'

•Xo s 2 Pioi 6

No. 21 August 2005

Forktail 21

2005

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Cover picture: Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus ruficapillus ,

Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary, Narathiwas, Thailand, August 2003.

Photograph by Kanit Khanikul.

ISSN 0950-1746

© Oriental Bird Club 2005

FORKTAIL

Number 21, 2005

Senior Editor: Stuart Butchart

CONTENTS

MARK BARTER, LEI CAO, LIWEI CHEN and GANG LEI

Results of a survey for waterbirds in the lower Yangtze floodplain, China, in January-February 2004 . 1

V. KANNAN and RANJIT MANAKADAN

The status and distribution of Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis in southern India . 9

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India . 15

K. S. GOPI SUNDAR

Effectiveness of road transects and wetland visits for surveying Black-necked Storks Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus and

Sarus Cranes Gms antigone in India . 27

CHAN BOSCO PUI LOK, LEE KWOK SHING, ZHANG JIAN-FENG and SU WEN-BA

Notable bird records from Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan Island, China . 33

ZULFIQAR ALI and MUHAMMAD AKHTAR

Bird surveys at wetlands in Punjab, Pakistan, with special reference to the present status ofWhite-headed Duck

Oxyura leucocephala . 43

JONATHAN C. EAMES

A preliminary ornithological assessment and conservation evaluation of the PT Daisy logging concession,

Berau district, East Kalimantan, Indonesia . 51

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor): status and distribution from surveys in August

2002-December 2004 . 61

M. MONIRUL H. KHAN

Species diversity, relative abundance and habitat use of the birds in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary,

Bangladesh . 79

NABIN BARAL, RAMJI GAUTAM and BIJAY TAMANG

Population status and breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Rampur Valley, Nepal . 87

FRANCESCO GERMI

Raptor migration in east Bali, Indonesia: observations from a bottleneck watch site . 93

WOEI-HORNG FANG

Abstracts of ornithological masters’ theses from Taiwan, 1977-2003 . 99

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Birds ofTapuafu peninsula, Roti island, Lesser Sundas, Indonesia . 121

HERMANN DOTTLINGER and MIKE NICHOLLS

Distribution and population trends of the ‘black shaheen’ Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus peregrinator and the

eastern Peregrine Falcon F. p. calidus in Sri Lanka . 133

S. van BALEN, N. J. COLLAR, D. LILEY and RUDYANTO

The White-breasted Babbler Stachyris grammiceps of Java: natural history and conservation status, especially on

Gunung Halimun . 139

SUSAN D. MYERS and K. DAVID BISHOP

A review of historic and recent bird records from Lombok, Indonesia . 149

Short Notes

E. M. SLADE, J. F. VILLANUEVA, B. TACUD and E. CURIO

First nesting observations of the Negros Bleeding-heart Gallicolumba keayi from Panay, Philippines . 161

ASHOKA JAYARATHNA, PRASANJITH CALDERA and EBEN GOODALE

Observations on the nesting and parental behaviour of Ashy-headed Laughingthrush Garmlax cinereifrons . 163

ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

First record of Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus for Bhutan . 164

STEPHANIE J. TYLER

Foraging techniques of the Chinese Pond Heron Ardeola bacchus . 165

TOM ROBERTS and BEN KING

The call of Sykes’s Nightjar Caprimulgus mahrattensis . 166

MUHAMMAD IQBAL

New and noteworthy bird records from Sumatra, Indonesia

THE NATuRAL

istopv museu

2 4 AUG 2005

PURCHASED

2 U3F

167

S. SIVAKUMAR and VIBHU PRAKASH

Nesting of Jerdon’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni and Black Baza A. leuphotes in Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, India . . . .169

PAUL HOLT

Franklin’s Gull Larus pipixcan at Tanggu, Tianjin: first record for China . 171

BEN KING

The song of Cinnabar Hawk Owl Ninox ios in North Sulawesi, Indonesia . 173

K. SEEDIKKOYA, P. A. AZEEZ and E. A. A. SHUKKUR

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis habitat use and association with cattle . 174

YAT-TUNGYU

Longevity record of a colour-ringed Black-faced Spoonbill Platalea minor . 176

BEN KING

Vocalisation of the White-eared Night Heron Gorsachius magnificus . 177

K. S. GOPI SUNDAR and B. C. CHOUDHURY

Effect of incubating adult sex and clutch size on egg orientation in Sarus Cranes Gms antigone . 179

VOLKER KONRAD

First record of Long-billed Plover Charadrius placidus in Singapore . 181

ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

New sites for Mrs Hume’s Pheasant Syrmaticus humiae in north-east India based on hunters’ specimens and local

reports . 183

ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

Significant records of birds in Nagaland, north-east India . 187

HEM SAGAR BARAL

Surveys for Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus in and around Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Nepal . 190

WAYNE W. HSU and N. J. COLLAR

Black-chinned Fruit-dove Ptilinopus leclancheri and Scaly Thrush Zoothera danma on Taiwan . 193

Guidelines for contributors

inside back cover

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 1-7

Results of a survey for waterbirds in the

lower Yangtze floodplain, China,

in January-February 2004

MARK BARTER, LEI CAO, LIWEI CHEN and GANG LEI

A total of 515,896 waterbirds of 82 species was counted during a comprehensive, simultaneous count in the lower Yangtze River flood¬

plain, conducted during late January to early February 2004. Most of the important wetlands between the Three Gorges Dam and

the Yangtze estuary, a distance of 1,850 km, were visited. Ducks, geese and swans were most abundant, comprising 66% of waterbirds

counted, followed by shorebirds (17%), gulls (7%), and egrets and herons (5%). The ten commonest species were Bean Goose Anser

fabalis (79,758 individuals), Swan Goose Anser cygnoides (60,886), Dunlin Calidris alpina (40,709), Common Teal Anas crecca

(36,483), Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus (32,1 14), Tundra Swan Cygnus columbianus (30,925), Greater White-fronted Goose

Anser albifrons (25,241), Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha ( 22,562 ), Falcated Duck Anas falcata (18,364) and Lesser White-

fronted Goose Anser erythropus (16,937). These ten species comprised 70% of the total waterbird count. Twenty-three species were

found in internationally important numbers at one or more sites. Very high proportions of the estimated world populations of six

globally threatened species were found (Oriental Stork Ciconia boyciana, Swan Goose, Lesser White-fronted Goose, Siberian Crane

Grus leucogeranus, White-naped Crane G. vipio and Hooded Crane G. monacha). The numbers of Swan Geese and Lesser White-fronted

Geese counted exceeded the current global population estimates for these species. High proportions of the estimated flyway popula¬

tions were found for Black Stork Ciconia nigra , Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia and Tundra Swan, and for the global population

of the Falcated Duck. A total of 33 sites were identified at which at least one waterbird species was recorded in internationally impor¬

tant numbers. Nineteen sites supported at least one species in numbers exceeding 5% of the global or flyway population, and some

sites supported several, with Poyang Hu NNR (eight species >5%), Shengjin Hu (five), East Dongting Hu (four), Nanjishan (three)

and Cai Zi Hu (three) holding the most. Three important regions within the lower Yangtze River floodplain were identified: (1) Poyang

Hu; (2) Dongting Hu; and (3) Shengjin Hu and the lakes of the Anqing Yangtze River Wetland Provincial Nature Reserve. Waterbird

populations are reported to have declined in recent decades owing to hunting pressure. It is very important to establish a programme

to monitor waterbird numbers within the lower Yangtze River floodplain.

INTRODUCTION

The wetlands of the lower Yangtze River basin are of

great importance for a wide variety of waterbirds

(Scott 1989). The huge concentrations during the non¬

breeding season include many globally threatened

species. These include almost the entire global popula¬

tions of the Oriental Stork Ciconia boyciana

(Endangered) and Siberian Crane Grus leucogeranus

(Critically Endangered), and significant proportions of

the global populations of Swan Goose Anser cygnoides

(Endangered), Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser

erythropus (Vulnerable), White-naped Crane Grus vipio

(Vulnerable) and Hooded Crane Grus monacha

(Vulnerable). Among the other threatened waterbird

species present within the region are Dalmatian

Pelican Pelecanus crispus (Vulnerable), Baikal Teal Anas

formosa (Vulnerable), Baer’s Pochard Aythya baeri

(Vulnerable) and Scaly-sided Merganser Mergus

squamatus (Endangered; status from BirdLife

International 2004). BirdLife International has identi¬

fied five lake systems within the basin as Important

Bird Areas because of their large non-breeding popula¬

tions of threatened waterbirds, these being Chen Hu,

Cai Zi Hu, Shengjin Hu, Poyang Hu and Dongting Hu

(BirdLife International 2003).

Although the lower Yangtze River floodplain is

known to be of great importance for waterbirds, no

comprehensive and simultaneous count has been

carried out to obtain accurate information on water-

bird abundance and distribution throughout the region

over a short time period when numbers are at a

maximum. An analysis of available published count

data collected over the 1990-2003 period shows that

the best censused locations are Poyang Hu, East

Dongting Hu, Shengjin Hu and the Shanghai coastal

region, but it is likely that few of these counts are truly

comprehensive (Perennou et al. 1994, Anon. 1994,

1999a,b, 2001, Lopez and Mundkur 1997, Asian

Waterfowl Census unpublished data, Barter and Lei

unpublished data). Some of the other lakes within the

floodplain have been surveyed, but mostly only once or

twice since 1990, while others may never have been

surveyed.

In order to collect up-to-date comprehensive infor¬

mation on the distribution and abundance of

waterbirds in this highly threatened region, a simulta¬

neous count of waterbirds in the lower Yangtze River

floodplain was conducted during late January to early

February 2004. Other objectives of the survey were to:

collect data on the conservation status of the wetlands

surveyed; identify key wetlands which are currently

unprotected and recommend new protected areas;

involve provincial, nature reserve and university staff,

and local NGOs in the survey so that they could be

trained in survey techniques, waterbird ecology, and

waterbird identification and counting methods; and

improve public awareness of waterbirds and their

dependence on wetland habitats. This paper deals only

with the results of the waterbird counts.

METHODS

Survey area

The survey area covered the lower Yangtze River flood-

plain, extending 1,850 km from the Three Gorges Dam

(located near Yichang in western Hubei province) to

9

MARK BARTER et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

the river estuary at Shanghai. Most of the important

wetlands were visited. The two largest lakes in China

(Poyang Hu and Dongting Hu) and the Wuhan Lakes

are located within the Yangtze’s middle reaches, whilst

the lower reaches contain the Lower Yangtze River

Lakes and a number of large lakes in southern Jiangsu:

Hongze Hu, Gaoyou Hu, Shaobo Hu and Tai Hu

(Scott 1989).

Poyang Hu is located in the north of Jiangxi

province. At the height of the wet season (April to

September, with most rainfall from June to August),

the lake has a surface area of about 3,600 km2, being

about 170 km long and 90 km wide. At this time the

lake surface is at an altitude of c.21 m, but this

decreases to 13 m during the dry season (October to

March) when the lake has a fragmented area of about

500 km2 (Scott 1989). Dongting Hu, in north-eastern

Hunan province, has an area of 2,700 km2. The average

water level difference between dry and wet seasons is

18 m. Reclamation and siltation have resulted in the

formation of three lakes, i.e. West, South and East

Dongting. The Wuhan Lakes consist of about 40 lakes,

each of over 250 ha in area, whilst the Lower Yangtze

River Lakes contain about 80 lakes, each greater than

250 ha in extent, and innumerable smaller lakes and

ponds with a network of interconnecting channels

(Scott 1989).

Survey techniques

The survey was carried out in late January and early

February. This period was chosen because this is when

waterbird numbers in the region should be at a

maximum (owing to birds being forced south by cold

winter weather in northern China) and birds were

expected to be occupying their preferred habitats,

owing to greatly reduced human disturbance during

the period of the Spring Festival.

The counts were conducted by 14 teams: two teams

in each of Shanghai municipality and Jiangsu, Anhui,

Hubei and Hunan provinces, and four teams in Jiangxi

province. Gaining access to wetlands in the floodplain

was often difficult and time consuming. In many cases

it was necessary to walk long distances to reach the

shoreline and then along the shore to count birds.

Daily walks of 15-20 km were commonplace. Teams

used a variety of methods to gain access to the

wetlands and the waterbirds, but in most cases cars

were employed to get as close as possible to the target

area and teams then proceeded on foot.

The waterbird species that were counted were those

listed in Wetlands International (2002), i.e. those used

by the Ramsar Convention for identifying wetlands

containing internationally important concentrations of

waterbirds. Those species that could be reasonably

expected to occur in the survey region during the

northern winter were selected from this document and

were listed in the bilingual count forms used during the

survey.

Observers generally underestimate the numbers of

waterbirds present when counting large flocks

(Rappoldt et al. 1985). Underestimation is also

compounded by the common problem of missing birds

when counting over large wetland areas. Double¬

counting of the same bird at more than one site leads

to inflation of estimates, but this is probably normally

outweighed by the underestimation resulting from the

previous two factors. Therefore, it is to be expected

that the counts probably underestimate the numbers of

waterbirds present in the survey region. The overall

coverage of the wetlands visited in Hunan, Hubei,

Anhui, Jiangsu and Shanghai was estimated to be 64%.

Identifying Ramsar sites

The Ramsar Convention has developed two criteria to

determine whether a wetland supports internationally

important numbers of waterbirds (Ramsar Convention

Bureau 2000): (1) a wetland should be considered

internationally important if it regularly supports

20,000 or more waterbirds; and (2) a wetland should

be considered internationally important if it regularly

supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one

species or subspecies of waterbird.

The objective nature of these criteria makes them

easy to apply to the identification of internationally

important waterbird sites. The availability of popula¬

tion estimates for waterbird species occurring in the

lower Yangtze River floodplain during the northern

winter (Wetlands International 2002) means that the

second criterion is the most appropriate one to use in

assessing the international importance of wetlands in

the region. The employment of this criterion has the

significant advantage that it enables identification of

Figure 1 . Location of the sites in the lower Yangtze River

floodplain at which internationally important numbers of at

least one species of waterbird were recorded during the

survey. (1) Beiming Hu; (2) Kongjia Hu; (3) Tabai Hu; (4)

West Dongting Hu; (5) South Dongting Hu; (6) Henling Hu;

(7) East Dongting Hu; (8) Milu/Baijitun NNRs; (9) Chen

Hu; (10) Wang Hu; (11) Saichen Hu; (12) Za Hu; (13)

Xinmiao Hu; (14) Jishan Hu; (15) NW Poyang Hu; (16)

Poyang Hu NNR; (17) SW Poyang Hu; (18) Raopoyangzhu

Hu; (19) Raopoyanglian Hu; (20) Nanjishan; (21)

Wuyuanyuanyang; (22) Longgan Hu; (23) Daguan Hu; (24)

Huang Hu; (25) Bo Hu; (26) Wuchang Hu; (27) Qili Hu;

(28) Shengjin Hu; (29) Cai Zi Hu; (30) Baidang Hu; (31)

Feng Sha; (32) Shang Hu; (33) Chongming Dao.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Survey for waterbirds in the lower Yangtze floodplain, China

3

suites of sites that are important for individual water-

bird species.

RESULTS

Waterbird numbers

A total of 515,896 waterbirds of 82 species was

counted, including 19,101 unidentified waterbirds

(3.7% of the total count). A summary of the total

counts for each species is given in the Appendix.

Waterbirds occurred in large numbers throughout the

survey region. Provincial totals were: Anhui: 171,841

individuals; Jiangxi: 138,643 individuals; Hunan:

133,306 individuals; Hubei: 47,469 individuals;

Jiangsu: 15,796 individuals; and Shanghai municipal¬

ity: 8,841 individuals.

Ducks, geese and swans were the most common

species group, comprising 66% of the waterbirds

counted, followed by shorebirds (17%), gulls (7%),

and egrets and herons (5%). The ten commonest

species were Bean Goose Anser fabalis (79,758 individ¬

uals), Swan Goose (60,886), Dunlin Calidris alpina

(40,709), Common Teal Anas crecca (36,483), Black¬

headed Gull Larus ridibundus (32, 1 14), Tundra Swan

Cygnus columbianus (30,925), Greater White-fronted

Goose Anser albifrons (25,241), Spot-billed Duck Anas

poecilorhyncha (22,562), Falcated Duck Anas falcata

(18,364) and Lesser White-fronted Goose (16,937).

These ten species comprised 70% of the total water-

bird count.

Table 1. Waterbird species ranked according to the number of sites

in the lower Yangtze floodplain at which they were recorded in

internationally important numbers.

Species No. sites of international importance

Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia 1 1

Black Stork Ciconia nigra 1 0

Tundra Swan Cygnus columbianus 10

Bean Goose Anser fabalis 8

Swan Goose Anser cygnoides 7

Hooded Crane Grus monacha 6

Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus 5

Falcated Duck Anas falcata 5

Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta 4

Common Crane Grus grus 4

Oriental Stork Ciconia boyciana 3

Siberian Crane Grus leucogeranus 3

White-naped Crane Grus vipio 3

Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus 3

Greater White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons 3

Northern Lapwing Vanellus vanellus 2

Great Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo 1

Great Egret Casmerodius albus 1

Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax 1

Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser erythropus 1

Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata 1

Common Teal Anas crecca 1

Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus 1

Twelve globally threatened species (Oriental Stork,

Black-faced Spoonbill Platalea minor , Swan Goose,

Lesser White-fronted Goose, Baikal Teal, Baer’s

Pochard, Scaly-sided Merganser, Siberian Crane,

White-naped Crane, Hooded Crane, Swinhoe’s Crake

Coturnicops exquisitus and Saunders’s Gull Larus

saundersi) and one Near Threatened species

(Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca) were encoun¬

tered.

Species present in important concentrations

The great importance of the lower Yangtze River flood-

plain is shown by the fact that it supports very high

proportions of the populations of six globally threat¬

ened species: Oriental Stork (57% of the estimated

global population), Swan Goose (60,886 individuals,

which exceeds the current global population estimate

of 55,000 individuals), Lesser White-fronted Goose

(16,937 individuals, which exceeds the current flyway

population estimate of 14,000 individuals), Siberian

Crane (93% of the estimated flyway population),

White-naped Crane (68% of the estimated flyway

population), and Hooded Crane (93% of the estimated

flyway population). In addition, we found very high

proportions of the flyway populations for four other

species: Black Stork Ciconia nigra (108 individuals,

which exceeds the current flyway population estimate

of 100 individuals), Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea

leucorodia (89% of the estimated flyway population);

Tundra Swan (36% of the estimated flyway popula¬

tion), and Falcated Duck (53% of the estimated global

population).

Twenty-three species were found to be present in

internationally important numbers at one or more sites

(Table 1). Eurasian Spoonbill, Black Stork, Tundra

Swan, Bean Goose, Swan Goose and Hooded Crane

all occurred in internationally important numbers at

more than five sites. Table 2 gives an indication of the

degree to which the global or flyway populations of

different species are concentrated in the lower Yangtze

River floodplain. Of particular conservation signifi¬

cance is the fact that six globally threatened species

occur at one or more sites in numbers exceeding 20%

of their estimated global or flyway populations.

Sites of international importance

A total of 33 sites were identified at which at least one

waterbird species was recorded in internationally

important numbers (Table 3, Fig. 1). Four sites

supported more than five such species: Poyang Hu

NNR, East Dongting Hu, Nanjishan and Shengjin Hu.

Many sites supported high percentages of a species’s

flyway population: 19 sites supported at least one

species in numbers exceeding 5% of its global or flyway

population (Table 2). Some sites supported a number

of such species, with Poyang Hu NNR (eight species

>5%), Shengjin Hu (five species), East Dongting Hu

(four species), Nanjishan (three species) and Cai Zi

Hu (three species) holding the most. These sites are

obviously of great conservation significance.

Three extremely important regions within the lower

Yangtze River floodplain were identified during this

survey: (1) Poyang Hu; (2) Dongting Hu; and (3)

Shengjin Hu and the lakes of the Anqing Yangtze River

Wetland Provincial Nature Reserve.

4

MARK BARTER et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Table 2. Species occurring in concentrations >20%, >10% and >5% of their estimated global or flyway population, and the sites at which

they occur.

DISCUSSION

The great importance of the wetlands within the lower

Yangtze River floodplain is confirmed by the count of

more than 0.5 million waterbirds of 82 species, of

which 23 were present in internationally important

concentrations at one or more sites. The occurrence of

very high proportions of the populations of six globally

threatened species is of particular conservation impor¬

tance, especially as four of these (Oriental Stork,

Lesser White-fronted Goose, Siberian Crane and

White-naped Crane) are concentrated in significant

numbers at only a few sites. There are undoubtedly

many more internationally important sites within the

floodplain. Some have been previously identified, e.g.

Hongze Hu, Shaobo Hu and Gaoyou Hu in Jiangsu

(frozen during the survey) and Shijiu Hu in Anhui

(unvisited), and more will be identified as survey

coverage improves.

The number of waterbirds present within the lower

Yangtze River floodplain during the survey period is

likely to have been considerably higher than that

counted, as it is estimated that only about 64% of the

total area of wetlands visited was covered. Additionally,

as noted previously, counts generally underestimate

numbers actually present.

The wetlands of the lower Yangtze River floodplain

have been much reduced and degraded by economic

activities, principally reclamation for agriculture. The

total area of lakes is reported to have declined by 62%

between the 1950s and 1980s. More than 1,100 lakes

have been totally reclaimed, notably in Hubei province

where numbers have decreased from 1,066 to 83 lakes

over the 1950-1980 period. The surface area of Poyang

Hu has been reduced from 5,000 knf to 3,600 km2

and of Dongting Hu from 4,350 km2 to 2,700 km2.

Although the total area of wetlands is still large, their

quality has been greatly affected by development,

pollution, overfishing, crab farming, fish farming using

fertilisers, planting of poplars and human disturbance;

waterbirds are concentrated in the remaining suitable

areas of shallow wetland during the non-breeding

season (BirdLife International 2003, personal observa¬

tions)

The construction and operation of the Three

Gorges Dam, which commenced filling in mid-2003,

will change the seasonal flow of water in the Yangtze

River and could negatively affect the wetlands

downstream. There is a danger that by artificially

maintaining low water levels during the summer flood

season and raising them in the winter (to a level

estimated to be 1 m higher) the character of the

Forktail 21 (2005)

Survey for waterbirds in the lower Yangtze floodplain, China

5

wetlands will be changed, and the shallow areas that

most waterbirds require for feeding will be greatly

reduced in extent (BirdLife International 2003).

Implementation of the South-North Water Transfer

project, which plans to draw 48 billion m3 from the

Yangtze River watershed and send it via three canals to

arid areas of northern China, can also be expected to

affect water supply to wetlands in the region.

Construction of two of the canals began in 2002-2003.

The numbers of waterfowl in the lower Yangtze

River floodplain have declined greatly in the last ten

years (BirdLife International 2003). Recent informa¬

tion, based on data from the breeding areas, indicates

that habitat loss and hunting in the staging and non¬

breeding regions (e.g. the lower Yangtze River

floodplain) have caused significant declines in the

numbers of waterbirds breeding in the Russian Far

East. Over recent decades, all geese populations have

declined by more than 80%; ten out of 13 migratory

populations of dabbling ducks and six of the 14

populations of diving ducks have also decreased (E.

Syrechkovski Jr. in litt. 2004). A study of hunting

pressure in the lower Yangtze River floodplain in

Table 3. Sites in the lower Yangtze floodplain ranked according to

the number of internationally important waterbird species’ popula¬

tions supported.

1987-1992 estimated that c.50% of the total wintering

waterfowl in this region were killed each year by local

hunters, using netting, shooting and poisoning.

Hunting appears to be the main reason for recent

decreases in the numbers of Swan Goose and the

eastern population of Lesser White-fronted Goose

(BirdLife International 2003).

These declines indicate that it is very important to

establish a programme to monitor waterbird numbers

within the lower Yangtze River floodplain. A statistically

robust sampling scheme will be required as it is

impractical to count waterbirds at all the wetlands in

the region over a short time period on an annual basis.

In order to set up such a programme, more informa¬

tion will be required on the abundance and

distribution of those species for which the region is

important. It will firstly be necessary to cover those

areas missed during this survey. However, as species

distributions can be expected to change from year to

year with varying water levels, either naturally occur¬

ring or due to the impact of the Three Gorges dam, it

will be highly desirable to revisit some of the particu¬

larly important areas identified in this survey in order

to assess the extent and degree of annual variation in

distribution.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funding for the survey was provided by WWF Netherlands. We are

very grateful to the State Forestry Administration, the Provincial

Forestry Bureaus, Nature Reserve staff and the members of the

counting teams for their assistance in the planning and execution of

the project.

REFERENCES

Anon. (1994) Waterbird research in China. Shanghai, China: East

China Normal University Press.

Anon. (1999a) Waterbird count in Poyang Lake in 1996 and 1998.

Newsl. for Wetlands 4: 9.

Anon. (1999b) Preliminary investigation on wintering waterbirds in

Liangzi Lake, 1999. Newsl. for Wetlands 4: 14.

Anon. (2001) Saichen Hu Lake - the important wetland in northern

Jiangxi Province. Newsl. for Wetlands 7:11.

BirdLife International (2003) Saving Asia’s threatened birds: a guide

for government and civil society. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife

International.

BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004. CD-

ROM. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

Lopez, A. and Mundkur, T., eds. (1997) The Asian Waterfowl census

1994-1996: results of the coordinated waterbird census and an

overview of the status of wetlands in Asia. Kuala Lumpur: Wetlands

International.

Perennou, C., Mundkur, T., Scott, D. A., Follestad, A. and Kvelnid,

L. (1994) The Asian Waterfowl Census 1987-91: distribution and

status of Asian waterfowl. Kuala Lumpur and Slimbridge, U.K.:

AWB and IWRB.

Ramsar Convention Bureau (2000) Strategic framework and guide¬

lines for the future development of the List of Wetlands of

International Importance. Available at: www.ramsar.org/

key guide list e.htm.

Rappoldt, C., Kersten, M. and Smit, C. (1985) Errors in large-scale

shorebird counts. Ardea 73: 13-24.

Scott, D. A., ed. (1989) A directory of Asian wetlands. Gland,

Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN.

Wetlands International (2002) Waterbird population estimates. Third

Edition. Wageningen, Netherlands: Wetlands International.

6

MARK BARTER et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Mark Barter, 21 Chivalry Avenue, Glen Waverley,VIC 3150, Australia. Email: markbarter@optusnet.com.au

Lei Cao, School of Life Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, No. 96 Jin Zai Road, Hefei 230026,

Anhui, China.

Liwei Chen, WWF China Programme, Room 1609, Wen Hua Gong, Beijing Working People’s Culture Palace, Beijing

100006, China.

Gang Lei, WWF China Programme, Room 901, Changsheng Building, No. 126 Jianghan Road, Wuhan 430014,

Hubei, China.

APPENDIX

Number of waterbirds counted in the lower Yangtze River floodplain, Jan-Feb 2004

Forktail 21 (2005)

Survey for waterbirds in the lower Yangtze floodplain, China

7

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 9-14

The status and distribution of Spot-billed Pelican

Pelecanus philippensis in southern India

V. KANNAN and RANJIT MANAKADAN

Surveys for Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis were conducted in southern India from May 2000 to April 2004. Population

estimates were based on counts of birds at nesting colonies and of large congregations at foraging sites, supplemented by published

and unpublished recent records. A population of 2,850-3,700 birds is estimated for the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil

Nadu and Kerala, which is higher than earlier estimates.

INTRODUCTION

Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis is one of the

most threatened of the seven species of pelicans in the

world. The total population is estimated to number

2,500-5,000 individuals in South Asia, 3,000-5,000

individuals in South-East Asia and <25 individuals in

Sumatra (BirdLife International 2001, Wetlands

International 2002). Populations are declining owing

to factors such as human disturbance at the nesting

grounds, hunting, loss of wetlands, pollution and over¬

fishing (see BirdLife International 2001 and

Manakadan and Kannan 2003 for summaries). A

number of anecdotal accounts, studies and survey

results have been published on the species in India

(e.g., Neelankantan 1949, Gee 1960, Lamba 1963,

Neginhal 1977, Saxena 1980, Nagulu 1983, Nagulu

and Rao 1983, Perennou and Santharam 1990,

Perennou and Mundkur 1992, Johnson et al. 1993,

Krishnan 1993, Riyazuddin 1994, Perennou et al.

1994, Sridhar and Chakravarthy 1995, Subramanya

1996a,b, Subramanya and Manu 1996, Manu and

Jolly 2000). We undertook specific surveys for the

species in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu,

and Karnataka in southern India. As there are few

records of Spot-billed Pelican in Kerala (Ferguson and

Bourdillon 1903-1904, Nameer 1993, Nair 1994,

Ravindran 1995), and these probably refer to stragglers

from Tamil Nadu, we did not carry out surveys in this

state.

METHODS

A base camp was established in the Pulicat Lake-

Nelapattu area of Andhra Pradesh from May 2000 to

April 2003, where regular censuses were carried out.

During 2002-2004, surveys were carried out at other

sites in southern India, mainly during the breeding

season (October-April). These sites were chosen based

on published localities, and information gathered from

forest department personnel, birdwatchers, ornitholo¬

gists, and local people. A total of 37 sites were visited

during the survey, of which 14 were breeding colonies

(either regular or occasional), four were former

breeding colonies, and the remainder were foraging

sites. Data on Karavetti-Vettakudi, Coringa, Watrup,

Kaliveli-Yedayanthittu and Labaku-Reddipalle were

based solely on secondary sources. Single counts were

made at foraging sites, but 3-4 counts were made at

each nesting colony, and the maximum number was

used in the analysis. In some cases the survey data were

supplemented with secondary information obtained

from forest department records, local people and

birdwatchers. All counts were carried out rapidly from

watchtowers, vehicles, or on foot, to reduce the

chances of double counting. Counts at foraging sites

were generally carried out from 07h00 to 09h00, while

those at colonies were carried out between 1 lhOO and

14h00 when most of the adults would have returned

from the foraging grounds. It was not always possible

to count the number of nests owing to dense vegetation

obstructing views. Juveniles were easily distinguished

from adults by their brownish rather than whitish

plumage. We found it difficult to differentiate sub¬

adults as their brownish-tinged plumage varied

considerably in different light conditions, and hence

we did not count them separately.

RESULTS

The Appendix summarises the records at each site, and

sites are mapped in Figs. 1-3. From these data, we

estimate the population of Spot-billed Pelican in

southern India to be 2,850-3,700 individuals. There

are three relatively stable large breeding colonies in

Andhra Pradesh (Telineelapuram, Uppalapadu and

Nelapattu) and one each in Karnataka (Kokkare-

Bellur) and Tamil Nadu (Koonthakulam).

Andhra Pradesh

There are probably three subpopulations in Andhra

Pradesh (extending into the neighbouring states of

Orissa and Tamil Nadu) and numbering 850-1,200

individuals in total.

(1) At Telineelapuram, Srikakulam district, the

breeding population numbers c.100 individuals. The

birds forage at Kakarpally Creek (100 krm, c.10 km

away), but the major foraging grounds may be at

Chilka Lake, Orissa (856 km2, c.100 km away). The

total population at Chilka was c.250 birds in 1993

(Balachandran et al. 2002) and 130 birds in 2004 (S.

Balachandran verbally 2004).

(2) Another subpopulation probably comprises the

remnants of the colony at Kolleru, where both the

nesting habitats (at Aredu, Sarepalle and Kolamuru)

and the major foraging area at Kolleru Lake have been

destroyed or are heavily disturbed. Birds from here

may have been the source of a new colony established

at Uppalapadu, c.75 km away, in 1999-2000. Other

birds from Kolleru may be currently breeding

10

V. KANNAN and RANJIT MANAKADAN

Forktail 21 (2005)

Yellamallappa Shetty Tank

Kokkare-Bellur \ Bo|are Koppa|U

Karanji \ \ \

\ \ Dalawaikere

A\ \ / Jailur

MaduA )•/ ' |

„ Sulekere* %/^Malavalli \

Belikere ® , • . , )

• a a # • • M anda ka 1 1 y

Hadinaru Lake ® « $ ^

‘^-v Ynaehole#® Doddagubbi

Ularasambud" ! MarcMi /

▲ Breeding site

• Foraging site

& Occasional breeding site

Figure 2. Breeding colonies and foraging sites for Spot-billed

Pelican in Karnataka.

Figure 3. Breeding colonies and foraging sites for Spot-billed

Pelican in Tamil Nadu.

Forktail 21 (2005)

The status and distribution of Spot-billed Pelican in southern India

1 1

elsewhere in the Krishna-Godavari deltas, which form

the major foraging grounds. We estimate the current

population in this region to be 200-300 birds, a huge

decline from the estimated 3,000 birds at Kolleru in

the middle of the twentieth century (Neelakantan

1949, Gee 1960, Lamba 1963).

(3) A third subpopulation, numbering 500-600

birds, breeds at Nelapattu, Nellore district, and forages

at the nearby Pulicat Lake (c.460 km2), and also at

numerous irrigation tanks in the district, e.g. Kanigiri

Reservoir near Nellore. These birds may forage or even

occasionally breed in areas such as Vedanthangal Bird

Sanctuary (Chengleput ciistrict, Tamil Nadu), about

150 km to the south. They may also forage and

occasionally breed at Kaliveli-Yedayanthittu (near

Pondicherry), Vedurupattu-Edhirpattu (near

Nelapattu), and Edayur (Kanchipuram district, Tamil

Nadu).

Karnataka

The subpopulation in Karnataka, formerly concen¬

trated at the adjacent villages of Kokkare, Bellur and

Bannali, Mandya district, has now spread to form

breeding colonies at Ivaranji, Kukkrahalli and

Lingabuddi in the adjoining district of Mysore. It is

difficult to estimate the size of this subpopulation, but

it probably numbers c. 350-450 birds. Pelicans seen

occasionally in Erode and Coimbatore districts in

Tamil Nadu probably derive from this subpopulation.

Tamil Nadu

Spot-billed Pelican is widely distributed in Tamil

Nadu, making it difficult to identify subpopulations or

estimate numbers, but the state probably supports

1,600-2,000 birds. The largest colony is at

Koonthakulam, Tirunelveli district, with c.450 individ¬

uals, having grown from just 30 nests in 1982 (V. J.

Rajan in litt. to BirdLife International 2001). A smaller

colony formerly existed at Moondradaippu, c.60 km

away, but was abandoned in the early 1980s. There are

also isolated breeding records at a few sites around

Koonthakulam and Moondradaippu (see Appendix),

and records of 25-40 pairs at Sakarakottai and

Ramnad tanks, Ramanathapuram district. All these

birds probably originated from the Chitrangudi-

Kanjirankulam colony, Ramanathapuram district

(c.50 km from Sakarakottai and Ramnad and c.200

km from Koonthakulam), which was abandoned in

the 1990s having supported c. 1,000 birds formerly.

Pelicans reported from Theroor, Vembanur and

Suchindram, Kanniyakumari district, presumably

derive from Tirunelveli. Those reported from Madurai

Tank and Virudunagar district (Vembakottai Dam,

Kulur Sandai Dam and Watrup Big Tank) may derive

from Ramanathapuram. However, there could be

mixing between both these sources. The origin of

pelicans seen during October-February in the Great

Vedaranyam Swamp is uncertain (see Appendix). They

may originate in Sri Lanka, which is just 50 km away,

or from the Ramanathapuram population.

Since the mid-1990s, small numbers of pelican

nests have been reported at Karaivetti-Vettakudi tank

(Perambalur district). Counts did not exceed 42 birds

until 200-450 birds were recorded from January to

June 2003 (see Appendix). The origin of this new

population can only be a matter of conjecture.

DISCUSSION

The status of the Spot-billed Pelican in southern India

(and indeed in the rest of its range) is poorly known. It

was previously believed to be sedentary or subject to

local seasonal movements, and it was presumed not to

undertake long-distance movements regularly (Ali and

Ripley 1987, del Hoyo et al. 1992). However, we

suggest that the species may travel long distances to

foraging grounds and there may also be movements

between colonies. Movements up to 75 km (Findholt

and Anderson 1995) and 100 km (Hatzilacou 1996)

from colonies to foraging areas have been reported in

the American White Pelican P erythrorhynchos and

Great White Pelican P. onocrotalus respectively.

In India, populations were estimated to number

c. 1,000-1,500 birds in the 1980s (Nagulu 1983).

However, results of the yearly Asian Waterfowl Census

conducted by Wetlands International since the late

1980s have shown the species to be more abundant

(Perennou and Mundkur 1992, Johnson et al. 1993,

Mundkur and Taylor 1993, Mundkur 1994, Perennou

et al. 1994). In 2001, 2,000-2,500 birds were estimated

for southern India (BirdLife International 2001). Our

surveys produced an estimate of 2,850-3,700 birds.

With a recent estimate of c.3,000 birds for Assam

(Choudhury 2000), the population in India totals

6,000-7,000 birds. It is unclear whether any genuine

population increase has occurred, or whether censuses

have become more comprehensive. Local people in

India may have become more wary of hunting wildlife

since the 1980s owing to improved awareness and

stricter enforcement of wildlife laws. Additionally, a

number of colonies have been given protection by state

forest departments since the late 1980s and 1990s.

However, we foresee population declines in future

owing to the multitude of human-related pressures on

pelicans, especially at the foraging grounds (see

Manakadan and Kannan 2003).

It should be noted that our estimates are crude as

they were based on very few visits to sites, conducted

at different times, and also relied on secondary infor¬

mation. Systematic, repeated and standardised counts

at both breeding and foraging sites and monitoring of

marked birds (e.g. with the help of satellite tracking)

are needed to determine more accurately the popula¬

tion, distribution and movements of the Spot-billed

Pelican in southern India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

India for funding. The 2003-2004 survey was funded by the IBA

Programme of the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), and we

thank Dr A. R. Rahmani and Zafar-ul-Islam for support. We thank the

officials and staff of the forest departments of Andhra Pradesh,

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for permission or help in carrying out

studies in their states. Earlier drafts were improved by J. C. Daniel, Ajay

A. Desai, S. Sivakumar and Dr G. Maheshwaran. Many of the staff at

BNHS helped us during the project, and we are grateful to them.

12

V. KANNAN and RANJ1T MANAKADAN

Forktail 21 (2005)

REFERENCES

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1987) Compact handbook of the birds of India

and Pakistan. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Anon. (1993) Directory of Indian wetlands. New Delhi: WWF-India.

Balachandran, S, Barua, A. D. Shanbhag, A. B. and Borges, S. (in

press) Large congregation of Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philip-

pensis at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary and a tank in

Tirunelveli. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Balachandran, S, Rahmani, A. R. and Sathiyaselvam, P. (2002)

Habitat evaluation of Chilika Lake with special reference to birds as

bio-indicators. Interim report (December 2001— June 2002).

Mumbai: Bombay Natural History Society.

BirdLife International (2001) Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife

International Red Data Book. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife

International.

Choudhury, A. (2000) The birds of Assam. Guwahati: Gibbon Books

and Worldwide Fund for Nature-India.

Ferguson, H. S, and Bourdillon, T. F. (1903-1904) The birds of

Travancore with notes on their nidification. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 15: 249-264, 455-474, 654-673; 16: 1-8.

Findholt, S. L, and Anderson, S. H. (1995) Foraging areas and

feeding habitat selection of American White Pelicans ( Pelecanus

erythrorhynchos ) nesting at Pathfinder Reservoir, Wyoming.

Colonial Waterbirds 18(1): 47-57.

Gee, E. P. (1960) The breeding of the Grey or Spotted billed Pelican,

Pelecanus philippensis Gmelin. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 57:

245-251.

Guttikar, S. N. (1978) Lost pelicanry. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75:

482-484.

Hatzilacou, D. (1996) Feeding ecology of the Great White Pelican

(. Pelecanus onocrotalus ) nesting at Lake Mikri Prespa (northern

Greece) Colonial Waterbirds 19: 190-206.

del Hoyo, J, Elliot, A. and Sargatal, J. (1992) Handbook of the birds of

the world. Vol. 1. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.

