphura Cort 1914 and C, frifwreata together in the “Hetilophura group,” as

having a flame cell formula of 2[ (3-3) + (3+ 3+ 3) |. Tt may be noted

thal Faust (1924) included Cercari prima with C. drdica LIM Sewell in the

“Daswan” group, and thus denied the importance of the fin fold in the classifica-

tion of cercariae, since C, indica L// has not this feature.

In 1929 McCoy, who did further work on the exeretory system of C. hemi-

bphura and ascertained the formula to be 2[ (34-343) +(3+3-+3) I.

found it tecessary to remoye this cerearia from the group, thotigh he did not

create one to contain it.

In 1936, E. L. Miller divided the Cereariae Ornatae intu four subgraups,

using the flame cell formula as the differentiating feature :—

II. Sewell’s Prima group, with aa exeretory formula 2x 6 x 1 (te,

2£(03)+(3) 3.

TT. Hemilophura (sic) group, containing only C. trifurceta Faust 1919;

formula 2[ (3-|-3) + (3+3-+ 3) J.

TIT. A third subgroup (formula 2[ (3--34+3)+(3+4+3+43) |) con-

taining C. hemilophyre Cort 1914 and C. mesotyphla E. L. Miller 1935.

To this can now be added Cerearia merchanti Rankin 1939 (the larva

of Haematolocchus sp.), GC. herbert McMullen 1938 (qhoted in Zool-

Ree 1938 Vermes, p. 94, as C, horbert) and C. becknuuthae,

IV, Subgroup four—Cercaria racemosa Faust 1917, the excretory formula

of which was not worked out, but was “obviously quite different Sram

other forms of this group” (Miller).

MeCoy stated that “the exact location of the fame cells in C. hemilophura

varied greatly in different individuals, prohably depending upon the way in which

the animal was compressed. The second flame cell group from the anterior end

was the most difficult to locate, and without careful study of abundait material

miglit be entirely overlooked.” These remarks apply also ta C. beckwithae,

excepting (hat it was the third group rom the anteriar end which snght have

been overlooked. One wonders whether further study of C. irifurcata might

not disclose another group of fume ceils, and thus place the cercaria in Miller's

subgroup Il. McMullen in 1937 discussed the taxonomy ai the family Plagi-

orchiidae Lithe and related trematodes, and used knowledge of the larval antl

developmental stages to supplement classification of the adults, staiing that the

exclusive use of adult characters for identification left much to be desired, On

the other hand, classification of cercariae on their larval characters, without a

knowleder of the life histories, could he only tentative. As to the importance of

a fin fold on the tuil, he cited the genera Alleglossidiusn acd Macroderoides

“which are evidently closely related?’ yet while the cercaria of Macroderoides

iypieus has a fin fold, that of Alloglossidiwm carti has none (the only two life

histories which were known for these genera); again, all cercariac of Jrog lung

flukes and related trematodes with the exception of that of Iuplomelra cylin-

dyvaeea have a fin fold on the tail. He concluded, therefore, that the possession

of a fin fold on the tail (and other such larval wodifications) were of little more

than specific value in the Niphidiocereariae. This confirmed the opinion held by

most previous workers that the group Cercariae Omatae was an uniatural one.

From the point of view of description of cercarme, however, the fin fold

does provide a valuable means of separation from, or comparison with, previously

deserihed forms,

lt is evident that C. beckivithae resembles most closely the cercariae of

Haematolocchus spp., as indicated by MeMullen (1937) in his composite diagrasn

of Huematoloechus and Ostiolunt species. (Ostiolum is now given by Dawes,

146, as a synonym of Haemalolocehus). Among the characteristics of these

cercariae of the troy lung flukes McMullen cites "a large oral sucker, four pairs

of stylet glands” (though in the figure five pairs are shown, and C. herberi whiclr

MeMullen described in 1938, has six pairs), “and a Y-shaped exerctory bladder

which gous through extensive development in the maturation of the adult”; and

(as mentioned previously) “all have a tin fob! on the tail with the exception of

Haplometra eylindracea.” Tt would seem that to this description shauld be added

“main excretory tubes attached to the tips of the arms of the bladder,” though

this feature has not been indicated clearly im all of the ceseriptions, Tor

C. herberi, McMullen stated that the origin of the wain callectiney tubule did mot

agree with that given by Ingles (for Qstiohun oryorchis), ic, ladetal to the arms

oi the ladder, and that thongh it was possible that the tibules did arise laterally

in O. axyorchis, the same was at first beligved to be true of C, herbert, because

the loop of the main tubule crossed ihe arm of the bladder and the rest of the

tubule was difhcult ta see. As is shown in our figure, this is also the condition

in ©. beckwithas, Ingles’ figure of the excretory system in the metucerearia i$

somewla? siticonyincing in that the anterior and pasterior collecting tubules appear

to arise independently from ihe arms of the bladder, and we stiggest that tre

origin of the main tubales should be similar to that in C. herberi and out cerearta,

Although the life histories of several from lung flukes have been described

(Tngies, 1933; Kroll, 1931, 1934), in none of these has the anatomy of the cer

cariae been dealt with in complete detail. So far as the descriptions go we can

only say that none of them resenibles C. beckwithae as closely as do C. merchants

and C. herbert, 1t is of interest that the sporocysts of our species appear to con-

form to the type found in Haematoloechus spp—t.ec., they are small and contain

few cereariae, whilst in C. hemilopkura and C. mesolyphia the sporocysts are

elongated.

Cercaria werchanti was shown by Rankin (1939) to be the larval stage of a

species of Haematoloechus, but pending further study he deferred the specific

description. “lhe general appearance of the alimentary canal, excretory system,

arrangement of gland cells, ad fin fold of the tail in C. merchanti is simular to

these structutes in C_ beckwithac, but the stylet of C. merchanti measures 40zp,

the sucker ratid of the two forms is different, and C, merchant? has “fine proto-

plasmic hairs’ on the bady, a feature which is lacking in our cercaria, Com-

parison of ©. peckerithae with C. herbert shows that the length of the stylets is

the same, the general sizes of body and tail seem to be comparable (although one

is diffident about placing too much stress on meastirements of cercariae made by

different workers and under different conditions) and the general appearance of

the alimentary systems is similar. TJowever, the two cercuriae ditfer in the ratio

of the suckers. probably in the extent of the fin fold of the tail (said to start at

about the middle of the ventral surface for C. lerberi, and at the distal third for

C. beckwithae) and the cuticular spines of C. herbori are evidently more obvious.

McMullen stated that C. herberi was similar to cercariae of genera belonging

to the Haplonietridae MeMullen 1937, ‘This family included the Haplometrinae

Pratt and the Prosthogoniminae |.ithe, |he genera of which, as far as known, were

parasitic in the lings of Amphihia and the reproductive tracts of birds respec-

tively, Dawes, however, included the genus Macrodera (from lung sacs of

snakes) in the Haplometrinae, and placed both subfamilies in the Plagiorchii-

dae, The only life history of a member of the Prosthogoniminae to which we

have a reference is that of Prosthoganimus macrorchis Macy 1934.

Macy did not describe the cerearia in detail, but stated thal there was no

fin fold on the tail and that the exeretory formula of the metacerearia wa's

2[(2+2-+42)4-(2+2- 2) }- Wf this formula is correct, then it seems

that the Prosthagouiminae can scatcely be included in the Plagiorchiidae.

We regard Cercaria beckwithae as the larval stage of Hoematoloechus, a

parasite of the lungs of frags. Only oie species, WH. australis (S. J}, Johnston

1912), desetihed originally as Pnenmonocees australis, is known to ocour in

Australian frogs, IZyla and Limnodynastes, and has been tentifiel by us in

material belonging to these geneva from New South Wales, Victoria and South

Agstralia,

Cercaria tetradenoidea non. noy.

In 1945 Johnston and Beckwith described a Turcocerearia, C. telradena, As

the name had previously been given hy Miller (1935. 252) for a member of the

Cereariae Armatae group, we siggest the renaming of Our cercaria as C. felyi-

denotdea.

Sum ar4ry

1 A new xishidiocerearia, C. beckwithac, with a fin fold on the tail is

leseribed front Planorbis isingi,

2. This was fuund at Tailem Bend, Sottth Australia, in a rock pool in 4 private

garden, Over a period of three months tt was found in 16 of 403 snails. but

has not been obtained from natural sites on the River Muryay,

The cyst stage has not heen frum,

4. The cercaria is considered to be the larval form of a frog lung fluke, Haema-

toloechus (Plagiorchiidae, Haplometrinae).

5. A discussion is given of the classification of the group “Cercariae Ornatae”

defined by Lithe, and later divided into sub-groups by several workers, the

latest being Miller (1936),

6. Brooks’ observation (1943) regarding the uniformity of dimensions of stylets

of various species is supported. Such measurements are unaltered by

formalin.

7. An addition to McMullen’s list of characteristics of cercariae of frog lung

flukes is suggested; namely, that the main excretory tubes enter the arms of

the bladder at the tips,

8. C, tetradenoidea nom. nov. for C_ tetradena Johnston and Beckwith 1945 nee

Miller 1935.

We desire to acknowledge our indebtedness to Messrs. G, G., Fred, and

Bryce Jaensch of Tailem Bend. The work was financed through the Common-

wealth Research Grant to the University of Adclaide. The species is named for

a former colleague in our work, Miss A. C. Beckwith, now Mrs. J. Hardy. Type

material has been deposited in the South Australian Museum.

LATERATURE

Brooks, F, G. 1943 Jour. Parasit., 29, 330-339

Cort, W. W. 1914 Jour. Parasit., 1, 63-84

Dawes, B, 1946 The Trematoda, 644 pp.

Faust, E. C. 1917 Jour. Parasit., 3, 105-123

Faust, E. C, 1919 Biol, Bull., 36, 322-339

Faust, E. C. 1924 Amer. Jour. Hyg., 4, 241-300

Incies, L. G. 1933 Uniy. Calif. Publ. Zool., 39, 135-162

Jounston, S. J. 1912 Proe. J.inn. Soc., N.S.W., 37, 285-362

Jounston, T. H., and Beckwith, A.C, 1945 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69,

229-242

Keun, W. H. 1931 Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 50, 215-277

Krutit, W. H. 1932 Zool. Anz., 99, 231-239

Keutt, W. H. 1933 Zeit, f. Parasitewk., 6, (2), 192-206

Leen, W. H. 1937 Science, N.S., 86, 423

McCoy, O, R. 1929 Jour. Parasit., 15, 199-208

McMutten, D. B. 1937 Jour. Parasit.,, 23, 244-258

McMutten, D. B. 1938 Livr. Jub. Prof. Lauro Travassos, 299-306

Macy, R. W, 1934 Univ. Minn. Agric. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull., 98, 7-71

Miiier, E. L, 1935 Jour. Parasit., 21, 244-254

Mitter, E. L. 1936 Ill. Biol, Monogr., 14, (2), 125 pp.

Rankin, J. S. 1939 Jour. Parasit., 25, 309-328

Sewe ti, R. B, §. 1922 Ind. Jour, Med. Res., 10, (Suppl. No.), 370 pp.

THE PETROLOGICAL NATURE OF SOME ROCKS FROM THE MANN,

TOMPKINSON AND AYRES RANGES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

BY E.. G. ROBINSON

Summary

The rocks herein described were collected by Herbert Basedow, when a member of the Government

Far North-West Prospecting Expedition of 1903. He first published an account of the geology of the

country traversed (Basedow, 1905) and late (Basedow, 1915) the daily journal of the Expedition. In

his geological report the rocks collected were dealt with on general lines only and many deserved

fuller treatment.

THE PETROLOGICAL NATURE OF SOME ROCKS FROM THE MANN,

TOMPKINSON AND AYRES RANGES OF CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

By E. G. Roprnson *

[Read 21 July 1949]

The rocks herein described were collected by Herbert Basedow, when a

member of the Government Far North-West Prospecting Expedition of 1903.

He first published an account of the geology of the country traversed (Base-

dow, 1905) and later (Basedow, 1915) the daily journal of the Expedition.

ln his geological report the rocks collected were dealt with on gencral lines

only and many deserved fuller treatment,

Basedow’s specimens, what remained of thera wheu he died, are now

housed in. the Geological Museum of the University of Adelaide, and because

af the unusual nature of some of them, their further investigation by present-

day petrological methods was suggested by Professor Mawson. Accordingly,

the more sigrificant of them, but not including any from the Musgrave and

Everard Ranyes, were selected and are dealt with herein. The omission of

any examples from the Musgrave and Everard Ranges is cofisequent on

Allan Wilson's (1947) recent detailed work in that area superseding earlier

investigations.

Rocks rrom THE TOmMPKINSON RANGES

Page

Nature of the terrain =... at cl i ai eit cae

Olivine-augtte-hyperstlrene- wabbto (15. 4) Ge ui ats ait we gl

Hypersthenitte (1548) —.... ry atlas wpe yay Jap by os ont aA

Crushed chartiackite (1542) . us seth xe ats Hose fare utc! ee

Garnet-magnetite- cuiphavitesstanalite (6178) 454 un hoe, Oe

Porphyroblastic hornblende-garnet-mica-oligoclase-quiartz- “schist: ¢ 1544) a. Ad,

Rocks Fram THK. Mann RANGES

Nature of the terrai, ... ty Bi est a ye sai na ee et

Sheared letco-granite (6181) ..,, one rf fx gust ua 4

Sheared garnctiferoas, gneissic, hornblende eriviite (6187) “a tes ede we «OD.

Stressed and crushed granite (1543) it ee ope me py ~ 35

Mylonized gramte gneiss (6182) ve ha ve os oo ve ‘a oS

Diopside peridatite (6199) ih has] ae silt Ce on a we = 86

Diapsidite (6197) ite tins ee “ine af ent we = 36

Sheared garnet-andesine- amphibolite (6179) py esl mt ys we 88

Charnockitic, tonalite (1541) nee 453 yotaeestiepe IEE. ai$t =i53 hae 37

Rocks rrom Ayres RANGES

Nature of the terrain .... nae bebe ont esi suas rite gaze art 38

Aplitic granodiorite (1547) ae 5: re rote — =~ Bare w 38

Tlornblende-granddiorite (1546) a Su —_ yt pr wh: a (38

ROCKS FROM THE TOMPRINSON RANGES

Referring to the Tompkinson Ranges, Basedow (1905, page 73) states—

“Generally speaking, their dominant features are . . . . igneous intrusions

within crystalline gneisses. In the case of the Tompkinson Ranges, the in-

trusive rock consists largely of gabbro, accompanied hy diorite dykes. The

Mount Davies chain includes, among others, a large intrusion of granular

olivine-gabbro, varying in colour from dirty green, through shades of green

* University of Adelaide.

Trans. Roy, Soc, 5, Aust, 73, (1), 16 December 1949

‘sIOquINy ansojejyrg Aq payeaipur suoyesoT YoY YA deyy Ayesory

21D

pete ag ; Se

3 F __8

og tae’ ol $s

evs) 2

eon

WH UespL sey

aot sy i

SATIN i]

iS * Li

S ! Be)

Viivyulsny IWYLN39 dO NOILYOd >

y \

ag avW ALMYOOI tiny i

eae “4 |

| | >

oF Sth — se

16 faint blue. In the last case the predominance of plagioclase feldspar, and

the presence of only a small amount of olivine have produced the bluish tint-

The intrusion trends east and west as a massive, rugged chain, flaked ly

less conspicuous diorite dykes, Ihe latter, though individually smaller, are

very numerous,”

“North of Mount Davies, outcrops of hypersthene-bearing granulite which

trend slightly east of north, present splendid examples of spherulitic weather-

ing, The rock is compact and granular, with little or no evidence of foliation

om freshly fractured suriace, though it is apparent on weathered faces. The

rock has a peculiar olive-green, waxy appearance.”

Red garnet (almandine) schists are a feature of the north-eastern area

about Gosses Pile and Prominent Hill.

Skirting the foot of Mt. Davies on the north side is a mineralised outcrop

striking \W. 20°S, and extending westerly for same miles. This ferruginous

and gossaneous outcrop includes chalcedonic and semi-opaline varitties of

Quartz, some of which are bright green due ia chromium staining,

Ouvine Avorrr-ByTownite-Gassro (1540). Collected from Mount Davies

adjacent to Camp 28, Tampkinson Range.

In the hand specimen this rock is dark grey and of an even-grained,

saccharoidal texture. Lt consists ot highly weathered olivine, grey-green

pyroxene ane light grey feldspar, the latter bemg the most plentiful.

Microscopically examined it exhibits a hoeloerystalline, allotriomorphic,

granular texture. The avcrage size of the grains in section is of the order of

1-25 mun. to 1:5 mm-

Bytownite is hy far the most abundant mineral present, contprising about

two-thirds of the rock. Jt is clear and usually cracked, The grains exhibit albite,

Carlsbad and pericline twinning, It is biaxial negative, with 2V about 83°,

extinction angle in the symmetrical zone is 52°. These properties confirm the

mineral as bytownite with about 80% of the anorthite molecule,

Augite is the next in order of abundance. It is light grey-brown, only faintly

pleochroic and ocenrs as anhedral grains averaging about 1 mm, in length. It

has the following optical characters: biaxial positive, 2V = 46", ZAc== 34°,

RL. in sodium light is y= 1-702. These characters indicate an approximate

composition of Wo35 FEn33 Fel3 corresponding to a typical augite. To a very

limited extent the diallagic 100 cleavage is shown, Many of these monaclinic

pyroxene individuals have a selvage of hypersthene, which is generally of darker

colour than the augite.

Next to augite in abundance is oheine, which occurs as greatly cracked, very

pile pink individuals, Alteration especiaily along the cracks has developed iron

staining and some tiny grains of iron oxide. In many instances marginal altera-

tion has given rise to antigorite. IL is biaxial-posilive with 2V = 89°, correspond-

ing to a maynesium-rich chrysolite. In some cases the olivine has borders of

hypersthene,

Hyperstiuene occurs to a limited degree as separate individtials but more so

associated, as already mentioned, with the augite and to a lesser degree with the

olivine. It ts faintly pleochroic; N= pale grey, Y=Z —pale grey-brown;

biaxial negative, 2V is 88° and c==Z, These properties suggest an enstatile-rich

hypersthene with about 20% of the ferrnsilite molecule,

Accessory minerals are rare, consisting of a few grains of magnedite and

some apatite.

HYpPersrHEN!ve (1548): from the west side of Mount Davics, Tompkinson

Range.

This is a dark grey-brown, holocrystalline, even, granular rock.

In microscope slide the texture is observed to be holoerystalline, allotrio-

morphic granular with a grain-size ranging from 2 to 5 mm. It consists entirely

of hypersthene exeept for a few small grains of magnetite.

The hypersthene occurs as pale greyish-hrown cracked, anhedral grains, — It

is weakly pleochroic: X= faint pink, Y= pale greyish-brown, Z== pale

greenish-brown, Other optical properties may be summarized as follows:

2V = 88°, RI, (sodium light) a= 1°673, 71682, According to Larsen and

Berman these optical characters correspond to a hypersthene which has an Mg:

Fe ratio of approxmnately 6: 1,

The two prismatic cleavages are well developed. The orientation is length

slow. While generally straight, sttain has itt some cases developed an undulose

extinction. In some areag the larger hypersthene individuals are roughly rounded

and set in fine granular interstitial hypersthene, apparently the result. of crushing.

Black iron-ore in tity grains is distributed mainly around the borders af the

hypersthene: some, translucent in brown colours, are evidently chromite, Qthers

appear to be magnehic. Analysis of this rock was made with the result as stated

on page —,

CHEMICAL ANALYSES Norms

Rock Number .... aw 1548 6199 Rock Number .... we 1548 6199

SiOz Rn Hee wee 94055 47-77 Orthoclase aes we O°556 nil

TiO: we stn we O22 O12 Albite .., ~~ ae 6288 1+31

AbOs ..., on BBS 4-87 Anorthite = -. 6950 11-68

TesOq a, ‘ent van 1°85 1:42 Nepheline 1 0-99

FeO aig: viet we F208 321 Diopside _ 4168 55°16

MnO “3 sa) a O22 0-66 Hypersthenc .... eo. 73-468 ——

MgO ren asis we 28723 23°27 Olivine nee ae 4252 20-40

CaQ ats on wee B48 16°50 Masucetite a, wa.) e784 20

NaO ..., ve, wae O73 0°37 Hmenite ng oe 0-456 0-30

KO ae sites ww. Q‘14 ()-02 Chlivoinite —_ _. O896 1-12

HQ+ us stn ay O32 0:58 Water + aa3 _. 6320 O58

HO- .... Aue wee O15 0-21 Water — a a. O-150 0-21

P20; ~~ acsa ajse a 0° OL —_

Creu ale ' we = 068 0-79 Total .... 100+298 99 +80

Total .,. 100:30 99-80

Crusnep Crrarnockire (1542) froim north of the Mount Davies Camp (31),

which was located 3 miles north of Mount Davies, Tompkinson Ranges.

An even, fine-grained, dark brownish-grey rock which in the field is reported

to exhibit splendid spheroidal weathering. Feldspar and quartz are the more

obvious minerals.

lt is holoerystalline, allotriomorphic granular, with slightly uneven grain-

size. In the microslide can be observed Jarger grains of microperthite and quartz

which average about 1°6 mm, in diameter with a maximum of about 3-5 mm,,

are distributed through an even-grained grantilar association of feldspar, quartz

and hypersthene with an average grainsize of about 0°5 mim.

Microcline microperthite is by far the most abundant mineral, constituting

approximately two-thitds of the rock. Ji occurs as both large and small indi-

viduals. The microcline base and the exsolution albite, which is developed on

a fairly coarse scale, are wsnally clear and unaltered but extibit undulose

extinction.

Oligoclase is present in very small amount in the form of small clear grains

most of which exhibit albite twinning.

Onarlz is much less abundant than feldspar. It occurs as anhedral indi-

viduals often cracked and exhibiting undulose extinction, sometimes ta a marker

degree,

Hypersthene is nearly as abundant as the quartz. It occurs as very irregular

grains which tend to form aggregations, frequently associaied with magnetite and

apatite. The colour is pale brawn. Pleochroism noticeable with X = pinkish-

brown, Y = yellow-brown, Z= green. Riaxial negative with a fairly high 2V,

A very small amoutiit of non-pleochroic, pale green divpside is present.

Magnetite is plentiful, generally associated with the hypersthenc.

Apatite is very common, both associated with the magnetite and hypersthene

as well as in che form of anhedral and subhedral grains dispersed throughout the

rock, A few grains of zircon appear in the slide.

Garnet-Macverire-Ompuacisi-GRranuite (6178), Collected on 20 May 1903

near camp 30, adjacent to Prominent IGM, North Tompkinson Ranges.

A heavy, dark rock of an even, granular texture. The obvious constituents

are a dark ferro-magnesian mineral, red-brown garnet, magnetite and a little

greyish white feldspar. The light-coloured streaks of granular feldspar travers-

ing the dark body of the rock appear to have developed under directed stress.

In thin section it is observed to be granublastic and noticeably eveti-grained

for a rock of this type.

The predominant mineral is a diallagie pyroxene which occurs in grano-

blastic individuals with an average grait size of 1-3 mm., arid a maximum ranging

ta 3°5 mn; Schiller structure is. strikingly developed. Colour, very pale green,

weakly pleochroic from a faint flesh colour to faint green, A few basal sections

show cleavages: at 90°, alsa an additional rough parting parallel to the 100. Its

optical character is negative, with a moderate to high 2V. A few individuals exhibit

faint polysynthetic twinning, These characters suggest a diallagic pyroxene close

to omphacite.

Granular pink garnet is the next most abundant mmeral, occuring as indi-

viduals similar in size to those of the pyraxene,

Magnetil? is abundant and plays an important role in the make up of this

rock. Hercynite, a green spinel, occurs to a notable degree included in some of

the larger magnetites. Some of these spinels measure up to O14 mm. in length;

they are a bright clear grecn. Another noticcable fcattire associated with the

magnetite is the presence of clear yellow pleochroic anthophyllite which occurs

only as a peripheral band on some of the grains of magnetite. Apatite, usually

in association with magnetite is present as an accessory mineral.

Feldspar, which plays a minor role, exhibits undulose extinclion indicating

the effects of stress, Optical measurements detetmine it to be andesine of enm-

pusition about Aby, Aityy.

PorPHYROGLASTIC HorNe_eNbE - GAxNET ~ Mica-OLicaccase - Quartz - Scurst,

(1544). Collected near Prominent Ilill, Camp 30, North-Eastern Tompkinson

Ranges.

In the hand-specimen this rock is a dark grey-brown schist, for the most

part tinely granular but with larger porphyritic erystals. of hornblende and red-

brown garnet. The hornblende porphyroblasts reach 10 mm. in length and the

garnet to 8 mni. diaineter. Banding and schistosity are notable features.

In thin-section the rock is seen to be schistose, with large porphyroblasts of

green fernblende, pink garnet and sircon set in 2 fine even-grained base with

average prain-size O-l mm, composed mainly of quartz and oligoclasc.

Orienttated flakes of biotite, pleochroic ycllow to green are distributed through

a granular base of clear quartz and oligaclase (An,,). Yellowish-green horn-

blende and pink garnet are well represented both as parphyroblasts and fine flakes

through the quartzo-feldspathic base.

Fainlly pleochroic sphene is in notable quantity both in fine grains and as

Jarger individuals. Other minor accessories are apatite, aircon and tiny wmagnetile

and a yellow mineral conforming to allamite, faintly pleochroic in pale yellow to

pale brown.

ROCKS FROM THE MANN RANGES

Rasedow (1905, p. 65) states, these Ranges “extend as ja more or less com-

pact chain in a westerly direction... . a distance of some eighty miles ,...

The western portion of the Mann Ranges, of no great width at this end, consists

almost wholly of igneous rock exposures. In the centre, the core of the igneous

intrusion is flanked on either side, namely the northern and southern boundaries,

by complexes of green schist and gneissic quartzite; whereas on the eastern limits

of the Ranges, by far the widest portion, the main intrusion lies hidden beneath

the metamorphic series, into which it was injected, to appear once more at the

surface to the eastward in the Musgrave Ranges”

OF igneous rocks “An intrusion of granite has been by far the greatest, it

continuing uninterruptedly as a backbone of the whole Range, to disappear under

superincumbent gneisses on the east, and occurring as isolated outliers [or a con-

siderable distance to the west. The character of the rock varies, frum a true

granite (in portien porphyritic) to various metapyrigen gneisses,”

At the western extremity of the Range, where there is a salt pai depression

in the surface of the gneisses, erosion las developed yardangs on a tiotable scale

along the outcrop.

Causuep Lpuco-Grasire (6181), Collected 4 June 1903 from the main intru-

sion at Meridian Hill, Western Mann Range.

This rock is holocrystalline inequigranular, The larger individuals are grey

feldspars usually seen to be embedded in finer material consisting essentially of

granular feldspar and quartz.

Microperthiie is the most abwndant mineral, occurring as large individuals.

The orthoclase host is generally clear but cracked, displaying undulose extinction,

Apart from normal exsolution spindles which characterise the perthite, inclusions

oi oligoclase are numerous.

Oligaclase (259% An) occurs usually as aggregations of small grains but

larger individuals are not wncommion,

Quartz is plentiful usually in granular aggregates, apparently the crushed

remains of former large individuals.

Garnet as tiny rounded grains, usually in aggregations, occur sparingly in

the crush mosaics. In such locations also, hornblende in very small quantity and

occasional flakes of biotife are met with. Magnettte, though small in quantity but

in comparatively large grains, at times with encrusting sphene, is a feature of this

rock. Simiall grains of gircom are to be noted.

In thin section it exhibits many similarities in both textute and mineral com-

position to specimen (1343), and so may be assumed to be a leucocratic phase

of it. However, the effects of stress are more marked in this rock, while the

quantily of ferromagnesian minerals present is appreciably less.

Smraren Horwe_eNpic GARNETIFEROUS Gweissic Granite (6187). Collected

6 Jurie 1903, just north-east si Camp 41; about 10 miles south-east by uorth of

Mount Gosse, Mann Ranges,

This is a coarse holocrystalline rock with a mottled appearance, duc to the

ramifications of finer grained, darker uggregates ramifying through it. The most

obvious constituent is greyish-white feldspar in large mdividuals up ta 3 cms. in

diameter.

Microscopically examined the rock is observed ta be holocrystalline and

dominantly constituted of closely packed large feldspars embedded in tracts of

fine, granular aggregates of feldspar, quartz and ferromagnesians.

Orthoclasé forms large phenwerysts and perthitic intergrowths ate common.

lt is also prusent as a constilucnt with quattz and plagioclase of the fine granular

aperegates surrounding the Jarger feldspars. The large feldspars are bent and

otherwise distorted by stress.

Basic Oligoclase (about An,,) is present both as large individuals samewhat

less in size than the orthoclase and as constituents. of finer-grained (0-1 mm.)

vranoblastic aggiepates.

One of the most interesting featurcs of this rack is the presence of aggrega-

tions of garnet, hornblende, magnetite, sphene, apatite and biotite, in association

with greater or less quantities of granular quartz and plagioclase. These aggre-

gates result from granulation and recrystalliization under stress.

The garnets ate small rounded light pink grains, present as tightly packed

aggregations or strung ott like tiny beads, Associated therewith is green horn-

blende and some clino-pyroxene,

Brown biotite occurs m very small amount. Zircon, sphene, magnetite and

apatite are also present as accessories.

STRESSED AND Cruse Granite (1543). From the Mann Ranges at about

2 miles cast of Camp 41 and 11 miles south-east by north from Mount Gosse.

Collected 6 June 1903,

A coarse textured, somewhat crushed and recrystallised granitaid rock,

composed mainly of large grey feldspars up to 2 cms. in length and smaller quartz

grains.

In micro-slide the large feldspars are secn ta he greatly cracked and slightly

cloudy with marked undulose extinction, ‘hey are microcline as they give an

off-centred cbtuse bisectric figure on sections parallel in the 010 face; contained

in them are perthitic intergrowths of acid plagioclase. Irregular borders with

embayment ire very prevalent, with fillings of crushed and recrystallized quartz

and feldspar.

OF the smaller dimensioned constituents, quartz showing marked strain

effects is dominant. A small amount of basic oligoclase can be recognised. Still

less abundant is hornblende pleochroic m green and yellow. Occasional granular

aggregates of garnet usually strung out in linear arrangement is a feature of

special note. Finally, there are present oecasional flakes of biotite and grains of

apatile and zircon.

Mytonizep Granxrric Gnerss (6182), Described by Basedow as a compact,

gneissic band in granite about 2 miles west of Hector’s Pass, Mann Ranges.

A very fine, and cyen grained, compact, light-coloured rock with sheer

larnellalions clearly marked.

In thin section the rock is seen to be an excellent example of mylonization,

crushing having been very regular and complete, resulting in granular lamellae,

ranging from O-1 to 1-0 mm. thick, Latellae, constituted essentially of quartz

grains, alternate fairly regularly with others dominantly of feldspar.

The feldspathic bands, which on the average exceed the quartz bands in

thickness, are chiefly orthoclase hut are usually sa fine-grained and show the effects

of crushing to such a high degree that their exact composition is in doubt. Cloud~

ing of the orthoclase appears to be due to the development af sericite. Larger

augen with associated mortar structure ovcur in the feldspathic bands, These

ate usually perthitic. Jn these cracked andl highly strained lenticles there is

present, in addition Lo orthoclase, some ofiyoctase (26% An), showing albite and

pericline iwinning.

The bands constituted of gnarts graius are readily distinguished, for the

granules, though strained, are always quite clear.

The lamellar structure of the rock ig further emphasised by strings of tiny

gornels and some grains of magnefite and sphene, also grains and clongated

crystals of sircon; these are usually associated with the feldspathic bands and

lenticles. A little biotite as very tiny flakes is met with in certain of the garneti-

ferous strings. The average size of the grains af garnet is about 0:03 smm.

This rock has evidently résulted from the mylonization ahd apparently repre~

sents a sheer zone it the granite.

Drorsipy. Pertporrrg (6199). Collected near Camp 27, about 6 miles south of

Mount Whinham, Mann Ranges. A holocrystalline, granular rock of fairly

coarse grain; the latter about 4 mm, diameter.

In microscope slide it is seen to be holocrystalline, allotriomorphic granular,

and is composed essentially of two minerals. The more prevalent of these is

diapside which occurs as anhedral, clear to pale grey-brown individuals showing

cleavages (86°) and cracking to a marked degree. Some sections are so

aricnted as to show a faint ploochroism from a faint flesh colour to very light

green. Both normal and polysynthetic twinning are exhibited. Some of its

optical properties are: DLR. fairly high, hiaxial positive, 2V=58°( RL. it

sodium light is.a= 1°676 and y= 1:702, These characters indicate a diopside

with about LO% of the hedenbergite molecule.

The other abundant mineral, oline, contrasts strongly with the diopside,

as it is more extensively cracked and is clearer, though it has a much higher

degree of secondary iron staining. I[t occurs in anhedral individuals which are

barely half as abtmidant as the diopside. Its optical properties are as follows:

biaxial positive, 2V = 88°, RT. in sodium light is @—=1+651 and y—1-'688_ Ir

is thus indicated that it has a compnsition af Mg: Fe — 88:12 approximately.

Grains of magnetite and chromite are to be observable in the slides but are

rare.

So this is a Peridofite consisting of diopside (10% hedenbergite) and olivine

(Mg: Fe = 88; 12) in the ratio of about 2:1, This rather striking rock was

subjected to chemical analysis with the result tabulated on page 32.

Diopsinite (6197). An even-grained, green holocrystalline rock almost mono-

mineralic, for in the hand specimen only diupside is yisible There are slightly

pleschroic biaxial positive, 2V = 58°, RI. (soditim ght) »—1'677, y—=1°703.

Labradorite distributed interstitially occurs in very small amount, Grains

of magnetite are very rare.

This rock appears to be related lo (6199) from the vicinity of Camp {27},

but is labelled “Camp 28, Mann Ranges,” this is immediately south-east of

Mount Erwin.

Suearpp Gaener-Aworsine-Ampurmonite (6179). Collected 11 June 1903

near Camp 51, Mount Cockburn, Mann Ratiges. This would appear to he from

the “Diorite Dyke” reported by Basedow (1915), half-a-mile from the Camp.

It is a dark, dense, fine-grained rock which under the microscope exhibits

« roughly banded structure, richer and poorer in amphibole, and sce tw haye

suffered consideralile chloritization and retrograde changes.

Amphibole, pleochroic in light brown to green is the most abundan mineral.

Garnet in cracked and rounded graing is. next, but andesine (33% An) closely

approaches it in quantity, Maynotife is present both as tiny grains in aggregations

and strung cut along shear lines.

Throng) the reck run bands, sometimes well defined, samelimes tenuous,

which have the appearance and character of pseudo-tachylite.

CHarnocrreic Toxauire (1541). Collected 16 Juny 1903 near Camp 56 to tlic

south-east of Mount Berry, Mann Ranges.

In the hand specimen this rock presents a greasy appearance and is observed

to be holocrysialline, coarse, granular, with feldspar as. the dominant taimeral,

In microscope slide the texture is holocrystalline, allotriomorphic granular.

Andesine is by far the most abundant mineral, and with it is associated a little

microcline, quartz, hypersthene, etc.

“This rock consists chiefly of andesine which bas the following optical pro-

perties: biaxial positive, 2V = 867, maximum extinction angle in the symmetrical

zone of 20°, RI. (sodium light) «==1°552, y=1-560, ‘These characters

indicate an aiidesine of compasition about 40% An. It occurs as anhedral indi-

viduals showing marked undulose extinclion due ta strain, Crushed areas are

to be observed along the borders of many individuals, and here oceur some

myrmekitic quartz intergrowths, The albite twin lammelae are usually fine and

pericline twinning is often superimposed resulting im a superficial resemblance

to microsline. Tlowever, a litte microeling is recognisable. Orthoclase is present

in very smell amount, some of it is antiperthite im (he plagioclase,

Onariz, clear and cracked with wundulose extinction, is present in small

ambunts, mainly playing an almost interstitial role. It alsa occurs as inclusions

in the feldspar and as recrystallised mosaics.

Next in abundance to andesine is hypersthene, which usually appears as

rounded gritins whose colour is frequently masked by change praducts and schiller

inclusions. The clezrer individuals are grey and pleochroic in faint green and

pink, Clotdy grey-green altcration products, possibly anligorite are associated

with if, ‘Lhis hypersthene is biaxial negative, with 2V of about 82°, pointing

to the possibility of about 2095 of the fercosilite molecule in its composition,

A erern diopsidic pyroxene is present in very small quantity: biaxial posi-

tive, 2V —60°. Notable amounts of granular moaguetite ate usually associated

with the hypersthene, slpalite is present in rounded grains.

A fuller examination with chemical analysis may show this tock better

classified as a charnockitic trondhjente,

ROCKS FROM AYRES RANGES

A group of hills mare or less disconnected, The highest poi, though

2,200 feet above sea-level, stands only 300 feet abave the surrounding sea of

scrubby, red sand plains,

Basedow (1905, p. 77) states, referring to the higher hills of the Ranges!

“All these prominences have been determined by igneous intrusions. The more

northerly ones consist uf granite and the southern ridge of diorite dykes, Lyitig

between these masses, disconnected rounded hills of metamorphic racks appear."

Apiiric Granopiorite (1547): Mount Sir Henry, Ayres Range, This rock is

probabiy a phase of (1546).

This rock is light grey-brown with an even-grained granitic texture. It is

composed largely of buft-coloured feldspars and grey opalescent quartz. he lack

of ferroimagnesian mitierals is noticeable. In some respects it appears to be not

a normal igneous rock. The silica percentage is too high to be considered as an

aplitic tonalite.

In this section the texture is holocrystalline inequigranular consisting essen-

tially of anhedral individuals of feldspar and quartz. The average grainsize if

about 1°5 mm., whilst some feldspars reach 4 mm. and quartz over 5 mm. in

length. Quartz and plagioclase are present in approximately equal amounts.

The Quartz is generaily clear with inclusions arranged in strings. Cracking

and undulose extinction are evidenced, ‘he larger individuals have highly

irregular shapes. Wermicular quartz, frequently associated with the plagioclase in

the form of miyrmekite is plentiful.

studesing im anhedral individuals is generally cracked but clear. Untwinned

individuals are frequent but are easily distinguished from the potash feldspars

by their optically positive character and their R.I, in the untwinned individuals

the maxiniutn extinction angle measured in the symmetrical zone ig 20°, corre-

sponding to a composition of 40% An, Some of these twinned members are

optically negative, corresponding to a more albitic plagioclase.

Several examples of antiperthile were noted; these have andesine as the host

and exsolution spindles of clear orthoclase,

Microcline is present in the fornt of small anhedral individuals which are

generally clearer aud less cracked than the andesine. The microcline generally

occurs in those areas of the rock which show the greatest strain effects and in

such places it tends towards an intersticial role: with it is associated some

mvrmckite,

Occasional grains of magrctite are present, and associated with it are a few

small fakes of highly altered biotite,

The effects of strain are evident throughout in cracking and undulose

extinction, as well as small areas that appear to have experienced a minor degree

of crushing.

HorssLenbe-Grawnonrorite (1546): Mount Sir Flenry, Ayres Range.

A. light brown, even-grained, granular granitic rock, It is composed af

quartz, buff-coloured feldspar and dark green to black ferromagnesian granules

dispersed eventy throughout the rock.

Tn thin section the texture is holvuerystalline, granular with boundaries highly

irregular. The average grain-size is in the order nf 3 mm, although in extreme

cases intiyiduals reach 9 mm. in lenyth,

Andesine (about An,,) in cracked and cloudy individuals, is by far the most

abundant mineral present and constitutes the major portion of the rock. Plagio-

clase also occurs in myrmckitic intergrowths with quartz.

Microcline with perthitic intergrowths is a lesser feature. Antiperthite is

also present.

Quartz is next mineral in order of abundance but plays only a minor role,

tending to become interstitial.

Hornblende appears in notable amount as irregular grains. It is pleochroic:

X=light brown; Y = green-brown; Z==grass-green, Biaxial negative, with

moderate optical axial angle, Z Ac = 20°.

Magnetite is plentiful and with it often embedded or adhering to it are grains

of zircon and apatite, Crusts of sphene adhere to some of the magnetite. A patite

is also met with plentiftlly elsewhere in the slide.

REFERENCES

Basenow, Hrrsert 1905 Geological Report of the Country traversed by the

South Australian Government North-West Prospecting Expedition, 1903.

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 29, 57-102

Basevow, Hursert 1915 Journal of the Government North-West Expedition

of 1903. Trans. Roy. Geog. Soc. Aust,, S, Aust. Branch, 15, 57-242

Witson, At.an F. 1947 The Charnockitic and Associated Rocks of North-

western South Australia, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, 195-210

THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA, SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

BY REG C. SPRIGG

Summary

Upper Precambrian (Adelaide System) sediments near the north-western margins of the Flinders

geosyncline have been deformed very differently from the rest of the folded geosyncline. The tens

of thousands of feet of sediments concerned locally are dominantly slates and limestones, but they

include a massive quartzite, 6,000 feet thick, which has exerted a major influence in the local

tectonics.

THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Ree, C. Spricc

[Read 21 July 1949]

ABSTRACT

Upper Precambrian’ (Adelaide Systent) sediments near the north-western

margin of the Flinders geosyncline have been deformed very differently from

the rest of the folded geusyttcline. The tens of thousands of feet of sediments

concerned locally are dominantly slates and limestones, but they include a massive

quartzite, 6,000 feet thick, which has exerted a major influence in the local

tectonics,

Great faulted sheets of the quartzite with overlying sediments have moyed

differentially to the south-east, resulting in Jarge scale high- and low-angle thrust

faulting. The major faults have followed obvious zones of weakness such as

steep regional fold axes, or the junctions of the ntassive quartzite with its enclos-

ing relatively incompetent sediments; in one case horizontal translation is

measured in miles. There are ho signs of “lubrication” horizons along any of

the thrusts and generally the faults are loci of intense brecciation. One fault

zone is intrided by doleritic plugs.

Ty ts suggested that the thrusts constitute an example of tectonic sliding on

the old continental platiorm induced by a rapidly rising continental foreland at

the time of geosynelinal collapse,

INTRODUCTION

A group of remarkable regional thrust structures was recently discovered

near Witchelina Station in the north-western Flinders Ranges of South Australia

i younger Preeambrian or Adelaide System sediments (hg. 1), These sediments

constitute the lower portion af the Flinders geosyncline and locally they have

been folded in a manner which differs greatiy trom that of the main body of the

sediments to the south and east. Instead of the simple folding along east-west

ar north-south axes with coniplementary eross-warping and normal faulting,

typical of the central portion of the geosyneline, there has been a great develop-

ment of thrust faults, frequently with latge horizontal displacement,

Before discussing some of these aberrant sttuctures, the broader geatectoric

pattern of the whole of the Flinders geosyncline will be outlined briefly.

THE GEOSYNCLINAL SETTING

The Flinders geosyncline which exceeds 500 miles in length (longitudinally )

and 200 miles in width, borders the eastern margin of the older Precambrian

shield of Austraha (fig. 1). During its growth it probably had direct connec-

tions with the MacDonnell geocynclitie of Central Australia, although its. develop-

ments in that direction are now obscured by younger deposits. The central

deeper portion of the Hlinders geosyticline now constitutes the so-called “shatter

belt” of South Australia.

* Geological Suryey of South Australia.

Trans, Rey Soc. 73, (13

During geosynclinal evolution, sedimentation was practically continuous

throughout the Upper Precambrian and most or all of the Cambrian period.

Significant sedimentary overlap occurred to the east of the basin during the

depasition af the Stirtian tillites, and subsequently to the west, with the onset

of Cambrian time. Altogether a maximum of more than 40,000 feet of sediments

was deposited, including two stratigraphically widely separated quartzites each

of which in the north attained 6.000 feet ar more in thickness.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

LOCALITY

WILLOURAN RANGE

Classification of the Flinders Geosvnecline within the systems of cither

Kay (1947) or of Dapples, Krumbein and Sloss (1948) is difficult. In many

respects it has much in common with the Miogeosyncline of Kay. For example,

sinking progressed extremely regularly with continued deposition, and volcanic

activity was generally very restricted. Sedimentary facies typical of the rapidly

sinking linear gcosynclines (eugeosynclinal or island are types) were notably

absent. Lithalogically the sediments indicate unusually prolonged environmental

stability during the period of depusition. Quartzites are remarkably well sorted

and reworked in spite of occasional abnormal thickness; greywacks, or even sub-

greywacks, cecur infrequently or are absent. Shales grade from true claystones

tu silistones: limestones are frequently thick. Reddish and greenish colours

reflect oscillating shoreline conditions over wide areas.

Geosynelinal sedimentation closed in post-Cambriau times (? Tarly Cale-

donian), following the “collapse” of the vast accumulation of sediments.

Within the central meridional portion of the geosyncline, folding developed

with major axes essentially north-south or east-west, and while the longitudinal

set were most strongly developed in the south, the latittidinal set dominated in

the north, In the neighbourhood of Wilpena Station the two-fold influences had

approximately equal intensity with the result that large centripital fold structures

were produced. Particularly fine examples of these are the Wilpena Pound (or

basin) and the Bibliande dome, which have been described by Sir Douglas

Mawson (1940).

Away from the central region the cross folding becomes less strongly

developed, so that towards the north or south the major (almost isoclinal) folds

show only gentle reverse of pitch along their major axes. In this way, in plan,

a particular formation may outcrop as a narrow elongated ellipse perhaps 20 miles

long, but only 2 or 3 miles wide.

Faults oceur sparingly through the sediments and they are generally of the

steep normal or reverse type with variable vertical throw, but without significant

horizontal displacement. One normal fault in the Copley (or north) district has

a stratigraphical throw of about 40,000 feet. In the south the faults usually

trend meridionally in sympathy with the major axes of folding, but in the norik

while the local fald influence is still important, the pattern of faulting is less

regular,

The Adelaide System sediments are relitively unaliered except along the

eastern extensions of the geosyncline where intense metamorphism accompanied

eranitization and/or granite intrusion. This igneous activity modified or

aceentnated folding locally in most instances, In the more northerly areas

doleritic plugs are intruded along a number of the larger fault zones.

In relation to the foregoing generalised geoteclonic pattern, the thrust

structiives of the Witchelina province (which forms the north-western extension

of the geosyncline) can only be described ag erratic.

THRUST STRUCTURES OF THE WITCHELINA AREA

The fold and fault structures of this province are still inadequately known,

but sufficient evidence is available to indicate that they are largely the outcome

of regional thrusting. The local patterns of deformation have obviously been

strongly influenced by a massive thick quartzite ericlosed in relatively very iticarti-

petent slates and limestones (folded map), The quartzite belongs near the hase

of the Adelaide System, but here it is underlain by some thousands of feet of

slate carrymg minor horizons of sandstone quartzite.

Where thrust faulting’ can be recognised, the main criteria indicating

horizontal tnovement are the enormous drag structures evident in plan in serli-

ments Which are steeply dipping. Tn cases where the thrust faults cross the strike

of sediments, stratigraphical evidence also. supports this interpretation.

general, translation was to the south-cast.

Grecciation is extensive along the thrust planes, anil there ts no evidence

of significant subaqtieots slumping within the area. Hence it is thought that the

development of the thrusts was late or posi-geosynclnal, which is borne out hy

the absence, so far as is known, of tmconformities within the overlying portions

of ihe sedimentary system.

In view of this, the great horizontal translation inferred may be an example

of tectonic sliding. On this interpretation, during the foundering of the Flinders

geosyncline, the rising foreland ta the west would have tilted marginal sediments

appreciably towards the deeper portions of the basin, and under locally favourable

circumstances sliding would have commenced Tf the sediments had been water-

soaked and unconsolidated, slumping would have dominated bttt this was not so,

the sediments behaved as if they were consolidated. Consequently in the sliding

mass, where varjations jn secimentary competencies were great, excessive stresses

accumulated locally, eventually to cause failure along zones of weakness produc-

ing thrust nappes along large faults with vertical shears If this is correct, the

Witchelina quartzite provided a local control while the assumed zones of weak-

ness included (a) axes of developing or pre-existing regional folds, and

(Bb) contacts between competent and incompetent beds. Pre-existing normal

faults may also have aided failure locally,

The thrusting was generally to the south-east, but thete are several additional

regional faults of undetermined significance. These are usually accompanied by

wide crush zones and some drag folding.

Minor fold structures of the region can usually be correlated closely with

thrust movements aud are therefore probably contemporaneous, The Moun

Nor-west vegivnal fold on the other hand was in existence or developing at the

time of thrust faulting.

THE WITCHELINA TIIRUST STRUCTURE

(Fig. 2, and pl. ii, fig. 1)

The mussive Witchelina quarizite outcrops vuxtensively to the north of

Witchelina Station homestead. From a point approximately 17 miles north of

the homestead where it is truncated abruptly by a cross. fault, the formation strikes

uniformly south and displays conformable relations with its enveloping slates

and limestones, The sediments dip east at a consistently high angle,

Sigs, donee ¥ Manges. quartzite 4 sandstone

MINS 4 Relatively incompelant aiatax

lrestorag,

————— + interbedded

mite quertzites yess

Fig. 2 ‘The Witchelina Overthrust.

Within four miles of the homestead the quartzite flattens aml spreads in

outcrop and at the same time swings castward and then back on itself until almost

paralleling its origital strike. In being deflected in this manner, the formation

thins out rapicly, and unduly sharply fot normal sedimentary lensitig, until it

cuts out in 4 mass of large white quartz reefs in a highly shattered zone, In

shearing out, the yuartzite apparently preserved its coarser bedding structure, so

that on aerial photographs particular horizons within the formation can be traced

almost ta the point of cut-out At the nose of the induced fold, the quartzite

resumes its stevp dip cven though underlying beds haye been faulted, broken and

breeciated in @ manner suggesting low angle overthrust faulting to the sosth»

soulh-east.

The crush zone in the sole of this assumed thrust includes “‘erratic” blocks,

some of them quite extensive, of dotomites, shales and quartzites, and extends for

at least two or three miles transversely ta the asstmed direction of movement.

The zone abounds with crush breccias, minor drag folds.and quartz recls, and from

the angular nature of the brecciation there can be little doubt that the rock was

consolidated at the time of movement The zone of maximum disturbance is

usually less than half of one mile im width, but faults and crush zones extending

into the sole of the thrust are probably complementary

TILE MOUNT NOR-WEST SINISTRAL TEAR FAULT

(Fig. 3, and pl. if, fig. 1 and 2)

Sediments in the vicinity of Mount Nor-west have been deformed. into a

steep regional anticline with a north-west and south-east-trending axis, The

lowest formation exposed ainog the axis is the Witchelina quartzite which is

overlain by the dolomite and magnesite series of the lower Adelaide system,

~ YCorpetent " massive

quartzite...

and fillite, . ,

"leicormpetent” stares, limestends ==

ic, 3 Vhe Mt. Norwest Sutistral Fault,

This regional fold axis became the locus of large-scale regional faulting, and

whereas the south-west limb of the fold is relatively undisturbed and stands

vertically, the quartzite in the complementary limb evidences tremendous thrusting

with relative movement to the south-east, Directly north of the Mount the northern

limb of the quartzite was caught np on the great shear movement, and as it

appears in plan, the quartzite standing on edge was “overtolded,” and secondarily

thrist-faulted,

Where these various faults have been studied in the field they are obviously

very steep, and in support of this, the regional “axial” fait strikes almost per-

tectly straight for 30 miles even though topographic relief freyuently varies

several hundred feel quite rapidly, “Lhe tault instead of being “overthrist” in

type is therefore more correctly labelled ‘‘sinstral.”

Adjacent to Mount Nor-west, the quartzite i ile north limb of the fold is

missing over i distance of several uiiles and at first sight has che appearance of

having been sheared or faulted-out Iocally, [lowever, this ts not sa, and the

discontinuity is caused by a considerable degree of “dragging under” in the “oyer-

fold’ structure which is not reflected very markedly in the overlying finer-grained

sediments. Such selective overfolding of the quartzite has resulted in a great

mashing of sediments bordering its upper face, particularly “overlying” the

adlyancing aspect of the “lower” quartzile uapyie

Along the major regional fault, crushing and brecciation has been most severe

where opposing limbs of quartzite are in contact. Large masses of quartzite have

been “quarrierl’”? mto the broken zone, and in ene locality the fault has become a

locus of dolerite intrusion, A cluster of four plugs occurs to the north of Mount

Nor-west, the largest measuring some hundreds ot yards in diameter,

CALE

~~ a 4 MiLES

2 Handing ss Se Treth aeet"*

Crush vane... 8° Fault... we

“Competent” quartzite. cos cccsescecy seveiunrveessve ctnameen

eri” sletes & llmestone ot

incom

Vig. # The South [hl Nextral Vault and Dray Structures.

HE SOUTH HILL DEXTRAT. TEAR PAULT AND DRAG STRUCTURE

(Fig. 4, and pl ii, fie, 2)

Several. miles south-west af Witcheling Station, in a zone of tremendous

erushing, the Mount Nor-west sinistral tault splits off another steep shear to the

north-east. Unlike the foregoing fault, this South Hill shear is dextral, On its

western side a relatively incompetent magresite series, which dips steeply ta the

north, is preserved in its entitety, while the massive Witchelina quartzite lies on

its eastern aspect.

From the west, the magnesite series i8 almost undisturhed in its strike witil

within about half-a-mile of the fault, froto where the beds become dragged and

severcly attenuated. The drag has heen consistently to the north and the various

formations haye been successively sheared off in thal direction,

East of the fault, the Witchelina quarizite stands vertically, and in spite of

its relative ‘“competency” has been contorted into a pronounced drag fold. The

quartzite did not fracture into individual blocks, bur folded perfectly in parallel

manner with no thinning on the limbs of folds. As yet the attitude of the

quartzite has not been determined satistactorily but evidence suggests that “face

up” is away from the shear.

The South Hill fault itself is a marraw zone of very intense mashing, rarely

exceeding a score or more yards in width, which includes a wide range of breceia

types. ‘he shatter zone alsa extends into the core of the South Hill drag fold

which consists of resistant masses of broken and niineralized slates and dolo-

mites. No igneous bodies were encountered cutting either of these broken zones,

but silicification was well developed about many centres.

SUMMARY AND TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS

1 The Witchelina province lies near the margin of the ancient Flinders geo-

syncline adjacent to the older Precambrian shield of Australia.

2 [t shsplays structural features which can be observed nowhere else in this

upper Precambrian and Cambrian geosyncline.

2 The local sediments are lower members of the Adelaide System which locally

instance a remarkable vertical change in competency from slates, through a

massive (6,000 ivot) quartzite, into mare slates with limestones,

The relative competencies of the sedimentary members exercised a controlling

influence in the development af local structural patterns.

The sediments have been folded and faulted extensively.

Regional folcing, in part at least, preceded thrust faulting.

Thrust faulting is late or past-sediment consolidation, as brecciation pre-

domninates. along the fault zones and evidence of significant subaquvous

slumping is absent. The absence of unconformities above the thrusts also

supports this, view.

8 Thrust faults in some cases followed obvious Hines of weakness, such as the

axis of a steep regional anticline and the contact between competent and

incompetent Tormations.

9 At least three of the regional thrust faults have large horizontal componerits,

and relative movement has been to the south or south-east, apparentiy away

from the inferred rising foreland of the old continental shield.

“SO in fe

(a) North of Witchelina, the Witchelina quartzite and iis associated magne-

site series have over-tidden lower sedimentary members to the south.

(b) The Mount Nor-west and South Hill faults appear to be complementary,

enclosing a central block moving relatively to the south. The two faults

lie almost at right angles and are respectively sinistral and dextral.

10 Additional regional faults are known, but their field relations have not yet

been determined satisfactorily.

1) No “lubrication” ‘horizons have been met in association with any of the

thrust faults,

12° The thrust structures described may constittite a case of tectonic sliding, and

on present indications two major controls in deformation would appear to be;

(a) Situation near the margin of the old geosyncline, In this position a

rising continental foreland accompanying geosynclinal collapse wotild

increase sedimentary dip towards the centre of the hasin and finally

Initiate tectonte sliding,

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,1949 Vol, 73, Plate IT

Rie 1 The Witehelis Thrust Structure

Photo looking north towards the Lake Eyre Plains.

ROA ALL. phot Ne. 54, run 337 LO,

Lat. approx 30° 5S. Long. 138° UN" Fe.

Seale in foreground, approx. 45 chains ta the ineh,

Fig. 20 The South Hill Dras Strneture,

Vertical plroto from 20400 feet ROAST phote, No. 31, run a7,

Jegt HNO HOF & tanow 1270-504

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust, 140 Vol, 73, Plate TIL

-_>

~ "= - rs

fenye | . ,

s-- =) ar

pr oe

sa e

Pig. 1 Mt. Norwest Fault, showing trumeated limls of quartzite in foreeroil,

Photo looking south to Jake ‘Vorrens.

Fig. 2. The Mt. Nerwest Fault. Dark patches in centre forepround

are doleritic plugs jniruding fault ernush zone.

RAAT. vertical photo No. 68, rin 330.

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RECONNAISSANCE

WILLQURAN RANGES

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTUMAL nuaAP

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Geology by &.C, Sen

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MILES | a | = =. =a = 6 ? a 2 IG " 2 i3 'a 1S IG i? ia is 20 =! =2 23 MILES

Oot aie

(b) The presence of a major competent formation, 6,000 feet thick, low in

the sedimentary sequence, which during sliding concentrated stresses

locally, to bring about severe local deformation.

REFERENCES

Mawson, D. 1942 The Structural Characters of the Flinders Ranges. Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, (2)

Dapetes, E. C., Krumpetn, W. C., and Stoss, L. L. 1948 Tectonic Control of

Lithologic Associations. Bull. A.A.P.G., 32, No. 12

Kay, M. 1947 Synclinal Nomenclature and the Craton. Bull. A.A.P.G., 32,

No, 7

THE NULLARBOR CAVE SYSTEMS

BY J. M. THOMSON

Summary

The writer has organised five trips to the Nullarbor Plains (1932, 1934, 1935, 1939 and 1947) in

order to study the vast cave system there.

THE NULLARBOR CAVES SYSTEM

Ry J. M. Taomson

[Read 21 July 1949]

The writer has organised five trips to the Nullarbor Plains (1932, 1934,

1935, 1939, and 1947) in order to study the vast cave system there.

The present paper details some of the results of the last expedition carried

out in February 1947.

Surveys by J, M, Thomson, Master Mariner, and F. E. Ellis (Licensed Surveyor).

Geological Data by D. King.

Caves on the Nullarbor may be classed in two distinct types—Shallow

and Deep.

Shallow caves may be again subdivided into four distinct classes according

to the nature of the entrances,

(a) Those having a narrow elclt or fissure-like opening. These are usually

only as deep as the upper hard crust, 60 to 70 feet, and consist for the

most part of yariotts short passages, never more than a few feet wide.

They nearly always contain some dead stalagniites and stalactites:

FExamples—FPlate y, fig. 1: One (unnamed), } mile north-west of

White Weils Station. One, 3-7 miles north of Disappointment Cave. Mur-

rioodna Cave (pl. v, fig. 2).

(b) Caves and passages leading off from the bottom and sides of Blow Holes.

These are seldom more than 100 feet in length or deeper than 40 ta 60 feet.

‘They nearly always contain some dead stalactites and stalagmites.

Example—lvy Cave (see pl vy, fig, 4). Koomooloobooka Cave.

Bildoolja Cave. The Catacombs (pl. iv, fig. 1),

These are always found in stony outcrops and invariably have several

stunted quandong trees growing around the entrance and have been named

from the fact that the interior is similar in shape to the interior of a bottle.

At the base of the opening is always found the heap of mullock which ance

formed the roof at this part. This heap of mullock is tiever found at the

base of normal blow-holes. I have never found bottletteck caves to con-

tain stalactites or stalagmites. They mostly consist of the one chamber

only and rarely have passages leading off but often have inatiy small pipes

a few inches in diameter leading into them at varying heights. They are

generally about 40 fect deep,

Examples —Cave; one mile south of No. 3 Murrawadginie Cave.

One; 4 nile north-west of No. 1 Diprose Cave,

(d) Small sink-hole entrances, i.¢., with sink-holes 60 to 70 feet across and

10 to 30 feet deep, and generally having long passages leading down from

the bottom of the sink hole and usually deepening to between 50 and 60 feet.

Examples—Diprose Caves. Disappointment Caves (pl, iv, fig. 3).

Creck Tank Caves. Murrawidginie Caves.

Trans, Roy Soc. 73, (1)

DEEP CAVIS

These have large sink-hole entrances, t.¢., sink-holes from 200 to 400 fect

across, and as deep as the hard upper crust of the limestone, 60 to 80 fect. These

large sink-hules are only found in the sparsely-timbered belt bordering the

Nullarbor and have never yet been found actually on the Plain itself, probably

because of the greater thickness of the limestone nearer the coast.

These all penetrate the hard surface crust and invariably lead down through

huge passages to the water table, approximately 300 tu 340 feel, some containing

large lakes of water, These, from their enormous size, are the most spectacular

of the Nullarbor Caves.

Exomples—Koonalda (pl. iv, fg, 2), Warbla. Weebubbie (pl. vi,

fig. 2).

“KOONALDA CAVE-

bead . - re

Zs Z

LYE yy YD

till Ly ,

Fig. 1 Plan of Koonalda Cave

A Description oF Koowaupa AS AN ExAmpLr or a DEEP CAVR

Matin Sinx-Hoxe (pl. iv, fig. 2)

210 fect long by 80 feet wide and 90 feet deep at its deepest part (pl. iv;

fig. 2).

This sink-hole A has steep sides with overhanging lips from the north-west

through west to the north-east portions the edge is slightly tilled, allowing reason-

able access with a Jacoh’s ladder,

At the bottom of the sinl-hole and ar the north-west corner an opening leads

down to the ‘ower chaiubers, After a descent to 200 feet a huge chamber, B (fi. 1),

with domed roof is reached. This cavern is 280 feet long and 120 feet wide with

the roof 100 feet high. T.ong underground passages lead from the northern and

western ends of this chamber, the northern one 1,650 feet long with the root an

average height of 50 feet and approximately 60 feet wide.

At 500 feet, C, a small pool of water 5 feet deep and extending 150 feet

blocks the passage; then an “isthmus” 110 feet across, [allowed by a lake 475 feet

long and 5 fect deep with an average width of 90 fcet.

Analysis of this water shows salinity 372 grains to the gallon total salts. This

corresponds to a good sheep water, The relatively good quality of this water 1s

probably influenced by recent heavy rains.

At the far end of this lake a huge fall again forms an “isthmus” 210 feet

long in the form of a conical island, at its highest peak 85 feet above water level.

This “isthmus” is also a fall from the roof and above it the roof is dome shaped,

rising alinost to ground level.

Past this “isthmus” is a further lake 180 feet long and 40 feet wide (depth

unknown, but it appears to be very deep).

Scattered along the centre and largest lake are huge boulders, fallen irom

the roof, whose tops jut out above the water surface and could be very

dangerous to the canocist.

480 feet along the main northern passage, near C, a passage forks off to

the westward fpr 370 fect, ending in a lake of water 50 feet by 70 feet and about

10 feet deep at its farthest pomt. Analysis of this water showed salinity

493 wrains per gallon tatal salts, and the previous remarks may be applied to its

freshness. The avcrage width of this passage is 90 feet and the root 40 feet

high. Over the lake the roof rises and domes to 110 feet above water level.

‘The north-west passage commences at the north-west corner of the main

chamber, B, at a point near the roof and continues. on for 640 feet, It is slightly

undulating, the highest points being roughly 250 feet apart. This passage is

roughly 30 fcet high aud between 40 and 50 feet wide. At the last high peak a

steep slope of 45 degrees drops down to a narrow cat-walk barely a foot high

which proceeds. through the limestone for 20 feet, ending at a narrow ledge

5 fect wide and 20 feet long.

In 1935 when we first discovered this passageway our lights would not

illuminate the far side of this further cavern, but on dropping stones we found

they landed im water approximately 100 feet down (E). In January 1947,

when we thoronghly surveyed this cave, we discovered that the north-westera

passage ended in the domed roof at the end of the western passage, commencing

at (C), and that it is exactly 90 feet above water level in the end of the western

passage.

This small ledge cannot be seen from ground level at the end of the western

pissage.

There is a possibility that further passages lead off from the main chamber,

B. in a south-westetly direction as this is indicated by the depressions above

reound, but considerable removal of earth and botilders would be necessary before

entrance could be obtained.

Particularly in the western passage and at about 20 feet above floor level

several horizons of large nodular flints ornament the walls.

A Descripmon or THE CATACOMRAS, TYVICAL OF THE SHALLOW CAVES

J atitude 31 degrees 8 south; longitude 130 degrees 36’ cast, approximately-

JJiscovered by Jones in 1880 and only partly explored,

Entrance to the Catacombs is in a stony outerep (pl. iv, fig, 1) scattered with

small quandong trees, the actual entrance being a blow-hole about 3 feet in diameter

and 25 feet deep. The sink-hole or depression surrounding this blow hole is

70 feet long by 35 feet wide but only LO icet deep.

After descending the blow hole a main north-west south-east passage

240 feet long by 50 feet wide is reached. The roof of this chamber is supported

by a pillar 30 fect by 20 feet (it is not a Great Mite). This was described by

Jones, but it appears that a very recent and quite heavy fall from the roof has

blocked a considerable part of this passage which Jones penetrated.

the roof 5 to 6 feet high and reaches a point 60 fcet below ground level and

directions,

85 feet from the entrance hole and in an easterly direction a cross passage

is reached; position C, fig. 2, running north-east and south-west. From C, we

continues on. Branching off from this main passage, as is also the case from the

penetrated to D, a total distance of 150 feet. ‘This passage is 10 feet wide with

centre chamber B, are innumerable passages and cat-walks leading off in all

os, ~THE_CATACOMBS—

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Fig. 2 Plan of the Catacombs

Time would not permit further exploration in this cave, but we found slight

evidence of drip stones, etc., and I belicve a thorough exploration of this cave

might well be warranted.

12 miles north-east of the Catacombs is Kudna Rock-hole (see pl. v, fig. 2).

It is really two holes capable of holding about 70 gallons of water. This was

found and named by Delisser in 1876. Jones also watered here in 1880,

4 mile south-west of the Catacombs we discovered and named Knowles Cave,

which is a kidney-shaped sink-hole 1,000 feet long running north-west and south-

east. It is 100 feet deep at the north-western end and 80 feet deep at the south-

eastern end. There are no branch passages from these deeper caverns,

GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE NULLARBOR CAVERNOUS LIMESTONE

BY D. KING

Summary

In the first portion of this paper the nature and environment of the Nullarbor caverns are discussed

and theories put forward to explain their formation. The immense deep-seated chambers are

attributed to solution of the the limestone in the zone of rock saturation below the surface of the

water table, i.e., Phreatic conditions. The more numerous shallow caves, blow holes and minor

sinks are related to the dual effects of solution and corrosion by precipitated surface waters making

their way down to the water table — Vadose conditions. It is suggested that the caverns were for the

greater part formed during the pluvial Pleistocene when the water table stood at a higher level.

GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON THE NULLARBOR CAVERNOUS

LIMESTONE

Ry D, Kinet

ARSTRACT

In the first portion of this paper the nature and environment of the

Nullarbor caverns are discussed atid theories put forward to explain their

formation, The immense deep-seated chambers are attributed to solution

of the limestone in the zone of rock saturation below the surface of the water

table, ie., Phreatic conditions. The more numerous shallow caves, blow

holes and minor sinks are related to the dual effects of solution and corrasion

by precipitated surface waters making their way down to the water table—

Vadose conditions. It is suggested that the caverns were for the greater

part formed during the pluvial Pleistocene when the water table stood at

a higher level,

In the stratigraphical portion uf the paper, a considerable thickness nf

Upper Cretaceous bryozoal limestone is reported.

THE ORIGIN OF THE NULLARBOR CAVES

The fact that not one creek or watercourse of any consequence is met

within the whole 30,000 sqtare miles of the Nullarbor Plain proper, reveals

that the drainage oi the meag're rainfall of the area is cotnpletely restricted

to underground waterways. The abundance and large dimensions of the caves

suggest that they were developed during a highly pluvial period, and

although tio direct evidence of their age was found, it is considered that they

were for the greater part hollowed out during the Pleistocene, when Aust-

ralia experienced a notably wet climate. Relics of an ancient river system,

in the form of a stting of saline lagoons linked by partially sand-drifted de-

pressions, occur in the Pidinga region on the eastern fringe of the plain,

and present evidence of former high rainfall conditions,

Precipitated guriace waters, making their way downward through the

limestone as vadose streams, created both erosional and solutional passages

in the rock, ornamented with dripstones. At the water table, and below,

solution alone was responsible for the formation of immense horizontal

caverns devoid of dripstones.

The discussion of the origin of the caves thus resolves. itself into two

categories.

CAVERNS OF Pureatic Ontcin

The large deep-seated caverns such as Koonalda, Weebabbic, Abra-

kurrie and Warbla, ate confined to near the coast where the limestone is

of greater thickness. The sinkholes of these range in depth from 60 to 100

feet. At ihe base of these sinks there are commonly found lateral passages,

firstly with a down gradient and of cramped dimensions, but which pradu-

ally open out into immense rounded chambers, with little or no gradient,

and continue as stich for many hundreds of yards. The chambers meander,

with gently rounded bends, but have a dominant north-south trend. In

some cases there are off shoovs from the main caverns. The caverns end

abruptly as an enlarged rounded amphitheatre.

* Department of Mines, Sotth Arstralia.

At a depth of 300 feet the water table is reached and below this “under-

ground lakes” of perfectly clear water extend for great distances, interrupted

by islands of material fallen from the roof.

The lower chalk horizon of the limestone (see stratigraphic notes) 1s

extensively eaten out into such chambers. The possibility of access to them

is only exceptional, necessitating the collapse of the overlying silicifed

“hard crust”, and incomplete blocking of the charmbers. The writer's inter-

pretation, of the structure of this type of cavern is illustrated in the accom-

panying sketch. (Fig. 3).

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LOWER PLIOCENE

Dense stltciied? dimsestone, large sossese cages.

Saraminitera ~y~macgipegera rertebretrs.

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UPPER MIDDLE MIOCENE

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fetcarina rercibalatea. —~—+-—-----

UPPER CRETACEOUS

Chathy Bryarceal frmestone.

Foraminttere ~ 3 eroplectadtes erhe

Marssoralie erytere:

Fig 3 Sketch section showing a typical sinkhole entrance to

a Nullarbor cavern, and the slratigraphical succession.

From evidence outlined below, the writer contends that these caverns

were produced and enlarged under completely phreatic conditions hy solu-

tion effects along major joint planes, the underground water being supple-

mented by vadose streams. The periodic addition of carbonated rain water

from above would greatly enhance the susceptibility of the limestone to

solution, the carbon dioxide bringing about the formation of the much more

soluble calcium bi-carbonate. Assuming an annual rainfall of 20 inches at

the time of formation of the caves, the amount of water which fell in the

course of a year on one square mile of the plain would alone he capable of

dissolving some 350 cubie feet or tore of rock as calcium carbonate, or

even more as bi carbonate,

The concentration of the solvent activity in localised places, stich as

along joint planes, made possible the formation of the very large caverns.

As circulation in the phreatic zone is confined to lateral drainage,

which does not extend far below the water table, it may be asstimed that

solutional effects on sgich a great scale as observed would only be possible

just below the water table. A. C_ Swinnerton (3) has demonstrated that

solution in the upper part of the water table is quantitatively adequate to

perform the task demanded,

The data on which the phreatie origin of the caves is based may be

summarised as follow :—

(a) The cavern floors show little or no gradient. This is well illustrated

in the section of Koonalda cave. (fig. 1), neglecting the material that

has fallen from the roof.

(b) The caverns have rounded cross-sections and, in general, there is no

line of demarcation of roof and wall. The smooth and undulating

surfaces of both toof and walls are diagnostic of solution effects.

(See pl. vi, fig. 2.)

walls and ceilings, in contrast to the absence of dripstones, has an im-

portant significance. Under wholly phreatic conditions, the absence af

air would eliminate the possibility of the formation of dripstones,

whereas the saturated condition of the water which must occur in deep-

seated more or less stagnant “circulation”, would bring about precipi

tation of crystalline mineral matter while the rock material was actu-

ally being dissolved.

(d) The general direction of the caverns (north-soutl) corresponds with

the direction of water table drainage.

(ec) The ends. of the caverns are as sudden at their commencement as sink-

holes (pl. vi, fig. 1), and are rounded out perfectly in continuity with the

roofs and walls, Such a phenomenon is not in accordance with the

habits of vadose streams,

The porosity of the chalky cavernous limestone, calculated to be 269,

and the fall of ntaterial from the roof, would aid solutional effects in enlarging

the caverns by exposing a larger surface area to attack.

At this stage a quotation from the thesis of W, M. Davis (2) would not

be out of place, He says, ‘It ig proposed . .. that large caverns are ordin-

arily excayated by ground water solution duting an epoch when the body of

limestone in which they occur lies below the water table of its district, and

the change from this epoch of solutional excavation to the following epoch

of depositional replenishment takes place when the water table sinks below

the cavern level in consequence of regional elevation or other effective

cause .. .”,

The question arises, “What then has caused the draining of the Nullar-

bor caves?”, There is no definite evidence that the plain 1g tising or has

risen although there are indications in this direction. Inhabitants of Eucla

say that the sea has receded gradually during the Jast generation but no

scientific work has been done to verify this. The explanation of the drying

out of the caves is more likely to be connected with the relative levels of

the water table under changing climatic conditions. In consequence of a

change from the pluvial Pleistocene to the arid present, it follows that the

water table would stand at a much lower level today. The simultaneous

draining of the caves and the change te arid conditions would also account

for the absence of dripstones in these deep chambers. ‘The collapse of the

roofs with the production of sink-holes (fig 3) may have been prompted by

the draining off of the water, which previously would have acted as a means

of support.

The common occurrence in the ceilings of perfectly developed domes

by a partial collapse of the rock material seems to be a natural means of

resisting further collapse. Most domes are smooth and merge gently into

the roof proper. This suggests that the rock fell during or at the decline

of the phreatic phase of the cavern’s history. Enlargement of the caverns

is probably going on to a minor degtee at the present time, the bottom of

some being below the water table, where water accumulates as underground

lakes, The extent of solution under present conditions is discussed in a

later section.

Caverns or Vapose Orrcin

The origin of the numerous shallow underground passages, caves, swallow-

holes and blowholes, in contrast to the large deep-seated caverns, appears. to have

been dependent on corrosional and solutional effects of surface waters making

their way down to the water table. The erosive action of the water would

be enhanced hy suspended silty material carricd in from the surface. The

walls and roofs are angular and irregular and, in general, they have a

fairly steep gradient. The blowholes are olten vertical. The occurrence of

dripstones in these shallower caves is evidence that they were formed hy

vadose waters. The writer contends that the dripstones are mainly relics

of the high rainfall period (Pleistocene?) existing when the caverns were

formed. In some localised parts of the passages, at the intersection of joints

and along planes of weakness afforded by the bedding, more active erosion

has taken place and larger openings have heen developed. This is well

illustrated in the natrow passageways of the Catacombs which occasionally

open up into large chambers (fig 2.).

WATER ANALYSES

Samples of water from the surface of pools in Koonalda Cave, forwarded

to the S.A.G. Department of Mines, were analysed by T. W, Dalwood of

the School of Mines Assay Department. The results are tecorded below.

Koonalda Koonalda

Locality Cave Cave san risii

Western Northern Water Cut

Passage Passare 198 ft.

Tons and Radicles (gruins per gall.)

Chlorine, Cl - - - - - - - 264-95 201-60 749-43

Sulphuric acid, SO, -— - - = = 4654 30-70 145-31

Carbonic acid, CO, - - - - - 3-15 4-20 4-50

Nitric acid, NO, - = - - - - ttace trace =

Sodium, Na - - = < - - 145-70 410-8 414+21

Potassium, Kf - - - - - - ~ - —_

Calcium, Ca ~- eee 1674 12-37 46-95

Magnesium, Mg - - - - = = 16-72 12-52 47-15

Silica, SiO, - - - = = - + - “ 1:90

Total saline matter (grains per gall.) - 493-80 372-19 1,409-45

Total saline matter (qunces per gall.) - 1+13 0-85 3-22

Assumed Composition of Salts (grains per gall.)

Calcium carbonate - “ - - - 5:25 7*0)

Calcrum. stiiphate - - - - - 49°66 52-51 149-43

Calcium chloride - - - - - - - rm —

Magnesium curbonate - - = - - - ® —

Magnesium sulphate - - - - - 14-41 9-73 49-79

Magnesium chloride 54:16 41-32 147-21

Sodium carbonate - - - - - - - —

Sodium sulphate - - - - - - - - —

Sodium chloride - - 370-32 281-63 1,053*f2

Sodium nitrate - - - - - - trace trace —

Silica - - - - - - - - 6 - 1-90

‘

The low lime content may be partly explained by the fact that the

samples were taken after local heavy rains, and sufficient time may not

have elapsed for appreciable solution of the limestone to have taken place.

Nevertheless, samples fram bores on the Nullarbor Plain have shown a

simular low figure for lime. The analysis of water from the chalk horizon in

Muddaugana Bore quoted by Ward (4) has been listed for comparison...

The conclusion is reached that ander (he existing arid conditions, a sufficient

influx of carbonated surface waters essential for the large scale solution of

the limestone is lacking, and consequently, the excavation of the caverns

at the present time is restricted to almost negligible proportions.

CAVE EARTTIS

The floorg of the eaves are covered with a thick Jayer of red-brown

clayey soil, pattly residual, and partly washed in from the plain, as well

as large heaps of fragmentary limestone fallen from the roof. Other mineral

matter is uncommon and the following only occur locally.

Glauber’s Salty—Efflorescent crusts of Glauber’s Salts occur on the

floor of certain passages of Koonalda Cave. The deposits are several feet

thick. The lower portions are crystalline but promptly fall into powder on

exposure to air.

But Guano—A small sinkhole about one mile south east of Koonalda

Cave contains abundant bat guano oozing out of fissures in the walls. The

material is almast black in colotr, moist and sticky where broken, and of

an unpleasant odour. The outside surlace of the guano is smooth and

polished, On drying, it becomes imuch harder and brittle. The occurrence

suggests that it oozed along the fissures and down the walls of the depres-

sion at reduced viscosity, in the presence of abundant water. There are

considerable amounts of ligncous matter, mainly twigs, included ity the

guano. A qualitative chemical test showed the presence of phosphate.

Gypsum—Long fibrous ctystals of gypsum commonly radiate from the flint

nodules in the walls of most of the deeper cayes. The mineral was restricted

to this occurrence.

Ochre—Nodules of soft powdery red-brown hydrated iron oxide oecur in

some parts of the limestones. They may represent a leached residual. There

are only a few isolated oceurrences of the ochre, best seen at Watbla Cave.

Carphosiderite—Minute yellow stains of this mineral are present in the

lower horizon of Weebabhie Cave. The carphosiderite was determined by

chemical spot tests. (The test was carried out because of its resemblance

1o carnotite stains).

STRATIGRAPHY

The horizontal undisturbed Jimestones of the Nullarbor Plain cover

more than eighteen thousand (18,000) square miles at South Australian

territory, and extend mto W.A,, north of the Great Australian Bight, The

thickness as observed from water boring varies from five hundred tq seven

hundred feet, the basin becoming shallower land. They overlie lacustrine sedi-

ments, including lignite, and Precambrian granites and gneisses,

An upper “hard crust " of silicified limestone from 40 to 60 feet thick,

with abtindant casts of fossil shells (pl. vi, fg. +) abruptly passes down imto

a soft white chalky horizon which continues down to a depth of at least

300 feet, In the upper horizons (100 to 150 feet) the chalk contains abun-

dant echinvids (Cassidulus sp.). Ata depth of 150 to 200 feet Notestrea are

cammon. Below this there are no large fossils. Thin horizons of nodular

flints, clongated horizontally, and with longer axes measuring up to several

feet, occur in the chalk at depths of 105, 140, 190 and 220 feet. The chalk

has been the most susceptible to solution effects and the collapse of the

overlying “hard crust” under gravily has given rise to sink lioles,

Samples of the limestones were collected at regular depth intervals.

‘T\wenty-six thin sections were prepared by the writer and forwarded {o Miss

1. Crespin, Commonwealth Palaeontologist, for determination of age rela-

tions. Detailed work on zonal foraminifera carried cut by Miss Crespin

provided most interesting results, Of particular importance is the discov-

ery that the lower chalk is of Upper Cretaceous age.) Previously the lime-

stone had been referred to Tertiary times only,

The sttface limestones apparently belong to two series, the Lower

Pliocene and the Upper Middle Miocenc, and can be correlated with parts

of the sections of the Adelaide Flains. Miss Crespin believes that the Lower

Pliocene limestones represent a deeper water facies of the “Adelaidcan"

which she is naw convinced is Lower Phocene, (but not Kalimnan) and

which extends as far north as North West Cape in Western Australia. The

chalky limestones from the caves are Upper Cretaceous, several well-known

zonal foraminifera being noted in them. The nearest known Upper Crcta-

ccous deposits are at Gin Gin in Western Australia.

Miss Crespin's correlation is outlined as under: (Report No, 1947/68).

The limestones came from three caves on the Nullarbor Plains, the

Koonalda, the Abrakurrie und the Weebabbie, and from the surface erst

in the vicinity of the caves. The surface samples are labelled Sl, 52 and S3,

and were co'fected from the surface down to a depth of 10 feet.

1, Lower Purocenr (“Adelaidean")--0-10 ft. in thickness.

Si and S3 are hard, dense, pink to cream-coloured limestones containing

furaminifera. Marginopora verlebralis is common and is associated with Sarites

mearginalis, Malvulina sp., Jilintina triquetra, Triloculina tricarinata atid Discorbis

evcloclypeus, all of which are typical of the Lower Phocene (“Adelaidean”) of

South Austrilia. The common (“Adelaidean”) gastropod Neodiastoma provist

is also present itt S3.

2 Uerree Minn. Miocene—S0-90 ft. in thickness.

Sample $2 is a hard, dense, dark cream-coloured limestone with numerous

lyghter patches of the caleareous alga Lithothammium ramoassisimum. Numerous

foraminifera are present in the rock, the commonest forms being Operculina

wictoriensis and Calcaring vercibulata, Racer forms are Gypsma howchint and

~ ©) Later field investigations by the present wriler, how ever, stiggest that the chalky

lunestone is of Middle Miocene age.

Crespinella umbonifera, This assemblage is typically Miocene and has recently

been found at the top of the Miocene and immediately underlying the Lower

Pliocene in bores in the Adelaide Plains. Present information suggests that this

assemblage represents the uppermost portion of the Middle Miocene.

3 Upper CrETAcEouUsS—at least 200 ft. in thickness.

The samples from the Koonalda Cave (C5-C9, C11, C13, C16-C19) were

collected from the depth of 60 feet down to 300 feet, those from the Abrakurrie

Cave (M5, M6, M8) from 150 feet down to 240 feet, and from the Weebabbie

Caye (W10, W16) from 100 feet down to 290 feet. Except for C5 from the

Koonalda Cave. which is a crystalline limestone of indeterminate age, all samples

from the three caves consist of chalky white bryozoal limestones of Upper

Cretaceous age, The limestones contain foraminifera and radiolaria, an associa-

tion which is frequently found in rocks of Cretaceous age in Australia. The

Zonal foraminifera recognised are Spiroplectotdes clotho, Marssonella oxycona

and Globotruncana sp. Other typical species are Guembelina globulosa and

Globigerina cretacea, Small rotalines are common but are difficult to determine

in thin section. The radiolaria all belong to the Spumellarian group.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express thanks to Captain J. M, Thomson for the invita-

tion to accompany him on the expedition to the Nullarbor Plain, and to Sir

Douglas Mawson for the use af facilities at the University of Adelaide for the

preparation of rock sections,

REFERENCES

1 Cresrin, Miss I 1947 Notes on Samples of Limestones from the Nullarbor

Plains, South Australia. Report No, 1947/68—Unpublished (1947)

2 Davis, W. M. 1930 Origin of Limestone Caverns. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Amer., 41

3 Swryverton, A. C. 1932 Origin of Limestone Caverns. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Amer., 43

4 Warp, L. K. 1946 The Occurrence, Composition, Testing and Utilization

of Underground Water in South Australia, and the Search for Further

Supplies. Geol. Surv. of S. Aust., Bull, 23

73, Plate IV

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AN OLD MANGROVE MUD-FLAT EXPOSED BY WAVE SCOURING AT

GLENELG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY BERNARD C,. COTTON

Summary

On 17 June 1949 Mr H. M. Cooper drew my attention to an old mangrove mud-flat recently

exposed by wave scouring. The site is situated between Broadway and Weewanda Street, Glenelg,

and extends for a distance of about a quarter of a mile. At low tide the mangrove flat is exposed

from almost the water’s edge for a distance of some twenty yards up the beach, and then follows an

old quartzite pebble beach some three yards in average width, and then fine sand of the present

beach.

AN OLD MANGROVE MUD-FLAT EXPOSED BEY WAVE SCOURING

AT GLENELG, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Ly Bernarp C. Corton*

[Read 11 August 1949]

On 17 June 1949 Mr. H. M. Cooper drew my attention to an old mangrove

mud-flat recently exposed by wave scouring. The site is situated between Broad-

way and Weewanda Street, Glenelg, and extends for a distance of about a quarter

of a mile. .At low tide the mangrove flat is exposed from almost the water's

edge for a distatice of some twenty yards up the beach, and then follows an ald

quartzile pebble beach some three yards in average width, and then fine sand of

the present beach.

Dead trunks, roots and pneumatophores of the mangrove, dwvicennia

offictnals are to be seen in numbers planed off Jevel with the mud surface by

gentle tidal action, leaving sections exposed, Numerous dead shells are embedded

in the mud in their living position. They are species similar to those found at

the Port River mangrove flats today. The bivalves are Macoma deltoidalis,

Macoma modestina, Venerupis crebrelamellata, Penerupis crenata, Soletellina

biradiata, Enmarcia fiusmigata, Notospisida parva, Pholas australasiag and Noto-

feredo edax. Gastropods are Bembicinm imbricatum, Zeacumanius diomenensis,

Ausirocochlea sebra, Selinator fragilis, Uber conicum, Fhasianella anstralis,

Jn addition to these there are reef shells such as Cleidotheerus albidus, Ostrea

sinuata, Brachyodontes erosus, Cominella eburnca, Trichomya hirsuta and

Melanerita melanotragus. The reet shells apparently attached to or lived upon

the hard sandstone capping, two or three inches thick, found in patches on top

of the black mud. Odd samples of the sandstone are covered with young dead

“Port Lincoln” oysters of the species mentioned above. Dvad specimens of the

“shipworm’ Nototeredo eda are fond in practically every mangrove slump

examined,

Certain species of mollusca found im sift are larger than present-day livmg

specimens, Bembricium imbricatum averages over twice the bulk of livmg

examples, Austrocochlea zebra is taller and the mussel Brachyodontes is consistently

slightly Jarger. Mangrove flats thronghottt Australia have a similar fauna and

show little alteration in different faunal regions, except that produced by lower

temperatures. The result is that the large species of the North are missing m

the South, and even the apecies common to all mangrove areas become smaller

in cooler waters. Therefore it is logical to expect that the mangrove mud-flat

here exposed enjoyed a slightly warmer climate in its day, Mangroves are

gradually retreating north in Gulf St. Vineet, Whereas there is every indication

from fatal studies that the mangrove lived until.a comparatively short time ago

on both sides of the present beach sand dune us far sunt as Port Noarlunga, it

has now retreated north to the region of the Outer Harbour mud-flats. Here

within the last twenty years silting has killed them Gyer most of the large area

which is shortly to be reclaimed for harbour works.

The recently exposed site was rapiilly desiccated by tidal action, Tt was

first examined on 17 June. On 19 June tt was partly covered by weed ( Pasi-

dona). By 24 June the pebble recf was mostly covered with sand over its full

length, and the sand has already thinly covered a large portion of the man-

rrove flat.

*Sonth Austratian Museum.

Trains Roy Soc. 73, 1)

By August 13th the scoured area was almost entirely covered with a smooth

Jayer of fine sand like that so typical of Adelaide beaches.

It was ascertained by digging on 3 Vebruary 1950 that a minimum average

ol twenty inches of sand covered this site.

‘Nhe shells could not remain in situ very long when exposed for a weel aiter

17 June. They were already being washed out of the soft black mud. A fisher-

man, Mr, F. Page, says that a small purtion of mangrove flat, about 50 yards

long and 20 yards wide, was exposed in front of Weewanda Street in January

1949.

Pebind the present sand-dunes, in the area known as New Glenelg, fresh

water is struck at about 12 feet in a quartzite pebble bed, which is situated at

about the same Jevel as the quartzite bed of the beach. This pebble bed evidently

cartlinues almost to the foot of the old red sandhills, which stretch from Somerton

tu Glenely in an almost uninterrupted sequence and are exposed near Brighton

Koad, Sacred Heart College, and at the corner of the College playing fields near

Walker's Road. ‘The western edge of the red sand-dunes runs north and south

and a little west of Moseley Street. They were merely low ridges about 15 feet

in maximum height, but buillings, roads and other influences have now obliterated

traces in most areas. In June 1948 scouring took place at Brighton, and the surface

sand was removed io a depth of four feet, exposing in places the top of the black

mul, The vertebrae and rits of a whale skeleton were revealed in situ. The dis-

covery was reported by Mrs. IE. M, Nairn of Rrighton, The Director of the

Sout Australian Museum, Mr, H. M. Hale, identified the skeleton, which is in

a poor state of preservation. as a whale-bone whale, probably a hump-back. It

is possilie that the skeleton is contemporary with the mangrove fiat. It

is suggested that the mangrove flat and quartaite reef may be con-

temporary with the oll red sandhills. Te is difficult to decide whether the

pebbles are of coastal origin or indicate an old opening of the Sturt River. The

uceurrence of cross-béidded red sandstone typical of the Adelaide system favours

an origin consistent with sea-shore transportation as rocks of this group outcrop

in the sea-cliff regions from Marino South, Such rocks do not outcrop in the

yalley of the River Sturt.

It is interesting to note that. a sketch of this area by Colonel Light in about

1836 depicts the beach pretly well as at present, the coastal dunes probably bound

with trne spinifex (Spinifex hivsutus), Olearia and other dune vegetation, as

they are today. The dunes are 250 yards wide and up to 30 to 50 fect in height,

sloping to high water level towards sea. Streets and buildings now cover portion

of rhe immer edge of what is really an unbroken dune ridge.

A test bore shows mangrove mud to be about two Feet in thicktess followed

try glauconitic clay, then sand, but no rock. This suggests that the mangroves

fluurished for only a comparatively short period.

lt may be that the tmuotial scouring of the beach in this area first commenced

when the artificial projection of the Broadway sea-wall was built in 1928, The

liattom of this sea-wall is just below high-tide mark, The scouring was strongly

accentuated during a heavy sea in April 1948 when IT,M-A.S. “Bareoo,” survey

irigate, was driven ashore at Glenelg Nerth. From then on the scouring con-

tinued for about twelve months, exposing the first small portion of mangrove flat

in Janvary 1949, mentioned by F. Page.

Mr. A. G. Edytist kindly directed my attention to the sequence of strata

exposed in a recently excavated drainage well, Situated on a property in Farrell

Streei at about 200 yards from high tide mark, the excavation has reached a depth

of six Teet. The uppermost layer is of black swamp silt which may have heen

originally dune sand and vegetation, and is about twelve inches in thickness. Next

follows a limestone band, six inches thick, apparently contemporary with that of

the oyster bed in the mangrove flat.

Beneath this is two feet of yellow sand, Under the sand is about six inches

of light coloured mud and sand in which is an abundance of Coxiella shells

similar to those found in such quantity in the Coorong and around inland salt

lakes,

Beneath is the black mud of the mangrove swamp with the cockle Katelysia

and other marine shells of the mangrove suite.

This sequence, situated in the swale behind the present beach-dunes, presents

an interesting contrast to the wave-scoured site on the beach front.

Some years ago a fresh water swamp existed here which accounts for the

black swamp-silt resting above the limestone. The fine yellow sand beneath the

limestone may be beach dune-sand. The Coxiella mud suggests a salt-lake with

changing salinity as these molluscs flourish in changing salt concentrations, from

water salter than the sca to almost fresh. Beneath this is the mangrove mud-flat.

On 9 February 1950 a similar though smaller site at Ilenley Beach, just north

of the River Torrens outlet, was brought to my notice by Mr. C. V. Fischer. He

states that the scouring was first observed about April 1948, with which date the

heavy scouring at Glenelg corresponds.

H, M. Cooper intends to describe later some of the native stone implements

and other material discovered by him on the site.

CoNCLUSION

The mangrove mud-flat recently exposed by wave-scouring flourished for a

short period from, say, one thousand to three thousand years ago when the climate

was a little warmer, and may have been contemporary with the old red sand-

hills. The mangroves were comparatively quickly exterminated by sand-silting.

This process is now proceeding at the Outer Harbour, and has previously killed

the mangroves which once grew as far south as Port Noarlunga.

FOSSIL OYSTERS USED FOR ROAD METAL

BY BERNARD C. COTTON

Summary

Deposits of fossil oysters occur in certain areas near the River Murray. The photograph on pl. viii,

fig. 2, shows oysters from an excavation made near the Swan Reach — Loxton road about two miles

north of Swan Reach. The area so far dug out is about 50 feet in diameter and the sides display a

compact mass of oysters, Ostrea sturtiana Tate (? = O. arenicola Tate), 15 feet in thickness and

extending to within twelve inches of the surface which is of travertine limestone. The matrix

becomes harder at the base, so that excavations have not beeen continued deeper than 15 feet. The

oyster bed apparently continues further down. From a superficial examination it seems probable that

the deposit may extend for at least three miles inland from the Murray River, the present site being

within a hundred yards of the Murray cliffs. It was not observed on the face of the cliffs at this point

as they are difficult of access and the normal section may have been covered by earth or sand falls.

FOSSIL OYSTERS USED FOR ROAD METAL

By Berwarp C, Corton *

Deposits of fossil oysters occur in certain areas near the River Murray.

The photograph on pl. viii, fig. 2, shows oysters from an excavation made

near the Swan Reach- Loxton road about two miles north of Swan Reach. The

area so far dug out is about 50 feet in diameter and the sides display a compact

mass of oysters, Ostrea sturtiana Tate (? = O. arenicola Tate), 15 feet in thick-

ness and extending to within twelve inches of the surface which is of travertine

limestone. The matrix becomes harder at the base, so that excavations have not

been continued deeper than 15 feet. The oyster bed apparently continues further

down. From a superficial examination it seems probable that the deposit may

extend for at least three miles inland from the Murray River, the present site

being within a hundred yards of the Murray cliffs. It was not observed on the

face of the cliffs at this point as they are difficult of access and the normal section

may have heen covered by earth or sand falls.

