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ANNALS
OF THE
NEW YORK
ACADEHY OF SCIENCES
VOLUME XIX
1909
Editor
EDMUND OTIS HOVEY
New York
Published by the Academy
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
(Lyceum of Natural History, 1817-1876.)
Officers, 1909.
President — Charles F. Cox, Grand Central Station.
Vice-Presidents — J. J. Stevenson, F. M. Chapman, D. W. Hering,
Maurice Fishberg.
Recording Secretary — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
Corresponding Secretary — Hermon C. Bumpus, American Museum.
Treasurer — Emerson McMillin, 40 Wall Street.
Librarian — Ralph W. Tower, American Museum.
Editor — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Chairman — J. J. Stevenson, New York University.
Secretary — C. P. Berkey, Columbia University.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
Chairman — Frank M. Chapman, American Museum.
Secretary — Louis IIussakof, American Museum.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Chairman — D. W. Hering, New York University.
Secretary — William Campbell, Columbia University.
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
Chairman — Maurice Fishberg, 1337 Madison Avenue.
Secretary — R. S. Woodworth, Columbia University.
CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIX.
Page
Title-page . i
Officers . . . ii
Contents . iii
Dates of Publication of Authors’ Separates . iv
List of Illustrations . iv
Erratum . vi
(Part I) Art. 1. Darwin Memorial Celebration. By Edmund Otis
Hovey. (Plates I— III) . 1
The Individuality of Charles Darwin. By
Charles F. Cox . 16
Acceptance of the Portrait of Darwin. By Henry
Fairfield Osborn . 21
Darwin and Geology. By John James Steven¬
son . 22
Darwin and Botany. By Nathaniel Lord
Britton . 28
Darwin and Zoology. By Hermon C. Bumpus 34
Art. 2. Correlation Bulletin, No. 1. Plan and Scope. By
Henry Fairfield Osborn and W. D. Matthew 41
Art. 3. Studies on the Morphology and Development of
Certain Rugose Corals. By Thomas Clachar
Brown . 45
Art. 4. The Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium. By Louis Dollo.
(Plates IV-X) . 99
Art. 5. On the Origin and Sequences of the Minerals of the
Newark (Triassic) Igneous Rocks of New Jersey.
By Wallace Goold Levison. (Plates XI-XIII) 121
Art. 6. The Guadalupian Fauna and New Stratigraphic Evi¬
dence. By George H. Girty . 135
(Part II) Art. 7. Patagonia and the Pampas Cenozoic of South America.
A Critical Review of the Correlations of Santiago
Roth, 1908. By W. D. Matthew. (Plate XIV) 149
Art. S. The Coal Basin of Commentrv in Central France. By
John J. Stevenson. (Plates XV-XX) .... 161
Art. 9. Some New or Little Known American Spiders. By
Alexander Petrunkevitch. (Plates XXI-
XXII) . 205
Art. 10. The Founder of the Evolution Theory. By Charles
Finney Cox . 225
Art. 11. Areal and Structural Geology of Southern Manhattan
Island. By Charles P. Berkey. (Plates XXIII-
XXIV) . 247
(Part III) Art. 12. Records of Meetings, 1909. By Edmund Otis
Hovey . 2S3
List of Societies and other Organizations with
which the Academy Exchanges Publications . 335
Memoir of Wolcott Gibbs. By Theodore
William Richards . 345
Memoir of Simon Newcomb. By G. W. Hill . . 347
Memoir of Kakichi Mitsukuri. By B ashford
Dean . 352
Memoir of John H. Caswell. By James F. Kemp 353
The Organization of the Academy . 357
The Original Charter . 357
Order of Court . 359
The Amended Charter . 361
Constitution . 363
By-laws . 364
Membership Lists, 31 December, 1909 371
Index . 387
DATES OF PUBLICATION OF AUTHORS’ SEPARATES.
(Part I) Art. 1, pp. 1-40, 31 July, 1909.
Art. 2, pp. 41-44, 20 April, 1909.
Art. 3, pp. 45-97, 19 May, 1909.
Art. 4, pp. 99-119, 31 July, 1909.
Art. 5, pp. 121-134, 4 December, 1909.
Art. 6, pp. 135-147, 27 December, 1909
(Part II) Art. 7, pp. 149-160, 15 January, 1910.
Art. 8, pp. 161-204, 1 February, 1910.
Art. 9, pp. 205-224, 2 March, 1910.
Art. 10, pp. 225-245, 18 March, 1910.
Art. 11, pp. 247-282, 21 April, 1910.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plates.
I. — Bronze Bust of Charles Darwin.
II — The Academy Bust of Darwin. Right side of the model.
III. — The Academy Bust of Darwin. Left side of the model.
IV. — Geological Sketch Map of Belgium.
V. — Chronologic Table of the Mesozoic Formations of Belgium.
VI. — Chronologic Table of the Cenozoic Formations of Belgium.
VII. — Mosasaurus Conybeare, 1822. A Surface-swimming Mosasaurian.
VIII. — Plioplatecarpus Dollo, 1882. A Deep-diving Mosasaurian.
IX. — Mosasaurus giganteus Sommering, 1816.
X. — Plioplatecarpus houzeaui Dollo, 1889.
XI. — Calcite, Upper Montclair, N. J.
Prehnite, Hoxie’s Quarry, Paterson, N. J.
Apophyllite parasitic on Pectolitic, Snake Hill, N. J.
Gmelinite, Calcite and other minerals.
Edition.
175 copies.
250 copies.
75 copies.
125 copies.
75 copies.
75 copies.
125 copies.
300 copies.
175 copies.
75 copies.
375 copies.
IV
XIII.—
XIV,
XV,
XII. — Scalenohedrons of Calcite parasitic on crystals of Natrolite.
Natrolite and Prehnite supporting sequent Calcite.
A filamentary mineral on a thin coating of Diabantite on trap and sup¬
porting parasitic crystals of various minerals.
A filamentary mineral in a cavity between crystals of Datolite and Cal¬
cite.
Apophyllite and Analcite on Datolite.
Calcite sequent on Stilbite.
Pectolite sequent upon a plate of Prehnite.
Pyrite in prisms and cubes on Heulandite.
Succession of Sedimentary Strata in Patagonia and the Pampas Region.
Tranchee de Foret.
Grande Couche in l’Esperance.
XVI. — Tranchee de l’Esperance. Nonconformity between the Grande Couche
and the overlying dark shales.
Tranchee de l’Esperance. Westerly wall exhibiting irregularity of de¬
posit of Gres Noirs above and gray shales below.
XVII. — Tranchee de 1’Esperance. Southwesterly corner showing structure of
the Gres Noirs group.
Tranchee de l’Esperance. Southerly wall showing faulting in the dark
shales.
XVIII. — Glissement de l’Esperance. Southerly wall of l’Esperance.
Tranchee de Longeroux. Recumbent fold in black shales of Gres Noirs.
XIX. — Tranchee de Longeroux. Upper sandstone and black coaly shales of
Gres Noirs.
Tranchee de Longeroux. Grande Couche at left; dark shales and folded
sandstones of Gres Noirs in background.
XX. — Tranchee de Longeroux. Fault between Grande Couche below and dark
shales above.
Tranchee de Longeroux. Glissement de l’Esperance and flexed dark shales.
XXL — Acanthodenus Marshi F. Cambridge. Epigynum.
Orchcstina saltabunda Simon. Male palpus.
Idem. Side view of spider without legs.
Melanophora rufula Banks. Male palpus.
Spermophora meridionalis Hentz. Male palpus.
Theridionexus cavernivolus sp. nov. Male palpus.
Idem. Epigynum.
Young female.
Epigynum and lungs.
Alcimosphenus bifurcatus sp. nov.
Micrathena horrida Taczanovsky.
Idem. Abdomen from above.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
Micrathena oblonga Taczanovsky.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
Micrathena sordida Taczanovsky.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
Micrathena Vigorsii Perty. Sternum.
Idem. Epigynum and lungs.
Idem. Abdomen from behind.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
XXII. — Epicadinus tuberculatus sp. nov. Adult female.
Idem. Epigynum.
Epigynum.
Epigynum and lungs.
Idem. End of tarsus with claws.
Phrurolithus Britcheri sp. nov. Epigynum.
Ctenus malvernensis sp. nov. Epigynum.
Idem. Male palpus.
M oenkhausiana brasiliensis sp. nov. Side view of spinnerets in state
of contraction.
Idem. Side view of spinnerets in state of expansion.
Idem. Epigynum.
Idem. Male palpus.
Theridionexue, cavernicolus sp. nov. Adult female.
Idem. Cephalothorax from above.
Idem. Face and mandibles.
Idem. Fourth tarsus with comb.
Idem. Claws and serrate bristles.
Ancylometes vulpes Bertkau. Epigynum.
Lycosa nychthemera Bertkau. Male palpus.
Theridionexus cavsrnivolus. One of the combhairs magnified.
XXIIF — Geological Map of Southern Manhattan Island.
XXIV. — Geologic Section from Hoboken, N. J., across Manhattan Island to the
Navy Yard. Brooklyn, N. Y.
Text Figures.
Page
Streptelasma profundum . 55
Streptelasma corniculum . 57
Enterolasma caliculum . 60
Enterolasma caliculuvi . • 61
Enterolasma caliculum . 62
Enterolasma caliculum . 63
Enterolasma strictum . 66
Stereolasma rectum . 68
Stereolasma rectum . 69
Stereolasma rectum . 70
Stereolasma rectum . 71
Stereolasma rectum . 72
Heterophrentis prolifica . 74
Heliophyllum halli . 77
Hadrophyllum orbignyi . ... 79
Lophophyllum proliferum . 81
Lophophyllum proliferum . 83
Hapsiphyllum calcareforme . 84
Hapsiphyllum spinulosum . 86
Hapsiphyllum varsoviense . 86
The Coal Basin of Commentry . 164
The Grand Couche in Tranchee de Longeroux . 177
The Drainage Area of Lake Commentry . 1S6
ERRATUM.
Caption of Plate XXIV, instead of “Hoboken, N. Y.,” read “Hoboken, N. J.”
{
VOL. XIX
PART I
ANNALS
OF THE
NEW YORK
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
EDITOR
Edmund Otis Hovey
NEW YORK
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY
1909
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
(Lyceum of Natural History, 1817-1876.)
Officers, 1909.
President — Charles F. Cox, Grand Central Station.
Vice-Presidents — J. J. Stevenson, Frank M. Chapman,
D. W. Hering, Maurice Fishberg.
Recording Secretary — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
Corresponding Secretary — Hermon C. Bumpus, American Museum.
Treasurer — Emerson McMillin, 40 Wall Street.
Librarian — Ralph W. Tower, American Museum.
Editor — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Chairman — J. J. Stevenson, New York University.
Secretary — Charles P. Berkey, Columbia University.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
Chairman — Frank M. Chapman, American Museum.
Secretary — Louis Hussakof, American Museum.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Chairman — D. W. Hering, New York University.
Secretary — William Campbell, Columbia University.
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
Chairman — Maurice Fishberg, 1337 Madison Avenue.
Secretary — R. S. Woodworth, Columbia University.
The sessions of the Academy are held on Monday evenings at 8:15
o’clock from October to May, inclusive, at the American Museum of Natural
History, 77th Street and Central Park, West.
;
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■: !PR LSENTED BY THE
•••..NEW, YORK ACADEMY
>'qF SCIENCES ON THE
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THE PVBUCATION ( ■ .
THE ORIGIN C:
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Plate I.
BRONZE BUST OF CHARLES DARWIN.
Presented to the American Museum of Natural History
By the New York Academy of Sciences,
12 February, 1909.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 1, Part I, pp. 1-40. 31 July, 1909.]
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION.
By Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
By invitation of the New York Academy of Sciences, the friends of
science in New York City and vicinity gathered at the American Museum
of Natural History on Friday, 12 February, 1909, to celebrate the centenary
of the birth of the great English naturalist, Charles Robert Darwin, and the
semi-centennial anniversary of the publication of his epoch making book
“The Origin of Species.” In preparation for the celebration, the following
circular was sent out, under date of 31 October, 190S, to the members of the
Academy and its affiliated societies and other selected addresses :
The investigations and publications of Charles Darwin have had a profound
influence upon the progress of science in America as well as in all other parts of the
world, but no important memorial of this great naturalist exists in this country.
The one hundredth anniversary of Darwin's birth and the fiftieth anniversary of the
publication of the “Origin of Species” fall within the year 1909, and the Council of
the New York Academy of Sciences proposes that these events be suitably celebrated
on Darwin’s birthday, 12 February, 1909, when addresses are to be delivered by
members of the Academy setting forth Darwin’s achievements in different depart¬
ments of science, and a bronze bust of Darwin is to be unveiled and presented to the
American Museum of Natural History by the president of the Academy and accepted
by the president of the Museum. It is also proposed to hold in connection with the
celebration an exhibition at the Museum of Darwiniana and objects illustrating
Darwin’s theory of evolution through natural selection and his work in botanical,
zoological and geological research.
A Darwin Memorial Committee to make all arrangements has been appointed
as follows:
E. O. Hovey, Chairman
J. A. Allen
C. W. Beebe
C. L. Bristol
N. L. Britton
H. C. Bumpus
G. N. Calkins
J. McK. Cattell
F. M. Chapman
C. F. Cox
H. E. Crampton
C. B. Davenport
Bashford Dean
A. W. Grabau
W. T. Hornaday
M. A. Howe
J. F. Kemp
F. A. Lucas
W. D. Matthew
T. H. Morgan
H. F. Osborn
H. H. Rusby
W. B. Scott
J. J. Stevenson
C. W. Townsend .
W. M. Wheeler
E. B. Wilson
l
2
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The Council considers the coming celebration a fitting occasion for a general
expression of appreciation of Darwin’s life and work and therefore invites all friends
of science in New York and vicinity to join in the proposed commemoration and in
erecting a suitable tribute to Darwin’s memory in the Natural History Museum, the
most appropriate place in this metropolis. *****
Edmund Otis Hovey
Secretary, New York Academy of Sciences
West 77th Street and Central Park, West
Charles F. Cox
President
New York, 31 October, 1908
The following invitation was sent out to the members of the American
Museum of Natural History, the New York Zoological Society, the New
York Botanical Garden and sister scientific societies throughout the world,
as well as to all classes of members of the Academy and its affiliated societies :
The New York Academy of Sciences
invites you to attend its
exercises commemorating the
One Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of
Charles Darwin
and the
Fiftieth Anniversary of the Publication of
“ The Origin of Species ”
American Museum of Natural History
Central Park, West, and Seventy-seventh Street
February the twelfth, nineteen hundred nine
at three o’clock p. m.
On the day of the celebration, the committee charged by the Council
with making arrangements for the event carried out the following programme :
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
3
Programme
Presentation to the
American Museum of Natural History
of a
Bronze Bust of Darwin
By Charles Finney Cox
President of the New York Academy of Sciences
Acceptance on behalf of
the Trustees of the Museum
By Henry Fairfield Osborn
President of the American Museum of Natural History
Addresses
DARWIN AND GEOLOGY
By John James Stevenson
DARWIN AND BOTANY
By Nathaniel Lord Britton
DARWIN AND ZOOLOGY
By Hermon Carey Bumpus
In the course of the exercises, the Recording Secretary read greetings
from several societies, including the following cablegram from Professor
Arthur E. Shipley of Christ’s College, Cambridge, England:
“Zoologists dining in Darwin’s room, Christ’s, send greetings to the
Academy.”
The Committee was assisted in the carrying out of its plans by a special
fund of about $1,750.00, the subscribers to which were
4
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Adler, I.
Allis, Edward Phelps, Jr.
Amend, B. J.
Ansbacher, Mrs. A. B.
Arthur, J. C.
Avery, Samuel P.
Baekeland, L. H.
Barron, George D.
Baskerville, Charles
Baugh, Miss M. L.
Beckhard, Martin
Beller, A.
Bessey, Charles E.
van Beuren, F. T.
Bijur, Moses
Birkhahn, Robert C.
Brinsmade, Charles Lyman
Bristol, John I. D.
Britton, N. L.
Brown, Addison
Brown, Edwin H.
Brown, Joseph E.
Bumpus, H. C.
Burgess, T. J. W.
Burroughs, C. W.
Bush, Wendell T.
Chamberlain, Leander T.
Chubb, S. H.
de Coppet, E. J.
Corning, C. R.
Cox, C. F.
Dahlgren, B. E.
Davenport, Charles B.
Davis, William Gilbert
Davis, William T.
Dean, Bashford
De Witt, William G.
Dinkelspiel, Mrs. PaulinefPrice
Dodge, Cleveland H.
Dodge, Richard E.
Dominick, George F.
Donald, James M.
Doughty, Mrs. Alla
Douglas, James
Dudley, P. H.
Dundas, Ralph Wurts
Dunn, Gano
Dwight, Jonathan, Jr.
Earle, F. S.
Emerson, Miss Julia T.
Emmet, Miss L. F.
Estabrook, A. F.
Field, William B. Osgood
Ford, James B.
de Forest, Robert W.
Frissell, A. S.
Greer, David H.
Godfrey, Charles C.
Goodnow, Henry R.
Goodwin, A. C.
Greenwood, Isaac J.
Gregory, W. K.
Halsted, Byron D.
Hammond, J. B.
Haupt, Louis
Hazard, R. G.
Herrman, Mrs. Esther
Herter, Christian A.
Hess, Selmar
Hewins, Miss Nellie P.
Hills, Alfred K.
Holt, Henry
Hornaday, W. T.
Hovey, E. O.
Howe, H. M.
Hubbard, Walter C.
Huntington, Archer M.
Hutter, Karl
Hyde, Frederic E.
Isaacs, Miss Alice M.
Jones, Dwight A.
Kane, John Innes
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
5
Kemp, J. F.
Kennedy, John S.
Kinney, Morris
Klein, Edward N. E.
Kraemer, Henry
Knnz, George F.
Lang, H.
Langeloth, J.
Langmann, G.
Levy, Miss Daisy
Lichtenstein, Paul
Lieb, J. W., Jr.
Loeb, Morris
Lowie, Robert H.
Lusk, Graham
Marble, Manton
Matthew, W. D.
McMillin, Emerson
Meltzer, S. J.
Milburn, John G.
Miller, George N.
Mills, D. O.
Munn, John P.
Nesbit, Abram G.
Oettinger, P. J.
Ogilvie, Miss Ida H.
Osborn, Henry F.
Osborn, William Church
Owens, W. W.
Palm, Charles
Parsons, John E.
Peckham, S. F.
Pedersen, Frederick M.
Petrunkevitch , Alexander
Pfordte, O. F.
Phipps, Henry
Pumpelly, Raphael
Ramsperger, Gustavus
Riederer, Ludwig
Robb, J. Hampden
Rusby, H. H.
Russ, Edward
Sachs, Paul J.
Sauter, Fred.
Schniewind, F.
Scrymser, James A.
SenfF, Charles H.
Smith, Mrs. Annie Morrill
Smith, E. E.
Stone, Miss Ellen J.
Strauss, Frederick
Streat, James
Tesla, Nikola
Thaw, Benj unin
Thompson, Miss Anna F.
Thorndike, Edward L.
Thorne, Samuel
Townsend, C. H.
Tuekerman, Alfred
Tweedy, Mrs. A. B.
Van Tassell, F. L.
Walcott, Charles D.
Walker, James
Warburg, Paul M.
Weiss, Mrs. Samuel W.
White, I. C.
Williams, Henry S.
Wilson, Edmund B.
Woodward, R. S.
The Academy gratefully acknowledges the cooperation of the American
Museum of Natural History in making the exhibition a success. The
exhibition was held from 12 February to 14 March inclusive in the Svnoptic
Hall (now known as the Darwin Hall) and the Hall of North Ameiican
Forestry of the Natural History Museum, and it consisted of letters, vikings
and portraits of Charles Robert Darwin, and exhibits demonstrating various
6
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
aspects of the process of evolution of the human species, of other animals and
of plants, with special reference to the Darwinian principle of natural selec¬
tion. The exhibits were assembled and arranged by a subcommittee
under the chairmanship of Professor Henry E. Crampton. The following
general catalogue of the exhibition indicates its plan and scope.
A
VARIATION UNDER DOMESTICATION
The exhibits demonstrate the results obtained by man with plants and
animals which have been under cultivation or domestication for many
centuries. Beginning with a single original form, or “species,” many
different races and types that are stable and breed true from generation to
generation have been produced by a process called technically “artificial
selection.” Domesticated and cultivated forms that vary so as to meet the
“artificial” standards of human needs or fancies are kept for breeding
purposes, while the less desired individuals are discarded. Sometimes the
original progenitor of such races still occurs in a wild form, as in the fowls
and pigeons.
Illustrations
1. Races of Indian Corn.
2. Races of Daffodils.
3. Different breeds of domestic fowls, together with their wild
ancestor, the Jungle Fowl.
4. Different breeds of pigeons, with their probable common ancestor,
the Rock Pigeon.
5. Different breeds of dogs.
B
VARIATION IN NATURE
The exhibits illustrate the universal fact of variation of groups of indi¬
viduals under natural conditions. The differences between any two in¬
dividuals may be very slight — the so called “fluctuating variations” —
or they may be wider, as in the case of “mutations.” The Laws of Variation
may be expressed nearly always in precise mathematical form.
Illustrations
1. Races and closely-related species of American Thorn Trees.
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
7
2. Fluctuating variations in one species of a clam-like animal, Tellina.
3. Slight differences between and among different types of a kind of
terrestrial snail, Helix.
4. Variable shells of the common scallop, Pecten, arranged also to
show the general law of variation.
5. Varieties of the Tiger Cowry, from Malaysia.
6. “Mutations,” or wide “deviations from type,” in several species
of birds.
C
STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE
The natural rate at which living organisms multiply is so rapid that only
a small portion of the individuals which begin life can survive in the struggle
for existence. The elimination of the unfit and the survival of only the fit
are the results of the many-sided warfare in which all organisms must engage
because of over-multiplication. Nevertheless, a form that has been intro¬
duced into a new locality may spread with remarkable rapidity, owing to a
partial suspension of selection brought about by the exemption of the form
from the severe struggle for existence under the conditions of its original
habitat.
Illustrations
1. A demonstration of the results of the normal rapid rate of multi¬
plication under the supposition that no elimination takes place
— results which could not be produced in nature.
2. The Water Hyacinth, a plant which has been introduced into
Florida, a new habitat, where it has multiplied at such a rate
as to choke the streams.
3. A map showing the area of distribution of the English Sparrow
in the year 1S86, twenty-two years after its introduction into
North America.
4. A map showing the spread of the Potato-Bug, during successive
decades.
5. A demonstration of the struggle for existence of young plants
grown from seeds planted in areas that overlap.
6. Photographs of the conditions in forests, where low-shrubbery is
prevented from growing because of the lack of light in the
shade of the large trees.
7. A group showing the Meadow-Mouse and its natural enemies
and food-organisms; a demonstration of the complexity of the
struggle for existence.
8
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
D
INSTINCTS
The “mental” operation of lower orders of animals, termed instinctive
reactions, are well exemplified by the nest-building habits of birds and
insects. The materials employed and the character of the nests display the
adaptive nature of the instinctive adjustments to different environmental
conditions. The behavior of crustaceans like the Spider-Crab illustrates
another peculiar instinctive habit.
Illustrations
1. Nests of various species of birds.
2. Nests of various social insects.
3. A Spider-Crab allowed to decorate itself with various natural
objects, so as to be inconspicuous through its resemblance to
its surroundings.
4. The death-feigning instinct in Bluebirds.
E
NATURAL SELECTION AND COLORATION
Some striking results of the survival of the fittest are found in the adaptive
coloration of several kinds of animals. Many organisms harmonize in
color and form with their environment, others mimic natural objects of
various kinds, gaining similar protection by such resemblances.
Illustrations
1. The Leaf-Butterflies and other insects, illustrating various kinds
of protective resemblances and coloration.
2. Protective resemblance and color-adaptation in the Sargassum-
Fish and other lower vertebrates.
3. The uses of color in various species of birds.
4. A group showing the seasonal changes in the coloration of the
Ptarmigan.
F
HYBRIDISM
When differing but related forms of animals or plants are crossed, the
hybrid offspring may resemble one parent in some features, and the other
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
9
parent in different characteristics. Sometimes the hybrid offspring will
exhibit “reversion,” that is, it will differ from both its parents, and will
resemble a remote ancestral form. The laws of inheritance have been
much more adequately formulated since the time of Darwin, as in the case
of Mendelian inheritance.
Illustrations
1. Specimens of hybrid plants together with their parents.
2. Examples of hybrid fowls.
3. The Darwinian instance of reversion in fowls.
4. The results of hybridization in mammalia.
G
THE FOSSIL RECORD
Following the identification by geologists of the relatively old and the
relatively recent layers of rocks, the remains of animals and plants of earlier
ages of the earth demonstrate the occurrence at first of simpler organisms,
and the successive appearance of more and more complex groups. Some¬
times the fossils constitute a comparatively complete series of ancestral
species leading to modern kinds, as in the Horse and many invertebrates.
Illustrations
1. A series of specimens of fossil plants showing the succession of
their appearance upon the earth.
2. The general succession of invertebrate groups.
3. The evolution of cephalopodous mollusks, — Nautiloid and
Ammonitoid types.
4. The evolution of several snail or gasteropod types :
a) Fulgur series.
b) Fusus series.
c ) Paludina series.
5. The evolution of Lamp-Shells, or Brachiopods, as exemplified by
Spirifer mucronatus .
6. Specimens of fossil-bearing rocks showing unmodified and meta¬
morphosed conditions. In the latter case the fossils are
destroyed.
7. The evolution of the Horse.
8. The evolution of the Camel.
10
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
H
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Few organisms occur uniformly throughout the various continental areas
of the earth. In general, land types differ more or less widely according to
the degree of proximity of the areas where they occur, and their differences
are usually regarded as due to their adaptation to the unlike natural condi¬
tions of different areas.
Illustrations
1. Specimens of the larger fungi as examples of invariable boreal
and tropical plants.
2. The Land Tortoise of the Galapagos Islands, a form which is
peculiar to this entirely isolated group of islands.
3. Several kinds of Ground-Squirrels from different localities in the
United States.
4. Land Snails from valleys of the Society Islands, in the South
Pacific Ocean. Each island possesses characteristic forms,
and the different valleys of one and the same island often
contain unique forms.
I
PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION
Resemblances displayed by different species of animals and plants are
regarded as indications of common ancestry. It is therefore possible to
classify organisms in a tree-like diagrammatic manner, into larger and
smaller groups according to their fundamental similarities. The principle
seems to be universal for all plants and all animals.
Illustrations
1. Living specimens of Cactus plants.
2. A typical series of Crustacea.
J
PRINCIPLES OF HOMOLOGY
Parts of organisms presenting the same fundamental plan of construction,
though they differ in function, are spoken of as “homologous/'1
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
11
Illustrations
1. Mammalian limbs adapted for use in various ways, though they
exhibit the same kind of skeletal framework.
2. Specimens illustrating the different forms of leaves of the ferns
and their relatives.
V K
PRINCIPLES OF EMBRYOLOGY
When an animal develops, it passes gradually from its early stages with
their simple construction to the progressively complex stages of later and
adult life. During this process, it closely resembles in an embryonic condi¬
tion an adult organism of a lower order. The general principle of develop¬
ment is that an embryonic series of stages exhibited by any animal is a
brief review or recapitulation of the ancestral history of its kind.
Illustrations
1. Models and specimens displaying the gill-slits of chick embryos,
and their correspondence with the gill-slits of fishes.
2. Models showing the blood-vessels and the hearts of different
classes of vertebrates, and some of the corresponding embryonic
stages in the development of the heart in man.
3. Preparations showing the occurrence in a chick embryo of a
primitive body-support, the notochord, which occurs in the
adult in Amphioxus, -a primitive relative of the vertebrates,
and in vertebrates.
4. Models showing the development of the human brain, and its
resemblance at various stages to the adult brains of lower
mammalia.
5. The third eye or pineal body of an adult lizard, and the corre¬
sponding vestige in the embryonic human brain.
L
RUDIMENTARY AND VESTIGIAL ORGANS
Vestigial organs are remnants of once-useful parts, that have undergone
regressive evolution. Rudimentary structures often occur in some forms,
while in related species they reach a far higher degree of development.
12
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Illustrations
1. A Priekly-pear Cactus and a New Zealand Bramble showing
reduced leaves.
2. Insects exhibiting rudimentary and vestigial organs.
M
INSECT-EATING PLANTS AND CLIMBING PLANTS
These plants display two different kinds of adaptations — one in respect
to nutrition and the other in respect to the development of structures to
afford support.
N
FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS
The exhibit demonstrates the peculiar nature of the process of fertiliza¬
tion,- and the special mechanisms that these organisms have developed to
bring about fertilization in various ways. The processes are adjusted
intimately to the visits made by insects to flowers for nourishment.
0
THE DESCENT OF MAN
The general principles of evolution hold true for the attainment by the
human species of its present place in nature. The exhibits demonstrate in
a general manner the various stages reached by organisms nearly related to
man, which the human species has surpassed.
Illustrations
1. A series of primate animals from the Lemurs to Man.
2. A series of crania of primate mammals, showing the gradual
enlargement of the brain case and the relative reduction of the
jaws.
3. A series of casts and models of the brains of various primates,
showing the progressive evolution of the brain, and especially
of the cerebrum.
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
DARWINIANA
Loaned by Mr. Charles F. Cox.
Page from original manuscript of “Descent of Man.” Text of part of
Page 309, Chapter VIII, Volume I. 1st edition, 1871.
Page from original manuscript of “Descent of Man.” Text of part
of Page 183, Chapter V, Volume I. 1st edition, 1871.
Two pages from the original manuscript of “Descent of Man.” Text
of part of Pages 42-43, Chapter II, Volume I. 1st edition, 1871.
Page from the personal journal of Charles Darwin, kept while on the
“ Beagle Voyage,” 1831-1836.
Sixteen autograph letters. Miscellaneous.
Complete collection of letters to W. B. Tegetmeier, 1855-1880.
Letters to Albany Hancock, 1849-1854. (Concerning the discovery of
the parasitical or complement* male Cirripedes.)
Books
Researches in Natural History. 1st edition, 1839.
Researches in Natural History and Geology. 2nd edition, 1845.
2 copies.
Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle. Edited by Charles Darwin.
London, 1840. 3 vols.
Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. 1st edition, 1842.
The Structure of Coral Reefs. 2nd edition, 1874.
Observations on Volcanic Islands. 1st edition, 1844.
Observations on Coral Islands. 2nd edition, 1876.
Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, South America. United edition, 1851.
Geological Observations on South America. 1st edition, 1846.
Monograph on the Cirripedia, — Lepadidse. 1st edition, 1851.
Monograph on the Cirripedia,— Balanidse. 1st edition, 1854.
Fossil Lepadicke and Balanidse. 1st edition, 1851-1854.
“The Origin of Species.” One of the 1250 copies of the 1st edition,
November 24, 1859.
On the Origin of Species.
On the Origin of Species.
On the Origin of Species.
On the Origin of Species.
On the Origin of Species.
On the Origin of Species.
1st edition, 1859.
2nd edition, 1860.
3rd edition, 1861.
4th edition, 1866.
5th edition, 1869.
6th edition, 1882.
copies.
14
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
27. Naturalist’s Voyage Round the World. 1st edition, I860.
28. The Fertilization of Orchids. 1st edition, 1862.
29. The Fertilization of Orchids. 2nd edition, 1877.
30. On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. 1st edition, 1865.
31. On the Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. 2nd edition, 1875.
2 copies.
32. Animals and Plants under Domestication. 1st edition, 1868. 2 vols.
33. Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2nd edition, 1875. 2 vols.
34. The Descent of Man. 1st edition, 1871. 2 vols. 3 copies.
35. The Descent of Man. 2nd edition, 1874. 2 copies.
36. On the Expression of the Emotions. 1st edition, 1872.
37. On Insectivorous Plants. 1st edition, 1875.
38. Cross and Self Fertilization of Plants. 1st edition, 1876.
39. Cross and Self Fertilization of Plants. 2nd edition, 1888.
40. The Different Forms of Flowers. 1st edition, 1877.
41. The Movements of Plants. By Charles and Francis Darwin. 1st
edition, 1880.
42. Vegetable Mould and Earth-worms. 1st edition, 1881.
43. Vegetable Mould and Earth-worms. 1882.
Works to which Charles Darwin contributed or which contain
WRITINGS OF HIS NOT ELSEWHERE PUBLISHED.
44. Voyages of the Adventure and the Beagle. 3 vols. & appendix.
London, 1839. Volume III by Charles Darwin.
45. The Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry. London, 1849. “Geol-
ogy” by Charles Darwin.
46. Flowers and their Unbidden Guests. By Kerner. London, 1878.
Prefatory letter by Charles Darwin.
47. Life of Erasmus Darwin. London, 1879. Prefatory notice by C.
Darwin.
48. Prehistoric Europe. By James Geikie. London, 1881. Quotes
letters from Charles Darwin on Southampton gravels.
49. Studies in the Theory of Descent. By Weismann. London, 1882.
Prefatory note by Charles Darwin.
50. The Fertilization of Flowers. By Muller. London, 1883. Preface
by Charles Darwin.
51. Mental Evolution in Animals. By Romanes. New York, 1884.
Posthumous essay on “Instinct” by Charles Darwin.
52. Darwinism. By Alfred Russel Wallace. London, 1889.
53. “Miscellaneous and Hitherto Uncollected Writings of Charles Darwin.”
Compiled by C. F. Cox, New York, 1904.
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
15
54. “Life and Letters of Charles Darwin.” Edited by his son Francis
Darwin. Original edition, 1886. Extra-illustrated with more than
400 portraits, autograph letters, etc.
55. “More Letters of Charles Darwin.” Edited by his son Francis
Darwin. Original edition, 1903. Extra-illustrated with about 200
portraits.
56. “Pedigree of the Family of Darwin.” Compiled by H. Burke, Esq.,
F. S. A., 1888.
57. Catalogue of the Library of Charles Darwin, now in the Botany School,
Cambridge.
58. Portrait. Photograph from life by Maull & Fox, about 1854, print
from recently restored negative.
59. Portrait. Photograph from life by Maull & Fox, about 1854. Print
from recently restored negative.
60. Portrait. Proof of wood-engraving, made in 1889 by G. Kruell,
after photograph made from life by Maull & Fox, about 1854.
61. Portrait. Woodcut from “Harper’s Magazine” of October, 1884, after
photograph from life by Maull & Fox, about 1854.
62. Portrait. Photograph from life by Mrs. Cameron, 1868.
63. Portrait. Engraving on steel by C. H. -Teens, published in “Nature,”
June 4, 1874, from photograph from life by O. J. Rejlander, about
1870.
64. Portrait. Woodcut from “London Graphic” of July 29, 1882, after
photograph from life by O. G. Rejlander, about 1870.
65. Portrait. Proof of wood-cut from “Century Magazine” of January,
1883, after photograph by Capt. Darwin, about 1874.
66. Portraits. Two copies (one loaned by President H. F. Osborn) of
proof etching by G. Mercier, published 1890, after the painting
made from life in 1875 by W. Ouless, R. A.
67. Portrait. Woodbury-tvpe from photograph from life by Lock &
Whitfield. Published in “Men of Mark” by Sampson, Low &
Co., 1876.
68. Portrait. Proof etching by Leopold Flameng, published 1883, after
painting from life by Hon. John Collier, made for the Linnrean
Society in 1881.
69. Portrait. Proof wood-engraving, made in 1889 by G. Kruell, after a
photograph made from life by Elliott & Fry, 1881.
70. Portraits. Three photographs from life, by Elliott & Fry, 1881.
71. Portrait. Engraving by S. Hollyer, after photograph from life by
Elliott & Fry, 1881.
72. Portrait. (Property of IJ. F. Osborn.)
16
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
73. Portraits of Darwin’s contemporaries. Eighty transparencies.
74. Interior of Darwin’s Library. (Property of H. F. Osborn.)
The exercises of the afternoon were held around the bust as a center.
The President of the Academy, Mr. Charles F. Cox, called the meeting to
order at about a quarter after three o’clock and delivered the following
address :
THE INDIVIDUALITY OF CHARLES DARWIN.
By Charles F. Cox.
We are assembled, at the invitation of an organization devoted to the
dissemination of scientific knowledge, under the hospitable roof of an
institution maintained for the promotion of systematic observation, for the
purpose of honoring the memory of one of the greatest of seers. Charles
Darwin, whose birthday we celebrate, was a man of the clearest mental
vision born into a generation scientifically blind. He first, of those in his
day accounted wise, was able to see all nature unfolding according to uni¬
form and verifiable law. The outlook of other men called by his contem¬
poraries scientists and philosophers was, as a rule, limited and obscured by
a narrowing and hampering doctrine of supernatural intervention. It is
hard for us, who are privileged to contemplate writh admiring minds the
harmonious interrelations of all natural phenomena, to realize that only
fifty years ago it was commonly regarded as both irrational and immoral to
believe that one great principle underlay the origin, maintenance, diversifica¬
tion and development of living forms and that that principle was discov¬
erable through human investigation. During the ages previous to the
memorable year 1859 a few bold thinkers, now and then, had ventured to
suggest a theory of general evolution, but they had failed to supply it with a
substantial foundation of proof, or to assign to it a reasonable and intelligible
cause, and had been, consequently, one and all, overwhelmed and sup¬
pressed by the powerful and prevalent dogma of special creation. Natura¬
lists had been for centuries active in the collection of facts, but, until Darwin
came, the various attributes and activities of living things remained discon¬
nected and unexplained. Indeed, it was impossible that they should have
been correlated and elucidated as long as the domain of science was in
thralldom to tyrannical authority and originality of thought was little less
than a crime. For a hundred years prior to Darwin even professed students
of nature were not free to see what lay under their very eyes. The scientific
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
17
world was awaiting a liberator. Finally the revolution was proclaimed and
the first decisive blow struck by the publication of “The Origin of Species”
on the twenty-fourth of November, 1859. It was no hasty and ill-considered
stroke. Events had been shaping themselves to this end since the twenty-
seventh of December, 1831, when the little brig Beagle sailed from Plymouth
harbor, bearing the unknown and youthful Charles Darwin to the discovery
of a new world — not, however, an unexplored continent to be claimed for
commerce and civilization, but a vastly greater and more valuable realm of
thought to be opened to knowledge and conquered for intellectual freedom.
Darwin, like the prophets of old, in preparation for his exalted mission,
betook himself to the uninhabited wilderness, away from the domination of
other minds, in order that he might draw inspiration from untrammeled and
clarifying communion with nature. In his narrow cabin on the broad
Atlantic, on the desert plains of Patagonia, on desolate and unpeopled
islands of the Pacific, in the dark and solemn forests of the tropics, and on
the summits of the bleak and barren Andes he gained the coveted prize of
wisdom which had been denied him in the populous halls of two great
universities, where his free spirit had rebelled against the rigid conven¬
tionality of classical education.
Although a born investigator, he had been driven and harassed for four¬
teen years by unthinking instructors devoid of both the ability and the
disposition to consider his natural endowments1 and inclinations and who,
with one or two exceptions, according to his own later judgment, wasted
their time upon an unappreciative and discouraging pupil. He says of
himself that he was slow in learning, but a review of his productive life
clearly shows that, if he was dull in any respect, it was solely in the matter
of accepting ideas at second hand. It happened, merely, that what most
of his teachers were prepared to impart he was not constituted to receive;
and so one of the acutest observers the world has ever known was thought to
be inattentive and unreceptive. During all the school days of his childhood,
passed in his native town of Shrewsbury, not only were his superb mental
gifts wholly unrecognized, but no attempt was ever made to find out if he
had any such gifts. He spent seven useless years at Dr. Butler’s so-called
“great school,” but, apparently, the head master never came to know his
talented pupil, for the educational system which prevailed in that institution
had no reference to “the discovery of the exceptional man.” The one
ceaseless effort of his schoolmasters was to crowd him into the common mold.
Receiving no sympathy and little assistance from those who should
have been the guides and advisers of his boyhood, he developed “a strong
taste for long solitary walks” and cultivated the habit of stealing time for
more or less surreptitious collecting in several departments of natural history.
18
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Thus he became, in all important respects, self-taught and, driven to his own
resources, his natural inclination to consider his path of life as lying far aside
from the common highway was confirmed and strengthened. This sense of
solitariness followed him to the end of his life and was, no doubt, an impor¬
tant factor in the formation and preservation of his extraordinary individ¬
uality and faith in his own powers. Darwin’s followers may therefore bless
even the obtuseness and shortsightedness of his preceptors who failed to spoil
him by their unwise treatment.
When, in 1825, Doctor Robert Darwin concluded that his son Charles
was lacking in natural aptitude for scholarship, he sent him to Edinburgh
University, intending that he should follow in the footsteps of his father
and of his grandfather by becoming a physician. But here, again, the
young man found himself unable to receive what was offered him on the
strength of ancient authority. The instruction dispensed in that hoary
institution was, to him, perfunctory and uninspiring and he was once more
forced to seek the real enlargement of his knowledge by self-directed methods.
In this way he appears to have obtained, at Edinburgh, some sort of ac¬
quaintance with the fundamental principles of scientific research, but, as
the learning thus acquired was not in the line of his intended profession, it
was not appreciated by his family and friends. Accordingly, after two
sessions spent at that university, it was decided that his regular studies
had been entirely misdirected and he was therefore withdrawn and sent to
Cambridge. There he was still worse misguided in the endeavor to educate
him in theology. Again was repeated the old story of an uncongenial
curriculum ostensibly conformed to but in reality shirked and avoided in
favor of natural history privately followed by side paths. The unwilling
student wished to be obedient to his father’s direction, but native bent
proved stronger than conventional rule — the call of destiny louder than the
voice of filial duty.
His father, in most things a wise man, saw in his son’s insect- and bird-
hunting proclivity a tendency to the life of “an idle sporting man” and
was sorely grieved and disappointed when he was obliged to concede the
failure of his plan to connect the house of Darwin with the Church of England.
Fortunately, however, the troublesome student came under the influence, at
Cambridge, of a teacher endowed with more than ordinary discernment and,
in this particular matter, with somewhat unusual independence and courage
and he took the budding naturalist and his lawless pursuits under his patron¬
age and protection. To the faith and friendship of Professor J. S. Henslow
Darwin was indebted for his appointment to the Beagle expedition, and to
Professor Henslow, who robbed the church to enrich science, the world owes
an incalculable debt of gratitude for the discovery, if not for the development,
of one of its loftiest geniuses.
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
19
Others besides Henslow, however, contributed to the fixation of
Darwin’s inborn talents and abilities, but Darwin never admitted that
he received, either at Edinburgh or at Cambridge, any thing like syste¬
matic mental training. He was, from the beginning of his school days to
the end of his university life, a person set apart for individual preparation
for a special and peculiar career. When he bade farewell to Christ’s College,
Cambridge, in the summer of 1831, his actual education was yet to be ac¬
quired, but not through human instruction. He has himself declared:
“I have always felt that I owe to the voyage the first real training or educa¬
tion of my mind.”
It was therefore no professional scientist who eagerly accepted the
unsalaried post of naturalist to the Beagle expedition around the world,
but a modest, though confident, youth of twenty-two whose most impor¬
tant article of outfit was the first volume of the first edition of Lyell’s “Prin¬
ciples of Geology,” which had been published the year before, the second
volume of which was not issued until after Darwin had reached South
America. Thus it was providentially ordered that during the formative
period covered by this epoch-making voyage, Darwin should remain as free
as possible from human influences. If, instead of proceeding, raw as he
was, directly from the seclusion of the university to the isolation of the
voyage, he had directed his steps to the metropolis and had there mingled
with the leaders in scientific thought, it is quite possible, if not probable,
that he would have fallen under their authority and would have accepted
the orthodox beliefs of his time. If that had been the case, we might be
dominated to-day by the prohibitive doctrine of the immutability of species,
instead of enjoying that freedom of thought and liberty of investigation to
which Darwin made us heirs. But, happily for the intellectual world,
during the five years which Darwin spent on the Beagle, under the intimate
tutelage of mother nature, he laid, for our benefit, as well as for his own,
the solid foundations of his never failing habit of mind in which open-eyed
teachableness ever supplemented unwavering honesty of purpose and fear¬
lessness of approach.
After Darwin’s return from the circumnavigation of the globe, he re¬
sided, for a little more than five years, in London, and that was the only
portion of his life during which he was in actual personal contact with any
considerable number of his fellowmen. Even then, however, he was mostly
engaged with his own thoughts, for he was arranging his collections and
preparing for publication the results of his observations made while on the
Beagle voyage. It was at the very beginning of this residence in London
(July, 1837), while the things he had seen in South America and the Pacific
Islands were still fresh in his memory that he opened his first note-book
20
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
for facts in relation to the origin of species, about which he says he “had
long reflected.” For twenty-two years thereafter Mr. Darwin continued to
pursue this revolutionizing subject with unexampled patience and, except
as to two or three intimate friends, entirely within the privacy of his own
mind.
In September, 1842, he went into retirement at Down, an out-of-the-
way village in Kent. There, partly compelled by ill-health, he dwelt as a
recluse for forty years, serenely contemplating nature and diligently gather¬
ing information, but seldom emerging into the world from which his richly-
stored and phenomenally creative intellect had little to gain but to which it
never ceased to give, during the remainder of his life. Bare knowledge he
welcomed from any source, but opinions and deductions he invariably
produced for himself. What he wrote to H. W. Bates, who complained
of a want of advice is true of Darwin himself: “Part of your great originality
of views,” he said, “may be due to the necessity of self-exertion of thought.”
What has been said by his son Francis is equally true of Mr. Darwin — one
of his most striking characteristics was “that supreme power of seeing and
thinking what the rest of the world had overlooked.”
Mr. Darwin was what we are accustomed to call a genius, but I know
of no good definition of a genius but a man of insight. The person who by
his natural acuteness of perception is able to see into and through problems
which to other men are baffling or insoluble, has the highest right to be con¬
sidered inspired. Darwin’s wonderful endowment in this respect constituted
him, by divine right, a leader of men. The world has always justly honored
its standard bearers and we are here to pay homage to the name of one of
the most attractive and commanding of them all. In other parts of this city
and of this land, our fellow-citizens are gathering to-day to pay grateful
tribute to the estimable character, and to recall the memorable deeds of a
great emancipator. We likewise are celebrating the beneficent acts of a
man, simple and modest as that other, who, at a critical period, spoke
courageous words which conferred freedom on millions of his fellow creatures.
It is altogether fitting that the birthdays of these two benefactors should be
the same.
We now dedicate this monument, in this appropriate place, not only to
the honor and memory of Charles Darwin the great thinker, whose life and
personality we admire, but also to the encouragement and guidance of all
who may hereafter frequent these halls — as a testimony to the power of
self-reliance and independence of mind which Charles Darwin preeminently
exemplified and illustrated. May this portrait of a noble truth-seeker which
we now unveil, signify, for all time to come, to him who would advance the
boundaries of scientific knowledge, that nature will yield up her secrets only
when appealed to directly and in humility and purity of spirit.
Annals N . Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XI' X. Plate II.
'
! . .i 1
.biiom orii lo obis iiiyiH
.
'
Plate II.
THE ACADEMY BUST OF DARWIN.
Right side of the model.
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
21
At the close of his address, President Cox gave the signal for unveiling
the bust,1 and turning to President Henry Fairfield Osborn said
President Osborn:
On behalf of the New York Academy of Sciences, I have the honor of
presenting this bust to the American Museum of Natural History and of
asking your acceptance of it, in the hope that it may stand in this place for
many generations to come as evidence of the high esteem in which the life
and work of Charles Darwin are held by the men of science of this country,
and also as a token of the cordial relations existing between the Academy of
Sciences and the Museum of Natural History, which you yourself have done
much to establish and promote.
In response to the address of President Cox and the presentation of the
bust, President Osborn replied as follows :
ACCEPTANCE OF THE PORTRAIT OF DARWIN.
By Henry Fairfield Osborn,
President of the American Museum of Natural History.
The bronze bust of Charles Darwin presented by the New York Academy
of Sciences is accepted by the Trustees of the American Museum of Natural
History with a three-fold meaning.
First, as a noble work of art conveying in its fidelity of portraiture a
striking likeness of the great naturalist, with the far-seeing vision of his deep-
set eyes controlled by a great brain in which the powers of observation and
of reason were developed far beyond the average. Personal recollection of
Darwin’s face and head strengthens the first impression that this latest
work of William Couper will be welcomed by naturalists everywhere as a
singularly grand and impressive likeness.
The second reason why this gift is welcome is that it memorializes in a
manner most grateful to the Trustees and Scientific Staff of this Museum
that the scientific men of New York appreciate the work that is being carried
on here for the promotion of natural science, that the combination of muni-
1 The bust is of bronze, of heroic size, and is mounted upon a pedestal of polished
gneissoid granite from Stony Creek, Connecticut. The bust was prepared expressly for the
Academy by the New York sculptor William Couper from photographs and other data.
The portrait represents the naturalist in the full maturity of his powers and rather past mid¬
dle life.
22
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cipal and private munificence with the ardor of exploration and research
and devotion to public scientific education for which this institution stands
meets the approval and support of the members of the New York Academy
of Sciences, the oldest and most dignified of all the scientific associations in
this great city. This gift will encourage the Museum to renewed efforts
both in the sphere of pure science and in the sphere of popular education.
Finally the gift is welcome because it permanently associates the name of
the great naturalist with the Museum and especially with one of our newer
exhibition halls, which is especially devoted to the exposition of the great
general phenomena of biology, as seen in the structure, the embryonic
development, the adaptness in color and form, the marvelous diversity
but yet unity of the animal world, to the true interpretation of which Charles
Darwin devoted his life.
Further to cement the name and spirit of Darwin with the exhibition in
the midst of which this splendid portrait will be placed, it gives me great
pleasure to announce that the Trustees have unanimously voted to name
this hall after the illustrious naturalist, “Darwin Hall,” and have prepared
and placed here on this centennial day two bronze tablets which will be a
permanent record of the time and place of this dedication.
At the close of President Osborn’s address the following addresses were
delivered, setting forth Darwin’s relations to the three subdivisions of
natural science — geology, botany and zoology — in pursuit of which he
expended his great energies.
DARWIN AND GEOLOGY.
By Professor John James Stevenson.
Charles Darwin was born in a time of intellectual unrest. Explorers,
students of chemistry and workers in mines had been adding to actual
knowledge for nearly one third of a century and thoughtful men had been
forced to recognize the worthlessness of many conceptions which had long
passed current. Nowhere was this unrest more manifest than among the
younger geologists; but they were compelled to express themselves cautiously
for, fettered by a false chronology, the church dignitaries who controlled
the universities rebuked investigation and branded as infidels those who
recorded obnoxious facts. Little more than a year prior to Darwin’s birth,
the Geological Society of London had been founded as a protest against
subjective study of this globe, but already many adherents to the principles
Plate III.
THE ACADEMY BUST OF DARWIN.
Left side of the model.
ri.ii,
. ;:]v. i
'i;-
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate III.
i
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
23
of that society had appeared on the continent, proclaiming that actual
knowledge of conditions must precede attempts to explain them.
The development of opinion was so rapid that before Darwin reached
his majority the geological pendulum had made its great swing from the
doctrine of cataclysms to that of uniformity; from the belief that this globe
is less than 6,000 years old to an abiding faith that its age cannot be measured
in years. It was amid such conditions that, toward the close of his univer¬
sity studies, he came under the influence of Henslow and Sedgwick, the
latter being engaged at that time along with Murchison in an effort to unravel
the tangle of Welsh geology. Some have said that these men taught him
how to observe; not so, he was already a keen observer, and they merely
led him into wider fields.
In 1831, Captain Fitzroy was assigned to command H. M. S. Beagle,
a little brig of 240 tons, and was commissioned to complete the coast survey
of southern South America as well as to run a line around the globe. When
he expressed the wish to be accompanied by a naturalist, Darwin, then only
twenty-two years old, promptly volunteered his services, which were ac¬
cepted, and he was enrolled as a supernumerary member of the staff. The
Beagle left England on December 27, 1831, and returned on October 2,
1836, bringing with it Charles Darwin, now grown intellectually to man’s
stature and bearing a notable cargo of material collections, as well as of
accumulated observations. There was no haste in publication; aside from
some very brief communications to societies, nothing appeared until 1839,
when the Journal of Researches was printed. Owen’s descriptions of the
fossil mammalia were issued in 1840, with an introduction by Darwin, and
the final publication of results was made in three parts, dated 1842, 1844,
and 1846. Thus early in his career, Darwin showed that caution which
characterized him throughout life, an indifference to priority which was the
outgrowth of his love of accuracy.
Part 2 of the “Geological Observations,” dated 1844, relates chiefly
to volcanic islands. In most cases the stay at those was brief and the
studies were fragmentary; yet Darwin saw enough to let him discuss the
origin of volcanic cones, to determine some cardinal points respecting the
distribution of the islands, to distinguish submarine from subaerial lava
flows and to prove that experimental studies on metamorphosis of limestones
had led to very nearly true conceptions of the process.
As the coast survey of southern South America was the important object
of Captain Fitzroy’s expedition, there was ample time for a good reconnais¬
sance of that region and Darwin spent nearly six months in studying the
pampas from the Parana and Uraguay rivers southward almost to Magellan’s
Strait. A synopsis was given as an introduction to Owen’s memoir, but the
24
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
details did not appear until 1846, when they were published as Part 3 ofthe
“Geological Observations.” The whole subject was discussed attractively
in the second edition of the Journal of Researches.
The superficial deposit of the great plains is a “reddish argillaceous
earth,” containing concretions of indurated marl, which at times become
continuous layers or even replace much of the red earth. In the northerly
part of the plains area, this pampas deposit, which passes downward into
sands, limestones and clays of late Tertiary age, yielded no marine shells to
Darwin; its infusoria, studied by Ehrenberg, proved to be partly marine,
partly freshwater, while the marly concretions resemble some freshwater
limestones seen in Europe; but this paucity of invertebrate life was unim¬
portant, for the whole of that region proved to be one vast cemetery, in which
the skeletons of gigantic extinct mammals are so numerous that a line could
not be drawn in any direction without passing through some bones. In
northern Patagonia the red deposit is bound closely to an overlying gravel,
containing marine forms belonging to species now existing on the coast,
while in southern Patagonia marine shells occur in the pampas deposit itself.
Darwin believed that this pampas material was deposited within a vast
estuary, into which great rivers carried from the surrounding region carcasses
of the animals whose skeletons were entombed in muds tranquilly accumu¬
lating on the bottom. All conditions go to show that the mammalia became
extinct after the sea had received its present fauna, and there is nothing to
suggest that a period of overwhelming violence swept away and destroyed
the inhabitants of the land; everything supports the contrary belief. The
only noteworthy change in conditions has been a gradual elevation of the
continent; but that was not enough to modify the climate or to bring about
a change in the land fauna.
Several of the important genera collected by Darwin had been found
in North America long prior to his time. This similarity of the Quaternary
faunas induced him to speculate on the causes which had divided the Amer-
can continent into two well-defined and somewhat contrasting zoological
provinces. He does not hesitate to suggest recent elevation of the Mexican
platform or, more probably, recent submergence of the West Indian Archi¬
pelago as a conceivable cause of this separation. It seems to him most
probable that the elephants, the mastodons, the horses and the hollow¬
horned ruminants of North America “migrated, on land since submerged
near Bering Straits, from Siberia into North America, and thence, on land
since submerged in the West Indies, into South America, where for a time
they mingled with forms characteristic of that southern continent and have
since become extinct.” Had this American Museum of Natural History
existed in Darwin’s day, study of the remarkable exhibits in its Mammal
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
25
Hall would have enabled him to extend his list of extinct forms common to
both continents; and possibly he might have anticipated some of the all-
important generalizations for which the world is indebted to the former
president of this academy who now is president of the museum.
Nothing in South America, east or west, escaped Darwin; from glaciers
to peat bogs, from earthquakes to climatal variations, everything was im¬
portant; but what impressed him most on both sides of the continent were
the evidences of extremely slow secular movement in the earth’s crust.
This was the preparation for that study of the coral islands which resulted
in his chief contribution to philosophical geology.
Many voyagers prior to 1833 had observed and had tried to account
for the strange atolls, or low ring like coral reefs, each inclosing a lagoon
which communicates with the sea by a narrow channel; but Darwin dis¬
covered other forms of reefs which were equally perplexing. Many islets
of rock are fringed by coral growth, while vast barrier reefs, separated from
the land by channels of varying depth, extend at times for hundreds of miles
along coasts. All explanations by previous observers were defective, as they
seemed to ignore these types as well as other features, not less important.
Reef-making corals can not endure exposure to the air and they can
not thrive at a depth of more than 20 fathoms, so that their vertical range
is about 115 feet; yet hooks and anchors brought up coral rock and sand
from many hundreds of feet below the limit of growth; in a great number
of instances, the atolls or ring-like reefs are mere peaks rising with abrupt
slopes from “ fathomless” abysses. Coral-bearing areas within the Indian
and Pacific Oceans are of vast extent, there being chains of archipelagos
1,000 to 1,500 miles long. The reefs are rudely circular or elliptical in the
islands, but are linear along the coasts; in the one case, the reef incloses a
lagoon, in the other, a lagoon-like channel separates the reef from the coast.
These are fundamental elements of the problem, not one of which may be
neglected in the solution. A clue to the explanation was found by this keen
observer, when he saw an islet of old rock, fringed with coral, rising from the
lagoon of an atoll, so that the atoll-ring resembled in many respects the
barrier reef of a continent and the lagoon itself resembled the lagoon-like
channel seen on the Australian and other coasts.
Chamisso’s suggestion that coral reefs had been formed on banks of
sedimentary material seemed wholly incompetent to meet the conditions,
for the areas are too vast, and Darwin was compelled to believe that the
atolls rest on rocky bases; but even on this supposition, it appears incredible
that peaks of several great mountain chains should all come to within less
than 180 feet of the surface and that not one rose any higher. The long
study in South America had prepared him to seek an explanation in mobility
26
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
of the earth’s crust; but it was clear that elevation could not bring about the
conditions, as that would destroy the corals themselves; subsidence alone
can account for the phenomena. And thus Darwin presents his case:
If then the foundations of the many atolls were not uplifted into the requisite
position, they must of necessity have subsided into it; and this at once solves every
difficulty, for we may safely infer from the facts given in the last chapter, that during
a subsidence the corals would be favorably circumstanced for building up their
solid framework and reaching the surface, as island after island slowly disappeared.
Thus areas of immense extent in the central and most profound parts of the oceans
might become interspersed with coral islets, none of which would rise to greater
height than that attained by detritus heaped up by the sea, and nevertheless they
might all have been formed by corals which absolutely require for their growth a solid
foundation within a few fathoms of the surface . The rocky bases slowly
and successively sank beneath the level of the sea, while corals continued to grow
upward.
The origin of the ring as well as that of the barrier reef seemed to be
easily explained by this hypothesis. The corals on the outer side of the
reef grew with greater rapidity than did those within, as the supply of food
is constant; those on the inner side became starved and eventually the
interior growth ceased, and the lagoon was shallowed by wind-drifted
material from the shores.
Darwin’s hypothesis and the facts on which it was based have become
so familiar that students sometimes express surprise that so much praise
has been awarded to the author. The conditions as presented in his dis¬
cussion are so clear that certainly no man could reach any other conclusion.
That is true, but it is true only because Darwin marshalled his facts in a
manner so masterly; in any event, it is always easy to do a thing, when
another has done it well and told us how. But it must be remembered that
a hypothesis of this sort, though normal enough in our day, was very ab¬
normal in that day; indeed, it was contrary to Darwin’s own underlying
conceptions, for, though a uniformitarian, he had seen many phenomena
which, for a time,' made him only a halting disciple. Yet his hypothesis
was a monumental contribution in support of the uniformitarian doctrine,
which, under the leadership of Lyell, was gaining sturdy adherents. That
the hypothesis met with uncompromising opposition need not be said. The
material of coral origin extended to vast depths alongside of the islands, in
some cases apparently to 4,000 feet. The upward growth of the reef was
known to be extremely slow. If the subsidence and the upward growth kept
pace, as was essential to the hypothesis, evidently the required period,
belonging to the latest portion of the earth’s existence, was immensely long.
It is difficult now to understand how great moral courage was needed by
the man who published such a doctrine; sixty years ago, the educated man
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
27
of Great Britain had not learned to distinguish between faith and pre¬
judice.
This effort to explain the origin of coral reefs has been regarded, justly,
as Darwin’s especial contribution to geology. It has been opposed strenu¬
ously by careful students during the last twenty years and even now it is a
bone of contention; but the most strenuous opponent concedes that it is
logical and a fair induction from the facts as then known. Be it true or not,
be it a competent explanation or not, no matter. In influence on geology
it has been as far-reaching as the doctrine of natural selection has been on
biology. It involves every important problem in dynamics of the earth’s
crust; in testing it, men have been led into paths of investigation, which,
but for Darwin, might still be untrodden. The influence went farther.
The hypothesis was presented at a time when men’s minds were warped by
prejudice, when men were extremists, when too many were defenders of
dogmas in science and too few were searchers after truth. Darwin’s dis¬
cussion was a model of frankness; suggestions offered by his predecessors
were dealt with courteously; he searched far and wide for objections to his
own suggestions, and when objections were found, he stated them in detail,
concealing nothing and urging further investigation. His conclusions
were, for him, merely tabulations of observed facts. One can not over¬
estimate the importance of this method; it was a chief factor in changing
the tone of scientific literature, in leading to replacement of subjective by
objective modes of investigation.
Darwin’s work as geologist practically ended with these publications
of the Beagle results. It is true that in later years he made some contribu¬
tions possessing much interest, but they were merely incidental to studies
in other directions; the greater part of his long life was devoted to biological
problems. At the same time, his whole mode of thinking and of observing
was that of the geologist, so that if one were treating of his later years the
topic might well be the influence of geology upon Darwin. In his later
works, one finds constantly recurring consideration of geological conditions
as potent factors in biological change, while on the other hand he emphasized
the influence of life as a factor in bringing about geological changes. To
him nature was always one; and he, in great measure, was responsible for
the broadness of view characterizing the geologists who were his contem¬
poraries as well as for the remarkable change in attitude of the community
toward scientific discussion. Nowadays, when workers are so many and
knowledge is so increased, men have been forced into narrow lanes of in¬
vestigation; students, perplexed by phenomena within their limited vision,
too often think little and know less of what neighbors are doing. And this
must continue until some important problems have been solved, at least in
part, and some positive results have been obtained in many directions.
28
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Then another Darwin will come, will gather loose strands floating in the
wind and will weave from them a new system, once more binding nature
studies into one and providing a safe platform, whence men may start
anew to fathom the unknown by means of the known.
DARWIN AND BOTANY.
By Dr. Nathaniel Lord Britton.
Considering the fact that Charles Darwin disclaimed the title of botanist,
his contributions to the knowledge of plant life and its phenomena were
certainly extraordinary. His investigations extended over a great range
of topics, at one time or another practically covering the whole field of
botanical research. In repeatedly stating that he was not a botanist, he
evidently meant to imply that he was not a systematist, and it is true that his
knowledge of plant taxonomy was the least of his scientific acquirements.
In his first letter to Dr. Asa Gray, written in 1855, which was the commence¬
ment of a long correspondence, he almost apologized for asking questions!
During that year he became keenly interested, however, in knowing more
about the kinds of plants growing wild in the vicinity of his home, and in a
letter to Dr. Hooker he complains about the dreadful difficulty of naming
plants, though he apparently became quite enthusiastic in this pursuit and
advised Dr. Hooker, “If ever you catch quite a beginner and want to give
him a taste of botany, tell him to make a perfect list of some little field or
wood.” The facts just stated seem to indicate the extent of his taxonomic
studies. He accepted, for the most part, the names of plants which he
studied from the determinations of others.
Darwin was attracted to observations of natural objects as a young
boy and he early considered plants; his juvenile collections were ento¬
mological, and his earlier investigations were mainly zoological and geolo¬
gical. As a pupil of Professor Henslow at Cambridge University he at¬
tended botanical lectures and took part in field excursions; he greatly
enjoyed the field work, and from it his inspiration for investigation was
doubtless derived.
As naturalist of the voyage around the world of the ship Beagle (1831-
1836) his collections of plants made in South America and on the islands of
the Pacific Ocean, and his observations upon the botanical features of the
countries visited, contributed greatly to the knowledge of the flora of those
regions. They were extensively utilized by Dr. Hooker in his “Flora
Antarctica” and in his “Flora of the Galapagos Archipelago,” as well as
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
29
by other authors in various contributions. Darwin’s valuable herbarium
is preserved in the museum of Cambridge University. That he collected
assiduously at times during portions of this expedition, is evidenced by his
having brought home specimens of 193 species of the 225 species which,
after his specimens had been studied, were known to inhabit the Galapagos
Islands and by the fact that about 100 species new to science were represented
in his Galapagos collection. He noticed the extraordinary distribution of
species or races on the several islands of this group, many of them inhabiting
only a single island, and he laid the foundation for all subsequent study
of insular floras. The narrative of observations and experiences during
this memorable voyage is replete with interesting facts and suggestions
concerning plants, and his conclusion that “ Nothing can be more improving
to a young naturalist than a journey in distant countries,” is one that should
be reiterated by all teachers of natural science, and such experience should
be sought by all students who propose engaging in investigation. Darwin
is commemorated in botanical taxonomy by many species named in his
honor. The beautiful barberry, Berberis Darwinii of Hooker, native of
Chiloe, is occasionally seen in cultivation. Darwinia, an Australian genus
of the myrtle family, named by Rudge in 1813, commemorates his grand¬
father, Erasmus Darwin.
The beginnings of Darwin’s theory of descent of animals and plants
from preexistent species, with modifications, were made during the voyage
of the Beagle, and from the year after his return to England, when, he tells
us he opened the first note-book on the subject. For twenty-two years he
was interrogating gardeners and breeders, botanists and zoologists, and
diligently observing plants and animals. He first thought of publishing
on the theory of descent in 1839, but delayed for twenty years. During the
studies which led up to the publication, in 1859, of “The Origin of Species
by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the
Struggle for Life,” Darwin closely observed a great number of wild and
cultivated plants, with reference to variation in nature and under domestica¬
tion, the struggle for existence due to competition for food and sunlight,
the facts of geographic distribution, the succession of plant life on the earth
as indicated by the fossils of successive geologic periods, and a great range
of other facts and phenomena. The recorded observations of other botanists
were also freely utilized and discussed. Nearly all the chapters of this
epoch-making work contain conclusions drawn from his own botanical
observations. He was especially impressed by the divergent views of
different botanists relative to the taxonomic treatment of highly polymorphic
genera such as Hieracium (hawk-weed), Rubus (blackberry), Quercus and
Rosa, and he employed this consideration to great advantage in his argu-
30
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ment for derivation during descent. Rudimentary organs were considered
with much interest and readily explained by Darwin as vestiges of structures
which were useful to the plant in earlier stages of its existence. The facts
of geographic distribution were eagerly examined as bearing on the theory
of descent, and Darwin’s writings abound in speculations relative to their
significance. He was inclined to combat the geologic theory of former
land connections of present existing continents, as not satisfactorily account¬
ing for many features of geographic distribution, though he ultimately
agreed with this theory to some extent. He closely studied the natural
means by which seeds are transported over great distances and also inquired
into the vitality of seeds.
The title of the “Origin” was a subject of considerable doubt in his
mind, and in 1857, two years before it was printed, he had proposed to call
it “Natural Selection.” The title “Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection” is, if taken literally, somewhat misleading and has occasioned
considerable discussion. The subtitle — “Or the Preservation of Favored
Races in the Struggle for Life” — is a more accurate statement of his theory.
On November 23, 1856, he wrote to Dr. Hooker:
The formation of a strong variety, or species, I look at as almost wholly due to
the selection of what may be incorrectly called chance variations. Again, the
slight differences selected, by which a race or species is at last formed, stand, as I
think can be shown in the far more important relation to its associates than to external
conditions.
Darwin’s great contribution to the subject of evolution was the incon¬
trovertible proof adduced by him that living species are modified descendants
of preexisting species, 'and that the modifications are brought about by
natural causes. His observations led him to the conclusion that the modi¬
fications were all minute, gradual and cumulative. We know that they may
also be considerable and abrupt and that they are cumulative because favora¬
ble changes are preserved.
How, then, do the modifications or primordial variations, either large
or small, arise ? Is variation an innate essential quality, or is it induced
by external environmental factors ? Proof of environmental agencies
having at least something to do with it in plants seems to be accumulating,
as the experimental work carried on by MacDougal and by Gager at the
New York Botanical Garden appears to imply.
I think that we may now safely outline the methods of formation of
species somewhat as follows: Through causes which are not yet at all well
known, but by means of which agencies external to the germ-cells certainly
may have a part, the offspring of a plant grown from seed differ more or
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
31
less from the parent (variation). The thus modified offspring, subjected
to natural selection, ultimately perish if they are unadapted, but survive
if they are adapted to their surroundings. Repetitions of this process
finally bring the descendants of plants to differ materially from their ancestors
(evolution). The end of the process seems to be the development of organ¬
isms which are little or not at all subject to variation (monotypic genera).
All genera of plants containing a large number of species are evidently
subject to continued variation, and their species and races almost defy ,
classification. Just what part the phenomena of hybridism take in the
final result is not clear, but it may be pointed out that they are evidently
unnecessary, because great groups, whole orders, in fact, of the fungi, are
devoid of sexuality, and hybridism is therefore impossible among them;
yet they are subject to variation like other plants and cpiite as difficult to
classify.
Observations on insectivorous plants occupied Darwin at intervals
from 1860 until the publication of his volume on that subject in 1875. He
commenced with the round-leaved sundew ( Drosera rotundifolia ) while
staying at Ashdown Forest, and was soon intensely interested in the exqui¬
site sensitiveness of the leaf-glands to nitrogenous substances. His studies
were continued over most of the plants of the sundew family, and to others
known to entrap insects or other small animals. He discovered that the
leaves of Drosera and of Dioncea secreted a ferment when supplied with
various kinds of nitrogenous food and he closely observed the movements
of their glands and tentacles and recorded them in detail. Experiments
were also made on these plants with a great variety of non-nitrogenous
substances. Darwin pointed out the remarkable parallelism between the
digestive powers of the secretions of the Droseraeeae and those of the gastric
juices of animals. The sacs of the aquatic bladder-worts (JJ tricularia) and
the leaves of butter-worts ( Pinguicula ) were also closely studied. His
book is replete with records of careful observations and ingenious deductions.
Nepenthes had already been shown by Dr. Hooker to secrete digestive
fluids in its pitcher-like leaves, and Sarracenia was suspected of similar
activity by Darwin and by others, although he did not regard this as proven.
As early as 1838 or 1839 Darwin was attracted to observe the processes
of pollination and noticed the dimorphic flowers of Linum flavum. He had
concluded at that time that cross-fertilization was potent in holding species
stable and constant. He obtained a great deal of information on this topic
in 1841 by reading Sprengle’s “Entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur,” which
stimulated him to continued investigations during summers and he became
especially interested in the methods of pollination of the wild orchids growing
about his home. This study of pollination of orchids resulted in the publi-
32
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cation, in 1862, of liis book on that subject, and in it his detailed observations
are recorded. Some of his closest observational work was done on this
subject of cross-pollination, and he examined a great many species and
grew thousands of plants from seed, reaching the broad generalization that
cross-fertilization is beneficial to a species and self-fertilization is injurious.
The phenomena do not now, however, appear to have as important a relation
to evolution as they were formerly supposed to have, and Darwin later
expressed regret that he had not given more attention to the processes of
self-fertilization.
His interest in showing that cross-fertilization was beneficial led him to
investigate closely the various structural features of flowers which necessitate
this process to a greater or less degree, such as dioecism, monoecism, poly¬
gamy and heterostyly; his observations and speculations are presented in
the volume entitled “Different Forms of Flowers and Plants of the Same
Species,” published in 1877. He records that making out the meaning of
heterostyled flowers gave him very great pleasure. A chapter of the book
is devoted to eleistogamic flowers, which are necessarily self fertilized and
produce seed abundantly. This work is largely a revision and rearrangement
of several papers previously published in the Journal of the Linnoean Society.
“The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,” Darwin’s
largest work, appeared in 1868, published in two volumes. As bearing on
this topic, he had studied, among plants, for many years, the cereal grains,
garden vegetables, edible fruits, ornamental trees and ornamental flowers.
In the preface he again discusses natural selection and defines it as “This
preservation, during the battle for life, of varieties which possess any ad¬
vantage in structure, constitution or instinct,” noting that Herbert Spencer
had well termed the same process “The Survival of the Fittest.” But the
bulk of the work is given to the consideration of selection by man — arti¬
ficial selection, by which races useful to us, economically or esthetically,
have been preserved and modified, some of them having originated in very
remote times and been taken advantage of by uncivilized man. A chapter
is devoted to the phenomena of bud-variation, in which many cases of
branches of plants different in one respect or another from other branches
on the same plant are described in detail. Many of these have been taken
advantage of by horticulturists for the propagation of valuable races. He
did not reach any definite conclusion as to the cause of these interesting
occurrences; but recently acquired knowledge of mutation seems to indi¬
cate that they are of that category, differing from seminal mutations in
that a cell in the axil of a leaf is affected rather than a germ-cell. In these
volumes we find Darwin’s most detailed discussion of heredity, of variability
and of hybridism and the last chapter outlines his provisional hypothesis
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
33
of pangenesis, an ingenious supposition, applying to living matter the general
features of the atomic theory, with an additional inherent power of repro¬
duction of the atoms or “gemmules” as he termed the hypothetical ultimate
particles.
The movements of plants and of their various organs were also studied
by Darwin for many years. His first essay on this topic appeared in 1865
and ten years later he revised and enlarged it 'as a book under the title
“The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants,” using, as always, not
only his own detailed and extensive observations, but also the published
writings of other botanists, among them the paper on tendrils by Hugo
de Vries, who was destined subsequently to throw such a flood of light on
the phenomena of variation. Darwin grouped climbing plants into twiners,
leaf-climbers, tendril-bearers, hook-climbers and root-climbers. He main¬
tained that the climbing habit has been developed to enable vines to reach
the light and free air; tropical forests show conclusively that this is the case.
He showed that circumnutation, the bending of growing tips successively
to ail points of the compass, is a general phenomenon among flowering
plants, and he thought it of high importance to them. The sensitiveness
of tendrils to external influences interested him deeply, and he made many
original experiments upon them. Following the subject much further he
published in 1880 the work entitled “The Power of Movement in Plants,”
a treatise abounding in records of original observations on seedlings and
parts of mature plants, including further studies of circumnutation, of the
sensitiveness of plants to light and to other forces and of the phenomena of
geotropism and apogeotropism, which he regarded as modified phenomena
of circumnutation.
The value of the impulse given by Darwin to botanical investigation
in all its branches is beyond estimation; his power of exact observation
and record has seldom been equaled and certainly never excelled; his
deductions were highly philosophical, and most of them have stood the
test of thirty years’ inquiry and criticism; he was searching for truth and
his absolute honesty in research is plainly evidenced by his repeated criticism
of his own conclusions.
The immense number of plant species which had been described and
named, and the lack of any complete index to them led Darwin to provide
in his will for complete enumeration of the names of published species of
flowering plants. This great work was prepared at the library of the Royal
Gardens, Kew, England, and published in 1895 in four large quarto volumes,
to which several supplements have since been added. This “Index
Kewensis” is a great boon to all investigators, and is quite indispensable
to those who have to take plant names into consideration.
34
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
DARWIN AND ZOOLOGY.
By Dr. Hermon C. Bumpus.
This is an assembly composed substantially of members and friends of
the New York Academy of Sciences, united to do homage to one whose
genius has been long felt in our meetings, and whose influence is now recog¬
nized in every field of intellectual endeavor. The example of Darwin’s
precision in observing, of his wisdom in interpreting and of his truthfulness
in recording the phenomena of nature has transformed zoology — the
subject assigned to me — from prosaic description to acute speculation, from
a merely interesting study to an aggressive science.
This change took place in an incredibly short space of time, and it may
be worth while, on an occasion such as this, to examine the condition of
scientific academies and similar organizations in America at the time of
the publication of the “Origin of Species,” to note the first center of appre¬
ciative acceptance and to trace the spread of the belief in Darwinism as it
betrayed itself in the publications of the time.
Fifty years ago there were in America five leading centers of organized
scientific activity.
In Philadelphia were the American Philosophical Society, founded
by Franklin and then well along in its second century of “promoting useful
knowledge,” and the Academy of Natural Sciences, approaching its semi¬
centennial.
In Boston were the adolescent Boston Society of Natural History, ap¬
proaching its thirtieth birthday, and the mature American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, founded in 1780.
In New Haven was the Connecticut Academy, founded in 1786.
In Washington, although the National Institution for the Promotion
of Science (founded in 1840) and the Smithsonian Institution had been
publishing for eleven years, men- of science apparently did not unite in an
academic way until the Philosophical Society of Washington was organized
in 1871. Even the National Academy was not incorporated until 1863,
four years after the announcement of the “Origin of Species.”
In New York, this academy (then called the Lyceum of Natural History)
wTas meeting at Fourteenth Street, at a point now occupied by the head¬
quarters of Tammany Hall. Of those then attending its meetings, but one
now remains.
The dominant mind at Philadelphia was that of Leidy, thirty-six years
of age. Cope was a boy of nineteen. In Washington, were Joseph Henry,
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
35
sixty-two; Bache, sixty-three; Baird, thirty-six, and others attached to the
Smithsonian Institution, and the great government surveys. Baird was
often a contributor to the publications of the New York Lyceum of Natural
History.
In New York was Torrey, a man of sixtv-three, and among others two
young men, Theodore Nicholas Gill — the senior member of this academy
— and Daniel Giraud Elliot, now honoring this museum with his presence
— both born in New York, and both in their early twenties. Not only
have these two — early identified with the scientific publications of this
academy — witnessed the change that has taken place during the past fifty
years, but their long series of contributions to science .admirably illustrate
the strange power that has been exerted upon zoological work in general,
and descriptive zoology in particular, by him who came into being one
hundred years ago.
In New Haven were James Dwight Dana, forty-six, Daniel C. Gilman,
twenty-eight, and the Sillimans.
In Boston, were Agassiz, adored by the people — preeminent among
teachers — the studious lovable Gray, at one time (1836) librarian of this
academy, and Jeffries Wyman. Both Agassiz and Gray were about the
age of Darwin. Jeffries Wyman was a few years their junior; of him
Lowell has written:
He widened knowledge and escaped the praise
He toiled for science, not to draw men’s gaze.
Under the influence of these, Agassiz, Gray, Jeffries Wyman, there
gathered at Cambridge, at about this time, what we would now informally
and affectionately call “a bunch of boys.” Shaler, eighteen; Verrill (who
has come down from New Haven to be with us this afternoon) and Packard,
twenty; Morse, Hyatt and Allen — our Dr. Allen — twenty-one; Scudder,
twenty- two.
Of the five centers of scientific activity, youth was certainly the charac¬
teristic of the school at Boston. It is therefore safe to predict that the germ
of the new truth in biological science would find a more favorable medium
in Boston than here in New York or farther south.
The infection was immediate, indeed “ pre-immediate.” The period
of incubation extended over about ten years, ending in an acute epidemic
from 1871-1876, which affected lyceums, associations and academies in¬
discriminately. Convalescence then began, since which the American
body-scientific has enjoyed good health and has shown many periods of
remarkable growth.
36
AN NABS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The “Origin of Species” was published in London late in November,
1859. The following month, Asa Gray, long intimately acquainted with
Darwin, and anxious that Americans should see promptly the significance
of the new theory, wrote for Silliman’s Journal a review of the book, before
a single copy of the “Origin” had reached this country. He predicted
that the work would produce great discussion — it did. A copy arrived,
it was carefully reviewed, but before the review could be gotten through the
press, a second edition was announced, and within three months two Ameri¬
can editions were advertised.
Gray gave his first review in December. In January, Professors Agassiz,
Parsons and Rogers are recorded as having discussed the “Origin and
Distribution of Species” at a meeting of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences on Beacon Street. Gray was present. In February, Agassiz
began his open opposition to the theory of Darwin, stating at the Boston
Society of Natural History that, while Darwin was one of the best naturalists
in England, his great knowledge and experience had been brought to the
support of an ingenious but fanciful theory. In these discussions Professor
Rogers valiantly upheld Darwin’s views. In March, Agassiz continued to
oppose Darwin, and in April, Gray and Parsons made their reply. In May,
they were at it again. Then followed the admirable essay of Parsons, Pro¬
fessor of Law at Harvard, and the unfortunate advance sheets of the third
volume of Agassiz’s “Contributions.” Then came Gray’s Atlantic Monthly
articles, and thus ended the first year.
Among the records of the learned societies of New York, Philadelphia
and Washington, I can find nothing to indicate that there was any particular
interest in the disturbances that were going on in and about Boston. Pro¬
fessor Dana, easily the dominant figure in science at New Haven, was in
poor health and out of the country, but it was generally considered that his
intensely idealistic views would probably have prevented him from accepting
a theory that was felt by many to be grossly materialistic. The infection
therefore was local and remained local about Boston for a full decade.
In 1861 Agassiz doubtless discussed the matter before the National
Academy in a paper on the “Individuality of Animals,” but I have been
unable to find a copy of the paper.
In 1863 Jeffries Wyman, in his review of Owen’s monograph on the
“Aye-aye” gave inference of his adherence to the theories of Darwin, and
indicated the impossibility of there being any neutral ground.
In 1865 Morse came to New York from Salem to be the guest of this
academy, but the formal paper that he presented did not contain even a
remote allusion to the discussions that were going on in what was then con¬
sidered America’s educational center.
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
37
In 1867 Hyatt’s paper on “Parallelism” appeared. This I believe to
be the first distinctly evolutionary contribution from the zoological side.
In this year, 1867, Professor Newberry, later and for twenty-three years the
president of this academy, delivered his address at the Burlington meeting
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, betraying in
this a singular nobleness of character toward those to whose advanced views
he felt that the scientific world could not entirely subscribe, and admirably
illustrating what he interpreted to be the prevailing opinion as shown by the
following quotation :
Although this Darwinian hypothesis is looked upon by many as striking at the
root of all vital faith, and is the bete noire of all those good men who deplore and con¬
demn the materialistic tendency of modern science, still the purity of life of the
author of the “Origin of Species,” his enthusiastic devotion to the study of truth,
the industry and acumen which have marked his researches, the candor and caution
with which his suggestions have been made, all combine to render the obloquy and
scorn with which they have been received in many quarters, peculiarly unjust and
in bad taste.
This was also the first year of the American Naturalist, edited by those
four pupils of Agassiz — Packard, Morse, Hyatt and Putnam — of whom
two are still spared. The introduction of the charming first volume of this
characteristic American publication is sufficient proof that at the time of its
issue even the younger men felt that there were two distinct schools of thought
relative to the “Origin of Species.” Those who are familiar with the in¬
troduction will remember that it is illuminated with one of Morse’s inimitable
sketches, a snail peering through a binocular microscope, symbolical, doubt¬
less, of the slowness of perception of those who clung to this archaic instru¬
ment and possibly also of those who clung to archaic ideas.
The following year, 1868, the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila¬
delphia, which in 1860 had elected Darwin to membership, published the
first important direct contribution to the subject of evolution made by one
not directly under the influence of the Boston academies. This contribution,
“On the Origin of Genera,” was made by Cope, who for several years had
been submitting papers to the academy of a descriptive and semi-speculative
character, and largely dealing with the classification of reptiles. I believe
that I am perfectly safe in saying that no academy in America has ever
published a paper that reflects more to its credit than this extraordinary
essay of Cope. It is apologetically issued as a fragment, but in it there is
shown an intimate acquaintance with anatomical detail that is almost super¬
natural, an independence of thought that is extraordinary, a power of analysis
that stuns the reader, an estimate of the weak and the strong points of the
Darwinian theory that is masterly, an agility of logic that marked its author
38
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
as a dangerous antagonist, an energy to reach the truth, and an impetuosity
to convince others of truth, that was prophetic, indeed, that was completely
demonstrative of pent-up mental power which must have been most disturb¬
ing to those of his academy who had nestled down into positions of com¬
fortable intellectuality.
We now enter upon five years of acute activity.
On December 15, 1871, Cope attended a meeting of the American
Philosophical Society, and presented his paper on “The Method of Creation
of Organic Forms.” In a fortnight a reply was given, which began with a
quotation from Job: “I am a brother to dragons and a companion to owls,”
and continued for several pages in attempted explanation and demonstration
of the falsity of Darwin’s theories, and ended with the author’s conviction
that the only good that can come from these theories is the fact that they
must bring about their own defeat. Cope replied immediately and was
then replied to, and so on. But why follow the discussion ?
The spell was being felt even farther south. Within two months of the
date of its founding, the Philosophical Society of Washington listened to a
paper by Professor Gill, in which it was stated that if the doctrine of evolu¬
tion was accepted at all, it must involve man.
This was also the date of Dr. Allen’s paper on the “Geographical Varia¬
tion of North American Birds,” a philosophical as well as descriptive article,
an important contribution to the then scant literature of distribution, a
paper which established a distinct method of zoological research that has
reflected the highest credit on its author and on the institutions with which
he has been connected.
It was also in this year that Morse published his paper on “Adaptive
Coloration.”
In January, 1872, the New York Academy made its first direct contribu¬
tion to the subject of evolution by publishing a brief paper on the “Carpus
and Tarsus of Birds.” I hope that Professor Morse, now forty-five years a
member of this academy, is present at this gathering, for the fifty years that
have passed since the appearance of the “Origin of Species” exactly syn¬
chronize with the period of his devotion to the principles enunciated therein.
If, among the volumes of this academy from 1859-1876, one binding
shows more signs of use than the others, take down the book, and you will
find that it opens to this article by Professor Morse; a contribution to zoology,
to comparative anatomy, to embryology and to the theory of evolution.
It is a refreshing spot, but somewhat out of place in an arid expanse of
descriptions of new species and revised classifications.
Another paper issued by the academy in 1872, and characteristic of the
new thought of the time, was by Benj. M. Martin on the “Unity of the
General Forces of Nature,” but this was physical rather than biological.
DARWIN MEMORIAL CELEBRATION
39
If one were forced to accept the presidential addresses of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science as indicative of the advance¬
ment of science in American associations, the address of 1873, delivered
by one who said he thought that natural selection had died with Lamarck,
would be sadly misleading. He writes:
In Darwin we have one of those philosophers whose great knowledge of animal
and vegetable life is transcended only by his imagination. In fact, he is to be
regarded more as a metaphysician with a highly-wrought imagination than as a
scientist.
But this is only the beginning of the gloom that anticipated the dawn.
Although in 1874 Dr. Elsberg, in a “ Contribution to the Doctrine of
Evolution,” addressed this academy (and also the American Association
for the Advancement of Science), in favor of the principles of Darwin,
although Cope continued to sustain his earlier contentions, and general
workers were beginning to make original observations in favor of the princi¬
ples of organic descent, the reviewers of the deliberations of scientific gather¬
ings gave little promise of anything like a general acceptance of the beliefs
in which we are interested.
In 1875, the retiring president of the American Association said:
I fear that the unhappy spirit of contention still survives, and that there are a
few who fight for victory rather than for the truth.
One of the vice-presidents at this meeting declined to “enter on the vast
field of discussion. . . . opened up by Darwin and others,” and resolved to
avoid the use of the word “evolution,” “as this has recently been employed
in so many senses as to have become nearly useless for any scientific purpose.”
Thus closed five years of struggle.
The year 1876, the centennial of political independence in America,
marked also the dawn of intellectual independence and scientific freedom.
It was the year of Brooks’s first Salpa paper, and of his paper on pangenesis.
Cope explicitly stated that the law of natural selection was now generally
accepted, and the then librarian of this academy, Louis Elsberg, submitted
his paper on the plastidule hypothesis, as nonchalantly as though he were
discussing the lingual ribbon.
It was under these really blessed conditions that the American Asso¬
ciation met in Buffalo and listened to a vice-presidential address fully worthy
the title of the organization. Edward S. Morse had demonstrated his
ability as an investigator in his paper of 1872, already mentioned, but the
simple, straightforward, patient and kindly manner in which he addressed
his audience in 1876, the thoroughness with which he scanned the work of
40
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
others, the fairness with which he acknowledged the value of their results,
and his concluding passages, in which he indicated the important bearing
that the theories of descent had upon the social problems of the day, render
his address a fit conclusion of a distinct epoch in the history of American
science.
Since 1876, practically every zoological worker has sought to make
some contribution that might strengthen his faith in a rational evolution of
organic life and activities. It may be that such contributions will prove
insufficient. It may be that Darwinism as a thing will ultimately fail of
proof, but to those in the future who may inquire for the reason for these
exercises and for the erection of this monument, Darwinism as a method
will ever be a sufficient reply.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 2, Part I, pp. 41-44. 20 April, 1909.1
GEOLOGICAL CORRELATION THROUGH VERTEBRATE PA¬
LEONTOLOGY BY INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION.
Correlation Bulletin, No. 1. Plan and Scope.
By Henry Fairfield Osborn, Chairman, and W. D. Matthew, Secretary,
Section of Vertebrate Paleontology, International Correlation Committee, National
Academy of Sciences.
This is the first of a series of Correlation Bulletins which will be suc¬
cessively published in the Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
as reports of special researches on geologic correlation through vertebrate
paleontology. These researches have been instituted through a committee
appointed by the National Academy of Sciences in 1908, with the special
object of securing international cooperation in paleontology, similar to that
which has proved so helpful in astronomy. The research is facilitated
through a grant from the Baehe Fund of the National Academy of Sciences,
founded in 1879. The Council of the New York Academy of Sciences has
agreed to cooperate with this important work by the publication of the series
of correlation bulletins.
In this first bulletin it seems desirable to outline the history of organiza¬
tion and proposed method of procedure of the Committee. Correlation
Bulletin No. 2, entitled “Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium,” contributed by
Dr. Louis Dollo, of the Royal Belgium Museum of Natural History, will
afford a practical illustration of the methods proposed.
I Organization of Committee.
At a meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, April 22, 1908, it
was resolved:
“That four members of the Academy be appointed by the President
as a Committee on Paleontologic Correlation, including two specialists
in Invertebrate and Vertebrate Paleontology, respectively. The com¬
mittee shall report at each meeting. The present committee shall serve
41
42
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
two years only and be eligible to reappointment or substitution of new
members in 1910. The committee shall have power to extend its
membership so as to secure American and international cooperation.”
Pursuant to the terms of the above resolution, Messrs. C. D. Walcott,
H. F. Osborn, W. H. Dali and W. B. Scott were appointed as a committee
on Cooperative Research in Paleontologic Correlation, with power to add
to their number. The object of the committee was to obtain through co¬
operative research by European and American paleontologists a better and
more exact correlation of geological horizons. The method of procedure
was left to the discretion of the committee.
The committee found it advisable at the outset to divide into two sec¬
tions, on vertebrate and invertebrate paleontology respectively. Dr. Osborn
was made chairman of the vertebrate, Dr. Walcott of the invertebrate section.
Dr. T. W. Stanton was invited to accept the secretaryship of the invertebrate
and Dr. W. D. Matthew of the vertebrate section.
The following paleontologists were invited to become members of the
committee and have signified their acceptance.
Professor Louis Dollo of the Royal Museum of Natural History, Brussels,
Belgium,
Professor Charles Deperet of the University of Lyons, France,
Professor Eberhard Fraas of the Stuttgart Museum, Germany,
Professor Ernst Koken of the University of Tubingen, Germany,
Dr. F. von Huene of the University of Tubingen, Germany,
Professor S. W. Williston of the University of Chicago.
Other members may be added as the work progresses, and invitations will
be extended to various other paleontologists to assist in special parts of
the work. Prof. J. C. Merriam, of the University of California, has kindly
agreed to assist in the correlation especially of the California and Sierra
Nevada sections.
It is intended to distribute the correlation of the different geological
periods in Europe and America among the several members of the com¬
mittee, their evidence and conclusions to be reviewed and the broader and
final correlation made by the committee as a whole.
II. Method of Procedure.
It is desirable in the first place to get the data together and point out the
weight and bearing of the evidence. This may best be done by means of
annotated lists of typical faunae. These may be drawn up, reviewed, revised
OSBORN AND MATTHEW, GEOLOGICAL CORRELATION
43
and critically considered for each typical vertebrate fauna. These faunal
lists may then be published, as reports of progress, without committing
individuals or the committee to decisions upon the wider questions of corre¬
lation. They will serve rather as summary statements of the evidence
available. These broader correlations can then be taken up by sub-com¬
mittees composed of authorities upon vertebrata, invertebrata and plants,
and the final decisions made by comparison and criticism of the evidence
from these groups and upon such other evidence as may appear pertinent.
Decisions of sub-committees, reviewed and approved by the committee as a
whole, will then serve for a broad standardization.
The first necessary preliminary is to get the data together in the following
form :
1. Lists of typical and well-known faunae, strictly arranged by formations
and horizons or by geological distribution. These should include, as
far as practicable, the character and location of type, character of re¬
ferred specimens, etc., in order to give some idea of how much is known
of the species and its consequent value in correlation. Genera and
species known from complete and abundant material are naturally of
much more value in correlation than those reported from scales, teeth
or other fragments.
2. Critical observations upon the importance of the species or genera in
correlation; their relations to others occurring in other typical faunae;
first or last appearance of genera and families; abundance of the species
or genus; range, time and direction of migration, and any other data
of value in this connection.
3. Sketch geological sections of type localities showing the level of occur¬
rence of the fossils and relations of overlying and underlying formations.
Sketch maps showing the location and extent of the formations.
4. Principal literature, chief scientific collectors who have worked in the
field, with the date of their work, estimate of its probable accuracy and
possible sources of error in correlation.
5. Geographic and geologic conditions, environment and phase repre¬
sented by the fauna as a whole.
Dr. Matthew has in preparation lists of the American faunae which will
be submitted to American members of the committee for critical observations
and sketch sections. Similar data are desired for European and foreign
typical faunae. These data, when compiled, will be published from time
to time as reports of progress, and the final results will be based upon con¬
sideration and correlation of these reports.
44
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
III. Progress of Correlation Work.
Dr. Louis Dollo’s valuable detailed report upon the succession of verte¬
brates in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic horizons of Belgium is accompanied by
a full description as to location of types, etc. This report has been trans¬
lated by Dr. Matthew and is to appear as Bulletin No. 2.
Dr. Osborn has continued his researches on the correlation of the Ceno¬
zoic, especially of France and of North America, in cooperation with Pro¬
fessor Charles Deperet in France and Dr. W. D. Matthew in North America.
A preliminary report on this correlation is now in course of publication by
the United States Geological Survey.
Dr. W. D. Matthew has completed a full series of faunal lists of the
Tertiary Mammalia of North America which also are ready for publication.
The lists of other vertebrates, that is, Reptilia, Aves and Amphibia, are
completed down to the year 1900 with the data, so far as readily obtainable.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 1, Part 3, pp. 45-97.]
STUDIES ON THE MORPHOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT OF
CERTAIN RUGOSE CORALS.1
By Thomas Clachar Brown, A. M.
CONTENTS.
Page.
I. Introduction and Historical Sketch ....... 46
Methods of Working .......... 49
Sectioning of Corals ......... 50
Grinding and Sketching . 50
Explanation of terms. ......... 51
II. Ordovicic and Siluric Corals ........ 52
Streptelasma profundum ........ 52
Streptelasma corniculum ........ 56
Streptelasma rusticum ......... 58
Enterolasma caliculum ........ 58
[Zaphrentis] racinensis ......... 64
III. Devonic Corals ........... 64
Enterolasma strictum 65
Stereolasma rectum ......... 67
Heterophrentis prolifica . . . . . . . 71
Heterophrentis multilamellosa . . . . . . 75
Heterophrentis wortheni . . . . . . . . 75
Heterophrentis edwardsi . . . . . . . . 75
Heliophyllum halli . . . . . . . . . 75
Microcyclus discus . . . . . . . . . 78
Hadrophyllum orbignyi . . . . . . . . 78
IV. Carbonic Corals ........... 80
Lophophyllum proliferum ........ SO
Hapsiphyllum calcareforme ........ 84
Hapsiphyllum spinulosum ........ 85
Hapsiphyllum varsoviensis ........ 85
V. Observations on Development ........ 87
Conclusions ........... 94
Genealogical Tree .......... 95
Bibliography ........... 96
1 Read at the meeting of the Academy, 1 March, 1909.
45
46
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
I. Introduction and Historical Sketch.
Although the rugose corals have been known and studied for more than
a century, it was not until very recently that the fundamental principles of
their structure and mode of development were understood. Kunth, in
1869, first stated the law which governs the arrangement of septa in the
majority of rugose corals, namely the appearance of main or cardinal and
counter septa in one diameter of the calyx, and of two alar septa in the cross
diameter; and the appearance of additional “pairs” of septa on either side
of the main septum and on the remote side of each of the alar septa.
The morphological structure and method of development of these corals
was clearly grasped by the late Carl Rominger, as is evident from the follow¬
ing quotation from his treatise on the corals of the Lower Peninsula of
Michigan, published in 1876. 1
! The radial plications of the zoantharia rugosa are arranged in four primary
fascicles, separated from each other by more or less conspicuous gaps. These
fascicles, apparently segments of a cycle of rays, are in reality bilaterally situated
in symmetrical position on an axial line, dividing the apparent cycle in two halves.
The two fascicles on one side are equivalent to those of the opposite side, but differ
from one another. For better illustration we may compare the circumference of
a polyp cell to a horse shoe with narrow, almost closed aperture. Opposite this
aperture, in the center of the curve, two fascicles meet with their equivalent sides,
having an obscure narrow gap between them, the center of which often exhibits a
solitary independent plication. This gap may, in distinction from the other gaps,
be designated by the name of central gap. At the ends of these fascicles, remote
from the central gap, and directed toward the aperture of the horse shoe, the pli¬
cations become gradually shorter, and, seen from the peripheral surface of the polyp
cells, do not extend to the apex of the conical polyparium, but terminate above,
nearer the calycinal margin. Another gap separates these shorter plications on each
side from the adjoining fascicles of plications, which extend to the ends of the arms
of the horse shoe. This pair of gaps is the lateral gaps. The further ends of this
second pair of fascicles approach each other again, in the aperture of the horse shoe,
leaving another larger gap between themselves than the other facicles, which may
be termed the apertural gap ; its center is like the opposite obscure gap, occupied by
a solitary plication. The plications of this second pair of fascicles are longest and
extend to the apex of the polyparium on their end joining the lateral gaps, and
shortest at the apertural gap. This is the order in the structure of all the polyp
cells of the Zoantharia rugosa. If, during the progress of growth, new plications
are added to the cycle of existing ones, the new ones are only inserted at those
ends of the four fascicles which are directed toward the apertural gap, while the
already existing plications are never disturbed by interposition of new ones, ex¬
cepting as indicated at the four ends of the fascicles, directed toward the apertural
1 Paleontology of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, Vol. Ill, pp. 92-95, 1876.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
47
gap; furthermore the addition of new plications at the four ends of the fascicles
is not always contemporaneous in all, or in the opposite corresponding ones, for
otherwise the lamellae in each equivalent bundle should be equal in number, which
is not always the case. This bilateral structure of the polyp cells of the Zoan-
tharia rugosa has been observed by several paleontologists, and been mentioned by
them as a peculiarity of certain species; but the late Dr. Kunth, of Berlin, was
the first to demonstrate this bilaterality to be an essential character of all the Zoan-
tharia rugosa, and to exhibit with clearness the peculiar mode of multiplication
of the lamellae in this order. If we examine a Streptelasma or a Zaphrentis, we
find the outer surface of the polyp cells longitudinally striate, by broad convex
bands or ribs, and by intermediate narrow linear furrows. The furrows correspond
to the crest-like plications on the inside of the calyces, the ribs to the interstitial
spaces between them. Three of such longitudinal furrows are, on each of the polyp
cells, more conspicuous than the others; they correspond to the gaps between the
bundles of lamellae. In the furrow corresponding to the apertural gap, the other
furrows from both sides converge at an acute angle, like the barbs of a plume to
its keel, gradually becoming shorter as they approach the margin of the calyx.
