THE MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF THE PLIOCENE STRATA UNDERLYING

THE ADELAIDE PLAINS

PART JII—SCAPHOPODA, POLYPLACOPHORA, GASTROPODA

(HALIOTIDAE TO TORNIDAE)

by N. 11. Lupexoox*

[Read 14 April 1955]

SUMMARY

Part JU of the study of the mollusea from borings into the Dry Creek Sands consists

of 9 reyision of the Scaphopoda, Polyplacophma, and the gastropod families from the

Haliotidue to the ‘lornidae, ie., the superfamilies Pleurctomariaces, Cocculinacca, Littori-

nacea, and Rissdaoea. The nomencluture of 43 species has been revised and 17 new species

have been deseribed,

The geological background and relationships of the fauna were discussed in Part I,

published in the Transactions of the Society, 77, pp, 42-64, 1954.

INTRODUCTION

As with the Pelecypoda (Part 2 of this series, published in vol. 78, 1955,

pp. 18-87) diagnoses of species have been made, wherever possible, from the

holotypes. Where these were not available, Dry Creek Sands examples have

been used. Dimensions cited are those of the holotype,

Abbreviations employed were listed in Part 2—Pelecypoda.

Class SCAPHOPODA Broun, 1862

Family DENTALUDAE Gray, 1847

Genus DEeNTALIUM Linné, 1755

Dentalium Linné, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 785.

Type species (s.d, Montfort, 1810) Dentalium elephantinum Linné.

Subgenus DenvariuM s. str,

(Faradentalium, Cotton & Goilrey, 1933, 8, Aust, Nat. 14, (4), p. 139.)

Dentalium (Dentalium) lIatesulcatum 'l'ate

pl, 1, figs. 10-14.

Dentalium elephantinum Linné, Tate, 1890, Trans. Roy, Soc. §. Aust. 13, (2), p. 177.

Dentoalium octogonum Lamarck, Tate, ibid.

Dentalinm sectum Deshayes. ute, ibid.

Dentalium latesuclatum. (err. pro latesulcatum) Tate, 1899, Trans, Roy, Soe. S. Aust: 23,

{2), p. 262, pl. 8. fig. 9 (latesuleutum).

Dentalium. latesuleatum Tate. Dennant & Kitson, 1905, Ree, Geol, Surv. Vie. J, (2), p. 138.

Dentalium intercalatum Gould, Howchin, 1936. Trans. Roy. Soc. &. Aust., 60, p, 16,

Dentalium intercalatum atetum Tate. Howchin, ibid.

Dentalium intercalatum francisense Verco. Howchin, ibicl.

Dentalium. intercalatum yar. Howchin, ibid., p, 17.

Dentalium sp. Tlowehin, hic.

Dentalium, (Paradentalium) lotesuleatum Tale, Cotton & Ludbraok, 1938. Tras. Roy. Soe.

S. Aust., 62, (2). p. 224,

Dentalium (Paradenialium) howehini Cotton & Lawbrook,. ibid.

Dentalium_ (Paradentalium) howchini Cotton & Ludbrook. Ludbrook, 1941. ‘Trans. Roy,

Soc. S. Aust., 65, (1), p. LOL.

* Department of Mines, Adelaide. Published with the permission of the Director of Mines,

]

Dentalium (Dentalium) howchini Cotton & Ludbrook, Ludbrook, 1954, Trans. Roy. Soc.

S, Aust, 77, p. 58.

Diagnosis—Shell large, thick and solid, with 7 to 16 strong primary ribs

approximately equal to interspaces in which secondary ribs are often developed

by intercalation.

Dimensions—Length 40, breadth 7 mm.

Type Locality—Grange Burn, Hamilton, Victoria; Pliocene.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll. Univ. of Adelaide, T1610.

Observations—Re-examination of the type material of Dentalium (Para-

dentalium) howchini Cotton & Ludbrook has failed to reveal to the writer any

diagnostic characters to distinguish that species from Tate’s latesulcatum of the

Pliocene, Grange Burn near Hamilton, Victoria. The species carries an extremely

variable number of primary ribs, original specimens having 9 to 12, while those

from Abattoirs Bore (type of howchini) show a range of from 7 to 16, about

12 being the most usual. In adult specimens the primary ribs may be broken

by longitudinal grooves (pl. 1, fig. 10a). Ribs and interspaces are crossed to

a greater or lesser extent by growth striae which are conspicuously developed

in the interspaces.

The degree of curvature of the shell is also somewhat inconstant, Shells

retaining the juvenile apical portion appear to be more strongly curved than

those which have lost it. The extent of variation in shell characters is ilus-

trated (pl. 1, figs. 10-14).

The subgenus Paradentalium created by Cotton & Godfrey for D. bednalli

Pilsbry & Sharp (incorrectly identified as D. intercalatum Gould) proves on

examination of ample material in the British Museum to be a synonym of

Dentalium s. str. The general characters of Dentaliwm latesulcatum are more

closely related to those of the type species D. elephantinum than to those of

any living southern Australian species. The resemblance between the present

species and the Recent Indo-Pacific species was previously masked by the use

of Paradentalium for the Pliocene shell.

Material—Holotype and 6 paratypes of latesulcatum; holotype and numer-

ous paratypes of howchini; 1 specimen Thebarton Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Pliocene.

Geographical Distribution—Gippsland, Vie., to Adelaide, S. Aust.

Subgenus Fissmentatium Fischer, 1885,

Fissidentalium Fischer, 1885. Man. de Conch., p. 894.

(Schizodentalium Sowerby, 1894. Proc. Mal. Sac, 1, p, 158.)

Type species (monotypy) Dentalium ergasticum Fischer.

Dentalium (Fissidentalium) mawsoni sp. nov.

pl. 1, figs. 5, 6.

Dentalium kicksii Nyst. Tenison Woods, 1876. Proc, Roy. Soc. Tas. for 1875, p. 15.

Entalis mantelli Zittel. Tate, 1887. Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust., 9, p. 190.

Entalis mantelli Zittel. Tate & Dennant, 1893, id., 17, (1), p. 223.

Entalis mantelli Zittel. Tate & Dennant, 1895, id., 19, (1), p. 112.

Entalis manéelli Zittel, Pritchard, 1896. Proc. Roy. Soc, Vic., 8, (n.s.), p. 126.

Dentalium mantelli Zittel. Harris, 1897. Cat. Tert. Moll. Brit. Mus. (1), p. 293.

Dentalium (Fissidentalium) mantelli Zittel. Tate, 1899. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 28, (2),

, 261.

Dentalium (Entalis) mantelli Zittel. Wowchin, 1936, id., 59, pp. 74, 75.

Dentalium (Fissidentalium) mantelli Zittel. Cotton & Ludbrook, 1938, id., 62, (2), p. 222,

Diagnosis—Shell moderately large, generally thick, stout, almost straight.

Sculpture of 23 fine longitudinal ribs at the apex, increasing in number to 50

at the aperture. Ribs near apex narrower than or approximately equal to inter-

spaces. Secondary ribs rise in interspaces.

Description of Holotype—Shell of moderate size, fairly thick, stout, taper-

ing, slightly curved near the apex then almost straight for the rest of the shell.

Sculpture of 23 fine longitudinal ribs at the apex, with secondary ribs rising by

intercalation between them at a distance of about 15 mm, from the apex; about

50 ribs at the aperture. Longitudinal sculpture crossed and faintly tubercu-

lated by numerous, crowded, transverse growth striae, Apex circular with a

long, narrow fissure, aperture circular, peristome thin in holotype.

Dimensions—Length 41-5, apical diameter 1, apertural diameter 4 mm.

Paratype—A. smaller specimen (pl. 1, fig. 6) showing curvature near apex.

Length 38-5, diameter at aperture 3 mm,

Type Locality—River Murray Cliffs (?PMorgan), Miocene.

Location of Types—Tate Mus. Coll. Uniy. of Adelaide, F15139.

Observations—Sufficient material is available in the British Museum for com-

parisons to be made between Australian examples of so-called mantelli from

various localities and specimens of true mantelli from Onekakara, N.Z., one of

which may be the specimen figured by Mantell in 1850 (pl. 28, fig. 15). There is

no doubt of the close resemblance between the two. The Australian shells are,

however, straighter than the one New Zealand shell which is sufficiently un-

broken for the curvature to be determined. This is a large shell 70 mm. in

length, with the apical portion (about 20 mm,) missing, The tendency in

Australian examples is for any curvature to be developed near the apex and

not over the shell generally. Sculpture is very similar in both species, ribbing

in the New Zealand mantelli being, on the whole, broader in relation to the

interspaces,

The species is represented in the Dry Creek Sands by 4 fragments from

Weymouth’s Bore; as more than one species may be listed under the name in

the literature, its geographical distribution is here limited to those localities at

which it is definitely known by the writer to occur.

Material—Holotype and 5 paratypes “River Murray Cliffs” (?Morgan); 3

paratypes Pliocene Blanche Point, Aldinga Bay; Tate Mus. Coll. Univ, of

Adelaide. 8 fragments Weymouth’s Bore, Mines Dept. Coll., 4 paratypes G9367,

Lower Beds, Muddy Creek, Brit. Mus, Coll.

Stratigraphical Range—Tertiary, not accurately determined.

Geographical Distribution—Muddy Creek, Victoria; South Australia,

Subgenus Anratis Adams (H.) & Adams (A.)

Antalis H, & A. Adams, 1854. Gen. Rec. Moll., p. 45.

(Entalis Gray, 1847. Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 158, non Sowerby, 1839.)

(Entaliopsis, Newton & Harris, 1894, Proc. Malac. Soc., 1, (2), ». 66.)

Type species (s.d. Pilsbry & Sharp, 1897) Dentalium entalis Linné.

Dentalium (Antalis) denotatum sp. nov.

pl. 1, figs. 7-9.

Bee { age fee ua bifrons Tate. Ludbrook, 1941. Trans, Roy. Soe. §. Aust.

> > Dd. '

Diagnosis—A small, slender Anfalis sculptured near the apex with about

16 primary riblets with finer secondary threads developing by intercalation, all

becoming obsolete in the apertural one-third. Shell moderately curved and

pradually tapering.

Description of Holotype—Shell small, slender, thin but solid, gently curved

and gradually tapering; section rounded. Sculpture of 16 fine primary riblets

at the apex and finer secondary threads in the interspaces. Sculpture becoming

obsolete towards the aperture. Growth lines slightly oblique, stronger near

the aperture. Apex small, thick, circular, with a small notch. Aperture cir-

cular, peristome thin, sharp.

Dimensions—Length 24, diameter at apex 1-4, diameter at aperture 2-9

mm., arc 1 mm.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore; Dry Creek Sands.

Lecation of Holotype—Tate Mus, Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, F15140,

Observations—Previously these small shells have been taken to be juveniles

of the large D. bifrons Tate. The two, however, are distinct, the present species

being a typical small Antalis, generally with a slight apical notch or supple-

mentary pipe. Dentalium (Fissidentalium) bifrons was inadvertently included

in the author’s list (1954, p. 58).

Material—Holotype, 2 figured paratypes and 12 paratypes, 8 fragments

Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bore.

Family SIPHONODENTALIDAE Simroth, 1894.

Genus SIPHONODENTALIUM M. Sars, 1859.

Siphonodentalium M. Sars, 1859. Forh. Videns.-Selks., 1858, p. 52.

Type species (0.d.) Dentalium lobatum Sowerby (= S. vitreum Sars).

Subgenus PutseLtum Stoliczka, 1868.

Pulsellum Stoliczka, 1868, Cret. Fauna S, India, 2, p. 441.

Type species (s.d. Pilsbry & Sharp, 1897) S. lofotense M, Sars,

Siphonodentalium (Pulsellum) adelaidense sp, nov.

pl. 1, fig. 1.

Diagnosis—Shell largest at the aperture, tapering at first rapidly and then

very gradually towards the apex.

Description of Holotype—Shell small, thin, smooth, shining, gently curving,

tapering rapidly from posterior aperture for about one-third the length of the

shell, thence gradually tapering to the apex. Aperture subcircular, widely open;

apex entire, round, without slits.

Dimensions—Length 6-4 mm.; diameter at aperture 1 mm.; diameter at

apex 0:4 mm.

Type Locality—Hindmarsh Bore, 450-487 feet; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, F15141.

Observations—This is the first record of the genus in southern Australia.

It may escape notice on account of its noes Tes resemblance to a Cadulus

from which the anterior portion has been broken. In contrast with Cadulus,

which is constricted at both the anterior and posterior openings, Siphonoden-

talium is the largest at the aperture, which is generally widely opened. The

genus has a wide distribution in Recent waters, mainly European, North Ameri-

can, and Indo-Pacific, including Northern Australia, though apparently not in

large numbers.

Material—Holotype and 3 paratypes, Hindmarsh Bore; 1 paratype, Wey-

mouth’s Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Hindmarsh and Weymouth’s Bores.

Genus Caputus Philippi, 1844.

Cadulus Philippi, 1844. Enum. Moll. Sicil., 2. p. 209.

Type species (monotypy ) Dentalium ovulum Philippi.

Subgenus Discumes Jeffreys, 1867.

Dischides Jeffreys, 1867. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 3, 20, p. 251.

Type species (o.d.) Cadulus politus ‘S. V. Wood.

Cadulus (Dischides) yatalensis sp. nov.

pl. 1, figs. 3, 4.

Cadulus mucronatus Tate. Ludbrook, 1941. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 65, (1), p. 101.

Diagnosis—Loug aud sleuder Dischides, not conspicionsly swollen, carved

uucl very gradually tapering at each end.

Description vf LHolotype—Shell fairly small, solid, yery slender, smooth,

shining, gently arcuate, more so on the ventral convex side than on the dorsal

surface. Contraction towards the anterior aperture only slight, over a length

of about 1 mim; contraction towards the posterjor apex gradual, from 1 mm, to

0.5 nun. over a length of 3-5 mm. Aperture oblique, with a thin, sharp cdge;

apex small, oblique, divided into 2 lobes by two lateral slits; the ventral lobe

is larger, is conspicuously thickened and mucronately produced; the dorsal

lobe is smaller and not thickened within.

Dimensions—Length 9:2 mm.; greatest diameter 1-6 mm.; diameter at

aperture 1-4 mm.; diameter at apex 0:8 min.

Type Locality—Weymouth's Bore, 310-330 feet, Dry Creek Sands,

Location of Holotyne—Tate Mus, Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, F15142,

Observations—This is a larger, longer, and much more slender species. than

C. mucronatus or C. acuminatus. EH is clistinguished hy these features, the usual

absence of swelling or bulge, and by the two apical slits. The two specimens

(one figured, pl, 1, fig. 4), previously identified as C. mucronatus, arc a little

less slender than the typical species.

Material—Holotype, 10 paratypes, £ fragments Weynrouth’s Bore; 3 para-

types, 9 fragments Hindmarsh Bore; 2 paratypes: Abattuirs Bore,

Straligraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

Subgenus Gana Gray, [s47.

Gacdila Gray, 1847. Prac. Zonl. Soc., p. 159.

Type species (o.d.) Dentalium gadus Montagu.

Cadulus (Gadila) acuminatus Tate

pl. J, itz. 2,

Caudalas acwmiiatuy Tate, 1857. ‘Trans. Roy. soc. S$. Aust. 9, p. 194,

Cucdulus (Gadila) aeumindtus Tate, 1899, id. 23, (2), m. 266, pl 8, fig. 12.

Cadulus acuminatuy Desh. Dennant & Kitson, 1903. Ree, Geol. Sury, Vie. 1, (2), w V4

Cadttus deuninatus Tate. Ludbrook, 1941. Trans. Roy. Sne. S. Aust., 65, (1), p. 101.

Diagnosis—Very small, curved, gently tapering at both ends, not bulging,

both aperture and apex circular.

Dimensions—Leneth 6 mm.;, diameter at about the middle 1 inm,; diameter

of aperture 0-75 mm.

Type Locality—Oyster Beds. Aldinga Bay, Pliocene.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, No. T23.L

Material—Holotypes and 2 paratypes; 4 specimens Dry Creek Bore 320 teet.

4 specimens Dry Creek Bore 340 fect; 2 specimens Abattoirs Bore 340 feet.

Stratigraphical Range—Pliovene of Aldinga Bay and Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Aldinga; Dry Creek, Ahattoirs, and Hindmarsh

Bares, Adelaide, S.A,

Class POLYPLACOPHORA

Order CHITONIDA

Tamily CRYPVLOPLACIDAE

Subfamily AcanrHocHitona Gray, 1621,

Acanthachituna Gray, 1621. Lond. Med. Repos,, 15, 3. 234.

Acunthochitey Risso, 1826, Hist. Nut. Europe, 4, p. 268.

Phekellopleura Guilding, 1830. Zool, Journ., 5, (10), p. 38.

Acanthochitux, Philippi, 1844. — Anim. Moll. Sicil., 2, p, 53.

Acanthochifon Wetrmannsen, (546. Incl. Geo, Male, 1, p. 2.

? Hamachiton + Platysemus Middendorff, 1848. Mem. Acad. imp. Sei. St. Petersbourg, ser.

6, 8, (2). pp. 97, 98.

Stectaplax Dall, 1882. Proc. U.S, Nat. Mus., 4, p. 284:

Anisochiton P, Fischer, 1885, Man. de Conch., p. 481.

I'ype species (by monotypy) Chiton fascicularis Linné.

Subgenus Eorrax Ashby & Cotton, 1936,

Eaplax Ashby & Cotton, 1936. Ree. 5. Aust, Mus. 5, (4), p, S10, fig. 2.

Acanthochitona (Moplax) adelaidae Ashby & Cotton

Aranthochita ( Eoplac) adelaidac Ashby & Cotton, 1936. Theo. So Avst. Mus. 4, f4), fie. 2.

Leplax adelaidae Ashby & Cattou, 1936, Cottun & Crodfrey, 1940, Mall, S. Aust. 2. yp, S75.

Koplax adelaidae Ashby & Cotton. Cotton & Weeching, 1911, Ree. S$. Aust, Mis., 6, (1),

pp. 441, 445,

Diagnosis (from one rather worn median valye}—Valve carinated, angle

of divergence 90°. Pleural and Jateral areas inseparable, the tegmentuim later

ally much reduced, Sculpture of pleural area terminating anteriorly at 1-5 mm.

from the anterior margin of the dorsal area consists of loneitudinal renws of

Hat, triangular, seale-like pranules,

lusertion plates very broad, showing a strong callonsed broad vidve com-

niencing al the alit and ending on one side of the tegruentum.

Dinensions—Length 7 mm.; width 7-3 mm.

Type Locality—Torrensville Bore, 190 feel; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—S. Aust. Mus. Keg. No. 12582 (P.10159).

Matcriqi—tloloty pe.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Torrensville Bore, 400 fect,

Family CHITONIDAE,

Subfamily Currontsar,

Gems Craron Tinod, 1754,

Chitent Linu’, (75S, Syst, Nat. ed, 10, p, 667,

Type species (s.d, Children, 1823) Chilon squamosus Linné.

Subgenus AnrHocHToN Thicle, 1895.

Anthochiton Thiele, 1693, in Troschel Gebiss Selmeck, 2, p, 377-

Type species (monotypy) Chiton Inlipa Quoy & Gaimard.

Chiton (Anthochiton) relatus Ashby & Cotton

Chitaa fAntiiochiion) tricostalis relate. Asbhy & Cotton, J936, Ree. S. Aust. Mua.. 5. (4),

p. SOU, fir. 1.

Anthorhiton relatus Ashby & Cotton, Cotton & Godfrey, 1940, Moll §. Aust. 2. p. 575

Anthachiton relutus Ashby & Cotton. Cotton & Weeding, 1944. Rec. S$. Aust Mus. 6. C41.

pp. 442, 444,

Diagnosis. (from one worn median valye)—Angle of divergence $0".

Veural area transversed longitudinally by twelve shallow, broad grooves and

corresponding ridges. Lateral arcas with two strong, broad ribs, the anterior

hifureating, cach with 10 broad tubereles. Surface of tegimentum on erasion

perforated with numerous small pits, :

Dimensions—Length 3.5 mm.; width 6-5 mm.

Type Locality—Vorrensville Bove, 490 feet; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—s. Aust. Mus. Rez. No. D, 12883 (P. 10157),

Material—Molotype.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands.

Geegraphical Distribution—Vorrensyille Bore, Adelaide District.

Subfamily CryerorLactxar.

Genus Cavproriax Blainville, 1$15,

Cruptupla Bluinville, 1418. Dict, Sci, Nat., 12, p. 124.

(Chitunellus Linnarck, 1619, Anim. s. vert. 6. (1), p. SL.)

(Oscabrella Partington, 1935. Brit. Cvclop. Nut. Hist, 2, (14). 2. 31.)

(Chitoniscus Herrmannsen, 1846. Ind. Gen. Malac., Lop. 250.)

Type species (sid. Ierrmaunsen, 1852) Chiton larcacformis Burrow.

Cryptoplax ludbrookae Ashby

Criptaplax ludbrookae Ashby, 1940. ‘Vans, Roy. Sou, S. Aust, 64, (2), p. 266. tevt-fis,

Cryptoplax Iudbrookae Ashby, Cotton & Godfrey, 1940. Moll. S, Aust.. 2, p. 575,

Cryntuplax imine Ashby. Cotton & Weeding, 1941. Rec. S. Aust. Mus. 6, (4). pp.

Diagnosis (from one head yalve)—Sculpture of tegmentum consisting of

granules somewhat irregularly arranged in longitudinal rows; beak overhanging,

almost smooth to subgramilar, granules near to the apex circular and sub-

rounded, increasing in size, anteriorly Hattened, elliptical or oblong in the central

anterior portion,

lnsertion plate extending well forward beyond the tegmentum for one-third

lenvth of tegmentum. .

Dinensions—Length 1-2 nii.; width 1-3 imm,

Type Locality—Holden’s Motor Body Works Bore, Woodville, Adclaide

District, 335-880 feet; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Hulotype—S. Aust. Mus. Reg. No. P4285.

Material—Holotype. '

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Satuls,

Geographical Distribulion—tlolden’s Motor Body Works Bore, Woodville,

Class GASTROPODA

Subclass PROSOBRANCHIA,

Order ARCHALOGASTROPODA

Superfamily PLEUROTOMARIACEA

Family WALIOTIDAE.

Genus Hawions fiimé, 1758.

Halietis Lint’, 1758, Syst Nat, ed. 10, p. 779.

(Teinatis H.& A. Adams, 1854, Gen. Rec, Moll. I, yp. 442.)

(Tinotis P, Fischer, 1885, Mun, Coneli, p. $45.)

Type species (s.d, Montfort, 1810) Haliotis asinina (inne.

Subgenus Notouartoris Cotton & Godfrey, 1933,

Notohaliotiz Cotton & Godtiey, 1933. S.A. Nat, 15, (1), p. 16.

Type species (o.d.) H. naecosa Marlyn = Haliolis ruber Leach,

Elaliotis (Notohaliotis) naeyosoides McCoy

Haliotis nuecasoides McCoy, 1876. Prod. Pal. Viet., 3, p, 27, pl 26, figs. 1, 2u,

Haliatis nacrosoides MeCoy, R. Etheridge, jr, 1878. Gat, Aust, Foss. p, 164.

Halivtis nucvesoides MoCoy, Harris, 1897. Cat. Yert. Moll. Brit. Mus., p. 285.

MWalivtis est Silat MeGoy, Dennint & Kitson, 1903, Ree, Geol. Surv Vie, 1, (25, pp.

Ly, 13%,

Diagnosis—Suborbicular, depressed, whorls flattened between the suture

and perforations. Upper surface with radiating ridges extending a little more

than halfway between the suture and the perforations, about 12-14 mm. long

with adult whorls, somewhat concave towards the aperture. Perforations about

ene per radial. about 5 mm. apart. Spiral striae thick, about 1 mm. apart.

Type Locality—Flemington, Melbourne.

Location of Holotype—Geological Survey. Victoria Coll.

Materid—3 topotypes. 3 specimens Mayues Quarry, Vie., BML Coll 1

juvenile Abattairs Bore,

Obsereations—The identification of this species is doubtful.

Stratigraphical Range—Not accurately known.

Gedgraphical Distribution—Melbourne, Victoria; Adelaide, S.A,

Family FISSURELLIDAE

Subfamily EntancinuLinan.

Genus Extarcintta Lamarck, 1801.

Emarginula Lamarck, 1801. Syst. Anim, s. Vert. p. 69.

(Emarginulus Monttort, 1810, Conch, Syst., 2, p. 73.)

‘

Clnweginuld Geay, T82t- Lond, Med. Bepos., p, 243.)

Type species (onotypy) E, conica= Patella fissure Linney,

Emarginula didactica sp. noy,

pl. 2, fiz, 2,

Mantarginula candida A. Adis. Tate, 1890a. Trans. Roy. Soc. S, Aust, 13, (2), p, '

Lemangiild candida A, Adums. Dennant & Kitson, 1903. Ree. Geol. Sury, bin, 1, (2),

y. Deter,

Ernsiegtiitil cundide Aduims. Ludbrook, 1941. Trans. Roy. Sor. S. Anst., 83, (1), p. 100.

Diaynosis—Shell small, elliptical, depressed posteriorly, strongly convex

anteriorly, fanly high. Apex at posterior one-fifth, clevated, protoconch smooth,

recurved posteriorly. Seulpturc of about 14 primary radial riblets between

which are secondary ribs. of varying strength, crossed by about 16 concentrics

prochicing a clathrate ornament. Slit fasciole situated between two ridges,

callus formed of congaye lamellae,

Description of Molotype—Shell elongate elliptical, conical, apex at posterior

one-fifth: protoconch smooth, recurved posteriorly; sculptured with 14 primary

radiating zibs, scaly, imbricating with secondary ribs between particularly at

posterior end, crossed by about 16 concentrics, producing a clathrate sculpture.

Slit fasciule between two ridges; callus of distinct concave Jamellae,

( Dimensions~—-Length 5; maximum width 3; altitude 2-5; length of aperture

)-G vain.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide, S$. Aust.; Dry Greek Sands.

Location of Types—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ, Adelaide, F 15143.

Materiai—ILolotype, portion of one paratype, Abattoirs Bore; 2 paratypes.

Mindiunwtsh Bore,

Obsvrvations—This species. previously referred to the Becent f. edanedide.

lis now beer compared with the holotype of that species, The fossil species

is narrower-than candida; it is more coarsely seuiptured, having only 14 radial

ribs as avainst 20 in candida. The apex is nearer the posterior margin und the

fissure is lamellose, uot inarked by a strong rib as in candida. Its nearest tossil

ally is E. dennanti, which is wider, and has 24 primary radials.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

Fmarginula delicatissima Chapnum & Gabriel

Ematginnla delivatissima Chapuin & Gabriel, 1923, Proc. Roy. Sow, View 86 (aac (1y-

p- 26, ph J, figs. 11, 12; pl. 3, figs, 30, BL.

Emearginuler dahiatiaiaa Chapinan & Gabriel, Ludhraok, 1042. Tras. Ray. Soe, 5. Aust.

65, (}), p. 100,

Limarginulu delicatissima Chapman & Cabriel. Crespin, 1945. fin. Tees. Surv. Gall. 9, py. 96.

Diagnosis—Llonvate-oyate, depressed, apex clase to posterior margin; seul p-

(ire fine and cuicellate, with numerous radial costae crossed by delicate car-

coutric threads, Slit fasctole sulcate, base flat.

Dimensions—Length 10-5; width 6; height 5:25; length of slit 3:5 mm.

Type Lecality—Baleombe Lay, Victoria; Balcombian.

Location of Holotype—Detnant Collection. National Museum, Welborrrties.

Observations—This species was present in Abattoirs Bore material and com-

pure with authentic specimens from Victoria in the Commonwealth Collection,

It has not heen recorded elsewhere in South Australia,

Material—3 specimens, Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—? Oligocenc-Pliocent,

Geographical Distribution—Gippsland, Vic., Adelaide. S. Aust.

Emurginula dennanti Chapman & Gabriel

Emarginide cdennanti Chapman & Gabriel, 1923. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vie 36 (ns), (1), p. 27,

pl. 1, figs. 13, 14; ph 8, fig. 32,

Ruvarginala dennunti Chapman & Gabriel. Ludbrook, 1941, Vrans, Roy. Soe. S$. Anst.,

65, (1), p. 100.

Finerginula dennanti Chapman & Gabricl. Crespin, 1943. Min. Res. Surv. Bull. § p. 97.

Diagnosis—Large, elongate-ovate, fairly low, upex about one-third from

posterior margin. Sculptured with about 24 primary radial ribs, between which

are secondary and fainter tertiary ribs. Radials crossed by undulating and

lamellose concentric ridges, producing a tegulate appearance, Slit fasciole

sulcate, base Ait.

Dimensions—Length 20-5; width 14-75: height 9-75; length of slit 5-23 mm.

Type Locality—Grice’s Creek, Victoria,

Location of Hololype—]. ¥. Bailey Collection.

Material—2 specimens, Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—? Oligocene-Pliocene.

Geographical Distrilution—Gippsland, Vic, Adelaide, $, Anust,

Emarginula dilatoria sp. nov.

pl. 2, fig, 3.

Diagnosis Shell small, clongate-ovate, apex high, subposteviar. Sculpture

fine, of 20 primary ribs radiating from apical area, and as many secondary ribs

of varying strength, some as strong as the primary ribs near the margin. crossed

by concentrics and granulate at intersections. Slit fasciole between 2 sharp

ridges, callus formed of concave lamellae,

Description of Holotype—Shell small, thin, fragile, oyate-conical, high.

Apex inflated, elevated, strongly incnrved, directed posteriorly and situated near

posterior margin. Surface convex anteriorly, concaye posteriorly, Sculpture

of 20 primary radiating riblets from apical area to base, and as many secondary

ribs of varyiiy strength, some attaining equal strength with the primaries near

the margin, Concentric sculpture less strong than radial, radials gemmulose at

jonction af concentrics, Slit scarcely differentiated from sculpture, faseiole be-

tween 2 sharp ridges. callus formed of concave lamellae, defined internally by

a narrow chanuel with high, smooth, raised edges. Tnner margin denticitlate

at position of rib.

Dimensions—Leneth (estimated) 6, width 4; height 3 mm.

Type Lovality—Hindmarsh Bore, Adelaide, 450-487 feet, Dry Creek Sails

Leeafion of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Uniy. of Adelaile. F 15144,

Material—Uolotype (imperfect); one paratype, broken,

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands,

Ceographical Distrihution—Hindmarsh Bore, Adelaide,

Genus Tucaur Gray, 1945.

Tugali Gray, 1543 (in Dielfenbach}, Faung New Zeal. 2, p. 240

(Tugalia Gray, 1857 (emend.). Guide Syst. Distr. Moll. Bat. Mus., 1,4. 1f4

Type species (monotypy) Tugali elegans Gray.

Tugali cicatricosa A. Adams

Tuyali cicatricosa A. Adams, 1831. Prog. Zoul. Soc. p. BY

Uugali cicetricusa Adams, Lucdbrook, 1941. Trans. Ruy, Sov, S, Aust, 65. (1), p. 100,

Diagnosis—Elongate-oyate, much depressed and expanding posteriorly,

narrowing anteriorly, protoconch at about one-quarter [rom the posterior margin.

Lateral muryius straight. Surface coarsely decussated with radial riblets and

concentric lines. Anterior margin notched.

Dimensions—Length 20; diameter at position of apex 11: apex-posterior

margin 4 min,

Type Locality—Port Lincoln (erroneously ascribed to Philippines in original

description and on tablet containing type in British Museum): Recent.

Location of Holotype—British Museurn (Natural History),

Observations—The holotype is a young shell, crroveously ascribed to the

Philippines. It is identical with examples of the swine size from South Australia

in the British Museum.

Material—lolotype: 3 examples, Adelaide, $. Austs 6 examples. Port Lins

coln. §, Amst.

Strativraphical Range—Dry Creck Sauds—Recent,

Geographical Distrilintion—Vietoria and Tasnanidt to south coast of

Westin Australia.

Tugali infortunata Ludhrook

Tuvali iufortunatum Lodbrook, 194l. Trims. Hoy. Soe. 8. Aust. 65, (1), p, 62, pl -L, fie. 1.

Diutnosis--Very small, ovate-oblong, low. Apex at posterior one-quarter.

Sculpture of about 40 primary radials with faint secandary radials between

Concentrics fine, uumerous, less prominent than radials. Anteriorly sinuate.

sinus marked exteriorly by a thickened anterior rib, with a corresponding faint

carnal within.

Dimeasions—Lensth 4-2; breadth 2-5: height 1-0 mi.

Type Leculity—Abattoirs Bore. Adelaide, $. Aust: Dry Creck Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus, Coll, Uniy. of Adelaide, T1628,

Material—Paraty pe. Abattoirs Bore: 1 specimen Wevmoutlrs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Crevk Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adclaide District.

Tugali nota Cotton

Trealin neta Cotton, WUT. Ree. S. Aust Mus. 8, (43, 7 663. pl 2, figs. TL, 12.

Dieznosis—Large, clongate-ovate, high, Apes at posterior third. Seulp

ture al about 20 primary racials with 2 or more secondary radials between.

Concentric riblets of equal strenvth. giving fine and regular fenestrate pattern.

Dimensions—Length 19: breadth 11; height 3 min.

Typé Lecality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands,

Locetion of Uelotype—s, Aust. Mus, P. $361,

Materiu/—Itoloty pe,

Stratizvaphical Range—Dry Creek Saiuels.

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bore. Adelaide.

Subfamily’ Fissureccrae.

Gonus Amorycinneras Pilshry, 1590,

Amblychilepas Pilsbry, 1890. Mon. Cunch., 12, p. 154.

(Sophisnialepas Iredile, 1024, Proce. Tiny. Sop. N.S AW., 49, (9), 197, p. 219.)

Yype speeciws (od.) Fissurella trapezina Sowerby =P. jaranicensis Lamarck.

Amblychilepas aera (Cotton)

Soplismalepas nigrita Sawerly, Laxthrook, LOLL. ‘Lruns, Rev, Soc. S. Aust. 65, C10, p, 100,

Sophismalepas ucra Cotton, L947, Ree. S. Aust, Mus. 8 (4), p. 665, pl 26, figs. 4,5.

Diagnosis—Elongute-nyate, sides not parallel but converging somewhat

anteriorly. Shell fairly high near dorsal orifice, but depressed towards taergin:

clevated att each end, Sculpture of numerans fine bilurcating radial threads.

Orifice one-quarter Jength of shell.

Dimensions—Length 14; breadth 9: height 3 mm.

Type Locality—Salisbury Bore, 330 feet; Dry Creek Sands,

Location of Holetype—Vate Mus. Coll. Univ. of Adelaide, T1729.

Observations—The Recent species, nigriia Sowerhy, has been recorded

(Chapnuian & Gabriel, 1923. p. 387) from the Miocene of the Murray Cliffs

uear Morgan and the Kalimnan of Muddy Creek, Vietoria. The latter occnr-

tence is here confirmed [rom examination of specimens in the British Museum.

Dry Creek Sands examples are not nigrila, although they were formerly identi-

fied as such. Coripared with type materi of nigrita in the Hritish Museum,

Hie present species is more elevated in the centre towards the dorsal aperture,

arkl more flattened ta concave towards the margin. The sides are not parallel,

The sculpture is of bifureating threads rather than intercalating riblets. The

interior of the apertural inargin in the Hindmarsh Bore specimen (a youny

shell) is not thickened aid is inelined to be frilled. Compared with nigrifa, the

dorsal aperture is smaller in relation to the total length; in nigrita it is 1:3, in

acra 1: between 4 and 5.

In introducing the generic hame Sophismalepas for nigrita, Iredale (1024,

p. 219) has drawn distinction between his gonns and both Lucapinella and

Megatebennus. MWe does not give auy diagnostic difference between Saplils-

malepas anc Amblychilepas, proposed by Pilsbry as a section of Mevatchennus

with the Australian shell jacanicensis Lamarck as type species, and including

nigeita, As there is no recognizable generie difference between nigrif and

javanicensis. Sophismalepas wrast be regarded as a synonym of Aniblychilepas,

Cotton & Godfrey (1934, pp. 47-50) have used Amblychilepas tor jacani-

censis and omicron wid Sophismalepas for rigrita aud eblouga, quoting Iredale

to differentiate the genus Sophismalepas. According to the definitions they sive

of the two “genera” the only difference between them is that Amblychilopas

is saddle-shaped and Sophismalepas oblong-oval, This can hardly he a generic

feature as the ratio length-breadth of the 4 species cam he arranged in series.

In javaniconsis the ratio is 1-25; in omicton 1-3; in nigrita 1-47; in oblonga 2-0,

The present species, aera, with ratio 1-56 is a further link in the series. ‘The

shape must, therefore, be disregarded as dingnostic, partioulady in view of the

fact that vigrita is closer in the series to javanicensls Mian it is to oblonga,

Maleriel——Specimen from Hindmarsh Bare, 450-457 fret.

Stratizraphical Ranze—Dry Creek Sands.

Geowraphical Distribution—Adelaide District, S. Aust.

Family TROCHEDAF,.')

Sublamily Mancarviinan,

Genus Evewenus Philippi, 1847,

Enehelus Vhilippi, 1847. Zeitsch. £. Malakozoal., eb.) p. 20,

Type species (s.d. Herrmannsen, 1847) Trochus quadricarinatus Chomnits--

alyatis Gmelin,

Subgenus Llinuerroroma Pilsbry, 1589,

Herpefopome Pilsley, 1889, in Tryon, Mon, Conch, Lt, p. 30,

Type species (o.d.) Euchelus scabriuseultss Adams & Angas.

Fuchelus (iferpetopoma) pliocenicus (Ladbrook)

ey hocaptite Chepnein & Cabriel, 1914 (nen Menke}, Proe, Hoy. Sac. Vie. 26 (a.s.),

2), p. .

emetonaiia plivcenica Ludbrook, 1911. Trans, Roy, Soe, $. Aust, 65, (1), p. 87) ph &

my eo,

Diasnosis—Small, thin, protovonch of 1% flatly convex axtally lirate turns,

adult whorls 4, sculptured with equidistant, granulase, spirals, increasing by

intercalation from 3 on the post-embryouie whorl to 9 on the penultimate whorl:

13 on body whorl from suture to umbilicus. Interspacves wider than ribs, with

fine, regula’ asial threads.

Dimensions—Height 9; diameter 7 mn,

Lype Lovality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide: Dry Creck Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus, Coll,, Univ. of Adelaide, TIG4L,

Material—8 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 3 specimens, Weymouth’s Bore: 2

broken specimens, Hindmarsh Bore,

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands,

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

(1) Most vf the species in this family were figured in 1941, this Juurual, 45, (1), pls. 4.8.

Subfamily CALLIosTOMINAE,

Gents CaLniostoma Swainson, 1540.

Calliostuma Swainson, 1840. Treat. Malac., p. 351.

Calhiistuma Swainson. Wenz, 1938. Handb, Pal, Gast. 2, p. 287 (synonymy).

Type species (s.d. Herrmannsen, 1846) Trochus conulus Linné,

Subgenus LAemmauror Tredale, 1929,

Laectifuutur tredale, 1929. Mem. Qid. Mus,, 9, (3), p. 271.

Type species (o.d.) Calliostoma trepidum Hedley = deceptum Smith,

Calliostoma (Laetifautor) obliquicancellatum (Ludbrook)

dantifanlar abliquicecniotes Ludbrook, 1941, Trans. Roy. Soe. S. Aust, 65, (1), p. 54,

pr +, Z- ae

Diagnosis—Proteconch smooth, high, of one-and-a-half tums. Whorls flat,

periphery augular, Sculpture fairly regular, of 5 to 7 strong, granulate lirac

per whorl, crossed by equal, sharp axial ridges, producing an obliquely rhombic

cancellation with granules at the interscetions. Base flat with 10 granular

spirals and close radials,

Dimensions—Height (estimated) 8; diameter 6 min.

Type Locality—Abuttuirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll,, Univ, of Adelaide, T1638.

Observations—tlypotype from: Weymouth’s Bore has the early whorls com-

plete; the protoconch is elevated and sinall, of one-and-a-half turns,

Material—6 paratypes (broken). Abattoirs Bore; 1 hypotype, Weymouth's

Bore,

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District, 5. Aust.

Caltiostoma (T,aetifautor) spinicarinatum (Ludbrook)

Lanner spinicarinatus Ludbrook, 1941. Trans. Roy. Sov. 8. Aust, 65, (1). p. 84, pl, 4,

Diggnosis—Broadly conical; 4 adult whorls slightly concave, anteriorly

carimate, Three strong spiral lirae on the posterior half of the whorl, two keels

on the auterior half, each surmounted by two or three crowded lirae, those

on the kecl, nearer the suture, equal, those on tlie further keel unequal, keel

nearer suture weaker than further keel.

Spirals crossed by oblique axials; intersections sharply gramdose.

Dimensions—Height 5-5; diameter 4°38 mm.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore. Adclaide; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tatu Mus, Coll., Univ. of Adclaide, T1652,

Material—T paratypes,

Straligraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Ceographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bure, Adelaide.

Calliostoma (Laetifautor) crebrinodulosum (1 ardbrook)

Laetifartor crebrinadilasus Ludbrook, 1941. Trans. Roy, Soc, 5. Aust, @, (1), p. 8d,

pl. A, fiz. 9.

Diagnosis—Small, conival, rather high, stout. Adult whorls 6, slightly

convex, sculptured with strong spirals inercasing by intercalation to four primary

and three sccoudary on the body whorl erossed by regular oblique axials, 20

on the penultimate whorl. Granular at intersections, Base convex, with seyen

spirals cqual to interspaces, erussed by munerous fine radials,

Dimensions—Height 7-9; diameter 6 mm.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Halotype—Vate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, T1653.

Material—Holotype; 1 paratype.

Stratizraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands,

Geographical Distribution—Abattuirs Bore, Adelaide.

Calliostoma (Laetifautor) bicarmatum (Ludbrook)

ae a prar. bicarinatus: Ludbrook, 1941, ‘Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust. 65, (1), p. 85, pl. 4,

Lautitanter bicarinutus Ludbrook. Crespin, 1943. Min. Res. Sury. Bull, 9, p. 97.

Diagnosis—Smull, falsely perforate. Protoconch very small, adult whorls 6,

with a stroug peripheral cord above the suture supporting 4 beaded lirae; above

this a narrow beaded cord and then 4 strong beaded lirae on the posterior

portion of the whorl. Oblique axial lirae in early whorls, beeoming obsolete in

penultimate and body whorls. Base Hat, with 8 eqnal spiral lirae equal to the

interspaces,

Dimensions—Height 6-3; diameter 4-8 mm.

type Locality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Late Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, 11632,

Ohservations—This is the most common species of the subgenus Lactifaxtor

in the Dry Creek Sands. Tt has also been recorded (Crespin, 1948, p. 97) from

the Kalinuan of Gippsland.

Matcrial—9 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 5 specimens, Wevmouth’s Bore; 7

specimens, Hindmarsh Bore.

Straligraphical Renge—Kalimuan-Dry Creek Sands.

Generapiiical Distribution—Gippsland, Vie.; Adelaide, 5, Aust,

Genus Asvece Sivaiuson, 1855,

Astele Swainson, 1853. Proc. Roy, Soe. Tas. 3, (1), p. 38.

Type species (monotypy) Astele subcarinatum Swainson,

Subgenus Asim.e s. str.

Astele (Astele) fanaticum Ludbrook

Astele fanaticum Ludbrook, 1941. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 65, (1), p. 86, pl. 4. Ru. fi

Diugnosis—Depressed conical, whorls sloping and angular, somewhat con-

cave. Adult whorls three, flattened beneath the suture in an almost horizontal

narrow plane, then steeply sloping for the rest of the whorl. Periphery carinate,

Sculpture of fine, eqnal spiral threads, four on the infra-sutural plane, nine on

the ohliqne portiun of the whorl, 14 on the base of the body whorl. Interstices

will very fine axial threads,

Dimensions—tleight 6-1; diameter 7-0 mim.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide: Dry Creek Sands.

Lovation of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ, of Adelaide. ‘T1650.

Material—Holotype T1650, 4 paratypes and 8 fragments. Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide, §, Aust,

Subgenus. Purcurastere Iredale, 1929.

Puchrasicle Iredale, 1929, Mem. Old. Mus., 9, (3), p. 274,

Type species (o.d.) Astcle septenarium Melvill & Standen,

Astele (Pulchrastele) planiconicum (Ludbrook)

Pularastele planiconteunm Ludbrook, 1941. ‘Crms. Roy. Sac. S. Aust. 65, (1), p. 88, pl. 5,

we ba.

Diagnasis—Narrowly conical, whorls flattencd, Protacunch of two turns;

six adult whorls cach hearing above the suture a strong peripheral cord stp-

porting beaded lirae increasing to Bye on the cord of the body whorl. Above

the cord lirac inercasing by intercalation to fiye on the body whorl. Spirals

crossed by nomeraqus strong axials, Base with 11 primary and one or two

faint secondary spirals. granulose near the umbilicus, and numerous faint racials.

Dimeusious—Height $; diameter 5-3 mm. ;

Type Loeality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands. ;

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus, Coll., Univ. of Ac elaide, T1660.

Maferial—oloty pe.

Strativraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide, $. Aust.

Astele (Pulchrastele) tuberculatum (Ludbrook)

Pulehinstele tuberenlateim Ludbrouk, 141. Trans, Roy. Soe. §. Aust, 65, CL), y. 86, pl. 4,

fi, 15,

Diagnosis—Broadly conical. Protoconch very small, fattened, of oncaunt-

a-half turns; adult whorls five, with a thick cord supporting four stall taber-

enlate lirae at the periphery. Tubercles continuous oyer the cord, ‘Three

narrow spirals with small prominent tubercles above the cord, Aperture sinall,

rhombie. Base lat with cight strong spirals, the umbilical of which are tubecy-

culate,

Dimensions—Height 4-S, diameter 4°35 nin.

Type Loeality—Ahbattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creck Sands.

Locddion of Holofype—tate Mus, Coll, Univ. of Adelaide, T1636,

Materiul—Pive paratypes, several fragments, Abattoirs Bore.

Strtizeaphical Ranze—Dry Crock Sanils.

Geouraphical Distribution—Ahattoirs Bore, Adeliide.

Subfanily Moxonon tin an,

Genus Caniiiarmus Montfort, 1S10.

Cunilaridas \ontlort, 1810. Conch, Syst. 2, p. 259, :

Cvnthinidua Meutlort. Won, [958. Tinh. Pal) Gast, 2, p. G02 (ssnouvmy),

Type species (monntypy) Cantharidus iis = Trochus tres Gineliu,

Subsenus Puasraxornacnus P. Fischer. 1455,

Mhasionotrochna YP. Viseher, 1885. Man. de Conelu. p. Sl. ;

Type species (meonotypy) Trechus Ladius Wood,

Cantharidus (Phasianotrochus) Jaxegernmelus. (Liidlraok)

Phasiinotiveltus laxegemmatus. Ludbrook, Lil. Traus, Ruy. Soc, $. Aust, 65, (1), p. 55,

pl. -L, fig. «.

Diaguosis—Very small, acutely conical al apes. protoconeh of one-aud-a-

half convex tums, Adult whorls with a strong peripheral lirate cord above the

suture with prominent, widely spaced tubercles, Five equal spival lirae,, broader

than julerstices, above the cord crossed by numerous crowded axials. Base

convex with LL equal spiral lirae anc numerous radial striae,

Dimensions—tleight 4-6; diameter 3-7 sim,

Type Tacality—Ahbattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creck Sands,

Loeation of Ivlofype—Tate Mus, Coll, Unis, of Adelaide, T1662,

MateridlI—11 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore: tvo examples, Wevmouth’s Bare,

Stratizraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Ceowrophical Dishihution—Nhattoirs and Weymouth’s Boros, Adelaide.

Canthavidus (Phasianotrochus) subsimplex (Ludhvaok)

Phasiunutrochius subsimplexr Tatlbroaok, 1041. ‘Trans, Ray. Soe. S. Aust, 65, (1), p. 43,

pl. 4, fig. 10.

Diagnosis—Small. thin, narrowly conical, protoconch flattened, of two-and-

a-half turns; whorls only slightly convex, suture tinear, Sculpture fine, of mumer-

ous crowded microscupic spiral and oblique axial striae. Lase slightly convex,

with 12 spiral striae and faint oblique axials.

Diinensions—Height 4-8» diameter 8-7 mm,

Type Locality Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creck Sands,

Location of Hololype—Tate Ntus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, T1663.

Material—EKiight paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; two examples, ITindmarsh Bore;

two examples, Weymouth’s Bore,

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District, $. Aust.

Genus THAroria Gray, 1547,

Thalatia Gray, 1547, Proc, Zool. Soc,. 15, p. 145.

Type species (e.d.) Trochus pictus W. Wood = Monodonta conica Gray.

Subgenus Canrmarotta Iredale, 1929.

Calthalitia Iredale, 1929. Mem, QId. Mus. 9, (3), p. 371

Type species (e.d.) Trochus arruensis Watson.

Thalotia (Calthalotia) nitidissima (Ludbrook)

Calthalotia nitidissima Ludbrook, 1941, Trans, Koy. Soc. S. Aust., 65, (1), p. 83, pl. 4, fiz. 11.

Diagnosis—Small but solid, imperforate, conical. Adult whorls five, with

stroug, even granulose spirals inereasing from three on the first to seven on

the body whorl. Interstices with oblique axial lirae increasing in number to-

wards the Jast whorl. Oblique cancellation in the carly whorls, strong and

regular granulation on the body whorl. Base convex, with nine narrow, slightly

granulose spirals and numerous axials, Colummella slightly curved, with a slight

callus.

Dimensions—Height 6; diameter 5 mun,

Type Locality—aAbattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotyne—Tate Mus, Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, T1661.

Obsercutions—This species is very closc to the type species of the sii-

genus. T. (C.) arruensis Watson. WNitidissima lacks the ard aboye the suture

and its gemmulate lirae are more uniform than in arruensis.

Material—¥our paratypes, Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands.

Geographical Distribyution—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide.

Thalotia (Calthalotia) fictilis (Iudbrook)

Calthalotia fietilis Ludbrook, 1941, ‘Trans: Roy. Soc. S, Aust., 65, (1), p. S84, ph 4 fig. Lt

Diagnosis—Smal! aud fairly thin. falsely perforate, Adult whorls 4, seulp-

tured with fine subequal spiral lirae, 8 on the body whorl, reticulated by nuimer-

ous, tne Oblique axils of about halt the strength of the spirals. Base convex,

with 8 smooth spirals crossed hy minute aceremental striae, Periphery angulate:

colnmella arenate,

Dimensions—eight 4-0; diameter 3-5 mm,

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holetype—Tate Mus. Col., Univ. of Adelaide, T1624,

Material—10 paratypes and broken specimens. Abattoirs Bore: 6 specimens,

Wevmonth’s Bore; 4+ specimens, Hindmarsh Bore,

Shatigraphical Rauge—Dry Creek Sands.

Gousraphival Distribitiou—Adelaide District,

Subfamily Trocuinar.

Genus Crancunus Menttort, LSI.

Glanenlus Montfort, T8110. Conch. Syst., 2, p. 190,

Clanculus Montfort. Wenz, 1938, Handb. Paul, Gast, 2, p. 343 (synonymy).

Type species (monotypy) Trechus pharaonius Linné.

Subgenys Evnic.ancuius Cottom & Godfrey, 1984.

Nuriclinculus Cotton & Godfrey, 1934. §. Aust. Nat., 15, (3), p. 78.

Type species (e.d.) Claneulus flayellatus Philippi.

Clanculus (Euriclanculus) quadricingulatus Ludbrook

Claneuluy quadricingulatus Tudbraok, 194t. ‘Trans. Toy. Soo. 8. Aust, 63, (LI, p. 82.

pl. 4, fig. 2.

Diagnosis—A Claneulus (2Lnriclanentus) with 4 adult whorls, sculptured

with granulose cinguli, fom on the penultimate whorl, 13 from the suture to

the «wmbilical fissure on the hody whorl, the nine on the base finer, more closely

vranulose and more closely set than the four above the periphery. Granulation

develops progressively from smooth cingnli on neanie whorls to coarse gran:

lation on body and penultimate whorls. Suture depressed; periphery rowncded.

Dimensions—Height 6-2: diameter 6-9 mim.

Type Locality—Ahattoirs Bore; Dry Creek Sands,

Location of Uolotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, T1623.

Observations—This and the species eucarinatus belong to the subgcuus

Buriclanculus, which is very close to Clareulus’s. str. in its umbilical and aper-

tural characters. The two Pliocene species are closest to C, ceylonicus G, & H,

Nevill from Ceylon. Thoy are of the same size as that species and the ornament

is sinilar, Most present day species of Claneulus in southern Australia are

larger.

Material—2 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 5 cxamples, Hindmarsh Bore,

examples, Weymouth’s Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

Clanculus (Euriclanculus) eucarinatus Ludbrook

Clanculus eucarinutus Ladbrook, 1941. Trans, Roy. Soe. S. Aust., 65, (1), p. 84, pl. 4, fig. 5.

Diagnasis—Clanculus with 4 adult whorls bearing 4 grannlose cinguli, 3

equal in size, the fourth a strong peripheral cord. Suture deeply canaliculate.

Interstices between the cinyuli axially lirate, three lirae corresponding to two

granules on the cinguli, Periphery roundly carinate, base conyex with 9 fine

eranulose cinguli and axially Jirate interstices,

Dimensions—Height 5-2; diameter 5-6 mm.

Type Locelity—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Types—Tate Mus, Coll, Univ. of Adelaide, T1647.

Material—3 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 1 specimen, Hindmarsh Bore; @

specimens, Weymouth’s Bore.

Stratizraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands,

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

Subfamily Usrpontae.

Genus Isanpa A, Adams, 1854,

sant: A, Adanis, 1854. Gen. Rec. Moll, 1, p. 409.

Type species (o.d.) I, coronata A, Adams.

Subgenus Mrxonta A. Adams, 1860.

Minolia A. Adams, 1860, Ann. Mag, Nut, Hist., ser, 3, 6, p, 336,

Minolia Adiums. Wenz. 1938, Handb, Pal. Cast., 2, p. 317.

Type species (monotypy) Minolia punctata A. Adams.

Isanda (Minolia) perglobosa (Ludbryok)

Ethminalia perglobosa Tadbrook, 1941. Trans. Roy. Soc. $. Aust. 65, (1), p. 86, pl 4, fig. 3.

PDiagnosis—Protoconch flattened, of 3 very small turns; 8 adult whorls,

convex, with numerous fine spiral striae crossed irregularly and frequently by

faint, oblique, axtal striae, Periphery rounded, but with a strong tendency toa

wiguiation. Base convex.

Dimensions—Height 4-6; diameter 5-5 mm.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore; Dry Creek Sands,

Location of Holetypye—Tate Mus, Coll, Univ. of Adelaide, T1640,

Observalions—Although this species was described originally in Ethminolia

the writer now considers that it more properly belongs to Minolia. It is very

vlosely related to Minolia pulcherrima Angas, retained by Iredale in Minolia,

anu lacks the medial angulation said to be diagnostie of Ethminolia, Wenz

(1938, p, 817) has synonymized Eliminolia with Minvlia.

Material—l7 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands, .

Geographical Distribttion—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide,

Getus Sevcramen fredale, 1924.

Spestamew tredale 1934. Proc. Linn. Soe. N.S.W., 40, (3), p. 227.

Type species (o.d.) Trochus philippensis Watson.

Spectamen planicarinatum sp, riov.

pl, 2, fig, 4,

Sulariella striguta Tenison-Woods sp. Harris, 1897, Cat, ‘Lert. Moll. Brit. Atos , Lp 285 (in

part No. 4173),

Shige coh (T-Woods). Ludbrook, 1941, Tiuus. Roy. Soe. S. Aust, 65, (1), yx. Lon

m part).

Diagnosis—Depressed aud broadly conical, very smull, thin, perforate,

Spire whorls carinate, Hattened and generally horizontal posteriorly between the

suture and the first carina, fat area relatively smooth with fine spiral threads

and faint, oblique growth-lines only, Whorl abruptly and flatly descending

anteriorly, On this area about 3 conspicuous and evenly spaced’ lirae, Body

whorl relatively large with the posterior carina and a curina at the periphery,

‘lat area between the suture and the posterior carinae as on the spire whorls,

between the 2 carinae sculpture of eqnal of subequal lirae. Base conyes with

fine spiral striae between the peripheral carina and the umbilicus, Umbilicus

spirally and longitudinally lincate; bordered by a conspicuous keel.

Deseriplion of Holotype—Shell very small, turbinate, depressed and broadly

conical, Protocanch small, sharply elevated, of two-wnd-a-half smouth turns,

adult whorls three, flattencd posteriorly between the suture and carina, pas-

terior area relatively smooth with fine spiral threads and oblique axial growth-

lines only, Whorl descending obliquely anterior to the carina, sculptured with

three evenly spaced lirae. Body whorl relatively large, with the posterior

earint and a sceond carina at the periphery. Subsutural flat area with fine

spiral threads and oblique growth axials ent area between the carinae with

three evenly spaced lirae. Base convex, with fine spiral striae between the

peripheral carina and the umbilicus. Umbilicus very wile, spirally and longi-

tudinally lineate, bordered by a conspicuous keel. Aperture subquadrate, inter-

rupted by previous whorl.

Dimensions—Heivht 2-4; diameter 4 mm.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore; Dry Crecvk Sands.

Twecation of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Uniy— of Adelaide, F15145,

Ohsertations—Solariella strigata has hitherto been regarded as a somewhat

variable specics and Dry Creek Sands examples haye been specifically compared

with Miocene variants. Among material in the British Musenm,. classified

as S, strigata, three distinet species may be recognized; first, shrigata with its

crenulate carina and creoulate umbilical margin; secondly, the small species

deseribed above with a ilat, altiost smooth horizontal posterior area and no

crennlations on the carinae; and thirdly, one example of the Species praccurser

described beluw, similar in sive to strigala but dillerine in sculpture,

S. strigata does not occur in the Dry Creek Sands, hut the other two species

are well represented.

The genus Spectamen to which all three species belong, strigata having

previously been considered ancestral to the Spectamen philippense series in

New South Wales janie, 192He. p. 167), is hy Wenz (1938, p. 274) placed in

synouyiy with Seferiella, The type species of Soluriella, S. maculata Woud,

trom the Pliocene Crag, is generically different from Speetamen. Tu Solariella

ihe area below the suture is excavate, not flat to conver, The sculpture is ol

strong eerumulate spiral cords, 3 per whorl in the type specivs, the apex is

Hittenedt. the umbiliens is strongly gemmulate and longitudinally lirate; the

base: is strongly corded, In Speetamen the whorls are viet strangly corded but

lirate. the area below the suture is flat to convex with obliqne axial growth

striats there may be some gemmulation of the carina bordering the flat area;

the base is convex and generally smooth but for fine threads or lirae; the

unibilicus ig weakly crenulate to practically smooth.

The venns Speetaimen appears to belong to the Indo-Pacifie aid Australian

vewions, the two Tertiary species, planicarinalum and praecursor, being mare

closely related to Indian Ovean species than to Australian. The nearest living

ally of planicarinatins is “Solariella” biangulusa A. Adams trom the West Coast

ul India. o flattish species with a flat area bencath the suture, and two keels.

“Solariclla” biangulosa should also be placed in Speetamen, The Miocenu

stvigata with its somewhat gemmulate carina and umbilicus is more closely

allied to Speetamen than to Solariella,

Mutecrial—Holotype, 3 paratypes. Abattoirs Bore; meancrous paratypes.

ILinchncash Bore, 6 paratvpes, Weymouth’s Bore; 3 paratypes, Lawrr Beds

Milly Creek, Victoria, 1.81, Coll,

Stratigeaphicval Range—Miocene-Dry Creek Sands.

Grawraphival Distributiun—Muddy Creek. Viex Adelaide, S. Arst

Speetamen praccursor sp. nov.

pl, 2, fig. 5.

Soluriedla striguta Tenisou-Woods sp. Harrig, ISY7. Gat. ‘Vert. Moll, rit) Mas, 1, p, 283

(No. G168 in party.

solarielle wtusata €T. Woods). Lodbregk, 141. Trans, Boy. Soe. §. Aust. 63, (11, pb. Loo

{in ynerty.

Diesnosis—-Snrall, conical, thin; protoconch of 3 sina) and smouth torns.

Whorls flattened but oblique beneath suture, elsewhere conyes. Seulptured

over whole whorl with spiral lirae, about 3 on fat posterior area and 4 primacies

with from 2 to 5 secondaries between ou the convex portion above the shoulder

on the hocdy whorl Base slightly convex, with 5 primary ancl 5 secondary tine.

Uinbilicus asially ancl spirally irate. borderect by a avoderate cord.

Description of Holotype—Shell sina, conical, thin, turbinate. apical anele-

whont 73 dew, Proteconeh sinwll anid sharp of 3 simooth turtis, udult whorls 4

flattened posteriorly below the linear suture; flattened arcu seulptured with fine

spiral lime inereasing by interealation to S near the aperture on the body whirl,

anil crowded fine equidistant oblique axiuls. Whorl conyex between pousterilir

area dud shoulder senlptured also with Sine Tite increasing by iitervalatiot tu

+ prinuuies with from 2 to 5 secondaries between, Shouliler carinate, huse

slivhtly gurves with 4 primary spirals and imtermecliate secontlary spirals. Aaxials

wus peaininent than on posterior Hat area. There js a tendency ta obsaler-

plication of the whorls with resnitant geminulation ef the spirals, visible only

in oblique lighe, Unibilieus widely open. spirally and asially lirate within,

bordered by a muderate cord, somewhat gemmulate where it is crossed by the

axials, Aperture subquadrate. interrupted by the previous whorl.

Dimensions—Ileight 5; diameter 5-5 mm,

Type Locality—Weymoutlrs Bore, 310-530 feet; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Molotype—Tate Mus. Coll, Univ, of Adelaide, ¥15146,

Observutions—Fram the previous species, S\ planicarinatune, §. praceursar

way be distinguished by its higher spire und less Hiattened whorls. The flat area

henedth the suture is narrower, eblique and more strangly seulptured, ‘The

wrest living species is “Solariclla’ sayademalha Melyill from the Saya de Malha

Beuotks, Indian Ocean, which should also be placed in Speciamen. In the Recent

species the radial threads on the Hat subsutural area are stronger and the spiral

hrae are weaker, Otherwise the two species are very alike, evei as to size,

Muaterial—Holotype. T complete aud 5 broken paratypes, Weymouth’s Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Weymouth’s Bore, Adelaide,

Family STOMATITDAF,

Subfamily Sroacavin ae.

Genus Guna 8. Adams, 1550.

Gone Ardains, 1650. Proe. Zool, Soc., p. 36.

Type species (s.d. Fischer, 1885) Sfomatella planulata Lamarck.

Gena incola Cotton

Gen sp, Ladbrouk, 1941. Trans, Roy, Soc, S, Aust. 65, (1), p. Loo.

Gena incala Cotton, JO47. Rec. S. Aust. Muy., 8 (4), p. G66, pl. 21, figs. 13, 14.

Diagnosis—Small, flat, narrowly elongate, aperture very large, about four-

fifths longest diameter of shell. Protoconch smooth, shining, adult whorls mierd-

scopically sculptured with very fine spiral striae and curved axials of erowth.

Dimensions—Height 3; diameters 10 and 16 mm.

Lovation of Hololtype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, T1731.

Obsercations—The authorship and designation of the genus Gena is com-

ples. The name was introduced by Gray in 1840 as a nomen nudwn iu the

Synopsis of the Contents of the British Museum, ed. 12, p. 147. In 1847, Gene

was included by Gray in his List of the Genera of Recent Mollusea, P.Z.S., p.

146, Patella lutea of Linné being cited as type. The genas was first defined

by Adams in 1850 (P.Z.S.. p, 36) and the species listed. “Patella Iutva” was

not included; the first species cited was Stomatella plamilata Lamarck. Subse-

quently, in 1854 (Thes. Conch. 2, p, 628), Adams described a Gena Infea cou-

sidered by him to be equivalent to Linmné’s Patella lutea with which he made

Stomatella aurteula of Lamarck synonymous.

Hanley, however (1855, p. 424), cousidered that Patella lutea of Linué was

unrecounizable, and probably not the equivalent of Adams's Gena lutea.

This view was accepted by Pilsbry in 1890, Stomatella planulata being

cited as type, Pischer had. however. already cited planulaia as the type ot

Gena in 1885.

There appears at the time of writing to be no ruling of the International

Committee on the validity of a genus based on a doubtful species. The first

valicl use of the name therefore appears to be that of Adams in 1550 with sul-

sequent designation by Fischer in 1885,

Material—1 specimen (juvenile), Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adclaide District.

Family SKENEIDAE.

Genus ‘Trinosroma H. & A. Aclams, 1953.

Teinastama We. & A. Adams, 1853. Gen, Ree. Moll. 1. p. 122.

(Tinostoma P. Fischer, 1885, Mian, de Conch., p. $34.)

Type species (s.d. Cossmann, 1858) Teinestoma politum A. Adams.

Teinostoma depréssulam Chapman & Gabriel

pl. 2. fix. 12.

Teinostoema depressula Chapman & Gabricl, (914. Kee, Geol. Surv. View 26 fas.) (2),

p. 3L7, pl. 27. figs. 34a. b.

Trinostoma depressula Chania & Gabriel, Ladbenok, 1941, Trans. Roy. Soe, S$. Masts

65, (1),

1")

Diugnosis--Very small, solid, smooth, depressed, apical surface smooth.

Umbilical area sunken, filled with callus. Aperture subovute, lip produced pos-

teriorly, excavate below,

Dimensions—Icight 0:75; diameter 1:54 mm.

Type Lecality—Rore 10, 225-230 teet, near Ouyen, Mallee District, Victoria,

Location of Holotype—Gcol. Surv.. Vie, Coll., Melbourne.

Observations—T. depressulum is a typical Teinostoma, resembling the small

species LT. rotellacforme, T. complanatum and T. dubinn trom the Parisian

Eocene. The Recent type species, T. politum, is considerably larger.

Material —S specimens, Abattoirs Bore; 22 speciinens, Hindmarsh Bore; 10

specimens, Weymoutl's Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Kalimman-Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Gippsland, Vie. Adelaide, S. Aust,

Genus SvankeyNna Iredale, 1930.

Stipator Lredile, 1924. Proce, Linn. Soc. N.S.AW.. 49, (3), 197, p. 235 (non Helin, 1900),

Starkeyid lredale, 1930. Aust. Zool., 6, p. 175 (mom. nov. for Sépetor preuee.).

Type species (monotypy) Leinostama sturkeyae Hedley,

Starkeyna pulcherrima (Chapman & Gubriel)

pl. 2, fig, 17,

Teinostima puleherrime Chapmiin & Gabricl, P94. FProe. Roy. Sov, View, 26 (ns.}, (2).

p. 3l7, pl. 27, figs, 26a-c,

Diaznosis—Spire flattened, whorls flatly convex, protoconch small of 2

turns, adult whorls 3, Suture linear, Base flattish, umbilicus partly filled with

callus which extends ahout halfway over the surface of the base of the body

whorl. Aperture subqnadrate, slightly notched posteriorly. Proaduecd pos-

teriorly and excavate below,

Dimensions—Ucight 1-75; diameter 4-75 mim.

Type Localify—Bore 10, 225-230 feet, near Onyen, Mallee Bore District,

Victoria.

Lacation of Holotype—Gcol, Sury.. Vic. Coll., Melbourne.

Obsertations—This specics previously known only from the Kaliniuan of

the Mullee Bores was considered by Chapman and Gabriel as a “variant” of

Teinostoma, perhaps referable to Bonnetella (= Bonnetia Cossmann non

Robinesu-Desvoidy, 1830) of Cossmann. Tt is not a Teinostoma, Jacking the

completely closed imnbiliens and the obscured spire; puleherrima has the um-

bilicus only partly filled, the callus spreading in a band ayer shout half the

hase, The spire ts natienid and the suture linear. The species is placed in

Iredale's Starkeyna, created for Teinostona slarkeyace Hedley, to which it ap-

pears to hear the closest resemblance. It is not congeneric with Bonnetia

planispira Cossmamn, the type species of Bonnetella.

Materia? 17 specimens, Ahattoirs Bore.

Stratiraphieat Range—Kulimian-Dry Creek Sands.

Croumaphical Distribution—Western Victoria; Adelaide, S. Anstruliv.

Genus Tuntona AL Adams, 1863.

Tibiohs X. Adams, 1$63. Proc. Zool. Suc., p. Tl.

Type species (s.d, Kobelt, US78) 1. wivea A. Adauis.

Subgenus Parrursora Iredale, 1936,

Martubiela Tredite. 1936. Ree, Aust. Mus., 19, (5), p. 256:

Type species (monetypy) Parlibiola blancha Iredale.

Tubiola (Partubiola) depressispira (Lidbrook)

Purtubtola depressispira Vardbraak, 1941. Trams. Noy. Sac. S. Aust, 63, (1), p. 87, pl 4

fir, 16.

Diagnosis—Whiorls tricarinate, at first more or less rounded then with 3 se-

gularly disposed carinae with flattened areas between. Subsutural area de-

cikledly sunken. About 6 spiral lirae between cach pair of keels, Faint axials

reliculating the spirals on the whorls more prominent on the base. Base flat

tened near carina, convex toward the umbilicus, Aperture roundly quadrate,

outer lip attached to previous whorl at median carina.

Dimenstons—Ueight 1-5; diameter 3:5 mim.

Type Localily—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide; Dry Creck Sands.

Lecation of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll, Uniy. of Adelaide, T1649.