Johnson, J, M., Perennou, C. and Crivelli, A. (1993) Towards the

extinction of the Spot-billed Pelican Pelecanus philippensis. Pp.

92-94 in M. Moser and J. van Vessem, eds. Wetland and waterfowl

conservation in south and west Asia. IWRB Spec. Publ. no. 25,

AWB Publ. no. 85. Slimbridge, U.K.: International Waterfowl

and Wetlands Research Bureau.

Krishnan, M. (1993) The Aredu pelicanry: a factual rejoinder.

Blackbuck 9(2): 44-46.

Lamba, B. S. (1963) Nidification of some common Indian birds.

No.7.The Spottedbilled or Grey Pelican. Pavo 1: 1 10-1 19.

Manakadan, R. and Kannan, V. (2003) A study of Spot-billed Pelican

Pelecanus philippensis with special reference to its conservation in

southern India. Final Report. Mumbai: Bombay Natural History

Society.

Manu, K. and Jolly, S. (2000) Pelicans and people: the two-tier village

of Kokkare Bellur, Karnataka, India. Community based conservation

in south Asia: Case Study No. 4. Kalpavriksh, India: International

Institute of Environment and Development.

Mundkur,T. (1994) Waterbird studies. Asian Wetland News 7(1): 19.

Mundkur, T. and Taylor, V. (1993) Asian Waterfowl Census 1993.

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and Slimbridge, U.K.: Asian Wetland

Bureau and International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research

Bureau.

Nagulu, V. (1983) Feeding and breeding biology of Grey Pelican at

Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh, India. Ph.D.

thesis. Osmania University, Hyderabad, India.

Nagulu, V. and Rao, J. V. R. (1983) Survey of south Indian pelican-

ries. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 141-143.

Nair, M.V. (1994) Birds of Aakkulam-Veli backwaters and environs.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34: 12-16.

Nameer, P. O. (1993) Birds of Kole wetlands: survey report II. Trichur,

Kerala: Nature Education Society, Forest Research Institute and

Kerala Forest Department.

Neelakantan, K. K. (1949) A south Indian pelicanry. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 48: 656-666.

Neginhal, S. G. (1977) Discovery of a pelicanry in Karnataka. J.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 169-170.

Perennou, C. and Mundkur, T. (1992) Asian Waterfowl Census 1992.

Slimbridge, U.K.: International Waterfowl and Wetlands

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Perennou, C. and Santharam, V. (1990) An ornithological survey of

some wetlands in south-east India. Wetlands and Waterfowl

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Perennou, C., Mundkur, T., Scott, D. A, Follestad, A. and Kvenild,

L. (1994) The Asian Waterfowl Census: 1987-91. AWB Publ.

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Pelicans ( Pelecanus philippensis) . Newsletter for Birdwatchers 36(6):

110-111.

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Sharma, P. K. and Raghavaiah, P. S. (2002) Effect of rainfall on Grey

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Painted Storks at Kokkare-Bellur: an update. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 35(2): inside cover.

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Indian heronries. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 459-486.

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Mohandoss, A. (1993) Avifauna of Vembakkottai reservoir: a

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Venkataraman, C. (1996) Human disturbance: a major factor for

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V. Kannan and Ranjit Manakadan, Bombay Natural History Society, Museum Compound, Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed

Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 002, India. Email: vaikan@rediffmail.com and ransan5@rediffmail.com

Forktail 21 (2005)

The status and distribution of Spot-billed Pelican in southern India

13

14

V. KANNAN and RANJ1T MANAKADAN

Forktail 21 (2005)

Key

B = Breeding colony; OB = Occasional breeding colony; AB = Abandoned breeding colony; UB = Unconfirmed breeding colony; F = Foraging site.

Recent (post- 1990) records are given in the ‘Secondary information’ column where these exceed the numbers we recorded, or for sites we did not visit.

See BirdLife International (2001) for detailed documentation of all known sites.

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 15-26

The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

A total of 374 species has been recorded from Nameri National Park, Assam, north-east India, based on fieldwork carried out in

1996-2003 and records by other observers. This includes eight globally threatened species (White-winged Duck Cairina scutulata,

Rufous-necked Hornbill Aceros nipalensis, Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus , White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Slender-

billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga. Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos dubius and Jerdon’s Babbler

Chrysomma altirostre ), and five Near Threatened species (White-cheeked Partridge Arborophila atrogularis, Black-bellied Tern Sterna

acuticauda, White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla, Lesser Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga humilis and Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus).

INTRODUCTION

Nameri National Park (26°50'-27°02'N 92°38'-

93°00'E) covers an area of 200 km2 in the foothills of

the eastern Himalayas in Assam, north-east India. It is

contiguous with Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in

Arunachal Pradesh to the north, and together they

exceed 1,000 km2 and range from 79 m to over 1,500

m.The Jia Bhareli river flows along the park’s western

and southern boundaries and the Bor Dikrai river

forms the eastern boundary (Fig. 1). The terrain is

undulating, with lower areas at 80-100 m along the Jia

Bhorelli and its tributaries, and higher areas at

200-225 m in the central and northern parts of the

park. Soils are characterised by sandy or sandy loam

alluvial deposits. Numerous small rivers and perennial

streams originating in Arunachal Pradesh run through

the park and feed into the Jia Bhareli. Many rivers shift

their course during the rainy season and form dry

riverbeds during the winter.

Forest and woodland cover the majority of the park

(94%, 188 km2). Grasslands are found along the banks

of the Jia Bhareli River and its tributaries and cover an

area of 10 km2 (5%). The remaining 2 km2 (1%) is

formed by various riverbeds. The vegetation of the park

is a mosaic of four major forest types (following

Champion and Seth 1968): (1) Eastern alluvial

secondary semi-evergreen forest (including

Pterospermum acerifolium, Dillenia indica , Dysoxylum

procerum, Bombax ceiba, Bischofia javanica, Artocarpus

chaplasha , Duabanga sonneratoides and Litsea sebifera);

(2) Low alluvial savannah woodland (including

Bombax ceiba, Albizzia procera , Dillenia indica, Cordia

dichotoma, Premna bengalensis and Trewia nudiflora trees

Figure 1. Map of Nameri National Park, Assam.

16

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

Forktail 21 (2005)

with very dense tall grass including Saccharum spp. and

Erianthus spp.); (3) Eastern Dillenia swamp forest

(including Dillenia indica , Bischofia javanica, Albizzia

lucida, Lagerstroemia flos-reginae and Terminalia

chebula); and (4) Wet bamboo forest (usually found

along streams or on badly drained hollows), with areas

of cane brakes formed by Calamus tenuis.

The subtropical monsoon climate of the region is

characterised by heavy rainfall with an annual average

of 3,500 mm. Most of the rain falls between May and

September, which forms the summer (hot) season.

Winters (October to April) are usually cool and dry,

although rains are not uncommon. The average

temperature in the area varies from a low of 5°C in

winter to a high of 37°C in summer. The relative

humidity is high, and varies between 65% and 90% or

more.

Parts of the area were declared as Nauduar Reserve

Forest in 1876 and Nameri Wildlife Sanctuary in 1985.

The present Nameri National Park was formed in

1988. Considerable commercial timber exploitation

and intensive extraction of canebrakes has taken place,

and habitat has been further degraded through

livestock grazing. In recent years, cattle camps have

been evicted to reduce grazing pressure, resulting in

grassland regeneration in these areas. A belt of

Reserved Forests contiguous to the park form a buffer,

but this is now being encroached by people for

homesteads and cultivation. This has resulted in

further fragmentation of the park, which in turn is

becoming progressively insular.

METHODS

Like most areas in north-east India, Nameri has been

poorly surveyed for birds. No published checklist of the

birds of the park exists, although there is some litera¬

ture relating to birds in the neighbouring Pakhui

Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh (Datta et al.

1998, Singh 1991, 1994). We carried out fieldwork in

most areas in Nameri during all seasons from 1996 to

September 2003, although less intensively prior to

1998. Here we report on the species we recorded, and

combine them with records (excluding those we

consider doubtful) from Nameri listed in Talukdar

(1997), Talukdar and Das (1997), Dymond (1998),

Hendriks (1998), and Barua and Sharma (1999).

IUCN Red List status follows BirdLife International

(2004).

RESULTS

A total of 374 species have been recorded from Nameri

(see Appendix). These include nine globally threatened

species (two Critically Endangered, one Endangered

and five Vulnerable species) and five Near Threatened

species, many of which are dependent on forest. The

park does not appear to harbour any of the globally

threatened grassland species that occur in Assam, apart

from Jerdon’s Babbler Chrysomma altirostre, which was

reported in January 2004 (Robson 2004). Rahmani et

al. (1990) mentioned that the Bengal Florican

Houbaropsis bengalensis (Endangered) might be found

in the area ‘in due course’ as the grasslands, although

not extensive, were suitable in certain places and were

being given protection. However, we have not detected

this species so far.

NOTES ON SELECTED SPECIES

White-cheeked Partridge Arborophila atrogularis

Near Threatened. This species is an uncommon

resident in dense swamp forest and occasionally in

adjacent secondary forest and open areas.

White-winged Duck Cairina scutulata

Endangered. This resident species inhabits pools and

secluded marshes in dense forest. Although no popula¬

tion estimate has been made, sightings are fairly

regular and breeding occurs: eleven ducklings were

seen on 11 July 1998 with one adult (we did not

observe a second bird, although it is likely that one was

present). Nameri is one of the few areas where this

species has been recorded in Assam outside its main

stronghold in the Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts,

where a population of c.200 individuals is estimated

(out of a total Indian population of 300-350 individu¬

als: Islam and Rahmani 2002).

Rufous-necked Hornbill Acerns nipalensis

Vulnerable. One bird was observed flying north along

the Upper Dikrai river in primary forest on 18

December 1999. It was readily identified by its tail

pattern (black with a white distal half) and its silent

flight. The species has been recorded at higher altitudes

in neighbouring Arunachal Pradesh (A. Datta verbally

2003, MB personal observation), but it appears to be

extremely rare in Nemeri. The species has disappeared

from much of its range, and currently survives at less

than 20 locations in India (Islam and Rahmani 2002).

Ruddy Kingfisher Halcyon coromanda

Ths is species is a rare resident or breeding visitor in

wooded areas. The only winter record was of one bird

at Potasali on 3 December 1996. Other records were

during summer: three at Potasali on 9 May 1998 and

one at Nameri on 26 June 1998. There have been few

recent records from Assam.

Ibisbill Ibidorhyncha struthersii

Nameri is one of the few places in Assam where this

species has been recorded regularly in winter. It was

recorded between November and May, but more

frequently from February onwards, and was found

along the Jia Bhareli river where there were fast-

flowing rapids, sometimes in groups of up to 12 birds.

Long-billed Plover Charadrius placidus

This rare but regular winter migrant was found in

singles or pairs along the Jia Bhareli river and its tribu¬

taries from November to March. Nameri appears to be

the only place in north-east India were this species is

known to winter regularly.

Black-bellied Tern Sterna acuticauda

Near Threatened. This rare species was observed at

Potasali on the Jia Bhareli river (two on 5 February

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India

17

1997, two on 2 March 1998 and one on 7 March

1998) amidst groups of River Terns Sterna aurantia.

Breeding has not been observed in the area and the

species’s seasonal status is unclear.

Pallas’s Fish Eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus

Vulnerable. This species breeds along the banks of the

Jia Bhareli river: two traditional nest sites are known:

one at 13dt Mile and the other at the confluence of the

Upper Dikrai and Jia Bhareli rivers. Both were still in

use up to 2002 at least. Other than these two pairs, no

other birds were seen. There are probably fewer than

150 breeding pairs in Assam (Islam and Rahmani

2002).

White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla

Near Threatened. This rare, but regular, winter

migrant was recorded each year between November

and February as singles and occasionally pairs along

the Jia Bhareli river.

Lesser Fish Eagle Ichthyophaga humilis

Near Threatened. This species is rare, and presumably

resident. One was seen soaring over woodland along

the Nameri River on 13 February 2001. Dymond

(1998) recorded one at Potasali on 25-27 November

1998.

White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis

Critically Endangered. Between 1996 and 1998, this

species was recorded seven times, usually involving 2-3

birds, mostly seen soaring. There were no subsequent

records. When ten wild elephants Elephas maximus died

in the area due to poisoning during July-August 2001,

no vultures were seen on the carcasses. Their absence

is noteworthy, and presumably related to the

catastrophic decline of Gyps vultures in the Indian

subcontinent owing to diclofenac poisoning (BirdLife

International 2004).

Slender-billed Vulture Gyps tenuirostris

Critically Endangered. This species was rare, with most

records referring to soaring birds. It was not observed

in 1996, but small flocks of up to six birds were seen

4-5 times a year during 1997-2001, mainly between

November and March. None was seen since 2001,

again presumably linked to the decline of Gyps vultures

(BirdLife International 2004).

Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus

Near Threatened. Singles were seen soaring at Potasali

on 16 April 1998 and feeding on a carcass along the

Khari River on 10 July 1998.

Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

Vulnerable. Small numbers (<10) winter each year

between November and February in open areas along

the Jia Bhareli river and its tributaries.

Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus

Vulnerable. Small numbers of this species are resident,

mainly in marshes along the Jia Bhareli river. Six nests

were located on a ‘simul’ Bombax ceiba tree near

Bogijuli Nala in the eastern region of the park in

1999-2002.

Yellow-bellied Flowerpecker Dicaeum

melanoxanthum

One bird was observed in primary forest near Bogijuli

on 20 January 1998. This is a species is scarce and local

throughout its range in the Indian subcontinent from

north Uttar Pradesh, central Nepal, east through to

Arunachal Pradesh and the north-east hill states, and

there are no recent published records from Assam.

DISCUSSION

This is the first ornithological survey of Nameri

National Park. Further work should focus on system¬

atic surveys for White-winged Duck in order to

determine the population size of this species in the

reserve. Fragmentation of forests in this region have

led to the park becoming increasingly insular, and

landscape-level studies are needed to investigate the

effect of habitat fragmentation on the park’s avifauna.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Forest Department of Assam for all their

support. We would like to thank the Chief Conservator of Forests

(Wildlife), Divisional Forest Officer (Somtpur) and all forest staff of

Nameri. We are indebted to B. N.Talukdar, who gave valuable inputs

and went through an earlier draft of the introductory sections;

Rishad Naoroji for his company in the field and help with the

raptors; A. K. Barua and Ranjit Barthakur for their support during

various stages of our work; and other people who helped in various

ways, notably by providing their bird observations: Nick Dymond,

H. Hendriks, John Penhallurick and Mike Waite. We would also like

to thank our families and all staff ofWild Grass for their support.

REFERENCES

Barua, M. and Sharma, P. (1999) Occurrence of the Hill Blue

Flycatcher Cyornis banyumas in Nameri National Park, Assam.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 39(4): 61-62.

BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004. CD-

ROM. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

Champion, H. G. and Seth, S. K. (1968) A revised survey of the forest

types of India. New Delhi: Government of India Publications.

Datta, A., Singh, P., Athreya, R. M., and Karthikeyan, S. (1998)

Birds of Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in western Arunachal

Pradesh, North East India. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38(6):

91-96.

Dymond, N. (1998) List of birds seen in Nameri National Park:

25-27 November 1998. Unpublished trip report.

Hendriks, H. (1998) Birds seen in northeastern India. Unpublished

trip report.

Islam, M.Z. and Rahmani, A.R. (20029 Threatened birds of India.

Buceros 7: 1-2.

Penhallurick, J. (2001) Birds seen in Assam during April 2001.

Unpublished trip report.

Rahmani, A. R., Narayan, G., Rosalind, L. and Sankaran, R. (1990)

Status of Bengal Florican in India. Pp. 55-78 in Status and

ecology of the Lesser and Bengal Floricans, with reports on Jerdon’s

Courser and Mountain Quail: final report. Mumbai: Bombay

Natural History Society.

Robson, C. (2004) From the field. BirdingASIA 1: 78-87.

Singh, P. (1991) Avian and mammalian evidences in Pakhui Wildlife

Sanctuary in East Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh.

Arunachal Forest News 9(2): 1-10.

Singh, P. (1994) Recent bird records from Arunachal Pradesh.

Forktail 10: 65-104.

18

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

Forktail 21 (2005)

Talukdar, B. K. (1997) Record of largest flock of Great Cormorant Talukdar, B. K. and Das, R. K. (1997) Record of birds of prey in

in Nameri Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam. Newsletter for Birdwatchers Named Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam. Newsletter for Birdwatchers

37(4): 65. 37(3): 50-51.

Maan Barua,Wild Grass, Kaziranga 785109, Assam, India. Correspondence: Barua Bhavan, 107 MC Road, Uzan

Bazaar, Guwahati 781001, Assam, India. Email: maan_barua@yahoo.com

Pankaj Sharma, Nameri National Park, PO Potasali, District Sonitpur, Assam, India.

APPENDIX

Checklist of birds recorded in Nameri National Park

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India

19

20

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

Forktail 21 (2005)

Rare resident. Singles at Khari on 7 February 1997 (and

30 November 2001: R. Naoroji w litt. 2004) and Potasali on

16 April 1998.

Jerdon's Baza Aviceda jerdoni

P

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India

21

indicating that part of the population is migratory. A ring

(probably Chinese) was recovered on a bird found along the

Upper Dikrai river by the Arunachal Pradesh Forest Department.

Large flocks of 400-500 birds seen regularly in winter along the

Jia Bhareli river.

22

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

Forktail 21 (2005)

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India

23

24

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

Forktail 21 (2005)

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds of Nameri National Park, Assam, India

25

26

MAAN BARUA and PANKAJ SHARMA

Forktail 21 (2005)

Key

CR = Critically Endangered.

EN = Endangered.

VU = Vulnerable.

NT = Near Threatened.

P = Primary forest (relatively intact, with a closed canopy that has remained undisturbed and unmodified by human activity).

S = Secondary forest (with an open canopy regenerating naturally after human and/or natural disturbance).

G = Grasslands (various serai stages of riverine grasslands including short grass on sandy islets through to areas being colonised by trees).

W = Waterbodies (stagnant pools, marshes etc.).

R = Rivers and streams.

D = Disturbed areas (cultivation, settlements etc. in the fringe areas of the park).

A = Aerial.

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 27-32

Effectiveness of road transects and wetland visits

for surveying Black-necked Storks

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus and Sarus Cranes

Grus antigone in India

K. S. GOPI SUNDAR

I surveyed Black-necked Storks Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus and Sarus Cranes Grus antigone in Etawah and Mainpuri districts, Uttar

Pradesh, India, by carrying out counts at five wetlands and along a 105-km road transect each month from December 2000 to

February 2002. The results were compared to the known population sizes in the area as determined from spot-mapping of territories.

On average, road transects detected 17.9% of Black-necked Storks and 35% of territorial Sarus Crane pairs. Densities and encounter

rates from road transect data correlated with known numbers of Black-necked Storks. For Black-necked Storks, pairs were more likely

to be detected than families, whereas the converse was true for Sarus Cranes. Wetland sites held only 20.5% of Black-necked Storks

and 8.9% of territorial Sarus Crane pairs (although wetlands held 65% of non-breeding cranes). Consequently, wetland counts alone

were not found to be effective for surveying these two species. On average, they recorded only 1.3% of all Black-necked Stork pairs.

Too few Sarus Crane pairs were reliably identifiable in wetlands to determine their sighting probability. Road transects that pass

wetland sites and that are carried out in late winter will provide the most accurate data for both species.

INTRODUCTION

Developing suitable methods to estimate population

sizes and monitor numbers of rare or declining species

is an important priority in addition to direct interven¬

tions to improve the conservation status of such

species. In India, waterbirds are presently censused as

part of the Asian Waterfowl Census (AWC), in which

volunteers count birds at wetlands known to be impor¬

tant as wintering sites for migrating waterfowl. These

counts provide estimates of local abundance for both

migratory and resident species (Perennou et al. 1994,

Lopez and Mundkur 1997, Li and Mundkur 2004),

and can help determine population changes if suffi¬

cient sites are visited consistently each year.

Information from these winter counts are used to

determine the status and population trends of many

resident bird species including Black-necked Stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus and Sarus Crane Grus

antigone. The results of the AWC show that both

species are apparently declining. For Sarus Cranes, this

is supported by counts at individual sites, e.g. at

Keoladeo-Ghana National Park (Bharatpur),

Rajasthan, numbers declined from 283 in 1983 to 19

in 2004 (K. Kumar verbally 2004). Sarus Cranes have

also been censused using road transects in many

locations in India, but different studies have presented

information differently, making direct comparisons

difficult (Choudhury et al. 1999, Mukherjee 2000,

Sundar et al. 2000a, b, Kaur et al. 2002). Declines are

thought to be driven primarily by deterioration in the

condition of wetlands (Gole 1989, Rahmani 1989,

Meine and Archibald 1996, BirdLife International

2001). Intensification of agriculture is progressing at

an alarming rate, particularly in the Gangetic flood-

plain (Ramankutty and Foley 1999) where most of the

population of Sarus Crane and Black-necked Stork

occur outside protected areas (Rahmani 1989, Sundar

et al. 2000a, Archibald et al. 2003, Sundar 2003,

Sundar and Choudhury 2003).

The reliability of wetland counts or road transects

for estimating population sizes and trends for these two

species is unknown. Some characteristics of both

species make them amenable to testing the efficiency of

survey techniques without marking birds individually.

Both are long-lived and strongly territorial, maintain¬

ing permanent territories in areas with perennial

sources of water (Elliott 1992, Ishtiaq 1998,

Maheshwaran 1998, Maheshwaran and Rahmani

2002, Sundar 2003, Sundar and Choudhury 2003).

These characteristics, however, may make it difficult to

estimate reliably population sizes and trends from

counts only at wetland sites, since both species are also

found in non-wetland agricultural areas (Mukherjee

2000, Mukherjee et al. 2002, Sundar 2003, Sundar and

Choudhury 2003).

In this paper, I test the reliability of wetland counts

and road transects to monitor populations of both

species, and investigate whether there are seasonal

variations in the effectiveness of these methods, in

order to determine the appropriate season to survey

them.

STUDY AREA

I conducted the study along the border of Etawah and

Mainpuri districts in Uttar Pradesh, India, in an area

of c.50 km2 bounded by the towns of Etawah, Saiphai,

Karhal, Sauj, Kurra, Saman, Sarsai Nawar and

Baralokpur. The region consists of a mosaic of natural

wetlands and agricultural fields interspersed with

human habitation (see Sundar 2003, 2004 for detailed

descriptions of the study area). The region experiences

three seasons: summer (March to June), monsoon

(July to October) and winter (November to February).

Five large wetlands are found in the area: Saman Bird

Sanctuary (the only protected area), Sauj, and three

sites that dried up for 2-5 months each year: Kudaiyya,

Kurra and Elasil. All five sites had similar levels of

28

K. S. GOPI SUNDAR

Forktail 21 (2005)

human disturbance. Each site had one resident pair of

Black-necked Storks and varying numbers of breeding

pairs of Sarus Cranes. All five sites could also be

viewed along a 105 km road transect running through

Etawah, Saiphai, Kudaiyya, along the Karhal-Kishni

road via Gaad to the Etawah-Farrukhabad road, and

from Lohia to Takhrau.

METHODS

To determine the actual number of breeding pairs of

Sarus Crane and Black-necked Stork present, spot¬

mapping of unmarked territorial pairs of both species

was carried out from December 1999 to January 2002.

During this period, 48 juvenile Sarus Cranes were

colour-banded with standard plastic colour bands.

Observations of these birds were used to determine

territory size (up to 50 ha) and to confirm that it was

possible to differentiate at least some pairs by location.

For Black-necked Storks, repeated observations of

pairs feeding, numbers of chicks with them, and active

nests were used to confirm the location and number of

pairs (Sundar 2003). Since young Black-necked Storks

began to disperse when they were approximately one

year of age, birds of at least that age that were not seen

for more than a month were considered to have

dispersed. For Sarus Cranes, such assumptions could

be avoided because the species’s smaller territory size

ensured that knowledge of the population was always

nearly complete. Information on the number and

location of single birds, pairs, and families of both

species were monitored regularly, giving monthly

estimates of the total population. The proportion of

birds present in the area that were missed during spot¬

mapping and omitted from the total was likely to have

been negligible.

Black-necked Storks could be differentiated into

single birds, adult pairs with no young, and families.

Sarus Cranes were present as resident pairs and

families, plus flocks of up to 400 non-breeding birds

which used larger wetlands to roost and forage (Sundar

and Choudhury 2003).

The road transect was undertaken each month

from December 2000 to February 2002, once the

identity and location of territorial pairs along the route

had been identified. Roads are often perceived as

sources of disturbance to many bird species, although

they are often also used to census bird populations

(Sauder el al. 1971, Arnold 1994). In the study area,

there was no hunting of either species by humans and

both species were remarkably tame. Traffic levels on

most roads in the study area were low and it was

common to see both species along them. Transects

were carried out in the first week of each month on

non-rainy and non-foggy days. They began within an

hour after sunrise (05h00-07h30) and stopped at

10h30.The whole route was covered on two consecu¬

tive mornings. A motorbike with an additional observer

was driven at 25-40 km/h and all storks and cranes

encountered on either side of the road were counted.

At wetlands, we stopped for up to five minutes at a spot

where the whole wetland was visible, and counted all

cranes and storks.

Visibility from the road varied each month owing

to growth of crops. The width of each transect was

therefore measured at kilometre intervals as the

distance to the farthest visible point (up to 1 km) on

either side of the road using a Bushnell range finder.

These values for both sides were averaged to give a

measurement of effective transect width. The popula¬

tion density of both species was then calculated as

number of individuals divided by length x effective

width of the transect. For Sarus Cranes, density was

calculated separately for territorial pairs and non¬

breeding birds. Encounter rate (birds seen/km) was

also calculated for both species, as previous studies

have used both density (Gole 1989) and encounter rate

(Sundar et al. 2000a).

To calculate the effectiveness of road transects, I

calculated the percentage of the known number of

individuals (Black-necked Storks) or known territorial

pairs including families (Sarus Cranes) that was

recorded on each transect. The different approach for

the two species was because Black-necked Storks are

usually seen as single birds (Sundar 2004) whereas

Sarus Crane pairs seldom separate. For Sarus Cranes,

a subset of resident pairs were reliably identifiable by

their location and by colour-banded young. Mean

sighting probabilities (mean number of transects on

which each pair was seen relative to the total number

of transects) were calculated for Sarus Crane pairs with

and without young. For some Sarus Crane pairs,

sighting probability was compared during months

when they were with vs. without young.

Prior to analyses, all data were checked for

normality (Kolmogorov-Smirnov one-sample tests)

and transformed appropriately when they were not

(proportion and sighting probability data were arcsine

transformed and other data were log[n+l] trans¬

formed). When this failed to normalise the data,

non-parametric tests were used on untransformed

data. Seasonal differences in monthly densities were

compared using a one-way analysis of variance

(AN OVA). Linear regression was used to compare the

relationship between density (or encounter rate) and

the known population each month for Black-necked

Storks (but not for Sarus Cranes, as the total popula¬

tion could not be determined each month).

Differences in sighting probability of pairs and families

were tested using Wilcoxon rank-sum tests; seasonal

differences in sighting probability were compared

using one-way ANOVAs; difference in sighting proba¬

bility within pairs owing to breeding status were tested

using a paired t-test. Data are presented as mean±SE

throughout, both calculated from untransformed data.

Statistical tests were carried out using S-PLUS 2000

(MathSoft 1998-1999).

RESULTS

Black-necked Stork

The total population of storks as determined by spot

mapping (including pairs, families and young that had

dispersed from their natal territories) averaged 52±1

individuals (range: 46-56 individuals) each month. On

Forktail 21 (2005)

Surveying Black-necked Storks and Sarus Cranes in India

29

0.16

Summer Monsoon Winter

Figure 1. Seasonal differences in the population density of

Black-necked Storks Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus calculated

from monthly road transects. Error bars show 1 SE.

Summer Monsoon Winter

Figure 2. Seasonal differences in the effectiveness of road

transects in detecting Black-necked Storks Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus as quantified by the mean percentage of known pairs

(solid bars) and families (open bars) detected on each

transect. Error bars show 1 SE.

6 -|

I

Summer Monsoon Winter

Figure 3. Seasonal differences in the population density of

Sarus Cranes Grus antigone calculated from monthly road

transects. Solid bars show values for resident pairs; open bars

show values for all birds including non-breeding individuals.

Error bars show 1 SE.

road transects, 17.9±2.6% (range: 2-35%) of the

population were recorded on average. The mean

density (0.099±0.01 birds/km2) appeared to be highest

in summer and lowest in the monsoon, but these differ¬

ences were not significant (Fig. 1; one-way AN OVA:

F1j13=1.71, P=0.21).The monthly estimates of density

and encounter rate were significantly positively corre¬

lated with the known population size (density: r2= 0.36,

P=0.018; encounter rate: r2= 0.37, P=0.016). The

mean percentage of pairs (including single adults from

known pairs) seen during each transect

(mean=33.6±5.8%; range=3.8-68.4%) was signifi¬

cantly higher than the mean percentage of families

(mean=9.4±3.6%, range=0-33.33%; Fig. 2;Wilcoxon

rank-sum test: Z=3.13, P=0.0017, n=15). There were

no significant differences between seasons in the

percentage of pairs recorded on transects (Fig. 2; one¬

way ANOVA: F1J3= 1.18, P=0.3), nor in the percentage

of families recorded on transects (Fig. 2; one-way

ANOVA: P, n=1.44, P=0.25), perhaps owing to small

sample sizes.

On average, 1.34±0.38% of all Black-necked

Storks were recorded during wetland counts. The

number of Black-necked Storks found in wetlands

averaged 20.5±1.5% (range: 8-25%) of the total

population in the area. Four of the five pairs (80%)

resident in wetland sites were seen at least once during

the 15 wetland counts; on average it took 8.25±0.9

visits (range: 6-10) to first sight these pairs and

13. 3 ±3. 7% (range: 0-40%) of the pairs were seen on

each transect.

Sarus Crane

The total population of cranes each month could not

be estimated owing to the difficulties of estimating

numbers of mobile non-breeding flocks. A total of 158

pairs defended territories through the study period;

none abandoned territories and no new pairs estab¬

lished territories during the study period. Road

transects detected 35.1 ±2.5% of resident pairs on

average. The mean density of cranes (3.55±0.47

birds/km") differed significantly across seasons (Fig. 3;

one-way ANOVA: F1>l3= 4.76, P=0.048), with the

highest densities recorded in winter. The density of

territorial pairs did not differ significantly across

seasons (Fig. 3; one-way ANOVA: F1 13=3.05,

P=0. 104).

Seventy-one territorial pairs were reliably identifi¬

able. Of these, 53 pairs raised young at least once, and

18 pairs did not nest successfully during the study. No

territorial pair was seen in all transects. Over 94% of

territorial pairs were sighted at least once by the fifth

transect, but it took ten transects to see all 7 1 pairs at

least once. The mean sighting probability of crane pairs

without young (32±4.4%) was significantly lower than

for those with chicks (38±2.7%; Wilcoxon rank-sum

test, Z=3.25, P =0.001). This result was supported by

within-pair comparisons (paired t-test: r=1.72, df-52,

P =0.09, n=53 pairs).

The wetland sites supported 14 territorial pairs of

Sarus Cranes (8.9% of the total pairs identified) but

only two of these could be reliably differentiated from

flocks each month. Flocks were present in four of the

five wetland sites, constituting 65.1 ±6.9% (range: 19-

100%) of all non-breeding cranes each month. Total

counts of cranes in each wetland site varied widely with

season, with the highest counts in winter, although this

was not significant (one-way ANOVA: FU3=2.74,

P=0.12.

30

K. S. GOPI SUNDAR

Forktail 21 (2005)

DISCUSSION

Black-necked Stork

Black-necked Storks occurred at low densities in the

study area in comparison to Sarus Cranes (mean

density=0.099 vs 3.55 birds/ km: respectively). For

every territorial pair of Black-necked Storks, there were

more than five pairs of territorial Sarus Cranes.

Furthermore, Black-necked Stork was the rarest large

waterbird in the area. On average, densities of Painted

Stork Mycteria leucocephala, Asian Openbill Anastomus

oscitans. Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus and

Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus recorded

on 15 transects were respectively 7.9, 5.8, 4.1 and 9.3

times greater than those of Black-necked Stork

(unpublished data). In addition, Black-necked Stork

pairs were more difficult to detect: their sighting

probability on road transects was 17.9% compared to

35% for Sarus Cranes. These results are supported by

anecdotal reports (Round et al. 1988, Santiapillai et al.

1997, Barzen 2003, Thomas and Poole 2003) and

empirical evidence (Morton et al. 1993, Purcell 1993)

from other locations within the species’s range. The

large territory sizes of Black-necked Storks result in

lower densities, and consequently lower detectability

compared to Sarus Cranes and other large waterbirds.

In addition, the species may be less tolerant of distur¬

bance along roads than Sarus Crane. Extrapolating

conservatively and excluding unsuitable habitat, I

estimate the population of this species in Etawah and

Mainpuri districts to be 200-250 individuals. This

equates to at least 20% of the estimated Indian popula¬

tion, highlighting the importance of the area for this

species.

Road transects were more effective for monitoring

populations of Black-necked Storks than wetland

counts, detecting 17.9% of the population on average,

compared to 1.3% for wetland counts. This was partly

because only 20.5% of the population was resident in

wetlands. It required 8-9 visits to a wetland site on

average to detect the presence of a pair. However, this

may have been because the study began in winter when

adult storks are less conspicuous while they attend

nests. The sighting probability during wetland counts

may have been higher if longer had been spent at each

wetland (although each site was small and could be

completely censused from the viewpoint selected).

Road transects passing wetland sites are most

useful in regions like Uttar Pradesh which retain

considerable numbers of natural wetlands. In contrast,

in areas such as Gujarat and Rajasthan where the land

almost entirely comprises agricultural fields or arid

habitats, counts at perennial wetlands in summer when

water levels are reduced may be more appropriate than

road transects. Observations at Keoladeo-Ghana

National Park, Rajasthan (S. Sharma verbally 2003)

and in Gujarat (Dave 2004) indicate that Black-necked

Stork numbers peak in summer, presumably as birds

congregate when wetlands dry out. In Madhya

Pradesh, which is nearly completely cultivated with

soybean requiring well-drained, non-flooded land,

counts in near-permanent wetlands may be the most

appropriate method to use.

Black-necked Stork may be less approachable in

other areas, perhaps owing to greater human distur¬

bance, and this may bias surveys: further work is

needed to investigate this. Recorded densities and

encounter rates were lowest during monsoon and

winter months when birds attend nests and are less

conspicuous (Sundar 2003). Therefore, counts in late

winter or summer will be most useful for monitoring

this species, and would provide the most accurate data

on breeding success.

Aerial surveys for this species have been used in

Australia, but it is thought that the numbers recorded

were underestimates (Morton et al. 1993, Purcell

1993). Using aerial surveys to locate nests during the

nesting season, followed by ground surveys, would be

worth trying in locations where they occur in relatively

high densities.

Sarus Crane

Sarus Crane was the most numerous large waterbird in

the area, with densities 4.5, 36, 6.2, 8.6 and 3.9 times

respectively higher than for Painted Stork, Black¬

necked Stork, Asian Openbill, Woolly-necked Stork

and Black-headed Ibis (unpublished data).

Extrapolating conservatively, the population of Sarus

Crane in Etawah and Mainpuri districts is

2,500-3,000 individuals. This equates to c.30% of the

estimated global population of G. a. antigone

(8,000-10,000 individuals: Meine and Archibald

1996), and nearly 10% of the estimated global popula¬

tion for the species (25,000-37,000: Meine and

Archibald 1996). This highlights the importance of the

area for this globally threatened species.

On average, only 35% of known Sarus Crane pairs

were seen during road transects. Road counts may

however be useful for determining relative abundance

at different sites. As wetland sites supported only 8.9%

of breeding pairs, and very few of these were reliably

identifiable, wetland counts were also found to be

inadequate as a survey technique. As previous

estimates of abundance of this species have been

largely based on road transects, the totals are likely to

be underestimates.

Seasonal differences indicate that winter months

are most suitable for surveys. High intra-season varia¬

tion in totals recorded possibly resulted from

disturbance episodes, which are impossible to control

since the majority of birds were in private fields and

wetlands frequented by humans. Families were more

likely to be seen than pairs. This is counterintuitive

since one might expect families to be more sensitive to

disturbance from traffic than pairs without chicks.

However, the small size of territories, and the greater

conspicuousness of families may explain this result.

Implications of the study

Waterfowl counts at the scale of the Asian Waterfowl

Census are subject to various errors, including individ¬

ual bias, but it is thought that random counting errors

tend to cancel each other out (Li and Mundkur 2004).

However, research on such errors has been limited. It

appears that for the two species considered here,

volunteer counts in wetlands have been inappropriate

for estimating total population size or even local

abundance. In India, only 19-44 Black-necked Storks

and 47-178 Sarus Cranes were counted in five winters

during 1997-2001 (Li and Mundkur 2004). These

Forktail 21 (2005)

Surveying Black-necked Storks and Sarus Cranes in India

31

numbers are very low considering the estimates for

populations in Etawah and Mainpuri districts alone

and considering the numbers of Sarus Cranes

recorded in specific counts (1,991-3,315 in three

counts during 1999-2001: Choudhury et al. 1999,

Sundar et al. 2000b, Kaur et al. 2002). The importance

of surveying non-wetland areas was also demonstrated

by Kachar et al. (1987) for Demoiselle Grus virgo and

Common Crane Grus grus in Gujarat. For both

species, counts at wetland sites were highly unpre¬

dictable and required additional knowledge to infer

population trends from the results. Road transects,

however, when used to cover a large enough area,

provided much better estimates of abundance (Kachar

etal. 1987).

Very few previous studies have explored the

number of visits required to detect territorial pairs in

linear transects. D’Amico and Hemery (2003)

estimated the probability of detecting pairs of White-

throated Dippers Cinclus cinclus to be 63-94%. This

higher level of detectability is likely to be a conse¬

quence of their conspicuousness in riverine habitats,

and smaller territories. Further work with individually

marked storks and cranes would allow the determina¬

tion of optimal transect width and length.

Are the current population estimates for the two

species too low? For Black-necked Stork, the present

estimate of 1,000 birds in Asia is based on wetland

counts. Given that these took place in winter — an

inappropriate season to count these birds due to their

nesting habits — and that wetlands hold only a small

proportion of the population, the total is likely to be an

underestimate. However, further information from

elsewhere in the species’s range is needed. For Sarus

Crane, the current estimates are based on a combina¬

tion of methods including nationwide species-specific

counts, and are likely to be more accurate. A long¬

term, nationwide programme of road counts in areas of

different land-use, rainfall intensity and human distur¬

bance is needed.

CONCLUSIONS

Road transects can be very useful for monitoring

populations of large waterbirds in areas that retain

relatively large wetlands in the landscape. For Black¬

necked Stork, road transects are effective if they pass

major wetlands. For Sarus Crane, road transects are

preferable to wetland counts, and are useful for deter¬

mining parameters such as the proportion of young or

of non-breeding birds. Coordinated road transects that

include wetlands can be undertaken across very large

scales by volunteers who are not necessarily profes¬

sional biologists. However, rudimentary training for

volunteers is important to reduce individual biases

(Frederick et al. 2003). Counts in February are optimal

for these two species. It would be useful to calculate

correction factors for both road transects and wetland

counts using marked birds. Given the dismal forecast

for wetlands in India and concern for the future of

these two species, ascertaining their numbers and

monitoring them using the most appropriate method is

vital.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

During fieldwork, I was supported by scholarships awarded by the

Wildlife Institute of India (WII) under the project ‘Impact of land

use changes on the ecology and habitat of the Indian Sarus Crane

( Grus antigone antigone ) in the Indo-Gangetic flood plains’. I thank

S. K. Mukherjee and B. C. Choudhury for infrastructure and facili¬

ties. A travel grant to the International Crane Foundation (ICF) was

provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and I thank D.