Among the millions of oysters exposed only a few other Pliocene Molluscs

were noted, There were two impressions of Proxichione cognata Pritchard, a

Mimachlamys antiaustralis Tate and what may have been a Multhoidea hora

Cotton, The common Gastropod of the Lower Pliocene (Adelaidean) Neadia-

stoma provisi Tate was not seen during the brief examination. The oysters are

being dug out im order ta surface about ten miles of the adjacent Swan Reach -

Loxton Road and specimens spread on the road directly from the deposit are

shown on pl. viii, fig. 2. It will be noticed that the shells vary from the

narrow shliape of O. stwrttana which occurs in “the upper part of the River Mur-

ray cliffs from Overland Corner to beyond Blanchetown” (Tate), to the rounder

QO. grenicola Tate described from the “Upper Beds at Aldinga’ regarded as

Lower Pliocene. A similar variation may be seen in the living Ostrea sinuata

Lamarck or Port Lincoln Oyster. Another oyster bed of the same age is to be

seen at Loxton at and below river level, exposed in the Murray cliffs in the new

Engineering and Water Supply pumping station cutting. In this exposure occur

Ostrea sturtiana Tate, Plebidonax depressa Tate, both originally described from

the “oyster beds at Nor’-west Bend, River Murray,” Tylospira morwicki Finlay

and Glycymeris (Tucetidla) rota Cotton from the ‘‘Adelaidean” and Uber

balteatelium Tate, and Anapella variabilis Tate, both described from the Upper

Beds at Halletts Cove and all common species of the Adelaidean and also

Leiopyrga quadricingulata Tate and Cucullaea praelanga Singleton from the

Upper Beds of Muddy Creek, all belonging to the Lower Pliocene. There is

a large vertebra of a whale amongst the material examined from the Loxton site.

* Palacontologist, Department of Mines.

Trans Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol, 73, Plate VII

Fig. 1

Mangrove-flat looking north, showing the sea-wall projection

at Broadway (top right), the sea, mangroye-flat, quartzite

pebbles and present sand,

Vig, 2

Mangrove stumps and shells embedded in mud.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate VIII

Macowa deltoidalis Humarcia

-fumigeta

Zeacumantus _

diemencnsis

Hotetereda Sia ~.

eden

bering in

; atelysia

Austrocochles 2ebra Vangroves,

perond

Cavetidens

Coulnelia

eburnes

Brachyodontes erosus

Fig. 1

Suite of shells from mangrove flat.

Fig. 2

Oysters from excavation, spread on road near Swan Reach.

SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN HOSTS, TOGETHER WITH A

NOTE ON RHABDITIS ALLGENI

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND PATRICIA M. MAWSON

Summary

The nematodes examined for this report are recent additions to the helminth collection in the

Zoology School of the University of Adelaide. They were, unless otherwise acknowledged,

collected by the senior author. Included in the paper are references to some genera and species of

Australian nematodes discussed recently by C. C. Kung (1948).

SOME NEMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN HOSTS,

TOGETHER WITH A NOTE ON RHABDITIS ALLGENI

By T, Harvey Jonwnston and Parricra M. Mawson*

[Read 11 August 1949]

The nematodes examined for this report are recent additions to the helminth

collection in the Zoology School of the University of Adelaide, They were,

unless otherwise acknowledged, collected by the senior author. Included in the

paper are references to some genera and species of Australian nematodes dis-

cussed recently by C. C. Kung (1948).

Types of the new species are being deposited in the South Australian

Museum, We desire ta acknowledge assistance in regard to material from

Messrs. V. Haggard, Director of the Adelaide Zoological Gardens; G. G, Jaensch

and L, Ellis of Tailem Bend; H. M, Cooper of the South Australian Museum;

Bruce Shipway of the C.S.LR.O., Western Australia; M. Blackburn, Fisheries

Division, C.S.L.R,O.; as well as Dr, P, O. Flecker and Mr. J. Wyer of the North

Queetisland Naturalists’ Club, Cairns.

The work was carried out in connection with the Commonwealth Research

Grant to the University of Adelaide,

LIST OF ITIOSTS AND PARASITES

FisH

ARACANA FLAVIGASTER (Gray), Capillaria sp., Glenelg, S, Aust.

Pacrosomus auratus Bloch. Cucwllanellus sheardi J. and M., Outer Harbour,

S. Aust,

OFPHTHALMOLEPIS LINEOLATUS C. and V. Cucullanellus sheardi J. and M., Kan-

garoo Island, S. Aust.

Lovetria sEALit (Johnston). Stomachus marinus L., Tasmania.

AMPHIBIA

Hyia Peroni (Bibron) Tschudi. Oswaldocruzia limnodynastes Johnston and

Simpson, Strathalbyn, 5. Aust. Physaloptera confusa J. and M. (larval

stage), Tailem Bend, S. Aust.

LiIMNODYNASTES TASMANIENSIS Gunther. Physaloptera confusa J. and M., larval

stage, Tailem Bend, S$. Aust.

Birps

Poptcers cristatus Linn. Cupillaria sp.; and Contracaecum podicipitis n.sp.,

Tailem Bend, S. Aust.

AMNAs suPERciILIosA Gmelin. Tetrameres fissispina (Dies.), Tailem Bend,

S. Aust.

MamMMaLcs

Potorous tTripactyLus (ApPIcALis) Kerr. Ausivestrongylus potoroo n, sp.; and

Labiostrongylus eugenti J. and M., King Island, Bass Strait, Tasmania.

MAcropus TASMANIENSIs Le Souef. Labiostrongylus longispicularis Wood, Tas-

mania.

Macrorus ocynromus Gould, Dtpetalonema roemeri (Linst.), South-western

Australia.

Macropus acitts Gould. Lahiostrongylus insularis (J. and M.); Cloacina digi-

tata J. and M.; and Dipetalonema raemeri (Linst,), all collected by Dr. P.

Flecker from Brooklyn Station, Cairns district, North Queensland,

*University of Adelaide.

Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 72

Bos Taurus L, Ontchecerca gibsoni Clel, and Jnstn., North-eastern S, Aust.

Rattus Norvecicus Erxl, Trichosomoides crassicauda Bellingham; Cepillaria

hepatica (Banecr.); Protospirura muris Gmelin; and Syphacia obvelata

(Rud.), Adelaide, 5S. Aust.

Rarrus ratrus Linn. Cupileria hepatica (Baner.); Protospirura mauris and

Swphacia obvelata (Rud.), Adelaide, S. Aust.

Mus muscurus Linn. <Aspicylaris tetraptera (Nitzsch); Protespirura muris

(Gmel.) ; and Capilaria hepatica Bancr., Adelaide, S. Aust,

Lerus cunrcutus Linn, Trichostrongylus retortacformis (Zed.); Graphidium

strigosum (Duj,); and Passalurus ambiguus (Rud.), from various South

Australian localities.

CAPILLARIA spp,

Collections of Capillaria spp. were made from two hosts. In both cases the

data available were not sufficient to identify the species. As both are new host

records for the gents, the available morphological points are noted below:

(1) Capillaria sp. from Podiceps cristatus, Tailem Bend, One male present,

10:1 mm. in length, Ratio between oesophageal and intestinal regions

1:1-12, Spicule 11 mm. long, sheath not spinose, but spirally striated.

Sheath is extruded in the only specimen, and the bursa, if present, was

not observed.

(2) Capillaria sp. from the cowfish, Aracana flavigaster, from Glenelg, 5. Aust.

Material consists of one whole male and one part, the Jength of the whole

specimen being 6*1 mm., and the ratio of the anterior and posterior parts

of the body being 1:0°85. The “bursa” consists of two small lobes

posterior to the cloaca. The spicule is -13 mm. long,

CAPILLARIA HEPATICA (Bancroft)

The characteristic lesions caused by this species, together with its eggs, have

been foutd in Rattus ratius, R. norvegicus, and Mus musculus in the Adelaide

district. The parasite had not been recorded previously as occurring in South

Australia.

TRICHOSOMOIDES CRASSICAUDA (Bell)

This parasite was found in the bladder of laboratory-bred white rats, Rattus

norvegicus yar. in Adelaide, It has already been recorded by one of us from

Eastern Australia.

Austrostrongylus potoroo n.sp. (fig. 1-5)

Numerous coiled reddish to colourless Trichostrongyle worms were taken

from the intestine of a rat-kangaroo, Potorous tridactylus (apicelis), from King

Island, Bass Strait. The animal was sent to us by the Adelaide Zoological Gar-

dens. Both male and female worms are 3 to 3-4 mm. in length. The cervical

cuticle is dilated and marked with annular striations, the rest of the body cuticle

being smooth except for two narrow (lateral) and two wide (dorsal and ventral)

longitudinal bands which aré transversely striated, These hands become narrower

and tend to disappear towards the end in both sexes. The buccal capsule is

distinct, the eversible dorsal tooth occupying most of the cavity. Two very small

ventral teeth are present. The oesophagus is about -28 mm. long.

The spicules of the male are *21-:25 mm. long, The gubernaculum is poorly

chitinised. As it proved impossible to obtain a view of the bursa with the lobes

spread open, the symmetry of this structure has not been established, but in

lateral views right and left lobes appear similar, The form of the rays is shown

in fig. 5

The vulva of the female is 24 mm. anterior to the tip of the tail. Behind

this the body narrows rapidly to a finely pointed tail, -15 mm, in length, The

eggs in the vagina are 40u by 70.

The species apparently differs from others of the genus in the form of the

dorsal ray, which was constant in all the specimens examined, and in the more

backward position of the vulva, The specific name proposed is the native name

for this small marsupial.

Fig. 1-10

Fig. 1-5, Austrosirongylus potaroo—t, anterior end; 2, atiterior end with dorsal tooth

protruding; 3, posterior end showing expanded cuticle; 4, lateral view of bursa;

5, dorsal ray. Fig. 6-7, Oswaldocrusia limnodynastes—6, anterior end; 7, dorsal ray.

Fig. 8-10, Contracuecum podicipitis—t, and 9, sublateral and dorsal views of head:

10, male tail. Fig. 1 and 2 and 5 drawn to scale beside 2; fig. 4 and 6 to scale beside 6.

OswaLpocruzIaA LIMNODYNASTES Johnston and Simpson (fig. 6-7)

This species, originally recorded from Linnedyastes dorsalis from Adelaide,

has now been recognised from Hyla peroni from Strathalbyn, collected by Miss

L. M. Angel. The material consists of one female, one whole male and one

broken male. These agree in general features with the original description, but

two minor variations have been noted ; firstly the shape of the dorsal ray in which

the terminal bifurcation occurs nearer the root, and secondly, chitinisation

in the cephalic region. This latter is in the form of a dorsal and a ventral

“porose” plate, lying in the inflated cuticle. The structure was seen only in the

male specimen; the anterior end of the female is greatly contracted so that observa-

tion is in any case difficult. No mention of such chitinisation has been met with

in the literature available, although it is probably a development of the “vesicular

structure” noted by Morishita (1926, 14) in the inflated cervical cuticle of mem-

bers of the genus. These twa differences occurring as they do in only one

specimen, are not considered sufficient evidetice to indicate another species.

Figures 6 and 7 illustrate these points.

TRICHOSTRONGYLUS RETORTAEFORMIS (Zeder)

Not uncommon in rabbits collected in the vicinity of Adelaide.

GRAPHIDIUM stricosuM (Duj.)

Found occasionally in the stomach of South Australian rabbits,

The genus Lapiostronevius Yorke and Maplestone

Tt has been suggested by Kung (1948, 105) that the genus Lubiostrongylus

¥. and M,, 1926, was erroneously synonymised with Zoniolaimus Cobb by us

(1939, 123), On re-examination of the evidence, we are in agreement with

Kaing’s view.

LaBIOSTRONGYLUS EUGENT (J. and M.)

From Potorous tridactylus, King Island. Numerous worms were found ia

the stomach of a rat-kangaroo which reached us by courtesy of the Director of

the Adelaide Zoological Gardens. They agree generally with L. exgenii, differing

slightly in the more forward position of the accessory lobes on the submedian

lips.

LABIOSTRONGYLUS INSULARIS (J. and M.)

From the stomachs of the northern wallabies, Macrapus (Wallabia) agilis

from the Cairns district, North Queensland, collected by Dr. P. Flecker. Pre-

viensly known only from M. welsbyi from Stradbroke Island, Southern Queens-

land.

CLOACINA DIGITATA J. and M,

From the stomach of Macropus agilis, Cairns district, North Queensland,

collected by Dr. P. Flecker. Previously known from M. dorsalis, Burnett River,

Queensland..

The genus ZonroLarmus Cobb 1898

Tn a recent paper Kung (1948) suggested that three species placed by us

under the genus Buccostrongylus J. and M. (1939, 140; 139a, 526-7) should be

referred more correctly te Zoniolaimus Cobb, These species are B. australis

B, buccalis, and &. labiatus, of which the first was cited by us as the type species

of Buccostrongylus, We agtee with Kung that the latter genus is therefore

synonymous with Zontolatmus Cobb. Buecostrongylus setifer, subsequently

described by ug (1939a, 527), from Macropus ruficallis becomes Zoniolaimus

Setifer (J. and M,), but as this name is preoccupied by Z, setifera Cobb 1898

(with which it is not conspecific) a new name, 2. chactophorus is proposed for it,

ZONIOLAIMUS LONGISPICULARIS (Wood)

This stont nematode has been identified from material collected from the

Forester kangaroo, Macropus tasmanienus, near Ross, Tasmania, and sent {o

tis im 1947 by the Tasmanian Museum, We had previously reported it as

occurring in that State (J. and M., 1940, 469) but s10 locality was mentioned.

The parasite is known to occur in wallabies of kangaroos in Queensland, New

South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Central Australia, North-western Aus-

tralia and Tasmania (Jolinston and Mawson 1938, 268-9),

Contracaecum podicipitis n. sp. (fig. 8-10)

A small collection of worms from a crested grebe, Podiveps cristatus, taken

at Tailem Bend, was found to be referable to this large genus of nematodes.

Malcs and females up to 25 mm. in length were present, The head is shorter

than wide, Each lip bears two lateral flanges; in the midlength of each flange

is a well-defined indentation (fig. 8, 9). There are no denticles. The interlabia

are very shart, The oesophagus is 1:4°8 of the body length; the oesophageal

appendix and intestinal caecum are 1:3 and 1:173 respectively of the length of

the oesophagus.

In the male, the spicules are 31 mm. long, 1: 6°5 of the body length. There

are at least 34 pairs of preanal papillae, but only two small postanal pairs were

seen (fig. 10).

The presence of very short interlabia is somewhat unusual in the genus

Contracaccum, In the literattire available to us the bird-parasitic species described

as having this character are C. ovale (Linst.) from Podiceps cristaius, C, prae-

striatum Minnig from Podiceps capensis, and C. torgnatum Yamaguti from

Larus canus. The present specimens differ from C. torquatwm in the absence of

labial denticles, and from C. ovale atid C. praestriatum in the shape of the lips

and in the greater length of the spicules,

CUCULLANELLUS SHEARDI J. and M.

This species appears to be common in fish in Australian waters (J. and M.

1944, 64; 1945, 116). It is now recorded from Ophthalmolepis lineolatis trom

Kangaroo Island and Pagrosomus auratus from Outer Harbour, both caught by

H. M, Cooper,

TETRAMERES FISSISPINA (Diesing) (fig. 11-19)

Adult males and females and young worms, agreeing in most features with

Tetrameres fissispina, were taken from the black duck, Anas superciliosa, at

Tailem Bend. As this widely spread parasite has not previously been recorded

from a native bird in Austrada, a description of the present specimens is given

hete..

There are, as indicated in the more recent descriptions of the species, two

trilobed lateral lips, not three lips as in older accounts. The buccal capsule is

barrel-shaped in the female, more cylindrical in the male.

The females ate from 1-7 mim. ta 2-0 mm. in length, and from -4 toe 1-4 mun.

in width, according to the number of eggs present. On the female there are no

spines except the cervical papillae which are ~22 mm. from the anterior end and

lie just in Front of the nerve ring in a specimen 2 mm. long, The buccal capsule

is 30p long, and 23, in internal diameter at its midlength. The tail, -1 mm. long

in a female 1-7 mm, in length, ends in a simple point. The vulva is -2 mm. in

fromt of the anus. Most of the smaller specimens have been damaged during

collection, so the form of the reproductive organs has not been studied, The

éggs measure 20u by 30p.

The males are from 2°8 to 4°2 mm, in lengih, Anteriorly the lateral alae

may give the appearance of cordons as noted hy Wehr (1933), The “long bifid

spines” on each side mentioned by some attthors (Sewrat; Canavan) appear to be,

at stated by Wehr (1933) and Hsii (1935), modifications of the lateral alae

which in this region are supported by rod-like cuticular thickenings (fig. 11).

The cervical papillae, 1:2 mm. behind the anterior end, are small but dis-

tinctly tricuspid, an observation not as far as we know recorded for T. fissispina.

‘5 mm.

Fig. 11-19

Fig. 11-19, Tetrameres fissispina—ll1 and 12, lateral and ventral views of male;

13, male tail; 14, mature female; 15, tail of young adult female; 16, posterior end of

fourth stage larva; 17, anterior end of young fifth stage; 18, posterior end of young

fifth stage; 19, lateral ala of young fifth stage worm showing one of the asymmetrical

“larval” papillae. Fig. 13, 16, 17, 18 and 19 drawn to scale beside 18.

Fig, 11-19

The body spines commence at the level of the posterior end of the vestibule and

are arranged in four sublateral rows, These continue past the midlength of the

body, and then become sinaller and more sparse. The dorsolateral spines dis-

appear in the hinder part of the body but the ventrolaterals become larger and

more numerous, forming two rows of preanal papillae. Poslanally there are five

pairs of submedian and three pairs af lateral papillae (fig. 13). The tail ends in

2 small highly cuticularised pomt. ‘The spicules are -li to -15 mm. aad

3-45 mm, in length respectively.

Several very young worms, in the early fifth stage, are present. They are

from -95 to 1°4 mm, in length, The cuticle is without annulations or spines

except for the large trifid cervical papillae +] mm. from the head. The lateral

alae are present, though very narrow, and extend from the head to the anus-

The tail is -12 mm. long, and a pair of elongate caudal papillae lie 704 hehind

the anus, The tail ends in a pyriform “tail piece” (fig. 18), an exaggerated form

of the caudal tip of the adult male. The vestibule is cylindrical, 10. tong and

8 wide. The excretory pore is about 50p behind the cervical papillae. As some-

times occurs in young worms, a pair of lateral papillae are present at abont a

third of the body length from the tail (fig. 19}. Three fourth stage larvae are

also present, These are easily distinguished from the fifth stage by the form

af the caudal extremity which ends bluntly about 80p behind the anus, the

extremity being surrounded by about twelve large spines. The body length 1s

1°2-1-4 mm,, the cervical papillae are hardly distinguishable, and the latera) alae

scarcely developed. There is a pair of large caudal papillae, 70” from the

posterior end of the body, that is, in a similar position to those in the young fifth

stage, but very much larger. We have referred to these two stages as fifth and

fourth respectively, rather than fourth and third, since they were found in the

iritestine of the definitive host.

Oncrocerca ctpsonr Cleland and Johnston

Mr. L. Reese. of Miranda Station in the far north-eastern portion of South

Australia and adjacent ta the Queensland border, informed the senior author

that this “nodule worm” parasite occurred in the brisket of locally bred cattle.

This is the first record of the occurrence of the parasite in this State, apart from

infections in Abattoirs. cattle from Queensland.

Prvsatoprera conrusa J. and M.

The larval stage, enclosed in its typical heavily pigmented black cyst has been

found in Limnodynastes tasmanicnsis and Hyla peroni from Tailem Bend, South

Australia,

Protospirura MuRIS (Gmelin)

From Rattus norvegicus, R, ratins and Mus musculus in the vicinity of

Adelaide, Already reported by one of us as occurring in these hosts in Eastern

Australia-

DireTALONEMA RoEMERI {Linst.)

Mr. Bruce Shipway, of the C.S.LR.O, in Perth, forwarded specimens of

this Filariid species from kangaroos, Macropus acydromus, from the south-

western region of Western Australia. This grey kangatoo is closely related to

M. major, which has a very wide distribution in Australia. Mr. Shipway reported

finding it in about 60% of the Western Australian kangaroos exainined by him.

We redescribed it in 1938 (1938, 111-112). We now record it also from

Macropus agilis, fram Brooklya, Cairns district, North Queensland, collected by

Dr, P. Mlecker,

SYPIHACIA ORVELATA (Rud.)

From Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus from the vicinity of Adelaide. Pre-

viously recorded from these host species elsewhere in Australia,

ASPICULURIS TETRAPTERA (Nitzsch)

Found occasionally in mice in Adelaide.

PassaLuRUS AMBIGUUS (Rud.)

This oxyttid is seen occasionally in South Australian rabbits. It has not

been recorded previously as occurring in this State,

STOMACHUS MaRINUS (Linn.)

This larval anisakid has been recorded from several Australian marine fish,

We now report it from the Tasmanian Whitebait, Lovertia sealii, from the Der-

went River, the material having been submitted by Mr. Maurice Blackburn of

the Fisheries Division of the C.S,1.R.0.

A Note on Ruasopiris ALLGeNr Johnston

In 1893 Cobb described R, australis from grass roots. in New South Wales.

Allgen (1932, 192) used the same name for a different nematode from Campbell

Island (Subantarctic). Johnston (1938, 151) renamed the latter R. allgeni.

Allgen, apparently unaware of Johnston's action, has proposed recently (1948)

a new name, K, campbelli, for his species. R, campbelli is thus a Synonym of

R. allgen, of which R. australis Allgen 1938 nec Cobb 1893 is also a synonym.

SUMMARY

1. Known species of nematodes are recorded from additional hosts and localities.

2, Austrostrongylus potoroo from a marsupial, Potorous tridactylus, from King

Island, Bass Strait; and Contracaecum podicipitis from the crested grebe,

Podiceps cristatus, from South Australia, are described as new.

3. Zoniolaimus setifer (Johnston and Mawson 1940) nec Cobb 1898 is tenamed

Z. chaetophorus,

4, Tetrameres fissispina (Dies.) is described from an Australian duck, Anas

superciliosa.

5. The free living nematode species, Rhabditis campbell. Allgen, ftom Campbell

Island, is a synonym of 2, allyeni Johnston.

LITERATURE

A.icen, C. 1932 Nyt. Mag. Osto, B, 1932, 192-194

Auicen, C. 1948 Arkiy f. Zool, 39, (3), B (2), 1947 (1948), 14

Corn, N. A. 1893 Macleay Memorial Vol. (Linn. Soc. N.S.W.), 252-308

Copp, N. A. 1898 Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 9, 296-321, 491-454

Hst, H, F. 1935 Z. £. Parasitk., 7, 578-600

Jounston, T, If. 1938 Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 62, 149-167

Tosverot H., and Mawson, P. M. 1938 Trans, Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 62,

107-121

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1938 Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust,, 62,

263-286

JouNsToN, 7 ig and Mawson, P.M. 1939 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 63,

121-

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1939a. Proc. Linn, Soc. N.S.W., 64,

513-536

Jounsron, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1940 Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 65,

468-47

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1944 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 68,

60-66

Jounston, T. H., and Mawson, P. M. 1945 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69,

114-117

Jounston, T. H., and Simpson, E. R. 1942 Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66,

172-179

Kune, C. C. 1948 Jour. Helminthol., 22, 93-108

Monisuira, K. 1926 Jour. Fac. Sci. Imp. Univ., Tokyo, 1, (4), 1-32

EARLY CAMBRIAN “JELLYFISHES” OF EDIACARA, SOUTH

AUSTRALIA AND MOUNT JOHN, KIMBERLEY DISTRICT, WESTERN

AUSTRALIA

BY REG C. SPRIGG

Summary

The richly fossiliferous horizon within the Pound Sandstone, near the base of the Cambrian in South

Australia, has provided more new material. With the additional specimens it has been possible to

classify several new forms with considerably more reliability. Some very close resemblances with

modern genera have been established and the classification of most forms as coelentrates and even

as members of either the Hydrozoa or Scyphozoa seems beyond question. One specimen is

remarkably similar to the modern Dipleurosoma. A form from an equivalent horizon in the

Kimberley or North-West Division of Western Australia collected by Dr A. Wade is also described

and included within the Hydrozoa. This latter remarkable form buds daughter medusae at its margin

very similarly to the living Niobia dendrotentacula.

EARLY CAMBRIAN “JELLYFISHES” OF EDIACARA, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

AND MOUNT JOHN, KIMBERLEY DISTRICT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

By Rec. C. Spricc *

[Read 8 September 1949]

ABSTRACT

The richly fossiliferous horizon within the Pound Sandstone, near the base

of the Cambrian in South Australia, has provided more new material. With the

additional specimens it has been possible to classify several new forms with con-

siderably more reliability. Some yery close resemblances with modern genera have

been established and the classification of most forms as coelenterates and even as

members of either the Hydrozoa or Scyphozoa scems beyond question. One

specimen is remarkably similar to the modern Dipleurosoma, A form from an

equivalent horizon in the Kimberley or North-West Division of Western Aus-

tralia collected by Dr. A. Wade is also described and included within the Hydrozoa.

This latter remarkable form buds daughter medusae at its margin yery similarly

to the living Niobia dendrotentacula.

Fig. 1

INTRODUCTION

Since the original discovery and publication of a short report on supposed

jellyfish from Ediacara in South Australia, the locality has been visited by Sir

D. Mawson and a party of students from the Adelaide University, and again by

the writer accompanied by Dr. Curt Teichert, Altogether much new material

has been forthcoming, and now nearly 100 fine specimens of (?) pelagic fossils

are available from the locality.

* Senior Geologist, Geological Survey of South Australia.

Trans. Roy. Sac. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949

As far as could be ascertamed, all the forms collected by the writer came

from a single stratigraphic horizon or within a few feet of it. Obviously the

particular parting in the fissile quartzites in which the forms occurred is packed

with such impressions. The author collected mare than 50 specimens in less than

three hours, indicating the abundance of the forms, The horizon has been traced

for about three miles on the western side of an elongated synclinal basin. Several

distinet new forms were discovered, and a form originally described from a single

spectnen (Dickinsonia costata) has ptaved particularly common. Professor

Mawson has indicated that he found evidence of two distinct fossiliferous hori-

zons (personal communication) in the northern extensions of the fossil

occurrences.

There can now be no doisbt as to the fossils’ otganic origin, nor can there

be any hesitation in placing many of the forms with either the Hydrozoa or

Seyphozoa of the Coelenterata. Some forms are referable to Algae, but these will

not be described in this paper,

In the previous paper (1947) it was postulated that the environmental associa-

tions of the fossils and the local palaeogeography demonstrate tidal flat or at

least coastal conditions. This opinivt still holds, and practically all forms yet

discovered appear to be pelagic; some were obviously free swimming. Such a

state of affairs is in keeping with general theories. of life at the end of the Pre-

cambrian, It has been suggested that most animals were then pelagic, and pos-

sibly were only just “discovering” the sea floor preparatory to colonizing it

(Hinde 1939).

Whatever the true facts, it does appear fairly definite that with the exception

of a few lime-secreting algae, most animals umtil this time produced few hard

parts and ihen usually chitinous. It is little wonder then that the fossil record

below the base of the Cambrian is so devoid of fossils.

The Upper Precambrian has been termed an aye of jellyfishes mamly upon

evolutionary considerations, hut also in view of discoveries from the Cambrian

of New York, Sweden, Russia and Bohemia. From consideration of faunal

associations of the Cambrian, such assumptions for the immediate Precambrian

are quite logical.

There is no need to discuss further the question of the stratigraphical situa-

tion of the horizon, as the arguments were summarized in the previous publica-

tion and no evidence has been forthcoming since then. The close association

with Archaeocyathinae (Pleospongia) leaves little doubt concerning their Lower

Cambrian age.

The mode of occurrence and aspects of preservation have also been dis-

cussed previously and little need be added here. It should be remembered that

Agassiz (1862), in his observations of Aurelia flavida, noted that after the spawn-

ing period there was a thickening of the tissues by an increased deposition of

animal substance. The disc of the animal became thin and almost leathery and

more elastic than before. Many marginal appendages of the umbrella and oral

region dropped off.

Caster (1945) noted that when Aurelia and other medusae were stranded

onshore in midsummer, they quickly dried out on the surface. The dehydration

of the aqueous. jelly brought o1it in surface relief embedded structures, which in

life would be hardly discernible, except by transparency at the exterior. These

latter observations are extremely importatit in considering the present fossil forms.

The stranding of huge numbers of jellyfish high on beaches during strong

winds is frequently observed in many parts of the world at the present day.

Hence jt is stot surprising that once favourable conditions for preservation are

established large numbers of the forms may become fossilized in a somewhat

restricted area. It should be also borne in mind that in Post-Cambrian times with

increased number and yariety of sea-shore scavengers the possibility of preserva-

tion was considerably reduced ; sea birds would quickly destroy stranded jellyfish

and the chances of fossilization were therefore particularly remote.

Proslems or THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE Fossiis

In view of Agassiz’ and Caster’s various observations, classification on the

zoological system is obviously hazardous. Where marginal or manubrial appen-

dages are concerned there is need for particular caution, and obviously com-

pletely satisfactory relattonships will rarely be possible. However, in some cases,

matubrial structures, stomachs, gonads, radial and circular canals, and marginal

notches are reasonably well defined, In two cases, delicate vclar membranes are

exyuisitely preserved, and in the fossil from Kimberley there is clear evidence of

marginal budding. For this reason the modern zoological classifivation will be

followed wherever possible and the system as outlined by Parker and Hasweil

(1940) will be adhered to with only slight modification, Obviously, detailed

classifications of zoologists will be modified slightly to admit even the more cam-

pletely preserved forms. In many cases diagnostic chatacters are fiot present

which would allow even a broad classification, while in others, close relationships

with other living forms are obvious. The writer has gone so far as to relate one

form closely to a modern genus by erecting the subgenous Protodipleuresama,

and although the wisdom of this may be questioned, it does serve to illustrate

the remarkably faithful preservation of the fossil. Still another form (Wadeia)

tan be related closely to a living genus (Niobie) and another placed fairly con-

fidently in a modern family (¢.g., Beltanella in family Trachylinae), Others can

be located with reasonable assurance in modern orders or classes, while still

another group are of decidedly uncertain affinities.

Another group of fossils which it may be argued should more correctly he

placed with the problemmatica are those thought to represent the oral regions

of Rhizostomesze. The striking similarity of patternation of the fossil furrows

with the mouth groove system of animals of that highly specialized group is

thought to warrant such classification,

Additional complexity is brought about by a possible general tendency to

degeneration and simplification over the great geological periods down to the

present, Forms which were large and impressive in Cambrian times may now

be quite insignificant. This appears to have been the case with both Beltanella

gulesi and Protodipiewrosoma wardi. Their assumed modern relatives measure

only a fraction of an inch (a few mmi.) in diameter and would scarcely be noticed

when washed upon a beach. The velated fossil forms measured several inches

(50-100 mm.) in diameter and were therefore of the order of “modern” scypho-

zoan medusae.

As only to be expected, it appears almost certain that all modern orders af

“jellyfishes” were represented by the beginning of the Cambrian, There were

probably other orders that have since become extinct or which were intermediate

étween and ancestral to two or more modern otdets. With such possibilities,

classification of the fossil forms must he tentative to some extent and dependent

tipon the discovery of new and more conipletely preserved material,

TENTATIVE CLASSIFICATION AND DéscriPtion of THE Fossits

All forms described in the present paper appear to be most satisfactorily

placed in the phylum Coelenterata and sub-phylum Cnidaria. The Cnidaria

include all Coelenterates except the Ctenophores (or Comb-jellies).

The foilowing briet notes which have been extracted from “The Inverte-

brates — Protozoa through Ctenophora” (Lyman, 1940) will serve to summarise

some af the principal features of the subphylum,

The chief feature of the Cnidaria subphylum is the possession of striking

radial symmetry. In one group, the Anthozoa, this is modified into biradial or

radiobilateral symmetry brought about by elungalion of the mouth and other

correlated changes.

There is one principal axis of symmetry, namely, the oral-aboral axis, which

extends from the mouth to the base, and the organs are arranged concentrically

about this axis. The body struciures may be definite or indefinite in number,

and when definite the number is four or six or multiples thereof, Tentacles are

very conspicuous, extensible projections that encircle the oral end in one or mare

whorls and serve for defence and feeding purposes; they are absent in very few

members of the subphylum.

Cnidaria are notable for their di-morphism—the polyp and the medusa—each

of which can be derived froin the other piving an alternation of generations, The

polyp is the sessile form, being vase-shaped and fastened at the ahoral end with

mouth and tentacles at the free or oral end. The medusa, or free swimming form,

contrasts with the polyp in the shoriening of the oral-aboral axis, radial expan-

sion and in the excessive formation of mesogloea. The resulting form is a gela-

tinous bell- or saucer-shaped animal with marginal tentacles. Polyp and medusa

oceur in several morphological variations, several of which may be found in a

single species. In the class hydrozoa, both polypoid and medusoid forms are

present; in the scyphozoa, the medusoid is dominant, while the anthozoa are

exclusively polypoid. Where a species includes both polypoid and medusoid

forms the polyps reproduce exclusively by ascxual methods and bud off the

medusae or their eqttivalents which alone are capable of sexual reproduction. In

this way there is an alternation of generation—an asexual polypoid generatinn

and a sexual medusoid generation, It is (hought probable that the polyp is a per-

sistent form and the medusa the completely evolyed coclentcrate,

In the Hydrozoa and ‘Scyphozoa all diameters are apolar, that is, any two

diameters selected at tight angles will be alike. In the Anthozoa, however, the

radial symmetry tends to be strongly modified in biradial or bilateral fashion

chiefly due to the elongation of the mouth and associated structures. In biradial

symmetry the diameters temain apolar, hut the long or sagittal axis differs from

the transverse axis at right angles to it, Each divides the animal into like halves,

as there is no dorsal or ventral surface. In many Anthozoa the sagittal axis

is heteropolar with the two ends unlike. Dorsal and ventral surfaces are then

definable.

In the fossil forms to be described mnst jrave characteristic radial symmetry

aying ther with the Hyidrozoa or Scyphozoa. In a few forms, in particular

Dickinsomia, there is a strong biradial tendency and the systematic classification

ai these is more difficult, the more sa as the fossils possess so few features of

diagnostic value, It has heen suggested elsewhere in this paper that the bilateral

tendency may indicate the assumption of creeping habit. It is quite possible that

this fossil may be representative of a class now extinct,

In attempting to place the various fossils systematically within some system

of Zoological classification much must remain tentative. The system given herein

is essentially a summary of that of Parker and Haswell (1940) and the placing

of the present fossils is indicated as far as possible keeping in mind that in many

instances (he restricting criteria. as indicated in the |ceys, have not been observed.

In such cases, classification hag been made hy making use of certain general

similarities with modern genera and species

In this manner it has been found possible to place most of the forms reason~

ably satisfactorily; a few forms have had to be relegated to Walcott’s genus of

cotivenience, Medusina, This genus was erected to include all species of fossil

medusae whose generic characters were indeterminable, In making use of this

genus it is realised that there are arguments for also including some of the forms

tentatively placed with the Discomedusae.

Phylum COELENTERATA

Sub-Phylum CNIDARIA

Class HYDROZOA

Order Hydroidea—Hydrozoa in which there is a fixed zoophyte stage.

Sub-order Anthomedusae. In which the medusae bear the gonads on

the manubrium, a.e., Proteniobia wadea (ci., modern Ntobie den-

drotentacula,)

Sub-order Leptomedusae, In which the gonads occur in relation with

the radial canals, ¢.g,, Protodipleurosoma wardi (cf. modern Dip-

leurosoma).

Order Trachylinae—Hydrozoa with no known fixed zoophyte stage.

Sub-order Trachymedusae. Veiled medusae with simple entire bell

margin not cleft into lappets. This is a distinguishing feature from

the Narcomedusae. Tentacles spring from the margin of the

umbrella and the gonads are developed in connection with the radial

canals, ¢,g., Beltanella gilesi (cf., modern Rhopalonema).

Sub-order Narcoimedusae—in which tentacles spring from the exumbrella

some distance from the margin, and the gonads are developed in

connection with the manubrium,

Order Siphonophora—tilydrozoa in which the colony usually exhibits

extreme polymorphism of its zooids, There may be strong bilateral

symmetry.

Class SCYPHOZOA

Order Lucernaridae (Stauromedusae), Scyphozoa with a conical or vase-

shaped umbrella mostly attached to external objects by an ex-

umbrella peduncle. No tentaculocysts,

Order Coronata. Scyphozoa with the umbrella divided by a horizontal

coronary groove. Four to sixteen tentaculocysts.

Order Cubomedusae, Scyphozoa with a four-sided cup-shaped umbrella.

Four per-radial tentaculocysts.

Order Discomedusue (Semacostomeae). Scyphozoa with flattened saucer-

shaped umbrella and not fewer than eight tentaculocysts. The

square mouth produced into four long oral arms, ¢.g., Edtacaria

fundersi, Tateana mflata.

Order Rhizostomeae—Scyphozoa having the mouth oblitcrated by growths

across it of the oral arms, Stomach is continued into canals which

open by funnel-shaped apertures on the edges of the arms, ¢.g.,

Pseudorhizostomites and Pseudorhopilema.

Meduscid Problemutica, Category Medusina—Medusae whose genetic charac-

ters cannot be determined, e.g.: Medusina maqwsoni, M. asterotdes,

M. filamentis, Cyclomedusa davidi, C. radiata, C. gigantea, Madi-

gania annulata, Dickinsonia costata, D, minima,

Order HYDROIDEA — Sub-order ANTHOMEDUSAE

Genus Protoniobia Sprigg gen. nov.

Genotype Protoniobia wadea Sprigg, gen. ely sp, nov. Lower Cambrian

flags, Mount John, Osmond Range, Western Australia.

Genus monotypic, generic characters include the circular form, the close

association of the six (?) gonads with the stomach, and the development of

medusae by a process of budding from the margin of the form.

Protoniobia wadea, Sprigg gen. ct sp. nov.

(Plate ix, fig, 1, and) text tig. 2)

Holotype: No. 192, Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, P.C.T.

Coll, Dr, A. Wade-

Description—Impression circular, with few prominent annular undulations.

Near the centre of the form iumerous nodular structures are arranged in a

polygonal pattern about a central depressed zone. The nodular structures occur

on a slightly wider platform, which in turn is surrounded by a deep circular

groove without conspicuous ornamentation. Beyond the latter are annular ridges

separated by a stcond deep groove, This latter groove gives some evidence of

secondary sculpturing which tay bear relationships to inferred radial canals.

At the margin of the umbrella impression there form sub-cireular structures

of uneven development which are arranged in an incomplete hexagonal pattern.

The bud-like “appendages” have a concentric form within themselves and show

an apparent tesemblance with the “parent” impression. There are no tentacles

present,

Dimeénsion—Maximum diameter of the bell 4:1 mm.; average diameter of

(?) gonadial nodes 2°5 mm.; maximum diameter of largest “bud” 1-4 mm.

Discussion and affinities—The specimen is the impression of a medusa. The

numerous nodular subcentral nodes are probably gonaclial structures, in close asso~

tiation with a circular stomach, and it is just possible that the inner of the two

outer antnilar ridges may be a velar stttcture.

The circular marginal structures of the form are peculiar features which at

first sight may suggest coiled tentacles, and probably prompted the original

description of this fossil by Dr. Wade (1924} as a “coiled (1) gephyrean or

unsegmented worm.” (The impression is not spiral and is almost certainly

coelenterate, However, closer inspection of the fossil shows that the marginal

structures are essentially circular with annular internal patternation.)

One apparently modern parallel is known to the author, namely the unique

Niobia dendrotentacula (Mayer 1900) of the Tortugas, Florida. Marginal

tentacles. of this specics develop into medusae by a peculiar process of budding

combined with fortuitous growth, and are set free into the water as independent

animals similar to the parent medusac.

According to Mayer (1910, pp. 187, 188), Niebia dendrotenacula ig slightly

flatter than a hemisphere and about 4 mm. in diameter. ‘There are 12 marginal

tentacles, one at the foot of each radia-canal and one intermediate between each

successive pair of radial canals, These 12 tentacles are arranged in a bilaterally

symmetrical manner in accordance with age. The oldest and the youngest

tentacles aré situated at the ends of the two simple radial-canals and the remain-

ing ten tentacles are arranged in bilateral symmetry in accordance with their

various ages, the axis being in the diameter of the two simple radial-canals and

the oldest and youngest tentacles. Each half of the margin is thus a reflection

of the other... . 2’ The order in age of each tentacle is shown in fig, 2D. “The

oldest tentacle is the first to develop into a medusa and be set free, and the others

follow in the order of their age until all of the tetacles have been cast off, They

are immediately replaced, however, by new tentacles, but after every one of the

original 12 tentacles has been developed into a new medusa, the process of form-

ing medusae declines and finally ceases, and then the parent medusa becomes

sexually mature. . ..” The gonads occupy four interradial situations in the upper

part of the ectodermal wall of the stomach. After the budding medusae have been

set free the gonads become mature and the ova are large and project from the

interradial surfaces of the stomach. They are finally dehisced into the water.”

Fig. 2

A—D, Niobia dendrotentacula; A, oral view; B, detail of manubrium

bearing the gonads; C, side view; D, budding sequence. E and F,

Protonobia wadea: E, the fossil; F, bud diagram.

In the present fossil there is an obvious unequal development of buds, but

with only the one well preserved specimen it is impossible to determine the com-

plete sequence of the animal. Certainly there is a pseudo-hexagonal arrange-

ment of the buds as in the case of Niobia, and it is perhaps legitimate to infer

a rather similar life history. The two forms may be linearly related and a good

case for parallel development of the buds can be made out.

tn the fossil form the two adjacent buds on the upper margin (fig. 2 E)

ate of approximately cqual development, while the two diametrically opposed buds

are larger and unequally developed. Such an arrangement cannot be matched

exactly however the form is orientated or in whatever stage of development the

fossil was entombed. If, though, the interpretation of the subcentral nodular

structures as gonads is correct, then it may be fairly assumed that the form was

approaching sexual maturity. In this case it is possible that the animal had

reached a stage where the largest bud was in stage 4, the diametrically opposite

one in stage 5, and the two smaller ones in stages 6 and 7. The buds in stages

1, 2 and 3 presumably would have been freed.

A second example of Protontobia has been discovered amongst material from

Ediacara, he fossil is slightly simaller, its bell being about 20 mm. in diameter.

There is evidence of four daughter buds, The example occurs on the same

quartzite fragment as fossil] Ne 2010, Its discovery supports the view that the

Kimberley fossil was approximately contempotaneous with the Ediacara suite,

Sub-order LEPTQOMEDUSAE (Haeckel 1866)

The modern Leptomedusae are thought to be descended from the mure simply

organised Amthomedusac. These medusae are creatures of coasts and are rarely

found far out to sea, for they cannot maintain themselves in situations unsuited

to the growth of their hydroids.

Subdivision into families in the modern classification is based on the presence

or absence of lithocysts and the number of radial canals. The placing of the

fossil form in this instarice is based on general morphological similarities with

4 particular living species,

Genus Protodipleurosoma Sprigg gen, nov.

Form similar to that of Dipleurvosomo (Axel Boeck 1866) is observable

features, but much larger. Dipleurosoma is characterised by three or more main

radial canals, some of which give rise to nondichotomous branches. Gonads on

the canals adjacent to the manubrium; monosexual,

Protodipleurosoma wardi Sprigg, sp. nov.

(Plate ix, fig. 2 and text fig. 3)

Holotype: No, 2093, Tate Museum Coll, Adel. Univ. 5. Aust. Collected,

RK, Johns,

Description—Impresston {bell) circular, flattened. Stomach subcircular

constricted unevenly, lobate, radial canals developed irregularly, branched non-

dichotomously, only one can be seen reaching the circular canal, but preservation

oF the yelum impression has obscured complete observation, Primary canals are.

sttong and give rise to shorter secondary canals which may not reach the circular

canal. Branching occurs tear the bases of the primary canals. Ring canal cirenlar,

and about 2 mm. in from the margin of the fossil. There are no signs of marginal

appendages. The velum is wide and well preserved. Gonads are not present

and the example by comparison with related living forms is therefore probably

male.

Dimensions—Major diameter of fossil 59 mm.; length of stomach 16 mm,

Discussion and comparisons—The fossil forms are remarkably sitmilar to the

living Diplewrosoma hemisphacricum (Allman), although the latter is usually only

about 10 mm. in diameter. The velum in the fossil species is relatively slightly

wider and the stomach relatively larger. Branching of the radial canals and the

position of the ring canal agree very closely. Allman (1873), in his description,

states that there are three main radial canals with branches; some of the branches

enter the ring canal and others terminate blindly. It is noted that the sub-family

Berenicinae as described by Mayer (1910) present all radial canals connecting

with the circular canal.

Fig. 3

A—D, details of the living Dipleurosoma; E, the fossil Pratodipleurosoma wardi.

There can be little doubt that this fossil form is closely related to the genus

Dipleurosoma. In life the fossil form was probably subhemispherical, free swim-

ming, and considerably larger than its assumed modern descendants. It is also

assumed that the species experienced an alternation of generation although noth-

ing is known of its hydroid stage.

Order TRACHYLINAE

Suborder TRACHYMEDUSAE (Haeckel 1866)

Family (?) TRACHYNEMIDAE Gegenbaur 1856

Trachymedusae with eight or more simple radial canals,

on some or all of which the gonads are developed.

Fig. 4

A. and B, Rhopalonema stristum; C, R. velatum, side view; D—F, Beltanella gilest;

D, aboral view; E, side view with section removed; F, section through fossil,

Genus Beltanella Sprigg 1947

Genotype: Beltanella gilesi Sprigg.

Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide System (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South

Ausiralia. j .

Being monotypic this genus shares the species traits described below. Generic

characters include the octagonal arrangement of the circular gonads and their

(?) paired relation about the four radial canals; the presence of a well developed

and expanded delicate peripheral umbral structure or velum, and the simple circular

oral aperture,

Beltanella gilesi, Sprigg 1947

(Plate x, fig. 1, and text fig. 4)

Holotype: No. 2056, Tate Mus. Coli., Adel, Univ., S. Aust,

Description—Medusa impression circular. Umbrella flat, but falling away

sharply near its outer margin. (?) Velum horizontal, depressed approximately

4 mm. in relation to the flat ex-umbrella surface, Umbrella region subdivided

into two zones Dy a faint annular groove as follows:

Inner Zone—Surface smooth, broken only by annular grooves, respectiyely

5 and 12 mm, in diameter at centre, Centremost area depressed very slightly.

The whole zone corresponds with the original stomach.

Onter Zone-—Surface dominantly flat, but slopes away steeply near the

outer margin of the umbrella. This secondary sloping surface has the form of

a highly truncate cone whose apical angle is approximately 80 degrees. Zone is

characterised by the presence of circular (7) gonadial structures, approximately

10 mm. in diameter. These regular structures are arranged ott either side of

the major radial canals in an octagonal pattern centrally within the zone. At

least four can be recognised and each has an inner concentric groove 3 to 4 mm.

in diameter. Two paired radial grooves (? canals) are diametrically opposed

and a third set lies radially at right angles. The grooves pass intermediate

between the (?) paired gonadial structitres, but do not continue into the inner

zone. The ex-umbrella surface is slightly irregular at the edge of the flat raised

portion, but below where the conical surface meets the velum, the margin is smooth,

Velum—Structure marginal, obviously thin, well developed; undulose sur-

face depressed ; tndulations annular in plan.

Dimensions—Maximum diameter of fossil] 110 mm., minimum 97; widths

along single radii of inner and outer zones and velum respectively 18-20, 21-23

and 10-14 mm.

Discussion—The specimen is the cast of the ex-umbrella surface (ab-oral)

of a jellyfish,

The central zone corresponds with the gastrovascular cavity, At its margin

it gives (paired) grooves which are interpreted as radial canals. There are no

signs of subdivision within the cavity, and no indication of complicated manubrial

structures. The simple circular grooves situated centrally may be ora] structures,

or possibly representative of a collapsed truncate gastric cone of the type which

occurs in some jellyfish to aid in the even distribution of food to various parts

of the animal’s stomach.

The radial grooves of the outer zone are very probably radial canals,

although it is not known why they should be paired. There is no sign of branch

canals from them, nor is there present any groove suggestive of a circular canal,

The circular (?) gonadial structures which are distributed evenly around the

centre of this zone may be considered as paired in relation to the supposed radial

canals and the central annular grooves of each gonadial structure may mark a

genital operctilum.

The peripheral velum is remarkably well preserved considering its obvious

delicate nature; its contained annular undulations suggest ring muscles. Its

expanded position in rest suggests that it swung to and fro within and without

the bell cavity as the medusa swam.

Affinities—In the original description this form was placed very tentatively

with the Scyphozoa, although it was recognised that many characters were primi-

tive, and indicative of the Hydrozoa, The simple mouth, the presence of a few

unbranched radial canals were considered to be Trachylinid (Hydrozoan) charac-

ters, while the flattened disc-shaped umbrella, its relatively large size, and the

absence of large tentacles were thought to be more characteristic of the Scophozoa.

It is now considered that the presence or absence of marginal appendages in

fossil jellyfish can have little significance, and as regards size, diameters of four

inches und more are not unknown amongst Trachylinids, A more convincing

point concerns the resemblance of the species with the modern Rhopalonema,

Gengenbaur 1856 (Family Trachynemidae).

Rhopalonema characteristically possesses 8 radial canals, and 8 gonads occur

upon restricted portions of these canals. Belfanella differs in that although it has

8 gonads lying oppusite the central portions of radial canals, these gonads do not

appear to be on the canals. Also, evidence of only 4 radial canals can be recog-

nised. Nevertheless, R, velatum and R. striatum (fig. 4) do show some striking

similarities. R. velalwm possesses rounded gonads situated about half-way

between the stomach and bell margin and associated with circular canals which

give much the concentric appearance of the gonads in the fossil form. R. striatum

in general external form approaches the fossil even more closely and is described

as having the shape of a Chinese hat. Its velum is very wide and muscular and)

swings to and fro within and without the bell cavity as the medusa swims. It

was noted also that the tentacles of R. velutum are yery brittle and usually break

off very readily. It would appear, therefore, that there is good reason ta asso-

ciate this form fairly closely with RAopalonema, and therefore the order Trachy-

medusae.

Rhopalonema is distributed throughout the tropical and warm oceans of the

world and may live on the surface or at depth.

Order (?) SEMAEOSTOMEAE (Discomedusae)

Genus Ediacaria Sprigg 1947

Genoytpe EprtAcarta FLINDERSI Sprigg 1947

Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South

Australia,

Generic characters include the circular form, the bell-like manubrium, the

simple circular stomach and association of the (?) gonads with the base of the

manubrium, There are 4 and possibly 8 marginal notches,

Ediacaria flindersi Sprigg

(Plate x, fig. 2, and text fig. 5)

Holotype: No. T1, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., S. Aust.

Description—Medusa impression circular, radially symmetrical; surface flat-

tened, but with radial and concentric features of low relief. Three conrentric

zones are clearly distinguishable.

Inner zone—Manubrium bell-like, constricted near its junction centrally with

the stub-timbrella surface and expanded distally. It lies over sideways and is

compressed laterally. Length 15 mm., and maximum width (flattened) 14 mm,

At least three pendant lobate pouches extend 9 to 11 mm, centrifugally from the

base of the manubrium, Beyond these pouches the central zone is éssentially

smooth, although there is au incomplete concentric groove half-way to the zone

margin,

Median zone—Surface smooth, somewhat inflated; zone delineated on inner

and outer aspects by concentric grooves—one (or two) on the inner margin, and

one deeper with associated minor and less regular grooves on the outer. Two

well-marked radial grooves are present, while indistinct radial striations are more

numerous,

Fig. 5

Ediacaria flindersi, reconstructions: A, oral view; B, side view; C, cross section.

External zone—Surface flattened or only slightly convex in transverse

section with minor concentric undulations or flutings and numerous radial grooves

or striae. In the annular segment, representing three-fourths of the perimeter,

at least 44 separate radial grooves can be recognised, Although somewhat irregu-

lar in themselves, they are distributed around the zone relatively evenly, Most

diverge centrifugally, but some converge in this direction, The outer margin

{perimeter of fossil), is fairly regular (ctrcilar), with the exception nf one or

two doubtful marginal notches, A concentrate groove lies approximately 4 mm.

in from the perimeter of the form, The tadial striations do not exlend beyond the

epi-marginal groove.

Dimensions—Largest diameter 114 mm. Respective widths of inner, median

and outer zones along greatest radius: 20 mm., 17 mm., and 25 mm,

Discussions and comparisons—The specimen is considered to be the impres-

sion of the sub-umbrella surface of a “dried ont” jellyfish, Organs adjacent the

oral surface of the animal have come to stand out in relief, and the manubrium

is preserved clearly. The central zone corresponds with the gastrovascular cavity

and the gonads at the base of the manubrium are superimposed on it.

The sub-triangular manubrial structure has been so interpreted in view of

its apparent fusion centrally with the sub-umbrella surface, and because no other

comparable structures are distributed radially about the centre. The flattened

attitude of this manubrium bears a superficial resemblance to the insert lobes of

the central discs of Kirklandia (Caster) and Rhizostomites (Haeckel). How~

ever, the absence of more of these strictures radially about the centre disputes

this view. In life the manubrial structure would he suspended vertically from

the central region (fig. 5). The shape of the mouth opening cannot be judged,

although it was probably simple. On this impression the genus has been classified

with the Semaeostomede and uot the Rhizastomeae.

The three pendant pouches extending radially from the base of the mantu-

brium are almost certainly gonads. Judging by their distribution there were pro-

bably eight of them originally,

Various concentric flutings, with the exception of that adjacent the margin

of the form, are referrable to the circular muscles of the sub-umbrella, The epi-

marginal groove is the circular canal. The radial canals do not extend beyond it,

The well marked radial grooves of the median zone are probably radial

canals. There is evidence of branching, and although the grooves are sub-parallel

they do increase in number centrifugally. The grooves could be merely shrinkage

creases, but in any case these would tend to follow such lines of weakness as

canal lines.

Two marginal notches can be interpreted; they occur at intervals correspond-

ing with the major radial canals. In each cage deeper radial grooves continue to

each notch, This would support the view that the notches are regular marginal

features, possibly originally enclosing sensory structures. On the other hand, it

is noted that in other portions of the fossil where continuous sections of the margin

are preserved, other notches are not apparent, The observed notches could be

accidental matginal invaginations due to deformation upon burial, There ate no

indications af marginal tentacles but they probably had dropped off previously.

Bdiacaria is probably Scyphozoan. The form was large and obviously had

a flatlened disc-shaped umbrella and may be referable to either of the order's

Semaeostameae or Rhizostomeae. To decide further to. which of these orders

the form belongs, a detailed knowledge of the structure of the mouth and oral

arms would be necessary. The incomplete preservation of the specimen precindes

this. However, it is noticeable that the manubrial structure as interpreted is rela-

tively simple suggesting relationship with the Semaeostomeae.

Comparison with other fossils is exceedingly difficult in view of the absence

of many critical features. Closest resemblance is perhaps with Rhisostomites and

Semaeostomites (both Haeckel) of the Upper Jurassic of Selnhofen, Bavaria.

In these forms three concentric 2ores can be inferred but otherwise there is little

similarity in available detail of the central disc regions. Ring muscles are well

developed in the outer portions of Rhizostomites as they are in Ediacaria. No

obvious ring canal is present in Rhigostomites as in Ediacaria and Semaeo-

stomites, and whereas the margin of Semaeostomites is split into 120-128 marginal

lobes, stich a subdivision is not apparent in the other two forms.

Genus Tateana Sprigg gen. nov.

Genotype Tateana inflata Sprigg gen. et sp. nov-

Forma a Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South

ustralia,

Generic characters—Circular, slightly inflated medusa with very niumerous

unbranched radial canals. Well developed submarginal circular canal. Four or

eight marginal notches. The genus is distinguished from Cyclomedusa (see later)

by its more inflated surface and the presence of marginal notches,

Tateana inflata Sprigg, pen. et. sp. nov.

(Plate xi, fig. 1 and 2)

Holotype: No. 2017, Tate Mus. Coll. Adel, Uniy,, S. Aust.

Hypotype: No. 2018,

Description—Medusa circular, radially symmetrical, surface inflated slightly

but with strong narrow radial striations; only very shght annulations can be

distinguished.

The central zone (stomach) is simple and circular, representing one-third

of the diameter of the complete form. The radial striations lead directly from the

central zone to the epimarginal groove or circular canal. They do not appear to

branch and number about 100. There is slight evidence of four or more marginal

notches.

There is no sign of marginal appendages, manubrial structures or gonads,

Dimensiors—Greatest diameter 6-4 mm.

Comparisons—The form has much in common with Ediacara, and may prove

to be generically identical when more material is available for study. However,

in Ediacara a tendency to branching in the radial canals has been noted. This is

definitely mot present in Toteana. In its unbranched radial canal system it

approaches Cyclomedusa (see later under Medusoid problematica) more closely.

The decision to place this species in Semaeostomeae rested on its similarities

with Ediacaria.

Order RHIZOSTOMAE (Cuvier 1799)

Scyphozoa without marginal tentacles and with numerous mouths which are

borne on adradial fleshy branched arm-like appendages which arise from the

centre of the sub-umbrella. The lips of the numerous mouths are bordered by

minute constantly moying tentacles,

All living species are tropical and few extend far into temperate waters.

None are known from polar seas. The animals are usually tough and large and

therefore are not uncommonly preserved in the fossil state,

Genus Ruizostomites Haeckel 1866

Genotype RurzostomiTEs AMIRANDUS Haeckel 1866

Solnhofen Slates Eichstadt, Bavaria

Generic characters (as defined by Brandt)—Disc as large as 0-4 metre, with

128 marginal lobes, without marginal tentacles: oral trunk rudimentary usually

in the form of an oral disc, surrounded by eight arms. Genital cavities, four,

Coelenteric central cavity simple, with sphero-quadratic roof, Mouth opening

late, perhaps never completely obliterated, cruciform with eight branches.

Pseudorhizostomites howchini, Sprigg sp. nov.

(Plate xii, fig. 1} text fig. 6 F)

Holotype: 2034 Tate Museum, University of Adelaide, South Australia.

Locality: Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, Australia, Coll. by

R. Ayliffe.

Fig. 6

A, Rhopilema verrillii (living); B, Rhizostomites lithographicus (Jurassic) ;

C, R. amirandus (J.); D, Hexarhizites insignis (J.); E, Pseudorhopilema

chapmani; F, Pseudorhizostomites; G and H, Pseudorhizostomites sp.

Description—Impression convex, with cruciform radial grooves each branch-

ing simply once. The grooves alternatively cut off concave and convex isoscelean

areas. There is a slight suggestion of secondary dichotomous branching at the

end of one or more of the eight subradial grooves.

Dimensiotis—Total width of form 30 mm.

Discussions and compatisons—The four areas divided off by the secondarily

branched furrows are interpreted to be the basal portion of the four great oral

arms, or branches of the gastral trunk which hangs down from the centre of the

umbrella cavity of scyphozoans. The grooves are the lines of fusion formed

during the coalescence of lips of the primitive central mouth of the juvenile form.

In this way the primitive central mouth has been obliterated in Rhizostomeae,

but numerous other mouth-openings remain in the gutter-like grooves which

extend down the ventral sides of the mouth arms,

Specimen No, T116 (pl. xii, fig. 3B; text fig. 6G) may also be referrable to

this genus, although the number of primary grooves is somewhat excessive, and

the dichotomous branching is essentially restricted to the immediate mid-field, In

specimen 2043 (pl. xii, fig. 3A; text fig. 6H), on the other hand, dichotomous

branching is very pronounced: In view of the problemmatic nature of these fossils

there has been no attempt to make specific subdivisions,

Genus Pseudorhopilema Sprigg gen, tiov.

Pseudorhopilema chapmani Sprigg, gen, et. sp, nov,

Pound Quartzite, Upper Adelaide Series (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, South

Australia,

As the form is known only from the very limited detail of its central field,

generic characters tentatively will be taken to include the inferred presence of

éight oral arms and associated paired (?) scapulets.

Pseudorhopilema chapmani Sprigg, gen. et. sp. nov.

(Plate xii, fig. 2; text fis. G6 E)

Ilolotype: No. 2036, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., Coll, P. Healy.

Description—Midfield slightly convex with a central groove or furrow giving

rise to a system of dichotomously branched primary, secondary and perhaps ter-

tiary grooves,

Dimensions—Length of median furrow 7 mm, Width of central disc., as

indicated by extension of scapulets, 50 mm.

Comparisons—The form beats definite relations with the restricted central

portion of the well known Jurassic forms (fig. 6) Ahizastomites amirandus and

2. lithographicus (both Haekel 1866). Obvious differences concern the strong

development of a central furrow and of the presence of tertiary dichotomously

branched furrows, FR, lithographicus approaches the newly described form more

closely in that it has a small single central groove which imparts a minor tendency

towards bilateral symmetry as against the simple cruciform character of

R. amirandus.

Assuming that the form was typical of modern and fossil Rhizostomae, there

would have been eight oral arms. But the form has 16 tertiarily branched dicho-

tomous grooves, and these are thought to cotrespond with the canals or ducts of

scapulets which normally arise from the sides and near the bases of each of the

otal arms.

A more complete comparison in so far as this is possible is with the living

form Rhopilema verriulit (Haeke)). In this form both the strong central furrow

and the scapulae are present (fig. 6 A), and ina general sense the restricted detail

in the two cases is very similar.

MEDUSOID PROBLEMATICA

Category MEpusina Walcott 1898

Walcott erected this Category (calling it a genus) to include all species of

fossil medusae whose generic charactets cannot be determined, It is now stig-

gested that the idea of “genus” be dissociated from the term and for Medusina

to be considered as a category of convenience for stitch medusoid forms, This

would provide for the development of some broader classification within the

category and enable the use of new “generic” names additional to Medusina.

Apparent relationships could be made more obvious in this way.

Medusina mawsoni Sprigg, sp. nov.

(Plate xiii, fig. 4; text fig. 7 B)

Holotype: No, T.39, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel, Univ., S. Aust.

Type Locality; Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, S. Aus,

7 Fig. 7

A, Medusina radiata (L. £ambrian, Bohemia) ;

B, M. mawsont; C, M. asteroides; D, M. filamentus.

Description—Impression circular, medusoid; central area depressed, circular

and convex, occupying between one-third and one-half the full diameter. The

outer annular zone is inflated centrally and there is a suggestion of radial ridges

within the zone at close intervals. Margin simple, circular. No evidence of

marginal appendates,

Discussions and comparisons—The form is obviously the fossil of a medusoid

coelenterate. The central depressed area may correspond with a collapsed stomach

area, and the indefinite radial structures of the outer zone with radial canals.

The specimen has much in common with Pompeckj’s Medusina radiata?

of the Bohemian Lower Cambrian (fig. 7A). The radii in the present specimen

are faintly and very incompletely preserved and it is impossible to tell whether

they are branched as in Pompeckj’s specimen. The latter had 75 to 80 radii at

the outer margin,

The writer feels that the tentative identification of Pompeckj’s specimen with

Linnarson’s Medusina (= Astylospongia) radiata is unsatisfactory. Pompeckj

(1896) notes that it agrees only in a general way and that some differences forbid

its direct identification with the original Swedish form. “The string-of-pearls

shape of radii, already noted by Linnarsson, cannot be observed, and the number

of radii in the Bohemian specimens is less than in Linnarsson’s species." The

intervals between the radii are larger in Pompeckj’s specimen, It is felt, therefore,

that MM. Mawsont may be synonymous with M. radiata’ of Pompeckj.

Dimensions—Diameter of complete form 2-7 mm.; diameter of central

depressed area 1°7 mm.

Medusina asteroides Sprigg sp. nov.

(Plate xiii, fig. 3; text fig. 7 C)

Holotype: No, 2021, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Uniy., 5, Aust.

Type Locality; Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, Flinders

Ranges, South Australia,

Description—Impression circular, slightly inflated, central disc occupying

approximately one-quarter of the diameter of the complete form and surrounded

by a deep groove. The surrounding zone has an epimarginal groove and is

traversed by widely spaced radiating grooves dispersed in an (?) octagonal pat-

tern. Not all radii continue to the epimarginal groove. There are no visible

marginal appendages,

Dimensions—Greatest diameter 24 mm.; diameter of the central disc 10 mm.

Dimensions and comparisons—The depressed central area may represent 2

collapsed stomach; the radial grooves are radial canals and the epimarginal groove

corresponds with a citcular or ring canal, In view of an absence of restricting

critical features, and simple circular form, it is referred to the genus Medusina,

It differs from Medusina radiata and M. Mawsoni in the possession of fewer

radu and a relatively small central depressed area,

‘Medusina filamentus, Sprigg spec. nov.

(Plate sii, ig. 1; text fiz. 7 D)

Holotype: No, T68, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel. Univ., S. Aust.

Type Locality: Pound Quartzite, Lower Cambrian, Ediacara, S. Aust.

Description—Impression ovoid, inflated, Thirty to forty Alamentous (?)

tentacles are given off at fairly regular intervals around the (complete) margin.

The tentacles frequently appear to branch at least once half-way along their

respective lengths which are only slightly shorter than the diameter of the fossils,

Affinities—The writer kriows of no similar fossil form. Apart from the

inflated medusoid form and marginal (?) tentacles restricting features are absent.

Dimensions—Maximum and minimum diameters 22 and 16 mm. respectively.

Average length of tentacular processes 1(} mm.

Genus Cyclomedusa Sprigg

Genotype Cyclomedusa davidi Sprigg

Generic characters—Ex-umbrella sculptured by fairly prominent concentric

grooves which may or may not extend to the margin, and numerous fine simple

unbranched radial striations. The radial striations do not continue into the

cirewlar zone which may or may not contain a central nodular structure. The

margin is simple and an epimarginal groove is present in well-preserved specimens.

Key To SPECIES

C.davidi - = prominent armular grooves extend to the margin.

C. radiata + - outer zone essentially free of annular grooves.

C, gigantea + = large form, inner and outer zones divided by a deep annular

groove. Radial striations extremely numerous.

Cyclomedusa davidi Sprige

(Plate xiv, fig. 1, 2 and 4; text fg. 8)

Holotype: No, T 5, Tate Mus. Coll, Adel. Univ., S. Aust.

Typotypes: Nos, 2020, 2040.

Description—Impression circular, flattened, and with concentric undulations.

The form exhibits striking radial symmetry and its surface is subdivided by at

jeast seven annular grooves. Central portion raised, distinctly nodular.

The original specimen (T5) was known to be incumplete, Three zones

were tecognised, the imner being hermispherical and nodular and 5 mm. in

diameter and 1:5 mm. in height, The outer two zones were of lower relief;

annular portions within these were traversed alternately by radial striations

(? radial canals) or were apparently free of sculpture, The form as preserved

indicated a maximum radius of 50 mm. and there appeared to be about 16 radial

striations per quadrant. .

A newer, better preserved specimen considered to be specifically identical

exhibits essentially similar characters, except that it appears that the radial

striations are continuous through the various subdivisions of the outer zone.

They therefore would continue uninterruptedly from the central (?) stomach

region to the margin of the form. A more critical examination of the holotype

specimen has indicated a degree of agreement in this respect.

Dimensions—Overall diameter of specimen No. 2020 is 52 mm.

Reproduction—Specimen 2040 at first appearance has the suggestion of a

flattened tabulate colonial pleospongian. Dr. Okulitch and others who have seeti

photos of this specimen have recorded this impression on first viewing it.

However, the fossil is more or less identical with accepted specitnens of C. davids

except for its peculiar constrictions, It is felt that the constriction may be part

of an irregular budding process in which the two daughter medusae each possess

adult characters, If this is a reliable interpretation, it seems to be another unique

method of reproduction amongst jellyfish. It is also remotely possible that the

aninial may have been damaged and that the irregular form is completely for-

tuitous, Fission has produced three segments in all, and two differ only slightly

in width, while the third is significantly smaller,

A rather parallel but not identical case of reproduction by fission oceurs in

Gastroblasta (Keller). Gastroblasta raffaelei (Lang), for example, is slightly

elliptical and possesses four manubria. According fo Mayer (1910) “the medusa

frequently reproduces by fission and the plane of division is at right angles to the

long axis of the ellipse and passes between the oldest and next oldest Manubrium,

When about to divide, the oldest lithocyst divides into two and the cleft proceeds

inward at this point until the medusa is completely cut into halves, the one being a

reflection of the other. Each then develops tew radial-canals budding from the ring-

canal and growing inward. When the original form has been restored a new

fission thay take place. This is not a constant process, however, but is subject

to much variability, for new radial canals may grow inward from the ring-canal

in the regions of the old tentacles, and these new canals may fuse with the old

canal-system and develop manubria.”

Fig. 8

A, Cyclomedusa davidi; B, C. radiata; C, reconstruction of Cyclomedusa;

D, juvenile form; E, C. gigantea; F, C. davidii in process of fission.

The occurrence of irregular transverse fission of this nature elsewhere in the

kingdom of medusae greatly strengthens the view that the restrictions in the

aberrant specimen of Cyclomedusa davidi have generative significance.

Cyclomedusa radiata Sprige sp, nov.

(Plate 13, fig. 2; plate xiv, fig. 3; plate xv, fig. 1; plate xviti, fig. 1, text fie. 83

Holotype: No, 2037, Tate Mus. Coll., Adel, Univ., S. Aust.

Hypotypes: Nos. 2010, 2032, 2027.

Description—Species similar to C. davidi, except in that the outer zone is

practically free of annular grooves. Radial striations are continuous and pro-

minent in the outer zone.

In specimen 2039 the central (7) stomach zone is relatively narrow, with

a central node surrounded by two or three concentric grooves. In radial relation

the outer zone is three times the width of the inner. It 1s traversed by numerous

radial striations, and 50 of these cat be recognised clearly in one half of the

fossil; the striations do not appear to branch and all appear to join the central

zone separately. They connect with an epimarginal groove or (?) ring cadal at

their distal ends. The margin appears to be simple.

Specimens 2032 and 2027 are essentially similar but differ in that the ratio

of the radial widths of the inner and outer zones is approxemately 1:1. 2032

is apparently a juvenile form of 2027, Neither of these exhibit an obvious

circular canal,

Cyclomedusa gigantea Sprigg sp. nav.

(Plate xv, fig. 2; text fig. 8 E)

Holotype: No, 2035, Tate Mus. Coll.; Adel. Univ., 5. Aust,; Coll. IR. Ayliffe.

Descriptions — Form essentially similar tn many aspects to C. dazdi and

C. radiata. There are two zones, the ittner af which is devoid of radial striations,

whereas they occur weakly in the outer one; the complete form possesses ntumer-

ous concenttic groovings.

The central zone is separated from the outer by an unusually deep sulcus

or groove. The margin of the animal is incomplete and ill-defined. In the com-

plete form there would be approximately 200 simple, unbranched radial grooves.

These are much more numerous than in C. davidi (approximately 50) of

C. radiata (approximately 100),

Dimensions—Ovetall diameter greater than 65 mm.; (?) stomach 42 mm.

in diameter.

Discussion and comparisons—The foregoing three species have much in

common and separation is rather arbitrary on this account. Nevertheless there

appears to be some regularity in variation in surface sculpture which it is thought

merits specific subdivision.

The anototnical organisation of the animals is unknown except by inference.

The central zone, which is free of radial ornamentation, probably delimits the

stomach. The significance of the radial grooves is open to argument but their

interpretation as radial canals is probably justifiable. If so, these canals were

simple and unbranched and mostly continuous from the stomach fo the circular

canal. The form differs from Ediacara in this feature.

The fossils may be discoid Scyphozoans, but such classification is too

optemistic far the present.

Genus Madigania Sprigg gen. nov.

Genotype: Madigania annulata Sprigg gen. et sp. nov.

Pound Quartzite: Upper Adelaide System (Lower Cambrian), Ediacara, 5, Aust.

Generic characters—Circular form with numerous conspictious annular

provves, ridges or undulations. No radial ornamentation, It may or may not

ve a central conspicuous papilla or node.

Madigania annulata Sprigg gen, et sp. nov.

(Plates xvi, fig. 1 and 2; plate xvii, fig, 1 and 2)

Holotype: No, 2031, Tate Mus, Coll., Univ. Adel, S$. Aust.

Hypotypes: 2025, and T9 and TI4.

Descriptions — Impression circular, with numerous conspicuous annular

undulations. Essentially flat; margin simple,

Specimen 2031 has a very conspicuous central papilla, but this is suppressed

or poorly developed in the other specimens.

There is no evidence of radial canals, marginal appendages or notches, gonads

or manubrial structures. The stomach cannot be defined.

T9 is the largest fossil medusa yet found at Ediacara, its greatest radius is

110 mm.

Diameter of holotype, 170 mm.

Comparisons—As the genus is founded solely on rather irregular cyclic sur-

face sculpture useful comparison with other living or fossil forms is practically

impossible, The annulat undulations may reflect musculations in the umbrella

of .a medusa. ;

As in the case of Cyclomedusa it is impossible to be certain whether

Madigania is Scyphomedusan or Hydromedusan. It differs from Cyclomedusa in

that there are no conspicuous radial striations.

Genus. DicxrnsontA, Sprigg 1947

The affinities of the fossil group which will now be described are extremely

uncertain, Practically nothing is known of the anatomy of the fossils concerned,

and diagnostic characters are restricted ta the possession of a strong bilateral

symmetry, an elliptical form, numerous radial grooves, a submarginal groove

marking off a flange, and a median fnrrow.

The fossils may well belong to an extinct order or class, but until more is

known of the group no attempt will be made to erect any such new categories.

Obscure relations with some of the jellyfishes could be argued, as some have a

tendency towards bilateral symmetry, and the possession of radiating (?) canals

is a strong feature.

The presence of a well-developed bilateral symmetry may indicate higher

specialisation and organisation, and perhaps the assumption of creeping’ habits,

Bilateral symmetry is a common characteristic of the Siphonophora and the fossils

in question may eventually be referred to that Order, However, for the present,

even the assumption that they are Coelenterate may be questionable, but consider-

ing theit geological age, their mode of occurrence and the few obvious details of

their organisation, the coelenterate category seems the most logical association for

the present.

Genus Dickinsonia, Sprigg 1947

Genotype: Dickinsonia costata Sprigg 1947

The genus was founded on a single ovoid form which possessed a marginal

crentulate flange and a median longitudinal furtow giving off very numerous sub-

radial grooves to the outer crenulate margin. The form was considered to be

inflated aborally in life,

Since describing this form much new material is available from the same

horizon with which to make comparisons and study variation, Variation has been

found to be considerable while still preserving the same general form. The major

differences concern the shape of the fossil and prevalence of radial grooves. It

was felt that shape alone is insufficient evidence of specific variation, especially

in view of the distortion which some forms have suffered and the probability that

organisms in various stages of development are being dealt with.

To ovetcome these complications, it was felt by plotting the radial grooves

in either symmettical half of the individual animals against respective overall

dimensions, that some clearer relations might show up, This has been the case,

and a fairly direct relation is seen to exist between growth stage and the number

of radial grooves. All the specimens form into two series (fig. 9) which it is

To 86 80 HO WO 120 130 1460

so 680

ry)

so 60 7a BO go

LENGTH ALONG MAJOR AxiS

Vig. 9

assumed relate to specific differences, One series indicates less density of costae

per unit length and, without exception, includes the larger specimens. It includes

the genotype specimen Dickinsonta costatae. The alternate series has been named

Dickinsonia minima.

Dickinsonia costata—Length 60-120 mm.; 70-140 costae.

Dickinsonia minima—Length less than 60 mm.; 60-100 costae,

Dickinsonia costata Sprigg 1947

(Plate xviii, fig. 2; plate xix, fig. 1 and 2; plate xx, fig. 1 and 2, text fig. 9 and 10)

Holotype: No, T5, Tate Museum Coll. Adel. Univ., 5, Aust,

Hypotypes: 2050, 2012, 2004, 2007, 2009.

Description — Impression ovoid, bilaterally symmetrical, essentially flat;

median longitudinal furrow approximately 35 mm. long gives off 70-140 radiating

or diverging grooves or costae (?) alternatively to the margin of the fossil.

Margin slightly crenulate when complete, the notches corresponding with the inter-

section of the radiating grooves. There is a definite crowding of costae towards

one end in several specimens. This could be related to a specialisation leading

to the development of an anterior end, or simply to distortion during burial. The

well developed concentric epi-marginal sulcus in the holotype specimen marks off

a marginal flange, In other specimens the flange is absent or weakly developed.

Variation—The smallest specimen of the series (pl. xix, fig. 2) exhibits

characters not seer in the others. It is (?) deformed with the production of

annular folds, The character is thought not to be of anotomical or morphological

significance.

Certain of the specimens show considerable variation in their length over

breadth ratios. Specimens 2012 and 2009 for example are exceedingly broad,

whereas 2007 is at first sight much narrower, This apparent important difference

is resolved however upon the closer inspection of specimen 2007. The deeper

costae of the central region cut out relatively sharply away from the central plane

of symmetty, but finer grooves of somewhat different type continue considerably

further. These fainter lines are quite similar to the radial sculpture of 2012. It

Fig. 10

+, Band C, Dickinsonia costata; D, reconstruction of Dickinsonia; E. and F, D. minima.

would appeat moreover that the latter sculpture is more of a skeletal nature—

perhaps representing chitinous rods. The coarser sculpture would appear to be

more of surface significance. In this way there is a complete relationship between

the apparently different fossils 2009 and 2012,

Truus. Roy, Soe. 5. Aust, 1949 Vol. 73, Plate

Fig. 1 Protentobia wadea, Sprige

Holotype No, 192, Commonwealth Palacontological Colleetiou, Can-

herra, F.C\T. Specimen collected by Dr. A. L. Wade from Lower

Cambrian flags, Motint John Osmond Range, Western Australia, The

unpressign occurs ou the bedded surface of laminated sandstone,

Pig. 20 Protadipletirosuma wardi. Sprice

folotype Ne, 2023, from the lower Canhriau “Meal Sandstune-

quarizite ar Ediaeara, Seuth Ansiralia, This specimen and others

figured below oceur as tipressiows in fissile flayuy suid poorly

Lunitiited ciasurbzites.

Praus. Roy, Soc. Ss. Aust., 1949 Vol 74, Mlate NX

Pe bo Belhoedia piles, Molotype No, 2056

‘Trans. Ray. Soc. S. Aust., 1949

Vol. 73, Plate

Pig, 1

Tateana inflatu, Holotype Na, 2017

x 2 7 mflate, Specinen No. 2018

Trans, Roy. Soc. 'S. Aust, 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XII

Fig. 1) Psetidarhizastamttes horechint Fig. 2) Pseudarhoptlemn chapinani

Holotype No, 2034 Holotype No. 2036

Fie 3 Pseudurhizostomites, Specimeis No. 2043 saul Tilo

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XIII

Fie. 1 Medusina filamentis Fig. 2) Cyclomedusa radiata

Holotype T68 Specimen No, 2027

Fig. 3) Medusina asteroides Fiz. 4 Medusina mawsoni

Tlolotype No. 2021 Holotype No. T39

Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust, Tao Val 74, Plate XIV

Fie 1 Cyelaineduse davis, Taloty pe No, TS

Viv. 3) C. radiata, Specimen No. 2032 hin. 4+ C. demer, Specunen No, 2040

Trans. Roy. Soe S. Aust, Lolo Vol, 73, Plite XV

iy, 1 Cyelomedusa ractivta, Lolotype No. 2037

Fig, 2 ©. olaanted, Welotepe No. 2035

Trans, Roy. Suc. S. Aust, 1949 Vol 73, Plate XVI

Mig lL Mirdiainta annnlala, Welotype Neo, 2031

‘Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 1949 Vol, 73, Plate XVIT

Vig 1) Madiyarie uanuletu, Specimen No. 2025

Fie. 20 VW. annniuta, Specimen No. TS

Vrins. Roy. Soe. S, Aust. 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XVI

Fig, Lo Cyrlomedisa radiata, Speennen Noo 2000

Fig 20 Divkinsonia cosiuta, Holotype Neu. TS

Trans. Roy, Soc, 5. Aust., 1949 Vol, 73, Plate XIX

Fin, 1) Phehorsounta eostala, Specimen No, 2050

Tig. 2) 2). rustala, Specimen No, 2000

Trans. Roy Soc. S. Aust, 1940 Vol, 73, Plate XX

View 1 Dickinsonta eostate, Specimen Nn, 2012

Bic, 2) Diekimnsonia castata, Specimen No. 2007

Vrans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 1949 Vol. 73, Plate XXN1

Fig. 1) Dickinsonia minima Kig, 2) D. minima, Specimen No. 2054

Specimen No. 2052

Fig. 4 YD. minima, Specimen No. 2001

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1949

Vol. 74, Plate XNIL

VMOU aly NTIS tt

Fie. 1 (above)—An authentic specimen of 2, crassinervia in Melbourne

National Herbarium (x 4).

Fig. 2 (below)—The type specimen of D. nigricans (x 5).

Variation in the importance of the marginal flange of the species is puzzling.

In 2055 it is exceedingly well defined, while in other specimens a complete grada-

tion into insignificance can be observed, It probably has little diagnostic value.

In specimen 2004 the transition can be observed in the one spécumen.

Discussion and alfinities—The fossils are the impressions of the (?) dorsal

aspects of bilaterally symmetrical, soft bodied animals of very doubtful affinities.

During burial the animals were flattened and compressed, often slightly obliquely

in a manner which suggests that they were strongly convex dorsally, The animal

was bilaterally symmetrical. Costae may represent superimposed chitinous rods

and surface ornamentation, The epimarginal groove may represent a form of

circular canal ot simply delineate a margina! flange.

The classification of Dickinsonia is still virtually impossible, allhough the

animal was probably coelenterate. The aninial might well belong to an extinct

order or even class, It therefore remains highly problematical.

Dickinsonia minima Sprigz sp. uby,

(Plate xx1, fig, 1-4; text fe. 9 aird 10 E and F)

Holotype: No, 2000, Tate Mus, Coll, Adel, 5. Aust, Coll. by W, Reid),

Hypotypes: 2001, 2052, 2054, 1005.

Type Locality; Pound Quartzite, Ediacara, S. Aust.

Description—Impression essentially similar to, but smaller than, D. castata,

The longitudinal furrow is well developed in the holotype, but there is only slight

evidence of marginal flange formation. There is a slight notching at one end

but this appears to be fortuitous.

The various specimens can be arranged serially, varying in Ictigth from 29 to

57 mr, and with costae ranging in number from about 60 to 100. The mumber

of the latter increases fairly regularly with elongation,

The covttinuation of the costae across the cetitral longitudinal furrow is well

shown in specimen 2052, which is apparently the youtgest of the series, The

grooves ate not disturbed over their full length, and the last one describes an

arc of almost 180 degrees as it reaches the longitudinal furrow. Its reflected half

almost parallels its countet-part and leaves a narrow zone not traversed by

sculpture,

Dimensions (of holotype)—length 62 mtn.; width 57 mm.; (of all specimens )

length 29-62 mm.; widths 22-57 mm,

Discussion—The crowding of the subradial grooves towards one end 18

noted in D. costata is also apparent in most of the specimens of D. minima. In

specimen 2001 this is particularly noticeable and strengthens the impression that

ere is a tendency towards the development of an anterior extremity. The animal

might have developed a creeping habit.

’ CONCLUSIONS

Study of the suite of fossils from the hasal Cambrian of Ediacata, South

Australia, and the single form from Mount John, Western Australia, has sup-

ported the theory that the immediate late Precambrian was an age of jellylishes.

It has also demonstrated that many and probably all the modern orders of jelly-

fishes were in existence by early Cambrian times,

The presence of so many stranded jellyfish within restricted horizons of the

Pound Quartzite at Ediacara siiggests at least local conditions of the tidal fat

type. The vattire of the enclosing sediments supports this view, The widespread

areal distribution of this particular quartzite with little variation and thickness

of up to 7,000 feet (Gammon Ranges, South Australia) indicates a great develop-

ment of shallow continental seas, The quartzite in South Australia appears

originaily to have covered 30,000 square miles or more. At about the same strati-

graphical horizon similar great sandy beds were deposited over great areas in

Central Australia (MacDonnell geosyncline) and in the Kimberley Region of

Western Australia.

The modern jellyfish with which several of the forms appear closely related

are dominantly subtropical or temperate water forms. The early Cambrian climate

was therefore probab!y warm and equable—a fact which is borne out by other

marine fossils of this time,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express appreciation to the numerotis palaeontologists

and zoologists in North America and England who have offered helpful sugges-

tions in the study of these fossils, In particular, indebtedness is expressed to

Dr. Christina Balk, of Chicago University, and Dr, J. W-. Rees,

of the British Museum, for their keen mierest and stimulation. Opportunity is

also taken to thank Mr. W, B. Dallwitz for directing attention to Dr. A. Wade’s

figure of the impression herein described as Protoniobia wadea, and to Dr. H. G.

Ragegatt, of the Mineral Resources Bureau, for permission to borrow the original

specimen.

REFERENCES

Acassiz, L. 1862 “Contributions to the Natural History of the United States

of America,” 4, 63

Attman 1873 “On Some Recent Results with the Towing Net on the South

Coast of Ireland.” Nature 1, 73-74

Ammon, 1886 Abhandle, Math-Phys. Classe Konigl. boycrischen, Akad.

Wiss., 15

Branpt, J. P. “Ueber Fossile Medusen,” Mem. Acad. Imp, Sci. St. Peters-

bourge, 7th Series, 16, No. 11

Browne, E. fT, 1897 “On British Medusae,” Proc. Zool. Soc,, London

Caster, 1945 “A New Fossil Jellyfish (Kirklandia texana, Caster) from the

Lower Cretaceous of Texas,” Palaeontographica Americana, 3, No. 18

Cuvier 1799 Journal de Phys., tome, 49, 436

Fewxus 1887 Amer, Journ. Sci, Ser. 3, 33, 119

GeceNBAUR 1856 “Versuch eines Systems der Medusen,” Zeitschr. Wiss. Zaol_,

Bd, 8, Leipzig

Haecxen, LE. 1866 Neues Jahrbuch fir Min. Geol. tind Paleont.

Lyman, L. RB. 1940 McGraw, Hill & Co,, New York

Parker, T. J., and Hassweit, W, A. 1940 “Text Book of Zoology,” MacMil-

lan & Co., London

Pompecx), F, 1896 “Die Journal des Cambrium con Tejvovie und Skrej in

Bohem,” Jahrbuch. K, Geol, Reichsanstelt, 45, pts. 2 and 3, 501, pl. 14

Linnarson 1871 Kongl, Svensk. Vt.-Akad., Hande, 9, No. 7

Lanc 1886 Jena. Zcit fur Naturwissen., Bd. 19

Mawson, D. 1939 “The Cambrian Sequence of the Wirrealpa Basin” ‘Trans.

Roy, Soc. S, Aust., 63, (2)

Mover, A. G. 1910 ‘“Medusae of the World,” Carnegie Inst,, Wash., Publict.

No, 109, 1, 2 and 3

Narnorst, A.G. 1881 “Om Aftryck af Medusor,” K. Svenska Vetensk Akad.

Handl Bd. XIX, Nr. LS. 22, Taf. VI, Stockholm. Kongl. Svensk.

Vet-Akad. Handle, 19, No. 1

Spricc, R.C. 1947 “Early Cambrian (?) Jellyfishes from the Flinders Ranges,

South Australia.” Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 71, (2)

Wane, A. 1924 ‘Petroleum Prospects, Kimberley District, Western Australia

and Northern Territory.” Parliament of Commonwealth of Aus-

tralia

Watcort, C. D. 1898 “Fossil Medusae,” U.S. Geol. Survey, Monograph 30

GESTURE LANGUAGE OF THE WALPARI TRIBE, CENTRAL

AUSTRALIA

BY CHARLES P. MOUNTFORD

Summary

Whilst attached to the 1936 Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition to the Granites,

Central Australia, I was able to photograph a small number of the hand signs used by the members

of the Walpari tribe who inhabit the surrounding country. The accompanying test figures were

traced from the photographs taken at the time.

100

GESTURE LANGUAGE OF THE WALPARI TRIBE, CENTRAL AUSTRALIA

By Cuarztes P. Mounrrorn *

[Read 8 September 1949]

Whilst attached to the 1936 Adelaide University Anthropological Expedition

to the Granites, Central Australia, I was able to photograph a small number of

the hand signs used by the members of the Walpari tribe who inhabit the sur-

rounding country, The accompanying text figures were traced from the photo-

graphs taken at the time.

In a previous paper on the subject (1), I listed the references in literature

to the gesture language of the Australian aborigines, and recorded, at the same

time, some fifteen hand signs in use in the Ngada tribe of the Warburton

Ranges of Western Australia.

This paper records thirteen hand signs of the Walpari tribe.

Kanearoo (Macropus rufus), fig, 1, a,

The tips of the thumb and the fingers are first bunched together, then flicked

outward.

Dinco (Canis dingo), fig. 1, b.

The hand, with the fingers turned tightly inward, is moved upward and

downward from the wrist.

Lizarp, small, fig. 1, c-

‘The hand, held with the forefinger in a pointing position, is vibrated side-

ways ftom thé wrist,

Emu (Dromaius novae-hollandiae), fig. 1, d. and h.

These are alternative gestures for the emu. In the former sign, the hand,

turned upward, and lightly clenched, is moved up and down from the wrist, In

the latter, the hand is kept stationary, with the hand partly closed and the thumb

placed between the second and third fingers.

Yam, fg. 1, e,

The hand is fully extended, held edgewise, and vibrated sidewise rapidly.

Razsit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), fig. 1, £.

The arm is extended and the large ears of the rabbit indicated by the first

two fingers of the right hand.

Opossum (Trichosurus vulpecuta), fig. 1, g.

The hard is partly closed, faced away from the body, then moved upward

and downward from the wrist.

Water, fig. 1, i.

The presence of water is indicated by the hand being lightly closed, held

on its edge, vibrated quickly and rotated slightly. The position is not unlike

that used to indicate the dingo (fig. 1, b), except that the hand is closed.

Came, fig. 1, j.

The hand, fully extended and facing downward, is moved in an undulating

motion in imitation of the movement of the head of a camel.

SNake, fig. 1, k,

The thiimb and forefinger are bent sharply at the first joint and vibrated

in a siinilar manner to that used in the yam sign.

Mountain Devit (Moloch horridus), fig, 1, m.

The second and third fingers are bent sharply inward while the hand and

atm are held in a stationary position,

* Associate Curator in Ethnology, South Australiat) Muscum

Trans. Roy, Soc. §, Aust, 73, (1),.16 December 1949.

101

Prain Turkey (Eupodotis australis), fig, 1 n.

The hand, fully opened and turned face downwards, is moved from the

wrist, in imitation of the movement of the bird’s wing,

This paper records a small number of the interesting and practically un-

known hand signs of gesture language of the Australian aborigines, It was only

the lack of time that prevented me from collecting a much greater number,

REFERENCE

Mountrorp, C. P. 1938 Oceania, 9, (2)

Fig. 1 Gesture Language of the Walpari Tribe, Central Australia

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER

MOLLUSCS PART XIV

BY T. HARVEY JOHNSTON AND NANCY G. MUIRHEAD

Summary

In December 1948 a new echinostome cercaria was found infecting 2 of 77 Planorbis isingi. The

infected snails were collected from a small shallow lagoon beside the River Murray at Wood’s Flat

near Blanchetown. In January 1949, 2 out of a total of 236 snails were found infected in the same

locality. In February 1949 the same cersaria was found again, this time at Tailem Bend, where one

snail from a total of 28 was infected. Although Planorbis snails were collected from the swamp at

Wood’s Flat in April 1949 and at Tailem Bend in the following June, no infections with this

parasite were found.

102

LARVAL TREMATODES FROM AUSTRALIAN FRESHWATER MOLLUSCS

PART XIV

Ry T. Tarver Jounstoy and Nancy G. Mvigurap +

Cercaria natans f. sp.

(Fiz. 1-6)

In December 1948 a new echinostome cercaria was found infecting 2 of 77

Planorbis tsingt. The infected snails were collected from a small shallow lagoon

beside the River Murray at Wood's Flat near Blanchetown. In January 1949,

2 out of a total of 236 snails were found infected in the same locality. In

February 1949 the same cercaria was found again, this time at Tailem Bend,

where one snail from a total of 28 was infected. Although Plenorbis snails were

collected from the swamp at Wood’s Flat in April 1949 and at Tailem Bend

in the following June, no infections with this parasite were found.

Under laboratory conditions the cercarige were observed to emerge from the

host snail at about mid-day, and after about two hours of swimming they

encysted in the host snail. On some occasions one cercaria only was given off

during a day. They swam about or floated in the bottom of the tube with periodic

excursions towards the surface of the water, When at rest on the bottom or

, suspended in the water the body was curved and made an obtuse angle with

the tail, ‘

Measurements were made after fixing by the addition of an equal yolume

o£ hot 10% formalin to the quantity of water in which the cercariac were swim-

ming, In fixed specimens the body is flexed. Measurements based on 20 such

specimens are:—body length, 252-2694; breadth, 184-176p.

Average length of 10 living specimens im fairly extended condition is 460,.

Diameter of acetabulum, 100%; of oral sucker, 66%; giving a sucker ratio of 5:3.

The acetabulum has a fringed margin, The tail, 460-482» in length in fixed

material, is longer than the body, and, like it, is capable of a considerable degree

of extension. There is a dorsal as well as a ventral fin fold on the distal half of

the tail, but these folds do not extend to the tip. They can be seen best when a

little pressure is exerted om the cercaria after staining with dilute neutral red,

There are fin folds at the base of the tail also, but they appear to have no connec-

tion with those situated distally (fig. 2, 3). The tip of the tail which is free of

any fin fold, is capable of contraction and extension, as well as threshing move-

ments, quite independently of the vest of the tail,

The collar of 35 spines is not readily yisible in living specimens but is obvious

in killed material. There are 5 corner spines on each side ventrally, about

5 lateral spines on each side in a single row, and the rest are arranged in two

alternating rows dorsally. The spines widen slightly at about the middle of their

length and then taper to a broad point, The corner spines are larger than the

rest. The dorsal alternating spines of the two series are all the same size (fig, 5}.

Average measurements which were made from the metacercaria, are—corner

spines, 15-5 long; lateral, 144; dorsal, 13-54, Spinules cover both dorsal and

ventral surfaces of the cercaria; they are most abundant anteriorly and ventrally.

There is a prepharynx followed by a spherical pharynx. The oesophagus,

when seen from the ventral aspect, appears to be composed of a single column

of about & crescentic cells, It bifureates just anterior to the acetabulum and the

caeca extend almost to the posterior end of the body.

The details of the excretory systemr are dificult to determine. A long

descending tube on each side opens into a terminal bladder which at times has

* University of Adelaide.

Trana. Roy. Soc. S& Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1549

103

the shape shown in fig. 1. This tube is widest at the level of the acetabulum and

is packed with granules from this point to near the anterior loop where the

granules become smaller.

The ascending tube is narrower than the descending and runs parallel with

it. Ata point half-way between the acctabulum and the front of the bladder it

divides into an anterior and a posterior collecting tubule, The anterior one

éxtends to the level of the pharynx where a group of 3 flame cells is connected

Fig. 1-6

Cercaria natans—l, cercaria showing collar spines and excretory system; 2, cercaria

showing gland cells and fin folds after staining with neutral ted; 3, sketch of dorsal

view of tail, indicating anterior and posterior fin folds; 4, cyst; 5, metacercaria; 6, redia,

104

with it, Between this point and the acetabulum there are two pairs of flame cells.

