No. 26 August 2010

o5 2 <1 ° ' 3

THE NATURAL

HISTORY MUSEUM

- 8 SEP 2010

PURCHASED

TRING LIBRARY

FORKTA

Journal of Asian Ornithology

mwr u

Forktail 26

2010

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Cover picture: Chinese Crested Tern Sterna bemsteini ,

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ISSN 0950-1746

© Oriental Bird Club 2010

FORKTAIL

Number 26, 2010

Acting Editor:

N. J. Collar

Associate Editors:

Stuart Butchart, Will Duckworth, Eben Goodale and Jack Tordoff

THE NATURAL

HISTORY MUSEUM

- 8 SEP 2010

PURCHASED

TR1NG LIBRARY

CONTENTS

JEREMY P. BIRD, ALEXANDER C. LEES, SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY, ROBERT MARTIN and

4ENAM UL HAQUE

A survey of the Critically Endangered Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus in Bangladesh and

key future research and conservation recommendations . 1

R. J. TIMMINS, STEPHANE OSTROWSKI, NAQEEBULLAH MOSTAFAWI, HAFIZULLAH NOORI,

ALI MADAD RAJABI, LARS SVENSSON, URBAN OLSSON and COLIN M. POOLE

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus , including its song and breeding

habitat in north-eastern Afghanistan . 9

PHILIP D. ROUND

An analysis of records of three passage migrants in Thailand: Tiger Shrike Lanius tigrinus, Yellow-rumped

Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia and Mugimaki Flycatcher F. mugimaki . 24

NICK W. BRICKLE, JAMES A. EATON and FRANK E, RHEINDT

A rapid bird survey of the Menyapa mountains, East Kalimantan, Indonesia . . . 31

ROBERT DeCANDIDO, CHUKIAT NUALSRI and DEBORAH ALLEN

Mass northbound migration of Blue-tailed Merops philippinus and Blue-throated M. viridis Bee-eaters

in southern Thailand, spring 2007-2008 . 42

MARK R. BEZUIJEN, JAMES A. EATON, GIDEAN, ROBERT O. HUTCHINSON

and FRANK E. RHEINDT

Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma), between 1895 and 2009 . 49

DHANANJAI MOHAN and RAMAN KUMAR

Breeding birds of Kothri valley, eastern Garhwal Himalayan foothills, India . 75

E. SANTHOSHKUMAR and P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

Breeding behaviour and nest tree use by Indian Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris in the Eastern Ghats, India . 82

FRANK E. RHEINDT and JAMES A. EATON

Biological species limits in the Banded Pitta Pitta guajana . 86

UMESH SRINIVASAN, SHASHANK DALVI, ROHIT NANIWADEKAR, M. O. ANAND and

APARAJITA DATTA

The birds of Namdapha National Park and surrounding areas: recent significant records and a checklist

of the species . 92

RAJU ACHARYA, RICHARD CUTHBERT, HEM SAGAR BARAL and ANAND CHAUDHARY

Rapid decline of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barb at us in Upper Mustang, Nepal . 117

PAUL J. LEADER, GEOFF J. CAREY, URBAN OLSSON, HEM SAGAR BARAL and PER ALSTROM

The taxonomic status of Rufous-rumped Grassbird Graminicola bengalensis, with comments on its

distribution and status . 121

JAN VAN DER PLOEG and MERLIJN VAN WEERD

Agta bird names: an ethno-ornithological survey in the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, Philippines . 127

Short Notes

SHUIHUA CHEN, ZHONGYONG FAN, CANGSONG CHEN, YIWEI LU and ZHONGDE WANG

A new breeding site of the Critically Endangered Chinese Crested Tern Sterna bemsteini in the Wuzhishan

Archipelago, eastern China . 132

JACKH. COX, JR.

Confirmation of Long-billed Wren Babbler Rimator malacoptilus in Nepal . 134

CHANG-YONG CHOI, HYUN-YOUNG NAM and JONG-GIL PARK

Radio-frequency chaffin a nest ofPacific Swift Apus pacificus . . . 136

D. J. KELLY, N. M. MARPLES and H. A. SINGER

A population of Lemon-bellied White-eye Zosterops chloris from the south-eastern peninsula of Sulawesi . 138

CARL H. OLIVEROS and CYNTHIA ADELINE A. LAYUSA

First record of Demoiselle Crane Grus virgo for the Philippines . 139

JOHN D. PILGRIM and ANDREW W. TORDOFF

First nesting record of Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica in South-East Asia . 140

SWATI KITTUR and K. S. GOPI SUNDAR

Cronism by the Shikra Accipiter badius . . . 140

DENNIS YONG and BEN KING

The song of the Dulit Frogmouth Batrachostomus harterti . 141

JAMES A. FITZSIMONS

Notes on the roost sites of the Sulawesi Masked Owl Tyto rosenbergii . 142

PHILIP D. ROUND, PAUL J. LEADER and SURACHIT WAENGSOTHORN

Removal of Pink-rumped Rosefinch Carpodacus eos from the Thai avifaunal list . 145

JOHN PENHALLURICK

A correction to Penhallurick & Robson (2009) . 147

Guidelines for contributors

inside back cover

FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 1-8

A survey of the Critically Endangered Spoon-billed

Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus in Bangladesh

and key future research and conservation

recommendations

JEREMY P. BIRD, ALEXANDER C. LEES, SAYAM U. CHOWDHURY,

ROBERT MARTIN and ENAM UL HAQUE

As the scale of the decline in the Critically Endangered Spoon-billed Sandpiper has become apparent, the urgency to understand the size

and distribution of the remaining population in order to identify key threats and implement targeted conservation actions has intensified.

Bangladesh has been recognised as an important non-breeding range state since the largest single flock of 202 individuals ever recorded

was found at Moulevir Char in 1989. Annual winter totals have been considerably lower in recent years as survey attention has focused

on Myanmar. We conducted surveys in coastal Bangladesh between 6 March and 8 April 2010 to determine the continuing importance

of Bangladesh for wintering Spoon-billed Sandpiper, gather information about the species’s foraging ecology and habitat preference, and

assess potential threats. A minimum 49 Spoon-billed Sandpipers were seen at three locations. Foraging birds displayed a marked

preference for firm sandy intertidal mudflats with a thin layer of soft mud collecting in ripples, spending 98% of their time feeding within

small pools left by the receding tide, singly or in small groups. Shorebird hunting, recently identified as a significant threat to Spoon-billed

Sandpiper in Myanmar, was found in some areas. Our preliminary surveys yielded variable catch rates and overall prevalence, but suggest

that hunting may have decreased locally since advocacy work was conducted in 2009. We discuss other plausible threats to Spoon-billed

Sandpiper and their intertidal habitats, concentrating on large-scale infrastructure development and widespread small-scale habitat

conversion. Our surveys covered only a fraction of potentially suitable intertidal habitats and were largely confined to known sites. We

therefore list priority research actions designed to elucidate the true status of Spoon-billed Sandpiper in Bangladesh and allow priorities

to be set for conservation actions identified in the species’s action plan.

INTRODUCTION

The Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmeus is

a migrant shorebird that breeds in the Russian Arctic

centred on the coast of the Chukotsk Peninsula (e.g. Dixon

1918, Tomkovich et al. 2002). It is known to winter in

intertidal habitats in South-East and South Asia from the

Minjiang estuary, south-east China, west to the Bay of

Bengal, where the largest wintering concentrations have

been recorded both historically and in recent years

(BirdLife International 2001, Zockler & Bunting 2006,

Zockler et al. 2010). A rapid deterioration in the

conservation status of the Spoon-billed Sandpiper was

first detected in 2000 when breeding-season surveys of

sites monitored during the 1970s indicated that a marked

decline in the population had taken place (Tomkovich et

al. 2002) . This decline has been tracked during subsequent

summer surveys in Russia between 2000 and 2009 (see

Zockler 2003, Syroechkovski 2005, Syroechkovski &

Zockler 2008, Syroechkovski & Zockler 2009). In

response, the species was uplisted from Vulnerable to

Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2004, and then

again to Critically Endangered in 2008 (BirdLife

International 2009) . T argeted efforts to gather supporting

data from the wintering grounds began with a survey of

the Indian Sunderbans (though this failed to record

Spoon-billed Sandpiper) in 2005 (Zockler et al. 2005)

followed by a survey in Bangladesh deploying three teams

in January 2006 that recorded 1 1 individuals (Zockler &

Bunting 2006). In January of 2008, 2009 and 2010

exploratory surveys identified a significant wintering

population at several coastal sites in Myanmar (Zockler

& Htin Hla 2009, Zockler et al. 2010). These concerted

survey efforts since 2000 have informed a global

population estimate of 120-250 breeding pairs with an

estimated total population of 500-800 individuals (C.

Zockler pers.comm. 2010).

Bangladesh retains the record for the highest single

count of Spoon-billed Sandpipers — 202 birds in 1989

from Moulevir Char, a small island in the vast Lower

Meghna delta (Bakewell & Howes 1989a, 1989b in

BirdLife International 2001). The species was recorded

as early as the 1920s (BirdLife International 2001) and

regularly from the late 1980s through the 1990s

(Thompson et al. 1993, Thompson & Johnson 2003)

right around Bangladesh’s coastline from outer islands

south of the Sunderbans in the west, through the Lower

Meghna delta and south-east to Teknaf on the border

with Myanmar (BirdLife International 2001, BirdLife

International 2009). Although the known breeding

distribution has been relatively well monitored since the

1 970s (Tomkovich et al. 2002), the core wintering areas

remained largely unknown until very recently. The history

of the species in Bangladesh hinted at the importance of

the Bay of Bengal (BirdLife International 2001), since

confirmed through recent searches in Bangladesh and

Myanmar listed above. However, the reporting rate in

Bangladesh declined through the 1990s (Thompson &

Johnson 2003), but whether this was a reflection of the

inferred population declines observed on the breeding

grounds or a reduction in search effort, or both, is unclear.

Perhaps partly in response to a return of only 1 1 Spoon¬

billed Sandpipers during the first targeted search for this

species in Bangladesh in 2006 (Zockler & Bunting 2006)

attention has shifted to Myanmar in the last three winters

in a successful effort to discover a part of the ‘missing’

wintering population.

Recent records from Bangladesh including 2 1 Spoon¬

billed Sandpipers seen on Sonadia Island, Cox’s Bazar

District, in February 2006 (M. Z. Islam in Zockler &

9

JEREMY P. BIRD et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

Bunting 2006) and 1 5 at Damar Char, Greater Noakhali

District in April 2008 (Zockler 2008), hinting at the

continuing importance of Bangladesh for the species in

the non-breeding season. After discovering the importance

of the country for shorebirds, particularly Spoon-billed

Sandpiper, Bakewell & Howes (1989a) recommended a

full coastal survey of Bangladesh. This recommendation

remains paramount over 20 years later, and refining the

global population estimate and reducing its confidence

limits through continued surveys in Bangladesh and

Myanmar is a stated research priority (Zockler et al. 2008,

BirdLife International 2009). JB, AL and RM joined

colleagues SUC and EUH between 6 March and 8 April

20 1 0 in Bangladesh, aiming to ( 1 ) assess shorebird survey

effort to date, (2) record numbers of Spoon-billed

Sandpipers and other threatened waders at known and

previously unsurveyed sites, (3) gather new data about

foraging ecology, (4) improve our understanding of

potential threats to priority shorebirds and their habitats,

and finally (5) do all of the above in March, two months

later than previous midwinter counts in January, in order

to provide supporting evidence for a hypothesis that

Spoon-billed Sandpipers may move north into the Bay of

Bengal before migrating overland to the Yellow Sea

(supported by two historic records of Spoon-billed

Sandpiper from Assam: Saikia & Bhattacharjee 1990).

METHODS

Shorebird surveys

In the absence of a predictive model to determine the

likely non-breeding distribution of Spoon-billed

Sandpipers, potentially suitable sites were identified from

satellite images freely sourced from Google Earth, the

Landsat Programme (http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/),

ASTER ( http://glovis.usgs.gov/ ) and Flash Earth (http://

www.flashearth.com/) following guidelines detailed in

Bunting & Zockler (2009). Suitable sites were then

ground-truthed and shorebird populations assessed

following methods for counting non-breeding waders

outlined in Bibby et al. (2000) . Shorebirds were surveyed

in three main areas: around Sonadia Island, Cox’s Bazar

District; at the Feni estuary and Hatiya Islands of Greater

Noakhali District; and in the Lower Meghna delta around

Bhola District. Additional short surveys were undertaken

at the Sangu estuary and Bodur Makam, Teknaf.

Spoon-billed Sandpiper habitat preferences and

foraging ecology

At foraging sites we took basic notes on substrate type

(sand, mud, sand-mud mix) and substrate-depth (no mud,

shallow mud = < 1 5cm, deep mud = >15 cm) . Pearson’s

Chi-square test was used to test the null hypothesis of

uniform distribution of foraging Spoon-billed Sandpiper

between substrate types and depths. This survey was

predominantly focused on covering as many disparate

areas as possible, which left relatively little time for

prolonged observations of feeding birds to gather detailed

data on foraging ecology. Therefore HD digital video

recordings were taken using a Sony DSC-W220 digital

camera handheld to a Swarowski ATM 65 HD Scope &

30 WA eyepiece for subsequent analysis. Sediment samples

were collected at survey sites to allow future analysis of

particle size, nutrient content and heavy metal content.

Hunting interviews

To investigate the threat of hunting to shorebirds we

carried out opportunistic semi-structured interviews

following guidelines outlined by FAO (1990) and in

consultation with R. F. A. Grimmett. These were designed

to assess ( 1 ) numbers of trappers, (2) number of trapping

locations, (3) frequency of hunting, (4) abundance and

composition of harvested species, (5) methods used to

hunt shorebirds, (6) which socio-economic group (s) are

trapping, (7) whether hunters have alternative income

sources, (8) if hunting is for subsistence use or trade, (9)

if trapping rights exist, (10) the value of the trapping/

trade. To assist these interviews, awareness-raising

materials were carried and distributed, including

identification cards illustrating local wader species. These

were primarily used to identify species that interviewees

recognised and/or were hunted. Interviewees received

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) pin

badges as thanks for participating.

RESULTS

Shorebird surveys

In total a minimum of 49 Spoon-billed Sandpipers

(hereafter SBS) were recorded, comprising 25 individuals

at Sonadia, 23 at Damar Char and 1 at Teknaf (Table 1).

Counts at Sonadia and Teknaf probably comprised all or

almost all the SBS present, but at Damar Char the count

may only have represented a fraction of the wintering or

passage population. At this site the main high-tide roost

was inaccessible during our survey and birds may have

dispersed at low tide to other foraging grounds in three

cardinal directions. Taken together, our counts alone

represent the highest annual total of SBS in Bangladesh

since the 257 birds recorded in January 1 989 and ‘about

1 00’ seen during Asian Waterbird Census counts in 1 992

(Thompson et al. 1993). Although it is tempting to

speculate that the high numbers recorded during our

survey might pertain to northbound passage birds, without

a full winter survey it is impossible to confirm this

hypothesis. Our failure to find SBS (or other shorebirds

of conservation concern) at the Sangu estuary suggests

that this site is not regionally important but may yet prove

to hold small numbers of these key species on passage,

while at the Feni estuary coverage was inadequate during

this survey to draw firm conclusions. We recorded

significant numbers of other globally threatened shorebird

species (Table 1) including the highest counts of Asian

Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus and Great Knot

Calidris tenuirostris ever recorded in Bangladesh and the

highest count of Spotted Greenshank Tringa guttifer since

1988 (Thompson etal. 1993, Thompson & Johnson 2003,

P. Thompson pers. comm. 2010). These findings are

provided for general interest here but will be the focus of

a forthcoming more detailed paper.

Spoon-billed Sandpiper habitat preferences and

foraging ecology

Of the 12 main foraging sites (i.e. not roosting sites or

saltpans) where we recorded shorebird numbers, substrate

type and depth (Table 1), SBS was only recorded at sites

with a mixed substrate composed of a firm sand base-

layer and a soft mud component collecting between sand

ripples (%2=1 1.99, df=l, P<0.0001). Significantly we did

Forktail 26 (2010)

A survey of the Spoon-billed Sandpiper in Bangladesh

3

(5liflu: tariff*' -j

[Bara^honal

Nav/apara

TeknaU

MoulevirCnar

Dama Char

FeniEstuary

Shankara Estuary

Hasher Char

Sonadia

BodurMakam

Figure 1 . Sites visited during Spoon-billed Sandpiper

surveys in March-April 2010. Base layer € Google

Earth.

Table 1. Habitat characteristics and abundance of shorebirds of conservation concern. Detailed findings relating to species other than SBS will

be the subject of a forthcoming paper.

Site name Coordinates

Date

4

JEREMY P. BIRD et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

not find this species in areas of deep (>15 cm) mud

(X:=5.99, df=l, P<0.025), despite the presence of

thousands of individuals of other shorebird species at

many of these sites. Detailed analysis of the biochemical

constitution of these substrate types is beyond the scope

of this paper and will be dealt with separately. A preference

for mudflats with a sand/mud mix has previously been

documented in SBS not only in Bangladesh (Thompson

et al. 1993) but also in Myanmar (N. Clark pers. comm.

20 10), Thailand (D. Sibley in litt.), Vietnam (Pedersen et

al. 1998) and Japan (BirdLife International 2001).

Foraging birds spent c.98% of their time (based on 1 0

minutes 47 seconds ofvideo footage) feeding within small

pools left by the receding tide, both at the tide edge and

up to 600 m from the open sea. Apart from when tidal

conditions produced concentration effects, birds typically

foraged singly or occasionally in groups of 2-6, or with

other small waders such as Red-necked Stints Calidris

ruficollis. Videos obtained at Sonadia (SOM 1. http://

tiny.cc/kid9h) and Damar Char (SOM 2. http://tiny.cc/

kz81q) document their predominantly solitary feeding

habits and preference for such small pools. We found the

‘hyperkinetic’ foraging technique of SBS to be an excellent

aid to their identification at long range — constantly

running around, typically with head down (and with

apparently reduced vigilance relative to other calidrids,

although some bird species actually have a surprisingly

good field of view behind their heads, so they can feed,

head down, while maintaining vigilance; in the case of

SBS, they may feed alone or widely spaced to guarantee

a good view of attacking predators: D. Buckingham in litt.

2010). Typically birds foraged for food by wading around

rapidly in shallow water that did not reach tibial height

(1-3 cm) and appeared to use the bill as a shovel, inserting

it into the substrate and extracting prey items from

underneath submerged mud (Plate 1 a & b) . Such a feeding

strategy would permit them to take both marine epifauna

and infauna (Sutherland et al. 2000). These shovelling

motions were predominantly directed to the front, but

sometimes also sideways (Plate lc; see Swennen &

Marteijn 1988, Pedersen et al. 1998). Assessing intake

rates was difficult, as swallowing movements (Plate Id)

were never conspicuous and food items too small and

rapidly processed to be identifiable, but some successful

feeding bouts are evident in the video (e.g. SOM 2: 4

minutes 44 seconds). We also observed SBS processing

larger food items on four occasions, which required more

extensive mandibulation for 1-2 seconds, but were unable

to ascertain their identity. It appeared that some prey

detection or at least ‘shovelling site selection’ was

undertaken visually, with birds walking on ‘tip toes’ with

neck outstretched (e.g. SOM 2: 5 minutes 35 seconds).

Some agonistic interactions were observed with birds

chasing Red-necked Stints Calidris ruficollis and being

displaced by Red-necked Stints, Lesser Sand Plover

Charadrius mongolus and Sanderling Calidris alba.

Hunting interviews

We were able to speak with a cross section of different

inhabitants at Sonadia, including one former bird hunter,

a locally employed NGO worker and local fishermen. A

former bird hunter (active <5 years ago) indicated that

previously 10-20 people in his village on Sonadia were

involved in bird hunting but that this number had fallen

to just 2-3 individuals/village after anti-hunting campaigns

by local NGOs. However, it was also claimed that there

Plate 1. Montage of images of a feeding Spoon-billed Sandpiper; see text for details (A. Lees).

Forktail 26 (2010)

A survey of the Spoon-billed Sandpiper in Bangladesh

5

were still 25-30 trappers active across a broader region

encompassing five villages, many of which fell outside the

influence of awareness campaigns. The interviewee

reported that circa 500 birds per year per hunter were

taken and sold locally with current prices per bird at circa

80-100 BDT ($US'l . 1-1 .7) for large species such as

Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata, with small sandpipers

Calidris and plovers Charadrius valued at just 10 BDT

(S0.1). There is apparently no longer an open market as

hunting is recognised as being illegal and birds are only

sold locally. The local NGO worker reported substantially

higher hunting activity, with an estimate of 100 hunters

(c. 20/village) out of a total population of 7,000 people

from six villages. However, he also indicated that the

hunters would be happy to stop catching birds if alternative

income sources could be found. Hunting is predominantly

carried out using monofilament nets set at high-tide roosts,

often with live decoys tethered to the ground. A group of

villagers interviewed at a different village on Sonadia also

indicated that hunting was formerly more frequent and

that visiting professional bird hunters targeted a high-

tide roost that could yield 500 birds in a single catch with

coordinated flushing. They reported no such activity in

the last two years after campaigns by the Coastal and

Wetland Biodiversity Management Project (CWBMP).

DISCUSSION

Minimum totals of 1 , 23 and 25 Spoon-billed Sandpipers

at three disparate coastal sites in March and April 2010

provide clear evidence that Bangladesh remains critically

important for the species. According to the most recent

extrapolation from numbers of birds in the breeding

grounds the global population is estimated at 500-800

individuals (C. Zockler pers. comm. 2010). Based on this

estimate, this survey may have observed up to 1 0% of the

global population. In 2010 an estimated 236-286 SBS

were recorded on the wintering grounds (assuming there

was no double-counting between different range states),

in Bangladesh (49), Myanmar ( 1 50-200 birds in the Bay

of Martaban, 14 at Nan Thar island and 1 in the Irrawady

Delta: Zockler etal. 20 10), Thailand (10) and China (12)

(Bunting & Zockler 2010). It follows that the wintering

grounds for very roughly 50-70% of the global population

are therefore being overlooked. The estimates and

extrapolations made above are largely supposition: they

may vary considerably but the data are not available to

ascertain accurate figures. We are confident, however,

that Bangladesh offers a relatively cost-effective

opportunity for further surveys to identify important new

sites (i.e. with no recent records) that may support a

proportion of the ‘missing’ individuals.

Threats to shorebirds in Bangladesh

Sonadia Island is a globally important site for SBS and

other threatened shorebirds, dolphins and marine turtles.

It is therefore considered ecologically important by the

government; in 1999 it was declared as an Ecologically

Critical Area (ECA) under the Bangladesh Environment

Conservation Act, 1995 (Zockler 2009). The site is not

recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) (BirdLife

International 2004) but should qualify during a currently

planned revision of Bangladesh’s IBAs (P. Thompson in

litt. 2010). The CWBMP has worked to strengthen

conservation planning and awareness and to develop

alternative livelihoods for local people in the ECAs of

Sonadia and Teknaf area since 2005, but it ends in 2010.

A feasibility study by Pacific Consultants International

for the construction of a deep-water port in Bangladesh

has identified Sonadia Island as the priority site, with

construction expected to begin in December 2010

(Mahmud 2009), but it is not yet clear if this project is to

go ahead and more recently there have been reports of

plans for other sites for port development. If it does go

ahead at Sonadia Island this development funded by a

public-private partnership will almost certainly have a

dramatic and deeply negative impact on a whole suite of

threatened species.

As well as the proposed deep-sea port at Sonadia there

have been long-term plans dating back to the 1980s for

several cross-dams, originally proposed under the Land

Reclamation Project of the Bangladesh Water

Development Board with technical cooperation from the

Netherlands, particularly for a cross dam between Hatiya

and Nijumdip in Noakhali District (P. Thompson in litt.

2010). Smaller cross-dams have already been used to

reclaim land and establish polders along the Noakhali

coastline, and proposals have also been made to connect

Sandwip with the main Noakhali coastline (Rashid 1 989) .

These plans reportedly re-emerge periodically (P.

Thompson pers. comm.). If implemented, they would

threaten a vast area of the least explored (and potentially

most significant) intertidal habitats in the Lower Meghna

delta. There are no immediate plans for this development

but changes to the status quo should be monitored.

Localised conversion of intertidal habitats to saltpans,

shrimp-ponds and mangrove plantation additively impact

large areas of Bangladesh’s coastline. The extent to which

these processes affect habitats is dependent on the overall

rate of conversion in one of the fastest accreting systems

on earth. If conversion is slower than mud/sandflat creation

the impact on shorebirds is likely to be minimal,

particularly if shorebirds are adapted to move between

these ephemeral habitats as areas are rendered unsuitable

by succession and others become available. However, if

rates of conversion are faster than accretion of new habitat,

then conversion may represent a threat within Bangladesh.

It is possible that the sandy substrates selected by SBS are

relatively stable compared to soft mud deposits. If that is

so, this provides a greater need to protect existing sites

from development, on the assumption that suitable sites

are limiting and may not be replaced quickly. Aquaculture

of bagda shrimp Penaeus monodon was expanded from

51,812 ha in 1983-1984 to 142,110 ha in 1993-1994

(Zockler et al. 2008). Between 1960-61 and 1999-2000,

142,835 hectares of mangrove were planted (Bangladesh

Forest Department 2010) and this rate may have increased

since; mangrove plantation is a tool for stabilising newly

accreted areas and for the protection of the hinterland in

cyclonic storms, and is strongly advocated by government

and development NGOs in Bangladesh; but the

biodiversity impacts are unknown. The area of intertidal

habitat in Bangladesh remains absolutely vast, and

although SBS appears to utilise a very specific and

apparently localised substrate, habitat availability is

probably unlikely to be limiting carrying capacity.

However, given the paucity of information on the SBS

prey-base and the exact use of its morphologically

divergent bill, we should not be complacent. It is plausible

6

JEREMY P. BIRD ex al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

that only certain prey types might be affected by, e.g.,

climate change, sea-level changes or marine pollution,

and this species may be adversely affected if there is no

alternative prey, or if bill morphology precludes prey¬

switching (Durell 2000).

We gathered limited anecdotal data through semi-

structured interviews to supplement previous assessments

of hunting pressure on shorebirds, particularly around

Sonadia where an awareness-raising campaign was

implemented in 2009. Shorebird hunting was reported to

have declined recently, following the ban on international

trade in wild birds and local people’s perception of the

risk of contracting zoonotic infections whilst handling

wild birds (e.g. avian influenza). Moreover, an awareness¬

raising campaign carried out by MarineLife Alliance

through the UNDP/GEF-funded CWBMP may have

helped reduce local hunting pressure (Zockler 2009).

Given limited past surveys it remains unclear whether the

hunting threat in Bangladesh represents the clear and

present danger that it evidently poses to shorebirds in

Myanmar (Zockler ex al. 2010b) and elsewhere (Lees &

Bird in prep.). However, considering that we encountered

shorebird hunters, including individuals who claimed to

have caught SBS historically then it must be taken

seriously. The Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation Order

1973 protects circa 70% of the country’s bird species

including SBS (Siddiqui etal. 2008). The act has recently

been amended (awaiting final approval and will be released

shortly) , and will protect all wild birds except House Corvus

splendens and Large-billed Crows C. macrohynchos.

Plausible threats to shorebirds and intertidal habitats

in Bangladesh that were not discussed or observed during

this survey are rural development, particularly on sensitive

coastal chars, pollution, hydrological regime change and

climate change (for thorough treatment of these threats

see Zockler ex al. 2008).

Recommendations

The Spoon-billed Sandpiper faces real and potential

threats in the breeding, passage and wintering parts of its

range: it has poor breeding productivity, perhaps owing

to nest predation and bad weather, and there are concerns

that breeding habitat in the south of its range is no longer

suitable owing to climate change; key stopover sites on

migration, particularly intertidal wetlands in the Yellow

Sea, have been converted for urban and industrial

development; and in the wintering areas the main

documented threat is hunting with waders regularly

trapped in nets (Zockler ex al. 2008, Syroechkovski ex al.

2009, Zockler ex al. 2010b). Conservation actions

proposed or already underway (see Zockler ex al. 2008)

are helping to address a number of these threats and

should be encouraged. However, the completeness of

this list of threats, and their relative impacts in the past

and present on the global population, remain poorly

understood. Prioritising conservation actions is further

hampered by the absence of robust population size and

trend estimates; the urgency of one action versus another

is contingent on understanding the size of the remaining

population.

The surveys presented here did not fulfil the

recommendation of Bakewell & Howes (1989a) for a full

coastal survey of Bangladesh. This remains a research

priority, so we outline below some suggestions for future

work in or relating to Bangladesh. These are designed to

supplement rather than repeat those identified in the

current action plan for Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Zockler

ex al. 2008), so future conservation planning needs to

consider the ideas detailed in the action plan alongside

those that follow.

Research actions

• A thorough spatiotemporal analysis of survey effort in

Bangladesh is required to examine the survey frequency

and duration at suitable coastal sites and intertidal

habitat types surveyed, coupled with presence/absence

and abundance data for SBS. This should permit more

robust analysis using Geographical Information

Systems (GIS) of habitat suitability, shed light on any

movements during the non-breeding season, and (if

sufficient data are available) an assessment of wintering

population size and population trends for Bangladesh.

• Further SBS surveys coupled with a thorough ground-

truthing of habitat quality might allow habitat choice

to be effectively modelled and thus indicate potential

priority sites for future survey effort. This exercise is

dependent on high-resolution images of coastal South

and South-East Asia at low tide but previous studies

have indicated that satellite imagery can be used to

predict grain size and benthic invertebrate distributions

(Wade & Hickey 2008). Alternatively/in addition to

this exercise accessing shipping data, if available, that

models sediment accretion/erosion around

Bangladesh’s coastline could shed light on how habitats

have changed over time (e.g. why sites like Moulevir

Char are apparently less suitable for SBS now than

when 202 were recorded in 1989). It could also reveal

potential new search sites in recently accreted areas.

This recommendation is based on the supposition that

port developers and the mainstream shipping industry

collect such data.

• If GIS analysis cannot effectively detect suitable

habitat, then an ‘eye-balling’ of satellite imagery may

help identify potentially suitable sites (Bunting &

Zockler 2009), although this technique is not without

its limitations: examination of Google Earth by eye

reveals apparently similar habitats around Sonadia

Island which when ground-truthed vary radically in

their suitability for SBS. Overall, however, in the

absence of anything more effective we believe this

remains a useful tool.

• Aerial surveys using a fixed-wing aircraft in January

(and ideally, although of lower priority, repeated in

March) could rapidly survey the entire coastline. If

feasible, this would be the most effective method for

identifying wader concentrations and potentially

suitable wintering sites that could then be searched

for SBS (see e.g. Clark ex al. 1993, Engilis ex al. 1998,

Warnock ex al. 1998). However, the specialisation of

SBS to feeding within a particular substrate type raises

the possibility that they could occur away from wader

concentrations and render aerial surveys ineffective,

but this may not not be the case as SBS was always

significantly outnumbered by commoner species

utilising the same substrate type. Indeed, the converse

is likely: many sites with high-wader concentrations

may prove to be inappropriate for SBS.

• Boat-/land-based surveys are needed of all key sites

(e.g. historical point localities, sites identified on

satellite images and sites identified during aerial

Forktail 26 (2010)

A survey of the Spoon-billed Sandpiper in Bangladesh

7

surveys) in January and March 2011 to provide an

accurate population estimate and identify hotspots

for longer-term monitoring of SBS populations.

• After an initial investment to identify key shorebird/

SBS sites and habitat, monthly monitoring of key sites

and at least annual monitoring of all sites with recent

records offers the potential to improve knowledge of

local and regional movements, timing of migration

and population trends. These aims would be abetted

by a sample of the population being colour- ringed.

However, any catching of SBS in Asia risks acting as

a training exercise for local hunters in effective means

for capturing waders, and should first consider hunting

pressure and the need for education and awareness

raising programmes as a precursor. Capturing

individuals for colour-ringing would also provide an

opportunity to undertake stable isotopic analyses to

determine the likely summer breeding ground of this

wintering subpopulation. Furthermore sexual

dimorphism in bill measurements of SBS (N. Clark in

litt. 2010) would allow the collection of data to assess

whether there are any spatial differences in wintering

locations in different sexes as has been observed in

other calidrine waders (e.g. Sutherland et al. 2000).

Conservation actions

• Collaboratively the proposal to build a deep-water

port at Sonadia needs addressing. At the very least we'

would advocate a thorough environmental impact

assessment, the results and recommendations of which

should be adhered to. A wider campaign to raise

awareness of the potentially negative impacts of this

development should also be considered.

• Presently only 7 % of sites where SBS has been recorded

in Bangladesh are designated IBAs (Zockler et al. 2008)

and none of the important coastal areas east of the

Sundarbans is a designated Ramsar site. The planned

revision of Bangladesh’s IBA network will hopefully

address the first issue here but separate attention should

focus on adopting new sites under the Ramsar

Convention. The efficacy of site prioritisation work

within a highly mobile system is hard to ascertain but

a precautionary approach that assumes SBS may not

be capable of shifting sites regularly should be adopted

until local and seasonal movements are understood.

• T o understand the impact of hunting on shorebirds in

Bangladesh, a large sample of structured interviews

should be collected with a process for conducting

awareness-raising in hunting hotspots afterwards,

ideally with local staff trained to continue this work.

This work should build off an awareness-raising and

advocacy campaign conducted by MarineLife Alliance

under the CWBMP in 2008-2009 around Sonadia.

• Ongoing strengthening of institutional and logistic

capacity within Bangladesh will facilitate the

implementation of future research and conservation

actions; BirdLife International is currently

investigating how best to support local conservation

capacity (M. Crosby pers. comm. 2010).

It is important to reiterate that these few conservation

recommendations supplement a comprehensive list of

possible actions identified by Zockler et al. (2008). We

have concentrated on first identifying the research needs

that can help to prioritise between that longer list of

potential conservation actions under the headings of

species protection, habitat protection, site management,

habitat and site restoration, awareness-raising and

education and capacity building (as in Zockler et al. 2008) .

A clearer understanding of the status, movements and

trends of SBS is a start-point rather than an end-point for

the recovery of SBS populations in Bangladesh. Nationally

and globally a long-term strategy will be reliant on the

effective implementation of targeted conservation actions,

prioritised according to urgency, potential returns and

cost.

CONCLUSION

Our survey indicates that Bangladesh remains a critical

wintering area for Spoon-billed Sandpipers and suggests

that incomplete survey coverage to date might explain a

reduction in reporting rate of SBS, although this requires

further study (see recommendations above). It also

reinforces the notion that SBS displays a degree of

relatively high habitat specificity for a calidrine wader

and indicates that hunting may still be a threat to its long¬

term survival. Given the species’s precarious position,

there is an urgent need for conservation interventions

now as outlined by the action plan and in this paper. Our

recommendations list the key research priorities for SBS

in Bangladesh in the coming years. Lack of funding to

conduct the necessary research and implement

conservation actions risks compromising the species’s

long-term survival. If the number of people paying to visit

Thailand in recent years fuelled by a ‘last chance to see’

mentality is any indication of the interest in and enthusiasm

for this enigmatic wader, it would be nice to believe that

it is possible to mobilise sufficient financial resources to

tackle the most pertinent threats through research and

conservation actions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Indranil Kishor, Paul Thompson, MA Muhit, Farhad

A. Pavel and M. Abu Y ousuf and everyone at the Bangladesh Bird Club

for all their help and support throughout the trip, and to Gill Bunting,

Mike Crosby, Richard Grimmett and Christoph Zockler for discussing

our plans pre, during and post. We would like to thank the expedition’s

sponsors: the Oriental Bird Club, Birdguides, the Lincolnshire Bird

Club, Ecology Consultants and the Sevenoaks RSPB Members Group.

Also thanks to the RSPB for providing pin badges to distribute to

interviewees and for kindly donating optics for Bangladesh Bird Club

through the second-hand binocular scheme; and to Nigel Redman and

A&C Black publishers for donating several field guides for Bangladesh

Bird Club. We thank Nigel Clark, Paul Thompson and David

Buckingham for helpful comments on this manuscript.

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FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 9-23

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler

Acrocephalus orinus , including its song and

breeding habitat in north-eastern Afghanistan

R. J. TIMMINS, STEPHANE OSTROWSKI, NAQEEBULLAH MOSTAFAWI,

HAFIZULLAH NOORI, ALI MADAD RAJABI, LARS SVENSSON, URBAN OLSSON

and COLIN M. POOLE

We report in detail on the first well documented, probable breeding location of the Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus , found

in north-east Afghanistan, give a description of its song and summarise its identification criteria using new information from live birds.

Fifteen birds were captured and measured in the presumed breeding season, and later their identity was confirmed using DNA markers.

In one of the localities visited many birds were singing. We also describe the habitat and assess some conservation issues.

INTRODUCTION

This paper provides greater detail on the discovery of the

Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus in north¬

east Afghanistan during fieldwork in the summers of 2008

and 2009 (Timmins et al. 2009). Having been described

in 1867 on the basis of a single specimen, with no further

evidence of the species found in the following 1 30+ years,

doubts about the validity of the Large-billed Reed Warbler

were sometimes voiced, e.g. the species was omitted from

the OBC checklist (Inskipp et al. 1996, Svensson et al.

2008, 2010). Two events effectively put an end to such

resigned speculations.

First, it was shown that the type specimen had a

significantly different mitochondrial cytochrome b gene

from all other known Acrocephalus species (Bensch &

Pearson 2002), differing by some 7% from its nearest

relative Blyth’s Reed Warbler A. dumetorum. Then,

remarkably, a live bird was caught in spring 2006 in a

mist-net south-west of Bangkok in Thailand (Round et al.

2007). The following years saw the detection of more

Large-billed Reed Warbler specimens in museums,

catalogued invariably as Blyth’s Reed Warbler (Table 1;

Pearson et al. 2008, Svensson et al. 2008, 2010), and the

capture of an additional individual in Thailand (Nimnuan

& Round 2008). Debate over the species’s seasonal

movements, or lack thereof (Vaurie 1955, 1959, Bensch

& Pearson 2002), became more robust with the inclusion

of these additional records, especially the correlation of

dates with geographic locality (Svensson et al. 2008) and

the reinterpretation of wing morphology (Svensson et al.

2010).

In particular, four birds from north-east Afghanistan

in July, which had been collected in 1937 by Walter N.

Koelz, pointed to breeding in this area, and a fifth bird, a

juvenile, collected in August in south-east Kazakhstan,

suggested a perhaps rather extensive breeding range in

Central Asia (Table 1). Adding to this, two historical

specimens collected in Myanmar (Svensson et al. 2008)

and the live birds captured in March from Thailand (Round

et al. 2007, Nimnuan & Round 2008) appeared to affirm

(western) South-East Asia as a potentially significant

wintering area for the species (Svensson etal. 2008, 2010).

There are also further unconfirmed but plausible records

which have been described in some detail elsewhere

(Round & Kennerley 2007, Svensson etal. 2010), although

speculation of Large-billed Reed Warblers at Kanha Tiger

Reserve in India (Raju et al. 2008) have now been refuted

(Raju et al. 2009).

REDISCOVERY IN NORTH-EASTERN

AFGHANISTAN IN 2008

While on 3 June carrying out a conservation assessment of

the breeding bird communities of Wakhan District,

Badakhshan Province, north-eastern Afghanistan, RJT

observed ringing Acrocephalus warblers (Fig. l;note Times

atlas of the zvorld uses the name Vakhan, but it is otherwise

almost universally spelt Wakhan). The birds were found

in riparian bushlands around the confluence of the Wakhan

and Pamir rivers, the two main rivers of the upper Wakhan

that subsequently become the Panj river (otherwise known

Figure 1. Map showing localities in north-eastern Afghanistan where

the Large-billed Reed Warbler A. orinus was found in 2008 and 2009

(black circles) . The historical collection sites of Sufian and Khairabad,

Afghanistan, and Gilgit, northern Pakistan, are also shown (white

circles) . Shading indicates elevation, with higher elevations being darker.

International country boundaries are marked by broad black lines,

while major rivers are indicated with narrower grey lines. The boundary

between Afghanistan and Tajikistan in part follows the course of the

Panj and Pamir rivers. Topographic source: USGS (2006), Shuttle

Radar Topography Mission, 3 Arc Second, Filled Finished-A 2.0. scenes

(12 scenes SRTM_f03_n035e07 1 to SRTMJ03_n037e074), Global

Land Cover Facility, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland,

February 2000.

10

R. J. TIMMINS et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

as the Amu Darya), near the village of Goz Khun

(2,800 m asl; altitudes derived from GPSs with electronic

barometers and rounded to the nearest 50 m) . Recordings

of the song of the first bird observed were made using a

Sony Professional Walkman analogue recorder and a

Sennheiser MKE 300 microphone. One of the more

memorable initial impressions of the sighting was the bird’s

bill, which appeared especially long. Other observed

features included a rather plain unmarked face except for

a paler area from the lore to the eye, whitish crescents

above and below the eye, a white throat, short primary

projection and a largely pale lower mandible. These

features suggested Blyth’s Reed Warbler, a species

unfamiliar to RJT. No more recordings of these birds were

made during the 2008 survey.