Obsertafions—The subgernms Purtubiola is well represented in the Indo-

Pacific fauna by a group including “Cyclostrema” carinatum H. Adams, quingue-

carina and novemearinatum Melyill, all very small species like the type

species blancha Iredale. Tubivla nivea, the type species of Tubiola is a com-

paratively large shell, less carinate and Jess flattened than those of the subgenus

Partubiola,

Material—19 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 3 specimens, Weymouth’s Bore; 7

specimens. Hindmarsh Bore.

Stratigraphical Runge—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distrifution—Adelaide District.

Tubiola (Partubiola) yarilirata (Ludbrook)

Partubiola varilirata Ludbrook, 1940, Trans, Hay, Sec, $, Aust, 63, (1), p. 87, pl. 4, fig. I7.

Diagnasis—Whorls with oue carina at the posterior one-third of the whorl,

Whorl above the carina flat, depressed with about 8 very fine lirae; below the

carina convex with stronger and more widely separated lirac, About 13 strong.

subequal lirae on the body whorl between the carina and umbilicus.

Dimensions—Height 1-3; diameter 3-5 mm,

Type Locality—Ahattoirs Bore; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ, of Adelaide, T1631.

Material—10. paratypes, Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands,

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide,

Genus Crossna A. Adams, 1865.

Grossca A. Adams, 1865. Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser, 3, 15, p, 323.

(Crosseia Fischer, 1885. Man. des Conal., p. 778.)

Type species (s.d, Fischer. 1885.) C. miranda A. Adams.

Subgenus Donieressna Tredale, 1924,

Dolicrossea Treelale, 1924, Proc. Linn. Soc, N.5S.W., 49, (3), 197, p. 351.

Type species (o,d,) Crossea labiata. 'Venison-Woods.

Crossea (Dolierossea) cf, labiata Tenison-Woods

Crossed labiati Tenisou-Woods, 1876b. Peoc. Rey, Sve. ‘Tas, for 1875, p. 151.

Dolierosseu labiata ‘Tenison-Woods, Iedale, 1924.. Prae, Liun. Soc, N.S.W., 49, (3), 197,

nm Sot,

dichirdliien lubiate (Tenison-Woods). Ladhrook, 1941. Yraas, Roy, Soc. S, Aust. 65, (1),

p. 8.

Diagnosis—Spire elevated, suture impressed, whorls very finely, spirally,

lirate and axially striate, Umbilicus bordered with a callus; aperture ovate, both

anteriorly and posteriorly angulate and channelled. Outer lip -variced,

Dimensions—Iieight 4; diameter 2 min.

Type Locality—Loug Bay, Tasmania. 10 fathoms: Recent.

Location of Wolotype—? Hobart Museum.

Obsercations—No further material has become available smce that of the

Abattoirs Bore and the fossil species is still tentatively referred to labiata in

the absenee of complete specimens wilh unbroken enter lip.

Wenz (1938, p. 3399) has placed fredale’s Dolicrossca in senonymy with

Crossea; in erecting the gems Iredale did not defitie the characters which

sepanicte it fron Crossed. “The type species of Cressea, C. miranda, has several

strong varices. which do not occur on any other species of the gers Chat the

weiter las sec. The genus as a whole is readily divisible into sections. on the

varices. as chown by Tate (1$90, p. 220). Crossta s. str, is strangely varices.

Dolicrossen has a vacieed outer tip, while Crasseola has a sinaple lip, the whorls

being either canecellate or punctate. The fossil species ander prosett eon

sideration ull haye the outer lip broken so that even snbueneric location is

tentative: the absence of cancellate ar punctate sculptnre fs siguestive uf

Dolierossea, which is retained as the subgenus.

Material—i_ specimens, Abattuirs Bares 9 specimens, Rey out Tusiiia

(BM. Coll).

Stratigraphical Rauge—Dry Creek Sauds-Reecnt.

Geegraphical Distribution—Southern Australia,

Family TURBINIDAE.

Subfamily Lioviiwar.

Genus Liotina, Munier-Chalinas, 1855.

Liuting \iinier-Chalmas in Fischer, 1885. Man. de Cvmeh.. p. 531.

Type species (0.d.) Delphinula gercille; Detrince.

Subgenus Munpitia Finkiy, 1927,

Miinelitia Finlay, 1927. ‘Trans. N.Z%. Inst.. 57. p. S03,

Type species (o.c.) Liotina tryphencasis Powell.

Liotina (Munditia) tasmanica (Tenison-Wends )

2, fiz. 6.

Liptina lumellosa, T. Woods. Ludbrook, 1941. Trans, Koy. Soc. S, Aust, 63. 113. p. LOO,

Livtella cupituta Hedley. Ludbrook, 1941, ibid,

Didgnosis—Shell Hatly depressed. bicarinate; seulpturcd with clistant spiral

ribs crossed by equal radial ribs, intersectious nodulose. Interspaces crowded

with fine close imbrivating lamellac, Umbilicus widely open, spirally lamelloge.

Dimensions—Height 3, diameter major 8; diameter minor 6 min

Type Lecality—Long Bay. Tasmania.

Location of Holatype—lIobart Musenm.

Observations—The small shells from the Abattoirs Bore previously ident

fed with Liotina lamellosa (—L. roblint Johnston) are not lamellosa, which

has a more elevated spire. but tasmenica, and are conspecific with Receut speci-

mens so identified in the British Museum, Recent adult tasinanica are larger

tla the Pliocene species, but juveniles cf Recent favmanine are very like fossil

examples. ‘he species also oceurs in the Upper Beds at Muddy Creck ( Plio-

cee) anc ait is possible that other specimens identified as lamellosa (or roblini)

which is a synonyin of famelosa uceordiug to May (L919, p. 71), may prove

to be fasmanica. Lhe specimen previously identified as Liotella capifata Wedley

isan eroded shel] of the sme species.

Maleria—-The figured hypotype ancl 2 other speciniens, Abattoirs Bore, 1

specimen, Hiudiiursh Bere, 4 specie us. Muddy Creek (Upper Beds); 2 speci-

incns. Recent. Tasmania: 2 specimens. Recent, Vietorin (BM. Coll).

Stratigraphical Range—kKalimnan-Recent.

Geographical Distributian—New South Wales to Spenver Gulf. S. Aust.

Subfamily CoL.ontin a.

Genus Corronia Gray, LA5t

Collonia Gray, 1850, in MeE, Gray. Fig, Moll. Anim, 4, p. 47

Type species (scl. Fischer, 1885) Delphinila merginota Lannarck.

—s

Collonia omissa 4). nov.

pl 2 Hw 7

Dingnesis—Apex Haltencd. whorls depressedt below the sutire. elsewhere

vonves. Umibilicns moderately wide, thickened and erctiulate at the bordcr,

Aperture erreular, moderately solid and thickened towards the rmmbilicus.

Deseviption of Lololype—Shell small, llattened-globose, smooth. solid. of

three turbinate whorls, apex depressed, small, sniaoth aud shining. Adult

Whorls semewhat flattened posteriorly helaw the satime. convey elsewhere.

seulpture of faiut axl growth striae only. Umbilicus moderately wide, bord-

ered with @ erenidlate callus. Aperture circular, moderately solid ancl thiekenedd

particularly at the umbilicus,

Dinnensions—eieht L; maximam diameter 2 nim.

type Lecality—Ahattoirs Bore, Adeliide; Dry Creek Sands.

Loration of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, F15147.

Obsercations—The present spevies is probably the Plioceve descendant of

Gellonia parerla Tenison-Woods. which ceeurs alinost ubiquitously in the

Miocene of Victoria, C. oimissa is similar in size and general aspect but differs

in being mure flattened than pareula and lacking the spiral striations. The

wnbilicns is crenulate, while in parvula it is simple. The apertnre is thickened

over the penultimate whorl in omissa.

Material—Holotype and 2 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Abattairs Bore. Adelaide.

Subfamily Tuwsinmar.

Genus Astrana Réding. 1798.

Astraed Roding ex Balten, 1798. Mus, Bolt., p. 79.

(Dmpeorefor Montfort, 1810, Conch. Syst. 2, p. 198.)

(Cantherhis Swainson, 1840, Treat. Malac,, pp. 216, 349.)

Type species (s.d. Suter, 1913) Trochus imperiafis Guvelin = heliotropron

Martyn.

Subgenus Berrasrrara Iredale, 1924.

Bellastraee Wvedile, 1924. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 49, (3), 197, p, 252.

Type species (o.d.) Bellustraea kestcceni tredale,

Astraea (Bellastraea) hesperus sp. nov.

pl. 2. fig. 5.

Axtidea ( Bellastraras) aster (T. Woods). Tardbronk, 1941, ‘Pris, Roy, Sne. S. Aust. 65.

(1), p. 100,

Diaynosi:—Depressed, spire sunken, shoulder of whorl thin and sharp. pro-

dived at intervals into acute-angled spines about $ per whorl on the penulti-

mate whorl. cach spine sculptured with threads radiating fan-wise; spines more

widely spaced towards the aperture and inclined to be imbricating. Sculpture

prominent. of rows of granules on the posterior part of the whor) iucreasing by

intercalation to § rews near the aperture on the body whorl, and rows of im-

bricating fine scales on the anterior part of the whorl; increasing in mumiber by

intercalation, Dase convex. sculptured with geniumulate spirals, which are finer

towards the periphery und more strongly and distinetly gemmulate near the

vinhilicus, aud waving axial grewth threads. Umbilicus wide. margin thick-

ened with parietal callus inereasing m size with age.

Description af [olotype—Shell of moderate size, depressed-turbinate.

Protovonch very small, sunken, of 2 smooth, fat turns, adult whorls three only

slightly convex, sculptured with gemmulate spirals increasing by intercalation:

posterior gernmules witlely spaced in rows in anterior part of whorl, the spirals

wre rather surmonnted by imbricating narrow svales marking the growth axials.

Shoulder of whorl thin and sharply Jamellar, produced at intervals inta aente-

ory

angled spines, many of which are broken on the body whorl of the holotype.

Rach spine is ornamented with threads radiating fun-wise. Base of abaut equal

convexity with the spire, sculptured from the shoulder to the umbilicns with

six huely geninulose spirals followed by one strongly geunnulose band aud two

obsolete rows. of gemmules, Uinbilieus wide, simple except for parictal callus

which i5 crossed by numerous waving axials of growth, Aperture subcireulan,

inner lip rounded and reflécted, outer lip angled wud channelled at the peri-

phery, excavate below. overhanging aboye.

Dinwusions—Ilenght 4; masimunt diameter LL: miniuwn diameter 9 unm,

Pype Locality—Abattoirs Bore; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll.. Univ, of Adelaide, FL5145.

Observaltions—Although there is a certam umourit of resemblaner between

the carly whorls of this species and A. (B.) aster Tenison-Woods, the adults

differ censpicuously. A, (B.) hesperus is strongly sculptured, as compared with

the abnost smooth A. (B.) aster. There is also resemblance between hesperus

and an uniamed species from Zanzibar in the B.M. Collection,

Material—Iolotype, 6 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 1 paratype, Ilmedruarsh

Bore,

Stratizraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geovraphical Distributian—Abattoits and Uindmarsh Bores. 5, Anst.

Family PHASIANELLIDAE

Genus PrrastANELLA Lamarck, 1504.

Phuskotela Gamarck, 1804. Ann. Mus, ist, Nat. Paris, 4, (22), p, 205.

Vhasiunella Lamarck, Wen, 1938. Handb. d. Palaozool. Gastr., p. 363° (synonymy }.

Type species (sd. Harris, 1897) Phasianella turhinoides Lamarck,

Phasianella dennanti Crespin

Phusiunella demanti Grespin, 1926, Troe. Roy. Soe, Vie. 88. (4.8.), p. 119, pl, 9, figs, 16, 17-

Phastiniella dennanti Crespin. Ludbrook, 1941, Trans, Roy. Soo, 5. Aust, 65, (1), p. Lad.

Diasnosis—Vive subyentricose whorls in adult. Aperture elongute-ovate,

rounded anteriorly, pointed posteriorly, inner Jip everted. Colour markings

where visible in square tessellated pattern, Suture impressed.

Dimensios—Heivht 14, diameter §-23; height of apertive 3-73: lieight of

aperture (inside measurement) 4:75 mm.

Type Locality—Muddy Creek, Upper Bed: Kulimnan,

Location of Holotype—Dennant Coll,, Nat. Vrus,, Melhourne,

Observations—Although no colour markings are visible, one shell, «lillering

in-ai4e, shape ol whorls, and shape of aperture from the small species described

hwlow ax Pellax jejuna sp. nov., appears to belong to 2. dennanti, Tt is smaller

in size than typical dennanti, having a heiglit of 8 man.

Material—1 specimen, Weymouth’s: Bore.

Strativraphical Range—Pliveene: ’Bulaonbian.

Gearraphical Distribution—Keilor near Melbourne; Muddy Creek, Viotoria:

Adelaide, S. Aust,

Genns Permax Finlay, 1927,

Bethin Prihies 1927. Trans. NA. List, 57, p. 368.

Type species (o.d.) Phasianella hutloni Pilsbry.

Pellax jejuna sp. nov,

pl. 2 fig. 9.

Diagnosis--Shell turbinate-conical, about twice as high as broad, whorls

rapidly increasing in size wud convexity, ornamented with oblique axial linear

fhane-coloured markinys. Body whorl] about two-thirds height of shell, Aperture

expanded anteriorly. inner lip straight and reflected aver umbilicns, somewhat

effuse at base. Umbilicus closed,

Deseription of Holotype—Shell very small, turbinate-conical, thin, about

twice as high as broad. Protoconch minute, sunken; whorls 4, subventricose,

rapidly increasing in size and convexity, smooth, ornamented with oblique, axial,

narrow linear, flame-colourcd markings. Body whorl large, about two-thirds

height of shell, spire small, noderately elevated, Suture lincar, impressed,

Aperture suboyate, expanded somewhat anteriorly, angulate posteriorly. Taner

lip simple, almost straight and reflected over the umbilicus, somewliat effuse

ut the base. Umbilicus closed.

Dimensions—Height 3; diameter 1-5; height of aperture 1 mm.

Type Locality—Weyimoutl’s Bore, 310-330 feet; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Uniy. of Adclaide, F15149,

Observations—Both Thiele (1935, p. 71) and Wenz (1938, p. 362) law

placed Pellax in synonymy with Eulithidium Pilsbry (1898), The two are, how-

ever, dissimilar, Eulithidium variegatum (Carpenter), the type species uf

Eulithidium, is a@ minute, paucispiral, solid shell with a small depressed. spire,

quite unlike that of Phasianella or Pellax, It is also faintly axially ribbed under

maunilication and is pertorate. Eulithiditm punctatum (Carpenter) also }ias a

small, depressed spire, and the body whorl is very large in comparison, There

are fewer whorls in both species than in species of Pellay,

The present species, jejuna, is closely related to the Recent Australian

species rosea and virgo, associated by Vinlay with the New Zealaud type species

of the genus. Pellax huttoni (Pilsbry). The colour pattern is remarkably well

preserved in the Weymouth’s Bore specimens,

Material—Holotype, numerous paratypes, Weymouth’s Bore; 5 paratypes.

Ilindmarsh Bore, _

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Weymouth’s and Hindmarsh Bores, Adelaide,

S. Aust,

Family PHENACOLEPADIDAN,

Cenus Puenacoteras Pilsbry, 1891.

Scutelin Broderip, 1834, Proc. Zool, Soc., p. 47 (in part) (viet Sevtella Lamarels, 1516).

Seutelling Gray, 1947. Proc. Zool. Soc,, 15, p. 168’ (man Aassiz, L841),

Phenacolepas vilsbry, 189]. Nautilus, 5, p, 89 (oom, nov. for Senétellina Grav),

Phenacolepas Pilsbry. Wenz, 1938. Handh, Palarozool, Gast., p. 432 (svnonyut )

Type species (ad.) Seutella crenulala Broderip,

Phenacolepas tela Ludbrook

Phonacolepas tela Ladbrook, 1941, Traus. Roy. Soc. §. Aust. 65, (1), p, 88, pl 4, fis. 19.

Diagnosis—Apex one-eighth distance from posterior border, Apex smooth,

sculpture elsewhere of 80-90 radial ribs and about 11 raised sharp concentric

ridges with very fine crowded concentric lirac on the interspaces. Ridyes

crowded posteriorly, widely spaced auteriorly.

Dimensions—\ength 7-5; breadth 5-5; height 2-5 mm.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide: Dry Creck Sands,

Location of Malotype—Tate Mus, Coll., Univ, of Adelaide, TIBAS.

Observations —No further cxamples ol this unique spectes have hee Couns

sinee if was described from Abattoirs Bore material,

Maferial—Hlolotype, T1648.

Straligraphical Kange—Dry Creek Sauds,

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide,

Superfamily COCCULINACEA.

Family LEPETELLIDAE,

Genus CoccuLtvetca ‘Thiele, 1909.

Corculiiellu Thiele, 1909, in Martini & Chemnitz, Syst. Conch. Gat. 2. (83), 539 p. 31,

Type species (monotypy) Aemaca minutissina EF. A. Smith.

Cocculinella salisburyensis sp. nov.

pl, 3, fig. 1.

Coceulina praccompressa Chaymiuin & Cubriel. Ludbrovk, 194L Trans, Roy, Soc. >, Aust.

65, (1), p. LOO.

Diaenosis—Shell very small, strongly laterally compressed. ilire¢ limes as

long as wide, fairly low. apex at one-fitth from posterior.

Deseription uf Holohype—Shell very small, strongly laterally compressed,

narrowly rectangularly ovate, sides nearly parallel. Smooth evcept for concentric

vrowtb-lirac, Three tines as long as wie, fairly low, apex at about onetltly

distance from posterior margin, slightly incuryed,

Dimensions—Length 4:5; width 1-5; height 0-6; distance of apes from

posterior margin 0-9 wun,

Type Locality—Ternmant’s Bore, Salisbury. 8. Aust; Dry Creck Sands,

Location uf Hololype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, P1150.

Observations—This species is related to C, praecompressa, Int it is war

rower: the apex is nearer the posterioy margin and the shell is less elevated,

The genus is Indo-Pacific and Australasian, ranging in Anstralia from Miocene

to Dry Creek Sands.

Material—Holotype and one paratype, Tenuants Bore,

Strati¢raphical Range—Drv Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Temmant’s and Abatteirs Bores. Adelaide

District.

Superfamily LITTORINACEA.

Fatnily LITTORINIDAE

Genus Tecranrius Valenciennes, 1$33.

Teotarius Vulenciennes, 1833, in Mmboldt, Obs. Zool, 2, p. 274.

Type species (monstypy) Tectarius coronatus Valenciennes = Trechus pagodus

Linné,

Subgenus Niwa Gray, 1950.

Ning J. 7M. Gray in M.E. Gray, £850, Pig. Moll. Anim. 4, p, 76.

Type species (o.d.) Trochtus cumingi Philippi.

Tectarius (Nina) adelaidensis (Cotton)

al. Astraea sp. Ludbrook, 1941. ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. &. Aust,, 65. (1), p. 100,

Nina addelaidensis Cotton, 1947. Ree, S, Aust, Mus., 8 (4), p, 666. pl 21, figs. 17, 1h.

Diagnosis—Spire high, umbilicus wide, whorls sharply angulate with pro-

eine sharp. hollow spines. A prominent nodulose spiral rib below the spinose

anzle.

Dimensions—eight 16; diamcter 12, diameter inchiding the last spine

on the body whorl 15 tum.

Type Locality—Salisbury Bore. 350 feet.

Localion af Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll, Univ. of Adelaide, T1750.

Stratizraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distrihution—Salisbury Wore, 350 feet: Alvattoirg Bore,

Superfamily RISSOACEA.

‘amily RISSOTDAF.

Sublarnily Rissomag

Conus AsmprimaLasrus Carpenter, 16-4.

Anphithalamus Carpenter, 1884. Rep. Brit, Ass. (Neweastle), 1863. pp. S37. Gi4, G56

Type species (monotypy) Avaphithalamus inchesus Carpenter.

Subgenus Priswa Mouterosato, 1876.

Pixsinna Monterosuto, IS7S, Giora. Sei. Nut. Econ. Palermo 13, p. 86.

' Eytea Iredale, 1915, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 47, p. 451.)

Type species (s.d. Fischer, 1885) Rissod punctulnm Philippi.

Amphithalamus (Pisinna) subbieolor sy. nov.

pl. 3, fig. 10,

Esxtea ct. biéulor (Petterd, L884), Ludbrowk, 1941, Trans, Roy, Soe, $. Aust, 65 (1), p. LOO:

Diagnosis—Adult whorls flattened and evenly sloping; suture uarrowly

canaliculate. Body whorl generally conspicnously angled at the shoulder,

Deseription of Holotype—Shell minute, conical, solid, about twice as high

as broad, smooth except tor microscopic axial growth-lines, spire elevated, Pro-

toconch sipooth and somewhat flattened, of 14 turns. Adult whorls 4. flattened

and evenly sloping, except for first whorl, which is slightly convex. Suture

narrow and canaliculate, Body whorl abont half total height of shell, conspicu-

ously angled at the shoulder; angle between face of whorl and base abont 120

deg. Aperture roundly oyate, slightly angled above, entire; outer lip simple,

inner lip reflected over columella; columella rather straight.

Dimensions—Height 2; diameter 1; height of body whorl 1 min.

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore; Dry Creck Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Uniy. of Adelaide, F15151.

Obsercations—This species is broader than bicolor, into. which it Tus pre-

viously been placed, and is more or Jess angulate at the periphery. Ut bears

the closest resemblance in shape to “Rissou” ephomilla Smith, from St. Helens.

Wenz (1939, p, 613) has syonymized Estea with Pisinna Monterosatn, ancl

in his original description of Estea Tredale (1.¢., p. 451) states that Pisinna ap-

pears to he Estea + Scrobs, In view of the absence of recognizable ditterences

between kstew and Pisinna, there appears to be nothing to support the separa-

timy of the two. There are, however, diflerences between Pisinna and Scruby

warranting their séparation.

Matcrial—Holotype and 10 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 23 paratypes, Hiud-

marsh Bore: @ paratypes, Weymouth’s Bore.

Strativraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands,

Ceographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

Amphithelamus (Pisima) chrysalidus (Chapnian & Gubricl)

vl. 2. fig. 12.

Kissow (Qnolit) ehrysalida Chapaum & Gabriel, 1914, Proe. Roy, Sov. Vie, 26 (ns) (2),

p. 323, pl. 24, figs, 32, 33,

St a Birwselidus Chapman & Gubricl Chapman & Orespin, 1928, Rec, Geol, Surv. View

Ppa eral (Chapman & Gubrish), Lardbrouk, 1041, ‘Trims, Koy, Sue. S. Aust. 65

i), Dh A

Miagnosis—Pupiform, fairly Jarge for the genus, apes very blunt. adult

whorls 4, suture linear, impressed, aperture sinall, about one-fifth height of shell.

Dinensions—Lenygth 3-1; diameter 1+5 mm:

Type Locality—-Mallee Bore No. 9, 254-256 feet; Kalimnan.

Location of Wolotype—GCeol, Surv, Vic, Coll,

Obsercations—No further specimens have been recavered since thase from

Alwtloirs Bore; the species is well répresonted in the Kalimnan of Western

Victoria.

Malerial—Numerons specimens, Upper Beds, Murray Creek, Vie, B.M, Coll.

Stratigraphical Range—Kalimman—Dry Creek Sands.

Ceoaraphical Distribution—Port Phillip Bay, Vie—Adelaile, S$, Aust

Genus Mekutina Ircdale, 1915.

Mergline Tredale, 1916, Trans, NZ, lust. 47, p. 444.

Type species (ad.) Rissoa cheilostoma 'T, Woods.

Subgenus Lrvemena Finlay, 1924.

Linemera Vinlay, 1924, Trans. N.Z. Inst, 55, p, 498.

Type species (o.d,) Linemera interripta Finlay nom. nov, for Rissoa gracata

Hutton non Philippi.

Merelina (Linemera) varisculpta sp nov

pl. 2, fi. 11,

Merelinn why stepraseulpta May. Ludbrovk, 1944, Lrans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 65 (1), yp. 100,

Diaznosis—Spire whorls clathrate, with 3 strong spirals on Just whorl crossed

by axis of equal strength, Interstices sriooth or with faint axials only, inter-

sectiuiis nodulose. Buse with 4 spirals, more closely spaced than on body whorls,

faintly crossed by the axials, Onter Jip marked within by short cords corres-

ponding tO external spiral sculpture,

Deseription of Holotype—Shell minute. about twice as high as broad, elon-

gate-coni¢al. Protocouch smooth, glossy and prominent, of 14 turns, adult

whorls 4, moderately convex, suture impressed. Adult whorls clathrate, with

prominent spirals increasing to 3 on the body whorl crossed by equal axials,

interspaces smooth or faintly crossed hy axial striac; intersections nodulose.

ase with 4 close spitals weaker than on spire whorls and more closcly spaced,

faintly erossed by axials, Aperture subovate. angulate above ancl rounded be-

low: outer lip variced, marked internally by short cords corresponding to the

internal spirals,

Dimensions—Height 8; diameter 1-6 mm,

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bure, Dry Creek Sands,

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus, Coll,, Uniy. of Adelaide, FL5152,

Obsercationsx—M, (L.) variseulpla ditters from supraseulpla (May) with

which it has previonsly been compared in the differing and finer sculpture on

the base, and the smooth interspaces between the clathrate sculpture, On

suprasculpta the interspaces are spirally Jirate,

Material—Holotype, one paratype, Abattoirs Bore.

Struligraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs Bore, Adelaide.

Genus Tursoritia Leach, 1547.

Turhoclla Teach (in Gray), 1847, Proc. Zool, Soe, p. 152.

(Ptstilina Monterosato, 1884, Nemencl, Conch, Meclit., p. 56.)

(Mauakia Iredale, 1915, Trans. N.Z. Inst. 47, p. 449.)

Turboclle Leach. Wenz, 1939, Handb. Palaeozool. Gast., py. G1) (synomemy).

Type species (o,d.) Turbo parva Da Costa.

Turboella praenovarensis sp. nov.

pl. 2, fig, 14.

Naurakia cf, novatensis Wrauenfeld, Ludbrook, 1941, Trans. Roy. Soc, S. Aust., 65 (1), p. TOU

Diagnovis—Sculpture of fine close axial ribs, equal to the interspaces, about

80 on the bedy whorl, and spiral lirac, dominated by the anials, crossing the

interspaces only, Spiral lirae weak in the early whorls, increasing in strength

to the body whorl. Base convex, strongly spirally livate and crossed by axials

weuker than on whorls.

Peseription of Holotype—Shell roundly conical, whorls moderately convex,

body whorl a little more than half height of shell. Protoconch prominent, of 2

smooth couvex and somewhat elevated turns, adult whorls 3; suture Jinear, im-

pressed, Sculpture of fine, close avial ribs ahout 30 per whorl extending from

sntire to suture and equal to the interspaces, Interspaces crossecl by fine

spirals, weaker than the axials, but increasing im strength towards the body

whorl. Base convex with § spiral lirae faintly crossed by weakening avsials.

Aperture subovate elongate above and rounded below, outer lip variced, colu-

mella wreuate, somewhat excavate,

Dbnensions—Height 3-3; diameter 1-5 min,

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore: Dry Creek Sands,

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, 15153.

Observations—Previously compared to novarensis (Frauenfeld) the present

species is possibly ancestral to novarensis. It resembles the Necent species very

elosely, but the seulpture is finer and more definite, while the shells in vineral

are larger im size than such specimens of novarensis as are available in Lhe

B.Mi, Collection,

Matertal—Holotype, 18 paratypes. Abattoirs Borc; 2 paratypes, Hindniarsl

Bure, ‘

Stralizrephical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Abattoirs and Hindmarsh Bores, Adelaide

Turboella climattae sp. nov.

pl. 3, Ag. 15,

Hurrakia cf. domesse Tate & May. Ludbrook, 1941, ‘rans. Roy. Soe. §, Aust., 63 (1), p. LOO,

Didgnosis—Seulpture of prominent and strong axial ribs which are angulate

at the shoulder ancl give the appearance of angulation to the whorl; 9 ribs on

the body whorl, 8 on the penultimate whorl, Ribs crossed by twh spiral lirac

on each whorl; intersections nodulose. There is an infrasutural line of nodules

Wilh no corresponding Jira, secondary to the primary sculpture. Base with 4

spiral lirae and faint growth axials,

Description of Holotype—Shell minute, elongate-turreted about twice as

high as broad. Proteconch smooth and prominent of 1% globose turns, adult

whorls 4, sculptured with prominent, strong axial ribs, which are angulyte at

the shoulder and give an appearance of angulation to the whorls; 9 ribs on the

body whorl, 8 on the penultinate whorl. Ribs crossed hy 2 spiral lirae on each

whorl, intersections nodulose. There is an infrasutural line an nodules, with

no correspouding lira, secondary to the primary sculpture. Suture not marked.

Buse: flatly convex, with 4 spiral tirae and [aint growth axials, Aperture suh-

ovate, angled above atid somewhat produced below. Outer lip thin with a varix

behind. Cohimella curved.

Pimensions—Height 2-5; diameter 1-2 mm.

Type Locality—Windmarsh Bore, 450-487 feet; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Molotype—Tate Mus. Col., Univ, of Adelaide, FIS154.

Ohservations—This is a very beautiful little shell, strongly and conspieu-

onsly sculptured. It is neurest ‘to T, demessa (Tate & May) with which it

wis previously compared, but the seulpture is distinct from that species,

Material—-Holotype, Hindmarsh Bore; 3 paratypes, Weymouth's Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

Genus Kaurxetua Ludbrook, 1941.

Kaurnella Tadbrook, 1941, Trans. Roy. Soc, S, Aust. 65 (1), p. 88.

Type species (monotypy) Kaurnella denatata Luydbraok,

Kaurnella denotata Jadbrook

Kaurnella denatata Ludbrook, 1941, Trans. Roy, Soc, 8. Amst. 65 (1), p. 88, pl 5, Ge. 4,

Miagnosis—Stout, subglebose-conical; spirc small, body whorl large. Whurls

scitlptured with numerous fine spiral lirae which are gencrally more prominent

un the shoulder. Outer lip varicate; in some specimens there are as many as

seven conspicuous varices on each whorl, while in others, the varices are absent

or vbsolete, being suggested merely by 2 faint tuberculation of the promineat

Jirae.

Dinensions—eight 3-1; diameter 2:2 mim,

Type Locality—Abattoirs Bore.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll. Univ, of Adelaide, T1644.

Ohbservations—There is a considerable amount of variation in the strength

of the yariees on this species. Some specimens are strongly varicate and appear

ta be costate, while others have no appearance of costatiun and the varices are

vbsolete. There appears to be no other species, nor genus, with which the species

bo)

can be compared. Tt has been placed in the Hissoidae in which family it may

be distinguished by its low spire anc large body whorl. in addition to the

widely spaced varices when they are present.

Material —6 paratypes, Abattoirs Bore; 18 specimens, Weymouth's Bore; 1

broken specimen, Hindmarsh Bore;

Straligraphical Range—Diy Creek Sands.

Geographical Distribution—Adelaide District.

Genus Crscuts Fleming, 1828.

Cingula Wenting, 1918, Eneyel. Brit. Supp, to ed. 4-6,.3 (ts, p. SLL.

Type species (s.d. Gray, 1847) Turbo cingullus Montagu.

Subgenus Perecyimunt P. Fischer, 1585.

Pelecydion P, Fischer, 1871, im Folin & Perier, Fonds de la Mer, 1, p. 816 nom, and.

Pelecyeliunt Kischer, 1885, Man. de Conch, p, 721,

(Epigrus Hedley, 1903, Mem, Aust. Mus., 4, p. 355, )

Type species (mountypy) Pelecydinm cenustulum Folin.

Cingula (Pelecydium) eylindracea (Tenison-Waods ).

pl. 2. fix 16.

Hissoina Sadie Tenison-Woods, 1878, Proc. Linn. Soc, N.S.W,, 2, p. 266. |

Rissoa ischna Tate, 1899b, Trans, Roy, Sac, &. Aust., 23 (2), p, 233 nom, mut, for Riv

cylindracea (Tenison-Woods ) non krynicki, 1837.

Rissoa PAs hea pata) simsont ‘Tate & May, 1900, ‘Trams, Ray, Sae. 4, Aust, 24. p, 100,

pl, 26, fig. 76.

Epigrus eandiaeets (‘Tenison-Woods ), Ludbrook, 1941, ‘Treurs, Roy. Sac. 5. Aust. 65 (1),

p. 100.

Epigrus cylindracens (Tenison-Woo:ls 1. Cotton, 1944, Ld, 68 (2). p. 308.

Epigeus cylindracus (Japsus calami for cylindracets) Tenison-Woods, Taseron, 1930, Ree,

Aust. Mus., 22 (3), p. 276.

Diawnosis—Pupiform, whorls 5! Suture linear. Protoconch of 2 large

globose turns, adult whorls slightly convex.

Diinensions—Height 5; diameter 1°5 min,

Location of Lolotype—Hobart Museum (?).

Material—Hypotype aud 2 specimens, Abattoirs Borg; 4 specimens, Hincl-

marsh Bore: 1 specimen. Weymouth’s Bore.

Stratigraphical Range=Dry Creek Sands—HRecent.

Geographical Distribution—Fossil—Adelaide District; Recent—N.S-W... Vie-

toria and Tasniania,

Genus Rissouws WOrhisuy, 1540,

Rissotua AOrbiguw, 1840, Voy. Auer. Meric. Molh, 6 (5), p. 595,

Type species (aionelypy) Risseind inca VOrbigny,

Rissoira nivea Adams

Rissoina viper Adami, Leb, Proce. Zool. See. p. 265,

Rissa trate Anwas, 1880, Proce. Zool. Sue, p. ELT, ph 40, fy 17.

Rissoine lirala Angas, Dennanl & Kilson, 1993, Ree. Geol, Surv. Vins 1 (2), m 144.

Rissoina nines Adwus, Eudbrook, 141, Trans. Roy, Soo. 5. Ausi., 63 (1), p. 100,

Diagnosis—Finely ribbed with wbout 12 oblique ribs per whorl, obsolete

anteriorly, strong on the body and penultimate whorls.

Dimensions—Hoeight 4; diameter 1-3 min.

Type Locality—Port Lincolu, S. Australia: Recent.

Location of Holotype—B.M. Coll, (Mus. Cuming).

Material—Holotype and one eroded example, Weymouth’s Bare.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creek Sands—Receént.

Geographical Distribution—Southern Australia.

Rissoina elegantula Angas,

pl 2, fig. 18.

Rissoine elegantula Angas, 1880, Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 417, pL 4G, fig. 10.

Rissoina elegantula Angas, Tate, 1890a, Trans. Roy, Soc, §. Aust., 13 (2), p. 177.

Rissoina elegantula Angas, Dennant & Kitson, 1903, Rec, Geol. Sutry, Vic. 1 (2), p. J44.

Rissoina elegantula Angas, Ludbrook, 1941, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 65 (1), p, 100.

Diagnosis—longitudinally closely and regularly ribbed, about & per mn

on the body whorl and 6 per mm. on the pert ltinate whorl. Interstices, especi-

ally on the Jast whorl, crossed by fine tirae,

Dimensions—Ileight 5; diameter 2 mm,

Type Locality—Aldinga Bay, §. Australias Recent,

Location of Holotype—B.M. Coll., No. 81. 4,29.2.

Material—Holotype and 4 specimens, Hindmarsh Bore; 1 specimen, Wey-

mouth’s Bore.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands—Recent.

Geographical Distribution—Queensland tu S$, Australia.

Rissoina aff, elegantula Angas.

A single specimen, imperfect, from Hindmarsh Bore, has sculpture similar

ut character to that of R. elegantula. The axial ribs are, however, less fine and

frequent than in that species, and the axial ribs spiral lirae are much more clearly

defined. In the absence of further material, accurate diagnosis is deferred.

Rissoina tinela sp, noy.

pl. 2, fg, J9,

Diagnosis—Whorls convex; body whorl large, Suture impressed; seulpture

of numerous close, fine, spiral threads. |

Description of Holotype—Shell clongate, turreted, fairly thin. |Whorls

convex, body whorl large, two-thirds total height of shell. Protoconch small,

of 1% smooth turns, adult whorls 5, rapidly increasing. Suture strongly im-

pressed. Sculpture of mumerous fine spiral threads, wider than interspuces:

interspaces under magnification with finc microscopic radials. Aperture large,

angulate behind and produced in front. Outer lip effuse, varicate, Columetia

gently arcuate, inner lip reflected slightly,

Dimensions—Height 5, diameter 2-5; height of body whorl 3 mm,

Type Locality—Uindmarsh Bore, 450-487 fect; Dry Creek Sands.

Location of Holotype—Tate Mus. Coll., Univ. of Adelaide, F15155,

Observations—This unique specimen is somewhat like R. lintea Hedley &

May and R, elezantula Angas, It differs in sharpe from R. linlea in that the

whorls are convex and the suture impressed, not canaliculate as in lintea. The

sculpture is reminiscent of R, elegantula, but is very much finer and only obvious

under magnification,

Material—Holotype, Hindmarsh Bore, 450-487 feet; Dry Creek Sands.

Stratigraphical Range—Dry Creck Sands.

Geographical Distribnitan—Hindmarsh Bore.

Family TORNIDAE,

Subfamily OxrretALornoprN ac.

Genus PsEuponroti1a Tate, 1898,

Pseudoliotia Tato, 18981, Trans, Roy. Soo. §, Aust., 22 (1), p. TL.

Type species (monotypy) Cyclostrema micans A, Adams.

Pseudoliotia angasi (Crosse)

pl. 2, fig. 20.

Cyclostrema micans Adams, 1850, Proc. Zool. Soc., 18, p. 44 (in part).

Lintia angasi Crosse, 1864, Journ, de Conch, 12, p. 343, pl. 13, fig. 4.

Litia angasi Crosse, Tryon, 1888, Man, Conch., 10, p. 68, pL 31, Ges. 17, 18,

Liotia angasi Crosse, Tate, 1890, Trans. Roy. Soc. §. Aust. 13 (2), p. 177.

Cyefostrema micans Adams, “Late, 1897, ‘lrans. Roy, Sou, S, Aust, 21, p. 43,

Cyclostrema micans A, Adams, Dennant & Kitson, 1993, Ree. Geol. Sury. Vie., 1 (2), p. 145.

Pyeudallatia angasi Crosse, Cotton & Godfrey, 1938, Mal, Soc, S. Anst.. 1, p. 8,

Diagnosis—A small Pseudoliotia, solid, shining, rather coarsely sculptured,

spire smooth at the apex; early whorls rounded, postembryonie whorls angulate.

developing first one spiral gord increasing to ove fine subsutaral cord and three

promniment medial cords on the body whorl with an additional thick cord bound-

ug the umbilicns, Cords crossed and stiongly tnberenlated by axial spirals

which inerease in strength and distance apart and wamber about 20 on the

body swwherl,

Dimensions—Heicht 1-5; diurncter 3 mm.

Type Lovality—st. Vincent Gulf, 8. Australia,

Lovation of Halotype—B.M. Coll. No, 70, 10,26,139,

Observations—The two species, P. micans Adams and P. angast Crosse,

have been confused in Sauth Australian literature and the name nricana has

been omitted from the Recent list by Cotton & Godfrey (1935, p. 8) in the

erroneous belief that the type locality of micans is jupan. This error was in-

traduced by Tate (1899, p. 223) aud has apparently not been rectified since,

The type locality. Port Lincoln (Adams. 1550, p, 44), is coufirmed by the

tublet of tvpe specimens io the British Musctun. The species should, therefore

he replaced on the South Australian list, P. angasi Crosse, alleged to be ein-

specific With micans, is a very similar shell, but more coarsely sculptured Uhuw

nicuns. One of the 13 specimens on the tablet of types of Fo micans is P. angus.

It is impossible to tell without examination of the actual specimens whether

Tate's subspecies sorplicior (A898. p. 71) is mmicuns or angast, but thes maniw

iidicates that it is micans. Tate later (1599, p. 223) erroneously Jisted in

svionymy this subspecies as gracilior. Dry Creck Sands specimens are nut

inicans, but the more boldly sculptured angasi.

Muateriad—The figured hypotype and 2 other specimens,-Tennant’s Bare,

1 broken speciiuen, Abattoirs Bere, holotype and J paratype. BM. Coll, No

Th, 10.26.1389.

Strutizraphical Range—Dry Creek Sards-Recent.

Geegraphical Distrilwition—South Australia,

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EXPLANATION OF PLATES

PLATE }

Vig, L-Siphinacdentalinm (Pulsellum) adeluidense sp, now, holotype. x5.

Vig. 2.—Cadulus (Cadila) aeuminatus Tate, hypotype, Dry Creek Bore, x3.

Fin, 3—Caduly (Dischides) yatalenviy sp, nov. holotype, x 3.

Vig. 4.—-Cadulius (Disehides) yatalensis sp, noy., paratype, Abattoirs Bore, + 3.

Fig. &—Dentalium (Fissidentaliunt) muncsont sp. now, Pathe, x 1:85,

Fis. 6.—Dentuliuin ( Fissidentalium ) Mamsont sp, woy., paTatype, A. Murray Cliffs, + 2.

Mig, 7.—Dentalium (Antalis) denpfatun sp. nov, paratype, Abaitoirs Bore, «3: nyox andl

aperture enlarged.

Fig. 8.—Dentalium ( Antalis) denotutum sp. nov., paratype, Abattoirs Bore, apical portion x 10,

bie, U—Dentalium (Antalis) denotatum sp, noy., holotype, x3.

Fi. Roe pensenaan (Dentalium) latesulentum Tate, holotype, x2, Fig Wa. Detail of rh

sculpture.

Fig. U1, Dentalium (Denéaliym) lutesulcatwm ‘Tate, holotype of 2. ( Puracdentitians)

hawechini Cotton & Ludbrook, x 2,

Hig. 12.—Dentalium (Mentaliun) latesuleaten Tate, T-rihbed javenile. Ahattoirs Bure, 4 4.

Fiz. 13.-—Dentalium Lpentaliine) latesuleatum Tale, 18-ribbed juvenile. «2.

Fig. 1d, -Dentulium (Dentolinm) latesuleaton "Yate, U-ribbed immature specimen, Woy-

meuth’s Bore, x 9.

PLATE 2

Fig, L—Covoulinella silisburyenvis sp.nov, holotype, Tennant’s Bore, 53%.

Lig. 2—Emarginula didagtlea sp. nov, holotype, Abattoirs Bore, apie! ind lateral wews, tn

Fig. 3—Emarginula dilatoria sp. nuv.. holotype, Hindmarsh Bore, x 3.2,

Vi, 4—Speectamen planicarinatum sp. nov., holotype, Abattoirs Bore, x 7,

Fig. 5.—Spectamen praccm'sor sp. noy,, hulotype, Wevmouth’s Bore, 5 5-2,

Hig, 6—Lioting (Muuditia) tavmenica Tenison-Woods, hypuiype, Abattoirs Bore, x 1-2.

big. 7.—Collonia omiss sp. nov., Wwilotype, Abattoirs Bore, x 4-3.

Vig. &.--Astrea (Bellastren) Tesperus sp. noy., holotypo, Abattoirs Bore, apical aud |tersl!

views, x 2-6.

Vig. 9.—Pellax ern sy. nov, holutype. Weymouth’s Bore, x 8-6.

Fig, 10.—Anwphithalaumus (Pisiina) sulbicolor sp. nov. helotypo, Abuttoirs: Bore, x 8-6,

Fig. LL.—Merelina (Linemera) tarisoulpta su. nov., holotype, Abattoirs Bare. 4 8,6

Fig, 12,—Amphithalamus (Pisinna) ehrysalidius (Chapman & Gabriel), hypolype, Mudiy

Creek, B.M. Coll., G39560, «5-2,

Fig, 13,—Veihostorna depressulum Chapman & Gabriel, lypolyps, Hintinwh Bore. « Ld,

Fig, 14.—Turboella prarnanarensis sp. noy., holutvps, Abattoirs Bore, + 4-6

hig, 15.—Trrheetin climetiae sp. nov. lialotyps, Hindimavsh Tere, 6 10d

. 16.-Cingula (Pelecydium) cylindracea (Tenison-Woods), hypotype, Abattoirs

x5-2

. 17.-Starkeyna pulcherrima (Chapman & Gabricl), hypotype, Abattoirs Bore, x 6.

. 18.—Rissoina elegantula Angas, hypotype, Hindmarsh Bore, x 7.

. 19.—Rissoina tinela sp. nov., holotype, Hindmarsh Bore, x 6,

. 20.—Pseudoliotia angast (Crosse), holotype, Holden’s Bore, x 6.

Bore,

PLatTe 1

N. H. Lupsrook

MICROFOSSILS FROM PLEISTOCENE TO RECENT DEPOSITS,

LAKE EYRE, SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

BY N. H. LUDBROOK

Summary

Samples from sands, clays and limestones on the south-eastern corner of Lake Eyre were found to

contain remains of fresh or brackish water microscopic plants and animals which inhabit inland and

coastal lagoons, together with species of brackish water foraminifera. Deposition probably took

place during Pleistocene high sea levels.

MICROFOSSILS FROM PLEISTOCENE TO RECENT DEPOSITS,

LAKE EYRE, SOUTH AUSTRALTA.

By N. H. Luperoox*®

[Read 14 April 1955]

I. SUMMARY

Samples from sans, clays and Jinnestones on the south-castern. corner af Juke Eyre

were found to contain. remains of fresh or brackish water microscopic: plants and animals

which inhabit inland and coastal layoons, together with species of brackish water foramini-

feri. Deposition probably took place during Pleistocene high sea levels.

II. INTRODUCTION

Samples from two shallow boreholes sunk with a post-hole digger on the

south-eastern corner of Lake Eyre and from a thick shell bed 86 feet above

the present level of the lake were submitted for routine micropalaeontological

examination by Mr, D. King, Geologist, South Australian Department of Mines.

who was a member of the party led by Mr. Warren Bonython to Lake Eyre

North, 400 miles north of Adelaide in May, 1953. The object of the expedition

was to investigate further the geagraphy and geology of the lake and the occur-

tence of native sulphur observed en the lake shore in December, 1951, after the

flooding in 1949-50.

Bore No, 1 situated on the flat between dunes, Arbitrary Reduced Level

of surface 110-75 ft., passed through the following strata:

Oft. On, to Oft, 6in,; Yellow-brown, very fine, slightly clayey quartz sand with

grit. Residue after washing consists of subangular quartz grains usually

etched and pitted on the surface, some large grains of opaline silica

and an occasional oolite of calcite.

Oft. Gin. to 2ft, din.) Fine yellow-brown quartz sand, similar to that at the surface.

Aft. din. to 4ft. 6in.: Yellow-brown fine clayey sand, washed residue of subangular

quarte grains with a little oalitic calcite.

4tt. Gin. to 6ft. Gin: Yellow-brown fine clayey sand, washed residue of sub-

angular quartz grains of varying size with well-rounded graius of

cryptocrystalline silica.

6ff. Gin, to 7ft, Gin,: Pale yellow-brown coarse to gritty sand with some gypsum,

washed residue mainly of quartz grains of varying size and some

gypsum fragments,

7Tft. Gin, to LOft. 3in,: Brown clay with fine and crystalline gypsum and quartz

grit; washed residue of quartz grains of varying size with both seed

and crystalline gypsum.

T0ft. 3in. to 12ft.10in.: Fine gypseons sand and clay; washed residue of large

subrounded quartz grains much etched on the surface.

12ft, 10in. to L6ft, 4in.:; Light brown sandy clay; washed residue of coarse quartz

grains, many of thern rather flat and of even size, and sume gypsum

crystals,

16ft. din. to 18ft. Sin.: Banded vari-coloured plastic clay; washed residue similar

to the previous.

° Department of Mines, Adelaide, Published with the permission cf the Director of Mines,

L5ft, Sin, ta Qi. din: Fine gravel with white limestone fragments; the coarse

fraction of the washed residue consists of large quartz grains finely

eteled on the surface, and fragments of porecllanite and limestone.

3H). din. to 22k Oin.; Black clay: the finer fraction (passing through 20 mesh)

ab the washed residue consists of subangulae quarty grains with some

limestone fragments. Also present are a number of platy grains ot

saponite with laminar intergrowths of finely divided pyrite.

2OFt, Qin, to 22ft, 5in.: Hard white dolomitic limestone with a gastropud mould.

Such friable material as could be washed tree of clay yielded white

limestone fragments, subangular quartz grains some oF ther fat, and

plates of pyrite crystals.

Bore No. d.—Situated half mile seuth-east of Prescott Pott at the worth

of Sulphur Peninsula, passed through:

Ott. to 2ft. ins Pale tows clayey sand; washed resitlie of medium fairly

even-sized subangular quartz grains with some limestone fragments,

2. Sin. to 3ft. Gin.s Grey sandy clay; washed residue of fine angular and sub-

wigular quartz grains, some so little worn as to still retam their crystal-

line form,

3ft. Bin. to 12tt. Oin.: Brown clay; washed residue of angular quartz grains, some

very fresh, and an oceasional grain of pyrite.

12 t. Oin, to L6ft, 10in.; Blue, very sticky clay; washed residue of medium-sized

subangular quartz grains and calcite Fragments. with authigenice pyrite

some of which is intergrown with saponite,

16lt.10in. to 17ft. Oing: Hard white limesteme. the [friable portion of which was

washed, Jeaving a residue of medium-sized subangnlar quarty srains.

white calcite fragments and a pale green mineral of the beidellite-

uontronite series, held together by calrite.

Without exception, the samples were [ossiliferous. almost all hayimg oogonia

af Chara and relatively fewer heavily caleifed valves of ostracoda and tests at

“Rotalia” beccarii. The distribution of the organisms is shown in tabulated form

at the end of thy paper. The sands and sandy clays in Borehole 1 from the sur-

face to 16ft, 4in. apparently represent the most favourable environment for their

development; it is suggested that these represent a period of increasing salinity

in the Nake.

Two other samples were examined for identifiable microfossils with negutive

resnits:

Grey clay interstratificd with limestone from Position R, point at small island

with sand spit.

Very little residue remained after washing, aid this consisted mainly of fat,

worn grains of caleite with some angular quartz grains.

Dense white clayey limestone taken from 3ft. Gin. to 4ft, Gin. in a hore at

Locality C.

The only organie remains are horny tubes of unidentified origin. The most

interesting satiple was laken at position M fro the upper sbell bed, consisting

Almost entirely of shells of Coviella gilest (Angas). The unconsolidated matrix

was found to contain numerous valves of fvo species of astracoda and thin-

shelled, well-preserved tests of a form of “Rotalia® heccarh, together with a

small mumber of cogonia of Chara. One broken fragment of the pelecypod

€ iactetrny aie not specifically identifiable, was found. and some indeterminat: Ash

yvertebrive,

ee]

Hl. ENVIRONMENT

Regional investigations have net yet reached the stage where if is possible

to determine whether conditions of sedimentation were lacustrine or estuarine,

Sirice inv preliminary ncte (Ludbrcok, 1953) was published Dr. R. W. Fair-

hriclge has suggested to me that the microfaunal assemblage is oe which would

naturally inhabit an extensive gulf or estuary reaching Lake Eyre via Lake

Torrens from the head of Spencer’s Guif during the high sea level phases of

the Pleistocene. While this is certainly feasible, freshwater lake deposits now

tepresented by indurated oolitic ostracode limestones, similar to the dolomitie

limestone in which the borings ceased. have been found in widely separated

localities in the west of South Australia, Whether the lacustrine environment

persisted at Lake Eyre, increasing salinity providing a favourable milieu for

brackish water organisms which fad been introduced hy birds, or whether

freshwater Jakes were transformed during part of the Pleistocene into the estuary

suggested by Dr. Fairbridge can be determined only by observations made on

a regional seale,*

IV, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T am indebted to the Petrology Section, Department of Mines, for identifi-

cation of the saponite and beidellite-noutronite minerals, to Dr. H. B. §. Womers-

ley for placing specimens of Characeac belonging to the Botany Department,

University of Adelaide, at my disposal, to Mr. B. C, Cotton for allowing me

tu examine mollusca in the South Australian Mnseum. and to Dr, Rhodes Fair-

bridge for drawing my attention to the possible conditions of deposition

V. FAUNA

FoORAMINTFERA

Vamily NONIONIDAR.

Genus E.ramnam Montfort, 1508.

Type species Nautilus macellus Fichtel & Moll,

(?) Elphidium adyenum (Cushman).

pl. 1, fig. 9

For curly synonymy see Cushman, 1939, US.G.5, Prof. Piper 191, p. 60; Terme.

1949, Cush, Lab, Moram, Res, Spee, Pub., 25, p, 167-

Elohnitine sadlortuns (Cushman), 1944, Cushman Lib. Foram. Resp. Spee. Pub, 12. p. 26,

pl. 3, A, 36,

Elphidium adoenim (Cashman) THowchin & Parr, 1938, Trans. Roy, Sac, §, Aust. 62 (2),

p, 299,

Elphidium advenum Cushman, Parr, 1943. Mal. Soc. S. Aust, Pub. 3, p. 20; 1950, Journ,

Hay. Soe, W. Aust, $4, p. 72.

Material——One worn specimen, sample F178/58 Bore 1, Oft Oin,-Oft. Gin.

The calcified condition of the single specimen renders identification very

doubtful, Hts aceurrence only in the surtace sample of Bore 1 suggests that the

species may have been introduced by birds and had no continuous existence

in the area, On the other hand, it is recorded as occurring, frequently in the

late Pleistocene “Arca” horizon of Peppermint Grove (Parr, 195(),

* Since the above was submitted for publication, Mr. Vo R. Rao has shown me a paper

by Jacob, Sastry and Sastri on the Microtossils of fhe Tmpure Gypsum. from the Jamsur Mine,

Bikaner, published in the Proceedings of the Symposium on the Rajputana Desert (Bulletin

of the National Institute of Sciences of Tndia 1, September, 1953). The anthars record

(p, 68) the oevurrence of “Chara, Ostracodit ind aw few small shallow water marine Mory-

minifrra in the Totertrappean beds of Rajubmnodry” which they believe to he af Eocene

age, anid attribute the presence of Chara ta its being Wansported fron fresh-water areas. In

i mipplementary note (p, 69) they record the discavery of the foraminifer Digeorbis, prob-

ably blown in hy the wind, with shells of Vivivara bengalensis (Linn.) antl Chara “frvits”

in gypsum deposits af Siasar.

Recently, an assemblage identical, excapt for minor specific differunccs, to that in the

Tike Eivre clays has been recovered from surfuce silty sands in swinnps bordering Lake

Alexandrina, Here also Chae is associated with Coxiella, ostracudes, “Total” beecarit var.

tepide: and Elphidinin adrenum,

Howchin (1901, p. 9) postulated dispersal by birds of the two species of

Elphidinm which he discovered in the silt at Yorketown Lagoon, *

Genus Nonto~ Montfort, 1808,

Type species Nautilus incrassatus Vichtel & Moll,

(?) Nonion scapha (Fichtel & Moll)

pl. 1, fig. 10,

for synonymy sce Cushman, 1939, 0,8.G.S, Prof. Paper, 191, p. 20.

Nonlow scapha Fichtel & Moll, Parr, 1943, Mal. Soc. §. Aust, Pub. 2, p, 20.

Nonion scaphutty {Fichtel & Moll}. Cushman, 1946, Cush, Lab. Foram. Res. Spee, Put.

17, p. 14.

One specimen, sample F177/53,

Bore 1. GEE. Gin.-Tft. 9in.

As the test is coated with thin calcite and the aperture obscured, identi:

fication of this species is tentative only.

amily ANOMALINIDAE

Genus Cistcmes Montfort, 1808,

Type species Cibicides refulgens Montfort.

Cibicides refulgens Montfort

pl, 1, figs. 11, 12.

For eurly synunymy see Cushman, 1931. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull, 104, pt. 6, p, 116,

Cibieides refulgens Montfort, Cushman & odd, 1945. Cush. Lab. Foram. Res. Spee. Pub.,

15. p. 70. Cushman & Gray, 1946, i, Spee, Pub. 19, p. pl. 8, figs. 15-17, Cushman &

Todd, 147, «/. Spec. Pub. 21, p. 23, pl. 4, Gig. 7 Chapman & Parr, 1935. Journ. Roy.

Soc. 8. Aust., 21, p, 5, Crespin, 1043, Min. Res. Sur. Bull, 9 (Pal. Ser, 4), p. "78 Gnimen-

graphed). Parr 1950, Journ. Ruy. Suc. W. Aust, 34, p. 71.

Material—One specimen, Sainple F.

Borchole 4, 3ft, 6in.-12ft. Oin.

The specimen recovered is small and well preserved and typical ol the

species, Although its occurrence also suggests fortuitous introduction, it was

recorded as conmon in the late Pleistocene “Arca” horizon, Peppermint Grove.

Family ROTALITDAE.

Genus Rorarra Lamarck, 1504,

Type species Rotalia trochidiformis Lamarck.

“Rotalia” beecarii Linré cf. yar. tepida Cushman,

pl 1, figs, 13, 14, 14

Rotalia Deccarti (Linné) var. tepida Cnshman, 1926, Carnegie Inst., Washington, Pub. 344,

p. 79, pL 1. D. K. Paliner, 1945, Bull, Amer. Pal., 29 (115), p. 60 (fre Ber-

mridez); Bermudez, 1949, Cush. Lah. Foram. Res. Spec. Pub., 25, p- 23-4.

Strehlus becearii (Linné) var. cf. tepida (Cushman). Parr, 1959, Journ, Row. Sou. W.

Anst., 34, p. 22.

Material—Calecified specimens, as many as 49 in one sample, from ulmuost

all but 5 samples from Borcholes 1 and 4; numerous (over 100) well-preserved

specimens from matrix. of upper (Coxiella) shell bed.

The occurrence of this species in almost every sample including the sulphur

bed suggests that its introduction has not been completely fortnitous, Two

possibilities present themselves: the first, that widespread estuarine conditions

during the late Pleistocene enabled the species to spread towards Luke Eyre

from the head of Spencer’s Gulf, the second, that the variety has heen intro-

duced by birds or by winds into shallow saline Jakes in the late Pleistocenr,

and finding a favourable habitat rapidly established itself.

* The uppermost eighteen inches of gypseous mud in Peesey’s Swarnp, Yorke Penin-

sula, carries a bruckish-water microfama dominated by Hiphidium «wdvenum in association

with the pastropoda Coxiella confusa Smith, Batillaria (Butilluricila) estnarina (Tate) and

ostracodes, This fauna is distinct from that of the underlying travertine-capped. loosely:

consolidated Recent shelly sandstone anc limestone which carries abundant marine fittora

mollasea and Foruninifyra,

All specimens show abundant evidence of environmental influence. As

compared with marine examples of the species. the tests are small and variable

in shape. Those recoyered from the clays of Borehole 1 and Borehole 4 4re

all heavily calcified. Very few showed the umbilical phig generally charac

teristic of the species,

All the Lake Eyre specimens appear, so far as one can determine in the

absence of authentic topotypes for conrparison, to be close to the variety fepida

described by Cushman (1926, p. 79) from shallow and stagnant water at Porto

Rico, It has been recorded and illustrated hy Bermudez (1949, p. 284, pl. 13,

figs, 49-51) associated with a shallow water ‘molluscan fauna from the Upper

Miecene of Las Salinas Formation Dominican Republic and by Parr from the

“Arca” horizon, Peppermint Grove,

The two specimens figured show the degree of variation presented by the

Lake Eyre specimens. One (pl. 1, fig. 15) is typical of the calcified tests. ob-

tained tram the clays of the bores. The other (pl. 1, figs. 13, 14) is a some-

what extreme example of the form which occurs numerously in the Coxiella

hed, It is characterized by its small, fairly thin test, only slightly limbate sutures

and absence of umbilical plug, The astral lobe, if devcloped at all, is frequently

broken and not preserved,

Mor ruse,

Class PELECYPODA

Superfamily SPHAEREACEA.

Family CORBICULIDAE,

Genus Corsrcutawa Dall, 1903,

Corbleuine Vill, 1903, Pro. Biol, Soc, Washington, 16, p. 6.

‘Type species (inonotypy) Corbicula angasi Prime.

Corbiculina sp. indet.

Matertal--One broken speeimen, sample F172/53.

A fragment nuly of the hinge portion of a juvenile shell was collected froin

the upper shell bed. Im view of extreme intraspecific variation in this geting,

it is Impossible to decide whether it is the Recent species Corbiculina desolata

(Tate) or not:

Class GASTROPODA

Superfamily RISSOACEA,

Family ASSIMINEIDARE,

Gens Coxmiia Smith, 1894,

Coxiella Smith, 1894, Proc. Malac. ‘Suc. 1, p. 98.

( Blanfordia Cox, 1868, Mon. Aust. Land Shells, p. 94, non Menke.)

(Guaxtellacda Iredale & Whitley, 1938, $, Aust. Nat., 18 (3), p. 66.)

(Blandfordia Tate 1894, Trans. Roy. Soe. §, Aust, 18, p. 196, lapsus calwini for Blanforeiu, 7

Type species. (monotypy) Truncatella striatula Menke,

Coxiella gilesi (Angas).

ph. 1, fi. 1.

Paludinellg gilest Angas, 1877, Proc. Zool. Sac, March, p, 169, pl. 36. fis. 2,

Paludinella gilesti Angas. Tate & Brazier, 1882, Proc, Linn, Soc. N.S.WS, 6, p. 584,

vipnaiarats stirlingi Tate, 1894, Trans. Rov. Sac. S: Aust., 18. p, 196

Coxielladda gilest Wwedale & Whitley, 1938, S. Aust, Nat, 18 (3), p. 66.

Coxielladda gilesi Augas, Cutton, 1942, Trans, Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 66 (2), p, 129,

Deseription—Shell thin, globosc-turbinate, perforate, with a rather low

spire, apparently orange or flesh-coloured, but almost always bleached white,

Apex subacute, flattened at the origin, protoconch of 1% flatly convex almost

smooth turns constricted at the suture, followed by 4% roundly convex whorls

fairly rapidly increasing in size, arcuate in profile, sculptured with fine, some-

what irregular, transverse growth strial. Sutures impressed, strongly marked.

Body whorl large, about three-quarters total height of shell. Umbilicus narrow,

generally almost concealed by the expansion of the aperture over the columella.

Aperture subovate. roundly angulate posteriorly and rounded anteriorly,

peristome entire, everted over the columella, parietal callus thin and frequently

broken,

Dimensions of Figured Specimen—-Height 5-3: width 4; height ol body

whorl 4; height of apertwe 8-7; width of aperture 2 mm.

Type Locality—Lake Fyre.

Holotype—British Museum,

Vaterial—Inmmuerable specimens, upper shell bed, Lake Eyre North.

Distribution—Lake Eyre, Lake Callabonna,

Ohservations—Vhere is no evidence that this shell has survived desiccation

of the area, Although both Angas, who described the Lake Eyre species, and

Tate, who deseribed its Lake Callabonna counterpart, found one specimen re-

tainiuy the original colour, all the specimens seen by the writer have been

bleached white.

The species is closely related morphologically and i apparent habitat to

Coxiella confusa (Smith) found sometimes in enormous numbers in submur

inal lagoons and salt Jakes in the southern part of the State. ‘The genus is

enrvhaliné, with a very wide rauge of salinity tolerance covering from fresh-

water to walers more saline than the sea, its preference apparently being for

the latter.

fredale and Whitley (1938, p. 66) introduced withont diagnosis the name

Coxielladda for Paludlina (sie) gilest Angas. On morphological grounds, it is

iupossible to select diagnostic gencric characters to justify the genps. Intra

specific variation in Coxiella is considerable, particularly in the height of the

spire, and to give this the status of geuerie diagnosis (Qotton 1942, p. 129) can

hardly be supported, Neanic specimens of Coxiella confusa hear a very close

resemblance to adults of Coxiella gilesi.

The species described by Tate (1894, p. 196) as Blandfortlia stirlingi is

almost certainly conspecific with the present species, although only a statistical

analysis of the very numerons examples from the two areas can establish the

fact, Tate (L.ep.195) noted the relationship between the southern Cowiella

confusa (= Blanfordia striatula Tate non Menke), Increasingly saline condi-

tions in Lake Eyre doubtless provided a favourable milicu for the develop-

ment of innumerable Coxiellas. In this environment Pontorypris attenuata

could also survive and “Rotalia” Leccarit although juadecuatel: nourished,

maintain a foathald. j

The affinities of the genus Coxiella are il-detined. Wenz (1935, p. 582)

places it in the Tomichiinae, subfamily of the Truncatellidae to which it ap-

pears to the writer to be not closely related, It is here placed in the Assint-

SEW it seems to be close to Paludinella in which gilest was originally placed

bv Angas.

OSTRACODA,

Fumily CYPRIDAE,

Genus Cyrpris. Mailer,

Type species Cypris pubera Muller,

(?) Cypris sp:

pl, L, Gigs. 7,8.

Descriphion—Carapace viewed laterally, broadly reniform, preatest height

in the middle, equal to more than half the length, Anterior extremity gently

arcuate, proterior extremity flatly rounded; dorsal margin arched, highest in

front of the middle veutral margin sinmated in the middle valves uuequal, right

slightly Jarger than left and overlapping it in part of the middle of the dorsal

margin.

Surface when well preserved sculptures with a five reticulate pattern. Ad-

ductor muscle scars four in the middle of the shell, frequently visible from

the outside.

Dimensions—Length 0-6 mm. width 0-36 mm.

Obserrations—Although it is generally obscured by a coating of calcite

which may be very thick, the reticulate sculpture readily characterizes the

species which I have not so far been able to identify,

Genus Pontocypris G. 0. Sars, 1866.

Type species Pontocypris trigonella G. O. Sars.

Pontocypris attenuata G. S. Brady.

pl. 3, figs. 5, 6.

Pontocypris attenuata Brady, 1868, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, ser 4, 2, p, 179. pl 4, fis.

L1-14; Brady, 1880, Chall. Rep, Zool, 1 (3), p. 38, pl, 15, figs. la-d:; Brady, 1890),

Trans. Roy, Soc. Edin,, 35, p, 491, pl. t, figs. 3, 4; Chapman, 1902, Journ. Finn.

Soc. Lond., 28, p, 419; Chapman, 1910, id, 30, p. 497; Chapman, 1919, Austr,

Absuuct, Exped., Ser. C. 5 (7), p. 17; Chapman, 1941, Trans. Roy. Sac, 8, Avst.,

G35 (2), p. 194, pl, 9, fig, $.

Material—A45 single valves.

Observations—This is a shallow water Indo-Pacific and Australian species

which has been recorded twice by Chapman from dccp water, first at 1,215

fathoms at Funafuti and secondly from 505 fathoms off South-Eastern Australia.

With the exception of ove specimen from 16ft. din, to 1Sft. Sin. in Borehole No,

I, all the present examples were found either in the matrix of the upper shell

bed ur in the clay beneath the shell bed. This would indicate that the species

was of late sporadic introduction and survived only in saline water.

No undamaged pair of valyes was obtained. Many of the single valves,

both adult and juvenile, one of which is figured (pl. 1, fig. @) still retained the

conspicuous posterior spinc which Brady (1890, p. 491) “and Chapman (1941,

p. 194) have noted. One specimen bears an additional small anterior spine.

Either the spines ure an inconstant feature. or they arc easily broken froin the

carapace and not preserved,

VI. FLORA

1, Oogonia of Characeae,

Nearly all samples contain gogonia of Chara probably belonging to more

than one species. These could not be identified as belonging to any described

species living in South Australia. The three shapes illustrated ( pl. 5, figs. 2,

3, 4) may possibly represent three specics.

2. Leaves.

From the matrix of the Coxiella shell hed some small, clongate, rather thick

leaves, possibly of chenopodiaceous plants were recovered. These had prob-

ably been blown in by the wind and deposited with the shells.

VII, DISTRIBUTION

The distribution of the microfossils and the number af speeinens recovered

from washing about 200 gms, of cach sample are shown in the distribution

table.

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Cusmatan, J. A. 1946. The Species of Foraminifera tamed and frnred by Pichtel ane

Moll in 1798 and 1803, Cush. Lah, Moran, Res. Spee. Pub, 17, 16 pp. 4 pls.

JUSUMAN, J.A,, and Gray, WH. B., 1946. A Boraminiferal Mima from the Pliocene of Vim

Point, California, Cish. Lab. Foram. Res. Spee, Bib. 19, 46 py, UR pls

Cusuman, J, Ay ane Tonp, RB. 1945. Miocene Formninitera tram Bil Bay, Jaraniea, Cush,

Tah. Fornun. Res, Spee Pub. 15, 73 pp, 12 pls.

Cwvsumans, | Aw wud Loop, Rua, 47, Foraminifera froin the Coastoof Washinuten, Cali

Jab, Moram, Mes. Spee. Pub, 21, 23 pp. 4 pls.

Dar, W, TL, 1903. Review of the Clissification of the Cyrenwea, Proc. Biul, Sow. Washing-

tou, 16, py. 5-8,

Vives, Th, 1887. Manuel de Conchylinlogic, Paris, 1369 pp.

Hower, W., L901. Suggestions on the Origin of the Salt Lagoons of Southern Yorke

Peuinsula, Trans. Noy. Soc. 8, Aust, 26 (1), pp, 1-9.