The two other obvious furrows, corresponding with the lateral gaps, are, on the
side nearest to the apertural gap, joined by similar parallel furrows extending into
the apex; on the other side the furrow’s abut against it at an acute angle, and de¬
crease in length as they ascend. The central gap is not indicated on the outside,
because the furrows on both its sides are parallel with it, as new plications are
never intercalated in this place.
This interpretation of the structure of these corals stood almost unchal¬
lenged for a quarter of a century, till called in question by Duerden in 1902.
R. Ludwig, in papers published in Id. von Meyer’s “Palteontographica,”
vols. X and XIV (1865-66), had described and figured certain rugose corals
as hexameral in symmetry, but his interpretations were so fanciful and
erroneous that they did not excite much serious consideration. In 1871
Count L. F. de Pourtales 1 also claimed to have discovered that the rugose
corals were originally hexameral in symmetry and speaks thus of Ludwig’s
observations and his own:
Mr. It. Ludwig has shown that the tetrameral arrangement claimed for the
Rugosa is only apparent, there being originally six primary septa, but that further
development in each system is asymmetrical and that twTo of the systems remain
generally undeveloped. I had, before having knowledge of Ludwig’s researches,
come substantially to the same conclusions by the examinations of Lophophyllum
proliferum Edw. & H., from the Carboniferous formation, a form very suitable
for the study . When the youngest stage of the coral is examined by cutting
through the tip of the conical Lophophyllum proliferum, six primary septa and
six interseptal chambers are found, placed symmetrically on twro sides of a vertical
plane, and unequally developed.
1 Deep Sea Corals, Ills. Cat. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard College, Vol. IV, p. 49.
48
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Until Duerden took up the question, only adult corallites or the young
tips had been studied, the attention of paleontologists being confined to the
full-grown or very young individuals. Little or no attention was devoted
to the method of growth and development of the individual. While working
upon the growth and development of the embryos of modern corals, Duerden
turned his attention to the developmental stages preserved in fossil corals.
He attempted to harmonize the young stages of these rugose corals with the
methods of growth and development which he found in modern forms
and cut serial sections to show the successive stages of morphological devel¬
opment of the individuals. As a species to study, he selected Lophophyllum
proliferum from the Carbonic limestones, because specimens were both
plentiful and well-preserved. By making thin microscopic sections trans¬
verse to the tip of the corallites, he obtained stages in development which he
considered identical with those found in the early embryonic stages of
hexamerous forms.1
In February 1906, Gordon questioned Duerden’s interpretation.2 He
showed how Duerden’s observations could easily be explained by an accelera¬
tion of certain septa on the basis of an original tetrameral condition, and
from his own studies of young silicified specimens of Streptelasma profundum
from the Trenton and Black River limestones showed that in the youngest
stages of these geologically early forms only four primary septa occurred.
Duerden replied to this,3 and stated that in six distinct species of rugose
corals, Streptelasma rectum Hall, Cyathaxonia cynodon E. & H., Hadro-
phyllum glans (White), H. pauciradiatum E. & H., Microcyclus discus
Meek and Worthen and Lophophyllum proliferum E. & H., he had found
the earliest stages obtainable to have six primary septa, and therefore he
considered that all rugose corals were derived from original hexamerous
forms and that the four-fold condition was of secondary derivation.
In the American Journal of Science for April, 1907, the author showed
that of these six species studied by Duerden, four were Devonic forms and
the other two Carbonic in age. All of them, therefore, occurred very late
in the geological distribution of the Rugosa. Of the four Devonic forms,
three were almost disc- like and therefore were highly specialized and pre¬
sented extreme difficulties, when one attempted to get at the earliest stages
of growth. In case of the fourth form, Streptelasma rectum, Hall, he showed
that a quadriseptate stage, earlier than any observed by Duerden, could be
found in very perfect material, and that the secondary septa came in pair by
1 Johns Hopkins University Circular, Jan., 1902; Annals & Magazine of Natural History.
May, 1902.
2 American Journal of Science, Vol. XXI, pp. 109-127, Feb., 1906.
3 Science, Aug. 24, 1906; Annals & Magazine of Natural History, Sept., 1906.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
49
pair as suggested by the earlier writers, but that the counter quadrants were
accelerated in development over the cardinal quadrants and that the first
pair of secondary septa appeared in the counter quadrants very early.
In the present paper, it is proposed to study a few of the rugose corals
included in the Zaphrentid group both geologically in the order of their
occurrence and phylogenetically in the order and mode of their development
and to find, if possible, some natural order in which to group these forms
systematically.
Although the Zaphrentid corals have been known for a long time, and
although the representatives are very numerous and abundant and occur
throughout the geological formations from early Ordovicic to the end of the
Carbonic, few attempts have yet been made to trace out the ontogeny and
phylogeny of their numerous genera and species.
In recent work in paleontology, certain principles and laws have come
to be recognized as universal in their application. If these laws are applied
in a study of the development and relationship of the genera and species of
the family Zaphrentidse, new and heretofore unsuspected truths are brought
to light. Some of the apparently widely separated species of this more or
less heterogeneous group are found to be very closely related, and some of
the species which at first sight are very closely related really prove to be
widely separated when arranged in their true relationship.
Among the most important of the principles of development which must
be kept in mind when studying the phylogeny or race history of any group
of living forms are these three first announced by Alpheus Hyatt.1
Stages in Individual Development. In the young, stages are found
the equivalents of which are to be sought in the adults of ancestral types.
Acceleration in Development. “All modifications and variations in pro¬
gressive series tend to appear first in the adolescent or adult stages of growth,
and then tend to be inherited in successive descendants at earlier and earlier
stages according to the law of acceleration, until they either become embry¬
onic, or are crowded out of the organization, and replaced in the development
by characteristics of later origin.”
Morphological Equivalence. “In the different genetic series of a type
derived from one ancestral stock, there is a perpetual recurrence of similar
forms in similar succession, which are usually called representative and often
falsely classified together, though they really belong to divergent, genetic
series.”
If these important principles of development are kept in mind and it is
1 "Genesis of the Arietidse,” Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, 673, 1SS9.
50
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
also remembered that the life of any individual is a compressed and ab¬
breviated edition of the life of the race and that in any natural classification
the individual must be the unit of comparison, it will be possible to trace
out the relationship and stages of development of any group, provided enough
of the structure is preserved to show what the development of the individual
has been.
Few groups lend themselves better to studies of this kind than the family
Zaphrentidse of the rugose corals. This is a family of wide geographical
distribution and occurs throughout deposits accumulated through long
periods of geological time. In the majority of the genera and species, the
individuals are solitary and have grown in free and open space and are not
marred or distorted by crowding or the presence of other forms. The nature
of the coral skeleton is such that all stages of development are recorded
from the time the little polyp embryo secrets its first calcareous support till
the polyp finally dies and its full-grown calyx or cup becomes buried in the
surrounding mud. Many of the fossil corallites are so perfectly preserved
that even the youngest stages can be found and studied, and it is upon studies
of this nature that the following paper is based.
In the course of these studies, three methods of treating the material
were pursued, according to its nature and abundance, the method of
fossilization and the object in view in studying the particular specimen:
1. Treating with acid. — Silicified specimens in a calcareous or lime¬
stone matrix were treated with acid. This method was particularly useful
in preparing the specimens of Streptelasma profundum from the Black River
and Trenton limestones.
2. The making of microscopic sections through the corallite. — In the
course of these studies many microscopic sections of corals were cut. This
method furnished a permanent record of all stages observed, but it was
impossible to cut the sections thin enough to preserve all the stages in
development. Sections of the earliest stages were extremely difficult to
make, and even when made could rarely be ground thin enough to show
anything distinctly.
3. Grinding from the tip of the corallite and observing and sketching
each successive step in development.1 This proved to be the most satisfactory
method of following the developmental stages. Its great drawback lies in
the fact that each stage must be destroyed before the next stage can be seen,
the only permanent records being the sketches made and observations noted
during the grinding.
1 This method was first described in print by Duerden, but it was used by the author
before Duerden’s publication.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
51
The paleontological collections of Columbia University are particularly
well supplied with material of the Streptelasma and Zaphrentid groups, and
this material was placed at my disposal. The particular species studied will
first be described in geological order, and these descriptions will be followed
by a discussion of the principles involved.
The study of coral morphology has been hampered and confused by
the duplication of terms and ambiguity of expressions used in referring to
certain parts or features of the coral structure. Among the multitude of
names and terms used for the different parts of the coral structure, it is not
always easy to determine which is the best or which is correct according to
precedence of application. The following is a partial list of the terms
used in these studies with explanations of their meanings.
Corallite — the complete hard part or skeleton of an individual coral.
Calyx — the cup-like upper or larger end of the corallite.
Septum — a more or less radially placed upright thin laminar partition
in the corallite.
Carinoe — well-marked vertical or curving cross bars on the sides of the
septa.
Dissepiments — horizontal plate-like structures which bridge across
between the septa.
Tabulae. — well-developed dissepiments which bridge across the entire
• calyx.
Primary septa — the four first-formed septa which divide the corallite
into four quadrants in which the four sets of later septa are devel¬
oped. They are the cardinal septum, the counter septum and the
two alar septa. The cardinal septum is located at the ventral or
anterior end of the median axis of the corallite, and the counter
septum at the dorsal or posterior end. The alar septa are located
one on either side of this median axis.
Fossula - — a depression or furrow surrounding the cardinal septum ;
also frequently applied, though incorrectly, to the depression or
furrow between the alar septa and the septa of the counter quad¬
rants. This is called pseudofossula by Grabau in his “North
American Index Fossils.”
Secondary septa — the later developed prominent septa which either
reach or almost reach the center of the calyx.
Tertiary septa — small septa arising in the interseptal spaces between
the septa of the primary and secondary cycles. In the geologically
earlier forms these project freely into the calyx throughout their
length. In the later forms they are attached by their inner margin
to the primary or secondary septum immediately dorsal to them.
52
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Pseudocolumella - — the pillar-like structure in the center of the corallite
formed by the inner margins of the primary and secondary septa
either uniting or partly uniting near the center of the calyx.
II. Ordovicic and Siluric Corals.
In the limestones of the middle Ordovicic the earliest representatives
of the rugose corals are found in North America. No individuals of this
group have yet been found in the Cambric deposits, and those found in the
middle Ordovicic are quite primitive and simple in their organization and
development. They are taken as the earliest representative forms obtainable.
Streptelasma profundum (Owen).
1844 Cyathophyllum profundum Owen, Geological Explorations of Iowa, Wis¬
consin, and Illinois pi. XVI, fig. 5.
1847 Streptelasma profunda Hall, Palaeontology of New York, vol. I, p. 49, pi.
XII, figs. 4a-d.
1863 Petraia profunda Billings, Geology of Canada, p. 938.
1891 Streptelasma profundum Winchell and Schuchert, Minnesota Geological
and Natural History Survey, Final Report, vol. Ill, part I, p. 88, pi. G,
figs. 17-19.
This species is the earliest representative of the genus Streptelasma in
this country. It is found quite abundantly in the Chazy (Birdseye), Black
River and Trenton limestones in the central and eastern parts of New York
and in Canada. This is a small species, and in his publication cited above
Hall describes it thus :
Obliquely turbinate, often slightly curved near the base, expanding above
more or less abruptly; cell profoundly deep, extending nearly to the base of the
coral; margin of the cup reflexed; surface scarcely marked by transverse rugae;
lamellae from 36 to 60, strong, nearly equal on the margin, but distinctly alternating
in length within; no transverse dissepiments or celluliferous structure.
Although this species is frequently referred to in geological and paleonto¬
logical literature, no complete and exhaustive study of its structure and
development has ever been made. This is undoubtedly the most primitive
representative of the genus Streptelasma. It is not only the earliest in its
geological distribution but also the simplest in its structure and development.
In 1906, Gordon called attention to the primitive character of Strepte¬
lasma profundum in his paper entitled “Studies on Early Stages in Paleozoic
Corals.” 1 His studies were made on a few young silicified individuals
1 American Journal Science, Feb., 1906, pp. 123-4 and fig. 16.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
53
from the Black River limestone, and he has given a very good diagrammatic
drawing of one of these individuals, showing it as if it were cut along the
counter septum and unrolled or flattened out. I have examined the speci¬
mens studied by Gordon and numerous others in the paleontological collec¬
tions of Columbia University. They are all silicified specimens found in
the Black River limestone at Georgian Bay, Limestone Island, from which
the calcareous matrix has been removed by acid. Many of the specimens
were very small and therefore very young individuals. The septa of these
young individuals were not developed to a sufficient extent to unite in the
middle of the calyx. As a result of this, one can see the whole structure of
the individual and can note the development of the septa relative to one
another and can compare their size and length. In all of these individuals,
the tip or youngest stage of the calyx is lacking in septa. The first septa
to appear in the base of the calyx or cup are the four primary septa; the
cardinal, two alar and counter septa. In some of the very smallest specimens
a millimeter or less in diameter and from one to two millimeters long there
were no septa present, the calyx consisting only of a smooth hollow cone,
sometimes straight and sometimes slightly curved or twisted.
The question now arises as to what this absence of septa in the youngest
individuals may mean. Three possible explanations are suggested:
1. Silicification was imperfect, and the septa in the earliest stage were
not replaced and preserved in the silicified specimen;
2. Resorption may have taken place during the growth of the young
individual,2 thus leaving no septa at this stage to be preserved.
3. In its earliest stages this coral may have had no septa, its skeleton
consisting only of a conedike structure surrounding the polyp.
It is hard to understand how imperfect silicification can be relied upon to
explain the absence of septa in the youngest stages of these corals when the
delicate edges of the septa in the later stages are uniformly well preserved.
This condition could easily be explained by the theory of resorption of the
earliest parts of the septa, but this is very doubtful as resorption has not
been noted in corals, and it seems more likely that in the earliest stages no
septa were present. A persistence into the adult stage of this embryonic or
earliest septa-less condition might easily explain the origin of such a genus
as Cystipkyllum, which never develops septa.
After the four primary septa appear, secondary septa are added in all
four quadrants. In this species the first pair of secondary septa in the
counter quadrants and the first pair in the cardinal quadrants are apparently
added simultaneously, whereas in the geologically later species of the Strep-
2 See Gordon op. cit. p. 124.
54
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
telasma group, the first pair of septa in the counter quadrants are invariably
added before the first pair in the cardinal quadrants.
After finding that the first pair of secondary septa appeared almost simul¬
taneously in the counter and cardinal quadrants, the question arose as to
whether the later pairs of secondary septa were added simultaneously or if,
during the later development of the individual, the counter quadrants were
accelerated over the cardinal, and the same condition existed in the mature
individuals as was found in corallites of other species from higher geological
horizons. Fourteen of the most perfect individuals obtainable were care¬
fully studied and the number of septa in each quadrant counted. These
individuals were from three or four millimeters up to twelve or fifteen milli¬
meters in diameter across the cup and, varying according to size, had from
three to eight secondary septa in each quadrant. Of these fourteen individ¬
uals, eleven had the same number of pairs of septa in the counter as in the
cardinal quadrants. In the majority of these, the pairs of septa seemed to
have appeared almost simultaneously in the counter and cardinal quadrants.
In one or two individuals the cardinal quadrants seemed to be slightly in
advance of the counter quadrants, and in three or four the counter quad¬
rants were distinctly in advance of the cardinal quadrants, although the
number of septa present were the same in each. The remaining three of
the fourteen individuals have one pair more of secondary septa in the counter
quadrants than in the cardinal quadrants. Thus it is seen that on an aver¬
age the secondary septa appear almost simultaneously, but that the counter
quadrants are just a trifle in advance of the cardinal quadrants. The
smaller tertiary septa appear in the later stages and so far as can be observed
arise in exactly the same order as the secondary septa, each one taking its
place between two already existing septa of the primary or secondary cycle.
This appearance of the pairs of secondary septa simultaneously in the
counter and cardinal quadrants is a decisive argument in favor of the original
tetrameral primary condition. If, for the sake of argument, we call the
pair of septa occurring one on either side of the counter septum primary
septa, as Duerden and Carruthers 1 have recently insisted that we should do,
we are confronted with the anomalous condition of having only three of
the fourteen individuals of Streptelasma profundum above considered with
the same number of secondary septa in the counter as in the cardinal quad¬
rants, and the other eleven individuals would have one more pair of second¬
ary septa in the cardinal quadrants than in the counter, a condition exactly
opposite to that found in any other species of rugose coral. Therefore, it
seems incorrect to consider any but the first four as primary septa. To
1 R. C. Carruthers: Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Nov., 1906, pp. 356-368.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
55
interpret this species as having four primary septa and bilateral pairs of
secondary septa added simultaneously or almost simultaneously in the
counter and cardinal quadrants, allows Streptelasma profundum to fall in
line with all the other species of this and allied genera. The interpretation
Figs. 1-5. Streptelasma profundum. X 4.
of it as an original hexamerous form would make it an anomaly that will not
bear comparison with other rugose corals.
In the adult corallite of Streptelasma profundum a condition is found
that is characteristic of the developmental stages of other later species.
Only a few of the septa reach the center. The others extend down the
interior of the cup, those in the counter
quadrants in a direction as if they
would run into and unite with the
dorsal side of the alar septa, and those
in the cardinal quadrants as if they
would unite with the cardinal septum
on either side. But instead of reaching
and uniting with the primary septa,
the inner margins of the secondary
septa are bent so that they unite, each
one respectively with the secondary
septum immediately preceding it in
the order of appearance and dorsal to
it in position in the corallite. This
Fig. 6. Streptelasma profundum. X 4. gives, when looking down into the
cup, the condition shown in figure 6.
All the secondary septa are united in a pinnate manner by their inner mar¬
gins and leave a well-defined open space along either side of the cardinal
septum and a space on the dorsal side of each alar septum.
In so far as can be observed in the surface views the tertiary septa appear
56
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
in the interseptal spaces in the same order as the secondary septa. They
remain short and free throughout their length. They never appear to be
attached by their inner margins to the adjacent secondary septa, as is the
case in many species occurring in geologically higher horizons.
Figures 1-5 represent five sectional views of five different individuals of
different sizes and ages showing the different stages in development described
above. Figure 1 has no septa. Figure 2 has the four primary septa and
two pairs of secondary septa in the counter and cardinal quadrants. In
figure 3, the secondary septa reach almost across the calyx, and in figure 4
they are similar in arrangement to the adult shown in figure 6, while figure 5
shows the first appearance of tertiary septa.
In the limestones of the upper Ordovicic, particularly in the Cincinnati
Group, are found an abundance of rugose corals which represent an ad¬
vance in the Streptelasma development. The most prominent among these
are Streptelasma corniculum and Streptelasma rusticum.
Streptelasma corniculum Hall.
1847 Streptelasma cornicula Hall, Paleontology of New York, vol. I, p. 69, pi.
XXY, la-e.
1863 Petraia corniculum , Billings, Geology of Canada, p. 156, 938.
1875 Streptelasma cornicula Nicholson, Paleontology of Ohio, vol. II, p. 218.
This species, which occurs abundantly in the Trenton and Cincinnati
limestones, is larger and more robust in growth than S. profundum. Hall
( loc . cit.) describes it thus:
Turbinate, curved near the base, which terminates in an acute point, some¬
what rapidly expanding above; cup profound; lamellse about sixty; surface
marked by strong longitudinal lines indicating the lamellae, which are crossed by
fine concentric wrinkled lines. Length varying from three-fourths to one and one-
half inches.
The septa in this species are more numerous, and in the later stages of
growth are more nearly radially placed. The accompanying illustrations,
figures 7-10, show characteristic stages in the individual development of
the corals of this species. These are drawn from thin sections cut from a
typical specimen. In figure 7, a section taken quite close to the tip of the
coral, a condition is seen similar to the adult stage in S. profundum . The
four primary septa are largest and most prominent, and the secondary septa
are distinctly grouped in quadrants. Figure 8, at a later stage, shows a
very similar arrangement. The secondary septa are more numerous, and
more of them reach the center. In these two stages the septa are very thick,
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
57
practically filling the whole interior of the corallite. Figure 9, from a still
later stage, shows the septa more fully developed and more nearly radially
placed. The septa at this stage are not as thick, and the interspetal spaces
are larger and more open. In figures 8 and 9, the tertiary septa are indi¬
cated by the centers of calcification, but they do not project beyond the wall
into the calyx. Figure 10 is from a section taken so that it shows in its center
the base of the open cup. Even at this late stage of the individual develop-
Figs. 7-10. Streptelasma corniculum. X 4.
ment the great prominence of the four primary septa is distinctly shown.
The tertiary septa have also appeared projecting beyond the wall, one be¬
tween each fully developed septum of the primary and secondary cycles.
In no case do the septa meet and unite in the center to form a pseudocolumella.
After they are fully developed, they are apparently free at the center. Until
fully developed, the inner margin is frequently attached to the ventral
side of the next preceding septum.
58
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
From this study of the species it is seen that Streptelasma corniculum can
easily be derived from the S. profundum type. The principal differences lie
in its larger size, more robust growth, larger number of septa corresponding
with the increase in size and more nearly radial arrangement of the septa.
Another fact to be noted is that the counter quadrants are accelerated in
development over the cardinal quadrants, there being at least three more
pairs of septa in the counter quadrants than in the cardinal.
Streptelasma rusticum Billings.
1851 Streptelasma corniculum Edwards & Haime, Mon. Poly. Foss, des Terr.
Pal., pi. 7, fig. 4.
1858 Petraia rustica Billings, Geol. Sur. Canada. Report of Progress, 1857,
p. 168.
1875 Streptelasma cornicula Nicholson, Pal. Ohio, vol. II, p. 218.
1882 Streptelasma rusticum Hall, 11th. Rept. State Geol. Ind., p. 376, pi. 51,
figs. 2-4.
1891 Streptelasma rusticum Winchell and Schuchert, Geol. & Nat. Hist. Sur.
Minn., vol. Ill, p. 93.
This species, throughout the earlier stages of its development, is identical
with S. corniculum. It, however, attains a much larger size, and in the
later stages of development becomes almost cylindrical in manner of growth.
Winchell and Schuchert were probably the first to point out that a line of
development could clearly be traced in S. profundum, S. corniculum and S.
rusticum}
Enterolasma caliculum Hall.
1852 Streptelasma calicula Hall, Palaeontology of New York, vol. II, pi. 32,
fig. la-k.
1900 Enterolasma caliculum Simpson, Bull. 39. New York State Museum, p.
203-205.
Throughout the Siluric, although individuals are very numerous, the
number of species representing the Streptelasma line of development is
very limited, Enterolasma caliculum being the only really important one in
this whole period.
Enterolasma is a genus proposed by Simpson in 1900 iloc. cit .) for certain
species previously included in the genus Streptelasma. The feature on
which the generic distinction was based was the presence of a peculiar
pseudocolumella. The author’s generic description is as follows:
1 Geol. & Nat. Hist., Sur. Minn., vol. Ill, pt. I, p. 87.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
59
Corallum moderately small, cylindro-conical, usually straight, but sometimes
slightly curved; calyx circular, moderately deep, sides thin; septal fovea obscure
and in some species apparently obsolete; septa alternating in size, the larger ones
continuing nearly to the center, having projections from their extremities which
continue to the center, becoming much involved, forming a pseudocolumella of very
peculiar appearance, somewhat resembling the convolutions of the intestines; sides
of the septa with numerous papillate elevations or carinse, which in a transverse sec¬
tion give to the septa a crenulate or echinate appearance; tabulae and dissepiments
present. The characteristic feature of this genus is the peculiar appearance of the
pseudo-columella.
Simpson lists as one of the species of this genus Streptelasma caliculum
Hall, and the generic description applies in all but one particular. Entero-
lasma caliculum does not have “papillate elevations or carinse” on the sides
of the septa. Instead, the cross section shows the septa to be smooth and
straight until they become involved in the peculiar pseudocolumella. In
the individual studied, although the septa are somewhat irregular at the
center, they do not seem to have projections forming the peculiar pseudo¬
columella described above. It appears rather that the pseudocolumella is
incomplete or imperfectly formed, and under certain circumstances gives
this peculiar appearance from which Simpson gives the name Enterolasma.
Enterolasma caliculum is described by Hall as follows:
Turbinate, oblique or curved, more or less rapidly expanding by the addition of
interstitial rays; cup moderately deep; rays or vertical lamellae about half the
thickness of the space between them, from 20 to 50, ordinarily about half this num¬
ber, more or less curved toward the center; external surface with the lamellae very
distinct and marked by transverse striae; surface rarely corrugated; rays alternating
with short dentations on the inner margin of the cup ( loc . cit.).
This species occurs throughout the middle Siluric but is found most
abundantly in the upper part of the Clinton beds and in the Rochester Shale.
It is a coral well adapted for the study of its ontogeny in all except the very
youngest stages. Perfect tips are hard to obtain; nevertheless, a very young
stage has been found, and all stages of development from this to the adult
have been carefully traced.
A small individual of this species was obtained from the matrix about a
larger individual. The stages of development observed in this very small
specimen are shown in figures 11-16. The fractured end, as it was wdien
removed from the matrix, showed five septa (figure 11). After grinding
a little a sixth septum appeared (figure 12). The cardinal, counter and alar
septa were located by the arrangement of the costae or external ridges of the
60
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
calyx. The individual corallites of this species are, as a rule, so perfect and
symmetrical, and the cost pe on the exterior show so clearly that there can
be no doubt about the orientation of the individuals and identification of the
septa. This sixth septum comes in between the counter and alar and at
first extends only from the wall to the dorsal side of the alar septum. As it
becomes more and more fully developed the point of apparent union of this
septum moves along the dorsal side of the alar septum until it becomes radially
situated (figure 13). The individuals of this species develop very rapidly
in their early stages, and a very small amount of grinding off at the tip brings
out the successive developmental stages. A little further grinding showed
Figs. 11-16. Enterolasma caliculum. (Enlarged.)
another secondary septum beginning to appear in one counter quadrant
(figure 14), and still further grinding showed a corresponding septum in
the other counter quadrant, and at the same time a secondary septum began
to arise in one cardinal quadrant (figure 15). This cardinal quadrant sep¬
tum came in as a short septum extending from the wall of the calyx to the
ventral surface of the alar septum, and as it developed, the apparent point of
attachment of the inner margin moved inward toward the center of the
calyx. The next stage in the development shows two secondary septa in
each counter quadrant and one in each cardinal quadrant (figure 16).
As this individual was very small, the later stages of development could
not be followed in it, but another individual was found showing eight septa
on the fractured tip (figure 17) and the successive stages in the development
of this were followed until the corallite reached a diameter of 8 mm.
In the fractured tip of this individual, eight septa are present, and accord¬
ing to their relation to the costae on the exterior of the calyx these are inter¬
preted as the cardinal, counter, two alar and two secondary septa in each
counter quadrant. Grinding it down to the next stage (figure IS), a pair
of secondary septa arise in the cardinal quadrants. These are short at first
and apparently united with the ventral side of the alar septa. As they
develop, the point of apparent attachment moves in till they become approxi-
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
61
mately radially placed as is shown in figure 19. In this same stage the
pseudocolumella formed by the union of the inner edges of the septa is seen
to have an opening in it. In figure 20, two additional pairs of secondary
septa have appeared, one in the counter and one in the cardinal quadrants.
A single opening is still present in the pseudocolumella. In the stage
represented in figure 21, all the septa present in figure 20 have become
nearly radially placed and a fourth secondary septum appears in one of the
counter quadrants. The pseudocolumella here shows four distinct open¬
ings, one of which communicates with one of the interseptal spaces.
In figure 22, a fourth secondary septum is well developed and reaches
to the center in each counter quadrant, and a third secondary septum has
started in each cardinal quadrant. The pseudocolumella can no longer
be recognized as such. The inner margins of all the fully developed septa
Figs. 17-24. Enterolasma caliculum. X 5.
are now irregularly united. In figure 23, the continuity of some of the septa
is broken, and the arrangement is irregular, while in figure 24, both of these
characters are carried still farther, and at the same time the number of septa
has been increased until now there are five secondary septa in each counter
quadrant and four in each cardinal quadrant. The actual dimensions of
the sections figured in figs. 17-24 are as follows: 17, 1.5 mm.; 18, 1.8 mm.;
19, 2.0 mm.; 20, 2.3 mm.; 21, 3.5 mm.; 22, 4.5 mm.; 23, 5.5 mm.; and
24, 8.0 mm.
Other stages of the development of this species are shown in figures 25
and 26. These were made and the septa identified in the following manner:
The cardinal and alar septa were located by the arrangement of the costee
on the exterior of the corallite. Then a fine India ink line was drawn down
the side of the corallite, marking the positions of these three principal septa.
G2
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The top of the calyx was ground smooth and polished. A dot of ink was
placed on this polished surface right at the end of each of the ink lines on the
side of the corallite. These three dots marked the upper exposed end of the
three principle septa. The corallite was then cemented by this polished sur¬
face to a piece of plate glass and sawed off as close as possible to the glass.
The thin slice cemented to the plate glass was ground down, transferred and
mounted as a transparent microscopic section, the dots of ink all the while
marking the identity of the three principle septa and being unaffected by
the heat and substance used in cementing and mounting. The process
Fig. 25a-g. Enterolasma caliculum. (Enlarged.)
was repeated as often as possible, and as many sections as could be made
were cut from a single corallite. Figures 25 and 26 show seven sections
each made from two individuals in this manner. In the first and last section
of each, the principle septa were not identified. The intermediate stages,
however, are well shown. In these microscopic sections, a permanent record
is preserved of all observations made, but the development cannot be fol¬
lowed step by step through all its minutest details as it was by the process of
grinding down from the tip and sketching each step as it was encountered,
at the same time destroying one stage in order to get the next.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
63
Figure 26 a is a section from the open calyx of the corallite. Here the
septa are all short and about equal
in length, and project freely into the
cup. Small tertiary septa alternate
with all the primary and second¬
ary septa. Figure 26 b is from the
corallite just below the open cup.
In it there are present the four pri¬
mary septa, four pairs of secondary
septa in each cardinal quadrant and
seven pairs of secondary septa in
each counter quadrant. Small
tertiary septa are present and alter¬
nate with all the primary and sec¬
ondary septa. Figures 26 c-g show
other stages in the development
already described. Figures 26 c, d
and e show very well the irregular
method of grouping or uniting of
the inner edges of the secondary
septa to form the peculiar pseudo¬
columella. Figure 25 shows similar stages from another individual.
A study of the developmental stages of these individuals shows that
throughout the counter quadrants are in advance of the cardinal quadrants,
and this feature becomes more pronounced in the later stages of develop¬
ment. In the earliest stages obtained, one pair of secondary septa have
appeared in the counter quadrants, and two pair appear in these quadrants
before the first pair arise in the cardinal quadrants. Up till the time when
the fourth and last pair of septa are developed in the cardinal quadrants,
the number of septa in the counter quadrants is just one more than in the
cardinal quadrants. After all the septa are developed in the cardinal
quadrants, two more pairs appear in the counter quadrants, making seven
pairs of secondary septa in the counter quadrants as compared with four
pairs in the cardinal quadrants. Thus it is seen that the acceleration in
development of the counter quadrants progressively increases in the life of
the individual and is very strongly marked in the later stages. (Compare
stages in Stereolasma rectum Hall from the Devonic.)
64
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
[Zaphrentis] racinensis Whitfield.
1882 Zaphrentis racinensis Whitfield, Geology of Wisconsin, vol. IV, p. 277, p^.
XIV, figs. 1 and 2.
Whitefield describes this species in the following words :
Corallum forming a short, rapidly expanding, cup-shaped or turbinate body,
nearly as wide as high, and strongly curved; calyx occupying nearly the entire depth
of the body; the floor, in a specimen measuring one and one-quarter inches in
diameter, not exceeding three-eighths of an inch in width; longitudinal or vertical
lamellae moderately well developed, but very thin and distinctly alternating in size,
increasing in number only along the primaries dividing the dorsal and lateral sections;
those of the two sections on the inner side of the curvature are more numerous than
the others, counting ten in each division, while those of the outer divisions are only
eight on each side, making, to the entire cup, thirty-six primary lamellae on the speci¬
men figured; f osset deep, situated on the outer side of the curvature, very narrow
and having only one primary lamella depressed within the cavity.
The examples of the species observed are all internal casts of the cup, but are
well marked and quite numerous. They present evidence of the outer surface hav¬
ing been transversely wrinkled, which, owing to the thinness of the-substance, have
shown in the cup and been preserved on the cast of the interior.
This species is found in the Niagara beds at Racine, Wis., and although
represented only by internal moulds it is evidently derived from the Strep-
telasma stem and has reached about the same stage of development as Entero-
lasma caliculum, although in a different direction and along an independent
line.
In all probability, this is not a true Zaphrentis but belongs to a different
genetic series, which in the Devonic gives rise to the genus Heterophrentis
of Billings and in the upper Siluric beds gives rise to the genus Heliophrentis
of Grabau which leads up to the terminal form Heliophrentis corniculum
by a development parallel with that of the Heliophyllum line in the Devonic.
As in Heliophyllum, this Heliophrentis line of development is characterized
by the gradual addition of carinse on the sides of the septa.
III. Devonic Corals.
Throughout the deposits of the Lower and Middle Devonic the rugose
corais are widely and abundantly distributed. In the lower beds are found
forms very closely related to those of the Upper Siluric. In the middle beds
the forms become more diversified, and in the upper beds they plainly show
that they have passed the acme of development and are on the decline.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
65
Enterolasma strictum Hall.
1S74 Streptelasma ( Petraia ) stricta Hall, 26th Report New York State Museum,
p. 114.
1879 Streptelasma ( Petraia ) stricta Hall, 32d Report New York State Museum,
p. 142.
1883 Streptelasma strictum Hall, Report of the New York State Geologist for
1882, pi. I, figs. 1-10.
1887 Streptelasma strictum Hall, Palaeontology of New York, vol. VI, pi. I,
figs. 1-10.
1897 Streptelasma strictum Girty, 14th. Annual Report New York State Geolo¬
gist. (1894) p. 300.
1900 Enterolasma strictum Simpson, Bull. 39, New York State Museum, p. 203.
This species is abundant in the limestones of the Lower Devonic, particu¬
larly in the New Scotland beds. In the Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the
New York State Museum, Hall describes it thus:
Cup narrowly turbinate, very gradually and regularly enlarging at an angle
of about 30 degrees, straight or slightly curved except the small apex which is
sometimes more abruptly bent. Exterior surface strongly and distinctly ribbed
longitudinally and marked with concentric, unequal undulations of growth; lon¬
gitudinal ribs rounded, from forty-five to fifty-five on specimens at the point where
the diameter is half an inch; the' increase of ribs or rays taking place usually at
three points, but sometimes only at two points. Interior of cup broad and deep,
with thin sharp margin; the lamellae not projecting into the cup until near the
bottom, but forming low rounded rays, a little stronger than those on the exterior.
The primary lamellae are smooth on the edge, and strongly granulose on the
sides below, and sometimes more or less twisted in their direction to the center,
although generally direct; uniting and coalescing near the middle, forming an
indistinct plate or vesiculose core, from an eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch
in diameter; and in vertical section, sometimes showing an indistinctly defined
vertical wall.
The secondary lamellae strongly denticulate on the edge below the surface of
the other lamellae. Fossette obscure or obsolete.
This species is distinguished by the rigid straightness of its form, the strongly
ribbed exterior and the deep wide cup with undeveloped rays or ribs; and in these
characters differs from both those of the Niagara group and also from those in the
higher formations.
In the Palaeontology of New York, vol. VI, p. 1, Hall gives a similar
description of this species with one additional observation. In that descrip¬
tion he states that “ . alternate lamellae extending only a short distance
from the walls at the base of the calyx and frequently coalescing with the
primary lamellae” are a characteristic of this species. The statement con¬
cerning the increase of lamellae in this species sometimes taking place at
only two points is evidently an error, for in this respect the species does not
differ from other Streptelasma forms.
66
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Silicified specimens of Enterolasma strictum are very abundant in the
New Scotland limestone, but they are not sufficiently well preserved to use
in grinding, or in cutting sections. Numerous specimens of various sizes
and ages have been carefully studied. The general manner of development
is found to agree with that observed in the Ordovicic and Siluric corals.
The septa unite at the center more distinctly than in any of the preceding
species. The pseudocolumella thus formed is not exactly solid, but it is
much more substantial than that found in Enterolasma caliculum. In many
specimens when looked at from
the top it appears to be hollow
or approaching in appearance
the wTell-developed inner wall of
such a species as Hapsiphyllum
varsoviense. . Another feature
in which this species differs from
those discussed in the previous
chapter is in the manner of
development of the small tertiary
septa. In all the geologically
earlier species the tertiary septa
(secondary lamellae of Hall)
arise as low, free ridges between adjacent primary and secondary septa.
They remain free and unattached to any of the primary or secondary septa
throughout their development. In Enterolasma strictum a different condi¬
tion is found. This condition is mentioned by Hall when he states that the
alternate septa frequently coalesce with the primary septa, and is clearly
shown in the sectional Hews of figures 1 and 2. Of these two views figure
2 is taken just below the base of the cup, while figure 1 is taken farther
down in the corallite.
This species was taken by Simpson as the type of his genus Enterolasma.1
In the large number of specimens from the New Scotland limestone beds
examined in the present study only one presented the appearance in the
figure by Simpson accompanying his generic description of Enterolasma
and this was a large individual considerably above the average size. The
specimens examined ranged from 5 mm. to 25 mm. in length, and all, with
the single exception above noted, agreed with Hall’s description and the
accompanying figures. All of these specimens, however, were silicified and
not adapted to be used for either serial or longitudinal sections. Therefore
instead of taking serial sections from one individual to get the changes in
1 Bull. 39, N. Y. State Museum, pp. 203-205, 1900.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
67
development, the interior views of several individuals ranging from rela¬
tively small to large size have been studied.
Stereolasma rectum Hall.
1843 Strombodes ? rectus Hall, Geol. Report 4th. District of New York, p. 209,
fig. 5.
1851 Cyathophyllum rectumdEvw. & H. Polyp. Foss, des Terr. Pal.
1876 Streptelasma recta Hall, Illustrations of Devonian Fossils, pi. XIX, figs.
1-13.
1900 Stereolasma rectum Simpson, Bull. 39, N. Y. State Mus. pp. 205-206.
Hall describes the species thus ( loc . cit.) :
General form turbinate, elongated, gradually expanding from the base; straight;
surface marked by longitudinal lines, which indicate the internal laminae.
This is an abundant fossil, sometimes appearing in pairs, but never joined
together. It usually tapers gradually to a very small point at the base. The
cup is very deep and the margins thin being usually flattened.
In 1900, Simpson used this species as the type of his genus Stereolasma
which he describes thus:
Corallum varying in size, straight or curved, simple; calyx circular: septal
fovea conspicuous; septa alternating in size, the larger ones continuing to the
center, straight or very slightly twisted; between the septa at the center of the
corallum a deposit of stereoplasma, which has the appearance of a columella; tab¬
ulae and dissepiments frequent. The pseudocolumella distinguishes this genus
from Zaphrentis. \
It may be added that the presence of this pseudocolumella also distinguishes
Stereolasma from Enterolasma and is the characteristic feature of the Stereo¬
lasma stage of the Streptelasma development.
This species is very abundant in the Hamilton shales of the upper De-
vonic, and perfectly preserved specimens can easily be obtained. It is a
particularly interesting species for these studies because it is one of the species
reported by Duerden to have six primary septa in the youngest stage and to
develop the four-fold structure later.1
The collections in the paleontological laboratory of Columbia University
are particularly rich in this species, and from some two or three hundred
corallites I selected the most perfect individuals for this investigation.
Some of these were found with perfect tips and some with the ends slightly
fractured. Following the method described in the first chapter of this
1 Annals and Magazine of Natural History, series 7, vol. XVIII, p. 236, Sept., 1906. The
Morphology of the Madreporaria. The Primary Septa of the Rugosa.
68
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
article, an individual corallite held by the large calycular end was ground
off at the tip very gradually on a plate of glass with fine emery, and each
successive stage of development was carefully noted and sketched. These
successive stages are enlarged and shown in the accompanying figures.
These figures, with the exception of figures 3 and 7, are the successive stages
in the development of a single individual.1
Figure 3 shows the tip of an individual with only the four primary septa
present. These septa, however, are not disposed at right angles. The
Figs. 3-11. Stereolasma rectum. (Enlarged.)
alar septa are inclined toward the cardinal, thus leaving the counter quad¬
rant spaces considerably larger than the cardinal quadrant spaces.
Figure 4 shows the slightly fractured tip, the first view of the individual
which was followed throughout its stages of development. Here the four
primary septa are present, and two secondary septa have appeared, one in
either counter quadrant. These are distinctly not equal to the primary
septa and are not radially placed, but are short and are joined by their inner
border to the dorsal side of the alar septa. As they develop, this point of
1 Figs. 3-16 are reproduced from a former article by the author on this species printed in the
American Journal of Science for April, 1907.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
69
attachment moves inward until they, in some individuals, become equal in
size with the primary septa and are radially arranged. There are in the
Columbia collections individuals which show gradations from the conditions
shown in figure 4 to six equal and radially disposed septa.
Figure 5 shows the appearance of a second secondary septum in one
counter quadrant. Figure 6 shows two secondary septa in each counter
quadrant. Figure 7 is the same stage from another individual and shows
that a pair of tertiary septa have already appeared, one on either side of the
counter septum. Attention is especially called to this very early appearance
of the first pair of tertiary septa adjacent to
the counter septum. Figure 8 shows the ap¬
pearance of the third secondary septum in one
counter quadrant and the appearance of a
tertiary septum in the same quadrant. In
figure 9 we see a tertiary septum present on
either side of the counter septum, three secon¬
dary septa in either counter quadrant, and one
secondary septum in each cardinal quadrant.
In figure 10, two secondary septa have appeared
in each cardinal quadrant, and in figure 11
four are present in each counter quadrant. In
figure 12, there are three in each cardinal
quadrant and five in each counter quadrant.
Figure 13 has four secondary septa in each
cardinal quadrant and six in each counter
quadrant. Attention is called to the grouping
of the septa in this and the preceding figures.
Each successive septum to appear in each
quadrant respectively is attached by its inner Figs. 12_i3. Stereolasma
border to the side of the previous septum, rectum. (Enlarged.)
giving in this stage an arrangement of the
septa similar to the adult condition in Streptelasma profundum, of the
progressive series at a very much earlier geological time, and also of the adult
condition of the genus Hadrophyllum, a retrogressive genus occurring late
in the geological history of the rugose corals.1 Figure 14 has the same
number of secondary septa but they are more fully developed and in addi¬
tion three more pairs of tertiary septa have been added in the counter quad¬
rants and two pairs have appeared in the cardinal quadrants. In figure 15,
a seventh pair of secondary septa have appeared in the counter quadrants,
1 See also J. E. Duerden, Biological Bulletin, Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 35-36, June, 1905.
70
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
making the total number of secondary septa present in the adult corallite.
Two more pairs of tertiary septa are added in the counter quadrants and
three more in the cardinal quadrants.
Figure 16 is a section from near the base of the calyx. All the primary
and secondary septa project freely into the cup. The cardinal septum is
hardly as large as the others. The alar septa and all the secondary septa
are about equally developed and
each has a tertiary septum abutting
against it. The counter septum is
developed to a more marked extent
and is longer than the others and
has a tertiary septum on either
side. All of these sections were
sketched from the end of the coral¬
lite as it was ground away and are
therefore more or less diagram¬
matic.
The statement stands unques¬
tioned that a type occurring late
in geological time, at least a con¬
siderable time subsequent to the
earliest occurrence of a type at all
similar, is likely to be far from
primitive in at least some respects.1
That the counter quadrants of
a rugose coral are accelerated in de¬
velopment over the cardinal quad¬
rants is shown by the above dis¬
cussion of Stereolasma rectum. One
tertiary septum has appeared in
each counter quadrant before the
appearance of even one secondary
septum in the cardinal quadrants.
Three secondary septa appear in
each counter quadrant before the
appearance of the first secondary septum in the cardinal quadrants. In all
seven secondary septa appear in each of the counter quadrants, while only
four arise in the cardinal quadrants.
In Stereolasma rectum, moreover, the tertiary septa do not arise simul-
Figs. 14—15. Stereolasma rectum.
(Enlarged.)
1 See C. E. Gordon, American Journal of Science, vol. XXI, pp. 109-127, Feb., 1906.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
71
taneously but come in in the same order as the secondary septa. The first
one in each counter quadrant appears long in advance of any of the others,
and when the others do appear, they follow the same sequence as the second¬
ary septa. They develop more rapidly in the counter quadrants than in the
cardinal, four having appeared in the former when there are only two in the
latter.
This species agrees with Enterolasma strictum of the lower Devonic beds
in that the tertiary septa are united with the secondary septa at their inner
margins and do not project
as free ridges as is the case
with the tertiary septa in
geologically earlier species.
The additional figures are
enlarged from the actual sec¬
tions sawed from individual
corallites. Figure 17 (a-e),
from a comparatively small
individual, shows five sections.
In figure 17a there are only
two pairs of secondary septa
in>the counter quadrants in
addition to the four primary
septa. The other four sec¬
tions show the addition of
the remaining secondary
septa and of the first pair of
tertiary septa adjacent to the
counter septum, as well as the reduction in prominence of the cardinal sep¬
tum and the development of the solid pseudocolumella. Figure 18 (a-g)
shows similar stages in development and also the presence of tabulre and
dissepiments (shown by white in the interseptal spaces). Figure 19 (a-c),
from near the base of the calyx of another individual, shows to better ad¬
vantage the presence of tabulae and dissepiments. These sections show
particularly well the reduction of the cardinal septum and development of
the cardinal fossula.
Heterophrentis prolifica Billings.
1859 Zaphrentis prolifica Billings, Canadian Journal, (new series), vol. IV,
p. 121, figs. 22, 23.
1874 Zaphrentis prolifica Nicholson, Rept. on Pal. of Prov. of Ontario, pi. 3,
figs. 2, 2a.
72
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1874 Heterophrentis prolifica Billings, Canadian Naturalist, (new series), vol.
VII, No. 4, Mar. 1874.
The authoritative description of this species is as fellows 1:
Fig. 18. Stereolasma rectum. (Enlarged.)
Fig. 19. Stereolasma rectum. (Enlarged.)
Corallum simple, turbinate, curved, expanding to a width of from 18 to 24 lines
in a length of from two to four inches. Surface with a few undulations of growth.
1 E. Billings, Can. Nat., (new series), Vol. VII, No. 4, p. 236, Mar., 1874.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
73
Septal striae, eight to ten near the base, and six to eight in the upper part, in a width
of three lines. Septa from about one hundred to one hundred and twenty at the
margin, where they are all rounded; most common number from one hundred to one
hundred and ten. In general they alternate in size at the margin, the small ones
becoming obsolete on approaching the bottom of the calyx, the large ones more
elevated and sharp edged. The septal fossette is large and deep, of a pyriform shape,
gradually enlarging from the outer wall inwards for one third or a little more of the
diameter of the coral at the bottom of the calyx. Its inner extremity is usually
broadly rounded, or sometimes straightish in the middle. It cuts off the inner edges
of from eight to twelve of the principle septa, which may be seen descending into it
to various depths. The surface layer of the bottom of the cup extends the whole
wTidth, bending down a little near the margin as in Zaphreniis, and uniting with the
inner wall of the cup all around. It thus seems to represent one of the tabulae of a
Zaphrentis.
This species occurs abundantly in the Onondaga limestone of the middle
Devonic and is a typical representative of the Heterophrentis group. In
its adult condition this is a slightly curved conical shaped coral with a very
distinctly marked fossula in the position of the cardinal septum, and with
the other septa slightly twisted at the center. In this condition it is very
distinct from the Streptelasma forms, but when its developmental stages are
studied it is found to be more closely related.
In the accompanying figures are shown a few stages in the development
of this form. Figure 20e is enlarged from a section sawed from the tip of a
well preserved coral. It is almost identical with a slightly later stage in the
development of a Streptelasma form. The four primary septa are most
prominently developed and each extends to the center of the corallite. There
are six secondary septa in each counter quadrant and five in each cardinal
quadrant. Each secondary septum is attached by its inner margin to the
next preceding septum. At this stage there is no indication of a fossula or
any enlargement of the open spaces around the cardinal septum. If identi¬
fied from this section alone, the species would be classed under Stereolasma.
In figure 20f a later stage of the development of the same individual is shown.
Additional secondary septa have developed in the four quadrants. The
cardinal septum is becoming shortened, and the position of the fossula is
beginning to be indicated although not yet distinctly marked. In figure 20a,
a section from another individual, giving a stage intermediate in develop¬
ment between the two above described, the septa are all shown to be normally
developed except the cardinal. The cardinal septum, although still reaching
to the center of the corallite, is much thinner and less prominent than the
other septa. Evidently it is being retarded in its development. Figure
20b, a later stage in the same individual, shows the cardinal septum no
longer continuous to the center, and the fossula or open space occupying its
74
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
position is distinctly marked. Figure 20c, a still later stage, shows the cardi¬
nal septum very short and the fossula distinctly marked and bulging in
appearance, while the secondary septa on either side are crowded away from
the median line. The appearance of the tertiary septa is distinctly marked
Fig. 20. Heterophrentis prolijica. X 4.
in this section, although calcification has continued until they are united
throughout their length with the secondary septa. Their presence and
position is indicated in the figure by the dark central line of calcification.
In figure 20d, cut from the base of the cup, the adult condition is shown.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
75
The cardinal septum, although very short, is still present. The alar septa
and the secondary septa in the cardinal quadrants are less strongly devel¬
oped than the septa in the counter quadrants. Tertiary septa are developed
adjacent to all septa except the cardinal and the last two pairs of secondary
septa in the counter quadrants. These latter are not fully developed as yet,
and a later stage would show tertiary septa adjacent to them also. It will
be noted that the two tertiary septa adjacent to the counter septum are no
longer attached to this septum at their inner borders but project freely into
the interseptal space.
Attention is further called to the fact that in the adult of this species there
are eight secondary septa in each counter quadrant while there are only four
in each cardinal quadrant, a condition similar to that found in the Stereo-
lasma forms. The earlier stages of this form might easily be taken for those
of a member of the Streptelasma group, and the whole individual develop¬
ment may be taken as that of a Streptelasma form with one new stage added
as a final adult condition, namely: the fossula stage. Compare the open
spaces or incipient fossula of Stereolasma rectum, which is a parallel develop¬
ment though less accentuated.
Heterophrentis multilamellosa Nicholson.
1875 Zaphrentis multilamellosa Nicholson, Paleontology of Ohio, vol. II, p. 236.
Heterophrentis wortheni Nicholson.
1875 Zaphrentis wortheni Nicholson. Paleontology of Ohio, vol. II, p. 235.
Heterophrentis edwardsi Nicholson.
1875 Zaphrentis edwardsi Nicholson, Paleontology of Ohio, vol. II, p. 235.
Heliophyllum halli Edwards & Haime.
1850 Heliophyllum halli Edwards & Haime, British Fossil Corals, p. 235, pi. LI,
fig. 3.
Heliophyllum halli is a coral found in abundance in the middle Devonic
shales of Eastern North America. Edwards and Haime describe it thus:
Corallum simple, turbinate, or cylindrico-conical, usually elongated, and slightly
curved at its base, provided with an epitheca and presenting slight circular swel¬
lings. Calice circular, rather deep, with a small septal fossula. Septa (80 or even
more) very thin, closely set, rather broad at their upper end, where they are arched
and denticulate, alternately larger and smaller, slightly twisted near the center
76
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
of the visceral chamber. A vertical section shows that the lateral processes of the
septa are arched and ascendant; those situated toward the upper end of the coral-
lum terminate at the edge of the septa; those situated lower down unite near the
center of the visceral chamber, so as to constitute irregular tabulae. The inter-
septal loculi are filled up with these lamellate processes, which are situated at about
half a line apart, and united by closely set simple dissepiments that form right
angles with them. Diameter of calice from 1 to 2 inches.
While this description is exceptionally complete in so far as adult individ¬
uals are concerned, it, nevertheless, is of no value for the study of a genetic
series. For such studies one must consider either a series of young individ¬
uals or the younger stages of adult individuals. The lateral processes or
carinae of the septa are a very characteristic feature of the adults of this genus,
but even a limited study of the earlier stages shows that at first these indi¬
viduals are without carinee, and if specimens of this age were collected they
could not be distinguished from the Streptelasma forms occurring in the same
horizon. The accompanying six figures drawn from transparent sections
cut from typical individuals of this species illustrate six of the characteristic
stages of the development.
Figure 21a, sawed from the tip of one individual, shows the Streptelasma
stage. In addition to the four primary septa there are present four pairs
of secondary septa in the counter quadrants, two pairs of secondary septa in
the cardinal quadrants and a pair of tertiary septa adjacent to the counter
septum. No carinae are present, and the arrangement of the septa is in
every way identical with that found in a corresponding stage of a Strepte-
lasma. Figure 21b is a rather poor slide cut from a slightly later stage of
another individual. The individual septa cannot be identified but the
presence of tertiary septa in practically all of the spaces between the septa of
the primary and secondary order is worth noting.
Figure 21c, from a corresponding or possibly from an earlier stage of a
third individual, shows the primary and secondary septa so that they can be
easily recognized, while the tertiary septa are much longer than in the pre¬
ceding figure. No carinae are yet present, but in the section numerous fine
lines cross between adjacent septa at intervals, and these may represent the
origin of the carinae or the points at which they are about to develop. In
figure 21d, the Streptelasma arrangement of the septa still persists. In
addition to the four primary septa there are seven pairs of secondary septa
in the counter quadrants and three pairs in the cardinal quadrants with
tertiary septa in all the interseptal spaces. One ring or circle of carinae has
appeared near the margin of the section. Figure 21e is a somewhat imper¬
fect section from a still later stage. The individual septa cannot here be
positively identified, but in that portion of the section which has not been
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
77
broken at the edge, three or four carinae are clearly indicated on each of the
septa.
Figure 21f is cut from near the base of the cup in an adult corallite. It
shows clearly the primary and secondary septa alternating with the tertiary
septa, which in this stage are nearly as long as the former. The septa of
all three series have a considerable number of carinse, and it is clearly seen
that the carinae near the center are stronger and heavier than those near the
margin of the section. This is due to the fact that the carinae near the
Fig. 21. Heliophyllum halli.
center are the first to arise, while new ones are added between the margin and
those already present.
From the foregoing developmental study of the morphology of even such a
distinct and specialized species as Heliophyllum halli, it is seen that in its
younger stages it is only a Streptelasma and that the specialized characters
are only later additions as the individuals approach their adult condition.
Heliophyllum halli apparently gives rise to the compound form Heliophyllum
confluens of the Hamilton, and then the line dies out. Heliophyllum tenui-
78
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
septatum and HeliophyUum corniculum, so called, do not appear to belong
to this genetic series. The former species has been carefully studied, but
in its early stages it seems to have no septa. The genetic relationship of this
from is uncertain. The latter species, H. corniculum, apparently is not a
HeliophyUum, but, as suggested by Grabau, belongs to an entirely different
genetic series, namely Heliophrentis derived from the so called [Zaphrentis]
racinensis of the Siluric.
Microcyclus discus Meek & Worthen.
This is a small flat circular coral form the Devonic beds. Duerden has
found that in the earliest stages observable by grinding off the tip, six septa
were present.1 Others are added in the regular manner. In the adult
condition the septa are more or less radially arranged and the septal fossula is
well marked. This form seems to represent the beginning of that specialized
line of development which ends with the retrogressive genus Hadrophyllum.
Hadrophyllum orbignyi Edivards & Haime.
Hadrophyllum is a genus of small size and depressed shape, having
no hollow cup or calyx, but with the septa projecting above the exterior wall.
Edwards and Haime, in their volume on British fossil corals, describe the
genus thus: “Corallum short. Calice superficial. One very large septal
fossula, and three small ones representing a cross. ^ The radiate arrange¬
ment of the septa somewhat irregular.” In Zittel’s Text Book of Paleotol-
ogy this description is slightly modified and reads thus: “Cushion-shaped,
with epitheca. Calice with three septal fossulse, that of the cardinal septum
being the largest.” The latter description seems to be correct in regard to
the number of fossulae or depressions adjacent to the primary septa, although
only one of these depressions can correctly be called a fossula, the other two
being pseudofossulae. In all the specimens examined, there is a fossula pres¬
ent surrounding the cardinal septum, and two lateral depressions between
the alar septa and the septa of the counter quadrants.
The genus Hadrophyllum is apparently highly specialized and probably
represents the terminal member of a non-progressive or perhaps retrogressive
series, in which the primitive pinnate arrangement of the septa, as found in
Streptelasma profundum, has been retained and accentuated in the adult
stage.
The type under consideration is the type of this species, and when the
1 Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Sept., 1906.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
79
stages of development of this species are studied, it is seen that the form
arises from a Streptelasma-like stem. Duerden has studied the early
stages of other species of this genus and found specimens in which there were
only six septa in the youngest stage observed.1 In figure 22a is shown a
stage from the polished tip of a specimen in which eight septa are present.
Two pairs of secondary septa have already arisen in the counter quadrants.
Figure 22b, from the fractured tip of another individual, shows a later
stage in which there are three pairs of secondary septa in the cardinal quad-
Fig. 22. H adrophyllum, orbignyi. X 4.
rants and four in the counter quadrants. The pinnate arrangement of the
septa is already distinctly accentuated and the three fossulse clearly defined.
Figure 22c is a view from above the calyx of a small individual. Two more
pairs of secondary septa have been added in each set of quadrants. The
cardinal septum does not showT in this specimen, but as the cardinal fossula
was somewhat poorly defined, probably its absence was due to imperfect
fossilization. Figure 22d is a similar view from a still larger individual.
Another pair of secondary septa has been added in the counter and in the
1 Science, Aug. 24, 1906. Annals and Magazine of Natural History. Sept., 1906.
80
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cardinal quadrants. Tertiary septa are also present, adjacent to all the septa
except the cardinal and the last two pairs of secondary septa in the counter
and cardinal quadrants. Even in this form, in which the primitive arrange¬
ment of the septa is retained and accentuated, the counter quadrants develop
slightly in advance of the cardinal quadrants. And furthermore, although
this is a highly specialized form, it is clearly seen that it is derived from a
Streptelasma-like ancestor, and the genus Microcylus probably connects this
with the Streptelasma line.
IV. Carbonic Corals.
In the Devonic deposits we find sufficient evidence to prove that the
rugose corals have passed the acme of their development and are on the
decline. During the middle and latter part of the period typical progressive
species become less abundant and their place is taken by highly specialized
terminal forms, such as the Heliophyllums with the carinate character, the
Hadrophyllum with the extremely short almost disc-like calyx and peculiar
grouping of the septa in the four quadrants retained and intensified in the
adult stage. At the end of the Devonic and beginning of the Carbonic the
rugose corals have become a very meagerly represented and unimportant
group of fossils. Only a very few genera and species yet remain, and, occur¬
ring as the last and terminal forms of such a long continued series, they
might be expected to be specialized forms.
One of the species in the Carbonic limestones and one similar and
closely related to the series under consideration in the present paper is
Lophophyllum proliferum.
Lophophyllum proliferum Edwards & Haime.
In their volume on British fossil corals, Edwards and Haime describe
the genus Lophophyllum thus :
Corallum resembling Zaphrentis, excepting by the great development of three
primary septa, one of which is placed facing the septal fossula; this fossula extend¬
ing much toward the center of the visceral chamber, and ceasing there to be dis¬
tinct from the bottom of the calyx.
There is considerable material of this species in the collections of Colum¬
bia University, and sections were made and the individual development
studied in the same manner as described in the preceding chapters. In
sectioning the earlier stages, however, the writer did not meet with as good
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
81
Figs. 1-4. Lophophyllum prolijerurn. X 8.
1 shows a comparatively early stage when the individual ■might easily be
mistaken for almost any one of the Streptelasma species previously described.
The septa are arranged in the same way and are at a stage comparable with
1 Johns Hopkins University Circular, Jan., 1902. Annals & Magazine of Natural History
May, 1902.
2 Studies on Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals. Am. Jour. Sci. Feb. 1906.
success as was anticipated, and in the following discussion of this species
his own sections are supplemented by a very good and complete series of
sections copied from a paper by Duerden.1 While the drawings are copied
from Duerden, the writer alone is responsible for the interpretation of these
drawings and in his interpretation differs widely from Duerden, but agrees
with Gordon.2
In figures 1 to 4 are given four stages in the life of one individual. Figure
82
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the adult of Streptelasma profundum, with figures 10 to 12 of Strereolasma
rectum, etc. The counter quadrants are accelerated over the cardinal quad¬
rants as was the case with all the species previously discussed, four pairs of
secondary septa having already appeared in the counter quadrants while
only two pairs have appeared in the cardinal quadrants. In figure 2, the
arrangement and development of the septa is still very similar to that found
in the Streptelasma forms. Another secondary septum has appeared in
one counter quadrant and another pair in the cardinal quadrants. No
special indication of this particular species has yet appeared. It will be
noted, however, that the septa do unite at the center to form a sort of pseudo¬
columella, but this character is not as yet any more marked than in Stereo-
lasma rectum. In the section shown in figure 3, the form is distinctly marked
as a Lophophyllum by the columella-like thickening at the inner end of the
counter septum. An additional pair of secondary septa have appeared in
both counter and cardinal quadrants, and the cardinal septum is becoming
reduced in size. In figure 4, a section cut from the base of the open cup,
we have a condition very similar to the adult condition found in Heterophrentis
prolifica, except for the columella-like thickening at the end of the counter
septum. The cardinal septum is very short. The other three primary
septa are more prominently developed than any of the secondary septa.
Figures 5 to 11 represent the series of developmental stages of this
same species, copied from Duerden. Figure 5 is from the tip of a coral
individual and shows the earliest stage which wTas obtained. The four
primary septa are present, and one pair of secondary septa have already
appeared in the counter quadrants. Figure 6 is a section from a second
individual at a higher level showing a later stage. In this another secondary
septum has appeared in one counter quadrant, and one has appeared in the
cardinal quadrant of the same side. Figure 7 is a section from a third indi¬
vidual at a still higher level. Two secondary septa have appeared in one
counter quadrant, three in the other and one in each cardinal quadrant.
Figures 8, 9 and 10 are sections from the same individual as figure 7, show¬
ing the later stages and the rate and manner of the addition of the secondary
septa. Figure 10 illustrates a stage intermediate between that shown in
figure 3 and that in figure 4. Figure 11 is from the upper region of a fourth
individual and illustrates the final adult condition.
We thus see that the genus Lophophyllum in its individual development
first passes through stages corresponding to the life history of the Strepte-
lasma-Stereolasma line, then through a stage equivalent to the Heterophrentis
stage characterized by a waning cardinal septum and very prominent fossula,
and in its adult condition adds a new and specialized character, the col¬
umella-like thickening at the inner end of the counter septum. This genus
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
83
probably gi\es rise to Cy uthaxon i a , with a still more prominent pseudo-
columella.
ct -ci
Figs. 5-11. Lophophyllum proliferum. (After Duerden.)
84
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Hapsiphyllum calcareforme Hall.
1882 Zaphrentis calcareformis Hall, 12th Report of the State Geol. of Indiana,
p. 293, pi. 21, figs. 10, 11.
1884 Zaphrentis calcareformis Hall, 35th Report New York State Museum, p. 437.
1900 Hapsiphyllum calcareforme Simpson, Bull. 39 New York State Museum,
p. 203.
Corallum simple, narrowly turbinate,
regularly curved; diameter of calices of
individuals of the same height varying from
10 to 15 mm.; exterior with frequent undu¬
lations and low rounded annulations ; height
25 mm.; fossette narrow, very deep, com¬
mencing at the center and continuing to
the posterior margin; the lamellae extending
to its margin coalescing and forming vertical
walls; number of lamellae 50, alternating in
size; at a distance of 2 mm. from the mar¬
gin the smaller lamellae coalesce with the
others. This species is easily distinguished
by the deep, narrow fossette situated on the anterior side and the regular coalescing
of the lamellae at a short distance from its margin.
Figs. 12-14.
forme. X 4.
Hapsiphyllum calcar e-
Hapsiphyllum is a genus proposed
by Simpson {loc. cit.) for certain rugose
corals, the majority of which occur in
the Lower Carbonic or Mississippic
deposits. The genus is described thus:
Corallum small, simple, conical or horn¬
shaped; calyx circular, comparatively deep,
with thin margins ; biareal. The outer area
is bounded by the external epitheca; the
inner area by a sub-vertical wall of horse¬
shoe shape, open on the side of the septal
fovea. Two of the larger septa connect with
this wall in such a manner as to be appar¬
ently a continuation of it, and form a very
distinct pyriform septal fovea; septa alter¬
nating in size, the smaller ones continuing
for a short distance into the cavity of the
corallum, there coalescing with the larger
ones, which continue to the inner wall, with
which they coalesce, and in which they
terminate. Tabu he and dissepiments are
present.
Hall (loc. cit.) describes the species
thus :
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
85
Although reported by Hall from the Onondaga (.Corniferous) at the Falls
of the Ohio, the individuals of this species studied were from the St. Louis
Group at Button Mould Knob, Ky. In its younger stages, this species
passes through a development similar to the Streptelasma line, then through
the Heterophrentis stage and becomes specialized by changing the fossula of
the Heterophrentis stage into an inner wall. The inner wall condition is
much more clearly shown in the sectional Hews of El. varsoviense given later.
The accompanying figures show the typical stages in the life of this form
after it has attained the Hapsiphyllum characters. ' Figure 12 is of a small
and rather young individual showing a condition hardly distinguishable
from an Enterolasma or Stereolasma. Figures 13 and 14 show later stages
with the Hapsiphyllum characters more pronounced, but in none of these
are these characters as prominent as in the species to be described later.
Attention is here called to the similarity between the development of the
inner wall in this species and the development of the inner wall of Craspedo-
pliyllum subccespitosum, a compound branching form from the Devonic
described by G. E. Anderson.1
Hapsiphyllum spinulosum Edwards & Haime.
1851 Zaphrentis spinulosa Edwards & Haime, Pol. Foss, des Terr. Pal., p. 334.
1890 Zaphrentis spinulosa Worthen, Geol. Sur. Ill. vol. VIII, p. 73, pi. X, figs.
6, 6a.
In the latter reference, this species is described thus:
Coral turbinate, moderately elongated, a little curved and slightly distorted,
with a few irregular external ridges; epitheca thin and on the lower portions orna¬
mented with little sub-spiniform points; cup circular, moderately profound; fossette
moderately developed, situated near the wall but in a variable position from conform¬
ing to the curvature; lamellae about 30, very feebly curved near the septal fossette,
with an equal number of rudimentary lamellae.
Figures 15 and 16 are two typical sectional views of this species and
show a slight advance over the preceding species. The inner wall is a trifle
more prominently developed, and the tertiary septa are longer, more promi¬
nent and wider separated from the primary and secondary septa.
Hapsiphyllum varsoviense Worthen.
1890 Zaphrentis varsoviensis Worthen, Geol. Sur. Ill., vol. VIII, p. 78, pi. 10,
figs. 9, 9a.
1 “ Studies in the Development of Certain Palaeozoic Corals,” Journal of Geology, vol.
XV, No. 1, 1907.
86
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Worthen ( loc . cit.) describes the species thus :
Corallum small, turbinate, pointed below, and slightly curved; epitheca thin,
external striae distinct; height of corallum one inch; breadth of cup f inch; depth
of same \ inch.
Septal fossette nearly central, and extended on the side of the greatest curva¬
ture; primary lamellae comparatively strong, and numbering about 26, all reaching
the thickened border of this septal fossette.
Quite common in the Keokuk limestone at Warsaw, Hamilton, Nauvoo and
Keokuk.
The specimens studied and figured in this paper were from Lanesville,
Ind.
This species, in so far as the characteristic inner wall is concerned, shows
Figs. 15-16. Hapsiphyllum spinulosum. X 4.
Figs. 17-19. Hapsiphyllum varsoviense. X 4.
an advance over Hapsiphyllum calcareforme and II . spinulosum The
three sectional views figured are from three different stages of three individ¬
uals and show the manner of individual development and change from the
Hapsiphyllum calcareforme condition, which is almost identical with figure
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
87
17, to the typical Hapsipkyllum varsoviense adult condition which is shown
in figure 19. This shows the completed inner wall, complete except for
the gap at the cardinal septum. A slight change has also taken place in the
condition of the tertiary septa. Instead of being short and close to the side
of the primary and secondary septa they are now nearly or quite half as long
as the secondary septa and are widely separated from them except at their
inner margins. This condition is very clearly shown in figure 19.
V. Observations on Development.
From the foregoing studies of the Streptelasma group of the rugose corals
it is seen that this group is first known from the true Streptelasma forms
found in the middle Ordovicic. By gradual changes as we pass into the
higher and geologically later horizons these very early forms give way to more
complex and more specialized forms. The changes and specialization are
not confined and directed along any one particular course, but form rather
a gradually branching series, the various branches being more or less parallel
to one another but at the same time quite distinct. Each one of these par¬
ticular branches or lines of development reaches a certain climax and then
rapidly declines and disappears. At the close of the Devonic period only
a few are left and at the end of the Carbonic all are gone, in North Amer¬
ica at least.
The earliest representatives of the rugose corals yet recognized, namely
the Streptelasmas of the middle Ordovicic, are by no means primitive
although they are without a doubt ancestral to a large majority of the suc¬
ceeding genera and species. Streptelasma profundum is a well developed
coral, although it is the earliest one recorded. The questions which now con¬
fronts us are: What was the ancestor of Streptelasma profundum ? and What
was it like? This ancestral form has not yet been found, and until it is
found we shall have to be content with deducing from all the known facts the
probable characters of this ancestral form. In such deductions two differ¬
ent lines of investigation must be followed out; first a study of the early em¬
bryonic development of similar forms living at the present time; second a
study of the early stages of development of all the available later forms.
Since there are no living representatives of the rugose corals, and since the
mode of development of the hexaeorals is so widely different from that of
the rugose corals, we have to pass the first named line of investigation after
drawing only a few of the most general inferences.
Duerden has carried on extensive studies on the embryology of certain
recent corals but in each case finds that the embryo is well started before the
88
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
early skeleton is deposited. H. M. Bernard has made a special study of the
prototheca of the Madreporaria,1 and describes the results of his studies as
follows :
The most important stage to establish in an evolutionary history is the first,
or that which we may consider as the first, inasmuch as from it all the modifications
we wish to compare can be deduced. The first stage in the evolution of the coral
skeleton was first dimly recognized by me in the minute saucer-shaped cups of
young Madreporidan colonies — so young as to consist only of a parent calicle and
one or two daughters. In none of the Madreporids have I yet found the earliest
stage in which the cup containing the parent alone was cup shaped. Such a stage,
however, may be legitimately assumed.
But he prefaced the above remarks with the following statement, which
shows that he clearly recognized that the early stages of modem corals were
of trifling value in giving us a clear idea of the primitive characters of Pale¬
ozoic forms.
Furthermore, let me add in passing that I do not believe that the study of the
individual development of a few living forms can by itself establish anything cer¬
tain about the past, history of the group, for the simple reason that we cannot tell
whether any special developmental feature is a repetition of some ancient condi¬
tion or a recent adaptation. As I have already often maintained, lines of phylo¬
genetic growth can only be satisfactorily established by the discovery of connected
series of variations, morphologically and chronologically arranged. The skeleton
alone can supply us with such series, and that of the corals probably with a more
complete series of forms, extending from the Paleozoic era to the 'present day, than
will ever be obtained of any other group. Whether, therefore, the skeleton be of
great or of little importance in itself in the morphology of the corals, it alone sup¬
plies us with what we want — a continuous series of homologous structures.
Since the skeletons themselves must be depended upon to give us the
primitive characters of the earliest forms, we must turn to them and see
what they indicate as the primitive ancestral coral. For this ancestral form
the name Protostreptelasma is proposed.
Protostreptelasma is, therefore, an ancestral genus not yet discovered
from the upper Cambric and lower Ordovicic deposits. It has already
been shown that Streptelasma profunclum is the earliest rugose coral yet
known in North America and that in the very youngest stages of this form
no septa are present. This is a constant character found in the youngest
stages of all the specimens studied and so must be a primitive character.
Some of the very small specimens were found without any septa at any stage
and were sometimes straight and sometimes curved. Therefore we can
i“On the Prototheea of the Madreporaria,” Annals and Magazine of Natural History,
Jan., 1904, p. 1.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
89
say that Proto streptelasma, the ancestral genus, is a rugose coral having a
hollow conical or horn-shaped calyx, straight or slightly curved, without
septa or having only a few rudimentary ridges near the upper margin indica¬
tive of septa.
Several hollow, conical, tube-like fossils have been found in the upper
Cambric deposits which have been referred to as gastropods or pteropods
because of their general resemblance to certain modern representatives of
these groups. It is possible that certain of these may really be the fossil
remains of the primitive ancestral coral which has been assumed and named
P rotostreptelasma .
Having assumed what may legitimately be considered the ancestral
form, it is now possible to trace out the phylogeny of the Streptelasma group
of rugose corals, basing the interpretation of the various steps in the develop¬
ment on the ontogenetic development of representative individuals from the
various genera and species. The assumed ancestral genus Protostreptelasma
during the early Ordovicic gave rise to the earliest known representative of
this group, Streptelasma profundum. In this species the primitive non-
septate condition is crowded into the very youngest stage of the ontogenetic
development, while in the later stages the well-developed tetramerally
arranged septa are the most prominent character. Four primary septa first
appear, and these are followed by secondary septa added in pairs in the
counter and cardinal quadrants. In the adult only a few of the septa reach
to the center. The others extend down the interior of the cup and are
attached each by its inner margin to the secondary septum next preceding
it in the order of appearance. In this way nearly all the secondary septa
are united in a pinnate manner and leave a well-defined open space along
either side of the cardinal septum and a space on the dorsal side of each
alar septum. The tertiary septa appear in the interseptal spaces in the
same order as the secondary septa. They remain short and free throughout
their whole extent and never appear to be attached to the adjacent secondary
septa.
Passing now to Streptelasma corniculum and S. rusticum, the most abun¬
dant representatives of the Streptelasma group in the upper Ordovicic
limestones, we find an advance in development beyond the S. profundum
condition along one particular line. As an adult form, S. corniculum is much
larger than the species just considered; it has more numerous septa; they
are more nearly radially placed and the counter quadrants are accelerated
over the cardinal quadrants. At the first glance it seems to have lost the
four-fold structure so characteristic of the earlier species. But when the
ontogeny or individual development is studied, it is seen that each individual
first passes through a stage corresponding to the adult condition of S. pro-
90
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
fundum and then acquires the characters which are distinctive for this
species. It is further to be noted that the fully developed septa never unite
at the center to form a pseudocolumella. Only the incompletely developed
septa are attached by their inner margins to the next preceding septa.
Streptelasma rusticum passes through the same development as S. corni-
culum but is distinguished from it in the adult stage by its long cylindrical
manner of growth; the latter is cone-shaped throughout its life while the
former is cone-shaped during its early life but becomes cylindrical in its
adult condition.
It is appropriate at this point of the discussion to make note of a paper by
F. W. Sardeson published a few years ago, entitled “On Streptelasma profun-
dum (Owen) and S. corniculum, Hall.1” In this paper, Sardeson advocates
including under one species, Streptelasma profundum, twelve or more species
of this genus and three or more species of the genus Zaphrentis described
from the various Ordovicic limestones of the United States and Canada. He
notes the great difference in size of the geologically early and later forms
and the difference in rate of expansion or angle of the apex in the different
species and also that certain forms such as S. corniculum are always conical
or horn-shaped, while others like S. rusticum become cylindrical, yet he
believes that these should all be considered simply as individual differences
due to the length of the life of the particular individual. He contends that
they should all be grouped as one species, because individuals indicating
gradations from one condition to another can be found. In arguing from
this that they should all be one species he ignores the fundamental concep¬
tions of all animal evolution, namely: that if all the individuals of any genetic
series were preserved, there would be no sharp line of distinction or demarca¬
tion between one species and another but that an unbroken series of inter¬
mediate forms would be found which would show all stages of the change
from the one species to the other. To the mind of the writer the amount of
change in passing from Streptelasma profundum to S. corniculum and from
this to S. rusticum is sufficient to constitute a valid specific distinction. The
numerous other species of Streptelasma from the Ordovicic have not been
studied, but probably most of them are valid species also.
The Streptelasma profundum-corniculum-rusticum line of development
in so far as the Streptelasma stem is concerned seems to close with the Ordo¬
vicic. Perhaps this line of development in the Devonic gives rise to the
Cyathophyllum stem. The present investigation has not been carried far
enough either to prove or to disprove this supposition.
During the Siluric period the Streptelasma line of development advances
1 American Geologist, Vol. XX, Nov., 1897.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
91
another step to the genus Enterolasma and seems to be represented by the
single species Enterolasma caliculum, occurring in the limestones and shales
from the Clinton to the Cobleskill. In its younger stages Enterolasma cali¬
culum passes through the same development as S. profundum and S. corni-
culum. It does not appear to be a derivative of S. corniculum, however,
but seems to have been derived from another line by parallel development,
because this form never attains the large size or very numerous and thick
septa of S. corniculum. Yet the septa do become more or less radially
arranged, and the acceleration of the counter quadrants over the cardinal
is carried even farther than in S. corniculum. It is even seen in this
species that the acceleration of the counter quadrants over the cardinal
quadrants progressively increases during the life of the individual and be¬
comes strongly marked during the later stages.
While the fully developed septa of S. corniculum project freely to the
center and do not unite to form a pseudocolumella, the septa of this species
do unite at the center to form a somewhat incomplete or irregular pseudo¬
columella, which is the characteristic of the next step in advance along the
line of morphological development. Throughout the Siluric, although
individuals are very numerous, there is no increase or marked variation of
the species. The ancestral stages of development are crowded far forward
into the early part of the individual development, and the later stages
are chiefly characterized by the peculiar, incompletely developed pseudo¬
columella.
It is probable that [ Zaphrentis ] racinensis from the Niagara beds of Wis¬
consin represents one of the first lateral branches from the main Streptelasma
stem, but material of this species is not available for ontogenetic study.
In the lower Devonic beds, as represented by the limestones of the
Lower Helderberg series, Enterolasma is still the dominant genus and is
here represented by the species E. strictum. In this species, although the
pseudocolumella is far from being solid, it is yet much more substantial
than in the Siluric species. Another characteristic which marks a change
between the Siluric forms and this is the manner of attachment of the inner
margins of the tertiary septa to the adjacent secondary septa. In all the
earlier forms, the tertiary septa are free throughout their length. In this and
the majority of the later forms, they are attached by their inner margins to
the adjacent primary or secondary septum immediately dorsal to them.
During about one half or even more than one half of the geological time
through which the Streptelasma group of rugose corals is distributed, its
range of variation is very limited, and its changes are along conservative
lines. With the close of the lower Devonic, however, this limited variation
and conservative development is suddenly ended, and the Streptelasma
92
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
stem gives rise to numerous widely diverging lines which rapidly develop
and specialize along some particular line, some progressive and some retro¬
gressive, and then terminate and disappear. The development of this group
of corals can best be compared to the flight of a sky rocket. It starts from
the ground with a sputtering, throwing out a few sparks, then shoots upward
through the air with a straight or slightly wavering course and with perhaps
an occasional flicker until a certain height is reached, when suddenly it
bursts and throws out sparks in all directions, some up, some down and
some horizontally.
At the end of the lower Devonic comes the bursting stage in the Strep-
telasma line. This single genetic series now seems to give rise to diversified
groups which branch out in all directions, some lines advancing in a pro¬
gressive way but in different directions, while others seem to retrogress and
return to a condition somewhat similar to ancestral stages but distinctly
marked as degenerate series.
During the lower Devonic or Lower Helderberg period, the Streptelasma
line of development is represented by Enterolasma strictum. This is very
similar to the representatives of the same genus from the Siluric but is char¬
acterized by a somewhat more solid and substantial pseudocolumella and
by the union of the tertiary septa with the adjacent primary and secondary
septa at their inner margin.
With the middle Devonic, the rapid divergence of the various lines of
development begins. The line of development representing the appar¬
ently most direct continuation of the Streptelasma line is that represented by
Stereolasma rectum, occurring most abundantly in the Hamilton shales.
This species differs from Enterolasma strictum only in the fact that it has a
complete and solid pseudocolumella reinforced by a deposit of stereoplasm
between the septa and near the pseudocolumella.
Closely related to these Streptelasma forms and either derived directly
from them or coming from [ Zaphrentis ] racinensis of the upper Siluric (which
in turn is derived from the Streptelasma stem) are a group of Zaphrentids
found abundantly in the Onondaga limestone. Heterophrentis prolifica is
typical of this group. It represents a line in which the emphasis of develop¬
ment falls upon the cardinal fossula rather than upon the pseudocolumella
as is the case with Stereolasma rectum. Other closely related and congenetic
species are II. multilamellosa, H. wortheni and II. edwardsi, all from the
Onondaga beds.
Arising from the Streptelasma stem at about the same time and closely
paralleling in its early development Stereolasma rectum, the species Helio-
phyllum halli represents another divergent line of development. During
its early development this species cannot be distinguished from S. rectum,
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
93
but in its adult condition it is characterized by a new and distinctive feature,
namely: the presence of carinse or lateral ridges on the sides of the septa.
This line of development apparently becomes extinct after it gives rise to
the compound form Heliophyllum confluens. Other species described as
Heliophyllums, such as II. tenuiseptatum, apparently do not belong to this
genetic series. An attempt was made to connect the latter species with this
series, but it could not be done. In sections made from the very early stages
of this species, no septa could be found. In the earliest stage in which septa
were found they were all rather short and only extended a short distance
from the wall into the calyx.
Another line of development in this same period, and one characterized
by a reversion to ancestral features coupled with a very specialized manner
of growth, is represented by the genera Microcyclus and Hadrophyllum.
The particular species studied was Hadrophyllum orhignyi, which in its
development illustrated very well the early Streptelasma mode of arrange¬
ment and development of the septa followed by a very specialized short
cushion-shaped growth of the calyx as a whole and the primitive pinnate
arrangement of the septa within the calyx.
Possibly there may have been other lines of development which branched
off from the same ancestral stem during the Devonic, but the ones described
above are the only ones which have been considered in this study.
In the Devonic period the acme of development both of the rugose corals
in general and of the Streptelasma group in particular is reached and passed.
With the beginning of the Carbonic only a few terminal members of the
various series are left and at the close of the Carbonic the whole group
is extinct.
Among the Mississippic and Carbonic forms closely related to and appar¬
ently directly derived from the Devonic forms discussed above are the
two genera Lophophyllum and Hapsiphyllum. The genus Lophophyllum
is apparently directly derived from Stereolasma, and the prominent pseudo-
columella of the latter is even more emphasized in the former and is carried
up in the calyx of the individual corallites above the point where the fully
developed septa unite, and, attached only to the inner edge of the counter
septum, it projects up into the open cup. Hapsiphyllum, on the other hand,
is apparently derived from the Heterophrentis line. The cardinal fossula,
which in Heterophrentis is a prominent character, is in this species so
accentuated that it forms a true inner wall. A study of the development
of H. calcareforme illustrates the change from the Heterophrentis stage to
the primitive true inner wall stage, and the development of H. varsoviense
carries the change still further and gives the very prominent inner wall
condition.
94
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
These Mississippic and Carbonic genera are two of the most persistent
terminal members of the Streptelasma series, but with the Carbonic these
forms, too, disappear. This Streptelasma series passes through the stages
characteristic of all evolutionary series. First starting from very simple
primitive forms it passes through a long slow period of development during
which new characters are added little by little. At last the acme of develop¬
ment is reached. The stem branches off into divergent and highly specialized
lines. As soon as this high specialization and divergent development begins,
the group as a whole seems to lose vitality, and it rapidly declines and
disappears. A few of the terminal members seem either to have more vital¬
ity or to be better adapted to the surrounding conditions than the others
and they last a little longer, but even these at length are unable longer to
resist and finally disappear.
The diagram on the following page shows the probable relationship of
the various genera and species discussed in this paper.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
95
5
CyatAaxopia
Lophophyllum pro lifer um . / Papsiphyllum varsoviense
K Hapsiph yu um spinulosun /
Hapstphyllum calcareforme
*
tfetiophyUum confluens
/teltopAuUum Aallic. \
r 7 \ Stereolasma
rectum Atetenphrcnt is wortAeni
/ia dtcphyllum orbiynyi
liicroc veins disc u s
jHeiemp/irentis td ward si
Heteroph rent is prolifica
Enterolasma. strict um
I
Heliophrentis
[ZapArentrsJ racinensis
Enter? I asm a. caliculum
%
!
Streptelasma breve
Streptelasma erpavsu ;
Streptel asma rust/ cam
Streptelasma corniculum
Streptelasma profandum
- 1 -
I
§
Protostreptelasma
96
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Anderson, G. E., Studies in the Development of Certain Paleozoic Corals, Journal
of Geology, Vol. XV, 1907.
Billings, E., Geology of Canada (Palaeozoic Fossils.)
- Canadian Journal, (new series), Yol. IV, 1859.
- Canadian Naturalist, (new series), Vol. VII, 1874.
Bernard, H. M., On the Prototheca of the Madreporaria, Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, Jan., 1904.
Brown, T. C., Developmental Stages in Streptelasma rectum, Hall, American Jour¬
nal of Science, Vol. XXIII, Apr., 1907.
Carruthers, R. G., The Primary Septal Plan of the Rugosa, Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, Nov., 1906.
Duerden, J. E., The Morphology of the Madreporaria, Johns Hopkins University
Circular, Jan., 1902.
- — — The Morphology of the Madreporaria, Annals and Magazine of Natural His¬
tory, May, 1902.
- The Morphology of the Madreporaria, VI, The Fossula in Rugose Corals,
Biological Bulletin, Vol. IX, No. 1, 1905.
- The Morphology of the Madrepororia, The Primary Septa of the Rugosa,
Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Sept., 1906.
Edwards and Haime, See Milne-Edwards et Haime.
Girty, G. H., 14th. Annual Report of the New York State Geologist, 1894.
Gordon, C. E., Studies on Early Stages in Paleozoic Corals, American Journal
of Science, Feb., 1906.
Grabau, Shimer and — See Shimer.
Grabau, A. W., North American Index Fossils, 1907.
Hall, James, Geological Report of the 4th District of New York, 1843.
- Palaeontology of New York, Vol. I, 1847, Vol. II, 1852; Vol. IV, 1887.
- Illustrations of Devonian Fossils, 1876.
— — 32nd and 35th Reports of the New York State Museum.
- 11th and 12th Reports of the State Geologist of Indiana.
- Report of the New York State Geologist for 1882, 1883.
Hyatt, Alpheus, Genesis of the Arietidse, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl¬
edge, 1889.
Jakowlew, N., Ueber die Morphologie und Morphogenie der Rugosa, Verhand-
lungen der Russisch-Kaiserlichen Mineralogischen Geselschaft, Bd. XLI, Lief.
2, 1904.
Ivunth, A., Beitrage zur Kenntniss fossiler Korallen, Zeitschrift der deutschen
geologischen Gesellschaft, Bd. XXI, 1869 und Bd. XXII, 1870.
Ludwig, R., Actinozoen und Bryozoen aus dem Carbonkalkstein im Government
Perm, Palseontographica, vol. X, 1861-63.
- Korallen aus Palseolithischen Formationen, Palseontographica, vol. XIV,
1865-1866.
Milne-Edwards, H., et Haime, J., Monographic des Polypiers fossiles des terrains
paleozoiques, Arch, du Museum, Paris, Vol. V, 1851.
- Monograph of the British Fossil Corals, Palaeontographical Society, 1849-1864.
BROWN, RUGOSE CORALS
97
Nicholson, H. A., Paleontology of Ohio, Vol. II, 1875.
- Report on the Palaeontology of the Province of Ontario.
Owen, D. D., Geological Explorations of Iowa, Wisconsin and Illinois, 1844.
Pourtales, L. F de, Deep Sea Corals, Illustrated Catalogue of the Museum of
Comparative Zoology of Harvard College, Vol. IV, 1871.
Rominger, Carl, Paleontology of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, Vol. Ill, 1876.
Sardeson, F. W., On Streptelasma profundum (Owen) S. corniculum Hall, American
Geologist, Vol. XX, 1897.
Shimer, H. W., and Grabau, A. W., Hamilton Group of Thedford, Ontario, Bul¬
letin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. VIII, 1902.
Sijipson, G. B., Preliminary Descriptions of New Genera of Paleozoic Rugose
Corals, Bulletin of the New York State Museum, Vol. VIII, No. 39, 1900.
Schuchert, Winchell and — See Winchell.
Whitfield, R. P., Geology of Wisconsin, Vol. IV, 1882.
Worthen, Amos H., Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIII, 1890.
Winchell, A. and Schuchert, Charles, Minnesota Geological and Natural His¬
tory Survey, Final Report, Vol. Ill, Part I, 1891.
Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate IV.
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Scale, 1 inch = 37.5 miles.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 4, Part I, pp. 99-119. 31 July, 1909.]
THE FOSSIL VERTEBRATES OF BELGIUM.1
By Louis Dollo.
Professor in the University of Brussels; Curator of the Department of
Living and Fossil Vertebrates of the Royal Belgian Museum of Natural
History. Corresponding Member New York Academy of Sciences.
Part I. Mesozoic.
A. The most ancient Vertebrates of Belgium.
In the present state of our knowledge (1908) we think that
1. Fishes first appear in the Gedinnien (lower Devonian) of Ardennes
(at Glaireuse in the commune of Villance, near Saint-Hubert, province of
Luxembourg) in the form of an Ostracoderm, Pteraspis dunensis Roemer,
1854. (L. Dollo, Comptes rend. Acad. Sci., Paris, 1903, cxxxvi, 699.)
2. Amphibia appear in the Wealden (lower Cretaceous) of Hainault
(at Bernissart a village situated between Mons and Tournai, on the frontier
of France) in the form of a Urodele, Hylceobatrachus croyi Dollo, 1884.
(Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1884-5, iii, 91.)
3. Reptiles appear in the lower Lias (lower Jurassic) of Luxembourg
(in the suburbs of Arlon, capital of that province) in the form of an Ichthyo-
saurian, Ichthyosaurus communis Conybeare, 1822. (Unpublished.)
4. Birds appear in the lower Landenien (lower Eocene) of Hainault
(at Mesvin near Mons) in the form of a gigantic wingless relative of the goose,
Gastornis edwardsi Lemoine, 1878. (L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat.
Belg. 1883.)
B. Strata in which Belgian fossil Vertebrata are found.
1. Fishes. Fossil fishes are found at 26 different geological levels, well
correlated stratigraphically. Their description is intrusted to Dr.
R. H. Traquair, Honorary Curator of the Edinburgh Museum (pa-
1 Translated by W. D. Matthew, Secretary, Section of Vertebrate Palteontology, Inter¬
national Correlation Committee, National Academy of Sciences.
99
100
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
lseozoic and Wealdian fishes), and Dr. M. Leriche, Maitre de Confer¬
ences of the University of Lille (upper Cretaceous and Tertiary
fishes). The complete list of them will be published later.
2. Amphibia. Fossil amphibia are at present known only from a single
level, the Wealden of Bernissart.
3. Reptilia. Fossil reptilia are found at nineteen distinct levels, well
correlated stratigraphicallv. I have personal charge of their study.
The principal levels will be considered later in detail.
4. Birds. Fossil birds are known from four distinct levels.
5. Mammals. Fossil mammals are found at twelve different geological
levels. The description of the cetaceans is intrusted to Prof. O. Abel,
University of Vienna.
C, Fossil Reptiles of the Jurassic of Belgium.
1. Ichthyosaurus communis Conybeare, 1822.
Lower Lias, suburbs of Arlon, in Belgian Luxembourg.
2. Ichthyosaurus platyodon Conybeare, 1822.
Middle Lias, Stoekem, near Arlon, in Belgian Luxembourg.
3. Plesiosaurus homalospondylus Owen, 1869.
Middle Lias, Dampicourt, near Virton, Belgian Luxembourg.
4. Steneosaurus bollensis Jaeger, 1828.
Upper Lias, Halanzy, near Messancy, Belgian Luxembourg.
N. B. I have not yet published anything upon these reptiles.
Their occurrence may be tabulated as follows:
Lias.
D. The Reptiles and Batrachians of the Wealden of Belgium.
Horizon. The Wealden is the fresh-water facies of the Neocomian, which
forms the base of the Cretaceous.
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Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate V.
CHRONOLOGIC TABLE OF THE MESOZOIC FORMATIONS OF BELGIUM.
Periods & Epochs
(■ world-wide )
Cretaceous
Stages or Formations
Belgian series
Origin and character
oj the terranes
Characteristic fossils obtained
in the terranes
Chief features of
Belgian Geography
Msestrichtian
Senonian
' Spiennes assise
Nouvelles “
Obourg “
Trivieres “
St. Vaast “
Turonian
Cenomanian
Albian
Wealdian
Jurassic
Upper ' ‘ *
Middle Bajocian
Lower Llassian
Triassic
Keuperian
PoscUlan
Marine ( granular limestone ; tuff)\
Marine ( Coarse-grained chalk)
Marine ( Pure chalk)
Marine ( Soft chalk)
Marine ( Marly chalk, sand, clay )
{Hainault, marine ( Marly chalk)
Limburg, fluvio-marine {Sand,
clay, glauconite)
Marine {marl, sand, glauconitic j
cliallc)
Marine {gravels, marls)
Marine {shale, grit)
Not represented
Fluviatile {Sand and plastic
clay)
Turtles and marine saurians, fishes,
invertebrates, plants
Turtles and marine saurians, fishes,
invertebrates, plants
Fishes, invertebrates
Fishes, invertebrates
Turtles and marine saurians, fishes,
marine and fresh-water invertebrates,
plants
>■ Fish and invertebrates
Iguanodons, crocodiles, turtles, fishes
and plants of Bernissart, plants of
Bracquegnies and Beaune
Partial marine inva¬
sion.
Alternating inva¬
sion and retreat of
marine waters, of
varying extent.
Marine invasions
of varying extent
in Western Bel¬
gium.
All Belgium conti¬
nental.
1 Belgium continen¬
tal and traversed
by an important
river.
Not represented
Marine ( Limestone ) j Invertebrates
Marine {Sandstone, shale, schist, 1 ^ Marine reptiles, fishes, invertebrates
marl, limestone) i J Marine reptiles, fishes, invertebrates
All Belgium conti¬
nental.
S.-E. extremity of
the country under
sea.
Marine {Clay, marl, limestone)
Marine ( Conglomerates , clay-
shales)
Invertebrates
Invertebrates
Marine invasion of
the N.-E. part of
the country.
A. Rutot..
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T’OTUJI .A
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
101
Locality. Bernissart, a village of Hainault, between Mons and Tournai,
on the frontier of France.
1. Iguanodon mantelli von Meyer, 1832.
Dinosaurian. Type of the genus Iguanodon Mantell, 1825. The
type of the species is a block from Maidstone (Kent), coming from the
Lower Greensand, or Aptian, hence more recent than the Neocomian
or Wealdian. It is preserved in the British Museum. This species
has been discovered in the Neocomian of Bedfordshire and in the
typical Wealden of England (Sussex, Isle of Wight).
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1882, i, 161.
2. Iguanodon bernissartensis Boulenger, 1881.
Dinosaurian. The type of the species is the individual denominated
“Q” of the series in the Brussels Museum, from the Wealden of Ber¬
nissart. This species has also been found in the Neocomian of Bedford¬
shire and in the typical Wealden of England (Sussex, Isle of Wight).
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1882, i, 16L
3. Goniopholis simus Owen, 1878.
Crocodilian. The type of the species is a cranium from the middle
Purbeck (Upper Jurassic) of Swanage in Dorsetshire, preserved in
the British Museum.
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1883, ii, 316.
4. Bernissartia fagesi Dollo, 1883.
Crocodilian. Type of the genus Bernissartia Dollo, 1883. The
type of the species is from the Wealden of Bernissart and is preserved
in the Brussels Museum. This is the first appearance of crocodiles
with the modern type of armor, that is to say, with more than two
longitudinal series of plates on the back.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1883, ii, 321.
5. Chitracephalus dumoni Dollo, 1884.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Chitracephalus Dollo, 1884. The
type of the species is from the Wealden of Bernissart and is preserved
in the Brussels Museum.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1884, iii, 70.
6. Peltochelys duchasteli Dollo, 1884.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Peltochelys Dollo, 1884. The type
of the species is from the Wealden of Bernissart and is preserved in
the Brussels Museum. It is represented in the Wealden of Sussex
by Tretosternum bakewelli Mantell, 1833; with which it may prove
to be identical.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1884, ii, 78.
102
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
7. Hylceobatrachus croyi Dollo, 1884.
Urodele. Type of the genus Hylceobatrachus Dollo, 1884. The
type of the species is from the Wealden of Bernissart and is preserved
in the Brussels Museum. It is the most ancient known Urodele.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1884, iii, 91.
8. Megalosaurus dunkeri Dames 1884.
Dinosaurian. The type of the species is a tooth from the Wealden
of Deister, Hanover, and is preserved at the University of Marburg.
L. Dollo, Comptes rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 1903, cxxxvi, 565.
E. Reptiles of the Lower Senonian of Belgium.
Hoi •izon. Dark green glauconitic clayey sand forming the base of the
Senonian.
Locality. Lonzee, a village of the province of Namur, near Gembloux.
1. Craspedodon lonzeensis Dollo, 1883.
Dinosaurian. Type of the genus Craspedodon Dollo, 1883. The
type of the species consists of two teeth from the glauconite of Lonzee,
preserved in the Brussels Museum. Craspedodon is more specialized
than Iguanodon.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1883, ii, 218.