Ferguson for this. I thank G. W. Archibald and J. Harris for provid¬

ing fellowship support at ICF during the writing of this paper, and J.

Barzen for facilitating the fellowship through the University of

Wisconsin, Madison. The paper was conceived during discussions at

ICF, and I thank B. T. Barch, M. Hayes and A. Lacy for sharing their

experiences with counting Sandhill Cranes in North America. I

thank R. Blatchford, S. Swengel and S. Zimorski of ICF for provid¬

ing colour bands and R. L. Singh (Chief Wildlife Warden, Uttar

Pradesh Forest Department) for issuing banding permits very

quickly. I thank D. Singh and A. Verma for assistance in fieldwork; R.

Chauhan and family for their hospitality at Etawah; B. Didrickson

(ICF), Shashi and M. S. Rana (WII) for library support; G. P. Clancy

and T. Mundkur for providing useful literature; and B. Wright for

providing facilities at the Wildlife Protection Society of India during

the completion of the paper. G. W. Archibald, B. C. Choudhury, G.

P. Clancy, M. C. Coulter, D. Ferguson, F. Ishtiaq, R. Jaensch, G.

Maheshwaran, C. Prentice and an anonymous reviewer provided

comments that substantially improved a previous draft of this

manuscript.

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FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 33-41

Notable bird records from Bawangling National

Nature Reserve, Hainan Island, China

CHAN BOSCO PUI LOK, LEE KWOK SHING, ZHANG JIAN-FENG and SU WEN-BA

Bird surveys, include the use of camera traps, were conducted in Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan province, China,

during 1998-2005. A total of 143 species were recorded in the reserve and its immediate environs, including three new records for

the island (Slaty-backed Forktail Enicurus schistaceus, Yellow-cheeked Tit Parus spilonotus and Mountain Tailorbird Orthotomus cucula-

tus), two threatened species (Hainan Partridge Arborophila ardens and Hainan Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus hainanus ) and two Near

Threatened species (Japanese Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone atrocaudata and Yellow-billed Nuthatch Sitta solangiae). Other notable

records included the endemic Hainan Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron katsumatae and a number of endemic races (e.g. Silver Pheasant

Lophura nycthemera whiteheadi, Black-browed Barbet Megalaima ooriifaber, Indochinese Green Magpie Cissa hypoleuca katsumatae and

Orange-headed Thrush Zoothera citrina aurimacula), some of which were photographed, apparently for the first time.

INTRODUCTION

The tropical island of Hainan is surrounded by the

South China Sea, and is the southernmost province of

China, with a land area of c. 33, 600 knr. In 1998,

BirdLife International identified Hainan as an

Endemic Bird Area (EBA 142) of critical priority, with

four restricted-range species now considered to be

globally threatened or Near Threatened: White-eared

Night Heron Gorsachius magnificus (Endangered),

Hainan Partridge Arborophila ardens (Vulnerable),

Hainan Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus hainanus

(Vulnerable) and Yellow-billed Nuthatch Sitta solangiae

(Near Threatened: Stattersfield et al. 1998, BirdLife

Figure 1. Map showing location of Bawangling National Nature Reserve and sites mentioned in text, Hainan, China.

34

CHAN BOSCO PUI LOK et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

International 2004a). Hainan also supports 46

endemic subspecies, some of which have been

suggested as deserving elevation to full species status

(e.g. Goodwin 1964, Stattersfield et al. 1998, BirdLife

International 2003, Kilburn 2004a, 2004b).

Despite its global importance, the avifauna of

Hainan remains poorly known with few published

studies (Tang Ziying and Li Zhixun 1957, Shaw

Tsenhwang and Hsu Weishu 1966, Cheng Tso-hsin

and Tan Yaokuang 1973, Guangdong Institute of

Entomology and Zhongshan University 1983), and

fewer still available to non-Chinese readers (e.g.

Swinhoe 1870, Hartert 1910, King and Liao Weiping

1988, Olsson et al. 1993). In the last ten years, little

new information has been published, except studies on

endemic galliforms (GaoYuren 1991, 1999, Liang Wei

et al. 2003), understorey forest birds (Zou Fasheng and

Chen Guizhu 2004), and a report of a brief birding trip

(Kilburn 2004b).

STUDY SITE

Bawangling National Nature Reserve (BNNR;

18°57'-19°1 l'N 1 09°03'-l 09° 1 7'E) lies in west Hainan

c.220 km from the provincial capital of Haikou (Fig.

1). A reserve of c.67 km2 with the best-preserved forest

was established in 1980 to protect rare fauna and flora,

including Hainan Partridge, Hainan Peacock Pheasant

Polyplectron katsumatae, and most importantly, the last

confirmed population of the rarest ape on earth: the

endemic Hainan gibbon Nomascus ( nasutus ) hainanus.

In autumn 2003, the reserve was enlarged more than

four-fold to encompass a large area of selectively

logged and regenerating forest in the south and south¬

west, giving a new total area of c.300 km2.

BNNR has one of the best remaining tropical

forests in China, and has recently been identified as an

Important Bird Area (IBA) in the Indo-Burmese

Forests (F06) (BirdLife International 2003, 2004b).

The reserve comprises a series of low mountains, with

the highest peak, Heiling (ling = range), at 1,560 m.

The vegetation types include tropical lowland and

hillside rainforest and montane broadleaf forest.

Although past logging concessions have destroyed

much lowland forest, extensive primary and selectively

logged hillside forest can still be found above 700 m.

The best-preserved forest sits along the western

foothills of Futouling (1,441 m), at the north-eastern

side of the reserve, where Hainan Gibbon occurs.

Remnant lowland old-growth forest, retained either as

linear buffer strips along streams or forest blocks, can

be found as low as 350 m. BNNR has a tropical

seasonal climate with mean annual temperature of

21.3°C and mean annual rainfall of 1,660 mm.

METHODS

In 1998, 2003, 2004 and 2005, biologists from

Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden (KFBG), an

environmental charity based in Hong Kong, and its

local partners visited BNNR and the nearby Wangxia

limestone forest. During 3-7 April 1998, a KFBG-led

biodiversity survey team conducted a rapid survey in

secondary forest and human-modified landscape

around Bawangling Town (140 m), in primary forest

around Dong’er substation (1,100 m), in primary

forest of the reserve’s core area en route from

Fenshuiling (1,050 m) to Nanchahe substation (520

m), as well as in the disturbed primary limestone forest

of the nearby Wangxia area (70-605 m) (Kadoorie

Farm and Botanic Garden 2001). Various members of

the KFBG biodiversity team visited BNNR in October

and December 2003, May, July, October and

December 2004, and January 2005, during which a

large area of the reserve was covered and birds were

recorded. Between April and September 2003, six sets

of infra-red auto-triggered cameras were installed in

the reserve, as part of an on-going KFBG South China

mammal survey. Trapping effort mainly focused on

old-growth forest on Futouling and its periphery,

including primary forest in the Dong’er and Nanchahe

areas, as well as disturbed/secondary forest in the

Dongwu area. During all surveys, bird records were

collated from combined efforts of line transect and

fixed-point observations at vantage points in different

habitats, a combination which proved effective in

maximising the number of species encountered in a

habitat mosaic. Night surveys were also conducted

when team members camped inside old-growth forest.

Photographs of some rare and/or threatened forest bird

species were taken during the camera-trap survey,

some of which appear to represent the first photo¬

graphs of wild, live specimens of the species/races.

IUCN Red List status follows BirdLife International

(2004a).

Captions to plates on opposite page

Plate 1. Camera-trap photograph of Hainan Partridge

Arborophila ardens, Dong’er area (c. 1,000 m), 21 May 2003.

Plate 2. Camera-trap photograph of Hainan Peacock

Pheasant Pblyplectron katsumatae , Dongwu area (c. 1,000 m),

8 April 2003.

Plate 3. Camera-trap photograph of Silver Pheasant Lophura

nycthemera (endemic race whiteheadi ), Dong’er area (c. 1,000

m), 20 May 2003.

Plate 4. Black-browed Barbet Megalaima oorti (endemic race

faber ), Nanchahe area (1,100 m), 19 October 2003.

Plate 5. Camera-trap photograph of Blue-rumped Pitta Pitta

soror (endemic race douglasi), Dong’er area (c. 1,000 m), 19

May 2003.

Plate 6. Hainan Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus hainanus,

Fenshuiling (1,000 m), 25 October 2003.

Plate 7. Grey Laughingthrush Garrulax rnaesi (endemic race

castanotis ), Dongwu area (1,000 m), 22 September 2004.

Plate 8. Eyebrowed Wren Babbler Napothera epilepidota

(endemic race hainanus), Nanchahe area (700 m), 14 July

2004.

Forktail 21 (2005) Notable bird records from Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan Island

35

7

8

36

CHAN BOSCO PUI LOK et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

RESULTS

In total, 143 species were recorded from BNNR and

the nearby Wangxia limestone forest between 1998 and

2005 (see Appendix). Notes on the more significant

records are given below.

Hainan Partridge Arborophila ardens

Vulnerable. Camera-trap photographs of this endemic

partridge were taken at c. 1,000 m in the Dong’er area

(Plate 1). Individuals and their calls were frequently

recorded in all forest areas within the reserve, includ¬

ing the eastern side of Futouling facing Qingsong

Xian, and including in selectively logged forest. Birds

were seen as low as c.600 m in the Qichadaling area.

The species is a very rare resident in hillside forest at

600-1,200 m on Hainan Island (ChengTso-hsin 1987,

BirdLife International 2004a).

Hainan Peacock Pheasant Polyplectron katsumatae

This endemic taxon is regarded as a valid species by

some authors (e.g. Inskipp et al. 1996, MacKinnon and

Phillipps 2000, Madge and McGowan 2002) and as an

insular race of the Grey Peacock Pheasant P. bicalcara-

tum by others (e.g. Meyer de Schauensee 1984, Cheng

Tso-hsin 1987, Gao Yuren 1999, Sibley and Monroe

1990). It was regularly photographed (including a

family of three) by camera traps in forest at c. 1,000 m

in the Dongwu area (Plate 2). The species was also

observed in primary hillside forest at 800-1,000 m in

the Dong’er and Nanchahe areas. Reserve staff

reported that it occurs in shrubby forest-edge habitat

in the Nanchahe area down to c.550 m. It is considered

very rare in the remaining hill forests of south-west

Hainan (Cheng Tso-hsin 1987, MacKinnon and

Phillipps 2000).

Silver Pheasant Lophura nycthemera (endemic race

whiteheadi)

Camera-trap photographs were regularly taken in

primary forest at c. 1,000 m in the Dong’er area (Plate

3). On 12 October 2004, a group of at least three

individuals was observed foraging in selectively logged

primary forest at c.400 m in the Dongyi area. Another

foraging group was seen in secondary forest in the

Qichadaling area (c.500 m) on 26 January 2005. The

distinctive feathers of this subspecies, with bold black

markings, were also found in the eastern side of

Futouling, facing Qingsong Xian and in Wangxia

limestone forest. Reserve staff reported that the species

is widespread throughout forested areas of the reserve,

down to c.300 m.

Black-browed Barbet Megalaima oorti (endemic

race faber )

This endemic taxon may warrant specific status

(Goodwin 1964, Kilburn 2004b; but see Collar 2004).

It was frequently recorded in forest areas at 400-1,100

m (Plate 4), and its characteristic call was one of the

dominant sounds in the forest. The species was previ¬

ously considered a rare resident in China (Cheng

Tso-hsin 1987), but it has been recorded from many

forest areas throughout South China in recent years

(Lee Kwok Shing et al. in prep.) and this particular

race is also widespread in forest on Hainan.

Oriental Dwarf Kingfisher Ceyx erithacus

This species was observed and photographed in a

rocky forest stream at c.600 m in the Nanchahe area on

6 April 2004. On 15 May 2004, a call heard by a forest

streamlet at c.600 m, believed to be of this species, was

recorded on the eastern side of Futouling facing

Qingsong Xian. This species, considered as a very rare

resident restricted to Hainan and southern Yunnan in

China (ChengTso-hsin 1987), is possibly at risk in the

country. Only one individual was previously recorded

during the KFBG biodiversity surveys in 15 forest

areas across Hainan between 1998 and 2004 (Lee

Kwok Shing et al. in prep.).

Blue-rumped Pitta Pitta soror (endemic race

douglasi )

Numerous camera-trap photographs of this elusive

species were taken in primary forest in the Dong’er and

Nanchahe areas at 700-1,100 m (Plate 5). In October

2003, adults and juveniles were regularly seen along a

ridge in primary forest at c.900 m in the Nanchahe

area. A juvenile with a streaked breast and reddish bill

was flushed in selectively logged forest at c.950 m in

the Qichadaling area on 16 May 2004. An adult was

seen by a small stream in mature forest at c.800 m in

the Nanchahe area on 5 December 2004. On 24

January 2005, feathers of this species was also found in

the Wangxia limestone forest at c.850 m.This species is

considered very rare in China (ChengTso-hsin 1987).

Japanese Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone

atrocaudata

Near Threatened. Individuals were seen in limestone

forest at Wangxia at 140 m on 5 April 1998 and at

500 m on 6 April 1998.

Slaty-backed Forktail Enicurus schistaceus

On 3 April 1998, one bird was seen inside the core area

near Fenshuiling at 1,100 m. On 5 December 2004,

one bird was seen by a stream on the border of the

reserve near Bawangling town at c. 400m. These are the

first records for Hainan (see Guangdong Institute of

Entomology and Zhongshan University 1983, Cheng

Tso-hsin 1987, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).

Yellow-billed Nuthatch Sitta solangiae (endemic

race chienfengensis )

Near Threatened. This species was frequently recorded

in limestone forest at Wangxia and in the core area of

BNNR. It is known from only three or four widely

disjunct areas in Vietnam, Laos and Hainan Island in

China (BirdLife International 2004a).

Yellow-cheeked Tit Pams spilonotus

A total of five birds were seen: four recorded near

Bawangling town at 150 m on 5 April 1998 and one in

the Dong’er core area at 1,100 m on 6 April 1998.

These are the first records for Hainan (see Guangdong

Institute of Entomology and Zhongshan University

1983, ChengTso-hsin 1987, MacKinnon and Phillipps

2000).

Sultan Tit Melanochlora sultanea

This species was frequently recorded in the forested

core area of the reserve, and appears to be quite

Forktail 21 (2005) Notable bird records from Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan Island

37

common in BNNR. This species may be at risk in

China owing to the continued degradation of mature

forests. Despite being reported to occur throughout

coastal South China, the species has only been

recorded in four forest sites on Hainan Island during

the KFBG biodiversity surveys in 54 forest areas across

South China between 1997 and 2004 (Lee Kwok

Shing et al. in prep.). It is considered uncommon in

China (Cheng Tso-hsin 1987).

Mountain Tailorbird Orthotomus cuculatus

On 6 and 7 April 1998, a total of five birds were

recorded at 1,100 m in the Dong’er area and at 70 m

in limestone forest at Wangxia. These are the first

records for Hainan (see Guangdong Institute of

Entomology and Zhongshan University 1983, Cheng

Tso-hsin 1987, MacKinnon and Phillipps 2000).

Hainan Leaf Warri.f.r Phylloscopus hainanus

Vulnerable. This endemic warbler was recorded

frequently and photographed in broadleaf forest above

800 m in BNNR (Plate 6). It was more noticeable in

disturbed or secondary forest. It is considered locally

common at 600-1,500 m but it is only known from

seven localities in Hainan (BirdLife International

2004a).

Grey Laughingthrush Garrulax maesi (endemic

race castanotis )

The insular race castanotis is very distinctive and may

better be treated as a full species (see Inskipp et al.

1996, Kilburn 2004b). Camera-trap photographs of

this taxon were taken in all forest areas (including

secondary forest) within the reserve (Plate 7), and the

species’s characteristic calls were regularly heard

throughout the reserve above c.300 m. It is considered

an uncommon resident in China (Cheng Tso-hsin

1987).

Eyebrowed Wren Babbler Napothera epilepidota

(endemic race hainanus)

This secretive species was photographed in primary

forest along a rocky stream at c.700 m in the Nanchahe

area (Plate 8). A pair approached the observers giving

alarm calls, possibly suggesting the presence of a nest

in the vicinity. This species is considered very rare in

China (Cheng Tso-hsin 1987).

DISCUSSION

Composition of the bird fauna

BNNR has wide altitudinal range and a large area has

been selectively logged. Consequently it has a mosaic

of habitat types supporting a diverse avifauna. During

our surveys, the most frequently encountered species

in old-growth forest included Black-browed Barbet,

Mountain Bulbul Hypsipetes mcclellandii, Chestnut

Bulbul Hemixos castanonotus, Black Bulbul Hypsipetes

leucocephalus , Puff-throated Bulbul Alophoixus pallidus,

Thick-billed Green Pigeon Treron curvirostra, Grey¬

cheeked Fulvetta Alcippe morrisonia, Grey-chinned

Minivet Pericrocotus Solaris, Rufous-capped Babbler

Stachyris ruficeps , Crested Goshawk Accipiter trivirga-

tus, Hainan Blue Flycatcher Cyornis hainanus and

Fork-tailed Swift Apus pacificus. Species such as Light-

vented Bulbul Pycnonotus sinensis, House Swift Apus

affinis, Grey-chinned Minivet, Grey-cheeked Fulvetta

and Asian Palm Swift Cypsiurus balasiensis dominated

the more disturbed habitats.

Amongst the species recorded were the endemic

Hainan Partridge, Hainan Peacock Pheasant and

Hainan Leaf Warbler. The endemic subspecies of

Black-browed Barbet, Blue-rumped Pitta, Greater

Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus johni, and

Grey Laughingthrush were found to be common in

BNNR. Many large-bodied forest species were

recorded, notably Treron and Ducula pigeons, Lesser

Yellownape Picus chlorolophus. Greater Yellownape P.

flavinucha, Red-headed Trogon Harpactes erythro-

cephalus, and Indochinese Green Magpie Cissa

hypoleuca, which are difficult to see elsewhere in South

China (Lee Kwok Shing et al. in prep.).

Our survey did not cover freshwater habitats in the

lowlands; thus the status of a number of rare riverine

specialists known from Hainan, such as Blyth’s

Kingfisher Alcedo hercules (Near Threatened), Brown

Fish Owl Ketupa zeylonensis. Great Thick-knee Esacus

recurvirostris. River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii and

White-eared Night Heron Gorsachius magnificus

(Endangered) could not be determined. In addition,

we did not record a number of forest specialists,

notably Red-breasted Parakeet Psittacula alexandri,

Brown Wood Owl Strix leptogranunica, Large-tailed

Nightjar Caprimulgus macrurus, Pale-capped Pigeon

Columba punicea. Orange-breasted Green Pigeon

Treron bicincta, White-bellied Green Pigeon T. sieboldii.

Green Imperial Pigeon Ducula aenea, Jerdon’s Baza

Aviceda jerdoni, Rufous-bellied Eagle Hieraaetus

kienerii, White-winged Magpie Urocissa whiteheadi,

Ratchet-tailed Treepie Temnurus temnurus, and Hill

Myna Gracula religiosa. While many of these species

have not been seen in Hainan for several decades,

possibly reflecting the effects of hunting and habitat

degradation, local people reported sightings of some of

these species in recent years. Further surveys will

doubtlessly add additional species to the reserve’s list,

and more work is clearly needed to reveal the true

ornithological value of this site.

Conservation

The reserve, together with surrounding hills, in partic¬

ular the Wangxia limestone forest, can be considered an

important hotspot for forest birds of the northern

Indochina region. However, prior to the establishment

of the reserve a large part of it had been selectively

logged, and some of the lower slopes have been clear-

felled for establishing monoculture plantations (e.g.

pines Pinus spp.) and grazing land. With a long tradi¬

tion of hunting and gathering forest products, the

increasing local ethnic-minority population continues

to put pressure on the reserve. Poaching, forest

encroachment and other types of disturbance remain

to be controlled despite intensive enforcement effort.

In addition, knowledge, equipment and facilities for

effective enforcement and conservation are lacking

amongst the relevant staff owing to a shortage of

funding. Although Wangxia has the best-preserved

limestone forest on the island (KFBG, unpublished

data), it has yet to be included in the protected area

38

CHAN BOSCO PUI LOK et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

system. The national logging ban on natural forest has

not completely halted illegal tree-felling for subsistence

and small-scale trade, such that these activities

continue to threaten the integrity of this fragile ecosys¬

tem. There may be, however, a brighter future for

BNNR. IvFBG, together with other NGOs, research

institutes and the provincial authority, are working

with the reserve management to improve the reserve’s

capacity for managing the forest ecosystem and

controlling incompatible activities, and a conservation

strategy is being formulated to preserve limestone

forest habitat on the island.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank John Fellowes of KFBG for valuable comments.

Chen Qing and Zheng Haiqiang of BNNR helped in the camera¬

trapping survey and provided extra information; the former also

kindly provided Plate 7. This work has been funded by KFBG.

REFERENCES

BirdLife International (2003) Saving Asia’s threatened birds: a guide

for government and civil society. Cambridge, U.K.: Birdlife

International.

BirdLife International (2004a) Threatened birds of the world 2004.

CD-ROM. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

BirdLife International (2004b) Important Bird Areas of Asia: key sites

for conservation. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International

(BirdLife Conservation Series No. 13).

Cheng Tso-hsin (1987) A synopsis of the avifauna of China. Beijing:

Science Press.

Cheng Tso-hsin and Tan Yaokuang (1973) On the birds of Hainan.

II. Acta Zoologica Sinica 19(4): 405-416. (In Chinese with

English abstract.)

Collar, N. J. (2004) Endemic subspecies of Taiwan birds — first

impressions. BirdingASIA 2: 34-52.

GaoYuren (1991) Present situation of the Grey peacock pheasant on

Hainan Island. World Pheasant Assoc. News 38: 8-10.

GaoYuren (1999) Conservation status of endemic Galliformes on

Hainan Island, China. Bird Conserv. Internat. 9: 41 1-416.

Goodwin, D. (1964) Some aspects of taxonomy and relationships of

barbets (Capitonidae). Ibis 106: 198-220.

Guangdong Institute of Entomology and Zhongshan University

(1983) Birds and beasts of Hainan Island. Beijing: Science Press.

(In Chinese.)

Hartert, E. (1910) The birds of Hainan. Nov. Zool. 17: 189-254.

Inskipp, T., Lindsey, N. and Duckworth, W. (1996) An annotated

checklist of the birds of the Oriental Region. Sandy, U.K.: Oriental

Bird Club.

Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden (2001) Rapid biodiversity assess¬

ments of Bawangling National Nature Reserve and Wangxia

Limestone Forest, Western Hainan, 3 to 8 April 1 998. South China

Biodiversity Survey Report Series: No. 2. Hong Kong: KFBG.

Kilburn, M. (2004a) Hainan Waterbird Survey, 29 December

2003-8 January 2004. Hong Kong Birdwatching Soc. Bull. 192:

22-23.

Kilburn, M. (2004b) Forest birding in Hainan, Jianfengling and

Bawangling National Nature Reserves, 5-8 January, 2004.

Hong Kong Birdwatching Soc. Bull. 192: 23-25.

Kang, B. and Liao Weiping (1988) Hainan Island bird notes. Hong

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Lee Kwok Shing, Lau Michael Wei-Ning, Fellowes, J. R. and Chan

Bosco Pui Lok (in prep.) Forest bird fauna of South China:

notes on current distribution and status.

Liang Wei, Wang Jichao, Wang Wenyi and Su Wenba (2003) Survey

for Hainan peacock pheasant in Hainan Island, China.

Tragopan 19: 14-15.

MacKinnon, J. and Phillipps, K. (2000) A field guide to the birds of

China. U.K.: Oxford University Press.

Madge, S. and McGowan, P. (2002) Pheasants, partridges and grouse:

a guide to the pheasants, partridges, quails, grouse, guineafowl,

buttonquails and sandgrouse of the world. London: Christopher

Helm.

Meyer de Schauensee, R. (1984) The birds of China. U.K.: Oxford

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Olsson, U., Alstrom, P. and Colston, P. R. (1993) A new species of

Phylloscopus warbler from Hainan Island, China. Ibis 135: 2-7.

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Endemic Bird Areas of the world: priorities for biodiversity conserva¬

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Chan Bosco Pui Lok and Lee Kwok Shing, Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden, China Programme, Lam Kam Road,

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Zhang Jian-f eng, Bawangling National Nature Reserve Management Office, Changjiang County, Hainan, China,

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Forktail 21 (2005) Notable bird records from Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan Island

39

40

CHAN BOSCO PUI LOK et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Forktail 21 (2005) Notable bird records from Bawangling National Nature Reserve, Hainan Island

41

Key

Columns 3-6 give number of individuals seen in April 1998 (Kadoorie Farm and Botanic Garden 2001). Asterisks in column 7 indicate records made in

October and December 2003, May, July, October and December 2004, and January 2005. Altitudinal range refers to all observations. VU = Vulnerable,

NT = Near Threatened.

'

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 43-50

Bird surveys at wetlands in Punjab, Pakistan,

with special reference to the present status of

White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala

ZULFIQAR ALI and MUHAMMAD AKHTAR

Numbers of White-headed Ducks in Pakistan have declined substantially since the late 1980s. We surveyed 16 localities from which

the species was known historically, and recorded 33 birds at four sites in January-February 2003: Ucchali (22 individuals), Jahlar

(two), Nammal (two) and Rawal lake (seven). In total, 1 18,784 individuals of 149 species were counted at the 16 sites.

INTRODUCTION

White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala is considered

globally Vulnerable (BirdLife International 2004) and

it is listed on Appendix 1 of the Convention on

Migratory Species. It occupies a fragmented range

from Spain and Algeria in the west to Mongolia,

western China and India in the east (BirdLife

International 2001). The resident North African

population (400-600 birds) is stable, the Spanish

population (c.2,500 birds) is increasing, and the East

Mediterranean and Asian population of 5,000-10,000

birds is declining (Li and Mundkur 2003, Wetlands

International 2002). The global population, which was

around 100,000 individuals at the start of twentieth

century, has decreased to 8,000-13,000 birds in 2002

(BirdLife International 2001, Li and Mundkur 2003).

The global population declines in the first half of the

twentieth century have been attributed mainly to

habitat loss and over-hunting (Green and Hughes

1996). The main threats to the Asian population are

habitat loss owing to unsustainable use of water

resources and recent droughts, exacerbated by hunting

and disturbance (BirdLife International 2001, Li and

Figure 1. Historic distribution (1883-2002) of White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala in Pakistan. Squares indicate sites

surveyed in 2003. Open squares indicate sites where White-headed Duck was found. Shading indicates the state of Punjab.

Site names: 1. Rawal lake; 2. Kailar Kahar lake; 3. Shahpur (Jhelum bridge); 4. Jahlar lake; 5. Ivhabbaki lake; 6. Ucchali lake;

7. Nammal lake; 8. Rangpur lake; 9. Mianwali (Chashma barrage); 10. Kharar lake; 11. Khangarh lake; 12. Bhawalnagar

(Suleimanki headworks); 13. Chalianwala (Mandi Bahauddin); 14. Hafizabad (Qadarabad headworks); 15. Sialkot (Marala

headworks); 16. Jassar (River Ravi); 17. Idal Khei Dhand (Kohat); 18. Akora (Kabul river); 19. Mardan; 20. Peshawar; 21.

Halkot; 22. Bund Khush Dil Khan (Pishin); 23. Zangi Nawar (Chagai); 24. Sunari lake (Shangar); 25. Nowshera (NWFP)

44

ZULFIQAR ALI and MUHAMMAD AKHTAR

Forktail 21 (2005)

Table 1. Waterbirds recorded at 16 sites in Punjab, Pakistan.

Mundkur 2003). These impacts are likely to be exacer¬

bated by the effects of global climate change.

In Pakistan, 889 were counted in 1987-1988, but

numbers have declined substantially since then, and

fewer than 50 have been recorded since 1995-1996

(Chaudhry et al. 1997). Since the late 1980s, White-

headed Duck have been known to winter in Pakistan

only at Ucchali, Khabbaki and Jahlar (known collec¬

tively as Ucchali wetlands complex, a Ramsar site since

1996). It is not clear, however, whether the lack of

sightings elsewhere is because the birds are absent or

because of inadequate surveys.

The goal of this survey, therefore, was to look for

this species and assess its status at the 16 sites in

Punjab where it had been recorded since the 1880s:

Rawal lake, Kallar Kahar lake, Shahpur (Jehlum

bridge), Jahlar lake, Khabbaki lake, Uchalli lake,

Nammal lake, Rangpur lake, Mianwali (Chashma

barrage), Kharar lake, Khangarh lake, Bahawalnagar

(Sulmanki headworks), Chalianwala, Hafizabad

(Qadrabad headworks), Sialkot (Marala headworks)

and Jassar (River Ravi) (Fig. 1; Appendix 1).

METHODS

Observations were made, usually for a full day, at each

of the 16 sites, between 28 January and 21 February

2003. Up to five points per site were selected from

which the whole site could be observed. At each point,

birds were counted using a telescope before moving to

the next point as rapidly as possible without disturbing

the birds. Birds were identified using Grimmett et al.

(2001). The surface area of water at each site was

calculated from a map plotted using coordinates

recorded with a Magellan GPS; then the % reduction

since 1990 (IUCN 1990) was calculated.

RESULTS

In total, 118,784 individuals of 149 species were

counted at the 16 sites (Table 1; Appendix 2).

Chashma lake, Qadirabad headworks, Rangpur lake,

Marala headworks, Sulmanki headworks, Jassar (Ravi

river) and Rawal lake had the highest numbers of

individuals. A total of 33 White-headed Ducks were

counted at four sites: Ucchali (22 individuals), Jahlar

(two), Nammal (two) and Rawal lake (seven).

The highest numbers of species were at Chashma

(126 species), Nammal (115), Rangpur (110), and

Ucchali (103) lakes. The ten most abundant species

were: Eurasian Coot Fulica atra, Common Pochard

Ay thy a ferina, Northern Pintail Anas acuta , Gadwall

Anas strepem, Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis,

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, Northern Shoveler Anas

clvpeata, Water Rail Rallus aquaticus , Black-winged Stilt

Himantopus himantopus and Red-wattled Lapwing

Vanellus indicus.

White-headed Ducks were recorded only at

Ucchali, Jahlar, Nammal and Rawal lakes, and were

absent from all other sites from which the species was

known historically. Many sites had significantly

reduced water surface areas compared to data

presented in IUCN (1990), with an overall reduction

at all sites combined of 51%. Khabbaki, Kharrar,

Chalianwala and Khangarh had all suffered 80-100%

reductions in area since the 1990 figures. The likely

causes of these shrinkages include ground water

extraction, development of barrages and canal systems.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Bird surveys at wetlands in Punjab, Pakistan

45

RECOMMENDATIONS

There is an urgent need to ensure the maintenance and

improvement of the habitat conditions for White-

headed Duck at the sites where the species was

recorded. This will require the government, nature

conservation institutions and other agencies to work

together collaboratively to conserve the remaining

populations. Specifically: (1) a task-force from govern¬

ment and non-government sectors should be

constituted to study the population dynamics of migra¬

tory waterbirds in these areas; (2) detailed hydrological

observations of water inflow and outflow, retention

capacity, loss through evapotranspiration, manipula¬

tion of water level, silt load and its impact on

vegetation etc. should be recorded; (3) pollution levels

should regularly be monitored with a special emphasis

on phosphorus and nitrogen cycling, one of the princi¬

pal factors responsible for degradation of water quality

in wetlands; (4) water levels should be managed to

benefit waterbirds; and (5) some sites should be

considered as closed areas for waterbirds, with distur¬

bance by local people and cattle prohibited.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Inspiration for this survey came from a recent report by Wetlands

International on White-headed Duck in Central Asia. Funding and

logistical support was provided by WWF-Pakistan. In particular we

would like to thank Ali Hassan Habib and Richard Garstang for their

assistance, encouragement and adventure they offered me. Richard

Garstang’s continuous support and guidance provided much-needed

help. We are grateful to Muhammad Akhtar for his encouragement.

We would like to express our gratitude to Ornithological Society of

Pakistan (OSP) and Wildlife and Parks Department, Punjab

(WPWD) which were partners in this survey. Among many people

whom we wish to thank are: Aleem Ahmad Khan (OSP), Agha Azaz,

Anwar Mann Muhammad Afzal (WPWD), Salman Ashraf, Anwar

Naseem, Waqar Naseem and Bisharat Naz (WWF-Pakistan). Our

appreciation is also due to all our survey participants for their

generous assistance. Wali Khan and Mr Asmat were not only good

drivers but were also helpful during the field surveys.

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*Present address: Department of Wildlife and Ecosystem, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan.

Email: zulfiqarali68@yahoo.com

46

ZULFIQAR ALI and MUHAMMAD AKHTAR

Forktail 21 (2005)

APPENDIX 1

Records ofWhite-headed Duck in Pakistan

Forktail 21 (2005)

Bird surveys at wetlands in Punjab, Pakistan

47

Key

+ = Present, exact number not known

BMNH= Bombay Museum of Natural History; BNHS= Bombay Natural History Society; PFIP= Pakistan Forest Institute, Peshawar;

PWRI= Punjab Wildlife Research Institute.

48

ZULFIQAR ALI and MUHAMMAD AKHTAR

Forktail 21 (2005)

Forktail 2 1 (2005)

Bird surveys at wetlands in Punjab, Pakistan

49

50

ZULFIQAR ALI and MUHAMMAD AKHTAR

Forktail 21 (2005)

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 51-60

A preliminary ornithological assessment and

conservation evaluation of the PT Daisy logging

concession, Berau district, East Kalimantan,

Indonesia

JONATHAN C. EAMES

An ornithological survey in the PT Daisy logging concession, Berau district, East Kalimantan, Indonesia, was undertaken as part of

a wider research effort to provide baseline data on its biodiversity in order to facilitate improved forest management. PT Daisy retains

almost 30% of primary terrestrial forest, whilst 45% of the concession has now been logged. A total of 230 bird species were recorded

including six Vulnerable, 47 Near Threatened and two restricted-range species. Compared to other protected areas in Kalimantan, the

bird species diversity of PT Daisy is above average, but the reserve supports fewer globally threatened species and restricted-range

species. The bird fauna of PT Daisy shows greatest similarity with Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting National Parks. The undis¬

turbed mixed dipterocarp lowland forests of PT Daisy are likely to be typical of the Sangkulirang Peninsula. At a landscape level, PT

Daisy is important since it is part of a currently contiguous forest chain running through the Sangkulirang Peninsula. The best current

conservation opportunity for forests in the peninsula is probably under a sustainable forest management regime. The current unsus¬

tainable approach to forest management at PT Daisy will inevitably lead to seriously reduced levels of biodiversity.

INTRODUCTION

In Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), remaining

natural forests are subject to logging, conversion to oil

palm and other tree crops and clearance for permanent

agriculture. In the 12-year period from 1985 to 1997,

forest cover in Kalimantan declined from 75% to 60%,

a loss of 8,474,000 ha (706,000 ha per year), compris¬

ing 21% of the four provincial forest estates (Holmes

2002). This is worse than on Sumatra and Sulawesi, in

terms of area and rate of forest loss (Holmes 2002).

Conversion to plantation crops, particularly oil palm,

has been assumed to be the primary cause of forest

loss. Other sources include steady small-scale

encroachment by smallholder farmers along the length

of the forest frontier boundary. Most of the deforesta¬

tion has occurred on lowland plains. Lowland forest

supports the highest levels of biodiversity and has the

greatest potential for sustainable forestry (Holmes

2002). If current trends continue, all non-swampy

lowland forest in Kalimantan will be virtually

destroyed by 2010 (Holmes 2002).

Holmes (2002) believed that the situation had

become so critical that he recommended a complete

revision of the forest function classification to repre¬

sent the reality of present forest distribution in

Kalimantan, and that absolute limits be set on the

extent and distribution of further conversions in

Kalimantan. He also recommended a number of biodi¬

versity conservation initiatives, including a review of

those areas of the biodiversity action plan that required

re-evaluation. Subsequently, some sites proposed in

the 1982 National Conservation Plan (MacKinnon

and Artha 1981) have now lost their conservation

value, whilst the relative value of others has increased

as a result of surrounding landscape conversions.

Holmes (2002) further identified a number of sites

where immediate biodiversity conservation initiatives

are urgently required. These include lesser-known

areas that are believed to still have major importance

for the conservation of biodiversity, such as

Sangkulirang Peninsula in East Kalimantan.

MacKinnon and Artha (1981) noted both that the

existing protected areas system for East Kalimantan

was far from satisfactory and that the scope for acquir¬

ing new areas was very limited. They made a number

of recommendations for habitat types that should be

included in the protected areas system, and specifically

mentioned the need to include forests on limestone as

found on the Sangkulirang Peninsula. The

Sangkulirang Peninsula was subsequently identifed as

one of 23 Important Bird Areas in Kalimantan on the

basis of the globally threatened and restricted-range

bird species it supports (Holmes et al. 2000, 2001).

PT Daisy is an active logging concession located on

the Sangkulirang Peninsula (Fig. 1). It covers

67,500 ha in two disjunct forest blocks on karst

limestone with moderate to steep slopes at 0-700 m.

The natural vegetation consists of hill evergreen and

lowland mixed dipterocarp forest, mangrove forest,

intertidal habitats and inshore islands. According to

land classification based on the LandsatTM 1 16/59 of

13 November 1999, primary terrestrial forest now

covers at least 29.6% of the area, mangrove forest

covers at least 2.2%, logged forest covers at least 45%,

and 8.8% of the area is classified as non-forest (perma¬

nent agriculture or shifting cultivation; note that 14%

was obscured by clouds and unclassified in this image).

The landscape is composed of a mosaic of primary and

derivative vegetation types. The forest supports at least

44 plant families and at least 60 mammal species, of

which 16 are endemic to Borneo (Eames et al. 2001).

Jarvie (2001) reported that the concession has been

heavily affected by over-cutting, there is barely any

protection of forest and the plasma nutfah areas

(reserved forest blocks providing a natural source of

seed, which is mandatory under Indonesian forest law)

are wholly inadequate to conserve representative biodi¬

versity. Furthermore, the volume of wood extracted is

unsustainable, especially from the easily accessible

level lowland areas where the 35-year prescribed

interval between logging cycles has not been followed.

52

J. C. EAMES

Forktail 21 (2005)

This has resulted in total canopy destruction in many

areas. The complexity of forest laws, rampant corrup¬

tion in the forestry administration, lack of security of

forest concession tenure, low levels of understanding

amongst concession managers of basic forest manage¬

ment practices (including basic map-reading skills)

and illegal logging by outsiders have all been identified

as management issues (Eames et al. 2001). The current

unsustainable approach to forest management at PT

Daisy threatens sustainability of the commercial

forestry operation and in the long term will inevitably

lead to seriously reduced levels of biodiversity.

To achieve more sustainable forest management,

PT Daisy and the Tropical Forest Trust are developing

a new collaborative venture. A preliminary biological

assessment was considered an important stage in

project development (Eames et al. 2001). This paper

presents the results of a 21 -day ornithological survey

undertaken during 7-27 September 2001. This work

was undertaken as part of a wider research effort to

provide baseline data on the biodiversity of PT Daisy,

to put this into a regional and global context, and to

make conservation recommendations to guide

planning of future forestry activities proposed by the

Tropical Forest Trust and the management of PT

Daisy (Eames et al. 2001).

METHODS

Bird surveys were conducted during 7-27 September

2001 from three forest camps in Block B and at the

logging concession headquarters on Suleman Bay.

Camp A was located on a logging road in primary

forest at 01"13'20"N 1 18°37'45''E, camp B was located

in logged forest at 01'’04'10"N 118"47'10"E and camp

C was located in logged forest 200 m from the primary

forest in the plasma nutfah at 01°08'56"N 1 1 8"4 1 '3 1 "E.

Additional observations were made elsewhere in Block

B, in Block A and in mangrove forest in both blocks.