The recordings consisted of approximately ten minutes

of the at times intermittent, song of a single bird. These

recordings were digitised using the computer program

Audacity and saved as wav files. Four segments of the

recordings were sent to LS and SO for analysis and use for

playback respectively. Later the full recordings were sent

to LS for more detailed analysis. The full recording has

been archived at the Avian Vocalisations Center, Michigan

State University, USA, and a part of the sequence can be

found and downloaded at http://avocet.zoology.msu.edu/

recordings/6322.

LS concluded that the song was not that of Blyth’s, or

any of the majority of other potential Acrocephalus spp.

within range, thus leaving two main possibilities: either

one of the little known western subspecies of Blunt-winged

Warbler A. concinens or Large-billed Reed Warbler.

Despite several differences (see below), the strong overall

similarity of the song to that of Blyth’s Reed Warbler

suggested the likelihood of it being that of Large-billed

Reed Warbler.

In conjunction with the newly discovered museum

specimens from north-eastern Afghanistan, the field

evidence from 2008 presented an overwhelming case for

the need to determine precisely the identity of the birds

in Wakhan.

THE 2009 SURVEY IN NORTH-EAST

BADAKHSHAN

Owing to logistical and security constraints, it was only

possible for an Afghan team to visit the province of

Badakhshan in the breeding season of 2009. Thus prior

to the survey three research assistants (AMR, HN and

NM) of the Wildlife Conservation Society Afghanistan

Program were trained by SO in mist-netting methods,

bird measuring techniques and collection of tail-feather

samples for genetic analysis. All three had, however, been

closely involved with ornithological work in Wakhan and

elsewhere in Afghanistan since summer 2006. Using a

part of the 2008 recording, SO edited (Audacity 1.2.5) a

two-minute segment for use in playback with a digital

player (Phillips AZ1850).

AMR and HN arrived at Goz Khun, the site of the 2008

recording, on 1 June and chose an appropriate location for

mist-netting the following day (details of net sites are given

in Table 2) . They used three 10m long mist-nets along the

edge of the riparian bushland and played the 2008 song

recording for several hours each session. On several days

they failed to capture any reed warblers, and they moved

their net sites most days. On 6 June NM joined the team,

but later the same day moved to a new area near the village

of Pak (2,800 m asl), a site 1 0 km south-west of Goz Khun.

On 7 June, AMR and HN continued with a single mist-net

in the vicinity of Goz Khun, while simultaneously NM

erected the other two mist-nets in the Pak area. AMR and

HN continued mist-netting at Goz Khun until 8 June, with

one last attempt on 25 June, but they failed to capture any

birds in the later period.

On 9 June NM moved to Pukuj (2,800 m asl), a village

6 km west of Pak, where on 10 June he erected mist-nets

Table 1. List of specimens of Large-billed Reed Warbler in museum collections, with dates, localities and mensural data.

NHM = Natural History Museum, Tring, UK. AMNH = American Museum of Natural History, New York, USA. UMMZ = University of Michigan Museum of

Zoology, Ann Arbor, USA. Measurements in millimetres. Primary projection measured as distance between tip of outermost secondary to tip of wing when wing is folded.

Bill (s) means length of bill to skull. Values within brackets are unreliable due to unfinished moult.

Forktail 26 (2010) New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler in Afghanistan 1 1

f Some other net sites were used, but these caught no birds of interest, and are thus not included in the table.

* Datum used: WGS84

in similar riparian bushlands to the other sites. On 1 1

June NM moved again, to Zebak (2,600 m asl), one of the

historical collection sites (Table 1; Svensson etal. 2008),

a village area located outside the Wakhan valley between ,

the towns of Ishkoshim and Boharak in the district of

Zebak, where he stayed until 16 June.

Investigators removed the two outer rectrix feathers

from each bird caught, except for one which escaped,

measured them following the protocol laid out in Svensson

(1992) and took photographs of most (but no standard

photographic method was followed). All data and

samples were forwarded on to LS and UO for further

analysis. No further recordings of the song or calls were

made in 2009.

The team captured 20 reed warblers for detailed

assessment (T able 3), although feather samples from only

19 were taken, with an eventual total of 15 Large-billed

Reed Warblers and two Blyth’s Reed Warblers being

determined on the basis of genetic analysis (see below).

Photographs suggest that the bird that escaped before a

sample could be taken for genetic analysis was most likely

to have been a Large-billed Reed Warbler.

The novelty of the work for NM, HN and AMR had

a number of repercussions on the data collected. Most

importantly, their measurements (Table 3) must be treated

as provisional as they clearly contain errors. Second, they

unfortunately did not take photographs of all of the

captured birds, including only 12 of the 15 confirmed

Large-billed Reed Warblers (Table 3).

GENETIC ANALYSIS

DNA was extracted from the feather samples of all 19

reed warblers, plus two Cetti’s Bush Warblers Cettia cetti

caught during the same period and used as controls (Table

3). The protocol for extraction, amplification and

sequencing of the cytochrome b gene followed standard

procedures, as described in Olsson et al. (2005). These

sequences, which will be deposited in GenBank, were

compared to that obtained from the live bird caught in

Thailand 2006 (Round et al. 2007) and to those from the

museum specimens described by Svensson et al. (2008).

Of the 1 9 reed warblers sampled, 1 5 could be conclusively

identified as Large-billed Reed Warblers and another two

as Blyth’s Reed Warblers (Table 3).

Interestingly, data from the museum samples studied

by Svensson et al. (2008) revealed that the haplotypes

were divided into three surprisingly distinct, but seemingly

not geographically structured, clusters (Fig. 2 in Svensson

etal. 2008) . Variation within a panmictic population would

not normally show a pattern whereby the haplotypes are

divided into such clear-cut groups. Indeed, the amount

of divergence between these clusters was of a magnitude

that would suggest that they came from different isolated

subpopulations. We are not aware of any other case among

Passeriformes in which the individual variation in a

sympatric population exceeds 0.7% (uncorrected p) in

the cytochrome b gene (UO unpublished data) . Although

divergence per se cannot be taken as a direct measure of

taxonomic status, the amount of divergence present within

A. orinus is at a level commonly found between different

subspecies, and recently Bowie el al. (2009) proposed

species status for a population diverging by 1.6% in the

mitochondrial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2.

In the case of A. orinus, divergence between the most

different haplotypes in the new material presented here

reaches 1.9% (uncorrected p). There is no geographical

pattern evident in the distribution of the haplotypes,

speaking against the existence of multiple populations

evolving in isolation. Individuals representing more than

one haplotype cluster (Fig. 2 in Svensson et al. 2008)

were found in all localities, with the largest genetic variety

found in Goz Khun (haplotypes present from all three of

the main clusters) . This patterning clearly demands further

investigation.

DESCRIPTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF

LARGE-BILLED REED WARBLERS

Species identification of birds captured in 2009 was based

solely on the results of the genetic analysis, but with few

exceptions the photographs (e.g. Plates 1-3; see also Plate

12 R. J. TIMMINS et al. Forktail 26 (2010)

Column notes

Plate number: numbers refer to the plate on which photographs of the individual bird are reproduced; x = no photographs were taken of these birds; y = photographs

taken, but not included here. Bird # 1 5N was also illustrated in Timmins et al. (2009; Plate 1 ), as was bird # 8 on Plate 5 . The bird photographed in the net (Plate

2 in Timmins et al. 2009) was one of the four captured on 3 June.

Locations of net sites are given in Table 2.

Measurements are in mm. Measurement techniques followed Svensson (1992). Wing: wing length; tail: tail length; tarsus: tarsal length; wing-tip: primaries that

make up the tip of the wing; p2<wt: length of primary 2 (p2) less than wing tip; pl>pc: length of primary 1 (pi) greater than primary coverts; bill (S): bill length

to skull; bill W: bill width; bill D: bill depth; hind claw: length of hind claw.

Wing-tip: the photographs were not appropriate to assess this character independently, with the exception of two birds given in brackets. Emargination of p5: this

was assessed from photographs taken, not at the time of capture. Prom. = prominent; Unk = unknown; Red. = reduced compared with p3 and p4.

Other notes

* Probably erroneous measurement. Measurements are given provisionally, as some (and possibly many) are certainly not accurate. NM, HN and AMR were novices

at capturing and measuring birds, having had very little experience prior to the work in June 2009. An indication as to which of the measurements are most likely

to be erroneous was made by LS, with the aid of the photographs of the captured birds; these are flagged with an asterisk (*). None of the measurements was used

in the analysis of potential diagnostic differences described in the paper.

$ This bird escaped before further measurements or a sample were taken, but photographs suggest it was a Large-billed Reed Warbler.

f In addition to Large-billed and Blyth’s Reed Warblers, two other Acrocephalus species (Eurasian Reed Warbler A. scirpaceus and Clamorous Reed Warbler

Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens) were also captured, and these are included in the table along with two Cetti’s Bush Warblers Cettia cetti albivenms as they were

sequenced and used as controls within the genetic analyses.

Forktail 26 (2010)

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler in Afghanistan

13

5 in Timmins et al. 2009) and provisional measurement

taken (Table 3) support these identifications. However,

one individual, #15N, differeci more substantially from

the rest, primarily in bill coloration and plumage (Plate 4;

see below), but an independent evaluation by the authors

as to whether some error could have occurred between

photograph labelling and sample labelling and or

processing concluded that this was not reasonably possible.

The provisional measurements of this bird (Table 3) are

largely consistent with identification as a Large-billed Reed

Warbler. Caution, as already mentioned, must be exercised

in using the provisional mensural data, and bill

measurements in particular appear to exhibit significant

error. For example the bills of birds # 8N (Plate 2) and #

ION appear relatively long on the photographs, thus not

matching their recorded short measurements (Table 3).

The photographs do however suggest that several birds

(see below) had bill lengths close to the known range of

bill length in Blyth’s Reed Warblers.

Description of the captured birds

Although notes on plumage were not taken during the

2009 field survey, the photographs taken of 12 of the

Large-billed Reed Warblers allow a retrospective

characterisation of the plumage. All 1 2 of the Large-billed

Reed Warblers, the one bird that escaped and the two

Blyth’s Reed Warblers were clearly adults and not fledged

juveniles from the then current season. In general, the

plumage coloration of the Large-billed Reed Warblers

seemed very similar to that of Blyth’s Reed Warbler

(compare Plates 1-5 with Plates 6-7), and especially in

one bird (# 1 5N: Plate 4) even bore a close resemblance

to the eastern subspecies of Eurasian Reed Warbler A.

scirpaceus fuscus, both of which were present in the area

together with the Large-billed Reed Warbler. The

upperparts were dull rufous-brown, the underparts cream-

white, with the sides of the breast, flanks, lower belly and

vent tinged more saturated ochre or pink-buff. Only the

throat and chin were a cleaner whitish, although at least

some of the Large-billed Reed Warblers had a faint darker

wash to the lower throat. Legs were rather nondescript

pinkish-brown or grey-brown.

One feature which comes through on nearly all the

photographs of the captured birds, but which is not quite

so evident on museum specimens, is the long-looking tail

especially compared with the short, relatively rounded

wings (Plates 1-3). The appearance of a relatively short,

rounded wing on the live birds in the photographs seems

most likely attributable to the (on average shorter,

compared with Blyth’s) length of primaries 5-10 relative

to the wing-tip (Table 3 in Svensson et al. 2010). The

third primary (p3), however, appeared to be equal to p4,

or not shorter than p5 (T able 3) . This will be worth keeping

in mind during future searches in museum collections for

undetected Large-billed Reed Warbler specimens, as the

relatively short wings and long tail might not always be

eye-catching on a study specimen.

Another feature which is difficult to examine in detail

on specimens, but which can readily be studied on live

and handled birds, is the face pattern. Both eye-lids were

pale, the lower more white, the upper more buff-tinged

and broader, but there was no impression of a full pale

eye-ring. The supercilium was short and relatively

indistinct on all birds, usually off-white to buffish-white,

and blended in particular with the upper eye-lid, which

was generally slightly darker. On some birds, at certain

angles, the supercilium appeared faintly to extend beyond

the eye (Plate 2 and 5; a subtlety brought about by a very

slightly paler plumage tract on the crown-sides above the

eye-crescents), while on others it appeared not to go

beyond the upper eye-lid, and on one bird (# 1 5N: Plate

4) the supercilium was barely present even proximal to

the eye. The loral tract was rather variable and somewhat

indistinct, merging imperceptibly into the supercilium

and darkest next to the eye, but never darker than other

areas of the head or face, and thus generally not giving the

impression of an eye-stripe. This face pattern is very similar

to Blyth’s and it is unlikely that useful differences between

the two species will be found.

As explained above, we have treated the mensural

data from the 15 birds trapped in 2009 (Table 3) with

caution, and these measurements were not used in the

analysis of morphometric differences between Blyth’s and

Large-billed Reed Warblers (see below). Nevertheless, it

is evident both from the biometrics and from photographs

taken (Plates 1 -2 and 8) that most of the birds had a quite

long and broad bill, although others appeared more like

Blyth’s Reed Warbler (Plates 3-5) and the shortest bill

measurements (Table 3) overlapped substantially with

those of Blyth’s Reed Warbler (Svensson et al. 2010). But

whether these short measurements were accurate requires

confirmation. The same potential problems are present

in the other biometrics obtained during the 2009 survey

(Table 3). Of the 12 Large-billed Reed Warblers for which

photographs were taken, the lower mandible was pinkish

grading to a yellowish tip and cutting edge, lacking any

prominent darker pigmentation patches (Plate 2),

although at least three (# 2, # 1 5N and # 1 7N: Plates 5,

4 and 1 respectively) and possibly two to four more of the

birds (# 8, # 6N, # 9N, # 1 9N : Plate 3) appeared to have

a faint (or in one bird quite prominent) darker patch

towards the tip or more medially on the ventral edge. The

upper mandible coloration was relatively uniform dark

brown, bar the paler cutting edge, in most, although one

bird (# 19N: Plate 3) had what appeared to be a distinctly

paler mid-section.

Identification summary

Svensson et al. (2010) should be consulted for a full

account of biometrics and identification criteria. Here we

will only give a summary of the most useful clues, based

in part on the results from the 2009 survey. Clearly it is

a priority in the future to obtain an extensive series of

biometrics based on live birds (corroborated against DNA

data) to determine fully the similarities and differences

between the two species and thus provide reliable

measurement-based methods for in-the-hand field

identification of both Large-billed and Blyth’s Reed

Warblers.

Bill

As the name implies, Large-billed Reed Warbler has a

long and rather broad bill. It is probably usually at least

18.0 mm to skull (Table 1), but slightly shorter bills might

occur in large samples, perhaps down to 17.0 or at least

17.5 mm, as suggested by photographs (Plates 3-5) and

the provisional measurements of some of the captured

birds. Based on a large sample, Blyth’s Reed Warbler has

a maximum bill length of 1 8.0 mm (Svensson et al. 2010).

When seen from above, the bill of Large-billed has often

14

R. J. TIMMINS et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

rather straight, evenly tapering sides and a rather broad

tip (Plate 8a), lacking the clearly concave sides and more

pointed (or pinched in) tip of most Blyth’s Reed Warblers

(Plate 8c). But a few of both species are less typical as to

this (e.g. Plate 8b of a Large-billed and 8d of a Blyth’s).

A further distinction between the two species at the

population level appears to be that Large-billed Reed

W arbler has on average a more evenly dark upper mandible,

and a paler pinkish or yellowish lower mandible lacking

(especially in the museum specimens) a prominent darkish

tip or a darkish smudge just inside the tip. Almost all

Blyth’s observed by LS have had a slight darkish smudge

on the lower mandible just inside the tip, although in a

very small proportion either this can be so weakly marked

as to be difficult to discern in certain lights or angles, or the

whole bill is a little darker than average (melanin-rich

birds, also with darker legs and even a little darker plumage

overall). However, the two Blyth’s captured in Wakhan

either lacked such a bill pattern or fell into the latter group

of barely discernible darker pigmentation (Plate 7), and

thus had lower mandibles like those of the majority of

Large-billed. The upper mandibles of these two birds were

also very similar in uniformity to those of Large-billed.

Therefore, great caution should be exercised, especially

under field conditions, as there is clearly some overlap

both as to shape and colour of the bill between the two

species.

Claws

Large-billed has slightly longer and more pointed claws

than Blyth’s. The hind claw of Blyth’s is usually both

short and bluntly tipped, whereas in Large-billed it is

more acutely pointed. Mean length of hindclaw is 7.3

mm in Large-billed and 6.1 mm in Blyth’s (Svensson et

al. 2010; Table 1). The middle claw is also about 1 .0 mm

longer in Large-billed than in Blyth’s, being on average

6.3 mm and 5.3 mm respectively. The measurements

(T able 3) and photographs taken in 2009 appear to support

this prior assessment based on historical specimens.

Tarsus

Large-billed Reed Warbler has on average a somewhat

longer tarsus than Blyth’s, with mean values of 23.4 mm

and 22.1 mm respectively, but there is considerable

overlap due to individual variation (Svensson et al. 20 1 0;

Table 1). On museum specimens, the tarsus of Large¬

billed can look slightly darker grey than on the average

Blyth’s, but this possible difference should be better

studied on live birds in the future. Unfortunately few of

the photographs show the tarsus and legs clearly enough

for comparison.

Tail

Large-billed Reed Warbler has a somewhat longer tail

than Blyth’s, especially noticeable when compared to wing

length in the majority of live birds, and this is further

enhanced by its on average somewhat blunter wing (Tables

2 and 3 in Svensson et al. 2010). In comparison Blyth’s has

a shorter appearing tail relative to its otherwise similar

wings. We estimate that the majority of Large-billed Reed

Warblers will prove to have a tail length between 51—

63 mm, based both on museum specimens (Table 1) and

the plausible measurements of live birds (Table 3, a few

implausible extremes being discounted, especially when

compared to photographs of the same individuals) , whereas

Blyth’s Reed Warblers have tail lengths of 45-56 mm

based on a sample of 185 skins (Svensson et al. 2010).

This population-level difference, together with bill

characteristics, should be a useful criterion in the field for

provisional identification. As already discussed by

Svensson et al. (20 1 0) on the basis of museum specimens,

the photographs suggest that there is no difference in

absolute width or terminal shape of the rectrices between

the two species, and that both species are rather variable

in this respect.

Wing formula

In the museum specimens of Large-billed Reed Warbler

it is common for the second outermost primary (p2) to

fall in length between p6/7 or shorter (primaries numbered

from outer inwards). Often the tip of p2 falls around p7

or 7/8, and sometimes equals p8. When between p6/7 in

length, it is nearer p7 than p6. However, Round et al.

(2007) reported that on the first Large-billed Reed Warbler

captured in Thailand p2 fell between p8 and p9. In Blyth’s

Reed Warbler, p2 falls between p5/6, equal to p6, between

p6/7 or, least often, equal to p7; only once has LS seen p2

fall between p7/8. It follows from these differences that

Large-billed Reed Warbler has a slightly more blunt-

tipped wing on average than Blyth’s Reed Warbler, but

there is significant overlap between the two (Table 3 in

Svensson et al. 2010). Unfortunately this character was

not assessed on the captured birds and neither can it be

accurately determined from the photographs taken.

Based both on museum specimens and the captured

birds Large-billed Reed Warbler has invariably an

emarginationon the outer web of p5, usually as prominent

as that on p3-4 (Plate 9a), more uncommomly slightly

less pronounced (as in 3-5 of the 12 captured and

photographed birds: Table 3, Plate 9b, c). Blyth’s Reed

Warblers more commonly have reduced emargination of

p5 compared with p3-4 (although the two birds from

Pukuj were well emarginated: Plate 9d), especially in

immature birds, and a few young Blyth’s Reed Warblers

lack any emargination of p5. It remains unclear whether

a larger sample of immature Large-billed might also show

a higher proportion of reduced emargination than adults.

Song

Based on the single available recording, the song of Large¬

billed Reed Warbler resembles most closely that of Blyth’s

Reed Warbler but differs in several details. There are few

close resemblances to any other known Acrocephalus songs

in LS’s experience, except for short phrases and vaguely

a slowed-down version of a Marsh Warbler A. palustris or

Black-browed Reed Warbler A. bistrigiceps song. But

anyone familiar with Blyth’s Reed Warbler, Marsh

Warbler, Eurasian Reed Warbler and Paddyfield Warbler

A. agricola should find it fairly easy to recognise a Large¬

billed Reed Warbler from its song, being clearly different

from these species, yet contextually similar enough to be

recognisable as that of an Acrocephalus.

In common with the song of Blyth’s Reed Warbler,

that of Large-billed Reed Warbler is characterised by

both the persistent repetition of short phrases or melodic

figures several times and by the fairly slow general pace

of the song (Figs. 2-5) . Phrases are repeated either exactly

or with only minor modifications. A phrase can be repeated

2-6 times, rarely more, but on average slightly fewer times

than phrases repeated by Blyth’s Reed Warbler (which

Forktail 26 (2010)

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler in Afghanistan

15

Plate 1 . A Large-billed Reed Warbler showing a characteristic long bill, flattened head shape, relatively short, somewhat rounded wings enhancing

the length of the long tail. Note also the short and subdued pale supercilium and pale lores, paler than in most Blyth’s Reed Warblers, as well

as a suggestion of a darker pigmentation patch on the lower mandible . Bird # 17N, 1 5 June 2009, near Zebak village.

Plate 2 . A Large-billed Reed Warbler

showing a long bill with a relatively

uniform pale lower mandible. Note

the very subtle continuation of the

supercilium behind the eye. Bird #

8N, 8 June 2009, near Pak village.

Plate 3. Large-billed Reed Warbler showing in comparison to Plate 1 an apparently shorter tail and bill, but note the appearance of relatively

short rounded wings which help enhance the apparent length of the tail. Note that the upper mandible on this bird appears to grade somewhat

paler from the culmen. Bird # 19N, 16 June 2009, near Zebak village.

16

R. J. TIMMINS et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

Plate 4. A Large-billed Reed Warbler showing several extreme characters

including an extensively darker patch on the lower mandible, relatively

dark lores and lack of a clear supercilium combined with strong contrast

with the white throat, and also the appearance of a relatively short tail

and bill. Birds such as this would be imposible to separate from Blyth’s

and even Eurasian Reed Warblers, without vocalisations, biometrics

and/or genetic analysis. Bird # 1 5N, 1 4 June 2009, near Zebak village.

Plate 5. A Large-billed Reed Warbler showing a darker patch on the lower mandible and an apparently shorter bill than average. Such birds would

be impossible to distinguish from Blyth’s Reed Warblers. Note also the subtle continuation of the supercilium beyond the eye. Bird # 2, 3 June

2009, near Goz Khun village.

Plate 6. Blyth’s Reed Warbler: note the short bill, but a tail that does

not appear very short. Bird # 1 IN, 10 June 2009, near Pukuj village.

Plate 7. Blyth’s Reed Warbler: note the short bill. However this bird

appears to lack any dark pigmentation on the lower mandible. Bird

# 13N, 10 June 2009, near Pukuj village.

Forktail 26 (2010)

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler in Afghanistan

17

Plate 9. Difference in emargination of the fifth primary in Large-billed Reed Warbler and Blyth’s Reed Warbler, (a) Large-billed Reed Warbler

showing clear emargination: bird # 17N; (b & c) Large-billed Reed Warbler showing reduced emargination: birds # 9N & 15N; (d) Blyth’s Reed

Warbler showing clear emargination: bird # 1 IN.

often repeats a phrase 10-15 times before switching to a

new one) (Fig. 6) . The pace of the full song is subtly faster

than in Blyth’s Reed Warbler, but clearly slower than that

of a Marsh Warbler. A full song sequence of a Marsh

Warbler will, without exception, include accelerations

and very quick outbursts of notes, with rather few elaborate

phrase repetitions included. In Large-billed Reed Warbler,

the song appears to keep a steady and moderate pace.

The Large-billed Reed Warbler song recorded lacked

the common insertion of 2-5 clicking call notes between

phrases so characteristic of Blyth’s Reed Warbler (Fig. 6),

although a couple of the strophes have some clicking-like

notes within them (Figs. 2, 3). This may well serve as the

easiest way of identifying singing Large-billed Reed

Warblers. Another difference may be the slightly feebler

or more ‘trembling’ voice of the Large-billed Reed

18

R. J. TIMMINS et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

Plate 10. Typical vegetation communities in Wakhan, 28 June 2008;

note in particular small patches of ‘short’ riparian bushland along the

river bank.

Plate 12. Relatively short, and fairly open, bushland along the Panj

river in the Pak area, 31 May 2008.

compared with the clearer and perhaps louder voice of

Blyth’s Reed. This ‘trembling’ voice quality, meaning that

notes are subdivided into briefer ones, at times creates a

slight similarity with that of the Marsh Warbler . The Large¬

billed Reed Warbler also seems to include more variation

and ‘improvisations’ than Blyth’s Reed Warbler; the song

of the latter can appear mechanical, following a rather

‘rigid’ melodic structure.

In summary, Large-billed and Blyth’s Reed Warblers

are extremely similar (cryptic species), being normally

impossible to separate definitively in the field on structural

Plate 1 1 . Riparian bushland in the Wakhan river valley, 28 June 2008.

Goz Khun lies in the distance to the right, with the mountains of

Tajikistan forming the background.

differences alone, and with some difficult (perhaps

impossible) to separate even in the hand. This is particularly

important to remember in areas of potential sympatry

(South and South-East Asia and at least south-western

Central Asia), where for the time being song and/or genetic

confirmation will be required for positive identification,

except perhaps for extreme birds seen by persons highly

familiar with both species. Extreme individuals of Large¬

billed would be those with a very long and broad bill, long

claws, long tail and short wings.

Svensson etal. (2010) discussed reports on the internet

regarding two putative field records of Large-billed Reed

Warbler, in which birds reportedly had a habit of half¬

spreading (fanning) their tails and then slowly folding

them again when moving around in the canopy. One of

these records (Raju et al. 2008) has now, however, been

relatively conclusively shown to refer to Blyth’s Reed

Warbler, based on the capture and measurement of three

birds at Kanha Tiger Reserve in India (Raju et al. 2009).

Furthermore there is a widely reported behaviour of

Blyth’s of frequently flicking, cocking and fanning (or

flirting) the tail (Baker 1997, Grimmett et al. 1998,

Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). Such behaviour requires

re-evaluation in both species, although LS has not

observed it in Blyth’s Reed Warblers in northern Europe.

Despite the difficulty of field identification, it is

imperative that reliable and widely accepted methods are

established, not least because a reasonable global

conservation assessment for the species depends on it

(see later). We urge fieldworkers who believe they have

Figure 2. An approximately 11.5 second song sequence of the Large-billed Reed Warbler recorded in 2008. Note the rather varied nature of this

sequence in comparison to the others (Figs. 3-5) and the addition of five ‘clicking’ notes after c. 4.5 seconds, which are somewhat reminiscent

of the commonly inserted clicking notes of Blyth’s (Fig. 6).

Forktail 26 (2010)

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler in Afghanistan

19

Figure 3. An approximately 9 second song sequence of the Large-billed Reed Warbler recorded in 2008. Note the repetition of phrases and also

the addition of ‘clicking-like’ notes between phrases in the early part of the sequence, which are somewhat reminiscent of the commonly inserted

clicking notes of Blyth’s.

Figure 4. An approximately 14 second song sequence of the Large-billed Reed Warbler recorded in 2008. This sequence came c. 3.5 seconds

after that in Fig. 3. Note the repetition of phrases, and the lack of clear clicking notes.

Figure 5. An approximately 9 second song sequence of the Large-billed Reed Warbler recorded in 2008. This sequence came c. 16.5 seconds

after that in Fig. 4. Note the repetition of phrases and the lack of ‘clicking notes’.

Figure 6. Partial song sequence of a Blyth’s Reed Warbler. The two segments (a) and (b) are contiguous. The

time scale (x axis) is more compressed than in Figs. 2-5 . Note in particular the slightly slower pace of the song,

most phrases lasting approximately a second, compared to approximately half a second in the Large-billed

recording, and the insertion of clicking notes (vertical bars) between phrases. LS; Uppsala, Sweden, June 1984.

20

R. J. TIMMINS et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

found A. orinus populations to make recordings of

vocalisations and to take standardised measurements

(Svensson 1992) and samples for genetic analysis from

birds caught, whenever possible.

HABITAT AND ECOLOGY

That Large-billed Reed Warblers breed within the

surveyed area is currently supposition, although the

observation of many singing birds in 2008, and the dates

over which Large-billed Reed Warblers were caught in

2009 strongly support this. Additionally AMR and HN

observed a reed warbler with food items in the bill on 25

June at Goz Khun, which more than likely would have

been a Large-billed Reed Warbler. The significance of

the 2008 observations was not appreciated at the time,

hence no additional effort was directed to confirmation

of breeding, while in 2009 the emphasis was on capturing

and thus confirming the identity of the birds, rather than

confirmation of breeding which would have over-stretched

the then current abilities of AMR, HN and NM.

Badakhshan, like most of northern Afghanistan, lies

in the rainshadow of the Hindu Kush range, and Wakhan

and Zebak are dominated by arid habitats at high altitude.

Within both these areas, short stature, sparse, semi-desert

plant communities predominate on both slopes and in

valleys, while dense tall vegetation is rare within the

landscape and typically associated with riparian areas and

irrigated plantations (Plate 10). Additionally there are

sporadic areas of arable, largely irrigated farmland and

riparian grazing lands. Altitudes of the confirmed sites of

Large-billed Reed Warbler range between approximately

2,600 m asl at Zebak and 2,800 m asl at the three sites

(Goz Khun, Pak and Pukuj) in the Wakhan valley. The

historical specimens from Sufian (Sufiyan) and Khairabad

(Table l,Fig. 1) were probably collected at lower altitudes

still, as it appears that Koelz spent minimal time, a day or

two at most, at these localities (see http://

www.ummz.umich.edu/birds/collection/

koelzafghanlocalities.pdf for details of his itinerary), thus

suggesting that specimens were collected in the main

valley, rather than from higher-altitude tributary valleys

in the vicinity. The lowest altitudes possible at these two

localities would be c. 1,800 and 1,400 m asl respectively

(elevations derived from global SRTM data; see Fig. 1).

At Goz Khun in June 2008 singing Large-billed Reed

Warblers were common throughout the riparian

bushlands. A minimum of 13 birds presumed to be the

same species were seen and/or heard, but probably

significantly more, during several hours of morning

observation (c.05h00 to 08h00) along a route of just over

2 km, thus making it the second commonest species after

‘Sind’ Mountain Chiffchaff Phylloscopus sindianus

recorded in this habitat. Reed warblers (based largely on

singing densities) appeared scarce or absent in areas where

thickets were smaller in size, shorter in stature and more

open in their composition, perhaps not surprising given

the preference of Acrocephalus for thick vegetation. The

area in which the birds appeared commonest consisted of

relatively tall (2+ m), thick riparian bushland, composed

primarily of various shrubs, most notably sea buckthorn

Hippophae (see Plates 3 and 4 in Timmins et al. 2009). At

this site the shrubs form dense impenetrable thickets,

often several tens of metres in width, both on older river

terrace and newer sedimentary formations, and are

interspersed with open grassy glades and stream channels

(Plate 11).

The abundance of reed warblers in riparian bushlands

at Goz Khun contrasted markedly with the results of the

2008 survey at other locations and in other well-vegetated

habitats. In the Pak and Pukuj areas of riparian bushland,

which are somewhat patchily distributed over the irrigated

area of two outwash fans and the adjacent riparian terrace

of the Panj river, six hours of observation on 3 1 May and

1 June yielded few records of reed warblers. This area was

surveyed prior to the Goz Khun site (and somewhat later

in the day), and reed warbler song heard in this area was

retrospectively identified as such, because RJT was still

familiarising himself with the common resident species.

But this factor, although perhaps leading to some under¬

recording of reed warblers, surely does not fully account

for the difference in abundance recorded between sites.

The 2009 net sites lie roughly within the area surveyed in

2008, and confirm the presence of Large-billed Reed

Warblers there; they also suggest, particularly in the Pak

area, that Large-billed Reed Warblers were still numerous

and widespread even if densities were significantly lower

than at the Goz Khun site (assuming no reason for change

in abundance between sites over the two years) . The lower

calling densities found in 2008 seem most likely

attributable to differences in bushland characteristics

when compared to Goz Khun. Thicket height in the 2008

surveyed area of Pak and Pukuj was rarely above 1.5 m,

while thickets were generally smaller and less dense than

at Goz Khun (Plate 1 2) . The Zebak area was not surveyed

on foot in 2008, so a direct comparison of habitats is not

possible. But nets catching the species at this site in 2009

were set within mixed orchard plantations of apricot,

black cherry, willow and white poplars, with the nets

between the trees and unidentified thorn-bush hedges. It

is however not known if birds were resident in such habitat,

or attracted in from other vegetation types in the vicinity

by song playback. However, based on notes taken by RJT

while driving through the area in 2008 and by NM during

the 2009 netting, and subsequently interpretation of

remote imagery, habitats in this area were otherwise

broadly similar to those in the Wakhan valley.

Higher up the Wakhan valley, where the valley was

narrower and the valley terrain more rugged, reed warblers

were not detected by RJT in sporadic riparian thickets

along the Wakhan river. But these thickets were rarely

dense, were generally richer in shrub species (juniper

Juniperus , rose Rosae and tamarisk Tamarix were all more

in evidence than at Goz Khun) and were invariably small

(rarely more than 5 m wide) . Probably even more notable

was the lack of any records of reed warblers within birch-

dominated ( Betula ) riparian thickets that occur in

association with narrow, generally rugged, tributary valleys

of the Wakhan river at still slightly higher elevations

(c. 3,400-3, 600 m). Over 25 hours of observation during

the course of seven days between 7 and 28 June 2008 was

spent by RJT in four different birch-dominated tributary

thickets.

It was thus perhaps not surprising that reed warblers

were also not detected in the main Wakhan valley within

small, but often quite dense, plantations of poplar Populus

and willow Salix, along with other trees and shrubs. Several

such plantations, often in close association with bushlands

and or small scrubby thickets, were surveyed by RJT

Forktail 26 (2010)

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler in Afghanistan

21

between 3 1 May and 1 June in the Pak and Pukuj area,

and later in the survey (29 June-1 July) over eight hours

were spent in the Ishkoshim area where such vegetation

was considerably more extensive.

Thus riparian bushland was the only habitat in which

reed warblers were detected. Taken together with the

relatively extensive survey effort in structurally similar

complex areas ofvegetation, this suggests that Large-billed

Reed Warblers may well have a narrow breeding habitat

niche. Also noteworthy is the apparent coincidence of the

species’s use of riparian bushlands with lower, broad,

permanently human-inhabited valley areas. This is

presumably because broad flat valley bottoms allow

extensive riparian bushlands to form, and these same

features are favoured by people for settlement and

agriculture. In the Wakhan valley at least, riparian thickets

in areas outside of major human use zones probably do

not support large populations of Large-billed Reed

Warblers.

It is also interesting to speculate on the capture of two

Blyth’s Reed Warblers at Pukuj, in an area of relatively

mixed, low-stature open habitat, while none was captured

at the four productive net sites at Goz Khun. This species

has a wide geographical range, which now must be

considered with some caution due to the potential past

confusion between the two species (Svensson et al. 2010).

North-eastern Afghanistan has previously been considered .

to lie within the south-easterly extent of the species’s

breeding range (Svensson et al. 2010), and the current

results obviously support this. Although there is a

possibility that these two birds were only late passage

migrants, Svensson et al. (2010) were able to verify five

specimens of Blyth’s Reed Warblers collected historically

in June-July from north-eastern Afghanistan, including

the localities of Zebak and Ivhairabad, thus strongly

suggesting that breeding takes place. The habitat in which

the two birds were caught is typical of the relatively broad

range of breeding habitats that the species occupies, which

are generally drier (although usually in the vicinity of

‘wet’ areas) and dominated by woody species when

compared to the norm for Acrocephalus breeding habitats

(Baker 1997, Beaman & Madge 1998, Gavrilov & Gavrilov

2005, LS unpublished data).

The altitudinal range of Blyth’s Reed Warbler within

Central Asia has been reported as up to 1,000 m by

Dement’ev et al. (1968), with breeding in the Tien Shan

as high as 900-1,200 m (Kor’ev & Zarudny 1906 in

Dement’ev et al. 1968) and up to 2,000 m (Gavrilov &

Gavrilov 2005) . However, considerable caution is needed

in interpretation of these reports given the uncertainty of

the geographical range of Large-billed Reed Warbler,

especially as N. A. Zarudny collected a juvenile Large¬

billed Reed Warbler within the Tien Shan region (Table

1; Fig. 1 in Svensson et al. 2008). The altitude of Pukuj

(and Zebak in the case of the historical specimens) is thus

considerably higher than generally accepted for breeding

Blyth’s Reed Warblers. However, being at the southern

extent of the species’s potential breeding range, some

increase in the upper altitude limit seems logical, and

thus breeding within such habitat would not appear to be

out of the question. If Wakhan and Zebak are typical of

the breeding habitats of both species in southern Central

Asia, then widespread sympatry (or at least close

parapatry) between the two seems likely. This will

obviously complicate any future endeavours to improve

understanding of the breeding range of the Large-billed

Reed Warbler, and potential breeding sites will need

careful and systematic survey.

The reed warblers observed in the Goz Khun area in

2008, although skulking like other Acrocephalus species,

were observed on a number of occasions singing from

relatively high and exposed perches within the bushland.

Such behaviour also appears to be characteristic of Blyth’s

(Beaman & Madge 1998, Baker 1997). Unfortunately

the below-par health of RJT on 3 June, the effects of

acclimatisation to altitude and the novelty of the fauna

resulted in minimal notes being taken, especially on

behaviour of the reed warblers.

CONSERVATION ISSUES

Passerine birds are not trapped or hunted by local people

in Badakhshan, and the main threat to the Large-billed

Reed Warbler appears to be habitat loss. Local people cut

fuel-wood from the riparian bushlands and they are cleared

to make way for arable and grazing lands. High livestock

densities are also likely to exert their toll on the extent and

composition of the riparian bushlands.

The international border between Afghanistan and

Tajikistan within the Wakhan valley follows thePanj river.

This geopolitical boundary has resulted in very interesting

land use differences between the two countries, which

shed considerable light onto potential future scenarios

for the conservation needs of the riparian bushlands and

the Large-billed Reed Warbler. Both RJT (in 2008) and

SO (in September 2009, while on the Tajik side of the

valley) independently noted that riparian bushlands were

largely non-existent or very impoverished on the Tajik

side of the river. It was also noteworthy that infrastructure

on the Tajik side of the border was significantly more

advanced, with an all-season surfaced road, many bridges

and electric supply-lines along most of the valley, whereas

there was only an unsurfaced track, few bridges and no

electricity network on the Afghan side. The irrigation

system was also more developed and engineered on the

Tajik side of the valley. Clearly agricultural conversion

and livestock grazing have significantly reduced the

riparian bushlands in Tajikistan in contrast to those on

the Afghan side of the river.

However, almost certainly riparian bushlands would

have once been more extensive on the Afghan side than

they currently are, if it were not for heavy grazing and,

probably to a lesser extent, use of riparian areas for arable

land. Even in Afghanistan, much of the agriculture is

irrigated and often on high terraces, outwash fans or low

gradient valley sides, and thus not directly on former areas

of riparian bushland (although some certainly is). But

livestock densities are certainly significantly higher than

natural ungulate densities would have been and, given the

aridity of the landscape, livestock are largely concentrated

in the close vicinity of the Panj river or its tributary streams,

being commonly seen out on islands in braided river

sections. As a consequence, extensive areas of riverbank

and terrace support closely cropped grazing meadows.

Currently in Wakhan it seems that riparian bushlands

are used by local communities primarily for fuel-wood

and fodder and, to a lesser extent, for construction timbers.

As such, the presence of the bushlands is vital for the

supply of these materials, and thus there appears to exist

R. J. TIMMINS et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

a delicate balance in favour of maintaining some extent of

bushlands, as alternative sources for fuel, fodder and

construction timber supplies are otherwise limited.

Although no socio-economic surveys have been

undertaken to determine the extent of management, its

social context and the ultimate uses of bushland, it is clear

that some form of community management is taking place

at least locally in some areas. In support of this, a significant

proportion of the riparian bushlands in the Pak and Pukuj

areas (spread out over glacial outwash fans) were certainly

being deliberately fostered by local communities through

a simply engineered system of irrigation.

In the Goz Khun area, the bushlands are largely natural

in occurrence and occupy a broad braided stream plain at

the confluence of the Wakhan and Pamir rivers. It was

here, on both sides of the international border, that riparian

bushlands were best developed and most extensive in the

region surveyed, with an extent covering tens of hectares.

But they are seemingly used in the same manner as other

bushland areas by local communities and even here it was

observed, on the basis of remnant stumps, that one fairly

large area of several hectares had been cleared at some

point in the past.

A further consideration in the balance of land use and

resultant vegetation types is the extent to which human

management favours the persistence of riparian bushland

over ‘climax’ riparian woodlands and forest. There are

currently none of the latter in Wakhan, with the possible

exception of birch thickets outside of permanently

inhabited areas, and any tree growth appears to be highly

controlled by human intervention. However, in the absence

of people it would be easy to envisage many riparian areas

of bushland developing a woodland or forest character,

other than those regularly scoured by floodwaters.