Howumn, W.. aid Pars, W. 1938. Notes on the Geological Features and Joriminiteral

Pauna of the Metropolitan Abattoirs Bore, Adclaide, Trans. Ros. Sou 5S. Aust,

62 (2), pp. 287-317, pls. 15-19,

Innosie, To, and Wrorney, G. P., 1938, The Fluyifaynule of Anstralin, S. Anst. Nat, 18

(3), pp. 64-68,

GLoonnwor, N. EL, 1053, Foraminifera mw Svb-Recent Sediments ut Luke Eyre, Soath Aus

tralia. Anst. Journ. Sei. 16 (3), pp, TOX-LO9.

Maptean, C. T., 1932 ‘The Geology of the astern Macdonnell Ranges, Central Anstrudia

‘Trans, Ros, Soe, S. Aust, 56, pp. TI-LL7,

Cann, W. |, L943. A. Systemotie List of the Behinadermata, Foramattera, Wyevateda,

Brachiopoda of Southorn Australian, cd, B,C, Cotton and WK. Godlrey, Mul. See,

S. Aust, Poly, A, pp. 12-24.

Tank Woof. 1950, Tornunifersa, In Fairbridge, RAW. ‘The Geology and Goomorpholory

of Point Perou, Western Australia, Journ. Roy, Soo, W. Atst. Tue, 34, Appumix

Tl, pp. 70-72,

Rem, Ch, unl Groves, J, 1921. The Charophytis of the Lower Headon Beds of TMordte:

{Hardwetb) Clits (South Usanpshive), Quart, Journ, Geol. Soc. 77 (3), pp. 175+

TAZ, pls. 4-6,

Sao, Te reat On the Tand Shells of Western Austrilin, Proc. Matic. Sor, L. pp.

4-019. pl. 7.

Tarr. O., 18u4. ; Notes on the Organic Remains of the Osseous Clays at Like Cullabunna,

Trans. Roy. See, §, Aust, 18, pp. 195-196.

Ware, Rand Biwzer, J,, 1882. Check List of the Fresh-water Shells of Australia, Proc,

Linn. Soe, N.S.W., 6 (3), pp, 552-569,

Wenz, W,, 1935. Gustropoda, Handb. Palaozool,, 2, pp, 480-720,

4 28, pp.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE

. 1—Coxiella gilesi (Angas), x 10; protoconch, x 37.

. 2.—Chara sp. 1, oogonium, x 35.

. 3.—Chara sp. 2 (P), oogonium, x 35.

. 4.—Chara sp. 3 (?), cogonium, x 40.

. 5.—Pontocypris attenuata Brady, adult Ieft valve without spines, x 65.

. 6.—Pontocypris attenuata Brady, juvenile left valve with anterior and posterior spines, x 65.

gy. T.-Cypris sp., both valves, lateral view, x 80.

. &.-Cypris sp., left valve, x 85.

. 9—-(?) Elphidium advenum (Cushman), x 110.

. 10-(?) Nonion scapha (Fichtel & Moll), x 85.

. 11.—Cibicides refulgens Montfort, apertural view, x 180.

. 12.—-Cibicides refulgens Montfort, dorsal view, x 180.

. 13.—Rotalia hecearii (Linné) var. tepida Cushman, extreme form, dorsal view, x 80.

» 14.—Rotalia beccarti (Linné) var. tepida Cushman, extreme form, ventral view, x 80,

. 15.—Rotalia beccarii (Linné) var. tepida Cushman, calcified specimen, typical of Lake

Eyre sediments, x 80,

N. H. Lupsrook PLare |

AN ALTERNATIVE CALCULATION FOR POTENTIAL

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

BY B. M. TUCKER

Summary

An empirical method for the approximate calculation of potential evapotranspiration has been

developed for application to stations where maximum and minimum temperatures are recorded, but

no humidity data are available. From the difference between saturated water vapour pressures at the

normal monthly mean and minimum temperatures an estimate of standard tank evaporation E to the

power 0*75 can be obtained. This value may then be used in Prescott's formulae for potential

evapotranspiration. The method may also be used as a means of extrapolation from stations which

keep humidity records to those which do not.

AN ALTERNATIVE CALCULATION FOR POTENTIAL

RVAPOTRANSPIBATION

By B, M. Tuckin®

[Read 12 May 1955]

SUMMARY

An empirical method for the approximate calculation pf putential evapotranspiration has

been developed for application to stations where maximum and minimum temperatures ure

recorded, but no hunndity data are available, Vrem the diffyreuce between saturated water

vapour pressures at the normal monthly scan and minimum temperatures an estimate oF

a tank evaporation £ to the power 0:73 can be obtuined, ‘Vhis value may then be used

in Presewit’s formulee for poleutia) evapotranspiration. The method may also he used as a

means of extrapolation from stations which keep humitlity records ta those which do not.

INTRODUCTION

An analysis of the water economy of a landscape is valuable for an under-

standing of the vole of rainfall in plant ecology arid seil formation, A general

procedure for such an analysis using the balance between rainfall and evapo-

transpiration was proposed by Thornthwaite (1948) and has been elaborated

by Prescott e¢ al. (1952). The first step in this analysis is the estimation of

potential cvapotranspiration—the amount of cyaporation and transpiration which

can ovcur when water is ‘readily available, Thornthwaite used a compouid-

power (nnetion of normal monthly awnean temperature for this estimation, whereas

Prescott et af, used a power funetion of atmospheric saturation deficit which

can be caleilated froin normal monthly mean temperatures and relative humidi-

ties. Voth of these finetions are based on the conyparison of measured evapo-

transpirations willy climatological recards,

Atruospherie humidity is recorded less frequently than air temperatures

and this paper cxamines a method giving fair values for potential evapotrans-

piration for places where only miaxtiinum and wminimniu temperatures are re-

corded. Ome such method has been proposed by Halsteacl (1951) and has been

discussed by Gentilli (1953). In Halstead’s uiethocd potential evapotranspira-

tion is calenlated from normal wnonthly maxiniim and minima temperatures

which are taken as equal to the temperatures of the trauspiring surfaces and

the dewpoint of the air respectively,

SYMBOLS

E estimated or observed normal mouthly evaporations from a water

surface; specifically from u standard Australian tank (in inches).

[, potential evapatranspiration (iu inches).

Fay Observed ‘ane evaporation calculated for a day of 12 hours possible

sunshine (in inches).

N hours of possible sunshine in a month (dependent on Jatitude and

month),

K environment factor of Prescott et al, (1952),

tt wind velocity.

h normal monthly relative humidity at 9 a.m.

*O.5.1.R.0., Division. of Soils, Adelaiele.

€ saturated water vapour pressure (in inches of mercury) with sub-

scripts—

Ga at uormal monthly mean air temperature,

En al normal monthly minimum air temperature,

&a at normal monthly dewpoint,

a, at temperature of evaporating surface,

DEVELOPMENT OF THE METHOD

The method for calculating evaporation used by Prescott (1938) aud based

on an estimate of atmospheric saturation deficit is derived from the equation

of Dalton which may be put into a fourm applicable to a water surface

E = (€,— ea) F(a).

This equation assumes other factors to be fixed or not limiting. By ignoring

the variations in wind velocity and assuming that normal monthly temperatures

are adequate for determining average vapour pressure differeuces, this equation

miy be replaced by the Bppreciaation

Ek (é@,—€a).

The temperature of the water surface is usually unknown so that it is assumed

to be equal to the air temperature—

E= k(ecg—€y)-

The difference @, — ez is the atmospheric saturation deficit. To use this approxi-

mation for an empirical determination of & it is necessary to obtain mean valyes

of é It has becu ubseryed that the relative humidity recorded at ‘9 acm. is on

the average close to the mean for the day, and Prescutt uses this value to obtain

an estimate ¢@,' of e4 from e@,

ea = he ae

His formula fur calculating evaporation is then

E = ki(@ — ea’) = ky.e,(1—h),

and the empirical value of ky is 21:2 for months of 30 days (Prescott, 1938),

Prescott (1949) has shown that potential evapotranspiration can be calculated

from the monthly evaporation from a water surtace by the formula

Ey = KE.

The power w is given a standard yalue of 0-73 and since 21-2°73=1() his

formula for calculating potential evapotranspiration from temperature and

humicily records is

LE, =10.K {e,(1—h) 32%,

Halstead assumed that ‘the minimum air temperature reaches the dewpoint

temperature each night. ‘This is not true for all localities on all occasions, but

it has been observed that ‘there is a consiclerable degree of parallelism between

the mean values of dewpoint and minimum temperature’ (Bilham, 1938). On

the basis of this ubseryation, it may be expected that the difference (€a— En)

will serve as uu approximation for saturation deficit when no humidity records

are avutlable,

Comparison of Estimates of Saturation Deficit

The best estimates of saturation deficit ( ,—e4) given by Foley (1945,

table VY) are based on hourly air temperatures and relative humidities. The

two approximate estimutes (€,—eg) and (@,—é@,) have been compared with

the best estimate for the same stations and periods used by Foley, On the

whole the twelve pairs of monthly values for each station Atted closely to

power functions of the forms '

Hy — Cu = 1 (@x— 2)" and

[Sl ea =r (€,— &a)"

where p ranged from 0-6 to 0-9 and p from 1:1 ta L-6. Generally, (¢, — &,)

underestimates (¢,—¢,) in the summer months, whereas (€s—@4’) overesti-

mates it. The data from 19 years’ records at Melbourne are plotted in Figure 1.

The ideal relationship of (@,—e,) or (€4—ey ) equal to (@,—é4) is shown by

the broken line. The regression lines calculated lor the logarithms of the esti-

mates are shown in the figure as

Cy — Cn — 0°67 (€q = Ca)" and

Ea eq =1:8 (@a — €a)'.

A. statistical assessment of the two approximate estimates of saturation

deficit showed that for Sydney, Wobart and Perth (¢,— ea’) was better than

(€a—~@») as an estimate of (e,—e¢,), that for Adelaide and Melbourne neither

was significantly better and that for Brisbane (¢¢—é ) was better than

(€,— 2). The estimate (€,—¢é,,) is therefore not as good as (€:—a) as an

estimate of saturation cleficit, but it is nevertheless sufficiently closely related to

justify a further examination of its relation to measured evaporation,

0-40

O10

@q- Gg’ and @g-@rm (in inches Hg)

0-05 010 0-20 0-40

@,- @g(in inches Hg)

Fig, |—Comparison of cstimates of nonnal monthly saturation

deficit at Melbourne.

Open circles for (e,—¢,,). Black circles for (eg — gy’).

The Relation Between E and (¢,—e»)

For this purpose the observed normal monthly values of tauk evaporation

Eas given in the monthly summaries of the Meteorological Branch to the end

of 1952 were converted to the corresponding values aay for a standard day of

12 hours possible suushine by the formula—

Euan = IZE/N,

The values of N for each month and each latitude to the nearest five degrees

were calenlated from data in the Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, This cor-

rection for length of day lias been used by both Thornthwaite and Lalstead

since transpiration and evaporation occur largely during the day: in the present

work the correction brings the relation between evaporation and (¢,—¢€,) into

a form similar to that between (¢,—e,) and (e,—em), that is, the powers p

and n are approximately equal.

A graphical exainination of the records fer a number of Australian stations

showed that tor each station the relation between the twelve pairs of monthly

values could be expressed as a power function

(Fany)" = 6 (€a— Cn)

0:40 =

0-20

010

Egy €m (in inches Hg)

0-05

0-05 O10 0:20 0:40

E day (in inches)

Fig. 2-The relation between standard day evaporation and crude

saturation deficit based on normal monthly ininimum temperatures

for Melbourne.

This type of relation, with n less than unity, was anticipated from the relation

between (e,—€,) and (e,—¢@,,). The data for Melbourne are plotted in

Figure 2. The full line is

Egay®™ = 1°33 (ep — G, ),

based on the regression line

log (€: —@m) = 0-712 log Egay — 0130.

The broken line is ;

aay? = 1-2 (@,-—en) [see below]

The values of n and c varied between stations like p and r. The mean value

of n for these stations came to 0-76 which is a useful coincidence with the

power m of Prescott. We may therefore write

Bay =e ( ba Gn)

as the general form of the empirical relationship. The means for the twelve

actual monthly values of c’ show considerable variations between stations like

the analogous coefficient (k,°"* : standard value 10) used in Prescott’s formula

for potential evapotranspiration. The means of the twelve monthly values of

c’ were calculated from the records of 42 stations taken from the monthly sum-

maries of the Meteorological Branch, from Prescott (1943) and Shepherd (1949).

The average of the 42 means was 1-18 with a standard deviation of 0:21, and

accepting this average as the best available value of c’ we may write

Eaay"** = 1-2 (€u ry en)

(12 E/N "5 ~ 1-9 (€,—@m)

or E07 ~ 1-2f(e =e)

and for monthly values

where f= (N/12)", Table 1 gives ¢alues of f for each month and latitude

to the nearest 5 degrees appropriate to Australia, Using Prescott’s relation be-

tween evaporation and potemtial evapotranspiration we obtain a working

Jormula

E, = 1°23. Kf. (ey — On )-

TABLE 1.

Values of f — (N{12) 075

Datitude oS 15 20 | 25 | 30 45) W 45

ee a |e a a fe —— ey pai hE " .

Jannary i co: ee tbe 4 14-6 9 | 1de2 15-7

February | 1247 12-A } 1269 1361 1363) Vasa 1397

March (3-3 13-3 14-4 13-3 ee ee 13-5

April 2-6} 125 j2+4 12-3 | ded | 0 11-8

May 126 Web 12-9 eo) tbe? to ded 11-0

June I2-2 12-0 WF Wet 0, The | 1K 1Q-2

July i 126 V2-8 \2-] UW-B | ted k-] 10-7

Angust > 12-8 12-7 y2-5 12-3 }2+2 1:9 | I+?

Seplember + 2B 12-1 |e a eo 12-7 l2-6 12-6

October 13-5 13-6 13-7 13-8 13-9 | 1d 14-2

November 13-35 WG 13-9 14.1 j 14-3 | 14-6 15-0

December , LEO 2, 1S ot ne ore eo 16-0

| | |

Calrvitated (rom data given in Snnthsonian Meteorological Tables brh revised edition.

APPLICATIONS OF THE METHOD

The caleulated yalues of EB will be approximately correct if the stations

analysed herein are sufficiently representative to give a fair value for the co-

efficient ¢', Where possible the formula of Prescott should be used since eg

is a better estimate of ¢, than is é». For consistency within an area the same

method of calculation of EZ, should be used thronghont. This may be done

in three ways:

j, If only temperature records are available then this alternative method van

be used alone,

2, If humidity records are ayailable for some stations, Prescott’s method should

be used and the alternative method used for extrapolation by calenlating

local values for ¢’ as the average of twelve monthly values from the formula

ef = 104eg(1—h) 3°" /f. (8 — en).

3, If evaporimeter records are available within the area both Prescott’s method

and the alternative method may be used for extrapolation by calculating

rlues for ef or k, from the formulae

ky — £/e,(L—h)

ul = FF @, — em).

This third procedure cannot be regarded as very salisfavlory since auy particular

evaporinieler may be unsuitably sited or maintained, When acceptable caleu-

lated values for monthly evaporation, based on sunshine and wind records as

well as Lemperature and humidity, become available, then it is suggested that

these values be used as references and Presvott’s method or this alternative

method be used as means of extrapolation wherever more detailed information

is required,

REFERENCES

Biruam, &. G., 1938. The Climate of the British Isles.. Maeemilian, London,

Youry, J, C., 1945. A-study of averuge hourly values of temperature, relitive honidity and

saturation deficit in the Australian region from records of capital city bureaux.

Commauwealth of Australia, Bureau of Meteorology Bulletin 35,

GENTILLI, J., 1953. Die Ermittlung der méglichen Oberflichen- wand Pianzen-verdunstung,

dargelegt am Beispiel von Australien. Erdkunde 7, 81.

Harsteap, M. H., 1951. Theoretical derivation of an equation for potential evapotranspira-

tion. Johns Hopkins University, Laboratory of Climatology Interim Report, 16, 10.

Prescorr, J. A., 1938. Indices in agricultural climatology. Journal of the Australian Institute

of Agricultural Science, 4, 33.

Prescort, J. A., 1943. A relationship between evaporation and temperature. Trans. Roy,

Soc. S. Aust., 67, 1.

Prescort, J. A., 1949. A climatic index for the leaching factor in soil formation, Journal

of Soil Science, 1, 9.

Prescorr, J. A., Coriins, J. A., and SuispurKxar, G. R,, 1952. The comparative climatology

of Australia and Argentina. Geog. Rev., 42, 118.

SHEPHERD, E. M., 1949. Some factors in the hydrology of Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc.

Quecnsland, 60, 3.

THORNTHWAITE, C. we 1948. An approach toward a rational classification of climate. Geog.

Rev., 38, 55.

THE MICROBIOLOGICAL ORIGIN OF THE SULPHUR NODULES

OF LAKE EYRE

BY L. G. M. BAAS-BECKING AND I. R. KAPLAN

Summary

The shape of the sulphur nodules of Lake Eyre, especially the Mat, plate-shaped ones. suggests that

the sulphur might originate [rom a disintegration, by a series of microbiological and chemical

processes, from gypsum crystals. Mass and volume relations between the components are not in

conflict with this hypothesis. The sulphur contains organic carbon; moreover, copious plant and

animal remains are present, not only on the pellicle often lining the cayity, hut also well within the

sulphur core. It may be significant that the sulphur is found at the Ice shore of the Like, A place

where both acolic gypsum and organic flotsam and jetsam accumulate. Direct microscopy showed

the presence of a great many microbes in the brine and in the salt crust. as well as on the mud

surface. The following groups of: bacteria were isolated: (a) Sulphate reducers, both autotrophic

and heterotrophic,

(b) thiobacteria oxidizing sulphur to sulphate; (c) several species of the green Polyblepliarid

Flagellate, Dunaliella, which constitute, which certain blue-green algae, the photosynthetic

component of the biocoenosis. Mass cultures were prepared of microbes which generate hydrogen

from glucose-carbonate mixtures (d), methane formation from calcium acetate (e), and denitrifiers

(f), and furthermore, of those which promote the aerobic anacrobic decomposition of cellulose and

of pectin (g), (h). Only in one case did we obtain evidence of the presence of the photosynthetic

bacteria (surface mud). It appeared that the above organisms are, on the whole, halotolerant and in

many cases, haliphilic, developing well in 20-25 per cent. brine. Group (a), (b) and (c) are

particularly active. From the infection materials, surface mud proved to be the best source, closely

followed by the sulphur and the gypsum-crust of the nodule. Examinations of the gypsum crystal

showed, in many cases, occlusions of troilite ( FeS) or of sulphur. One sulphur mass (containing

but little gypsum) was still pseudomorphic after gypsum. Large, clear gypsum (up to 300 grams)

when placed in actively growing cultures of Desulphovibrio (sulphate reduction) in the presence of

iron salts will disintegrate rapidly, 11 per cent. Disintegration being observed in one case in 100

days at 30 deg. C. From these facts, we have derived the following conclusions :

(1) Smaller or larger gypsum crystals are locally subjected to sulphate reduction, for a large part

sustained by hydrogen, formed from microbial disintegration of the accumulated organic mass at

the lee shore of the lake.

(2) The iron sulphide formed, oxidizes (by an abiological process) when, subsequent to the sulphate

reduction, conditions become aerobic.

(3) The sulphur formed by this oxidation will serve as a substrate for then Thiobacteria which, by

generating, sulphuric acid, will leach the sulphur mass.

(4) The sulphuric acid, reacting with lime or dolomite, will form the crust of (secondary) gypsum

surrounding the sulphur mass. The crustal mass may increase by accretion.

There is reason to assume that the formations are recent, the more so because of a recent sulphur

formation described by Subba Rao from coastal regions in India. Cj4 determinations showed an age

of 20,000 years. Industrial application of the processes described aboye should be investigated.

‘THE MICROBIOLOGICAL ORIGIN OF THE, SULPHUR NODULES

OF LAKE EYRE

By L, G. M, Baas-Beckinc* anv lL. R, Karran®

(Communicated by C. W. Bonython)

[Read Lt April 1955]

SUMMARY

The shape of the sulphnr nodules of Lake Byre, especially the flat, plate-shapedl dues.

sugvests that the sulphur might originate froma disintegration, by a series of microbiological

aud chemical processes, from gypsum eryslals. Mass aud volume relations between the

components aré tot in conilict with. this hypothesis. The sulphur coutains organic carbui;

Mercover. copious plant and arimal remains are present, wot only oa the pellicle often

Jinine the cavity, bot ;lso well within the snfplmr core. Lt may be significant that the

solphia is found at the lee shore of the lake, a place whore both acolie gypsum and organic

flatsain zuid jetson actumuate, Direet microseapy showed the preseuce of a great many

overobes in the brine ancl in the sale ernst, as well as on the mud surfice. ‘The following

groups of bacteria were isvlated: (a) Sulphate rechicers, both autolteophie and heterotrophic:

(bh) thiuhucteria, oxidizing sulphur to sulphate; (©) several species of the green Polybly-

pharid Wlagetlate, Dinaliella, which coustitute, with cerlun blue-green alse, the photy

suuthetic component of the bioeoendsis, Mass oultures were prepared of microbes whieh

eenerate hydrogen from glocose-carbonate mixtures (dq), methane Formation fro ealenen

nevtate: (e). and denitrifiers (f), and frothermore, of those which promote the aerobie ane

anaerobic cleeoemposition of cellulose and of pectin (a), (hod. Only iv ane ease: did we

obtain evidence of the presenee of the phutosynthetic purple bacteria. (surface mu). Te

appeared that the above organisins are, on the whole, Walotolerimt aud i wany eases, hali-

philic, developing: well in 20-25 per cont. brine. Gronps Ge), Ch) and Ce) are nartionlards

active. Fron the infection materials, sarfice: od proved to be the best sauree, closely fol-

lowed by the sulphur ancl the vypsum-erust of the nodule, Examination of the sypsune

crvstiul showed. fm naaiv cages, oeclusions. of troilite (ses! or of sulphar. One stilphur miss

(eontaining frit little gypsum) was still pscudomoerphic after gypsni. Large, clour eypsuut

crystals (up to 300 grams) when plared in actively growing ealtires: of Deaphavihria (sil-

phate reduction) in the presence of drom salts will divintemrate rapidly, TL per cent. disinte-

wetiin belie gbserved in one cas’ in 100 days at SO tiles. GC, Fropy these fiets, we have

deriverl the following conclusions:

(0) Ssoaller or larger gypsion crystals are locally subjected to a suipbute vednetion, for a

large part sustained by liydrogen, formed rem microbial disintegration of the acen-

niuliltec orgitnic mass at the lee shore uf the like.

(2) The iron sulphide fonued, oxidizes (by an abiological process) when, subsequent tu the

sulphate rednetion, conditions bevouig aerobic.

(3) The sulplive forned by this oxidation will serve us a sibstrate for the Thiobacteria

which, by generating sulphuric avid, will leach the sulphur mass.

(4) The sulphuric neid, reacting with Tine or dolomite, will form the erast of (seaomd.ury }

typsnin surrounding Che sulphar mass. The erastal miss may increase by acerclian

Vhere is reason to assume that the formations are recent, the more su beeanse of a

recent siphur formativn deseribed by Subba Rao from eoustal regious in Tidia, C,, deter-

MinAhios Shaved aAtoage ob 20,000 yeurs,

fodystrial applivativuu of the processes Gesertbed above should be investigated.

I, INTRODUCTION

Aly. G. W. Bouython, after visiting Lake Eyre in 1955, had the kindness to

send us brine, salt, mucl and soil from this region for microbiological cxamina-

tion. He also forwarded a curious “sulphur nodule,” a mass of pale yellow

* Division of Fisheries, O.S.LR.O., Cronulla,

suipbur encased iu an ovoid mass cf rather coarse gypsum crystals, The discov-

ory of these nodules by Mr. Bonython, and the conclusion drawn by Mr. D,

King of the South Australian Mines Department that they are of Sub-Iiecent

formation, may yield valuable clues as to the formation of sedimentary sulphur

in general. In [954 one of us joined Mr, Bonython on a trip to Lake Lyre,

where he could collect materials on the spot and also carry out some chemical

analysis. The collection of sulphur nodules of various size aud formation, to-

gether with the clay in which they ure formed, brine, salt, surface muds and

deeyy muds, was studicd in the laboratory at Crouulla, From this study it

appears that the sulphur is of bacterial origin and that the cavities in which it

occurs represent a decomposed crystal (or crystal mass) of gypsum. Turther-

more. we could find no reason to assume that these nodules conkl net be formed

today, given the proper environmental conditions, as laboratory experiments

showed that the process may be initiated in a surprisingly short time.

As Mr. Bonython and Mr. King will publish the geological evidence, it will

suffice to add to their observations only such data as are pertinent te our

problem,

Sulphur is found at the lee shore, and apparently only at this lee shore, of

a very large lake. During Mooding much of the organic material would aeeu-

tiulute there, It should also be stated that, although some of the localities

were denuded of overlying gypsum, erosion might account for their absence,

Smuller and larger erystals of gypsum are present in the immediate neighbour-

hood nf the sulphur sites.

Some of the nodules may he collected from the surface. others may he

fond toa depth af mare thau one foot. At the dune side of the deposit,

luruinated rills of limestone ocewr, The undyles are mostly of an ovoidal or

ellipsoidal shape. reminiscent of jroristone pisoliths (Fig. 1), Figure 2 shows

a Hat structure, totally unlike a pisolith, The ervstal matter consists of gypsum

crystals, often with occluded iron oxide. Some lime may be present. Breaking

this crust one finds a cavity, partizlly filled with sulphur. The sulphur contains

gypsum crystals of various sizes and is, consequently, of a pule yellow colour.

However, in several cascs we found a very pure sulphur within the nodule,

eontaining only +705 per cent. ash. The outside of the sulphur mass may be

coated with iron oxide while the inside of the crust shows a lining of organic

matter (Fig, 3 near the arraw), Organie remains were also present inside the

sulphur (see below), The gypsum crystals on the inside of the crust arc par-

tially impregnated with sulphur. {n this paper we will try ta show that these

masses of silphur are of recent formation, that they cin be accaunted for by

a series Of bivlogieal aud chemical processes ancl that in the course of events,

large crystals OF eypsim may be changed into sulphur de slfre.

Tl, ANALYSES

The chemical characteristics of the environment are partly kuown (Madigan,

1980, Bonython and Mason, 1953), The salinity of the brine varies; in 1954

the brine under the salt crust must have been saturated with sult. The solutions

are almost neutral, from pH 7-20 at a depth of 12-13 inches, ta 6°72 under the

surface and 7:00 at the surface. At 11 ft. depth the brine had a pH of 7:12.

The total hase of the water, consisting of bicarbonate, was 1-85.10— in the

brine From J1 ft. depth, increasing to 2:95-3.05,10-%n, near the surface. These

values are close to those observed in seawater (average 2:45.10—%n,), The

electrode potentials, especially in the regions where sulphate reduction occurred,

wore fairly high (— -110 to + -060 volts). Ficld ohservatinns showed both

lower pH and electrode potential values as the measurements on the same

materials later in the laboratory,

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The titration curves of the brine showed a flattening near pH 5-8. We

do not know of any acid with a pK of 5-8, but it should be mentioned that

the same “plateau” has been observed to occur in seawater in which algae

had been growing.

Mud taken from under the salt crust was vacuum dried and submitted

to mechanical analysis. It showed the following size-distribution of particles:

Larger than 800

# 16-3 per cent.

600-400 » 24-0 per cent.

400-200 » 16-9 per cent.

200-100 p= 12-5 per cent,

Smaller than 100 » 32-3 per cent,

100-0 per cent.

All the fractions isolated seemed to consist almost entirely of gypsum

crystals, often with brownish to black inclusions, Highly magnetic particles

were isolated from this mud; they were found by X-ray analysis to consist

almost entirely of ilmenite. We arc indebted to the Australian Microanalytical

Service, C.S.1.R,0., [lead Dr. K. W. Zimmermann; Mr. J. Waugh, the Ministry

of Supply, Defence Research Laboratories, Sydney, and to the Hydrological

Section of the Division of Fisheries, C,S.1,.R.O,, Head Mr. D, Rochford, for

further analytical data on the various materials collected (see Table 1).

The analysis of the brine in the following table was derived from an average

of three samples collected by Madigan (1930),

TABLE 2.

al- 171,000 p.p.m.

Br- 64 p.p.m,

Hao, 154 p.p.m,

sO. 12,000 p.p.m.

PO, 365 p.p.m-.

Nat 107,000 p.p.m-

Kr 830) p.p.mt.

NH,* 18 pup.

Ca*+ 950 p.pan.

Mgtt+ 4,030 p.p.m.

siO, 47 p.p.m.

Organic matter about 3,000* p.p.m,

Solids 300,000F p.p.m.

~ Inclusive of 68 p.p.m. N.

+ Approximate.

Although not mentioned in the Analysis, boron should be present, as it

was found in this laboratory that Dunaliella, the chict photosynthetic organism

in the brine, requires at least 5 y/L boron for its development (unpubl. ).

Apart Jrom the very low magnesinm content, the Lake Eyre brine is not

unlike that of Great Salt Lake, Utah. As many microorganisms are influenced

hy ionic antagonistns, the proportions between the main ions may be of im-

portance.

The muds show a high gypsum content (the salt “shish” under the crust

excepted), a high organic content under the sult crust, while considerable iron

occurred both in the deep mud (9): feet) and in the mud of the sulphur region

(see Table 8),

TABLE 4.

] j |

Muuicl |

Maud under Mil s |

Surface 1" Mud 9!" regis | Sulphar | Gyrsum

ey ee ae ere! t a

a ppatim* I soca | 5-82 moa. | bare | oecad |

NaCl $95 | 3739) 4000 FVD -80)

rats | 26 YER) 2B | 45 | ANH

Ca phosphate 27 “in| oe bs “30 “07 rl

Chas CIT QO, 1-15 i a) | 2-42 1-99 Ldu

‘Total 44 ; | “JL 1-H oO

moisture | 30-00 { 24 3u 1 85-00 O70 7-4 |

lin : 52

sulphur | | goa |

| ' | | |

* Todlisive al lime, sulpbur-sample execqied.

#* NH, about PG) of wital \,

The Na€l iv the mud was present in a saturated solution. The moisture,

as determinecl was partly water of crystallisation of the gypsum CaSO,.211.0

and partly brine.

The “ernde sulphur” contained approximately 84°8 per cent. gypsum, the

inoisture content (7:54 per cent.) beige nearly all water of crystallization

(7-21 per cent,). This sulphur is much Jower in gypsum, iron, salt and

phosphate than the clay in which it occurs. Only the organic carbon content

proved to be similar in the two materials, Most of these substanees occur in

the onter pellicle, Jiniug the cavity of the sulphur nodule.

The presence of organic remains within the nodule suggested its biological

formation. In order te account for the large masses of sulphur within a nodule,

the only logical material would be the large crystals of the desert gypsunt itself.

{f the sulpbur actually originated from a Jarge gypsum crystal, there might

be some relations of mass and volume indicative of such a process, As suid

before, the shape of the nodules is sometimes flat, and this would match the

often plate-shaped fragments of the desert gypsim. Often the cavity shows

roughly the outlines of the crystal (angles of approximately 60 deg.), The

masses of sulphur weighed by us varied from 9-8 to 87-0 grams, Two nodules,

already open, were carefully eiuptied, the sulphur weighed and the volume of

the cavity determined by filling it with water. Nodule 1 had only a smull

opening, and the yolume of the cavity may be close to the true one. In Nodule

2, the volurme as determined was certainly smaller than the original. Tt must

be remarked that the sulphur from the cavity has a specific gravity close to 1-00

(value for sulphur aboul 1-96) showing that it contains much air, If this

sulphur were derived from gypsum 32 grammes of sulphur would correspond

to 172-14 grammes of gypsum. As the density of gypsum is 2-34, 32 gr. S

would occupy a space of 73:6 cc. We found:

A oo er

| Nodule | Nodule 2

Volume in cic, | 14-0 more than &] -(

“xulphur™ in grarcs WeIG 64-10

63% uf “sulphar (Ss; “elie. 40-04

Calculated:

corresponding gy patti U4r2 pe, PLT

vole of this gypsum) (in cor) 1-4-2 92-8

This comcidence can hardly be accidental. There is reason to believe that

the sulphur, therefore, represents the remnant of a decomposed gypsum crystal,

In both cases the sulphur occupied about 70 per cent. of the volume (69-73

per cent.), This is also what we would expect if the sulphur were formed from

a single crystal or from a crystal mass of gypsum. The weight of the crust

bears uo relation to the weight of the sulphur.

The crude sulphur, boiled in distilled water, did not yield any analyzable

substance. The pli did not change, no titratable matter went in solution. Re-

actions on sulphite and thiosulphate were both negative. In one instance, how-

ever, when boiling a greyish mass of sulphur from the centre of a large nodule,

the water showed a pH of 5-4.

Ii. BIOLOGICAL

‘Oue of us. obtained in 1929 samples of Lake Eyre brines from the Jate

Dr, C.'l’. Madigan. The brines were later cultured and examined in the Leyden

Jaboratory by Miss T. Hof (1885) and by Miss J. Ruinen (1938), A great

nomber of microorganisms, algal, protozoal and bacterial. were found. In this

paper we will draw up a list of organisms, observed by us front the samples

collected by C. W. Bonython in 1958 and by I, BR, Kaplan in 1954, Direct

Microscopic examination of brines, salt crusts and mud surface showed the

following:

In the first place the common green and orange salt flagellates Drnaliella,

chiefly the large form, D. salina Tead var. oblonga Lerche, This form showed

a mass development in 1953 when it attributed an orange colour and a violct-

seent to the brine, Water-dispersed carotinoids were present.

D. minuta, Lerche 1958 present, 1954 present

parva, Lerche 1953 present, 1954 present

euchorld, Lerche 1953 present, 1954 present

an unnamed species, 15 ~ long, spindle shaped 1953 absent, 1954 present, A

filamentous blue-green alga, a common soi! cover in the desert and observed

in the Broken Mill region (L.B.R. 1951, Silverton):

Nodularia spumigena Mertens var. maior Kiilz (Born & Flah).

OF the diatoms, Pleurosigma sp. was common in the more diluted brine in 1953,

while the common salt diatom, Amphora coffaciformis, could be observed in

both years. Colowtess ciliates and flagellates are plentifnl, especially Bodonids.

A filamentous Lyngbya ( bikie careers) appeared in yarious materials, nearly

always accompanied hy a fungus (Chytrid). Direct microscopy yielded,

furthermore, large Spirilla, Jong rod-shaped bacteria and the curious Bacterium

haloblum Petter which is the vanse of the “candy-pink” colour of some brines

an salts, Parartemia, a brine shrimp, occurred in one locality im 1953.

The papery pellicle, lining the cavity of the sulphur uodule, proyed to

consist almost entirely of organic matter. Microscopy showed the presence of:

(a) Cysts (of Dunaliella salina Yeod?)-

(h) ideablast of a proteaceous plant (Hakea?).

{v) Tracheids (probably coniferous, Callitris?).

(d) Bundles of slender filaments, probally shrunken blue-green algae,

(ew) Pollen yrains (?),

(f) A tough, light-brown mass, niaybe a bacterial film, Ceat-like material,

"together with Dunaliclla cysts. was found inside a mass of sulphur.

Long, slender prosenchyma cells were seen.

() Seales and setae of a moth,

(bh) Shell-fragments.

(i) On one occasion in inehtong fragment of a ribbon-shaped monocotyle-

donous leaf was found imbedded well withiu the sulphur tmiass.

These findings point to the formation of the sulphur mass on a leeshore,

where microseopic and other flotsam and jetsam accumulate. ‘The S-E, shore

of Lake Eyre North would be such a locality. Moreover, the material cannot

be very oldl

Most of the biological evidence was obtained from enrichment cultures

and, in sume cases, pure cultures of various bacterial groups. As most of the

results will he published clsewhere, a brief statement will suffice. The follow-

ing groups were studied in yarious media and from various infection materials:

(a) Sulphate-reducing bacteria, which change sulphate into sulphide. Two

types were studied; those that derive their energy directly from hydrogen

id those that derive their energy from organic hydrogen (autotrophic

ancl heterotraphic strains).

(b) Sulphur-oxidizing bacteria. With thiosulphate or sulphur as a source of

energy, these bacteria assimilate carbon dioxide with the formation of

sulphite and of sulphate.

the case of the purple bacteria, oxidizing this sulphur te sulphate.

(d) Green flagellates, such as Dunaliella.

(e) Aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of cellulose.

(f) Anaerobic gas formation (hydrogen) from glucose-caleium carbonate.

() Anaerobic gas formation (methane) from Cu-acetate.

(h) Anaerobic denitrification.

(i) Pink bacteria of the B. halobium group (aerobic, glucose-yeast, or fish-ggay )-

In short, the eyele (or metubiosis) will run as follows: The green flagellates

(1) will assimilate CO, in the light, even in saturated brines, They will aecu-

mulate organic material whch will decompose. There will be additional aeolic

flotsam, also driven to the leeshore. We will consider here only the anaerobic

decomposition and only bricfly mention the aerobic pink bacteria (2) (B. halo-

bium Petter, see Hof, 1935) because of the candy-pink coloration of hath

byine and salt caused by these organisms. They are important in fish-spoilage,

hut do not concern us tiers It stands to reason that all organisms mentioned

are able to perform in highly concentrated solutions.

The carbohydrate (cellulose) material partly prepared by the orange and

green Dunaliella will be changed by cellulose fermentation (3) or pectin-

fermentation (8a) sith the production of organic acid and hydrogen. These

“

materials will serve to enable Desulphovibrio to reduce the sulphate (4) to the

sulphide and when iron is present, black FeS (troilite) is formed. ‘Certain

sulphate-reducers may live on an inorganic medium if hydrogen is present.

Dunaliella is a nitrate organism and it would be important to sce whether

denitrification (5) could be active with the formation of nitrogen from nitrate.

Furthermore, the formation of marsh gas (6) by methane-forming bacteria

might be initiated under anaerobic conditions.

It the FeS or Ts8 has been oxidized to sulphur (see below), the [hio-

bacteria (7) may oxidize this sulphur to sulphuric acid. The acid formed will

have a highly solvent action on mineral matter, it will efficiently leach the

sulphur until it does not contain enough necessary nutrient for the Thiobacteria

ta continue their development. The following table shows the results obtained.

‘TABLE 4a.

TO ——

| Surface | Pink | Surface | Deep

brine | salt mud mud =| Gypsuin) Sulphur | Average Remarks

GROUP 1. Sulphate reduction

on Fe (Hy) | 2-0 7 | 1-0 13 1-30 | 3-0 maximal de-

on lactate 3-0 2-7 2-5 30) 2-80 velopment dw.

on pyruvate 3-0 0 0 Q ~75. 1 V4 clays in 8-5

on pyruvale ' per cent, salt.

+e | 3-0 0 ; 3-0 360 150) | BOC

GROUP 11. Thiobacteria

S, aer 2-0) 2-5 2+0 2.5 2-25 | 3-0 maximal de-

5. anaer Lei | +t 0 2-0 -93 velopment dw.

‘Thiv aer 0 20 | 0 25 | 1-13) 14 days in 3-3

Thio anaer. | 0 15 1-0 0 +58 per cent. salt.

Thioparus {I 2-0 2.0 0 “a0. (30°C).

ay. olh | 1-70 140)

Sit tt ¥¥ ‘

GROUP ILI, lydragen formation fram

Glucwse i tol FL, in 14 class,

NaCl 5% 70 a5 | 3-15 baz |

10 oe TS “O05 ' 6:25 i15 (30° CL,

15 () | 4:50 | LL-25 5625

20 3-69 | 4:65 9-40 O) |

2h -75 | 2-90 | 10-00 4-55

av, 2-04 | 2-67 7 8-01

GROUP TV. Denitrification

es Z

a a ts 20. | Hl eas.

10 8B | 0 “43 “89 28 das.

15 25 | “Id inl was “15

20 O07 0 Ob 04

25 “02 0 OL} (30°C),

ay “49 41 -06 av. per-culluire.

‘Tape 4a Continued.

GROUE V. Methane formation

Acetate 5 | 0 +16 +25 i -U2 | ml gas 14 days.

IQ {925 “16 “25 | +03

1a | +25 0) 0 mil gas ~) 10 02

att) 0 0 : 0 0 . (SOC...

25 0 0 0 | 0 |

av | M4 } 02 -01 i | av. per culture,

GROUP VIL. Cellulose decomposition .. - ie - :

laerobie)

1 |

4-25 | ; a | + | Decomp. in 28

9-3 i -t days (30°C.),

12-5 | | | ul | * grad af sulphur

18-75 4 | 4+ region.

GROUP VIIL, Gelluluse decamposition

{anaerobic}

| | |

55, | +60) | = 3°80 | 2:80 3-42 | 3-9] pl after 29 days

10%, 2°87 4-43 A:t2 | 2-66 2-93 3°12 at 30°C,

139% 3°03 3-92 2-80 4°33 2°85 | 3-48

209, 4-03 | 455 | gar | 2-49 | 4-70 | 3-43

25%, 3:02 3°70 2-47 2-44 2+70 | 2-99

GROUP IX. Pink bacteria

faerobic heterotraphs)

| i

AM, | | allnegativeexcepr

10", . surface brineand

y5", pink salt in 249%

21%, | solution,

95% dee fee | | | |

In 1953 we tested the brine, mud and sulphur on the presence of haliphilic

sulphate-reducing organisms and Thiobacteria. Development was obtained in

media containing up to 20 per cent. salt. As in the higher salt concentrations

the incubation time was high (plus one month at 30 deg. C.), we have limited

the cultures from the 1954 material to 3-5 per cent, salt. There is evidence to

assume that, during the decomposition of the gypsurn, the “internal” solution

is dilute, due to the formation of reaction-water. The Hi, and GH, formation,

the decomposition of cellulose and the denitrification were investigated in media

containing 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 per cent. NaCl, A summary will follow:

Group I. Sulphate Reduction

(a) On hydrogen (generated from steelwool cleaned with petroleum ether).

All infection materials yielded positive results.

(b) On lactate all infection materials positive.

On the average the sulphur nodule contains the most varied and the most

active sulphate-reducing bacteria,

Group II, Thiobacteria

(a) On sulphur, all cultures positive.

(b) On thiosulphate. Surface mud negative.

Deep mud and sulphur nodules proved to be the best infection materials,

Group JU. Hydrogen formation from glucose and calcium carbonate iii

various salt conventrations. Roth brines and surface mud produced much

hydrogen, especially at concentrations higher than 10 per cent. salt. A con-

tinuous supply of carbohydrate material may generate enough hydrogen to

enable the autotrophic sulphate-reducers to perform. Long gram positive rods

and also micrococei present.

Group IV. Denitrification (“saltpetre-micrococcus”) could ouly be ob-

seryed by formation of nitrogen from nitrate after a Jong incubation time in

5 per cent, and 10 per cent. salt from surface brine and from surface mud. The

denitrification was negligible in 15 to 25 per cent. salt. As Dunaliella is a

nitrate orgauism, it seems comparatively sate at the usual high concentrations

of the brine,

Group V. Methane formation was virtually absent. Below 10 per cent,

salt, traces of gas were formed.

Group VI, Dunaliella. From brown surface salt we raised, in 20 per cent.

NaCl (nitrate, phosphate), two forms D, minuta Lerche and D. purva Lerche.

Microscopic examination of brine and salt convinced us, however, that many

more species aré present in the natural environment.

Group VII. Acrobic decomposition of cellulose. Filterpaper discs were

partly disintegrated in 6-19 per cent, salt after 28 days inenbation at 30 deg. C,

The sulphur nodule and surface mnds yielded positive results (long, slender

rods and Spirilla),

Group VILL The anaerobic cellulose fermentation yielded highly acid

solutions. Neutralization by means of CaCOy was not followed by sulphate

reduction. Only after steelwool was introduced, sulphate reduction appeared

in various concentrations, showing that free hydrogen (as developed in the

glucose-CaCO,; media) scems necessary.

The surface mud seemed to be the richest source.

‘TABLE ‘th,

Surface Surface | Drep | Mud from

Salt-cone. brine: mud mud Sulphur region | Total

5%, 15 0) I j a eS

10 3 3 1 | 3 75

15 “3 ] Oo 0 1-3

20 “5 3 2 a) 5-5

25 “5 I “5 i 2-0

‘Total | 45 av 4-3 3

| iT

The maximyro development in any particular culture is taken as 3.

Summarizing, we may say that not only the liquid and solid environment

of the sulphur nodule, but the sulphur itself as well, are teeming with micro-

scopic life, able to promote the cyclic changes necessary for the formation of

the sulphur from gypsum and its subsequent purification.

The absence of purple and green bacteria seems remarkable. They could

not be isolated either from the 1953 or from the 1954 materials, except im one

isolated case from surface mud yrown in a medinm vontaiming 20 per cent. NaCl.

TV, DISCUSSION

Gypsum crystallizes in the monoclinic system, angle of the axcs 58°10".

Figure 4 shows ¥ fragment of a very large erystal of desert gypsum (“old man’s

boues") which must have weighed nearly one kilogram, collected near Broken

Hill, N.5.W, The main cleavage planes are well recognizable, Gypsum may

he split along these planes in very thin, glass-like slices. These slices may stand

considerable bending, After release of the stress, the surface becomes plane

again, The calcium atoms are joiued by sulphate groups (Bragg, 1937; Wyckoll,

1ySL). ‘Two layers of these CaSO, molecules alternate with two layers ot

water molecules, joined to the calcium and the oxygen atoms, Tt is well known

that the thormal expansion of the gypsum crystal is many times greater per-

nenuicular to the main cleavage plane than iu the direction of this plane. The

ise of the splicing of the crystal may be readily osplained, only one water

molecule being necessary in the lattiee to satisty the bonds. Gypsunr is soluble

in acids, but also in organic substances containing OH grotps, such as glycerol,

This dissolution again will be carried out on the water surfeecs in the molecule

nntil a double laver of CaSQO,2H.O remains. The crystal takes wp dyes and

inorganic chemicals yery slowly, By heating and ooolints the process may be

speeded wp, due to the thermal expansion and contraction, One may impreg-

nate a small (Smm,) evystal with ferric chloride in this way, and react on

the irom with K-ferrocyanide, Inclusions have frequently beeu reported in

vypsinn. They must be of twe kinds; cither the crystal will be formed around

some impurity, or there will be a later penetyation of materials, helped by

heating and cooling, As Figures 7 ancl & show, these inchisions are of a yari-

able watare; organic matter, sulphur, FeS aud iron oxide have been deimari

strated tn occur within the erystal. (See also Silvestri, 1552; Sjogren, 193.)

The above facts inay be accounted for by a simple working hypothesis:

(a) Single gypsum crystals. ov conerctions of such crystals, are brought iu

contact, when submersed, with a substrate, fit for the development of halophilic

sulphate reducing bacteria, This will require a preliminary fermentation of the

oreanie material with the generation of either Tydiagen fom which the aute-

(roplie strain of sulphate reducers will thrive) or organic acids (a fit substrate

for the heterotrophic strain). The gypsum may ur may not contain iron oxide

the euyivonment will invaziahly contain iron. as appears (rem the analytical

data. Let ous suppose Further that sufficient aunnonutin ton, phosphate anid

carbon eiexide be present fur sulphate tednetion to set im, During this recite

lioy the $-O bunds are disrupted and the ervstal will disintegrate in the main

pliatie Into fibrous crystallites (sev Fig. 9),

fhe following reaction will take place:

CuSO 2Hs0 + 6{f—+ CaS + 6HLO

The molecular volume will clenye considerably chielly due to water uf

reavtion, ‘There will be o considerable expausivn. Which will assist in the break-

down of the crystal. Sjogren (1893) asentions a 4-023 per cent, salt solution

fram the inside of a 300em. lowe zypsum erystal frum CGurgenti (Sicily). The

cas phase vonsisted chielly of ILS, Froin the ionic balance (on recalculating

fle analytical figures) it appears that the solution mst have been about Q-l4n.

in sulphide, No iron was present. FeS will always be formed, if the pIT is

iver than 5:8. (Due to the yery low solubility product of FeS, Hy5 will

even remove the iron from phosphates.) We get:

CaS + Fe(OH ):— Ca(OH), + Fes

Ca(OH jy + CO. CaCOz + Hud,

‘The overall equation will be:

CaSO,2H:.0 + 8H + CO, + Fe(OH), FeS + CaCO, + 7H20

again with an merease in molecular volumes, Figures 5, 7 and & show the FeS

inside the erystal. This reaction, which proceeds to 92 per cent. completion

(according te the analyses) gives rise to either CaS or VeS, or both, compounds

that will oxidize readily,

(b) Verhoop (1940) has shown that the oxidation of FeS is a purely chemi-

cal process, taking place in a short time at 100 deg. C, At room temperature

it may take 8-12 hours,

4FeS +30. > 3Fe.0., + 45S,

Here again there is an increase in molecular volume, Figures § and 6 show

the sulphur inside the crystal, At times the shape of the gypsum crystal is

still recognizable, while it consists, tor the largest part, of sulphur (Fig, 5),

It will be seen that, while the sulphate reduction will also generate water,

both sulphate reduction and sulphide oxidation will cause expansion, assisting

in this way in the disintegration of the crystal. The “thuffiness” of the sulphur

(its low density) also bears witness of this cxpausion. Morenyer, the acid pro-

ducts of the thiobacteria will wash much gypsum from the nodule, which

gypsum may reerystallize at the ontside. Part.of the outside shell of the nodules

may be formed by action of [1SO.- with the line in the clay. The outer pit

of the shell may have fortued by accretion as well.

This disintegration will proceed vapidly. We isolated a sulphate reducer

from lake Eyre. on a 5 per cent. NaCl-lactate medium. A gypsum crystal,

without any visible inelusious, was placed in a medium containing, besides

ferrous ammonium sulphate, phosphate and bicarbonate, a 1 per cent. solution

of sodium acetate, After a few days at 30 deg, C. the crystal became covered

with black Hakes of FeS (Fig. 10). These flakes consisted of small, columnar

erystallites, ander an angle of 26 deg, with the a-axis of the crystal (see Fig.

9). Similarly, the occurrence of FeS within the erystal aceurs between these

planes. In 10 days 4-5 gtams of the large erystal (weight 631 crams-) had

heen decomposed or was disintegrated; over 11 per cent. was consumed in

110 days, At this rate the crystal would be deeamposed in a little Jess thir

three years, Steady aid optimal conditions should persist, however, during

this period, a steady stream of nutvients (such as may be found near the Jee

shore) bein the prime prerequisite,

(ce) When the sulphur still contains ontrients, such as ammonium salts

ancl phosphate, there will be an inevilable action of the Thiooxidans group of

bacteria, generating acid. Even a little avid will leach the sulphur coimpletely,

the extraneous elements and part of the gypsnm being washed out. We bo-

lieye that the core of the sulphur nodules contains but very lite inorganic

salts. As soon as the substances necessary for the sulphur oxidation are removed

they will accumulate in the outer crust. Gypsum easily reerystallizes from xt

siturated solution.

Again we want to emphasize that all of the bacteria necessary for the

above reactions are sull present, apparently in areat numbers, within Hie sulphur

nodule, While “everything is everywhere” at least as far as soil and water

bacteria are concerned, bacteria cannot wait forever. Porous coal, fram an

open scam at Coal Cliff Mine, N.S.W., was flamed at the outside, Sulphate

reducers, either autotrophic or heterotrophic, could not be isolated from this

material, Tfowever, it yielded cultures of Thiohacteria, which are known to be

active in inines (acid minewaters}. The curious “empty” nodules, collected gt

the northern portion of the W-coast of Scalloped Bay by Mr. Bonython, yielded

neither sulphate-reducing nor sulphur-oxidising bacteria.

§8

Ina preliminary C,, age determination carried out by Mr. T. A. Rafter and

Mr. G. Ferguson, Dominion Physical Laboratory, D,S.[.R., Wellington, New

Zealanl, on a composite sulphur sample weighing 2-2 Kg. from west coast of

Sulphur Peninsula, 3:7 litres of CO. were obtained. This was sufficient for an

age determination, the result being 19,100+ 500 years. This result could inean

that old carbon was contattinated with 9-2 per cent. of living carbon, Further

isolepe measurements are being carried gut and the results will be quoted in

a separate publication

Tf we asstune that this datum is correct (it appears to confirm Mr, D. King’s

stratipraphie finding), ther the first step (sulphate reduction) could have taken

pluce at a period of 20,000 years or longer, while the second stey of sulphur

oxilation occurred much huter under drier conditions, and is probably still taking

plice in this older material. Many of the sulphur nodules contain bits of insects,

Cea und matter probably washed in prior to the formation of Ue gypsum

ArDOu,

It seems very remarkable that all of the bacteria isolated were either

highly sult-tolerant or halophilic. while the sulphur only coutams 0-S per cent.

salt. This may be accounted for by the fact that most of the sulphate rednetien

inside the erystal will be performed by materials already oecluded by the grow-

ing gvpsam erystals or be removed by the leaching wnder the acid conditions

created by the Thiooxidans bacteria.

The first author visited the vypsum-salt lakes in South Australia in 1936,

There he met conditions so stinilar to those observed at Lake Eyre* that further

eximination of the gypsum cliffs of the Yorke Peninsula Salt Lakes (Marion

Bay, Lake Fowler) might yield other localities where native sulphur is formed.

Alter completion of this paper we found that Subba Rao (1947) had ob-

served sulphur formation in coastal clays in India. Tis brief account matches

ours In many aspects.

We know that inany believe that the sedimentary sulphur deposits (e.¢.

from Texas) are of biological origin (Thode et al., 1953 and 1954), We share

this belief. Whe application of Lyell’s “actuality principle” secrns equally valid

in geobiology as it is im geology. It may be that at some time wypsum will be

used to prepare sulphur by bacteriological means.

REFERENCES

BAds-Bucwine, LG. M., 1934. Geobiolagie The Thigte, vin Stork

Braue, N. 1., 1937, Atornie Structure of Minerals. Cornell Univ. Press

Bonvriion, C, W., and Mason, B., 1953, Tho filling and drying of Lake Eyre, The Ure

graphical Journal 119; 321.

Tlov, ‘V'. 1935. Inyestigations Concerning Bacterial Growth in Strong Brines. Rec, cles

‘Yrav. Bot. Neerl. 82: 92. :

Jace, R. Ls, 1921. The Salt and Gypsum Resonrees oF South Australia, Geol. Survey 8.4

Bull. Na. 8, p. 26, :

Mameas, C. T., 1930. Lake Eyre, South Australia. The Geographical Journal 76: 215,

Titvew, J, £938. Notizen ueber Salafamellaten TT, Arch. f. Urotuitenk, 90; 209,

Rumen, J. 1038. Notizen ueber Ciliaten aus konventrerter Salegewassinn, Zod

Maudeclingon Mus, Nat, Mist, Leyden 20; 215. 7

Koren, 7, aud Baas-Trecrine, L. G. M,, 1938. On Rhizopods Living in Cimsial Fevien-

ment. Aral. Noork, cle Zoologie 3 (supplement); 183,

Savor O, $882. Sulla natura chiniea di almane tmehestont ligqnide contennte: in. cristal

natural’ di sofa dolla Steilia. Gus. chin. tual. 12: 7 ;

Syenrx, Hy, 1893. On Targe Fluid Enelosares fi Gypsam from Sialy. Bull. Geol. Tnst

Gppsala 1-2: 28).

Sena Rac, M.S., Tra, K. K., und Sremnivasava, Mo, 1947. Mierobivlogical Formation of

Tlomental Sulphur iv Coastil Arcus, Fourth dnt. Cone, Microbiol, p, 404,

Thao, tL G. Macwamana, J. and Purse, W. TT. 1953. Sulphur Tsotope Mrvetiona-

tion in Nature and Cealogieal and Biological ‘Ving Seales. Geochim. ot Cormachitn

Acta 3: 236.

Por a very good deseription sec Jack, 1921,

Trove, H. G., Wanvess, R. K., and Waxtoucn, R., 1954. The Origin of Native Sulphur

Deposits from Isotope Fractionation Studies. Geochim, et Cosmochim. Acta 5: 286.

Venuoor, J, A. D., 1940. Chemische on Microbiologische omzctting van Yzersulfiden in

den Bodem. Thesis, Leyden, H. Veenman & Co., Wageningen.

Wetts, A. F., 1947. Structural Inorganic Chemistry. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

Wycxorr, R. W. G., 1931. The Structure of Crystals. Am. Chem. Soc. Mon. 2nd Ed.

Chemical Catalogue Co., NY.

L. G. M. BAAs-BEcKING AND I. R. Kaptan PLATE |

Vig. 1.—Sulphur nodule, opened, showing sulphur and cavities.

Fig. 2.—Sulphur “nodule”, plate-shaped. The internal cavity has

the shape of a plate-crystal of gypsum.

L. G. M. Baas-Beckine AND I, R. KAPLAN Puare 2

Fig, 3.—Nodule, from which the sulphur is removed. Some of the

lining gypsum crystals are partly “sulphurized”.

Fig. 4.—Fragment of gypsum crystal, collected near Broken Hill,

N.S.W. Courtesy of Mr. R. Stanton.

. G, M. Baas-Beckinc anp I, R. KAPLAN

Pig, 5.—Pseudomorph of gypsum, consisting almost entirely of

sulphur. Where it has been scratched with Gillette blade, small

pits mark crystal debris left. Gypsum crystal with occlusions

of FeS.

Fig. 6—Sulphur washed away by a jet of water, Remaining,

clean gpsum crystals contain much internal sulphur. x 10,

PLATE 3

L. G. M. Baas-Becxinc AND I. R. KAPLAN PLATE 4

Fes & Fe,05

INSIDE GYPSUM CRYSTAL

Fig. 7—(a) Iron oxide particles within the crystal after reaction

with K-ferrocyanide. The liquid may be forced in by heating the

crystal and on cooling, liquid is sucked in by contraction perpen-

dicular to the main cleavage plane. (b) Troilite (FeS) inside

the crystal, following the cleavage planes. (c) Sulphur granules

inside the crystal, following cleavage planes. (d) Iron oxide and

FeS within a crystal, examined after splitting it with a knife on

the main cleavage plane.

L. G. M. Baas-Brckinc anp I, R. KArLan PLATE 5

Fig, 8 —Gypsum crystal with occlusions of Fes,

Fig. §.—Flakes, obtained from crystal. Fig, 10, enlarged. The flakes con-

sist of rod-shaped crystals, still arranged under angles of approx, 74 deg.

L. G. M. Baas-BEcKING AND [. R, KAPLAN PLATE 6

Fig. 10.—Plate-shaped crystal, split from the crystal depicted in

Fig. 4. The plate-shaped fragment weighed 631 grams. It was

infected with sulphate-reducing bacteria from Lake Eyre sulphur,

on an acetate medium with Mohr’s salt. After 10 days the flaky

black crust (containing much FeS) peeled off. Not less than

4-5 grams disintegrated in this period.

THE SALT OF LAKE EYRE - ITS OCCURRENCE IN MADIGAN GULF

AND ITS POSSIBLE ORIGIN

BY C. W. BONYTHON

Summary

Journeys onto Madigan Gulf were made by Madiqan in 1929, and by the author in 1953 and 1954.

Observations were made of the surface formations, hand bores were sunk and samples obtained, and

level surveys were made to determine the physical form of the lake bed.

A tentative map of the lake bed contours has been and from this has been calculated the volume of

water that the gulf may hold when filled to different levels. Brine salinities an estimate of the total

salt content; an independent estimate is derived from salt crust thickness measurements in the dry

lake. The log of a 12-ft. hand bore put down in the lowest part of Madigan Gulf is given.

The different dry salt formations are described and shown in photographs. Their origin is deduced.

The succession of events during the drying-up of the lake waters, and during re-flooding of the dry

salt crust, is reconstructed. Speculations are made on the origin of the salt. It is shown that the

composition of the salt is likely to give little indication of its origin. The total quantity is small

compared with the expected intake over short periods of geological time, and the tact that salts are

present in quantities in direct proportion to their order of deposition, and in inverse proportion to

their solubility, suggests that they exist in a state of equilibrium between an incoming stream and

another stream continually being lust.

THE SALT OF LAKE EYRE —ITS OCCURRENCE IN MADIGAN GULF

AND ITS POSSIBLE ORIGIN

By C, W. Bonytnon?

[Read 9 June 1955|

SUMMARY

Jouesys onto Madigan Gulf were made by Madigan in 1929, und by the author in

1953 and 1954. Observations were made of the surtice formations, hand bores were sunk

und suntiples obtained, and level surveys were made to detennine the physicul form of

the lake heel.

A tentative map of the lake bed contonrs has been prepared, and from this has been

caleylatect the voline of water that the gull way hold when Alled to differant levels. Brine

salinities yield an estimate of the total salt content: an independent estinate is derived froin

salt crust thickness meusurements in the dry lake. ‘The Jog of a 12-[t. hand bore put

dows in the lowest part of Madigan. Gulf is given.

The different dry salt formations are deserthedl and shown in, photographs. Vheir origin

is deduegd, The swecession of events during the chying-up of the lake waters, and during

re-Hooding of the cry salt-crust, is reconstracte:|,

Speadations are made on the origin of the salt, Tt is shown that the composition ct

the salt is likely to give little indication of its origin. The total quimtity is sual] contpaced

with the expected intake aver short periods of geolowieal Lime, anid the fact that salbs are

prosunl in ¢ptiantities in direct proportion to their order of leposition, gnd in inverse pro-

porkion, lo their selubility, suggests that they esist in a state of ecqailibsium between an

Teaming Stredin and another stream continnally being fost.

INTRODUCTION

Recent studies of Lake Eyre promoted by the Royal Ceoyraphical Society

of Australasia, South Australian Branch, following the phenomenal flooding in

1949-50, ineluded field work which brought to light inter alia interesting imtor-

mation on the volume, salinity and yeolowy of the lake and surroundings. Some

of the fiudinys have been set out by Bouython and Mason (1953), and later

in more detail by Bonython (1953 a, b, c, d and e¢).

The evaporation study had given rise to rough estimates of the water-

holding capacity of the lake at its higher stayes, but there still persisted a lack

of such data for the lower stages. The known yolumes hud been estimated

from aerial repurts on the extent af the flooded arcas im conjunction with lake

levels measured on gauying posts near the shore, but during the Gnal phase

of the drying-wp the water retreated) iwards from the shure so that its level

could mo longer be gauged, and heice the resiclual yolumes could not be esti-

mated, The lowest basins of the lake bed —to which the residual voliniies

relate —are important inasrouch ax they appear to contain practically all the

lake salts both during the concluding stages of the drying-up process and after

the lake is finally dry,

THE EXPLORATION OF 'T'HE BED OF MADIGAN GULI

The deepest parts of Lake Eyre North are Madigan Gulf in the south-east

and Belt Bay in the south-west; the former is thought to be the deeper of

the two.

TO, Alkali (Australia) Pty. Ltd.

Madigan Gulf is an oblong basin, approximately 25 miles by 20 miles,

named after C. T. Madigan, who reached its dry centre in 1929 (Madigan,

1930). After viewing it from the air he had attempted to drive a motor vehicle

on it with the object of reaching the centre of Lake Eyre itself —at that time

completely dry.

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Fig. 1.--Jonrneys on the Bed vf Madigan Gulf.

He started from the shore at what is now called Level Post Bay (see Fig.

1), but a marginal strip of the lake bed, composed of damp clay, proved an im-

passable barricr to his truck, so that he was forced to follow the shore south-

westwards until he reached Shelly Island, where his attempt to explore the

gull by isntor yelicle was abandoned. (An interesting postscript to his attempt

is that the author in 1953 found ghostly vestiges of Madigan’s car tracks west

of Sulphur Peninsula; they were still im evidlenee—see Plate la—even after

having beew submerged for over two years in up to 10 ft. of water.)

During the return jowney Madigan and a eompanion branched off at

Urescutt Point to walk 11s miles out inta the gulf in a north-westerly direction.

He described the various surface salt formations for the first time, and he found

the salt crnst to increase in thickness with distance from the shore finally to reach

I7 inches. He and his party put down some hand bores in the like bed near the

shore Tis observations were thorough and complete, and lie was clearly a

most discerning observer. The amount that he discovered during the mere

seven days spant on the lake was troly remarkable. Madigan briefy revisited

Level Post Bay in 1939 doving the return fom his Simpson Desert expedition

{ Madigan, 1946),

Neo farther scientific work was carvied out there until the author made his

evaporation expeditions in L95L (Tionython, 1955), When in 195% the bed

ait the gull was being re-esposed as it dried up a plan was formulated to make

accurate levelling serveys across it for the purpose of determining its contours;

trum these the water-holding capacity could he derived, At the same time the

salt crust wats to be studied in nore detail than Madigan had found possible.

The Juke had campletely dried ip by early J953, so the ¢apecition was

planned for May of that year, Iowever, in February and April respectively.

two flaods outercel the lake — the fest from the Neale: aod Maciimba cutel-

nents. and the second freny Queensland vin the Diamantina. he latter was

a Wool ef significant prmportions { Bonython, 1955). such that Madigan Gulf

was cospend with water to the level of AL. 935-8 ft® by May, 1953. The

expedition of May, 1953, still went out, brit with modified objectives, The only

survey made consisted of a short levelling traverse: across a dry strip of the

lake bed near the share

Two wading journeys were oad from Prescott Point through shallow

waters in the Kunoth Shoal area (see Pig. 1); one went for four miles on

approximately the magnetic hearing of 285°, crossing the high-and-dry crest

of Kunth Shoal ie the process, while the other went for five miles generally

mathearing of S40". passing entirely Uueaugh water, A three duwy motor journey

lorie Hot Peniustla was also made during this expedition. Its Madican Call

shore was lollowed round to Artentia Point, the worth-caster extrerity,

Th 1683, salt and brine samples were taken, hand hores were put down

nvar the shere. aud stratigraphic data were obtained by DL. King of the South

Australi Mines Deparhinent (King, 1955). A previously-tounl deposit of

mative sulphur {Baws-Beeking & Kaplan, 1955, Ponython and King, (955) was

alse strclioel aie This aeeaston.

Vhe luke had dried up azuin by the enc of 1953, and a levelling survey

expedilian was planned for August, 1954. ‘Lhe Iske remained dry, so that this

Hine i) was possible tu carry out the work as desired. The party of eight mei

hers travelled to Lake Fyre ina jeep anda heavy truck, and remained in the

wenilty frora 23rd August to 3rd September We Go Peoner etnducted the

loving survey, while (he author was responsible for the salt crust boring and

sanpling, ‘Lhe first phase of the wark involved a lour-day journey ow the

lake hod by fon nen. They used a uovel form of transport for their supplics —

a light “garden” crawler tractor, with widened Gacks, drawing a (railer an

rorophine wheels (see Plate 1b). Tt inchided a cyclometer wheel to log dis-

tonces. Though slow (2! 1np.), this veliele eould eross (he solt mud near

the shore without sinking, It carried such essentials as water, frewood and

w tarpaulin shelter which, when fastened to the Ive side at night, made a com.

"Mile iseckefinesl on page 71,

fortuble camp possible in otherwise rather bleak conditions. The surveying

pair was able to cover seven miles in a full working day; the other pair drove

the tractor, and bored and sampled the salt. Black flags were planted at

intervals to. mark the survey lines,

The first leg of the survey wus advanced from Preseott Point on 23th

Aieust in) direction of 305° magnetic (see Fig, 2), (The reasow why this

bore rather to the left of the long axis of Madigan Gulf was Ehat a certsits

aerial report of the drying-up in 1952 suggested that the bottom of the basin

was an that side: the repurt was misleading, ) ‘The salt crust was encountered

a short distunwe beyond Preseott Point, and it rapidly reached a thickness of

7 in It later decreased to Lin, over Kunth Shoal, but after that it thickened

mice more. The surface was hard, and the only iuterruptious to its smoothness

were small “islands” of cemented erystals of “drift” salt raised a few tnehes

above the general level. Soon the thickness reached § in., and over all the

distance covered by the levelling team in the next tew days it kept between

Tand 1 in

The secoml day took the survey to Flag 36/54 at 12 miles, On the third

day (27th August) the direction was changed 90 deg. anti-clockwise at the

Tisnile mark, and other similar turns were made, so that during this and the

fourth day a rectangle of peviineter 10 miles was closed back onto the original

survey dine. Ti the course of this, on the mori of 28th August, the author

walked from the third camp at Plag 62/34 to the south-western shore at Pitto-

spor Tread and back again. After rejoining the ontward survey line at Flag

37/54, the party returned to base The levels so far ineasured indicated that

the lowest part of Madigan Gulf was probably on the uortli-cast or opposite

side of the main survey Jine. The tractor was very slow, acl the 34 miles on

the lake so far covered by it had heen tedious ones for the drivers. Moreover,

the salt erust proved so sound that it encouraged an atterupt ta put a motor

ear on to it— the unachievedl aim nf Miurligan 25 years before ( Madigan, 1930).

By running over planks laid on the soft lake bed where the gap between the

Jand and the sult was narcowest (near Prescott Point), a jeep eventually reached

the thick salt crust; thenceforth it was possible to trayel at 40 m.p.h. on a

smooth surface, most of which was as firm as coverete. After this the survey

party was driven out each morning from the advanced hase camp at Presentt

Polnt, and hrowght back in the evening. ‘The jeep teack detoured vortliwarcds

round Kunoth Shoal to keep to the thiek salt,

On 50th August the next leg of the survey was directed alone a hewrias of

35° Magnetic from Mag 36/54, 12 miles out, The lake bed was relatively much

lower in this direction, the Jeg terminated after § miles al Flag 99/54. Beyond

the fatter peint 1. Dyer and the author walked on [or three more miles, but

were halted at approximately one mile Eroin the north-eastern ceast where the

salt had tapered to a thiekness of one ineh. and it was found to be a trenehurons

area of breakable crust underlain by very soft mid. On Aalst August a survey

leg on a hearing of 305° Magnetic was begun from Flag 93/54 located part

wily along the previons day's leg and at its lowest point, At Plage 112/54. four

miles along the final leg, the lowest part of the lake hed to be measured was

Found: the survey ended three-quarters of a mile further ow. The lowest point

was at AJR.L, 91°35 ft. at 17 miles N.N.W. from Trescott Point.