Level with the acetabulum are two groups each of 3 fAlaine cells, and at the point

where the ascending tube divides there is another group of probably 3, though

only 2 flame cells of this group were actually observed. Posterior to this point

there are three groups, each of 3 flame cells, giving a total of 25 on each side.

Ciliary flames are present itt the descending and ascending tubes. The arrange-

ment of the groups of flame cells is shown in fig. 1, A caudal exctetory pore

opens dorsally at the base of the tail. From the bladder an excretory duct

extends inta the tail, and at a point about 7Oe from the base of the latter, divides

into two.

On the dorsal lip of the mouth are the openings of eight ducts which can be

traced backwards to about the level of the pharynx, on each side of which are

about 4 pyriform gland eells, which stain only very faintly with neutral red,

On either side of the oral sucker is a group of greenish refractive bodies.

Granular cystogenous cells are densely aggregated beneath the cuticle from about

the level of the pharynx to the posterior end of the body (fig. 1).

Retiace containing living cercariac were dissected from the Hver of the snail.

They contained up to five or six cercarnae. Nearly all the rediae possessed bright

oratige pigment spats. Anteriorly the pharynx opens into a short darkly coloured

intestine which occupies only about one-eighth of the body length: The collar is

not obvious but im some specimens a birth pore can be sceti opening a short

distance from the anterior end. Foot processes are short and of equal length and

are more obvious in young specimens (fig. G}.

We suevessfully infected the pond snail, 4merianna sp., and the tadpole of

Limnodynastes tasmaniensiz with the cercaria. The host snail, Planorbis isingi,

is a host also for the metacercaria, the cysts occurring mainly in the liver among

the rediae, Generally the hast snail bears a large number of cysts. Measure-

ments of 30 eysts from Planorbis ranged from 176e x 176p to 191m x 206p. In

the experimentally infected Amerianna sp. 10 cysts were found in each snail,

mainly in the tissue of the mantle, and measurements of 20 of these cysts ranged

from 1684 x 183 to 191p.x 191p. Two cysts were dissected from one of the

infected tadpoles (fig. 4) and only one cyst from the other. They were found

in the peritoneum surrounding the kidney and in the kidney tissue. Measure-

ments of two of these cysts were 229. x 1684 and 168p x 139,.

The cysts are thick-walled and difficult to break bit metacercariae could be

expressed from them in some cases. The spines of the metacercaria are larger

than those of the cereara and their arrangement is shown in fig. 5. Their

measurements have been given above, The spination of the body of the meta-

cercaria is more pronounced than in the cerearia. The digestive system js similar

and the sucker ratigs are the same, The acetabulum lies in the posterior half

of the body.

This cerearia belongs to the Echinostomum group as the spines of the collar

are uta double row, uninterrupted dorsally, and the spines of the two dorsal rows

are equal in size.

The presence of a fin membrane on the tail, according to Sewell (1922)

separated his Cercaria Indica XLVIIT from other Echinostomes. He placed it

with others in a specially erected group—the Echinatoides group. Our cercaria

in some respects falls into this group. Ilowever, the presence of spines. on the

body and the fact that the excretory tubule divides into anterior and posterior

tubules at a point half-way beween the acetabulum and the bladder world,

avearding to Sewell’s diagnosis, exclude our cercaria from that group,

105

Wesenberg-Lund (1934) placed C. echinostomi Dubois in the Echinatoides

group and stated that at first he determined this species as C. limbifera Seifert

1926 (later described by Brown 1931), but that after secing Brown’s description

he decided that the two species were distinct though closely allied. Like our

species the two cercariae just mentioned have 35 spines but both are larger;

C. limbifera has hairs anteriorly; and both C. limbifera and C. echinostami have

fin folds extending to the tip of the tail.

Ww Bo

10 &

‘Miu g.0 —_———,

Fig. 7-12

Cercaria lethurgica—7, sketch, showing usual flexed condition; 8, ventral view, showing

gland cells, also pigmented cells surrounding acetabulum; 9, excretory system; 10, cyst;

11, metacercaria; 12, sporocyst.

106

We might mention having found in Amerianna pyramiduta and Planorbis

ising from Wood's Flat in February 1949 an echinostome cercaria possessing att

anatomy very hke that of C. matans but having 37 spines. It is not the larva of

Echinostomum revolutum because it has dorsal and ventral fin folds like C. natans.

Its gland cells stain very readily with dilute neutral red whereas those of

C, saténs are very difficult to stain even after prolonged immersion in the dye.

Its metacercaria has been obtained in the host snails, 4merianna pyramidala and

Planorbis isingi, and in the tadpole of Limnodynastes tasmaniensis.

Cercaria lethargica n. gp,

(Fig. 7-12)

Since December 1937 a gymnocephalous cercaria has been found infecting

the gastropod, Plotiopsis tatei, at yarious places along the lower River Murray.

In April 1939, at Tailem Bend, it was found in 40 out of 200 of these molluscs,

After February 1940 the incidence of the infection decreased until in P'ehruary

1948, out of 250 Plotiopsis collected near Mannum, only one snail was found

infected with this cereatia. In April 1949 at Wood’s Flat, near Blanchetown,

I out of 30 snails was found infected. The parasite has never been collected

earlier than December but has been found as late as June. It is not an actively

maving cercaria but remains for long periods suspended in the water with the

tail, which is attached ventrally, and the bady forming 2 continuous curve so that

the whole orgamsm is crescent-shaped (fig. 7). When in movement the tail is a

little longer than the body and in this extended condition the cuticle is smooth.

In a contracted state, as in preserved specimens, the cuticle is thrown into folds

which become smaller towards the tip of the tail.

Measurements of the body of 30 specimens after fixation by the method

described above, ranged from 268» in length by 114m in breadth to 190m in length

by 130». in breadth. The breadth was measured acress the widest part of the

cerearia, just posterior to the acetabulum. The oral sucker and the acetabulum

are approximately equal, with an average diameter of 324. The tail varies in

length from 153 t0 2682, The cuticle of the cercaria bears small spines which

art arranged in rows and are embedded for part of their length in the cuticle.

They are more obvious anteriorly than posteriorly,

Around the acetabulum and to a less extent behind it, the cercaria is

coloured a yellowish-brown due to the presence of many cells containing yellowish

granules. Beneath these cells are densely granular cystogenous cells which stain

readily with many dyes. These latter cells do not extend much further forward

than the acetabulum.

The oral sucker is oval in some preserved and extended specimens, round in

living material. The mouth is subterminal. The pharynx can he seen only in

stained preparations. The oesophagus is even more difficult tu observe but in

one or two stained specimens it could be followed to its bifurcation about midway

between the oral and ventral suckers. Caeca were net observed.

Anterior to the ventral sucker and extending forwards to a point about mid-

way between the suckers is a conspicuous group of clear gland cells from which

ducts extend forwards to open on the oral sucker in 3 groups, 4 dorsal and two

ventro-lateral,

The bladder in its contracted state is approximately circular, Extended, it

forms a conspicuous Y with a broad stem and with the anms reaching forwards

on @ach side of the acetabulum. An excretory pore opens inte the depression

into which the tail fits. When the bladder is contracted an excretory duct may

be seen extending from it on cach side to the level of the pharynx where it forms

107

a loop (fig. &). When the bladder is in its extended condition, excretory ducts

can be seen anteriorly but their points of entry into the bladder could not be

detected, Several groups of flame cells have been seen (fig. 9), They are in

groups of 3, two groups are aritcrior to the acetabulum and there are perhaps

3 groups behind it.

A rudimentary cirrus sac lies partly antcriot to and partly dorsal to the

acetabulum and terminates in the midline or slightly to one side, at the genital pore.

The liver of the host snail may contain many sporocysts vatying in length

from 1‘5 tn 2mm, At intervals along their length, between the contained cer-

cariae, they are constricted and have the appearance of a string of beads. There

are many relractive ylobules which in some specimens collect at one end of the

sporocyst (fig, 12).

Successful experimental infections were catried ott using the aquarium fish,

Gambusia. in 1940 when many infected snails were present with the fish, as

many as 56 cysts were found in the muscles and body cavity of one fish, and

3 others in the liver, In the experimental infections carried out in 1948 cysts

were found in the liver only, in the two fish which were successfully infected.

These cysts measured from 3llw x 311lp to 328 x 303p.

The metacercaria, when excysted from the thick-walled cyst (fig. 10), shows

many of the characters of the cercaria, The body has lengthened and measures

from 1-] mm.-1'2 mm. in length and from 2504-229» in breadth. The oral

and ventral stickers which are about equal in size, measuring 784-82u, retain their

positions relative to each other, The spination is more marked than in the

cercaria,

‘The digestive system is observable im stained specimens. The oesophagus

bifureates about midway between the suckers and the caeca extend to the posterior

end. A group of gland cells is present asin the cervaria, and their ducts open on

the oral sucker. A few yellowish granular celis which were a feature of the

cercaria, are present near the acetabulum.

The most obvious feature of the metacercatia is the excretory system which

still retains its Y-shape. However, the arms of the Y extend anteriorly unti] they

are level with the pharynx and the outline of the Y is not as well defined as, in

the cercaria, The excretory system is crowded with refractive material which

makes the metacercatia appear dark and obscures other features of the living

specimen. When the metacercaria is fixed and staitied other structures can be

seen (fig. 11).

There is a genital pore and cirrus sac in about the wudline some distance

atiteriorly to the yentral sucker. A fine tube {possibly the uterine rudiment)

extends from behind the ventral sucker to the region of the cirrus sac. Paster‘o-

laterally from the acetabulum is a group of cells which may be the ovarian

rudiment,

This cercatia belongs to the Leptocereous group of Tithe (1909), Sewell

(1922) modified I.fihe’s scheme of classification and included a number of

different groups in the Gymmocephalous cercariae, That classification was

modified by Dubois (1929) and Wesenberg-Lund (1934). Sewell (1922) has

described a cercaria very like ours—C, indica XJ. He stated that it fell into

no known group or sub-group, It differs from our species however in size,

amount of pigment, and in the arrangement of iis excretory canals and tubules,

although it has the Y-shaped bladder. The excretory system of our carcaria is

more like that of an echinostome and it is therefore possible that the adult may

belong to the family Psilnstomatidae in which the life history is similar to that

of Echinnstomes. However, the Psilostome cercariae described by Beayer (1939)

108

and by Szidat (1937) are different in many respects from ours and their develop-

ment occurs in rediae not in sporocysts, The Y-shaped excretory system, packed

with refractive material, of the metacercaria of our species is suggestive of the

Fellodistomatidae,

SuMMary

A new 35-spined echinostome cercaria, C. natans, is described from Planorbis

istgt from the lower Murray. The metacercaria has been obtained expcrimentally

from the gastropods, Planorbis isingi and Amerianna sp., and from the tadpole

of Limnodynastes tasméniensis.

A closely allied 37-spined cercaria is reported from Amerianna pyramtidata

and Planorbis isingi, its metacercaria haying been obtained experimentally from

these two species of snails as well as from the tadpole just named.

Cercaria lethargica n.sp. is described from the gastropod, Platiopsis tatet,

the metacercaria occurring (experimentally) in a fish, Gambusta. The adult is

perhaps a Psilostome or a Fellodistome.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We desire to acknowledge assistance rendered by Messrs. G, G, and Bryce

Jaensch of Tailem Bend, The work was carried out with the aid of the Com-

monwealth Research Grant to the University of Adelaide.

LITERATURE

Beaver, P. C. 1939 The Morphology and Life History of Psilostomum

ondatrae Price, 1931 (Trematoda, Psilostomidae), J. Parasit., 25,

383-393

Brown, F, J. 1931 Some Freshwater Larval Trematodes from Cheshire.

Parasitology, 23, 88-98

Dusors, G. 1929 Les cercaires de la Région de Neuchatel. Bull. Soc. Neu-

chatel, Sci, Nat., 53, n.s. 2, 1928, 1-177

Lite, M. 1909 Trematodes. Die Siisswasser Fatina Deutschlands. Heft 17

Serrert, R. 1926 Cerearia limbifera, eine neue Echinostome Cerearia, Zool,

Anz., 67; 112-199

Sewe Lt, R. B.S, 1922 Cercariae Indicae. Ind. J. Med. Res., 10, Suppl, Num-

ber, 1-370

Samat, L. 1937 Uber die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Sphaeridiotrema globulus

Rud, 1814 und die Stellung der Psilostomidae Odhner im nattirlichen

System, I, Z. Parasirenk., 9, 529-542

Wesennerc-Lunp, C, 1934 Contributions to the development of the Trema-

toda Digenea. Part II. The biology of the freshwater Cercariae in

Danish freshwaters, D. Kgl. Dansk. Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. Naturw.

Math, Afd., Raekke 9, 5, (3), 1-223

A SODA-RICH COMPOSITE INTRUSIVE STOCK LOCATED IN THE

BOOLCOOMATTA HILLS, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY E.. R. SEGNIT

Summary

Situated about one and a half miles south of the homestead of Old Boolcoomatta sheep station is a

composite stock-like intrusive body of unusual nature. In plan it measures about 200 yards by 100

yards. The intruded formation consists of mica schist and other meta-sediments of middle

Precambrian age. On one side of the intrusion the enveloping schistose rocks are riddled with a

maze of large quartz feldspar pegmatites.

108

A SODA-RICH COMPOSITE INTRUSIVE STOCK LOCATED IN THE

BOOLCOOMATTA HILLS, SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By E. R. Secnit *

{Read 10 November 1949]

Situated about one and a half miles south of the homestead of Old Bool-

coomatta sheep station is a composite stock-like intrusive body of unusual nature.

Tn plan it measures about 200 yards by 100 yards, The intruded formation consists

of mica schist and other meta-sediments of middle Precambrian age. On

one side of the intrusion the enveloping schistose rocks are riddled with a maze

of large quartz feldspar pegmatites,

The metamorphosed intruded formation is of the aureole of the granite

bathylith of the Boolcoomatta Hills. The great outcropping mass of Binberrie

is distant scarecly more than one and a half miles.

The intrusion is approximately oval in shape. The long axis of the ellipse

trends north-east to south-west, which conforms to the directions of schistosity

of the surrounding rocks,

The outcrop itself is rather wanting in topogtaphic relief and soil cover

limits exposures in such critical areas as the mutual contacts of the intrusions

and the encircling Precambrian formation. The area of intrusion 1s

irregularly oceupied by two distinct igneous magrna types: one is more felds-

pathic and lighter in colour; the other is darker and obviously more femic. ‘The

relative areas occupied by each of these and their relation in the outcrop is plotted

in the plan herewith.

SKETCH PLAN OF INTRUSION LOCALITY PLAN

‘= BOOLCOOMATA....

TEAD'

% OLD

VALBITE SYENITE 1 ied HOM

; WOMAN iW Write.

A AAA AA AA RAAT " .

A NKNAANAKAAN

» ARAAAAAAAAAASD = of G) tacazron

pAAANANAAA AAS 8 INTRUSION

STA OA AAN AALS

{Pre *y

APPROX SCALE O

As will be noted from the analysis the lighter rock is syenitic but abnormally

high in soda. Its outcrops are semi-continuous piles of broken rock only a

few feet high at most. The blocks are small and equidimensional, having broken

up along closely spaced joints.

* University of Adelaide.

Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949

110

The more basic rock, which may be described as a soda-tich dolerite,

occupies outcrops only slightly above the ground level and in general has a pro-

nounced schistosity parallel! to the long axis of the intrusion.

The main outcrop of albite syenite occurs along the north edge of the

intrusion, A feature of it, especially in) some areas, is that it contains in small

grains a surprising amount of magnetite, In one part of the outcrop coarse mag-

netitic loadstone in lumps up to two inches in diameter has been shed.

Outcrops of the syenite occur all around to the north-west projection

oi the intrusion and isolated small outcrops appear at the north-east corner.

Along the eastern side nothing can be seen due to soil cover, but it seems probable

from the little shed material, that the syenilic rock extends right around the

intrusion.

The central, more basic part of the iIntrasion is essexitic in nature. It is in

part massive, but has been affected by the local metamorphism. A considerable

part has been changed to epidote-hotite schist. Some unaltered rock occurs near

to the contact with the syenite (apparently having been protected by the more

massive character of this rock), and this has been taken as representative of the

original intruded rock. It is characteristically rich in hornblende as compared

with the biotite-rich altered rock.

Epidote is abundant in the central part of the intrusion. It occurs commonly

as large nodules up to 12 inches im diameter, but generally 5 to 6 inches or less.

These are almost pure bright green finely crystalline epidote. The biotite schist

is frequently rich in small green lenticles of epidote about half to one inch in

length. The unaltered essexitic rock contains a small amount of epidote which

appears to be a primary constituent. It would scem that some at least of the

epidote present is primary.

The transition from essexife to syenite is clearly seen on the northern side

of the intrusion, There is no sharp line of demarcation, although the transition

is relatively sudden and takes place over a distance of 3 to 4 feet. The syenite

becomes coarser nearer the transition, while in parts the two rocks scem to be

mixed, In some places magnetite is very abundant.

The outcrops on the southern side are poor or non-existent. Only occasional

small patches are seen near the south-east corner. Shed material as well as

these few patches of rock indicate that the syenite extends right around the

intrusion. Some of the shed material contains coarse hornblende and calcite,

The schistosity of the basic centre is roughly parallel to that of the intruded

rock, as would be expected, except where the latter follows the edges of the

intrusion.

A quartz-feldspar pegmatite, generally similar though poorer in tourmaline

and mica to those traversing the rocks of the surrounding hills, penctrates the

intrusion extending right through both constituent rock types. It is up to

20 fect wide in places, A feature of it is a fine-grained border zone where it

contacts the intrusion.

PETROLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE ROCKS

The Albite-Syenite—A light-coloured medium-grained rock composed chiefly

af elongated albite crystals, with magnetite, quartz and a little apatite, muscovite,

chlorite and rutile.

The feldspars tend to be elongated but apart from this show no pretence of

crystal outline. They are frequently untwinned. Other crystals show fine

roultiple {winning, commonly discontinuous, The individuals, although elongated,

{ll

are arranged at random and give no directional structure to the rock. Minute

inclusions are common. Patches of small crystals, possibly due to metamorphic

processes, commonly occur along the edges of larger crystals. Lxtinction angle

measurements proved unsatisfactory, but the chemical analysis of the rock and

low refractive index of the feldspar indicates it to be albite.

Magnetite is plentiful, distributed evenly throughout the rock. It occurs as

aggregates of well-formed crystals, the individuals being of much smaller grain-

size than the feldspar lathes, Minute octahedra included in the feldspar are also

common,

Clear quartz, making up several per cent, of the rock, is in grains comparable

in size to the magnetites.

Accessory minerals are muscovite, chlorite, apatite and rutile, The mica

forms small bent flakes; the chlorite is pale green, has low D.R. and is derived

from the mica. The transition can be seen in single crystals. Apatite is a common

accessory, sometimes. well crystallized. Rutile forms groups of very small dark-

brown crystals generally associated with the magnetite, They are sometimes dis-

tinctly striated, and the occurrence in clusters suggests a secondary origin. The

magnetite with which it is associated is well crystallized and shows no sign of

alteration.

The chemical composition of the rock is given in the table herewith.

TABLE oF ANALYSES

I II I II

SiO, - - 62:18 50-40 H,O+ - “25 -47

TiO, | - 16-91 6 -79 H:O- - - “01 “08

AlOa { 14-91 P.O; - - +34 +12

Fe.Os aes * 8-19 9 21 MnO - * — < 03

FeQ - = 3-29 6-92 BaO- - - 04 —

MeO - - 68 4-70 S nil _—

caQO_ - - “76 5-94 tonnes

KsO - - “10 1-16 100+74 99-90

NaQ - - 7-99 5-17

I. Albite Syenite (6228); Old Boolcoomatta Stn. Anal. E. R. Segnit.

II, Essexite (6226): Old Boolcoomatta Stn. Anal, E. R. Segnit.

Another specimen from another point on the outcrop differs from the syenitic

rock described above in that it contains a notable quantity of actinolitic

amphibole, some included in the feldspars. In this magnetite is fess in evidence,

apalite is unusually abundant.

The Essexite—A dark grey medium-grained rock in which hornblende

crystals 2 to 3 millimetres in diameter are visible in the hand specimen. It is

aboul 35% mafic minerals, chiefly hornblende.

The feldspar is somewhat clouded owing to incipient alteration, In shape

it tends to be elongated parallel to 010 face, but the crystal boundaries are irregular

and pitted.

Rather fine albite twinning is widespread, although mainly indistinct. The

maximum extinction angle observed in the symmetrical zone was about 11°,

which with R.I, determination and high soda content of the rock indicates a com-

position (Chudoba) of about Ab,An, oligoclase.

The dark mineral is chiefly an ordinary green hornblende, strongly pleochroic:

X = dark straw yellow, Y = dark green, 7 = blue-green. It is plentiful as large

irregular crystals which often include biotite, feldspar, epidote, sphene and

magnetite,

The following minerals are present as accessories: Biotite as abundant small

flakes frequently enclosed in the hornblende; minute flakes are frequently to be

seen in the feldspar.

Epidote is distributed patchily, Forms large and small crystals, pleochroic

yellow to colourless. Its made of occurrence, being quite free from any regular

association with other minerals, suggests that it is here a primary constituent.

Magnetite is a common mineral occurring with the hornblende. Sphene is

colourless, generally associated with magnetite. Apatite appears as occasional

crystals,

The abundant oligoclase and the high alkali, particularly soda, contetit, place

the rock in the essexite group of alkali gabbros.

Certain portions of the outcrop have suffered considerable metamorphic

change, especially in certain belts where the effects of excessive stress are

evidenced. There the feldspars of the essexite group have heen greatly crushed,

epidote and zoisite are plentiful; quartz appears and biotite, almost opaque in

direction of greatest absorption, is very abundant.

Specimens taken across the contact zone of the syenite and essexite show a

genctal intermingling of the minerals of the two types and a rather sudden transi-

tion. An interesting and mnexpected feature in one of the specimens which is

rather coarser in grain than the normal syenite and is notably rich in magnetite,

is the presence of calcite in the quite fresh and unweathered rock.

ORIGIN

The form of this intrusion is evidently a small composite stock. The albite

syenite was first introduced. When solid, but still hot, the essexite magma was

injected into the centre of the stock. The syenite reacted to a small extent with

the essexite magma, causing the narrow contact zone of mixed rock seen in the

field. At a later date the whole intrusion was subjected to the regional meta-

morphism of the area, the more readily alterable essexite being changed largely to

biotite epidote schist.

The later date of intrusion of the essexite is further supported by the small

patch of the basic rock on the northern corner of the intrusion. This was evi-

dently forced at a later stage between the cool syenite and the country rock. The

syenite contact here is rather sharper.

The granite pegmatite was of course introduced still later, being one of the

abundant acid pegmutites of the area,

The intrusion is apparently a cupola form introduction, derived from an

early differentiate of the Boolcoomatta granite magma, A sodic differentiate had

been formed probably with the help of volatiles; this further differentiated and

then intruded as a small composite stock,

This occurrence recalls other soda rich intrusions, some descrihed as albitites,

which appear to have somewhat similar relations to major granite masses of other

areas in South Australia,

STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

NO. 3 NOTES ON DICTYOPTERIS LAMOUROUX

BY H.. B. S. WOMERSLEY

Summary

Dictyopteris Lamouroux 1809 has been referred to in Australian algal literature as Haliseris

Targioni — Tozzetti 1819 (Lucas 1936, p. 89, and previous authors) or Neurocarpus Weber and

Mohr 1805 (May 1939, p. 200) but was included in the list of “Nomina Generica Conservanda” of

the 1935 International Botanical Congress.

113

STUDIES ON THE MARINE ALGAE OF SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA

No. 3 NOTES ON DICTYOPTERIS LAMOUROUX

By H. Bb. S. Womexsiey

| Read 10 November 1949]

Dictyopteris Lamouroux 1809 has been referred to in Australian algal

literature as Haliseris Targioni- Tozzetti 1819 (Taicas 1936, p. 89, and previous

authors) or Newrocarpus Weber and Mohr 1805 (May 1939, p, 200) but was

included in the list of “Nomina Generica Cotiservanda” of the 1935 International

Botanical Congress.

DICTYOPTERIS AUSTRALIS Sonder 1852 and

BD. PARDALIS {Harvey 1854) May

Dictyopteris pardalis is supposed to differ from D, australis in the absence

of fine lateral veins running from the midrib to the margin, Sonder (1871, p. 47)

first regarded D. pardalis as only a “variety with small thallus” of his D, australis,

and he was followed by Askenasy (1888, p. 30) and Borgesen (1930, p, 173).

Lucas (1936. p. 89) however considered them distinct species.

The type specimen of D- australis, collected at Lefevre Peninsula, South

Australia, by F. von Mueller on 16 December 1847, and with Sonder’s ms,

description on the sheet, is in Melbourne National Herbarium, This specimen,

though rather battered, is specifically identical with colype specimens of Harvey’s

of D. pardalis in Melbourne and Sydney National Herbaria, which also show fine

lateral veins from midrih to margin, There is also no significant difference in

thallus width between the specimens, and the spores in both (though almost

denuded in the type of D. australis) are arranged in recuryed arches.

An examination of all the specimens available in Australian Herbaria of

these species shows that the presence, and prominence, of lateral vemns is a very

yatiable character. Some specimens show veins in only some parts, others all over

the thallus; often lateral veins occur on one side of the midrib and not the other

side, All specimens, however, show some veins, though often extremely fine.

2D, pardalts (Harv.) May must thercfore be relegated to synonomy of

D, australis Sonder, with the following references:

Dictyopteris australis Souder herb, Askenasy 1888, p, 30. Borgesen 1930,

p. 173, Hualiseris australis Sonder 1852, p. 664; 1871, p, 47, Kiitzing 1859,

pl. 54. De Toni 1895, p. 257, Lucas 1936, p. 89. Haliseris pardalis Har-

vey 1854, p, 535; 1858, pl. 29. Kiitzing 1859, pl, 59, Il. De Toni 1895,

p. 258, Lucas 1935, p, 209; 1936, p 89. Dictyopterts pardalis (Harvey)

May 1946, p. 274.

Distrrnution Recorps—Herbarium abbreviatiens used below are: Botany

Department, University of Western Australia— W; Botany Department, Uni-

versity of Adelaide —A; Melbourne National Herbarium —M; Sydney National

Herbarium — 5.

WESTERN AusTRALtA—Dongarra (A, Baird, April 1930; G. Smith, February

1944—in holes on reefs —W.). Coitteslue (G- Smith, January 1945, 1946—as

bushy tufts on rocks in 10 feet of water —A.. W.). Fremantle (Harvey,

No. 86 A, as H. pardalis, M. and S,). Point Peron (G. Smith, June 1949, W.),

Bunbury (M.)- Champion Bay (M,).

* Department of Botany, Liniversity of Adelaide.

Tees Roy. ‘Soc. S, Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949

114

Sours Austratta— Lefevre Peninsula (F. v. Mueller, December 1847,

M.}. Port Noarlunga (E. Mackin, 1924, A.). Spencer's Gulf (A.).

Qvutenstanp—Caloundra (G. McKeon, August 1948, A.). Moreton Bay

(Askenasy). Peel Islaid (J. Marshall, May 1949, A.). Margate (V. May,

December 1943 (as D. pardalis). Redcliffe (A. Cribb, July 1949, A; G. McKeon,

September 1948, A.). Port Denison (F. Kilner in Sonder), Cape Upstart (M.).

Extra Avstratia—Lord Howe Island (F. Perrin and A, Lucas, June 1933,

S.—as H. crassinervia—see later ; also Lind and Fullagar, M.). Inp1a—Dwarka,

Okla Port (Borgesen), Karachi (Harvey).

Most of the Australian specimens, except those of Smith from Dongarra

and Cottesloe, were probably collected from the drift. D, australis probably

occurs in deep pools on reefs and the sublittora,

DICTYOPTERIS CRASSINERVIA (Zanardini) Schmitz

Schmitz 1937, p, 219. Haliseris crassinervia Zan. 1874, p. 487, De Toni

1895, p. 258.

In the Melbourne National Herbarium is a sheet (see pl. xxii, fig. 1) labelled,

in O, W, Sonder’s writing, Halyseris Mulleri Sonder

Halyseris crassinervia Zanard.

The specimens were collected by Fullagar at Lord Howe Islarid, and probably

received by Sonder from F. yon Mueller, then Government Botanist at Melbourne.

Mr. A. W. Jessep, Director of the Melbourne Herbarium, informs me that

“Fullagar and Lind were together on Lord Howe Island for nearly a year, about

1873, and coliected extensively for Baron von Mueller,” He also states that

Mueller apparently submitted the Lord [owe algal collections to Sonder-

Zanardini described a niimber oi species from Lord Howe Island, and this

specimen in the Melhourne Herbarium agrees very well with his description of

HH crassinervia, and is sterile, It seems probable that this is an authentic, pro-

bably a cotype specimen of H. crassinervia. Souder apparently (from the label)

had doubts as to whether it was distinct from his H, muelleri, but although

closely related it differs in the much darker, wider and more robust thallus.

In Melbourne Herbarium is also a specimen of A. australis collected by

Fullagar and Lind on Lord Howe Island, which was not however recorded by

Zanardini.

Lucas (1935, pp. 209-210, pl. vii, fig. 1) describes and figures what he con-

sidered to be H. crassinervia. Lucas’ specimens (in Sydney and his own herbaria)

are clearly I/. australis, as is shown also by his description, and are quite distinct

from the authentic specimen of H. crassinervia in Melbourne Herbarium,

Apparently Lucas did not collect true H..crdssinerzia on Lord Howe Island, but

presumed his specimens must be this species as it was the only one recorded

from the island,

D. crassinervia hence is still only known from the sterile Fullagar collection,

and Lucas’ comments apply to D. australis, as da those of May 1946, p. 274.

The other Australian species of Dictyopteris are as follows:

5. acrostichoides (J, Agardh) Borgesen from Victoria, Tasmania, Queens-

land, New Sotith Wales,

D. muelleri (Sonder) Schmitz from Western Australia, South Australia,

Victoria, Tasmania

N, weodwardii (Brown) Schmitz from North Queensland.

In addition the following species from Kangaroo Island is now described.

115

Dictyopteris nigricans n. sp.

(Pig. 1, pl. xxii, fig. 2)

Thallus 5-20 cm. altus, tamis subdicholomis et parce lateralibus 2-5 mm.

latis, adfixus basi rhizoidibus; apices interdum proliferi; costa prominens infra,

venis nullis; cumulus paraphysium sparsus in una linea ab utroque latere costae;

sporae sparsae in thallo cum angusta et sterili margine; color thalli fuscus.

Fig. 1

Dictyopteris nigricans n. sp.; a, Habit, showing hair groups and patches of

spores; b, Transverse section of thallus, showing hair groups and spores;

c, Section of thallus on a larger scale; d, Surface view of thallus, with

spores,

Thallus 5-20 em. high, usually in tufted masses, subdichotomous with some

lateral branches, 2-5 mm. wide, attached at the base by rhizoids; branch tips some-

times proliferous; axils rounded. Midrih conspicuous, lateral veins absent, Hair

groups. in a single irregular line on each side of midrib. Spores scattered, not on

midrib and with a narrow sterile margin at edge of thallus, Colour very dark

brown.

116

Locaitigs—On Kangaroo Island, South Australia:

Pennington Bay: in deeper pools on reefs, all seasons.

Vivonne Bay: in pools on reefs in the bay, January 1948; drift, January

1949

West Bay: drift, January 1946.

D. nigricans probably occurs in deeper pools on reefs and in the upper sub-

littoral along the south and west coasts of Kangaroo Island. The type specimen

is A 2296 in the Algal Herbarium of the Botany Department, University of

Adelaide.

D, nigricans resembles D. muelleri in possessing scattered spores, but differs

in the much narrower and darker coloured thallus, with hair groups in a single

irregular series on each side of the midrib. It resembles D. acrostichoides in the

spores tending to be in a band on each side of the midrib, with a narrow sterile

margin; the thallus of D. acrostichoides however is wider and the hair groups

tend to occur in recurved arches.

Only 3 or 4 fertile plants of D, nigricans have been found in several hundred

examined, and the spores in these may not be fully developed as they consist only

of large cells with much darker, denser contents, scattered among the epidermal

cells, and they do not protrude above the surface (fig. 1, b, ¢, d).

REFERENCES

Asxenasy, E. 1888 “Algen,” Forschungsreise S-M.5, “Gazelle.” IV Theil,

Botanik

Borcesen, F. 1930 “Some Indian Green and Brown Algae, especially irom

the ae of the Presidency of Bombay.” Journ. Indian Bot. Soc.,

9, 151

De Tonr, G. B. 1895 Sylloge Algarum, 3, Fucoideae

Harvey, W. H. 1854 ‘Some Account of the Marine Botany of the Colony of

Western Australia.” Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., 22, 525-566

Harvey, W. H. 1858 Phycologia Australica, 1

Kirztnc, F. T.. 1859 Tabulae Phycologicae, 9

Lucas, A, H. S. 1935 “The Marine Algae of Lord Howe Island.” Proc.

Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 60, 194-232

Lucas, A. H. S. 1936 “The Seaweeds of South Australia. Pt. I”

May, V. 1939 “A Key to the Marine Algae of New South Wales. Pt. H,

Melanophyceac.” Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 64, 191-215

May, V. 1946 “Studies on Australian Marine Algae, III.” Ibid, 71, 273-277

Scumirz, QO. C. 1937 “Beitrage zur Systematik der Phaeophyten, I.” Hedwigia,

77, 213-230

Sonprr, O. W. 1852 “Plantae Muellerianac. Algae.” Linnaea, 25, 657-709

Sonper, O. W. 1871 “Die Algen des tropischen Australiens.”

Zanarpint, J. 1874 “Phyceae australicae novae vel minus cognitae.” Flora,

57, 486-490, 497-505

THE ELATINA GLACIATION A THIRD RECURRENCE OF GLACIATION

EVIDENCED IN THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM

BY D. MAWSON

Summary

Early in the year 1938 an apparently unbroken succession of beds directly underlying the

fossiliferous Cambrian was located on Oraparinna Station in the Flinders Ranges. A geological

section was run from near Mount Sunderland to the west, through the Brachina Gorge.

THE ELATINA GLACIATION

A THIRD RECURRENCE OF GLACIATION EVIDENCED IN

THE ADELAIDE SYSTEM

By D. Mawson

| Read 10 November 1949]

Early in the year 1938 an apparently unbroken succession of beds directly

underlyirig the fossiliferous Cambrian was located on Oraparinna Station in the

Flinders Ranges. A geological section was run from near Mount Sunderland

to the west, through the Brachina Gorge.

In the description of this succession stibsequently published (Mawson 1939},

item (44), outcropping in the vicinity of the locality known as Elatina, is 190 feet

of flagey argillaceous limestone with some beds. of massive limestone. At its

upper limit some sand and tiny pellets up to 6 mm, diameter were observed

embedded in the calcareous strata,

Then follows, in upward succession, (item 45) 75 feet of a pinkish red sandy

formation. At its base it carries some coarser layers composed of mineral

particles distinguishable to the naked eye as feldspar, etc, Towards its upper

limit the constituent particles are mainly dust-like, with in addition a little sand

and odd very small pellets. When first observed in the ycar 1938, this formation

was entered as being of a tuffaceous nature,

Above the foregoing is an unstratified formation, 12 feet in thickness

(item 46) composed mainly of a very fine-grained base of a brownish red colour,

in which are embedded random pebbles and boulders up to 2 feet in length,

though most are but 4 few inches in diameter, These pebbles are mainly fine-

grained melaphyres, some vesicular, and dolerites with only minor contributions

of other rocks; several pebbles of coarse tuff and dolomite were met with.

Overlying this untisual formation is massive pink limestone, (item 47),

10 feet in thickness, which in turn passes upwards into a great thickness of

chocolate shales-

When encountered in 1938, the boulder-bearing formation (item 46) was

rather puzzling. Glacial transportation first suggested itself, but as the rocks

contained in it are overwhelmingly of a basic igneous nature, and further, as the

fine dust-like base is of a reddish chocolate colour, the conclusion reached was

that it must be of a tuffaceous origin. Further investigation at that time could

not to be undertaken owing to a breakdown of our transport unit, necessitating

return south for repairs.

On another visit to Oraparinna during 1938, an examination was made of

the sedimentary succession of the eastern side of the Flinders Ranges in the

locality known as The Bunkers, In the published (Mawson 1938) geological

section, items (43 and 44) include a reddish sandy and pebbly horizon, some

features of which suggest fuffaceous contributions in a fluviatile formation. We

were able to satisfy oursclyes that some part of this horizon at The Bunkers is

approximately equivalent in time of deposition with item (46) of the section

through Elatina, These two outcrops are separated by about 18 miles.

Since publishing the geological sections mentioned above, opportunities have

arisen for further investigation. On passing through Oraparinna with students

in 1944, we visited Elatina to collect boulders shed along the outcrop of the

boulder-bearing bed in question with a view to checking the possibility of glacial

Trans. Roy, Sor. Si Awst., 73

‘sea 34} OF AjivjynSea dip Ye eSue1 ayy yo apr jsea aly uo ssoy} fysaay 343 04 ATSENSa1 dip »

TTP ued ay fo apys ujajsaa aq] yo s}uauIpss payajey ayy ‘swonnqizjucs SnOsUsT JIseq PUL SyIOI ma isaS Ipreppy

Jamo] JO Uodai E ST Baie jeIyNAD yURIq ayy ‘Wasi aprepapy taddn ayy Aq pardnovo st soul ainyonsys Aq passos9

Bae Wi Sea-IOU ATL “DLT, BURE[Y 84} JO voNEs0] ayy Bumysp woes euursedeag jo jsed jo ued yajoys y

z 3

SLITUL Hycwns 40

‘YaIIQ ENY]Y oy} uo EpB1Is ja uayIss ss0r5

1 Sig

119

transport. On that occasion many faceted pebbles were collected, some of which

retain pourly preserved striae. One of the students, A, F, Wilson, tracing

the outcrop further to the north, picked up a really well preserved, smoothed and

striated example which left little doubt that it owed these features to glaciation.

As, however, the formation presents wnusual features and is located in the Pro-

terozoic sequence at an horizon far above the well-known Sturtian Tillite, publica-

tion was held in abeyance pending still further investigation.

Since then the Bunkers outcrop has again been visited, and boulders there

shed along the ouicrop have again been examined. It was found that the types

of rock illustrated in the pebbles embedded in this formation ure notably more

variable than is the case at Elatina: there granitic and metamorphic racks

are common Pebbles with facets were found to be not uncommon, but no good

convincing example of glacial striae was met with, though in several cases there

were visible what appeared to be faint traces of striae.

Early this year, efi route with students to the northern extremity of the

Flinders Ranges, a break was again made at Oraparinna to allow of oxamihation

of the Elatina outcrop in its extension further to the north than previously

investigated, On this occasion we proceeded west from Etina, meeting the out-

crop in question at a point one or two miles to the north of where previously

obsetved along the Elatina Creek. In this locality the glacial formation is thicker,

more than 20 feet. We soon collected numbers of well faceted and striated

specimens, Thus, doubt no longer remains that this is a case of glacial transport.

THE CHARACTER OF THE TILLITE

Tt would now appear that much, at least, of the very fine-grained dust-like

base of the rock is of the nature of glacial rock flour. In certain places along the

outcrop, the percentage of coarser grit and pebbles is locally increased to produce

the physical character of a normal tillite, with the exception that in this case

it is uf a réddish to chocolate colour. We have not yet met Sturtian Tillite in

South Australia of this colour. It is usually of a light to dark grey colour, often

of an ashy to bluish-grey tone,

We may now regard thin bands of coarse arenites composed of fresh gtains

of feldspar, quartz and other primary minerals appearing in chocolate beds asso-

ciated with and about the horizon of this tillite as water transportations and

concentrations from glacial debris.

The marked predominance of basic voleanic rocks among the erratics in

the Elatina locality suggests that the ice-shed was probably localised as cappings

on high basaltic volcanic piles) One such area can be visualised as having existed

in the neighhourhood of Blinman, some 20 miles te the north of Elatina, Another

possible location for such conditions is an area of basic volcanic rocks appearing

below the heiroglyphic limestones, extending on Oraparinna down the east central

portion of the Ranges. ‘hose igneous effusions appear to have burst through Lhe

dolomites of the lower Adelaide System. The case at Wooltana (Mawson 1948)

well exemplifies this.

It is presumed that transportation of the boulders was effected by floating

ice in lakes or the sea surrounding the volcanic highlands. As already mentioned

the physical nature of this formation 1s in places that of normal tillite, but for

the main part it is of a finer thaty usual texture, The rock flour may in part have

been transported! by water, bul where, as in some places, it is wanling in any kind

of lamination it may, in part at least. be loessial, It is expected that fine voleanic

ash has contributed to the Formation either directly or alter reworking by ice.

12)

Our knowledge of local atmospheric circulation in regions of high ice-caps

leaves no doubt that violent outflowing winds would be a feature of the time,

transporting rock flour and fine ash widely over neighbouring regions. It seems

probable therefore that the chocolate shales of the upper Adelaide System owe

mich to such aeolian activity which mtist have marked the closing stages of the

great Late-Proterozoic glaciation.

The high iron content of the basic volcanic effusions, ground up by over-

riding ice, would be a notable factor in developing the depth of colour im the

chocolate shales of that time. That some of the chocolate shales (Mawson and

Segnit, 1948) contain flakes of mica and grains of quartz, microcline, etc.,

suggests that this loess was derived not only from the glaciation of basaltic high-

lands, but from granitic atid gneissic terrains elsewhere located and subjected to

ice sheet erosion.

This proved tecord of glacial activity at the Elatina horizon of the Adelaide

System has not yet heen demonstrated to have wide distribution and may indeed

be very local. In this connection there should be considered the report (Segnit,

R. W., 1940) of tillite occurring near Hallett Cove.

POSSIBLE ECHO OF THE ELATINA GLACIATION OUTCROPPING

AT MARINO ROCKS

In his geological map of the Hallett Cove region, R. W. Segnit shows the

occurrence along the coast, from Marino Rocks to the south, of an extensive a'ea

af tillite which he held ta be Sturtian. No other geologist has yet been able to

find a convincing tillite in that area (Sprigg, 1942) and it has been demonstrated

(Mawson, 1940) that, if by any chance the chocolate-coloured rock formations

there were tillite, they could not be the equivalent of the Sturtian Tillite horizon

of the nearby Sturt Creek.

There are, however, along that strip of coast, some bands of arkose and pebbly

arkosic grits of an ynusual nature, part of the Chocolate Series overlying the

Brighton Limestones. Features unusual for normal sedimentary water-deposited

rocks also occur there in another belt somewhat higher in the chocolate shales.

The late Sir Edgeworth David and [ carefully examined that area in the

year 192] and on account of unusual features again studied it in 1925, We came

to the conclusion that there was there no definite evidence of work of ice, Haw-

ever, though there is no normal tillite, it would now appear, in the light of our

discovery at Elatina, that in all probability some of the unusual sedimentary phena-

mena of the coastal strip north of Hallett Cove may be the echo, so to speak, of

distant glaciation. This horizon approximates to that of Elatina and it is note-

worthy that similar arkosic bands are met with in the chocolate series at Elatina.

This new record of glaciation, it will be observed, post-dates the Brighton

Limestones and in cur Brachina Creek section (Mawson,, 1939) and its sub-

sequent extension (Mawson, 1942) is shown to be located somewhere im the

neighbourhood of 9,000 feet stratigraphically above the topmost erratic-bearing

horizons of the Sturtian glaciation of that atea of South Australia. For distinction

I propose that this mew discovery be referred to as the Elatina tillite, a product

uf Elatina glaciation.

Already attention has been drawn (Mawson, 1948b) to the existence in

the Adelaide System of the records of two older and major glaciations separated

by a prolonged interglacial period. As that evidenced in the Sturt Creek near

Adelaide appears to be the uppermost of these two, the distinction of Sturtan

should be reserved for it, For the lowest I have advocated {Mawson 1948 b)

the adoption of the term Bibliando glacial stage.

12]

The evidence so far forthcoming indicates that the Elatina Glaciation was a

comparatively weak and fading phase of the Late-Proterozoic glaciation; in all

probability represented by isolated minor cappings on the higher topographic

features of the region affected.

REFERENCES

Mawson, D. 1938 The Mount Caernarvon Series of Proterozoic Age. Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 62, 347-351

Mawson, D. 1939 The Late Proterozoic Sediments of South Australia.

Trans. A.N.Z.A.A.S., 24, 79-88

Mawson, D. 1940 Tillite and other Rocks from Hallett Cove, S. Aust. Trans.

Roy, Soc. S. Aust-, 64, 362

Mawson, D. 1942 The Structural Character of the Flinders Ranges.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 66, 262-272

Mawson, D. 1948a Sturtian Tillite of Mount Jacob and Mount Warren Hast-

ings, North Flinders Ranges. Trans, Roy. Soc. $, Aust., 72, 244-251

Mawson, D. 1948b The Late-Precambrian Ice-Age and Glacial Record of the

Bibliando Dome. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 82, 150-174

Mawson, D., and Secnir, E. R. 1948 Purple Slates of the Adelaide System.

Trans Roy, Soc, S. Aust., 72, 276-280

Secnit, R. W. 1940 Geology of Hallett Cove and District, with special refer-

ence to the distribution and age of the Younger Glacial Till, Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust-, 64, 3-44

Spricc, R. C. 1942 The Geology of the Eden- Moana Fault Block. Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust-, 66, 185-214

THE MURRAY BRIDGE AND MONARTO GRANITES AND ASSOCIATED

ROCKS OF THE METAMORPHIC AUREOLE

BY R. K. JOHNS AND J. M. KRUGER

Summary

The area under discussion forms a belt on the eastern scarp of the Mount Lofty Ranges from the

township of Monarto to the River Murray on the east.

122

THE MURRAY BRIDGE AND MONARTO GRANITES

AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS OF THE METAMORPHIC AUREOLE

By R. K, Jouns and J. M. Krucer*

{Read 10 November 1949]

CONTENTS

Page

‘J. Dytropuctrion - + me oe = = & & £ = = 122

IL. Generar Geotocy anD PHYSIOGRAPHY - - - - - - - - 123

III. Perrocrarsy - + - £6 + we ef

(A) Murray Bridge Granite (7885) a a a 22.

(B) Xetoliths in the Granite = = © = = = = = = 126

Actinolite-Cordierite Schist (7862) - eS = ee = = & £27

Actinolite-Albite-Quartz-Schist (J. K. 38) - - ~ - - - 127

Actinolite-Oligoclase-Quartz- Biotite-Schist (7865) - - - - J27

Quartz-Andesine-Actinolite-Epidote-Schist (7854) - = = = 127

Actinolite-Andesine-Biotite-Schist (7872) - - 4 s — & “127

Albite-Actinolite-Quartz-Cordierite-Biotite-Schist (J, K. 87} - - 128

Actinolite-Oligoclase-Schist (J. K. 85) 71

Biotite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Quartz-Schist (7875) - - = = 128

Quartz-Feldspar-Anthophyllite-Schist (7866) - - = = = 128

Tremolite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Schist (7877) os #4)

Granulitic Cordierite-Quartz-Oligoclase-Biotite-Schist (7858) - - 129

Bimica-Quartz-Albite-Schist (J. K. 50) - = = = = = 129

Quartz-Albite-Cordierite-Schist (7860) - - - - - - =~ 129

Quartz-Alhbite-Cordierite-Biotite-Granulite (7861) - - = = 129

Quarte-Tourmaline-Migmatite (J. K, 100) - = - - - = = 131

Poukdloblastic Andesite Mommblende-Seapoline-\linazbisiter Sehist

(7883) -— ee = ~~ = + 131

Porphyriblastic Andeésite- Hornblende-Schist (7884 - - = = 131

(D) Pegmatite Intrusives of the Migimatite Belt - - - - - Il

(E) Basic Dykes intersecting the Migmatite Belt (7859 and 7887) - - 132

(F) Monarto Granites: Adamellite (7867), Granile (J. K. 95),

Adamellite (7878), Granite (7856), Adamellite (7876) - - + 132

(G) Schists,; Granulites and Basified Arenite, associated with the

Monarto Granites— - 134

Basified Arenite( (7871) - = as o< s ee

Quartz-Biotite-Plagioclase-Schists (J. K 62) (7869) (7881)

(7880) (7879) (J. K. 92) (7873) (7864), (7855) - - - - 134

IV. Summary Se te aa ee Cae AS a ef 85

V. REFERENCES - + =) = a se ee S oe = 136

I, INTRODUCTION

The area under disctission forms a belt on the eastern scarp of the Mount

Lofty Ranges from the township of Monarto to the River Murray on the east.

Woolnough (1908) recorded petrological descriptions of several rocks from

the Rocky Gully area.

Jack (1923), when dealing with the Building Stones of South Australia,

makes reference to the Monarto and Swanport granites and quotes analyses

thereof by W. S. Chapman.

* School of Geology, University of Adelaide.

‘Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1), 16 December 1949

123

More recently, Kleeman (1934) has notably contributed to. knowledge of the

Swanport outcrop of the Murray Rridge Granite and its Aplite. He furnished

a chemical analysis and description of the aplile and, after estimating the fluorine

in the Swanport granile, corrected Chapman’s analysis accordingly.

The Murray Bridge type of Auoriferous granite has recently been traced by

Professor Mawson (1945) as appearing at intervals on a south-casterly course

almost to Bordertown. The outcrop at and near Murray Bridge is thus part of a

very extensive batholyth. Because of its importance in this connection, Professor

Mawson suggested our undertaking this investigation,

We are indebled to the Professor and to Mr, Kleeman and to others of

the Department of Geology for suggestions and facilities for the work, To

S$, B. Dickinson, Director of Mines, our thanks are due for facilities offered

in the final stages of field mapping.

In this paper we pay special attention to the Rocky Gully area, while

at the samé time extending general observations over a wider field to include

some of the important outcrops of the Monarto Granite type. The region

thus selected is portion of a wider belt of granitic and metamorphic rocks

extending along the eastern flank of the Mt. Lofty Ranges. This area of

regiona! metamorphism is well marked as far west as Natrne and beyond

Palmer to the north. The Murray Bridge atid Monarto granites are located

in the region of most intense metamorphism. Progressively to the west.

there is a well marked falling off in the metamorphic grade exhibited by the

rocks,

The location fram which cach of the various specimens described was

collected is indicated by the specimen numbers printed on the accompanying

nap of the area.

Il. GENERAL GEGLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPRY

Retween the Murray River and an elevated region to the wesf, chiefly

occupied by metamorphic rocks, is a low-lying belt underlain by a variable

thickness of tertiary limestones resting at depth in granite, schists and

gneisses,

West of Murray Bridge, this lower country extends for about two afd a

half miles before meeting the eastern, fault-defined face, of the elevated

block. This latter is one of the block fragments of Kosciuskan orogetiy

which contributed to the elevation of the Mount Lofty Ranges. This particu-

lar fragment which extends west to the Bremer Valley. offers for inspection

many well exposed areas occupied by granite, schist and a range of migtna-

tites,

The Bremer Valley is separated, by a ridge formed of schists, fram a

much wider one in which Monarto lies, This valley, though possessing a

well-defined north ta sonth trend, is not occupied by a stream lke the

Bremet. The absence of stich a water course is to be accounted for by re-

peated captures by small streams running direct to the Murray, as for in

stance, the Rocky Gully Creck, through whose gurge the railway line passes-

Monarto Valley is filled with drift sand which hideg the bed rock from

view. Where the sand drifts have been stripped, there are large areas of

solid ringing travertine, whose conspicuous development near Monarto ani

thence in patches east to Murray Bridge, is due to the occurrence of thin

patches of Tertiary fossiliferous limestone lying on the upturned edges of

the schists. This limestone outcrops at intervals over the Moor of the valley,

hut does not there give rise to comspicuous features. The development of a

dense capping of kunkar travertine has. doubtless contributed to its preser-

vation, The fragmentary nature ot the fossil remains and included pebbles

and boulders of granite indicate a shallow water littoral deposit.

The elevated block to the west of Murray Bridge is characterised by a

notable development of migmatites and lit-par-lit “injection.” Quartz-plagio-

clase-hiotite schists are abundant, also coarse biotite schists compoged essen-

tially of biotite, but in places enclosing large crystalg of fluorapatite which

have gtown in place: these have been met with exceeding 4 cms. by 2:5 cms.

in size, Interesting rocks here are actinolite and anthophyllite-schists which

are in association with coarse mica-schists which are often puckered and close

folded, The quartz-biotite-plagioclase schists, as they extend westwards, be-

come richer in feldspars and grade insensibly into the so-called Monarto

granite. Thig granite is typically of a fine and even grain, but it varies in,

texture and grain-size and often contains small segregations of biotite flakes,

Fegmatites, the crystallised residual liquids. from the Murray Bridge

granite, discurdantly intrude the gchists along the eastern scarp—these ate

rich in quartz, microcline, muscovite and tourmaline.

Discordant pegmatic veins cut the schists and are exposed along Rocky

Gully Creek—they vary from merely quartz-feldspar veins to a pegmatitic

granite.

Two dolerite dykes are exposed along the bed of Rocky Gully Creek—

due abont 4 feet wide, with strike N 60° EL, crosses the bed of the creek near

the bridge (towards Monarto). The dyke is broken up into small blocks—

large along the centre while the margins are more fragmentary. The second

dyke is about 300 yards along the creek towards Murray Bridge, and stands

out in relief across the bed of the creek—this one is about 100 feet wide

Neither could be traced beyond the creek as they became lost under the

cover of recent alluvium. These dykes are roughly parallel in dispusition,

tl. PETROGRATHY

Murray BriwGe GRaNite

Specimen (7885) was obtained from a smali quatry opened up for build-

ing stone in Murray Bridge township, between the river and Noske Bros’

Flour Mill, This quarried rock is exceptionally fresh. In the hand-specimen

it has a handsome appearance dominated by large pink potash-feldspars.

These attain 2 to 3 ems. diameter. They exhibit Carlsbad twinning. Much

of the rock is composed of vitreous smoky quartz, which forms a matrix set-

ting for the large pink feldspars. White plagioclase is much less abundant,

bur observed in some cases to mantle the pink potash feldspar crystals,

Small flakes of black biotite are also present. The specific gravity of the

tock is 2.66,

Observed in microscope slide it exhibits a holocrystalline, hypidio-

morphic, granular texture, dominated by the elongated feldspars averaging

2.5 cm. in length. Plagioclase, quartz and biotite are the more obvious

minerals of the finer grained base. Minerals present in order of abundance

are as follows :—

Microcline-microperthite is present in large crystals becoming slightly

turbid, It displays typical *“‘cross-hatehing.” It is biaxial negative. In section

1 ta Z, X’A OOF is 11°. The intergrown soda feldspar has a higher R.1,

and is more clonded than the host mineral.

— GEOLOGICAL MAP — i

OF PORTIONS OF THE HUNDREDS OF |

MONARTO_& MOBILONG

APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF

1 MONARTO GRANITE

‘ —

«fl

MONARTO. ‘SOUTH

| APPROXIMATE LIMIT OF

| wm TERTIARY LIMESTONE

LEGEND

Rw] RECENT = son & ALLUVIUM

fd TERTIARY= GRITTY FOSSILIFEROQUS LIMESTONE

\ \N PROTEROZUIC? SCHISTSI- METAMORPHOSED SERIES OF INTERBEDDED

- QUARTZITES, SLATES & IMPURE CALCAREOUS BEDS

A do, do. ZONE OF INTENSE METAMORPHISM & |NJECTION

MONARTO GRANITE

MURRAY BRIDGE GRANITE CHAIMS -80 $0 2 : SMES

a a a eS

Fig. 1 Map of locality under consideration. The township area of Murray Dridge is underlain by Tertiary limestone (though such is not indicated on the map).

The locations of rocks referred to in the text are indicated by numbers. The line of Section C —D, detailed in fig. 2 (page 130), is shown on this plan.

125

Plagioclase is present, less altered than the potash feldspar. It is

twinned on the Carlsbad, pericline and abite law. Extinction angle measured

im the zone 4 to O10 is+ 16°, biaxial negative; R.I, > balsam; thus corres-

ponding to Andesine of composition Aby;An,,.

Quartz is present as clear colourless anhedral crystals and contains lines

of fluid inclusions often ag two sets at right angles.

Biotite has a subhedral tabular habit. Strongly pleochroic: X = light

golden yellow, Y = Z = dark brown (almost opaque). Biaxial negative

with a very low optic axial angle so as to appear almost uniaxial. It exhibits

slight alteration to chlorite in marginal areas. Associated with the biotite

are small grains of magnetite and zircon. The small grains of zircon em-

bedded in the mica are surrounded by pleochroic haloes.

Sphene is present in stnall euhedral crystals with high relief. It is a weakly

pleochroic, biaxial positive variety with birefringence masked by the depth of

colour. Apatite occurs in the usual rod-shaped crystals, Zircon and magnetite

are present but not common. The former appeats as small rounded grains of

high relief and strong birefringence. No fluorite is contained in the sections

examined but has been observed in other outcrops. The presence of fluorine is

indicated in the analysis,

An analysis of this granite (No. 7885) was made by one of us and is given

below,

TabLe A

IT TI III IV

SiOs - - - - 73°83 74-20 76°07 70-18

TiOs - - - - 0-30 0:29 0-11 0°39

Al:Os - - - - 12°45 14+53 13°96 14:47

FeO. - - - - 0-74 1-14 0-14 1557

FeO - - - - 1:64 0:90 0°42 1:78

MnO - - - - trace 0-03 trace 0-12

MgO - - - - 0-24 0-20 trace 0-88

CaO - - - - 1:04 1-00 0-68 1:99

NaO - - - - 4-29 3°06 3-90 3°48

K;0 - - - + 5°13 3°55 4°64 4-11

H:O+ - - - - 0-26 0-15 0-18 0-84

H,O- - - - - 0-02 0-15 0-07 —

COs - - - - —_ O11 — —

P.O; - - - = 0-09. 0-08 0-01 0-19

ZrOs - - - - 0-06 —_— trace _

BaO - - - - 0-05 — _ —

Ss - - - - = 0-06 — — _

F - - - - - 0-11 0-19 0+10 —_

cl - - - - - — 0°03 — —

FeSa - - - - _— 0-10 0-13 —

100-31 99-71 100°41 100-00

Less 0 for F & Cl - - 00-05 0-09 0:04 _

Total - - - - 100:26 99 +62 100-39 100-00

I. Murray Bridge Granite (7885), Quarry near Noske’s Mill. Anal. J. M. Kruger.

II. Swanport Granite. Swanport Quarry. Anal, W. S. Chapman; fluorine by

A. W. Kleeman.

Ill. Aplite of the Swanport Granite Quarry. Anal. A, W. Kleeman.

IV. Granite of all periods. Daly's average of 546 analyses.

126

TABLe B

Norm of Rocks of Table A

I II Ill

Quartz - - Q 27-45 QO 41-40 Q 34-26

Orthoclase - 30°02) & 66-17 | re 21-13 297-24

Albite - - 36-15} ° SO°7} 93:62 | oy .6a F 49-31 | 95°40 || 33-01 |B 63-03

Anorthite ~ _ 2-50 2:78

Corundum—- — 4:69 C 4:69 1-33 C1453

Diopside Wo - 1+63 — 0-53

Fs - 0-50 — =

En - 1-727 P 3-85 — ;-P 0:76 _ \P 0-53

Hypersthene Fs | 0-76 | Las

En _— ir £

Magnetite = - = 0-98 t 1°62 ) ye 2.23 | 3-97 0-23 1 v4 9-38

Timenite « = ‘Ohi Ju 1s4l gar | oer} : ois

Pytite - - 0-24 0-10

Apatite - - 0°34 0-20 0-13 |

Fluorite - - 0°16 A 1-00 0°43. A 0-98 0-20 L A 0+33

Calcite - - — 0-25 =

Zircon = - 0-18 — =

Water = ~- 0:28 0-28 0:28 0-30 0-30 © 0-30 0-25 HsO 0-25

Total - - - 100-01 99-67

C,LP.W. Classification:—

I, 1413 — Liparase-—Liparose

II, 1.3 1 (2) 3’ — Magmatic name is Tehamose—Alaskose

IIE. 1 (3) 4 1% 3’ — Alaskase- Liparose

XENOLITHS IN THE Murray Brince. GRANITE

The following two xenoliths were collected from the granite quarry and

petrologically examined.

Xenolith (7886) is a grey rock in which are set pink feldspars of porphyritic

dimensions. Microcline-microperthite predominates over plagioclase. It is

observed to be undergoing sericitization. The pagioclase, which has a composi-

tion Ab,,Aty, is less altered than the potash feldspar. Quartz is in small grains

with sutured margins and is easily distinguished from feldspar by its clarity.

Biotite Is similar to that in the granite, Hornblentie with extinction angle about

16° and strongly pleachroic in green and brown, Sphene, light brown and weakly

pleochroic. Zircon associated with the biotite but in small rounded grains and

apatite in minute rods.

In this xenolith there is a small development of myrmckitic intergrowth. of

quartz and feldspar; the quartz is in yermiculate blobs and drops in the feldspar.

Xenolith (7887) is a grey compact, fine-grained, equigranular rock composed

mainly of quartz, feldspar and biotite. In microscope slide the quartz shows

strain phenomena and bears abundant inclusions of iron ore, apatite and biotite.

The feldspars are microcline-microperthite and andesine. LBiotite, showing some

alteration to chlorite; sphene is fairly abundant. Fluorite is present in large, clear

colourless individuals with high negative relief; these grains are associated with

biotite, some are ptirple,

9882

1-24

0-25

100-31

127

Rocks or THe INNER Micmatitic Bett MARGINING THE

Murray Brivncr Granite

Schists, gneisses and pegmatites of the inner, severely metamorphosed belt

margining the Murray Bridge granite mass on its west side are well exposed along

Rocky Gully Creel: and north-north-west thereof, Hornblende gneiss and biotite

gneiss were described from this locality by Woolnough. Herein the petrographic

characters of selected rocks from this area are given.

Actinolite-Cordierite Schist (7862). This is of a yellowish-green overall

colour. Long needles of green actinolite in sheaves and bitndles stand out in relief

on the weathered surface. The rock cleaves readily along foliation planes.

Actinolite is abundant in idioblastic needles, present to the extent of 41%

by volume ; its extinction angle is very small.

Cordierite is present to the extent of 49% as xenoblasts forming a ground-

trass mosaic. Pleochroic haloes are absent although inclusions of apatite are

common, Biaxial negative with large optic axial angle, Rt. on cleavage flakes

lies between 1°543 and 1-533. Occasional strings of granular quartz are seen on

the face of the rock but practically absent in the micro-slide.

Apatite as long needles is present as inclusions in the cordierite. Magnetite

is common and zircon prescht in small amounts,

Aclinolite-Albite-Quarte-Schist (J. K. 38). A very dark-coloured rock with

schistosity developed by great abundance of oriented long needles of amphibole.

Besides amphibole there is present some fresh albite (Ab,,An,), and a consider-

able amount of granular quartz. Apatite 1s scarce.

Aclinolite-Oligoclase-Quarts-Biotite-Schist (7865). In hand-specimen the

rock is seen to consist of long needles of black amphibole, with well-marked pre-

ferred orientation, set is a matrix of white feldspar and quartz.

The mineral assemblage is controlled by the parallel alignment of the green

actinolite. The interstitial feldspar matrix is crawded with fine rods and needles

of apatite. It is fairly fresh and free from alteration.

Actinolite with typical amphibole cleavage and extinction angle Z A c= 15°,

Pleochroism strong; X—pale yellow, Y = greenish-yellow, Z—dark green.

Gramular, interstitial oligoclase (Ab,, Angy) is abundant.

Quartz occurs as xenoblasts in the matrix with feldspar. Biotite 1s sparsely

represented; pleochroism strong; XM==light yellow, Y—=Z—=dark brown;

included are small rounded crystals of zircon. Apatite occurs as small masses

and as teds and needles throughout the slide, and as abundant minute melusions

in the feldspar.

Ouartz-Andesine-4 ctinolite-Epidole-Schist (7854). This isa dark grey, fine~

grained, schistase reck, on the face of which black needles of actinolite are

apparent, The actinolite is similar to that in (7862), Quartz is fairly abundant

as clear xenoblasts, Andesine (Ab, An,,), is abundant in association with the

quartz; it exhibits good cleavage and albite twinning.

Epidote is present only in small amounts in xenoblastie masses of high posi-

tive relief: it is pleochroic from colourless to lemon yellow; biaxial negative,

with large 2V. Apatite, zircon, iron ore and sphene are present in small amounts

a5 accessories,

Acsinofite-Andesine-Biotite-Schist (7872), This is a dense, black compact

rock of fine grain and displays a poor schistose structure,

128

The plagioclase which is abundant is ah acid andesine (Ab,,An,,), Occa-

sional grains of quartz may be present but were not distinguished with certainty.

Biotite is well represented, Apatite and magnetite also present as minor

accessories.

Aibite-Actinohte-Quarts-Cordierile-Biotita-Schist (J, K, 87). This is a

light-coloured rock composed of grey saccharoidal albite and quartz through

which are greenish-black needles of actinolite which imparts schistosity to the rock.

The actinolite is in sheaf-like bundles with individuals to 1 cm. in length.

In section this rock displays a granoblastic texture, the result of the associa-

tion of xenoblasts of cordierite, quartz and plagioclase; this being modified by the

directional structure imparted by the pale green-brown amphibole and biotite.

‘The grain is fairly fine but oecasional porphyroblasts of plagioclase are present.

Albite (Ab,,An,) is very abundant. The actinolite is strongly pleochroic,

Quartz is not abundant but forms a mosaic with the albite, Cordierite in

present in small amounts as xenoblasts bearing abundatit minute inclusions; it

displays poor multiple twinning, has a biaxial character, and it is undergoing

decomposition to give rise to chlorophyllite. Weakly pleochroic, yellow haloes

surround crystals of zircon included in the cordierite, Riotite occurs as small

highly pleochroic idioblasts, Zircon 1s a sparse accessory.

Actinolite-Oligoclose-Schist (J. K. 85). A dark-coloured, friable, pro-

nouncedly schistose rock. In section it is seen to be composed almost entirely

of green amphilbole (50%) and turbid oligoclase (Ab,;,An.,) to the extent

of 45%.

As accessories, apatite is abundant; zircon, magnetite and haematite are in

less arsount, the latter occurring as minute crystals in association with the

amphibole.

Biotite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Quarts-Schist (7875). A fine-grained schistose

rock of greenish-grey colour seen in the hand specimen to consist chiefly of grey

salic mineral, shiny flakes of black biotite and needles (in bundles) of greenish-

black amphibole.

In order of abundatice, the minerals present are as follows. Biotite (some-

what bronzy in the hand specimen) is a highly pleochroic variety; X = light

golden yellow, Y—Z—=dark brown to opaque. Actinolite is abundant, present

in long needles, Albite-Oligaclase (Ab,,An,,) is plentiful, Qtiartz is less

abundant. Accessories are apatite, zircon and magnetite.

Quarts-Feldspar-Anthophyllite-Schist (7866). A fawn-coloured rock cleav-

ing readily in the direction of schistosity. Yellow needles of at almost colourless

amphibole are set in a matrix of fine-grained quartz. The needles are in bundles

and have a common orientation.

In section, the granoblastic texture of the rock is seen to be modified by the

strong directiotial structure of the colourless amphibole. Quartz is abundant,

amounting to 50% by volume, Feldspar is in less amount, namely 25%,

Anthophyllite is abundant to the extent of 24%, as long needles with a more

or Tess common orientation; longitudinal sections show transverse fractures but

transverse sections show poorly defined cleavage traces at 120°; extinction is

straight in longitudinal sections; D.R. fairly high; RI. high; very weakly

pleochroic ; the crystals are length slow; indistinct biaxial positive fgure displayed

in transverse sections.

Rutile is an abundant accessory, that shows true crystal cutlines; geniculate

twins are fairly common; however, in most crystals the outlines are modified by

a chatge to opaque ilmenite. Zircon and apatite are present in far less amount.

129

Tremalite-Actinolite-Oligoclase-Schist (7877), This is a striking rock show-

ing a gradational transition from a white tremolite-oligoclase-quartz-granulite to a

dark green, actinolite-rich schist in which there is little quartz or feldspar,

In section, the rock is seen to possess a well-defined schistosity which con-

trols the mineral assemblage. The colour of the treimolite becomes tinged with

green until it merges into the iron-bearing member of this series—a green

actinolite.

Tremolite occurs as long colourless prismatic needles with positive clonga-

tion; maximum extinction angle (Z Ac) is 12°, Oligoclase (Ab,, Any) is not

abundant; it is more common in association with tremolite but dwindles when

actinolite makes its appearance. Quartz is present as small xenoblasis im the

tremolite phase but dwindles in the actinolite-rich variety. Acecssories are zircon

and idioblasts of iron ore.

Granulitic Cordiertte-Quarts-Qligoclase-Biottte-Schist (7858). This is a

dense greyish-grecn, fine-grained, saccharoidal rock breaking with s conchoidal

fracture, On the weathered surface are to be secn shining brown and black

flakes of biotite with preferred alignment.

In section the rock displays a granoblastic texture in which grains of quartz,

cordierite and feldspar average about 0°25 mm. in diameter. Due to the align-

ment of bintite fakes the rock has a rough schistosity.

Cordierite, which is the most abundant mineral, occurs as clear, colourless

xenoblasts that exhibit poor twinning in some sections. It is thus very similar to

the quartz and plagioclase, fromi which it is distinguished by its yellow pleachroic

haloes and biaxtal character. It has a high optic axial angle value,

The quartz is clear and colouriess. Oligoclase (Ab,.An,,) exhibits. albite

twin lamellae. Buiotite altering to chlorite ig in minor amount, Zircon crystals and

also idioblasts of magnetite and pyrites are abundant as accessories,

Bumica-Quariz-Albite-Schist (J. K. 50), A light grey, compact rack of

granular quartz and albite, with both white and black mica whose preferred align-

ment has developed schistosity.

Albite (Ab,,An,,) exhibiting albite twinning is abundant. Quartz is

present in approximately equal amounts to the feldspar. Muscovite is present in

approximately equal amounts to the feldspar, Muscovite is present as clear

colourless laths. The biotite is a strongly pleochroic variety; often it is associated

with muscoyite and green chloritic material which encloses spindies and radiating

needles of iron ore. Accessories in small amount are zircon, sphene, ilmenite and

rutile.

Quarts-Albite-Cordivrite-Schist (7860), A dense, compact, off-white coloured

rock, it which black plates of oriented biotite impart a marked directional

structure.

Microscopically the rock displays a pronotinced schistosity which modified the

otherwise granoblastic texture formed by the almost equi-granular aggregate of

quartz and feldspar, and the alteration products of cordierite.

Albite (Ab,, An,) is abundant. Clear quartz with fluidal inclusions is tn less

amount, Biotite is abundant; a strongly pleochroic, pale yellow to brown Variety

showing a little incipient alteration to green chlorite. The cordierite has suffered

alteration and is now represented by change products amongst which is chloro-

phyllite (pleochroic in greens), Zircon and iron ore are present as accessories.

Quarts-Albite-Cordierite-Biotite-Granulite (7861). A light-coloured sacchar-

oidal rock with narrow bands of black shining flakes of biotite with a marked

directional trend; these bands are too few and tuo widely separated to impart a

well-defined cleayage to the rock.

130

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(Ayn Ayoy ur) gy —Yy svase perads jo suonsas-ssoio yesoyoos osye {Aqns) AySoy jo asinod oy} Jo Joyd pasdiepug

z 34

aniivevnin FER] eH arene EZ asimas snosikany E77]

Q—) Noitoas

(KO¥ddy) 4334009 NOID3S dO HLONIT a@—v NOILDaS

Ty 7 7

ISM NM EE BS Hy Gilg Gre 1 ey

hi t 7 if p y | Y fy

= 2001NT AVEUNA OL

WWAQ 34193700

In micro-section the rock is seen to be maitily a granoblastic, very fine, even-

grained aggregate af cordierite, albite and quartz.

Cordierite with yellow pleochroic haloes and the yellow-green change product

chlorophyllite is fairly abundant, Quartz, in clear colourless grains, is the pre-

dominant mineral, Albite (Ab,, An,) granules, some clear and others exhibiting

lamellar twinning are plentiful. Buiotite with preferred orientation, in weakly

pleochroic and partly corroded laths, ts sparsely distributed, restricted to certain

bands in the rock. Accessories are magnetite, in fairly abundant, black, opaque

idioblasts and sparse zircon,

Quarts-Tourmaline-Migmatite (J. K. 100), A dark-grey, fine-grained rock

composed of white granular quartz in which are sct “clots” of segregated granular

tourmaline. These latter are slightly elongated and about 0°5 cm, in diameter.

In section the rock is ohserved to consist essetitially of browh tourmaline

and quartz. The “clots” which were visible in the hand specimen are seen to

consist almost wholly of tourmaline with a little interstitial quartz, The tourma-

line is strongly pleochroic, trom yellow to dark brown,

Potkiloblasiic Andesine-H ornblende-Scapolite-Clinasorsite-Schist (7883). In

the hand specimen this is dark, greenish-grey tock in which porphyroblasts of

feldspar as much as 5 mm., but averaging 3 mm.,, are set in a finer grecnish-grey

hase. Evidently this was originally a phaneric basalt subsequently scapolitized

and zoizitized.

In microscope section the feldspar ist most individuals is observed to be

rimmed, and at times completely replaced, by colourless scapolite. The replace-

ment has taken place along small veins through and along the margins of the

plagioclase, Elsewhere clinozoizile is developing.

The minerals present are Andesine (Ab,,An,,) considerably changed over

to scapolite and clinozoizite. Pleochroic from light to dark green and exhibiting

typical amphibole cleavage, Scapolite, colourless, uniaxial negative, straight

extinction on longitudinal sections which lalter also yield flash figures. Clino-

zolzite, slightly turbid; interference colours are anomalous (deep blue); biaxial

positive, It displays one poor cleayage and extinction with reference to. this is

inclined, Sphene isa very abundant accessory as brown xenoblasts,

Another related metamorphosed basic igneous rock (J. K. 102) of somewhat

coarser otiginul texture than (7883) was collected in the same locality. Thts can

be described as a poeciloblastic albite-harnhlende-clinozoizite schist with accessory

Inotite, notably sphene and sparse apatite and zircon, In this rock the albite is

practically 100%. Ab.

Porphyroblastic Andesine-Ilorablende-Schist (7884), This also represents

a metamorphosed basic igneous rock, The feldspar is white, and occurs as

porphyroblasts up to 2°5 cm. diameter set in a mass of green hornblende,

In section it is seen to consist of colourless feldspar and green hornblende in

approximately equal amount. The plagioclase, which is little altered, is andesine

(Abg, Ang,).

The amphibole is a strongly pleochraic hornblende; X— yellow green,

Y = olive green, Z = dark green, A little brown biotite is in intimate association

with the hornblende. Sphene is an accessory.

PeomM ative INTRUSIVES OF THE. MiGmatriic Betr

Tourmaline-bearing pegmatites were observed in Sections 508, 533, 535, and

175. These vary in width from Jess than one inch to many feet. They are intru-

sive mto the schists. The vein fillings vary greatly in grain-size and

composition but most contain black tourmaline, pink feldspar, milky quartz and

muscovite.

132

Dr. Woolnough described several pegmatites from Rocky Gully. He states

that the feldspars of the pegmatites are remarkable for their variety, including

orthoclase, microcline, anorthoclase, albite and oligoclase, Woolnough mentions

that in one of the pegmatites two small crystals of beryl were observed. This

occurrence is interesting, for beryl is a feature of granite pegmatites occurring

at Mount Crawford and also in the suite of the Boolcoomatta granite bathylith.

Bastc Dyxes or THE Micmatitic BEeLt

As already mentioned two clearly defined dykes outcrop in the bed of Rocky

Gully, Section 514, Hundred of Mobilong. In the fresh unweathered state these

are dark grey rocks; both discordantly intrude the schists, They possibly post-

date the granitic intrusion.

Meta-Dolerite (7859). The doleritic intersertal structure is still well pre-

served. Minerals present are labradorite in interlaced laths, chlorite and mag-

netite resulting from the breakdown of original pyroxene. A little biotite and

sphene, apatite and pyrite as accessories,

Meta-Lamprophyre? (7858). This is more basic, there being very little in

the nature of feldspars or their change products. The principal minerals

observable are chlorite and black iron ores. It is possible that the rock was

originally a basic lamprophyre,

Monarto GRANITES

Adamellite (7867) is an even, medium-grained, light grey, granitic rock.

The obvious minerals are quartz, greyish-white feldspar, small black flakes of

biotite and some silvery flakes of muscovite.

A chemical analysis and the norm are tabulated herewith:

I If Ill IV

SiOs - = 73+20 72-40 84°25 90°73

Norm or I, Rock 7867 TiO, - - 0-23 0+22 0-18 0-13

Quartz - - - ~ 33:30 ALO. - - 15-46 15-49 8-64 4-01

Orthoclase - - = 19546 Fes, - ~ 0-64 0-44 0-18 0-68

Plagioclase: Ab 33-01 \ 41-38 FeQ_ - - 0-80 1-03 1-10 0:26

An 834 MnO - - tr 0-02 tr. tr.

Corundum - - - 245 MeO - - 0°48 0-20 0:23 0-05

Hypersthene: Fs 1-20 | _ 4.93 caQ_ se ~ 1°73 1:44 0-19 0-18

En 0-53 if NaO- - - 3-90 4+30 4-06 3-66

Magnetite - - - 093 KO - - $34 3°78 0-84 0-31

Ilmenite - - - ~ 0°46 HsO+ - - 0°22 0°12 0+36 0-03

Apatite - - - - 0-13 H.O- - - 008 018 0-02 0-05

Zircon - - - - O18 P.O; - - 0-08 0-19 0-04 0-04

Water - - - - 0:30 ZrO. - - O11 — 0:04 0-05

— BaO - - 0:06 — tr, tr.

99-99 S - - - 0-02 — 0-12 +13

FeS, - - —_— O-1L — —

100-35 99°98 100-35 100-29

T. Adamellite from Monarto (7867), Anal; R, K. Johns.

II. Monarto “granite”. Anal.: W.S. Chapman. See R. LL. Jack (1923).

III, The more basified part of rock (7871). Anal: J. M, Kruger.

1V. The less basified part of rock (7871). Anal.; R. J. Johns.

133

Jn the micro-seclion, potash Jeldspar as microcline appears to be a little less

abundant than plagioclase; these with qnariz constitute the bulk of the rock, The

feldspars are somewhat turbid and show the effects of strain, Quartz, next in

abundance, is clear and free from cracks but shows strain shadows, There are

present a few stall myrmekitic intergrowths—these are of quartz and plagioclase,

such developments taking place on the borders of microcline crystals, due to the

replacement of that mineral by plagioclase. Buiotite is Fresh; it is the essential

ferromagnesian mineral but often associated with clear plates of muscovite. The

disposition of the micas defines a rough directional structure, The average grain-

size of constituent minerals as seen in the slide is about 0-6 mm.

The plagioclase is faintly zoned; individuals are twinned on the albite and

combined albite—Carlsbad laws. Maximum extinction angle measured in the

zone 1010 is 5° corresponding tw oligoclase on composition Ab,,An,,. Biotite

is a normal variety, strongly pleochroic; X—=—light yellow, Y = Z= almost

opaque; it hears pleochroic haloes surrounding small crystals of zircon. Muscovite

eceurs as broad tabular flakes, Zircon, as an accessory, is abundant in smull

rounded grains. Apatite in rod-like forms is a sparse constituent.

The mode of (7867) was obtained by a Rosiwal measurement on a single

small slide is as follows: qiartz, 42°49; microcline, 21°5% plagioclase, 26°5% ;

muscovite, 2'2% ; biotite, 7*3%; accessories, O'1%. By the relation of the feid-

spars, the rock js thus to be defined as an adameliite.

Granite (7856), This is the most typical and widely developed of the

plagioclase than does (7867). It exhibits an obvious directional arrangement of

minerals. Average size of constituent grains as measured in the slide is about

0-2 to O3 mm., although they attain to 1 mm. in diameter. .A micrometric

determination of the mode in a single slide gave the composition as! quartz,

50°19; microcline, 33°3% ; plagioclase, 6°79; biotite, 7:7% ; muscovite, 2-0% ;

accessories, 02%,

Microcline is abundant, ay also is quartz {which bears abundant rods of

apatite as inclusions), Plagioclase, which is an oligoclase (Ab,,An,,) is sparse.

Biotite and muscovite are present im association, Accessories are apatite, mag-

netite, zircon; the latter relatively abundant.

Adamellite (7878). Another of this granitic suite with marked directional

features. It is somewhat coarser grained than (7867). In this the oligoclase is

predominant over nticrocline: it is also irregularly zoned.

Granite (7856). This is the most typical and widely developed of the

Monarto granites. It is coarser grained than the preceding types and exhibits

a well-defined gneissic structure in which the bands of biotite are more widely

separated. It is of an even graim-size, the latter averaging 0-80 mm. as viewed in

the micro-section.

Quartz and microcline are both abundant constituents, the former as atihedtal

individuals bearing fluid inclusions and also small apatite crpstals. The plagio-

clase is an Olignclase {Ab,, An,,); Biotite is strongly pleochroic from yellow to

almost opaque; it shows slight alteration to green chlorite; ratio of elongation of

flakes 2:1. Muscovite is not abundant. Apatite, zircon and magnetite are

accessory mincrals in stall amount.

The mode obtained by micrometric measurement gave: quartz, 42°9%;

microcline, 359% ; plagioclase, 16°7% hiotite, 4°0%; muscovite, 0-49; acces-

sories, 11%,

Adamellite (7876), This rock was observed in the ficld to grade out into a

coarse biotite-quartz schist, in which biotite is predominent as coarse flakes impart-

ing a pronounced schistosity.

134

In microscope slide it is scen to have an allotriomorphic granular lexture,

with average size of grain about 1 mm. but with a few individuals as much as

2-2 mm. in diameter.

Feldspar is represented by approximately equal amotints of microcline and

oligoclase (Ab,,An,,). Other notable minerals are quartz, biotite and mus-

covite itt small amounts and accessory zircon.

Scuists, GRANULITES AND Basirtep ARENITE ASSOCIATED WITIT THE

Monarto GRANITES

The belt of rocks bounding the Monarto Granite on the north, west and

south 15 constituted of a range of fine-grained quartz-plagioclase-biotite schists.

In this area fresh exposures ate scarce: those showing least weathering were

obtained from dam excavatiotis and water-main tretiches.

Outcrops of such rocks were met with in sections 213, 214, 524, 528, 529,

330 of the Hundred of Mobilong, and in sections 43, 45, 219, 220, 222, 228, 229,

430, 231, 232, 233, 249, 250, 257, 260, 461, 462 and 464 of the Hundred of

Monarto,

In these schists the original bedding and stratification planes. have been almost

obliterated, Regional foliation of these schists is 347° with dip 65° west.

Basified Arenite (7871). This is a white, compact, fine-grained, granular

feldspar-quartz rock without obvious schistose features. It is suggested that it

originated from an arenite by feldspathization. An irregular schlier in the hand

specimen is somewhat darker coloured and contains obvious tiny flakes of biotite

feebly oriented towards a parallel arrangement. This schlier appears io be an area

which has suffered a more advanced degree of basification, Specimen (7870)

appears to be intermediate in composition between the two phases exhibited in

(7871).

The rock slide exhibits a granoblastic texture with prainsize averaging

0-20 mm.; xenoblasts of quartz and feldspar constitute the bulk of the slide. The

quartz displays undulose extinction. The plagioclase is albite (Aby, Any).

Microciine-perthite is present in small amount. Hiotite is sparse but more

abundant im the more highly basified patch, Accessories are muscovite, zircon

and magnetite,

Chemical analyses of both the less basified and the more basified portions of

(7871) are given in the table on page 132, Comparison of these analyses with

each other and with that of the Monarto granite (7867) reveals progressive loss

of SiO, and S but demonstrates additions to the content of Al,O,, MgO, CaO,

Na,O, K,O, Ti0,, P,Q, and ZrQ, in the passage from original (?) arenite to

granite. This strengthens the view that the Monarto granite has in fact developed

as 8 migma (see page 136)-

Quarts-Biolite-Plagioclase-Schist (J. K. 62). A dark-grey, fine-grained

rock. In section it is seen to be a granoblastic aggregate of quartz and feldspar,

shot through with a bundant biotite fakes im parallel alignment.

Quartz is present to the extent of 59°4%, The larger individuals exhibit

undulose extinction, Biotite to the extent of 30°5% is the next most abundant

constituent: pleochroic from yellow to brownish-red. Pleochroic haloes are com-

mon. Muscovite is present only in very small amounts, about 0-4%. Plagioclase

to the extent of 9°7% is distributed throughout the slide as slightly clouded xeno-

blasts, It corresponds to oligoclase (Ab,,An,,). Zircon is abundant as rounded

individuals, Apatite is sparse. Magnetite as black opaque octahedra js also

sparse,

135

Rock (7869) is a dark grey, fine-grained, schlieric rock consisting essentially

of quartz and biotite—closely similar to (J. K. 62), Tourmaline in small crystals

is present in appreciahle amount.

Rock (7881) is similar to (J, K. 62) and (7869) except that plates of white

mica are visible in ihe hand specimen. Contains a little tourmaline as one of the

uccessories,

Quarts-Biolite-Plagioclase-Schist (7880). A fine-grained, grey schistose

rock, Microscopically it displays a fine, even, granvblastic texture somewhat

modified by the more or less parallel alignment of the micas. Mineralogically it

is very similar to (J. K. 62). Rock (J. K. 97) is also very similar but here the

plagioclase is an albite (Ab), Any).

Bimica-Quarta-Plagioclase-Schist (7879) is another rock of this group in

which muscovite appears in larger amounts. Ilere the plagioclase comes into the

range of the oligoclase (Ab,. An,,).

Rock No. (J. K, 92) is an even-grained, grey schistose variety that grades

from a biotite-quartz schist (rich in biotite) into a rock that has the appearance

of a schistose granite of the Monarto type. The average grain-size is 0°20 mm.

The plagioclase is an Albite (Ab,,An,),

Quarts-Plagioclase-Bietite-Gneiss (7873), This is a fine-grained foliated

rock in hand specimen. It consists of greyish leucocrats and oriented biotite

flakes.

Jn section it is seen ta be composed of a granoblastic association mainly of

quartz, with abundant olioglase (Ab,, An,,) and little orthoclase, with consider-

able biotite, a very little muscovite, abundant black iron ore and small rounded

zircons,

Quartz-Playioclase-Biotite-Schist (7864). A light grey rock with pro-

nounced schistose structure due to the parallel alignment of biotite flakes. The

majority of the slide is constituted of a granoblastic aggregate of quartz (grain-

size 1o O-4 mm.) and turbid albite (Ab,,,). The latter is clouded with minute

flakes. of scticitic mica, There is present just a little granular orthoclase, a very

small amount of muscovite and occasional zircon grains.

Playioclase-Quarts-Biatite-Schist (7855). A rock similar to but not so coarse

as (7864). In hand specimen it has the appearance of a fine-grained schistose

granite, The section displays a granoblastic texture modified by oriented mica

flakes.

Quartz with undulose extinction is next in abundance to oligoclase. Micro-

cline is present in lesser amount in xeoblasts displaying poor polysynthetic twin

ting. Biotite is plentiful. Muscovite, apatite, zircon and black iron ore are

accessories.

SUMMARY

The broader geological features of the older rocks of this region as delined

in the foregoing are as follows:—

(1) The existence on the eastern side of the area, at Murray Bridge, of a

large scale granite intrusion, part of a batholythic mass which has been traced

as extending towards the Victorian border in the south-eastern corner uf South

Australia. ‘The granite of this batholyth has all the characters indicating it to

have heen originally a mobile magma.

(2) The schists and gneisses bordering it on the west, well exposed in Rocky

Gully and neighbourhood, are of a high grade of metamorphism and in part

mnigmatitic. They include types common in the inner zones of granite aureolts.

136

(3) Further west, in the Monarto area, away from the Murray Bridge granite

mass are schists of a lower grade of metamorphism, much of which it would

appear could have originated from the basification of original arenites, The field

mapping indicates that rocks of a large part of this latter area were originally

quartzites of a synclinal basin, since metamorphosed to a greater or less degree.

In this locality the Monarto granite is met with, The nature of this granite,

patticularly in its physical characters, varies greatly in the different outcrops. In

some small areas it is without directional features but elsewhere its minerals

exhibit preferred orientation which appears to be a relic of an earlier schist stage.

Two examples are given with chemical analyses illustrating intermediate stages

in the basification of arenite in the development of a granitic migma of the general

character of certain of the varieties of Monarto granite. It thus seems apparent

that part at least of the Monarto granite has developed as a migma.

The variable chemical composition of the Monarto granite outcrops

and variability in size of grain and structure, have been demonstrated in this con-

tribution. In some areas it is within the range of the alkali-granites, elsewhere

it is an adamellite. It is mostly fine-grained, but locally may be coarser. All

graduations may be traced from a feldspathic, somewhat basified quartzite

through schist, to a mineral assemblage and structure typical of “granite”. As

may be expected of a granite that has been derived from the feldspathization

in situ of arenite, xenoliths are absent in the Monarto outcrops Furthermore,

the Monarto granite is concordant with the surrounding schists.

REFERENCES

Jack, R. L, 1923 The Building Stones of South Australia. Geol, Survey of

S. Aust., Bull. 10

Kireman, A, W. 1934 The Murray Bridge Granite. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust.,

Mawson, D., and Seenit, E, R. 1945 Granites of the Tintinara District, Trans.

Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69

Reap, H. H. 1943 Meditations on Granite, Proc. Geol. Ass., 54

Reap, H, H. 1944 Meditations on Granite, Proc, Geol. Ass., 55

Wootnoucn, W. G, 1908 Notes on the Geology of the Mount Lofty Ranges,

chiefly the portion east of the Onkaparinga River. Trans. Roy. Soc.

S. Aust., 32

VOL. 73 PART 2 DECEMBER 1950

TRANSACTIONS OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

INCORPORATED

ADELAIDE

PUBLISHED AND SOLD AT THE SOCIETY’S ROOMS

KINTORE AVENUE, ADELAIDE

Price ; . Fifteen Shillings

Registered at the General Post Office, Adelaide,

for transmission by post as a periodical

THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND

HI. LIST OF SPECIES

BY H.. B. S. WOMERSLEY

Summary

Four hundred and one species of marine algae are recorded from Kangaroo Island, South Australia,

together with comprehensive references, and notes on many species.

137

THE MARINE ALGAE OF KANGAROO ISLAND

Til, LIST OF SPECIES 1

By H, B. S. Woxwersiry*

SUMMARY

Four hundred and one species of marine algae are recorded from Kangaroo

Island, South Australia, together with comprehensive references, and notes oan

many species.

INTRODUCTION

This paper records 40L species of anarine algae (Cyanophyta 26, Chlorophyta

46, Phaeophyta 96, Rhodophyta 233) from Kangaroo Island. Records derived

from a small collection from the “south coast,” made by J. Cork in the winter of

1939, and also records given by Cleland and Black from Sou’ West River mouth,

December 1934 (determined by A, TI. S. Lucas) have been incorporated.

Turther species will be recorded in a second list, as over 100 remain

undetermined, some of which are as yet undescribed. Kangaroo Island is a very

rich region tor marine algac, and although extensive collections bave becn made

during the last five years, doubtless inore species remain to be discovered in

localities which haye not been thoroughly investigated.

Over 100 species comprise new records for the State of South Australia,

but as Southern Australia forms a distinct geographic region (with probably

35-40% of species occurring from ‘Tasmania to Western Australia), and so few

localities have been thoroughly examined, such new records have little signif-

cance for the present and have not beet indicated.

The specimens on which this list is based are deposited in the Algal Her-

barium of the Rotany Department, University of Adelaide.

Visits were made ta Kangaroo Island at the following times: 1944, January:

1945, January, May; 1946, January, August; 1947, January, April, May, June,

July, October, Novernber; 1948, January, September, December; 1949, January.

In determining the species in this list recourse has been made wherever

possible to original literature, and to authentic specimens in Australian Herbaria,

especially the Melbourne National Herbarium. Unfortunately, few type speci-

mens of Australian algae exist in Australia, making sure determinations very

difficult in many cases; and many other specimens in herbaria are incorrectly

named, so that comparisons with specimens other than the type have to be done

with caution. Melbourne National Herbarium fortunately possesses O, W.

Sonder’s Australian collection, including his type specimens, and also a set of

W. H. Harvey’s Australian algae, J, G. Agardh’s “Algae Muellerianae’’ and

duplicates of J. B. Wilson’s collections. The Adelaide University Herbarium

possesses a few of T. Reinbold’s cotypes from Investigator Strait. It is evident,

however, that extefisive series of nearly all Auistralian species should be checked

with the type specitmens, and also with related species to define limits of

variability. Maty other species, such as those of Zanardini, are very poorly

known, and require re-examination of the original specimens. Until this can be

done some determinations must necessarily be provisional, and description of new

species must await comparison with authentic material of closely related species.

In this list notes on the habitat of each species are piven where possible.

The ecological terms used haye been defined in Pt. I of this series ( Wommersley

1947), and references to Pt. I and Ft. I apply to this and the second paper

(Womersley 1948). Where a species is hsted as. from the drift (ie., found cast

up or floating), it almost certainly grows in the sublittoral, as the littoral and

* Department of Botany, University of Adelaide,

‘Trans. Roy. Soc, 5. Aust, 73, (2), Dee, 1950

138

upper sublittoral have been extensively collected in most localities and are listed

as such, The month (abbreviated) and year of most collections are given, as

this gives positive evidence of the seasonal occurrence of many species (and also

facilitates future reference to the specimens in the herbarium), In many cases,

especially at Pennington Bay and American River inlet where the seasonal

occurrence of many species is comparatively well known it has bee possible to

generalise and give the period of their occurrence. Ilowever, probably the

majority of species known from a few records.are present during all seasons,

Although positive records only ate given, generalisations about the distribu-

tions. ai many species atotnd the island can be made. Thus species found at

Pennington Kay or Vivonne Bay probably occur in similar habitats anywhere

along the south and west coasts. In fact, the formations and subformations

described in Pt. J are usually broad habitat regions,

No attempt has been made to give a complete list of references to the species,

nor in some cases is the reference to the original description given, A selection

has been made of the more important and useful references, especially those

available to the author, and De Toni in most cases gives fairly complete lists,

Throughout this series of papers Recommendation XLII of the 1935

Eotanical Rules referring to the use of capital letters for patronymic and certain

other specific names has not been followed. I am in full agreement with the

reasons expressed for this in the Journal of Ecology, 31, (1943), p. 93-

The following authors have been followed in the classification adopted:

Cyanophyta (Fritsch 1942), Chlorophyta and Phaeophyta (Smith 1938, Papen-

fuss 19472), Rhodophyta (Kylin 1924, 1931, 1932, Falkenberg 1901, and

Fritsch 1945).

The localities have been abbreviated to the first letters of the names, as in

the list below. The order of localities is from American River mlet along the

north, west, south and east coasts and back to American River inlet (see fig. 1,

Pt, I). Briel notes on the areas examined are also given below, and reference

should be ntude to Pt. I and IT for further details.