Despite the current ongoing conflict within

Afghanistan, the local economy appears to be increasing,

probably driven predominantly by external aid largely in

the form of infrastructural development. These factors,

together with an almost certainly increasing human

population, seem very likely to increase pressure on

bushlands as livestock herds increase in size and arable

agricultural intensity increases to support a growing

population and economy with easier access to distant

markets. At the same time, alternative sources of

construction materials, fodder and, particularly, fuel

(energy) will likely become available, thus decreasing the

reliance of local communities on the bushlands, which

might then be vulnerable to clearance.

Although some bushland is always likely to survive in

inaccessible areas, such as river islands, establishing long¬

term protection for significant tracts of riparian bushland

in this part of Afghanistan is a matter of urgency.

Conservation measures will have to consider the complex

balance between different land uses and investigate in

more detail than our discussion above how likely future

development scenarios for the area will change these. It

will be particularly important to consider how riparian

bushlands can best be conserved in the face of agricultural

and livestock intensification and changes in fuel-wood

use. Conservation measures will probably have to include

some proactive set-aside of areas of bushland protected

from agricultural conversion, excessive grazing and wood

removal, and perhaps also development of alternative fuel

supplies. Agricultural intensification, which could

theoretically help take pressure offbushlands, will probably

occur without conservation intervention, but ‘best-

practice’ and recognition of the significance of bushlands

is unlikely to be fostered without concerted efforts. The

Agha Khan Foundation for instance has apparently been

successfully fostering the development of plantations

within Wakhan, a policy that seems more likely than not

to help maintain bushland area.

Any current conservation in situ initiatives in

Afghanistan are doubly difficult due both to remoteness

of sites and security issues. To reach Wakhan requires

many days travel by car from Kabul, while part of the

route between Feyzabad (itself a full day’s drive from

Wakhan), the provincial capital of Badakhshan, and

Ishkoshim, the town at the head of the Wakhan valley,

has often been deemed unsecure owing to tribal rivalries.

In order to understand more precisely the possible

significance and conservation priority of riparian bushland

habitat in north-eastern Afghanistan, a visual search of

remote imagery covering north-eastern Afghanistan,

eastern Tajikistan, northern Pakistan and adjacent areas

of China, available on Google Earth, was undertaken by

RJT in March 2010. Many of the images were dated 2005

or later and almost all were detailed enough to be

reasonably certain of distinction of bushlands from

farmland, grasslands and, in many cases, even plantations.

This analysis suggested that large patches of riparian

bushland as found around Goz Khun (Plate 11) are very

rare within the landscape, with few if any other river valleys

in the area searched appearing to have bushland as

extensive as in the Wakhan valley. However, smaller

patches within heterogeneous mosaics, usually dominated

by agricultural land (as at Pak and Pukuj), are relatively

frequent within broad mid-altitude valleys of at least the

three western nations, although such valleys themselves

are a relatively rare landscape feature.

Despite the general impoverishment of riparian

bushlands along the Tajik bank of the Panj river, SO

(September 2009) was able to determine, in addition to

small patches, generally on islands, within the Wakhan

valley, that patches of bushland also still occur further

downstream on islands within wider stretches of this river,

such as north of the city of Khorugh, and along the course

of the Gunt river (a tributary of the Panj) between 2,600

and 3,300 m of altitude. This pattern was also apparent

on the images reviewed on Google Earth.

The conservation outlook for the species will depend

importantly on the broadness or otherwise of its altitudinal

and habitat distribution across its potential Western

Himalayan breeding range. It is thus a priority to determine

not only its geographical breeding range, but also its

ecological tolerances, in order to understand more fully the

species’s global conservation needs. Such work should be

particularly focused in countries where land-use patterns

are significantly different from Afghanistan, notably where

economic development is more advanced, as evidence

presented here suggests that conservation status may prove

to be inversely related to economic development. The

ongoing conflict within Afghanistan may at least in the

short term allow somewhat easier proactive protection of

bushlands because of subdued economic development, but

there is a great need to try to locate breeding populations

in nations with greater stability, where conservation

interventions may stand a better chance of long-term success .

Currently the Large-billed Reed Warbler is listed as

Data Deficient (DD) on the IUCN 2010.1 Red List.

Forktail 26 (2010)

New information on the Large-billed Reed Warbler in Afghanistan

23

Given all the uncertainties, including the possibility it has

a relatively large global breeding range, we suggest that

the species should remain listed as DD until more research

has been conducted. However, based on the evidence

presented in this paper, it seems reasonably probable, if

the speculated habitat association is correct, that the

species’s ‘area of occupancy’ if taken to only include its

total breeding habitat (arguably ‘the smallest area essential

at any stage to the survival of existing populations of the

species: IUCN 2001) might well be smaller than

2,000 km2, even with a breeding range covering most of

the western Himalayas. The species may thus potentially

qualify for IUCN status Vulnerable, on the basis of

criterion B2 (IUCN 2001). But at present there is no

evidence to suggest severe fragmentation or fluctuation

in its population, nor a very restricted breeding

distribution, evidence of which would also be required

for a ‘VU B2’ listing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The ornithological surveys in 2008 and 2009 that permitted the discovery

of the Large-billed Reed Warbler in north-eastern Afghanistan were

made possible through financial support provided by the U.S. Agency

for International Development (USAID) to the Wildlife Conservation

Society (WCS) Afghanistan Program. The opinions expressed herein -

are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of

USAID. Robert Prys-Jones is thanked for helping establish contact

between Robert Timmins and Lars Svensson, and also for a very helpful

review of the submitted manuscript. Another, anonymous, reviewer

also provided many useful comments. Thanks are due to Pam Rasmussen

and the Avian Vocalisations Centre for advice and assistance in archiving

the tape recordings. GIS assistance was provided by the Centre for

Biodiversity Conservation at the American Museum of Natural History,

with special thanks to Ned Horning and Eleanor Sterling. T opographic

data for Fig. 1 were obtained from the Global Land Cover Facility,

www.landcover.org .

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Christopher Helm.

Beaman, M. & Madge, S. (1998) The handbook of bird identification for

Europe and the Western Palearctic. London: Christopher Helm.

Bensch, S. & Pearson, D. (2002) The Large-billed Reed Warbler

Acrocephalus orinus revisited. Ibis 144: 259-267 .

Bowie, R. C. K., Fjeldsa, J. & Kiure, J. (2009) Multilocus molecular

DNA variation in Winifred’s Warbler Sceptomycter winifredae

suggests cryptic speciation and the existence of a threatened species

in the Rubeko-Ukaguru Mountains in Tanzania. Ibis 151: 709-

719.

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6. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translations. [English

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Subcontinent. London: Christopher Helm.

Inskipp, T., Lindsey, N. & Duckworth, W. ( 1 99 6) An annotated checklist

of the birds of the Oriental region. Sandy, UK: Oriental Bird Club.

IUCN (2001) 2001 IUCN Red List categories and criteria version 3.1.

Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

Nimnuan, S. & Round, P. D. (2008) Further Thai records of Large¬

billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus. BirdingASIA 9: 10.

Olsson, U., Alstrom, P., Ericson, P.G.P. & Sundberg, P. (2005) Non-

monophyletic taxa and cryptic species-evidence from a molecular

phylogeny of leaf-warblers ( Phylloscopus , Aves). Mol. Phylogenet.

Evol. 36: 261-276.

Pearson, D. J., Kennerley, P. R. & Bensch, S. (2008) A second museum

specimen of Large-billed Reed Warbler Acrocephalus orinus. Bull.

Brit. Om. Club 128: 136-138.

Raju, D., Praveen J. & Prince, M. (2008). Apossible record ofLarge-

billed Reed-Warbler Acrocephalus orinus from Kanha Tiger Reserve,

central India. Indian Birds 4: 130-132.

Raju, D., Balachandran, S., Praveen, J., Sarath, C. R. & Prince, M.

(2009) More news on the Acrocephalus warblers at Kanha Tiger

Reserve. Indian Birds 5: 46-48.

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Reed XV avb\er Acrocephalus orinus back from the dead. BirdingASIA

7: 53-54.

Round, P. D., Hansson, B., Pearson, D. J., Kennerley, P. R. & Bensch,

S. (2007) Lost and found: the enigmatic large-billed reed warbler

Acrocephalus orinus rediscovered after 139 years. J. Avian Biol. 38:

133-138.

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Svensson, L., Prys-Jones, R., Rasmussen, P. C. & Olsson, U. (2008)

Discovery of ten new specimens of large-billed reed warbler

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Willard Avenue, Madison, WI 53704, USA. Email: rjtimmins@gmail.com

Stephane Ostrowski, Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY 1 0460, USA.

Sayeed Naqeebullah Mostafawi, WCS Afghanistan Program, c/o 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY 10460, USA

Ali Madad Rajabi, WCS Afghanistan Program, do 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY 10460, USA

Hafizullah Noori, WCS Afghanistan Program, do 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY 10460, USA

Lars Svensson, S:ta Toras vag 28, SE-260 93 Torekov, Sweden. Email: lars@lullula.se

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FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 24-30

An analysis of records of three passage migrants

in Thailand: Tiger Shrike Lanius tigrinus ,

Yellow-rumped Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia

and Mugimaki Flycatcher F. mugimaki

PHILIP D. ROUND

Records of three passage migrants in Thailand are analysed to show seasonal and geographical differences in their distribution. While

two of these. Tiger Shrike Lanius tigrinus and Yellow-rumped Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia, are early autumn migrants, the third

species, Mugimaki Flycatcher F. mugimaki, is a much later autumn migrant and, in contrast to the other two, comprises birds that winter

in Thailand as well as passage migrant individuals that winter beyond the country’s southern border. Disproportionately more Mugimaki

Flycatchers are recorded on spring migration than the other two species. Defmitive-plumaged males of both flycatcher species were

recorded earlier on spring and autumn migration than others (grouped female or immature birds). Although in recent decades the

numbers of migrants reported have increased due to increased ornithological recording, the numbers of Tiger Shrikes have not increased

in proportion to those of Yellow-rumped Flycatchers, possibly indicating a decline in numbers.

INTRODUCTION

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the journal British Birds

presented a series of papers analysing the patterns of

occurrence of scarce migrant birds in the British Isles.

These were eventually compiled in book form (Sharrock

1974). The clear and straightforward graphical analyses

therein were invaluable in giving a much wider and easily

comprehensible picture of seasonal occurrence patterns,

and differing geographical distributions of the species

covered, inspiring ornithologists and providing the

stimulus for future fieldwork and data synthesis. Similarly

detailed analyses for an Asian site (Hong Kong, probably

one of the most heavily watched sites anywhere on the

East Asian flyway) were provided by Chalmers (1986)

and Carey et al. (2001) who gave seasonal breakdowns of

records for most migrant species.

Increased field observation and submission of

ornithological records for Thailand and other South-East

Asian countries are now also beginning to generate datasets

large enough to examine better the distribution and

seasonality of many migrant birds. Roughly one in three

of all bird species in Thailand is at least partly migratory.

Precise patterns of occurrence differ widely among species,

and in some are undeniably complex. Thailand may be

host to three or four discrete populations of (e.g.) Black

Bittern Dupetor flavicollis and Chestnut-winged Cuckoo

Clamator coromandus : passage migrants, non-breeding

winter visitors from countries to the north, summer (wet-

season) breeding visitors, and possibly some year-round

residents as well (Lekagul & Round 1991).

However, the overwhelming majority of migrant

species, both landbirds and waterbirds, are non-breeding

visitors from countries to the north that spend the

Palaearctic winter in tropical South-East Asia. For many

of these Thailand marks the southern limit of their South-

East Asian winter range . Even here, however, the situation

is complicated by the country’s c.14° latitudinal span,

and its range of habitats, from seasonally dry monsoon

forests to rainforest. Many Palaearctic migrants, although

common in ‘continental Thailand’ (north of c.l2°N),

scarcely enter the Thai-Malay Peninsula (e.g. Siberian

Rubythroat Luscinia calliope) . Others, e.g. Arctic Warbler

Phylloscopus borealis and Eastern Crowned Warbler P.

coronatus , appear not to winter much north of c.140 or

1 5°N, and indeed the peninsular provinces may be their

major wintering area in the country.

The present paper seeks to examine the patterns of

occurrence of three Palaearctic migrant visitors which

are unusual in that they occur chiefly as spring and autumn

passage migrants: Tiger Shrike Lanius tigrinus , Yellow-

rumped Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia and Mugimaki

Flycatcher/7, mugimaki. These species are easily identified

and, though not scarce, are sufficiently noteworthy to be

recorded by amateur observers, yielding a reasonably large

dataset.

METHODS

The principal sources of data were records submitted by

local or visiting birdwatchers from 1980 onwards; my

own sight records and mist-net captures; published records

or major compilations where dates and localities were

given (e.g. Robinson & Kloss 1921-1924, Riley 1938,

Deignan 1945, Meyer de Schauensee 1946); the small

number of specimens held in the Centre for Thai National

Reference Collections, Environment and Resources

Department, Thailand Institute of Scientific and

Technological Research, Bangkok, and in the Boonsong

Lekagul collection stored in the National Science

Museum, Bangkok.

Although specimens and ringing records (mainly from

Laem Phak Bia, a coastal site in the Gulf of Thailand:

Round & Kongtong 2009) distinguished among sex and

age classes of the three taxa, these contributed only a

small proportion of records, most of the rest being sight-

records. For the two flycatchers, sight-records

distinguished only between birds in definitive adult male

body plumage (with black upperparts) and ‘others’

(brown-plumaged, female/immature individuals). While

male and female Tiger Shrikes in spring differ in plumage

(females with much reduced black on forehead: Wells

2007), few field observers distinguished between the sexes.

Additionally, Tiger Shrike is unusual in that adults have

two complete moults per year (Prys-Jones 1991). Adults

Forktail 26 (2010)

Three passage migrants in Thailand

25

undergo a post-nuptial moult on the breeding grounds

into a brown, juvenile-like plumage, so that many autumn

adults are difficult to separate reliably from juveniles.

Accordingly, in this analysis no distinction was made

between sexes or age-classes in Tiger Shrike, while the

two flycatchers’ age and sex classes were given as definitive

males and ‘others’.

Records for each species were grouped by ten-day

period throughout the year in order to standardise the

nationwide pattern of occurrence. Maps were used to

illustrate the geographical scatter of records, based on the

six regions first proposed by Kloss (1915) and

subsequently depicted in King et al. (1975): North

(alternative name North-West), North-East, South-East,

West (South-West), Central and South (Peninsula).

RESULTS

Over 720 records for the three species were subjected to

analysis. Although these covered a span of years from

1896 to the present, more than 90% of the records for

each of the three species post-dated 1980 (Fig. 1).

Although initially it was assumed that the overwhelming

majority of records would be from the Central Region,

which includes the city of Bangkok, where most observers

are concentrated, sightings from the Central Region only

contributed 39.7% of records of the three species

combined. A major surprise was the paucity of records

from the Northern Region (only 4.4% of records of all

three species), even though this includes Chiang Mai,

Thailand’s second largest city, which supports many

resident birdwatchers. The North-East, the largest region

in terms of land area, was expectedly little-watched, with

the exception of Khao Yai National Park (at the extreme

south-west of the region, and the major source of records) .

Tiger Shrike

A total of 202 records involving 324 individual birds was

compiled (Fig. 2), of which 259 were in autumn and 56

in spring. Only nine individuals (2.8%) were from the

midwinter period (November to mid-March), indicating

that this species was almost exclusively a spring and

autumn passage migrant. The earliest autumn record was

1 1 August and the latest 18 October, though almost all

(98.8%) occurred before 10 October (median date 13

September: T able 1 ) . Although the peak autumn passage

period overall was the second week of September,

disproportionately more of those after the first ten days of

September were from the South, reflecting a geographical

shift in the population. The peak period of occurrence

around Bangkok and elsewhere in continental Thailand

appeared to be during the last week of August and the first

week of September.

Figure 1. Records of three study

species according to decade.

Table 1. Occurrence of Tiger Shrike Lanius tigrinus, Yellow-rumped Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia and Mugimaki Flycatcher F.mugimaki on

passage in Thailand.

26

PHILIP D. ROUND

Forktail 26 (2010)

90

80

70 -

60 -

50 -

40 -

30 -

20 -

Date

Figure 2. Seasonal distribution

of records of Tiger Shrike Lanins

tigrinus by ten-day period.

Figure 3. Seasonal distribution

of records of Yellow-rumped

Flycatcher Ficedula zanthopygia by

ten-day period.

Figure 4. Seasonal distribution

ofrecords ofMugimaki Flycatcher

Ficedula mugimaki by ten-day

period.

Forktail 26 (2010)

Three passage migrants in Thailand

27

96° E 98” E 100“ E 102“ E 104° E 106“ E

96” E 98' E 100“ E 102” E 104” E 106° E

Z

O

CM

Z

CD

z

<x>

Z

o

Z

CD

Figure 5. Distribution of records of Tiger Shrike Lanus tigrinus by

region.

The earliest apparent spring passage record was 12

March, although since no others were recorded until 6

April there is a possibility that this was an aberrant

wintering bird. The latest date was 6 June, although the

peak spring passage was in the last ten days of April and

the median date was 30 April (Table 1).

For both passage seasons combined proportionately

more records were obtained from the South (46.3%)

relative to the Central Region (27.9%) than in the other

two species examined (Fig. 5). Additionally, five of the

nine midwinter records of Tiger Shrikes were from the

South, suggesting the possibility that a small population

may genuinely overwinter in the provinces adjacent to

the Malaysian border.

Yellow-rumped Flycatcher

The dataset comprised 395 records of 457 individuals.

This species was similarly almost exclusively a spring and

autumn passage migrant, with only seven individuals

(1.5 %) recorded during the midwinter period, from mid-

November to mid-March. More than twice as many

individuals were recorded in autumn (306) than in spring

(144).

Autumn passage was recorded from 1 August onwards

to early November, although 7 1 % of all autumn records

were in the last ten days of August and the first twenty

days of September, and only 20 individuals (6.5% of

autumn records) were obtained after the beginning of

October (Fig. 3). Spring passage was recorded from 19

March to 9 May (Table 1), with over three-quarters of

those sighted during March being male (Fig. 3). Most

Figure 6. Distribution of records of Yellow-rumped Flycatcher Ficedula

zanrhopygia by region.

observers did not distinguish between brown-primaried

first-year males and black-primaried adult males. The

median date for spring males (10 April) was one week

earlier than that for females (17 April; Table 1).

Adult males also constituted a significantly higher

proportion of earlier-arriving birds in autumn: 42.3% of

August birds were adult males, compared with only 25.5%

of September birds (%2 = 7.44; p < 0.01; Fig. 3). The

median date for adult males in autumn was 4 September

compared with 10 September for other age/sex-classes

combined (Table 1). Four ofseven midwinter birds were

black-bodied males. The winter sample is too small to

draw any firm conclusions and does not necessarily imply

that proportionately more adult males overwinter, since

some could have been first-winters that had completed

their body moult. The proportion of black body-plumaged

males in spring was exactly 50%, all first-year males having

by then acquired black upperparts.

Fifty percent of records of Y ellow-rumped Flycatchers

were from the Central Region compared with only 21.2%

from the South (Fig. 6). Records from the South did not

figure disproportionately among the few Yellow-rumped

Flycatchers recorded in midwinter, so there was no

evidence of a significant wintering population anywhere,

including in the extreme southernmost provinces, even

though Yellow-rumped Flycatcher winters in Malaysia

(Wells 2007).

Mugimaki Flycatcher

The pattern of occurrence of Mugimaki Flycatchers

differed markedly from the other two species. It was in

28

PHILIP D. ROUND

Forktail 26 (2010)

96° E 98“ E 100“ E 102' E 104' E 106' E

Figure 7. Distribution of records of Mugimaki Flycatcher Ficedula

mugimaki by region.

general less frequently recorded: there were only 127

records of 139 individuals for analysis. Mugimaki

Flycatcher was also a much later autumn migrant. Apart

from one (atypically early) report on 22 September, all

records spanned the period 2 October to 30 April. There

was a consistent and more frequent midwinter presence:

47 individuals (33.8%) were from the period 1 November

to 8 March. Relatively few were found in autumn, but in

most cases it was not possible to distinguish reliably

between autumn passage and wintering.

The marked spring passage was considered to span

the period 27 March to 30 April. Of 83 individuals

throughout the month of April, nearly half (42%) were in

the middle ten days of the month (Fig. 4) . Median spring

passage dates were 10 April for adult males and 16 April

for ‘brown’ birds that included both females and first-

year males (Table 1).

The geographical spread of records also differed

markedly from the other two species, with many more

(34%) from the North-East than any other region. This

compared with 26.8% from the Central Plains and 23.6%

from the Peninsula, a relatively more even geographical

spread among regions (Fig. 7). Mugimaki Flycatcher

showed a greater affinity for forest and taller trees than

Y ellow-rumped Flycatcher and was not usually recorded

in coastal mangrove scrub, and other relatively open

habitats where most watching and ringing of migrant

birds is undertaken. It also has a greater affinity for upland

habitats. Although most Central Region records were at

or near sea-level, the headquarters area of Khao Yai

National Park, the source of most of the North-East

Thailand records, lies at 700-800 m elevation.

DISCUSSION

All three species considered have breeding ranges in the

Eastern Palaearctic, with the smallest range being found

in Tiger Shrike, breeding mainly in Ussuriland, the Korean

Peninsula, Japan and north-east China (Brazil 2009).

Two of the three breed in smaller woodlots and parks

(including in urban areas: J. W. Duckworth in litt.) in

addition to forest. The third, Mugimaki Flycatcher, is the

most restricted to forest on the breeding grounds (Brazil

2009) and also tends to be more restricted to taller

woodland on passage in South-East Asia than the other

two. Although both Tiger Shrike and Yellow-rumped

Flycatcher winter commonly in Malaysia (Wells 2007),

neither does so regularly or widely in peninsular Thailand

(apart from a few Tiger Shrikes that possibly winter in the

extreme southern provinces, immediately adjacent to the

Malaysian border). Mugimaki Flycatcher is a winterer

and passage migrant in both seasons in Malaysia but

commonest above the montane ecotone (Wells 2007) . In

Laos this species is also mainly associated with hill-slope

and montane habitats, both on passage and in winter

(Duckworth et al. 1998, J. W. Duckworth in litt.). It is

highly likely, therefore, that many more might be recorded

during winter if the little-covered southern Thai

mountains were more accessible.

As passage migrants, Tiger Shrike and Y ellow-rumped

Flycatcher showed overall many more records in autumn

than in spring, while the reverse was true in Mugimaki

Flycatcher. The relative scarcity of both Tiger Shrike and

Yellow-rumped Flycatcher in spring is unlikely to be an

artifact of coverage as, in general, more birdwatchers and

bird photographers are searching for birds at that time

than in autumn.

Some other migrant shrikes (e.g. the Western

Palaearctic-breeding, African-wintering Red-backed

Shrike L. collurio and Lesser Grey Shrike L. minor) are

noted ‘loop migrants’, and take a more easterly route on

northward (spring) migration than on southward

(autumn) migration (Moreau 1961, 1972). There is no

obvious reason, however, why there should be any parallel

among the Eastern Palaearctic-South-East Asian migrant

species. Additionally, Tiger Shrike is very rare in Hong

Kong, with only nine records, all of which were in autumn

(Carey et al. 2001), so it is unlikely that spring migrants

take a more easterly northwards route. Nor are there

many records to the west (see below). Because Tiger

Shrike is a relatively late spring migrant, with northwards

passage extending well into May (latest Thai-Malay

Peninsula date 17 May: Wells 2007) some may be

overlooked. The most likely explanation, however, is that

most northbound spring migrants, having fattened in

Malaysian or Indonesian wintering areas, overfly Thailand

(and southern China) . This interpretation is corroborated

by the scarcity of records from Laos in spring, even though

coverage by visiting birdwatchers in Laos probably reaches

its annual peak at that time (J. W. Duckworth in litt.).

The depiction of differing geographical distributions

among the three species is still tentative as even now some

regions (especially the South-East) are much less-visited

than others, and would surely contribute many more

Forktail 26 (2010)

Three passage migrants in Thailand

29

records if better covered. In the case of Yellow-rumped

Flycatcher the disparity between the 50% of records from

the Central Plains region compared with only 21.2% from

the South may to some extent be due to a proportionate

disparity of (especially autumn) coverage between the

two regions. However, Wells (2007) suggested that the

species was less common in the Thai peninsular provinces

in autumn than in spring, and this is borne out by the

present analysis.

The apparent scarcity of Yellow-rumped Flycatcher

records from the North (which contributed just 2.8% of

records for both seasons combined) might be partly due

to inadequate coverage of favoured lowland garden or

parkland habitats in that (mainly hilly or mountainous)

region. But such a pattern might also occur if Yellow-

rumped Flycatcher had a slightly more north-east/south¬

west migratory orientation that caused it largely to miss

the North on both migrations. North-East Thailand

contributed 15.3% of spring records, while Yellow-

rumped Flycatcher is also regular in Laos in spring (J. W.

Duckworth in litt.). This would tend to rule out spring

overflight as a cause for scarcity in the North. In Tiger

Shrike by comparison, overflight is a more likely

explanation as there were equivalently few spring records

from both the North and North-East.

The Yellow-rumped Flycatcher in Hong Kong has a

pattern of occurrence similar to that of Tiger Shrike. It is

very scarce in spring (only one record: Carey etal. 2001),

suggesting that it either overflies southern China or follows

a route that bypasses the coast. Although more frequent

in autumn, it is still much less common there than in

Thailand. The peak passage in Hong Kong, in mid-

September, more or less corresponds with that 8° latitude

further south, in Thailand’s Central Region.

In autumn, Mugimaki Flycatcher was a much later

migrant, with passage peaking over one month later than

the other two. This made it difficult to distinguish between

migrants and winterers. The late timing of passage in this

species is also corroborated from night-time interceptions

in Malaysia (Wells 2007). The predominance of spring

passage records almost certainly accurately reflects a

genuine greater abundance then, especially since the

chances of encountering any individual passage migrant

should be lower in spring than in autumn. Not only is the

total population of any given Palaearctic migrant in spring

smaller than that in autumn, owing to winter mortality,

but spring migrants in general may also make shorter

migration stop-overs, owing to the imperative to return

to the breeding grounds to take up territory. In Hong

Kong, where the Mugimaki Flycatcher is similarly a scarce

winter visitor and passage migrant, it is also recorded

more commonly in spring than in autumn (Carey et al.

2001).

In general, the broad correspondence between

Thailand and Hong Kong in records of the three species

gives no reason to speculate that autumn and spring

migratory routes differ in major respects for any of them,

other than in possible spring overflight of northern South-

East Asia and southern China. Nor does any species pass

much to the west in either season. Yellow-rumped

Flycatcher is a vagrant to peninsular India, while neither

Tiger Shrike nor Mugimaki Flycatcher have been recorded

there (Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). In Burma, Yellow-

rumped Flycatcher and Tiger Shrike are known from the

extreme east of the country and Tenasserim only, while

there are no records of Mugimaki Flycatcher (Robson

2008).

The Mugimaki Flycatcher showed a generally more

eastern distribution in Thailand than either Tiger Shrike

or Yellow-rumped Flycatcher. Well-watched forest sites

in Western Thailand, such as Kaeng Krachan National

Park, which covers a similar altitudinal range to Khao

Yai, have yielded many fewer records than the latter site,

while there were only two records from the very heavily

watched mountains in Chiang Mai Province, in the

western part of the North. Definitive male Mugimaki

Flycatchers accounted for 42% of spring records,

proportionately fewer than in Y ellow-rumped Flycatcher.

Although this might be expected, since male Mugimaki

Flycatchers may not attain black upperparts until their

second year, the difference in the proportions of

recognisable males was not statistically significant.

Although the numbers of all three migrant species

recorded increased markedly after 1980, owing to greatly

increased coverage by birdwatchers and to better collation

of records, the numbers of Tiger Shrikes recorded did not

increase in proportion to those of Yellow-rumped

Flycatchers, and indeed there were fewer Tiger Shrike

records post-2000 than in the preceding decade (Fig. 1).

Given the fact that the peninsula contributed most records

of Tiger Shrike overall, one possible reason for this disparity

might be that coverage increased more in the Central

Region post-2000 than it did in the South (where either

coverage, or record submission, may have actually

declined) . Another possibility is that the decline in records

reflects an ongoing global decline in numbers of Tiger

Shrike that was reported by BirdLife International (2009) .

This analysis shows how records collected mainly by

amateur birdwatchers may make a contribution to the

scientific record in Thailand and South-East Asia as they

have long done in Europe and North America. Although

the present paper has drawn on records spanning a roughly

1 10-year period, over 80% of the records of each species

post-dated 1990 and therefore provided a reasonable

‘snapshot’ of present patterns. Studies on the phenology

of breeding and migration have assumed added urgency

owing to the weight of evidence that climate change is

having major impacts on birds and biological systems

(Crick & Sparks 1999, Butler 2003, Coppack & Both

2003, Sanderson et al. 2006). Migrant birds may be at

elevated risk from climate change because their annual

cycles are adapted to cope with the vicissitudes of climate

in widely separated wintering and breeding areas, which

may differ in the extent to which they are affected by

climate change. Additionally, clearance of forest for

agriculture has impacted the status of both resident and

migrant birds, removing large swathes of habitat for

inhabitants of forest, while simultaneously opening up

huge areas for those that favour open country. Wells (2007)

has documented a gradual southwards expansion of the

winter range of migratory Black Drongos Dicrurus

macrocercus, an open-country winterer, in Malaysia, and

range shifts among a suite of other migrant species might

be expected.

Migrant birds additionally face a number of other

threats including direct persecution, and indirect

disturbance. Mortality during nocturnal migratory flights

due to collisions and disorientation caused by

communications towers, other man-made structures, and

gas flares from offshore oil-fields has also been

30

PHILIP D. ROUND

Forktail 26 (2010)

demonstrated and could cause population declines (Lid

1977, Morris et al. 2003). Improved understanding of

migrant bird ecology, and a capacity to monitor changes

in the numbers and distribution of migrant birds, are

therefore of great importance.

Although this paper establishes a rough baseline on

seasonality and distribution for the three species

considered, more intensive and systematic monitoring,

from a greater and more even spread of sites, for a greater

range of species, and comparing seasonal patterns decade

by decade, or by five-year period, into the future would

refine and improve understanding. This could be done

through better collation of records from local birdwatching

groups (several of which already exist for the Thai regions) ,

university bird clubs, and possibly in future even formally

established bird observatories, including those in

neighbouring countries. Round & Kongtong (2009)

recommended the establishment of a bird observatory at

one coastal site, the Laem Phak Bia Environmental

Research and Development Project, Phetchaburi, where

ringing has already been implemented for a decade, and

which contributed a number of records to the present

analysis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the many birdwatchers and bird photographers who

contributed their sightings to this analysis. I should also like to thank Des

Allen, Robert DeCandido, Will Duckworth, David Pearson, Andrew

Pierce, Stephen Rumsey and David Wells for their comments on drafts

of this paper. I am grateful to the staff and director of the Laem Phak Bia

Environmental Research and Development Project for permission to

ring birds there. I thank the directors of the Thailand Institute of Scientific

and T echnological Research and the National Science Museum, Thailand,

for permitting access to specimens. I also thank Niti Sukumal and

Supatcharee T anasampaiboon for kindly preparing the distribution maps.

My work is supported by The Wetland Trust (UK).

REFERENCES

BirdLife International (2009) Species factsheet: Lanins tigrinus.

Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 21/2/2010.

Brazil, M. (2009) Birds of East Asia. London: Christopher Helm.

Butler, C. J. (2003) The disproportionate effect of global warming on

the arrival dates of short-distance migratory birds in North America.

Ibis 145:484-495.

Carey, G. J., Chalmers, M. L., Diskin, D. A., Kennerley, P. R., Leader,

P. J., Leven, M. R., Lewthwaite, R. W., Melville, D. S., Turnbull,

M. & Young, L. (2001) The avifauna of Hong Kong. Hong Kong:

Hong Kong Birdwatching Society.

Chalmers, M. L. (1986) Annotated checklist of the birds of Hong Kong.

Fourth edition. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Bird Watching Society.

Coppack, T., & Both, C. (2003) Predicting life-cycle adaptation of

migratory birds to global climate change. Ardea 90: 369-378.

Crick, H. P. & Sparks, T. H. (1999) Climate change related to egg-

laying trends. Nature 399: 423-424.

Deignan, H. G. (1945) The birds of northern Thailand. USNatn. Mus.

Bull. 186.

Duckworth, J. W., Tizard, R. J., Timmins, R. J., Thewlis, R. M.,

Robichaud, W. B. & Evans, T. D. (1998) Bird records from Laos,

October 1994-August 1995. Forktail 13: 33-68.

King, B., Dickinson, E. C. & Woodcock, M. W. (1975) Field guide to

the birds of South-East Asia. London: Collins.

Kloss, C. B. (1915) Zoo-geographical divisions for Siam. J. Nat. Hist.

Soc. Siam 1: 250-251.

Lekagul, B. & Round, P. D. (1991) A guide to the birds of Thailand.

Bangkok: Saha Karn Bhaet.

Lid, G. (1977) Fugler brennes ihjel av gassflaminer i Nordsjoen. Fauna

30: 185-190.

Meyer de Schauensee, R. (1946) On Siamese birds. Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Philadelphia 93: 1-82.

Moreau, R. E. (1961) Problems ofMediterranean-Saharan migration.

Ibis 103a: 373-427, 580-623.

Moreau, R. E. (1972) The Palaearctic-African bird migration systems.

London: Academic Press.

Morris, S. R., Clark, A. R., Bhatti, L. H. & Glasgow, J. L. (2003)

Television tower mortality of migrant birds in western New York

and Youngstown, Ohio. Northeastern Naturalist 10: 73-76.

Prys-Jones, R. P. (1991) The occurrence ofbiannual primary moult in

passerines. Bull. Brit. Orn. Club 111: 150-152.

Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C. (2005) Birds of South Asia: the

Ripley guide. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.

Riley, J. H. (1938) Birds from Siam and the Malay Peninsula in the

United States National Museum collected by Drs. Hugh M. Smith

and William L. Abbott. US Natn. Mus. Bull. 172.

Robinson, H. C. & Kloss, C. B. (1921) The birds of south-west and

peninsular Siam. J. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam 5: 1-397.

Robson, C. (2008) A field guide to the birds of South-East Asia. London:

New Holland.

Round, P. D. &Kongtong, W. (2009) Birds of Laem Phak Bia. Bangkok:

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Sanderson, F. J., Donald, P. F., Pain, D. J., Burfield, I J. &. van

Bommel, F. P. J. (2006) Long-term population declines in Afro-

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Philip D. Round, Assistant Professor and Regional Representative, The Wetland Trust, Department of Biology, Faculty of

Science, Mahidol University, Rama 6 Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand. Email: frpdr@mahidol. ac.th

FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 31-41

A rapid bird survey of the Menyapa mountains,

East Kalimantan, Indonesia

NICK W. BRICKLE, JAMES A. EATON and FRANK E. RHEINDT

We report on a rapid bird survey in the Menyapa Mountains of East Kalimantan Province, Indonesia. Six days were spent at altitudes of

between 150 m and 1,600 m during November 2007. A total of 184 species were recorded including one new species for Kalimantan, one

new for Indonesia, and several range extensions, highlighting the interest and importance of the Menyapa region. The status, distribution

and taxonomy of several montane species are discussed in general, including species both detected and undetected by this survey.

INTRODUCTION

Ornithological survey work in Kalimantan has been far

less extensive than in neighbouring Sabah and Sarawak

(Sheldon etal. 2001, Mann 2008). This is particularly so

for upland areas. Here we report on a rapid survey of one

such area, the Menyapa Mountains of East Kalimantan

Province, Indonesia. We extend our findings to consider

the distribution and taxonomy of some montane species

in general.

Survey area

The Menyapa Mountains are a range of mid-elevation

hills (maximum 2,130 m) some 300 km north of Balikpapan

and 150 km east of the Sarawak border, lying entirely

within the Indonesian province of East Kalimantan (Figure

1). The forested hills above around 500 m are designated

as a mix of watershed protection forest (‘ Hutan Lindung ’)

and an inactive logging concession owned by PT

Muggitriman. There is no history of commercial logging,

and illegal logging has been very limited as a result of the

Figure 1 .Topography of Borneo,

showing broad elevational bands.

Numbers indicate locations

referred to in the text: (1)

Menyapa Mountains; (2) Kelabit

Uplands and Ivayan Mentarang;

(3) Upper Mahakam; (4) Muller

Range and Barito Ulu; (5) Batu

Tibang; (6) Mt Kenepai; (7)

Bukit Baka; (8) Liang Kubung;

(9) Mt Nyiut; (10) Muratus/

Meratus Range.

32

NICK W. BRICKLE, JAMES A. EATON and FRANK E. RHEINDT Forktail 26 (2010)

poor access. Gaharuwood (agarwood) collectors are active

in the area but the scale is small and any damage is very

localised. Generally the forest throughout the Menyapa

range is in excellent condition.

Lowland areas to the west and east are dominated by

land designated as logging concession or industrial

plantation. Forest exploitation is very advanced to the

east, with the active logging concession of PT Nakarta

Rimba working into the foothills of the Menyapa

Mountains, and beyond this huge oil palm estates now

dominate the landscape. Land to the west is also

designated as a logging concession, owned by PT Essam

Timber, but this concession has never been actively

exploited and the area remains largely intact forest.

Between 1 996 and 2002 a road was constructed from

the lowlands in the east to connect with the logging

concession of PT Essam to the west of the Menyapa

Mountains. This unsurfaced road stretched over 1 50 km

across the Menyapa range and formed the most direct

route to access and remove timber from the PT Essam

concession. However, once opened it was found

uneconomic to use the road as intended, and exploitation

of the concession was abandoned almost before it began.

The road was then cut off from vehicular access following

a bridge collapse in 2005. However, three serviceable

4x4 cars were left behind and adopted by enterprising

gaharu collectors. Both the cars and the road itself have

been crudely maintained and are now used to ferry

occasional teams of gaharu collectors to drop-off points

from which they access the forest.

The Menyapa Mountains form part of the central

mountainous region of the island of Borneo, but are

isolated by land below 1 ,000 m from other adjacent ranges.

To the north lie the Kelabit Uplands and Kayan

Mentarang ranges that span the Kalimantan-Sarawak

border. To the west lies the Batu Tibang range of East

Kalimantan. To the south-west lies the Muller range (see

Figure 1).

Previous ornithological survey work in the

mountains of Kalimantan

To our knowledge, the closest previous ornithological

surveys to the Menyapa Mountains were those conducted

by H. C. Siebersin 1 925, reported by Kloss (1930). Siebers

collected above ‘Long Petah’ on the Telen river, which is

probably in the vicinity of the current road-head near the

logging concession of PT Nakarta Rimba on the route we

took to access the Menyapa Mountains.

Ornithological survey work in other montane areas

within Kalimantan is also sparse. To the west and south¬

west of Menyapa, previous survey work includes that

reported by Biittikofer (1899), who visited Mt Kenepai

(1, 1 36 m) and nearby Liang Kubung (c. 1,200 m); Baron

Victor von Plessen (reported in Stresemann 1938), who

visited the upper Mahakam River region; Prieme &

Heegaard (1988), who visited Mt Nyiut (‘Niut’; 1,000-

1,500 m) in the far west of Kalimantan; Rice (1989), who

produced some short notes on fieldwork at 1,600 m on

Bukit Baka on the border ofWest and Central Kalimantan

provinces; and Wilkinson etal. (1991a), who reported on

bird surveys within the Banto Ulu region of north-central

Kalimantan, although mostly under 800 m elevation. In

the far south of Kalimantan, Davison (1997) reported

on a survey of the isolated Muratus ranges (‘Meratus’;

1,300 m). To the north of Menyapa bird survey work has

been more extensive, particularly from the Kayan

Mentarang ranges (1,500-1,900 m), including work by

Pfeffer (1960-1961), van Balen & Aspinall (1996), van

Balen (1997, 1999), van Balen & Nurwatha (1997) and

Sebastian (2007). Beyond these surveys, there has been

little other published work. A wealth of literature exists

for montane areas in Sabah and Sarawak on the other

hand, compiled and reviewed in Smythies ( 1 999), Sheldon

et al. (2001) and Mann (2008).

METHODS

Between 2 1 and 27 November 2007 JAE and NWB joined

a survey team from The Nature Conservancy en route to

the low-lying land to the east of the Menyapa Mountains

to survey for the presence of Bornean Orang-utan Pongo

pygmaeus. Data on bird species present were collected by

direct observation and records of calling birds. No

systematic or quantitative survey methods were used due

to time and access constraints. Survey effort focused on

the following areas, habitats and altitudes:

• degraded lowland forest (active logging concession),

200-500 m: 4 man-days;

• primary submontane forest, 500-1,500 m: 4 man-

days;

• primary montane forest, 1 ,500-2,000 m: 4 man-days.

Bird names, sequence and species-level taxonomy

generally follow Inskipp et al. (1996) except where more

recent published information is available (taxa marked

with *). IUCN Red List categories follow IUCN (2010).