During S)st August the author and I. lt. Kaplan sank a hand bore in the

Jake bed at Plag 93/54, The bed itself (i.e, the bottom of the salt crust) was

at ART. 9252 fh here, and so although it was not at the lowest known part

of Madigan Gulf it was only 8 in. alsyve if, The bore reached a depth of 11 ft.

din. on that day, and it was deepened to 12 {t.8 ia. on the following day with

the help of W. G. Fenner. The last 1 Ft. 8 in, was in a bed of rotten dolomite.

That day — Ist September — saw the end of the effective work of the expedition

Other information had been gathered by D. Dyer, who in the meantime

liad taken a party on foot from Prescott Point along a course bearing 30° Mag-

netic to the north-east coast cight miles away. Salt crust thicknesses up to

% in, were measured. On another occasion he traversed Kunoth Shoal some-

what to the south of the main survey line.

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THE 1954 SURVEY

— KEY —

——— LINE of LeveL SuEVEy

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The survey partics had been eight days on the lake bed, during which a

total of 33 miles had been levelled, 55 salt depths had been measured, and 16

shallow salt crust bores and one deeper lake bed bore had been sunk and

logged. Many samples of salt, mud, brine, ete. had been taken.

THE 1954 LEVELLING SURVEY

Water levels in Lake Eyre North have been expressed (Bonython, 1955 b)

in terms of an arbitrary datum tied to the main level post sct wp in 1951; the

datum is 100 ft. below the zero of the level post, which is at approximately

my)

lake bed level at a point near the shore of Madigan Gulf. The level post zero

— Arbitrary Reduced Level 100 ft.— is approximately 25 ft. below sea level

(Bonython, 1955.e), and it is roughly midway between the lake’s highest stage

in 1950 (A.B.L. 107-5 ft.) and the lowest part of Madigan Gulf (A.R.L. 91-5

ft.). Level data below A,R.L, 98 ft. were lacking until 1954, and the work

now to be described was done to obtain accurate measurements in this level

range. The results refer to the true lake bed (i.e. the bottom of the salt crust),

although the aetual survey was carried out with respect to the upper surface

of the sale,

The instrument employed was a Cooke, Troughlon & Simms $300 series

Surveyors’ Level used in conjunction with an orthodox stall, Determinations

were made to the nearest 1/100 ft., but in the following description levels will

Ie reported to the nearest 1/16 ft. Location is specified by the serial number

of the flag placed there (aud the year— 1954); the lines of the survey are

shown in Fig, 2, The level of the lake bed at Flag 1/54, approximately 100

yards north of the sandy hook of Prescott Point, was A\R.L. 98-0 ft. It fell to

A.R.L. 94°38 ft, in the trough between the starting point and Kunoth Shoal,

rising again to A.R.L, 96-7 ft. at the crest of the latter, Then there was a

rapid fall to AJR.L. 95 ft, but in the remaining 11 miles of that leg of the

survey the leyel kept betwech A.R.L. 95 ft. and A.R.L. 94 ft. Tt was subse-

quently realized that this course was approximately parallel ta the contours

instead of cutting them at right angles as intended.

The levelling of the rectangular “box” south-west of the main survey line

showed a rise of less than 1 ft. in that direction. This, and other information,

indicates that much of the lake bed between the main survey line and the

south-western shore is a nearly flat shelf. Incidentally, the closure of the survey

of the “box” reyealed a leyel measurement discrepancy of only % in. — a pointer

to the aceuracy of the survey.

The leg going northi-eastwards from Flag 36/54 showed the comiparatively

steep downward gradient of 6 in, per mile for 3. miles, but by 5 miles (Flag

89/54) the bed had flattened out at A.R.L. 92-2 ft, It scarcely rose at all up

to the end of the leg The final leg north-west of Flag 93/54 showed a slow

fall to ALR.L. 91-5 ft. (at Flag 112/54), the lowest point measured, followed

by a very slight rise, It is believed that Flag 112/54 must be at or close to

the lowest part of Madigan Gnlf—and, indeed, of Lake Eyre North itself,

“TABLE 1.

Volume of Madigan Gullup to A.RL. 98 ft.

Surtuce Level | Total Volume

NAL, 92 ft. 5,000 aes-ft.

AR.L, 93 fi, | 4D,000 ac. ft.

ARE LOO.000 set,

WRAL, 95 fh, 20,000 set,

AR. 96 fr. S70,Q00 ae.-ft.

ARAL YF ot 600,000 acti

VRE, 90 tc, OO.000 get.

Figure 3 shows provisional contours of the bed of Madigan Gulf. It is

based principally on the levelling survey, but it also makes use of other data

on water limits observed from the air in the A.R,L. 95-98 ft, range. Too great

an accuracy must not be expected, owing to the limited coverage of the surveys,

The volume of Madigan Gulf for levels up to A.R.L, 98 ft. was calculated

from arcus within the contours and Simpson’s Rule (sce Tuble 1), The total

vollime to that level is shown to be 900,000 acre-feet.

SAAN

Rating

vi SAS

‘NY NS r)

WANN

big, 3.-Tentitiye Contours of the Bed of Mudinan Gulf,

THE SALT CRUST

Madigan was the first to examine the salt crust of Madigan Gulf (Mudigan,

1980). He measured a thickness of 17 in. at a point which must have been

close to location Flag 86/54. No thickness as great as this was measured iu 1954.

The Surface Formations:

Madigan recoguized a number of different types of salt crust which, from

the shore, may be summarized as follows: The “piecrust” or “bull-dust” surface

of the virtually salt-free lake bed near the shore; damp clay between this and

lhe salt crust; “pancake” slabs of thin salt Jeft as reumants after solution by

rain; tessellated salt with cracks, forming slabs with upturned edges; salt marke:

with polygonal cracks (only markings) with 2-3 ft, sides; salt with largev-seale

arcuate buckling; large patches of dark-red, dirty salt: buckled slabs only 1-iu.

or 50 thick, with more firm salt below; and comparatively smooth and feature-

less salt. He deseribed the general colour as “pink,” and he aseribed the md

eolnur of the upturned slab edges ta blown red dust.

In 1953 the author examined salt formations io the vicinity of Kynoth

Shual at a time when practically all the crnst was submerged by flood waters.

The overlying lake water was a saturated brine, The salt thickness was

imeastired bencath the water of the tongue between Prescott Paint and Kunoth

Shoal in three places. At about half-mile south of the subsequent vear's Flag

4/54 location it was 54 in. thick, with a plane of weakness (aloug which it

parted when sampled) at 3 in. fron the buttom, The bottom quarter inch or

30 wits greenish. and the underlying bed was a pale-green mud, The upper

surface of the erust was quite smooth and hard (as with all the submerged

vrnst eneountered in 1953). At this place the supernatant brine was 8 in. deep,

The salt wus coarsely crystalline —like that made from sea water by the

conventional solu evaporation process, Its bulk density was approximately 150

tons solid vuddun chloride per acre-inch, Analyses of the salt and the brine

above it are given in Appendices I and tl.

The salt types observed in 1953 in the course of walking and wading near

Presoott Point und Kunoth Shoal are as follows:

Wet tnad surface uboye the level of the salt crust; similar. but with incipient

polygonal cracking (see Plate Ila); shallow, scooped-out patches of the wet

mut in the near shore area (probably caused by deflation when the lake is

dry) raised island slabs of thin sale with dissolvedamt areas in between (near

water's edue—see Plate 1a); smuath, thick crystalline salt covered with brine:

roughly parallel, curlcd-up ridges of crust at vastern edge of shoal; banks of

drifted disc-shaped Ervstis, tach, about the size of a shilling piece (sce Plate

Va); isolated patches of very thin salt, like waterlily leaves (on crest of shoal

—ste Plate Lifb); and pudding-shaped salt excreseences from the Mooded salt

crust, projecting above the water surtace.

Vhe crest of Kunoth Shoal was apparently aboye the level at whieh the

evaporating Take in 1952 would have begun depasiting salt (Bonython, 1953 b),

The ground here was higher than that crossed in 1054 at Flag 7/34. Salt-frev.

wet inud— the first type of 1953-——was observed generally near the shore, e.z.

in Level Post Bay; between the west side of Sulphur Peninsula and the salt

urust; between Shelly Island aac the main shore; amd in the bay north-west

of Pitlosportim Head. Salt slabs with ecurled-up edges were uncommon in 1953,

A fuller study of the salt vrust was possible in 1954. The surface layer had

been laid down only a few months previously, and none was then submerged

beneath water. A list of the different salt classitivations is given in Table 2.

The Jake bed ontside the limits of the salt erust was much the same (Type

lu, Jb) as it had been iv 1953, Int rather firmer ta travel on, The first part

of the crust encountered — just beyond Prescott Point —was still in the [orm

uf ice floc slabs (Type 3), but the slabs themselyes were now traversed by

numerous, uneven cracks dividing them into irregular polygons; the edges of

the polygons tended to curl up, anda feathery growth of efflorescent salt (Type

S—see Plate VIa) protruded from the cracks, The white of the eHlorescence

contrasted with the pinkish, sametimes dirty, brownish-red, colour of the slabs,

‘The latter fortnation (Type 5b) was restricted to erust of thickness 1 inch or

less. TE is termed “crnendile-skin” galt, It was seem aguin on crossing Kunoth

Shoal (see Plate 1b); the polygons there were 3-4 ft. across, and the general

enlour was pale pink to offavhite, As the crust thickencd on cither side of the

shoal the cracking was less marked, and the polygon size decreased to a few

mi)

inches (Type 5a). Types 5a and 5b salt were also seen near the shore at

Pittosportnn Head. and on the opposite side of the gulf near the north-east

coast.

There was always a rapid transition from a ernst thickness of about 1-in. to

one of about Gin. The surtace of the thick salt was frequently smooth ard

fetureless (Type 6a), while at other times it mivht have a faint pattern of

polygonal cracks (Type 6b), ;

A salt formation first abserved by the author in 1954, near Mlag 10/54.

was an island of rusty-recd_ cemented “drift” salt (Type 7b) raised 3-6 in, above

the general surface. Tt appeared to have formed during the evaporation of the

lake waters from floating salt fakes which had became stranded against an

TABLE II

Surlaee Salt Mormations:

‘Type Description

fy Wet, dawn or dry mud surface aboye the Jevel of the silt ernst Tt may have a

powdery coating of sniall salt crystals, dad the mud when dry may have a wrinkled,

‘pie-crust” appearance (see Plate Ta),

h Like la, but with incipient polygonal cracking (see Plate Mi).

Shallow, scooped-out patches in the mud of the nearshore wreas (see Flate Wh}.

Ryised island slahs of thin salt. with dissolved-oul areas in between — “ice-flse” salt

(Qharacteristic of the edge of the main east —sece Plate T1Ta.}

4 Patches of thin salt with eurled-up edges vecupying depressions like those of Type 2

Called “water-lily” side: observed ouly on Kunoth Shoal, in 0953. (sec Plate Tf.)

3a Continous, thin (1 in, or so) salt with incipient cracking into pulygons 4-1f} in. aeross.

31» Ditto, but divided by efflorescent cracks into polygons 3-4 ft across. (°Créeodile chin’

sulk —see Plate Lb.)

Goa Sywooth, thick salt crust: featureless (sec Plate WIT a).

6b Thick salt. with a faint pattern of polygonal cracks.

Ta Banks of crifted, dise-shaped salt crystals (“novonlitee? drift salt) each about the

size of a shilling piece (see Plates TV a and LV b); uncoloured.

7h Ditto, colored ou che sturface bright rasty-pink, dirty-brown, ete, (see Plates Vat

und Vib).

8 Snow-white, efflarescent salt bulging fram eracks in ‘Types 3, Sb, Ta, and Tb (sue

Vhiic Via),

9 Pudding-shaped mounds of salt projecting above the general salt surface —~“ice-

pudding” salt. (Seo Plate VIb,)

eyurescence of “ice-pudding” salt (Type 9- see Plate Vib). Such an accumu-

lation would be self-acereting once it had begun to form in_ shallow, salt-

depositing brine. As well as stranding more floating erystals, the drift would

also grow by further crystallization from the supersaturated lake brine. Beyond

Flag 10/34 it was common to see several such islands at a time, those seen laler

were composed entirely of drilt salt, without having any visible core. A good

example of the latter —aud a particularly striking sight— was such ay islanul

near Flag 37/54, 12 miles from Prescott Point (see Plate Via). Lt was 40 yards

lang in & northvast-soutliwest direction, and it curved gracetully in scimitar

form Tt consisted of “numoulitie’ drift salt, and it stood 8-4 in. above the

general surface, The sal) was suow-white within, but its upper surlace was

a bright, rusty pink. Jt gave the impression of having been coloured by an

originally Hoating seum which had drifted against, and had became adsorhed

upon, a salt bank at that time just showing above the water surface. The island

was seen to be erossvd at right angles by numerous, roughly-parallel cracks

from which pure white efflorescent salt bulged (cf, Type 8). “The cracks must

have heen formed after the lake had dried up. Chemical analysis shows the

efflorescence to be 994% per cent, sodium chloride,

‘The distribution of these salt islands varied over the area of the gulf, and

in sume places they were uniformly orientated, Many lay parallel to the con-

tours ot the bed, ic. parallel to the shoreline of the shrinking lake remnant, but

many were also at right angles to the contours. In some cases the formation

was possibly influenced by the wind that had preyailed while this was taking

place, They were not seen within ono mile of the main shore (the nearest

one to Prescott Point being four miles away ), nor were they found at the lowest

part of the gulf Some islands were almost circular (see Plate Vb). Those

of the interior parts were the less highly coloured (Type 7a). They probably

eorrespond ta the “arcuate buckling” of Madigan (1930); however, it seeras

that they were not formed by a subsequent buckling process, as he inferred,

but instead they eriginated as a phenomenon of salt deposition by evupuratinn,

Drilt salt crystals that had presumably settled on the surface of the main

crust as the water cried up gave it a blistered appearance. These often occurred

in strings, and in the form of serpentine drifts (see Plate IVb) which were

probably embryonic salt islands.

The growing surface of the salt ileposit in an evaporating salt lake or poud

is inherently umstable (Bloch, 1951); since the supersaturation of the salting

liquor must increase upwards towards the surface of the evaporating brine any-

thing that: raises part of the salt bed (e.g. a drift af lopse erystals) or a forcizn

body projecting above it (e.g. a wind-transported roly-poly bush), will cause

accelerated salt growth at that point, so producing exerescences Frequently

rising sharply from the bed. Salt “islands” aud “iee-pudding® salt are respective

examples of the growth resulting from this instability. By contrast, an unsate-

vated solution overlying a salt bed has a marked stabilizing collect upon it,

planing the surface smooth in the manner that Bloch describes, There was little

ohvious evidence of this having oceurred ut Lake Eyre, some undercutting of

mounds of “iee-pudding” salt by rain-dilnted brine being possibly the only

examples. A partial re-flooding ‘of the crust by fresh waters, or 2 heavy fall

bf rain on the waters during the deposition phase, conld have caused’ such

Planiag of the crust, and although the former occurred in 1953, evidence of it

is prabibly coucesled by the sult subsequently deposited on tap of any planed

surfaces, The effect of rain on salt crust already high wud dry is shown in the

hvogular dissolution in the “iee-floe” salt areas near the share.

Cracking and buckling (see Plate VI ) of the salt crust seem to increase

with the chips of time after deposition, Madigan probably saw the ernst at

least five years after its formation, when it was more buckled than in 1954. No

douht longer periods of weathering would further uccentuate buckling, su that

if Joft wooded long enough it might eventually resemble the salt of the Lon

Wain in Sinkiang (side Crabau, 1920) where the buckled crust assumes the

shape of frozen waves al a choppy sea.

The different salt fonnations in Madigan Gulf have been classified and

deseribecl in Table 2, In addition, mention should he made of another form

of crystalline salt not otten fonnd naturally at Lake Eyre, and belonging more

correctly to the laboratory, his is sodium chloride in jong, needle-like or

hair-like erystils sprouting from hrine-saturated clay that has been allowed to

dry for many days in still air, Tt has already been deserihed by Fenner (1952),

The author has commonly seen if on clay adhering to speeimens of nodular

native sulphur (Bonython and King, 1955),

Bores in the Sall Crust:

The salt crust was bored at 55 places along the surveying traverses, yn

also at some other places. A bore is designated by the serial number of the

adjacent survey flag (eg. Bore. 50/54 for the bore at Flag 80/54), The top pf

the ground brine within the crust was usually close tu the upper salt surtace,

in the lowest parts of the gulf it being practically at the surface and visible in

the bottoms of slight irregularities in the crust. The crust was nearly all firm

and hard,

the brine

and it often presented great resistance to the boring tool, but where

reached close to the surface the top inch or two of the salt was soft

is]

4 ni

eed

' 4

a re

StS

JRE

gh &

1 wT

tra

7] 3

a Ir

9 a

1 we

gp io

;

Sho«

tho

By a

| oh.

j at &

\ &

| "

i j i. 1

4/54 5/54 asa 8/54 1/5 14/54 !

4 P PALE

Pink

e PALE

ate Pun Pink

+ tw

KUT Leo Rie:

pan | Listy A

PINK AWD bal fei al

-———1 tz ira

I YELLOW Bi a

Brune BRING BROWN. GHEY

. Theven fo To LEVEL pre

waite 3

Pb, FLESH

-— =

WHITE

cef/os BO/ 54 59/4 44/54 52/54

r -) BAoOWN (———

STAIN POLE PALE RUSTY | griwe PALE [erin

PIM BRIRE PP LeveL os LEVEL

pin | LEVEL | = Pink

Pub: Pim u WHITE b soFT

Pp { LAYER

sb imusty || NARO | [ °

DIRTY || LAYER u WARO IN

SWISH Kua ly Punk. LAYER | RUSTY

YELLOW FLESH ls PINK BAND

PIN mont

Pine E Leen | BROWNS WHITE

PINK

ee LS

lrigsa WHITE BAND

AIMS, WHITE PINK

WHITE fh

' | a

j- =

sajsa 62/54 93/54 V2 {54

aAgh PWHiTe z, BANE ~__]||_ aRINE

‘ +H LeveL LEVFL

—~ etree ee PALE SOLUTION

LEVEL LEVEL ARINE PINK BRINE HORIZON

PIN LEVEL LEVEL

2 PINK

err searen PURPLE r tant hile

AusTT KUSTY HOMZON(?) ‘

Awan BAND | fy, WARD

WHITE DIRTY PURBLEIT LAYER

Leaaament” LAYER

BluGat eee SOLUTION

WHITE pau iJ

H Hate)

al tad PURPLE HOREEINE

WHITE WHITE

| _ Lp souutias

HORIZON (7)

= PINK

Sou Ton } HAH

HOHIZON LAYER

Fig, 4.—Logs ot Bores in the Sult Crust.

aud crushable, allowing one’s boots to sink in appreciably and the jecp’s tyres

to sink more than an inch. The last effect, experienced at 25 miles per hour,

was of sudden, intermittent collapsing of this top layer, giving the sensation

that the wheels were ubout to break right through the crust; so marked was it

from Flag 110/54 onwards that for prudence the jeep was not taken past Flug

113/54. Brine was close to the salt surface in places other than the bottom of

the gulf, viz. near Flag 99/54 and over much of the north-western part of the

survey “box” (Flags 41/54-57/54), ‘I'he ground brine surface had not reached

4 common level throughout the area of the salt crust. Apart from the irrezu-

Javities described, its shape was that of a saucer slightly more flattened than

the Jake bed itselt,

The operation of boring the crust with the hand tool revealed hard and

soll layers at those levels where there appeared to haye been a break in the

progression of salt deposition, those places were characterised by oceasional

cavities duc, perhaps, to partial dissolying-ont of the salt, wud were termed

“solution horizons”. Certain rusty and bright pink salt layers were regularly

encountered in the borings. Figure 4 summarizes the logs of the salt crust

bores. There is a certain rusty band in most of the logs belonging, it is can-

jeotured, to a single epoch in the salt solution-deposition cycle. It occurs at

+5 in, above the bottom of the crust m all logs except those for 79/54, 93/54

und 112/54. The latter three belong to the deep part of the lake hed, where

the salt may possibly have had a somewhat different history: 5-6 in, above the

hase they show a striking band of purple-pink salt not shown in other logs,

und this Gould possibly correspond to the missing rusty band.

A block of salt crust almost 1 ft. cube was obtained at Flag 98/54 by

borg holes close together round the sides of a square (see Plates VElla and

VITI hb),

Coulouration of the Salt:

There were two types of colouration observed:

(a) The rusty-pink to dirty brown surface of the crust near the shore and at

the: “islands” (Type 7b) in the interior of the gulf,

(bh) The purple-pink stratum in the body of the salt crust:

Madiwan recorded (a) as a discolouration of the buckled salt surface, and

he aseribod it ta red dust. The author obtained some bright red scum from the

suffice of drift salt on the edge of Kunoth Shoal in 1953, and as the result uf

the report by L, GM. Baas-Becking, he was inclined at first to believe that

Medigan’s red colour was of organic origin, Baas-Becking’s exatuination jnili-

tater! the colour to be an organic pigment from or associated with the Hagellate

Danaliclla salina, The pigment was obtained as dark orange crystals alter three

recrystallizations. from acetone, It was believed to be a earatcnaid pigment,

atul this was confirmed by the salt having the odour of violets, assumed to be

icnone —a breakdown product of carotenes, No iron was present,

However, samples of discoloured salt obtained in 1954 when the lake was

dry had different properties. 1. R. Kaplan examined discoloured salt crust from

one milo north of Prescott Point, and he found the stain to be due almost en-

tirely to iron oxide (200 p.p.m. Fet++), with a small Proportion possibly cue

to Bacterium halobium and Dunaliella sp. Rusty red drift salt from the salt

“island” near Flug 37/54 was examined microscopically by I. M. Thomas; he

found no organic matter in it, but found what appeared to he red dust. §. M.

Shephard found this salt to contain iron (800 ppuo. Feros),

The rusty-red colouration of the banks of deift salt therefore seems likely

ta be due mainly to red dust, initially trapped on the surface of the evaporating

luke in a floating froth which was eventually carried by the wind fo be stranded

on one of the low hanks of drift salt then beginning to emerge from the waters.

{The author has commonly observed sich a floating froth, containing clay

material, on the surtace of strong brine in certain reservoirs in a salt works, )

The surface salt colouration of Lake Eyre deserves further study, in the

author's opinion, In view of the 1953 report nf an organic colouring substance

he is not entirely satisfied (hat all the surface stains are inorganic in nature.

‘

The striking purple-pink colour (b) of the middle Jayer of the salt crust

ut Bove 93/54 was also studied by I, M. Thomas; by microscopic examimation he

found it ty contain small, amorphous, mugoid masses which could have been

af bacterial origin. No living Haseellates were observed, and no development

occurred on incubating the salt at 27 deg, C. in constant light. }

THE QUANTITY OF SALT

The voust thicknesses measured in 1954 are shawn in Fig. 2. The crust is

believecl to caver all Madigan Gulf within appeosimately the A.RLL, OT ft,

contour line, Lf lines of equal salt thickuess are driwn, and a procedure some-

what similar to that teseribed for finding the water volume in the gulf is used,

it is found that the volume of the salt crust in Madigan Gult is 1,800,000 acre-

inches. ‘The mean value of several determinations of the bulk density of the

salt of the erust is 130 tous of sodium chloride per ac-in., which makes the

tetas amount of sodium chloride 270,000,000 tons,

An independent calculation of the salt tonnage has been made as follows:

The volume of brine in Madigan Gulf when filled to A.1L.L. 98 ft, has heen

shown to be 900,000 ae-ft. It was also shown (Bonython, 1955 d) that the saliu-

ity o£ the bring on 13th December, 1951, when the level was AJL, 98°1. ft,

was 284 gin. sodium chloride per litre. So, assuming that the salinity when

the level had fallen to AJL, 98°0 ft. was 240 g.pJ.. we may calculate that the

sodhim chloride content of Madigan Gulf was 260,000,000 tons, which is close

to the other estimate, A derivation from the above calculation is that the waters

of the gulf shonld have been just saturated with sodium chloride (at 318 u.p.L)

when the volume lad shrunk to 680,000 ac.-ff.; this corresponds lo A.1.L. O7-3

It whieh is hence a fundamental level in reconstructing the sequence of events

when sult is being deposited in the lake by evaporation ol the waters.

ft lax been shown (Bonython, 1955) that when a plausible yale is

assumed for the total residual volume of the Belt Bay and Jackboot Buy basins

for the Deeesmber, 1931 epoch the total amount of sodiuin chloride in Lake

Eyre North works ont at approximately $00,000,000- tons, This strictly applies

ta tho Jake above the suetace of the bed proper— he interface between the

erust and the gypsune slush (ref, Bore 93/54), tn the absence of a bore casiny

to prevent brine from above gravitating to the lower lovels of Bore 93/54 it

was impossible to tell whether the gypsuin slush stratum in this bore was

saturuted with brine or not, but if it had been the mutter would be of some

sivnificanes, A rough ostimate of the gypsum content of Lake Eyre is len times

the tonnage of the salt crast (or 4,000 million tons). Tlowever, some neoonnt

has been tuken here of the gypsune content of the surrounding dunes, and the

quantity of gypsum beneath the lake bed wonld be eather Jess, say, ball.

Sypstint slush with 50 per cent, yoids filled with saturated sodiuut chloride

solution will hold 0-15 tons sodium chloride for cach ton of gypsum, so thiat

if 2,000 million tons of gypsum exist bencath the lake bed it could raean that

the sodhun chloride content of the lake is uearly double that already estimated,

in view of the uncertainties the sodium chloride content of Luke Fyre will be

hiken ws Uhat existing above the like bed, viz. 400 million tons,

The content of magnesium and potassium salts present aboye the fake bed

can be derived from the volume and compusilion of the lake waters during

1950-1 (Bonython, 1955 d), assuming that the salts which would precipitate

on taking the brine to dryuess are those arbitrarily assigned in the analyses.

Owing to doubt and the paucity of data concerning potassium content a

Mgt! /K+ ratio of 5/1 is taken. ‘The quantity of magnesium and potassium

salts. works out at approximately 7 million tons.

THE DEPOSITION OF SALT BY EVAPORATION—THEORY AND

OBSERVATION

The theory of the deposition of sodium chloride from an initially saturated

brine is simple, and it is confirmed by experience in the field of commercial

production of salt from sea water by solar evaporation, Supersaturation pro-

duced by evaporation at the brine surface causes a progressive growth of salt

crystals on the floor of the pond. A small proportion also crystallizes at the

brine surface, and most of this sinks to become part of the floor crust. AS

evaporation rate is practically constant oyer the lake surface, regardless of the

depth, the rate of salt deposition per unit area will likewise be constant, How-

ever, in the case of a saucer-shaped lake the shallower parts will gradually be

left high and dry, as the level falls, and the salt deposit on those parts will

clearly then cease to grow; those parts still submerged will continue to gain

in salt thickness. Hence the initially shallowest parts of the lake will finish

having the thinnest salt deposit, and the deepest parts the thickest deposit.

FLAGS

36-53 >

SURFACE GF

SALT CRUST

MEASURED CALCULATED.

TRUE LAKE pep

Fig, 3.—Cross-section of Part of the Lake Bec and Salt Crust,

The evaporation of 100 cm. of saturated brine will give a salt deposit 20

em, thick if the bulk density of the latter is 1-5 gm. NaCl/ml, (approx. 150

tons/ac.-in,), Thus the simple but important conclusion is drawn that the

thickness of the salt crust should be one-fifth of the total depth of saturated

brine originally overlying the spot. The evaporating brine in Madigan Gulf

first reached saturation when the surface fell ta A.R.L. 97-3 ft, so theory says

that the subsequent salt crust thickness at any point should be one-fifth of

the distance of bed helow this fundamental level. This is put to the test in

Figure 5 where actual and theoretical salt thicknesses are plotted. The agree-

iment is fair for parts of the gulf where the lake bed is below about A,R.L, 94 ft.,

but at higher levels the observed thickness tends to exeeed the theoretical thick-

ness. The latter vffect is marked on the gentle rise surveyed between Flags

90/54 and 30/54.

LEVEL WHERE EVAPORATING BRINE FIRST BECAME SATURATED.

SALT_CRUST AS INITIAL. SALT.

EPOSITE) CRUST SURFACE

Lae

w /

(jf) SALT CRUST DEPOSITED AFTER INITIAL COMPLETE EVAPORATICN — DEPOSITION CYCLE .

(il) SALT CRUST AFTER FLOODING AND PARTIAL DISSOLUTIGN,

A Meo oo er rn -;

SECONDARY SALT CHU NITIAL SALT GRUST SURFACE,

7 2 ; big

Pd b FINAL SALT CRUST SURFACE < or

zu S, - (1

(

REMMANT OF INITIAL SALT CRUST.”

(11) SALT CRUST AFTER SECOND EVAPORATION STAGE

Fig, G.—Theorctical Effect of Subsequent Flooding on Ultimate Salt Crust

Profile.

The explanation may be found in the actual history of the interrupted

deposition cycle, After the 1951-2 drying-up phase there was a further cycle

in 1953 with the partial dissolution of the crust followed by the re-deposition

of the dissolved salt. It is significant that in May, 1953, the Jake water, which

stood at A.R.L, 95-8 ft., was a saturated briue round the Kunoth Shoal area,

but off Arteniia Point it was only half saturated. It seems that the more-or-less-

fresh foodwaters entering Madigan Gulf from the north-west had become satu-

rated in their passage across to Kinoth Shoal in the sonth-cast. Much salt

would have been dissolved where the water first impinged on the north-west

salt crust, but little or none would have been dissolved in the south-cast salt

erast. Actually, abont 50 per cent. of the total salt in the gnlf must have been

dissolved. The picture ix therefore one of a salt crust that has snffered uneven

issolution oyerlain by what must eventually have become an evenly mixed,

saturated brine, After evaporation had re-deposited the dissolved salt on top

of the partly-cissolved crust the picture of total crust thickness must have been

different from that at the end of the original deposition cycle, Figure 6 illus-

trates this by showing, the theoretical salt crnst thicknesses in an idealized lake

that had been filled originally with saturated brine to a Jevel equivalent to

ARL, 97-3 ft. and which then dried ip; subsequently it was flooded from one

side with fresh water toa level equivalent to AJR.L. 95-8 ft, when some 50 per

cent, of the salt was dissolved, and finally the latter was re-deposited by evapora:

tion, The final salt thickness distribution is significantly different from that

wl the initial deposit.

SALT C¥uST Sunrace ALT ERUST SUR

AS INITIALLY DEPOSITED,

ER S YEARS

Pig. 7 —Vheoretioal Ettect of Rain on Ulupiate Salt Coust Profile,

Other tacts which could help to explain the differences between the theo-

rcUical and observed salt thicknesses in Figure 5 are, firstly, that Kunoth Shoal

fat Flag 7/54, for instance) was above the 1958 flood Jevel and hence should

not have been affected by that flood, and secondly, that the salt crust on the

rise in the survey line between Flags 20/54 and 30/54 would have been only

pst awash in 1953—and with saturated brine, too—so that the thickness

there may haye been disproportionatcly increased both by the beaching of

“drift” salt and hy the evaporation of successive wettings of the surface by

seiches (vide Bonython, 1955; Penman, 1955),

A deposition effect of longer range is that of several scasons’ rainfall on

the crust over a series of unflooded years, cach followed by a drying-up phase.

The ground brine formed when cach rain dissolved some of the salt would

tend to migrate towards the lowest part of the basi hefore drying up; this

would be expected to reduce the crust thickness at the outer perimeter and to

increase il towards the centre, The surprisingly-large crust thickness of 17 in,

reported by Madigan coulcl be explained in this way. Figure 7 attempts ta

show the effect of five annual raintalls each totalling 4 in. on the salt erust of

an idealized lake bed. The briue resulting from each annual rainfall is sinp-

posed to gravitate to a central pool hefore evaporating ta dryness. (For sinu-

plicity the possible retention of ground brine in the outer parts of the crust

is ignored.) The sult crust, initially 14 in. thick in the centre, is seen to in-

crease to. 20 in. there. Such a long-period process could have oecurred in the

dry years preceding Madigan's inyestigation in 1929. Madigan found Kunoth

Shoal salt-free at the place where he crossed it in 1929: since this place was

just north of the subsequent location of Flax 7/54, where the salt was L in.

thick in 1954, the two observations appear at first sight to be in conflict. How-

ever, the removal of this thin erust can be explained simply by the rain dis-

solution theory —in fact, little rnore than onc average year's rain would be

capable of removing the one inch salt layer and carrying it im solution to the

deeper parts of the gulf, Therefore. it is to be expected that Madigan should

have found the shoal salt-free.

SERIAL NO

OF ANALYSES CRUST SURFACE REMARKS

a a a ri

. . et REL f

ay. - (8) wo SALT tbe tubete LAYER,

trp rer bette

BLack Mud

ee ee

**CYPSUM *,

"SLUSH - +

ee ee ee

FINE-GRAINED &

GREEN- GREW

pe (a2) — HARD SALT STRATUM

5 (43) - COMPACT SLUSH

me LUMPS OF

G4) ” GYPSSOUS SALT

ao . . CONTAINED OCCASIONAL

WHITISH POCKETS

48) -— - “GYPSUM =: «

» @

‘* *SLUSH

71uU

-GVPSUM CRYSTALS

RED-BROWN & YELLOW-

BROWN MOTTLINGS

-GrESUM CRYSTALS

MULT! -COLOVRED Chay

ELDW

STIFS & PLASTIC WITH

OCHRE MOTTLINGS

pEpre

| _ EMBEDDED HARD PELLETS

- PIECE OF STONE

GY PSUM_ CRYSTALS.

STONY LUMPS Re

CLEAR CAYSTALS =~

Fig, & Vertical Section at Bore 98/54.

A BORE IN THE BED OF MADIGAN GULF

A hand bore (Bore 93/54) was put down near the lowest part of the luke

bed where the level was A.R.L. 92-2 ft, during 31st August anc Ist September.

1954. The depth of 12 ft. 8 in. was reached, The log is shown in Figure 5.

The boring tool used at first was a 4-in. posthole digger with tubular shaft

extensions. It had a cutting head suited to boring crumbly materials (viz. with

several sharp, inclined teeth sct round the periphery). At 5 in. below the

salt surface a l-in. band of purple-pink salt was found. The usual half inch

of black mud was found beneath the 11 in. crust, and then at 12 in. a fine-

grained, green-grey slush was entered; it proyed to be mainly gypsum (see

analyses 40, 41), and the tool penetrated it with case. Then at c. 2 ft, 10 in.

an extremely hard, thin layer of salt was struck. Although this must have beer

only 1 or 2 in. thick, it was not possible to bore through it directly, and it was

ierced only by driving a Jength of Xin, steel rod through in several places

ry hammering its upper end, Analysis (No, 42) showed the layer ta be pre

dominantly sodium chloride, Then followed bands of soft and hard gypsum

slush, the layer at 8 ft 8 in-4 ft. containing coarse lanps of sodiym chloride

(see analysis 44). From 4 ft, down to 8 ft. 6 in. the material was all green-

urey gypsum slush with occasional pale pockets of the same composition.

At $ ft. 6 in a plastic, green-grey clay containing inclusions of a yellow

vehre colour was entered, and fo penctrate it successfully it was necessary to

change the cutting tool for one of the “lwan” type which has two curved,

lapering culting blades trom which adhering clay cau be cleared reaclily, At

It the clay beeame extremely stiff arid, together with yellow-brown mottlings,

it contiined cmbestdecl gypstim erystals, At 9 ft. 3 ine the clay became ytrik-

ingly multi-coloured (grey. green-grey, purple-grey and brown, with some

tichre snotthing), while thereafter down to Ll ft it was again stifl and grees

eTey With some mottling.

here was a change wt LI ft, to Lt ft. 4 in. when a substance liky a very

sui, white pipe-clay was entered; ft later proved to be dolomite, It containin!

numerous grainsize pellets of hard stone, Even the [wan entting head fuiled

te make appreciable headway here so, on the sceond day of boring, a 2-in.

auger bit was substituted, Tt still involved some 10 minutes’ hard work by two

mon for cach 3-in. cf cowmvard progress achieved, ‘The same rotten dalymite

continucd to the bottom af the bore at 12 ft. 8 in. Te was found tu contain

inercasing umubers of hard stone Jumps (dalomite) aud some gypsum crystals.

The plastic sateral pecled from the spiral grooves of the auger was dry within;

this contrasted with the wet state of the gypsum slush from the higher levels.

The chemical composition is detailed in Appendices I and TIT, The salt

crust was principally sodium chloride, the black mud beneath it was smainly

calcium sulphate, while the solids content of the 7% ft. of slush was calcium

sulphate. (Although the last analysed ec. LO per cent. sodium chloride (see

analyses AQ, 4 48 and 43) this was mainly present as brine which may well

have gravitated from the salt crust level during boring.) X-ray examination

of the slush by K. Norrish and 1.. Rogers of Division of Soils, C.S.1.R.0., showed

the calcium sulphate to be in the form of gypsum. By this tiewis they also

showed the 24 /t. clay layer to contain the minerals kaolin, quartz, palygorskite

and jarosite with gypsum as the main constituent of the white and yellow

mottlings. The dolomite layer, a sample of which was analysed by the South

Australian Mings Department, was chemically close to the theoretical com-

position, but it also contained small amounts of silica, alumina and ferric oxide

(tee analysis 47), X-ray examination of this layer confirmed the presence of

delomite. quarte. kaolin, illite, palygorskite and gypsum.

The potassium minerals, jarosite aud illite, wre again referred ta in 2 later

section,

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THLE SAL'T AND BRINES

The chemical analyses of the salt and brine samples are detailed in Appen-

dices Land 11. Analyses reported by Madigan (1930) and Fitzpatrick and

Strong (1925) are also included for reference. The salt crust is almast ontirely

sodium chloride, with gypsum as the only significant impurity (Bonython,

155d). ‘Whe small amounts of magnesium and potassium salts are almost

certainly present entirely in solution in the briue wetting the salt crystals. (the

erustal salt is almost invariably comp to saturated with ground brine).

The Calcium Sulphate Content:

The composition of the lake brine before salt deposition began shows that

the resulting deposit should coutain overall abont 2 per cent, of gypsum. ‘The

distribution of the gypstim content through the salt crust shows a staller runge

horizontally than it does vertically. The large vertical range reflects both the

changing conditions during the original deposition process and the effects of

the subsequent partial dissolution aud re-deposition, Figure 9 shows the yer-

tical distribution at one of the bore locations, A ligh gypsum content scems

associated with the early part of a deposition stage; Bore 93/54, for instance,

shows definite evidence of two superimposed cycles. The highest gypsum con-

centration in this bore appears at the “solution horizon” 5 in. down, and _ this

probably corresponds to the end of the partial dissolution phase and the be-

sinning of the second deposition phase. Undissolved gypsum from the disso-

Jution stage would tend to sink and accumulate on the bottom, so forming it

gypsunvrich band.

2 ti

Ww)

GYPSUM

Oo ' % 3 4

Vig. 9—Gypsin Content of Salt Crust at Bore 93/354.

Experience in commercial solar salt production shows gypsum to be present

in such a form that on dissolution of the sodium chloride, or even on handling

the crumbled erust, the gypsum frequently seyregaies as a “slime” of small

crystals, It is therefore difficult to obtain representative samples of salt for

gypsum assay by any method that disintegrates the salt crust, such as boring it,

particularly if the crumbled crust has to be handled in contact with ground

brinc, The previously quoted gypsum contents of Lake Eyre salt (Bonython,

1955d) are now thought to be erroneous for this reason. The only reliable

samples for gypsum determination were those obtained in the laboratory from

blocks of salt lifted integrally from the salt crust (cf. the block from Bore

03/54). However, even in the latter case there is some doubt concerning the

purple-pink layer at.3-6 in, which crumbled when the block was lifted, Tt imust

mat be overlonked that some downward migration of the gypsum “slime” might

even eceur through the pore spaces in the original, undisturbed salt erust in

the midst of the deposition phase.

The gypsum content of numulitic drift salt (Type 7) is very low (see

analysis 11), as might be expected in salt initially forming on the water suvlace.

In contrast, the gypsum content of the weathered, thin salt erust (iceftloe salt—

Type 3) near Prescott Pomt (see analysis 12) is over 4 per cent. This could

have come about by selective removal of salt by rain wash, or to inshore wypsum

migrating lakewards under the influence of wind and water. Efflorescent salt

(Type 8) had a gypsum content more consistent with the composition of the

lyrine iu contuet with the salt crust.

The sulphate content of the solid salt samples is generally in excess of that

necessary to satisfy calcium, aud occasionally in excess also of that to satisfy

magnesium, In the first instance it means that the magnesium salt which would

first separate on desiccation would be the sulphate; in the second instance it

means that some sodium sulphate should separate, too. The second tendency

if shown for 7 of the 8 levels im the solid salt from Bore 93/54 (see analyses

1-5), but the sulphate excess over magnesium is usually so small as possibly to

be ascribed to small ineousistencies in the analysis. However, at the 8-9 in.

level (see analysis 7) the large content of 2 per cent. Na.SOy, is indicated, and

no explanation for this can be advanced.

The calcium sulphate content of the 1950-1 lake waters enables one to

calculate that gypsum separation probably began only shortly before the separa-

tion of sodium chloride (i.e. at about the end of 1951).

The calcium sulphate content of the May, 1958, lake brine from Arteria

Point (see analysis 81) was nearly af saturation valuc, but it was at only half

that value in the supernatant brine near Kunoth Shoal (sce analyses 29 and 30).

The ground brines from the salt crust in 1954 showed even lower values, It

scems likely that brine found in or overlying salt in Lake Eyre is always un-

saturated with respect to calcium sulphate, and this could be so if the brine

was formed by dissolution of some of the salt crust, the gypsnm content of

the latter vither being insufficiently high, or clse some of the ¢ypsum “slime”

TABLE 3.

Description of Brine Sample Mg /KRY Rate

Centre ot Madigan Gulf—December 124 aI

Level Post Bay —May 1951 ! 32H

Kometh Shaal—May 1953: 10); 1

Artemia Paint—Mary 1955 hy

Centre ol Maciean Gill—August 1954 a

Standard Sea Water (lor camparisen S41

escuping dissolution itself, so failing to saturate the brine. It may he supposed,

therefore, that the L954 ground brines were uot a pure evaporation residual,

hut cortained a component due to dissolution of the salt by rain. ‘The salt

crust could hinder the brine above or ia it veaching equilibrium with the gypsum

sls of the Jake bed,

Brines from holes in the margin af the lake bed outside the salt crust (sec

nnalyses 52 and 38) are unsaturated with calcium sulphate. The conditions

there are not understood.

The Magznesiuin and Potassium Salts Content:

These are prohubly almost always present in the dissolved state. in the

Lake Eyre salt and brines. Magnesium and potassitim concentrations probably

vary together; Table 3 shows this ouly very roughly ta be tric. an exception

being the May, 1051. brine.

Only a limited number of potassium determinations were mule; i other

cases the content must be inferred from the magnesium content.

The magnesium (or potassium) content of a solic salt sample is meaniny-

less without the water content being known, hecause these salts are present

ouly in solation, The significant factor is therefore the magnesium content of

the ground brme. The Mg*> content of the 194 ground brines varies tron

3-4 yni/l, iu Bore 4/54 near the shore to 6:6 gm./L in Bore 93/54 at the

bottom of the gulf. This shows that there is a tendeney for the resichial evapora

tion liquors to aecumulate at the centre of the gulf basin, and this im turn

nuplies lateral mixing of the lake brine durmg the drymg-ap pracess. There

could alsa be a subsequent migration ceutrewards of the grommd brine m the

salt erust. Madigan’s 1929 brines from the salt erust show a very similar magne-

sim disposition to those of 1954 (see analyses 33-37). °

The story of the magnesium content of the lake waters during the 1950-2

drying-up (see analyses 25-28) is a straightforward onc, Concentration of the

waters hy evaporation increased the Mg* ~ content from 0-15 gm./L in October,

1950, to 0-82 ¢m./l. in December, 1951. It is supposed that then the lateral

distribution through the lake would have heen qnite even. This was not sq in

the case of the brines supernatant on the salt crust in May, 1953, because the

final dryingaip in 1952 had probably brought about a segregatian of Mat +

in the central parts, In 1953, while the Mg*+! content was 1-§ gin./L in the

tongue of water between Prescott Point and Kunoth Shoal (see analysis 30).

it was up to 2:2 gm./l. at the north-east tip of Kimoth Shoal (see analysis 29)

which was nearer the interior of the gulf,

The Ground Brine From Bore 93/54;

The most highly concentrated remnant of the lake waters was the brine

(see analysis 36) from the salt crust at Bore 93/54, However. although this

had the highest Mg++/Nat ratio (55/1000) of any Lake Eyre brine. it was

much lower than w typical “bittern” from commercial salt-making operations

where frequeritly the Mg*+/Na* ratio is 660/1000. The ground brine ob-

tained fram the bottom of Bore 93/54 was identical with that frorm the salt

erat above, and it seems clear that it had merely gravitated from the upper

level during the boring. The dry state of the dolomite bed supports this view.

THE ORIGIN OF THE SALT

Lake Eyre contains approsimately 400 million tons af sodium chloride, The

gypsum content must be of the order of ten times this quantity, while magne-

sium aud potassium salts together would atount to ahout bwo per cent, uf

the sadinmn chloride content. Table 4 sects out these figures:

TABLE 4,

Substance ' Yenative Tonnae

a - | tal

Cry psut ST0O0 milling) boris

Sodium chloride 100 taillion. tans

Nitenesivan anal piatassiire salts i (7 millior! tons

While most of the gypsum ferms the lake bed itself, or else exists in the

chines surrounding the lake. the contents of sodinm chloride and of magnesium

and potassium salts are considered restricted to material ocemrTing on or abave

the like bed.

Possible Sources:

Thy salts ol Luke Evre may have originated in various ways, The sence

miy have been:

(1) The salts of a relict sea or lake,

(2) Comnate salts weathered out from old marine sedi merits,

(8) Dissolved solids in waters escaping from the Great Artesian Basin.

(4) Wind-borne oceanic salts finally trapped in the Lake Eyre drainage basin.

The theory of a relict sea or lake is incompatible with the accepted geolo-

gieal history of the area im which the centre of the continent, once oceupied by

the sea, was later oceupied by a fresh water lake. During the pluvial Pleis-

tecene tunes the lake must Lave overflowed tm the ocean, and in ity go doing

the continual flushing must have prevented any accumulation of salts forming

vr remaining from earlier times. Any accumulation must have taken place

since the Pleistooune — after the lake stopped overflowing.

‘The conmaite salts source is a possibility, for it may be caleulated that an

area of 100,000 square miles of exposed marine sediments containing Eo per

cent. sodinin chloride and weathering at the rate of 0-O0L in. per year will

yield the 400 roillion tons in as short a period as 6,000 years. Similarly. in

considering the “inonnd springs” of the Great Artesian Basin as tho souree, a

spring flow of ten million gallons per day of water containing 1 gm. sodinn

chloride per litre would result in the same accumulation in 25,000 years.

The most likely source is oceanic sults carried inland by wind and brayeht

own by rain to become trapped in the basin of inland drainage. This is the

“eyclic: salts” process now recognized as occurring oyer most of the Jand areas

of the globe. hut in enclosed basins of inland drainage the eycle is broken by

the salts. being prevented from returning to the ocean, and so they veenmulate

ou the land. Over the Lake Eyre Basin there must be an annual fallaut of

not less than 1 Ib. sodium chloride per acre of catchment. or a total of 150,000

fons per annum, 400 million tons would accumulate in a mere 3.000 years:

The Take Eyre salt deposit could have beeu derived from any or all of sources

(2), (3) and (4), It is likely that they have all contributed some of it, but

the seeunic salts source is the largest. Rivers that regularly or periodically feed

Lake Eyre. like the Cooper and the Diamantina, contain sodium chlovide iu

soluticn to the extent of about 15 mgm. per litre. Very few analyses of these

waters are available— none is known of for these rivers in the South Australian

part of their courses* — but a few have been located in Queensland by W, If. RB.

Niinmo and communicated to the author (see Appendix IV). and it is from these

that this salt content has been derived. If it is assumed that the 25 mtillian

acre-feet of water that probably flowed into Take Eyre in 1949-50 had this

silinity the corresponding intake of salt becomes 450,000 tons. This serins

in keeping with the iutake to be expected from the cyclic salts souree, hearing

in mind that at the times of these exceptional river Hoods several years’ cyclic

*'The fiest South Australian analysis subscamenth: Tecune available, amd dias beer jue

ehided m4 Appencix IV. le is fe Cooper's Creek in Navember, (955, soon alter the peal

ob a large flood entering Lake Eyre. The high and predominating NaCl vontent contrasts

with those af the Queensland data, but it has the effect of farther highlighting the clisparity

between the aetuul quantity of salt in Lake Eyre and the amount of the gaecunimlation to

be expected fram aunmual intikes,

| ‘The figure has beem arbitrarily reduced to utlow for the fact that most of the sanyplns

Were trken at times of low flow.

sults supply temporarily accumulated throughont the catchment area is likely

to reach the lake at ance.

The puzzling feature revealed by the foregoing, figures is the smallness of

the sodium chloride tonnage found in Take Eyre, for in the arbitrary period of

50,000 years the sodium chloride accumulation possible from the eyelic salts

source would be 7,000 1illion tons even with the couservatiyely low annual

jnerement assumed, A continual wastage of the necimutation seems to be the:

vue possible exphination tor the comparatively low tonnage actually Found in

ake Mere,

The Contyrusition of tee Salts

The salty in Lake Eyre are present in quite diflercnt proportions to those

i) the weean, and alsa to those in solution in the incoming river waters. Analyses

of the litter chow ecaleium carbonate to be the predommant constituent, with

sodium chloride aud eweium sulphate next in importance. Magnesium has not

been determined in most of the analyses available, but in other respects the

composition hus little resemblatice ta that of the oceanic salts, This docs not

necessarily rule out cyclic salts as the main source for considerable changes

in composition are kuown fo occur quite early in the eyele. Lockhart Jack

(1921), who studied this phenomenon near the South Atistralian coust, foun

thab the composition of the dissolved solids ft rain water rapidly lost resem

blance to that of the parent sea water alter storage in varios sorts of tanks,

and Audersou (1941) for a similar reason was obliged to trace salts from rain

water to those present in natural surface waters by assuming that the chloricle

content was the only reliable criterion of oceanie origin.

Madigan (1930) noted the paucity of inagnesium amd potassiunt in the

Lake Eyre salts, and he wondered whether plants, for instance, could luve te-

moved those extions from the surface waters during their passage wcross the

drainage hasty to Lake Eyre. ‘This is in line with present day thought en the

selective vermoval of certain clemeuts from natural waters by cation-exchange

processes in soils. Goldselinidt (1954) deseribes how certain cations, ineluding

K+ and Me’ §, are removed preferentially to Nut by clays, ete. Et is alsa

possihle that removal of these cations could have coutinued in the lake itself,

nefdlentally. the presence of minch calcium carbonate in the invoning river

waters suggests that large quantities must precipitate when these waters mix

with the saline lake waters. Such an effect oeeurs in the Groat Salt Lake, Utah

(Grubau, 1920). Muuligan Culf is remote from such inixing pkiwes, except for

the Frome estuary, but there niust be lime deposits new the Cooper month

and along the Warburton Groove still awaiting investigation,

Speregation and Possible Wastaze of the Aceramudated Salts:

‘The salts content of Lake Eyre as siraller than that which might be expected

to have acevmulated aver a feasible perind of geological time trom several

sonrees, so some avenue of wastige of the accumulation shold be sought.

Further, the salls are present in quantitics the magnitudes of whieli are in the

same order as the probable order of deposition of the sarue silts from sca water.

or natural brines, for instance. and in the fiverse order of their solubilities in

water, Th a wastage fs occurring it seeins that the Joss solnble salts are thuse

whiclt suffer the least wastage. so enabling thein to form a larger fraction of

the accumulating residue than they constituted. in the incoming stream, the

inverse would hold for the more saluble salts. This eflect would be explained

hy 2 sesregation process wherein the less soluble sults, being the first ones to

he precipitated from an evaporating solution and the last ones to re-dissolve

fullowiner any sort of Aooding of the salt accumulation by tresh waters, would

exist in Ue solid state for a greater proportion of the tine than the more soluble

«alte, Lor example, consider Lake Eyre in 1954; most of its gypsum ancl sodium

chloride was present in the slid state, while probably all the magnesiun’ aul

potassium salts were present in solution, Such a condition would fayour sepa-

ration of the solid and liquid phases —by seepage of the latter, for instance, Tf

the luke were to dry up completely the magnesiui and potassium salts would

be the last substances to precipitate. If a dissolution then begat these sults

woul! be the first to dissalve. Also, we know ol a recent flooding of the like

when all the sodium chloride dissolved, but only a minnte fraction of Ue caleiun

sulphate went ito solution,

We can therefore say that under the range of conditions that we knew

the lake eontains—

(a) its gypsum iu the solid state all af the tine:

(ly) its soelinin chloride in the solid state most of the time: and

the time,

As a refinement of (b), a suiall proportion of the total sodium chloride is, in

fact. in solution all of Hie tine.

If. therefore, we suppose that salts present in solution can be: lost in some

way. then we can conclude that the rate of wastae of gypsum should be

negligible, that of magnesium and potassium salts should he considerable, while

sodium chloride should waste at an intermediate rate, Loss by the downward

seepage of solutions seems a plausible theory. but if if is occurring the lost

solutions should wot have travelled far and it should be possible to find them.

Tlawever, as we know practically nothing of the region bencath the lake bed

we are unible to say whether the (acts confirm or confound this theory. Else-

where the anthor has commented on the dryness of the dolomite bed’ beneath

the centre of Madigan Gulf, and this might be interpreted as evidence against

the seepage occurring, Another line of thought is that the very considerable

tunnage of inugnesium that must be present in the dolomite bed might have

bees placed there by w chemical reaction between the “missing” magnesinin af

the Jake deposit and what was originally a calcium carbonate deposit beneath

it, Gontinning this line of thought, the “missing” potassium of the lake deposit

could possibly he identified with the potassium components of the jarosite in

the clay stratum and the illite in the dolomite stratum of Bore 98/54.

The liquid component of the salt crust might be lost in a quite different

way, such as that postulated to accur in some Asian lakes (Graban, 1920), Mere

capillarity takes the solution ty the surface of the salt crust whence wind carries

it away cither as ia powdery efflorescence or adsorbed upon dnst particles whieh

had settled on the damp surface and had subsequently Leen carried aloft over

more, ‘This theory, while tenable for small, isolated salinas, is hardly tenable

in the case of Lake Eyre where the dust would be likely to settle again within

the inland deainage basin and so retum again to the lake in a secondary eyele

if migratory salts, The mechanism of the “wastage” phase of the theory this

inust remain a wmatter of conjecture.

The theory here presented of the occurrence ut the salt deposits in Lake

Eyre is one in whieh a stream of what is principally airborne and surface-

waterborne oceanic salts constantly enters the lake, und another stream, of dif-

ferent composition ta the first, constantly esexpes from it. while in the lake itself

lies @ certain “stuck” of salts reflecting the equilibriuin between the two streams.

The cumposition af the stock is likely t) have little resemblance to those of

the incoming and outgoing streams as regards the proportions of the speci he:

constituents, although the same constituents in grcatly iffering proportions are

likely to be found in all three. The assumption that all the caleium sulphate

neewunlates in the lake, and nene is lost, makes the age of the deposit 500,000

years if the annual intake of oceanic sodium chloride (with its associated caletum

sulphate) is taken as 1 Th./acre/year in the Take Eyre catchment basin, I,

ele)

however, this unnual increment of sodium chloride is still taken, and then the

gypsum content associated with it im the incoming surface waters is calea-

lated according to the CaSO,/NaCl ratio revealed in Apperlix TV (viz. 1-3/1)

the age derived from the gypsuin accumulation becomes 20,000 years,

The time that has Clapsed since Lake Fyre ceased overflowing to the ocean

vould reasonably be expected to Fall betsyeen these limits.

ACKNOWLEDCMENT

The author acknowledges with thanks the invaluable help of Mr, K. Peake-

Jones and My. W, G, Fenner, the latter's painstaking, sirvey work forming, the

main basis of this: paper.

He also thanks Messrs. A. D. P. Dyer. D. King, 1. BR. Kaplan, A. CG, I.

Adams, J. HR. Bryan, J. Fuss. G. W. Harris, BR, A, Lawson, Ry 2B, Norton and

A. RK. Uaissell who took part in the 1953 aud 1954 expeditions, Messrs, T. W.

Dakwood and T. R. Frost of the South Australian Department of Mines, and

Mr. S$, M. Shephard for carrying out analyses, Dr. K. Norrish and Mrs. L. Rogers

of the Division of Soils, C.S.1RO., for measuring X-ray powder diffraction

paticrns of bore samples, Prot. 1. G. M, Raas-Becking of the Division of Pish-

eries, C.S1R.O,. and Mr. 1. M, Thomas of the Department af Zvology.

University of Adelaide, for making microbiological studies of salt and mud

samples, and Mr. W. H. 8. Nimmo of the Irrigation and Water Supply Com-

inission, Queenskind, tor supplying data oti the composition of river waters.

He further acknowledges the help of LCI. Alkali (Australia) Proprietary

Ltd,, sud of the Director and Mr, D. King of the Suuth Australian Department

of Mines for lending equipment, and he is grateful to the Governors of St.

Poters College, Adelaide, who donated £40 towards capenses.

REFERENCES

Axiases, VooG. 141. Vhe Origin of the Dissolved Inomzauie Solile in Natucdl Wotton

with Special Reference to the O°Shannissy iver Catehnrent, Vietoria, J, Aust.

Chem, Inst, $ (8): 130-150.

Bads-Renninc, L. G, M., and Karian, f BR. 1955, lhe Microhivlogical Origin of the Sul-

phur Notlules of Lake Eyre. Traus, Rov. Sav, 5, Aust, Cin this volume).

Broce M, Ba. Maxsas, L., and Lrewan, TW. L,, 1951. The Formation of “Salt Tables” in

Nalural and Artifical Solar Pans, Bull. Res. Council Israel 1: 36-39.

Boswinor. C. Wy 1955, Lake Eyre, South Austrulin- the Great Flooding of 1949-50, Roy,

Geoar. Soc, A/asiu, §. Aust. Branch, Adelaide. ( i) ‘Whe Geography of Lake Eyre

and its Surraunditigs, 7-9; (b) The Pilling wn Deving-np, 27-36; (c) The Eyapori-

tion Rate. 37-56; (d} The Area, Volume and Salt Content. 83-65; (ec) The De-

pression of Lake Tyre below Sea Level, 69-70.

Boxytren, C. We. ancl kiwc, D,, 1955, The Occurrence of Nutwe Sulphur at Lake Byre.

Trans. Roy. Soe, &. Aust. (in this valame).

Bosviitos, ©. W., and Masox. B., 1953. The Willing and Drying of Lake Kyre, Chupy

Jour 129 (3); 321-330.

PANE, ri 1952 Lake Fare in Flood, 3950 —Viuud, Salts, elo. Trans Tis. Soe, S. Aust.

5: 5-8.

loarzratnick, & S., tid Streva, U1. W., 1925, inyestivation of Waters and Suline Materials

from Lake Eyre ancl Distriet (Central Australijy), Proc Rey Soe View BT I1i

95-103.

Gotascuni, Vo M., 1994. Geochenistry, Oxtorcd. Clarendyn Fross,

Cranau, A.W, 1920, Principles if Salt Deposition, 1st Fil. New York WeGriw-hill,

Jack, Ri. Locxnanr, 1921. The Salt and Gypsnoe Resonrees of South Avxtrilia, Bull, No 8,

Geol, Sore. S. Avist,

King. D., 1955. The Quaternary Stratieraphic Record at Lake Eyre North und the Bvolo-

tion of Existing Tepowaphic Forms, ‘Praus. Ray. Sec, S. Aust, (in this vahime)

\iamicar, C. T., (980. Take Eyre, South Australian, Geogr. Jour. 76: 215-240.

Mavroax, ©. T,. 1946. Crossing the Dead Weurt—Melbourne, Geargian Morse.

PENMAN. H. 1. 1955. [ake Here, Santh Austedia —' The Great Flooding of 1949-50, Hoy.

Qeour. Soe. Avasia, 8, Avst. Brusich, Adelaide — Kveporation Fremn, lake Myre, 57-61

APFENDIX. ITT,

Analyses of Lake Bed Sediments.

i t

Sample No. (40) (41) (42) | (43) | 44) (451 (46)

Bore Na. 24/54 93/54

Depth below salt crust surface LO. av 2’ 10" | 3° 3” | 3° 9" 3) 6" 170

1’ 6” Vt 3° 0" | 3° 4" | 4° 0" 5° 9°

Racicles—, hy wr '

Na 4-84 3-79 21-69 | 7-35 |30-70 4-00

Ca 20-08 21-45 7:34 (12-52 | 3-81 | 24-25 22°92

Mg | 0-59 0.55 0-06 | 0-63 | 0-31 0-66 (57

Cl 6-85 5-74 32-86 j10+24 147-20 6-17 -

SO, 48-94 51-05 18-52 |30-45 {10-30 41 OF 56+ 72

co, 138 “65 — | 2-17 — 1-1 —

Assumed composition |

% by wt. Gi) (i) (ii) G@) oy (i) |} (a) (i (il) (il

CaCO, : 2°75 | 1-7 —- | 3:61 — — - —

MsCo, 2:02 — = — = — 1-35 | 0-9 _

CaSO, 68-10 169-05 |54°7* (24-86 137-58 |16-36*'72-10 |59-5* j98-5*

NaCl 11-30 | 9-46 | 5-9 [54-10 }16-90 |77-90 |1 6-7 _-

Mgs0, — | 2-734 1:7 — | 3-12] 1-53) 1-35 | 0-9 | 2-0

Na,SO, 1-2] ; 0-23 | 0-1 P12 | 2-16 -

Free water — [28-5 — — 3-10 | — |26-0 _

Tnsolubles 1-17 |{T-91 | 7-4 [18-63 — | 1-21 | 9-23 | 6-0 | 0-60

(i) Compesition of oven-dried material.

* Expressed as CaSO,.211,0

(11) Composition cxpressed on wet basis,

Sample Na. (47)

Votal water

co,

sO,

Less QO equiv. Cl

Bore 93/34, Depth—1?2 ft,

6:56 %, by wt.

Notes on samples.

(40), (41), (43) and (45). Gypsum “slush”

(42) Very hard stratum.

(44) Lumps embedded in gypsum “slush”.

(46) Crystals embedded in gypsum “slush”.

(47) Dolomite bed. Analysed by T. R. Frost.

ie by S. M. Shephard,

APPENDIX IV.

Analyses of Surface Waters in Queensland.

Stream Barcoo ' Thompson

Place Isisf ord | Longreach

Date 17/3/33 | 24/2/39 21/12/49) 15/12/36) 15/24/37! 15/5/37 | 24/7/37 | 20/1) 13) 30/10/50

Compusition--mgm. ' | '

per litre \p.pan.)

CaSO, ; 17 17 60 | 66 36 27 | 21 tik

MesO, i ma = fh fo 1

NaSO, poo rd, !! rr - -~ | = ~

Caco, 83 at al | 69 69 77 MG 66 a

MgC, — — ao = - f == |

Na,CO; — — 26 — — | : — 34 a4

NaCl 19 14 14. 47 47 19 24 ‘a 47

Total solids 455 191 149 331 300 237 166 166 37

pH = = 9-8 7-2 8-(), Tel 72 9.4 G8

nn UUs SEE

Stream | Dias

Thompson Cooper mantina) Wilson Burke Cooper*

Place (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (wil) (sili) (ix)

Date 5/11/46] 5/11/46] 30/9/88] 2/2/45 | 2 | 3/246 | 5/942) 9) 2/48 [12/11/55

Composition—mgm, | | | +

per litre ip.p-m.) f

Caso, 107 107 24 41 9 20 - 7 ~

MgsO, - — = — a 17 - — -

NaSO, = = a - = ay —. 43

CaCO, 10 10 80 10 57 _ 12) 40 52

MeO, — = —— 17 = — 4} 17 2t

NayGO, 6 31 — 50 _ 3+ -—— } 10 SI

NaCl 23 23 lt 23 1} 25 .) 10 165

Total solids 171 200 129 274 314 | 183 394 131 371

pH 7-5) 7-5 Woe bh ae te ee Po ae

| |

i i |

Key to places.

(i) Jundah. (vi) Nockaburrawarra.

(ii) Stenehenge. (vii) Near Duchess.

(ii) Windorah, (vit) Boulia.

(iv) Nappamerric. fix) Mirdsville Track Crossing, South Australia.

(vy) Gonn Hole, Eldersliv.

Sourees of analytical data—Irrigation and Water Supply Commission and Railway Department,

Queensland, and Engineering and Water Supply Department, South Australia.

* Sampled by South Australian Museum Expedition.

APPENDIX f£.

Solid Salt Analyses

Sample Nu, () ) | (3) | (a) | (5) | (6) | (7) | @) | go) | ay | aay | a) ays) ft

l \ Es

Collected by j a . a | oa a a a a b | b

Date 1/9/54 21/5j53 28/8/ 2/9/54 | 2/9/54 | 27/8/54 ?/ 12/29

Analyst c c c c c a mS > a [|

Level below surface O-1" | 13.3" 3-42" | 5” 5-6" | 7-8" 8-9" 94-11" | 0-24" | 23-54” | surf surl surf, surf, 0-8" | surf.

Radicles—%, by wt. i ; | |

Nat 38-90 | 38436 | 38-10 | 37-31 | 39-09 | 38-51 | 37-53) 38-41 | 35-65 | 36-30 | 38-60 | 34-60 | 34-15 36-80 | 37-56¢ | 37-604

Car- 0-12 0-32 0-53 0-91 0-11 O21 0-64 0-42 0-22 0-40 0-05 1-24 0.28 0-28 0-95 |! 0-90

Mg-t 0-05 0-02 Q-0L 0005 Q-04 0-03 0:07 0-02 0-OL 0-01 0-07 | 0-12 O-ll 0-38 0-05 0-03

Cl- 60-10 | 59-10 | 58-70 1 57:15 | 60-00 | 59-05 | 56-75 | 59-05 | 54:85 55-95 | 59-40 | 52-85 | 5a-80 36:70 | 58-15 | 58-45

80,-- 0-46 0-90 1-37 | 2-61 0-43 0-66 3-31 1-51 0+59 0-98 0-43 3-61 1-09 2015 1-8] | 1-64

co,-— a-n2 0+ D6 0-04 0-13 0-12 {)-.05 0-02 0-02 —- | — — 0-27 = =— FF — >} -|

Assumed composition— |

% by wt, |

NaCl 99-00 | 97-40 | 96°75 | 94-25 | 99-00 | 97-50 | 93-55 | 97-25 | 90-50 | 92-25 | 98-00 | 87:10 | 96-95 | 93-50 95-287 | 95-64}

MgCl, — | = ~ - — | = ~ — |} 0-01 —~ + = | OOD | = | 0-20 | ory

MgSO, 0-25 0-1) 0-05 0-26 O22 0-14 0-34 Q-12 0-07 | 0-04 | 0-40 0-48 QO-51 | 1-86 - —

CaCO, 0:04 0-10 0-06 Q-22 0-20 0-08 0-04 0-04: —- — = 0-45 _ — O-44F | 0-50

CaSO,:2H,O { O-46 | 1-22 2°18 3-55 O-1l 0-76 2-69 1-75 0-96 | 1-70 0-19 4°55 1-22 1-21 3129 2-99

Na,SOQ, —: 0:18 | 0-16 0-64 | 0-29 | 0-18 | 2-27 | 0-66 = — ; 1-07 2 a

Free water 1:18 1/03 0:70 1-22 0-26 1-36 | 1-09 | 0-71 8-03 5-88 1-30 2-00 | 1-97 | 3430. | 0+82 0-63

Insolubles 0-12 | 0-04 0-03 0-21 0-11 0-01 | 0-02 | 0-04 a- 10 | 0-01 0+09 4-31 0-14 | 0-09 0-84 0-86

i \ j / i

| | |

Sample Na. (7) | (18) {19} (20) (21) (22) | (23) | (24) Details of samples

! les :

Source Bore 4/54 Bore 24/54 Rore 50/54 (1)-(8). Sampled subsequently from block of salt lifted near Bore 93/54,

Collected by a a a (9) & 10), Sate crust beneath 8 in. brine between Preseott Pt, and Kunoth

Date 25/8/54 26/8/54 27/8/54 Shoal.

Analyst c c C (11). Stranded white numulitic drifi salt, between Flags 32 and 33/54.

Level below surface 1-3" 4-6" 3-4" | §-8" 0-2" 2-4" 4-6" 6-8” (12). Buckled crust } mi. west of Prescott Pt.

Cat! % by wt. 0-47 0-40 0-42 0-20 0-21 0-31 0-66 0:43 (13), Efflorescent salt from buckled thin. crust neat Prescott Pt,

CGaSO,.2H,0 2-09 1-8] 1-80 0-84 0-90 | 1-31 2-84 1-86 (14), Efflorescent salt from drift “island” near Flag 37/54.