Norra Coast—

4K, American River inlet: an extensive tidal inlet (mot a river) with small

islands (Shag Rock, Pig, Wallaby Islands) in Pelican Lagoon. BH. Ballasr

Head; a rocky headland immediately north of American River inlet. The

east side only has been examined, K. Kingscote. BS. Bay of Shoals: a

shallow sandy bay with ealm conditions. HA. Emit Bay: the rocky coast

near the old jetty was examined. SB, Stokes Ray, J7R, Middle River: the

mouth is normally closed by a sand bar and rocky coast occurs at both ends

ofa sattdy beach. WF, Western River: the river mouth is also usually closed

by a sandy bar. AR, Harvey's Return: about four miles east of Cape Borda.

West Coast—

WB. West Bay.

SourH CoastT—

CC_ Cape Condie. VB, Vivotme Bay: rock platforms occur within the bay

while the western extremity—Ellen Point—is of stceply sloping rock. Pools

i and 2 are referred to in Pt, 1, p. 245. DB. D’Estrees Bay: reefs briefly

examined are at the eastern end of the bay. P&B, Pennington Bay: see Pt, I]

Ci’, Cape Willoughby,

East CoastT—

A&B, Antechamber Bay: The rocky area at the north end of the bay was

examined. HB_Hog Bay.

139

Nortu Coast—

RP. Rocky Point: “drift” specimens from here were mostly collected between

Rocky Point and American River inlet-

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In addition to the acknowledgments made in Pt. I, I would like to thank

further Mr. A. W. Jessup. of the Melbourne National Herbarium, for the loan

of specimens and literature. Dr. G. F. Papenfuss, of the Department of Botany,

University of California, has also kindly made information available and giyen

opinions on certain species. Both Dr. C Bliding, of Sweden, and Dr. V. Je

Chapman have given opinions on the species of Enteromorpha.

CYANOPHYTA

CHROOCOCCALES — CHrancoccacEAE

COCCOCHLORIS Sprengel

Coccocutoris CasTAGNEr (Kiilzing) Drouet and Daily 1948, 77. Pulmella

castagnei Kiitzing 1846, t. 9. Aphanothece castagnei, Rabenhorst 1932, 171.

Tilden 1910, 31, pl. 2, f. 13. — AR, Sublittoral, near Muston, Jan. 1948.

ENTOPHYSALIS Buitzing

Entoruysatis peusta (Meneghini) Drovet and Daily 1948, 79, Glovocapsa

deusta, Kiitzing 1949, 224. Rabenhurst 1932, 190. — AR. Amongst other

algae in a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan. 1946,

PLEUROCAPSALES — PLEUROCAPSACEAE

DERMOCARPA Crouan

DERMOcARPA scHOUsEOET (Thuret) Bornet. Xenacoccus schousboet Thuret in

Bornet and Thuret 1880, 74, pl. 26, f. 1, 2, Tilden 1910, 50, pl. 3, £. 7,

Rabenhorst 1932, 335, f. 170 — EB. In littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946.

NOSTOCALES — OsciLLaTORIACEAR

HYDROCOLEUM Kitzing

Hyprocoteum canTHariosmum (Montagne) Gomont 1892, (Pt. 1), 336, pl. £2,

f. 647. Tilden 1910, 135, pl. 5, £57. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,148, £. 755,

Calothrix limbata Ularvey 1863, syn. n. 792, Alg, Aus. exs. n. 596. — PB,

Lower littoral, on well washed rock, Dec. 1948,

Hyproconeum comomes (Ilarvey) Gomont 1892, (Pt. 1), 335, pl. 12, £. 3-5,

Tilden 1910, 134, pl. 5, £. 56, Rabenhorst 1932, 1,148, {. 756. Calothrix

comoides Harvey 1863, syn. n. 793, Alg. Aus. exs. n. 597, 598. — FB,

Edge of rock pool, south side of Ellen Pt., May 1945,

TlyprocoLeuM cLuTixosum (Agardh) Gomont 1892 (Pt. 1), 330. Tilden 1910,

136, pl. 5, £.59. Newton 1931, 29. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,149. — LR. As irregu-

lar masses on Hormosira (Aug. 1948) and Zostera (Sept. 1946) on the

tidal fats. MR. On Cystophyllum muricatum and Cladostephus verticllaius,

upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. VB, On rocks near jetty, mid littoral, and on

reef in bay, Jan. 1947, PB, On Jedge, main reef, all seasons, and on Coral-

lina cuvieri in sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1946. CW. On rocks and on H armosira,

lower littoral, Jan., Aug. 1948.

Hyproco.eum Ly¥Nonyaceum Kutzing 1849, 259. Gomont 1892 (Pt. 1), 337;

pl. 12, f, 8-10. Tilden 1910, 135, pl. 5, f. 58. Setchell and Gardner 1914,

85, pl. 1, £. 10, Newton 1931, 29, f. 20, Rabenhorst 1932, 1,150, f, 757. —

PB. Forming tufts at the constrictions of Hormusira, lower littural, Jan. 1946.

AB, On Cystophora subfarcinati, lower littoral, Jan. 1947.

140

LYNGBYA Agardh

Lywenya CONFERVOrDES Agardh. Gomont 1892 (Pt. IL), 136, pl, 3, £.5,6, Tilden

1910; 119, pl. 5, f. 39. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 77. Rabenhorst 1932,

1,061, £. 672b. — AR. In a mat on buoys near American River jetty, Jan,

1946. ZB. Littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946.

Lyngaya Lures (Agardh) Gomont 1892 (Pt. IL), 141, pl. 3, f. 12, 13, Tilden

1910, 114, pl. 5, f. 30, 31. Rabenharst 1932, 1,057, f. 670 a.b, — MR,

Littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946.

LYNGBYA MAJUSCULA (Dillwyn) Haryey. Gomont 1892 (Pt. IT), 132, pl. 3,

f. 3,4, Tilden 1910, 123, pl. 5, f. 42. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,060, f, 672 c,d.

— FB, In shaded part of pool 1, south side of Ellen Pt, Dec, 1945,

Lynonya semircena (Agardh) J. Agardh. Gomont 1892, (Pt. IL), 138, pl. 3,

f. 7-11. Tilden 1910, 118, pl, 5, £. 38. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 78,

Rabetuhorst 1932, 1,061, {. 672a. — ATR. In scrapings from a shallow pool,

Jan, 1946,

Lyncpya sornipa (Zanardini) Gomont 1892, (Pt. IL), 126, pl. 2, f. 21. Tilden

1910, 118, pl. 5, £. 37. Rabenhorst 1932, 1,039, £. 657 b. — PB. In a shaded

pool, rear littoral of main reef, Jan, 1948,

PLECTONEMA Thuret

PLECTONEMA BATTERSIt Gomont 1899, 36. Tilden 1910, 211. Setchell and

Gardner 1919, 79, pl. 1, f. 1. Newton 1931, 25, f. 18. Rabenhorst 1932,

684. — AR, Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American River

jetty, Jan. 1946,

PiEctoNEMA NoRVEGICUM Gomont 1899, 34. Newton 1931, 26. Rabenhorst

1932, 684, — AR. Amongst other algae in a mat on buoys near American

River jetty, Jan. 1946,

SYMPLOCA Kiitzing

SYMPLOCA HYDNOIDES Kiitzing 1849, 272. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 81, pl. 1.

f. 12, 13, Newton 1931, 21, f, 16. Rabenhorst 1932, 1, 1,119, £. 724. — AR.

On tidal flats, May 1945. PR, In littoral rock scrapings, Jan. 1946. VB. In

pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1949. PB. On sloping and vertical

tock in the rear littoral, all seasons. CW. Littoral, Jan. 1946.

RIVULARIACRAE

CALOTHRIX Agardh

CaLOTHRIX AERUGINEA (Kutzing) Thuret 1875, 10. Tilden 1910, 261, pl. 17,

fF, 1. Rabenhorst 1932, 599, £. 3754. — MR. On Lnteromerpha and Clado-

phora in littoral pools, Jan, 1948. PB. On Polysiphonia on littoral sloping

rock, Dec. 1948, CH’, On Chuetomarpha acerca in littoral pools, south side

Jan. 1948,

CALOTHRIx CoNFERVICOLA (Roth) Agardh. Tilden 1910, 256, pl. 16, f. 6-8. ‘Raben-

horst 1932, 601, f. 376, Epiphytic on other algae in the littoral zone in most

localities, all seasons. Often dense on Junia fustigiata (VB, PB, AB),

Centrocerus clavulatum (VB, Jan, 1946), Ilyvimenocladia polymorpha (DB,

sublittoral Iringe, Jan. 1947) and Chaetomorpha aerea (CW’, littoral pool,

Aug. 1948).

CaLoTurix crusracks Thuret, Tilden 1910, 264, pl. 17, i, 2-6. Rabenhorst

1932, 601. — EB, MR, WR, WB, On littoral rock, sometimes forming

extensive slippery patches, all Jan. 1946, 28. Upper littoral, Jan, 1945.

141

CaLoTuRIx scoptLorum (Weber and Mohr) Agardh. Bornet and Thuret 1880,

159, t. 38. Tilden 1910, 258, pl. 16, f. 11, 12. Setchell and Gardner 1919, 96.

Rabenhorst 1932, 600, f. 374, f, ¢ — AR, Amongst other algae in a mat

on‘buoys near American River jetty, Jan, 1946,

ISACTIS Thuret

Isactis PLANA (Ilarvey) Thuret, Hornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 343,

Setchell and Gardner 1919, 104, pl. 1, f. 8,9. Womersley 1946a, 128, f. 1A.

— VB. Edge of rock pools and om the mollusc Cellana tramoserica, south

side of Ellen Pt., Jan. 1946. PB. littoral, main reef, all seasons. HB.

Lower littoral, Jan. 1944,

RIVULARIA. Agardh

Rivunarra atka Roth. Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 353. Setchell and

Gardner 1919, 107, pl. 8, £. 1, 2, Womersley 19462, 132, f. 1B. — AR. On

dead Posidonia and shells, Jan. 1946. SB. Upper littoral, Jan. 1946. VB.

Edges of rock pools and on molluscs, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945.

PB. Littoral, main reef, Jan. 1948.

Rivurarra AusTRALIS Harvey 1854, 566. Bornet and Flahault, 1886, (Pt. 11), 362.

Womersley 1946a, 133. — IR. Upper littoral, west side, Jan. 1948.

Rivucarra FIRMA Womersley 19462, 130, f, 2A, B. — Fast, south west aud

rougher parts of the north coasi, in middle and upper littoral, all seasoits,

but variable in occurrence and amount,

RIVULARIA NiTIpA Agardh, Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. I1), 357. Womersley

1946a, 133, £.1C. — AR. On rock in mid littoral, Pelican Lagoon, Jan. 1946,

Rivucarta potyoris (Agardh) Bornet and Flahauli 1886, (Pt. II), 360.

Womersley 19462, 134, f. 2C. — AR, On Posidonia, Zostera and larger

algae on the tidal Hats and floating, mainly summer. BS. Upper sublittoral,

Jan. 1947.

STIGONEMATACEAE

BRACHYTRICHIA Zanardini

BracuyrricuiaA ouoyr (Agardh) Bornet and Flahault 1886, (Pt. IT), 373.

De Toni 1907, 680. Tildeit 1910, 294, pl, 20, f. 18. — SB and MR, Upper

and mid littoral, Jan. 1947 and 1948. IB. Edge of pool, south side of Ellen

Point, May 1945.

CHLOROPHYTA

ULOTRICHALES — UlLorricnacrar

ULOTHRIX Kutzing

Unormeix impnexa Kiitzing 1849, 349. Sctchell and Gardner 1920, 283. Smith

1944, 34. — AR. As a green band along the waterline on boats anchored

fear Atnerican Rivér jetty, Aug. 1948. Seasonal occurrence (from local

information), March to Nov. These specimens agree well with the ahove

descriptions, but | have not seen authcntic material, There seems to be some

difference of opinion as to whether the marine species should be known as

U, implexa or U. subflaccida Wille. Setchell and Gardner are followed in

referring it to U, wnplexa.

ULVALES — ULvackar

ULVA Linnaeus

Unva tactuca Linnaeus. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 265. Smith 1944, 45.

Taylor 1937, 75 — AR. On tidal flats (low littoral and upper sublittoral),

142

common, all seasons. Souw'-West River mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and

Black). PB. Less rough parts of the reefs and rear littoral, all seasons.

Also found in almost any suitable habitat elsewhere around the island. In

AR specimens the thallus is 35-70 thick, with the cells in transverse section

1-15 times as high as broad. In PB specimens the thallus is 40-60. (-70,)

thick, cells as high (-14 times) as broad. In size and form the AR speci-

mens often approach var. /etissima De Candolle, while the PB specimens are

similar to var. vigide (C.Ag.) Le Jol. Mowever, the great variation in size

and form between specimens in the same and different localities (from

expanded plates to elongate undulate ribbons), prevents any valid separation

of varieties.

ENTEROMORPHA Link

This genus ig notoriously difficult, and oly some of the more distinct forms

from Kangaroo Island are listed here. I haye receiyed opinions on the species

from Dr. V. J. Chapman and also from Dr. C. Bliding whose culture experiments

in Sweden have shown that some species include a number of forms. Until it is

possible to carry out similar culture and copulation experiments with Kangaruo

Island Ateromorpha’s, the limits of some specics must remain tncertsin,

ENTEROMORPHA ACANTHOPHORA Kiitzing 1856, t. 34, £. 1. J. Agardh 1883, 158,

De Toni 1889, 135. — PB. Rear littoral on reefs, all seasons but best

developed in winter. These forms are only 1-4 em, high, but resemble

Kiitzing’s figure and New Zealand specimetis in form and structure,

ENTEROMORPHA CLATHRATA (Roth) J, Agardh, Bliding 1944, 331. Doty 1947,

l6. Kylin 1949, 28. — AR, Lower littoral and upper sublittoral through-

nut the inlet, all seasons, AZ. Lower littoral pools, Jan. 1946, 1948.

CC. Rock pools, Jan. 1948. FB. On a punt in mouth of Tiarriet River,

Jan. 1946, AB. Rock pool, fan. 1947. JP. Mid littoral, Jan, 1945.

The material from American River inlet is very yariable and is referred

hy Dr. Chapman to a number of forms. The variations seem, however, to

be ecological in nature, depending on degree of exposyre and water moye-

ments, and probably nearly all the American River forms are best placed

under one species, as Dr. Bliding would do, Culture experiments with these

forms are necessary for a full understanding of the problem. The form af

Bliding’s Types I, It, and II] are represented at American River inlet.

ENTeERoMorritA comrressa (1...) Greville. De Toni 1889, 126. Doty 1947, 14.

Bliding 1948, 128, Kylin 1949, 22, {, 14, 15. — AAR, On buoys near Ameti-

can River jetty, Jan, 1946. BH, Lower littoral, Oct. 1947.

ENTEROMORPHA INTESTINALIS (L..) Link. Doty 1947, 14. Bliding 1948, 123.

Kylin 1949, 22, — MR, In lower littoral pools, Jan, 1946.

BLIDINGIA Kylin

BLIDINGIA MINIMA (Kiitzing) Kylin 1949, 30. Enteromorpha minima Kitzing

1856, t, 43, ITT, Bliding 1938, 84. — AR. On jetty steps, mid littoral, Sept.

1946, Aug, 1948, AP. Mid littoral, amongst Zuteromorpha clathrate, Jan.

1945. Original det., C. Bliding.

CLADOPHORAT.ES — CranorHoracuat

CLADOPHORA Katzine

CLADUPHORA CERATINA Kiitzing 1849, 401; 3854, 5, t. 21, f. 1. — AR. Epiphytic

on Zostera muelleri and in tangled masses on the tidal dats near the mouth

of the inlet, Feb. 1946, Jan. 1948. 7B. On punt and stakes at mouth of

Harriet River (braclsish). Jan. 1946.

CLADOPHORA DELICATULA Montagne. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 220, Smith

1944, 6L. De Toni 1889, 326. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947.

CLADOPIIORA FASCICULARIS (Mertens) Kiitzing 1843, 268, 1849, 393. De Toni

1889, 316. Borgesen 1946, 21. — AR. Widely, but often sparsely, dis-

tributed in the upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, and on the buoys near

American River jetty, all seasons. Bid. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947. PB, In

mid littoral rock pool on western terraced reef, Jan. 1946. The branching

of AR specimens is very much looser, and they appear more slender than

those from. BH and PR. Filament widths, however, are similar in all

specimens, and the fasciculate branching is well developed in all.

CLADOPHORA FRREDAYAE Harvey 1858, pl. 47; 1860b, 339. De Toni 1889, 323.

— CH’, Rock pool, south side, Aug. 1948,

Crapopuoea REvENS (J. Agardh) Harvey 1871, pl. 236. Kaiitzing 1854, t, 70,

i, 2. De Toni 1889, 345. — }'B. Edge of reef (sublittotal fringe), north

side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948. PR. Drift, April 1947.

CLADOPTIORA VALONTOIDES Sonder 1846, 149. Harvey 1859, pl. 78. De Tomi

1889, 308. — HB. Driit, Jan. 1946. CC, Rock pool, Jan. 1944, drift, Jan.

1947, WB, Drift, and on reefs in bay, Jan. 1949. PB. On reefs, littoral, all

seasons. Specimens cast up from the sublittoral are much looser and larger

than those growing in rough conditions on the reefs,

CHAETOMORPHA, Kittzing

CHarromorrita AcREA (Dillwyn) Kitzing 1849, 379; 1853, t. 59. De Toni 1889,

272. Smith 1944, 56, Taylor 1937, 80. — SA, Lower littoral, as a mat on

boulders, Jan. 1948. He, In rock pools, Jan. 1949. 4’R, Lower littoral on

a Jan, 1946. PB. In rock pools, Jan. 1944. CH’. In rock pools, Jan.

CHAETOMORPHA DARWINT (Hooker) Kiitzing 1849, 380. De Toni 1889, 271.

Conferva clavata vat, darwiniti Hooker 1847, 187, pl. 192, £. 1. — FB. Sub-

littoral fringe on reefs in bay. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, CH’, Lower

littoral, south side, All seasons. At PA, commonly epiphytic on Zonaria

spiralis, Halopteris pseudospicula, Cystophora paniculata and Ballia scoparia.

CHAETOMORPHA LINuM (Mueller) Kitzing, De Toni 1889, 269, Taylor 1937,

80, — BS. Upper sublittoral, June 1947.

CHAETOMORPHA VALIDA (Ilooker and Harvey) Kiitzing 1849, 379. De Toni

1889, 274. Conferva valida Hooker and Harvey 1847, 416 — AR. Upper

sublittaral on Rabbit Island and elsewhere in Pelican Lagoon and near

Muston, not common, May 1947, Aug. 1948.

This agrees well with a specimen from Tasmania of Conferva calida

H, & H..in Melbourne National Herbaritim. The platit is dark green, forin-

ing rather coarse tangled masses, not readily collapsing our of water; fila-

ments 350-450» thick, cells mostly 14-24 times as Jong as wide, slightly

inflated. It is a distinctly more robust plant than C. linum, readily dis-

linguished in the field.

STPHONOCLADALES — YVaroniacrean

DICTYOSPHAERTA Decaisne

DicTYeSPHAERIA SERTCEA Harvey 1860 b, 339, pl. 196 A. J. Agardh 1887, 118;

1896, 61. De Toni 1889, 371. — MR, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. WR.

Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs in bay, Jan, 1947,

PB, Pools in sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons,

144

SIPHONOCLADIACKAE

APJOHNIA Harvey

APJOHNIA LAETEVIRENS Tarvyey 1858, pl. 5. J. Agardh 1887, 108. De Tomi

1889, 382. — MR. Dnit, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift,

Jan. 1948, 1949 and in pools of sublittorat fringe on reefs in bay, Jan. 1948.

PB. Drift, and in pools of sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948. Speci-

mens growitig in pools in the sublittoral fringe are usually stunted, often

with only the basal part developed.

STRUVEA Sonder

STRUVEA PLUMOSA Sonder 1846, 151. Harvey 1858, pl. 32. De Toni 1889, 364-

A single specimen [rom “North of Kangaroo Island, 1893.” Collector and

further details are unknown,

BoOoDLEACEAE

MICRODICTYON Decaisne

Micronictyon uMBILIcatum (Velley) Zanardini. Setchell 1929, 503. Micro-

dictyon agardhianum, Harvey 1858, pl. 50, — AR, In Pesidonia beds near

Strawbridge Point, May 1945; drift, Dec. 1948. Apparently rare.

DASYCLADACEAE

ACETABULARIA Lamouroux

ACETABULARIA PENICULUS (R. Brown) Solms-Laubach 1895, 27. Puolyplvsa

peniculus (R. Br.) Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl. 11. De Toni 1889, 421. —

AR. Low littoral and upper sublittoral at head of the lagoons (dense iti

patches) and in Pelican Lagoon, all seasons, BS, Lower littoral, June 1947,

SIPHONALES — Bryorsmacrkae

BRYOPSIS J atnouroux

Brvopsis BACULIFERA J. Agardh 1887, 21. De Toni 1889, 428. — PR, Shaded

end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1949. PB. Shaded

pool, rear littoral, tiain reef, Jan, 1948. Rare;

The few specimens collected have been sterile. They agree well in form

and structure with cotype specimens of J. B. Wilson's in Melbourne National

Herbarium except that the thallus of Wilson’s specimens are nearly twice

as wide (340-510 against 120-350,).

Bryopsis cupressomes Lamouroux. Kitzing 1856, t. 79, f. 1. J. Agardh 18387,

20, TDe Toni 1889, 435 — AR. On bnoys, Jan., Sept. 1946; upper sub-

littoral near American River jetty, July 1946. Best developed in winter.

Dr. V. J. Chapman considers these plants are referable to B. cupressoides,

though they seem to be softer plants with longer pinnules than those figured

by Kitzing.

Bryorsts pLumosa (Hudsworth) Agardh. J. Agardh 1887, 24. De Toni 1889.

431. Setchell and Gardner 1920, 161, pl. 14, £.1, 2. — WB. In rock pools.

south side of Ellen Point, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 1948.

DERBESTACEAE

DERBESIJA Solier

Dernesta CLAVAEFoRMIS (J. Agardh) De Toni 1889, 425. Bryopsis clavacfornits

J. Agardh 1887, 20. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1946, PB. Shaded pool, rear

littoral, main reef, Jan. 1948. Rare. These spectmens agree well with those

of J, B, Wilson’s in Melbourne National Herbarium. The WR specimen

is rather thicker, but identical in form and position and size of zoosporangia.

145

CopIACEAE

CODIUM Stackhouse

Coprum careatum J. Agardh 1887, 42, t. 1, f. 1. De Toni 1889, 494, Lucas

1936, 54. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, occasional, all

scasons. HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. DB. Sub-

littoral fringe on reef, Jan. 1947, PB, Drift, and in sublittoral Fringe, all

seasons. RP. Drift, and pools of lower littoral, all seasons. Most of the speci-

mens placed under (, galeatum show a distinctly but moderately thickened

top to the utricles, Some, such as those from American River, are very

slightly thickened. Some specimens from Victor Harbour and other parts

of the South Australian coast have extremely heavily thickened tops to the

utricles, which tend to be narrower and contracted a short distance below

the apex, All these specimens are identical in external form (stout plants,

thallus 4-6 mm, wide), and the variation in utricle thickness between young

and old parts of one specimen, and between different specimens, is very con-

siderable, Even when most utricles are scarcely thickened at all, an occa-

sional natrower one occurs with heavy apical thickening,

Although the extremes in utricle thickness are very distinct, and such

characters have been largely sed in segregation of species within the genus,

it seems impossible to delimit the extremes as species ar even varieties, On

the othet hand this may be an ecological variation, as plants with heavily

thickened utricles seem io occur mainly in deep water on exposed coasts.

A slender dichotomous Codiwm, 2-3. mm. in thickness, and with very

slight utricle thickening has been found in ihe drift at Pennington and

Vivonne Bays. This may be another form of C. galeatinm, or Indy prove to

be a distinct species.

Copium Lucasm Setchell ia Lucas 1935, 200. Lucas 1936, 50, — PB, Rear

littoral on an eastern recf, 1944, Rare.

Coprum MAmiLtosum Harvey 1854, 505; 1858, pl. 41. J. Apardh 1887, 39.

De Toni 1889, 491. Lucas 1936, 52. — RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948,

EB, Mk, and PB, all drift, Jan. 1946. Apparently this species occurs only

in the deeper sublittoral, sometimes very commonly in slieliered bays. Near

Rocky Point enorniots numbers of this species, (. pomoides and (. Sposniv-

sn, were cast up after a storm in June 1947,

Coprum MUELLERTI Kiitzing 1856, 34, t. 95, #. 2. J. Agardh 1887, 42. De Toni

1889, 493. Codium schnudti Vouk 1935, 9, pl. 1. — RP. Drift, June

1947, Aug, 1948, XK. Drift, Jan, 1948. This species is distinguished by the

presence of hemispherical thickenings on the internal side of the apical

membrane of the utricles. This was first recorded in Vouk’s Codinm

schmidti (from Bussleton, Western Australia, and Lefevre Peninsula near

Adelaide, South Australia, not New Caledonia as given by Vouk), but

Setchell (1940, 444) pointed out the type specimen of C. amuelleri Kittzing

Shows the same feature although Kutzing does not figure it. Cotype speci-

mens of C. muelleri in Melbourne National Ilerbarium show the thickenings

distinctly. The plants are slender (2-3 mm. wide) and soft, becoming flat

and membranous on drying out.

Most specimens in Australian Herbaria named as C. mwelleri do not

show the! internal thickening, and are not this species; some are probably

forms af C. galeatwar.

Copium PERRINAR Tatcrs 1935, 203, f 4. — DB. Outer teet pools, Jan, 1950.

146

Copium Pomorpes J. Agardh 1894a, 100. Lucas 1936, 53. — RP. Drift, Jan.

1944, June 1947. EB. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Upper sublittoral at end of

Ellen Point, Jan, 1946. PB. In rock crevices of sublittoral fringe on reefs,

occasional, all seasons.

Conium sponciosum Harvey 1854, 565; 1858, pl. 55, J. Agardh 1887, 38; 1894a,

99. De Toni 1889, 489. Lucas 1936, 51. — AP. Drift, June 1947, Aug.

1948. AR. Upper sublittoral in Pelican Lagoon, all seasons, tare. PB. Drift,

Jan. 1946, 4B. Drift, Aug. 1948. Common in drift, near RP after storms.

RHIPILIOPSIS A, and E. S. Gepp

Rutpriiopsts PELTATA (J. Agardh) A. and E, S. Gepp 1911, 45, f. 118-J22.

Udatea peltatu J. Agardh 1882, 74. De Toni 1889, 509. — PB, In shaded

pools, rear littoral, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949, also in deeper pools of sublittoral

fringe, Jan, 1948, 1949, Not common,

CAULERPACEAE

CAULERPA Lamotroux

CAULERPA pRownir Endlicher. J. Agardh 1872, 28. De Toni 1889, 468,

W. v. Bosse 1898, 306. Lucas 1936, 42. — General in the lower littoral

and sublittoral fringe within the exposed rocky coast formation (ATR, west

and south coasts to 4B). Also drift from deeper water. All seasons, but

often not common.

CaAuLerra cactorpes (Turner) Agardh, Harvey 1858, pl. 26. De Toni 1889,

485. W. y. Bosse 1898, 390. Lucas 1936, 48. — AP. Drift, June 1947.

VB. Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944. Rare,

CAULERPA ETHELAE. W. v. Bosse 1898, 384. Caulerpa siimplictuscula yar. vest-

culifera, Harvey 1859, pl. 65, f. 3, 4. Caulerpa vesiculifera Harvey, Lucas

1936, 47. — MAR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948; drift, Jan. 1946, WB.

Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945

This species has been commonly known as C. vesiewlifera. W, v. Boose

showed that Harvey included two algae in his var. vesiculifera of

C. simpliciuscula, one of which is a loose form of that species, while the

other has very much larger vesicles; this she renamed C. ethelae.

CAULERPA KEDLEVI W. v. Bosse 1910, 1-2. Lucas 1927b, 559; 1936, 43. — This

species was “dredged in 8 fathoms off Kangaroo Island hy the fisheries’

trawler Endeavour in 1909." [I have not collected it, The pinnate fronds.

are densely covered with minute, several times dichotomous, ramenta which

are similur but slenderer on the surctilus.

CauLerpa HypNompts (R. Br.) Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl. 84. De Toni 1889,

470, W. y. Bosse 1898, 342. Lucas 1936, 44, — AR. Sublittoral near Muston,

July 1947, WH, Drift, Jan, 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. Sou’-West Riyer

mouth, Dee, 1934 (Cleland and Black). WB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PR. Pools

on reefs, all seasons. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Driit, June 1947, Aug.

1948.

var. MUELLERI (Sonder) W. v. Bosse 1898, 342. Caulerpa muelleri

Sonder. Harvey 1858, pL 2, — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WE. Drift, Jan.

1946, FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe, all

seasons, but not common, AB, Drift, Jan. 1948.

CAULERPA LoNnciroLia Agardh, J. Agardh 1872, 16. De Toni 1889, 455,

C. harveyi F. v, Mueller in Harvey 1859, pl. 95. De Toni 1889, 455. Lucas

157

1936, 41. W. v. Bosse 1898, 209, — HW’B, Drift, Jan 1946. CC_ Drift,

Jan, 1948. VB. Wrift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, Only found

in the sublittoral,

var, cRISPATA (Harvey) comb, nov.

C. harveyi var. crispata Harvey 1859, pl. 95. W. + Bosse 1898, 300.

C. longifolia Agardh in Lucas 1936, 38. C. curvifalia J. Agardh in Wilson

1892, 188 (nomen nudum). — 1B, Under ledge in sublittoral fringe of

reef in bay, Jan. 1947; drift, Jan. 1948. PB, In pools of sublittoral fringe

on reels, probably all seasons. Usnally found in lower littoral or sublittoral

fringe rock pools.

Considerable confusion has existed in the position of C. longifolia and

C. harveyi, In Australian herbaria they have usually been regarded as dis-

tinct species, as did Lucas (1936). W. v. Bosse (1898, 299) examined

the authentic (probably type) specimens of C. longifolia of C, Agardh, in

the Paris Museum, and found it to be identical with C. harveyi F. v. M,

W. v. Bosse conserved the name C, harveyi as Agardh's original diagnosis

was slightly erromeous, There is, however, no provision for this in the

Botanical Rules (1935), and the name must therefore revert to the earlier

C. longifolia C. Agardh.

The var, crispata Harvey of C. harveyi F. v. M. has been conimonly

known in Australia as C. longifolia Ag, Most specimens are very distinct

from typical C. harveyi; they are smaller, tmich less robust, and have the

ramenta recurved inwards ahove atid irregularly placed on the stem. Var.

crispata is an inhabitant of rock pools, while C. harveyi (now C. longifolia)

inhabits deeper water. Frou W. y. Bosse’s description it appears that speci-

mens of both C. longifolia and var- crispata are present on the type shect.

Most specimens of var, crispata are very distinct from the species, but

intermediate forms do oveur, and Harvey claimed to have seen connecting

stages between the deep water and rock poo) forms. Several intermediate

specimens occur in the algal collection of the Melbourne National Harbarium,

C. curvifolia J, Agardh from Port Philip (Wilson 1892, 188) is identical

with var crispata, but is a nomen ntidum as no description has ever heen

published. Several specimens of Wilson’s are m the Melbourne National

Herbarium.

CAULFRPA onscurA Sonder 1846, 550, Harvey 1860b, 337. Kutzing 1857, t. 17.

W.. v. Bosse 1898, 301. C. sondert HF. v. M. in Sonder 1852, 661, Harvey

1860a, pl. 167. De Toni 1889, 456, — AR. Sublittoral, near Muston, Jan,

1948, WP. Drift, June 1947. HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC, Drift, Jan, 1947,

1948. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, Only found in the

sublittoral,

CAULERPA REMOTLEOLIA Sonder 1852, 660. Harvey 1859, pl. 107. W_-v. Busse

1898, 286. De Toni 1889, 448. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout

lagoons, especially at edge of channel and in deeper holes, all seasons.

XK. Drift, Jan. 1945. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. This species shows great seasonal

variation in density of the lateral pinnae along the branches. In summer

(Dec.-April) the pinnae are few, sometimes completely absent. In winter

more pinnae develop, until in late winter (Avg.-Oct.) they are sufhciéatly

close to just overlap. Harvey’s figure shows an intermediate stage. The

alga occurs as dense intertwined masses, often 1-2 ft, across.

CAULERPA SCALPELLIFoRMIS (R. Erown) C. Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl. 17.

De Toni 1889, 449, W-.v. Bosse 1898, 286. Lucas 1936, 34. — CC. Drift,

Jan. 1948. 1B. Sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Pools

of sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1944, 1948,

148

CauLkepa skpomes (R. Brown) C. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl, 72. De Toni

1889, 480. W. v. Bosse 1898, 387. Lucas 1936, 47. — AR. In Posidonia

beds near Strawbridge Point, May 1945. MR. and WR. Drift, Jan. 1946.

V8, Sublittoral fringe of reef in bay, Jan, 1947, PB. Pools of subfittoral

fringe on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948,

CAULERPA SIMPLICIUSCULA (Turner) C. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl. 65, f, 1, 2.

De Toni 1889, 482, W. v, Bosse 1898, 377, Lucas 1936,47. AS. (no data),

PB. In pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons.

var, VESICULIFERA Harvey 1859, descr. of pl. 65. W. v. Bosse 1898, 377.

—~ AR. Upper sublittoral in lagoons, especially on edge of chammet, all seasons.

Under C, ethelae I have commented that Harvey confused two plants

under his var. vestcuhfera, W. y. Bosse renamed one C_ ethelae and kept a

form with more loosely placed vesicles (but of similar size ta thase of the

species) as var. vestcultfera,

CAULERPA TRIPARTA Harvey 1863, pl. 261. J. Agardh 1872, 16. De Toni 1889.

454. W. v. Bosse 1898, 299. Lucas 1936, 39. — South coast, cvilected by

| Cork, winter 1939 (probably drift), PB. Shaded end of pool 1, south

side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1948 (No. A9469). PB. Shaded pools, rear littoral,

main reel, Jan. 1948 (No, A7019), The specimens under A9469 and A7019

are 1-2" high and show two regular rows of ramenta, never three. They

are morphologically identical with C, sertularioides (Gm.) lowe.

(C. phunaris Forsk). However, specimens of C. trifaria sometimes have

only two rows of ramenta in parts, and this may be a feature of juvenile

plants (as the VB and PB specimens prohably are). C. trifaria also differs

from C. sertularioides in having spines on the sureulus. These are absent

in these specimens, but this again may be » feature of young C. trifaria,

Tor the present I prefer io leave these specimens under C. trifaria, though

the possibility of their being C. sertuarioides cannot be excluded.

In the Herbarium of the University of Adelaide is a specimen (A96)

collected by Dr. Englehart at Lacepede Bay in 1897, identified as Cawlenpa

Plumaris var. elegans (see Rembold 1897, 44). This is also recorded by

Lucas 1936, 35. Underneath the specimen is written: “Examined and identi-

fied by Madame Weber van Bosse,” probably in Reinbold's writing, as he

dealt with Engelhart’s collection generally. W. v. Bosse (294) states in a

footnote that she made the determination and adds: ‘“‘Cect repose sur une

erreur, car l’alzue de M. Reinbeld est le C. plumaris, mais un échantillon tres

ramifie.” he specimen, however, is a typical C. trifaria, with three rows

of ramente in most parts,

C. sertulariuides is characteristic of tropical waters, and on geographical

grounds it would he unlikely to occur along Southern Australia.

PHAEOPHYTA

ISOGENERATAE — ECTOCARPALES — Eerocarpacrar

ECTOCARPUS Lynehye

Ectocarreus conrervorpes. (Roth) Le Jolis. Seichell and Gardner 1925, 412.

Taylor 1937, 109. May 1939, 537-554. — AR. Common throughout the

inlet, growing epiphytically on other algae (especially Hormosira) in winter

{ June-October), €C. In a rock pool, Jan. 1944. PB, Common in the rear

littoral, winter (May-Nov.).

PYLAIELLA Eory

PYLAELLA FULVESCENS (Schousboe) Bornet 1889, 8, pl. 1, @. 1. De Toni £895,

536, Borgesen 1920, 431, f. 408, 409. -—- BH. Mid littoral, east side, Jan,

149

1948. PB. Rear littoral, summer {Nov.-April). CH’. In a rock pool, south

side, August 1948. HZ. In rock pools, Jan. 1944. RP. Low littoral, Jan,

1948.

SPHACELARIALES — SPHACELARIACEAE

SPHACELARIA Reinke

SPHACELARIA BIRADIATA Askenasy 1894, 15, pl. 2, £. 12. De Toni 1895, 507,

Sauvageau 1914, 163-166, — SB. Drift, Jan. 1946, MR. Epiphytic on Sar-

gassum, drift, Jan, 1946, VB. On Cyslophora subfarcinata and Cystophyllum

muricatum in littoral pools, south side of Elen Point, Dec. 1945, Jan. 1946,

PB. On stems of Cystophora weifera and Cystophyllum muricatum, littoral

on reefs, Nov, to Feb. (? all seasons).

SPHACELARIA FURCIGERA Kiitzing 1855, 27, t. 90, De Toni 1895, 506. Sauya-

geau 1914, 145-156, Taylor 1937, 129. — PB. On Cystophora uvifera and

Cystophyllum muricatum, littoral, on reefs, all seasons,

SPHACELARIA PYGMAEA Lenermund in Sauvageau 1914, 29-31. — CC. On Carpo-

glossum. confluens, driit, Jan. 1948.

SPIACELARIA TRIBULOTDES Meneghini. Kiitzing 1855, t. 89, £. 2, De Toni 1895,

502. Sauvageau 1914, 123-130. — PB. On Myriodesma latifolia var. duriuscula

in littoral pools, south side of Ellen Point, Dec, 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948.

Also in shaded part of pool 1, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. PB. In mid

httoral pools of western terraced reef, Jan, 1946.

STYPACAULACEAE

HALOPTERIS Kiitzing

HALOPTERIS. FUNICULARIS Sauvageau 1914, 402-403. Dickinson 1933, 255, £. 2

(for ball forms). Sphacelaria muelleri Sonder 1853, 507. — WB. Drift,

Jan, 1946, IB, Drift, Jan. 1949,

MALOPTERIS PSEUDOSPICATA Sauvageau 1914, 411. — BH. Upper sublittoral,

east side, Oct. 1947, Dec. 1948. SB, Drift, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan.

1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948,

1949. PB. In pools on reefs, upper sublittoral, all seasons, CH’, Drift,

Jan. 1946, AR. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1947,

HALOPTERIS HORDACEA (Harvey) Sauvageau 1914, 416-433. — CH’. Driit.

Jan. 1946. A single sexual plant_

IlaLovreris spicicera (Areschoug) Moore in Reports of the 7th Pacific Science

Congress, 1950, Sphacelaria spicigera Areschoug 1854, 365, Sauvagean

1914, 418-420. — BH. Upper sublittoral, cast side, Oct. 1947, PR. In a

low littoral pool, just west of main reef, Dec: 1948, Jan. 1949 (fertile).

CH’. Drift, Jan. 1946,

PHLOEOCAULON Geyler

PHLOECAULON SPECTABILE Reinke 1890, 213. De oni 1895, 520. Sauvageau

1914, 457-463, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946.

W’B. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1947, 1948.

Also in pools of sublittoral fringe, main reef, Nov. 1947, Jan. 1948.

CLANOSTEPHACEAE

CLADOSTEPHUS Agardh

CLADOSTEPHUS VERTICILLATUS (Lightfoot) Agardh. De Toni 1895, 513, Lucas

150

1936, 105. Taylor 1937, 135, pl. 17, £. 9-11. — In the upper sublittoral

zone within the Rocky Coast Formation, in well washed bit not extremely

rough places (often saridy), all seasons. Common at KP, K, EB, MR, PB,

CW, HB.

CUTLERIALES — Cwurreériacean

CUTLERTA Greville

CuTLeria MuLtirma Greville. Kiitzing 1859, t. 45, £. 1. De Toni 1895, 302.

Newton 1931, 197, f. 125. — AR, Sublittoral, on edge of channel,

especially near Muston, Nov, 1947, Aug, 1948. On cockle hank near

Strawbridge Point, Jan. 1949, RP. Drift on beach, Aug. 1948. This is

mainly a late winter form, rarely seen in January. The thallus is mostly

2-3 mim, wide,

DICTYOTALES — Diucrvoracear

DicTYOTEAE

DICTYOTA Lamouronx

DicryoTa APIcULATA J. Agardh 1894a, 67, De Toni 1895, 262. D. dichotoime

Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs., 1, 70 in part, — BH, Very low littoral, Dec. 1948.

VB. Shaded part of the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Poimt, Jan.

1949,

The terminal segments of 72), apiculata are acute, not obtuse as in

D. dichatoma, The VB specimens agree well with specimens of D. apiculata

in Melbourne National Herbarium; the BH specimens are very similar but

show a slight tendency for the tetrasporangia to become aggregated into sori.

DictyoTa Birurca J. Agardh 1894a, 79, De Toni 1895, 279. — KP. Upper

sublittoral, Jan. 1947, 1948, HH, Upper sublittoral, east side, Jan. 1947.

These specimens agree well with Wilson’s (catypes?). in Melbourne National

Herbarium.

Dictyors vicnotomA (Huds.) Lamouroux, Harvey 1871, pl. 103, f. 1. J,

Agaaah 1 1882, 92; 1894a, 67, Newlon 1931, 212, f. 134° Lucas 1936, 91,

f. 31 BE, Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, CC, Sublittoral fringe and

lower littoral in the sheltered inlet. Jan. 1948. CH’. Lower littoral, south

side, Jan, 1946,

var. intricata (Agardh) Greville. Harvey 1871, pl. 103, 1.2. Papenfuss

1944, 338, — AR. Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral throughout the

inlet, ali seasons. PB. In sandy pool, main reef, fan, 1945. Although this

is a common alga in American River inlet, no fertile plants have yet been

collected, It agrees very well, however, with Harvey’s figure and specimens

from Europe,

Dictryora pirmENnsiIs Sonder in Kutzing 1859, 14, t. 34. De Toni 1895, 266,

J. Agardh 1882, 97; 1894a, 69. D. naevose, Harvey 1862, pl. 186. —

BH, Drift, Dec, 1948. WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, In shaded part of the

large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Driit,

Jan. 1948.

These specimens agree well with the figures of Kutzing and Harvey,

although the fronds ate narrower. A few specimens have ill-defined sori,

DicryvotTa PURCELLATA Apardh. J. Agardh 1848, 90; 1&94a, 80. De Toni 1895,

280. Not D, furcellata Harvey, — KP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948.

BH, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. This species is regularly dichotomous,

in contrast to the more lateral branching of Pachydictyon furcellatum

(D. furcellata. of Harvey). Older parts of the thallus are typically Dict'eta

in section, Our specimens agree well with some in Melbourne National

Herbarium.

Dicryora Latiravsa J. Agardh [8%4a, 65. De Toni 1895, 261. Lucas 1936, 90.

— WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1B. Drift, Jan. 146,

1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948,

An extensive range of specimens, undoubtedly belonging to the one

species, has been examined, and they shaw considerable variation in charac-

ters which are accepted as being of getieric significance in the Dictyotaceae.

The thallus width ranges from 1 to 5 cm., the number of dichotomies.

from L io 4 or 5. The small surface proliferations densely cover well

developed fronds, but the upper parts and older fronds are often largely or

almost completely denuded. The transverse section of the thallus in most

specunens js that of Dictyota, Old parts of A3299{, however, show two

rows of internal cells, though only one in younger parts (c.f., Dilophus). The

tetrasporangia and sexual sori in most specimens are scattered over the

thallus but not on the proliferations. Some specimens (¢.g., A3299d) show

spofangia on both thallus and proliferations, while in others (A3299q

and [) they are only on the proliferations (c.f. Glossophora). Similar varia-

tions have been observed in specimens of this species in Melbourne National

Herbarium. Kutzing (1859, 6, t. 12, f. 1) described a Dictyota latifolia

from the Atlantic which has been relegated to a synonym of D. dichotome

(see De Toni). As J. Agardh’s D. latifolia was described in 189+, his name

is invalid, and if the species is to be maintained it must be renamed,

J. Agardh 1882, 94, described D. nfgricans, which differs from J. loti-

folia J. Ag. mainly in degree of branching, Specimens of these two species

in Melbourne National Ierbarium (some were probably named by J.

Agardh) are very doubtiully distinct. he degree of branching is variable,

and specimens under both names show the variation in cellular structure

described above. If the two species are to be combined, D. niyricans has

priority and appears to be a valid name. In showing very few dichotamies,

the Kangaroo Island specimens are of the D. latifolia form,

Until the type specinyens of D, latifulia J. Ag. and D_ nigricans J, Ag.

can be re-examined, in light of the above remarks, it seems best to leave the

position as it is, rather than renaming PD. latifolia J, Age. and adding a name

to the literature which may have to be relegated to the synonym of

D, nigricaas later,

Dicryora kapicans Harvey 1854, 536; 1859, pl. 110. [Kutzing 1859, t. 36, 1, 2.

J. Agardh 1882, 92; 1894a, 74. De Tom 1895, 273. Lucas 1936, 91. —

WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. FB, Drift, Jan, 1949, PAR, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948.

PACHYDICTYON J. Agardh

Pacnyuictyon rurcenLAtuM (Harvey) J. Agardh 1894a, 83. De Toni 1895,

282. Dictyota furcellata, Warvey 1858, pl. 38 (not D, furcellata Ay.). —

EB. Upper sublittoral, on Posidonia, Jan. 1945, 1946, AB. Drift, Jan, 1945,

Harvey, in describing OD. furcellata, recognised that some specimens show

characters intermediate between this species and P. pavticululuin, The main

distinction lies in the wider and more robust frond of P. paniculutwon, Most

specimens are quite distinct, but some intermediate forms are very difficult to

place. Ilarvey doubted whether his plant was distinct from Dictyota minus

Sender, but from specimens of Sounder’s in Melbourne National [erbarine

PD, minus js probably identical wilh PL pantexlalinan,

152

In his description Harvey referred to, and figured, “spores” which he

thought might be antheridia. A specimen of Harvey’s No. 67B in Melbourne

National Herbarium shows the structures figured by Harvey. They are not

reproductive organs but intracellular thickenings. Fig. 1 shows their charac-

teristic form. I have observed similar thickenings m occasional specimens

of Dictyota dichotoma and Dilophus fastigiatus also.

Fig. 1

Intracellular inclusions in some Dictyotaceae, as seen lying in. the medullary cells

(cortical cells not shown). A, In Harvey's specimen of Pachydictyon furcellatum.

B. Ina specimen of Dictyota dichatoma, C and D. Two typical inclusions,

PAcHYDICTON PANICULATUM J. Agardh 18944, 84. De Toni 1895, 283. De Toni

and Forti, 1923, 73, pl. 8, f. 8. Levring 1946, 218, f. 3. — BH. Upper

sublittoral, Jan, 1948, 1949. AB. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1945. WR, Drift,

Jan, 1946, HB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. CC, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948,

VB. In the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and drift, probably

all year. PB. Poois of sublittoral fringe, all seasons. CH’. In rock pools,

Aug. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947.

RP. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948. Probably present in all seasons in the

upper sublittoral and low rock pools within the Rocky Shore Formation.

DILOPHUS J, Agardh

Dinroruus Fastictatus (Sonder) J. Agardh 1882, 107; 18944, 92. De Toni

1895, 288. Dictyota fastigiate Sonder 1846, 155. Harvey 1859, pl. 82. —

MR, WR, and WB, all drift, Jan, 1946, CH’. In a rock pool, south side,

Jan, 1948,

DitopHus Fotiosus J. Agardh 1894a, 94. De Toni 1895, 290, — BH. Driit,

Dec, 1948. MR. Driit, Jan. 1946. — J. Agardh placed D. faliosus in the

section Marginatae, with two ruws of internal cells in the median part and

four at the edges, The BH specimens show one row of internal cells and

two at the edges in ihe youngest parts, with the number of rows increasing

in older parts to four rows all through, the margin being very slightly if at

all thicker, In the presence of small proliferations, general form and posi-

tion of sori they closely resemble some af Wilson's specimens of D. foltosys

in Melbourne National Herbarium, Wilson’s specimens also vary in number

of rows of internal cells.

153

DICTYOPTERIS Lamovroux

DicTYOPTERTS NIGRICANS Womersley 1949, 115, f. 8, pl. 22, £. 2. — WB. Driit,

Jan 1946, 1B. In pools on reefs in the bay, Jan. 1948, drift, Jan, 1948, 1949.

PB, In pools of the sublittoral fringe and calmer parts of the reefs, all

seasons. (Previously reported in Pt. II as D. aerostichoides?)

Dicryvorrerig “MUELLERr (Sonder) Schmidt 1938, 218. Haliseris muelleri

Sonder 1852, 665. Harvey 1860a, pl. 180. De Toni 1895, 255. Lucas 1936,

89, f. 49a, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, VA. In shaded parts. of large littoral

pool south side of Ellen Point, jan. 1949. PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948,

AB, Drift, Aug. 1948,

LOBOSPIRA. Areschoug

Lopospira BicusrpipaTa Areschoug 1854, 364, Harvey 1858, pl. 34. De Tom

1895, 292. J. Agardh 1894a, 98. Lucas 1936, 93, — BH. Upper sub-

littoral, Dec, 1948. MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WR, Drilt, Jan, 1946. HR. In

a low rock pool, Jan. 1949. IB. Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946. WB. In large

littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1947, 1949; drift, Jan, 1949.

PB. Pools of sublittoral fringe and drift, all seasons. CH’. Drift, Jan. 1946.

ZONARIEAE

CHLANIDOPHORA J. Agardh

CHLANIDOPHORA MICROPHYLLA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1894a, 18, t. 1, f. 3-5. De

Tom 1895, 238. Lucas 1936, 87. Levring 1940, 2. Zanaria microphylla

Harvey 1862, pl. 195, — WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949,

PB, Drift, Jan. 1949.

POCOCKIELLA Papenfuss

PecocKIELLa VARIEGATA (Lamouroux) Papenfuss 1943, 467, f. 1-14. Gyinno-

sorus variegatus (Lamour). J. Agardh 18944, 11, pl. 1, f. 1-2. De Toni

1895, 227, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB, Shaded end of pool 1, south side

of Ellen Point, Jan. 1947. PAR, In pools of sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan.

1947, 1948 (as Gymnosorus in Pr. IL). RP. Drift, Jan, 1944, June 1947.

TAONIA J. Agardh

TAONIA AUSTRALASICA J. Agatdh 1894a, 30, De Toni 1895, 242, Lucas 1936, 87, —

BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, and drift, Dec. 1948. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948.

These specimens agree very well with Agardh's description, and certainly

belong to Taonia, In Melbourne National Herbarium there are no specimens

of Wilson’s under this name, but some labelled Vaonle atomaria which are

identical with the Kangaroo Tslaiid specimens. These are probably atithentic

specimens of T. australasica, and had been originally referred to by Agardh

to T. atomaria, T. anstralasica resembles T, atomaria in form, but is a mucli

smaller plant (4-8 cm. high).

Spatoglossiim australasicum Kitzme 1859, t, 48, which J. Agardh doubt-

fully refers to his T. avstralasica, is a quite distinct plant. Cotype (and

probably type) specimens are in the Melbourne National Herbarium.

ZONARIA Agardh

ZONAWA CRENATA J. Agardh 1872, 48; 1894a, 13. De Toni 1895, 230. Lucas

1936, 86. — MR. Drift. Jan. 1948. YB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, May

1945, Jan. 1947, 1948, CH’. Drift, Jan. 1947. 4B, Drift, Aug. 1948.

ZONARIA DIESINGIANA J, Agardh 1848, 109; 1872, 46; 1894a, 13. De Toni 1895,

229, Lucas 1936, 86. Levring 1946, 216, f. 1. — SB, In littoral pools,

Jan. 1948. PB. In pools of sublittoral fringe, main reef, Dec. 1948, The

SB specimens show concentric zones of long hairs on one suriace. Germinat-

ing spores had apparently become entangled in the hairs, forming numerous

young plants which appeared like proliferations.

ZONARIA SPIRALIS (J, Agardh) Papeniuss 1944, 341. Homoeostrichus spiralis

J. Agardh 1894b, 89. De Toni 1895, 237, Lucas 1936, 86. — MM, Drilt,

Jan. 1948. Rock pools, Jan. 1946. HAR. In rock pools, Jan. 1949. V8. Drift,

Jan. 1948, 1949; sublittoral fringe in bay, Jan. 1947. PB, In pools of sub-

littoral fringe on reefs, and drift, all seasons, CH’. J.ower littoral, east side,

Jan, 1946,

I am in full agreement with Papenfuss im not recognising Hoimoeo-

strichus as distinct from Zonaria, The “twinning” of cortical cells in both

Z spiralis and Z. stuposa is very variable, Most specimens of Z. spiralis

are readily distinguished from 2. subarticulata, but intermediate specimens

with only slight spirality of the upper parts of the thallus occur, and are

difficult to place,

Zonaria sturosa R, Brown in Kiitzing 1849, 564. J. Agardh 1872, 50. Homovo-

strichus stuposus (R. Br.) J. Agardh 1894a, 15. De Toni 1895, 236. Lucas

1936, 86, — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift,

Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 (as Homeocosirichus m Pt. UU, 161).

ZONARIA SUBARTICULATA (Lamiouroux) Papenfuss 1944, 339. Z. turneriana

J. Agardh 1872, 48; 1894a, 14. De Toni 1895, 232. Lucas 1936, 86.

Z. itervrupla, Harvey 1862, pl, 190. — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948; lower

rock pools, Jan. 1946. 1B, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949; sublittoral fringe on reefs

in bay, Jan. 1947. PB. Drift, May 1945, and sublittoral fringe on reefs, all

seasons, AB, Drift,Jan. 1948, Aug. 1948; low littoral, Jan, 1945, 1947, 1948.

Very variable in size, and usually stunted when in the sublittoral fringe.

This was reported in Pt. I as Z. turneriana,

HETEROGENERATE — CHORDARIALES — MvyrronemataceAr

MYRIONEMA Greville

MyxItONEMA STRANGULANS Greville. Kiitzing 1857, t, 93, f. 1. De Toni 1895,

399, De Toni and Forti 1923, 78. Setchell and Gardner 1925, 471, pl. 40,

f, 51. Smith 1944, 106, pl. 15, f. 5. MM. leclancheri, Harvey 1863, Syn,

No, 134, — AR. Epiphytic on Ulva lactuea, upper sublittoral on Shag Rock

in Pelican Lagoon, July 1947. Harvey recorded this species as M, leclancher)

from Georgetown, Tasmania, De Toni and Forti also refer Haryey’s speci-

mens to M, strangulans,

CorYNOPHLAEACRAE

CORYNOPHLAEA kiitzing

CoRYNOPHLAEA CYSTOPHORAE J, Agardh 1882, 22, +. 1, f. 1. De Toni 1895, 421.

Lucas 1936, 102. — WR. On Cystophora spartioides in the upper sublittoral,

Jan, 1946. CC. On Cystophera intermedia in sublittoral fringe, Jan, 1945,

PB. On Cystophora intermedia Jan. 1945, 1947, 1948 and Cyst, siliquosa,

Noy, 1947, in sublittoral fringe. Often very dense on these species ot

Cystophora where aeration is mgh. Kuckuck (1929, 40) refers this species

to Myriactis as M. eystophorae (J, Ag.) Kuckuck,

155

CHORDARIACEAE

CLADOSIPHON Kiutzing

CiaposiptHon FiLum (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 29. Mesogloia filwm Harvey 1854,

536. Bactrophora filum (Harv.) J. Agardh 1882, 24, t. 1, f.4. De Toni

1895, 409. — MR. Low littoral, west side, Jan. 1947. VB, Littoral on

reefs in bay, Jan. 1947. PB, Littoral on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Nov.

1947. AB. Littoral pools, Jan. 1945,

The thallus is usually simple or sub-simple, with a few branches from

a common base. Some MR specimens show numerous lateral “prolifera-

tions”, but all grades to the simple forms occur in the same area.

CLAposIPHON yERMICULARIS (J. Agardh) Kylin 1940, 30, t. 5, £.12, Bactrophora

vermicularis J, Agatdh 1882, 25. De Yoni 1895, 409. — MR. Driit, Jan.

1946. CC. Mid littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Pools on main reef, Jan., Dec. 1947,

MYRIOGLOIA Kuckuck

Myxrociora scturus (Harvey) Kuckuck 1929, 63, £. 81. Kylin 1940, 12, f. 8A.

Myriocladia -sciurus Harvey 1858, pl. 58. J, Agardh 1882, 19, — WB.

Littoral on a small reef near beach, Jan, 1946,

POLYCEREA J. Agardh

PoLYCEREA NIGRESCENS (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 36, f. 20 A-B, t. 7, f£. 16, Clado-

siphon nigrescens Harvey, Aig. Aus, exs. n, 94, Kiitzing 1859, t. 1. Kucktick

1929, 58, {. 73, 74. Cladosiphon nigricans Harvey 1860b, 292. Polycerea

ramulosa J. Agardh 1882, 48, t. 3, f. 3. — AR, Upper sublittoral on cockle

bank, Jan. 1946, BH. Drift, Jan. 1948. ZEB. Drift, Jan, 1946. WR. Drift,

Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, and upper sublittoral in the bay,

Jan, 1946. PB, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948.

PonycerEa zosTeRIcoLaA (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 37, t. 7, f. 17. Cladosiphon

gostericola. Harvey 1863, Syn No. 130. Kiitzing 1859, t. 1. J. Agardh 1882,

43. Kuckuck 1929, 58, f. 75, —- MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan.

1949. AB. Drift, Jan. 1948,

These two species of Polycerea are yery similar in habit, and both grow

on Posidonia in similar localities. The figures of Kuckuck illustrate well the

differences hetween them, P. nig’escens having large inflated terminal cells

on the assimilatory filaments, while P. sostericola has not. J. Agardh’s

figure (1882, t. IL, f. 3a) of P. zostericola is incorrect in this respect.

TINOCLADIA Kylin

TinocLabDIA austratis (Harvey) Kylin 1940, 34, t. 6, £. 14. Liebmannia

australis Harvey 1860b, 291. Alg. Aus. exs., Nr. 88. Eudesme australis

J. Agardh 1882, 32. — V'B, Dritt, Jan. 1948.

SPERMATOCH NACEAE

STILOPSIS Kuckuck

Stitopsis HARVEYANA Kylin 1940, 50, t. 8, f. 22. Stiluphora lyngbyei Harvey

Alg. Aus. exs. Nr. 65; 1863, Syn n. 118 — AR, Upper sublittoral in Pelican

Lagoon, May 1945, Nov, 1947.

SPLACH NIDIACEAF

SPLACHNIDIUM Greville

SPLACHNIDIUM RUGOSUM (Linn.) Greville, Harvey 1858, pl. 14. Kiitzing 1860,

t. 8 Lucas 1936, 83. Kylin 1940, 55. — CC Mid littoral, Jan, 1945,

156

VB. Upper littoral, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. Upper littoral,

Jan, 1944 (very rare). CH. Upper littoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 (common,

on granite rack).

SPOROCHNALES — SprorocHnackar

SPOROCHNUS Agardh :

SPoROCcHNUS HARVEyANUS J. Agardh 1896, 32. Sporochnus comosus, Harvey

1859, pl. 104 (not C. Agardh), — MR. Drift. Jan, 1946. WB. Drift,

Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, Jan, 1947, Aug. 1948 (as Sp. comosus in Pt. I,

161). Examination of a range of specimens may show Sp. harveyanus is not

distinct from Sp. comosus C, Agardh,

SPOROCHNUS RavicirorMis (R. Brown) Agardh, Harvey 1862, pl. 225. De

Toni 1895, 382. Lucas 1936, 100. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, FB. Shaded

part of large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1949.

SPOROCHNUS ScopaRIUsS Harvey 1854, 535; 1862, pl. 226. De Toni 1895, 383.

Lucas 1936, 100. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1946. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949,

PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947. CW. Drift, Jan. 1946.

Sporachnus radiciformis and Sp. scoparius may well be forms of one

species, Sp. scoparius is a more robust plant, usually with a prominent main

stem; Sp. radictformis is less robust, usually with several slender stems from

near the base. Harvey separated them on robustness, angle of branching

(wider in Sp. radiciformis) and form of receptacles. The slight differences

in these features are of doubtful specific distinction, depending on the age

of the plant, state of development of receptacles, and habitat,

Kuitzing’s species Sp. sphaerocephalus, Sp. abovatus and Sp. crypto~

cephalus belong to the radiciformis-scoparius complex, and are doubttiuily

distinct species.

ENCYOTHALIA Harvey

ENcYOTHALIA cLirtont Harvey 1859, pi. 62. De Toni 1895, 379, Lucas 1936,

99, #.55. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947,

BELLOTIA Harvey

BELLOTIA ERIOFHORUM Harvey 1859, pl. 69; 1860b, 288, t. 187, f. 1-3. De Toni

1895, 377. Lucas 1936, 97, £. 54. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WR. Drift,

Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948, 1949,

PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949,

PERITHALIA J. Agardh

PERITHALIA INERMIS (R, Brown) J. Agardh 1890, 4. De Toni 1895, 378. Lucas

1936, 100, Carpomitra tnermis, Harvey 1862, pl. 238. — MR. Drift, Jan-

1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan. 1947, VB. Drift, May 1945,

Jan, 1946, 1949, PRB. Two to three feet over edge of main reef (and pro-

bably deeper), all seasons.

NEREIA Zanardini

NEREIA AUSTRALIS Harvey 1860b, 289, pl. 187. Stilophora ? australis Harvey

1844, 453; Alg. Aus. exs., n. 66. J. Agardh 1848, 86. — IB. Drift, Jan,

1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948,

CARPOMITRA Kiitzing

CARPOMITRA COSTATA Batters. Newton 1931, 137, £. 84. C. cabrerae Kiutzing

1849, 569; 1859, t. 89, f. 1. Harvey 1871, pl. 14. — CW’. Drift, Jan. 1946.

154

DICTYOSIPHONALES — PuNCTARIACEAE

ASPEROCOCCUS, Lamouroux

ASPEROCOCCUS. BULLoSuS Lamouroux. De Toni 1895, 493. Newton 1931, 172,

f. 107. Lucas 1936, 104. Kylin 1947, 75, t. 11, £. 38. A. turnert, Harvey

1871, pl. 11; 1863, Syn. n. 119. — .AR, In the upper sublittoral throughout

the inlet, usually epiphytic on Posidonia, all seasons. In summer the plants

are 2-5 em. high, increasing in size in late winter (Aug-Nov.) to up ta

60 cm. high and 10 cm. wide, and then becoming very common in the

Posidonia beds. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. -4B, Drift, Jan. 1948.

COLPOMENIA Derbes and Soher

Cotromenta stnuosa (Roth) Derbes and Solier. De Toni 1895, 489, Setchell

and Gardner 1925, 539, pl, 45, f. 82-86. Lucas 1936, 103, Smith 1944, 128,

pl. 20, f. 1. A. sinuasus, Harvey 1863, Syn. N. 120. — AR, Upper sub-

littoral in the lagoons, mainly winter (Aug.-Nov.), with small plants on the

buoys most of the year. EB, Lower littoral on rocks, Jan. 1945. MR, Lower

littoral, Jan. 1947, WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. In the sublittoral fringe and

littoral on reefs, Jan,, Aug. 1948,

HYDROCLATHRUS Bory

HyprocLaTHkus CLATHRATUS Bory. Setchell and Gardner 1925, 543, HW. can-

cellatus, Harvey 1859, pl. 98, De Toni 1895, 490. Lucas 1936, 103, —

AR. On red buoy, Dec. 1948. EB. Drift, Jan. 1946, MR. Drift, Jan. 1946,

AB, Drift, Jan. 1948.

SCYTOSIPHON Agardh

ScyTOsSIFHON LOMENTARIA (Lyngbye) J. Agardh. De Tonj 1895, 485, Setchell

and Gardner 1925, 531, pl. 44, f. 72, 74. Newton 1931, 178, f. 111. Tucas

1936, 103. Smith 1944, 129, pl. 19, f.1. — AR. On Posidonia, upper sub-

littoral, and on the buwys, winter (July-Nov.). M2. In rock pools, Jan. 1946.

PB, In pools and on rock in rear littoral, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Sept. 1946,

Nov, 1947.

LAMINARIALES — LrssonrAcEAk

MACROCYSTIS Agardh

Macrocyst1s pyrirera (Linn.) Agardh. De Tom 1895, 372. ‘Setchell and

Gardner 1925, 627, pl. 64, 65, Lucas 1936, 95, f, 53. Smith 1944, 144,

pl. 31, f. 3-4. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1944. Several fragments which may have

drifted from sonie distance away. No beds exist along the coast as far as

is known,

ALARTACEAE

ECKLONITA Eorneman

Ecxionra xramiata (Agardh) J. Agardh, De Toni 1895, 354. Lucas 1936, 95,

f, 52. Papenfuss 1944, 341. — MR. Upper sublittoral. CC. Sublittoral

fringe in sheltered inlet and more exposed parts. Sou'-West River mouth,

Dec, 1934 (Cleland and Black). VB. Drift. PB. In the sublittoral fringe

on reefs, occasional. CH’, Upper sublittoral, east side, occasional. RP.

Upper sublittoral, common, Present in all scasoms in all localities.

Papenfuss (1940, 210) considers that £. biruncinala (Bory) Pap,

(E. exasperata (Turner) J. Agardh) and £, richardiana J, Ag. are specifically

distinct from E, radiata, being separated on form and presence of marginal

and surface spines. Degree of spininess and furm are, however, both very

variable features, depending on habitat, and in South Australia all the ahove

species must be combined. At Cape Coudie, in a small inlet (50 metres long

158

by 5-10 metres wide), relatively sheltered at the inner end and exposed at

the outside, gradations in spininess and form are found, Sheltered plants

are simple, consisting of a main elongate lamina with small marginal out-

growths, but no spines. In tougher parts a few marginal spines appear, and

in the rough condtiions at the end of the channel spines densely cover the

surface and edges, the plants being dense and stout,

These variations can only be regarded as ecological formis of the one

species, and in view of the gradations between them it seems useless to give

them even varietal names, Stephenson (1948, 284) has come to a similar

belief concerning the South African forms of this species. I suspect that

E, lanctloba. Sonder is only another form of E, radiata.

CYCLOSPORAE — FUCALES — Nors#eracrar

HORMOSIRA Endlicher

Hormosira BANKS (Turner) Decaisne. Harvey 1860a, pl, 135. De Toni 1895,

187. Lucas 1936, 80. Osborn 1948, 47-71. — AR. Lower littoral through-

out the inlet. BH. Lower littoral MR and WR. Low rock pools. VB.

Lower littoral on reefs in bay. PB. Lower littoral on reefs. RP. Lower

littoral. Present in all seasons and likely to be found anywhere around the

island except in very rough places on steep rock. H. banksii shows a variety

of ecological forms. On the whole each form is characteristic of a particular

habitat, but gradations between them occur in intermediate habitats. The

following forms occur around Kangaroo Island.

f. Jabillardieri (Bory) Harvey. American River Inlet,

f. sieberi (Bory) Harvey, Pools and reefs on north-west and south

coasts.

f. pumila Sonder (in Kitzing 1860, t. 4, f. 2). Rocky Point and Ballast

Head,

NOTHEIA Bailey and Harvey

NOTHEIA ANOMALA Bailey and Harvey. Harvey 1862, pl. 213. De Toni 1895,

224, Lucas 1936, 82, f. 48. — FB.On Hormosira banksii on reefs in bay.

PB. On H_ banksti on reefs. All seasons. Notheia is usually parasitic on

Hormosira banksii, but has only been found on f. sieberi on reefs on the south

coast, where wave action is strong.

IUCACEAE

MYRIODESMA Decaisne

MyRIopesMA INTEGRIPOLIA Harvey 1860b, 286, pl. 186. J. Agardh 1890, 6;

1894b, 92, De Toni 1895, 191. Lucas 1936, 79, f. 47. — IB, Drift, Jan

1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948,

MyriopesMA LATIFoLIA Harvey var. purruscuta J. Agardh. Tlarvey 1858,

pl. 24 (for species). J, Agardh 1894b, 92, De Toni 1895, 192. —

CC. Drift, Jan, 1948. VB. In shaded parts of large rock pools, south side

of Ellen Point, Jan, 1945, 1949,

Myriopesma QuERcIFOLIUM (Bory) J. Agardh 1848, 192; 1890, 7; 1894b, 93.

De Toni 1895, 193. — South'-West River mouth. Drift, Jan, 1945.

VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, 1944, 1946, 1947, Dec. 1948 (as

M, calophylhim in Pt. I, 161). J. Agardh (1894b, 94) described M. calo-

bhyllum from Port Phillip (J. B. Wilson), differing from guercifolium. in

139

having ah entire (not spinous) margin. The Kangaroo Island specimens

are mostly entire, sometimes with one or two small marginal spines, Most

of the specimens in Melbourne National Herbarium under M, quercifalinm

and M. calophyllum are entire, some with a few marginal spines. Without

examining the type material, together with a range of specimens, it is difficult

to judge whether these two species are distinct or not, but I suspect they are

not. M. quercifolium has been recorded generally in the Southern Anstra-

lian region, and the type locality is somewhere in this region. Should

M. calophyllum ptove to be distinct from M, quercifolium, the Kangaroo

Island specimens will probably belong to the former.

SCYTOTHALIA Greville

ScCYTOTHALIA porycarea (Turner) Greville. Harvey 1858, pl. 9. De Toni 1895,

132. Litcas 1936, 69, f. 42, — WR. Drift, Jan, 1946. Sou’-West River

mouth. Drift, Jan, 1945. UB. In shaded part of the large littoral pool,

south side of Ellen Point, Dec. 1945, fan. 1948, and drift, May 1945, Jan.

1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons,

SEIROCOCCUS Greville

Serrococcus AXILLARIS (Turner) Greville. Harvey 1858, pl. 4. De Toni 1895,

131. Lucas 1936, 68, f. 41. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan.

1946, 1948, June 1947. CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946,

XIPHOPHORA Montagne

XIPHOPHORA CHONDROPHYLLA (R, Brown) Montagne var. mixus J, Agardh.

De Toni 1895, 213. Heine 1932, 558, pl. 17, f. 2, 3. Lucas 1936, 81. —

MR, WR, CW and AB. Growing in patches in the upper sublittoral, pro-

bably all seasons. PB, Small patches in the Cystophora-coralline association

on the main reef, all seasons.

This species was at first confused with Acretylus qustralis (see correction

in Pt. IL). It grows to 8 or 12 em, high, and has rarely been found fertile,

Kangaroo Island is probably the extreme west of the geographic range of

var. mins,

CYSTOSEIRACEAE

CARPOGLOSSUM RButzing

CakpoctossumM coNFLUENS (R. Brown) Kiitzing. Harvey 1860a, pl. 159, De

Toni 1895, 182. Lucas 1936, 78, £. 46. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946. WB.

Drift, fan, 1946. VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, Jan,

1944, May 1945, Jan. 1948. Only found in the sublittoral.

CYSTOPHORA J, Agardh

Some authors have used the generic natne Blossevillea Decaisne, Cystophora

J. Agardh appears in the “Nomina Generica conservanda proposita’” of the

1935 edition of the International Rules, and it is to be hoped this well-known

name will be adopted at the next Botanical Congress.

Cystopiora Borryocystis Sonder 1852, 670, Harvey 1858, pl. 56. De Toni

1895, 144. Lucas 1936, 72. — RP. Drift on beach near AR inlet, Jan.

1944, May 1945, June 1947, Aug. 1948 (probably growing in several meters

in Eastern Cove). £8. Drift, Jan, 1946.

CysropHorA BRowNu (Turner) J. Agardh. Tlarvey 18604, pl. 169. De

Toni 1895, 146, Lucas 1936, 73. — MR. In littoral pools and upper

sublittoral, Jan. 1946, 1948. IB. In large littoral pool, south side of Ellen

160

Point, all seasons, PB. In littoral pools on a reef, Jan. 1947, and drift,

June 1947

CYSTOPHORA CEPHALORNITHOS (Labilladiere) J. Agardh, Harvey 1859, pl. 116,

De Toni 1895, 138. Lucas 1936, 70. — AR. Upper sublittoral at head of

lagoons, Jan. 1948 (probably all seasons), and drift near American River

Jetty, June 1947. Not common, K.. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945.

CystopHora pumosa (Greville) J. Agardh 1870, 444. De Toni 1895, 142.

Blossevillea dumosa, Kiitzing 1860, t. 73, f£. 1, — WB. Drift, May 1945,

Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, all seasons.

CYSTOPHORA GREVILLEr (Agardh) J. Agardh. Harvey 1862, pi. 183. De Toni

1895, 144. Lucas 1936, 73. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, May

1945, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, April 1947, Dec. 1948. RP. Drift,

June 1947,

CYSTOPHOKA INTERMEDIA J. Agardh 1897, 102, — Im the sublittoral fringe

throughout the Exposed Rocky Coast Formation, all seasons (see Pt, 1),

CysSTOPHORA MONILIFERA J. Agardh 1848, 241. Harvey 1863, pl. 245. De Tont

1895, 146. Lucas 1936, 73. — EB, MR, WR, WB, CC, VB, PB, CW, AB,

all drift from sublittoral, all seasons. Widely distributed in the sublttoral

around the island, Rarely on rock in the channel at AF inlet.

CYsTOrmoRA PANICULATA (Turner) J. Agardh, Harvey 1863, pl. 247. De Toni

1295, 149. Lucas 1936, 74. —- WR, MR, and CC. Drift. FB. Drift and

in the large littoral pool, south side of Elen Point. PB. In the Cystophora-

coralline and sublittoral fringe associations on reefs, and sublittoral. CH’.

Drift. All seasons in all localities,

CYSTOPHORA PECTINATA (Greville and Agardh) J}. Agardh. De Toni 1895, 139.

Lucas 1936, 71. Blosseviliea pectinata, Kiitzing 1860, t. 74, £, 2, — WR,

Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift, May 1945, Jan, 19-46,

1948, Restricted to the sublittoral,

CystorHorA PLATYLoBIUM (Mertens) J. Agardh. De Toni 1895, 138. Lucas

1936, 71. Cystophora lyallit Harvey 1855, 214, pl, 108. — MR. Drift, Jan.

1946, 1948. CC, Drift, Jan, 1948. Sou’-West River mouth, Dec. 1934

(Cleland and Black). VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. PR.

Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, April 1947, Jan. 1948. Cl. Drift, Jan. 1946,

1948. Restricted to sublittoral.

CYsTOPHORA POLYCYSTIDEA Areschoug in J. Agardh 1848, 240. De Toni 1893,

148. Lucas 1936, 74. Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral within the

Sheltered Rocky Coast Subformation, all seasons, Also in very sheltercil

pools at PB and CH’, all seasons,

CysToPHORA RAceMOsA Harvey. Alg. Aus. Exs, n. 5. J. Agardh 1870, 441. Le

Toni 1895, 140. Lucas 1936, 71. Blossevillea racemosa, Kutzing 1860, t. 85,

f, 1. — PB, Drift, Sept. 1946, June 1947.

CYSTOPHORA RETORTA (Mertens) J. Agardh 1848, 243; 1870, 443, De Toni 1895,

141, Lucas 1936, 72. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1948. P#. Drift, May 1945, July

1947, Jan. 1948.

Cystoruora sitrovosa J, Agardh 1870, 445. De Toni 1895, 143. Lucas 1936,

72 — In the upper sublittoral and in low, large littoral pools throughout the

Rocky Shere Formation. Common on reefs on the south coast. All seasons.

161

Cysroprora spArTiomes (Turner) J. Agardh. Harvey 1859, pl, 76, De Toni

1895, 145. Lucas 1936, 73. — EB and MR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946,

VB. In the large littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, and sublittoral im

bay, Jan, 1946, 1947. PB. In pools on the sublittoral fringe, all seasons.

CW. Upper sublittoral, east side, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB, Upper sublittoral,

Jan, 1947,

CyYSTOPHORA SUBFARCINATA (Mertens) J. Agardh 1848, 240. De Toni 1895,

147, Lucas 1936, 74. — Widely distributed in the upper sublittoral and

low littoral pools within the Rocky Coast Formation. Very common on

south coast reefs, All seasons. The north coast form (MR to AB) bears

vesicles.

CystorHorA uvirera (Agardh) J. Agardh. Harvey 1860a, pl. 175, De Toni

1895, 137. Lucas 1936, 70. — South-West River mouth, Dec, 1934

(Cleland and Black), VB, Littoral on reefs in bay, all seasons, PB. Littoral

on reefs and occasionally drift from deeper water, all seasons. The seasonal

variation in vesicle formation at PB has been described previously (Pt. U,

154). AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. This species probably occurs on all the reefs

along the south coast.

CYSTOPHYLLUM J. Agardh

CysropuyLLuM mukICATUM (Turner) J, Agardh 1848, 231. De Toni 1895, 154.

Lucas 1936, 74. — AR. Occasional in the upper stiblittoral, mainly near the

channel edge. K, Drift. EB, WR and MR. Upper sublittoral. PB. Littoral

pool association on reefs. RP. Low littoral, All seasons in all localities,

Widely distributed in the Sheltered Rocky Coast Formation.

SARGASSUM

SARGASSUM BIFORME Sonder. J. Agardh 1889, 75, pl. 23, £. 3. De Toni 1895, 34.

Lucas, 1936, 67. — AX, Sublittoral and upper sublittoral on rock along chan-

nel, occasional, all seasons. Also cast up (from Eastern Cove), May 1945,

Sept 1946,

SARGASSUM BRACTEOLOsuUM J. Agardh 1889, 67, pl. 4, pl. 19, £. 2. De Toni 1895,

28. Lucas 1936, 66. — WR. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946. Sou’-West River

mouth, Dec. 1934 (Cleland and Black) and drift, Jan. 1945. WB. Upper

sublittoral at the end of Ellen Point and in the large littoral pool, south side

of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. DB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947.

PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs and sublittoral, all seasons.

SARGASSUM CRrIsTaTUM J, Agardh 1889, 84, t. 25, f. 5, De Toni 1895, 44. Jucas

1936, ra — EB, Driit, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945, April 1947,

Dec. 1948.

SARGASSUM LACERIFOLIUM (Turner) Agardh. Harvey 1862, pl, 208 J. Agardh

1889, 74, t. 23, =. 2. De Toni 1895, 34. Lucas 1936, 66. — PB. Drift, April

1947, July 1947, Dec. 1948,

SARGASSUM MERRIFIELDIt J. Agardh 1889, 115, pl. 30, f. 4. De Toni 1895, 96.

Lucas 1936, 68. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, Dec. 1948. The species

is somewhat variable in form but agrees well with J. Agardh’s description

and figures,

SARGASSUM MuURICULATUM J. Agardh 1872, 58; 1889, 44, pl. 14, f. 2. De Toni

1895, 10. Lucas 1936, 63. — MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, FB. 1n the large littoral

pool, south side of Ellen Point, Dec. 1945, Jan, 1949_ PB. Littoral on reefs,

162

all seasons, (Seasonal variation described in Pt. II, 155.) CH’, In rock

pools, south side, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug. 1948,

SaRGassuM SONDERI J. Agardh 1889, 44, pl. 14, f. 1-2. De Toni 1895, 10. Lucas

1936, 63. Cystophora sonderi, Harvey 1863, pl, 243. — PB. Drift, May 1945.

SARGASSUM TRICHOPHYLLUM J. Agardh 1889, 52, pl. 17. De Toni 1895, 16.

Lucas 1936, 64, — Ak. Drift (probably from Eastern Cove), June 1947-

PB. Driit, all seasons.

SARGASSUM VARIANS Sonder. J. Agardh 1889, 49, pl. 16, f. 1-8. De Toni 1895,

14. Lucas 1936, 64, — J¢R. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946. PB, Drift May

1945, Sept. 1946, April, July 1947.

SCABERIA Greville

ScABERIA AGARDHII Greville. Harvey 1860a, pl. 164. De Toni 1895, pl. 179.

Lucas 1936, 76. -—— FEB, Upper sublittoral. VB and PB. Drift. ARP. Upper

sublittoral, Common, all seasons. Scaberia rugulosa J. Agardh is only a

slenderer form of this species:

RHODOPHYTA

BANGIOIDEAE — BANGIALES — Banciaceag

BANGIA Lyngbye

Bancia FuscopuRPUREA (Dillwyn) Lyngbye. De Toni 1897, 11, Newton 1931,

238, £.145. Taylor 1937, 218, pl. 28, f. 10-12. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 125.

f_ 4. — AR, On black buoy, Sept. 1946, Jan. 1947. CH’. At the edge of

exposed rock pools, south side, Aug, 1948. This scems to be mainly a winter

form, and has usually disappeated at American River by January.

PORPHYRA C. Agardh

PorPavrA umapriicatis (Iinnaeus) J, Agardh, Newton 1931, 240, £, E46.

Taylor 1937, 221, pl, 30, f. 1-3. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 125, £. 5, 6. Wilde-

mania wubilicalis (L.) De Toni 1897, 20. — AR. Upper littoral on Shag

Rock and Pig Island (probably elsewhere in the lagoons), Sept. 1946, July

and Nov. 1947. — CW. Upper littoral, south side, Aug 1948. This 1s a

winter form, occurring in American River inlet from, June to early Novernber.

FLORIDEAE — NEMALIONALES — AcrocHAETIACEAE

ACROCHAETIUM Naegel:

ACROCHAETIUM BOTRYOCARPUM (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 10. Papenfuss 1945,

313. Callithamnion botryocarpum Ilaryey 1854, 563. — PB. Drift, on

Polyceria nigrescens, Jan. 1948.

BonNEMAISONIACEAE

ASPARAGOPSIS Montagne

ASPARAGOPSIS ARMATA Harvey 1854, 544; 1862, pl, 192. De Toni 1900, 772.

Feldmann 1942, 82, 102, 109, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 244. — BH. Upper

sublittoral, Oct, 1947, WB. Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May

1945, Jan, 1948.

Feldmann has presented evidence, based on culture experiments and

morphology, that Falkenbergia (Rhodomelaceae) is the terasporic phase of

Asparagopsis armata, Falkenbergia has not yet been found around Kangaroo

Island.

163

ASPARAGOPSIS TAXIFORMIS (Delile) Collins and Hervey. Feldmann 1942, 81,

Asparagopsis sanfordiana Harvey 1858, pl, 6. De Toni 1900, 771. — North

coast (no details). This single specimen in the Adelaide University Her-

barium agrees with others from Port Willunga, in Gulf St. Vincent, which

are referable to 4, sanfordiana Harvey, Veldman and others consider this

species identical with A, tariformis, any differences being due to the habitat,

BONNEMAISONIA C. Agardh

GONNEMAISONIA ASPARAGOIDES (Woodward) Agardh var, HyPNomnes Reinbold.

De Toni 1900, 768. Newton 1931, 269, fig. 164. Reinbold 1899, 47 (for

variety). Lautcas and Perrin 1947, 243, — PB. Drift, Aug. 1948. A single

specimen, identical with a colype of Reinbold’s var. hypzoides in Adelaide

University Iferbarium, and which seems to agree closely with figures ol

‘B. asparagoides.

DELISEA Lamotiroux

DeLisea wypNeowes Harvey 1860a, pl. 134. De Toni 1900, 761, Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 241, — SB. Drift, Jan. 1948. IWR, MR and HB, all drift,

Jan, 1946, CC, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948. WB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1948,

1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1947. ‘These specimens are rather denser

than Harvey’s figure, and were reported as 1), elegans in Pt. I, 244,

DELISEA PuLCHRA (Greville) Montagne. Harvey 1858, pl. 16. De Tom 1900,

763. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 241. — WR, Drift, Jan, 1946, WB, Drift

Jan. 1945, 1946. PB, Drift, Jan. 1947.

HELMINTHOCLADIACEAE

LIAGORA Lamotroux

LIAGORA HARVEVYANA Zeh 1913, 270, De Toni 1924, 92. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

134, Liagora viscida, Harvey Alg. Aus. exs. n. 348B; 1863, Syn n,, 477, —

PB, Littoral and sublittoral fringe on reefs, all seasons but variable in

occurrence. CH’. In a rock pool, south side, Jan. 1948.

LIAGORA WILSONIANA Zeh 1913, 269. De Toni 1924, 94, Laicas and Perrin 1947,

134. — PB. Littoral, on sloping rock, Jan, 1948. No authentic specimens

are ayailable for comparison, but the specimens agree very well with Zeh’s

description.

NEMALION Targioni-Tozzetti

NEMALION UukLMiNTHOIDES (Velley) Batters. Cotton 1912, 133. Newton 1931,

256. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 131, f, 7. N. lubricum Duby. Smith 1944, 186,

pl. 41, £. 5. — AR. Mid littoral on a post on Strawbridge Point, Jan. 1949.

BH. Mid and lower littoral, Jan., Dec. 1948. ZR. Mid littoral, Jan. 1946,

1947, 1948. PR. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, rare, Jan. 1947. In form

this species ranges from plants with a few simple branches from a common

base to ones dichotomously or even proliferously branched many times. (see

fig. 2). These latter dichotomous forms are included by most authors under

N. multifidum (Weber and Mohr) J. Agardh, but such a great variation in

degree of branching is found, even in the same situation, that only one species

can be maintained around Kangaroo Island, Some of the forms found in

ane colony at Ballast Head are shown in fig, 2, The Middle River specimens

are usually rather simple, those at Pennington Bay with numerots branches.

Cotton also found difficulty in separating N. Aclininthoides and N. multi-

164

fidium at Clare Island, Ireland, and suggested they may be forms of the one

species. N. helminthoides has priority as a specific name over N. multifidum

if they are to be united.

May 1945, 122, recorded N. multifidum from New South Wales, noting

that there were few branches in her specimens, I have seen plants of

Nemalion at Harbord, N.S.W., which show very simple thalli, which are best

referred to N. helminthoides,

Fig 2

The range of form in Nemalion helminthoides on Kangaroo Island. A. A typical

specimen from the coast at Middle River. B, C, D, F. Specimens from Ballast

Head. The form shown in A also occurs here. E. A specimen from Pennington

Bay. Approx. } natural size.

16S

CHAETANGIACEAE

GLOTOPHLOEA J, Agardh

GLoToPiLora scixarorpes J. Agardh. De Tomi 1897, 107. Setchell 1914a, 112.

Scinaig. furcellata, Warvey 1863, Syn. n. 458; Alg, Aus, Exs. n. 348. —

MR. Drift, Jan, 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Dec, 1948.

GALAXAURA Lamotiroux

GALAXAURA SPATHULATA Kjellman 1900, 74, t, 12, #. 5-12; t. 20, £. 35. De Toni

1924, 132. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, These specimens agree well with Kjell-

man’s description ahd figures of G. spathulata. The Australian species which

Kjellman described need re-examining with abundant material, as Howe

(1918, 191) has shown that tetrasporic and sexttal individuals of the same

species may differ considerably in their anatomy and have been placed in

different groups as distinct species by Kjellman, The Kangaroo Island

specimens are sterile. In Pt. II, 161, they were reported as Brachycladia

mar ginata,

GELIDIALES — GrLiprackar

GELIDIUM Lainouroux

GELIDIUM AUSTRALE J, Agardh 1876, 550. De Toni 1897, 153, Lucas and Perrm

1947, 143. — MA, Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. 1n shaded parts of the large littoral

pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1949 and drift, Jan,

1948, PB, In the sublittoral fringe and to half a meter over edge of the reef,

all seasons.

Gruinium pusttium (Stackhouse) Le Jolis, De Toni 1897, 147. Dawson 1944,

258. Acrorarpus pusillus, Kittzing 1868, t. 37. — AR. Upper littoral in

shaded patts of low cliffs, occasionally in the lower littoral, throughout the

inlet, all seasons. EB. Lower littoral, in a dense mat, all seasons, MR. In

Hormosiva-Cystophora pools (sometimes heavily epiphytic on the mollusc

Neothais textiliosa), Jan. 1946. WB. Littoral on reef near beach, Jan. 1945,

1946. WB. Lower littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and in

pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. P#. Rear littoral, on sloping

and vertical rock, all seasons, CH’, Mid littoral, south side, Jan, 1946. RP-

Lower littoral, all seasons.

Original determination by Miss V. May. This plant shows considerable

ecological variation, At AR and RP it forms dense entangled mats, to

lcm. thick; at PB it forms a thin mat on shaded rock, but when growing

in pools may reach a height of 2 cm., with less branched, rather tufted [ronds.

PTEROCLADIA J. Agardh

Preroctapia caPrtLacea (Gmelin) Bornet and Thuret. De Toni 1897, 162.

Moore 1945, 336, pl. 45, £. 1-4, pl. 46. — BH. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1948.

CC. Lower littoral in sheltered inlet, Jan, 1948, CH’. In a rock pool, south

side, Oct. 1948, RP. Upper subiittural, Jan. 1947,

PrerocLapiA Lucia (R. Brown) J. Agatdh, De Toni 1897, 162. Moore 1945,

338, pl. 45, f. 5-10; pl. 47, 48, 49, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 144, £. 19. —

VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, rare, Jan, 1948.

CH’, Drift, Jan. 1946. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948.

CRYPTONEMIALES — DumMowtTIAcEAr

DASYPHLOEA Montagne

DAsvypHLoEA TASMANTCA Harvey 1859, pl. 115. De Toni 1905, 1,629. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 384, f, 193. Nizsophloeca tasmanica (Uartvey) J. Agardh

1876, 256. — FPR, Drift, Jan. 1948.

166

RHIZOPHYLLIDACEAE

RHODOPELTIS Harvey

RHODOPELTIS AUSTRALIS (Sonder) Schmitz, Harvey 1863, pl. 264, De Toni

1905, 1,671. Amphiroa australis Sonder 1846, 188. Harvey 1859, pl. 77. —

CC, Drift, Jan, 1947,

The position of this algae is uncertamm. Sonder first described it as

Amphiroa australis, and later Harvey (1863, pl. 264) figured the fertile areas

as an epiphyte which he called Rhodopeltis australis. W. van Bosse (1904,

104) fater renamed it Litharthron australis on vegetative features, Yamada

(1931b, 75) has described a second species of Rhodapeltis, with similar fertile

areas (nemathecia) on the thallus segments,

SQUAMARIACEAE

ETHELIA W, v. Bosse

ETHELIA AUSTRALIS (Sonder) W.-v. Bosse. W. v. Bosse 1921, 300. De Toni

1924, 594. Peyssonnelia australis Sonder, Harvey 1859, pl. 81. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 388, f. 196, — WH. Drift, Jan. 1946. Reported in Pt. If,

p. 161, as Peyssonnelia australis.

PEYSSONNELIA Decaisne

PEYSSONNELIA GUNNIANA J, Agardh 1876, 387. De Toni 1905, 1,698. W. v.

Bosse 1921, 272. P, rubra, Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs, n. 327, — AR, Upper

sublittoral near Muston, Jan. 1946, July 1947, Jan, 1948. BH, Upper sub-

littoral, Oct. 1947, PB. In a shaded pool, rear littoral, Jan. 1947.

CORALLINACEAE — CORALLINEAE

AMPHIROA Lamouroux

AMPHIROA ANCEPS (Laimarck) Decaisne. Harvey 1847, 98, pl. 37. De Toni

1905, 1,815. W-. v. Bosse 1904, 93, pl. 16, £. 6-8. — CC. Sublittoral fringe,

Jan. 1948. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll. J, Cork.

CORALLINA Linnaeus

CoRALLINA cUvierr Lamouroux. Harvey 1847, 106, De Toni 1905, 1,848.

Manza 1940, 279. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 399. — AVR, WR, CC and IB.

Lower littoral and drift. PAR, Cystophora-coralline association, sublittoral

fringe and deeper pools. CW and AB, Lower littoral and drift. Present im

all seasons, and common, though often stunted in the lower littoral throtigh-

out the Rocky Shore Formation,

This is a very variable species, especially in the development of slender

lateral ramelli which arise from the main stems. The articulations of the

main stemi are relatively constant in shape and size and provide a good

specific character.

The following forms are included under C. cuvieri by De Toni: Janta

granifera Sonder, Cor. crispata Lamx., Cor, gracilis Lamx.?, J. subulata

Sonder. In addition the following are probably only forms of C. cuvieri:

Jania rosea Dene (Haryey 1847, 105, pl. 40), Cor. calliptera Kiitz, (1838,

t. 72a-b), Cor. plumifera Kiitz (1858, t, 71 ed) and probably Cor. clavigera

Kutz. (1858, t. 75) and Cor. frichocarpa Kiitz. (1858, t. 74) (although Lev-

ring 1946, 221 considers it distinct). Possibly Cor. denudala Sonder in Kiitz,

1858, t. 72, is only another denuded form,

Most Kangaroo Island specimens belong to var. crispata (Lamx.)

Areschoug. ‘This is a short stunted form, due to strong wave action, atid

grades into olher forms im different habitats,

167

CoRALLINA LENORMANDIANA Grunow. De Toni 1905, 1,851. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 400. Corallina ? nana Lenormand, Harvey 1863, Syn. n. 346; Alg.

Aus. exs, n, 452. — VB. On Cystophora subfarcinata in the large littoral

pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946, 1949. PB. On Cystophora dumosa,

drift, Dec, 1948. These specimens ate identical with Harvey’s No. 452 in

Melbourne National Herbarium.

CoRALLINA OFFICINALIS Linnaeus. De Toni 1905, 1,840, Newton 1931, 313.

Taylor 1937, 271, pl. 36, £, 1-5. Manza 1940, 275, — CW’, Ina shaded rock

pool, south side, Aug, 1948,

Corattrna pruirera Lamouroux. Kiitzing 1858, t. 74e-d. De Toni 1905, 1,848.

Manza 1940, 280. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 400. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948.

South Coast. Winter 1939, coll, J. Corl.

JANIA Lamouroux

JANTA FASTIGIATA Harvey 1863, pl. 251. De Toni 1905, 1,854, Lucas and Perrin

1947, 397, f. 201. — WR. Lower littoral, Jan. 1946. /B. Epiphytic on

Cystophora subfarcinata, C, paniculata, occasionally on C. siliguosa and on

rock in the sublittoral fringe and especially in the Cystophora-coralline asso-

ciation, all seasons, CW’. On Cystophora subfarcinata and Cladostephus

werticillatus, upper sublittoral, Jan. 1946, 1947, AB. Low littoral, on Cysto-

phora subfarcinata, Jan. 1947.

JANIA MIcRARTHRODIA Lamouroux, De Toni 1905, 1,855. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 397. J. tenuissima Sonder and J, antennind Kiitzing in Sonder 1846,

186. — AR. Upper sublittoral, on Posidonia, especially near and just out-

side mouth of the inlet, Aug, 1948. &. Drift, Jan. 1948.

Janta NATALENSIS Harvey 1847, 107. Kiitzing 1858, t. 79, LI, De Toni 1905,

1,856. — #P. Lower littoral, Jan. 1948, AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig

Island, occasional, Jan. 1947, Dec. 1948. These specimens agree very well

with Kiitzing’s figures and Harvey’s description.