Active searches were begun from shortly after dawn,

with effort continuing all day, weather permitting.

Most observations were made at the forest edge from

logging roads. Trails in the forest and along logging

roads were walked slowly with frequent stops to

observe mixed-species feeding flocks or birds feeding

at fruiting trees. Birds were detected both by sight and

by call. Searches for nocturnal birds were also made.

On 14 transects (Table 1), data were collected on the

bird community using a modification of the method

outlined in MacKinnon and Phillipps (1993). This

involved making a list of the first ten species recorded,

and then repeating the process to make several such

lists. Plotting the cumulative number of species

recorded gave species discovery curves to indicate local

diversity. Species recorded on a high proportion of lists

are likely to be the most abundant and/or detectable

(MacKinnon and Phillipps 1993). Threat status

follows BirdLife International (2004) and restricted-

range status follows Stattersfield et al. (1998). The

degree of similarity between the bird faunas at PT

Daisy and other protected areas was assessed using

Sorenson’s Similarity Index (Magurran 1988), which is

given by the formula:

Tanjung Redep

Celebes Sea

Figure 1. Location of PT Daisy.

C = — — —

(a + b)

where j = the number of shared species between two

areas, a = the number of species in area A, and b = the

number of species in area B.

RESULTS

A total of 230 bird species was recorded (Appendix 1),

including six Vulnerable species: Bulwer’s Pheasant

Lophura bulweri, Short-toed Coucal Centropus rectun-

guis , Large Green Pigeon Treron capellei , Wallace’s

Hawk Eagle Spizaetus nanus, Lesser Adjutant

Leptoptilos javanicus and Blue-headed Pitta Pitta baudii ,

47 Near Threatened species (Appendix 2) and two

restricted-range species: Hose’s Broadbill Calyptomena

hosii and Chestnut-crested Yuhina Yuhina everetti.

To determine the most abundant/detectable

species, a total of 96 lists of ten species were made in

two habitats, logged forest edge (80 lists) and primary

forest edge (16 lists). The ten most commonly

recorded bird species in each habitat are listed in

Tables 2 and 3. Six species were recorded in both

habitats. These results may reveal subtle differences in

the avifauna of forest-edge habitats but reveal little

about relative abundance between logged and primary

forest. Species discovery curves for the two habitats

show similar initial steepness, but the smaller sample of

forest-edge lists means that it is not possible to deter¬

mine whether the curves would have levelled out at

similar values (Fig. 2).

SELECTED SPECIES ACCOUNTS

Species accounts are provided for threatened and

restricted-range species, plus species that were newly

recorded for East Kalimantan or represented signifi¬

cant range extensions within Borneo according to

Smythies (1999) and van Balen and Nurwatha (1997).

All records refer to sight records.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Ornithological assessment of the PT Daisy logging concession, Indonesia

53

Table 1 . Transects used for bird surveys.

Bulwer’s Pheasant Lophura bulweri

Vulnerable. This is a submontane species inhabiting

mixed dipterocarp forest, bamboo areas on old

landslips and Agathis forest (Smythies 1999). A pair

was seen at the roadside in primary forest-edge at

15h45 on 11 September by D. da Costa and L.

Nyoman.

Olive-backed Woodpecker Dinopium rafflesii

Near Threatened. This species is an uncommon

resident of primary and secondary lowland forest

(Smythies 1999). One female was seen on transect 14

on 27 September. According to Smythies (1999) this

represents the first record from East Kalimantan, but

the species has apparently been previously recorded at

PT Daisy (S. van Balen in litt. 2004).

Short-toed Coucal Centropus rectunguis

Vulnerable. This species occurs in primary and logged

lowland forest and is an extreme lowland forest special¬

ist (Smythies 1999). Three were recorded: one heard

on transect 8 on 17 September, one seen on transect

11 on 21 September, and one heard on transect 12 on

23 September.

Large Green Pigeon Treron capellei

Vulnerable. This species is resident, but sparingly

distributed throughout lowland forest in Borneo and it

is scarce in most areas in comparison with the smaller

green pigeons (Smythies 1999). Up to 50 birds were

observed feeding in a large fruiting fig near Camp C

from 17h00 on 16 September. Ten birds were present

the following morning, and 30 were seen after 17h00.

In addition, one was seen on transect 8 on 17

September and flocks of four and two were seen on

transect 9 on 18 September.

Wallace’s Hawk Eagle Spizaetus nanus

Vulnerable. This species is resident in Borneo, occur¬

ring in particular in East Kalimantan (Smythies 1999).

One was seen flying through the canopy carrying a

small passerine on transect 11 on 21 September. Later

Table 2. The ten most commonly recorded bird species in logged

forest-edge.

Table 3. The ten most commonly recorded bird species in primary

forest-edge.

mammal, by climbing through the lower canopy and

54

J. C. EAMES

Forktail 21 (2005)

middle storey at forest edge by the logging camp in

Block A.

Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus

Vulnerable. This species is a local resident in Borneo

(Smythies 1999). It was recorded on severeal

occasions: one was seen feeding in the intertidal area of

an inlet on 1 2 and 1 3 September; three birds were seen

feeding at the same location and a flock of 12 were seen

soaring in the distance on 1 6 September; six birds were

seen feeding at the same locality on 19 September. A

colony with six nests and five fledged young was

located at the north entrance to the channel between

the mainland and Sigenting-besar island on 20

September. One was seen in mangroves in Block A on

23 September and another was seen in Block A on 25

September; a group of five were seen feeding at a creek

mouth near 01’16'N 118"41'E on 25 September; and

one was seen in the intertidal inlet south of Suleman

bay on 26 September.

Blue-headed Pitta Pitta baudii

Vulnerable. This is a locally common resident through¬

out lowland forests (Smythies 1999). Several were

recorded: a female was seen in late morning along

transect 4 on 12 September; several were heard there

in the late afternoon on the same day; one was heard

on transect 11 on 21 September; a pair was observed

along a stream in late afternoon on Block A also on 21

September; one male was seen foraging in riverine

forest in Block A on 22 September; and one was heard

on transect 13 on 26 September.

Hose’s Broadbill Calyptomena hosii

Near Threatened; restricted-range. This is primarily a

submontane species (although there are recent lowland

observations) which has a patchy distribution

(Smythies 1999); it had been previously recorded at

Maau on the Bengalun River in East Kalimantan

(Smythies 1999) and in Kayan Mentarang National

Park (van Balen and Nurwatha 1997). Up to five were

seen at a fruiting tree on transect 6 on 1 4 September

and a female was seen at the same tree on 15

Number of lists

Figure 2. Species discovery curves in logged (dashed line)

and primary (solid line) forest-edge, derived from repeated

lists of ten species.

September. These records extend the range of the

species 275 km eastwards in Borneo.

Chestnut-crested Yuhina Yuhina evernti

Restricted-range. This species is a common submon¬

tane and montane resident (Smythies 1999). Six were

recorded: two were seen mobbing a Moustached Hawk

Cuckoo Hierococcyx vagans on transect 8 on 17

September; two were seen at forest edge on transect 10

on 19 September; and two were seen on transect 1 1 at

600 m on 21 September. The species has been previ¬

ously found at low elevations at Kutai Reserve in East

Kalimantan (Smythies 1999) and in Kayan Mentarang

National Park (van Balen and Nurwatha 1997). These

records are the first from the Sangkulirang Peninsula,

and extend the known range of the species by c.200 km

eastwards in Borneo.

Scarlet-breasted Flowerpecker Prionochilus

thoracicus

Near Threatened. This species is a common resident in

the lowlands of Borneo (Smythies 1999). One was seen

on transect 1 on 9 September. According to Smythies

(1999) this is the first record from East Kalimantan.

DISCUSSION

Biological importance

Bird species diversity at PT Daisy (230 species) was

above the mean value of 218 species for eight protected

areas in Kalimantan (Table 4), although it should be

noted that these totals are likely to reflect observer

effort to some degree. Adding in data for two other

Bornean sites (Danum Valley Conservation Area

including Ulu Segama forests: 240 species; Kayan

Mentarang National Park: 286 species) gives a mean of

227, which is just below the value for PT Daisy. Of the

230 bird species recorded in PT Daisy, 53 species

(23%) are considered threatened (Vulnerable) or Near

Threatened, although many of the latter remain

common and widespread. This reflects the interna¬

tional concern for the conservation status of lowland

Sundaic forests. The number of globally threatened

species found in eight protected areas in Kalimantan

ranged from two to twelve species, with a mean of

seven species (Table 4). PT Daisy, with six species, is

slightly below the mean, although the same caveats

about observer effort apply. The number of restricted-

range species at these sites was 0-12, with a mean of

three (Table 4). PT Daisy also fell below average in this

respect, with two species (Hose’s Broadbill and

Chestnut-crested Yuhina). The Bornean Mountains

Endemic Bird Area should therefore be extended

eastwards to encompass this part of the Sangkulirang

Peninsula. PT Daisy supports four Bornean endemics:

Bulwer’s Pheasant, Blue-headed Pitta, Hose’s

Broadbill and Bornean Blue Flycatcher Cyornis

superbus. Whilst levels of micro-endemism are low

(2%), levels of regional endemism are much higher,

with 118 species (51%) endemic to the Sunda region

(peninsular Malaysia, Java, Bali, Sumatra and Borneo).

The degree of similarity between the bird faunas at

PT Daisy and other protected areas in Kalimantan was

compared using Sorenson’s Similarity Index; high

Forktail 21 (2005)

Ornithological assessment of the PT Daisy logging concession, Indonesia

55

Table 4. Bird species diversity and endemism at PT Daisy compared to seven other protected areas in Kalimantan (sources: MacKinnon

and Phillipps 1993, van Balen and Nurwatha 1997, Eames et al. 2001).

values indicate a high degree of similarity between the

species assemblages (Table 4). There was greatest

similarity with Gunung Palung and Tanjung Puting,

reflecting the shared occurrence of lowland forest

habitats in these areas. There was least similarity with

Gunung Niut (which supports montane habitats) and

Sungai Negara (which supports swamp habitats). The

undisturbed mixed dipterocarp lowland forests of PT

Daisy are likely to be typical of the Sangkulirang

Peninsula.

At a landscape level, PT Daisy is important since it

part of a currently contiguous forest chain running

north-west to south-east through the Sangkulirang

Peninsula. However, although PT Daisy is larger than

all but three existing protected areas in East

Kalimantan (Jepson et al. 2002), it may not be large

enough by itself to support viable populations of bird

species that have large home-range sizes and occur at

low population densities. It is therefore important that

forest cover be maintained both within the area and

contiguously outside it. If PT Daisy were incorporated

into the proposed Sangkulirang-Mangaliat National

Park, as has been previously suggested by MacKinnon

(1982), Momberg et al. (1998) and Jepson et al.

(2002), then this problem could be avoided. The

proposed reserve would be the second largest

protected area in Kalimantan after Kayan Mentarang

National Park. Alternatively, if PT Daisy together with

adjoining concessions were placed under sustainable

forest management regimes, and then combined with

the proposed Sangkulirang-Mangaliat National Park,

the protected landscape would be far larger, with even

bigger benefits to conservation.

Conservation

The effects of logging on biodiversity in the tropics

have been documented by Grieser Johns (1997) and

Haworth and Counsell (1999). Within the Indo-

Malayan Realm there have been a number of studies,

including ones that have focused specifically on the

effects on lowland bird communities e.g. Johns (1986,

1987), Lambert (1990, 1992) and Marsden (1998).

Although some studies have shown that selective

logging reduces species richness and overall abundance

(e.g. Johns 1986), others show species richness to be

similar in logged and primary forest, with composition

and population densities of many species differing

between these habitats (Lambert 1992, Grieser Johns

1996). This may explain the similarity of the species

discovery curves in Fig. 3 (notwithstanding the small

sample size). Following logging, certain taxa, notably

flycatchers, woodpeckers, trogons and wren babblers

become comparatively rare, whilst nectivorous and

opportunistic frugivorous species increase in

abundance. Furthermore the activity levels of some

species increase, whilst others range over a larger area

(Lambert 1992). Although a high proportion of species

recorded in unlogged forest reappear in logged forest

1 2 years after logging, some, including terrestrial litter-

gleaning and understorey flycatchers, do not (Johns

1989). While quantitative data on the effects of logging

on bird species diversity and abundance was not

collected in the present survey, anecdotal observations

suggested differences between logged and unlogged

forest. For example: Red-naped Trogon Harpactes

kasumba was only recorded from primary forest; Grey¬

chested Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias umbratilis was

recorded four times in primary forest but only once in

logged forest; Bornean Blue Flycatcher was recorded

only in primary riverine forest; and Striped Wren

Babbler Kenopia striata was recorded only in primary

riverine forest.

Previous proposals to establish the Sangkulirang-

Mangkaliat National Park (MacKinnon 1982,

Momberg et al. 1998) have not yet been acted upon.

Furthermore, since political and administrative decen¬

tralisation have become policy initiatives in the

post-Suharto era, major ecosystem reserves have

become more difficult to designate. Therefore the best

current conservation opportunity for forests in the

Sangkulirang Peninsula, including PT Daisy, is

probably under sustainable forest management. In

order to maintain the full biodiversity attributes of PT

Daisy it is recommended that (1) the original bound¬

aries of the concession should be maintained; (2) a

sustainable forest management regime should be

developed and implemented; and (3) levels of forest

law enforcement should be immediately increased.

There is an important role for international NGOs and

donors such as the World Bank to lobby and press for

a nation-wide increase in wages, means, and number of

people employed in forest law enforcement in

Indonesia. Such measures will reduce the occurrence

of illegal logging in concessions and protected areas,

56

J. C. EAMES

Forktail 21 (2005)

and improve the implementation of sustainable

forestry. In order to maintain the full biodiversity

attributes of the Sangkulirang Peninsula at the regional

scale, it is recommended that a landscape-level

management plan be developed in collaboration with

adjacent timber concessions on the Sangkulirang

Peninsula.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper has been produced as a result of work funded by the

Tropical Forest Trust. I would like to thank Scott Poynton of the

Tropical Forest Trust and Chad Ovel of Scancom. I thank all the

members of the biodiversity survey team: Gabriella Fredriksson,

Damy da Costa, Madun Flerman, Lukas Nyoman, Pak Husni, Ben

Jarvis, Rizali Noor and Andrey N. Kuznetsov. I would like to thank

the staff of PT Daisy particularly Yusuf Murad, Rizali Noor, Madun

Herman and Pak Husni who extended their full support and cooper¬

ation and whose prompt and efficient assistance made our fieldwork

possible. I would also like to thank Paul Andrew, Dr Bas van Balen,

Dr Frank Lambert and Dr Graham Tyrie. At the office of the

BirdLife International Indonesia Programme (now BirdLife

Indonesia) I acknowledge the vital support of Sukianto Lusli, Irma

Susilawati for assisting in obtaining references and W. M. Rombang

for his assistance in providing IBA data and map translation skills. At

the office of the BirdLife International Asia Division I would like to

thank Richard Grimmett for his support for this work, Rudyanto, and

especially Santi Lisani for her help in making logistical arrangements.

In Hanoi I acknowledge the support of the BirdLife International

Vietnam Programme staff, especially Nguyen Due Tu who struggled

long and hard overcoming mapping software problems, Andrew

Tordoff, Vu Mirth Phuong and Nguyen Luong Duyen. I thank Paul

Jepson and Frank Momberg for their support and encouragement.

Finally I thank Dr Bas van Balen and an anonymous referee for many

helpful comments.

This paper is dedicated to the memory of Derek Holmes, a

pragmatic conservationist and ornithologist who passed away in

Bandung, Java in October 2000.

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Mentarang National Park, East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

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BirdLife International (2004) Threatened birds of the world 2004. CD-

ROM. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

Eames, J. C., Kuznetsov, A. N., Fredriksson, G. and Jarvis, B. (2001)

A preliminary biological assessment of PT Daisy, Berau district.

East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Unpublished report to the Tropical

Forest Trust.

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Holmes, D., Marthy, W. and Octaviani, D. (2000) Important Bird

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penting bagi burung di Kalimantan. Bogor. PKA/BirdLife

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efficacy of the protected area system of East Kalimantan

Province, Indonesia. Natural Areas J. 22 (1): 28-42

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organisation of a peninsular Malaysian rainforest avifauna.

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est by Malaysian hornbills (Bucerotidae) and implications for

their conservation. Biol. Conserv. 40: 179-190.

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avifauna following selective timber logging: the first twelve years.

Forktail 4: 89-105.

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of a north Bornean rain forest. Report to ODA/NERC project

F3CR26/G1/05. Aberdeen: Institute of Tropical Biology,

University of Aberdeen.

Lambert, F. R. (1992) The consequences of selective logging for

Bornean lowland forest birds. Pp. 443-457 in A. G. Marshall and

M. D. Swaine, eds. Tropical rain forest: disturbance and recovery.

London: The Royal Society.

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1: Introduction, evaluation methods and overview of national nature

richness. Bogor: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United

Nations.

MacKinnon, J. and Artha, M. B. (1981) National Conservation Plan

for Indonesia Volume 5: Kalimantan. Bogor: Food and Agriculture

Organisation of the United Nations.

MacKinnon, J. R. and Phillipps, K. (1993) A field guide to the birds of

Borneo, Sumatra, Java and Bali. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University

Press.

Magurran, A. E. (1988) Ecological diversity and its measurement.

London: Chapman and Hall.

Marsden, S. J. (1998) Changes in bird abundance following selective

logging on Seram, Indonesia. Conserv. Biol. 12: 605-61 1.

Momberg, F., Jepson, P. and van Noord, H. (1998) Kalimantan biodi¬

versity review. Jakarta: WWF Indonesia.

Smythies, B. E. (1999) The birds of Borneo. Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia:

Natural History Publications (Borneo).

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Endemic bird areas of the world: priorities for biodiversity conserva¬

tion. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International.

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Vietnam. Email: Eames@netnam.org. vn

Forktail 21 (2005)

Ornithological assessment of the PT Daisy logging concession, Indonesia

57

58

J. C. EAMES

Forktail 21 (2005)

Species Status

Dusky Broadbill Corydon sumatranus

Black-and-red Broadbill Cymbirhynchus macrorhynchos

Black-and- yellow Broadbill Eurylaimus ochromalus NT

Green Broadbill Calyptomena viridis NT

Hose's Broadbill Calyptomena hosii NT, RR

Golden-bellied Gerygone Gerygone sulphurea

Asian Fairy Bluebird Irena puella

Greater Green Leafbird Chlompsis sonnerati

Lesser Green Leafbird Chloropsis cyanopogon NT

Blue-winged Leafbird Chloropsis cochinchinensis

Mangrove Whistler Pachycephala grisola

Crested Jay Platylophus galericulatus NT

Black Magpie Platysmurus leucopterus NT

Slender-billed Crow Corvus enca

White-breasted Woodswallow Artamus leucorynchus

Dark-throated Oriole Oriolus xanthonotus NT

Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis

Black-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthornus

Bar-bellied Cuckooshrike Coracina striata

Lesser Cuckooshrike Coracina fimbriata

Pied Triller Lalage nigra

Scarlet Minivet Pericrocotus flammeus

Bar-winged Flycatcher-shrike Hemipus picatus

Black-winged Flycatcher-shrike Hemipus hirundinaceus

White-throated Fantail Rhipidura albicollis

Pied Fantail Rhipidura javanica

Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus

Greater Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus paradiseus

Black-naped Monarch Hypothymis azurea

Asian Paradise-flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi

Common Iora Aegithina tiphia

Green Iora Aegithina viridissima NT

Rufous-winged Philentoma Philentoma pyrhopterum

Maroon-breasted Philentoma Philentoma velatum NT

Large Woodshrike Tephrodornis gularis

Grey-chested Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias umbratilis NT

Grey-streaked Flycatcher Muscicapa griseisticta

Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica

Verditer Flycatcher Eumyias thalassina

Pale Blue Flycatcher Cyonis unicolor

Bornean Blue Flycatcher Cyornis superbus

Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis

Oriental Magpie Robin Copsychus saularis

White-rumped Shama Copsychus malabaricus

Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus ruficapillus NT

Asian Glossy Starling Aplonis panayensis

Hill Myna Gracula religiosa

Velvet-fronted Nuthatch Sitta frontalis

Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica

Pacific Swallow Hirundo tahitica

Black-and-white Bulbul Pycnonotus melanoleucos NT

Black-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus atriceps

Scaly-breasted Bulbul Pycnonotus squamatus NT

Puff-backed Bulbul Pycnonotus eutilotus NT

Yellow-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus goiavier

Olive-winged Bulbul Pycnonotus plumosus

Cream-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus simplex

Red-eyed Bulbul Pycnonotus brunneus

Spectacled Bulbul Pycnonotus erythropthalmos

Species Status

Grey-cheeked Bulbul Alophoixus bres

Yellow-bellied Bulbul Alophoixus phaeocephalus

Hairy-backed Bulbul Tricholestes criniger

Buff-vented Bulbul Iole olivacea NT

Streaked Bulbul Ixos malaccensis NT

Yellow-bellied Prinia Prinia flaviveniris

Dark-necked Tailorbird Orthotomus atrogularis

Rufous-tailed Tailorbird Orthotomus sericeus

Ashy Tailorbird Orthotomus ruficeps

Yellow-bellied Warbler Abroscopus superciliaris

White-chested Babbler Trichastotna rostratum NT

Ferruginous Babbler Trichastoma bicolour

Abbott's Babbler Malacocincla abbotti

Horsfield's Babbler Malacocincla sepiarium

Short-tailed Babbler Malacocincla malaccensis NT

Black-capped Babbler Pellorneum capistratum

Moustached Babbler Malacopteron magnirostre

Sooty-capped Babbler Malacopteron affine NT

Scaly-crowned Babbler Malacopteron cinereum

Rufous-crowned Babbler Malacopteron magnum NT

Chestnut-backed Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus montanus

Striped Wren Babbler Kenopia striata NT

Rufous-fronted Babbler Stachyris rufifrons

Grey-headed Babbler Stachyris poliocephala

Chestnut-rumped Babbler Stachyris maculata NT

Chestnut-winged Babbler Stachyris erythroptera

Striped Tit Babbler Macronous gularis

Fluffy-backed Tit Babbler Macronous ptilosus NT

Brown Fulvetta Alcippe brunneicauda NT

Chestnut-crested Yuhina Yuhina everetti RR

White-bellied Yuhina Yuhina zantholeuca

Yellow-breasted Flowerpecker Prionochilus maculatus

Scarlet-breasted Flowerpecker Prionochilus thoracicus NT

Orange-bellied Flowerpecker Dicaeum trigonostigma

Plain Sunbird Anthreptes simplex

Brown-throated Sunbird Anthreptes malacensis

Ruby-cheeked Sunbird Anthreptes singalensis

Purple-naped Sunbird Hypogramma hypogrammicum

Purple-throated Sunbird Nectarinia sperata

Copper-throated Sunbird Nectarinia calcostetha

Olive-backed Sunbird Nectarinia jugularis

Crimson Sunbird Aethopyga siparaja

Temminck's Sunbird Aethopyga temminckii

Little Spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra

Thick-billed Spiderhunter Arachnothera crassirostris

Long-billed Spiderhunter Arachnothera robusta

Spectacled Spiderhunter Arachnothera flavigaster

Yellow-eared Spiderhunter Arachnothera chrysogenys

Grey-breasted Spiderhunter Arachnothera affinis

Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer montanus

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava

Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea

Dusky Munia Lonchura fuscans

Black-headed Munia Lonchura malacca

Key

VU = Vulnerable, NT = Near Threatened, RR = restricted-range

Forktail 21 (2005)

Ornithological assessment of the PT Daisy logging concession, Indonesia

59

APPENDIX 2

Near Threatened species recorded at PT Daisy

Crested Partridge Rollulus rouloul

A common resident throughout the lowland forests of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). Four males and a female, and a pair were seen in

the vicinity of transect 4 on 12 September.

Crested Fireback Lophura ignita

A common resident in the lowland forests throughout Borneo,

excluding peat swamp forest (Smythies 1999). Three females were

seen to cross a logging road near the HQ on 8 September.

Great Argus Argusianus argus

A common resident throughout the lowland forests of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). It was commonly recorded, with 33 records,

mostly of calling birds, in both logged and primary forest.

Buff-necked Woodpecker Meiglyptes tukki

A common resident in the mixed dipterocarp forests of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). A single bird was seen on transect 7 on 15

September.

Red-crowned Barbet Megalaima rafflesii

A common resident in the lowlands in mixed dipterocarp (often

disturbed) forest from sea-level to 500 m (Smythies 1999). This

species was heard on 7 and 8 September and on transect 10 on 19

September.

Red-throated Barbet Megalaima mystacophanos

This species is an abundant lowland resident of primary mixed

dipterocarp forest and secondary forest from sea-level up to 1,375 m

(Smythies 1999). It was commonly recorded, with 16 records,

mainly of calling birds in primary forest-edge.

Yellow-crowned Barbet Megalaima henricii

A common submontane resident throughout Borneo in primary and

logged lowland forest (Smythies 1999). One was heard on transect 5

on 13 September.

Black Ilornbill Anthracoceros malayanus

Resident throughout the lowland forests of Borneo, mainly below

600 m (Smythies 1999). Thirteen individuals were recorded during

7-27 September.

Rhinoceros Hombill Buceros rhinoceros

Resident throughout Borneo in hilly and lowland forest (Smythies

1999). Twenty-two were recorded during 7-27 September.

Helmeted Hornbill Buceros vigil

Resident throughout Borneo in lowland alluvial forest (Smythies

1999). Nineteen were recorded during 7-18 September. A male was

observed feeding a female at a nest hole at the end of transect 5 on

13 September and again on 26 September.

White-crowned Hornbill Aceros comatus

Resident at low density throughout Borneo in primary and logged

forest, mainly in hilly country but not often seen (Smythies 1999).

Five were recorded during 12-22 September.

Wrinkled Hombill Aceros corrugatus

Resident and sparsely distributed throughout Borneo in the lowlands

in primary forest from sea-level to 800 m (Smythies 1999). Nineteen

were recorded during 7-19 September.

Red-naped Trogon Harpactes kasumba

Resident throughout Borneo in primary forest, bamboo, and rarely

in logged forest if virgin patches are available nearby (Lambert 1990

in Smythies 1999). Three were recorded during 8-23 September.

Diard’s Trogon Harpactes diardi

Resident and fairly common throughout Borneo up to 1,200 m in

virgin and logged forest (Smythies 1999). Ten were recorded during

8- 26 September.

Scarlet-rumped Trogon Harpactes duvaucelii

A common resident throughout the lowland forests of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). At least 16 were recorded during 9-26 September.

Moustached Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx vagans

A rare resident of lowland forest (Smythies 1999). One seen on

transect 8 on 17 September was being mobbed by two Chestnut-

crested Yuhinas Yuhina everetti.

Black-bellied Malkoha Phaenicophaeus diardi

Resident and usually common throughout the lowlands of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). Three were seen during 9-21 September.

Chestnut-bellied Malkoha Phaenicophaeus sumatranus

A common resident of the lowlands, predominantly in coastal areas

up to 500 m (Smythies 1999). Two were seen together with three

Raffles’s Malkohas Phaenicophaeus chlorophaeus on transect 8 on 17

September.

Blue-rumped Parrot Psittinus cyanurus

Resident in virgin and logged forest up to about 500 m (Smythies

1999). One was seen along transect 3 on 1 1 September. Two flew

overhead along transect 5 on 13 September. One briefly visited a

fruiting fig tree near Camp C on 1 7 September. Two were seen on

transect 10 on 19 September.

Jambu Fruit Dove Ptilinopus jambu

Local resident but widely distributed in Borneo (Smythies 1999).

One male was seen near transect 4 on 12 September. A pair were

observed visiting a fruiting tree on transect 6 on 1 5 September.

Garnet Pitta Pina granatina

Resident in lowlands in mixed dipterocarp forest (Smythies 1999).

Nine were recorded during 7-27 September.

Black-and-yellow Broadbill Eurylaimus ochromalus

Resident throughout Borneo in the lowlands in primary forest

(Smythies 1999). Common at PT Daisy and recorded almost daily

throughout the survey.

Green Broadbill Calyptomena viridis

Resident throughout Borneo in mixed dipterocarp forest of the

lowlands (Smythies 1999). A minimum of 21 were recorded during

9- 27 September.

Lesser Green Leafbird Chloropsis cyanopogon

A common resident throughout the lowlnd forests of Borneo from

sea-level to about 600 m (Smythies 1999). Eleven were recorded

during 8-27 September.

Crested Jay Platylophus galericulatus

A common resident throughout the lowland forests of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). Five were recorded during 8-17 September.

Black Magpie Platysmurus leucopterus

A fairly common resident throughout the lowlands of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). At least eight were recorded during 10-18

September.

Dark-throated Oriole Oriolus xanthonotus

Resident throughout Borneo in the lowland forests, where it is the

only common lowland oriole (Smythies 1999). Eleven birds were

recorded during 13-26 September.

60

J. C. EAMES

Forktail 21 (2005)

Green lora Aegithina viridissima

A common resident species throughout the lowlands of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). Fifteen birds were recorded during 10-27

September.

Maroon-breasted Philentoma Philentoma velatum

Resident throughout the lowland forests of Borneo (Smythies 1999).

A pair was seen on transect 8 on 17 September and one was seen on

transect 11 on 21 September.

Grey-chested Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias umbratilis

Resident throughout the lowlands of Borneo in primary and

disturbed forest (Smythies 1999). Six were recorded during 9-18

September.

Chestnut-naped Forktail Enicurus ruficapillus

Resident throughout lowland Borneo (Smythies 1999). One was

seen briefly along a stream in Block A on 21 September. Two were

seen on transect 12 on 23 September.

Black-and-white Bulbul Pycnonotus melanoleucos

Resident throughout the lowland mixed dipterocarp forest of Borneo

and in secondary forest (Smythies 1999). Around 18 birds were

recorded during 12-26 September.

Scaly-breasted Bulbul Pycnonotus squamatus

A rather rare submontane resident of primary forest (Smythies

1999). Singles were seen along transect 6 on 14 September and on

transect 7 on 14 and 15 September.

Puff-backed Bulbul Pycnonotus eutilotus

Sparsely distributed and resident in mixed dipterocarp forest up to

600 m throughout Borneo (Smythies 1999). At least eight were

recorded during 11-23 September.

Buff-vented Bulbul Iole olivacea

Resident in the lowlands of Borneo (Smythies 1999). At least ten

were recorded during 14-27 September.

Streaked Bulbul Ixos malaccensis

Resident in the lowlands of Borneo in primary and secondary forest,

and generally scarce (Smythies 1999). One was seen near Camp C

on 16 September.

White-chested Babbler Trichastoma rostratum

Resident and locally common throughout the lowland mixed dipte¬

rocarp forests of Borneo (Smythies 1999). Recorded daily during

19-23 September.

Short-tailed Babbler Malacocincla malaccensis

Resident and locally common throughout the lowlands of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). Eight were recorded during 12-23 September.

Sooty-capped Babbler Malacopteron affine

A common resident in the lowland forest throughout Borneo from

sea-level to about 550 m (Smythies 1999). Recorded on 13 dates

during 8-27 September.

Rufous-crowned Babbler Malacopteron magnum

A common resident in the lowland forest throughout Borneo from

sea-level to about 600 m (Smythies 1999). Recorded on ten dates

during 10-26 September.

Striped Wren Babbler Kenopia striata

Distributed throughout the lowland forests of Borneo (Smythies

1999). Two were seen on transect 12 on 23 September.

Chestnut-rumped Babbler Stachyris maculata

Resident throughout the mixed dipterocarp forests of Borneo

(Smythies 1999). Ten were recorded during 8-27 September.

Fluffy-backed Tit Babbler Macronous ptilosus

Resident throughout Borneo in the lowlands (Smythies 1999).

Foutrteen were recorded during 10-26 September.

Brown Fulvetta Alcippe brunneicauda

Resident in primary forest throughout Borneo in the lowlands from

nearly sea-level to 1,200 m (Smythies 1999). Recorded on ten dates

during 9-26 September.

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 61-78

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste

(East Timor): status and distribution from surveys

in August 2002-December 2004

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Field surveys were carried out in 2002-2004 to assess the status, distribution and seasonality of waterbirds

and coastal seabirds in Timor-Leste. A total of 3,653 records of 82 waterbird and coastal seabirds were

collected during 446 visits to 74 wetland sites. Ten species new to Timor island were recorded: Green

Pygmy-goose Nettapus pulchellus , Hardhead Aythya australis , Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca, Spotless

Crake Porzana tabuensis (first Wallacean record since 1899), Common Coot Fulica atra, Greater Painted-

snipe Rostratula benghalensis, Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus (second record for Wallacea), Pectoral

Sandpiper Calidris melanotos (first record for Wallacea), Common Tern Sterna hirundo and Black-crowned

Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax. Significant populations of three Near Threatened species were recorded:

Beach Thick-knee Esacus neglectus, Malaysian Plover Charadrius peronii and Darter Anhinga melanogaster.

Three wetlands are highlighted for their importance: (1) Lake Iralalara (c. 1,500 ha) is the most significant

freshwater site in Timor-Leste and Nusa Tenggara, supporting at least 50 waterbird species including large

populations of ducks and rails. It is an important staging site for Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldivarum

(c. 3,000 recorded in November 2004); (2) Tasitolu is a site of high national biodiversity significance with

53 waterbird and coastal seabird species recorded from its saline lakes and mudflats; (3) Kupang Bay in

West Timor is the most significant site for migratory waders in Nusa Tenggara. Regular monitoring of key

sites and further fieldwork are needed, especially along the south coast (Covalima, Manufahi and Manatuto

districts).

INTRODUCTION

Timor island comprises two nations. The western half

is Indonesian, with Kupang in the far south-west being

the provincial capital of the East Nusa Tenggara

province. The eastern half is the new nation of Timor-

Leste (East Timor), which gained independence in

2002. Timor is the second largest island in Wallacea,

with an area of c. 3 1,000 km2. Timor-Leste covers

c. 14,604 km2 including the Oecussi enclave, Atauro

island (150 km2) and Jaco island (8 km2).

The status and distribution of waterbirds on Timor

are poorly known because historical collections (e.g.

Mayr 1944) and recent field surveys (e.g. Noske and

Saleh 1996, Lesmana et al. 2000) have concentrated

on the endemic and threatened forest birds. Some

recent information has come from fieldwork in the

former Portuguese-controlled Timor (now Timor-

Leste) by McKean et al. (1975) and Thompson et al.

(1976), and in West Timor by Andrew (1986) and

Johnstone (1994; see Table 1), but considerable gaps in

our knowledge remain. Timor is on the East Asian

flyway for migratory shorebirds, lying on the migration

path for birds migrating south to Australia, and is

visited during the non-breeding season by various

Palearctic species during August-May (Asia-Pacific

Migratory Waterbird Conservation Committee 2001).

Northern Australia lies 650-1,000 km to the south of

Timor and is an important wintering area for tens of

thousands of Palearctic migrants (Chatto 2003, Barrett

et al. 2003). Most migrants overfly Wallacea andTimor,

but for some the area is significant for staging, feeding

and resting, with the sandflat, mudflat and fishpond

wetlands of Kupang Bay providing important habitat

(Johnstone 1994, Coates and Bishop 1997). In

addition, some Australian migrant shorebirds and

terns winter on Timor during May-December, and

some Australo-Papuan and Oriental waterbirds breed

on Timor or occur as regular visitors or vagrants

(Coates and Bishop 1997).

Timor-Leste is currently developing strategies to

audit and manage its biodiversity resources. This

includes plans to evaluate and accede, where appropri¬

ate, to relevant international treaties and conventions,

including those covering wetland and waterbird

management and conservation (e.g. the Ramsar

Convention). All bird species are currently protected

under regulation 2000/19 (UNTAET 2000). The

oceanic islands of Nusa Tenggara are not renowned for

their wetlands, but recent surveys have identified

numerous, mostly small, freshwater and saline lakes,

river estuaries, beaches and reefs in Timor-Leste.

I carried out surveys for BirdLife International

during August 2002 to December 2004, concentrating

on forest habitats, but also in various wetland habitats

on ‘mainland’ Timor-Leste, the islands of Atauro and

Jaco and a brief survey of Kupang Bay. This paper

provides a summary of the status and distribution of

waterbirds in Timor-Leste based on these field surveys

and a synthesis of the literature covering Timor

(including West Timor, Roti and Sabu) and Wallacea. A

sister paper reviews the status of globally threatened

and restricted-range birds (Trainor and Mauro in

prep.).

METHODS

Waterbirds were recorded in Timor-Leste during six

field visits totalling 60 weeks over a 29 month period:

62

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

28 July to 23 August 2002, 22 January to 17 May 2003,

25 July to 5 August 2003, 23 October 2003 to 20

January 2004, 20 February to 8 June 2004 and 1

September to 8 December 2004. Wetlands at Kupang

Bay (10°05'S 123°45'E), West Timor, were visited on

10-12 June 2004. Lakes, mudflats, exposed reefs,

beaches and rivers were surveyed throughout Timor-

Leste, particularly along the accessible north coast and

the far east of the island (Lautem district).

Opportunistic observations from roadsides of

ricefields, streams and beaches were also documented

and these localities have also been called ‘wetland

sites’. A list of all sites, their location, estimated area,

elevation and number of occasions surveyed is given in

Appendix 2. Most wetlands were small or very small.

Only one — Lake Iralalara — was greater than 1 0 km2; 1 3

sites were larger than 1 km2 and 63 sites were smaller

than 50 ha (Appendix 2).

Birds were observed with 8x32 binoculars and

identified with the direct aid of a field guide where

necessary (Coates and Bishop 1997). Observations of

presence, number of individuals, habitat type, ecology

including breeding activity, altitude (measured with a

Suunto wristwatch to the nearest 10 m), location

(latitude and longitude measured with a Garmin global

positioning system [GPS]; specific site; village and

district name) and date were written in a notebook, or

stored on GPS. Each bird record was assigned a

‘precise location name’ associated with a GPS reading.

These were then lumped into geographically

‘independent sites’ which included all precise locations

within an area with a radius of 2-3 km. For one larger

wetland (Lake Iralalara; at least 1 5 km2) the entire area

was defined as one site although many precise locali¬

ties, including the Irasequiro river, were surveyed

within it.

IUCN Red List status follows BirdLife

International (2004). Geographic localities have not

yet been standardised in Timor-Leste (with combina¬

tions of local, Indonesian, Portuguese and Tetun

language names). I have either followed the Indonesian

Peta Ruppabumi 1:25,000 maps, or used the nearest

village name to the wetland type (e.g. Los Palos

Swamp), or used the village name with local site names

(collected from local people who wrote them in a

notebook). Lake Laga was called Salina (or erroneously

Saltina) de Laga, and Lake Iralalara was called Los

Palos Lake or Swamp by McKean et al. (1975) and

Thompson et al. (1976).

The residence status of species was assessed by

synthesising information on: (1) the seasonal frequency

of survey records; (2) records in the literature; and (3)

new or historical information on breeding (including

information from local people). Migrants were

categorised as ‘wintering’ if they were recorded over

periods of weeks or months (during August-May for

Palearctic migrants and May-December for Australian

migrants), ‘transient’ if they were recorded (generally

in tight flocks) on a few occasions for periods of one

Figure 1. Map of study sites in Timor-Leste. Numbers refer to sites listed in Appendix 2.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

63

Table 1. Summary of literature on waterbirds on Timor, including estimated field effort for primary surveys (n/a= not applicable).