Vree water | 6-18 ; 11-11 5-55 2-90 6-63 10°86 | 12-69 | 14-29 (15). “Hole 2", G mi. from shore (see Madigan 1930).

‘ | | (16). Salt crust sample 1 mi. north-east of Shelly Is. (sce Madigan 1930).

a Callected by C. W. Bonython.

bh Collected by C. T. Madigan.

« .Amalysed by 8, M. Shephard.

d= Analysed by W. S. Chapnian-

* Includes K~.

7 © Includes KCI.

(17\-/24 . Solid crust sampled vi determine gypsum content,

t As CaCl,.

Oo ror en

APPENDIX II,

Brine Analvses

Sample No. (25) (26) (27) | (28) (29)

Collected by e a a hs a a

Date 96/10/50) 11/2/51 | 24/5/51) 13/12/51) 16/5/53

Analyst h eo ' a c c

Density—gm./ml. at 20°C. | = 1-0497 1-0785} 1-1667 | 1-207

Radicles— | |

grams per liire | h

Nat 14-88 | 27-80 | 43:78 92-20 |122-1

K+ a) [a= | 0-01 | 0+27

Catt a-40 , 0-5! 0-91: 161 0:90

Mgt+ 0-15 0-27 0-30 | 0-82 2.24

cl- 23-17 | 43-20 | 67 96 {142-30 [191-2

Br- _ _ O-Ol | — =

$O,-- 19 1:70 | 294 | 5-48 72

co, 0-06 = 0-04 — 0-06

Assumed composition— !

grams per litre

NaCl 37-83 70-60 ]111+43 234-0 |310-0

KCl = | — | 0-02 | 0-52

NaBr — -- 0-01 — —

Na,SO, —

MgCl, -28 | O-57 | O37 | 64 | 3-80

MgSO, 0-41 O60 | 1:04 | 3-26 | G43

CaCO, 0-09 — | 0-07 — 0-11

CaSO, 1-22 1-75 | 3-00 | 5-49 | 2-9

| |

a Collected by C. W. Bonython

b Collected by C. T. Madigan-

e Collected by E. A. Brooks.

f Collected by D. King.

Collected by A. 5. Fitzpatrick and H. W. Strong.

: Analysed by S. M, Shephard.

d Analysed by W. S, Chapman.

h Analysed by T. W. Dalwaod.

Analysed by T. R. Frost.

Analysed by A. S. Fitzpatrick and H. W. Strong,

(30)

16/5/53

1-205

(31) (32) (33) (34) (33) (38) (37: (38) | (39)

a f a a a a b |b | £

19/5/53 | 15/5/53 | 25/B/54 | 26/8/54 | 27/8/54 31/854 | Der./29 Dec./29 | Aug./22

€ c C c c c d d ’ k

| 1-122] leapt | d-zit | 1-215 | 1-214 | ets — | = | 10660

| | |

| 68-8 |108-2 {123-6 — S 118-3 115-2 110-8 32-85

0-13 | 0-03 1-9 1-67 «0-56 «| «(0-37

1 1:77 0-96 | 0-51 = a 0-28 0-64 1-01 | 1-76

1-03 1-52 340 | 4-6 63 6-56 7-67 2.39) 0:37

107-5 167-3 192-5 a — 190-5 |!89-0 (173-4 §1-55

— — of : 0-11 0-04 0-17

6-4 Bet | 11-96 - — 1-9 | 18-0 8-9 | 5:64

0°07 0°03 0-19 0-06 0-14

174-6 |275-5 = [314-0 — — [300-7 (292-7 |281-5 | 85-0

0-25 0-06 = = _ 3-6 3-2 1-06 | 0-7]

4 0-14 0-05 0-22

= 0:22 ao _ — = 0-06 0-26

1-77 = 2-6 = = 8-6 2-93 =

2:87 7-53 -| 13-5 = — | 21-6 1 8-23 1-83

0-12 0-06 = a = — 0-32 | 0-10 0:23

5:83 3-18 1-72 << — 0-94 1-74 | 3-31 | 5-65

| |

Details of Samples

(25). Lake water [rom centre of Madigan Gulf (see Fenner 1952).

(26) and (27) Lake water from Level Post Bay-

(28) Lake water from west of Sulphur Peninsula,

(29) Lake water from north-east extremity of Kunuth Shoal,

(30) Lake water from between Prescott Pt. and Kunoth Shoal.

(31) Lake water from off Artemia Pt.

(32) Brine from bore in Jake bed sediments at Prescott Pt., 1953.

(33) Ground brine in salt crust—Bore 4/34.

(34) Ground brine in salt crust—Bore 24/54.

(35) Ground brine in salt crust—Bore 30/54.

(36) Ground brine in salt crust—Bore 93/54.

(37) Ground brine in salt crust—‘Lake Hole +" (see Madigan 1930),

(38) Brine from bore in lake bed sediments at Prescort Pt., 1929—“Bore 3”

(see Madigan 1930). .

(39) Water from Lake Eyre South, 1922. “Sample No. 2”, from water 3 in. deep,

20) yd. from share (see Fitzpatrick and Strong 1925}.

C. W. BonytHoNn PLATE |

Fig. a.—Traces of Madigan’s car tracks near Prescott Point, May, 1953.

Fig. b.—Lake vehicle on Kunoth Shoal, 1954. “Crocodile skin” salt crust.

C. W. BonyTHoN PLATE IT

Fig. a.—Incipient polygonal cracking of damp lake bed near Prescott Point, 1953,

Fig, b.—Depressed pitches in bed near Pittosporum Head, 1954,

(Cyclometer wheel gives scale.)

). W. BonyTHON Puare IIL

Fig, a.—“Tee-floe” salt surrounded by shallow water, May, 1953,

Fig. b.—“Waterlily” salt on Kunoth Shoal, May, 1953,

C. W. Bonytrnion PLATE IV

Fig. a.—Bank of “numulitic” drift salt, May, 1953,

Fig, b.—Serpentine bank of “numulitic” drift salt, August, 1954,

Vig. b.—Circular drift salt “island” near north-c

Angust. 1954,

PLATE V

astern shore of Madigan Gull,

C,. W. BonytHon PLATE VI

Wig. 1.-Efflorescent salt bulging from eracks in crust, (18-in, of tape measure

gives seale. }

Fig, b.—“Ice pudding salt” showing embedded roly-poly bush. (18-in. of tape

measure gives scale.)

PuatTe VII

C, W. BonyrHow

FSET snsny “prox umuzodsoyiy iau qsnao yrs unp ut padojaap suyyong

C. W. BonyTHos PLate VIII

Fig, a—Preparing to remove block of salt at Flag 93, September, 1954,

Fig. b.—Block of salt after lifting. (Seale given by 4-in. ruler, )

THE QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHIC RECORD AT LAKE EYRE

NORTH AND THE EVOLUTION OF EXISTING TOPOGRAPHIC FORMS

BY D. KING

Summary

Fossiliferous Quaternary lacustrine deposits of the Lake Eyre Basin are exposed in escarpments

along the margin of Lake Eyre North, and were intersected in shallow boreholes in the area. These

are described in detail and their distribution shown on the geological maps.

The elevation of these earlier lake deposits above the present lake level, and their presence beneath

a veneer of drift sand in the longitudinal ridges bordering the lake, have led to the conclusion that

lake and dune formation are dual effects of wind erosion following desiccation in Early Recent

times. Evidence is presented that a channelling effect of the wind played a major role in initiating

dune development.

THE QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHIC RECORD AT LAKE EYRE NORTH

AND THE EVOLUTION OF EXISTING TOPOGKAPINIC FORMS

By D. Krnc®

[Read 9 June 1955]

SUMMARY

Possiliferous Quaternary lacustrine deposits of the Lake Eyre Basin are exposed in

esturpments along the murgin of Lake Byre North, and were intersected in shallow bore-

holes in the area. ‘These are dayoribest in detail and their ¢listribution shown on the

goological saps,

Yhe elevation of these earlier lake deposits above the present Jake devel, anel their

resence beneith w yeneer of drift sancl in the longitudinal tides hordoring the lake, have

ed to the conclusion that lake and dune formation are dual effects of yind erosion followiur

desiceation in Early Recent times. Evidence is presented that a channelling effect of the

wind plavedl a major role in initiating dune development.

Ll. INTRODUCTION

The subject matter of this paper is largely based upon observations by the

writer while taking part in a scientific expedition to Lake Eyre North organized

and led by Mr. C. W, Benython in May, 1953. ‘Lhe operational base for this

expedition was located on the south-eastern shore of Lake Eyre North near

the channel counection to Lake Eyre South, at a distance of some 25 miles by

ill-defined track north-west of Muloorina Station homestead.

An area of approximately 800 square miles — partly occupied by featureless

lake bed—was embraced hy the detailed survey, using R.AA.F. air photo-

graphs as base maps. Au interesting succession of Quaternary sediments was

discovered in cliffs at the lake margins, and was encountered in a series of

bores sunk with a post-hole anger at a number of places in the lake bed, The

investigation has revealed several significant facts relating te sand dune develop-

sont which were not formerly appreciated, all of which substantiate carlicr

work of the late Dr, C. T, Madigan.

A subsequent study of air photographs of the whole Lake Eyre region

provided additional physiographic material which is also incorporated in this

contribution.

Some new place names used in the text were proposed by Mr. Bonython

and approyed by the Lands Department Nomenclature Committee (Report of

the Lake Eyre Committee, 1955, p. 7).

The writer acknowledges the co-operation and assistance of Mr. Bonython

in the field, and the use of survey measurements by a member of his party

(Mr, W. Fenner), Ie is indebted to the Director of Mines of South Australia

for the opportunity to accompany the expedition and for arranging prepara-

tion of the maps for publication. Meteorological data was kindly made avail-

able by Mr. . Mason, of the South Australian Weather Bureau.

Ji. REGIONAL PHYSLOGRAPHIC SETTING

lake Eyre is the largest of numerous salinas which are distributed through-

out the semi-desert areas of South Australia. Jiake Eyre North has a total

eoverge of some 3,100 square miles, and is connected by a warrow water-course.

known as Goyder Channel to the smaller Lake Eyre South. The lakes are

hounded on the east and north by an extensive dune-covered plain comprising

the southern portion of the Simpson Desert (Madigan, 1938, p. 504). Alone

the western margin is a highly dissected tabloland, and bedrock hills of the

* Geolagist, Geological Survey of South Anstralin,

Peake-Denison Ranges, ancl ta the south and southavest are gibber plaius with

scattered dune ridges. bordering the Northern Flinders and Willouran Runiges.

Lake Eyre North is approamately 25 feet below sea level (L.W,0.3,.T. Port

Adelaide) (Bonython, 1955) and the general elevation of large areas of the

ite iWed,

ton lhy

“et

“

a FISH CAPER

bs \\

‘

SIMPS

cam]

—SO0uUTS

#| BC ii

SPO is tardy,

Roresene

FEO ALaTcer Erpunsegy Ut 8S

Ce eed

ee ee

: ae

i at

NENT NUE PCO MAT INS

TE Paaynscyhens

SESRD0M Ranges

WE BAe

woorhee

Nhe wn)

Wipf!

diye bi

aoa

ALBERGA

Fig. 1—Map of north-castern South Australia shawing the pliysivariphie setting of Lake Bere,

adjoining plains is only a few fect higher than lake level. The lakes are con-

sequently the focal point of drainage from a vast area of the interivr, partieu-

larly from the north where the catchment includes higher rainfall areas in

Centtal Australia and Queensland,

The main water-courses of the drainage system entering Lake Eyre are

showo on Fiy. 1. In normal years, any foodwaters from the north are dis-

persed and spent in smaller lagoons and deltas before actually reaching the

lake, but in exceptional seasons such as experienced in 1949-50, Lake Eyre North

may be completely flooded from these sources.

It. QUATERNARY STRATIGRAPHIC RECORD

The Lake Eyre region lies within the southern portion of the Great Artesian

Basin. The broader geological features of Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks under-

lying the basin are described in earlier reports (Jack, 1915; Ward, 1946; Whittle

and Chebotarey, 1952), aud are chiefly based upon data from widcly spaced

boreholes sunk for water supply and petroleum exploration. {

‘the area covered in detail during the present field survey comprises the

south-eastern portion of the Lake Eyre Basin, where the Mesozoic and Tertiary

rocks are covered by an appreciable thickness of Pleistocene and Recent lacus-

trine deposits.

The Quaternary sediments arc now partly cxposed in escarpments at the

nurgin of Lake Eyre North due to subsequent desiccation and erosion. and were

intersected in shullow boreholes sunk into the lake bed. The whole of the

succession found in the area is fossiliferous, but the fauna present area fresh

to hruckish-water association which cannot be relied apow for acenrate age

dleterminations, The lowest bed mapped is a gently folded dolomitic mudstone

containing molliscan casts, and is regarded as, Pleistocene in age. Overlying

the dolomites unconformably are horizontally bedded gypseous clays contain-

ing ostracodes and oogonia of Chara and some native sulphur concretions, and

capped by a deposit consisting almost entirely of shell remains and gypsum.

The Quaternary geology of the area as compiled from cliff exposures aud

borehole sanples* is shown on the accompanying Fig, 3, and the following are

desertptions of the main members of the sediments succession iu aseending

order:

PLEISTOCENE (?)

Dolomitic mudstones:

This member is a hard dolomitie mudstone measuring at least 20° feet in

thickness and containing casts of shells (Coxiella gilesi) and thin lenticular

huninae of green clayf and gypsum, It outcrops along the entire length of Hunt

Peninsula at the southern end of Lake Eyre North, and farther to the cast dips

below the lake surface at an angle of about 5 deg, to the north-east. Samples

of the dolomitic bed from three localities were chemically analysed by the Mines

Department (under the direction of T, R, Frost) with the following results:

Sample No, 1 Sample No. 2 | Sample No. 3

Loc. C. cliffi Loo. J. cliffs Borehole.

Marligan Call

per cent. per vent, percent.

Caleiur oxide, CaO 24-14 29-54 25941

Mitgnesium oxide, MeQ 16-97 19634 15:07

Acid insotubles 2-50 4-68 |

° The results of boring are shown diagranmnatically in the cross-sections accompany-

ing Wigs. 2 and 3, and detailed logs are recorded in un official report filed with the Depart-

ment of Mines.

}'Vhe vlay mineral palygorskite has heen identified in such clays fron: a borebole at

Low. CG hy L. Rogers, C.S.1.R.0., Division of Soils.

The result af a complete chemical analysis of Sample No. 3, together with

exact details of its location, is contained in a paper by C. W. Bonython (1955

(a)), which is published in this volume.

The dolomite is fine-grained, and the wppermost Jayers are indurated hy

silicifieation {Plate 2, Fig. 1}. Intraformutional pellet structures and shimp

foldiug sae widely developed aud incdicute their deposition im a shallow water

evvironment. The delomitie matrix of these sediments is probably a chemical

precipitate resulting from periodic changes in sulinity, in the same way 4s

dolomite is forming at present in some other South Australian lagoons (Forbes,

1955).

BARLY RECENT(?)

(1) Vert-coluured gypseous clays

The dolomitic rocks are overlaim unconformably by vari-coloured plastic

vlays passing upwards into pale green and brown sandy clays which attain a

maximum observed thickness of np to 25 feet. The clays are exposed a tew

feet above lake leyel along the shores of Sulphur Peninsula, where they coutain

concretions of sulphur and gypsum (Bonython & King, 1955 (b)) and were

penetrated by borings over a wide area in the south-eastern portion of Lake

Eyre Nerth. Samples from boreholes were examined by N. 11. Ludbrook (1953,

1955) and found ta contain numerous remains of the fresh-water plant Chara,

estracades, and some foraminifera,

The wneonformity at the base of the clays may be seen in the cliffs near

Loc. D.. where it is recorded by an eroded old surface of the dolomite, and

clsewhere boreholes showed the presence of a thin Jimestone and quartz, gravel

hed resting wpon the dolomite (Fig, 4).

The clay beds vary in colour both laterally aud in depth due probably to

variations in the state of oxidation of the iron content, but are csseutially similar

in composition and physical properties over their entire width. The main

muredient is extremely finely divided clay matter, shown by X-ray analysis to

he Jargely amorphous and indeterminable. Other important constituents are

evenly distributed rounded quartz grains, aud thin partings of natural whiting.

Cypsnm crystals occur sporadically throughout the chiys and in the lower

horizons there are interstratified thin beds of crystalline gypsur, ‘Samplos taken

trom the luke bed develop an efflorescent coating of salt ou drying. as pre-

viously described by Fenner (1952).

EARLY RECENT(?)

(2) Gypsvous shell beds

The uppermost beds consist mainly of fragile shell remains (Coxiella gilesi)

looxely einbedded in fine siliceous and gypscous sand and clay, and interstrati-

fed with Jayers of gypsum crystals (Plate 1). Tr ruost places ulong the shore-

line these beds haye heen remaved by wind erosion and are only Joeally pre-

served where protected by drift sand deposily,

A complete section of the shell beds may be observed in the low shoreline

clits yeljacent to Shelly Island (Toc, M) where they are 4% feet thick, and the

ippermost bed is cleyated approximately 36 fect above the level of the margin

at Luke Eyre North. A layer of massive crystalline gypsum one Tool thick,

featured by strongly ripple-marked partings, underlies the shell remains. A

Jetailed deseription of the section expased at this locality is shown in Table 1,

Other outcrops al the shell beds are known un the eastern side of Sulphur

Peninsula (Low $.B.), on the western side of Price Peninsula (Toe. A.), anel

in the upper levels of a small butte which rises prominently above the feature-

less livestone plain south-west of Shelly Island. Al are elevated approximately

30 feet above the present Jake surface.

Environment—Throughout this record the fossil evidence suggests pre-

dominantly brackish water conditions with periods of desiccation which gave

rise to deposition of crystalline gypsum beds (and salt), and the temporary

extinction of fish ancl inyertebrate fauna. The lithology of the sediments is

consistent with deposition in a permanently inundated, but gradually receding,

inland lake basin —“Lake Dieri” (Fenner, 1952). No evidence was found to

support carlier generalizations that there may have heen a connection between

Lake Torrens (approx. LOO feet above sea level) and the head of Spencer Gulf

coeval with varying sea levels of the Pleistocene (David, 19332),

Taare 1

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SUB-RECENT GYPSEOUS SHELL BEDS

Localion M

Lake LYRE NoaTH

Situatiin—Peninsula on southern shore of Lake Eyre adjacent to Shelly Uslaud. Appray.

& miles W.S.W. of Sulphne Point,

A.RL.* of top of section = 136,

Ft.In. Ft.In.

0 a—110 Shells (Coxiella gilesi) embedded in fine gypscous sand, Siliceous grit and

limestone pebbles. Uppennost layer forms flat pavement, partly

covered by drift sand. :

Crystalline gypsum rosettes,

3 Shells (Coxiella gilest) embedded in fae aypseons sand and. siliceous rit

with aurrow clay partings. Clusters of gypsum crystals.

=—e

—

I |

Loe

—

21 3-—2 7 Pale prey clay with a few shells (Coxfella gilust).

2» 7—3 10 Shell bed (Coxiella gilesi) in fine gypscous matrix.

310—2171 Pali grey clay.

RoR L Shells (Coxiella gilest) and fish vertebrae in fine matrix of sandy chiv.

wep oF Ee Groy clay and fine sand. Clusters of shells { Coxiella gilesi) in places.

3 4-3 6 Viev fire white siliceaus sand,

3 6-4 0 Shells (Coxiella gilesi) embedded in yery fine pale grey silicemis sand,

4 0-4 ] Grey chi with some gypsum,

4 1-4 2 Pale grey fine siliveous sand—odd shells (Coxiella gilesi).

43-4 8 Shell (Coxiella gilesi) tragments in light sand and rounded quarts grit.

4 3-4 4 Vine pale prey siliceous sand,

4 4-4 4% Cliy with gypsum.

i 4h-4 6 Fine pale grey silivequs sand with shell frazments (Coxiella gilesi) near top.

4 6-410 Grey clay and abundant gypsum.

410-6 &G Section covered by drift.

6 6-7 6 Bed of missive crystalline gypsum with ripple-marked surfaces.

* Arbitraty Reduce(] Level—see Bonython (1955 (a)),

The deposition of the shell beds marks the final desiccation of the

Pleistocene—Rarly Recent(?) lake, which was followed by the introduction of

donrinantly erosive agencies which it will he shown were largely responsible

for the sculpturing of existing topographic forms,

Iv. THE SAND FORMATIONS

The sand ridge formations which are sq strongly developed beyond the

eastern and northern margins of Lake Eyre —within the southern limits of

the Simpson Desert — haye been described in considerable detail in a series of

contributions by Madigan (1929-1946). The area embracing the north-eastern

portion of the State has since been covered by B.A.A.F. air photography (1945

and 1948), which together with ground observations during the present in-

vestigation, has provided an opportunity far additional research on the sand

formations over large areas lying beyond the limits of Madigan’s surveys.

The distribution and orientation of the dune ridges over 4 wide area sur-

rounding Lake Eyre are shown on the topographical map (Mig, 1). An analysis

of present day wind records from weather stations at Oudnadatta, Leigh Creck

and Woomera is also presented on this map,* j

The dunes of the Lake Eyre region are consistently of the longitudinal (or

seif) type, as described by Bagnold (1941, p, 189), “Bast of Lake Eyre, the

ridges are aligned meridionally and cyidently retain this orientation for several

hundred miles to the north (Madigan, 1946). South-west of Lake Eyre there

is a gradational change in dune trend from a dominant east-north-east direction

near the Jake to approximately east-west in the are west of the Comtral Aus-

tralian Railway. A similar but opposing swing from northerly to easterly is

also a marked feature of the dune pattern in the Lake Frome Plains, to the

south-east of Lake Eyre.

The sand dune belts and individual ridges have the tolluwing charae-

teristics:

1. It imay be generally stated that the dewree of completeness to which

the dune topography has developed inereases gradually to the north-east ‘The

dines south-west of Lake Eyre, for example, are broad and ill-defined sane

strips which ere of approximately equal width to the intervening troughs (Plate

1, Big. 1). ‘Towards the Simpson Desert, the cetinition and dimensions of the

ridges inorcuses, and they stand out in hold reliel trom the considerably wider

jnterdine corridors (Plate 4, Wig. 2).

2. An outstiiding leature of the dine morpholagy is the widespread occur

rence of dine conyergences, despite the otherwise vigil parallelism of the formia-

Hons. “These cue useally represential in ground plan by an assymetrie aud

inverted Vo and in every case the point of conversence is directed in the north

to Cust quadrant, depending an the chine trend in the partienlar area.

8. Vidividual ridges have bees observed to exceed twenty miles in length

(Lat, 20°00'S.. Long. [3§°15'E.) and may be much Tanger in places, Lt is

vuly rarely, however, that danes persist for such distances without conyerging

Wid bowormiay composite formations,

I. The lateral spacing of the dimes is variable. but systematic, and appears

to dierawse ina dircet proportion to the height of the formations, The average

dine spacing at a tromber of arbitrarily selected localities throughout the reyion

(as measured from air photographs) are recorded on the topographie imap

(Fig. 1). These figures indicate a range fron 3 tea 33 dunes to the mile, ane

ad usual spacing Of about one-quarter mile,

& ‘The height oF the dunes in areas examined by the writer is of the: order

af 40 feet, Vacdigan (1946, p. 45) reports that some in the ceutral Simpson

Desert are about 100 feet high.

6. In eross-seetion, the ridges wre slightly asymmetric. with) The stecpest

side to tle Gust or south according. to trend.

7, The jnain mass of the dunes. and the interdune valleys, are now fixed

hy a stunted! psammophytic vegetation (Crocker, 1046, p. 2419). However, in

many cases the dine crests consist of “live” sand which is modelled inte minor

stractives by wind storms without any appreciable drift. A particulyrly

common resilt of recent wind activity are successions of seiall fulje-like hollows

wong the crest of the ridges. giving rise to a charucteristic “ribbed” or “plaited”

structure (Plite 3),

A series. of boreholes souk into the sand formations at the south-castern

margin of Lake Lyre North (Price Peninsula) indicates that the longitudinal

idges in this area wre only superficially formed of drift sand, ‘The main mass

* The wind roses live been especialy prepared to include only summer atteraoon Awinels

of gaeder velocity: thaw TQ mp. Sue conditions are considered too be most favourable

for shitting sand,

of each ridge is composed of buried lacustrine deposits, including the Early

Kecent(?) shell beds and clayey sand horizons which were observed in some

shoreline cliffs and are described in the preceding section, In the interdune

corridors, the same beds have been removed by crosion and the surface suil

is underlain by laminated clays of a lower stratigraphic level.

Details of the internal structure of the dunes as provided by boring are

shown on the accompanying Fig. 8, on which surface levels and borehole logs

are accurately recorded at an exaggerated vertical scale.

SHALLOW WATER LACUSTRINE DUNE FORMATION

Shell beols ((sxiella gtlesi) interstratilied Pile yellow-brown quartz-

with erystelline gypsum and sandy clay. 1a sand and grit.

Brown and green clayey send grading 4

fo clay with layers of crystalline gypsum, i

and green shtf clays wiih some gypsum p-~

layers. i

Kellaw- brown sloppy sandy clay, dark blue : -

' of

ARBITRARY

RL.

roe

‘PLuUVIATILE (locailzed)

lit Fine quart and limestone gravel.

rt DEEP WATER LACUSTRINE

; | Bork: coloured shif clay,

Herd white Jimestane.

GEOLOGY BY D.KING

5§- FJ Bel. AT Maced.

Fig. 3.—Diagrammatic geological section through sand ridges on $,-E.

margin of Lake Eyre North,

The borehole at Position O is located on the crest of a prominent longi-

tndinal dune at an elevation of 40 feet above the margin of Lake Eyre North

(A.R.L. 100) aud 30 to 40 feet above the interdune depressions on cither side.

In this borehole. aeolian sands were found to give way to gypseous shell beds

at 94 fect depth. Ata depth of 154 fect, the bore penetrated grey sandy clays

and sand, and bottomed in a bed of crystalline gypsum at 22 feet above present

lake level,

Screen analyses were carried out on samples recovered from Borehole O

with the following results:

Depth

of Sample Sizings B.S.S. (Ry weight)

Sample

Nis. | |

| From To +18 18-40) A460) 60+ 100 100+ 200) 200-4 soal =—300

N | oo” | 0° Oi fio-25 | sees | a25 | 6-75 4:0 ars 11-5

2 o OY" | & 0” 2-5 3-0 33-0) 19-5 32-25 625 3-5

3 | Bo 96" 2-0 7-5 31-0 | 13-5 21-5 G5 16-0

4 ' og ar 176" 9-3 | 16-25 29-25 12-0 [8-0 §-5 6-5

Sample No. 1 is representative of a noliveably coarser quartz sand whieli characteris~

tically forms a thin surface layer on the chine ridges:

Samples Nos. 2 and 3 consist of webl-sorted silicenus sand from the yoain mass of the

aeolian denosits. Gritin diameters mostly lie in the —30 +200 grade, between 0-25 and

“076 mm, anc are comparable with samples taken from longitudinal duoes clsewhere in

the region (Carrell, 1944).

Sample No. 4 evomprises ie sundy aueteix of the underlying slielly iacusurine deposits,

As might be expected im this euse, the sereen analysis melicates a auch lesser degree ol

sorting thang featured by the wind blown sins.

At a riumber of localities along the south-west shores of the lake the cuastal

dune sands have been observed to largely comprise seed gypsum and shell

fraginents. ‘Vhese gypseous dunes are well exposed along the western margin

of Sulphur Peninsula (Fig. 2). where they were previously noted by Madigan

(1930), The base of the dunes corresponds with the present level of the lake,

indicating that they are a quite recent shoreline feature.

V. EVOLUTION OF THE TOPOGRAPHIC FORMS

Lake Eyre North is approximately 25 feet helow L.W.O.8.T. Port Adelaide

( Bonython, 1955 (a)) and would be expected to have silted up to a consider-

thle depth under the prevailing couditions of endoreic drainage. However. this

is not the case as shown by the following conclusions drawn from the evidence

presented in the preceding pages:

1. The oeeurrence of nndisturbed Early-Recent(?) sediments in shore-

fine clills at an elevation of 36 feet above the lake bed shows conelusively that

the evolution of the lake as it is today has actually iivolvedl erosion and remoyal

nl ul least a corresponding thickness of earlicr luke deposits,

2, Roring in the desert-sand formations along the south east shore of the

lake has revealed that an wppreciable thickness of Karly-Recent(?) lake deposits

has been removed trom interdune valleys auc Jagoonal depressions, but practic-

ally the whole succession of these sediments is preserved in longitudinal ridges

upon which the dime formations are superitposed.

It is evident trom these erosional feateres that lake and dune development

have proceeded concurrently, The caxcavation of the Jakes and interdyne

corridors to their present level lias involved —at least in the case of Liake Eyre?

—the removal of older Quaternary lacustrine sediments by deHation, and the

sandy fractions of the transported material have aceumulated beyond the lake

shores as longitudinal sand strips forming a veneer upon the crests of a corru-

eated Jand surface.

* ft is, however, nat overlooked that ihe Lake lyre Basin as a whole is probably dui

to regional subsidence.

The divection of general sand movement is reflected by the orientation of

the dune ridges, and by the remarkably regular shape and shore features of

the lakes throughout the region. These all show the ellects of sand migration

towards the north and north-east, as outlined hereunder:—

The origin of the dume ridges appears to be satisfactorily explained by

Madigan (1946) as due to dominant winds and sand movement parillel to the

dune leagth (southerlies to south-westerlies). and parkictes gusty side

winds (ehicfly westerlies). This conclusion is supported by the coincidence

of reional dune trends with present day prevailing winds (Tig. 1), und hy

evidence of the internal stracture of the ridges which iudieates that no lateral

movement of the main body of the ridges near Lake Kyte has occurred at

any stage, ,

Pastoralists along the Murree-Birdsville track have observed that the spread

al present day drift is towards the north (Madigan, 1946), and the same. featnre

is also indicated by the aerial photographs (Plate 3). ‘This occurs despite the

fact that many of the dust-storms which are a feature of the summer season

thranghout this part of the State are directed from the north and must af least

mudity the rate of sand migration,

Several stages in the evolution of the longitudinal dunes and relatert clay-

pans (or “blow outs”) appear to be represented hy existrmg topographic forms. in

marginal lake areas.

The initial channelling action of the wind may be observed to be operat-

ing Gn v small scale at the uorthern and north-western margins of all Ow

lagoons, whore there is an indefinite passage from lake bed to it bare and Huted

wind-swept surlace. To the leeward of the wind-swept arcas, the drift sand

uceumulates as smal) transverse ridges which are grouped longitudinally and

pass gradationally at increasing distances from the lakes irito the normal lenyi-

tudinal dune (Fig, 4). ,

These observatious add credence to Bagnold’s theory that the longitudinal

dunes are a transition fram earlier formed transverse formations, ann may

account for the “saw-tooth” profile of the ridges as described by Madigan

(1946),

Once channelling by the wind commenced, the scouring effect would he-

come increasingly effective in the hollows, and the rate of growth of the sand

veneer on the intermediate vidges could be expected to increase accordingly.

Once: formed, the ridges with the greater protection of drift apparently sur-

vived the continued erosive effect of the wind, whereas others were reduced

to the level of the interdune valleys — thus accounting for the observed varia-

lion of spacing with dune height.*

The dune convergences appear to be a result of the gusty side winds and

their variable asymmetric forms suggest that both westerlies and casterlies were

aperative. The erasswinds were evidently capable of Ineully detleeting the

weward ends of some ridges where the cover of drift was of a minimutn thick-

ness and the ridges were of smaller bulk (Madigan, 1946), They may other-

° Prof. B.A, RBagnold comments on these generalisations ia. personal commniniecation

of ith December, 1953, as follows: “T And it difficult to accep! that all the dunes in this

ama ure really sand-cnvered relics of former lake deposits. One would like confirnatory

data similar ti Pig. 3 from otherssites seattered over a lege aren, or over a long slrip in

the dune direction. You don't appear ta have found any site whory the non-neolian cure

was exposed through some chance change iu the local wind regime, Hf this ia so, there

wuulkl seem to he a stron tendency for the blown saud to creep vpiwards over everything:

bat the impression given hy Vig. 3 is for the sand coating to he of even thickness every-

where —whivh J don't uiderstand heeause: it presupposes the sand to know how thick it iy.

It as, of course, just possible that either veyctalion or thermal conductivity aniht explain this.

The prevalence of the Y-dune formations you have pointed out seems to fit in with

the wind roses you give, There are byo prevalent wind directions (or one very hrend,

indefinite one) and tia directions of the two Jong arrows conespond well with the twu

ayma of the Yo in most places.”

DIAGRAMS SHOWING TOPOGRAPHIC EXPRESSION OF LOKE

AND DUNE EVOLUTION UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF WIND

AT LAKE EYRE NORTH.

‘Ss

‘by

WINE

WANE CUT

SOMELOPED

EMEREAL AT

CHOINS BO 40 o SMILE

CHAINS af an 1 2 S Macs

SE ee

EARLY STAGE IN THE FORMATION SHORELINE FEATURES DEVELOPED

OF THE LONGITUDINAL DUNE AND BY DRIFT JN SANDY DESERT ALONG

SHORELINE CUSPATE STRUCTURE THE EASTERN MARGIN OF THE LAKE.

IN DRIFTING SAND LAT. 28°20's, LONG. 137*40°E.

NEAR LAT. 29°00'S. LONG. (39° }5'E.

LEE bane $7 OWE

CHEZ! 0.

Cadinh of at)

SHORFLINE FEATURES DEVFIOPED

BY WAVE ACTION IN LIMESTONE

PLAIN ALONG THE SOUTHERN MARGIN

OF THE LAKE (HUNT PENINSULA)

Tig. 4,

4102

D. Kinc

Fig. 1—Shell beds (Coxiella gilesi) exposed at top of

shoreline cliffs at the south-eastern margin of the lake

(Loc. M.). These lacustrine sediments are elevated 36

feet above the general lake level.

Fig, 2.—Near view of shell heds (Coxiella gilesi) at top of

cliff section in the same locality as above.

PLATE

D. Kine

Fig. 1.—Dolomitic mudstones exposed in shoreline cliffs

along the south-eastern margin of the lake (Loc. C). The

cliffs have evidently formed by wave action during tempor-

ury inundations.

Fig. 2.—Shore of Lake Eyre North near Pittosporum Head,

Hunt Peninsula, showing succession of beach ridges in

background. The highest is about 30 feet above the lake

margin,

PLATE

D. Kinc PLATE

Oblique aerial view of longitudinal sand dunes and claypans in the sandy desert

east of Lake Eyre North, showing dune and shore features referred to in

the text—R.A.A.F. photo.

D. Kinc PLATE 4

Fig. 1.—Broad east-west sand ridges and claypans

typical of the dune topography west of Lake Eyre

(Lat, 28° 55’ S; Long. 135° 45’ E.).

Fig. 2.—Strongly developed longitudinal dune ridges

east of Clayton Lake. Lat. 29° OO’ S.; Long.

138° 15’ EB.

R.A.A.F. Photos.

D. Kine

PLATE

Vig. 1.—Converging system of longitudinal sand strips

with interdune claypans near Kopperamanna, (Lat,

28° 287 S.: Long, 138° 43° E.)

Vig. 2.—Oblique view of longitudinal sand ridges and

claypans east of Lake Eyre North. Note typical ser-

rated cusp-like form of southern margin of claypan.

Foreground scale is approx. 1 inch to two miles.

(Location of larger claypan is Lat. 28° 55’ S,; Long.

138° O00’ FE.)

RAAF, Phatos

fe]

wise reflect the termination of the wind-eroded channels which preceded dune

development.

Although present-day climatic conditions are probably favourable for the

continuation of this process, the dune ridges and Tesel of the lake appear to

have become stabilized due to the decreased susceptibility of underlying clays

and dofomites now forming the lake beds to this forra of erosion.

Periodic floodings of Lake Eyre North have continued until the present

und have resultcclin the local deyelopment of imarine-type shore teatures. These

are well preserved along the southern margins of the lake where the foreshore

has a rugged and indented outline defined for the greater part by steep cliffs

up to 40 feet high. Beach ridges composed of limestone shingle form a variety

of bars and spits marking the level of the last flooding (1949-50). and others

representing varlier Hoodings are stranded at varions heights and with various

orivutations unrelated to the present foreshore up to a maximum of about 80

fret aboye the lake hed (Fig. 2 and Plate 2, Fig. 2).

The eflects of wave action are not represented in the numerous isolated

embayments and lagoons which occur to the east of Lake Eyre and receive

only local rainfall, Instead, the corresponding southern shores show a remark-

ably consistent and well-developed serrated or cusp-like structure produced by

eucroachinent of sand from the south (Fig. 4),

REFERENCES

Bacworn, R.A. 1941. ‘Phe Physies of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, Metlinen & Co. Lu,

London.

Boxvtnox, C. W., 1953 (a), The Salt of Lake Ryre—lts Qoourrence in Macizan Gull and

its Possible Origin, (Contaiued in this volume. }

Bonvrnon. Wi, and Kine, D., 1955 (b). An Occurence of Sulphur at Luke Eyre, {Con-

tained! in this volome. )

Bonycron, RT Avia, 1955 (Cc). Lake Eyre, South Australia. The Great Floadine of 1949-50.

Ray, Geog. Sec. of Aust (S.A. Branch), Report of the Luke Eyre Committee.

Crocern, TK. TL. 146. Phe Simpson Desert Esxpeditiim, 1939. Seivntific Keports: No, &—

The Soils and Vegetation of the Simpson Desert and its Borders. ‘Trans. Roy. Sac,

$.A. 70 (3), pp. 235-458,

Davin, T. W, E., 1932. Explanatory Notes to a New Geological Map of the Cormmomnmvealith

of Australia, Sydney, ;

Viwsra, C,, 1952. Lake Eyre in Flood, 1950—Muds, Salts, ete. Trans, Roy. Soe. S.A. 75,

pp. 5-8,

Forums, B.G., 1955. Proterozoic Sedimentary Magnesite of Sotith Australia, PhD. Thesis,

Adelaide University (ainpublishedl ).

Jack, R. L., 1915. Bulletin Na, 5, Guologieal Survey of S.A. 1915.

Lumunoox, N. 11, 1953. Foraninifera in Sub-Recent Sediments at Lake Eyre, Sootly Ats-

traha, Aust, Journ. Science, 16, No, 3, pp. 108-109.

Lupino, N. H,, 1955. Micrefassils. from Pleistocene to Recent Deposits, Luke Eyre, South

Australia. (Contained in this volume.)

Manrean, €.'I'., 1929, An Acrial Reconnaissance into the South-Eastern. Portion of Coyteal

Australia. Proc. Roy, Geog, Sow. of S.A, 30,

Mangan, C. ‘I, 1930. Lake Byre, Sunth Australia. The Geoe. Journal 76,

Mameoan, C, T., 1936. The Australian Sand-Ridge Deserts. Geog, Review 26 (2), 1936.

Manican, C. T., 1938, ‘The Simpson Desevt and its Borders. Jown, and Proc, of the Rov

Soe, NSW, TL (2), pp. 503-535,

Mamtican, GC. To. $946. The Simpson Desert Expedition, 1939. Scientific Reports: No, 6—

The Sand Formation. Trans. Ruy, Soc. S.A. 70, yp. 45-63,

Wain, Lo kK, 1946. Bulletin No, 23, Geological Survey be Sowth Australia,

Whirrrie, A, W., and GHeworanev. N., 1952, The Stratigraphic Correlation by Petrographic

Methods Applied to Artesian Bores in the Lake Frome Area, Sir Donglas Mawson

Anniversats Volume, University of Adeliide,

103

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE ACARINA-MESOSTIGMATA

OF AUSTRALIA

BY H. WOMERSLEY

Summary

In the present paper a number of genera and species of mites belonging to the Mesostigmata, mostly

new, are described or recorded from Australia. They were mainly from Queensland from soil litter

and were largely collected by Dr. E. H. Derrick, to whom I am greatly indebted for the opportunity

of studying and describing them. The types are in the South Australian Museum collections and

where possible some paratypes in the Queensland Institute for Medical Research.

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE ACARINA-MESOSTIGMATA

OF AUSTRALIA

By H. WomeErsLEy®

[Read 11 Aug. 1955]

SUMMARY

lu the present paper a number of genera and species of mites belonging to the Mesostig~

mata, mostly new, are described or recorded from Australia. They were mainly from Queens-

land from soil litter and were largely collected by Dr. E, H. Derrick, to whom | am greatly

indebted for the opportunity of studying and describing them, The types are in the South

Australian Musenm collections and where possible some paratypes in the Queensland Institute

for Medioul Research.

List of Genera and Species:

Family Macrochelidac

Euepicrius quecnslandicus sp. nov.

Family Parasitidae

Pergamasus primitivus Ouds.

Family Pseudoparasitidae

Onchogamasus communis g, et sp. nov.

Family Neoparasitidae

Queenslandolaclaps vitzthumi g. et sp, nov.

Queenslandolaelaps berlesei sp. noy.

Antennolaelaps affinis g. et sp. nov.

Stylogamasus convexa g. et sp. nov.

Family Laelaptidae

Subfamily Hypoaspidinac

Coleolaelaps heteronychus sp.nov.

Subfamily Phytoseiinae

Primoseius macauleyi (Hughes) g. nov.

Typhlodromus cucumeris Ouds.

Subfamily Podocininae

Derrickia setosa Wom.

Family MACROCHELIDAE Vitzthun

Vitzthum, Grat H., 1930, Zool. Jahrb, Abt. £. Systematik, Bd. 59,

Genus Evurricrius Womersley

Womersley. H., 142, Trans. Roy, Soc. S. Aust, 66 (2); 170 (Type Eucpicrias filumientosus

Worm.)

This genus and species were erected for specimens collected in moss from

the vieinity of Adclaide, South Australia, in 1938, while a single female was

recorded at the same time from Waimamaku, New Zealand.

-* Acarglogist, South Austcalian Musenm.

In the long and slender first legs aul general form the genus shows a

superficial resemblance to Epicrius {(Epicriidae), hut differs in the absence of

elaws and caruncle on the first legs, the presence of a distinct pcritrenie, a

8-tined seta on the palpal tarsus and in the structure of the ventral shields.

The following new species was isolated by Mr. Robert Domrow front lifter

collected by Dr, E. H, Derrick at Brookfleld, near Brisbane, between May

and July, 1949.

EFuepicrius queenslandieus sp, nay.

Fig. 1, A-l

Description: Female Holetype—A small and lightly chitinised species ot

rotund form, Length of idiosoma 352,, width 240.. Dorsal shield lightly

rugose, divided as figured, the anterior part the longer and furnished with 17

pairs of setav, the vertical pair 34. long, stout ciliated and arising from strong

tubercles, the second pair each lateral of the verticals to 20. and also on tubercles

but plain and slender, the other setae to 30, plain, slender and tapcriug; the

posterior portion of the dorsal shield with 14 pairs and -+ median setac of which

the posterior pair are 39 long, stout, blunt and ciliated. the others are long,

sipciden, plain and slightly filamentous, to 324, being shorter and less filamentous

than in filamentosus, Venter; tritosteraum nermal, ne pre-endopodal shields;

sternal shicld about as wide as long medially, laterally extending to between

oosae TL and IV, with 4 pairs of setae and 2 pairs of pores, anterior twargin

sinuous, posterior margin deeply excavate; genital shield as wide basally as long,

with one pair of setae, posterior margin truncate and only narrowly separated

from Ventri-anal shield; yentri-anal shield extending across apisthosoma, with

9 pairs of setae besides the paranals, the 3 lateral on each side long, fine and

filamentons, to 70p long. the posterior pair to 48, long, thick and ciliated, the

uthers short, plain and tapering to 224, the paranal setae shert and subequal;

the peritremal tube is lightly corrngated and the stigma lies between coxae TH

aud IV, the shield exteruls backwards to just beyond coxae 1V, while the tube

anteriorly crosses over to the dorsum at the lovel of coxae I; behind coxae IV

there is a flne sirture line where the dorsal shield coalesees with the ventri-anal

shield, Leg [ 592. long, slender and tactile, tarsus without caruncle or claws,

but with long and fine tactile setae; II-IV stouter with caruncles and claws,

7 AlSy, WL 288n, 2V 878. Chelicerae as figured, fixed finger with 5 or 6 small,

blunt teeth, movable finger with 4 teeth.” Tectuin as figured, variable, with

median muero and lateral points between which on each side are two smaller

points.

Male Allotype—Vacies as in female. Length of idiosoma 352, width 196),

Legs: 1 528. long, Lb 8204, UE 804. TV 3524; fomur of leg 1 with strong,

hooked apophysis as figured ancl a small tubercle on the genu, Venter: sternal,

rhetasternal and genital shields couleseed, with 5 pairs of setae and 2 pairs of

pores; ventri-anal shield as in female, Chelicerae as ligured. fixed finger with

three smallish teeth, movable finger with one strung tooth and a long, slender

spermatophore carrier whieh is as long again as the finger ant is slightly swollen

at the tip. Teclum variable as in female.

Remarks—This species is sonwwhat smaller than Alamentoyus and dilfers

in lacking the very long. whip-like filamentous setae on the dorsum and cn

the ventri-anal shield, except for the three lateral pairs, The dorsal setae are

otherwise short and simple as are the other ventri-anal setae. The cheliverae,

tectum and leg If of the male are similar to those of filamentosus,

The holotype female and allotype male and several paratypes are in the

collection of the South Australian Museum ant two paratypes in the Queens-

laud Tostitete for Medical Research

105

Vie L A-l-Fuepierius quecustalicus sp. nov. A-K Pemale: A. dorsum, B.

venter, C, specialised seta on pulpal tarsus, Ud. chelicerae, KE. two views of tee-

tum; F-H Male: F. venter, G. chelicerac, TT. two views of tectiim, To apophysis

on femur of leg 1,

Family PARASITIDAE Oudemans

Ondemans, A. ©., 1901, Notes on Acari; Third Series. Tiidsclir. ned. dierk Ver, (2), LL,

No, 2. 59,

Genus Percastasus Berlese

Rerlese, A. 1903. Redia 1: 265 (Type Acarts erassipes Linn. 1759),

106

Pergamasus primitivus (Ouds)

Fig, 2 A-T

Purasitus: priwiticus Owdeimans, 1904. Entom, Bern, 1: 140.

Gumusus effeminatus Berlese, £905. “Acari nuovi,” Manipl, IV. Redia 2; 165.

Gamasus (Pergainesis) effeminutus Berlese, 1906. Mon. d. Gamasus, Redix 8: 193-201,

Gamasus primitivus Vitzthum, 1926. Trenbia §: 3,

This species was originally described by Oudemans from Brazil, and Jater

recorded by Berlese from Java. Berlese was unable to find other than insigui-

ficant differences between the Javanese and Brazilian specimens. In 1926

Vitzthum recorded it from Batavia and Tjibodes.

foul’ Fal

Nee it

Vig. 2 A-I—Pergamasts primitivus (Ouds). A-E Femalo: A. dorsum, B. ventral

view, C, chelicerae, D, teclum, EL genitalia; F-I Male; F. yentor, G. palp,

H. cheliccrac, f. femur genu and tibia of leg I.

107

A series of specimens of both sexes were obtained from Jitter from Brook-

field, Queensland, 11th June, 1949 (coll. E. H. Derrick). Figures drawn from

this Australian material are now given.

Family PSEUDOPARASITIDAE Vitzthum

Vitzthiin, Graf TW. 1941. In Bronn’s Tierteich, 5, Acarina: 757.

Genus ONCHOGAMASUS Noy.

Pseudoparasitidae. Dorsal shield entire with fine punctate reticulations,

only slightly and narrowly underlapping the venter. Pre-endopedal shields

present. Sternal and metasternal shields coalesced, sternal deeply incised

posteriorly. Ventri-anal shield only moderately expanded behind coxae LY,

Tectum spike-like. Labial cornicles 2-segmented. the apical being small and

cone-like and imserted into apex of basal. Tarsi of leg I with three strong

accessory claw-like spines.

Genotype Onchogamasus communis sp. nov,

Onchogamasus communis sp, nov,

Fig. 3 A-G

Fig. 8 A-G—Onchagamasus convmunis g. et sy. Hoy, Female: A. dursuui,

B. ventral view, ©. tectum, D. labial cornicle, FE. specialised seta of palpal

tursus, EF. tarsus 1, G. cheliceric.

Desoription: Female Holotype—Shape ot body ovoid. Length of iciosoma

559., width 338). Dorsal shield with punctate reticulatians, narrowly under-

lapping the venter laterally and posteriorly, furnished with 80 pairs of setae

to 45x long which, except for the verticals and laterals, are simple, the verticals

108

and laterals being slightly ciliated. Venter: tritesternum normal; a pair ol

pre-endopodal shields present; sternal and metasternal shields coalesced, longer

than wide, with four pairs of setae of which the first pair are ciliated, the others

sinsple, with three pairs of pores, posterior margin deeply incised; genital shicld

as Wide posteriorly as long with a pait of short, simple setae, posterior margin

only just separated from yentri-aual shicld; ventri-anal shield longer than wide

with 6 pairs of ciliated setae to 45p, long; all three ventral shields strongly reticu-

lated; peritrermal shields fused with cxopodal shiclds, the peritremal tube runs

forward from the stigma between coxae HI and TV to between coxae | and UU,

Where it overlaps slightly on to the dorsum. Legs short, 1. TH and TV slender,

{Lanuch thicker and stronger and furnished on femur with « short, stout spine

and on tarsus with three strong claw-like accessory spines, leg 1 416m Jong,

Il 364, LT 260¢, IV 864,, all with caruncle and paired claws.” Chelicarae as

figured, fixed finger with three strong, blunt teeth, movable finger with Keo

small, blunt teeth. Tectum as figured! with a median spine-like muero, Specia-

Jised seta on palpal tarsus 3-tined, Vabial cornicles peculiar, 2-seymented, the

apical being small. cone-like and inserted into tie basal.

Locality—Onc single female, the holotype, from soil debris, Brookfield,

Queensland, 2Ist May to 2ud June, 1949 (coll, E. H. Derrick), The type in

the South Australian Museum,

Family NEOPARASITIDAE Oudemans

Onudlemans, A.C, 1939, Aol Awe, 128 (1-346 21.

Genus QULENSLANDOLAELAPS nov.

Nevparasitidae with the tectiim trident-like, the median tine or iiuera

arising tram below, Tarsi of leg 1 with paired claws and short caruncle. Dersal

shield entire, In female Biandy and metasternal shields more or less coalesced,

Pre-endopodal shields present. In male with u strong apophysis on femur of

leg LV and w# long whip-like spermatophore carrier on movable finger of

cheleerae,

Cenotype Queenslandolaclaps vitzthumi sp, iv,

Queenslandolaglaps yitzthumi sp. nov,

Hig, 4 A-H

Deseription: Female Holotype—shape oval, but the sides rather parallel.

Length of idiosoma 4385p, width 3382 Lightly chitinised. Dorsal shield as

figured, nat entirely covering dorsum, Jightly reticulate, with 38 pairs of setae

to 524 long and simple, except the posterior and postera-laterals, which are

lightly cifited’, Venter: tritosternum present and normal: a pair of transverse

pre-endopodal shields present, sternal and metasternal shields coalesced, the

whole longer than wide laterally where it extends to between coyae UL ane

1V, with deeply incised posterior margin, with four pairs ut setae and two

pairs of pores, the third pair of sternal setae are situated submedially; genital

shicld as wide basally as long, with only one pair of setae, posterior margin

straight and only slightly separated from the anterior margin of the ventri-anal

shicld. anterior margin rounded; ventri-anal shield about twice as wide where

it is expanded behind cyxac TY, latorally and posteriorly rounded, with 7 pairs of

setae in addition to the paranals; peritremal shields coalesced with the exopodal

shields and extending only slightly past coxae TV to the shoulders of the ventri-

anal shicld; stigma lying between coxay UT and IV and the peritremal tube

running forwards to coxae JT, Legs not longer than body and not excessively

thick, I 572 long, If 429,, 111 835, TV 496,. all tarsi with short carunele anil

paired claws, na special armature on coxac or on leg UL. Chelicerac as fieured,

fixed finger with two large basal teeth anc four smaller tecth before the apex,

Ln)

movable finger with three teeth. Tectum peculiar and suggestive of the Vei-

gaiaidac, trident-like with the median tine twice as long as the laterals and

apparently arising fron below, all three tings expanded and denticulate apically.

Male Allotype—General facies as in female. Length of idiosoma 546,

width 325... Dorsum as in female. Venter: tritostertimm: and pre-endopodal

shields as in female; sternal, metasternal and genital shields coalesced and

narrowly separated from yentri-anal shield, with 3 pairs of setae; ventri-anal

and perilremal shields as in female, Jegs as in female, except that I has a

Aine

At iva

Tin. 1 A-H-Qnevenstandoldelaps bitzthuint x. et sp. itov. A-D, ancl FT Female:

A, dorstun, B; ventral yiew, C. tectum, PD. tip of palp, I. chwelicerues E-C

Malu: E. venter, F. chelicerag, G. frnnur anal gene of lop 1

strong apophysis on the femur and a small tubercular process on the genu, £

550n long, MT A03n, HE S38p, TV 520), Chelicerae as figured; fixed finger twice

as long as moyable finger, thick and stout to apex which is longitudinally split

with three strong inner teeth; movable finger short with one strong tooth and a

long, curled, whip-like spermatophore carrier. Tectum as in female.

Locality—The female holotype, the male allotype and one paratype male

from soil debris, Brookfield, Queensland, 31st May to 10th June, 1949 (call,

E. WW, Derrick). Tu the South Australian Museum collection,

Remarks—In having a 3-tined seta on the palpal tarsus this genus belongs

to the Neoparasitidae, although in the peculiar structure of the tectum it bears

110

some resemblance to the Veigaiaidae in which the palpal seta is 4-tined and

the dorsal shield incised laterally.

Beside the genotype the genus will also contain the following species, also

from Queensland.

Queenslandolaelaps berlesei sp. nov,

Fig. 5 A-D

Description: Female Holotype—Shape oyal, sides gradually curving inwards

at about one-third from the front. Moderately well chitimsed. Length of

idiosoma 578, width 380%. Dorsal shield entire, covering all the dorsum,

strongly reticulate with imbricate markings, with 34 pairs of slender ciliated

and flagellate setae to 104u long. Venter: tritostemum and a pair of pre-

endopodal transverse shields present; sternal and metasternal shields coalesced,

Nig, 5 A-D—Queenslandolaelaps berleset sp, nov. Female: A, dorsum, B.

ventral view, C. cheliecrae, D, tectum,

although the metasternals are only narrowly joined to the sternal (see Fig, 5 B)

and the metasternal setae are on the sternal portion; sternal shield reticulate;

genital shield as wide basally as long, with straight posterior and rounded

anterior margin, with one pair of setae; yentri-anal shield as wide as long and

covering most of the opisthosoma, with light imbricate markings, with 5 pairs

of long setae besides the paranals, the adanal setae very short compared with

the postanal; peritremal shield not coalesced with the exopodal, rather broadly

expanded just behind coxae IV, stigma between cvoxae II and TV. Legs not

111

excessively thick, imarmed, all tarsi with short caruncle and paired claws, |

AQOw log, HW 3890p, EL 860p and 1V 483,_, Chelicerae as figured. fixed finger

with 7 blunt teeth, movable fiager with two. 'Tectum peculiar, tridentlike with

the median tine only slightly Jonger than the laterals, arising from below anil

with its apes expanded and centiculute, the lateral tines are dissimilar to the

median anc are cone-like with one damer cud two outer small tecth, Seta on

palpal tarsus Sthiedt,

Male—Unknown,

Locality—Deseribed from a solitary specimen, the holotype. from soil debris

from Brookfield, Queensland, between 31st May and 10th June. 1949 (coll,

E,W, Derrick). Tn the South Australian Museum.

Remaiks—In the stcucture of the teetum and the ventral shields this species

is Closely related to the preceding and clearly belongs to the sume genns. Frotn

oilsthund it differs in the structure of the tectum, the dentition of the movable

finger of the chelieerae. the narrow bridge uniting the sternal auc metisternal

shields, the wider separation of the third pair of sternal setae, the much witler

veutri-anal shield, the more irubricate reticulations on the dorsuny suc the much

lmiver dorsal setae,

Genus AN TENNOTARL ATS HOY,

Neoparasitidae. Male. Oyal and strongly chilinised. Legs long, andl

dlender, especially TI, which is tactile without caruncle andl claws, TI-1V with

these. Dorsal shield entire and underlapping on to venter from level af coxue

H backwards, but not fused with ventral shields, Pre-endopodal shields distinct;

sternal, metasternal and genital shields coalesced, with 5 pairs of selac wid 3

pairs of pores, separated by a suture from the expanded yentri-anal. DPeritrenmal

tube corrugated, Tecetum with a long median apically tifurcate mucra, Female

tk now.

Genotype Antennolaelape affinis sp. nev.

Antennolaelaps affinis. sp. nov

Vie. G A-F

Deseription: Male Molotype—Oval, strongly chitinised and brown species.

Length of idiosoma 49ty, width 364. Dorsal shicld entire and underlapping

on to venter from evel of coxse IV backwards, with 23 pairs of setae lo Ye

long (inostly missing in both specimens), on the underlap posteriorly is one

pair of setae to 592 loug. Venter: tritasternum present and normal, its base

inserted between the distinct pair of pre-cndopodal shields; sternal, metasternal

und genital shiclds coalesced, with three pairs of setae and three pairs of pores.

separated from ventri-anal shield by a thin, straight suture on level of posterior

margin of coxae LV; ventri-anul shield) expanded behind enxae TY, triangular.

not coalesced with the underlap of dorsal shicld, with 7 pairs of setae besides

the paranals which are very short; peritreral shield fairly narrow and posteriorly

reaching to middle of coxae TY, stigma between coxae IIL and TV, the tube

markedly corrugated aud runuing onto the dorsum on level of coxac IL. Less

long and slender, | 783» Jong, tactile, without curuncle and chows, tibia uod

tarsus with long, slender, line setae; W572, long, normal with earuncle and

claws, femimnr with a strong subapical apophysis flanked by a srull one, geru

also with a similar small apophysis, setae on tarsus long and slender; IL and

IV to 515, and 936. toapoctivaty, with caruncle and claws and Jong, slender

setae, Cheliverae as figured, fived finger with 3 fainly strong teeth, movable

finger with one tooth and a long, slender spermiatophore carrier of its own

length. Tectum as figured, with a peculiar median apically trident-like muero

flanked on each side by two or three teeth. Specialised seta on palpal tarsus

3-tined,

112

Fig. 6 A-F.-Antennolaclaps affinis ¢. vt sp. nov. Male; A, dorsum, B. ventral

view, C. chelicerae, D. tectum, E. seta of palpal tarsus, I. fem and genn

of leg I,

Female—Unknown.

Locality—The holotype and one paratype from litter from Brookfield,

Queensland, 31st May to 10th June, 1949 (coll. E. R. Derrick),

Genus STYLOGAMASUS nov,

Neoparasitidae, near to Hydrogamasus but without metapodal shields, with

sternal and metasternal shields coalesced, combined shield deeply excavate pos-

teriorly. Dorsal shield entire, underlapping ventrally. Peritremal tube thick.

Tectum trispinous.

Genotype Stylogamasus convexa sp. noy.

Stylogamasus convexa sp. nov.

Fig. 7 A-T

Description: Female Holotype—Shape of idiosoma sub-oval, Length of

idiosoma 5372p, width 416. Dorsal shield entire, lightly reticulate, entirely

covering the dorsum and underlapping narrowly to the margin of the ventri-

anal shield; furnished with 32 pairs of setae, the second and the humcral pairs

and the three postero-median pairs of which are straight and strongly ciliated,

118

the rest simple and flagellate to 78, long. Venter: tritosternum normal, a pair

of pre-endopodal shiclds present; metasternal cum sternal shicld longer than

wide with 4 pairs of setae aud 5 pairs of pores, the first two pairs of setae are

ciliated, the others simple; genital shicld as wide posteriorly as long, with punc-

tate reticulations, wilh one pair of slightly ciliated setae, posterior margin sepa-

rated ouly slightly from ventri-anal shield; ventri-anal shield as wide anteriorly

as long with 6 pairs of ciliated setae to 654 long in addition to the paranals; with

imbricate markings; peritremal tube wide, running from between coxae ITT and

Tig. 7 A-I Stylolaelaps convera g, et sp, ues, A-E Fenuwle; A. dorsum, 8.

ventral view, C, tectum, D. cheleerae, FP. seta of palpal tarsns; P-L Mile:

lV. venter, G. chelicerae, H. femur und genu af leg Lot labial corni¢le.

1V forwards to coxue I; exopodal shields fused but together separated from

peritremal shicld. Legs: £ 624p long, I 468", ILL 4424, [V 859.; feruur and

genu of ley IT cach with a song and stout spine-like seta, Cheliverae as figured,

fixed finger with 5 fairly strong tecth and a simple scta, movable finger with

5 similar teeth, Teotum trispinous. Specialised seta on pulpal tarsus 3-tined.

Male Allotype—Facies as in female. Length of idiosoma 455p, width 364p.

Venter: pre-cndopodal shields present; sternal, metasternal, genital and

ventri-anal shields fused to form a single holoventral shield with IL pairs of

Ll4

setae, the metasternal pair short and simple to 20u long, the postero-lateral two

pairs simple and flagellate to 91y, the rest short and ciliated to 32» long. Legs:

1 624 long, If 468... 111 390,, 1V 550,; femur of leg II with a large apophysis

and three strong spines, genu with two strong spines. Chelicerae as figured,

fixed fingcr with 5 small teeth, movable finger with one strong tooth and a short

apically recurved spermatophore carrier. Tectum as in female.

Locality—Wolotype female, allotype male and five paratype females from

soil debris, Brookfield, Queensland, 3lst May to 10th June, 1949 (coll, E, H.

Derrick). In the collection of the South Australian Museum,

Family LAELAPTIDAE Berlesc

Berlese, A., 1892. Acari, Myriapada et Scorpiones ital, reperta; Mesostigmata; 30.

Subfamily Hypoaspiinae Vitzthum

Vitzthoni, Graf H., 1941. In Bronn’s Klass, u., Ordnungen, Bd. V, Abt. TV, Bh. 5.

Fig, 8 A-D—Calevolaclaps heteronyehus sp. nov, Female: A. dorsum, B. ven-

tral view, C, chelicerae, D, tectum,

115

Genus CoumoracLars Berlose

Berclose A. Tita. Median GO: t4l. (Type Laelaps (Sphis) agrestis Berlese, 1ST, }

Coleolaelaps heteronychus sp. nov.

Fig. 8 A-D

Description: Pemele Holotype—Aa fairly lightly chitinised species. Length

of whesoma 73a, width 456), Dorsal shicld entire, not campletcly covering

dorstum. 555, long by 416. wide, with 34 pairs of short ta long and very long.

slender stiiple setae, the lateral and sublateral setae reaching to 247). in length,

Venter, tritosterumn normal with ciliated Jacinia: no pre-endopodal shields;

slernal shield about as lone as wide and extending posteriorly to middle of

voxae ULL. with lightly ineuryed posterior margin, with 8 pairs of sctac and 2

pairs of pores, metausternal shields represented only by the setae; genital shield

flask-like in shape with one pair of setae and light retiedations, well separated

from anal shicld; anal shield peur-shaped with & paranal setae; Iiterad of the

anal avid Genital shields there are 5 setae on each side and between these shieldy

there are two pairs of setae. Peritreme long and slender with the stigma Iwing

between coxae WT and coxae IV. overlapping dorsally near coxae TT. Legs

fairly thick, only TV slightly Jonger than body; the setae ou TL-TV are rather

stotiter than on I; all tarsi with camuicle, claws and pad; I 624» long, LU 520,,

1) 8r2p, und IV 754u. Chelicerae as figured, fixed finger with a subapical tooth

followed ly a series of ninute rounded tuberculations. movable fnyer with two

strong tecth the cistunce between which equals that between apex aml first

tooth. ‘Teetum lanect-like as figured,

AMale—Unkuown.

Lovality—lrom a “Black Beetle” Heteronychus sanclae-helenue M, Edw.

Maclean, New South Wates, 11th Feb., 1954 (coll. A.M. Harvey).

Remoarks—Deserihed froin the holotype and one puratype in the collection

a the South Australian Vuscurne,

Subfamily Puyvrosemwar Berlese

Berlose, A. TYIG Kediy [2 33

Genus Praaroseros nay.

Allied to Lesioscius Ber, subgenus Zercoseius Berl, but characterised there-

fren by the sternal shicld having only two pidrs of setae, the third pair being

on distinctly separated rornd shieldlets: the metasternal shields only represented

by the setae,

Genotype Lasioseius (Zercoseius) macaulcyi Hughes 1948.

To this zenus will also belony Lasioseins (Zercoseins) grace’ Hughes 1948.

th her deseription of mecanleyi Mrs. Hoghes refers to the small shicldlets carry-

ine the third pair of sternal setae as the melasternal shields, bul aceardiay to

‘Trigirdl’s interpretation of the ventral shiclds of the Mesostigmata and their

attendant setae, the fourth pair of setuc are the metasternal setae and the small

ghiclds iu front of these with the third pair of setac can only be parts of the

stitnal shield which have become separated.

Primoscius macaulevi (Huches)

Vie. 9 A-F

Lasioseiny te Zerenseiual macaitegd ACM. Plies, Oth, ‘iTie Miles associated svith stored

prodwety. HLM. Statlonuey Olliee, London, p. 146, fig. 112.

This species was described by Mrs. Hughes from sifted oats and detritus

trom warehouse floors in England and Northern Ireland.

A number of specinens which cannot be distinguished specifically from the

original description and figures of macedeyi have recently beeu collected [rons

bark serapings of logs at Port Adelaide. South Australia, January, 1954. The

logs had been imported from Western Australia and the men handling them

complained of biting and irritation, Whether or not the trouble was due to this

particular species is not certain, however, for several other species of mites

were also present in numbers, incliding Typhlodromus cncumeris Ouds., Gar-

mania nesbitti Wom., Lasioseius (Z.) boomsmai Wom. and Tyrophagus castel-

lanii Hirst. the last being well-known as the cause of “copra itch”,

The figures given in the present paper are drawn from the aboye Australian

material.

Geous Typeutopromus Scheuten

Seheuten, A. 1857. Arch. Nuturgesch. 23; 111.

Fig, 9 A-H—Primoseius macauley? (Hughes) A-T Temale: A, dovsuu, B, yven-

tral view, ©, chelicerae, D. labial vornicles, EK. and F. two views of dorsal

setao: G-H, Male: G. venter, IL chelieerac.

Typhlodromus cucumeris Oudemans

Tig, 10 A-C

Typhlodromus cucumeris Ouds., 1930, Ent. Ber., Amst. 8 (172): 69-70; Nesbilt, L951, Zool.

Verh, Leiden, No, 12: 23; Cunliffe and Baker, 1953, Pinellos Biol. Lub. Publ. No.

12; 15; Womersley, 1954, Aust. J. Zool. 2 (1)» 175-6.

117

ris Ouds. Male: A. dorsum,

118

Fig. 10 A-C—Typhlodromus cucume.

Description of Male Allotype—Facies generally as in female. Length of

idiosoma 273y, width 1364. Dorsal shield lightly reticulated with setation as in

female; dD, 14n, Ds l4u, Dz 14,, Dy, LT. Ds I7p, Dy By Mi 17, Ms 29u:; Li

20u, Lig 17, Ly 17, Ly 22p, L; 20, La 20, L; AT, Ls 14x, Ly 36u; Sr 7p,

8. 17y. Venter: tritosternum but no pre-endopodal shields present; sternal,

metasternal and genital shields coalesced with 5 pairs of setae and 8 pairs of

pores; veutri-anal shield expanded behind coxac IV, with rounded sides and 4

pairs of setae hesides the paranals as in the female. Chelicerae as figured, the

movable finger with a peculiar T-shaped spermatophore carrier much as in

T.(N.) barkert Hughes. the cross bar of which is longer than the chela itself.

Legs as in female, [ 278, long, I and TI 195p, and IV 2738p.

Pig. 1) A-B—Derrickia setosa Womersley Deutonymph: A. dorsum, B. ventral view.

Subfamily Popocintwar Berlese

Berlese, A. 1916.

Genus DexiicKia Womersley

Womersley, H., 1956. Jour, Linn. Sue. London, Zool, XLII, No. 288.

Genotype Derrickia setosa Wom. (protonymph),

Description of Deutonymph—General facics as in the protonymph. Length

of idiosoma 650,, width 546, Dorsal shield entirely covering the dorsum with

the setation as in the protonymph; the antero-median, postero-lateral and

subpostero-tateral setae to 286). long, surface with punctae which discally form

an hexagonal pattern. A single eye on each side (in the protonymph this

could not be seen), Venter: as in the protonymph, the sternal shield ouly

indicated by discontinuity of the longitudinal striations, with 3 pairs of sctae:

119

stigma weak and with only a short peritreme. Joegs as in protonymph, I 1014,

long, IT 630,, IEE 6504, IV 715p.

Remarks—Vhis genus and species was originally erected on a single speci-

men, a nymph, but the precise nymphal stage was not defined. The deuto-

nymphal ‘stage is now described from two specimens from litter from Brook-

ficld, Queensland, 22nd May to 2nd July, 1949 (coll. E, H. Derrick). These

specimens were at first taken to be adults, but it was later realised that they

were deutonymphs and that the type specimen was a protonymph. The adults

are as yet unknown.