METAGONIOLITHON W. v. Bosse

METAGONLOLITHON CHAROTDES (Lamoyroux) W. v. Bosse 1904, 102. Manza

1940, 310. Amphirow charoides, Harvey 1847, 96, pl. 39. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 394. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. CC. Drift, Jan, 1947, and lower

littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Sublittoral fringe and deeper pools on reefs, all

seasons. CW’, Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1947. .4B. Upper sublittoral, Jan. 1945,

1947, Aug. 1948,

MeraconiorarH0N GRAcILE (Harvey) Yendo. Manza 1940, 311. Amplirod

gracilis Harvey 1862, pl. 231. De Toni 1905, 1809. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

394, — K. Drift, Jan. 1948.

METAGONIOLITHON STELLIGERA (Lamarck) W. v. Bosse 1904, 103, pl. 15, £, 9, 13.

Manza 1940, 311. Amphiroa stelligera, Harvey 1862, pl, 230. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 394, £. 199. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan, 1947,

1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1948.

‘MASTOPILOREAE

METAMASTOPHORA Setchell

METAMASTOPHORA FLABELLATA (Sonder) Setchell 1943, 131, Mastaphora

flabellata, Harvey 1847, 108. Mastophora lamourouxt, Harvey 1863, Syn. n.

367. Lueas and Perrin 1947, 391, — HB, Drift, Jan. 1946. South Coast.

Winter 1939, coll. J. Cork,

168

LITHOTHAMNIEAE

A number of species of crustaceous corallines have been collected from Kan-

garoo Island, but as no authentic material of this group is available in Australian

Herbaria for comparison, identification of most has not been possible,

LITHOTHAMNION Philippi

LiITHOTHAMNION PATENA (Hooker and Harvey) Heydrich, De Toni 1924, 622.

Melobesia patena, Harvey 1847, 111, pl, 40. — WB. On Bollia callityicha,

drift, Jan. 1946. South Coast. On Ballia callitricha, winter 1939, coll.

J. Cork.

GRATELOUPIACEAE

HALYMENIA C. Agardh

HalyMENIA HARvVEYANA J, Agardh 1892, 55, De Toni 1905, 1,539. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 375, 1, 188. Halymenia floresia, Harvey 1862, pl. 214. — PB,

Drift, Jan, 1948,

THAMNOCLONIUM Kiitzing

THAMNOCLONIUM CLAVIFERUM J, Agardh 1876, 168. De Toni 1905, 1,614.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 381, £, 192, Thamnocloniaim hirsutum Harvey 1863,

pl. 293. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946,

(CCALLYMENTACEAE

CALLOPHYLLIS Kiitzing

CALLOPHYLLIS CERVICORNIS Sonder 1852, 678. De Toni 1897, 276, Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 158. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948, These specimens agree well with

some of Sonder’s in Melbourne National Herbarium,

CALLOPNyYLLis coccINEA Harvey. Hooker and Harvey 1847, 404. Kiitzing 1867,

t. 92. J. Agardh 1876, 234. De Toni 1897, 282. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

159, f. 31.

var. cARNEA J, Agardh. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948. VB, Drift, Jan.

1948, 1949. PB, Sublittoral fringe on main reef, Jan. 1947, 1948.

vat. CORYMBOSA J. Agardh. — W8. Driit, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan.

1948, 1949. PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948.

These specimens seem to agtee well with J. Agardh’s descriptions of the

above two varieties.

CALLOPHYLLIS HARVEYANA J. Agardh 1876, 230. De Toni 1897, 277. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 158. Callophyllis obtusifoia, Harvey 1862, pl. 193 (not

J. Agardh), — AB. Drift, Jan. 1946, FB. Drift, Jan, 1947.

CALLOPHYLLIS LAMBERTIT (Turner) Greville. J. Agardh 1876, 233, De Toni

1897, 282. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 159, f. 30. — CC, Driit, Jan. 1948.

Sou’-West River mouth, Drift, Jan. 1945. PB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949.

PB, Driit, Jan. 1946, 1948,

CALLYMENIA J. Agardh

CALLYMENTA CrTBROSA Harvey 1859, pl. 73. J. Agardh 1876, 219. De Toni

1897, 295. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 161, f, 33, 35. — Eastern Cove. On

underside of buoys, rare, Jan. 1946, 1948. North Coast (no details), IB.

Drift, Jan. 1948.

GELINARTA Sonder

GELINARIA ULvomEA Sonder 1846, 172. Harvey 1859, pl. 85. De Toni 1897,

$11. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 163, f. 36, — WB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949,

PB, Driit, Jan, 1944,

169

POLYCOELIA J. Agardh

PoLycurLia LacinuaTA J. Agatdh 1851, 306; 1876, 228, De Toni 1897, 293.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 161, f. 32. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. These speci-

mens agree well with Agardh’s description, but I have seen no anthentic

specimens. It is closely related to P. fastigiata Harvey from Tasmania and

may be conspecific,

GIGARTINALES — Nemastromacpak

NEMASTOMA J. Agardh

NEMASTOMA FRREDAVAR Harvey 1860b, 327, pl. 195A. J. Agardh 1876, 126.

De Toni 1905, 1,663. Lucas and Pertin 1947, 386, f. 195. — CC. Drift,

Jan. 1948. VB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949. PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs

Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948, Dec, 1948. The Pennington Bay specimens growing

in the sublittoral fringe are 5 to 10 cm. high and greenish-purple in colour;

those cast up from deeper water at Vivonne Bay are up to 20 cm, high and

dark red in colour,

GRACILARIACEAE

CURDIEA Harvey

Curpiga LAciNiata Harvey 1858, pl. 39. Kiitzing 1869, t. 33ed. De Toni

1900, 424. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 184, £. 54, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.

Curpiza opesA (Harvey) Kylin 1932, 61. Sarcoctadia. obesa Haryey 1862,

pl. 217. De Toni 1900, 426, —- PB. Drift, Jan. 1949,

GRACILARIA Greville

GRACILARA cONFERVOIDES (Linn.) Greville. De Toni 1900, 431. Newton 1931,

429, {, 258. Taylor 1937, 293, pl. 38, f. 1. May 1948, 18, f. 1, 2, pl, 1, —

AR, On the tidal flats throughout the lagoons, scattered hut common in some

areas between American River jetty and Muston, all seasons.

GRACILARIA FURCELLATA Harvey 1863, pl. 286 (excl, syn.). De Toni 1900, 441.

May 1948, 53, f. 9. — BH. Lower littoral, Oct, 1947, H’B, Littoral, Jan.

1945. VB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and

drift, Jan. 1949. DB. Littoral, Jan. 1947. PB. Littoral on well washed

rock, Jan, 1948, 1949 and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947,

May refers this form to f. furcellata (Harvey) May, The thickening

towards the base which is characteristic of this form is dependent to some

extent on habitat.

MELANTHALIA Montagne

MELANTHALIA cancINNA (R. Brown) J. Agardh 1876, 404, De Toni 1900, 421.

Kylin 1932, 58. Lacas and Perrin 1947, 184, £. 52. — VFB, Drift, Jan,

1949. South Coast. Winter 1939, coll, J, Cork,

MELANTHALIA OsrusarA (Labillardiere) J, Agardh. Harvey 1858, pl, 25.

De Toni 1900, 422. Kylin 1932, 58. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 183, £. 51, —

PB, Upper sublittoral under cast edge of main reef, Jan. 1948.

TYLOTUS J. Agardh

TyLotus optusatus (Sonder) J. Agardh 1876, 429. De Toni 1900, 463. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 189, Curdicu oblusata Sonder, Watyey 1962, pl. 210. —

WB, Drift, Jan, 1945, MB, Drift, Jan, 1949,

170

PLOCAMIACEAR

PLOCAMIUM Lamouroux

Procamiom costatum (J. Agardh) Hooker and Harvey. Kautzing 1866,

t, 52d-e. J, Agatdh 1876, 344. De Tont 1900, 597. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

212, §. 77. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1945. VB, Drift, Jan, 1949, PB. Sublittoral

fringe, on rocks off east edge of main reef, Dec. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946,

1948. The laciniae are usually strongly serrate, but this is a very variable

character.

Procamium cract.e J. Agardh 1876, 345. De Toni 1900, 598. Liicas and

Perrin 1947, 213, f. 78. Plocamium augustatum Kitzing 1866, t. 48 c-e, —

BH. Upper sublittoral, Dec, 1948, A7R, WR and WB. All drift, Jan, 1946,

C€. Drift, Jan. 1948. FH. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Sublittoral fringe,

Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Dec. 1948.

These specimens, although all sterile, agree well on vegetative features

with a specimen of J. Agardh’s of P. gracile from Tasmania (‘Algae Muel-

lerianae’’), in Melbourne National Herbarium. FP, gracile is closely related

to P. augustum (J. Ag.) H. and H., the Australian specimens of which are

included by Yendo (1915, 111) under P. felfairiae Harvey, These may all

prove to be the same species when a large range of specimens is examined.

The PB specimens were recorded in Pt. 1I as P. angustum.

PLOCAMIUM LEPTOPHYLLUM Kitzing 1866, t. 45a-c. J, Agardh 1876, 338,

De Toni 1900, 589. Yendo 1915, 113. Lueas and Perrin 1947, 210, {. 74.

— BH, Upper sublittoral, Oct. 1947, VA. Drift, Jan, 1949, PB, Drift,

May 1945, AB. Drift, Aug, 1948.

PLocAMIUM MERTENSIID (Greville) Harvey 1847, 122; 1863 syn. n. 491a._ J.-

Agardh 1876, 346, De Toni 1900, 599. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 215, £. 8D.

— PB. Drift, May 1945.

P. mertensii differs from P, procerum (J. Agardh) Harvey in having

serrate laciniae; otherwise the two species are identical. A range of speci-

mens, however, shows considerable variation in degree of serration of the

Jaciniae, even on the one plant, und these rwo species cannot be separated

satisfactorily. P, costafum also varies greatly in serrations on the laciniae.

Although this has been used as a specific character in these species, it is of

little use when large numbers of specimens are examined. P. nidificum has heen

kept separate here, but may well be only a form of P, mertensit, It differs

in forming clusters of multifid dichotomous ramelli im the branch axils, but

these are often developed only to a slight extent at the base of the plant, and

would not appear on juvenile specimens. Harvey (1863 syn, n. 491)

included P. midificum and P, merfensii as forms of P. procernim, but

P. mertensii is the earliest name.

PLocaMium nipiricum (Harvey) J, Agardh 1876, 346, De Toni 1900, 599.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 213. P. procerum var, nidificum Marvey 18653,

syn. n. 491b, Thamnophora mertensit, Kittzing 1866, t. 55 d-h. — WR.

Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Driit, Jan. 1947, 1948. WB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949

and upper sublittoral at the end of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB, Drift, all

seasons, See notes under P. imertenstt,

PLOCAMIUM PREISSIANUM Sonder 1846, 192. Harvey 1859, pl. 63. J. Agardh

1876, 342. De Toni 1900, 594. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 211, £. 75. — MR.

Drift, Jan, 1946, HB. Drift, jan 1946, Sou'-West River mouth, Dec.

1934 (Cleland and Black). FE, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB_ Drift, all seasons

171

PHACELOCARPUS Endlicher and Diesing

PHACELOCARPUS LARILLARDIERY (Mertens) J. Agardh. Harvey 1860.a, pl. 163

De Toni 1900, 391, Kylin 1932, 52, £. 14D, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 181,

£49. — WEB. Drift, Jan, 1946. CC Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948. Son’-West

River mouth. Drift, Jam. 1945, PB. Dritt, May 1945, Jan, 1948, 1949,

PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948; in a shaded pool, Jan. 1944; about 2-3 feet

below east ledge of main reef, Jan. 1947, 1948, CW’, Drift, Jan. 1946.

Rather variable in stoutness, depending on habitat. P. apodus J. Agardh

(1876, 400) is probably only a form of P. labillardiert. Kylin (1932, 52)

states it is very close to P. labdillardicri, and specimens of J. Agardh’s in

Melbourne National Herbarium are not distinct.

PHACELOCAUPUS sEssiLis Harvey in J. Agardh 1876, 400. De Toni 1900, 392.

Kylin 1932, 52, t. 19, £. 46. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 181. — CC. Drift,

Jan, 1948, 1B. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948.

STENOCLADIA J. Agardh

SrenocLapra conserTa (Harvey) J. Agardh. Kylin 1932, 50, f. 13. Areschougia

conferta Harvey 1860.4, pl. 166,-— VB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948,

1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944. South Coast, Winter 1939, coll, J. Cork.

J. Agardh (1876, 440-441) described four species of Stenocladia (St.

corymbosa, St. cliflont, St. harveyana, St. sonderiana) on specimens pre-

viously placed under St, conferta, but dropped St. conferte as a specics name.

Kyin (1932, 50), however, considers these are only forms, and places them

all under St. conferta, The Kangaroo Island specimens are of the same

form as shown in Harvey’s plate.

SARCODIACEAE

NIZYMENIA Sonder

NizyMewta AvsTRALIs Sonder. Harvey 1860a, pl, 165. De Toni 1900, 408.

Kylin 1932, 57. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 182, f. 50 — Sou’-West River

mouth, Dec. 1934. Recorded by Cleland and Black (1941, 248).

SOLIERLACEAE

SOLIERIA J. Agardh

Sorrerra RonUsTA (Greville) Kylin 1932, 18. [cas and Perrin 1947, 174, f. 44.

Solieria australis Harvey 1860 a, pl. 149, Rhabdonta robusta J. Agardh 1852,

355.

Ff FLAGELLIFORMIs J. Agardh 1876, 592, Kylin 1932, 18, t. 5, £. 9. —

AR. Sublittoral, Nov. 1947, Jan, 1948, 1949. K. Drift, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift,

Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, Jan. 1947.

THYSANOCLADIA Endlicher

THYSANOCLADIA LAXA Sonder 1852, 689. Kiitzing 1869, 1. 30. De Toni 1897,

383. (Not Harvey 1862, pl. 211.) — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Upper sub-

littoral east side of main reef, Jan. 1948 and drift, Jan, 1946,

THYSANOCLADIA opposiTrFoLIa (Agatdh) J, Agardh 1851, 617, Tlarvey 1862,

pl. 187. De Toni 1897, 383. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 176, f. 46. — FB.

Drift, Jan. 1949,

RHABDONTACEAE

ARESCHOUGIA Harvey

Kylin 1947, 49, has resurrected Areschougia Meneghini 1844 for a brown

algal species previously well known as Elachista stellaris Areschoug, This

172

gerlus antedates Areschougia Harvey 1855, and if Areschougia Menegh. is

to be retained, the red algal genus must be renamed, However, the Austra-

lian Areschougia Harvey is a well-known genus of about five species, and to

change this name would cause needless confusion, It would seem far better

to retain 4reschougia Harvey as a nomen conservandum, rejecting 4Areschou-

gia Menegh,, and it is proposed this should be done.

ARESCHOUGIA AUSTRALIS Harvey 1854, 554: 1858, pl. 13. Kylin 1932, 37,

Areschougia ligulata J. Agatdh 1876, 282. De Toni 1897, 377. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 174, £. 45. — WB. Dritt, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947,

VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.

ARESCHOUGIA LAURENCIA (Hooker and Harvey) Harvey 1854, 554; 1860 b, 321.

De Toni 1897, 376. Kylin 1932, 37. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 174, — VB,

Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan.

1946, 1948,

ERYTHROCLONIUM Sonder

ERYTHROCLONIUM ANGUSTATUM Sonder 1852, 692. Kiitzing 1869, t. 37. De Toni

1897, 354, Kylin 1932, 36. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 169. — FB. Driit,

Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drifi, Jan, 1948.

ERYTHROCLONIUM MUELLERY Sonder 1852, 692. Harvey 1863, pl. 298. De Toni

1897, 355. Kylin 1932, 36, f, 8 A-B. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 170, §..41, —

AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, December 1948 (rare). MR, Drift,

Jan, 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949, PB. Duft,

occasional, all seasons, and in pool of sublittoral fringe, Nov. 1947, AB.

Drift, Jan. 1948.

ERYTHROCLONIUM soNDERI Haryey 1859, pl. 86. De Toni 1897, 354. Kylin

1932, 36. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 169. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948,

RHABDONIA Harvey

RHABDONIA coccInEA Harvey 1858, pl. 54. De Toni 1897, 358. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 171, £. 42. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946,

RHARDONIA CLAYIGERA J, Agardh 1876, 594. Kylin 1932, 36, t. 14, £. 45. — 7B.

Drift, Jan. 1948, 1950,

RHABDONIA VERTICILLATA Harvey 1863, pl. 299. De Toni 1897, 359, Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 172, £. 43. — PB, Driit, Jan. 1944, May 1945.

RHODOPHYLLIDACEAE

GRUNOWIELLA Schmitz

GRUNOWIELLA BARKERIAE (Harvey) Schmitz, Engler and Prantl 1897, 375.

Kylin 1932, 43. Rhodophyllis ‘barkeriae Harvey 1863, pl. 276. Gloiophyllis

barkeriae J. Agardh, 1890, 29. De Toni 1897, 338. Lucas and Perrin 1947.

164. — FB, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948. The habit

of these specimens is rather variable, but close to Harvey’s figure,

RHODOPHYLLIS Kiitzing

RUGDOPHYLLIS MULTIPARTITA Harvey 1860 b, 318. De Toni 1897, 346, Kylin

1932, 42, t. 16, =. 39, — FB. Drift, Jan. 1949.

RHODOPHYLLIS TENUIFOLLA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 367. De Toni 1897, 347,

Kylin 1932, 43, t. 17, £.42. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 167, Callophyllis tenyi-

folia Harvey 1863, syn, n. 549. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948,

173

HYPNEACEAE

HYPNEA Lamouroux

Hypnea EptscoPaLis Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1858, pl. 23. De Toni 1900,

473. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 191, f. 58. — HB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC.

Drift, Jan. 1944. J7B, Drift, Jan. 1949. PA. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948.

Hiyvpngea Muscirormis (Wulfen) Lamouroux. Kiitzing 1868, t. 19. De Toni

1900, 472. Taylor 1937, 291, pl. 37, £. 2. — AR. In the upper sublittoral

throughout the lagoons, often common, all seasons.

A variety of forms of Aypnea occur in American River inlet, most of

which are probably referable to H. musciformis, The crozier tips to the

branches are not developed in these forms.

RHODODACTYLIS J. Agardh

Ruonopactyiis RuBRA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 568. De Toni 1900, 486.

Chondria rubra Harvey 1863, pl. 280. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1946. A single

specimen which agrees well with Harvey’s figure. Kylin (1932, 48) suggests

Rhododactylis is doubtfully distinct from Hyfrea,

MYCHODEACEAE

MYCHODEA Harvey

Mycnopea carnosa Harvey 1860a, pl. 142. De Toni 1897, 263. Kylin 1932,

64. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 156, f. 27. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949.

PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948,

MycHopea compressa Harvey 1862, pl. 201. De Toni 1897, 265. — MR. Drift,

Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947,

1948 and sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan. 1946, 1948 (these reef specimens

ate very stunted).

Mycwoora rasticiata (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 570. De Toni 1897, 264.

Kylin 1932, 64, t. 26, £.65. Hypneu fastigiata Harvey 1863, syn. no, 457. —

VB. Dritt, Jan, 1948, 1949. These are small and rather compact specimens

which apptoach M, pusilla (Harvey) J. Agardh, The branches are slenderer

and mnre densely covered with lateral spinous branchlets than in M. pusilla.

MycuopEA roniosA (Harvey) J, Agardh 1876, 573. De Toni 1897, 266

Gymnogongrus foliasus Harvey 1862, pl, 194. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948

PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948 (often epiphytic

on the stems of Cystophora paniculata),

MycHonga HAMATA Harvey 1860h, 323. De Tomi 1897, 264. Kylin 1952, 64,

Acanthacoccus ewingit Harvey 1860.a, pl. 141. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.

Mycuovesa Terminatis Harvey 1860 b, 323; 1862, pl. 200. De Toni 1897, 262,

— FB. Drift, Jan. 1948.

DICRANEMACEAE

DICRANEMA Sonder

DICRANEMA GREVILLEi Sonder 1846, 173. Harvey 1859, pl. 120. De Toni 1897,

269, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 157, §, 29. — IB, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949

DickRaNEMA REVoLUTUM (Agardh) J. Agardh 1876, 435. Harvey 1859, pl. 74,

De Toni 1897, 269. — PB. On Cymodocea, upper sublitloral near jetty in

bay, Jan. 1947.

i74

ACROTYLACEAE

ACROTYLUS J. Agardh

Acrotytus austrants J. Agardh, Harvey 1859, pl. 99. De Toni 1897, 170.

Kylin 1932, 68, fig. 20. A, B, 21B, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 147, f. 20. —

WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. [B. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB, Drift, Jan, 1944,

1946, 1948,

GIGARTINACEAE

GIGARTINA Stackhouse

GIGARTINA BRACHIATA Harvey 1860hb, 325. J. Agardh 1876, 191. De Toni

1897, 200. — AR, Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, Dec. 1948. BH. Lower

littoral, Oct. 1947. The specimens are stertle, but agree well with Harvey’s

specimen from Georgetown, Tasmania, and other specimens from there.

GIGARTINA DIstIcHA Sonder 1846, 175. Harvey 1863, pl. 297. De Toni 1897,

208. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 150, f. 22. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1948 PB. Drift,

Jan, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1946.

RHODOGLOSSUM J. Agardh

RHODOGLOSSUM PROLIFERUM J, Agardh 1884, 27, Iniduea prolifera (J. Agardh)

De Toni 1897, 190. Levring 1946, 222, f. 5. — WB, Low littoral, north

side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, 1948. PR. Pools in the sublittoral fringe,

rare, Jan. 1944, 1948, 1949. (as J/ridaea prolifera in Pt. M1).

RHODYMENIALES — RuHopyMENIACEAE — FAUCHEAE

BINDERA Harvey

BINDERA KALIFoRMIs J, Agatdh 1896, 75. De Toni 1900, 549. Kylin 1931, 7,

t. 1, f. 1. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 204. — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946, VB,

Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949,

GLOIODERMA J. Agardh

GLOIODERMA AusTRALTS J. Agardh 1851, 244. De Toni 1900, 496. Horea puly-

carpa Harvey 1860 b, 329, pl. 1948. — PB, Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949,

GLOMERMA FALYMENIoInES (Harvey) De Toni 1900, 497. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 194, £. 61. Horea halymenioides Harvey 1854, 555; 1859, pl. 67. —

AR, On red and outer buoys, Jan. 1946, 1948, and on anchor of red buoy,

Jan. 1948.

GioroperMa sreciosa (Ilarvey) nov, comb.

Horead speciosa Haryey 1860b, 328, pl. 194A. J. Agardh 1876, 292.

Gloiaderma tdsmanica Zanardini 1874, 503. De Toni 1900, 497, Kylin 1931,

7. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 194, f, 62. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949.

PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948. This species has usually been called

G, tasmanicum, and was reported as such in Pt. II, 162, of this series.

G. spectosa, however, has priority,

GLoroperMA wiLsonis (J. Agardh) De Toni 1900, 496. Kylin 1931, 7, & 1, f. 2.

Horea wilsonis J. Agardh 1884, 38. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, A single

tetrasparic specimen which agrees well with Kylin’s figure of the type, and

with Wilson’s specimens in Melbourne National Herbarium.

Rony MENIEAE

BOTRYOCLADIA Kylin

BoTryocLapIa oBovaTaA (Sonder) Kylin 1931 18. Chrysymenia obovata Sonder

1846, 176. Harvey 1858, pl. 10. De Toni 1900, 544. Lucas and Perrin

175

1947, 203, f. 67. — AR. Drift, near American River jetty, Sept. 1946, Aug.

1947, K. Drift, Jan. 1948, MR, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1B. Upper Sublittoral

on reef in the bay, Jan. 1947, and drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, AB, Drift, Aug.

1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948.

COELARTHRUM Eorgesen

COELARTURUM MUELLERT (Sonder) Borgesen 1931, 9, Kylin 1931, 15, Chylo-

cladia muelleri Harvey 1860a, pl. 138. Erythrocolon muelleri, J. Agardh

1896, 91. De Toni 1900, 585. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 208, {. 73, —

K. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB. Drift, Jan. 1948.

ERYTHRYMENIA Schmitz

ErvTuryMEnia mInvTA Kylin 1931, 13, t. 4, £. 10, — PB, Sublittoral fringe

of main reef, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948 and drift, Jan. 1946.

In Pt. I, 159, this species was recorded as the juvenile state of Hymena-

cladia conspersa (Harvey) J. Agardh (c.£., Harvey 1862, pl. 237, juvenile

plant). The specimens, however, agree very well with Kylin’s description

and figure of Erythrymenia minwta. In Melbourne National Herbarium are

specimens of Chrysyutenia meridithiana J. Agardh (= Erythrymenia meridi-

thiana (J. Ag.) Kylin) which appear identical with the Pennington Bay

specimens. They were collected by Wilson at Port Phillip, and on the sheet

the name has heen changed to Hymenocladia conspersa by Wilson. The

adult of H. cunspersa is very different in forny (see Harvey 1862, pl. 237)

ta £. minuta, Kylin described E. minuta fram specimens recorded by j.

Agardh as juveniles of FE, weridithiana. Tetrasporangia are not known, and

these species clearly need a thorough investigation,

GLOIOSACCION Harvey

GLorosaccion srowntt Harvey 1859, pl. 83. Kylin 1931, 19. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 202, £, 66, Chrysymenia brownti, De Toni 1900, 545, — AR, Sub-

littoral neat Muston, Jan. 1948 and on buoys, Jan, 1946, 1948. MR, WR

and H’B, All drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan.

1946, 1947.

The. American River specimens are smaller, with thinner and softer

membranes than those from rough coasts. The former were referred to var,

a membranaceum by Harvey, the latter to var. B firminn, These are ory

ecological variations.

RHODYMENIA Greville

RHOpYMENIA FOLILPERA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 508. J. Agardh 1876, 331. De

Toni 1900, 517. Kylin 1931, 21, t, 7, f. 17. — AR. Upper sublittoral near

Muston, Nov, 1947. BH. Dredged in 2-3 fathoms, Jan. 1946. )’B. Drift,

Jan. 1949, PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, Dec, 1948.

RP. Drift, June 1947.

This is a variable species, closely related to Rhodymenia australis Sonder.

In the type and other authentic specimens of FR. australis in Melbourne

National Herbarium, the segments taper from about the centre to the tips.

In #. foliifera the terminal parts of the thallus are usually as wide or even

wider than the lower parts, and spread at a wide angle. Many variations

occur, however, and tips of specimens from the Pennington Bay reefs which

I have referred to R. foliifera are sometimes narrow and almost laciniate.

A range of specimens from different habitats may show that these species

are not distinct.

176

HYMENOCLADIA J. Agardh

HIYMENOCLADIA POLYMORPHA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 315. De Toni 1900,

504, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 198, f, 64. Rhodymenia polymorpha Harvey

1860 a, pl. 157. — WB. On Codium galeatum, drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift,

Jan. 1947. VB, Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949, and on the base of Myriodesma

latifolia yar. duriuscila in a low littoral pool, south side of Ellen Point, Jan.

1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947 and in sublittoral fringe (stunted },

all seasons.

AYMENOCLADIA USNEA (R. Brown) J. Agardh 1863, 772. Harvey 1859, pl. 118.

De Toni 1900, 502. Kylin 1931, 24. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 197, f. 63. —

VB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946,

CHAMPIACEAE — LOMENTARIEAE

LOMENTARIA Lyngbye

LOMENTARIA AUSTRALIS (Kiitzing) Levring 1946, 223. Chondrothamnion

australis Kitzing 1865, 29, pl. 82. — AR. On buoys near American River

jetty, Jan. 1948, and in upper sublittoral on Zostera on the cockle bank and

near Muston, Jan. 1948.

These specimens agree very well with Kiitzing’s figures. Levring con-

siders it distinct from L, clavellosa, to which De Toni referred it.

CIAMPIEAB

CHAMPIA Desveau

CHaMPIA aAFFINIS (Hooker and Harvey) J, Agurdh 1876, 304. De Toni 1900,

559, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 206, f. 71. Chylocladia affinis, Harvey 1847,

79, pl. 29. — AR. Upper sublittoral on flats near mouth, Noy. 1947, Aug.

1948, WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948.

CW. Drift, Jan. 1946. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947,

Aug. 1948,

CnamPra opsoLeTa ITarvey 1860b, 307. J. Agardh 1876, 304. De Toni 1900,

559, Kylin 1931, 28, t, 15, f. 35. Lneas and Perrin 1947, 206, — AR. On

the buoys, Jan. 1946, Sept. 1946, Jan. 1948, and upper sublittoral on cockle

bank and near Muston, Jan. and Aug. 1948, and drift, May 1945. WR.

Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB, Littoral and sublittoral Fringe

on reefs, all seasons, but variable. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug.

1948.

Kylin doubts whether this species is distinct fram C. affinis, Most

specimens can be separated readily on the much heavier and more extensive

thickening of the stem and branches in C. obsoleta, thus obscuring the dia-

phragms. A few specimens, however, show intermediate characters.

CHAMPIA TASMANICA Ilarvey 1844, 407, pl. 19, De Toni 1900, 563. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 207, £. 72, — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948.

CERAMIALES — CerAmrAceaE — GRIFFITHSIAE

GRIFFITHSIA C. Agardh

GRiFFITHSIA ANTARCTICA Hooker and Harvey, J. Agardh 1851, 87; 1876, 68.

Kiitzing 1862, t. 23.a-b. Laing 1905, 390, pl. 25, f. 2. Bornetia antarctica,

De Toni 1903, 1,297. — AR, Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1847, Jan. 1948.

K, Drift, Jan 1948. WB. Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point,

May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948 (as Bornetia sp, in Pt. 1). PB. Sublittoral

fringe on main reef, Jan, 1947, 1948, Dec. 1948 and drift, Jan. 1944, 1948,

RP. Drift, June 1947, Aug, 1948, Jan. 1949.

177

GRIFFITHSIA FLABELLIFORMIS Harvey 1844, 450. J. Agardh 1876, 61. De Toni

1903, 1,278. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 326. — AR. Upper sublittoral between

Muston and the mouth of the inlet, May 1945, June, Oct., Noy. 1947, Jan.

and Aug, 1948. KP. Drift, Aug. 1948, This is chiefly a winter form and

is rarely found in January,

GRIFFITHSIA MONILIS Harvey 1854, 559; 1860b, 332, pl. 195 B. De Toni 1903,

1,283. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 326. — PR. In the sublittoral fringe and

Cystophora-coralline association, May 1945, Jan, 1947, Aug, and Dec. 1948.

GRIFFITHSIA OVALTS Harvey 1854, 559; 1862, pl. 203. De Toni 1903, 1,277.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 325, f. 156. — A. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov.

1947,

MoNOSPOREAE

NEGMONOSPORA Setchell and Gardner

Setchell and Gardner (1937, 86) have pointed out that Monospora Solier is

antedated by Monospora Hoclistetter, a genus of Angiosperms, and have te-

named the algal genus Neomouospora. The following species were reported

as Monospora in Pt. I and IL, and they are now transferred to Neomono-

Spora,

NEOMONOSPORA ELONGATA (Harvey) nov. comb.

Callithamnion elongatum Harvey 1860b, 336. Monospara elongata, De Toni

1903, 1,302. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 331. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC-

Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, May 1945, PB. Sublittoral fringe and Cysto-

phora-coralline associations (often epiphytic on larger algae), May 1945,

jan., Nov. 1947, Dec, 1948, and drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. The sub-

littoral fringe plants are stunted and more compact than those cast up from

deeper water.

NEQMONOSPORA GRIFFITHSIOIDES (Sonder) nov. comb.

Calithamnion griffithsioides Harvey 1860a, pl. 160. Monospora griffiths-

wides, De Toni 1903, 1,302, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 331. — VB. Drift,

Jan. 1948, 1949, CW. Drift, Jan. 1946,

NEomonospora LicMorHorA (Harvey) noy. comb.

Callithamnion licmophara Harvey 1859, pl. 90. Monospora licmophora

De Toni 1903, 1,301. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 329, f. 160. — WB. Drift,

Jan, 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947.

CALLITHAMNIEAE

CALLITHAMNION Lynebye

CALLITHAMNION LarIcINUM Haryey 1854, 562; 1862, pl. 218. De Toni 1903,

1,330, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 332, f. 161. — WB, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC,

Drift, Jan. 1948. VB, On Perithalia inermis and Laurencia elata, drift, Jan.

1948, 1949. PB. On Laurencta elata and other algae in the sublittoral fringe,

all seasons. AB. Drift, Aug. 1948,

SPONGOCLOWIEAE

HALOPLEGMA Montagne

HALOPLEGMA PREIssit Sonder 1846, 171. Harvey 1859, pl. 79. De Toni 1903,

1,366. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 336, £, 163. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB.

Drift, Jan. 1946, VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949 and sublittoral fringe on a reef

in the bay, Jan. 1947, PB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948,

in a shaded littoral pool, Jan. 1944, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB. Drift,

Aug. 1948,

178

SPONGOCLONIUM Sonder

SponGocLONIUM BROUNIANUM (Hatvey) J. Agardh 1892, 41. De Toni 1903,

1,358. Lucas 1927 a, 464, pl. 28, 29. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 334. Calli-

thamnion braunianum Harvey 1854, 561. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948.

SponcocLonium FascicuLatum J, Agardh 1894a, 118. De Toni 1903, 1,358.

Lucas 1927 a, 464, pl. 27, — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB, Drift, Jan, 1946.

VB. Drift, Jan, 1948, PB. Drift, Jan, 1947, 1948.

These specimens agree well with J. B. Wilson’s specimen in Melbourne

National Herbarium (Licas, pl. 27). The type species of the genus,

S. conspicuwm Sonder is poorly known, and the differences between it and

S. fasciculatum need careful study,

PTILOTEAE

EUPTILOTA Kitzing

Eupriwora AxticutaTa (J, Agardh) Schmitz. De Toni 1903, 1,370. Levring

1946, 224, £. 6. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 338, {. 164. Philota articulate

J. Agardh 1876, 78. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. WB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948,

1949. PB_ Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948.

Euptinota coracLomwes (J. Agardh) Kiitzing 1849, 672, De Toni 1903, 1,371.

Lucas atid Perrin 1947, 338, Ptilota coralloidea J, Agardh 1876, 78. —

South coast. Winter 1939, coll. J. Cork.

PERISCHELIA J. Agardh

PERISCHELIA GLOMERULIFERA J. Agardh 1897, 34. De Toni 1924, 530. Thantno-

carpus ? glomeruliferus J. Agardh 1885, 6. [.ucas and Perrin 1947, 372, —

FB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949.

DASsYPHILEAE

DASYPHILA Sonder

DasvPHILA PReIsst1 Sonder 1846, 169. Harvey 1859, pl, 66. De Toni 1903,

1,387. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 342, f. 169. — MR, Drift, Jan. 1946. VB.

Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB.

Drift, Aug. 1948.

MUELLERENA Schmitz

Mvurcterena rnstents (Harvey) De Toni 1903, 1,389. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

346, £.171. Crouania insignis Harvey 1860 b, 331, t. 193 B. J. Agardh 1876,

87, — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan, 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948

and in the sublittoral fringe, main reef (often on Phacelocarpus labillardieri),

Jan. 1946, Jan., Nov, 1947, Jan., Dec. 1948. Specimens growing on the

reefs are much more compact and stouter than those from deeper water.

GULSONIA Harvey

GULSONTA ANNULATA Harvey 1860-b, 320, pl. 193 A. J. Agardh 1894 a, 122, t. 2,

£. 13; 1897, 56. De Toni 1897, 66. — VB. Drift, Jan, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan.

1948.

The position of this genus is uncertain and needs thorough investigation.

CROUANIEAE

ANTITHAMNION Nacgeli

ANTITHAMNION DISPAR (Harvey) J. Agardh 1892, 20, De Toni 1903, 1,405.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 353, £. 176. Callithamnion dispar Harvey 1862, pl.

227. — PB. Drift, May, 1945.

179

ANTITHAMNION HaNowsores (Sonder) De Toni 1903, 1,398. L.scas and Perrin

1947, 352, Callithamnion hanowioides Sonder 1852, 674. J. Agardh 1876,

55. — MR, Drift, Jan, 1946. WB. On Lauwrencia elata, drift, Jan, 1946,

PB. On Laurencia heteroclada, L. elata, Gelidium australe, Rhodymenta,

Caulerpa brownii and other species in the sublittoral fringe, all seasons.

ANTITHAMNION MuCRONAaTUM (J. Agardh) Naegeli. De Toni 1903, 1,410.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 355, Callithamnion mucronatum J. Agardh 1851, 29;

1876, 19. Harvey 1863, syn. nu. 688. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift,

Jan. 1948, 7B. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan.

1946, 1947, 1948,

ANTITHAMNION NODIFERUM J. Agardh 1892, 20, De Toni 1903, 1,404. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 353. Callithamnion nodiferum J. Agardh 1876, 25, Calli-

thamnion simile Harvey 1862, pl. 207 (excl. syn.). — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946.

PB, Driil, Jan. 1948.

BALLIA Harvey

BALLIA cCALLITRICHA (Agardh) Montagne. J, Agardh 1851, 75. Kiitzing 1862,

t. 37, Harvey 1863, syn. n, 656. De Toni 1903, 1,393. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 350, f. 174. — WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. WR, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC.

Drift, Jan, 1948, Sou’-West River mouth, Dec, 1934 (Cleland and Black)

and atte Janu. 1945. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift Jan, 1944,

1946, 1948.

BALLIA ROBERTIANA Harvey 1858, pl. 36. J. Agardh 1876, 588, De Toni 1903,

1,394. Litcas and Perrin 1947, 349, f. 173. — CC, Drift, Jan. 1945.

BALLIA SCOPARTA Harvey 18604, pl. 168. De Toni 1903, 1,395. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 351, f. 175. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. 7B. Drift, Jan. 1949.

PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, Jan., Aug. 1948 and in the sublittoral fringe on reefs,

all seasons (stunted).

CROUANIA J. Agardh

CRoUANIA AusTRALIS (Harvey) J. Agardh 1876, 85. De Toni 1903, 1,418.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 355. Crouania attenuata var. ausiralis Harvey 1863

syn. n. 635, — AR. No details, This specimen agrecs well with Harvey's

485 B in Melbourne National Herbarium, Specimens from the upper sub-

littoral near the mouth of the inlet, Aug. 1948, are probably a form of this

species.

CROUANIA MUELLERT Harvey 1863, syn. n. 638. J. Agardh 1876, 85, De Toni

1903, 1,419 Lucas and Perrin 1947, 356. — VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, PB.

On Cystophora intermedia, C. siliquosa and C, spartioides in the sublittoral

fringe, Jan, anid Nov, 1947, Jan. and Dec. 1948,

Crovania vestita Harvey 1860a, pl. 140. J. Agardh 1876, 86, De Toni 1903,

1,419, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 35, £. 177. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1946. AB,

Drift, Aug. 1948.

LASIOTHALIA Harvey

LasroriAt.ta FoRMOsA (Harvey) De Toni 1903, 1,421. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

357. Callithamnion formosum Harvey 1863, pl. 281, — VB. Driit, Jan.

1948, PB, Drift Jan. 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948.

PTILOCLADIA Sonder

Prinoc.apta PULCHRA Sonder 1846, 170. Tlarvey 1862, pl. 209. De Toni 1903,

1,424. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 360, f. 180. — WB. Drilt Jan. 1946. VB.

Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift, Jan. 1946, 1947, 1948,

180

SPYRIDIEAE

SPYRIDIA Harvey

SPYRIDIA BIANNULATA J. Agardh 1876, 267; 1897, 13. De Toni 1903, 1,426.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 363. — AR. Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet,

all seasons. K, Drift, Jan. 1944. BS. Upper sublittoral, June 1947, WB.

Shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946, 1947, RP. Low

littoral pools, Jan. 1944, 1945, 1948, and drift, Jan. 1944, 1948,

Spyripia opposita Harvey 1860 a, pl. 158. J. Agardh 1876, 270. De Toni 1903,

1,431, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 363, £, 182. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB.

Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. DB. Sublittoral fringe on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB. in

pools of the sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948, Dec. 1948, CW’. Drift,

Jan. 1946,

CERAMIEAE

CENTROCERAS Kiitzing

CENTROCERAS CLAVULATUM (Agardh) Montagne. J. Agardh 1876, 108. Smith

1944, 328, pl. 84, f. 5-6. Ceramium clavulatum, De Toni 1903, 1,491. —

AR, Upper sublittoral throughout the inlet, often epiphytic on larger algae,

all seasons; in late winter (July-Nov.) forming dense red-brown tufts to

12 cm. high on pebbles along the shore (mid-littoral) near American River

jetty. CC. In rock pools, Jan. 1944 and lower littoral, Jan. 1948. PB. Mid

littoral at the end of Ellen Point, Jan, 1946, and in rock pools, Jan, 1946.

PRB. Rear littoral, May 1945, Also found amongst other algae almost any-

where around the island,

CERAMIUM Wiggers

CERAMIUM I8socoNUM Harvey 1854, 55; 1862, pl, 206 B. J. Agardh 1876, 96. De

ee, 1903, 1,469. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 369, f, 186. — PB. Drift, May

1945,

CERAMIUM MINIATUM Suhr. Harvey 1862, pl. 206A. De Toni 1903, 1,454.

Lucas and Petrin 1947, 367, f. 185. — AR. On black buoy, Jan., Sept. 1946,

Jan. 1947, 1948. Mk. On Corallina, lower littoral, Jan. 1947. B, On

Laurencia heteroclada in tock pools, sauth side of Ellen Point, May 1945.

PB, On Laurencia heteroclada in the littoral and drift, May 1945. AB, On

molluscs in the mid littoral, Jan. 1947, The Australian species which passes

under this name needs careful checking with authentic material from Peru,

the type locality.

CERAMIUM NoBILE J. Agardh 1894b,41. De Toni 1903, 1,480, Lucas and Perrin

1947, 369. — FB. Driit, Jan. 1948. PR. On Spyridia opposite, Lawrencia

heteroclada and other algae in the sublittoral [ringe, all seasons.

CERAMIUM PUBERULUM Sonder 1946, 167. J. Agardh 1876, 102. De Toni 1903,

1452. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 367. — AR. On Posidonia, upper sub-

littoral, all seasons. EB, Drift, Jan. 1946. WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. On

Posidonia, drift, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948. RP, On Posidonia, drift, June

1947, Aug. 1948

WRANGELIEAE

WRANGELIA Agardh

WRANGELIA CLAVIGERA Harvey 1863, pl. 287. J. Agardh 1876, 621. De Toni

1897, 132. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 140, £. 13. — PB. Sublittoral fringe

{mainly i-2 ft. down side of main reef), all seasons.

181

WRANGELIA CRASSA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1860b, 308. J. Agardh 1876,

620. De Toni 1897, 131. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138. — CC. Drift, Jan.

1947. FRB. Drift, Jan, 1949. PR. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948, and in a shaded

pool, Jan. 1944. Orig. Det, V. May.

WRANGELIA HALURUS Harvey 1859, pl. 170. J. Agardh, 1876, 619. De Toni

1897, 130. Lucas and Perrm 1947, 138. — WA. Drift, Jan, 1946,

VB, Drift. Jan. 1948.

WRANGELIA MYRIOPHYLLOIDRS Harvey 1854, 564; 1862, pl. 224. J. Agardh

1876, 617. De Toni 1897, 128. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 136. — MR.

Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drifi, Jan. 1944; Jan., Aug. 1948.

WRANGELIA PLUMOSA Harvey 1844, 450. J. Agardh 1876, 624. De Toni 1897,

136. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 143, f. 16. — /LR. On black buoy, Sept. 1946,

and upper sublittoral along channel near buoys, Nov. 1947. — MR. Lower

littoral, Jan. 1947. HR. lower littoral, Jan. 1946. Hi. In a low rock pool,

Jan, 1948. PB. Sublittoral fringe and littoral pools on reefs, all seasons, but

variable, AB. Lowet littoral, Jan. 1947.

WRANGELIA PRINCEPS Harvey 1862, pl. 234; J, Agardh 1876, 624. De Toni

1897, 136. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 143. — PR. Drift, Jan. 1946 (on

Codium galeatum) and Jan. 1949.

WRANGELIA PROTENSA Harvey 1860 b, 308, J, Agardh 1876, 619, De Toni 1897,

130. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 137, £. 10. — AR. Upper sublittoral along

channel from Muston to American River, Nov. 1947, Aug. 1948.

WRANGELIA VELUTINA Harvey 1854, 546; 1858, pl. 46. J. Agardh 1876, 617.

De Toni 1897, 128 Lucas and Perrin 1947, 136, f. 9. — WB. Drift, Jan.

1946. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948 and im a shaded pool,

Jan. 1944,

WRANGELIA VERTICILLATA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 332. J. Agardh 1876, 619. De

Toni 1897, 130. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138, f. 11. — WB. Drift, Jan.

1946, PR. In a littoral pool, Jan. 1944.

WRANGELIA WATTSIT Harvey 1862, pl. 233. J. Agardh 1876, 620. De Toni 1897,

131, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 138, f. 12. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946.

DASYACEAE

DASYA C. Agardh

DASYA CAPILLARIS Hooker and Harvey, Harvey 1847, 60, pl. 19; 1860hb, 302.

Kiitzing 1865, t. 73. De Toni 1903, 1,200. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 313. —

AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947.

DASVA FEREDAYAE Harvey 1860 a, pl. 173, £.1, 3. De Toni 1903, 1,211. — WB.

Drift, Jan. 1946,

DasyA HAFFIAE Harvey 1860b, 303; 1860a, pl. 143. De Toni 1903, 1,193.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 311. — PB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan.

1946, 1948.

DAsya NAccARTOIDES Harvey 1844, 432; 1847, 63, pl, 22. J. Agardh 1863, 1,217.

De Toni 1903, 1,198. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 313. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946.

PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946 and in a deep pool on main reef,

Nov. 1947,

DAaS¥YA SCOPULIFERA Harvey 1863, pl. 271. De Toni 1903, 1,185. — PB. Drit,

Jan, 1946. A single specimen which agrees well with Harvey’s figure,

182

Dasya urcronata Harvey, Alg. Aus. exs, n, 217. J. Agardh 1863, 1,208. De

Toni 1903, 1,209. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 314 — PB. On C ystophora

intermedia and occasionally on C. subfarcinate im sublittoral fringe on main

reef, May 1945, Noy, 1947, Aug., Dec. 1948. Checked with one of Harvey's

specimens from Point Fairy.

Dasyva vintosa Harvey 1847, 61, pl. 20. J. Agardh 1863, 1,215. De Toni 1903,

1,203. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 314, — AR. 5-6 feet below low water near

Picnic Point, fan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan, 1946,

VB, Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946, 1948.

DASYOPSIS Zanardini

DASYoPsis CLAVIGERA Womersley 1946 b, 137, f, 1, 2, pl. 27. — WB, Drift, Jan

1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948, IB. Lower littoral, south side af Ellen

Point, May 1945, Dec. 1945. PB. Sub-littoral fringe on reefs, all seasons.

HALODICTYON Zanardini

Hatopictyon aRAcwNoipeuM Harvey 1858, pl, 37 A. De Toni 1903, 1,246.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 322. — AK. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov, 1947,

Jan. 1948. RP. Drift, Aug. 1948,

Hatovicryon ropustum Harvey 1858, pl. 37B. De Toni 1903, 1,245. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 322. — PB. Drift, Jan, 1948.

HETEROSIPHONIA Montagne

Hererosrpnonra curpirana (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 716. De Tom 1903,

1,236. Laicas and Perrin 1947, 318. Ddsya curdigana Harvey in J. Agardh

1863, 1,189; 1890, 87, — FB, Drift, Jan. 1949. PB. Drift, Jan. 1948,

HETEROSIPHONIA GUNNIANA (Haryey) Falkenberg 1901, 651. De Toni 1903,

1,231. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 316, f, 153, Das ya gunniana Harvey 1847,

59, pl. 17; 1860 b, 301. — AR. Upper sublittoral, Jan, 1949, MR. Drift,

Jan. 1946, WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan, 1947, PE, Sublittoral

fringe and outer pools on reefs, all seasons.

HerexosrPHoNta MicRocLAvioipEs (J. Agatdh) Falkenberg 1901, 637, t. 19, f. 3.

De Tom 1903, 1,224. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 316. Dasya microcladioides

J. Agardh 1890, 83. Dasya pellucida Harvey 1854, 543. — VB. Shaded end

of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan, 1947. A few specimens which

agree well with Tlarvey’s D. pellucida from King George’s Sound {in Mel-

bourne National Herbarium,

HETEROSIPUONIA MUELLERL (Sonder) De Toni 1903, 1,237. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 319, 1. 154, Dasya muelleri Sonder in Harvey 1858, pl. 31 (partim)-

J. Agardh 1890, 84, t. II], f. 1. —- PB, Sublittoral fringe on reefs in the

bay, Jan, 1949. DR. Sublittoral fringe, Jan. 1947. PB. “Sublittoral fringe

on mam reef, Jan, 1947, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948. AB, Drift, Aug. 1948.

Eastern Cove, On sinker of buoy (12-15 feet below low water), Jan. 1948.

None of these specimens is cystocarpic, so it is possible some may be

H, struthiopenna (J. Agardh) De Toni, which has terminal cystocarps

instead of the lateral, sessile ones of H. muelleri,

THURETIA Decaisne

THURETIA QUERCIFOLTA Decaisne, Harvey 1858, pl. 40, Falkenberg 1901, 668,

t. 17, £. 1-9. De Toni 1903, 1,175. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 308, £. 147. —

M°B, Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Driit, Jan, 1948, 1949.

PR, Drift, Jan. 1944, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1948, CH. Drift. Jan. 1946,

183

Tuuretia TERES Harvey 1862, pl, 191. Falkenberg 1901, 674. De Toni 1903,

1,176. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 309. — CC. Drift, Jan, 1948, PB. In

Cystophora-coralline and sublittoral fringe associations (on Cystophora sub-

forcinata and C. paniculata), all seasons but rare.

DELESSERIACEAE —- DELESSERIEAE

1 APOGLOSSUM J. Agardh

APOGLOSSUM TASMANICUM (F. y. Mueller) J, Agardh. De Toni 1900, 702, Kylin

1924, 23. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 231, £. 94, Delessersa tasmanica F. v.

Mueller in Harvey 18606, 311, t. 190B. J. Agardh 1876, 494. — V8.

shaded end of pool 1, south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948. A few small

sterile plants only,

CHAUVINIA

CHAUVINIA coRUFOLIA Harvey 1863, syn. n. 376. Kylin 1924, 13. Tucas and

Perrin 1947, 230, f. 93. Delesseria corwfolia Harvey 1860a, pl. 150, —

VB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949,

CLAUDEA Lamouroux

CLAUDEA ELEGANS Lamouroux. Harvey 1858, pl. 1. De Toni 1900, 748. Lucas

anid Perrin 1947, 237, §. 101. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1948 (rare).

HEMINEURA Harvey

Hemineura rronposa (Hooker and Harvey) Harvey 1847, 116, pl. 45. Kylin

1924, 6. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 232, f, 95. Delesseria frondosu, Harvey

1860, pl. 179. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. PB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1948,

HYPOGLOSSUM Kiittzing

Hyrocrossum revoLurum (Harvey) J. Agardh. De Toni 1900, 692. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 228, £. 91. Delesseria revoluta Harvey 1860a, pl. 170. —

AR. Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947, and near mouth of inlet, Aug.

1948, Jan. 1949.

HyrociossuM spATHULATUM (Kiitzing) J. Agardh, De Toni 1900, 689. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 227, Delesseria spathwlaia Kiitzing 1869, t. 12c-e. Deles-

seria hypoglossoides Marvey 1859, pl, 87. — AR. Sublittoral near Muston,

Noy, 1947, and near mouth of inlet, Aug, 1948,

PHITYMOPHORA J. Agardh

PuitymMornora mprtcata (Arcschoug) J, Agardh. Kylin 1924, 13. Kuehne

1946, 35, pl. 2, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 230. Chauwinea imbricata Harvey

1862, pl, 240. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC, Drift, Jan, 1948. VR. Drift,

Jan. 1948, 1949, PB. Sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan, 1947, 1948.

SARCOMENTA Sonder

SARCOMENIA DASYorDES Ilarvey. J. Agardh 1863, 1,263; 1896, 134. De Ton

1900, 738. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, f. 96. — WB. Driit, Jan, 1946.

VB. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1948, PB. In pools of the sublittoral fringe, Jan.

1946, 1947, Jan., Dec. 1948, Jan, 1949,

SARCOMENIA DELESsERTOIDES Sonder. Ilarvey 1860, pl, 121. J. Agardh 1896,

137. De Toni 1900, 742. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 236, f. 100. — CC, Drift,

Jan. 1948. VB. Drift, Jan, 1949. PB. Drili, May 1945, Jan, 1946,

184

SARCOMENIA MUTABILIS (Harvey) J. Agardh 1896, 134. De Toni 1900, 736.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, — AR. Upper sublittoral along channel, July,

Nov. 1947, Aug. 1948 (probably a winter form),

SARCOMENIA TENERA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1896, 136. De Toni 1900, 740. Poly-

siphonia tenera Harvey 1863, pl. 257. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 234, pl. 99. —

aR. Upper sublittoral near the mouth, May 1945, July, Nov. 1947, Aug, 1948

(probably a winter form).

NITOPHYLLEAE

CRYPTOPLEURA Kiitzing

CRYPTOPLEURA ENDSVIAEFOLIA (Hooker and Harvey) Kylin 1924, 91. Delesseria

endividefolia Hooker and Harvey 1847, 403. Kittzing 1869, t. 11. Nito-

phyllum endiviaefolinm J. Agardh 1876, 461. De Toni 1900, 637. — HB.

Drift, Jan. 1945, 1946, CC. Drift, Jan. 1947, 1948,

HYMENEMA Greville

TIYMENEMA CURBDIEANA (Harvey) Kylin 1924, 79. Nitophyllum curdieanum

Harvey 1860 a, pl. 151. J. Agardh 1876, 458. De Toni 1900, 658. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 223, f. 89, 90. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan.

1944, 1948, WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, 1949.

MYRIOGRAMME Kylin

MyriocRAMME eRosA (Ilarvey) Kylin 1924, 61. Nitophyllwm erosum Harvey

1859, pl. 94. J. Agardh 1876, 460. De Toni 1900, 639. — WB. Drift, Jan.

1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947. VB. Drift, Jan. 1949.

MYRIOCGRAMME PRISTOIDEA (Harvey) Kylin 1924, 61. Nitophyllum pristoideum

Harvey 1862, pl. 229. Jj. Agardh 1876, 460. De Toni 1900, 640, Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 222, {. 86. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. CC. Drift, Jan. 1947.

VB. Driit, Jan. 1949,

RHODOMELACEAE — POLYSIPHONIEAE

CHIRACANTHIA Falkenberg

CHIRACANTIIIA ARBOREA (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 179, t. 19, f. 18-23. De

Toni 1903, 971. Acanthophora arborea Harvey 1860 b, 296; 1860a, pl, 132.

— AR, Sublitioral near and outside the mouth of the inlet, all seasons.

LOPHURELLA, Schmitz

LopruRELLA PERICLADOS (Sonder) Schmitz, Falkenberg 1901, 154, t, 19, £. 24-

26. De Toni 1903, 855. Rhodomela periclados, Harvey 1858, pl. 28. —

PB, Sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan. 1947 (rare),

POLYSIPHONIA Greville

PonysipHonta AnscissA Hooker and Harvey, Hooker 1847, 480, pl. 183, f. 2.

De Toni 1903, 879, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 267. — PB. In rear littoral

pools, all seasons, CH’, In low rock pools, Jan. 1948,

POLYSIPHONIA CANCELLATA Harvey 1847, 51, pl. 15, De Toni 1903, 928. Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 273. — AR. Sublittoral along channel, often on Postdonia,

all seasons. 1B. (no details).

POLYSIPIIONIA DAsyoIpES Zanardini 1874, 489. De Toni 1903, 954. Lucas and

Perrin 1947; 266. — CC. In rock pools, Jan, 1944, VB. Upper littoral

(splash area), south side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1946. PB. In littoral pools,

185

Jan. 1944, Nov. 1947, and sublittoral fringe, May 1945, Jan, 1946, April

1947, (often epiphytic on larger algae),

No authentic specimens of this species are available in Australia, but

agreement with Zanardini’s description is very good.

PotystPHoONIA DAVYAE Reinhold 1899, 49. De Toni 1903, 913. Lucas and Perrin

1947, 265, — AR. On Posidonia in upper sublittoral, all seasons but not

common, PB. Drift, Jan, 1946. RP. Drift, Aug, 1948,

POLYSIPHONIA FRUTEX Ilarvey 1847, 52; 1860b. 301. Kittzing 1863, t. 66 d-e.

De Toni 1903, 925. Lucas and Pertin 1947, 273, £. 122. — IRB. Mid littoral

on reef in bay, Jan, 1946, DB. Lower littoral on reefs, Jan. 1947. PB.

Littoral, and in pools, all seasons. 8. Lower littoral, Jan, 1947,

Poiysivnonta Fuscescens Harvey 1847, 52; 1860b, 301. Kiitzing 1863, £, 67 a-d.

De Toni 1903, 925. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 273, — AR. Sublittoral and

upper sublittoral along channel and throughout lagoons, all seasons, RP.

Drift, Aug. 1948. This species is very closely related to P_ frutex, and pos-

sibly only an extreme ecological form. P. fuscescens 1s more loosely and

distantly bratiched, and a slenderer plant than P, frutex, and grows in much

calmer conditions around Kangaroo Island.

PoLYsIPHONTA ttooKeRT Ilarvey 1847, 40, pl. 12; 1860b, 299. Kiizing 1864,

t. 17. De Toni 1903,905. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 263, fF. 119, — Ai, Sub-

littoral near Muston, Noy, 1947, PB, Drift, Jan, 1947.

POLYStPHONIA HystrIx Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 41, pl. 14; 1860h,

299. Kiitzing 1864, t. 18a-c. De Tont 1903, 906. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

265, f. 120. — MR. Drift, Jan. 1946,

POLYSIPHONTA MALLARDIAE Tarvey 1847, 40, pl. 13; L860b, 299. Kiitzing 1864,

t. 22c-e. De Toni 1903, 908. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 265, f, 121. — AR.

Sublittoral near Muston, Nov. 1947, Jan. 1948. MR. Drift, Jan. 1946.

WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB. Drift, Jan. 1948. FB. Drift, Jan. 1948, and in

a shaded pool, Jan, 1944.

POLYSIPHONIA Nicrita Sonder 1846, 181. Harvey 1847, 51. Kiitzing 1863,

t. 67 e-h. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 274. — WB. Drift, Jan. 1946, CC. Drift,

Jan. 1944, 1947, 1948. PR, Sublittoral fringe, all seasons (epiphytic on other

alyae), CW, Lower littoral, Jan, 1946.

P. nigrita differs trom PF. cancellata in not having the pericentral cells

arranged in distinct rows, as seen in face view.

POLYSIPHONIA PATERSONTS Sonder, Kiitzing 1864, t. 18 d-f. Polystphenia spine-

sissima Harvey 1860a, pl. 155. Brongniartella spinasissima, Falkenberg

1901, 548, t. 19, f. 11-12. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 283, — AR. Lower

littoral on the tidal flats, all seasans. The trichoblasts in this species are con-

fined to the ends of the branches as in Polysiphonia.

POLYSIPHONIA SUCCULENTA Harvey 1860b, 300. J. Agardh 1863,969. De Toni

1903, 879, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 267, — AR, On Posidenia in the tipper

sublittoral throughout the lagoons, all seasons, common. RP. Drift, Aug.

1948,

LOFHOTHALIEAE

RRONGNIARTELL.A Bory

BRONGNIARTELLA austratis (Agardh’) Schmitz. Falkenberg 1901, 546, t. 19,

f. 6-7. De Toni 1903, 1,010. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 283, f. 130. Poly-

stphonia cladostephus Warvey 18604, pl. 154. — AR. Sublittoral along

186

channel, all seasons but commonest in winter. VB. Mid littoral on well-

washed rock in bay, Jat. 1946, 1948. DB. Drift, Jan. 1947. PB. Drift, all

seasons. AP, Drift, Aug. 1948. The American River form is a larger,

looser and softer plant than those from the south coast,

BRONGNIARTELLA FEREDAYAK (J. Agardh) Schmitz, De Toni 1903, 1,014,

Dasya feredayae J. Agardh 1863, 1,235, Harvey 1860 b, 303, — VB. Lower

littoral, north side of Ellen Point, Jan. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1948, 1949. PB.

Sublittoral fringe on a western reef, Dec. 1948, and drift, Jan. 1946, 1948.

BRONGNIARTELLA SARCOCAULON (Harvey) Schmitz, De Toni 1903, 1,013. ILucas

and Perrin 1947, 285. Dasya sarcocdulon Harvey 1863, pl. 278. — PB. Drift,

Jan. 1946. CH’, In an exposed pool, south side, Aug 1948.

DOXODASYA Schmitz

Doxopasva putgocuarte (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 538, t, 13, £. 21-22. De

Toni 1903, 1,021. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 286, f, 131, Dasya bulbochaete

Harvey 1847, 65, pl. 25. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1948. PB, Dnit, Jan, 1944,

1946.

LOPHOCLADIA Schmitz

LopHocLapia HaRvevr (Kiitzing) Schmitz, Falkenberg 1901, 553. De Toni 1905,

1,016. Dasya harveyi Kiitzing 1864, 26, t. 71 e-f. Dasya lallemandi, Harvey

1854, 543. — AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, April 1947, and on the

cockle bank near the mouth, Jan, 1948, and drift, May 1945,

BosTRYCHTEAE

ROSTRYCHIA Montagne

BostrycHia mixta [looker and Harvey, Harvey 1860, pl. 176A. De Tomi

1903 1,150. — AR. Upper littoral on shaded rock throughout the inlet,

mixed in small amourit with B. simpliciuscula, all seasons. PB. On shaded

rock in rear littoral, main reef, Aug. 1948, Jan, 1949. RP. Upper littoral,

all seasons.

Bosrrycura stMPuiciuscuLa Harvey. J. Agardh 1863, 854. Falkenberg 1901,

152. De Toni 1903, 1,155, Liicas and Perrin 1947, 306. Bostrychia rivu-

laris, Harvey 1860a, pl. 176R. — AR. Upper littoral on shaded rock

throughout the inlet, all seasons. PB. On shaded rock, rear littoral maiti

reef, May 1945 (rare), AB. Upper littoral, Jan. 1945. RP. Upper littoral,

all seasons.

CHONDRIEAE

CHONDRIA C. Agardh

Cronpeia DASYPHYLLA (Woodward) C Agardh. De Toni 1903, 842. Newton

1931, 342, #.211, Taylor 1937, 359. — AR. Upper sublittoral on tidal flats,

Feb. 1946, April 1947,

J, Agardh (1892, 148-160) described a number of species of Chondria

from. southern Australia, some of which had previously been placed under

Ch. dasyphylla. At least three species of Chondria occur at American Riyer,

and oné species in the sublittoral fringe at Pennington Bay; but without

examining authentic specimens of J. Agardh’s it is difficult to place these.

The specimens determined as Ch. dasyphylla agree well with Newton’s figure.

CLADURUS Falkenberg

Cuapurus evatus. (Sonder) Falkenberg 1901, 223, pl. 22, i. 1. De Toni 1903,

814. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 251, f. 111. Rytiphloea elata, Harvey 1862,

pl. 236. — MR-. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949, PB, Drift,

Jan. 1946.

187

COELOCLONIUM J. Agardh

CorLoctonrum oruntiomes (Ilarvey) J. Agardh 1876, 640. Falkenberg 1901,

211, t. 22, f. 32-34, De Toni 1903, 825, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 256.

Chondria opuntivides Hatvey 1860 b, 297, pl. 189, — AR. Upper sublittoral

along channel, especially uear the mouth, May to Nov. (a winter [otm).

VB. Drift, Jan. 1946, PB. Drift, May 1945, Jan. 1947, 4B, Drift, Aug.

1948. KP, Drift, Aug, 1948.

LAURENCIEAE

JANCZEWSKIA Solms

JANCZEWSKIA TASMANICA Falkenberg. Engler and Prantl 1897, 432, t. 243.

Falkenberg 1901, 257, t. 24, £. 18-19. De Toni 1903, 812. Setchell 1914b,

16. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 250. — PB. On Laurencia elata in the sub-

littoral fringe, Jan. 1948, Dec. 1948, and on Lonrencia heteroclada in the rear

littoral, Sept. 1946. CW’. On L. heteroclada, lower littoral, Jan, 1946. Rein-

bold (1899, 47) lists a J, australis Falkenberg from Investigator Strait.

De Toni lists this nomen nudum with a query under J. fasmanica, and

Setchell (p, 18) comments that it may be distinct from J. tasmanica, The Kan-

garoo Island specimens seem to agree well with J, tasmanica, and J, australis

is probably the same species.

LAURENCIA Lamouroux

LAURENCIA Borrvopes (Turner) Gaillon. Harvey 1862, pl. 182. De Toni 1903,

802. Yamada 1931 a, 230. — BH. Very low littoral, Oct, 1947. CC. Lower

littoral, Jan, 1948. PB, Sublittoral fringe and Cystophora-coralline associa-

tions on reefs, all seasons. CW’. Rock pools, south side, Aug, 1948.

L. botryoides is very variable in size and stoutness, but fertile specimens

are distinctive in the peculiar wart-like, crowded, tetrasporie receptacles.

The PR specimens were teported in Pt. IT, 159, under the ms. name of

L. robusta; fertile specimens show that they are only a stunted form (2-5 cm.

high) of L. botryoides. The BS specimens are robust plants, to 20 cm.

hizh, with the tetrasporic receptacles almost completely covering the

branches.

‘LAURENCIA cLAvaTA Sonder 1852, 694, Yamada 1931a, 228. Chondria clavate

Harvey 1860a, pl. 189. Corynecladia clavata, De Toni 1903, 810, — AR.

Stiblittoral near Muston, Jan. 1948, K. Drift, Jan. 1945. RP. Drift, June

1947.

Laurencta evata (Agardh) Harvey 1847, 81, pl. 33, De Toni 1903, 803.

Vamada 19314, 241, pl. 26a, b. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 249, #. 110. —

HR. Low pools, Jan, 1949, PR. Sublittoral fringe and to 3 fect down the

sides of reefs, all seasons.

LAvRENCcIA GRAcItis Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 84, De Toni 1903,

780. Yamada 193la, 212, pl, 12b. — AR. Low littoral on Pig Island,

Dec, 1948; upper sublittoral on Wallaby Island, July 1947, and on cockle

bank, Jan. 1948. BS. Sublittoral on Posidonia, June 1947. EB. Upper sub-

littoral on Posidonia, Tan. 1945.

LAURENCIA TIETEROCLADA Harvey 1860a, pl. 148. De Toni 1903, 782. Yamada

1931 a, 238. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 247. — WR. Lower littoral and pools,

Jan. 1946. CC. Rock pools, Jan, 1944. WR, Rock pools, south side of

Ellen Point, Jan, 1948. PB. Littoral on reefs, all seasons. CW and AB.

Lower littoral, Jan. 1947. L. heteroclada probably occurs throughout the

188

Exposed Rocky Coast Subformation, in the littoral and low rock pools. It

is a variable species, and the relations between it and L. filiformis and

L, forsteri need careful examination,

LAURENCIA Majyuscus.a (Harvey) Lucas 1935, 223. Laurencia obtusa var.

majuscula Harvey 1863, syn. n. 309b. Yamada 1931 a, 223, pl. 16C, —

AR. Upper sublittoral on Pig Island, Jan. 1947, Dec. 1948.

LAURENCIA TASMANICA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 84. J. Agardh

1876, 654. De Toni 1903, 795. Yamada 1931a, 234, pl. 21. Lucas and

Perrin 1947, 249. — AR. Upper sublittoral behind Wallaby Island, Aug.

1948. BH, Lowest littoral, Oct. 1947. These specimens agree well with

Yamada’s plate of an authentic specimen, and with Harvey's from Tasmania.

PTEROSIFHONIEAE

DICTYMENIA Greville

DictTVMENIA HARVEYANA Sonder 1852, 698. Harvey 1860 b, 296, Kiitzing 1864,

t. 95a-b, Falkenberg 1901, 283, t. 19, £. 17.” De Toni 1903, 983, Lucas

and Perrin 1947, 282, 1. 129. Dictymenia tridens Harvey 1847, 28, t. 7, —

AR. Upper sublittoral between Muston and the mouth, May 1945, Nov.

1947, Jan. and Aug. 1948, VB. Drift, Jan. 1949. RP. Drift, June 1947,

Aug, 1948,

DictyMEeNIA TRIDENS (Mertens) Greville, Kiitzing 1864, t. 94f-g. Falkenberg

1901, 287. De Toni 1903, 985. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 281, f. 128. —

PB. Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949,

JEANNERETTIA Hooker and Harvey

JEANNERETTIA LOBATA Hooker and Harvey. Harvey 1847, 20, pl. 4; 1858, pl. 33.

Papenfuss 1942, 448. Pollexfenia lobata, Falkenberg 1901, 295. De Toni

1903, 979. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 278. — IB. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB,

Drift Jan. 1946, 1948, and in the sublittoral fringe, main reef, Jan, 1948.

JEANNERETTIA PEDICELLATA (Harvey) Papenfuss 1942, 448, Pollexfenia pedi-

cellata Harvey 1847, 22, pl. 5. Falkenberg 1901, 291, t. 4, £. 14-19. De Toni

1903, 979, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 278, — AR. Upper sublittoral through-

out the inlet, June to Novy, AB, Drift, Aug. 1948. RP. Drift, June 1947,

Aug. 1948. This seems to be mainly a winter form, and is extremely variable

in thallus width (from 4 to 15 mm.).

LOPHOSIPHONIEAE

LOPHOSIPHONIA Falkenberg

LoryosiPHONIA scopuLORUM (Harvey) comb. nov.

Polysiphonia scopulorum Harvey 1854, 540; Alz Aus. Exs. n. 186. J.

Agardh 1863, 940. Kiitzing 1864, t. 37 a-c. De Toni 1903, 1,065, — PB.

Forming brownish red patches on rock in the rear littoral on recfs, all

seasons,

This material is identical with Harvey’s 186a from Fremantle of

P, scoputorum (in Melbourne National Herbarium), but the species is clearly

a Lophosiphonia,

PoLYZONIEAE

CLIFTONAEA Harvey

CLIFTONAFA PECTINATA Harvey 1859, pl. 100. Falkenberg 1901, 375, t. 5,

£. 17-25; t. 10, £. 14; t. 24, f, 3. De Toni 1903, 1,039. Lucas and Perriy

1947, 289, f. 135. — WR. Drift, Jan. 1946. VB, Drift, Jan. 1948. CH’,

Drift Jan, 1948.

189

EUZONIELLA Falkenberg

FEUZONIELLA FLACCIDA (Ilarvey) Falkenberg 1901, 365, t. 5, £. 10. De Toni 1903,

1,029. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 288, f. 134. Polyzonta flaccida Harvey 1858,

pl. 42B. — PB. Drilt, Dec. 1948, A single cystocarpic specimen which

agrees well with Harvey's figure.

EuzonteLta twersa (J. Agardh) Falkenberg 1901, 361, t. 5, f. 2-8, 11; t. 14,

f, 28-32, De Toni 1903, 1,028. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 287, £. 133. Poly-

eonia imcisa, Harvey 1858, pl. 42 A. — WB, Drift, Jan, 1946,

AMANSIFAE

AMANSTA Lamourcux

AMANSIA KUETZINGIOIDES Harvey 1858, pl. 51. Falkenberg 1901, 420, t. 7, . 5.

De Toni 1903, 1,085. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 296, £. 140, — PB, Drift,

Jan. 1946, 1948.

AMANSIA PINNATIFIDA Harvey 1862, pl. 222. Falkenberg 1901, 419. De Toni

1903, 1,090. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 296. — PB, Drift, Jan. 1949. PB,

Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948. CH’. Drift, Jan, 1946.

ANEURIA (J. Agardh) W. v. Bosse

ANEURIA LATIFOLIA (Harvey) J. Agardh 1892, 169. De Toni 1924, 429.

Lenormandia latifolia Harvey 1847, 19. — IB. Drift, Jan, 1948, 1949,

PB. Drift, all seasons.

Previously (Pt, I, 244) this species was recorded as Lenormandia

spectabilis, Harvey considered this and 1, lattfolia to be forms of one

species, but they appear to be quite distinct,

LENORMANDIA Sonder

LENORMANDIA MURBLLERI Sonder. Harvey 1858, pl. 45. Falkenberg 1901, 467,

t, &, f. 13-16. De Toni 1903, 1,116. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 300, f. 142.

— WB. Drift, Jan. 1946. B. Drift, Jan 1948. PB, Driit, Jan. 1946, 1948.

LENORMANDIA SMITHIAE (Hooker and Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, 464, t. 8,

f, 18-21. De Tom 1903, 1,120. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 303, £. 143. Poly-

phacum smithiae, Harvey 1847, 17, pl. 3. — VB, Drift, Jan. 1949, PB,

Drift, Jan, 1944, May 1945, Jan. 1946, 1948.

LENORMANDIA SPECTARILIS Sonder, Harvey 1862, pl. 181. De Toni 1903, 1,117,

— VB, Dritt, Jan, 1946, 1949. A Jarge range of specimens may show that

this species is not distinct from L. muvellert.

OSMUNDARIA Lamouroux

OSMUNDARTA PROLIFERA Lamoutoux. Falkenberg 1901, 469, t. 8, £. 24-26, De

Toni 1903, 1,109. Lucas and Perrin 1947, 299, f. 141. Polyphacum pro-

liferwm, Harvey 1862, pl. 188. — P&. Drift, Jan, 1946, 1947, 1948,

PROTOKUETZINGIA Falkenberg

PROTOKUETZINGIA AUSTRALASICA (Montagne) Falkenberg 1901, 475, t. 9, £. 6

and f. 8B. De Toni 1903, 1,076, Lucas and Perrin 1947, 295. Rytiphloea

australasica, Harvey 1858, pi. 27; — VB, Drift, Jan, 1949. DB. Sublittoral

fringe of western terraced reef, Dec, 1948, and drift, Jan. 1948. RP. Drift

June 1947.

190

VIDALIA Lamouroux

VIpaALIA SPIRALIS Lamouroux. Falkenberg 1901, 428. De Toni 1903, 1,106.

Lucas and Perrin 1947, 298. Epineuron spirale, Harvey 1847, 25, el 9,—

VB, Drift, Jan. 1948, 1949.

HETEROCLADIEAE

TRIGENIA Sonder

TRIGENIA UMBELLATA J. Agardh 1890, 116; 1899, 122, t. 2, f. 1-6. Falkenberg

1901, 583, t. 12, f. 14-15. De Toni 1903, 1,125. Lucas and Perrin 1947,

305, £. 145. — CC. Drift, Jan. 1948. PB. Drift, Jan. 1944, 1946.

Acetabularia -

Acrochaetium

Acrotylus -

Amansia -

Amphiroa = -

Aneuria - -

Antithamnion

Apjohnia -

Apoglossum -

Areschougia -

Asparagopsis

Asperocaccus

Ballia- -

Bangia - -

Bellotia - -

Bindera - “

Blidingia -

Bonnemaisonia

Bostrychia = -

Botryocladia -

Brachytrichia

Bronguiartella

Bryopsis -

Callithamnion

Callophyllis -

Callymenia -

Calothrix «

Carpoglossum

Carpomitra -

Caulerpa -

Centroceras. -

Ceramium— -

Chaetomorpha

Champia -

Chauvinia -

Chiracanthia

Ciilanidophora

Chondria -

Cladophora -

Cladasiphon -

Cladostephus

Cladurus -

Claudea ~

Cliftonaea = -

Coccochloris

Codium -

Coelarthrum

Coeloclonium

Colpomenia -

191

INDEX TO GENERA

Page Page

- 144 Corallina - - 166

- 162 Corynophlaea - 154

- 174 Crouania - -179

~ 189 Cryptopleura - 184

- 166 Curdiea - = 169

+ 189 Cutleria - = 150

-~178 Cystophora - - 159

- 144 Cystophyllum - 161

~ 183

ar Dasya - - = 18l

_ 157 Dasyopsis - = 182

> Dasyphila - = 178

Dasyphloea - = 165

Delisea - ~~ 163

; pi Derbesia = - 144

x ¢

- 186 Dermocarpa - ~ 139

174 Dicranema - 178

- 142 Dictymenia - - 158

- 163 Dictyopteris - - 153

_ 186 Dictyosphaeria - 143

- 174 Dictyota - - 150

al Dilophus ~ - 152

- 185 Doxodasya - - 186

- 144

Ecklonia - - 157

- 177 Ectocarpus - ~- 148

~ 168 Encyothalia - —- 156

~ 168 Enteromorpha ~- 142

- 140 Entophysalis - 139

~ 159 Erythroclonium - 172

- 156 Erythrymenia - 175

- 146 Ethelia - - 166

- 180 Euptilota - -~178

- 180 Euzoniella - - 189

- 143

- 176

- 183 Galaxaura - - 165

-~ 184 Gelidium - - 165

~ 153 Gelinaria - - 168

= 186 Gigartina - - 174

= 142 Gloioderma - - 174

- 155 Gloiophloea - - 165

- 149 Gloiosaccion - 175

~ 186 Gracilaria - - 169

- 183 Grifithsia - - 176

- 188 Grunowiella - - 172

~ 139 Gulsonia - +178

- 145

- 175 Halodictyon - - 182

- 187 Haloplegma - - 177

- 157 Halopteris - - 149

Halymenia -

Hemineura -

Heterosiphonia

Hormosira-

Hydroclathrus

Hydrocoleum

Hymenocladia

Hymenema -

Hypnea -

Hypoglossum

Isactis - 7

Janezewskia -

Jania- -

Jeannerettia -

Lasiothalia = -

Laurencia -

Lenormandia

Liagora -

Lithothamnion

Lobospira ss -

Lomentaria -

Lophocladia -

Lophurella -

Lophosiphonia

Lyngbya -

Macrocystis -

Melanthalia -

Metagoniolithon

Metamastophora

Micradictyon

Muellerena -

Mychodea -

Myriodesma -

Myriogloia -

Myriogramme

Myrionema -

Nemation -

Nemastoma -

Neomonospora

Nereia - -

Nizymenia = -

Notheia -

Page

168

183

182

158

157

139

176

184

173

183

141

187

167

188

179

187

189

153

168

153

176

186

184

188

140

157

169

167

144

178

173

158

155

184

154

163

169

177

156

171

158

192

Page Page Page

Osmundaria - - 189 Rhipiliopsis - - 146 Symploca ~ - 140

Rhododactylis - 173

Rhodoglossum = - 174

Pachydictyon - 151 Rhodopeltis - - 166 Taonia - - + 153

Perischelia - - 178 Rhodophyllis - 172 Thamnoclonium - 168

Perithalia - - 156 Rhodymenia - - 175 Thuretia - - 182

Peyssonnelia - 166 Rivularia - - 141 Thysanocladia - 171

Phacelocarpus - 171 Tinocladia = - - 155

Phitymophora - 183 Trigenia - - 190

Phloeocaulon - 149 Sarcomenia - - 183 Tylotus - - - 169

Plectonema - ~- 140 Sargassum - ~- 161

Plocamium - - 170 Scaberia - - 162 .

Pocockiella - - 153 Scytosiphon - - 157 Ulothrix 5. =I

Polycerea - ~- 155 Scytothalia - - 159 UWA; = Hal

Polycoelia = - - 169 Seirococcus - - 159

Polysiphonia - - 184 Solieria - +171 Vidalia - -~ . 190

Porphyra - - 162 Sphacelaria - - 149

Protokuetzingia - 189 Splachnidium - 155

Pterocladia - - 165 Spongoclonium - 178 Wrangelia - - 180

Ptilocladia - - 179 Sporochnus - ~- 156

Pylaiella - - 148 Spyridia ade 180 Xiphophora - - 159

Stenocladia - - 171

Stilopsis - - 155

Rhabdonia - + 172 Struvea - - 144 Zonaria - - 153

193

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195

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EVAPORATION STUDIES USING SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DATA

BY C. W. BONYTHON

Summary

The most common instrument for measuring evaporation — the tank evaporimeter — may give

erroneous readings as the effect of several different causes. The feasibility of such readings being

supplanted by calculated evaporation data based on the readings of several more-readily

standardized instruments presents itself, whereupon an equation of calculating evaporation is

quoted, and its derivation is given.

198

EVAPORATION STUDIES USING SOME SOUTH AUSTRALIAN DATA

By C, W. Bowyruon *

[Read 13 April 1950]

SUMMARY

The most common instrument for measuring evaporation—ihe tank

evapurimeter—imay give ertoneous readings as the effect of several different

causes, The feasibility of such readings being supplanted by calculated

evaporation data based on the readings of several more-readily standardized

instruments presents itself, whereupon an equation for calcylating evapora-

tion is quoted, and its derivation is given.

This equation is tested experimentally, using some South Australian

data, first against two eyaporimeters at Dry Creek for a period of six months,

and next for shorter petiods in comparing evapodrimeters at three different

sites near Adelaide. Goad correlation between the curves for measured and

calculated evaporation is shown, bit there are differences between the re-

spective absolute values. It is suspected that there are irregularities duc to

differences in exposute, etc., of the evaporimeters, and it is concluded that

comparisons of the evaporation characteristics of different localities can pos-

sibly be more reliably made by using the equation and its relevant data

rather than evaporimeters,

Camments are made on how the mean values of the basic data should be

used in the eyaporation equation, and on the apparent lag in phase in one

instance of meastited behind calculated evaporation.

Finally there is a discussion upon whether there is a likelihood of varia-

tion in the asstimed fixed relationship between the coefficients of heat and

mass transfer in the air film above the evaporating surface—the basis of the

evaporation équation—and how such a variation will affect the accuracy at

evaporation calculated by means of the equation.

INTRODUCTION

The tank evaporimeter is still the most widely-used instrument for the

measurement of the potential evaporation of a locality, although it is recely—

ing increasing criticism, The definition of evaporation varies according to

the field in which the evaporation data are to be used. Prom the point of

view of the physical meteorologist it is the mean rate at which water vapour

is actually being carried into the atmosphere from what may be a wide and

heterogeneous area of country. To him this will be the only definition, The

bio-climatologist, however, may recognize more than one definition, terming

the foregoing the water loss dtic to ‘evapo-transpiration.” From another

viewpaint evaporation is the rate at which water would he lost from the sur-

face of a hypothetical—and perhaps large—sheet of water centred upon the

site of an evaporimeter to the reading of which it is supposed to bear some

relation. The bio-climatologist would term this “evaporation from a free

water surface.”

Sheppard has stated (18) the requirements of an ideal evaporimeter, viz.

., the necessary condition to be satisfied by the surface of the evapori-

meter is that it shall be flush with the surrounding land (or water) surface,

that its roughness parameter should be identical with that of the surround-

ings, and that the vapour pressure at the surface shall be maintained the

same as at the surrounding surface,” He adds, “Such requirements are ex-

cessively diffictilt to meet.”

* 1.C.L Alkali (Australia) Pty. Lu,

Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust., 73, (2), Dec. 1950

199

Priestley (14) has cited some figures to show that the total natural

evaporation of the Australian continent cannot be greater than one-fifth of

that indicated by Foley’s (9) map of evaporation based on tank imeasure-

ments.

Sutton (21) has shown theoretically that the rate of evaporation [ram ani

exposed water surface should vary with the dimensions of the surface,

The experimental work of Sleight (20) and Rohwer (17) has shawn con-

siderable apparent change in evaporation rate with the size of the evapori-

meter in which it is measured. (However, this statement will be qualified

further on). Other work, including that of Field and Symons (7) at as early

3 date as 1869, has shown that exposure matkedly influences evaporimeter

readings.

It can be seen from the foregoing that since there may be different

definitions of evaporation an evaporimeter will not (except in very special

cases) yield a measure of it appropriate to all the definitions. All that can

be expected of an evaporimeter is generally a rough indication of one of

these evaporation fates, and specifically a precise measurement of the evapo-

ration rate for an identical vessel of water identically exposed. Even the

second expectation may be difficult to realise in practice: part of the purpose

this paper is to show up difficulties in the reproducing of evaporation con-

tlitions.

STANDARDIZING EVAPORIMETERS

The shortcomings of evaporimeter measurements for predicting large

scale natural evaporation have beem enlarged upon by Sutton (22), Shep-

pard (18) and others, and these are admitted by the author. However, the

tank evaporimeter has yet to be supplanted in practice for the purpose of

comparing the evaporation of different localities, countries, ete., so no fur-

ther excuse is offered for it in this paper which deals with obtaining improved

practical data based on evaporation losses from small, specified areas of

exposed water surface.

It is undesirable to add to the existing mass of empirical data on the

effect of variables like dimensions, radiation absorbing power and exposure

upon the rate of evaporation from evaporimeters, when these data are to be

used to convert such evaporation rates fnto so-called “true evaporation.”

Many of the early investigations were concerned with this aspect. The

empirical data presented in this paper are here only for the purpose of re-

vealing the failings of evaporimeters.

Evaporimeters are usually small tanks of water set in, on or above the

ground and exposed ta sun and air, There are many designs, but the simp-

lest and most common one is a stnall, circular metal tank, with depth

roughly equal to diameter, buried in the ground almost to the rim. Different

designs often yield different results when similarly exposed. Consequently,

standardization is important. In choosing a suitable design, the following

points should be borne in mind :—

(a) There should be the minimum interference with the nornial hori-

zontal wind movement over the surface, and the wind directivn

should not affect the rate of evaporation. Hence a tank set more or

less Aush with the ground and of circular shape would appear sutt-

able.

(b) The size should not be so great that difficulty in supplying sufficient

miuke-wp water is met in dry localities, nor so small that accidental

depletion of water by animals and birds can amount to an appre-

ciable part of the normal evaporation loss.

200

evaporimeters exposed in the open. Therefore a design minimizing

variations in radiation absorption should be sought. A surface of

low reflecting power is desirable, and since the characteristics of

such an absorbing surface are hard to standardize, an evaporimeter

holding a reasonable depth of water and of such shape that it at

least approximates to a cayity absorber should be chosen. A black

evaporimeter with depth equal to width would meet these require-

ments. (There ts, however, evidence against the use of a surface

of low reflecting power on parts of the tank, since the projecting

tim may absorb an unduly large amount of radiation relative to

that entering through the water surface).

{d) Gain or loss of sensible heat through the sides and bottom should

be minimized. While insulation may be impracticable, a buried

tank of dimensions giving minimum outside area relative to holding

capacity should be chosen.

(e) An evaporimeter must function also as a rain gauge, since total

(or “gross'") evaporation must be derived in practice from changes

in water level and from gaugings in a nearhy rain gauge. Evidence

has been produced (2) showing that an evaporimeter may not be a

reliable rain gauge. The statement “more water splashes out than

splashes in” briefly explains haw an evaporimeter may behave in

rain. The larger the evaporimeter is the better is the likely approxi-

mation to a perfect rain pauge.

The Australian Standard evaporimeter (1) consists of a cylindrical,

sheet-metal tank, 3 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. deep, set inside a similar tank

4 ft. in diameter sunk in the ground with its rim level with the surface. The

rim of the inner tank is 2 in, above that of the outer one. The inner tank

is filled with water to within 3 in, of the top, and the outer annular space is

filled to the top. It would appear to mect most of the requirements set out.

The outer jacket is thought to act as a “guard ring’ to the inner vessel in

which evaporation is measured, producing uniform canditions over the sur-

face of the latter, and tending to bear the brunt of water depletion caused by

animals and birds.

While most Australian Standard evaporimeters are made of galvanized

jtun sheet, normaily left unpainted, the addition of a coat of black paint might

be considered an improvement under headitig (c), although there is also the

disadvantage referred to, and while it might seem that this latter objection

could be met by painting the tank black below water level and the rim above

it white, this would introduce the uncertainty of the destination of radiation

reflected from the white part. In general it is easier to prepare and main-

tain a suriace reasonably good as an absorber than as a reflector. Perhaps,

then, weathered galvanized iron, having a short-wave radiation absorption

coefficient of the order of 0.9 (4), will be as satisfactory in practice as any

other material for evaporimeters.

An example of a design permitting a wide variation in total energy-ab-

surbing power is the U.S. Weather Bureau Class A Land Plan. This is cir-

cular, 4 ft. in diameter and 10 in. deep, and set on wooden supports a little

above the ground. The author has experimented with one of these at Dry

Creek, South Australia, and he has found the following variations in evapora-

tron rate with different surface treatinents of the metal —

(4) Evaporation in this paper is defined as measured fall in water level plus rain

gauged during the same pericd. This is sometimes termed “gross” evaporation.

201

Taste I

Stirface Treatment Relative Eyaporation Rate

Plain galvanized iron 100

Painted “flat white” 85

Painted “lead grey” 104

Painted black 109

The comparisons were carried out in simmer over periods ranging from

9 to 90 days.

Young (24) in the U.S.A. has reported similar results from not-dissimi-

lar tanks painted several colours.

The author has experimented with evaporimeters of the Anstralian

Standard pattern to obain these results:

Taste II

Construction and Finish Relstive Evaporation Rate

Plain galvanized iron sheet (16 g.) 100

Black-painted steel plate (7 in.) 103-104

Such results are likely to vaty with season and expostite, but the above

should hold for the neighbourhood of Adelaide in summer,

lt is felt that the radiation absorptive power of the projecting metal rims

of the Australian Standard evaporimeter may influence its readings, Refer-

ence will be made to this further on.

An important factor not so far dealt with is the working level of the

water surface. The distance that this is below the tim has an appreciable

effect pon evaporation rate, The author experimented at Dry Creek, South

Australia, during the 1948-9 and 1949-50 summers with two identical Aus-

tralian Standard evaporimeters (of plain galvanized iron), employing dif-

ferent working levels in the one relative to the other. (The roles of reference

and subject tank wete reversed regularly to eliminate any effects of unequal

exposure or construction). The following results were obtained :—

TasLe III

Mean working level below rim Evaporation rate of subject,

Reference Subject taking reference = LOD,

1.5 in. 2.5 tn. %

1.5 in. 3.5 in, &5

Another interesting fact is that the use on the Dry Creek evaporimeter

of a bird screen made of l-inch mesh wire netting caused a reduction in

evaporation of approximately 64%.

These restilts are quite empirical, but they can probably be related to

the respective coefficients for diffusion of water vapour to the air.

Impurities on the water surface may affect evaporimeter performance.

Dust, and other forcign matter often oily in nature, ysually accumulates in

quite a short time. Heymann and his associates (10), (11) have shown that,

while theoretically (and also in practice in the laboratory) the presence of a |

thin oil film on the strface can cause a greatly increased resistance to

evaporation, such a film is probably unstable under conditions lke thuse of

outdoor exposure. The present author experimented by adding a drop or

two per day of one of Heymann’s oil compositions to the surface of an

evaporimeter, keeping an oil-free evaporimeter for reference. ‘The results

were erratic and inconclusive, the relative windiness possibly having some

influence. On some days a reduction in evaporation of up to 10% was found,

Foley (9) lists some other factors affecting evaporation from evapori-

meters,

202

Many sources of variation in results from evaporimeters have thus been

made apparent.

THE CALCULATION OF EVAPORATION

Sitice evaporimeters are hard to standardize, it appears possible that cal-

culated evaporation, based on readings of meteorological variables taken from

several more-readily standardized instruments, could be used for the same

purpose with better effect. If these variables are ones already measured in

normal meteorological practice, it will be possible to calculate evaporation

fer localities where such observations are or have been taken but where no

evaporimeter exists.

The calculation of evaporation from open water surfaces has been at-

tempted by Cummings and Richardson (6) on the basis of energy balance,

. Other approaches have followed the Imes of “sink strength’—the diffusion

of water vapour considered as a driving force versus a resistance—a com-

bination of sink strength and energy balance, and aerodynamical treat-

ment. (These have been summarized by Penman (13) ).

A yersion of the combined sink strength and energy balance method will

be considered here, Four meteorological variables are used :-—

(i) Net gain of radiant energy.

(ii) Air temperature.

(iii) Humidity.

(iv) Wind speed tear the ground.

Penman (13) gives the general form of such an equation, but the one

used here is that developed theoretically in England in 1945 by Ferguson'?),

hased partly on the chemical engineering concept of the imter-relation be-

tween heat and mass transfer through a common gas film. The equation

has not previously been published“, so its derivation will be described

briefly.

Nett gain of radiant energy is defined as the total short wave solar radia-

tion, both direct and diffuse, penetrating the water surface (which may be

regarded as being in an evaporimeter), less the nett loss of long wave radia-

tion by the water, The first can be measured by solarimeter, and allowance

made for reflection from the water surface. The second can be calculated with

sufficient accuracy from air temperature, humidity and relative hours of

bright sunshine. (As a first approximation it is assumed that the tempera-

ture of the radiating water surtace is the same as that of the air).

Air temperature is dry bulb temperature “near” the evaporating surface.

Humidity is the partial pressure of water yapour in the air “near” the

surface.

Wind speed is the horizontal speed “near” the surface. It can be

measured by anemometer,

Now in the conditions considered there is a nett inward flow of radiant

energy to the water and an outward flow of water vapour (taking away

energy as latent heat of vaporization), while there may be a flow of sensible

heat from water to air or vice versa.

@) Dr. J. Ferguson, then Director of Research, I-C.I. Ltd., Alkali Division, Narth-

wich, Cheshire.

©) It is now probable that Ferguson will publish this work during 1950.

203

The sink strength basis is the Dalton equation, which, in appropriate

terms, is

w =k (pw —Pa) ()

where w == wt. water evaporated per unit time from unit area of surface

k = diffusion coefficient of water vapour to air

Pw = vapour pressure of water at the evaporating surface

Pa == partial pressure of water vapour in the air “neat” the surface

Next, from the energy balance aspect, the latent heat used in evaporat-

ing water of weight, w, is

L k (pw — Pa)

where L == latent heat of vaporization.

Sensible heat exchange in unit time between unit atea of water surface

and air is

h (Oy — 4)

where h = heat transfer coefficient

Ow = water surface temperature

6. = air temperature

It is further assumed that no rise or fall in water temperature is taking

place — that @y is constant —, and that there is no flow of heat between the

water and its surroundings (other than through the air-water interface).

Hence the nett gain in radiant energy (Q) should equal the sum of these

two heat flows, viz:

Qe= Lk (pw — pa) +h (Ow — a) (2)

This may be simplified by introducing the relationship between mass and

heat transfer taking place through the same air film. Such a relationship is

treated in the theory of the wet bulb thermometer: regardless of changes in

the film resistance the coefficients k and h remain in a fixed relation to one

another. Walker, Lewis and McAdams (23) give the relation for water as

being

— | «- =_~—_—-.00 (3)

where temperatures are in deg. C., vapour pressures are in mm, of mercury,

and the tinits of mass aud energy are gm. and cal. respectively.

Using (3) to eliminate k in (2) converts the latter to

Q = 2h (pw —Pa) + bh (Ow —fa) (4)

where the variables may now be defined specifically as

Q = cal./em*/hr.

h = cal./em?/hr./deg. C.

k = gm./em?/hr./mm. of Hg,

Pw:Pa = mm. of Hg.

Oy0a = deg. C.