RESULTS

A total of 184 species were recorded. Detailed accounts

are given below for (a) threatened species (Endangered

or Vulnerable by IUCN 2010); (b) species for which our

records represent significant range extensions; and (c)

species notable for other given reasons. An annotated list

of all species recorded during the survey is given in the

Appendix.

Mountain Serpent Eagle Spilomis kinabaluensis

Bornean endemic. Vulnerable. At least five birds were

seen and sound-recorded at 1,300-1,650 m. This

represents a notable southerly range extension for this

species, with the only previous Kalimantan records from

Kayan Mentarang (Voous 1961, van Balen 1999,

Sebastian 2007).

Wallace’s Hawk Eagle Nisaetus nanus

Vulnerable. A single bird seen soaring above the Nakarta

Rimba concession at around 150 m. This species is an

uncommon but widespread resident in Kalimantan (Mann

2008).

Ferruginous Partridge Caloperdix oculea

A pair was heard calling at around 350 m. Only a single

Kalimantan record exists of this species, recorded at Mt

Latuk within the Kayan Mentarang ranges (Pfeffer 1 960-

1961). Ferruginous Partridge also appears scarce in Sabah

and Sarawak, with only an handful of previous records

(Mann 2008).

Forktail 26 (2010) Rapid bird survey of the Menyapa mountains, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

33

Red-breasted Partridge Arborophila hyperythra

Bornean endemic. Regularly heard, and seen once, at

l, 200-1,500 m. There are very few previous records of

Red-breasted Partridge from Kalimantan, seemingly

having only previously been recorded in Barito Ulu in

northern Central Kalimantan (Wilkinson et al. 1991a)

and in the Kayan Mentarang region (Finsch 1905, van

Balen & Nurwatha 1997, Smythies 1999). The species’s

range in Sabah and Sarawak is relatively wide, stretching

north from Barito Ulu as far as Mt Kinabalu (Mann 2008) .

Crimson-headed Partridge Haematortyx sanguiniceps

Bornean endemic. Regularly recorded at 1,200-1,650

m. Few previous records from Kalimantan, mostly from

the north-east, including the watersheds of Kapuas-

Mahakam and Mahakam-Teweh (Smythies 1957) and

the Kayan Mentarang ranges (Pfeffer 1960-1961, van

Balen & Nurwatha 1997, Sebastian 2007).

Crested Fireback Lophura ignita

Near Threatened. A single male crossed the track at

200 m. Birds in the Menyapa Mountains belong to the

nominate group, which consists of two Bornean races

( ignita and nobilis) that differ only slightly in size

(McGowan 1994). It is questionable to which of these

two races Menyapa birds belong, because precise

subspecies range limits in this part of Borneo are not

clear. The nominate Bornean group differs greatly from

Sumatran L. i. rufa and may well be split in the future, in

which case the threat status of Bornean birds (L. ignita

sensu stricto ) will need to be re-assessed.

Bulwer’s Pheasant Lophura bulweri

Bornean endemic. Vulnerable. A male and three females

crossed the track in the early morning at 1,100 m. Local

gaharu collectors knew this species well, suggesting it is

regular in the area. This species is an uncommon

submontane resident with a patchy distribution across

central Borneo (Mann 2008).

Barred Eagle Owl Bubo sumatranus

Heard calling nightly at around 1,600 m. Three of the five

previous Kalimantan records of this species have been

from lowland sites, including the Sangkulirang Peninsula

(Eames 2005) and Sungai Wain (Slik & van Balen 2006)

in east Kalimantan, and T anjung Puting National Park in

south-central Kalimantan (Bohap & Galdikas 1 987, Nash

& Nash 1988). Only Biittikofer (1899) and Sebastian

(2007) recorded Barred Eagle Owl in upland habitat, at

Liang Kubung and Kayan Mentarang respectively. In

Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei this species is more

widespread, but typically below 1,000 m (Mann 2008).

Our record is notable, not least for its altitude.

Mountain Scops Owl Otus spilocephalus

Several heard at night above 1,100m. Previously recorded

from only two locations in Kalimantan: Kayan Mentarang

(Robson 1993, van Balen 1997) and Gunung Liang

Kubung in west Kalimantan (Banks 1937).

*Grey Nightjar Caprimulgus jotaka

At least four birds were heard and seen at dawn and dusk

at 1,100 m. This species is listed as occurring in

Kalimantan by Andrew (1992) and Sukmantoro et al.

(2007), although it is not clear where the record(s)

originate, as no reference is given and no record could be

located. Additionally no records are listed for Kalimantan

by Mann (2008). Grey Nightjar appears to be an

uncommon winter visitor to Borneo, based on records

from Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei, and so its presence in

Kalimantan is not to be unexpected.

*Bornean Frogmouth Batrachostomus mixtus

Recorded at night once at around 1,100 m. Only a few

Kalimantan records exist of this species: far to the south

of Menyapa in the isolated Muratus Range (Davison

1 997); ‘Bahau’ (Stresemann 1 937); the Kayan Mentarang

ranges (van Balen & Nurwatha 1 997, Holmes 1 997); and

the Bulungan river in east Kalimantan, close to Menyapa

(Stresemann 1937). This species is more commonly

recorded from the far north of Borneo, in Sabah and

northern Sarawak (Mann 2008).

* Bornean Swiftlet Collocalia dodgei

Bornean endemic. Collocalia swiftlets were commonly

encountered in the montane zone above 1,500 m and

appeared to show green-glossed mantles. Moyle et al.

(2008) showed that the island of Borneo harbours two

Collocalia swiftlet species: (1) the widespread Glossy

Swiftlet C. esculenta from the lowlands and foothills; and

(2) the montane Bornean Swiftlet C. dodgei , a close relative

of the better known Linchi Swiftlet C. linchi from Java.

The two Bornean species closely resemble each other but

differ in the colour of their plumage gloss (green in C.

dodgei, blue in C. esculenta). C. dodgei has so far only

conclusively been recorded from above 2,500 m on Mt

Kinabalu (Sabah), but Moyle et al. (2008) suggested the

species may be more widespread in suitable montane

habitat throughout the island. Our record of green-glossed

birds above 1,500 m suggests that C. dodgei occurs south

to the Menyapa Mountain range in Kalimantan. Future

confirmation of our record with photographs or specimen

collection is desirable, not least to establish the reliability

of mantle colour as an identification feature.

White-throated Needletail Hirundapus caudacutus

A small party of six birds was seen above the PT Nakarta

Rimba logging concession at around 200 m. This species

is listed as occurring in Kalimantan by Andrew (1992)

and Sukmantoro et al. (2007), although it is not clear

where the record(s) originate, as no reference is given and

no record could be located. No records are listed for

Kalimantan by Mann (2008), suggesting our record may

be the first. In Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei White-throated

Needletail is considered an uncommon passage migrant,

with numerous records (Mann 2008), so its occurrence

in Kalimantan is not unexpected.

Golden-NAPED Barbet Megalaima pulcherrima

Bornean endemic. Commonly encountered above

1,100 m. This represents a notable southerly range

extension for this species in Kalimantan, with the only

previous records being to the north from the Kayan

Mentarang ranges (van Balen 1997, Sebastian 2007).

Bornean Barbet Megalaima eximia

Bornean endemic. Commonly seen and heard at 1,100-

1,600 m. Known in Kalimantan from previous records at

only four locations, including Kayan Mentarang (Holmes

1997, Sebastian 2007), Barito Ulu (Wilkinson et al.

34

NICK W. BRICKLE, JAMES A. EATON and FRANK E. RHEINDT Forktail 26 (2010)

1991a), Liang Kubung (Blittikofer 1899) and Mt Nyiut

in the far west (Prieme & Heegaard 1988).

Giant Pitta Pitta caemlea

A bird heard calling within the Nakarta Rimba logging

concession at around 1 50 m. Only three previous records

from Kalimantan : near to Menyapa at the upper Mahakam

river (reported in Biittikofer 1899), Mt Lumut, also in

east Kalimantan (Wielstra & Pieterse 2010) and Gunung

Palung National Park in the far south (Laman etal. 1991,

Holmes 1997).

Red-rumped/Striated Swallow

Cecropis daurica/striolata

Two hirundines seen flying at around 1,600 m could not

be conclusively identified to either species. Records of

Red-rumped Swallow are very sparse in Borneo, and there

is no confirmed record for Kalimantan, but they may be

overlooked on inconclusively identified (Mann 2008).

Striated Swallow appears more widespread, but again

identification is not always conclusive (Mann 2008) . Close

attention should be paid to ‘red-rumped’ swallows seen

anywhere in Borneo.

Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus

Three birds seen at around 1,600 m. This appears to be

only the second record from Kalimantan, after the type

specimen was collected near Pontianak in West

Kalimantan by Diard in 1 826 (reported in Smythies 1999).

Several records exist from Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei,

where this is presumed to be an accidental visitor (Mann

2008).

Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni

A single bird observed foraging along the forest-lined

access track at around 650 m. This appears to be the first

record of Olive-backed Pipit for Indonesia (Andrew

1992, Sukmantoro et al. 2007). The bird was a typical

Anthus in shape, walking slowly through the grassy

margins of the track. The upperparts were olive-green

with a white supercilium behind the eye, buff in front,

black spot at the rear of the ear-coverts, obvious black

moustachial stripe and thick breast streaking. When the

bird flushed at 10 m range it flew into the forest, giving

a typical sharp tzeet call. Several previous records of Olive-

backed Pipit exist from Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei, where

it is considered a rare winter visitor (Mann 2008), making

our record, while very notable, perhaps not entirely

unexpected.

Sunda Cuckoo shrike Coracina laruata

Regularly encountered in singles and pairs above

1,100 m. Considered a montane resident in Borneo, but

while there are numerous records from mountains in

Sabah and Sarawak (Mann 2008) there appear to be only

two previous records from Kalimantan, from Kayan

Mentarang (Sebastian 2007) and Barito Ulu (Wilkinson

et al. 1991a), suggesting a widespread but patchy

distribution.

Grey-chinned Minivet Pericrocotus solans

Regular encounters with small flocks at 1,100-1,600 m.

This represents a notable southerly range extension for

this species in Kalimantan, with the only previous records

being to the north from the Kayan Mentarang region

(Robson 1993, van Balen 1997, Sebastian 2007). Also

known from Mt Dulit and Mt Mulu in Sarawak, Gunung

Pagon in Brunei, and north to Mt Kinabalu in Sabah

(Mann 2008).

Straw-headed Bulbul Pycnonotus zeylanicus

Vulnerable. This species was present on the river adjacent

to the start of the Menyapa Mountain track, at around

280 m. Three chicks were also being kept in a cage at the

base camp station. This species is still an uncommon

resident throughout Kalimantan, in contrast to Sumatra

where it has become extremely scarce due to poaching

pressure.

Black-and-white Bulbul Pycnonotus melanoleucos

Near-threatened. This species was commonly

encountered in the Menyapa Mountains between 300

and 700 m. Elsewhere on Borneo it is an uncommon

lowland to hill forest resident, with few records from

montane areas.

*Bornean Bulbul Pycnonotus montis

Bornean endemic. Frequently seen at 1,100-1,600 m.

We here follow Fishpool & Tobias’s (2005) treatment of

Bornean birds (taxon montis ) as specifically distinct from

mainland taxa of the Black-crested Bulbul P. melanicterus.

An uncommon resident of north-central mountains of

Borneo (Mann 2008).

*Pai.e-faced Bulbul Pycnonotus leucops

Bornean endemic. Common above 1,200 m. A close

relative of the widespread Flavescent Bulbul P. flavescens

from mainland South-east Asia, with which it is widely

considered conspecific. Fishpool & Tobias (2005) and

Myers (2009) pointed to considerable morphological and

vocal differences and indicated that species status for this

montane Bornean endemic may be warranted. In view of

our own unpublished preliminary data on this form we

here treat it as a separate species. Our records represent

a notable southerly range extension in Kalimantan, with

the only previous sightings being to the north from Kayan

Mentarang (van Balen 1997).

*Bornean Leafbird Chloropsis kinabaluensis

Bornean endemic. The montane form of Blue-winged

Leafbird C. cochinchinensis on Borneo is treated as a

separate species, C. kinabaluensis , by several authors (W ells

et al. 2003, Mann 2008, Myers 2009, Phillipps & Phillipps

2009). We recorded it commonly above 1,100 m in the

Menyapa Mountains, apparently replacing C. c.

viridinucha at higher altitudes without any morphological

intergradation (see below) . This apparent local parapatry

in the Menyapa Mountains supports the separation of C.

kinabaluensis as a species. The distribution of C.

kinabaluensis is believed to be limited to Borneo’s northern

mountain ranges only, as far south as Mt Dulit and the

Usun Apau Plateau. Previous surveys in montane habitat

in Kayan Mentarang have recorded ‘C. (cochinchinensis)

flavocinta ’ (sic) (van Balen 1997) which is considered to

refer to the form C. kinabaluensis , while Biittikofer ( 1 899)

recorded ‘C. viridinucha ’ (sic) from Mt Kenapai and Liang

Kubung, as did Wilkinson etal. (1991b) from Barito Ulu

in central Kalimantan. Our sightings from Menyapa

therefore appear to represent a notable southerly range

extention in the species’s distribution.

Forktail 26 (2010) Rapid bird survey of the Menyapa mountains, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

35

Blue-winged Leafbird

Chloropsis cochinchinensis viridinucha

A pair seen at around 300 m. See taxonomic and

distributional notes above.

*Bornean Whistling Thrush Myophonus bomeensis

Bornean endemic. Seen once at around 1,600 m. We

follow Collar (2004) in recognising M. bomeensis as

specifically distinct from M. glaucinus and M. castaneus.

Previous records from Kalimantan were made by

Biittikofer (1899) at Liang Kubung to the west of

Menyapa, and by van Balen &Nurwatha (1999) inKayan

Mentarang. In Sabah and Sarawak this species is widely

distributed north to south, including Mts Kinabalu, Dulit,

Mulu, Penrissen, Pueh Tegora and Bau (Everett 1890,

Smythies 1957, Mann 2008), suggesting a wide

distribution throughout the central ranges.

White-browed Shortwing Brachypteryx montana

Recorded above 1,600 m. Only the second confirmed site

for this species in Kalimantan, being previously known

from the Kayan Mentarang region to the north (van Balen

1 997) and adjacent ranges in Sarawak and Sabah (Mann

2008).

Bornean Stubtail Urosphena whiteheadi

Bornean endemic. Recorded twice at around 1,600 m.

This species has previously been recorded in Kayan

Mentarang to the north by van Balen (1997) and to the

south-west at Mt Kenepai (Biittikofer 1899), Barito Ulu

(Wilkinson etal. 1 9 9 1 b) and Gn Liang Kubung (Smythies

1957).

Mountain Tailorbird Orthotomus cucnlatus

Commonly heard and seen occasionally above 1,100 m.

In Kalimantan previously only known from three widely

separated sites: Kayan Mentarang in the north (Holmes

1997, Sebastian 2007), Mt Muratus in the far south

(Davison 1997), and MtNyiut in the far west (Prieme &

Heegaard 1988).

Mountain Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus trivirgatus

Common above 1,500 m; sound recordings made.

Previously recorded at only three locations in Kalimantan:

Kayan Mentarang in the north (Sebastian 2007), Mt

Muratus in the far south (Davison 1997), and Mt Nyiut in

the far west (Prieme & Heegaard 1988). This species is

commonly recorded on mountains in Sabah and Sarawak

(Mann 2008), and the lack of records from Kalimantan is

surprising, given how widely separated the known sites are.

Yellow-breasted Warbler Seicercus montis

Commonly encountered in mixed feeding flocks at higher

altitudes (from around 1,000 m). Only two previous

Kalimantan records are apparent: from the far south in

the Muratus Mountains (Davison 1997) and from the far

west, at Mt Nyiut (Prieme & Heegaard 1988). The species

is more commonly recorded in mountains of both Sabah

and Sarawak, including T rus Madi, Mt Kinabalu, Crocker

Range, Mt Pueh and the Apad Runan range, adjacent to

the East Kalimantan border (Mann 2008). Our record

fills a gap in the species’s distribution in east-central

Kalimantan, but the lack of further records from

Kalimantan remains hard to explain, and suggests a very

patchy distribution.

Sunda Bush Warbler Cettia vulcania

Seen and heard twice at 1,650 m. Apparently only the

second record for Kalimantan, having previously been

recorded from Kayan Mentarang (van Balen 1997). The

species is also found from Mt Kinabalu in Sabah in the

north, to Mt Murud in Sawarak to the south (Mann 2008) .

Eyebrowed Jungle Flycatcher Rhinomyias gularis

Bornean endemic. Recorded once at around 1,600 m.

This species has previously been recorded in Kayan

Mentarang, to the north, by van Balen (1997) and to the

far south of Kalimantan in the isolated Muratus Mountains

(Davison 1997).

Grey-streaked Flycatcher Muscicapa griseisticta

Seen twice, at 350 m and 1,300 m. Apparently only the

fourth record for Kalimantan of this rare non-breeding

season migrant, previous sightings being from Kayan

Mentarang and near Pontianak (van Balen & Aspinall

1996) and the Sangkulirang Peninsula (Eames 2005).

Only a further 5-6 records exist from the whole of Borneo

(Mann 2008).

Ferruginous Flycatcher Muscicapa ferruginea

Seen once at 650 m. Appears to be only the second

published record for Kalimantan of this rare non-breeding

season migrant, having previously been collected nearby

at ‘Punt 1’, 1,172 m, above Long Petah, Telen River, East

Kalimantan by Siebers in 1925 (reported in Kloss 1930).

Indigo Flycatcher Eumyias indigo

Several recorded above 1,500 m. Previous Kalimantan

records have all been from Kayan Mentarang (van Balen

1997, Sebastian 2007), so this represents a notable, if not

unexpected, range extension southwards.

Snowy-browed Flycatcher Ficedula hyperythra

Heard and seen occasionally above around 1 ,000 m. This

species has only been recorded from two sites in

Kalimantan: the Kayan Mentarang ranges to the north of

Menyapa (Sebastian 2007) and in the far west at Mt

Nyiut (Prieme & Heegaard 1988). Our record therefore

represents a notable south-easterly range extension within

Kalimantan. There are also relatively few records of

Snowy-browed Flycatcher from Sabah and Sarawak,

including from Mt Pueh, Mt Tamo Abo, Mt Mulu and

Mt Kinabalu (Mann 2008).

Blue- and- white Flycatcher Cyanoptila cyanomelana

An adult male seen at 650 m. There are more records of

this winter visitor in Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei, than

Kalimantan, where it is only known form four previous

records, including Mt Kenapai (Biittikofer 1899), Bukit

Baka (Rice 1 989), Mt Lumut (Wielstra & Pieterse 20 1 0)

and Tanjung Selor (Holmes 1997).

Bornean Whistler Pachycephala hypoxantha

Bornean endemic. Seen commonly at around 1,600 m.

This species has previously been recorded for Kalimantan

from Kayan Mentarang (van Balen & Nurwatha 1997,

Sebastian 2007), Barito Ulu (Wilkinson et al. 1991a) and

Mt Nyiut far to the west (Prieme & Heegaard 1 988), but

interestingly was not recorded nearer to the west by

Biittikofer (1899) at Mt Kenepai or Liang Kubung.

Bornean Whistler has also been recorded from Mt

36

NICK W. BRICIvLE, JAMES A. EATON and FRANK E. RHEINDT Forktail 26 (2010)

Kinabalu in Sabah, south to the Pueh Range in Sarawak

(Mann 2008), suggesting something of a patchy and

broken distribution among the mountains of north-central

Borneo, and making our records an apparent range

extension to the south-east.

Sunda Laughingthrush Garrulax palliatus

Commonly encountered above 1,100 m. Previously only

recorded in Kalimantan from Kayan Mentarang (van Balen

& Nurwatha 1997, Sebastian 2007) and the far south of

Kalimantan at Gunung Palung National Park (Laman et

al. 1991). Interestingly this species was not recorded by

Buttikofer ( 1 899) at Mt Kenepai or Liang Kubung, which

lie between these other records. In Malaysia this species

is found from Mt Kinabalu in the north to Mt Dulit in the

south (Mann 2008), suggesting a limited and patchy

distribution in Borneo and making our records a notable

range extension within the central ranges.

*Chestnut-hooded Laughingthrush

Rhinocichla treacheri

Commonly encountered above 1,100 m. Bornean

populations were recently split off from Sumatran and

mainland Asian birds (now Spectacled Laughingthrush

R. mitrata ) on morphological grounds (Collar 2006).

Previously recorded in Kalimantan from Kayan Mentarang

(Finsch 1906, van Balen & Nurwatha 1997, Sebastian

2007) , Bukit Baka in northern Central Kalimantan (Rice

1989), the Schwaner and Muller ranges (reported in Mann

2008) and in the far south-east in the isolated Muratus

Mountains (Davison 1997). The species was not, however,

recorded to the west by Buttikofer (1899) at Mt Kenepai

or Liang Kubung. The distribution of this species in

Kalimantan therefore appears patchy, but widespread.

*Blyth’s Shrike Babbler Pteruthius aeralatus

Commonly heard, seen twice, from above 1 , 1 00 m. This

species is widely known as White-browed Shrike Babbler,

but we here follow Rheindt & Eaton (2009) in including

Bornean populations in the newly delimited South-East

Asian ‘Blyth’s Shrike Babbler’ P. aeralatus , distinct from

Javan birds and two other forms from mainland Asia. In

Kalimantan the species is previously only known from

three widely separated sites: Kayan Mentarang in the

north (Holmes 1997, Sebastian 2007), Mt Muratus in

the far south (Davison 1997), and Mt Nyiut in the far

west (Prieme & Heegaard 1988). Our record therefore

fills a gap in the distribution by lying in the centre of these

previous records.

* Streaky-breasted Spiderhunter

Arachnothera ajfinis everetti

Very common between 1,100 and 1,600 m. Previously

recorded by Buttikofer ( 1 899) to the west at Mt Kenepai

and Liang Kubung, close to Menyapa in the upper

tributaries of the Mahakam (Stresemann 1938), and in

Kayan Mentarang (van Balen & Nurwatha 1997). At

Menyapa this species appeared to be replaced by Grey¬

breasted Spiderhunter Arachnothera modesta, at lower

elevations (the latter commoner up to 300-400 m).

Yellow-rumped Flowerpecker

Prionochilus xanthopygius

Several seen at around 300-500 m including several males.

Records of this species are relatively sparse from

Kalimantan, including by Buttikofer (1899) at Mt

Kenepai, Liang Kubung and the upper Mahakam river,

by Wilkinson et al. (1991a) at Barito Ulu and by van

Balen & Nurwatha (1997) at Kayan-Mentarang. Yellow-

rumped Flowerpecker is more widely distributed to the

north and west in Sabah, Brunei and Sarawak (Mann

2008).

Black-sided Flowerpecker Dicaeum monticolum

Commonly seen above around 1,000 m. Suprisingly few

records exist from Kalimantan of this species, including

from Kayan Mentarang (Holmes 1997, Sebastian 2007),

from the Muratus Mountains (Davison 1997) and Gunung

Liang Kubang (Buttikofer 1899). More commonly

recorded in mountains of Sabah and Sarawak (Mann

2008).

Black-capped White-eye Zosterops atricapillus

Several flocks encountered at around 1,400 m. This

species has previously been recorded in Kayan Mentarang

to the north (van Balen 1 997) and to the far south-east of

Kalimantan in the Muratus Mountains (Davison 1997),

so our record fills a gap in the north-south distribution.

Pygmy Ibon Oculocincta squamifrons

Bornean endemic. Seen frequently at around 300 m. This

species has a patchy distribution across the north-central

ranges of Borneo, typically being recorded as mid-

altitudinal. Previous records from Kalimantan were made

by Buttikofer (1899) at Mt Kenepai and Liang Kubung,

from Kayan Mentarang (Pfeffer 1960-1961, but not by

subsequent observers in the region), and from Barito Ulu

(Wilkinson et al. 1991a).

Black-and-crimson Oriole Oriolus cruentus

Regularly heard and seen above 1,000 m. Only the second

confirmed site record for Kalimantan, having previously

been recorded in the Kayan Mentarang region (Smythies

1957, Robson 1993, van Balen 1997, Sebastian 2007,

Pfeffer 1960-1961). Our record therefore represents a

notable southerly range expansion. In Malaysia this species

is known as far north as Mt Kinabalu in Sabah, and as far

south as Mt Mulu in Sarawak (Mann 2008).

Hair-crested Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus

Occasionally seen and heard at all altitudes. This species

is a widespread but local resident in lowland and

submontane forest in Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei (Mann

2008) but surprisingly only three previous records exist

from Kalimantan localities: Kutai National Park in the

lowlands of east Kalimantan (Duckworth & Kelsh 1 988);

Barito Ulu, in central Kalimantan (Wilkinson etal. 1991 a);

and Matasirih Island off the coast in south Kalimantan

(Oberholser 1917). The lack of records is surprising, and

suggests a very patchy distribution.

Short-tailed Magpie Cissa thalassina

Seen once at around 1,600 m. This constitutes the first

record for Kalimantan (Andrew 1 992, Sukmantoro et al.

2007), being known previously only from Sabah and

Sarawak, from Kinabalu in the north to Mt Dulit in the

south (Mann 2008).

Bornean Treepie Dendrocitta cinerascens

Bornean endemic. Common above 1,000 m. Only the

Forktail 26 (2010) Rapid bird survey of the Menyapa mountains, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

37

fourth confirmed site for Kalimantan, filling a gap in the

north-south distribution. Previous Kalimantan records

are from the Kayan Mentarang ranges (van Balen 1 997),

Muller ranges (Reid 1997) and Mahakam drainage

(Smythies 1999).

Notable species not recorded

Collared Owlet Glaucidium brodiei

Recorded in Kalimantan only at Mt Kenepai (Biittikofer

1899), in Kayan-Mentarang (van Balen & Nurwatha

1997) and at Sungai Wain Protection Forest near

Balikpapan (Slik & van Balen 2006). In Sabah and

northern Sarawak it is a relatively widespread but rare

resident from 500 to 2,000 m (Mann 2008). Given the

wide distribution, this species might also be expected in

the Menyapa Mountains.

Dulit Frogmouth Batrachostomus harterti

Known from only a handful of records in Borneo,

including Mt Dulit, the Usun-Apau Plateau, and the

Kelabit Highlands in Sarawak, Poring in Sabah, and

Gunung Liang Kubang in Kalimantan (Sharpe 1892,

Hose 1 893, Biittikofer 1 899, Smythies 1957, Babbington

1992). These records suggest a rare bird with a relatively

large distribution. It might well be found in the Menyapa

Mountains with more intensive searches.

Whitehead’s Trogon Harpactes ivhiteheadi

Previously only recorded in Kalimantan from the Kayan

Mentarang ranges to the north (van Balen 1997). This

species appears to have a very restricted northerly range

within Borneo. It was the only species of trogon not

recorded by Biittikofer (1899).

Whitehead’s Broadbill Calyptomena ivhiteheadi

Previously recorded in Kalimantan from the Kayan

Mentarang ranges to the north (van Balen 1997, Sebastian

2007), from Gunung DukNan (Pfeffer 1960-1961), Mau

on Sungai Bengalun (Smythies 1999), Gunung Batu

Timbang and Madang (Smythies 1957). This species

appears to have a restricted northerly range within Borneo.

It was not recorded by Biittikofer (1899).

Hose’s Broadbill Calyptomena hosii

Widely distributed in the northern half of Borneo, but

more typically at altitudes lower than we focused on. It

may well be present in lower parts of the Menyapa

Mountains.

Fruithunter Chlamydochaera jefferyi

Only two records exist from Kalimantan: from Mt Nyiut

in the far west (Prieme & Heegaard 1 988) and Bukit Baka

on the border of West and Central Kalimantan (Rice

1989). This species appears restricted to the western

ranges in Kalimantan, so its occurrence in Menyapa may

be unlikely.

Mountain Wren Babbler Napothera crassa

Known from Kalimantan from the Kayan Mentarang

ranges (van Balen & Nurwatha 1997, Sebastian 2007)

and Mt Nyiut in the far west (Prieme & Heegaard 1988) .

Considered to have a fairly wide distribution across

northern Kalimantan, but not recorded in Menyapa

during our survey, nor by Biittikofer (1899) at Mt Kenepai

or Liang Kubung, suggesting a more restricted

distribution.

Eyebrowed Wren Babbler Napothera epilepidota

Apparently widely distributed across the mountains of

the northern half of Borneo (Mann 2008), and previously

recorded in Kalimantan from Kayan-Mentarang (van

Balen & Nurwatha 1997), upper Telen River (Smythies

1957), Barito Ulu (Wilkinson et al. 1991b), Mt Liang

Kubung (Biittikofer 1899), Kapuas drainage (Smythies

1957) and Mt Nyiut (Prieme & Heergaard 1988). Our

lack of records possibly suggests a patchy occurrence

across this range.

Whitehead’s Spiderhunter Arachnothera juliae

Previously recorded in Kalimantan only from the Kayan

Mentarang ranges to the north (Robson 1993, van Balen

1997, Sebastian 2007). More commonly recorded in

the mountains of Sabah and northern Sarawak (Mann

2008), suggesting a limited northerly distribution within

Borneo.

Mountain Black-eye Chlorocharis emiliae

Limited to mountains in the north-central ranges at 1 , 5 00-

2,600 m. Records exist from Mt Kinabalu in Sabah in the

north to the Pueh Ranges in Sarawak to the south, and in

Kalimantan from Kayan Mentarang (Sebastian 2007) and

Mt Nyiut (Prieme & Heegaard 1988). Given this, the

species might well be expected within the Menyapa

Mountains, perhaps at higher elevations than those we

surveyed.

DISCUSSION

Biological importance

Our records from the Menyapa Mountains show a high

proportion of the distinct montane Bornean avifauna to

be present, extending the known range of many species

southwards, and filling a gap in the north-south

distribution of other species. Notably we recorded one

species previously unknown from Kalimantan, Short¬

tailed Magpie, one species new for Indonesia, Olive-

backed Pipit, and a number of other species only recorded

very rarely. Several Bornean montane species were not

recorded during our survey, which may indicate more

restricted northerly or westerly ranges, but this is hard to

conclude based on such a short visit. Further survey work

in the Menyapa Mountains would undoubtedly yield more

interesting information.

Conservation status

Conservation of the Menyapa Mountains remains a

priority as they represent one of the largest remaining

blocks of undisturbed forest at middle to high altitudes in

Kalimantan. Currently they are not under direct threat,

as several logging concessions that exist within and around

them are inactive, but conditions could change rapidly.

If the road to PT Essam is re-opened fully, or the PT

Muggitriman concession becomes active, the situation

could deteriorate. Plans underway to convert the

Muggitriman concession into restoration forest, freeing

it from the risk of commercial logging, would be extremely

welcome if successfully implemented. Efforts to minimise

access to the current PT Essam road, or to reduce gaharu

38

NICK W. BRICKLE, JAMES A. EATON and FRANK E. RHEINDT Forktail 26 (2010)

collecting generally, could also reduce disturbance to the

forest interior.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Indonesia Program

for initiating and facilitating this survey and for providing all logistic

support. In particular we would like to thank Erik Meijaard and the

TNC field team of Syahroni, Joko Susatmoko and Lenny Christy. We

also thank Bonie Dewantara of WCS Indonesia for creating the map,

Bas van Balen and Clive Mann for comments on earlier drafts of this

manuscript, and Colin Poole for assistance in locating some of the

references.

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40 NICK W. BRICKLE, JAMES A. EATON and FRANK E. RHEINDT Forktail 26 (2010)

Forktail 26 (2010) Rapid bird survey of the Menyapa mountains, East Kalimantan, Indonesia 41

FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 42-48

Mass northbound migration of Blue-tailed

Merops philippinus and Blue-throated M. viridis

Bee-eaters in southern Thailand, spring 2007-2008

ROBERT DeCANDIDO, CHUKIAT NUALSRI and DEBORAH ALLEN

Counts of migrating Blue-tailed Bee-eaters Merops philippinus and Blue-throated Bee-eaters M. viridis were made from late February

through early April 2007 and again in spring 2008 in southern Thailand at Promsri Hill, just west of the city of Chumphon. A total of

20,916 bee-eaters were counted, averaging 24. 1 .birds/hour in 2007 and 3 1.9. birds/hour in 2008, the highest totals for any migrating

Aterops spp. to date. M. philippinus composed 95.5% (18,079) of the bee-eaters identified in migration. M. viridis was much less common,

composing only 4.5% (854) of identified migrants. There were also 1,983 unidentified Merops migrants, 9.5% of the total flight. In 2007

and 2008, the first migrant flocks of both species were seen by late February-early March. The seasonal peak of the M. philippinus flight

was in mid- to late March. The peak of the M. viridis flight occurred in late March through early April. Significantly more bee-eaters were

counted when winds had an easterly component sea-breeze (NE, E, SE) from the nearby Gulf of Thailand, than when winds were from

other directions. The daily peak of bee-eater migration occurred in the early afternoon from 12h00 to 14h00, with increasing easterly

winds, one to two hours earlier than the peak of raptor migration. Because of the significant year-to-year variation in numbers of migrants

counted at our watch site, we recommend (a) additional counts be made from early February through late May to determine the extent

of spring bird migration through this area of South-East Asia; (b) initiate a satellite telemetry tracking program for migratory Merops spp.

to determine where in the Oriental region these two species are returning to breed; (c) establish a network of migration watch sites in

Thailand, and when practicable, neighbouring countries, in order to map diurnal landbird migration routes and important stopover areas,

similar to the Asian Waterbird Census; and (d) develop educational materials, such as colouring books for children and on-line information

flyers with colour photographs for adults, to make everyone aware of this spring migration phenomenon in southern Thailand.

INTRODUCTION

During the last half-century, biologists have begun to

map broad patterns of bird migration on continental

South-East Asia via satellite telemetry, bird banding and

point count observations (McClure 1974, Lane & Parish

1991, McClure 1998, Tordoff 2002, DeCandido et al.

2004b, Higuchi et al. 2005, DeCandido et al. 2006, Shiu

et al. 2006, Yamaguchi et al. 2008). Two of the most

distinctive non-passerine species that migrate by day

through the Thai-Malay peninsula are the Blue-tailed

Bee-eater Merops philippinus and Blue-throated Bee-eater

M. viridis (W ells 1999, Burt 2002, DeCandido etal. 2004a,

Marks et al. 2007, Round 2008) . During spring migration,

Al. philippinus are returning to breed as far north as 27°N

from south-west China east to Kinmen Island (Taiwan),

possibly with a small population at 30°N, while M. viridis

are returning to breed in southern China to around 33°N

(Cheng 1987, Fry et al. 1992, Duckworth et al. 1999,

Carey et al. 200 1 , Liu & Lei 2005-2008, Liu et al. 2008,

Round 2008, Wang et al. 2009, Wu et al. 2009). Bee-

eaters use a combination of thermal soaring/gliding as

well as active flapping flight during migration (Fry et al.

1992, Sapir 2009). However, little is known about the

magnitude, timing, seasonal duration or daily pattern of

migration of any bee-eater species in spring (February-

April) or autumn (August-December) on continental

eastern Asia.

As part of our research on raptor migration in Thailand

(see DeCandido & Nualsri 2009), we also monitored

northbound Merops migration near the city of Chumphon.

Our study site, Promsri Hill (elevation 144 m), afforded

an opportunity to study the migration of these birds passing

over the open countryside of southern Thailand on the

Isthmus of Kra. Specific research questions were: (1)

what is the relative proportion of M. philippinus vs M.

viridis during northbound migration; (2) what is the degree

of year-to-year variation in the number of Merops counted

in migration at this watch site; (3) is there a difference in

the seasonal timing of migration between the two species;

(4) how do wind speed and direction affect bee-eater

migration (see Liechti 2006); and (5) how does the pattern

of bee-eater migration compare to raptor migration in

southern Thailand? By addressing such questions, we

hoped to provide information to biologists,

conservationists and birdwatchers interested in

understanding a crucial time in the life history of these

two bee-eater species. From a broader perspective,

documenting spring Merops migration phenology provides

baseline data to those interested in understanding the

relationship between climate change and large-scale

animal migrations. Several recent studies have reported

shifts in the timing of known bird migrations during the

last decade (Shi etal. 2006, Gordo 2007), and we wanted

to stimulate interest in this possibility in South-East Asia

by studying some of the region’s migratory birds.

METHODS

Chumphon (10°28'N 99°13'E, sea-level) is a small town

near the east coast of south-central Thailand, c.475 km

south-west of Bangkok. The city is located on the Isthmus

of Kra, the narrowest portion of Thailand. From late

February to early April 2007 and again in 2008, we made

daily counts of bee-eaters, migrating raptors and other

land birds from a site 15 km west of Chumphon City

known locally as Promsri Hill or Ivhao Klai. The watch

site (10o30'N 99°04'E) afforded an unobstructed 360°

view of northbound migrants, and sits on the crest of a

hill, c.5 km west of the main N-S highway (Phetkasem

Road, Highway 4). The hill is the southern terminus of a

low N-S ridge on military land, and is accessible by permit

only. Much of this ridge comprises seasonal grasses, scrub

Forktail 26 (2010)

Bee-eater migration in southern Thailand, 2007 -2008

43

Figure 1 . Detailed map of south-central Thailand showing the Promsri

Hill migration watch site in relation to Chumphon City, the main road

(Route 4), and the autumn raptor watch site used since 2000.

and second growth, on average less than 2 m in height.

Most of the surrounding area and nearby hills have been

developed for pasture and agriculture (banana, oil palm),

with second-growth forest occupying perhaps the upper

10% of these hills. On clear days it was possible to see east

c.25 km to the Gulf of Thailand; south c.5 km to a tall hill

(Khao Thai Dang); west c.10 km to a hill (Khao Nam

Lod) that is part of a N-S ridge; and north c.3 km.

Two species of bee-eater, Merops philippinus and M.

viridis, were counted on migration by RDC and CN using

8x and 10x binoculars. We often had help from others

who visited the site on a daily basis, usually after 13h00,

and called migrant flocks to our attention that might

otherwise been overlooked. We made daily counts during

the course of two spring seasons: in 2007, from 28

February to 3 April (35 days; 388 hours of observation);

and in 2008, from 28 February to 3 1 March (32 days; 343

hours of observation). Observations usually began by

07h00 local time, and ended by 1 8h30 each day. In 2009,

CN made observations on migrating bee-eaters and

raptors up to three days per week from 1 April to 1 0 May.

During inclement weather such as thunderstorms, we

remained in the area of the watch site looking for migrants.

For one day in 2008 when rain prevailed all day (10

March), no count was made. Since Wells (1999)

mentioned that a few flocks of AL viridis were heard

migrating at night in Malaysia, we listened for calls of

migrant individuals (flocks) for 2-3 hours up to four

evenings per week beginning at around 19h00 from the

terrace of our residence in the adjacent valley, c.300 m

from the watch site.

In both years, wind speed and direction, temperature,

humidity and barometric pressure were measured hourly

with a hand-held weather station (Kestrel 4000, Nielsen-

Kellerman corporation, USA). Wind direction was

determined with a compass. Weather conditions typically

were hazy and humid with little wind in the morning until

09h00, then becoming clear with scattered cumulus

clouds. Until c.09h00 to as late as c. 1 1 hOO each day, light

west (less than 10 km/hr) winds prevailed, then these

switched to easterly due to the interaction of the north¬

east low-pressure monsoon (Guo et al. 2002) combined

with a sea-breeze from the nearby Gulf of Thailand

(Khedari et al. 2002). However, the exact timing of the

wind switch varied greatly in 2007 compared with 2008,

as did the intensity of the easterly winds.

To locate migrating flocks of bee-eaters, observers

scanned primarily to the south and south-east, the

direction from which almost all migrants approached the

watch site. Many bee-eaters were first heard calling as

part of a flock before being seen, and with experience it

was possible to locate and distinguish flocks of the two

species from these calls. Bee-eaters were considered

migrants if they passed south to north across an imaginary

east to west line at the watch site, and continued north

and out of sight. We did not attempt to age or sex migrants.

In order to best evaluate the daily and seasonal pattern of

bee-eater migration, we pooled the 2007-2008 data of all

individuals we counted at the site, including those A ierops

individuals we could not identify to species. T o determine

the seasonal peak migration period for Al. philippinus in

2007 and 2008, we used the highest ten-day average in

each year. Since we saw many fewer AL viridis individuals,

we used the highest five-day average in both years to

determine their seasonal peak of migration through

southern Thailand. We also calculated a median date of

peak passage (the date at which 50% of the migrants had

Figure 2. Map of the Far East showing the two primary continental

spring bee-eater migration count sites: ( 1 ) Promsri Hill (Thailand) and

(2) Tanjung Tuan (West Malaysia). Merops philippinus return to breed

as far north as 27°N from south-west China east to Kinmen Island

(Taiwan), while M. viridis return to breed in China to approx. 33°N.

44

ROBERT DeCANDIDO, CHUKIAT NUALSRI and DEBORAH ALLEN Forktail 26 (2010)

been counted) for each bee-eater species, by pooling 2007-

2008 data.