2- Megalosaurus lonzeensis Dollo, 1903.
Dinosaurian. Referred provisionally to the genus Megalosaurus.
The type of the species is an ungual phalanx from the glauconite of
Lonzee, preserved in the Brussels Museum.
Comptes rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 1903, cxxxvi, 567.
3. Mosasaurus lonzeensis Dollo, 1904.
Mosasaurian. The type of the species consists of a quadrate bone
and caudal vertebrae from the glauconite of Lonzee, preserved in
the Brussels Museum.
Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1904, xviii, 213.
4. Hainosaurus lonzeensis Dollo, 1904.
Mosasaurian. The type of the species consists of a premaxilla and
caudal vertebrae from the glauconite of Lonzee, preserved in the
Brussels Museum.
Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1904, xviii, 213.
5. Glaucochelone lonzeensis Dollo, 1909.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Glaucochelone Dollo, 1909. The
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
103
type of the species is a mandible with long flat symphysis in adaptation
to shell-crushing habits; preserved in the Brussels Museum.
Unpublished.
6. Tomochelone lonzeensis Dollo, 1909.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Tomochelone Dollo, 1909. The
type of the species is a mandible with short symphysis and cutting
border in adaptation to soft food; preserved in the Brussels Museum.
Unpublished.
7. Plesiosaurian bones.
Limb bones and vertebrae, characteristic but not yet determinable even
generically.
L. Dollo, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1904, xviii, 215.
F. Reptiles of the Upper Senonian of Belgium.
Horizon. Brown phosphatic chalk forming the top of the Senonian.
Localities. Baudour, Ciply, Cuesmes, Mesvin, Saint-Symphorien, Spiennes
etc., communes of Hainault, in the neighborhood of Mons.
1. Mosasaurus lemonnieri Dollo, 1889.
Mosasaurian. The type of the species is a skull preserved in the
Brussels Museum.
Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1889, iii, 278.
2 Plioplatecarpus houzeaui Dollo, 1889.
Mosasaurian. The type of the species is an incomplete skeleton
preserved in the Brussels Museum.
Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1889, iii, 290.
3. Llainosaurus bernardi Dollo, 1885.
Mosasaurian. Type of the genus Llainosaurus Dollo, 1885. The
type of the species is a nearly complete skeleton preserved in the
Brussels Museum.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1885, iv, 31.
4. Prognathosaurus solvayi Dollo, 1889.
Mosasaurian. Type of the genus Prognathosaurus Dollo, 1889.
The type of the species is an incomplete skeleton preserved in the
Brussels Museum.
5. Prognathosaurus giganteus Dollo, 1904.
Mosasaurian. The type of the species is an incomplete skeleton
preserved in the Brussels Museum.
Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1904, xviii, 213
104
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
6. Allopleuron hoffmanni Gray, 1831.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Allopleuron Baur, 1888. The
type of the species is a carapace from the Maestrichtian, in the Camper
collection, preserved in the Teyler Museum, Harlem.
Unpublished.
7. Glyptochelone suyckerbuyki Ubaghs, 1879.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Glyptochelone Dollo, 1903. The
type of the species is a carapace from the Maestrichtian, preserved in
the Brussels Museum.
Unpublished.
8. Plesiosaurus houzeaui Dollo, 1909.
Plesiosaurian. Limb-bones and vertebrae of a Plesiosaurian of
gigantic size, preserved in the Brussels Museum.
Unpublished.
G. Reptiles of the Maestrichtian of Belgium.
Horizon. Maestricht chalk, which forms the uppermost part of our upper
Cretaceous. Sometimes regarded as equivalent to the Danian, but this
correlation calls for reconsideration.
Localities. Canne, Eben, Sichen, Sussen etc., villages of Belgian Limburg,
not far from Maestricht, which is in Dutch Limburg.
1. Orthomerus dolloi Seeley, 1883.
Dinosaurian. Type of the genus Orthomerus Seeley, 1883. The
type of the species consists of a femur and tibia, preserved in the
British Museum.
Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1883, xxxix, 248. Recalls the
genus Trachodon.
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1883, ii, 211.
2. Megalosaurus hredai Seeley, 1883.
Dinosaurian. The type of the species is a femur, preserved in the
British Museum.
H. G. Seeley, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 1883, xxxix, 246.
3. Mosasaurus giganteus Sommering, 1816.
Mosasaurian. Type of the genus Mosasaurus Conybeare, 1822.
The type of the species is the skull described by Cuvier and preserved
in the Paris Museum.
L. Dollo, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1890, iv, 151.
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
105
4. Plioplatecarpus marshi Dollo, 1882.
Mosasaurian. Type of the genus Plioplatecarpus Dollo, 1882.
The type of the species is an incomplete skeleton preserved in the
Brussels Museum.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1882, i, 64.
5. Allopleuron lioffmanni Gray, 1831.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Allopleuron Baur, 1888. The type
of the species is a carapace from the Maestrichtian in the Camper
collection, preserved in the Teyler Museum, Haarlem.
C. Ubaghs, Description geologique et paleontologique du sol du
Limbourg, Ruremonde, 1879, 272.
6. Glyptoclielone suyclcerbuyki Ubaghs, 1879.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Glyptoclielone Dollo, 1903. The
type of the species is a carapace from the Maestrichtian, preserved in
the Brussels Museum.
L. Dollo, Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 1903, 838.
7. Platychelone emarginata Dollo, 1909.
Chelonian. Type of the genus Platychelone Dollo, 1908. The
type of the species is a carapace, preserved in the Brussels Museum.
Unpublished.
Recapitulation of the Reptiles and Batrachians of the
Cretaceous of Belgium.
106
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
L. Dollo, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1904, xviii, 207; ibid. 1905, xix, 125.
The calcified tympanic membrane of Plio plate car pus is an adaptation
for resisting the temporary heavy pressure of the water at great depths.
A different arrangement, but serving the same purpose, is seen among the
Cetacea, which are able to dive to 1000 meters below the surface.
The median basioccipital canal of Plioplatecarpus is an adaptation to
protect the large arterial trunks supplying the cerebral circulation from the
temporary heavy pressure at great depths. A different arrangement, serving
the same purpose, is found among the Cetacea.
In Mosasaurus the caudal neurapophyses (spines) and htemapophyses
(chevrons) are long, the latter being coossified with the vertebrae (centra).
In Plioplatecarpus the caudal neurapophyses and hsemapophyses are short
and the latter are separate from the vertebree (centra).
Provisional Correlations.
1. Iguanodon (Lower Cretaceous) corresponds best with Claosaurus
(Upper Cretaceous).
2. Mosasaurus corresponds with Clidastes.
H dinosaur us “ “ Tylosaurus.
Prognathosaurus “ “ Platecarpus.
Plioplatecarpus “ “ ?
3. Orthomerus (Maestrichtian) corresponds best with Trachodon (Laramie),
but Champsosaurus has already appeared in the Laramie in North
America, while in Belgium it does not appear until the Lower Eocene.
4. The upper Senonian witnessed the culmination of the Mosasaurs in
Belgium, since there were at that time four contemporaneous genera
while in the Lower Senonian there were but two, and the same number
in the Maestrichtian.
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
107
5. The genus Mosasaurus has the longest geological range, from the lower
Senonian to the upper Maestriehtian; Plioplatecarpus survives from
upper Senonian to lower Maestriehtian; Hainosaurus from lower
to upper Senonian, and Prognathosaurus is limited to the upper
Senonian.
6. In the Maestriehtian two genera of Mosasaurs survive, but the Ichthyo¬
saurs and even the Plesiosaurs are wholly extinct. On the other hand
there were still, on dry land, herbivorous and carnivorous Dinosaurs.
Bibliography of the Belgian Mosasaurs.
1. From 1882-1904 see:
L. Dollo, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1904, xviii, 216.
2. In 1904: Ibid., pp. 207, 217.
3. In 1905: Ibid., xix, 125.
Part II. Tertiary.
A. Paleocene — Montian.
Mammals . . . . . X
Birds . O
Reptiles . X
Amphibians . Q
Fishes . X
. Neighborhood of Binche (Hainault).
. Neighborhood of Mons (Hainault).
Upper Montian.
1. Coryphodon eoceenus Owen, 1846. Trieu-de-Leval (near Binche).
2. Trionyx levalensis Dollo, 1909. Trieurde-Leval (near Binche).
Unpublished.
Lower Montian.
1. Fishes. Six species from Ciply (near Mons) and from Mons.
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy Hist. nat. Belg., 1902, II, No. 1.
B. Lower Eocene — Heersian.
Montian
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
? Upper
T ,owpr
1 . Mammals
2. Birds .
3. Reptiles
o
o
x
108
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Heersian
4. Amphibians . ... Q
5. Fish . X
2. Marls of Gelinden (Limburg).
1. Sands of Orp-le-Grand (Brabant).
Sands of Orp-le-Grand.
1. Champsosaurus lemoinei G eryais, 1877. Orp-le-Grand (near Jodoigne).
L. Dollo, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1890, iv, 55.
2. Fishes. Twenty-three species from Orp-le-Grand (near Jodoigne).
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1902, ii, No. 1.
Marls of Gelinden.
1. Fishes. Five species. (M. Leriche loc. cit.)
C. Lower Eocene — Lower Landenian.
1. Gastomis edwardsi Lemoine, 1878. Mesvin, near Mons (Hainault).
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1883, ii, 297.
2. Champsosaurus lemoinei Gervais, 1877. Erquelinnes (Hainault), near
Maubeuge, France.
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1884, iii, 151.
3. Eosuclius lerichei Dollo, 1907. Jeumont (Nord, France), on the
Belgian frontier, in the immediate extension of the Erquelinnes beds.
Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1907, xxi, 81.
4. Lyioloma gosseleti Dollo, 1886. Erquelinnes (Hainault), near Mau¬
beuge.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1886, iv, 129.
5. Argilloclielys antiqua Konig, 1825 .... Erquelinnes (Hainault).
L. Dollo, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1907, xxi, 81.
6. Fishes. Twenty-nine species from Erquelinnes and elsewhere in Bel¬
gium.
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1902, ii, No. 1.
Axnals
Tertiary | Quaternary
An'nals N.Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate VI.
CHRONOLOGIC TABLE OF THE CENOZOIC FORMATIONS OF BELGIUM.
Periods and Epochs
(world-wide)
Chief Features of
Belgian Geography.
Miocene
Ollgocene
Eocene
Upper
Middle
Lower
f Upper
Middle
Lower
Paleocene
Repeated marine invasions in
the North of Belgium.
The North of Belgium under the
sea.
Great marine invasion in the
East of Belgium.
Marine invasion in the North
of Belgium.
Marine invasion in the North
of Belgium.
Marine invasions in the North¬
west of Belgium.
Marine invasions in the West
of Belgium.
A deep gulf in the central part of
Belgium.
The North-west of Belgium
under the sea.
The West of Belgium under the
sea.
Lower and Middle Belgium in¬
vaded by the sea.
Enormous fluviatile develop¬
ment in Belgium.
Great marine invasion.
North-eastern Belgium under
the sea.
Belgium continental.
Slight invasion of the sea in
Hainault.
A. Rutot.
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DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
L09
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
9.
10.
11.
1.
2.
D. Lower Eocene — Upper Landenian.
1. Mammals . X
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . X
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
Erquelinnes.
(Hainault, Belgium), near Maubeuge, (Nord, France)
Coryphodon eocoenus Owen, 1846. Erquelinnes.
Identification by Dollo. Unpublished.
Pachynolophus maldani Lemoine, 1878. Erquelinnes.
A. Rutot, Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 1881, i, 536.
Hycenodictis ( = Dissacus auct. Thevenin) sp. Erquelinnes.
Identification by Osborn. Unpublished.
Didymictis sp. indet. Erquelinnes.
Identification by Thevenin. Unpublished.
Crocodilus depressifrons Blainville, 1855. Erquelinnes.
L. Dollo, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1907, xxi, 81.
Trionyx vittatus Pomel, 1847. Erquelinnes.
Ibid.
Trionyx henrici Owen, 1849. Erquelinnes.
Ibid.
Trionyx erquelinnensis Dollo, 1909. Grand-Reng near Erquelinnes.
Unpublished.
Amia barroisi Leriche, 1900. Erquelinnes.
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1902, ii, No. 1.
Amia sp. indet. Erquelinnes.
Ibid.
Lepidosteus suessoniensis Gervais, 1852. Erquelinnes.
Ibid.
Orsmael.
North of Landen in Hesbaye (Belgium).
Phenacodus sp. indet. Orsmael.
Identification by Thevenin.
Stypolophus sp. indet. Orsmael.
Identification by Thevenin.
110
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
3. Plesiadapis sp. indet. Orsmael.
Identification by Thevenin.
4. Decticadapis sp. indet. Orsmael.
Identification by Thevenin.
5. Creodont sp. indet. Orsmael.
Identification by Thevenin.
6. Amia barroisi Leriche, 1900. Orsmael.
Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1902, ii, No. 1.
7. Lepidosteus suessoniensis Gervais, 1852. Orsmael.
M. Leriche, loc. cit.
E. Lower Eocene. Ypresian.
1. Mammals . Q
2. Birds . O
3. Reptiles . X
4. Amphibia . O
5. Fishes . X
1. Eosphargis gigas Owen, 1860. Quenast (Brabant).
Skeleton, nearly complete, of a gigantic marine thecophore
chelonian.
The typical carapace is very much reduced, a true ancestral stage
of Dermochelys ( Sphargis ) and its allies. First discovered in the
London Clay (equivalent of the Ypresian) of the Isle of Sheppey,
at the mouth of the Thames.
L. Dollo, fifth Soc. belg. Geol., 1907, xxi, 81.
2. Fishes. Thirty-sev^ji species of cartilaginous and bony fishes.
M. Leriche, Mfen. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1905, iii, No. 3.
F. Lower Eocene. Paniselian.
1. Chelonians. Fragments not yet identified.
2. Fishes. Twenty-four species of cartilaginous and bony fishes.
M. Leriche, loc. cit.
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES.
Ill
G. Middle Eocene. Bruxellian.
, 1. Mammals • • • • o
2. Birds . X
3. Reptiles ...... X
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
1. Argillornis longipennis Owen, 1878. Etterbeek near Brussels.
A frigate-bird of large size. Unpublished.
2. Palceophis typhosus Owen, 1850. Brussels.
A marine serpent. Unpublished.
3. Pseudotrionyx delheidi Dollo, 1886.
Melsbroek near Vilvorde (Brabant).
A turtle of the family Chelydridte. Found, like the two preceding,
in the London Clay, which, however, is equivalent (in part) to the
Ypresian.
Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1886, iv, 75.
4. Emys camperi Gray, 1831. Melsbroek near Vilvorde (Brabant).
A marsh turtle.
T. C. Winkler, Arch, Mus. Teyler, 1869, ii, 127.
5. Testudo houzei Dollo, 1909. Saventhem near Brussels.
Unpublished.
6. Eochelone brcibantica Dollo, 1903. Saint- Remy- Geest (Brabant).
A marine turtle adapted to eating soft food.
Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 1903.
7. Lytoloma bruxelliensis Dollo, 1909. St. Josse-ten-Noode, near Brussels.
A marine turtle adapted to shell crushing.
8. Trionyx bruxelliensis Winkler, 1869. Brussels.
T. C. Winkler, Arch. Mus. Teyler, 1869, ii, 135.
9. Fishes. Sixty-two species of cartilaginous and bony fishes.
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1905, iii, No. 3.
H. Middle Eocene. Lsekenian.
1 . Mammals . X
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . Q
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
112
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1. Lophiotherium cervulum Gervais, 1849. St. Gilles near Brussels,
Identification by Gaudry.
A. Rutot, Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 1881, i, 546.
2. Fishes. Fifty-four species of cartilaginous and bony fishes.
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1905, iii, No. 3.
I. Middle Eocene. Ledien.
1 . Mammals . Q
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . Q
4. xMnphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
1. Fishes. Twelve species of cartilaginous and bony fishes.
M. Leriche, loc. cit.
J. Upper Eocene. Wemmelian.
1 . Mammals . Q
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . X
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
1. Lytoloma wemmeliensis Dollo, 1909. Locality not known.
A marine shell-crushing turtle.
Unpublished.
2. Fishes. Nineteen species of cartilaginous and bony fishes.
M. Leriche, op. cit.
K. Upper Eocene. Asschian.
1. Mammals . Q
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . Q
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
1. Fishes. Seven species of cartilaginous and bony fishes.
M. Leriche, op. cit.
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
113
L. Lower Oligocene. Tongrian.
1. Mammals . Q
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . Q
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
1. Fishes. List in memoir now in press.
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1909, v, No. 2.
1 . Rhinoceros. Species not yet determined. Boom (province of Antwerp) .
A mandible.
Unpublished; will be described by a student of Brussels University.
2. Halitherium schinzi Ivaup, 1838. Boom (province of Antwerp).
Several skeletons more or less complete of this sirenian.
Unpublished.
3. Rupelomis definitus Van Ben., 1871. Rupelmonde (eastern Flanders).
Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 1871, xxxii, 258.
4. Vanellus selysi Van Beneden, 1871. Rupelmonde (eastern Flanders).
Op. cit. p. 259.
5. Anas creccoides Van Beneden, 1871. Rupelmonde (eastern Flanders).
Op. cit. p. 260.
6. Psephophorus rupeliensis Van Beneden, 1883. Niel near Boom
(prov. Antwerp).
A gigantic marine leathery turtle, the oldest of the Dennochelys
(Sphargis) group thus far known in Belgium.
Op. cit., 1883, vi, 666.
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1888, v, 59.
8. Bryochelys waterkeyni Van Beneden, 1871. Boom (prov. Antwerp).
A small marine typical (thecophore) turtle.
Bull. Acad. Roy. Belg., 1871, xxxi, 12.
9. Chelyopsis littoreus , Van Beneden, 1886. Boom (prov. Antwerp).
A large marine typical (thecophore) turtle.
G. Smets, Annal. Soc. scientif. Bruxelles, 1886, x, 12.
114
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
10. Chelone vanbenedeni Smets, 1886. Boom (prov. Antwerp).
A marine typical (thecophore) turtle.
G. Smets, op. cit., p. 109.
11. Oligochelone rupeliensis Dollo, 1909. Niel near Boom (prov. Ant¬
werp).
Complete carapace and limb-bones of a marine typical turtle.
Unpublished.
12. Fishes. Very rich ichthyic fauna, which, besides the numerous carti¬
laginous fishes, includes numerous Scombridoe. List in a memoir
now in press.
M. Leriche, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1909, v, No. 2.
N. Upper Oligocene. Aquitanian.
1. Miosiren kocki Dollo, 1889. Boom (prov. Antwerp).
Skeleton of an enormous sirenian, very interesting in the simplifica¬
tion of its last molar, which marks a tendency toward the conditions
shown in Halicore.
Bull. Soc. belg., Geol., 1889, iii, 415.
2. PropJwca rousseaui Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped. Borsbeeck
and Vieux-Dieu, near Antwerp.
Annal. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1877, i, 79.
3. Prophoca proximo Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped. Borgerhout
and Vieux-Dieu, near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. SO.
4. Squalodon antwerpiensis Van Beneden, 1865. Odontocete. Near
Antwerp.
O. Abel, Mem. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1905, iii, No. 2.
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
115
5. Scaldicetus caretti du Bus, 1867. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
6. Scaldicetus grandis du Bus, 1872. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
7. Scaldicetus mortselensis du Bus, 1872. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
8. Thalassocetus antwerpensis Abel, 1905. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
9. Physeterula dubusi Van Beneden, 1877. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
10. Prophyseter dolloi Abel, 1905. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
11. Placoziphius duboisi Van Ben., 1869. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
12. Palceoziphius scaldensis du Bus, 1872. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
13. Cetorhynchus atavus Abel, 1905. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
14. Mioziphius belgicus Abel, 1905. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
15. Choneziphius planirostris Cuvier, 1823. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
16. Mesoplodon longirostris Cuvier, 1823. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
17. Eurhinodelphis cocheteuxi du B., 1867. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
18. Eurhinodelphis longirostris du Bus, 1872. Odontocete. Nr Antwerp.
O. Abel: op. cit.
19. Eurhinodelphis cristatus du Bus, 1872. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel: op. cit.
20. Cyrtodelphis sulcatus Gervais, 1853. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel: op. cit.
21. Acrodelphis scheynensis du Bus, 1872. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
22. Acrodelphis macros pondylus Abel, 1905. Odontocetes. Nr Antwerp.
O. Abel: op. cit.
23. Acrodelphis denticulatus Probst, 1886. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel: op. cit.
24. Protophocaena minima Abel, 1905. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
25. Pithanodelphis cornutus du Bus, 1872. Odontocete. Near Antwerp.
O. Abel, op. cit.
116
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
1.
2.
3.
Erpetocetus scaldiensis Van Ben., 1872. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
P. J. Van Beneden, Ann. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1882, vii, 84.
Mesocetus long irostris Van Ben., 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., 1886, xii'i, 43.
Mesocetus pinguis Van Beneden, 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 50.
Mesocetus latifrons Van Beneden, 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 56.
Idiocetus laxatus Van Beneden, 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 63.
Idiocetus longifrons Van Beneden, 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 73.
Isocetus depauwi Van Beneden, 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 78.
Fulica dejardini Van Beneden, 1871. Bird. Near Antwerp.
Bull. Acad. roy. Belg., 1871, xxxii, 261.
Anser scaldii Van Beneden, 1873. Bird. Near Antwerp.
Patria Belgica, 1873, i, 372.
Cygnus herenthalsi Van Beneden, 1873. Bird. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit.
Psephophorus scaldii V an Beneden, 1871. Near Antwerp.
Marine leathery turtle of the Dermochelys (Sphargis) group, the
most gigantic known, surpassing even the Colossochelys atlas in size.
L. Dollo, Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1888, v, 75.
Fishes. The list of these will be published later in the Memoirs of the
Royal Belgian Museum by M. Leriche.
P. Lower Pliocene. Diestian.
1. Mammals . X
2. Birds . O
3. Reptiles . Q
4. Amphibia . O
5. Fishes X
Monatherium delognei Van Ben., 1876. Pinniped.
Near Antwerp.
Ann. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1877, i, 75.
Monatherium affine Van Ben., 1876. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 76.
Monatherium aberratum Van Ben., 1876. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 77.
Op. cit., p. 36.
15. Fishes. The list of these will be published later in the Memoirs of the
Royal Belgian Museum by M. Leriche.
Q. Middle Pliocene (first phase). Scaldisian.
1 . Mammals . X
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . . X
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
1. Trichechodon konincki Van Ben., 1871. Pinniped.
Ann. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1877, i, 46.
2. Alachtherium cretsi du Bus, 1867. Pinniped.
Op. cit., p. 50.
3. Mesotaria ambigua Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped.
Op. cit., p. 56.
4. Palceophoca nysti Van Beneden, 1859. Pinniped.
Op. cit., p. 60.
Near Antwerp.
Near Antwerp.
Near Antwerp.
Near Antwerp.
118
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Callophoca obscura Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 65.
Platyphoca vulgaris Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 67.
Gryphoca similis Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 69.
Phocanella pumila Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 70.
Phocanella minor Van Beneden, 1876. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 71.
Phoca vitulinoides Van Beneden, 1871. Pinniped. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 72.
Balcenula baloenopsis Van Beneden, 1872. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., 1880, iv, 52.
Balcena primigeniaV an Beneden, 1872. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 66.
Balcenotus insignis Van Beneden, 1872. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 71.
Megciptera affinis Van Beneden, 1882. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., 1882, vii, 39.
Balcenoptera sibbaldina Van Ben., 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 63.
Balcenoptera musculoides Van Ben., 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 65.
Balcenoptera borealina Van Ben., 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 71.
Balcenoptera rostratella Van Ben., 1880. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 73.
Burtinopsis similis Van Beneden, 1872. Mysticete. Near Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 77.
B urtinopsis minutus Van Beneden, 1880. Mysticete. New Antwerp.
Op. cit., p. 80.
Psepliophorus scalclii Van Beneden, 1871. Near Antwerp.
A marine leathery turtle of the Dermochelys ( Sphargis ) group, and
the most gigantic known, surpassing even Colossochelys atlas in size.
L. Dollo: Bull. Mus. roy. Hist. nat. Belg., 1888, v, 80.
Fishes. The list of these wall be published later in the memoirs of the
Royal Belgian Museum by M. Leriche.
DOLLO, BELGIAN FOSSIL VERTEBRATES
119
R. Middle Pliocene (second phase). Poederlian.
1 . Mammals . X
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . O
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . X
1. Rhinoceros (species not yet determined). Near Antwerp.
Unpublished.
2. Cervus falconeri Boyd-Dawkins, 1868.
Ryekevoorsel, in the Antwerp country.
E. Dubois, Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1905, xix, 121.
3. Alachtherium antwerpiensis Hasse, 1909. Near Antwerp.
An undescribed fossil walrus which will be published by a student of
Brussels University. Its milk dentition agrees with that of terrestrial
carnivora, and its adult dentition to the milk dentition of the living
walrus (Dollo).
4. Cetorhinus maximus Gunner, 1765. Near Antwerp.
A splendid complete branchial apparatus of this shark.
M. Leriche, Comptes rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, 1908, exlvi, 875.
S. Upper Pliocene. Amstelian.
1. Mammals . O
2. Birds . Q
3. Reptiles . Q
4. Amphibia . Q
5. Fishes . Q
PLATE VII.
Mosasaurus Conybeare, 1822.
A Surface-Swimming Mosasaurian.
Lower Senonian to Upper Maestrichtian.
The environment and pose of the animal are copied from Williston’s restoration,
while the proportions and form of the various parts of the body and paddles are
restored directly from the Mosasaurus lemonnieri Dollo, 1889, thus facilitating a
comparison of the restorations. We may note also the elimination of the bifid
tongue, which does not exist in living marine reptiles and is therefore not in accord¬
ance with the pelagic adaptation of the animal.
.117 jITAJ1!
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Annals N.Y. Acad. Sex.
Volume XIX, Plate VII
PLATE VIII.
Plioplatecarpus Dollo, 1882.
A deep-diving Mosasaurian.
Upper Senonian to Lower Maestri chtian.
.ilTV 3TAJ-I
til .oVv.:Q 8tJTOA0.1T t .isouT
.iV-.hm;» V'cAL g uhih-qeob A
. ii i:i ) . foi't 1>: p.IA MvroJ oJ rininoaglS -i9qqTJ
Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci,
Volume XIX, Plate VIII.
r
PLATE IX.
Mosasaurus gigantetjs Sommering, 1816.
Left quadrate, external side, natural size. Canne (Belgian Limbourg) near
Maestricht. Upper Cretaceous (Maestrichtian) ; original in Brussels Museum.
L. Dollo: Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1890, IV, pi. viii, fig. 1.
Showing the tympanic groove (r. tymp.), indicating a delicate tympanic mem¬
brane, and hence a surface-swdmming habitat.
.xi aiAjq
.Dic'd ,\g«V\ nsvvs«Oi& apjrj/ 8A60l£
Men (gujodmiJ G£igf$H) ■turn:') .ssi F^u/ififl jsibia Isms x .•d/nbeup dioJ
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.
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fi ' 1 1 .iff ’ ‘■'r:r, 1; 99 noil ban .onc’id
Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate IX.
-ech. cc
ech. co
b. tymp
art. sup.
s. art
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ap.supi
s-
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PLATE X.
Plioflatecarpus hotjzeaui Dollo, IS89.
Right quadrate, external side, natural size. Ciply (Hainault) near Mons.
Upper Cretaceous (Upper Senonian); original in Brussels Museum. L. Dollo:
Bull. Soc. belg. Geol., 1904, XVIII, pi. vi, fig. 6.
Showing the tympanic operculum (o. t.) or thickened and calcified tympanic
membrane, in adaptation to diving to great depths.
ar/ jM
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.arfjq ■ f v * :j u.t g/rivil /toi odqr J'j rti .an ■ rjdinarn
Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci,
Volume XIX, Plate X
,
[Annals N. Y. Acad.%ci., Vol. XIX, No. 5, Part I, pp. 121-134. Pll. XI-XIII.
4 December, 1909.]
ON THE ORIGIN AND SEQUENCES OF THE MINERALS OF
THE NEWARK (TRIASSIC) IGNEOUS ROCKS 1 OF
NEW JERSEY.
By Wallace Goold Levison.
{Read May 12, 1909, before the New York Miner alogical Club.)
As early as the year 1850 most of the minerals which occur in trap rocks
had been found in the trap at Bergen Hill, N. J., but evidently near the
surface and not in notably fine specimens.2 The Erie railroad tunnel,
technically known as Bergen Tunnel No. 1, begun in June, 1856, bored
through the ridge by the tedious method of hand drilling and blasting with
black powder by August 20, 1859, and opened for traffic early in 1861, 3 4
first reached the deeper recesses of the New Jersey trap in this locality and
so disclosed the wealth of zeolites and associated minerals which has made it
famous. Bergen Tunnel No. 2, 4 and others also productive of such minerals
followed, but the exigencies of tunneling opposed investigation of the
conditions under which they occurred. Not until later, when high explo¬
sives, percussion machine drills, rock crushers and the rotary kiln for making
cement were perfected and led to the opening of numerous and extensive
quarries throughout the State for the production of broken stone to be used
in the macadam and concrete industries, were the minerals of the New
Jersey trap satisfactorily accessible for study in situ.
The visitor to a trap quarry productive of minerals finds that at every
depth so far reached the trap rock is riven by splits, joints and seams, or is
cellular with cavities, many of which are lined with clusters of beautiful
crystals or filled solidly with minerals quite foreign to the trap in composi¬
tion. Few investigations appear to have extended as yet below tide level
or the water table. Conceding trap to be of igneous origin it might be
1 N. J. Geol. Survey, Ann. Report, 1907, p. 103.
2 See J. D. Dana, Syst. Min., 3d. ed. 1850.
3 From private records, gee also H. S. Drinker, Tunneling Explosives and Rock Drills,
N. Y„ 1882, p. 1084.
4 Drinker: op. cit., p. 1038. The Delaware Lackawanna & Western Railroad tunnel, cut
between 1869 and 1874. Hand labor in heading, Ingersol drills in bottom. Rend Rock pow¬
der used in preference to dynamite.
121
122
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
expected that some of these minerals would be of like origin, but such is
rarely the case. As a rule they are minerals which are destructible by even
a moderate heat (unless perhaps under pressure),1 and most of them contain
considerable water in their composition.
Calcite, which is usually predominant among these minerals, occurring
in rhombohedral, prismatic and scalenohedral crystals and in masses with
rhombohedral cleavage, would be converted at a moderate heat into quick¬
lime. Gypsum, which contains about 20% of water, would be dehydrated
into plaster of Paris. Thaumasite, which occurs liberally in some of the
quarries, contains both of these minerals. Pectolite, which is of very general
occurrence, contains from 3% to 9% of water and would be dehydrated.
Quartz, which occurs as rock crystal and chalcedony, is disintegrated when
heated, probably by vapor pressure generated from liquids in microscopic
cavities.
The zeolites proper, of which the crystals chiefly consist and which are the
minerals more exclusively characteristic of the trap, would, as their name
implies, fuse into shapeless masses. All contain water of crystallization.
Many circumstances observed in the New Jersey localities seem to indicate
that these minerals have been or are now being produced simply by crystalli¬
zation from solution, the solvent being probably water and the dissolved
material, chiefly the trap rock itself.
An average of four analyses, three by R. B. Gage 2 and one by L. C.
Eakins 3 of the diabase of the Newark Formation from New Jersey localities
near those productive of trap minerals, gives its composition approximately
as follows:
100.22
1 T. Graham: Elem. Inorg. Chem. Phil., p. 181. 1858.
2 J. V. Lewis: N. J. State Geol. Survey Report for 1907, p. 121.
3 F. W. Clarke: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. No. 228, p. 47. Basalt from the Watchung
Mountain, Orange Auvergnose.
LEVISON, NEWARK IGNEOUS ROCKS
123
These appear to be analyses of typical trap rock, not of the special sheets
and fragments which occupy the joints in the diabase, or the fragments
which make up the breceiated facies, or the material of the amygdaloidal
or vesicular trap which seem most productive of trap minerals. From these
analyses, however, trap rock appears to contain all the constituents usually
found in the common trap minerals, with the singular exception of boron,
which is a principal constituent of datolite and fluorine, and of which
apophyllite generally but not always contains a small proportion. Datolite
is a basic orthosilicate of boron and calcium 1 which occurs liberally in some
of the New Jersey cpiarries, sparingly or not at all in others, usually directly
upon the trap.
The origin of the trap minerals, as well as many others, has long been
attributed to the action of water, by some under ordinary present tempera¬
ture conditions,2 by others to magmatic water and hydrothermal processes.3
In the New Jersey trap the frequent occurrence in cavities or parts of fissures
of the remains of previously formed crystals now apparently undergoing
solution and in close juxtaposition thereto of exquisitely perfect crystals
both microscopic and macroscopic in beautiful groups, apparently now in
process of development, seems to indicate that water under present condi¬
tions is still actively engaged in both their dissolution and their generation.
Some interesting results apparently of these contending processes occur in
crystals of calcite at Upper Montclair, N. J., consisting of etchings and
oscillations of growth. Such a crystal is shown in Plate XI, Fig. I.4
Probably both rain and spring water take part in the production of trap
minerals. With reference to the solubility of New Jersey trap in meteoric
water, the following experiment is of interest: A quantity of hard trap rock
from a quarry at Upper Montclair, N. J., broken into pieces about 6 mm. in
diameter was washed free from dust with distilled water and air-dried on
filtering paper. Then 100 grammes of this broken stone was submerged in
200 cc. of distilled water in a covered glass jar. It was frequently stirred,
and the water gradually became turbid with floceuli of a dark greenish color.
Sixteen days later the water was poured off the trap rock, each piece of the
latter washed with a jet of distilled water, the solution and wash water
filtered and then evaporated at 100° C. in a platinum dish to dryness. With
the same broken stone, again air dried, the experiment was repeated.
1 E. S. Dana: Syst. Min., N. Y., p. 504, 1S92.
2 G. Bischoff: Elem. Chem. & Phys. Geol. Vol. 1, pp. 57, London, 1854; 58; Vol. 2,
pp. 116, 136, 137, 211. 1855; Vol. 3, 1859, pp. 57, 299.
3 See J. V. Lewis, N. J. State Geol. Survey Report for 1907, p. 166.
4 Photographed from a specimen in the collection of Mr. George E. Ashby, of New York.
124
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Exp. 1. The residue weighed 0.0378 gramme
Exp. 2. “ “ “ 0.0367
Average 0.0372 “
Hence one liter of water acting for sixteen days on 500 grammes of this
broken trap would dissolve 0.1860 gramme of its constituent material.
The above residues were chiefly white, and dissolved almost entirely in
hydrochloric acid, with slight effervescence. A small quantity of a brown¬
ish material, apparently organic matter, remained. With the spectroscope,
the solution gave lines of sodium and calcium.
In the residue No. 2 above silica and alumina were determined as follows:
Si02
Al203+5Fe203
0.0052 gramme
0.0023
Hence one liter of water acting for sixteen days on 500 grammes of the above
broken trap would dissolve 0.0260 gramme of silica and 0.0115 gramme of
alumina.
The greenish flocculent matter collected on the filter was dried, ignited
and weighed, as follows:
Experiment 1, 0.0514 gramme
Experiment 2, 0.0936 “
Hence one liter of water acting for sixteen days on 500 grammes of the
above trap would remove
Experiment 1, 0.2570 gramme
Experiment 2, 0.4680 “
This substance before ignition resembled diabantite. After ignition,
it had a ferruginous orange color. A small quantity of the natural soft
coating was taken from one side of a crevice in a specimen of trap, and after
ignition it had a similar color.
Trap rock being thus soluble in pure water, it would probably be still
more soluble in meteoric water which had absorbed carbonic acid, oxygen,
organic acids or other such substances before reaching it. Rain becomes
charged with gases acquired from the air in falling, taking up from 3 to 30 cc.
per liter. The oxygen is found in larger proportion than in air, being some¬
times as much as 38% of the dissolved gases. It also contains about 3% of
carbonic acid anjd traces of carbonate and nitrate of ammonia and free nitric
acid, besides small solid particles of dust, salts and organic matter.1 In
1 V. B. Lewes': Service Chemistry, p. 102, London, 1895.
LEV I SON, NEWARK IGNEOUS ROCKS
125
volcanic districts it thus absorbs sulphurous acid and hydric sulphide; over
bog lands, marsh gas; and in manufacturing districts, hydric chloride and
chlorine.1 Rain and dew spreading over growing land vegetation would seem
likely to acquire considerable of the oxygen exhaled as a function of growth.
The seepage and overflow of pools and streamlets in which algse are flourish¬
ing would be highly charged with oxygen. I have collected in a few days
about half a liter of oxygen, pure enough to relight a glowing taper, by
simply inverting a jar over a rank growth of filamentous algae in a self-sus¬
taining aquarium. Any meteoric water seeping through decaying vegetation
would seem likely to absorb considerable carbonic acid and perhaps crenic 2
or other organic acids and compounds, and such water previously oxygen¬
ated would seem likely to acquire a greater charge of carbonic acid by its
own reaction upon such material.3 Oxygenated water reaching the trap
more directly would evidently have a reaction upon it differing from the
above.
“By the continuous action of water charged with carbonic acid, even in
small proportion, granite and other hard rocks are disintegrated, and the
changes effected, insignificant as at first sight they may appear, in the lapse
of time become of great extent and importance.” 4
To determine whether the New Jersey trap rock is more soluble in water
charged with carbonic acid than in pure water, the experiment previously
described was repeated, with the modification that for about an hour each
morning and evening of the sixteen days, carbonic anhydride, freed from
every trace of hydrochloric acid vapor, was allowed to bubble slowly through
the water in which the trap was immersed. The total amount of gas gen¬
erated by about 15 cc. of commercial hydrochloric acid acting on an excess
of marble was the quantity usually transmitted. The residue from the
200 cc. of the solution was white and weighed 0.1226 gramme. Hence one
liter of water thus partly charged with carbonic acid acting upon 500 grammes
of trap from Upper Montclair, N. J., for sixteen days would dissolve 0.6130
gramme of its constituent material.
The trap solution was much less turbid than that in pure water. The
material which caused its turbidity collected upon the filter contained some
particles which appeared to be trap mechanically separated. These were
removed and weighed 2*4 milligrammes after ignition. The remainder of the
material weighed 21.4 milligrammes. The latter would correspond to 0.1070
gramme produced by the action of one liter of water containing C02 on 500
grammes of trap in sixteen days.
1 V. B. Lewes: op. cit., p. 215.
2 G. Bischoff: Elem. Chem. & Phys. Geol., Vol. 1, p. 166. London, 1854.
3 V. B. Lewes: op. cit., p. 100.
4 W. A. Miller: Elem. Chem., Part 2, p. 50. N. Y„ 1868.
126
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
That meteoric waters charged with such other substances as those above
mentioned would have a much greater solvent action than pure water upon
trap rock, while probable, seems not to have been as yet experimentally
established.
In either case meteoric water, penetrating the New Jersey trap from
above, finds its way downward through numerous crevices and joints in the
rock, even when they are only of microscopic width, dissolves the trap on
both sides of, and thus gradually widens them. The more or less concen¬
trated solution collects in natural cavities or larger crevices previously formed
and there, apparently, deposits chiefly in crystals the complex materials it
carries.1
By what process is the solution caused to deposit its contents ? It seems
little likely to be evaporation, but there are several other known processes
which jointly or separately could possibly result in the production of these
minerals from solution under the apparent conditions. For -example, the
water could become charged with a soluble constituent of the trap, part or all
of which it might have to deposit, as in its further progress it acquired
another constituent.2 This is a known process of deposition from solution
but not of common occurrence.
Another cause for the deposition of substances from solution is a change
of solubility with change of temperature. Some substances are more
soluble in warm, others in cold water. A change of one degree in temper¬
ature in a saturated solution could cause some deposition of its contents.
Water, upon freezing, excludes all substances it may hold in solution, whether
solid, liquid or gaseous. In case such a solution as that above described
were frozen in a fissure in the rock, upon again becoming liquid it could
drain avTay without redissolving the material it had deposited.
Variations of pressure, acting in most cases inversely to variations of
temperature, increase or decrease the saturation capacity of solvents.3 Thus
the solvent action of meteoric vTater may be increased the deeper a descend¬
ing column penetrates below the surface. Upon the subsidence of such a
column to a subsurface level during a dry interval, or upon the escape of
such vrater as spring water with consequent release of pressure, this condi¬
tion is reversed and perhaps a deposition of dissolved material may occur.
The principle of diffusion also may be involved in the sorting out of the
dissolved substances and their deposition to form these minerals.4 It seems
1 According to Bischoff (Chem. & Phys. Geol. V. 2; London 1859 pp. 116 & 137) anal-
cite and natrolite are the only zeolites which do not contain silicate of lime and the only ones
that could have been produced from water containing C02.
2 W. A. Miller: Elem. Inorg. Chem., Part 1, Chem. Phys. p. 63, N. Y., 1864.
3 J. P. Iddings: Igneous Rocks, Vol. I, p. 158, New York, 1909.
4 Id., p. 70.
LEVISON, NEWARK IGNEOUS ROCKS
127
likely, however, that their production is chiefly due to chemical reactions
resulting in the formation of less, from more soluble substances in solution.
Several crystallized minerals, including some zeolites, have been arti¬
ficially produced from aqueous solution, both accidentally and intentionally.1
That water percolating from above is concerned in the production of
the New Jersey trap minerals appears to be indicated by the circumstance
that crystals which occur on the upper sides of cavities are usually unim¬
paired, even though colored, while those which occur on the under sides have
usually occluded a sedimentary material resembling yellow or red oxide of
iron or a ferruginous clay in fine particles, which also frequently covers them
with a coating evidently imbedded in the surface and impossible to remove.
Clusters of crystals projecting from the sides of cavities are frequently thus
coated on the upper, while unsullied on the under surfaces, a circumstance
of common occurrence with calcite and prehnite. The lustrous under¬
surface of such an occurrence of reniform prehnite is shown in Plate XI,
Fig. 2. The material of this coating, which is also often occluded through¬
out a crystal, consists perhaps of the 2% to 3% of ferric iron with other
undissolved residues of the trap and some clay from the top soil all carried
down mechanically by the water. It sometimes has a bright red color as
though chiefly a ferric compound, thus occurring on crystallized quartz and
heulandite at West Paterson and stilbite and heulandite at Upper Montclair,
common, and on heulandite at Great Notch, rare.
Spring water would act upon the trap somewhat differently from rain
water for several reasons, and coming perhaps through various other rocks
before entering the trap may so acquire the boric acid and fluorine required
and be accountable for the production of datolite, which occurs liberally in
some quarries and contains the large proportion of 21% of boric acid; and
also such apophyllite as contains fluorine.
Release of pressure may account for the deposition by spring waters of
such crystallized minerals in the trap, as it does for the escape of gases and
the deposition of sulphur from sulphur waters, iron carbonate and oxides
from chalybeate waters, and calcareous and siliceous sinters from hot-spring
waters.
The microscopic crevices through which the water enters cavities in the
rock are often disclosed at Great Notch, N. J., by the sledge hammer.
Large yellow calcite crystals somewhat resembling those of Joplin, Mo.,
occur there in such cavities, but any attempt to trim the rock away around
such a crystal usually results in its splitting directly through the cavity and
the destruction of the crystal. The parted sides of the split are often covered
1 J. P. Iddings: op. cit., p. 96.
128
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
with a thin dark colored film and show that the split followed a seam which
was almost imperceptible before it was thus disclosed.1
To study the conditions existing in a crevice or cavity containing minerals
previously undisturbed, it is necessary for the investigator to be present
when it is first exposed directly after a blast. Although I have spent many
days in quarries, I have been favored with few such opportunities, perhaps
a dozen in all, and have invariably found the contents of the cavity saturated
with moisture. In some cases the crevice or cavity ivas filled with a viscid
material resembling paste in appearance and covering clusters of superior
crystals.2 I have seen cavities of various sizes, partly or entirely filled with
water and often containing no mineral deposit whatever, exposed by the
sledge hammer in apparently solid trap.
Probably the water reaches such cavities through microscopic crevices
although Bischoff 3 credits it with penetrating through the pores of the rock.
Occasionally a cavity is filled with material resembling wet snow, covering
groups of crystals, sometimes on a lining of pectolite. This material is
sometimes thaumasite penetrated by concretions and needles of pectolite,
sometimes apparently laumontite, in microscopic crystals. In some cases
a narrow cre\rice will be lined on opposite sides with two different minerals
as heulandite and ealeite, almost in contact, but each free from the other.
In other cases the crevice will be filled solid, A\There it is narrow, with a single
mineral, and where it is wider this divides into linings with finely crystallized
faces.
The deposition of two or three of the trap minerals synchronously or in
close alternation produces occasional cryptocrystalline masses attractive in
appearance, but having the composition and structure of a rock rather than
a mineral. Such would be a solid mass composed of needles of pectolite
or natrolite carrying parasitic crystals of apophyllite, gmelinite or calcite as
illustrated in Plate XI, Figs. 3 and 4, and Plate XII, Figs. 1 and 2. Some¬
times, as in Plate XI, Fig. 3, the parasitic mineral is distinguishable through¬
out the resulting solid, but usually the mass appears, deceptively, to consist
only of the predominant mineral, while it approximates a solid solution in
character, as is the case with much of the pectolite from Woodcliff, N. J.
(Plate XIII, Fig. 3) in which many of the needles are invested with micro¬
scopic crystals of calcite. To this may perhaps be attributed the excep¬
tionally strong yelloAv fluorescence and tribophosphorescence of the
Woodcliff and some other pectclites, as the thermo- and tribophosphor-
1 See G. Bischoff, op. cit., Vol. 1, p. 10.
2 A gelatinous substance having the composition of chabazite has been noted between cal¬
cite crystals by Renevier. E. S. Dana, Syst. Min., p. 590. N. Y., 1S92.
3 Op. cit. Vol. 1, p. 54.
LEVISON, NEWARK IGNEOUS ROCKS
129
escence of certain tremolites have been attributed to a somewhat similar
inclusion of dolomite.1
In several localities a mineral occurs in flexible filaments sometimes as
fine as hair.2 One or more of these, perhaps two centimeters in length,
may project from a face of a crystal of datolite or calcite, or they may be
attached in clusters directly to the trap or to a film of diabantite upon the
trap as in the example from Snake Hill illustrated in Plate XII, Fig. 3.
Often they cross a cavity between adjacent groups of datolite crystals inter¬
secting in all directions. Each filament frequently supports a series of
crystals of calcite, datolite, apophyllite or other minerals like beads upon a
thread or dew drops on a spider’s web, ranging in size from microscopic to
macroscopic and with all faces complete.
A large quantity of such a filamentary mineral was recently found by
Mr. James G. Manchester, of New York, thus associated with datolite in a
nearly vertical crevice in the Erie Railroad cut through Bergen Hill. In
part it was massed together resembling asbestos, in part disposed as above
described (Plate XII, Fig. 4). Throughout it was invested with crystals of
various sizes and kinds, a large quantity of which, chiefly datolite, fell from
the cavity like sand when it was disturbed. Many of these were euhedral
and probably had been supported on the filaments.3 The matted filaments,
when mounted in balsam, were found to entangle a multitude of microscopic
crystals of several minerals easily distinguishable from each other in polar¬
ized light. At Great Notch a similar filamentary mineral has been noted
(but rarely) forming fringes on microscopic plates of a black mineral.
Commonly all these minerals are separated from the trap by a thin film
of a material varying from gray to greenish black in color and often having
the feel of talc (Plate XII, Figs. 2 and 3). Apparently similar material of a
greenish black color occasionally fills small crevices in the trap and in many
cases occurs in large quantity, as at Woodeliff (Guttenberg) where, together
with prehnite invested with beautiful microscopic crystals of other trap
minerals and numerous large crystals of such minerals, it occupies the
interstices between fragments and sheets of partly decomposed trap that
fill a nearly vertical fault or shear zone about a meter wide in the Palisade
1 Bournon, quoted by Parker Cleveland: Elem. Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology,
p. 323. Boston, 1816.
2 This is probably a fibrous natrolite which according to Mr. F. A. Canfield was called
fibrolated-natrolite by Dr. A. E. Foote. This name is however not mentioned in Dana, Syst.
Min., New York, 1S92. Fine specimens from Bergen Tunnel No. 2 are in the collection of Mr.
Canfield at Dover, N. J.
3 Since this paper was presented, these datolite crystals have been described by W. E.
Ford and J. L. Pogue, Am. Jour. Sci., IV, xxviii, p. 187, Aug., 1909.
130
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
diabase.1 This material appears to be the so called diabantite 2 and simply
an insoluble residue of trap otherwise dissolved in water.
Dr. Alexis A. Julien in a recent discussion of the composition of minerals 3
has suggested that diabantite is not a mineral but a mixture of minerals
which as deduced from analyses by G. W. Hawes of the trap at Farmington,
Conn., are as follows: pyroxene (residual), enstatite (residual), prochlorite,
ekmanite, deweylite, limonite, periclase. He considers the first two of
these to be residues from the solution of the trap and the remainder
recombinations of its dissolved constituents.
According to Dana 4 diabantite is apparently a product of the altera¬
tion of the augite of the diabase; according to Emerson, the first product
of the decomposition of the diabase 5 “ and seems to have been formed by
slow deposition from water.” 6
In each quarry the minerals have usually a prevailing characteristic color,
ranging from pure white in some quarries to yellowish white, greenish white,
yellow, orange, red and brown in others. This seems due to the iron in the
trap, chiefly perhaps to its liberal content of ferrous iron. As a quarry is
extended, however, rock of a different facies may be encountered, and in
course of time the preponderant species of minerals and their prevailing color
are liable to change.
Although Bischoff 7 and subsequently others have recorded many details
of this kind relating to the occurrence of minerals in general it seemed to me
that a record of some of those observed in the New Jersey trap quarries may
help eventually to disclose the genesis of the zeolitic group. Among such
details the order of generation of the species seems important and following
is a list of such sequences in their occurrence as I have noted them in New
Jersey localities, arranged alphabetically.
Sequence or order of occurrence of the minerals.
Albite.8 Sequent on calcite, chabazite, diabantite and quartz, West
Paterson.
1 J. V. Lewis: Geol. Survey of N. J., Annual Report for 1907, p. 107.
2 Id., p. 152.
s Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci. XVIII, 139-142. 190S.
^ Syst. Min., 659-660. 1S92.
s Am. Jour. Sci. Ill, XXIV, 198-201.
e U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull., No. 126, pp. 72-74.
7 Chem. and Phys. Geol., German edition 1847; 1848 et seq„ English (Cavendish Soc.)
edition, London, Vol. 1, 1S54, Vol. 2, 1855, Vol. 3, 1S59.
s Identified by Dr. C. Palache according to Mr. F. A. Canfield.
LEV I SON, NEWARK IGNEOUS ROCKS
131
Analcite. Sequent on trap, Shadyside; 1 on pink and white apophyllite,
Snake Hill;2 on caleite, Shadyside, West Paterson and Erie Cut;3 on dato-
lite, Erie Cut; on gmelinite, Snake Hill;4 on white and red heulandite,
West Paterson; on natrolite and terminated pectolite, Snake Hill.
Apophyllite. Sequent on trap, many localities; on analcite, Erie cut,
(PI. XIII, Fig. 1) on calcite, West Paterson, Shadyside and Snake Hill;
on datolite, Erie cut (common) and Snake Hill; on diabantite, Shadyside;
on laumontite, Snake Hill and Great Notch; on natrolite, Snake Hill; on
pectolite, in microscopic crystals (Plate XI, Fig. 3) and large crystals.
Snake Hill; in large crystals, Hoxie’s quarry, Paterson, and Berger’s quarry,
West Paterson; on prehnite Woodcliff;5 on quartz crystals, Hoxie’s
quarry, Paterson; on quartz pseudomorph, Great Notch; on stilbite,
Shadyside.
Calcite. Sequent on caleite, one habit on another, Erie cut; 6 on chab-
azite, West Paterson; on datolite, in large rhombohedrons, Erie cut and
Snake Hill; on diabantite in rhombohedrons, Shadyside, in scalenohedrons,
Woodcliff; on heulandite, West Paterson; on natrolite, Great Notch (Plate
XII, Fig. 1) and Woodcliff (Plate XII, Fig. 2); on pectolite, Woodcliff and
West Paterson; on prehnite in scalenohedrons, Great Notch, and Woodcliff
(Plate XII, Fig. 2) on quartz (rock crystal, amethyst, chalcedony or pseu-
domorphous), Great Notch, West Paterson and Snake Hill; on stilbite in
scalenohedrons, Upper Montclair (Plate XIII, Fig. 2); impaled on flexible
filaments of an unidentified mineral in rhombohedrons, Snake Hill (Plate
XII, Fig. 3).
Chabazite. Sequent on calcite, West Paterson; on datolite, West
Paterson; on quartz, West Paterson and Great Notch; on stilbite, West
Paterson.
Chalcopyrite. Sequent on calcite, Erie cut, Snake Hill and Homestead;7
on datolite, Erie cut.
Datolite. Sequent on apophyllite, Erie cut; on gmelinite and pectolite,
West Paterson; on a filamentary mineral Erie cut (Plate XII, Fig. 4) and
Snake Hill.
1 Shadyside. The Hudson River terminal of the N. Y. Susquehanna and Western R. R.
tunnel.
2 Snake Hill. The Penitentiary Quarry is to be understood unless others are mentioned.
3 Erie Cut herein signifies the new open cut now in process of construction (1909) through
Bergen Hill by the Erie Railroad.
4 And Pinnacle Island, Nova Scotia.
5 Woodcliff is a small settlement on the Palisades where part of the cliff was removed.
It is a section of Guttenberg.
6 H. P. Whitlock; N. Y. State Museum, fifth report of the director, p. 219. 1908.
7 Homestead is the western terminal of the new Pennsylvania R. R. tunnels through
Bergen Hill to Manhattan Borough, New York.
132
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Diabantite ? Sequent on datolite and gmelinite, Snake Hill.
Epidote. Sequent on quartz (rare), Great Notch.
Galena. Sequent on calcite, Homestead.
Gmelinite. Sequent on calcite, datolite, heulandite and pectolite,
Snake Hill (Plate XI, Fig. 4).
Hematite. Transparent sequent on calcite and laumontite, ordinary on
white and amethystine quartz, West Paterson.
Heulandite. Sequent on calcite, West Paterson; on datolite, West
Paterson and Snake Hill; on gmelinite, West Paterson; on pectolite, Ploxie’s
quarry, Paterson, and West Paterson; on quartz, pseudomorphous, Hoxie’s
quarry, Paterson; on quartz, crystallized, white and amethystine, West
Paterson.
Laumontite. Sequent on apophyllite, Snake Hill; on calcite, Great
Notch; on datolite, Snake Hill; on gmelinite, Snake Hill; on heulandite,
Hoxie’s quarry, Paterson, and Great Notch; on natrolite, Great Notch.
Natrolite. Sequent on apophyllite, Snake Hill and Erie cut; on cal¬
cite, Snake Hill and Woodcliff; on datolite, Snake Hill and Erie cut; on
diabantite, Shadyside and Woodcliff (Plate XII, Fig. 2); on pectolite, Snake
Hill; ordinary and with fibrous terminations, on prehnite, Woodcliff and
Bergen tunnel No. 2; fibrous on trap, Bergen tunnel No. 2.1
Pectolite. Sequent on calcite, Hoxie’s quarry (rare); and Woodcliff;
on prehnite, Woodcliff (Plate XIII, Fig. 3); on quartz (pseudomorphous),
West Paterson; on quartz (chalcedony), Hoxie’s quarry, Paterson; on
thaumasite, West Paterson and Great Notch.
Prehnite. Sequent on datolite, in crystals and globular, West Paterson,
incrusting large crystals of datolite, Hoxie’s quarry, Paterson; on diabantite,
Woodcliff; on pectolite and also pseudomorphous after a radiated mineral
probably pectolite, West Paterson; on pectolite, Upper Montclair; on
quartz crystals, in separate microscopic crystals (rare) in hemispherical
forms and in incrustations with and without datolite (common), Great
Notch; on scolecite, West Paterson.
Pyrite. Sequent on analcite, Snake Hill (rare) and Erie cut (Plate XIII,
Fig. 1); on apophyllite, in brilliant microscopic crystals, Snake Hill (com¬
mon), and Erie cut (Plate XIII, Fig. 1); on calcite, in microscopic cubes
Shadyside; on plates and sealenohedrons, private quarry, Snake Hill; on
rhombohedral crystals, Erie cut; on datolite in microscopic cubes, Snake
Hill and Erie cut; on diabantite, in various forms, Shadyside; on heulan¬
dite, microscopic in cubes (common), in square prisms several diameters in
length and in rectangular plates (rare), Shadyside (Plate XIII, Fig. 4); on
1 In the collection of Mr. F. A. Canfield, Dover, N. J.
LEVISON, NEWARK IGNEOUS ROCKS
133
stilbite, in microscopic crystals, Snake Hill Shadyside, and Erie cut
(common).
Quartz, 1. Rock Crystal. Sequent on ehabazite, West Paterson; on
pseudomorphous quartz, Upper Montclair, Great Notch, West Paterson
and Hoxie’s quarry, Paterson;
2. Amethyst. Sequent on pseudomorphous quartz, Hoxie’s quarry,
Paterson, and West Paterson;
3. Chalcedony . Sequent, usually on the trap, several quarries.
Scolecite. Sequent on prehnite, West Paterson.
Selenite. Sequent on trap, Great Notch and West Paterson.
Stilbite. Sequent on apophyllite, Snake Hill, common (the reverse rare);
on calcite in microscopic crystals, private quarry, Snake Hill, and Erie cut,
common; in large clusters, West Paterson and Upper Montclair; on datolite
in microscopic crystals, Snake Hill and Erie cut; on heulandite, Millington
and West Paterson; on quartz, crystallized, Great Notch and West Paterson;
on pseudomorphous quartz, Upper Montclair (common).
Thaumasite. Sequent on heulandite, West Paterson; on pectolite, West
Paterson and Great Notch; on stilbite, West Paterson.
Unidentified mineral in filaments. Sequent on trap and diabantite,
Snake Hill (Plate XII, Fig. 3), Erie cut and Woodcliff; on calcite and
datolite, Erie cat (Plate XII, Fig. 4) and Snake Hill.
Summary of Sequences.
1. Trap, datolite, apophyllite, pyrite, analcite; not common. Snake
Hill and Erie cut (best specimen).
2. Trap, datolite, heulandite, gmelinite. West Paterson.
3. Trap, datolite, gmelinite, laumontite. Snake Hill.
4. Trap, calcite, drusy quartz, heulandite. West Paterson.
5. Trap, calcite, quartz (crystallized), datolite, prehnite in balls. Great
Notch.
6. Trap, calcite, quartz (crystallized), prehnite in microscopic crystals.
Great Notch.
7. Trap, pectolite, natrolite, analcite. Snake Hill.
8. Trap, stilbite, calcite, quartz (pseudomorphous), stilbite. Upper
Montclair.
Conclusions.
The quantitative estimates of the solubility of trap above given apply only
to the material employed. Determinations of the solubility of various other
134
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
samples would obviously be necessary to serve as a basis for general con¬
clusions.
As regards sequences these notes seem to indicate no conspicuously
prevalent order in the genesis of the New Jersey trap minerals.
Quartz, calcite and datolite appear to be, in the order named, most
generally deposited first upon the trap. One or another of these three
minerals usually thus prevails in a given quarry or part of a quarry at a
given time; but in the same quarry at a later time, when a different texture
of rock is in process of excavation, another of them may be the prevalent
mineral thus deposited. Likewise, in two adjacent quarries or even parts
of the same quarry the prevalent minerals differ considerably. Thus,
datolite has been plentiful in one of the two adjacent quarries at Snake Hill
and seldom found in the other. Again, in one of two adjacent quarries at
Great Notch datolite in opaque crystals and prehnite in spheroids, both on
crystallized quartz, were extremely prevalent and almost no thaumasite oc¬
curred. In the other quarry, now being actively worked, thaumasite is
abundant and the above-mentioned combination rare or absent. In fact,
the prevalent minerals often differ greatly as new mineral-producing rock
areas but a few yards distant are reached.
The minerals sequent upon datolite, calcite and quartz seem to be more
numerous in the order named. Of the species which are more plentiful,
apophyllite appears to occur upon the larger number of other species.
Calcic sulphate not of frequent occurrence in the ordinary form of selenite is
plentiful as a constituent of thaumasite. Conclusions in regard to sequences
must, however, be only tentative until records of other localities are avail¬
able for reference.
Fig. 1
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
PLATE XL
. Calcite, Upper Montclair, N. J. Natural size. From the collection of
Mr. George E. Ashby of N. Y.
The faces of the interior crystal are comparatively smooth but are formed
only of a thin film perforated with minute holes within which it con¬
sists chiefly of thin parallel plates with intervening spaces partly filled
with a loose dark colored powder which may be washed out leaving them
vacant. Surrounding this interior crystal is a much less corroded en¬
velope with terminations in fair condition. The specimen was found as
shown in the illustration with both envelopes partly removed, disclos¬
ing its internal structure. The small projection on the left is stilbite
to which it was attached (compare Plate XIII, Fig. 2.)
Prehnite, Hoxie’s Quarry, Paterson, N. J.
A specimen which projected from the side of a cavity. The side shown
was the under side and is unsullied. The opposite side is sullied with a
coating of sediment partly included. Collected June 23, 1892.
Apophyllite parasitic on Pectolite, Snake Hill, N. J.
Photomicrograph. Magnified 4 diameters. Both minerals apparently are
in process of deposition. The resulting solid mass resembles pectolite,
but consists largely of included apophyllite discernible all through it.
Collected May 30, 1899.
Gmelinite, Calcite and other minerals.
These are supported on and between acicular crystals of pectolite ap¬
parently in process of deposition, thus resulting in a solid mass re¬
sembling pectolite but including all these minerals. Photomicrograph
Magnified 4 diameters. Collected May 30, 1899.
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Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. Volume XIX, Plate XI.
PLATE XII.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3
Fig. 4,
Scalenohedrons of Calcite parasitic on crystals of Natrolite.
From the exterior of a spheroidal aggregation solid within. A specimen
from Great Notch, N. J., in the collection of Mr. James G. Manchester,
of New York. Photomicrograph. Enlarged 4f diameters. The re¬
sulting solid resembles massive natrolite, but evidently contains much
calcite, thus inclosed. Collected in July, 1909.
. Natrolite and Prehnite supporting sequent Calcite.
The resulting solid natrolite will consist largely of inclosed calcite. Col¬
lected Nov. 16, 1895.
. A filamentary mineral on a thin coating of Diabantite on trap and sup¬
porting parasitic crystals of various minerals. Snake Hill, N. J.
The larger and more conspicuous of these are rhombohedrons of calcite.
Photomicrograph. Magnified diameters.
. A filamentary mineral in a cavity between crystals of Datolite and
Calcite. Erie Cut, Bergen Hill, N. J. Photomicrograph. Magnified
3£ diameters.
The filaments support parasitic crystals of various minerals, the larger and
more numerous of which are datolite. Collected February 27, 1909.
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Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. Volume XIX, Plate XII.
PLATE XIII.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Apophyllite and Analcite on Datolite. Erie Cut, Bergen Hill, N. J.
The apophyllite crystals in some cases appear to be sequent upon the
analcite and certain of their faces are besprinkled with minute cubic
crystals of pyrite, too small to be visible in the illustration. In a few
cases similar sporadic cubes of pyrite occur on the analcite. Collected
February 27, 190.9.
Calcite sequent on Stilbite. Upper Montclair, N. J.
The calcite crystals here commonly include stilbite, and stilbite is fre¬
quently sequent on the calcite. Collected, April 24, 1894.
Pectolite sequent upon a plate of Prehnite. Woodcliff, N. J.
Collected April 23, 1896.
Pyrite in prisms and cubes on Heulandite. Shadyside, N. J.
Photomicrograph. Magnified 3$ diameters. Collected August 5, 1893.
.ItIZ :r!7. i'f
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.1081 .12 SijijA ,b9t09llo0 .9iir)fr.Q -orft no .tnoupoa vfJuoirp
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Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci. Volume XIX, Plate XIII.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 6, Part I, pp. 135-147. 27 December,
1909.]
THE GUADALUPIAN FAUNA AND NEW STRATIGRAPHIC
EVIDENCE.1
By George H. Girty.
When the Guadalupian fauna was described its stratigraphic relations
were unknown, except with formations in the immediate vicinity. Even
these were known chiefly to the south and west. In spite of this lack of
stratigraphic data I felt compelled to consider in a tentative manner the
relations of the Guadalupian fauna with the faunas of the Mississippi
Valley, not only biologically but in the category of geologic sequence;2
failure to do so would surely have been a source of criticism. The import¬
ance of the fauna and its affinities with those of Europe and Asia made it
hardly possible to avoid this point, while the incompleteness of the data
made it necessary to engage it with extreme caution. The evidence employed
had, in the nature of the case, to be paleontological.
One of the pivotal facts in the evidence, regarding which there can hardly
be a difference of opinion, is that the Guadalupian fauna is within certain
limits quite different from any faunas of the Mississippi Valley. Two
interpretations could be given to this fact. Either it was due to environ¬
ment and the Guadalupian fauna was equivalent to some very different
fauna in the Mississippi Valley, or it was due to time, and the Guadalupian
fauna belonged to a horizon not represented by the faunas of that area.
One explanation or the other it was necessary to adopt as a working hypothe¬
sis. The premise upon which the science of stratigraphic paleontology
proceeds is, as is well known, that two horizons containing the same fauna
should not be regarded as different, or two horizons containing different
faunas should not be regarded as the same, unless substantial stratigraphic
1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.
Read by title before the New York Academy of Sciences, 6 December, 1909.
2 In his generous critique of my Guadalupian report Dr. J. W. Beede says, “It is very
difficult to determine what Dr. Girty’s conclusion as to the relative age of the Guadalupian,
Russian and Kansan deposits is” (Jour. Geol., vol. 17, p. 679. 1909). Dr. Beede seems to con¬
fuse my recognition that the opinion which I entertained on this point was not substantiated
by conclusive evidence, and my feeling that it was necessary to discuss other hypotheses, with
not having or not expressing any clearly defined opinion or hypothesis at all. The conclusion
tentatively adopted was that outlined in the present paper and pretty clearly intimated on pp.
42 and 50 of the Guadalupian report.
135
136
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
evidence shows the facts to be otherwise. It was, therefore, the conservative
course to assume that the very great difference between the Guadalupian
faunas and those of the Mississippi Valley was due to time rather than to
environment. The one fact then known which was unfavorable to this
hypothesis was the apparently very limited distribution of the fauna, which,
in the typical area, occupied nearly 4,000 feet of strata. At one time or
another I have examined Carboniferous collections representing very many
different horizons and scatteringly representing most of the areas in North
America where Carboniferous rocks are known. If the strikingly individual
facies of the Guadalupian fauna was not due to environment, why, I asked
myself, did it not occur in other areas. The thickness of the series would
diminish the chance of existence without discovery and the characteristic
aspect of the fauna would diminish the chance of discovery without recogni¬
tion. To these questions it was possible to answer that certain scanty
faunas in California did show some of the notable features of the Guada¬
lupian facies and it was also suggested that aside from such factors as
non-deposition and erosion the apparent absence of this horizon might be
accounted for by its representation elsewhere by non-fossiliferous strata,
such as the “ Red Beds” for the most part are.
Now, if the difference of facies from the more eastern faunas was due to
time, it seemed probable that the Guadalupian fauna was younger rather
than older than the faunas of which we have knowledge in the Mississippi
Valley. This seemed to be indicated by certain intrinsic features, such as
the degenerated condition of certain brachiopods, as well as by the obvious
relationship with certain Asiatic and European faunas, whose position was
recognized as high up in the Carboniferous section. Confirmatory evidence
was also found in a fauna beneath the Guadalupian, occupying some 5,000
feet of rocks, which has a facies markedly different from the Guadalupian
fauna and very much more in agreement with the familiar faunas of Kansas
and the Upper Mississippi Valley. By reasoning such as this, the conclu¬
sion was suggested that the Guadalupian fauna was younger than any of the
Pennsylvanian or “Permian” faunas of the Mississippi Valley.
It has already been remarked that the Guadalupian fauna, while totally
different from almost anything else known in the United States, or even in
the western hemisphere, yet showed certain Asiatic and European affinities.
The fauna of the underlying Ilueco limestone, while more comparable to the
Pennsylvanian faunas of the Mississippi Valley than are those of the Guada¬
lupian series (Capitan and Delaware Mountain formations), is rather
Russian than American in its facies. It shows marked resemblance to the
Gschelian fauna of the Russian section. The Gschelian lies beneath the
Artinskian and Permian of Russia, just as the Hueconian lies beneath the
GIRTY, THE GU AD ALU PI AN FAUNA
137
Delaware Mountain formation and the Capitan limestone of the trans-Pecos
section. Although the faunal relation between the Delaware Mountain
and Capitan faunas on the one hand and the Artinskian and Permian
faunas on the other was by no means as close as between the Hueconian and
Gschelian, it seemed justified to correlate in a tentative manner the two
American horizons with the two Russian ones, which appear to occupy the
same position in the section. Carried to a logical conclusion, it is apparent
that these comparisons, if correct, would place the entire invertebrate-bearing
Carboniferous section of Kansas — Pennsylvanian and Permian as well —
below not only the Russian Permian, but even the Artinskian, and align it
with the Gschelian and underlying beds.
While these correlations seemed measurably supported, or at least not
contradicted by the evidence in hand, it was fully appreciated that the rela¬
tions suggested were on trial and must be verified by more complete data
before they could be accepted. R was clearly appreciated also that the fun¬
damental proposition from which these correlations proceeded — those with
the Mississippi Valley at least — that the peculiarities of the Guadalupian
fauna were due to time not to environment, must be decided by further
explorations. The most promising field for this purpose was toward the
north, for in this direction, as represented on the imperfect maps of the
region, the Guadalupe Mountains, from whose southern point the rich and
interesting faunas were obtained, in their northward extension merge with
the Sacramento Mountains, the western face of which swings westward until
it reaches a point nearly north of El Paso. From the more northern ex¬
tension of these Mountains we have had fossil evidence for many years, the
faunas, however, presenting a facies very unlike the Guadalupian. The
question as to what becomes of the Guadalupian rocks and faunas in the
northward extension of the mountain mass whose southern end is composed
of them was discussed many times with Mr. Bailey Willis and Mr. G. B.
Richardson with whom I have had the pleasure of being associated in much
of my work in the trans-Pecos region. Although several trips have been
made to that area during the past five or six years, it has always been for a
specific purpose and with a limited allotment and it seemed, to me at all
events, that when the exploration in question was taken up, it should be
made thorough and should be reasonably unhampered by considerations of
time and expense.
In the meantime the evidence represented by our scattered and uncor¬
related data in the Sacramento Mountains was accounted for by the hypoth¬
esis of erosion and deformation, for, if it seemed probable that the faunal
differences of the Guadalupian from the Kansas section were not the result
of environment, it was a fortiori improbable that corresponding differences
138
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
should be interpreted in that way with faunas so much nearer geographically.
I myself was expecting an east-west fault which would put the northern area
out of relationship with the southern, or a southward dip which would bring
only the lower beds to view in the noijth.
This summer, however, while I was detained in Idaho, Mr. Richardson
was able to make a hurried trip into what we had considered the critical area
and with results important in their bearing on the problems in question.
His facts will perhaps make it necessary to dismiss the hypothesis from
which the relations of the Guadalupian to the Kansas section were tenta¬
tively considered and to conclude that the remarkable facies of the Guada¬
lupian fauna is to a large extent, if not wholly, the result of environmental
causes.
The chief facts of immediate importance, which Mr. Richardson has
kindly permitted me to summarize on this occasion, but which he will present
in full in another place, are these: The Guadalupian formations in passing
northward from Guadalupe Point are not interrupted by east-west faults
and the prevailing dip is eastward. In its northward extension the massive
Capitan limestone merges along the strike into thin-bedded limestone and
sandstone, the limestone element finally disappearing altogether or being
represented only by thin local beds. Still farther to the north, the strata
take on a red color and become part of the “Red Beds” series. Northward
from Guadalupe Point fossiliferous horizons become rare in the Capitan
and the collections which Mr. Richardson brought in tend to show that with
the change in lithology the fauna also changes character, so that practically
nothing of the typical Guadalupian facies is left. This feature I shall refer
to more in detail below.
The fossiliferous limestone capping the Sacramento Mountains on their
western rim and exposed at Cloudcroft northeast of Alamogordo, New
Mexico, has been known to me for a good many years. The first collections
were made by Mr. R. T. Hill in 1900. I visited the locality two years
afterward and collections have been brought in subsequently by other
members of the Survey. The presence of faulting renders it difficult to
measure the section from Cloudcroft to the valley below, but the limestone
at Cloudcroft is underlain by perhaps 3,000 feet of “Red Beds” and 1,500
feet of shales, sandstones and limestones, all of upper Carboniferous age.
The limestone at Cloudcroft I have been tentatively correlating with the
upper part of the Hueco limestone of western Texas because of certain
faunal resemblances with a collection made at the Corundas Mountains,
the horizon of which is in the upper part of the Hueco. The Hueco in the
typical area consists of limestone throughout, even shale beds being usually
wanting, and the approximate thickness is 5,000 feet. Inferentially, there-
GIRTY, THE GUADALUPIAN FAUNA
139
fore, a large part of the Hueco is represented by “Red Beds” in the Cloud-
croft section, appearing to be what Mr. Richardson has found the Capitan
to be, a great lens in the “Red Beds” fingering toward the north into beds
of clastic material, either red themselves or passing into the typical “Red
Beds.”
From Cloudcroft eastward the geologic structure is, according to Mr.
Richardson, a regular one, with gentle eastward dips, the general trend of
the surface also being toward the east but with a descent slightly less rapid
than the dip of the rocks. A similar regularity and simplicity characterizes
the structure southward also and it is consequently possible to determine in
a general way the stratigraphic relations to the Guadalupian section of the
collections made by Mr. Hill and Mr. Fisher, relations which were not pre¬
viously known.
A summary of the paleontologic data contained in these collections will
be of interest at this point. The identifications are preliminary to a careful
discussion of the paleontology of the region, but they will serve to show the
general character of the faunas. The following is a composite list from
Cloudcroft, New Mexico, based upon collections made by Mr. Hill, Mr.
C. A. Fisher, Mr. Richardson and myself, only the more common and sig¬
nificant species being included in it:
Echinocrinus sp.
Chonetes aff. Geinitzianus
Productus I vest
Productus Leei ?
Productus Mexicanus ?
Productus subhorridus ?
Marginifera Manzanica
Marginifera Cristobalensis
Composita Mexicana
Cardiomorpha ? sp.
Nucula levatiformis
Manzanella elliptical
Aviculipecten aff. Vanvleeti
Myalina aff. perniformis
Allerisma Gilberti ?
Schizodus Wheeleri?
Schizodus n. sp.
Cleidophorus aff. Pallasi
Bakewellia ? sp.
Plagioglypta canna
Bellerophon majusculus
Euphemus subpapillosus
Bucanopsis modesta
Murchisonia terebra ?
Murchisonia sp.
140
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Euomphalas n. sp.
Naticopsis deformis
Coloceras globular el
Domatoceras Highland ense ?
Metacoceras aff. inconspicuum
Anisopyge inornata
This fauna is characterized to some extent by the scarcity of brachiopods
and the dominance of true mollusca. The brachiopods, though reduced in
variety, are apt to be extremely abundant; especially is this true of the
Producti, and to a less extent of Chonetes and Composita. Nautiloids are
also unusually abundant, suggesting in some respects the Nautiloid fauna of
the Texas “Permian,” though presumably the horizon is different. A
resemblance especially close is shown to the Manzano fauna of the Rio
Grande Valley in New Mexico. The facies is distinctly unlike the Penn¬
sylvanian or “Permian” faunas of the interior basin.
About the same facies is shown by collections made at a somewhat higher
horizon near Pine Spring, New Mexico. Still higher, from localities in the
general vicinity of Mayhill, Ruidosa and Weed, on the eastern slope of the
Sacramento Mountains, we have the following species from eight localities:
Echinocrinus sp.
Chonetes aff. Geinitzianus
Productus Ivesi
Productus Mexicanusl
Productus subhorridusl
Productus aff. Irgince
Pugnax Osagensis var. pusilla
Composita Mexicana
Composita subtilita
Nucula levatiformis
Aviculipecten sp. (same at Cloudcroft.)
Myalina aff. meliniformis
Bakewellia ? sp.
Plagioglypta canna
Bellerophon sp.
Euomphalus n. sp.
Tainoceras sp.
Grijffithides sp.
Not far above this general horizon, Mr. Richardson thinks, would pass the
plane which farther south, where the lithologic distinctions are more sharp,
divides the Hueeo limestone from the Guadalupian, and several collections
from the north end of the Guadalupe Mountains at Lower Penasco and
Pretty Bird Creek, can, with considerable probability, be assigned to unde¬
termined horizons in the Guadalupian. A composite list of six collections
showing the most important species is as follows:
G1RTY, THE GUADALUPIAN FAUNA
141
Lopho ph yllum ? sp.
Echinocrinus sp.
Meekella striaticostata
Chonetes aff. Geinitzianus var.
Productus Ivesi
Productus subhorridus ?
Productus Mexicanus ?
Pugnax Osagensis ?
Composita Mexicana
Cardiomorphal sp.
Nucula sp.
Manzanella elliptical
Bakewellia ? sp.
Murchisonia terebra ?
Bellerophon majusculus ?
Euomphalus n. sp.
Naticopsis de for mis ?
Nautilus sp.
Here again we find the same general facies which was first noted at
Cloudcroft. About 30 miles west of Roswell on the Lincoln Road, Mr.
Richardson obtained a few fossils which I have identified as Productus Leeif,
Productus subhorridus ?, Productus Mexicanus ? and Composita? sp. The
stratigraphic horizon of the last is considerably higher than the preceding
and occurs in beds which are apparently the continuation of the upper strata
in the Guadalupe Mountains. Insofar as it goes this fauna presents the same
facies as those of lower horizon farther west. Now, it is possible that among
the varied Producti grouped under P. Mexicanus? and P. subhorridus?
there may be some which might be identified as P. occidentalis of the Capitan
limestone (P. Mexicanus itself was first described from the Capitan) or
P. Popei of the dark limestone or P. T exanus of the Delaware Mountain
formation, but it is apparent that the Guadalupian fauna in a characteristic
form is not indicated by our collections in the northward extension of the
Guadalupian rocks, all the variety, all the peculiar species which gave color
to it being absent. Our collections, especially from the higher horizons, are
unfortunately meager and may give a perverted view of the fauna as it really
occurs, but the evidence is such as to demand a consideration, if not the
adoption, of the hypothesis that the facies of the Guadalupian fauna is a
regional matter denoting not time relations but geographic relations.
There is one more collection made by Mr. Fisher from a limestone in the
“Red Beds” northwest of Roswell which represents a still higher horizon
than any of the foregoing. The fossils are abundant but represent only two
species, Pleurophorus? aff. subcostatus and Schizodus aff. ovatus. The
Schizodus may be the same species which at Cloudcroft I identified as S.
142
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Wheeleri and, if so, indicates a connection with the older faunas. The
Pleurophorus does not seem to show the linear posterior tooth of that genus
and its relations are therefore doubtful. It would be unsafe to say anything
definite regarding this occurrence. In fact, it might be unwise to assert
definitely from intrinsic evidence that it was of Carboniferous rather than
Triassic age.
Although not of foremost importance in connection with the subject in
hand, it may be well to remark on the lower faunas of the Pennsylvanian in
the Sacramento Mountains. These were naturally obtained on the bold
western front of the range, chiefly in the vicinity of Alamogordo and La Luz
Canyon. Beneath the limestone mass which caps the summit at Cloudcroft
there is, as has already been pointed out, an extensive series of sandy strata
largely characterized by a red color and belonging to what is generally called
the “Red Beds.” They comprise, it is estimated, between two and three
thousand feet of “Red Beds” and below these, northeast of Alamogordo,
some 1500 feet of sandstone, shale and limestone, in which the red color is
lacking, but which may be represented by “Red Beds” elsewhere. The col¬
lections were made in the lower part of the sandy series chiefly from the
basal 1500 feet, but also from some heavy limestones which occur in the lower
part of the “Red Beds” overlying. Some of the more important species
identified in twelve collections are:
Triticites secalicus
Rhipidomella Pecosi
Enteletes hemiplicatus
Derbya crassa
Meekella striaticostata
Chonetes Flemingi
Productus semireticulatus
Productus punctatus
Productus Cora
Productus Nebraskensis
Marginifera Wabashensis
Marginifera splendens
Dielasma bovidens
Spirifer Rockymontanus
Spirifer cameratus
Squamularia perplexa
Ambocoelia planiconvexa
Composita subtilita
Leda bellistriata var. attenuata
Aviculipinna Nebraskensis
Pseudomonolis Hawni
Pseudomonotis Kansasensis
Myalina subquadrata
GIRTY, THE GUADALUPIAN FAUNA
143
Allorisma terminale
Plagioglypta canna?
Meekospira sp.
Euomphalus catilloides
Gonioloboceras goniolobus.
It will at once strike the paleontologist that this facies is largely that of
the Mississippi Valley Pennsylvanian and very different from the overlying
limestone whose base is near Cloudcroft. It is not clear from our collec¬
tions that the fauna of the limestone does not descend into the “Red Beds”
below and there is a suggestion, though as yet a very slight one, of an inter¬
gradation or intermingling of the faunas. Yet it will probably remain true,
new evidence being discounted, that the lower faunas have much more of a
Pennsylvanian facies than the upper.
If we attempt to correlate this fauna with that of Kansas by means of
Mr. J. W. Beede’s recently published charts, the effort is apparently attended
with indifferent success. Many of the species range from the base to the
top or nearly to the top of the Pennsylvanian. Enteletes hemiplicatus ,
however, does not appear below the Allen limestone, while Aviculipinna
Nebraskensis ranges from the Bethany limestone to the Chanute shale.
In other words, there either is no evidence because of the long range of the
species, or else the evidence is conflicting, for of the two critical species
mentioned above, the range of one (A. N ebraskensis) ends in Kansas before
the other begins ; nor is any false premise involved on the part of the western
occurrence because of the list being a composite one, for the two species were
obtained at the same locality. While better results might attend a more
critical comparison of the two faunas, I think it will be safe to say that the
evidence will not be obvious in its significance or without contradiction.
Tentatively, the horizon indicated seems to be above the lower formations of
the Kansas “Coal Measures” and below the upper, within say the limits of
Mr. Beede’s1 series II and III, and possibly in the lower rather than the upper
part of these limits. On the other hand, Spirifer Rocky mo ntanus , which
does not occur in the Kansas section at all, suggests a still lower horizon
with the still further contradiction of the evidence vested in the two species
especially discussed above.
The faunal evidence afforded by our collections is not as complete as is
desirable but it indicates no trace, or only the faintest trace, of the typical
Guadalupian fauna in those beds which are known to be the continuation of
the Guadalupian formations. The imperfectly known faunas which we do
find there have no marked relationship to those developed so close at hand
1 University Geol. Surv. Kansas, Rept., vol. 9, pp. 336, 362 et seq. 1909.
144
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
to the southward and are more comparable to the faunas at Clouderoft, and
in the Hueco limestone. This phenomenon may result from several causes,
— to a change of facies at the same horizon, or the introduction of different
facies at new horizons, etc., but in any event, if the fact thus suggested is
substantiated, it seems to render untenable the proposition that the peculiar¬
ities of the Guadalupian fauna are due to position in time, which I had
employed as a working hypothesis, and of course to make it necessary to
abandon the tentative correlations which developed from it. The alterna¬
tive hypothesis that this facies, remarkable as it is, is due to local conditions
would be demanded by the evidence.
On this new interpretation it becomes extremely difficult to determine any
exact relationship between the trans-Pecos section and that of the Mississippi
Valley. The unique character of the Guadalupian fauna, which at first
suggested that it belonged to a later period than any of the Carboniferous
faunas of the Kansas section, at least effectually precludes a correlation
with that section by means of faunal evidence at present known. A few
genera, such as Enteletes, have a characteristic range in the Kansas beds,
but they are either absent from the Guadalupian fauna, or, if present, as is
the case with the genus mentioned, their evidence can hardly be relied on.
The influences which made so many of the Guadalupian genera and practi¬
cally all of the species different from those of Kansas and even segregated the
species of the common genera into altogether different types would hardly
maintain the ranges of those genera at the same level but would extinguish
them earlier or later in one region or the other. At least the hypothesis of
uniformity appears the more improbable.
The typical Hueconian fauna while, as already remarked, it shows far
more resemblances than the Guadalupian to the Pennsylvanian faunas of
the Mississippi Valley, is yet much more Russian than American in its
facies. I noted in my Guadalupian report that it was reminiscent of the
earlier rather than the later faunas of the Kansas section, but it also affords
no basis for definite faunal correlation. The same is true of the more north¬
ern faunas into which Mr. Richardson’s work has shown that the Guada¬
lupian faunas are transformed or by which replaced. They have a western
rather than an eastern facies and show nothing suggestively analogous to the
Kansas faunal sequence. In a brief survey therefore of the faunas of the
trans-Pecos region, I find no point d’appui in invertebrate paleontology for
an exact correlation of the Guadalupian series with the Kansas section.
It might correspond to one part almost as well as to another, or it might be
above as was my original hypothesis. A fortiori, if the Guadalupian faunas
do not maintain their characters for one hundred miles to the northward,
at least as great or even greater transformation may be expected at equiv-
GIRTY, THE GUADALUPIAN FAUNA
145
alent horizons in the Mississippi Valley. If correlated with any part of the
Kansas section, the equivalence is presumably with the upper beds, in view
of the great thickness of the trans-Pecos series and the general character of
the Hueeo fauna. The actual relations must be determined by stratigraphic
or new paleontologic evidence.
At one point in the preceding discussion it was stated that at the time the
Guadalupian fauna was described, no stratigraphic facts were known which
tended to determine the relationship of the Guadalupian series to the Carbon¬
iferous of the Mississippi Valley. To this statement one exception may be
made. W. F. Cummins 1 had already traced the Permian and the Triassic
(Dockum group) of central Texas around into the trans-Pecos region,
where they were found to occupy a position suprajacent to the Guadalupian.
C. N. Gould’s work, published as Water-supply Papers of the U. S. Geologi¬
cal Survey,2 does not bear so much upon this point and was hardly accessible
to me at that time, because my report was nearly three years in the hands
of the editors, mostly in proof, so that his earliest report must have been
coming from the press just as mine was going into it. The failure to discuss
Cummins’s conclusions in their bearing on the correlation of the Guada¬
lupian beds was due to oversight rather than to an intentional disregard of
stratigraphic evidence. Nevertheless, the peculiar and individual features
of the Guadalupian faunas were so impressive that I think I should have
been disposed to believe that some mistake had been made in mapping the
Texas formations since the work was of a reconnaissance nature, since it
was without fossil evidence (in fact, when we consider the nature of the
Guadalupian fauna, it may in a sense be said to have been contrary to fossil
evidence), and since it involved the tracing, over a long distance, of strata
peculiarly difficult to follow owing to lithologic changes at the same horizon.
Under present conditions, while the considerations mentioned still
obtain, the objection resident in the peculiar facies of the Guadalupian fauna
is largely removed by the facts recently brought to hand, and this becomes
about the only line of evidence at present available, which links the Guada¬
lupian beds with those of the Mississippi Valley. The result of a summary
of this evidence is surprising. In Cummins’s terminology the Permian
consists of the Wichita, Clear Fork and Double Mountain formations, the
latter being the highest. Now, according to the same author, the upper
part of the Wichita is the Fort Riley limestone,3 which is the middle portion
of the Chase or basal group of the Kansas “ Permian ”. Consequently, if this
tracing is correct, the Guadalupian beds represent a horizon below the base
1 Geol. Surv. Texas, Third Ann. Rept., p. 211 ; also N. F. Drake, idem., pp. 227 et seq. 1891.
2 Nos. 148, 154, 191.
3 Texas Acad. Sri., Trans., vol. 2, p. 98. 1897.
146
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
of the Kansas “ Permian ” as determined by the Wreford limestone, the basal
formation of the Chase group. Bearing on the position in the Kansas
section of the base of the Guadalupian beds, I have no evidence, but as the
latter aggregate 4,000 feet in thickness (overlying strata which are not
shown at Guadalupe Point not being included), even if we allow for con¬
siderable expansion, the base of the Guadalupian beds must occur consider¬
ably below the base of the Chase group.
Furthermore, Gould 1 states that the Quartermaster and Greer formations
of the Oklahoma section are probably equivalent to the Double Mountain
formation of Texas; the Woodward, Blaine and Enid to the Clear Fork,
and the rocks near Chandler (which he refers to the Pennsylvanian) to the
Wichita. From this it would appea-r that the interesting fauna which Dr.
Beede described from the Quartermaster formation and the Whitehorse
sandstone member of the Woodward formation must occur far above the
top of the Capitan limestone.
If the peculiar facies of the Guadalupian fauna seems to be largely due
to environmental conditions when compared with those nearby, such corre¬
lative value as is lodged in its resemblance to certain faunas in Asia and
Europe must also be accepted with caution. These led to a tentative align¬
ment of the Guadalupian with the Artinsk and Permian of Russia. Granted
the correctness of the not wholly satisfactory stratigraphic evidence, this
would make the Permian of Kansas and Oklahoma largely, or entirely
younger than the typical Permian of Russia. Granted, however, the cor¬
rectness of the plant evidence, which determines the lower portion of the
Kansas “Permian” as of Permian age, the Guadalupian would then occupy
the position of the Gschelian, and its possible equivalent in India (the
Produetus limestone), and in Sicily (the Fusulina limestone) would also be
Gschelian. As against this stands the fact that the Hueco beds are much
more nearly related to the Gschelian than are the Guadalupian, so far as
the faunas are concerned, and that the two American formations aggregate
over 10,000 feet, which is a rather great thickness to represent the Russian
formation.
It will be of interest to give brief consideration to the faunal procession
which occupied some of the American areas during the upper Carboniferous.
According to the correlation governed by the latest evidence available, the
earlier faunas of the Pennsylvanian in the Hueco and Sacramento mountains
have a facies in many respects closely simulating the well-known Pennsyl¬
vanian of the Mississippi Valley — more Russian in the Hueco Mountains,
more American in the Saeramentos. Changing conditions caused a change
1 U. S. Geol. Surv., Water-supply Paper, No. 154, p. 17. 1906.
GIRTY, THE GU AD ALU PI AN FAUNA
147
in the fauna which made itself felt in the limestone at Cloudcroft or possibly
earlier. Still another change of conditions, inaugurated apparently further
south, produced the remarkable Guadalupian faunas, organic life in the Sacra¬
mento Mountains apparently remaining nearly static. Static conditions seem
also to have prevailed in the Mississippi Valley 1 through all this period, and
beyond into the “Permian,” allowing but slight and gradual faunal develop¬
ments which did not at any time assume a facies resembling the higher faunas
of the trans-Pecos. Later than the Guadalupian and later also than the ex¬
tinguished faunas of the Kansas section, came those of the higher “Red
Beds” of Oklahoma (Whitehorse and Quartermaster). Although my knowl¬
edge of the last mentioned faunas and their occurrence is largely second hand,
they seem to present such marked differences from the Kansas Permian that
it would be well, it seems to me, to consider carefully whether it is appropriate
to include them in the same group. These faunal modifications, which are
almost without known parallel in the Paleozoic, are certainly, so far at all
events as the Guadalupe and Sacramento mountains are concerned, independ¬
ent of the direct influence of barriers and are apparently to be interpreted
upon the basis of environmental influences. At present the area in cpiestion
seems to offer a field for research in the matter of faunal modifications of
the greatest interest and promise.
1 Dr. Beede states that an intermingling of the faunas of the two areas was impossible to a
considerable extent after about the horizon of the Topeka limestone (Jour. Geol., vol. 17, p. 679.
1909.)
VOL. XIX
PART II
ANNALS
OF THE
NEW YORK
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
EDITOR
Edmund Otis Hovey
NEW YORK
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY
1909
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
(Lyceum of Natural History, 1817-1876.)
Officers, 1909.
President — Charles F. Cox, Grand Central Station.
Vice-Presidents — J. J. Stevenson, Frank M. Chapman,
D. W. Hering, Maurice Fishberg.
Recording Secretary — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
Corresponding Secretary — Hermon C. Bumpus, American Museum.
Treasurer — Emerson McMillin, 40 Wall Street.
Librarian — Ralph W. Tower, American Museum.
Editor — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Chairman — J. J. Stevenson, New York University.
Secretary — Charles P. Berkey, Columbia University.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
Chairman — Frank M. Chapman, American Museum.
Secretary — Louis Hussakof, American Museum.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Chairman — D. W. Hering, New York University.
Secretary — William Campbell, Columbia University.
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
Chairman — Maurice Fishberg, 1337 Madison Avenue.
Secretary — R. S. Woodworth, Columbia University.
The sessions of the Academy are held on Monday evenings at 8:15
o’clock from October to May, inclusive, at the American Museum of Natural
History, 77th Street and Central Park, West.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 7, Part II, pp. 149-160. 15 January,
1910.]
PATAGONIA AND THE PAMPAS CENOZOIC OF SOUTH AMER¬
ICA. A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE CORRELATIONS OF
SANTIAGO ROTH,1 1908.
By W. D. Matthew.
(Read December 6, 1909, before the New York Academy of Sciences.)
This valuable contribution from Dr. Santiago Roth, of the La Plata
Museum, bears throughout the mark of a cautious, able and judicious
investigator, thoroughly familiar by first hand observation with the forma¬
tions discussed, well-acquainted with the European Tertiary faunae that are
chiefly used for comparisons and with the broad principles upon which such
correlations have usually been based. Dr. Roth’s paper is illustrated by a
series of instructive photographs of the formations described, and constitutes
a most welcome contribution to one of the most important correlation prob¬
lems of the present day. He intends soon to present fully the paleontological
evidence in his hands.
The age of the later Mesozoic and Cenozoic formations of the Argentine
Republic has become a problem of high scientific importance on account of
the extraordinarily rich and varied mammalian faunae which they have
yielded.
In more recent years, interest in the fossils of the Argentine has been
renewed by the discovery of a series of mammal faunae older than the Pam-
pean and no less remarkable. The first credit for these later discoveries
is due to the tireless energy of the distinguished Argentine paleontologist,
Florentino Ameghino, now director of the Museo Nacional of Buenos Aires;
who in his earlier years played a large part in obtaining the great Pampean
collections of the Paris Museum and the American Museum of Natural
History. Finally, in the Museum of La Plata, the efforts of Moreno, Roth
and Mercerat have brought together a collection of South American fossil
mammals second only to that of the Museo Nacional.
1 S. Roth: Beitrag zur Gliederung der Sediraentablagerungen in Patagonien und der
Pampasregion. Neues Jahrbuch, B. B. XXVI, s. 92-150, taf. xi-xvii. Stuttgart, 1908.
149
.l.Y.Y.l/.S Y/:n YORK ACADEMY OF Si ICACFS
1 50
Table I.
A wide diversity of opinion exists as to the correlation of these formations
of the Argentine Republic, older as well as more recent. Comparison with
European standards is peculiarly difficult on account of the isolation of the
faunae and the lack of corresponding and closely related, not to say identical,
genera and species in them. In the absence of such direct data, recourse
must be had to more indirect means of correlation, —
First , to the relative stage of evolution shown in the faume compared.
Second, to their near or remote relationship to the modern faume of
the same region, as exhibited in the proportion of extinct to living species,
genera and families.
MATTHEW, PATAGONIA AND PAMPAS CEN0Z01C
151
Dr. Ameghino in his correlation places greater weight upon the first,
Dr. Roth upon the second means. European and North American pale¬
ontologists have in general been indisposed to accept the results of either
of these methods at their face value, unless supported by (1) known strati¬
graphic relations to marine faunae, or by (2) direct comparison of some nearly
related types in the stages to be correlated.
The question is of necessity a difficult one, and it is doubtful whether it
can be securely settled until we know more of the origin and direction of
migration of the various components of the faunae involved. If, as is the
practically unanimous opinion of European and North American writers,
the vast majority of the Tertiary and modern mammals originated in the
North, it is obvious that the geological age of equivalent stages in most phyla
will be later in Patagonia than in the northern world. If, as Dr. Ameghino
believes, Patagonia was the center of dispersal of the majority of Tertiary
and modern mammals, the reverse will be true.
In the first case the Patagonian faunae will be more recent than they
seem ; in the second case they will be older. And it should be observed that
the same will hold true of the marine faunae, although perhaps the divergence
between actual and apparent age will not be so wide. If the majority of
groups of marine vertebrata and invertebrata originated along the coasts
or in the seas of the northern hemisphere, then the real age of the marine
faunae of the southern seas and coasts will be less than their apparent age;
they will be, like the land faunae, unprogressive and archaic in comparison
with their northern contemporaries.
We may review briefly the principal data which Dr. Roth brings forward
in support of his correlations:
I. The Notostylops Fauna.
1. Roth confirms positively the assertion of Ameghino that this mamma¬
lian fauna is unquestionably associated with Dinosaurs. This means either
that it is of Cretaceous age, or that Dinosaurs survived in South America
into the Eocene epoch. But the beds in which the Notostylops fauna occurs
are, according to R,oth, quite certainly of identical age with the marine
Roca beds, which are admitted by Wilckens to be Cretaceous. Unless
therefore we suppose, as the reviewer has intimated above, that the marine
faunae of the southern coast may be more recent than homotaxial marine
faunae in the northern world, we must admit, apparently, that this fauna is
of pre-Tertiary age.
2. He denies the presence of rodents in this fauna, but it includes
armadillos “of which some are scarcely distinguishable from those living
152
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
to-day.” Ameghino has repeatedly insisted upon the great antiquity of the
armadillos, and that they represent very nearly the central stock from which
the edentate families are descended.
3. All the ungulates are braehyodont; most of them belong to the
Notungulata, a group proposed by Roth which is not represented in the
northern world. The animals regarded by Ameghino as ancestral to the
Ancylopoda or clawed Perissodactyla and to the Equine Perissodactyls, are,
according to Roth, early stages in the evolution of the Notungulata and have
nothing to do with Perissodactyls.
4. The so-called Creodonts of the early South American faunse (Sparas-
sodonta) are not really related to the true Creodonts of the northern hemi¬
sphere, the resemblances being due to parallelism. Sinclair has demon¬
strated this very clearly as regards the Sparassodonta of the Santa Cruz
fauna.