120

THE OCCURRENCE OF NATIVE SULPHUR AT LAKE EYRE

BY C. W. BONYTHON AND D. KING

Summary

Native sulphur in nodular form was discovered on the shore of Lake Eyre in 1951,and later the

source-bed was found to be an Early-Recent clay stratigraphically positioned between Pleistocene

and Late-Recent sediments.

Three exposures of sulphur nodules having distinctive characteristics were found within a radius of

less than one half-mile. The nodules consist of a sulphur core in a shell of coarsely-crystalline

gypsum from which crystals may project both inwards and outwards. The sulphur usually occupies

only part of the interior cavity, there being an empty space between it and the bottom of the shell.

Laboratory work has shown the core material to consist of over 90 per cent. sulphur and to contain

traces of arsenic and selenium, that it is crystalline, orthorhombic sulphur, and that the relative

abundance of sulphur isotopes suggests an organic origin. The presence in the nodules of certain

bacteria has been demonstrated by other work.

Evidence favours a theory that the gypsum crust has been formed from the core sulphur by bacterial

oxidation.

The known deposit has no promise of economic development, but further occurrences can be

expected to be found in the Lake Eyre region.

THE OCCURRENCE OF NATIVE, SULPHUR AT LAKE EYRE

By C, W. BoxytHon® anp D. Kinet

[Read 18 Oct. 1953]

SUMMARY

Native sulphur in nockdar Form was dispovered] on the shore of Lake Eyre an LU5),

aucl Kiter the senree-bed was found to be an Karly-Recent clay strutigraphically positioned

betweon Pleistocene and Late-Recent sedintents,

Vhree exposmes of sulphur nodules having distinctive charqetenstivs were found within

a radius of loss than one hall-wnile. The nochilos consist of a sulyhur core in a shell of

evarsely-crystalline gypsum from which ctystals mire project beth inwards and ontywurcls.

The sulphur tisnally oceupies only part of the interior Gavity, there being an empty space

hetween th and the hottim of the shell.

Laboratory work has shown the core raderiidl lo consist of over 90 per cont. sulphur

and to confain trees of arsenie and seleninin, that it is crystaline. orthorhombic salphar;

dud that the relative abundince of sulphur isotopes suggests do organié origin. The presence

in the nodules of certam bacteria as been demonstYated by other work.

Evidence favayrs a theory that the ¢ypyinm erist bas been formed from the eare sulphur

by bacterial oxidation.

The known deposit las no promise of econontic development, but further oeeurreuces

can be expected to he found iy the Lake @yre region,

INTRODUCTION

Native sulphur was first found at Lake Eyre by one of us (C.W.B.) in

December, 195[, on the south-castern. shore of Madigan Gulf (Bonython,

1955 (b)). Several water-eroded nodules were picked up on the beach of

Sulphur Peninsula at the edge of the shrinking Jake waters, The pale yellow

colour of the material at once suggested sulpbur, an impression soon confirmed

by the flame and odour from a fragment placed in the campfire,

This is the only known sedimentary deposit of native sulphur in South

Australia, with the possible exception of an unconfirmed occurrence at Dal-

lousie Springs, 200 miles to the north-west.

Most of the nodules collected in 1951 comprised a sulphur core in a shell

of coarsely-crystalline gypsuin: in some the core was traversed by septa of

skeletal gypsum. crystals,

The source of the sulphur was discovered in May, 1953, when the authors

journeyed together to liake Eyre, Pieces of sulphur were then discovered

m sili in an exposure of lutiinated clay outcropping at the Jake shore close to

the place of the 1951 find. Two other outcrops were found on the opposite

side of the peninsula, These are all shown in the Locality Plan (overleaf), Plate

1. Fig. 2. shows one of the nadiles found,

MODE OF OCCURRENCE

The clay bed im which the sulphur occurs is horizontally disposed and is

upwards of 18 inches thick, with the sulphur nadules randomly distributed

through it. Tt consists of allernating, varve-like laminae of tinely-divided, ferru-

ginous clay matler varying in colour from pale and dark brown lo grey-green

and blue, Tt also contains thin laminae of natural whiting (dolomitic), traces

70.01, Alkali (Australiq) Pty. Ltd.

{South Anstewian Departinent of Mines.

L21

REFERENCE

pre, Salraiie en geome oer Wire.et gah ; SUPFACE LAYER OF WIND - BLOWN

SILCEQUS SAND.____

PACE YELLOW -BROWN 0172, SAND & SRIT..Le

PALE MROWN PARTLY CEMENTED =

SILICEGUS & GYPSCOUS DutyE SAND WITH EG

a SHELL FRAGHMENTS-------.-_--. . . Fe

ro. ——— es / SUB-RECENT (lacustrine) Har. Syesinn

RL Soph 950058 9-4) ; ia 1 SHELL BEDS (toniella gleei) intensraaririen [Ube

Cr ie seas se WITH CRYSTALLINE GYRSUM 8 SAmby GLA, {aa

BROWN 2 GREEN SANDY CLAYS WITH en

| BEL Mery ADEPT! gpm Le : LAYERS OF FINE S5AnD & CRYSIAL_INE d

LS NS 1000 IIE,

FFNS NONTAINING SULPHUR -

NODULES.

F258 goat) YELLOW = BROWN: SLOFPY SANDY CLAY,

FEET DARK BLUE 2 GREEN STIFF CLAYS & SOME

st) 20 49 eo f GYPSUM LAYERS(orams, ustracodesycharg)

7 FINE QUARTZ & LIMESTONE crave. DO

CROSS SECTION THROUGH BORE W DARK GHEY STIFF CLAY

(PYRITE WOTH GYPSUM & CALCITE)

---—— | PLEISTOCENE (Lacustrine)

HARD WHITE DOLOMITIC MUDSToNE

(Corellia qilegi). 2

ARBITRARY REQUCED LEVEL (Feett

Borehules surik 1953_....-._.___._ 1 =

Location of sample.-:..-.--+--.--.-W).

Zee

lauunyg

DIAGRAMMATIC GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS

Del AT 58-347.

of carbonaceous matter, and disseminated crystals of gypsum and halite, Shimp

folding on a yery small scale is common,

The sulphur-bearg clay is overlain by other clay and aeolian deposits

which form the main part of Sulphur Peninsula, and the outcrops on the sloping

eastern and western beaches are only narrow. Less than an acre of sulphur-

bearing clay is exposed at the location on the western shore (hereafter referred

to as the “western,” or “W,” location). ‘I'he two other locations, where the

bed outcrops on the eastern, or Scalloped Bay, side of the peninsula, are here-

after referred to respectively as the “north-castern,.” or “NE.” location and the

“south-eastern,” or “SE,” location.

‘TABLE [,

Stratigraphy of Sulphur Occurrences

Sithation Description Thickness

ft. an,

Shoreline cliffs Crystalline gypsum, freslwatee shells (Coxiella giles} ) and

sandy clay &

Brown, sandy clay ane fine, crystalline gypsum 1¢ 0

Beach exposure Red-hrown clay 53.0

Interbedded green clay and erystalline gypsum 1 4

fine, white, siliceous sand a 3

Pale grecn clay 1 v

Laminated, brown and grey-green clay with sulphur-

eybinm nodules 1 6

No outerep —bore data Dark biue clay ? 6

Stiff, dark-blue clay 1 0

Suft, dark-green clay 3.0

Total 48 0

THE STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION

The sulphur-bearing clay forms part of a series of clay beds assigned to

Early-Recent age, which overlies a Pleistocene dolomitic mudstone. The clay

beds are overlain in tum by Early-Recent gypscous shell beds, and by Late-

Recent aeolian deposits (King, 1955). The stratigraphy is interpreted from out-

crops of the gypseous shell beds near Location SE, and from data obtained from

a borehole near Location W. Table 1 is a generalized account of the Early-

Recent succession in the vicinity of Sulphur Peninsula, and the Locality Plan

(opposite) includes an actual vertical cross section at Location W.

THE EXAMINATION OF THE SULPHUR OCCURRENCES

The exposure at Location W was opened up by a shallow costcan (see

Plate 1, Fig. 1), and it was found that the nodnles are present not only at the

surface of the lake bed, but also at depths down to 18 inches. Those uncovered

by digging are similar to the nodules found at the surface, but whereas the

former are entirely encased iu a crust of gypsum crystals, the latter usually have

an imperfect crust permitting hoth the ingress of sand, clay and organic debris

aud also the removal by erosion of some of the sulphur core. The same is

true of the NF, and SE exposures.

123

Sulphur aechiles fron the three locations haye certain characteristic dil-

Poronegss

(4) Nodes fron Location W haye a comparatively thin onter cuust of eypsum,

and the sulphur occupies most of the mterior cavity. ‘The clay in contact

with the outside is msually grey-green, but in the wear vicinity there are

pecusional mottlings or larger areas of a rusty-recl colour (Citidieative of

ferric iron) However, fhe clay iminediately in vontaet with the gypsum

crust is never rusty-recl

(b) Nodules fron: Location NE have a thicker gypsum crust, often iron-stained.

The sulphiw oceupies a smaller proportion of the interior cavity than it

(a), LO more of Ue eevily consists of empty spiee. At this locrtian there

are same sealed, hollow nodules of the same external appeurance as the

ulhors, but containing lithe or no sulphur.

(e) Nodiles trom Location SE usually have a thicker, more massive crust than

both (a) and (bh) material Some of the gypstun aggregates are over one

foot weross. with frequently more than one salpbur kemel embedded in

the awlabastrine mass. There is practically no ios) staining,

Node shape varies Erom that of irregular spheroidal or ovoid masses at

Location W (sce Plate 2, Fig, 1) to Aattish inasses thinning towards the edges

at Location SE (see Plate 2 Mig. 2). A tapering, down-pointing base ar “root”

of gypsum is characteristic of many nodules from all three locations. Nodules

from Loedtion NE show individual variatious — one (see Plate 3, Fig. 1) show-

ing the upper put in yertical cross-section to_be it flattened rectangle, and. an-

other (see plate 3, Fig. 2) having an elliptical cavity; in both the core sulphur

clings to the gypsum crust roof and keeps clear of the bottom (cxeept where

protruding erystals rewch up to it), while in only the former case the hase of

the eypsuim crust is thickened ita a root,

Tt seems to be wv veneral echaractetistic that the sulphur cecnpies the tup

af the cavity, and it is the more marked in the NE and SE examples. tn some

of the SE nodules. which lawe a very thick gypstumt shell, the snlphur is re-

stricted tou small, subsidiary dome in the roof af the cuvity (see Plate 2. Vig. 2).

The core sulphur has plane, vertical fissures ruuning through it im some:

cases, particularly that from Location W. These are commonly occupied by

erystalline gypsum,

“The outside of the crust consists of coarse erystals projecting outwards,

while on the inside smaller, tooth-like crystals project towards the centre. The

outside ones are frequently opaque and blade-like (Locations NE and SE),

while thnse inside the cavity are well-formed, and occasionally clear, but more

often containing inclusions of finely-divided sulphur which render them opaque.

Growths of gypsum crystals reaching upwards from the periphery to tonch the

qure srilphur are shown in Plate 3, Fig, 2, depicting a nodule from Location NF,

LABORATORY EXAMINATION OF THE SULPHUR

The physical stute of the sulphur in the niodoles was investigated by means

af the microseape, the electron microscope and the X-ray powder diflraction

technique. Chemical analysis was carried out, and measurements were made

of the sulphur isotope abundance. Microhiological studies also were mide by

Tans Becking aud Kaplan (1955) who ideritified certain sulphate-reducing and

sulphur-oxidizing bacteria; this work is reported in another paper of the present

volume.

AMleroscopic Examination:

G. H. Taylor of the South Australian Department of Mines, after making

a petrological examination of ove of the W nodules, reported as follows:

Lad

“The greater part of this material is native sulphur and gypsnm, with

np to 20 per cent. of water and water-soluble salts (as. recciyed). The

sulphur occurs in cavities surrounded by crusts of well-crystallized gypsum,

with which is associated an appreciable amount of a carbonate mineral,

pra caleite. The water-soluble salts seem to consist chiefly of halite

(NaQ).”

Examination under the Eleetron Microscope:

S. G. Tomlin used the electron microscope of the University of Adelaide

to photegraph a sample of the sulphur core material, The examination was

inconclusive, because the sulphur yaporized in the heat of the electron beam

hefore it could be photographed.

However, there was an interesting sequel in the fuding of a peculiar Gbrous

and laminar residue when all the sulphur had evaporated (see Plate 4). It has

not been identified, but it may be organic; it docs not have the characteristics

of a crystalline substance. (The sample had initially been repeatedly extracted

with water to remove soluble impurities.)

Examination by X-ray Diffraction:

An X-ray powder diffraction pattern was measured by K. Norrish and L..

Rogers of the Division of Soils, C.S.LR,O. The core material was found to

be crystalline, orthorhombic sulphur, containing possibly a trace of gypsum,

Full details are given in the Appendix,

Chemical Analysis:

Salpina core material (as free as far as possible from contamination by

the gypsum shell) was gathered from all three locations and mixed sa as to

lo provide a single, composite sample. An analysis of this sample carried out

under the direction of T. R, Frost, Chief Analyst of the South Australian De-

partinent of Mines, is shown in Table 2 together with an analysis of native

sulphur from Louisiana, U.S.A.*

TABLE 2.

Ghemical Analysis.of Sutplnir.

-__-- aa

lake Eyre |) Port Sulphur. Louisiana

fcomposue sangsple of! fas ruined by

sulphur as found) Frasch process}

Elemental Sulpliue (S° 80-9", 99-749;

Insoluble in aniline 6-3

Ash ! Jess: than. Q-01

Moisture +3 —*

Hychtorarbon = O25

Arsenic 0-O0007 less thean (>.Q02

Selenium 0+ O08 less than 0- 00005

* Analysis expressed on dry basis.

Assuming that the fraction insoluble in aniline in the Lake Eyre material

is equivalent to ash makes it less pure than the Louisiana material. However,

the latter was mined by the Fraseh process (injecting steam and hot water down

a borehole), so the two samples are not strictly comparable in respect to ash

content. Both contain traces of arsenic and selenium.

* Infurmation supplied by D. B. Mason of the Freeport Sulphur Company, New York.

125

H. G. Thode, of McMaster University, Ontario, measured the relative

isotopic abundance of $** and $“4 in a weathered-ont nodule from Location Ww

at Lake Eyre, his findings being as follows:

TABLE. 3.

Lake Eyre Sulphur Nodule

Constituent S¥ 754) tano

Native sulphur 22-28

Associated sulphate | 21 Ga**

———

+# “This determination is to be repeated, for there is sore doubt as to whether the sulphate was the

true gypsum crust or a coating of gypsum deposited on the nodule in question by the evaporating lake

waters.

These results may be compared with other such figures derived by Thode

(1951) from forms of free and combined sulphur occurring generally in nature

(see Table 4).

TABLE 4.

_—_——

Material S®*/53* ratio

Sea water sulphate 21+7-21-9

Gypsum 21+6-22+2

Native sulphur |

(a) volcanic origin 21+8-22-

(b) urganie origin 22+2-02-7

‘Lhe native sulphur from Lake Eyre hence has an S**/S* ratio correspond-

ing to sulphur of organic origin.

THE ORIGIN OF THE SULPHUR

Native sulphur may originate from volcanic action, or from the breakdown

of naturally-occutring sulphur compounds by organic chemical agencies. There

is no evidence of yulcanism at Lake Eyre, but on the other hand the sedimen-

tary environment, the $*/S*! ratio and the presence of both sulphates and

bacteria puint to an organic origin,

The physical state in which the Lake Eyre sulphur occurs will not neces-

sarily provide a clue to the mode of formation, for it has been shown that a

certain Indian sulphur of known microbiological origin was origiually colloidal

but had eryslallized on ageing.

Microbivlogical Processes:

Butlin & Postgate (1954) have written of sulphur being formed by micro-

biological processes aud they describe a two-stage process in which sulphate

is first reduced to sulphide by the bacterial action of Desulphorihrio desul-

phuricans, following which the sulphide is oxidizied to clemental sulphur

by the coloured, photo-synthetic, sulphur-oaidizing bacteria Chlorobium and

Chromatinm,

Baas-Becking and Kaplan (1955) agree that the first stage of such a process

is bacterial, but they claim that under natural conditions the second stage is

a simple chernical oxidation involving atmospheric oxygen and iron,

126

Subba Ran, Iya & Sreenivasaya (147) haye reported the occurrence of a

sulphur-bearing clay near Muslipatam in India. (Tt has similarities to the Lake

Eyre material.) Here it is claimed that the reduction is effected by flagellate

vibvio, and that the oxidation ts performed catalytically Ly atmospheric oxida-

tion in the presence of iran,

Elemental sulphur may also be degraded to sulphate by bacterial oxida-

tion, one ot the bacteria reacting in this way being Thiobacillus thiooxidans

{Butlin & Postgate, 1954).

Implications of the Sulphur-Gypsum Assoctation:

It is highly significant that sulphur and gypsum are intimately associated

in the Lake Eyre nodules, particularly as the cuncretionary form of snost of the

gypsum erusts is iparkedly different from that of the crystalline gypsum sq

connmnon and widespread in Quarternary sediments of the Lake Eyre region,

‘There are two possible interpretations of this assueiation —the first, that the

gypsum crust is a remnant of pre-existing sulphate from which the sulphur has

heen formed by reduction, and the second, that the gypsum crust has been

formed by oxidation of pre-existing elemental sulphur of which the present

sulphur core is a remnant. Both sulphate-redncing and sulphur-oxidizing

bacteria are found in the nodules (Baas-Becking & Kaplan, 1955), so neither

theory is to be preferred on this account. '

The shape of the nodules may have significance: concerning the mode of

formation, The tendency of the crystals of the crust to develop hoth inwards

and outwards, the thickencd, tapering base er “root,” and the separation of

the hase of the sulphur core trom the bottom of the cavity in the gypsum crust

wre the principal morphological characteristics, but their interpretations are

not obytans,

The Sulphate-reduction Theory of Origin;

In such a process it is implicd that the reduction begins in the interior of

a gypsum mass, and that the reactions spread yradually outwards. ‘The oxida-

tion of the sulphide mmnst occur there also,

Evidence against this theory is the unlikelihood of gypsum existing initially

in inasses shaped like the present nodules, and the fact that pypsum crystals

faciug iwards from the shell do uot generally have the corroded appearance

to be expected if the gypsum was bemg consumed. The theory is favoured

by the fact that the cavity within the yypsum shell is not completely filled by

silphar, for, as Buas-Beeking & Kaplan have pointed out, the formation of

elemental sulphur from gypsum is accompanied by a loss of volume. However,

fuller consideration of the facts concerning the Lake Eyre occurrenees will

reveal the Following conflict with the theory,

A noduly from Location W has a comparatively thin gypsum ernst, so it

may be supposed that the conversion of the original gypsum to sulphur has

proceeded nearly to cormpletion; on this basis the empty volume within the

gypsum cavity should be large in relation Lo the space ocenpied by the sulptur.

This is net se — the proportion of empty volume is small. Conversely, a nodule

from Locations Nii und SLO has a thick gypsum erst, ancl so the proportion of

empty volume within should be small, Tn laet, the proportion of empty volume

is large in the NE and SE nodules.

The isotope abundance determinations of Thode (see Table 8) show a

slightly smaller proportion of the $* isotope in the sulphur than in the assc-

ciated sulphate, and if this be interpreted as the “fractionation” described by

Thode occurring during the microbiological reduction of sulphate then the

theary is supported,

The Sulphur-Oxidation Vheory of Origin:

Viiy stysposes ( Baus-Becking & Kaplau, 1955) that the gypsum crust was

formed by reaetion between ITSO,~ ions. which resulted from the action of

Wdvoxtlias bacillus on pre-existing elemeital sulphur, and Gat+— fram the sur-

rounding clay. te this case the gypsum crust would presumably haye grown

by accretion ontside the sulphur core. The form of the nodular gypsum is i

awreamoent with such a niode of formation, as also is the presence of occluded

silphur in gypsnm crystals, and the attitude of the crystals of the crust in

appearing ta have grown outwards from the anain shell, as well as inwards

tog Tesser extent. The argiuoent involving the propartions of the evvity volume

gueupicd by sulphur aid by empty space introduces uo conflict with the

stiphuroyidation theary, but supports the yiew that the eypsum crust wes

farniud trom pre-existing sulphur.

Chivin Dncolving Organic Remains:

(hie of ms (DARL) is iepressed by the fact that the presence of deeore

posuble organic inatter isa cancdition favour certain of the bacterial processes

cited by Butlin & Postyate anid belicves that the past existence of decuying fish

remnahis might not ouly have supperted the lovimation of sulphur by bacterial

action, Dut would aceennt alse for the concentration of the sulphur substance

in diserete and sporadienlly dlisthibuted masses, Snbsequent bacterial action

cod have nade these wwerecations of sulphur revert partly to gypsum.

Concluding Diseussion on Ortgln:

Tt fs certain that the Lake Eyre sulphur is of organic origi. The weight

at evidenee on the origin of the gypsuin erust favours its having beer formes

subsequently from part of the sulphur by hacterial oxidation,

The sulphur was probably formed? prier to or diving the sediimoutation of

the clay bed in which it new occurs, but it is alsa possible that it was formed

subsequently in sit. ‘Lhe Jatter provess, if it oecurred. presmmubly would have

beou favoured in those parts of the clay bed outcropping on cither side of the

penitsula because there the lake waters and the atmosphere would have had

lective aceess to it. The position of the present sulphur-bearing bed in rela-

Hon to the level of lake waters may be significant, for bacterial reactions (like

those strdied by Butlin & Postgate fii Cyrenuica) possibly take place more

readily in a brine medium than in the dry state. Fig, 1 shows the respective

levels in terms of an arbitrary datuin {Ronython, 1955 (a)), and the salinity

of the Jake waters when at certain levels. (Expressed as gm. NaCl per litre.)

The bel was submerged 6 ft. below the lake surface during the great flooding

af 1914-50, but it is unlikely to be reached often by the waters durmg the minor

Hoodings that under average circumstances may ocet ul intervals of the order

at five years.

It would be itstrictive to fd out if the sulphur nodules also occur in those

parts of the bed deeply buried hencath the sediments of the Sulphur Peninsula

ridge, This would be -ascertained by sinking bores to intersect the bed in

that urea,

WE LCONOMICG POSSIBILLTIES

The known sulphur occurrences occupy a total aren of approximately une

aere, und in this area the sulphur content of the bed as a whale would be cen-

siderably Jess than one per cent. A deposit of this size and grade has no

value in itself, bat ay the sulphur is found within a definite stratigraphic horizon

that was probably laid down under quict, lacustrine conditions — and for this

reason vould he expected to extend laterally for many miles in the Lake Eyre

"As this paper goes to press Baas-RBecking and Kaplan report a Cerbre tl determinatinn

phieing the age at LO, LAO 500 yous.

128

Basin —some further exploratory work is necessary before the potentialities

can be accurately assessed,

In the locality exunined the sulphu-bearing clays are horizontal and

slightly higher in elevation than the lake bed, and testing would involve the

sinking of boreholes or pits on the mainland adjacent to the Jake wnargin. There

is also the possibility that there may be a repetition of sulphur deposits at

greater depths, and in investigating this a borehole might by sunk as deep us

the upper limits of the underlying Mesozoic formations.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors acknowledge the help given in the field by Mr, W. G. Fenner

and Mr, A, 2. P. Dyer, and also by A. C. I. Adams and f.’ R. Bryan —— boys of

St. Peter's College. Adelaide. For undertaking investigations of the sulphur

in the laboratory they wish to thank Prof. H. G. Thode, F.B.S., of McMaster

University, Ontario, Canada; Dr. $. GC, Tomlin of the Department of Physics,

University of Adelaide; Dr. K. Norrish and Mrs. L. Rogers of the Division of

Soils, C.S.1.R.0.. and Mr. T. W, Dalwood of the South Australian Department

of Mines. Fig. 1 and Plates 2 and 3 were prepared by Messrs. B. Thomas and

G, P. King.

Thanks are due to Mr, §. B. Dickinson, Director of Mines. South Australia,

for making it possible for one of the authors (D,K.) to visit Lake Eyre to carry

aut this work.

REFERENCES

Baas-Becxine, L. G, M., and Kapcan, I. R., 1955. ‘he Microbiological Qvigin of the Sulphur

Nodules of Lake Eyre, (In this volume.)

Bonytuon, C. W., 1955, Lake Eyre, South Australia — The Creat Flanding of 1949-50, Roy,

Geogr. Soc, A/sia, S. Aust. Branch, Adelaide. (a) The Filling and Drying-up,

Bp. 2186 (b) Plora, Fauna and Minerals from Lake Eyre and Surroundings, pp.

-75,

Buti, K. R., and Posrcarr, J. R., 1954. The Microbiological Formation of Sulphur in

Cyrenaican Lukes —The Biolory of Deserts, 112-129, London, Inst. Biol.

Kine, D., 1955. The Quaternary Stratigraphic Record at Lake Eyre North and the Evolu-

tion of Txisting Topographic Forms. (Im this volume. ) .

Sunna Aap S., Iva, K. K., and Sxeenivasaya, M,, 1947. Proc. 4th Int, Congr, Microbiol.,

Toor, H, G, 1951. Research (Research Correspondence) 4: 582-3,

X-ray Powder Diffraction Data for Lake Fyre Sulphur.

APPENDIX

I 2

dA Wl, dA I/I, | dA Il, dA I/I,

7-7* 20 2-19 20

5-66 +40 3-57 60 | 2-10 070 2-08 70

#01 30 3-94 70 | 1-99 1

3-84 100 3-74 100 1-95 <5

3-54 5 3-53 50 | 4-89 70 1-88 70

3-42 70 3+38 60 182 20 1-81 50

3:30 40 3°26 20 1-77 80 1-76 70

3-19 90 B15 90 1-75 40

3-08 40 3-04 70 1-72 80 1-71 Go

2-82 40 2-79 60 1-69 70 1-68 50

2-67 20 1-65 40 1-64 50

2-60 30 2-59 50 1-62 70

2-56 | 5 1-60 70 1-60 60d

247 | 40 2-46 20 1-43 | 20 1-43 50

24l | 40 2-40 20 141 5 70 1-41 60

2-35 40 2-34 20 1-38 20

27 | 30 2°26 20 1-35 7 20 1-35 7

d = doublet.

1. Native Sulphur from Lake Eyre [5-73 em. diameter camera: Co racliation, Fe filtered

(A — 1-7899 Aj; I/L, estimated by eye].

2, After data given for orthorhombic sulphur by A.S.T.M. Crystallographic Index [Cu radiation,

Al filtered (A — 1-541 Aj]. Vhe Cu Kg lines given by the index have not been included.

* ‘This line may be due to gypsum which is a possible impurity,

130

C. W. BonyTHON Aanp D. Kine PLATE 1

Fig. 1.—The costean at Location W, showing (left) the rod being withdrawn

from the bore.

Fig. 2.—Broken sulphur nodule freshly dug at Location W.

C. W. BonyTtHon AND D. Kine PLATE 2

Sulphur filling

most of cavity.

Fig. 1.—Sectioned nodule from

Location W (4/5 natural size).

Sulphur-impregnated crystals Sulphur in cavity.

round cavity walls.

Massive

gypsum crust.

Fig. 2.—Sectioned nodule from Location SE (3/5 natural size).

a a mg ee en ee eee a ial ieee a ae” "ae ae

C. W. Bonytuon anv D. Kinc PLATE 3

Sulphur

Fig. 1.—-Sectioned nodule from Location NE (4/5 natural size).

Crystals pointing

inwards towards core.

Fig. 2.—Sectioned nodule from Location NE (4/5 natural size). Core

has fractured surface approximately in plane of section,

C. W. BonyrHon and D. Kine PLATE 4

Electron micrograph (12,000 x) of unknown residue after evaporation of the sulphur.

THE OCCURRENCE OF GRANITE TILLITE AND GRANITE GNEISS

TILLITE AT POOLAMACCA, BROKEN HILL, N.S.W.

BY D. R. BOWES

Summary

A study has been made of some unusual coarse fragmental rock types occurring in the vicinity of

Poolamacca. These rocks form part of the basal beds of the Torrowangee Series which rests

unconformably on rocks of the Willyama Complex around the margins of the Poolamacca Inlier.

They consist essentially of boulders and fine detritus derived directly from the immediately

underlying rocks by the action of land ice. Granite and granite gneiss are overlain by granite tillite

and granite gneiss tillite respectively while a rock containing boulders of granite and granite gneiss

overlies a granite-granite gneiss contact.

Details of the field occurrence, petrography and chemical composition of the various rock types are

set out and the occurrences of comparable rocks in other parts of the Broken Hill area are given.

THE OCCURRENCE OF GRANITE TILLITE AND GRANITE GNEISS

TILLITE AT POOTAMACCA, BROKEN HILL, N.S.W.

By D. R. Bowss*

(Communicated by A, W. Kleeman)

[Read 13 Oct, 1955|

SUMMARY

A study has been made of sume unnsual coarse fragmental rock types accurring in the

vicinity of Poolamucca, These rocks form part of the basal heds of the orrowangee Serics

which rests unconfonnmably on rocks of the Willyama Complex around the margins of the

Poolamacea Tnlier, They consist essentially of boulders and fine detritus derived directly

froin the immectiately underlying rocks by tho action uf land ice. Granite antl granite gneiss

ure overluin by granite tillile and granite gneiss tillte respectively while a rock containing

boulders of granite ancl granite gneiss overlies a yranite-granite gneiss euulact,

Details of the field occurrence, petrography and chemical composition of the various

rock types are set out and the occurrences of comparable rocks in other parts of the Broken

Hill area are given.

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Location

Poolamacca Head Station is situated thirty-two miles north of Brokeu Hill

in the Northern Barrier Ranges with the approximate position of latitude 31°

30’ S., longitude 141° 28’ E. (Fig. 1). The name of the Head Station is given

to the inlier of Willyama rocks which outcrop immediately to the narth (An-

drews, 1922, p. 116). Rocks of the Torrowangee Series surround the Poola-

macea Inlier (vide King and Thomson, 1953, Fig, 11). The topography consists

of low hills covered by sparse vegetation, A semi-arid climate prevails and

outcrops. arc abundant. However, surface weathering extends to a considerable

depth in parts.

B, Previous. INVESTIGATIONS

Andrews (op. cit,) described “a thin discontinuous layer of granite waste,

cemented with tillite material” (p, 66) cropping out near Poolamacea HLS.

This. ruck covered part of the granite of the inlier and it was suggested that

the granite “formed part of the old surface on which the later glacial deposits

were laid” (p. 347). Also deseribed was a “remarkable variant of the tillite”

(p. 67) cropping out three miles south-east of Poolamacca H,S. in which ellip-

soidal boulders of granite and pegmatite arranged almost end to cnd gave the

appearance of an igneous intrusion.

King and Thomson (op. cit.) considered that the granite masses of the

Northern Barrier Hanges ( Fig. 1) were intruded during post-Torrowangee moye-

ments and occurred in the Willyama recks just below the Willyama-Torro-

wangee unconformity. Granitization and pegmatization of the Torrowangec tillite

at the time of the introduction of the granite was postulated as an explanation

of the genesis of rocks similar tu those described by Andrews (op. cit.) as “granite

* Deparhnent af Geology, University College of Swanseu.

151

waste’, A distant source is sugvested tor most of the tilite boulders, ineluel-

ing the granitic ones. Some boulders. however, are considered of local deriva-

tion such as those near Gairdner’s Tank, where the “tillite is crowded with

boulders of the underlying granite gneiss” (p. 515),

Leslie and White (955) interpreted the exposures at the northern ed of

the Brewery Creck Plnton as showing a aranite tillite consisting alinost eutircly

ol eranite boulders i wi urkosie titrix resting ow the eroded surface of the

vranite whieh was thus of pre-Vorrawangce age. Basal beds in other parts

containing much material from the tiimeciately underlying rock are alse

deseribect,

C. PREsENT [NVESTIGATIONS

The present iuvestizations were initiated in 51 from the University of

Adelaide following discussions with members of the geological stalf of Zing

Corporation Limited, Broken Hill, who had carried out the regional geological

GRANITE

ci GRANITE

GWEISS:

: ,

Om ss Torromang er ;

p44 2. sou \

. ‘ v

MOWTHERN PodLaMacca puTaN\

Mung Plain

Aden

7 WILLYAMA

aah Py

” COMPLEX*

AWALLYAMA 7

J 7 ey

“4

Vig, .—Map of the Northern Barrier Ranges (after King aud Thomson (1953)) showiny the

principal oulernps of granite and wranite wneiss.

survey of the Barrier Ranges, the results of which were published by King and

Thomson (up. cil.). The aim of the present work was to elucidate the meta-

morphic and igneous history of part of the Northem Barrier Ranges, and, in

particular, the genesis of the granitic and peginatitic rocks of the area. More

than sixteen square miles were mupped at the seale of 1 inch = 1.000 feet, cover-

ing the Willyama rocks of the Poolamacca Inlier and the surrounding Torro-

wangee rocks. Critical ureas were surveyed at the scale of 1 inch = 50 feed,

Pield work was carried out at intervals during 1951-52 and laboratory work

from 1953 onwards has been done at the University College of Swausea, The

investigation ot the area immediately to the south (Leslie and White, op. cit.)

was carried out in conjunction with the present investigations,

This paper deals with (1) the granite and granite gneiss of the Willyama

Complex occurring in the Poolamacea Inlier, and (2) the basal, tragmental.

132

vlacigem: seclimonts (granite tillite and granite weiss tillite) of the Tovroneieee

Series Which wnconformably everhe the corresponding Willvama parent rocks.

Detiils of field occurrence together with mineralogieal and chemical com-

position are set out aud the significance of the various rocks iy discussed,

The strovtaral and petrological history of the Willyama rocks of the Poola-

mace Inlier and of the surrounding Torrowangee rocks will be discussed jn

Titer pipers.

Il. THE GRANITE

A, NAMING AND CorreLa Trios

Of the live large granite masses in the Northern Barrier Ranges recorded

by King wid Jhomson (op, eit. p. 543) only the one ent by the Brewery Creck

is specifically named, The presence of another granite at Poolamace:s was

recurded by Andrews (op. cit. p, 66), but it was not specifically named. For

the sake ol clavity im this paper, it is desirable that each granite mass should

be uamed to euable reference to be made to it without confusion.

In the absence of prominent landmarks and creeks associated with the

writnites in the vicinity of Poolamacea. it is suggested that (1) the vranite in

the castern part of the Puolumacca Inlier be termed the Eastern Poolamacea

Phitou,® (2) the granite at the western end of the Poolamacea Inlier be ternred

the Western Poolamacea Pluton (previously referred tu as the “western boss"),

acl (3) the granite one anda half miles north of the Western Poolantaeca Pluton

be termed the Northern Poolumacea Pluton (previuusly the “northern hoss”),

These names have been used in Fig. 1 and are used throughout this paper,

The correlation of the granites of the area with other granites in the

Barrier Ranges has been discussed by King aud Thomson (op. it and leslie

“dn White (op. cit.), the latter of whom postulate for them a Middle Precam-

Hin fee,

Bo Fin Occurrence

(1) Eastern Poolamacen Pluton (Fig. 2)—Tors, which are stained yelliw

to brown and which weather by extoliation, together with large. gently curved

yellowish-browu exfoliate surfaces of granite crop out on the western slopes

of the low hill a quarter of a mile W.N.W. of Poolamacea H.S, Further N.W.

int the bunks of Campbell's Creck, the granite is light grey in colour and found

as irregular shaped tors. Large, curved, light grey esfoliate surfaces and small

tors of yranite crop ont two-thirds of a mile north of Poolainacea H.S. on the

low ground in the large how of Campbell's Creek. Tere the granite shows

censs-cutting and intrusive relations to the vranite eneiss. Granite also craps

anit as small masses in other parts of the eastern portion of the Poolamacca

Julice,

(ii) Western Poolamacea Pluion (Fig, 3).—In the creeks the granite crops

aut as Jarge, gently curved, light grey colouved surfaces, whereas on the higher

ground of the iain part_of the pluton, tors and blocks of iron-stained granite

prevail. (Plate 1, Fig. 3.) The granite, which covers a considerably larger

surtace area than the Eastern Poolamacca Phiten, cross-cuts and intrudes low-

grade schists of the Willyama Complex. Many Jarge and small roof pemlints

and xenoliths are associated with the granite mass,

©. PETROGRAPHY AND Ce ical Composrrion

The granite of both Eastern and Western Poolamacea Plutous is leucocratic

and rich in muscovite, The grain size is generally 2-3 mm. and the texture

hvpidiomorphie, although many of the crystals. especially the quartz crystals,

shaw considerable cracking und some peripheral granulation (Fig, 4a).

“gioul oymvad pur oye jo sdomyue jediouret ayy

SEL FaeUrEyOO.T JO CAVA AA olor & ja anyenh 7 Wy Mey

re)

)

« r ’ 1

Rurmoys “GH BoorwWepouY wou Rew ayy jo deyqy—aasuty

ay} Jo sadops maaysea ay) JO ward JO dein [EAA AQ— Ts Shy

ae 7

Sanh 8 Uv 76 SNGLSLTS vinhe “ALM »

WOOB BIHIO

aw Ke

§S19NI SLINWEO

FLINWHD Tenive Gswiss!

SSIZND SLINVES SHNOLNG ot

“a

— [> +

aj ig

A | r+

$a+

BPHre

$i pelt + het

ere rar

+ ep sk

hee

A 4 |

m + ps

Jleosaa }

fh eo T+

: B

aa P

+e ++

he’ + 5

4 4p Ly

|i}

Pes

= py et

grad ts

fe.

pidt+

=| 4

d+P+a%

+t +

“yA

Los\

! wep

‘.

at +>

+ept

a oe

Mes

Ooy—l +--+

134

Felspar is the most abiundavt constituent with plagioclase generally ia

eacess of microcline, The plagioclase, which is subhedral in form and albite

- im composition, shows considerable alteration in parts and contains way inehi-

sions, uotably large fakes of muscovite. Microcline also has subhedral form

und shows cross-hatching which is well developed in same crystals and poorly

developed in others, Quartz, which is abundaut, shows undulose extivetion,

meh eracking and some granulation,

Muscovile is the dominant mica present with biotite only in subsidiary

umonnts and showing some chloritization, The accessory minerals are zircon,

apatite, marnetile and tourmaline.

The chemical analysis of this rock is given in Table 1, colwma 1, and 2

comparison with the coniposition of the associated pranites to the south of

Ponlamucea (Table Lt, columns 7 and 8) shows the marked similarity whicli

exists. This similarity is further borne out by the mineralogical composition

tunel testare. Leslie and White (op. cit.) have indicated that these rocks compare

vlosely with the alaskites of Johannsen (1932).

Wl, THE GRANITE TILLITE

A, Tisco Ocounnencr

(1) Qverlying the Eastern Poolamacea Pluton (Fig. 2)—Resting directly

ou the granite of the Eastern Poolamacca Plutow is a rock composed doimii

aunty of granite boulders which appear to be petrographically ideutical with

the granite on which they rest. This rock was deseribed as “granite waste” by

Ancrews (op, cit, p. 66), but here is termed granite tillite as it is at the base

of a series of sediments of glacial origin (Mawson, 1912). which form the

Jowest members of the Torrowangee Series in this area. The granite tillite

appears, in parts, to rest in hollows in the eld crasion surface, although it

seets likely that the whole granite mass was covered by this rock type. No

stratification is. visible, this being in marked contrast with the higher parts of

thi series with its interbedded siltstones, quartzites, marbles and tillites (Plate

1. Figs. 1 and 2), Tlowever, the boundury between granite and granite illite

can be marked with precision,

On the western slope of the Jow hill a qnarter of a mile W.N.W. of Poola-

macea H,S.. the outcrops of granite tillite look like granite outcrops. They are

yellow-brown in colour and form low knobs, with smooth, curved surfaces which

weather by exfoliation (Plate 1, Fig, 1). Nearby the granite tillite crops out

as tors and rounded blocks (Plate 1, Fig. 2), which also weather by exfolia-

tion, Wher the hardened surface of a tor is broken, the inside is often seen

lo he very severely weathered, In many parts the granite tillite is almost in-

distinguishable from the granite on the weathered face. although it semctimes

hus the appearance of a granite which has been severely fractured, Only on

the freshly broken surface is the fragmental sedimentary nature clearly seen.

There is no apparent topographic feature along the granite-granite tillite

unconformity and both rocks weather in exactly the same way. The uneor-

formity can be mapped through tors which consist of bath rock types and

across a smooth, gently curved, oxfoliate surface,

The granite tillite resting on the pranitic mass in the bauks of Campbell's

Creck is light grey in colour and consists of light grey granite boulders, renor-

ally 1-3 inches across, in a slightly darker yrey matrix. The incontormity

surface is not planar but undulating,

(ii) Overlying the Western Poolamacca Pluton (Fig. 3).—The rock directly

overlying the Western Poolamacea Platon along its north-western bouncdary is

a granite tillite composed of large, angular und sub-angular blocks of light grey

185

eranite, up to 18 inehes across, set in a darker giey yuartzo-felspathico wuiwtrix

(Plate L, Pig. 4), The uncontormable junction dips north-westward at approvi-

mutely 30°. but the granite tillite shows no apparent signs of stratification, A

leus of quartzose grit is strativraphically above the granite tillite for the mast

part and there is a straightforward upward succession from unstratified granite

tilite to bedded (including current bedded) grit, siltstone aud tillite, This

tillite is similar to that described by Mawson (3912) and others iu the Torro-

wangee Series of other parts of the Barrier Ranges, This suyeests that the granite

tillite resulted from the action of local land ice, whereas the strutifieution in

the beds above suggests deposition under water. This latter is conlinned by

the prosence of current bedding in the urits.

. .

GRANITE

~ sy

+ SCHIST.

tttttpt ++

oft] sranire

[#] SHANE

‘PaE] Mei .

[scr fy

SCHIST “ fr

Ba rea i 4

ore

2 sepoiG

Vig. 3—Geological map of the Western Poolamaces Pluton and surrounding

ures.

Where roof pendants or large xenoliths of Willyama schist form the ancicat

erosion surface. the overlying rock is crowded with schist boulders, This “schist

tillite’ changes quickly to granite tillit: when the underlying schist-granite

contact is passed over, although there is usually a gradational rock type in

which both granite and schist boulders are present.

Granite tillite also crops out in parts along the south-western margin of the

plutou. The granite boulders are generally only &-1 inch across and the out-

crops ure not large because of a N.W-S.EF, vertical fault which throws the granite

and schist of the Willyama against the folded Torrowangec tllites, siltstones

aud quartzites (Fig. 3),

(iii) In Areas Adjacent to Poolanweca.—The securrence of granite tillite

overlying the granite of the Brewery Creek Pluton has been deseribed hy

Leslie and White (op. cit.). Rocks resembling granite tillite haye also been

seen next to the granite af the Northern Foolamacca Pluton and next to the

Paps Granite a mile and a half west of Thompson's Tank (Fig. 1), but further

detailed investigations in these areas are required.

Lines of large gravite boulders are found in parts of the tillite south of

Poolamaces, The superficial appearance of a granite dyke is given. especially

138

where the Cilile nattex iy pearly exposed, hut detailee! investigation reveals their

sedimentiry. origin.

Go Prrnacnariny AND CHrancar ComMPosrrion

The granite tillite consists of sub-angular ane semi-rounded granite boulders

bf various sizes (na matrix of mineral grains derived from the granite (big, 4b).

The proportion of rock fragments to matrix varies considerably trom place to

place, In parts they make up as much as 93 per cent. of the rack, but in other

parts the proportion is much lower (Plate 1, Fig. 4). The texture of the granite

mf the boulders is comparable with that of the granite af the Easter and

Western Poghunaeea Plutons; the same is the case with the mineral prapertions,

Humpositions and inehusions,

OF the inglividnal graius. which are angular and show no trace of erystal

form, qnarty is most abundant. It shows marked undulose extinction and con-

siderable cracking us does the quartz in the granite. Fragments of microcline

aud plugiolise (albite) are present with the latter containing prominent mus-

eovite inclusions, Detrital mnseovite fakes, some of which are bent, are present,

The fine-grained matrix consists of fragments of quartz, albite, microcline, mus-

covite and biotite as well as zircon, apatite and tourmaline, Authigenic sericite

is also common iv the matrix.

Mg ¢—(a) Granite x7 (b) Granite tillite x7. (e) Tillite with granite and granite gneiss

poulders ¢1, These three rocks occur in the area shown in Fig. 2.

A chemical utilysis of granite illite wear Poolamacea HS. is given in Table

1, colunm 2. A comparison of this analysis with ¢hat of the granite of the

Eastern Poolamaccg Plutou and with other granites in adjacent areas (see ‘Table

1} incligates the remarkable similarity in chemical composition of this frag

mental rock, anc fle rock from which it was derived. Flowever, the silica

and alkali proportions in particular indicate that the inatrix is slightly richer

in quartz and poorer in felspar and muscovite compared with the parent granite.

IV, THE GRANITE GNEISS

AJ Frevp Occurnence

This rock type, which is of extensive outerop but of variable com-

position and texture in the Barrier Ranges (Andrews op. cit, King and Thom-

wat

son. op. cit.), crops out in the eastern part of the Poolamacea Inlier, Good

outcrops occur on the low hill a quarter of a mile W.N,W. of Poolamacca HLS.

and to the north in the large bow in Campbell’s Creek (Fig. 2). The rock

is light coloured, quartzu-felspathic and often yellow-brown on the weathered

surface. Unlike the granite, it tends to break into angular blocks. Biotite flakes,

TABLE I.

1 y | 3g bot 3 fi ; | “8

be |. aime we a Se ee AS O_O, —— v a. 5 —_ = —

Sid, 1 73+3 7°94 7-2 T32 FRR ETO | TS OB 7A OF

TOs (1-18 U-14 Odd | Oe | Oe re 0-19

ALLOy 14-4 J2-d WO 1 fae of mbes Weg 1 DE Tg 14-77,

PeaOs 0.66 0-53 O-5F | 1-4 cs ee ae 0-67 0-51

Feo 0-66 1-0 2-9 os rr os 0-79 Oe

Mn ; 0-0) )-02 0-23 0-06 0-06 0-06 OO] 001

MgO O44 {) - 5b 1-2 11-89 0-85 3-6 1) 28 Udo

cad 0-47 O34 0573 0-31 | 049 4-( 0-55 51

Na,O 4r() 28 fs i en ae i re os) 3°89

K,0 54 4:7 $2 BP | eG 3-4 +517 4-43

H,O+ ) G-b7 | 0-57 O83 0-55 | 0-76 1-0 )-77 0-70

HO — ro = ~_ e.. — We24 0-15

CO, _ < | 1-6* = fF =

P.O; 0-25 0-18 (T+ 0-15 O14 Q-12 1 Obl 0-10

RaQ = — ~ i = 0-02 =

ZrOg — — a =. 0-0! 0-03

s | | —- | = 0-03

TOTAL | 100-4 100-1 100-3 100-3 | 1002} 100-5) 100-07 100-01

* From loss on ignition.

1. Granive, 600 yards W.N.W. of Poolamacea ELS., Barrier Ranges, N.S.W, Analyst: D.R. Bowes.

2, Granite ullite; GOOQ yards WYN SY, of Poolamacca H.S,, Barrier Ranges, N.S,W, Analyst:

DD, R. Bowes.

3. Granite gneiss; 400 yards WNW. of Poolainacea H.S., Barrier Ranges, N.S.\W. Analyst:

D.R, Bowes,

4. Granite gneiss boulder in granite gneiss tillite; 400 yards W.N.W. of Poolamacca IL.S., Barrier

Rauues, N.S.W. Analyst: D. R. Bowes,

5. Granite gneiss tillite; 400 yards W.N.W. of Poolamacea I1.8,, Barrier Ranges, \.5.W, Analvst:

T). R. Benes.

6. Tillite; GOO yards W, of Poolammacea H,5,, Barricr Ranges, NuS.W), \avalyat: D. RK. Bowes.

7. Granite from Wookookarre Greck, 5. of Poolamacca, Barrier Ranges. N.5.\V. Analyst: A, J. R.

White (Leslic & Wise of. rit.)

& Brewery Creek Grime, Poulamagen, Barrier Remiues. SSW. Analysts Ro oB. Leste (leste &

White op, elt.)

rarely exceeding 20 per cent. aud generally making up about 10 per cet. ol the

rock, show parallel alignment and impart a distinct foliation to the rock (Fig.

5a). This internal banding is considercd by King and Thomson (op, cif,) as

relict from original bedding alter the formation of the granite gneiss by grani-

tization of sediments,

The granite of the Eastern Poolaumacea Pluton post-dates the granite gneiss

which it cross-cuts and intrudes,

Lb, Periockarnyy anp Cresncan Cosrposyrian

The granite gneiss is a completely reerystallized rock with an average

grain size of about 1 mm. Some of the biotite flakes are up to 3 mm. in their

longest direction, The rock is made up chiefly of quartz and felspar which

show sutured interlocking boundaries. Quartz, the most abundant mineral,

shows cracking, while both plagioclase (oligoclase) and microcline are present

in considerable proportions. The majority of biotite flakes, which are chlori-

tized in parts, show alignment (Fig, 5u) and some muscovite fakes are asso-

ciated with the biotite. In parts the rock is putchy with sonie areas more quartz-

or felspar-rich than others. Sphene, zircon and magnetite are accessory minerals.

A chemical analysis of granite gneiss from near Poolamacea 118. and an

analysis of a yranite gneiss ania in the overlying beds are given in Table

L columns 3 and 4. The analyses indicate the essentially granitic composition

uf these rocks,

V. THE GRANITE CNEISS TILLITE

A. Fito Occurnence

(t) Near Poolamacea #8. (Fig. 2)—Restiny directly on the granite eneiss

of the Willyama Inlier is a rock composed essentially of angular boulders of

granite gneiss which appear lo be petrographically identical with the under-

lying rock. This fragmental sedimentary rock is similar in field occurrence tu

taf the granite illite and it bears the same relationship to the granite eneiss

as the granite tillite doe, to the granite. It is thus termed a granite gneiss tillite,

Exposures of this rock crop out on the eastern slopes, the top, and the

western slopes of the low hill a quarter of a mile W.N.W. of Poolamacca H.5.

The boundary between the granite gueiss tillite and the underlying granite

gneiss is sharp and clearly disecrnible. Stratification is uot obvious in the

rock itself, which has the appearance of being a inass of granite gneiss detritus,

The augulur shape of the boulders and the random orientation of the foliation

planes in tHe various fragments emphasize the fragmental nature of the rock

(Fig. Se). Most of the weathered surfaces are yellowish-brown similar to that

of the widerlying granite gneiss,

One exposure revealed a rock which contained both granite gneiss ail

seuite boulders (Vig. 4c), This was situated stratigraphically above a granite

guciss-granite coutuct ancl indicated Uhe existenee of a transition from granite

sueiss tilite to granite tHlile sympathetic with the change in the underlying

pirent rock, This transition appears to be u rapid one.

Gi) Tn Areas Adjacent t Poolamacea—King anc Thomson (op. cit.) de-

seribed the occurrence of granite pneiss tillite near Gairdner’s Tank (Fig. 1),

Here the Willyama vock type is a granitic angen gneiss and the overlying,

basal ‘Torrowangee rack is crowded with boulders ef this rock type,

B. Jsmocrarny AND CueancaL Cosposririon

Angolir and subsangular fragments of granite guciss from six inches

cress down to the size of two or three crystals, make up as much as 90 per

cent. of the rock ig some parts, Ilowever, they generally contribute about

75 per cent., the remainder being a fine-grained, fragmental matrix. ( Fip. Sb).

The mineral vompositions and proportions and the ruck texture of the boulders

are similar to those of the underlying granite gneiss. Some of these racks

consist of a mass of cracked and partly disintegrated rock frazments, anil in

hese cases it is often impossible to distinguish rock fragments from the ntrix,

The matrix consists essentially of angular fragunents of quartz, oligaclase,

mitrocline and biatite of similar grain size to that of the parent rock. Retween

these fragments is finer-grained detritus—quartz, oligoclase. microcline. biotite.

12%

jnuscovite and mayuetite together with authigenic sereite. Ta parts of the

utriy iuartz fraginents. predominate. while in other parts Telspar is the duai-

vant mineral,

Analyses of (1) granite gneiss of the Willyama Complex, (2) a boulder

from, the wranite gneiss tilite, and (3) the granite: gueiss tillite from whieh

the boulder was taken, are set out in Table 1. columns 3, 4 and 5. The latter

two rooks ure clistinetly iron stained and this accounts lor the proportions of

ferrous ancl ferric drow compared with those of the granite gneiss from the

Willyania Comples. Apart from this, the chemical composition of all three

rovks is remarkably similar. In particular the correspondence Between the

howder of granite gneiss and the granite gneiss itself is striking aud lens

support to the postulated origin of these coarse fraguiental roeks.

bie, Sa) Grimite gneiss x6, th) Granite gneiss (Mile 9. fo) Granite gmetas tillite xb

These Uheee cucks aceur im the area slew in Fig, 2,

VE. CONCLUSIONS

The tollowing conclustuns Laye been drawn from the preset study:

. The composition of some of the basal beds of the Torrowangee Series sur-

rounding the Poolamacea Tulier is determined to a large extent by the

compusition of the underlying rocks of the Willyatna Complex.

3. Land ice eroded granite auc deposited granite tillite immediately above.

In the same way granite gneiss tillite was deposited above granite gnciss,

3, These basal beds are of variable thickness and extent and show nu. stratl-

fieation, but are: overlain by the normul ghedvene sediments (tillites. silt-

stones, quurtziles gad marbles) of the Torrowangee Series,

4. The gtanite plutons of the aro are pre Torrowangee in age ancl intrude

the eranite gneiss of the Willyama Complex,

—

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

‘The writer wishes tu ackuowledyve research grants given by the Univer:

sitv of Adelaide and the University College of Swanken, aerial photographs

from Zine Corporation Liruited, Broken Hill, facilities for chemical analysis

at the Department of Geology, Imperial College of Science and Technology,

London, auc the generous hospitality of My. and Mrs, R. B, Nevins at Poola-

macea Head Station. ,

140

Messrs. Haddon F. King and B. P. Thomson (Zine Corporation Limited,

Broken Hill), Professor Sir Douglas Mawson, Dr. A. W. Kleeman and Messrs.

R. B. Leslie and A, J, R. White (University of Adelaide) have assisted greatly

by helpful discussions in both the field and the laboratory,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anprews, E, C., 1922. The Geology of the Broken Hill District, Men. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 8.

Jouannsen, A., 1932, A Descriptive Petrography of the Igneous Rocks, Vol. II, University

of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Kine, Hanpon F., awn Tuomson, B, P., 1953. The Geology of the Broken Hill District.

Fifth Empire Mining and Metallurgical Congress Australia and New Zealand. Vol.

I. Geology of Australian Ore Deposits. Aust. Inst. Min. and Met., Melbourne.

Lrsim, R. B., ann Wurre, A. J. R,, 1955, The grand unconformity between the Archaean

(Willyama Complex) and the Proterozoic (Torrowangee Serics) notth of Broken

Hill, N.S.W. 'l'rans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 78.

MepeN Ds 1912. Geological investigations in the Broken Hill area. Mem. Roy. Soc. S.

ust., 2.

141

NOTES ON THE ACARINE GENUS OPHIOPTES, WITH A DESCRIPTION

OF A NEW AUSTRALIAN SPECIES

BY R. V. SOUTHCOTT

Summary

Mites of the genus Ophioptes Sambon 1928 are ectoparasites of Colubrid snakes, in whose scales

they form pits. Three South American and one Asian species have been described hitherto.

Ophioptes samboni n. sp. is described, parasites upon the Colubrid snake Rhynchoelaps fasciolatus

(Ginther 7872) from north Queensland; it is nearest to O. coluber Radford 1947, from India. A key

to the known species is provided, and the homologies of the genus are discussed. The genus is

removed from the family Myobtidae to a new family Ophioptidae.

NOTES ON THE ACARINE GENUS OPHIOFTES, WITH A DESCRIPTION

OF A NEW AUSTRALIAN SPECTES

By R. V. Souracorr

[Read 13 Oct, 1955]

SUMMARY

Mites of the genus Ophioptes Sambon L938 ure ectoparasites of Culubrid snakes, in

whose scales they form pits, ‘three South American and one Asian species haye been

described hitherto. Ophioptes samboni usp. is deseribod, parasitic upon the Colubrid

snake Rhynohpelaps fasciolatus (Gunther 1872) from north Queensland; it is nearest to

O. coluber Radford 1947, from India. A key to the known species is provided, and the

homologies of the gemus are discussed. ‘he genus is remaverl from the family Myobiidae to

a new family Oyhioptidae.

INTRODUCTION

In 1928 Sambon described Ophioptes parkeri as a ucw genus and species

of mite, parasitic upor the banded Colubrid suake Erythrolamprus aesculapii

(1.), from Buenavista, Bolivia. This mite caused pits in the scales of the host.

Sambon described two stages in the life history of the mite, und placed it in

the family Cheyletidae, where it occupied un anomalous position, Sambon

couunented, however, upon certain characters more suggestive of affinities with

the Sarcoptiformes than with the Prostigmata of the Trombidifomnes, Sambon

added a further note abont further specimens of the genus received at the time

of going to press, and allotted some of these to a further species O. ouileniansi

Sambo 1998. which he characterized briefly, but without Bgures. Although

he promised to describe these further mites in a subsequent paper on the

“Ophidian Mites,” apparently this intention was not realized by the time of his:

death ni August, 1931,

In 1933. Ewing described a further species—O, trapicalis Ewing 1933, from

the Colubvid siake Erpetedryus cdrinatus (L.), from British Guiana, Like

Sanbon’s species, it also produced pits in the seales of its host.

In 1947, Radford described a further species, O. coluber, from the “copper-

headed rat-snake (Coluber radiatus Schlegel)” from Imphal, Mauipnr State,

India. As with the preceding anthors, he allotted the genus to the family

Cheyletidae. Thus there has been a total of four species described for

Ophioptes, three from South America, and one from the mainland of Asia.

In the present paper a new species of the gemusx—O. samboni_ n.sp-—is

deseribed, an ectoparasite upon the banded Colubrid Rlaynechoelaps fascivlutus

(Gunther L872) from north Queensland, The opportunity is taken of studying

the attinities af the genus,

OPILOPLES SAXTBONT 1. 87,

Descriplion of Adult (Pigs. 1-8, 5, 7; Fig. 1 aud the description are from

specimen ACCI9B4; Fig, 2 is from specimen ACCI038; a third specimen,

ACCGLY8C, has also boon canipared): Body cllipsoidal, soft, fransverse; width

495,,, length 845, (425n to front of capitulum). Integument soft, thin, not

striated, Eyes absent. Darsiim with an anterior group of fine stiff lanceolate

spiniform setae in its anterior half. setae 16-28. long. A further group of fone

similar setae, smaller. 14-20) long, is situated at the posterior pole of the dorsum,

AIL these dorsal setae are slightly “shouldered,” as occurs in e.g. the dorsal setae

of Sarcoptes scabier.

The venter is strengthened by the epimera of the coxae. To each of the

first three. coxal arcas there is a single spiniform seta, 16-20), long; a similar

pair 16. long to the sternal area. There aré two pairs of stout nautilus-like

bosses or pegs, with a series of curved grooves, on the epimera of the second

pair of coxae, 14p, long by 10, wide (Figs. 2,5) (nautalae). The anterior pair

is situated immediately posterior to the pair of sternal setae. These “nautalae”

resemble somewhat the dorsal “notothoracic spines” of e.g. Sarcoptes scabici

(Tig. 6); the Jatter arc, however, without the serics of grooyings, and articulate

with an extensive seta base,

The genitalia cannot be scen in much detail, but in all specimens a pair

of labia meet in an inyerted Y, immediately in front of the anus. No sign of

the dorsal penis described by Sambon in O. parkeri can be found. Around the

arpaeniat area is a series of short spinifurm setae, arranged as figured, 12-18),

ong.

veh

Oop.

gaurycorr

Fig. L-Oplhioptes samboni n. sp., dorsal view, entire (specimen ACC 193A).

The legs are short and stout, with a weak integument, but are strengthened

internally by chitinous shects, which arc much thicker than the integument.

Each Jeg consists of six segments — coxa, trochanter, femur, genu, tibia, tarsus.

The coxae are not clearly demarcated on the venter. The chaetotaxy of the

legs is as follows:

Leg I: Trochanter with one short curved spiniform scta 20 long, on its

ventral aspect. The femur has two long tapering setae, the anterydorsal the

stouter, pointed, faintly ciliated with adnate ciliation, 724 long, the postero-

ventral simple, ‘hip like. 60 Jong. Genu with a long, simple. whip-like seta

190p. long, situated dorsally; ventrally a short spiniform scta 20 long, with a

145

few barbs; anteriorly a spiniform seta 1sp long, Tibia dorsally with a spiniform

seta with adnate ciliations. 45 long; ventrally with a blunted peg with one or

two adnate ciliations, 162 long by Gu wide, and ulongside this pex a spiniform

seta with adnate ciliations, 304 long. Tarsus dorsally with two rows of setae,

a proximal and a distal; the proximal row of two setae—a striate expanded

spindle-like peg Qn long by 4 wide (a modified solenidion or solenoidal seta =

striate seta), situated anteriorly, and 4 spiniform seta 65. long. slightly bent at

the tip (this seta is duplicated on the Jeft side): the distal dorsal row over-

hanging the sucker or caruuele, two of them falciform (“L-shaped”). with a

sinyle faint dorsal aduate ciliation. cach lip Jong; the other two are voujugate,

ene striate, 264 long, and posteriorly a snaller spiniform seta, 14, long (this

latter is duplicated on the left side). Ventrally a row of four setae, all spiniform,

the anterior 80, long, (hen two similar, each L1jo long, then oue curved, 15p, lone.

Bil ae

6 |

any ie

ae rae %

ety) nie

f p is ws Sah

, ears ieee a) 4a \,

PS v 4. ¥, SS 7

saud \ Roney !

S0tte 4 Sf re De t }

UST RLS OTT

Wigs. 2-6.—Figs 2-3 Ophioples sambout asp: Pig. 2, ventral viow, entire (specuicn ACC

195K), tooscale an deft: Pig. 3, apiesl tarsal seta of palp. Mig. 4. apieal tarsal seta ol

wanboant osu. Fig. G, lateral dorsil seta of an adall femule Surcoptes seubiet | DeGeor

778), (Pivs, 3-6 to seale shown.)

Tey Tl: Trochanter with a similar (as in J) seta ventrally, 202 long. Femur

It as in Leg 1, with anterodorsal seta 0p. longs, posteroveutral $0 long, Genn

as in T, with dorsal spiniformn seta 235e long, yentral spiniform seta [Sp fony.

Tibia: corsal spiniform scta with lightly barbed ciliations, seta 60, loug: ven-

tally a thick peg 1S) dong by 54 wide, with adnate ciliations, ane a spinitorm

seta with a few ciliations, 244 long, Tarsus: setae as in Loy J,

Lee TM; ‘Trochanter dorsally with a Jong spiniform seta with faint adnate

vilialions, Saya Jong; ventrally a spiniform seta 21) long. Femur and genu nude.

Tibia dorsally with « long spinitorm seta with adnute ciliations, 95, long; ven-

trally a stout peg-like scta with adnate ciliations, tapering slightly, a little

blunted, 21h long by 5p wide. Tarsus ITT dorsally with two long spiniform

setae, curved. tapering and finally becoming filiform, 100, Tong. There are no

solenpidal (striate) setae, but otherwise the chactotaxy is the same as i tarsi

Tand IL, There are two L-shaped (faleitorm) setae, and one short spine,

Ley IV; Cluetotaxy us in Leg Il, the only difference being that the dorsal

tibial seta is long. tapering. sunple 165, long.

The tarsus of each leg is provided apically with a peculiar modified! ern-

podium, but is without lateral claws. The empodium (“difureula”) is as

desenbed in other species of the genus —a fine dichotomous fork vives rise to

a further similar structure at its forking, The pitchtorkike branches are

delicately fringed, and taper gracefully te fine points. Each tarsus has a large

vup-shaped sucker, as figured, typically Sarcoptoicdl in appearance, Uresum-

ably the empodium fimetions as a tactile organ, and aids the sucker (cartinele)

below it,

The capitulum is stout, compact aud broad. ‘here has been considerable

simplification of its structure, so Lhat the interpretation of its segmentatiou is

difficult. As in the legs, the segments of the palpi are strengthened internally

hy chitinaus bands, An interpretation of the segmentation of the palpi is

offered in Figure 7. On the ventral surtace of the basis capituli is a pair of

hristles, 14 lony, tuken as the hypostemal sctae. A strong external spine is

preseut at the base of the palp laterally, 47) long; this is interpreted as the

femoral set, A stout, blunt process, with adnate cillations, 16. long, placed

anterolaterally ipen the palp, is interpreted as the lateral tibial seta. A similar

aetiy slightly curved, 20% long. placed dorsally toward the tip of the palp is

considered as the dorsal tibial seta (or possibly the germmal seta). The alba

gen and tibia are fused to a genotibia; at the apex of this there is a normal,

slender hifircate tibial claw, with the dorsal prong over-reaching the ventral.

Ihe palpal tarsns is also somewhat modificd. Apically it hears a seta modified

ta a broad four-tocthed process, roughly in the shape of a human foot, 16x

Teng by LO, wide at its widest part (somewhat anteriorly) (see Fig, 3), The

“tues” are stout and pointed, and point anteriorly and slightly upwards; the

mimitiahnicst toe. like the hallux, extends furthest forwards. The pulpal tarsus

carries also two stout spiniform setae, the lateral 11, long, the medial 20p lons.

The chelicere are styliform, and extend back within the body of the capi-

tulum to form an elbow, and then recurve forwards to a point in about the

misklle of the substance of the capitulum.

Loeality: Three specimens (ACQ193A, B,C) parasitic upon a banded Gnlu-

brid snuke a be a fusciolatus (Girther 1872)) (identified by E. W.

Jensen), collected in the vicinity of Wondecla, North Queensland, received

Sept, 1943, apparently collected a few months before, name of collector un-

known (snake preserved in aleohel in the Regimental Aid Post of the 2nd/S8th

Australian Infantry Battalion ).

The species is numed in honour of L. W. Sambon, 1866-1931, who originally

desevibed the genus, and who was a noted epidemiologist.

Lhe Systematic Position of Ophioptes sambani n, sy,

The following kev is offered for the separation of the five species mow

allotted to the genus ease ou the keys of Sambon, Ewing and Radford. the

examination of O. sambond and a paratype of O, coluber).

A Lach tarsal sucker consisting of two divergent hollow puds .......2...,.-

QO. oudemansi Sambou 1928

AA Lach tarsus with a cup-shaped sucker (earuncle).

B QOn Ue dorsum, above legs 2, 3. and 4, situated peripherally, there is

a long spiniform seta. Lateral tibial palpal seta clavate. ....- 20, -

O, parkeri Sarl 1928

HB No long setac laterally on the dorsum. Lateral tibial palpal seta

taperivg.

CG The anteromedian group of dorsal setae large aud couspicuous:

dorsal body setae near capitulu as loug as the palpi.......-

O. tropicalis Wwing 1933

CC Auteromedian group of dorsal setae shorter.

D A posterior dorsal group of 4 sctue present. Solenvidal

setae on tarsus | and 1 form spindle-shaped pegs. The

foot-like seta at the wpex of the palpal tarsus with 4 “toes”

tHe Sy tatty See y oe beng tet et O. samboni n. sp.

DD Posterior dorsal group of 8 setae present (Le. atius at pos-

terior pole of body). Solenoidal setae on tarsus I and IL

form conical pegs. The foot-like seta on the palpal tarsus

with three distinct “toes” (Pig. 4)....0. coluber Radford

BPicat

Poll he”

Se ha.

ta forat lebtaf rely

Fig. 7—Suevested interpretation of the stricture of the

monthparts. in Ophioptes.

Ophioptes samboni n. sp. is considered closest to its nearest kuown ucigh-

bour geographically. O. coluber Radford, fram Imphal, Manipur State, Fndia.

It is. however. uot possible to make more complete comparisons with the other

species. Furthermore, us none of the developmental stages of O, samboni were

available, only the adult stages have been considered in this paper. In the adult

of QO. parkeri, apart from a reference to the anus, which is depicted im stipple,

along with the anal setae, no figure or description af the ventral surface was

offered by Sambon. Sambou meutioned the presence of cone-shaped spines

(nautalae) upon the yenter of O. oudemansi, and it is inferred that these are

not present i Q. parker, This Jatter would be surprising, as they have now

been observed in each of the other species of the genus. Tt may also be well

to mention here that what are called the coxa, trochanter, fernur and tibia in

the Jegs by Radford should properly be called trochanter, femur, gen and tibia,

Althongh the actual teri employed is arguable in the cases of the you iid

tibia, His is not the case with the more proximal leg segments. The coxa is not

a moyable segment: Ructtord has missed the weakly dened covae on the body,

and called the first moyable segment (trochanter) the coxa, Radford also states

that the dorsum of O. parkeri bears long spines above legs iii; reference ta

Sumbon’s figure shows that this should read ii-iv.

SYambon described a dorsal genital orifice with a penis in his type adult

specimen of QO. parkeri, and took his specimen (?specimens) as male. This

sirneture has not been observed subsequently in the genus by either wing,

Radford or nvyself. and if the validity of Sambon’s observations he accepted.

all the specimens that have been described sinee have been females, It is not

at present possible, therefore, to elucidate intraspecific sexual morphological

146

diflerences. However, Radtord claims that the Iemale sexual orifice ts present

in the anterior part of the dorswn in O. coluber, in the position in fact described

by Sambon for the male sexual orifice, T have examined earcfully a paratype

have been unable to find any trace of au aperture in the posilion deseribed by

Radford, ner is there one in any of the three specimens of QO. samboni, ‘he

venitalia externally in this paratype of Q, coluber are in fact as ceseribed above

in his veeonnt af the maturer instars of O. {repicalis, stated) “Anus wu tongitucinal

slit. in front of which is a bilobed fold, and in front of this fold a transverse

selerotized lip,” and figures the perineum accordingly; this, with minor modi-

fication, agrees with the description and figure submitted here for O. samboni.