Reference

Notes

Field effort

Mayr (1944)

McKean et al. (1975),

Thompson et al. (1976)

Mees (1976)

Andrew (1986)

White and Bruce (1986)

Holmes (1993)

Johnstone (1994)

Johnstone and Jepson (1996)

Noske and Ueda (1996)

Verbelen (1996)

Coates and Bishop (1997)

Grantham (2000a)

Trainor and Soares (2004)

Olsen and Trainor (2005)

Trainor (2005)

Annotated bird list describing Stem’s 1931-1932 records in West and East Timor

List of waterbirds and other species recorded in East Timor (in 1973-1975)

Clarification of the status of several records of McKean et al. (1975)

Summary of significant bird records mostly from Kupang Bay, West Timor

Summary and annotated list of birds ofWallacea including Timor

Unpublished annotated list of bird records from the Lasiana beach area of

Kupang Bay

Summary of seabird and shorebird records from NusaTenggara and Maluku

including Merah island off Semau island, and Kera island in Kupang Bay

Review of birds on Roti, off south-west Timor

First Cmnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus record for Timor

Summary of observations at Kupang Bay, West Timor, during 6-8 October 1995

Synthesis of information on status and habitat use of waterbirds in Wallacean region

Record of Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus from Dili area

Summary of bird records from Atauro island

Description of the Red-capped Plover Charadrius ruficapillus nesting on Timor in 2003

Review of recent waterbird records from Roti island

22 weeks

c.45 days

n/a

10 weeks

n/a

c. 1 month over 2-year period

c.12 months over 7-year

period

17 days

n/a

3 days

n/a

n/a

1 2 days over 6-month period

c.10 days

8 days

day to several weeks, and ‘summering’ if recorded in

the month of June and July.

RESULTS

A total of 3,653 records of 82 waterbird and coastal

seabirds were collected during 446 visits to 74 wetland

sites on 293 field days. Ten waterbirds new to Timor

Table 2. The ten most common waterbird and coastal seabirds

recorded in Timor-Leste and the ten most common migrant waders

(denoted with *).

Species No. records

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos* 276

Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia* 173

Black- winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus 158

Red-capped Plover Charadrius ruficapillus 155

Lutle Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos 151

Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis 144

Little Black Cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris 136

Great Crested Tern Sterna bergii 128

Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis* 123

Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis * 118

Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus 114

Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva * 106

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola * 104

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus 101

Little Egret Egretta garzetta 100

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus* 93

Great Egret Casmerodius albus 92

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata* 77

Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis* 52

Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes * 51

island were recorded: Green Pygmy-goose Nettapus

pulchellus , Hardhead Aythya australis , Ruddy-breasted

Crake Porzana fusca, Spotless Crake Porzana tabuensis,

Common Coot Fulica atm, Greater Painted-snipe

Rostratula benghalensis. Spotted Redshank Tringa

erythropus , Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos.

Common Tern Sterna hirundo and Black-crowned

Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax. Three Near

Threatened species were recorded (Beach Thick-knee

Esacus neglectus , Malaysian Plover Charadrius peronii

and Darter Anhinga melanogaster) . The most

widespread and common birds are listed in Table 2.

The annotated list documents all waterbirds

recorded during the 2002-2004 surveys, summarising

their distribution, seasonality (months and extreme

dates) and breeding. Appendix 1 lists all species and

provides a summary of residence status, abundance,

habitat use and sites.

Wandering Whistling-duck Dendrocygna arcuata

This species is a locally common breeding resident on

freshwater lakes and swamps throughout Timor-Leste.

It was mostly observed as pairs and small parties, but

at least 120 individuals were seen on Lake Iralalara and

60 on Lake Seloi (both in December 2003). A pair with

eight chicks was recorded on Lake Eraulo on 28

February 2004.

Green Pygmy-goose Nettapus pulchellus

New island record. Green Pygmy Goose is a regular

visitor to Timor-Leste from Australia, with up to 35

birds at Lake Iralalara (October-November 2004,

mostly recorded in pairs and possibly breeds at this

site), one at Chaiperi swamp on 28 May 2004, and up

to two at Lake Farapata on 5 October 2004. The only

possible confusion species is Cotton Pygmy-goose N.

coromandelianus (which has not been recorded from

Nusa Tenggara); the birds were small and males had

the distinctive white cheek-patches diagnostic of Green

64

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

Pygmy Goose. There have been fewWallacean records

of this species (Coates and Bishop 1997).

Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa

A locally common to abundant resident and visitor of

freshwater lakes and rivers, this species was mostly

observed in small flocks of <50 individuals. In the 2003

dry season, some of the largest congregations recorded

in Wallacea were observed: 1,000-1,740 birds at Lake

Iralalara on 15 November-11 December 2003, 270

birds at Lake Eraulo on 5 November 2003, and 200

birds at Lake Seloi on 27 November 2003. One adult

with five juveniles was observed at Lake Seloi on 28

February 2004. Johnstone and Jepson (1996) reported

120 birds on Roti in September 1993.

Sunda Teal Allas gibberifrons

This is a common species in Timor-Leste, with up to

400 birds recorded on saline lakes, beaches, exposed

reefs, mangrove-lined mudflats, and, rarely, freshwater

lakes. It is presumably a breeding resident on Timor.

Garganey Anas querquedula

On 29 February and 26 March 2004, two females or

eclipse males (presumably the same individuals on

both dates) were seen at Lake Laga. The only previous

Timor record was of a male in eclipse plumage at Secal

on 25 October 1973 (McKean et al. 1975). Garganey is

a rare Palearctic visitor to Timor and Nusa Tenggara

(Coates and Bishop 1997).

Hardhead Aythya australis

New island record. This species is a regular visitor

throughout the year to Timor, usually in small numbers

at shallow saline and inland freshwater lakes, e.g. Lake

Iralalara (four birds on 4 March 2003, 3-20 birds in

October 2004, c.100 birds on 30 November 2004),

Lake Laga (three on 2-4 April 2003), Tasitolu (one

male on 14 April 2003), and Lake Veihoorana (five

males on 1 5 January 2004). These birds were identified

by their large size (similar to Pacific Black Duck),

uniform dark brown to blackish appearance, and white

iris (in males) which was visible when observed with

binoculars from less than c.50 m. In flight, the broad

white band along the length of the upperwing was

distinctive and allowed this species to be distinguished

in large mixed-species duck flocks (usually including

Pacific Black Duck and Wandering Whistling Duck).

Coates and Bishop (1997) noted three records of single

males in Wallacea; in addition, two small groups were

recently reported from Lombok (Grantham 2000b),

and there are recent records on Flores: ten birds at

Tiwu Bowu lake in August-September 1998 and

October 2002 (R. Drijvers verbally 1998, M.

Schellekens verbally 2003).

Buff-banded Rail Gallirallus philippensis

This species was widespread and common on the

Fuiloro plateau, but it remains poorly known

elsewhere. One was recorded at Tasitolu on 3

December 2004.

White-breasted Waterhen Amaurornis phoenicurus

This species is a locally common breeding resident at

springs, freshwater lakes and wet grassland, particularly

in Lautem district. It was usually observed as singles or

pairs, but six birds were recorded at a Baucau spring on

24 November 2003.

Ruddy-breasted Crake Porzana fusca

New island record. A single was video-recorded at Lake

Iralalara on 10 October 2004; one was captured by

dogs at Ili Lapa on 17 October 2004 (the specimen will

be lodged with the Australian Museum), and two birds

were observed at nearby O’Swamp on 23 October

2004. No similar-looking rails are currently known

from Timor island, and the extensive video footage (10

minutes) and specimen enabled confirmation of the

identification by direct reference to Coates and Bishop

(1997). There are few records from Nusa Tenggara,

where this bird is otherwise known only from Flores

and Sumba (Coates and Bishop 1997).

Spotless Crake Porzana tabuensis

New island record. One bird was flushed from wet

grass and killed by young men with sticks (a regular

technique to hunt quail) at Lake Veihoorana on 15

January 2004. The specimen was taken to Australia

with the intention of submitting to a museum, but was

unfortunately destroyed by customs. One to three birds

were regularly observed (and video-recorded) at

O’Swamp in October-December 2004. The birds were

very small (smaller than Ruddy-breasted Crake, which

was seen together with Spotless Crake on one

occasion), with reddish legs, black bill and white bars

on the under tail-coverts. Birds were heard to give blup

or blip calls, which sounded like water dropping into a

basin. These are the first records since 1899 in

Wallacea, where it is otherwise known only from Tiur

island, Maluku (Coates and Bishop 1997).

White-browed Crake Porzana cinerea

White-browed Crake was locally common in Lautem

district, especially at Lake Iralalara, but probably more

widely. Two birds were seen at a Dili spring on 1 2 May

2004. Stein also collected five birds from the Dili area

(Mayr 1944); Verbelen (1996) observed one at Kupang

Bay, and Thompson et al. (1976) had a possible record

from Lake Iralalara.

Purple Swamphen Porphyria porphyrio

This species was locally common at Lake Iralalara (2 1

birds were counted in a small section of the lake, and

an estimated 100-200 birds were present), but it was

recorded at just two other sites: Lake Modo Mahut and

O’Swamp.

Dusky Moorhen Gallinula tenebrosa

This species was locally common at Lake Modo Mahut

and Lake Iralalara (where up to seven individuals were

regularly observed). Immatures were recorded along

the Irasequiro river in December 2003 and October

2004. Verbelen (1996) noted two birds at Kupang Bay.

Common Coot Fulica atra

New island record. This species was recorded at three

wetlands: Lake Eraulo (ten birds on 5 February 2003,

37 birds on 5 November 2003, none on 28 February

2004, and four birds on 19 October 2004), Lake Modo

Mahut (six birds on 13 March 2003) and Lake Seloi

Forktail 2 1 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

65

(at least 20 birds on 26 July, two on 27 November, ten

on 17 December 2003, two on 28 February 2004 and

eight on 15 September 2004). The white bill and

frontal shield of this otherwise all-black bird was

diagnostic; birds at Lake Eraulo were observed from as

close as 1 5 m and photographed to confirm identifica¬

tion. This bird was considered a ‘rare vagrant to

Wallacea’ by Coates and Bishop (1997), but it is

probably a regular visitor to Timor, with local people

suggesting that it breeds locally.

Swinhoe’s Snipe Gallinago megala

This species was locally abundant at O’Swamp and

Lake Iralalara, where up to 40 birds per hour could be

flushed. This species winters in significant numbers in

Timor-Leste, especially on the Fuiloro plateau, but it

was scarce in apparently suitable habitat at other sites.

All snipe were assumed to be this species. Trapping or

specimen collection would be needed to confirm the

presence of Pintail Snipe G. stenura or other snipe

species which have yet to be recorded from Timor.

Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa

This migrant is an uncommon or rare transient with six

records of 1-35 individuals in September-December

and February. Andrew (1986) recorded 188 on 30

September 1985 at Kupang Bay, where it is a common

winter visitor. Black-tailed Godwit was unrecorded by

Johnstone (1994), but it is a common winter migrant to

Australia (Barrett et al. 2003).

Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica

This species is an uncommon transient in small

numbers (1-6 individuals) on saline lakes, mudflats

and aquaculture ponds during August-April. McKean

et al. (1975) reported four birds at Secal, and Johnstone

(1994) recorded 16 at Panite, West Timor.

Little Curlew Numenius minutus

This Australian winter migrant was a rare brief

transient on Timor, with only a few records at Lake

Iralalara (six birds on 11 December 2003), Tasitolu (a

single bird on 7 February 2003, and four on 9 May

2003; presumably these birds were returning north),

and Lake Laga (two on 29 February 2004). Previous

published records are from September to November

and in mid-April (Coates and Bishop 1997). The first

Timor record was of 12 birds at Secal on 28 October

1973 (McKean et al. (1975). Mauro (1999) recorded

16-40 birds at Kai Kecil on 20-21 October 1998; these

birds were presumably staging. Verbelen (1996)

recorded seven birds at Kupang Bay, and Johnstone

(1994) reported an April record from Selaru island

(Tanimbar).

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus

This species is a common winter visitor and an

uncommon transient, mostly recorded as singles or

small loose parties of 1-15 birds in August-May.

Larger flocks, presumably representing birds on return

from Australia, included 22 and 1 1 birds at Vero river

estuary on 25 March 2003 and 65 birds at Tasitolu on

7 May 2003. A total of 19 birds were observed at

Kupang Bay on 10-12 June 2004, and Verbelen (1996)

reported 20 at Kupang Bay.

Eastern Curlew Numenius madagascariensis

This migrant was a regular winter visitor on larger

expanses of mudflats and estuaries in August-June, and

occurred as a transient in small numbers (1-26 birds)

on beaches and saline lakes. Ten birds at Kupang Bay

on 12 June 2004 represents the latest record for

Wallacea. It was not recorded by Johnstone (1994).

Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus

New island record. At least three birds were video-

recorded at Tasitolu on 5 September (when overlooked

as Common Redshank Tringa totanus ) and were subse¬

quently confirmed as Spotted Redshank (by M.

Schellekens, A. Vrielink and M. Carter verbally 2005).

The footage shows a tall, red-legged shank (10-15%

shorter than Common Greenshank T. nebularia in

direct comparison); the upper body was grey-brown,

indicating a bird in winter plumage. The well-devel¬

oped supercilium, clean white underparts, long-legged

appearance and long (about 140% of head length) fine-

tipped and slightly curved bill exclude the

similar-looking Common Redshank. The birds fed at

the muddy shore with a broad sweeping action similar

to Royal Spoonbill. Ten redshanks were present on this

date and up to six remained in the following two weeks,

but it is not known whether the other birds were

Common or Spotted Redshanks (Common Redshank

had not previously been observed at this section of

Lake Tasitolu). Spotted Redshank is a Palearctic

migrant which usually winters in Africa through to

continental South-East Asia (Hayman et al. 1986). It is

apparently rare in Wallacea or is possibly overlooked.

This is the second record for Wallacea following a

record of one bird on 31 August on Sangihe island

(Riley 1997). The first record for the Philippines was in

February 1987 (Hornskov 1995), and there are very

few records for Australia (Carter and Sudbury 1993).

Spotted Redshank might occur regularly on Timor, and

should be looked for especially in the period of south¬

ward migration.

Common Redshank Tringa totanus

This species was generally uncommon in small

numbers on mangrove-backed mudflats, with a total of

43 records. The largest group was of 27 birds at Lake

Laga on 29 February. At least 20 birds were reported

from Secal on 28 October 1973 (McKean et al. 1975),

with additional records from Lasiana beach on 20

October 1993 (Holmes 1993), and two at Kupang Bay

(Verbelen 1996). This species occurs on Timor during

passage and when wintering from September to mid-

April.

Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis

This migrant was a common winter visitor, especially

on shallow saline lakes during July-May, but published

dates range from September to April (Coates and

Bishop 1997). Tasitolu was used for staging by small

groups on their northward migration, with 64 birds

recorded on 26 February 2004, 58 on 2 March 2004

and 59 on 5 April 2004.

Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia

This species is a common winter (and probably

summer) visitor and occasional transient. The increas-

66

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

ing number of birds at Lake Laga in April, and at

Tasitolu in March-April (e.g. 66 birds on 31 March

and 156 on 16 April 2003) suggests that these locations

are used as staging sites by birds returning northwards

from Australia. Eighteen birds were observed at

Kupang Bay on 10-12 June 2004, suggesting that small

numbers summer on Timor.

Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola

This species was a regular winter migrant and

occasional transient in small loose parties or moderate¬

sized groups on freshwater and saline lakes and

mudflats. The flock of 40 birds present at Lake Seloi on

17 December 2003 was presumably a group of

transients. Small numbers of birds staged at Tasitolu

prior to their return migration, with one present on 28

November 2003, 72 birds on 26 February, 51 on 31

March and one on 10 April 2004. Verbelen (1996)

reported ‘hundreds’ from Kupang Bay.

Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus

This species was an irregular visitor to Timor-Leste

with records of 1-8 birds from 12 September to 9

November 2004 during the period of southward migra¬

tion. McKean et al. (1975) noted 1-20 birds at Secal

on 24-28 October 1973 and Holmes (1993) observed

seven birds at Lasiana beach on 9 July 1993.

Additionally, three single birds were observed at

Kupang Bay, 10-12 June 2004. Terek Sandpipers

winter in Australia in large numbers with some birds

summering (Barrett et al. 2003).

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos

This common and widespread migrant occurred on

beaches, estuaries, inland rivers and lakes during

July-May, usually as singles and small loose parties of

up to 15 birds.

Grey-tailed Tattler Heteroscelus brevipes

This species was a widespread and regular winter

visitor, generally occurring in small parties of 1-20

birds except at mangrove-backed mudflats or estuaries

where up to 50 birds were occasionally recorded.

Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria inter pres

This migrant is generally a rare transient in the Timor

region, with just live records of 1-8 birds from 17

August to 23 March. Most birds undoubtedly overfly

Timor while on route to wintering grounds in

Australia. The first Timor records were two birds at

Secal on 28 October 1973 and four at Waitala on 26

November 1973 (McKean er al. 1975). There are few

other records: Holmes (1993) recorded the species

regularly in small numbers at Lasiana beach, Johnstone

(1994) saw three birds on 7 April 1991 at Kera island,

and Johnstone and Jepson (1996) recorded the species

on Roti island during 7-16 October 1990.

Great Knot Calidris tenuirostris

This wader is a rare transient and occasional short¬

term visitor in the Timor region, with the possible

exception of Kupang Bay, where a record of 13 birds

on 10 June 2004 (the latest record for Wallacea)

suggests summering. Records spanned

September-December and were from Dili foreshore

(one on 31 October to 4 November 2003), Manututo

mudflats (two on 19 September 2004), Secal (one on

19 September 2004), Tasitolu (one on 12 November to

16 December), Raumoko river (one on 1 1 October

2004), Tasitolu (Dili sewerage works: one on 1

November), and Lake Iralalara (one on 15 November).

The first Timor records were of 1-4 birds at Secal on

24-28 October 1973 (McKean et al. 1975). Great Knot

was unrecorded by Johnstone (1994). Flocks of

5,000-10,000 birds winter in northern Australia

(Chatto 2003).

Red Knot Calidris canutus

This species is a rare transient in the region, with a

single bird video-recorded at Tasitolu on 24 September

2004. Andrew (1986) reported at least 18 birds at

Kupang Bay on 5 September. There are very few

Wallacean records (Coates and Bishop 1997, R

Benstead inTrainor et al. in press), but many thousands

winter in northern Australia (Barrett et al. 2003,

Chatto 2003).

Sanderling Calidris alba

This species was uncommon in the Timor region. Most

records were of singles, but a flock of 56 birds was seen

at the Loes estuary on 5 December 2004. The first

Timor record was of a single bird at Kupang Bay on 24

September 1985 (Andrew 1986). Sanderling winters

regularly in Australia but it is uncommon, with an

estimated wintering population of 8,000 birds (Chatto

2003).

Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis

Red-necked Stint is a common migrant that winters in

small to moderately large flocks from August to May.

The largest flocks were of 190 birds at Lake Laga on 14

November 2003, 215 birds at Tasitolu on 29 December

2003, and 150 birds at Tasitolu on 2 January 2004. An

estimated 400 birds were present on 10-12 June 2004

at Kupang Bay, where this species probably summers

in small numbers. The species is a very common winter

visitor in Australia (Chatto 2003).

Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta

This species was a generally uncommon winter migrant

to Timor-Leste. Singles and groups of up to five birds

were occasionally Hushed from the muddy margins of

Lake Iralalara, Lake Eraulo and O’Swamp, and

hundreds of birds probably winter on the Fuiloro

plateau. Forty-five birds were recorded in shallow

marshland and flooded ricefields at Secal on 19

September 2004. Verbelen (1996) recorded several at

Kupang Bay. The species is a rare winter visitor to

Australia (Chatto 2003, Barrett et al. 2003).

Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos

New island record. A single Pectoral Sandpiper was

video-recorded on the muddy shore of Lake Laga at

12hl5-13hl5 on 28 November 2004, feeding together

with nine Sharp-tailed Sandpipers C. acuminata ,

Common Greenshank and Marsh Sandpiper. The bird

was initially thought to be a Ruff Philomachus pugnax.

No description was taken at the time, but 14 minutes

of video-recordings were made in overcast conditions,

on which the following description is based. The bird

Forktail 21 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

67

was subsequently re-identified as Pectoral Sandpiper

by N. McCrie (verbally 2005). The most likely confu¬

sion species is Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. The bird was a

little larger and longer-necked than Sharp-tailed

Sandpiper and stood 1-2 cm taller. When alarmed, it

stood erect with its neck at full stretch and was c.5 cm

taller than Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. The crown, back

and wings were light brown-grey, and this was a little

lighter than on Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. The secondar¬

ies and primaries had darker centres, but these were

significantly less contrasting than in Sharp-tailed

Sandpiper (and indicated non-breeding plumage). The

bill was light yellow near the base and grey towards the

tip (visible only in close-ups), in contrast to the grey

bill of Sharp-tailed Sandpiper. It was slightly decurved

and about the same as the head length (and therefore

similar to Sharp-tailed Sandpiper). The legs were light

grey, rather than greenish as in Sharp-tailed Sandpiper.

The sharp boundary between the brown-streaked chest

and the white belly was the most prominent feature

distinguishing it from Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, in which

the brown-grey streaks on the chest continued down to

the belly, with no clear border. The supercilium was

well-developed but was thicker in front of the eye,

rather than behind the eye in Sharp-tailed Sandpiper

(and this was noticeable from distances of less than 20

m). Both species pecked and probed in shallow water

and mud at the lakes edge, but Sharp-tailed Sandpiper

occasionally fed in shallow water up to the upper tibia.

No sandpipers or shanks were present at Lake Laga on

2 December 2004. This is the first record forWallacea;

the species usually winters in South America and is a

rare vagrant to South and South-East Asia (Hayman et

al. 1986, Undeland and Sangha 2002) and is an

uncommon but widespread winter migrant to Australia

(Barrett et al. 2003).

Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata

This migrant is a regular winter visitor, probable

summer visitor, and transient on Timor with up to 25

birds recorded on mudflats and the edges of saline and

freshwater lakes. Six birds were present at Kupang Bay

on 10 June 2004. Previously published Wallacean

records are from August-November, with one in April

(Coates and Bishop 1997), but records in Timor now

span all months.

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris f err uginea

This species was an uncommon and irregular transient

to Timor-Leste, with the first records comprising 1-4

birds on 1-23 September 2004. At Kupang Bay, it is

apparently common with 180 birds counted (and a

total of 450 birds estimated) on 30 September 1985

(Andrew 1996). Twenty-eight birds were recorded at

Kupang Bay fishponds on 12 June 2004. Two were

observed at Lasiana beach on 5 December 1991

(Holmes 1993). This species is a regular winter migrant

to Australia (Barrett et al. 2003).

Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus

This shorebird is a rare migrant to the Timor area, with

a single record of 16 birds atTasitolu on 2 March 2003.

The first Timor record was a single at Secal on 28

October 1973 (McKean et al. 1975), and Johnstone

(1994) recorded two at Panite on 26 October 1990.

White (1975) only listed two Wallacean records. This

species is rare in Australia, with an estimated 8,000

birds wintering (Barrett et al. 2003, Chatto 2003).

Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus

This species is common winter migrant to waters off

Timor: a total of 897 birds were observed between Dili

and Atauro island during a number of trips (Trainor

and Soares 2004). Flocks of 5,000-10,000 individuals

have been noted between nearby Pantar and Alor

islands (Johnstone 1994).

Greater Painted-snipe Rostratula benghalensis

New island record. A female was flushed at Lake

Iralalara on 15 November 2003, and a single unsexed

bird was flushed at Bauro (Lake Ira Arapho) on 1 5

January 2004. Up to 30 birds of both sexes were

flushed from 2 ha of marshland during a morning and

afternoon visit to O’Swamp on 29 October 2004 (the

day after the first rains of the 2004-2005 wet season).

Birds were first noticed after several were flushed by a

young man with a dog. I entered the swamp near the

path of the young hunter and slowly walked through

knee-high mud and water. In this section of swamp,

birds were flushed as singles and loose groups of up to

ten birds. They typically flew 20-50 m, often flying in

an arc initially away and then turning and landing in

front of me. This allowed repeated but brief observa¬

tions of males and females showing the distinctive

white eye-ring and white streak behind the eye on a

rufous or greyish head, and the white ‘harness’ between

the grey-brown wing and shoulder. These features

clearly identified the birds as Greater Painted-snipe.

On the same day and the following week I spent about

two hours attempting to video-record the species, but

was unsuccessful and never saw birds before they

flushed (sometimes as close as 2-3 m). Birds were

silent when flushed, in contrast to Swinhoe’s Snipe

which almost always gave an etch or eck call. This incon¬

spicuous species has been overlooked on Timor but it

is presumably a widespread breeding species on the

Fuiloro plateau. Breeding in the region has been

documented only on Flores, but there are also records

from Lombok and Sumbawa (Verheijen 1964, Coates

and Bishop 1997). This is the most south-eastern

population of Greater Painted-snipe because the

Australian population is now considered a separate

species (Lane and Rogers 2000, D. Rogers verbally

2005).

Comb-crested Jacana Irediparra gallinacea

This species was locally common at Lake Modo Mahut

and Lake Iralalara, where up to 20 birds were recorded

and c.100 birds estimated on waterlily-lined wetlands.

Four juveniles were noted at Iralalara on 12 December

2003. There are few records of Comb-crested Jacana in

NusaTenggara (Coates and Bishop 1997).

Beach Thick-knee Esacus neglectus

Near Threatened. This species was relatively common,

with records from nine sites mostly in the extreme far

east: Secal (a pair), Ochalafai (a single), Valu Beach (a

pair and a single), Helapuna Beach (a pair), Uatu Lari

68

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

(a single), Vero (a pair), Lore (a pair) and nearby

Namulutu River Estuary (a pair). Beach Thick-knee

occurs as a resident at low population densities, but

significant populations remain on Timor-Leste. This

species probably prefers remoter and less-visited

beaches, but the records at Secal indicates that it can

tolerate areas used heavily by local communities.

McKean et al. (1975) reported four birds on Jaco island

in October 1973, but none was recorded during four

visits in 2002-2003. Johnstone (1994) recorded four

birds on Merah island.

Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

This species was locally common to abundant at the

margins of shallow saline and freshwater lakes,

mudflats and estuaries, with records from all months. It

is probably a breeding resident: two immatures were

recorded at Kupang Bay on 12 June 2004, where

Verbelen (1996) had previously observed juveniles. At

Tasitolu, numbers increased from 110 birds on 5 April

to 338 on 1 1 May 2003; 129 were recorded at Lake

Seloi on 27 November 2003 and 200 were seen at Lake

Seloi on 17 December 2003. The rapid rise and fall of

numbers may indicate that Black-winged Stilts use

these sites for staging on their way to Australia or other

areas.

Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva

This shorebird was a regular on passage and in winter,

and was generally recorded in small numbers at coastal

wetlands and inland lakes. The largest group recorded

was of 52 birds at Lake Eraulo on 5 November 2003.

Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola

This species was less common than Pacific Golden

Plover and it was generally recorded as singles or a

small parties along beaches. About 100 individuals

were present on short grass on the floodplain at Lake

Iralalara on 13 December 2003.

Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius

This plover was a regular but uncommon visitor to

Timor, with seven records at Loes estuary (one on 18

September and probably the same bird on 25

September 2004), Manatuto (one on 14 December),

Tasitolu (two on 20 December 2004, one on 17 May

2004, and three on 6 December 2004) and Lore (two

groups of three on 3 April 2003). The first Timor

records were of twos and threes at Secal and Lake Laga

on 24-28 October 1973 (McKean et al. 1975). This

species was unrecorded by Johnstone (1994). It occurs

relatively frequently in NusaTenggara (personal obser¬

vations), but it is a rare visitor to nearby Australia

(Barrett 2003, Chatto 2003).

Red-capped Plover Charadrius ruficapillus

This species is a locally common breeding resident on

mudflats associated with saline lakes and aquaculture

ponds, with nests noted at Tasitolu in 2003 (Olsen and

Trainor 2005) and 2004. A pair was observed mating at

Taitolu on 13 May 2004; one young chick was noted on

17 May 2004, and a nest with one egg was

photographed and an immature bird were seen on 4

June 2004. Another fledgling was observed at Secal on

30 April 2004. A nest with two eggs was photographed

at Kupang Bay on 10 June 2004. This nest was

protected by the peeled bark of a log beside a dry

fishpond. Groups of up to 66 individuals were regularly

observed, and 240-300 birds were recorded at Tasitolu

on 31 December 2003 to 4 January 2004. At Kupang

Bay, 217 birds were counted in c.800 ha of mudflats on

10-12 June 2004. Just six previous Wallacean records

were listed by Coates and Bishop (1997). In addition,

Verbelen (1996) noted at least ten at Kupang Bay.

Previous authors have considered this species to be an

Australian winter migrant or vagrant (Mayr 1944,

Johnstone 1994, Coates and Bishop 1997).

Malaysian Plover Charadrius peronii

Near Threatened. This plover is an uncommon but

widespread resident beach-dweller along the coast of

Timor-Leste, with records from 14 sites: Loes river

estuary (three pairs), Comoro estuary (two pairs),

Secal (two pairs and a single), Tua Koin (2-3 birds);

Atekru (a pair); Manatuto (a pair); Baucau beach (two

pairs), Com (1-3 birds), Irebere estuary (a pair); Laga

beach (a pair), Lore-Namulutu (a single and a pair),

Namulutu estuary (a single), Vero (three pairs), and

Waiara river estuary (one female). A pair was also

recorded at Kupang Bay on 12 June 2004.

Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus

This species was a regular but widespread migrant of

beaches, estuaries and mudflats, and it was probably

only present as a rapid transient on route to and from

Australia (in August-December and March- April).

Most records were of small parties, but 70 birds were

observed at Lake Laga on 14 November 2003. There

was one inland record at Lake Iralalara on 18

November 2004.

Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii

This species was an uncommon winter visitor, with

records from exposed reef, beaches, estuaries, mudflat

and short grass in September-April. It was typically

recorded in small parties of fewer than ten birds, but 40

were present at Lake Laga on 16 February 2003. There

are surprisingly few other records for the Timor region

(Thompson et al. 1976, Johnstone 1994).

Oriental Plover Charadrius veredus

This species occurs regularly on Timor during the

southward migration and probably stages at some sites

in small numbers. There were 34 records of 1-95 birds

from 23 September to 7 February at the edge of fresh¬

water lakes, swamps, saline lakes, and fallow ricefields.

Remarkably, there were more records of this species

than both Lesser and Greater Sand Plovers. At the

Assalaino pass (500 m), this species probably stages in

small numbers (to 100 birds) on karst shrubland. It

was regularly observed in central Dili at the former

United Nations heliport. Oriental Plover has been

regularly recorded at Kai Kecil: Mauro (1999)

reported up to five birds on 21 October 1998, and

Kuhn collected this species repeatedly (Hartert 1901,

White 1975). Johnstone (1994) recorded a single bird

at Sabu island on 29 September 1990. Oriental Plover

has been considered a rare transient in Wallacea

(Coates and Bishop 1997).

Forktail 21 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

69

Oriental Pratincole Glareola maldivarum

Small numbers of Oriental Pratincole were observed at

several sites in 2003, but in November 2004 large

numbers staged at Assalaino pass and Lake Iralalara,

before migrating to wintering grounds in Australia.

During 17-19 November, small to large groups

(3-1,500 birds) were observed at Lake Iralalara resting

in short grass, or feeding swallow-like over the flood-

plain and surrounding woodland in the late afternoon.

On 18 November, a flock of c. 1,500 birds was observed

at 12h30-13h30, feeding in compact groups, and

spiralling upwards in thermals. Groups of up to 500

birds were observed feeding over an area of about

5 km2 and resting on short grass amongst karst

limestone at Assalaino pass (500 m) in the late after¬

noon on 24 and 25 November. At dusk, groups were

observed flying towards Lake Iralalara (15 km to the

south-east) with other birds returning from that direc¬

tion. On 26 November, a group of about 1,000 birds

flew high (>1,000 m) and were then lost amongst

approaching storm clouds; other groups of 400-500

were observed later in the day. On 28 November, nine

birds were seen flying south-east at Raumoko (30 km

west of Assalaino pass) and 100 birds were observed

feeding low over fallow ricefields in Los Palos. Lake

Iralalara was visited again on 29 November, and

c. 2, 500-3, 000 birds were video-recorded as they flew

in compact groups and rode thermals at 13h00. The

following day no birds were present. It is likely that the

1,000 birds from Assalaino had joined the Lake

Iralalara group, and on 29 or 30 November they all

departed for their winter grounds. Other records

included 120 birds resting at the Loes river estuary on

1 1 November 2004, and c. 1 30 birds at O’Swamp on 1 6

November 2004. The last record was of one bird at

Tasitolu on 3 December 2004.

There are few Wallacean records of substantial

numbers: Hornbuckle (2001) saw 120 birds on Sumba

on 1 November 2001, and Verhoeye and Holmes

(1998) noted 85 birds on Flores on 3 December 1990.

The extensive grasslands of Sumba might also be used

for staging by Oriental Pratincole.

Australian Pratincole Stiltia Isabella

This species is a regular and widespread Australian

winter migrant, recorded in small numbers (1-20

birds) from 2 August to 21 November and on 2 May

2004 on fallow ricefields, braided stream channels and

fringing lakes. An estimated 1,500-2,500 birds were

present at Kupang Bay on 10-12 June 2004.

Thompson et al. (1976) reported c.30 at Secal on 19

May 1974, and Holmes (1993) indicated that they

were ‘very common’ in West Timor in July. Verbelen

(1996) noted at least 50 birds at Kupang Bay.

Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica

This species apparently occurs transiently in Timor-

Leste. The only records of this species were of 1-5 birds

at Tasitolu from 30 October to 26 November 2003, and

observations at several sites during 1 8 September to 1 1

October 2004. Andrew (1986) noted a maximum of 82

birds at Kupang Bay on 1 October 1985. McKean et al.

(1975) recorded two at Secal on 28 October 1973, and

Verbelen (1996) reported at least 20 from Kupang Bay.

Gull-billed Tern is an uncommon visitor during June to

November (particularly October-November), presum¬

ably from Australia.

Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalensis

This species was scarce but possibly overlooked, with

four records of 1-8 birds along Dili foreshore during

1-7 November 2003.

Great Crested Tern Sterna bergii

This tern was locally common around Dili but gener¬

ally scarce elsewhere (128 records from 14 sites).

Tasitolu was regularly used as a roost by 50-150 birds,

with a maximum of c.380 birds on 2 January 2004.

Little Tern Sterna albifrons

This species is an uncommon breeding visitor to

Timor-Leste. At Lake Laga, 25 birds including at least

six pairs were incubating eggs or feeding fish to chicks

on a small gravel islet on 2 August 2003; five adults and

one downy chick were present on 1 1 October 2004; six

adults and five chicks were seen on 23 October 2004;

and three juveniles were seen on 5 November 2004

(with no birds seen on 28 November or 2 December

2004). This species was also recorded (probably

breeding) at Loes river estuary on 25 September 2004.

Forty birds were present at Kupang Bay on 12 June

2004, with mating observed. McKean et al. (4 975)

reported four birds at Laivai and two at Secal on 25-28

October 1973. Johnstone (1994) noted breeding at

Merah island on 8 May 1991. In Wallacea, breeding

was given as May-September (Coates and Bishop

1997), but it breeds throughout the dry season on

Timor.

Common Tern Sterna hirundo

New island record. One bird was observed in flight and

perched on rocks near Atabae on 1 1 November 2004

and two were present at Dili on the foreshore on 13

November 2004 (both observations were video-

recorded). The birds at Dili perched on a rusting

shipwreck about 30 m from the beach. These birds

were large (35-40 cm long), eliminating smaller species

such as Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus, White¬

winged Tern C. leucopterus or Little Tern. The most

likely confusion species is the smaller Black-napedTern

Sterna sumatrana or Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii. The

bill was black, moderately long (almost the same as

head length, and longer than shown in Coates and

Bishop 1997) and appeared to be slightly decurved.

The bill shape excluded the possibility of Cull-billed

Tern, although the length suggested Roseate Tern. The

legs were black, probably excluding Roseate Tern. The

forehead was white, and there was a well-developed

black cap from behind and above the eye to the nape.

The neck and chest were clean white, the wings were

light grey with a well-defined blackish carpal-bar. The

light grey wings, dark carpal-bar and blackish outer

primaries are typical of non-breeding Common Tern,

and darker than in Black-napedTern or Roseate Tern.

Common Tern breeds in North America, Eurasia, and

Africa and winters in South America, South Africa,

South-East Asia and Australia (Coates and Bishop

1997). In the Lesser Sundas there are records from

70

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

Sumbawa, Flores and Sumba, but it is apparently

uncommon (Coates and Bishop 1997).

White-winged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus

This tern is an uncommon migrant, with two seen at an

estuary 10 km east ofVermasse on 11 October 2004

and up to six at Tasitolu on 13-20 October 2004.

McKean et al. (1975) reported 500 birds at Baucau

beach on 22 October, ten at Jaco island on 25 October

and five at Secal on 28 October 1973, probably indicat¬

ing that passage through the Timor area occurs in

October.

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus

This species was seasonally locally common, with

records from five sites, extending through all months

except February-March. Larger groups included 82

birds at Lake Iralalara on 29 September 2004 and up

to 50 birds at Tasitolu through September 2004.

Andrew (1986) reported the Australian race javanicus

from Kupang Bay in September.

Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis

Little Grebe is a locally common breeding resident on

lakes and rivers in Timor-Leste. At Lake Eraulo, three

stripe-headed juveniles were present on 26 April 2003,

and at Lake Iralalara two juveniles were present on 25

April 2004. The species is an abundant non-breeding

resident at Tasitolu, with 40-50 birds usually recorded,

and up to 82 birds on 20 October 2004.

Australasian Grebe Tachybaptus novaehollandiae

A breeding adult with two chicks (with striped head,

red bill and dark iris) was recorded at Lake Iralalara on

24 and 28 May 2004. Little Grebe occurs sympatrically

at this site. Australasian Grebe is apparently rare on

Timor, and this is one of the first breeding records. An

immature male was collected 10 km west of Lautem on

14 April 1974 by Thompson et al. (1976). OtherTimor

records include an adult male collected at Supul on

March 30 (Thompson et al. 1976). On Timor, Coates

and Bishop (1997) note this species occurring only in

West Timor. This species was also recently recorded

from a large freshwater lake on Roti island (Trainor

2005).

Darter Anhinga melanogaster

NearThreatened. Darter is a locally common species in

Timor-Leste on freshwater lakes and rivers, estuaries

and outcrops along the coast. A large (probably

breeding) population is present on Lake Iralalara, with

regular counts of more than ten individuals, and

maximum counts of 19-20 birds (flying to a roost

along the Irasequiro river), but otherwise this species

was observed mostly as singles and small parties.

Females have pale necks and males have a broad white

stripe behind the eye and rusty foreneck-patch; these

characters identify the race occurring on Timor as

novaehollandiae. McKean et al. (1975) observed 30

birds at Lake Iralalara. At least three individuals were

seen at Kupang Bay by Verbelen (1996).

Little Pied Cormorant Phalacrocorax melanoleucos

This species was common, widespread and usually

recorded as singles and groups of up to five birds, but

a large resident population of 100-350 birds was

present at Lake Iralalara, probably one of the largest in

Wallacea (cf. Coates and Bishop 1997). In

August-September 2001, local communities collected

eggs and chicks from an estimated 500-1,000 nests at

Lake Iralalara during receding flood waters (C. da Silva

and A. Marcus verbally 2004). This species is also

abundant on Roti island (Trainor 2005).

Little Black Cormorant Phalacrocorax sulcirostris

This cormorant was locally common in small to large

flocks on saline or freshwater lakes, and along the

coast. Two large groups were recorded: c.350 atTibar

aquaculture ponds (these birds frequently flew to

Tasitolu to feed and roost) and 200-300 birds at Lake

Iralalara (where local people state that they breed).

White-faced Heron Egretta novaehollandiae

This species was locally common in ricefields east of

Baucau (at Secal, Vermasse and Laivai), but there were

only two records from Lautem district. Verbelen (1996)

noted at least 30 birds at Kupang Bay. It is probably a

breeding resident.

Little Egret Egretta garzetta

This egret was locally common on mudflats, exposed

reefs, freshwater lakes and streams, occuring mostly

singly or in small groups, but 30-60 birds were

recorded at Lake Iralalara and Manatuto mudflats.