The reviewer notes with regret that Dr. Roth does not discuss in any
detail the l'elations or comparisons between the apparent Condvlarth and
Multituberculate element of the Notostylops fauna and the Condylarths and
Multituberculates of the Puerco, Torrejon and Cernaysian faunae of North
America and Europe. These groups, although imperfectly known, appear
to afford the most important means of comparison with the basal Eocene
mammal faunse of the northern world. Roth is apparently unaware that
the absence of rodents is also a marked feature of the northern basal Eocene
faunse. Nor does he take into account the relatively advanced stages of
evolution in the Notungulate groups of the Notostylops fauna as compared
with anything to be found in the Puerco-Torrejon or Cernaysian. These
data appear to us to be important parts of the evidence, which we trust may
be duly discussed and considered later.
II. The Pyrotherium Fauna.
There has been a good deal of confusion between the Pyrotherium
fauna and the preceding Notostylops fauna, which is not yet cleared up
satisfactorily. The most characteristic genus is Pyrotherium, and, as
evidence of more recent age than the Notostylops beds, no association of
Dinosaur teeth with this fauna has been demonstrated. The formation is
provisionally placed by Roth in the Eocene.
III. The Patagonian Tuff Formation.
Under this Dr. Roth includes both the marine Patagonian and the
terrestrial Santa Cruz beds. He agrees with Ameghino’s more recently
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MATTHEW, PATAGONIA AND PAMPAS CENOZOIC
153
expressed views, as well as with Ortmann, Scott and Hatcher, in regarding
them as the marine and fresh-water facies of a single great formation. So
far as the age of the marine facies is concerned, he points out the discrepancy
in the conclusions of Cossmann, von Ihering, Ortmann, Ameghino and
Wilckens as to the age indicated by its fauna, and concludes that the marine
fauna is a rather uncertain guide as to the age of the formation. The
reviewer ventures to express a corresponding skepticism as regards the
marine facies of the Notostvlops beds. The correlation is not much more
satisfactory when obtained through the terrestrial fauna, large and well
known as this is. This fauna is in great part composed of new groups of
mammals, which are not directly derivable from those of the Pyrotherium
beds; other groups have broadened out or specialized so far between the
two epochs as to show that a long time gap intervenes. The intermediate
stages recognized by Ameghino between the two are regarded by Roth as
not demonstrably more than local facies of the Santa Cruzian fauna.
There are at most three sub-divisions of the Patagonian tuffs. The
lowest member, the Tecka beds, contains a limited mammalian fauna of
older facies, as shown by the presence of Archceohyrax of the Pyrotherium
beds, and the continued absence of rodents. The middle horizon includes
the main mass of the marine Patagonian, in which Santa Cruz mammals
are found locally, mixed with the marine fauna. There are also consider¬
able fresh-water mammaliferous beds in this horizon. The main body of
the epicontinental Santa Cruz formation lying to the southward, overlies
the marine beds, according to the observations of Carlos Ameghino, and if
so, constitutes the uppermost member of the formation.
Much weight is laid by Roth, as also by Ameghino, upon the evidence
obtainable from the rodents in correlating the Santa Cruz fauna. In Europe,
rodents first appear in the Lower Eocene (Wasatch and Suessonian), in
the Argentine their first appearance is in the Patagonian tuffs.1 All the
Santa Cruz rodents are highly specialized forms; the primitive groups of
the European Eocene do not appear at all. On the other hand, no modern
genera occur in the Santa Cruz, while in Europe a large percentage of the
Miocene genera are still living, and many living genera are found even in
the Oligocene. The author concludes that this entire absence of living
genera indicates an age not later than Oligocene for the Santa Cruz
rodentia.
The reviewer would agree as to the value of the rodents in this problem,
but would be more inclined to weigh their actual degree of diversity as a
whole from the modern rodents, than the rather nominal character of per-
1 Ameghino, however, records Cephalomys , an unquestionable rodent, and a specialized
Hystricomorph at that, from the Pyrotherium Beds.
154
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
centages of extinct genera. The personal equation of the describe!’ and
the imperfection of the types enter so much into the generic reference of
extinct species, that correlations on this basis are not very reliable when
taken at their face value. Comparisons should also be made with North
American rodent genera of the Tertiary epochs and their modern survivors.
A further consideration that should be taken into account is that the exten¬
sive immigration of northern forms into South America at the end of the
Tertiary would naturally have caused a rapid extinction or modification of
the native rodent genera with which they came into competition. These
considerations have led the reviewer to agree with Scott in ascribing a
Miocene and probably late Miocene age to the Santa Cruz rodentia.
IV. The Patagonian Sandstone Formation.
This thick and generally barren formation includes the Teliuelche of
Gaudry and the Cape Fairweather Beds of Hatcher. It contains, according
to Roth, an admixture of Santa Cruzian and Pampean genera (at Lago
Fontana and Lago Blanco). Four subdivisions may be recognized, — Rio
Frias, Nahuel Huapi, Santa Rosa ( = Cape Fairweather) and Rio Negro
beds. The first three are regarded by the author as Miocene, the last as
Pliocene.
V. The Pampean Formation.
Roth uses this term in a rather wide or comprehensive sense, including
the Parana beds as well as the typical Pampean. He regards the lower
part of the Parana formation (= Monte Hermoso beds of Ameghino), as
not later than Miocene, the criteria being chiefly the ratio of extinct to living
genera. The earliest precursors of the great faunal invasion from North
America appear at this point ( Pararctotherium etc.) but the great mass of the
northern invaders ( Canis , Felis, Equus, Mastodon etc.) first appear in the
upper strata of the Middle Pampean, although Cervidse and Ursidte appear
somewhat earlier. Roth takes exception to the generally held view of the
North American origin of the South American species of Equidae as follows:
The occurrence of Equus in the Middle Pampean is no evidence for the Pleisto¬
cene age of these beds. We did not receive the Equidse from North America, as is
often asserted. There occur here contemporaneously three well separated genera,
of which two are not present in North America, a proof that they did not reach us
from there. The genus Equus occurs as early as the Siwalik beds of India [which
Roth accepts as Lower Pliocene]. Among all the immigrant mammals which occur
in the uppermost beds of the Middle Pampean there is no single genus which does not
occur in the Northern hemisphere as early as the Miocene.
MATTHEW, PATAGONIA AND PAMPAS CENOZOIC
155
The author considers that the Equidse reached South America from
the Old World by way of a South Atlantic land bridge.
Roth’s argument does not appear convincing to the reviewer. Against
it may be briefly noted the following:
1. Any other source than North America for the invading fauna in¬
volves geographic changes of a highly improbable character.
2. The existence of a land bridge between Africa and South America
in the late Tertiary would almost certainly involve a community of fauna
between the two continents which does not exist.
3. The counter-migration from South America took place to North
America and to North America only. It occurred chiefly at the end of the
Pliocene, as recorded in the North American faunal succession; but doubt¬
ful precursors are found in the Middle Miocene (Mascall x) and Lower
Pliocene (Snake Creek1 2) of North America.
4. There is no difficulty in the derivation of all the South American
Equidse from the more primitive North American Equidse of the late Mio¬
cene and Pliocene ( Protohippus , Pliohippus, Neohip par ion).
5. The Siwalik fauna is more or less composite and includes Pleistocene
as well as Pliocene species. It is doubtful whether any considerable part of
it is Miocene.
6. The Pampean Canis, Felis, Smilodon, Mastodon etc. are most
nearly related to late Pliocene and Pleistocene species of the north, and
especially of North America. The so-called Canis and Mastodon of the
northern Miocene are much more primitive forms, well separable generically.
7. All the genera of northern origin recorded from the Middle Pampean
are identical with or equivalent to the Pleistocene genera of North America,
and decidedly more advanced than the Upper Miocene and Pliocene genera
of this continent. Equus, Tapirus, Cervus, Mastodon, Arctotherium, Canis
and Smilodon first appear in North America in the Pleistocene. Hippi-
dion and Onohippidion are equivalent in specialization to Equus, and are
derivable from the much more primitive Pliohippus and related genera of
the Upper Miocene arid Pliocene. The so-called Listriodon and Catagonus
of the Pampean are closely related to Platygonus of the Pleistocene and
Prosthennops of the Upper Miocene and Pliocene of North America. Au-
chenia and Palceolama are equivalent in specialization to the Pleistocene
camels of North America, decidedly more advanced than the Upper Miocene
and Pliocene Procamelus, Alticamelus and Pliauchenia of this country.
The same relations appear in the Pampean Cervidse. Among the Felidae
Smilodon is found only in the Pampean and in the North American Pleisto-
1 Sinclair, 1906.
2 Matthew and Cook, 1909.
156
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
cene; it is unknown from the Old World; Felis is doubtfully identified in the
Middle Pliocene (Blanco), certainly present in the Pleistocene of North
America.
From these data it appears to the reviewer that the northern elements of
the Middle and Upper Pampean fauna were derived, certainly in large part,
probably entirely, from North America, by a migration not earlier than the
beginning of the Pleistocene. The Lower Pampean may however be con¬
siderably older; its few northern genera — Pararctotherium, Pachynasua,
Cyonasua, Microtragulus etc., are aberrant or imperfectly known forms of
more archaic aspect, approximately derivable from the Miocene carnivora
etc. of North America, but decidedly more specialized.
CHARACTERISTIC GENERA OF THE SOUTH AMERICAN CENOZOIC
WITH PROVISIONAL ORDINAL REFERENCES (W. D. M.1)-
I. Notostylops Fauna.
Marsupialia (Polyprotodontia).
Caroloameghinia (with bunodont molars).
Marsupialia (Diprotodontia, ? Multituberculata).
Propoly mastodon.
Polydolops, Orthodolops, Pliodolops.
Edentata (Dasypoid genera only).
Meteutatus etc.
Condylarthra (including genera allied to Periptychidse) .
Didolodus (cf. Ectoconus, but with quadrate molars).
Ricardolydekkeria, Gulielmofloveria (cf. Anisonchinse).
Asmithwoodioardia, Notoprotogonia (cf. Euprotogonia) .
Proectocion (cf. Ectocion and Phenacodus; also cf. Litopterna).
Nephacodus, Lonchoconus (cf. Phenacodus) .
? Henricosbornia.
Litopterna (primitive brachyodont genera of)
Lambdaconus (astragalus certainly Litoptern).
? Archaeohyracotherium, ? Oldfieldthomasia (cf. also Toxodontia).
Toxodontia (inch Typotheria, primitive genera of)
Notopithecus.
Insectivora.
? ? Selenoconus is stated by Ameghino to be closely allied to Hyopsodus,
which is a very generalized animal of remote insectivore relationships.
It is known only from part of the lower jaw.
1 The geological occurrence of the genera is based chiefly upon Ameghino’s published lists
(1908). The reviewer is responsible for their systematic reference.
MATTHEW, PATAGONIA AND PAMPAS CENOZOIC
157
Incertae sedis.
Trigo?iostylops; Notostylops. These genera are fairly well known, but
their affinities with any of the recognized orders are not very clear,
and certainly not close.
Homalodotheria.
Albertogaudrya.
II. Pyrotherium Fauna.
Marsupialia (Polyprotodontia) .
Pharsophorus (Borhysenidse) .
Marsupialia (Diprotodontia).
Parabderites, Pseudhalmariphus etc. (Epanorthkke).
Rodentia.
Cephalomys (Hystrieomorpha, dentition quite progressive).
Edentata.
Peltephilus, Prodasypus, Palceopeltis (Dasypoid and Glyptodont genera;
Gravigrada rare).
Homalodotheria.
As mode us, Leontinia.
? Rhynchippus (cf. also Toxodontia).
Pyrotheria.
Pyrotherium, Liarthrus.
Astrapotheria.
Parcistrapotherium etc.
Litoptema.
D enter other ium, Protheosodon etc.
Toxodontia (including Typotheria).
Propachyrucos etc.
Archceohyrax etc.
Hegetotheriidse, Eutrachytheriidse.
III. Santa Cruz Fauna.
Marsupialia (Polyprotodontia).
Microbiotheriuvi, Eodidelphys (related to Didelphis).
Borhycena, Prothyl acinus, Cladosictis, Amphiproviverra etc.
Marsupialia (Diprotodonta).
Epanorthus, Abderites, Acdestis, Callomenus, Garzonia, Halmariphus,
Stilotherium. (Epanorthidse, related to C oenolestes) .
Primates.
Homunculus etc.
15S
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Insectivora.
Necrolestes (Chrysochloridae) .
Rodentia.
Steiromys, Acaremys, Sciamys, Neoreomys, Spaniomys, Perimys, Eo-
cardia (all extinct genera, but quite closely related to modern South
American Hystricomorpha.
Edentata.
Ilapalops, Schismotherium, Planops, Analcitherium etc. (Gravigrada) .
Propaloeohoplophorus, Cochlops, Eucinepeltus (Glyptodontia).
Prozaedyus, Proeutatus, Stegotherium, Peltephilus (Dasypoda).
Homalodotheria.
t Homalodotherium.
Astrapotheria.
Astrapotherium.
Toxodontia (including Typotheria).
Nesodon, Adinotherium (Toxodonts).
Protypotherium, ELegetotherium, Interatherium (Typotheres).
Litoptema.
P voter other mm, Diadiaphorus, Thoatherium (Proterotheriidae).
T heosodon (Macraucheniidae) .
IV. Pampean Faunae.
A. Lower Pampean.
The Lower Pampean of Roth includes, broadly, the 1) Entrerian, 2)
Rio Negrean, 3) Araucanian and 4) Hermosan faunae of Ameghino.
These appear to be in the main the Pampean fauna with successively
decreasing proportion of surviving Santa Cruz genera, and with a very
scanty number of northern genera, which are related to the Tertiary rather
than to the Quaternary faunae of North America. Among the Carnivora
may be noted
Procyonidse.
Amphinasua, Pachynasua, Cyonasua (cf. Leptarctus) .
Ursidae.
Pararctotherium.
Canidae.
Amphicyon (generic reference questionable).
Ameghino reports Hyaenodontidae, but the specimens figured appear
to be carnivorous marsupials, not Creodonts.
The Rodents are all Hystricomorphs except Argyrolagus, which is per¬
haps an abnormal type of Lepus.
MATTHEW, PATAGONIA AND PAMPAS CEN0Z01C
159
No Artiodaetyla except Microtragulus (cf. Hypisodus and other Hyper-
tragulidse).
In the lowest level (Entrerian) the admixture of Santa Cruz genera is
large, forming the major part of the fauna.
B. Middle and Upper Pampean.
This is the Pampean (Ensenadan and Bonserian) of Ameghino.
Carnivora.
Smilodon, Felis.
Canis, Paloeocyon, Dinocynops (cf. Lycaon 1).
Arctotherium, Pararctotherium.
Conepatus (in upper levels only).
Rodentia.
Cricetidse ( Necromys etc.).
Dolichotis, Viscaccia, Hydrocheerus, Ctenomys, Myopotamus and other
Hystricomorph genera, mostly still living.
Edentata (Gravigrada).
Megatherium, Mylodon, Lestodon, Glossotherium, Scelidotherium.
(Glyptodontia.)
Glyptodon, Panochtus, Dcedicurus, Hoplophorus etc.
(Dasypoda.)
Dasypus, Zaedyus, Tatusia, Eutatus, Chlamydophorus etc.
Proboscidea.
“ Mastodon ” (all Dibelodon, auct. R. S. Lull).
Toxodontia.
Toxodon.
Typotherium and Pachyrucos in lower beds only.
Litopterna.
Macrauchenia.
Peris sodactyla.
Tapirus in lower levels.
Equus only in upper levels.
Hippidion, Onohippidion (derivatives of Pliohippus of North America).
1 The occurrence in the Pampean of a species so closely allied to the South African genus
Lycaon might seem evidence for a South Atlantic land bridge in the late Tertiary, but in fact,
Lycaon, Icticyon and Cyon of S. Africa, Brazil and the East Indies are survivors of a group of
Canidse well known from the Oligocene and Miocene of North America. Dinocynops is in all
probability a fourth descendant of the same group. All are distinguished by trenchant heels
on the lower molars, disappearance of intermediate cusps on upper molars, tendency to reduce
the tubercular dentition, short deep muzzle, and various other characters. Paloeocyon Lund
(not of Ameghino) is perhaps a member of the same group.
160
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Artiodactyla.
“ Listriodon” (cf. Platygonus in part, Prosthennops in part).
Catagonus (cf. Prosthennops) in lower levels.
Tagassu (. Dicotyles auctorum) in upper levels.
Palceolavia etc., all close to Auclienia.
Paraceros, Odoeoileus etc., all close to Odocoileus and Mazarna.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 8, Part II, pp. 161-204, P1I. XV-XX.
1 February, 1910.]
THE COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY IN CENTRAL FRANCE.
By John J. Stevenson.
{.Read in abstract before the Academy, 6 December, 1909.)
CONTENTS.
Introductory note ..........
Description of the region ........
The Commentry basin ........
Description of the openings ........
Tranchee de Saint-Edmond .......
Tranchee de Foret .........
Tranchee des Chavais ........
Tranchee de l’Esperance ........
Tranchee de Longeroux ........
Grande Tranchee .........
Tranchees de l’Ouest et du Pre-Gigot .....
Variations of the Grande Couche ......
History of the Commentry basin .......
Origin of the Grande Couche .......
Possible early erosion of the Grande Couche ....
Glissement de l’Esperance .......
Cause of dislocation ........
Secular movements in the basin ......
Appendix ............
Jukes on the formation of coal beds ......
Page
. 161
. 162
. 163
. 165
. 165
. 167
. 170
. 170
176
. 182
. 182
. 183
. 185
. 190
. 197
. 198
. 199
. 200
. 201
. 201
Introductory Note.
The Commentry coal field in central France was described more than
twenty years ago by M. Henri Fayol. His work,1 the result of studies
continued during more than twenty-five years, has never been excelled in its
1 Etudes sur le terrain houiller de Commentry. Ire. partie. Lithologie et Stratigraphie.
par Henri Fayol. Bull. Soc. Ind. Min. 2me. serie, XV, liv. Ill et IV. Saint-Etienne. 1887.
An admirable synopsis was presented to the Geological Society of France in 1889. This, with
contributions by other geologists, is in the bulletin of that society, 3me. serie, XVI. These dis¬
cussions were published separately as Reunion extraordinaire dans 1’Allier. This will be cited
in the following pages as Reunion etc. and the original work as Commentry.
161
162
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
consideration of detail. The basin is of insignificant extent, but the phe¬
nomena observed there have been recognized by students as almost equally
characteristic of the other small basins within the central plateau, so that
Fayol’s work is accepted as one of the most important contributions to
French geology.
The author’s generalizations respecting the formation of coal beds, based
as they were on such a mass of detail, so conscientiously recorded, had
weighty influence in converting a great number of geologists from belief in
accumulation of coal in situ to belief in the contrary doctrine of accumulation
by transport. Fayol’s presentation of the case appears in many ways con¬
clusive, but, in studying the work, the writer found that some points are so
obscure that he could not make intelligent use of it in the preparation of a
monograph on which he is engaged. It appeared necessary to make a
visit to the locality to gain direct acquaintance with the conditions ; and this
was done in August, 1909, with full expectation that at Commentry there
would be the opportunity to study a coal bed formed of transported material.
The writer’s examination was confined to the enormous excavations made in
mining the coal by stripping.
The generalizations made by Fayol are familiar to all geologists who
study coal deposits, but his publications have become comparatively rare
and the arguments on which his conclusions were based are known now to
few students outside of France. It is well to present a description of the
area, based on the writer’s observations and supplemented by citations from
Fayol. The more so, because in respect to several matters of varying im¬
portance, the writer’s conclusions differ materially from those of that author.
Description of the Region.
The city of Monthn^on, on the river Cher, is about 130 miles south from
Paris and about 10 miles west-northwest from the little city of Commentry.
De Launay’s map 1 of the region shows that between Montlu^on and
Moulins, 60 kilometers east-northeast, there is a double trough, the divisions
being separated by a granite ridge. The northwesterly division contains the
petty basins of Commentry, Montvicq and Villefranehe in a distance along
the strike of about 40 kilometers, the intervening spaces being filled in great
part by granite. De Launay concludes, on evidently indisputable grounds,
that these divisions and subdivisions were made just prior to Coal Measures
time and that the measures in the several basins are not fragments of a once
} Reunion etc., Pi. XXXVII.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
163
continuous deposit, but that they were always distinct. His conclusions
were confirmed by Fayol’s studies in Commentry and Montvicq.
In going southward from Paris by way of Orleans to Monthupon, one
rises by a succession of broad benches until, at the latter city, he is on an
extended alluvial plain, 214 meters above tide. There the valley of the
Cher is bounded at the east by a bold wall with almost level crest, clearly
the edge of a higher bench. The railroad to Commentry, quickly leaves the
Cher valley, enters a close gorge in granitic rocks, up which it climbs with
difficult grade to the station of Chamblet-Neris, 307 meters above tide.
Just before that station is reached, the rock changes from granitic to sedi¬
mentary, the gorge opens into cultivated territory and one sees, on both
sides, flat-topped hills marking a higher bench. This is reached at Com¬
mentry, where the station is 375 meters above tide, or 525 feet above Mont-
lu^on. The highest plain within the eastern part of the basin is about 400
meters above tide or approximately 600 feet above Montlu^on. Points on
the border of the basin attain, according to Fayol, 450 meters, but they are
projections of granite. Within the basin, on the northern and eastern sides,
one finds these three well-marked base-levels at 400, 375 and 307 meters
above tide, while covering the whole surface is a deposit of recent gravels
seldom more than 15 feet thick.
The Commentry Basin.
The basin of Commentry, according to Fayol,1 is about nine kilometers
long, averages about three kilometers wide and is about 700 meters deep —
the longer axis being rudely east and west. De Launay’s map, already
referred to, shows that the northern border is a narrow strip of mostly mica
schist, behind which is granite to the little basin of Montvicq, six kilometers
distant. This strip of schist bends around the eastern end, but there one
finds behind it, not granite, but a broad band of gneiss, which extends
westwardly along the southern border for about three kilometers. But
along the rest of the southern border as well as at the west, the sedimentary
rocks are cut off abruptly by the granite, which extends almost to the allu¬
vial plain of the Cher. The region southward from the basin of Commentry
rises rapidly and appears to be mountainous, but toward the north, as
already stated, the surface falls off in a series of steps toward the sea.
Fayol states that at the northwest corner of the basin there is a small
area of Permian rocks, but elsewhere only those of the Coal Measures are
found, with a thin layer of alluvial material covering the surface. He
Commentry, p. 21.
164
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ascertained that there are five distinct zones or areas of deposit, in each of
which the material has its special features ; these are not successive, but are
distributed geographically and merge laterally; they are of synchronous
origin. Three of these zones, Longeroux at the east, Montassiege midway
and Bourdesoulles at the west, contain for the most part, coarse materials;
while the zone of les Pegauds, between Longeroux and Montassiege, and
that of les Ferrieres, between Montassiege and Bourdesoulles, contain
mostly fine materials. The several areas extend from north to south,
except that the two containing fine materials are cut off at the north by a
narrow strip of coarser beds lining the basin on that side.
Coal is' confined, practically, to the areas of finer deposits. In these
The heavy black lines indicate coal. This map differs from that in the original
work in the extent of the Pegauds and Ferrieres areas: the original map made those
embrace the whole of the great bed in each case — and in that respect is the more
nearly correct.
the lower rocks, 500 to 800 meters thick, are almost barren, containing only a
few irregular streaks of anthracite, which appear to be without commercial
importance. The coal is mainly in a single bed within each area, which has
a curved outcrop rudely resembling the letter “C,” and thins southwardly
so as to disappear midway in the basin. Near the northern outcrop, each
bed attains an enormous thickness, at times more than 60 feet ; the southern
boundary is defined approximately by a line joining the extremities of the
outcrop. The rocks above the great coal bed in each area are reported to be
increasingly coarse but are interrupted by shale carrying coal. They nowhere
become as coarse as the beds of the other areas. The extent and distribu¬
tion of the several zones or areas are shown in Figure 1, which is based on
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
165
that given by Fayol in the Reunion, etc.; this shows also the outcrops of the
coals as well as that of the strange mass, known as the Banc de Sainte-Aline.
The writer’s observations were confined wholly to the area of les Pegauds.
The principal coal bed is the Grande Couche; above that, at varying dis¬
tance, is a coal-bearing deposit known as the Gres Noirs, and still higher is
another, that of les Pourrats. These are all one bed on the eastern side near
the southern limit of the coal, but they separate westwardly, and toward the
Montassiege side the vertical interval is several hundred feet. The Grande
Couche, now reached by a deep shaft, was mined for many years in open
quarries, or tranchees, beginning at the crop and following the coal by
removal of cover. At the depth of 40 to 60 meters, stripping ceased and
stopes were driven on the coal. These quarries are almost continuous along
the thicker portion of the outcrop and are of vast extent. The photograph
of the Tranchee de Foret (Plate XV, figure 1) suffices to show the general
character, though it is one of the narrower and less imposing. Several of
the quarries have been abandoned and they are utilized as receptacles of
waste from the mine and washeries as well as from the iron works in the city
of Commentry.
Description of the Openings.
The great quarries or trenches follow the curved outcrop of the Grande
Couche; those on the eastern side are, for the greater part, still in good con¬
dition and mining is carried on to some extent in all but one. It is best in the
description to begin midway and to study first the trenches on the eastern
side; afterwards to examine those on the westerly side, where mining opera¬
tions have ceased.
Tranchee de Saint-Edmond. i
The Tranchee de Saint-Edmond, beginning at a few rods west from the
present mine, is 160 feet deep and several hundred feet long. No serious
work has been done in it for many years, and the waste dump at the west end
has cut off much of its original length. The width at bottom varies from
somewhat more than 100 feet at the west to barely 50 feet at the east end.
The Grande Couche is covered by the dump at the west but is still to be
seen in the tunnel leading into the Grande Tranchee, and the top of the bed
is reached on the floor at the foot of the south wall. The dip here is approxi¬
mately S. 30° W., and the wall, consisting of shale and sandstone, is sheer
from bottom to top. At this end, a succession of sandstones, with thinner
166
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
beds of shale, in all about 30 feet,1 begins at a few feet above the coal. The
lower half of this mass disappears within 100 feet. There is no replacement,
but simple thinning and the underlying shale is brought into contact with
the upper part of the sandstone. As the lower portion approaches the place
of disappearance, it becomes irregular and, on the weathered surface,
resembles a contorted schist. This thinning is in the direction of the strike,
and there seems to be no variation in the dip. The change is wholly in the
sandstone, as though the shale surface were inclined when the upper beds
were deposited almost horizontally. Owing to this thinning, the upper beds
are brought nearer to the Grande Couehe. Similar variations appear fre¬
quently on this wall and they have been emphasized properly by Fayol as
evidence of delta deposit. They have been accepted as such proof by
American geologists for at least half a century.
The upper portion of the sandstone persists to the east end of the trench
where the floor rises to its level. It is light gray, has much feldspar, is
moderately coarse grained with occasional pebbles and contains abundance
of stems and leaves, whose position bears no definite relation to the plane
of bedding. It holds also many lentils of coal, from mere films to one which
is four feet long with greatest thickness of 10 inches. A sandstone, on the
northerly wall and at only a few feet below the coal bed, is coarse, with
pebbles as large as a pea, but not numerous enough to make the rock a con¬
glomerate.
The Grande Couehe is shown imperfectly at the east end of the trench,
where one sees the tunnel in the coal, leading to the next trench beyond.
The coal is almost 30 feet thick here and, according to Fayol,2 the thickness
in this trench varies from 10 to 12 meters. The exposure of the lower por¬
tion suffices to show the presence of irregular plates of rock. A dike of
igneous rock, termed dioritine or micaceous prophyry by Fayol, appears at
this end, but the exposure is so incomplete that nothing can be ascertained
respecting its extent. Where that rock cuts through the Grande Couehe on
the south wall, the coal laminae are bent upward at nearly right angles and
the metamorphism seems to be complete. The luster is graphitic at two
feet from the contact, but at five feet the change is barely perceptible to the
eye. Fayol states that for nearly 200 meters along the strike, the coal is so
altered that it can be ignited only with difficulty. A rock of similar type is
shown near the bottom of the coal bed on the opposite wall.
1 The thicknesses given for rocks in the walls are all estimates, as direct measurements
cannot be made.
2 Commentry, p. 263.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
167
Tranchee de Foret.
The eruptive rock just mentioned is present as a broad projecting dike
on the surface between Saint-Edmond and the next trench, known as the
Tranchee de Foret, which is not more than 400 feet farther along the outcrop.
This long trench of Foret is reached by a shallower, narrower excavation,
termed by the miners the “Tranchee du massif.” The only work in progress
here is upon the lower part of the Grande Couehe, known as the Banc des
Brouillages, of which mere traces were seen in Saint-Edmond. It consists of
alternating beds of coal and rock, each from one to two feet thick and forms
the northerly wall of the trench. This deposit would be ignored in the Appa¬
lachian field as commercially worthless, but at Commentry the coal is saved.
The steep dip makes winning of the coal less expensive, as the upper part of
the bed has been removed; the rocky plates are stripped off easily and the
amount of coal obtained comes to some thousands of tons per acre. The
sandstone below this bed is rather coarser than in Saint-Edmond.
The Banc des Brouillages forms the northerly wall of Foret throughout.
The dip of the beds, as shown in the easterly wall of the trench, varies little
from 30 degrees and the succession seems to be regular. The Grande
Couehe is well exposed, being mined in a long open cut as well as by two
slopes. The succession is, descending:
Feet Inches
1. Shales . Not measured
2. Coal . 0 0-6
This, exposed in the wall at the end of the trench, is merely a
lentil. In that wall it is six inches thick, but at 150 feet away
along the southerly wall it is but one inch; within a few feet far¬
ther, it breaks into a line of isolated nodules and disappears.
3. Shales . 25 0
Grayish, fine grained, mostly well laminated and some layers are
almost fissile; in part, especially in the lower portion, these shales
are carbonaceous and impressions of leaves are not rare.
4. Coal; Banc du tuit or Banc superieur . 5-6 0
This is variable in thickness as well as in composition and shows
pockets of shale in which are streaks of bright coal. The upper
part is cannel shale or shaly cannel and it too contains streaks of
bright coal. The passage to the overlying shale is very gradual and
the coal as a whole is of inferior quality.
5. Banc des Chavais, Banc noir of the miners . 9 7
No trace of this parting appears in Saint-Edmond. As seen here,
it is an irregularly bedded deposit, containing great numbers of
rock fragments, angular or rounded and from one to four inches
across ; lentils of coal are abundant, one inch to two feet long, but
rarely more than two inches thick. The upper portion passes
168
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Feet Inches
gradually into No. 4, while at the bottom the deposit becomes
more and more carbonaceous and is continuous into the coal below.
The Banc des Chavais changes quickly toward the west, for long
before the middle of the trench has been reached, this thick part¬
ing has been replaced by shale, carbonaceous shale and coal. The
gradual passage was exposed at the time when Fayol’s work was
published ; now it is concealed by debris, but exposures are com¬
plete midway in the trench and there the parting is wanting.
6. Coal; Banc intermediate . 9 5
Here one finds numerous partings, one of them two inches thick
and consisting very largely of mineral charcoal (fusain). The
coal shows the ordinary variations observed in thick beds, for here
are the dull layers alternating with bright laminse and occasion¬
ally a little pot of cannel is seen. The long open pit at the easterly
end of the trench shows the erosion of this division, to which Fayol1
refers. Unfortunately the exposure shows this for little more than
a score of feet, not enough to exhibit all of the features, and one is
not justified in attempting to explain its cause. But, whatever
the eroding agent may have been, it worked in a curious way; for
the upper surface of the coal is angular, jagged and pockety.
The whole of the upper part was not removed everywhere, for a
foot of the top remains, at one place, undercut for several feet.
The character of the upper surface suggests that the work was
done after the coal had become well consolidated. The bed has
been replaced by imperfectly consolidated stuff like that from a
collapsed roof. If the exposure were merely an outcrop, one
would think this rubbish only the remains of a comparatively
recent slip; but this is a fresh exposure on the edge of the mass,
which is reported by the miners as extending more than 150 meters
along the strike.
7. Shale, Banc des Roseaux . 6 in. to 1 6
A more or less sandy, light-colored to drab shale, very variable in
thickness and containing great numbers of plant impressions
beautifully preserved.
8. Coal, Banc inferieur . 11 9
In great part, this is good coal, but it has many and irregular part¬
ings, sometimes becoming so thick as to detract seriously from the
worth of the bed. The lower limit cannot be determined, for the
rocky plates and lentils increase and there is gradual passage to
No. 9.
9. Coal and rock, Banc du mur, Banc des Brouillages . 6 0
The thickness as given is only approximate. The mass is similar
to that seen at the extreme wTest end of the trench and consists of
alternating layers of coal and clay or sandy clay, with here and
there some rather coarse brecciated beds. Midway in this trench
the whole of this division has been removed and sandy clay is
exposed, as follows.
1 Commentry, p. 274.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
169
10. Sandy clay.
Only the surface was seen and the thickness could not be ascer¬
tained. This surface is irregular, hummocky, with numerous
saucer-like depressions, several feet across and filled with coal.
At one place this north wall shows a great step in the clay, as
though the material, before consolidation, had been piled up against
some obstacle. The clay contains vast quantities of carbonized
plant remains but no fragments of Stigmaria were observed in a
space of 20 by 30 feet. Underclay of the ordinary type is wanting
here.
Leaving the trench by a stairway on the southerly side, one finds no trace
of the Saint-Edmond sandstones, though they are present at the extreme
west end. Instead there are mostly more or less sandy, fine-grained shales
with occasional bands of fine-grained sandstone, in which are rounded
pebbles of shale, carbonaceous shale and even of coal. At 85 feet, by barom¬
eter, above the Grande Couche, one finds
Sandstone, 8 to 10 feet
which has many streaks of coal as well as rounded pebbles of shale and coal.
This sandstone is not reached in Saint-Edmond, though the wall there rises
to 150 feet above the coal bed, but it is shown in the Tranchee de Goutilloux,
at a little way southward. In Foret, the interval, measured without regard
to the dip, is less than half that at the west end of Saint-Edmond, so that
the thinning in this direction is not confined to the sandstones seen there.
This highest sandstone of Foret is the lower portion of the Gres Noirs group,
which becomes important along the eastern outcrop. It is very irregular
in Foret and at times it shows pots of shale with almost concretionary struc¬
ture. One of these has a bit of sandstone as the core.
Just below the Gres Noirs, the wall shows a feature, often observed else¬
where in a fragmentary way, but here exposed for a hundred feet or more.
The sandstone rests on a bed of shale and both describe some gentle flexures;
next below is a bed of shale, whose upper surface accords with the flexures,
but the lower surface as shown in the wall is straight and rests on a bed of
alternating thin shales and sandstones which has been pushed into many
petty folds, not shared in by either overlying or underlying beds. The
relations seem to suggest that during some disturbance the plicated bed,
softer than those adjoining, bore the brunt of pressure and became flexed
while the adjoining beds merely moved in mass.
The presence of waterworn pebbles of coal and shale in the shales and
in the sandstone of the Gres Noirs has been taken, very properly, as evidence
that, by the time that the Grande Couche was complete, a by no means incon¬
siderable part of the original lake had been so far filled as to be exposed to
170
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
erosion. Pebbles of this kind are not confined to rocks above the Grande
Couche or to the area of les Pegauds. Fayol states that they occur in the
lower division of the coal measures as well as in the higher division within
both les Pegauds and les Ferrieres. In an interesting comparison, he shows
that the coal of the pebbles resembles that of the vicinity. Those near the
anthracite of the lower division are anthracite; those near the Grande
Couche are of fat coal, though, as should be expected, an occasional pebble
of anthracite appears among them; while in the area of les Ferrieres they
are feebly coking as is the coal of the main bed in that area.1
Tranchee des Chavais.
At a few rods beyond ForG is the abandoned trench of the Chavais, in
which the two partings of the Grande Couche — Banc des Chavais and
Banc des Roseaux — were found in fine development. But this trench has
been abandoned for many years; it is filled in great part and vegetation
covers much of the decayed wall, so that little of interest remains exposed.
A walk of two minutes brings one to the Tranchee de l’Esperance.
Tranchee de l’Esperance.
The enormous excavation which is known as the Tranchee de l’Esper-
ance is on the eastern prong of the outcrop. Mining operations continue
here and the exposures on all sides are still nearly complete. The pit is
almost 100 feet deep, not less than 500 feet long and, in places, fully 200
feet wide at the bottom. Nearly all of the curious features described by
Fayol twenty years ago are distinct to-day, while advance in the work has
brought others into sight, which serve in some cases to make the conditions
clearer but in others only more perplexing.
Entering the trench at the northerly end, one finds at 70 feet, by barom¬
eter, above the Grande Couche, a thin streak of coal underlying the soft
basal sandstone of the Gres Noirs. Below this are gray shales with thin
streaks of soft whitish sandstone or very sandy shale. One bed has many
pebbles and fragments of sandstone, and around the latter the structure of
the shale is as though it had been deposited in an eddy. Here and there
one sees fragments of dark shale, and pebbles of coal are not rare.
It is deserving of note that none of the coal pebbles found by the writer
showed any signs of contraction after burial; all the pebbles, coal and shale
alike, were so securely fastened that removal without fracture was difficult.
1 Commentry, p. 141.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
171
They were taken out whole only by careful picking away of the surrounding
rock. Nor was any of them coated by material which could be regarded as
the filling of a cavity; they were in direct contact throughout with the in¬
closing rock, as were the fragments of sandstone or of ordinary shale. Other
observers have found pebbles giving clear evidence of contraction, but the
writer is convinced that there are many pebbles which give no such evidence,
which must have been torn from a bed of coal. This is not unimportant,
for these pebbles have not always the same composition as the neighboring
coals and some of them are almost lignitic.1
As one descends the stairway, he approaches the Grand Couclie and
finds
Feet Inches
1. Shale . 6 0
This is hard, black, laminated and carries many films of bright
coal ; it is rich in carbon throughout.
2. Shales . 13 0
3. Coal, Banc superieur, Banc du toit . 6 0
This consists of Cannel shale, 2 feet, 4 inches; Shale with films
of coal, 1 foot 6 inches; Coal, 2 feet 2 inches. The top shale is
decidedly bony, laminated in part and, as is usually the case with
such shale, carries streaks of bright coal; the middle shale varies
from almost wholly impure bright coal to almost wholly dark
shale; while the coal below is of poor quality and broken by
many clay partings.
4. Banc des Chavais . 6-7 0
This, for the most part, is of very dark color, so that the miners
call it the Banc Noir. As in Foret, it consists of transported
fragments, varying from mere grains to blocks, one foot or more
in diameter. Sandstone, gneiss, granite and quartz were seen, all
waterworn, though some have the angles only rounded; there is
much coal, especially in the upper part, so that the passage to
No. 3 is nowhere abrupt. At one exposure, the upper portion is
almost wholly coal, in which are imbedded occasional pebbles,
several inches in diameter. The bottom foot or 15 inches is a
dark shale passing gradually into the next subdivision.
5. Coal, Banc intermediate . 10 9
This has a three-inch parting at 14 inches from the top. Mid¬
way in the trench, an exposure shows four feet of coal above ‘this
parting, the increase being due to decrease in the Banc des
• Chavais. The coal is very good throughout; it contains many
partings, some of them composed largely of mineral charcoal
(fusain).
6. Banc des Roseaux . 2-4 0
Mostly argillaceous, but varying in composition as well as in thick¬
ness; the color is light gray, weathering yellowish; the bedding
1 Fayol : CoTnrnentry, p. 16S.
172 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Feet Inches
varies from regular to indefinitely cross-bedded; remains of
plants abound; they were deposited in accord with the bedding,
where that is regular, but elsewhere in all directions, with or
across the lamination.
7. Coal, Banc inferieur . 5 7
This is less easily separated from the portion below than in Foret;
the partings are many and the lenses of sand and clay are more
numerous. At some exposures, these lenses are so abundant and
extensive that one could easily regard the whole deposit below the
Banc des Roseaux as belonging to No. 8.
8. Coal and rock, Banc des Brouillages (seen) . 5 0
This has the same characteristics here as in Foret. The surfaces
of its rock layers are broadly wrinkled.
The Banc superieur is not mined. At all exposures in the several
trenches, it shows the same irregularity of structure and the same abundance
of mineral matter. It is exposed for a long distance at the foot of the
westerly wall, where it is from three to seven or eight feet thick, and the upper
surface is so irregular that one could well imagine himself looking at the
cross section of hummocks. The many petty faults and breaks in the bed
along this exposure are due mostly, no doubt, to removal of the coal below,
but the hummock-like form is not due to that cause for it is equally distinct
where the main coal is still in place. An open cut, midway in the trench,
represented by Plate XV, figure 2, shows this feature of the bed. In that
opening one finds
Feet
1. Banc intermediate . 14
2. Banc des Roseaux . 2 to 6
3. Banc inferieur . 11
4. Banc des Brouillages (seen) . 2
The middle division is exposed in an almost vertical wall, so that exact
measurement could not be obtained. The Banc des Roseaux is thin towards
the present outcrop but thickens down the dip — a somewhat unexpected
condition. The Banc inferieur seems to be mostly good coal and contains
very few of the sandy lenses, which are so abundant at less than 300 feet
away. It is separated from the Brouillages by a bed of shale.
The Banc des Chavais has become very indefinite at this exposure and
at another, only 30 feet farther, it has disappeared so that the middle and
upper beds are continuous; still farther is another, showing at least IS feet
of coal above the Banc des Roseaux.
This trench was carried down to its present depth on the coal and then
the bed, dipping at 20 degrees and upward, was uncovered by stripping in a
space more than 100 feet wide. The Banc inferieur is exposed along the
easterly side for not far from 100 feet in a shallow trench, where it is folded
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
173
along the strike and faulted in at least two places. The Banc des Brouil-
lages is shown on the easterly wall.
The conditions between the present workings and the original outcrop
cannot be ascertained now, as the rocks have been removed, but Fayol 1
reports that some beds of shale seen, when he wrote, at the bottom of l’Espe-
rance, thickened and multiplied toward the outcrop so that, within 200 meters,
the great coal bed was changed into a mass of shale, sandstone and coarse
conglomerate, containing much bituminous shale but no workable coal in its
18 meters of thickness. It would seem then that the Brouillages condition
prevailed, at the outcrop, throughout the whole thickness of the deposit;
that the petty lenses of sand and clay, observed in the Banc inferieur, are the
last traces of detrital beds thickening toward the north and northeast.
Returning now to the westerly wall of the excavation, the Grande Couche,
where last seen at the bottom of that wall, shows approximately 18 feet of
coal above the Banc des Roseaux, the Banc des Chavais having disappeared.
The dip, not easily determined, is not far from 20 degrees and at one time
the coal was overlain by a grayish shale, of which a little remains in contact
with the westerly wall. But the coal with most of this shale has been
removed as by a thrust, and on the planed off surface there now rests uncon-
formably a dark shale, wholly unlike that of the wall. The condition is
shown in Plate XVI, figure 1, where the plane of contact and the overlying
shales are sufficiently distinct, although as the exposure was in shadow, the
details are somewhat obscure. Before considering this matter further, the
features of the westerly wall, as exhibited in Plate XVI, figure 2, must be con¬
sidered.
The reader will remember that in the Saint-Edmond a sandstone group
was seen, which thinned westwardly and disappeared near the head of Foret,
so that the basal sandstone of the Gres Noirs, belonging above the top of
the Saint-Edmond wall, is present in that of Foret at not more than 80 feet
above the Grande Couche. This interval remains practically unchanged
along the outcrop into l’Esperance, a distance as great as the whole length of
Foret. At the entrance to l’Esperance, the basal sandstone of the Gres
Noirs is soft, by no means coarse and directly overlying a thin bed of coal.
It is, as in Foret, an irregular deposit, with streaks and pockets of coal.
The shales below the little coal bed to within 25 feet of the Grande Couche
are more or less sandy, light gray and with layers of soft white sandstone,
which are distinct along the wall and some of them appear in the photograph.
The little coal bed about 70 feet above the main coal at the stairway
descends irregularly along the wall for about two thirds of the distance and
1 Commentry, p. 241.
174
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
then plunges abruptly to within eight feet of the Grande Couche, where the
exposure ends. The two coals are said to unite at only a few feet beyond.
Beginning at the stairway with a thickness of only two inches, this coal soon
increases to a double bed, two or more feet thick, but thins again to barely
one foot before reaching the Grande Couche. These variations are shown
in the photograph. The interval between the coals, as measured on the face
of the wall, without regard to dip, decreases from 70 feet to zero within 300
feet. This is not a case of erosion; the thin white bands on the wall con¬
verge through disappearance of the intervening shales until almost in con¬
tact, and they, too, disappear where the little bed makes its abrupt plunge.
Meanwhile the sandstone at the base of the Gres Noirs, overlying this
coal bed, thickens until at the southerly end of the wall, it becomes the
striking feature and it is said to rest directly on the Grande Couche at a few
feet beyond the end of the exposure.
Ascending the stairway at this end of the excavation, one finds, as shown
in Plate XVII, figure 1, first the very light gray sandstone, not coarse, soft
and holding many streaks or better irregular fragments of coal, some of
which are several feet long and more than a foot thick. These coal patches
are in no sense petty beds and are without definite form; some fade away
at each end in a bunch of filaments ; some terminate abruptly at both ends,
while many are blunt at one end, broken up at the other. Above the sand¬
stone is a mass of dark, almost black shale, 10 to 30 feet thick, loaded with
irregular sheets of coal and containing bodies of sandstone resembling that
below. At some exposures this deposit might be described as coal with
much shale, at others as shale with much coal. Its coal is good, similar to
that from the Grande Couche; it occurs in streaks one half inch to several
inches thick and frequently several feet long; some of the thicker streaks
show partings; and the amount of coal is sufficient to justify mining, — the
foreign matters being removed by washing. It is difficult to give a proper
conception of the amount of coal or of the manner of its occurrence. The
conditions are wholly unlike anything which the writer has seen elsewhere.
There is no coal bed, there is only a commingling of shale and coal. Occa¬
sionally, there is passage from one to the other, but that is exceptional; the
coal and shale are distinct. The conditions throughout suggest that here
one is viewing the ruins of a coal bed, which had been removed from its
place and redeposited with its associated shale. Above this black shale is
a moderately coarse sandstone, weathering yellowish and apparently con¬
taining no coal. These two sandstones with the intervening shales may be
taken as representing the Gres Noirs group of Fayol.
Returning now to the lower level one finds himself on the basal sand¬
stone of the Gres Noirs at the foot of the stairway; but within a few steps
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
175
along the southerly wall, he reaches the dull dark shales, already referred
to as resting unconformably on the Grande Couche. They dip at 25 degrees,
but whether or not they are conformable to the gray sandstone here could
not be determined satisfactorily, as the bottom of that deposit seems to be
very irregular.
The condition is perplexing. These shales bear no resemblance in
color or texture to those underlying the Gres Noirs on the long westerly wall;
there is no evidence along that wall that any disturbance took place just
prior to the deposit or during the deposit of the gray sandstone, for the little
coal rider of the Grande Couche is continuous under the sandstone. Yet
just east from that wall, the Grande Couche and its overlying gray shale
have been cut off and the dark shales, which clearly underlie the Gres Noirs,
rest on the edge of the coal with different rate of dip, though in the same
direction.
In the southerly wall, these dark shales, where first seen, have a dip of
25 degrees; within a few feet, they rest unconformably on similar shales
with at first 15, then 20 degrees dip — the relations are shown in Plate XVII,
figure 2. These seem to suggest a thrust; one is here at several feet about
above the unconformity shown in Plate XVI, figure 2, which is distant only a
few yards and the inclination of the planes is not the same.
Just here, however, one finds an abrupt change in the southerly wall.
The dark shales suddenly become crumpled for a space 10 or 12 feet
wide at the top of the wall but tapering downward so as to be insignificant
within 20 feet; at once they are succeeded by a wholly different rock, oc¬
cupying a trough in the shales. This is the phenomenon termed by Fayol,
the Glissement de l’Esperance, and the features appear in Plate XVIII,
figure 1. The space of plicated shale is not included. The easterly side
of the trough is covered with vegetation and debris so that it could not be
determined whether or not the Banc des Brouillages is involved. The dark
shales underneath this rock-filled trough are partly covered by debris from
the soft rocks above; but enough was seen to make clear that they are not
crumpled. Coal seems to be in place at the foot of the wall, but its relations
to the shales, two feet above, could not be ascertained; nor could the appar¬
ent thrust shown in Plate XVII, figure 2, be traced with certainty underneath
the trough.
The material filling this trough bears no resemblance to anything seen
elsewhere within the area of les Pegauds. It consists largely of light colored
more or less feldspathic sandstone, with some light colored shales along with
some bituminous shale and a large fragment of coal. All of the beds are
closely folded and the coal fragment, as shown in the photograph, is crumpled
into a double-ended hook.
176
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Tranchee de Longeroux.
Leaving the Tranchee de l’Esperance by the stairway at this end, one
passes over the whole of the Gres Noirs group and, following the alluvial
cover, reaches the even more imposing Tranchee de Longeroux within a
few rods. There the exposures are almost complete and reveal conditions
much more complicated than those of l’Esperance. The yellow sandstone
is at the top of the wall as one enters the trench and at 65 feet lower on the
westerly side are two openings in the black shale. Half-way down to the
latter and on the first bench, one is at the western border of the Glissement
de l’Esperance, where the trough certainly seems to extend upwards into
the yellow sandstone, but the contact is not shown. At the end of this
platform, one reaches the basal sandstone of the Gres Noirs, which is divided
by the stairway. There the sandstone has been pushed into a recumbent
fold involving also the black shales, which are well exposed alongside in
the wall. The photographs here are unfortunately on the same film, as the
writer neglected to bring a fresh film into place. But the fold in the shales
is recognizable in Plate XVIII, figure 2, being on the right side of the picture ;
its place is at the left above the stairway. The fold in the sandstone is
obscured in the photograph.
At a few steps from the spot where this view was obtained, the contact
between the gray sandstone and the dark shales is shown and they appear to
be conformable. The shales are dark gray to lead-gray, fine-grained, tend
to be flaggy and contain many excellent impressions of plants. They are
sharply folded and the surfaces of the flaggy layers are often slickensided.
The black shales of the Gres Noirs very frequently exhibit similar slicken-
siding. The polishing in both shales is such as one could expect to find in
materials already hard. At times it is as marked as that observed in Ordo¬
vician shales within the Cumberland valley of Pennsylvania.
At a short distance from this exposure there are two openings in the
black shales, which contain so much coal that, at 50 feet away, they resemble
a bed of solid coal. The yellow sandstone is shown at top of the wall in an
exposure, about 150 feet long, where it rests with irregular base on the
black shales; it is cross-bedded but in thick layers, not in laminae. Plate
XIX, figure 1, shows that this crossbedding is not shared by the under¬
lying shales. Whether or not the structure is original or secondary could
not be determined; the underlying shales are much folded. Just beyond
the opening at the left of the picture, a wedge of sandstone begins which
increases to the end of the trench, where it is 12 feet thick; it is light gray
and bears close resemblance to the basal sandstone of the group.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
177
Descending to the bottom of the trench, where the Grande Couche is
exposed, one finds the gray sandstone of the Gres Noirs more than 20 feet
thick, containing a thin irregular lentil of coal and coming down to within
10 feet of the Grande Couche. A deep pit at a few rods south from this
place shows a face of about 30 feet of coal, with the bottom not reached.
Here the gray sandstone is almost in contact with the coal bed.
The Grande Couche has been subjected to pressure severe enough to
break it into great wedges and a shale belonging above the coal was involved
in the disturbance. Plate XIX, figure 2, was taken obliquely, so as to
embrace some other features and it does not give the details of structure in
the coal as sharply as is desirable. An attempt is made in Figure 2 to indicate
some features less sharply shown or concealed in the view. There are three
lines of fracture; one inverted wedge projects above the general surface of
the bed; the recumbent wedge at the right has had an irregular under
FIGURE 2. THE GRANDE COUCHE IN TRANCHe'e DE LONGEROUX.
surface and it breaks up near the apex, so that two separated fragments are
in the shale beyond. This shale is closely folded on itself — a detail not
fully shown in the photograph — and this fold involves the coal also, for a
prong of crushed coal, shown indistinctly in the view, passes down into the
bed. The relation of the overlying dark shales is shown distinctly; they do
not share in the disturbance which affected the coal and its accompanying
shale. The fold in the bottom sandstone of the Gres Noirs is shown in the
upper part of the photograph, below the tree.
The manner in which this coal is broken, the sharpness of the lines bound¬
ing the wedges, the acuteness of the projecting apex and the crushed frag¬
ments within the loop leave no room for doubt that the disturbance, what¬
ever its nature may have been, occurred not while the vegetable matter was
in pulpy condition but after it had been consolidated — after it had been
converted into a bed of coal. The shales involved in this crush are unlike
those between the coal and the Gres Noirs, which are the dark shales and,
along this outcrop, are undisturbed, though they show irregularities along
the dip — not related to those of the coal as exposed here.
The Banc des Brouillages, or Banc du mur, is well exposed as it forms
the easterly wall in a great part of the excavation.
178
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The dark shales, less than 10 feet thick near the deep pit, thicken very
rapidly toward the north and, as shown in the photograph, form the notable
feature along the central line of the trench. They contain thin bands of
whitish sandy rock which contrast sharply with the other beds and serve,
by converging toward the coal exposure, to show that the rapid southward
thinning of the mass is not due to a scpieeze, but that the conditions are
similar to those seen in FEsperance. At about 100 feet from the deep pit
and on the platform at the right side of the photograph, a trial pit has been
sunk, reaching the Banc inferieur, which is shown to the thickness of six
or seven feet. The dip is 40 degrees and the coal is cut off sharply; on this
leveled edge, the dark shales rest, dipping at 55 degrees in the same direction,
but they are apparently conformable to the Banc des Brouillages in the
easterly wall.
The explanation of these relations, as of those in FEsperance, would be
sought for at once in a thrust. But in that case the Banc des Brouillages
should be involved, the part of that division above the plane of non-conform¬
ity should rest on higher portions of the Grande Couche and one would be
justified in expecting to find at least some traces of those higher portions in
other exposures, between the Brouillages and the dark shales. But the
miners know of no coal underlying the Brouillages at this place; that part
of the Grande Couche is well shown at few yards away, several feet beloAv
the bottom of the trial pit and at least 12 feet below the plane of non-con¬
formity in that pit; thence it is absolutely continuous up the easterly wall
to the top of the trench. At barely 10 yards away in the opposite direction
and at less than 20 feet above the top of the trial pit, the dark shales and the
Brouillages are in contact and they are conformable. It is certain that the
agent which carried away the Banc inferieur and higher portions here did
not affect the Brouillages to any appreciable extent.
A long extension of the trench begins at somewhat more than 20 feet
above the level platform shown in the photograph and continues toward
FEsperance. Along the easterly side, the dark shales having crossed the
higher portions of the Grande Couche, they rest conformably against the
steeply dipping Brouillages or lower part of the Grande Couche, which
forms the easterly wall. Following this extension, one at length finds the
upper portions of the coal bed in the floor and at the end, at the foot of the
northerly wall, an exposure shows the coal again cut off abruptly, with the
dark shales resting uheonformably upon its edge. The shales above the
plane of fault are the dark shales and the illustration shows their flaggy
structure; the shales conformable to the coal, below the plane show very
little tendency to that structure and are evidently of different type. The
conditions are exhibited in Plate XX, figure 1.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
179
The coal here is apparently the upper portion of the bed; but the plane
of fault is at least 25 feet higher than in the trial pit, so that it had a some¬
what rapid fall southwardly. That the plane declines in that direction is
very clear, for the coal soon drops below the floor of the extension and
thence to its beginning one walks only on the dark shales. The relation
of this exposure to that on the other side of the wall in l’Esperance was not
ascertained, but judging from the interval to the bottom of the Glissement
above, the exposure in l’Esperance is probably a little higher.
Returning now to the beginning of the extension, if one climb to an open¬
ing in the Brouillages, about 25 feet, and look across and along this portion
of the trench, he finds the l’Esperance convergence repeated but in different
rocks. There, the light gray shales or fine sands, derived from the Montas-
siege side, gradually disappear and the Gres Noirs gray sandstone comes
down to the Grande Couehe ; here, several hundreds of meters away on the
outcrop, a similar change takes place, but in the fine-grained dark shales
derived from the Longeroux region. It is seen partly in Plate XIX, figure
2. As the shales decrease, the white lines converge in some instances, fade
out in others, until, instead of 75 or 80 feet, one finds not more than six feet
between the Gres Noirs and the jagged top of the Grande Couehe. The
top of the coal bed at this place, the deep pit, is below the plane of faulting.
The conditions are such that in any ordinary locality, one would conclude
at once that here is the thinning of deposits against a shore line.
The Glissement de l’Esperance is well shown in the northerly wall of
Longeroux. The wffiole of the upper part was laid bare at this end, but the
exposure is no longer very distinct on the easterly side, as the debris has been
covered largely by vegetation. The width at the top is estimated at 450
feet — it may be somewhat more. Perhaps one third, above, has been
removed in making the upper platform on the west side, but the whole mass
on the easterly side, so far as spared by erosion, remains and is sufficiently
exposed to give a fair conception of the relations. The features of the
westerly side are shown in Plate XX, figure 2.
The rocks occupying the trough are in marked contrast with the dark
shales alongside; they are very light in color, mostly sandstones, with at least
one bed holding lines of pebbles which, as seen 100 feet away, are from one
to three inches long. The beds within the trough are very sharply flexed
on the westerly side, but the bending is less beyond the axis of the syncline,
and on the easterly side the beds are quite regular with comparatively gentle
westerly dip. The contact on this side is not shown fully, as the wall is less
abrupt; debris has accumulated and some of the features are obscure. But
the deposit reaches to or very nearly to the Banc des Brouillages, which is
well shown at 25 feet away with dip of from 45 to 55 degrees toward the
180
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
trough. It is clear that some of the light-colored beds terminate against the
easterly wall of the trough and that the higher beds form a syncline with
gentle dip on that side. Whatever the origin of the material may have
been, the greater mass was deposited on the westerly side and whatever
the cause of the folding may have been, the resistance was especially strong
on that side. The only locality, outside of the trough, where rock of this
type was seen, is at the extreme northwest corner of the basin; there, in a
railroad cut, near the station of Chamblet-Neris one finds a precisely similar
rock, holding lines of pebbles arranged as are those in Longeroux.
The bottom margin of the trough is well shown to beyond the middle,
and the light colored rocks rest on the dark shales which are as little dis¬
turbed as are those in corresponding position within FEsperance. But on
the easterly side of the extension, the shales, resting conformably against the
Brouillages, have, in many layers, slaty cleavage, the surfaces being divided
into rhomboids and thoroughly polished. On the westerly side, these shales,
as the photograph shows, are sharply flexed and one of the folds is broken,
with an overthrust fault as the result. The gray sandstone and black shales
of the Gres Noirs share in this disturbance, the folds appearing in Plate
XVIII, figure 2 and Plate XIX, figure 2 being just beyond the limit at the
left of this photograph.
A cross section is shown in a cliff between photographs, Plate XIX,
figure 2, and Plate XIX, figure 2, where the dip is from 25 to 40 degrees.
The noteworthy feature there is the complicated folding in some beds,
shared to very limited degree by those adjoining. A faisceau of three
beds, the middle one much lighter in color than the others, is seriously
distorted, the middle one being closely folded on itself at one spot. As the
wall is sheer, the beds cannot be examined and one may not be certain
whether the distortion was due to a slide when the rocks were unconsoli¬
dated or to the more yielding nature of their materials, allowing them to
receive a disproportionate share of the pressure during folding. The latter
suggestion appears the more probable, as traces of the swelling are traceable
in the adjoining beds.
It is deserving of note that though the disturbance sufficed to push the
Qres Noirs into recumbent folds, to induce slaty cleavage and slickensided
surfaces in the dark shales as well as in the black shales of the Gres Noirs,
yet the coal in the latter is fat with long flame; and the same is true of the
Grande Couche,1 which, in all probability had already suffered severe dis¬
turbance.
In climbing out of Longeroux trench by the easterly wall, one is con-
1 Fayol: Commentry, p. 24.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
181
stantly on the Banc des Brouillages, which exhibits the same features as in
Foret and l’Esperanee; but some of the sandstone layers are coarser than
any observed in those trenches and contain abundant remains of plants —
chiefly fragments of stems with the cortex converted into coal. These rock
layers are light colored in all of the trenches and are not bituminous; those
which from a distance seem to be dark colored are found on closer examina¬
tion to owe their color only to the presence of carbonized fragments, not to
diffused bituminous matter; the mineral portion is as light in color as in the
other layers.
Near the top, at the southerly end of this trench, one finds the Glissement
once more, its upper portion being exposed in a recently opened quarry.
At the northerly end of the trench it seems probable that the trough involved
the highest sandstone of the Gres Noirs; but at this end the matter is placed
beyond doubt, for the yellow sandstone forms the westerly wall of the trough,
thus showing that the trough did not originate before the middle division of
Commentry measures had been deposited completely. The Glissement
rock is almost wholly sandstone with dip of not more than 15 degrees south-
eastwardly, but slightly more at the westerly wall. The yellow sandstone
is hardly disturbed at the contact and is unaffected at 10 feet away. There
is no exposure beyond the immediate vicinity of this quarry, but the topog¬
raphy southward is such that the Glissement sandstone must extend in
that direction and that it reaches a higher level than at the quarry, so that
there the wall of the trough must reach up into the shales which overlie the
yellow sandstone.
As one ascends the stairway to the quarry, he sees a deep excavation
on the easterly side, cutting into the course of an old stream, which dug a
narrow valley, now filled with sand and gravel belonging to the recent
deposit, covering this part of the Commentry basin to the depth of 10 to 20
feet.
Leaving the Longeroux trench at the quarry one reaches, at about one
fourth of a mile, an opening into a still higher coal bed, whose relation to
the other deposits could not be determined. The pit is, by barometer, 280
feet above the Grande Couche, but the direction is considerably off the
strike and the irregularity of dip is such that no calculation of vertical
distance can be made. The bed seems to be not less than 75 feet above
the top of the Gres Noirs group. The coal is reported to vary between three
and seven feet and it is associated with a clay shale, drab but weathering
yellowish. This is the highest bed examined by the writer.
In following the road from this pit westwardly to the present mine, one
finds no exposures; but along an old road, a little northward, a good exhibi¬
tion of the yellow sandstone with southerly dip of 25 degrees, was seen
182
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
within five minutes walk from the shaft. Still nearer that mine is the
abandoned Tranchee de Goutilloux, now almost filled with waste. There
one can still see the upper portion of the Gres Noirs group, which, at one
time, was fully exposed in the south wall. This is only a few rods south
from the Tranchee de Saint-Edmond, in whose south wall the Gres Noirs
are not reached.
The enormous trenches on the west side of the Pegauds area are utilized
no longer for mining but as dumping grounds for waste from the shaft and
washeries as well as from the great iron works in Commentry. The Grande
Couehe has been removed and the lower part of the well has fallen, so that
for variations in the coal bed one must depend on descriptions given by Fayol.
But the upper part of the southerly, becoming easterly wall still remains
intact, exhibiting as clearly as ever the vagaries of deposit which that author
has described with great detail. As the exposed conditions are not unlike
those already observed, it is unnecessary to dwell upon them.
Grande Tranchee.
The Grande Tranchee is north from the mine, between it and the city
of Commentry. It extends approximately east and west. Before abandon¬
ment it was 750 feet long by 200 feet deep, but it is now much shorter and
less deep, as waste has been dumped at both ends and along the north side.
The exposures along the south wall are thoroughly characteristic; local
faultings, confined to two or three beds; disappearance of single beds or of
petty faisceaux of beds; local crumplings and other phenomena already
familiar are numerous. The sandstone overlying the Grande Couehe in
Saint-Edmond persists. This trench was connected by tunnel at the west
with the tranchee de l’Ouest et du Pre-Gigot.
o
Tranchee de l’Ouest et du Pre-Gigot.
The trenches of l’Ouest and du Pre-Gigot were formerly separate, but
now are continuous. The Grande Couehe has been followed in the works
from Saint-Edmond into 1’ Quest, but one carried from Longeroux to this
extraordinary excavation might well imagine that he is still at the Gres Noirs
horizon.
The yellow sandstone is seen in many places at the top of the wall, over-
lying a gray sandstone, weathering less strongly yellow, which is quarried
as building stone at the farther end of the trench. This rests on a great
mass of shale and sandstone, which in turn rests on coals and shales, while
at the bottom is a gray, irregular sandstone, with an indefinite coal deposit.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMM ENTRY
183
This lowest sandstone is shown on the northerly wall near the head of the
trench where it is 17 feet thick. But as one advances into the trench, he
finds the Brouillages structure prevailing on the northerly wall.
The complexity of deposits shown in the long almost sheer wall of these
trenches far exceeds anything observed in the other trenches and is intima¬
tion that one is approaching the massive delta of the Montassiege area.
Here one sees in full detail all the changes which geologists elsewhere,
depending on separated sections and records of borings, have expressed in
diagrams but which they have never seen in place.
About half way in this trench, the yellow sandstone is separated by per¬
haps 70 feet of shale and sandstone from the highest coal-bearing shale
below; but at about 300 feet farther the interval is barely half as much.
Almost midway between these points, a group of beds, estimated at 40 feet,
is folded, curled on itself and cut off abruptly, but the overlying beds are
undisturbed. The sandstone at the bottom of the wall seems to be that
observed in the Grande and Saint-Edmond trenches. Ordinarily it is
regularly bedded, but occasionally it is cut out by downward extension of
the overlying shales. At many places it swells below and cuts out the under¬
lying shales. These projections below have no definite bedding and bear
little resemblance to the main bed. They are often gnarled like burly wood;
at times they consist of thick rudely concentric bands; while at others they
are made up of folded layers. Here one can see all variations of the coal
measure sandstones, in full day, showing the features of delta deposit as
American geologists have conceived them.
The coal has been removed for a long distance and the almost con¬
tinuous “fall” prevents study on the southeasterly side; but on the opposite
side of the trench one finds along the great face a succession of coal, coaly
shale and sandstone, recalling in some respects the Gres Noirs conditions of
Longeroux but for the most part those of the Banc des Brouillages in the
eastern trenches. The coal is more or less slaty, but in one layer, mined
apparently for local use, it is very clean.
The shales associated with the coal afford ample evidence that they
have endured severe pressure, such as accompanies distortion. All are at
times much contorted, are flaky and polished as though they had been the
soft material between harder beds, and had yielded so as to become pockety.
The conditions are not unlike those observed in the Poeono coal beds within
the faulted folds of southwestern Virginia.
Variations of the Grande Couche.
It remains now to describe the variations of the Grande Couche at the
extremities of the outcrop as well as in the deeper parts of the workings
184
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
under cover, conditions not exhibited in the trenches; for these one must
depend on Fayol’s descriptions.
Near the village of Longeroux on the eastern side of the Pegauds area,
the outcrop shows only a few inches of coal: The Gres Noirs and a higher
bed, that of les Pourrats, are given off as the bed thickens and the intervals
between them increase rapidly. The Grande Couehe soon attains the
thickness seen in the Longeroux trench; in l’Esperance, it is divided by the
two partings, the Banc des Chavais above and the Banc des Roseaux below,
of which the former disappears in Foret while the latter continues into
Saint-Edmond, where the bed becomes practically one, with a thickness of
10 to 12 meters. The Banc des Brouillages or Banc du mur, not included
in the thickness given, is continuous from the trench of Longeroux to the
east end of Saint-Edmond, beyond which the writer did not recognize it with
certainty.
This much one may gather from the trenches as they now exist; for the
rest he must turn to Fayol.
Followed westwardly, the Grande Couehe begins to divide in the Grande
Tranchee. A small bed, known farther west as the Sixth, is seen three
meters below the Grande Couehe at the east end of that trench, but the
interval increases to 23 meters at the west end.1 In the Tranchee de l’Ouest,
the bed continues to divide, and before the end of that trench has been
reached there are six beds, so that the single bed near the village of Longe¬
roux had been divided into eight beds, distributed in a vertical section of
more than 200 2 meters. In the region of Saint-Augustin, five of the six
branches have been followed to their disappearance along the strike. There
is gradual thinning of the coal and at last a rapid disappearance in the
sandstone which there forms the mur of the Grande Couehe.3 The sandy
wedges entering the bed in the Grande and Ouest trenches increase and the
coal decreases.
Followed down the dip, the Grande Couehe gradually becomes thinner
and at length disappears toward the depth of 350 meters. In one pit, the
coal becomes only two to three meters thick at 225 meters, where it is of
good cjuality and without intercalation; but at 36 meters farther, there
remain only a few films of coal, and the Grande Couehe is represented by a
dozen streaks of carbonaceous shale, separated by shales including a thin
sandstone.4
To sum up: The Grande Couehe, outcropping in the form of a very
1 Fayol: Commentry, p. 265.
2 Fayol: Commentry, p. 24.
3 Fayol: Commentry, pp. 282-283.
4 Fayol: Commentry, pp. 24, 280.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
185
open “C,” has its greatest thickness along the northern and northeastern
border; it thins out to nothing on the eastern side, but on the western side
it divides into several branches, each of which fades away as the sandstone
wedges thicken, until this sandstone becomes a continuous section. Down
the dip, the bed gradually decreases and ends in several thin beds of car¬
bonaceous shale.
History of the Commentry Basin.
Such are the facts observed within that part of the Pegauds area which
contains the Grande Couche and its subdivisions. It remains to consider
the succession of events in the area, and this must be done with a degree of
detail, justified, not by any importance possessed by the area itself, but bv
the importance of generalizations which have been based on its structure.1
The deposits in the Commentry basin have been divided into
Lower, consisting almost wholly of rather coarse materials, but containing
some unimportant lentils of anthracite;
Middle, consisting chiefly of fine materials and including the great coal beds;
Upper, containing practically no coal and consisting of rocks more or less
coarse.
Only indirect reference has been made to rocks of the Lower division, as
they seemed to have little bearing upon the problems with which the writer’s
study is concerned; but it is well to note the conditions as described by
Fayol.
The total thickness of beds between the Grande Couche and the bottom
is 800 meters at the eastern extremity and 500 meters back from the Tranchee
de Foret. These thicknesses were ascertained by surface measurements,
as no boring to the bottom rock has been made under the coal bed and
nothing is known respecting conditions midway in the Pegauds. These
Lower beds have little coal, but they yield ample evidence that, before they
were deposited, vegetation had gained hold on the surrounding country.
For the most part, the detritus is coarse and shale is of rare occurrence.
One singular deposit, the Banc de Sainte- Aline, only 15 meters below the
Grande Couche, has a curved outcrop similar to that of the coal bed and
is a mass of mica schist, granulite and granite fragments, many of them very
large, mostly angular and cemented by smaller fragments of the same rocks.
Its extreme thickness, 60 meters, is on the northerly and northeasterly border
1 Some important conclusions presented in Fayol’s work, as well as ingenious suggestions
offered by several later authors cannot be considered here. They will be discussed in a mono¬
graph upon the formation of coal beds which the writer has in preparation.
186
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and the mass decreases southwardly until it disappears more than half way
from the southern border. In the earlier days it was supposed to be a primi¬
tive rock, but Fayol’s studies disclosed its true character. Its outcrop is
five kilometers long and the content is estimated at 125,000,000 cubic meters.1
The writer made only cursory examination of it near Chavais.
The map of the Commentry basin, Figure 1, shows approximately the
extent of the several zones or areas of deposit. By careful study of frag¬
ments, Fayol was enabled to determine the source of materials found in each,
to reconstruct the drainage system and to follow in detail the gradual filling
of the basin. Figure 3 shows his conception of the drainage area.
FIGURE 3. THE DRAINAGE AREA OF LAKE COMMENTRY. A, GNEIS-S; B, GRANITE.
Reference has been made already to de Launay’s recognition of a double
trough extending northeastwardly from near Monthu^on toward Moulins,
60 kilometers away, the divisions being separated by a granite crest. The
western division is limited at the northwest by a fault of 200 meters, which
is distinct in the northerly portion but not in the Commentry region ; there,
however, the western border of the basin evidently coincides in direction
with the fault, and the coal measures there as well as at the south, are in
contact with the granite as appears from de Launay’s map. The syncline
was divided by westward movement of the granite into several petty basins
which were afterwards filled by lakes.2
Fayol’s conception is that of a lake, nine kilometers long, three kilo¬
meters wide and 800 meters deep, surrounded by steep mountains on almost
all sides. Les Bourrus at the north and Colombier at the east were the
valleys whence came the chief affluents; some narrower valleys, Chamblet
1 Fayol: Commentry, pp. 96-102.
2 De Launay, L.: Reunion etc., pp. 98-100
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
187
and les Boulades, were at the west, while the north and west borders were
furrowed by ravines. The Bourrus delta (Montassiege area) advanced
most rapidly and reached the southern border of the lake before that of
Colombier (Longeroux area) had advanced more than one kilometer, and
the lake was divided into two lakelets, les Pegauds at the east and les Fer-
rieres at the west ; meanwhile, the Bourrus delta had united on the northern
border with that of the Colombier at the east and with that of the Chamblet
at the west, so that, within the lakelet areas, one finds a commingling of
materials from both sides. The coarser detritus was deposited in the
deltas, but the finer materials passed beyond and were deposited in the lake-
lets, so that, in the latter, coarse beds are rare, at least in the middle division
of the measures. These finer materials, both mineral and vegetable, were
deposited in accordance with their specific gravity, the distribution being
that observed in river deltas as well as in deltas formed experimentally.
The area of Pegauds, receiving contributions from both the Bourrus and the
Colombier, has a much greater amount of mineral and vegetable matter
than has that of les Ferrieres, which received only from the Bourrus and
some smaller affluents.
When the lake had been filled in great part by the transported matter,
when the Grande Couche had been completed, the Gres Noirs and Pourrats
coal beds were formed. They are irregular, lenticular, impure and give
evidence of having been deposited in shallow water, troubled by frequent
displacement of the mouths of streams. After the formation of the Pour-
rats bed, no vegetable mass accumulated. At last the lake was filled and
streams began their work of erosion. There are no horizontal beds, such
as one would expect to find closing the series in a delta-filled lake — perhaps
there was none at any time. The absence of these beds is due to later as
well as to contemporaneous erosion, the latter caused by constant deepening
of the outlet at the south, amounting in all to about 100 meters.
The Bourdesoulles area received its coarse materials from les Boulades,
a gorge with steep walls; the Chamblet stream flowed through a narrow
valley, also with steep walls, but having a drainage area of five by 2.2 kilo¬
meters and resembling the valleys now seen in the region; the Bourrus
stream was about 15 to 20 kilometers long, with wider drainage area than
that of Chamblet and was torrential throughout; the extent of the Colombier
area is not given, but if one may judge from the map, it is supposed to have
been no smaller than that of the Bourrus and the stream, though torrential,
was less rapid than the Bourrus. Apparently no debris entered from the
south.1
1 Fayol: Commentry, pp. 63-93. Reunion etc., pp. 20-21.
188
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The abruptness of the valleys and the torrential character of the streams
as conceived by Fayol appear from his explanation of the origin of the Banc
de Sainte-Aline, which is about 50 feet below the Grande Couehe and still
underlies it at a depth of 300 meters. Its content is estimated at 125,000,000
cubic meters. It appears abruptly and disappears with ecjual abruptness,
being followed by comparatively fine material and that by the coal. Its
greatest thickness is at the north and northeast and its fragments prove that
it was derived from the lower part of the Colombier area. Fayol’ s explana¬
tion of its origin is
A fall of part of the mountain occurred in the region of Merlerie; the valley was
obstructed; the waters accumulated and rose behind this barrier; then, all at once,
breaking their dam, they carried out the materials as far as to the alluvial plain
and to the lake.1
That a slide as great as this is not impossible is proved by reference to
some of vast extent in the Alps and elsewhere. But the matter in hand does
not concern the mass of rock, it has to do only with the mode of transporta¬
tion. To the writer, this part of the problem appears much more difficult
than Fayol seems to think it and the explanation given would only increase
the difficulty. The valley of the Colombier at this time could not have been
more than a kilometer wide, for its delta extended only a kilometer into the
lake and the valley was evidently seven or eight kilometers long. If that
valley were a kilometer wide, the slidden mass would have to cross it, have a
length of three kilometers and a height of 40 meters. Such a landslide is
quite possible in some types of rock, for that in the valley of the Adige near
Rovereto is greater, and that near Lake Lucerne, mentioned by Fayol, is
comparable to it. It is not altogether easy to conceive of such a landslide
in the mica schists of the Colombier region, but certainly it is not impossible.
A mass so great as this would be an effective dam and the water would
be ponded behind it. But here one has to consider not a vast river but a
petty stream, merely a brook, for the Colombier was not much more than
five miles long and its fall must have been quite rapid, as, for most of the
length, the brook was in the youthful stage. The pond behind the dam
could not be much more than a mile long and it would not form at once.
One has difficulty in understanding how even a cloudburst at the head of
the brook could gain such impetus as to tear away a mass one kilometer wide
and three kilometers long. The pond was already there, held back by the
dam; only the upper part of the slide would be torn away by the flood. The
normal process would be for the water to cut a channel in the mass, which
1 Commentry, p. 100.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
189
would drain the pond gradually and the whole might be removed by a suc¬
cession of floods during a long period of time. This method of cutting
through landslides is very familiar to American geologists, and it must be
equally familiar to geologists in Europe, for illustrations are numerous in the
valley of the Adige and are even better in the valley of the Rhone, where
vast cones of dejection, which cross the valley, have compelled that mighty
river to find its way through the thinner part of the mass near the opposite
wall. These cones have been only trenched by the torrential streams.
The writer made no study of this deposit and he can offer no explanation
to account for its presence.
The tendency to explain conditions by almost cataclysmic agencies
appears equally in the consideration of the Banc des Chavais. This parting
in the Grande Couche extends along the outcrop from midway in l’Esperance
to almost midway in Foret, barely half a mile. It is a lentil, nine or ten
feet thick at most; it is fine-grained at top and bottom, very coarse in the
middle; above and below as well as laterally it passes into coal; and its
longer axis is in direction of the outcrop. This is supposed to be the product
of a great flood, which tore away the surface of the alluvial plain. The
coarse material was dropped to form the banc, but only a small part of the
vegetable matter went down with it; the greater part remained suspended
being lighter, and subsided slowly afterwards on top of the gross materials,
so making part of the Banc superieur.1
There is difficulty here also. The geographical distribution of the Banc
des Chavais shows that it was derived from the Colombier region, so that
it must have been transported by that stream. The fragments of the rock
are waterworn, not angular, and are supposed to be those left behind on
the alluvial plain by the Sainte-Aline debacle. If the debacle had left
fragments stranded on that plain, they could not become waterworn unless
the plain were covered by moving water — in which case it could not support
vegetation so abundant as to produce the large amount of coal found in the
Banc des Chavais. Besides, it is supposed that the Banc de Sainte-Aline
had swept across this plain only a short time before with its vast mass of
sand and huge angular blocks, which could not fail to plough off the surface
after an extraordinary fashion. It is better to seek the explanation in less
violent action, for one must remember that transition from the Banc inter-
mediaire to the Banc des Chavais is very gradual at most exposures.
This matter leads at once to consideration of the mode in which the
Grande Couche was formed — and this is a matter of chief importance,
which must be considered in detail.
1 Favcl: Conimentry, pp. 103, 104.
190
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Origin of the Grande Couche.
Fayol’s thesis respecting the origin of coal beds is this:
The beds of coal were formed after the same manner as the beds of shale and
sandstone; the plant materials carried by the streams along with clay, sand and
pebbles, wTere mingled sometimes in midst of the mineral sediments, sometimes
heaped in beds or masses more or less pure. Just as the clay, carried simultaneously
with the coarser elements, is fixed partly in midst of those elements and at the
same time forms some distinct beds. In like manner, plant debris, which, from the
standpoint of sedimentation, is equivalent to fine mineral particles, remains partly
in midst of the coarser sediments and is deposited especially along with the clay or
in its vicinity.1
Fayol presents a careful calculation aiming to show that the drainage
area of the lake was sufficient not only to supply all vegetable matter needed
to form the bed, but also to supply it in a very short time. He estimates that
to complete the Lower measures, a period of 13,000 years may have been
necessary, as the streams were small and the advance of the deltas very slow ;
but with lengthening of the streams the advance was more rapid, so that
deposition of the Middle and Upper measures required only 4,000 years.
One hundred seventy centuries sufficed for accumulation of the whole
deposit, including the coal beds.
The surface for vegetation was eo-extensive with the drainage area.
At the beginning, this was confined to some hectares of abrupt shore, as the
mountains rose to perhaps 1,000 meters above tide [or about 1,200 feet above
the lake surface] ; but when the Grande Couche began to form, the emerged
surface of the deltas had an area of 1,800 hectares [about seven square miles]
and the streams gathered water from 10,000 hectares [barely 40 square miles].
At the end of deposition, the alluvial plain was 3,100 hectares [about 12
square miles] and the whole drainage area was 16,000 hectares [nearly 63
square miles]. On the average, the available area for vegetation during
the earlier period was about 2,000 hectares and for the later about 15,000
hectares.
The amount of coal from a Cordaites stem has been determined. Reason¬
ing from this, Fayol shows that a forest of Cordaites trees, each individual
having a space of 10 meters square and attaining full growth in 50 years,
would yield during each century a layer of coal, 60 millimeters thick over
the whole area. In addition, the herbaceous plants and shrubs, such as
ferns, lepidodendra, calamodendra, forming the underbrush, would furnish
as much coal as the trees per unit of surface. But the amount of coal in the
1 Commentry, p. 17.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
191
deposit represents only a bed of four to eight millimeters per century over
the whole surface of vegetation, or one tenth of the coal material produced,
* so that nine tenths of the vegetation was decomposed in the air.
This difference between the amount produced and the amount preserved
leads him to suggest that possibly the deltas advanced twice as rapidly or
that the vegetation wTas only half as luxuriant as imagined. In either case,
the coal material produced would be five times as much as has been pre¬
served in the deposits. The brevity of time recjuired by this deposit is
regarded as one of its chief commendations, for the period assigned to com¬
plete formation of the measures is only 170 centuries, whereas the hypothesis
of accumulation from growth in situ would recjuire 800 centuries for forma¬
tion of the coal alone.1
The writer cannot see his way clear to acceptance of this explanation.
One must not forget that the events under consideration occurred, not
in a great inland sea like Niagara or Erie, but in a little lake, barely six miles
long and two miles wide; that when accumulation of the Grande Couche
began, the lake had been almost divided by the Bourrus delta, so that there
were two ponds, each of which was limited still further by a fringe of new
land from the other shores; and that from all sides there entered torrential
streams, emerging from narrow valleys a kilometer to some hundreds of
meters from the waters edge. The conditions of the larger pond, that of
Jes Pegauds, are alone to be considered here, as that is the one on which
chief stress has been laid and to which the writer’s observations were con¬
fined. When the Grande Couche was begun, this pond had an area of
possibly 2,500 acres and was connected with that of les Ferrieres by a strip
of water along the southern border of the basin. What then must have
been the conditions on the delta plain and on the highlands ?
The delta surface is referred to as the “alluvial plain”; but that term
must be used in this connection with important limitations. When deltas
are spoken of, one is apt to think of the level deposits at the mouth of the
Nile, Indus or Mississippi, composed of fine materials brought down by
streams, thousands of miles long and with gentle fall. Such deltas are
liable to overflows, but the floods are not violent; in the last stages of sub¬
sidence, the floods merely undercut the stream banks, the shores fall and
throw into the stream whatever may be above. But that was not the con¬
dition on the deltas of Lake Commentry. They were made by torrential
streams, which deposited the coarse material just beyond their emergence
from the highland, while the finer materials were carried to the water basin
beyond. One must think of the delta surface as resembling that of dejec-
1 Fayol: Commentry, pp. 322-324, 330.
192
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
tion cones such as are seen at the mouths of torrential streams entering the
valley of the Rhone or that of the Adige, where one sees a mass of fragments
from sand to great blocks. But that comparison does not suffice, for much
of the Commentry plain had been deposited in water and little of the finer
stuff was dropped at the shore. One must picture to himself a narrow,
irregularly hummocky surface, covered by coarse gravels and blocks of
rock, exposed to danger of devastation by rapid floods.
The rocks surrounding the basin are all “primitive,” — granites at
the north, west and south, except a very narrow strip of mica schist at the
north, while gneiss and mica schist are at the east and southeast. The
basin owed its origin to orogenic movements, and filling began as soon as
the topography was defined. It was a region of “abundant but not ex¬
traordinary” 1 rain; the surface was irregular, the rocks refractory and the
streams were torrential. Everything was unfavorable to rapid formation
of a soil cover, but everything was favorable to rapid removal of loose
materials. The streams, being torrential, were occupied in corrading their
beds and the valleys were necessarily narrow with abrupt walls. Here and
there along the course, little parks were formed above obstructions offered
by more resistant layers or by rock falls from the sides; but with removal
of the obstruction or with opening of a passage through it, the stream quickly
cut down its way and freed the surface of the park from danger of overflow.
The conditions were not those of broad Alpine valleys, remodeled by glacial
action, but such as one finds in the valley of the Viege descending from Zer¬
matt with its close tributary canyons; in the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas
and the valley of the upper Eagle in Colorado; or in the area surrounding
the Yosemite.
The dense vegetation imagined by Fayol would be impossible in the
drainage area of Lake Commentry. It demands a growth of trees as dense
as that of a forest in the temperate zone with an undergrowth like that of a
tropical jungle. A region, such as that surrounding Commentry and les
Pegauds could have only a sparse growth of trees and the undergrowth
would be insignificant.
The estimate is of the whole amount of woody matter produced con¬
tinually on the drainage area and this supposed possible product is shown
to be far in excess of the quantity required to make the coal. But granting
the possibility of a growth so dense, the query at once suggests itself: How
could the vegetation be continuous and, at the same time, be carried to the
lake?
If the plants grew in the beds of streams or in clefts within reach of
1 Fayol : Commentry, p. 330.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
193
floods, they would be tom out by high water and carried down; but even
then the larger plants would be swept out with coarse materials to be inclosed
in the sandstones — as Fayol properly emphasizes in another connection.
On the other hand, if the vegetation had been as dense as imagined, it would
have resisted even more than ordinary rains on the upper reaches which
made up the 40 square miles of drainage area. If the rain had been so
terrific as to tear off the trees and sweep away the undergrowth, it would
have removed the soil also and ages would pass before return of conditions
favoring a dense growth.
The hypothesis is not consistent within itself. The mode in which
the measures accumulated necessitates a surface incapable of supporting
dense vegetation; but the supposed vegetation was so dense, that it would
have been its protection against any but the most terrific series of cloudbursts ;
in case of such a debacle, only a small part of the vegetable matter could be
deposited as a coal bed, for the trees, making one half of the whole amount,
would be loaded by materials around their roots, would be snags in the mass
of detritus and would be buried in the sands; even the twigs and under¬
brush would be entangled in the mass, for in the short course of the torrent
there could be no sorting action and all would be dropped when the flood’s
velocity was checked on the comparatively broad delta surface. Only the
very finest material, mineral or vegetable could find its way to the bottom
of the basin — yet it is certain that the trunks of trees make up a very con¬
siderable part of the Grande Couehe.1
It is well to remember that the supposed subsidence of tree stems in the
basin is hardly in accord with observed conditions. Such stems as might
escape entombment on the delta plain would shoot down with great velocity
into the Pegauds basin, where at most they would be little more than a mile
from the outlet toward which the surface water would be hastening. Those
who are familiar with the western rivers of the United States know well that
logs and stems float for hundreds of miles and remain long before decaying.
It is more than probable that most of the tree trunks brought down by the
torrential streams would find their way along with much of the finer materials
to the outlet and that only a minute proportion of the vegetable matter
would be deposited within the basin of les Pegauds. The existence of this
outlet appears to be ignored by the hypothesis under consideration.
When one considers the enormous mass of the Grande Couehe, certainly
not less than 30,000,000 cubic meters, he must recognize that it could hardly
be derived, except during an inconceivably long period, from such vegetable
matter as could be washed in from 26 square miles, — two thirds of the rocky
1 Fayol: Commentry, pp. 144, 145, 152.
194
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
or rock-covered drainage area — for it must be remembered that during the
same period another great bed, smaller in area but attaining an extreme
thickness of more than 60 feet, was formed in the little lakelet of les Ferrieres
and that it is supposed to have come from the Bourrus with small contribu¬
tions from Chamblet and Les Boulades. The source of the material must
be sought elsewhere.
The form and variations of the Grande Couche, even if there were
nothing more, would seem to leave little room for doubt that the bed repre¬
sents plants which grew where the coal now is. But evidence from pecu¬
liarities of the bed is reinforced by the apparent impossibility of deriving the
material from any other source. The history appears to be as follows:
The streams entering the Pegauds area had cut down their channels, so
that for two or more miles from the water they flowed with gentle fall and
carried comparatively little mineral matter into the basin, except in times of
unusual flood. The filling of the lake had come to a halt. The Bourrus
delta, composed largely of coarse material from the granites, had been
pushed nearly to the southern border, while that of the Colombier, composed
of less coarse material from more readily yielding rocks, had less of emerged
area, the most of its load having been carried into the Pegauds pond. The
plain, covered mostly by cones of dejection, was separated from the water
by a low ill-drained beach on which a marsh originated. The principal
outlets of the Bourrus and Colombier flowed on each side behind this curved
beach and entered the pond near the present southward termination of the
coal’s outcrop. Rivulets entered from the north, carrying, except at rare
intervals, only fine silt.
The marsh growth consisted of Cordaites trees, which form an important
constituent of the coal, with a dense growth of ferns, lepidodendra and other
plants. Within the little area inclosed by the curved shore, detrital deposits
were insignificant, being for the most part only such material as eddied back
into the stiller water from the stream-mouths at the sides; and the shore¬
line’s advance would be due chiefly to invasion of the shallow water by
growth of the swamp itself. The accumulation of swamp material on the
strand would be enormous, but the thickness would decrease abruptly
toward the water.
A similar condition existed in the smaller pond of les Ferrieres, where,
according to Fayol, the formation of the great bed, 20 meters thick, was
synchronous with that of the Grande Couche.
The forking or branching of the Grande Couche on the western border
was due to floods in the Bourrus, which broke across the plain and washed
the sands into the swamp. The conflict between flood and swamp is well
shown on that side, where the several branches of the Grande Couche have
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COM MEN TRY
195
been followed to their disappearance. On the east side, the more peaceful
Colombier rarely broke across the plain, and the marsh followed with little
interruption the slowly extending strand southward. The struggle between
swamp and petty streams along the northern border was seen in l’Esperance,
where, within little more than 600 feet, the great coal mass is broken into
thin beds of carbonaceous shale separated by coarse material.
The area in which this accumulation was made embraces not far from
1,000 acres. The abundance of mineral charcoal (fusain) shows that the
surface of the swamp had frequently only a thin covering of water and that,
at times, parts of it were bare; cannel and c-annel shale mark the presence
of pools into which fine silt and vegetable mud were carried; while the
constant irregularity and impurity of the Banc superieur make clear that
toward the close the bog was exposed to overflows of very muddy water,
which at length became so frequent as to destroy the vegetable growth.
The Banc des Chavais is an ordinary phenomenon, not unlike the “sand¬
stone faults” of other regions. An outlet of the Colombier had pushed its
way across the swamp. Shallow at first, it carried only fine silt; during a
flood or during temporary obstruction of the main stream, it deepened its
channel and for a time it may have been the chief outlet, carrying down the
coarse material to be mingled with portions of the swamp itself. But it
aggraded its lower reaches through the bog; becoming shallow, it carried
only fine silt and at length was obliterated by the swamp growth. Irregu¬
larities in partings indicate lines of petty streamlets following temporary
channels.
There is said to be nothing resembling an ancient 1 soil of vegetation and
this is taken to be evidence against the hypothesis of origin from plants in
situ. No information is given as to what are the necessary characteristics
of such a soil, but it can be said positively that underclays with Stigmaria
are wholly wanting. Stigmaria occurs only in the roof shales of the Grande
Couche on the west side of les Pegauds, where it is associated with Lepido-
dendron ; neither genus has been found on the east side. Sigillaria is un¬
known, save by a single cicatrix discovered in the Lower measures.2 The
absence of these forms does not concern the matters at issue; it shows only
that the coal was formed from other plants, such as have contributed to coal¬
making elsewhere as well as here. A bed of impalpable clay is not necessary
for the formation of a swamp; the sandy clay underlying the Grande Couche
is crowded with vegetable remains and it is clayey enough to prevent down¬
ward drainage.
1 Fayol: Commentry, p. 239.
2 Fayol: Commentry, p. 239, 132.
196
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Renevier recognized that a strong argument in favor of origin from plants
in situ exists in the conformity of the Grande Couche to its inclosing beds.
He insisted that if the coal had been formed of in-brought vegetable matter,
that material, being of low specific gravity, should be found only on the rim
of the delta cone and in the center of the basin ; so that the original declivity
of the deposit should be very small; but in this area of the Pegauds the coal
bed shares in the general dip, 25 to 50 degrees, according to the locality.1
This observation by Renevier appears to have been regarded as unim¬
portant; but it is exceedingly important, for during the Grande Couche time
the distance from the edge of the plain to the outlet was nowhere more than
two miles and for the most part not more than one mile, so that during flood
time the whole surface of the little pond was in rapid movement toward that
outlet. It was impossible for the velocity of water flowing in from flooded
streams to be checked so rapidly as to permit precipitation of fine materials,
the equivalents of impalpable mineral materials, to begin within a few rods.
The pond was not a deep body of great size, but it was a small body with an
outlet. The fine clays and the vegetable matter, including the trees, would
find their way to the outlet; if that were shallow, the velocity would be
checked there and the coal deposit should be found along the southern
border of the basin, not on the border of the delta plain.
The hypothesis that the Grande Couche was once a Corclaites swamp
demands shallow water in the Pegauds pond; the other hypothesis requires
that the pond be deep.
From 500 to 800 meters of stratified rock, much of it very coarse, inter¬
venes between the Grande Couche and the northern border of the basin;
the less coarse materials had been carried farther out. According to Fayol’s
map, the Colombier had dug for itself a valley comparable to that of the
Bourrus, yet its delta had been pushed out only one kilometer, when that of
the Bourrus had almost reached the southern border. The explanation is
simple. The Bourrus was cutting its way through granites and carrying
vast quantities of coarse stuff; the Colombier was cutting its way first
through sedimentary rocks of Lower Carboniferous age and afterward
through mica schist and gneiss, rocks readily disintegrating and yielding
comparatively fine material, most of which was not dropped at once but
was spread over the bottom of the pond. If one consider the character of
the rocks, he is apt to conclude that the amount of detritus carried out by
the Colombier was greater than that transported by the Bourrus — and, if
one may judge by the map, Figure 3, this coincides with Fayol’s opinion.
The northern portion of the Pegauds pond must have been very shallow
1 Reunion etc., pp. 67, 68.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
197
when the Grande Couche began, and in all probability the bottom fell off
very gradually southward.
Any hypothesis to be satisfactory must account for deposits of rock above
the Grande Couche. But before this matter can be taken up, some other
features of the Pegauds area must be considered.
Many of the observed irregularities in stratification are due to the manner
of deposit; but there are others which were brought about after the rocks
had been consolidated.
Possible early erosion of the Grande Couche.
The conditions observed in the Grande Couche within l’Esperance and
Longeroux are perplexing, and the writer’s observations do not suffice for
final explanation; no assistance can be obtained from the record as given
by Fayol.
In an exposure at the southerly end of l’Esperance the coal and its
overlying shale have been planed off and the fine dark shales overlie it un-
conformably; in the neighboring trench of Longeroux, the same condition
is observed, except that the plane of contact rises westwardly. Midway
in Longeroux and at a score of feet lower the coal has been cut off in the
same way, but the fault features are not so distinct, as the overlying shales
rest on the coal instead of meeting it with their edges; but this is evidently
the same plane as that at the end of the trench, for that inclines southwardly.
This faulting does not affect the Banc des Brouillages, the lowest portion
of the Grande Couche, which is continuous from below the plane of faulting
all the way up the wall and the fine dark shales rest against it with the same
dip.
The Grande Couche in FEsperance shows two broken folds; in Longe¬
roux, the bed is crushed and folded as shown in Figure 2 and Plate XIX,
figure 2, the pressure as in l’Esperance having been in direction of the strike.
In this Longeroux fold, a shale is involved of which no traces appear above
the coal, and the fine dark shales, not sharing in the disturbance, thin out
gradually on the jagged upper surface of the coal bed. The Banc des Brouil¬
lages does not seem to have been affected. That the coal had been con¬
solidated before the folding took place appears from the features already
described on an earlier page.
These disturbances were not contemporaneous. The folding is along
the strike and the faulting along the dip. It is quite possible that the folding
was due to a disturbance which brought the Grande Couche again to the
surface and exposed it to erosion; in which case it would be the source
of the pebbles seen in higher rocks. The top of the fold in Longeroux has
198
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
not been eroded. The faulting may be due to the great disturbance which
distorted the Glissement beds; the other to an abrupt change in the rate of
subsidence of the basin.
The Glissement de L’Esperance.
The so-called Glissement de l’Esperance, of which the features are
shown in Plate XVIII, figure 1, and Plate XX, figure 2, is the most notable
of the disturbances observed. Fayol thus describes and explains it:
During and after the formation of the Grande Couche, coarse materials, carried
by the Colombier river, were stopped at the border of the lake, forming some beds
of pebble rock (poudingue) with steep inclination. At a certain moment, in conse¬
quence of the accumulation of plants and mud, the poudingues have slipped, pushing
before them the mud, not yet consolidated, corroding and folding the vegetal bed.
In this movement they were turned up in some points so as to dip in direction
contrary to that of the Grande Couche. After this movement, the sedimentation
resumed its ordinary course; the irregularites of deposit were effaced by the new
beds, and when the formation of the Gres Noirs took place, all trace of the great
Glissement de l’Esperance had disappeared.1
It is with no little regret that the writer is compelled to dissent from
this ingenious explanation as well as from the description of the conditions.
The statement that after these Glissement rocks were deposited the
irregularities were effaced by later sedimentation, may be accurate ; but that
cannot be determined now, as no newer beds overlie those of the Glissement.
The trough now occupied by the light colored sandstones, shales and occa¬
sional pebbly layers, was formed long posterior to the deposit of the Gres
Noirs. A quarry, recently opened at the southerly end of the Longeroux
trench, shows the trough filled with much the same type of rock as at the
other end and having as its wall the yelloAV sandstone which overlies the
black shale of the Gres Noirs. The topography beyond this quarry is such
as to make probable that in that direction still higher beds occur in the wall.
It must not be forgotten that at most there remains only the bottom portion
of this trough, as the region has suffered great erosion; even in recent times
it has been base-leveled into broad benches. The rock filling the trough
is unlike any seen elsewhere in the basin, except at the northwest near Cham-
blet-Neris station.