Since py, the vapour pressure of water, is a known function of Oy, the

temperature, the equation can be solved for Oy. Re-arranging (4) gives

Spe Ep ice Fibs tha (5)

For water the values of (2 pw -+ 4w) for different values of

6y (or of py), can be obtained from vapour pressure vs. temperature tables.

204

Since pw is fixed for a given value of (2 py + 6y) we may write

Pw = f (2 py 4- @w) (6a)

=f (42 pa + 6) (6b)

where f is a functional sign.

Evaporation per unit area per unit time is given by w in (1). When

w is in gm./em?/hr, it is numerically equal to E, where E is em,/hr. water

evaporated. Hence

E =k (py — pa) (7a)

= — (Pw — pa) (7b)

when relation (3) is brought in.

Finally, combining (6b) and (7b) we obtain

2h Q

Earle +2 tm | (8)

L h

From (8) evaporation may be calculated without 6y being known in ad-

vance. It is, however, necessary to know h. Published data on heat transfer

between moving air and flat planes are available, and k (which is, of course,

interchangeable with h) can be measured over, for instance, an ¢yaporimeter.

Penman (13) gives figures showing the relationship between k and horizontal

wind specd, V, and Raman (16) has measured the h — V relationship for

certain conditions,

After deriving (8) Ferguson points out that it is based on steady state

conditions, and that it cannot necessarily be used with average values of the

variables when the latter do not remain constant. QO, #4 and h at least are

continually changing with time, some in a periodic manner, However, after

a study involving the solution of differential equations in the Manchester

University differential analyser, Ferguson concludes that, provided the water

is of reasonable depth—say 6 in. or more—and provided moderate periods

of time are taken—say at least 2 or 3 days—equation (8) can be used with

the average values of variables,

Ferguson later introduces a minor modification to correct for the fact

that the return long wave radiation from the water to the air is controlled by

the tnknown temperature, @, and not, as assumed for simplicity, by the

known temperature, @a. He shows mathematically that the correction can

be introduced into the sensible heat change quantity in (4) by substituting

for the coefficient of heat transfer, h, a fictitious one, h’, (4) now becomes

Q = 20 (py — pa) — hl (ye — &) (2)

where h’ is the value substituted for h, so making allowance in the calcu-

lated sensible heat change for an error in the calculated return long-wave

radiation.

He then re-writes (5) as

r Q r

2 pw + Ow (1 + —) = — + 2pa + @ (1 + —)

h h h

(10)

205

where h’ = h +r, {11}

in which r = 4 & 3600 0 T (12)

where in turn « = Stefan-Boltzmann Constant,

and Ta = ait temperature, deg. K.

{The mathematical derivation and proof of (12) will not be given here)-

In solving the modified evaporation equation, py is found graphically by

plotting the straight line connecting py and @y in (10) and reading off its

intersection with the known curve for water of py vs. O, The derived

tw is used in (7b) to determine evaporation,

It is to be noted that only that value of h related to sensible heat ex-

change is altered to h’. The h used as the denominator for Q in (10), and

that used in (7b) finally to calculate evaporation is not so altered,

This correction somewhat complicates the simple method of equation

(8) for calculating evaporation, and in many cases it is negligible, However,

the correction involving r has been used in the caleuwlations given subse-

quently in this paper.

PRACTICAL TESTING OF THE THEORY

The Ferguson equation has been checked experimentally by the author

at Dry Creek, South Australia, where there is a meteorological station at-

tached to the solar saltfields of ICI, Alkali (Australia) Ply, Ltd.

The first check was carried out in 1947, and while a brief reference tu

it has been made (3) details were not published. The details differed slightly

from those now to he given, mainly concerning the derivation of h. The

results were, however, very similar to those found in 1949,

In the latter check solar radiation was measured by a Kipp & Zonen

solarimetric thermopile with recorder, and hours of bright sunshine by a

Camphell-Stokes recorder. These records, together with those of tempera-

tare and humidity, enabled nett loss of long wave radiation to be calculated.

(This involved a-modified form of the Baur & Phillips [ormula (5) together

with a relationship like that given by Penman (13) connecting relative hours

ef bright sunshine with radiation loss from skies of different cloudiness).

A loss of short-wave radiation by reflection at the air-water interface of 4%

was allowed. From the above the nett gain of radiant energy was found.

Air temperature and humidity (expressed as partial pressure of water

vapour) were measured at normal Stevenson screen height by an aspirated

wet and dry bulb thermograph.

Horizontal wind speed was measured at 3 ft. above the ground hy cup

anemometer. From wind it was necessary to derive h, the heat transfer

coefficient. The simplest and most appropriate way seemed to be via the

measured diffusion coefficient, k, for the evaporimeter concerned.

Three feet seems a suitable height for wind measiirement, although | or

1.25 m. would comply with international standards. It is sufficiently near to

the ground (or evaporimeter) level to avoid large errors due to failute of the

1/7 power law of variation of wind with height when extrapolating down

wind speeds measured at a meteorological station height like 10 m,, but yet

not closer ta the ground than the characteristics of the anemometer justify. tt

would seein that an anemometer should be set at a height of at least several

cup diameters, The procedure adopted by Rohwer (17) of mounting an

anemometer ina small pit with its cup bottoms close to ground level in order

to measure “ground wind” is misleading, since the cups are rigid while the

air layer at this level is undergoing considerable shear.

206

In measuring diffusion coefficients for evaporimeters, pa at screen height

provided one of the two partial pressures whose difference constitutes the

driving force of the process. The other pressure, py, was that at the water

surface, and it was found from the surface mean temperature assumed to be

the same as the mean temperatute measured at 3 in. below the surface, The

assumption must have been approximately true, as a number of measure-

ments at different depths using a thermometer with a fine bulb failed to show

differences between the surface and the 3 in. level of more than 0.5°C, at the

most. Diffusion coefficients were determined from py, pa and measured E,

using (7a), Periods of single day’s and single month’s duration were con-

sidered, using the figures from two evaporimeters.

0 05 9 15

Fig. I

h vs. V for the Dry Creek evapornmeters.

The plots of k vs. mean wind speed showed considerable scatter, even

though results for rainy days were excluded since these were known to be

erratic. Penman (13) reports a similar scatter. The best straight lines were

drawn through the plotted points. The scatter of k yalues and the limited

range of wind speeds covered were such that no curvature—such as would

occur if k varied with V°7® (see Sutton (21) ) was delectable,

The best lines for two eyaporimeters are shown in fig. 1.

The two evaporimeters will now be described. The first was the

“standard” eyaporimeter of this site, which, while having the dimensions—

the only clearly defined details—of the Australian Standard, was made of

4 in. mild steel plate and painted black. The outer jacket stood a little over

2 in. above ground level, and was encircled by a shaped annulus of concrete

a few inches wide. The surrounding earth was covered with coarse stone

screenings. The inner tank stood 2 in. higher than the outer one, The

second was a circular, black-painted mild steel tank 10 ft. in diameter by 3 ft.

deep, buried in the ground with its rim projecting 4 in. above the surface.

They are shown in plate | fig. 1.

Measurements of evaporation from these two eyaporimeters and of the

four basic variables were taken for the calendar months of January to June,

eet and used to check the Ferguson equation. The Jaiter was used in the

orm

EB, = 2.30h (pw — pa) (13)

where E, = cm./28 days.

tw calculate evaporation, after having found py using (10).

(Values of h appropriate to each evaporimeter were tead from fig. 1).

207

Taste IV

Measurep AND CaLcuLaTEn EvaporaATION Fork Dry CREEK

(a) Standard Evaporimeter

h Deriy, Cale, Meas.

Period cal./ 6 Py Vv cal, / p Deriy. yap. Evap Meas

ero cm?/ a a n./ cm? / min. Oxy cm,/ cu./ Our

hi oc sf Bec hr./ of 28 28 oc

rr. Be oc He. days days

Jan,, 1949 - 21,8 20,9 9.2 2.85 1.16 18.6 20.0 25.0 30.4 21,7

Feb, 5 . 15.8 19.0 9.4 3,95 1,19 16,2 18.7 18.6 21.75 20.4

Mar 4; : 14.5 17.9 B.f 2.45 1.04 15.5 18.0 16.5 21.15 20.0

Apt. oy : 84 15.4 7.5 2.25 0.98 12.5 14.6 11,3 14.4 16.5

May . - 4.3 12.9 8.1 1,75 0.83 11.0 12.4 5.5 7.1 13.7

June 4, - 3.5 5.0 6.7 17 O81 8.7 9.3 3.7 5.65 10.8

(b) 10-ft. Diameter Evaporimeter

n ¥ 7 , Deriv. Deriv wale seat Mi,

i a . . vap. 7 tas.

Period pauls 83 am mt./ cat / Par Oy em / cai Boo:

r oi sec, oc 2k.

hr. cc OHg. te He days days ec

Jau., 1949 - 21.8 20.9 92 2.85 0.93 20.0 22.1 23,1 22.8 21,5

Feb, 5, - 15.8 19.0 9.4 2.95 0.95 17.2 19.7 17.1 17.65 20.2

Mar, wv - 14.5 \7.9 8.6 2.45 0.84 16.4 18.9 15.1 17.25 20.2

Ayre te . 8.5 154 7.5 2.25 0.79 13.0 15,3 10.6 11,2 14.3

May - 4,3 12.9 $.1 175 0.68 11.2 13.0 4.9 5,85 13.4

June, - 35 3.0 6.7 1.7 0.67 3.9 9.5 3.4 4.1 10.3

The measured and calculated evaporation rates are given in Table 1V

and plotted in fig. 2. While the two rates do not agree closely for the

standard evaporimeter, they agree better for the 10 ft. tank, and in both cases

the correlation between the curves over the six-month period is very good.

That there is such good correlation over a wide range of meteorological con-

ditions is distinctly encouraging.

The calculated values are low by 20% and 65% for the standard and

10 ft. evaporimeter respectively, but it cannot be concluded that it is the cal-

ctilated figures that are wrong. It could well be that the calculated figures

are on a sounder basis than the measured ones. Now according to Fergtu-

son's treatment, it is possible to calculate the mean water temperalure, 4y, as

this is directly related to the vapour pressure, py, Values of #y correspond-

ing to pw have been shown with the other January to June, 1949, figures in

Table IV, as also have measured values of @y for 3 in, helow the surface.

(Suspended maximum and minimum meteorological thermometers fitted with

max. + min.

radiation shields were used. = means were reduced to the

basis of true means using a smali correction determined practically),

Tf measured and calculated @y are not the same, it is fair to assume that

either the equation is wtong or the data used in it are wrong. Of the latter,

h and Q are those tiost likely to contain errors. In the case of the standard

208

evaporimeter, if a value of h is taken to make calculated E, the same as

measured E,—this calls for an increase of h—then derived @y will be lower,

increasing the discrepancy between derived and measured 6,. If h is taken

to make measured and calculated 6, the same—this calls for a decrease in

h—then the disparity between measured and calculated E, is increased. (An

all round increase in the values of h by 0.6 cals./em?/hr./°C. will bring cal-

30 —e— AUST. STAND. TANK — MEAS.

-O-- a « " - CALC.

—h— {0 FT. DIA. TANK — WEAS.

-v7-- * “ « ~ CALC.

JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUN.

1949.

Fig, 2

Measured and calculated eyaporation rates for Dry Creel.

culated E, for the standard tank up to the corresponding measured E,, with

good correlation over the whole range. It is hard to believe, however, that h

can be this much in error),

It would seem that correction of h alone cannot bring about a simul-

taneous agreement between the measured and calculated values of E, and

@y respectively.

Errors in Q can quite well account for the discrepancies in E,. There is

a distinct likelihood of errors here, for interchange of heat between evapori-

meter and soil is possibly quite significant, and the presence of the project-

209

ing tank rim may render the calculated absorption of radiation uncertain.

The Dry Creek data for January-June, 1949, have been, used to back-calculate

# and pa have been taken as correct, but fictitious values of h have been

used so as to bring about the sitnultaneotis mutual equality of measured and

calculated E, and measured and calculated 0,. This has involved first the

use of equation (13) to calculate h, and then (10) to find Q from h and the

other variables. Results for both evaporimeters are shown in Table V with

certain former results :-—

Tatty V

Stancard 10-ft. diameter

Period heal. /om/hr./OC, Q— cal. fem hr, bh cel. /eni?/hr./OC, Q - cal./em*/hr.

Orig. Recale. Orig, Reoasle. Orig. Recale, Greig. Recale,

Jan, 1949 - 1-16 1-28 21°8 277 0°93 0-98 21°8 20-6

Feb,, 1949 ~ 1-19 1-10 15-8 21-2 O-95 0-92 15-8 17-0

Mar., 1949 - 1-04 1:03 1445 21-5 0-34 0-82 1465 18-1

April, 1949 - 0-98 O95 85 14-1 0°79 0-76 8:5 16-9

May, 1949 - 0-83 08S 4-3 7+1 0-68 0°72 4-3 5-6

June, 1949 - 0-81 0+82 3-5 7-2 0-67 0-66 3°5 5-0

Re-calculated and original h are seen to be in tolerable agreement, as

must be expected from the mode of derivation of original h, Hence the E,

and Oy discrepancies may be explained by assuming Q alone {o be in error.

No practical tests have been made? of possible sources of error in Q, but it

is significant that evaporimeter-soil heat exchange is likely to be preater for

the smaller evaporimeter which is the one showing the greater discrepancies

between original and re-calculated Q. The effect of rim absorption must also

be considered. These facts are relevant —

Taste VI

Standard 10-ft, diameter

Evapormecer. Evaporimeter.

Area m contact with soil/area of water surface ~- - 38/1 2-1/1

Area of vertical cross-section of rim/area of water surface 006/19 0-04/1

@ only outer rim considered.

The difference between original and re-calculated Q is more or less

steady in each case throughout the six months, being very approximately

5 cal./em?/hr, and 1.5 cal./em?/hr. for the standard and 10 ft. diameter

evaporimeters respectively. No soil temperattires were taken, so there is na

evidence with which to seek correlation with evaporimeter-soil heat exchange,

but rim absorption of radiation might correlate with Q discrepancy, and this

possibility will now be explored. UH it is assumed that the rim has the same

absorption coefficient as the water, and that it is in full thermal commuinica-

tion with the water and is hence at the same temperature, then the problem

is to find the extra absorbing surface, over and above that of the horizontal

water surface; presented to sun and sky by the rim. Taking clear days with

the sun between the limiting altitudes of the absolute zenith and, say, 5°-10°,

the semi-circumference of the rim nearer the sun will merely shade part of

the water surface, and will not pick up extra radiation but only that which

the water would have received in the absence of the rim. The semi-circum-

ference further from the sun will, however, intercept radiation that the watet

surface would not normally have absorbed. This part of the rim will behave

_ _© Experiments with a thermally insulated evaporimeter are to be started at Dry

Creek early in 1950.

210

approximately as a vertical plane normal to the sun’s compass direction, of

length equal to the tank diameter and of height equal to the rim height, i.e.

the vertical cross-section of the rim, The surface presented notmal to the

sun's beam will be proportional to the cosine of the sun’s altitude. Caleula-

tions based on cloudless days reveal the interesting fact that daily mean tim

absorption is nearly constant from mid-summer to mid-winter at 30. - 27

cal./hr./cm® of vertical rim cross-section as against the absorption of 34 - 11

eal./hr./cem? of horizontal water surface. Application of these results to the

Dry Creek evaporimeters is now possible. According to the above treatment

the inner rim of the standard tank merely picks up radiation that would m

its absence be absorbed by the water with the sun at all but low altitudes,

sa that the projecting rim of the jacket—which should not project, however,

according to the specification (1)—presents the only effective absorbing sur-

face. The increase in Q caused by rim absorption for the range mid-summer

to mid-winter is of the order of 1 cal./hr./mean cm* surface area for both

standatd and 10 ft. diameter evaporimeters for cloudless skies. It will be less

for cloudy skies.

It is apparent that rim absorption of radiation cannot, on these theareti-

cal grounds, explain all of the Q discrepancy for the standard tank, nar is it

likely to for the 10 ft, diameter tank when the prevalence of cloudy skies in

winter months is taken into consideration,

Errors in the variables a and pa can conceivably be connected with the

disparity in measured and calculated evaporation, but no discussion on such

possibilities will be entered into,

While no solution can be offered here for the problem of possible Q dis-

crepancy, note should be taken of the related problem of whether the ap-

parently steep change of evaporation rate with evaporimeter dimensions 1s

real. The observations of Sleight (20) and Rohwer (17), and also those at

Dry Creek, show rough agreement with Sutton’s (21) predictions in this

inatter. Sutton shows that there should be a decrease in evaporation with

increase in extent of evaporating surface, but he bases his theory on change

in what is virtually the diffusion coefficient, Now the sink strength—energy

balance theory holds that any change in the diffusion coefficient brings about

an adjustment in water temperature which largely, but not wholly, compen-

cates for the coefficient change as far as. overall evaporation rate is concerned,

so that the decrease in the latter is much less than one of direct proportion

to the decrease in the diffusion coefficient, Hence there should not be sich

a steep change of evaporation rate with evyaporimeter dimensions as available

observations tend to show. It is now suggested that though there should

be such a gradient, the observed one is not real, and that some factor at

present unidentified is exaggerating it.

EVAPORATION COMPARISONS OF THREE DIFFERENT SIES

There ate several evaporimeter stations on the Adelaide plains, and those

of the Adelaide Weather Bureau, the Waite Agricultural Research Institute

and Dry Creek, having a maximum separation of about 10 miles, record

widely differing evaporation rates. The 1948 totals were :—

Taste VII

Adelaide 64.3 in, (163-2 em.)

Waite Institute 54.7 in, (138.9 cm.)

Dry Creek 82.9 in. (210.7 cm.)

211

It was thought that the Ferguson equation might explain these differ-

ences, SO comparisons were made between Adelaide and Dry Creek during

November and December, 1948, and between the Waite Institute and Dry

Creek during January and February, 1949. During these periods a solari-

meter and an anemometer (at 3 ft. height) were set up alongside the appro-

priate evaporimeter, which, at Adelaide was an Australian Standard one of

galvanized iron set in a small area of lawn, and at the Waite Institute was

DRY GREEK ADELAIDE WAITE INSTITUTE

—S— MEASURED [stanoAaol te MEASURED —M@- MEASURED

—o— CALCULATED =z CALCULATED —f CALCULATED

0-2

: STRADDLING bre

13 20 27 4 fi 18 oh { B

NOVEMBER, 1948 DECEMBER1948 JANUARY, 1945 FEBRUARY, (949

Fig. 3

Measured and calculated evaporation rates for Dry Creek, Adelaide

and the Waite Institute.

an Australian Standard one of sheet copper also set in a lawn (see pl. I. fig 2

and pl. II.). Temperature and humidity measurements were available, being

normally taken at these places. Simultancous observations were made at Dry

Creek using the standard evaporimeter. The observations were reduced and

used to calculate evaporation by the Ferguson equation for comparison with

that actually measured. h for all stations was read from fig. 1. Air tempera-

tures were available as truc daily means for Adelaide and Dry Creek, while

max. -- min.

those for the Waite Institute, available as-————_________—- means, were

corrected empirically to the same basis by a factor given by Foley (8) as

applying to Adelaide.

Table VIII shows the summarized obseryations and calculated results.

Means for overlapping periods of 7 days’ duration have heen used to give

both the necessary length of time and -at the same time a sufficient number

of results for comparing. Evaporation was calculated from

E, = 0.082 h (py — pa) (14)

where H, = cm./day.

Measured and calculated values of E,, are plotted in fig. 3.

(a) Dry Creek and Adelaide

212

Taste VIII—Merasurep anp Catcu.atep Evaporation rok THRree Locacirties

DRY CREEK ADELAIDE

Pp. Vv a Calc, Meas.|| Q p Vv h Calc. Meas.

Staddted o; 6 smi m./ cal.’ Evap. Evap.|) cal,/ @. mm, m/ cal/ Evap. Evap-

by period «= em of, of Hg- sec. cm!/ ©%/ om,/ || cm*/ oe, of He. sec, cmi/ cm tml

hr. hr./ day day hr, hr./ day day

oc, 9G,

13/11/48. ~ 19.8 19.6 8.0 3.95 1.37 0.90 0.955)) 17.9 19,0 77 1,9 0.87 0.69 0,66

14/11/48 - 18:9 18.7 ud 4.8 1.44 0.84 0.95 17.9 19.1 79 3.0 0.40 0.69 0.66

15/11/48 19.2 18.7 8.3 3.55 1.37 0.382 0.9395}! 18.5 18.9 7.9 1.95 0,88 0.49 0.655

io/il/43 - 19,4 19,1 8.5 3.35 1.51 6.83 0.915|) 18,5 18,9 g2 1.75 OBS 0,49 0,63

W/LL/48 20.0 18.4 a7 3.2 1.26 G79 0,88 19.4 18,3 a7 17 0,82 0.66 0,635

IW/LL/48 + 19.6 13.3 8.7 3.1 1,24 0.76 0,875|| 19.0 18,1 8,8 17 0.82 0.64 665

19/11/as ~ 19.5 17.6 8.6 29 1.18 0.73 0.89 19.2 17.3 B.5 1,55 0,07 0,62 O.63$

20/14/48 « 20.9 13.1 8.6 2,65 1,09 0.76 0,84 19,8 17.5 8.5 14 O71 0.62 0.63

21/11/48 - 21.5 19,3 "BB 2.45 1,03 0.80 0.90 20.2 IB.7 B.4 1.25 0,67 0,65 0.65

ga/lisae - Zz? 19.5 6.9 3.75 113 0.83 0.965} 19.4 16.8 8.5 1.3 0.69 0.65 0,68

BU/W1/4B 22.1 19,2 8,7 28 a.d4 0.84 0.975}| 20.0 18,5 Rs 1,8 0,69 0.65 0.685

24/11/48 - 22.1 19.2 87 29 14% 0.85 1.00 20.0 18.4 7.9 L5 0,70 0,06 0.71

25/11/48 — 22.1 18.7 8.7 3 1,44 0.84 1.015]] 19.0 17.8 7.9 14 O71 0.63 0.695

26/11/48 ~ 23.3 16.2 8.8 BO 3,21 0.k2 O.975}) 19.2 17.6 7.9 1.4 0.71 0,62 0.675

27/48 22.1 18,3 9.1 5.0 1.21 0.81 0.95 |) 179 175 a! 14s 0.73 0,59 0.665

28/11/48 - Bug 18,8 9.2 3.2 1.26 0.83 U,98 |} 17.9 18,1 Riz 1.5 0.75 0.6! 0.675

2O/11/4B - 31.5 18.6 91 %1 1,24 0.81 0.95 17.3 18,5 4.4 1.5 0,75 0,60 0,665

BO/11/47— 21.2 18.5 9.1 3.0 1,21 0,79 0,945}| 17.3 18.3 45 1.55 O77 0,60 0.67

1/12/48 - 2.5 19.0 8.9 3.15 14.25 0.84 O98 }] 17.9 18.8 2.5 1,55 0.77 0.63 0.68

2/12/48 - 22,1 19.0 8.7 3.2 1.26 0.87 1.07 }} 19,0 19,1 8.6 7,45 0,80 0.67 0.71

3/12/48 - 21,6 19.2 8.6 3,85 1,31 0.88 1.03 |} 18.7 191 Bo 7? 0,82 67 0.725

4/12/48 - ‘21.6 13.4 8.1 3.3 1,29 DBS 1.02 |} 20.0 18.5 8.4 165 0.80 0.09 0,72

5/12/48 - 22.5 17.7 7.5 31 1,24 0,86 4.00 }) 20.0 Ws as u7 0.83 0.07 0,74

6/12/48 + 22.7 19.0 7,7 a3 1,29 0.93 1.07 20.6 18.9 4.0 1.75 O83 0.73 OTR

7/12/48 «22.70 19.7 1320.94) = 4,09 [1 20.9 «= 19. B73 BSE LFS

af12/48 - 227 185 77 31S 125 090 1.04 || 202 i186 80 7 0.82 072 0.775

b) Dry Creek and Waite Institute

DRY CREEK WAITE INSTITUTE

Q : Vv ig Calc. Meas. Vv h Calc. Meas.

Steaddied cal./ 6, mm. ™f gal) Evan, Evap, en) a ny, m/ cal.é Evyap. = Evap.

by period = cm?/ ot, of He: sen. ocm/ ocm./ ocm./ jiom®/ OC. Sof Hg. sec. 9=ocm®/ cme/ em. /

br, hr. day day hr. hr,/ day day

eC. oc,

n/rjas - 20.5 Z1,1 8.8 2.6 1,08 0.87 §.975)) 18.1 20.4 10.0 1,6 0.79 0.65 0.625

13/1/49 - i340 210 Yl 2.95 1.19 0.85 0.955|| 16.9 24.0 10.3 1.5 0,76 0.63 0.985

13/1/49 - 179 207 81 3.0 1.20 0.80 oO.92 |lis6 202 167 15 0.76 O55 0.565

w4/1/4s - 306-2000 BY. 122 0.79 0895/4156 19.0 104 455 0.77 O53 0.555

I5/1fao - 18,3 18.8 8.9 3.05 1.22 0.74 0.875]| 15.4 17.7 10.0 1.55 0,77 0.50 0.54

16/1/49 = 392 184 89 285 1.16 073 O.865|/ 163 178 99 4.55 0.77 O52 0.935

47/1/49 « 21,0 19.6 8.6 315 1,25 0.86 0.995]! 79,9) 13.9 3.1 1,7 O.R2 0.66 0,66

18/1/49 - 202 19.1 B11 3.05 122 O08 «60,9751 19.0 3S Sb OZ O82 0.66 0.66:

19/1/49. 20,9 iggy 7.7 2.6 1.08 0.81 0.985]! 2050 3B 06 O83) 076 ©0659 ~—-0.67

20/1/49 22.1 19.7 7.8 2.6 1,08 0.88 1.03 || 21,7 8 7.9 1.5: 0.76 0,76 0.72

21/1/49 « 319 20.7 81 2.7 111 0.91 1.07 21,5 21.0 8.0 1,65 0,80 0.81 0.755

22/1/4@ - 21,7 24 B82 2.75 wis 6093) 05|] 218 «BLS «8285 ORS OBE 0795

as/i/ag « 21,7 22.3 8.8 2.85 1.34 0.97 1.12 217 21.6 8.2 1.9 0.87 0.86 0.785

24/4/49 « 21.2 25.1 9.2 2.7 TL 0.96 1.69 || 21,3 22.7 91 1.75 0.83 0,84 0.755

25/1/49 « 21,4 25.3 99 2.7 11 1.04 1.155]| 21,9 24,9 a4 1.75 Al 1.92 0.87

26/1/49 - 21.9 26.8 10,8 2.75 ys 1.08 1,22 21,9 24,3 5,9 1.85 0.85 0.97 G.8+5

a7A1/49 - 21,0 26.7 143 2.95 1.19 1.06 1.215|| 21,5 26.3 10.9 1.85 0.85 0.93 0.835

28/1/49 - 0 0625.8 «611,20 2D 4170 4,02) 1,205]/ 21,3 25.6 td 17 O82 0.89 0.81

29/1/49 « 20,0 25.4 11,3 2.85. 1.16 0.97 1,145]| 20.5 35.0 11.3 15 0.76 0.82 0.755

36/1/49 - 20.2 24.0 11.0 2.75 1.13 0.91 1,115]| 20.2 33.8 1) 1.45 0.74 O76 O75

31/1/49 - 20.0 22.2 10.6 3.7 Lil 0.84 1.05 20.0 21.9 I10 1.45 G74 0.70 0.69

1/2/49 - 202 207 103 2.6 LOR 0.79 0.985/1 19,6 9202 Ta 45 0.76 0.65 0.63

a/2/49 « 18.5 19.3 9,9 2.6 1.08 0.73 0.88 17.5 3.7 0 (tha 1.5 0.76 0.54 0.56

VW3/49 - 13,5 19.9 9.7 3.45 1.04 0,73 0.845|| 16.5 132 «104 1,5 0.76 0.52 0.525

4/2/49 + 14,3 20.5 10.0 24 4.02 0,73 0.825|| 16.1 8.6 610.6 1A O72 0.52 0.48

u/3/49 - IF = 20.2 10300 4 1.02 0.69 0,815! 15.8 182 11445 OMS AS

213

Both the Dry Creek sets of values are higher than those for Adelaide

and the Waite Institute. Measured exceeds calculated evaporation consider-

ably at Dry Creek and only slightly in the mean at Adelaide, while calcu-

lated exceeds measured evaporation in the mean at the Waite Institute. Cor-

yelation between fluctuations in the pairs of curyes is generally good,

There is little difference between the respective values of Q, @. and pa

for the pairs of stations, but there is disparity in V, the mean wind speed.

V for Dry Creek is higher than for Adelaide and the Waite Institute, while

it is roughly the same for the latter pair of stations, While it is conceivable

that the Dry Creek h ys. V relationship might not be correct whet extra-

polated to the lower wind speeds of Adelaide and the Waite Institute—and

the closer approximation to one another of the respective measured and cal-

culated evaporation values might be so explained—this argument cannot

explain why on the one hand measured exceeds calculated evaporation at

Adelaide and on the other calculated exceeds measured evaporation at the

Waite Institute, This effect may be related to evaporimeter construction.

On the basis of material and surface finish, the Dry Creek evaporimeter could

be expected to give an evaporation some 3-4% higher than that at Adelaide.

The copper Waite Institute evaporimeter could be expected—on the basis

of some data given by Young (24)—to give an evaporation compatable with

that at Dry Creek. This argument would make the apparent discrepancy

between Adelaide and the Waite Institute even greater.

The effect may be related to operating conditions: the working levels

in the evaporimeters are here set out:

TABLE IX

Distance below tank rin

Evaporimeter Wormal Range Mean Level

Dry Creek (Standard) = - 1-4-2-4i5n, Zin,

Adelaide - - - - ~ 1O-2-5in. 1-73 in

Waite Institute - - - - 25+4-5in. $-$in

The data of Table III. show there to be a potential source of large error

in these level differences.

Subsequently, in December, 1949; a check was made upon the actual h

vs. V relationship for the Waite Institute and also for a pair of Australian

Standard evaporimcters for Dry Creck using different working levels as in

Table II]. At the Waite Institute h for V of 1-2 m./sec. was about 25%

lower than fig. 1 would show, and simultaneously at Dry Creek h for V of

2-4 m./sec. for the evaporimeter with working leyel 3.5 in. below the rim

showed a similar depressian.

No comparative evidence on possible evaporimeter-soil heat exchange is

available except that the effect of insolation on the stone-covered ground at

Dry Creek would have been greater than that on the lawn-covered surfaces

at Adelaide and the Waite Institute.

The conclusion to be drawn from the data for these three stations is that

the calculated evaporation rates are quite possibly more reliable that those

meastuted in the evaporimeters, and that a comparison on the former basis

should give the truer picture.

MEANS OF VARIABLES FOR USE IN THE EQUATION

Priestley (14) points out that the mean temperature to be used in, cal-

culating evaporation should not be the simple mean of tetuperature taken at

regular intervals, but one which should be weighted according to the cycle

214

of values assumed by the diffusion coefficient, k. Such an argument has

more force for localities with a pronounced diurnal wind cycie, like Dry

Creek,

Some data from 7 days’ continuous observations made at Dry Creek

in fine weather in January, 1947, will be used to illustrate this, Fig. 4 shows

averages of the 7 days’ readings for each hour of day for dry bulb air tem-

perature (@,), wind speed at 3 it. (V), and water temperature (6,,) measured

at 3 in, below the surface of the standard evaporimeter.

08-00 12-00 16°00 20:00 2400 0400 08-00

Fig. 4

Means of variables at Dry Creek for 7-day period in January, 1947

The simple means of 63 and #y for the whole period were first worked

out. Irom the simple mean of #, 22.9°C., and that of #,, 22,7°C., it was

possible to calculate the sensible heat gained by the water from the air,

sing h, 1.15 cal./em?/hr./°C. It worked out at 5 cal./em2/day. Inspection

of fig. 4 will show, however, that there is apparently a relatively large

G3, — Oy difference at times of day when V (and hence h) is itself large. The

use of weighted means of 4, and @y might therefore be expected to yield a

truer value for sensible heat exchange. Means were then worked out for

#, and @, weighted according to the magnitude of the heat transfer co-

efficient (h) which had been derived from V, when they became 24,1°C, and

29.5°C. respectively. The temperature difference, 0; — @y, which was 0.2°C.

for the simple means, now became 0.6°C., and corresponded to a calculated

sensible heat gain by the water of 17 cal./om*/day, The difference between

the two calculated heat exchange quantitics of 12 cal./em?/day amounts to

215

only approximately 2% of the corresponding value of calculated QO. The

substitution of weighted mean @, for the simple mean in equation (14) to

caleulate the respective evaporation rates for the 7 days in January, 1947,

will not necessarily show the same per cent. ditterence in E, for calculated

Q and the probable real O (which determines the real Oy used in the preced-

ing discussion) are stispected to differ considérahly for the standard tank,

In fact, using for the yatiables Q = 21.9 cal./em?/hr, (for #, = 22,9°C.) and

21.8 cal./em2/hr. (for #2 = 24,1°C.), pa = 84 mm. of He, h = 1.15

cal,/em?/hr./°C., and @4 = 24.1°C. for the one case and 22.9°C, for the other,

and calculating E, (em./day) for the two cases gives respectively 1,05

cm./day and 1,01 cm./day for weighted and unweighted mean #3. This is a

difference of 4%.

The size of the difference in E shown by the two tmiethods of approach

is enough to justify using for Incalities like Dry Creek a mean 44 weighted

according to h or V. Aw interesting point here is that the more-teadily

available form of mean air temperature in most Icealilies is that of

max. -+ min.

rather than the integrated mean. The sormer is biased

slightly towards the maximum temperature—by 09°C. for Adelaide for

January as shown by Foley (8)—so that, as a result of this convenient coin-

max, -+ mit.

may enable a truer evaporation rate to be culculated, while simplifying the

‘lerivation of mean 43.

cidence, the use of mean @, in the Ferguson equation

PHASE LAG

It will be noted that from Table VIII. and fig. 3 that during the Dry

Creek-Waite Institute evaporation comparison, evaporation and the related

variables rose and then [ell in some sort of natural cycle: There seems to

be a phase lage between measured and calculated F for both stations, and this

is more apparent when one of each pair of curves is moved close to the other

by scaling each individual value of E using a suitable fixed factor. This has

been done for the Dry Creek curves in fig. 5 where changes in measured E

are seen to lag behind those in calculated Z. The effect can, however, he

largely explained by changes in sensible heat sturage in the practical case,

for these are neglected in calculating E,

All values of © for Dry Creek have now been corrected for heat storage

changes determined from changes in measured #,, and E valies re-calculated

on this basis have been scaled as before and plotted in fig. 5. This shows the

effect of the Jag to have been much reduced (although there is an anomaly

in the parts of the curves covering the first few days).

The effect of neglecting heat storage changes over 7-day periods is

noliceable, though small, but if it is desired further to minimize this effect,

then periods of longer than 7 days should be taken when appreciable changes

in 6y, level are taking place.

DISCUSSION ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN h AND k

Some doubt hag been cast recently on the validity of the fixed relation-

ship between mass and heat transfer in the lower almosphere against a com-

mon resistance, which is the basis of the Ferguson and similar equations.

216

Priestley and Swinbank (15) have discussed this matter at length, while

Pasquill (12) has demonstrated practically that the relationship between k

and h in the turbulent boundary layer undergoes a change with atmospheric

stability. Here h is shown to increase relatively to k as the atmosphere be-

comes more unstable, or, more precisely, as the Richardson number becomes

negative and numerically larger.

—— MEASURED —--— CALCULATED x SCALED.

HEAT STORAGE

NEGLECTED.

Fig. 5

Phase lag effect with Dry Creek evaporation rates in January and February, 1949

Consider the effect of this in equations (3) and (8). In (3) will

no longer be fixed at 0,50, but may obey the relationship

= 0.50x (15)

where x varies with Richardson numbet.

A modified equation, (8) of this form would now hold :—

Zh Q 2 (16)

E= | + — pa +) pel

x h x

217

The variable relation between h and k in the turbulent boundary layer

need not necessarily render E calculated fram equation (&) very erroncous.

The resistance against which the driving force (pw — pa) acts is not only

that of the turbulent boundary layer, where matter and heat are propagated

hy eddy diffusion, but also that of the laminar sub layer in contact with the

water surface, where molecular diffusion prevails. [It is a well known prin-

ciple that if in a series of resistances one is considerably greater than the

other or others then this resistance “controls” the rate of the process. If it is

the laminar layer that controls in the evaporation process considered, then the

effect on evaporation of changes in h relative to k in the turbulent layer may

be negligible.

It is a distinct possibilitiy—for small evaporating surfaces at least—that

the resistance of the laminar layer forms a substantial proportion of the total

resistance. It can, be observed that the value of pa in the air an inch or so

above the surface of water in an evaporimeter is little different from that

measured in the free air at screen height, showing that by far the greater patt

of the total pressure difference, and hence resistance, is confined to this shal-

low layer, While this observation as it stands does not prove that most of

the resistance is in the laminar layer, it at least shows that what eddy diffu-

sion resistance there is over small evaporating surfaces is limited to a very

challow layer of the atmosphere.

Sherwood and Woertz (19) studying the diffusion of water vapour across

a turbulent air stream between the two parallel walls of a duct 5.3 em. apart

found 43-72% of the overall resistance to be in the two laminar layers at the

surfaces of the side walls when Reynolds’ number ranged from 6,000-70,000,

Diffusion of water vapour through an air layer is controlled by the driv-

ing force or water vapour partial pressure difference across the layer and the

resistance to diffusion in the layer. I{ different parts of the thickness of the

layer are considered the fraction of the pressure difference across each part

of the layer will in all cases he propurtional to its resistance.

Above an evaporating surface the lower of the partial pressures, pa, will

deerease with increase in height, the pa decrease being proportional to the re-

sistance of that part of the air layer over which the decrease has occurred,

The decrease of px with height is known as the “Hydrolapse.”

When a certain height, z, over the evaporating surface is reached the

hydrolapse will become negligible—a state to be arbitrarily assessed aceord-

ing to the particular conditions concerned. Only while diffusion is actively

taking place across the whole of the layer thickness considered will pressure

difference be proportional to the resistance of the air layer, and since at

heights preater than x the air layer still has a theoretical resistance to diffu

sion, total pressure differcnee and total theoretical resistance aver the total

wit layer reaching the heights greater than z will cease to bear the previous

steady relationship, It is apparent, then, that the resistance to diffusion of

the atmosphere over an evaporating surface is confined to that layer of air

whose upper boundary is the level z where the hydtolapse first becomes negli-

gible, z will be small for a small evaporating surface, and will increase as

the strface is extended. « will always he above the boundary of the laminar

layer and somewhere in the turbulent layer where resistance to diffusion has

been shown to vary with the logarithm of the height above the effective sur-

face. Therefore as z increases. so will that part of the total resistance con-

fined ta the turbulent layer increase. The resistance nf (he laminar layer will,

however, remain constant, so that qualitatively it may be concluded that as

the evaporating surface is extended so will the total resistance iucrease, and

218

so will the resistance of the turbulent layer increase relative to that of the

laminar layer. It seems that the lantinar layer resistance is much more likely

to control the evaporation rate from smal! evaporating surfaces than [rain

jarge ones. The practical work of Sheppard and Pasquill cited by Sutton (22)

as showing the lack of correlation between evaporation from a small surface

and the conditions in the turbulent boundary layer—notably the temperature

gradient itt the latter—lends support to the belief that the resistance of the

laminar layer controls evaporation from small surfaces like those of evapori-

meters.

Priestley‘*) points out that h/k probably becomes more constant as the

gtound sutiace is approached—provided that this 1s not too rough—since

eddies will become steadily smaller and will have less chance to realize the

“buoyancy” effect that he has deseribed (15). ‘This argument does not in-

voke the laminar layer.

From the foregoing discussion it seems that the Ferguson equation in

the form of (8) is more likely to be true for smal! evaporating surfaces. It

is possible that ideal evaporimeters belaw a certain size will give results

complying with the equation, while above it there will be an increasing dis-

crepancy. The hypothetical and indeterminate limiting size will itself vary

with the particular evaporation conditions, since z will vary somrewhut with

the latter.

It is probable in the case of both the Australian Standard evaporimeter

and one 10 it. in diameter that z will be below the level at which normal

meteorological measurements of pa are made. z must be the greater for the

10 ft. diameter evaporimeter, meaning that the total diffusion resistance for

this evaporimeter must also be greater. The practically-cetermined diffusion

coefficients for the two Dry Creek evaporimeters dealt with are different, but

from the evidence at present ayailable it cannot be determined whether the

difference is due to differences in the level of z. to ditferences tn exposure (re-

sulting from height of rim upstand, diameter, etc.j, or to a combination of

the two.

CONCLUSION

If the Ferguson equation can. be shown to give accurate results in pre-

dicting evaporation on the evaporimeter scale over a wide range of meteoro-

logical conditions, figures so determined would supersede those now obtained

from evaporimeters, [t is rather desirable ta eliminate the effects of variations

in exposure to which evaportmeters are now subject. Evaporation values for

thé whole country could be calculated on the basis of a fixed average wind

speed, or at least on wind specds extrapolated down from those measured at

a level well clear of the ground, such as at the 10 m. level, so avoiding the

micro-climatelogical differences in wind near the pround that now so aifeci

the characteristics of individual evaporimeter sites. An evaporation map

based on the Ferguson Equation and covering the whale of Australia, say,

would possibly be more representative than one based vn the readings of

tank evaporimeters,

Thanks ate due to Prof. J. A. Prescott and Mr. C. H. B, Priestley for

reading the manuscript and for helpiul suggestions, to the Adelaide Weather

Rureau and the Waite Agricultural Research Institute for co-operation in

abtaining some of the data used, to Prof. Sir Kerr Grant for help in dealing

with a radiation problem, to Dr. ). Ferguson for permission to quote his

equation, and finally ta 1.C.l Alkali (Australia} Pty. Ltd. ior permission tu

publish this paper.

) Personal communication.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1950 Vol. 73, (2), Plaie XXIIT

Fig. 1

The evaporimeters at Dry Creek.

Vig, 2

The evyaporimeter site at Adelaide during November aud December, 1948,

Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 1950 Vol, 73, (2), Plate XXIV

The evaporimeter site at the Waite Institute during January and February, 1949,

219

Novtation

evaporation, cm./hr.

ditto, em./28 days.

ditto, cm./day,

heat transfer coefficient, specifically cal./em?/hr./°C.

modified heat transfer coefficient in equation (11), cal./em?/hr.°C.

diffusion coefficient fur water vapour, specifically gm, fem? /hr,/mm.

of Hg,

latent heat of eaporeation for water, specifically cal./gm,.

partial pressure of water vapour in air, specifically mm. of Hg.

vapour pressure of water, specifically mm. of Hg.

nett tadiant energy penetrating water surface. specifically cal./.

em?2/ht.

variable defined by equation (12),

meat air temperature, °K.

mean horizontal air speed at 3 ft, height, specifically m/sec.

weight of water evaporated, specilically gm./em?/hr.

variable relating h/k relationship to Richardson number.

height where hydrolapse first becomes negligible,

mean air temperature, specifically °C.

mean water temperature, specifically °C,

Stefan-Boltzmann constant,

REFERENCES

Australian Meteorological Obseryer’s Handbook 1925, 96

Brruam, E.G. 1931 British Rainfall, M.O, 345 (1V), 268

Bonytuon, C, W. 1948 Aust. Jour, Instr. Tech., 4, (5), 209

Brooks, F. A. 1936 Univ. of Calif, Agric. Exp. Stn., Bull. 602

Brunt, D. 1944 Physical and Dynamical Meteorology, 2nd Edn., Cam-

bridge Univ, Press, 137

Cummines, N. W. and Ricarpson, B. 1927 Phys. Rev., 30, 527

Fienp, R. and Symons, G. J. 1869 Brit. Assoc. Ady. Sci., 39th Meet-

ing, 25

Fotey, J. C. 1945 C'wealth of Aust, Bur. of Met., Bull. No, 35

Fotry, J. C. 1947 Proc, Aust. N.Z. Adv, Sei. (Perth)

Giuny, A. R.,.and Heymann, FE, 1948 Aust. J. Sci. Res., 1, (2), 197

Heymann, E., and Yorre, A. 1945 J. Phys. Chem., 49, 239

Pasouin, F. 1949 Proc. Roy Soc., A., 198, (1052), 116

Penman, H. L. 1948 Proc. Roy. Soc., A., 193, 120

Priestiey, C. H. B. 1949 Specialist Conference in Agriculture—Aus-

tralia

Pee ©. i. B. and Swrypann, W. C. 1947 Proc. Roy. Soc. A.

189,

Raman, P. K. 1936 Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 3, (2), 98

Rouwer, C. 1931 U.S, Dept. of Agric., Tech. Bull. No. 271

Suepparp, P. A, 1947 Q. J. Roy. Met. Soc., 73, 277 ( Discussion)

Srerwoop, V. K. and Woertz, B. B. 1939 Trans. Am. Inst. Chem,

Eng., 35, 517

Suergut, R. B, 1917 J, Agric, Res., 10, 209

Sutton, O. G. 1934 Proc, Roy. Soc., A., 146, 701

Sutton, O, G. 1947 Q. J. Roy. Met, Soc., 73, 257

Waker, Lewis and McApams 1927 Principles of Chemical Engineer-

ing, 2nd Edn., New York and London, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,

443

| a Al

Wo We

Younc, A. A. 1947 Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, 28, (2), 279

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM A MANGROVE SWAMP AT SOUTH

GLENELG

BY H. M. COOPER

Summary

This paper briefly describes stone implements discovered on the surface of an estuarine mangrove

mud swamp at South Glenelg, laid bare after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour,

following a heavy south-westerly gale experienced during April, 1948. It is suggested that the

implements and camp debris were associated with a temporary camp site. Established by natives

upon the advancing sand which encroached on and later overwhelmed the former living mangrove

swamp.

220

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM A MANGROVE SWAMP AT SOUTH GLENELG

By H. M. Cooper *

[Read 11 May 1950)

SUMMARY

This paper briefly describes stone implements discovered on the sur-

face of an estuarine mangrove mud swamp at South Glenelg, laid bare after

the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour, following a heavy south-

westerly gale experienced during April, 1948, It is suggested that the ir-

plements and camp debris were associated with a temporary camp site estab-

lished by natives upon the advancing sand which encroached on and later

overwhelmed the former living mangrove swamp.

CAMP SITE AND MATERIAL

Stone implements, and certain other relics of aboriginal occupation, were

found on the re-exposed mangrove muid-flat described by Cotton (1949), The

implements exhibit somewhat crude workmanship, but they are nevertheless

of interest because of their existence, for a considerable period of time, upon

a site which is now situated below the level af high water mark on an open

coast exposed to gales.

The implements are identical with types obtained on camp sites which

existed on the Adelaide Plains and the coast southwards ta Cape Jervis,

formerly occupied by the now extinct Kaurna tribe and associated groups.

No specimens of smaller and more finely executed impleiments were

found, but their absence may be due either to the action of the sea which

swept theni away after the removal of the overlying sandy beach by scour and

subsequent exposure of the Swamp, or because the camp was of a temporary

nature and thus merely utilised by the aborigines as 4 cofivenient spot when

searching for fish or shellfish and other food. An examination of similar

material which occtirs plentilully on temporary sites amongst the recent

coastal sand dunes tends to confirin the latter view,

Since the surface of a mud swamp, even if uncovered at law tide, is

totally unsuited for such a purpose, a camping place, eyen a temporary one,

would not have been established thereon until the encroaching sand had he-

Run to accumulate, thus providing over it a dry surface suitable for the needs

of the native inhabitants. With subsequent erosion the implements would

he deposited upon the surface of the mud stratum beneath, or if the accumu-

lating layer of sand were still thin during the aceupation of the site, they may

have worked down and thus become embedded in the swamp.

The presence of a fragment of somewhat heayy wood—portion of a small

limb or branch—partly burnt, and embedded in the mud surface, together

with several small heaps of embers, apparently derived from the same type

of timber, possibly Eucalyptus sp., suggests the existence of a former camp

fire. Nearby was discovered a piece of sheoak tree (Casuarine stricta}, in an

excelient state of preservation, clearly exhibiting the distinctive grain of that

timber, together with its characteristic ribbed outer bark.

* Assislant in Ethnology, South Australian Musenm.

Trans. Roy, Soe. §. Aust., 73, (2), Dee. 1950

221

A successful attempt was made to burn the stump of a mangrove tree

(Avicennia officinalis), extracted in situ from the swamp, aiter it had been

thoroughly washed and then exposed to atmospheric action for several

months. With the addition of a small quantity of spirits to commence com-

bustion, the wood was completely consumed, leaving the typical white ash

derived from this timber.

Description of implements shown in the accompanying drawings :—

Figs. 1-4: Fabricator or hammerstone, showing end flakes broken

off during usage, Fabricators were utilised in shaping

and trimming large implements similar to those shown in

Figs. 9-11.

Figs. 5-8: Small trimmed adze-stone of conventional type. These

implements were mounted at the extremity of a wooden

handle by means of gum.

222

Figs.9-11: Large chopping implement (held in the hand during

use) ; trimmed from a water-worn pebble.

The rock in these three specimens is a fine-grained bluish quartzite.

Other material recovered :—Two pebble chopping implements, somewhat

similar to Figs. 9-11; Large core derived from an angular block; Three large

flakes struck from pebbles; One piece of yellow ochre; Two pebble cores.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Appreciation is extended to Mr. R. W. Searles, master boat-builder, of

Birkenhead, for his assistance in determining the character of the various

species of trees to which reference is made, and to Miss M. Boyce, South

Australian Museum artist, for the excellent drawings accompanying this

paper.

REFERENCE

Corton, B. C. 1949 An old Mangrove Mud-flat exposed by Wave Scouring at

Glenelg, South Australia. Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (1)

BALSATIC LAVAS OF THE BALLENY ISLANDS A.N.A.R.E. REPORT

BY D. MAWSON

Summary

Rocks collected on the Balleny Islands by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expedition in

1948 and by the French Antarctic Expedition in 1949, are all of a basic volcanic nature. It now

seems certain that the entire group is a balsatic volcanic chain of islands, of late Cainozoic to

Recent age. The rock types represented are lavas, agglomerates and tuffs. These range in

composition from olivine-basalts to trachybasalts in the groundmass of some of which a minute

development of nepheline is suspected.

223

BASALTIC LAVAS OF THE BALLENY ISLANDS

A.N,A.R.E, REPORT

By D. Mawson *

[Read 1! May 1950]

SUMMARY

Rocks collected on the Balleny Islands hy the Australian National Antarctic

Research Expedition in 1948 and by the French Antarctic Expedition in 1949,

are all of a basic yolcanic nature, It now seems certain that the entire group is

a basaltic voleanic chain of islands, of late Cainozoic tu Recent age, The tock

types represented are lavas, agglomerates and tuffs. These range in coniposition

from olivinc-basalts to trachybasalts in the groundmass of some of which a minute

development of nepheline is suspected.

THE RALLENY ISLANDS — HISTORICAL

In 1838 the Enderbys in association with other Londow merchants fitted

out the schooner Eliza Scott, 154 tons, with John Balleny in charge, and the

cutter Sabrina, 54 tons, under H, Freeman, for the purpose of sealing and

exploration in the southern seas. Early in 1839, after sealing operations on

the coast of southern New Zealand and Campbell Island, they proceeded

south on a voyage of discovery. When in latitude 69° further progress

south was prevented by drift ice. They then proceeded westward, working

along the margin of the heavier pack-ice. On February 9th (1839) a group

of five islands were sighted which Balleny distinguished, each by the name of

one of the partners of the firm of Enderby Brothers. Steam and smoke were

reported as rising from one of the islands, and they were all regarded as of a

volcanic nature. Efforts made to reach the land were impeded by drift ice.

Eventually a passage was worked in te one of the islands and both cap-

tains proceeded to attempt to land in the Subrtna’s boat. On reaching what

Balleny deseribed as the only accessible place along the ice-ridden, cliff-

bound coast, Captain Freeman jumped from the boat on to a heach of a few

yards wide, uncovered only momentarily as the ocean waves withdrew; in

that time, however, he secured a few beach pebbles as evidence of land, They

did not linger longer, but pursued their voyage to the west in search of mare

hospitable shores.

Sad to relate, on March 24th when riding ont a gale, some hundreds of

miles further to the west, the Sabrina was lost with all hands. The Eliza

Scott alone returned to tell the tale. With Capiain Freeman were lost also

his specimens. Only recently with the visit of the Australian National Ant-

arctic Research Expedition, has a second landing been made and rock speci-

mens secured for examination.

In the years that have elapsed since Balleny’s visit, these islands have

been sighted by very few expeditions operating in ncighbouring Antarctic

waters, They are comparatively inaccessible, for they are located in the pack-

ice belt encircling the Antarctic Continent and their presence there obstructs

the free movement of the pack-ice in its orderly drift from East to West in

the off-shore waters around the Continent. As a consequence, these islands

are usually embedded within an impenctrable icce-jam; thus only rarely have

ships an opportunity of penetrating to their shores. Actually, the whole of

the sea-ice which forms each winter in the Ross Sea to break up and driit

* University of Adelaide.

Traus Rey. Sac. 5. Aust., 73, (2), Dec, 1950

wofeet

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62" 50'E Saioce ez

iFekd

The Balleny Islands and their Geographic Location.

225

away to the north-westward in the ensuing simmer has to neyotiate this ice-

jam. Only in favourable years is this ice congestion relieved and then only

in the late summer.

Sir James Clarke Ross, in 1941, engaged on the memorable expedition

which discovered the Ross Sea, sighted the Balleny Islands across the pack-

ice but only at a great distance from them. Actually he believed this land-

fall to be the discovery of new islands south of Balleny’s find and gave to

them the name of Russell Islands.

Much later, on the return voyage of the Discovery during the operations

of the British National Antarctic Expedition of 1901-04, Scott set a course

ta reach and check Balleny’s discovery. That was a favourable year and they

sighted and fixed more accurately the position of four of the islands. They

tid not, however, effect any landings,

On. several occasions in subsequent years, whaling vessels operating in

the neighbourhood of the Ross Sea have, late in the summer season, come

within sight of one or more of the islands.

Tn the summer of 1934 when returning from the Ross Sea in foggy

weather, the exploring yessel Discovery 1/, obtaimed a glimpse of one or

more of the islands, but was unable to land. Later, during her 1936-38

cruise, Discovery {1, under coommand of Lieut. L, C. Ill, R.N-R,, retutned

to the region and under better weather conditions charted the four more

northerly islands, fixing their position accurately.

More recently, in February 1948, the Hyatt Earp of the Australian

National Antarctic Research Expedition found most of the islands of the

Group to be sufficiently accessible to allow Commander K. Oom, R.A.N,, ta

effect mare detailed charting and to permit Wing Commander Stuart Camp-

bell, Expedition Leader, ta make a couple of landings for the purpose of

securing tock specimens, The ice conditions did not permit access to Sturge

Island, the most southerly of the Group.

More recently still, in the summer of 1949, the French exploring vessel

Cemmandant Charcot, in command of Captain Max Douget, made a

landing on Sabrina Island. This expedition succeeded in reaching Sturge

Island.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES,

The Balleny Islands form a chain directed from the south-east towards

the north-west, extending over a length of about 140 statute miles.

These islands Jie about 165 statute miles to the north of the Antarctic

Continent at its nearest approach. Deep water, about 1500 fathoms,

separates them from the mainland. Equally deep water exists at only a few

miles to the north of the island chain.

The Group consists of three large islands (Young, Buckle and Sturge

Islands), three smaller islands (Borradaile, Rowe and Sabrina) and some

isolated reefs and rock pinnacles. Sturge Island, the most southerly, is some

Z9 statute miles long. Buckle Island has a length of about 14 miles and

Young Island 21 miles. Borradaile Island is m the vicinity of two and a half

flrs in length, while Rowe Island and Sabrina Island are but a fraction of

# tttile.

With rare exceptions, the islands are cliff bound, thus limiting the pns-

sibilities of landing; hence rock collections thus far secured are but meagre.

The height of Sturge Island is now taken to be about 5600 fect. Young

Island, once reported ic be extremely high, has lately been found to be very

226

little over 3000 feet. The other islands are considerably lower. They are

all capped with ice, and rock appears only on the cliff faces or in rare and very

limited exposures as pebble banks at sea-level. The active volcanic pheno-

mena reported hy Enderby have not been observed by recent visitors. Haw-

ever, the rack collections hereinafter described indicate a Jate Cainozoic to

recent volcanic origin for the entire Group.

ROCK TYPES COLLECTED

A description af the rocks collected in 1948 by the Australian Expedi-

{ion is the special subject of this contribution. As an addendum thereto,

reference is also made to:a small collection of rocks obtained during the 1949

cruise of the Commandant Charcot. These latter were secured through Mr.

N. Lutthowitz of Melbourne University, whom Commander Liotard kindly

gave permission to accompany the French Expedition on that voyage.

The A.N.A.R.E. collection consists of some 14 specimens from two

localities; the first, Borradaile Island, the second Buckle Island. These

sange from a boulder of about 15 lbs. weight to quite small pebbles.

Additional specimens obtained through the kindness of the Commandant

Charcot Expedition are also 14 in number and were secured from two other

islands, namely Sabrina Island and Sturge Island.

All these, with the exception of one only, are basic volcanic rocks. The

one exception is specimen No, 12, composed of coarsely crystalline epidote in-

timately associated with grains of quartz. As this was not found ia sito, at

may be assumed that it is a transported erratic or is of the nature of a

xenolith derived from an underlying formation brought up from below in the

volcanic uprush,

The rock types obtained from each of the localities where collections

were made are listed herewith,

Rorradaile Island. A landing from the HW*yalt Karp was made on a spit

at the north-east end of the Island and two Jarge specintens (Nos. 2 and 3)

of the prevailing rocks were sccured. These are both olivine trachybasalt,

and represent lavas which congealed at or near the surface.

Buckle (sland, The remaining 12 specimens (Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9, 10,

11, 12, 13, and 14) collected by the Wyatt Earp party, were obtained from the

surface of old sea-ice, some 50 yards from the shore cliffs, at a point abant

half-way down the east coast. All these boulders are taken to have been

derived from Buckle Island, avalanched down from the overtowering rock

cliffs. Most of these specimens while they exhibit some faceting show very

little other evidence of glaciation. Some of the pebbles suggest initial shap-

ing by ice with subsequent water wear.

They are divisible into three groups. Firstly, fresh, grey olivine trachy-

busalts and basalts, most being slightly vesicular (Nos. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and

10), Secondly, scoriaceous plagioclase basalts reddened by the penecantem-

poraneous attack of escaping volcanic steam and other gases (Nos. 4, 11, and

13). Finally, a coarsely crystalline epidotic rock, already metitioned, not

obviously of the volcanic suite and apparently of foreign origin (No. 14),

Sabrina Tslund, The French Expedition landed at the Adelie penguin

rookery neat the north-east corner of the Island and secured specimens irom

that location and from the Monolith. Of the material brought back by

Lotthowitz and added to our set of rocks illustrative of the Balleny Islands,

Nos {5 and 16 tecorded as common sea-shore stones of Sabrina Island, are

227

ulivine-angite-plagioclase-basalt that has been subjected to slight reddening

by solfataric attack, Nos. 22 and 23, secured in sil, are almost identical

grey olivine-plagioclase-basalts. Nos. 18 and 26, referred to as characteristic

red stones of the Island, are reddened scoriaceous basalt, No, 17, a beach

stone, 1s a black pumiceoits basalt with micro-phenocrysts of olivine and

abundant labradorite needles in a dusty glass base. No, 25 is a tiffaccotis

hasaltic agglomerate. No. 24, from the Monolith, 1s a grey vesicular olivine-

plagioclase-basalt. No, 27 represents the finer gravel from the shores; it con-

sists of water-worn basalt particles of a dominantly grey colour,

Sturge Island, The French Expedition collected specimens fram the

surface of free floating sea-ice near the north end af the west coast. Though

doubtful these pebbles may represent sheddings from the lofty cliffs nearby.

With them is some gritty morainic sludge.

No. 19 is a basic volcanic breccia, No. 20 is a propylitized, highly

scoriaceous basalt. No, 21 is a glaciated pebble of vesicular feldspathic basalt

which has undergone paulopost changes with development of chlorite, cal-

cite, etc. No. 28 is a uniform grey morainic mud originating from the glacia-

tion of basaltic rocks.

PETROLOGY

The following petrological descriptions of rocks of the Balleny Island

collection deal only with the morc important types. As there is a close simi-

larity in composition and type among the unaltered rocks, it will suffice to

describe in detail only two of them, namely No. 1 from Buckle Island and

No. 2 from Barradaile Island. Briet reference will be made to others.

OLIVINE TRACHYBASALYT FROM Buckie IsLanp

This specimen, No. 1, is a large plaly block of a dark ash-grey voleante

rock. It is perfectly fresh, with the appearance of heing, in all probability,

of Reeent or near-Recent age. This was collected on the adjacent sea-ice

within 50 yards of the shore cliffs at about the middle of the east ¢enast of

Buckle Island.

In the hand-specimen, it is somewhat rough to the feel, and with the aid

ef a pocket lens, same minute irregular steam-hole cavities can be detected.

Ti is almost entitcly of a very fine, even-grained nature in which the mineral

constitients cannut be distinguished with the naked eye: embedded therein,

however, are occasional very small olive-coloured phenocrysts of olivine, the

maxinuim size of which is 4mm.

In the rock slide, microphenucrysts of olivine and to a less extent augite,

are observed to be embedded in a microcrystalline groundmass. The latter

features. a striking development of plagioclase in fresh clear laths, markedly

oriented in flow lines distributed through a dark base in which mintite grains

ol augite and magnetite are discernible.

The olivine phenocrysts which, in the slide, do not exceed 3rmm- are quite

fresh and unaltered: the interference figure is that characterising olivines of

high magnesia content. Augite micro-phenocrysts do not exceed Imm. in

diameter and are clear and fresh: zoning is abseryable in some, and in these

an outer zone is notably pleochroic. The non-pleochroic central area has the

higher extinction angle, 44°, and an optic axtal angle of about 60°, thus indi-

cating rather normal augite: the pleachroic zone has a 2V of abunt 40°

characteristic of a sub-calcic augite.

228

The most obvious mineral of the groundmass is plagioclase in tiny laths

and sieedles up to 1 mm. in length, but averaging only about 0-6 mm, Some

are without twitinitig, the remainder rarely exhibit more than a single albite

twin. The optical characters of the laths indicate a range from andesine to

medium labradorite, Other components of the groundmass are much fine granular

augite of a similar composition as the outer zone of the phenocrysts, tiny grains of

olivine and minute particles often perfcct cubes of magnetite or ilneno-magnetite-

Minute glassike residuals are discernible but only to a_very limited extent;

these are of low R.I. and exhibit faint, anomalous D.R. These may be analcile-

Tiny euhedral apatites are not uttcommon.

The analysis of this rock illustrates a lower magnesian and higher alkali

content than is normal with basalts, Mineralogically the feldspar content is

greater and the ferromagnesian minerals fewer than is the casé in normal

basalt, In view of the plagioclases having a higher albite content than is normal

for basalts this rock may be classed as olivine-trachybasalt.

A chemical analysis and the norm derived therefrom are given on page 229.

The general character of the rock is illustrated in the thin-slide microphotograph

(fig. 3) appearing in the accompanying plate.

Otwine TracuypasaLt (No, 2) rrom BorrapaiLe Iscanp

This is a fresh medium to darkish grey microcrystalline, yoleanic tock in

which are observable a few small phenocrysts, the largest bemg 4mm. in

diameter, of alive-green olivine. It is a watet-worn boulder collected on a

spit at the north-east end of Borradaile Island, Occasional tiny vesicles are

observable on the fracture face.

The microscape slide reveals a microcrystalline base dominated by

plagioclase laths exhibiting marked flow structure: embedded in this hase are

simalf phenocrysts of olivine and augite.

The larger plagioclases have the characters of acid labradorite with 2V

of about 80°, Small porphyritic olivines are abundant as well formed crys-

tals, occasionally reaching 4mm. diameter; much of the olivine is fragmented.

It is biaxial negative with 2Y about 35°, thus a sub-calcic augite approaching

pigeonite.

As regards the groundmass the streaming structure of the plagioclase

laths and needles is the most notable feature: of these the larger of them

average 04mm. in length. There are occasional abnormally large individuals

and these exhibit well developed twinning. Albite twin extinetion angles in-

dicate labradorite (Ab,,An,,). Microlites and some untwinned laths with lower

RL are apparently andesine or even more albitic. Other minerals of the ground-

mass are well formed olivines and augites averaging 0°3 mm, diameter as well as

tiny irregular grains of augite associated with plagioclase needles and abundant

tiny cubes and specks of magnetite and ilmenite; also a very little brown glass.

From the above description and the chemical composition stated in the

table of analyses, this rock also may be classed as an olivine-bearing trachy-

basalt.

Included in the table of analyses is the chemical composition of the Bal-

jeny Island rocks numbers 1 and 2, As both of these are very similar types

the mean of their chemical analyses is also given in column III, Also For

comparison is included the analyses of each of two trachybasalts from Pos-

session Island (Crozet Group) referred to by Tyrrell*. The norms are also stated

below.

*BAN.Z. Antarctic Research Expedition Reports, Series A, vol. Ii, pt. 4

229

I. II. IIL. IV.

SiO, - - 47.73 45.06 46.395 44.255

TiOs - - 2,39 2.69 2.540 2.400

AlsOs - - 16.87 18.76 17.815 17.705

Fe:On - = 2.52 0.23 1 375 4.665

FeO - - 878 9.94 9.360 7.005

MnO - - 018 0.19 0.185 0.125

MgO - - 5,80 7,33 6.565 5.935

CaO - - 8.64 9.72 9.180 10.735

Na:O - - 4,90 4,19 4.545 2.990

K:0 - - 1,99 1.57 1.780 1.295

H:O+ - - 6.14 0.12 0.130 2.420

HO- - - 0.02 0.02 0.020 } ‘

PrOs - - 0.65 0.65 0.650 0.395

5 - - -~ 0.09 0.05 0.070 _

BaO - - 0.06 0.06 0.060 —

100.76 100.58 100.660 99.825

less O for S - 0.02 0.01 0.015 —_

Total - - 100.74 100.57 100.645 99.825

. Analysis of olivine-trachybasalt from Buckle Island (Balleny Group), by A. P.

Wymond (University, Adelaide),

. Analysis of olivine-trachybasalt from Borradaile Island (Balleny Group) by R. B.

Wilson (University, Adelaide).

. Mean of analyses I, and II.

- Mean of analyses of (a) olivine-trachybasalt from American Bay, Crozet Island,

(analyst, Herdsmen) and (b) the olivine-trachybasalt from Christmas Bay, Crozct

Isiand (analyst, Reinish), both quoted by Tyrrell (1937).

Norms or BALLENy Istanp Rocxs

Rock No.1 No.2

Orthoclase - - 11°68 9-45

Albite - - 21-48 10°48

Anorthite - - 18-07 62°02 27°52 61-11

Nepheline ~ - 10°79 13-63

Diopside - - 16-35 13°66

Olivine - - 11-96 18°72

Magnetite - - 3°71 (+23

Ilmenite = - 4°56 3842 5-17 39-41

Apatite - - 1-68 154

Pyrite - - 0-16 0-09

Water - - 0-16 0-14

100-60 100-63

C.LP.W. Classification - Tl & 3 Ti, 5. 3-4. 4.

230

Specimens 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 and 14 bear a general similarity im the hand speci-

men, though some are vesitular and others not. The greatest difference in

texture is to be noted only in the microscope section. here it becomes vb-

vious that certain of them are more highly feldspathic than others and some

have been more quickly chilled than others, Also some exhibit flow struc-

ture highly developed while in others evidence of flow is negligible,

In the case of several, at least, chemical analysis would undoubtedly re»

veal them to contain less alumina and alkalies with corresponding increase in

magnesium and calcium: thus a more normal type of basalt. In the fol-

Iowing notes reference is made to only the more prominent characteristics of

each of these.

No, 3 is a very large boulder of medium-grey rock which, in part, is ob-

viously vesicular, the vesicles being small, irregular and flattened. There is

a paucity of olivine and augite micro-phenocrysts. Occasional white glassy

inclusions as recorded in No, 8 are observabie in the hand-specimen, Micre-

scopically there is a great similarity to specimen No, 1, there being a great

development of labradorite laths usually markedly oriented by flowage of the

unsolidified lava.

No, 5 is another grey, water-worn boulder similar in appearance ta Nos,

3 and 14. Occasional tiny olivines are observable in the hand-specimen,

No. 6 in the hand-specimen, is somewhat darker prey than No. 8, but

otherwise petrologically very similar, It differs from the type represented by

No. | in that plagioclase laths ure much less abundant and there is less flow

orientation. Microporphyritic olivines and augites, the latter more abundant,

are a feature.

The plagioclase has the optical characters of an acid labradorite. ‘The

alivyine answers to the magnesian-rich variety. The pyroxene lacks colour, is

biaxial positive, and has an extinction angle ¢ A Z of about 40°; it thus appears

to be a pigeomitic augite.

No. 8 in the hand-specimen is a grey rock which, like certain others (No

9 for instance) has shadowy, quick chilled areas within it. An unusual fea-

ture is that-of clear colourless glassy inclusions up to lcm, diameter. These blebs

are remnants of partly resorbed crystals whose optical characters appear to indicate

a plagioclase of the cliguclasc-andesine range, Ti addition, small phenocrysts of

olivine and augite up to 0°5 ci. diameter are in evidence,

The general character of this rock is very similur to that of No, 9 im that

plagioclase Jaths and needles are suppressed and no outstanding orientation

evidenced. The base also js quite like that ot No. 9.

No. 9 is externally of very similar appearance ta No. 14, except that it ts

traversed irregularly by streaks and patches of a quicker chilled darker

phase, An absence of strongly deyeloped and oriented plagioclase laths is

notable in the microscopic slide. Obvious clivines are rare in the hand-spceei-

men and their place is taken by microporphyritic augites. The slide under

low pawer exhibits a dark and speckled base which, when more highly mag-

nified, ts Seen to be a dense assemblage of microcrystals of pyroxene and

magiietite embedded in a clear glassy base.

No. 14 is another medium to dark grey, microcrystaline rock in whoch

are occasional small porphyritic greenish-yellow olivines up to 3nim. m dia-

meter.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. ast, 1950 Vol. 73, (2), Plate NXYV

231

Under the microscope the fine-grained base is dominated by a (rachytoid

arrangement of plagioclase in laths to 0.75imm long and in needles; there are

occasional microporphyritic olivines. The general groundmass is constituted of

small augites and to a Jess extent olivines with much irresulvable dark base

in which euhedral magnetites and magnetile dust are abyious.

Titanatigite microphenoctysts, in part slightly pleochroic, is biaxial posi-

tive with 2V about 60°, The olivine is generally quite fresh and has a high

optic-axial angle. The larger plagioclases show some zoning and have the

characters of an acid to medium labradorite,

Specimens 4 and 11 are basaltic lavas that have undergone fumaroli¢c gas

attack.

No. 4 is a coarsely vesicular, reddish-brown lava. Ln microscope section

it is seen to be basalt which has undergone chvmical changes from the aitack

nf volcanic gases. It has been subjected to considerable changes with the

development of secondary miuerals including some haematite, hence the

colour. Originally it was a basalt with well developed laths of labradorite

and microphenocrysts of olivine and augite, evidently quite similar to others

of the specimens already described. Mainly as a tesull of late-valeanic ac+

tivity subsequent to solidification, a considerable proportion of the steam

holes have been filled by secondary minerals, mainly calcite and analcite-

No, 11 is another vesicular lava that has suffered penecontemporaneous

gas attack resulting in partial breakdown of original minerals and reddening

of the rock.

A feature as seen in microscope slide is the abundance of well developed

stocky plagioclase laths in flow arrangement which, with some micropor-

phyritic olivine and angite, are embedded in a yellowish glassy base charged

with feldspar needles, The plagioclase ranges from imedium andesine to

labradorite (Ab,An,). Prisms of apatite are to be noted.’ The glassy base

appears to be palagonitized,

DESCRIPTION OF MICROPHOTOGRAPHS

Fig. 1

Microphotograph of a thin section of rock No. 6, magnified 40 diameters, The larger

individuals. especially a group on the left centre are oliyities. Aagite is in smaller

andividuals, nat conspicuous. Narrow laths and needles of plagioclase are obvious but

not very noticeahly developed. The bulk of the section is a base of minute granules of

augite and dusty glass, Among the latter are minute patches and cavity fillings of what

appears to be analcite.

Fig, 2

Microphotograph of a section of rock Ne. 11, magnified 40 diameters. The field is

dominated by comparatively large and well formed plagioclase laths exhibiting fow

orientation. A later more albitic generation of plagioclase appears us minute needles

in the groundmass, which otherwise is mainly hrownish dusty glass. Studded through

this base are small olivines, grains of black iromote and occasional well-fomed apatite,

crystals.

Fie. 3

Microphotograph of a section of rack No. I, magnified 40 diameters. A large part of

the rack is observed to be composed of plagioclase laths in streaming atrangement

Olivine and augite in more granular form are both in evidence, the former in larger

clearer crystals. The aigite is in smaller graniiles and less conspicuous, Though im very

tiny particles, there is much magnetite studded throughout the base in ecuhoidal and

ocirahedral formis, These recognisable constituents are embedded ju a clear to dusty

Mescstasis, most of which is glass Wit in which theve are ncedles of andesine anel

suggestions of mepheline.

THE LATE CAINOZOIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH

AUSTRALIA

BY PAUL S. HOSSFELD

Summary

The late Cainozoic history of the South-East of South Australia is largely one of repeated recessions

and advances of the ocean, and the preservation, wholly or in part, of the resulting stranded coastal

dunes. Investigations support the view that the shorelines were unstable and the dunes were not

formed in the sequence in which they exist today.

232

THE LATE CAINOZOIC HISTORY OF THE SOUTH-EAST OF

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By Paut S. HossFeip*

[Read 8 June 1950]

CoNTENTS

SUMMARY a. . J as

INTRODUCTION ee 4

ToroGraPHy

T General... és * vst ana 196 _

Il The calcareous dunes . aus aut eat fee sad ue

IIf The siliceous sands... shge vest enn fine «live

JV Lutnettes ,... as “ee “ass ants As hs ine

V_ Volcanic hills f.29 tf wt ix. ni

VI Marine escarpments

VIL Drainage

VITL The coast

GEOLOGY

General .... oe

Il Pre-Murrayian

Ill Murravian

IV Post-Murravian

a. Caleareous dunes iat eae sts

b. Siliceous sands .... am oanss ante

c. Waterworn quartz gilt ‘and pebbles vers mn

d. Waterworn flints sie ne, eats nee ae

c. Fossil shells "

f. Lacustrine limestone ....

g. Swamp deposits—

Blacksoils, peat, shells, coorongite, lime biscuits

h. Volcanic accumulations mer an rat

1. Lunettes ny

j. Kunkar travertine

k. Laterite

Discussiox eute ae wats sats aid

The basement ith sat

Glacial custatic oscillations of, ea level

Vulcunism mac

Chronology eats

Diastrophism nied ata ett pate aH

Tsostasy ...- seca bass anes Sips sees pees

Extinet rivers . Sits ier dees eed

Human occupation ate bans a =P

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Tah

BIBuiocRArFHY

The late Catnozoic history of the South-East of South Australia is largely

one of repeated recessions and advances of the ocean, and the preservation, wholly

or in part, of the resulting stranded coastal dunes.

view that the shore ines were unstable and the dunes were not formed in the

vee tee weer ote wees eee ste

SUMMARY

sequence in which they exist today.

A provisional chronology has been compiled in which the various shorelines

are corrclated tentatively with the positive and negative movements of sea-level

during the Pleistocene Ice Age.

The vulcanism and other phenomena have been assigned places in the

chronology.

* School of Geology, University of Adelaide.

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 73, (2), Dec. 1950

Page

232

233

234

235

237

238

240

241

242

243

245

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

275

276

Investigations support the

233

It is emphasised that the instability of the region during the period under

review makes definite correlation with other areas in Austral'a cir other countries

impracticable at present.

The investigations carried out show that here is an area which, owing to

the very low gradients of its basemen’, has been a sensitive indicator of changes

in sea-level and on which is preserved a large part of the geological record from

the Upper Pliocene to the present day. Not only will a study af this region

provide a detailed picture of that time, but the results obtained by such an investi-

gation will assist matcrially in the development of a clearer Understanding of

older epochs and periods of which a smal! proportion only of teie original record

has been preserved,

INTRODUCTION

The area to be described includes the greater part of the region usually

referred to as the South-East of South Australia and more specifically as the

Upper and Lower South-East. The region is the most southerly province

of Sonth Australia and comprises roughly that part of the State situated be-

tween the coast south and east of the Murray Mouth and the Victorian

harder. Fenner (1930) gave the names Ninety Mile Plains and South-East

Plains to his regions 14 and 15, which correspond approximately to the

generally accepted though ill-defined concept of the Upper and Lower South-

Easi respectively. Recent official division of South Australia has resulted in

the establishment of wo regions, the Tatiara and Gambier Regions, which

depart considerably, however, from the former sub-divisions. ‘The terrain

described in this paper includes the greater part of the Gambier and the

western part of the Tatiara Division. The area dealt with comprises approxi-

mately 6500 square miles and includes the greater part of the Counties of

Grey, Rohe, Macdonnell and Cardwell and the south-western part of Buck-

ingham. Owing to their use by previous authors, the terms Upper and

Lower Sauth-East are being retained in the present paper.

The varied and interesting problems presented in this region have not

atiracted in the past the attention which they merit. It is true that previous

investigations inctude geological, geographical, soil survey, land utihzalion,

butanical, palacontological, economic and anthropological research of se-

lected and limited areas; but such of the work as deals with the region as a

whole is highly generalized and any detailed surveys that haye been made

cover «mall sectors only, The more impurtant contributions include those

of Tenison-Woods, Fenner, Ward, Campbell, Wade, Mawson, Tindale, Tay-

lor, Stephens, Crocker, Cotton and various State Government Departments,

Others are listed in the bibliography.

The present paper has been written as the restilt of fieldwork by the

aiiihor, commenced in 1931 and continued at intervals:as opportunity offered,

until November, 1949. Recent intensive work has been made possible by

facilities eranted by the University of Adelaide.

The investigation embraces the study of all available bore and well re-

cords; the detailed mapping on a seale of 40 chains per mile of some areas

using the published maps of the Department of Lands and Survey; the close

stercoscopic examination of thousands of aerial photographs lent by the De-

ferice Department, and wf others made available by the C.S.L.R.O, and mapping

on the scale of these photographs, the largest scale being 20 chains per inch.

Since the above was written, advice has been received of a paper by R, C. Sprigy

on Stranded Sea Beaches of the Sonth-Mast of South Australia, ta be published in

Vraus. (Sih Geol. Congr., London, 1948.

234

The use of thousands of Jeyels made available by the South-Eastern Drainage

Board, and the detailed contoured maps of special areas surveyed by the

above as well as by the Woods and Forests Department, made it possible to

construct a provisional contoured map of the basement of the greater part

of the region.

The aerial photographs now available and the increasing wealth of sur-

vey data becoming available in recent years, have made it possible to

exainine and map the area in much greater detail than could be done pre-

viously, and has resulted in the modification or rejection of some of the

hypotheses formulated hy previous investigators. lt will be shown that the

writer gecepts in principle the glacial eustatic origin of the calcareous dune

ranges (Tindale, 1933, 1947) as against crustal warping (Ward, 1941), Never-

theless it is evident that crustal deformation has played an important rile

ii the development of the region. The writer cannot accept the greater part

cf Tindale’s reconstruction of the Pleistocene history of the region and con-

siders that in the present state of our knowledge, correlation of glacial eus-

tatic terraces of the South-East of South Australia with thoae of the Atlantic

Coast of the U.S.A. or of the Mediterranean is impossible.

An attempt has been made by the use of such evidence as could be ob-

tained to compile the chronological sequence for each of the calcareous dune

ranges, Jlowever, this rests so largely on inference that it must be regarded

as tentative only. h

Reference could be made in the text to but a small proportion of the

publications consulted. Those which have a direct bearing on some of the

problems discussed in this paper and which are not specifically mentioned

in the text are ineluded in the Bibliography. In addition the writer was able

to examine unpublished maps and reports made available through the gene-

rosity and co-operation of the Directors of Oil Search Ltd,

The assistance is gratefully acknowledged of Professor Sir Danglas Maw-

son of the School of Geology, and of Dr. T. D. Campbell, University of Ade-

laide; Mr. D, Schulz, of Rendelsham; Mr. A. J. S. Adams, Chief Forester at

Mount Burr Forest; Messrs. R. N. Campbell and H. F. Kessall, of Mount

Gambier; Mr. C. Willshire, of Millicent: Mc. Jackway, of Blackfellows Caves,

and the officials of the Commonwealth Department of Defence at Keswick

and of the State Departments of Woods and Farests, Mines, Lands and Sur-

vey, the South-Eastern Drainage Board and the South Australian Harbours

Board.

TOPOGRAPHY

I Generar.

The region is a low level terrain which slopes very gently seaward.

Owing to regional warping, the inclination of this terrain varies in different

sectors both in amount and direction. In the most northerly area the slope

is south-westerly, in the central portion it is westerly, changing gradually

further south until southerly near the Victorian border. Although this re-

gion possesses very low and uniform gradients over a very large proportion

of its surface, there are many areas of diversified relief both above and below

the general level. Features above the general level are inliers of ancient rocks,

xeolian deposits and voleanic accumulations, as well as escarpments produced

by former marine erosion. Features below the general level include lakes,

swamps and claypans, creeks, sinkholes and closed depressions (tvalas).

The inhiers of ancient rocks occur north of the Kingston-Naraccorte Rail-

way. Most of them are Jow and only a few of them reach heights of over

100 feet (Mawson 1943, 1944, 19453, LO45b),

235

The aeolian deposits ate of three types|—the ealcarcous dunes, the sili-

ceaus sands, and lunettes.

Tl Tur Carcareaus DUNES

These are the predominant type of surface relief, Their peenliar arrange-

ment, location and origin, as well as their economic significance attracted

attention from the beginning of exploration and settlement of the region

(Woods, 1862). This interest hag became more pronounced in tecent years,

both from scientific and econamic aspects. Their adverse influence, both

direct and indirect, on the cconomic development of the region has becn far

reaching.

Their general direction, though variable, has a north-westerly trend, andl

is approximately parallel to the present coastline and at igh angles but not

at right angles to the general slope of the region. T heir fronts or seaward

edges exhibit a small but consistent drop in height both north and south

of the Mount Burr area. Failure by some previous investigators fo observe

these progressive variations in altitade has led to serious errors in the inter-

pretation of the history of the region.

A traverse normal to the present coastline crosses the dune ranges at

high angles and at progressively increasing heights above sea-level. Although

exhibiting great variations in shape and size, they have a roughly sub-

parallel arrangement with north-westerly trends, As they ate followed in a

rorth-westerly direction from {he Mount Burr area, all hut a few of the mnter-

dune flats decrease steadily in width until many of the ranges coulesce sa

that it is no longer possible to distinguish them individually. Rarely do they

rise to heights as much as one hundred feet above the adjacent plains, anc

as a rule their summits are considerably short of thal figure. Tlowever, be-

cause of the low relict of the intervening areas, these dunes are known aa

“sanges” and owing to their separation in the central part ot the region by

wide, extensive plains, bear distinctive names. Those for which no local

games could be discovered have been named by the writer the Canunda

(Campbell, 1946), Woolumbool, Peacock, Lucindale anc Neville Ranges,

The furthest inland tange is known as the Naracoorte Range, This has

been divided by the writer into the Fast and West Naracoorte Ranges.

In the central portion of the South-East the East Naracuorle Range is

the more inland and rises from a higher part of the basement than docs the

West Naracoorte Range. To the north and north-west of the town al Nata-

coorte these two ranges coalesce and at some distance beyond this conver-

gelice the range divides again. One branch turns to the north-west and farms

the Black Range whicli apparently trends more anid more westerly towards

the southern margin of the Mount Boothby inliers of ancient igneous rocks.

This branch is being identified by the writer with the East Naracoorte

Range. The other branch, the more easterly, consists iu its southern sector

where it diverges fram the combined range, of a series of ifregular discton-

nectedl dunes, but further to the north exists as a well+leyeloped continuous

dune system. The further continuations of this system are being investigated

by other workers. This branch is being identified here as the continualion

cl the West Naracoorte Range, Such identification implies that in the

northern sector of the region the West Naracoorte Range is the furthest in-

land and at the highest level, whereas in the central sector this position 1s:

occupied by the East Naracoorte Range. The continuation further ta the

south-east extends into Victoria and does not exist im the southern sector of

the South-East Region of South Australia.

235

Just to the south of the town of Naracoorte, the western edge of the East

Naracoorte Range is 54 miles ffom the coast, but altitude and distance de-

crease continuously to the north-west, until near Chifaman Wells the cor-

responding part of the range is only 26 miles from the coast and at a very

much lower level.

This range, known in the Hundred of Laffer as the Black Range, has

been mapped over a length of 96 miles and continues to an unknown distance

to the north-west and south-east. The greatest Jengths recorded are those

of the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges which have been traced over

a distance of 166 miles without their north-western or south-eastern limits

having been reached. Other ranges, however, are nol as persistent and their

total lengths vary considerably. Some terminate abruptly; others lose height

gradually towards their extremities; others consist of a series of disconnected

ridges; others decrease almost to nothing then increase again in height and

width; still others, particularly in the Upper South-East, are partly or com-

pletely covered by drift sand so that their location is difficult to determine.

Although a rake pattern is exhibited by some, most of the ranges possess

straight or smoothly curved western or seaward edges for considerable pro-

portions of their extent, but have deeply indented or embhayed eastern or in-

land margins. In some areas no defined ranges are discernible, and the pat-

tern displayed by the dune limestone outcrops is extremely irregular, though

exhibitmg in most instances a subordinate but nevertheless definite trend,

(See General Map). Because of these factors, the complete succession is

not encountered in any traverse normal to the ranges. Detailed investiga-

tions by the writer have shown that the general belief expressed by previous

authors, of the existence of seven to eight or even fewer ranges iS erroneous.

It has been possible to distinguish and map eighteen distinct ranges, each of

which either already bears a local name or has beet named herein.

For reasons giyen above and others which will be discussed later, it

was found necessary to begin the critical examination of the regiou and deter.

mine the initial classilication of the stranded dune ranges in the central sec-

tor, In this sector, commencing with the dune range at the greatest distance

from the coastline and therefore rising relatively from the highest parts of

the jundamental plain, the complete list in a seaward direction as now deter-

mined ig ;—

1. East Naracourte 1) East Avenue

2. West Naracoorte 11 West Avenne

3. Harpers 12. Reedy Creek

4. Stewarts or Cave 13. Neville

5. Waolumbool 14+. East Dairy

6. Peacack 15, West Dairy

7, Bakers 16. East Woakwine

8, Liucindale 17, West Woakwine

9 Ardune 18. Canunda

The recent naming of dune limestone ridges in the extreme Lower Sunth-

East (Crocker 1946a) appears to have been unnecessary. It is true thar

Crocker was correct in abolishing the term Kongorong Range used locally

for the southern part of the Woakwine Range, and that giving ihe name

MacDonnell Range to the double limestone range near Allendale can be jus-

tified. His Burleigh and Caveton Ranges howeyer, are identical with and

are continuations of the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges respectively,

and his Mount Gambier Range is almost certainly a continuation of the East

Avenue Range.

Unless specifically mentioned, the present coastal dines are not included

in the description and general discussion of the calcareous dunes.

Despite their low altitudes, the rocky outcrops, dense scrub, and deep

drift sands of many seclors have made of these ranges a series of barriers

to trafic between the coast and the interior, The obstructions they placed

across the natural fow of surface waters, impounded these against the eastern

or inland flanks of the ranges. Ag a result, white sandy beaches were formed

in many sectors of the inland margins of the ranges wherever permanent or

semi-permanent lagoons still exist, or existed before the present artificial

drainage schemes came intu operation. Much of the impounded flood water

moved in a north-westerly direction, As the resultant gradient in that direc-

tion is less than one foot per mile in must sectors, movement was sluggish

and ill-defined except when floodwaters had raised the level of the water

sificiently to produce a temporary and adequate stecpening of the Jocal gra-

djent. Considerable amounts of water but varying greatly in different locali-

ties, sceped through and beneath the ranges, emerging as springs, permatient

or intermittent, on the next series of interdume flats, As a result, roads and

(racks over most of the region were confined, unless specially constructed,

for the greater part of each year almost entirely to the ranges and chiefly to

their flanks or to the very natrow zone, not present everywhere, which

marked the transition from range to flat, Even today when artificial dramage

has improved the surface run-off in many areas, trouble is experienced in wet

years, and roads and embankments are heing vaised in a number of localities.

Despite the poverty and general lack of depth of soil in many parts of

the ranges, their relative dryness as compared with the inter-range flats, de-

termined their use as winter quarters for stock. Observations show that

many areas now exhibiting bare stony hillsides completely devoid al vegeta-

tion, that have brought to that condition by wind erosion after removal oi

the vegetation by overgrazing or rabbits.

Costly drainage schemes have been carried out and more are proposed to

remove Stitface waters from such swampy inter-range areas as are considered

suitable for development. As the highest surface gradient is nearly at right

angles to the average trend of the ranges and natural gaps are few, excava-

tions of considerable magnitude wete necessary in seme instances, The

longest aad deepest excavations are those of Drain L which terminates near

Robe and which bas a maximum depth of 54 fect through the Woakwine

Range,

MII Tor Suaceous Sanps

Enormous accumulations of this material exist in the region and their

fixation by veetation ensures their stability while the plant cover remains,

Although isolated deposits exist in the Belt Range near Hatherleigh anid in

other localities to the west of the Reedy Creek Range, in general they ocenr

further east. These sands cover completely or in part, many sectors of the

calcareous dune ranges, but do not of themselves form large dunes af great

linear extent. The greatest accumilations arc low, gently undulating or level

expanses which in many instances were former interdune flats and swamps.

They occur piled up against and on top of pre-existing hills and ridges and

in general have the appearance of windsorted material distributed over an

irregular landscape. In the Lawer South-East they have been utilized largely

for pine plantations, The resulting forest cover adds to the diffeulties. not

only of determining their limits but also of mapping any outcrops of pire-

existing formations. A study of the planning of the plantations and of the

growth of the pines give in many instances chies to the subjaceit rocks, but

do not enable accurate geological boundaries to he drawn,

238

IV JuNettes

In numerous localities, but especially in the areas east of Kingston and

cf Robe, and in the wide interdune Hats between the Caye and Ilarper's

Ranges and the Naracoorte Range, both to the north and squth af the town

of Naracoorte, the flats contain very large numbers of small, shallow depres-

sions which are filled with water during and for considerable periods after

the wet season. A notable feature of very many of these is the existence on

their eastern margins of crescent-shaped dunes generally varying in height

and size with the adjacent lagoon. These dunes are known as luncttes and

have been described elsewhere (Hills 1939, 1940), (Stephens 1946).

V Vorcaste Hits

In the southern part of the region accumulations of volcanic material,

chiefly of tuff with some basalt flows, form a number of elevations, the

largest and most extensive area being the Mount Burr Range, culminating in

Mount Burr, 802 feet above sea level and approximately 700 feet aboye the

plains to the west. ‘The Mount Burr Range contains within it or is adjacent

te Mounts Muirhead, Graham, Muir, MacIntyre, Sinclair, William and Ed-

ward, Day's and Campbell’s Hills, The Lookout, Frill, Wateh and Bluff.

Further to the south the isolated cones of the smal extinct volcanoes of

Mounts Gambier and Schank form conspicuous landmarks on the low level

plateau.

VI Marre EscarpmMents

In several localities cliffs and escarpments praduced by former wave-

action occur inland at various levels, Somte of the more conspicuous are the

Up-And-Down Rocks near Tantanoola, a scarp between Mount Sehank and

Port Macdonnell, the north-eastern flank of Mount Graham, the vicinity of

tackfellow’s Caves, Robe, and Nora Creina Bay.

VIT Dratnace

Within this region surface drainage is immature and crecks and natural

drainage channels are few in number. In the eastern sector the chief streams

are the Mosquito, Naracoorte and Morambro Creeks which dse in Vittoria

and flow westwards into South Australia but spread out om the flats west of

the Naracoorte Range. In the western sector the chief crecks are the

Reedy, Avenue, Salt, Cattle and Maria Creeks, and in the southern sector the

Stony, Benara and Eight Mile Creeks. None of these were important drain-

age channels and even Reedy Creek, by far the largest, was merely a chain

of swarups and small lagoons which drained slowly to the north-west during

and after heavy rains. The location of the successive dune ranges, being

icatly at right angles to the average slope of the region, together with ihe

porosity of the subjacent rocks, prevented the development of a defined

drainage pattern and resulted in the banking up of foadwaters on the eastern

flanks of the ranges. To some extent sub-surface drainage effected the re-

moval of surplus waters, but a very large proportion travelled slowly it a

rorth-westerly direction to Alfred Flat and beyond, supplying some water

to the Cattle, Maria and Salt Creeks; evaporation accounted for the re-

mainder, The Sonth Australian Government, through the South-Eastern

Drainage Board, has done and is doing much to drain the more fertile ateas

by providing artificial channels through the blockading ranges.

Lakes, lagoons, swamps and claypans ate very plentiful in some sectors,

notably im the areas adjacent to the coast, ay well as in the areas east of

Kingston and of Robe and in the wide inter-dune flat west of the West Nara-

239

coorte Range. While some are salt the overwhelming majority of the inland

basins contain fresh water, The largest basins are those adjacent to the coast

and include the Coorong, appreximately 90 miles long, Lakes Eliza, St, Clair

and George, all of which are salt, and Lake Bonney approximately 22 miles

long which contains freste water and, as is to be expected, has an outlet to

the ocean, Other lakes and swamps will be referred io in a later section, hut

brief mention must be made here of the Dismal Swamp, a collection of partly

connected and irregular swamps which extends to the Victorian border and

from the eastern portions of which surplus waters are staied ip drain slowly

into the Glenelg River, a stream which at present flaws almost entircly with-

in the boundaries of Victoria.

The underlying porous limestanes, as well as the porous limestones of

the dune ranges, in preventing the development of a Uelinite sutface drainage,

produced a region of largely “cryptoreic™ drainage (Penner 1930), As a re-

sult, caves, sink-holes, and closed depressions (uyalas) indicative of the col-

lapse of former solution chambers, are plentiful in the southern part of the

regiot, a arca of relatively high rainfall.

In order to obtain a true picture of the configuration of the basement on

which the aeolian and volcanic deposits rest, a contoured map is essential.

Since none was available, the writer has attempted to remedy this defect.

With the nid of all available levels and contoured plans of such areas as had

been surveyed by the South-Eastern Drainage Board and the Woods and

Forests Department, a map of the major part of the South-east has been pre-

pared. Insufficient levels are available for the extreme north and south af

the region, but a large enough area has been contoured ta supply much needed

information of the morphology and history of the South-East, As the acolian

and yoleanic deposits have no structural connection with the basement it-

self, and since the contour mapping of these highly irregular and in places

convoluted areas would have served no useful purpose, they have been dis;

regarded and the contoured map purposes to show the actual floor of the

basement plain.