We hypothesised that more bee-eaters would pass the

watch site when winds had an easterly component (NE to

SE) than when winds were from other directions, primarily

west to south. Data from prior studies (DeCandido et al.

2004, DeCandido & Nualsri 2009) indicated that during

migration in this part of Thailand, many birds including

raptors 'drift’ to the east (spring) or west (autumn) with

the prevailing winds. Our initial observation of migrant

Merops Hocks in February 2007 indicated this was also

the case with bee-eaters at our watch site. We used a Chi-

square test with one degree of freedom (Preacher 2001)

to analyse the effect of wind direction on the number of

bee-eaters passing the watch site.

We also counted individuals of several raptor species

on migration by hour during spring 2007-2008, most

commonly: Black Baza Avecida leuphotes, Chinese

Goshawk Accipiter soloensis, Grey-faced Buzzard Butastur

indicus , Japanese Sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis and

Oriental Honey-buzzard Penns ptilorhynchus orientalis

(details in DeCandido & Nualsri 2009). We compared

the hourly raptor migration counts to the hourly bee-eater

migration counts in both years to examine the effects of

weather (primarily wind speed and direction) on migrant

flocks of bee-eaters and raptors. We also noted other

migrant species including small numbers of Ashy Minivet

Pericrocotus divaricatus travelling in flocks; small numbers

of Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus and Black Drongo

Dicrurus macrocercus migrating as singles; Oriental

Pratincole Glareola maldivamm ; Sand Martin Riparia

riparia, Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica, Striated

Swallow Hirundo striolata and many Barn Swallow Hirundo

rustica. Certain species were recorded only as seasonal or

year-round residents in the area: Brown-backed Needletail

Hirundapus giganteus, White-throated Needletail

Hirundapus caudacutus , Fork-tailed Swift (both Apus p.

pacificus and A. p. cooki), House Swift Apus affinis ,

Germain’s Swiftlet Collocalia gemiani and Asian Palm Swift

Cypsiurus balasiensis. To identify migrants, we consulted

Lekagul & Round (1991), Wells (1999) and Robson

(2002). Scientific names follow Inskipp et al. (1996).

RESULTS

Most bee-eaters were observed migrating south to north

within 100 m of the watch site, and were only observed

travelling in flocks. Beyond c. 125-1 50 m, it was very

difficult to detect and identify a small flock of birds even

with 10x binoculars. Only single species flocks were

observed: individuals of Al philippinus were never observed

in Al. viridis flocks or vice versa. Rarely, flocks of the two

species migrated within c.25 m of each other.

In 2007-2008, a total of 20,916 bee-eaters were

counted, averaging 24. 1 .birds/hour in 2007 and

3 1.9. birds/hour in 2008. Two-year totals were 18,079

AL philippinus (95.5% of all Merops we identified to

species), 854 AL viridis (4.5%) and 1,983 unidentified

Merops individuals (9.5% of the total flight). In spring

2008, we counted 2,220 (23.7%) more migrant Merops

than spring 2007. Figure 3 shows the hourly count of all

bee-eater migrants for 2007-2008. Most bee-eaters were

seen from Ilh00-16h00 (66.7%) with 13h00-15h00

being the peak time for migrants (30.0% of all bee-eaters

□ 2007

■ 2008

Hour

Figure 3. Average number of bee-eaters counted by hour in spring

2007-2008 at Promsri Hill, Thailand.

900 i 02007

Date

Figure 4. Number of bee-eaters counted per day in spring 2007-2008

at Promsri Hill, Thailand.

counted). However, the single peak hour of migration in

2007 (14h00-l 5h00) was an hour later compared with

2008 (13h00-14h00). The highest hourly total occurred

from 15h00-16h00 on 1 1 March 2008 when 243 bee-

eaters passed the watch site.

Figure 4 shows daily totals of bee-eater migrants in

both spring seasons. In 2007, the peak 1 0-day time-frame

of the migration occurred from 18 March to 27 March

inclusive, averaging 410 migrants/day. In 2008, the peak

time-frame occurred from 1 1 to 20 March, averaging 595

migrants/day. The highest single-day count of migrating

bee-eaters in this study was 854 on 19 March 2008. In

spring 2007-2008 the median date of peak passage for all

bee-eaters in southern Thailand was 19 March.

The first flock of migrating AL philippinus was seen on

28 February 2007, and on 1 March in 2008. The first

flock of migrating AL. viridis was seen on 3 March 2007

as well as 3 March 2008. The two species were observed

on migration until the last day of the study in both years.

In 2009, CN observed flocks of both species until 5 May.

Figure 5 shows the 2007-2008 average number of AL

philippinus vs AL viridis seen per day at the Promsri Hill

watch site. Our data indicate that the seasonal peak of AL.

viridis occurs in late March to early April, several days

later than the peak of AL. philippinus. The two-year median

date of peak passage for AL. philippinus was 20 March and

for AL. viridis 28 March.

In 2007, for the ten-day peak time-frame (19-28

March) for AL. philippinus , the mean flock (N= 349 flocks)

Forktail 26 (2010)

Bee-eater migration in southern Thailand, 2007-2008

45

size was 9.2 birds (Standard Deviation [S. D.] = 9.6). On

28 March 2007, the mean flock size for AL philippinus (N

= 496; 54 flocks) was 9.2 (S.D. = 5.2). The largest flock

of migrant AL philippinus was 1 07, passing the watch site

between 14h00-l 5h00 on 23 March 2007. ForAL viridis

in 2007, for the five-day peak time-frame of migration

(27-31 March), the mean flock size (N = 23 flocks) was

7.9 (S.D. = 5.1). In 2007, the largest flock of migrant AL

viridis was 18, passing the watch site between 1 lhOO-

12h00 on 27 March.

In 2008, for the ten-day peak time-frame (1 1-20

March) for AL. philippinus migration, the mean flock size

(N = 458 flocks) was 10.9 (S.D. = 10.0). On 19 March

2008, the mean flock size for AL philippinus (N = 831; 78

flocks) was 10.7 (S.D. = 8.5). In 2008, the largest flock

of migrant AL philippinus was 63, passing the watch site

between Ilh00-12h00 on 12 March. For AL viridis in

2008, for the five-day peak time-frame of migration (27-

31 March), the mean flock size (N = 51 flocks) was 6.1

(S.D. = 5.8). In 2008, the largest flock of migrant AL

viridis was 27, passing the watch site between 09h00-

lOhOO on 27 March.

In both years, significantly greater numbers of bee-

eaters passed the watch site when winds had an easterly

(NE, E or SE) component than when winds were from

other directions (x2 = 17.2, p < 0.05). Bee-eaters

approaching the watch site used flapping flight interspersed

Figure 5. Average number of Blue-throated vs Blue-tailed Bee-eaters

counted per day in spring 2007-2008 at Promsri Hill, Thailand.

Hour

Figure 6. Total number of bee-eaters vs raptors counted by hour in

spring 2007-2008 at Promsri Hill, Thailand.

with glides, occasionally soaring upwards on thermals

combined with deflection currents on the east side of the

observation ridge. Most flocks were migrating less than 20

m above observers’ heads, and frequently the flocks came

up the hillside at eye-level to feed on insects just above the

surrounding vegetation. Occasionally, especially during

spring 2007 before 09h00, flocks would stop to feed for up

to 10 minutes c.25 m beyond the watch site, using bare

tree branches as hunting perches.

Figure 6 shows the hourly pattern of bee-eater vs raptor

migration in spring 2007-2008. In the morning, migration

activity began on average at about 07h30 (bee-eaters)

and 08h00 (raptors). Flocks of bee-eaters began to pass

the watch site while individuals of three raptor species.

Black Baza, Chinese Sparrowhawk and Grey-faced

Buzzard, began to coalesce into flocks and slowly soar up

on strengthening thermals mostly to the east (50 m to 5

km) of the watch site. Migrant bee-eater numbers began

to increase markedly by 08h00 but levelled off between

09h00 and lOhOO at the watch site. During the morning,

raptor migration increased slowly until 1 lhOO and then

levelled off. However, from late morning to early

afternoon, bee-eater migrants were seen in increasing

number until 14h00. By comparison, although raptor

migration also increased markedly in the afternoon, it

peaked one to two hours later than the peak passage of

bee-eaters (Fig. 6) . Bee-eater migration usually ended by

c. 1 7h45 while raptors, particularly Black Bazas, Chinese

Sparrowhawks, Grey-faced Buzzards and Oriental Honey-

buzzards, continued their migration.

DISCUSSION

Southern Thailand, particularly the area near the city of

Chumphon on the Isthmus of Kra (Figs. 1 & 2), is a

spring and autumn hotspot for many birds that migrate

by day, including bee-eaters, Black Drongos (DeCandido

et al. 2004c) and raptors (DeCandido et al. 2004b,

DeCandido & Nualsri 2009). Bee-eaters are colourful

and gregarious birds, yet little is known about their

migration route(s) and ultimate destination(s) in the

region during either north- or southbound migration.

Historically in Indochina, only a handful of bee-eater

migration reports have presented empirical data, often

from only single days of observation (see David-Beaulieu

1944, 1949-1950, Melville & Fletcher 1982,Tizard 1996,

Evans 2001). The only long-term study of migrant bee-

eaters in eastern Asia comes from Hong Kong (Carey et

al. 2001), where a mean of 22.0 AL philippinus were

counted each spring during the 1990s.

Our observations at Promsri Hill confirm a significant

northbound migration of two bee-eater species, AL

philippinus and AL viridis , through Thailand each spring

(Fig. 4). The number of migrants reported in this study

are the highest totals for any location in Asia: 18,079 AL

philippinus (95.5% ofidentified individuals), 854 AL viridis

(4.5%) and 1,983 unidentified Merops individuals (9.5%

of the total flight). Average flock size was greater for AL

philippinus than for AL viridis, and the largest flocks of AL

philippinus were two to three times larger than AL viridis

flocks . Overall, our spring counts averaged 28.6 bee-eaters/

hr in 2007-2008 with the highest hourly count (287) on

23 March 2007. By comparison in spring 2000-2001 at

a location on coastal West Malaysia (Tanjung Tuan),

46

ROBERT DeCANDIDO, CHUKIAT NUALSRI and DEBORAH ALLEN Forktail 26 (2010)

bee-eaters averaged 12.9 migrants/hr with a peak hourly

total of 101 on21 March2001 (DeCandido etal. 2004a).

Other published accounts including Wells (1999) and

DeCandido et al. (2004d) also reported many fewer

migrant AL. viridis in Malaysia during spring. However in

Laos, migrant AL viridis are considered to be much more

common than migrant AL. philippinus, but the latter is the

only year-round resident Merops breeding there (David-

Beaulieu 1949-1950, Evans 2001, Dersu & Associates

2008, W. Duckworth in litt. 2009).

Prior bee-eater research in South-East Asia on coastal

west Malaysia revealed that the spring migration of bee-

eaters begins in earnest in early March (DeCandido et al.

2004a, d) . Our data show that the peak of the AL. philippinus

migration in southern Thailand is from mid- to late March

(Fig. 5), with 20 March being the median date of peak

passage. This is slightly earlier than Wells (1999), who

reported peak passage in Malaysia from late March

through early April. After mid-April, no AL. philippinus

were seen migrating in Singapore, while the migration in

Malaysia was mostly complete by early May (Wells 1999).

Observations made by CN at Promsri Hill in April to

mid-May 2009 are in agreement with these reports: up to

1 00 AL. philippinus were seen in migration per day through

late April, declining to < 30/day by early May.

Our 2007-2008 data suggest that the AL. viridis

migration peaks in late March to early April in southern

Thailand (Fig. 5), with 28 March being the median date

of peak passage, more than a week later than AL. philippinus.

The first flock of AL. viridis was seen on 3 March 2007, a

few days after the first flocks of AL. philippinus had passed

our watch site. Observations by CN in spring 2009 show

that up to 20/day AL. viridis migrate through southern

Thailand through late April, declining to < 10/day in

early May. However, because we were only able to do

part-time counts in spring 2009, it might be that later

arriving AL. viridis were overlooked, leading us to miss the

true migration peak for this species in southern Thailand.

Round (2008) suggested that AL. viridis migration peaks

2-4 weeks later than AL. philippinus, with ‘a discernible

return passage in southern Thailand noted in late April’.

In Laos (Savannakhet province) on 1 2 April 2007, a flock

of 20 was observed (Dersu & Associates 2008). In Hong

Kong, seven AL. viridis were seen at Shuen Wan on 24

April 2008 (G. Welch in litt. 2009). In Malaysia, Wells

(1999) reported the peak of the spring AL. viridis migration

from March through early April. Wells (1999) also

suggested that the AL. viridis migration begins earlier in

the season than AL. philippinus migration, with the earliest

migrant AL. viridis seen in Singapore on 23 and 25 January;

on the west coast of Malaysia on 1 1 February; and

scattered migrant flocks in central Thailand by mid-

February. In southern Thailand, further full-time

observations are needed in April to determine the extent

and peak migration time for AL. viridis.

Wind direction was the most important factor in the

number of bee-eaters we counted in migration in spring

2007 and 2008. Significantly more bee-eaters were seen

when winds had an easterly component than when winds

were from other directions. Figure 6 shows the effect of

this east wind (sea-breeze), from the Gulf of Thailand

c.25 km to the west of the watch site. In both years, the

easterly sea-breeze increased throughout the day as thermal

strength developed, and combined with winds from the

north-east low-pressure monsoon (Simpson 1 994, Guo et

al. 2002, Khedari et al. 2002). Migrating bee-eaters and

raptors ‘drifted’ inland toward the watch site because of

this prevailing late morning through afternoon easterly

wind (Fig. 6; see also DeCandido & Nualsri 2009) . Greatest

number of migrants were observed on afternoons with

these conditions, particularly in spring 2008, when east

winds generally began earlier and were a few km/hr stronger

than in 2007. We recorded a 23.7% increase in the number

of bee-eaters counted in migration in 2008, as well as an

earlier hourly peak in the flight (Fig. 3) . On the other hand

in autumn 2003, during a southbound raptor migration

study at a watch site east of the city of Chumphon (Fig. 1 ),

we counted most migrants before 1 2h00 when winds were

from the north-west (DeCandido et al. 2004). During the

southbound migration season in southern Thailand,

particularly before 12h00, westerly winds predominate,

because of the presence of the south-west high pressure

monsoonal weather system centred over the Bay of Bengal-

Andaman Sea (Singhrattna et al. 2005, Hoyos & Webster

2007).

At Promsri Hill, the earlier arrival of bee-eaters than

raptors in the morning was due to several factors including:

the greater proportion of bee-eaters that began migration

earlier than raptors; the greater degree to which bee-

eaters used active flight, and the lesser dependence on

thermals than broad-winged raptors; and finally, the

greater likelihood that bee-eaters would drift inland and

pass the watch site on light (< 5 km/hr) easterly winds

beginning by c.OShOO (Fig. 6). Typically, at Promsri Hill,

bee-eater migration was underway by 07h30 each morning

with flocks stopping to feed in the area of the watch site

for up to 15 min before resuming migration. In 2007-

2008, the nearby lowlands were often foggy in the early

morning, while the watch site atop Promsri Hill and

surrounding highlands were clear, with insect activity. As

easterly winds (and thermal activity) increased by 09h00,

flocks of bee-eaters passed the watch site, and the first

strong movement of raptors began (Fig. 6). During the

day, single-species flocks of bee-eaters frequently came

up the hill at or just above eye-level, with individuals

pursuing and catching insects on the wing. Members of

the flock migrated across a 10-30 m front, and it might

be 1 min before all migrants in a large flock passed the

watch site. Bee-eaters were very vocal on migration, and

with some experience the two species could be

distinguished by their calls. From c. 1 3h00 until 16h00,

many Alerops flocks soared 50-7 5 m above the watch site

utilising thermals and deflection currents from the ridge,

but after 16h00 bee-eaters were almost always again

passing at eye-level. By 1 8h00, when bee-eater migration

had ceased, flocks did not roost in trees near the watch

site. Although Wells (1999) reported nocturnal migration

of AL. philippinus in Malaysia, we did not detect bee-eaters

passing over our residence in the nearby valley at night.

In the future, we hope that biologists address several

questions about bee-eater migration in Thailand: is the

peak of AL. viridis migration in late March/early April as

our data suggest, or later in April? Do the first bee-eater

tlocks pass the Promsri Hill watch site in the first half of

February, or as early as January? Is the spring migration

of bee-eaters concluded by early May, or do some flocks

continue to pass through southern Thailand into June?

How extensive is the migration to the west and east of

Promsri Hill? Data from 1 April 2004 show that at least

100 AL. philippinus migrated north in 90 minutes of

Forktail 26 (2010)

Bee-eater migration in southern Thailand, 2007-2008

47

observation at a site c.18 km to the west of Promsri Hill

(S. F. Bailey in litt. 2009). This suggests that the total

number of Merops migrating through southern Thailand

each spring could be on the order of 50,000-100,000

birds. Perhaps the most important question to answer is:

where are these north-bound bee-eaters returning to nest

in Asia? Our Merops migration data recorded in 2007-

2008 at Promsri Hill, combined with our previous study

in Malaysia (DeCandido et al. 2004a), suggest that some

of these migrants are the same ones observed in Hong

Kong where the peak of spring migrant sightings is 24

April to 1 7 May (see Carey et al. 200 1 ) . At Kinmen Island

(T aiwan) M. philippinus return each year in April to breed

(Yuan et al. 2006). Early arrival dates from 2005-2009

range from 9 to 1 2 April, with the majority of the migrants

arriving several days later (H.-W. Yuan in litt. 2009). It

is not known if these M. philippinus primarily utilised a

continental (overland) route to reach Tinmen, or made

long-distance over-water crossings from the Philippines

and Borneo similar to the route used by migrant Chinese

Sparrowhawks and Grey-faced Buzzards each spring (see

Germi 2009) . By comparison, in southern China the first

M. philippinus arrive from 26 March each year, and begin

nesting in mid-April (Wu et al. 2009).

Both M. philippinus and M. viridis breed over a wide

latitudinal range, in different climates and habitats. It is

likely there are differences in timing of breeding at different

latitudes, and migration timing would therefore also be

expected to differ between populations of both species.

Merops philippinus is already nesting by February in

Indochina, and it is unlikely that migrants observed in

March-April at Promsri Hill are from populations that

return to breed in central and northern Thailand, Laos,

Cambodia, Vietnam and environs (see Duckworth et al.

1999, Evans 2001). Rather, it is likely that the Merops we

observed in migration are returning to nest in southern

China east to Kinmen Island, Taiwan.

Further bee-eater migration surveys are needed in

South-East Asia to determine the precise timing and

migration phenology of different populations of these

two species. We recommend that a coordinated network

of 3-4 migration study sites be established across Thailand

and Malaysia, and, when feasible, in the rest of South-

East Asia similar to the regional approach taken by the

Asian Waterbird Census to monitor migrants and protect

critical habitats along that flyway. Satellite telemetry

tracking of several bee-eater migrants in spring would

quickly elucidate migration route(s), critical stopover areas

and ultimate destinations (see Higuchi etal. 2005) . Finally,

we recommend that educational materials for children

including on-line resources such as drawings of the local

birds, as well as colouring books, be made freely available.

For adults, on-line information flyers about bee-eaters

and other migrants in South-East Asia (see van de Kam

et al. 2008) written in Thai should be developed, and

these should include requests for information about

Merops sightings during migration seasons.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With this publication we wish to commemorate the life of Siew Lan of

Ipoh, Malaysia, who devoted her life to teaching Malay, Indian and

Chinese children in the public school system there. We will always

remember her grace, kindness and wisdom. Anne Arrowsmith designed

the two maps. William Duckworth contributed his knowledge and

expertise about Merops in South-East Asia. In New York City, Chad

Seewagen of the Wildlife Conservation Society made many helpful

comments that significantly improved this manuscript. In Thailand,

Phil Round advised us from his great body of knowledge on the avifauna

of his country. In Hong Kong, John Holmes sent recent important

information, and provided access to ornithological data from mainland

China. In Taiwan, Hsiao-Wei Yuan and her students sent Blue-tailed

Bee-eater arrival dates from their work on Kinmen Island. In China,

Yang Liu provided detailed information about bee-eaters from the

extensive fieldwork and research he has done there, particularly in the

Dabie Shan mountains. Stephen F. Bailey and James Booker kindly

allowed us to use their spring 2004 data collected from the area of Cho

Por Ror Monument, Khrabury District, Ranong Province. Our research

in Thailand was made possible with strong support from many people

including our families: Aree Nualsri and son, Narathip; Pattaporn

Charoenosot; and the Promsri team, particularly Wattanachai, Sarapee,

Waruga, Umpira, Suparp and Wipawah. We benefited greatly from the

advice and participation of our colleagues, particularly Nurak Isarasena

and Edmund Pease; Chaiwat Chinuparawat; and the indefatigable Dr.

Chaiyan Kasorndorkbua. In Chumphon, Captain Narong Pethploy of

the Military Police Company, Khetudomsak Camp, Chumphon Military

Province, gave permission and provided assistance to make Khao Klai

(Promsri Hill) a wonderful observation site in spring 2007-2008. Finally,

we thank our friends in Malaysia who patiently educated DA and RDC

about the ways of South-East Asian birds and people: Ooi Beng Yean,

Chiu Sein Chiong and Regina Anthony, Cheang Kum Seng, Lim Aun

Tiah, Lim Kim Chye and Lim Swee Yian, Dr. Chan Kai Soon, Audrey

Poh and the late Laurence Poh.

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FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 49-74

Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw,

eastern Myanmar (Burma), between 1895 and 2009

MARK R. BEZUIJEN, JAMES A. EATON, GIDEAN, ROBERT O. HUTCHINSON

and FRANK E. RHEINDT

The first published bird records in 97 years are presented for Kalaw, a site in eastern Myanmar, and compared with historical records

collected 97-1 14 years previously. Recent (2005-2009) records for Kalaw include one globally threatened genus ( Gyps vulture sp.), at

least seven new distributional records and one new breeding record for East Myanmar, and two new altitudinal records for South-East

Asia . Historical (1895-1912) Kalaw records include four globally threatened species and one new distributional record for East Myanmar.

Kalaw retains the majority of bird species documented historically, but four species may now be locally extirpated (Mrs Hume’s Pheasant

Syrmaticus humiae, Black Kite Milvus mi grans, Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus, Giant Nuthatch Sitta magna ) and at least one other

(Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos ) may have declined. Over the past century. House Crow Corvus splendens and Eurasian Tree

Sparrow Passer montanus have colonised Kalaw. A small but growing number of birdwatching tourists are visiting Kalaw which, together

with some nearby sites, has probably received more recent bird survey effort than any other site in East Myanmar.

INTRODUCTION

Myanmar (previously Burma) supports the greatest

richness of bird species in mainland South-East Asia (over

1,000: Smythies 1986) and among the largest remaining

forest and wetland habitats, across a topography ranging

from sea-level to nearly 6,000 m. A relatively extensive

body of historical literature exists on the avifauna of

Myanmar, largely developed between 1824 and 1948,

when collections were made in many parts of the country

(Smythies 1953, Inskipp ms). Between 1948 (national

independence) and the 1990s, opportunities for scientific

research were limited, and few studies of birds were

conducted for almost 50 years. Since the 1990s there has

been a gradual resurgence in avian research: new surveys

have focused on the Chin Hills in the extreme west (Robson

et al. 1 998, Thet ZawNaing 2003), mountains (King etal.

2001, Rappole^ru/. 2005, Renner etal. 2007) and lowlands

(Tordoff et al. 2007) of Kachin State in the north, the

Chattin Wildlife Sanctuary in central-north Myanmar

(King & Rappole 200 1 a,b), and the Tanintharyi Division

(Tenasserim) in the extreme south (Eames et al. 2005).

These surveys have resulted in the discovery of at least one

new taxon and expanded the known global populations,

ranges and altitudinal limits for others, and clearly indicate

that much remains to be documented of Myanmar’s birds .

Many rural regions of Myanmar, including most

protected areas (38 in 2004: Tordoff et al. 2005) are

currently under restricted access, and this limits

opportunities for ecological research or casual visitation.

An exception to this is Kalaw town in Shan State, East

Myanmar, a popular tourist destination known for its scenic

hilly location and temperate climate. The presence of a

small, forested reservoir close to the town, as well as ease

for tourist access, has also established Kalaw as a routine

stop for visiting birdwatchers, and at least six commercial

birdwatching companies have visited Kalaw since 2005

(Gidean pers. obs.; also evident from internet searches).

This has resulted in a growing, yet until now largely

undocumented, number of recent bird records for Kalaw.

Historical bird records are also available for Kalaw

and constitute some of the most detailed early inventories

for any single site in eastern Myanmar. Three bird

collections were made at Kalaw between 1895 and 1912:

the first and second by Lieutenant-Colonel G. Rippon, in

April 1895 (Rippon 1896, which includes some records

by E. W. Oates, who visited Kalaw on unspecified dates)

and April-May 1896 (Rippon 1897), and the third in

April 1912 byj. P. Cook (Cook 1913). Rippon and Cook

limited most of their collecting to within several kilometres

of Kalaw town, and Rippon (1896) did not collect ‘below

4,000 ft’ (c. 1,200 m). Based on these three collections,

Cook (1913) compiled a preliminary list of 129 species

for the Kalaw area (although we have revised his list to

125 species: see Results). Brief visits by other authors

(Bingham & Thompson 1900, Bingham 1903) resulted

in one additional species not mentioned in Cook’s list

(Burmese Bushlark Mirafra microptera). Cook (1 9 1 3) does

not mention Bingham’s reports and may have been

unaware of them. To our knowledge there has been no

published information on the birds of Kalaw since 1913.

Elsewhere in eastern Myanmar, published bird records

are available for several locations in Shan State within 70

km south and east of Kalaw (Oates 1894, Bingham &

Thompson 1900, Rippon 1901, Harington 1902,

Thompson & Craddock 1 902, Bingham 1 903, Harington

1903, Oates 1903, Kenny 1919, Wickham 1929-1930,

Livesey 1933a,b, 1935a-d, 1936, 1939a-c) as well as

further north and east (Comber 1905, Meyer de

Schauensee 1933, 1934, 1946), and in Kayah State

(previously Karenni) 1 50 km south of Kalaw (Smith etal.

1940, 1943-44 and references therein). These include

bird records from hill ranges of similar elevation and

habitats as Kalaw. As early as 1909, the ‘Southern Shan

States’ were considered to be ‘particularly well worked’

compared with other regions of Myanmar (Harington

1909: 10)) however, with the notable exception of Kalaw

and some nearby sites, few birdwatchers have visited these

areas recently, and the current status of most bird species

in eastern Myanmar is poorly known.

Between 2005 and 2009 the authors MRB, JAE, ROH

and FER made informal birdwatching visits to Kalaw

accompanied by Gidean, a Kalaw resident and

ornithologist. Here we present an inventory of the birds

of Kalaw based on our visits and those of four other

birdwatchers in the same period, and compare these with

historical records collected 97-1 14 years previously.

Bird names, sequence and taxonomy follow Inskipp et

al. (2001); published taxonomic deviations are noted for

selected species. IUCN Red List categories (Vulnerable,

50

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

Near Threatened etc.) follow BirdLife International

(2008) . Kalaw reservoir, the principal locality of this paper,

is commonly referred to as ‘Yayayekan reservoir’, a

transliteration of the Burmese name, but is also variously

spelt ‘Yay-aye Kan’ or ‘Yeaye’; for clarity and because it

is the only reservoir near Kalaw, we refer to it as ‘Kalaw

reservoir’. The ornithological regions of Myanmar (North,

South-West, West, Central, East, South and Tenasserim)

follow Robson (2005), which are a modified version of

King et al. (1975) and in turn, Smythies (1953).

STUDY AREA

Kalaw town (20°37'60"N 96°34'00"E) lies at the western

edge of the Shan Plateau in Taunggyi district of Shan

State, East Myanmar (Fig. 1), at an altitude of c. 1,300 m,

with surrounding hills ranging from c. 1,250 to 1,450 m.

It has a temperate, sunny climate with three seasons: wet

(mid-May-mid-October), cool (mid-October-mid-

February) and hot (mid-February-mid-May). December

and January are the driest months (no rainfall) . Peak rainfall

is in August (>250 mm) and from April-November there

is >50 mm/month; at Aung Ban town (6 km east of Kalaw)

mean annual rainfall is 1 ,047 mm ( 1 0-year average 1 992-

2001) with an average of 89 rainy days/year (Egashira &

Aye Aye Than 2006). Mean monthly temperatures in

Shan State range from 13.4°C (January) to 25.8°C (April)

(minimum4.3°C/maximum 30.5°C) (MAS/IRRI/IDRC

2000, Egashira & Aye Aye Than 2006). Geologically,

Kalaw is located on the ‘Kalaw Red Beds and equivalents’

at the western extremity of the Sino-Burman Ranges, and

borders the Central Zone to the west (ESCAP 1996). Red

siltstones, sandstones and conglomerates give rise to the

red clay soils characteristic of the region.

Kalaw lies in an area of steeply rolling, hilly terrain.

The hills around town support a mosaic of cultivated

lands and degraded, secondary pine-forest (canopy <15

m) with an open grassy or shrub understorey and small

rock outcrops. Small stands of secondary evergreen forest

with a dense shrub understorey occur in some gullies.

Domestic cattle extensively graze these habitats. Small,

flat river valleys have been entirely cleared and support

rain-fed (non-irrigated) rice cultivation.

Early reports describe Kalaw as a small village (Rippon

1896, Cook 1913) although Cook (1913) noted it would

‘shortly become a rather important station on the Southern

Shan States Railway, and also probably a popular Hill

Station’. Between 1914 and 1948 Kalaw was used as a

summer residence by British officials, and some retired

officials lived there year-round. Between 1 942 and 1 945,

during World War II, the town was briefly occupied by

Japanese forces, which used it as a rest and hospital centre.

Kalaw reservoir (20°35'56"N 96°3T26"E) is 6 km

south-west of Kalaw town (Fig. 1). The waterbody is

small (visual estimate 6-10 ha) and is surrounded by

Figure 1. Localities mentioned in the text. The lightly hatched area (main map) is the catchment of Kalaw reservoir; the reservoir is shaded.

Dotted lines around the catchment are walking tracks.

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

51

hills, within a protected water catchment of ‘ 1 ,952 acres’

(displayed on signs at the reservoir) (c.8 km2). The

reservoirwas apparently built in the 1920s (local residents

pers. comm.) and has little fringing aquatic vegetation or

other wetland habitats. Most of the hills around the

reservoir support mature secondary evergreen forest

(canopy 20-30 m, with emergents to 40 m) and a relatively

intact understorey and midstorey of trees, shrubs, grasses

and vines, which extend to the reservoir banks. Small

seasonal streams flow into the reservoir; a single, north-

flowing perennial stream drains the reservoir. At the

northern edge of the catchment, the forest grades to

adjoining paddyfields and degraded pine-forest and

shrubland near Kalaw town. The relative lack of

degradation of the forest around Kalaw catchment partly

stems from the absence of large fires or commercial timber

logging, at least for the past 13 years (Gidean pers. obs.).

Lands surrounding the reservoir catchment (i.e.

between Kalaw town and the reservoir, and north, west

and south-west of the reservoir) are sparsely populated.

Several unsealed roads extend from Kalaw town around

the edges of the catchment, and a single road extends to

the reservoir itself. At the northern edge of the catchment

this road reduces in size to a large track and from here the

remaining several hundred metres to the reservoir are

most easily accessed on foot. The roads around the

catchment are heavily eroded and many sections are

unsuitable for vehicle access. The south-west boundary

of the catchment is a hill ridge, which forms an abrupt

transition between the forested hills of the catchment

and, to the west, a remote region of extensive, sparsely

forested north-south running hill ranges which are the

division between East and Central Myanmar. In contrast

to the forested catchment of Kalaw reservoir, the lands

around the catchment have been largely cleared of mature

forest and support an extensive checker-board array of

cropfields interspersed with numerous small patches of

secondary forest and scrub.

We were unable to obtain demographic data for Kalaw

town (GoM 2006 provides census data at the district and

state levels only), but in 2004 the population of the town

and surrounding areas was apparently c. 20,000 people

(Reid & Grosberg 2005). Six villages lie within a 3 km

radius of Kalaw reservoir; in December 2008, one of

these, Taryaw, contained 25-30 households (pers. obs.).

Assuming an average of five people/household and 50

households/village, in 2008 the total population of these

villages was 1,500 (by comparison, in 1997 another village

in the Kalaw region contained 812 people, 165

households, and an average of 5 people/household: MAS/

IRRI/IDRC 2000). Communities living around Kalaw

reservoir are principally of the Palaung and Pa-O (Black

Karen) ethnic groups; other groups present are the Intha,

Shan, Taungthu, Taung-yo, Danu, Kayah, Danaw and

Bamar. Most groups practise hunting to supplement

subsistence cultivation activities. Kalaw town supports a

diverse mix of Shan, Indian, Muslim, Nepali and Bamar

peoples, as well as ethnic groups. The Bamar (also known

as Burman or Burmese) comprise the majority of

Myanmar’s population, and govern the country.

Crop cultivation is the primary form of land use and

local subsistence around Kalaw town and reservoir, of

which non-irrigated rice cultivation is dominant. Other

locally grown crops include tea, oranges, chilli, ginger,

sesame, potato and maize (pers. obs.).

METHODS

We compiled recent bird records for Kalaw from 1 4 visits

between 2005 and 2009. Seven of these visits were by the

authors: 27-28 December 2005 (Hutchinson 2006), 1 2-

1 3 and 29-30 December 2006 (Hutchinson 2007), 9 1 1

June 2008 (FER), between 7 and 15 November 2008

(MRB), 2-3 December 2008 (Eaton 2008), and 9 10

December 2009 (JAE). All visits by MRB, JAE, ROH

and FER were with Gidean, an ornithologist and Kalaw

resident for 13 years.

We supplemented our records with information from

seven visits to Kalaw made by four other birdwatchers: G.

Talbot (GT) (14-16 April 2006: Talbot2006), D. Farrow

(DF) (23-24 December 2006: Farrow 2006), Thet Zaw

Naing (TZN) (four visits, 30 November-1 December

2006, 26-28 March 2007, 21-22 July 2007, 17- 18

November 2007: Thet Zaw Naing 2007a,b, Thet Zaw

Naing & van der Ven 2007, 2008), and C. Doughty (CD)

(15-16 February 2007) . We extracted information of these

visits from available trip reports which we located during

internet searches or which were provided to us by

colleagues. We were able to contact most of these

birdwatchers directly, and also attempted to contact two

other birdwatchers who had visited Kalaw but did not

receive replies.

We limited our compilation of recent records to within

approximately a 1 0 km radius of Kalaw town, and excluded

records (mainly of waterfowl and waders) described in

recent trip reports as ‘midway between Kalaw and Heho

town or Inle Lake’ (locations 20-33 km further east),

because these areas support natural wetland habitats not

found in the immediate vicinity of Kalaw, although we did

include records of soaring raptors and a single record of

Crested Treeswift Hemiprocne coronata 10-20 km from

town. We are reasonably sure that most historical Kalaw

records also originate from within 1 0 km of Kalaw town;

Rippon (1896, 1897) similarly excluded records of

waterfowl and waders from east of Kalaw, and Cook (1913)

differentiated between Kalaw and another site he visited

1 9 km further west.

Visits by all recent birdwatchers comprised at least one

full day (dawn to dusk) at Kalaw reservoir, and one early-

morning or late-afternoon visit (0.5 days) to other hills

within a 5 km radius of Kalaw town. Between 7 and 1 5

November 2008 Gidean/MRB spent three days at the

reservoir and three half-days in hills around town. Visits

to the reservoir by Gidean/MRB, Gidean/FER and one

visit by Gidean/ROH (December 2006) comprised walking

from Kalaw town, around the reservoir, along a ridge

south-west of the catchment, then returning to town (a

round-trip ofc.20 km); owing to time restrictions, visits to

the reservoir by other birdwatchers were usually limited to

the forested access track in the north part of the catchment.

The cumulative survey effort of these 14 visits was

approximately 25 days (1.5 days/visit for all except MRB’s

visit of 4.5 days, accounting for the fact that at least 0.5

days/visit comprised arrival/departure and not

birdwatching).

Nine of these 14 visits were in the cool, dry season

(November, December), one was in the transition between

the cool and hot seasons (February), two were in the hot

season (March, April) and two were in the wet season

(June). This imbalance in seasonal survey effort is a

limitation in our coverage of the birds of Kalaw.

52

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

We compared our records with historical bird records

of Kalaw obtained by Rippon (1896, 1897), Bingham &

Thompson (1900) and Cook (1913). None of these

authors mentions the duration of their visits, but based

on the dates they provide we conservatively estimate their

cumulative survey effort between 1895 and 1912 was at

least 12 weeks. Rippon (1896, 1897) visited Kalaw in

‘April’ and ‘April-May’ respectively (a maximum possible

total of 12 weeks); Cook (1913) visited Kalaw from at

least 2-30 April 1912 (four weeks). Bingham & Thompson

(1900) visited Kalaw during a ‘short tour’ of south-west

Shan State in the ‘cold weather (1899-1900)’ (i.e.

probably between October 1899 and February 1900).

Bingham (1903) described the specimens of other

collectors, who obtained them in several localities of Shan

State. He included two specimens listed for Kalaw with

the dates 8 January and 16 February 1902: it is not stated

whether these were obtained on two visits or during a

single visit to Kalaw of at least five weeks’ duration. None

of the authors resided at Kalaw, although Rippon and

Thompson were stationed at Fort Stedman and T aunggyi

town, 33 and 50 km east of Kalaw respectively; Bingham

and Cook were visitors to Shan State.

In contrast to visits from 2005-2009, three of these

four historical visits were skewed to the hot season (April-

May) and one was in the cool, dry season.

We note the following published taxonomic revisions

relevant to the eastern Myanmar populations of the

following species in our inventory, which supersede Inskipp

et al. (2001): Hodgson’s Hawk Cuckoo Hierococcyx fugax

(revised to H. nisicolor. King 2002), Vinous-breasted

Starling Sturnus burmannicus (revised to Acridotheres

bumiannicus ) and White-vented Myna A cinereus (revised

to A. grandis) (Lovette et al. 2008, Zuccon et al. 2008),

Tickell’s Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus affinis (revised to West

Chinese Leaf Warbler P. occisinensis : Martens et al. 2008),

Chestnut-crowned Laughingthrush Garrulax

erythrocephalus (revised to Trochalopteron erythrocephalus:

Luo et al. 2009) and White-bellied Yuhina Yuhina

zantholeuca (revised to Erpomis zantholeuca: Cibois et al.

2002).

Many of the other species listed in this paper are listed

by Robson (2008) under different generic and/or specific

names, of which the following are not immediately

recognisable compared with Inskipp etal. (2001): Collared

Scops Owl Otus bakkamoena (listed by Robson as O. lettia),

Grey Nightjar Caprimulgus indicus ( ~C . jotaka ),

Pompadour Green Pigeon Treron pompadora (= T. phayrei ),

Common Buzzard Btiteo buteo (=B. burmannicus),

Changeable Hawk Eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus (= Nisaetus

limnaeetus), Red-throated Flycatcher Ficedula parva (=F.

albicilla), Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata (-S.

mounts ), Plain Martin Riparia paludicola (=R. chinensis ),

Spotted Bush Warbler Bradypterus thoracicus (=B. davidi).

Plain Flowerpecker Dicaeum concolor ( =D . minullum ) and

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava (=M. tschutschensis) . Other

taxonomic revisions are mentioned under selected species

accounts.

RESULTS

Species richness

We derived a list of 302 bird species for Kalaw from

compilation of recent and historical records (Appendix

1). Most of these records are from within a 10 km radius

of Kalaw town. Recent records (2005-2009) are for 276

species (91% of the total), of which 223 species were

recorded by the authors and 53 additional species were

recorded by CD, DF, TZN or GT.

Historical records (1895-1912) are for 125 species

(41 % of the total), which we derived from the inventories

of Rippon (1896, 1897), Bingham & Thompson (1900)

and Cook (1913). This total differs from Cook (1913),

who derived a total of 129 species based on his list and

those of Rippon (1896, 1897), for three reasons. First, we

excluded two species (Striped Tit Babbler Macronous

gularis and Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola)

that Cook recorded 19+ km west of Kalaw at lower

elevations (although both species were recorded at Kalaw

between 2005 and 2009). Second, we placed six taxa

listed by Rippon or Cook under three species, i.e.

Pericrocotus speciosus (listed by Rippon 1896) and P.

fraterculus (Rippon 1897) under one taxon, Scarlet Minivet

P. flammeus; Pomatorhinus nuchalis (Rippon 1896) and P.

ripponi (Cook 1913) under White-browed Scimitar

Babbler P. schisticeps; and Lioptila melanoleuca and L.

castanoptera (both listed by Rippon 1896) under Black¬

headed Sibia Heterophasia melanoleuca. Third, Cook’s list

did not include one additional species (Burmese Bushlark)

recorded by Bingham & Thompson (1900).

Our inventory excludes one species, Chestnut¬

shouldered Petronia Petronia xanthocollis, for which a single

historical report from Kalaw was later invalidated (see

species account).

Twenty-two species were recorded between 1895 and

1912 which were not observed between 2005 and 2009

(Table 1; and see Discussion).