The late date at which the deposit was formed makes unacceptable the
suggestion that it was caused by a slide on the delta slope, or the other that
its formation has something to do with irregularities in the Grande Couche.
The natural explanation is that after the lake had been filled, a stream eroded
1 Fayol, Reunion etc., pp. 35, 36, 37.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
199
a wide valley perhaps 200 feet deep, in which at a later time were deposited
sands and silts; just as has happened within recent time at many places
within the basin. One of these later valleys has been exposed in the southerly
portion of the Longeroux trench; it is filled with the gravels of the alluvial
deposit now covering the basin.
The Glissement sandstone, containing much kaolinized feldspar and
for the most part only moderately coarse, was subjected at last to great
pressure, by which its beds were folded into a complex syncline, while the
fine shales and the Gres Nobs beyond were pushed into recumbent folds.
The cause of dislocation.
This leads to the consideration of another matter. The dip in most
of the exposed area within les Pegauds is approximately 30 degrees, the
Grande Couche showing the same dip as the other beds; and this has been
supposed to be the original slope of the beds. There is no room for doubt
that beds can be deposited with that slope, especially if the delta be formed
in a deep water-basin; Fayol has proved this by experiment, but the question
is not what is possible but what is probable. And there seems to be good
reason for hesitation before accepting the propositions that the steep dip is
approximately the original and that the basin was deep.
There is abundant evidence in many portions of les Pegauds that after
consolidation the beds were exposed to tremendous pressure such as accom¬
panies folding. Even on the westerly side in the trench of Pre-Gigot, the
black shales accompanying the Grande Couche are rolled in some places
like pastry and show polished surfaces. Occasionally the coal itself is
crushed into petty lentils which have been rubbed and polished. It is by
no means improbable that the curious flexures seen in several beds of shale
erew due to the yielding and slipping of soft between hard beds. Some even
of the petty faults with small vertical extent seem referable to disturbance
after the rocks had been consolidated. The evidences of dislocation increase
eastwardly, reaching the extreme in the southerly portion of l’Esperance
and the adjacent portion of Longeroux.
The disturbance took place after sedimentation had ceased in the area
examined, and its cause must be sought in the northeast portion of the
Pegauds area.
When the basin had been filled, a great outflow of igneous rock occurred
on the northeasterly side and its dikes extended even into the Trancehe de
Saint-Edmond, midway along the outcrop. This rock did not break through
the rocks surrounding the basin, but through the coal measures themselves
not far from the edge of the Grande Couche. Some dikes appear even in the
200
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
area of les Ferrieres,1 but the great mass came to the surface near the area of
extreme disturbance. This outburst coming at the close of Commentry’s
history made the thrust which doubled up the Glissement beds, pushed the
rocks beyond and increased the dip throughout the Pegauds area. Fayol,
in his reply to Renevier’s objections, grants that this outburst affected the
rate of clip, but only to increase it by about 25 degrees; and he maintained
that it had nothing to do with causing the prevalent dip of about 30 degrees.2
Fayol’s position is right to some extent, but one must allot to the diori-
tine outburst a much greater and wider influence than he admits. The
dikes are present even in the area of les Ferrieres, so that there is reason to
believe that the mass extends under the coal measures of the entire basin,
or at least that it extends across the northerly portion, thus causing a serious
dislocation in that whole region.
Yet, even with that extension, there remains a serious dip to account for.
Renevier’s suggestion 3 that the synclinal structure observed in an east and
west direction is due to gradual subsidence through carbonization and com¬
pression of the soft materials, is in accord with conditions described in
Pennsylvania, Iowa and other states. The gradual change in mass cer¬
tainly accounts for the synclinal structure and for a dip of five degrees ; the
intrusion of a sheet of dioritine accounts for the crushing and polishing as
well as for much of the clip in the western part of the areas; but these do
not account for all of the features.
Secular movements in the basin.
This leads to the last matter to be considered in this paper, which already
has exceeded the limit intended at the outset.
The form of delta-hypothesis under consideration insists upon great
depth of the basin as a pre-requisite. The writer is far from saying that it
should be rejected on the ground of inherent improbability, for such a
depression in the surface is not in any sense impossible. But if a hypothesis
can be presented which is more in accord with what are known to be the
normal conditions in nature and which, at the same time, meets equally well
the requirements within this area, it is preferable.
The region of which the Commentry basin forms a small part had been
undergoing prolonged and serious disturbance. De Launay’s admirable
synopsis makes this clear. A great fault marks the westerly side of the
syncline for much of its length; though that is not recognizable on the west
1 Fayol: Commentry, pp. 44-47.
2 Reunion etc., p. 68.
3 Reunion etc., pp. 67, 68.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
201
side of Commentry, yet there, as well as for some distance eastwardly along
the southern border, the coal measures abut against the granite. It would
seem wholly in accord with the observed phenomena to suppose that the
unstable conditions continued and that there was a differential sinking of
the bottom of the basin, increasing toward the southwest and south; not a
constant but an intermittent subsidence, as is known to be the condition in
faulted regions. During a long period of very gentle subsidence, the Grande
Couehe and the immediately overlying beds accumulated; an abrupt adjust¬
ment after the period of comparative cpiiet would bring about serious changes
in the watercourses of the little area, during which the black shales of the
Gres Noirs could be formed by destruction of exposed portions of the Grande
Couehe. Even the distortion of the Grande Couehe in the Longeroux
trench might be due to a disturbance of this type.
A differential subsidence combined with the effect of compression and
carbonization would account for the high dips which have been regarded as
original. The distribution of the coarse materials as well as the absence of
horizontal beds alike favor the supposition that the water was shallow and
that the great apparent depth is due to subsidence. This hypothesis is
merely the outgrowth of de Launay’s presentation of the character of move¬
ments throughout the region under consideration. He asserts, rightly enough,
that there is nothing incompatible with the delta theory in the supposition
that movements such as he describes had taken place during the formation
of the coal and had given to the lake, step by step, the great depth which is
found to-dav.1
Appendix.
Jukes on formation of coal beds.
One cannot fail to recognize the typical features of delta deposit every¬
where in the excavations at Commentry and students should be grateful to
the engineer who chose this mode of mining, for there the conditions, which
elsewhere have been only surmised, are exposed in full day. Study of these
phenomena led Fayol to formulate his doctrine, which, he says, is not abso¬
lutely new; it was entertained by the first savants who studied coal, but
afterwards hypotheses as improbable as insufficient were presented. He is
confident that these will be rejected when men discover that simultaneous
transport of vegetable and mineral materials can give distinct beds and
when they have seen that* the delta theory explains all of the coal measure
phenomena.2
1 Reunion etc., pp. 101, 102.
2 Commentry, pp. 19, 20.
202
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Whether or not this delta theory explains all of the coal measure phe¬
nomena, even whether or not it explains those of the little basin of Commentry,
is not, as the reader must have recognized, an open question in the writer’s
mind. But be that as it may, Fayol is wholly accurate in stating that the
theory, as presented by him, is not absolutely new for it is quite old. One
can hardly believe that Jukes’s brilliant work, first published prior to 1850
and republished in 1859, 1 had been forgotten in 1889; yet there is no doubt
that it was then unknown to many eminent geologists in France and that
it is still unknown to some who are engaged in the investigation of coal
phenomena.
Unquestionably, as Fayol says, the greater number of geologists who have
devoted themselves to the study of coal, have not accepted the doctrine that
coal is derived from transported vegetable matter; but there have been very
few who did not see in the structural arrangement of materials full evidence
of delta deposit; many of the phenomena, described by Fayol in such
detail, have been regarded by others as, so to say, elementary facts, deserving
mostly of only passing reference. But Jukes in his discussion went farther
and applied the laws of delta deposit to transported vegetable matter in
order to account for the origin of coal beds themselves — and his arguments
are very largely the same as those employed by Fayol, 40 years afterwards.
Certain features in some of the important coal beds led Jukes to say,
“ they have only confirmed me in my belief in the entirely subaqueous deposi¬
tion of these coals.” He bases his opinion upon
the “rolls,” “swells” or “horsebacks” in the coal,
the “rock faults” or great masses of sandstone in the coal,
the branching of coal beds,
the expansion of coal beds toward the direction whence the mineral
materials came.
He discusses fully the distribution of mingled materials and asserts, the
italics being his own, “It appears to me that the phenomena of lamination
and stratification of beds of coal and their interstratification and association
with other stratified rocks are explicable solely by the relation of the specific
gravity of their materials to the action of moving water, and the consequent
diffusion of those materials through the mass of that water.”
The variation in thickness and other changes in the coal beds “are
distinctly referable to the action of water in transporting materials of different
kinds which have been committed to it”: and further he insists on “the
obvious ‘delta-like’ or ‘bank-like’ form which the coal measures of South
1 Jukes, J. Beete: The South Staffordshire Coal Field. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great
Britain, 2d. edition, pp. 202-206. London, 1859.
STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF COMMENTRY
203
Staffordshire must have originally possessed and the perfect resemblance they
must have had to an undisturbed subaqueous accumulation.”
In one important respect Fayol differs from Jukes. The latter evi¬
dently recognized that only a small part of the vegetation growing upon a
drainage area could ever find its way to deposition in a basin, for he thought
that the whole of the coal measures, coal included, was deposited by one con¬
nected operation of the same physical forces upon these materials through
an indefinite but immensely long period of time. Fayol’s calculation based
evidently on the conception that the vegetation was dense and continuous
over the whole drainage area, while, at the same time, it was in constant
transference to the basin, is that 170 centuries sufficed for formation of the
whole series at Commentry.
PLATE XV.
Fig. 1. Tranchee de For£t.
Opening in the Grande Couche in foreground. The white material on right side
is the sandy underclay.
Fig. 2. Grande Couche in l’Esperance.
Banc des Roseaux at top on right side; the irregular Banc superieur rests on
the Banc intermediare in the background.
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.t&ho'I riq S&ho^/.hT .1 .ofT
abis i/fch no f.;i*r>ijiui otirlv? orf'f .Si<iuo'ij/ ooi ni arfonoO ebnaiO srii rif ghhstsqO
.vj;taT>I>r:u Ybnfi?. ■ 1 A
ad/.j va anono') a<r//.Jir.> .£ .obi •
% offfiH [filogsmi mil ; abis A tigh no not m zuB98oS'89b orusil
.bancngdoed silt ni ntnntni .irndl erb
Annals N. Y. Acad. Scj
Volume XIX, Plate XV.
.
Fig. 1. Tranchee de l’Esperance.
Nonconformity between the Grande Couche and the overlying dark shales.
Fig. 2. Tranchee de l’Esperance.
Westerly wall exhibiting irregularity of deposit of Gres Noirs above and gray
shales below.
.17/ 3TAJ/1
.lo/.A-iiotH".: i‘j au aanoviAfiT .1 .ox3
,c?\i uU >!'ir,l) onivhevo oxl t into ofbuo’) ob run O 9/It n997/t9cl viixxnolnoono/
.3')VYn:-r9>3\.i aa :-i3h>/./.hT M ,ox3
v;;y_ 1 1 ; ' i - i/odi; -'sii'7 ■-.9I i ) ')<■ 1i'(jq9li lo v)hi5lj/§9-ni ynbidiilxo II nw vl'i9l897/
.770l9c( '.9lfJfIo
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate XVI.
/
PLATE XVII.
\
Fig. 1. Tranchee de l’Esperance.
Southwesterly corner showing structure of the Gres Noirs group.
Fig. 2. Tranchee de l’Esperance.
Southerly wall showing faulting in the dark shales.
.1177 aTA.1‘1
.aoxAa^Hfea'j aq a&irr/iAflT .1 .oia
qnoTA aiio7 eeri) sxlJ lo rujiomi?. gniv/ori* ’isjojoo vfr^t^/vrfinoH
.aowAHa^ga'a :ia s^hokahT .2 .oi'i
.>0 \f:rl- 'A'ir.1 > Mill j si gniJltn;! grriv/oii* lie// vNoflJiioB
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci,
Volume XIX, Plate XVII.
PLATE XVIII.
Fig. 1. Glissement de l’Esperance.
Southerly wall of l’Esperance.
Fig. 2. Tranchee de Longeroux.
Recumbent fold in black shales of Gres Noirs. There are two photographs on
this film. The fold shown at right of stairway belongs in the cliff at left of stairway.
.nr/ x :-ir/.:!'i
.ao'/AHMaHL'a aa xxaMaaaiaO .1 .oil
.{ >oa£<ilqs3 1 V> Ubw TjftsdiuoB
.xuoflaoxoJ aa a xhqx/.hT .bi'i
no grfqjvigoJodq ovn 9tb oioifT .aiioX rs-iO lo sslferie ilaald ui blol dnsdmirasH
' -n-.-f: 1< 1 j : ' ffi flWOda. blol 9jdT .ffllS gull
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate XVIII
PLATE XIX.
Fig. 1. Traxchee de Loxgeroux.
Upper sandstone and black coaly shales of Gres Xoirs.
Fig. 2. Traxchee de Loxgeroux.
Grande Couche at left ; dark shales and folded sandstones of GrSs Xoirs in back¬
ground.
.7 IX aTAJrl
zoo-.kiuxtolI au aiHOK/aT .1 .oi'TI
>X , i 1o aslfida ^fjeoo itfjsid foaa afloJgbrtjj^ laqql r
.. aaovrov aq • •. m / >iT .£ .oil
-:4 >r.*- oi aiio VI 5iO lo aoriolsfuasp. boblol i.m« aolmia vhdt : )1>I .t/: orfouoIJ obriniO
.bifumg
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate XIX
PLATE XX.
Fig. 1. Tranchee de Longeroux.
Fault between Grande Couche below and dark shales above.
Fig. 2. Tranchee de Longeroux.
Glissement de 1’Esperance and flexed dark shales.
.xx aTA.n
.xaojrsrovioJ aa SMHO'//nT .t .oir'I
.avudi. •■•‘ilcffe jl-nJi \>(u\ v/oImc! orioaoO olmtriO rmy/isd Hijj/I
XTiojirroxoJ aa s^homjMiT .£ .oi'l
.yMr.ik I)itx; ‘vininikp-rri <>l> jneimsaifD
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate XX.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 9, Part II, pp. 205-224, Plates XXI-
XXII, 2 March, 1910.]
SOME NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN AMERICAN SPIDERS.
By Alexander Petrunkevitch, Ph.D.
The present article contains descriptions of a few American spiders
belonging to two separate collections, one of which is in the American Mu¬
seum of Natural History and the other in my private possession. The
genera, unless otherwise stated, conform to the definitions given to them by
Eugene Simon in the second edition of his “ Histoire Naturelle des Araignees,”
the only extensive work on the subject. It has been necessary to establish
two new genera. One of these, Moenkhausiana, belongs to the family
Lycosidse and is characterized by the unusual structure of the spinnerets
and the proportion of the legs. The other genus, Theridionexus, I place
provisionally in the family Theridiidse, although the spider for which I have
established this genus has many structures characteristic of Argiopidse.
Uniform terminology is essential to a correct description of species.
Finding the old one inadequate and confusing, I proposed a new one in an
article entitled “ Contributions to our Knowledge of the Anatomy and Rela¬
tionships in Spiders,” in the Annals of the Entomological Society of America,
Volume II, 1909. For an understanding of the principles underlying this
terminology, I refer the reader to this article. The following abbreviations
will be used throughout the present article: Episy named surface, EPS;
Elyposynaxial surface, HYS; Pr asymmetrical surface, PRS; Retrosym-
metrical surface, RES. For the convenience of the reader I may state that
the episynaxial surface in spiders is almost synonymic with dorsal; hypo-
synaxial with ventral. In the old terminology, however, the words anterior
and front were often used to designate the hyposynaxial surface of the first
femora. The prosymmetrical surface corresponds to the inner surface of
the front legs and the outer surface of the hind legs, while the retrosymmetri-
cal surface corresponds to the outer surface of the front legs and the inner
surface of the hind legs. In the chela', promargin stands for superior or
anterior and retromargin for inferior or posterior.
All measurements are given in millimeters.
205
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
ZOROPSID M.
1. Acanthocteims Marshii F. Cambridge, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 6th ser.,
vol. xix, p. 103. 1897.
Plate XXI, Fig. 1.
One specimen of this large spider was caught by Prof. W. J. Moenkhaus
at P090 Grande, Brazil, in 1897. It is a mature female, and the measure¬
ments show that there can be no doubt as to its identity. There are, how¬
ever, two points in which this specimen differs from the type, both margins
of the chelae are armed with three teeth and the epigynum although similar
to that figured by F. Cambridge shows difference in structure, as may be
seen by comparing the type with Plate XXI, fig. 1. I do not, however,
consider these differences sufficient to constitute a new species. It is true
that the number of teeth on the margins of the chelae is a remarkably con¬
stant character and has been used by Cambridge and Dahl for the separation
of species, but I have seen exceptions to it in other families of spiders. On
the other hand, the shape of the epigynum changes after copulation and still
more after the eggs are laid.
Total length, 16.5; cephalothorax, 7.5 long, 6 broad between second and third
legs; legs in order 4123; first coxa the longest.
and RES, with an apparently variable number of small spines; metatarsus, HYS,
4 pairs of long spines, PRS, 1 proximal spine, RES, 1 proximal spine. Second leg. —
Same as first. Third leg. — Femur same as first; tibia, HYS, 3 pairs, PRS, 2 spines,
RES, 2 spines, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines; metatarsus, EPS, 1 spine, HYS, 5 pairs, PRS,
4 spines, RES, 4 spines. Fourth leg. — Same as third; the only difference is in the
number of spines in HYS of the metatarsus, there being four pairs instead of five.
Patellse of all four pairs of legs have one PRS and one RES spine.
Color in Alcohol: Mostly light brown with dark brown mandibles; on each
side of cephalothorax and covering about one fifth of its entire width, a darker sub¬
marginal band; abdomen somewhat grayer, with three pairs of indistinct crosslines
on back; lip considerably darker than sternum, nearly as dark as mandibles, but its
tip yellow; along front edge of lip a row of dark bristles each sitting in a nearly
black cupula; cephalothorax covered with short black and white hair; face with
long black bristles and short white hair; sternum longer than broad, sparsely cov-
PE TRUNKEVI TCH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
207
ered with short hair; abdomen covered with short yellowish hair with few dark hairs
scattered irregularly and with four rows of long tufts; the two middle rows of six
tufts each, the side rows probably of four tufts each, this number being uncertain,
however, owing to the poor preservation of the tufts; scop ulse yellow; calamistrum
small, occupying scarcely more than one tenth of the metatarsus (the second proxi¬
mal tenth) and consisting of irregularly distributed hair; spinnerets yellowish brown ;
upper pair a little thinner and longer than the lower; cribellum divided in two.
Patria: Brazil (Poco Grande, Province Sao Paulo).
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch. One mature female.
OONOPID7E.
2. Orchestina saltabunda Simon, Ann. Soc. Entom. France, vol. lxi,
p. 447, pi. ix, fig. 12. 1892.
Plate XXI, Figs. 2, 3.
This little spider was described by Simon from Venezuela. On June
26, 1907, a mature male was caught by Mrs. Petrunkevitch in our home at
Short Hills, New Jersey. The specimen accords well with the description
of Simon. The embolus of the palpus is, however, longer than that figured
by Simon. Since this species has not been recorded from the United States,
I give a figure of the palpus (Plate XXI, fig. 2) and of the spider as viewed
from the side (Plate XXI, fig. 3). Total length of spider, 1.05; cephalo-
thorax, 0.53 long, 0.44 broad between second and third pair of legs.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch.
DRASSIDTb
3. Melanophora rufula Banks (sub Prosthesima), Proc. Acad. Phila. for
1892, p. 17, pi. 1, fig. 55; Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. xiv,
p. 217, pi. ix, fig. 6. 1909.
Plate XXI, Fig. 4.
Banks has described only the female of this spider. Emerton described
the male and gave good figures of the palpus in his recent paper which was
printed at the time -when my plates were already finished. Several mature
specimens of both sexes were collected in Onondaga County, New York, bv
the late H. W. Britcher.
Collection: American Museum.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
PHOLCID.E.
#
4. Spermophora meridionalis Hentz, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xli, p. 116. 1S41.
Plate XXI, Fig. 5.
During the summer of 190S a number of males and females were collected
in our home at Short Hills, N. J. For a figure of the comb-hair of the
fourth tarsus in this species see Petrunkeviteh, Ann. Entom. Soc. Amer.,
vol. ii. plate iv, fig. 12. This comb is homologous with the comb of the
Theridiidse. Its presence on the fourth tarsus is a character common to
both families. It always occupies the middle line on the hyposynaxial
surface, but in the Theridiidse the combhair is long, heavy, almost bristle-
like, while in the Pholcidse it may be recognized only under high magnify¬
ing power.
The male palpus of Spermophora meridionalis has never been figured,
hence I give a figure of it here.
THERIDIIDSE.
5. Latrodectus mactans Fabrieius (sub Aranea), Entom. Syst., vol. ii, p.
410. 1775.
Dahl has made the attempt to divide this species into two species, the
one of which he calls mactans Fabrieius and the other insularis Dahl with
two subspecies, insularis insularis from St. Thomas and insular is lunulifer
from Hayti. Such division is entirely unwarranted. I have specimens in
my collection from the United States, Jamaica, Brazil and Patagonia,
and I do not find any characters sufficient for the separation of this well
known species into either more species or subspecies. The differences are of
minor value, not more than may be attributed to the influence of local con¬
ditions. The specimens from Jamaica and from many localities of Mexico
are in no way different from those found in the United States. The speci¬
mens from Patagonia have a very marked red band in the posterior third of
the abdomen; but the palpus and the epigynum are in every detail the same
as in the other specimens. On my recent trip through southern Mexico
I was very much surprised to find that in the plains around San Geronimo,
on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Latrodectus mactans is much more brilliantly
colored than the specimens which I collected in the tropical forests of the
same Isthmus. The markings on the abdomen of the mature female are the
same as in young spiders of other localities, but the red stripes are so heavy
PE TR UNKEVI TCH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
209
and so brilliant that the first impression is that of a coral red spider. Its
local name is “ aragna Colorado,.” Instead of living under rocks as in Ja¬
maica, it makes its webs some six feet above the ground among the branches
of the cactus, where it often hangs with several males. As many as eight
males, indeed, were found in one web. And yet no structural difference can
be found between this “red spider” and the “black widow” of the southern
United States. The L. insularis Dahl with its two varieties becomes there¬
fore a synonym of mactans.
Theridionexus gen. nov.
Cephalothorax humilis, impressione transversa recta notata; oculorum linea
antica recurva, postica levissime procurva; oculi inter se fere £equidistantes, medii
antici reliquis minores, nigri; laterales eontigui; quadrangulus antice quam postice
angustior, postice latior quam longior; clypeus quadrangulo multo latior; chelae
sat longae, pro margine (superiore) obliquo tridentato, retroma' gine (inferiore) muti-
co; pars labialis latior quam longior, dimidium laminarum non attingens; laminae
subrectae; sternum triquetrum, antice truncatum, postice acuminatum ; pedes longi,
mutici; tarsi unguibus spuriis 2-2 muniti, ungues superiores geniculati, pectinati;
unguis inferior muticus; tarsi postici pectine muniti; abdomen globosum, organo
stridulante carens.
Typus : T. caver nicolns.
6. Theridionexus cavernicolus sp. nov.
Plate XXI, Figs. 6, 7. Plate XXII, Figs. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37.
The spider for which I propose the new genus combines the characters
of two families. Its general appearance, the long front legs and the globose
abdomen and most of all the presence of a well developed tarsal comb speak
for its close relation to the family Theridiidse. On the other hand, the
structure of the mandibles, the shape of the cephalothorax and especially
the presence of a tibial apophysis in the male palpus are characters which
are found only in Argiopidae. It is, therefore, impossible to place the genus
Theridionexus with sufficient reason in either of these families; it forms a
new, intermediate group. The proposed name expresses to a certain degree
the affinities of the genus.
Female.— Cephalothorax, 2.7 long, 2.1 broad between second and third pair of
legs; abdomen, 4.0 long; legs in order 1243.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Male. — Cephalothorax, 2.3 long, 1.9 broad between second and third pair of
legs; abdomen, 2.5 long.
Legs in both sexes with long black hair, arranged in regular rows; same kind of
hair on sternum; cephalothorax nearly glabrous, with a very few black hairs in
cephalic region ; abdomen covered with short brown hair; spinnerets small; colulus
absent. Cephalothorax shape apparent from Plate XXII, fig. 31; head separated
from thorax by deep sulci uniting in the transverse groove; face and mandibles
represented in Plate XXII, fig. 32; promargin of chelse with three teeth of which the
distal is longest and strongest; lip considerably broader than long, not reaching the
middle of the laminae ; sternum triangular, broadest between first and second pair of
coxae, in front a little narrower, but first coxae are still widely separated from each
other; palpal claw in female with a series of eight teeth, growing gradually longer
towards the distal end; superior tarsal claws distinctly geniculate, with five or six
teeth of which the distal is longest; inferior tarsal claw smooth; each tarsus has,
besides, two pairs of serrated bristles (Plate XXII, fig. 34) ; fourth tarsus with a
well developed comb ; male palpus with a tibial apophysis (Plate XXI, fig. 6) ; epi-
gynum as figured (Plate XXI, fig. 7).
Color: Body and legs in both sexes light brown; abdomen more or less uni¬
formly grayish.
Patria: Jamaica, W. I. In the Peru Cave near Malvern, Santa Cruz
Mountains. Collected May 12, 1905. I found the spiders at a considerable
distance from the entrance to the cave, which is supposed to extend over six
miles. They were hanging in loose webs on the wall of the cave. These
webs consisted of a few irregular threads. The spiders seem to feed on little
flies which abound there.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch. Five mature females and one male.
ARGIOPIDdE.
7. Alcimosphenus licinus Simon, Hist. Nat. Araign., vol. i, p. 935. 1895.
I collected two mature females of this beautiful spider in the environments
of Port Antonio, Jamaica, W. I., in February, 1905. They were hanging
in their webs in low grass on the edge of the road. The red velvety color
of the body is very beautiful, but it becomes much duller in alcohol. Both
specimens agree perfectly with the description of Simon and the figure
given by F. Cambridge of a specimen from the Bahamas.
PETRUNKEVITCH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
211
8. Alcimosphenus bifurcatus sp. nov.
Plate XXI, Fig. 8.
This species is considerably smaller than the preceding, if one may judge
by the two immature females which I collected in Jamaica.
Total length, 6.2; cephalothorax, 1.9 long, 1.7 broad between second and third
pairs of legs; legs in order, 1423.
All eyes subequal in size; side eyes contiguous; front row of eyes recurved, second
row nearly straight; quadrangulus longer than broad; clypeus as high as quadrangu-
lus is long; promargin of chelae with two, retromargin with four teeth; body smooth;
legs without spines; at distal end of each patella a bristle on the EPS. ; fourth femora
with the two characteristic rows of long curved hair.
Color in Life: Cephalothorax and abdomen bright red, the latter extending
considerably beyond spinnerets, bifurcated at extreme end, the two lobes entirely
black; mandibles, palpi, laminae, lip, sternum, venter and all coxae and trochanters
red; spinnerets red with black ends; femora and patellae greenish black; tibiae,
metatarsi and tarsi of first pair, metatarsi and tarsi of second pair yellow ; proximal
end of fourth femur red, proximal ends of fourth tibia, metatarsus and tarsus yellow,
rest of these segments black; two little round white spots on venter halfway between
genital groove and spinnere s.
Patria: Jamaica, W. I. (Port Antonio and Castleton). Collected in
February, 1905, in low grass along the road.
Collection: A. Petrunkeviteh.
9. Epeira solitaria Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. vi, p. 299, plate
xxxv, fig. 3. 1885.
Epeira nigra id. ibid. vol. ix, p. 402, Plate i, fig. 1. 1894.
Epeira angulata Emerton (nec Clerck) ibid. vol. xiv, p. 198. 1909.
In his “ Supplement to New England Spiders,” Emerton considers his sil-
vatica, nigra and solitaria all to be varieties of angulata Clerck. From
examination of European specimens of angulata, I conclude, however, that
the latter is distinct from the American species. It seems to me doubtful
whether typical angulata has ever been recorded from the new continent.
It is not impossible that solitaria and nigra will prove to be local varieties of
sylvatica. Before sufficient material can be examined, however, I prefer
to consider solitaria a separate species and nigra a smaller, dark variety of
the same. I have carefully examined Emerton’s types at the Harvard Mu-
212
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
seum and compared them with the specimen now before me. The descrip¬
tion of Emerton is so brief that I think it wise to describe in detail the
structure of the specimen from Onondaga.
Total length, 12.0; cephalothorax, 6.7 long, 5.4 broad between second and third
pairs of legs; legs in order 1243.
Thoracic part of cephalothorax nearly circular with deep depression a little behind
its center and a narrow longitudinal sulcus running from the depression forwards a
little beyond the meeting point of the cephalic sulci; sides of cephalic part parallel,
distance between edges, 2.5; clypeus narrow, 0.350; all eyes on prominent tubercles;
diameter of AM, 0.294, AL, 0.168, PM, 0.210, PL, 0.168; distance between inside
edges of AM, 0.210, of PM, 0.168; distance between side eyes and middle eyes equal
to one millimeter; quadrangulus broader in front than behind, nearly as long as
broad in front (0.700 long and 0.742 broad); side eyes contiguous; in middle of
quadrangulus two small hairs; a strong bristle between middle and side eyes; ster¬
num longer than broad (3.3 by 2.0) truncated in front, produced into a sharp point
behind ; cox£e of first pair with dark hump at distal end ; coxae of second pair with
stout conical spur at base; coxae of fourth pair contiguous; femora of first and
second pair and tibiae of second pair distinctly thickened ; legs covered with numer¬
ous spines on all members; especially heavy spines on second tibiae; a row of modi¬
fied spines on HYS of first, second and third femora; in first and second femora the
row is formed by five very short proximal and three long distal spines; abdomen
with two strong humps in front; palpus as figured by Emerton; whole cephalo¬
thorax covered with white hair, becoming long towards eyes; hair on abdomen of
three kinds: very short white, long white with dark base and nearly black hair on
the humps and spinnerets.
Color in alcohol: Cephalothorax brown, rather reddish; sternum lighter
brown with more yellowish tint; back of abdomen with white spot in front, with
indistinct folium, otherwise grayish brown; legs brown, tibiae lighter in middle third;
metatarsi and tarsi darker towards end, ventral side uniformly light brown; spinner¬
ets somewhat darker; tips of maxillae and of lip light yellow.
Patria: Onondaga County, N. Y.
Collection: American Museum. One mature male collected by the
late H. W. Britcher.
10. Micrathena horrida Taczanovsky (sub Acrosoma) Hor. Soc. Ent.
Ross., vol. ix, p. 21, fig. 31. 1872.
nec M. horrida Simon, Hist. Nat. Araign, vol. i. 1895.
Plate XXI, Figs. 9, 10, 11.
The description given by Taczanovsky is exact and his figure excellent.
If I give here some measurements and the figures of the epigynum and of
PETR UNKEVITCH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
213
the abdomen, it is only because Eugene Simon has incorrectly described,
under the name M. horrida Tacz., a spider which belongs in all probability
to a new species. I have three specimens of Micrathena horrida in my col¬
lection. One is a mature female from Sao Paulo, Brazil, collected by Prof.
W. J. Moenkhaus; the two others are immature females which I collected
in the Castleton Botanical Gardens, Jamaica. W. I. All three specimens
agree in every detail with the description of Taczanovsky. The following
measurements are from the Brazilian female.
Cephalothorax, 2.5 long, 1.7 broad; abdomen from petiolus to anus, 3.0; ster¬
num, 1.2 long, 0.7 broad; clypeus, 0.172; diameter of eyes: AM, 0.105, AL, 0.083,
PM, 0.123, PL, 0.083; distance between inside edges of AM, 0.090, of PM, 0.120
of AL and PL, 0.030; distance between outside edge of PM and apex of angle formed
by side eyes on each side of head, 0.435; quadrangulus as long as broad, each side
measuring 0.345; legs in order 4123.
All femora with a row of tactile organs on HYS; femora of first pair thickened; no
spines on legs.
11. Micrathena Simoni {nomen novum) .
= M. horrida Simon, Hist. Nat. Araign, vol. i, pf 850, fig. 898. 1895.
= nec Micrathena horrida Taczanovsky.
The number of tubercles or spines on abdomen in horrida is 16, as cor¬
rectly described by Taczanovsky. In Micrathena Simoni the number is
considerably greater, and the abdomen forms posteriorly a tail which is
lacking in horrida.
12. Micrathena oblonga Taczanovsky (sub Acrosoma), Hor. Soc. Ent.
Ross., vol. ix, p. 15, plate vi, fig. 26. 1872.
Plate XXI, Figs. 12, 13.
Cephalothorax, 4.2 long, 3.6 broad; sternum longer than broad (1.6 by 1.4);
abdomen (measured on back from anterior edge to base of spines), 9.0 long; venter
from petiolus to anus, 4.0; abdomen broad in middle, 5.0; clypeus, 0.24; diameter
of eyes: AM, 0.210, AL, 0.150, PM, 0.195, PM, 0.135; distance between inside edges
of AM, 0.135, of PM, 0.225, of AL and PL, 0.060; quadrangulus a little broader than
long (0.555 broad, 0.525 long); distance between outside edge of PM and apex of
angle formed by side eyes on each side of head, 0.825; legs in order 4123.
214
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
None of femora thickened; no tactile organs, only protuberances with hard bristles
directed forward and a few irregular spines; similar spines found also on tibiae;
side view of abdomen, Plate XXI, fig. 13; epigynum as in Plate XXI, fig. 12.
Patria: Rio Uaupes, border between Colombia and Brazil.
Collection: American Museum. Two mature females.
13. Micrathena Vigorsi Perty (sub Aerosoma), Delectus Animalium quas
in itinere etc , p. 194, pi. 38, fig. 8. 1833.
Plate XXI, Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19.
Cephalothorax, 5.0 long, 4.0 broad; abdomen (measured on back), 9.3 long, 6.2
broad between second dorsal spines; clypeus, 0.30; diameter of eyes: AM, 0.160,
AL, 0.140, PM, 0.182, PL, 0.140; distance between inside edges of AM, 0.168, of PM,
0.280, of AL and PL, 0.070; distance between outside edge of PM and apex of angle
formed by side eyes on each side of head, 0.77 ; quadrangulus a little broader than
long, (0.644 broad, 0.602 long) ; legs in order 4123.
Tibiae and metatarsi with very few, weak spines. For figures of abdomen, sternum
and epigynum, see Plate XXI, figs. 16, 17, 18, 19.
Patria: Rio Uaupes, border between Colombia and Brazil.
Collection: American Museum. Two mature females.
14. Micrathena sordida Taezanovsky (sub Aerosoma), Hor. Soc. Ent.
Ross., vol. ix, p. 13, pi. vi, figure 25. 1872.
Plate XXI, Figs. 14, 15.
Cephalothorax, 2.40 long, 2.24 broad; abdomen (measured on back), 5.20 long,
6.96 broad between last spines; sternum, longer than broad (1.04 long, 0.72 broad);
clypeus, 0.07; diameter of eyes: AM, 0.112, AL, 0.092, PM, 0.126, PL, 0.090; dis¬
tance be! ween inside edges of AM, 0.098, of PM, 0.140; side eyes contiguous; dis¬
tance between outside edge of PM and apex of angle formed by side eyes on each
side of head, 0.490; quadrangulus almost square (0.364 long, 0.350 broad); legs in
order 4123.
PETR UNKEVIT CH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
215
Side view of abdomen, Plate XXI, fig. 15; epigynum, Plate XXI, fig. 14.
P atria: Poco Grande, Brazil.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch. Four mature females collected by
Prof. W. J. Moenkhaus.
15. Micrathena clypeata Walckenaer, Tabl. Aran., p. 67. 1805.
One mature female from Rio Uaupes on the boundary between Colombia
and Brazil. This species was first described by Walckenaer and not by
C. Koch, as supposed by Simon.
Collection: American Museum.
16. Micrathena spatulifera Simon, Hist. Nat. Araign., vol. i, p. 852, fig.
912, 1895.
Two mature females from Ecuador.
Collection: American Museum.
17. Micrathena patruelis C. Koch (sub Acrosoma), Die Arachniden, vol. vi,
p. 130, pi. 210, fig. 524, 1839.
Two mature females of this species were collected in 1897 by Prof. W. J.
Moenkhaus at Poco Grande, Brazil, in the Province of Sao Paulo.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch.
18. Micrathena bifurcata Hahn (sub Acrosoma), Die Arachniden, vol. ii,
p. 65, pi. 68, fig. 158, 1834.
Two mature females from Poco Grande.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch.
19. Micrathena crassispina C. Koch (sub. Acrosoma) Die Arachniden, vol.
iii, pi. 92, fig. 209, 1836.
One mature female from Poco Grande.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch.
20. Micrathena gladiola Walckenaer, Ins. Apt., vol. ii, p. 182, 1842.
Many mature females from nests of mud-dauber wasps, from Poco
Grande.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
21. Micrathena bifissa Keys (sub Acrosoma), Spirmen Amerikas, Epeiri-
clae, p. 30, pi. 1, fig. 27, 1892.
Five mature females from Poeo Grande.
Collection: A. Petrunkeviteh.
22. Micrathena acuta 'Walckenaer (sub Plectana), Ins. Apt., vol. ii, p. 172,
1842.
Four mature females from Poeo Grande.
Collection: A. Petrunkeviteh.
23. Micrathena armata Olivier (sub Aranea), Encvcl. Method, vol. iv, p.
205, 1791.
Two immature females from the virgin forest in the Cockpit of .Jamaica,
W. I. I found them hanging in the center of their webs some 10 feet above
O e?
ground. Collected in May, 1905.
Collection: A. Petrunkeviteh.
THOMISIIXE.
24. Epicadinus tuberculatus sp. nov.
Plate XXII, Figs. 20, 21, 22.
Total length, 10.5; cephalothorax, 4.4 long, 4.6 broad at its broadest place,
only l.S broad in front; abdomen, 6.1 long, trifid; sternum longer than broad, its
anterior end with a semicircular notch; both margins of chelse with two teeth: lip
a little longer than broad, scarcely reaching middle of laminae; elypeus very high,
AM sitting a little over middle of forehead: anterior eye row strongly recurved,
posterior procurved, broader than anterior : quadrangulus, longer than broad, nar¬
rower in front ; eyes of first row nearly sequidistant, AM smaller than AL : posterior
middle eyes farther apart from each other than from posterior side eyes; legs in order
1243.
Legs of two front pairs considerably heavier than the four hind legs ; spines only on
HYS of tibiae and metatarsi of two front pairs, as follows: in tibiae of both pairs a
row of 3 pro- and 3 retro-spines, on first metatarsi a row of 3 pro- and 4 retro-spines,
on second metatarsi a row of 4 pro- and 3 retro-spines; arrangement of trichobothria
as follows: first and second legs have 2 trichobothria surrounded by black scales at
end of tarsus and 4 at end of metatarsus, also 3 at base of tibia, third leg has 4 tri-
PETRI'S KEY ITCH. AMERICAS SPIDERS
217
chobothria at end of tarsus. 6 at end of metatarsus and 6 at base of tibia, fourth leg
4 trichobothria at end of tarsus. 4 at end of metatarsus and 4 at base of tibia;
palpus has a group of 7 trichobothria at base of tibia: claws of legs as figured in
Plate XXII, fig. 22.
Colob ix alcohol: Lamina maxillaries and posterior declivity of cephalothorax
uniformly yellow ; rest of body and legs covered with numerous tubercles looking
like warts : whole body above and underneath mottled with yellow and brown, but
colors lighter beneath than above: abdomen extending far behind spinnerets : epi-
gynum as figured (Plate XXII, fig. 2 1 .
Patria: Brazil.
Collection : A. Petrunkevitch. One mature female found by Prof.
Moen khans at Poeo Grande, Prov. Sao Paulo, Brazil.
CLUBIOXIDdE.
25. Phrurolithus Britcheri sp. nov.
Plate XXII, Fig. 23.
Total length, 2.20 mm.: cephalothorax 0.90 long, 0.S0 wide; sternum as broad
as long (0.60 mm.) ; legs in order 4123.
Integuments clothed with thin hair ; on epi-medial line of each mandible, about one
third its length from base, a stiff bristle; hair on legs, especially on tibia consider¬
ably heavier than on body : epigynum consists of two separate openings, one above
the other, situated in the plane of symmetry: each opening leads into a separate
round receptacle by means of a short, curved tube.
Patria: Onondaga County, New York.
Collection: American Museum. One mature female from the vicin¬
ity of Cayuga Lake, X*. Y., collected by the late H. W. Britcher.
CTEXIDJE.
26. Ctenus malvemensis sp. nov.
Plate XXII, Figs. 24, 25.
The size of the specimens in my possession varies considerably. The
largest female measures 2S mm. The following measurements were taken
from a medium sized female.
218
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Total length, 23.0; cephalothorax, 11.5 long, 8.5 broad in the widest place, and
5.5 broad in front; abdomen, 11.5 long; sternum as broad as long; lip slightly
longer than broad; pro-margin of chelae with 3 teeth of which middle is largest;
retromargin with 4 teeth; clypeus equal to 2 diameters of front eyes; quadrangulus
broader than long, narrower in front; anterior eyes of quadrangle distinctly smaller;
patella and tibia of first pair only slightly longer than patella and tibia of fourth pair
(12.9 and 12.4); second row of eyes straight by anterior margin; tibia and tarso-
metatarsus of palpus has no pad of short hair; diameter of eyes: AM, 0.40, AL,
0.30, PM, 0.45, PL, 0.45; quadrangulus, 1.20 long, 1.25 broad; distance between
outside edges of the front eyes is only 1.15; legs in order 4123.
Spines on legs: First leg. — Femur, EPS, 3 rows of spines, 3 spines in each row,
PRS, 1 distal spine; tibia, HYS, 2 rows of spines, 5 spines in each row, PRS, 1
proximal spine; metatarsus, HYS, 2 rows of spi nes,3 spines in each row. Second
leg. — Femur, EPS, 3 rows of 3 spines each, PRS, 1 distal spine, RES, 1 proximal
spine; tibia, HYS, 2 rows of 5 spines each, RES, one proximal spine; metatarsus,
HYS, 2 rows of 3 spines each. Third leg — Femur, EPS, 3 rows of 3 spines each
and 1 additional distal spine, PRS, 1 distal spine, patella, PRS, 1 spine, RES, 1
spine; tibia, EPS, 1 median row of 3 spines, HYS, 2 rows of 3 spines each, PRS, 2
spines, RES, 2 spines; metatarsus, EPS, one spine, HYS, 2 rows of 2 spines each;
PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines; tarsus distal verticel of 6 spines. Fourth leg. — Femur,
EPS, 2 rows of 3 spines each and 1 additional distal spine; patella, PRS, 1 spine;
RES, one spine; tibia, EPS, 1 medial row of 3 spines, HYS, 2 rows of 3 spines each,
PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines; metatarsus, EPS, 2 spines in middle line, HYS, 2 rows
of which one consists of 3 and the other of 2 spines, PRS, 1 row of 3 spines, RES,
2 spines; tarsus, distal verticellum of 6 spines. Palpus. Femur, PES, 1 spine at
base, 1 in middle and 4 at distal end; patella, RES, 1 spine; tibia, RES, 1 spine,
PRS, 1 spine; tarso-meta tarsus, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines.
The following measurements were taken from a medium sized mature
male.
Total length, 16.5; cephalothorax gibbous, 9.0 long, 7.5 broad (only 3.5 in
front); abdomen, 7.5 long; quadrangulus, 1.20 long, 1.25 broad; distance between
outside edges of anterior eyes of quadrangle, 1.15; eyes of second row straight by
anterior margins; diameter of eyes: AM, 0.36, AL, 0.24, PM, 0.39, PL, 0.39; legs
in order 4123.
Fourth metatarsus quite straight; tibial spur of palpus as figured (Plate XXII,
fig. 25) ; tibia and tarso-metatarsus of palpus without pad of hair on prosym-
metrical surface (inner side of F. Cambridge).
PETRUKEVITCH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
219
Spines on legs: First leg. — Femur, EPS, 3 rows of 3 spines each and 1 additional
distal spine, PRS, 1 distal spine; patella, PRS, 1 spine, RES, 1 spine; tibia, EPS,
1 row of 3 spines, HYS, 2 rows of 5 spines each, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines;
metatarsus, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines, HYS, 2 rows of 2 spines each, PRS, 1 row of 3
spines, RES, 1 row of 3 spines. Second leg. — Femur, EPS, 3 rows of 3 spines each
and 1 additional distal spine, PRS, 1 distal spine; patella, PRS, 1 spine, RES, 1
spine; tibia, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines, HYS, 2 rows of 5 spines each, RES, 2 spines;
metatarsus, HYS, 2 rows of 2 spines each, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines. Third leg. —
Femur, EPS, 3 rows of 3 spines each and 2 additional spines, one of these is proximal,
the other distal; patella, PRS, 1 spine, RES, 1 spine; tibia, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines,
HYS, 2 rows of 2 spines each, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines; metatarsus, EPS,
2 spines, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines; tarsus; verticel of 6 spines. Fourth leg.—
Femur, EPS, 3 rows of 3 spines each and 2 additional spines, one of these distal, the
other proximal; patella, PRS, 1 spine, RES, 1 spine; tibia, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines,
HYS, 2 rows of 3 spines each, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines; metatarsus, HYS, 2
rows of 3 spines each, PRS, 1 row of 3 spines, RES, 1 row of 3 spines; tarsus, verticel-
lum of 6 spines. Palpus. Femur, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines and 4 additional spines at
distal end; tibia, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 1 spine.
Color in life: Males and females of same color; cephalothorax brown -with a
lighter median band as broad as eye area; face and clypeus light brown; legs uni¬
form brown; sternum with 3 pairs of dark spots; abdomen gray with 2 dark spots
above in front and a median dark band underneath.
Patria: Jamaica, W. I.
I found many mature and young males and females at Malvern, Jamaica,
W. I., in April and May, 1905. They live under rocks, where the females
guard their large flat cocoons. The moment one sees the hand of the col¬
lector approaching, she falls on her back, spreading wide her legs and
opening the mandibles. In this curious manner she evidently tries to de¬
fend herself from the attacking enemy, the position being of great advan¬
tage. At least, on approach of the forceps she grabs them at once with all
her eight legs and bites fiercely into them. Whether this species is poisonous,
I could not ascertain.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch.
PISAURIDdE.
27. Dolomedes triton Walckenaer (sub Lycosa), Ins. Apt., vol. i, p. 340.
1837.
= Dolomedes sexpunctatus Hentz et auctorum.
That the two names are synonyms can scarcely be doubted. The de¬
scription given by Walckenaer corresponds exactly with the specimens
which I have collected in New Jersey and other States. Walckenaer places
his D. triton in the second family, i. e. Piraticse, of which he writes on page
220
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
339 of the work cited: “ Yeux dont la ligne anterieure est sensiblement plus
large que la ligne intermediate. ” And on page 344 we read: “Pirates. . . .
se rapprochent deja du genre Dolomede.” The name of “ waterspider’’
given to the species by Abbot and his additional observations on the aquatic
habits of the spider establish beyond doubt the identity of tritoti with
sexpunctatus Hentz, which latter becomes therefore a synonym of the
former.
2S. Ancylometes vuipes Bertkau. Yerz. Bras. Ar. p. 115. 1SS0.
Plate XXII, Fig. 35.
The following description of a specimen in my collection is with slight
alterations copied from Dr. Moenkhaus’s notes which he was kind enough
to give me, together with his entire collection of Brazilian spiders.
Female. — Total length, 22; eephalothorax, 11.6 long, 9.5 wide in middle, 6.5
wide in front; abdomen, 11.5 long, 7.0 wide; sternum, 4.5 long, 2.5, wide.
Lower margin (retromargin — A.P.) of fang groove with 4 large, equally strong
and equidistant teeth; upper margin with 3 teeth of which the middle is the largest;
second row of eyes slightly proeurved by their lower margin: the laterals oval,
much smaller and equally removed from the median and the posterior eyes; the
medians are removed by their radius from each other and from the laterals, and a
little closer to the slightly smaller ones of the anterior row; quadrangle a little
longer than broad, scarcely narrower in front; elypeus about twice the diameter
of the anterior eyes; eephalothorax high, steep behind, straight to posterior row of
eyes, from this point on slightly inclined; sides of head sloping, but steeper than sides
of thorax: median groove deep anteriorly, scarcely visible posteriorly; head and
radiating grooves not distinct: mandibles very strong; lip scarcely longer than
broad in front, narrower toward base, its tip truncate, a transverse impression near
middle; maxilloe arched, broader toward end. their outer edge straight, while their
inner edge is strongly emarginate around lip; spinnerets short, the posterior pair
more slender and a little longer; terminal joint short: legs very strong; tarsi and
metatarsi with thick scopula?.
Color: Entire animal tan colored; abdomen a little darker above and on sides;
tarsi and metatarsi darker; mandibles dark reddish brown: lip and maxillse a little
lighter, with a still lighter edge: integuments covered with golden yellow hair; longer
grayish hair on mouthparts.
Spixes ox legs: First leg. — Femur, above. 1-1-1. in front. 2 distal ones, behind,
1-1: tibia, below, 2-2-2-2: metatarsus, below, 2-2-2.
PE TR UN KEY I T CH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
221
Same arrangement of spines on all legs; all tarsi with three claws; third claw
simple, slightly curved; superior claws with six teeth each, the two basal teeth
small and almost fused.
P atria: Brazil.
Two females were collected on grass in a swamp at Poco Grande, Brazil.
One of them had an egg sack with one side flat and the other side rounded,
light brown in color.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch.
LYCOSID.E.
29. Lycosa avida Walckenaer, Ins. Apt., vol. i. 1837.
= L. erratica Hentz. Journ. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. iv, p. 388, pi. 18,
fig. 8. 1844.
= L. communis Em. Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., vol. vi, p. 489, pi. 47, fig. 6.
1885.
The synonymy of this species was given some time ago by Nathan Banks.
Walckenaer’s description corresponds fairly well with that of Emerton.
This is especially true of his description of the color of the venter so character¬
istic in typical specimens. The great variability of this species makes it
possible that Walckenaer’s L. mordax, or at least some of its varieties, is
also a synonym of avida, in which case the name mordax would have pre¬
ference. But the remark on page 344 that the eyes of mordax remind one of
Dolomedes makes such synonymy doubtful.
30. Lycosanychthemera Bertkau, Verz. d. Bras. Ar., p. 68, pi. 2, fig. 21.
18S0.
Plate XXII, Fig. 36.
Bertkau has described the female only. I have in my collection two
females with cocoons and two males of this beautiful species. They were
collected by Dr. fMoenkhaus at Ypiranga, Brazil.
Female. — Total, including mandibles, 29.5; cephalothorax, 12.2 long, 9.0 broad
between second and third pair of legs; abdomen, 14 long; legs in order 4123.
222
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Arrangement of spines on legs same as in male; markings on body also same as in
male, but color a little darker.
Male. — Total, 21; cephalothorax, 11.3 long, 9.0 broad between second and
third pair of legs; abdomen, 10 long; legs in order 4123.
Arrangement of spines on legs exactly as described by Bertkau for the female.
L. nychthemera belongs to that group of species of the genus Lycosa which has 2
spines above on tibia of fourth pair (one at base, the other about two thirds of tibial
length from tibio-patellar joint). The four front legs have thick scopulse on tarsi,
metatarsi and on distal third of tibiae ; scopulse of the 4 hind legs are less thick and
extend only over tarsi and greater part of metatarsi as far as base of proximal spines.
Color in alcohol: Cephalothorax brown with a median lighter band which
extends in front as far as eyes of second row; 3 pairs of light lines run from dorsal
groove towTard legs; abdomen grayish brown; in front a triangular mark followed
by 2 brown “W” - marks and 2 transverse dark lines; legs of same color as cepha¬
lothorax, but with 2 dark lines on EPS of each femur, due to absence of pubescence;
mandibles brown, lighter than cephalothorax; fang red-brown; palpi yellow; ster¬
num, coxae and venter black, lip and laminae maxillaries yellow; legs underneath
lighter than above; patellae black, distal third of tibiae also black; metatarsi and
tarsi dark brown; scopulae dark; wrhole appearance of L. nychthemera reminds one
strongly of the northern L. corolinensis.
31. Schizocosa crassipes Walckenaer (sub Lycosa), Ins. xApt. i, p. 323.
1837.
— Lycosa ocreata Hentz et auctorum.
The synonymy of this species is more than probable. Walckenaer gives
the following characteristic description of the male on page 323: “Pattes
fauves, avec le tibia des jambes anterieures tres renfle par “line touffe de
poils noirs, dans les males.” Both ocreata Hentz and bilineata Emerton
possess this character; but the latter species is smaller than the former. It
is rather rare and was only quite recently discovered and described by Mont¬
gomery, whereas ocreata is quite common.
Moenkhausiana gen. nov.
Frons lata, humilis; facies trapezoidalis, utrinque obliqua; oculi antici medii
parvi lateralibus majores; oculi ser. 2 -ae magni, spacio oculo vix angustiore a sese
distantes; oculi ser. 3 -ae rernoti et cum oculis ser. 2 -ae aream latiorem quam longi-
orem occupantes; clypeus oculis mediis anticis vix latior; pars labialis longior
quam latior; chelarum pro-margo (superior) tridentatus, dens medius reliquis
major; chelarum retro-margo (inferior) dentibus trims aequis armatus; pedes in
PETRUNICEVITCH, AMERICAN SPIDERS
223
ordine IV— I — III— II ; metatarsi postici tibia cum patella brevier; tarsi cuncti scopu-
lati; unguis inferior muticus; mamillse anteriores plus duplo longiores et robustiores
quam mamillse posteriores.
Typus: M. brasiliensis.
32. Moenkhausiana brasiliensis sp. nov.
Plate XXII, Figs. 26, 27, 28, 29.
Female. — Total length, 10.0; cephalothorax, 5.0 long, 3.7 broad; sternum and
lip longer than broad; legs in order 4132.
Arrangement of spines on legs same as in male; all 8 tarsi with scopulse;' superior
claws with a series of 7 teeth, inferior claw smooth; trochanters with a deep notch;
palpal claw with 4 teeth; color and other characters as in male; arrangement of
spines on palpus a little different, as follows: femur, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines and 2
additional distal spines; patella, PRS, 1 spine, RES, 1 spine; tibia, PRS, 2 spines;
tarso-metatarsus, PRS, 3 bristles; epigynum resembles that of pirata.
Male. — Total length, 10.0; cephalothorax, 5.0 long, 3.8 broad between second
and third legs; abdomen, 5.0 long; clypeus, 0.22; entire eye group, 1.35 long; an¬
terior row of eyes, 0.90 wide, second row, 1.00, third row, 1.25; diameter of eyes:
AM, 0.20, AL, 0.16, PM, 0.35, PL, 0.30; distance between inside edges of AM, 0.13,
between the outside edge of AM and inside edge of AL, 0.08, between inside edges of
PM, 0.30, between inside edges of PL (eyes of third row), 0.80, sternum, 2.5 long,
1.9 broad between second and third pair of coxae; lip longer than broad; both mar¬
gins of chelae with three teeth; teeth of pro-margin unequal, middle tooth strongest;
teeth of retro-margin are to all appearance equal ; forehead low and broad, gradually
sloping toward sides; trochanters of all legs with deep notch; fourth metatarsi
shorter than fourth tibia and patella; all tarsi with scopulse; superior claws with a
series of 7 teeth; inferior claw smooth; tarso-metatarsus of palpus with 2 smooth
claws; legs in order 4132.
These measurements show that both sexes are remarkably similar as to the total
size of their legs. The coloration being also the same in both sexes, it is only the
structure of the palpus that betrays the sex. Such similarity of sexes is rather un¬
usual in Lycosidse.
Spines on male palpus: femur EPS, 1 row of 3 spines and 2 additional distal
spines; patella, PRS, 1 bristle.
224
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Spines on legs in both sexes: First leg — Femur, EPS, 1 row of 3 spines and 2
additional distal spines; patella, PRS, 1 spine, RES, 1 spine; tibia, HYS, 2 rows of
3 spines each, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines; metatarsus, HYS, 2 rows of 2 spines
each, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines, also a distal verticellum of 5 spines. Second
leg. — Femur, EPS, 3 rows, middle row of 3 spines, siderows of 2 spines each ; patella
and metatarsus same as in first leg; tibia, HYS, 2 rows of which 1 consists of 2 and
the others of 3 spines, PRS, 2 spines, RES, 2 spines. Third leg. — Same as second
leg, but tibia has besides on EPS 1 spine in middle and 1 bristle at proximal end.
Fourth leg.— Same as first leg, but tibia has besides on EPS one spine in middle and
one bristle at proximal end ; the presence of the spine and of the bristle on the episyn-
axial surface of the third and fourth tibia recalls spiders which F. Cambridge placed
in the genus Arctosa ; structure of male palpus (Plate XXII, fig. 29) suggests
Pirata ; spinnerets alike and very characteristic in both sexes (Plate XXII, figs. 26
and 27) ; anterior spinnerets when in state of full erection are three times longer than
posterior ones and considerably heavier; colulus long and covered with long hair;
integuments all over body and on legs are covered with two kinds of hair: long black
hair and short white hair, both kinds are simple.
Color in alcohol: Cephalothorax reddish brown with narrow black marginal
band and black triangular spots around dorsal groove; mandibles brown; lip and
laminae brown, but much lighter than mandibles, with light tips; sternum in one
male nearly black, in the other male and in female light, with 4 pairs of black margi¬
nal spots; legs above of the same color as cephalothorax, underneath considerably
lighter (coxae included) ; 2 pairs of lateral black spots on all femora and tibiae which
produce the impression of dark rings, although no real ring is formed; palpi of the
same color as legs, but the darker spots missing; abdomen above dark grey, with a
dark lancelike mark in front, behind this mark it is mottled with yellow, and these
yellow markings remind one much of those on abdomen of Amaurobius silvestris ;
venter with a dark broad band extending from genital groove to spinnerets; spinner¬
ets light yellow.
Patria: Brazil.
Collection: A. Petrunkevitch. Two males and one female collected
by Dr. Moenkhaus at Ypiranga, Brasil.
Fig. 1.
“ 2.
“ 3.
“ 4.
“ 5.
“ 6.
“ 7.
“ 8.
“ 9.
“ 10.
“ 11.
“ 12.
“ 13.
<[ 14.
“ 15.
“ 16.
“ 17.
“ 18.
“ 19.
PLATE XXI.
Acanthoctenus Marshi F. Cambridge. Epigynum.
Qrchestina saltabunda Simon. Male palpus.
Idem. Side view of spider without legs.
Melanophora rufula Banks. Male palpus.
Spermophora meridionalis Hentz. Male palpus.
Theridionexus cavernicolus sp. nov. Male palpus.
Idem. Epigynum.
Alcimosphenus bifurcatus sp. nov. Young female.
Micrathena horrida Taczanovsky. Epigynum and lungs.
Idem. Abdomen from above.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
Micrathena oblonga Taczanovsky. Epigynum.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
Micrathena sordida Taczanovsky. Epigynum and lungs.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
Micrathena Vigorsii Perty. Sternum. ,
Idem. Epigynum and lungs.
Idem. Abdomen from behind.
Idem. Side view of abdomen.
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Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci. Volume XIX, Plate XXI.
PLATE XXII.
Fig. 20. Epicadinus tuberculatus sp. nov. Adult female.
“ 21. Idem. Epigynum.
“ 22. Idem. End of tarsus with claws.
“ ' 23. Phrurolithus Britcheri sp. nov. Epigynum.
“ 24. Ctenus malvernensis sp. nov. Epigynum.
“ 25. Idem. Male palpus.
“ 26. Moenkhausiana brasiliensis sp. nov. Side view of spinnerets in state
of contraction.
Fig. 27. Idem. Side view of spinnerets in state of expansion.
“ 28. Idem. Epigynum.
“ 29. Idem. Male palpus.
“ 30. Theridionexus cavernicolus sp. nov. Adult female.
“ 31. Idem. Cephalothorax from above.
“ 32. Idem. Face and mandibles.
“ 33. Idem. Fourth tarsus with comb.
“ 34. Idem. Claws and serrate bristles.
“ 35. Ancylometes vulpes Bertkau. Epigynum.
“ 36. Lycosa nychthemera Bertkau. Male palpus.
“ 37. Theridiorexus cavernicolus. One of the combhairs magnified.
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Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate XXII.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 10, Part II, pp. 225-245, IS March, 1910.]
THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY.
By Charles Finney Cox.
Presidential Address, read at the Annual Meeting of the New York Academy of
Sciences, December 20, 1909.
On the thirteenth of last June, I had the pleasure of attending the cere¬
monies connected with the dedication of a noble statue of the Chevalier
de Lamarck, in the Jardins des Plantes, in Paris. The monument could
not have been placed over the remains of the great naturalist, since no one
knows his last resting-place. Still better, however, it was erected at the
principal entrance to the botanical garden within which he lived and labored
during the greater paid of his long and well-filled life and where most of his
descriptive and philosophical writing was done. There, before the ap¬
plauding multitude, the humble student of nature, whom the artist has ably
and faithfully portrayed, was acclaimed by the highest officers of state and
by distinguished men of science with lofty and unstinted eulogium.
This formal recognition of Lamarck’s eminence in the world of science
and of his importance in the realm of systematic thought came a little tardily,
perhaps, in the eightieth year after his death, but it was interesting and
suggestive that this commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of the
publication of his most important work should have fallen in the very
month when men of learning from almost every civilized country on the
globe were journeying to Cambridge to celebrate the centenary of the birth,
and the fiftieth anniversary of the issuance of the epoch-making book, of
that other great naturalist and philosopher whose name has been, since
1859, most often coupled with Lamarck’s. This unique occasion inevitably
brought to mind, with peculiar significance, a comparison of the views and
theories of these two representative evolutionists, especially to those who,
like myself, expected to turn from the flowery paths so long frequented by
Lamarck to the stately halls and peaceful “quads” familiar to the college
days of Darwin. As a good Darwinian, I was glad of the privilege of paying
my silent tribute of respect to the famous author of the “Philosophic Zoolo-
gique,” but, in view of the later object of my pilgrimage, I was not in a
mood to yield, out of mere courtesy and momentary enthusiasm, any of my
long cherished loyalty to the writer of “The Origin of Species.” It was,
225
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therefore, with surprise and regret that I observed upon the pedestal of
Lamarck’s statue an inscription describing him as the founder of the theory
of evolution. Instantly I registered a mental protest and, ever since, I have
wished for the opportunity to give my protest oral expression, which I must
now do.
To my mind, a person can be said to have founded something only when
he has either originated it or, finding it already existing in a state of instabil¬
ity, has supplied it with the immovable basis which it lacked. Now, it is
not claimed, I believe, by any one that Lamarck first conceived and pro¬
pounded the general theory of evolution. On the contrary, it is well under¬
stood that the idea of derivation and progressive development has been
set forth, more or less explicitly, by numerous philosophers from at least the
early days of Greek literature down to Lamarck’s own time and that even
the form of the doctrine which he himself expounded was in its essential
substance advocated by his immediate predecessors, Buffon and Erasmus
Darwin. Those, therefore, who look upon Lamarck as “the founder of
the evolution theory” must believe, not only that he first placed under the
ancient conception of derivation a solid groundwork of irrefragable argu¬
ment or proof, but that he also gained for it some considerable degree of
acceptance by those best able to pass upon its claims. But this he did not do.
Whatever we may now think of the value and validity of the Lamarckian
factors of evolution, we must admit that during his lifetime and for not less
than thirty years after his death Lamarck’s philosophical views attracted
little attention and made no great impression upon the learned world.
I cannot think of a single eminent man of science who championed Lamarck’s
particular theory of variation until after Darwin had given new life to the
whole subject of evolution, unless we are to admit that Herbert Spencer’s
views, expressed in 1852 in his “Essay on the Development Hypothesis”,
were an echo from Lamarck’s writings, which I think is very doubtful.
Geoffroy St. Hilaire and a few others, it is true, mildly pronounced in favor
of the mutability of species though not attributing it distinctly to the causes
assigned by Lamarck, but it is safe to say that during the first half of the
nineteenth century the dogma of special creation was as firmly intrenched
and as generally accepted as if Lamarck had never lived. Even when
Lyell and Hooker presented the joint paper of Darwin and Wallace to the
Linnsean Society, on the first of July, 1858, the matter practically fell flat.
Lyell himself was not convinced of the mutability of species until years
afterwards, and it was only when “The Origin” appeared, in November,
1859, that the world awaked to a realization of the fact that the evolution
theory had to be reckoned with; and the scientific part of the world aroused
itself no more quickly than the rest. August Weismann says, “We who
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 227
were then the younger men, studying in the fifties, had no idea that a theory
of evolution had ever been put forward, for no one spoke of it to us, and it
was never mentioned in a lecture.” He also declares that “ Darwin’s book
fell like a bolt from the blue; it was eagerly devoured, and while it excited
in the minds of the younger students delight and enthusiasm, it aroused
among the older naturalists anything from cool aversion to violent opposi¬
tion.” 1
Darwin knew that when he should publish his denial of the sepa¬
rate and definitive creation of each particular species, he would have to face a
nearly unanimous adverse judgment, among the learned and the unlearned
alike. His feeling in this matter was shown by his half-humorous remark,
when announcing to Joseph Hooker, in 1844, his conviction as to the trans¬
formation of species, that he felt as if he were confessing to a murder! And
this was only fifteen years after the death of Lamarck. It is indicated also
by his writing to Asa Gray, in 1856, “As an honest man I must tell you
that I have come to the heterodox conclusion that there are no such things
as independently created species, — that species are only strongly defined
varieties. I know this will make you despise me.” 2 Darwin under¬
estimated Gray’s preparedness to receive the new doctrine, but he showed
that he did not expect a respectful hearing for his novel ideas by men of
science generally, and in this unfavorable prognostication he proved to be
right. Hooker, Gray and Wallace were his only staunch allies at first; but
Huxley joined the little band soon after the opening of the war, although he
never gladdened Darwin’s heart by unreservedly accepting natural selection.
Lyell, of all Darwin’s personal friends, gave him the greatest grief by his
hesitation, especially because he seemed in private more favorable than he
was willing to appear in public. Worst of all, he confessed to Huxley
that he was held back more by his feelings than by his judgment. His
final surrender was made in the tenth edition of his “Principles of Geology,”
published in 1869.
For fully ten years, then, Darwin was obliged to plead with his scientific
acquaintances to come even a little way with him, assuring them that if
they would only admit the mutability of species, he would not urge them
to go the length of accepting natural selection, — thus proving that the
scientific world had by no means been led up to a recognition of the fact
of transmutation, much less to the reception of any particular theory of
its causation. Even as late as 1880 we find Huxley apologizing to Darwin
for having slighted or ignored natural selection in his lecture on “The
Coming of Age of the Origin of Species,” because, as he argued, it was
1 “The Evolution Theory,” Thomson’s translation, p. 28. 1904.
2 “Life and Letters of Charles Darwin,” Vol. II, p. 79. 1887.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
still essential “to drive the fact of evolution into people’s heads” leaving the
exposition of its cause, or modus operandi, to come later.
But English men of science were not alone in their reluctance to adopt
the evolution theory. As Huxley said, “Germany took time to consider.”
Bronn produced a poor translation of “The Origin” in I860, but omitted
from it, out of deference to popular opinion, numerous supposedly offen¬
sive passages (as, for example, the sentence near the end concerning
the light likely to be thrown upon the origin of man) and added a critical
appendix intended to expose Darwin’s weak points and to soften the effect
of some of his scientific heresies. Although Ernst Krause attributes con¬
siderable influence to Hackel’s-advocacy of evolution in his “Radiolaria”
published in 1862, he says it was really in 1863, when Hiickel championed
the cause at the “Versammlung” of naturalists at Stettin, that the Dar¬
winian question could be considered as having been placed “for the first
time publicly before the forum of German science.” In France, accord¬
ing to Huxley, the ill-will of powerful members of the Institute “produced
for a long time the effect of a conspiracy of silence,” and it was only
in 1869 that Hooker was able to say, “the evolution of species must at last
be spreading in France.” Looking at the whole situation a year after the
publication of “The Origin,” Huxley says that the supporters of Mr. Dar¬
win’s views were numerically extremely insignificant and that “there is not
the slightest doubt that, if a general council of the Church scientific had
been held at that time, we should have been condemned by an overwhelming
majority.” 1 In this connection it needs to be remembered that it was not
simply the concept of natural selection or any other peculiarly Darwinian
idea against which the vote of the overwhelming majority would have been
cast, but that it was the general subject of transmutation and adaptive
development towards which nearly the whole world was unreceptive and
unfriendly. Now, if this is a true statement of the case, how can it be said
that Lamarck had founded the theory of evolution ? Even if Lamarck and
Darwin had held exactly the same beliefs, there would be no more reason
for asserting that Lamarck had set those beliefs upon a sure foundation
than for saying that Wells or Matthew or Wallace had established the doc¬
trine of natural selection before its exposition by Darwin.
That Lamarck had made an earnest and creditable attempt to provide the
development hypothesis with a sound basis is not to be denied, and we
may willingly concede that his effort was properly directed towards the
establishment of a reasonable explanation of variation, but it is beyond
question that Lamarck did not succeed in convincing his contemporaries
1 “On the Reception of the ‘Origin of Species,’” in “Life and Letters of Charles Darwin,”
Vol. II, p. 186. 1887.
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 229
that his explanation was the correct one and that no considerable number
of competent judges have pronounced in his favor from his day until this.
If he had been fortunate enough to accomplish the object he had in view,
he would have supplied the evolutionary process with a starting-place one
step further back than the point at which Darwin was obliged to begin;
for even the most thorough-going Darwinian must in justice admit that it is
a fair criticism which has been often brought against Darwin’s philosophical
scheme that, while it made much of the survival of the fittest, it offered no
satisfactory clue to the origin of the fit. Although Darwin wrote an ex¬
tensive treatise on “The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestica¬
tion,” and included in “The Origin” a carefully composed chapter on the
causes of variation in general, he never really convinced even himself as to
how differences of form and function arose, but was obliged, after all, to
assume their origin through the operation of some inscrutable law, availing,
however, to some extent, of the influence of external conditions as an excitant
to its action. On the other hand, Lamarck did not fully realize the extent
and intensity of the struggle for existence and had little idea of the potency
of selection; for, under his scheme, all positive variations must be useful
from the beginning, since they arise solely in response to needs, and there
is no necessary sifting out of good, better and best, except in the respect that
whatever is not wanted retrogrades and disappears by the way it came.
Lamarck’s four laws, as given in the introduction to his “Animaux sans
Vertebres,” are as follows:
“First: Life, by its proper forces, continually tends to increase the volume
of every body which possesses it and to increase the size of its parts, up to a
limit which it brings about.
“Second: The production of a new organ in an animal body results from
the supervention of a new want which continues to make itself felt, and of a
new movement which this want gives rise to and maintains.
“Third: The development of organs and their power of action are con¬
stantly in ratio to the employment of these organs.
“Fourth: Everything which has been acquired, impressed upon, or
changed in the organization of individuals during the course of their life is
preserved by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which have
descended from those which have undergone those changes.” 1
I venture to think that these laws must sound archaic to any reader of the
present day and that, as a whole, they appeal to the judgment of few workers
in science of our time as an adequate evolutionary scheme. Compared with
Darwin’s logical sequence of the six factors, Variation, Heredity, Over-
1 Translation by A. S. Packard, in “Lamarck the Founder of Evolution,” p. 346. 1901.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
reproduction, Competition, Adaptation and Selection and Survival, Lamarck’s
loose arrangement of his four factors, Growth, Response to Needs, Effects
of Use and Disuse and the Inheritance of Acquired Characters, can not
but seem weak and inconclusive, particularly when we remember that
for the vegetable kingdom Lamarck was obliged to fall back upon Buffon’s
factor, the Direct Action of the Environment, while Darwin’s closely-knit
argument was applicable to the entire living world. Of course Lamarck
never could have known how utterly inadequate his system was to explain
variations in floral structures through which they are adapted to fertilization
by insect agency, or to account for protective coloration and mimicry among
animals.
Cuvier is said to have killed Lamarckism by his ridicule of it, but Dar¬
winism was born with a stronger constitution, for it has survived many times
the amount of sarcasm and contempt that were aimed at Lamarck’s philos¬
ophy. Lamarck’s times were undoubtedly unfavorable to a fair examina¬
tion of his ideas. Fifty years later, however, Darwin not only conquered a
hearing for his own theories, but actually opened the way for a just con¬
sideration of Lamarck’s. It is often said that Darwin succeeded because
the times were ripe for the acceptance of the evolution theory when he
appeared as its advocate; but Darwin himself denied this, and I am at a
loss to understand how such an opinion can be entertained in face of the
plain history of the subject to which I have referred and which shows that
Darwin gained his adherents one by one, and only by much argument and
persuasion, during at least a decade following the publication of “The
Origin of Species.” Lamarck did not fail because of Cuvier’s ridicule, and
Darwin did not prevail because the time of his appearance was opportune
as to the trend of philosophical and scientific opinion. Darwin created his
own opportunity by long years of preparatory work and forced the issue by
the final presentation of a convincing chain of reasoning, underlain by his
discovery of an efficient cause of progressive development. Professor
Osborn1 has correctly and strikingly summarized the causes of Darwin’s
ability “to leap along over the progress of centuries” as (1) his patience and
caution, (2) his diligence in seeking “a hundred facts and observations where
his predecessors sought one,” he standing out as the first evolutionist who
worked “upon true Baconian principles,” (3) his originality, (4) his good
fortune in having “lived at a time when the storehouse of facts was fairly
bursting for want of a generalization” and (5) the effects of “the training
he got as an observer on the Beagle voyage.”
Unlike the “Philosophic Zoologique,” “The Origin of Species” was
1 “From the Greeks to Darwin,” pp. 230-231. 1908.
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 231
truly an epoch-making work. It instantly commanded respect and de¬
manded attention. Coming, however, as I have shown, without having
had its way prepared for it, it was not to be expected that it would immedi¬
ately secure general acceptance. Even men of trained intellect pronounced
it a difficult book to digest, but as fast as competent critics mastered its
significance it conquered the judgment and compelled assent as no other
work of scientific philosophy has ever done. Its influence has been cumula¬
tive down to our own day, and, although it is not read as much as it was
twenty or thirty years ago and is even believed by a few to be out of date as
a guide to investigation and thought, its spirit permeates all scientific work
of any value, and the trails it blazed across the barren wastes of ignorance
have become the broad roads of modern research. Some who are fortunate
enough to have opened up side paths of investigation are wont to forget their
obligation to the pioneer work which made possible the highway of wisdom
from which they have diverged in pursuit of their specialities, but the broad¬
minded historian of science can never fail to accord to Darwin the credit
due him as an explorer and discoverer in regions previously inaccessible and
incognita.
I have no wish to belittle the work of Lamarck. His Avas one of the
courageous voyages out onto the sea of speculation which whetted men’s
appetite for a larger and completer expedition into the region of the unknown.
Lamarck touched upon some of the outlying islands of the new world of
knowledge, but Darwin penetrated into the interior and brought back a map
upon which investigators are still obliged to rely. To drop metaphor,
Lamarck’s methods Avere somewhat academic and almost purely deductive
and were therefore unsatisfactory to the strictly logical mind. Moreover,
as has been said by Professor Osborn,1 his “crude illustrations certainly
could not predispose his contemporaries in favor of his theory.” Darwin,
on the other hand, according to John Stuart Mill, employed reasoning Avhieh
Avas “in the most exact accordance Avith strict principles of logic,” and he
supported his theory by an appeal to a vast array of facts Avhieh it connected
and explained. Danvin’s argument as a Avhole Avas clear-cut and focused
upon a coherent line of thought, Avhile Lamarck’s was often faltering and
inconsistent. It is hard to decide, for instance, whether Lamarck believed
that the evolutionary process was dependent entirely upon the operation
of natural Lavs, or that there was occasional supernatural intervention by a
creational and directive power, or that the Creator merely started the uni¬
verse with a set of general principles and then left it, like Babbage’s “calcu¬
lating engine,” to turn out its OAvn progressions.2 It is possible, however.
1 Op. cit. p. 170.
2 See ‘‘The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise,” 2d ed., Chap. VIII. 1S38.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
that this uncertainty of expression was an intentional concession to the
theological bias of his time.
Upon examining Lamarck’s four laws and their context it does not appear
that he offered any really characteristic or original addition to the ancient
philosophy of progressive development except the idea contained in the
second law that “the production of a new organ in an animal body results
from the supervention of a new want”; but even if he had succeeded in
proving that when an organ is needed it will forthwith make its appearance
or be brought into existence by a new movement which the want gives
rise to, he would not have done much towards simplifying the problem of
evolution, for he would have given us no reason why every form that has
ever existed was not fitted to leave an unbroken line of descendants. The
feeling that Lamarck’s attempted explanation of the origin of organization
did not really explain is the most powerful reason why his whole philosophy
has been rejected by the great mass of scientific workers and thinkers. His
first law, as to the cause and the limitation of growth, and his third, as to the
effect of use upon the development of organs, state facts so obvious and so
long understood that they amount to little more than truisms. His fourth
law, referring to what is commonly called the inheritance of acquired char¬
acters, like his second law, is generally discredited by working naturalists,
but I confess I am not quite able to appreciate the ground of its unquali¬
fied rejection. But since it actually is discredited, together with the only
other law that was distinctly Lamarckian, I can not help asking once more
for the foundation of the evolution theory which is said to have been laid
by Lamarck.
Lamarck, of course, believed in the transformation of species, in some
form, as he was obliged to do as a professed evolutionist, although Darwin,
with unusual bluntness, spoke of his views on mutability as “veritable rub¬
bish.” 1 But like other evolutionists Lamarck needed to account for the
transmission of variational effects, and it seems to me he was at least logical
in deeming his fourth law a necessary part of his system, although I think he
might better have made it a little less absolute than it is made by the state¬
ment that “everything which has been acquired” is transmitted. Darwin
followed Lamarck in his general idea of the inheritance of acquired char¬
acters, and I do not see how he could well have avoided doing so, for, with
Lamarck, he appears to have thought that if any organic form is like a
parent but unlike any grandparent, it has inherited something that was
acquired by the parent. Parenthetically, I wish to remark, that I doubt
whether in his fourth law, Lamarck used the word “acquired” in any such
narrow sense as that given to it by controversialists of the present day. It is
1 “ Life and Letters,” Vol. II, p. 29. 1887.
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 233
altogether probable that by an “acquired character” he meant merely any
new character brought into existence in adaptation to a new demand made
upon an animal by a change in its environment. Neither he nor Darwin
knew of the fine distinctions now made between a quality inherent in the
germ-plasm and a characteristic originating in the soma. Darwin, how¬
ever, conceived of two kinds of variation, the one the result of conditions
acting “directly on the whole organization or on certain parts alone,” and
the other due to influences indirectly affecting the reproductive system.1
He was also aware of Weismann’s earlier and less specific objections to the
inheritance of characteristics acquired through the soma, but does not seem
to have accorded them great weight, since he argues strongly for the heredi¬
tary transmission of the effects of changed habits in both animals and plants.
He naturally did not like to exclude all such effects from the evolutionary
process, for he held that “a variation which is not inherited throws no light
on the derivation of species.” 2 He says: “When a new character arises,
whatever its nature may be, it generally tends to be inherited, at least in a
temporary and sometimes in a most persistent manner.” 3 A little later he
expresses the conclusion that “the real subject of surprise is, as Sir H.
Holland has well remarked, not that a character should be inherited, but
that any should ever fail to be inherited.” 4 5
With reference to the conception of a species as a elassificatory group,
possibly Lamarck was somewhat more definite than Darwin, for Lamarck
did propound a definition of species which is considered a good one, while
Darwin carefully avoided making such a definition. It is truly remarkable,
— and it is no disparagement of Darwin to concede it — that he who did more
than all others to elucidate the whole subject of the origin, modification and
transmutation of species should have felt himself unable to designate pre¬
cisely the subject of his inquiries. Writing to Joseph D. Hooker, in Decem¬
ber, 1856, he said: “It is really laughable to see what different ideas are
prominent in various naturalists’ minds when they speak of ‘species’; in
some, resemblance is everything and descent of little weight; — in some,
resemblance seems to go for nothing and Creation the reigning idea, — in
some, descent is the key, — in some, sterility an unfailing test, with others
it is not worth a farthing. It all comes, I believe, from trying to define the
undefmable.” 0 In an earlier letter in the same year, referring to his work
on the Cirripedes, he wrote: “I know in my own case my most frequent
source of doubt was whether others would not think this or that was a God-
1 “Origin of Species,” 6th ed., p. 5. 1882.
2 “Animals and Plants Under Domestication,” 1st ed., Vol. II, p. 1. 1S68.
3 Ibid., p. 2.
4 Ibid., p. 2.
5 “Life and Letters,” Vol. II, p. 88. 1887.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
created Barnacle, and surely deserved a name. Otherwise I should only
have thought whether the amount of difference and permanence was suffi¬
cient to justify a name.” 1 Still earlier he confided to Hooker that after
describing a set of forms as distinct species, tearing up his manuscript
and making them one species, tearing that up and making them separate,
and then making them one again, he had gnashed his teeth, cursed species
and asked what sin he had committed to be so punished.2 The general
situation of the nomenclature question was subsequently hit off by Darwin,
in a letter written to Asa Gray, November 29, 1859, in which he says: “By
the way, I met the other day Phillips, the paleontologist, and he asked me,
‘How do you define a species?’ I answered, ‘I cannot,’ whereupon he said
‘At last I have found out the only true definition, — - any form which has ever
had a specific name !’ ” 3 Darwin apparently rested in the position indicated
by this playful allusion, and neither he nor Lamarck did much towards
clearing up the subject of classification. They really left the matter in the
unsatisfactory condition in which they found it, so that we of to-day are
floundering in the “Slough of Despond” which entangled them and their
predecessors, and our method of grouping and naming remains the most un¬
scientific thing in the scientific world.
It is only just to observe that Lamarck, while dealing with the species
question more seriously than did Darwin, was after all of Darwin’s opinion
as to the ultimate inconclusiveness of all attempts at exact definition. He
declared that naturalists of his day were extremely troubled to say exactly
what they meant by a species and gave it as his own decision that “the
farther we advance in the knowledge of the different organized bodies with
which almost every part of the surface of the globe is covered, the more does
our embarrassment increase in determining what should be regarded as
species, and the greater is the reason for limiting and distinguishing the
genera.” 4
Now, although Darwin treated with ridicule the troubles of the species
makers, he certainly dealt with species in all his own work as if they were
necessary units in the evolutionary process; and while Lamarck, different
from Darwin, was not afraid to formulate a definition of species in face of
the acknowledged difficulties of the matter, it is very doubtful if he regarded
them, as much as Darwin did, as the direct objects of the evolutionary forces.
In 1802 he wrote: “I have for a long time thought that species were constant
in nature and that they were constituted by the individuals which belong to
1 “Life and Letters,” Vol. II, p. 81. 18S7.
2 Ibid., p. 40.
3 “More Letters,” Vol. I, p. 127. 1903.
4 A. S. Packard, “Lama,rck the Founder of Evolution,” p. 263. 1901.
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 235
each of them. I am now convinced that I was in error in this respect, and
that in reality only individuals exist in nature.”1 This I take to mean that
he formerly thought species were the units and immutable but that now he
considers the unit to be the individual and species to be a convenient formula
for instable and somewhat indefinite groups. He speaks in another place
of Nature’s causing individuals to acquire or lose their qualities by the in¬
fluences of environment, by the predominant employment of certain organs
or the continued lack of use of some parts. He frequently dwells on the
preeminent importance of the individual in the evolutionary process and
leads one to believe that this process is not operative beyond the limits of
the groups called species, genera, etc.; that is to say, it is not clear from his
writings that he regarded evolution as brought about by the actual trans¬
mutation of species, genera, etc., one into another. While he recognizes
“a series of groups forming a true chain” and “a shaded gradation in the
complication of structure,” he explains that he does not mean to speak of a
linear and regular series of species or even genera, for, as he declares, “such
a series does not exist.” But finally, he appears to have adopted the idea
of the animal kingdom as constituting “a branching series,” and it is claimed
for him that he was the first “to sketch out a genealogical tree.” The
word sketch is quite strong enough to describe his action, for on this point,
as on many others, he offered bare suggestions or hints without entering
enough into detail to show that he had thought the subject out to a definite
conclusion, as Darwin did subsequently.
The whole problem of the transformation of species rests upon the question
of the origin of adaptive variations, and, notwithstanding Lamarck’s attempt
to account for variation by the compelling influence of the environment,
and notwithstanding all the research which has been directed towards the
solution of this problem since Lamarck’s day, “the question of how the
straight line of exact hereditary repetition may be caused to swerve in a
definite direction to reach an adaptive point” remains, as Professor Eigen-
mann has remarked, “the question of the present generation, perhaps of
the entire twentieth century.” 2
Although neither Lamarck nor Darwin settled this question, the different
ways injwhich they dealt with it is a point of departure for their two systems.
While it is true that Lamarck made no attempt to follow up the primary
causes of variation to the internal organization of the individual, he did
believe that external conditions were capable of exciting variability in an
organism so that, through its response to the demands made upon, it by its
environment, what must needs be would be. Darwin, on the contrary,
held that variation was, as far as human insight could go in his day, fortuitous,
1 A. S. Packard, “Lamarck the Founder of Evolution,” p. 249. 1901.
2 Essay on “Adaptation,” in “Fifty Years of Darwinism,” p. 191. 1909.
236
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
though he was inclined to admit that it might be induced to some extent by
the action of what he called the conditions of life.
Wallace has well set forth Darwin’s point of view concerning the general
nature of variation, as to which he says: “that variation is always present in
ample amount; that it exists in all parts and organs; that these vary, for the
most part, independently, so that any required combination of variations can
be secured; and finally that all variation is necessarily either in excess or
defect of the mean condition, and that, consequently, the right or favourable
variations are so frequently present that the unerring power of natural selec¬
tion never wants materials to work upon.” 1
Darwin, however, as I have before remarked, for the purposes of his
philosophy, assumed variation as a starting-point without offering a distinct
explanation of it, and in this attitude he has been justified by the negative
results obtained by the latest research. But he insisted as strongly as he
could that if, according to Lamarck, “the right variations occurred, and no
others, natural selection would be superfluous,” 2 and, of course his system
could then claim no great superiority over Lamarck’s. It seems almost
self-evident to us now that if there are other than useful variations, or other
than useful parts, or if there are variations or organs either more or less use¬
ful, natural selection must be the factor to determine the survival of the fit,
or adapted, and the extermination of the unfit, or unadapted. As Darwin
says in effect, selection is dispensed with only if development follows lines of
variation which are pre-determined or inevitable, as it practically does
from the Lamarckian point of view. There was, therefore, a radical differ¬
ence between the final position assumed by Darwin and the ground occupied
by Lamarck in his second law, though Darwin seems to have agreed with
Lamarck, sometimes more and sometimes less, on unessential points.
One of the few subjects on which Darwin may be said to have been
“touchy,” particularly in later years, was the imputation to him of Neo-
Lamarckian beliefs. Lyell incautiously wrote to him of “Lamarck’s views
improved by yours,” and made a similar reference in the first edition of his
work on “The Antiquity of Man,” which brought out the following protest
from Darwin, in a letter dated March 12, 1863:
You refer repeatedly to my views as a modification of Lamarck’s doctrine of
development and progression. If this is your deliberate opinion there is nothing
to be said, but it does not seem so to me. Plato, Buffon, my grandfather before
Lamarck and others propounded the obvious view that if species were not created
separately they must have descended from other species, and I can see nothing else
in common between the “Origin” and Lamarck.3
1 “ Darwinism,” p. 424. 1889.
- “ Life and Letters,” Vol. Ill, p. 85. 1887.
3 Ibid., p. 14.
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 237
I am inclined to think that at first Darwin was much more of a Lamarck¬
ian than he himself realized and that he became less and less like Lamarck
as years passed on. It is likely that he derived most of his knowledge of
Lamarck from the two chapters devoted to him in the first edition of Lyell’s
“Principles of Geology,” — a book which made a greater impression upon
him than was ever made by any other work, — and he admits, in his autobiog¬
raphy, that the hearing rather early in life the views of his grandfather, as set
forth in the “ Zoonomia,” which were similar to the ideas afterwards advo¬
cated by Lamarck, may have favored his upholding them under a different
form in his “Origin of Species.” As an amusing example of such Lamarck¬
ian ideas, we may take the “wretched polar-bear case,” as Darwin after¬
wards called it, which he dropped, rather unwillingly, from the second
edition of “The Origin” upon the advice of Lyell. It was given in the
first edition in the following words:
In North America the black bear was seen by Hearne swimming for hours with
widely open mouth, thus catching, like a whale, insects in the water. Even in so
extreme a case as this, if the supply of insects were constant, and if better adapted
competitors did not already exist in the country, I can see no difficulty in a race of
bears being rendered, by natural selection, more and more aquatic in their struc¬
ture and habits with larger and larger mouths , till a creature was produced as mon¬
strous as a whale.1
The omission of this illustration was urged by Lyell not so much because
he thought it too Lamarckian as because he doubted the truth of the state¬
ment made by Hearne, and it is probable that Darwin himself did not perceive
how Lamarckian his presentation of the case was. But notwithstanding his
reference to natural selection as the cause of the supposed modification of
the bear, it is hard to see wherein this example is essentially less Lamarckian
than the familiar one of the giraffe lengthening its neck through its efforts to
reach the tops of trees, or the following example cited by Lamarck in his
“Systeme des Animaux sans Vertebres”:
The shore bird, which does not care to swim, but which, however, is obliged to
approach the water to obtain its prey, will be continually in danger of sinking in the
mud, but wishing to act so that its body shall not fall into the liquid, it will contract
the habit of extending and lengthening its feet. Hence it will result in the genera¬
tions of these birds which continue to live in this manner, that the individuals will
find themselves raised as if on stilts, on long naked feet; namely, denuded of feathers
up to and often above the thighs.2
In all three of the cases cited, namely, of the bear, the giraffe and the
bird, it at once occurs to us to inquire as to the condition of the animal before
1 “Origin of Species,’’ 1st. ed„ p. 1S4. 1859.
2 A. S. Packard, “ Lamarck the Founder of Evolution,” p. 234. 1901.
238
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
it fully attained to the ability to secure its new food supply. Professor Hux¬
ley, moved by the same impulse, asks “how long an animal is likely to en¬
deavour to gratify an impossible desire,” and concludes that “the bird, in
our example, would surely have renounced fish dinners long before it had
produced the least effect on leg or neck.” 1 As to the polar-bear case, I trust
it will not be taken as typical of Darwin’s conception of the mode of origin
of adapted forms in the evolution of new species. I have quoted it for the
purpose of giving Lamarck full credit for whatever influence he may have
exerted upon Darwin’s earlier views, but in justice to Darwin we must re¬
member that he never again conceded so much importance to the effects of
mere effort in the modification of organs under the stimulus of novel condi¬
tions of life. If he had rewritten the description of Hearne’s bear we may
be sure that he would have ascribed quite different degrees of importance to
the selection of food by an unadapted animal to suit its own tastes or desires
and the selection of an adapted animal itself, through the forces of nature,
to meet the requirements of a new state of the environment.
Lamarckians are apt to feel displeased when Darwinians affirm that
Lamarck believed that animals developed organs by merely wishing for them,
but in respect to both the wading bird and the giraffe it comes practically
to the same result, if the giraffe acquired its elongated neck and the bird
attained to stilt-like legs through wishing for food which was previously
out of reach. What we may with fairness call Darwin’s giraffe, having a
normally long neck, or one normally inclined to become long, was prepared
before-hand for any diminution that might occur in the supply of low-
growing fodder, and its survival, after such diminution had set in or become
severe, is therefore easily accounted for. We may assume that it simply ap¬
plied its extraordinary length of neck to the purpose to which it was already
fitted, and thus by cropping higher and higher foliage it easily acquired a
monopoly of that kind of food and consequently triumphed over its short¬
necked companions. But what we may distinguish as Lamarck’s giraffe is
not supposed to have been endowed with a long neck in advance of any
absolute need for such an organ, and we may therefore imagine that, when
herbage began to give out, the animal must have been taken by surprise and
that its circumstances must have been — as Professor Huxley has intimated
that they were in the instance of the wading bird — decidedly uncomfortable
and threatening unless, perchance, like the wind that is said to be tempered
to the shorn lamb, the disappearance of the herbage was somehow graduated
exactly to match the development of the giraffe’s ability to add to the length
of its cervical vertebrae. In the case of the Lamarckian giraffe, there could
1 Essay on “The Darwinian Hypothesis,” in “Darwiniana,” p. 13. 1902.
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 239
have been no great competition with other kinds of animals for, as we are
to suppose that those inhabiting the same region were modified in the same
way by the same conditions of life, it would seem that they ought all to
have gotten along equally well. Their struggle for existence was mainly
against lifeless Nature and not much with living competitors, since La¬
marck’s law takes no account of so-called “chance” variations which may
be availed of when they happen to be advantageous and which thus become
the objects of natural selection. As I have already said, Lamarckism is,
in its essence, a philosophy of “determinate evolution.”
Now, as Professor Huxley has remarked, “for the notion that every
organism has been created as it is and launched straight at a purpose,
Mr. Darwin substitutes the conception of something which may fairly be
termed a method of trial and error.” Darwin, however, always recognized
a serious difficulty in the matter of estimating the “selection value” of nas¬
cent organs, and it was at this point that St. George Mivart made his vigor¬
ous attack upon the doctrine of natural selection, which caused Darwin
great uneasiness. But, having committed himself to the notion that natural
selection can operate only upon minute or “insensible” gradations, Darwin
was forced into a rather radical position by Mivart’ s somewhat effective as¬
sault. On the whole, however, his theory of natural selection was calculated
to get along better with nascent organs than it seems possible for Lamarck’s
second law to do, for Darwin’s hypothesis assumes favorable variations to
begin with, which, it is easy to show, are bound to occur out of an infinite
diversity of fortuitous changes, while Lamarck’s law presupposes the oc¬
currence of external conditions compelling favorable changes in the organism,
and it is easy to see that there is a better chance of finding a needed form in
an existing collection of endless variety than of evolving such a form on de¬
mand and in a life-and-death emergency. While it is true that Darwin was
at times disposed to fall into Lamarckian modes of thought and that he
wavered somewhat concerning the importance of the action of the environ¬
ment and the evolutional value of use and disuse, there can be no doubt
that, in its essential character, Darwin’s philosophy became in the end as
original and distinctive as it was consistent and convincing, — not wholly in
its presentation of new points of view, but largely in its rearrangement of
old points so as to cause new light to fall upon them and to set them forth
in brilliant relief before the world.
The times when Darwin relapsed into Lamarckism were those moments
of intellectual fatigue in which he permitted his mind to entertain the notion
that natural selection was a cause of variation. On such occasions he real¬
ized that at least it could not be the sole cause, and then it was that he
turned to the influence of the conditions of life and, by a curious transposition
240
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
of thought, attributed to that influence a potent evolutionary effect. If,
as I pointed out in my presidential address of last year, he had persistently
maintained the position that natural selection could and would operate upon
any kind or degree of variation, he need not to have felt troubled as to its
sufficiency as a true cause of evolution. Assuming that the action of the
environment can bring about diversity of characters or qualities, the determi¬
nation of the survival of the fittest under any given circumstances does not
depend upon the way in which the diverse forms arose. In this matter
Darwin held a much stronger position than Lamarck, for, as I have already
said, Lamarck, after attempting an explanation of the origin of variation,
had no means of showing why a group of organisms varying in a certain direc¬
tion should be perpetuated to the exclusion of other forms which, as far as his
theory provided ground for a judgment, ought, under the same conditions,
to vary in the same direction and thus to acquire the same means of meeting
adverse circumstances.
It is not necessary in order to maintain the supremacy of Darwin as the
establisher of the evolution theory to contend that he and Lamarck had no
ideas in common. They were both under the necessity of making use of
the facts of nature as they were respectively able to discover them, and it
would have been more than strange if, as working naturalists, they had not
had common knowledge of many generalizations which were obviously im¬
portant in any argument for evolution. The differences between them, upon
which we are obliged to found our judgment of their relative merits, are not
so much in the mere employment of certain factors as in the emphasis laid
upon them and the positions given them in the general logical scheme, al¬
though, in the final analysis, it will appear that Darwin’s introduction of the
fascinating and satisfying doctrine of natural selection and its extension to
the vegetable kingdom was the weight that turned the scales of opinion
towards the acceptance of a theory of universal evolution. As I have already
said, Lamarck could not have been an evolutionist without believing in the
mutability of species, in some form, but he did not convince the world of the
truth of mutability, because he was unable to point to its real cause. He
refers occasionally to the selection practiced by breeders as evidence that
variation may minister to need but fails to carry the process over into nature
as a factor in general evolution. He was aware that because animals devour
one another, the largest and strongest destroy the smaller and the weaker,
but he never fully grasped the significance of the survival of those species
best fitted to their conditions of life, nor had he the faintest idea that struggle
for existence and selection of the best adapted might be the basis of evolution
in the plant world. This fact we must not lose sight of, for, whatever La¬
marck may have founded, according to the claims of his adherents, he cer-
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 241
tainly did not found a unified theory of evolution applicable to the whole
animate world. As to animals, Lamarck appears to have attained to the
point of view of Malthus, but Darwin took the Malthusian principle for a
starting-place and developed his theory of natural selection from that basis
to cover every form of living thing.
Lamarck appears to have believed, as Darwin did afterwards, that
varieties become races and, with time, come to constitute species, but it is
not at all clear how far he thought this process continued or at what point
he regarded natural law as ceasing and supernatural direction as intervening,
for he says:
Will one dare to carry the spirit of system to the point of saying that it is nature,
and she alone, which creates this astonishing diversity of means, of ruses, of skill, of
precautions, of patience, of which the industry of animals offers us so many examples!
What we observe in this respect in the class of insects alone, is it not a thousand times
more than is necessary to compel us to perceive that the limits of the power of nature
by no means permit her herself to produce so many marvels, and to force the most
obstinate philosophy to recognize that here the will of the supreme author of all
things has been necessary, and has alone sufficed to cause the existence of so many
admirable things.1
There runs all through Lamarck’s writings a teleological vein, which is,
of course, not strictly scientific and which, on that account, is antagonistic
to the general trend of Darwinism. Darwin several times expressed himself
quite decidedly on this subject. For instance, in a letter to Asa Gray,
written in November, 1860, he says:
I cannot think that the world, as we see it, is the result of chance; and yet
I cannot look at each separate thing as the result of design. To take a crucial
example, you lead me to infer that you believe “that variation has been led along
certain beneficial lines.” I cannot believe this; and I think you would have to
believe that the tail of the Fantail was led to vary in the number and direction of its
feathers in order to gratify the caprice of a few men.2
In another letter to Gray be writes:
I have lately been corresponding with Lyell who, I think, adopts your idea of
the stream of variation having been led or designed. I have asked him (and he says
he will hereafter reflect and answer me) whether he believes that the shape of my
nose was designed. If he does, I have nothing more to say.3
The idea that all development proceeds along predetermined lines
because all variations in structure arise with relation to definite objective
ends is, without doubt, a form of the Paleyian doctrine of design. Whatever
1 “Philosophic Zoologique,” Packard’s translation, in “ Lamarck the Founder of Evolu¬
tion,” pp. 269-270. 1901.