His conceivable thal Radford hada male specimen betore him, and not. female

ws he had postulated; however, the clarification of this problem must be left

ta the future..

THE AFFINITIES OF TIE GENUS OPLHOPTES

Smubon (1928) remarked that “At first sight, this scale-inhabiting acarian

supgmested some mew kind of Sarcoptaid mite to be placed between the Sar-

coptidae . , . and the Aniulgesidae ... but, notwithstanding the presence of

eOnspierous cup-shaped snckers on (the) tarsi, the microscope at once revealed

unmistakable Cheyletid characters.” The structure of the body and legs show con-

siilevable resemblance to that of the Sarcoptiformes, There is, as Sambon re-

marked, a large sucker or caruncle te cach tarsus; and, as occurs in many of the

Saroaptiformes, there ate no lateral claws to the empodium, The coxse are

weak, and are represented by epimera. There arc, however, no genital or

udanal suckers, The mouthparts, although highly modified, are in the character

of the Trombidiformes. The chelicerae are styliform, and the palpi are mudi-

fied for clinging. Baker und Wharton (1952), in their textbook of acarology,

removed the genus to the family Myobiidae, hut commented that it occupied a

sumewhat intermediate position between the two families. In the Myohiidae,

hewever, the forelegs typically are modified to an appendage for grasping the

hairs of the mammalian host; also the tarsus of the legs carries one nr two uon-

spicnous claws, and there is no sucker (carumele). The reduction of the palpi,

the lack of tarsal claws to the legs, and the reduction of the coxae, likewise

separate Ophioptes from the Cheyletidae.

It is apparent that by the standards adopted for classification within the

Trombidiformes, that the genus Ophioptes is deserving of family status at least,

and is therefore allotted to the family Ophioptidae n. fam, within the Prostiz-

mata of the Trombiditormes.

OFrnHiorTipaE un. fain.

Definitien: External parasites of Calnbricdl snakes. producing typically pits

in the seales of the host. Chelicerae styliform. Palpi reduced, with a fused

genotibia, Coxae of legs reduced to epimera. Developmental stages unknown.

apart from a pre-adult pupal stage. With a single genus, Opkioptes Same

1928, at present kuawt,

REPEKENCES

Baxtn, E.. W., and Wuarron, GC. W., J952 An Titroduction lo Acavology, The Macmillin

Company, Now York. Pp. 1-465 and sii,

Ewine, H. B., 1933. A New Pit producing Mite from the Seales af a Soyth Amenoun

Snake, J. Parasitol, 20 (1); 53-56,

Lastrophoridac and Lnelaptidae), Proc, Zual. Suc, 117 (1): 224-240.

Samuon, L. W., 1928. Ophioptes purkerl. A New Species anil Genus of Cheyletid fulralit-

ing the Seales of Reptiles, Ann. ‘Trop. Med. & Parasitol, 22 (1); 197-142,

NOTES ON THE YOUNGER GLACIAL REMNANTS OF NORTHERN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY L. W. PARKIN

Summary

The distribution of undoubted glacial erratics lying upon the Cretaceous marine sediments of the

central part of South Australia has intrigued many geologists since they were first noted by H. Y. L.

Brown in 1894. The erratics which consist of a variety of sedimentary and igneous rocks have been

observed particularly in the area from Marree west and south-west to the vicinity of Stuarts Range

opal fields and south to McDouall Peak-in fact, along the south-westerly margin of the Cretaceous

marine deposits.

Many have made the natural assumption that these boulders have been distributed by floating ice in

late Cretaceous times though others object that there is no evidence of conditions suitable for

glaciation at that time, that on the contrary the period was one of general warmth, with tropical

conditions prevailing.

Recent observations made while carrying out detailed geological surveys in the Peake and Denison

Ranges have led the present writer to review the literature on this interesting problem and to present

additional evidence suggesting the probable means by which the erratics acquired their present

distribution.

NOTES ON THE YOUNGER GLACIAL REMNANTS OF NORTHERN

SOUTH AUSTRALIA*

By L. W. Pankrxt

[Read 10 Nov, 1955]

INTRODUCTION

The distribution of undoubted glacial erratics lying upon the Cretaceous

marine sediments of the central part of South Australia has intrigued imany

geologists since they were frst noted by IL. Y. L. Brown im 1694. The erratics

which consist of a variety of sedimentary and igneous rocks have been ob-

served particularly in the area from Marree west and south-west to the vicinity

of Stuarts Range opal fields and south to McDonall Peak—in fact. along the

south-westerly margin of the Cretaceous marine deposits.

Many have made the natural assumption that these boulders have heen

distributed) by floating ice in late Cretaceous times though others object that

there is 10 evidence of conditions suitable for glaciation at that time, that on

the coutrary the period was one of general warmth, with tropical conditions

prevailing,

Recent observations made while carrving out detailed geological surveys

in the Peake and Denison Ranges have led the present writer to review the

literature on this interesting problem and to present additional evidence suggest-

ing the probable tacans by which the erratics acquired their present distri-

bution.

PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS

H. Y. L. Brown (189+) makes first reference to the oecurrence of glaciated

houlders observed during a geological expedition in the area between Me.

Paisley and Strangways Springs, He noted waterworn boulders of cousider-

able size composed af quartzite, sandstone and quartz felspar porphyry, the

latter being particularly common, wud suggested that as the mearest source of

this rock is the Gawler Ranges, the rmuterial came to its present position by

drift ice frou the south.

Brown returns to the smbject later (1898) where he records the occurrence

of erratics near Mt. Eba, and again (1902) when he notes them near William

Creek cid Anna Creek, Again during a trip west from Stuarts Creck Station

(1905) erraties are recerded in plenty, In this latter publication he draws atten-

lien to a stray granite pebble encountered in the Lake Phillipson bore at ix

depth of 3,100 feet embedded in shales of pre-Jurassic age and suggests there-

fore that the action of ive is indicated iu this earlier period.

Edgworth David (1906) reviews the evidence presented by Brown anid

suggests the possibility that the erratics could be derived by reworking of

older ghwivenes such as those already recognised at Crown Point in Central

Australia. The subject was by this time quite controversial, with Howchin

(quoted by David op. cit.) also favouring a re-distribution of older glacial

material, probably of Sturtian age which was known to outcrop near Marrec,

David later change his views and contended strongly (1923) that the glacia-

® Published hy permission of the Director of Mines.

} Geological Survey of South Austria,

i4f

tig was probally upper Cretaceous —his co-author (Howchin) perhaps dis-

senting,

R. L, Jack (1913) records the cecurrence of Sturtian tillite near Mt.

Chandler west of the Alberga River—the most northerly occurrence of this

formation then known—and again draws altention to the presence of super-

ficial erratics in the area west of the Peake and Denison Ranges near Lake

Conway, six miles west of Warrina. Jack is here of the opinion that only Creta-

ceous drift ice can explain the phenomenon, a point of view which he main-

tains (1931) following geological traverses to the north and north-west of

Turcoola. In this publication he records blue marine Cretaceous shales con-

taining ercatics, with diminution in size and frequency from south to north cor-

responding with a drift ice movernent in that direction. He records that erratics

are frequently found on top of and adjacent ta the low outcrops of basement

gneiss, and im particular refers to Mt. Woods, clevation about 100 feet af

uneissic rock, with erratics distributed about its base but not on the upper

slopes. He figures a map showing the distribution of ervatics which are par-

ticularly common in the McDouall Peak-Couber Pedy area, L. Keith Ward

(1925) also features a map showing that the erratics lie hetween the limits of

upper and lower Cretaceous sediments as mapped in the area west of Marree

and north of the Transeoutinental railway. From observations made near Dal-

lousie Mound Springs to the north of Ooduadatta, he places glaciation as late

as Upper Cretaceous, THe reviews evidence from other parts of the world for

a precedent ancl finally contends that glaciation of this age is a permissible

dedhictian,

Woolnough and David (1926) contributed a new piece of evidence follow-

ing a yistt to Moolawatana near the north-east extvemity of the Flinders Manes.

where they observed erraties associated with Cretaccous marine fossils in a dis-

sected creck bank adjacent ta the ranges. While aduillting that the associution

is not here conclusive, iu that the fossiliferous material occurs as fracmental

boulders not in sife, the authors nevertheless contend that the circumstantial

evidence is particularly sttang. This observation when allied ta his previous

views led David to consider the case for Cretaceous glactation as established

and it so appears in his final memoir (1950), “The Geolngy of the Comninn-

wealth of Australia.”

Howchin (1928) critically reviews all the evidence and contests the view

that glacid conclitions could have existed iti Cretaceous times, Tle points gne

that a large part uf the continent was below sea level, the sea itsell bemu an

extensive cull of the tropical ocean. He is unable to agree that any hivlilands

bE sufficient allitude could have existed ta provide snowfelds or that if they

did exist, drift ico could have survived to distribute boulders so widely. Ue

suypests Uiat it is more likely that reworking of Sturtian or Permian tills lias

pravided the material now under question,

Howehin in this same publication deals with the Mooliwatina evidenues

and is happy to dismiss it as an oulwash from the nearby Sturtian tillite, a view

which accords with the most recent observations (G. D. Wonodarl, 1955).

While reviewing the opinion of previous observers on this problem, it is

pertinent to include reference to the evidence of younger glaciation established

in. site beyond controversy. Mention has already been made of the Crown Point

oveurrence described finally by David and Howehin (1923) and which has

been correlated to the satisfaction of all with the widespread glaciation of the

Australian continent in the Jate Palaeozoic (Permian). The Lake Phillipson

hore has also provided evidence which, there is no reasuni ta doubt, indicates

glacial action of the same period, and similarly a diamond drill hale near Anna

Creck railway siding produced evidence of pre-Jurassic glaciation in the form

of a perfectly suled pebble at a depth of S00 fret.

RECENT FIELD EVIDENCE

During regional geolovical mapping in the area between William Creek

and Qodnadatta by the Geological Survey of South Austvalia, glaciation wis

iweorded in several areas which are described by Reyner (1955) and illustrated

ly the published Geological Survey Standard Isnile Atlas sheets Algeluckina,

Nilpiina, Conway, Uimbiuu, Boorthanna, Cadlareena, and Arma. y

Shurtiia tillite is well represented on the Boorthanna and Cadhircens sheets,

It ands mot appear in eutcrop north of latitade 26° 40°, This auenrrenece of

Sturtian tillite has not previously been recorded.

Four iniles north of Warrina Siding (Mup Sheet Nilpinna), a small pocket

of typical unconsolichited till is exposed im<t.creek on the western fouthills of the

preCumbrinn Peake aud Denison Ranges where it lies directly wpen pre

Cambrian bedruck. A feature of this till is the predominance vf cvrratics of

Sturtign eillite, many ef which are facetted and striated, This is clearly a con-

Hucetal morainic deposit which has been preserved {nm situ and its simflavity

te pertions at the teeognised Permian occurrences in the southern part «at

the State is striking.

4 similar theugh perhaps less convincing, accurrence appears six miles

sunth oF Rdwards Creek siding, shown on Map Sheet Conway. In the south-

rast comer of the oorthanna sheet are widespread glacial erratic fields lying

hie high level pre-Cambrian bedrock which are evidently remnants of a similar

til,

Howchin (1928) in a footnote refers ta a glaciated pebble brought in fram

near Mt, Dutton, ‘he source of this specimen has been located in the field

(Map Sheet Algebuckina) on the western slopes of the pre-Cambrian inlier

of the Mt, Dutton Range. Here there is an erratic feld lying at an elevation

above that of the Cretaceous marine formation which to the west laps on to te

inlier, Amongst the erraties seattered along the slope of the range there ik

again a large proportion af boulders of Sturtian tillite many of which are

inarkedly' striated.

CONCLUSIONS

The occurrence of facetted erratics of Sturtian fillite in the younger tll

and amongst the remnant erratic flelds some 60 miles from the nearest outcrop

af this material (in the case of Mt. Dutton), of course, precludes the possibility

as suggested inter alia by Mowehin that the erratics may be derived directly

by crasional reworking of the Sturtian. Further, it is yery apparent that eve

new these crratics are in process of being separated from their unconsolidated

atria and dispersed by periodic outwash floods upon the younger sediments.

There: is adipittedly no evidence available to provide a direct correlation

of these till otwurrenees with the Permian of Crown Point to the north and

Hallett Cove te the south, but since glaciation at that time must be presumed to

have been general between these widely spaced) points thece js no vecussity

tv invoke another glacial epoch to account tor their presence.

Ve is sinzgested therefore that continental glacial dehris was scultered upd

the pre-Cambrian basement during, the Permian, many of the accumulations

hein tu high level pockets, With the encroachment of the Cretaceons sea the

material has been re-workecL and taneh incorporated inta the marine deposits.

though seme of the higher Jevel material remained beyond reach.

Tho pre-Cretaccous physiography was apparently one of very marked relief

with mountain ranges in the Marree, Coward Springs. arid Mt, Dutton aren aed

may tsolated peaks to the sonth and west For exaruple, the bore at Take

Thillipson penetrated over 3,000 Feet of sediments. whereas basement rock out-

crops only 12 miles distant, Under such conditions it can readily he pictured

that Permian Ylacial til would be continually incorporated into the marine

lermations deposited during the Cretaceous.

150

This view, it is felt, adequately cxplains all the observed phenomena. Par-

licularly does it explain the location of the erratics around the southern and

south-western margins of the Cretaceous area and adjacent to bedrock highs,

A sinilar condition is applying even at this time along the shore of the

St. Vincent Gulf where coastal pockets of Permian till are being broken up,

and the erratics from these are lodging in present day marine littoral deposits.

RETERENCES

Brown, H, Y, L., 1894, “Report on the Geology of the Country from Strangways Springs to

Wilgena,” Annual Report, Govt, Geologist, South Aust. Parl. Paper No. 25.

Brown, H. Y. L,, 1905, “Report on Geological Explorations in the West and North West

of South Australia,” Sth. Aust. Govt. Parl, Paper No. 71.

Davw, T. W. Encwonrrtn, 1906, International Geol. Congress, Pt. 1, pp, 463-465.

Dav, T. W. Evcworru, and Howcrnn, W., 1923. Report of Glacial Research Committee,

Aust, Assoc. Adv. Se., Vol. XVI, pp. 74-94.

Davin, T. W. Encwortn, 1950, Ed, W. R. Browne. “The Geology of the Commonwealth

of Australia,” London.

HNowcry, W., 1928. “The Building of Australia and the Succession of Life,” Pt. II, pp.

287-291, British Science Guild,

Jacx, R. L., 1915. “Report on the Region to the North and North-west of Tarcools,” Geol.

Survey, Sth. Aust, Bull, 5,

Jacs, R. L., 1931. “The Geology of the Western Portion of the Great Artesian Basin,” Geol.

Surv. Sth. Aust. Bull, 15,

Rerner, M. L., 1955. “The Geology of the Peake and Denison Ranges, Sth. Aust.” Geol,

Surv. Sth. Aust. Report of Investigations, Series No. 6.

Warn, L, Keity, 1925, “Notes on the Geological Structure of Central Australia.” Trans.

Roy. Soc, S. Aust., Vol. 49, pp. 61-84.

Warp, L. Kerra, 1928, “A New Edition of the Geological Map of South Australia,’ Annual

Rept. Govt. Geol. Sth. Aust., pp. 9-22, Parl. Paper No. 26.

Woovarp, G. D., 1955, “The Stratigraphic Succession in the Vicinity of Mt. Babbage Sta-

tion, South Australia,” Trans. Roy, Soc. §. Aust., Vol. 78.

Wootnoucu, W. G., and Davin, T. W. Evewours, 1926. “Gretaceous Glaciation in Central

Australia,” Quart. Journal Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 82, pp. 332-351.

151

CHLORINITIES OF COASTAL WATERS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY L. M. THOMAS AND S. J. EDMONDS

Summary

A survey has been made of fluctuations in coastal chlorinities at ten widely scattered stations in

South Australia. Samples were tested at approximately fortnightly intervals from December 1949 to

April 1951.

The maximum and minimum chlorinities recorded at the ten stations were as follows:

Port Augusta 26-85°/o9 and 24-55°/o9; Port Wakefield 26-10 and 21-95; Streaky Bay 21-95 and

20-35; Moonta Bay 21-80 and 20-55; Port Lincoln 20-85 and 19-95; Brighton 20-85 and 20-35;

Kingscote 20-75 and 19-75; Port Elliston 20-20 and 19-50; Victor Harbour 20-20 and 16-05; Robe

20-15 and 19-00. General and local reasons for these fluctuations are discussed.

Chlorinities in these waters, especially in Spencer and St. Vincent Gulfs, are strongly influenced by

high local evaporation, low rainfall and small surface run-off, resulting in extremely high

chlorinities at the heads of the two Gulfs.

It is possible that this highly saline water flows southwards along the beds of the gulfs and that it

mixes with the more oceanic waters at the surface near their entrances.

CHLORINITIES OF COASTAL. WATERS IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

By I, M. Trostas snp &. J. EpMonps*

[Read 10 Novy, 1955]

SUMMARY

A survey hay been made of fluctuations im coastal chlorinities at ten widely scattered

staliuns in South Australia. Samples were tested at approximately fortnightly intervals front

Pewember 1949 to April 1951.

‘Yhe waXitttin and minimum chlorinities recorded at the ten stations were us Follows:

Port Augusta 26: 83°7o and 24-59 /.5 Port Wakefield 26-10 and 21-95; Streaky Bay 21-95

and 230-35; Moonta Bay 21-80 and 20:55: Port Lincoln 20-85 and 1-93; Brighton 20-85

and 20-35; Kinuscote 20-75 and 19-75; Port Elliston 20:20 and 19-40; Victor Harbour

30-230 and 16-05; Robe 20-15 awl 19-00. General and local reasons for these fluctuations

are discussed.

Chlorinities in these waters, especially in Spencer und St, Vincent Galfs, are strongly

inffeneesL dy high Ioeul evaporulion, low rainlall and small surface mn-off, resulting in

extranely high chlorinitics at the hols of the two Cults.

its possible thar this highly saline water Haws southwards wong the beds of the gulls

ancl that #t mixes with the more oceanic waters at the surfuce near their entranees.

INTRODUCTION

The coastline of the State of South Australia (seer Fig. 1) is deeply dissected

by Spencer Gulf and St. Viucent Gulf, remnants of an extensive marine jnt-

dation of the region which occurred in early Tertiary tines. The sea receded

later and at about this time block faulting raised the present Mount Lofty

Ranves between St, Vincent Gulf and the lower part of the Murray Valley,

These ranges are veclogically continuous with Kangaroo Island which wow

partially blocks the entrauce to St. Vineent Gulf,

The two gulls are broad at their entrances and shallow. At its cntranee.

Speucer Gulf has its maximum depth of thirty to thirty-six fathurus aud shoals

awuv fairly gradually as it narrows towards its head, about two hundred and

tventy miles inland, At Port Augusta it is only about half a mile wide, but it

extends several miles further to terminate iv mangrove swamps and mud flats.

St. Vincent Gull has a maximum depth of about nineteen fathoms at its entrunve

and this too shoals gradually to its head, a few miles north of Port Wakefield.

about one hundred miles inland. This gulf terminates in a broad, suudy buy,

Neither gulf has w significant fresh water inflow, the only considerable volume

ot fresh water pouring into the Southern Ocean on the South Australian cinust-

line being from the River Murray which enters through Lake Alexandrina about

fittecn miles almost due cast of Victor Harhour.

Ten stations were chosen for approximately forlnighfly samplings of sea

water, These were at Streaky Bay, Port Elliston, Port Lincoln, Port August.

Moonta Bay, Port Wukefield, Brighton, Kingscote, Victor Harbour and LKohe

(seu Fig. 1).

Chlorinity titrations, using a silver nitrate standardised against Woods Ifole

stindurd sea water, from a 5) ml, “blue line” burette were carried out us soon

ay practicable after the receipt of the samples at the laboratory. One 10 ml,

sample from each bottle was usually tested. Only on rare occasions was there

a significant divergenve between the two titration figures. in such cases, titra-

® Department of Zoology, University of Adelaide.

153

ner a0

i saan Cannel

| ~ : i

ws: Af a al SOUTH AUSTRALIA i

acre | te

we Th

cn cust | =:

GREAT x \ ja

a. 2

AUSTRALIAN BIGHT Too Pi | *

” . ma "

( |

it cust . a |

a s * fincas wae wig2 ween |

1“ a ¥ i Renae # ira rs

fincas Jf FD wv |

4 } fe3 |

VAS, os ia ONraewroy |

vw a . io ao , |—15,

“I = ic Fe ae & Soiciey

, z . y 8 s nse Pay |

uf & on _—+ SEVEARE ALCKeuBR,

a re et OP RD ns |

r ae a

= | kv

| =

w fal

» tsp

ee 1 8

gue ie f =

SAMULNG afeONs ‘

ote \ |

i [4a

pega Semel 1 ME 7 T r r ’

f i 13 q a Us % ve The a 2

Fig, 1.—Coast of South Australia showing the positions of the ten sampling stations

and the positions of nine surface stations worked by the B.A.N.Z.A.R Expedition,

1929-31, referred to in Table 3.

tions were repeated and the results averaged, Burette readings were made to

the nearest 0-05 ml.

Figures 2 to 11 show the fluctuations in chlorinity during the period of

the survey, namely, from December 1949 to Apri] 1951. Weekly rainfall figures

have been added and, where available, weekly averaged air temperature figures.

In Figure 11 (Victor Harbour) some wind data and weekly estimated outflow

from the River Murray are included.

The chlorinity figures given in this paper have been published previously

without discussion as to their significance, (Thomas and Edmonds, 1953.)

Steeaky Bay (Fig. 2)

__ The jetty where samples were taken is in a relatively small hay which

offshoots from the larger water-mass of Streaky Bay itself. It is thus well pro-

tected and receives practically no direct surge from the outer ocean, The inner

no. STREAKY BAY

r04/}o0 ee

ois oe a ore

aie

= Le ea ®, A PN » ‘2

«lz % wets ate sng

2 15 ' %

= i 4 ey \

2 i

= 29

DEC.

TeC'e? JAN'SO” FER aay WOW

a tA

Serr

errs

“ig. 2,-Surface chlorinities, air temperatures and rainfall at Sueakw Bay, December [949

to April 1951.

158

bay has a depth varying from about ome and a halt fathoms at the jelly to

about four fathoms at its jection with the outer bay, This entrance is rela-

tively narrow us at half tide am extensive sand bank is uncovered which blocks

the cutrance with the cxeeption of a channel a few hundred yards wide. The

outer bay tuo iy moderately shallow. having a depth, over muvh of its area, of

four to six fathoms falling to eight fathoms at its bread entrance to the Great

Austrian Bight,

There is no significant fresh water inflow into the southern part ef the bay,

At the northern end there ts a small tidal creck which draius some marshy

hud. drat which contains fresh water only after considerable rain. This is,

however, too far away Irom the jetty to have any influence on chlorinities there

‘The rauge of clilorinities at this station lay hetween 20:°35¢/,,. (September

3, 1950) and 21-95"/,, (February 4, 1951). The graphed figures show a well-

marked annual eyele of high chlorinities in super and low in winter, the

chlorinity curve following fairly closely that of ai temperatures. There ig no

clear relationship between chlorinity and precipitation, Sverdrup ef al. (1942

Chart V1) and Toward (1940) (see Fig. L and Table 3) give a figure of about

35-5°/,,, for the saliuity of Bight waters, corresponding te a chlorinity of 19-66.

Thus it can be seen that figures at the jetty at Streaky Bay are consistently

higher than this. Evaporation must then play an important part throughont the

year in the maintenance of high chloriuities here. though of course the efleet

is much more marked in summer. Evaporation at this station las heen esti

mated by Trumble (1948) as 63-9 inches per avnumm while the mean animal

ruinfall is about 15 inches.

Ponr Evuisron (Fig. 3)

As it seemed evident that Streaky Bay would not indicate clearly the

chloriuity conditions in apen Bight coastal waters throughout the year, Port

Elliston was added to the list of sampling stations in March, 1950. This port

is situated in Waterloo Bay, which is much smaller than Streaky Bay and much

less protected fram open water influences. The coastline of the bay forms

PORT ELLISTON

AN TAME OF Be+

we Sans FES

Vie. O—Surfave chlurinities and rainfall st Port Plliston, March 1950 to April 1951, with air

teraperatures for Streaky Biey for dhe sami period,

nearly Ubree paris of a circle; the jetty, from which the samples were taken,

lacing the open ocean, A rocky bir, exposed at low tide. partly blocks the

entrance, bul there is a stx-fathom channel to drain the buy which is for the

most part only about three and a half to fur fathoms deep. Consequently

there is good circulation of sea water with each tide wud this ts reflected in the

relatively stable chlorinity of its waters. The highest figure obtained was 20-20

(Oct. 84, 1950) and the lowest 19-5) (July 25, 1950),

There is little indivaticn of an armmnal cycle as there is at Streaky Bay, the

effeuts of evaporation being to 4 greater extent offset by more tharonygh oceanic

Wait

circulation. Annual evaporation iy estimated hy ‘Irumble ( 1945) at 56-0 inches

while the mean annual rainfall is 16-67 inches, “No local air temperature records

are available for this station so the figures for Streaky Bay, the nearest point on

the coast for which they are available, have becn plotted, They are, however,

probably slightly high for Port Elliston. The chlorinity figures tor this station

are, on the whole, only slightly higher than those for the Great Australian Bight

(Sverdrup et al. (1942 Chart VI)) and Howard (1940), in fact, chlorinities at

this station are the nearest to oceanic conditions of any encountered in lis

suryey. Tt is still evident though that evaporation is the important factor in

the maintaining of the chlorinities recorded,

Port Lincoin (Fig. 4)

The jetty where the samples were taken, though in a well-protected lray.

being sheltered by Kirton Point to the west and Boston Island to the north-west,

has decp water, mostly eight to nine fathoms and has good tidal circulation.

The maximum chlorinity recorded here was 20-835 (March 4, 1951), and the

minimum 19°95 (July 18 and August 7, 1950). There is little evidence af the

direct effect of rainfall but a fairly clear annual cycle is shown, the curve follow-

ing in general the seasonal curve for air temperature,

hea)

Ie | [

fal “ws 14 30° Feb tan ane

Fig, 4—Surfave: chlotinities, air temperatures and rainfall at Port Lincoln, December 1949

to April 1951.

Chlovinities at this station are intermediate between those of upper wll

waiters, as shown by Moonta Bay and Port Angusta. and oceanic waters, The

latter seem to exert the imare important influence owing to the strong currents

of ucoanie water which sweep up between Cape Catastrophe and Thistle Islnd.

The ellect of the highly saline upper gulf waters is shown by the generally

higher chlorinity figures for this station compared with the more oceanic stations

af Port Elliston, Victor Harbour and Robe. The annual eycle of high fiznres in

summer and lower ones in winter indicate, too, that local evaporation is a facto

of some importance. Tromble (1948) estimates average annual evaporation at

48-5 inches and the mean annual rainfall is 19-29 inches,

Pont Aucusra (Fig. 4)

This station stands nearly at the head of Spencer Gulf where it has nar-

rowed to a width of about half a mile. This fact associated with the lower

latitude of this station and its nearness to the arid interior of the continent offer

a ready explanation for the extremely high chlorinities recorded. ‘Che highest

readings were 26-86 (January 21 and April 4, 1951) and the lowest 94-55

(August 21, 1950). This lowest reading is far in excess of all figures from ather

stations with the exception of Port Wakefield, The geography of the region

and conditions of tidal flow also assist in the maintenance of high chlorinities.

About thirty miles south of the station, the gulf narrows abruptly at Print

135

Lowly to a width of about eight or nine miles, At this point, too, on the

castern coastline a long sand bar which is exposed at low water springs, juts

out trom Ward Point making the effective tidal channel about four miles wide.

Through this there is a considerable tide race around Point Lowly. North of

this point, the culf broadens again and then narrows fairly yradually. Lt ex-

tencls several miles heyond Port Augusta to terminate in mud Hats und mangrove

swamps. Admiralty charts show a tidal current of about one anda half knots

a) PORT AUGUSTA

5 4 & | —— —_

pot uingd os As ee

: = aa ~ woroO™ He 2 [ eet

re AT A, ee don | pha a; Yt

° ‘ “h fs ed i - Ae : moat 3 eos He . ie

7 at ae a

wll wo} a ate Dive occas eee all on

31h iifin bbb pls pe PE |} {1 fof bow | oh id A ai

DED ae UAH "MG > Men wee war ‘ é a Seer ect, a ‘ bec aah ot 44:3 MAA een

Vie, 3.—Surfaee chlorinities, air temperatures and rainfall wh Port Augusta, Devember 14)

to April 1941.

between Point Lowly and Port Augusta and an average depth in tuid stream of

four to six fathoms, When the tide runs out, water near Port Augusta would

only be able to traverse about ten of the thirty miles distance to Poiut Lowly

before the tur of the tide tended to drive itback again. Ventilation in this

part of the gulf is then very peor even though the spring tide range is. twelve

feet. The armual evaporation is estimated by Trumble (1945) at about 88

inches. [igh evaporation in the shallows north of the station, ton, would con-

tribute to these high chlorinities as would also the mean low annial rainfall

of about 9:5 iuches, The marked anoual cycle in chlorinities is no doubt the

joint effect of low rainfall, negligible run-off and high evaporation. as nearly halt

of the amniual evaporation occurs in the three summer months, while a third of

the annual rainfall eceurs ia the three winter months,

Moonta Bay (Fig. 6)

‘The vange and level of chlorinitics at this station fall, as might be expected,

hotween those of Port Lincoln and Port Augusta though considerably closer to

the former. The highest recording was 21:80 (July 8, 1950) and the lawest

20-55 (Feb. 2. 1950), though this latter figure was undoubtedly influenced hy

liselit rain on the day of collection, ‘Lhe jetty is situated in a wide, shallow bity

with about oue and a half fathoms at the jetty itself and fonr and a hulf to five

fathoms in the bay generally. The mean armal rainfall is 14-94 inches per

vumutu and the estimated annual evaporation 77°7 isches (Trumble 1948). ‘The

range: OL cldorinities is rather less than might have been expected ata station so

far up the gulf, Tt seems to be diminished by some factor which creates high

dhlovinitics in the winter months when they would normally be expected to

be lower.

A tentative explanation of this condition is here given. Admiralty charts

indicate wa tidal eddy through Moonta Bay. A 1% to 74 knot tidal currrent is

indieated at the northern end of the bay and a % to 12 knot current at its

southern end, A L knot tidal current is shown some distance offshore. Lt is

suptgested that the more saline waters at the head of the gulf cool and sink in

late wuttimn and winter aud flow down its bed. The tidal turbulence at about

the level of Moonta Bay canses vigerous mixing of this stream with the less

1356

[} z MOONTA BAY

mtn 78.

= oo 8 ‘

ha l ne ee inn WO .

2 te 7 =

§ 204" 20 + | 4 = | iy 4F

3 i rf Th hag ii

ea Li | 4 yy

z E | V4 Hal & +44.

Puc} pie! I ae & 19 my 13

Io Lf VA Fhe FL LAL

“DEC” JAWSO” TER wae” a eh ee ale $

dans Fra UAR APP

Fig. 6.—Sirface chlorinities and rainfall at Moonta Bay, December 1949 £) April 1951.

saline surface waters so increasing the surface chlorinity. “The shallowness of

the gulf will uet allow of strong stratification and the prevailing sou'westerly

winds would cause a piling up of water on the eastern coastline which would

assist the general mixing. Thus the figures for this station rise during May,

June and July and are maintained more or less at this level during the remainder

of the winter, In spring and carly summer, the warming and lightening at the

waters at the head of the Gulf tend to check this deep southwards flow so the

chlorinitics at Moonta Bay show a slight decline. This is, however, soon counter-

acted by increased local evaporation during the summer months and the figures

rise again to fall once tnore in early autumn with reduced local evaporation.

TABLE 1.

Hydrograohical cilia from a station is Sorneee Gulf warked by the ERG. “Warrecn™

| Sounding Depth | ‘Permp. |

Dale | Ie, Lang, | Hath) | (rr) Gs.) | C1%og 8,

20.11.39 37 95'S | 137 10 R 10 {) 23-08 ) 295 | -BG-aR

1 23-26 ) yooR | 26e0R

15 24-20 | 2-04 | ag-17

Some support for this explanation is offered by figures given inv ‘Fable 1.

These are taken from data of a cruise of the F.R.V. “Warreen’. The station is

almost on the same latitude as Moonta Bay, but nearer the opposite. shore of

the gulf, The warmer and more saline deep waters must have come from the

north as stations at the entrance to the gulf worked on the same cruise, shaw

lower chlorinities and temperatures at all depths and also a fall in both tem-

perature chlorinity with increasing depth.

Porr Waxrrmtn (Fig. 7)

St. Vincent Gulf, near the head of which this station stands, terminates in

a broad bay bordered with sand and mangrove flats which are exposed to a

width of nearly a mile at half tide. A small channel has been dredged through

this up to a wharf near the towu, where the samples were taken. This channel

has a length of about three-quarters of a mile. Tt is about thirty-four feet wide,

and at an average high tide has a depth of about nine feet six inches, while at

average low tides it has a depth of about two feet. It was last dredged during

1949-50. ‘This carries away a part of the outflow of the Wakefield River, the

main flaw of which has now been diverted to run into the gulf a few miles

north of the township. So it is only when the river is in spate that an appreci-

187

al 3, PORT WAKEFIELD

Zee

BATNFALE POINTS per wEE®

ne fr Dat}

aber

a, - 7 ia

GEC "ag san “SO nts Mahl

S Mal = .

Juve duce bes santa) Fee

Fiy. 7,.-Surface chlorinities and rainfall at Port Wakefield, Deemuber 1949 to April 1951,

able amount of fresh water is discharged past the wharf where the samples

were taken.

‘The position of this station neay the head of St, Vincent Gulf coupled with

an occasional inflow of fresh water from the Wakefield River, has resulted in

giving this station a wider range of chlorinities than any other station with the

exception of Victor Harbuur. The highest figure recorded was 26-10 (December

8, 1950) and the lowest 21-95 (July 7, 1950). The annual evaporation at this

station is estimated by Trumble (1948) as 79 inches and the annual rainfall

is about 13 inches so, as at Port Augusta high evaporation, especially during

the summer months, is a potent faelor in the maintenance of high chlorinitics.

The lower values are the results of occasional dilution by the Wakefield River.

BricHton (Fi. 8)

This station oceupies a position in St. Vincent Gulf more or less similar

to that of Moonta Bay in Spencer Gulf, so the cycle of events at the two stations

might well be compared, Actually, the range of chloriuities at Brighton was

the smallest noted in this survey, “The maximum value was 20-85 (December

12, 1950, January 19, and March 3, 1951) and the minimnn 20°35. ( Jane 4,

1950). Avain the annual cycle of high summer and low winter chlorinitics 1s

nat well marked, some of the winter readings falling only slightly short of many

ol the simmer ones. So here again a How of highly saline waters from the

head of the gulf along its bed can be postulated. There is, however, no marked

tidal turbulence indicated on the Admiralty charts im the vicinity of Brighton

which would indicate mixing of bottom and surface waters as there is at Moonta

Gay, but prevailing sou’westerly winds would affect this voustling as they would

the eastern coastline of Spencer Gulf and influence its chlorinities as they do

those at Maonti Bav.

a BRIGHTON "

at IPSP PF

TariFai. PONT S pe

Fig. §, -Surface chlorinities, air temperatures and rainfall at Brighton, December 1944 to

April £951,

155

TABLE 2.

Ifydrographic data from sea-water samples taken at two stations in St. Vincent Gulf

159

Depth Temp. |

Date Station fm.) CC.) C1" /o9 6 i

30/12/43 OMF Glenelg 10 17-25 20-09 26-46

20 17-50 20-18 26-53

30 17-50 20-22 26-58

40 17°50 20-24 26°61

30/12/43 Off Cape fervis 10) 19°50 20°49 26°44

20 19°50 20-51 20-47

30 19:50 20-56 26°57

30/1/44 OF Glenelg 10 20-00 20:47 26°29

20) 20-00 | 20-51 26-34

30 20:25 | 20-42 26-15

40 20-00 20-48 26-30

4/G/4+ Of Glenely 0 14-30 20-34 27-48

10 14-50 20-40 27-53

20 14-50 20-41 27-54

uly “44 OMT Glenelg 0 18-30 20-42 26-66

10 18-20 20-44 26-71

20 18-10 20-45 26-75

30 18-20 20°48 26°77

40 18-50 20°52 26+ 7+

July 44 Off Cape Jervis 0 18+80 20-73 26°95

10 18-50 20-70 26-99

20 18°30 | 20-69 27-03

30 18-30 20-69 27-03

6/8/44 Off Cape Jervis 0 12-20 20-63. 28-35

10 11-50 20-64 26-48

20 11-50 20-67 28-52

16/9/44 Off Cape Jervis 0 13-30 20-44 27-83

10 13-00 20-43 27-88

20 13-00 20-43 27-88

30 13-00 20-49 27-96

12/3/45 OF Glenely 0 19-10 20°45 26°49

10 18-50 20-42 26-60

20) 18-50 20-44 26-63

30 18-50 » 20-44 26-63

40 {8-50 | 20-45 26-64

4/2/45 OFF Cape Jervis f 20-50 20-59 26-30

10 20-20 20-60 26-41

20 20-00 20-61 26°48

30 20-00 20-60 26-46

21/10/45 OF Cape Jervis 0 15-25 20°31 27-27

10 14-80 20-30 27°32

20 14-80 20+3 27°34

30 14-80 20°32 27°35

25/1145 OW Glenely 0 18-30 20-40 26-38

10 17+00 20°40 26°95

20 17-00 20-45 27-02

30 17-00 20:44 27-01

Tihle 2 is compiled from samples of sea water collected during the war

years and analysed by the Division of Fisheries of the C.S.LR.Q, Glenelg is

a few miles north of Brighton, while Cape Jervis is the point of the wainlanel

closest to Kangaroo Island (see Fig. 1). These figures show in general (i) that

deeper waters have a higher chlorinity than surface waters, (ii) that the inercase

in chlorinity with depth is more marked off Glenelg than it is off Cape Jervis,

and (iii) that the surface and bottom chlorinities off Cape Jervis are generly

higher than are those off Glenelg. These points seem to indicate that the highly

saline water from the bed vf the gulf does become admixed with surfave waters.

but mainly some distance sonth of Glenelg. More information is, however.

needed to verify these mutters.

Chittleborough (iwrpnblished data) records a maximum -chlorinity of

21-217, and a minimum of 20-22"/,,, at Outer arbour which is about sixteen

miles north of Brighton. These values are in general, slightly higher than those

at Brighton. This is in keepimg with the position of lis statiou Further up the

gulf. The wider range of chlorinities here cau be accounted for by the in-

fluence of the Port “River”, a long inlet, in whieh be records a wider race

than at Quter Harbour, namely, a maximum of 20-59°/,,. aud a minimum of

19.49°"/,,,,.

a0 KINGSCOTE

M4 Z

i a a,

# i ed

2 we, Oe” eee ¢

3 Me one Rea

3 40 an 3 a

=: we

& :

4 ha

ore AN TH Ga OAR

GEC "av Jam “SD FEB

. §—Surtace chlorinities, air temperatures and rainfall al Kingseote, Devember 1949 to

April 1951.

Kincscorn (Tig, 9)

This station is on the north coast of Kangaroo Island. Its jetty is in a wide,

fairly shallow bay which is protected to the north and west by a sandy spit,

mostly covered at high water but rising at intervals to form a chain of low

islets. The maximum chlorinity recorded was 20-75 (January 6 aud December

22, 1950) and the minimum 19:75 (August 4, 1950). There is a fairly well-

marked cycle of high readings in summer and low in winter, showing the influ-

ence of a predominantly winter rainfall and a fairly high rate of evaporation

in the summer mouths, According to Trumble ie) the annual evaporation

is 51-G inches and mean annual rainfall 19:28 inches. The lowest winter figures

are, however, still above the average for the more oceanic stations, such as

Elliston and Robe, indicating that the highly saline waters of St. Vincent Gulf

influence this station too. Womersley (1947) records slightly higher ehlorinities

on the north coast of Kangaroo Island than on the south coast which faces

the Southern Ocean.

Vicron Iansour (Fig. 10)

This station showed the widest range of chlorinities and also the lowest

chlorinity encountered in this investigation, The highest reading was 20-20

(March 4, 1950) and the lowest 16-05 (August 5, 1950). The general run of

chlorinities seems to lie between about 19-50 and 20-20, but there are sudden

160

Urops to much lower figures, These drops arc undoubtedly to be associated

with the outflow of fresh water fom the Riyer Murray whose waters enter

the sea about 15 miles almost due east of the station. The River Murray actu-

ally opens into a broad and shallow expanse of water which includes Take

Alexandrina and Lake Albert, On the seawards side of these lakes suveral

islands, the remnants of a former sand dune system, break up the flow of water

into several channels which again converge on to a single opening to the sea

between sid dunes which is known as Murray Mouth, In 1940, a serles of

barrages was completed linking these islands so that the outflow of fresh-

witer could be controlled and the inflow of sea water prevented. The lakes

which were originally very brackish haye thus by now become virtually bresh-

water lakes. Before the building of the barrages the chlorinity of the lakes

was in the vicinity of 4-0, but since their establishment this figure has dropped

ta abent 0-06 (MeIntash, 1948),

J» na, MICTOR HARBOUR

: aos RERCNS OF AGUITNETS WINDY

“o" ale Peau

ane

PORT ONT AL

DEL Me dan 9 rT

Fig. 10.—Srrface chlorinities, air temperatures, rainfall and periods uf moderate te stron

sunthorly winds (full line indicates almost cantinnous southerlies, broken line, tbermiltent

southerhies), at Vietor Harbour and estimated outiow from the River Murray, December

1949-April 1957.

The approximate outflow of freshwater through the barrages is shown in

Figure 10. These figures are computed from the weekly flow of water over

Lock 1 in the river at Blanchetown ahout 170 miles upstream from the muuth,

It is estimated that the river water takes about ten days to Aow from Lock, 1

tu Lake Alexandrina, so this lag has been allowed for in plotting the points. A

small percentage which would be lost by evaporation Aicng this period has

been ignored.

The influence of this outflow is noted at Victor Harbour only during periods

of southerly winds When the wind is in other quarters the chlorinities at this

station are generally high, more or less on a par with conditions at Robe and

Port Elliston on the open coastline. The marked influence of southerly winds

can be explained by the delineation of the coastline (see Fig. 1) and by the

neean currents along it, The great sub-antarctic West Wind Drift is partly

deflected northwards when it strikes western Tasmania. This portion flows

north-west along the south-eastern const of the State to form a large eddy whose

northernmost boundary is the south coast of the Australian Continent, This

eddy would thus tend to carry ontflowing water from Murray Mouth towards

Vietor [farbour. Inshore, however, the current would be relatively weak so

that effective transport of surface water would be apparent only when it was

assisted by 2 moderate or strong southerly wind component, Westerly or

nartherly components would counteract it while easterly winds in this region

are relatively rarer and of lower velocity so would be less effective. Perinds

of moderate to strong southerly winds are indicated in Figure 10 and these

correspond almost without exception with falls in chlorinity. The noteworthy

exception ix during February, 1950, when despite almost continuously southerly

Tfst

winds the chlorinity rose. During this period, however, the barrages wer-

closed and the small How over Lock 1 was allowed to fill Lake Alexandrina.

During the remainder of the period of this investigation, the barrages have been

closed for uo more than a few odd days, From late November 1950 to carly

Pebruary 1951 there was au unusually high outflow from the barrages and there

were miiny periods of southerly winds. These factors account for the low and

Hictuating chlorinities during these months, The lowest chlorinity recorded

(16°05) on August 5, 1950, was at a time of very high raiufall (the highest

weekly record tor the year), moderate outHow from the barrages and a week

of continuens south to souwesterly winds.

Two simall rivers, the Hindmarsh and the Imman, enter the sea near Victor

Harbour, They How freely only after heavy rain. No direct correlation was

found between their outflow and the chlorinities recorded at the sampling

station with the possible exceptions of the samples taken on August 5, 1950

(ClY,,,= 16-05) and October 14, 1950 (Cle/,,,.-~ 16.80).

Ropr. (Fig. 11)

The jetty at this station is in a wide, fairly deep and well ventilated bay,

The highest chlorinity was 20-15 (January 22, 1950, and January 18, 1951)

and the lowest 19:00 (August 18,1951). The four low figures during July ancl

August are to be associated with heavy rains at about the time of collections.

The mean annual rainfall is given by Trumble (1948) at 24-75 inches and the

OM.

‘ f

7 ares

= > ta es

asa 1 ey

§ cy

i 1 2h

One lag sie Ney dan ts TER was, ‘ape

Mig. LL—Surtace clilurinities, air teumperatures andl rainfall at Kobe, December 149 to

Apel 1951,

aunual evaporation as 37:4 inches. Even though there are no significant streams

or rivers enlering the s¢a in this region the porous tertiary limestone of the

district wllows an outflow of subterranean treslowater. The relatively high mean

antinal ruinfall auc low evaporation rate woud thas give this station gencrally

Jower chlorinitices than the other stations which have been diseassed. The

highest figures, during the summer months, are comparable with the maxima

of Vietor Ularbour and of Port Elliston, the only ather two stutions, excepting

Streaky Bay, which are not affected by gulf waters, The amnual cycle of high

summer and Jow winter readings is well marked. Tt follows fairly closely the

wummial air temperature cycle,

DISCUSSION

The fluctuation ii chloriniGes of seawater in the vicinity oF coustlines Tast

be greater than is the case in surface waters of the open ocean. Ihiflow of fresh-

water. either by precipitation or from rivers and evaporation in shallows, will

depress ov elevate the valnes respectively. Gilles (1049) records an annual

periodicity at some surface sampling stations in the Trish Sea i am analysis

of water samples taken between 1935 and 1946, Several of these stations (e.g.

162

Liverpeol Bar and Morecambe Ray.) show summer maxima and wititer minima

while one station, midway between Holyhead on the Welsh coast and Kish

near the Jrish coast, shows a winter maximum and summer minimum, These

fhictuations seem to be the result wf two major factors, namely, freshwater inflow

trom adjacent rivers aud inflow of Atlantic water. Bigelow and Leslie (1930,

p. 152) alsu record a seasonal fluctuation in the salinity of surface waters in

Manterey Bay, California, with low yalues in February to April. and high in

June to August, This they correlate with the seasonal variation in discharge

of the Salinas and ether rivers which reach a maxinnim in November. December

aud Jumuary.

Where the freshwater inflow is considerable, as in an estuary, stratification

will occur, the position and integrity of the boundary depending on (a) the

amount of inHow, (hb) the degree of tidal turbulence, (ce) evaporation, and (d)

the configuration of the sbore line and bottom (e.g, Rochford, 1951). The

actual ebloriuity figure in any given locality will depend on these same four

factors, so that in a region cf low rainfall and high evaporation, the coustal

values will be higher than those of adjacent oceanic waters, the differcuce de-

pending on the amount of evaporation and influx of oeeanie water.

Wust p16) cited hy Sverdrup ct al. (1942, p. 124) estimates the region

of the highest surface salinity and evaporation in the open oceans of the

Southern Hemisphere to lie hetween lat. 20° and 30°S. He gives an average

figure of about $*/,,,= 33°75 (Cl"/,,= 19°83) and annual evaporationmins-

precipitation figure of about 30 inches, Port Augusta (lat. 32°28'S) and Port

Wakefield (lat. 84° 11'S) fall just outside this range. In these two places, how-

ever, and in the gulfs gencrally, chlorinities are much increased by the high

evaporation rate due to proximity to the arid interior of the continent and the

very low freshwater inflow either from rainfall or strearns,

PORT AUGUSTA = ——————

PORT WAKEFIELD —_

STREAKY Bay eel

MOONTA Bay —_—_—_—_—

PORT LINCOLN —

BRIGHTON —

RINGSCOTE —a

PORT ELLISTON —_—

VICTOR HARBOUR

ROBE —

Fig, 12.--Runges of chlorinitics al Che len stations December 1949

(except Port Elliston, Marel 1950) to Anvil 1951 artanged in

order of traximtim chloriuities,

Tn Figure 12 are shown the ranges in chloriiities at the ten stations during

the period of the inyestigation. They are listed iu order of the highest chlorin-

ity recorded. The stations full thus into natural groups. The two heading the

list, Port Augusta and Port Wakefield, with high aud fluctuating chloriuities,

are ut the heads of the two gulfs. Streaky Bay falls far behind these and shows

clearly the etfect of local evaporation with moderate ventilation by oveanic

waters. Moonta Bay, about halfway wp Spencer Gulf, is intermediate between

Port, Augusta ancl Port Wakefield on the one hand, and the stations nearer the

entrances to the gulfs, tumely, Brighton, Port Linco and Kingscote, on the

other, The smaller fluctuation at Moonti Bay compared with Port Augusta

163

and Port Wakefield) has alrendy been discussed. A comparison of the results

from Moonta Bay with those of Port Wakeficld shows clearly the influcnce ol

lack of circulation im upper gulf waters. The two stations are on approximately

the same latitude and their respective eyaporation-minus-precipitdtion figures

are about the same, approximately 61 and 66 inches respectively aecording ta

Trumble ('948). Yet as can be seen from Figure 13, their average chlorinities

and chlorinity ranges are widely divergent. The uext three statious. Brighton.

Port Linculu and Kingscote, are obviously influenced by the higlily saline gulf

waters, Kingseole, because of its position to a lesser extent than the other two.

The small range at Brighton has also been discussed. The three remaining

stations have similar maxima showing that these. all ou the open coast, are

the nearest to purcly oceanic conditions. Their ranges are influenced by local

conditions. Port Elliston, in its well-ventilated bay, has a small range; Robe

has its range extended by relatively heavy rainfall in the winter season. while

Victor Harbour is very strongly influenced by outflow from the River Murray

barrages.

TABLE, 5,

Spriuce slauens worked in (he Great Australian Bight arid St. Vincent Gulf by the BAWNLZAR,

Expedition. March-April 1930,

| i

| | ime Lat. _ Lone. Temp. PLO,

No, | Dae Ra mi | tS 5 | we 4) | vey Stijn | CN% oy | fee Las

| | March 27 | 24-00 | BS 34 | 29 19 | tae72 45-95 19-65 | 4

2 March 28 12-05 35 33 | 130 12 18-57 | 39-359 19.49 2

, March 28, 24-00 | 5% 26 ) 13! 4B ' (810 | 35-35 | 19.55 j

{ March 29 | 22-00 3902000 139 82 | Lge 44-56 19°17 i

5 ) Mareh ny 24-00 35 93 , et 42 18°39 a 14-05 0

6 | March 30 12-10 35 28 «| 136 02 1737 35-84 19°83 i)

7 | aa an | D-O0 | 35 2B) 137 13 | 18-57 46 + 19-95 0

u March $1 | 12.10 35 24 | 187 53 | TSS 9 36-03 19-94 \)

4 | April ood | 34 450 | ise 1d | 20-08 | 37-11 269 | Q

The extremely high chlorinity values recorded in northern gulf waters seem

to be unique. The highest value recorded by Thompson (1939) for the Red

Sea is Cl!’/,9 = 22°78 (S'%..— 41-05) in deep water at the northern end,

Sverdrup et al, (1942, Chart VT) shows a $?/., = 40-00 (Cl"/,,, = 22-19) iso-

haline near the eastern shore of the Persian Gulf, salinities iu olher parts of the

gull presumably being lowered by inflow of water from the Rivers Tigris and

Euphrates, [ndeed, most gulfs in most parts of the world have considerable

river juflows which depress their chlorinity valucs and make them estuarine.

Conditions in the Spencer and St. Vincent Gulls are then in same ways

the reverse of thase fonnd in an estuary, Towards their heads, there is an

increase in chlorinity, but as in an estuary, resulls obtained [rom hydrological

data collected by the F_R.Y. “Warreen™ already cited, show that there is ai

inerease jn chlorinity with depth. The rising tide must then flow inte the

gulls on the surface, overlying the decper, more saline water, Tn a typical

estuary (e.¢. Rochford, 1951) incoming oceanic water will flow in along the

bottom while the lighter, fresher water will move out at the surface. Further

systematic hydrological work will be uecessary to verily this point in the gulfs.

Some verification af the results of the present workers as to the chlorinities

within the gulfs has been obtained from the hydrological data of cruises of the

inl

FRY, “Warreen” already referred ta, aud also from hydrological data from the

B.AN.Z.A.B. Expedition (Howard, 1940). Nine surface stations worked on this

expedition have heen numbered 1 to 9 on Figure J for the convenience of this

paper and are listed in Table 3. These chlovinities remaining relatively stable

uerass the Great Australian Bight show a rise at Station 6, opposite the month

of Spencer Gulf. and a further rise in Investigator Strait, north of Kaugaroo

Island at Stations T and S..and still further a mse at Station 9, which is at the

Semaphore Apehorage, about 14 miles north of Brighton,

A noteworthy feature of these figures, too, is the total absence of phosphate

in St. Vincent Gulf and adjacent waters. Attempts at estimations of phasphate

in samples received during the present survey have been made by one al us

(S12). It wis found impracticahle, however, to maintain this line of inves-

tigation because of the inevitable delay between the collection of the samples

dod their urrival at the Jahoratory. All estimations made, however. showed

remarkably low phosphate concentrations, but these are in keeping with the

7 ia Expedition results (Table 3), and also with those of Womersley

1947 ),

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are deeply indebted to the following people who have se faith-

Fully collected the samples of seawater for them, Miss Robin Fleming and Miss

Louise lucas of Streaky Bay; Mr. M. BR. Baum and Mr. Neville Owen of Port

Elliston; Mr. Mauriee Guy and Mr, C. W. Johnston of Port Lincelu; Mr. Maleolm

Cocklaurn of Port Augusta; Mr. Don Tossell of Moonta Bay; Mr. Max Trevilgas

of Port Wakefield; Mr. Robert Menz of Kingscote; Mr, Graham Field of Vietor

Harbour; Mr, F. FE. Riumball, Mr. J. F. Price, Mr. Ti. F. Weidrich, and My-

M_ J. M. Keough of Robe.

Acknowledgment is also made to Mr. B. Mason and other members of the

stall of the Commonwealth Meteorolugical Bureau, Adelaide; to Lieut-Col-

H. G. Tolley, and members of the Staff of the Engineering and Water Supply

Depurtment, Adelaide; and to Mr. W..R, Tuck af the South Australian Marbours

Board. These gevtlermen hiuve given us much useful information from their

files and yaluable opinions from their experience,

The Division of Fisheries, C.S.1.R,0., has kindly provided standard seawater

and some lutherta aupublished data from their recards of chloriuities in South

Australian waters,

The District Clerk of Port Wakefield has pravided local information about

the flow of water in the Wakefield River and about the condition of the shipping

channel up to that port.

The work has beeu largely financed by the State and Commomwvealth Ke-

search Grants.

REFERENCES

Biecuow. H. B,, and Lestar, M., 1930. Keounnaissance of the waters aud plankton at

Monterey Bay, July, 1928, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool, Harvard Coll. 70: 499-481

ComMoNWEALTH Scien 1iric ann [xpusrrtai., Reseancn OxnGanrzarion, ]U51. Oceanoytaphie

Station List. Vol. 1. UWydrological and Planktological Observations by bLH.V

“Warreen” in South-Rastern Australian Waters, 1935-9.

Cities, D. C., 1933. The Temperature and Salinity of the Surface Waters of the Lisl Sea

for the period 1935-46. Mon. Not, R. astr. Soc, Geophys. Suppl. 3; 374-97,

Howann, A., 1940. Programme of work and record of obseryations, BA.N.Z.AT, Exp, Rep.

Ser. A, 3: 29-85,

McIxtosn, Hon, M., 1948) The River Murray Burruyes, [. Agric. S, Aust, 52; 425-9,

Rocuronp, D., L951. Studies in Avatralian Pstustine Hydrology. 1. Gatreductory und Com.

patative features, Aust. J. Mar, Freshw. Hes. 3; 1-116.

Sveannur, H. U., Jonsson, Mi. W,, and Firemunc, RK. H., 1942, “The Oceans.” (Prentice

Hall Inc.; New York.)

tan

Tuomas, 1. M., and Epmonps, S. J., 1953. Surface Chlorinity Observations in South Aus-

tralian Coastal Waters, December 1949-April_ 1951, Commonwealth Scientific and

Industrial Research Organization, Oceanographic Station List 14: 53-64.

‘THomeson, E. F., 1939. Chemical and Physical Investigations—the General ITydrography of

the Red Sea, John Murray Exped. 1933-34, Sci. Rept. 2: 83-103.

TrumBie, H. C., 1948. Rainfall, cvaporation and drought frequency in South Australia, J.

Agric. S. Aust. 52: 55-64.

Wonrenstxy, H. B. S., 1947. The marine algae of Kangaroo Island. A general account of

the algal ecology, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 71 (2): 228-52.

166

SACCOGLOSSUS APANTESIS, A NEW SPECIES OF ENTEROPNEUST

FROM SOUTH AUSTRALIA

BY I. M. THOMAS

Summary

A new species of the enteropneust genus Saccoglossus is described and named Saccoglossus

apantesis. This is the first record of this genus in Australia and the first enteropneust to be described

from South Australia.

SACCOGLOSSUS APANTESIS. A NEW SPECIES OF ENTEROPNEUST

FROM SOUTH AUSTRATTJA

By 1. M. Trosras®

{Read LO Nov. 1955]

SUMMARY

A new specios of the enteropnenst menus, Saccoglossus is desuribed iorl mand Seeeo-

hossne cnontesis. This is the first reeurd of this gemus in Anstritlia and the first cricropnenst

to be deseribed from South Atstralin:

I. INTRODUCTION

Enteropneusts already recorded from the Australian continent include

Balanoglossus austratiensis (Hill) found near Sydney (Hill, 1894); Prychodera

flava Escholtz (= Pt. pelsarli), from the Abrolhos Islands (Dakin, 1916), and

P. flava and B. varnosus (Willey) from the Great Barrier Reef (‘Trewavas, 1931),

Trewavas also described a number of tornaria larvae from the same region

which have not yet been associated with specific adults. The present author

has identified a single specimen sent to him from the Great Barrier Reef as

Glossobulunus hedleyi (Hill) first described from Funafuti (Hill, 1897). In

1899 Benham described Saccoglossus otagoensis (Benham) trom Otago Harbour,

New Zealand,

The form to be described herein is found on the shores of Encounter Bay,

South Australia (lat, 35° 35’ South, long. 138° 36" East) about fifty miles dhe

south of Adelaide. The foreshore in this region consists of an extensive platform

of a sandy Permian fluvioglacial stratum. The platform extends abouE one

huntlred yards. offshore, sloping gradually seawards and dropping abruptly into

deeper water at its outer edge, It is largely overlaid by a deposit of coarse

sand. shell grit and some mud, which supports a thick growth of Posidonia,

Cymodocea and Zostera. The first two of these plants cover most of the plat-

form, whilst the Jatter is found in shallow water near its shorewards ede. Here

the rock surface is pitted and dented to form basin-shaped depressions where

the sail may lie to a depth of six to twelve inches, though in much of the area

investigated the soil is no more than half this depth, This part of the coast is

protected in part, to the west by Rosetta Head (“The Bluff’) and olfshore, to

the south, by Wright Island, about half a mile away. Both these are granitic

outcrops. The region is thus normally one of more or Jess quiet water,

The animals arc found in the upper two or three inches of soil which is

lightly bonded by Zostera roots. They have not as yet been found other than

in association with this plant. Other animals found in the same habitat include

Maldanid and other polychaete worms. some burrowing crnstacea (Callianasa

ccramica andl Crangon novoselandiae ), several burrowing lamellibranchs and

aceasional sipunctuids and uemertines. The enteropneusts are extremely localised

in their distribution, Although a considerable arca of the foreshore has been

examined by digging and sieving, they have been found only in three small

regions, each not more than two square yards in extent and all about the same

distance from high water mark. The regions are exposed at yery low springs

tides. The restricted distribution of the animals might be accounted for by

* Department al Zoology, University of Adelaide.

167

the pitted nature of the underlying rock which might tend to limit their Jateral

movements: In these regions. however, several specimens ean be turned up

i a single spadeful af soil, The animals are frequently so tangled in with the

Zostera root-systems that it is almost impossible to obtain complete speeimens,

‘Lhe abdominal region in particular is very fragile and breaks off readily. Bratu-

bell gnel Cole (19898) have recorded that it is impossible to obtain jntact speep,

inens OF Sucewglossus cambrensiy because ot its fragility,

A single specimen fius been found in a similar habitat at Salt Creek neay

Edithlurg on the eastern coust of Yorke Perinsula. Though this exumple was

Not sectioned, it bore all the external characteristics of the KEneounter Bay

specimens, Sult Creek is, in a direct ine, about sixty miles north-west af Ene

vounter Bay so it is likely that further investigation of suitable localities may

show the anituel to have «a wide distribulion along the South Australian coastline,

Wher the water is very still, casts can be seen on the sand surface which

ure similar to those produced by $, cambrensis (Bramnbell and Cole, 193Da).

They ae in the form of fine coils of sandy material honcded together by mucus.

They are about a centimetre in diameter and one to one and a half turns in

length panel verv fragile, No tubes bave been observed though, if present and

Fragile. us are the castings, they would be ne doubt shattered among the Zostera

rauts in the process of digging and sieving,

‘The Fellewing features place the animals in the family Harrimaniidac

Spenuel: (a) lack of hepatic diverticula, (bh) Jack of synapliculae, (¢) Jack oF

lateral septa, and (d) lack of circular muscles in the trink region. ‘They agree

with the diagnosis of the gems Saccoglossus Schimkewitsch (= Dolichoglossus

Spengel) in the following points: (a) proboscis very long, (b) collar about as

Jong as broad, fe) lateral genital ridges present but no dorsal gonads, (dd)

gonads overlap the genital region to some extent, and (e) gill pores small but

distinct, The specimens differ in several powits from the published descriptors

of the teurteen other species of the gems, so it is proposed ta erect w new

species, Saccovlossus apantesis, to include them, The specific name is derived

from the Greck word meaning a meeting or an cricounter, as it was near the

pluce where the animals were first found that there eveurred the historic en-

counter between Matthow Flinders in the “Investizator” and Nicolas Baudin in

the “Geographe” im April, 1802,

Several detailed accounts of the anatomy of different species of the genus

are available apart from the compensinm af yan der Horst (1927-89). for

oxample, S. otagoensis by Benham (1899); S. inhacensis by Kapelus (1936);

S. cambrensis by Brambel! and Cole (1939a), and $, horsti by Brambell and

Goodleart (1941), Tn the description of the present species then. only thise

leahives Which are characteristic of S. apantesis will lar dealt with, Features

which it shares with several other members of the genus will, in the main.

he mnittert.

IL FXTRRNAL FEATURES

S. apantesis is a moderately sized species, An adult in the living condition

has au lenzth of 70 to 85 mm. This is made up as (nllows: proboscis 20 te 25

nin. collar 3-0. ta 3-5 mm: branchial region 10 to 12 min, genital region 15

ty 20 nin, (the two latter regions overlap to a considerable extent); ahclominal

region 25 ta 80mm. ‘The genital region in metture speciniens is always coiled

so that the measurements given for this resion can be no more than an estimate.

Young specimens are culoured a uniform light orange, Adults have a pra-

bwseis of light orange, darkening somewhat at the base and stalk. The collar

is orange-red with, in larger specimens, u white ring near the posterior margin.

The branchial region is paler than the collar though darker than the proboscis.

In females the genital ridges are light orange. but in males they are browny red,

The lateral ancl venteal body walls in the genital region are similar in colour

wis

to the brauehial region. The abdominal reyion is pale yellow-mey anu trans-

lucent so that its enclosed sand grains and grit show readily through. No spot-

tiny or Hecking with colour such as has been described in some other members

of the genus is present.

The preboseis, in the extended condition, tapers from its base to its tip, the

tip being abont half the diameter of the base. In contracted specimens. it is

evlindrical, There is ouly a very slivht indication of a dorsal groove in the

posterior quarter or so of its length and this is better seen in preservecdl and

couteveled material (han it as in living specimens, There is no sign of a ventral

probescis grooves Oecasionally the proboscis iiv show one ar more deep, cir-

cular constrictions at varying positions along Jts leagth, These are caused by

strong lecal contractions of the circular muselus. If a specimen is roughly

treated while the proboscis is in this condition. the organ may break al these

points, Antotomy of this kind must occur in natural conditions as very occa-

sional specimens have been found with short probasces showing signs of

terminal regeneration,

At the base of the proboscis is the pre-oral ciliary organ whose structure

ancl significance have been described for 8. cembrensis and some other forms

by Brambell and Cole (1939b). As in the Welsh species, if takes the form at

a horse-shoe-shaped groove, slightly dilated at its free dorsa-lateral cads and

partially surrounding the hase af the proboscis where it tapers to farm the stalk,

The organ is not distinctively coloured as it is in 8. cambrensis and therein!

resembles more the coudition in S, horsti (Brarobell aud Gaodheart, 1941),

The neck which unites the proboscis to. the collar is. as is the case in other

meabers of the genus, very slender. Tt bears on its left side the single pra-

boscts pore which enable the end sac (Fig, 1), and thus the left dorsal ¢oclomic

duech of the proboscis, to communicate with the exterior, The colher is sltalitly

anger dorsally than it is ventrally and is somewhat fared anteriorly. The

posterior border is slightly flared also and at the base of this Mare there is a

conspicuous cirenlir groove corresponding in position to the white ring men-

tioned earlier, This groove and white ring are best seen in mature specimens,

The posterior flare overlaps the first twe or three gill pores.

The branchial region possesses thirty to forty-five pairs of gill pores un its

dlorsal surface. The number apparently increases with increasing size of the

animals. The anterior ones ure small aud almost circular. They ineresse in size

to about the sixth pair of the series and become elliptical laterally. The final

sever ar cight become rapidly smaller and more circular an tort. the ultimite

ones frequently being difficult to discern externally, The latter part of the

branchial region is overlapped by the venital region, the first genital pouch

appearing winally at about the level of the twentieth pair of gill pores. It is

noticeable that in less mature specimens, that is, those with a smaller number

of gill pores and less well-developed gonads, the proportion of gill clefts in

front of the first genital pouch is higher than it is in more mature specimens.

This may be due to the combined effect of an increase in the number of bran-

celia] pores posteriorly and an anterior penetration of the gonads with increasing

maturity. lo mature specimens, the gonads form conspicuous dorsolateral genital

ridges which, 1 their region of maximal development, that is, in the posterior

branchial and ocsophageal regions, comprise about two-thirds of the animal's

total body width (Fiy. $), The ridges begin to decrease gradually in size in

the posterior ocsophageal region and disappear in the anterior abdominal reginn-

The increase in bulk of the genital ridges with growth of the animals to matnrity

leadls to a considerable coiling in this part, Between the gill clefts, and farther

back between the genital ridges, a slight medio-dorsal elevation of the epidertnis

overlics the dorsal nerve cord (Fig, 4). "This ridge is less evident in the ab-

datninal region.

Wi)

WWwS-D

Fig. L—Longituclinal sagittal section of the base of the proboscis, hs,, blonel sims: ce. collar

vouluuy cep,, collar epiclerusiss es.,.end sac; gle. slamerulus; iem., tuner cirewar nuuscle layer

of prohoséiss Imp, longitudinal muscles of proboesers; m.. month: nb, nerve layer: oem,

proboscis: p., pericardium; pe, proboscis colony pew, pres

ouler cireukar muscle laycr o

oral ciliary organ; pep., proboscis epithelium: ps., proboscis skeleton; st. stomochord; ves.

vertral civerticuhin of stamochord,

Pig. 2-1 to ld, Seri) sections of stomocherd und pruboseis skeletun at about 0-05 mm,

intervals. er. erura ol proboscis skeleton: Is. Inmen af stomocherd; vls., lamen ol ventral

diverticuluin of stumechord; other guide letters as in previous figure.

Pig. 3.—Transverse section of proboscis. db. darsal bloncdyessel of proboseis; Ib., Jateral

blood vessel other wuide letters us in previous figures.

170

About wo millimetres behind the last pair ot gill peres the paired iutestinal

pores can he seen on the dorsal surface. They form two rows (Figs. 7 and 8),

ane on cach side of the mid-dorsal line which’ diverge at an angle of thirty-five

to forty «degrees from the mid-line, Six to cight apertures appear om euch sito,

in 5. kowaleuskyi (van der Horst, 1927-39) it is reported that the posterior of

the fous io six pairs of pores present are Further from the mid-line than are the

interior ones, “J hrough the kiidness of Prof. F, W. Rogers Brambell, the author

has been able to. examine some specimens of S. cambrensis, tn these, the five

tr seven pairs of patent pores form lines parallel to the mid dorsal line. A

similar eorclition obtains in S. inkacensis (Kapelus, 1936). No deseriptions of

the external appearance of the intestinal pores seem to be available Sor athe

members of the gomus.