This floor coincides in many areas, notably in the Lower South-East,

with the upper surface of {he Miocene limestones and in the northern sector

of the Upper South-East with the Precanshrian and Miocene pavement, the

surfaces in both areas being the results of marine planation, There are, haw-

ever, large ateas in which the marine plane is covered by later deposits of

matine, lacustrine, aeolian or volcanic origin, Although this cover is thin

except in the Mount Burr Range, its presence must be allawed for in the

determination of the contours which are intended as neatly as possible to

represent the planed-off surface of the basement rocks. It has not been pos-

sible to determine the necessary values in all localities, and to that extent

the final figures used must be approximations only, In order that such cover,

which is irregular in occurrence both as to area and thickness, should pro-

duce the minimum amount of distortion the scale of the final may was re-

duced considerably, The original one font intervals were rediiced to ten-

foot contours, and the horizontal seale of 2 miles per inch was reduced to 8

miles per itich.

It will be noted that, except for a few areas in the north-eastern sector

ajjacent to Victoria, the haserment is ai higher levels beteath the Mount Burr

Range and in the Dismal Swamp area than in any other part of the region,

A map has been prepared af the Mount Rurr area, showing the actual

sufface contours. The greater part of this map is based on detailed contour

plans surveyed and drawn by the Woods and Forests Department, These

240

were extended where possible by the use of other survey data, and where

these were not available, by sketch contours especially in the vicinity of The

Bluff.

MUNDRED

HUNDREG oF <

+ ~N Bipoocn

MDUNT MU/RHEAD } \

‘

ase

‘-

Tota

Claas EI By

aoa!

1 Ne

anor

- 40,

agile 4) soe

pee) 1 +s. t a gr irow

GBB a A »

2 WUNDRED OF nINDMARSH Pepe Jeoe

Ry f am ec? '

oi .

HUNDNED

5, MAYURRA, a ‘ or

‘Bei

Sh CAVES acs

s s , x %: Mount _Gamnrga |

% ‘

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: Ate

% N

FGWNG.

GENERALIZED CONTOURS

at the

MOUNT BURR RANGE and adjacent Areas

basad largely. on {Off contour intervals surveyed by Woods & Forests Dept

Cantours shown thus —— |O0/t or multiples A ;

gocw SOU, mlermediate contours a kneel

F——= sketch contours

Boundaries of Hundreds —.— — —.—--—

SCALE 2 4 zener

Fig, 1

VITI Tre Coast

North of Kingston the present shoreline is apparently prograding with

the development of coastal dunes, probably an offshore bar initially, and im-

pounding the long narrow lake known as the Coorong. To the south of

Kingston the coast appears to be one of submergence with an advancing

shoreline. The history and development of these features will be dealt with

in a subsequent section of this paper.

241

GEOLOGY

T GENERAL.

The region is a sector of the former Murrayian Gulf which in South

Australia extended far to the north, included the greater part of the present

Mount Lofty Ranges and covered extensive areas in New South Wales and

Victoria. This gulf was formed by the advance of the sea during the Miocene

Epoch wr perhaps even earlier, The sea finally retreated from the greater

part of this Gulf at or near the close of the Lawer Pliocene, and formed a

new shoreline which is believed to have coincided approximately with the

present East Naracoorte Range. Further palacontological work is expected

to result in definite age determinations both of the submergence and eter-

gence of the Murravian Gulf.

Betore its submergence, the greater part of this area appears to have been

continuous with and a part of the Great Australian Peneplain which in South

Australia appears to have reached its final stages and greatest development

towards the close of the Mesozuic Era.

Within the region described in this paper, the rocks immediately under-

lying the surface of the peneplain belonged to two granps. North of the

vicinity of Kingston they appear to have consisted of Precambrian and pos-

sibly Palaeozoic sediments and tgneous intrusions (Mawson 1943 and 1944).

To the south of Kingston they consisted as far as is known, of Mesozoic

sediments apparently lacustrine in origin.

As stated in another paper, not yet published, the writer considers that

the available evidence indicates titat the dismemberment of the peneplain in

ihe region now known as the Mount Lufty Ranges commenced during the

Cretaceous or very early in the Tertiary Period. In sore sectors warping

and faulting ended the peneplanation cycle, and as a result, terrestrial de-

posits such as grayels, sands and Jignitic clays were formed in yarious paris

of the region,

li the age determination of the lacustrine Sediments penetrated in the

lower section of the Robe bore as Jurassic (Ward 1941), is upheld by subse-

(juehl research, it is possible that the diastrophisin which affected parts of

Southern Australia during the later siages of the Cretaceous Period and in

the Cainozoic Era was active also in the Lower Sotith-East, an area in which

diastrophism appears however, to have begun earlier, It lollows that deposi-

tion, largely and probably entirely of terrestrial material, may have con-

tinued through the Cretaceots and into the Tower Tertiary Period until

during the Oligocene or Miocene Epochs the sea advanced aver the region

end formed the Murravian Gulf. There would in that case be little or na

hrealc in deposition in the area to the south of Kingston. In the terrain north

of Kingston the terrestrial deposits formed immediately above the Precam-

brian-Palacozoic floor will date from the beginning of diastrophism in any

given locality and will vary probably from Upper Cretaceous to Lower Ter-

tiary in different places,

While it is true that no definite break in deposition is expected in the

area tu the south of Kingston, this is alter all only a smal! fraction of the total

area of the former Gulf, The great expanse of this gulf in South Australia

north of Kingston, and also in New South Wales and Victcria, exhibits a

sharp time and crosion break between the Cretaceous to Lower Pliocene sedi-

ments and the floor of Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks on which they were

deposited. Although the greater part of the South-Fast remained submerged

probably to the close of the Pliocerie Epoch, and lence deposits of Upper

Pliocence Time were formed and probably still exist in protected areas, the

242

emergence of the Murravian Gulf as such is considered by the writer to have

been completed when the sea finally retreated to the East Naracoorte shore-

line at the close of or during the Lower Pliocene Age. The writer therefore

has divided the rocks and formations of the South-East into three groups

which will be referred to as:—

PRE-MURRAVIAN, MURRAVIAN, and POST-MURRAVIAN

II) Pre-Murkavian

The Pre-Murravian rocks are those which formed the peneplain and

which over the greater part of the South Australian portion of the Murravian

Gulf are of Precambrian and early Palaeozoic age. Ax stated above, to the

south of Kingston the basement rocks are believed to be of Mesozoic age,

but as they do not outcrop, httle is known of them.

In the region north of Kingsten large numbers of inliers of the ancient

rocks otttcrop. Many, including the more important ones, have been mapped

and described in recent years (Mawson 1943, 1944, 1945a and b). As most

af them do not make conspicuous outcrops, and in fact many are close to

or Jevel with the general surface, and since much of the terrain is sparsely

settled and difficult of access, it is possible that some outcrops still await

ALPAED

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Fiz. 2

Sketch Section from Mount Boothby to Taratap Quarry, north of Kingston,

discovery. An examination of the general map accompanying this paper, and

ou which are shown all known outcrops, suggests, however, that these inliers

of aticient rocks are restricted to two separate areas. In an area bounded

approximately by a line drawn from a little south of Keith and a little north

of Tintinara respectively in a south-westerly direction, no outcrops of these

rocks have been recorded, The evidence of the Alfred Flat and Tintinara

bores (Howchin 1929) as well as of a number of bores in the vicinity of Salt

Creck (Ward, 1944) supports the view that this area is underlain by a hasin

cr valley excavated in the Precambrian rocks. The depth of this feature ts

shown to be about 350 and 250 feet respectively in the Alfred Flat and ‘Tin-

tinara bores (Fig. 2). In the other bores of the district, those near Salt Creek

and adjacent areas, the Precambrian rocks were reached apparently at depths

of 190, 400, 518, two of over 600 feet and one of 924 feet. (Ward op, cit), In

the latter bore, the drill entered tillite at 503 feet and continued in that for-

mation to a depth of 924 feet.

This tillite was encountered in one bore only and that one which reached

the greatest depth before penetrating the Precambrian floor. Such a valley

could have been an erosion feature or be of tectonic origin. In view of the

stage to which peneplanation appears to have progressed in this part of Aus-

tralia before the formation of the Murravian Gulf, its origin as a river valley

cannot be supported, nor could it be supposed that marine erosion after sub-

243

mergence would have excavated it in the resistant ancicnt racks, The sug-

gestion (Ward 1944) that the tillite probably is of Permo-Carboniferous age

indicates that this valley, like the Inman Valley further to the west, may be

the result, in part at least, of Late Palaeozoic glacial erosion. On the other

hand, this glacially filled valley could have been tectonic, originating in Early

Tertiary times, but the available evidence does not support this.

On the whole, the evidence appears to favour the existence of an old

glacial valley, probably Permo-Carboniferous, in which the soft glacial de-

posits were preserved at the level which subsequent peneplanation of the

adjoining areas achieved. If that is the correct explanution, then the ad-

vance of the sea in Tertiary times to form the Mtirravian Gulf would have

resulted in the removal, partial or complete, of the boulder elay from the

greater part of the valley; then would follow the gradual deposition, on the

tillite where such remained and on the Precambrian rocks where these had

been exposed, of the sediments of Miocene age encountered in the

various bores, The subsequent retreat of the sea during the later part of

the Pliocene Epoch to the East Naracoorte shoreline would expose the Lower

Pliocene deposits to erosion in the shallowed seas and effect their complete

removal and partial removal of the Miocene sediments.

It is highly probable that during Upper Pliocene times when the sea still

covered the region to the south-west of the East Naracoorte Range, a deptes-

sion persisted in this area and was filled with, and still contains Upper Plio-

cene deposits protected from erosion during the Pleistocene Epoch.

This supposed deposttion of Upper Pliocene and some Pleistocene sedi-

nients would thus account for the sharp break between the Miocene and the

Upper Pliocene or Pleistocene sediments as recorded tn some of the bores,

Ik] Murravian

The Murravian deposits are defined here as those which were laid down

on the surface of the former peneplain from the time that diastrophism began

to dismember it; deposition continued during the period of submergence by

the sea and until the sea retreated finally to the East Naracoorte shoreline,

4a total time range, as stated earher, of probably from the Upper Cretaceous

tu the close of the Lower Pliocene. As stated above, the older stages appear

to have been terrestrial and were succeeded during ihe Miocene and Lower

Pliocene by marine sedimentation. No marine deposits of Lower Pliocene

age have been recorded to the south-west of the East Naraeoorte Range but

as will be shown later, are believed to have existed and to have been removed

from this sector by subsequent marine erosion. Deposits of marine origin

of Miocene age occur throughout the region, at the surface in the southern

art of the area and at variable shallow depths in all except a few limited

localities in the northern part of the area.

Detailed descriptions of these rocks are available in the literature, and

investigations being carried out by the Geological Survey of South Australia

will add considerably tu our knowledge of these sediments. They consist

predominantly of limestones, some af which have heen dolomitized. This

dolomitization appears to haye affected some beds over considerable arcas

and it may be found that some horizons have been changed completely. One

of the most spectacular can be seen at the Up-and-Down Rocks near Tanta-

noola. Here the resistance to weathering and erosion of the locally dalomi-

tized limestones has produced a cliff formed by wave action during a former

higher sea level, and has enabled this cliff, described by some writers as a

fault scarp, to withstand erosion sufficiently to remain a prominent feature.

244

In many places the soft Polyzoal Miocene limestones contain vast num-

bers of flints. Exposures are particularly good along the coastal cliffs be-

tween Capes Banks and Northumberland, but outcrops showing these flints

can be seen at a number of localities inland, especially in quarries, sinkholes

and eaves. Whether these flints occur on definite stratigraphical horizons

was not determined, but they do occur at intervals in ihe sequenee. ‘They

vary considerably in size, colour, shape and texture, ranging from large tabu-

lar masses to small nodules, and exhibiting a wide range of colour with dark-

grey to bluish-black predominating. While it was found that under certain

conditions these fiints weather and disintegrate rapidly, their relatively

greater resistance to erosion has resulted in the accumulation, during former

stillstands of the ocean, of numerous deposits which testify to former marine

action. Their occurrence in many localities and in large numbers as residual

beach pebbles, as well as in immense banks on parts of the shore, made them

the natural and predominant material in the manufacture of artefacis by the

aborigines, who have left enormous numbers of these stone tools on their

former camping grounds. In some areas weathering of these flint artefacts

has affected the whale of the object and although it still bears the shape given

to it by the native, ir is naw a white porous material and in some instances

ermubles when struck. There are many artefacts, however, in which weather-

ing is incomplete and which on being broken show a zone of weathered

material surrounding a core of unweathered flint, the core mheriting approxi-

mately the shape and faces given io the original fragment by the maker

(Mitchell, 1943; Campbell, 1946),

The Miocene sediments have undergone slight folding movements. Evi-

dence of this folding can be seen in the gorge of the Glenelg River, on the

surface near Mount Salt station and near Burnda Railway Station, and may,

although other explanations are possible, account for the dune paitern near

Cape Banks and Narrow Neck.

The Miocene limestones as secn on the coastal cliffs between Cape Nor-

thumberland and Cape Banks appear to have a very slight dip northwards.

There is also, as stated earlier, the regional warping which has produced a

general west-north-westerly tilt of the surface in the terrain north of Mount

Burr and a south-south-westerly slope in the area to the south. Whether the

folding and warping occurred at subsequent times or whether they were con-

temporaneous is beyond the scope of this paper to discuss, Reference must

be made, however, to two major faults which have been referred to repeatedly

im) the literature. These are the Naracoorte and Tartwaup Faults, The

Naracoorte Fault is stated (Fenner, 1930) to coincide approximately with the

Naracoorte Range. This fatilt may exist, but the present writer has seen no

evidence which would support this contention and considers that all the

fuatures observed by him can be explained more satisfactorily as haying been

produced by marine crosion.

‘The Tartwaup Fault (Ward, Crocker, Tindale, Fenner, Stephens) which

jg stated to pursue an arcuale course to the south and west of the Mount

Burr Range, is another instance for the acceptance of which the writer te-

quires additional evidence. It is true that the evidence cited by Ward (1846)

cf change in hydraulic jevel is strong, but it is not conclusive. The other

features considered Ly Ward and others as evidence in support, namely the

steep front of the Up-and-Down Rocks and the springs to the west of the

Mount Burr Range are, it is believed, due to other factors. The Up-and-

Down Rocks appear to be a wave-cut cliff im relatively resistant rocks. The

existence of a sea-caye (Tindale, 1933) and the discovery by the writer on

245

top of the cliff of calcareous dune limestone similar to that forming the other

stranded dunes of the region, support this view. The springs to the west of

the Mount Burr Range do not exhibit a linear arrangement except for short

distances and many other springs occur elsewhere. These springs appear to

Le part of the natural drainage through and beneath the dune ranges as

described earlier, If the Naracoorte or Tartwaup Faults do exist, and this

has to be proved, then it seems probable that they are at least of Tertiary age

and pre-dale the oscillating retreat of the sea from the East Naracoorte shoreline.

TV Post-Mugravian

These ate grouped as follows >—

a, Calcnreous dunes g. Swamp deposits

h. Siticeous sands h. Voleame accumulations

c. Waterworn quartz grit arid pebbles i. Lunettes

d. Waterworn fits j. Kunkar travertine

e. Possil shells k. Laterite

f. Lacustrine hmestones

a. The Calcareous Dunes

These, the dominant form of surface relief of the region, have been described

and their origin discussed by several observers. The impression gained from the

literature is that of a region consisting of a pla sloping gently seaward in a

south-westerly direction, and bearing upon it a series of dune ranges parallel or

approximately so to the coastline, each dune rising from progressively lower parts

of the plain as one travels towards the coast, This over-simplification of what is

actually a complex pattern has led io serious misconceptions and errors itt

altempls to reconstruct the geological development of the region. The. tendency

to group together a number of individual dune ranges without determining

whether they have had situilar or different histories, the failure to realise the

importance of those areas in which the dune ranges so far from being parallel

to the coastline intersect it, the neglect of the variations in direction, horizontal

and vertical spacing of the ranges, and of lhe great diflerences in amount both

of erosion and chemical processes, have prevented hitherto a proper consideration

and detai‘cd study of the problems itrvolved.

It is generally agreed that these ranges were [ormed as the result of still-

stands of the sea and correspond approximately to the shorelines thus produced,

The ranges possess in gencral a north-westerly trend and approximately at

right angles to the prevailing wind. Although acctimulation and modification by

wave action was an important and probably the only factor in the carly stages

of development of most if vot all of the dunes, wind sorting and piling became

the dominant process once these accumulations projected above sea-level. As ts

to be expected in acolian deposits of this type, they exhibit to leeward, that is

on the inland and nottheastern flanks, the usual intricate pattern. On the wind-

ward or seaward and south-western side they have, over considerable distances,

straight or smoothly curved edges. In other sectors the elges vary Jrom a regular

sawtooth or rake pattern to highly irregu'ar meanderings and conyolutions.

Further, the ranges from the East Naracoorte seawards 4s tar as and meluding

the East Avenue Range, exhibit im general an arcuate trend concave towards the

south-west. Irom and including the West Avenue Range, the arcuate trend

persists but is cuncave towards the north-east. This latter tendency becomes

less marked as the coast is approached and in the Woakwine and Canunda Ranges

it appears to be a minor [eatire only..

During the present investigation it was found that the region could be

divided rouglily into three sectors, The north-western sector in which inhers

246

oi igneous rocks are numerous but separated into two groups by a filled valley

probably of glacial origin, contains a large number of relatively closely spaced

dune limestone outcrops, Many of these are very irregular in form and obscured

considerably by more recent drift sand, so much so [hat their delimitation must

be regarded as approximate only in many instances and others probably exist

ef which no indications were observed. Erosion, considered to be partly marine

and partly lacustrine, has played a large part in the removal of evidence of former

continuity of individual dunes and hence makes it difticult to identify and trace

some of them, The increasing effects in a north-westerly direction of downwarp

and probable isostatic movements, and the almost complete absence of surveyed

levels, indicate that this sectur was unsuitable for the initial study of the develop-

ment of the dune ranges,

In the south-eastern sector the presence oi volcanic accumulations, the large

amount of marine erosion in the southern and western portions, the effect of

downwarping as shown by the relatively much steeper gradients of the basement

as compared with the areas to the north-west, and the scarcity of available sur-

veyed levels were factors which made this sector unsuitable for the intitial study

of the dune limestones.

The central sector, where the basement gradients are very low, the dune ranges

relatively widely spaced, comparatively regular and continuous, and no igneous

outcrops are known, is also the sector in which surveyed levels are sufficiently

numerous for the construction of a provisional contour map of the basement on

which the dines wete deposited, It is in this Sector therefore that the various

dune ranges and their development were studied initially, and from which the

mapping and investigation were extended to the north-west and south-east. The

north-western and south-eastern sectors yielded much additional evidence relevant

to the problems investigated, but it is the central sector, in which the general

evidence is much clearer and less confused by other features, which was used

primarily in the grouping and classification of the dune ranges,

The grouping of these ranges by various observers has resulted generaily in

the recognition of seven stages, the Naracoorte. Cave or Stewart's, Baker’s, East

Aventie, West Avenue, Reedy Creek and Woakwine Ranges,

Although recognising the existence of the above seven ranges as well as of

the Dairy Kange, Tindale has related all of them to five terraces, the Naracoorte,

Cave, East Avetite, Reedy and Woakwine Terraces, This grouping of numbers

of ranges may have been influenced by the remarkable tendency of most of the

ranges as they continue to the north-west tu approach each other and in many

instances. to merge so completely as ta he mseparable, The presenr examination

and mapping of the region and study of thousands of survey levels milicate that

such simplified grouping is not in accordance with the individual histories of the

varjous ranges.

The writer has been compelled, in listing the various ranges, to name some

for which no names could be discovered, namely the Canunda, Neville, Lucindale,

Peacock and Woolumbool, and also io separate others into their components.

These are the East and West Naracoorte, the East and West Dairy and the East

aud West Woakwine Ranges, which are believed to have succeeded each other

and formed partly on the eroded remnants of their predecessors, Thus the number

of existing ranges mapped 1s eighteen, which with the two carlier Woakwine

Ranges now eroded gives a total of twenty separate ranges to be accounted for

(see fig. 3. The evidence, which is particularly noticeable cn the acrial photo-

graphs, of remmants of beach and dune ridges in several arcas where no dtines

exist today or where they do exist but possess trends at variance with those of

the remnants, as well as the oceuryetce of isolated dune remnants in the wide

flats separating the dune ranges, can be regarded as evidenve thar other ranges

247

have existed which have been eroded and removed almost completely. By follow-

ing the beach ridge remmants along the strike some are found to disappear

gradually, some terminate abruptly and others such as those north of Kingston

can be traced to gradually rising ridges until they form the Neville Range. Other

examples can be seen in the Reedy Creck and West Avenue Ranges and else-

where, It is reasonable to suppose therefore that some at least of those low

dune limestone outcrops and ridges which cannot be followed to \an existing range,

EWE

NARACOORTE

‘WOOLUMBDOL

Va] HARPERS

REEDY CR. EAST AVENUE A FEACOC

WEVILLE | WEST AYEMUE

RORIZ SCALE £2 sh re

Fig. 3

Diagrammatic Section from Cape Rabelais to Naracoorte,

may be the last remnants of former dune ranges which have been denuded. This

raises the question of how many ranges may have existed, of the location of which

not even traces remain. If transgression of the sea took place very slowly, of

sea-level remained stationary for a long period at a level at which erosion of a

former dune could occur, or if such advance of the sea took place before the

cementation had time to produce a resistant shell, thet erosion could remove

rapidly the whole or ihe greater portion of the dune and leave only a shoal or

eras¢ it completely, That such has occurred in the past is showz by the numerous

remnants scattered throughout the region and supported by the number of eroded

surfaces exposed by two drain cuttings of the Mount Tope and L drains, in which

it can be seen that several successive dunes were formed and partly removed by

marine crosion on the present site of the Woakwine Range, leaving fossil shells

and rounded pebbles on the erosion surfaces (fig. 4).

SURFACE OF CALCAREOUS DUM ay POINT OF SECTION seria sa fier AMOVE SEA LEVER

— nS Loe 2S

WOE ERNIE LEE aa

LEQ LL. EE

LEW PP NGS wt hy

SANS LEE NN E ay REN CAE

Qk: Le ee. OSE ae XN cn

IIIS ESS LO

. a

HORIZON” 5 ape LEN o Se _—

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= -f ove . _ —

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; NADA CS oS

HORIZON B. — Se = Se Se) SS

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See ——

s hi WOR ee Cis LLL

Lf Yj tee ae LILI ODL OLE

Ss aS Z oe ———— =" AQUEOUS EROSION SURFACE 5.

OL EE WOARWINE Re SSNS

= GF DRlIN pretax joon aanve seb ivan A < scale VERT, & a

Fie. 4

Section of purt of Deain L through the West Woakwine Range

(Current bedding diagrammatic.)

248

Tt niust be noted alsa that formation of these dunes did nut cease at the

present shoreline which is at a much higher level than during past glaciations,

during some of which world sea-level is believed to have been lowered by several

hundred feet. When this occurred many dunes probably formed at the variuus

shillstands. Close bathymetric survey of the continental shelf adjacent to the

region may supply some evidence which, if it could prove the existence of sub-

merged dunes or their remnants, would support the belief that in this region the

dune ranges were formed as a result of eustatic variations of sea-level due to

glaciation and deglaciation.

The succession of ranges [rom the East Naracoorte seawards exhibit great

differences in degree and ameunt ef erosion, Some appear to have suffered little,

others show planed-off summits or wave-cut platfarnis, sea caves, blowholes and

eroded channels, and others are merely ciscontintious remnants of former long

camtinuous ranges, such showing in many places low level platforms of dune liine-

stone between their still existing higher segments, Keighr and width vary greatly

in some, while others presetve relatively even summuts for long distances. In

the southern part of the region the ranges can be classtiied as little eroded, con-

stlerably croded, very much eroded and remnants, In the northern part of the

tegiou north of Kingston. erosion appears to have heen general and intensive.

Chemical processes affecting ihe dune ranges have been chiefly those of solu-

tion and redeposition,of calcium carbonate. The solution within the surface zone

and deposition of the calciunt carbonate, the chief constituent of the dunes, had

the twofold effect of producing an upper terra rossa and a lower cemented zone,

the latter resulting in solid limestone of variable degrees of perfection and thick-

ness. In some localities such as near Kongorong, some of the limestone hag the

appearance of coursely crystalline marble, whereas in the Canunda Range, the

youngest of the existing ranges, the result is a loosely compacted material, just

ceherent enough to withstand wave action sufficiently to produce cliffs and

seastaclts.

The depth and degree to which such cementation has developed will depend

on a munber of factors, The original material which consists of shell debris,

commurnulted Miocene limestone and other minor constituents, is generally similar

throughout. Rainfall must have varied considerably from time to time during

the existence of the ranges, so that probably all gradations from light to heavy

aunual precipitation have been experienced by them. The chief variable factors

therefore appear to have been the Iength of tine over which these chemical pro-

cesses have operated and the freedom from or alternatively the sttbjection to

erosion, chiefly marine, which the dune ranges have experienced. Any lengthy

perod wf marine erosion weuld remove all or at least considerable portions of

ally cetiented crust that may have been formed, and therefore atiy such removal

would result in not only a thinner erust today in the dune remnants, but because

of djfferential erosion would add another factor to those responsible for local

yaridlions in the penetration and consequent depth of the cemented layer. The

absence of deep cementation aud its irregular variaiions in depth can be observed

or inferred in the cuttings for drains passing through the ranges, The necessity

to face with stone large portions, especially the deeper sections, as well as the

incoherent material visible in some sections that have not been faced, shaw clearly

the superficial nature of the cementation in many scctors,

lt Follows from the above that those ranges which ate the oldest and have

in addition not been exposed to marine erosion, will exhibit the greatest depth and

extent of cementation, It is important therefore ta note that of all the ranges

only the East ati) West Naracoorte and the Cave Ranges appear to have developed

cementatiun to depths sufficient for the subsequent formation of extensive solu-

249

tion chambers and caves whenever the water table, which no doubt experienced

considerable fluctuations in level, was favourable for stich a development.

In addition to the dune ranges and remnants af these which have been

described at length, there are other dune limestones which have not formed, nor

do they form ranges, but are deposits on other hills and elevations. They occur

on nearly every voleanic hill examined, and the localities itclude Mounts Muirhead,

Graham, Muir, Maclutyre, and Burr, The Lookout, Bluff and Campbell's Hull,

some unnamed hills in the Mount Burr Range, and the Up-And-Down Rocks.

On the western face of Mount Burr they occur up to a height of over 650 Leet

above sea-level, and despite the cover of pines can be traced almost continuously

down to the foot of the hill to-a height of approximately 200 feet above sea-level.

This occurrence of dune limestone is helieved to have formed a continuous dune,

piled up in sheet form against the seaward face of Mount Burr. It may and

probably does represent the net accumulation during several pauses in the retreat

of the sea during the development of several glactations. Subsequetit erosion,

chiefly marine, appears to have rermoyed the dune limestone along the frant oi the

hill, leaving a “window” of volcanic material partly framed by the remaining dune

limestone (fiz. 5).

t SUHWIT. &. SM.

oF Mr OUIm

Our

LIMESTONE

tite

ouine

LIMESTONE

VOLCANIC “ASH (2 2 SSE tae

Oe SS eee —

MIOCENE LIMESTONES

SCALE g=) 2

Fig. 5

The dune limestone on the vatious volcanic hls and on top of the Up-and«

Down Rocks occurs at such widely different elevations as to precluile elevation

by Liock fanlting, but suggests rather aeolian accumulations against convenient

resting points on former shorelines,

Some work had been done on the beach ridge systems fringing Guichen and

Rivoli Bays, when ihe author was iiformed that these were being examined in

detail hy other workers, The present paper therefore records merely the existence

of these relatively recent deposits.

bh. Siliceous sands

The residual terra rossa would, no doubl, as pointed out by Crocker (1941,

1946a), give rise, especially during an atid period, to deposits of siliceous sand

winnowed from the residue left after the removal by solution of the calcium

carbonate. The subsequent distribution of the sands inland over the region is

held to have been responsible (Crocker op. cit) ior the vast accumulations of

these siliceuuz sands throughout the region, These deposits, except for small

isolated arcas stich as the Belt Range north of Hatherleigh, occur on and [o the

east of the Reedy Creel Range, as is to be expected if that is their origin, atid

if the prevating winds which are [rom the west-south-west at the preset Ume

had a simiar ortentation during mos{, if mot the whole of the Pleistocene Epoch.

However, to attribute the enormous amounts of these sands existing in the region

to the winnowing, during one arid period, of the siliceous fraction From the terra

rossa developed on the dune ranges, appears to the writer incredible. When the

total area covered by these sands is considered and compared with that of the

dunes from the former surface soils of which it is said to be derived ( and that

implies only those dunes to windward, that is, west-south-west), it would appear

that other factors must be considered as well.

It seems that several other processes acting titlier separately or cumulatively

may have contributed materially to these deposits. Keble (1947) has postulated

repeated periods of atidity or of low rainfall during corresponding phases of

250

glaciation in the Pleistocene Epoch. During each period of aridity the terra

rossa produced during the intervening period would be winnowed and supply its

quota of siliceous sand, probably greatest after the initial cementation of the dune

limestone, but varying as well with the duration of each period during which

downward transference of calcium carbonate took place. Several such fierinds

of aridity, if their occurrence is confirmed, could supply a more satisfactory

explanation for the Jarge accumulations of siliceous sands than does the one

period generaliy postulated.

The discovery by the writer of specimens of Anadara trapesia ( Arca) on a

fossil beach (fig. 4), which is overlain by the present Woakwine Rance of dune

limestone, indicates a warmer climate than that of today (Crucker, 1946a). The

statement hy Crocker (op. cit) that the Woakwine Range is pre-Arid, and the

suggestion (Crocker, 1946c) that these warmer seas may have heen co-incident

with the last great period of aridity, indicates that there could have been more

than one such period.

The rises in sea-level, indicated by the fossil beaches and erosion surfates

shown im fig. 4, and produced, tt is believed, by reduction of the ice-caps during

warner intervals, suggest the possibility that arid climatic conditions may have

recurred during the Pleistocene Epoch.

The possibility must be admitted that winnowing of the surface soils of other

dunes on terrain new submerged by a subsequent rise of sea-level could have con-

tributed to the supply of acolian sands, but this must be regarded at present as

a possibility only, Consideration of the problems involved indicates that detailed

bathymetric and palacoclimatological research is necessary for a discussion of

this aspect.

Further, the erosion by marine action of former dune ranges, and the pro-

bability that accumulations of siliceotis sands could result, must be considered.

Finally, the occurrence of large deposits of quartz grit and pebbles, as in the

Mount Muirhead area, which appear to have been transported to this district by

river action probably from Victoria, suggests another source which could, and

no donbt did, supply large quantities of siliceous sands. The above detract in

no way from Crocker’s recognition of the responsibility of an arid period for the

distribution of the sands, but it appears probable that there were several arid

periods during which the winnowme action occurred and that other factors assisted

greatly in supplying the material for such distribution.

In many areas the siliceous sands mask the subjacent dune limestones so

completely that their existence is observable only in a few small isolated outcrops

emerging fram the sand eover. Mapping in those sectors must be approximate

only. The sands also cover very large parts of the Maunt Burr Range and

adjacent arcas and obscure both volcanic and calcareous dune accumulations,

c. Waterwvoarn quarts arit and pebbles

Althougit deposits of waterworn quattz grit and pebbles have been found ou

the surface ina tew places only, chiefy on the eastern flank of the Mount Burr

Range atid to the south of Maynt Muirhead, the discovery of iuimerous perfectly

rounded quartz pebbles from a bore to the west of Mount Muirhead suggests the

passibility of the existence of other deposits of this type now obscured by more

recent accumulations, This material could not have been derived from the local

limestones, basalts or tuffs, but could in part at least have been derived irom the

subjacent sunds.and grits. Much of it appears to have been of fuviatile origin and

probably from Victoria, brought to this area by streams which later were captured

and formed the present Glenelg River. The presence just over ihe border in

Victoria of rocks from which this detrita] ywartz could have beer derived, Jends

support to this view, which will be discussed later,

251

d. Waterworn Flints

Waterworm flint pebbles are abundant i many localities and are so numerous

{hat individual reference to all occurrences is impracticable here. As these flints

were released in large quantities by marine erosion of the Miocene limestones,

their presence as waterworn boulders, especially if in large numbers, 1s of great

assistance in determining the location of former shorelines and also the presence,

generally in close proximity, of the parent rocks. For instance, the separation

af the Reedy Creek and West Avenue Ranges on the western flanks of the Mount

Burr Range was difficult because the relatively high gradient of the basement in

this sector when these ranges were formed, resulted in their close proximity, and

the absence of the wide interdune flat which divides them further to the forth

where the basement had and still has a gentler slope. The two ranges, consisting

as they do of a number of parallel ridges, could not be separated on morphological

evidence, The existence, however, of a relatively long swale, :n appearance little

different from the intradune swales, which is Hoored wiih water-worn flints and

contains a few boulders of polyzoal limestone (Miocene), was reparded as sufficient

evidence for placing the dividing line along this valley. Crocker (1946a)

expresses the view that his Site 9, apparently the same as the one just described,

“is probably clasely correlated with the Joyce Flat between East Avenue and

Baker’s Ranges.” The present writer considers that the available evidence does

nat support Crocker’s view, Similarly, Crocker's Site 5 marks an old shoreline

which continues along the corridor between two dunes referred to by him and

divides the dunes into two distinct zroups, the Reedy Creek and the West Avenue

Ranges.

The occurrence of flirts on the flats immediately to the east of Mount Graham

(Stephens, 1941) led the writer to search for and locate the Miocene limestones

on the hillside above, Flints occur on the planed-off stummils. and in the swales

of the Reedy Creek Range near Butrtingule, indicating its. former submergence.

They occur plentifully on the flats between Burrungule and The Bluff where

Miocene litnestones outerop or lie just beneath the surface. Similar examples

could be cited for numerous localities, Many of the older flint accumulations

have been buried by drift sand, as can be seen in a number of places where they

can be followed from areas clear of cover, towards areas in which they become

obscured more and more, until no. stirface evidence of their existence cat) be seen.

There must therefore he many more areas than are known at present where

deposits of this type occur, The ocenrrenice of flints along the present shoreline

and also at slightly higher levels. inland, in enormous quantities at intervals

between Cape Banks and the Victorian border, has heen utilized extensively for

industrial purposes.

ce, Fossil Shells

Deposits of shells marking the locations of former beaches occur both on the

surface and buried by more recent deposits. A nuimber have been described

(Crocker, 1946a). As is to be expected in 4 vegion which has experienced suc-

cessive advances and recessions of the sta, deposits of fossil shells are very

numerous, In view of the large number of these depusits ocevrring at the surlace,

the Jarge areas covered hy more recent matesial and the number discovered

beneath the surface by pits and wells put down for other purposes, il ig veason-

able to assume that very many more exist than have been discovered. The

oecurrenre of these shells at widely different levels has been interpreted variously

in the past, both uplift of the land or rise and fall of séa-level having teen held

responsible,

The freshness <u retention af coloyrs of shells in some localities ( Crocker;

1946.4), including some at high levels, has produced some discussion, Little

252

appears to be known of the conditions necessaty to preserve the colour and nacre

of various types of shells except that some are more resistant to weathering than

others. It seems to the writer that any set of conditions favourable to lengthy pre-

servation (Crocker, op, cit, has shown that such conditions have existed and

apparently still exist) could maintain such features. of the Fossil shells for very

long periods, and at least as long as the time since the onset of quaternary glacia-

tion. One would not expect, of course, the perfection of preservation either of

colour ar nacre exhibited at the Mount Graham sile, but if conditions were siit-

able for their preservation for say 10,000 years, the processes of weathering and

disintegration appear to have been acting so slowly that even after 100,000 years

appreciable remains of the original colour and orhatnentation should he retained.

There is thus no reason why the Mount Graham site itself may not be of con-

siderable age.

fF, Lacustrine Limestones

In addition te the dune limestones which are predominantly of acolian origin

and Were formed along the then existing coastline, there are in many places

accumulations of shells and their debris of fresh-water origin. They contain com-

mon freshwater fossils of recent types and in matty places they have been cemented

to form tough limestones, They may form low ridges,, probably wave-piled, or

may Ocriir as low flat outcrops. The ridge type is illustrated by the rises at the

southera end of Wyrie Swamp south of Millicent, Typical low-lying flat out-

crops occur to the north-east of Furner in the flats between the West and East

Avenue Ranges. Many others were noted, as is to be expected in a region which

contained and still has so many permanent and semi-permanent lagoons and

swarups,

g. Swamp Deposits

Other deposits developed in the depressions were the typical black soils and,

in Many instances, peat formations. ‘These are important agriculturally where

the swarips and lakes have been drained, but are of importance alsa, as pointed

out by Tindale (1947) in determining the history of some areas, especially where

they haye been truncated by art encroaching shoreline.

The presence of Coorongite, which is fornred periodically in shallow lagoons

trom the lower forms of plant life such as algae (Mawson, 1938), has in the past

led to misguided and unsuccessful attempts to obtain petroleum by drilling. Lime

biscuits of algal origin (Mawson 1929) occur plentifully in some areas such ax

near Rabe and Beachport, which are subject to ternpurary but at times prolonged

flooding and are the reason for the nanie “Biscuit Flat” which is applied to several

localities,

h. Feleani¢ Acrumulations

These occur only in the Lower South-East and are restricted t6 one area, the

Mount Purr Range and adjacent terrain Plus two isolated yoleanie foci, those uf

Mounts Gambier and Schank. Several authors haye described the Mount Gambier

aurea (Teter, 1921) (Crocker 1941). etc., and numerous references to the Mouul

Burr Range are found in the literature of the South-Fast,

The petrology, chronology and correlation of this yulcanism with other areas

remains to be written. The present writer had not the Opportunity to study these

former volcanic centres in detail and was restricted to such examination and

observations as could be combined with the general plan of the research under-

taken,

As is well known, the Mount Burr Range and the adjacent areas near Lakes

Leake and Edward includes by far the greater part nf present volcanic accumula-

253

tions. This range, culminating in Mount Burr, 802 feet above sea-level, contains

numerous hills consisting of voleanic material. No definite volcanic necks or foci

have been discovered to date, and therefore not one of these hills can be regarded

as a volcano, Tow many voleanic foci there were is unknown, The long duration

and tremendous amount of subaerial and marine denudation have Jeft only eroded

remnants,

The Mount Burr Range owes its relative prominence to several factors, The

basement of Miocene limestone, which is less than 50 feet above sea-level at

Millicent, rises to 90 icet at the foot of the range, to 112 feer near the Forest

headquarters and 1o over 200 feet at the castern edge, from which it draps. rela-

tively sharply to the eastward. From the scattered levels available, i is inferred

that the basement forms a platform sloping upwards to the east (fig. 6). From

this platform rise a number of hills of volcanic material, chiefly tuff but with some

basalt. The Aanks of these hills are decorated here aud there with variahle

amounts of dune limestones. la front of the range, that is on its western flanks

and in some instances on or adjacent to the voleanie material, (here hes a series

of dune limestone ridges which it is reasonably certain are the continuations of the

Reedy Creek, West Avenue and other Ranges. Within the main mass of the

Range there are other dune limestone outcrops which owing to their partial burial

beneath drift sands cannot be connected with any known dune ranges, although

some at least ate believed to be part of the East Avenue Stage.

Over the whole area but distributed somewhat irregularly, there are immense

accumulations of siliceous sands which have filled many of the former hollows

and swales and have covered a very large proportion of the dune limestone and

volcanic material, As a result, the latter is buried so largely that the relationship

of those accumulations which project alove the sand cover is in most instances

a matter of conjecture. All these deposits combined with the extensive pine

plantations and dense natural vegetation, make detailed geological suriace mapping

difficult anc tiecessarily incomplete. A number of shallow holes and bores

(Stephens, 1941, Crocker, 19464) supply a. little information, bit a comprehen-

sive plan of sttbsurface testing is necessary before the full story can be told. .n

the area adjacent o Lakes Leake and Edward the chief contribt:tors to the present

topography are the volcanic material and the siliceous drift sands. The small

centres. of Mounts Gambier and Schank are of interest in this connection chiefly

fur any light they may thtow on the relative ages of the voleanic eruptions and

the adjacent dune ranges (Crocker, 1941).

Reference will be made in subsquent pages to the possibility that other vol-

canic faci and accumulations existed to the westward of those known today. li

any existed in the region between the known deposits and the present coastline

they were remoyed completely or the low remnants buried by recent marine or

terrestrial deposits. Exploration of the floor of the adjacent continental shelf

may reveal evidence of stich former volcahic activity,

t Luacites

These have been referred to in the section on topography and are included

here merely for the sake of completeness. Their development [Lills 1940b,

Stephens 1546) is to be ascribed probably to several perinds and is not considered

of importance to the problems being discussed in this paper.

j. Kunkar Travertine

Sutface accumulations of this limestone have been observed not mly on the

Miocene limestones, calcareous chije and freshwater limestones, but also on the

hasic bulls, Some kunkat travertine and fossil soils have been noted below the

254

present surfaces in the interior of dune limestones, where these have been dis-

sected by warine erosion, such as the cliffs at Cape Northumberland. These

occurrences are significant in the history of such dunes, indicating renewal of

deposition of aeolian material after relatively long stability,

k. Liitertte

In the vicinity of Tantannola, and possibly elsewhere, pebbles of ferruginous

laterite occur at or near the surface immediately overlying Miocene limestones.

The developments noted are not extensive, but the occurrences support the opinion

which is strongly held by the writer, that the existence of laterite, whether on the

surface or in a subsurface section, is not proof of the former petieplanation nf

an area and proves merely that the area, whether large or small, ig one in which

surface run-off was negligible and climatic conditions were suitable,

DISCUSSION

The present paper deals mainly with the development and history of the

region since the termination of the Murravian transgression, As stated earlier,

this termination is defined by the writer as the time when the sea in its south-

westerly retreat reached the shoreline now indicated approximately hy the western

edge of the East Naracoorte Range, At present the general opinion of palaeon-

tologists is that this took place during the Lower Pliocene and probably towards

its close.

To the north and east of the East Naracoorte shorelines, Lower Pliocene

marine sediments occur over wide ureas, oyerlying marine deposits of Miocene

age. As will be shown Jater in the discussion, the East Naracoorte Range imarks

approximately the western limits of the Lower Pliocene marine sediments in the

Lower South-East, but in the Upper South-East the Lower Pliocene southern

and western limits are marked roughly by the dune range system which is

described herein as the continuation of the West Naracoorte Range after

its intersection with the East Naracoorte Range. Although sediments of Miocene

age occur either on the surface or at shallow depths throughout the region ta the

south-west of the East Naracoorte Range, no marine sediments of Lower Pliocene

age haye been identified there, It is illogical to suppose that these sediments never

existed in the region, in fact it ts certain that, just as they were deposited in the

areas to the east and north, they were formed also in the relatively deeper waters

further west and south, during the later stages of the Murravian submergence,

The reason for their absence is not far to seek, The retreat of the sea at the close

of the Murravian transgression exposed an emergent marine coastal plain, and

resulted also in a considerable lessening of the depth of the ocean over the con

tinuation seawards of the emerged plain, thus forming a submarine plain covered

by shallow water, for a considerable distance from the shoreline. Marine sedi-

ments deposited during Lower Pliocene times, prior ta the retreat of the sea and

therefore in relatively deep water, were now subjected to wave erosion and

removal, This marine erosion is considered to have continued tintil the whole of

the Lower Pliocene sediments had been removed to distances from the shoreline

corresponding to effective wave action. Marine erosion continiyed when the

Miocene sediments were laid bare, and, as will be shown later, appreciable thick-

nesses of these deposits were thus affected, The distance from the East Nara-

coorte shoreline, while this was the shoreline, to which this erosion was effective

ig immaterial, as the sticcessive retreats of the sea during the succeeding glacia-

tions to far beyond the present coastline and to a possible level of [tom several

hundred [eet lower than today would have provided conditions of maximum

erosion Tor the whole region at various tues.

255

The effects produced would be the lowering, by subaeria] denudation only,

of the areas to the cast and north of the East Naracoorte coastline and extensive

matine erosion and deepening of the foreshore to the west and south of that

datum. The relatively long period of stability postulated, namely from the retreat

of the Murravian Seca to the close of the Pliocene Epoch and the slight resistance

to erosion expected of such little consulidated marine sediments, would, result in a

very marked difference in elevation of the surface as between the wave-cut platform

and the adjacent dry land. Such differences in elevation, although not so marked

because they were of shorter duration, would mark other stages of siillstand of the

ocean during the subsequent glaciations. The lack of marked resistance to erosion

of the mirine sediments, hoth of the Lower Pliocene and of the Miocene, which

would enable rapid lowering of the surface of the submarine plain, would tend

also to prevent the formation of extensive cliffs and steep slopes along the coast-

line, and have the effect of softening rapidly the severily of any lemporaty features

produced, Exceptions would occur, of course, such ag the well-known Up-And-

Down Rocks where hardening of the rock hy local dolomitization has mave cliff

formation and the retention of this feature possible, The postulation of a fault

(Fenner, 1930) te account for the difference in elevation on the cast and west

of the East Naracoorte Range appears to the writer unnecessary. Similarly, the

existence of a fault, the Tartwaup Fault (Ward, 1941, 1944), along or near the

front of the Up-and-Down Rocks is not necessary ta explain this feature, As

stated earlier, both of these postulated faults may exist. but the topographical

[features ascribed to them could have been, and probably were, produced by marine

erosion.

Within the arca which appears to have remained submerged during the latter

part of the Pliocene Epoch, marine erosion should have proceeded relatively

evenly except where more resistant formations such as. the Precambriaty rocks

of the Upper South-East, and isolated dolomite bers, were present. There are

two areas, however, in which although on present evidence the Miocene limestones

are no more resistant than those of the adjoinmg terrain, they were not eroded to

the same depths and today stand at much higher levels. These two areas are the

Mount Burr Range and the Dismal Swamp, The former has heen referred to

earlier, and, although evidence is scanty, sufficient is known to indicate that the

eroded surface ot the Miocene limestone underlying the Mount Burr Range is a

platform which slopes upwards from south-west to north-east from a height of

&0-90 feet to over 200 feet above sea-level respectively (fig. 6)-

moo

Fiz. 6

Dismal Swamp is not one continuous swamp but consists of a large number

of connected and partly connected swamps with numerous low ridges, many of

which are dune limestones. This aggregate of swamps has therefore no well-

defined boundary, but as the general swamp level appears to be approximately

at 230 feet above sea-level, that height is being used here to delimit the area. The

Miocene limestone floor is fotind at shallow depths and apparently at heights

averaging a little over 200 feet above sea-level. It appears therefore that while

marine erosion was effective in removing considerable thicknesses of marine

Murravian deposits in the region, the two areas referred lo ahoye were proiected

wholly or in part from further erosion alter a certain time interval during which

256

all deposits of Lower Pliocene age and some of Miocene age had heen removed

(fg. 7). That protection could have been and probably was supplied by the

formation oi volcanic cones in the shallow seas west of the East Naracoorte

Range. The formation of these volcanoes and their emergence as islands on a

gently sloping submarine platform, would have supplied increasing protection

from further marine erosion to the areas eastward of the most westerly islands,

and account for the gradual upward slope to the east of the Hoor of Miocene

limestone beneath the Mount Burr Range and the relatively steep drop in level

on the east and north of Mount Graham, the most northerly volcanic hill existing

today. The various islands probably developed a series of complex tombolos,

and if not tied to the coast were responsible at least for the protection from

further erosion of the area how known as the Dismal Swamp. This area pro-

bably developed initially as a series of shoals and low islands, due to the accumu-

lation of sediment derived from the volcanoes and Miocene limestones to the

west. The writer, believing that some of the streams which now form the River

Glenelg flowed at that time into the sea to the east of Kalangadoo, credits that

stream system with transporting large quantities of detrital material, which would

assist the tendency for shoal formation west of the Mount Burr Islands, atid

account probably for a large proportion of the deposits of waterworn quartz

found near Mount Muirhead and in other areas,

® MOUNT,

SWents een Stns

an SwAMre r. o

OAT MBE SE IEA, .,....,, MIOCENE LIMESTONE

wna"

HORM SCALE. Geeaead HITE

Fig, 7

Should the above reconstruction be upheld, then the commencement of

volcanic activity in the South-East must haye taken place during the Upper Plio-

cene and probably during the earlier stages of the Lipper Pliccene, in order that

the large amount of erosion which undoubtedly occurred in the adjacent areas,

could have sufficient time for its accomplishment after the Mount Burr and

Dismal Swamp areas received protection. Such age determination would correlate

the older vulcanism of the Mount Burr Range with the older vulcanism of

western Victoria, which is regarded as Middle ta Upper Pliocene in age (Hills,

1939 a),

No definite volcanic vent has been discovered in the Mount Hurr Range,

In view of the time that appears ta have elapsed since the eruptions took place

and the vast amount of erosion both subaerial and marine but predominantly

marine, the absetice of obvious surface evidence of the existence of volcanic necks

and vents is not surprising. Relatively small fragments of the original accumu-

Jations appear to have been left and even Mount Muirhead, belicved to have been

of more recent origin but owing to its location exposed to rapid erosion during

at least one high sea-level period, appears to be only the castern segment of a

former much more extensive cone, It is possible therefore that other yolcanoes

existed in the past to the north, sotith or west of the present remnants, but have

been removed completely by subsequent erosion or exist as residuals only in the

adjacent areas now covered by the sea.

Owing to their burial by more recent deposits and also becanse of sub-

sequent denudation, the known deposits cf marine or probable marine origin in

the Mount Burr Range are few in number. Waterworn volcanic material is

recorded from a pit (Stephens 1941), Crocker (19464) records two sites, one

at thr surface and one from a pit, of deposits of shells overlying volcanic material.

257

There is, however, much additional evidence supporting the view that the Mount

Burr Range has been subjected to marine erosion at various levels and therefore

presumably at different times. The continuous series of dune limestones along

the seaward slopes of the Mount Burr Range and the wide variations in elevation

ef the floor on which these dunes rest, the occurrence at several levels of flint

boulders derived from the adjacent Miocene limestone in which they can be seen

in sity in some outcrops, and the shelves or platforms, relics apparently of marine

action, on some of the hills; all oi lhese lestify to former submergence of the

lower portions of the Mount Burr Range. On the eastern flank of Mount Graham,

the northern extremity of the range, a notable feature is a wide shelf at an

estimated height of approximately 200 feet above present sea-level (fig, 8). This

shelé could be ascribed to-a basalt flow, but the continuity of this shelf with the

high level fossil beach (Crocker’s site 11) to the west and the occurrence on the

Fig. 8

shelf of a small remnant of dune iimestone, are strong reasons jor regarding this

feature as a wave-cut shelf or platform. As they are the most elevated evidence

of marine action on Mount Graham, this shelf and fossil beach are assigned to

the West Naracoorte shoreline. A similar shelf on The Bluff and the occurrence

on that hill also of dune limestone, and the existence at many localities in the

Mount Burr Range of small areas of dune limestonc, some fringing, some cover-

ing hills of volcanic material, all contribute materially to the formidable list of

relics of former marine activity. The occurrence of dune limestone, correlated

by the writer with the East Avene Range on top of volcanic tw as exposed in a

well near the Forest Headquarters, together with the widespread ocetirrence at

many levels of the numerous outcrops of dine limestone referred to above, prove

that this volcanic activity is alder than the period during which the dune lime-

stones wete deposited at the various levels.

Some observers may be inclined to postulate faulting and warping in order

to explain at least some of the yariations in level. In all his investigations the

writer has not fotnd any evidence to suggest that any other than oscillations of

sea-level are necessary to account for the wide range in height and irregular dis-

tribtttion of these relics of former marine activity.

Not all of the volcanic accumulations of the Mount Burr Range are assigned

to the Early Upper Pliocene,

First, the Miocene basement has an upward slope to the eastward, a slope dre,

it is believed, ta the protection afforded by the formation of volcanic islands during

the earliest eruption. The occurrence immediately on this basement of basalt

and volcanic ash and tuff suggest that the initial activity was continuous for a long

time or revived episodicaily, but before the development of the dune ranges, that

is, belore the Pleistocene Epoch began.

Secondly, Mount Muirhead is, strictly regarded, not 2 pavt of the Mount

Burr Range, but abuts on its north-western extremity, ‘['wo parallel dune ridges

to the south which have been correlated with the Reedy Creek and West Avenue

Ranges, can be followed northwards beyond Mount Muirhead and are found to

occur, one on the seaward and the other along the inland flank of that hill, The

latter ridge which is correlated with the West Avenue Range could not have been

formed ia that position had Mount Muirhead been in existence and the West

258

Avene Range therefore predates this volcanic activity. As the East Avenue

Range nearty is found to overlie voleatic ash (near the Forest Tleadquarters)

and this range is believed to be considerably younger than the West Avenue

Range, such reversal of superposition of dune limestones and volcanic ash would

not in itself be an indication of more than one period of volcanic activity. How-

ever, the Reedy Creek Range which skirts the seaward flank of Mount Muirhead

appears to have heen buried in part by the volcanic material and this suggests that

the activity post-dates the formation of that dune range.

Farther, the age assigned to the earliest phase of eruptive activity in the

Mount Burr area, namely, Early Upper Pliocene and therefore before the com-

mencement of Pleistacene Glaciation and the consequent. formation of dune ranges

on the eustatic shorelines, indicates that any volcanic material deposited after such

June ranges were formed must be of much later date than the earlier activity.

It is not possible, however, to say more than that the eruption of Mount

Muirhead occurred during the Pleistocene Epoch and after the formation of the

West Avenue and probably after that of the Reedy Creek Range.

The Mount MacIntyre - Campbell’s Hill sector may represent a period of

activity Jater than that of the Mount Burr Range, but such a suggestion must await

much detaifed petrolugical and field work before it can be considered further.

The Lakes Leake and Edward sector, too, may represent a relatively later period

of activity but again this is merely an opinion, The evidence of other observers

{Fenner 1921, Cracker 1941) assigns the eruptions of Mounts Gambier and

Schanik to relatively recent times, largely based on the preservation of the cones

and the relative positions of their ash to the calcareous dunes and siliceous drift

sand in their vicinity, However, the collection by the writer and identification by

courtesy of the National Muscum. Melbourne, of particles of volcanic ash in the

lower portion of a calcareous dune inland of and near Mount Schank, is proof

of the existence of volcanic material prior to. the time of formation of the dune

and raises the possihility of the present cone of Mount Schank being a relatively

recent formation above a former older period of activity, or of the existence to

the westward, of a former volcanic vent, the accumulations from which have been

denuded completely or are now covered by the sea.

While not admissible as scientific evidence, the remarks contained in loeal

native legends (Smith, 1880) that Mounts Muirhead, Schank and Gambier, iu

that arder. were “overis,”’ and the statement that it had “thundered and lightened”

and “thundered in the ground” may be regarded at Icast as interesting suggestions

of voleanie activity at those three foci during human occupation of the region,

The marite crosion of the marine Murtravian deposits continued apparently

until the close of the Pliocene Epoch and the beginning of Pleistocene glaciation,

The result of the removal not only of the great mass of water formerly covering

the Murravian Gulf and the great decrease in depth of water over the still sub-

merged area west of the East Naracoorte Range, but also the removal of a con-

siderable thickness of Murravian sediments by marine erosion may well have

produced uplift of the region due to isostatic adjustment. Such uplift, if it

occsrred, would probably have been slow and gradual, and have brought withio

the reach of maximum wave action deeper and deeper zones of the Murrayian

sediments, Such a long-continued process could account satisfactorily for the

considerable differences in elevatiun between the marine plane at the seaward [oot

of the East Naracoorte Range and the hinterland which was not subjected (0

this erosion,

The evidence obtained not only of former shorelines along the Mount Burr

Range, 2s much as 200 [eet or more above present sea-level, but also the wide-

spread evidence of retreats and advances of the coastline and the cyidence of

fossils that these events occurred during the Pleistocene Epnch, suggest imme-

259

diately the probability of eustatic control duc to successive glaciations and degla-

cjations during that epoch,

That such increases and decreases in the severity of glaciation did praduce

corresponding changes of world sea-level ts now generally accepted. As regards

the South-East, sufficient evidence hag been obtained to show that such changes

of sea-level took place after the main volcanic activity of the Mount Burr Range

which, as stated above, has been assigned to the Upper Pliocene and probably ta

an early division. The writer therefore agtecs with Tindale (1933) that changes

of sealevel due to glaciation were responsible for the formation of successive

shorclines and the resultant calcareous dunes, The writer goes further, however,

and believes that other processses were operative at the same time, complicating

the over-simplified history as presented hy Tindale (1947).

Further, it has not been recognised generally, nor has it been emphasised

sufficiently, that many of the dune ranges show subsequent submergences and

accompanying marine erosion, and that such in many instances. took place after

sufficient time had elapsed for an apprectable amount of cementation of the upper

parts of these dines,

Attempts to determine their relative ages by palacontological methods do not

offer mach success in the present state of our knowledge, Studies of the swamp

and peat deposits and their entombed flora, or of pollen grains may perhaps be

of assistance in the future, but at present no such aids are practicable.

A detailed examination of the progressive heights above sea-level uf the sea

ward or western margins of the dune ranges shows that the differences in elevation

between them decrease to the north-westward in many instances. Horizontal

spacing varies considerably, as is to he expected on such a gently sloping basement,

Very small differences tn elevation at the time of formaiion, would have been

recorded by relatively large irregularities of the shoreline, The close horizontal

spacing, and in some places the overlap of dunes on the seaward slopes of the

Mount Burr Range, is an obvious result of the relatively steep gradients of that

area,

The variations in vertical spacing, however, and especially its progressive

yatiation in one direction shown by many of the dune ranges, indicate warping

of the basement between the times of formation of the shorelines concerned. It

would appear therefore that all that would be necessary to determine the relative

ages of the dunes marking the former shorelines would be a letermination and

study of the progressive differences, positive or negative, between their seawacd

margins in a sorth-westerly direction, and their approaches to or departures Erom

a level conimon to both,

The solution of the problem is, however, not as simple as that. It was found

that some dune ranges approach each other and then diverge, scme are reasonably

parallel for a distance and, [urther on, diverge or converge vertically, As will

be showw later, the progressive dowrward tilting of the greater part of the region

in a west-north-westerly direction to the north-west of the postulated Cape Banks

axis, and a downward tilt in a south-easterly dircction to the south of that axts,

the probable transverse warping with north-easterly trends, the prohahility of

positive and negative isostatic movements of the region, and the possibility of

some uplift in the Mount Burr Range area and vicinity, all add to the difficulties

of determining, not only the height of sea-level at which the successive shorelines

existed, but also their chronological sequence. Other factors and observations

indicate that a seqtience compiled by the use of progressive differences in cleva-

tion, whether positive or negative, is nat necessatily the order in which the dune

ranges were formed, The writer was compelled therefore lo examine the

possihility of using other evidence in the chronological classification and to use

the evidence of relative heigtls as an auxiliary factor in such a determination.

260

As stated earlier, there are indications that other ditne ranges existed, which

have been removed completely or almost sv, and it is suggested therefore that the

diagrams and tables showing the pustitlated succession are incomplete in so far

as they do not include these former ranges. Such removal by marine erosion

would apply particularly to those formed during the Gting and Mindel retreats

of the ocean, because dune ranges formed thet: would have experienced submer-

getice during the subsequent Interglacials,

The importance of determining their ages needs no elaboration. By using

such other evidence as is available, the wnler has attempted, though with some

reservation, to produce a chronological sequence of the dune ranges and therefore

of the successive shorelines. Naturally, in such a scheme there must be many

assumptions and inferences and it is not cuntended that the list as compiled is

final. It is submitted as a provisional classification, subject to any alterations or

madificutions required as the result of future research,

lf it be granted that the dune ranges mark approximately the shorelines at

various sealevels and if, as stems reasonably certain, stich fluctuations in sea-

level were related directly to Lie total quantities of water removed from the ocean

as ice, then if it were possible to determine, or at least to suggest, which dune

ranges marked the maximum advances of the sea during the First, Second and

Third Interglacials, reasonable starting points would be obtained for aligning the

remaining dune ranges.

{t is logical to assume that the relatively long stillstand generally ac-

cepted for the height of cach interglacial advance of the sea would leave its

record in the crosion of the basement and a steepening of the gradient be-

tween the landward termination of the marine plane and the hinterland,

An examination of the profile of the basement at right angles to the

average trend of the ranges and along a zone which reaches the cvast at Rohe,

shows first the yery marked ascent from the former East Naracoorte [ore-

shore, a Similar but less marked rise from the Western Naracoorte Range, a

smaller but none the less definite rise at the former Cave Mange foreshore

and a very marked rise in gradient in the vicinity of the West Avenue Range,

Further, the marked change in trend, that is concave to the cast us opposed

do the concavity to the west, which hegins at the West Avenue Kange, may

indicate that long continued erosion at or near a long maintained sliureline,

may have modified considerably the shoreline inherited by the West Avenue

foreshore as the result of previous erosion. The chanye in trend on the ather

hand may he due to diastrophism, warping or tilling, and the problem is left

unsolved at present. The somewhat anomalous trends of the Neville Kange

between Kingston and Reedy Creek Station, and of the Last Dairy Range

atid to a less extent of the West Dairy Range south of Kingston, could be

explained by local warping or collapse, but are duc most probably to the

existence of mure resistant rocks, probably inhery of Precambrian age, form-

ing a ptotruditig platform or a rounded cape.

Other things being equal, those ranges which were never submerged

after their formation, and which (therefore would not have expericnceil the

removal by marine erosion af the whole or part of their cemented crust,

would develop the greatest depth of cemented limestone. Subeequen ly if

subsurface hydratilic conditions were favourab’e, as they must have heen in

all af the ranges at one or mere of the many variations of sea—evel, which

would affect so markedly an area of flat or gently dipping porons Limestanes

possessing generally a cryptoteic drainage, solution chambers would develop

jn the cemented crust of the dunes. The cave formations therefore would be

more extensive and secur mainly in those ranges which have developed, or

have been permitted to retain, a deep zone of calcareous cementation, "The

261

three ranges in which numerous and extensive solution chambers have de-

veloped are the East and West Naracoorte and the Cave or Stewart's Range.

If, as 18 géneétally helieyed, the Easi Naracoorte Range marks the oldest, and

in the Tower South-East the most inland of those ranges which are due to

small yariations of sea-Ievel or of the land, then according to the writer's. in-

terpretation this range indicates the approximate positiom of the pre-glacial

shoreline, Durther, il, as is generally believed (Zeuner, 1946, per conlra vide),

sea-level during the height of the Second or Great Interglacial reached or

approached closely the pre-glacial sea-level, then the West Naracoorte Range

which marks a notable notch in the basement plateau, is the logical represen-

ative of that Interglacial.

The assumption, on the evidence given above, hal the Cave or Stewart

Range (referred to hereafter as the Cave Range) was not submerged after its

foriiation, and the existence of a notch in is vicinity, suggests that the Cave

tange is situated approximately alone the coastline formed by the sea during

the Third Interglacial.

One position remains to be filled, the maximum advance of the sea during

ihe First Imterzlacial, Dor the reasons referred to eurlier, the marked steep-

ening of the gradient referable to a smoothed notch, in the vicinity of the

range, with the tentative support of the marked change uf direction of the

ccastline, suggests that the West Avenue Range is the only range with any

evidence for its selection. This view is supported by the observation that

the Recdy Creck Range. which in the central part of the region is located to

seaward of and at a lower level than the West Avenue Range, gradually

approaches the latter as it is traced to the north-west, and finally intersects

it. This indicates a downward tilt to the north-west between the times of

formation of the two ranges, and suggests that the Reedy Creek Range marks

2 shoreline during the development of a glaciation subsequent to that in

which the West Avenue Range was formed. The recorded submergence in

the Lower South last of the Reedy Creek Range by a rise of sea-level equiva-

cit in that locality te a depth of at least 140 fect above present sea-level and

the inference that the planed off summits owe their formation to the exisenee

of a cemented crust, suggests that the Reedy Creek Range was formed dur-

ing the development of the Penultimate Glaciation, This places the West

Avenue in the time of development of the First or Second Glaciation, As

stated above, it is placed at the commencement of the latter, that is at the

height of the First Interglacial lor other reasons.

The fuur sea-levels, nainely the Pre-Glacial, First, Second and Third

Interglacial having been postulated. it is nuw possible tu consider tlre re-

maining tanges one by one, examining them in order froin the Furthest in-

land range to the presen, coastline. Any evidence or inferences applicable

will be discussed and the reasons given for the ages that are heing as?igned

te them,

In diseugsing the order of formation of the various shorelines as repre-

sented by the dune ranges, the above four sea-levels will be used as defhnite

horizons fram which the relative ages of the other sea-leyels will be inferred,

but such use does not imply that the times assigned for the existence of the

fonir major shorelines are regarded as prayed beyond doubt. The tentative

nature of their classification has been made quite clear. It is obvious that the

chronology as determined on the above basis, would he modified or altered

considerably should the dating of one or more of the four major shorelines

he changed. $

262

Harper's Range—This range is eroded considerably and remnants only exist.

It is assumed therefore that it has been submerged since its formation, but

its preservation, even though partial, must have been due to an effective

amount of cementation, which would indicate the passage of a considerable

period of time between its formation and subsequent submergence. The

only two sea-levels high enough to have achieved this submergence were the

Preglacial and Great Interglacial sca-levels. 1t must haye been formed there-

fore during the retreat of the sea marking the beginning of the Giinz or First

Glaciation,

8: T : 6

WOAKWINE B. EAST DAIRY == WEST AVENUE

URING Ves TENGL APIAL

NARACOORTE WEST

pei

14: Pye

WEST DAIRY REY CREEK

DA —_——

“4

WOAKWINE C.

m= pfaLapiapagyaypsoyerener tended vores

2 4 bow i

SMES Vertical) Lee! i

PROFILE SCALES Horizontal

: Verti¢alenot ta scale

aie RUNES - Horizontal Scale- as above

Matin Sia

Fig, 9

Sections illustrating the postulated succession of the stranded dunes as each

glaciation developed. Since the profile is that of a zone at some distance to

the north-west of the inferred Cape Banks axis, the heights of the shorelines

above present sea-level, indicated by the seaward margins of the dunes, are

less. than the true figures.

Woolumbool and Peacock Ranges—Becuuse of their proximity the writer

suggests that they represent stillstands during separaie glaciations rather

than two stillstands close together during the retreat of the sea during the

development ol a single glaciation. Further, the more inland of the two must

be older since the formation of a dune immediately behind an existing one

is improbable except as a purely lucal phenomenon. Their marked erosion

Bid

indicates that both have been submerged and since, according to the writer's

deductions, sea-level was not high enough (fig. 9) to cause their submergence

dring the First Interglacial, the only glaciations during which they cauld

linve been formed are the First of Giinz and Third or Riss respectively.

Baker's and Lucindale Ranges—Their close proximity against suggests twa

different ages, and being more landward, the Baker's Range would he older.

Baker’s Range is eraded but not excessively and the Lucindale Range ap-

pears to have suffered liltle or no marine erision. These two are placed

therefore in the Third and Fourth Glaciations respectively.

The probability that the Lucindale Range as il is followed ina northerly

direction intersects, and eventually continues to the east of Baker's Range,

and the possibility that it joins. part of the Peacnck Range, make the deter-

ininations of the time of formation of the latter difficult, The scarcity of available

surveyed levels in that sector, and the sand-obscured outcrops add to the difficulties.

The position of the Peacock Range in the chronological table therefore is one of

considerable uncertainty.

Ardune and East Avenue Ranges—Observations similar to Baker's and

Lucindale Ranges apply. They are placed therefore in the Third aud Fourth

Glaciation’ respectively.

Reedy Creek Ronge—This nmst have been formed later than the West

Avenue Range. This view is supported by the observations referred to ear-

lier that the Reedy Creek Range intersects, in the northern. part of the re-

gion, the West Avenue Range which has been selected as marking the shore-

line at the beginning of the Second Glaciation. The evidence for placing it in

the time of development of the Third Glaciation has been given aboye,

Newville Range—The much eroded remnants of this range, consisting of

stumps only of dune mdges and some extensive segments, and the complete

removal of the range from other areas suggest that its submergence has been

effected during several periods. It appears to emerge fram beneath the

Reedy Creek Range in the Lower South-East and to diverge progressively

in a general north-westerly direction. It probably belongs to the First

Glaciation,

East and West Dairy Ranges—Their eroded condition and their existence

today as remnants indicate their former submergence, As with other ranges,

their close proximity is the reason for assigning them to two separate glacia-

tions. They could therefore he placed in the First, Second or Third, but

their preservation, though partial only, has led the writer to place them in the

Second and Third Glaciation respectively.

Woakwine A -D—One stage has heen assigned to each glaciation, It is true

that the first two ranges have been eroded almost completely and that the

two later ranges exist loday, one as the East Woakwine, partly eroded, and

the other as the West Woakwine, litttle eroded. The East and West Woak-

wine Ranges, that is stages C and D belong probably tu lwo separate glacia-

tions, the Third and Fourth respectively. Woakwine A and Bb may belong

to two intéerstadial oscillations of one glaciation, that is the First or Second,

hut the evidence for submergence and erosion of Woakwine A before B was

deposited suggests the advisability of placing them in, separate and there-

fore in the First and Second Glacialions respectively.

The writer was fortunately able io examine two deep sections through

the West Woakwine Range, one in the entting of Drain L near Robe ans the

264

other in the Mount Hope Dram. Although both sections were instructive

the one in Drain [. yielded more information aud the chief purpose of the

examination ot the Mt. Hope Drain was the search for confirmatory evidence

of observations made in the former, Ag will beseen from the section ( Fig.

4), three erosion surfaces were observed, two of them covered with shells and

detrital material. This indicates the formation of a dune at this location at

least four times. It is probable that the four stages noted in the section may

carrespond to the four Woakwine dunes or their remnants referred to earlier,

but no evidence for such correlation is possible at present.

A notable feature of Horizon A was the discovery of specimens of Anadara

trapesis (Arce) on this fossil beach, at approximately 25 feet below the present

surface of the overlyig cemented dunt. ‘This occurrence will lead, it is

hoped, to the further search for this interesting sub-fossil, (Crocker, 1946a}.

The suggestion that the presence of Anadaya, now extinct in the South-East,

indicates a climate warmer than today, would agree with the conclusion that

a shghtly warmer climate was necessary to produce eustatie rise of sea-level

to at least the height at which this fossil was fouud im the cntting. Although

explsures are poor, the Mount Hope Drain Cutting, approximately 28 miles

te the south-east of Drain L, shows the existence of two fossil beaches, simi-

lar apparently in their general fossil content to those of Horizons A and B.

Alihough Amadara has not been found in the Mount Hope Drain Cutting, Hori-

zon A in both shows a mixture of reef and mudfiat Fauna.

The Canunda Range—The slight degree of cementation, sa much less than

that of any of the other dune ranges. suggests a short period uf time since

its formation and it is placed accordingly in an interstadial oscillation of the

resent or Fourth Interglacial or as some prefer, the Fourth Glaciation. The

Canunda Range marks, in the writer's opiuion, a stillstand during the retreat

of the sea from an adyance within relatively recent times to a height which

enabled it to produce erosion features now ahiul 30 feet above sea-level in

the aleas where these were examined.

Subsquently to the Canunda Stillstand, the sea is believed to have re-

trealecd| to some distance below present sea-level, at a later stage to have

risen again to 12-15 feet above its present level. and finally retreated io its

present position, To what extent any of the figures given above may inclide

mu*difications by contemporaneaus or subsequent isastatic adjustment of the

fegion or further downward moveiment at the northern end of the tilted block,

cannot he determined at present. The possibility must be considered that the

heights piven here do not necessarily represent the true values of corres-

pending changes in world scu-level.

As # result of the deductions outlined but with the stated reservations,

a list has been compiled in tabular form which purposes to show the postu-

lated succession and the glacial and interglacial phases during which the dune

limestones are believed to have been formed along the successive shorelines.

A diagram (Fig. 9) is intended to show graphically the postulated order and

development of the various dune limesione ranges.

An attempt has been made (Tindale, 1947) to correlate a simplified

grouping of the dune ranges of the South-East with the interglacial tereaces

of Europe, and the Pleistocene marine intergiacial terraces of the Atlantic

coast of North America, In order to make this possible, levels were assigned

by Tindale to the terraces formed at the times of formation of the dunes.

However, 1b is abyious even from a cursory examination of the relief map

prepared many years ago by the South-Eastern Draining Board, or from a

study of the numerous available levels, or from the contoured map prepared

205

by the writer, that the range of levels at the edges of the ranges and there-

fore of any terraces if present, is so wide that it is easy *o select whalever

values ate required, It is not difficult therefore to select a section across the

ranges which will supply levels compatable with those of interglacial sea-

levels outside Australia. The real difficulty is to determine the true heights

aliove present sea-level at which these ranges were formed, If i were pos-

sible to da this and it could be established with certainty that in the Euro-

pean and North American areas the Jand remained immovable, and only the

sea rose and fell during the epoch in question, namely (hat of Pleistocene gla-

ciation, then and only then could an attempt be made to correlate these

widely separated areas with the South-Eastern features. The writer has in-

yestigated the possibilities of determining the true heights of formation above

present sea-level of the successive shorelines of the Sonth-Hast and has

reached the following conclusions :—

fa) lt is reasonable to assume that the successive retreats and advances

of the sea due to changes in world sea-level ahuiring the Pleistocene Epoch

did not proceed smoothly and evénly from maximum to minimum and yice

versa but experienced periods of stillstand at irregular intervals, The re-

treating ocean would leave on the emerging land a series af dunes marking

the approximate positions of successive coast lines, T.ikewise, when the sea

advanced over this region, the gentle gradients of the basement would ensure

that any shorelines formed and deposits laid down, were mdistinguishable

from those of an emerging land suriace, except where dunes were cncoun-

tered by the rising sea, dunes left behind during a previous retreat. It is. to

be expected therefore that a series of coastal dunes would be produced at

each stillstand of the rising ocean. But such dunes would disappear rapidly

and leaye litle ar no trace after their stibmergence by a Iurther rise of sea

level. No dune formed during such a progressive rise could remain, and only

emie, the one marking the furthest advance of the sea, would he left when

sea-level hegan once more to drop. On the other hand dunes formed during

a previous retreat of the sea, especially if they were predominantly calcareous

as were those of the Sonth-Last, would develop a cemented crtist before

the next inundalian and when this arrived would offer considerable but vari-

alle resistance to erosion, Some at least would probably survive a sulmer-

gence, ever though they were reduced to remnants only, All stages and de-

grees of erosion of dunes can be noted in the South-East and have been de-

seribed earlier.

The development of such coastal dunes on an emerging Jandmass is

described by Johnson (1938). ‘Their initial development as offshore bars in

a shallow sea and their enclosure, partial or complete, of the intervenmg

waters would develop long lagoons running parallel to the shore, such as is

shown today by the Coorong and its seaward dunes. The gradual moyement

fandwards of this off-shore bar would result in nacrowing the lagnon and

eventually im its extinction and the deposition of the dunes on the unsub-

merged land. The retreat of this offshore bar must of necessity have heen

irregular in some localities and hence the otiginal offshore bar could remain

as such for part of its original length but exhibit all intermediate stages of

advance to its final resting place on the non-submerged land in the remain-

ing segments. Although the gentle gradients of the basement would have

been favourable to the development of off-shore bars, it is by to means cer-

tain that all of the dunes originated as such jeatures. Some indeed may re-

present purely aeolian deposits above high tide level. Even if this can be

demonstrated hawever, such deposits may be the result of the shoreward

travel of an off-shore bar until it became a dime above high water level-

266

Further, the inland or leeward, that is the north-eastern edges of a dune

would, like all aeolian deposits of this type, be exceedingly irregular and ex-

tend for variable and in places cotisiderable distances inland, In order to

obtain comparable figures the same features or as near to these as possible

must be measured for each dune. It is obvious that the seaward edge is much

more reliable as a guide ta the height of sea-level than the irregular land-

ward edge. Where the seaward edges of the dunes are long and straight or

evenly curved, it can he assumed that they represent an even advance to-

wards the land of the original off-shure bar, and where these edges are irresu-

lar, either differential advance or acolian deposition on an irregular coastline

is indicated. Further, it must be tealized that the foot of an off-shore bar is

vat necessarily at sea-level and in many instances is at some distance below

this line, In taking measurements designed to determine the relative heights

of sea-level when these dunes were formd, the levels of the plain immediately

adjacent to the seaward edges of the dunes were taken and where possible

ouly at such places where the dunes presented a regtilar and even front.

Even so this elevation does not represent, except in the southern sector of

the region where the basement limestones outcrop at the surface, the real

level of the platform on which the dunes were laid down. The variable

depths af subsequent deposits which include shell deposits of marine origin,

swamp deposits and drift sands, make it nceessary to allaw for errors which

may teach 20 feet or more. Tlowever, the selection of a number of levels

for each range and the knowledge that similar conditions exist at the front

of each range north of the Mount Burr Range may deercase the relative

errors to a degree where they cance! out partially, and while not entirely

negligible, are of minor importance..

(b) A second factor of great significance is the steady decrease narth-

westwards of differences in elevation between the fronts of many of the

dunes. Thus whereas on a line approximately normal to the ranges and pass-

ing through the town of Naracoorte. the difference in height between the

fronis af the Hast Naracoorte and Reedy Creck Ranges is approximately 110

feet, it is less than 50 feet near Salt Creek. Corresponding decreases are

noted fur the intermediate ranges. It is necessary therefore, when taking

levels near the fronts of the ranges, to multiply the readings by an appro-

priate factor for each range in order to make the figures comparable with

those taken at the extreme southern limit where such readings could be taken,

namely the line inland from Cape Buffon at right angles to the average trend

cf the Ranges. VYhe determination of this factor presents Jifficulties which

have been discussed in (a),

(c} Another and important fact is the dowfwatd tilting of the greater

part of the region in a weést-north-westerly direction. This process, which

appears to have continued for a yery long time, and which will be dealt with

more fully under Diastrophism, probably was episodic and may even have

been reversed at times. If the latter did occur, then despite the use of cor

recting facturs, figures even approximately accurate cannot be obtained,

{d) The possibility of isostatic adjustments to the alternating decreases

and increases of load on the region must be considered. It is probable that

stich adjustments in the form of a rise of the tegion and to a decreasing ex-

tent of the adjacent submarine plain, occurred aftér the retreat of the sea

fsom the Murravian Gulf. Whether snch adjustments continyed inte the

Tleistocene cannot be determined at present, ‘Chere is, however, the effect

af the removal by marine erosion of considerable thicknesses, increasing sea-

247

ward, of the Tertiary sediments west of the East Naracvorte Range, first

during the postulated Upper Pliocence stillstand and later during the re-

{rests of the sea during the successive glaciations, to depths of several hundred

dred feet below present sea-level, Responses to the lessening of the load

over this part of. the continental shelf by ihe yemoval of enormous

masses of water. and later the increase of weight due to advances of the sea

during interglacial periads, must be regarded as possibilities. As a result it

is clear that the levels, even ifan accurate determination were possible, would

represent merely the differences in height between the bases of the dunes and not

necessarily the differences in height of sea-level at the times of their formation.

The latter would be greater or less than the recorded differences in elevation

according lo whether the land had sunk or risen ditring the interval.

Should the isostatic rise or fall of the land have corresponded even

approximately in amount at any time with the rate of rise or fall of world

sea-level, an apparent stillstand would have resulted and if tts duration had

heen of sullicient lengih, an off-shore bar and possibly a dune would have

been produced. Many variations of these factors are possible and the prob-

ability that such complications eccurred, make the value of any levels ob-

tained somewhat doubtful. Such isostatic responses to decrease anil increase

of load have still to be proved in this region. A study of the spacing and

trends of the fronts and seaward edges of the dunes, suggests the possibility

that upward movements may have taken place.

The opinion is held by the writer, as will be shown below, that in those

localities which are in the viemity of the postulated axis of tilting, the height

of the preglacial shoreline is now approximately 240 Jeet above present sea-

level, The estimated height of potential sea-level, that is aca-level on an ice-

free earth, of approximately 160 fect, would suggest that this part of the

South-East has risen approximately 80 feet sitice the beginning of Pleisto=

cene Glaciation. In any event, whatever be the height of potential sea-level

inday, the difference between that hgure and 240 feet would represent the

net gain in elevation of the land relative to the sea, whether by elevation of

the region as a whole, or by local uplift of the Mount Burr Range and adja-

cent terrain.

It could be argued that this difference, whatever it he, might represent

a world-wide drop in potential sea-level, a supposition which would be an

approach to Zeunet"s contention that world sea-level has dropped continu-

ously throughout the Pleistocene Age. The problem must be left unsolyed

at present.

In view of the above variable factors the determination, first of the dif-

ferences in elevation of the foreshores of the duncs, and secondly of the ac-

tual heights above sea-level at which they were formed, seems impracticable.

The wriler has attempted it, however, and bearing in mind the possible

sources of error has tried to minimize them, or where this could not be done

to average them and apply corrections. The figures finally produced (Fig.

9 and Table) are intended to show the differences between the estimated

height at which these fareshores were formed and the present heights abeve

sea-level in those areas which haye not been affected, as far as can he deter-

mined, by tilting, No allowance was made nor can be made for isostatic ad-

justments. With all their limitations, the figures supplied do give a general

picture of the relative vertical positions of the fronts of the dune ranges and

therefore of the basement on which they were formed,

The contention by Zeuner (1946) that there has been a world-wide and

steady deup in sea-level since the commencernent of glaciation and that the

268

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269

maximum heights of sea-level reached during each interglacial were progres-

sively lower as a result, reqttires further proof and explanation of the causes

underlying this gradual decrease and is opposed to the views widely held,

that at least during the Second or Great Interglacial world sea-level reached

or approached closely that exisling at the beginning of glaciation.

{- — —--

Th see ed

SECADERTOWN

Wf:

‘a

; ao Shel ceasie

‘ ; io: \

Ze Vt ‘= oi

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= [ge

Aa, \

HYLLICERT® .

—

POSTULATED PLEISTOCENE SHORELINES

af the

South East of South Australia

Humbars Indicays relative succession.

Indicated aly 1 tha inferred Sncdlign of the extinct River Mand? “Sh

vie Hanqwerty Creek and the Houat Burr sleade SS By

scale tet 3 1% ae dfnies

Fig. 10

270

‘This latter opinion is shared by the writer and has been used in the ten-

tative determination of the dune ranges representing the height of the Second

Interglacial, If the table and assoviated diagrams (Figs. 3, 9, 10) have any

validity (the reasons for their construction have been given hereim), then it

would appear that the climate of the First Interglacial was somewhat milder

than today and that it was considerably warmer during the height of the

Third Interglacial. It would follow also that during the present Interglacial

wr as some would have it during the Fourth Glaciation, oscillations of tem-

perature have occurred resulting in a relatively warm period in Sub-Recent

times followed by more refrigeration, another period a litle warmer than

today in Recent and possibly Historic time, and nally sufficient refrigeration

jo reduce sea-level to its present limits, On the other hand some of these

later movements of sea-level may have had other causes than those of in-

creases and decreases of glaciation, The larger and earlier of the above

oscillations is believed to have been responsible for the advance of the sea

to a height sufficient to form wave-cut terraces and marine shell deposits on

the inland side of the Woakwine Range, sea-caves ind blowholes en its

western slopes and several gaps such as Narrow Neck. IL is believed also to

have augmented the widespread erosion, much of which probably had been

produced earlier, of the dune ranges north of Kingston. The rise in sea-level

is estimated by the writer to have affected those parts nf the region which

are at present between 50 and 60 feet above sea-level.

The retreat of the sea from that position was responsible fur the forma-

tion vf the Cantinda Range which was partly eroded during the subsequent

rise to the 12-15 feet level, and although sea-level has retreated since then to its

present level, the former northern and southern extensions of this ratge remain

submerged and the existing portions are being actively croded by the sea,

The features of marine erosion testifying ta the most recent retreat of

the sez include wave-cut cliffs and platforms, sea-caves and shell deposits,

and are widespread not only in South Australia but also in other parts of the

continent.

One notable feature not discussed hitherto is the absence of all but

minor occurrences of dune limestone in a broad area from Mount Grahain,

the most northerly part of the Mount Burr Range, eastwards of Kalangadoo

and beyond. This absence is understandable it the prevailing wind which

today is from a west-south-westerly direction was similarly oriented in the

past during the Pleistocene Epoch, That this probably was the case is

shown by the general trend and morphology of the ranges. Given a pre-

vailing wind from the west-south-west, the protection afforded io the arezs

to the east by the Mount Burr Islands and Tombolos would prevent the for-

mation of all except minor aceumulations along the northern Gmits uf the

farmer shoal now known as the Dismal Swamp. This is being termed the

Mingboo! Shoal. This shwal is believed also to mark the southern limits of

an estuary into which flowed several streams now forming part of the Glenely

River to the east in Victoria. The extensions of this estuary would have

varied from time to time according to advances or retreats of the sea, and

during periods of low sea-level are believed to have continued at jeast as far

as the northern extremity of the present Mount Burr Range. The streams

no dowbt provided appreciable quantities of detrital material which assisted

not only in the byilding up of the shoal and the tombolos of the Mount Burr

area but stipplied the material for the detrital quartz deposits on the slopes

of the Mount Burr Range, The pronounced curvature of the dune ranges as

they approach the position of this postulated estuary, is in accordance with

the developments expected under such conditions.

271

An attempt has been made to reconstruct the shorelines as indicated by

the various dune ranges (Fig. 10). Such a reconstruction is subject to the

limitations discussed earlier and must be regarded as an approximation only.

It is also recognized that there is some uncertainty in the region between

Mount Gambier and the southern limits of the Dismal Swamp, and the re-

construction in that sector is based chiefly on the basement levels and such

allowance as could be made for subsequent planation during periods of marine

transgression.

The shorelines finally produced suggest an estuary or at least a bay with

ils head near the Victorian border. The very gentle slopes and numerous

swamps from there to the Glenelg River support the view that the present

river has captured the streams formerly discharging into the estuary in South

Australia. At what period these captures occurred cannot be determined at

present. The writer believes however, that the history of this river as con-

structed by Fenner (1918) must be modified considerably and that there is

a possibility that much of the capture of the headwaters of the present river,

if it took place, was accomplished by the streams which have been named the

River Mundi and Nangwarry Creek, which discharged into the estuary in

South Australia.

DIASTROPHISM

Despite the high probability that all or nearly all of the dune ranges

represent eustatic shorelines due to successive glaciations and deglaciations

during the Pleistocene Epoch, and were not in general produced by a “hesi-

tating advance of the land” (Ward 1941), there is definite evidence that ex-

tensive movements of the land have taken place and adjustments apparently

are still continuing. The earthquake off the coast of the region in 1897, and

a similar disturbance in 1948, indicate that stability has not been reached.

The formation is recorded, by an officer of the South-Eastern Drainage Board,

of the Earthquake Springs in the Hundred of Conmurra, apparently as a re-

sult of the 1897 earthquake. The additional supply of water furnished by

these newly-developed springs required the excavation of a special drain

which was named the Earthquake Springs Drain. The chief evidence sub-

mitted by the writer is the steady and persistent north-westerly drop in ele-

vation of the seaward edges of the dune ranges from the vicinity of a zone

which bears inland from Cape Banks in a direction approximately normal

to the present coastline. The various possibilities of error notwithstanding,

it must be conceded that in following the seaward edge of a dune range mark-

ing approximately a former shoreline, though there may be upward and

downward variations in level of quite appreciable magnitude, there will not

be a steady and persistent decrease in the one direction as exhibited by every

range, reaching in the case of the East Naracoorte a maximum of more than

150 feet within the area examined. It is obvious that depression at the

northern end or elevation in the south with a resultant downward tilt to the

north-west, must have been responsible.

The closer spacing of many of the ranges together with the progressive

decrease in difference of elevation of their seaward edges as they are traced

north-westwards, is further proof of such tilting. An examination of the con-

tours of the zone to the north-east of Cape Banks suggests that this was

relatively stable, and it is assumed therefore that depression of the north-

western end is the probable explanation. Such movements would link up

with the known warping and faulting of the Mount Lofty Ranges and adja-

cent areas during the Pleistocene Epoch. It is the writer’s opinion that the

272

region adjacent to Mount Bust, possibly because of reinforcement hy basaltic

intrusions, probably remained unmoved while the whole area from there to

the north-west was tilted downwards. This view dots not, however, deny

the possibility of small vertical uplift of the Mount Burr terrain indepen-

dently of the regional warping. A similar but steeper downward movement

jn a southerly direction of the area hetween Mount Burr and Port Macdan-

nell is suggested by the gradual drop in elevation in that direction of the

fronts of the dune ranges. It has not been possible to investigate this feature

in the southern part of the region in detail because survey levels are toa few

and because the time available for such research was insufficient.

The downward tilting to the west-north-west obviously affected not only

the differences in elevation of the successive foreshores, but also their hari-

zontal “distances from ¢ach other. It must be emphasized here that the pos-

tulated isostatic movements, both positive and negative, were relatively small

and the total west-north-westerly downwarp was effective in producing only

a very low gradient, the resultants being less than one foot per mile to the

north-north-west, and frum 2-3 feet per mile to the westwward, ‘lhe postu-

lated transverse buckling with north-casterly axes is believed ta have been

emaller still, and even some of the custatic variations of sea-level were small,

Nevertheless, a comparatively uniformly sloping plain as measurements indi-

cate it is even today, will provide accurate and delicate evidence of any

changes in level of the land relative to the sea, or of distortions experiences

between the times of formation of two successive shorelines.

In sectors where the slope is uniforin, downward tilting towards the

west-north-west would cause the new shoreline to approach the older shore-

line progressively to the north-west and eventually to intersect it as some

of the dine ranges appear to do. In the area adjacent to the axis, where

little or no movement had taken place, the true spacing and differences in

height would be preserved. These converging dunes are a feature of the

region. Beyond their junction the two dune ranges would appear as one and

on the surface could not be separated. Cuttings at selected lacalittes could,

if they were made, enable such a separation. Stich cuttings may become

more plentiful, it is to be hoped, in places where the information ts needed.

Still further te the north-west, the new shoreline would continue ta fringe

the older dune until a point was reached whiere the sea could breale throngh the

barrier or submerge it. Ags a result the sea would occupy a shallow bay with

a long narrow peninsula, the old dune forming a protecting ridge for the

southern part of the bay. The southernmost part of the new shoreline would

not be likely to develop a dune, or if dune building oceurred it would be of

small, irregular accumulations only for some distance to the northward, until

a point was reached where wave and wind action were sufficiently imfe-

stricted to enable regular dune-building to begin. An exanination nf the

région shaws that such irregularities aud eventual regularity of dunes on

the eastern side of a compound dune produced by convergence, oceur in

several instances. They are believed therefore to have been formed as de-

scribed above,

Should tilting movements cease after the formatian of a shoreline, then

the following shorelines would preserve, on a uniformly sloping plain, ap-

proximately constant distances, both horizontal and vertical. An examina-

tion of the region, however, shows that nearly all of the ranges record changes

in horizontal or vertical spacing or bath, A few ranges diverge as they are

traced, towards the north-west and this could indicate a temporary reversal

of the downward tilting movement, The convergence of some and diver-

gence of other ranges as they are teaced towards the north-west, suggests

273

the intervention of warping movemeuts. These are believed, as stated earlier,

to have consisted not only of the downward tilt of the northern and sauthern

sectors, but also of transverse warping and yariations in Jocal isostatic ad-

justment. The last two could have nullified or reversed locally the eflects

uf progressive downward tilting.

In the northern sector, reliable levels are too few in number for any de-

terminations to be made of such movements or their effects.

While it could be argued that the duwmward tilting movement, which

apparently commenced during Upper Pliocene times and continued thraugh-

cut the Pleistocene Epoch but probably episodically, may have hecn reversed

at times, there are, us stated above, other factors to be considered. The pro.

gressive tilting of the region towards the west-north-west would result in in-

creasingly large areas being inundated by rises of sea-level even if of minor

amounts. Such increased tendency to drowning of the north-western sector

would increase the load borne by the block during intndations by the sea,

and might result in isostatic adjustment by depressing the area, and corres-

ponding elevation after the sea retreated. Such isostatic adjustments could

in that event be more intense than in the areas further south in which rises

or falls of sea-level would not affect such wide areas nor inundate them to

the same relative depths, Further, it is by no means certain that the axis

of tilting was located always in the zone to the north-east of Cape Banks.

Though no doubt predominantly in this zone, there are indications that an

axle or transverse warp may have been located in a zone from Rendelsham

to the north-east and similar features may haye existed even further to the

north,

As feferred to earlier and summarized here, it is possible that isostatic

response ta release of the load when the Mutrtravian Gulf was drained, oc-

curted during the Upper Pliocene and possibly Jater, The Naracoorte Fault,

if its existence is confirmed, may have been formed during and as the result

of such uplift. Further, the reduction by marine planation of the level of the

area still submerged, such planation extending at the height of the glaciations

far beyond the present coastline, could have resulted in elevation of the re-

gion. It would appear that the East Naracoorte foreshore, which is esti-

mated to have been formed at approximately 240 feet above present sea-level.

kes been elevated since its formation hy the amount represented by the dif-

ference between 240 tect and potential sea-leve] at the time, However, such

elevation, if proved, tay have been produced by other causes.

As stated in an earlier section, there is evidence that the Miocene sedi-

ments, of the southern part of the region have been folded to a small! extent.

Whether such folding movements did produce, over a long distance, eleva-

tions of the order referred to earlier is heyond the scope of the present inves-

tigation. The age of the folding was not studied by the writer but it is

hoped that the work being done in the region by the State Geological Survey

will furnish the desired information,

HUMAN OCCUPATION

The legends quoted catlier which refer to Mounts Muirhead, Gambier, and

Schank miay or may not indicate that these eruptions were witnessed by human

beings. Another legend stating that the land formerly extended to the south far

beyond the present southert: coastline at Port MacDonnell and referring to an

advance of the sea over this area, an event which is believed to have occurred

during the partial deglaciation since the height of Wirni Glaciation, may be merely

a legend and have no foundation in actual knowledge of this everit by the earlier

natives, There is, however, another feature which may point to the existence of

274

the natives for a considerable period. At numerous localities, chiefly in the Woak-

wine Ranges, but also in the Reedy Creek Range, weathering of the cemented

dune limestones has etched in sharp relief the existence of numerous stones and

boulders of cemented dune limestone embedded in the aeolian material uf the

dune, which is also a cemented dune limestone. Only the sensitive effects of slow

gubaerial weathering could have emphasised the slight difference in cementation

of the boulders and the latter cemented matrix sufficiently ta permut of their visual

recognition. The occurrence of boulders on a dune 1s itself an anomaly and

suggests transportation by living heings. Their concentration in limited areas

is further evidence of such planned accumulation. Of special interest, however,

is the occurrence at intervals amongst these former hawlders of stones which are

blackened by smoke or fire (Campbell 1946). The presence of Tree carbon was

established in those examined, Similar material is recorded from The Bluff

south-east of Geelong (Coulson, 1935), These blackened stunes occur in diverse

methods of aggregation. In some places they lie clase together forming roughly

circular areas, in others they occur as if scattered [rom a common centre, the latter

occurrence showing a dectease in size and increase in number of stones away from

the apparent centre. These accumulations of blackened stones are in appearance

and in plan inflistinguishable from similar aggregates which are known to have

been used as hearths by the natives oti recent camp sites. These, too. occur both

as close aggregates and widely scattered fragments, the aniount of scattering being

apparently a function both of time and insolation, While not regarded as absolute

proof, these blackened stones, as well as those which have not been charred, are

at least an indication that natives lived on these dune ranges while they were 7a

process of formation, especially as all the known occurrences are not at the sur-

fave, but some occur beneath the present surface within the dune itself. Tf the

natives were responsible for the collection and use of these stanes, and if the date

of formation of the Reedy Creek Range is upheld by further investigation, then

the natives lived in this region at feast as early as the initial stages of the Riss

Glaciation.