2 “Life and Letters,” Vol. II., p. 353. 1887.
3 Ibid., p. 378.
242
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
force there is in Paley’s argument for direct creation illustrated by the as¬
semblage of the parts of a watch so as to produce a timekeeper, is also to be
found in the Lamarckian conception of animal organs so shaped and united
as to meet inevitably and always an immediate purpose. It is, therefore, no
wonder that Lamarck fell back on supernatural intervention and direction
in the various steps of animal evolution. Darwin never denied the existence
of a creator, but he was totally unable to grasp the conception of interference
in the successive stages of evolution, and the idea that nature’s operations
were in any sense foreordained to the production of organs de novo as and
when needed to meet the emergencies of life was absolutely foreign to his
whole habit of thought. The Lamarckian notion is that nature’s laboratory
turns out parts of animals (like the wheels of the Paleyian watch) simply
and solely to meet demands (to fill orders, as it were) and is idle when the
market is dull; the Darwinian conception, on the other hand, is that the
productive energy of the universe is never still but is manufacturing models
of infinite variety ready for any requirement that may arise, so that the
species finally established in the world are results of choices made from the
endless stock of diverse forms always available. Darwin frankly admitted
that nature’s policy, as he conceived it, was frightfully wasteful, since it
called for the constant destruction of forms not needed and a continual
production of others not likely to be wanted; but, notwithstanding a preva¬
lent and pious desire to believe that nature’s methods are more in accordance
with the dictates of human wisdom and prudence, Darwin convinced the
world that extravagance in the expenditure of living forms is a matter of
undeniable proof. In fact, it became one of the chief aims of his philosophy
to demolish what he regarded as a baseless and outgrown dogma, that
everything in the world has a recognizably useful purpose. Lamarck’s
second law, embodying as it does at least a suggestion of this dogma, was
repugnant to Darwin, and his lack of sympathy with it was the main reason
why he contemptuously repudiated any indebtedness to Lamarck’s writings.
I am aware that Kolliker and others charged Darwin himself with being a
teleologist, but I think that Huxley ably and effectually disposed of that
accusation and that he was right in saying that, in natural history, teleology
received its death-blow at Darwin’s hands. Darwin declared, on his own
behalf, that if every detail of structure could be shown to have been pro¬
duced for the good of its possessor, or that structures had been created for
beauty in the eyes of man, or for mere variety, it would be absolutely fatal
to his theory. On this general subject Professor Huxley has made the
acute remark:
According to Teleology, each organism is like a rifle bullet fired straight at a
mark; according to Darwin, organisms are like grape shot of which one hits some-
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 243
thing and the rest fall wide . For the teleologist an organism exists because it
was made for the conditions in which it is found; for the Darwinian an organism
exists because, out of many of its kind, it is the only one which has been able to
persist in the conditions in which it is found.1
Before Darwin’s time biological problems were very generally compli¬
cated with a 'priori considerations and colored by mystical assumptions.
Fanciful laws were frequently read into natural phenomena and the opera¬
tions of the living world were often regarded not as they actually are but as
it was imagined they ought to be. I do not mean to say there were not many
conscientious and pains-taking followers of the inductive method, but,
recalling the fierce conflict in which Darwin and his few faithful adherents
were plunged immediately upon the appearance of “The Origin,” and
considering that the controversy raged largely around the question of the
piety or the impiety of his views, I am convinced that the contest was mainly
a phase of the oft-recurring clash between idealism and realism. Darwin
brought biological science to the test of observation and experiment as it
had never been brought before, and it is for this reason that we date from
the year 1859 the last great renaissance, and that we recognize that in the
past fifty years every department of learning in which research is involved
has received a new impetus and a new breath of life. The underlying
motive in all recent scientific investigation is the discovery of analogies,
homologies and correlations which are the foundation stones of the theory
of evolution, and it is Darwin, more than any other man who has ever lived,
who has drawn the plans and written the specifications by which the great
super-structure is being erected.. If the artist who fashions the model in
clay is the creator of the statue upon which the apprentice may work, if the
architect who sketches the elevation and outlines the structural features of a
palace is its originator, though ordinary laborers may lay the constituent
blocks in place, Darwin, who first correctly described the fundamental
principles underlying the development of the living world, and so pictured
them as to make them realities to the minds of men, is entitled to the dis¬
tinction and honor belonging to the founder of the Evolution Theory of
to-day, to the strengthening of which thousands of working naturalists are
making their individual contributions.
His claim has been submitted to and passed upon by the only qualified
jury, — the great body of men of science of the whole world, and the verdict
has been rendered with substantial unanimity. In this year of centenary
and semi-centenary celebrations, in particular, the general conclusion has
been distinctly voiced. Learned bodies in all civilized lands have commemo¬
rated the hundredth year since Darwin’s birth and the fiftieth year since the
1 Essay on “Criticisms on The Origin of Species,’’ in “ Darwiniana , ” p. S4. 1902.
244
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
publication of his imperishable book, and have placed on record their esti¬
mates of the transcendent importance of his work and the permanence and
universality of his influence. Essay after essay has been printed, and volume
after volume has been published, all to set forth the fact that to no one else,
as much as to Charles Darwin, is the intellectual world indebted for a
revivifying and newly impelling thought. Among all the gatherings of the
year the most representative and the most important was the congress which
assembled in Cambridge, England, last June. At that convocation nearly
every nation which values culture and every department of higher learning
were represented. No such assemblage was ever before convened to pay
tribute to the memory of a scientific worker, and I think I am safe in assert¬
ing that none such could be brought together to honor the name of any of the
earlier advocates of evolution. There was a mere handful of foreign scien¬
tists at the dedication of the Lamarck statue in Paris, although delegates
were flocking from every direction to Cambridge, and many of them probably
could have stopped over at Paris if they had felt disposed to divide honors
between Lamarck and Darwin. I think Dr. L. O. Howard, of Washington,
was the only American present in a professional capacity and that I was the
only one among hoi polloi, whereas at Cambridge thirty-two American in¬
stitutions were represented by more than a score of delegates.
To the Darwin celebration, two hundred and forty-two institutions,
of twenty -nine different countries, sent two hundred and thirty-three delegates
who, with one hundred and eighty-seven other invited guests, constituted an
impressive convention of four hundred and twenty persons. This was no per¬
functory meeting, — it was a gathering with the serious purpose of pronouncing
a final judgment. It was animated by a spirit of triumph. Its meaning
was that Science as a whole had come into its own and that Charles
Darwin was the leader who had brought it into the promised land. In
public speech and private conversation there was one dominant note of
exultation, and this was sounded alike by biologist and theologian, by physi¬
cist and metaphysician, by experimentalist and philosopher, — all hailing
the day of freer thought and wider mental out-reach due preeminently to the
advent of the idea of evolution set once for all upon a sound logical founda¬
tion by Charles Darwin.
Among other important mementos of that great occasion is a volume
of twenty-nine essays specially prepared at the request of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, and published by the University Press, under the
title “ Darwin and Modern Science.” These essays are intended to set forth,
in a composite picture, the various departments of learning to the advance¬
ment of which Darwin’s researches and writings have contributed, but their
significance is not so much in the completeness or accuracy with which they
COX ON THE FOUNDER OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY 245
rehearse Darwin’s achievements as in the sincerity and cordiality with which
they acknowledge the indebtedness of all branches of knowledge to his
shaping and guiding influence. They contain repeated references to him as
the Newton of the biological sciences and constantly acclaim him as the
greatest of generalizes. They also attempt, in some measure, to explain
the causes of his extraordinary success, and perhaps I can not do better
than to bring this address to a close by quoting from the first essay in the
book a few sentences which seem to me to epitomize the case more clearly
than I can do in my own words. “How is it that Darwin succeeded where
others had failed?” asks Professor J. Arthur Thomson. “Because,”
he replies, “in the first place, he had clear visions — ‘pensees de la jeunesse,
executees par l’age mur’ — which a university curriculum had not made
impossible, which the Beagle voyage made vivid, which an unrivalled
British doggedness made real, — visions of the web of life, of the fountain of
change within the organism, of the struggle for existence and its winnowing
and of the spreading genealogical tree. Because, in the second place, he
put so much grit into the verification of his visions, putting them to the proof
in an argument which is of its kind — direct demonstration being out of the
question — quite unequalled. Because, in the third place, he broke down
the opposition which the most scientific had felt to the seductive modal
formula of evolution by bringing forward a more plausible theory of the
process than had been previously suggested. — Nor can one forget, since
questions of this magnitude are human and not merely academic, that he
wrote so that all men could understand.
“To sum up: the idea of organic evolution, older than Aristotle, slowly
developed from the stage of suggestion to the stage of verification, and the
first convincing verification was Darwin’s; from being an a priori anticipa¬
tion it has become an interpretation of nature, and Darwin is still the chief
interpreter; from being a modal interpretation it has advanced to the rank
of a causal theory, the most convincing part of which men will never cease
to call Darwinism.”
[Annals N. A*. Acad. Sci., Yol. XIX, No. 11, pp. 247-282, Pll. XXIII, XXIV.
21 April, 1910]
AREAL AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MAN¬
HATTAN ISLAND 1
By Charles P. Berkey
C Read in abstract before the Academy 7 December, 1908.)
CONTENTS
Page
General Features of Local Geology . 248
F ormations . 248
F ordhain Gneiss . 249
Inwood Limestone . 250
Manhattan Schist . 250
Glacial Drift . 251
Structural Relations . 251
Folds and Faults . 252
Areal distribution . 252
Areal and Structural Corrections . 253
East River Channel . . 255
Explorations now in progress and their bearing . 256
Configuration of the Rock Floor . 256
Tabulated Records of Borings in Southern Manhattan Island ...... 257
Public Service Commission . 259
Borings made in Investigations for Subways . 259
New Arork & Long Island Railroad Co . 261
“ Belmont Tunnel” . 261
Department of Bridges . 262
Bridge No. 1 — “ Brooklyn Bridge ” . 263
“ “ 2 — “Williamsburg Bridge” or “New East River
Bridge ” . 263
“ “3 — “ Manhattan Bridge ” . 265
“ “ 4 — “Blackwell’s Island Bridge” or “Queensboro
Bridge ” . 266
“ “ 5 — “(Projected)” . 26S
1 Published by permission of the New lrork City Board of Water Supply, under whose
direction the original study was made. A report covering nearly all of the data now included
in this paper and all of the essentials of the new interpretation of areal distribution and geologic
structure was submitted to the Chief Engineer, J. Waldo Smith, Oct. 30, 1908. At that time
there were no borings in the Lower East Side section, except an occasional one on the water
front, and the interpretation was based on a very small amount of evidence. Since that time,
the Board of Water Supply has explored the district, especially along Delancey, Hester and
Clinton Streets, to a sufficient extent to establish the main features of the revised structure.
247
248
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Page
Department of Docks and Ferries . 269
East River Front . 270
North River Front . 271
Pennsylvania, New York & Long Island R. R. Co . 272
East River Division . 272
Miscellaneous and Scattered Borings . 277
Astoria Light and Power Co . 277
Governors Island . 278
Plunger Elevator Holes on Manhattan .... 279
Brooklyn Wells and other Drill Borings . 280
Deep Well of the N. Y. Quinine & Chemical Co . 280
East River and the Bay . 280
Recent Exploratory Borings of the N. Y. City Board of Water Supply 280
Summary . 281
Areal Map and Geologic Cross section . 282
General Features of Local Geology
A considerable portion of Manhattan Island is so heavily covered with
drift that the underlying rock formations, as to type and structures, cannot
be seen. This cover is especially prominent in the southern portion of the
island. The northern portion, on the contrary, has many ridges of outcrops
so distributed that the structural relations are quite definitely settled. Be¬
cause of the southerly strike of these formations, it is quite certain that they
continue beneath the drift to the southern extremity of the island at a depth
of from zero to 150 feet below the surface. But the available maps repre¬
senting the areal distribution of these formations are somewhat in error for
certain portions of the covered area.
The observations upon which the writer’s conclusions are based are
chiefly drill-borings, tunnels and deep foundations that together constitute
a considerable mass of information, some of which was not formerly accessi¬
ble. These data are tabulated and conveniently arranged for reference and
comparison in the latter part of this pap.er in such a way as is thought to be
useful for future exploration and investigation.
Formations
A preliminary statement, however, may be necessary as to the identity
and characteristics of the chief formations to be considered. Of these there
are only three of large importance: the Fordham Gneisses at the bottom;
the Inwood Limestone overlying, and the Manhattan Schist, the topmost
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 249
member. Each of these exhibits a considerable variety of composition,
texture and structural quality, and two especially — the gneisses and the
schist — are, in some cases, so nearly alike in appearance that they are dis¬
tinguished with great difficulty. This is particularly true in cases where
small outcrops must be relied upon, or where there are no outcrops, and the
information is confined to fragments recovered from borings. The difficulty
is still greater where the chop drill has been used and the rock broken to
very small bits, or grains. In some of these cases, it is the writer’s opinion
that it is impossible to identify every specimen. A thorough acquaintance,
however, with the possible range of petrographic characters will enable one
to identify any reasonably typical specimen, and where several from the
same general locality are available, there is never any serious doubt of the
identification. In the older records of engineers and some of the city de¬
partments, very general terms are used for bed-rock, the terms granite,
schist and gneiss being used rather promiscuously for the crystalline base¬
ment without distinguishing between the different large formations. In a
study of this material for the unravelling of the structural geology, however,
it is essential to identify the specific formation to which each specimen
belongs. The following descriptions may serve as a guide for such determi¬
nation.
Fordham Gneiss
The most characteristic Fordham Gneiss is a close-textured, black and
white banded quartz-feldspar-hornblende-mica rock of a general composi¬
tion similar to a very quartzose granite. The bands are seldom more than
an inch or two in width, rather persistent, frequently crumpled or folded
and usually hard and durable. There is a general foliated structure which,
in some places, is not very noticeable and in others is very strong. This
typical Fordham is easily identified, but large areas and numerous belts or
streaks of this formation exhibit no banding at all. On the contrary, they
are comparatively massive and have all of the characters of a gneissoid
granite, diorite or granodiorite. Less commonly the rock exhibits a strongly
quartzose character, becoming a quartzite schist. Associated with this
type may be found a more strictly mica or hornblende schist of uniform
structure, and still more rarely very impure limestones interbedded with
the gneisses are found. The banded type is very prominently exposed in
the northern part of Manhattan Island along Seventh Avenue and is still
more strongly developed on the east side of the Harlem River in the Bronx.
The massive types are much more common in the exposures in the East
River, Long Island City, Brooklyn and in certain drill borings of southern
250
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Manhattan on the lower east side. The most massive type is undoubtedly
an intrusive. On account of its typical development in Long Island City
the writer suggests the name Ravenswood granodiorite for the type.
Inwood Limestone
The Inwood is generally a very coarse-grained, crystalline limestone.
The chief variation is in the presence of mica and chlorite flakes, which, at
some points, become so abundant as to form calcareous mica or chlorite
schist rather than limestone. This is especially true wherever shearing has
affected the formation, as along certain fault zones, and where underground
circulation has dissolved some of the lime, leaving the less soluble constitu¬
ents. In some cases of this kind'! the resulting residuary material bears no
resemblance to the ordinary, typical Inwood. The genetic relations, how¬
ever, are seldom obscure even in the worst or most modified cases.
Manhattan Schist
The Manhattan is the most variable formation. Typically, it is a
coarse quartz mica schist. The mica flakes are large and constitute the
larger proportion of the rock in most cases. Quartz, however, is abundant;
feldspar less abundant than in the gneisses. The rock is usually not banded
but irregularly streaked and complexly crumpled with numerous lens-like
developments of segregated quartz and other secondary minerals. In its
most characteristic facies, biotite and a white, silvery or pearly mica is found.
This pearly mica is probably the most characteristic constituent of the
Manhattan formation. Its presence in any considerable amount makes
identification reasonably certain. In the Manhattan, however, are numer¬
ous varieties of very different character, some of which are essentially identical
with those occurring in the Fordham Gneiss. They are chiefly intrusive
types and vein-like developments that occur as streaks or bands or masses
of hornblende schist, granite, pegmatite and similar rocks. It is evident
that whenever these types are the only representatives to be found, the
identification is wholly uncertain. An additional variety is the serpentine
and amphibolite or so called “anthophyllite,” but this has a limited dis¬
tribution and nowhere, so far as the writer is aware, leads to any confusion
of identification.
Many minor variations occur, and the change takes place rapidly,
showing a great range in a single outcrop. In some places much epidote is
developed, so that the rock is a typical epidote schist. It would be possible,
on this account, to sub-divide these three formations into a considerable
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 251
number of rock varieties, but in this and for the present purpose there is no
advantage since structurally the three great formations behave as units.
Glacial Drift
Covering the whole series is the loose mantle, known as the Glacial Drift,
which exhibits a complex and variable structure. All varieties from char¬
acteristic till to perfectly assorted sands and clays are to be found. The
whole cover, so far as this study is concerned, serves chiefly as an obscuring
mantle. Not only is the rock underneath hidden, but the structural rela¬
tions are to an equal degree obscured.
Structural Relations
The three large formations have each been so much modified by meta¬
morphism and have suffered so much disturbance in the process, standing
in such marked contrast with any other formations of adjacent areas, that
they are commonly thought of as a single series or simple succession of
formations; but of this there may be some question. There is, however,
no doubt that the Fordham Gneiss is the oldest formation known in southern
New York, that it is in part a metamorphosed sediment arid in part made up
of igneous intrusions cutting the older sediments in a most complex way and
occasionally forming much more than half of the rock. There are typical
quartzite beds and recrystallized limestone layers here and there in the
banded Fordham. These are sufficiently clear evidence of sedimentary
origin for those portions, but it is equally clear that other belts or areas are
igneous, and between the two there is such variety and such extensive pene¬
tration, segregation, inclusion and recrystallization that it is wholly impossi¬
ble to draw the lines of origin very close.
There is sufficient evidence in adjacent districts to establish the fact
that there must be a considerable time break between this lowest member
(the Fordham Gneiss) and the next overlying Inwood Limestone. Whether
it is an unconformity of large value or more of the nature of an overlap is
not determinable in this region, because of the closely crumpled and infolded
relation that they now exhibit. The Inwood Limestone and the Manhattan
Schist are mutually conformable, with some development of inter-bedding in
the transition zone. Only the drift or, rarely, residuary matter from decay
lies above these formations.
Nothing older or lower than the Fordham Gneiss is known on Manhattan
Island, and therefore its depth is indefinite. The Inwood Limestone may
be regarded as between 700 and 900 feet thick at its best development, and
the Manhattan Schist above is of great but unknown thickness.
252
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Folds and Faults
These formations are everywhere folded into a succession of anticlines
and synclines whose axes trend northeastward. They have also suffered
extensive erosion, so that the crests of all the anticlines are truncated,
with the result that in the present areal distribution these formations lie
side by side in long relatively narrow belts. The axes of these folds are by
no means straight for any great distance, neither are they horizontal. In
general, all of the folds pitch southward at gentle angles and take occasional
bends. Therefore in passing southward, whether on an anticline or in a
syncline, higher and higher formations or beds are met with. So it happens
that on Manhattan Island the Manhattan Schist, the highest member,
increases in areal distribution until it covers most of the width of the island.
But everywhere, unless there has been some additional displacement, there
is a belt of limestone between the schist and gneiss. Most of the folds are
unsymmetrical, and sometimes they are overturned.
Both longitudinal and cross-faults occur, but there is no doubt that the
former are of most prominence. In the East River at Blackwell’s Island
almost the whole thickness of Inwood Limestone, which should be found
between the schist and gneiss, is lacking. The residuary matter and con¬
dition of the bed rock, as shown in the Seventieth Street tunnel of the East
River Gas Company, indicates crushing and much decay, such as should be
expected in a fault zone, and there is every reason to regard it as a fault.
Doubtless there are others of similar displacement, but their relations are
such that the effect is too obscure to be readily seen. Numerous weak
zones of a similar sort run across the formations in a general northwest-
southeast direction. It is probable that most of them represent actual cross
faults. The throw is probably not great in any case, and the off-set is
usually insignificant. These zones, however, control the distribution of
cross valleys, some of which, like the Manhattanville Valley, are among
the most striking features of the island.
A real D istrib ut ion
All the formations lie beneath the drift in more or less regular belts, —
narrow if closely folded, or comparatively wide if more gently folded, — and
with a northeasterly strike. The Inwood Limestone lies normally between
a schist belt and one of gneiss and is usually narrow. It always holds this
position unless cut out by faulting.
Irregularities in distribution are common. They are chiefly of the nature
of bends in the course or strike of the formation, a widening of the belt
locally, a disappearance or an emergence due to cross-folding or local
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 253
changes in pitch, — some due to faulting, and others due to igneous intru¬
sion. The abundance of these irregularities makes it doubly difficult to
trace a formation or contact beneath the drift any great distance beyond
actual outcrops. For this reason, in southern Manhattan, drill holes,
foundation excavations and tunnels have great value in determining a more
reliable distribution. It was a study of all known sources of such informa¬
tion that first suggested the changes in areal and structural geology of
Manhattan that are here given.
Areal and Structural Corrections 1
Below Central Park there is now little evidence to be gathered at the
surface as to areal or structural geology, but as far south as Thirtieth Street
the bed-rock geology is pretty well known from earlier reports and from
recent improvements that have exposed the underlying rock. All of this
portion is mapped as Manhattan Schist, except one small area of serpentine
at Fifty-ninth Street between Tenth and Eleventh Avenues. There is no
reason to modify this usage in that portion of the island. A careful study
of a great number of rock specimens from the Pennsylvania Railroad tunnel
across Manhattan at Thirty-second Street proves beyond question that the
bed rock is Manhattan Schist, including almost all known variations and
accompaniments, for the whole width of the island along that line.
Farther south the points that have furnished exact information about
bed-rock are less numerous, and below Fourteenth Street they are confined
to deep borings or an occasional deep excavation for foundation. Even
these sources of information are lacking over large areas. The greater
number of borings available are along the water front. Their character
and distribution are such as to indicate that the west side and central portion
of the island are underlain by Manhattan Schist. (See accompanying map
on which these data are plotted.)
This is true entirely to the East River at Twenty-seventh Street and as
far eastward as Tompkins Square at Tenth Street and almost to the Man¬
hattan tower of Brooklyn Bridge in that vicinity.
To the eastward of these limits, that is, to the eastward of the line pro¬
jected from Blackwell’s Island to the Manhattan tower of Brooklyn Bridge
(Bridge No. 1), there is evidence of a more complicated geology. The
borings of the East River front are decidedly variable. They are certainly
not all Manhattan Schist. Those most unlike the Manhattan are at the
same time most like some varieties belonging to the Fordham Gneiss, and it
1 Based upon the data tabulated on pages 260-281 .
254
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
is certain that this formation also occurs. In that case the Inwood should
also be found between the other two. The lack of data at first, except along
the water front, made it impossible to draw more than very general lines.
Drawn in this way, of course, the lines are too regular and straight, but it is
certain that they indicate more nearly the actual existing areal distribution
of formations than any of the maps now in use.
A southward extension of the Blackwell’s Island anticlinal belt of Ford-
ham Gneiss reaches across the East River in a long narrow strip toward the
Manhattan tower of Brooklyn Bridge. How much of this anticlinal fold
would actually expose the Fordham, if the drift were scraped off, it is impos¬
sible to say, but it is certain that this formation exists there. Inwood Lime¬
stone must be accounted for, unless faulted out, on the west side of this
belt, and then the Manhattan Schist occupies the area westward to the
Hudson River.
On the east side of this Fordham anticline, a parallel belt of Manhattan
Schist and associated Inwood Limestone is to be expected, as indicated on
the map, and this is succeeded by Fordham Gneiss which occupies the
eastern border of the island in the district known as the “Lower East Side.”
Explorations made some years ago along the line of the gas tunnel 1
across the East River at Seventieth Street indicate comparatively narrow belts
of limestone there in both the east and west channels. Their limited width,
together with the accompanying strongly developed disintegration zones,
indicates rather extensive squeezing out and faulting of this formation along
planes parallel to the strike. Such movements, of course, are capable of
entirely cutting out the intermediate limestone from between the schist
and gneiss. How much of this condition exists in the continuation of these
zones southward through Manhattan, it is impossible at present to say.
The intermediate belt is indicated on the map as a continuous schist-
limestone area, and at one point, at least, the limestone is known to occur,
namely, on the southeastern margin of the Manhattan pier of the Manhattan
Bridge (Bridge No. 3) at the Foot of Pike Street, where it wTas penetrated
by a drill in exploring for the bridge site. It is not probable, however, that
there are continuous limestone belts of any considerable areal importance,
else the East River would have been able to follow them and could thereby
have taken a more direct course than it now does. At any rate, there is a
probability of finding three belts of limestone, unless they are cut out by
faulting.
On the Brooklyn side, no formation of the series except the Fordham
and its associated igneous masses, such as the Ravenswood granodiorite,
1 J. F. Kemp: The Geological Section of the East River at Seventieth Street, New York,
Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. xiv, p. ,273. 1895.
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 255
have been identified with certainty within the area reached by this study.
Limestone is reported near Newtown Creek a little beyond the eastern margin
of the map.1 There has been no opportunity to verify this record.
The above suggestions on the geology of the region south of Fifty-ninth
Street are embodied in the accompanying map. Each boring whose record
and material could be verified and personally inspected is plotted and
marked to indicate the rock. No dependence was placed upon any records,
if the material could not be seen.
There is. no reasonable doubt that folds, faults, crush zones and decayed
belts occur as frequently in this southern portion of Manhattan as in other
better known adjacent areas, but they cannot be so definitely traced or
mapped. It has been found in some places that surface drainage lines
mark roughly the trace of certain structural weaknesses, even where heavily
drift covered, but this is not always true. There is nowhere any evidence
of very important cross structures such, for example, as the Manhattanville
valley or Spuyten Duyvil Creek of northern Manhattan.
The problems of this area, therefore, are concerned chiefly with the
longitudinal structures produced by folding and faulting and subsequent
disintegration and decay along the crush zones that sometimes accompany
them.
A generalized geologic cross-section showing structural relations across
this area in the vicinity of Williamsburg Bridge based on an interpretation
of areal geology, as outlined above, is given in Plate XXIII.
East River Channel
The East River is still more abnormal with this rearrangement of areal
and structural geology. Instead of following the belts of limestone as was
formerly supposed, it seems to have cut across all of the formations twice
in the great bend below Twenty-seventh Street. There is no structural
explanation better than the suggestion that it is controlled by a combination
of intersecting cross fractures and weak zones across the gneiss of enough
prominence to overcome the usual tendency to follow the strike of the lime¬
stone. It is worth noting that the Harlem River has a very similar course
due rather certainly to cross-faulting, and that Hell Gate, Little Hell Gate
and Bronx Kills are all of similar structural relation. It is believed that the
portion of the East River between the Williamsburg and Manhattan bridges
flows on the gneiss and that this part of the channel has less complexity of
structure and less uncertainty of condition than any other of the waterways
about the island.
1 Veatch, as quoted by W. H. Hobbs: U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. No. 270, p. S6. 1905.
256
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
It is not overlooked of course that the irregular covering of drift probably
is the most important factor in modifying the courses of many minor streams.
This is true for the East River, also, in its lower portion. It is a displaced
stream in part, — shoved southward out of its original course, which doubt¬
less was a more direct one parallel to the formations. In the submergence
following the withdrawal of the Glacial ice a channel was established wholly
on the drift and more than usually free from structural control. This is
the present East River course from Blackwell’s Island southward.
Explorations now in Progress and Their Bearing
The conclusions reached in this paper were the outgrowth of a careful
and detailed study of local conditions for the New York City Board of
Additional Water Supply. The immediate importance of such modification
of interpretation of Manhattan geology lies in the fact that it is considered
advisable to bring the new Catskill water supply down through the city in
a tunnel deep enough in bed rock to insure its permanence and safety. The
changes and conditions of bed rock are therefore of very practical importance,
and explorations in accord with the interpretations contained in the preced¬
ing chapter have now been in progress for several months. Points that
were considered most critical were selected first with the idea of at once
proving or disproving the new views of geologic structure.
It is too early to draw sweeping conclusions or to give details, but enough
has been established by the half-dozen holes already drilled to prove beyond
question that in general the new interpretation of areal and structural
distribution and relations is correct. Inwood Limestone was found in the
first hole located to explore for it. The Fordham Gneisses were also found
as indicated. No doubt much more detail and accuracy of boundary lines
can be given at the conclusion of this new work. (See borings tabulated as
Nos. 300-314).
Configuration of the Rock Floor
A series of observations on borings in progress and occasional well
preserved boring materials from earlier work lead one to the conclusion
that the rock floor of New York is very imperfectly represented in any
attempt yet made. The reasons for this imperfection are many, but chiefly
they are the misleading information of drill records and the almost total
lack of discrimination between different types of loose material by drill men.
In most cases it has been assumed by drillers that everything above the
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 257
point where solid core could be secured is drift cover. Yet a little critical
examination of materials will show that in some places the drill penetrates
a thick layer of residuary (decayed) matter belonging to the formation
below the drift. Occasionally such disintegration is so complete that core
cannot be saved for a depth of 50 to 100 feet after leaving all traces of the
drift cover. Recent explorations and those now in progress confirm this
view. In addition, it is clear that such decay is more pronounced on the
limestone belts and along known crush-zones, and these are sometimes very
narrow.
To increase still more the uncertainty and imperfection of many records,
it is not at all unusual to strike large bowlders in drilling which give every
apparent behavior of rock ledge. Where the only thing sought is depth to
bed rock, therefore, many such finds are reported as rock floor. Some of
these show, jyv the material recovered from them, that the rock is not of local
type, but this is usually overlooked because of lack of critical knowledge
of the variations allowable in the local formations.
It is the writer’s opinion, therefore, that it is impossible to construct a
map showing the topography of the rock floor of southern Manhattan.
The bulletin by Professor William Herbert Hobbs 1 is a good attempt at such
a study, but it is certain that the contour lines of southern Manhattan are
very different south of Twenty-third Street. The map is of great service,
however, for the larger number of records of depth to rock given than hereto¬
fore and for the handy form in which they are available for combination
with accumulating data of more detailed and more accurate character.
Tabulated Records of Borings in Southern Manhattan Island
The information combined in the tables which follow has been accumu¬
lated in a systematic inspection of every drill core that could be seen from
southern Manhattan and the other side of East River. Most of the material
is the property of the various New York City departments, the Public
Service Commission and large transportation companies as noted below.
Scattering groups of cores represent private operations for deep Avells, or
plunger elevators, or tests of foundations or railroad tunnels. Many of
these have been tabulated as to location and depth to rock by Hobbs,2 but
in his discussion the type of rock in each case was accepted as originally
identified at the time the borings were made. Some of these are old, made
1 U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 270. Plate I. 1905.
2 Op. cit.
258
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
before the present ideas of the differentiation of formations on Manhattan
or their structure were known, and some were in the care of engineers and
others who made no special claim to a knowledge of rock classification.
Besides, the purposes for which they were usually taken seldom made it
necessary to know anything more than that bed-rock had been reached and
that it was substantial enough for foundations. The depth to rock was
almost the only information needed in most cases. It is, therefore, somewhat
surprising, all things considered, that these materials have been so intelli¬
gently noted and so carefully preserved. Some of them are from twenty
to thirty years old, but the greater number have been gathered within the
past fifteen years. In many cases no one has made examination of them
since their original individual purpose was fulfilled.
No other enterprise ' has found it so necessary to follow up all these
sources of bed-rock information. Therefore this is the first time any one
has examined all of these data in an attempt to classify them and use the
information in interpreting the rock structure and formational geology of
the areas covered hopelessly beneath the heavy drift cover of the southern
part of the city. The task has required more work than is likely to be
warranted soon again. Believing also that the information may be occa¬
sionally serviceable in tabulated form, as well as in interpretations reduced
to geologic maps, the following sets of abbreviated notes are offered for
preservation in the records of the Academy.
I am well aware that these notes leave much to be desired. It is often
absolutely impossible to classify a bit of rock from a drill core or identify it
with any particular local formation. This is because of the similarity of
certain varieties of two of these formations, — the Manhattan Schist and the
Fordham Gneiss. Occasionally in a boring only a few small chips represent
all that is recovered or saved. An extensive core or a group of specimens
almost always makes it possible to determine the identity with satisfaction.
I have taken some care to indicate whether the classification given is reason¬
ably certain, or simply a preference for one of the possible formations, or
whether it is entirely indeterminate. I am sure no one will more fully
appreciate the difficulty of making a rigid classification of such cores than
the men who know these formations best.
The tabulation includes location, depth to rock, depth uniformly cor¬
rected to U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey datum, which is mean sea level
at Sandy Hook, penetration of the rock, present classification as to relation¬
ship to local formations and variety or quality of special features. It is not
generally possible to give data of value as to percentage of core recovery,
for the reason that it is not possible to know whether or not the original core
was all saved.
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 259
In this tabulation only the three formations of recognized large impor¬
tance are taken into account, as follows:
(1) The Fordham Gneiss, which is the lowest and oldest and most complex,
including the Ravenswood granodiorite as a special variety;
(2) The Inwood Limestone, or dolomite, which is the next younger and
lies above the Fordham;
(3) The Manhattan Schist, which is the uppermost formation.
All types are referable to one or another of these three formations as
varieties or facies or associated units of minor structural significance.
Public Service Commission
Borings made in Investigations for Subways
There are six lines of borings across East River, as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
South Ferry, N. Y.,to Joralemon St., Brooklyn.
Old Slip, “ “ Montague “
Maiden Lane, “ “ Pineapple “
Beekman St., “ “ Cranberry “
Fourteenth St., “ “ No. Seventh “
Thirty-fourth St., “ “ Long Island City, R. R. Station.
These materials are carefully labeled and housed in the rooms of the
Commission. Samples of rock were taken by a diamond drill, and all are
of small diameter. They have been examined especially for evidence as
to the quality and variety of rock represented, and the classification and
relationship to the standard local formations is indicated wherever possible.
The datum to which all borings have been uniformly reduced is mean
high water of the Rapid Transit Commission, which is 2.72 feet above mean
sea level at Sandy Hook, — the datum of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey, as well as that of the N. Y. City Board of Water Supply.
260
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a) South Ferry { New York ) to Joralemon St. {Brooklyn) , across East River.
b ) Old Slip {New York) to Montague St. {Brooklyn) , across East River.
c) Maiden Lane { New York) to Pineapple Street {Brooklyn) , across East River.
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND
261
e) Fourteenth St. ( New York) to North 7th St. {Brooklyn) , across East River.
f) 84th St. ( New York) to L. 1. City R. R. Station, across East River.
New York and Long Island Railroad Company
Belmont Tunnel
This company has completed a tunnel across the East River from
Forty-second Street to Long Island City, known as the “Belmont Tunnel.”
Numerous wash borings and several diamond drill borings were made.
The figures for depth and rock penetration are taken from the drawings of
the company. The datum is mean high water and is the same as the
M. H. W. datum of the Rapid Transit Commission, 2.72 feet above mean
sea level at Sandy Hook. The depths to rock have been corrected, there-
262
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
fore, to correspond to this datum, which is also the datum of the Board of
Water Supply. All three of the rock formations of this district are pene¬
trated by these holes. One is in Manhattan Schist, one is in typical Inwood
Limestone and three are in the oldest formation, the Fordham Gneiss.
Three others, supposed to have struck rock, seem to me not to have reached
it, and two others penetrate decayed and disintegrated rock of $o badly
altered character that it cannot be accurately identified.
(Pieces were found at about 75-77' first and still further down. The material is disinte¬
grated micaceous variety of Inwood Limestone.)
Department of Bridges
The materials obtained by drill borings in investigations for sites of
piers and anchorages for bridges across the East River have been examined.
These materials are housed at different places as indicated below in each
case. In general, the evidence of bridge borings is especially satisfactory
and definite because of the fact that they are always in groups. This gives
opportunity to compare several from a single area and to correct or cor-
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 263
roborate the judgment of their character and relationship. I have been
assisted in every way by the engineers in charge in finding and handling
these materials.
The East River bridges are known as
No. 1, or the “Brooklyn Bridge.”
“ 2, “ “ “Williamsburg Bridge” or the “New East River Bridge.”
“ 3, “ “ “Manhattan Bridge” (now being constructed).
“ 4, “ “ “Blackwell’s Island Bridge” or “Queensboro Bridge.”
“ 5, (A projected one on the northeast side and immediately ad¬
jacent to Brooklyn Bridge).
Bridge No. 1, .“Brooklyn Bridge”
Datum is M. H. W., 1.93 ft. above mean sea level at Sandy Hook. No
cores seen.
(See Bridge No. 5, which gives data for the same locality on both the
Brooklyn and New York sides.)
Bridge No. 2, “Williamsburg Bridge” or “New East River Bridge”
Materials from drill borings at both piers are completely labeled and
housed in the office in Brooklyn, 84 Broadway. They are one inch diamond
drill cores and are lettered A, B, C, etc., on each side of the river. The
datum is M. H. W. and is 2.67' above mean sea level at Sandy Hook
(U. S. datum).
a) Brooklyn Tower foundation.
264
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
a) Brooklyn Tower foundation. ( Continued .)
6) New York anchorage.
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 265
Bridge No. 3, “Manhattan Bridge”
The cores obtained from the borings made at the site of this bridge are
housed together with those from Blackwell’s Island Bridge (No. 4) at the
Brooklyn terminal of Bridge No. 1 (old Brooklyn Bridge). The location
of the different borings is not in every case clear. Nos. 3, 5 and 6 are
certainly correctly located. The others are less certain.
The datum M. L. W. is 2.43' below mean sea level (U. S. datum), M. H.
W. is +4.15'.
a) Brooklyn Pier.
b) Manhattan Pier.
266
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Bridge No. 4. “Blackwell’s Island Bridge,” or “Queensboro Bridge”
The cores obtained in boring explorations for the piers of the Queensboro
bridge are housed with those of Bridge No. 3, at the Brooklyn Terminal
of Bridge No. 1 (old Brooklyn Bridge). The system of numbering was
such in this case that the same numbers were in part repeated at each pier,
and, where other designations or descriptive labels are wanting, the locations
are therefore somewhat uncertain. Most of the boxes, however, in which
they are stored have some mark indicating the pier represented, for example,
“No. 4, N. Y.,” or “No. 4, W. Pier” (Blackwell’s Island), or “No. 4, East
River” (Blackwell’s Island) or “ No. 4, N. E. cor. Anchorage” (Long Island
City) and are therefore more definite.
The whole series was examined, and borings have been arranged in
groups representing the different pier locations as fully as can be done with
the data at hand. The series as a whole gives entirely satisfactory and
consistent evidence as to bed-rock character. The datum is M. H. W. and
is 2.34' above mean sea level (U. S. datum) at Sandy Hook.
a) New York Pier.
BEIiKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 267
b) West Pier, Blackwell’s Island.
c ) East Pier, Blackwell's Island.
d) Long Island City Pier.
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
26S
d) Long Island City Pier. ( Continued .)
Bridge No. 5
This is a projected bridge whose location would be adjacent to the old
Brooklyn Bridge No. 1, on the Northeast side. The cores are now in the
offices of the Bridge Department, Park Row Building. All are fully
labeled. The datum is M. H. W. and is 1.72' above mean sea level (U.
S. datum).
a) Manhattan side.
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 269
b) Brooklyn side.
Department of Docks and Ferries
The borings represented in the following list were made by the Depart¬
ment of Docks and Ferries at a large number of pier sites along both the
Hudson and East Rivers. Many of them were made twenty to thirty years
ago, and they probably constitute the oldest group of such data in the city.
The material of the borings represents the muds, sands and gravels of the
overburden, as well as the bed-rock. They are all fully labeled, boxed and
housed at the yard of the Department of Docks and Ferries, at foot of
Twenty-fourth Street and East River. The samples of rocks are all in the
form of fragments (not cores) secured from chopping into bed-rock. In
most cases they represent but slight penetration of the rock floor, seldom
more than two or three feet. In some cases, especially where but a small
sample is recovered from an uncommon variety of rock, or from a some¬
what decayed bed, it is impossible to determine the formation name. It
is more difficult than where solid cores are obtained. In the following
tabulation the variety of rock and formational relation as now used are
given wherever possible. The original names such as “Granite” and
“Syenitic Granite” used chiefly in the sense of crystalline bed-rock are
avoided.
The datum used by the Dock Department is Mean Low Water. On
Nov. 22, 1898, however, the datum was raised 0.2-F. The Board of Water-
Supply datum (Mean Sea Level at Sandy Hook according to the U. S.
Coast and Geodetic Survey) is 2.09 ft. higher than the present Dock Depart¬
ment datum (M. L. W.), and is 2.33 ft. higher than the M. L. W. of the
Dock Department as used prior to 1S98. As all of the borings tabulated
here are older than that date, the latter correction is used in reducing to
U. S. datum.
270
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
East River Front.
1 Recent exploratory work throws some doubt on the validity of these two borings. It is
probable that the material recovered came from bowlders instead of bed rock.
6 I
£
3
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
IKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 271
North River Front.
272
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Pennsylvania, New York and Long Island Railroad Co.
' The borings made in the preliminary studies for the tunnels of the
East River Division of the Pennsylvania, New York and Long Island Rail¬
road Co. are tabulated approximately in order from west to east, begin¬
ning at 7th Avenue and following both 32nd and 33rd Streets to East
River. Then the Long Island City side is arranged, beginning at East
River between Borden and Flushing Avenues and following the railway
to a point 750 feet east of Vanalst Avenue. The figures of depth to
rock and rock penetration are taken from the diagrams of borings on the
same drawings and are read to the nearest foot. The correction introduced
is from mean high water to the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey datum,
which is 2.72 ft. lower.
East River Division
a) Manhattan Side.
BERICEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 273
a) Manhattan Side. ( Continued .)
a :
o'
Z
cd
a)
CO
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
attan Side.
{Continued.)
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 275
a) Manhattan Side. ( Continued .)
b) Long Island City , between Borden and Flushing Aves. and eastward along the East River.
276
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
b ) Long Island City , between Borden and Flushing Axes, and eastward along the East River.
( Continued .)
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 277
b) Long Island City, between Borden and Flushing Aves. and eastward along the East River.
( Continued .)
Miscellaneous and Scattered Borings
The borings tabulated below represent data gathered from examinations
of the records and materials of deep wells, plunger elevator holes, tests for
foundations and other similar sources. Only those whose materials were
personally examined are given a definite formational name. In a few
others, such as those at the Navy Yard, in Brooklyn, the published descrip¬
tions are so carefully worded that there is little doubt of their meaning.
These are all plotted on the accompanying maps.
Astoria Light and Power Co.
Several deep wells at Lawrence Point, on the Long Island side of East
River. Manhattan Drilling Co., contractors.
278
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Governors Island
Two deep wells were bored for water — one near the Hospital at the
north margin of the island and one in the moat of Fort Columbus. Mate¬
rial all in fragments (sand) and chips. Housed at the Quatermaster’s
Department, Governors Island. P. & J. Conlin, contractors.
Plunger Elevator Holes on Manhattan
The cores taken from these holes have not in most cases been found
complete, but enough in the following ones could be seen to determine the
formation. The place where the material can be seen is indicated in each
1 There are several other shallower wells at this place. No. 286 has been continued
and now- reaches to a depth of approximately 2000' with no material change in the rock.
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 279
Brooklyn Wells and other Brill Borings
1 Specimen of core taken from 335 ft. below the sidewalk is in the American Museum of
Natural History.
2 Specimen of core taken from 127 ft. below the surface is in the American Museum of
Natural History.
3 Diamond drill boring. Specimen of core taken at a depth of 1224 feet is in the col¬
lection of the New York Mineralogical Club at the American Museum of Natural History.
4 Nine holes were made. Only one piece of core was seen. Bed-rock said to be at a
depth of 140-160 ft. Piece of core is in the office of the Superintendent of Building.
5 Three pieces of an 8-inch core were seen at the Ravenswood plant.
6 The material is wholly in granular fragments due to the method of drilling. A very
complete series of samples has been preserved at the hotel. Drilling was in progress when
examined. The final depth will be somewhat greater.
7 Pieces of core from this hole are preserved in the Long Island Historical Museum, together
with pieces from three others. All have been given the same number in the museum and there¬
fore it is impossible to be certain that they may not have become interchanged, but by a careful
comparison of the four lots and their localities, it seems reasonably sure that this hole is correctly
represented by the pieces of banded Fordham gneiss.
280
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Deep Well of the N. Y. Quinine & Chemical Co.
East River and the Bay
Recent Exploratory Borings of the New York City Board of Water Supply
(Made since the original study)
The following borings have been made in exploring for condition of bed¬
rock along the line chosen for the proposed distribution conduit intended to
carry the new Catskill Avater supply. Some of them, those made earliest,
have been recorded on the accompanying map. So far as these explorations
have gone, they substantiate the interpretation of areal geology and structure
offered in this paper. The holes given are all on the Lower East side be¬
tween the East River and the Bowery.
1 Samples are all fine granular fragments due to the method of drilling. Nine samples
in bottles are preserved in the office of the company.
2 Three specimens (fragments) are to be seen in the Museum of the Staten Island Natural
History Society.
3 A piece of rock from this reef was seen in the office of the Chief Engineer of the Departmen t
of Docks and Ferries.
BERKEY, GEOLOGY OF SOUTHERN MANHATTAN ISLAND 281
The following borings have been made in the East River from the Foot
of Clinton Street, Manhattan, to the foot of Bridge Street, Brooklyn.
The above borings of the Board of Water Supply (Nos. 300 to 314) have
all been made since the original report was handed in. They are here in¬
cluded with the original tabulation because of the support they give to the
revised geology of Manhattan Island. Boring is still in progress in the
Lower East Side district and when completed a more accurate map will be
possible.
282
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Summary
A detailed study of all available data bearing upon the question of areal
and structural geology of the covered portion of southern Manhattan Island
leads to the following general conclusions:
1. All of the typical crystalline rock formations are found within the
area.
2. Manhattan Schist forms the rock-floor from the Bowery westward to
the Hudson.
3. Between the Bowery and the East River there are at least two '
belts of Fordham Gneiss, three belts of Inwood Limestone and
one other belt of Manhattan Schist.
4. The structure is essentially closely compressed and slightly overturned
folds accompanied by some thrust-faulting and a tendency to the
development of weak crush zones along the chief planes of movement.
5. The East River, in its great eastward bend around the Lower East
Side, is displaced from its pre-Glacial channel by Glacial drift
and now flows across perfectly sound rock at a much greater elevation
than the channel it once occupied.
It appears therefore that, so far as southern Manhattan is concerned,
the present river channels are not controlled by limestone belts, as usually
assumed, but the East River is controlled by its drift obstruction.
It will be apparent at once that the configuration of the rock floor is now
subject to as extensive revision as the other geologic features.
Areal Map and Geologic Cross Section
The accompanying map and cross section are an attempt to represent
these features and are intended to serve as the basis of further correction
of the areal and structural detail of southern Manhattan. Neither the
map nor the cross section can be considered accurate for depth or dip of
formation or exact position of contact, but they are the best interpretation
the writer can make of the data now known. Both are presented in the
belief that the general features and structures as given will serve a useful
purpose in guiding explorations for rock floor and rock condition in the area
covered.
Volume XIX, Plate XXIII.
5s
ft. «
o
Cfl W
04 M
O
Volume XIX, Plate XXIV.
P. Berkey.
Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.
Volume XIX, Plate XXIV.
5
By Charles P. Berkey.
VOL. XIX
PART III
ANNALS
OF THE
NEW YORK
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
EDITOR
Edmund Otis Hovey
NEW YORK
PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Founded, 1817.
Officers, 1910.
President — James F. Kemp, Columbia University.
Vice-Presidents — George F. Kunz, Charles B. Davenport, Maurice
Fishberg, William Campbell.
Recording Secretary — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
Corresponding Secretary — Hermon C. Bumpus, American Museum.
Treasurer — Emerson McMillin, 40 Wall Street.
Librarian — Ralph W. Tower, American Museum.
Editor — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
Chairman — George F. Kunz, 401 Fifth Avenue.
Secretary — Charles P. Berkey, Columbia University.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
Chairman — Chari.es B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.
Secretary — L. Hussakof, American Museum.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Chairman — William Campbell, Columbia University.
Secretary — Edward J. Thatcher, Jr., Teachers’ College.
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
Chairman — Maurice Fishberg, 1337 Madison Avenue.
Secretary — R. S. Woodworth, Columbia University.
The sessions of the Academy are held on Monday evenings at 8:15
o’clock from October to May, inclusive, at the American Museum of Natural
History, 77th Street and Central Park, West.
A
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
Volume XIX, Part III, May, 1910.
[Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIX, No. 12, Part III, pp. 2S3-401.
May, 1910.]
RECORDS OF MEETINGS
OF THE
NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
January, 1909, to December, 1909.
By Edmund Otis Hovey, Recording Secretary.
BUSINESS MEETING.
January 4, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:20 p. m. at the American Museum of Natural
History, Vice-President Stevenson presiding in the absence of President Cox.
The minutes of the meeting of December 7, 1908, were read and approved.
The following candidates for Active Membership, recommended by the
Council, were duly elected,
Louis Hussakof, Ph. D., American Museum of Natural History,
Arthur F. MacArthur, Buckingham Hotel.
The Academy then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
January 4, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Stevenson presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
2S3
284
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Amadeus W. Grabau, Summary of the Symposium on Geologic Corre¬
lation PRESENTED AT THE BALTIMORE MEETING
of Section E of tfie xAvierican Association for
the Advancement of Science and tile Geolog¬
ical Society of America.
George F. Kunz announced a new meteorite found near Tonopah,
Nevada, weighing 4,000 pounds and believed to have been seen to fall
February 18, 1894.
Lawrence Martin described his present work in connection with the
Museum of Charleston. The special feature undertaken is to illustrate the
mineralogic and geologic material of the Appalachian region and in particu¬
lar the southern area immediately adjacent.
The Section then adjourned.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
January 11, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., President Cox presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
In the absence of the Secretary, Mr. Roy W. Miner was elected Secretary
pro tern.
A letter was read by the Secretary pro tem. from Mr. W. K. Gregory
regretfully declining the election to the secretaryship of the Section for the
coming year. Dr. Louis Hussakof was then unanimously elected to the
office for the same term.
The following public lecture was then offered:
Mimicry Among North American Butterflies
By Prof. E. B. Poulton of Oxford University.
The Section then adjourned.
Roy W. Miner, .
Secretary pro tem.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
285
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
January 18, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President D. W. Hering presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
0. W. Willcox, Cylindrogenite, a Possible Representative of a
Cylindrical (Non-Hauyan) Order of Crystals.
D. W. Hering, Orthopedic Photography; Notes on the Rectifi¬
cation of Distorted Pictures.
William Campbell, Some Notes on Western Smelters.
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Willcox described a remarkable new form of limonite which occurs
in the Red Bank sand of the Upper Cretaceous of New Jersey. It occurs
normally as perfect cylinders which may be either hollow or solid, terminated
at either end by a cone or a hemisphere. It is suggested that they are
representatives of a non-Hauyan order of crystals — the cylindrical system
as distinguished from the cubical and other systems of the Hauyan order.
Professor Hering discussed the defects common in kodak pictures, which
arise from badly timed exposures in various conditions of light, resulting in
excessive inequalities of light and shade. In printing from such a negative,
if the source of light is small, these faults can be corrected to a great extent
by holding the printing frame in such a position that the distance to different
parts of the negative gives different intensity of illumination. He also
considered the distortion of pictures arising from using a short focus lens and
holding the camera at an awkward angle. By rephotographing the distorted
picture, placing it before the camera at an angle to the axis of the lens, a
counter distortion is effected which may rectify the picture. He illustrated
the various stages by lantern slides.
Professor Campbell spoke on the evolution of the western lead smelters
through changes of conditions and improvements in practice. A photo¬
graph of the Globe smelter, Denver, showed the location of the main build¬
ings. A plan of the plant showed the location of receiving-tracks, bins for
fuel, fluxes and ores, beds, the long-hand-reverberatory, Brown-O’Harra,
Bruckner and H. and H. roasters, blast furnaces, matte settling reverber-
286
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
atories, flues and bag-house, old refineries, etc. A chart of smelting showed
course of materials. The handling of raw materials, the method of bedding
at different smelters, of roasting, briquetting fine material, the blast furnace,
methods of charging, tapping of lead, of matte and slag, the separation of
the same and the handling of slag were shown by photographs. Level ver¬
sus sloping site was shown by contrasting photographs of the Murray
plant with those of Leadville, Eilers and others. Two copper smelters
were described, the Highland Boy at Bingham with its 20 McDougall and 3
Wethey roasters, 9 reverberatory smelters and 4 converter stands for making
blister copper; the Garfield plant with 3 reverberatory and 2 blast furnace
smelters and 4 converter stands, the oxide and sulphide mills, beds, etc.,
and the H. and H. equipment for roasting fine concentrates.
The Section then adjourned.
William Campbell,
Secretary .
SPECIAL MEETING.
January 25, 1909.
The following public lecture took the place of the regular meeting of the
Section of Anthropology and Psychology, and the Ethnological Society of
America was the guest of the Academy on the occasion:
The Antiquity of Man
By Albrecht Penck, of Berlin, Germany.
Edmund Otis Hovel',
Secretary.
BUSINESS MEETING.
February 1, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:15 P. M. at the American Museum of Natural
History, President Cox presiding.
The minutes of the meeting of January 4 were read and approved.
The following candidate for Active Membership, recommended by the
Council, was duly elected:
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909.
287
Henry A. C. de Rubio, 52 William Street,
and the election ordered to stand as of October 5, 1908.
The Academy then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
February 1, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Stevenson presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Edmund Otis Hovey, Notes on Striations, U-Shaped Valleys and
Hanging Valleys Produced by Other than
Glacial Action.
Harold J. Cook, In the Sioux County, Nebraska, Bone Beds in
1908.
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Hovey said, in abstract: The volcanic sand-blasts due to the eruption
of Mt. Pele produced striations and grooves in the material over which they
passed that strongly resemble the striations and grooves produced by ice
action. The heavily burdened streams of the Soufriere of St. Vincent have
carved out rock channels of typical U-shape in the old lava flows of the
volcano. The sea cuts back the coast faster than some of the streams erode,
producing hanging valleys.
The paper was illustrated by a large number of lantern slides.
Mr. Cook traced the successive ascending formations into Sioux County,
Nebraska, up the Hat Creek Valley and as far south as the Niobrara River
at Agate, Nebraska, beginning with a scene in the typical Oligocene “Big
Bad Lands” in South Dakota. Here are the Lower Harrison beds, a phase
of the Lower Miocene, in which the well-known Agate Spring fossil quarries
are located. Views characteristic of the topography, erosion forms and
typical fossils of these beds were shown, and particular attention was paid
to the methods of collecting, cjuarrying and boxing fossils in and about the
Agate Spring quarries. Attention was also called to the great number of
288
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
scientific institutions represented at these “diggings” and typical views of
the camp life of the “bone hunters” were shown.
The slides used in this lecture were a series prepared by Prof. E. H.
Barbour, of the University of Nebraska, and it was through his courtesy
that it was possible to present them.
Both papers were listened to with much interest by an audience of twenty-
five members and visitors.
The Section then adjourned.
Charles P. Bertcey,
Secretary.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
February 8, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 p. m., Vice-President Chapman presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Bashford Dean, A New Example of Determinate Evolution.
Raymond L. Ditmars, Some Interesting Reptiles.
Roy C. Andrews, Field Observations on the Fin Whales of the
• North Pacific.
Summary of Papers.
Professor Dean had shown in a previous paper that the egg-capsule of the
chimseroids at the time of deposition is adapted with singular precision to the
needs of the future embryo and had given reasons for the view that this
adaptation was orthogenetic rather than selectional, in a legitimate sense.
It was now shown that the egg-capsules of various chinneroids could be
arranged in an orthogenetic series. In this series the head-and-body portion
of the capsule becomes progressively shorter, the tail portion more slender,
the lateral web disappears, the opening valve reduces to a smaller area and
the respiratory pores of the tail end of the capsule to a longer one. This
progressive series is accentuated by the recent discovery of an undetermined
capsule from the North Atlantic ( ‘tChimcem ( ' Bothy alopex ) mirabilis ) re¬
ceived by the speaker from Professor Jungersen, of Copenhagen.
Mr. Ditmars exhibited a series of living lizards and serpents illustrating
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
289
the salient features in the evolution and classification of these groups and
said, in abstract: The serpents are undoubtedly derived from lizards.
Some of the latter possess grooved teeth, and a series may be arranged among
them showing the progressive decline in morphological and functional impor¬
tance of the limbs. This series begins with such a form as the dragon lizard
( Basiliscus ) with long hind limbs and which, in running, carries its body
clear above ground. In other forms the limbs are not as well developed, so
that the body rests entirely on the ground (. Heloderma ) or may even be
dragged ( Cyclodes ). A connecting link between serpents and lizards was
exhibited ( Ophisaurus ). This form looks exactly like a snake, but is a true
lizard. In the serpents there are no traces of external limbs, though with the
boas and pythons internal ones are present. The jaw is greatly distensible,
and true grooved or canaliculated fangs are developed among many. A
number of interesting points in the habits of the serpents were brought out.
Mr. Andrews gave an account, illustrated by lantern slides, of his ex¬
periences while at the whaling stations on the coast of Vancouver Island and
southern Alaska. The paper was devoted to a discussion of the habits of
some members of the family Balsenopteridse and of the modern methods
employed in their capture. Many reproductions of photographs were
shown on the screen illustrating the manner of spouting, diving and feeding
of these whales. The speaker dwelt especially upon the peculiar manner in
which the nasal region is protruded during respiration and upon the atti¬
tudes assumed by the animals when diving. The method of feeding and the
movements during play were also discussed.
The Section then adjourned.
L. Hussakof,
Secretary.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
February 15, 1909.
By permission of Council no meeting was held.
William Campbell,
Secretary.
290
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
February 22, 1909.
Joint meeting with the New York Branch of the American Psychological
Association.
An afternoon session was held in the Psychological Laboratory of Colum¬
bia University, and, after dinner at the Faculty Club, an evening session
was held at the American Museum of Natural History.
The following programme was offered :
Edward L. Thorndike, Correlation of Sensory Discrimination and
Intellect.
T. L. Bolton, Some Observations with the Tapping Test.
Robert MacDoug&ll, An x4pplication of tfie Concept of Space Dimen¬
sion to Experience in Time.
D. S. Miller, The Knowledge of Temperament from Within
and from Without.
A discussion on the “Concept of a Sensation” was participated in by
several members.
Summary of Papers.
Professor Thorndike reported measurements of the relation of (1) the
factor common to accuracy in drawing lines and making up weights, to (2)
the factor common to efficiency in scholarship and ability to gain a high
rating for intellect from fellow pupils and teachers. This was found to be
not 1.00, as stated by Spearman (1904), but between 0.17 and 0.30. Other
facts were given contradicting that author’s hypothesis that whatever
community there is between mental functions is due to one same core of
identity present in all.
Professor Bolton said, in abstract: My observations were made to deter¬
mine the value of different lengths of rest between successive trials with the
tapping apparatus and also to discover the effect of different pauses upon
the daily practise gain in a series of tests. Five trials at tapping were taken
with five, ten and twenty seconds rest between successive trials; both hands
were used and the tests were continued for twelve to sixteen days with the
three reagents and two classes of students of thirty each. The rest pauses
for five successive trials were favorable to the amount of work in the order
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
291
of twenty, ten and five. The right hand responded more favorably than
the left. The average daily gain was greater for trials with five seconds rest
than for ten or twenty. The amount of practise gain seems to depend upon
the amount of fatigue which the work engenders. The practise gain for the
second half of the tests was greater than for the first half, which seems to
mean that practise at first consists in overcoming the inhibiting effects of
fatigue. The fact that the five-second rest shows a greater average daily
gain than the ten or twenty would seem to indicate that in a long series the
five-second rest must prove the more favorable to work. When use is
made of this test to make comparisons between high and low types of intellect
and of normal with abnormal subjects, account must be taken of the degree
of practise efficiency in which the normal class of subjects finds itself.
Professor Kraepelin’s proposition that comparisons must be made between
the various rates of practise gain or loss seems to hold good. (These obser¬
vations were taken and collated by Miss Batty, of the University of Nebraska.)
Professor MacDougall said, in abstract: Experience in time is sometimes
illustrated by the form of one dimensional space. The latter concept
involves, directly or indirectly, such implications as motion in a right line;
modification in the rate of such motion and reversibility in its direction ;
the determinateness of each point in the system and continuity of direction
among all pairs of points. This paper is concerned with the development,
of some of the consequences which would follow from applying this spatial
conception to human experience. Free motion, projected in terms of time,
would make any point of past or future realizable at will; while the condi¬
tions of a right line require that each intervening event find place in the
series by which that point is reached. Modification of rate appears in
intensive variations of experience as well as in primary acceleration or
retardation. Reversal of direction calls for a change in the effective sign
of experience. The conception of a right line requires a deterministic
theory of conduct, but the relation of each new point to the direction of the
preceding series represents the sense of inner consistency, or subjective
free-will. The form of experience in time thus realizes, in part, the require¬
ments of the spatial conception, but, in part, its order radically departs
therefrom.
Professor Miller said, in abstract: In every-day life there are two ways of
alluding to a man’s knowledge of himself; favorable and unfavorable. We
say “only the man himself can answer that question,” some question about
his motives or thoughts; on the other hand, we say “it would be well if a
man could see himself as others see him.” To these two attitudes there
correspond a philosophical theory and a psychological theory. The philo¬
sophical theory is that in the case of consciousness, appearance and reality
292
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
coincide; therefore everybody is by the nature of the case acquainted with
the contents of his present consciousness. The psychological theory (set
forth by Mr. Santayana) is that it is instinct and habit, the constitutional,
which determines a man’s action and forms his nature; that these can better
be observed by the external spectator; that the play of consciousness matters
little in comparison. As regards all these it is clear that the philosophical
theory is right. A man is acquainted with the contents of his consciousness.
But the important thing in knowing his temperament is not what his con¬
sciousness is at any moment, but what further consciousness and what acts
it will lead to. Thus a man is acquainted with his consciousness, but
generally fails to “know himself.” As for the psychological theory, it can¬
not be true that consciousness matters nothing, or even matters little. All
consciousness is “impulsive” or motor. All consciousness is, therefore, a
force toward action. Consciousness which is prevented by circumstances
or stronger impulses from being realized is still a force, though a defeated
and buried force. Were the circumstances changed or the paramount
impulses altered, the defeated consciousness would have its way. Thus a
person who knows his consciousness knows real forces making for action.
A person may also observe his own acts and life as truly as an external
spectator may observe them. The conclusion is, then, that as between the
observer from within and the observer from without it is the inner observer
who can see everything. The difficulty for him lies in the many false
emphases of consciousness. It is a difficult art for the inner observer really
to read the prognostic signs of his consciousness and acts. The advantage
of the outer observer is in simplification; all the baffled forces are omitted
from his view. But on that very account the outer observer lacks the full
material for judgment. It is the inner observer who has them all, could he
but master the art of reading the tokens correctly.
Professor John Dewey opened the discussion on the “Concept of a
Sensation” and distinguished the following meanings of the term:
1. The anatomical — for so it must be called — according to which
the sense organ and its central connections are thought of as if dissected out,
isolated from the rest of the system, and acting alone. The isolation is
unreal; the activity of any part is interlinked with simultaneous activities
in other parts and preceding and following activities in the same and other
parts. There is never a state of rest, which might serve to isolate the sub¬
sequent activity, but everything is really a process of readjustment through¬
out the system.
2. The physiological or biological conception of a sensori-motor reac¬
tion, as frequently stated, is subject to the same criticism : the reaction is not
isolated, nor is the stimulus exclusively peripheral, for the existing condition
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909.
293
of the central organs is part cause of the reaction, and this reaction helps
determine the stimulus finally operative.
3. A sensation is often conceived in psychology as a “sensory quality,”
and these qualities are assumed to be primitive and to correspond with
elementary processes in the sense organs. This is a good deal of an assump¬
tion, since the qualities are known to us only as the apex of a whole system
of physiological functioning. We see the color of an object rather than the
color itself; we do not start with the sensory qualities and build up the
object by putting them together, but we begin with the object, and only
reach the sensory quality by an elaborate process of differentiation. The
sensory quality is a late achievement, not a primary datum. The “ele¬
ments” of structural psychology are the last terms of intellectual discrimina¬
tion.
4. The sensory qualities — as equivalent to Locke’s simple ideas —
are thought of as the units of knowledge, as the irreducible minimum which
cannot be torn off by any amount of criticism of the percept. Locke,
ho’wever, does not mean, nor would it be true, that all apparent knowledge
is made up of simple ideas. He was interested not in tracing the genetic
psychology of knowdedge, but in providing a logical device for testing
knowledge and for appealing against prejudice, dogma and authority. His
sensations were not elements of composition but ultimate, and hence ele¬
mentary, criteria and tests of assurance.
5. The every-day use of the term sensation is illustrated by the phrase
“sensational newspaper.” Here the sensation is not an element, but a
total concrete experience, the essential fact about which is that it is a shock,
an interruption of an adjustment which had been running smoothly. While
the “sensory qualities” are thoroughly objective, these shock experiences
have the true subjective quality since they have, for the instant, no meaning
or objective reference. Their character as sensations is exhausted by this
absence of reference; there is but one true sensory quality — the quality
of shock. From the point of view of logic, the shock experience is valuable,
since a state of suspended reference is the basis of the inductive method.
Dogmatism, on the contrary, consists in the prompt interpretation of every
new shock into terms of some well-established habit. In its true sense, the
mental state, or the subjective, is the conscious starting point of a qualita¬
tively new habit.
Professor F. J. E. Woodbridge, in following up the discussion, first dis¬
tinguished two meanings of the term sensation : (1) a reaction of the organism
by means of the sense organs; and (2) the sensory qualities of objects.
These meanings do not lead to confusion. The confusion arises when we
pass to epistemology and inquire into the relation between the sensation
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and the thing sensed. We first distinguish between the organism and its
environment and then ask at what particular point the sensation arises.
We find it impossible to fix the point and are driven to conclude either that
there is no sensation, or that all is sensation — conclusions which virtually
coincide, since they both leave no meaning to the term. It is clear from this
that the term should be banished from epistemology and limited to the
empirical uses mentioned above.
Professor W. P. Montague offered the following objections to the de¬
structive criticisms of Professor Dewey. Though a sensation does not
occur in isolation, yet every perceptual experience has a distinguishable
sensory side. We have the same right to distinguish it as we have to dis¬
tinguish the form and the color of objects, which also never occur in isolation
from each other. There is this objection to regarding the sensory qualities
as the apex of a long process of development: that, instead of being complex,
they seem to be simple in their nature and their external causes seem to be
simple processes. It is likely that to simple processes in the external world
should correspond simple effects in the organism, such correspondence being
relatively independent of evolutionary development. It is also true that the
shock experience arises very often from stimuli which are simple, so that
there is reason for relating the experience of shock to the sensory qualities,
as is done in the conventional use of the term sensation to cover both sorts
of fact. The speaker also called attention to a metaphysically puzzling
feature of sensation, namely, its “specious present,” or seeming occupancy
of a segment of past time at each moment of its existence; but this, he
thought, was accounted for in the concept of sensation as a form of potential
energy into which the kinetic energy of the neural current is transformed at
the moment of its redirection in the central nervous system, or even at the
moments of its transit through all the various synapses traversed by it.
Professor R. S. Woodworth advanced the concept of sensory as dis¬
tinguished from perceptual centers in the cortex, the sensory centers being
those which first received the incoming stimuli from the sense organs. Ac¬
cording to this neurological conception, there should be a difference in time
between the sensation and the percept, but it must be admitted that it is
usually impossible to detect, introspectively, an interval between the first
reception of the stimulus and the percept of some object or process. This
introspective difficulty has led Professor Pillsbury, in a recent and still
unpublished lecture, to the conclusion that there is nothing in consciousness
except meanings. From this point of view, it would be honest to give up
the concept of sensation in psychology and so speak simply of the stimulus
and of the percept. Though these two would be sufficient for most instances
of perception, there remain certain objections to giving up the concept of
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909.
295
sensation altogether. There are the pathological eases, in which perception
is lost, though sensation remains; there are the shock experiences, in
which there is an interval between the first consciousness of the stimulus and
the consciousness of its meaning, and there are ambiguous stimuli, like
the staircase figure where, in spite of the alternating percepts, there persists
throughout the experience an irreducible conscious minimum, which may
best be called sensation.
Professor T. L. Bolton inferred, from observations upon animals at
certain moments, that they distinguish by their bodily attitudes and general
conduct differences between the various objects of their environments that
have practical bearings for their lives. The attitude assumed in the presence
of the object is characteristic of the object. A similar phenomenon may be
observed in human beings. This is the fundamental fact in perception,
which becomes the feeling of these bodily attitudes that are evoked by an
object’s presence. Again, we see both animals and human beings acting in
the same manner upon objects alike in some respect but very different in
others. This likeness is the objective stimulus for, let us say, a sensation of
color. Here then is an activity that is characteristic of the objective stimulus
of sensation. This resolves the sensation into essentially the same thing
as the perception. In the case of the conventional sensation, the stimulus
is merely a part of the objective thing which is present and which, in its
totality, might elicit an attitude of the kind which we have called perceptual.
The sensation and perception both become the feelings of bodily conduct.
In perception the whole object is effective in evoking the attitude. The
difference is, then, one not in the mental effect but rather in the part of the
objective fact that is operative in exciting reactions. They are alike in being
mental states of bodily changes, and neither is the effect directly of incoming
afferent currents.
The Section then adjourned.
R. S. Woodworth,
Secretary.
BUSINESS MEETING.
March 1, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:17 p. M. at the American Museum of Natural His¬
tory, President Cox presiding.
The minutes of the meeting of February 1 were read and approved.
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The following candidates for Active Membership, recommended by the
Council, were duly elected:
J. G. Phelps Stokes, 90 Grove Street,
Chas. Elliot Warren, Lincoln National Bank.
The Recording Secretary reported the following death:
Prof. Wolcott Gibbs, an Honorary Member since 1889.
The Recording Secretary then reported "the receipt of letters from Dr.
Wilhelm Ostwald and Prof. Edouard Strassburger expressing their gratifi¬
cation at being elected Honorary Members of the Academy.
The Chairman of the Darwin Memorial Committee reported that the
centenary of Darwin’s birth and the semicentennial of the appearance of the
“Origin of Species” had been celebrated on 12 February, according to
programme, and that an exhibition illustrating Darwinism and Darwiniana
had been opened, to continue for one month, in the Forestry Hall and Darwin
Hall of the Museum.
The Academy then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
March 1, 1909.
Section met at 8.15 p. m., Professor Kemp presiding in the absence of
Vice-President Stevenson.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Thomas C. Brown, Studies on the Morphology and Development
of Certain Rugose Corals.
Edmund Otis Hovey, The Section of the Hudson River Bed Opposite
CORTLANDT STREET, NEW YoRIC.
Amadeus W. Grabau, Some Revised Palf.ogeographic Charts.
Summary of Papers.
Mr. Brown gave a critical study of the structure of Paleozoic corals,
tracing relationships and developments through successive species. Lantern
slide illustrations from original drawings were shown. Remarks were made
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
297
by Professor Grabau, and questions were asked by other members. This
paper has been published as pp. 45-97, Vol. XIX, No. 3, Part I, in the
Annals of the Academy.
Dr. Hovey’s material was from the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.’s tunnel.
A profile of the Hudson River gorge as indicated by the borings on the
tunnel line was exhibited. The slightly shallower nature of this channel as
compared to that determined by the McAdoo tunnel borings gave rise to
considerable discussion.
Professor Grabau exhibited and explained two charts showing studies of
probable early Paleozoic distribution of continents and ocean basins and
borders.
The Section then adjourned.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
March 8, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor Bashford Dean presiding in the
absence of Vice-President Chapman.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and apjuroved.
The following programme was then offered:
W. K. Gregory, Genetic Relations of the Insectivora to other
Orders of Mammals.
Max Morse, The Harpswell Biological Laboratory.
Amadeus W. Grabau, Early Developmental Stages in Recent and
Fossil Corals.
A communication from Dr. L. Hussakof was read, in regard to his
application for a grant of 8100 from the Newberry Fund to be used in
connection with his studies on fossil fishes while abroad. Upon motion of
Dr. Raymond C. Osburn, it was voted that the Section approve the applica¬
tion and recommend it favorably to the Council of the Academy.
Summary of Papers.
Mr. Gregory reviewed some of the general stages in the evolution of the
lower mammals in order to introduce the subject of the genetic relations of
the Insectivores. The first stage, lying below the limits of the class Mam¬
malia, is represented by the higher Theriodont reptiles from the Permian
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and Triassic of South Africa. The recent discoveries by Broom have
brought strong support to the view that these forms are allied to the stem
of the Mammalia, from which they differ chiefly in retaining many primitive
reptilian characters, notably in the inferior surface of the skull and in the
lower jaw. The quadrate, articular and angular bones were smaller in the
later than in the earlier Theriodonts, and there is much to prove that the
mandibulo-squamosal joint in the mammals is a neomorph, formed con¬
comitantly with the reduction of the quadrate, articular and angular. The
mammals may have arisen from some small insectivorous Theriodont allied
to Galesaurus.
The second stage in the evolution of the mammals is represented by the
American Triassic genera, Dromatherium and Microconodon, both known
only from the lower jaw. Here the ascending corono-eondylar ramus of
the dentary had grown backward into a small but distinct mandibular
condyle. The shape of the dentary seemed to indicate that the articular
and angular bones might still have been retained in a reduced condition.
Resemblances to the Theriodont Tribolodon of South Africa, in connection
with the exceedingly primitive features of the dentition, supported the
inference that these minute insectivorous forms were near the border land
between reptiles and mammals.
The third stage is represented to some extent by the Monotremes of
Australia. In the existing genera the skull is very aberrantly modified, but
they have retained oviparous habits and a very lowly type of brain, while
the shoulder girdle, humerus, carpus, tarsus, etc. are of modified Theriodont
type. Although not known before the Pleistocene, the Monotremes are thus
of an exceedingly archaic type which probably dates back in many characters
to the Triassic.
The fourth stage is typified by the celebrated genus Amphitherium from
the Middle Jurassic (Stonesfield Slate) of England, known only from the
lower jaw. The dental formula could give rise by reduction to either the
Marsupial or the Placental types, the cheek teeth are very primitive both in
form and number, the angle in one species is partly inflected; the habits
were probably insectivorous.
The fifth stage is partly typified by the smaller insectivorous Marsupials,
especially the Murine Opossum ( Marmoset ) of South America. All Marsu¬
pials have departed from the primitive Marsupio-Placental stem in the
partial suppression of the milk dentition, loss of premolar 2, predominence
of the yolk-sack placenta, peculiar modifications of the reproductive organs,
etc. On the other hand the Polyprotodont Marsupials, especially Marmoset,
retain certain primitive characters which have been more or less lost in the
Placentals, especially the primary adaptations for arboreal habits, the general
architecture of the skull, the characters of the pelvis, astragalus, etc.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909.
299
The sixth stage may be reconstructed by a comparative study of the
Eocene Creodonts and the Tertiary and modern Insectivores, by subtracting
from each known family its well marked lines of specialization, thus leaving
a residue of primitive mammalian characters. This generalized Placental
type may have attained its distinctive features in the Jurassic or Cretaceous.
From the contemporary Marsupials it was separated by the retention of a
complete milk dentition and by certain details of the skull. In general
form and proportions it may have resembled the above mentioned Marsu¬
pial Marmosa, especially in the skull, but in the skeleton it approximated
rather towards the earliest Eocene Creodonts and Insectivores and, in many
characters, towards the modern Tree Shrews ( Tupaiidoe ). From such a
generalized Cretaceous Insectivore-Creodont type all the other orders of
Placentals may have been directly or indirectly derived, but the details of
this great adaptive radiation must be reserved for another occasion.
Mr. Morse showed a series of slides illustrating the Harpswell region
and environs. The laboratory was founded by Dr. J. S. Kingsley in 1898
in the little fishing village of South Harpswell, Maine, eighteen miles from
Portland. The immediate region is rich in interesting forms of animal and
plant life which are peculiarly adapted to the use of investigators. The old
Tide-mill collecting ground and samples of some of the more important
animals and plants to be found there were illustrated. The geology of the
Harpswell region has not been worked up and this presents interesting
questions, especially in glacial geology. The speaker pointed out the
advantages offered by the laboratory over those of our other marine stations.
Professor Grabau said, in abstract: Paleozoic corals show in their septal
development a fundamental tetrameral plan. This is persistent in the
earliest known forms but becomes masked in later species by the secondary
assumption of radiality. The development of the mesenteries in modern
Hexacoralla shows a similar order of appearance. Pairs of mesenteries
develop in succession in bilateral disposition. From the position of the
muscle strands they are either dorsads (musculature turned dorsal-ward),
or ventrads. The first and second pairs are ventrads. The third (ventral
directive) is a pair of dorsads, the fourth (dorsal directive) is a pair of
ventrads. The fifth and sixth pairs are dorsads forming with the first and
second pairs four false pairs of “braces.” After that the mesenteries appear
in compound pairs, a pair of dorsads and one of ventrads appearing simul¬
taneously. Thus in the corresponding inter-mesenterial spaces a brace of
new mesenteries appears, the order being comparable even in detail to the
order of appearance of the septa in the Paleozoic Tetracoralla.
The Section then adjourned.
L. Hussakof,
Secretary.
300
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OR SCIENCES
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
March 15, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 p. m., Vice-President Hering presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered :
C. C. Trowbridge, New Laws of Gas Phosphorescence.
William Campbell, Notes on the Structure of Hardened Steel.
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Trowbridge gave a detailed description of the apparatus he had
designed for the measurement of gas phosphorescence and then showed
the results obtained in the form of plotted curves.
Professor Campbell first spoke of the work that had been done in trying
to unravel the constitution of hardened steel; of the fight among the authori¬
ties as to the right of giving names to the constituents or structures observed.
Then by means of lantern slides he showed typical photographs of hardened
low carbon and high carbon steels, showing austenite, martensite, troostite,
etc. and afterwards discussed the work of Benedicks on rate of quenching.
The Section then adjourned.
William Campbell,
Secretary.
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
March 22, 1909.
Section met in conjunction with the American Ethnological Society at
8:15 P. M., Vice-President Fishberg presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
F. Grendon, Anglo-Saxon Charms.
Franz Boas, The Theory of Correlation.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1.9G9
301
Summary of Papers.
Mr. Grendon illustrated by examples of Anglo Saxon charms, of which
he has made a large collection, the prevailing characteristics of the spells
and the various classes which were in use. He recognized five classes:
(1) exorcism of diseases or disease-spirits; (2) herbal charms; (3) charms
for transferring disease; (4) amulet charms ; and (5) charm remedies. The
attitude of the early Christian church to heathen charms was briefly described
and some notice taken of Christian elements which appear in the charms.
Mr. Grendon’s work appears in full in the Journal of American Folk-Lore,
volume 22, pp. 105-237, June, 1909.
Professor Boas brought forward some new methods for studying corre¬
lations, especially for examining the correlations among fraternities and
other multiple and also average correlations. He also derived formulae for
determining the correlation between phenomena which are not measured but
only counted.
The Section then adjourned.
R. S. Woodworth,
Secretary.
BUSINESS MEETING.
April 5, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:15 p. m. at the American Museum of Natural
History, President Cox presiding.
In the absence of the Recording Secretary, Dr. Charles P. Berkey was
elected Secretary pro tern.
The minutes of the meeting of March 1 were read and approved.
The following candidate for Active Membership, recommended by the
Council, was duly elected:
Edward Id. Squibb, M. D., 148 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn, N. Y.
The Academy then adjourned.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary pro tem.
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ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
April 5, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 p. m., President Cox presiding in the absence of Vice-
President Stevenson.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved. <
The following programme was then offered :
George F. Kunz, The Two Greatest Diamonds of History; Their
Finding and Ultimate Disposal.
W. D. Matthew, Bulletins on Geologic Correlation through Verte¬
brate Paleontology by Lnternational Coopera¬
tion. Nos. 1 and 2.
At the conclusion of the programme a notice was read announcing a
joint meeting of geologists of the northeastern states under the auspices of
the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, April 23-24, 1909.
A resolution was then presented by Dr. A. A. Julien as follows: “The
Geological Section of the New York Academy of Sciences would respectfully
petition the Council of the Academy to send an immediate protest to the
Assembly Cities Committee of the Legislature at Albany against the Francis
Bill for the occupation of the Arsenal site in Central Park by the National
Academy of Design or any other society.” A motion to adopt this resolu¬
tion was discussed at some length by Dr. Kunz and Professor Grabau. On
vote the resolution was adopted.
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Kunz gave a very interesting account of the finding of the Excelsior
and the Cullman diamonds and called attention to their special characters.
Models of these diamonds and several lantern views of the localities where
they were found, as well as of the stages that they passed through in reach¬
ing their present condition as polished gems, were shown. To a question
about the recent developments in the Arkansas diamond locality, Dr. Kunz
replied that arrangements were being made to work the mine and that over
five hundred stones had been found.
Dr. Matthew explained the scope and nature of these researches and
gave the names and authors of the Bulletins as follows:
(a) Bulletin No. 1. Outline of Plan and Scope of the Correlation Work
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
303
Proposed. By Henry Fairfield Osborn, Chairman, and W. D. Matthew,
Secretary, of the Vertebrate Section of the International Correlation Com¬
mittee of the National Academy of Sciences.
(b) Bulletin No. 2. Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium. By Louis Dollo.
(Translated by W. D. Matthew.)
(c) Bulletin No. 3. Observations upon the Cretaceous and Tertiary
Section of the Argentine Republic. By Dr. Santiago Roth. Abstract with
critical notes by W. D. Matthew.
The Section then adjourned.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
April 12, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor Charles L. Bristol presiding in the
absence of Vice-President Chapman.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Henry F. Osborn, Final Report on the Exploration of the Fayum
in 1907.
Chas. R. Stockard, Studies on Tissue Growth.
Henry E. Crampton, The Partulas of the Society Islands and the
Problem of Isolation.
Summary of Papers.
In the absence of Prof. Osborn a report on the work in the Fayum
region was given by Mr. Walter Granger of the American Museum of
Natural History. The speaker stated that the collection, consisting of
nearly 600 specimens, obtained by this expedition had been prepared. It
proves to contain representatives of nearly all the mammalian forms known
from this region together with several new genera and many new spe¬
cies. Among the new forms are rodents, recorded for the first time from
these beds, and two peculiar small forms of uncertain ordinal position.
The collection contains many fine specimens of described species which
add much to the previous knowledge of these interesting mammals. Doubt
304
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
was expressed as to the relationships of the genus Megalohyrax to the
Hyracoidea and Mceritherium to the Proboscidia. The speaker stated that
the collection of 1907 is being increased through the efforts of a representa¬
tive maintained in the Fayum.
By charts and slides the geology of the region was illustrated, also the
important topographic features and the methods employed in prospecting
and collecting the fossils.
Professor Crampton presented some of the general results obtained
during investigations in 1906, 1907 and 1908, dealing with the variations and
distribution of terrestrial snails of the genus Partula, inhabiting the Society
Islands. The geographical and physiographical conditions were described.
The islands of this group are volcanic peaks of a partly submerged range;
these peaks occur sometimes in contact as in the double island of Tahiti,
while others have greater or less distances between them. It is, therefore,
possible to correlate the specific differences between the snails of different
cones with the geographical proximity of the cones. As each island peak is
furrowed more or less regularly by valleys, and as the snails occur only in
the moist bottomlands of these valleys, it is possible to correlate the degree
of resemblance between the species of neighboring valleys with the degree
of geographical isolation. In brief, such correlations are extraordinarily
close, as in the case of the classic Achatinellidse of the Hawaiian Islands
described by Gulick.
The varieties of snails occurring in different valleys of one and the same
island, or in different islands of the group, cannot be regarded as produced
by different environmental circumstances. Several illustrations were
given which established this conclusion. The phenomena of mutation were
observed in several islands. Finally the role of natural selection was deter¬
mined to be a much restricted one in the case of these snails.
The Section then adjourned.
L. Hussakof,
Secretary.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
April 20, 1909.
By permission of Council no meeting was held.
William Campbell,
Secretary.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
305
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
April 26, 1909.
Section met in conjunction with the New York Branch of the American
Psychological Association at 4 p. m. at the Psychological Laboratory of
Columbia University and at 8:15 P. M. at the American Museum of Natural
History, Prof. J. McK. Cattell presiding in the absence of Vice-President
Fishberg.
The following programme was offered :
Afternoon Session.
Sidney W. Ashe, The Reaction of the Pupil to Color.
David E. Rice, Studies in Visual Acuity.
J. Carleton Bell, Studies in Color Steroscopy.
Evening Session.
R. S. Woodworth, Hermann Ebbinghaus.
Charles H. Judd, The Relation of Movement to Consciousness.
Summary of Papers.
Mr. Ashe presented the results of a study of the reaction of the pupil to
color. A concave mirror was so adjusted that a person could read in it the
diameter of his own pupil, into which was then thrown light of known wave-
length and intensity. He found that for equal luminosities of light, as
determined by the flicker photometer, the pupil assumes a different diameter
according to the color, having the greatest width for red light, next for white,
then for green and then for blue. The width assumed varies with the ex-
centricity of the light stimulus, and the effects of the different colors change
unequally in passage to peripheral vision, so that the difference in the size
of the pupil, as between white and green lights of equal luminosity, becomes
greater as the light becomes more excentrie.
Mr. Rice reported on his studies in visual acuity, in which he has deter¬
mined the effects of differences of luminosity and of color on the legibility of
standard letters.
306
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Professor Woodworth read an appreciation of the work of Professor
Hermann Ebbinghaus, late professor of philosophy in the University of
Halle.
In the absence of Professor Judd, his paper was read by Dr. Bingham.
Professor Judd held that the importance of motor discharge to mental
phenomena could not be properly gauged by the introspection of adults.
Attention is apt to be engrossed by the sensory presentation, and the impor¬
tance of the motor discharge is overlooked. In everything, however, which
concerns the organization of experience, the reaction of the individual to his
environment is the determining factor. The organization of the sensory
material into such forms as the space and time orders depends on the de¬
mands of limited internal organization and unlimited external sensory
material. This view is in line with that of Sherrington that the development
of motor processes is the keynote of all nervous organization; and also with
that of Dewey that the child’s development is not a sensory by a motor and
reactive growth; and with that of Wund regarding the importance of lan¬
guage — which is a form of reaction — in all mental life.
This paper was discussed by several, among whom Professor T. L.
Bolton urged that Professor Judd had not gone far enough in his emphasis
on the motor side of experience. Instead of assuming at the start the exist¬
ence of sensations and of the whole sensory field and using the motor ele¬
ments simply for organization and elaboration of this material, it is possible
to begin by showing that all sensory processes have a motor side, which
gives meaning to the sensory. A sensation is what it is because of motor
reactions, and a percept is constituted bv the bodily attitude which the
stimulus provokes. The sensory is not more primary nor more rich than
the motor, but the two are closely correlated, being, in fact, but different
modes of conceiving the experience.
The Section then adjourned.
R. S. Woodworth,
Secretary.
BUSINESS MEETING.
May 3, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:15 p. m. at the American Museum of Natural
History, Vice-President Stevenson presiding in the absence of President Cox.
The minutes of the meeting of April 5 were read and approved.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
307
The following candidate for Active Membership, recommended by the
Council, was duly elected:
W. M. Carlebach, 136 West 86th Street.
The Recording Secretary reported the following death :
Alfred R. Wolff, Active Member since 1898.
The Recording Secretary then reported the gift by President Cox of
certain portraits of Charles Darwin, pages of the original manuscript of
“The Descent of Man” and the naturalist’s diary kept while on the
Beagle. On motion, the Academy instructed the Recording Secretary to
transmit to President Cox an expression of appreciation of his generous gift.
The Academy then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
May 3, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Stevenson presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered.
Marshall H. Saville, Observations on Recent Geologic Changes Af¬
fecting the Coast of Ecuador.
H. D. Kinney, A New Anthophyllite Occurrence on Man¬
hattan Island.
Alexis A. Julien, The Moulin Potholes within New York City.
Summary of Papers.
Professor Saville ’s paper was illustrated with many lantern slides showing
the coastal conditions and sedimentation structures and remains of human
handiwork, and the author emphasized the wide distribution of these re¬
mains and pointed out the importance of a thorough geologic study of their
association as a necessary step in unraveling an interesting prehistoric
chapter. Remarks were made on the paper by Professor J. F. Kemp and
Professor A. W. Grabau, and further explanatory remarks were made by
Professor Saville.
308
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Mr. Kinney described, in his paper, an occurrence at One Hundred and
Thirtieth Street, New York City, where an original basic intrusion has by
metamorphism and alteration developed an interesting variety of petro¬
graphic character. The author further stated that as in most other similar
cases this one also shows little or no anthophyllite in the specimens studied,
and the name is not exactly applicable, but there are other amphiboles in
abundance. A general petrographic description was given, and remarks
were made by Dr. A. A. Julien and Dr. Charles P. Berkey.
Dr. Julien described several “moulin” potholes in addition to the enum¬
eration of the commonly known cases of this type of erosional feature within
New York City. Remarks were made by Dr. Berkey on the St. Croix
Dalles occurrence, by Professor Stevenson on other observations and by Dr.
Hovey on occurrences in Mexico.
The Section then adjourned.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
May 10, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 p. m., Vice-President Chapman presiding.
Mr. Frank M. Chapman was elected Secretary pro tem. in the absence
of the secretary.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Charles L. Bristol, Bufo agua in Bermuda.
Frank E. Lutz, The Relation between the Taxonomic Characters
of Crickets ( Gryllus ) and the Environment.
Ernest E. Smith, What are Deleterious Ingredients of Food?
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Lutz said, in abstract: The species of Gryllus are distinguished chiefly
by the actual and relative sizes of the ovipositor, posterior femora, wings
and tegmina. The length of the ovipositor is correlated with the character
of the soil, being longer on sand soils than on the firmer ones. This was
probably brought about by selection destroying the eggs which are not
deeply placed in loose soil. The length of the wings seems to be a function
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
309
of three variables: ancestors, heat and moisture. Increased heat and
moisture is accompanied not only by an increased percentage of the long-
winged dimorphs but by a greater wing length of the short-winged group.
No relation has been discovered between the size of the posterior femora
and the environment. These conditions bring about marked differences
between the crickets in different habitats, and these differences are of “speci¬
fic” rank.
Dr. Smith said, in abstract: Food itself is deleterious if ingested in
sufficient quantity. This is not an essential quality of food but one de¬
pendent on the quantitative relation. Any ingredient added to food is
deleterious in the quantitative sense precisely as food itself is. The state¬
ment of the Food and Drugs Act, June 30th, 1906, “an article shall be deemed
to be adulterated, in the case of food, if it contain any added poisonous or
other added deleterious ingredient which may render such article injurious
to health” is to be interpreted as referring to ingredients that are essentially
deleterious. Substances that serve a useful purpose in amount widely
separated from the quantity that may produce injurious effects are not
essentially deleterious, even though they may become deleterious by abuse of
the quantitative relation.
The Section then adjourned.
Frank M. Chapman,
Secretary pro tern.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
May 17, 1909.
Section met in conjunction with the Physics Club of New York at 8:15
p. M., Vice-President Idering presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Demonstration.
H. C. Cheston, Apparatus for determining the heat of vaporiza¬
tion OF WATER, USING ELECTRIC CURRENT TO PROVIDE
THE HEAT.
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Papers.
Charles G. Cook, The Relation of Modern Theories of Matter to
the Teaching of Physical Science.
Frank B. Spalding, Apparent Location of Objects under Water.
R. W. Sutliffe, A New Construction of the D’Arsonval Type
Measuring Instrument.
D. W. Hering, The Distortion and Oscillation of Helical
Springs.
William Campbell, Simple Experiments in Matallography for School
Work.
Summary of Papers.
Professor Hering presented a continuation of an earlier paper on helical
springs. In this he discussed the effect which the mass of the spring has on
the period of oscillation. It was shown that this effect is the same as would
be due to the suspension of a mass whose moment of inertia with reference
to the fixed end of the spring is equal to the moment of inertia of the spring
itself about the same point, and comparisons were made between periods
determined from this theory and those actually observed.
Professor Campbell described the simple apparatus necessary to prepare
and examine metals and alloys under the microscope. For elementary work,
wrought iron, mild steel, rail steel, tool steel and white and gray cast iron
could be examined using the material worked with in the forge, foundry
and machine shop. Then a few simple alloys such as lead solders or hard
lead (antimony lead alloys) could be prepared and finally a brass and a
bronze examined. The whole work outlined was to explain the properties
of the material used in the shop-work.
The Section then adjourned.
William Campbell,
Secretary.
BUSINESS MEETING.
October 4, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:28 p. m. at the American Museum of Natural
History, President Cox presiding.
The minutes of the meeting of May 5 were read and approved.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
311
The following candidates for Membership, recommended by the Council,
were duly elected:
Active Membership:
F. Wilton James, 434 Warren St., Hudson, N. Y.
Associate Active Membership:
G. Sherbourne Rogers, Columbia University.
The following amendment to Chapter 5, Paragraph 1, of the By-Laws
as the third sentence of that paragraph was proposed in writing by Messrs.
Cox and Hovey: “Failure to pay the required dues within three months
after notification of election has been sent, shall render the election void.”
The Recording Secretary reported the following deaths:
Simon Newcomb, Honorary Member since 1891,
Prof. Samuel W. Johnson, Corresponding Member since 1876,
T. Mellard Pteade, Corresponding Member since 1888,
T. W. Pearsall, Active Member since 1907,
W. Wheeler Smith, Active Member since 1905.
President Cox then reported that he had attended the Darwin Memorial
Celebration of the University of Cambridge, England, 22-24 June, as official
delegate of the Academy and presented the greetings of the Academy.
Professor Britton then described the Darwin Exhibit at the British
Museum.
The Academy then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
R e cor din g Sec retar y .
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
October 4, 1909.
Section met at 9:03 P. M., Professor Kemp presiding in the absence of
Vice-President Stevenson.
Dr. E. O. Hovey was elected Secretary pro tem in the absence of Dr.
Berkey.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Amadeus W. Grabau, Present Status of the Genesee River Problem.
The Section then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Secretary pro tem.
312
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
October 11, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 p. m., Professor N. L. Britton presiding in the absence
of Vice-President Chapman.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Miss Nina L. Marshall, Common Mushrooms and How to Know Them.
Miss Marshall, who is the author of a popular book on mushrooms,
exhibited a series of beautifully colored slides illustrating the principal types
of mushrooms. She dwelt especially on the ecology of the different forms
and on their economic importance, to man.
The Section then adjourned.
L. Hussakof,
Secretary.
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
October 18, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor Hering presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
Prof. J. F. Kemp moved and Dr. C. C. Trowbridge seconded the nomi¬
nation of Prof. W. Campbell for Vice-President of the Academy and Chair¬
man of the Section. Carried.
The following programme was then offered:
Edward Thatcher, Some Principles of Art Metal Work.
William Campbell, On the Structure and Constitltion of Alloys
and Metals used in the Arts.
D. W. Hering, Wave Length of Light by Newton’s Rings.
Summary of Papers.
Air. Thatcher gave an outline of the methods followed in Art Aletal Work
at Teacher’s College, Columbia University. Starting with the making of a
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
313
simple design on copper by hammering or etching, he discussed the more
intricate work of hammering and then took up soft and hard soldering and
the building up of jewelry, etc.
Dr. Campbell described and showed by lantern slides the structures of
pure metals and the changes brought about by rolling, hammering and
annealing. Then he showed the structure and constitution of the soft
soldars, brasses, bronzes, german silvers, the coinage and jewelry alloys and
finally some of the white metals for castings, comparing structure with physi¬
cal properties.
Professor Hering showed an experiment on Newton’s rings. A pair of
circular glass plates were fitted into a holder with binding screws whereby
the pressure could be changed at will. The rings therefrom were projected
on the screen by the lantern, and then moved by changing the pressure.
The Section then adjourned.
William Campbell,
Secretary .
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
October 25, 1909.
Section met in conjunction with the American Ethnological Society at
8:15 p. M., Vice-President Fishberg presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered :
Robert H. Lowie, The Age-Societies of the Plains Indians.
Leo S. Frachtenberg, Notes on Coos Ethnology.
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Lowie distinguished between the genuine feasting age-societies
of old, middle-aged and young men found among the Omaha and the cere¬
monial age-groups of the Arapaho, Gros Ventre, Blackfoot and Village
tribes. The latter do not seem to correspond to fundamental age divisions,
so that some other character of as yet problematic character must be assumed
to have entered into their development. The lecturer insisted that these
ceremonial organizations cannot be classified on the basis of single char-
314
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
acteristics, even though these involve the ostensible conditions of member¬
ship, but that it is necessary to isolate well-marked single features and to
study their diffusion and the various combinations into which they enter.
Mr. Frachtenberg stated that the Coos Indians of northwestern Oregon
form an independent linguistic stock. Their language may be subdivided
into two distinct dialects, called Hants and Mt'luk. The Mt'luk dialect is
extinct, while Hants is still spoken by about thirty individuals living between
Acme and Florence, in Lane County, Oregon. The long intercourse be¬
tween the Coos Indians and the white settlers has effected a total assimilation
of the “Red Man.” To such an extent is this that the Coos show no traces
whatever of the ancient Indian mode of life. There are, however, a few
individuals who still remember phases of that life. The information ob¬
tained from these individuals tends to show that the ancient Coos customs
varied little from those of the other tribes of the Pacific coast. The most
important differences may be summed up as follows: The Coos were a
peaceful tribe, seldom resorting to war, and never practised scalping. Flat¬
tening of heads was unknown among them, as was likewise tattooing.
Their implements and utensils show an absolute lack of decorative art, and
their festivals were devoid of any ceremonial significance.
The Section then adjourned.
R. S. Woodworth,
Secretary.
BUSINESS MEETING.
November 1, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:15 P. M. at the American Museum of Natural
History, Vice-President Stevenson presiding in the absence of President Cox.
In the absence of the Recording Secretary, Dr. Charles P. Berkey was
elected Secretary pro tern.
No business being presented, the meeting, by the request of the President
and Recording Secretary, was adjourned to S November.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary pro tern.