Records of four species are considered to be provisional :

Oriental Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus, Dark-rumped Swift

Apus acuticauda, Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis and

Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher Cvornis tickelliae (see species

accounts). Records for three other species are based

exclusively on vocalisations, not sightings (Lesser

Shortwing Brachypteryx leucophrys. Striped Tit Babbler,

Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus) (Appendix 1).

Forest-dwelling and open-country species constitute

the majority of Kalaw records. There are few records of

wetland species (waders, waterfowl, herons, etc.) owing

to the low extent and diversity of wetland habitats at

Kalaw.

Selected species accounts

Accounts are given for globally threatened, Near

Threatened and restricted-range species recorded during

recent and historical visits to Kalaw, new records for East

Myanmar, records which clarify the ranges or elevations

given in Robson (2008), and for selected others of

distributional or conservation interest. Observer initials

are given in parentheses for records from 2005-2009.

Provisional records are in square brackets.

Mrs Hume’s Pheasant Syrmaticus humiae

Globally Near Threatened. A male and female were

collected among ‘pine-clad slopes’/bamboo undergrowth

respectively (Rippon 1897); recorded with no other details

(Bingham & Thompson 1900); Cook (1913: 270) saw

the species ‘several times. . . generally in the open jungle on

rocky grass hills. On one occasion I put up five birds

singly at intervals of about a minute or two.’

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

53

Table 1. Species recorded at Kalaw in East Myanmar from 1895-1912 but not from 2005-2009.

Species for which a lack of records in 2005-2009 may only reflect sampling effects (e.g. seasonal tuning)

'Rippon (1896), 2Rippon (1897), 3Bingham & Thompson (1900), 4Cook (1913), 5Duckworth et al. (2002), 6Robson (2008). *Sightings of

single individuals for which lack of detection from 2005-2009 may reflect low survey effort rather than infer a decline or absence.

No phasianids were recorded from 2005-2009 except

Chinese Francolin Francolinus pintadeanus (which remains

common) and a single Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus

(Appendix 1).

Historical reports from other areas of East Myanmar

suggest pheasants were in decline over a century ago. In

theTaunggyi area 50 km east of Kalaw, Wickham (1929-

1930) noted that Mrs Hume’s Pheasant was ‘quite

common’ but, in the same area several years later, Livesey

(1939b) reported the species had declined and attributed

this to habitat loss from prescribed burning and conversion

for agriculture. A male bird was seen at Taunggyi in

February 1 985 (King 1985). In Kayah State and the Karen

Hills south of Kalaw, seven individuals were recorded by

Smith et al. (1943-1944) but none was observed during

collecting trips by Wardlaw Ramsay (1875) or Smith et

al. (1940), the latter noting the absence of birds and

scratchings, and commenting they have ‘undoubtedly

been exterminated’.

At Kalaw, the species may now be locally extirpated.

Historical and ongoing forest loss, the small size of

remaining forest around Kalaw reservoir (see Discussion) ,

and opportunistic hunting by local communities may be

key factors suppressing recruitment, as with remnant

populations in North-West Thailand and elsewhere in its

range (BirdLife International 2001, Choudhury 2005).

Rufous-bellied Woodpecker Dendrocopos hyperythrus

Recorded at Kalaw by Rippon (1896), Bingham &

Thompson (1900), Bingham (1903) and Cook (1913).

Cook (1913) stated it was ‘one of the commonest

woodpeckers at Kalaw’ and located three nests with

attending birds, in rotten pine stumps 1-4 m above the

ground.

No sightings of this species were made from 2005-

2009, and this apparent absence cannot readily be

explained. Most recent visits were in November-

December (winter) while historical visits were in April-

May (summer), when breeding birds may have been more

easily detected; yet given the striking appearance of this

species, it seems unlikely its presence was overlooked in

recent visits or that historical records are the result of

misidentification. Possible factors include seasonal

altitudinal movements and/or local decline due to

historical and ongoing loss of pine-forest breeding habitat

at Kalaw. Further visits to Kalaw in April-May might

help clarify the local status of the species. Rufous-bellied

Woodpecker is widely distributed in Myanmar (Robson

2008).

Oriental Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris

Two individuals were seen on 15 November 2008 at

16h00, south-west of Kalaw reservoir (Gidean/MRB).

This is the only record for Kalaw.

This species was previously reported as ‘common’ or

‘very common’ from areas of southern Shan State within

50 km of Kalaw (Bingham & Thompson 1900, Rippon

1901, Wickham 1 929-1930), and the absence of historical

Kalaw records seems unusual given the presence of

suitable forest habitats. The lack of other sightings from

2005 to 2009 suggests the species occurs at low densities

at Kalaw. It is likely that populations in south-west Shan

State have been impacted by historical and ongoing loss

of native forest habitats, and opportunistic hunting by4

54

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

local communities. On 14 November 2008 at Inle Lake

(33 km east of Kalaw) the old (not fresh) casques and bills

of two Oriental Pied Hornbills and two Great Hornbills

Buceros bicomis (Globally Near Threatened) were seen

for sale (MRB pers. obs.).

Large breeding populations persist in North Myanmar

(Tordoff era/. 2007); populations elsewhere in Indochina

have declined owing to hunting and habitat loss (e.g.

Fuchs et al. 2007).

[Oriental Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus

A single hepatic individual was photographed on 26 March

2007 (TZN); this is the only record for Kalaw.

Thet Zaw Naing & van der Ven (2008) noted this is

the first record from East Myanmar, but did not include

the photograph, or a field description, of this individual.

We accord this record provisional status owing to the lack

of other details and difficulties of separating Oriental

Cuckoo in the field from other Cuculus species. Robson

(2005, 2008) describes the species as an uncommon to

fairly common breeding visitor to West and North

Myanmar and a scarce to uncommon passage migrant to

Central and South Myanmar.]

Lesser Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus

One adult was heard vocalising and subsequently seen

well on 1 0 June 2008 in evergreen forest at Kalaw reservoir

(FER/Gidean).

This is the first record from East Myanmar. No

photographs or sound recordings were obtained, but

confusion with other Cuculus species was ruled out on

account of the characteristic and easily identifiable call

series given by this individual. Both observers have had

previous field experience with the calls of Lesser Cuckoo.

Robson (2005, 2008) describes the species as a scarce to

uncommon breeding visitor in West and North Myanmar

(as well as North-West Thailand, i.e. near Shan State), a

scarce to uncommon passage migrant in Central

Myanmar, and recorded but with unclear status in South

(east) Myanmar.

[Dark-rumped Swift Apus acuticauda

Globally Vulnerable. Three individuals were seen on 28

December 2005 flying over Kalaw reservoir (ROH/

Gidean).

This is the first reported sighting from East Myanmar.

Identification was based on the apparent absence of white

on the rump and the slender, sickle-winged shape typical

of the genus Apus. No photographs were obtained. We

accord this sighting provisional status due to the lack of

a more detailed field description and/or photographs which

could clearly discount the possibility of misidentification

with the similar cooki race of Pacific Swift A. pacificus.

Within South-East Asia, Robson (2005, 2008)

describes this little-known species as ‘scarce (status

unknown, but could be resident)’ for North Myanmar

and as recorded in ‘winter (vagrant?)’ for North-West

Thailand; the current record is from winter. Dark-rumped

Swift was not recorded during recent bird surveys in the

lowlands of North Myanmar (Tordoff et al. 2007).

Due also to this issue of possible misidentification,

many other regional records, including reports from

nearby North-West Thailand, are left unresolved as “dark-

rumped” swifts of one of these two species (BirdLife

International 2001).]

Pin-tailed Green Pigeon Treron apicauda

A flock of 64 individuals seen on 3 December 2008 feeding

in a fruiting tree at Kalaw reservoir was notable for its

large size (JAE/Gidean). This species was also recorded

at Kalaw reservoir on five other recent visits (Appendix

1). Pin-tailed Green Pigeon is an uncommon resident

(subject to local movements) in Myanmar (Robson 2008) .

Sarus Crane Grus antigone

Globally Vulnerable. A single report by Rippon (1896)

with no locality or collection details is the only record for

Kalaw.

There are no wetland habitats at Kalaw suitable for

cranes or other large waterbirds, and Rippon (1896) noted

this individual was ‘probably a wanderer’ from wetlands

further east.

Black-tailed Crake Porzana bicolor

A pair was seen on 10 December 2009 along a stream in

a paddyfield near forest at the northern boundary of Kalaw

reservoir (JAE). Both birds were observed at close

proximity and were vocal, frequently responding to call

playback.

Although not considered globally threatened, this

species is infrequently recorded because of its skulking

habits (Taylor & van Perlo 1998). For Myanmar, Robson

(2008) describes it as a scarce resident recorded from

West, North, East, and South (east) Myanmar.

Black Kite Milvus migrans

One record by Rippon (1897) with no other details; Cook

(1913) stated it was ‘found close to the village’. These are

the only records for Kalaw.

Historical accounts indicate the species was common

in some parts of East Myanmar, including southern Shan

State (Bingham & Thompson 1900, Harington 1909)

and Kayah State, where Wardlaw Ramsay (1875) saw

‘swarms’ of them. These authors, including Rippon

and Cook, assigned their records to 1 Milvus govinda’ .

Wickham ( 1 929-1930) referred to M. migrans govinda as

‘not so common in the hills as the plains, although

they breed and a pair are generally noticeable round

any big village’ and M. m. lineatus was ‘said to occur in

[these] hills’. Black Kites were apparently highly

seasonal, ‘disappearing’ at the start of the wet season

(presumably May) and returning at the end of it, in mid-

late October (Bingham St Thompson 1900, Harington

1909).

The lack of records for Black Kite from 2005-2009

suggests a decline has occurred, because our visits were

in winter, coinciding with its historical seasonal

occurrence, and because kites are large, soaring raptors

and it seems unlikely they would have been overlooked

unless at reduced densities. This is consistent with

observed declines of several scavenging bird species

elsewhere in Asia (Pain et al. 2003) . Small numbers were

recently recorded in the lowlands of North Myanmar

(Tordoff et al. 2007).

Vulture Gyps sp.

Three immature vultures were observed on 1 0 December

2009, flying west over Kalaw reservoir (Gidean/JAE) . All

possessed streaked underparts and a pale line on the

underwing coverts, suggesting White-rumped Vulture

Gyps bengalensis, but owing to distance Himalayan Griffon

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

55

G. himalayensis could not be discounted. There are no

previous records for either species from Kalaw.

Rippon (1901: 553) stated White-rumped Vulture to

be the ‘common Vulture of the Shan States’. Sayer & U

Saw Han (1983: 11) recorded this species ‘on four

occasions’ (no numbers given) in February and March

1 983, between Inle Lake and Taunggyi town, 33-50 km

east of Kalaw, and noted that vultures ‘have become

extremely rare in Burma as a result of poisoning with

insecticides’. Htin Hla (2003) considered that White-

rumped Vulture remains relatively common in Shan State,

and in 2003 recorded groups of 6-45 at sites 1 00-1 50 km

east of Kalaw (see account for Red-headed Vulture).

Globally significant numbers of this species are also

confirmed to persist in North Myanmar (Tordoff et al.

2007). Himalayan Griffon was only confirmed to occur

in Myanmar in 2004 (Tordoff et al. 2007) and its status

in East Myanmar is unknown.

Given the critically threatened status of Asian vultures

(see below), local sightings of all species are significant.

Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus

Globally Critically Endangered. Cook (1913) saw this

species on ‘several occasions’; this is the only record for

Kalaw.

Between March and June 2003 up to 1 1 Red-headed

Vultures were observed in Shan State at sites 100-150

km east of Kalaw, on 1 4 March (one individual), 1 6 April

(two), 17 April (two), 16 June (four) and 19 June (two)

(Htin Hla 2003): these appear to be the first documented

records from East Myanmar in 71 years. Prior to these

sightings, two individuals were seen in 1 899-1 900 at Inle

Lake, 33 km east of Kalaw (Bingham & Thompson 1 900),

and in 1 938 up to four were observed on a livestock carcass

with over 10 White-rumped Vultures Gyps bengalensis

and (reportedly) Slender-billed Vultures G. tenuirostris at

Taunggyi town, 50 km east of Kalaw (Livesey 1939c).

Rippon (1901) did not record Red-headed Vulture in

south-west Shan State despite extensive collecting; nor

didWardlaw Ramsay (1875) in the Karen Hills, although

he observed a vulture species (‘probably G. indicus ’, thus

presumably G. tenuirostris ) continually around camp. In

contrast, Wickham (1929-1930), referring generally to

the hills of southern Shan State, Chin Hills (West

Myanmar) and Kachin Hills (North Myanmar), stated

the species was ‘common in all these Hill Tracts up to

about 3,000 feet but breeds even at lower level than this’;

he ‘took an egg of this bird in the Southern Shan Hills at

about 1,200 feet [c.360 m] elevation in early January’.

Even historically, Red-headed Vulture appears to have

occurred at low densities: in Myanmar it was regarded as

‘not a common species’ (Blyth 1875), ‘distributed

sparingly’ (Bingham 1880) and ‘not nearly so common as

G. bengalensis’’ (Harington 1909). These authors note

that only a few individuals would usually be present at

large feeding congregations of other vultures . Throughout

its global range, it was considered ‘nowhere very abundant’

(Blanford 1895). The Red-headed Vultures observed in

Shan State in 2003 were with feeding groups of 6-45

White-rumped Vultures (Htin Hla 2003).

Red-headed Vulture was not recorded during recent

surveys in North Myanmar although globally significant

numbers of other vultures were found (Tordoff etal. 2007) .

Populations of all Asian vulture species have suffered

severe declines in the past 20+ years throughout South

and South-East Asia (BirdLife International 2001, Pain

et al. 2003), and it is possible that Red-headed Vulture is

now locally extirpated from parts of East Myanmar. Large

parts of East Myanmar remain off-limits for research and

have not been surveyed for many years, and the recent

sightings by Htin Hla (2003) confirm that small numbers

persist.

House Crow Corvus splendens

Counts of 66, 100+, 36 and 44 individuals were made

respectively in November 2006 and March, July and

November 2007 (TZN) ; a resident flock of 30+ individuals

in Kalaw town was observed daily on 7-8 November

2008 (Gidean/MRB). The species was recorded on nine

of 1 4 visits from 2005-2009 (Appendix 1 ), always around

the town.

In contrast there are no confirmed historical records

of House Crow from Kalaw. Rippon (1896) explicitly

stated House Crow was absent but did occur 30+ km to

the east; Cook (1913) recorded it provisionally, stating ‘I

include this as doubtful. I did not actually shoot the bird.’

In the early 1900s, House Crow was ‘common’ in villages

and towns in southern Shan State (Bingham & Thompson

1 900), although there were ‘many’ small, remote villages

where it did not occur (Harington 1909).

These data indicate the colonisation of Kalaw by House

Crow in the past century. The species is an aggressive

coloniser and its global range is expanding (Ryall 2002,

Nyari etal. 2006).

House Crows at Kalaw possess the dark grey cowl of

C. 5. insolens, consistent with Smythies (1953), who noted

this subspecies occurs in the central and southern latitudes

of Myanmar.

Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos

Single birds were recorded on 28 December 2005, 13

December and 30 December 2006 (Gidean/ROH), 16

February 2007 (Gidean/CD) and 3 December 2008

(Gidean/JAE); sightings of two birds were made on 16

April 2006 (GT), from 30 November- 1 December 2006

(TZN), from 17-18 November 2007 (TZN), and 10

November and 15 November 2008 (Gidean/MRB); 14

individuals were seen from 26-28 March 2007 (TZN)

and five were seen from 21-22 July 2007 (TZN). Sightings

were in scattered forest or cultivated lands outside Kalaw

town.

Large-billed Crow was historically present at Kalaw

(Rippon 1896), where it was ‘common’ (Cook 1 9 1 3) . In

nearby parts of southern Shan State it was ‘very common

throughout the more wooded portions’ (Bingham &

Thompson 1900), although Wickham (1929-1930) stated

it was ‘never in such large numbers’ as House Crow. In

Kayah State south of Kalaw, it was ‘common near villages

and huts up to 6,000 feet’ [c. 1 ,800 m] (Smith et al. 1 943-

1944). Elsewhere in Myanmar it was widely distributed

and locally abundant in some areas (flocks of ‘thousands'

reported) but scarce in others (Bingham 1880, Harington

1909, 1909-1910, Smythies 1953). Recent published

records are from West (Robson et al. 1998) and North

(Tordoff et al. 2007) Myanmar; King era/. (2001) found

it uncommon in far North Myanmar.

The small number of individuals recorded at Kalaw

from 2005-2009 indicates the species has declined there,

in contrast with the colonisation of Kalaw by House Crow

over the same period. Large-billed Crow is among several

56

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

scavenging species which are declining in at least localised

parts of South-East Asia (Duckworth et al. 2002, Pain et

al. 2003, Fuchs et al. 2007) and is potentially of national

conservation concern in Myanmar.

Large-billed Crow has recently been split by some

authors into separate species (e.g. Martens et al. 2000),

in which the eastern Myanmar populations are assigned

to Eastern Jungle Crow C. levaillantii , an uncommon to

common resident in Myanmar (Robson 2008).

[Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis

‘Observed by Mr. Oates’ (Rippon 1 896; no other details);

four individuals were observed from 17-18 November

2007 (TZN; no other details) . These are the only records

for Kalaw.

We accord these sightings provisional status in the

absence of further details, owing to the difficulties of

separating Black-naped Oriole in the field from Slender-

billed Oriole O. tenuirostris , particularly as the latter is

common at Kalaw and has been recorded on most visits

(Appendix 1 ) . It is possible that E. W. Oates treated both

species as conspecific and made no effort to separate

them, although Rippon (1896, 1901) listed both

separately, suggesting this was not the case.]

Bi-ACK-hooded Oriole Oriolus xanthomus

Single birds were seen on 1 3 December and 30 December

2006 (Gidean/ROH), 16 February 2007 (Gidean/CD),

2 1 July 2007 (TZN) and 1 8 November 2007 (TZN) ; four

birds were seen from 30 November-1 December 2006

(TZN). Most of these sightings were in pine-forest and

open country between Kalaw town and Kalaw reservoir.

Robson (2008) gives the altitudinal range of the species

in South-East Asia as up to 9 1 5 m. These Kalaw records,

at c. 1 ,300 m, extend the species’s known upper altitudinal

range in South-East Asia by c. 385 m. In India, Black-

hooded Oriole is known from plains to 1,800 m

(Rasmussen & Anderton 2005).

Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica

One adult was seen on 28 December 2005 at Kalaw

reservoir (ROH/Gidean).

This is the first record from East Myanmar.

Misidentification with other Muscicapa species was ruled

out due to the absence of rufescent body coloration

(Brown-breasted Flycatcher M. muttui and Ferruginous

Flycatcher M. ferruginea ) and the lack of strong brown

smudging to the flanks (Dark-sided Flycatcher M. sibirica).

According to Robson (2005, 2008), the Palearctic

nominate form M. d. dauurica is a common winter visitor

in South-East Asia, except North and East Myanmar,

while the distinct resident taxon M. d. siamensis is a scarce

to uncommon breeding resident in adjacent North-West

Thailand and north Tenasserim. The present individual

was not identified to subspecies level and could have been

either taxon. In view of the potential future elevation of

distinct Oriental resident forms of M. dauurica to species

level, further visits to Kalaw should aim to clarify which

taxon of Asian Brown Flycatcher occurs locally.

Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa muttui

One adult with two juveniles was seen on 10 June 2008

at Kalaw reservoir (FER/Gidean) . No photos were taken,

but the adult bird was seen flying back and forth from the

twig where the two juveniles were located and occasionally

feeding them with small invertebrates. The two young

individuals possessed the typical juvenile muscicapid

plumage featuring extensive light body streaking on a

brown background. The identification of the adult was

also unequivocal, and confusion with Asian Brown

Flycatcher can be ruled out mainly on account of bill

colour and the rufescent back, flank coloration and

particularly tail, also the grey-toned head, in particular

the nape contrasting with the rufescent mantle. Both

observers have had previous field experience with this

species and Asian Brown Flycatcher.

This is the first confirmed breeding record for this

species in East Myanmar. Robson (2008) describes it as

‘recorded (status uncertain, probably breeds)’ in North

and East Myanmar, and a scarce to uncommon passage

migrant in West and Central Myanmar.

Slaty-backed Flycatcher Ficedula hodgsonii

Bingham (1900) described the taxon Cyomis brevirostris

based on a single male specimen from Kalaw (no specific

locality details), as follows:

Forehead, sides of the head and neck, crown, occiput,

nape, back, scapulars, the greater wing-coverts, and the

sides of the body under the wings uniform dark slaty

blue (the colour of a dark rock-pigeon); rump and upper

tail-coverts paler blue; lesser wing-coverts and the wings

dark brown; tail black, the base narrowly on the two

central feathers and broadly on the remainder white;

chin, throat, breast, and the upper half of the stomach

bright orange; lower portions of stomach, the thighs,

and under tail-coverts white, faintly washed with olive-

brown; under wing-coverts and axillaries pale orange-

yellow. Bill, legs, and feet black; iris dark brown. B&

Length 4.8 inches [= 122 mm], wing 2.9 [= 74 mm],

tail 1.8 [=46 mm] , tarsus 0.6 [= 15 mm] , bill from gape

0.4 [= 10 mm], from front 0.24 [= 6 mm].

Since then, the name has been overlooked or ignored;

it was not included even as a synonym by Baker (1930)

or Watson (1986). It is not known whether the type

specimen, which was deposited in the Indian Museum,

Calcutta, still exists, but it seems unlikely that it represents

a distinct species that has not been found again. The

description appears to fit that of Slaty-backed Flycatcher

Ficedula hodgsonii , although the tail is much shorter (56-

58 mm in hodgsonii'. Ali & Ripley 1996).

[Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher Cyomis tickelliae

A single adult male was observed on 30 December 2006

in evergreen forest at Kalaw reservoir (ROH/Gidean);

two individuals were recorded from 30 November-1

December 2006 (TNZ) and four from 21-22 July 2007

(TZN) (no other details); also listed by Rippon (1897),

who mentioned this and other flycatcher species ‘appeared

to be breeding or about to do so’.

Robson (2008) describes the altitudinal range of the

species in South-East Asia as up to 9 1 5 m (below 600 m

in Thailand). These records from Kalaw, at c. 1,300 m,

would represent an extension of the species’s known upper

altitudinal range in South-East Asia by c.385 m.

We regard these altitudinal records as doubtful owing to

the difficulties of separating Tickell’s from Hill Blue

Flycatcher C. banyumas in the field, particularly as the latter

was recorded at Kalaw on most visits from 2005-2009

(Appendix 1 ) and occurs from 400-2,5 1 5 m (Robson 2008) .

It is possible these records represent misidentifications,

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

57

possibly of the race zuhitei of Hill Blue Flycatcher. Field

descriptions are not available for these records and any

future sightings at Kalaw would require field descriptions

to validate these apparent altitudinal records.]

Bluethroat Luscinia svecica

A single male in non-breeding plumage was observed on

9 November 2008 at 07h30, next to a stream and ricefield

in open pine-forest near Kalaw reservoir (Gidean/MRB) .

Robson (2005, 2008) describes the altitudinal range

of the species in South-East Asia as up to 7 60 m, although

this appears to overlook a report of its status as a common

non-breeding visitor on the Xiangkhouang plateau in Laos

at 1,120 m (Duckworth ex al. 2002). The Kalaw record,

at c. 1 ,350 m, appears to extend the species’s known upper

altitudinal range in South-East Asia by c.230 m. In India,

the species breeds from 2,600-3,800 m and winters in the

lowlands (Rasmussen & Anderton 2005).

Giant Nuthatch Sitxa magna

Globally Vulnerable. A male and female were collected in

1896 (Rippon 1897); two individuals were seen in 1912

of which one, a male, was collected (Cook 1913). These

are the only records for Kalaw.

Kalaw is within the core distribution for this species in

Myanmar (see review by BirdLife International 2001).

For southern Shan State, Bingham (1903) noted it did

‘not seem to be rare at an elevation of 6,000 ft and upwards’

and Livesey (1933b) considered it ‘not uncommon in

some localities’; in contrast Bingham & Thompson ( 1 900)

said it was ‘exceedingly rare’. In Kayah State south of

Kalaw, Smith et al. (1943-1944) found it was ‘not

uncommon’ in some localities.

BirdLife International (2001) traced only three post-

1950 records for Myanmar, and noted that, although this

may reflect low observer coverage rather than a decline,

an undetected reduction in range and numbers may be

occurring. The lack of records from 2005-2009 suggests

the species is now locally extirpated at Kalaw. At some

nearby sites in North-West Thailand, Giant Nuthatch

has declined or is locally extirpated, and this has been

attributed to the loss of mature pine-forest (BirdLife

International 200 1 ) . The pine-forests of Kalaw have been

subjected to extensive clearance and burning for many

decades (see Discussion) and virtually all mature forest

has been cleared, with only stands of young, regenerating

pines remaining: this is probably the principal reason for

the decline of Giant Nuthatch at Kalaw.

Asian House Martin Delichon dasypus

A ‘small flock’ was seen on 23 December 2006 over Kalaw

town (DF); at least 20 individuals were seen on 10

December 2009 over Kalaw reservoir (Gidean/JAE). No

photographic evidence was obtained but the dark

underwing-coverts, white throat, and white undertail-

coverts distinctive of this species were clearly visible on all

birds. A single unidentified martin Delichon sp. was seen

on 9 November 2008 over Kalaw reservoir with a flock of

Barn Swallows Hirundo rustica and Red-rumped Swallows

H. daurica (Gidean/MRB).

These are the first records of Asian House Martin

from East Myanmar. Robson (2005, 2008) describes the

species as an uncommon to fairly common winter visitor

to West, North, Central and South Myanmar.

Hume’s Warbler Phylloscopus humei

A ‘few’ were seen from 23-24 November 2006 (DF/

Gidean); recorded from 15-16 February 2007 (CD/

Gidean; no other details); single birds were observed on

7 and 8 November 2008 (Gidean/MRB); at least three

were seen and heard on 10 December 2009, in company

with Yellow-browed Warbler P. inornaxus (JAE).

Individuals were identified by the xschuix call distinctive of

this species (Robson 2008) and possessed indistinct tertial

tips, black legs and pallid plumage lacking the olive tones

of the similar Yellow-browed Warbler P. inornaxus. All

records are presumed to be of the race P. h. mandelli.

These are the first records from East Myanmar. Robson

(2005, 2008) describes the species as a scarce to locally

common winter visitor to West and South (north-west)

Myanmar.

Martens’s Warbler Seicercus omeiensis (=Emei shan

Warbler, Omei Warbler)

At least two adults were seen on 1 3 December 2006 (ROH/

Gidean). Birds were observed at close proximity in good

light, and sound recordings of the diagnostic contact call

were made by ROH (Figure 2) and were confirmed by C.

Robson. On 10 December 2009, at least three adults

were seen (JAE/Gidean) of which one responded to call

playback of pre-recorded song (from Sichuan, China) by

flying and singing nearby for several minutes.

k 10 -

H

z 8 -

B

6 -

2 -]

9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 12.5 13

Time (sec]

Figure 2. Sonogram of the call vocalisations of Martens’s Warbler Seicercus omeiensis. Random excerpts from the calls series of two individuals,

at (A) Kalaw, recorded by ROH, and at (B) Emei Shan (Sichuan, China) for comparison, recorded by JAE. Spacing of notes is random throughout

both call series and was not selected to resemble each other; differences in note width on the sonogram are largely due to differences in quality

and loudness between recordings. Sonogram prepared by FER.

58

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

These are the first records from East Myanmar.

Martens et al. (2003) referred to 12 specimens from

Myanmar: West Myanmar (Mt Victoria, DudawTaung)

and Central Myanmar (Mt Popa, Maymyo). They went

on to say that ‘It still needs to be determined whether

omeiensis s.l. breeds in Burma; two individuals were found

in Karenni/Burma on 15. and 16.IV. 1939 (Tring:

1948.80.883 and .884).’ These are clearly the two

specimens collected at Nattaung (the approximate border

area between South and East Myanmar) by Smith et al.

(1940), who referred them to ‘ Seicercus burkii

tephrocephalad

Robson (2008) describes the species as an uncommon

to fairly common winter visitor to East Myanmar and

several regions of Thailand, Cambodia and Laos (it is at

least locally common in hilly North Laos: Fuchs et al.

2007). Robson’s (2008) citation for East Myanmar is

based on the 2006 record from Kalaw.

Three other Seicercus species occur at Kalaw (Appendix

1), of which two, Grey-crowned WarblerV. tephrocephalus

and Bianchi’s Warbler S’, valentini , possess superficially

similar calls and/or appearance to Martens’s Warbler.

Grey-crowned and Bianchi’s have both been recorded in

most recent visits to Kalaw (Appendix 1 ), but in December

2009 Martens’s was the most frequently observed of the

three species, with an approximate ratio of 3:1:1 (JAE

pers. obs.).

Black-headed Sibia

Heterophasia melanoleuca castanoptera

Between 2 and 49 individuals were observed per visit

from 2005-2009: eight birds observed in April 2006 (GT),

counts of 49, 11, 35 and 30 birds/visit in November-

December 2006 and March, July and November 2007

respectively (TZN), counts of 10, 5, 4 and 2 individuals/

day observed on 8, 9, 10 and 15 November 2008

respectively (MRB), and 30+ individuals from 9-10

December 2009 (JAE). The species was recorded during

all recent and most historical visits to Kalaw (Appendix

1 ) . All sightings were in evergreen forest at Kalaw reservoir.

All recent records of Black-headed Sibia at Kalaw are

of the subspecies castanoptera , a restricted-range resident

of south-western East Myanmar (Robson 2005)

distributed along the western edge of the Shan Plateau,

from Kalaw in the north to Nattaung in Kayah State in

the south (Bingham & Thompson 1900, Smith etal. 1940),

a distance of c. 1 50 km. Rippon (1896) and Cook (1913)

described castanoptera as ‘very common’ at Kalaw; recent

visits confirm that it remains locally common.

The subspecies castanoptera was accorded full species

status by Rippon (1896), Bingham & Thompson (1900)

and Cook (1913), although C. B. Ticehurst in Smith et

al. (1940) later stated ‘it certainly is a local race of

melanoleuca and not a species... as I find that single

specimens of melanoleuca.. . east of Fort Stedman [30+ km

east of Kalaw] have just a trace of the chestnut markings

of castanoptera ’. Rippon (1896) listed the subspecies H.

m. melanoleuca for Kalaw, but given some early confusion

over the taxonomy of the species (see Smith et al. 1940)

we regard his record as provisional. There are no specimens

of Black-headed Sibia from Kalaw held at the Natural

History Museum, UK (N. J. Collar in litt. 2010), and

Rippon’s record of H. m. melanoleuca cannot be

substantiated. It seems that castanoptera is the only form

of Black-headed Sibia at Kalaw.

Burmese Yuhina Yuhina humilis

Up to two were seen on 15 April and three on 16 April

2006 (GT); a group of three individuals was seen on 30

December 2006 (Gidean/ROH); two individuals from 26-

28 March 2007 (TZN); two separate individuals on 10

June 2008 (Gidean/FER); two together on 8 November

and four (in two separate groups) on 1 5 November 2008

(Gidean/MRB); a single bird on 3 December 2008

(Gidean/JAE); a flock of six birds on 10 December 2009

(Gidean/JAE). All sightings were in evergreen forest at

Kalaw reservoir.

Burmese Yuhina is a restricted-range resident of

southern East Myanmar and north Tenasserim, as well as

parts of West and North-West Thailand (Robson 2005,

2008) . Our records indicate it is locally common at Kalaw,

yet appears to have been overlooked historically. It was

recorded from other hills in the far west of Shan State

(Wickham 1929-1930) and was reported to be ‘very

common’ on a mountain 60 km south of Kalaw (Oates

1 894), where it was collected again by Bingham (1903).

In Kayah State, Smith et al. ( 1 940) observed parties of 4-

5 birds in pine-forest at ‘about 6,000 ft’ (c. 1,800 m).

Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula

A single report from April 1 895 (Rippon 1 896) is the only

record for Kalaw.

Oriental Skylark was historically a common resident in

Myanmar (Smythies 1953). In southern Shan State it was

‘very common’ (Bingham & Thompson 1900, Rippon

1901), although it was not recorded there by other authors

(Oates 1894, Harington 1902, Thompson & Craddock

1902, Bingham 1903, Meyer deSchauensee 1934, 1946).

Myanmar populations comprise residents and winter

visitors; it is currently regarded as an uncommon winter

visitor to West, North and East Myanmar and is an

uncommon to fairly common resident almost throughout

(Robson 2008).

Historical records suggest the species may have been

widely distributed but only locally abundant in southern

Shan State. Cook (1913) visited Kalaw in the same month

as Rippon (April) but did not record the species. The

absence of other records from Kalaw may indicate the

species never occurred there in large numbers . Of potential

concern, most recent (2005-2009) visits to Kalaw were

mainly in winter (November, December) when wintering

birds may have been present, but no skylarks were recorded

there or at sites in suitable open-country habitats up to 30

lcm further east. Alternatively, recent visits may have missed

the summer breeding season, when male birds conduct

conspicuous display flights and are easily detected.

Severe declines of the closely related Eurasian Skylark

A. arvensis and other farmland birds have occurred in

Europe due to agricultural intensification (Donald et al.

2001), and there is increasing evidence for similar declines

of Oriental Skylark in South-East Asia (Duckworth 2007) .

New records (or their absence) of this species from Kalaw

or nearby areas of Shan State would be of interest.

Fire-tailed Sunbird Aethopyga ignicauda

An immature male was seen on 28 December 2005 in

evergreen forest at Kalaw reservoir (Gidean/ROH).

This is the first record from East Myanmar.

Misidentification with the similar Mrs Gould’s Sunbird

A. gouldiae was ruled out due to the bright red tail colour

of this individual. Robson (2005, 2008) describes the species

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

59

as a common resident in West and North Myanmar and a

vagrant to Central Myanmar and North-West Thailand.

House Sparrow Passer domesticus and Eurasian Tree

Sparrow P. montanus

Rippon (1896) and Cook (1913) reported only House

Sparrow at Kalaw, the latter noting it was ‘common around

the village’; the only recent records are of 1 1 birds from

26-28 March 2007 and 38 birds from 21-22 July 2007

(TZN). In contrast, we found Eurasian Tree Sparrow to

be common at Kalaw town, recorded on 13 of 14 visits

from 2005-2009, Appendix 1; 90-100+ birds/visit

observed in March, July and November 2007 (TZN);

30+ birds/day observed between 8 and 1 5 November 2008

(Gidean/MRB).

In the Shan hills near Kalaw, Eurasian Tree Sparrow

was said to be the commonest sparrow species while House

Sparrow was observed ‘occasionally’ (Bingham &

Thompson 1900, Wickham 1929-1930); in contrast

Rippon (1901) stated House Sparrow to be ‘very

common’. Further east in Shan State, Meyer de

Schauensee (1946) recorded only Eurasian T ree Sparrow.

Other authors do not mention either species for Shan

State (Harington 1902, Thompson & Craddock 1902,

Bingham 1903, Meyer de Schauensee 1934), but this

may reflect a low survey effort toward these species rather

than absence. Generally in Myanmar, Eurasian Tree

Sparrow was considered the more abundant species and

‘greatly outnumbered’ House Sparrow, which had a more

localised distribution but was common where it occurred

(Harington 1909, 1909-1910, Smythies 1953).

Our records indicate Eurasian Tree Sparrow has

colonised Kalaw in the past century, while House Sparrow

may have declined over the same period.

Russet Sparrow Passer rutilans

A single specimen was collected at Kalaw in April 1895

(Rippon 1896, 1901); J. K. Stanford, in Stanford &

Ticehurst (1935), ‘saw a very large flock on a piece of

waste ground at Kalaw (1,525 m), Southern Shan States,

in August 1931’; one individual was seen at a roadside

stop near Kalaw town on 14 April 2006 (Talbot 2006).

These are the only records for Kalaw.

Elsewhere in East Myanmar, small numbers have been

seen or collected over the past century. Two specimens

were collected at Keng Tung in the extreme east of Shan

State near the borders with Thailand and Yunnan (China)

in 1933 and 1935 respectively (Meyer de Schauensee

1946), and in 2003 the species was observed at sites 100—

150 km east of Kalaw (no other details given) (Htin Hla

2003). In Kayah State (south of Kalaw), two specimens

were collected and another individual was seen in 1940

(Smith et al. 1943-1944).

Robson (2008) describes Russet Sparrow as a ‘fairly

common resident’ in South-West, West, North, South

(east) and East Myanmar, and a rare winter visitor to

North-West and North-East Thailand. It appears to have

declined in north-western Thailand (P. D. Round pers.

comm.) . Stanford’s historical record of a ‘very large flock’

at Kalaw is noteworthy compared with the paucity of

other local historical and contemporary sightings.

[Chestnut-shouldered Petronia Petronia xanthocollis

Baker (1926) stated that ‘Sir S. M. Robinson records this

bird as breeding in the Shan States at Kalau. The bird was

shot and identified by him.’ Wickham (1929-1930) also

referred to the record, but Stanford & Ticehurst (1938-

1939) noted that ‘Mr. H. Whistler has put it beyond

doubt that the record (2) of Gymnoris xanthocollis

xanthocollis breeding in the Shan States cannot be

accepted, and this bird may be deleted from the Burma

list.’ Smythies (1953) concurred with this view and did

not include the species for the avifauna of Myanmar. The

species is only known to occur as far east as West Bengal

(Rasmussen & Anderton 2005).]

Blyth’s Pipit Anthus godlewskii

Reported by Rippon (1897) with no other details; a single

specimen was obtained by Cook (1913). These are the

only records for Kalaw, and are also the first published

records from East Myanmar.

Cook (1913) does not state whether he submitted his

specimen to any institution (although he mentions that

Rippon forwarded at least one of his other specimens, a

finch, to the Natural History Museum, UK). There are

no specimens of Blyth’s Pipit from Kalaw held at this

museum (N.J. Collar in litt. 2010) and Cook’s record

cannot be evaluated. However, in addition to Blyth’s Pipit,

Cook (1913) also recorded Olive-backed Pipit Anthus

hodgsoni at Kalaw, while Rippon (1901) listed fi ve Anthus

species for nearby areas of Shan State, of which three,

Olive-backed Pipit, Paddyfield Pipit A. rufulus and Red-

throated Pipit A. cervinus , were recorded at Kalaw between

2005 and 2009 (Appendix 1 ) . These records suggest that

Rippon and Cook were reasonably familiar with Anthus

pipits and took some care in identifying them.

Smythies (1953) treated Blyth’s Pipit as a subspecies

‘ thermophilus, of ‘ Anthus novae-seelandiae ’ and noted the

‘larger forms’ (including thermophilus ) of this species occur

throughout the country as winter visitors.

There are few records of Blyth’s Pipit from Myanmar

(Inskipp ms and references therein) and its national status

is unclear. For Southern Shan State, Bingham &

Thompson (1900) explicitly noted that they did not

observe the species there; Rippon (1901) described it as

‘not common’. Robson (2005, 2008) describes it as an

uncommon winter visitor to West, Central and South

Myanmar and north Tenasserim, but omitted East

Myanmar from his distribution.

DISCUSSION

Our compilation of 302 bird species for Kalaw, including

historical and provisional records, represents 56% of the

approximately 535 species listed for the ‘Southern Shan

States’ (Smythies 1953). This proportion is large: the

region spans over 450 km across East Myanmar, yet the

Kalaw records largely originate from within a 1 0 km radius

of a single town and, within that, from a small site of

remnant forest, and include few wetland species owing to

the low extent and diversity of wetland habitats at Kalaw.

Recent (2005-2009) records for Kalaw include two

that might involve globally threatened species (an

unidentified Gyps vulture species and a provisional report

of Dark-rumped Swift), at least six new records for East

Myanmar (Lesser Cuckoo, Asian Brown Flycatcher, Asian

House Martin, Hume’s Warbler, Martens’s Warbler and

Fire-tailed Sunbird), one new breeding record for East

Myanmar (Brown-breasted Flycatcher) and two new

60

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

altitudinal records for South-East Asia (Black-hooded

Oriole and Bluethroat). Historical (1895-1912) Kalaw

records include four globally threatened species (Mrs

Hume’s Pheasant, Sarus Crane, Red-headed Vulture and

Giant Nuthatch) and one previously overlooked record

for East Myanmar (Blyth’s Pipit). Provisional

(unconfirmed) records for three species, Oriental Cuckoo,

Dark-rumped Swift, and Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher, would,

if confirmed, represent new records for East Myanmar

(the cuckoo and swift) or a new altitudinal record for

South-East Asia (the flycatcher), but see the accounts for

these species.

Comparison with historical records indicates that

Kalaw retains the majority of bird species documented

97-114 years previously, but with some notable

exceptions. Twenty-two species recorded from 1895-

1912 were not recorded from 2005-2009 (Table 1). The

absence of recent records almost certainly reflects

population declines for at least three species (Mrs Hume’s

Pheasant, Black Kite, Red-headed Vulture) and may be

used to infer a decline or local extirpation for at least one

other (Giant Nuthatch) . For three others (Rufous-bellied

Woodpecker, Black-billed Magpie, Oriental Skylark), the

lack of recent records may indicate a change in local status,

but declines cannot confidently be inferred (Table 1).