Numbers rose steadily at Tasitolu from two birds on 12

April to 41 birds on 1 1 May 2003, presumably indicat¬

ing the arrival of visitors from Australia.

Pacific Reef Egret Egretta sacra

Pacific Reef Egret was common and widespread along

the coast, and was usually recorded as singles and small

loose groups of up to 15 birds. An exceptional group of

68 birds was present at Secal on 19 September 2004.

Pied Heron Egretta picata

This heron was generally an uncommon or rare visitor

to Timor-Leste (from Australia), and it was regularly

recorded only at Lake Iralalara, where 1-6 birds were

noted in the dry season from September to December

in 2003 and 2004 (but were absent during

January-April 2004). A single immature bird with a

white head and neck was present at Tasitolu on 1 8 May

2004. The first Timor records were of up to 18 birds at

Kupang bay on 31 August 1985 (Andrew 1986). On

Roti, Johnstone and Jepson (1996) noted two birds on

7 October.

Great-billed Heron Ardea sumatrana

Near Threatened. Great-billed Heron was an

uncommon resident of remote coastline in Timor-

Leste. There were six records: Lake Modo Mahut

(one), Namulutu estuary (four singles along several

kilometres of reef), Maca beach (three singles), and

Com (one). Additional records include one atTutuala,

one near Baucau beach and one along rocky coast

between Dili and Manatuto (McKean et al. 1975,

Forktail 21 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

71

Thompson et al. 1976). Lesmana et al. (2000) reported

an observation of one bird at Bena Hunting Park, West

Timor.

Purple Heron Ardea purpurea

This large heron was a surprisingly rare resident of

beaches and exposed reefs, with records at Valu beach

(a single on the beach and three roosting in sea caves

1 km to the south), Vero river estuary (one), and Jaco

island (one). Coates and Bishop (1997) noted only one

Timor record of Purple Heron, but Verbelen (1996)

saw a single bird at Kupang Bay. Ten Kate collected

this bird on Roti in 1891 (Johnstone and Jepson 1996).

Great Egret Casmerodius albus

Great Egret was locally common at coastal and fresh¬

water wetlands. Large groups totalling at least 53 birds

were present at Lake Iralalara on 12 November 2003,

and 12 were present at Cristo Rei on 14 November

2003. This bird possibly breeds at Lake Iralalara. This

species was unrecorded by Thompson et al. (1976).

Intermediate Egret Mesophoyx intermedia

This egret was generally uncommon on freshwater

lakes and estuaries, except at Lake Iralalara where large

groups of 100-200 individuals were observed on

several occasions.

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

This species was locally common, with records from

ricefields, freshwater lakes and estuaries, usually in

tight groups of 10-40 birds. There were at least 300

birds at Lake Iralalara in October 2004.

Little Heron Butorides striatus

This heron was a locally common resident, especially

on coastal mudflats and estuaries, with one inland

record at the Lake Iralalara (Irasequiro river).

Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax

New island record. Thirty birds roosted in Hibiscus

tiliaceus and other riverine trees at Lake Iralalara

(Irasequiro river) on 9 March 2003 (none was present

20 March 2004, but eight birds were present on 2

October 2004), and c. 8 5- 100 birds were flushed from

Typha sp. reedbeds at O’Swamp on 1 1 March 2004

(and also on 27 November 2004). The black crown and

hindneck contrasting with the white neck and under¬

parts distinguished these birds from Rufous Night

Heron, which has a rufous back and cinnamon neck

and underparts. This species is either an occasional

visitor or possibly a local breeding resident. There is

one published Nusa Tenggara record (on Flores), one

record for Ashmore Reef off south-west Timor (Coates

and Bishop 1997), and it has recently been newly

recorded on Sumbawa and Lombok (Y. Rusila-Noor in

Trainor et al. in press, personal observations).

Rufous Night Heron Nycticorax caledonicus

This species was generally an uncommon and local

resident, with records from Typha sp. swamps,

mangroves and rivers. All observations were of singles,

except for ten found roosting with Black-crowned

Night Herons at Lake Iralalara, and three at Com

(Lake Airleo) which were repeatedly but unsuccessfully

attacked by a Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus.

Thompson et al. (1976) reported a single subadult at

Secal, and Stein collected one in West Timor (Mayr

1944).

Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis

This bittern was locally common at freshwater

marshes, lakes and swamps, but with only 1 1 records of

21 birds, this bird was probably often overlooked

because of its inconspicuous behaviour. It was usually

flushed as singles, including six birds at O’Swamp.

Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

This species was locally common, with 1 8 records from

four sites, all on the Fuiloro plateau, covering wet

grassland, sedge and Typha sp. swamp habitat. Noske

and Ueda (1996) reported the first Timor record of

Cinnamon Bittern from near Kupang.

Black Bittern Dupetor flavicollis

This species was an occasional resident of rivers, fresh¬

water lakes and swamps, with records of singles and

pairs from eight sites; it was particularly frequent at

Lake Iralalara (Irasequiro river). It is probably a

breeding resident. A dark brown juvenile bird was

observed at Lake Be Malae on 17 December 2003, and

a streak-chested juvenile was observed at the Irasequiro

river on 1 5 October 2004 (R. F. A. Grimmett verbally

2004). The species was not recorded by Thompson et

al. (1976), but a single was collected in West Timor

(Mayr 1944).

Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus

Glossy Ibis is an uncommon visitor to Timor, presum¬

ably from Australia. One was present at Tasitolu from

17 May to 7 June 2004, and four birds were observed

at Iralalara from 8 October to 30 November 2004.

Andrew (1986) reported 26 birds on 31 August and 21

on 2 October at Kupang Bay.

Royal Spoonbill Platalea regia

This species was a regular Australian visitor to Timor-

Leste (and Timor), with 23 records from seven sites

during September to February (but probably present

year-round). It was usually observed in small groups,

but 109 birds were present at the Loes estuary from 1 1

November 2004 to 5 December 2004. Two specimens

from Dili have been collected (on 17 April 1931: Mayr

1944). Verbelen (1996) saw at least 40 birds at Kupang

Bay.

Australian Pelican Pelecanus conspicillatus

This species was frequent on coastal lakes, mudflats

and inland freshwater lakes and marshes throughout

the year. It should be considered as a regular visitor to

Timor rather than an uncommon vagrant from

Australia (cf. Coates and Bishop 1997). Most flocks

were small (mean = 10.3 birds), but there were nine

observations of larger flocks (30-71 individuals). The

first Timor record was of two birds at Secal (McKean

et al. 1975).

72

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

DISCUSSION

Species status

The discovery of ten new waterbirds for Timor, and a

revision to our understanding of the status of many

species on Timor, highlights the former poverty of

knowledge of Timor’s waterbird fauna. Inconspicuous

species such as Greater Painted-snipe and Spotless

Crake (and possibly the nocturnal Black-crowned

Night Heron) almost certainly breed on Timor but

have been overlooked in the past. Their presence on the

island hints at the possibility that other skulking water-

birds, particularly rails, may be resident. It is telling

that there are no endemic rails known from Timor,

whereas several of the wetter Wallacean islands (e.g.

Sulawesi, Talaud and Halmahera) support endemic

forms (Coates and Bishop 1997, Lambert 1998a,b).

The status of a number of Australian waterbirds has

been clarified by the records presented here. Australian

Pelican is clearly a common year-round visitor to

Timor, and not a vagrant, or a visitor following

periodic ‘influxes’ as suggested by Coates and Bishop

(1997). Species such as Pied Heron and Glossy Ibis

possibly occur as regular winter visitors in low numbers

but more observations will be needed to confirm this.

Hardhead and Common Coot clearly occur as regular

long-term visitors. Observations of Hardhead at Lake

Iralalara suggest that it arrives in large numbers at the

end of the dry season to exploit favourable feeding

conditions. Red-capped Plover has been confirmed as a

breeding resident (Olsen and Trainor 2005), with

observations of juveniles and mating in the current

survey, even though the species was previously not even

recognised as occurring in Wallacea by some authors

(Marchant and Higgins 1993).

Timor-Leste has been confirmed as a regular

wintering area for many Palearctic passage migrants,

especially Whimbrel, Eastern Curlew, Pacific Golden

Plover, Grey Plover, Greater Sand Plover, Marsh

Sandpiper, Common Greenshank, Wood Sandpiper,

Common Sandpiper, Grey-tailed Tattler, Red-necked

Stint, Long- toed Stint and Swinhoe’s Snipe. Only three

of these species were observed in flocks of 100 birds or

more (Red-necked Stint, Grey Plover and Common

Greenshank). This appears to be typical in Wallacea,

with the exception of Kupang Bay and Gulf of Bone

where large flocks occur (Andrew 1986, Coates and

Bishop 1997). The high turnover of transients at several

wetlands (notably Tasitolu and Lake Laga) is another

important feature of Timor-Leste wetlands. While peak

numbers are small, significant numbers of birds use

many wetlands as stopover sites during southward or

northward migration.

The discovery of Oriental Pratincole and Oriental

Plover staging in Timor-Leste is one of the most inter¬

esting findings of this study. Both species winter in

Australia and have been irregularly reported in

Wallacea (presumably because of the sporadic nature

of past field-effort). Lake Iralalara is particularly

important for these species with up to c. 3,000 Oriental

Pratincole recorded November 2004. The low number

of Little Curlew records was striking, but possibly in

some years short-grass habitat in Timor-Leste is used

by this species as well.

Timor island is important for several species that

typically do not continue migrating further south to

winter in Australia. These include Common Redshank,

Long-toed Stint and Little Ringed Plover. The latter

species occurs regularly in small numbers in Timor-

Leste and through Nusa Tenggara, with recent records

from Roti, Sumba and Lombok (Trainor submitted, N.

Kemp, verbally 2004). On current information, Timor

probably provides an important stopover for small

numbers of uncommon migrants such as Ruddy

Turnstone, Red Knot, Great Knot, Sanderling and

Ruff (and probably Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus

semipalmatus and Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata :

Andrew 1986).

The Near Threatened Beach Thick-knee and

Malaysian Plover, which both have restricted beach

and coastal distributions, were recorded relatively

frequently; Timor-Leste hosts important populations of

Table 3. The top 15 Timor-Leste wetlands ordered by the total number of waterbird species recorded.

Forktail 2 1 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

73

these species. Malaysian Plover was repeatedly

observed on beaches used intensiveely by people (at

Tua Koin, Com and Comoro river estuary), apparently

indicating that the species can cope with high levels of

disturbance. Of the resident waterbirds, some of the

largest Wallacean flocks were observed for Little Pied

Cormorant, Little Black Cormorant, Pacific Black

Duck, and Sunda Teal.

Seven waterbirds and coastal seabirds listed for

Timor went unrecorded in the current survey: White-

headed Shelduck Tadorna radjah, Kentish Plover

Charadrius alexandrinusy Eurasian Curlew, Asian

Dowitcher, Ruff, Caspian Tern Sterna caspia and

Australian Ibis Threskiornis molucca. The plover, curlew

and Ruff are winter visitors from the Palearctic and are

known only from Kupang Bay in WestTimor, highlight¬

ing the importance of that area to passage migrants

(Andrew 1986). The first Timor record of Ruff was of

two birds photographed at Kupang Bay by Verbelen

(1996). The Kupang Bay wetlands, with c. 2, 000-4, 000

ha of mudflats and fishponds, has no equivalent in

Timor-Leste, but these migrants might occur as rare

visitors to Timor-Leste. The only Timor record of

Australian White Ibis was also at Kupang Bay on 7

August 1998 (R. Drijvers inTrainor et al. in press). Up

to five Asian Dowitchers were recorded from mudflats

at Hera in October 2003 (J. Keast verbally 2005). A

large flock of White-headed Shelduck was recorded in

Timor-Leste on a pond at 1,280 m in April 1882

(Forbes 1885). The status of the Caspian Tern is poorly

known, with the only records coming from Baucau and

around Dili in October, January and May (McKean et

al. 1975). Australian White Ibis is probably a rare

visitor from Australia, like White-headed Shelduck.

Key sites

While there were substantial differences in survey

effort between sites, a number of nationally and region¬

ally important wetlands have been identified in this

study (Table 3). Lake Iralalara, including the Irasequiro

river, is the most important freshwater wetland in

Timor-Leste, and probably the entire Nusa Tenggara

region. It will be included in the nation’s first national

park along with the adjacent closed-canopy forests

around Tutuala, Maupiting and Mehara villages. The

lake usually covers 5-8 km2, but during irregular

flooding (e.g. in 1954, 1966, 1970, 1974-1975, 1997,

1999-2001: I. Mendes verbally 2004) it reaches about

100 km2. A diverse range of wetland habitats in the area

support large populations of egrets, cormorants and

Pacific Black Duck (which occurs in large congrega¬

tions at the end of the dry season each year). Local

people state that flooding triggers colonial nesting by

many waterbirds, especially cormorants, but this has

never been formally documented. Five of the ten

species newly reported for Timor island were recorded

at Lake Iralalara: Hardhead, Green Pygmy-goose,

Ruddy-breasted Crake, Greater Painted-snipe and

Black-crowned Night Heron, and a further species, the

Spotless Crake, was recorded at associated wetlands.

Several Palearctic winter migrants including Sharp¬

tailed Sandpiper, Long-toed Stint and Swinhoe’s Snipe

overwinter at the lake, with populations numbering in

the tens or low hundreds of birds.

The saline lakes of Tasitolu were repeatedly

censused and consequently had the highest total

number of waterbird species, including 27 Palearctic

migrants, resident populations of Little Grebe and

Red-capped Plovers and occasional occurrences of rare

waterbirds (Hardhead, Red Knot, Spotted Redshank

and Little Ringed Plover). Tasitolu was identified as an

Important Bird Area, with surrounding savannas

hosting Timor Sparrow Lonchura fuscata (Vulnerable)

and Slaty Cuckoo Dove Turacoena niodesta

(Vulnerable), and it will be gazetted as a Peace Park

(BirdLife International 2003, Ministry of Agriculture,

Forestry and Fisheries et al. 2003). The Tasitolu lakes

are ecologically linked to numerous surrounding small

wetlands: the Tibar mudflats and aquaculture ponds

3 km to the west, Comoro river estuary, Dili and Cristo

Rei foreshore. The extensive mudflats at Hera and

Metinaro (15-30 1cm east of Dili) support relatively

high numbers of cormorants, Darter and winter

migrants.

Lake Laga is a second shallow saline lake that

deserves special mention. It appears to be important

for numerous flocks of transient waders, and provides

habitat for Oriental Plover and breeding Little Tern.

Suggestions for further study

The status of a number of waterbirds remains poorly

known on Timor, with targeted surveys needed for

elusive rails, snipe and perhaps night herons. Wetlands

on the Fuiloro plateau and the Lake Modo Mahut

region, both of which include a wide range of springs,

swamps, marshes, and reedbeds, should be targeted

initially. The status of several winter migrants remains

poorly known and further surveys of saline lakes,

mudflats and large river estuaries (e.g. Loes and Secal,

but others might be identified) are a priority. The

accessibility from Dili of a range of wetlands along the

north coast (e.g. Lake Maubara, Tibar aquaculture,

Tasitolu, Metinaro and Manatuto mudflats) would

make these candidates for regular monitoring of water-

bird populations (and perhaps research and

environmental education programmes). Further study

of migrants at the regionally important Kupang Bay is

also needed. At this site winter counts of Australian

Pratincole (at least) qualify this site as an internation¬

ally significant wetland (following Delaney and Scott

2002).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Funding for the fieldwork came from BirdLife International which

has received support for work inTimor-Leste from Vogelbescherming

Nederland (BirdLife Partner in the Netherlands) and the Keidanren

Nature Conservation Fund. Richard Grimmett identified the need

for field surveys in Timor-Leste and gathered the resources for them

to be carried out. The U.K. Parrot Society, and the Tropical Savannas

Management Cooperative Research Centre also contributed funds to

support the fieldwork. Rudyanto of BirdLife Asia prepared the map.

Iwein Mauro kindly allowed me to use his waterbird observations

from Lake Modo Mahut. The following staff of the Timor-Leste

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, and Ministry of

Environment and Development provided important help in the field

or facilitated government support: Mr Amaro, Cypriana Soares,

Odete Gutteres, Leonisa Lobato, Fernando Santana, Lorenzo dos

Santos, John dos Santos, Estanislau da Silva, Manuel Da Silva, Jose

Fernandes Teixeira, Flaminio Xavier and Almeida Fernandes Xavier.

74

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

Thanks to Niven McCrie for examining video-recordings and identi¬

fying the Pectoral Sandpiper.

The field survey received important support from the following

individuals: Francisco Alves, Alcino de Araujo, Amando Soares,

Francisco Soares and Thomas Soares (Atauro island); Erbenio dos

Santos, Salvador dos Santos, Octavio da Silva, Alcantra Fernandes

Xavier, Arlindo Fernandes Xavier, Duarte Xavier, Evaristo

Fernandes Xavier (Com); Venuncio da Costa (Ili Lapa); Mateus

Fernandes, Ricardo Gomes, Evaristo Laranzina, Acasio Martins,

Amelio Valenti and Tome Valenti (Lore); Armando da Costa,

Dommingus da Costa, Dan Groshong, Jose Marquos, Julio Sampaio,

Alberto dos Santos (Luro); Patricio Da Conceicao, Alarico

Cristovao, Reynaldo Freiras, Luis Immegeno and Macario Miranda

(Bauro); Julio Branca, Gilberto da Cabral, Custodio Castillo,

Americo da Corta, Virisimo Dias; David Freitas, Ravele Fretes,

Hergulando Garcia, Lamberto Lopes, Mario Lopes, Albino Marcus,

Norberto Mendes, Sabino Mendes, Ernesto Pereira, Americo Da

Silva, Carminio da Silva, Sebastian, Nicole Siebel, Marvaun Soares,

Jose Fernandes Teixeira (Muapiting and Malahara); Marcario de

Jesus and Americo Da Silva (Tutuala); Juviano Barros, Jose Castilho,

Julio da Costa, Albino Lopes, Manuel Olivera, Macario de Jesus and

Olavio de Jesus (Valu beach). Finally, thanks to an anonymous

reviewer for improving the text of this paper.

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Forktail 21 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

75

76

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

Key

Species status

Br= Breeding resident

Non-breeding visitor: Av= Australian visitor, Pv= Palearctic winter visitor, Iv= Indian Ocean

Passage migrant: Am= Australian summer passage migrant, Pm= Palearctic winter passage migrant

Va= Vagrant

Abundance

A= Abundant

C= Common

LC= Locally common

F= Frequent

U= Uncommon

R= Rare

Forktail 21 (2005)

Waterbirds and coastal seabirds of Timor-Leste (East Timor)

77

APPENDIX 2

Timor-Leste wetland sites (site numbers correspond to those in Fig. 1)

78

COLIN R. TRAINOR

Forktail 21 (2005)

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 79-86

Species diversity, relative abundance and habitat

use of the birds in the Sundarbans East Wildlife

Sanctuary, Bangladesh

M. MONIRUL H. KHAN

Avifaunal surveys were carried out in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh, from September 2001 to February 2003.

A total of 198 species was recorded including Buffy Fish Owl Ketupa ketupu (second record for Bangladesh), Streak-breasted

Woodpecker Picus viridanus (first record in the Indian Subcontinent since 1958) and nine species not previously recorded in the

Sundarbans of Bangladesh.

INTRODUCTION

The Sundarbans is the largest single tract of tidal

mangrove forest in the world, covering c. 10,000 km2

in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bangladesh and

India. Roughly 60% lies in the south-west of

Bangladesh and the rest is in the south-east of the

Indian state of West Bengal. There have been a

number of previous studies of the birds of the

Bangladesh Sundarbans. Rashid et al. (1994) listed

315 species but this included species of hypothetical

occurrence. Husain et al. (1983) recorded 83 species

in the Bangladesh Sundarbans Nilkamal Sanctuary

(Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary) in May 1982,

and Islam et al. (1999) recorded 181 species in the

Bangladesh Sundarbans during winter months

(October-March) from 1995 to 1997. Rashid and

Scott (1990) reported observations of waders, and

some bird records in mangroves were provided by

Khan (1986). Rashid (1967), Husain (1967, 1979),

Khan (1982), Sarker and Sarker (1988), Harvey

(1990), and Thompson and Johnson (1996) produced

lists of birds in Bangladesh and indicated species that

are found in the Sundarbans. Subsequent reports on

notable birds (Thompson et al. 1993, Thompson and

Johnson 2003) have updated the knowledge of the

status and distribution of many species in

Bangladesh.

N

k

0 30 km

L_ _ — 1— — I

international boundary

Sundarbans

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

INDIA

(West Bengal)

Sundarbans East

Wildlife Sanctuary

BAY OF BENGAL

Figure 1. Map showing location of Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh.

80

M. MONIRUL H. KHAN

Forktail 21 (2005)

STUDY AREA

The Sundarbans is located at 21°30'-22°30'N

88°05'-89°55'E (Fig. l).The monthly mean tempera¬

ture and relative humidity normally varies from 23°C

and 70% during December-January to 35"C and 80%

during May-June. There are three wildlife sanctuaries

in the Bangladesh Sundarbans: Sundarbans East,

Sundarbans South and Sundarbans West; together they

form a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary covers an area of

312 knr at the south-eastern end of the Sundarbans.

There are five major habitat types: (1) mangroves,

dominated by Heritiera fames, Excoecaria agallocha , and

Sonneratia apetala, covering c.35% of the sanctuary; (2)

grasslands, typically with Imperata cylindrica ,

Acrostichum aureum , Myriostachya wightiana, covering

c.5% of the sanctuary; (3) mudflats, including sandy

tidal flats and beaches, covering c.3% of the sanctuary;

(4) transitional zones between these three habitats,

usually with few trees, sometimes with reeds, covering

c.7% of the sanctuary; and (5) deep water, including

rivers and estuaries, covering c.50% of the sanctuary.

METHODS

Birds were surveyed for about one week every month

from September 2001 to February 2003. The research

team was based on a houseboat, which was based

mainly in Katka, Kochikhali and Supati. The survey

was conducted on foot and from a dinghy.

Observations were made with 7-21x40 binoculars,

mainly in the morning and evening. Grimmett et al.

(1998) and Ali and Ripley (1987) were used for identi¬

fication, and in many cases photographs were taken in

order to confirm the identification. Relative abundance

was assessed as ‘very common’ (seen on 75-100% of

visits), ‘common’ (seen on 50-74% of visits),

‘uncommon’ (seen on 25-49% of visits), or ‘rare’ (seen

on <25% of visits). For wintering migrants, abundance

was assessed only during the months they were

present. Global threat status follows BirdLife

International (2001); national threat status follows

IUCN Bangladesh (2000).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 198 species of birds was recorded (see

Appendix), of which 134 (68%) were resident (includ¬

ing 15 local migrants) and 64 (32%) were migrants.

Rashid et al. (1994) found a similar proportion (27%)

of migrant species among the 315 species in the entire

Bangladesh Sundarbans. Compared to mangroves

elsewhere, avian species diversity is very high in the

Sundarbans. Approximately equal proportions of

species fell into each of the four abundance categories:

very common (26%), common (21%), uncommon

(24%) and rare (29%). A total of 87 species (44%)

primarily used mangroves (and an additional 60

species used this habitat secondarily), 29 (15%) used

grasslands, 52 (26%) used mudflats and 30 (15%)

used transitional zones.

A total of nine species were recorded for the first

time in the Bangladesh Sundarbans: Blue-breasted

Quail Coturnix chinensis, Spot-billed Duck Anas

poecilorhyncha, Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis, Indian

Pitta Pitta brachyura , Black-naped Oriole Oriolus

chinensis, Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo Dicrurus remifer.

Scaly Thrush Zoothera dauma, Yellow-eyed Babbler

Chrysomma sinense and Ruby-cheeked Sunbird

Anthreptes singalensis. All were previously known from

elsewhere in Bangladesh.

Sixteen species had only been previously recorded

by Rashid et al. (1994): Eurasian Eagle Owl Bubo bubo,

Pompadour Green Pigeon Treron pompadora. Yellow¬

footed Green Pigeon Treron phoenicoptera, Ruddy¬

breasted Crake Porzana fusca, Marsh Sandpiper Tringa

stagnatilis. Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus,

Pied Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta. Greater Spotted

Eagle Aquila clanga, Malayan Night Heron Gorsachius

melanolophus, Cinnamon Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamo-

meus. Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus,

Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus, Orange-headed

Thrush Zoothera citrina. Bank Myna Acridotheres

ginginianus, Pale-billed Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythro-

rynchos and Scaly-breasted Munia Lonchura punctulata.

Nearly all the previous avifaunal lists for the area

include some species of hypothetical occurrence, and

most refer to the entire Bangladesh Sundarbans.

However, at least 19 species have previously been

recorded in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

that I did not observe: Lesser Yellownape Picus chlorolo-

phus. Oriental Scops Owl Otus sunia, Collared Scops

Owl Otus bakkamoena, Little Stint Calidris minuta,

Red-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis, Curlew Sandpiper

Calidris ferruginea, Oriental Pratincole Glareola

maldivarum. Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola. River

Tern Sterna aurantia, Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficol¬

lis, Darter Anhinga melanogaster, Purple Heron Ardea

purpurea, Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus, Yellow-

browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus, Blyth’s Leaf

Warbler Phylloscopus reguloides. Jungle Babbler

Turdoides striatus, Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula,

Orange -bellied Flowerpecker Dicaeum trigonostigma

and Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker Dicaeum cruentatum.

In some cases these omissions are likely to be due to

identification difficulties.

Four globally threatened species recorded: Masked

Finfoot Heliopais personata (Vulnerable), White-

rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis (Critically

Endangered), Greater Spotted Eagle (Vulnerable) and

Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus (Vulnerable), plus

three Near Threatened species: Brown-winged

Kingfisher Halcyon amauroptera, Black-headed Ibis

Threskiornis melanocephalus and Mangrove Pitta Pitta

megarhyncha. Additionally, seven nationally threatened

species were recorded: Dollarbird (critically endan¬

gered), Ruddy Kingfisher Halcyon coromanda

(vulnerable). Brown Fish Owl Ketupa zeylonensis

(vulnerable), Masked Finfoot (endangered), White-

bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster (endangered),

Malayan Night Heron (critically endangered) and

Lesser Adjutant (endangered).

Thankfully, the Sundarbans East Wildlife

Sanctuary and its birds are not under severe pressure

yet, but over-exploitation of the natural resources,

poaching, increasing water salinity and pollution are

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh

81

some of the growing threats. Moreover, the area is

susceptible to cyclones and rising sea level.

Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata

This species was seen uncommonly throughout the

year, with sightings in October, November and

December 2001; February, April, August, October and

December 2002. Most records were of singles, with

females seen more often than males, but a pair with

two juveniles was seen in October 2001 and another

pair was seen in April 2002, both in creeks in Katka.

Birds were usually seen foraging along the bank of the

creeks, feeding on small crabs during low tide, and

resting under bushes on the bank of creeks.

White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis

One group of seven individuals was seen soaring over

the Kochikhali area on 22 September 2002. Local

fishermen reported that vultures rarely come down to

the mudflats of the sanctuary.

Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

Singles were seen on 1 1 January and 14 December

2002, on the banks of the river Baleshawr at the

eastern end of the Sundarbans. It is occasionally seen

on the mudflats of big rivers and estuaries (e.g.

Meghna, Jamuna and Padma) elsewhere in Bangladesh

(Khan 1982, Harvey 1990, Thompson and Johnson

1996).

Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus

This species was seen quite commonly throughout the

year, usually single or in groups of up to five individu¬

als (mean flock size was 1.6 birds). They were normally

seen foraging along the muddy banks of the creeks, in

wet grasslands, resting in trees or flying. Juveniles were

seen three times, all in October 2002. On three

occasions I found parts of feathers or legs of this

species in the scats of tiger Panthera tigris. The remains

of killed adjutants were also found five times,

surrounded by tiger pugmarks, clearly indicating that

they had been hunted and eaten by tigers.

Brown-winged Kingfisher Halcyon amauroptera

This species is locally very common in the Sundarbans

and it was seen in all months during the study period.

In Bangladesh it is found mainly in the Sundarbans

and surrounding areas (Khan 1982, Harvey 1990,

Thompson and Johnson 1996).

Black-headed Ibis Threskiornis melanocephalus

One pair was seen on 14 September 2002 in Supati.

Although the species is rare in the Sundarbans, it is

quite common in the Meghna estuary, about 100 km

to the east (personal observations).

Mangrove Pitta Pitta megarhyncha

This species was seen rarely, with records in September

and November 2001, January, February, April, June

and August 2002, and January 2003, indicating that it

is resident. One was seen carrying an invertebrate in its

bill on 8 September 2001 in Kochikhali, indicating that

it probably had a nest nearby. A juvenile was seen on 3

February 2002 in the same area. In the Indian subcon¬

tinent it is found only in the Sundarbans (Grimmett et

al. 1998).

Streak-breasted Woodpecker Picus viridanus

This species was seen rarely, with records throughout

the year in September, October and November 2001,

and April, June, September, October and December

2002 (Plate 1). Most were singles, but an adult and a

juvenile were seen foraging together on 6 June 2002,

and a pair seen foraging together on 18 September

2002. Birds were identified by their grey cheeks (often

with streaking), distinct black moustachial patch on an

unstreaked pale brown throat, red iris, dusky bill with

yellow lower mandible and dark tip and black tail with

few white bars. The combination of these characters

distinguishes the species from Streak-throated

Woodpecker Picus xanthopygaeus and Laced

Woodpecker Picus vittatus. The only previous

confirmed record of Streak-breasted Woodpecker in

the Indian subcontinent was one specimen collected

from Burigoalini, about 50 km south-west of Khulna

(in the north-west of the Bangladesh Sundarbans) on

12 April 1958, but it was misidentified as Laced

Woodpecker (Paynter 1970, Short 1973, Harvey 1990,

Grimmett et al. 1998). Rasmussen (2000) compared

this specimen with the specimens of Streak-breasted

Woodpecker collected from adjacent Myanmar and re-

identified it as Streak-breasted Woodpecker. She noted

that unlike typical South-East Asian birds, individuals

from the north-western populations have a plain throat

and breast.

Buffy Fish Owl Ketupa ketupu

This species was recorded uncommonly throughout

the year, with records of singles or pairs in January,

September and October 2002 and January 2003

(Plate 2). Birds were mainly seen in trees on the banks

of narrow creeks. They were identified by their rich

brown upperparts, bare tarsi, relatively short tail with

few whitish bands and the lack of fine horizontal cross¬

barring on the underparts. The combination of these

characters distinguished birds from the similar Brown

Fish Owl Ketupa zeylojiensis, Tawny Fish Owl K.flavipes

and Eurasian Eagle Owl Bubo bubo (Grimmett et al.

1998, Konig et al. 1999, and Neumann-Denzau and

Denzau 2003). In the Indian subcontinent, there had

been no record of this species since the early 20th

century (Baker 1922-1930, Stevens 1915), until a

record in Katka, Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

in November 2000 (Neumann-Denzau and Denzau

2003). Grimmett et al. (1998) commented that it was

recorded in east Assam (India) in early 20th century;

and was presumably once resident, but its current

status is unknown with no recent published records.

Konig et al. (1999) give the present western limit of this

species as southern Myanmar. The discovery that the

species is resident in the Sundarbans has pushed the

limit of its known current distribution 300 km to the

west. Both Buffy Fish Owl and Streak-breasted

Woodpecker are essentially South-East Asian species.

Their presence indicates that some birds with South-

East Asian affinity are found in the Sundarbans, as also

pointed out by Paynter (1970) and Neumann-Denzau

and Denzau (2003).

82

M. MONIRUL H. KHAN

Forktail21 (2005)

Plate 1. Streak-breasted Woodpecker Picus viridanus,

Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, June 2002.

Great Thick-knee Esacus recurvirostris

This species was recorded throughout the year on

sandy beaches in the south-east of the sanctuary at

Katka-Kochikhali, Egg Island and Pokkhir Char.

Singles (rarely), pairs or small flocks of up to eight

were seen. Pairs were recorded in October and

December 2002, January and February 2003. Two

nests were found on Katka beach in February and

March 2002. Both nests were simple depressions in the

dry sand, with a few dry twigs, on the upper part of the

beach; each had two pale buffy eggs with dark brown

patches. Injury feigning (by sitting on the knees and

hopping) was displayed by one bird in December

2002. In Bangladesh, the species is found mainly in the

Sundarbans (with one record in the river Jamuna:

P. Thompson in litt. 2004), where it was previously

known only in winter (Harvey 1990, Grimmett et al.

1998).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely acknowledge the WWF Prince Bernhard Scholarship for

Nature Conservation and the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust for

providing financial support to my fieldwork, although the grant was

mainly for a project on the tiger. I thank the Forest Department of

Bangladesh for providing overall support during the fieldwork, and

Dr David J. Chivers for his cooperation during my study in

Cambridge. I am especially grateful to Dr Nigel Collar and Paul

Thompson for helpful comments on an earlier draft.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. and Ripley, S. D. (1987) Compact handbook of the birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and

Sri Lanka. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Baker, E. C. S. (1922-1930) The fauna of British India: birds. London:

Taylor and Francis.

BirdLife International (2001) Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife

International Red Data Book. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife

International.

Grimmett, R., Inskipp, C. and Inskipp, T. (1998) Birds of the Indian

subcontinent. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Harvey, W. G. (1990) Birds in Bangladesh. Dhaka: University Press.

Husain, K. Z. (1967) Systematic account of the birds of East

Pakistan. Dacca Univ. Studies 15(b): 43-51.

Plate 2. Buffy Fish Owl Ketupa ketupa, Sundarbans East

Wildlife Sanctuary, October 2002.

Husain, K. Z. (1979) Birds of Bangladesh. Dhaka: Government of

Bangladesh.

Husain, K. Z., Sarker, S. U. and Rahman, M. (1983) Summer birds

of the Sundarbans’ ‘Nilkamal Sanctuary’. Bangladesh J. Zool. 11:

48-51.

Islam, M. A., Khan, M. M. H., Kabir, M. M., Solhoy,T., Joarder, N.

B. and Feeroz, M. M. (1999) Winter birds of the Sundarbans,

Bangladesh. Ecoprint 6(1): 41-49.

IUCN Bangladesh (2000) Red book of threatened birds of Bangladesh.

Dhaka: IUCN - The World Conservation Union.

Khan, M. A. R. (1982) Wildlife of Bangladesh: a checklist. Dhaka:

University of Dhaka.

Khan, M. A. R. (1986) Wildlife in Bangladesh mangrove ecosystem.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 32-47.

Konig, K., Weick, F. and Becking, J. H. (1999) Owls: a guide to the

owls of the world. Robertsbridge, Sussex, U.K.: Pica Press.

Neumann-Denzau, G. and Denzau, H. (2003) Buffy fish-owl

{Ketupa ketupa) in Sundarbans, Bangladesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 100(1): 138-141.

Paynter, R. A., Jr (1970) Species with Malaysian affinities in the

Sundarbans, East Pakistan. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 90(5): 1 18-1 19.

Rashid, H. (1967) Systematic list of the birds of East Pakistan. Dacca:

The Asiatic Society of Pakistan. Publ. No. 20.

Rashid, S. M. A. and Scott, D. A. (1990) Some waders of the

Sundarbans mangrove forest, Bangladesh. Stilt 12: 51-52.

Rashid, S. M. A., Khan, A. and Akonda, A. W. (1994) Fauna. Pp.

115-131, 242-252 in Z. Hussain and G. Acharya, eds.

Mangroves of the Sundarbans, volume two: Bangladesh. Bangkok:

IUCN -The World Conservation Union.

Rasmussen, P. C. (2000) Streak-breasted Woodpecker Picus viridanus

in Bangladesh: re-identification of the region’s sole specimen

recorded as Laced Woodpecker P. vittatus. Forktail 16: 183-184.

Sarker, S. U. and Sarker, N. J. (1988) Wildlife of Bangladesh. Dhaka:

Rico Printers.

Short, L. L. (1973) Habits of some Asian woodpeckers (Aves,

Picidae). Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 152(5).

Stevens, H. (1915) Notes on the birds of upper Assam. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 23: 234-268, 547-570, 721-736.

Thompson, P. M., Harvey, W. G., Johnson, D. L., Millin, D. J.,

Rashid, S. M. A., Scott, D. A., Stanford, C. and Woolner, J. D.

(1993) Recent notable bird records from Bangladesh. Forktail 9:

13-44.

Thompson, P. M. and Johnson, D. L. (1996) Birding in Bangladesh:

a guide to birdwatching sites and a checklist of birds. Dhaka:

unpublished report.

Thompson, P. M. and Johnson, D. L. (2003) Further notable bird

records from Bangladesh. Forktail 19: 85-102.

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh

83

M. Monirul H. Khan, Wildlife Research Group, Department of Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Downing Street,

Cambridge CB2 3DY, U.K. Present address: Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342,

Bangladesh. Email: mmhkhan@hotmail.com

APPENDIX

List of birds seen in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh

84

M. MONIRUL H. KHAN

Forktail 21 (2005)

Forktail 21 (2005)

The birds in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh

85

86

M. MONIRUL H. KHAN

Forktail 21 (2005)

Key

Relative abundance: VC = very common; C = common; UC = uncommon; R = rare. Status: R = resident; RM = resident but local movements observed;

M = migrant. Habitat: W = mangrove woodlands including creeks; G = grasslands; M = mudflats including beaches; T = transitional habitats.

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 87-91

Population status and breeding ecology of

White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis

in Rampur Valley, Nepal

NABIN BARAL, RAMJI GAUTAM and BIJAY TAMANG

We conducted a survey of the Critically Endangered White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in lowland Nepal from October 2002 to

May 2003. Direct observations were made at roosting and nesting sites to assess the population size, breeding success and nest-tree

availability. A questionnaire survey was conducted to assess carcass disposal methods, threats from persecution and conservation

attitudes. Six vulture colonies were found, which supported 72-102 birds during the breeding season, and 123 birds following the

breeding season. Breeding success at 70 occupied nests was 0.5 young per nest. Most nests were in kapok Bombax ceiba trees, and

nesting habitat may be a limiting factor because these trees are logged for commercial purposes. A total of 33 dead vultures was found,

of which 30 were adults. The carcasses of domestic livestock appear to be the main source of food for vultures because there are few

alternative wildlife prey species in the surrounding habitats. The abundance of carcasses observed suggests there is no shortage of food.

Local people have favourable conservation attitudes, and their carcass disposal method is beneficial to vultures. A local model of ‘debt-

for-nature swap’ is proposed to protect the nesting habitat of vultures in the area. Integrated vulture conservation and development

programs may provide incentives to local people to initiate conservation actions.

INTRODUCTION

White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis was once

abundant in South-East Asia, and the Indian subconti¬

nent. Vultures have declined from many parts of their

former ranges owing to food shortages and loss of

habitat (Pain et al. 2003). However, since the early

1990s there has been a catastrophic decline in three

Gyps species in the Indian subcontinent: White-

rumped, Indian G. indicus and Slender-billed Vultures

G. tenuirostris (Prakash 1999, Virani et al. 2001,

Prakash et al. 2003). In response to these population

crashes, all three were reclassified as ‘Critically

Endangered’, placing them among the species most

threatened with global extinction (BirdLife

International 2001).

Recent work in Pakistan has showed that

diclofenac, a widely used painkiller and anti-inflamma¬

tory drug administered to livestock and humans, can

cause mortality in vultures (Oaks et al. 2004). A

postmortem examination of dead or dying birds from

India and Nepal also showed the high incidence of

To Aryabhanjyan

Figure 1. Map showing the study area and its location in Nepal.

88

NABIN BARAL et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

diclofenac residues and visceral gout (Shultz et al.

2004). The results of these studies suggest that

diclofenac contamination is the major cause of the

recent vulture population crashes. The result of a

mathematical modelling is consistent with the

observed rate of population decline. Models indicate

that only a small proportion (one in 130) of carcasses

contaminated with lethal levels of diclofenac can cause

the observed vulture mortality rate (Green et al. 2004).