THE PRESENT COASTLINE

As indicated earlier, the coastline presents varied features, heing apparently

one of submergence between Capes Jalfa and Northumberland, and one of

etnergence north of Cape Jaffa and east of Cape Northumberland, Further, the

sea has broken through into the Canunda- West Woakwine interdune flat at

Guichen and Rivoli Bays and tu the south of Cape Banks. This interdune flat

which probably represents an ancient Coorong, now contains Lakes Eliza and

St. Clair which are salt and below sea-level, Lakes George, Canunda and Frome

all salt originally but the rwo latter drained almost completely by artificial means,

Lake Bonney which is fresh and the above two bays which represent no doubt

the sites of former lakes,

Beyond Cape Jaffa and Cape Northumberland the sea has entered the wide

flats separating the Dairy and Woakwine from the Neville and Reedy Creck

Ranges.

Tt is in the last two sections from Cape Jaffa northwards and from Cape

Northamberland eastwards that the coastline appears to be one of emergence.

The writer’s views are that the present coastline in addition to the recent rises

afd falls of the sea-level, owes its configtiralion lo the continued tilting both to

the north-west arid south-east along an axis which extended inland from Cape

Banks in a direclion approximately normal to the present coastline, It is obvious

that this would submerge in a north-westerly direction a succession of interdune

flats and in a south-casterly direction the easterly sector of the south coast. The

advance of the sea over the wide interdune flat north of Cape Jaffa and its yery

gentle slopes would produce the same effect as would an emerging coastline with

275

its gently sloping marine plain and would in fact be indistinguishable. The Sub-

Recent submergence due to world rise in sea-level is therefore the dominant

feature of the section from Cape Bufton to Cape Banks, but loses this dominance

and becomes more and more subordinate to the tilting effects as the coastline is

followed north and southwards away from this section.

It is this tilting which is believed to have been responsible for the depressed

area in which Lakes Alexandrina, Albert and associated lakes and swamps occur,

and the prime factor which produced the sudden turn to the west of the River

Murray towards Mannum and the Mount Lofty Horst, and its subsequent course

southwards in close proximity to that elevated region.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE

Lower PLIOCENE

Draining of Murravian Gulf as far as the East Naracoorte shoreline.

Lower PLioceNE TO Earty Upeer Puiocenr

Erosion of Lower Pliocene and upper members of Miocene sediments by

marine planation, Possible rise of land and adjacent sea floor due to isostatic

adjustment.

Earty Upper PLiIocENE

Voleanic eruptions in Mount Burr area. Formation of tied islands and

tornbolos,

Upper PLIOCENE

Protection from further marked marine erosion of Dismal Swamp area.

Formation of Mingbool Shoal. Discharge of streams from Victoria and

formation of estuary north uf Mingbool Shoal. Partial protection from

marine erosion of Miocene sediments in the Mount Burr area. Further

erosion of Miocene sediments in remainder of region assisted probably by

further elevation of sea floor. Downward tilting probably commenced.

PLEISTOCENE

Beginning of Glaciation, Gradual lowering of sea-level and formation of

stranded dunes—Hatper’s, Woolumbool, Neville and probably Woawine A.

Probably other dunes, since removed completely by erosion.

Gunz GLACIATION

Tilting downwards to the west-north-west and to the souts-east continued.

Probable uplift of land due to lowering by crosion of basement by retreating

Shallowing sea and removal of sea itself, [xtension of river estuary to the

west of Mount Graham over the emerging coastal plain.

Frest INTERGLACTAL

Rise of sea-level to West Avenue shorcline, cutting of notch in the basement

at approximately 130 feet below pre-glacial level, Climate milder than today.

Isostatic adjustments probably small.

Minor, GLaciatTion

Gradual lowering of sea-level and formation of stranded dunes, West Avenue,

East Dairy and Woakwine B. Probably slight rises of land,

SECOND on GREAT INTERGLACTAL

Rise of sea-level to West Naracoorte shoreline. Cutting of notch in the

basement at approximately 40 feet below pre-glacial level, Climate much

warmer than today. Intersection ta the north of Naracoorte of the East and

West Naracoorte shorelines and establishment further north of the West

276

Naracoorte as a new shoreline to the east of the older, preglacial, East Nara-

courte shoreline, Isostatic: depression of land probably appreciable. Forty

fect may represent net gain in elevation of land due to removal of Murravian

sediments and resulting isostatic adjustment,

Riss GLACIATION

Gradual lowering of seatevel and formation of stranded dunes, West Nara-

coorte, Peacock, Baker’s, Ardune, Reedy Creek, West Dairy and Woak-

wine C, Probably appreciable rise of land. Further tilting down to west-

north-west and south-east. Mount Muirhead may have erupted during the

later stages. Human occupation of the region may have begun.

Turrp INTERGLACIAL

Rise of sea-level to Cave shoreline. Cutting of notch in the basement at

approximately 70 feet below pre-glacial level. Climate warmer than today.

Probable depression of land appreciable, Owme to continued tilt down to

the west-north-west, greater inundation of that area, and possibly greater

local depression of land in that sector.

Witram GLACIATION

Gradual lowering of sea-level and forrnation of stranded dunes, Cave, Lucin-

dale, East Avenue:and Woakwine D, Mounts Gambier and Schank probably

erupted after the climate became warmer.

Foueri [nTrerc LaceaL or OSCILLATIONS IN Witrm GLACIATION

Rise of sea-level to reach features about 50 feet above present sca-level.

Climate milder than today. Sea retreated and left Canunda Range as a

stranded dine. Sea retreated further for an unknown distance. Sea-level

rose again to 12-15 feet above present sea-level, Climate a little milder than

today. Sea-level fell to present position. Tilting down to west-north-west

and south-east continued and resulted in encroachment by the sea on the

flats between the Dairy and Neyille and Reedy Creek Ranges north of Cape

Jaffa and east of Cape Northumberland. Formation of Rivoli and Guichen

Rays, Buildmg of offshore bar and formation of present Coorong. Erosion

of non-submerged parts of Canunda Range along present coastline between

Capes Jaffa and Northumberland. [Erosion of Miocene limestones between

Cape Banks and the Victorian border, setting free numbers of flints and

forming the extensive beach deposits of this mineral today.

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Stersews, C. G, and Crocker, R. L, 1946. Composition and Genesis of Lunettes, Trans.

Roy Soc, S. Aust., 70, 2

Tavuos, J. K. 1933. A Soil Survey of the Hundreds of Laffer and Willaloka, South

Australia, Coun. Sci. Ind. Res, (Aust) Bull, 76

Tinpate, N. B. 1933. Tantanoola Caves, South-East of South Attistralia: Geological and

Physiogranhic notes. Trans. Roy, Soc, S. Aust. 57

TINDALE, iv B. 1947. Subdivision of Pleistocene Time in Sonth Australin. Ree. S, Aust,

Us.

Uxserove, J. HP 1947. The Pulse of the Earth. Martinus Nijhoff, The Tague

Wate, et The Supposed Oil-Bearing Areas af South Australia. Mines Dept S, Aust,

ull,

Wasp, LK, 1941, The Underground Waler of the South-Eastern Part of South Australia

Mines. Dept. S.. Anst,. Bull, 19

TINTINARA

4 THE

ourcrors SOUTH-EAST OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA

WEST OF THE EAST NARACOORTE RANGE

LIMESTONE

KEITH

SCALE

1) a 8 12 MILES

MT. MONSTER

264i BORDERTOWN

353

341

CREEK

331

KINGSTON

C. JAFFA

Z WN

GUICHEN BAY

ww nw sw nw ws Fw 8 8 8 ee ee

: —osi—— ——

C. RABELAISE

NORA CREINA BAY

1) af SPRINGS

341 _~ CONTOURS & HEIGHTS IN FEET

ea ABOVE SEA LEVEL

RIVOLI BAY

Cc. BUFFON

ig: este LUNETTES

bet kb

“Y Ys

-L. EDWARD

DISMAL SWAMP

StL 23,

DUNE LIMESTONE (INFERRED) ) LY: 29 Ke

LOCATION OBSCURED BY RECENT AEOLIAN SANDS SNNEN eg -——\——~__

LOW EROSION PLATFORMS OR ISOLATED REMNANTS

OF DUNE LIMESTONE

sis] MIOCENE LIMESTONES AT OR NEAR THE SURFACE

5] (IN THE SOUTHERN SECTOR)

CAINOZOIC BASALT AND TUFF

+++ +

+ + + | PROTEROZOIC —EARLY PALAEOZOIC IGNEOUS ROCKS

pra dae! ae Fu

: f 1950 C. NORTHUMBERLAND

Note—Contours are of Basement only and not of Aeolian or Volcanic Accumulations.

279

Warp, L. K. 1944. The Search for Oil in South Australia. Mines Dept. S. Aust., Bull. 22

Warp, L. K. 1946. The Occurrence, Composition, Testing and Utilisation of Underground

Water in South Australia, and the Search for further supplies. Mines Dept. S.

Aust., Bull. 23

Woops, Rev, J. F. 1862. Geological observations in South Australia: principally in the

district South-East of Adelaide. Longman & Co., London

ZEUNER, F. E, 1945. The Pleistocene Period. Its climate, chronology and faunal succession.

Ray. Society, London

ZEUNER, # z 1946. Dating the Past. An Introduction to Geochronology. Methuen & Co.,

ondon

WORORA KINSHIPS

BY J. R. B. LOVE

Summary

I have taken Professor Elkin’s table of the Ungarinyin kinship, and have transferred it to the

Worora, which tribe has the same social organisation as Ungarinyin (or Ngarinjin). I have extended

the table to bring in all the terms, and also to show how the terms reappear in alternate generations.

280

WORORA KINSHIPS

By J. R. B. Love

[Communicated by H. K. Fry]

Read 13th July, 1950.

T have taken Professor Elkin’s table of the Ungarinyin kinship, and have

transferred it to the Worora, which tribe has the same social organisation as

Ungarinyin (or Ngarinjin). I have extetided the table to bring in all the

terms, and also to show how the terms reappear in alternate generations.

There are two peculiarities of Worora and Ngarinjin, namely,

(1) All the men of a wife's horde are known by the same term, Waia in

Wrorora.

(2) A man may, and among the older men often has done so, marry an-

other man’s sister and his daughter.

You say “children of irregular matriages take the class determined by

that of the mother, not of the father.” Not in Worora, in which the mother

is always of the opposite moiety from the child. No doubt all your references

ta the patrilineal area of North-Western Australia refer to the tribes further

South from here, as these Kimberley tribes have no sections but named

moieties, Cg., marriage with sister’s son’s daughter is prohibited in Worora,

she being kulanja, which is primarily sister’s husband’s sister, a forbidden

wile; so all Kulanja are forbidden.

I do not know any meaning for the moiety names; they are just the

names of moietics.

The horde names are territorial, At least one horde name is animal; and

that again is territorial, being the name of a district around a hill which is

a mythical rai’s nest, so that the district is called “rat” and the men of the

horde “rat-men.”

[A kinship terminology, published Jater in the paper “Worora Kinship

Gestures” cited below, was included here.]

The forbidden relationship is called rambadba.

The forbidden pairs are (reciprocally),

(1) wolbaia and kurumanja, also wolbaiinja and kurumanja, also wolbaia

and kurum; but not wolbaiinja and kurtm.

i.e, man and his mother-in-law, woman and her brother’s mother-in-law,

man and his mother-in-law’s brother: but not woman and the brother of her

brother's mother-in-law.

(2) buda and kadjanja, but not buda and kadjaia, nor budinja and cither

kadjanja or kadjaia.

These are, man and his mothet’s brother’s wife, and, mot so strietly, all

women who are kadjanja to him; but not including his own mother’s mother,

who is also kadjanja.

Of these forbidden pairs the son-in-law and mother-in-law groups are

strictly observed, even between those of the same sex; the other groups are

not so strict,

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: Bpuess1108

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efuewel VIVINWEL a a efueduem =X aIVAOMYN efural viyal eimpnq yang ae Viv 104

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“AS EU ‘SS'H'H ated s P ‘Ws.ud efueqr xX WIVHTOM efuneqiom VIV{GNITVN \__ efur[puyeu xX WIVdI

efuefpey x VIVAVH cing x VWIVUl efuesemed =x =VIWIN [ae ee [Se Ue Mel)

(aqua =) Can = aa) ,

‘pq “a's'q' ‘SHH aM A YVIVOVN 4s “H'S.uS “ASS Is

efueurel efue(pey =X VIVAWIL VIVM icy vk x OnF efueneu =x vivo cs tae

1 ane aS oe | .

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Wonwans bag ea . x VIVM

ibeee S'S.SA

orn MANE

: i

‘cM'L A eee ‘an “an a AS} ‘HSS a

efupna vqnd VIVIGVi eo. x VIVEVA bidair x VIVul aes x VWIVIAN

4 ¥. Cram =) itacs | =

‘IS"'Y'S,18"}'J ‘CAA urur “a ae f x tae ene bs Re a i mt a. eas

euyny =x )~=vIy fave vfuelpey ee ie ee — CM “ae XX ViVINe

aaa | X VIVAVIL ‘sey Ur

30 l efarurely

VIV@TIOM —$—$——$—$—$— nnn y

HTIGVL dIHSNIM VAXOUOM

Kunmunya Mission.

June 21st, 1939.

Table appended.

The above communication consists of extracts from a letter written to

me by the late Rev. J. R. B. Love. The subject matter presented has not

been published elsewhere by Mr. Love in his writings on the social organisa-

tions

1917,

1935,

1936,

1941.

of the Worora, namely,

Notes on the Worora Tribe of North-Western Australia, Trans. Roy.

Soc. S. Aust. 41 .21.

Mythology, Totemism and Religion of the Worora Tribe of North-

West Australia. Report of the 22nd Meeting A.N.Z.A.A.S. 22.222,

Stone Age Bushmen of Today. London.

Worora Kinship Gestures. Trans. Roy. Soc. 5. Aust. 65. (1). 108.

This communication has been presented with the consent and co-opera-

tion of Mrs. J. R. B. Love.

ABORIGINAL SOCIAL SYSTEMS

BY H.. K. FRY

Summary

Matriage and kinships which form the basis of Australian aboriginal societies have been explained

in recent years in such complicated terms that an understanding of them is difficult. This paper is an

attempt to simplify the problem.

282

ABORIGINAL SOCIAL SYSTEMS

By H. K. Fry

Read 13th July, 1950.

Marriages and kinships which form the basis of Australian aboriginal

societies have been explained in recent years in such complicated terms that

an understanding of them is difficult. This paper is an attempt to simplify

the problem. :

The unit of all aboriginal societies is the exogamous local family group

or horde, which owns a definite area of country and the sacred places, cere-

monies and legends belonging to that country, Varying numbers of adja-

cent hordes constitute a tribe.

With the exception of a few atypical societies, the hordes and therefore

eyety man and woman of a tribe belong to one of two named exogamous

moieties, Frequently these moieties are subdivided into named classes (or

sections) and each individual of such a tribe is identified by one such class

name This class name is used commonly as a term of address or reference.

Tn all tribes without exception every man and woman is recognised as a rela-

tive by every other person and is addressed or referred to by a kinship term

which naturally is variable and dependent upon the recognised kinship of the

speaker.

The aboriginal knows the moiety, class name if any, and kinship of every

known person as a matter of common knowledge from his or her early child-

hood. He therefore has a practical basis for knowing the effect of these dis-

tinctions in everyday life which is denied to the student unless the latter has

had a long and intimate association with the society in question. As there

are only two moieties, at most eight named classes, and a limited number of

kinship terms for each tribe, it follows that a great number of individuals

possess equivalent status in regard to each of these social distinctions. By

adopting an appropriate system of symbols, each of which will represent all

those many individuals of a certain moiety, class and kinship status, the stu-

dent can study these social distinctions in a considerably simplified form.

I adopted a set of such symbols in 1931 (8), and have found them useful.

The form of the symbols was modified later (9, 10). My interpretation of

data concerning aboriginal societies has been modified progressively, As I

wish to present new material in coherent relation to my present conclusions,

I trust L shall be pardoned for including some recapitulations in this paper.

The symbols which I have adopted are as follows :—

1. Moieties, The letters A and B, as is usually done, are used to repre-

sent the two named moicties. Individual members of these moieties are

symbolised by the same letters A and B as capitals if males, and as small

casé letters a and b if females.

Marriages between members of moieties are indicated by a line, thus,

A— b

a————-B

2. Classes (Sections), These named subdivisions of moieties are of two

types, which I propose to term the a and # subdivisions.

(1) The @ subdivision classifies children in a class different from that of

either of the parents. The symbols adopted to represent such classes are

283

obtained by prefixing the numbers 1 and 2 to the moicty svinbols A and B,

the nunibers distinguishing the named classes in alternate generations. Male

and female members of the four named classes are represented by the sym-

bols 1A 1a, 1B Ib in one generation and 2A 2a, 2B 2b in the alternate genera-

tion, Marriages between members of classes normally take place according

to the following diagram =—

1A————lb 2A————2h

la——_——1B Za——-——2R

As diagrams become complicated as will be seen later, 1 have adopted a

convenient convention by which a number prehxed to a line or group of sym-

bols is considered to be a prefix to every symbol in that line or group. The

above diagram represented in this simpler form 1s

1, A————-b 2, A————h

a— B a B

A few tribes have differently named classes for four successive genera-

tions in each moiety. These are symbolised by prefixing the numbers 1, 2, 3

and 4 to the moiety symbols A and B to distinguish the named classes in suc-

cessive generations.

(2) The 8 type of moiety subdivision classifies members of each moiety

of the same generation into two subclasses. The symbols adopted to repre-

sent such named subelasses are obtained by adding the numbers 1 and 2 as

suffixes to the symbols for the named classes used above. Male and female

memhers of the eight named subclasses are therefore 1A1 lal, LA2 laZ, 1BI

1bl, 1B2 1b2 in one genetation and 2A1 2al, 2A2 202, 2B1 2b1, 2B2 2b2 in the

alternate generation, The normal martiages between members of the eight sub-

class divisions are as follows —

b2 hd

1, Al BZ A2 2 Ale 2

aN —~ a wa

Se bl” oO

Bi Bi

It is to be remembered that in this and subsequent diagrams the initial

numbers 1 and 2 are to be read as prefixing cach symbol in the group so de-

signated,

3. Kinship terms. When local family groups ina closed society, in which

all members are recognised as relatives, intermarry according to rigid cus-

tomary rules, obviously a clearly defined pattern of kinships must be present.

As the number of terms used to define these kinships is limited, numerous

persons in the tribe will be distinguished as of equivalent kinship status and

addressed by the same kinship term by all persons who are themselves of

equivalent kinship status in {he society, Family groups on a tribe with eight

named subclasses intermarry under such conditions in accordance with the

diagram given above, and the persons grouped as of equivalent kinship status

are found to be of the same subelass. The symbols used to represent the suh-

classes in such a tribe therefore also serve to represent the kinship terms and

the persons of equivalent kinship status designated by such terms,

The thesis maintained in this paper is that the customary rule of inter-

marriages between family groups of a tribe with eight subclass divisions is

also the customary rule of intermarriages between the family groups of the

284

great majority of Australian tribes, whether named class divisions or even

moieties are existent or non-existent. ‘This may be stated alternatively that

the social organisation of the great majority of Australian tribes is based on

a custom of marriages between family groups which can be represented by

the diagram—

b2 ans

1 Al B2 SN A222 AL B2 A2

al ™— aa a2

YY: weer

BI Bl

This normal custom of marriages involves the exchange of women be-

tween two intermarrying family groups. There are a few tribes in which this

exchange of women is not customary, The simplest diagram of such mar-

riages which is possible in a society with moiety divisions is as follows :—

un Pee

2 bl

I have been unable to find any described kinship system which conforms

accurately to the pattern determined by this system of marriages. I pro-

pose to show in this paper that described kinship systems conform to more

complex marriage systems of this type involving twice the number of dis-

tinguished kinship groups which will be denoted by the symbols Al al, A2

aZ, A3 a3, A4 a4, BI bl, B2 b2, B3 b3, and B4 b4. The marriage diagrams of

these systems are respectively

b2 A2 b3

A B2 a2 B3

ae Ad bo

Bl a4 B4

and one in which the above system alternates with the following system in

alternate generations :—

b4 A2 bl

a2 Bl a3

al A3

a b3___.A4 be

These diagrams appear at first sight to be very complex. If, however,

they are visualised as the customary marriages between members of eight

local family groups, the complexity is simplified.

Consideration of some of the features of aboriginal societies can now be

undertaken making use of the symbols described above.

285

1. Moieties, Totemism undoubtedly provided the original conditions

under which the moiety system took shape. All members of any one totemic

group are considered to be of one blood and must not marry within that

group. The practice of treating certain totems as associated no doubt led

eventually to the classification of all the family tolemic groups of the tribe

into two named exogamous moieties.

Children in a patrilineal society are of the motety of the father, in a

matrilineal society of the moiety of the mother, A worsan on marriage

usually joins the horde of her husband. Each local group or horde in a pat-

rilineal society consists of males and one moiety in all generations, theit un-

married sisters of the same moiety, and wives of the opposite moiety. The

horde in a matrilineal society consists of males of opposite moieties in alter-

nate generations, unmarried sisters of the same moiety as their brothers cor-

responding to the moiety of their mothers and of the moiety opposite to that

of their fathers. This can be illustrated by the following diagrams using the

adopted symbols to cover five successive generations.

A b B a A b B zh

A b B a B ch A b

Aa Db Bb a Aa hb Bb a

Aa b Bb a Rb a Aa b

Aa Bb Aa Bb

Diagram 1 (a). Moiety constitution Diagram 1 (b). Motety constitution

of hordes in a patrilineal society. of hordes in a matrilmeal society:

Two distinct types of hordes. Identical except for difference in

generation level,

The actual cu-existence of five gencrations in a horde is naturally un-

usual, and in sich circumstances it would be most unlikely for unmarried

sisters of the first two generations to retnain with the horde or for males. of

the fifth generation to have wives.

The genealogical relationships of any individual in a tribe can be ex-

pressed clearly by charting symbols for “sons” immediately helow synibols

for their respective “fathers,” and symbols for “daughters” below those for

their respective “mothers” in successive getierations. The diagram of mar-

riages between moieties is as stated previously

A--———b

a—_———_B

Using this as a key, genealogical moiety relationships can be charted to

form the following patterns :—

AaRBb Aa Bb

A b B a B a A b

AaBb AaBb

AbBa RaAb

AaBb AaBb

Diagram 2 (a) Diagram 2 (b)

Genealogical mioicty relation- Genealogical moiety — relation-

ships in a_ patrilineal society. ships in a matrilineal society.

The great convenience of this diagrammatic form is that direct lines of

male or female descent can be read vertically for as many zenerations as one

wishes to include in the diagram, while symbols for “brother” and “sister” in

any one horizontal line lie immediately below those for “father” and “mother”

respectively in the line above, so identifying husband and wife in that penera-

tion.

286

The moiety divisions have two important consequences, extending tote-

mic conceptions to cover the tribe as a whole. Firstly, children of all tribal

brothers are of the same moiety, and children of all tribal “sisters” are of the

same moiety. “Parallel cousins” being of the same moiety therefore cannot

marry. The nearest kinship outside this prohibition is that of a “cross

cousin,” that is the marriage of children of a “brother” with those of a “sis-

ter” Secondly, the children of a “brother” being of the moiety opposite ta

that of the children of a “sister” underlies the notmal custom in aboriginal

society whereby a woman addresses the children and grandchildren of her

“brothers” by the same kinship terms which they use, and a man addresses

the children and grandchildren of his “sisters” by the same kinship terms

which they use. Consequently, with the exception of special terms for “in-

laws,” or for relative seniority in age, it is normal for a man, his “brothers,” and

his “sisters” to use the same kinship term for each individual in the tribe,

2. The a Motety Subdivision into named Classes ( Sections). The diagram

of marriages between members of the named subdivisions being

1, A————_4 2, A————-b

a—_———B a——-}5

the diagrams of the genealogical relationships of the classes will be as fol-

lows :—

l1AaBh 1.AaBb

ZAbBa 2RaAb

1AaBbh 1AaBb

2AbBa Z2BaAb

1AaBb 1AaBb

Diagram 3 (a) Diagram 3 (hb)

Genealogical Relationships of Classes Genealogical Relationships of Classes

in a Patrilineal Society. in a Matrilineal Society.

From this diagram it will be seen that family groups will consist of male

members of the Classes 1A 2A or 1B 2B in a patrilineal society, aid of the

classes 1A 2B or 1B 2A in a matrilineal society.

‘The significance of this grouping of parents and children into distine-

tively named classes is an emphasis on the prohibition, which is normal in

aboriginal societies, whereby a man must not marry a woman of his father’s

or his son's generation, If he marries a woman outside his awn generation

she must be of his grandchildren's generation. The same emphasis in some

tribes is also expressed by the use of a different name to distinguish all mem-

bers of each alternate generation. he northern Aluridja tribes use such

names even thotigh they have na named moieties or classes (7b, 16). The

origin of this prohibition is not obyious. The siiggestion is made that it rep-

resents the recognition of totemic restrictions inherited from both father and

mother, Let us postulate that the moiety symbols Aa and Bb now represent

dominant associated totems inherited from the fathers in a patrilineal

seciety or from mothers in a matrilineal Society, and that x and y represent

subsidiary associated totems inherited from the other parent. The following

genealogical patterns could then emerge.

AaBb AaBb

xxyy xxyy

AbBa BaAb

yxxy xyyx

AaBb AaBb

xxyy xxXyy

Patrilineal Pattern Matrilineal Pattern

287

Such patterns of inheritance would permit Ax ax and By by people to

intermarry, and in intermediate generations permit Ay ay and Bx bx people

to intermarry, but prohibit intermarriage of Ax ax and Bx bx peoples and of

Ay ay with By by peoples of alternate generations.

The inheritance in tatrilineal tribes of a subsidiary totem from the

father is well-known (3), the converse not so. Howitt (lla) mentions a pos-

sible instance of the latter. I disctissed the question with T. G, H, Strehlow,

who referted me to two passages in his father’s book (14) which record that

an Aranda man inherits from his mother a totem which is his Altra, the

man knows the place where his mother was conceived as his dltjira-tmara,

and when a man is buried his face is turned towards this spot. The Aranda

are a typically patrilineal tribe, so this evidence gives support to the above

proposal,

3. The B Moiety Subdivisions into Subclasses (Subsectons),

These named subdivisions are found only in patrilineal societies which

inhabit the northern central regions of Australia.

The diagram of marriages between subclasses being

y B2 YO B2

1 Al A222, Ne Nis

the diagram of genealogical relationships will be

1. Ai al Bl b1 A2 a2 B2 b2

2. Al bl B1 al A2 b2 B2 a2

1. Al a2 Bl b2 AZ al B2 bl

2. Al b2 BI a2 AZ bl B2 al

1. Al al BI bl A2 a2 B2 b2

Diagram 4. Genealogical Relationships of Subclasses. Patrilineal

societies only.

It will be seen that subclasses distinguish four varieties of family groups

of which the male members are of the subclasses 1A1 2A1, 1B1 2B1, 1A2 2A2,

and 1B2 2B2 respectively,

The sub-class division provides that a son marries a woman of a family

group whose members are of subclasses distinct from the named subclasses

of the family group of his mother.

The subclasses of the Aranda tribe may be taken as an example to illus-

trate the application of Diagram 4 as follows :—

Al al Bl bl Ag az Ba b2

PANANKA pananka PURULA pura KNURATA knuraia NGALA neala

Al bl Bl al A2 h2 B2 az

BANGATA kamara KAMARA bangata PALTARA mbitjana MRBITJANA paltara

Al a2 Bl b2 AZ al B2 b1

PANANKA kouraia PURULA niygala KNURATA pananka. NGALA purwa

Ad b2 Bl aZ A2 hi R2 al

BANGATA nibitjana KAMARA paltara PALTARA kamara MBITJANA hangata

Al al Th bl A2 az B2 bz.

PANANKA pananka PURULA purtila KNURAIA knuraia NGALA nigala

Diagram §. Genealogical Relationships of Aranda Stbclasses.

288

It will be seen that the subclass names “fit” the pattern of Diagram 4

with complete accuracy. The male symbol 1A1 is always associated with

PANANKA, the female symbol 1b1 with purula, 2A1l with BANGATA, 2b1

with kamara and so on,

The functions of the subclasses are not only ta distinguish alternate

generations among members of each local group, but alse to classify local

groups into two categories in each moiety according to marriageable status.

The moiety divisions, as has been mentioned previously, require that the

marrying pair hayé the kinship status of “cross-cousin.” The subclass divi-

sions require that this kinship status of cross-cousin should not be one which

is “too close up.” For example, referring to Diagram 5, the children of a

Pananka man (1A1) and his “sister” (lal) are Bangata (2al 2at) and

Kamara (2Bi 2b1) respectively. These children are of the kinship status of

first cousins. Martiages between them are permitted under special circum-

stances, but the kinship is “toa close” to be considered “proper.” The child-

ren of a Bangata man and of a Kamara man are Pananka and Purula respec-

tively, and, being “second cousins,” marriages between them are “proper.”

The children of a Bangata woman are Ngala (1B2 1b2) and are first cousins

of Pananka people. The subclasses Purula (131 1h1) and Ngala (182 1b2) in

regard to Pananka people distinguish family groups whose members of

equivalent generation level are second cousins (1B1 1b1) and are marriage-

able, irom family groups with members who are first cousins (1B2 1b2) and

whose kinship is too close for a proper marriage. A similar distinction applics

to all BL tl B2 b2, and all Al al A2 a2 groups.

4. Kinship Ternis

The pattern of the genealogical relationships of subclasses portrayed in

Diagrams 4 and 5 is also the pattern of kinships developed in any patrilineal

society in which (a) intermarriages are between members of hordes, or local

family groups, which belong ta opposite moieties (b) the hordes exchange

women in marriage (c) all known persons are kindred (d) the marrying pair

must have the kinship status of “cross-consins, not tov close up,” and this

kinship status is distinguished from that of “first-cousin.”

If any two of the symbols representing “brother and “sister” in une

horizontal line of Diagram 4 be taken as EGO for male-speaking and female-

speaking kinship terms respectively, and the Aranda kinship terms plotted

on this pattern in accordance with their gencalogical significance, it will be

found that the terms will “fit” the pattern accurately. One kinship term will

Le found to be associated with one symhol only This is illustrated in Dia-

gram 6, In this and all subsequent kinship diagrams EGO mate-speaking

and ego female-speaking are 1Al and Jal respectively in the middle line of

the diagram. A genealogical interpretation of each kinship term is indicated!

by letters of which

i = father ad = daughter Genealogical data for terms used by &

m = mother w= wiie woman are enclosed in brackets when

bh == brother h = husband they involve a genealogical relationship

st = sister e = elder different from that of the term used

s = son y = younger by her brother for the same person.

The cluse identification of kinship terms and subclass names exhibited

by Diagrams 5 and 6 is of interest. A kinship term varics in tls application

in accordance with the kinship status of the speaker. Named divisions of

moiety, class, and subclass can now be seen to be ingenious devices for group-

ing persons with increasing accuracy under permanent tathes iidicating

marnagenble status.

239

When it is stated that kinship terms “Hi” a genealogical pattern, the

terms must not only satisfy the genealogical interpretation given for example

in Diagram 6 but also every other possible genealogical interpretation of the

term, For example, Strehlow (15) gives 174 genealogical identifications of

22 kinship terms and Diagram 6 satisfies them al]. Again, for example, [b1

palla of the last generation of Diagram 6 is not only sister’s son’s daughter

(a sequence through lal, 2B1 to 1b1), but also sister's daughter’s hushand’s

sister's daughter (lal, 2b1, 2A2, 2a2 to tb1), and father’s mother’s brother's

son’s son's son's daughter (2A1 Ibi, 1B1, 2Bl, 1Bl, 2B1 to Ibi)

mother’s mother’s brother’s son’s son's daughter's daughter (2b2, la2, 1A2,

2A2, 1A2, 2a2 to 1bL), and so on for innumerable gencalogical sequences end-

img in lbl. Needless to say the aboriginal does not think normally in genea-

Ingical sequences of such magnitude. EGO IAI of Diagrams 5 and 6 woul!

know the woman in question [bl as Puruta-palla, daughter of Kamara-amba and

Paltara-murra, whose parents again are known to him by subclass name and kin-

ship term, and so on, Also the woman is marriageable, and tf he marries her

she becnimes Purrula-noa and her father becomes Namare-antara. Complex

fenealogieal sequences relevant to a special problem are worked out by the

aboriginal with laborious argument taking account of the relative kinship

status of each of the factual kinsfoll involved in the problem,

lf the kinship terms of other patrilineal Australian tribes be charted on

the pattern of Diagratn 4 as has been done for the Aranda tu Diagram 6, it

will be found that almost alf will ‘fit’ the pattern with some degree of ac-

curacy, All these tribes cotmtenance marriage with “first-cousins” under

cectain conditions, When stich conditions are relaxed, the terminology be-

comes less precise, separate terms normally associated with Al and AZ dis-

tinctians or with Bl and B2 becoming used less discriminatingly although

differentiated at times in accordance with the normal pattern, The most pre-

cise differentiation is found in the sparsely populated areas of northern cen-

tral Australia, where each individual is relatively most important, and where

the named subclass divisions tend to keep marriages “straight.”

If the kinship terms of a matrilineal Australian society be charted an the

genealogical pattern of Diagram 4, the terms do not fit the pattern. Diagram

4 is patrilineal in type and is not symmetrical in regard to male and female

genealogical sequences. Ili the pattern be varied by transposing the male and

{cmale symbols, the kinship terms of a matrilineal society will then be found

do conform to this matrilineal pattern. The diagram of marfiages is the

same for both matrilineal and patrilineal forms of the pattern. Diagram 7

illustrates the charting cf the kinship terms of the Dteri tribe on this matri-

lineal form.

Professor Elkin (4, 7a) has described a number of ways in which the

Dieri kinships differ from those of the Aranda. All these apparent anomalies

are clearly explained by the differences in genealogical sequences in a matri-

lineal and in a patrilineal form of an asymmetrical genealogical pattern. Pro-

fessor Elkin has also attempted to prove by an elaborate argument that the

possibility of a man marrying his mather’s mother's brother's son's son's

daughter's daughter is a point in common between the Dieri and Aranda sys-

tems. The Dieri like other tribes countenance occasionally a marriage with

a first-cousin, a so-called use marriage Relerenee to Diagram 7 shows

that the womun having the relationship status cited by Elkin is normally lb2

kamt, sister’s son's daughter, The normal wife lhl nodada in that generation

has the felationship stats of daughter's daughter as recorded by Howrtt,

Mother's mother’s brother’s son's son's daughter’s daughter can only be lbh

290

nadada as. 2 consequence of the interpolation of a kami marriage in this genea-

logical sequence. An old Dieri man in 1934 gaye me numerous kinship

terms. A later check of these shawed that though most of them were correct,

there were several instances of kami marriage influence, and on two occasions

terms were used for persons of the wrong moiety. This is mentioned ta in-

dicate the difficulty of obtaining information from last survivors of lost

societies.

The constitution of the four varieties of family groups of the matrilineal

pattern of Diagram 7 as regards males is as follows :—

1Al 1B1 {AZ 1B2

281 2A1 22 2A2

1A2 1B2 1A1 1R1

2B2 2A2 261 2Al

1Al IBL 1A2 1B2

It will be seen that the first and third also the second and fourth include

the same terms but there is a difference of two generations in the sequence

of the terms.

There are comparatively few full descriptions of kinship terms of matri-

lineal societies, Such as are available it the pattern of Diagram 7 with some

degree of inaccuracy, dependent upon the degree to which the kami marriages

are permissible.

The great majority of Australian tribes therefore have kinship systems

which conform to the pattern of Diagram 4 in its patrilineal or matrilineal

Variation.

The tribal subdivisions of moiety, class and sub-class have every indica-

tion al representing stages in an evolutionary sequence of classifications of

individuals. according to similarity of marriageable status with increasing

accuracy. Howitt (11) contrasted the kinships systems of the Urabunna

(Arabana) and Dieri tribes. He interpreted the former as expressing a Tule

of marriages between first cousins, the latter a rule of marriages between

second cousins, He stated “The Dieri rule is evidently! a development otf

that of the Urabanna, and is therefore the later one.” Elkin (6, 7) has

found the Dieri and Arabana systems to be similar, the Arabana being inter-

mediate between the Wailpi and the Dierz. The Wailpi also has features in

common with the Dieri (personal observation). The Arabana is therefore

not an example of a simpler marriage rule. Radcliffe Brown (1, 2) adopted

the same idea as Howitt but sclected the Kariera system as the type of the

fess evolved and the Aranda as the type of the more developed system. He

described the Kariera system by charting the male-speaking and female-

speaking terms separately, thus overlooking the fact that an aboriginal man

and his sister normally use the same kinship term for each person in the

tribe, excepting special terms for “in-laws.” If the Kariera kinship terms are

charted on the normal pattern as in Diagram 8, they will be seen to conform

to that pattern in great part though with divergences. The Kariera is de-

finitely not a type or norm of a simple systein in the evolutionary sense, The

hypothesis that there is existing evidence of am evolutionary development of

kinship matriage rule from that of marriage of first-cousins to that of maz-

riage of second-cousins is not proven.

There is every indication that there js one fundamental marriage rule

throughout Australian societies, namely, that marriages take place between

family groups of opposite moieties and between individuals of those groups

who are “cross-cousins, not too close up,” this requirement bemg normally

the recognition of the kinship status of “secand-cousin” as the proper one for

291

martiage This rule is usually associated with the exchange of women be-

tween family groups when marriages occur. By virtue of the genealogical

pattern of relationships determined by such marriages certain women of a

man’s grandchildren's generation incur the kinship status of second-cousin

and are marriageable to him. The genealogical relationship of these women

to the man in question is “sister's son’s daughter” in a patrilineal society, and

“daughter’s daughter” in a matrilineal society,

The major variations from the patrilineal and matrilineal forms of the

dominant kinship pattern in Australian societies ate found in those few tribes

where the customary exchange of women in marriage is lacking, The hus-

band then squares his obligations to his wife’s family by gifts and services.

A relatively numerous population would seem to be necessary under these

circumstances.

When women are not exchanged in marriage, marriages then take on a

unilateral trend as “father’s sister’s daughter” is considered to be a kinship

“more close up” than is “mother’s brother’s daughter.” This idea has been

explained as close identification of father with father's sister. This explana-

tion is, howeyer, inadeqiate, as it is obvious that when a man marries a

‘mother’s brother’s daughter” his kinship from his wife’s point of view is

that of “father’s sister’s son.” A more adequate explanation is that the

aboriginal recognises a closer kinship between a father and a son and between

a mother and a daughter than between a father and daughter and a mother

and son. This conception is manifested clearly by the existence of sex

totems in some tribes, males having one totem in common and women another.

The simplest diagram of possible marriages in a tribe possessing the

moiety division and whete women are not exchanged in marriage is

Al a2

al AZ

a bl

The genealogical relationships of members of family groups intermarry-

ing under the above customary rule in a patrilineal society would be

Al al Bl bl A2 a2 B2 b2

Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2 al

Al a2 Bl b2 A2 al B2 bl

Al h2 Bl al A2 bl B2 a2

Al al Bl bl AZ a2 B2 b2

Diagram 9

Genealogical relatious of members of family

groups in the simplest possible system of

Marriages with “mother’s brother’s daughter”

not “father’s sister's daughter” in a tribe with

moiety divisions.

in all generations.

It will be seen that all the males in the above diagram marry a woman

who is “mother’s brother's daughter” and not “father’s sister's daughter.”

Apart from the absence of prefix numbers, the appearance of the pattern of

the diagram 1s extraordinarily close to that of Diagram 4, being identical save

for the transposition of al and a2 terms in generations two and four, These

292

apparently small differences, however, change the genealogical sequences

profoundly. I have been unable to find any description of an Australian kin-

ship system which fits the pattern of Diagram 9 simply and accurately. The

Karadjeri kinships have been cited as typical of systems based on marriages

with mother's brother's daughter, not father's sister's daughter. The Karad-

jeri recorded kinship terms (5, 12) are p‘otted in Diagram 10 on the pat-

tern of Diagram 9 and they will be seen to conform only sketchily with

the pattern.)

Lloyd Warner has described yery fully the kinship system of the Murn-

gin tribe (17) which has the kinship marriage rule under discussion. War-

ner’s identifications of kinship terms are formidable, ranging over us many as

eight genealogical sequences, Diagrams therefore have to be extended to

cover eight generations to plot the terms. If this be done with the pattern

vf Diagram 9, it will be found that the kinship terms fit the pattern ac-

curately, but that almost every symbol in the pattern becomes loaded with

two dissimilar kinship terms. In two generations the two terms are the same

fur Bl bl and B2 b2 placements, It therefore appears that the pattern of

Diagram 9 must be doubled and retain its inherent form to cope with the

Murngin kinships.

A seties of marriages between members of cight family groups in ac-

cordance with the following diagram will provide the pattern required :—

b2 AZ bs

B2 PF B3

a” as

al _“

AK Ad b4

Bt a4 B4

The genealogical pattern of such a system is given in Diagram 11. Also

the Murngin kinships described by Jloyd Warner are charted upon the pat-

tern and will be seen to conform accurately. The normal patterns of aborigi-

nal kinships complete their cycle in four generations. The Murngin pattern

takes eight generations to complete its cycle. Tribes of this group have eight

named classes, one for each moiety in each generation, but with differentiated

class names for four generations. The generation lines of Diagram (11) are

therefore numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4, The pattern of the class names recorded

by Webb (18) is appended to Diagram 11.{%

h2 b2

and similar systems comprising a larger number of family groups would result in a genea-

logical pattern representing marriages of men with their ‘Sather’s sister's, daughters,” not

“mother’s brother's daughters.” No such systems exist in Australian aboriginal societies.

(2) There are no Murngin terms to fill A3 a3 placements in Diagram 11. Simi-

larly Yir-Yiront kinship terms published by Sharp (1934, Oceania, 4, (4), 413) fit a

pattern of the Murngin type, based on marriages between six instead of eight hordes,

and there are no terms for B3 b3 placements.

Hordes at the opposite pole to that of EGO in the cycle of martiages ate un-

reptesented in the terminology of both tribes.

293

The kinship rule of Murngin marriages is apparently simple hut de-

finitely is not associated with a simple type of kinship terminology.

Many years ago | attempted to find a genealogical pattern which would

conform with some kinship terms of the Ungatinyin tribe published by Ellcin

(5). In 1939 the late J. R. B. Love sent me a detailed description of the kin-

ships of the Worura tribe, neighbours of the Ungarinyin and with the same

type of kinship. The Worora kinships did not fit the pattern which had been

found to satisfy the relatively few Ungarinyin terms available, so this pat-

tern was incorrect. Attempts to build up the Worora lerms into a genealogi-

cal pattern were not successful. Finally it was discovered that if Worora

terms were charted on the pattern of Diagram 9, the terms fitted the pattern

but many symbols of the pattern were associated with two kinship

terms. ‘These two terms were representative of kinships which a father and.

son would apply respectively to one individual. ‘The kinship terms did not

conform to the pattern which satisfies the Murngin kinships. The Worora

and the Ungarinyin share a very anomalous marriage custom whereby a man

is permitted to marry both sister and daughter of another ran, Such a cus-

tom makes its desirable that the family group from which » son tales a wile

should be differentiated from the family group from which his father had

taken a wife. This consideration suggests that not only should the number

of distinguished family groups of Diagram 9 be doubled but also that alter-

nate generations should marry alternate family groups as occurs in the mar-

riage customs of the great majority of Australian tribes and as is illustrated

in the marriage diagram pon which Diagrams 4, 6 and 7 are based. A sys+

tem of marriages between eight family groups complying with such condi-

tions is supplied by the following diagram —

2 A2 pee b3 ba A2___bl

B2___ a2 83 B4____a2 Di

1 Al a 2 aes as

al 3 al A}

ad bie nd ed Ny b3___A4 ba

By a4 4 Bj a4 B2

The genealogical relationships of this system of marriages are given in

Diagram 12. The recorded kinship terms of the Worora are also plotted on

this diagram and will be seen to fit accurately. The diagram also conforms

te the requirement mentioned elsewhere by Love (13) namely, “The actual

relationship for legal marriage is that of second-cousin.” The vacant spaces

in Diagram 12, excepting those for the terms 1A3 1a3, can be filled in by

direet inference from the general pattern. The final: proof of the aceuracy

of the pattern presented will lie in a confirmation of kinships and marriages

so predicted,

The value of the methods adopted im this paper for charting marriages

and kinships is illustrated particularly weil in the instances of the last two

unusual kinship systems, The complexity of the kinships in an amorphous

form is appalling, Reduced to a coherent pattern based on a set of systema-

tised marriages between local family groups it is possible to visualise the

structure of the society as it were asia miniature model. It can also be under-

siood how problems concerning these kinships come within the scope of the

intelligence of ordinary human beings such as the aborigines, who have a

practical matter-of-fact knowledge of the kinships of all the family groups

within the range of (heir acquaintance, With the same ker the study of the

294

minor complexities of the normal aboriginal kinship systems can hecome

simple. Moreover the use of the basic patterns is useful in field work as it

is extraordinarily easy to miss some important items of information concern-

ing

kinships, and such omissions are minimised if one insures that all the

placements of a standard genealogical pattern have been filled. Further, as

the

normal pattern is being filled anomalies become apparent immediately

and can be checked and followed up with greater detail,

REFERENCES

Brown, Raperrre A. R. 1913 Three Tribes of Western Attstralia.

Journ. Roy. Anth, Inst., 43, 143

Brown, Rapnciirre A. R. 1930 The Social Organisation of Australian

Tribes, Oceania, 1, (1), 46

Brown, Ravctirre A, R. J/bid, 1, (2), 221

Enkin, A. P. 1931 The Dieri Kinship System, Journ. Roy. Anth, Inst.

61, 495

Erin, A. P. 1932 Social Organisation in the Kimberley Division,

Oceania, 2, (3), 300

Even, A. P. 1931 The Social Organisation of South Australian Tribes.

Oceania, 2, (1), 56

Erxin, A, P. 1938 Kinship in South Australia. Oceania, 8, (4), 438

Evxin, A. P, 1938 Kinship in South Australia. Oceania, 9, (1), 47

Evxin, A, P, 1939 Jbid, 10, (2), 212

Fry, H. K. 1931 A Table showing the Class Relations of the Aranda.

Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 55, 12

Fry, H, K. 1932 Genealogical Studies of Australian Tribal Systems,

Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 56, 27

Fry, H. K, 1934 Kinship and Descent among the Australian Aborigines,

Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 58, 14

Howrrr, A. W. 1904 The Native Tribes of South-East Australia,

London, 189

Howitt, A. W. Ibid, 229

Pippincton, R. 1932 Karadjeri Initiation, Oceania, 3, (1), 63

Love, J. R. B. 1936 Stone Age Bushmen of Today. London, 93

StTREHLOW, C. 1908, 1915 Die Aranda- und Loritja-Stamme in Zentral-

Australien. Frankfurt am Main, Theil 11, 57, Theil TY, ii, 16

Streutow, C. Ibid, Theil 1V, i, 66 -

TinpaLe, N. B. 1935 Initiation among the Pitjandjara Natives of the

Mann and Tomkinson Ranges in S. Aust. Oceania, 6, (2), 200

Warwer, W. Lioyp 1930 Morphology and Function of the Australian

Murngin Type of Kinship. Am. Anthropologist, N.S., 32, 207

West, T. T. ge Tribal Organisation in Eastern Arnhem Land. Oceania,

3, (4), 406

ARANDA KINSHIPS ILLUSTRATING

THE DOMINANT AUSTRALIAN KINSHIP PATTERN — PATRILINEAL

1 Al al

ARANGA aranga

EF, f.f.sr.

2 Al bl

KATA intoa

B w.£f.sr.

1 Al az

KALJA ebmannna

ITTA f.sr.s.w.

EGO

man speaking

2 Al b2

ALIRRA namata

S. S.W.

[B.S.] [b.s.w.]

Al al

1 ARANGA aranga

5.5, s.d,

[B.S.S.] [b.s.d.]

DIAGRAM OF

MARRIAGES GENERATION

BETWEEN 1

FOUR HORDES

PALLA

¥F.M.B.

W.E.F.

ANTARA

W.F.

AMBA

[HLF.1

MBANA

W.B.

NOA

[H.]

AMBA

SR.S.

[S.1

PALLA

SR.S.S.

(S.S.J

L a

palla

fim.

wonna

f.sr,

ankalla

f,sr.d.

tn.b.d.

marra

SY.s.W.

nerra

[s.w.]

palla

sr.s.d.

[s.d.]

A2 a2

EBMANNA ebmanna

M.M.B, nim.

A2 b2

MARRA maia

W.M.B. sie

A2 al

ILIARRA kwaia

F.SR.D.H. tig

M.B.D.H. st.

{ego] |

[woman speaking]

A2 bl

MARRA amba

SR.D.H. std.

[D.H.J Id]

A2 a2

EBMANNA ebmanna

SR.D,S, sr.d.d.

[D.S.] [d.d.]

GENERATION

DIAGRAM 6

B2 b2

TJIMIA tjimia

MF. m.f.sr.

w.m.m.

B2 az

KAMUNA marra

M.B. w.m.

nerra,

[h.m.]

B2 bl

ANKALLA noa

F.SR.S. Wi.

M.B.S. intanga

[h.s.]

B2 al

KAMUNA alirra

D.H. d.

[B.D.H.] [b.d]

B2 b2

TJIMIA tjimia,

DS. d.d.

[B.D.S.] [b.d.d.J

QXYx

DIERI KINSHIPS

ILLUSTRATING THE DOMINANT AUSTRALIAN KINSHIP PATTERN — MATRILINEAL

1 al Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2

kanini KANINI nadada NADADA yenku YENKU kami KAMI

mm. M.M.B. m.f,sr. M.F. f,f.sr. FF. f.m. E.M.B.

2 al Bl bl Al a2 b2 A2

ngandri NGATAMURA ngatamura KAKA tidnara NGAPARI papa TIDNARA

m, M.M.B.S. m.m.b,d. M.B. f.m.b.d. F, f.sr. F.M.B.S,

PAIERA paiera taru TARU

W.M.B. w.m. w.i.sr. W.F.

1 al A2 bl B2 a2 Al b2 Bl

kaku YENKU noa KAMI yenku NIYI kami KADI

ngatata M.M.B.S.S. w. M.B.S, m.m.b.s.d, NGATATA mbd, W.B.

sr. kamari B.SR.S. B. f,sr.d. NOA

[ego] {h.s.] EGO (H]

[woman speaking] man speaking

2 al B2 bl A2 a2 Bl b2 Al

tidnara PAIERA ngatamura TARU taru NGATAMURA kalari TIDNARA

sr.d. SR.D.H. d. DH. S.w. s. ST.S.W. SR.S.

ngatani (D.H.] [b.d.J [B.S.] [s.w.] NGATANI

[d.] [S.J

1 al Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2

kanini KANINI nadada NADADA yenku YENKU kami KAMI

sr.d.d. SR.D.S. did. DS. s.d, S.S. sr.s.d. SR.S.S,

[d.d.] [D.s.J

Divergences from true pattern are 2Bl1,b1 and 2B2,b2 PAIERA, and 2 A2,a2 and 2a1,A1 TIDNARA.

DIAGRAM GENERATION bi GENERATION bl

OF 1. MBL 2. ALL wos A2

MARRIAGES ee "22

ger A2

$e al b2

Goo ian Pare!

DIAGRAM 7

KARIERA KINSHIPS

CHARTED UPON THE DOMINANT AUSTRALIAN KINSHIP PATTERN — PATRILINEAL

1 Al al Bl bl A2 a2 B2 b2

MAELI kandari TAMI kabali MAELI kandari TAMI kabali

BF. f.£.sr. F.M.B. f.m. M.M.B. m.m, M.F, ' om.fsr.

w.i.m, W.ELE. W. M. &F. w.m.m,

[h.f.m.] [H.F.F.J [H.M.F.J {h.m.m.]

2 Al bl Bl al A2 b2 B2 a2

MAMA nganga KAGA toa or MAMA nganga KAGA toa or

a wef, sr. W.F. yumani W.M.B. nu, M.B, yumani

{h.f.sr.] (H.F,J fisr. [H.M.B.] F.SR,H. w.mn.

m.b.w, yuro

yuro [h.m.]

[f.sr.]

[m.b.w.]

1 Al F. “a2 Bl b2 A2 al B2 bl

KAJA KUMBALI nuba turdu KUMBALI nuba

MARGARA S.H. fisr.d. mari M.B.S. Ww.

B. W.B. m,b.d. sr. F,SR.S. b.w./w.s,

EGO NUBA bungali [ego] NUBA yarungu

male speaking [H.1] {f.sr.d.] [female speaking] [M.B.S.1 Dew.

(S,H.] [m.bd.] [E.SR.S.J bungali

(H.B,] [b.w.]

{h.s.]

2 Al b2 Bl a2 A2 bl B2 al

MAINGA ngaraia KULING ngaraia TOA OR ngaraia KULING kundal

S or bali or YARAIJA [s.w.] YUMANI or bali or YARAIJA é.—

TOA or S.W. SR.S [D.H.] sr.d. D.H, ngaraia

YUMANI MAINGA kundal b.d.

[B.S.] [S.1 [d]

TH.SR.S.]

1 Al al Bl bl ; A a2 Be Be

aeli KABALI kabali <ANDARI kandari 1 anu

Meet a [S,S.] {s.d.] [D.S.] [d.d.] DS. dd.

kandari tami maeli kabali

[s.s.w.] 5.5.W. d.svw. [d.s.w.]

Divergences from the normal pattern are: (1) in the grandparent generation. the terms MAELI and TAM I are used for males only, kandari

and kabali for females only, The terms are used normally in the grandchild generation; (2) similarly, in EGO’s generation the term

KUMBALI is used only for males, bungali only for females; (3) most anomalous of all, in the children’s generation the terms MAINGA,

ngaraia, and kundal are applied to individuals of both moieties; (4) many terms are applied to both Al and A2, or to both BL. and B2,

kinships, thereby simulating a simpler kinship pattern, but the pattern is of normal type in the grandchild generation, and kumbali, bungali

are suggestive of former normality in EGO’s generation; (5) a man and his sister in the Kariera use the same term MAINGA for the son, and

kundal for daughter; (6) the conflicting marriages in grandparent and grandchild generations are quite anomalous,

DIAGRAM 8

KARADJERI KINSHIPS

Charted on Pattern of Unilateral Marriages — with mother’s brother’s daughter, not father’s sister’s daughter.

Al al

a2 B2 b2

KALUDJ yagu KAMI1 kami DJAMBAD djambad

FE. wwmm M.M.B, mm MF, m.£sr.

W.M.F. wim F,M.B, im, also

VEE, kabali

f.m.

Al bl Bl a2 A2 b2 B2 al

TABALU djalbi KAGA tabalu DALU or kurdang KAGA tabalu

F w.m.b.w. F.SR.H. m.b.w MUGALI m. M.B. f.sr.

dalu W.M.B. W.F.

w.m. ;

Al a2 Bl b2 A2 al B2 bl

MAMA kabadju DJAMBAD djambad kabadj DJAMBAD i

BABALA w.b.w. F.SR.S. m.b.d. 5 in My TBS. eoeeee

RB. YAGU kabali YAGU st.hsr.

EGO SR.H w. W.B. _

Al b2 Bl al A2 bl B2 a2

NGENI djalbi DJELANGA tabalu DALU djalbi

s yee SR.S. a SR.D.H.

DH. SIs. W. sr.d.

Al al Bi bl A2 a2 B2 b2

Divergences from the pattern are bl, b2 djalbi; al, az tabalu; Bl, B2 KAGA; al, a2 kabadju; and most crucial

Bl, bl, B2, b2 DJAMBAD, so not differentiating mother’s brother’s son and daughter from father’s sister’s

son and daughter.

DIAGRAM OF MARRIAGES

BETWEEN FOUR HORDES FOR THE ABOVE GENEALOGICAL

PATTERN TO DEVELOP.

b2 -

Ala B2 a2

al 2

~*~ io

in all generations.

DIAGRAM [0

1 Al a3

2 Al b3

3 Al a2

4 Al b2

1 Al al

MARIKMO marikmo

EF. f.f.st.

2 Al bl

BAPA waku

F £f.sr.d.

3 Al a4

WAWA kutara

YURIYUKO f.i.sr.d.d.

EGO

4 Al b4

GATU waku

s f.fiisr.ddd,

1 Al a3

MARAITCHA

MARRIAGE

DIAGRAM

Bl b3 A2 a4 B2

Bl a2 A2 b4 B2

m.m.mm.m,

Bl b2 A2 ag B2

m.n.nm.m,

Bl al A2 b3 B2

Li.i.sr m.mim.

Bl bl A2 a2 B2

DUE due MARI mari NATI

V.E.E.SR.S. ELA, sr. M.M.B. mit. MF.

Bl a4 A2 b2 B2

WAKU gurrong MARELKER arnii GAWEL

F.F.SR.S, {.f.£.sr.d.d. M.M.B.S, m, M.B,

Bl b4 A2 al B2

DUE dumungur MARI yeppa GALLE

F.SR.S. ££4f.sr.d.d.d. M.M.B.S.S. sn M.B.S.

SR.

Bl a3 A2 b! B2

WAKU MARELKER waku GAWEL

SR.S, M.M.B.S.5.S. sret. M.B.S.S.

Bl b3 A2 a4 B2

KAMINYER momelker MARI kutara GALLE

D.S. in.t.m.b.s.s.s.s.d. M-M.B,S.8.8.S. sr.d.i. M.B.S.5.5.

2 a

ene Al Poa? 12 B3____a3

GENERATIONS al A3

\ bi M4 bi

Bl 4d Ba

MURNGIN. KINSHIPS

b4 A3

a3 A3

b3 A3

M,M.M.M.B.

a2 AS

b2 A3

momo

fm,

al A3

mokul bapa

fisr,

bl A3

due

f,sr.d.

a4 A3

gurrong

fsr.dd.

b4 A3

dumungur

fisr.d.d.d.

all B3 bl A4

bl B3 a4 A4

a4 B3 b4 A4

b4 B3 a3 A4

M.M.M.B.

a3 B3 b3 A4

NATCHIWALKER = momelker KUTARA

M.M.M.B.S. minta.b,d. F.F.E.F,SR.D.S.

b3 B3 a2 A4

arndi GAWEL mokul rumeru GURRONG

m1.1n.m.b.s.d. M.M.M.B.S.S. m.m,b.d. F.F.F.SR.D.S.

a2 B3 b2 A4

mari NATCHIWALKER galle KUTARA

puntos & M.M.M.B.S.S.S. mb.d. F.F.SR.D.S.

‘ w.

b2 B3 al A4

arndi GAWEL gatu GURRONG

med. M.M.M.B.S.S.8.8. d. F.SR.D.S.

al B3 bl A4

maraitcha NATCHIWALKER — kaminyer KUTARA

sd, M.M.M.B.S,S.5.8.S. SR.D.S.

CLASS (SUBSECTION) RELATIONSHIPS

Al, 2, 3, 4 al, 2, 3, 4 Bi, 2, 3, 4

NGARIT ngaritjan BALANG

Al, 2, 3, 4 bl, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4

BANGARDI kumandjan KARMARUNG

3 Al, 2, 3, 4 al, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4

BULAIN bulaindjan BURALANG

4 Al,2,3,4 bl, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4

KAIJARK warinutjan WARMUT

Al, 2, 3, 4 al, 2, 3, 4 Bl, 2, 3, 4

NGARIT ngaritjan BALANG

LAfAsr.

kutara

Lf. f£.fisr.d.d.

waku

£f.ff.sr.d.d.d.

arndi

mi.m.m.b.s.s.s.d.

mari

im.m.b.s.s.s.d,

bl, 2, 3, 4

bilindjan

al, 2, 3, 4

bangaritjan

bl, 2, 3, 4

kalian

al, 2, 3, 4

kaitjan

bl, 2, 3, 4

bilindjan

M.M.M.M.M.B.

DUMUNGUR

F.F.E.F.F.SR.D.D.S,

WAKU

F.F.B.F,SR.D.D,S.

DUMUNGUR

F.F,F.SR.D,D.S,

WAKU

F.F.SR.D.D.S.

DUMUNGUR

F.SR.D.D.S.

f.£ff£.sr.

dumtngur

LLL srddd.

momelker

m,m.m.b,s.s.d.

mokul rumeru

m.m.b.s.s,d.

galle

m.b.s.s.d.

ABIA

F.F.

IRAIA

1 Al

NAUAIA

EGO

man-speaking

2 Al

IRAIA

1 Al

NAWOMALE

S.S.

abiinja

f.f.sr.

ibanja

f.f.sr.d.

KULAIA

F.F.SR.H.

IBAIA

F.F.SR.S.

KULAIA

SR.H.

(H.]

IBAIA

SR.S.

[S.]

KULAIA

SR.S.S.

kulanja

f.£.sr.h.sr.

budinja

m.m.b.d.

kurumanja

w.m.

[b.w.m.]

manganija

pamaranja

ibanja

did.

Corrigenda—Vide Table in J. R. B. Love’s paper, this volume, facing page 280.

KURUM

F.M.B.W.B.

KADJAIA

M.B.W.B.

WOLBAIA

SR.D.H.

(D.H.]

BUDA

SR.D.S.

(D.S.]

DIAGRAM

OF MARRIAGES

BETWEEN

EIGHT TOTEMIC

HORDES

az B2

kurumanja WAIA

f.m.b.w. F.M.B.

W.F.F.

b2 B2

WAI

W.F.

a3 B2

WAIA

W.B.

b3 B2

WAIA

W.B.S

a4 B2

WAIA

W.B.S.S

b2 A2

JS ® a2

1. Al

Se bl___A4

Bl 24 eee B 4

WORORA KINSHIPS

manganja

f.m.

pamaranja

f.sr.

ibanja

f.sr.d.

wolbaiinja

sr.d.h.sr.

kadjanja

m.b.s.s.w.

tjamanja

m.b.s.s.d.

—)3

NALINDJAIA

{h.m.b.]

NALINDJAIA

SR.S.W.B.

[S.W.B.]

b4 A2

B3 VA a2

lags 2. Al

her

DIAGRAM

MS b3 sd

B3 ad Be

kadjanja

m.b.s.w.

karanja

S.w.

nawomalinja

s.d.

KULAIA

F.SR.H.

IBATA

F.SR.S.

KULAIA

D.H.

IBAIA

D.S.

kadjanja

m.b.w.

tjamanja

m.b.d.

nalindjanja

sr.s.w.

[s.w.]

kulanja

sr.s.d.

A4 a4

WOLBAIA kadjanja

or m.m,

KADJAIA

M.M.B.

A4 b4

BUDA karanja

M.M.B.S. be

KURUM

W.M.B.

A4 al

nauanja

sr.

[ego]

{woman speaking]

A4 bl

BUDA ibanja

SR.H.SR.S. sr.d.

[H.SR.S.] [d.]

A4 a2

budinja

sr.d.d.

[d.d.]

TJAMAIA

M.F.

KAKAIA

M.B.

TJAMAIA

M.B.S.

KAKAIA

M.B.S.S.

TJAMAIA

M.B.S.S.S.

tjamanja

m.f.sr.

nalinjanja

[h.m.]

kulanja

sr.h.sr.

budinja

sr.h.sr.d.

manganja

S.S.W.

295

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED)

Receipts and Payments for the Year ended 30 September 1949

RECEIPTS

PAYMENTS

£sad £8 4 Zésd £ sd

To Balance, Ist October, 146 2111 8 | By Transactions—Vol. 72, Pt. 1,

iy Subscriptions i 158 11 0 and portion of Pt. 2 472 12 0

» Life Membership 30 0 0 » Reprints 3715 0

» Exchanges 0 6 2) ,, Librarian 37 4 0

», Government Grant for 4 Sundries—

Printing, etc. 400 0 0 Lighting “ és 310 7

» Sale of Publications and Printing, Postages ‘&

Reprints: Stationery 5416 5

University of Adelaide 45 6 0 Petty Expenses 3.19 6

Sundries 611611 107 2 11 Insurances .... fu 612 6

——— Cleaning Rooms .,, 1217 6 8116 6

» Use of Room an 915 0

» Interest — Transferred » Life Membership Sub-

from Endowment ‘ scription transferred

Fund .... 213 18 3 to Endowment Fund 30 0 0

» Balances, 30th Sep. 1949—

Savings Bank of S.A.:

General Account 248 18 11

Endowment Fund .... 5 0 3

Bank of Aust £28 18 4

Less Out-

standing

Cheque 10 0 2718 4 28117 6

#941 5 0 £941 5 0

ENDOWMENT FUND as at 30 Septernber 1949

£sa £ 8 4. £s.d. £ 5. 4.

1948—1 October 1949—30 September

To Balance— By Revenue Account 213 18 3

Aust. Inscribed Stock 6,008 10 0

» Balance—

Savings Bank of S.A. 3218 76,041 8 7 Aust. Inscribed pieek oy 0 0

_— Savings Bank of § 6218 76,072 18 7

» imterest— —_—_———-

Inscribed Stock 207 17 1

Savings Bank of 5,.A, 6 1 2 21318 3

» Life Membership Sub-

scription... 30 0 0

» Profit on Stock converted 110 0

£6,286 16 10 £6,286 16 10

Audited and found correct.

from the respective institutions.

Hon, Auditors—

F. M. ANGEL

N.S. ANGEL, A.U.A. (Com.)

Adelaide, October 1948

HERBERT

The Stock and Bank Balances have been verified by certificates

M, HALE,

Hon. Treasurer

296

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

1929. Pror. Wattrr Howcarn, F.G.S.

1930 Jounx McC, Brack, A.LS.

1931 Pror, Str Doucras Mawson, O.B.E., D.Sc., B.E., F.R,S,

1933 Pror, J, Burton Crerann, M.D.

1935 Pror. T. Harvey Jounston, M.A., D.Sc,

1938 Pror. J. A. Prescott, D.Sc., F.A.TC.

1943 Herrerr Womerstey, A.L.S., F.R.ELS.

1944 Pror, J. G. Woon, D.Se., Ph.D.

1945 Cecrm T. Manican, M.A., B.E., D.Sc. F.G.S.

1946 Hernerr M, HALE

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.

AS AT 30 MARCH 1950

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed papets published in the Society's

Transactions, Those marked with a dagger (+) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should be notified to the Secretary.

Note—The publications of the Society are not sent to those members whose subscriptions

are in arrear.

pate Honorary Frirows

1945. “Brack, J. M., A-L.S., (7Ton. causa), 82 Brougham Place, North Adelaide—Merco

ers 1930; Fellow, 1907-45; Council, 1927-31; President, 1933-34; Vice-President,

931-33.

1945. *Fenwner, C, A. E., D.Sc, 42 Alexandra Avenue, Rose Park, Adelaide—Fellow, 1917-45;

Council, 1925-28; President, 1930-31; Vice-President, 1928-30; Secretary, 1924-25;

Treastrer, 1932-33; Editor, 1934-37,

1949, *CLetanp, Pror, J, B, M.D., Dashwood Road, Beaumont, S,A—Fellow, 1895-1949;

Ferco Medal, 1933; Council, 1921-26, 1932-37; President, 1927-28; 1940-41; Vice-

Preésulent, 1926-27, 1941-42,

FELLows.

1946. Axpnte, Pror. A. A., M.D., D.Sc., Ph.D., University of Adelaide.

1935, Anam, D. B., B,Apgr.Se.. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Council,

1939-42; Pice-President, 1942; Librarian, 1942-.

1927, *AtorrmaAn, A. R., Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S. , Div. Indus. Chemistry, C.S.1.R.0., Box 4331,

G.P.O., Melbourne, Victoria—Council, 1937-42,

1931, Axprew, Rev. J. R., c/o Methodist Manse, Maitland.

1935. *ANpREwARTHA, H. G, M.Agr.Sc, D.Sc, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag),

Adelaide—Council, 1950,

1935. *Annrewartna, Mrs. H. V., B.AgiSc, M.S, (nee H. V. Steele), 29 Claremont

Avenue, Netherby, S,A.

1929, *Ancen, F. M,, 34 Fullarton Road, Parkside, S.A.

1939. *Awncet, Mrss L. M., M-Sc., c/o University of Adelaide,

1945. *Bartiert, H. K., L.Th., 15 Claremont Avenue, Netherby, S.A.

1950. Beastey, A. K., Harris Street, Marden, S.A.

1950, Becr, R. G., B.AgSe., R.D.A., Linewood Park, Mittel, S.A.

1932, Broc, P. R., D.D.Se., L.D.S,, Shell House, 170 North Terrace, Adelaide:

1928, Best, R. J., D.Se., FACIL, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1934. Brack, E. C., M.B,. B.S.. Magill Road, Tranmere, Adelaide.

1950. Bonwin, N. 7. MR. BS. FRCS. (Eng.), F.R.A.CS., 144 Hill Street, North

Adelaide, S.A.

1945. *Bonyrnon, C. W., B.Sc, A,A.C.L, Romalo House, Romalo Avenue, Magill, S.A,

1940. Bonvyruon, Sir J. Lavineton, B.A. (Camb.), 263 East Terrace, Adelaide.

1945. *Roomsma, C. D,, M.Sc., B,Sc.For., 2 Celtic Avenue, South Road Park, S.A.

1947, Bowes, D. R. Ph.D., B.Sc. 51 Eton Street, Malvern.

297

Date of

Election.

1939. Brooxman, Mrs. R, D. (nee A. Harvey), WA. Meadows, S.A,

$945, Broucuton, A. C., Farina, S.A. Ff

1944. *Buusince, Miss N, T., M:Se, CS.LR.O., Div. Plant Industry, P.O, Box 108, Cab-

berra, A.C,T, ’ .

1923. Burvow, R, S,, D.Sc. University of Adelaide—Council, 1946. ;

1922, *Camrseu, T. D, D.DSc, D.Sc, Dental Dept, Adelaide Hospital, Adclaide—

Council, 1928-32, 1935, 1942-45; Vice-President, 1932-34; Presudent, 1934-35.

1944, Casson, P. B., BiSe, For. (Adel.), 8 Benjafield Terrace, New Town, Hobart.

1929, Cimsriz, W., MB. B.S., Education Department, Social Services, 51 Pirie Street

Adelaide—Treasuver, 1934-38.

1950. Coausrap, S- E., B.Sc. 6 Hampton Street, Hawthorn, S.A,

1949. Cortiver, F, S., Geology Department, University of Qucenslanc.

1930. *Congunoun, T. T., M.Sc., 10 French Street, Netherby, SA—dverelary, 1942-43,

1907. *CGooxe, W. T., D.Sc., A.A-CL, 4 South Terrace, Kensington Gardens, 5,A.—Council,

1938-41; Wice-President, 1941-42, 1943-44; President, 1942-45,

1942. *Coorer, II. M., 51 Hastings Strect, Glenelg, S.A.

1944. Counisu, Metyuie, State Bank, Pirie Street; Adctaide.

1929. *Corrox, B. C., S.A. Museum, Adelaide—Council, 1943-46, 1948-49; Vice-President,

1949-50; President, 1950-,

1924, ne Crespieny, Sia C T.C.,, D.S.0., M.D., F.R.CP., 219 North Terrace, Adelaide,

1950. Decanp, C. M., MB, B.S, D.P.H, DJ.M, 29 Gilbert Street, Goodwood, S.A,

1941. Dickiwsox, S. B. M.Sc, 52 Burnside Road, Kensington.

1930, Dux, E. V.. Hospitals Department, Rundle Street, Adelaide, S.A.

1944. Duwsrone. S. M. L, M.B., B.S., 124 Payncham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide,

1931, Dwyer, J. M.. M.B,, B.S., 105 Port Road, Hindmarsh, 5.4.

1945, *Enmonos, S. J. B.A M.Sc, 56 Fisher Terrace, Mile End, '5,A,

1902, *Rnouist, A. G., 19 Farrell Street, Glenelg, 5.A—Conneil, 1949-,

1944. Ferres, Mrss H. M., M.Se., 8 Taylot's Road, Mitcham, 5.A.

1927, *Jiwtayson, H, 1., 305 Ward Street, North Adelaide—Cownecil, 1937-40,

1923, *Frv, H, K,, D.S.0. M.D, B.S., BSc, F.RA-CP., Town Hall, Adelaide—Conncil,

1933-37; Iico-President, 1937-38, 1939-40; President, 1938-39,

1932. 4Ginson, E. S, H., M.Sc., 297 Cross Roads, Clarence Gardens, Adelaide.

1927. Goorrny, F. K, Box 951H, G.P.O., Adelaide.

1935, +Gotpsack, H., Coromandel Walley. S.A.

1925, Goss, Sir JAmes H., Gilbert House, Gilbert Place, Adelaide

1910. *Grant, Prov. Sik Keex, M.Se. FDP. 56 Fourth Avene, St. boters, S.A

1930, Gray, J. T. Orroroo, S.A,

1933.. Guraves, H., 12 Edward Street, Glynde, §.A.

19044. Gxirrita, H. B., Dunrobin Read, Brighton, 5,A.

1948, Gnoss, G F, BSc, South Anstralian Museum, Adclaide—Srrretary. 1930-,

1944. Gurry, D. J, B.Sc.. Mineral Resources Survey, Canberra, A.C '

1022, *Flany, fl, M., Director S.A, Museum, Adelaide —lerco Medal, 146; Council, 1931-34,

1950-5 Fice-President, 1934-36, 1937-38; President, 1936-37; Treaswrer, 1938-1950,

1949, Harr, D, R,, Mern Mera, via Quorn, S.A,

1946. *Harpy, Mes. J. 7. (nee A. C. Beckwith), M.Se., Box 62, Smithton, Tas,

1944. Hanes, J. R., B.Se:, 94 Archev Street, North Adelaide, S.A.

1947. HeEnxpersoy, D, L. Ww. 'P.M.B,, 20 Bourke, N.S.W.

1944. Herrior, R. I, BAgr.Sc,, Soil Conservator, Dept. of Agricaiture, S.A,

1949. Hortoway, B, W., B.Sc, 33 Kyre Avene, Kingswood, S.A.

1924. *Hossrenn, P. 5, M.Se, 132 Fisher Street, Pullartou, 5.A.

1950. llowaxp, P. F., B.Sc, c/o Great Western Consolidated, Bullfinch, WA.

1944. Houmare, D, 5. W., 238 Payneham Road, Payneham, 5.A,

1947. Hurron, J. T., B.Sc, [8 Emily Avenne, Clapham.

1928. irounp, P., Kurralta, Burnside, S.A.

1942, Jenxrns, C. F, H,, Department of Agriculture, St, George’s Terrace, Perth, W-A,

1918. *Jennison, Rev. J. C, 7 Frew Street, Fullarton, 5.A.

1945. *Jessup, R, W., M.Sc, 3_Alma Road, Fullarton, S.A.

1910. *Jounson, E. A, M.D., MRCS. 1 Baker Street, Glenelg.

1950. Jouns, R. K., B.Sc, Departinent of Mines, Flinders Street, Adelaide, 5.4.

1921. *Jouxston, Prop. T. H., M.A. D.Sc. University of Adelaide—-Ierco Medal, 1935;

Council, 1926-28, 1940-; Vice-President, 1928-31; President, 1931-32; Secretary,

1938-40, Rep. Fauna and Flora Board, 1932-39; Editor, 1943-45,

1039. #Keaxnar, iT, M, Ph.W, MB, F.R.G.S, Khakhar Buildings, C.P. Tank Road, Bom~

bay, India.

Date of

Election.

1949, *Kine, D., M.Sc. 44 Angwin Avenue, Blair Athol, S.A.

1033, *Kieeman, A. W,, M.Sc., University of Adelaide—Secretary, 194548; Mi¢e-Presi-

dent, 1948-1949, 1950-; President, 1949-50,

1922, Lennon, G. A. M.D., BS., F.R.C.Py A.M-P. Building, King Willian Street, Adelaide,

Mb, Eorutan, T, R_N., N.D.H, (N.Z.), Director, Botanic Gardens, Adeiaide.

1949, Lower, H. F., 7 Avenue Road, Highgate, S.A.

1931. *Lupproox, Mrs, W. V. (nee N. H. Woods), M.A, Elimatta Street, Reid, A.C.T.

1948. McCuniocu, R. N,, M,B.E., B.Sc. (Oxon,), BAge Sei. (Syd. ), Koseworthy Agricul-

tural College, S.A.

1938, Manners, C. B., B.D-S., D.DSe., Shell House, North Terrace, Adelaide.

1932, Mann, E, A,, C/o Bank of Adelaide, Adelaide. ;

1939. Mansuars., T. J, M.Agr.Sc., Ph.D, Waite Institute (Private Mell Baz), Adelaide—

Council, 1948-,

1905. “Mawson, Prov. Six Doveras, O.B.E., D.Sc. BE. P-RS, University of Adelaide

Ferco Medal, 1931; President, 1924-25, 1944-45; Vice-President, 1923-24, 1925-26;

Couned, 1941-43,

1930. May, T. JT, BiSe, 691 Esplanade, Grange, S.A,

1920. Maya, ‘fre Hox, Mr, Justice, LL.B, KC, Supreme Court, Adelaide.

15D, Mayo, G. M. E., B-Ag.Sc., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide, S.A.

183. McCarruy, Mrss D, F., B.A., B.Se., 70 Halton Terrace, Kensington Park,

(945. {*Mites, K. R., D.Se, F.G/S., Mines Department, Fliuders Street, Adelaide.

1939, MincHam, V. H., Hammond, S.A.

1925. +MircHert, Pror, Str W., K.C.M.G,, M.A., DSc. Fitzroy Ter., Prospect, SA,

i93d. Murcuenr, Pror, M_L., M.Sc, University, Adelaide,

1938. Mooxuouss, F. W., M.Sc, Cliief Inspector of Fisheries, Flinders Street, Adelaide,

1936, *Mountroxp, C. P., 25 First Avene, St, Peters, Adelaide,

1944, Murrerr, J, W., Engineer ng and Water Supply Dept., Port Road, Thebarton, 5.4,

1944, Neat-Smivy, C. A,, B.Agr.Sci., 16 Gooreen Street, Reid, Canberra, A.Cl,

1944, Ninnes, A. R., B.A. 62 Sheffield Street, Malvern, S.A.

1945, *Nortacore, K. H., B.Agr.Se, A.LA.S., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.

1930, Ocxennen, G, P,, B.A, c/o Flinders Street Practising School, Flinders St, Adelaide.

1947, *Opuer, I. L., 65 Fifth Avenue, St. Peters, S.A.

1913, *Osnory, Prov, T. G, B, D,Sc,, Department af Botany, Oxford, England—Conncl

1913-20, 1922-24; President, 1925-24; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27,

i937, *Parxtn, L, W., MiSc., c/o North Broken Hill Mining Co, Melbourne, Victoria,

1949, Parxinson, K. J., B.Sc, 8 Moorelund Avenue, Beverley, S.A,

1945. Parttson, G,, 68 Partridge Street, Glenelg, S.A.

1929, Pauit, A. G., M.A, B.Sc, 10 Milton Avenue, Pullarton, S.A.

1926, “Piver, C. S., D.Se., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Couneil, 1941-43;

Pice-President, 1943-45, 1946-475 President, 1945-46,

1948. Poewrut, J. K., B.Sc. C.S.LR.O,, Division of Biochemistry, University, Adelatde,

1947. Poynton, J. O., M.D, M.A, ChB. M.R.C.S,, LBC.P,, Institute Medicine, Vet,

Science, Frome Road, Adelaide,

1949. Terarre, R. G, 81 Park Terrace, North Unley, 5.4,

1925. *Prescorr, Puor. J. A, CBE, D.S¢., AC, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag),

Adelaide—Verco Medal, 1938; Council, 1927-30, 1935-39; Mice-President, 1930-32;

President, 1932-33,

1926. Price, A. G., CM.G,, M.A., Litt.D,, F/R.G.S,, 46 Pennington ‘Terrace, Narth Adelaide

1945. Payor, L. D., M.Sc, Dip.For., 32 La Perowwe Street, Griffith, N.S.W,

1950, “RAITIAR, J. H., B.Sc, Burean of Mineral Resources, Melbourne Building, Canberra,

ACT.

iM4. Riceman, D. S. M.Sc, B.Agr.Se. C.S.1R:0,, Division of Nutrition, Adelaide,

1947. Rikper, W. R,, B.Se., Occanographic Institute, Gottenburg, Sweden.

1048. *RKimes, G. D., B.Sc. 24 Winston Avenue, Clarence Gardens, S.A.

1947, Rix, C. E., 42 Wayntouth Avenne, Glandore, S_A.

1946, *Ronixson, E.G. M.Sc. 42 Riverside Drive, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada,

1950. Ruvv, Pros. E. A, B.Sc, AM. University, Adelaide, S.A.

1945. Ryaawt, J. R,, Old Penola Estate, Penola, S.A.

1944. *Sannars, Miss D, F., M.Sc. University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland.

1930. Saunvers, F. L., 79 Winchester Street, Malvern, S.A,

1933, Scuxetore, M., M.B., B.S., 175 North Ter,, Adelaide

IMG, *Seonit, E.R, M.Se, CS.LR.O., Division of Tndustrial Chemistry, Box 4331, G.P.O,

Melbourne, Victoria.

Date of

Election.

1924, *Szenit, R, W., M.A,, B.Sc., Engineering and Water Supply Department, Victoria

Square, Adelaide—Secretary, 1930-35; Council, 937-38; VicusPresideni, 1938-39,

1940-41; President, 1939-40,

1925. *SHeEARp, H, Port Elliot, S.A,

1946. *SHEaRD, K, Fisheries Research Div. CS LBRO, University of W.A,, Nedlands, W.A,

1945. SHEPHERD, y. H., M.Sc, BA. c/o Anglo-Westralian Minny Pty. Led

1934. Sunn xrrecp, #10 C,, Salisbury, S.A.

1924. Simpson, F, N., Pirie Surect, Adelaide.

2949. Simpson, D. A. M.B., B.S, 42 Lockwood Road, Burnside, ‘S.A.

1941. “Swann, T. Laxcrorp-, .Sc., Department of Post-War Reconstruction, Canberra.

1941. Soutsucotr, R, V, M.B., B,S,, 12 Avenue Road, Unley Park, 5.4.

1936. Soutawoop, A. R., M.D, M.S. (Adel.); M.R,C.P., Wootoona Ter., len Osmond, S.A.

1947. *Specmt, R. L., M.Se., 15 Main Road, Richmond, S.A,

1936. *Spricc,’R. C... M.Sc... Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide,

1947, Spurtinc, MB. BAg.Sc, Agricultural College, Roseworthy, S.A.

1949. *5ery, A. I1., B. Sc., 63 LeFevre Terr ace, North Adelaide, SA,

1938. *STEPHENS, C C. G,, D.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide,

1935. ie A, G, M.Agr.Se., 11 Wootoona. Terrace, Glen Osriond, S.A —Catnetl,

1932. Swan, D. M.Sc, Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Secretary,

4940-42 ; Vite Previden? 1946-47, 1948-49; President, 1947-48.

1948. Swany, _F. J. W., 38 Angas Road, “Lawer Mitcham, SA,

1934. Symons, I. 'G., 38 Murray Street, Lower Mitcham, S.A.—Editoy. 1947-.

1929. *Yavuor, J. K., B.A. M.Sc. Waite Institute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide—Comneil,

1940-43, 1947-,

$950. Tayior, G H., BSc, Department of Mines, Old Legislative Council Building, North

Terrace, Adelaide, SA

1948, Bie ie tr. M, M. Se. (Wales), University, Adelaide—Secretury, 1948-50; Cormcil,

19}

1938. *Tmomas, Mrs. I. M. (nce P. M. Mawson), M.Se, 36 King Street, Bregliton,

1940. ‘THomson, Capt, J, M,, 135 Military Road, Semaphore South, S.A,

1923, *Tinparz, N, B,, B.Sc, South Australian Museum, Adelaide—Secretary, 1935-36;

Council, 1946-47 ; Mice-Presidemt, 1947-48, 1949-50; President, 1948-49.

1945. Tiver, N.S, M.Sc, B.AgrSc., Waite: Institute (Private Mail Gas), Adelaide.

1937, *TauMELe, Pror, H, CG, D.Sc, M.Agr.Sc., Wiite Institite (Private Mail Bag),

Adelaide—Counctl, 1942-1945; Vice-President, 1945-46, 1947-48; President, 1946-47,

1925. ‘Turner, Di +e Brookman Buildings, Grenfell Street, Adelaide.

1950. Vuietcr, 5. Port Lincoln, S.A.

1912. *Warn, L. a LS. O., BA, BE, D. 5c, 22 Northumberland Avenue, Tustnure—Conncil,

1924-27, 1933- 355 ’ Vice-President, 1927-28 ; President, 1928-30,

1941, *Warxk, D.C, M.Agr,Se.. Div. Plant Industry, CS.LR.O., Canberra, A.CT,

1936. Wareanouse, Miss L. M., 35 King Strect, Brighton, $.A,

1939. *Weenine, Rev. B. J. 5 Vork Street, Henley Beach,

1949, *\Wrecener, C. F,, B. Se, Department ‘Mines, Hlinders Street, Adelaide, S.A,

1946, Whorrttr, A.. W. G,, B.Sc., Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adelaide.

1950, Wittiams, L b., “Dumosa,” Meningie, S.A.

1946, *Wrison, A. % a ste University of W, A., Nedlands, W.A.

1938. *Wisson, J, 0 R,O., Division of Nutrition, Ade'side,

1930. *WosrEkstey, we Se ALS. (Aan. cause), S.A, Museym, Adelaide—Perca

Medal, 1943; Secretary, 1936- 37; Editor, 1937-43, 1945-47; President, 1943-44, Fice-

President, 1944-48 Rep, Fauna and T ‘hora. Protection Commitls ve, 1945,

1944. #Womtrsney, H, B.S, M.Se., University of Adelaide,

1944, Womensrey, J. 'S., B.Sc, Lae, New Guinea,

1923. *Woon, Pror. J. G., D, 'Sc., ‘PRD, University of Adelade—Ferco Medal, 1944;

Council, 1938-40; f° ice-President, 1940-41, 1942-43; Rep. Fauna and Flora Board,

1940-; President, 1941-42; Council, 1944-48,

1950. Woop arn, G. D., 20 Kensington Road, Leabrook, S.A,

1943, WoopLanns, Haroun, Box 989 H, G.P.O., Adeiaide.

1945, Worrntty, B. W., B.A., M.Sc. ‘A. Inst. P., University, Adc'aiide.

1948, *Wymonn, A. P., BS ‘4 Woodley Road, Glen Osmond, S.A.

1999. Yeates, J: N, L.S, ‘A.MLLE, AMI. M.E, Richards Buildings, 99 Currie Street,

Adelaide, S.A.

1944. Zimuerr, W. J., Dip.For, PALS. (Lon.), 7 Ruperi Street, Footscray West, W.12, Vic,

300

AUTHOR AND SUBJECT INDEX

VOLUME 73

[Names in italics denote that the forms described are new to science]

Abongial social systems: H. K. Fry, 282-

294

Acactn, quornensis, 6

Algae, marine, of Kangaroo Island: H, B. §.

Womersiley, 137-197

Angel, L. M., T. H. Johnston and: Larval

trematodes from Australian fresh-water

moluses, 22-28

Australites, part V: Tektites in the South

Australian Museum; Charles Fenner, 7-21

Austrostrongylus potoroo, 64

Balleny Islands, basaltic lavas of: D. Maw-

son, 223-231

Basaltic lavas of the Balleny Islands: D,

Mawson, 223-231

Beltanelia gilesi, 82

Black, J. M.: Additions to the Flora of

South Australia, No. 45, 4

Bonython, C, W,; Evaporation studies using

some South Australian data, 198-219

Boolcoomatta Hills; A soda-rich intrusive

stock located im: E. R. Segnit, 109-112

Cercaria beckwitkae; C.

lethargica, 22, 27, 106

Conostephium halinaturinion, 6

Contracuecum podocipitis, 67

Cooper, H. M.: Stane Implements from a

maiigrove swatnp, 220-222

Cotton, B. C.: An old mangrove mud-Hat

exposed by wave scouring, 59-61

——: Fossil oysters used for road metal, 62

Calor tien davidi, C, radiata, C. gigantea,

tetradenoidea; C.

Dickinsonia costata, D. minima, 95, 97

Dictvonterss Notes on: H. B. S. Womersley,

Dictyopteris nigricans, 115

Ediacaria flindersi, 83

Evaporation studies usmg some South Aus-

trahan data: €. W, Bonython, 198-219

Fenner, Charles: Australites, part V; Tek-

tites in the South Australian Museum,

Fossil oysters used for road metal: B. C,

Cotton, 62

EF ra K.: Aboriginal social systems, 282-

Gesture language of the Walpari tribe, Cen-

tral Australia: C, P. Mountford, 100-101

Glaciation, The Elatina; D. Mawson, 117-120

Granites, of Murray Bridge and Monarto:

R. K. Johns and J, M. Kruger, 122-136

Hossfeld, P. S.; The late Cainozoic history

ef the South-East of South Australia,

232-279

Jellyfishes, Early Cambrian: R. C. Spriggs,

72-99.

Johns, R. K., and J. M. Kruger; The Murray

Bridge and Monarto granites, 122-136

Johnston, T, EL, and L, M. Angel; Larval

trematodes from Australian freshwater

molluses, part XIII, 22-28

and P, M. Mawson; Some nematodes

from Australian hosts, 63-71

and N. G. Muirhead: Larval trematodes

from Austrahan freshwater molluscs, part

XIV, 102-108

Kangaroo Island, Marine algae of: H. B. 5.

Womersley, 137-197

King, D., J. M. Thomson and: The Nullar-

bur vaves sysiem, 48-58

Kruger, J. M. R. K. Johns and: The Mur-

ray Bridge and Monarto granites,, 122-136

Love, J. R, B,; Worora lanships, 280-281

Maediganiu annulata, 93

Mangroye mud-Hat, exposed by wave scour-

ing; B. C, Cotton, 59-61

Mawson, D,: The Elatina glaciation, 117-12}

: Basaltic lavas of the Balleny Islands,

223-231

Mawson, P. M., T. H, Jolinston and: Some

nematodes from Australian hosts, 63-71

Mediorhynchus corcoracis, 295

Medusina manson, M. asteroides, M. fila-

mentus, 89, 90, 91

Mountford, C. F.: Gesture language of the

Walpari tribe, Central Australia, 100-101

Nematodes from Australian hosts: T. H.

Johnston and P. M. Mawson, 63-71

Nullarbor caves system: J. M. Thomson and

D. King, 48-58

Protodipleurosoma wardi, 79

Pseudorhizostomites howchint, 87

Pseudorhopilema chapmani, 88

Rhabditis allgeni Johnston, A note on, 70

Robinson, E. G.: The petrological nature of

some rocks from the Mann, Tompkinson

aod fe Ranges of Central Australia,

301

Segnit, E. R.: A soda-rich composite intru-

sive stock located in the Boolcoomatta

Hills, South Australia, 109-112

Simpson, D. A.: The epiphyseal complex in

Trachysaurus rugosus, 1-

South-East of South Australia, late Caino-

zoie history of: P. S. Hossfeld, 232-279

Sprigg, R. C.: Thrust structures of the

Witchelina area, South Australia, 40-47

: Early Cambrian Jellyfishes of Edia-

cara, South Australia, 72-99

Stone implements from a mangrove swamp:

H. M. Cooper, 220-222

Tateana inflata, 86

Tektites in the South Australian Museum, 6

Thomson, J. M., and D. King: The Nullar-

bor caves system, 48-58

Thrust structures of the Witchelina area,

South Australia: R. C. Sprigg, 40-49

Trachysaurus rugosus, the epiphyseal com-

plex in: D, A. Simpson, 1-5

Trematodes from Australian freshwater mol-

luscs, part XIII: T. H. Johnston and L.

M. Angel, 22-28

——, part XIV: T. H. Johnston and N.G.

Muirhead, 102-108

Witchelina area, Thrust structures of : R. C.

Sprigg, 40-47

Worora kinships: J. R. B. Love, 280-281

Womersley, H. B, S.: Notes on Dictyopteris,

113-116

——-: The marine algae of Kangaroo Island

III. List of Species I, 137-197. Index

to genera, 191-192

= yy The: Epi seal eae in Trachssourns sla es

= Brace T ML: Additions to” thee lora of South Australia. ‘No. : ais ;

~~ gene

ee Ce Australites, Part 529 eletitos 47 the South: Australian Musi, wi

~~ Notes: on Theories of Origin her Shs ao

Tey, a

~-Molluses. Part XII sere Hae oe py <r re ote ax

~-Rownysox, Tt. G.: The Peevelosien: N ature. of 4 same Rocks ae ‘the Nanin, “owininson

and. Apres. Ranges: of Gentral | Australia os zs Me Te eae Spree ints

an et ar

Se SSrRIGS, R. G “Thrast. Sir pelniesof es Witel

ae. Mere

Cato B. C.: An old Mango Maat exposed be) Wave Sc eke

= Sant. Abstratia”” S ieee, Sak we

Nev NS Aeouceates from Acastfaliait ‘Hoss, ws

~ together vans 8 Note so Ra eee ; es = — :

-geaees T. a tasty

‘water Molluscs; pe Part

s ai , sh id

Hills, South Australia. ; (

Wawene ry, H.B. Bey Studies: “our tie- ‘Marie "Albse Ze Soutien: Australia, “No. ge :

_ Notes’ on Dictyopleris Lamourbiise > ers mie

Maws0y, Dew The Piatind Glaciation, nok Third Recurrence. of + Glaciation evidenced in.

Sethe. Adelaide “System, | ates og WPS Sa Tike Pwr A are age

m seee ates

“Jor, R.K.,-and KRUGER, FM: he nineee Bates anid: Monarto- foassstes aris s =

Associated: Rocks of the. Msancrniy porehter: pind ties ee

Stee sere

- +

‘ er + - PART 1 zi = 53

“-Bonvitnox: 6. Wee Evaporation: Stasis ne some South Australia Data par:

_Coores, HM: Stone Implements Troi a Mangrove Meine ‘at South. Glenelg

Mawson, D Wer Basaltic Lavas ofthe Balleny lands. A.NA.R.ED Report 1.

Seer Pawn! S.: The Late Cainozoic History. of the South-East ab South, Australia

“Love, “hs R. aa a Teriahtns +S aoe