Ventrally, in the trink region. the main longitudinal museulature of the

body is readily identifiable by its fine transverse striations, In the anteriat bran.

ehial region, this musculature, though thicker iu the ventral region, extends wp-

wards in the lateral body walls early to the level of the vill pores (Pig, 4)

Farther back, it becomes more concentrated ventrally so that at the posterior

eri of the branchial region and in the oesophageal region (Fig. 8) it farms twa

conspicnous Ventro-lateral ridges which taper away towards the end of the

genital region but are still visible in the abdominal region (Fig. 5), The veotral

nerve cord can be seen medially between die lateral nmsele masses thronehee

the length of the trunk.

The width of the intestinal region of a freshly caught speciiien is, hear

its anterior end, little more than half that of the genital region even treats

it may be distended by its content of sand and shell-prit, It tapers gradually

to abet ball this width near its posterior extremity, The ventral Jongitulipal

hiuscle ridges, thongh diminishing in size, are visible throughout its length,

‘The epidermis of the trunk region is mainly glandular and can be divided

into three different types, “hat in the vicinity ‘nf the ail] pores is smooth sand

similar to that deseribed for S. cambrensis and §. horsti: That coveriji the

ventral and (i the anterivr branchial region) tateral longitudinal muscle birds

has fine trausverse elevations which have already been noted above: while that

on the remainder of the dorsal surface, on the genital tidges and on the lateral

hody walls, is raised into small, transversely arranged elliptival eminences { Figs.

5 and 7),

Hl, INTERNAL ANATOMY

Tho epidermis af the proboseis is between O-1 und U-2 mom. thick ( Pigs.

Land 3). The nerve layer whieh lies immediately under it shows a slight dersal

thickening whieh, however, is much less well developed than iy the correspanl-

ing structure ind. cambrensiy aud §. horsti. This may be associated with the

slighter development of the dorsal yrouve of the proboscis in 8. apuntesis The

dorsal (subneural). the two. lateral and the ventral blood vessels lie betwoen

the nerve layer aud the outer layer of cireular muscles, The latter is about

equal in thickness to the nerve layer and must he capable of very forcelil way

tractions as is indicated hy its ability ta autotomise portions of the praboscis.

‘The main bulk of the proboscis tissues is made wp of lonyitidlinal susele fibres

which are arranged in concentric rings, each rine being separated froany its

neighbours by a layer of loose connective tissue, At least nine or ten of these

rings are apparent in all specimens examined (Fig, 3) and aceasionally theres are

indications of an cleventh incomplete ring represented by a jiimber of seat-

tered longitudinal fibres which He close to the inner layer of eivetlar muscle fhre

which line the proboscis coelom, Seven to ten such concentric rings have

heen described in §. mereskowskii and nine or nove in S$. horstl, Powards the

posterior end of the probaseis, the inner rings become indistinct ail disappear

so that at the level of the anterior extremity of the proboscis complex. only Ave

or six of them are readily apparent. The proboscis coelom exteuds nearly to

the anterior extremity of the organ. ‘Nhe glomerulas (lta. £) serenely: thee

wnteriqe extremity of the stumechord but farther back itis faunel only ventrally

wid laterally to the stemochord, i

The stomochord is fairly straight and bluntly rowwled anteriorly, In much

vontracted specimens, however, it may be considerably buckled durse-ventrally.

lt has a welledoveloped ventral diverticulum (Pig. L) which is supported by the

biful tip of the praboscis skeleton (Fig. 2(1)},. The short, blunt prongs coalesce

dersally so that a ventral groove is formed ip the skeleton (Pig. 2 2y ane (3))

in Which lies the backwardly directed tip of the ventral diverticulum, The bady

of the skeleton narrows to become quite slender in its mid-region but mul

dorsally in its anterior part it bears a distinet ridge which penetrates the hody

af the stomochord Gyhich lies immediately above it) in its mid-ventral line

(Vig. 2 (3), (4) and (5)), Tn the hinder part of the body of the skeleton,

lateral wings are slightly developed (Tig. 2 (1) and (12) ). but these disappear

belove the skeletow bifarcates to form the crura (Fig. 2 (14) ), The evnva pass

upwards, one on each side of the junction of the stomochord with the lining ut

thie buceal cavity and then arch outwards, backwards and downwards in the

wall of the bueval cavity. They extend about halfway along the length of the

collar and embrace slightly more than half of the circumference of the buecal

cavity. The proboscis skeleton has no hard, central concretions such as ovcur

in some specimens OF S$. cambrensis, nor have such concretions been voted in

the branchial skeleton.

Spengel (1893) recognised five transverse zones in the collar epidermis of

enteropneusts, each zone boing characterised by certain cell structures ancl

staining propensities. In $. apantesiv all five zones are clearly istinguishable

(Fis, 6), The lirst, the anteriormost, is a fairly low epithelium of ciliated cells

which stain lightly with Ehilich’s haematoxylin. ‘his zone covers the anterior

lange of the collar. The second zone, which is nearly as broad as the other

four put together. vimtains much muterial which stains heavily with haema-

toavlin, Autevinrly, where it abuts on the first zone, its cells acc low but they

increase in height in the middle region to shorten again towards the hinder

margin. Near its anterior margin there is a circular furrow whose depth varies

considerably in relation to the degree of longitudinal contraction of the collar.

The third zone cousists of narrow, elongate cells in which material which stains

heavily is concentrated towards their bases, This material does not stuin quite

as beavily as does that of the second zone. The fourth zone is the narrowest

ariel forms the white line ow the collar referred to previously. lt bears a deep

furrow and its cells contain relatively few deeply-stuining particles towards

their bases. ‘The fifth zone, like the first, is ciliated but forms a much higher

epithelium, Tt forms the posterior flange of the collar which overhangs the

beginning of the branchial region.

The weneral arrangement of these zones is similar te that in $. carahaiens

(van der Horst, 1927-34) and S, kKowalevskil. (Agassiz). Tn both these species

the Ave zones are distinguishable. In S$. cambrensisx, the third and fourth zones

are not readily distinguishable while in 8. horsti they ure inclistinguishahle. In

S_ infacensis (Kapelus, 1936) none of the five zones iy clearly demarciuted,

The number of pairs of gill pores varies betwevn thirty and torty-Bve. “Vhis

number is less than js found in most other members of the gemus. 5, gurneyil

approaches it most closely with forty to sixty pairs. The number of pairs of

cil) pwres in the remaining species are given in the list of distimgninhing fea-

tures uf the different species al the end af this article. The detailed histulogy of

the branchial region shows no special distinguishing features. In transverse

section the fieatictial purtion of the pharynx is seen to be about equal in extent

te the non-branehial (food-gronve) portion (Fig. 4).

The first genital pouch appears in about the mid-branchial region. Mature

onevtes (ineasured on fixed material) are about 3104 long and about 285 a

172

Fig. 4.—Transverse section in branchial region. db., dorsal bloodvessel: cin., dorsal Jongi-

tudinal rouscle of trunk; dne., dorsal nerve cord; er., epibranchial ridge; gp., gill pouch;

gpr,, gill pore; Im., longitudinal muscles of trunk; nbp., non-branchial portion of pharynx;

sb., skeleton of gill septurn; tb,, skeleton of gill tungue; vne., ventral nerve oot

Fig. 5.~Transverse section of abdominal region. Al. glandular eminence; vb., ventral blood-

vessel; vr,, ventral ridge in gut epithelium; other guide letters as in previous figures.

Fig. 6,—Sagittal section of collar purdeemis, 4 (anterior) to 5 (posterior), zones of collar

epidermis.

Fig, 7.—Dorsal surface of oesophageal region showing arrangement of intestinal pores. gr,

genital ridge; ip., intestinal pore; other guide letters as in previous figures,

Fig, 8,—Transverse section of second region of oesophagus. oe., Iimen of vesophayus: oc,

oucyte; other guide letters as in previous figures:

broad. ‘They are thus intermediate in size betwee those of 8. canibreusis (400 »

by 3004) and 8, kowalenskit (375 x) on the one hand and $. hursti (230 phy

170») and S, otagvensis (2504) on the other. Some six to tew mature coeytes

appowr in one transverse section as well as a larger number of imututture oues.

The latter are usnally located medially and dorsally in the ovary, that is in thy

region cf the genital pore, while the mature oocytes oceupy a tore centeal or

ventral position (Pig. 8),

‘The oesophagus has the usual three regions, The first of these has an epithe

lium of inoederate thickness which is very much folded and is histologically

similar to that of the ventral, non-brarichial. par¢ of the pharynx. The second

region has a thicker epithelium (Fig. 8) and it is into dorso-lateral grooves in this

revion that the intestinal pores open, There are six to eight pairs of these, there

heiug no rudimentary pores such as appear in S. cambrensis. The third region

of the oesophagus has a lower epithelium than the first region and this merges

imperceptibly into the hepatie region, which, as in other members of the gers.

is indistinguishable externally. The gut in the abdominal region (Fig. 5) has

a broad lumen and thin walls, Ventro-laterally. the walls are thickened to form

two marked parallel ridges, separated by a deep mid-ventral furrow, The

ventral musculature in this part of the body is much reduced and there are

only very slight traces of the fine bands of dorsal longitndinal niiscles which

are apparent throughout the branchial and oesophageal regions.

TV. SPECIFIC CHARACTERS AND COMPARISON WITH

OTHER SPECIES

The specific characters of Saccoglossus apantesis are listed below:

(a) There are between thirty and forty-five pairs of gill clefts,

() ihe yonads start in the mid-branchial region and fori marked corse Jecborial

ridges:

(e) The voeytes are nearly spherical, measuring about 310 ye by 285 js

(d) The venteal, longitudinal muscles of the truak form distinet veutre tatoril

ridges in the posterior branchial and acsophageal regious,

(0) There are six ta cight pairs of intestinal pores.

(f) The epidermis of the collar has five distinct zones. the seaond of these being

almost equal in extent to the remaining four added together.

(6) The ilorsal proboscis groove is bnt slightly developed in the posterior quarter

af the probascis.

(i) the longitudinal musculature of the praboseis is arranger] in it least pine

or ten complete couceutric rhigs.

(1) The stamochord has a ventral diverticulum: which is directed slivhtly back-

wards und is partially grasped by the bluntly bifid tip of the proboscis

skeleton.

ij) ‘The erura of the proboscis skeleton extend abort halfway aloug the length

af the collar and embrace slightly more than half the eiveimlercuce of the

Iiwoal cavity,

§ apantesis is the fifteenth member of the genis to he described, Th wat

ben distinguished from the other species on the following combinations ot

charueters:

4. snlentny (Spengel). J.oe. Japan, Deep dorsal sulcus or the peoboseis giving

ity eresventic cross scetions len ta cleven pairs of gilts.

§, otagecnsis (Benham), Loe. New Zealand. Decp dorsal groove on the pre-

haseis: ten to fifteen pairs of gill pores; longitudimal muscles af the pro-

boswis im three or four concentric rings; gonads extend anteriorly to the

level of the fonrth gill pore; one pair of intestinal pores,

S$, pygmaeus (iinvichs and Jacobi). Loe, Ucligaland. Nine to twenty-hyvo

pairs Of qill pores; longitudinal muscles of prohoscis nut in concentric Tings;

174

gonads begin at posterior extremity of the branchial tezion; oue pair of

intestinal pores; very staal) form. about three centimetres lane,

S. gurney! (Robinson). Loe. Suez. Collar nearly twice as broad as long; longi-

tudinal muscles of proboscis wot in concentric Nings; forty to sixty piirs of

gill pores; median proboscis pore; gonads begin immediately behint the

collar; intestinal pores absent (2).

S. carabuicus (van der Torst). Loe. West indies. Longitudinal museles of

the proboscis not in concentric tines; median proboscis pore; more thar

filty pairs of gill pores: gouads begin between the fourth ari fifth gill pores:

S. bourne (Menon). Lec. Madras. Longitudinal muscles af the proboseiy nel

in concentric rings; crura af proboscis skeleton extend to the hinder ene

of the collar; ventral musculature of the tink region uct especially thick:

gomuls begin immediately behind the collar,

S. pusillus (Ritter). Loe. California. Crura of the proboscis skeleton exter!

lo the binder end of the collar anel embrace three-quarters of the eiveuy

ferenee of the huecal cavity: about sixty pairs of gill pores: one pair ot

intestinal pores.

S. mereschkowskii (Nic. Wagner). Loc. North-Hastern Russia. Iifty pains of

gill pores; endplate of the proboscis skeleton bears a Jone dorse-mediin

spine; collar epidernvis very thick (G-5 mn, ).

S. iuhacensis (Kapelus), Loc. South-Rast Africa. Eighty-two or iiore pairs

of gill pores; longitudinal muscles of the prohoseis not in voucentrie rings;

gonads begin at the level of the fourth gill pores; four pairs of intestinal

pores. the first of which has four internal openings.

S. Korealensky? (A, Agassiz). Loc. Atlantic coast of the U.S.A. A hwudred puits

of gill pores; genital folds begin one millimetre behind the collar; ouly four

or five rings cloarly visible in the longituclinal muscle of the proboseis; four

to six pairs Of mtestinal pores.

3. ruber (Tattersall). Loe. Western Ireland. Longitudinal museles of the pro-

boseis not in concentric rings; 10 genital ov winsenlar ridges on the trunk;

fifty-six to sixty-four pairs of gill pores.

S. strpentinus (Assheton), Lac. Scotland, Very long probosvis and body,

trunk circular in cross section, without genital or suscular ridges; sixty

pairs of gill pores: longitudinal muscle of proboscis not in concentric rings,

5. cambrensis (Brambell and Cole), Loe, North Wales. Trunk circular in

cross section without venital or muscular ridges; sixty to ninety pairs oF cil!

vores; four to six ill-defined concentele rings in the periferal part af the

longitudinal musculature of the proboscis; eight te twelve pairs of intestinal

pores, the first three to five pairs being rudimentary. Lutestinal pores ar-

yanged parallel to the mid-dorsal line,

§. horsti (Brambell and Goodheart). Loc. Southern Eneland, Dorsal ani

veutral vrooves present on the prohoseis throughout its length; carads

begin within one millimetre of the collar; one hundred to ane lupdred ancl

forty pairs of gill pores: fonr to cight pairs of intestinal pores,

VY, REFERENCES

Benttam, W, B., 1899. Balanoglossus ofugnensis osp., Quart. J. Micr, Sei, 42, 497-54,

Boamurnc. F, Wi; Rooers, and Conn, H. A. 19908. Succuoglasaus. cambrensiy sp. ny an

Esteropneust occurring in Walus, Proc. Zool. Soe. London, B, 109. 31-234.

Brostewe, W Bocens. and Coin, U. A. 1939b, The pre-oral Giliury Organ of the

Entevoprieusta; its occurence, structure and possible phylogenotic siznificanue, roe,

Zvol. Sou, Toondon, B, 109. (81-193,

Brame, b. Wy, Roce. and Goonieanr, GC. B., 1941. Saccoulassis horse SJ thy iNT

Mnierapnouir occurring in the Solent, J. Mur, Blol, Ass, U.K, 25, 283-01.

Day, Wo J), TOL6. A new species of Enteropncasta, Plycheodera pelsarti from the Abralhos

Iskends, Journ Ling, Soe. Lowlon Zoul,, 33, 85-100,

His. J, P,, (80d, On a new species of Mntetupnensta ( Péychoderd anstralienyis) fron the

vost af Naw South Wales, Prov. Linn, Soc, N.S.W., 10, 1-42,

Hunn, J. Lea The Enteropneusta of Funafuti, Mem. Australian Mus., 3, 205-210 and

Horst, C. J. van per, 1927-39. Hemichordata. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Tier-

Reichs, Bd. 4, Abt. 4, Buch 2, Tiel 2.

Kapewus, F. F., 1936. The anatomy of the Entecropneust, Saccoglossus inhacensis sp. n.,

Ann. Natal Mus. 8, 47-94.

SpeNncEL, J. W., 1893. Die Enteropneusten des Golfes von Neapel. Fauna and Flora des

Golfes von Neapel, Monogr. 18.

Trewavas, E., 1931. Enteropneusta. Great Barricr Rect Exp. 1928-9. Sci. Rep. 4, 2.

176

THE ADELAIDE EARTHQUAKE OF 1ST MARCH, 1954

BY C. KERR-GRANT

Summary

In the early hours of Ist March, 1954, most of the inhabitants of the city of Adelaide were

awakened by a loud rumbling noise followed by a shaking severe enough to crack the walls and

loosen plaster from many houses. For most persons in Adelaide, this was their first experience of an

earthquake, and it is the first record in almost a hundred years of any movements in the earth's crust

in the vicinity of the city. Although a relatively minor one by the standards of countries prone to

earthquakes, it was sufficiently severe to cause material damage to many buildings, as the

possibility of earthquake damage had never been taken into consideration in their construction.

There were no injuries as a result of the earthquake.

THE ADELAIDE EARTHQUAKE OF Ist MARCH, 1954

By C, Kern-Graxtt

{Read 10 Nov. 1955]

INTRODUCTION

In the early hours of Ist March, 1954, most of the inhabitants of the city

of Adelaide were awakened by a loud rumbling noise followed by a shaking

severe enough to crack the walls and loosen plaster from many houses. For

most persons in Adelaide, this was their first experience of an earthquake, and

it is the first record in almost a hundred years of any movements in the earth's

erust in the vicinity of the city. Although a relatively minor one by the stan-

dards of countries prone to eurthquakes, it was sufficiently severe to cause

material damage to many buildings, as the possibility of earthquake damage

had never been taken into consideration in their construction, There were

no injuries as a result of the earthquake,

DATA RECORDED AND COLLECTED

The earthquake occurred at 18 h, 10 im. G.M.T. approximately on 28th

February, 1954 (8.40 am. Incal time on Ist Mareh). Only the initial shock

was recorded Qn the Milne-Shaw scismograph operated by the Adelaide Unj-

versity, this instrument being thrown out of action by the first shock of the

primary wave. The other instrument at Adelaide, a Milne seismograph revis-

teriug the N-S componcut of seismic vibrations, was not operating. The Milue-

Shaw instrument normally records the E-W component. The earthquake was

wlio recorded on the seismographs in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and Perth,

but not. as far as is known, outside Australia, The epicentre has been estab-

shed us beiny on or very close to the Eden fault line, in the vicinity of the

suburbs of Darlington and Seucliff. Minor aftershocks were felt two days alter

the earthquake, und a further tremor occurred in the morning of 3rd September,

originating apparently from the same epicentre as the original carthqnake.

The main shock of the earthquake was estimated to last from 5 to 20 seconds

in the suburban areas of Adelaide, the time being greater in the northern

suburbs of the city. Near the epiceutre the shock has been described as beinys

very abrupt and was of only two or three seconds duration,

In the absence of any instrumental records from distances under 400 miles

from the. epicentre, numerous reports available of the effects of the carthquake

aud the experiences of persons who felt it were investigated by the geophysical

stall of the Department of Mines, An abundance of information was. naturally

available from the Adelaide metropolitan area, but data from more remote

country arcas is sparse as few people were awake at the time of the earthquake,

From these reports it has been possible to draw isoseismal lincs and establish

the approximate position of the epicentre (Figs, 1 and 2), The maximum in-

tensitv of the earthquake has been established as Intensity 8 on the Modified

Mercalli seale, A second or minor epicentre with Intensity 7 appears to occur

in the vicinity of Beaumont. Considerable disturbance and damage to build-

* Published with tie approval of the Director of Mines.

f Department of \lines, South Australia.

"Manna Hin

> ~

, a “

aoe Mimi

2 1

eee fa

5 5 '

Burra ® |

VIDE

_ ENLARGEMENT

(Fig.2

ig-2) a

4s.

Pinnarog

Bordertown »

~{ke

‘,

Mt Gambier ® lig

- 4

Fig. 1 Isiseismal lines showing earthquake centre near Adelaide, cide Wig. 2 for enlargement.

ings occurred also in the suburh of Blackwood, but this can be accounted for

by the fact that much of Blackwood is built on subsoil of hillsides, which tended

to slip down hill during the disturbance.

The earthquake, unfortunately, did nut record in sufficient detail on other

seixmographs in Australia to identify with certainty any but the main P and §

176

phases, The tives of these phases at Brisbane, Melhourie and Sydney. read

hy the Riverview Obseryatory staff; anc ut Perth, read by the Government

Astrouomer, are:

TP 5

Melbourne 18h.11m.20s. GMT. 18h.12m25s. GALT. S?—18h.]1ni5s,

Sydney Wshl2m26s. OMT. 18hd4m.38s. GMT. PP—18h.12m.36s.

Brisbane 1$h.18m.11-9s. G.M.T. 18h,16m.13s. GALT. PP—18h.121 21-6s,

Perth 18h.20m.11s. CLM,T. 18h22m.23s. G.M,T,

The Melbourne records weve obtained from a Wood-Auderson seismograph regis-

tering the N-S component with magnification 120 times (Fig. 3) and a Milne-

Shaw instryment the E-W with magnification 230 times (Fig. 4), Sydney from 3

scismographs giving E-W, N-S and vertical componcuts, and Brisbane using a

Beniot short period seismograph for the E-W (?) component, and a Spreng-

nether N-§ seismograph, The Brishane record indicates in addition subsequent

arrivals at 18h. 13m. 14°8x, und 18h. 18m. 16-8s. The earthquake was not re-

corded in New Zealand,

Numerous independent witnesses who were outdoors or awake at the time

af the earthquake reported the occurrence of a light or flash in the sky at the

tine: of the earthquake. No satisfactory explanation of this has been forth-

coming, Many of these observers could not indicate the «direction whence the

Jight camo, as they were indoors and saw the sky or their room lit up, but most

of those who were outdoors agrees that it originated in the east. being them-

selves to the westward of the epicentre. Two reports were received [rom ob-

servers who vonsicdercd the light to come {rom the dircetion apposite to the

epicentre. Similar indications of light have heen often recorded in connection

with other earthquakes, It is quite unlikely that any of the observers would

have known of this phenomenon previously. as several of them were milkmen

on their rounds, There was no cloud at the time the flash was reported,

The following causes have been suggested as an explanation of this pheno-

Henin:

(L) “A bright meteor falling at the instant of the earthquake.

(2) Electric power lines shorting due to the movement caused by the earth.

quake,

(3) A Ehysioloysea efleet on the eyes causcd by the vibrations of the earth-

quake,

(4) A psychological efteet due to fear caused by the earthquake.

(3) An unexplained physical eflect caused by the eartliqnake,

Ol these suggestions, the first is exceedingly onlikely as the meteor itself should

have Teen recognised by some observers; the second would have caused an

appreciable ierease of load at the power stalion or a breakdown if on a scile

large cnough to account fur all the reports of light seen, and no immediate in-

crease of load was recorded by the State Electricity Trust; the third is considercil

uulikely by Davison and others as vibrations of the frequency of the earthyuake

waves normally do not affect people, also it would scem unlikely that ohservers

cuuld sco other objects by the flash of this light as several of them repart; the

latter objection applies in part to the fourth suggestion, no mechariism is kiown

ty have been suggested as a means of explaining any physical reason for such

a phenomenon. Other sugsestions, that the light is the refleation of light From

Nie interior of the earth displayed through fissures occurring at the tmurment

of the oarthquake, ar ta light gencrated by the faulting movements themselves,

secm difficult to take seriously. On the other hand, it is difficult to discount the

veracity of all the observers reporting, the lights in the sky, and the cause of this

presumed effect must remain temporarily unsolved.

gw WILLIAMSTOWN

mg SALISBURY

GUMERACHA

A‘| f >

8 gees v4

y } ARUNGTON

MYLG 4

CLARENDON

lj STRATHALBYN

(ie WILLUNGA

jo MILES

MAIN ROAD_---——— RAILWAY _--- —ch

Den HOR 55-387

Fig, 2-Enlurgement of insect Fig. 1, Tsoscismal lines slawiny miuin vculre of intensity cight

and second minor coeulre of intensity: seven,

INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA

The isoseismal lines establish the position of the epiccntral region as a strip

ruming between Darlington and Seacliff. The maximum disturbance appeared

to be confined to two or three elongated zones less than a hundred yards wide,

in the vicinity of the suburbs of Darlingtou, Seacombe Park and to a lesser

180

extent Beaumont. These zones lie along a line corresponding almost exactly

tu the known or mferredl baee of the Eden Fault. This fault can he seen near

Darlington where it crosses the Shepherds Hill road, on the ceast near Marina

Rovks, and near Mitcham; between Darlington and Seaclilf the scarp has wea-

thered to an alluvial slope. and the actual fault trace is obscured.

The minor epicentre near Keaumont appears ta be a genuine region of

increased disturbance: it is possible that Beaumont and Darlington represent

in a way antinedes of the vibrations transmitted to the surface, or possibly a

separate movement under Beaumont was triggered by the manu disturbance.

There is no evidence that separate movements occurred at appreciably different

Lies.

The time marks on the Adelaide record do not cuable the instant of origin

to he determined precisely. The time of origin was computed as 18h. 09m. 37s.

from the Riveryicw records by Father Burke-Gaffiey,

Unfortunately, the records at Melbourne and Brisbane are too disturbedt

by micraseisms and the intensities recorded were too small to get precise ta-

surements of all the phases. Before the determination of the epicentre by

isoseixinal lines a preliminary determination mace at Riverview indicated an

epicentre in the vicinity of Kangaroo Island. From this it would appear that

between Adelaide and Sydney the velocity of both P and 5S waves may be

anomalous.

From the shape of the isoseismal lines the depth of the foeus of Hie earth.

quake is evidently very shallow. Standard methods of determination «de not

differentiate between depths of tocus less than two or three kilometres ariel the

focus is evidently Tess than this; more precise determination does not sevr

possible.

PREVLOUS EANTHQUAKES IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA

Only three previous earthquakes originating in South Australia haye been

recorded in any detail. Although minor tremors are quite frequent, tiost of

the Jatter can be attributed to subsidence of the subsoil on the slopes of hillsides,

and are therefore quite supericial. Minor tremors of this kind have oftyun heen

noted during observations with a gravity meter in the Adelaide plains, the writer

having noted them especially im the suburbs af Millswood and Guodwoud,

The earliest reported earthyuake in South Anstralia is by the Rev. Julian

Edmwunl Woods, who mentions a “severe shock” felt in Adelaide in June

1856'; another shock was reported by the same author to have heen felt in

December, 1861, in what was referred to as the Stone Mut Range, in the vicinity

of Lake Bonney.

The known edrthyuakes: of moderate intensity which have ocewrred in

South Australia comprise:

(1) 10th May, 1897, at 2.25 p.m., epicentre near Beachport, intensity IX un

Rossi-Forel Scale. Aftershocks were reported for some mouths.

(2) 19th September, 1902, at 6.35 a.m. and §.05 p.m,, epicentre near Warooka

on Yorke Peninsula, intensity & on Mercalli scale. A series of after-

shocks oecurred until 24th September.

(3) Sth April, 1948, epicentre 10 miles N.W. of Beachport, intensity 7(2). No

detailed report has apparently been written on (his carthquake,

Minor shocks ocenr almost every year in the Mount Lofty and Flinders

Manges. A summary af the recorded shocks from 1893-1903 is given by Thuw-

chin, and from 1904-1908 by Dadwell,! Several minor carthquakes of inten-

sities up to 5 or 6 on the modified Mercalli scale have heen reported from the

Flinders Ranges, Beltana being the seat of their most frequent occurrence. Ir

is unfortunate that the systematic collection of reeords of minor eartheyiake

shocks does net appear to have been continied sines this time,

1h)

CAUSES OF THE EARTHQUAKE

In general terms, the earthquake appears to be the result of a slow con-

tinuation or readjustment of the movement along the Eden fat which formed

the scarp of the Adelaide Hills. It does nat seem possible to ascertain from the

direct evidence of the earthquake whether this movement comprised a voutinua-

tion of the original movement with an upthrow to the east, or a reversal due

to a settling back. Cracks in the ground which appeared at Darlington aud

Seacorabe Park do uot indicate any appreciable moyement, They are probably

merely due to subsidence of the subsoil downhill. The only inference possible

is that any movement on the fault plane must Lave been quite small— of the

order of an inch or Lwo.

A visit was paid to an abandoned quarry near Gilberton Road, Seacombe

Park, where yery recent displacements in the slate of the quarry were evident.

This quarry appears to be south of the inferred position of the Eden fault in

this area, and alter an examination of the quarry it was eauclided that the

rn Brmemr =

(-12-45)

big. (}-Wood-Andetson record, Mclbourne Ghservatery, 26th Feb. 1954.

observed tmoyemert was merely gravitational displacement of the alrcady frac-

tured rock, The maximum displacement seen was approximately twu inches.

Negative isostatic gravity anomalies occur on the Adelaide plains or western

side of the Eden fault searp, compared with slight positive anomalies over the

hills area. If the Eden fanlt is assumed to be a normal fault, it is probable that

the carthquake produced a slight relative rising of the plain and sinking of the

hills. Tt, however, as seems more likely from geophysical evidence, the fault

is preduminantly a thrust fault, and isostatic readjustment is prevented by com-

pressive stresses in the crust, it is impossible to decide whether the motion was

duc tu a continuation of the thrust movement or a readjustment caused by its

relief; the former hypothesis seems more plausible, as the movement causing

the faulting is comparatively recent geologically haymg occurred since Pleis-

tocene time, and is possibly still iu progress to some extent.

133

There may be some significance in the fact that the epicentre is in a region

Where tlie fault trace bends from a N.N.E-S.S,W direction to nearly east-west

siuce a slow adjustment along an active fault plane might be impeded where

the plane is curved, allowing greater shearing stresscs to build up before

slipping, occurred.

the actual triggering mechanism setting off the earthquake cannot be

surmised,

The tides at this date were almost neap tides, high tides being at 2.54 a.m.

and 5.25 p.m. on Ist March and Jow water at 10.59 a.m,, so that although the

weight of water in the gulf due to the high tide prior to the earthquake may

have assisted in triggering it at the particnlar hour at which it occured, some

further mechanism must have been responsible for initiating the movement at

uw period of neap tides rather than iat one of spring tides.

Also the barometric gradient at the time of the earthquake was not favour-

able to triggering the carthquake. At 3 a.m, on Ist March, 1954 (local time),

the gradient was less than 1 millibar per hundred miles in a direction from

S.5.W. to N.N.E., the centre of the anticyclone being over Kangaroo Island,

pressure 1020 millibars, while that at Adelaide was 1017-6 millibars, The

majer component of this gradient is parallel to and not across the fault.

——_—— eee ee é

~——— ee ee ee

Re es re re eee

_— ee Sern es es

eee te eee ee es ee. oe Os

Gentes Cains potalemes wir tpentitin Unteg-ito-t-ongnaan Hae hi eunaas

————————— eee _—_—_—~S ae SS oe sees ee

ee ee ee ane a A Pet

et ee he ee ee ee

eee ee SE EE ee en eee

eS ESE Netanberesnnin enlarge ple crane Bleck ent

—_———— eee SE TE TS ee

iB {i GMT.

(12-45)

Fig. 4—Milne-Shaw reeord, Melbourne Observatory, 28th Feb., 1934.

EFFECTS OF THE EARTHQUAKE

The most evident effect produced by the earthquake was the material

damage done to large numbers of buildings in the Adelaide suburban area

and in a few districts in the Adelaide Hills adjacent to the epicentre, Some

houses in the vicinity of Darlington and Seacombe Park were damaged beyond

repair, the worst damage observed being a house occupicd by Mr. C. E. Tiller,

proprietor of the Darlington Sawmills, which was in the course of being par-

tially rebuilt. Two unbraced walls at the rear of the house collapsed and large

cracks appeared in the interior and exterior walls of the house, one portion

183

of ar interior wall being clisplaved two or three inches transversally at the

position of the crack. Plate 1 shows some of the worst examples of damage

sustained,

Considerable darmage to buildings alse oceurred in Blackwood, but this

has beew attributed to subsidence of the sloping ground on which most houses

are built rather than to anv Jocal increase in the intensity of the seismic vibra-

tions. The amount of damage, as is to be expected. varied considerably with

the type of structure. Older houses built without dressed stone and with lime

instead of cement mortar are particularly prone to damage, The most unstit-

able type of building appears to be a stone veneer or facing over brick or

cement walls. By a singular coincidence, a large new honsing area ucar Dar-

ington has been built mainly with wooden houses, one of the Tew areas of this

type in South Australia. Only minor damage to the brickwork chinmeys was

reported from this area. ;

Estirnates of the total amount being expended by insiiranee companics in

carthguake repairs exceed four million pounds. This figure is misleadingly

large for an earthquake of this intensity for three reusons: ‘

(1) The almost universal use of brick or stone for building construction in

Adelaide,

'2) The pre-existence of numerous minur cracks iu masonry structures often

caused by other factors, which the earthquake opened wp sufficiently

to necessitate repair.

(3) The absence of previous carthquakes resulting in the existence of numerous

brildings unable te withstand even relatively minor seismic disturb

ances without some damage.

Another curious feature of the earthquake was the rotation of three chim-

neys on tap of the FS. and A. Bank in King William Street. Adelaide. N. B,

Tindale has also reported that many objects in the Sonth Australian Museum

rotated in an anticlockwise direction by abeut 10-15 degrees. ‘he movement

near Waite Agricultural Research Institute was in a N.-S. direction from the

evidence obtained from books on shelves of Waite Institnte Library.

Tn addition te the structnral damage cansed by the earthquake, numerous

new springs in parts of the hills and metropolitan area were reported and an

ineregsed of renewed How ovcurred in existing springs, Neports of new springs

were received from:

The National Park, Belair;

Mylor, and on the Meadows-Willunga Hoad;

Woodsicles

Crafers, Brown PRE Creek aod Mt, Barker Creek,

A bore at Golden Greve, and another at Biggs Flat iv the Hundred of Kuitpo.

were reparted to have stopped Nowing.

Some time after the carthquake, in April, after half an ineh of rain hac

fallen in the previous might, a ud flow was reported on the property of Mov.

and Mis. Fendler in the vivinity of the upper parts of the Brown Fill Creek

wear the Mount Barker Hoad. A river of mud resembling a lava flow started

near the head of a steep tributary on the south side af the Brown Hill Creek,

and fowed for about half a mile across the main valley through the middle of

a field covered with potatoes, The tiud was about three feet deep and curried

srnall bushes and other objects along on the top of it. This movement was

quite slow and took about a day to reach its maahnam extent, ceasing a few

yards before reaching the creek which flows on the north-west side of the vallev.

~ Although this phenomenon camnot be cdireetly related te the earthauake, i

is considered that it was caused by the loosening of the soil on the hillsides

above, which the adyent of the winter rains made sufficiently plastic to flow

as viscous mud,

Apart from the physical effects of this earthquake, the realisation of the

enormous structural damage to buildings which can be caused by even a moder-

ate earthquake greatly stimulated local interest in carthquakes in all sections

of the community, Many enquirics haye heen received as to the likelihood

and probable frequency of future earthquakes in the Adelaide plains area.

This. of course. cannot be predicted purticularly since insufficient seismic

stations are available to determine the overall seismicity of the State,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer is indebted to the Director of Riverview College Observatory.

N.S.W., for data recorded at Riverview College and valuable comments

and information on the records obtained at Sydney, Melbourne and Bris-

bane, and to the Chief Geophysicist of the Bureau of Mineral Resources,

Geology and Geophysics, Melbourne, for the records obtained in Melbourne,

to the Professor of Geology at the University of Queensland for photographic

copies of the records obtained at Brishane, to the Government Astronomer af

Western Australia for information on the arrival times of the disturbance, and

to the Director of the Seismological Observatory of Wellington, New Zealand,

for a report on the absence of recordings in New Zealand; also to the Australian

Broadcasting Commission and the representatives of the press in Adelaide for

passing on information collected by their news services. The co-operation of

many persons too numerous to name individually who communicated their

observations and experiences enabled the construction of an isnseismal map.

Assistance in preparation of the data was given by Assistant Geophysicist

D, M. Pegum of the Geological Survey of South Australia and the permission

of the Director of Mines to publish this report is acknowledged.

REFERENCES

1 Woods, Rev. qi Edniund, Geological Observations in South Australia, Loudon, 1862

p 233).

2 Howchin, Waller, The Geology of Sonth Australia, Lst Edition, Adelaide, 1918, pp.

267-270.

3 Flowchin, Walter, The Geography of South Australia. Christchurch, New Zealand. 1910,

pp. 135-141.

Dodwell, >. F. Proc, Aust. Assov. Adv. Science, Vol, sii, 1909. yp. 416-4233.

£86

C, Kerr-Gruanr PuaTE 1

Stone veneer house in Aboyne Aye., Seacombe House in Seacombe Road made of cement

Park, showing damaged front. blocks and stone veneer.

Fissure in front path 100 yards S.W. of Mr.

Tillers house.

Damage to Mr. C. E, Tiller’s house,

Darlington.

ABSTRACT OF EXHIBITS AND LECTURES AT MEETINGS OF

THE SOCIETY DURING 1955

Summary

ABSTRACT OF EXHIBITS AND LECTURES AT MEETINGS OF THE

SOCIETY DURING 1955

May 12—-P. F. Lawson (South Australian Museum): Illustrated talk on the

1953 Expedition to Lake Callabonna for the purpose of collecting

fossil remains of mammals.

April 14—I. M. Tuomas: Ihistrated talk on his recent visits to marine biological

stations in Great Britain and Western Europe.

June 9—D. Kine introduced a discussion on the geology of the Lake Eyre region.

C. W. Bonyrson;: Illustrated talk entitled “Lake Eyre,” in which he

exhibited colour transparencies and a cinema film in colour,

I. M. THomas exhibited and explained new equipment for plankton

sampling in coastal waters.

July 14—R. L. Spxcrr: Mlustrated talk, “Some problems of plant nutrition and

soil-water relationships associated with the Ninety-Mile Plains of

South Australia.”

F, J. Huron showed pictures illustrating differences of vegetation in

parts of the Flinders Ranges before and after rain,

August 11—T. R. N. Loraran: Illustrated talk, “Cultivating dry-land plants.”

Sept. 8—K. H. Norrucore: Soil studies in the Barossa district,

Nov. 10—C, P. Mountrorp showed a cinema film in colour entitled “Island of

Yoi.”

186

BALANCE SHEET

Summary

ROYAL SOCIETY OF SOUI'H AUSTRALIA (INCORPORATED)

Receipts and Payments tor Year ended 30th September, 1955.

RECEIPTS

£ sd £ sd

To Balance 1/10/54. 554 18 10

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;» Government Grant for

printing, etc,:

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Se 1,500 0 0

» Sale of Publications and

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» Werrier Bequest — for

Field Naturalists. 1,262 4 3

£48 206 18 8

PAYMENTS

Es de Se - th

By Printing and Publishing

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» Library Assistants . 185 12 G

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etc. 530 10 38

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Books, etc, i 137 12 «6

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Less Out-

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Cheques

6 5 0

» Cash on Hand

ENDOWMENT FUND

Receipts und Payments for Year ended 30th September, 1955.

£ sd £ 5 ad

1954—Oct. 1:

To Balance—

Commonw'th Inscribed

Stock

Savings Bank of S.A.

1955—Sept. 30;

Interest—

Inscribed Stock . 199 11 6

Savings Bank of S.A... 33.7 ~=S

6,010 0 @

6218 7

a 6,072 18 7

1955—Sept. 30:

By Revenne A/c 232 18 11

» Balance—

Common'wth Inscribed

Stock 6010 0 0

Savings Bank of S.A, 218 7

——-——-—-——— 6,072 18 7

£6,305 17 6

Audited and found correct.

the respective institutions.

F. M. ANGEL

N. S. ANGEL, A.U.A. Com,

Aclelaide, 11th October, 1955.

| Hon.

i Auditors

The Stock and Bank Balances have been verified by certificates from

H. M. HALE, IIon. Treasurer,

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL AND LIST OF FELLOW,

MEMBERS, ETC.

Summary

AWARDS OF THE SIR JOSEPH VERCO MEDAL

1929 Pror. WATER Howcurs, F,C,S,

1930) Joun McC. Brack, A,L.S.

193L Prov. Sin Doveras Mawson, O.B.E. DSe.. BE. VAS.

1933) Prox. J. Burron Crriann, M.D.-

1935 Paor. T, Tarver JOHNSTON, M.A.. D.Se.

1938 Turor. J. A, Prescorr, D.Se., F.A1.C.

1943) Hexprar Wonrrsiey, ALS. PRES.

1944 Paar. J. G. Woon, D,Se., PLD.

1944 Gee To Manizan, M.A. BIEL DuSo., MGs.

1946 Tiemnene M. Mane. OE.

1955) L. Kerrtt Wann, 1S.0., B.A., B.E,, D.Se.

LIST OF FELLOWS, MEMBERS, ETC.

AS AT 30th SEPTEMBER, 1955.

Those marked with an asterisk (*) have contributed pa Bare published in the Soviety’s

Transactions. Those marked with a dagucr (f) are Life Members.

Any change in address or any other changes should he notified io the Secretary.

Note--The publications of the Society are nol sent to those members whose subscriptions

are in arrear.

Hononany Feccows

Paty of

Hlection

1949. ?Curnanp, Prov, J. B.. M.D., Dashwood Road, Beaumont, S.A— Fellow, 1895-1949.

Verco Medal, 1933; Council, 1931- 26, 1932- 37: Pre esident, 1927-26, 1940-41; Vice-

President, 1926-27, 1941-42.

055. °Muawson, Pror. Sir DowerAs, O-B.E., D.Se., BE. F.RS., University of Adelaide-

Vereo Medal, 1931; Prosudent, 1924-25, 1944-45; Vice-President, 1923-24, 1925-26;

Council, 1941-4:3.

1955. °Ossoxs, Prox, ‘T. GC. B. D.Se., 22 Hardwicke Street, Balwyn, Vietoria—Connuil,

1915-20, 1922-24, President, 1925-26; Vice-President, 1924-25, 1926-27.

1955. °Wanp, L. K., ES... B.A. BE, D.Sc, 22 Northumberland Street, Heathpaol,

Marrvatville, S.A,_Gouneil, 1924-27, 1933- 35; Vice-President, 1937-28: President,

1928-30.

FELLOWS

1946, Anni, Puor. A. A., M.D. D.Se., Ph.D,, University of Adelaide,

1053. Awcock, Miss A., 4 Gertride Street, Norwood, S.A. ;

1951. Arremison, G. D., BEL, Civil Engineering Department, University of Melbourne,

Carlton, Victoria, .

3927, *Anpenman, Puor. A. KR. PhD. DSc, F'G.S., University of Adelaide — Council,

1937-42, 1954-55, 1955-56,

1951. ANpomuson, Mrs. S. HL, BSc., Zoology Dept. University vf Adela, S.A,

1951, Anprews, J-, M.B., BS., 4) Seafivld Avenue, Kingswood. §.A,

President; 1950-51, 1952-53: President, 1951-52. ;

1935. *Awowewantra, Mrs. PH. V,, B.AgrSe. MoSe. (uee H, Yo Steels), 28 Claremont

Avenite, Netherby, S.A.

1924, *Awerr, tr. M., 34 Pidlarton Road, Parkside, S.A,

1939. *ANcuL, Miss L. M., \LSce., eo Mrs. C. Angel. 2 Moore Street, Moorak, Adchaide, S.A.

1945. *Wanciary, I. K., L.th., 2 Abbatshall Read, Lower Mitchain, S.A.

1950. Beasiey, ‘A. Ka Ulatris Serect, Marden, S.A.

1980. Beek, BR. G., BAg. Se, HDA, Tanewortd Park, Mil-Lel, vin Mount Gambier, $A,

1952, Taree, PL A, .D.4e., “LDS. ‘Shell House, 170 North Terrace, Adelaide.

1938. Besr, HK. J. DSe., FACIL. Waite Institute (Private Muil Bar), Adcdivicts,

1034. Buacr, i. C. ~ M. B.. B.S., Magill Road, ‘Tranmere, Adelaide. .

1950. Bonwin, N. f., MB. BS. FLRC.S. (Eng.), FRACS, 40 Barnard Strect, North

Adelaide, S.A.

145. }*Boxyrron, C. W., TeSe., AAC... Romalu House, Romalo Avenue, Mawill, 5.4.

1940). BonyTu0N, an Lavinotox, 263 East Terrace, Adelaide.

1947. *Bowes, D. R. PED. M.Sc. DLC. F.G.S., Geology Departmeal, University College,

Swansea, Wales. '

1939. ‘Brooxarax, Minis. A. D. (nee A. Harvey), BeA., Meadows. S.A.

188

Date uf

Plection

Iydd. *Bunomex, Miss N, ‘IY, M.Sc, C.S.L0.0., Div. Plant tndustry, P.O. Bax 109, Cau-

berra, A.C.T.

1925. Thurnon, RS. DSc, University of Adeliide—Counell, 194647, 1947-48, 194544,

1922, “Camevent, Poor. T, 19., D.D.Sc., DB.Se,, Dental Dept., Adelaide Hospital, adelaide—

Couned, 1928-42, 1985, 1942-45; Vice-President, 1932-34; President, 1934-35,

1993. Garren, A, N., B-Sc., 70 Madeline Strect, Burwood, £13, Vivtoria.

1929. at W., M.B., 1... 7 Walter Street, Hyde Park, Adelaide, S.A.—Treusurer,

S35,

1955, Ciotmen, E, A., c/o Department of Mines, Adelaide, $.A.

1949. Coxtiyen, F. S., Geology Department, University of Queensland,

1907. °CooKxe, W. T., D.Se., AAC, 4 South Terrace, Kensinvton Gardens, S.A.—Conneil,

J838-41: Vice-President, 1941-42, 1943-447 President, 1942-43,

1929. "Corton, BH. O., S.A. Museum, Adclaide—Council. 1943-46, 1848-49: Vice-President.

1949-51), 1951; President, 1950-51.

1953. Daxe, D: M. S., M-B., B.Chir.,, M.R.C.S. L.R.C.P,, B.A, bostitute of Medieal and

Veterinary Scienee, Frome Road, Adelaide,

151. Davison, A. C. L., PlD., BSc, c/o Bums Philp Trust Go. 7 Hridwe Street,

Syduey, N.S.W.

1952, Detann, C, M., M.B., BS,, DPA, DTM, 29 Gilbert Street, Goodwood, SA—

Council, 1940-51, 1954-56; Vice-President, 1961-352, 1953-S4: Provident, 1953-53,

1941. Dicxmson, S. B., M.Se., c/a Department pf Mines, 31 Flinders Street, S_A.—

; Cowicil, 1949-51, 1954-56; Vice-President, 1051-53, 1953-54; President, 1052-53.

1330. Dix, EL V.. Hospitals Department, Rundle Street, Adelaide, S.A.

id4d. Duwstowe, 8, M. L., M.B., B.S.. 170 Payneham Road, St. Peters, Adelaide,

931, Dewyen. fo ML, MLB. B.S., 105 Fort Koad, Hindmarsh, S.A,

1933. *Eanonuy, Miss C. M,, M.Sc., University of Adclaide—Council, 1943-46.

1945. °Epmosos. S) f., BA, M.Sc, Zoology Department, University of Adolaide—Couneil,

1951-35, Programme Seeretary, 1955-36.

1902. °Enquisr, A. Gi, 19 Furrell Street, Glenels, 5.A—Gouneil, 1949-1953,

1927, *kincaysos, [f. TL, 305 Ward Street, North Adelaide—Counoll, 1937-40,

1931. Fisner, 1. 11, 265 Goodwood Road, Kings Park, §.A,

123. °rv, H. kK, DS.0., VD, BS., T8e, BRAC, Town tall, Adelalcde—Counni,

1933-37; Viee-Prasident, 1937-38, 1939-40; President, 1935-4,

1951, Fvrvon. Cou. D., OMG. C.B\E., Aldeate, S.A,

155. Gants, I. T. (De), PhD, Mise, DLC. S.A, Museum, North ‘Verrace, Advlaide.

1954. Ginson, A, A. A.W.AS.M., Geologist, Mines Departtnent, Adeliride.

1933, POEAuNNa, M. T., D.Se,, c/o Gealouy Department. University of AdclaideeCouneil,

932-54,

N27. Gonrrny, #. K., Bos 95171, G-P.O., Adelaide,

1835. {Cornsack, H,, Coromandel Valley, S.A.

I9iN “Grant, Prov, Sur Krim, VS, F.LP., 56 Fourth Avenue, St. Peters, S.A,

ps1. Green, J. W., 6 Bedford Avenne, Subiaco, West Anstealia,

194 Guerin, A. D., 13 Dunrobin Road, Brighton, S.A,

1p15. Gross, G. M., B.Sc., South Australian Museum, Aceloide—Seerotary, LO50-33-

1944, Gurry, D: J, B.be., 0/0 W.A, Petroleum Co., 851 Adelaide Terrace, Perth, WA,

122, *Have, TT. M., OBE, c/o SAL Musetrm—Verrn Medal, 1946; Council. 1931-34,

ah Vice-President, 1934-36, 1937-38; President, 1936-37; Treasurer, 1938-50,

194, Wace, D, R,, Toa Tree Gully, $.A.

1930, PHancoce N. L., 38 Bewdley, (6 Beresford Road, Rose Buy, NvS.W-

1053. SHawses, TV. ByA. 34 Merhert Road, West Croydon, S.A,

1946, °Hauvy, Mans. J.B. (mee A. C. Beckwith), M.Se,, Box 42, Smithton, Tas,

WQ4t Manus, J. Tl, B.Sc, 0/o Waile Lustitute (Private Moi) Bag), Adelaide.

I9th Hrnrtor, RB. t,, BAe Se, 49 Talsbury Avenue, Kingswood, S.A.

1954, Hmron, PY. M., B.Agr.Se,, 298 Magill Roud, Beulaly Park.

lhl. Wocree, L. J,, School House, Renmark West, S.A,

1924, “Hossrenp, P.S.. Ph.D., 132 Fisher Street, Fullarton, §.A.

194, Husrune, D. 8. W,, MuPeS.. 1.2. 238 Payneham Road. Vayrelian, S.A.

1947, Hurvow, J. 'I., BSe, 18 Lmily Avene, Claphau,

1028, I[revnn, P., 14 Wyatt Road, Burnside, S.A.

1945. *Trxsup, A.W, Mibe,, c/o CS.LB.O., Canberra, A.C.T,

1950, “louns, KR. K. BSe., Department of Minus, Plinders Street, Adelaide, S.A.

1954. = Kravs. A. L., TE. ¢/o North Broken ill Lich, Broken TTL.

1939. TRE AREAS, i. M,, Pa, M.B., F.RG.S.. Khakhar Buildings, CAP: ‘Tank Road. Bie

oay, Inclin.

1949. *Kiwa, D., M.Sc, eo Department of Mines, Plnders Street, Adclaide,

1933, *Kivewan, A. W., Ph.Id., University of Adeliide—Secrefury, 1945-48; Vice Tresidene,

1948-49, 1950-31; President, 1949-50.

189

Wate at

Floctina

jo8o Juwsxpox, G. A. MLD. Bs, PRO, AMP. Building, Kine Willan Street, Adelaide

fdas. Loraran, TL A. Nw. ND, (N.Z.), Director, Botanic Gardens, Adelaide—Treasurer,

1952-33; Council. 1953-56,

154. *Lunmmoox, Mrs. N. Tt. M.A. PhD. DIG. PGS. Department of Mines. 31

Flinders Street. Aclelaide.

iY3s, MApbers, C. B., B.D.S., D.D.S., Shell House, North Verruce, Adelaide,

1953, Maniznn, v7 A, BSc. (Hons. ). Waite Institute, Adclaide,

1939.) Manseans, T, J.. M.Agr.Se., PhD., Waite Institute (Private Mail Bay), Adeloide—

Council, 1948-52.

(920, Alavo, Sus Hersuar, L1.B., Q.0., 19 Marlborough Street Cullego Park, S.A.

7050, Mayo, G. M E, B.A Se, 29 Marlborough Streat, College Park, 5,A-

T)13. MeCauruy, Muss D. Ph. BA. B.Se.. 70 Malton Terrace, Kensington Park.

1953. MeCantey. J. E., M.D. D.Se, (Edin. ), Institute of Medical snd Veterimuy Seience,

Frou: Road, ‘Adelaiile. ; }

1046, MeCuntocn, R. N., MBE. B.Sc., BAg.Se., Roseworths Aagvioulturil Calle, Rese

worthy, S.A.

1945, }“Alinus, K. K. D.Se., F.G,8., 11 Chureli Road, Mitcham, S.A.

151. Munes, J. A, R., MAL B, Chir, (Cant.), University of Otago, NLA,

W542. Miuxr, K. L., E.G.A., 14 Burlington Street, Walkerville, S.A,

1939, Munctrans, VY. HL, 7 Tewthwaite Street, Whyilli West, S.A.

1925, |)Morrencun, Pror. Sm W., R-CAMLG, MEAL, DSc. Pitzroy Terrace, Prospect, S.A.

1033. 9 Mrrenic., Pro, Mo da, M.Se., fo Elders ‘Trustee aml Executor Co. Ltd.; 37 Currie

Street, Adelaide.

Wo}. Mrrenert, Fo J. efo The Sonth Austrian Museum. North Terrace, Adelaide,

1038. Moornousr, F, W,, M-Se,. QhieF Inspector of Fisheries, Sinipson Buildings, Gawle-

Place. Adelaide,

1944. Muknene. J. W.. -Rrgineerine and Water Supply Dept., Victoria Syture, Adclaide.

144. Ninwns, A. h., B.A. R.D.A., 62 Sheffield Street, Malvern, S.A.

1993. Nouse,. H. V.. Vu. c’o Union Bank of Australia, Actelatcde,

1945. *Nontucure, KOT, BAgeSe., ALAS, Waile Justitule (Private Muil Hac), Adelaide,

1930. Ockenpen, G. F., BoA, St hovel Tonse, Box 63, Kimfiu, 5.A,

1937. *Pankiy, Lo W. MSc. . AST... 6/0 Mines Dent... Adelaide—Se cretary, 153-56,

[3o40, Banxinson, Ky Te Bjec., Whitwarts Road, Balakluva, S.A,

1925. Pau, A. t., MA, B. &e,, 10 Miltom Avenue, Fullarton Estate. S.A,

L926. *Pmen. C, 8. DSe.. Waite Institute (Private Mail B: mw), Adelatel—Cimmdit, [od b-43,

Vice-President, 1943-45, 1946-47, President, 1945-46.

1948, Pownre. J, K.. BSc, C5 041.0., Keith, $.A.

1949. Puacry, R. G., 81 Park Terrace, North Unley. 5.A,

1925, *Pimscort, Por. j. aA. CBE. DiSe, ALC. PRS. B82 Cross Bowd, Myrtle Bank,

S.A —Vereo Medal, 1938; Cauneil. 1927-30. 1935-39; Vice-President, 1930-32:

President, 1932-33: Editar, 1955-56.

1945, °Prvog, |. D,. \Se., Dip,or., 32 La Perouse Street. Griffith. Canberra, AvC.T,

1950, *®Ragrican, |. H., M.Se.. West Austrian Petroleum Co., Perth, W.A,

1951, Rayson. P.. BSc: c/o Botany Department, University of Adekticls

19id, Rrewsras, D. S., M.Se., BAgr-Se. C.S.LR.O.. Division of Nutrition, Adutuide.

1947.. Rrener, ae R, BSc, w/t Seripps Trstitntion of Oveanography, Dept. of Pulueon-

tology. Lia Joa, Calitornia, USA.

147. Ria, Oo. B. 42 W avr Avenue, Glinclore, S.A.

1953 Roarns. Prov, &§ W. Ph.D. Zaplogy Department, University of Adeliide.

1951. Kown, 5. A, 2S ‘Slucttes Suvel. Fire, SA.

(95). Rows. S. EL, BSe., Cordon Tristitute Fi Technology, Geelong, Vieloriu,

1959. Renn, Pror, B.A, “HSe. AM. University of Adelaide, S.A.

N51. Tirssras.. by, Bs eo High Sclioul, Bork Pine, S.A,

945, Hivsciuw, J. Oli) Fenola Estate, Penola, 5A,

133, Seixeiner, ‘a. M.B., B.S... LTS North ‘Terrace, Adelaide,

vst. Sear, 'T, D.. TSe., edo SA. Mnusenni, Nurth Terrace, Adelaide, $.A.—Programiie

Serretury, 1953-55,

124 *#Spesar, RL W., MLA, b.Se, Engineering und Wuter Sapply Deparfinent, Victoria

Square, Adulaicle— Secretary, 1930-35; Couneil, 1957-38; Vice-President, 1938-39,

LO40-11; President, 1939-40,

1025, *Smeanr, i. Part Fillint, S.A.

1936. ?Siurany, Dn, K.. M. Se., Fisheries Research Diy., C-S1,R.0., University of W.A,,

Nedlands, W.Ac

$951, SuerHnan, R. G., BSe.. e/a Denartment of Mines, Adelaide.

1934, SHINKFIELD, BR. C., ST Cuuterbury Averiue. Trinity Gardens, S.A.

1949. Smepsow, D. A,, MB, TS., The Manor House, Great Haseley, Oxfordshire, England,

1925. fSscrry, Tl. , Barr. IA. 25 Currie Strect, Adelaide.

180

Date of

Flection

1941, *Saurn, T. L., B.Se., National University, School of Pacifle Studies, Box 4, G.P.0,,

Canberra, A.C.T.

1941. *Sourncorr, R. V., M.B., B.S., D.T_M. & H., 13 Jusper Street, Hyde Park, S.A.—

Council, 1949-51, 1952-53; Treasurer, 1931-42; Vice-President, 1953-54, 1955-56;

: President, 1954-45. ;

1936. Sovrmwoon, A. R., M.D. M.S, (Adel), MLB.C.B., 170 North ‘lertace, Adelaide.

1947. *Sprncirr, R. £., Ph.D, Botany Department, University of Adelaide—Coanetl, 1451-.

1936, F*Seucc, RC. MSe., 5 Baker Street, Somerton Park,

1951, Sreapman, Riv, W. R., § Blairgowrie Road, St, Georges, $.A.

L917. Svimuine, M, B., B.Ag.Se., Horticnitural Brauch, Department of Agriculture, Boy

SUIR, G.P.O., Adelade.

1949, *Spny, A. HL, M.Sc.. Geology Department, University of Tasmanin.

1938, °Neurnens, C. G., D.Se., Waite Tnstitute (Private Mail Bag), Adclaide Council,

1952-54; Vice-President, 1954-55; President, 1955-56.

1955. Swarse, C. D., M.B.. B.S, Repatriation Sanatorium, Belair, S.A,

1932. Swan, D. CG, M.Sa, Waite Institute (Private Mail Mag), Adelwice—Sceretary,

1940-42; Vice-President, 1946-47, 1948-49: President, 1047-48: ( lormeil, 1953-56,

1948. Swann, F’. J. W., Box 156, P.O. Burnie, ‘Tasmania.

1951. Sworsxs, BP.) M,AgiSc., GIS Seaview Road, Grange, S.A.

1934. Symons, 1. G., 35 Murray Street, Lower Mitehym, $.A.—Editor, 1947-53; Council.

1955-56,

1929, °Tavnor, J. K B.A, M.Se., Waite Tustitute (Private Mail Bag), Adelaide.—Corneil,

T5443, 1947-50: Librarian, 1951-52; Vice-President, 1952-53, 1954-355: President.

1953-54; Council, 1955,

1955. Trarcimn, D,, B.Sc, Department of Mines, Adelaide,

1948, *THomas, , M., M.Sc. (Wales), University of Adelaide—Serretary, 1945-50; Cone,

1930-53,

1938. °VHosras, Mus. TM. (ee P.M, Maysor). M.Sc. 36 King Street, Brighton.

IMU. “Tromeson, Cart, J. M., 135 Militan: Road, Semaphore South, S.A,

1925, °Tinnaue, N. B., BSe., South Australian Museuin, Adelaide~Secretury, 1935-36;

Cannel, 1946-47; Viee-President, 1947-48_ 1949-50: Presiclimt, 1948-49; Lilsravian,

1952-56.

1955. ‘Tucker, B. ML, B.Se., 86 Baker Street, Glimgawrie.

1925. Tuts, D, C.. Bragktnana Buildings, Grenfell Street, Adelaide,

1950, Verresm, J. T.. Bow 92. Port Lincaln, S.A,

1953. Waterman, BR. A. BA, MOA. PhD. North-western University, Eyynston,

Ifinois, U.S.A.

154. Webs, BLP. M.Se,, Radium Hill, S.A,

1954, Werrs, C, B., B.Ay.Sc., Broadlees, Waverley Hidge, Crafers, S.A.

1954. *Weirr, A, BR. B.Se., fo Geology Depart,, King's College, Strand. W.C.2, London.

1946, *Wintrie, A. W. G., M.Se., Mines Department, Flinders Street, Adelaicle.

1950, Wiunianis, L. &., “Dimosa,” Meningie, S.A,

1016. *Winson, A F., M-Sc., University of W-A., Nedlands, W.A,

1933, °Woytersney, H., T.R.ES., ALS. (Hon. eansa); SA. Musenm, Adelaide — Yeren

Medal, 1943: Secretary, 1936-37: Editor, 1937-43, 1945-47; President, 1943-44:

Viee-President, 1944-45; Rep. Fanna and Flora Protection Committee, 1945:

Treasurer, 1950-51.

l954. *Wonterscey, H. B, S.. Pi-D., University of Adelaide,

Idd. Wonrensiey, J. §., B.Sv.. Lae, New Guinea.

1923. “Wooo, Pror. J. G., DSc, Ph.D, University of Adelaide — Vurcu Medal, 1944;

Council, 1938-40; Vice-President, 1940-41, 1949-43: Rep, Fauna and Flora Board,

1940-; President, 1941-42; Council, 1944-48.

1950. *Woonaup, G. D., B.Sc, 1 Brigalow Avenue, Kensington Gardens, S.A.

1953, Woopnousr, I. R,, 15 Robert Street, North Unley, S.A,

1043, Woovianns, H., F.R.ILS., Box 989H, C.P.O., Adcluide.

1915, Worraruy, B. W., B.A,, M.Sc., A.Jnst,P_, University of Adelaide. ;

1944. Zismmen, W. J, Dip.For., ¥.1,,8. (Tion.), 7 Rupert Street, Footscray West. W.12, Vict.

191

GENERAL INDEX

Summary

GENERAL INDEX

Names printed in italics as séparate entries indicate that the forms are new bo seiene.

Aimphithalamus (Pisinna) subbieolur 27

An Occurrence of Native Sulphur at

Lake Fyre: GC. W.. Bonython and

D, King 4 121-130

An Alternative Calculation for Poten-

tial Eyapotriunspiration: B. M.

Tucker m, 16-51

Antennolaelaps affinis _ ke 112

Astraga (Beéllastraea) heaperus a3

Baas-Becking, L. G, M., and Kaplan,

1. Ret The Microbiologie] Origin

of the Sulpnur Nodules of Lake

Eyre 4 : vs _ §2-65

Bonython, C. W.; The Salt of Lake

Eyreats Oecurrence in Madigan

Gulf and its Possible Origin 67-92

Bonythan, C, W., and King, D,; An

Oecurrence of Native Sulphur at

Lake Eyre = 121-130

Bowes, D, Tu: The Occurrence of

Granite Tillite and Granite Gneiss

‘Tillite at Poolammacea, Broken Hill,

New South Wales 131-141

Cadulus (Dischides) yatalensis 4

Chilorinities of Coastal Waters in

Sonth Australia: [. M. Thomas and

S.J. Edmonds - ' 153-166

Colealaelaps heteronychus 115

Collonia omissa . 23

Dentalium (Fissidentalium) Maw-

son e Z Ri

Dentalinm (Antalis) denotatum z 3

Edinonds, S.J. Thomas, 1. M., and:

Chiorinities of Coastal Waters in

South Australia ; 153-166

Emarginula didactic im 8

E, dilatoria 9

Euenierias queenslondicus 105

Kaplan, J. BR. Baas - Becking,

L. G. M., and: The Mivrobio-

logical Orivin of the Sulphur

Nodules of Lake Pyrs a 52-65

Kerr-Grant, C.: The Adelaide Barth-

quake of Ist Mareh, 1954 177-185

King, D.; The Quaternary Strati-

graphic Record at Lake Eyre

North and the Evolution of Exist-

ing Topographic Fornis 93-103

King. Dc Bonython, C. W., and:

An Occurrence of Native Sulpbur

at Lake Fyre . . 121-130

Lake Eyre, South Australia, Micro-

fossils from Pleistogene to Reeent

Deposits: N, H. Ludbrook ,, 387-45

198

Lake Eyre, The Mitrobialogical

Origin ot the Sulphur Nodules of:

L, G, M, Baas-Becking and I. R.

Kaplan - 7 52-65

Lake Kyre, The Salt of: C. W,

Bonython 67-92

Lake Eyre North, The Quaternary

Strutigraphie Record at: D. King 93-103

Lake Fyre, An Queurrence of Native

D. King ae 121-130

Ludbrook, N. Hy: The Mollusean

Fauna of the Pliocene Strata

Underlying the Adelaide Plains,

Pit Tit " : _ 1-36

Taudbrook, N. He: Mierofossils from

Pleistocene to Reeent Deposits

Lake Eyre, South Australia 37-45

Microfassils fromm Pleistocene to Re-

vent Deposits, Lake Eyre, South

Australia: N. H. Ludbrook _- 37-45

Notes on the Acarine Cenns

Ophioptes, with a Description of a

New Australian Species: Bo WV.

Southcott : r 142-147

Notes on the Younger Glavial Rem-

nants of Northern South Australia:

L. W, Parkin 148-151

Onchogumasns comminis 108

Ophiontes samboni es 142

Parkin, L. W.: Notes on the Younger

Glacial Remnants of Northern Aus-

tralia 7 ; 148-151

Pellax jejuna , 24

Queenslandoluclaps vitzthumi 109

QO. berlesei - : 7 Wl

Kissume tinela 31

Saccoglossus upantests . 167

Saccoglossus — apantesis, a New

Species of Enteropneust from

South Australia: T, M, Thomas 167-176

Siphonodentaliam (Pulsellum) ade-

laidense - .

Some Additions to the Acarina-

Mesostigmata of Australia: H.

Womersley ; . 104-120

Southewtt, Ro Vii Notes on the

Acaring Gems Ophiuples, with a

Description of a New Australian

Species ee 142-147

Spectamen planicarinatimn k 17

S. prueeursor 18

Stylozgamasus convert 113

The Molluscan Fauna of the Pliocene

Strata Underlying the Adelaide

Plains. Part IN: N. H. Ludbrook

The Microbiological Origin of the

Sulphnr Nodules of Lake Eyre:

L. G. M. Baas-Becking and I. R.

Kaplan

The Salt of Lake Eyre—its ‘Oceur-

rence in Madigan Gulf and_ its

Possible Origin: C. W.. Bonython

The Quaternary Stratigraphic Record

at Lake Eyre North and the Evo-

jution of Existing Topographic

Forms: D. King 93-103

The Occurrence of Granite Tillite

and Granite Gneiss Tillite at

Poolamacea, Broken Hill, New

South Walcs: D, R, Bowes 131-141

1-44

194

The

March,

Adelaide Earthquake of

1954: C. Kerr-Grant 177-185

Thomas, I. M.: Saccoglossus apan-

tesis, a New Species of Enterop-

neust from South Australia 167-176

Thomas, I. M., and Edmonds, S, J.:

Chlorinities of Coastal Waters in

South Australia —.., . 153-166

Tucker, BB. M.: An Alternative Cal-

culation for Potential Ev apotrans-

Ist

piration we 46-51.

Turboella elimattae : a 29

T. pracnovarensis ... 28

Womersley, H.; Some Additions to

the Acarina-Mesostigmata of Aus-

tralia : 104-120

“CONTENTS”

N H. Lupsroox: The Molluscan Fates of the Pliocene Strata Ditinclese

the Adelaide Plains, Part III. Ssaphopode; “li oe oy gare Rue,

_ poda, (Haliotidae to Tornidae)

__N. H. Lupsroox: Microfossils from Pleistocene to Recent Deposits, Lake

Eyre, South Australia .. ¥ ely ae ae As fen, = i

iF f

LGM. Baas-Beckinc Anp I, R. Kaptan: The Microbiological Origin She

the Sulphur Nodules of Lake Eyre Af ches ee

_C. W. BonytHon: The Salt of Lake- > Eyre—its DPginreNes, in seegte Gulf

- and its Possible Origin .. “ “4 “- m

‘ a)

ane

tha" ag

we at

=te 2

% “2% 7)

Son Pk

Se |

‘ i :

a.)

_D. Kine: The Quaternary Saeeiiolan Record at Lake yee. North and

cA the Evolution of Existing Topographic Forms ms

ne! a

x H. WomersLey: Some Additions to the Acarina-Mesostigmata of Australia

-~C. W. Bonyrson AND D. Kinc: The are Me of Native Tit aa at

~ > Lake Eyre... 6

p: R. Bowes: The Genet of Cranite Tillite and Granite ie ets

~~ at Poolamacca, Broken Hill, N,S.W.

~ “5, v. Soutucort: Notes on the Acarine Genus pod ee, with a Descrin:

San tion of a New Australian Species ..

ir W. Parkin: Notes on the Mouigen Glacial Hosea of Northern

South Australia... a —= = Ps ES =

x} ae Be M. Tuomas anp S, J. EpMonps: ee of Coastal Waters in South

= Nay ws Australia Im “= bios i vn yt it

IM. "THOMAS: Saccoglossus igen? a New Species of Enteropneust

from South Australia “ re ih = a P

C. Kerr-Grant: The Adelaide (difie of Ist March, 1954

__ Abstract of Exhibits and Lectures, 1955

‘Balance: Sheet, 1955 Bal ones - a ¥ SS

' Awards of the Sir Joseph V Verco Medal and List of Fallows, pics

ete, 1955...

. —=&B. M. Tucxen: An Alternative Calculation for Potential Evapotranspiration __