We suspect the widespread use of diclofenac in Nepal,

but so far there has been no attempt to quantify the

extent of its use or the levels to which vultures are

exposed.

Eight species of vultures have been recorded from

Nepal, of which six are resident and two are migratory

(Grimmett et al. 2000). White-rumped Vulture is

reported up to 3,100 m, although it is most common

up to about 1,000 m (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985).

Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR), Royal

Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (RSWR) and the unpro¬

tected Rampur Valley are still strongholds for the

species (Inskipp and Inskipp 2001, Virani et al. 2001,

Baral and Gautam 2002). Vulture population declines

may have gone unnoticed for many years simply

because they were so abundant. Although data are

scant, the monitoring of colonies indicates that Gyps

vulture populations have been declining throughout

their range in Nepal (Virani et al. 2001, Giri and GC

2002). Once distributed throughout the lowlands of

Nepal, White-rumped Vulture is now patchily distrib¬

uted, being rarer in the east (Inskipp and Inskipp 2001,

Virani et al. 2001, Baral and Gautam 2002, Giri and

GC 2002). During 2001-2002, 45 White-rumped

Vultures were found dead in eastern Nepal, compared

to only five in western Nepal (Virani et al. 2001, Giri

and GC 2002). This suggests that mortality factors

were less prevalent in the west or it may reflect lower

survey effort in the east. Continued population

declines may lead to extirpation unless remedial

actions are taken.

In Nepal, only nine bird species — Black Stork

Ciconia nigra. White Stork C. ciconia, Himalayan Monal

Lophophorus impejanus, Satyr Tragopan Tragopan satyra,

Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii, Bengal Florican

Houbaropsis bengalensis, Lesser Florican Sypheotides

indica, Sarus Crane Grus antigone and Great Hornbill

Buceros bicornis — are protected by law (HMG 1977).

No raptors are included. Accidental or deliberate perse¬

cution of vultures outside protected areas is not illegal.

In this paper, we estimate the population size,

pattern of adult mortality and breeding success of

White-rumped Vulture in the Rampur Valley, Nepal.

STUDY AREA

Rampur Valley (27°51'80"N 83°54'24"E, Fig 1.) lies in

the eastern part of Palpa district, and is the second

biggest business centre in the district. It has three

Village Development Committees (the smallest politi¬

cal and administrative unit in rural Nepal). It is about

370 km south-west of Kathmandu, situated in the

transition region between terai and hill ecological

zones, at an elevation of 442 m. The Kali Gandaki

River flows through the valley and marks its northern

border. The climate of the area is subtropical

monsoonal, with the rainy season extending from June

to September, hot dry summer from February to May,

and cool dry winter from October to January. The

vegetation is in an early to middle successional stage.

The dominant trees are kapok Bombax ceiba, khair

Acacia catechu, karma Adina cordifolia, bel Aegle

marmelos, mango Mangifera indica, kamuno Cleistocalyx

operculata, kali katha Aporusa octandra and budho-

dhayar Lagerstromia parviflora. As well as

White-rumped Vulture, die valley supports Slender-

billed, Red-headed Sarcogyps calvus and Egyptian

Vultures Neophron percnopterus. As part of community

forestry programmes, there are 56 community forest

user groups in Rampur, of which 44 groups already

have their parcel of forests to manage. The valley is not

contiguous with any protected area.

METHODS

As the study area in the Rampur Valley is small, it was

practical to count regularly and accurately all nest and

roost sites. We visited all six known colonies and

counted all birds seen on nests or roosting early in the

morning (06h30-09h30) and late in the evening

(17h30-19h30) on five visits during 27 October to 2

November 2002, 12-16 December 2002, 23-27

February 2003, 10-14 April 2003 and 18-23 May

Table 1. Estimated population size of White-rumped Vulture at six colonies.

Sites not covered during surveys

Forktail 21 (2005)

Population status and breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture

89

2003. We assumed fidelity to sites, fixed time of

roosting, and geographic closure: no movement into

(immigration) or out of (emigration) the site. We

counted the number of animal carcasses encountered

and the number of vultures at each one to assess the

availability of food in the survey area. To study

breeding ecology, nests were counted and nest

occupancy, breeding status and general breeding

behaviour were recorded. We followed Postupalsky’s

(1974) classification of nesting status, according to

which ‘occupied nests’ are those in which substantial

nest-building activities are observed, but egg-laying is

not necessarily confirmed. Nesting trees were tagged

for future reference. Birds were closely observed for

‘head drooping’ behaviour, regarded by some as an

abnormal behaviour of sick birds (Prakash, 2001) but

by others a response to high temperatures (Virani et al.

2001). Colonies were opportunistically searched for

dead vultures, which were recorded and then buried.

We conducted a questionnaire survey of 67 households

in the vicinity of vulture colonies. Respondents were

asked about their methods of carcass disposal, persecu¬

tion of vultures, agricultural practices and conservation

attitudes. Pearson’s Chi-square test was used to test the

null hypothesis of uniform distribution of nests among

nesting trees. Means are presented ± 1 standard devia¬

tion.

RESULTS

Population

We found six colonies of vultures in Rampur Valley.

The average distance between colonies was 4.1 ±2.1

km (N=15, minimum=0.2 km between Islampur and

Sadwarta, maximum=7.1 km between Islampur and

Syanja). During the study period one colony

(Islampur) was deserted because local people felled the

nesting and roosting trees. The population of White-

rumped Vultures in the Rampur Valley averaged 85±12

birds (range=72-102, N=7) during the breeding

season, and 123 birds (N=l) after the breeding season

(Table l).The largest colony was at Khairini, support¬

ing 33-48 individuals. Counts of vultures at carcasses

are consistent with these numbers. Counts of vultures

at carcasses averaged 63±20 birds (range=36-93 birds,

N=9). Immatures and adults could not be clearly

distinguished, so the age structure of the vulture

population could not be assessed. A total of 33 dead

vultures was recorded, of which 30 were adults and

three were subadults and juveniles. This total included

16 found dead in December 2002 at Khairini and

Sadawarta. We did not record any birds showing ‘head

drooping’ behaviour.

Nesting and breeding

White-rumped Vultures bred from October to April. A

total of 70 occupied nests were found in the six vulture

colonies. Abandoned nests were frequently encoun¬

tered, but the causes of nest abandonment could not

be determined. The proportion of nests that was

abandoned increased through the season, from 7% in

October/November to 29% in April (Fig. 2). This may

be because nests are abandoned once chicks die.

Nesting success was 50% (and equates to 0.5 chicks

per nest) based on the proportion of all occupied nests

that still had chicks alive in April 2003, assuming that

all these would successfully fledge (none was left in the

nest in May 2003). Since we could not survey colonies

subsequently, we were not able to determine the fledg¬

ling mortality rate. Nests were built in a total of 56

trees of five species at the six colonies (Table 2). Up to

three nests were built in each tree, but most trees

(77%) had just one nest (mean=l ,2±0.45). Most nests

(86%) were built in kapok trees (x2= 152.2, df=4, P<

0.01).

Oct/Nov 2002 Dec 2002 Feb 2003 April 2003

Figure 2. Percentage of nests that were occupied (solid bars)

or abandoned (open bars).

90

NAB IN BARAL et al.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Food availability

The biomass of potential food available from native

wildlife is limited, so domestic livestock carcasses are

likely to form the bulk of available food. We found 16

such carcasses during the study. Most (69%) were

cattle, followed by water buffalo (25%). We could not

determine the cause of livestock death. Not all

carcasses had attendant vultures: only three carcasses

were fully consumed, nine were partially consumed

and four were unattended by vultures. On two

occasions, four Egyptian Vultures Neophron

percnopterus and two Red-headed Vultures Sarcogyps

calvus were seen feeding with White-rumped Vultures.

At six carcasses we found a few (3-10) stray dogs

feeding.

Conservation attitudes

Local people apparently do not kill vultures in the

Rampur Valley. A high proportion of respondents

(99%, N=67) reported that they had never killed or

seen anybody persecuting and poisoning vultures by

any means. In one incident, children inadvertently

killed one vulture while playing with catapults. The

carcass disposal practice in the study area was benefi¬

cial to vultures. When asked what they do with dead

livestock, 63% of respondents said they left carcasses in

an open place, while 24% bury them. Local people had

favourable attitudes towards vulture conservation.

When asked whether we should conserve vultures,

85% said ‘yes’ while 15% said ‘no’ (N=67). The

reasons given for vulture conservation were: sanitation

(77% of respondents), aesthetics (7%), ecological role

(9%) and medicinal purposes (7%). Although not

quantified, the use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers

was common practice among local farmers. Informal

discussions indicated that local people were not aware

of the potential adverse health effects of these chemi¬

cals on humans and wildlife. Diclofenac as a possible

cause of vulture mortality was not known by us during

the fieldwork, so we did not collect information on the

extent of its use.

DISCUSSION

A population crash is taking place in three species of

Gyps vultures in the Indian subcontinent, involving

high mortality rates and breeding failure (Prakash

2001). It is likely to lead to their extinction if the

causes are not addressed (BirdLife International

2001). In the Rampur Valley, we found 72-102 White-

rumped Vultures at six colonies during the breeding

season, with a 50% breeding success at 70 occupied

nests. Of considerable concern, we found 33 dead

vultures, including 30 adults. In Koshi Tappu Wildlife

Reserve (eastern Nepal), Virani et al. (2001) reported

a high fledgling mortality rate (50%), and only 28% of

67 nests successfully fledged young. In Rampur, we

found that the proportion of abandoned nests

increased from 7% to 29% towards the end of the

breeding season, perhaps because of high nestling

mortality. The breeding productivity of 0.5 chicks per

occupied nest is higher than recorded for other parts

of Nepal (Virani et al. 2001, Giri and GC 2002, Baral,

2002), but similar to the 0.48 fledglings/pair measured

for other Gyps species in Africa (Martinez et al. 1997).

However, our estimate may be inflated by the assump¬

tion that all chicks alive in April would survive to

fledge successfully. If true, it implies that breeding

failure is not causing population declines in the

Rampur Valley.

In India, nesting and roosting habitats for the

species are considered to be abundant (Prakash 2001).

In Rampur, these could be limiting factors because the

valley has sparse vegetation. Vultures mainly use kapok

trees for nesting in the valley. These trees are commer¬

cially important to enable the Community Forest User

Group (CFUG) to collect revenue, so logging of trees

may limit the nest-site availability. At Khairini, local

people informed us that they planned to log some

mature kapok trees, including some that held vulture

nests. We informed the district forest office and the

logging was prevented, at least temporarily. We recom¬

mend piloting a local model of ‘debt-for-nature swap’

to protect critical habitats for vultures. A non-govern¬

mental organisation could buy mature kapok trees at a

competitive market price and deposit the amount in

the CFUG’s bank account. In this way, local people

would have the incentive to protect forests and to

utilise the funds for integrated vulture conservation

and development projects.

Nepal is a Hindu kingdom, so slaughtering of cattle

is forbidden by law. Local people rarely eat beef. As

livestock form the bulk of the species’s diet, the food

supply is unlikely to be limiting. At present, the

population density of stray dogs is low. In India,

vulture declines have led to increases in feral dog

numbers, with associated human health risks

(Cunningham et al. 2001, Pain et al. 2003). This

problem may increase in Nepal if vultures continue to

decline.

Land-use patterns influence raptor diversity and

density (Herremans and Herremans-Tonnoeyr 2000).

In Africa, Brandi et al. (1985) reported a negative

correlation between human impact on the landscape

and raptor diversity and density. However, vultures

have the highest density at the interface between

protected and unprotected areas (Herremans and

Herremans-Tonnoeyr 2000). In the Rampur Valley, all

six vulture colonies abut human settlements. Given

this, protection of the sites could be a feasible and cost-

effective conservation strategy. In addition, given their

Critically Endangered status and pivotal ecological

role, the three Gyps vultures should be added to the

protected species list of the 1973 National Parks and

Wildlife Conservation Act. Most importantly and

urgently, now that the main cause of the vulture

population decline has been discovered to be

diclofenac (Oaks et al. 2004), the use of this drug needs

to be banned, and stocks replaced with a safe alterna¬

tive. An effective captive breeding population needs to

be built up while this is being achieved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Oriental Bird Club for funding the

project. Special thanks to staff of Bird Conservation Nepal for their

cooperation. We acknowledge our gratitude to Carol Inskipp,

Forktail 21 (2005)

Population status and breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture

91

Suzanne Shultz, Munir Virani and JoelT. Heinen for their comments

while preparing the manuscript. We would like to thank Richard

Cuthbert of RSPB for reviewing the manuscript. We thank Gautam

Benu, Madhav Bashyal, Akbar Ali Khan, Pradip Regmi, and Pranaya

Chhetri for their assistance in the field, the owner of Manakamana

Lodge for cosy accommodation, and local people for their coopera¬

tion and support.

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Hamestrom Jr., B. E. Harrell and R. R. Olendorff (eds).

Proceedings of the conference on raptor conservation techniques. Fort

Collins, Colorado, U.S.A.

Prakash, V. (1999) Status of vultures in Keoladeo National Park,

Bharatpur, Rajasthan, with special reference to population crash

in Gyps species. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96: 365-378.

Prakash, V. (2001) Status and distribution of vultures in India with

special reference to the population crash in Gyps species. Pp. 4-6

in T. Katzner and J. Parry-Jones (eds) Reports from the workshop

on Indian Gyps vultures, 4th Eurasian congress on raptors, Sevilla,

Spain, September 2001 . Seville, Spain: Estacion Biologica Donana

Raptor Research Foundation.

Prakash, V., Pain, D. J., Cunningham, A. A., Donald, P. F., Prakash,

N., Verma, A., Gargi, R., Sivakumar, S. and Rahamani, A. R.

(2003) Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backed Gyps

bengalensis and long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations. Biol.

Conserv. 109: 381-390.

Sharma, I. K. (1969) Breeding of the Indian white-backed vulture at

Jodhpur. Ostrich 41(3): 205-207.

Shultz, S., Baral, H. S., Charman, S., Cunningham, A. A. , Das, D.,

Ghalsasi, G. R., Goudar, M. S., Green, R. E., Jones, A., Nighot,

P., Pain, D. J. and Prakash, V. (2004) Diclofenac poisoning is

widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian

subcontinent. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B (Suppl.): doi

10.1098/rsbl. 2004. 0223.

Virani, M., Gilbert, M., Watson, R., Oaks, L., Benson, R, Kham, A.

A., Baral, H. S. and Giri, J. B. (2001) Asian vulture crisis project:

field results from Pakistan and Nepal for the 2000-2001 field

season. Pp. 7-9 in T. Katzner and J. Parry-Jones (eds) Reports

from the workshop on Indian Gyps vultures, 4th Eurasian congress on

raptors, Sevilla, Spain, September 2001. Seville, Spain: Estacion

Biologica Donana Raptor Research Foundation.

Nabin Baral, Department of Environmental Studies, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, U.S.A.

Email: nbaral@yours.com

Ramji Gautam, Department of Zoology, Prithvi Narayan Campus, Pokhara, Nepal. Email: gautamramji@yahoo.com

Bijay Tamang, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Box 110410, Gainesville, FL 32611-

0410, U.S.A. Email: bijay@ufl.edu

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 93-98

Raptor migration in east Bali, Indonesia:

observations from a bottleneck watch site

FRANCESCO GERMI

A migration bottleneck site for raptors was located near the easternmost point of Bali, on the eastern slopes of the Seraya Range. On

16 days during 24 October to 19 November 2004, a total of 7,169 raptors of four species was observed crossing the Lombok Strait

in an eastward direction. The four species were, in decreasing order of abundance, Chinese Sparrowhawk Accipiter soloensis. Oriental

Honey-buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus, Japanese Sparrowhawk A. gularis and Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus. Chinese Sparrowhawk,

contrary to conclusions from previous studies and reviews, was the commonest migrant sparrowhawk in Bali. Booted Eagle was

recorded for the first time inWallacea. In order to locate the migration routes and other possible crossing points, an additional 19 days

were spent in October-November at nine other locations in the eastern half of Bali, where another 1,263 migrating raptors were

counted. Another three days were spent on the island of Nusa Penida, which provides a shorter water crossing route between Bali and

Lombok, but no raptors were observed.

INTRODUCTION

Indonesia is an important wintering area for several

species of birds breeding in the eastern Palearctic. The

migration of raptors in the East Asian Flyway from

north-east to south-east Asia is still, however, poorly

understood (McClure 1998, Zalles and Bildstein 2000,

DeCandido et al. 2004), and for Indonesia in particu¬

lar there are very few data for the eastern and northern

part of the archipelago. Hence the routes taken by

migrating raptors inWallacea are still largely unknown

(White and Bruce 1986, MacKinnon and Philipps

1993, del Hoyo et al. 1994, Coates and Bishop 1997,

Ferguson-Lees and Christie 2001).

After the discovery in October 1982 of large

numbers of raptors migrating from Java to Bali (Ash

1982, 1984, Ash et al. 1987), the first structured study

on this migration was carried out in Bali Barat (West

Figure 1. Map of the Seraya Range, east Bali, with the arrows showing direction of flight and crossing points for migrating

raptors.

94

FRANCESCO GERMI

Forktail 21 (2005)

Bali) National Park in 1990 (Ash 1993), followed by a

brief survey in 1994 (Mason 1994, 1995). Subsequent

work was undertaken in Java at Puncak Pass and Dieng

Mountains, in 1998, 1999 and 2001 by Nijman

(200 1 a, b, 2003, in press), and additional irregular

counts have been carried out subsequently by organi¬

sations such as Yayasan Kokokan Bali (a local NGO)

and Himbio Udayana University (V. Nijman and W.

Sukmantoro in litt. 2004).

During 3 October-25 November 2004, a survey

was carried out in eastern Bali, with the aim to locate

the main migration routes and crossing points to the

Lombok Strait, and to undertake the first counts of

raptors migrating from Bali to the Wallacean subre¬

gion.

STUDY SITE

main route in eastern Bali is from the central mountain

spine into the Seraya Range, a 16-day sampling count

was carried out atTinjalas between 24 October and 19

November 2004, totalling 85 hours of observation.

From Tinjalas, raptors were observed crossing the

strait on a 4 km long front of coastline. A pair of 10x42

binoculars and a compass were used. V. Mason joined

and helped counting on some days; on others days P.

Asmara’, a villager from Tinjalas, helped in spotting the

passing raptors. Counting started at around 06h30,

roughly 30 minutes after sunrise, until 12h30. On

some days, observations continued until 16h30, with a

two-hour break at midday to mitigate observer fatigue.

The sky above the Seraya Range was constantly

scanned using binoculars. White cumulus clouds, when

present, facilitated the detection of migrants. Raptors

were followed until they disappeared from view in the

Lombok Strait, into the clouds or at high altitude.

The study was conducted at several sites in the eastern

half of Bali, mainly in the eastern part of the Seraya

Range in Karangasem district (Fig. 1). The Seraya

Range runs in a west-east direction, and is formed by

four forested peaks: Mt Bisbis, Mt Seraya, Mt Maspait

and Mt Nampu. Mt Seraya, at 1,21 1 m, is the highest

peak. The eastern part of the range slopes steeply

toward the Lombok Strait. With the exception of the

highest mountain slopes, which are covered in

remnants of mixed deciduous and evergreen primary

and secondary forest, the slopes of the range are

terrace-cultivated with maize Zea sp., kapok Ceiba sp.

and palms Borassus sp. and Cocos sp.

Eastern Bali is one of the driest parts of the island,

with less than 1,500 mm rainfall and 5-8 dry months

each year (Whitten et al. 1996). During the 16 days

counting at Seraya, the cumulus cloud cover never

exceeded c. 40-50%, mainly concentrating above the

Seraya Range and above the coastal slopes. No rain was

recorded during the observation days. The average

daily temperature in October-November is 27-29"C.

The wind direction was constantly from S-SE.

After reconnaissance, a watch site was located on

the top of a prominent hill 200 m south of the settle¬

ment of Tinjalas, in the administrative county of Seraya

Timur, at 08 ’24'S 115°41'E, hereafter referred to as

Tinjalas. The hill is 307 m high, 2 km from the range

crest and 1 km from the coast, with a flat open top, and

maize-terraced cultivations on its flanks. A full 360°

view is achievable from the top, spanning from the

Seraya Range to the north-west, to the Lombok Strait

(here 35 km wide, at its narrowest) in the east, and the

island of Nusa Penida to the south-west. The islands of

Lombok and Nusa Penida are visible on clear days.

METHODS

To determine the main migration routes, 14 days were

spent along the east coast of Bah (Nusa Dua,

Tanjungbenoa, Serangan island, Nusa Penida island,

East Seraya, Tulamben), and eight days in the central-

eastern mountain spine (Mt Batukaru, Lake

Tamblingan, Kubusalia, Mt Agung, Tirtagangga, West

Seraya) (Table 1). After initial data suggested that the

RESULTS

In 16 sampling days atTinjalas, a total of 7,169 migrat¬

ing raptors were counted, most of them directly

observed crossing the Lombok Strait in the direction of

Lombok (Figs. 2-3). Four species were identified:

Chinese Sparrowhawk Accipiter soloensis (2,713

individuals, 38% of the total), Japanese Sparrowhawk

A. gularis (324 individuals, 5%), Oriental Honey-

buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus (1,608 individuals, 22%)

and Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus (five individuals,

0.07%). An additional 2,519 unidentified Accipiter spp.

individuals were counted, representing 35% of the

total and 45% of sparrowhawks. In the early morning

hours, when low flying allowed easier sparrowhawk

identification, Chinese Sparrowhawk was always the

most common species (89% of identified

sparrowhawks), suggesting the majority of the uniden¬

tified birds were also of this species. This is in contrast

with Ash’s findings for Bali Barat (1993), but in accor¬

dance with subsequent studies in Bali and Java (Mason

1994, 1995, Nijman 2001a, b, in press). Resident

raptor species observed regularly at Tinjalas were

Changeable Hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus (singles on

five October-November dates), Black Eagle Ictinaetus

malayensis (a pair and one juvenile on seven

October-November dates). Crested Serpent Eagle

Spilornis cheela (2-3 individuals observed on most

Date

Figure 2. Daily totals of passing raptors atTinjalas, east Bali,

October-November 2004.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Raptor migration in east Bali, Indonesia

95

days), and Spotted Kestrel Falco moluccensis (2-4

individuals observed daily).

The first raptors (both sparrowhawks and honey-

buzzards) were observed crossing the strait as early as

06h40, and the last were at 16h20. The main visible

passage occurred in between 09h00 and llhOO, but

was also noted to be significant in the late afternoon,

Date

Date

Date

Date

Figure 3. Daily totals of Chinese Sparrowhawks, Japanese

Sparrowhawks, unidentified sparrowhawks and Oriental

Honey-buzzards at Tinjalas, east Bali, October-November

2004.

especially for Oriental Honey-buzzard, which appeared

to be more capable than sparrowhawks of crossing

when thermal activity was weak. The midday hours

were less productive, when the passage appeared to be

at its lowest, or birds were simply flying too high to be

detected by a ground observer. Sparrowhawks and

Oriental Honey-buzzard flew very high by midday, and

were difficult to locate even with binoculars. Large

flocks of sparrowhawks often appeared in the sky above

the Seraya Range at c. 1,500 m, and gained altitude by

gliding from one thermal to another before crossing

the sea. Such high flying behaviour occurred mainly

from lOhOO onward, correlated with the increase of

thermal activity, and decreased in the afternoon, when

passage was reduced anyway. Observations of large

flocks disappearing at high altitude or in clouds after

lOhOO suggest that a large proportion of raptors were

undetectable by midday. By 16h00, two hours before

dusk, the passage apparently decreased, with only a few

birds seen crossing.

On days of strong S-SE wind, raptors were

observed soaring longer than usual near the crossing

points, and finally crossing at an angle to compensate

for the wind direction. Oriental Honey-buzzards often

engaged in flapping-flight while crossing at low

altitude, especially early morning and afternoon, when

thermal activity was weak. The two sparrowhawk

species apparently showed more reluctance in crossing

the water, soaring longer above the coastal slopes, and

at greater heights in thermals before undertaking the

crossing. On occasions, single individuals or small

flocks of sparrowhawks and honey-buzzards were seen

turning back from the strait and landing on the coastal

slopes. Multi- and single-species flocks occurred daily,

formed mainly in soaring conditions, but also during

gliding between thermals. The two sparrowhawk

species often flocked together or with honey-buzzards.

The largest monospecific flocks of each species were

170 Chinese Sparrowhawks on 31 October, seven

Japanese Sparrowhawks on 24 October and 15

Oriental Honey-buzzards on 24 October. Two of the

five Booted Eagles were seen together in a flock of

seven honey-buzzards on 15 November. The two

sparrowhawks and Oriental Honey-buzzard were often

observed flying above forest on the Seraya Range

shortly after sunrise, indicating that it is used as a

roosting site.

No movements of raptors were recorded on Nusa

Penida during three observation days (13, 20, and 30

October, Table 1), although intervening and subse¬

quent days at Tinjalas proved to yield a large passage.

Movements of raptors were also recorded on the

central mountain spine (south of Mt Batukaru, south

of Mt Agung, Table 1), where 1,263 migrating raptors

were counted. This finding, combined with very few

sightings during three days of observation on the

northern side of the mountains (at Kubusalia and Lake

Tamblingan), reinforced the hypothesis that the

southern side of the mountains is used as a ‘leading

line’ (Mason 1995). However, the relatively small

number of raptors counted at peak migration might be

because of low cloud cover over mountain areas,

reducing the visibility of flying birds. No significant

raptor movements were recorded in the south-east of

Bali nor on the north-east coast.

96

FRANCESCO GERMI

Forktail 21 (2005)

DISCUSSION

The observations and counts at different sites in

eastern Bali indicate that the Seraya Range is an inter¬

nationally significant bottleneck for migrating raptors

(Zalles and Bildstein 2000). Most of the raptors

migrating from western to eastern Indonesia during

the northern autumn can be monitored from Tinjalas.,

and the numbers counted indicate that Wallacea is an

important wintering area for raptors of eastern

Palearctic origin. Further investigation in eastern

Indonesia is required to determine their final destina¬

tion. Very few records of the three main species

observed crossing the Lombok Strait are known for the

western Lesser Sundas, and none has been previously

recorded in Lombok (White and Bruce 1986, Andrew

1992, Coates and Bishop 1997, van Balen 1998),

denoting the currently poor knowledge of migrating

raptors’ distribution in the region.

Previous studies in Bali and Java have recorded

totals of 11,000 raptors in 32 days (9 October-9

November 1990) in Bali Barat (Ash 1993), 5,255 in 3

days (16-18 October 1994) in Bali Barat (Mason

1994) and 3,700 in 66 days (autumns 1998, 1999 and

2001) in Dieng Mountains, Java (Nijman in press).

Nijman (in press) estimated that 29,000 migrant

raptors pass the Dieng Mountains annually. In East

Bali, the 7,200 raptors observed at Tinjalas in 16 days

during the second half of the season suggest that total

numbers may be higher than the 29,000 extrapolated

by Nijman. Moreover, migrants were still passing

during the last observation day (19 November),

suggesting that the migration continued into late

November. The count period at Tinjalas was late in the

migration season compared with previous studies and

therefore provides insights into the latter stages of the

migration period. Oriental Honey-buzzard passage

showed a marked second peak after mid-November.

For Chinese Sparrowhawk, numbers indicate that the

passage was ending towards the second half of

November, while this pattern was less marked for

Japanese Sparrowhawk.

The observation of five Booted Eagles crossing the

Lombok Strait in mid-November (three on 15

November and two on 19 November, all dark morphs)

indicates that this species winters in Wallacea, despite

the lack of previous records (White and Bruce 1986,

Andrew 1992, van Balen 1994, Coates and Bishop

1997). Single individuals are reported rarely in Bali

and Java (Ash 1982, 1984, MacKinnon and Phillipps

1993, Nijman 2001b, 2003).

The large proportion of unidentified sparrowhawks

is similar to previous figures reported in other studies

in the region (Nijman 200 1 a, b, in press). During a

survey in west Bali, Mason (1994: 6) stated that

‘practically all birds flew over at a great height, barely,

if at all, visible to the naked eye... they were probably

flying too high and fast to enable detection against a

brilliant blue sky and uncomfortably close to the sun’.

Kerlinger (1989) compared results from simultaneous

radar and visual observations in New Jersey, and

showed that at more than 1,500 m distance, most

raptors could not be identified visually, even using

binoculars or a spotting scope.

Differences in maximum flight altitudes recorded in

tropical and temperate latitudes (Smith 1980,

Table 1. Migrating raptors counted at sites in east Bali in October-November 2004.

Forktail 21 (2005)

Raptor migration in east Bali, Indonesia

97

Kerlinger 1989) suggest that thermal lift may be much

stronger in warmer climates, and flight altitude conse¬

quently higher compared to temperate climates. It is

extremely unlikely that no passage occurred at the time

of day with the strongest thermal activity and hence the

best soaring conditions. Observation at Tinjalas

suggests that large numbers of individuals were still

crossing by midday, but too high to be detected. Smith

(1980, 1985) cited reports by pilots in Panama that

migrating raptors often attained heights of

3, 600-4, 000m between llhOO and 13h30 on days of

favourable thermal activity, and suggested these as

possible explanations for the so-called ‘noon-day lull’.

For these reasons, the count results are subject to an

important quantitative bias, because the figures reflect

only the visible migration, which represents an

unknown proportion of the real passage. Thus no

attempt has been made to estimate numbers in this

study, and only counts of observed individuals are

reported.

There is an interesting discrepancy between

authors regarding the proportion and numbers of

Japanese to Chinese Sparrowhawks. Ash (1993)

reported a ratio of Japanese to Chinese Sparrowhawks

of 8.4:1. However, Nijman (2001b) in Java found

Chinese Sparrowhawk to be ten times more common

than Japanese Sparrowhawk. I found a very similar

ratio in east Bali, where Chinese Sparrowhawk repre¬

sented 89% of identified sparrowhawks. Ash’s results

may be because of the apparently unfavourable

watching conditions at Teluk Terima, the watch site

used in Bali Barat National Park. At this site, which is

on a beach at sea level, many passing raptors are

observed at very high altitude or in the distance

(personal observations 2004), and hence identification

is extremely difficult. During a survey at this site,

Mason (1994: 6) stated that ‘it was impossible to

distinguish the accipiters at such distance, and it

seemed futile to make the attempt’. The issue is

discussed in detail elsewhere (Nijman et al. in prep.). In

mainland South-East Asia, the data are also contradic¬

tory. Wells (1999) reported Japanese Sparrowhawk to

be far more common than Chinese Sparrowhawk in

peninsular Malaysia, but with significant fluctuations

during recent decades, whilst DeCandido et al. (2004)

counted 57,667 Chinese Sparrowhawks but only 5,81 1

Japanese Sparrowhawks in a recent study in southern

Thailand. These data match the ratio found in Java and

Bali (Nijman et al. in prep.).

Assuming that the birds crossing at Tinjalas

followed the Malacca-Sumatra-Java-Bali route, the

Lombok Strait is the fourth water crossing encoun¬

tered after leaving mainland South-East Asia, and the

longest after Tanjung Tuan in Malaysia. In a straight

line, the crossing from East Seraya to Lombok involves

a flight of 35 km above water at its narrowest point.

Nusa Penida provides potentially the shortest water

crossing route between Bali and Lombok, with only

22 km of water to cross. The position of the island,

interposed in between Bali and Lombok in the strait,

makes it an apparently ideal ‘stepping stone’ for

migrating birds.

The scarcity of winter records for the four species

might be a consequence of the lack of observers, and it

is extremely likely that some individuals winter on Bali.

Indeed, there have been recent irregular sightings of

both sparrowhawks and Oriental Honey-buzzards in

the Ubud area of Bali throughout the boreal winter (V.

Mason in litt. 2005).

Threats and recommendations

The forested areas on the higher slopes of the Seraya

Range are used for roosting by migrating raptors.

Current logging activity will reduce suitable roosting

sites in the foreseeable future. Local villagers complain

about predation by raptors on domestic poultry

through the year, although this probably involves

resident species. No evidence of direct persecution in

the area was found, and no information is currently

available on possible trapping activity for the

widespread cagebird trade in Indonesia.

Bildstein and Zalles (1995) suggested that raptor

migration watch sites remain a largely untapped but

potentially substantial source of ecotourism revenue.

With this in mind, the migrating raptors concentrating

in Seraya are potentially a valuable asset for the local

economy, and offer an opportunity for developing

ecotourism activities. Bali, which is by far the most

popular tourist destination in Indonesia, already

receives over two million visitors a year (Whitten et al.

1996). The creation of a protected area covering raptor

roost sites in Seraya might provide a new sustainable

resource to the local economy. Well-known success

stories in raptor migration tourism, like the Hawk

Mountain Sanctuary in Pennsylvania or the

International Birding and Research Center in Eilat,

Israel, show that this can be successful.

Additional monitoring work is required at Tinjalas

and further east in Wallacea, as in western Indonesia.

Traditional count methods combined with motorised

glider and radar counts are recommended in order to

obtain more reliable and complete data.

Radiotelemetry should be used to answer questions on

migration pathways, flight strategies, habitat usage and

distribution, among others. International researchers

and Indonesian NGOs should join efforts in order to

coordinate future work more effectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe much gratitude to Victor Mason for valuable information, time

shared in the mountains of Bali and for useful comments to the first

draft; Nick Blackbeard who kindly supplied me with the necessary

cartography; Putu Asmara’ for his help at Tinjalas; Giuseppe

Carpaneto and Alberto Zocchi for critical assessment of the

manuscript; Vincent Nijman for constructive help; Wishnu

Sukmantoro for many useful contacts in Indonesia; Vanessa Wise and

Andrew Midgley for editing the English text; Ray Harris and Doreen

Phillips for creating the maps; and Keith Bildstein who greatly

improved the final version of the manuscript.

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24-35.

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Francesco Germi, 46 (2F2) Elm Row, Edinburgh EH7 4AH, Scotland, U.K. Email: francesco@germi.freeserve.co.uk

FORKTAIL 21 (2005): 99-1 20

Abstracts of ornithological masters’ theses from

Taiwan, 1977-2003

WOEI-HORNG FANG

Since the late 1970s, many masters’ theses in Taiwan

have investigated aspects of the island’s avifauna,

including a substantial number of studies on the

endemic species. This paper presents abstracts of these

studies, in some cases condensed from the originals, to

bring this important body of data to international

attention. In recent years, all Taiwanese masters’ theses

have been required to have Chinese and English bilin¬

gual abstracts, but this was not the case for those

published before 1993. Thus, nine of the early theses

have only Chinese abstracts, and I have translated

these into English (as indicated after the title). Editing

has been largely confined to clarity of expression rather

than change of content. Taxonomy and nomenclature

follow Inskipp et al. (1996) except for usage in thesis

titles, where the researcher’s original usage is also given

(with Inskipp et a/.’s nomenclature inserted in square

brackets). This is to facilitate readers in tracing the

thesis. The full theses are mostly in traditional Chinese,

except for numbers 3, 7, 10 and 23, which are in

English. Readers wishing to consult the full theses

should contact the institutions directly. Some are also

held in the National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan

(http://www2.ncl.edu.tw/).

Table 1 shows that more than half of the theses

(57%) focused on single species. Among subjects,

breeding behaviour and ecology accounted for almost

half of the theses (48%), foraging behaviour and

ecology accounted for 25% and community structure

accounted for 16%. Many theses addressed more than

one of the subjects listed in Table 1 .

THESIS ABSTRACTS

1 . Jai Peng (1977) A study of ecological isolation of

birds in Taiwan. Department of Biology, Tunghai

University, Taichung. Adviser: Lin Jun-Yi.

Ecological isolating mechanisms of 130 species of

landbird breeding in Taiwan are described. Factors

such as geography, altitude, horizontal and vertical

habitat, foraging behaviour, body size, bill morphology

and diet were analysed. Within each avian community,

‘guilds’ were defined to show functional structure.

Only two species, Light-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus

sinensis and Styan’s Bulbul P. taivanus , appeared to be

completely geographically isolated. Altitudinal ranges

varied according to local distributions; generally,

species occupied specific ranges, especially during the

breeding season. Most species did not show clear

directional or seasonal migration along altitudinal

gradients. Altitudinal ranges averaged 1,333 m, which

is larger than in other similar studies. The greatest

changes in avifauna occurred at around 1,000 m and

2,300 m. For practical purposes, three altitudinal

zones of bird distribution were distinguished: low

altitude (<1,000 m); intermediate altitude

(1,000-2,300 m); and high altitude (>2,300 m). Bird

species diversity increased from sea-level, reached its

peak (66 species) at 1,200-1,500 m, and then

decreased to five species at high altitudes. The relative

paucity of the forest avifauna at low altitudes was

attributed to human disturbance of habitats and histor¬

ical factors during colonisation of Taiwan by people in

Table 1. Subject matter of ornithological masters’ theses from Taiwan (N=67), 1977-2003.

100

WOEI-HORNG FANG

Forktail 21 (2005)

the 18th century. In forest, the proportion of species

occupying the ground layer was greatest at low

altitudes, whereas the proportion of species occupying

the shrub layer increased with altitude. Species

occupying the forest understorey were reduced or

absent in pure coniferous forest. The proportion of

canopy species decreased with altitude. Foliage-

gleaning and ground-foraging were the two most

common foraging behaviours. Low altitudes, especially

those near sea-level, supported more species of aerial

foragers. Hover-gleaning species disappeared abruptly

at c. 2,400 m. Birds of prey were absent above 2,700 m.

Only one species of bark-feeder occurred at low

altitudes. The proportion of small-bodied (4-9 cm)

species increased with altitude, whereas that of inter¬

mediate (9.5-17 cm) species decreased. No clear trend

was observed for large-bodied (17.5-38 cm) species.

Species with body sizes of 4-6 cm appeared to occur

most frequently above 2,100 m. Within each altitudinal

range, food resources were generally exploited

uniformly, except in the case of vertebrates and larger

invertebrates.

2. Hsu Jy-Minna (1984) A biological study of

Styan’s Bulbul Pycnonotus taivanus and Chinese

[=Light-vented] Bulbul P. sinensis forniosae.

Department of Zoology, National Taiwan University,

Taipei. Adviser: LinYao-Sung; [translated by WHF].

Between September 1982 and August 1983, an

860-hour field study of Styan’s Bulbul Pycnonotus

taivanus and Light-vented Bulbul P. sinensis was

conducted in Renting and Taipei (botanic garden, zoo,

youth park and NTU campus). In 1983, specimens of

both species were purchased from Pingtung for

external measurement and inspection of the sexual

organs in order to compare their appearance, breeding

biology and ecology. In total, 222 Light-vented

Bulbuls, 176 Styan’s Bulbuls and 15 ‘intermediate

morphs’ were obtained. The adultrjuvenile and

male:female ratios amongst the specimens were similar

for both species. Males were larger than females, and

Styan’s Bulbul was larger than Light-vented Bulbul.

Intra-specific size differences between the sexes were

greater than inter-specific size differences between

individuals of the same sex. The plumage and size of

the ‘intermediate’ specimens were between those of the

two species, and their geographical distribution was

from the area of overlap between the two species’

ranges. Hence, they possibly represented hybrids of the

two species. The daily activity patterns of Styan’s and

Light-vented Bulbuls were influenced by both time

and season. Birds were generally active in the early

morning and late afternoon. During breeding season,

Styan’s Bulbuls remained active throughout the day,

although this was apparently not the case for Light-

vented Bulbul. Both species occurred in pairs

throughout the year, although during the non-breeding

season they could be found in flocks. In both species,

threatening behaviour included supplanting, chases,

alert and ‘head forward’ postures, which were all used

in the establishment and defence of territories. Wing¬

lifting, song and aerial displays were used during

territory advertisement, and, combined with chasing,

‘head forward’ and pre-copulatory display, attracted

females for mating. The breeding season of Styan’s

Bulbul was from late March to early July, the peak

being during April. Light-vented Bulbul bred later,

with the peak in May. In both species, nest construc¬

tion and incubation were carried out entirely by the

female. Males guarded and defended the territory.