Large-billed Crow, recorded in low numbers from 2005-

2009, has probably declined; a century ago the species

was described as common at Kalaw. For Oriental Pied

Hornbill, a single record from 2005-2009 suggests the

species occurs at low dehsities at Kalaw. The scarcity of

phasianid sightings from 2005-2009 and complete

absence of historical or recent records of Arborophila

partridges is notable, and probably indicates intensive

long-term hunting. Gidean (pers. obs.) has never observed

any Arborophila partridges in the past 13 years of regular

birdwatching at Kalaw, and frequent opportunistic

hunting in the forests occurs (see below).

These records suggest that over the past 1 14 years,

threatening processes to birds have had the greatest

impacts on three bird categories: large-bodied forest

species (pheasants and probably hornbills), one small

forest species (Giant Nuthatch), and wide-ranging

scavengers (kites, vultures, crows).

Of the other species only recorded from 1895-1912

(Table 1 ), the absence of recent records may be explained

by sampling randomness (insufficient recent effort to

detect these species), sightings of single birds in atypical

habitats or at the limits of their natural range, or the

strong seasonality of breeding and migration documented

for many birds in East Myanmar. Most cuckoos and some

snipe are summer or wet-season visitors (March-

September) (Harington 1909, Kenny 1919, Wickham

1929-1930, Livesey 1933a, 1935d), while most resident

forest and open-country birds of Shan State breed in

March-May (Harington 1902, Wickham 1929-1930,

Livesey 1933b, 1 935a, c), when some cryptic species (e.g.

nightjars Caprimulgus spp.) are probably more easily

detected. These seasonal differences emphasise the need

for further visits to Kalaw in summer (mid-February-

mid-May) and the wet season (mid-May-mid-October).

Our Kalaw inventory is certainly incomplete, for at least

three reasons: recent visits are skewed to winter, recent

survey effort has been low (25 days) , and most birdwatching

on recent visits was undertaken in daylight hours, so some

nocturnal species, e.g. scops owls Otus spp., frogmouths

Batrachostomus spp. and nightjars, were probably

overlooked. It seems likely that species known from nearby

areas of Shan State may be recorded in the future, e.g.

Golden-fronted Leafbird Chloropsis aurifrons and Chestnut¬

tailed Starling Stumus malabaricus (the former ‘common

everywhere’: Bingham & Thompson 1900).

Kalaw is located at the eastern edge of the Sino-

Himalayan mountain forests, one of the key forest regions

for threatened birds in Asia (BirdLife International 2003),

and historically supported two of the six key birds listed

for this region, Mrs Hume’s Pheasant and Giant Nuthatch.

Kalaw is not located in any of the 55 Important Bird

Areas in Myanmar (BirdLife International 2004). The

principal conservation value of Kalaw for birds is the

presence of a small but protected and forested catchment

at Kalaw reservoir, which has enabled the persistence of

a partly intact assemblage of forest birds. This forest

provides permanent or seasonal resources for a variety of

resident and migratory species and, while too small to

sustain large breeding populations of some birds (e.g.

hornbills), contributes to their survival at a landscape

level. Although the landscape outside this catchment is

largely cultivated, numerous small patches of evergreen

and pme-forest persist, and this is probably an important

supporting factor which contributes to the survival of

local forest bird communities. If threatening processes

are removed, some species, such as pheasants and

partridges, might recolonise the area. Kalaw reservoir

also supports two restricted-range taxa, Burmese Yuhina

and the subspecies castanoptera of Black-headed Sibia.

Currently the largest threat to the forest of Kalaw

reservoir is encroaching settlement, which is resulting in

gradual but incremental burning and clearing of forest

along the catchment boundaries (all authors pers. obs.).

This appears to correspond to a decrease in the area of

catchment under protection; in the 1920s, the total

designated catchment area was apparently ‘20 square

miles’ (c. 52 km2) (local residents pers. comm.). We could

not verify this, but if correct, would imply that the

designated area under protection (and presumably of

forest) has declined by 85% over the past 90 years, to its

current area of c.8 km2 (see Study Area).

Within the catchment, local communities graze their

cattle, collect fuelwood and non-timber forest products,

and fish (all authors pers. obs.) . Opportunistic hunting of

wildlife occurs frequently (Gidean pers. obs.). Mature

trees from the catchment are harvested, apparently by

local communities and also by residents of Kalaw town,

to provide timber for house construction (Gidean pers.

obs.). The cumulative impacts of these activities are

causing visible degradation of the remaining forest

(Gidean pers. obs.; H. Singh, local trekking guide, pers.

comm.). We observed no burning or timber logging in

the catchment during our visits, no vehicles, and few

people (over a three-day period in November 2008, 10-

20 people/day were observed in the catchment: MRB

pers. obs.). In November 2008 sections of the access

track leading to the reservoir were being upgraded (MRB

pers. obs.) and this may lead to increased visitation of the

interior forest. Although these activities occur in many

protected areas in Myanmar (Rao et al. 2002), the levels

of human activity we observed were considerably lower

than in many protected areas of nearby parts of Thailand

and Laos (all authors pers. obs.). This, and the low human

densities surrounding Kalaw reservoir, are probably also

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

61

significant factors in the persistence of many forest birds

at Kalaw.

In the early 1 900s, Kalaw apparently retained extensive

pine and evergreen forest that was later cleared for

construction of the Southern Shan Railway (local residents

pers. comm.). Kalaw’s expansion from a ‘village’ (Rippon

1896) to town over the past century has resulted in the

conversion of most nearby land for agriculture. In the

1930s, at sites 50 km east of Kalaw, Livesey (1939b)

noted pheasants and other wildlife were becoming scarce

due to loss of natural habitats from systematic forest

burning by the Forest Service, increasing numbers of

livestock, and conversion to agricultural lands. Early

colonial policies emphasised logging (Bryant 1993), and

in Central Myanmar this resulted in extensive loss of old-

growth forest prior to designation of at least one protected

area, followed by greater access of local communities

(Myint Aung etal. 2004) . It is likely that as Kalaw expanded

similar processes impacted its local environment.

Kalaw reservoir and its catchment are protected and

managed under district regulations, which prohibit timber

removal, cultivation and hunting. This is enforced by

forest rangers; we met one team in November 2008

comprised of five rangers, who patrol the catchment on

a weekly basis, on foot, returning to Kalaw town each

evening (rangers pers. comm.). Each ranger was equipped

with a uniform, walking boots, waterbottle, utility knife

and truncheon, with two pairs of binoculars and one hand¬

held radio unit (‘walkie-talkie’) for the team (MRB pers.

obs.). Signs located in the catchment state ‘no timber

cutting’. These enforcement efforts provide a positive

basis for management of Kalaw reservoir and its

catchment, although further efforts are required to halt

ongoing and cumulative loss of the remaining forest.

Visiting birdwatchers represent an opportunity and

information source to improve understanding of the birds

of East Myanmar. A small but increasing number of

birdwatchers are visiting Kalaw (Gidean pers. obs.), and

together with Inle Lake (33 km to the east) Kalaw has

probably received more recent bird survey effort than any

other site in East Myanmar. At Kalaw, new records of

phasianids, hornbills, Giant Nuthatch, scavenging species

(kites, vultures, Large-billed Crow) and Oriental Skylark

would help clarify the current status of these species.

Visits in summer (mid-February-mid-May) and the wet

season (mid-May-mid-October) would almost certainly

result in new bird records for Kalaw.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We particularly thank Dave Farrow (Birdquest Ltd), Chris Doughty

(Peregrine Bird Tours) and Thet Zaw Naing (SST Tourism) for

providing their Kalaw bird records, and Will Duckworth, Jonathan

Eames, Thiri Htin Hla, Tim Inskipp, John Rappole, Saw Hla Chit,

Swen Renner, Colin Ryall, A. W. Jack) T ordoff and Joost van der Ven

for providing references, advice and/or other field records. Tim Inskipp

provided draft accounts for Cyomis brevirostris and Chestnut-shouldered

Petronia, gave detailed insight on historical bird records, and went to

considerable effort in extracting bird records from some recent trip

reports. Nigel J. Collar checked for the presence of sibia and pipit

specimens from Kalaw at the Natural History Museum, UK. Thiri and

Tony Htin Hla introduced MRB, JAE, FER and ROH to Gidean at

Kalaw, and Harri Singh facilitated email communication with Gidean

after their visits to Myanmar. MRB thanks R. H. and B. P. Bezuijen for

office space and accommodation in the preparation of this manuscript.

We are grateful to Nigel J. Collar, Will Duckworth, Tim Inskipp, Craig

Robson and the two Forktail reviewers, Pamela C. Rasmussen and Phil

D. Round, for critical comments on the draft manuscript.

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64

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

APPENDIX 1

Bird records for Kalaw: historical (columns 1-4, 1895-1912) and recent

(columns 5-18, 2005-2009)

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

65

Observer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Year of observations 1895 1896 1899 1912 2005 2006 2006 2006 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2009

Apr Apr- ? Apr Dec Apr Nov- Dec Dec Dec Feb Mar Jul Nov Jun Nov Dec Dec

Species May Dec

White-throated Kingfisher

Halcyon smymensis

X X X X

X X

Black-capped Kingfisher

Halcyon pileata

Pied Kingfisher Ceryle mdis [ C . varia ] x

Blue-bearded Bee-eater

Nyctyomis athertoni

Green Bee-eater

Merops orientalis [M. viridis ]

Blue-tailed Bee-eater

Merops philippinus

Chestnut-headed Bee-eater

Merops leschenaulti

Chestnut-winged Cuckoo

Clamator coromandus

Large Hawk Cuckoo

Hierococcyx sparverioides

Hodgson’s Hawk Cuckoo

Hierococcyx fugax

Indian Cuckoo Cuculus microptenis x x

Eurasian Cuckoo Cuculus canorus x x x x

POriental Cuckoo Cuculus saturatus

x?

Lesser Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus

Plaintive Cuckoo

Cacomantis merulinus

Asian Emerald Cuckoo

Chrysococcyx maculatus

Drongo Cuckoo Sumiculus lugubris

Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea

[Eudynamis honorata ]

Green-billed Malkoha

Phaenicophaeus [ Rhopodytes ] tristis

Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis

Rose-ringed Parakeet

Psittacula krameri [Palaeomis torquatus ]

Grey-headed Parakeet

Psittacula [ Palaeomis ] finschii

Himalayan Swiftlet

Collocalia brevirostris

Brown-backed Needletail

Hirandapus giganteus

Asian Palm Swift Cypsiunis balasiensis

Fork-tailed Swift Apus pacificus

Dark-rumped Swift Apus acuticauda

House Swift Apus affinis

Crested Treeswift

Hemiprocne coronata

Barn Owl Tyto alba

Collared Scops Owl

Otus bakkamoena

Collared Owlet Glaucidium brodiei

x x

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

XX XXX

X?

X?

X

H

H h

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

H X

X X

XXX

X X X X

X

XXX

X

H X H

66 MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al. Forktail 26 (2010)

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

67

Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus x

Great Egret Casmerodius albus x x

Indian/Chinese Pond Heron

X X

Ardeola grayii/bacchus

Little Heron Butorides striatus x

68 MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al. Forktail 26 (2010)

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma)

69

70

MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

Hill Myna Gracula religiosa x

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma) 71

72 MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al. Forktail 26 (2010)

Forktail 26 (2010) Recent and historical bird records for Kalaw, eastern Myanmar (Burma) 73

74 MARK R. BEZUIJEN et al. Forktail 26 (2010)

Key

Historical records: l=Rippon (1896); 2=Rippon (1897); 3=Bingham & Thompson (1900); 4=Cook (1913). Rippon (1896) includes records by E. W. Oates, which

are indicated in parentheses; the records by Oates were presumably recorded prior to 1 895 but the year is not given. Bingham & Thompson ( 1 900) do not give a specific

list for Kalaw; here we have included only those species they explicitly mention were recorded at Kalaw.

Recent records: 5=Gidean/Rob O. Hutchinson (ROH) 27-28 December 2005; 6=Graham Talbot 14-16 April 2006; 7=Thet Zaw Naing (TZN) 30 November-1

December 2006; 8=Gidean/ROH 12 13 December 2006; 9=Gidean/Dave Farrow 23-24 December 2006; 10=Gidean/ROH 29-30 December 2006; 1 l=Gidean/Chris

Doughty 15-16 February 2007; 12=TZN 26-28 March 2007; 13=TZN 21-22 July 2007; 14=TZN 17-18 November 2007; 15=Gidean/Frank E. Rheindt 9-11 June

2008; 16=Gidean/Mark R. Bezuijen 7-15 November 2008; 17=Gidean/James A. Eaton 2-3 December 2008; 18=Gidean/James A. Eaton 9-10 December 2009.

Historical scientific names used by Rippon (1896, 1897), Bingham & Thompson (1900) and Cook (1913) which differ from current taxonomy are shown in square

brackets [ ] .

H = heard only. Records marked *?’ are provisional.

FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 75-81

Breeding birds of Kothri valley,

eastern Garhwal Himalayan foothills, India

DHANANJAI MOHAN and RAMAN KUMAR

In May 2008 we carried out a bird survey in Kothri valley of Lansdowne Forest Division, Uttarakhand state, India, which lies between and

links two very well known protected areas, Corbett Tiger Reserve and Rajaji National Park. We recorded 150 species out of which 7 5 showed

confirmed and 34 probable evidence of breeding. We found evidence of extension in the westward limit of the distribution of some species

(Striped Tit Babbler Macronous gularis , Blue-winged Minla Minla cyanouroptera, Nepal Fulvetta Alcippe nipalensis, White-bellied Yuhina

Yuhina [ Erpomis ] zantholeuca) . We also found some species at their lowest known altitudinal breeding ranges (Slaty-headed Parakeet

Psittacula himalayana , Little Pied Flycatcher Ficedula westermanni, Verditer Flycatcher Eumiyas thalassina and Asian Brown Flycatcher

Muscicapa damirica). This highlights the importance of Kothri valley as an important avifaunal habitat in the western Himalayan region.

INTRODUCTION

The Western Himalayas constitute a critical priority

Endemic Bird Area (BirdLife International 2003). The

western Himalayan foothills of Uttarakhand state are

known for their diverse avifaunal assemblage. Knowledge

of the region’s bird richness mainly comes from

work done at two prominent protected areas, viz. Corbett

Tiger Reserve (CTR) in the east and Rajaji National

Park in the west, both of which are declared Important

Bird Areas (Rahmani & Islam 2004). While the bird

checklist of Corbett stands at 549 (Sharma et al. 2003),

the one for Rajaji lists 312 species of birds (Pandey et al.

1994). The area providing ecological connectivity

between these two protected areas is a stretch of forest

that is a part of Lansdowne Forest Division (Fig. 1). The

most important area within this division is the valley of

Kothri Rau (river), which flows in an approximately north-

south direction and is accessible through a forest road

which runs along the river. The avifauna of the Kothri

catchment has not been studied in detail. What little

published information there is comes from Ghosh &

Chatterjea (2006), who surveyed the birds at Saneh, the

lowest end of the valley abutting agricultural landscape in

mid-October 2003 and recorded 60 species including

many winter migrants.

STUDY AREA

Kothri catchment is situated in south-eastern Garhwal in

Uttarakhand state with altitude varying from 300 m to a

little over 1,000 m. The forests here are moist deciduous

and dominated by sal Shorea robusta. At the head of the

valley, where altitude reaches c. 1,000 m, the vegetation

has an admixture of plants from the subtropical zone with

tree species like Machilus odoratissima, Syzygium cumini

and Litsea sp. being present in large numbers. Some areas

in the lower parts of the valley have been planted with

teak Tectona grandis , an exotic to this region.

The Kothri river essentially carries the water from

monsoonal rains which are active in the area from end of

June to September. Later the river maintains a small flow

of water throughout the winter and reduces to a trickle in

summer months. The lower reaches of the river do not

even have a surface flow and water is limited to pools on the

low-lying stretches of the riverbed. The area is known to

receive a precipitation of approximately 2,000 mm annually.

Figure 1. Location of Kothri

valley, Lansdowne Forest

Division, Uttarakhand, India.

76

DHANANJAI MOHAN and RAMAN KUMAR

Forktail 26 (2010)

METHODS

A visit to the Kothri valley was made from 21 to 26 May

2008 to collect data of birds and associated vegetation in

the low-altitude forests of Uttarakhand Himalayan

foothills. This survey was carried out under the Wildlife

Institute of India-University of Chicago collaborative

project ‘Bird species numbers and densities in East and

West Himalayas’ (2007-201 1). Kothri valley formed one

of the many survey sites across the length of the Himalayas

from Overa Sanctuary in Jammu and Kashmir in the west

to Eaglenest Sanctuary in Arunachal Pradesh in the east.

During the structured intensive data collection on the

breeding birds of the study area of Kothri valley important

observations were made at two locations, Kolhu Chaur in

the lower part of Kothri valley (c.430 m) and Nauri near

the head of the valley (c.860 m). In addition to these

efforts, opportunistic records of birds encountered

elsewhere in the valley, e.g. while approaching the intensive

study locations or moving between them, or to other parts

of the valley (e.g. Chaukhamb, c.600 m), were also noted.

A special effort was made to record breeding-related

activities of the birds encountered.

RESULTS

A total of 150 species of birds were observed during our

survey of the Kothri valley. A large number of these were

seen engaged in breeding-related activities. A list of birds

seen during the survey along with observed breeding-

related activity is annexed as Appendix. The most

significant records are described below.

Westzvard range extensions

Striped Tit Babbler Macronous gularis

A single bird was observed in the dense shrubs in front of

the Kolhu Chaur Forest rest house. It was making the

typical call and moving about in the shrubbery. The

sighting seems to be the westernmost sighting of the bird.

It has not been recorded from Corbett Tiger Reserve

lying to the east of the surveyed area and has been known

only from eastern Uttarakhand eastwards (Rasmussen &

Anderton 2005).

Blue-winged Minla Minla cyanouroptera

Respectively, 5, 2 and 4 birds were seen in Nauri area

(c.900 m) on three consecutive days. The bird has been

recorded regularly from CTR but perhaps the present

records are the westernmost for its distribution. Eastern

Uttarakhand has been indicated as the westernmost limit

of its distribution in literature (Rasmussen & Anderton

2005) . Ali & Ripley (1983) mention that the species mostly

breeds above 1,500 m in Nepal, which makes the present

sighting the lowest known (presumed breeding) altitude

in the western part of its distribution.

Nepal Fulvetta Alcippe nipalensis

A pair was seen near Nauri. The birds were seen following

each other, indicative of breeding. The species has not

been recorded from CTR. However, there is a single

record in 1991 (Sunderraj & Joshua 1997) from

Guwalgarh Sot, Lansdowne Forest Division, close to

Kothri valley, which led to the westward range extension.

The other sightings of the species in Uttarakhand come

from eastern Kumaon (from Kumen chak, Chuka, Sharda

valley, Champawat: DM pers. obs. 2005) and from Sat

TalnearNainital (A. Vermapers. obs. 2008). Rasmussen

& Anderton (2005) indicate western Nepal as its western

limit of distribution. The present sighting confirms the

range extension for this bird to areas west of CTR into

eastern Garhwal.

White-bellied Yuhina Yuhina [ Erpomis ] zantholeuca

A pair was observed on two consecutive mornings at Nauri.

This species has been recorded at CTR but west of this

there is no record in literature we have seen.

Altitudinal breeding range extensions

Slaty-headed Parakeet Psittacula himalayana

We sighted one bird feeding its young in a cavity nest at

Nauri at c.900 m. Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) indicate

1,200 m as its lower breeding limit. Thus the present

sighting is perhaps one of the lowest altitude breeding

records for the species.

Little Pied Flycatcher Ficedula westermanni

Several pairs observed in Nauri at c.900 m and along the

Kolhu Chaur-Nauri road near Dhimki (c.450 m), singing

profusely, and indicating that the species is very likely to

be breeding. This is perhaps the lowest breeding altitude

for the species since Rasmussen & Anderton (2005)

indicate 1,200 m as its lower breeding limit.

Verditer Flycatcher Eumyias thalassina

At least one pair was observed with the male singing

continuously at Nauri. The bird has been known to breed

only above 1,200 m in Himalayas (Rasmussen & Anderton

2005) but Spierenburg (2005) gives 600 m as regular and

400 m occasional breeding altitude in Bhutan. However,

the present sighting is the lowest breeding record for

western Himalayas.

Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica

A bird was seen carrying nesting material on two

consecutive mornings at c.850 m at Nauri. The bird has

been known to breed only above 1 ,200 m in the Himalayas

(Rasmussen & Anderton 2005). Ours therefore appears

to be the lowest breeding record for the species.

Other significant records

Great Slaty Woodpecker Mulleripicus pulverulentus

A pair and a flock of 1 0 birds were seen near Kolhu Chaur

in the lower part of the valley. It is a rare bird of the region.

In recent times it has regularly been seen only in the

Chilla (eastern) part of Rajaji National Park (A. Harihar

pers. comm. 2006) and a sighting has also been made at

Thano reserve forest in Dehradun valley (pers. obs. 2008).

Another sighting in the past was reported from eastern

Himachal Pradesh (Jones 1919), perhaps the only one

west of Uttarakhand.

Dollarbird Eurystomus orientalis

A pair was observed in the Nauri area making flights

together probably as a breeding display. There have been

isolated records of this bird from Dehradun valley further

west (Mohan 1997).

Blue-bearded Bee-eater Nyctyomis athertoni

One pair was observed at a nest hole in a road cutting at

Forktail 26 (2010)

Breeding birds of Kothri valley, India

77

Nauri. Both adults were seen to visit the nest repeatedly,

bringing food for at least one chick.

Long-tailed Broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae

A single bird was observed in the riverine patch at Nauri.

The species, although reported from the west up to the

Dehradun valley, is rare in the region (Singh 2000).

Common Green Magpie Cissa chinensis

Except for a very old record from Dehradun valley

(Osmaston 1935) and an isolated record from an area

close to the present study site abutting eastern Rajaji

National Park (Pandey et al. 1 994), no records are known

west of Kothri catchment. A pair and three birds,

respectively, were observed on two-consecutive mornings

at Nauri.

Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus

A few pairs were sighted in the Kothri valley including a

nesting one at Nauri. The nest was about 2 m high nicely

woven on a horizontal fork in dense semi-evergreen

vegetation. Both the male and the female were taking

turns at incubation. Further west the bird is known from

isolated sightings in Dehradun valley (Mohan 2007) in

west Uttarakhand.

DISCUSSION

Seventy-five of the 1 50 species observed by us during this

survey showed confirmed breeding, with an additional 34

probably breeding. Of greater interest is the fact that we

found evidence that species like Slaty-headed Parakeet,

Little Pied Flycatcher and Verditer Flycatcher are using

the Kothri catchment for breeding, which is perhaps the

lowest altitude observed. Notably, several others (e.g.

Striped Tit Babbler, White bellied Yuhina, Blue-winged

Minla and Nepal Fulvetta) were observed here which

indicate a westward extension of the known ranges.

Another interesting aspect of the avifauna was the

turnover of species. In the Kothri valley the intensively

surveyed areas (Kolhu Chaur and Nauri) were only

c. 10 km apart with altitudes ranging from 400 m to 900 m.

Despite this, of the 6 1 species recorded at the higher site

at Nauri (including confirmed and probable breeders as

well as transients recorded within a 5 ha intensive survey

plot) 36 were not seen on the similar-sized plot at Kolhu

Chaur. Similarly, of the 49 birds species seen at the Kolhu

Chaur plot 24 were not seen at the higher one.

Kothri valley therefore is an important refuge for

avifauna, even though the forests here are not under the

formal protected area network of India. This valley, while

limited in extent, harbours a remarkable diversity of birds.

Perhaps it is not merely altitude that limits the range of

a species and birds may suitably breed at lower altitudes

provided there is habitat continuity. The fact that the

Kothri valley is oriented in a north-south direction may

also explain this anomalous breeding pattern. Our study

was conducted in the breeding season and we recorded

1 50 species. This figure is likely to magnify further during

winter with the arrival of many migrant species. This

underscores the importance of Kothri valley as habitat

for the avifauna in the western Himalayan foothills region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Director and Dean, Wildlife Institute of India for

support and encouragement. Thanks are also due to Dr Trevor D.

Price, our collaborator in the project, for help and funding. We are

indebted to the Chief Wildlife Warden, Uttarakhand, for permitting us

to work on the project and to Divisional Forest Officer, Lansdowne, for

extending field support to us during the survey. We are also very grateful

to two anonymous referees.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1983) Compact handbook of birds of India and

Pakistan. Bombay, Oxford University Press.

BirdLife International (2003) BirdLife’s online World Bird Database:

the site for bird conservation. Version 2.0. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife

International. Available: http://www.birdlife.org (accessed 31/3/

2009)

Ghosh, S. & Chatterjea, N. N. (2006) Of birds and places. Indian Birds

2(6): 159-161.

Jones, A. E. (1919) A list of birds found in the Simla hills, 1908-1918.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 601-620.

Mohan, D. (1997) Birds of New Forest, Dehradun, India. Forktail

12:19-30.

Mohan, D. (2007) Habitat selection of birds in New forest, Dehradun,

India. Ph.D. thesis. Forest Research Institute University, Dehradun.

Pandey, S., Joshua, J., Rai, N. D., Mohan, D., Rawat, G. S., Sankar,

K. , Katti, M. V., Khati, D. V. S. & Johnsingh A. J. T. (1994) Birds

of Rajaji National Park, India. Forktail 10: 105-114.

Rahmani, A. R. & Islam, M. Z. eds. (2004) Important Bird Areas in

India: priority sites for conservation. Oxford University Press and

Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai.

Rasmussen, P. C. & Anderton, J. C. (2005) Birds of South Asia: the

Ripley guide. Vols. 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx

Edicions, Washington, D.C. and Barcelona.

Sharma, M., Harvey, B., Devasar, N. & Grewal, B. (2003) A checklist

of birds of Corbett Tiger Reserve. Field Director, Corbett Tiger

Reserve, Ramnagar, India.

Singh, A.P. (2000) Birds of Lower Garhwal Himalayas: Dehradun

valley and neighbouring hills. Forktail 16: 101-123.

Spierenburg, P. (2005) Birds in Bhutan: status and distribution. Oriental

Bird Club, Bedford, UK.

Sunderraj, S. F. W. & Joshua, J. (1997) Range extension of the Nepal

babbler (Alcippe nipalensis). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 159.

Dhananjai Mohan, Professor, Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun, India 248001. Email:

dmohan@wii.gov. in

Raman Kumar, 36 Curzon Road, Dehradun, India 248001. Email: cyomis@gmail.com

78

DHANANJAI MOHAN and RAMAN KUMAR

Forktail 26 (2010)

APPENDIX

Birds recorded in the Kothri catchment, Lansdowne Forest Division, Garhwal Himalayan

foothills, 21-26 May 2008

Forktail 26 (2010)

Breeding birds of Kothri valley, India

79

80

DHANANJAI MOHAN and RAMAN KUMAR

Forktail 26 (2010)

Forktail 26 (2010)

Breeding birds of Kothri valley, India

81

Location key

Code

K

C

D

N

Place name Elevation surveyed

Kolhu Chaur 400-460 m

Chaukhamb 600 m

Dhimki 450 m

Nauri 750-920 m

FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 82-85

Breeding behaviour and nest tree use by

Indian Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris in the

Eastern Ghats, India

E. SANTHOSHKUMAR and P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

The breeding ecology of Indian Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris was studied during 2007 and 2008 in Sathyamangalam Forest Division,

Eastern Ghats, India . In the breeding season, 32 active nests of Indian Grey Hornbill were recorded. Nesting started early in March and

ended in late June. The nesting period averaged 87 days, with the female sealed in the nest cavity for an average of 76 days and the nestlings

fledging an average of 13 days after the female emerged. Nest-sealing materials used include the hornbill’ s own faeces, mud, cattle dung

and tree bark. An average of two fledglings from each nest was recorded. Two of the 32 active nests were predated, a nesting success of

94%. Six tree species belonging to five families were used for nesting; the majority (44%) of nests were in Melia dubia (Meliaceae) making

it the most preferred nest-tree species (Ivlev’s selectivity index PI = 0.27). The nest tree dimensions (tree girth at breast height 3±1 m,

tree height 23±7 m, nest height 14±7 m, girth at nest height 2±0 m) indicate the average requirements of Indian Grey Hornbill for a

suitable nest site. All nests were located in the riverine habitat and hence protection of riverian habitat is emphasised.

INTRODUCTION

Hornbills Bucerotidae are one of the most recognisable

groups of birds in the Old World tropics. There are 54

species of hornbills in the world (Kemp 1995) and nine

species occur in India (Ali & Ripley 1987). The Indian

Grey Hornbill Ocyceros birostris , also known as Common

Grey Hornbill, is reported to occur in India, Pakistan and

Nepal (Ali & Ripley 1987). In India it is distributed

throughout the country, excepting for Malabar, parts of

Rajasthan and Assam (Ali 2002). In southern India, this

species is reported to occur in the dry deciduous tracts of

the Eastern Ghats and foothill forests of the Western

Ghats (Balasubramanian et al. 2005). Hornbills are

secondary cavity nesters, using natural cavities or those

excavated by other birds (Kemp 1995). The breeding

habits of hornbills are unique in that the female of most

species seals herself into a nest cavity and leaves only a

narrow slit through which the male passes her food until

the nesting period is completed (Kemp 2001). Hornbills

often show high nest-site fidelity, returning to the same

nest cavity year after year (Kemp 1978). Patil etal. (1997)

provided some information on the nesting of Indian Grey

Hornbill, but a review of literature reveals the absence of

detailed studies on breeding ecology. The present study

was undertaken to assess the breeding behaviour and nest

tree preference of Indian Grey Hornbill in a forested

landscape in the Eastern Ghats.

STUDY AREA AND METHODS

The present study was conducted during the two

successive breeding seasons of March to May in 2007 and

2008, in the Hasanur range (940 m asl) of

Sathyamangalam Forest Division (10°29'-1 1°43'N

76°5 T-77°27'E), Eastern Ghats, India. The Eastern

Ghats forms an important habitat for diverse biota across

the east coast of India to traverse the states of Orissa,

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of Karnataka,

areas located within 11°30'-22°N and 76°50/-86°30'E

along a north-east to south-west strike and covering a

total area of c. 75, 000 km2 (Murthy et al. 1982). The

climate regime is tropical monsoon, with an average annual

rainfall of 1,000-1,600 mm and mean temperatures of

20-25°C during winter and 30-32°C in summer.

Vegetation in the study area varies considerably with

altitude, but dry deciduous and riverine forests

predominate at the study site.

As hornbills depend on tree cavities for nesting, an

intensive search for nest cavities was carried out during

breeding season. Cavities of trees being actively used by

hornbills are identified by following breeding pairs of

hornbills or breeding males carrying food to the nest, as

well as by examining midden deposits of seeds below the

nest cavity. Out of a total of 32 active nests located in two

years, 1 0 were selected for monitoring the activities of the

hornbills at the respective nests from 06h00 to 18h00,

giving a total of 720 hours (7 2 hours per nest) spent at the

nest sites. Details such as number of visits made by the

male and quantity of food items delivered per visit were

also recorded from an observation hide situated 1 0-20 m

away from the nest, using a pair of 10x50 binoculars. The

food items delivered were classified as vegetable or animal

food. Seeds from 1 0 middens below other nests were also

collected at regular intervals to identify food items

delivered to the nest inmates and for use in further studies.

Tree species harbouring the nests were identified by using

the local floras and later confirmed at the Botanical Survey

of India, Coimbatore, India. Nest tree features, such as

tree girth at breast height, tree height, nest height and

girth at nest height, were recorded for all the identified

nests.

A preference index (PI) of the nest trees used by Indian

Grey Hornbill was calculated using Ivlev’s Index of

Selectivity (Ivlev 1961) (PI = U-A/U+A, where U denotes

utilisation of the species and A denotes availability of

corresponding species). Values of PI range between -1

and + 1 , where - 1 indicates avoidance while + 1 indicates

highest preference. Availability of the tree species was

determined within a 1 ha belt transect (10x1,000 m)

(used as an alternative for a 1 ha square plot) . Availability

denotes the number of individuals of a species occurring

in the 1 ha plot. To find out the availability of nest tree

species, the belt transect was located along the riverine

habitat of the study area. The 1 ha belt transect was divided

into 100 (10x10 m) plots. All the trees within the belt

transect with girth at breast height (gbh) more than 20 cm

Forktail 26 (2010) Breeding behaviour and nest tree use by Indian Grey Hornbill in India

83

were recorded. Utilisation indicates the number of

individuals of nest tree species used by the hornbills.

RESULTS

Nesting behaviour

The nesting season lasted for three months, from March

to June. The hornbills started to prepare themselves for

breeding in early December, when such pre-nesting

behaviour as nest-cavity searching, mating and courtship

feeding were recorded. Both male and female hornbills

were noticed peeping into tree cavities, one after the other,

and this was often noted and continued until the female

entering into the nest cavity. The male hornbill feeding

the female hornbill with food items was recorded, where

the female sat near the nest cavity or perched in some

tree, giving loud calls until the male arrived and offered

her some food items, and this was also recorded in a

fruiting tree. Other rare observations made at the nest

tree included the male and female flying some 30 m down

to the ground, holding tightly onto each other’s bill and

with a loud clapping sound of their wings. Mating

behaviour involving three different pairs of hornbills was

observed during the study. In all the cases mating took

place while perching on the nest tree, and it happened

before the female entered the cavity. Once we recorded

a female peeping into a cavity, from where the male pushed

her back with his bill, until finally she struggled, entered

the cavity, peeped out and then the male offered her some

fruits and perched on the next branch. The female stayed

in the cavity for 20 minutes (17hl5-17h35) and then,

with a loud call, came out and joined the male. The next

morning, the female occupied the nest and the male fed

her with fruits. In the study area, females entered their

cavity in the first week of March and some late nests were

also recorded in April. As soon as the female entered the

cavity she started cleaning the nest, and we observed her

throwing out all the waste materials left in by the previous

user. Later, the female in the cavity was observed to toss

out the excreta of the chicks with her beak through the

nest slit, and herself to turn around and eject her own

excreta through the slit to form part of the nest midden.

The very next day, the female started sealing the cavity

entrance with her bill using mud, cattle dung and dry tree

bark delivered by the male, and her own fecal matter.

For the observed 10 nests of Indian Grey Hornbill,

the nesting period averaged 87 days. Begging calls of the

nestlings were heard on an average of 40 days after the

female entered the cavity. Clutch size could not be

recorded. The female emerged on average 76 days after

sealing in and the nestlings fledged an average of 1 3 days

after the female emerged. Two fledglings from each nest

were recorded; the newly Hedged chicks were smaller in

size than the adults, with fresh plumage and undeveloped

casques. After their emergence, we observed the chicks

making calls and sitting in the top branches of the nest

tree or in the neighbouring tree with the adult female, in

six of the observed nests. The male brought fruits and fed

these to the chicks but after a few minutes both adults left

to forage and returned with fruits that they delivered to

the chicks, and then the chicks flew from one branch to

other in the same tree. The next day we observed the

chicks in the nearest fruiting tree of the nest tree, trying

to forage for themselves on the fruits and flying from tree

to tree. The adults fed the chicks for more than a week,

but later they started to feed themselves and flew long

distances following their parents.

During the 720 hours spent at 1 0 nests to monitor the

nesting behaviour over two breeding seasons, males visited

the nests 1,015 times to feed the nest inmates, an average

of 17 times per day. At a later stage, after the emergence

of the female from the nest cavity, she joined the male to

feed the chicks in the cavities. We recorded the male

feeding the nest inmates from just before sunrise at 05h45

until after sunset at 1 8h07 . We grouped the observations

into four quarters, 06h00-09h00, 09h0 1- 1 2h00, 1 2h0 1

15h00 and 15h01-18h00. Of the total 1,015 visits made

by males to the nest, in the first quarter males visited 374

times (37%), 206 times (20%) in the second, 183 times

(18%) in the third and 252 times (25%) in the fourth.

The number of visits was highest in first quarter (37%)

followed by the fourth quarter (25%), at the start and end

of the day. Food items like fruits and insects were

regurgitated, brought to the tip of the bill and then

delivered, whereas animal items like lizards were carried

in the bill and delivered directly.

A total of 13,680 food items was delivered to the nest

inmates at the 1 0 focal nests. The food items delivered to

the nest inmates included both vegetable (64%) and

animal (36%) matter. Vegetable matter delivered

comprised fruits of 26 plant species belonging to 1 6 plant

families, among which 14 species were identified while

monitoring the nests for fruit deliveries by the male and

1 2 species from the middens of other nests. Animal matter

delivered included lizards, birds’ eggs, juvenile birds and

various kinds of insect.

Indian Grey Hornbills compete among themselves

for nest cavities and we observed a pair chasing another

pair during nest searching. The other nest competitors in

the study area were Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula

krameri, Golden-backed Woodpecker Dinopiumjavaiieuse,

Common Myna Acridotheres tristis, Jungle Myna

Acridotheres fuscus and Indian Palm Squirrel Funambulus

palmarum. All these species were noted to disturb hornbills

during their nest searching and also while the female was

inside the nest cavity. Nests of Rose-ringed Parakeet,

Common Myna and Golden-backed Woodpecker were

recorded in different cavities of the same nesting tree

used by Indian Grey Hornbill. All the nest cavities were

found to be occupied later by the competitors after the

hornbills had bred. In addition, Large Brown Flying

Squirrel Petaurista philippensis and honeybees Apis sp.

were recorded in two cavities each, after the use by Indian

Grey Hornbill.

Two of the 32 nests were predated during the early

stages, after egg laying, with both eggs and incarcerated

female being taken, but the predator was not known. In

both the cases, feathers of the female, eggshells and broken

sealing material were found in the middens. Thirty of the

32 nests were successful.

Nest tree features

All 32 active nests identified were in live trees. All nest

trees were in stream/riverine habitats. The majority of the

nests were in Melia dubia (14) followed by Syzygium cumini

(9), Albizia odoratissima (5), Mangifera indica (2),

Terminalia arjuna (1) and Terminalia bellirica (1). Ivlev’s

selectivity index indicated that the most preferred nest

tree species was Melia dubia (PI = 0.27) (Table 1).

84

E. SANTHOSHKUMAR and P. BALASUBRAMANIAN

Forktail 26 (2010)

Table 1. Preference index of the nest trees utilised by Indian Grey Hornbill.

T able 2 . Characteristics of the nest trees and cavities utilised by Indian

Grey Hornbill.

The number of nest trees used in the first year was

nine involving three tree species (. Melia dubia, Syzygium

cumini and Albizia odoratissima), and in the second year

23 involving six tree species (three as in the first year plus

Mangifera indica, Terminalia arjuna and T. bellirica). In

total, 32 nests of six tree species belonging to five families

were used for nesting. The majority (44%) of nests were

in Melia dubia (Meliaceae). Re-use of nest cavities was

observed in the second year (Table 1). Of the nine nests

recorded in the first year, seven were re-used in the second

year. The nest site characteristics were recorded for all

identified nests and are presented in Table 2.

DISCUSSION

The hornbill family is characterised by an incubation

period closely correlated with body size and by an

unusually long nestling stage (Kemp 1995). During this

study, the nesting period of Indian Grey Hornbill lasted

for an average of 87 days, very close to the 86 days for the

congeneric Malabar Grey Hornbill O. griseus (Mudappa

2000). Indian Grey Hornbills in the study area only used

cavities in the live trees, similar to the observations by

Mudappa & Kannan (1997) for Malabar Grey Hornbill

and Datta & Rawat (2004) for Great Hornbill Buceros

bicomis. Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus and Oriental

Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris. Maheswaran &

Balasubramanian (2003) reported that 80% of the nest

trees used by Malabar Grey Hornbills in the Western

Ghats, India, were live. Re-use of nest cavities by Indian

Grey Hornbill is reported in this study, and this conforms

to earlier studies on Malabar Grey Hornbill in the W estern

Ghats by Mudappa & Kannan (1997), Mudappa (2000)

and Maheswaran & Balasubramanian (2003).

Nest sanitation observed during the present study was

similar to the reports made by Kannan & James (1997)

and Hussain (1984) for Great Hornbill and Narcondam

Hornbill Aceros narcondami respectively. Courtship

feeding and grappling of bills with clapping wings observed

in the present study are similar to observations of Kannan

& James (1997) for Great Hornbill.

In the study area, Indian Grey Hornbills used tall

trees (mean 2±7 m) with large girth (mean 3±1 m) for

nesting. Hornbills using tall trees with large girths were

also reported in various other studies. Mudappa & Kannan

(1997) reported Malabar Grey Hornbill nests at an average

height of 24 m and the diameter at breast height as 60-

89 cm. Maheswaran & Balasubramanian (2003) reported

a mean tree height of 36±6 m and 283± 101 cm width for

Malabar Grey Hornbills. Kinnaird & O’Brien (1999)

reported a mean height 40±10 (m) and a mean width

1 1 7±4 1 cm in diameter for nest trees of Sulawesi Red-

knobbed Hornbill Aceros cassidix.