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
November 1, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 p. m., Vice-President Stevenson presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
315
The following programme was then offered:
Arthur Hollick, Notes in Connection with Specimens Recently
Obtained from the Serpentines of Staten Island.
Alexis A. Julien, Petrographic Notes on Certain Rocks from Staten
Island.
F. J. Fobs, Fluorspar Deposits of Kentucky.
Professor Kemp announced the receipt of a specimen from Franklin
Furnace, New York, containing two new minerals for that locality — native
silver and chalcoeite. Attention was called to the remarkable list of mineral
species credited to this place.
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Hollick said: The so-called serpentine or soapstone area of Staten
Island, represented by the range of hills extending from the shore at New
Brighton to the Fresh Kills marshes near the center of the Island at Rich¬
mond, has been described and discussed so frequently that only brief refer¬
ence here to its general surface features is necessary.
The trend of the hills is approximately northeast and southwest, with a
curve toward the south. The eastern and southern borders of the area are
well defined by steep slopes, which in places are almost perpendicular escarp¬
ments of bare rock. The outcrops, however, are for the most part hidden
and their outlines modified either by talus accumulations or by glacial drift.
Only a limited portion of the area, on the southern flank of Todt Hill, is
south of the terminal moraine. Toward the north and west, the surface is
an irregular slope to tide water, and the limits of the boundary between can
only be inferred. The rock is everywhere covered with glacial and recent
surficial deposits, except in certain stream beds. Elsewhere, however, it
has been exposed in sewer, street and other excavations, and its presence
nearby in other places is indicated by fragmentary surface material. On
theoretical grounds, the nortlrwest boundary is assumed to be approximately
parallel with and close to the eastern edge of the trap ridge which extends
from Port Richmond to Linoleumville.
This area has been under observation for a longer period than any other
local geological formation, and yet we know as little to-day in regard to its
exact stratigraphic relations as was known when it was first studied. The
contact between it and the adjacent formations, other than the overlying
surficial deposits, has never been observed or determined, so far as any
records show, although attempts have been made to indicate the probable
316
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
relations by several of those who have investigated the geology of the region.1
The stratigraphy depicted in these sections indicates the influence of the
then prevailing opinion that the rock is of sedimentary origin. In the
light of the evidence obtained in recent years, tending to prove its igneous
origin, these sections would now, doubtless, be considerably modified.
The object of these notes is to describe certain rock specimens and
minerals collected during the past year and to discuss their characters and
the conditions under which they were found to occur, together with any
stratigraphic significance that may attach to them.
I am indebted to Dr. Charles P. Berkey for the preparation of their
sections for microscopic examination and to Dr. A. A. Julien for their criti¬
cal study, the results of which will be given in the next communication of
this evening.
The rock is everywhere extensively fractured and is traversed by what
is apparently a uniform system of jointing, which coincides in general with
the trend and slope of the hills and simulates more or less closely the features
of strike and dip in sedimentary rocks. Deductions based upon these
features alone would justify the opinion that the rock might represent a
metamorphosed series of sediments and the area are inclined anticline,
with a dip approximating 90 degrees in places along the eastern and southern
escarpment and 45 degrees or less throughout the northwestern slope.
The system of jointing is best defined in the vicinity of Bichmond,
where the rock is denser, less weathered and more uniform in texture than
it is at the northeastern end of the hills. In the latter region the major
system of jointing is almost obliterated by innumerable fractures and shear
planes and evidences of squeezing, slipping and shearing. It is here also
that there is the greatest variation in the rock and the greatest number and
variety of minerals.
Where the rock is weathered it is soft and yellowish in color. It con¬
tains considerable iron, in the form of magnetite and chromite, which, in
the process of weathering, become oxidised into limonite. The soft yellow
phase of the rock, accompanied by local depusits of limonite, is best seen
at the northeastern end of the hills, where the glaciation was limited, and
over the unglaciated area on Todt Hill. At the southwestern end, where
glaciation was more pronounced, the upper, weathered zone was eroded, and
the rock is hard and dense in texture and dark green in color.
Probably the finest series of rock specimens and characteristic minerals
1 Cozzens, Issachar. "A Geological History of Manhattan or New York Island, etc.”
Plate 4, “ Section of Staten Island from the Telegraph to the Kills.” 1843.
Britton N. L. “ On the Geology of Richmond County, N. Y.” Annals New York
Acad. Sci., Vol. II, Plate 16, section C. D. 1882.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
317
ever obtained from the Staten Island serpentine were recently collected dur¬
ing the progress of excavating a trench for the first section of the retaining
wall along the east side of Jay Street, near the ferry landing at St. George.
A projecting spur of the eastern edge of the serpentine escarpment was cut
away for a distance of some seventy-five feet, almost down to tide level,
exposing a vertical face twenty feet in height and affording a view of the rock
at a lower level than had been anywhere previously visible on the Island. It
consisted largely of hornblende and amphibolite or anthophyllite schist,
with seams of talc and chlorite, arranged in a sharply inclined or vertical
series, with a general northeast-southwest trend. The so-called serpentine
rock associated with these was very dark green in color, hard and much
sheared and fractured, the fractures often containing veins of talc, marmo-
lite, calcite, arrogonite and magnesite. The anthophyllite schist is appar¬
ently identical with rock struck at a depth of 200 feet in a well boring at
Bischoff’s brewery, on the edge of the escarpment about two miles to the
southwest, in Stapleton.
The great variation in the character of the rock from place to place might
seem to preclude the probability that it was all derived from one source; but
numerous field observations and determinations of the mineral constituents
by microscopic examination indicate conclusively, that all had a common
origin and that this was a basic igneous rock such as an enstatite or a
pyroxenite.
The fact that the most extensive fracturing and shearing occurs along the
face of the steep eastern escarpment is significant and at once suggests a
fault as the probable cause of the escarpment. Slickensided surfaces on the
eastern flanks of Pavillion Hill and Grvme’s Hill also strongly support this
idea.
Any suggestions in relation to the manner in which the serpentine should
be indicated, in depicting a geologic section across Staten Island, would be
welcomed.
Dr. Julien reviewed the petrographic variation of Staten Island serpen¬
tines and pointed out the evidence favorable to the theory that only enstatiet
and pyroxenite rocks were the originals from which all came. Secondary
products are believed to indicate three subsidences and three elevations, or
re-elevations, into the zone of weathering. A diagram showing these stages
was exhibited and explained. A specimen of bowenite, possibly one of the
best ever found anywhere, was shown, on which there are still preserved
traces of the crystal outlines of original diopside.
Much discussion was aroused by these papers over the relation of the
serpentines to other formations and the probable structures involved.
Remarks were made by Professor Kemp, Dr. Levison and Dr. Berkey, and
replies by Dr. Hollick and Dr. Julien.
318
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Mr. Fohs gave a comprehensive description of fluorspar occurrences in
Kentucky and explained the evidence bearing upon their origin. The
paper was based on extensive personal knowledge of the subject and was
very instructive.
The Section then adjourned.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary.
ADJOURNED BUSINESS MEETING.
November 8, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:15 p. m. at the American Museum of Natural
History, Vice-President Chapman presiding in the absence of President Cox.
The minutes of the meetings of October 4 and November 1 were read
and approved.
The following candidates for Membership, recommended by the Council,
were duly elected:
Active Membership :
T. Quincy Brown, Morristown, N. J.,
George H. Girty, Washington, D. C.,
E. J. Thatcher, Jr., Teachers’ College,
J. Edmund Woodman, New York University,
Associate Active Membership:
Clarence N. Fenner, Paterson, N. J.,
Julius M. Johnson, 101 West 130th Street,
Victor Ziegler, Columbia University.
On motion the matter of memorials of Messrs. Newcomb, Johnson and
Reade, whose deaths were reported at the October meeting of the Academy,
were referred to the Committee on Resolutions for action.
The Recording Secretary reported the death of John H. Caswell, an
Active Member of the Academy since 1S69, and referred briefly to Mr.
Caswell’s early activity in the Academy and his long and valuable services
as a member of the Finance Committee.
The Academy then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
319
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
November 8, 1909.
Section met at 8:20 P. m., Vice-President Chapman presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered :
Charles H. Townsend, A Naturalist in the Straits of Magellan.
Alexander Petmnkevitch, A Trip through Tropical Mexico.
The following nominations were made for sectional officers for 1910:
For Chairman ( and Vice-President of the Academy) :
Prof. Chas. B. Davenport, Director of the Carnegie Station for Experi¬
mental Evolution, Cold Spring Harbor, L. I.
For Secretary.
Dr. L. Hussakof, American Museum of Natural History.
Summary of Papers.
Dr. Townsend gave an account of personal experiences in the Straits of
Magellan while a member of a scientific expedition to that region several
years ago. He spoke at length of the more interesting mammals, birds,
fishes and plants seen or collected. The paper also dealt with the habits
of the native tribes of that region. Those living along the more westerly
o o o t.'
channels of the straits go almost naked, subsist mainly on shell-fish and, in
the speaker’s opinion, are the lowest among primitive races of man. They
are fast disappearing and should be carefully studied.
The paper was illustrated by lantern slides mostly from photographs by
the author.
Dr. Petrunkevitch spent two months during the summer of 1909 in the
lowlands of tropical Mexico collecting arachnida and other invertebrates for
the American Museum of Natural History. The paper dealt with his ex¬
periences in the field. Many interesting forms were observed and collected,
some of which the speaker exhibited.
The Section then adjourned.
L. Hussakof,
Secretary.
320
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
November 15, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Hering presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
J. P. Simmons, Lubrication and Lubricants.
Summary of Paper.
Mr. Simmons said: The object of all mechanisms is to control the utili¬
zation of energy for the performance of useful work. Owing to imperfec¬
tions in machinery, however, a large percentage of the energy applied is
wasted mainly in overcoming the resistance to relative motion offered by
moving parts. The least force applied to a perfect machine should set it in
motion, and owing to the inertia of its parts, it should maintain a motion of
uniform velocity, provided it performed no work. However, certain factors
tend to prevent this, and these are first, the friction of the air, and second,
the friction due to the rubbing surfaces. The former may be reduced to a
minimum by the proper shaping of the moving parts and the second by the
use of suitable lubricants. Before considering practical lubrication it might
be well to inquire into the nature of solid friction or the friction which results
when the surfaces of solid bodies move upon one another without the appli¬
cation of a lubricant.
If two clean surfaces be pressed together considerable work has to be
done in order that they shall move relatively to one another. Now this
resistance which requires the expenditure of work is what we call solid
friction, and of course this will be much less between hard and polished
surfaces than between soft and rough.
Illustration: Walking on ice and sandstone. Now this so-called solid
friction is due largely to unevennesses of the moving surfaces. Absolutely
smooth surfaces cannot be produced.
Cohesion is another factor which requires consideration in this connection.
This is aggravated rather than diminished by efforts to produce smooth
surfaces.
The lubricating value of an oil depends largely upon its viscosity or the
resistance it offers to a shearing stress. If we consider two surfaces xx and
yy, supposing yy to be stationary and xx to move with a uniform velocity,
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
321
and the two to be separated by a layer of oil; then the layer of lubricant next
to xx moves along with it, while that next to yy remains stationary. The
intermediate layers of lubricant may be considered as moving one upon
another, and the resistance offered to this motion is caused by the viscosity
or internal friction of the lubricant considered. It is obvious then that the
measurement of the viscosity of oils and the way in which this property is
influenced by certain conditions should be an important consideration when
it comes to a question of the suitableness of an oil for any particular purpose.
It might be mentioned at this point, also, that although viscosity is an essen¬
tial characteristic of liquid lubricants, the presence of this property alone
does not qualify a substance for lubricating purposes. Molasses for example
is very viscous, but lacks the so-called “body” or “oiliness” which would
enable it to insinuate itself between two surfaces and maintain there, a
sufficient thickness of material to prevent actual contract of the moving
parts. Various methods have been suggested for the measurement of the
liquid friction or viscosity of a lubricant, the most practical of which consists
in noting the time it takes for a given quantity to flow through a small opening
at a constant temperature. In Germany the Engler, in England the Red¬
wood, and in the United States the Saybolt are the chief forms used.
In practical work the determination of the gravity and the viscosity, as
a rule, furnishes sufficient check upon the raw materials and the finished
products. It is, however, very often necessary and important that other
physical tests be applied. To prevent the use of oils which might, when
heated, give off inflammable gases the determination of the “flash point”
and “fire point” becomes essential.
Some lubricants, too, are used at very low temperature, for instance, in
the operation of an ammonia compressor, and here it is important that the
lubricant should not solidify by the action of the cold, for under these con¬
ditions the energy needed to operate the machine would be very materially
increased.
We have then these six physical tests, (1) Gravity, (2) Flash, (3) Fire,
(4) Chill, (5) Cold, (6) Viscosity, which are usually sufficient to O. K. or
condemn a lubricant.
If in dealing with lubricating materials, we only had to consider petro¬
leum products the above tests would be all that would be required. Many
of the lubricants on the market to-day, however, contain varying small
percentages of the so-called “fixed oils” which are either of plant or animal
origin and whose detection and estimation, though important, involves
purely chemical process and cannot be taken up at this time.
The Section then adjourned.
William Campbell,
Secretary.
322
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.
November 22, 1909.
Section met in conjunction with the New York Branch of the American
Psychological Association at 8:15 P. m., Prof. J. McK. Cattell presiding in
the absence of the chairman.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
Edward L. Thorndike, Some New Data on Fatigue.
A. J. Rosanoff and
Miss G. H. Kent, A Preliminary Report of a Statistical Study of
Association.
R. S. Woodworth, An Attempt to Standardize Certain Tests of Con¬
trolled Association.
F. Lyman Wells, The Meaning of the Association Test.
Summary of Papers.
Professor Thorndike reported on sixteen subjects worked from 300 to
700 minutes with no rest or only a short rest for luncheon. The work was
the mental multiplication of three-place by three-place numbers. Each
subject was tested again after a rest of 12 hours or more. The loss in effi¬
ciency was not great, being more than counterbalanced by the practise
effect and was not closely correlated with subjective estimates of fatigue.
Dr. Rosanoff and Miss Kent, with the object in view of deriving a normal
standard of association to be used in a study of disturbance of flow of thought
in insanity, applied Sommer’s association test, in a form modified by them,
to one thousand normal persons. In their attempts to analyze and classify
the results, they found it necessary to depart from the methods of grouping
reactions which had been generally in vogue, but found that for their purposes
the most useful distinction was that between common and individual reac¬
tions. With but few exceptions, records from normal persons contain not
over ten per cent, of individual reactions. In cases of insanity, over fifty
per cent, of individual reactions were frequently obtained. The distinction
between a common and an individual reaction can be readily made by
reference to the tables compiled by the authors on the basis of the thousand
normal records already referred to. The authors believe that the diagnosis
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
323
of incipient insanity in backward school pupils or in eccentric persons will
be aided by the use of their tables and that possibly the study of normal
mental development may also be aided. The results of the work on associa¬
tion in normal persons are being prepare for publication.
Professor Woodworth said, in abstract: This work was undertaken with
the cooperation of Dr. F. Lyman Wells, under a committee of the American
Psychological Association. The object has been to make a careful selection
of the material available for tests of controlled association where the measure¬
ment is to be in terms of time. Some of the tests selected, and others in
process of selection, were presented.
Dr. Wells presented a study of the time relations in the word list of Dr.
Rosanoff and Miss Kent. The reason why free association time is longer
than controlled association time is not an intellectual but a volitional one.
The task of deciding on a suitable response is much greater in free than in
controlled associations and through this the longer times of the former are
essentially due. This difficulty of decision may be described as the product
of striving for a response that will seem sufficiently dignified, or for one that
shall not betray something which it is desired to hide, or as a product of
distraction induced by special interest possessed by the stimulus word.
Those individuals who decide on their responses promptly have short times
and closely packed distributions; long times and variable distributions are
seen in those who fumble with the experiment, and hesitate about which is
the best response to give. In respect to this variability the fifteen women
subjects fell into two species, eight being below and seven above the central
tendency of the ten men subjects. The median times of the individual
words in the last range from 7 to 20 fifths of a second. Out of the 2500
associations, 90 were 10 seconds and over in length, the women giving pro¬
portionately three times of those as the men. The role of special “com¬
plexes’ in these reactions was probably a very subordinate one. What is
measured by the free association time in the conventional psychological test
is, in effect, the ability of the individual to make prompt choices and de¬
cisions under the experimental conditions imposed. The sex differences
here observed are probably secondary to the special conditions of the experi¬
ment.
The Section then adjourned.
R. S. Woodworth,
Secretary.
324
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
BUSINESS MEETING.
December 6, 1909.
The Academy met at 8:15 p. m. at the American Museum of Natural
History, President Cox presiding.
The minutes of the meeting of November 8 were read and approved.
The following candidates for Associate Active Membership, recom¬
mended by the Council, were duly elected:
Miss Elvira Wood, Columbia University,
Frederick K. Morris, 485 Central Park West,
Paul Billingsley, 446 Macon St., Brooklyn,
Joseph P. Byrne, 1133 Broadway.
The Recording Secretary reported the following death:
Dr. Kakichi Mitsukuri, an Honorary Member since 1908.
The Recording Secretary then brought forward the amendment to
Chapter 5, Paragraph 1, of the By-Laws, making the third sentence of that
paragraph read “Failure to pay the required dues within three months after
notification of election has been sent shall render the election void,” this
amendment having been proposed in due form at the October meeting.
On motion, the amendment was unanimously adopted.
The Recording Secretary then offered in writing from Dr. N. L. Britton
the following amendment to the Constitution: “Change the fourth sentence
of Article II so that it shall read ‘Corresponding and Honorary Members
shall be chosen from among persons who have attained distinction in some
branch of science.’” According to the constitution, this amendment is to
be voted upon at a succeeding ordinary business meeting of the Academy
after notice has been given in due form by the Recording Secretary.
Prof. James F. Kemp then presented orally a brief but sympathetic notice
of the life and work of Mr. John H. Caswell, an Active Member of the
Academy for forty years, whose death was reported at the November meeting.
On motion, Professor Kemp was requested to submit his memorial in form
for printing.
Professor Kemp called attention to the portraits of Darwin now mounted
on the walls of the Academy room.
The Academy then adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
325
SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.
December 6, 1909.
Section met at 8:25 P. M., Vice-President Stevenson presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
C. N. Fenner, Application of the Law of Mass Action to Phenom¬
ena of Resorption in Igneous Rocks.
J. J. Stevenson, The Coal Basin of Commentry in Central France.
George H. Girty, Tpie Guadalupian Fauna and New Stratigraphic
Evidence.
Summary of Papers.
Mr. Fenner’s paper was intended to show how the law of mass-action
operates to produce irregularities in the crystallization of a magma. If a
magma were simply a fusion-solution of certain mineral compounds, which
were unable to change their relative proportions by inter-reaction under
changing conditions, then crystallization upon cooling would follow the well-
known laws of entectiferous solutions with almost absolute exactness. On
the contrary, however, we know from the principle of mass-action that the
state of chemical equilibrium in a complex solution is in an unstable condi¬
tion and is easily displaced by various influences, among which temperature
and concentration are chief factors.
It follows, therefore, that the removal by crystallization of one or more
compounds from a solution affects the relative concentration of the residual
material and causes reactions to proceed further in one direction or another.
The equilibrium may be so far displaced from the condition at which it
stood when crystallization began that in the later stages the crystals first
deposited may be attacked and resorbed.
The removal of material by gaseous emanations upon the extrusion of a
magma acts in a very similar manner to affect the equilibrium.
Change of temperature is also an important factor, for this alone will
cause a change in the conditions of equilibrium within a solution; and a
mineral which has crystallized from a magma under great pressure at a
temperature slightly higher than the normal may be resorbed when the
temperature of crystallization is depressed by relief of pressure, conditions
of chemical equilibrium having meanwhile shifted.
326
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
In general the two factors, change of temperature and change of concen¬
tration, will act simultaneously to effect the irregularities considered.
The paper by Professor Stevenson has been published as pages 161-204
of this volume.
The paper by Dr. Girty has been published as pages 135-147 of this
volume.
The Section then adjourned.
Charles P. Berkey,
Secretary.
SECTION OF BIOLOGY.
December 13, 1909.
Section met at 8:15 p. m., Vice-President Chapman presiding.
The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.
The following programme was then offered:
C. William Beebe, Notes of a n Ornithologist in Soutpi America.
A. J. Goldfarb, The Influence of tile Nervous System in Regen¬
eration.
Summary of Papers.
Mr. Beebe gave an account of three expeditions to the forest regions of
British Guiana, South America, for the purpose of studying and collecting
the rarer birds of that locality. Many admirable photographs were shown
of rare birds, among them the first photographs ever taken of the hoctyui,
the female being shown in her characteristic crouching attitude near the nest
and a flock of eleven in one tree. Incidentally some remarkable photographs
of mammals were obtained, among them one showing six capybaras and
several young on a river bank taken by Dr. Hiram Bingham and one of a
manatee swimming with mouth and nostrils just above the water.
Air. Goldfarb briefly reviewed the suggestions that had heretofore been
made to account for the fact that some animals were able to replace a missing
organ, while others were unable to do so. A concise summary was then
given of the experimental data that supported the conclusion that regenera¬
tion was dependent upon a stimulus exerted by or through the central
nervous system.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
327
The speaker then described the experiments that he had made during the
last several years upon five widely different kinds of animals. In each
animal the most painstaking care was taken to make certain that all motor
or sensory or both of these cells, innervating a given organ, had been com¬
pletely destroyed. In spite of the total removal of the nerve stimuli the
missing organ was regenerated in every case. Thus the frog tadpole re¬
generated its tail, the adult newt, Dicmyctylus viridescens, regenerated its
tail and leg, the earthworm its head, the starfish its arm, and the planarian,
Dendroccelum lacteum, the anterior third of its body. It was pointed out that
the agreement among these very different organisms probably signified that
animals as a whole, whether during their larval or during their adult stage
of development, regenerate their missing organs independently of a central
nerve stimulus.
The Section then adjourned.
L. Hussakof,
Secretary.
ANNUAL MEETING.
December 20, 1909.
The Academy met for the Annual Meeting on Monday, December 20,
1909, at 6:45 p. m. at the Hotel Endicott, President Cox in the chair.
The minutes of the last Annual Meeting, December 21, 1908, were read
and approved.
Reports were presented by the Recording Secretary, the Corresponding
Secretary, the Librarian and the Editor, all of which, on motion, were ordered
received and placed on file. They are published herewith.
The Treasurer presented a detailed report showing a net cash balance
of $1,737.69 on hand at the close of business November 30, 1909. On
motion, this report was received and referred to the Finance Committee for
auditing.
The following candidates for Honorary Membership and Fellowship,
recommended by Council, were duly elected:
Honorary Members.
Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. K. F. Goebel, Botanist, University of Munich,
Germany,
Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. Paul von Groth, Mineralogist, University of
Munich, Germany,
328
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Prof. Alfred Lacroix, Mineralogist and Geologist, Musee d’His-
toire Naturelle, Paris, France,
Excellency Geh. Rat Prof. Dr. August Weismann, Zoologist,
University of Freiburg, Germany.
Fellows.
Roy C. Andrews, American Museum of Natural History,
Wm. M. Campbell, New York University,
George H. Girty, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.,
Louis Hussakof, American Museum of Natural History,
Henry S. Pritchett, Carnegie Foundation,
J. Edmund Woodman, New York University.
The Academy then proceeded to the election of officers for the year 1910,
Messrs. Christian F. Groth and Charles L. Pollard having been appointed
as tellers. The ballots prepared by the Council according to the By-Laws
were distributed, and after the votes had been counted the following officers
were declared unanimously elected, more than 25 votes having been cast
by members of the Academy entitled to vote :
President, James F. Kemp.
Vice-Presidents, George F. Kunz (Section of Geology and Mineralogy),
Chas. B. Davenport (Section of Biology), William
Campbell (Section of Astronomy, Physics and Chem¬
istry), Maurice Fishberg (Section of Anthropology
and Psychology).
Recording Secretary, Edmund Otis Hovey.
Corresponding Secretary, Hermon Carey Bumpus.
Treasurer, Emerson McMillin.
Librarian, Ralph W. Tower.
Editor, Edmund Otis Hovey.
Councilors (to serve 3 years), Bashford Dean, J. E. Woodman.
Finance Committee, Charles F. Cox, George F. Kunz, Frederic
S. Lee.
The members of the Academy and their friends, to the number of fifty-
eight, then sat down together at dinner, after which the retiring President,
Mr. Charles F. Cox, delivered his formal address upon “The Founder of
the Evolution Theory.” This address has been published as pages 225-245
of this volume.
After a vote of thanks, which was put with apt remarks by former Presi¬
dent J. J. Stevenson, the Academy adjourned.
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
329
REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY.
During the year 1909, the Academy held 8 business meetings and 25
sectional meetings, at which 148 stated papers were presented on the follow¬
ing subjects:
Five public lectures have been given at the Museum to the members of
the Academy and the Affiliated Societies and their friends.5 These lectures
were as follows:
“Mimicry Among North American Butterflies.” By Professor Edward
B. Poulton of the University of Oxford, England, Corresponding
Member of the Academy. (Through cooperation with the Brooklyn
Entomological Society).
“The Wonders of Alaska.” By Mr. Alfred H. Dunham of Nome.
(Through cooperation with the Linnaean Society of New York.)
“The Antiquity of Man.” By Prof. Dr. Albrecht Penck of Berlin,
Germany, Honorary Member of the Academy.
“Austria and Its Beauties.” By Mr. Felix Leibinger of Vienna,
Austria. (Through cooperation with the Austrian Society.)
“Common Mushrooms and How to Know Them.” By Miss Nina L.
Marshall of Metuehen, N. J.
At the present time the membership of the Academy includes 437 Active
Members, 15 of whom are Associate Active Members, 127 Fellows, 67 Life
Members and 13 Patrons. The election of 6 Fellows is pending. There
have been 8 deaths during the year, 20 resignations have become effective
and 1 name has been transferred to the list of Non-Resident Members.
The new members elected during the year number 16, 1 of whom has not
330
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
yet completed his membership. As the membership of the Academy a year
ago was 45S, there has been a net loss of 24 during the year 1909.
Announcement is made with regret of the loss bv death of the following
© «/ ©
members:
W. A. Anthony,
Miss Matilda Bruce,
John H. Caswell,
E. H. Harriman,
John S. Kennedy,
T. W. Pearsall,
H. H. Rogers,
W. Wheeler Smith,
Alfred R. Wolff,
Active Member (4 years),
Patron (2 years),
Active Member (40 years),
Active Member (5 years),
Active Member (12 years),
Active Member (2 years),
Active Member (12 years),
Active Member (3 years),
Active Member (11 years).
Respectfully submitted,
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.
REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.
We have lost by death during the past year the following Honorary Mem¬
bers :
Professor Wolcott Gibbs, Elected in 1890,
Dr. Kakichi Mitsukuri, Elected in 1908,
Simon Newcomb, Elected in 1891,
and the following Corresponding Members:
Professor Samuel W. Johnson, Elected in 1S76,
T. Mellard Reade, Elected in 1888.
There are at present upon our rolls 46 Honorary Members and 140 Corre¬
sponding Members.
Respect f u 1 ly submitted ,
IJermon Carey Bumpus,
Corresponding Secretary.
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909
331
REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.
The library of the New York Academy of Sciences has received during
the year 1909, through exchange and donation, 309 volumes, 48 separata
and 1502 numbers. Special acknowledgments are herewith made to those
institutions which have made gifts of available lacuna in our files of their
publications, — especially to the Deutscher Naturwissenschaftliehmedizin-
ischer Verein fur Bohmen “Lotos” in Prag for a complete set of their pub¬
lications since 1853 to date, and also for 9 volumes of the “Abhandlungen
clerk. Akademie der Wissenschaft in Berlin” dating from 1816 to 1826.
A complete list of the exchanges of the Academy is submitted herewith.1
Respectfully submitted,
Ralph W. Tower,
Librarian.
REPORT OF THE EDITOR.
The Editor reports that during the past fiscal year Part III, completing
Volume XVIII, was distributed, and that Numbers 1 to 5 inclusive of Part I
of Volume XIX have been printed. Part III of Volume XVIII contained
the following papers:
“An Investigation of the Figure of the Sun and of Possible Variations in
its Size and Shape.” By Charles Lane Poor.
“Outline of the Geology of Long Island, N. Y.” By W. O. Crosby.
“Charles Darwin and the Mutation Theory.” By Charles F. Cox.
“Records of Meetings, 190S.” By Edmund Otis Hovey.
The numbers of Part I of Volume XIX that have already been distributed
are the following:
“Darwin Memorial Celebration.” By Edmund Otis Hovey.
“Plan and Scope.” Correlation Bulletin No. 1. By Henry F. Osborn
and W. D. Matthew.
“Studies on the Morphology and Development of Certain Rugose Corals.”
By Thomas Claeher Brown.
“The Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium,” By Louis Dollo. Correlation
Bulletin No. 2. Translated by W. D. Matthew.
“On the Origin and Sequences of the Minerals of the Newark (Triassic)
Igneous Rocks of New Jersey.” By Wallace Goold Levison.
1 See page 335.
332
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
The Annual Directory of the Members of the Academy and its Affiliated
Societies was issued as of 1 January, 1909.
We now have in press the following papers:
“Patagonia and the Pampas Cenozoic of South America. A Critical
Review of the Correlations of Santiago Roth, 1908.” Correlation
Bulletin No. 3. By W. D. Matthew.
“ Guadalupian Fauna and New Stratigraphic Evidence.” By George H.
Girty.
We have in manuscript the following papers:
“The Commentry Coal Basin of Central France.” By J. J. Stevenson.
“Some New or Little Known American Spiders.” By Alexander Petrunk-
evitch.
Respectfully submitted,
Edmund Otis Hovey,
Editor.
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
RECEIPTS.
December 1, 1908, -November 30, 1909.
Balance on hand, November 30, 1908 . $193.56
Income from investments:
Interest on mortgages on New York City
real estate . $886.00
Interest on railroad and other bonds . . 1,070.00
Interest on bank balances . 44.34 $2,000.34
Life Membership fees . 300.00
Active Membership dues, 1906 30.00
“ “ “ 1907 70.00
“ 1908 135.00
“ “ “ 1909 2,963.00 3,198.00
Associate Membership dues, 1907 . 3.00
“ “ “ 1908 . 3.00
“ “ ' “ 1909 . 39.00 45.00
Headquarters Committee, Return of balance of appropria¬
tion . 40.00
Sales of publications . 97.38
Subscriptions to Darwin Celebration . 972.00
“ Annual Dinner . 158.00
Esther Herrman Research Fund, Return of appropriation 318.00
Total . $7,322.28
RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF 1909 333
DISBURSEMENTS.
December 1, 190S, — November 30, 1909.
Interest on debit balance in bank . $1.86
Publications, on account of Annals . 1,175.05
Recording Secretary’s office expenses, including publication
of Bulletin . 925.88
Recording Secretary’s and Editor’s allowance . 1,200.00
Darwin celebration . 1,125.10
Lecture Committee . 100.00
General expenses . 114.00
Esther Herrman Research Fund . 450.00
John Strong Newberry Fund . 100.00
Headquarters Committee . 246.20
Annual meeting and dinner . 146.50
Cash on hand . 1,737.69
Total . $7,322.28
Balance Sheet, November 30, 1909.
334 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
for the Auditing Committee.
LIST OF 'EXCHANGE PUBLICATIONS
335
LIST OF THE SOCIETIES AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS WITH WHICH
THE ACADEMY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS.
December, 1 909.
Argentine Republic.
Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires.
Academia Nacional de Ciencias, Cordoba.
Museo de La Plata, La Plata.
Australia.
Royal Geographical Society of Australia, Brisbane, Queensland.
Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland.
Department of Mines and Water Supply, Melbourne, Victoria.
Australian Society for the Advancement of Science, Sydney, New South Wales.
Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales.
Department of Mines, Sydney, New South Wales.
Geological Survey of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales.
Linnsean Society of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales.
Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales.
Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia.
Geological Survey Office, Perth, Western Australia.
Austria-Hungary.
(a) Austria.
Naturforschender Verein in Brilnn, Brunn.
Kaiserliche Akademie des Wissenschaften, Krakau.
Sevcenko-Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Lemberg.
Comite fiir Naturwissenschaftliche Landesdurchforschung von Bohmen. Prag.
Deutscher naturwissenschaftlich-medizinischer Verein fiir Bohmen “Lotos,” Prag.
Konigliche Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Prag.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, an der Universitat Wien, Wien.
Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien.
(b) Hungary.
Journal der Naturgeschichte (Ungarisches National-Museum), Buda-Pest.
Ungarische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Buda-Pest.
Konigliche Ungarische geologische Anstalt, Buda-Pest.
Konigliche Ungarische Gesellschaft fiir Naturwissenschaften, Buda-Pest.
Siebenbiirgisches National-Museum, Klausenburg.
Ungarischer Karpathenverein, Locse.
Konigliches Kroatisches Landesarchiv, Zagreb.
336
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Belgium.
Academie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts a Bruxelles, Bruxelles
Observatoire Royale de Bruxelles, Bruxelles.
Bibliotheque de la Societe Beige de Geologie, Bruxelles.
Societe Entomologique de Belgique, Bruxelles.
Societe Royale de Botanique, Bruxelles.
Societe Geologique de Belgique, Liege.
Societe Royale des Sciences de Liege, Liege.
Brazil.
Museu Goeldi de Historia Natural e Ethnographia, Para.
Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro.
Jardim Botanico, Rio de Janeiro.
Observatorio do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro.
Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.
Canada.
Nova Scotian Institute of Sciences, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
Hamilton Scientific Association, Hamilton, Ontario.
Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, Ottawa.
Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John, New Brunswick.
Canadian Institute, Toronto.
Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Toronto.
University of Toronto Library, Toronto.
Chili.
Societe Scientifique du Chili, Santiago.
Costa Rica.
Museo Nacional de Costa Rica, San Jose.
Cuba.
Anales de la Academia de Ciencias Medicas, Fisicas y Naturales de la Habana,
Habana.
Denmark.
Kongelige danske Videnskabernes Selskab i Kjobenhavn, Kjobenhavn.
Naturhistorisk Forening, Kjobenhavn.
LIST OF EXCHANGE PUBLICATIONS
337
France.
Societe d’Etudes Scientifiques d’ Angers, Angers.
Societe des Sciences Historiques et Naturelles de l’Yonne, Auxerre.
Societe Medicate de l’Yonne, Auxerre.
Societe Linneenne de Bordeaux, Bordeaux.
Societe des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles de Bordeaux, Bordeaux.
Academie Nationale des Sciences, des Arts et des Belles Lettres de Caen, Caen.
Laboratoire de Geologie de la Faculte des Sciences, Caen.
Societe Linneenne de Normandie, Caen.
Societe Nationale des Sciences, Cherbourg.
Societe de Borda, Dax.
Academie des Sciences, des Arts et des Belles-Lettres de Dijon, Dijon.
Union Geographique du Nord de la France, Douai.
Societe Geologique du Nord, Lille.
Bibliotheque de la Universite de Lyon, Lyon.
Societe Botanique de Lyon, Lyon.
Societe d’Agriculture, Sciences et Industrie, Lyon.
Academie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier, Montpellier.
Academie de Stanislas, Nancy.
Societe des Sciences de Nancy, Nancy.
Observatoire Meteorologique du Mont Blanc, Nice.
Academie de Medecine, Paris.
Academie des Sciences de l’Institut de France, Paris.
Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.
Ecole Nationale des Mines, Paris.
Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Entomologique de France, Paris.
Societe Geologique de France, Paris.
Societe Nationale d’Agriculture de France, Paris.
Societe Zoologique de France, Paris.
Societe des Amis des Sciences Naturelles de Rouen, Rouen.
Societe de 1’ Industrie Minerale, Ste. Etienne.
Academie des Sciences, des Inscriptions et des Belles-Lettres de Toulouse, Toulouse.
Society d’Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse, Toulouse.
Laboratoire de Zoologie, Villefranche-sur-Mer.
Germany.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft des Osterlandes zu Altenburg, Altenburg.
Naturhistorischer Verein fur Schwaben und Neuberg, Augsburg.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Bamberg.
Berliner entomologischer Verein, Berlin.
Centralbureau der internationalen Erdmessung, Berlin.
Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin.
Deutsche geologische Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir offentliche Gesundsheitspflege, Berlin.
Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde, Berlin.
338
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde, Berlin.
Konigliche Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Berlin.
Konigliche Preussische geologische Land-Berg Akademie, Berlin.
Konigliches Preussisches meteorologisches Institut, Berlin.
Physikalische Gesellschaft, Berlin.
Verein zur Beforderung des Gartenbaues in den Preussischen Staaten, Berlin.
Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande und Westphalens, Bonn.
Verein fur Naturwissenschaften, Braunschweig.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein zu Bremen, Bremen.
Schlesische Gesellschaft fur Vaterlandische Cultur. Breslau.
Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, Chemnitz.
Technische Staats-Lehr-Anstalt, Chemnitz.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Danzig, Danzig.
Verein fiir Erdkunde, Darmstadt.
Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft “Isis” in Dresden, Dresden.
Verein fiir Erdkunde, Dresden.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Emden.
Senckenbergische naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt-am-Main.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfurt-am-Oder.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft zu Freiburg i. Br., Freiburg i.-Br,
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Gorlitz.
Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Gottingen.
Geograpliische Gesellschaft, Greifswald.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Neuvorpommern und Riigen zu Greifswald,
Greifswald.
Kaiserliche Leopoldino-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Halle-
an-der-Salle.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Sachsen und Thiiringen, Halle-an-der-Salle.
Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg, Hamburg.
Naturhistorisches Museum zu Hamburg, Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Hamburg, Hamburg.
Wetterauische Gesellschaft fiir die Gesammte Naturkunde, Hanau.
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft in Hannover, Hannover.
N aturhistorisch-medicinischer Verein, Heidelberg.
Konigliche biologische Anstalt, Helgoland.
Romer Museum, Hildesheim.
Verein fiir Hessische Geschichte und Landeskunde in Kassel, Kassel.
Kommission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der Deutchen Meere, Kiel.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel.
Konigliche physikalisch-okonomische Gesellschaft zu Konigsburg, Konigsburg.
Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, Leipzig.
Fiirstliche Jablonowski’sche Gesellschaft zu Wissenschaften, Leipzig.
Konigliche Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, Leipzig.
Verein fur Erdkunde, Leipzig.
Naturhistorisches Museum, Liibeck.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Luneberg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Magdeburg.
Societe d’Histoire Naturelle, Metz.
Verein fiir Erdkunde zu Metz, Metz.
LIST OF EXCHANGE PUBLICATIONS
339
Ivonigliche Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Miinchen, Munich.
Ivonigliche Sternwarte Bogenhausen bei Miinchen, Munich.
Provinzial Verein fur Wissenschaft und Kunst, Munster.
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft zu Niirnberg, Niirnberg.
Verein ftir Naturkunde, Offenbach.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Osnabruck.
Konigliches Preussische geodetische Institut, Potsdam.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein in Regensburg, Regensburg.
Verein der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Mecklenburg, Rostock.
Verein fur Erdkunde, Stettin.
Verein fur vaterlandische Naturkunde in Wtirttemberg, Stuttgart.
Nassauischer Verein fur Naturkunde, Wiesbaden.
Physisch-medicinische Gesellschaft zu Wurzburg, Wurzburg.
Great Britain and Ireland.
(a) England.
Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, Birmingham.
Bristol Museum of Natural Nistory, Bristol.
Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge.
Royal Cornwall Polytechnical Society, Falmouth.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnical Society, Leeds.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool.
Liverpool Geological Society, Liverpool.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, London.
British Museum (Natural History), London.
Geological Society, London.
Iron and Steel Institute, London.
Linnsean Society, London.
Royal Institute of Great Britain, London.
Royal Microscopical Society, London.
Society of Arts, London.
Royal Society, London.
Zoological Society of London, London.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester.
Manchester Microscopical Society, Manchester.
Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, Norwich.
Radcliff Observatory, Oxford.
Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, Plymouth.
Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Penzance.
Royal Geological Society, Penzance.
Royal Institute of Cornwall, Truro.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club, Watford.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society. York.
340
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(b) Scotland.
Geological Society of Glasgow, Glasgow.
Natural History Society of Glasgow, Glasgow.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow, Glasgow.
Edinburgh Botanical Society, Edinburgh.
Edinburgh Geographical Society, Edinburgh.
Meteorological Society of Scotland, Edinburgh.
Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, Dumfries
(c) Ireland.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, Belfast.
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, Belfast.
Geological Survey of Ireland, Dublin.
Royal Dublin Society, Dublin.
Holland.
Ivoninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam.
Koninklijk zoologisch Genootschap “Natura Artes Magistra,” Amsterdam.
Bibliotheek der Teyler’s Stichting (Museum), Haarlem.
Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen, Haarlem.
Rijks Universiteit, Leiden.
Department van Kolonien, ’S-Gravenhage.
Koninklijke Bibliotheek, ’S-Gravenhage.
Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut, Utrecht.
Provinciaal Utrechtsch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Utrecht.
India.
Agricultural Research Institute, Poona.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Italy.
Accademia di Scienze, Letteri ed Arti degli Zelanti Acireale, Acireale.
Reggia Accademia Petrarca, Arezzo.
Accademia delle Scienza dell’ Instituto di Bologna, Bologna.
Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali in Catania, Catania.
Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiana, Catania.
Reale Instituto di Studi Superiori Practici e di Perfezionamento, Firenze.
Reale Accademia Peloritana, Messina.
Reale Instituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere, Milano.
Regio Instituto Technico-Superiore Milano, Milano.
Societa Meteorologica Italiana, Moncalieri.
Reale Accademia di Scienze Fisiche e Mathematiche di Napoli, Napoli.
Reale Accademia di Scienze e Lettere e Belle Arti di Palermo, Palermo.
LIST OF EXCHANGE PUBLICATIONS
341
Reale Osservatorio, Palermo.
Aceademia Medico Chirurgica, Perugia.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.
Regia Scuola Superiore di Agricoltura, Portici.
Reale Aceademia dei Lincei, Roma.
Reale Comitato Geologico d’ltalia, Roma.
Specula Vaticana, Roma.
Societa Italiana per il Progresso delle Scienze, Roma.
Societa per gli Studi della Malaria, Roma.
Reale Aceademia dei Fisiocritici, Siena.
Museo di Zoologia e di Anatomia Comparata della Regia Universita di Torino,
Torino.
Osservatorio della Regia Universita di Torino, Torino.
Reale Instituto Tecnico “Antonio Zano” in Udine, Udine.
Ateneo Veneto, Venezia.
Regio Instituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti, Venezia.
Japan.
Sapporo Natural History Society, Sapporo.
Science College, Imperial University of Japan, Tokio.
Java.
Bataviaasch Genootschapp van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, Batavia.
Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch-Indie, Batavia.
Koninklijk Magnetisch en Meteorologisch Observatorium. Batavia.
Mexico.
Secretaria de Fomento, Colonizacion, Industria y Comercio, Mexico.
Instituto Medico Nacional, Mexico.
Museo Nacional de Mexico, Mexico.
Sociedad Geologica Mexicana, Mexico.
Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate,” Mexico.
Observatorio Astronomico Nacional, Tacubaya.
New Zealand.
New Zealand Institute, Wellington.
Mines Department, Geological Survey Branch, Wellington.
Norway.
Bergens Museum, Bergen.
Norslce Gradmaalings Commission, Christiania.
Norges Geologiske Undersogelse, Christiania.
342
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Norske Meteorologiske Institut, Christiania.
Videnskabst Selskabet, Christiania.
Zoologiske Museum af Kongelige Universitet, Christiania.
Tromso Museum, Tromso.
Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab, Trondhiem.
Paraguay.
Annales Cientificos Paraguayos, Puerto Bertoni.
Portugal.
Academia Real das Sciencias de Lisboa, Lisboa.
Commisao do Servigo Geologico, Lisboa.
Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa, Lisboa.
Roumania.
Universite de Jassy, Jassy.
Russia.
Societe des Naturalistes de Dorpat, Dorpat.
Universite Imperiale, Dorpat.
Societe Ouralienne d’Amateurs des Sciences naturelles, Ekaterinburg.
Commission Geologique de la Finlande, Helsingfors, Finlande.
Societe Scientifique Ukrainienne, Kiev.
Societe des Naturalistes attaches ad’ Universite Imperiale St. Vladimir a Kiev, Kiev.
Societe imperiale des Naturalistes de Moscou, Moscou.
“Annuaire Geologique et Mineralogique de la Russie,” Nowo- Alexandria.
Societe des Naturalistes de Riga, Riga.
Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, St. Petersbourg.
Comite geologique de la Russie, St. Petersbourg.
Jardin Imperial de Botanique, St. Petersbourg.
Musee Geologique de l’Universite, St. Petersbourg.
Societe Entomologique de Russie, St. Petersbourg.
Societe Imperiale Mineralogique, St. Petersbourg.
Societe Physico-chimique Russe a l’Universite, St. Petersbourg.
South Africa.
Royal Society of South Africa, Cape Town.
“ South African Journal of Science,” Cape Town.
Government Geologist, Pietermaritzburg.
Spain.
R.eal Academia de Ciencias, Exactes, Fisicas y Naturales, Madrid.
Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza.
LIST OF EXCHANGE PUBLICATIONS
343
Sweden.
Kongliga Universitet, Lund.
“ Entomologiska Tidskrift,” Stockholm.
Geologiska Foreningen i Stockholm, Stockholm.
Kongliga Svenska Yetenskaps Akademien, Stockholm.
Upsala Universitet Mineralogisk-Geologisk Institutionen, Upsala.
Kongliga Universitet, Upsala.
Kongliga Vetenskaps-Societeten, Upsala.
Switzerland.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Basel.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Berne, Berne.
Schweizerische entomologische Gesellschaft, Naturhistorisches Museum, Berne.
Societe Geologique Suisse, Berne.
Thurgauische naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frauenfeld.
Societe Fribourgoise des Sciences Naturelles, Fribourg.
Institut National Genevois, Geneva.
Societe de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, Geneva.
Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles, Lausanne.
Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel, Neuchatel.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Solothurn.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Yerein, St. Gall.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Zurich.
LTnited States.
Texas Academy of Science, Austin, Texas.
Johns Hopkins Umversity, Baltimore, Maryland.
University of California, Berkeley, California.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston, Massachusetts.
Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Massachusetts.
Public Library, Brooklyn, New Y'ork.
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, New York.
Harvard College Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Harvard College Observatory, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois.
Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago, Illinois.
Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Library of American Association for the Advancement of Science, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, College Station, Texas.
Colorado Scientific Society, Denver, Colorado.
Iowa Academy of Sciences, Des Moines, Iowa.
New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York.
344
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Denison Scientific Society, Denison University, Granville, Ohio.
Indiana Academy of Science, Indianapolis, Indiana.
University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas.
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Madison, Wisconsin.
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
Staten Island Association of Arts and Sciences, New Brighton, New York.
American Journal of Science, New Haven, Connecticut.
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Haven, Connecticut.
American Geographical Society, New York, New York.
American Institute of Mining Engineers, New York, New York.
American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York.
Columbia University Library, New York, New York.
Torrey Botanical Club, New York, New York.
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Engineers’ Club of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Portland Society of Natural History, Portland, Maine.
Vassar Brothers Institute, Poughkeepsie, New York.
Rochester Academy of Sciences, Rochester, New York.
Missouri Geological Survey, Rolla, Missouri.
American Antiquarian, Salem, Massachusetts.
Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts.
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California.
California State Mining Bureau, San Francisco, California.
Leland Stanford Junior University Library, Stanford University, California.
Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, Stanford University, California.
Academy of Sciences of St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri.
Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri.
Syracuse University, Biological Department, Syracuse, New York.
Kansas Academy of Sciences, Topeka, Kansas.
Washburn Laboratory of Natural History, Topeka, Kansas.
State Geological Survey, Trenton, New Jersey.
Geological Survey of Alabama, University, Alabama.
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Urbana, Illinois.
Biological Society of Washington, Washington, D. C.
Congressional Library, Washington, D. C.
Philosophical Society, Washington, D. C.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D. C.
United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Washington, D. C.
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
United States Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C.
Wyoming Historical and Geological Society, Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.
American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Massachusetts.
MEMOIR OF WOLCOTT GIBBS
345
MEMOIR OF WOLCOTT GIBBS.1
By Theodore William Richards.
The death of Wolcott Gibbs takes a commanding figure from the ranks
of the veterans of science. Attaining the age of over eighty-six years, he
had been for a long time almost the sole survivor among the pioneers of
American chemistry. He was one of the founders of the National Academy
of Sciences in 1870; and he alone saw his name included among those of
living members in 1908.
For over a decade, he had headed in academic seniority the list of the
faculties of Harvard University. He served there as Rumford professor for
twenty-four years, and in honorable retirement bore the title of Rumford
professor emeritus for twenty-one years more. The infirmity due to his
increasing years had withdrawn from him the privilege of contributing to
the growth of his beloved science; but his interest in the work of others
remained keen and enthusiastic until the end had almost come — until
pain had driven away all the joy of life.
It has been said that he was one of the pioneers of American chemistry.
He was made assistant professor in New York at the age of twenty-six, in
1848. His eager and energetic spirit and his thorough training under the
inspiring guidance of Rose, Rammelsberg, Liebig, Laurent, Dumas and
Regnault had given him an insight into the possible future of chemistry
which forbade his contentedly settling down into the mere routine of teach¬
ing. Thus at once he joined the then pitifully small band of Americans
who sought to advance the bounds of knovdedge.
It is impossible here to present a detailed survey of the greatly varied
fields in which his work lay, but a brief sketch will give some idea of the
activity of his scientific imagination. His first important research concerned
the complex ammonia-cobalt compounds, one of the most interesting series
among inorganic substances. This masterly work, conducted with the
collaboration of F. A. Genth, shed much light upon the puzzling nature of
the complex compounds in general and laid the foundation for one of the
most elaborate of modern chemical theories. The following years (1861-4)
saw him engaged upon a careful study of the platinum metals, upon which
he was engaged when he accepted the call to Cambridge in 1863. Shortly
afterward (1864) he published for the first time a description of his use of
the voltaic current for depositing copper and nickel in such a manner that
1 Reprinted from Science , vol. XXIX, pp. 101-103. Jan. 15, 1909. Professor Gibbs died
9 December, 1908, having been an Honorary Member of the Academy since 1890.
346
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the deposited metals could be directly weighed — thus providing a simple
and exact quantitative method for the analysis of substances containing
these metals. The fact that a German, Luckow, afterwards stated that
he had used the method for copper before Gibbs had used it, does not de¬
tract from the real originality of Gibbs’s idea; for Luckow’ s work was
wholly unknown to Gibbs.
From time to time throughout all Gibbs’s long period of scientific ac¬
tivity there appeared papers from his pen describing other new and useful
methods of quantitative analysis, many of which have been incorporated
into the common analytical practise of to-day. For example, his sand-filter¬
ing device of 1867 may be said to have been a forerunner of the present ad¬
mirable apparatus perfected by Gooch and Munroe.
Not long after coming to Harvard, Gibbs turned his attention to the pre¬
cise vise of the spectrometer in chemical investigations, and this work was
continued in 1875. Throughout all this time the subject of his work with
Genth was only half dormant in his mind, and occasional theoretical or
experimental papers concerning the peculiar nature of cobaltamine com
pounds showed his devotion to his early choice.
Not content with the paradoxes and puzzles offered by these complex
bases, or with the other abstruse subjects mentioned, he attacked in suc¬
ceeding years the complex inorganic acids, composed of various combina¬
tions of tungstic, molybdic, phosphoric, arsenic, antimonic and vanadic
acids. One cannot help wishing, upon studying his patient and careful
quest among the bewildering phenomena manifested by these singular sub¬
stances, that he had had the assistance of modern physical chemistry. But
our present knowledge was not then at any one’s disposal, and Gibbs did
his best with the means at his command, devoting himself for a number of
years to the expansion and systematizing of the work in this but slightly
cultivated field.
From inorganic chemistry he later turned for a short time to a very differ¬
ent subject, undertaking with H. A. Hare and E. T. Reichert, a systematic
study of the action of definitely related chemical compounds upon animals.
This research, which appeared in 1891 and 1892, together with occasional
previous papers upon organic chemistry, afforded evidence of the breadth
of his interest.
Keen as his sense of the importance of physiological chemistry became,
it was not keen enough to divert him wholly from his devotion to the rarer
substances of the inorganic world, as his following paper on the oxides
contained in cerite, samarskite, gadolinite and fergusonite testified.
Although Wolcott Gibbs was essentially an experimentalist, he was one
of the first of Amercan chemists to appreciate the importance of thermodyn-
MEMOIR OF SIMON NEWCOMB
347
amics. His large library contained all the standard works upon heat, and
his influence was the prime factor in having caused the award of the Rum-
ford medal to J. Willard Gibbs as early as 1880, long before the world at
large appreciated the fundamental character of the work of the great New
Haven physicist. Wolcott Gibbs served on the Rumford Committee of the
American Academy for thirty years (1864-1894), and in many other ways did
his best to aid the progress of science in America. He was for a time presi¬
dent of the National Academy of Sciences, until ill health enforced his resig¬
nation; and he served also as president of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
Not only at home, but also abroad, his eminence was worthily recognized.
His election to honorary membership in the German Chemical Society in
1883 and to corresponding membership in the Royal Prussian Academy in
1885 is perhaps the most striking evidence of the foreign appreciation of his
work. No other American chemist has ever attained to either of these high
honors.
The brief autobiography published in the issue of Science for December
18, 1908, gives the chief events in his quiet daily life. His manhood was
spent partly in New York, partly in Cambridge, and finally, during recent
years, among his. cherished flowers at his home on Gibbs Avenue near the
First Beach at Newport, R. I. The circumstances of his early academic
life brought him into close contact with but few students. This is the more
to be regretted because his enthusiastic spirit, his tireless energy, his generous
recognition of everything good and best of all his warm human friendship
endeared him to all who knew him. Those who were thus fortunate,
whether students or colleagues, will always devotedly treasure his memory;
and his place as a pioneer of science in America will always be secure.
MEMOIR OF SIMON NEWCOMB.1
By G. W. Hill.
Professor NewcombOias narrated at considerable length the personal
incidents of his scientific career in his book “The Reminiscences of an
Astronomer,” and to that source the reader desirous of knowing them may be
referred. Here it is intended to note only the scope and characteristics of
his more important contributions to astronomy. While Professor New-
1 Reprinted from Science, vol. XXIX, pp. 357-358. Sept. 17, 1909. The author is an Hon-
orary Member of the Academy.
Professor Newcomb died 12_July. 1909, having been an Honorary Member of the Academy
since 1891.
348
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
comb wished always to be accounted a mathematician, his work seems
motived by its possible application to astronomy, and no very weighty con¬
tribution from his pen has accrued to pure mathematics.
While still an assistant in the office of the American Epliemeris, then at
Cambridge, Mass., Professor Newcomb began his career as an astronomer
by discussing the question of the origin of the minor planets. Induced by
too great confidence in the law of Bode as to the relations* of the mean dis¬
tances of the major planets, Olbers had ventured to put forward the hypoth¬
esis that the minor planets were the fragments resulting from the disruption
of a single major planet. This hypothesis necessitated the condition that
the orbits of the minor planets at some past epoch must have had a point in
common. By computing the secular variations of the elements of the
minor planets, Professor Newcomb showed that at no time could this condi¬
tion have been fulfilled. Thus there was no reason for entertaining the
theory of Olbers.
After Professor Newcomb’s appointment to a professorship of mathe¬
matics in the U. S. Navy and his removal to Washington, he was much
engaged with the instruments of the U. S. Naval Observatory, chiefly the
Pistor and Martin’s transit circle, but found time to investigate the distance
of the sun, concluded from all the methods. His result for the constant of
solar parallax was 8". 848, a value adopted in nearly all the ephemerides for
quite a lengthy period. It is too large chiefly on account of the large weight
attributed to the determination from Mars, wThose observation is subject to
systematic errors, at that time unsuspected.
About the same time, Professor Newcomb undertook the investigation
of the orbit of Neptune and constructed general tables of its motion. As
material he had the two observations of Lalande and those of eighteen years
following the discovery of the planet. This investigation, published in the
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, met an urgent need of practical
astronomy at that time.
As the secure reduction of astronomical observations is a matter of prime
importance, Professor NeAvcomb contributed to the Washington Observa¬
tions for 1870 an appendix dealing with the right ascensions of the equatorial
fundamental stars. His aim was to eliminate as far as possible systematic
errors of a personal or local nature and thus obtain a homogeneous system.
This was an admirably conducted investigation and has served as a founda¬
tion for whatever has been since accomplished in this subject.
The elegant method of treating the motion of the moon by Delaunay,
published in 1860, led Professor Ne\Arcomb to consider this subject; thus we
have his memoir in Liouville’s Journal for 1871 on the planetary perturba¬
tions of the moon. The investigation is very neat, regard being had to the
MEMOIR OF SIMON NEWCOMB
349
early epoch of its composition, but the final equations derived are precisely
those which result from Delaunay’s method.
Having treated Neptune, Professor Newcomb next undertook a similar
piece of work for the adjacent planet Uranus. This was a heavier task than
its predecessor on account of the longer period covered by the observations.
These theories of the two planets have been superseded by the investigations
of Professor Newcomb while director of the American Ephemeris, but that
of Uranus was welcomed by astronomers as a great improvement on the
discussion of Bouvard. As in the case of Neptune, the investigations of
Uranus appear in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.
In the same collection for the following year, Professor Newcomb has a
memoir on the general integrals of planetary motion. The aim of this
paper is to show how to avoid powers of the time as multipliers of the differ¬
ent portions of the algebraic expressions arrived at. The thus modified
expressions have since received the name of Lindstedt’s series and are the
chief subject of investigation in M. Poincare’s work in the line of celestial
mechanics. This paper was a worthy beginning for what was to follow.
Only a few years after the introduction of Hansen’s lunar tables for
computing the places for the ephemerides, it was seen that observation was
marching away from them. From the character of the deviation they could
only be attributed to an imperfect determination by Hansen of the secular
and long-period terms. Always interested in the theory of the moon,
Professor Newcomb undertook to see what light could be thrown on the
matter by observations made before the epoch of 1750, chiefly in the form of
times of beginning or ending of solar and lunar eclipses and occupations.
This involved a heavy load of numerical computation and a careful research
for material in the libraries and observatories of Europe. The results of
this labor appear in an appendix to the Washington Observations for 1875.
The memoir led to large modifications in our estimation of the value of
Hansen’s theory, and it still must serve as a foundation to all future investi¬
gations in the subject.
In 1877, Professor J. H. C. Coffin was retired from the U. S. Navy on
account of age, and thus the American Ephemeris wras left without a head.
Professor Newcomb was appointed to the vacant place. He immediately
formed the grandiose scheme of reforming nearly all the fundamental data
involved in the construction of an astronomical ephemeris. One would
have been inclined to predict the failure or, at least, only partial success of
such a scheme; but Professor Newcomb, by his skillful management, came
very near to complete success during his lifetime; only tables of the moon
were lacking to the rounding of the plan. It must, however, be noted that he
was fortunate in finding a few men ready to hand in relieving him not only of
350
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
the drudgery of numerical calculations, but, in some cases, of devising
methods. To aid matters, he founded a collection called The Astronomical
Papers of the American Ephemeris to contain all the memoirs the carrying
out the scheme should give occasion to. A large proportion of these memoirs
is the work of Professor Newcomb. So numerous are they that we must be
content with noticing only the more striking and important ones.
The transits of Mercury from 1677 to 1881 were discussed, with the
principal result of corroborating Leverrier’s assertion of 40" in the secular
motion of the perijelion unaccounted for.
In the years 1880-1882, Professor Newcomb made a determination of the
velocity of light by the Foucault method. The construction of the instru¬
ment and the mode of handling it enabled a very large angle of deviation to
be obtained; and thus an extraordinary degree of precision in the result
was hoped for. Although this hope was not completely fulfilled, neverthe¬
less the concluded value is far in advance of all previous determinations.
Shortly after, Professor Newcomb exhaustively treated the transits of
Venus in 1761 and 1769 with the object of obtaining the constant of mutation
from materia] afforded by observations with the transit circles of Greenwich
and Washington.
Professor Newcomb deemed that improvements could be made in the
mode of deriving the periodic expressions needed in the subject of planetary
perturbations. His method of treatment is elaborated in a memoir in the
American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. Ill, and, at greater length, in a
second memoir in the Astronomical Papers, Vol. Ill; and, finally, applica¬
tion is made to the four interior planets in a third memoir contained in the
latter volume. For certain long-period inequalities in these planets it was
found convenient to employ expressions involving time-arguments; this led
to the composition of two memoirs in Vol. V, of the same collection.
The secular variations of the elements of these planets are derived and
the mass of Jupiter determined from observations of Polvrhymnia in the two
following memoirs of the same volume.
Professor Asaph Hall having found that there was a rather rapid retro¬
grade motion of the line of apsides of Hyperion, Professor Newcomb ex¬
plained this from the point of view of the variation of elements. By an
inadvertency at the very end of his memoir he failed to obtain a correct
value for the mass of Titan, the disturbing body.
The completion of these preliminary investigations enabled Professor
Newcomb to proceed at once to the composition of a memoir of the elements
of the four inner planets and the fundamental constants of astronomy, which
appeared as a supplement to the American Ephemeris for 1897. This
memoir contains the data on which are founded the tables of these planets,
MEMOIR OF SIMON NEWCOMB
351
published shortly after. In 1S99, Professor Newcomb completed his work
on the six major planets he had undertaken to revise by the publication of
tables of Uranus and Neptune.
While all these investigations in the planetary theories were going on,
Professor Newcomb must have found time for attacking his subject of
predilection, the lunar theory, for we have a lengthy memoir by him on the
action of the planets on the moon, contained in the volume last mentioned.
This paper must have cost him an enormous amount of labor; he seems to
be determined that no inequality of sensible magnitude should escape him.
The tables of the planets being out of the way, Professor Newcomb next
turned his attention to the fixed stars. Being present at the Paris Confer¬
ence of 1896 on a common international catalogue of fundamental stars, he
obtained the assignment of the subject of precession as his share of the work
to be undertaken. Within a year he had the work done, having derived a
value of the principal constant involved which is probably as good as the
condition of the data at the time allowed.
This memoir is naturally followed by another containing a catalogue of
more than 1,500 stars reduced to an absolute system and to be employed as
fundamental.
In March, 1897, Professor Newcomb, having arrived at the age limit,
was retired from the office of the American Ephemeris. Many of his un¬
finished jobs were carried to completion under the nominal superintendence
of others.
At the foundation of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, Professor
Newcomb secured the privilege of prosecuting his researches on the motion
of the moon under its auspices. Here, until the end of his life, he labored
assisted by a small but very able corps of assistants. Although the period
of time was short, a long memoir on the planetary inequalities has appeared.
The last contribution of Professor Newcomb to science is an article in the
Monthly Notices for January, 1909, exhibiting the deviations of the moon’s
mean longitude from the best theory that, so far, has been devised.
In the intervals of leisure between his labors of a more technical kind,
Professor Newcomb composed a book on “Popular Astronomy.” Al¬
though the rapid advance of the science in the more than thirty years since
its publication has caused it to fall behind, it still remains the best composi¬
tion on the subject.
Professor Newcomb contributed a vast number of notes on almost every
conceivable topic in astronomy and the allied sciences to the scientific
periodicals. (In this connection it may be useful to state that the Royal
Society of Canada has published a bibliography.) He had the management
of the construction of tables for the Watson asteroids. He found time to
352
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
treat questions in economics and psychics and even wrote a novel. No
matter how many tools he had in the fire, he was always ready to add to
them. His journeys to observe total solar eclipses, transits of the interior
planets and to collect scientific data from the observatories and libraries of
Europe are too numerous for mention.
With almost universal consent, it is admitted that, for the last forty years
of his life, Professor Newcomb stood at the head of the cultivators of the
astronomy of position. And he did not have to complain of lack of apprecia¬
tion by his fellows; after he had, got fairly started in his scientific career, a
continual flow of medals, prizes, degrees and honorary memberships in
scientific societies came for his reception, till the possibilities were exhausted.
His departure leaves a great gap in the band of astronomers. It will be
long before we again have one of equal untiring energy.
MEMOIR OF KAKICHI MITSUKURI.1
By Bashford Dean.
We are to record to-night, and with sincere regret, the death of Professor
Kakichi Mitsukuri, the most distinguished zoologist of Japan, honorary
member in the Academy since 1908 and a corresponding member since 1900.
He was to us who are zoologists more than an honorary member, for he was
with us at our meetings on several occasions, and to a number of our acad¬
emicians he was a close and valued friend. Thus to Professor Wilson, one
time chairman of the Biological Section and president of the Academy,
he was a fellow student at Johns Hopkins and at Yale. To those of us who
have visited Japan, he was literally the best of friends, for there was no favor
which he left undone, and this is to say much, for his influence reached far
and wide, from the Hokkaido to remote Tosa. Everywhere he seemed
to have effective friends, from Governors of Provinces whose suite would
come in state to the railroad station, to fisher-people vdiose personal property
appeared to begin and end with a sampan.
Mitsukuri owed his training in large part to the United States. He came
here as a youth of fifteen, went to Sheffield Scientific School and later to
Johns Hopkins. There he was appointed fellowr in zoology in 1881. In
1883 he vras given his degree. Before this, however, he had returned to
Japan and had become head of the department of zoology in Tokyo Uni-
1 Dr. Mitsukuri died 12 September, 1909, having been an Honorary Member of the Acad¬
emy since 1908. This memorial was read at the Academy meeting of January 3, 1910.
MEMOIR OF JOHN HENRY CASWELL
353
versity. In this position he supplanted Professor Whitman and was one of
the first of his countrymen to carry on the highest educational work on
foreign lines without the help of Europeans. Mitsukuri trained most of the
younger generation of Japanese zoologists, and he sacrificed to no little
degree his important researches in his time-consuming devotion to his pupils.
He was in the laboratory at all times and always accessible, and he had an
affectionate friendliness of manner which means so much to the student, be
he foreign or Japanese. Then, too, he had the gift executive; he accom¬
plished things, — in many regards he reminded one of Spencer F. Baird.
He could make converts who worked, he made friends who supported his
plans, he could be diplomatic without sacrificing an atom of principle, he
had zoological argosies sailing to all parts of the island empire, even to
remote Tai Wan or to Sagahlien, he was big enough not to despise applied
zoology, even to be willing to lend it his own strong hand. As an instance
of this he showed keen interest in the pearl problem — wdiich his pupil Dr.
Nishikawa finally solved. And he sacrificed much of his time in accepting a
commissionership in the Behring Sea seal inquiry at the time it was causing
international unrest. To zoologists, Mitsukuri will ever be known for his
researches in reptilian embryology, for his work was accurate, philosophical
in its bearings and carried out with artistic completeness. In a word,
Mitsukuri did much and in many directions. Perhaps at the end if we
could have read his mind we would have found that what he prized most
highly in his life work was his successful patriotism, not at home, of course,
where all are born patriotic, but in teaching to a foreign world the ideals of
Great Japan. For everyone who knew Mitsukuri knew something of the
real Japan, and from it came to many Europeans a higher regard and respect
for the Japanese, whether poor or rich, peasant or scholar. We may
altogether safely say that in the death of Mitsukuri our Academy has lost a
member whom it was an honor to honor.
MEMOIR OF JOHN HENRY CASWELL.1
By James F. Kemp.
John Henry Caswell, in whose memory these lines are prepared, was born
in New York City December twenty-seventh, eighteen hundred forty six.
With the exception of several years of student life abroad and of occasional
1 Dr. Caswell died October 16, 1909, having been an Active Member of the Academy since
1869. This memorial was read at the Academy meeting of December 6, 1909.
354
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
journeys for the enjoyment of travel, his native city was his continued home
and with its institutions and its scientific and philanthropic work he was
identified during his sixty-three years of useful life.
On completing his preparation in the schools, Mr. Caswell entered
Columbia College in 1861 and graduated in 1865. During his college course
he came under the influence of Professor Charles A. Joy, then occupying the
chair of chemistry, a man of enthusiastic devotion to science and of especial
interest in mineralogy. Professor Joy had earlier received European train¬
ing; he was an old student of Bunsen’s and was one who turned eagerly to
the renewal of his pleasant relations with his old professors in Germany.
On Mr. Caswell’s graduation he accompanied Professor Jov to Europe, and
in the autumn was enrolled in the famous old Mining Academy at Frieberg.
Three very happy years of study ensued, varied during the vacations by trips
to the mining districts of Norway and Sweden and of the Hartz Mountains.
During his residence at Freiberg, Mr. Caswell had as fellow-students Arnold
Hague now of the United States Geological Survey, Professor H. B. Corn¬
wall of Princeton and A. D. Hodges, Jr., later to be an engineer of exceptional
influence in the mining development of this country. All three remained his
lifelong friends. Mr. Caswell, who had from boyhood loved natural science
like many another Freiberger, became still more strongly enamoured of
mineralogy and found in its pursuit one of the great enjoyments of his life.
In 1864, the School of Mines of Columbia College was established so
that on his return to New York in 1868 Mr. Caswell became assistant in
mineralogy to Professor Thomas Egleston. For three years he held this
position, but the death of his father in 1871 compelled him for the time
being to resign his scientific work and devote himself to the business of the
estate. While connected with the Columbia School of Mines the “Wander¬
lust” did not fail to seize him, and it was so strong that his summer months
were spent with his friend Air. Hodges in the mines of what is now Colorado
and in Nevada and California.
Mr. Caswell continued his interest in mineralogy despite his immersion
in business cares. In 1874 he resumed his position in the School of Mines
and held it for three years. During this period Henry Newton and Walter
P. Jenney were engaged in the geological survey of the Black Hills of Dakota.
Their collections embraced great numbers of igneous rocks which were
obviously of unusual scientific interest. When they came to New York to
work up their results in Professor Newberry’s laboratory, they persuaded
Mr. Caswell, then in the department of mineralogy, to undertake the micro¬
scopic investigation of this material. Petrography was in its infancy. A
few Americans returning from European study had learned something of it
abroad, and one or two Americans had busied themselves in its pursuit
MEMOIR OF JOHN HENRY CASWELL
355
without the advantages of foreign training. Practically the only published
work before this time is contained in the observations of A. A. Julien on the
rocks of Wisconsin and in the papers of E. S. Dana on the traps of the
Connecticut Valley. Microscopes were far less convenient instruments
than they have since become, and the study of the optics of crystals and the
use of polarized light, always a difficult subject, presented exceptional
obscurites. Nevertheless Mr. Caswell set to work, and, with the sympa¬
thetic aid of Professor Egleston and Dr. Julien and with the help of Dr.
Waller in the preparation of chemical analyses, became, as the results prove,
extremely skillful and accurate.
It is also worthy of remark that at this time the headquarters of the
Fortieth Parallel Survey were in New York, so that Mr. Caswell found
himself in association with his old friend and fellow-student at Freiberg,
Mr. Arnold Hague. In the preface of the sixth volume of the reports of
this survey, Professor Zirkel, in addressing Clarence King, speaks as follows:
“I cannot fail to gratefully acknowledge how much invaluable assistance
I owe to you and to your excellent fellow-workmen, Messrs. S. F. Emmons
and Arnold Hague. You well remember that happy time in New Aork
when for many weeks we made together the preliminary examination of that
vast collection of rocks, you had gathered under such difficulties, but with
such eminent geological taste.” We can well imagine the enthusiasm with
which this subject was taken up, under the stimulus of Professor Zirkel’s
personality, since there are few teachers who have become so universally
esteemed and beloved as himself. Under these circumstances the study of
the Black Hills rocks was begun by Mr. Caswell, and his report furnishes
one of the most important chapters in this invaluable work. The collection
embraced a series of rhyolites, trachytes and, what was of extraordinary
interest at the time, phonolites, the first of this rare type to be identified in
America. Noav, nephelite, the diagnostic constituent of phonolites, is one
of the most elusive of the more important rock-making minerals and time
and again in these early years had either slipped by the older observers or
else had been confounded with apatite. It was, however, correctly deter¬
mined by Air. Caswell and its recognition enabled him to describe and illus¬
trate this new and interesting occurrence.
There is one other feature of Air. Caswell’s report which demands men¬
tion, and that is found in the plates, which were based upon his drawings
from the microscope. They are of singular fidelity and beauty. Although
prepared at so early a date they have been rarely if at all surpassed in later
years.
The work upon all branches of the Black Hills geology was delayed in
publication by the unfortunate jealousies then prevailing among the four
356
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
national surveys, and was still further postponed by the untimely death of
Henry Newton in Deadwood, August 5th, 1877. Not until three years later,
and then under the skilful and sympathetie editorship of G. K. Gilbert, was
the volume issued. Nevertheless Mr. Caswell’s work on the petrography of
the Hills will always be associated in the minds of students of the subject
with Zirkel’s Report for the Fortieth Parallel Survey (1876) and George
Hawes’s Lithology of New Hampshire (1878).
In 1877 business responsibilities again drew Mr. Caswell away from his
position as teacher of mineralogy, and he reluctantly gave up his prospect of
a professor’s chair. None the less, however, his interest in mineralogy
continued all his life, and his collection, the delight of his leisure hours,
became an exceedingly choice one. He kept up his connection with fellow
mineralogists all over the world and has had one mineral “caswellite” named
after him by his fellow-student at Columbia and life-long friend, Professor
Albert H. Chester, whom, in fact, he had succeeded when becoming assistant
to Professor Egleston in 1869.
In his later years, Mr. Caswell occupied many positions of trust in New
York. For years he was on the Finance Committee of the New York
Academy of Sciences. At his decease, October 16th, 1909, but six active
members exceeded him in length of membership. He was a vestry-man of
Trinity Church and was treasurer of several Church Institutions, for one of
which he raised a fund of over $200,000. He was a member of the
Century Association, was deeply interested in the Grolier Club and was a
supporter of many scientific societies in the Metropolis.
In character, Mr. Caswell was marked by exceptional modesty, sincerity
and faithfulness. All through his life he was marked by his loyalty to his
friends, not only those of his student days but even those of his boyhood. He
was ever ready to be of assistance in scientific matters and was constantly
helpful in other relations to those who sought his aid. All who were privi¬
leged to have known him, will cherish his remembrance through life.
In eighteen seventy-two, Mr. Caswell was married to Mary B. Curtiss,
who survives him after many years of close and sympathetic companionship.
THE ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES.
THE ORIGINAL CHARTER.
AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE
LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK.
Passed April 20, 1818.
Whereas, The members of the Lyceum of Natural History have peti¬
tioned for an act of incorporation, and the Legislature, impressed with the
importance of the study of Natural History, as connected with the wants,
the comforts and the happiness of mankind, and conceiving it their duty to
encourage all laudable attempts to promote the progress of science in this
State — therefore,
1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of New York represented in
Senate and Assembly, That Samuel L. Mitchill, Casper W. Eddy, Frederick
C. Schaeffer, Nathaniel Paulding, William Cooper, Benjamin P. Kissam,
John Torrey, William Cumberland, D’Jureo V. Knevels, James Clements
and James Pierce, and such other persons as now are, and may from time to
time become members, shall be, and hereby are constituted a body cor¬
porate and politic, bv the name of Lyceum of Natural History in the
City of New York, and that by that name they shall have perpetual
succession, and shall be persons capable of suing and being sued, pleading
and being impleaded, answering and being answered unto, defending and
being defended, in all courts and places whatsoever; and may have a com¬
mon seal, with power to alter the same from time to time; and shall be
capable of purchasing, taking, holding, and enjoying to them and their
successors, any real estate in fee simple or otherwise, and any goods, chattels,
and personal estate, and of selling, leasing, or otherwise disposing of said
real or personal estate, or any part thereof, at their will and pleasure: Pro¬
vided always, that the clear annual value or income of such real or personal
estate shall not exceed the sum of five thousand dollars: Provided, however,
that the funds of the said Corporation shall be used and appropriated to the
promotion of the objects stated in the preamble to this act, and those only.
2. And be it further enacted, That the said Society shall from time to
time, forever hereafter, have power to make, constitute, ordain, and estab-
357
358
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
lish such by-laws and regulations as they shall judge proper, for the election
of their officers; for prescribing their respective functions, and the mode of
discharging the same; for the admission of new members; for the govern¬
ment of the officers and members thereof; for collecting annual contribu¬
tions from the members towards the funds thereof ; for regulating the times
and places of meeting of the said Society; for suspending or expelling such
members as shall neglect or refuse to comply with the by-laws or regulations,
and for the managing or directing the affairs and concerns of the said Society :
Provided such by-laws and regulations be not repugnant to the Constitution
and laws of this State or of the United States.
3. And be it further enacted, That the officers of the said Society shall
consist of a President and two Vice-Presidents, a Corresponding Secretary,
a Recording Secretary, a Treasurer, and five Curators, and such other
officers as the Society may judge necessary; who shall be annually chosen,
and who shall continue in office for one year, or until others be elected in
their stead; that if the annual election shall not be held at any of the days
for that purpose appointed, it shall be lawful to make such election at any
other day; and that five members of the said Society, assembling at the
place and time designated for that purpose by any by-law or regulation of
the Society, shall constitute a legal meeting thereof.
4. And be it further enacted, That Samuel L. Mitchill shall be the Presi¬
dent; Casper W. Eddy the First Vice-President; Frederick C. Schaeffer
the Second Vice-President; Nathaniel Paulding, Corresponding Secretary;
William Cooper, Recording Secretary; Benjamin P. Kissam, Treasurer,
and John Torrey, William Cumberland, D’Jurco V. Knevels, James
Clements, and James Pierce, Curators; severally to be the first officers of
the said Corporation, who shall hold their respective offices until the twenty-
third day of February next, and until others shall be chosen in their places.
5. And be it further enacted, That the present Constitution of the said
Association shall, after passing of this Act, continue to be the Constitution
thereof; and that no alteration shall be made therein, unless by a vote to
that effect of three-fourths of the resident members, and upon the request
in writing of one-third of such resident members, and submitted at least one
month before any vote shall be taken thereupon.
State of New York, Secretary’s Office.
I certify the preceding to be a true copy of an original Act of the Legis¬
lature of this State, on file in this Office.
Arch’d Campbell,
Dep. Sec’y.
Albany, April 29, 1818.
ORDER OF COURT CHANGING NAME
359
ORDER OF COURT.
ORDER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK TO CHANGE
THE NAME OF
THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE CITY OF
NEW YORK
TO
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Whereas, in pursuance of the vote and proceedings of this Corporation
to change the corporate name thereof from “The Lyceum of Natural History
in the City of New York” to “The New York Academy of Sciences,” which
vote and proceedings appear to record, an application has been made in
behalf of said Corporation to the Supreme Court of the State of New York
to legalize and authorize such change, according to the statute in such case
provided, by Chittenden & Hubbard, acting as the attorneys of the Cor¬
poration, and the said Supreme Court, on the 5th day of January, 1876,
made the following order upon such application in the premises, viz:
At a special term of the Supreme
Court of the State of New York,
held at the Chambers thereof, in
the County Court House, in the
City of New York, the 5th day of
January, 1876:
Present — Hon. Geo. C. Barrett, Justice.
In the matter of the application of j
the Lyceum of Natural History |
in the City of New York to an- j
thorize it to assume the corporate j
name of the New York Academy I
of Sciences.
360
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
On reading and filing the petition of the Lyceum of Natural History in
the City of New York, duly verified by John S. Newberry, the President
and chief officer of said Corporation, to authorize it to assume the corporate
name of the New York Academy of Sciences, duly setting forth the grounds
of said application, and on reading and filing the affidavit of Geo. W.
Quackenbush, showing that notice of such application had been duly
published for six weeks in the State paper, to wit, The Albany Evening
Journal, and the affidavit of David S. Owen, showing that notice of such
application has also been duly published in the proper newspaper of the
County of New York, in which county said Corporation had its business
office, to wit, in The Daily Register, by which it appears to my satisfaction
that such notice has been so published, and on reading and filing the affi¬
davits of Robert H. Browne and J. S. Newberry, thereunto annexed, by which
it appears to my satisfaction that the application is made in pursuance of a
resolution of the managers of said Corporation to that end named, and there
appearing to me to be no reasonable objection to said Corporation so chang¬
ing its name as prayed in said petition: Now on motion of Grosvenor S.
Hubbard, of Counsel for Petitioner, it is
Ordered, That the Lyceum of Natural History in the City of New York
be and is hereby authorized to assume the corporate name of The New York
Academy of Sciences.
Indorsed: Filed January 5, 1876,
A copy.
Wm. Walsh, Clerk.
Resolution of The Academy, accepting the order of the Court, passed
February 21, 1876.
And whereas, The order hath been published as therein required, and
all the proceedings necessary to carry out the same have been had, Therefore:
Resolved, That the foregoing order be and the same is hereby accepted
and adopted by this Corporation, and that in conformity therewith the
corporate name thereof, from and after the adoption of the vote and resolu¬
tion herein above referred to, be and the same is hereby declared to be
THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
AMENDED CHARTER
361
THE AMENDED CHARTER.
March 19, 1902.
Chapter 181 of the Laws of 1902.
An Act to amend chapter one hundred and ninety-seven of the laws of
eighteen hundred and eighteen, entitled “An act to incorporate the Lyceum
of Natural History in the City of New York,” a Corporation now known as
The New York Academy of Sciences and to extend the powers of said
Corporation.
(Became a law March 19, 1902, with the approval of the Governor.
Passed, three-fifths being present.)
The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly,
do enact as follows :
Section I. The Corporation incorporated by chapter one hundred
and ninety-seven of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighteen, entitled
“An act to incorporate the Lyceum of Natural History in the City of New
York,” and formerly known by that name, but now known as The New
York Academy of Sciences through change of name pursuant to order made
by the supreme court at the city and county of New York, on January fifth,
eighteen hundred and seventy-six, is hereby authorized and empowered to
raise money for, and to erect and maintain, a building in the city of New
York for its use, and in which also at its option other scientific societies may
be admitted and have their headquarters upon such terms as said Corpora¬
tion may make with them, portions of which building may be also rented
out by said Corporation for any lawful uses for the purposes of obtaining
income for the maintenance of such building and for the promotion of the
objects of the Corporation; to establish, own, equip, and administer a public
library, and a museum having especial reference to scientific subjects;
to publish communications, transactions, scientific works, and periodicals;
to give scientific instruction by lectures or otherwise; to encourage the
advancement of scientific research and discovery, by gifts of money, prizes,
or other assistance thereto. The building, or rooms, of said Corporation
in the city of Neiv York used exclusively for library or scientific purposes
shall be subject to the provisions and be entitled to the benefits of sub¬
division seven of section four of chapter nine hundred and eight of the laws
of eighteen hundred and ninety-six, as amended.
Section II. The said Corporation shall from time to time forever
hereafter have power to make, constitute, ordain, and establish such by-laws
362
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
and regulations as it shall judge proper for the election of its officers; for
prescribing their respective functions, and the mode of discharging the same;
for the admission of new members; for the government of officers and
members thereof; for collecting dues and contributions towards the funds
thereof; for regulating the times and places of meeting of said Corporation;
for suspending or expelling such members as shall neglect or refuse to comply
with the by-laws or regulations, and for managing or directing the affairs
or concerns of the said Corporation: and may from time to time alter or
modify its constitution, by-laws, rules, and regulations.
Section III. The officers of the said Corporation shall consist of a
president and two or more vice-presidents, a corresponding secretary, a
recording secretary, a treasurer, and such other officers as the Corporation
may judge necessary; who shall be chosen in the manner and for the terms
prescribed by the constitution of the said Corporation.
Section IV. The present constitution of the said Corporation shall,
after the passage of this act, continue to be the constitution thereof until
amended as herein provided. Such constitution as may be adopted by a
vote of not less than three-quarters of such resident members and fellows
of the said New York Academy of Sciences as shall be present at a meeting
thereof, called by the Recording Secretary for that purpose, within forty
days after the passage of this act, by written notice duly mailed, postage
prepaid, and addressed to each fellow and resident member at least ten days
before such meeting, at his last known place of residence, with street and
number when known, which meeting shall be held within three months
after the passage of this act, shall be thereafter the constitution of the said
New York Academy of Sciences, subject to alteration or amendment in the
manner provided by such constitution.
Section V. The said Corporation shall have power to consolidate,
to unite, to co-operate, or to ally itself with any other society or association
in the city of New York organized for the promotion of the knowledge or
the study of any science, or of research therein, and for this purpose to
receive, hold, and administer real and personal property for the uses of such
consolidation, union, co-operation, or alliance subject to such terms and
regulations as may be agreed upon with such associations or societies.
Section VI. This act shall take effect immediately.
State of New York,
Office of the Secretary of State.
I have compared the preceding with the original law on file in this office,
and do hereby certify that the same is a correct transcript therefrom, and
the whole of said original law.
CONSTITUTION
363
Given under my hand and the seal of office of the Secretary of State, at
the city of Albany, this eighth day of April, in the year one thousand nine
hundred and two.
John T. McDonough,
Secretary of State.
CONSTITUTION.
Adopted, April 24, 1902, and Amended at Subsequent Times.
Article I. The name of this Corporation shall be The New York
Academy of Sciences. Its object shall be the advancement and diffusion
of scientific knowledge, and the center of its activities shall be in the City of
New York.
Article II. The Academy shall consist of five classes of members,
namely: Active Members, Fellows, Associate Members, Corresponding
Members and Honorary Members. Active Members shall be the members
of the Corporation who live in or near the City of New York, or who, having
removed to a distance, desire to retain their connection with the Academy.
Fellows shall be chosen from the Active Members in virtue of their scientific
attainments. Corresponding and Honorary Members shall be chosen from
among the men of science of the world who have attained distinction as
investigators. The number of Corresponding Members shall not exceed
two hundred, and the number of Honorary Members shall not exceed fifty.
Article III. None but Fellows and Active Members who have paid
their dues up to and including the last fiscal year shall be entitled to vote or
to hold office in the Academy.
Article IV. The officers of the Academy shall be a President, as many
Vice-Presidents as there are sections of the Academy, a Corresponding
Secretary, a Recording Secretary, a Treasurer, a Librarian, an Editor, six
elected Councilors and one additional Councilor from each allied society
or association. The annual election shall be held on the third Monday in
December, the officers then chosen to take office at the first meeting in
January following.
There shall also be elected at the same time a Finance Committee of three.
Article V. The officers named in Article IV shall constitute a Council,
which shall be the executive body of the Academy with general control over
its affairs, including the power to fill acl interim any vacancies that may
occur in the offices. Past Presidents of the Academy shall be ex-officio
members of the Council.
Article VI. Societies organized for the study of any branch of science
364
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
may become allied with the New York Academy of Sciences by consent of
the Council. Members of allied societies may become Active Members of
the Academy by paying the Academy's annual fee, but as members of an
allied society they shall be Associate Members with the rights and privileges
of other Associate Members, except the receipt of its publications. Each
allied society shall have the right to delegate one of its members, who is also
an Active Member of the Academy, to the Council of the Academy, and such
delegate shall have all the rights and privileges of other Councilors.
Article VII. The President and Vice-Presidents shall not be eligible
to more than one re-election until three years after retiring from office; the
Secretaries and Treasurer shall be eligible to re-election without limitation.
The President, Vice-presidents and Secretaries shall be Fellows. The
terms of office of elected Councilors shall be three years, and these officers
shall be so grouped that two, at least one of whom shall be a Fellow, shall
be elected and two retired each year. Councilors shall not be eligible to
re-election until after the expiration of one year.
Article VII. The election of officers shall be by ballot, and the
candidates having the greatest number of votes shall be declared duly elected.
Article IX. Ten members, the majority of whom shall be Fellows,
shall form a quorum at any meeting of the Academy at which business is
transacted.
Article X. The Academy shall establish by-laws, and may amend
them from time to time as therein provided.
Article XI. This Constitution may be amended by a vote of not less
than three fourths of the fellows and three fourths of the active members
present and voting at a regular business meeting of the Academy, provided
that such amendment shall be publicly submitted in writing at the preceding
business meeting, and provided also that the Recording Secretary shall send
a notice of the proposed amendment at least ten days before the meeting,
at which a vote shall be taken, to each Fellow and Active Member entitled
to vote.
BY-LAWS.
As Adopted, October 6, 1902, and Amended at Subsequent Times.
Chapter I.
OFFICERS.
1. President. It shall be the duty of the President to preside at the
business and special meetings of the Academy; he shall exercise the cus¬
tomary duties of a presiding officer.
BY-LAWS
365
2. Vice-Presidents. In the absence of the President, the senior Vice-
President, in order of Fellowship, shall act as the presiding officer.
3. Corresponding Secretary. The Corresponding Secretary shall keep
a corrected list of the Honorary and Corresponding Members, their titles
and addresses, and shall conduct all correspondence with them. He shall
make a report at the Annual Meeting.
4. Recording Secretary. The Recording Secretary shall keep the
minutes of the Academy proceedings; he shall have charge of all documents
belonging to the Academy, and of its corporate seal, which he shall affix and
attest as directed by the Council; he shall keep a corrected list of the Active
Members and Fellows, and shall send them announcements of the Meetings
of the Academy; he shall notify all Members and Fellows of their election,
and committees of their appointment; he shall give notice to the Treasurer
and to the Council of matters requiring their action, and shall bring before
the Academy business presented by the Council. He shall make a report at
the Annual Meeting.
5. Treasurer. The Treasurer shall have charge, under the direction
of the Council, of all moneys belonging to the Academy, and of their invest¬
ment. He shall receive all fees, dues and contributions to the Academy,
and any income that may accrue from property or investment; he shall report
to the Council at its last meeting before the Annual Meeting the names of
members in arrears; he shall keep the property of the Academy insured,
and shall pay all debts against the Academy the discharge of which shall be
ordered by the Council. He shall report to the Council from time to time
the state of the finances, and at the Annual Meeting shall report to the
Academy the receipts and expenditures for the entire year.
6. Librarian. The Librarian shall have charge of the library, under
the general direction of the Library Committee of the Council, and shall
conduct all correspondence respecting exchanges of the Academy. He
shall make a report on the condition of the library at the Annual Meeting.
7. Editor. The editor shall have charge of the publications of the
Academy, under the general direction of the Publication Committee of the
Council. He shall make a report on the condition of the publications at
the Annual Meeting.
Chapter II.
COUNCIL.
1. Meetings. The Council shall meet once a month, or at the call of
the President. It shall have general charge of the affairs of the Academy.
2. Quorum. Five members of the Council shall constitute a quorum.
366
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OE SCIENCES
3. Officers. The President, Vice-Presidents and Recording Secretary
of the Academy shall hold the same offices in the Council.
4. Committees. The Standing Committees of the Council shall be:
(1) an Executive Committee consisting of the President, Treasurer, and
Recording Secretary; (2) a Committee on Publications; (3) a Committee
on the Library, and such other committees as from time to time shall be
authorized by the Council. The action of these committees shall be subject
to revision by the Council.
Chapter III.
FINANCE COMMITTEE.
The Finance Committee of the Academy shall audit the Annual Report
of the Treasurer, and shall report on financial questions whenever called
upon to do so by the Council.
Chapter IV.
ELECTIONS.
1. Active Members, (a) Active Members shall be nominated in
writing to the Council by at least two active Members or Fellows. If
approved by the Council, they may be elected at the succeeding business
meeting.
( b ) Any Active Member who, having removed to a distance from the
city of New York, shall nevertheless express a desire to retain his connection
with the Academy, may be placed by vote of the Council on a list of Non¬
resident Members. Such members shall relinquish the full privileges and
obligations of Active Members. ( Vide Chapters V and X.)
2. Associate Members. Workers in science may be elected to Associate
Membership for a period of two years in the manner prescribed for Active
Members. They shall not have the power to vote and shall not be eligible
to election as fellows, but may receive the publications. At any time sub¬
sequent to their election they may assume the full privileges of Active Mem¬
bers by paying the dues of such Members.
3. Fellows, Corresponding Members and Honorary Members. Nomi¬
nations for Fellows, Corresponding Members, and Honorary Members may
be made in writing either to the Recording Secretary or to the Council at its
meeting prior to the Annual Meeting. If approved by the Council, the
nominees shall then be balloted for at the Annual Meeting.
4. Officers. Nominations for Officers, with the exception of Vice-
BY-LAWS
367
Presidents, may be sent in writing to the Recording Secretary, with the name
of the proposer, at any time not less than thirty days before the Annual
Meeting. Each section of the Academy shall nominate a candidate for
Vice-President, who, on election, shall be Chairman of the section; the
names of such nominees shall be sent to the Recording Secretary properly
certified by the sectional secretaries, not less than thirty days before the
Annual Meeting. The Council shall then prepare a list which shall be the
regular ticket. This list shall be mailed to each Active Member and Fellow
at least one week before the Annual Meeting. But any Active Member or
Fellow entitled to vote shall be entitled to prepare and vote another ticket.
Chapter V.
DUES.
1. Dues. The annual dues of Active Members and Fellows shall be
$10, payable in advance at the time of the Annual Meeting; but new mem¬
bers elected after May 1, shall pay $5 for the remainder of the fiscal year.
The annual dues of elected Associate Members shall be $3, payable in
advance at the time of the Annual Meeting.
Non-resident Members shall be exempt from dues, so long as they shall
relinquish the privileges of Active Membership. (Vide Chapter X.)
2. Members in Arrears. If any Active Member or Fellow whose dues
remain unpaid for more than one year, shall neglect or refuse to pay the
same within three months after notification by the Treasurer, his name may
be erased from the rolls by vote of the Council. Upon payment of his
arrears, however, such person may be restored to Active Membership or
Fellowship bv vote of the Council.
3. Renewal of Membership. Any Active Member or Fellow who shall
resign because of removal to a distance from the City of New York, or any
Non-resident Member, may be restored by vote of the Council to Active
Membership or Fellowship at any time upon application.
Chapter VI.
PATRONS, DONORS AND LIFE MEMBERS.
1. Patrons. Any person contributing at one time $1000 to the general
funds of the Academy shall be a Patron and, on election by the Council,
shall enjoy all the privileges of Active Members.
2. Donors. Any person contributing $50 or more annually to the
general funds of the Academy shall be termed a Donor and, on election by
the Council, shall enjoy all the privileges of Active Members.
368
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OE SCIENCES
3. Life Members. Any Active Member or Fellow contributing at one
time $100 to the general funds of the Academy shall be a Life Member and
shall thereafter be exempt from annual dues; and any Active Member or
Fellow who has paid annual dues for twenty-five years or more may, upon
his written request, be made a life member and be exempt from further
payment of dues.
Chapter VII.
SECTIONS.
1. Sections. Sections devoted to special branches of Science may be
established or discontinued by the Academy on the recommendation of the
Council. The present sections of the Academy are the Section of Astronomy,
Physics and Chemistry, the Section of Biology, the Section of Geology and
Mineralogy and the Section of Anthropology and Psychology.
2. Organization. Each section of the Academy shall have a Chairman
and a Secretary, who shall have charge of the meetings of their Section.
The regular election of these officers shall take place at the October or
November meeting of the section, the officers then chosen to take office at
the first meeting in January following.
3. Affiliation. Members of scientific societies affiliated with the
Academy, and members of the Scientific Alliance, or men of science intro¬
duced by members of the Academy, may attend the meetings and present
papers under the general regulations of the Academy.
Chapter VIII.
MEETINGS.
1. Business Meetings. Business meetings of the Academy shall be
held on the first Monday of each month from October to May inclusive.
2. Sectional Meetings. Sectional meetings shall be held on Monday
evenings from October to May inclusive, and at such other times as the
Council may determine. The sectional meeting shall follow the business
meeting when both occur on the same evening.
3. Annual Meeting. The Annual Meeting shall be held on the third
Monday in December.
4. Special Meetings. A special meeting may be called by the Council,
provided one week’s notice be sent to each Active Member and Fellow,
stating the object of such meeting.
BY-LAWS
369
Chapter IX.
ORDER OF BUSINESS.
1. Business Meetings. The following shall be the order of procedure
at business meetings:
1. Minutes of the previous business meeting.
2. Report of the Council.
3. Reports of Committees.
4. Elections.
5. Other business.
2. Sectional Meetings. The following shall be the order of procedure
at sectional meetings:
1. Minutes of the preceding meeting of the section.
2. Presentation and discussion of papers.
3. Other scientific business.
3. Annual Meetings. The following shall be the order of procedure
at Annual Meetings:
1. Annual reports of the Corresponding Secretary, Recording Secre¬
tary, Treasurer, Librarian, and Editor.
2. Election of Honorary Members, Corresponding Members, and
Fellows.
3. Election of officers for the ensuing year.
4. Annual address of the retiring President.
Chapter X.
PUB LIC A TIONS.
1. Publications. The established publications of the Academy shall
be the Annals and the Memoirs. They shall be issued by the Editor under
the supervision of the Committee on Publications.
2. Distribution. One copy of all publications shall be sent to each
Patron, Life Member, Active Member and Fellow, 'provided, that upon
enquiry by the Editor such Members or Fellows shall signify their desire to
receive them.
3. Publication Fund. Contributions may be received for the publica¬
tion fund, and the income thereof shall be applied toward defraying the
expenses of the scientific publications of the Academy.
370
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Chapter XI.
GENERAL PROVISIONS.
1. Debts. No debts shall be incurred on behalf of the Academy, unless
authorized by the Council.
2. Bills. All bills submitted to the Council must be certified as to
correctness by the officers incurring them.
3. Divestments. All the permanent funds of the Academy shall be
invested in United States or in New York State securities or in first mortgages
on real estate, provided they shall not exceed sixty-five per cent, of the value
of the property, or in first mortgage bonds of corporations which have paid
dividends continuously on their common stock for a period of not less than
five years. All income from patron’s fees, life membership fees and donor’s
fees shall be added to the permanent fund.
4. Expulsion, etc. Any Member or Fellow may be censured, sus¬
pended or expelled, for violation of the Constitution or By-Laws, or for
any offence deemed sufficient, by a vote of three fourths of the Members
and three fourths of the Fellows present at any business meeting, provided
such action shall have been recommended by the Council at a previous
business meeting, and also, that one month’s notice of such recommendation
and of the offence charged shall have been given the Member accused.
5. Changes in By-Laws. No alteration shall be made in these By-
Laws unless it shall have been submitted publicly in writing at a business
meeting, shall have been entered on the Minutes with the names of the
Members or Fellows proposing it, and shall be adopted by two-thirds of the
Members and Fellows present and voting at a subsequent business meeting.