Nestlings were fed by both parents. Females of both

species laid at 24-hour intervals, and incubation began

when the last egg was laid. The incubation period was

11-12 days. Nestlings required frequent brooding. The

fledging period was 9-10 days. In Styan’s Bulbul,

average clutch-size was 3.3 eggs and hatching success

was 60%; the average number of nestlings per nest was

2.7. In Light-vented Bulbul, average clutch-size was

2.9 eggs and hatching success was 65%; the average

number of nestlings per nest was 2.6. Both species

frequently had two broods. Styan’s Bulbul was very

selective with respect to nest-site: of 84 nests found in

Renting, 75% were in Calophyllum inophyllum,

although the latter comprised just 34% of the trees

locally.

3. Lin Lu-Shih (1985) The breeding ecology of two

wren warblers [=prinias]: [Plain Prinia] Prinia

subflava formosae {—Prinia inornata ] and

[Yellow-bellied Prinia] P. flaviventris sonitans in

central Taiwan. Department of Biology, Tunghai

University, Taichung. Adviser: Paul S. Alexander.

Populations of Plain Prinia Prinia inornata and

Yellow-bellied Prinia P flaviventris were studied

between January 1984 and May 1985 in an area of

c.2 km2 covering parts of the Tunghai University

campus and adjacent Taichung Industrial Zone. The

breeding activity of 68 pairs of Plain Prinia and 27

pairs ofYellow-bellied Prinia was studied between April

and September 1984. Most Plain Prinia breeding

activity occurred between April and August, whereas

breeding by Yellow-bellied Prinia occurred mainly

between May and July. Habitats used by Yellow-bellied

Prinia had denser vegetation than those used by Plain

Prinia. Nesting sites of both species occurred princi¬

pally in Panicum maximum , but also in Miscanthus

floridulus. The height of nests in these two grass species

was greater on average for Plain Prinia than Yellow-

bellied Prinia. Average clutch-size in Plain Prinia (4.35

eggs) was higher than in Yellow-bellied Prinia (3.87

eggs). Egg size was slightly smaller in Plain Prinia. In

both species, egg weight was correlated with laying

order. Hatching and fledging success were higher in

Yellow-bellied Prinia than in Plain Prinia, but a greater

number of clutches in Plain Prinia compensated for the

lower productivity per clutch. These data suggest that

the two species of prinia maintain their population

levels by different adaptations.

4. Li Pei-Yi (1986) The natural history of Black-

naped Blue Flycatcher [=Black-naped Monarch]

and why it joins mixed-species flocks. Department

of Biology, Tunghai University, Taipei. Adviser: Lucia

Liu Severinghaus; [translated by WHF].

This study was on the behaviour of Black-naped

Monarch Hypothymis azurea, the benefit individuals

gain from joining mixed-species flocks, and how

mixed-species feeding flocks form. Between June 1984

and April 1986, the behaviour of Black-naped

Monarch was studied at Tunghai University campus,

Forktail 21 (2005)

Abstracts of ornithological masters’ theses from Taiwan, 1977-2003

101

Taichung. Foraging efficiency and incidences of preda¬

tion were studied, both when feeding in flocks with

Vinous-throated Parrotbill Paradoxornis webbianus or

Japanese White-eye Zosterops japonicus, and when

feeding alone. The species preferred Acacia confusa

woodland with low human disturbance. Black-naped

Monarchs were monogamous, with the pair-bond

lasting year-round. Both sexes defended the territory.

They fed on insects captured by flycatching. The

breeding season was from late April to late July, with

one or two broods per year. The average clutch-size

was three eggs, and the incubation period was 14 days.

The fledging period was 10 days, although fledglings

stayed with the parents for 40-60 days before

becoming independent. Both sexes shared the incuba¬

tion, brooding and provisioning of chicks, although

females did a greater share of chick provisioning. Males

carried out nest-site defence duties. The species usually

joined mixed-species flocks during the non-breeding

season, most commonly during January. Although

individuals fed in the canopy when alone and when

joining Japanese White-eye flocks, Black-naped

Monarchs foraged in lower bushes when they joined

Vinous-throated Parrotbill flocks. Foraging efficiency

was higher when in mixed-species flocks: although

individuals did not obtain more food, they saved

energy when capturing prey. The benefits of joining

mixed-species flocks varied according to the

constituent species. Foraging efficiency increased when

birds joined parrotbill flocks, whereas there was no

significant difference when birds joined white-eye

flocks. The incidence of predation was lowest in parrot¬

bill flocks, second lowest in white-eye flocks, and

highest when alone.

5. Yuan Hsiao-Wei (1986) A behavioural and

ecological study of Lesser [=Oriental] Skylark

Alauda gulgula at Renting Pasture. Department of

Zoology, National Taiwan University, Taipei. Adviser:

LinYao-Sung; [translated by WHF],

Between April 1985 and March 1986, a 750-hour

field study of Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula was

conducted in the pasture and surrounding hills of

Renting National Park, Pingtung county. The lark

population was dependent on the vegetation status of

the habitat. During August-September, before the

pangola grass Digitaria decumbens had been harvested,

and when average grass height was >80 cm, the larks

moved to nearby grassland with shorter grass. Areas

with livestock also contained higher numbers of larks.

Daily activity was affected by the seasons, and started

and ended within one hour of sunrise and sunset

respectively. Birds were most active in the period

between sunrise and lOhOO, with another peak of

activity shortly before sunset. In the breeding season,

birds maintained relatively high levels of activity

throughout the day. During the breeding season, a

higher proportion of birds was in pairs, whereas during

the non-breeding season, birds were mainly seen singly

or in flocks. Individual behaviour included resting,

alert, feeding, bathing and preening. Social interac¬

tions included agonistic behaviour such as

supplanting, chasing, posturing and fighting, as well as

singing from the ground and in flight. Alert, agonistic

and vocal behaviour changed in frequency through the

breeding season, which was from early March to late

June, with a peak in late April. Males began by estab¬

lishing territories and attracting females for mating.

Nest building and incubation were carried out exclu¬

sively by the female, while the male defended the

territory. Eggs were laid during the early morning, and

the average clutch size was 2.6 eggs. Eggs had an

average weight of 2.8 g and average dimensions of

21.6x16.3 mm. Egg size was negatively related to

clutch size, and varied significantly between nests.

Incubation began soon after the last egg was laid.

Females incubated eggs only when the temperature

was below 26UC or above 37°C; most of the time they

only turned the eggs. Long spells of incubation were

not observed. The incubation period was 12 days, and

the female brooded the nestlings for 3-4 days.

Provisioning of nestlings was shared by both parents.

Chicks fledged after 8-9 days, after which fledglings

were provisioned by the parents for another 15 days.

Hatching success averaged 59%, but was much higher

earlier in the breeding season (95% before May) than

later (8.3% after May). Fledging success averaged

68%; later nests were less successful owing to preda¬

tion, and heavy rains after May. The growth curves of

chick weight and tarsus length showed a close fit to

logarithmic relationships. Growth of the tarsus

(Kl=0.59) was faster than increases in weight

(Kw=0.35). At 15 days old, fledglings were relatively

capable of flight.

6. ChuYueh-Li (1987) A behavioural and ecologi¬

cal study of egrets. Department of Biology, National

Taiwan Normal University, Taipei. Adviser: Wang Ying;

[translated by WHF] .

Of the six species of egret occurring in Taiwan, only

four are common. These include two winter visitors

(Great Egret Casmerodius albus and Intermediate Egret

Mesophoyx intermedia ) and two resident species (Little

Egret Egretta garzetta and Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis).

Feeding behaviour of these species was studied

between September 1985 and March 1986 at Nan-Jen

Mountain in Renting National Park. A positive corre¬

lation was found between the number of cattle and the

number of Cattle Egrets following them (r=0.4,

P<0.05). The percentage of egrets foraging with

grazing cattle increased as the ratio of Cattle

Egrets/cattle increased. It appeared that egrets

preferred to follow cattle when the cattle were grazing

since 97% of grazing cattle were accompanied by

egrets while only 5 1 % of cattle without attendant

egrets were grazing. There was no significant difference

in feeding frequency between egrets following and not

following cattle. However, the time distribution of

feeding, watching, preening, and bathing between

these two groups was very different. In winter, Little

Egrets defended their feeding territories in streams

from intruders. After chasing, the owner’s behaviour

was affected by the presence of the intruder. When the

owner of a neighbouring territory was in sight, the

incidence of intrusion was lowered. Neighbouring

territorial egrets helped to drive intruders away. After a

chasing incident, if the intruder entered a neighbour¬

ing territory when the neighbour was out of sight, the

first territory owner increased its activity in the neigh¬

bouring territory. Little Egrets were most active in the

102

WOEI-HORNG FANG

Forktail 21 (2005)

centre of territories. The frequency of chasing incidents

was correlated significantly with the use of the territory

boundary by the owner (r=0.7, P<0.05). Little Egret

foraging techniques varied with habitat and food

abundance, and hence indirectly affected the time

spent in different habitats. The frequency of feeding

attempts by young birds (3.0 attempts/min) was higher

than for adults (1.4 attempts/min), but the success

rates showed no difference. The frequency of feeding

attempts was higher for territory owners (3.7

attempts/min) than intruders (2.5 attempts/min) (t-

test, P< 0.05), however, catching rate for owners (90%)

was significantly lower than for intruders (99.6%; t-

test, P<0. 05). Little Egrets showed three major

foraging techniques: walking, standing, and flycatch-

ing. Feeding frequency when walking was highest in

the breeding season (3.4 attempts/min) and much

lower in winter (0.8 attempts/min). Feeding when

standing was rarest (0.06 attempts/min). Great and

Intermediate Egrets winter in Nan-Jen area. Their

feeding frequencies and movements showed significant

differences (t-test, P<0.05).The use of feeding areas by

Intermediate Egret fitted the feeding model by

Charnov (1976).

7. Chen Hui-Chuan (1987) The biology and

breeding behaviour of [Eurasian] Tree Sparrow

[Passer montanus ] in central Taiwan. Department

of Biology, Tunghai University, Taichung. Advisers:

Paul S. Alexander and Lucia Liu Severinghaus.

This represents the first study of the biology and

breeding behaviour of Eurasian Tree Sparrow Passer

montanus in Taiwan. Field observations were

conducted between January 1986 and May 1987. In

total, 565 bouts of male courtship display were

observed and a flow-chart for courtship behaviour was

constructed. Male courtship display peaked in late

March and decreased gradually through to May. Nests

were searched for during June-August in 1986 and

April-May in 1987. The number of new clutches

peaked at the end of June. Clutch size ranged from

three to five eggs; the mode was four. Mean hatching

success per nest (±1 standard deviation) was

0.75±0.23. Both sexes appeared to make equal contri¬

butions to nest-building and parental care. Most

individuals maintained monogamous pair-bonds, but

some males paired with two females and simultane¬

ously defended and cared for two nests. Additional

extra-pair courting was also observed.

8. Luo Liu-Chi (1987) A biological study of

[Steere’s Liocichla] Liocichla steerii at Chitou.

Department of Biology, National Taiwan Normal

University, Taipei. Adviser: Wang Ying; [translated by

WHF],

From March 1986 to April 1987, a biological study

of Steere’s Liocichla Liocichla steerii was conducted at

Chitou, Nantou county. Steere’s Liocichla frequented

the transition zone between two different vegetation

types. About 77% of plants used as perches were

bushes or undergrowth less than 4 m in height; 85% of

perching sites were less than 2 m above ground. Daily

activity peaks of the species coincided mainly with

dawn and sunset. Steere’s Liocichla is omnivorous,

with a very varied diet that includes fruits, berries,

insects, other invertebrates and a range of human-

made foods. In winter, when natural foods are scarce,

food left by tourists was a major food source. In cases

of severe food shortage, birds feed on the remains of

dead conspecifics. The calls of Steere’s Liocichla can

be separated into nine types: male territorial call,

female response call, two alarm calls, fighting call,

escape call, distress call, social call, and chick begging

call. Each call is distinctive and has a specific meaning.

The male territorial call and female response are both

sex-specific. The breeding season lasts almost five

months, from mid-March to mid-August, during

which birds sing, mostly in pairs, at dawn. The average

weight of adult birds during the breeding season was

significantly lower than in the non-breeding season.

Both the male and the female defended the breeding

territory. The average territory was 60x100 m in size,

and in the shape of an irregular polygon according to

the landscape. Nests were located to one side of the

territory, not in the centre. Nests were cup-shaped and

built by both sexes from bamboo leaves, bark, roots

and leaves, lined with fine grass and plant fibres. The

pair tended the nest for two days following the comple¬

tion of building before the female laid the first egg. The

average clutch size was 2.5 eggs. Eggs were generally

pale green, speckled with dark reddish spots. On

average, eggs measured 17.9x23.9 mm, and each

weighed c.13% of the female’s body weight. The

incubation period was 16 days, with both sexes

incubating by day, but only the female by night.

Nestlings were brooded for eight days, with both

parents sharing brooding, provisioning and nest¬

cleaning duties. Chick growth rate (body weight and

tarsus length) was nearly exponential. The fledging

period was 12 days, and the average weight of fledg¬

lings was 20.5 g (n=3), equating to c.68% of the female

weight. Average tarsus length at fledging was 28.5 mm,

which is about the same as that of adults. During the

non-breeding season, between September-March, the

species formed flocks. Flock size reached its peak

during January, the coldest month of the year. Pair¬

bonds lasted into the non-breeding season. Pairs joined

flocks (of varying sizes) and began daily activities an

hour after dawn. At the end of the day, flocks broke up

into pairs again two hours after sunset.

9. Chen Tsuei-Lan (1988) A biological study of

seabirds at Mao-Yu islets. Department of Biology,

National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei. Adviser:

Wang Ying; [translated by WHF],

The Mao-Yu islets lie south-west of the Penghu

archipelago. With steep inaccessible terrain and

abundant fish resources, the area has become one of

the last traditional breeding sites for a number of tern

species. However, owing to human disturbance,

seabird populations have declined in recent years. To

facilitate the future management of the area, a two-year

survey of the avifauna and a preliminary investigation

into the dependence of terns on local resources was

conducted. The preliminary survey recorded 43 species

of bird from 22 families, seven of which breed there:

Great Crested Tern Sterna bergii , Roseate Tern 5.

dougallii, Black-napedTern ,S’. sumatrana. Bridled Tern

A. anaethetus, Brown Noddy Anous stolidus, Pacific

Reef Egret Egretta sacra and Oriental Skylark Alauda

Forktail 21 (2005)

Abstracts of ornithological masters’ theses from Taiwan, 1977-2003

103

gulgula. Only Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis , Pacific

Reef Egret and Oriental Skylark were resident year-

round, with the rest of the species being migratory.

Rarer species that were also recorded included frigate-

birds Fregata sp., Streaked Shearwater Calonectris

leucomelas and Brown Booby Sula leucogaster. The most

abundant species were Brown Noddy and Bridled

Tern, which comprised more than 90% of individuals

recorded. The breeding season of these two species was

from March to September. The average body weight

(± 1 standard deviation) was 189±10.8 g (n=13) for

Brown Noddy, and 124±7.9 g (n=29) for Bridled Tern.

Half the individuals ringed had a brood-patch.

Preliminary estimates suggested that 7,000-20,000

terns were present at the peak of the breeding season.

A few terns were also found on nearby islets, but

numbers were less than 10% of those occurring at

Mao-Yu. Habitat use differed between the two species:

62-92% of Brown Noddy nests were among rock-piles,

whereas 52-84% of Bridled Tern nests were on grass.

The distribution of nests of both species was also

affected by the slope of the terrain: as many as 260

nests/ha were recorded on steep cliffs, whereas fewer

than 1 5 nests/ha occurred in flat areas. No species are

known to be predators on the islet; although rats were

seen, their impact on the tern colonies is not known.

Differences in foraging technique were noted among

four of the tern species. Diving was used most by

Roseate Tern (90%) and Black-naped Tern (88%).

Brown Noddy used four types of foraging technique,

with foot-paddling and contact-dipping the most

commonly used (90%). Bridled Tern employed five

techniques, amongst which contact-dipping was the

most frequent (70%). The area was also used heavily

by fishermen from nearby islets throughout the year:

interviews with them revealed that fish were abundant,

and that more than 20 species could be caught in the

area. Fishing occurred by day or night, depending on

the target species. Clams, crabs and seaweed were also

abundant at Mao-Yu, and were harvested year-round.

The collection of eggs was the most obvious threat to

the bird populations on the islets, but its impact was

not determined. Disturbance by the increasing number

of tourists visiting the islets is also a concern.

10. Li Shou-Hsien (1989) The breeding biology and

flocking in the non-breeding season of Japanese

White-eye Zosterops japonica [ =Z. japonicus ].

Department of Biology, Tunghai University, Taichung.

Advisers: Paul S. Alexander and Lucia Liu

Severinghaus.

The breeding biology and flocking behaviour of

Japanese White-eye Zosterops japonicus were studied

from September 1987 to February 1989 in an area

covering c.50 ha on the campus of Tunghai University.

In 1988, the breeding season began from mid-April

and ended in mid-August. The average clutch size was

2.8 eggs. Incubation lasted 10-11 days and the young

fledged 10-11 days after hatching. Both parents shared

equally in feeding and brooding responsibilities. White-

eyes were monogamous, and pair bonds may be

maintained throughout the year. In the non-breeding

season, white-eyes formed large foraging flocks of

20-50 individuals. Flock size and composition

changed frequently throughout the day. Turnover rate

of birds in a 1.5 ha area was high. Of 94 birds ringed

in the 1.5 ha area between November 1987 and

February 1988, only eight were seen in this area one

month after ringing, and only seven were sighted about

one year later.

1 1. Chen Zhao-Jie (1989) The relationship between

breeding territory and stream habitat in Brown

Dipper Cinclus pallasii. Department of Biology,

National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei. Adviser:

Wang Ying.

From November 1987 to April 1989, Brown

Dippers Cinclus pallasii were studied in Taiwan. The

breeding season, in December-May, was earlier than

for most of the resident bird species. The early start of

breeding in this species appears to be an adaptation to

a food supply that is most abundant in winter and early

spring. For about 90% of observation time, dippers

foraged in riffles, which comprise 47% of the stream

systems in the area, suggesting that dippers prefer this

habitat type. Riffles were the most productive sites for

aquatic insects. Three types of foraging techniques —

submerge-wading, diving, and float-pecking — were

observed; submerge-wading was observed most

frequently in shallow riffles, and diving in deep riffles.

Dippers were found to be monogamous. Pairs estab¬

lished linear breeding-season territories along streams.

An average breeding territory was 1,045 m in length

(n=14) and territory size was strongly correlated with

food parameters. Nest-site availability was not a

limiting factor. Detailed analysis of the relationship

between territory size and stream habitat factors

showed that territory size was significantly correlated

with the percentage of slow, deep water. Altitude,

percentage of area comprising riffles, and total wet-

weight of aquatic insects were inversely correlated with

territory size. There were no apparent correlations

between territory size and other factors such as stream

flux, slope and water pH. In multiple regression

analysis, a model developed from the combination of

riffle area percentage and total aquatic insect weight

explained 74% of variance in territory size. The

percentage riffle area related to available feeding area

in the territory, while total wet-weight of aquatic

insects related to food supply. The combination of

these two factors related to the total food available in

each territory. Thus, territory size was closely related to

food availability.

12. Young Shuh-sen (1989) The comparative

biology of Sharp-tailed Munia [=White-rumped

Munia] and Spotted Munia | =Scaly-breasted

Munia], Department of Zoology, National Taiwan

University, Taipei. Adviser: Chiu Tai-sheng.

Life histories of White-rumped Munia Lonchura

striata and Scaly-breasted Munia L. punctulata were

studied at the Kan-tou River bank, Hsinchu county,

from January 1988 to January 1989. The research

investigated differences between their life histories, and

mechanisms favouring sympatry. There were several

similarities in natural history. Both species fed on

similar seed types year-round, and potentially affected

crop harvests. Nests of both species had an elliptical

shape with a tubular opening at the upper side hidden

with long grass stalks. The eggs were pure white, and

104

WOEI-HORNG FANG

Forktail 21 (2005)

hatched after 12-13 days. The fledging period was c.18

days, and juveniles required about 100 days to gain

adult plumage. There were several differences between

the species. Scaly-breasted Munia was larger and bred

from May to November, whereas White-rumped

Munia bred from April to December. Scaly-breasted

Munia showed highest activity in October whereas

White-rumped Munia was most active in May, July,

and October. Hatching success was 65% for White-

rumped Munia but 36% for Scaly-breasted Munia. For

the nest lining, White-rumped Munia used dry

bamboo leaves, and Scaly-breasted Munia used green

plant matter. White-rumped Munia nests were more

widely spaced than those of Scaly-breasted Munia. The

logistic growth curve of body weight was:

W= 1 1 .47/1 +e031(t 7 42) for Scaly-breasted Munia and

W=8.21/l+e 0 38 (,"5 0e" for White-rumped Munia.

13. Chang Chiung-Wen (1990) Analysis of vocal

repertoire of the bulbuls [Light- vented Bulbul]

Pycnonotus sinensis fortnosae and [Taiwan

Bulbul] P. taivanus. Department of Zoology,

National Taiwan University, Taipei. Advisers: LinYao-

Sung and Lucia Liu Severinghaus; [translated by

WHF],

From March to August 1989, a total of 290 field-

hours studying Light-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus sinensis

and Taiwan Bulbul P. taivanus were conducted at

Renting and Taipei (NTU campus, botanic garden and

Academia Sinica). From August 1989 to April 1990,

the inter-species and intra-species differences in

maximum frequency, frequency range, duration, and

time interval of these two species’ calls were analysed

using a sonagram analyser (Kay 5500) to determine

the call types used by each species. In total, 420

minutes from 175 calls of Taiwan Bulbul and 360

minutes from 89 calls of Light-vented Bulbul were

recorded. Sounds were divided into four categories:

songs, calls, harsh notes and alarm calls. Each category

was subdivided into types: eight for song and harsh

notes, four for calls and alarms. In total, there were 356

kinds of vocalisation. Among these 356 sounds, the

songs were most varied, with 239 kinds; 57 specific to

Light-vented Bulbul, 144 specific to Taiwan Bulbul,

and 38 shared by both. Although they share some

common vocalisations, there were differences between

the species in the frequency with which they were

given. Twelve harsh sounds were specific to Light-

vented Bulbul, 14 to Taiwan Bulbul, and 40 were

shared. Three calls were specific to Light-vented

Bulbul, 21 to Taiwan Bulbul, and nine were shared.

Two alarm calls were specific to Light-vented Bulbul,

ten to Taiwan Bulbul, and six were shared. Both species

gave shared harsh notes, calls, and alarms similarly

frequently. Songs, calls, and harsh notes did not differ

significantly between species in maximum frequency or

frequency range, although they did in duration and

time interval. Alarm calls of Light-vented Bulbul and

Taiwan Bulbul differed significantly in all characters:

maximum frequency, frequency range, duration and

time interval. Statistical analysis of basic phrases

showed that Light-vented Bulbul had significantly

lower intra-specific variation in sound characters.

While Taiwan Bulbul tended to add notes before or

after its basic phrase, Light-vented Bulbul did not. In

summary, the major differences between sounds of

Light-vented Bulbul and Taiwan Bulbul were in song

notes, and there was much less difference in basic

sound characters.

14. Liu Wan-Chun (1990) Polygyny in the Pale¬

headed Fan-tailed Warbler [=Bright-headed

Cisticola Cisticola exilis ] of central Taiwan.

Department of Biology, Tunghai University, Taichung.

Advisers: Paul S. Alexander and Lucia Liu

Severinghaus.

The mating system of the Bright-headed Cisticola

Cisticola exilis was studied in shrub-grassland on Tatu

mountain (180 m) in Taichung county. During

ApriLSeptember in 1989 and 1990, 14 male territories

were observed regularly for breeding activities. Most

males were bigamous, some were trigamous and others

showed successive monogamy with up to four mates

per male during the breeding season. Territorial behav¬

iour (up to 25 minutes per hour) and the absence of

paternal care by males were documented. It was not

possible to draw conclusions about the factors influ¬

encing female mate choice. Harem size did not

correlate significantly with territory size or male calling

frequency. Brooding females regularly foraged outside

the territory, suggesting that within-territory food

abundance may not influence female choice. All nests

were built on shrubs and herbs in dense vegetation,

and suitable nesting sites may be a major factor in a

female’s mate choice. The breeding season began in

early April and the last fledging occurred in mid-

September. Clutch size was 3-5 eggs and tended to

decrease later in the breeding season. The incubation

period was 15-17 days, and the brooding period was

11-13 days.

15. Tu Ming-Lin (1991) Nest site selection and

hatching success of Kentish Plover Charadrius

alexandrinus on Changhua coast, Taiwan.

Department of Environmental Science, Tunghai

University, Taichung. Advisers: Chen Peter Ping-

Huang and Wang Chung-Kuei.

From March 1990 to July 1991, nest site selection

and hatching success of Kentish Plover Charadrius

alexandrinus were studied at Hsien-His, Lun-wei, and

Lu-Kang, along the coast of Changhua county, Taiwan.

A total of 167 nests with eggs were recorded during

this period. Compared with randomly selected points,

Kentish Plover nests were closer to water, roadside,

and nests of conspecifics. Hatching success was much

higher at Hsien-Hsi (65-68%) than in the two other

areas (35-42%). Nests failed through human destruc¬

tion, nest abandonment and inclement weather. In

Lu-Kang, higher hatching success was correlated with

greater distance from other nests, proximity to water,

and proximity to roads. In Lun-Wei, hatching success

was significantly correlated with vegetation cover

surrounding the nest.

16. Liu Liang-Li (1991) Biological study of

[Collared Bush Robin] Tarsiger johnstoniae.

Department of Biology, National Taiwan Normal

University, Taipei. Adviser: Wang Ying; [translated by

WHF],

Forktail 21 (2005)

Abstracts of ornithological masters’ theses from Taiwan, 1977-2003

105

From April 1990 to March 1991, the biology of

Collared Bush Robin Tarsiger johnstoniae was studied at

New Central-Cross Highway and Yu-Shan Forestry

Road in the range of Yu-Shan National Park. The

study included ringing, breeding observations, popula¬

tion estimation and nest site measurement. In all

measurements, males (n=10) were larger than females

(n=7), except that females had longer bills than males.

Ringed males stayed in fixed territories during the

breeding season, and were monogamous. The breeding

season was from late March to mid-August. Nests were

cup-shaped structures of moss, grass roots, dead

leaves, and nylon fibres, usually placed in a hole on a

slope; they were built solely by females. Females

incubated, and the incubation period was 14 days

(n=2). Both parents shared feeding, nest cleaning and

guarding. The fledging period was 18 days (n=2);

fledgling wing and tail length reached only 72% and

53%, respectively, of that of adults. There were no

differences between provisioning rates and food sizes

provided by male and female parents. Most food items

were animals (98%). The daily activity of Collared

Bush Robin coincided with local daybreak and sunset

times. Birds were most active between 07h00 and

08h00, with 6.75 sightings/day on average; by contrast,

only 0.75 sightings/day were made at the lowest activity

period, between 16h00 and 17h00. Sightings of

individuals and pairs were significantly higher in the

breeding season than at other times of year. Calls of

females showed no seasonal differences. Males gave

significantly more alarm calls in the breeding season,

but other types of call showed no seasonal differences.

The roadside slope was divided into seven types.

Bamboo-soil slope was the most frequent nesting area

(n=5), and all other types were used in proportion to

area. The major factor affecting breeding success was

the distance from nest to road surface. This might have

been because of predation and/or disturbance effects.

17. Chung Yu (1992) Ecological study of Chinese

Bamboo Partridge Batnbusicola thoracica.

Department of Biology, National Taiwan Normal

University, Taipei. Adviser: Wang Ying; [translated by

WHF],

From March 1991 to June 1992, Chinese Bamboo

Partridges Bambusicola thoracica were studied at

Renting National Park, Pintung county, Taiwan, to

investigate vocalisations, roosting behaviour, foraging

range, external characters and breeding biology. Sixty

birds were caught (in 73 captures), including 30 males

(39 captures) and 30 females (34 captures). Capture

efficiency in open environments (1.2 captures per 100

days) was higher than that in closed environments (0.8

captures per 100 days). Calling peaked in the morning

and in March. In total, 349 calls were recorded. Calls

of males and females differ. Female calls followed

males’ most of the time. Pair duets were most frequent

in March, and male solos were most frequent in early

June. Radio-telemetry was used to investigate roosting

behaviour. Birds roosted in trees, with no fixed sites.

Roost sites were usually in dense foliage <3 m high.

Individuals in a roosting group pressed together. Eight

birds were tracked; the mean foraging area (±1

standard error) was 7,90914,011 m2, with significant

individual variation. There was no significant sexual

dimorphism in external appearance, but all measure¬

ments for males significantly exceeded those for

females, except for the lengths of the central toe and

lower mandible. Partridges nested on well-drained

slopes. Both sexes developed brood-patches. Young

grew very fast; by 80 days, their plumage was almost

indistinguishable from that of adults, and their tarsus

length reached more than 90% of that of mature birds.

18. Ding Tzung-Su (1993) Avian community

ecology of mature forests in Mt Yushan.

Department of Zoology, National Taiwan University,

Taipei. Advisers: LinYao-Sung and Lee Pei-Fen.

I studied avian communities of mature primary

forests in Mount Yushan along 1,400-3,700 m altitudi¬

nal gradients between January and October 1992. Fifty

sample stations were selected along Shalishian valley

and Nantzshian valley, located at western ridge of

Mount Yushan. Breeding bird densities were recorded

with a circular-plot method, and 30 habitat variables

were measured at each sample station. The foci of this

study were: (1) the composition and parameters of

avian communities among these vegetation zones; (2)

the classification and distribution of avian guilds; (3)

altitudinal distribution and its processes, and habitat

selection of bird species. Population densities of 59

bird species were collected. Six bird communities were

discerned by cluster analysis based on bird densities

observed at each sample station. This classification

reflected vegetation types, with the broadleaf forests

split into higher (>2,000 m) and lower (<2,000 m)

types, and bird communities of hemlock Tsuga chinen-

sis and fir Abies kawakamii forests not distinguishable.

Broadleaf forests, mixed forests and spruce Picea

morrisonicola forests had higher total bird density and

diversity; the latter declined with increasing elevation.

Hemlock and fir forests showed the highest similarity

(80% of species shared), while broadleaf forest and

juniper Juniperus squamata shrubs showed the lowest

(no overlap). Similarity between forests declined with

increasing altitudinal separation. Species’ distributions

are limited by (1) altitude, (2) ecotone, and (3)

competitive exclusion. Of the 59 bird species, 27%

seemed to be limited by altitude, 32% by a combina¬

tion of altitude with ecotone, 25% by ecotone, 9% by

obvious competitive exclusion, and 7% by uncertain

factors.

19. Lin Ming-Zhi (1994) The relations between

landscape changes and avian communities in

Guandu, Taiwan. Advisers: Lee Pei-Fen and Chen

Qing-Xia.

I studied the relations between landscape changes

and avian communities in Guandu from 1979 to 1993,

using remote sensing and a geographic information

system. Habitat types used by each bird species were

recorded from November 1992 to December 1993 to

allow landscape types to be linked to avian guilds in the

study area. There had been two distinct landscape

changes. The area of mangrove had increased in the

south, while the area of human disturbance had

increased in the north. Landscape structure indices

showed that landscape diversity and evenness

increased, but that landscape dominance decreased.

The area of building land, soil-dumping land, mixed

106

WOEI-HORNG FANG

Forktail 21 (2005)

grassland and mangroves increased, but the area of

paddyfields, ponds, Cyperus malaccensis and mudflats

decreased. During the study period, the area of paddy-

field was the highest, mangrove land increased from

0.17 ha to 17.3 ha, and land with C. malaccensis disap¬

peared. Avian species richness showed a bimodal

annual distribution, with the highest peaks in April and

November. The species richness of migrants decreased

between 1979 and 1993, but that of residents did not.

Changes from year to year of the avian species richness

were determined by the occurrence of migrants,

especially through the significant decrease shown by

both the spring and autumn migration peaks during

the 16-year period. Seven avian guilds were clustered

by habitat selection data. The annual species richness

of the shoreline, mudflat and shore-high-grass guilds

decreased, reflecting declining areas of these habitats.

The annual species richness of the woodland, grass¬

land and shoreline guilds showed only small changes,

as did the areas of these habitats, except that the area

of woodland increased. Landscape changes were the

main cause of avian community changes. Habitat

quality and quantity for migrants declined through

human disturbance and natural succession. The

management of waterfowl and their wetland environ¬

ment is an urgent need.

20. Sheu Sheau-Hwa (1994) Effect of egret flocking

on the plants and soil of egretries. Department of

Botany, National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung.

Advisers: Chen Ming-Yih and Lin Jau-Yuan.

In Taiwan, Little Egret Egretta garzetta, Cattle Egret

Bubulcus ibis and Black-crowned Night Heron

Nycticorax nycticorax nest together at certain egretries

(heronries). The effects of egret crowding on the plants

and soils below egretries were studied. Egretries

usually have dense forests and good feeding environ¬

ments. Dominant trees differ between egretries, and

include Casuarina equisetifolia, Broussonetia papyrifera,

Melia azedarach, bamboos and mangroves. Some

egretries have moved to coastal areas, reflecting inten¬

sive land use and increasing disturbance inland, and

rapid expansion of fish ponds in coastal areas. Egretries

in coastal areas are mainly in Casuarina and mangrove

stands. Recently, a few more egretries also have been

established in southern Taiwan. Accumulating faeces

produce soils below egretries that have low pH values

and are extremely rich in available phosphorus and

organic matter. Plants less susceptible to contamina¬

tion by faeces, such as C. equisetifolia, Ficus microcarpa,

Avicennia marina and Kandelia candel, have a smooth

epidermis (so that faeces are easily detached from the

leaf) and protected stomata on the epidermis of the

underside of the leaf. More susceptible plants, includ¬

ing Broussonetia papyrifera, Achyranthes aspera and

Lantana camara, usually wither when coated by faeces

because the stomata on both the upper and lower

epidermis are not well protected and so are easily

blocked. This retards leaf physiological processes.

21. Chen Te-Kang (1994) Resource partitioning of

avian communities in Hsitou. Department of

Biology, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei.

Adviser: Lue Kong- Yang.

We used multivariate analysis to study resource

partitioning of avian communities in Hsitou from

September 1992 to April 1994. A 6.7-km loop was set

along virgin broadleaf forest and coniferous planta¬

tions, and various time and space parameters of the

community were measured. In total, 89 species of

woodland bird were recorded, of which 30 were

common enough for detailed analysis. Of these, 26 are

resident all year in the study area. There were more

bird species, contacts and guilds in virgin broadleaf

forest than in coniferous plantations. Cluster analysis

divided the 30 species into eleven guilds. Most

congeners belonged to different guilds, except for two

woodpeckers. DCA (detrended correspondence

analysis) and cluster analysis showed that bird species

within a guild were partitioned by vegetation type,

perch site, vertical stratification and foraging style, and

between guilds were partitioned by biome, vegetation

type, perch height, foraging behaviour and food type

(bill size). There was little evidence that interspecific

competition resulted in resource partitioning. Niche

breadth of most of bird species changed with season.

22. Tsai Chia-Yang (1994) Seasonal and spatial

variations of abundance of the Dunlin in relation

to their main prey (Crustacea: Amphipoda) at

Tatu estuary, Taiwan. Department of Environmental

Science, Tunghai University, Taichung. Adviser: Chen

Peter Ping-Huang.

Dunlin Calidris alpina is one of the commonest

shorebirds on the western Taiwan coast. This study

aimed to understand the mechanisms regulating its

distribution and abundance in the southern part of the

Tatu estuary, Changhwa county, by analysing its

feeding ecology. Exclosure experiments from March

1993 to March 1994 estimated the effects of Dunlin

feeding on amphipod density. In March-April 1993

and February-March 1994, when amphipods were

most abundant, Dunlin feeding rate ranged from 3,800

to 8,000 individual amphipods per hour at different

feeding sites. There was a positive linear relationship

(r=0.82) between the spatial distribution of Dunlins

and amphipods: more abundant amphipods attracted

more foraging Dunlins. The abundance of Dunlins and

amphipods is also positively correlated temporally

(r2=0.90).

23. Lin Hsing-Yu (1995) Seed dispersal of mistle¬

toes by flowerpeckers at Lien-Hua-Chih area,

Nan-tou county. Department of Biology, Tunghai

University, Taichung. Advisers: Paul S. Alexander and

Chiu Shau-Ting.

From March 1994 to April 1995, seed dispersal of

mistletoes Scurrula spp. by flowerpeckers Dicaeum spp.

was studied in the oil camellia Camellia oleifera planta¬

tion at Lien-Hua-Chih (23°55'N 120°52'E). Over 95%

of camellia plants were parasitised by the mistletoe Y.

rhododendricolus, which began flowering in March,

peaked in May and ended in October. Fruiting began

in April and ended in November. Plain Flowerpecker

Dicaeum concolor appeared in the plantation from

March to November, with an estimated population of

30-45 birds from late April to mid-August. Juveniles

appeared in June, when ripe fruits were plentiful, and

increased through July. Thus, breeding was synchro-

Forktail 21 (2005)

Abstracts of ornithological masters’ theses from Taiwan, 1977-2003

107

nised with mistletoe flowering and fruiting times. Fire¬

breasted Flowerpecker D. ignipectus appeared in small

numbers (c.15) in the plantation in mid-July,

decreased to six in early August, and further declined

until none was found in mid-September.

Flowerpeckers fed on mistletoe nectar and fruit. They

dispersed mistletoe seeds. Birds defecated seeds as they

perched on mistletoe (87% of observed defecations for

both species) or oil camellia branches (12% for Plain

Flowerpecker, 13% for Fire-breasted Flowerpecker)

and pressed the strings of viscous seeds to the branch.

Faeces of the two species of flowerpeckers could not be

distinguished. Ten seeds germinated on uninfected oil

camellia branches (1. 6-8.1 mm diameter) and were

successfully established with at least one shoot in

approximately six months. This represented only 1.8%

of an estimated 547 seeds dispersed by flowerpeckers

and monitored from August 1994 to April 1995. The

larger population size and greater efficiency in fruit

foraging of Plain Flowerpecker makes it more effective

in seed dispersal in the plantation than Fire-breasted

Flowerpecker.

24. Chen Rong-Tzou (1995) Research on asynchro¬

nous hatching in Little Egret. Department of

Biological Sciences, National Sun Yat-Sen University,

Kaohsiung. Adviser: Chang Hsueh-Wen.

Hatching asynchrony, sibling competition and

brood reduction of the Little Egret Egretta garzetta

were investigated in the Linyun heronry in 1993 and

1994. Egg-laying intervals averaged 39 hours, and egg¬

hatching intervals averaged 28 hours. These intervals

increased with position in the hatching order, but egg

masses did not differ significantly with laying order.

Mean clutch size was 4.0 eggs in 1993 and 3.8 eggs in

1994. Hatching success was 92% of all eggs laid in

1993 and 94% in 1994. Growth and survival probabil¬

ity of nestlings related to their hatching order. During

days 0-18, size differences among siblings were clear.

Growth and survival rates of the first and the second

nestlings were similar, but higher than those of the

third and the fourth chicks. Nestling survival rates in

different-sized clutches differed significantly. Parents

came back to the nest 48 times per day, on average, to

feed the young. When two siblings competed for food,

the elder was more likely to be fed than the younger.

Some chicks were exchanged between nests to create

broods with no hatching interval (‘pseudo-

synchronous’ broods). Asynchronous broods had a

higher proportion of partial broods, but a lower

proportion of complete nest failures compared with

pseudo-synchronous broods. On these latter nests,

parents provisioned the young 66 times per day, a