Poaching of Indian Grey Hornbills was not recorded

during the study. Cattle grazing and lopping of branches

of hornbill food plants for feeding livestock is the major

problem of the study area. Extension of agricultural

activities in the riverine forests disturbs breeding sites. As

all hornbill nests were located in trees that are tall, with

a large girth and in riverine habitat, protection and

conservation of nest trees and the lowland riverine habitat

in the Eastern Ghats is recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper forms an offshoot of a research project on Ecology of

Indian Grey Hornbill, sanctioned to Dr. P. Balasubramanian of the

Salim All Centre for Ornithology and Natural History by the

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. Director,

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History encouraged

us. We thank the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Tamil

Nadu Forest Department, for granting permission to work in

the forests. We are grateful to Mr. S. Ramasubramanian, Divisional

Forest Officer, Sathyamangalam Forest Division, for support in

the field.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & Ripley, S. D. (1 987) Compact handbook of the birds of India and

Pakistan. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Ali,S. (2002) The book of Indian birds. Thirteenth edition. Delhi: Oxford

University Press.

Forktail 26 (2010) Breeding behaviour and nest tree use by Indian Grey Hornbill in India

85

Balasubramanian, P., Ravi, R., Venkitachalam, R., Maheswaran, B.,

Krishnakumar, N., Vijayan, V. S. & Prasad, S. N. (2005)

Status and conservation of the hornbills in southern India.

Pp. 143-153 in A. C. Kemp & M. I. Kemp, eds. The active

management of hornbills and their habitats for conservation. CD-ROM

Proceedings of the 4th International Hornbill Conference, Mabula

Game Lodge, Bela-Bela, South Africa. Naturalists & Nomads,

Pretoria.

Datta, A. & Rawat, R. G. (2004) Nest-site selection and success of

three hornbill species in Arunachal Pradesh, north-east India: Great

Hornbill Buceros bicomis, Wreathed Hornbill Aceros undulatus and

Oriental Pied Hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris. Bird Conserv.

Intematn. 14: S39-S52.

Hussain, S. A. (1984) Some aspects of the biology and ecology of

Narcondam Hornbill ( Rhyticeros narcondami) .J. Bombay. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 81: 1-18.

Ivlev, V. S. (1961) Experimental ecology of the feeding fishes. NewHaven,

CN: Yale University Press.

Kannan, R. & James, D.A. (1997) Breeding biology of Great Pied

Hornbill ( Buceros bicomis) in the Western Ghats of South India. J.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 451-465.

Kemp, A. C. (1978) A review of the hornbills: biology and radiation.

Living Bird 17: 105-136.

Kemp, A. C. (1995) The hornbills. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kemp. A.C. (2001) Family Bucerotidae (hornbills). Pp. 436- 523 in J.

del Hoyo, A. Elliott & J. Sargatal, eds. Handbook of the birds of the

world, 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions.

Kinnaird, M. F. & O’Brien, T. (1999) Breeding ecology of Sulawesi

Red-knobbed Hornbill Aceros cassidix. Ibis 141: 60-69.

Maheswaran, B. & Balasubramanian, P. (2003) Nest tree utilization by

the Malabar Grey Hornbill Ocyceros griseus in the semi-evergreen

forest of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (S. India). Acta

Omithologica 38: 33-37.

Mudappa, D. & Kannan, R. ( 1 997) Nest-site characteristics and nesting

success of the Malabar Grey Hornbill in the southern Western

Ghats, India. Wilson Bull. 109: 102-1 1 1.

Mudappa, D. (2000) Breeding biology of the Malabar Grey Hornbill

( Ocyceros griseus) in southern Western Ghats, India. J. Bombay.

Nat. Hist. Soc. 97: 15-24.

Murthy, R. S., Pofali, R. M., Sitaram R & Swaminathan, M. (1982)

Environs of Eastern Ghats — their problems, potentials and priorities

for development. Pp.39- 1 43 in Proc. National Seminar on Resources,

Development and Environment of Eastern Ghats. Waltair.

Patil, N., Chaturvedi, N. & Hegde, V. (1997) Food of Common Grey

Hornbill Tockus birostris (Scopoli). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94:

408-411.

E. Santhoshkumar and P. Balasubramanian , Division of Landscape Ecology, Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History, Anaikatty Post, Coimbatore 641 108, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: balusacon@yahoo.com

FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 86-91

Biological species limits in the Banded Pitta

Pitta guajana

FRANK E. RHEINDT and JAMES A. EATON

The Banded Pitta Pitta guajana is widely distributed over the Greater Sunda Islands and Thai-Malay Peninsula. Up to six races have been

described, but only three of them are distinct and were formerly considered different species: guajana from Java and Bali, schwaneri from

Borneo, and irena from Sumatra and Thai-Malay Peninsula. We here revisit the species status of these three forms with morphometric,

plumage and vocal data. We demonstrate pronounced differences in body part measurements and sex-specific coloration amongst all

three taxa. Our bioacoustic comparisons also indicate differences in frequency and timing of the two main types of vocalisation among

taxa, although further sampling needs to corroborate these findings. We further show that plumage differences — and probably also vocal

differences — among Banded Pitta taxa are more pronounced than between sister species in three other Pitta complexes. We argue that

the three Banded Pitta taxa should be classified as parapatric rather than allopatric, based on their frequent and ongoing contact during

glacials when sea-levels drop to create land connections across their Sundaic range. Based on comparisons with other parapatric Pitta

species, biological species status is recommended for the three Banded Pitta taxa. Ecological and habitat differences in the three Banded

Pittas probably evolved to reduce disadvantageous hybridisation during extensive glacial periods of contact.

INTRODUCTION

The Banded Pitta Pitta guajana is a Sundaic forest species

occurring over a wide area from the Thai-Malay Peninsula

through Sumatra, Borneo, Java and a number of offshore

islands to Bali (Lambert & Woodcock 1996, Erritzoe

2003). A total of six subspecies have been proposed:

nominate guajana from east Java and Bali; af finis from

west Java; schwaneri from Borneo; irena from Sumatra

and peninsular Malaysia; bangkae from Bangka Island;

and ripleyi from peninsular Thailand.

Three of these six subspecies are not universally

recognised. The race bangkae is widely assumed to be

based on a mislabelled specimen from Java (van Marie &

Voous 1988). Similarly, affinis is considered to be generally

indistinguishable from nominate guajana in the most

recent accounts (e.g. Erritzoe 2003) . A third taxon, ripleyi ,

is recognised as a weak subspecies by Erritzoe (2003), but

was previously synonymised with irena from peninsular

Malaysia by Lambert & Woodcock (1996) based on their

examination of a series of specimens in the Natural History

Museum, Tring (henceforth BMNH). In their

synonymisation of ripleyi, Lambert & Woodcock (2003)

conceded that ‘...there is a tendency for birds from

peninsular Thailand to have more orange-red in the

supercilium than birds from Sumatra...’. However, they

found considerable geographic variation across ripleyi and

irena in the features used by Deignan in describing ripleyi,

such as the distribution of scarlet in the supercilium, the

colour of the central abdomen in males and the mantle

coloration. Our own examination of these traits in a range

of BMNH specimens of both ripleyi and irena has only

shown potential weak geographical trends in some

plumage characters (data not shown) , but none that would

definitively separate them. Therefore, we support Lambert

& Woodcock’s (2003) synonymisation of ripleyi. Since

the three weak subspecies bangkae, affinis and ripleyi are

now widely synonymised under guajana and irena,

respectively, they are not further considered in this

contribution.

The three remaining taxa that make up the Banded

Pitta are very distinct, to the point that they were each

originally described as separate species and continued to

be treated as such until the late 1930s (Riley 1938). The

taxa schwaneri from Borneo, guajana (including affinis )

from Java and Bali as well as irena (including ripleyi) from

Thai-Malay Peninsula and Sumatra are known to differ

considerably in coloration, while vocal differences have

been reported anecdotally but remain unanalysed. The

two most recent treatises of the genus have both

acknowledged that further analysis may demonstrate that

the three taxon groups within P. guajana may need to be

elevated to species rank (Lambert & Woodcock 1996,

Erritzoe 2003).

To shed light on the taxonomic status of the three

widely recognised subspecies of Banded Pitta, we

examined the series of P. guajana housed at BMNH. We

carried out plumage examinations on subsets of the

BMNH series. We also measured various body parts in

the same BMNH subsets and present the first statistical

comparison of mensural data in Banded Pittas.

Furthermore, we collected sound recordings of wild

Banded Pittas from throughout their range over the years,

and complement this collection with recordings from

colleagues. We use this material to investigate the

taxonomic classification of the taxa that are currently

recognised as members of P. guajana.

METHODS

Any taxonomic analysis must be based on a species concept

that provides the criteria for assigning species or subspecies

rank. We here use Mayr’s (1996) multi-dimensional

Biological Species Concept (BSC), which is the most

widely followed species concept in ornithology. Biological

species rank is accorded to life forms that maintain their

taxonomic integrity while in sympatry or parapatry with

similar life forms, i.e. the gene pool of a species does not

fuse with that of a neighbouring species when the two

come into regional contact. Note that the BSC allows for

a certain level of hybridisation as long as it is marginal and

does not lead to the amalgamation of gene pools of the

two taxa in question. BSC rank assignment becomes

harder in taxa that do not overlap or abut geographically.

In these cases, the BSC has to resort to the yardstick

approach (e.g. Mayr & Ashlock 1991, Helbig et al. 2002),

under which two taxa are assessed as discrete species if

Forktail 26 (2010)

Biological species limits in the Banded Pitta

87

their plumages, vocalisations and/or other characters are

at least as different from each other as they are between

two unequivocal species of the same genus or family.

We examined various subsets of the BMNH series of

P. guajana. Only recognisably adult individuals were

considered. Measurements of tarsus and upper mandible

(as measured from the bill-tip to the point where the

upper mandible meets the forehead) were taken with a

calliper to the nearest tenth of a millimetre, while wing

measurements were taken with a ruler to the nearest

millimetre by the same person (FER) to preclude observer

bias. Statistical differences between measurements were

calculated using a two-tailed Mann Whitney U test as

implemented in the program Word Excel. Plumage

coloration of birds at BMNH was assessed against natural

light. JAE took photos of BMNH specimens using a Sony

DSC W90. Sound recordings of birds in the wild were

made by JAE using a Sennheiser ME66 and Sony HiMd

minidisc. These recordings and additional ones from

colleagues and from www.xeno-canto.org (see

Acknowledgements) were analysed with respect to various

frequency parameters (lowest frequency and two different

measures of frequency range) as well as call duration. For

all sampled vocalisations, analyses were conducted and

sonograms were generated using default settings in the

program Syrinx Version 2. 6h (by John Burt, downloadable

atwww.syrinxpc.com). For some recordings, the darkness

level of sonogram depiction was adjusted to resemble the

other recordings to prevent a measuring bias in call

duration based on different levels of loudness in the original

recordings.

RESULTS

Morphometries

Table 1 provides sample sizes and mean measurements

of tarsus, upper mandible and wing length for the

examined BMNH subset of specimens from all three taxa.

Since the size of sexes within each taxon did not differ

significantly in any of the three characters, we pooled

male and female measurements for the comparison

amongst taxa. P. g. guajana from Java and Bali is

significantly larger in all three characters (tarsus, upper

mandible and wing length) than the remaining taxa (T able

1 ) . There are no significant differences between schwaneri

and irena in these measurements.

Our measurements generally fall within the ranges of

the same characters given by Lambert & Woodcock

( 1 996), who also worked on the BMNH series. The only

exception relates to the bill measurements, which are

considerably larger in Lambert & Woodcock (1996) for

all taxa because of the different way these authors

measured this parameter (i.e. to the base of the gape

rather than to the upper base of the upper mandible).

However, in agreement with our data, Lambert &

Woodcock’s (1996) bill measurements are also generally

smaller for P. g. schwaneri and P. g. irena than for the

nominate. Unfortunately, the latter authors’ data are not

directly comparable with ours as no exact sample sizes,

means and standard deviations are given.

The inter-taxon size differences in our measurements

are in good agreement with weight data provided for the

three taxa by Lambert & Woodcock (1996). The weight

Table 1. Taxon-specific mean measurements of tarsus, upper mandible and wing (including sample size and standard deviation); p-values of

differences between sexes or taxa refer to two-tailed Mann-Whitney U test; significant p-values are printed bold. The taxa P. g. guajana and P.

g. irena as here defined include samples of the proposed taxa ajfinis and npleyi, respectively.

88

FRANK E. RHEINDT and JAMES A. EATON

Forktail 26 (2010)

Plate 1. Banded Pitta males (lateral view):

left to right, P. g. schzvaneri, P. g. guajana and

P. g. irena. Copyright Natural History

Museum, Tring.

Plate 2. Banded Pitta males (ventral view):

left to right, P. g. schzvaneri, P. g. guajana and

P. g. irena. Copyright Natural History

Museum, Tring.

Plate 3. Banded Pitta females (lateral view):

left to right, P. g. schzvaneri, P. g. guajana and

P. g. irena. Copyright Natural History

Museum, Tring.

Plate 4. Banded Pitta females (ventral view):

left to right, P. g. schzvaneri, P. g. guajana and

P. g. irena. Copyright Natural History

Museum, Tring.

Plate 5. Banded Pitta females (dorsal view):

left to right, P. g. schzvaneri, P. g. guajana and

P. g. irena. Copyright Natural History

Museum, Tring.

Table 2. Plumage features in males and females of all three taxa.

Forktail 26 (2010)

Biological species limits in the Banded Pitta

89

range given for guajana (93-106 g) is above that of

schwaneri (60-80 g) and irena (75-97 g), even though

there seems to be a slight overlap between guajana and

irena (Lambert & Woodcock 1996). In contrast, the range

of tail lengths given for guajana (which includes

Lambert & Woodcock’s affinis ) are 62.8-71.5 mm, only

slightly — and probably not significantly — higher than that

given for schwaneri (59-70 mm) or irena (59-71 mm).

Unfortunately, statistical significance of differences

cannot be inferred from Lambert & Woodcock’s (1996)

data. Nevertheless, the weights add to the conclusion

that P. g. guajana is a much more massive bird than the

Banded Pittas from Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay

Peninsula.

Plumage

We closely examined a total of 5 7 specimens, with a break¬

down as follows: P. g. guajana, eight males and five females;

P. g. irena , 1 4 males and 1 5 females; P. g. schwaneri, seven

males and seven females. Table 2 shows the plumage

differences we detected between males and females and

among all three taxa. Plumage differences given in Table

2 were diagnosed in all individuals examined, unless

otherwise stated. Photos of representative individuals for

each taxon are presented in Plates 1-5 and confirm the

most salient plumage differences. In particular, males of

the three taxa differ dramatically in terms of the pattern

of barring on the underparts, lack or presence of a breast-

band, colour of supercilium and throat pattern (Plates 1-

2; Table 2). Females differ especially in their pattern of

barring on the underparts, head contrast, colour of

supercilium and presence or absence of a breast-band

(Plates 3-5; Table 2). The three taxa also show minor

differences in back coloration and the extent of white on

the wing-panel in both sexes (Plates 1-5; Table 2).

Vocalisations

We obtained recordings of 16 individuals of P. guajana

representing all three taxa (2 guajana, 6 irena, 8 schwaneri ) .

The vocalisations fell into two different types: (1) the

‘territorial call’ (Fig.l), a single inverted-V-shaped note

(rarely accompanied by a second minor note: see Fig. 1 B)

Figure 1. Territorial calls of (A) P. g. guajana (Carita, west Java, by

R. Hutchinson), (B) P. g. irena (Taman Negara, Pahang, peninsular

Malaysia by JAE) and (C) P. g. schwaneri (Poring, Sabah, Borneo by

R. Hutchinson).

1 - 1 - - 1 - - - — 1 - r

Figure 2. Alarm calls of (A) P. g. guajana (Carita, west Java by JAE),

(B) P. g. irena (= ‘npleyi’) (Khao Nor Chuchi, southern Thailand by

A. Meijer) and (C) P. g. schwaneri (Poring, Sabah, Borneo by

R. Hutchinson).

typically given at 4-1 0 sec intervals, but sometimes more

or less frequently depending on the level of agitation; and

(2) the ‘alarm call’ (Fig. 2), a single note given at similar

intervals as the territorial call but usually more drawn-out

and consisting of two harmonic notes, the second of which

typically covers a much wider frequency range. We refer

to these vocalisations as territorial and alarm calls for the

sake of simplicity, although it is uncertain whether their

behavioural context is as functionally restricted as these

terms imply.

We measured the highest and lowest frequency as well

as the duration of each territorial call (data not shown).

We also measured all alarm calls in terms of duration,

lowest frequency, frequency range of first harmonic as

well as frequency range of both harmonics combined (data

not shown). Even though our sample sizes are too low to

allow for statistical analysis, some of the vocal differences

detected may not be of an individual or context-dependent

nature, but may be taxon-specific. There seem to be

pronounced differences in the duration of the territorial

call between nominate P. g. guajana, which gives a short

note, and the other taxa, which utter a much longer note

(Fig. 1 ) . Additionally, the territorial call of P. g. schwaneri

may be characterised by a much narrower frequency range

than that of the other taxa (Fig. 1 ), although more sampling

is desirable for confirmation. In terms of the alarm call,

P. g. schwaneri has a much higher-pitched lowest frequency

than the other taxa as well as a much shorter call duration

(Fig. 2) . Some of these sound differences amongst Banded

Pitta subspecies (such as the much shorter territorial call

in P. g. guajana, or the shorter alarm call and less inflected

territorial call in P. g. schwaneri) are noticeable in the field

and have been corroborated by many unrecorded calling

individuals heard by us in the native habitat of these birds .

More future vocal sampling is desirable to confirm these

differences.

DISCUSSION

The taxonomy of the Banded Pitta P. guajana has created

much controversy. Some of the proposed subspecies, such

as bangkae, affinis and ripleyi, are either based on potentially

mislabelled specimens (van Marie & Voous 1988) or are

so weak that some authors have chosen to synonymise

them (Lambert & Woodcock 1996, Erritzoe 2003), a

treatment that we fully concur with based on our own

specimen comparisons (data not shown). The remaining

three taxa ( schwaneri , irena and nominate guajana ) were

treated as distinct species for a long period in the past.

Calls for their re-elevation to species level have been voiced

(Lambert & Woodcock 1996, Erritzoe 2003) and need to

be examined more closely under the framework of the

Biological Species Concept.

Our examination of specimens corroborates previous

indications that there are strong and consistent plumage

differences in both sexes among all three taxa (Plates 1-

5). Moreover, our mensural data indicate that nominate

guajana is distinctly larger than irena and schwaneri,

although there do not seem to be such size differences

between the latter two. Last but not least, we present a

selection of vocal data that are indicative of frequency

and/or temporal differences between schwaneri and the

other two in alarm call delivery and amongst all three taxa

in territorial call delivery (Figs. 1-2). Although vocal

90

FRANK E. RHEINDT and JAMES A. EATON

Forktail 26 (2010)

sample size did not allow for firm conclusions, the

bioacoustic results match our experience with these birds

in the field, to the extent that an individual in the forest

can usually be identified to taxon level (using such traits

as call length and vocal quality based on frequency range)

if both territorial and alarm calls are given.

The three taxa irena , schwaneri and guajana do not

presently come into geographic contact. To assess their

taxonomic status under the Biological Species Concept,

it is necessary to judge whether their differences equal

those between other closely related Pitta species (e.g.

Mayr & Ashlock 1991, Helbig et al. 2002). There are

three Pina complexes whose member species are less

differentiated in terms of plumage and/or vocalisations

than the three Banded Pitta taxa. In each of these three

complexes, member taxa come into contact with each

other in a parapatric or sympatric fashion and behave as

good biological species.

( 1 ) The African P. angolensis and Green-breasted Pitta

P. reichenowi are a closely related species pair (Irestedt et

al. 2006) widely replacing each other over their

Afro tropical distribution, but breeding and non-breeding

populations of both species come into contact both west

and east of the Congo Basin with little evidence of

intergradation (Erritzoe 2003). Both species are sexually

monomorphic and resemble each other closely. The buff

breast of P. angolensis is replaced in P. reichenozviby a dull

green that is delimited from the white throat by a narrow

black breast patch (Erritzoe 2003) . While these underparts

differences parallel those among Banded Pitta taxa, the

two Afrotropical pittas do not exhibit comparable

differences in head coloration and can thus be regarded

as more uniform than Banded Pittas.

(2) Another closely related species pair, the Blue-naped

P. nipalensis and Blue-rumped Pitta P. soror (Irestedt et al.

2006), co-occur widely over northern Indochina as good

species, although they tend to replace each other

altitudinally (Erritzoe 2003). Males in both species are

geographically variable but have buff to rufous head and

underparts, while the nape, tail, rump and upperparts are

an iridescent green to blue. Females in both species closely

resemble their respective male counterparts but for the

lesser degree of iridescent coloration on the upperparts,

nape, rump and tail. Comparing the two species, the

mam characters that set them apart pertain to differences

in distribution and hue of the blue-to-green iridescence

on the nape and rump. There are also less marked

differences in the hue of their underparts. All in all, the

major differences in coloration between these two species

are restricted to limited parts of the body and are

comparable if not less intense than those among Banded

Pittas.

(3) The Mangrove P. megarhyncha and Blue-winged

Pitta P. moluccensis were formerly considered conspecific,

but are now unanimously treated as different species (e.g.

Erritzoe 2003) because of the lack of intergrades in areas

of sympatry. P. megarhyncha is narrowly confined to

mangrove habitat along the eastern Bay of Bengal and

Straits of Malacca, but P. moluccensis occurs widely in

South-East Asia and — although usually replaced by P.

megarhyncha in mangrove habitat — overlaps widely with

the latter in its breeding and non-breeding grounds. Apart

from bill size, the only consistent morphological difference

between these two sexually monomorphic species is the

brown rather than black crown coloration in P.

megarhyncha (Erritzoe 2003). In terms of plumage, the

two species are therefore much more similar than the

three Banded Pittas are to one another. In addition, vocal

differences between P. megarhyncha and P. moluccensis

are slight (e.g. description in Erritzoe 2003); in fact, their

calls are doubtfully distinguishable in the field (pers. obs.)

and consistent differences remain to be documented.

Thus the three strongly differentiated forms of Banded

Pitta may be accepted as full species since their differences

surpass those of the sympatric or parapatric species of

pitta enumerated above. However, a further aspect in

favour of biological species status for these three forms is

the range of ecological differences among them. Bornean

schwaneri is essentially a hill forest inhabitant, which —

although occasionally recorded near sea level — is never

found far from areas of topographic relief (Lambert &

Woodcock 1996; pers. obs.). In contrast, irena from the

mainland and Sumatra is characteristic of flat floodplain

rainforest, although it does also occur at higher elevations

(Lambert & Woodcock 1996; pers. obs.). Among the

three taxa, nominate guajana is probably the one that is

least often recorded at higher elevations. However, in

contrast to the other two taxa, it has a broad tolerance for

degraded, secondary and floristically poor coastal forest

types and even occurs in scrub (Lambert & Woodcock

1996; pers. obs.).

Based on current disjunct distributions, the three

Banded Pitta taxa are widely regarded as allopatric.

However, taking into account the history of land

connections in the region, they must be regarded as

essentially parapatric, as they have regularly come into

prolonged contact during glacial periods. Within the

last three million years, Java, Bali, Sumatra, Borneo and

the mainland have repeatedly been connected during

c.20 glacial epochs that have each lasted c. 10, 000-

50,000 years. These connections arise when glacial

periods cause the global sea-level to drop by up to 130 m

(Bintanja et al. 2005, Caputo 2007) and to expose areas

of shallow sea. In fact, the present island distribution of

Sundaic rainforests is unrepresentative of the area’s

biogeographic past, such that the distribution of the

three taxa of Banded Pitta has probably been connected

more often than not during the late Pliocene and

Pleistocene (Cannon et al. 2009) . Since we are now going

through the peak of an interglacial, the present allopatry

of the three Banded Pitta groups is an artefact of timing,

while — at most other times in the Pleistocene — they have

come into geographic contact or even overlapped

regionally. Viewed against this biogeographic background,

their ecological and habitat differences may have evolved

as isolation mechanisms to avoid the production of hybrid

offspring.

If the three Banded Pittas constituted one biological

species, we would expect them to vary in a clinal fashion,

given ample opportunities for gene flow during much of

the late Pliocene and Pleistocene glacial epochs. Such

clinality should be particularly noticeable in areas where

the different taxa presently come into close geographic

proximity, such as south Sumatra and west Java, which

are currently only separated by 25 km of shallow shelf.

However, pittas on either side of the Sunda Strait exhibit

plumages and vocalisations typical of their own taxon,

with no intermediacy apparent in any of the museum

material inspected. In contrast to the great phenotypic

differences between Sumatran and Javan pittas across the

Forktail 26 (2010)

Biological species limits in the Banded Pitta

91

Sunda Strait, populations of irena on the Sumatran and

Malayan end of the Malacca Strait are identical to each

other, even though geographic distance is slightly larger

than between Java and Sumatra. The only alternative to

species status of the three taxa would be to argue that

phenotypic differences between Java, Thai-Malay

Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo have evolved within

1 0,000 years since the last land connection and are wiped

out every time the sea-level drops and creates opportunities

for contact. However, such a short time-frame for the

evolution of species level differences is untenable even

under the most relaxed assumptions of evolutionary speed

in birds (e.g. Friesen et al. 2007).

Based on their morphological, vocal and ecological

differences that equal or exceed those among other Pitta

species, and based on their taxon integrity despite

continual geographic contact throughout much of the

past three million years, we propose biological species

status for both P. schwaneri and P. irena as distinct from

P. guajana. We propose that each of these three species

be recognised as monotypic. As English names, we propose

Malayan Banded Pitta, Bornean Banded Pitta and Javan

Banded Pitta for P. irena , P. schwaneri and P. guajana ,

respectively. The name Banded Pitta should continue to

be applied to the group as a whole. The retention of the

word ‘Banded’ combined with a geographic attribute in

the common name ensures that there is no confusion

between old treatments and new ones that accept this

split. The species resulting from this revision clearly require

assessment as to their conservation status. Further

research may demonstrate some of them (especially P.

guajana and P. irena ) in need of elevation to Vulnerable

status.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Photographic material of the BMNH specimens is the property of the

Natural History Museum, Tring. We would like to thank Mark Adams

for granting access to the BMNH collections. Rob Hutchinson is

warmly acknowledged for providing sound recordings for this

contribution. We are also indebted to various sound recordists who

have contributed their material to the online sound library at www.xeno-

canto.org. We thank Nigel Collar and two anonymous reviewers for

helpful comments.

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refugial rainforests of Sundaland are unrepresentative of their

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FORKTAIL 26 (2010): 92-116

The birds of Namdapha National Park

and surrounding areas: recent significant records

and a checklist of the species

UMESH SRINIVASAN, SHASHANK DALVI, ROHIT NANIWADEKAR,

M. O. ANAND and APARAJITA DATTA

We report significant records from several years of opportunistic observations (2004-2009) and a bird survey (2008-2009) from the low,

mid- and higher elevations of Namdapha National Park and its adjoining forests. Namdapha is situated in the north-east Indian state of

Arunachal Pradesh, in the Indo-Myanmar global biodiversity hotspot. We report 62 species not recorded from the area previously, including

globally threatened species such as Black-necked Crane Grus nigricollis and Blyth’s T ragopan Tragopan blythii, as well as significant extensions

of range of species such as Black-faced Warbler Abroscopus schisticeps. Based on previously published reports and our own records, we

compiled a checklist of the birds of Namdapha and surrounding areas of 49 1 species. We also provide the local vernacular names of species

and species groups for 198 species based on extensive interviews with the resident Lisu community. Our findings suggest that further surveys

are needed in the montane forests of the Eastern Himalaya to document the birdlife of the region fully.

INTRODUCTION

Arunachal Pradesh remains India’s biological frontier

(Mishra & Datta 2007). Almost entirely hilly, this north¬

east Indian state has been poorly surveyed and the avifauna

of many areas remains inadequately documented. Recent

surveys have resulted in the discovery of a bird species

previously unknown to science, Bugun Liocichla Liocichla

bugunorum (Athreya 2006), and the rediscovery of a bird

species, Rusty-throated Wren Babbler Spelaeornis

badeigularis after a gap of over 60 years (King & Donahue

2006).

Namdapha National Park (27o23'30"-27o39'40"N

96° 1 5'2"-96°58'33"E; 200-4,571 m asl; 1,985 km2) and

its surrounding community forests are situated in

Changlang district in south-eastern Arunachal Pradesh,

on India’s border with northern Myanmar. With an

altitudinal range of over 4,300 m and its location in the

Eastern Himalaya, Namdapha is one of the most avifaunally

diverse areas in the world, and the park, along with

Kamlang Wildlife Sanctuary immediately to its north, has

been declared an Important Bird Area (Islam & Rahmani

2004).

Most of the park has remained unexplored and the

avifauna poorly documented owing to the rugged terrain,

logistical difficulties and lack of motorable all-weather

roads. A few organised international bird tours visit

Namdapha, primarily in the winter months. In contrast,

protected areas such as Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary in

West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh have regular

birdwatching tours and excellent year-round

documentation of the birdlife at all altitudes owing to

much improved access in the past fewyears. In Namdapha,

moreover, birdwatching and birding surveys have been

Figure 1. Map of Namdapha

National Park and adjoining area

with survey locations (2008-09)

marked with white flags. The white

lines indicate the boundaries of the

national park. Source: Google

Earth.

Forktail 26 (2010)

The birds of Namdapha National Park and surrounding areas

93

mainly in the low-altitude evergreen forest (the Assam

valley tropical wet evergreen forest of Champion & Seth

1968) in the western end of Namdapha, and barring a

single survey (Ripley etal, 1991) the birdlife of the higher

elevations and habitats is largely unknown. This high-

elevation work involved several short-term surveys in the

late 1 980s in the Gandhigram area (in community forests

to the east of the park), which led to the recording of 22

species previously unknown from the area, including the

discovery of a new subspecies, indiraji , of the Bar-winged

Wren Babbler Spelaeomis troglodytoides (Ripley etal. 1991).

Over the past five years we have visited the national

park and the surrounding community forests regularly,

which has led to the opportunistic documentation of several

species and subspecies hitherto unknown from the area.

From 9 November 2008 to 14 January 2009, over some

50 days of fieldwork, two of us (US and SD) conducted

an avifaunal survey of the mid- and high altitudes (1,000-

3,800 m; Fig. 1, Appendix 1) of parts of the park and of

the community forest to the east of the park.

The combined records from several years of

opportunistic bird sightings (1997-2008) and the results

of the 2008-2009 survey are presented here. In addition,

earlier published records and reports, as well as trip reports

posted on the internet (Saha 1985, Chatterjee &

Chandiramani 1986, Ghosh 1987, Neog & Bhatt 1991,

Ripley et al. 1991, Alstrom 1994, Bostock & Gardiner

1994, Samant et al. 1995, Singh 1995, Athreya 1996,

Choudhury 1 996, Athreya etal. 1997, Singh 1999, Waite

2003, Birand & Pawar 2004, Chatterjee 2004, Banerjee

2009) were used to develop a checklist of the birds of

Namdapha National Park and the surrounding community

forests (Appendix 2). Sources used varied greatly in their

level of detail and overall scope, and included single sighting

records, waterfowl-specific and raptor-specific surveys,

as well as dedicated bird surveys and faunal surveys. Also,

the methods used in these publications varied, from

opportunistic sightings and active searches to mist-netting

and call playback. Several species for which reports could

not be substantiated due to lack of any other information

associated with the record (e.g. location, date and time of

sighting) are enclosed in square brackets in the checklist.

Species for which identification is tentative, or based on

aural records, are also enclosed in square brackets. This

represents the most up-to-date checklist of the birds of

this area. Our surveys recorded 62 species hitherto

unknown from the area.

We also documented the Lisu names (the Lisu are the

resident tribe of the area to the east of Namdapha National

Park) of a large proportion of the species found in and

around Namdapha. These names are presented in the

checklist. Some of the Lisu names are generic for particular

bird groups e.g. nye-see for warblers and yibh for most

waterfowl. Other names are species-specific, e.g. chhu-nyu

for Rufous-necked Laughingthrush Gamdax ruficollis.

Owing to its large area and altitudinal range,

Namdapha and its surrounding areas encompass a wide

range of habitats. Dipterocarp-dommated Assam valley

tropical wet evergreen forest (Champion & Seth 1968)

occurs at lower elevations, with several bamboo species

(locally known as wachokha and diji), Zalacca secunda (a

stemless palm) and cane stands on the slopes and

streambeds. The two major tree species in this habitat are

Dipterocarpus macrocarpus and Sltorea assamica. Other

important tree species include several emergents like

Terminalia myriocarpa, Altingia excelsa and Ailanthus

grandis. This habitat type extends to about 1,300 m.

Evergreen forests mtergrade into northern montane wet

temperate forest (Champion & Seth 1 968) dominated by

oaks, laurels and chestnuts. The undergrowth in these

habitats is dominated by several bamboo species (genus

Chimonob ambus a\ local names mapfu , awa and ade).

Stunted rhododendron forest begins from about 2,500 m

and gives way to progressively shorter montane bamboo,

which in turn changes to subalpine grassy meadows at

about 3,300 m. These meadows are snow-bound during

the winter. Lakes, ponds and streams occur in all these

habitats, and we specifically surveyed one lake at 1 ,700 m

in broadleaved temperate forest, and ponds, swamps and

paddy stubble around the villages of Gandhigram and

Shidiku (1,000 m).

METHODS

Barring the records obtained during the survey, all records

were based on opportunistic sightings, mostly during walks

in the forest. During the bird survey in the winter of

2008-2009, in addition to opportunistic bird sightings

and call records, we also used taped playback to confirm

the presence of species. Prior to the survey, species

expected to occur in the different habitat types were listed,

and recordings of their calls and songs obtained from

www.xeno-canto.org/asia. We played the calls of rarer

species in habitats where they were expected to occur

and, on very infrequent occasions, used playback to obtain

photographs of previously unrecorded species or of

individuals that appeared to differ from subspecies or

morphs expected to occur in the area.

Along with these methods, we interviewed people of

the local Lisu tribe, who have an intimate knowledge of

the birdlife of the area. Interviews included showing people

field guides and photographs of birds, and noting down

the species that were known to the Lisu from various

habitats and elevations . Through these interviews we were

able to anticipate the occurrence of several species in

different habitats, and identify species that potentially

occur in the area but were not recorded during our survey.

In addition, we also recorded the Lisu names of 1 98 bird

species (including generic names for bird groups); for

most, we independently verified the names by asking two

to three Lisu. Nomenclature in this report follows the

updated version of Inskipp et al. ( 1 996), and the sequence

follows Dickinson (2003). Information on species

distribution and ranges was obtained mainly from

Rasmussen & Anderton (2005).

RESULTS

In all, we list 49 1 species occurring in Namdapha and the

adjoining reserve and community forests (Appendix 2),

of which 62 species were encountered during our survey

and so far have not been recorded from this area. Some

significant records follow. Scientific names of species

mentioned in the annotated text and present in Namdapha

National Park are found in Appendix 2.

Chestnut-breasted Partridge Arborophila mandellii

1 9-2 1 December 2008, Mugaphi-2 (2,059 m) : calls heard

94

UMESH SRINIVASAN et al.

Forktail 26 (2010)

during the afternoon and evening. 30-3 1 December 2008,

Musala-3 (2,050 m): calls heard. First records. This

species was heard only in temperate forest with

predominantly bamboo undergrowth.

Blyth’s Tragopan Tragopan blythii

We heard the call of this species for the first time on 16

December 2008 at 16h20 (dusk) at Mugaphi-2 (2,059

m) . The next day, one male and two females were sighted.

On 20 December 2008, at 07h20 and 16h00, we heard

the call again. First record. The display of this species is

well known to the Lisu, and the local name nye-nee (literally

devil-bird or ghost bird) is claimed by some to refer to the

‘horns’ that appear during the breeding display of this

bird.

Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus

A single flock of 12 birds seen in flight at Firmbase (434

m), following the Namdapha River. Early November

2006. First record.

[Tundra Swan Cygnus (columbianus) bewickii

1 3 December 2008, 11 h30, Gandhigram ( 1 ,000 m) : two

birds in flight along with three Ruddy Shelducks. Both

birds were tentatively identified as Bewick’s Swans (about

1.5 x the size of Ruddy Shelduck) as they were equally

sized and much smaller than either Mute Swan C. olor or

Whooper Swan C. cygnus. All these swans are winter

vagrants to the Indian subcontinent, and are known from

only a smattering of records in the north-western part of

the region. This represents the second winter record of

swans from Namdapha (and north-east India) (after Singh

1999, who recorded the Whooper Swan) and the first

photographically substantiated record of swans from

anywhere in the subcontinent for over eighty years.]

White-winged Duck Cairina scutulata

7-8 December 2008, Gachhile-1 (1,705 m): three

sightings over two days, of two females and one male.

The highest altitudinal record for this species from

anywhere in the world, previously known from the

lowlands to 1,400 m (Robson 2005).

Gadwall A nas strepera

A group of 1 5 to 20 birds on the Noa-Dihing River near

the 40th Mile (c.600 m), MV (Miao-Vijaynagar) Road.

Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope

5 January 2009, 10h30, Shidiku (1,000 m): a single female

sighted in a small pool in the midst of grassland and

paddy stubble. First record.

(Chinese) Spot-billed Duck

Anas (poecilorhyncha) zonorhyncha

5 January 2009, 10h30, Shidiku (1,000 m): three birds

(two females and one male). First seen in flight, then

settled on lake. Differentiated from Indian Spot-billed

Duck Anas (poecilorhyncha) poecilorhyncha based on the

purple (not green) colour of the speculum, dark stripe on

the cheek and lack of a red bill-spot. First record.

Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca

7-9 December 2008, Gachhile-1 (1,705 m): five birds

(two males and three females) always seen in the more

open waters of the lake. Winter range extension.

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

Commonly found along with domesticated buffaloes in

paddy stubble (1,000 m). First record.

Merlin Falco columbarius

12 October 2005, Miao (200 m): a single female observed

by SD. This is one of the few sightings of this species from

north-east India, and possibly the first from Arunachal

Pradesh. Identified based on the lack of a distinct facial

pattern combined with rather short wings and streaking

on the nape of the neck.

Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni

11 October 2005, 15h30, Deban (342 m): single male

observed hovering by SD. First record.

Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus

Regularly seen quartering paddy stubble and open

meadow all day near Gandhigram (1,000 m), noted in

winter of 2005, 2006 and 2007 also by all authors. 17

December 2008, above Mugaphi-2 (3,800 m, Mugaphi

summit, subalpine grassland): female quartering short

grassland around the peak — an exceptionally high record

for this species in the middle of the winter season.

Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus

A single bird seen in paddy stubble below 38 mile village

in early November 2006. Not previously recorded.

Identified based on black wing-tips and pale head with

lack of black trailing edge on wings.

Japanese Sparrowhawk Accipiter gularis

13 December 2008, 14h30, Gandhigram (1,000 m):

single bird seen soaring above paddy stubble. 4 January

2009, 1 5h 1 5, Gandhigram: one bird in flight. An erratic

winter vagrant to the subcontinent, known from a

smattering of records from across the subcontinent

including the Andaman Islands. Identified by the

presence of a yellow eye-ring and red iris. Differentiated

from Besra by lack of a clear mesial stripe and fine

barring on the undersides, and from Shikra by the presence

of broader barring on the primaries and secondaries

and tail.

Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis

A single bird perched on a tall tree in open habitat at 40th

Mile (c. 600 m), MV Road, in November 2006. Identified

based on the gape-line, which extended to the rear margin

of the eye. First record.

Slaty-legged Crake Rallina eurizonoides

7 December 2008, 12h30, Gachhile-1 (1,705 m): single

bird swimming from one grass clump to another at lake

edge. This species is poorly known from scattered records

across India and this record is a range extension. First

record.

[Black-tailed Crake Porzana bicolor

1 2 December 2008, 1 6h30, Gandhigram ( 1 ,000 m) : single

bird calling at dusk from marshy land near paddy fields.

Responded to playback of taped call by calling. 13

December 2008, 08h45, Gandhigram: heard in response

to playback of taped call. 4 January 2009, Shidiku: call

heard from tall grass bordering small lake. A species known

from very few locations in Arunachal Pradesh. Possibly

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The birds of Namdapha National Park and surrounding areas

95

widespread but overlooked owing to its skulking habits.

First record.)

Common Coot Fulica atra

7-9 December 2008, Gachhile-1 (1,705 m): four birds

seen throughout the day on three days. First record.

Black-necked Crane Grits nigricollis

4-5 January 2009, Gandhigram (1,000 m): a single

juvenile bird first seen in flight and then stalking through

paddy stubble. In India, this species is regularly known to

winter only in two valleys, Zemithang (2,000 m) and

Sangti (1,500 m), both in western Arunachal Pradesh

(Islam & Rahmani 2004). This record is the easternmost

wintering range of this species in India, and the lowest

known wintering site (1,000 m) anywhere in the world

(previous lowest l,375,m: Archibald & Meine 1996). A

few Lisu from Gandhigram say that they have noticed