MEMBERSHIP OF THE
NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
31 December, 1909.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Elected.
1887. Alexander Agassiz, Cambridge, Mass.
1898. Arthur Auwers, Berlin, Germany.
1889. Charles Barrois, Lille, France.
1907. William Bateson, Cambridge, England.
1901. Charles Vernon Boys, London, England.
1904. W. C. Brogger, Christiana, Norway.
1887. William Henry Dali.inger, London, England.
1899. Sir George Howard Darwin, Cambridge, England.
1876. W. Boyd Dawkins, Manchester, England.
1902. Sir James Dewar, Cambridge, England.
1901. Emil Fischer, Berlin, Germany.
1876. Sir Archibald Geikie, Haslemere, Surrey, England.
1901. James Geikie, Edinburgh, Scotland.
1898. Sir David Gill, London, England.
1909. K. F. Gobel, Munich, Germany.
1889. George Lincoln Goodale, Cambridge, Mass.
1909. Paul von Groth, Munich, Germany.
1894. Ernst Hackel, Jena, Germany.
1899. Julius Hann, Vienna, Austria.
1898. George W. Hill, West Nyack, N. Y.
1907. J. D. Hooker, Kew, England.
1896. Ambrosius A. W. Hubrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.
1901. William James, Cambridge, Mass.
1896. Felix Klein, Gottingen, Germany.
1909. Alfred Lacroix, Paris, France.
1876. Viktor von Lang, Vienna, Austria.
1898. E. Ray Lankester, London, England.
1880. Sir Norman Lockyer, London, England.
1900. Franz Leydig, Tauber, Germany.
371
372
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1898. Fridtjof Nansen, Christiana, Norway.
1908. Wilhelm Ostwald, Gross-Bothen, Germany.
1898. Albrecht Penck, Berlin, Germany.
1898. Wilhelm Pfeffer, Leipzig, Germany.
1900. Edward Charles Pickering, Cambridge, Mass.
1900. Jules Henri Poincare, Paris, France.
1901. Sir William Ramsay, London, England.
1899. Lord Rayleigh, Witham, Essex, England.
1898. Hans H. Reusch, Christiana, Norway.
1887. Sir Henry Enfield Roscoe, London, England.
1887. Heinrich Rosenbusch, Heidelberg, Germany.
1904. Karl von den Steinen, Berlin, Germany.
1904. G. Johnstone Stoney, London, England.
1908. Eduard Strasburger, Bonn, Germany.
1896. Joseph John Thomson, Cambridge, England.
1900. Edward Burnett Tylor, Oxford, England.
1904. Hugo de Vries, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
1907. James Ward, Cambridge, England.
1909. August Weissmann, Freiburg, Germany.
1904. Wilhelm Wundt, Leipzig, Germany.
1904. Ferdinand Zirkel, Leipzig, Germany.
DECEASED HONORARY MEMBERS.
1820. Pedro Abadia, Lima, Peru.
1876. R. Ackermann, Stockholm, Sweden.
1820. C. A. Agardte, Lund, Sweden.
1836. Louis Agassiz, Cambridge, Mass.
1836. George A. Walker Arnott, Kingcross.
1817. Hoffman Bang, Odense, Denmark.
1827. Jons Jakob Berzelius, Stockholm, Sweden.
1817. Lesueur Bigelow.
1817. Bivona, Palermo, Sicily.
1898. W. K. Brooks, Baltimore, Md.
1897. Robert Brown, London, England.
1828. William Buckland, Oxford, England.
1876. Robert Bunsen, Heidelberg, Germany.
1852. Alph. de Candolle, Geneva, Switzerland.
1817. Augustin Pyrame de Candolle, Montpellier, France.
1876. William P. Carpenter.
LIST OF HONORARY MEMBERS
373
1817. H. Casstrom, Stockholm, Sweden.
1883. Michel Eugene Chevreul, Paris, France.
1817. Bracey Clark, London, England.
1819. Parker Cleveland.
1818. DeWitt Clinton, Albany, N. Y.
1819. Jules Cloquet, Paris, France.
1817. Jaccheus Collins, Philadelphia, Pa.
1876. James Croll, Edinburgh, Scotland.
1852. James D. Dana, New Haven, Conn.
1879. Charles Darwin, London, England.
1876. J. W. Dawson, Montreal, Canada.
1830. Count Dejian, Paris, France.
1836. Henry De la BkcHE, London, England.
1852. G. P. Deshayes, Paris, France.
1876. Henri St. Clair Deville, Paris, France.
1876. A. Descloiseuux, Paris, France.
1876. Jean Baptiste Dumas, Paris, France.
1817. Adolf Ebeling, Hamburg, Germany.
1876. Philip Egerton, England.
- . Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Berlin, Germany.
1817. Stephen Elliot, Charleston, S. C.
1836. Christian G. N. von Esenbeck, Breslau, Germanv.
1827. Baron Ferussac, Paris, France.
1852. G. Fischer, Moscow, Russia.
1879. Hoppolyte L. Fizeau, Paris, France.
1887. W. H. Flow'er, London, England.
1879. Edward Frankland, London, England.
1817. Freehauf, Nazareth, Pa.
1876. Hans Geinitz, Dresden, Germany.
1819. George Gibbs, Newport, R. I.
1889. Wolcott Gibbs, New York, N. Y.
1852. Asa Gray, Cambridge, Mass.
1823. Robert K. Greville, Edinburgh, Scotland.
1836. Gruelin, Tubingen, Germany.
1876. L. Gruner, Paris, France.
1877. Arnold Guyot, Princeton, N. J.
1889. Asaph Hall, Washington, D. C.
1852. James Hall, Albany, N. Y.
1852. William H. Harvey, Dublin, Ireland.
1817. Rene Just Hauy, Paris, France.
1876. Oswald Heer, Zurich, Germany.
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
374
1876. Joseph Henry, Washington, D. C.
1876. A. W. Hofmann, Berlin, Germany.
1852. John E. Holbrook, Charleston, S. C.
1817. Benjamin Homans, Washington, D. C.
1823. William Jackson Hooker, Glasgow, Scotland.
1818. David Hosack, New York, N. Y.
1827. Alexander von Humboldt, Hamburg, Germany.
1891. T. Sterry Hunt, Ottawa, Canada.
1817. Thomas Jefferson, Monticello, Va.
1879. James P. Joule, Sale, Eng., Italy, Australia.
1879. Gustavus Kirchoff, Berlin, Germany.
1817. George Christian Knapp, Halle, Germany.
1879. Nicholas V. Kochscharow, St. Petersburg, Russia.
1817. John Lambert, London, England.
1823. V. F. Lamorous, Caen, France.
1887. S. P. Langley, Washington, D. C.
1827. M. Latreille, Paris, France.
1830. John Lindley, London, England.
1824. John G. C. Lehman, Hamburg, Germany.
1887. Joseph Leidy, Philadelphia, Pa.
1836. Charles Lyell, London, England.
1817. James MacBride, Charleston, S. C.
1821. William McClure, Philadelphia, Pa.
1817. William J. MacNevin.
1876. Clerk Maxwell, Cambridge, Mass.
1888. G. Meneghini, Italy.
1852. H. Milne-Ed wards, Paris, France.
1908. Kakichi Mitsukuri Tokio, Japan.
1896. Henri Moissan, Paris, France.
1817. James Monroe, Washington, D. C.
1836. Roderick Impey Murchison, London, England.
1891 . Simon Newcomb, Washington, D. C.
1817. Noel, Paris, France.
1817. E. Nott, Schenectady, N. Y.
1879. Richard Owen, London, England.
1817. Charles W. Peale, Philadelphia, Pa.
1879. I. L. A. de Quatrefages, Paris, France.
1882. Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, London, England.
1823. Stephen von Renselaer, Troy, N. Y.
1876. H. F. Richter, Freiburg, Germany.
1900. Henry A. Rowland, Baltimore, Md.
LIST OF CORRESPONDING MEMBERS
375
1879.
1817.
1876.
1817.
1819.
1817.
1817.
1817.
1817.
1889.
1836.
1817.
1890.
1828.
1836.
1876.
1887.
1836.
1841.
1898.
1841.
1887.
1876.
1876.
1878.
1898.
1883.
1898.
1891.
1890.
1899.
1876.
1899.
1898.
1878.
1867.
1897.
Warren de la Rue, London, England.
Gaetano Savi, Pisa, Italy.
Pietro Angelo Secchi, Rome, Italy.
Correa de Serra.
Benjamin Silliman, New Haven, Conn.
Charles Hamilton Smith, Antwerp, Belgium.
James Edward Smith, London, England.
C. L. Somme, Antwerp, Belgium.
Henry Steinhauer, Bethlehem, Pa.
George G. Stokes, London, England.
Alex. Gregorievitch Strogonoff, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Joseph G. Swift, West Point, N. Y.
Josef Szabo, Buda-Pesth, Hungary.
Thomas Thomson, Glasgow, Scotland.
C. B. Trinius, St. Petersburg, Russia.
P. Ritter von Turner, Seoben.
John Tyndall, London, England.
Achille Valenciennes, Paris, France.
Edouard de Verneuil, Paris, France.
R. Virchow, Berlin, Germany.
Chas. Fred. Philip Von Martins, Munich, Germany.
Ferdinand Von Miller, Melbourne, Australia.
Frederick Wohler, Gottingen, Germany.
Adolphe Wurtz, Paris, France.
Charles A. Young, Princeton, N. J.
Karl von Zittel, Munich, Germany.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Charles Conrad Abbott, Trenton, N. J.
Frank D. Adams, Montreal, Canada.
Jose G. Aguilera, Mexico City, Mexico.
William DeWitt Alexander, Honolulu, Hawaii.
C. W. Andrews, London, England.
John Howard Appleton, Providence, R. I.
J. G. Baker, Kew, England.
Isaac Bagley Balfour, Edinburgh, Scotland.
Alexander Graham Bell, Washington, D. C.
Edward L. Berthoud, Golden, Colo.
Herbert Bolton, Bristol, England.
376 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1899. G. A. Boulenger, London, England.
1874. T. S. Brandegee, San Diego, Calif.
1884. John C. Branner, Stanford University, Calif.
1894. Bohuslay Brauner, Prague, Bohemia.
1874. William Brewster, Cambridge, Mass.
1876. George Jarvis Brush, New Haven, Conn.
1898. T. C. Chamberlin, Chicago, Ill.
1876. Frank Wigglesworth Clarke, Washington, D. C.
1891. L. Clerc, Ekaterinburg, Russia.
1877. Theodore Comstock, Los Angeles, Calif.
1868. M. C. Cooke, London, England.
1876. H. B. Cornwall, Princeton, N. J.
1880. Charles B. Cory, Boston, Mass.
1877. Joseph Crawford, Philadelphia, Pa.
■^1866. Hermann Credner, Leipzig, Germany.
1895. Henry P. Cushing, Cleveland, O.
1879. T. Nelson Dale, Pittsfield, Mass.
1870. William Healey Dall, Washington, D. C.
1885. Edward Salisbury Dana,- New Haven, Conn.
1898. William M. Davis, Cambridge, Mass.
1894. Ruthven Deane, Chicago, Ill.
1899. Charles Deperet, Lyons, France.
1890. Orville A. Derby, Rio Janeiro, Brazil.
1899. Louis Dollo, Brussels, Belgium.
1876. Henry W. Elliott, Lakewood, O.
1880. John B. Elliott, New Orleans, La.
'1869. Francis E. Engelhardt, Syracuse, N. Y.
1879. Herman LeRoy Fairchild, Rochester, N. Y.
1879. Friedrich Bernhard Fittica, Marburg, Germany.
1885. Lazarus Fletcher, London, England.
1899. Eberhard Fraas, Stuttgart, Germany.
1879. Reinhold Fritzgartner, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
1870. Grove K. Gilbert, Washington, D. C.
1858. Theodore Nicholas Gill, Washington, D. C.
1865. Charles A. Goessman, Amherst, Mass.
1888. Frank Austin Gooch, New Haven, Conn.
1868. C. R. Greenleaf, San Francisco, Calif.
1883. Marquis Antonio de Gregorio, Palermo, Sicily.
1869,. R. J. Lechmere Guppy, Trinidad, British West Indies.
1898. George E. Hale, Mt. Wilson, Calif.
1882. Baron Ernst von Hesse- Wartegg, Lucerne, Switzerland.
LIST OF CORRESPONDING MEMBERS
377
'-1867.
1900.
1890.
1896.
1875.
1899.
1876.
1876.
1899.
1888.
1876.
1876.
1894.
1899.
1876.
1876.
1891.
1867.
1874.
1874.
1888.
1892.
1874.
1898.
1890.
1878.
1876.
1890.
1895.
1864.
1898.
1866.
1897.
1882.
1881.
1880.
1879.
1876.
1900.
1876.
C. H. Hitchcock, Hanover, N. H.
William Henry Holmes, Washington, D. C.
H. D. Hoskold, Buenos Ayres, Argentine Republic.
J. P. Iddings, Chicago, Ill.
Malvern W. Iles, Dubuque, la.
Otto Jackel, Greifswald, Germany.
David Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Calif.
George A. Koenig, Houghton, Mich.
Friedrich Kohlrausch, Marburg, Germany.
Baron R. Kuki, Tokyo, Japan.
John W. Langley, Cleveland, O.
S. A. Lattimore, Rochester, N. Y.
William Libbey, Princeton, N. J.
Archibald Liversidge, London, England.
George Macloskie, Princeton, N. J.
John William Mallet, Charlottesville, Va.
Charles Riborg Mann, Chicago, Ill.
George F. Matthew, St. John, N. B., Canada.
Charles Johnson Maynard, West Newton, Mass.
Theodore Luqueer Mead, Oviedo, Fla.
Seth E. Meek, Chicago, Ill.
J. de Mendizabal-Tamborrel, Mexico City, Mexico.
Clinton Hart Merriam, Washington, D. C.
Mansfield Merriam, South Bethlehem, Pa.
A. B. Meyer, Berlin, Germany.
Charles Sedgwick Minot, Boston, Mass.
William Gilbert Mixter, New Haven, Conn.
Richard Moldenke, Watch ung, N. J.
C. Lloyd Morgan, Bristol, England.
Edward S. Morse, Salem, Mass.
George Murray, London, England.
Eugen Netto, Giessen, Germany.
Alfred Newton, Cambridge, England.
Francis C. Nicholas, New York, N. Y.
Henry Alfred Alford Nicholls, Dominica, B. W. I.
William H. Niles, Boston, Mass.
Edward J. Nolan, Philadelphia, Pa.
Frederick A. Ober, Hackensack, N. J.
John M. Ordway, New Orleans, La.
George Howard Parker, Cambridge, Mass.
Stephen F. Peckham, New York, N. Y.
I
378
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
1888. .George E. Post, Beirut, Syria.
1894. Edward Bagnall Poulton, Oxford, England.
1877. Frederick Prime, Philadelphia, Pa.
1868. Raphael Pumpelly, Newport, R. I.
1876. B. Alex. Randall, Philadelphia, Pa.
1876. Ira Remsen, Baltimore, Md.
1S74. Robert Ridgway, Washington, D. C.
1886. William L. Robb, Troy, N. Y.
1876. Samuel P. Sadtler, Philadelphia, Pa.
1899. D. Max Schlosser, Munich, Germany.
1867. Paul Schweitzer, Columbia, Mo.
1898. W. B. Scott, Princeton, N. J.
1876. Samuel H. Scudder, Cambridge, Mass.
1894. W. T. Sedgwick, Boston, Mass.
1876. Andrew Sherwood, Portland, Ore.
1883. J. Ward Smith, Newark, N. J.
1895. Charles H. Smyth, Jr., Princeton, N. J.
1890. J. Selden Spencer, Tarrytown, N. Y.
1896. Robert Stearns, Los Angeles, Calif.
1890. Walter LeConte Stevens, Lexington, Ya.
1876. Francis H. Storer, Boston, Mass.
1885. Rajah Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Calcutta, India.
1893. J. P. Thomson, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
1899. R. H. Traquair, Colinton, Scotland.
1877. John Trowbridge, Cambridge, Mass.
1876. D. K. Tuttle, Philadelphia, Pa.
1871. Henri Van Heurck, Antwerp, Belgium.
1900. Charles R. Van Hise, Madison, Wis.
1S67. Addison Emery Verrill, New Haven, Conn.
1890. Anthony Wayne Vogdes, San Diego, Calif.
1898. Charles Doolittle Walcott, Washington, D. C.
1876. Leonard Waldo, New York, N. Y.
1900. Sho Watase, Tokyo, Japan.
1897. Stuart Weller, Chicago, Ill.
1S74. I. C. White, Morgantown, W. Va.
1898. C. O. Whitman, Woods Holl, Mass.
1898. Henry Shaler Williams, Ithaca, N. Y.
1898. N. H. Winchell, Minneapolis, Minn.
"1866. Horatio C. Wood, Philadelphia, Pa.
1899. A. Smith Woodward, London, England.
1876. Arthur Williams Wright, New Haven, Conn.
1876. Harry Crecy Yarrow, Washington, D. C.
LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS
379
PATRONS.
Britton, Prof. N. L., N. Y. Botanical Garden.
Brown, Plon. Addison, 45 West 89th Street.
Casey, Col. Thomas L., U. S. A., Washington, D. C.
Chapin, Chester W., 331 West End Ave.
Field, C. de Peyster, 21 East 26th Street.
Gould, Edwin, Dobbs Ferry, N. Y.
Gould, George J., 195 Broadway.
Gould, Miss Helen M., Irvington, N. Y.
Herrman, Airs. Esther, 59 West 56th Street.
Julien, Dr. Alexis A., Columbia University.
Levison, W. Goold, 1435 Pacific Street, Brooklyn.
AIead, Walter H., 67 Wall Street.
Senff, Charles H., 300 Madison Avenue.
ACTIVE MEMBERS.
31 December, 1909.
Fellowship is indicated by an asterisk (*) before the name. Life Mem-
bership is shown by heavy-faced type. The names of Patrons are in capitals.
Adams, Edward D.
*Ali.en, J. A., Ph.D.
Allen, James Lane
*Allis, Edward Phelps, Jr., Ph.D.
*Amend, Bernard G.
Anderson, A. A.
Anderson, A. J. C.
^Andrews, Roy C.
Anthony, R. A.
Arend, Francis J.
Armstrong, S. T., M.D.
Arnold, Felix, M.D.
Astor, John Jacob
Avery, Samuel P.
Baekeland, Leo H., Ph.D.
Bailey, James M.
Barhydt, Mrs. P. H.
Barnes, Miss Cora F.
Barron, George D.
*Baskerville, Prof. Charles
Baugh, Miss M. L.
Baxter, M., Jr.
Beal, William R.
Bean, Henry Willard
380
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Beard, Daniel C.
*Beck, Fanning C. T.
*Beebe, C. William
Beers, M. H.
Seller, A.
Bergstresser, Charles M.
*Berkey, Charles P., Ph.D.
*Berry, Edward W.
Betts, Samuel R.
van Beuren, F. T.
*Bickmore, Albert S., Ph.D.
*Bigelow, Prof. Maurice A., Ph.D.
Bigelow, William S.
Bijur, Moses
Billings, Miss Elizabeth
Birdsall, Mrs. W. R.
Birkhahn, R. C.
Bishop, Heber R.
Bishop, Samuel H.
*Blake, J. A., M.D.
Blank, M. I., M.D.
*Bliss, Prof. Charles B.
*Boas, Prof. Franz
Boettger, Henry W.
Bohler, Richard F.
Boyd, James
^Bristol, Prof. Charles L.
Bristol, Jno. I. D.
*BRITTON, Prof. N. L., Ph.D.
*BROWN, Hon. ADDISON
Brown, Edwin H.
Brown, T. Quincy
*Brownell, Silas B.
HBumpus, Prof. H. C., Ph.D.
Burr, Winthrop
Bush, Wendell T.
*Byrnes, Miss Esther P., Ph.D.
*Calkins, Prof. Gary N., Ph.D.
^Campbell, Prof. William, Ph.D.
*Campbell, Prof. William M.
Canfield, R. A.
Carlebach, Walter Maxwell
*CASEY, Col. T. L., U. S. A.
*Cattell, Prof. J. McKeen, Ph.D.
Champollion, Andre
^Chandler, Prof. C. F., Ph.D.
CHAPIN, CHESTER W.
*Chapman, Frank M.
*Cheesman, Timothy M., M.D.
Clarkson, Banyer
Cline, Miss May
Cohn, Julius M.
*C0LLINGW00D, FRANCIS
Collord, George W.
Combe, Mrs. William
Constant, S. Victor
de Coppet, E. J.
Corning, Christopher R.
*Cox, Charles F.
*Crampton, Prof. Henry E., Ph.D.
Crane, Zenas
Dahlgren, B. E., D.M.D.
*Davenport, Prof. C. B., Ph.D.
Davies, J. Clarence
Davies, William G.
Davis, Dr. Charles H.
*Dean, Prof. Bashford, Ph.D.
Delafield, Maturin L., Jr.
Delano, Warren, Jr.
Demorest, William C.
Devereux, W. B.
DeWitt, William G.
Dickerson, Edward N.
Diefentiialer, C. E.
Dimock, George E.
Dodge, Rev. D. Stuart, D.D.
Dodge, Miss Grace H.
*Dodge, Prof. Richard E., A.M.
Doherty, Henry L.
Donald, James M.
*Doremus, Prof. Charles A., Ph.D.
^Douglas, James
LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS
381
Douglass, Alfred
Draper, Mrs. M. A. P.
Drummond, Isaac W., M.D.
^Dudley, P. H., Ph.D.
*Dunham, Edward K., M.D.
Dunn, Gano
Duns combe, George Elsworth
*Dutcher, William
*Dwight, Jonathan, Jr., M.D.
Dwyer, Thomas
Eickemeyer, Carl
*Elliott, Prof. A. H., Ph.D.
Emmett, C. Temple
Eno, John C.
Eno, William Phelps
Estabrook, A. F.
*Eyerman, John
Fairchild, Charles S.
Fallon, G. W. R.
Fargo, James C.
Farmer, Alexander S.
*Farrand, Prof. Livingston, M. D.
Ferguson, Mrs. Juliana Armour
FIELD, C. DE PEYSTER
Field, William B. Osgood
*Finley, Pres. John H.
*Fishberg, Maurice, M.D.
*Flexner, Simon, M.D.
Foot, James D.
Ford, James B.
Fordyce, John A.
de Forest, Robert W.
Forster, William
Freund, Emil
Frissell, A. S.
Gallatin, Frederic
Gibson, R. W.
*Gies, Prof. William J.
*Girty, George H.
GOULD, EDWIN
GOULD, GEORGE J.
GOULD, MISS HELEN M.
*Grabau, Prof. Amadeus W.
*Gratacap, Louis P.
^Gregory, W. K.
Griggs, George
Griscom, C. A., Jr.
Griswold, Mrs. Chester
Guggenheim, William
von Hagen, Hugo
Halls, William, Jr.
Hammond, James B.
Haupt, Louis, M.D.
Havemeyer, William F.
Heinze, Arthur P.
*Hering, Prof. Daniel W.
HERRMAN, MRS. ESTHER
*Herter, Christian A.. M.D.
Hess, Selmar
Hewlett, Walter J.
Higginson, James J.
*Hill, Robert T.
Hirsch, Charles S.
*Hitchcock, Miss F. R. M., Ph.D.
Hodenpyl, Anton G.
*Hollick, Arthur, Ph.D.
Holt, Henry
Hopkins, George B.
*Hornaday, William T., Sc.D.
Hotchkiss, Henry D.
House, Prof. Homer D.
*Hovey, Edmund Otis, Ph.D.
*Howe, Prof. Henry M.
*Howe, Marshall A., Ph.D.
Hubbard, Thomas H.
Hubbard, Walter C.
Hughes, Hon. Charles E.
Huntington, Archer M.
*Hussakof, Louis
IJustace, Francis
Huyler, John S.
Hyde, B. Talbot B.
382
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Hyde, E. Francis
Hyde, Frederic E., M.D.
Hyde, Henry St. John
lies, George
*Irving, Prof. John D.
Irving, Walter
von Isakovics, Alois
* Jacobi, Abram, M.D.
Jarvie, James N.
Jennings, Robert E.
Jones, Dwight A.
*JULIEN, ALEXIS A., Ph.D.
Kahn, Otto H.
*Kemp, Prof. James F., A.B., E.M.
Keppler, Rudolph
Kessler, George A.
Kohlman, Charles
*Kunz, George F., M.A., Ph.D.
Lamb, Osborn R.
Lambert, Adrian V. S., M.D.
Langdon, Woodbury G.
Langeloth, J.
*Langmann, Gustav, M.D.
Lawrence, Amos E.
Lawrence, John B.
Lawton, James M.
*Ledoux, Albert R., Ph.D.
*Lee, Prof. Frederic S., Ph.D.
*LEVISON, WALLACE GOOLD
Levy, Emanuel
Lichtenstein, Paul
Lieb, J. W., Jr.
*Linville, H. R., Ph D.
Loeb, James
*Loeb, Prof. Morris, Ph.D.
Lounsbery, R. P.
Low, Hon. Seth, LL.D.
Lowie, Robert H., Ph.D.
*Lucas, F. A.
*Luquer, Prof. Lea McI.
*Lusk, Prof. Graham, M.D.
Lyon, Ralph
McCook, Col. J. J.
*McMillin, Emerson
Mac Arthur, Arthur F.
*MacDougall, Prof. Robert
Macy, Miss Mary Sutton, M.D.
Macy, V. Everit
Mager, F. Robert
Mann, W. D.
Marble, Manton
Marcou, John B.
Marling, Alfred E.
Marshall, Louis
Marston, E. S.
Martin, Bradley
*Martin, Prof. Daniel S.
^Martin, T. Commerford
^Matthew, W. D., Ph.D.
Maxwell, Francis T.
MEAD, WALTER H.
Meigs, Titus B.
Mellen, C. S.
*Meltzer, S. J., M.D.
*Merrill, Frederick J. H., Ph.D.
Metz, Herman A.
*Meyer, Adolf, M.D.
Milburn, J. G.
de Milhau, Louis J.
Miller, George N., M.D.
* Miner, Roy Waldo
Mitchell, Arthur M.
Morewood, George B.
Morgan, J. Pierpont
*Morgan, Prof. Thomas H.
Morris, Lewis R., M.D.
Myers, Joseph G.
Nimick, Mrs. A. K.
Oakes, Francis J.
Ochs, Adolph S.
Oettinger, P. J., M.D.
*Ogilvie, Miss Ida H., Ph.D.
LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS
383
Oleott, E. E.
Olmsted, Mrs. Charles T.
*Gsbom, Prof. H. F., Sc. D., LL.D.
Osborn, William C.
Osburn, Raymond C.
Owen, Miss Juliette A.
Owens, W. W.
Paddock, Eugene H.
Parish, Henry
^Parker, Prof. Herschel C.
Parsons, Mrs. Edwin
^Parsons, John E.
Patton, John
Pedersen, F. M.
*Pellew, Prof. C. E., Ph.D.
Pennington, William
Perkins, William H.
Perry, Charles J.
^Peterson, Frederick, M.D.
*Petrunkevitch, Alexander,
Ph.D.
Pettegrew, David L.
Pfizer, Charles, Jr.
Philipp, P. Bernard
Phipps, Henry
Phoenix, Lloyd
Pickhardt, Carl
Pierce, Henry Clay
*Pitkin, Lucius, Ph.D.
Plaxten, John R.
^Pollard, Charles L., Ph. D.
*Poor, Prof. Charles L.
Porter, Eugene H.
Post, Abram S.
*Post, C. A.
*Post, George B.
^Prince, Prof. John DyneIey
Pritchett, Pres. Henry S.
Procter, William
Proctor, George IJ.
*Pupin, Prof. M. I., Ph.D.
Pyne, M. Taylor
Quackenbos, Prof. J. D., M.D.
Reilly, F. James
Richardson, Frederick A.
^Ricketts, Prof. P. de P., Ph.D.
Riederer, Ludwig
Riker, Samuel
Robb, Hon. J. Hampden
Robert, Samuel
Roberts, C. H.
Rogers, E. L.
de Rubio, H. A. C.
*Rusby, Prof. Henry H., M.D.
Russ, Edward
Sachs, Paul J.
Saul, Charles R.
Sauter, Fred.
Schermerhom, F. A.
Schiff, Jacob H.
Scholle, A. H.
Schott, Charles M., Jr.
Scott, George S.
SENFF, CHARLES H.
Shaw, Mrs. John C.
Shepard, C. Sidney
*Sherwood, George H.
Shultz, Charles S.
*Sickels, Ivin, M.D.
SlEBERG, W. H. J.
Sloan, Benson B
Smith, Elliott C.
*Smith, Ernest E., M.D., Ph.D.
*Smith, Prof. John B.
Snow, Elbridge G.
Squibb, Edward IJ.
*Starr, Prof. M. Allen
Stefansson, V.
Stetson, F. L.
Stevens, C. Amory
*Stevens, George T., M.D.
*3tevenson, Prof. John J., LL.D.
384
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Stokes, James
Stokes, J. G. Phelps
Straus, Isidor
Sturgis, Mrs. Elizabeth M.
*Stuyvesant, Rutherfurd
Taggart, Rush
*Tatlock, John, Jr.
Taylor, George
Taylor, William H.
Terry, James
Tesla, Nikola
Thatcher, Edward J., Jr.
Thaw, Benjamin
Thompson, Mrs. Frederick F.
Thompson, Lewis S.
^Thompson, Prof. W. Gilman
Thompson, Walter
^Thorndike, Prof. Edward L.
Thorne, Samuel
*Tower, R. W., Ph.D.
*Townsend, Charles H.
Tows, C. D.
^Trowbridge, Prof. C. C.
Tuckerman, Alfred, Ph.D.
Ullmann, E. S.
Van Slyck, George W.
Van Wyck, Robert A.
*Waller, Prof. Elwyn, Ph.D.
Warburg, F. N.
ASSOCIATE
Billingsley, Paul
Brown, Harold Chapman, Ph.D.
Brown, T. C.
Byrne, Joseph P.
Dublin, L. J.
Fenner, Clarence N.
Gordon, Clarence E.
Hunter, George H.
James, F. Wilton
Warburg, Paul M.
Ward, Artemas
Ward, John Gilbert
Warner, Charles St. Jot n
Warren, Charles Elliott
* Washington, Henry S., Ph.D.
Waterbury, J. I.
Weir, Col. John
Wellington, Aaron H.
Wheeler, H. L.
*White, Horace
* Whitfield, Prof. It. P.
Wicke, William
Wiggin, F. H., M.D.
Williams, R. IJ.
Wills, Charles T.
*Wilson, Prof. E. B., Ph.D., LL.D.
Wilson, Henry R.
Wilson, J. H.
Wilson, Miss M. B., M.D.
*Wissler, Clark, Ph.D.
Wood, Mrs. Cynthia A.
*Woodbridge, Prof. F. J. E.
*Woodhull, Prof. John F./Ph.D.
Woodman, Prof. J. Edmund
^Woodward, Prof. R. S.
* Woodworth, Prof. R. S.
Younglove, John, M.D.
Zabriskie, George
MEMBERS.
Johnson, Julius M.
Kellicott, W. E., Ph.D.
McGregor, James Howard
Montague, W. P., Ph.D.
Northup, Dwight
Rogers, G. Sherbourne
Stevenson, A. E.
Wood, Miss Elvira
Ziegler, Victor
LIST OF ACTIVE MEMBERS
385
NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS.
*Abbe, Dr. Cleveland
Buchner, Edward F.
Burnett, Douglass
Davis, William H.
English, George L.
Finlay, Prof. G. I.
Frankland, Frederick W.
Hoffman, S. V.
Kendig, Amos B.
*Lloyd, Prof. F. E.
*Mayer, Dr. A. G.
*Pratt, Dr. J. H.
*Ries, Prof. H.
Reuter, L. H.
*Sumner, Dr. F. B.
*van Ingen, Prof. G.
*Wheeler, Wm. Morton
GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XIX.
Names of Authors and other Persons in Heavy-Face Type.
Titles of Papers in small caps.
Abbott, Reference to, 220
Abderites of Argentine Republic, 157
Abel, 0., cited, 114, 115
Reference to, 100
Acantkodenus Marshii, 206
Acaremys of Argentine Republic, 158
Acdestis of Argentine Republic, 157
Acrodelphis denticulatus, 115
7nacrospondylus, 115
scheynensis, 115
Active Members, Election of, 283, 287, 296,
301, 307, 311, 318
List of, 379
Adinotherium of Argentine Republic, 158
Age-Societies of the Plains Indians,
The, Robert H. Lowie (Abstract), 313
Alachtherium antwerpiensis, 119
cretsi, 117
Alamagordo, Collections made near, 142
Albite of New Jersey trap, 130
Albertogaudrya of Argentine Republic, 157
Alcimosphenus bifurcatus, 211
licinus, 210
Allen limestone, 143
Allopleuron hoffmanni, 104, 105
Alloys and Metals Used in the Arts, On
the Structure and Constitution
of, William Campbell (Abstract),
312, 313
Alticamelus of the Pliocene, 155
Amanrobius silvestris, 224
Ameghino, Carlos, References to 152, 153
Ameghino, Florentino, References to, 149,
151, 152, 154, 156, 158, 159
Amia, 109
barroisi, 109, 110
Amphibia of Belgium, Appearance of, 99, 100
Amphicetus editus, 117
later, 117
rotundus, 117
verus, 117
Amphicyon of Argentine Republic, 158
Amphinasua of Argentine Republic, 158
Amphiproviverra of Argentine Republic, 157
Amstelian Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium, 119
Analcite of New Jersey trap, 131
Annlcitherium of Argentine Republic, 158
Anas creccoides, 113
Ancylometes vulpes, 220
Ancylopoda, Animals ancestral to, 152
Anderson, G. E., cited, 85
Andrews, Roy C., Fellow, 328
Field Observations on the Fin
Whales of the North Pacific
(Abstract), 288, 289
Anglo-Saxon Charms, F. Grendon (Ab¬
stract), 300, 301
Annual Dinner, 328
Annual Meeting, 327
Anserscaldii, 116
Anthophyllite Occurrence on Man¬
hattan Island, A New, H. D. Kinney
(Abstract), 307, 308
Anthropology and Psychology, Section of,
290, 300, 305, 313, 322
Antiquity of Man, The, Albrecht Penck
(Title), 286
Apophyllite of New Jersey trap, 127, 128, 129,
131
Apparatus for determining the heat of
vaporization of water, using elec¬
tric CURRENT TO PROVIDE THE HEAT,
H. C. Cheston (Demonstration), 309
Apparent Location of Objects Under
Water, Frank B. Spalding (Title),
310
Application of the Concept of Space
Dimension to Experience in Time,
An, Robert MacDougall (Abstract),
290, 291
Application of the Law of Mass Action to
Phenomena of Resorption in Ig¬
neous Rocks, C. N. Fenner (Ab¬
stract), 325
Aquitanian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 114
Aragna colorada, 209
Araucanian fauna of Argentine Republic, 158
Archceohyracotherium of Argentine Republic,
156
Archceohyrax of Argentine Republic, 153, 157
Arctosa, 224
Ardothei'ium of Argentine Republic, 155, 159
Areal and Structural Geology of South¬
ern Manhattan Island, Charles P,
Berkey, 247-282
Argillochelys antiqua, 10S
387
388
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Argillornis longipennis, 111
ArgiopidEE, 205, 209, 210
Argyrolagus of Argentine Republic, 158
Ariculipinna Nebraskensis, 143
Armadillos in the Notostylops Fauna, 151, 152
Artinsk of Russia and its fauna, 136, 137, 146
Artiodactyla of Argentine Republic, 159, 160
Art Metal Work, Some Principles of,
Edward Thatcher (Abstract), 312
Ashby, George E., Reference to, 123
Ashe, Sidney W., The Reaction of the
Pupil to Color (Abstract), 305
Asmithwoodwardia of Argentine Republic, 156
Asmodeus of Argentine Republic, 157
Asschian Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium, 112
Associate Members, Election of, 311, 318, 324
List of, 384
Association, A Preliminary Report of a
Statistical Study of, A. J. Rosanoff
and Miss G. H. Kent (Abstract), 322
Association Test, The Meaning of the,
F. Lyman Wells (Abstract), 322, 323
Astrapotheria of Argentine Republic, 157, 158
Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry, Section
of, 285, 289, 300, 304, 309, 312, 320
Attempt to Standardize Certain Tests of
Controlled Association, An, R. S.
Woodworth (Abstract), 322, 323
Auchenia of Argentine Republic, 155, 160
Balcena primigenia , 118
Balcenoptera borealina, 118
musculoides, 118
rostratella, 118
sibbaldini, 118
Balcenotus insignis, 11S
Balcenula baleenopsis , 118
Banks, Nathan, References to, 207, 221
Batrachians of Belgium, 100, 105
Beebe, C. William, Notes of an Ornitholo¬
gist in South America (Abstract),
326
Beede, J. W., cited, 143, 147
quoted, 135
Reference to, 146
Belgium, The Fossil Vertebrates of,
Louis Dollo, 99-119
Bell, J. Carleton, Studies in Color Stere¬
oscopy (Title), 305
Bergen Hill, N. J., Minerals of, 121-134
Berkey, Charles P., Areal and Struc¬
tural Geology of Southern Man¬
hattan Island, 247-282
Bermuda, Bnfo agua in, Charles L. Bristol
(Abstract), 30S
Bernissartia fagesi, 101
Bertkau, Philip, Reference to, 221
Bernard, H. M., quoted, 88
Bethany limestone, 143
Billingsley, Paul, Associate Member, 324
Biology, Section of, 284, 288, 297, 303, 308,
312, 319, 326
Birds of Belgium, Appearance of, 99, 100
Bischoff, G., cited, 123, 125, 126, 128, 130
Black River limestone, 48, 52, 53
Blaine formation, 146
Boas, Franz, The Theory of Correlation
(Abstract), 300, 301
Bolderian Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium, 114
Bolton, T. L., Concept of a Sensation (Ab¬
stract), 295
Some Observations with the Tapping
Test (Abstract), 290
Borhycena of Argentine Republic, 157
Botany, Darwin and, N. L. Britton, 3, 28-
33
Brachyodonts in the Notostylops fauna, 152
Bristol, Charles L., Bufo agua in Bermuda
(Title), 308
Britcher, H. W., References to, 207, 212, 217
Britton, Nathaniel Lord, Darwin and
Botany, 3, 28-33
Bronn, References to, 228
Brown, Thomas Clachar, Studies on the
Morphology and Development of
Certain Rugose Corals, 45-97
Studies on the Morphology of Cer¬
tain Rugose Corals (Abstract), 296
Brown, T. Quincy, Active Member, 318
Bryochelys waterkeyni, 113
Buflon, References to, 226-230
Bufo agua in Bermuda, Charles L. Bristol
(Title), 308
Bulletins on Geologic Correlation
through Vertebrate Paleontology
by International Cooperation, Nos.
1 and 2, W. D. Matthew (Abstract),
302
Bumpus, Hermon Carey, Corresponding
Secretary, 328
Darwin and Zoology, 3, 34-40
Report of the Corresponding Secre¬
tary, 330
Burtinopsis mimitus, 118
similis , 118
Business Meetings, 283, 286, 295, 301, 306,
310, 314, 318, 324
By-Laws of the Academy, 364
Amendment to, 311, 324
Byrne, Joseph P., Associate Member, 324
Cachlops of Argentine Republic, 15S
Calcite of New Jersey trap, 122, 123, 127, 128,
129
Cambridge, F., References to, 210, 224
Campbell, William, Chairman of Section of
Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry,
328
Notes on the Structure of Hardened
Steel (Abstract), 300
INDEX
389
On the Structure and Constitution
of Alloys and Metals Used in the
Arts (Abstract), 312, 313
Simple Experiments in Metallog¬
raphy i or School Work (Abstract),
310
Some Notes on Western Smelters
(Abstract), 2S5
Vice-President, 328
Canfield, F. A., quoted, 129, 130
Reference to, 132
Canidae of Argentine Republic, 158
Canis of Argentine Republic, 159; of Pampean
formation, 154, 155
Cape Fairweather Beds of the Patagonian
Sandstone Formation, 154
Capitan fauna, 136, 137
Capitan limestone, Position of the, 137 ; Refer¬
ences to, 138, 139, 146
Carbonic corals, 80
Carlebach, W. M., Active. Member, 307
Carnivora of Argentine Republic, 158, 159
Caroloameghinia of Argentine Republic, 156
Carruthers, R. C., cited, 54
Caswell, John H., Death of, 318
Memoir of, James F. Kemp, 353
Catagonus of Argentine Republic, 160
Canis of the Pampean Formation, 154, 155
Cenozoic of France and North America, Corre¬
lation of the, 44
Cenozoic of South America, Genera of the, 156
Cephalomys of Argentine Republic, 157
Cernaysian Fauna of North America and
Europe, 152
Cervidse of the Pampean Formation, 154, 155
Cervus of the Pampean Formation, 155
Cervus falconer i, 119
Cetorhinu s maximus, 119
Cetorhynchus atavus, 115
Chabazite of New Jersey trap, 131
Chalcopyrite of New Jersey trap, 131
Champsosaurus, 106
lemoinei, 108
Chanute shale, 143
Chandler, Rocks near, 146
Charleston Museum, Lawrence Martin,
284
Charter of the Academy, 357
Chase, or basal group, of Kansas “Permian,”
145, 146
Chazy (Birdseye) limestone, 52
Chelone vanbenedeni, 114
Chelonians from the Lower Eocene of Belgium,
110
Chelyopsis littoreus, 113
Cheston, H. C., Apparatus for Determin¬
ing the Heat of Vaporization of
Water, Using Electric Current to
Provide the Heat (Demonstration),
309
Chitracephalus dumoni, 101
Chlamydophorus of Argentine Republic, 159
Chonetes, 140
Choneziphius planirostris, 115
Cincinnati limestone, 56
Cladosictis of Argentine Republic, 157
Claosaurus, 106
Clear Fork formation, 145, 146
Cleveland, Parker, cited, 129
Clidastes, 106
Clifton beds, 59
Cloudcroft, Description of region of, 13S, 139;
faunae, 139, 144
Cloudcroft limestone, 138
Clublonidte, 217
Coal Basin of Commentry in Central
France, The, John J. Stevenson,
161-204
(Title), 325
“Coal Measures” of Kansas, 143
Commentry Coal Basin of Central France,
The, John J. Stevenson (Title), 325
Commentry Coal Basin, Cause of dislocation,
199;
Description of region, 162;
History of, 185;
Secular movements in, 200
Commentry in Central France, The Coal
Basin of, John J. Stevenson, 1 61-204
Common Mushrooms and How to Know
Them, Nina L. Marshall (Abstract),
312
Composita , 140, 141
Concept of a Sensation, 290, 292, 293, 294
Concept of Space Dimension to Experi¬
ence in Time, An Application of the,
Robert MacDougall (Abstract), 290,
291
Condylarthra, of Argentine Republic, 156
Condylarths of the Notostylops, Puerco, Torre-
jon and Cernaysian Faunae, 152
Conepatus of Argentine Republic, 159
Constitution of the Academy, 363
Amendment to, 324
Controlled Association, An Attempt to
Standardize Certain Tests of,
R. S. Woodworth (Abstract), 322, 323
Cook, Reference to, 155
Cook, Charles G., The Relation of Modern
Theories of Matter to the Teach¬
ing of Physical Science (Title), 310
Cook, Harold J., In the Sioux Co., Neb.,
Bone Beds in 1908 (Abstract), 287
Coos Ethnology, Notes on. Leo S, Frach-
tenberg (Abstract), 313, 314
Corals, Studies on the Morphology and
Development of Certain Rugose,
Thomas Clachar Brown. 45-97
Correlation Bulletin No. I, Plan and
Scope, Henry Fairfield Osborn and
W. D. Matthew. 41-44
Correlation of Patagonian formations, 150
390
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Correlation of Sensory Discrimination
and Intellect, Edward L. Thorn¬
dike (Abstract), 290
Correlation through Vertebrate Paleon¬
tology by International Coopera¬
tion, Henry Fairfield Osborn and
W. D. Matthew, 41-44
Corresponding Members, List of, 375
Corresponding Secretary, Report of the,
Hermon Carey Bumpus, 330
Corundas Mountains, Reference to, 138
Coryphodon eoccenus, 107, 109
Cossmann, M. Reference to, 153
Cox, Charles F., Finance Committee, 328
The Founder of the Evolution
Theory, 225-245, (Title), 328
The Individuality of Charles Darwin,
16-20
Crampton, Henry E., The Partulas of
the Society Islands and the Prob¬
lem of Isolation (Abstract), 303, 304
Craspedodon lonzeensis, 102
Craspedophyllum subccespitosum , 85
Creodonts of South American Faunae, 110, 152
Cretaceous of Belgium, Recapitulation of
the reptiles and batrachiana of the,
105
Cricetid© of Argentine Republic, 159
Crocodilus depressifrons, 109
Ctenidae, 217
Ctenomys of Argentine Republic, 159
Ctenus malvernensis, 217
Cummins, W. F., cited, 145
Cuvier, References to, 104, 230
Cyathaxonia, 83
cynodon, 48
Cyathophyllum profundum, 52
rectum, 67
Cygnus herenthalsi, 116
Cylindrogenite, a Possible Representa¬
tive of a Cylindrical (Non-Hauyan)
Order of Crystals, O. W. Willcox
(Abstract), 285
Cyonasua of Argentine Republic, 156, 158
Cyrtodelphis sulcatus, 115
Cystiphyllum, 53
Dahl, References to, 206, 208
Dali, W. H., Reference to, 42
Dana, E. S., cited, 123, 128, 129, 130
Dana, J. D., cited, 121
D'Arsonval Type Measuring Instrument,
A New Construction of the, R. W.
Sutliffe (Title), 310
Darwin and Botany, Nathaniel Lord Brit¬
ton, 3, 28-33
Darwin and Geology, John James Steven¬
son, 3, 22-28
Darwin and Zoology, Hermon Carey Bum-
pus, 3, 34-40
Darwin Bust, Acceptance of, 21
Darwin Bust, Presentation of, 3, 21
Darwin Celebration, Charles F. Cox, 311
Darwin celebration, Catalogue of exhibits,
5-16
Darwin, Charles, The Individuality of,
Charles F. Cox, 16-20
Darwin, Charles, cited, 232, 233, 234, 236
quoted, 227, 233, 234, 236, 237, 241
Darwin Fund, Subscribers to the, 3, 4, 5
Darwin Memorial Celebration, Edmund
Otis Hovey, 1-40
Darwin Portraits, 324
Darwin, Erasmus, Reference to, 226
Dasypus of Argentine Republic, 159
Datolite of New Jersey trap, 127, 129, 131
Davenport, Charles B., Chairman Section
of Biology, 328
Vice-President, 328
Dean, Bashford, Councilor, 328
Memoir of Kakichi Mitsukuri, 352
A New Example of Determinate Evo¬
lution (Abstract), 288
Deaths, Notices of, 296, 307, 311, 318, 324
Decticadapis, 110
DeLaunay, cited, 162, 186, 201; References
to, 163, 186, 200, 201
Delaware Mountain fauna, Position of, 137;
References to 136, 137
Deleterious Ingredients of Food, What
Are?, Ernest E, Smith (Abstract),
308, 309
Deperet, Charles, References to, 42, 44
Dermochelys , 110
Determinate Evolution, A New Example
of, Bashford Dean (Abstract), 288
Deuter other turn of Argentine Republic, 157
Development of Rugose Corals, 87
Devonic corals, 64
Dewey, Concept of a Sensation (Abstract),
292
Diabantite of New Jersey trap, 129, 130, 132
Diabase of New Jersey, Analysis of, 122
Diadiaphorus of Argentine Republic, 158
Diamonds of History, The Two Greatest,
George F. Kunz (Abstract), 302
Dicotyles of Argentine Republic, 160
Didolodus of Argentine Republic, 156
Didymictis, 109
Dienstian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 116,
117
Dinocynops of Argentine Republic, 159
Dinosaurs, 101, 102, 104; In the Notostylops
Fauna, 151
Distortion and Oscillation of Helical
Springs, The, D, W. Hering (Ab¬
stract), 310
Ditmars, Raymond L., Some Interesting
Reptiles (Abstract), 288
Diagram showing probable relationship of
species of Rugose corals, 94
Daedicurus of Argentine Republic, 159
Dolichotis of Argentine Republic, 159
INDEX
391
Dollo, Louis, cited, 99, 101, 102, 103, 104,
105, 106, 107
The Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium,
99-119
References to, 41, 42, 44
Dolomedes, 221
sexpunctatus, 219, 220
triton, 219, 220
Dolomite of New Jersey trap, 129
Double Mountain formation, 145, 146
Drake, N. F., cited, 145
Drassidas, 207
Drinker, H. S., cited, 121
Dubois, E., cited, 119
Duerden, J. E., cited, 48, 67, 69, 79, 81;
References to, 47, 50, 54, 78, 82, 87
Eakins, L. C., cited, 122
Ebbinhaus, Hermann, R. S. Woodworth
(Title), 305
Ecuador, Recent Geologic Changes Af¬
fecting the Coast of, Marshall H.
Saville (Abstract), 307
Edentata of Argentine Republic, 156, 157, 158,
159
Editor, Report of the, Edmund Otis
Hovey, 331
Edwards and Haime, quoted, 75, 78, 80
Eigenmann, Carl H., cited, 235
Emerton, James H., References to, 207, 211,
212, 221
Emerson, B. K., cited, 130
Emys camperi, 111
Enid formation, 146
Enteletes hemiplicatus, 143
Enteletes of Kansas beds, 144
Enterolasma, 67, 85
caliculum, 58, 59, 64, 66, 91
Generic description of, 58, 59
strictum, 65, 66, 71, 91, 92
Entrachytheriidae of Argentine Republic, 157
Entrerian Fauna of Argentine Republic, 158
Eocardia of Argentine Republic, 158
Eocene mammal faunae, 152
Eochelone brabantica, 111
Eodidelphys of Argentine Republic, 157
Eosauchus lerichei, 108
Eosphargis gigas, 110
Epanorthus of Argentine Republic. 157
Epeira angulata, 211
nigra, 211
silvatica, 21 L
solitaria, 211
Epicadinus tuberculatus, 216
Epidote of New Jersey trap, 132
Episynaxial surface, Definition of, 205
Equidae, Origin of, 154, 155
Equine Perissodactyls, Animals ancestral to,
152
Equus of Argentine Republic, 154, 155, 159
Erie Cut, N. J., Minerals at, 131, 132, 133
Erpetocetus scaldieyisis, 116
Eucinepeltus of Argentine Republic, 158
Eurhinodelphis cocheteuxi, 115
cristatus, 115
longirostris, 115
Europe, Puereo, Torrejon and Cernaysian
faunae of, 152
Eutatus of Argentine Republic, 159
Evolution Theory, The Founder of the,
Charles Finney Cox, 225-245
(Title), 328
Exchange publications, List of, 335
Farmington, Connecticut, Trap of, 130
Fatigue, Some New Data on, Edward L.
Thorndike (Abstract), 322
Fayol, Henri, cited, 161, 163, 166, 168, 170,
171, 173, 180, 184, 186, 187, 189, 191,
192, 193, 195, 200, 201
References to, 162, 163, 165, 166, 168,
170, 174, 175, 182, 184, 185, 186, 188,
190, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 202, 203
quoted, 188, 190, 198
FayOm, Exploration of the, Henry Fair-
field Osborn (Abstract), 303
Felidae of the Pampean Formation, 155
Felis of Argentine Republic, 139; of the
Pampean Formation, 154, 155, 156
Fellows, Election of, 328
Fenner, Clarence N., Application of the
Law of Mass Action to Phenomena
of Resorption in Igneous Rocks
(Abstract), 325
Associate Member, 318
Field Observations on the Fin Whales
of the North Pacific, Roy C. An¬
drews (Abstract), 288, 289
Final Report on the Exploration of the
FayOm in 1907, Henry Fairfield Os¬
born (Abstract), 303
Fishberg, Maurice, Chairman of Section of
Anthropology and Psychology, 328
Vice President , 328
Fisher, C. A., References to, 139, 141
Fishes of Belgium, 99, 107, 10S, 110, 111, 112
Fluorspar Deposits of Kentucky, F. J.
Fohs 'Abstract), 315, 318
Fohs, F. J., Fluorspar Deposits of Ken¬
tucky (Abstract), 315, 318
Foote, A. E., Reference to, 129
Ford, W. E., cited, 129
Fort Riley limestone, 145
Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium, The,
Louis Dollo, 99-119
Founder of the Evolution Theory, The,
Charles Finney Cox, 225-245, (Title)
328
Fraas, Eberhard, Reference to, 42
Frachtenberg, Leo S., Notes on Coos Eth¬
nology (Abstract), 313, 314
[ Fulica dijardini, 116
392
ANNALS NEW , YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Fusulina limestone of Sicily, 1 46
Gage, R. B., cited, 122
Galena of New Jersey trap, 132
Garzonia of Argentine Republic, 157
Gas Phosphorescence, New Laws op,
C. C. Trowbridge (Abstract), 300
Gastornis edwardsi, 99, 108
Gaudry, A., Reference to, 154
Genesee River Problem, Present Status
of the, Amadeus W. Grabau (Title),
311
Genetic R-elations of the Insectivora
to Other Orders of Mammals, W. K.
Gregory (Abstract), 297
Geologic Changes Affecting the Coast
of Ecuador, Marshall H. Saville
(Abstract), 307
Geologic Correlation, Bulletins on, W.
D. Matthew (Abstract), 302
Geologic Correlation, Symposium on,
Amadeus W. Grabau, 284
Geologic Correlation through Verte¬
brate Paleontology by Inter¬
national Cooperation, Henry Fair-
field Osborn and W. D. Matthew,
41-44
Geology, Darwin and, J. J. Stevenson, 3
22-28
Geology and Mineralogy, Section of, 283, 287
296, 302, 307, 311, 314, 325
Geology of Southern Manhattan Island,
Areal and Structural, Charles P.
Berkey, 247-282
Wolcott Gibbs, Death of, 296
Memoir of, Theodore William Rich¬
ards, 345
Girty, George H., Active Member, 318;
Fellow, 328
The Guadalupian Fauna and New
Stratigraphic Evidence, 135-147
(Title), 325
Glaucochelon lonzeensis, 102
Glissement de L’Esperance, Commentry, 198
Glossotherium of Argentine Republic, 159
Glyptochelone suycherbuyki, 104, 105
Glyptodon of Argentine Republic, 159
Glyptodontia of Argentine Republic, 159
Gmelinite of New Jersey trap, 128, 132
Goebel, K. F., Honorary Member, 327
Goldfarb, A. J., The Influence of the
Nervous System in Regeneration
(Abstract), 326
Goniopholis simus, 100
Goose, Gastornis edwardsi Lemoine, Appear¬
ance of, 99
Gould, C. N., cited, 145
Gordon, C. E., cited, 48, 52, 53, 70, 81, 146
Grabau, Amadeus W., Early Develop¬
mental Stages in Recent and
Fossil Corals (Abstract), 297, 299
Present Status of the Genesee River
Problem (Title), 311
Reference to, 78
Some Revised Paleographic Charts
(Abstract), 296, 297
Summary of the Symposium on Geo¬
logic Correlation Presented at
the Baltimore Meeting of Section
E of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science and
the Geological Society of America
(Title), 284
Graham, T., cited, 122
Grande Couche, Commentry, Erosion of, 197
Origin of, 190
Variations of, 183
Grande Tranchee, Commentry, Description of,
182
Gravigrada of Argentine Republic, 159
Gray, Asa, References to, 227, 234, 241
Great Notch, N. J., Minerals occurring at,
127, 131, 132, 133
Greer formation of Oklahoma section, 146
Gregory, W. K., Genetic Relations of
the Insectivora to Other Orders
of Mammals (Abstract), 297
Grendon, F., Anglo-Saxon Charms (Ab¬
stract), 300, 301
von Groth, Paul, Honorary Member, 327
Gryphoca similis, 118
Gschelian fauna of Russia, 136, 137
Guadalupe Mountains, Geographical position
of the, 137
Reference to, 141
Guadalupe Point, 138, 146
Guadalupian Fauna and New Strati¬
graphic Evidence, The, George H.
Girty, 135-147
(Title), 325
Guadalupian fauna, relationship to the Car¬
boniferous of the Mississippi Valley, 145
Gulielmofloveria of Argentine Republic, 156
Gypsum of New Jersey trap, 122
Hackel, E., cited, 228
Hadrophyllum, 69, SO
glans, 48
orbignyi, 78, 93
pauciradiatum, 48
Haime, Edwards and, quoted, 75, 78, 80
Hainosaurus, 106, 107
bernardi, 103
lonzeensis , 102
Halitherium schinzi, 113
Hall, James, quoted, 52, 56, 65, 67, 84
References to, 66, 85
Halmariphus of Argentine Republic, 157
Hamilton shales of Upper Devonic, 67
Hapalops of Argentine Republic, 158
Hapsiphyllum, 93
calcareforme, 84, 86
INDEX
393
Hapsiphyllum spinulosum, 85, 86
varsoviense, 66, 85, 87
Hardened Steel, Notes on the Structure
of, William Campbell (Abstract),
300
Harpswell Biological Laboratory, Max
Morse (Abstract), 297, 299
Hatcher, J. B., References to, 153, 154
Hawes, G. W., Reference to, 130
Hearne, Reference to, 237
Heersian Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium, 107
HegetotheriidEe of Argentine Republic, 157
Hegetotherium of Argentine Republic, 158
Helical Springs, The Distortion and
Oscillation of, D. W. Hering (Ab¬
stract), 310
Heliophrentis, 78
corniculum, 64
Grabau, 64
Heliophyllum, 64 ,80
confluens, 77, 93
corniculum , 78
halli, 75, 77, 92
tenuisepiatum, 77, 78, 93
Hematite of New Jersey trap, 132
Henricosbornia of Argentine Republic, 156
Hering, D. W., The Distortion and Oscil¬
lation of Helical Springs (Ab¬
stract), 310
Orthopedic Photography; Notes on
the Rectification of Distorted
Pictures (Abstract), 285
Wave Length of Light by Newton’s
Rings (Abstract), 312, 313
Heterocetus affinis, 117
brevifrons, 117
sprangi, 117
H eterophrentis , 85
Billings, 64
calcar e forme, 93
edwardsi, 75, 92
group, 73
multilamellosa , 75, 92
prolifica , 71, 72, 82, 92
varsoviense, 93
wortheni, 75, 92
Heulandite of New Jersey trap, 127, 128, 132
Hill, G. W., Memoir of Simon Newcomb, 347
Hill, R. T., References to, 138, 139
Hippidion of Argentine Republic, 155, 159
Holland, Sir H., Reference to, 233
Hollick, Arthur, Notes in Connection with
Specimens Recently Obtained from
the Serpentines of Staten Island
(Abstract), 315
Homalodotheria of Argentine Republic, 157,
158
Homestead, N. J., Minerals at, 131
Homunculus of Argentine Republic, 157
Honorary Members, Election of, 327
List of, 371
List of Deceased, 372
Hooker, J. D., quoted, 228
References to, 226, 227, 233, 234
Hoplophorus of Argentine Republic, 159
Hovey, Edmund Otis, Darwin Memorial
Celebration, 1-40
Editor, 328
Notes on Striations, U-Shaped Val¬
ley's and Hanging Valleys Pro¬
duced by Other Than Glacial
Action (Abstract), 287
Recording Secretary, 328
Records of Meetings, 283
Report of the Editor, 331
Report of the Recording Secretary,
329
The Section of the Hudson River Beds
Opposite Cortlandt Street, New
York (Abstract), 296, 297
Howard, L. O., Reference to, 244
Hudson River Beds Opposite Cortlandt
Street, New York, Edmund Otis
Hovey (Abstract), 296, 297
Hueco limestone of Western Texas, 138, 140,
144
Hueconian fauna, 136, 137, 144
von Huene, F., Reference to, 42
Hussakof, Louis, Active Member, 283
Fellow, 328
Huxley, cited, 227, 238
quoted, 228, 239, 242
References to, 227, 242
HyasnodontidEe of Argentine Republic, 158
Hyatt, Alpheus, quoted, 49
Hydrochoerus of Argentine Republic, 159
Hylceobatrachus croyi, 99, 102
Hycenodictis, 109
Hyopsodus of Argentine Republic, 156
Hyposynaxial surface, 205
Hystricomorphs of Argentine Republic, 158,
159
Ichthyosaurs, 107
Ichthyosaurus communis, 99, 100
platyodon, 100
Iddings, J. P., cited, 126, 127
Idiocetus laratus, 116
longifrons, 116
Igneus Rocks of New Jersey-, Minerals
of the Newark (Triassic), Wallace
Goold Levison, 121-134
Iguanodon, 106
bernissartensis, 101
mantelli, 101
Incertre sedis of Argentine Republic, 157
Individuality of Charles Darwin, The,
Charles Finney Cox, 16-20
Influence of the Nervous Sy'stem in
Regeneration, A. J. Goldfarb (Ab¬
stract), 326
Insectivora of Argentine Republic, 156, 15S
394
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Insectivora to Other Orders of Mammals,
Genetic Relations of the, W. K.
Gregory (Abstract), 297
In the Sioux County, Nebraska, Bone
Beds in 1908, Harold J. Cook (Ab¬
stract), 287
Interatherium of Argentine Republic, 158
International Cooperation, Geologic Cor¬
relation through Vertebrate Pale¬
ontology' by, Henry Fairfield Osborn
and W. D. Matthew, 41-44
International Correlation Committee of
the National Academy' of Sciences,
Plan and Scope of the Section of
Vertebrate Paleontology' of the,
Henry Fairfield Osborn and W. D.
Matthew, 41-44
Isocetus depauwi, 116
James, F. Wilton, Active Member, 311
Johnson, Julius M., Associate Member, 318
Johnson, Samuel W., Death of, 311
Joplin, Missouri, Calcite of, 127
Judd, Charles H., The Relation of Move¬
ment to Consciousness (Abstract),
305, 306
Jukes, J. Beete, cited, 202
quoted, 202
References to, 202, 203
Julien, Alexis A., cited, 130
The Moulin Potholes within New
York City (Abstract), 307, 308
Petrographic Notes on Certain Rocks
from Staten Island (Abstract),
315, 317
Kansan fauna, Attempt to correlate fauna of
“Red Beds” with, 143
Kansas, Fauna of, 136
Position of the Carboniferous section of,
137
Kansas section, Relation of the Guadalupian
to the, 138
Kemp, James F., Memoir of John Henry
Caswell, 353
President, 328
Kent, Miss G. H., A. J. RosanofI and, A
Preliminary Report of a Statistical
Study- of Association (Abstract), 322 '
Keokuk limestone, 86
Kinney, H. D., A New Anthophy'llite
Occurrence on Manhattan Island
(Abstract), 307, 308
Knowledge of Temperament from Within
and from Without, The, D. S.
Miller (Abstract), 290, 291
Koch, C., Reference to, 215
Koken, Ernst, Reference to, 42
KOlliker, Reference to, 242
Krause, Ernst, Reference to, 228
Kunth, A., References to, 46, 47
Kunz, George F., Chairman of Section of
Geology and Mineralogy, 328
Finance Committee, 328
Tonopah, Nevada, Meteorite, 284
The Two Greatest Diamonds of
History': Their Finding and Ulti¬
mate Disposal (Abstract), 302
Vice-President, 328
Lacroix, Alfred, Honorary Member, 328
Liekenian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 111
La Luz Cans'on, Collections made near, 142
Lamarck, quoted, 229, 234, 237, 241
References to, 225, 226, 228, 230, 231,
232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239,
240, 241, 242
Lamdaconus of Argentine Republic 156
Latrodectus insularis, 208, 209
insularis insularis, 208
insularis lunulifer, 208
mactans, 208, 209
Laumontite of New Jersey trap, 128, 132
Lectures, Public, 284, 286
Ledien fossil Ymrtebrates of Belgium, 112
Lee, Frederic S., Finance Committee, 328
Leontinia of Argentine Republic, 157
Lepus of Argentine Republic, 158
Lepidosteus suessoniensis, 109, 110
Leriche, M., cited, 107, 108, 109, 110. Ill,
112, 113, 119
Reference to, 100
Lestodon of Argentine Republic, 159
Levison, Wallace Goold, On the Origin
and Sequences of the Minerals of
the Newark (Triassic) Igneous
Rocks of New Jersey', 121-134
Lewes, V. B., cited, 124, 125
Lewis, J. V., cited, 123, 130
Liarthrus of Argentine Republic, 157
Librarian, Report of the, 331
Listriodon of Argentine Republic, 160; of
the Pampean Formation, 155
Litopterna of Argentine Republic, 156, 157,
158, 159
Location of Objects Under Water, Ap¬
parent, Frank B. Spalding (Title),
310
Lonchoconus of Argentine Republic, 156
Lophiotherium cervulum, 112
Lophophyllum, 82, 93
proliferum, 47, 48, 80
Lower Eocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
107, 108, 109, 110
Lower Helderberg series, Limestones of the,
91
Lower Landenian fossil vertebrates of Bel¬
gium, 108
Lower Montian fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
107
INDEX
395
Lower Oligocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
1 13
Lower Pampean of the Argentine Republic,
158
Lower Pliocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
116, 117
Lower Senonian of Belgium, Reptiles of the,
102
Lowie, Robert H., The Age-Societies of
the Plains Indians (Abstract), 313
Lubrication and Lubricants, J. P. Sim¬
mons (Abstract), 320
Ludwig, R., Reference to, 47
Lull, R. S., Reference to, 159
Lutz, Frank E., The Relation Between
the Taxonomic Characters of
Crickets ( Gryllus ) and the Environ¬
ment (Abstract, 308
Lyceum of Argentine Republic, 159
Lycosa avida, 221
bilineata, 222
carolinensis, 222
communis, 221
erratica, 221
mordax, 221
nychthemera, 222
ocreata, 222
Lycosanychthemera, 221
Lycosidse, 205, 221, 223
Lyell, cited, 227, 237
References to, 226, 227, 236
Lytoloma bruxelliensis, 111
gasseleti, 108
wemmeliensis, 112
Mac Arthur, Arthur F., Active Member, 283
MacDougall, Robert, An Application of
the Concept of Space Dimension to
Experience in Time (Abstract), 290,
291
Macrauehenia of Argentine Republic, 159
Madreporaria, 88
M cestrichtian of Belgium, Reptiles of the, 104
Mammals of Belgium, Appearance of, 100
Manchester, James G., Reference to, 128
Manhattan Island, A New Anthophyllite
Occurrence on, H. D. Kinney (Ab¬
stract), 307, 308
Manhattan Island, Southern, Areal and
Structural Geology of, Charles P,
Berkey, 247-282
Manzano fauna of Rio Grande Valley, New
Mexico, Resemblance of Cloudc-roft
fauna to, 140
Marshall, Nina L., Common Mushrooms
and How to Know Them (Abstract),
312
Marsupialia of Argentine Republic, 156, 157
Martin, Lawrence, Work in Connection
with the Museum of Charleston,
284
Mastodon of Argentine Republic, 159
of the Pampean Formation, 154, 155
Matthew, W. D., Bulletins on Geologic
Correlation through Vertebrate
Paleontology by International
Cooperation, Numbers 1 and 2 (Ab¬
stract), 302
The Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium,
by Louis Dollo (Translated), 99-119
Patagonia and the Pampas Cenozoic
of South America. A Critical Re¬
view of the Correlations of San¬
tiago Roth, 1908, 149-160
Reference to, 42, 44, 228
Matthew, W. D., and Henry Fairfield
Osborn, Correlation Bulletin Num¬
ber 1, Plan and Scope, 41-44
Mayhill, Collection of Guadalupian fauna
made at, 140
Mazama of Argentine Republic, 160
McMillin, Emerson, Report of the Treas¬
urer, 332
Treasurer, 328
Meaning of the Association Test, The,
F. Lyman Wells (Abstract), 322, 323
Megalosaurus bredai, 104
dunkeri, 102
lonzeensis, 102
Megaptera afflnis, 118
Megatherium of Argentine Republic, 159
Melanophora rufula, 207
Membership of the Academy, 371
Mercerat, Reference to, 149
Merriam, J. C., Reference to, 42
M esocetus latifrons, 117
longiroslris, 116
pinguis, 116
Mesozoic Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium, 99-
107
Mesoplodon longirostris, 115
Mesotaria ambigua, 117
Mesozoic formations of Belgium, Chronologic
Table of the, Plate V
Metallography for School Work, Simple
Experiments in, William Campbell
(Abstract), 310
Metentatus of Argentine Republic, 156
Meteorite from Tonopah, Nevada, George
F. Kunz, 2S4
Mexico, A Trip Through Tropical, Alex¬
ander Petrunkevitch (Abstract), 319
von Meyer, H., Reference to, 47
Micrathena acuta, 216
armata, 216
bifissa, 216
bifurcata, 215
clypeata, 215
crassispina, 215
gladioli, 215
horrida, 212, 213
oblonga, 213
patruclis, 215
396
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Micrathena Simoni, 213
sordida , 214
spatulifera, 215
Vignrsi, 214
Mirrobiotherium . of Argentine Republic, 157
Microcyclus, 80, 93
discus, 48, 78
Microtragulus of Argentine Republic, 159;
of the Pampean Formation, 156
Middle Eocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
111, 112
Middle Oligocene fossil vertebrates of Bel¬
gium, 113
Middle Pampean of Argentine Republic, 159
Middle Pliocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
117, 119
Mill, John Stuart, quoted, 231
Miller, D. S., The Knowledge of Tempera¬
ment from Within and from With¬
out (Abstract), 290, 291
Miller, W. A., cited, 126
quoted, 125
Millington, New Jersey, Stilbite at, 133
Mimicry Among the North American But¬
terflies, E. B. Poulton (Title), 2S4
Minerals of the Newark (Triassic) Ig¬
neous Rocks of New Jersey, Wallace
Goold Levison, 121-134
Miosiren kocki, 114
Miozipliius belgieus, 115
Mississippi Valley, Comparisons between the
Guadalupian fauna and that of the,
135, 136
Mitsukuri, Kakichi, Death of, 324
Memoir of, Bashford Dean, 352
Mivart, Sir George, Reference to, 239
Moenkhaus, W. J., References to, 206, 213,
215, 217, 220, 221, 224
Moenkhausiana, 205, 222
brasiliensis, 223
pirata, 223
Monatherium aberratum, 116
affine, 116
delogni, 116
Montague, W. P., Concept of a Sensation
(Abstract), 294
Monte Hermoso beds of the Pampean Forma¬
tion, 154
Montgomery, Reference to, 222
Montian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 107
Moreno, Reference to, 149
Morphology and Development of Certain
Rugose Corals, Studies on the,
Thomas Clachar Brown, 45-97
(Title), 296
Morris, Frederick K., Associate Member, 324
Morse, Max, The Harpswell Biological
Laboratory (Abstract), 297-299
Mosasaurs, 106, 107
of Belgium, Bibliography of the, 107
Mosasaurus, 106, 107
giganteus, 104
Mosasaurus lemonnieri, 103
lo?izeensis, 102
Moulin Potholes within New York City,
Alexis A. Julien (Abstract), 307, 308
Multituber culates of the Notostylops, Puerco,
Torrejon and Cernaysian faunae, 152
Mushrooms, Common, and How to Know
Them, Nina L. Marshall (Abstract),
312
Mylodon of Argentine Republic, 159
Myopotamus of Argentine Republic, 159
Nahuel Huapi of the Patagonian sandstone
formation, 154
Nation ai. Academy of Sciences, Plan and
Scope of the Section of Vertebrate
Paleontology of the International
Correlation Committee of the,
Henry Fairfield Osborn and W. D.
■ Matthew, 41-44
Natrolite of the New Jersey trap, 128, 132
Naturalist in the Straits of Magellan,
A, Charles H. TGwnsend (Abstract),
319
Nautiloid fauna of Texas “Permian,” 140
Necrolestes of Argentine Republic, 158
Necromys of Argentine Republic, 159
Neoreomys of Argentine Republic, 158
Nephacodus of Argentine Republic, 156
Nervous System in Regeneration, The
Influence of the, A. J. Goldfarb
(Abstract), 326
Nesodon of Argentine Republic, 158
Newark (Triassic) Igneous Rocks of
New Jersey, Minerals of, Wallace
Goold Levison, 121-134
Newcomb, Simon, Death of, 311
Memoir of, G. W. Hill, 347
New Construction of the D’Arsonval
Type Measuring Instrument, A,
R. W. SutlifTe (Title), 310
New Example of Determinate Evolution,
A, Bashford Dean (Abstract), 288
New Laws of Gas Phosphorescence, C. C.
Trowbridge (Abstract), 300
New Scotland beds of the Lower Devonic, 65
New Scotland limestone, 66
Newton’s Rings, Wave Length of Light
by, D. W. Hering (Abstract), 312, 313
Niagara beds at Racine, Wisconsin, 64
Non-Resident Members, List of, 385
North American Butterflies, Mimicry
Among, E. B. Poulton (Title), 284
Notes in Connection with Specimens
Recently Obtained from the Ser¬
pentines of Staten Island, Arthur
Hollick (Abstract), 315
Notes of an Ornithologist in South
America, C. William Beebe (Ab¬
stract), 326
INDEX
397
Notes on Coos Ethnology, Leo S. Frach-
tenberg (Abstract), 313, 314
Notes on Striations, U-Shaped and Hang¬
ing Valleys Produced by other
than Glacial Action, Edmund Otis
Hovey (Abstract), 287
Notes on the Structure of Hardened
Steel, William Campbell (Abstract),
300
Notopithecus of Argentine Republic, 156
N otoprotogonia of Argentine Republic, 156
Notostylops Fauna of South America, 151,
152, 153, 156, 157
Notungulate groups of the Notostylops fauna,
152
Observations on Recent Geologic Changes
Affecting the Coast of Ecuador,
Marshall H. Saville (Abstract), 307
Odocoileus of Argentine Republic, 160
Officers, Election of, 328
Oldfieldthomasia of Argentine Republic, 156
Oligochelone rupeliensis, 114
Onohippidion of Argentine Republic, 159
of the Pampean Formation, 155
Onondaga (Corniferous) Group at the Falls of
the Ohio, 85
Onondaga limestone of the Middle Devonic, 73
On the Origin and Sequences of the
Minerals of the Newark (Triassic)
Igneous Rocks of New Jersey,
Wallace Goold Levison, 121-134
Oonopidte, 207
Orchestina saltabunda, 207
Ordovicic and siluric corals, 52
Organization of the Academy, 357
Ornithologist in South America, Notes
of an, C. William Beebe (Abstract),
326
Orthodolops of Argentine Republic, 156
Orthomerus, 106
dollni, 104
Orthopedic Photography; Notes on the
Rectification of Distorted Pic¬
tures, D. W. Hering (Abstract), 2S5
Ortmann, A. E., Reference to, 153
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Acceptance of
the portrait of Darwin, 21 , 22
Final Report on the Exploration of
the FayOm in 1907 (Abstract), 303
quoted, 230, 231
References to, 42, 44, 109
Osborn, Henry Fairfield, and W. D. Mat¬
thew, Correlation Bulletin Num¬
ber 1, Plan and Scope, 41-44
Pachynasua of Argentine Republic, 158, 159;
of the Pampean Formation, 156
Pachynolophus maldani, 109
Palache, Charles, Reference to, 130
Palceocyon of Argentine Republic, 159
Palaeollama of Argentine Republic, 160; of
the Pampean Formation, 155
Palceopeltis of Argentine Republic, 157
Palceophis typhosus, 111
Pcilceophoca nysti, 1 1 7
Palceoziphius scaldensis, 115
Paleocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 107
Paleographic Charts, Some Revised,
Amadeus W. Grabau (Abstract), 296,
297
Paley, Reference to, 241
Palisade diabase of New Jersey, 129, 130
Pampas Cenozoic of South America, 149-160
Pampean faunae of the Argentine Republic,
158
Pampean formation of South America, 154,
155, 156
Pampean genera, Age and derivation of, 155
Pampean genera of the Patagonian sandstone
formation, 154
Paniselian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 110
Panochtus of Argentine Republic, 159
Parabderites of Argentine Republic, 157
Parciceros of Argentine Republic, 160
Parana beds of the Pampean Formalin, 154
Pararctotherium of Argentine Republic, 158,
159; of the Pampean Formation, 154,
156
Parastrapotherium of Argentine Republic, 157
Partulas of the Society Islands and the
Problem of Isolation, Henry E.
Crampton (Abstract), 303, 304
Patagonia and the Pampas Cenozoic of
South America. A Critical Review
of the Correlations of Santiago
Roth, 1908, W. D. Matthew, 149-160
Patagonian formations, Correlation of, 150;
Sandstone formation, 154;
Tuff formation of South America, 152
Paterson, N. J., Minerals at, 131, 132, 133
Patrons, List of, 379
Pearsall, T. W., Death of, 311
Pectolite of New Jersey trap, 122, 128, 132
Peltephilus of Argentine Republic, 157, 15S
Peltochelys duchasteli, 101
Penaseo, Lower, List of specimens of Guada-
lupian fauna collected at, 141
Penck, Albrecht, The Antiquity of Man
(Title), 286
Pennsylvanian of the Mississippi Valley, 136,
137, 140, 143
Pennsylvanian faume of the Sacramento
Mountains, 142
Perimys of Argentine Republic, 158
Perissodactyla, Animals ancestral to, 152
of Argentine Republic, 159
Permian fauna of the Mississippi Valley, 136,
137, 140
Permian fauna of Russia, Position of the, 136
Permian of Kansas, Comparative age of, 146
398
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Permian of Oklahoma, Comparative age of,
146
Petraia corniculum, 56
profunda , 52
rustica, 58
Petrographic Notes on Certain Rocks
from Staten Island Alexis A. Julien
(Abstract), 315, 317
Petrunkevitch, Alexander, Some New or
Little Known American Spiders,
205-224
A Trip Through Tropical Mexico
(Abstract), 319
Pharsophorus of Argentine Republic, 157
Phillips, Reference to, 234
“Philosophie Zoologique,” Lamarck, Refer¬
ences to, 225, 230
Phoca vitulinoides, 118
Phocanella minor, 118
pumila, 118
Pholcid®, 208
Photography, Orthopedic, D. W. Hering,
285
Phrurolithus Britcheri, 217
Physeterula dubusi, 115
Pine Spring, New Mexico, Collections made
at, 140
Piratic®, 219
Pisaurid®, 219
Pithanodelphia cornutus, 115
Placoziphius duboisi, 115
Plains Indians, The Age-Societies of the,
Robert H. Lowie (Abstract), 313
Plan and Scope of the Section of Verte¬
brate Paleontology of the Inter¬
national Correlation Committee of
the National Academy of Sciences,
Henry Fairfield Osborn and W. D,
Matthew, 41-44
Planops of Argentine Republic, 158
Platecarpus, 106
Platychelone emarginata, 105
Platygonus of Argentine Republic, 160; of
the Pleistocene, 155
Platy phoca vulgaris, 118
Plesiadapis, 110
Plesiocetus brialmonti, 117
burtini, 117
dubius, 117
hupschi, 117
Plesiosaurus homalospondylus, 100
houzeani, 104
Pleurophorus ? aff. subcostatus, 141, 142
Plianchenia of the Pliocene, 155
Pliodolops of Argentine Republic, 156
Pliohippus of North America, 159; of the
Pampean formation, 155
Plioplatecarpus, 106, 107
houzeani, 103
marshi, 105
Poederlian fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
119
Pogue, J. L., cited, 129
Polydolops of Argentine Republic, 156
Poulton, E. B., Mimicry Among North
American Butterflies (Title),' 284
de Pourtales, L. F., quoted, 47
Prehnite of New Jersey trap, 127, 129, 132
Preliminary Report of a Statistical
Study of Association, A, A. J.
Rosanoff and Miss G. H. Kent (Ab¬
stract), 322
Present Status of the Genesee River
Problem, Amadeus W. Grabau
(Title), 311
Pretty Bird Creek, List of species of Guada-
lupian fauna collected at, 141
Primates of Argentine Republic, 157
Pritchett, Henry S., Fellow, 328
Proboscidea of Argentine Republic, 159
Procamelus of the Pliocene, 155
Procctocion of Argentine Republic, 156
Procyonid® of Argentine Republic, 158
Prodasyphus of Argentine Republic, 157
Productus Leeit, 141
limestone of India, 146
Mexicanus ?, 141
occidentalis, 141
Popei, 141
subhorridus, 141
TexanuSj 141
Prcentatus of Argentine Republic, 158
Prognathosaurus, 106, 107
giganteus, 103
solvayi, 103
Propachyrucos of Argentine Republic, 157
Propalceohoplophorus of Argentine Republic,
158
Prophoca proximo, 114
rousseaui, 114
Prophyseter dolloi, 115
Prosthennops of Argentine Republic, 160
of the Upper Miocene and Pliocene of
North America, 155
Prosymmetrical surface, 205
Proterotherium of Argentine Republic, 158
Protheosodon of Argentine Republic, 157
Protliylacinus of Argentine Republic, 157
Protophoccena minima, 115
Protostreptelasma, 88, 89
Proty pother ium of Argentine Republic, 158
Prozcedyus of Argentine Republic, 158
Pseudocolumella, Definition of, 52
Pseudotrionyx delheidi, 111
Psephophorus rupeliensis, 113
scaldii, 116, 118
Pteraspis dunensis, Appearance of, 99
Puerco faun® of North America and Europe,
152
Pyrite of New Jersey trap, 132
Propolymastodon of Argentine Republic, 156
Pyrotheria of Argentine Republic, 157
PjHotherium fauna of South American Ceno-
zoic, 152, 153, 157
INDEX
399
Quartermaster formation of Oklahoma, 146,
147
Quartz of New Jersey trap, 122, 127, 133
Quaternary fauna of North America, 158
Reaction of the Pupil to Color, The,
Sidney W. Ashe (Abstract), 305
Reade, T. Mellard, Death of, 311
Recording Secretary, Report of the,
Edmund Otis Hovey, 329
Records of Meetings of the New York
Academy of Sciences, Edmund
Otis Hovey, 283-356
"Red Beds,” List of species collected from,
142
Reference to, 136, 138, 141
Regeneration, The Influence of the
Nervous System in, A. J. Goidfarb
(Abstract), 326
Relation between the Taxonomic Char¬
acters of Crickets ( Gryllus ) and the
Environment, Frank E. Lutz (Ab¬
stract), 308
Relation of Modern Theories of Matter
to the Teaching of Physical Science,
The, Charles G. Cook (Title), 310
Relation of Movement to Consciousness,
The, Charles H. Judd (Abstract),
305, 306
Renevier, E. Reference to, 196
Cited, 196, 200
Report of the Corresponding Secretary',
Hermon Carey Bumpus, 330
Report of the Editor, Edmund Otis
Hovey, 331
Report of the Librarian, Ralph W. Tower,
331
Report of the Recording Secretary,
Edmund Otis Hovey, 329
Report of the Treasurer, Emerson Mc¬
Millan, 332
Reptiles of the Cretaceous of Belgium, 99, 100,
105
Reptiles of the Jurassic of Belgium, Fossil, 100
Reptiles of the Lower Senonian of Belgium,
102
Reptiles of the Maestrichtian of Belgium, 104
Reptiles of the Upper Senonian of Belgium,
103
Reptiles of the Wealden of Belgium, 100
Reptiles, Some Interesting, Raymond L.
Ditmars (Abstract), 288
Resorption in Igneous Rocks, Applica¬
tion of the Law of Mass Action to
Phenomena of, C. N. Fenner (Ab¬
stract), 325
Retrosymmetrical surface, 205
Rhinoceros, 113, 119
Rhynchippus of Argentine Republic, 157
Rupelornis definitus, 113
Ricardolydekkeria of Argentine Republic, 156
Rice, David E., Studies in Visual Acuity
(Title), 305
Richards Theodore William, Memoir of
Wolcott Gibbs, 345
Richardson, G. B., References to, 137, 138,
139, 140, 141, 144
Rio Frias beds of the Patagonian sandstone
formation, 154
Rio Negrean fauna of Argentine Republic,
158
Rio Negro beds of the Patagonian sandstone
formation, 154
Rochester shale, 59
Rocks from Staten Island, Petrographic
Notes on Certain, Alexis A. Julien
(Abstract), 315, 317
Rodentia of Argentine Republic, 157, 158, 159
Rodents in Santa Cruz fauna, 153
Rogers, G. Sherbourne, Associate Member,
311
Rominger, Carl, quoted, 46
Rosanoff, A. J., and Miss G. H. Kent, A
Preliminary Report of a Statisti¬
cal Study of Association (Ab¬
stract), 322
Roswell on Lincoln Road, Fossils obtained
near, 141
Roth, Santiago, A Critical Review of the
Correlations of, W. D. Matthew,
146-160
Roth, Santiago, cited, 149
de Rubio, Henry A. C., Active Member, 287
Rugose corals, Bibliography of, 96
Rugose Corals, Studies on the Morphol¬
ogy AND DEYrELOPMENT OF CERTAIN,
Thomas Clachar Brown, 45-97
(Title), 296
Ruidosa, Collections of Guadalupian fauna
made at, 140
Rupelian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 113
Russian Permian, 137, 146
Rutot, A., cited, 109, 112
Sacramento Mountains, Geographical position
of the, 1 37
Reference to, 138
St. Hilaire, Geoflroy, Reference to, 226
St. Louis group at Button Mould Knob,
Kentucky, 85
Santa Cruz fauna of Argentine Republic, 157.
158
Santa Cruz formation of South America, 153,
154, 158, 159
Santa Rosa beds of the Patagonian sandstone
formation, 154
Sardeson, F. W., cited, 90
Saville, Marshall H., Observations on
Recent Geologic Changes Affect¬
ing the Coast of Ecuador (Ab¬
stract), 307
Scaldicetus caretti, 115
400
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Scaldicetus grandis , 115
mortselensis, 115
Scaldisian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 117
Scelidotherium of Argentine Republic, 159
Schismotherium of Argentine Republic, 158
Schizocosa crassipes, 222
Schizodus aff. ovatus, 141
Schizodus Whceleri, 141
Schuchert, Winchell and, cited, 58
Sciaviys of Argentine Republic, 158
Scolecite, Sequence of occurrence of, 133
Scott, W. B., References to, 42, 153
Section of the Hudson River Beds Op¬
posite CoRTLANDT STREET, NEW
York, Edmund Otis Hovey (Ab¬
stract), 296, 297
Section op Vertebrate Paleontology of
the International Correlation
Committee of the National Acad¬
emy of Sciences, Plan and Scope
of, Henry Fairfield Osborn and W.
D. Matthew, 41-44
Seeley, H. G., cited, 104
Selenite of New Jersey trap, 133
Selenoconus of Argentine Republic, 156
Sensory Discrimination and Intellect,
Correlation of, Edward L. Thorn¬
dike (Abstract), 290
Sequence or order of occurrence of the miner¬
als of New Jersey, 130-133
Serpentines of Staten Island, Notes in
Connection with Specimens Re¬
cently Obtained from the, Arthur
Hollick (Abstract), 315
Shadyside, N. J., Minerals at, 131, 132
Shipley, A. E., Cablegram to the Academy,
3
Siluric and Ordovicie corals, 52
Simmons, J. P., Lubrication and Lubri¬
cants (Abstract), 320
Simon, Eugene, References to, 205, 207, 210,
213, 215
Simple Experiments in Metallography
for School Work, William Camp¬
bell (Abstract), 310
Simpson, G. B., cited, 66
quoted, 67, 84
References to, 58, 59
Sinclair, W. J., cited, 155
Reference to, 152
Sioux County, Nebraska, Bone Beds in
1908, In the, Harold J. Cook (Ab¬
stract), 287
Siwalik fauna, 155
Smets, G., cited, 113, 114
Smilodon, 155, 159
Smith, Ernest E., What are Deleterious
Ingredients op Food? (Abstract),
308
Smith, W. Wheeler, Death of, 311
Snake Hill, N. J., Minerals at, 129, 131, 132,
133
Society Islands, The Partulas of the
Henry E. Crampton (Abstract), 303,
304
Some Interesting Reptiles, Raymond L.
Ditmars (Abstract), 288
Some New Data on Fatigue, Edward L.
Thorndike (Abstract), 322
Some New or Little Known American
Spiders, Alexander Petrunkevitch,
205-224
Some Notes on Western Smelters, Wil¬
liam Campbell (Abstract), 285
Some Observations with the Tapping Test,
T. L. Bolton (Abstract), 290
Some Principles of Art Metal Work,
Edward Thatcher (Abstract), 312
Some Revised Paleogeographic Charts,
A. W. Grabau (Abstract), 296, 297
South America, Patagonia and the Pampas
Cenozoic of, 149-160
South American Cenozoic, Characteristic
genera of the, 156
Spalding, Frank B., Apparent Location
of Objects Under Water (Title),
310
Spaniomys of Argentine Republic, 1 58
Sparassodonta of South America, 152
Special Meeting, 286
Specimens Recently Obtained from the
Serpentines of Staten Island,
Notes in Connection with, Arthur
Hollick (Abstract), 315
Spencer, Herbert, cited, 226
Spermophora rueridionalis, 208
Sphargis, 110
Spiders, Some New or Little Known
American, Alexander Petrunke¬
vitch, 205-224
Spirifer rocky montanus, 143
Squalodon antwerpiensis, 114
Squibb, Edward H., Active Member, 301
Stanton, T. W., Reference to, 42
Stegotherium of Argentine Republic, 158
Steiromys of Argentine Republic, 158
Steneosaurus boll.ensis, 100
Stereolasma, 85, 93
rectum, 63, 67, 92
Stevenson, John James, The Coal Basin
of Commentry in Central France,
161-204, 325
Darwin and Geology, 3, 22-28
Stilbite of New Jersey trap, 127, 133
Stilotherium of Argentine Republic, 157
Stockard, Charles R., Studies on Tissue
Growth (Title), 303
Stokes, J. G. Phelps, Active Member, 296
Straits of Magellan, A Naturalist in the,
Charles H. Townsend (Abstract),
319
Stratigraphic Evidence, The Guada-
lupian Fauna and New, George H.
Girty, 135-147
INDEX
401
Streptelasma, 47, 53, 64, 67. 73, 75, 76, 77, 80,
81, 85, 92, 93, 94
caliculum, 59
corniculum, 56, 58, 89, 90, 91
profundum, 48, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 58, 69,
78, 82, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91
rectum , 48, 70, 75, 82
rusticum, 56, 58, 89, 90
strictum , 65
Striations, U-Shaped Valleys and Hang¬
ing Valleys Produced by Other
Than Glacial Action, Notes on,
Edmund Otis Hovey (Abstract), 287
Strombodes ? rectus , 67
Structure and Constitution of Alloys
and Metals Used in the Arts, On
the, William Campbell (Abstract),
312, 313
Studies in Color Stereoscopy, J. Carleton
Bell (Title), 305
Studies in Visual Acuity, David E. Rice
(Title), 305
Studies on the Morphology and Develop¬
ment of Certain Rugose Corals,
Thomas Clachar Brown, 45-97
(Title), 296
Studies on Tissue Growth, Charles R,
Stockard (Title), 303
Summary of the Symposium on Geologic
Correlation presented at the
Baltimore Meeting of Section E
of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science and
the Geological Society of America,
A. W. Grabau (Title), 284
SutlifTe, R. W., A New Construction of
the D’Arsonval Type Measuring
Instrument (Title), 310
Taczanovsky, References to, 212, 213
Tagassu of Argentine Republic, 160
Tamms of Argentine Republic, 159;
of the Pampean formation, 155
Tapping Test, Some Observations with
the, T. L. Bolton (Abstract), 290
Tatusiu of Argentine Republic, 159
Taxonomic Characters of Crickets ( Gryl -
his ) and the Environment, Relation
between the, Frank E. Lutz (Ab¬
stract), 308
Tecka beds of South America, 153
Tehuelehe of the Patagonian sandstone for¬
mation, 154
Temperament from Within and Without,
The Knowledge of, D. S. Miller
(Abstract), 290, 291
Tertiary amphibia of North America, 44
Tertiary areas of North America, 44
Tertiary fauna of North America, 15S
Tertiary fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 107-
119
Tertiary mammalia of North America, 44
Tertiary reptilia of North America, 44
Testudo houzei, 111
Thalassocetus antwcrpensis, 115
Thaumasite of New Jersey trap, 122, 12S, 133
Thatcher, Edward, Some Principles of
art Metal Work (Abstract), 312
Thatcher, E. J., Jr., Active Member, 31S
Theosodon of Argentine Republic, 158
Theridiidae, 205, 208, 209
Theridionexus, 205, 209
caveruicolus, 209
Thevenin, Reference to, 109
Thoatherium of Argentine Republic, 158
ThomisidaB, 216
Thomson, J. Arthur, quoted, 245
Thorndike, Edward L., Correlation of
Sensory Discrimination and In¬
tellect (Abstract), 290
Some New Data on Fatigue (Abstract)
322
Tissue Growth, Studies on, Charles R.
Stockard (Title), 303
Tomochelone lonzeensis, 103
Tongrian Fossil Vertebrates of Belgium, 113
Tonopah, Nevada, Meteorite, George F.
Kunz, 284
Torrejon fauna of North America and Europe,
152
Toxodontia of Argentine Republic, 156, 157,
158, 159
Tower, Ralph W., Librarian, 328
Report of the Librarian, 331
Townsend, Charles H., A Naturalist in
the Straits of Magellan (Abstract),
319
Trachodon, 106
Tranchee de l’Esperance, Commentry, De¬
scription of, 170
Tranchee de Foret, Commentry, Description
of, 167
Tranchde de l’Ouest et du PrS-Gigot, Com-
metry, Description of, 182
TrancMe de Longeroux, Commentry, De¬
scription of, 176
Tranchee de Saint-Edmond, Commentry,
Description of, 165
Tranchee des Chavais, Commentry, Descrip¬
tion of, 170
Trans-Pecos region, References to, 137, 144
Trap of New Jersey, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126,
127, 128, 129, 130
Traquair, R. H., Reference to, 99
Treasurer, Report of the, Emerson
McMillin, 332
Tremolite of New Jersey trap, 129
Trenton limestone, 48, 52, 56
Tretosternum bakeivelli, 101
Trigonostylops of Argentine Republic. 157
Trichechodoii konincki , 117
Trionyx bruxelliensis, 111
erquelinnensis, 109
benrici, 109
levalensis, 107
vittatus, 109
402
ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
Trip Through Tropical Mexico, A, Alex¬
ander Petrunkevitch (Abstract), 319
Trowbridge, C. C., New Laws of Gas
Phosphorescence (Abstract), 300
Two Greatest Diamonds of History, The;
Their Finding and Ultimate Dis¬
posal, George P. Kunz (Abstract),
302
Tylosaurus, 106
Typotherium of Argentine Republic, 159
Ubaghs, C., cited, 105
Ungulates in the Notostylops fauna, 152
Upper Eocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
112
Upper Landenian fossil vertebrates of Bel¬
gium, 109
Upper Miocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
114
Upper Montian fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
107
Upper Montclair, N. J., Minerals at, 123, 127,
131, 132, 133; Trap at, 125
Upper Oligocene fossil vertebrates of Bel¬
gium, 114
Upper Pampean of Argentine Republic, 159
Upper Pliocene fossil vertebrates of Belgium,
119
Upper Senonian of Belgium, Reptiles of the,
103
Ursidse of Argentine Republic, 158; of the
Pampean Formation, 154
Van Beneden, P. J., cited, 116, 117
Vanellus selysi, 113
Vertebrata in Strata in Belgium, 99
Vertebrate Paleontology, Geologic Cor¬
relation THROUGH, BY INTERNATIONAL
Cooperation, Henry Fairfield Os¬
born and W. D. Matthew, 41-44
Vertebrates of Belgium, The most ancient, 99
Viscaccia of Argentine Republic, 159
Walckenaer, quoted, 220
References to, 215, 219, 221, 222
Walcott, Charles D., Reference to, 42
Wallace, A. R., quoted, 236
References to, 226, 227
Warren, Charles Elliot, Active Member, 296
Wav*; Length of Light by Newton’s
Rings, D. W. Hering (Abstract), 312,
313
Wealden of Belgium, Reptiles and batra-
chians of, 100
Weed, Collections of Guadalupian fauna
made at, 140
Weismann, August, Honorary Member, 328
quoted, 226
Reference to, 233
Wells, F. Lyman, The Meaning of the
Association Test (Abstract), 322,
323
Wells, Reference to, 228
Wemmelian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 112
West Paterson, N. J., Minerals at, 127, 130-
133
Western Smelters, Some Notes on,
William Campbell (Abstract), 285
What are Deleterious Ingredients of
Food?, Ernest E. Smith (Abstract),
308, 309
Whitehorse “Red Beds” of Oklahoma, 146,
147
Whitfield, R. P., quoted, 64
Whitlock, H. P., cited, 131
Willcox, O.W., Cylindrogenite, A Possible
Representative of a Cylindrical
(Non-Hauyan) Order of Crystals
(Abstract), 285
Willis, Bailey, Reference to, 137
Williston, S. W., Reference to, 42
Wichita formation, 145, 146
Wilckens, References to, 151, 153
Winchell, A., and Charles Schuchert, cited,
59
Winkler, T. C., cited, 111
Wolff, Alfred R., Death of, 307
Woodcliff, N. J., Minerals at, 128, 131, 132
Wood, Elvira, Associate Member, 324
Woodbridge, F. J. E., Concept of a Sensa¬
tion (Abstract), 293
Woodman, J. Edmund, Active Member, 318
Councilor, 328
Fellow, 328
Woodward formation, 146
Woodworth, R. S., An Attempt to Stand¬
ardize Certain Tests of Controlled
Association (Abstract), 322, 323
Concept of a Sensation (Abstract), 294
Hermann Ebbinhaus (Title), 305
Worthen, Amos H., quoted, 85, 86
Wreford limestone, 146
Ypresian fossil vertebrates of Belgium, 110
Zaedyus of Argentine Republic, 159
Zaphrentid group, 51
Zaphrentidae, 49, 50
Zaphrentis, 47, 67, 73, 80, 90
calcar e for mis, 84
edwardsi, 75
multilamellosa, 75
prolifica, 71
racinensis, 64, 78, 91, 92
spinulosa, 85
varsoviensis, 85
wortheni, 75
Zeolites of New Jersey trap, 122, 127, 130
Ziegler, Victor, Associate Member, 318
Zittell, K., quoted, 78
Zoantharia rugosa, 46, 47
Zoology, Darwin and, Hermon Carey
Bumpus, 3, 34-40
Zoropsidce, 206
PUBLICATIONS
OF THE
NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
(Lyceum of Natural History, 1817-1876)
The publications of the Academy consist of two series, viz. :
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CONTENTS OF VOL. XIX, PART III.
Pages
Hovey, Edmund Otis. Records of meetings, 1909 . . . 283-334
List of Societies and other Organizations with which the Acad¬
emy Exchanges Publications ...... 335-344
Richards, Theodore William. Memoir of Wolcott Gibbs . . 345-346
Hill, G. W. Memoir of Simon Newcomb . 347-351
Dean, Bashford. Memoir of Kakichi Mitsukuri . . . 352-353
Kemp, James F. Memoir of John H. Caswell . . . 353-356
The Organization of the Academy, including Charter, Consti¬
tution and By-Laws . . 357-370
Membership Lists, 31 December, 1909 371-385
Index . 386-401
I